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LIBRARY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE

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INTERNATIONAL
LIBRARY OF TECHNOLOGY

A SERIES OF TEXTBOOKS FOR PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE ENGINEERING

PROFESSIONS AND TRADES OR FOR THOSE WHO DESIRE

INFORMATION CONCERNING THEM. FULLY ILLUSTRATED

AND CONTAINING NUMEROUS PRACTICAL

EXAMPLES AND THEIR SOLUTIONS

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

VARIETIES OF APPLES

APPLE CULTURE

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, AND

MARKETING

PEAR CULTURE

CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES

SCRANTON:
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY

124

G34-. 2.

V. /

Essentials of Fruit Culture: Copyrigrht, 1912, by International Textbook
Company.

Varieties of Apples: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company.
Apple Culture: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company.
Apple Pests and Injuries: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company.
Apple Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing: Copyright, 1913, by International
Textbook Company.

Pear Culture: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook Company.
Cherries, Apricots, and Quinces: Copyright, 1913, by International Textbook
Company.

..^™cs=s?s^. 25901

124

PREFACE

The International Library of Technology is the outgrowth
of a large and increasing demand that has arisen for the
Reference Libraries of the International Correspondence
Schools on the part of. those who are not students of the
Schools. As the volumes composing this Library are all
printed from the same plates used in printing the Reference
Libraries above mentioned, a few words are necessary
regarding the scope and purpose of the instruction imparted
to the students of — and the class of students taught by —
these Schools, in order to afford a clear understanding of
their salient and unique features.

The only requirement for admission to any of the courses
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selected. The students themselves are from every class,
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almost without exception, busily engaged in some vocation,
and can spare but little time for study, and that usually
outside of their regular working hours. The information
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that the student may be enabled to exchange his present
vocation for a more congenial one, or to rise to a higher level
in the one he now pursues. Furthermore, he wishes to
obtain a good working knowledge of the subjects treated in
the shortest time and in the most direct manner possible.

iii

iv PREFACE

In meeting these requirements, we have produced a set of
books that in many respects, and particularly in the general
plan followed, are absolutely unique. In the majority of
subjects treated the knowledge of mathematics required is
limited to the simplest principles of arithmetic and mensu-
ration, and in no case is any greater knowledge of mathe-
matics needed than the simplest elementary principles of
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, with a thorough,
practical acquaintance with the use of the logarithmic table.
To effect this result, derivations of rules and formulas are
omitted, but thorough and complete instructions are given
regarding how, when, and under what circumstances any
particular rule, formula, or process should be applied; and
whenever possible one or more examples, such as would be
likely to arise in actual practice — together with their solu-
tions— are given to illustrate and explain its application.

In preparing these textbooks, it has been our constant
endeavor to view the matter from the student's standpoint,
and to try and anticipate everything that would cause him
trouble. The utmost pains have been taken to avoid and
correct any and all ambiguous expressions — both those due
to faulty rhetoric and those due to insufBciency of statement
or explanation. As the best way to make a statement,
explanation, or description clear is to give a picture or a
diagram in connection with it, illustrations have been used
almost without limit. The illustrations have in all cases
been adapted to the requirements of the text, and projec-
tions and sections or outline, partially shaded; or full-shaded
perspectives have been used, according to which will best
produce the desired results. Half-tones have been used
rather sparingly, except in those cases where the general
effect is desired rather than the actual details.

It is obvious that books prepared along the lines men-
tioned must not only be clear and concise beyond anything
heretofore attempted, but they must also possess unequaled
value for reference purposes. They not only give the maxi-
mum of information in a minimum space, but this infor-
mation is so ingeniously arranged and correlated, and the

PREFACE V

indexes are so full and complete, that it can at once be made
available to the reader. The niimerous examples and explan-
atory remarks, together with the absence of long demonstra-
tions and abstruse mathematical calculations, are of great
assistance in helping one to select the proper formula, method,
or process and in teaching him how and when it should be used.

In the present volume, the fundamental parts of the subject
and the culture of apples, pears, cherries, apricots, and quinces
are treated. The factors affecting the fruit industry are
discussed, and the many methods of propagation and pruning
of fruit plants, of the preparation of fungicides and of poi-
sonous and contact insecticides, and of the handling of spraying
machinery are described explicitly. Apples, the most impor-
tant fruit commercially, are taken up first and treated in great
detail. The different systems of planting, the methods of man-
agement, including tillage, cover crops, sod culture and mulch
culture, pruning, thinning, fertilization, the renovation of old
apple orchards, the prevention of injury from low temperatures
and from insect pests and diseases, the harvesting, picking,
grading, packing, storage, marketing, and the profitable utiliza-
tion of inferior fruit, are discussed in a clear, comprehensive
manner. Pears, cherries, apricots, and quinces receive similar
•treatment. The different varieties of fruits are handsomely
illustrated in colors. This volume, together with the succeed-
ing volume on this subject, forms an eminently practical and
up-to-date work on fruit growing.

The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc. is
such that each subject or part, when the subject is divided
into two or more parts, is complete in itself; hence, in order
to make the index intelligible, it was necessary to give each
subject or part a number. This number is placed at the top
of each page, on the headline, opposite the page number;
and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by
the printer's section mark (§). Consequently, a reference
such as § 16, page 26, will be readily found by looking along
the inside edges of the headlines until § 16 is found, and then
through § 16 until page 26 is found.

International Textbook Company

CONTENTS

Essentials of Fruit Culture Section Page

Introduction ] 1

-Factors Affecting Fruit Growing 1 3

Natural Factors 1 3

Market Factors . ; 1 10

Propagation of Fruit Plants 1 13

Natural Propagation 1 13

Artificial Propagation 1 14

Propagation by Cuttings 1 . 14

Propagation by Layering '1 17

Propagation by Grafting •■ 1 20

Propagation by Budding 1 28

Pruning of Fruit Plants 1 31

Principles of Pruning 1 31

Method of Pruning 1 37

Tools for Pruning 1 42

Dressings for Wounds 1 47

Sprays and Their Preparation 2 1

Poisonous Insecticides 2 1

Contact Insecticides 2 6

Fungicides . 2 21

Combined Insecticides and Fungicides ... 2 28

Spraying Machinery 2 29

Hand Sprayers 2 30

Power Sprayers 2 35

Accessories for Spraying Outfit 2 40

Varieties of Apples

Terms Used in Describing Varieties .... 3 1

Description of Varieties 3 6

Summer Varieties 3 6

Fall and Winter Varieties 3 9

vi CONTENTS

Apple Culture Section Page

Establishment of an Apple Orchard .... 4 1

Selection of Site 4 6

Selection of Varieties 4 11

Selection of Nursery Stock 4 15

Planting of Apple Trees 4 19

Systems of Planting 4 24

Use of Fillers : 4 31

Methods of Planting . 4 35

Management of Apple Orchards 5 1

Tillage of Young Apple Orchards 5 2

Tillage of Bearing Apple Orchards 5 4

Catch Crops 5 6

Cover Crops 5 10

Sod Culture 5 14

Mulch Culture 5 17

Pruning of Apple Trees 5 18

Types of Heads 5 21

Pruning for Pyramidal Head 5 27

Pruning for Open Head 5 29

Thinning of Apples 5 35

Fertilization of Apple Orchards 5 37

Renovation of Old Apple Orchards .... 5 41

Apple Pests and Injuries

Injuries Due to Low Temperature 6 ' 1

Injuries During Dormant Period of Plants . 6 1
Injuries During the Period of Visible Activity

of Plants 6 3

Prevention of Frost Injuries 6 6

Insects Affecting the Apple 6 23

Apple Diseases 6 61

Miscellaneous Injuries 6 77

Apple Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing

Harvesting of Apples 7 1

Picking 7 1

Grading 7 14

Packing 7 21

CONTENTS vii

Apple Harvesting, Storing, and Marketing

— Continued • Section Page

Storing of Apples 7 40

Marketing of Apples 7 48

Retail Marketing 7 48

Wholesale Marketing 7 49

Miscellaneous Information About Marketing 7 52

Utilization of Inferior Apples 7 56

Pear Culture

Introduction • 8 1

Classification of Pears 8 7

Botanical Classification 8 7

Commercial Classification ........ 8 8

Varieties of Pears 8 10

Pear Pests and Injuries 8 28

Diseases 8 28

Insects 8 33

Miscellaneous Injuries 8 40

Pear-Orchard Establishment 9 1

Size for a Pear Orchard 9 1

Location for a Pear Orchard 9 3

Choosing of Varieties 9 9

Procuring of Trees 9 10

Planting of Trees 9 14

Pear-Orchard Management 9 23

Tillage of Pear Orchards 9 23

Pruning of Pear Trees 9 26

Spraying of Pear Trees 9 34

Harvesting of Pears 9 35

Storing of Pears 9 40

Marketing of Pears 9 40

Cherries, Apricots, and Quinces

Classes and Varieties of Cherries 20 1

Cherry-Orchard Establishment 20 10

Size, Location, and Site 20 10

Selection of Varieties 20 11

Cherry Nursery Stock 20 12

viii CONTENTS

Cherries, Apricots, and Quinces — Continued Section Page

Planting of Cherries 20 14

Orchard Operations 20 15

Handling of the Cherry Crop 20 18

Cherry Pests and Injuries 20 20

Varieties of Apricots 20 24

Apricot Nursery Stock 20 25

Apricot Orchard Operations 20 26

Apricot Pests and Injimes 20 28

Harvesting of Apricots 20 28

Marketing of Apricots 20 29

Quinces 20 31

Important Varieties of Quinces 20 32

Quince-Orchard Establishment 20 36

Management of Quince Orchard 20 39

Harvesting and Marketing of Quinces ... 20 41

Quince Pests and Injuries 20 42

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

(PART 1)

INTRODUCTION

1. The growing of high-grade fruit requires special skill
and training, as it calls for an intimate acquaintance with
and an understanding of the individual fruit-bearing plants.
Many of the general agricultural crops, for example, com,
wheat, oats, timothy, and clover, are grown in the mass and
are usually observed as fields of plants, not as individual plants.
Little attention is given to the isolation of the plants in
such crops except to sow a given quantity of seed per acre in
order to regulate, in a general way, the number of plants that
occupy a given area of ground. And, further, in the growing
of grain or grass crops, there is usually no selection of the best
plants or weeding out of the poor ones. The seed is sowed,
the crops are harvested, stored, and subsequently handled by
machinery. Fruit trees, vines, and berry plants, on the
contrary, are planted a certain distance apart, and the plants
are pruned and managed individually. The nurseryman dis-
cards and burns those plants that are not of a given grade or
standard; and the manager of an orchard or of a fruit planta-
tion still further carries out the selection of desirable plants
by choosing in the nursery the grade of trees that he desires
to plant and by discarding, when he comes to planting the
trees, those that do not please him. The product of fruit trees
is gathered individually and thus the grower has opportunity
to observe which plants produce the best grade of fruit and
which the inferior grade.

§1

248—2

2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

Thus, it is seen that all this experience with individual fruit-
producing plants gives the grower a more intimate acquaint-
ance with and an understanding of the activity of fruit-bearing
plants than a farmer obtains of the general field crops that he
grows.

Another important factor that has contributed to rendering
fruit growing a specialized business is the development of
special fruit-growing centers. Formerly the fruit consumed
in a given region was grown locally, largely because transpor-
tation facilities were such that it was impossible to ship fruit
over long distances. If a community were to be supplied with
fruit, it was necessary that it be grown in the immediate
vicinity whether the soil or climate were especially favorable
to that fruit or not. Modem methods of transportation and
refrigeration, however, enable growers to ship fruit over long
distances and to hold it on the market for periods of several
weeks, and on account of these changed conditions, it is possible
for the fruit grower of the present time to select locations where
the soil, climate, and other conditions are especially favorable
to the growing of a given kind of fruit.

Each decade the consuming public is demanding a finer
product; competition is becoming very keen in a.n attempt to
produce the best; and insects and diseases have spread from
former local areas to large general areas throughout most
fruit-growing sections. This means that the fruit grower must
be awake to methods of preventing injury to the fruit crop by
insects and fungous diseases. In fact, to be abreast of the
times today, the fruit grower must put forth intelligent effort
in every direction.

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

FACTORS AFFECTING FRUIT GROWING

NATURAL FACTORS

2. In considering the natural factors that affect the growth
of fruit plants, it should be borne in mind that a fruit tree,
shrub, or vine is a growing, living thing; that it is a plastic,
shapable, living organism; and that it is modified by every
influence of its surroundings. The pruning, cultivating, spray-
ing, or other treatment given to a fruit plant makes it different
from what it otherwise would have been, and whenever any-
thing is done to a tree or a plant, it does something in return
as a resiilt. For this reason, to iinderstand fruit culture, the
grower must consider very carefully every phase of the environ-
ment in which a plant lives, for every change either favors or
opposes its development.

3. Influence of Temperature. — Of all the natural fac-
tors affecting the growth of fniit plants, temperature is the
most important. Temperatiu"e very largely determines the area
over which a given species of fruit plants can be successfiilly
grown. Toward the north a limit is reached beyond which
only the hardiest species of fruit survive, and a little farther
north even these cannot endure the winter cold. On the other
hand, temperature just as definitely sets a southern limit beyond
which a given species does not flourish. The apple, pear, and
plum, for example, thrive generally throughout the larger part
of the United States. The peach cannot withstand so low a
temperature and, therefore, unless influenced by modifying
conditions, the northern limit of successful peach culture is
somewhat farther south than that of the previously mentioned
fruits. The citrus fruits thrive only adjacent to the semi-
tropical districts, such as are found in Florida and California.

It is important for a fruit grower, in determining the location
of a plantation or orchard, to know something of the limits of

4 * ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

temperature which the species of fruit that is to be planted
will endure, and also to know that varieties of each species
differ in their climatic adaptations. For instance, some
varieties of apples reach their best development toward the
northern portions of the United States ; other varieties, needing
a slightly warmer temperature, find their most congenial place
in the southern half of the country. Usually, a given variety
reaches its best development within comparatively narrow
limits of temperature, and certain varieties smted to one
extreme of climate are usually correspondingly unsuited to the
other extreme. Wherever winter temperatures fall too low
or summer temperatures rise too high for the best development
of a given variety, that variety should not be grown.

4. Influence of Altitude. — The altitude of land also
has an effect on the growth of fruit plants. The greater the
altitude at any latitude the lower will be the temperature, and
plant growth will be affected the same as by a more northern
latitude. The effect of an increase in altitude on the growth
of vegetation may be observed by ascending a mountainside.
At the base of the mountain will be found trees that are common
for that latitude, but as a higher altitude is reached low,
dwarfed, and scrubby specimens of this same species of trees
occur, and a little farther up the slope this species disappears
altogether and another species is found. It is clear, therefore,
that the limit of altitude beyond which a given variety of fruit
wiU not thrive cannot be definitely given. As a general nile,
a high altitude in a southern latitude is very similar in regard
to temperature as a much lower altitude at a more northern
latitude. At extremely high altitudes in any latitude the
climate is too cold and bleak for most fruits to thrive.

A study of elevations, however, is of great importance to
the fruit grower. One of the most important things to be con-
sidered in connection with elevation is atmospheric drainage,
that is, the drainage, or passage, of air over the surface of an
area. During the growing season, the atmosphere at the sur-
face of the earth is cooled rapidly at night. Cold air, being
heavier than warm air, settles to the earth, flows into low

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 5

places, down slopes into ravines and valleys and over water
courses. This draining away of air is just as real as the draining
away of water from areas of land, but unlike water drainage,
the air removed is immediately replaced by other air. Air
drainage is much less generally understood, however, than
water drainage, because air drainage is not visible like water
drainage. A practical conception of air drainage may be gained
by walking over an area of uneven ground on a summer night.
On the higher elevations the atmosphere is usually warm, but
in the ravines a stream of cold air is encountered which is
flowing off from higher elevations. On passing up the opposite
side of the same ravine, the observer can feel his head rise
above the layer of cold air. Wherever such a condition occurs,
the area into which the cold air settles is generally frosty and
unsafe for fruit growing. The first frosts of autumn most
often occur in ravines and low places, and it is in such places
that tender plants are first killed; the same varieties often
remain unharmed on higher elevations in the same general
locality.

The depth of cold, frosty atmosphere that will collect in
low places depends on the area of the country drained, the
area over which the cold air collects, and the position and size
of outlets, just as definitely as the size of streams, ponds, and
lakes depends on the territory that they drain and the location
and size of their outlets.

5. Provided there is still lower land in the adjacent valley
into which the cold air may drain, fruit trees or plants may
often be planted with safety well toward the base of a slope.
The wider the low valley, the more the cold air can spread out
and the less likelihood of its rising upwards on the adjacent
slope. A low place or a basin that has no outlet is usually a
dangerous place for fruit, as the cold air cannot flow away.
A concrete example of the need of atmospheric drainage will
serve to illustrate the above point. A long, gentle slope was
cleared for a peach orchard. Toward the lower edge of this
slope a dense forest with luxuriant vines and undergrowth was
left standing. When the peach orchard came into bearing age,

6 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

the lower one-fourth of it adjacent to the standing forest in
the valley had the blossoms killed in two successive springs by-
late frosts. This frosted area at its upper border formed
almost a perfect contour line of given elevation. At its higher
edge some of the trees had the fruit buds killed on their lower
limbs, and those toward the top of the trees escaped injury.
Apparently the cold air at night, flowing down the slope, failed
to flow off readily through the standing forest; the latter, with
its tangle of vines and undergrowth, formed a dam that held
a pocket of cold, frosty air in the lower portion of the orchard.
Finally, this adjacent woodland was cut down, thus making it
possible for the air to flow into the valley at the bottom of the
slope. As a result, the frost line was lowered and in subsequent
springs the entire peach orchard escaped injury from frost.

If it is found necessary to utilize low-lying areas for fruit
culture, late-blooming varieties should be planted, as they
are less liable than early varieties to be injured by spring frosts.

6. Influence of Bodies of Water. — The presence of a
large or a very deep body of water tempers the atmospheric
conditions of the surrounding region, and for this reason has
a very pronounced influence on its fruit-growing interests.
Especially is this true if the fruit trees or plants are grov^Ti
on that side of the water toward which the prevailing winds
blow after passing over the body of water. The reason for
this influence is that a body of water absorbs very slowly a
large quantity of heat during warm weather and gives up this
heat just as slowly during cold weather. Among the many
regions so affected by bodies of water may be mentioned a
strip of land along the west side of the southern peninsula of
Michigan overlooking the east shore of Lake Michigan. The
effects of this lake are felt at various points for a distance of
from 3 to 20 miles inland, the width of the favored fruit area
depending on the lay of the land. Where the land adjoining
the lake arises somewhat abruptly to a good height, its influence
does not extend inland much beyond the top of the adjacent
hills; but where the land rises gradually, thus making a wide
slope facing the lake, the influence extends inland over the

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 7

entire slope. It is interesting to contrast conditions on the
west side of this southern peninsula with those on the east
side adjacent to Lake Huron. Cold winds, which come mostly
from the west and the northwest, are devastating in their
effect on the western side of Lake Michigan; in passing over
this large body of water, which does not usually freeze over in
winter, the winds are so tempered that their effect on the fruit
trees on the eastern side of the lake, along the western side of
the peninsula, is not damaging; in passing over the peninsula,
the winds again become very cold and as a result are dam-
aging to the trees on the eastern side of the peninsula, adjacent
to Lake Huron.

As a result of the tempering effect of Lake Michigan, the
peach can be grown safely even as far north as the Grand
Traverse Bay district, on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan,
but it cannot be grown with any degree of safety at that latitude
in the eastern part of the state. A section in the southern part
of Ontario adjacent to the Great Lakes is affected much the
same as is the western part of the southern peninsula of
Michigan. Peaches and other tender fruits can be grown
much farther north in this section than they can with safety
in any of the distinctly inland sections of Canada.

Fruit trees growing on the bluffs overlooking the Mississippi
and Missouri rivers in the central part of the United States
frequently are not injured by severe winters, but the same
varieties of trees growing a few miles inland from the river
bluffs have their fruit buds killed. Even small inland lakes,
especially if they are deep, may produce a pronounced local
effect in tempering the climate of the surrounding slopes.
This tempering effect on the climate has a tendency to prevent
early autumn frosts and to retard the development of fruit
buds in the spring so that they do not open sufficiently to be
damaged by late spring frosts.

.7. Influence of Winds. — A certain degree of atmospheric
circulation is desirable for fruit plantations, because frosts are
less liable to occur where the air is in motion than where it
is still. Most fruit-producing plants are not often seriously

,8 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

injured by moderate winds, but may be badly injured by
severe winds. In regions subject to strong prevailing winds
or in sections where wind storms are common much imma-
ture fruit is blown off the trees. The trees tend to lean or
tip in a direction opposite to that from which the prevailing
wind comes ; the branches of the trees have a more spreading,
branching top on the leeward side of the tree than on the
windward side; and it is not uncommon for cold, dry winds
of winter to cause evaporation of moisture from the twigs and
branches of the trees to such an extent that they suffer from
winter killing, or killing back, purely as a result of the drying-
out process, and in some unprotected sections there is danger
of the fruit trees being more or less uprooted by the wind.

To prevent loss of fruit and injury to trees in exposed sections,
some orchardists advocate the planting of a row or several rows
of trees on the windward side of the orchard to act as a wind-
break. Some of the advantages of such windbreaks are that
they lessen the quantity of windfalls; prevent the whipping
and breaking of branches, especially while they are frozen;
the rubbing off of fruit buds; and the lopsided growth of trees.
Some of the arguments against the use of windbreaks are that
the roots of the windbreak trees encroach on the outer row
of fruit trees and absorb plant-food and moisture from the
soil; that the trees occupy land that might be used for other
purposes; that they sometimes prevent cold air from being
drawn off, thus causing frost pockets on the leeward side as
well as on the windward side of the windbreak; and that they
often harbor insect and fungous pests.

In the bleak districts of the United States, especially those
districts adjacent to the prairie regions, where windbreaks
might seem to be needed if they are needed anywhere, perhaps
a majority of the fruit growers are of the opinion that wind-
breaks are not necessary, provided certain methods of orchard
management are practiced. Some of the methods recom-
mended are as follows: (1) The trees may be headed low so
that the wind will cause less bending and shaking of the trees
and fewer windfalls than if they are headed high. (2) They
may have somewhat denser heads in sections where the

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 9

atmosphere is much in motion than in more quiet localities,
because trees with low heads with many branches seem better
adapted to resisting wind than tall trees having a straight cen-
tral trunk, or leader. (3) Some notably successful orchardists
claim that, regardless of other methods of avoiding the effects
of winds, a few more rows of fruit trees planted around the
windward side of the orchard are more profitable than are
forest trees planted as windbreaks. If this plan is followed,
trees on the windv/ard side of the orchard shotdd be planted so
that the rows of trees are not continuous across the orchard;
that is, two or more systems of planting, as explained in
another Section, should be employed.

8. Suita,t)illty of Soil.— Fruit is grown on a great variety
of soils, varying from a light, sandy loam to a heavy clay.
The soil of some of the important fruit-growing districts is
very sandy, such as exists in the peach-growing district of the
lower peninsula of Michigan; the soils of many of the fruit-
growing regions in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania
are rocky, gravelly clays or clay loams ; and on the bluffs along
the Mississippi and Missouri rivers the soil is a loose, fine,
rich, mellow loam.

Although soils of varying physical condition may be well
adapted to fruit growing, experience has demonstrated the
fact that, for fruit-growing purposes, they must be well drained.
A porous soil not only affords sufficient drainage for the rapid
development of the roots of fruit plants but it enables the roots
of the perennial plants to reach down and anchor themselves
at a good depth. Fruit trees usually succeed in a soil in which
they can take deep root, but they often fail to thrive in soils
in which their root system is confined to a shallow soil.

The character of the subsoil is as important as the character
of the surface soil; in many places fruit trees thrive well in
very inferior, thin surface soil, provided the subsoil is suffi-
ciently mellow and deep to admit of the development of a
good root system.

In fertility, fruit soils vary from those that will not produce
general farm crops abundantly without a liberal addition of

10 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

fertilizer to those that are naturally rich enough to support
for decades continued cropping to general farm crops. It has
been determined by authoritative investigations that a mature
apple orchard in full bearing removes, in its leaves, new wood
growth, and crop of fruit, a larger quantity of plant -food from
the soil than is used in the production of a crop of com or of
wheat. Inasmuch as only the richest soil will bear cropping
for several successive years to com or wheat without liberal
applications of fertilizers, it would seem that fruit crops could
not be produced on the same soil year after year without a
similar resort to keep up the fertility of the land. As a matter
of fact, many orchards located on comparatively poor soil
have yielded without being fertilized abundant crops of fruit
throughout the life of the orchard; on the other hand, liberal
applications of fertilizer to soils of moderate fertility have not
increased the yield from mature bearing orchards sufficiently
to pay the expense.

It seems safe to believe, therefore, that an orchard located
on soil of medium fertility will produce without fertilization
abundant crops from the time the trees begin bearing until
they die; but distinctly poor soil should receive applications
of fertilizer, although the actual fertility of the soil is of minor
importance as compared with its physical character.

MARKET FACTORS
9. Location in Respect to Population. — In selecting a

location for a fruit plantation, a fruit grower should consider
the proximity of the location to centers of population. First
of all, a large center of population furnishes consumers and
insures a ready market for a large quantity of fruit. Growers
that are able to place their fruit in prime condition on the large
markets are sure of a ready sale. However, it is necessary,
if the fruit is to be marketed at a profit, that it be placed on
the market at a reasonably low cost of production, transporta-
tion, etc. It is important that abundant labor should be
secured for picking, packing, and preparing the fruit crop for
market. Ordinarily, such labor is readily available in large

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 11

centers of population. Formerly, when fruit was marketed
locally, large fruit plantations were practically out of the
question, except where much additional labor could be secured
at the time of harvesting. In recent years, however, in certain
isolated sections, itinerant labor may be secured for handling
the crop at the ripening period. For instance, pickers and
packers in large groups frequently traverse the country from
south to north, following the ripening of the strawberry crop,
or the peach crop, or both. For example, as the strawberry
crop begins to ripen in Texas, pickers and packers are available
who camp adjacent to the plantations and harvest the crop.
As the southern strawberries are harvested, these same people
move northwards through Arkansas and Missouri and camp
in the various strawberry districts until the late strawberry
crops of the north have been put on the market. Peaches are
harvested and handled in a similar manner and often by the
same crew that picked the strawberry crop. The grower who
lives on the line of migration of such a body of fruit pickers
and packers may readily handle his crop, even though it is
grown at considerable distance from a center of population.

10. Shipping Facilities. — ^Formerly, the fruit supply of
the country was, for the most part, grown adjacent to the
district in which it was consumed. Even the less perishable
fruits like apples were rarely shipped any considerable distance.
There might be an excess of fruit in one section of the country
and a dearth of it in another section, but a lack of proper
facilities for shipping prevented proper distribution and the
surplus of the one district was not available to meet the needs
of another district. In recent decades improved methods of
packing, cooling, shipping, refrigeration, etc., have rendered
it possible to distribute fruit over large areas. It is possible,
therefore, to grow fruit profitably a long distance from market,
provided shipping facilities are good, and growers are enabled
to select locations where soil or climatic conditions particularly
favor the growing of a given kind or variety of fruit. As a
result, special fruit-growing centers are developing almost
regardless of their proximity to large markets. For example,

12 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

certain areas in the western part of the United States are
famous for their fruit, which is shipped to the eastern markets;
early strawberries produced in the Gulf States are shipped to
the northern centers of population; and the citrus fruits of
California reach the eastern markets and those of Florida are
sent practically to any part of the United States and Canada.
Although it is possible to transport firm fruit over long
distances, and even perishable fruits over distances which the
grower, 20 years ago, did not even contemplate could become
possible, at the same time adequate transportation facilities
should be considered in the selection of a fruit plantation.
Transportation to exceedingly distant markets is expensive
and should be balanced either by cheap land or by soil and
climatic conditions that are exceptionally favorable to the
production of fruit. A grower should be near a shipping point
because it is highly important that he avoid, as far as possible,
long hauls of fruit over bad country roads. Every mile traveled
on a bad coimtry road, especially with perishable fruits, adds
greatly to the injury of the fruit by bruising. In fact, it is
more important to be near a shipping point than it is to be
near the market where perishable fruit is consumed. The
strawberry growers of the central part of the United States
who are located from | to 1 mile from their shipping station
may be better able to deliver berries in good condition to
eastern markets than are the growers who live 5 miles from
the markets but on a bad country road. Peach growers realize
that it injures peaches more to draw them 2 miles over a rough
country road than to ship them hundreds of miles by railroad.
This is one of the reasons that fruit-growing interests group
about definite centers or shipping points.

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 13

PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS

NATURAL PROPAGATION

11. Increasing the number of plants of any species is
known as propagation. Plants propagate naturally in two
distinct ways ; namely, by seeds and by plant division, and from
these natural methods certain artificial methods of propagation
have been developed and are now commonly practiced in fruit
culture.

12. Propagation by Seeds. — All varieties of fruit plants
originally produced seed and the majority do so at the present
time, but as the seed in most cases is produced by the union of
elements from flowers of two plants, the new plant will have
some of the characters of both parent plants and may resemble
neither of them very closely. For example, a flower on a
Northern Spy apple tree growing in an orchard will very proba-
bly receive pollen from a tree other than a Northern Spy; if the
seeds from the fruit produced by this flower are planted they
will produce trees that will probably have some of the char-
acters of the Northern Spy and some of the characters of the
tree from which the pollen came; and it will be impossible to
know in advance what the fruit will be like. For this reason
fruit plants are not usually grown from the seed except for
experimental purposes; propagation by division in one of its
various forms is generally employed for propagating fruits.

13. Propagation "by Division. — Certain plants have the
habit of reproducing by offshoots from the parent plant, which
is known as propagation by division. Many of the fruit
plants propagate naturally in this way. For example, the red
raspberry produces an underground stem, known as a root
stock, which extends some distance from the original plant;
roots and sprouts are formed at intervals along the stem, pro-

14 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

ducing new plants; the strawberry sends out on the surface of
the ground long trailing branches known as runners that take
root at intervals and form new plants; and the black raspberry
produces long, drooping canes, which take root when the tips
touch the ground and are then called stolons. As soon as
offshoots sent out in this way have become rooted they may
be separated from the parent plant and transplanted. A plant
produced by any method of division, being simply a part of
the original plant, has the characters and produces the same
kind of fruit as the parent plant.

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION

PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS

14. A detached portion of a plant containing a growing
point or bud placed in soil or water for the purpose of pro-
ducing a new plant is called a cutting. The fruit plants
most commonly propagated by the use of cuttings are the
grape, the currant, the gooseberry, and the cranberry. Cuttings,
so far as fruit propagation is concerned, may be divided into
two classes; hardwood cuttings and root cuttings.

15. Hardwood Cuttings. — The majority of fruit-plant
cuttings belong to the class of hardwood cuttings, which are
cuttings from the ripened wood of a deciduous plant of the
present or previous season's growth. The common kinds of
hardwood cuttings are simple cuttings, heel cuttings, mallet
cuttings, and single-eye cuttings. These are shown respectively
in Fig. 1 (a), (b), (c), and (d).

A simple cutting is the most common form of hardwood
cutting and consists of a straight part of a shoot or cane con-
taining two or more buds. A simple cutting is usually cut
off at the lower end just below a bud, because at this point
roots will develop most readily; at the top it is cut off. some
distance above a bud.

A heel cutting consists of the lower part of a branch con-
taining two or more buds and is cut off in such a way that a

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

small part of the parent branch remains on the cutting, forming
what is known as the heel.

A mallet cutting is produced by cutting through the
parent branch above" and below a shoot containing two or
more buds, leaving a section of the parent branch at the base
of the cutting. An advantage in the use of heel and of mallet
cuttings is a somewhat greater certainty of developing roots.
There is, however, one disadvantage, which is that only one
cutting can be made from each lateral branch.

Fig. 1

A single-eye cutting consists of a small part of a branch
containing only one bud. Such cuttings are sometimes made
when it is necessary to get the largest number of cuttings
possible from a Hmited supply of stock. Single-eye cuttings
are commonly started under glass either in a greenhouse or in a
hotbed where bottom heat can be supplied, and the cuttings
are placed in the ground at such a depth that the bud will
be about an inch below the surface of the soil, which must be
kept moist.

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§1

16. Hardwood cuttings should be made during the fall
or early winter while the wood is dormant. As fast as made
they should be tied in bundles of from twenty-five to fifty,
with the butts all one way, and the bundles should be buried
in a trench with the butts up and be covered with 2 or 3 inches
of soil or sand. The top buds are thus protected from freezing
and the butts are near the surface where the sim will warm

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 2

them in the spring and stimulate root growth. Cuttings may
be buried in sand, sawdust, or moss and kept over winter in a
cool cellar. In the spring the bimdles are taken up and placed
in a trench dug as shown in Fig. 2. They are set about 3 inches
apart, with only the topmost bud or buds above the surface
of the ground, and the soil is then replaced in the trench and
thoroughly packed. In Fig. 2 (a) are shown simple cuttings

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

and in (b) mallet cuttings set in place in a trench; in (c) is
shown the position of the cuttings after the soil is replaced in
the trench. During the summer the cuttings, if all conditions
have been favorable, develop roots and leaves, and in the fall
or the following spring are ready to be transplanted to a per-
manent location.

17. Root Cuttings. — Cuttings made from either roots
or root stocks are called root cuttings. Roots as large as a
lead pencil or larger are ordinarily selected, although cuttings
from smaller roots will grow. Of the fruit plants, blackberries
and some of the raspberries are frequently propagated by root
cuttings. The cuttings should be made from 2 to 4 inches
in length. They are cut in the autumn after the leaves have
fallen and before severe frost, and are stored in moss in a cool
place until spring. In the spring they are planted horizontally
about 2 inches apart in a well-prepared bed and covered with
about 3 inches of well pulverized soil. One summer's growth
will produce good plants for setting out.

PROPAGATION BY LAYERING

18. Placing a branch in contact with the earth in such a
manner as to cause it to throw out roots and shoots while it is

Fig. 3

still attached to and nourished by the parent plant is called
layering, and the branch so placed is called a layer. There are

24S— 3

18 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

several methods of layering, which differ simply in matters of

Fig. 4

detail adapted to the nature of the plant to be propagated.

A form known as tip
layering is illustrated
in Fig. 3. A branch, or
cane, is bent down to
the ground and the tip
covered with soil.
Roots and sprouts will
then be thrown out
forming young plants,
which may be separated
from the parent plant.
The black raspberry is
an example of a fruit
plant that may be prop-
agated in this way.

What is known as

vine layering is shown

in Fig. 4. A vine is

ifjG 5 bent to the ground and

'iii^^W^M^'^'Si^^-:

§1

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

covered with earth in such a way as to leave a small part
exposed at intervals. Sprouts will form on the exposed parts
and roots on the covered parts. After the young sprouts are
thoroughly rooted they may be separated from each other and
from the parent plant. In some cases the vine is buried
throughout its entire length in a shallow trench. Grapes are
often propagated in
this way.

Branch layering
is shown in Fig. 5. In
this case a suitable
branch is bent over
and a portion near the
outer end buried in
the earth and fastened
with a forked pin; the
outer end of the
branch is then bent to
an upright position
and fastened to a
stake. A notch or
ring is often cut in the
bark where the branch
is under the surface
of the ground. This
seems to encourage the
production of roots.
Apple trees have been
propagated in this
way.

A method known as
mound layering is often used for the propagation of plants
that stool — ^that is, send up many stems or shoots from a single
root. This method of layering is illustrated in Fig. 6. The
soil is mounded up to cover the base of the stems, which throw
out roots as shown in (a) ; when roots have formed the sterns
may be removed from the original plant and set out in a
permanent location. A plant is often cut back close to the

'Mm.

Fig. 6

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§1

ground the season before it is to be mound layered to cause it
to send up a large number of shoots, as shown in (6).

The soil used in layering shoiild be fertile and moist. Plants
are most often layered in the spring; by the following spring,
or in some cases by midsummer of the same year, they are
ready to be transplanted.

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING

19. A method of propagation commonly used for many
of the tree fruits is known as grafting. It is the causing of
a twig, called a scion, cut from one plant to become part of
another. The plant to which the scion is joined is called the
stock. The different kinds of grafting may be classified, in

Fig. 7

respect to the place where the scion is attached to the stock,
as root grafting, or the insertion of the scion on the root of the
stock; crown grafting, or the insertion of the scion in the stock
at the surface of the ground; stem grafting, or the insertion
of the scion in any part of the main stem or trunk; and top
grafting, or the insertion of the scion in the top or branches.
Grafting is also classified, in respect to the way in which the
union between the scion and the stock is made, as cleft grafting,
kerf grafting, hark grafting, whip grafting, splice grafting, and
veneer grafting.

20. Cleft Grafting. — The method commonly used for
renewing the tops of mature trees is known as cleft grafting.

§1

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

A branch is severed with a saw, care being taken not to loosen
the bark from any part of the stub; the exposed end is then
spHt with a broad, thin chisel or with a grafting tool such as
shown in Fig. 7 (a), and the cleft is spread as illustrated in (6)
with a wedge or the wedge-shaped prong on the grafting tool
so that the scion may be inserted. Scions should contain two
or three buds and should be of the previous season's growth.
They should be cut during the late fall or early winter and
stored in a cellar or other cool place where they will be per-
fectly dormant. The grafting is done in the early spring before
the buds start. The scion is cut to a wedge shape at the butt
end as shown in Fig. 8 (a), one edge of the wedge being thicker
than the other, and is set into
the stock with the thickest edge
of the wedge to the outside;
this will hold the sdon firmly
in place and the greatest pres-
sure will come at the outer
edges, where growth takes place.
The lowest bud on the scion
shoiild be just above the upper
edge of the wedge so that it will
come close to the top of the
stock, when the scion is in-
serted. In order to have growth
there must be contact between the growing tissue of the scion
and of the stock so that there may be an interchange of sap
between the two parts. The growing part of a stem is the
outer part of the wood just underneath the bark. In order to
be sure that the growing tissues come in contact, the scion is
sometimes set at a shght angle so that the growing wood of
the scion must cross that of the stock at some point.

In making a cleft graft, two scions are set in one stock, one
at each edge of the cleft, as shown in Fig. 8 (&). If both scions
grow, the least desirable one may be cut off. To complete the
graft all cut surfaces are covered with grafting wax, as shown
in (c) ; this is pressed closely on to the surfaces so that on
■cooling it will form a covering impervious to air and moisture.

Fig. 8

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

Good grafting wax can be made of the following ingredients:
Resin, 4 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; tallow or linseed oil,
1 pound. If it is desired to have the wax of a greater hardness
than will result from this formula, the resin may be increased to
5 pounds and the beeswax to 2| pounds. The resin and bees-
wax should be broken into small pieces and melted with the
tallow or in the linseed oil. When thoroughly melted, the
liquid should be poured into cold water, and when cool enough

Tic )

to handle should be pulled and worked until it is light-colored
and grained. The hands should be well greased before the
wax is handled. In applying the wax, the heat of the hand
is sufficient to soften it; it may be melted and applied with
a brush, but care in this case is necessary to avoid getting the
wax heated enough to cause injury

21. Formerly, much emphasis was placed by orchardists
on the idea that only branches not exceeding 1| inches in

§1

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

diameter should be cleft grafted. This may have been due
to the supposition that the young scion coiild not, in growing,
completely cover over the end of a large stock. However, a
number of successful orchardists at the present time claim
that scions may be grafted with excellent results on stocks up

to 6 inches in diameter. Fig. 9 shows an old tree top worked
by the usual method of cleft grafting. As seen from the
illustration, this method of renewing an old tree requires a
large number of scions, and in order to secure stocks not over
1| inches in diameter the branches must be cut off at a consid-

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§1

erable distance from the ground. This leaves opportunity for a
large number of small lateral branches below the graft. These
must be pruned off after the scions start or the tree will bear
some of its own fruit. This method of top working large trees
necessarily produces high tops, which is a disadvantage in
spraying and in gathering the fruit.

Fig. 10 illustrates a large tree top worked by cutting off
large limbs, leaving stubs 5 or 6 inches in diameter in which
the scions are set. One limb is left uncut to furnish foliage
for nourishing the roots. When the scions are well started

Fig. 11

this limb should be cut off and the stock grafted if desired.
This method of top-grafting large trees has the advantage of
producing a lower tree than can be produced by the preceding
method mentioned, and the entire top will be of the desired
variety, as all water sprouts that spring from the branches
below the graft may be easily reached and removed. Orchard-
ists who have used this method of top renewal claim that
scions grafted on stocks from 5 to 6 inches in diameter are
just as likely to live as those grafted on small stocks and will
have a much more rapid growth.

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

22. Kerf Grafting. — In connection with the grafting of
large stocks, a method of setting the scion that has been used
successfully in Europe for many years and is known as kerf
grafting, has been introduced into America. By this method,
the stock is not split, but a kerf, or notch, as long as the part
of the scions to be inserted is cut with a pruning saw as illus-
trated in Fig. 11 (a); the edges of the notch are then carefully
smoothed with a sharp knife as shown in (b). The scion is
cut to fit the notch and is driven into place as shown in (c);
the cut surfaces are then covered with grafting wax as illus-
trated in (d). It is claimed as an advantage of this method
of grafting over the cleft method that the wound will heal
over more quickly and tjiat the probability of growth is just as
great as in the case of the ordinary cleft graft. A disad-
vantage of this method is that the scion is not held so firmly
by the notch as it is by the cleft. However, orchardists who
have tried this method seem to prefer it to the ordinary cleft
method.

23. Bark Grafting. — A method of grafting that does
not injure the stock so much as cleft grafting is illustrated in
Fig. 12. This method is known in America as
bark grafting and in England and France as
crown grafting. The lower ends of the scions are
cut to a very thin wedge and are inserted betv\reen
the bark and the wood of the stock after the
branch has been cut off as for the cleft graft.
After the scions have been inserted the bark is
securely bound with raffia or waxed string and
grafting wax is used as in the cleft graft.

The raffia used in binding many forms of grafts
is a product of an oriental palm and may be pur- fig. 12
chased at a very reasonable price. It is customary to lay the
raffia on the ground or in some other damp place over night
before using, in order to soften it so that the operator may
flatten out the strands, which should be cut to the desired
length before the work of wrapping begins. After 2 or 3 weeks
the raffia bands are cut, so that they will not interfere with the

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§1

growth of the stock. Waxed string is prepared by putting a
ball of No. 18 knitting cotton into a kettle of melted grafting
wax. In 5 minutes it will be thoroughly satiu^ated and may be
kept indefinitely. When waxed string is used for binding it is
not often necessary to cut the bands, as the string will soon
decay and will not interfere with the growth of the stock.

24. Whip Grafting. — The method almost universally
used for root grafting and occasionally used for grafting small
limbs is known as the whip grafting. This method of
grafting has an advantage in that it can be used on very
young stocks — those only 1 or 2 years old. In making a whip

Fig. 13

graft, one long, smooth, slanting cut is made at the top of the
stock with a sharp knife. The knife is then placed on the cut
surface near the top and the stock is split in the direction of
its longest axis, forming a tongue, as shown in Fig. 13 (a);
the same form of cut is made in the lower end of the scion,
as shown in (6). The two parts are then forced together as
illustrated in (c). The tongues aid by locking the stock and
scion together. Some difference in diameter of the stock and
scion may be disregarded, but in order to bring the growing part
of the root and the scion in contact, the edge of the scion and

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

stock must be even on one side. After the stock and scion
have been united they should be wrapped with five or six
turns of waxed string to hold the parts together, as shown in {d) .
When roots are whip grafted, it is not necessary to use wax,
because the soil will keep out air; but when tops are whip
grafted the wound must be thoroughly waxed. The roots
for grafting are dug and the scions are cut in the fall and the
work of grafting is done during the winter. As the grafts are
made they are packed in moss, sawdust, or sand in a cellar
at a temperature of about 40 degrees, where they remain until
spring. In making the graft, the roots are sometimes cut
into two or three pieces and each piece grafted to a scion;
this is known as piece -root grafting; or the top half or
two-thirds of the root only may be grafted, which is known
as a wliole-root grafting. Ordinarily, in making
the whip graft, the scion is cut with three buds and
the stock to nearly the same length as the scion,
and the graft is planted so as to bring the
union not far below the surface of the ground.
When it is desirable to produce very hardy trees
and the scions to be used are of known hardiness
and the roots are of unknown hardiness, the scions
are cut from 6 to 12 inches long and the roots only
from 2 to 4 inches long and the graft is planted
deep enough to cause roots to spring from the lower
end of the scion. The piece of root simply acts as |S:
a nurse until roots have started from the scion.
When these young trees are removed to an orchard
the original root is often cut off; this is not done
when the root is strong and the union good. fig. u

25. Splice Grafting. — A method of grafting known as
splice grafting is illustrated in Fig. 14. This is the same
as whip grafting, except that no tongue is cut. The sloping
surfaces of the stock and scion are brought together and the
two pieces are bound with waxed string.

26. Veneer Grafting. — A method of grafting known as
veneer grafting, which may be used for root or stem grafting,

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§1

is illustrated in Fig. 15. The top of the stock is removed with
a slanting cut and a notch cut in it as shown in (a) ; a corre-
sponding notch is cut in the scion as shown in (b), and the two

parts are brought together and
bound with raffia or waxed
string as shown in (c). The
joint of a stem graft must be
thoroughly covered with wax;
this is not necessary in the case
of a root graft.

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING

27. A method of propaga-
tion much used for stone fruits
and to some extent for apples
and pears is known as budding.
This consists of inserting a single
Fig. 15 detached, bud under the bark

of a stock. The operation of budding may be performed at
a time when the bark can be loosened easily, and when mature
buds can be obtained. These conditions are found to exist in
the early spring and again in the late summer or early fall.
The buds for use in the spring are taken from the previous
season's growth, and those used in the late summer or early
fall are taken from the growth of the season. It is possible
to insert buds in the tops of young trees in place of scions in
order to change the variety; in some cases buds have been
inserted in limbs 2 or 3 years old, but a better practice is to cut
back the tree rather severely the season previous to budding,
in order to get a growth of suckers in which to set the buds.
The important use of budding, however, is on 1-year-old stocks
for transplanting. The operation of budding is simple and
with a little experience may be performed very rapidly. When
a nimiber of stocks are to be budded the operator first prepares
a bud stick, which is a twig of the species desired to propagate
containing a number of buds. When the budding is done in the
early spring the bud stick will be of the previous year's growth ;
if the budding is done in the late simimer or early fall the bud

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 29

stick will be a twig of the current year's growth. When the
work of budding is done during the period of active growth,
the leaf that grows just below each bud is severed just as soon
as the bud stick is cut, leaving the petiole, or stem, of the leaf
attached to the stick to serve as a handle to aid in pushing the
bud into position. All of the buds on a stick are usually cut
before any of them are placed, but they are allowed to hang
to the stick by one end until they are needed, when the final
cut that severs them from the stick is made. A bud is first
cut by inverting the twig and then placing the edge of a sharp,
thin-bladed knife a little above the bud and the thumb of the
hand in which the knife is held just below the bud and giving
a quick, sharp turn with the blade.

Fig. 16

In Fig. 16 is shown the manner of making the first cut in
removing a bud from the stick.

Fig. 17 represents a bud stick, showing in outline the cuts
that should be made for removing the buds. The knife will
cut into the wood a little just under the bud, leaving a small
part of the wood attached to the under side of the bud. Some
budders remove this wood, although this is not necessary;
however, there is a little more certainty of a union if the wood
is removed. The stock for budding should be at least as thick
as an ordinary lead pencil. The peach will reach this size
and may be budded the first season after the seed is planted;
apples and pears will not be of sufficient size before the second

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§1

season. The stock is first prepared by removing all buds and
twigs from the area to be budded. The leaves should
not be removed more than a day or two before the
budding is done or the bark may set — that is, grow
fast to the wood — and interfere with the operation of
budding. The bud is usually placed on the stock not
over 2 or 3 inches above the surface of the ground and
in most cases is placed on the north side of the stock
so that the bud may be shaded somewhat from the
direct rays of the sun.

For the reception of the bud, a T-shaped incision is
made just through the bark as shown in Fig. 18 (a).
The cross-cut is usually made first, and after making
the last cut the knife blade is turned to the right and
to the left to loosen the flaps of bark as shown in (6) .
A bud is then placed imder the flaps and pushed firmly
into place imtil the tmder surface is entirely in contact
with the body of the stock. A bud in place is shown
in (c). The bud must now be tightly bound into place,
for which purpose bands of raffia from 8 to 10 inches
long are most convenient. A few turns should be
taken below and above the bud and the strands may
Pig. 17 be held by drawing them under one of the wraps.

A stock with bud inserted and wrapped is shown in (d).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 18

To prevent girdHng, the band should be cut as soon as the

§1

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

bud has united to the stock, usually about 2 or 3 weeks
the setting of the bud. It is very import-
ant that all sprouts that spring from the
stock after the budding should be removed
so that the plant food that they would
consume may be utilized by the bud.
When growth starts in the bud, the entire
top of the tree is removed just above the
bud, which wiU then grow rapidly, being
nourished by the entire root system of the
tree. When the bud is set late in the
season it does not start growth that fall,
but simply grows fast to the stock ; growth
starts the next spring, at which time the
top of the tree is removed. Spring bud-
ding of fruit trees is seldom practiced.
In Fig. 19 the removed top a and grow-
ing bud h are shown.

after

Fig. 19

PRUNING OF FRUIT PLANTS

PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING

PURPOSES OF PRUNING

28. Some of the purposes of pruning fruit plants are to
thin out the branches in order to allow the remaining branches
sufficient room and light; to keep the plants in manageable
shape; to regulate the size of the plants to the place they
occupy; to establish a proper balance between wood and leaf
growth and the production of fruit ; to remove injured or dis-
eased parts; and to facilitate spraying and other work in the
orchard.

Most plants tend to produce a surplus of branches. In
nature, many of these branches are gotten rid of by a self-
pruning process; that is, they die from being crowded by other
branches or by adjacent trees. The fruit grower usually

32 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

prunes out the branches that would die from being crowded
and any other branches that are no longer advantageous to
the tree. The thinning of branches is like killing weeds in a
garden. In killing weeds, the gardner gets rid of certain plants
in order to give more room to those that remain. In pruning,
the fruit grower gets rid of certain branches in order that those
that remain may have more space, more sunlight, or better
shape, and a large quantity of plant-food.

On many fruit plantations branches grow so densely that it
is inconvenient to get to the parts of the tree or plant in order
to pick the fruit or to perform some work in caring for them.
For each species of fruit tree or plant the grower usually has
a pretty definite ideal of proper distribution of parts or branches,
and he prunes out the branches so that the tree or plant con-
forms to his ideal.

The fruit grower frequently prunes plants that are weak
or trailing on the ground in order that they will grow stockier
and straighter and will stand up better than they grow or
stand normally. Branches that would trail on the ground if
allowed to grow their fuU length are shortened so that the fruit
produced on them will be better supported by the plant. This
practice is particularly common in the management usually
accorded grapes, raspberries, and blackberries. Some fruit
trees normally grow very tall. The fruit grower may cut back
the top on the main stem of such plants in order to secure a
lower and a more spreading form of top, which will enable him
to take care of the tree and to gather the fruit more readily
than if the top were high and upright.

29. Trees or other plants growing at regular distances
apart may be kept from interfering with each other by pruning
back certain parts. Many species of fruit, the peach, for
example, tend to bear much of their fruit on the new wood,
or periphery, of the tree, and, if allowed to grow unpruned,
the tree eventually bears fruit only toward the tips of tall or
wide-spreading branches. In many such cases, it is economy
to cut back the branches from time to time, thus keeping the
fruit-bearing area nearer the main support, or trunk, of the tree.

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 33

Certain varieties of fruits in certain soils or climates may
tend to set more fruit than they can mature properly, that is,
they may tend to overbear. In certain other locations these
same varieties may tend to produce wood and leaf growth and
to set very little fruit. If a plant or tree sets a larger number
of fruit buds than it can support fruit, it will be economical to
thin the fruit crop by pruning out some of the fruit-bearing twigs
and branches, even before the tree blossoms. This removal
of a part of the fruiting area may allow the tree to give its
entire vigor and strength in support of the fruit that remains.
If a plant produces but little wood and leaf growth, pruning
at the proper time of year may do much toward invigorating
the wood and leaf growth of those parts that remain.

Just as dwarf or standard plants may be chosen to suit the
purpose of the grower, so any plant, by the pruning that it
receives, may be dwarfed or made to grow larger than an
unpruned plant. The tree may be pruned so as to reduce its
stature, thus making it suit better a given position, or on the
other hand, it may be pruned solely with the idea of invigorating
the wood grovvTth of the parts that remain, thus sometimes
accelerating its growth and enabling it to reach a larger size
than it would ordinarily attain.

30. Many of the diseases of fruit plants, such as blight,
canker, black knot, etc., are due to fungi or bacteria that
multiply rapidly and spread through a plantation, and these
diseases may often be checked by the removal of the disease-
infected parts by modern methods of pruning. As a rule,
diseased or injured parts of trees or plants should be removed
and no chances taken on the spread of the organism that causes
the disease.

The general practice of spraying, in combating insects and
fungous diseases of plants in recent years, has had much to do
with stimulating careful pruning. In spraying, it is essential
that all parts of a tree be covered with spray, but it is not
feasible to get a spray to the body of a tree or to all of its
branches unless the tree is well pruned and its branches well
thinned. Trees need proper pruning, therefore, not only

34 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

after they have reached bearing age but while the framework
of the young trees is immature, so they may be formed in such
a way that they can be most readily sprayed when fully matured.

EFFECTS OF PRUNING-

31. By judicious pruning branches or plants may be prop-
erly thinned, plants kept in proper shape and confined to the
desired space, the proportion of wood and leaf growth to fruit
production regulated, the spread of disease prevented, and the
work of spraying facilitated. But pruning is the direct cause
of other effects, some of which are desirable and some of which
are undesirable.

Cutting back or thinning out the branches of a tree, especially
during the winter, induces a more rapid growth of wood the
following year on the remaining branches than if the pruning
had not taken place. And, although a tree that has received
much pruning may not, at maturity, be so large as a similar
tree that has not been pruned, the former may, and in all
probability will, have healthy, vigorous wood, and the unpruned
tree, although larger, may contain many dead, dying, diseased,
and undesirable limbs and branches. Thus, one of the impor-
tant effects of pruning is the securing of a healthy, vigorous
growth of the tree or plant.

The pruning of some of the fruit-bearing branches and the
shortening of others is one of the best methods of preventing
fruit trees from setting more fruit than they can fully mature,
or, in other words, from overbearing. Thus, judicious pruning
not only stimulates the wood growth of the subsequent season
but, at the same time, leaves enough fruit buds on a tree to
furnish such a crop of fruit as the tree can most economically
produce; whereas, the unpruned tree may produce more fruit
than it can mature and may make a very meager growth of
wood that is often weak and diseased.

32. Pruning at different times of the year produces a
different effect on the production of wood and fruit. There
is an old adage that runs, "Prune in winter for wood and in

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 35

summer for fruit production." This statement is based on
experience that has demonstrated the fact that excessive wood
growth is usually developed at the expense of fruit production,
and vice versa. In this connection, the fruit grower should
keep in mind the distinction between the growth of wood and
leaves, known as vegetative activity, and the production of
blossom and fruit, known as reproductive activity. A fruit
plant, to be in its best condition, should make enough vege-
tative growth to be healthy and yet produce such a quantity
of fruit as is feasible without reducing the vitality of the tree.
In such cases vegetative activity and reproductive activity
are said to be in balance. Whenever, through injudicious
pruning or any other phase of mismanagement, a plant makes
more than normal vegetative growth, its tendency is to pro-
duce a small quantity of fruit. This is fru-ther emphasized
by the fact that fruit trees that make abnormally rapid growth
often fail to come into bearing at the expected time; they
delay bearing until their excessive wood growth begins to
wane. Also, pruning that results in an excessive growth of
water sprouts, which are purely vegetative growths, results in
no formation of fruit buds on these water spouts until their
vegetative growth wanes. These facts should be contrasted
with the well-known fact that an injury to a tree that checks
its wood growth often results in an abnormally early fruitful-
ness or in a too abundant setting of fruit ; a young tree affected
by borers or accidently injured by a cultivator or girdled by
rodents may, by such an injury, be forced into excessive fruit-
fulness, although the vegetative growth of the tree is much
weakened by the injury. It is, therefore, a generally con-
ceded fact that the checking of wood and leaf growth often
increases the production of fruit, and on the other hand,
excessive fruit production, or overbearing, tends greatly to
reduce the vegetative growth of the tree.

33. Pruning during the winter usually results in strong
wood growth the following summer, and if excessive pruning
is done during the winter it may prevent young trees from
coming into bearing as early as they would without such

36 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

pruning and may reduce the fruitfulness of old trees. The
probable reason is that a tree stores up a reserve supply of
food and energy during the summer and that the early growth
during the spring no doubt depends more on this stored food
and energy than on immediate root action to supply plant-
food. In fact, in cold soils, a tree often comes into leaf and
bloom before its roots are warm enough to become really active
in supplying food for the tree. If parts of the plant are removed
in winter, then the stored food and energy of the tree is diverted
into the fewer parts that remain. These remaining parts get
the entire food supply that otherwise would have been dis-
tributed among the larger number of buds and branches, and
the result is a stiraulation of the wood growth on a tree pruned
during the winter.

Pruning in summer, especially if the pruning is excessive,
is likely to result in diminished wood growth. The probable
reason is that after the early growth of spring has used up the
available stored food and energy accumulated in the tree,
subsequent growth depends on the food that is supplied by
the roots from day to day. However, it should be borne in
mind that the sap taken from the soil through the roots of the
tree is not immediately in a condition to promote growth or
the building of tissue. The sap is first carried from the roots
into the leaves where, in the presence of the green coloring
matter, it is elaborated, or digested, and is then transported
to all the growing parts of the tree where it promotes growth.
Regardless of how much sap the roots are taking from the
soil, no more plant-food can be utilized for growth than is
elaborated in the leaves. As pruning in summer removes
leaves, or a part of this elaborating surface of the tree, the
quantity of plant -food that is elaborated is reduced. As a
result, vegetative activity is in a measure checked, and, if not
carried too far, may result in a tendency to reproductive
activity and throw the trees into bearing.

34. So long as all available plant-food is being directed
toward the tips of rapidly growing twigs, it cannot be used for
fruit-bud formation. Fruit buds of practically all fruit-pro-

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 37

ducing plants are usually formed the season before the blossoms
and fruit are produced. In spring, so far as is known, all the
buds on the new growth start ahke, as wood buds. If excessive
vegetative activity continues throughout the season to carry
all available food to make growing points and leaves, these
buds will remain as wood buds. However, if part of the plant
food that is being elaborated in the tree can be directed in
early summer, perhaps in June, to storage in some of these
buds, they may be transformed into fruit buds. The setting
of fruit buds is, therefore, apparently due to the storage of an
abundance of available plant-food, so that buds which started
as wood buds can receive a sufficient share to develop into
flower or fruit buds. These fruit buds continue to develop
more and more throughout summer and autumn. If the
storage of plant -food in and adjacent to the fruit buds is
abundant, they shotild be thoroughly developed by autumn,
pass the winter safely, produce flowers in spring, and the
flowers should be followed by a fruit crop. But anything that
tends to divert available plant-food during the summer away
from the fruit buds oppose fruitf illness for the coming year.
The fruit-bearing parts of certain kinds of plants, especially
the grape, blackberry, and raspberry plants, are so weakened
by bearing a crop of fruit that they are not. desirable for sub-
sequent fruit production. In such cases, regular pruning is
particularly necessary to remove those parts that have once
borne fruit and to shape new parts for the production of the
next fruit crop.

METHOD OF PRUNING

35. In various parts of the world numerous forms and
heights of heads of trees have been advocated and maintained
by fruit growers. In the United States, one of the most
important classifications as to shape of tree is based on the
height of the head. In Europe, fruit trees are often trained
to grow open heads of wine-glass, or vase, form in order to
expose all parts of the head to sunlight. Also, they are often
trimmed and trained so that the branches spread out fiat
against a trellis or the south side of a wall. An apple tree

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§1

pruned and trained to grow on the side of a wall is illustrated
in Fig. 20, and another one pruned to two horizontal branches

Fig. 20

that are trained to grow on a horizontal support only 2 feet
above the ground is shown in Fig. 21.

In regions with very severe climate, fruit plants are some-
times laid down and protected during the winter. In such

^"■■^aiffl^^

<^^ «fsar^

,cW«f>-_..=_ ^--- ^^^^^fm^^_ Z''''- ^P^

'-•-^f^T^r- "■ KHUiiWO" W'"l;••■•

Fig. 21

cases a special form of pruning is given to the plants to adapt
them to the winter protection. Thus, the trees may be grown

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 39

in a more or less flattened form ; the branches on the north and
south sides are pruned very short and those on the east -and
west sides are allowed to grow long. The root system is also
cut back more or less on the two flattened sides of the tree so
that the main brace roots extend laterally in the same directions
as the spread of branches. This form of pruning admits of
laying down tender trees for winter protection without breaking
either the essential roots or the essential branches.

36. High-Headed and Low-Headed Trees. — In the

early settled regions of the United States where orchards were
first planted it was usually customary to grow very high heads
on fruit trees. Often the heads were started 7 or 8 feet above
the ground, so that persons could walk upright below the
branches and teams could be driven under them to till the
soil. But, at the present time in many parts of the United
States and Canada, heads so low as to stand very close to the
ground frequently prevail. The reason for the difference in
the position of the heads of fruit trees in regard to the height
of the head is that the character of the head of a fruit tree
bears an intimate relation to its adaptation to a given climate
and to the management that may be given to an orchard. In
Europe, where most of the fruit -producing plants grown in the
United States were formerly obtained, a' comparatively foggy
climate prevails. Practically all of Europe and the adjacent
islands ,has a much more humid climate than has the United
States. Europe has a less changeable climate, especially with
respect to devastating winds than most parts of the United
States.

In a section where sunlight is inadequate to the best develop-
ment of fruit trees, a high, open head will best admit sunlight
to all parts of the trees and allow the ground to become warm
and dry under the trees. But in most sections of the United
States, where the sunlight is intense, and especially in those
sections where drying winds prevail, low heads are grown.
Choosing the height and character of the head is, therefore,
one important way of adapting fruit trees to the climate of the
locality in which they are planted. Where the maximum

40 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

sunlight is needed by the trees and to warm and dry the earth
beneath the tree, high heads are probably best; where it is
desirable to shade the ground, protect the trunk and main
branches of the trees from sun scald and to resist the force of
strong winds, low, compact heads are desirable. In practically
all parts of the United States in recently planted orchards
low heads have been almost universally adopted. Typical
high-headed trees are found only in old orchards. A tree
headed low can be brought into bearing earlier than one headed
high, because very high heads are secured only by cutting off
annually the side branches that fonn diiring the first 2 to
4 years of the growth of the trees, and this pruning delays the
times when branches shall be old enough to produce fruiting
parts.

Low-headed trees are stocky. There is usually a correlation
between root growth below ground and branching above
ground. An unsuually large limb above ground is ordinarily
balanced with a similarly large root below. The same strands
of woody fibers that foim the roots extend upwards to help
form the branches, and, as the roots spread from the base of
a tree, an enlargement of the trunk is produced. Frequently
large roots form flanges that broaden rapidly as they enter
the ground; a similar broadening effect occurs where the
branching system begins at the top of the trunk; and the
nearer together these two points are, the larger will be the
diameter of the trunk of the tree at a given age.

Measurements of the diameter of the trunks of low-headed
and high-headed trees show that the lower the head the thicker
will be the trunk. In one 8-year-old orchard where a compari-
son of the two methods of heading was made, the low-headed
trees with trunks only 18 inches high were 50 per cent, greater
in diameter at their smallest point than were the trunks of
high-headed trees of the same variety.

In sunny climates low-headed trees tend better to shade
the trunks and main branches and thereby to avoid sun scald
than do high-headed trees. Winds do not damage low-headed
trees so much as high-headed trees nor blow the fruit from
them so readily. The fruit on low-headed trees can to a large

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 41

extent be picked from the ground, and the pruning and spraying
may be more conveniently done than if the trees were high
headed.

High heads may, in moist, foggy chmates, allow the sun
more quickly to warm and dry the soil and decomposing
material beneath the trees. The moist, decomposing material
and the moist condition of the soil favor the development of
such fungi as may cause disease. Certain orchard tools can be
used more conveniently in high-headed orchards than where
the branches come down close to the ground. Also, high heads
admit of a better growth of any crop that may be grown in
the orchard.

It seems safe to say, however, that the advantages of low
heads so largely outweigh the advantages of exceedingly high
heads that it is probably wise to adopt as low heads for fruit
trees as are compatible with the character of soil and the pre-
vailing climatic conditions.

37. Styles of Pruning. — The style of pruning that
eventually allows a fruit tree or plant to develop to its largest
possible size is known as extensive pruning. It consists
of a thinning-out process rather than a cutting-back process
and is particularly adapted to such trees as the apple and the
pear, that bear fruit on short fruit spurs all over the tree,
rather than to such trees as the peach, that bear fruit on the
new, growing parts.

The style of pruning that tends to dwarf plants or trees is
known as repressive pruning. It is accomplished by cutting
back new growth and may or may not be accompanied by
thinning out the branches. Repressive pruning is commonly
practiced on plants that bear, fruit toward the extremities of
new growth, such as the peach, raspberry, blackberry, and
grape. If this style of pruning is not practiced on such trees
as the peach, the limbs are very likely to become long and to
break under a heavy load of fruit and the trees will occupy
more space in an orchard than is necessary or desirable for them
to occupy. Repressive pruning results in a stocky, strong tree
or plant, prevents limbs from breaking down with fruit, keeps

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§1

the trees within desired limits, causes the fruit to be produced
where it can be picked easily, and produces plants and trees
that are easily sprayed.

TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR PRUNING

TOOLS FOR PRUNING

38. The tools to be used in pruning operations depend
somewhat on the character of the plant to be pruned. For small

Fig. 22

plants such as grape and berry plant, whose parts are flexible,
shears are most largely employed. For young orchard trees
whose branches are small, the pruning knife is preferred by

most fruit growers. For old orchard
trees where large limbs or diseased
parts are to be removed, the pruning
saws are indispensable. Ladders may
also be necessary in the case of trees
that have reached large size.

39. Pruning Shears. — The

shears most commonly used in pru-
ning operations are hand shears of the
type shown in Fig. 22. The shears
illustrated have a ratchet nut on the
side, ^ device that prevents the cut-
ting part from binding or from becom-
ing loose. In different shears there
are often slight differences in the kind
of spring between the handles and the
attachment for fastening the handles together while the imple-
ments are not being used. For the pruning of mature trees,
such implements as are shown in Fig. 23 are often found to be

Fig. 23

(b) (e)

Fig. 24

44 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

very convenient. They are equipped with wood handles
about 2 feet long and are especially useful in young orchards
where many limbs and branches are to be removed that are
too large to be cut off with ease by means of the hand shears
shown in Fig. 22. The shears shown in Fig. 24 (a), (6), and (c)
are known as long-handled, or extension, shears and are almost
indispensable in pruning mature orchards. These shears can
be equipped with handles 4, 6, 8, or 10 feet long. The cutting
part is operated by means of a wire extending from one end
of the cutting part to a hand lever that is fastened to the long
handle near its free end. A plain, single pair long-handled
shears is shown in (a), and combination shears and saw, in
(b) and (c). Either of these latter implements are of especial
value in removing branches that are too large to be cut off
by the shears. The implement shown in (b) is of such a size
as to clip off limbs f inch in diameter and the saw is the ordi-
nary type of hand saw. The shears of the implement shown
in (c) will only clip off branches ^ inch or less in diameter, and
the saw is of a special curve shape, the teeth of which are so
made that they cut most while the saw is being pulled rather
than pushed.

40. Pruning Saws. — ^Among the implements of the fruit
grower should be found one or more desirable pruning saws,
several types of which are shown in Fig. 25. That type of
saw with a thin, slender blade held rigidly in a steel frame
that bows backwards several inches from the blade is a very
popular saw, although many orchardists prefer the common
type of saw.

The implement shown in (a) is attached to a long handle
and fastened to one end of the saw frame is a chisel. The
chisel attachment is very convenient for punching off small
branches such as water spouts close to the large limbs. Care,
however, must be exercised in the use of the chisel or the
limb from which the small branches are cut will be wounded.
The saw illustrated in (b) is of a special tapering shape, and
the blade, which is very narrow, is fastened by means of a
swivel at each end to the frame, so that the plane of the saw

Fig. 25

46 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 1

blade may extend in one direction and that of the frame in
another direction. This arrangement, it is claimed by some
orchardists, makes this saw especially desirable to use in narrow
places such as in the forks of limbs. The saw is equipped
with a socket handle into which may be fitted a long handle
or without the handle it may be used as a hand saw.

The saw shoAvn in (c) is similar to the one shown in (b),
in that the former has a slightly tapering frame and a narrow
blade with a swivel at either end. The saw is equipped,
however, with a regular type of saw handle that makes it more
serviceable for close work than the saw shown in (b). The
saw shown in (d) may be used as a hand saw or a pole may be
fitted into the socket handle. An arrangement is provided so
that the handle may be adjusted for sawing at different angles.
The saw shown in (e) is equipped with a handle that may be
hooked over a small limb or over a round of a ladder. The
saw shown in (/) has teeth on both edges and by many orchard-
ists is claimed to be a very convenient saw, but care must be
exercised that one edge of the saw does not scratch one hmb
while another one is being sawed off. A curved saw preferred
by many pruners is shown in (g) . The teeth are made so that
they cut while the "saw is being pulled backwards rather than
while it is being pushed forwards.

41. Pruning Baiives. — Any good strong pocket knife
may be used as a pruning knife, but knives made especially
for pruning purposes, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 26,
usually have a hook blade and a handle sufficiently large and
of such a shape as to allow the pruner to get a firm grip.

t-^ Fig. 26

42. Ladders for Pruning. — Ordinarily, the ladders that
are used in the picking of any kind of fruit are the best suited
for use in pruning the trees bearing the fruit. Step ladders are
very commonly used.

§ 1 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 47.

DRESSINGS FOR WOUNDS

43. All wounds, whether they are the result of pruning or
of accident, should be protected from the entrance of the
germs of disease or of decay. Many infectious diseases, such
as various cankers and blights as well as certain species of
insects, may frequently find entrance to trees through wounds.
To protect the tree from infection by disease or from rotting
of the wood, all cuts larger than ^ inch in diameter should be
promptly covered by paint or other dressing. Of the numerous
preparations that have been tried or recommended for the
dressing of wounds, probably common white lead and oil
paint is the most desirable. It can always be secured at any
paint shop, is convenient to apply, and protects the wounds
or the bare wood of the tree as well as most other dressings.
Ordinarily, wounds should be painted as soon as they occur;
at any event, the paint should be applied within 24 hours or
as soon as the surface of the wound is dry. If it is desirable,
for the sake of appearances, the paint may be colored the same
general color as that of the bark of the trees.

Grafting wax is also a most excellent dressing for wounds.
Where wounds are made for the insertion of scions, grafting
wax is imdoubtedly the best covering for the naked parts of
the wood. It prevents the evaporation of moisture through
wounds better even than paint; and, although it is more
expensive and more troublesome to apply, there may be
instances where it is desirable to use grafting wax to prevent
evaporation or to secure greater protection to wounds than is
given by paint.

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

(PART 2)

SPRAYS AND THEIR PREPARATION

INSECTICIDES

1. An insecticide is defined by the law passed by the
United States Congress in 1910 as "any substance or mixture
of substances intended to be used for preventing, destroying,
repelling, or mitigating any insects which may infest vegeta-
tion, man, or other animals, or households, or be present in
any environment whatsoever." In the ordinary usage of the
term, however, any substance that kills insects is an insecti-
cide. All insecticides may be divided into two general classes,
poisono^is insecticides and contact insecticides.

POISONOUS INSECTICIDES

2. Insecticides containing a poison that will kill insects
are known as poisonous insecticides. They are used for
insects that have mouth parts for biting and that feed on the
surfaces of plants. The poisonous insecticides generally used
are arsenate of lead, Paris green, arsenite of lime, and London
purple, all of which contain arsenic in some form. Hellebore
is a poisonous insecticide not containing arsenic that is occa-
sionally used.

3. Arsenate of lead is at the present time the most
valuable poisonous insecticide for spraying purposes. A great

§2

2i8— 5

2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

advantage this poison has over other arsenical poisons is
that it contains very little soluble arsenic — ^that is, arsenic
soluble in water. Soluble arsenic is injurious to fruit and
foliage and for this reason must be guarded against as spray
material. The advent of arsenate of lead as a spray has made
spraying for insect enemies of the peach possible, as no other
arsenical poison can be used on peach trees because of burn-
ing the foliage. Arsenate of lead is more effective than other
arsenic insecticides, because it can be used in large quantities.
Another advantage is that it stays in suspension well, and
thus a uniform mixture can be sprayed. In addition, it
adheres to the foliage well, not being easily washed off by rain.
Also, it has some value as a fungicide — a property that increases
its value to the orchardist.

Arsenate of lead is generally sold in the form of a paste
containing about 50 per cent, of water. In this form it is
used at the rate of 2, 3, or 4 pounds to 50 gallons of water,
the exact quantity depending on the species of tree to be
sprayed and the pest to be controlled. Some companies man-
ufactiire, also, a dry form of arsenate of lead, of which only
one-half as much should be used as of the paste form. Arsenate
of lead can be made at home possibly for a little less than it
would cost if purchased, but it is not possible to be so certain ,
of the strength of the home-made preparation, and unless a
very large quantity is needed it will generally be found more
satisfactory to purchase the material. Arsenate of lead is made
by combining arsenate of soda with acetate of lead. When
the insecticide is to be made in any considerable quantity
it is well first to make up stock solutions of the two substances.
For the stock solution of arsenate of soda, 31 pounds 4 ounces
of arsenate of soda should be dissolved in 50 gallons of water.
The solution can be made most satisfactorily by suspending
the arsenate of soda in a burlap bag or some other porous
container just below the surface of the water near the top of
the containing barrel. In another barrel, 78 pounds 2 ounces
of acetate of lead shoiild be dissolved in 50 gallons of water
by suspending it in the same way. After a thorough stirring
of both solutions, 1 gallon of each with sufficient water added

§ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 3

to make 50 gallons will form a spray solution of the same
strength as 2 pounds of arsenate-of-lead paste in 50 gallons
of water. The arsenate-of-soda and acetate-of-lead solutions
should be poured simultaneously into a spray barrel contain-
ing the required quantity of water.

In making the spray mixture with the manufactured prepara-
tion, either the paste or the powder, the required quantity of
poison should be weighed out and water added a little at a
time, the mixture being stirred until a thin, milky liquid is
formed. This liquid is then poured into sufficient water to
form a spray mixture of the required strength. If the mixttire
is not prepared in this way it will not become uniform for
several hours. A large quantity of the milky liquid may be
conveniently prepared by using an old stone chum or a keg
with a dasher for doing the mixing.

A purchaser of arsenate of lead in the United States may
be reasonably sure of getting an honest brand, as the specifi-
cations of the United States insecticide law already referred
to are exacting. Sec. 7 of the law specifies that arsenate of
lead shall be deemed adulterated:

"First, if it contains more than 50 per centtim of water;
second, if it contains total arsenic equivalent to less than
12| per centum of arsenic oxide, AS2O5; third, if it contains
arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent to more than -^^ per
centum of arsenic oxide, ^.^205; fourth, if any substances have
been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce, lower,- or
injuriously affect its quality or strength. Provided, however,
that extra water may be added to lead arsenate if the result-
ing mixture is labeled lead arsenate and water, the percent-
age of extra water being plainly and correctly stated on the
label."

4. Paris green is probably the best known insecticide
on the market. It was the material most largely used as a
poisonous spray before arsenate of lead came into general use.
Paris green can be easily recognized by its beautiful green color.
It contains much more soluble arsenic than does arsenate of
lead, and is, therefore, much more injurious to foliage and

4 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

should not be used on tender-leaved plants such as peaches,
cherries, or plums. For a spray compound 1 pound of Paris
green is generally added to from 75 to 150 gallons of water.
When used in pure water, 2 or 3 pounds of freshly slaked lime
should always be added to 50 gallons of the spray, as this will
combine with any free arsenic that may be present and so
lessen the liability of injuring fruit and foliage. Paris green
does not stay in suspension well, and for that reason when it
is used as a spray thorough agitation is necessary. Although
cheaper than arsenate of lead, it is doubtful whether, under
present conditions, the use of Paris green for spraying fruit
plants is advisable. If it is used it should first be mixed with
a little water to form a thin paste and then be poured into
the spray tank or barrel; if it is poured into the spray barrel
in a dry form, it wiU remain on top of the water without
mixing.

Sec. 7 of the United States insecticide law specifies that
Paris green shall be deemed adulterated: "First, if it does
not contain at least 50 per centum of arsenious oxide, second,
if it contains arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent to more
than 3| per centum of arsenious oxide; third, if any substance
has been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce or lower or
injuriously affect its quality or strength."

5. Arsenlte of lime, an insecticide that may be easily,
made at home, consists of a combination of arsenic and lime.
This poison has the advantage over arsenate of lead and
Paris green of being much less expensive. Also, it is lighter
than Paris green, and for this reason remains in suspension
much better. The great disadvantage of arsenite of lime as
an insecticide is its injurious effect on foliage, which is much
greater than that of either arsenate of lead or Paris green.

One of the best methods of making arsenite of lime is to
boil 1 pound of white arsenic and 2 pounds of good stone lime
in 2 gallons of water for 40 minutes. Water should then be
added to make this mixture up to 300 gallons. As a spray the
mixture will be as effective as one consisting of 1 pound of Paris
green to 150 gallons of water.

§ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 5

Another method of making arsenite of lime is to boil in an
iron kettle 1 pound of white arsenic and 4 pounds of sal soda
in 1 gallon of soft water until the arsenic dissolves. A small
quantity of muddy sediment will usually be found in the bot-
tom of the vessel; this should be discarded. The product
thus made is arsenite of soda, which is one of the ingredients
to be used in making the arsenite of lime. The arsenite of
soda should be kept in a tightly closed jug until needed for use.
To make the arsenite of lime, 2 pounds of good stone lime is
slaked and diluted with 2 gallons of water; to this is added
1 pint of the arsenite of soda, and the mixture is stirred until
thoroughly combined, when water should be added to make
40 gallons. This solution will be equivalent in strength to a
solution of 1 pound of Paris green to 160 gallons of water.
The arsenite of soda must never be used alone as a spray,
because it will kill all foliage with which it comes in contact.

6. London purple is a by-product obtained in the manu-
facture of aniline dyes. This substance contains poison in the
form of arsenite of lime. London purple varies greatly in
composition and is thus likely to be ineffective, or, if used in
effective quantities, is likely to injure the foliage badly; it is,
therefore, not used to any extent in orchard work.

7. Hellebore is a poison made from the powdered roots
of white helleboro and it is sometimes recommended as a sub-
stitute for arsenical poisons where insects must be combated
on nearly ripe fruit. This poison may be mixed with from
5 to 10 parts of flour or of lime and applied dry, or it may be
diluted with water, 1 ounce of hellebore to 1 gallon of water,
and used as a spray. Hellebore is reasonably effective against
insects and is practically harmless to man in the quantities
recommended; it is, however, too expensive to be used except
on small home plantings.

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE §2

CONTACT INSECTICIDES

8. Substances used to kill insects simply by coming in
contact with them are called contact insecticides. They

can be used successfully as sprays against many soft-bodied
insects, such as plant lice, and also against those that are
stationary during the greater part of their lives, as, for exam-
ple, the San Jose scale. Insects that have sucking mouths
instead of biting mouth parts cannot be destroyed by poisoning
their food but must be killed by contact insecticide sprays.
Among the most important contact insecticides are lime-
sulphur, self-boiled lime-sulphur, miscible oils, distillate oils,
kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extracts and decoctions.

9. Lime-sulphur, a combination of lime and sulphur, has
during recent years come into '^general favor as a contact
insecticide and has also been found to have some value as a
fungicide. It may be purchased from a number of chemical
manufacturing houses or may be readily made at home. When
sulphur and lime for making this solution are purchased in
large quantities, the materials necessary to make a barrel of
the concentrated solution will cost between $2 and $3.50.
The entire cost, including fuel and labor, will be much less
than the cost of the commercial solution.

Many different formulas have been recommended for the
making of lime-sulphur, but the one at present considered
most satisfactory is as follows : 1 pound of the best stone lime
and 2 pounds of flowers of sulphur or of ground sulphur, which
are boiled in enough water to make 1 gallon of solution. To
make 50 gallons of solution, about 10 gallons of water is placed
in a kettle, the fire started, and 50 pounds of lime added;
after the slaking is well started, the dry sulphur is added and
thoroughly mixed with the slaking lime, enough water being
added to maintain a thin paste. A stick graduated so that a
certain depth of liquid in the kettle measured by this stick
will be 50 gallons is convenient for determining the quantity of
liquid in the kettle. After the slaking is complete and the
lime and sulphur are thoroughly mixed, enough water is added

§ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 7

to bring the liquid in the kettle to about 55 gallons, and the
boiling is continued until the quantity is reduced to 50 gallons.
The material must be kept well stirred, especially during the
earlier stages of the boiling, and any lumps of sulphur must
be thoroughly broken up. The liquid should generally be
boiled for an hour, but a variation of 10 minutes either way is
not harmful.

10. Another satisfactory method of combining the lime
and sulphur with the water is to place about 45 gallons of water
in the kettle over the fire and put in the lime. While the lime
is slaking 15 or 20 pounds of sulphiir should be placed in a large
wooden pail or small butter tub, 1 gallon of water added, and
the compound worked to a smooth paste with a paddle; if
another gallon of water is now added and thoroughly stirred
into the sulphur a very thin paste will be formed which may
easily be poured into the kettle. Another quantity of sulphur
should then be prepared in the same way and the process
continued until all of the sulphur has been added. In using
this method, it will probably not be necessary to put more
water into the kettle after the sidphur has been added, because
of the quantity of water used in making the paste. Dry sul-
phur should never be added to a large quantity of water,
because the sulphur will form into lumps and it is then very
difficult to get it combined with the lime. When the boiling
is finished, the solution should be poured or strained into a
barrel or settling tank.

When a steam boiler is available a wooden or metal tank
may be used with steam turned in to do the cooking; if the
steam is turned in at the bottom of the tank less stirring will
be necessary.

11. Before lime-sulphur is placed in the spray barrel or
tank it should be carefully strained, because it always contains
considerable sediment that will not pass through the spray
nozzle. Several forms of strainer have been devised for this
work, but in all cases where the solution passes down through
the strainer the screen soon becomes clogged with sediment
and causes much trouble. To obviate this difficulty, a strainer

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

has been devised at the Pennsylvania State College Experi-
ment Station so arranged that the liquid is forced to rise
through the screen. This strainer is illustrated in Fig. 1 and
a sectional view with dimensions is shown in Fig. 2. The
liquid is poured into the strainer at a, passes up through a
removable wire screen b held in place by revolving cleats c,
and passes out through the facuet d. The screen may be of
either tinned iron wire or brass. Tinned iron is preferable
for lime-sulphur, but if the strainer is also to be used for
Bordeaux mixtiure, brass screening should be used. The screen

should be fine, having a mesh
of from 30 to 40 to the inch.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

The small quantity of solution that remains -in the strainer
may be saved by allowing water for the next boiling to run
through the strainer.

12. Lime-sulphur should be stored in closed barrels,
because exposure to air causes a crust of crystals to form on
the top; this crust, however, can be brought back into solu-
tion readily by dipping it off and boihng it for a short time.
If the barrel is not closed, a very good method of preventing
the formation of these crystals is to pour a layer of parafifin
or of oil of any kind over the surface of the liquid.

13. The question of a convenient method of cooking lime-
sulphur is worthy of some consideration. When only a small
quantity of the concentrated solution is required, very simple
means for cooking may be employed, and even when a large quan-

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

tity is required it is not necessary to have elaborate or expensive
apparatus. A simple apparatus is shown in Fig. 3. It consists

I 1

1 1 1

Fig. 3

of galvanized-iron wash tubs of large size supported over a fire
on iron rods. The tubs must not be full, because the solution
is' likely to boil over.
About 5 gallons of con-
centrate can be cooked
in a large-sized wash tub.

In Fig. 4 is shown a
cooker often used for
cooking feed, making
soap, etc. Such a cooker
may be used for making
lime-sulphur. It should
not be filled much more
than half full on account
of the hkelihood of boil-
ing over.

An inexpensive tank for boiling 50 gallons of solution is illus-
trated in Fig. 5. The sides and one end are made of 2-inch

Fig. 4

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

plank 12 inches wide and the bottom and one end are made
of sheet iron. The plank for the one end is 1 foot 10 inches
long; the side planks are 7 feet long, and are cut to a slant at
one end from a point a 1 foot from the end to the comer .b,

Fig. 5

as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 6. The sheet iron for the
bottom and one end is 7 feet 7 inches long and 2 feet 7 inches
wide. These dimensions provide for turning over the edges
2| inches all around. The sheet iron should be well nailed to
the planks and the crevices filled with white lead. This tank
was set on a fireplace built of stone, as shown in Fig. 5. A
view of the other end of the tank and the smoke vent of the
fireplace is shown in Fig. 7. The cost of the tank, not inclu-
ding the labor, was about $3. All the labor, with the exception

Fig. 6

of the cutting of the comers of the sheet iron and the turning
over of the edges was done by the farmer himself.

14. A more elaborate cooking plant for lime-sulphur is
shown in Fig. 8. The tank, which is of sheet iron, is set between

Fig. 7

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

cement walls. These walls form the sides of the fireplace,
and at the rear is a smokestack to give a good draft. The
grate in the fireplace is made of iron rods built into the side
walls 6 inches above the ground. Fig. 9 is a closer view of the
front end of the cooker and shows the fireplace and the pipe
connections from the tank to the barrel.

Fig. 9

This cooking plant is of sufficient capacity for boiling 100 gal-
lons of lime-sulphur and was built for $37. The following is
an itemized statement of the cost:

145-gallon sheet-iron tank, second hand $17.00

Smokestack, second hand 5.00

Cement and sand 5.00

Labor and sundries 10.00

Total $37X)0

It may be possible in some cases to secure a tank and smoke-
stack for less than the amount named, and the cost of the other
items will no doubt vary somewhat with the locality.

14 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

15. In Fig. 10 is shown a very convenient lime-sulphur
cooking plant. This plant is situated on a side hill convenient
to the source of water supply, and the arrangement is such that
no dipping of water or spray solution is necessary. The bank
is excavated in such a manner that a ledge is formed on which
the cooking tank, scale, and strainer are set and where wood,
sulphur, and lime may be placed convenient for use. The top
and sides of the ledge are faced with concrete. A driveway is
excavated so that a wagon containing a barrel may be backed
up under the strainer faucet. The cooker consists of a cast-
iron firebox 5| feet long and 18 inches high and a boiling tank
made of galvanized iron, of the same size as the firebox. In
this tank 100 gallons of solution can be cooked at one time.

16. Concentrated lime-sulphur will not freeze at a tem-
perature much above 5° F., and slight freezing does not seem
to injure it greatly, especially if the liquid is stirred well before
it is used. However, the solution should be protected against
severe freezing. When used for spraying dormant trees,
lime-sulphur solution should be diluted to a density of about
1.03, although the dilution will vary somewhat, depending on
the kind of plants to be sprayed. To determine the quantity
of solution to use in a given quantity of water for a spray of
the required density, it is necessary to have a hydrometer, an
instrument used to measure the specific gravity of liquids.
Hydrometers are inexpensive and can be purchased from
dealers in orchard supplies. The hydrometer used should
be made for liquids heavier than water, and may be secured
with what is known as the Baume scale, with which a table
is necessary to find the specific gravity, or may be secured
with the specific-gravity readings direct on the scale; the latter
type is best for the orchardist.

17. Fig. 11 shows the method of testing the density of a
lime-stdphur solution with a hydrometer. The glass a is
nearly filled with the solution to be tested and the hydrometer b
on which specific gravity is marked is placed in it. The
hydrometer will float and the specific gravity will be shown
by the reading of the graduated scale at the surface of the

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

liquid. The following examples will illustrate the method
of procedure in making a solution of any desired density from
a more concentrated solution.

Suppose a spray having a density, or specific gravity, of
1.03 is desired, and on testing the concentrated liquid with a
hydrometer the specific gravity, or density, is found to be 1.30.
The number of volumes of water to be added to form the
dilute solution may be found by dividing the decimal part of
the number representing the specific gravity of
the concentrate, .30, by the decimal of the
dilute liquid desired, .03. The result being 10,
the concentrate contains 10 times the quantity
of combined lime and sulphur that is desired
in an equal volume of the dilute solution;
therefore, 1 volume of the concentrate must
be added to 9 volumes of water. Suppose the
specific gravity of the concentrate is 1.27 ; then,
.27 -4- .03 = 9, and 1 volume of the concentrate
must be added to 8 voliunes of water.

The division of the decimal to determine
the number of times the solution must be
diluted is easily explained. The readings of
the hydrometer scale gives the specific gravity
of the liquid, which is the weight of the liquid
as compared with the weight of an equal
volume of water. In this comparison the
weight of water is taken as unity, or 1.
Because lime-sulphur solution is composed
only of water and the combined lime and
sulphur, a specific gravity of 1.30 means that
the .30 represents the combined lime and siilphur in the solution.
Since .03 is the amount desired in the dilute solution, dividing
the .30 by .03 gives the ninnber of volumes of water that must
be added to the concentrated solution to form the required
dilute solution.

The dilution for commercial products is generally given on
the container, but experience shows that they vary from the
figures given, and for this reason it is best to use a hydrometer

Fig. 11

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

for testing solutions whether they are home-made or commercial
products.

Table I shows the specific gravity of liquids heavier than
water for different Baume degrees up to 36.

TABLE I

COMPARISON OF BAUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY HYDROM-
ETER READINGS FOR LIQUIDS HEAVIER THAN WATER

Baume
Degrees

Specific
Gravity

Baume
Degrees

Specific
Gravity

Baume
Degrees

Specific
Gravity

1.007

1-151

1.239

1. 014

1. 160

250

1.02 1

1. 169

261

1.028

1. 179

272

4-3

1.030

1. 188

283

1. 115

1. 198

295

1. 124

1.208

306

I-I33

1. 218

318

1. 142

1.229

330

18. Self -boiled lime-sulphur is a compound used to
some extent as an insecticide against oyster-shell scale and
other summer scale insects. It is used more largely, however,
as a fungicide, and for this reason it will be discussed under
the heading Fungicides.

19. After treatment with certain chemical substances,
certain oils may be combined with water to make a uniform
mixture. Oils that have been so treated are known as mis-
cible oils, and in combination with water are used exten-
sively as contact insecticides. There are a large niimber of
brands of miscible oils on the market, most of which will prove
satisfactory to the orchardist. When water is added to some
of thes'e commercial miscible oils, a milk-white emulsion is
obtained; in other cases, a dark emulsion. It is very easy,
however, to determine in all cases whether or not there is a
good mixture: if any of the oil comes to the top it shows that

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

part of the oil is not combined with water. Such a mixture
should never be used, as the uncombined oil is very likely to
injure the trees. The average fruit grower should purchase
miscible oils ready made, as the making of these oils is attended
with considerable difficulty. However, if the orchard to be
sprayed is very large and the manager has some chemical
knowledge, it may be economical to make the miscible oil.

20. For convenience in the discussion of the making of
* miscible oil, the term emulsifier will be applied to the chemicals
used to bring the oil into such
a condition that it will mix
with water ; the oil after being
chemically treated will be
termed the miscible oil, and
the combination of the mis-
cible oil and water will be
termed the emulsion.

The materials and directions
for making the emulsifier are
as follows: Liquid crude 100-
per-cent. carbolic acid, 2
quarts; menhaden fish oil,
2| quarts; granulated caustic
potash, 1 pound. Heat to
300° F., remove from the fire,
and immediately add 3| quarts
of kerosene and 5 quarts of
water. These quantities will
make about 3 gallons of emul-
sifier, which is sufficient to make from 19 to 20 gallons of miscible
oil. The carbolic acid, fish oil, and caustic potash shordd be
placed in a kettle and the fire started. The mixture requires
stirring until the potash is thoroughly dissolved. A cover
should then be placed on the kettle to prevent loss from
evaporation. An iron kettle is suitable for making the emul-
sifier. It should have a cover, which may be of wood or metal
with a small opening that will accommodate a perforated

248— G

Fig. 12

18 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

stopper through which a thermometer can be inserted into
the hquid and kept in place. A special thermometer graduated
to read as high as 300° F. must be used, and the temperature
should be brought very gradually from around 260 degrees
to 270 degrees, since at this point the mixture tends to foam
badly. If steam under 60 pounds pressure is available, the
mixture may be boiled in a jacketed kettle similar to the one
shown in Fig. 12. The steam is allowed to enter through the
pipe a into the jacket that surrounds the kettle; the liquid
after being boiled may be let out from the kettle through
the faucet h; a vent for drawing off the condensed steam is
shown at c; d is a thermometer inserted through the hole in
the cover.

The emulsifier should never be made near a building, as the
mixture is inflammable when hot and tjie carbolic acid gives
off disagreeable fumes. When a temperature of 300° F. is
reached, the kettle should be removed immediately from the
fire, or the fire should be quickly quenched with sand or soil.
The hot mixture may then be transferred to a larger vessel
and the kerosene added at once and then the water. It is
dangerous to add the water before adding the kerosene, and
the temperature of the mixture shoiild not be higher than
212° F. when the water is added, or steam will form and throw
the liquid out badly. This emulsifier will remain in a good
condition indefinitely.

21. The second part of the process of making miscible oil
does not require the application of heat. A moderately warm
day should be selected so that the oil will not be too thick,
and if possible the emulsifier should be placed in a warm room
for a day or two before being mixed with the oil. The emul-
sifier should be thoroughly stirred and the ingredients of the
mixture brought together in the following order: Emulsifier,
8 parts; paraffin oil, 35 parts; rosin oil, 5 parts; water, 1 part.
This mixture should be vigorously stirred; if there is a large
quantity, a garden hoe will be found convenient as a stirrer.
At first the mixture appears thin, but becomes thicker as it
is stirred; when smooth, it should be tested by pouring a few

§ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 19

drops in a glass of water; a milk-white appearance resulting
indicates a satisfactory miscible oil. If the milk-white appear-
ance does not result, the stirring should be continued.

All that is necessary in order to form the emulsion for spray-
ing is to add water to the miscible oil. To make a spray solu-
tion for use when the trees are dormant, from 10 to 15 parts
of water should be used with 1 part of oil; and for a summer
spray, 25 to 40 parts of water to 1 part of oil should be used.

22. Kerosene emulsion, an insecticide similar in nature
to miscible oil, is made from kerosene with soap as an emul-
sifier. The most suitale soap for this purpose is either whale-
oil soap or some vegetable soap, although common laundry
soap will suffice. The following formula is most generally
recommended for kerosene emtdsion: Hard soap, 1 pound;
kerosene, 2 gallons; soft water, 1 gallon. The soap should be
cut into fine pieces and thoroughly dissolved by heating in
the gallon of soft water. The vessel of boiling soap solu-
tion should be removed far enough from the fire that there
will be no danger of explosion, and the 2 gallons of kerosene
added with a small spray pump that has the nozzle arranged
to throw a stiff stream. After all the kerosene has been
added, the pump should be placed in the vessel containing
the mixture and a stiff stream should be pumped back into
the solution until the liquid is thoroughly emulsified. After
a few minutes of agitation the liquid begins to have a milky
appearance and at last thickens to a butter-like mass, in
which condition it will remain for a considerable length of
time. This stock solution should be diluted with 17 gallons
of water for use as a spray. If the weather is cold, the stock
solution may not mix readily with water, but can be made to
mix by warming. Pumps used for spraying kerosene emulsion
should have metal or marble valves, since the oil destroys
rubber valves very quickly.

23. Distillate oils are used considerably as insecticides
in the western part of the United States. Distillates are
made from oil taken from wells in the West, and those com-
monly used for spraying have a specific gravity of .89, or

20 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

28° Baiune for liquids lighter than water, although occa-
sionally those having a specific gravity of .90, or 26° Baume,
are used. It is well to explain here that there are two
Baume scales, one for liquids heavier than water and one
for liquids lighter than water.

These oils are used as insecticide sprays in two forms; in the
form of an emulsion and in the form of a mechanical mixture.
Emiilsions are made in the same way that kerosene emulsion
is made, but more water is used for diluting. One formula for
the emulsion is: soap, | pound; water, 1 gallon; oil, 2 gallons;
when these are thoroughly emulsified, 30 gallons of water
is added. However, the distillate oils do not emulsify so
readily as kerosene, and for this reason they have not proved
entirely satisfactory when applied in the form of an emulsion.

The mechanical mixture is made • by rapid and thorough
agitation of the oil and water in the spray tank or barrel at
the time of spraying. This agitation breaks the oil into fine
particles and mixes it with the water, producing a spray that
has a milky appearance. The use of this mixture is also
attended with some danger unless used in a very dilute form,
as the oil will sometimes enter the stoma of the leaves or a
place where an injury to a leaf has occurred and from such
places will penetrate and kill the surrounding cells. It has
been found in California- that a stronger spray can be used
on the upper side of the leaf -than on the lower side. In that
state, since the scale, which is hard to kill, is located on the
upper side of the leaf, and the red spider, which is easily killed,
is located on the under side of the leaf, it has been found prac-
tical to spray the upper side of the leaf with a strong mixture
of distillate, and at the same time to spray the lower side of
the leaf with a solution in which twice as much water is used.
The upper side of the leaf should be sprayed with what is
known as the undershot nozzle — that is, a nozzle that directs
the spray altogether downwards; and for the under side of the
leaf a nozzle that directs the spray upwards should be used.
It is possible to have a pump so arranged that two spray liquids
containing different percentages of oil can be sprayed at the
same time, and thus with the same sprayer one man can be

§ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 21

using an undershot nozzle that throws the strong spray mixture
and another be using an uppershot nozzle that throws a weaker
spray mixture.

24. Tobacco extracts and decoctions are good sprays
for use against plant lice and some other sucking insects, pro-
vided they contain a large proprtion of tobacco. Many
proprietary tobacco decoctions are on the market and these,
when applied in accordance with the directions that accom-
pany the package, will no doubt prove more satisfactory than
decoctions made at home. It is possible, however, to make a
tobacco decoction at home that is reasonably good. For making
this decoction, tobacco stems or tobacco refuse may be used;
1 pound of tobacco should be placed in 1 gallon of cold water
and the water heated to the boiling point and boiled for a few
minutes. After cooling and straining, the decoction is ready
for use.

FUNGICIDES

25. Diseases of plants result from the growth of fungi,
which are small plants that feed upon the tissue of larger plants.
The sprays used for controlling the growth of fungi are known
as fungicides. These sprays will not kill fungi after they
have secured a firm footing on a plant, but are effective in
killing the germinating spores, which are the reproductive
bodies of fungi and correspond to the seeds of higher plants.
Therefore, to be of any benefit, the fungicides must be applied
before or at the time of germination of the spores.

Solutions containing some form of copper are among the
most valuable fungicides in use at the present time. It has
been found that as small a quantity as 1 part of copper to
400,000 parts of water will entirely prevent the germination
of the spores of certain fungi, and until recently practically
all of the fungicides used contained copper. However, copper
in a soluble form is very injurious to foliage and fruit, and,
as it is difficult to make a spray solution containing copper in
which none of the copper is in a soluble form, more or less
injury is often done by these sprays. For this reason sprays

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

that do not contain copper have been in demand by fruit grow-
ers during recent years for use as fungicides, and a number of
such sprays are now used to a considerable extent. Most of the
fungicide sprays that do not contain copper have some form of
sulphur in their composition. These have, been found to con-
trol many fungous diseases very satisfactorily without injuring
fruit or foliage. There are, however, a few fungous diseases
that, up to the present time, have not been successfully con-
trolled by any spray that does not contain copper.

Fig. 13

26. Bordeaux mixture is the most important and best-
known fungicide in use at present. It is made of water, lime,
and copper sulphate, which is sometimes called bluestone, or
blue vitriol, enough lime to precipitate aU of the copper sul-
phate being used. Bordeaux mixture was first discovered by
Professor Millardet, of Bordeaux, France; hence the name. A
mixture of lime and bluestone had been applied to grapes along

^ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 23

the roadway to keep the passers-by from bothering them.
Some of this was sprinkled on the leaves and it was found that
these leaves did not become diseased and fall off as did the
leaves on the rest of the vines. Professor Millardet, observing
this, began to experiment with a mixture of copper sulphate
and lime as a fungicide and discovered the valuable qualities
of the spray that has since been known as Bordeaux mixture.
The following formula is one often used for making Bordeaux
mixture to be used as a spray for trees that are dormant:
Copper sulphate, 6 pounds; fresh stone lime, 6 pounds; water,
50 gallons. The following formula is recommended when the
spray is to be used on fruit trees during the time they are in
foliage : Copper sulphate, 3 pounds ; fresh stone lime, 3 pounds ;
and water, 50 gallons. The first of these is known as a 6-6-50,
and the second as a 3-3-50 Bordeaux mixture.

27. The first step in making Bordeaux mixture is to prepare
stock solutions of copper sulphate and of lime which may be
kept indefinitely. Fig. 13 represents a simple plant that may
be easily constructed for making Bordeaux mixture. The
platform a should be of sufficient height that the spray tank
may be driven under the strainer b for filling. The barrels
shown are kerosene barrels holding 50 gallons. To make the
stock solution of lime, 50 pounds of good stone lime should be
placed in the barrel c and sufficient water added to slake the lime
and form a thin paste. When the lime is thoroughly slaked
the barrel should be filled with water and the contents
thoroughly stirred. The liquid will then contain 1 pound of
lime to 1 gallon of water.

28. To make the stock solution of copper siilphate, the
barrel d should be filled with water and 50 pounds of copper
sulphate should be placed in a burlap bag and be suspended
in the water near the surface, where it will dissolve in about a
day. If the copper sulphate is placed in the bottom of the
barrel it will not dissolve for many weeks. When it is all dis-
solved the solution will contain 1 pound of copper sulphate to
1 gallon of water.

24 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

To make the dilute solution, used for spraying, from these
stock solutions is a very simple matter: After thoroughly
stirring the stock solution of lime in barrel c, 6 gallons for the
dormant spray mixture, or 3 gallons for the summer spray
mixture, should be transferred to barrel e and water added
to half fill the barrel, making 25 gallons of the solution. In
barrel / should be placed either 6 gallons or 3 gallons of the
copper-sulphate solution, depending on the spray required,
and water added to half fill the barrel, making 25 gallons of the
copper-sulphate solution. These two solutions shoiild now
be allowed to run together through the strainer h into the
spray barrel or tank and will form 50 gallons of mixture ready
for use. To connect the barrels with the strainer a 1^ inch
hole may be bored into the barrels near the bottom and pieces
of gas pipe about 6 inches long, inserted and connected with
the strainer by pieces of rubber hose. When desired to prevent
the liquid from flowing from the barrels, the open end of the
rubber hose may be placed in the top of the barrel, or a spigot
may be used in place of the gas pipe.

The copper sulphate and the lime solutions should not be
combined until just before the spray is to be used, as the mix-
ture is unsatisfactory after it stands for a considerable time.

29. Bordeaux mixture before being applied shotdd be tested
to make sure that enough lime has been used. This test is
made by taking a small sample of the Bordeaux mixture and
adding a few drops of potassiiim ferrocyanide. If no change
in color takes place there is sufficient lime in the mixture ; if a
brownish color is shown more lime should be added. Potassium
ferrocyanide may be purchased from any druggist, but it is a
deadly poison and must be handled with caution. Ten cents
worth dissolved in a pint of water will be enough to test all of
the Bordeaux mixture ordinarily required in a season. Another
and more simple method of testing Bordeaiix mixture, although
one that is possibly not so accurate as that just given, is simply
to hold a clean, bright knife blade in the mixture for at least
1 minute. If the blade, on removal from the liquid, shows a
trace of copper color, more lime should be added. Bordeaux

§ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 25

•mixture may be easily and completely cleaned from the hands
by the use of a little vinegar.

30. During past years great damage has been done to
the apple crop by the use of Bordeaux spray. If there is any
copper uncombined with lime in the solution, serious injury
will be caused to the leaves, which are turned brown by the
copper. There is more liability to this injury if the mixture
is applied diuing damp weather than if the weather is dry.
It has also been claimed that Bordeaux mixture sometimes
causes leaves to turn yellow. Serious injury has also been
done to the fnut by causing the russeting of apples, which is
the result of a corky tissue forming to heal spots where the
skin was killed by the mixture. It is thought that this
injury occurs while the apples are small and still retain plant
hairs; a weak solution consisting of 2 pounds of copper sul-
phate, 3 pounds of stone lime, and 50 gallons of water has
therefore been recommended for the first two sprayings of
apples.

31. Ammoniacal copper carbonate is a solution some-
times used as a fungicide with fairly good results. It is made
from copper carbonate, 6 ounces; ammonia of about .90 specific
gravity, or 26° Baume, 3 pints; water to make 50 gallons. The
copper carbonate is dissolved in the ammonia and the solution
kept in a tightly corked bottle or jar imtil needed. For
spraying, the solution is made up to 50 gallons by the addition
of water. This solution does not stain fruit as Bordeaux mix-
ture does and for this reason its use on ripe fruit, especially in
the case of bitter rot of apples, may sometimes be advisable;
but it is much more injurious to the tree than Bordeaux mix-
ture, and is not so effective.

32. Copper-sulpliate solution consisting of from 1 to
3 pounds of copper sulphate to 50 gallons of water is some-
times used as a fungicide spray. This is not a desirable spray
for fruit plants, since it is very injurious to foliage; however,
it does not leave any stain on the fruit.

26 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

33. Sulphur dust is another substance that has con-
siderable value as a fungicide. This dust is used to combat
powdery mildew of some fniits and also some other plant
diseases.

34. Potassium sulpliide is sometimes used in a spray
that is of some value as a fungicide. The spray is made
by dissolving potassium sulphide, sometimes called liver of
sulphiu:, in water, at the rate of 1 oiuice to 2 gallons. This
solution deteriorates rapidly and* should not be prepared until
needed for spraying. It is of value principally for powdery
mildew on berry plants.

35. Lirue- sulphur, which has been discussed under the
heading Insecticides, is being used as a summer fungicide to
replace Bordeaux mixture. It is used at a strength indicated
by a specific gravity of from LOOT to 1.01, or from about 1 to
1|° Baume, the exact dilution depending on the kind of plant
to be sprayed. It should always be carefully tested with a
hydrometer. The number of times it is necessary to dilute
the concentrate solution is found in the same way as for the
insecticide. Lime-sulphur as a fungicide has the advantage
over Bordeaux mixture that it does not cause russeting of
fruit. Lime-sulphur has been found to control apple scab
about as well as Bordeaux mixture, but does not control either
apple blotch or bitter rot.

Although lime-sulphur is less injurious than Bordeaux
mixture, it has shown some injurious effects, especially to
foliage, and should never be used as a fungicide with a specific
gravity greater than 1.01. Although lime-sulphiu" is a promis-
ing fungicide spray, it cannot be unhesitatingly recommended
until it has been used longer. Bordeaux mixture was used for
a number of years before injury to fruit was observed and it
may be that succeeding seasons will. tend to bring conditions
resulting in greater injury from the use of lime-sulphur than so
far observed.

36. Self-hoiled lime-sulphur has in recent years come
into general use as a fungicide. This material is especially
valuable for spraying peaches and has some value also as a

§ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 27

spray for some other fruit. It is merely a mechanical mixture
of lime and sulphur, only an exceedingly small quantity of the
sulphur being in solution. In making the mixture, no heat
is applied except the heat of the slaking lime. The mixture
is practically harmless to fruit and foliage.

Different quantities of lime and sulphur have been recom-
mended for making this mixture, but in all probability a strength
of 6 pounds of sulphur, 6 pounds of lime, and 50 gallons of water
is most desirable; in case of a very serious infestation of fungus
8 poiuids of sulphur, 8 pounds of lime, and 50 gallons of water
may be used.

This mixture can best be prepared in rather large quantities,
say enough for 200 gallons of the spray. The required quantity
of lime, for example, 24 pounds, is weighed, placed in a barrel,
and enough water to nearly cover it is poured in. The same
quantity of sulphur should have been previously weighed and
sifted, and when the lime begins to slake well the sulphur is
added and the mixture thoroughly stirred; water is added as
fast as possible without reducing the vigor of the slaking.
A hoe will be found convenient for use in stirring the com-
pound. The mixture will at first be a thick paste, but water
should be gradually added until a thin paste is formed. As
soon as slaking ceases, enough water to cool the mixture is
added. This stops all further change and is very important,
since, if it is neglected, chemical combination may continue
until injurious compounds are formed. Cold water should be
used for slaking the lime. When cool the mixture is ready to
be strained into a spray tank and diluted with water to the
required 200 gallons. A mixture of the strength given is
practically harmless to foliage when the directions given are
followed; it is very effective for spraying peaches, because the
down of the peach holds the mixture on the fruit ; it is not so
effective for spraying smooth fruit, since the mixture is rather
coarse and is readily washed off by rain.

28 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

COMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

37. The season when the most common orchard diseases
must be combated is also the season for combating the most
serious summer orchard insect pests, and it is possible to com-
bine insecticides and fungicides and make the one spraying
answer for both purposes. If fungicides and insecticides are
combined they should be known to have no injurious chemical
effect on each other. Experience has proved that Bordeaux
mixture and the most common poisonous insecticides, arsenate
of lead, Paris green, arsenite of soda, and arsenite of lime, may
be combined without making either the fungicide or the poison
more injurious to the foliage or less effective. In combining
arsenite of soda and Bordeaux mixture, it is not necessary to
add the excess of lime that is added when arsenite of soda is
used without Bordeaux mixture, since the Bordeaux contains
excess lime. When lime sulphur is combined with the arsenate
of lead, it has been found by laboratory experiments that both
the lime-sulphur and the arsenate of lead change in compo-
sition rapidly. However, by experience in the orchard it has
been found that this combination spray is less injurious to
foliage than is lime-sulphur alone, although the efficiency of the
arsenate of lead seems to be somewhat reduced. Lime-sulphur
• combined with Paris green has been used as a spray in a few
cases and no injurious results observed, but the combination
has not been used enough to justify positive conclusions.
Experience in the orchard has proved that lime-sulphur com-
bined with arsenite of lime is much more injurious than lime-
sulphur combined with arsenate of lead. In fact, arsenate
of lead is the only poisonous insecticide that can be fully recom-
mended for combination with lime-siilphur.

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

SPRAYING MACHINERY

38. Many forms of spraying outfits, from the small knap-
sack sprayer to be car-
ried on the back of the
operator to the power out-
fit or even the large cen-
tral compressed-air outfit
are on the market . Each
type of sprayer will be
discussed separately; the
accessories, such as hose,
nozzles, etc., will be dis-
cussed under oneheading,
since the description will
apply to accessories for
any form of sprayer. It
may be said that in all
spraying apparatus the
parts with which Bor-
deaux mixture, ammo-
niacal copper carbonate,
or other copper sprays
come in contact should
be lined with brass or
enamel or should be of
wood, since the copper
corrodes iron or other
metals. No part of an
outfit that is to come in
contact with lime-sulphur

Fig. 14

should be made of copper.

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

HAND SPRAYS

39. Bucket Spray Pump. — ^For a few small trees or
bushes, a bucket spray pump, a type of which is shown in
Fig. 14, may be used. This pump has a removable nozzle a
and is made entirely of brass and has a small air chamber b
that helps to equalize the pressure and cause the spray to flow
more steadily. The foot rest c helps to hold the pimip while
it is being operated. A part of the pump is shown removed,

Fig. 15

exposing the lower valve d and the valve e in the plunger.
Both of the valves are made of brass. A strainer shown at /
is placed in the bottom of the pump to prevent the entrance
of particles that would injure the pump or clog the nozzle.

40. Knapsack Sprayer. — The outfit illustrated in Fig. 15
consisting of a brass force pimip surrounded by a copper or
a galvanized-iron tank, is known as a knapsack sprayer,
and may be used for small trees or bushes. The tank holds

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

about 5 gallons and is made to fasten to the back by means of
the straps c. The material of which the tank should be made
depends on the spray solution to be used. If lime-sulphur
is to be used, the tank should be of galvanized iron, as the
solution will very quickly destroy copper. If Bordeaux mixture
is to be used, the tank should be of copper, as the Bordeaux
mixture has a somewhat injurious effect on iron. The tank is
shown in (a) with a portion
broken away to expose the
pump to view. The ptmip
is operated by means of
the handle a, which is
attached to the lever ex-
tending forwards over the
shoulder, as the outfit is
carried on the back. The
pump is operated with one
hand, and the spray rod,
with nozzle, attached to the
hose h is controlled with the
other hand. In (6) is shown
a sectional view of the
pump removed from the
tank. As the plunger d is
raised the liquid is drawn
up into the chamber e
through the strainer /, the
ball valve g being forced
up and allowing the liquid
to pass through. As the
plunger is moved down the valve g closes and the liquid is
forced up through valve k into chamber i. As the pumping
continues and more liquid is forced into chamber i the air in
the chamber is compressed and a steady stream of liquid is
forced by the pressure out through tube / and through the
spray hose, which is attached at k. The nozzle shown attached
to the spray rod at the end of the hose may be removed and
any other form of nozzle desired may be substituted.

Fig. 16

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

41. Compressed- Air Hand Sprayer. — A convenient
fonn of small sprayer is shown in Fig. 16. This is a com-
pressed-air hand sprayer made to be carried by means of
a strap a placed over the shoulder. The sprayer holds about
4 gallons and after being nearly filled with the spray solution
air is pumped in on top by means of the air ptimp h, which
works on the same principles as a bicycle pump. The spray-
ing may then be done by simply opening and closing the shut-
off at the nozzle until the air pressure is exhausted, when more
air must be pumped in.

(«)

Fig. 17

('')

42. Barrel Spray ers.^-Two very satisfactory types of
hand sprayers for use in small orchards are illustrated in
Fig. 17 (a) and ih). These are known as barrel sprayers.
The pump, which should be of good workmanship, is mounted
on a good-sized barrel in which the spray solution is placed.
These barrel sprayers may be mounted on a wagon or sled
as preferred. The type shown in (a) has all of the heavy parts
of the pump in the barrel and is not so easily upset as the type
shown in (6), which has the pump and air chamber on top.

248—7

34 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

43. Double -Action Spray Pump. — Fig. 18 shows a
double-action spray pump to be used with a tank . or large
barrel. This pump has a long leverage and for this reason
is more satisfactory than barrel sprayers of large capacity
when much spraying is to be done. View (a) shows the
entire pump, which has two cyHnders a and b. The spray
solution enters the pump from the barrel or tank through a
hose attached to the inlet c and is discharged through the
spray hose attached to the outlet d; an air chamber e equal-
izes the pressure and causes a steady flow of the liquid.
View (6) is an enlarged view of the pump with part of the out-
side removed to expose to view some of the valves and the
lower part of one of the pistons. As the piston / rises the
piston g descends, the valve h closes, and the valve i opens,
allowing the liquid to flow into the cylinder a. As piston g
rises and piston / descends, valve h opens, allowing the liquid
to flow into cylinder b, and valve i closes, preventing the Hquid
in cylinder a from flowing back through the inlet. A sec-
tional view of cylinder a is shown in (c) . When the piston /
descends the valve i closes, the liquid is forced up through
valve / into the lower part of the chamber e, and when the
piston / rises as shown in the illustration, valve / closes, pre-
venting the liquid from passing back out of chamber e. As
the pumping continues and more liquid is forced into e the
air in the chamber is compressed and causes a steady stream to
flow out through the hose attached at d. Plugs, which should
be removed to allow the liquid to drain out of the pump after
spraying, are shown at k. The packing around the piston that
prevents leakage is shown at /. This may be replaced by remov-
ing the cap m and may be tightened by ttiming the cap down.
Caps that may be removed to give access to the valves are
shown at n.

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

POWER SPRAYERS

44. Traction Sprayer. — The simplest form of power
sprayer is one in which the pump is operated by power trans-
mitted from the wheels of the truck by means of cams, eccen-
trics, chains, or gears. The pump has nearly always a large
compressed-air chamber so that the power may be accu-
mulated for tirnes when the truck is not moving. Traction

sprayers are often used in vineyards and are very satisfactory
for spraying certain truck crops, but they have not proved
entirely satisfactory for orchard work; one of the reasons for
this is that the size of orchard trees varies so much that there
can be no certainty as to whether or not the movement of the
truck will be great enough to generate sufficient power for
spraying during the time the outfit is standing still.

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

In purchasing a machine of this kind, it should be carefully
examined in respect to workmanship, because only a good one
will give satisfactory results.

A traction sprayer is illustrated in Fig. 13.

45. Gas-Power Sprayer. — In one class of sprayers the
power for producing the spray is furnished by . compressed
carbon-dioxide gas, which may be procured from supply houses
in metal drums such as are used in bottling works. The spray

Fig. 20

tank used with one of these outfits must be air-tight to retain
the gas, which enters the spray tank from the long drum
shown in Fig. 19. This outfit can be mounted on a light wagon
and is very easily operated, since all that is necessary to keep
up the pressure in the spray tank a is to turn the valve h -and
let in gas from the dnmi c until the desired pressure is reached,
as shown by the pressure gauge d. The safety valve e allows
the gas to escape and thus prevents bursting of the tank in
case too much is admitted from the drum. The spray solu-

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

tion is forced out through pipe / and into the hose g. The
pipe h may be opened for filHng the tank with the solution.
The gauge glass i indicates the height of the liqtdd in the tank.
The handle / is attached to an agitator in the bottom of the
tank by means of which the liquid is kept stirred. By remov-
ing the cover k the tank may be cleaned.

An advantage of the gas-power sprayer is that it is very
simple in construction, is light, and can be used in places where
it is difficult to use a gasoline-power sprayer. However,
because of the cost of the gas, it is somewhat expensive to oper-
ate. When an outfit of the type shown is used for spraying

Fig. 21

lime-sulphur combined with arsenate of lead, the passage of
the carbon dioxide through the mixture precipitates some of
the lime and also seems to cause a change of the arsenate
compound in the mixture that may produce injurious effects.

46. Gasoline-Power Sprayers. — ^For full-bearing orch-
ards of 15 acres or more, gasoline-power sprayers, two types
of which are shown in Figs. 20 and 21, have generally given
the best satisfaction. As the name would indicate, the power
for these sprayers is furnished by a gasoline engine. The
structure of gasoHne engines cannot be discussed here; how-

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

ever, in buying a gasoline outfit the construction of the engine
should be carefully examined and the purchaser should be
certain that it is durable before buying. Since the engine
must be hauled around, generally, with one team, it is impor-
tant that it be reasonably light, and durability may be sacri-
ficed to lightness to some extent. It should not be assimied,
however, that a heavy engine is always more durable than a
lighter one, since workmanship figures very largely in the
durability of engines.

In spraying with a gasoline engine, probably two of the most
essential though the simplest items of care are to keep all parts.

Fig. 22

especially the cylinder, oiled with good oil, and to keep all the
bolts tight. The small engines generally used with spraying
outfits must run rapidly and if any bolts are loose the engine
is rapidly worn. In case the engine fails to work, the batteries
should first be tested to see whether the spark produced is
sufficient to ignite the gasoline. The gasoline tank should
next be examined to see whether it is empty. Then the spark
plug should be examined, for it often becomes gimimed or
soaked with oil, and instead of a spark being produced, a con-
tinuous current is given that does not ignite the gasoline.
The gasoline used should be perfectly pure, as the presence
of water or dirt in the gasoline gives much trouble. When

§ 2 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE 39

back-flaring — that is, an explosion with a jet of flame from the
carbureter — occurs, there is not a proper mixture of air and
gas, or the spark occurs at the wrong time. An improper
mixture is also indicated by smoking; in this case there is not
enough air.

47. Compressed- Air Sprayer. — A type of compressed-
air sprayer that involves the same principle as that of the
gas-power sprayers is illustrated in Fig. 22. The air com-
pressed in one tank is admitted to another containing the
spray solution, and forces the solution out through the spray
hose. The air is compressed at a central plant, usually with
a large gasoline engine. The great difficulty with this type
of sprayer is insufficient agitation. In some of the com-
pressed-air sprayers, no provision is made for agitation, and
in others the air is admitted to the spray tanks in jet that will
stir the liquid ; and in still others the tank containing the liquid
is above the one that contains the compressed air, so that
before the liquid is sprayed out it must run down from the
liquid tank into the air tank, thus giving considerable agita-
tion if the liquid is sprayed out rapidly. This type of sprayer
has advantages only where large orchards are to be sprayed,
in which case only one engine is necessary to compress the
air to do the spraying rather than several engines, as would
be necessary in case gasoline-power sprayers were used. The
engine for compressing the air can naturally be larger and gen-
erally of a type that will give less trouble than in the case of
the gasoline-power sprayers, and the plant will be large enough
that a man who is something of an expert with gasoline engines
can be employed to run the engine while at the same time he
looks after the mixing of spray solution. However, added to
the difficulty of agitation is another important disadvantage;
that is, with one large gasoline engine compressing air for a
number of sprayers, should the engine get out of order all of
the spraying must stop, while if the work were being done with
separate gasoline-power outfits, an engine out of order would
interfere with the work of but one outfit. In general, com-
pressed-air outfits have not been found satisfactory.

40 ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE § 2

ACCESSORIES FOR SPRAYING OUTFIT

48. Nozzles. — The nozzle is one of the most important
items of a spraying outfit. During the past 15 or 20 years
great change in the adjustment of nozzles has taken place,
and only three types of nozzles most used at the present time
are discussed here. The nozzle probably longest in use of
these three is the Bordeaux nozzle, illustrated in Fig. 23.
The spray in this case is formed by a straight stream striking a
lip. The fineness of the spray is governed by the width of the
aperture. If the hole is entirely open, a straight stream will
be thrown and a mist will be formed, varying in fineness with
the degree to which the hole is closed. At best, this nozzle
can give only a rather coarse mist, and it, therefore, was being

Fig. 23 Fig. 24

discarded until the fact was discovered that it is important to
have a coarse spray for the first spraying for the codling moth
of the apple, and the Bordeaux nozzle seems to fill the purpose
best. In using this nozzle with power sprayers, it is well to
have two connected with a Y similar to that shown in Fig. 24,
so that a large quantity of spray can be thrown at one time.
Another of the three important nozzles is the Vermorel,
which is shown in Fig. 25, (a) being a perspective view and (b) a
sectional view. The liquid enters the nozzle through the tube a
into an eddy chamber where a whirling motion is given to the
stream by the spiral deflector b, and passes out through the
opening c in the center of the cap. This nozzle is rather trouble-
some about clogging, but it is provided, with a needle d for

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

pushing out the obstruction. The needle is held back when
not in use by a spring. A disadvantage of the needle is that

(a)

(h)

Fig. 25

the spring catches on limbs and twigs and gives some trouble.
The third of the important nozzles is what may be called a
disk nozzle. It has no needle for removing obstructions, as
the opening in the cap is large enough that there will be no
obstruction if the spray is properly made. A nozzle of this type
is illustrated in Fig. 26 (a). The spray liquid is forced to pass
through two holes in a brass plate shown separately in view (6) ;
these holes slant in opposite directions and give the liquid a
whilring motion. A sectional view of the nozzle is shown in (c).

In this view h is the brass plate shown in (6) ; above this is a
leather washer c which separates the plate h from a thin metal

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

disk d and forms a chamber. The Hquid enters this chamber
with a whirHng motion and is forced out through the small
opening a shown in view (a) . The parts are held in place by a

Fig. 27

Fig. 28

brass cap e. Practically all power sprayers are provided with
a nozzle of this class. Usually one of these nozzles to each line
of hose will be sufficient, but two may be used to advantage
by a person who has had considerable experience in spraying.
When two are used they are connected with either a U or a Y,
so as to have the least possible projection for catching on limbs.
Nozzles should practically always be attached to the rod so
that a line projected from the hole in the center makes an
angle of about 45 degrees with the rod. This can be secured
by such a nozzle as is shown in Fig. 27 or by a bent tube called
an elbow at the end of the rod, as shown at a, Fig. 28.

49. Extension Rod. — The rod for spraying shotdd gener-
ally be from 8 to 10 feet long. Rods are made much longer
than this, but the very long ones are difficult to manage, especi-
ally when the liquid is sprayed out under high pressure. These
rods may be made of ordinary |-inch gas pipe as illustrated in

Fig. 29 (a), or they may be made of brass strengthened ' by
bamboo, as illustrated in (h). The brass-bamboo rods are
more commonly used than the others on account of beins:

§2

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

lighter, and as they are larger in diameter they fit the hand
better. . A rod of this kind should always have a ferrule pro-
jecting over the bamboo at the lower end to unite the frail

Fig. 30

Fig. 31

brass rod with the stronger bamboo and thus put the weight
of the rod on the bamboo instead of on the brass. Rods made
without this ferrule wiU not generally last very long.

50. Cut-Off . — At the lower end of the spray rod should
be placed a cut-ofiE that can be operated by a quarter turn.
A cut-off of this kind is much more economical in saving the
spray mixture than one that must be turned completely around
to open or close. A good type of cut-ofiE is shown in Fig. 30.

5 1 . Hose . — The hose to which the extension rod is attached
and through which the spray is pumped, should be first-class
five-ply hose or stronger, and there is no advantage in having
it large and heavy, since the small amount of friction developed
by the passing of the liquid through a small hose will hardly
be noticed in the working of the outfit.

Fig. 32

52. Hose Clamp. — ^Fig. 31 shows a hose clamp, a supply
of which, together with some pliable wire, should be kept on
hand for mending hose.

ESSENTIALS OF FRUIT CULTURE

§2

53. Agitators. — All insoluble spraying mixtures should
be thoroughly agitated. There are various types of agitators,
for both barrel and tank sprayers. The most common types
of barrel agitators are shown at a, Fig. 17 (a) and {h). The
most satisfactory agitator for the power sprayer is the propeller
agitator, shown at a, Fig. 32. This runs with a uniform strain
on the engine and gives thorough agitation from the bottom,
where agitation is most beneficial. The swinging agitator

Fig. 33

shown in Fig. 33 is also used with success in many power spray-
ers and is the type used with hand-power tank sprayers.

54. Tower. — In spraying large trees, a tower from 5 to
7 feet high should always be attached to the top of the spray
tank or to the wagon, so that the sprayer can stand on this
and direct the spray downwards into the tree. Such a tower
is shown in Fig. 34.

VARIETIES OF APPLES

TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING VARIETIES

1. Terms Applying to Tree. — In describing any variety
of apple it is necessary to tell something about the kind of tree
on which the fruit is produced. The trees of different varieties
vary considerably in size, vigor, form, type of twig produced,
and habit of bearing, but those of any particular variety are
very uniform in these respects.

In size, the trees of a variety may be habitually large, like
those of the Northern Spy, or small, like those of the Olden-
burg. They may be characteristically vigorous or they may
tend to be weak. In form, the trees of a variety may be
habitually spreading or habitually upright; the trees of a num-
ber of varieties tend to be upright, however, until loads of fruit
cause them to be spreading; on the other hand, the trees of
some varieties have the upright habit so strongly fixed that
even after many years of bearing they still remain upright.
In the case of some varieties the twigs are exceedingly slender,
and in the case of other varieties they are strong and stocky;
between these conditions there are many gradations. The
trees of some varieties are uniformly heavy bearers; those of
other varieties tend to bear heavily on alternate years; and
those of still other varieties are light bearers. The location
has considerable influence on the bearing habit of a variety,
and in the descriptions that follow the trees of each variety
will be discussed with reference to the section to which that
variety is best adapted.

2. Terms Applying to Fruit. — Among the terms used
in describing the fruit of a variety are: size; form; color of

§3

VARIETIES OF APPLES

Q O

skin; color, texture, flavor, and quality of the flesh; form of
the cavity; and form of the basin.

Size in fruit is expressed in terms of very large, large, above
medium, medium, below medium, small, and very small.
These terms are, of course, relative; consequently, they are

Fig. 1

incapable of being defined. The Wolf River is an example of
a very large apple. The Baldwin and the Jonathan are exam-
ples of medivmi-sized apples.

In describing the foiTn of an apple, the terms round, oblate,
conical, ovate, oblong, truncate, and oblique are used in refer-
ence to the appearance when the apple is held with the ver-
tical axis perpendicular to the line of sight. A round apple
is one that appears roundish, as shown at a. Fig. 1. An oblate

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 3

apple is one that is slightly flattened, as shown at 6. A con-
ical apple is one that narrows considerably toward the blos-
som end, as shown at c; if the apple is round, as shown in the
illustration, it may be designated as round conic to distinguish
it from other forms of conical apples. An ovate apple is one
that is egg-shaped — that is, one contracted toward both the
stem and the blossom ends, as shown at d. An oblong apple
is one in which the length from the stem end to the blossom
end is greater than the transverse diameter. At e is shown an
oblong apple that is conic toward the blossom end ; this form
is known as oblong conic. A truncate apple is one that
is abruptly flattened at the end, as shown at /. An oblique
apple is one in which the vertical axis slants obliquely, as
shown at g.

The terms regular and irregular are used to describe the form
when the apple is viewed at right angles to the transverse diame-
ter. If the form is nearly circular the apple is said to be regular ;
if it is elliptical or angular, the apple is said to be irregular.

The color of the apples of a particular variety will vary with
the conditions under which the fruit was grown. However,
the fruit of a given variety usually has certain characteristics
of color that distinguish the variety from others. In descri-
bing the color of an apple, distinction is usually made between
what is known as the under color and the over color. The
under color of an apple is the ground, or basic, color; it is often
a yellow or pale green. The over color is the color that, in
some varieties, is spread over the under color in the form of
blushes, stripes, or splashes; it is usually some shade of red.
The term blush is used to indicate that the surface is overspread
with a reddish tint that is not much broken. The color of
apples is also affected by dots found on the skin. These dots
may be prominent or submerged, that is, they may stand out,
conspicuously or they may be barely perceptible ; in color they
may be white, gray, or russet. If the dots are star shaped
they are said to be stellate; if they shade from one color in the
center to another on the outside they are known as areolar.

The color of the flesh is another distinguishing variety char-
acter. The flesh may be white, as in the Mcintosh and the

248— S

VARIETIES OF APPLES

§3

Fanieuse; it may be tinged with yellow, as in the Jonathan and
the Baldwin; or it may be greenish white, as in the Rambo. In
a few varieties the flesh is streaked with red, as in the Wealthy.

Fig. 2

The texture of the flesh of apples varies considerably, being
fine grained or coarse grained, and firm or soft. In addition,
the flesh may be juicy, as in the Jonathan, or it may lack in
juiciness, as in the Ben Davis.

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 5

In flavor, the flesh of apples may be acid, as in the case of
the Red Astrachan; subacid, as in the case of the Jonathan;
or sweet, which means that the acid is almost entirely wanting.

In describing the quality of the flesh, the terms poor, fair,
good, very good, excellent, and best are employed. As used
by horticulturists, however, these terms designate qualities
higher than would generally be understood by the layman.
For example, an apple described as good is one of only medium
quality.

The cavity, that is, the depression around the stem, differs
somewhat in different varieties of apples. If the angle formed
is wide, as shown at a. Fig. 2, the cavity is said to be obtuse;
if the angle is sharp, as shown at b, the cavity is said to be
acuminate; if the angle is intermediate, as shown at c, the
cavity is said to be acute. The terms wide, medium, and
narrow, referring to the spread, or width, of the cavity, and
deep, medium, and shallow, referring to the depth, also are
used. At d is shown a wide cavity; at e, a medium wide
cavity; at /, a narrow cavity; at g, a deep cavity; at /i, a
medium deep cavity; and at i a shallow cavity.

The form of the basin, or the depression at the blossom end
of an apple, is also a variety character. The basin may be
shallow, medium deep, or deep; it may be narrow, medium
wide, or wide. The basin whose sides show a sudden slope,
as illustrated at /, Fig. 2, is termed abrupt; if the sides slope
gradually, as shown at k, the basin is said to be obtuse.

VARIETIES OF APPLES

DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES

3. A great many varieties of apples are offered to the fruit
growers of the country by nurserymen. To describe all of
these would be neither possible nor advisable for the present
purpose. The varieties described in the following pages are
important ones that every orchardist should know. The
specimens from which the illustrations were made were col-
lected from different regions and although each is fairly char-
acteristic of the variety to which it belongs, it should be remem-
bered that the same variety when grown in different sections
may assume somewhat different characters. In other words,
varieties of apples are susceptible to change of environment.

SUMMER VARIETIES

4. Yellow Transparent. — The Yellow Transparent is a
variety of Russian origin that was introduced into this country
in 1870. It is now grown commercially in many sections and
is a good variety for home orchards. The tree is rather a slow
grower and in some parts of the West suffers considerably
from twig blight, a disease described in another Section.
The tree bears at an early age; often 2- or 3-year-old trees
will set considerable fruit. The fruit, when mature, is above
medium in size and of a beautiful, clear, yellowish-white color.
The flesh is white, juicy, and of a pleasant flavor. The skin
is somewhat tender and for this reason the fruit must be picked
almost every day during the ripening season in order to reach
the market in good condition. In New York the apples begin
to ripen in July and continue to be in season until the last of
August or early in September.

5. Red June. — The Red June variety has been in cultiva-
tion for a long time and is widely distributed. The tree is

§3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 7

fairly vigorous, upright, and rather dense. It is productive,
but does not come into bearing at an early age. The fruit is
small to medium in size; when it is well colored almost the
entire surface is a deep red. The flesh is tender and juicy,
and the quality is good to very good. This apple, like the
Yellow Transparent, is somewhat tender in skin and must
be handled carefully. In Virginia it ripens in late June or
early July; in New York the season is from late July to early
winter.

6. Early Harvest. — The Early Harvest is one of the
oldest and most widely disseminated varieties of summer apples
in America. The tree is vigorous and healthy, and comes into
bearing rather young. The fruit is medium in size, pale yellow
in color, pleasant in flavor, and of very good quality. The
fruit has the fault of being irregular in size and shape and there
are many poor, knotty specimens, so that in general the variety
is hardly to be recommended for commercial planting, although
it is desirable for a home orchard. In Virginia the Early Har-
vest apple ripens about the last of June; in New York the season
isfrom late July to August.

7. Red Astrachan. — The Red Astrachan is a widely
known summer variety. The tree is of medium size and fairly
vigorous, although in some sections it is not very productive.
The fruit is mediimi to large in size; the under color is greenish
or greenish yellow, and the over color, which nearly covers the
apple, is deep crimson, either shaded or in splashes. The fruit
is a little too sour for dessert purposes, but is excellent for
cooking. The apples mature unevenly and several pickings
are necessary. In addition, they are very perishable and con-
sequently not well suited for long-distance shipment; the fruit is
generally sold locally. In Virginia the Red Astrachan ripens
early in July; in New York the season is from late July to
September.

8. Oldenburg. — The Oldenburg, or Duchess of Oldenburg,
is a Russian variety that is adapted to a cool climate. It is
widely disseminated and is considered to be one of the most

8 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

important of summer apples. The tree is a rather slow-
grower and medium in size, but comes into bearing young,
and bears well in most localities. The fruit is medium to large
in size and roundish to oblate in form. The under color,
which is yellowish, is almost completely covered with irregular
splashes and stripes of red shaded with crimson. The fruit
is rather too acid for dessert use, but is especially good for
cooking purposes. The Oldenburg is a valuable commercial
apple, as it stands shipment fairly well and is generally in
demand on the market. In Virginia the fruit ripens about the
last of July; in New York the season is from late August to
September.

9. Beiioni. — The Benoni is an old Massachusetts variety
of apple. The tree is a mediimi grower but comes into bearing
rather young and bears fairly well. When the tree begins to
get old it has a tendency to bear crops in alternate years rather
than each year. This fault can be corrected, however, by good
cultivation and heavy pruning. The fruit is excellent in qual-
ity but as commonly grown is rather too small to be of general
market value. With heavy pruning and good care, however,
the Benoni is a valuable market apple. The color is yellowish,
oversplashed with red and striped with crimson. Although
the ripening season of the fruit is rather long, the entire crop
can, as a rule, be harvested in two pickings. The young fruit
is resistant to severe cold and for this reason the variety bears
in some sections where most others are killed by frost. The
Benoni seems especially well adapted to the Ozark section of
Missouri. In New York the fruit begins to ripen about the
first of August and the season extends into September.

10. Maiden Blusli. — The Maiden Blush is one of the
best known summer apples. The tree is vigorous and hardy
and comes into bearing rather early. The fruit is above medium
in size; the color is a pale yellow with a crimson blush on one
side; and the quality is fairly good. The apple is suitable for
both dessert and cooking purposes and is a standard market
variety. The Maiden Blush is desirable for either commer-
cial or home orchards. In Virginia the fruit ripens late in

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 9

July or early in August; in New York the season is from July
to September.

11. Gravenstein. — The Gravenstein is a summer variety
that is fairly well known in most sections. The tree is a strong,
vigorous, spreading grower, and under proper culture it pro-
duces crops nearly every year. However, under ordinary
culture it has a tendency to produce only in alternate years.
The fruit is mediimi to large; the form is roundish oblate; and
the color is yellowish, striped and splashed with red; the flesh
is yellowish and firm and the quality is very good. In Vir-
ginia the Gravenstein ripens in early August; in New Jersey
the fruit may be allowed to remain on the trees until Septem-
ber; in New York the season is from late September to early
November.

FALL AND WINTER VARIETIES

12. Fall Pippin. — The Fall Pippin is a desirable fall apple
that is grown commercially in some parts of the East. The
trees attain a large size, are moderately vigorous, are strong
growers, and live for many years. The fruit is large, and when
ripe is of an attractive yellow color. The flesh is tender and
good in quality, being prized for both dessert and culinary
purposes. The crop ripens unevenly, the first apples often
being ready in September and the last not until a few weeks
later. The fruit and foliage are very susceptible to apple
scab, and for this reason good orchard treatment is necessary
when the variety is grown. Coming as they do in the fall
before winter apples, and being of good quality, the apples are
generally in demand on the market. The variety is very
desirable for home orchards as well as for commercial orchards.
The fruit ripens very unevenly; it can be kept in ordinary
storage until December, and in cold storage until January or
February.

13. Sops of Wine. — The Sops of Wine variety is grown
to some extent in home orchards. The tree is medium in size
and rather vigorous. The fruit is medium to large in size

10 VARIETIES OF APPLES §3

and of roundish form. The skin, which is slightly rough-
ened, is a greenish yellow in color, almost entirely overspread
with purplish red, mottled, irregularly splashed, and some-
times indistinctly striped with dark carmine; the skin is over-
spread with thin white bloom. The flesh is yellowish, often
stained with pink; in flavor it is aromatic, juicy, and of good
quality. The season of the Sops of Wine apple is from August
to October.

14. Alexander. — The Alexander is a fall, or in some sec-
tions a late summer, variety that is grown commercially in
many apple-growing regions. The tree is a strong grower and
comes into bearing at an early age. The fruit is round conic
or oblate conic, very large in size, but coarse in texture and only
fair in quality; it is better suited for cooking than for dessert
purposes. However, the apples are very attractive in appear-
ance, being greenish yellow or pale orange and overlaid with
stripes and splashes of bright red. The fruit usually brings
a good price on the market. In Virginia the season begins
early in July; in. New York it continues until September or
November.

15. Wolf River. — The Wolf River apple is similar in
many respects to the Alexander ; in fact, it is supposed by some
authorities to be a seedling of the latter. The tree is fairly
vigorous, attains large size, is spreading in habit, and comes
into bearing rather late. The fruit is large, broad, fiat at the
base, round, and slightly conic. In color, the fruit is yellow-
ish or greenish, mottled and blushed with deep red, and splashed
and striped with bright carmine; the surface is covered with
ntunerous large to medium-sized areolar pale or russet dots.
The basin is usually deep, narrow, abrupt, and rather smooth.
The cavity is acuminate, fairly deep and wide, and heavily
russeted. Fig. 3 shows a Wolf River apple that was grown
in Northwestern Pennsylvania. The flesh is yellowish, some-
what coarse, juicy, but only fair to good in quality. Largely
on account of the high color and large size, the apples are in
demand on the market. As a commercial variety of late sum-
mer apple, especially in the Western fruit-growing regions.

Fig. 3

12 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

the Wolf River is more widely grown than the Alexander.
Recently, numerous commercial orchards of the variety have
been planted in the East. In New York and Pennsylvania
the Wolf River ripens in September, but the apples may be
kept until December in cellar storage or until January in cold
storage.

16. Wealthy. — The Wealthy is an important fall apple
that is extensively grown in the Central States and to some
extent in the Eastern States. The tree is hardy and a thrifty
grower when young, but with maturity it becomes a rather
slow grower. The fruit is from medium to large in size, roundish
oblate, fairly uniform in shape, and of very good quality. The
under color is yellow or greenish, heavily overlaid with stripes
of red and marked with numerous small inconspicuous pale or
russet dots. The flesh is white, sometimes tinged with red.
The quality is very good and the fruit is desirable both for
dessert and for cooking. In New York the fruit begins to
ripen about the last of September or the first of October; it
can be kept in ordinary storage until about November 1, and
in cold storage until the middle of January or later. As a
commercial variety the Wealthy has proved profitable in many
sections.

17. Twenty Ounce. — The Twenty Ounce variety, known
also as the Cayuga Redstreak, the Wine Apple, and the Lim-
ber twig, seems to do particularly well in favorable locations in
the apple-growing belt south of Lake Ontario. It is highly
esteemed for home-orchard planting. The tree is upright,
moderately vigorous, and dense. The fruit is very large, and
is usually roundish or roundish conic in form, sometimes broadly
ribbed. The skin is thick and tough; in color it is greenish
at first, but gradually becomes rather yellow, washed, mottled,
and splashed with bright red, and striped with carmine. The
flesh is whitish, somewhat tinged with yellow, coarse, moder-
ately tender and juicy. The fruit is good for culinary use but
only second rate for dessert. The season is from late September
to early winter.

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 13

18. Fameuse. — The Fameuse, an old variety, is decidedly
a northern apple, being one of the most important com-
mercial varieties in the Champlain district in New York and
in Southern Canada ; it is extensively grown also in Wisconsin
and Minnesota. The tree is of mediiim size and is a moderate
grower, fairly healthy, and long lived; however, trees of this
variety are, unless well sprayed, likely to be seriously injured
by apple scab. The fruit is beautiful in appearance and excel-
lent in flavor; it is very desirable for dessert purposes and
usually sells at prices above the average for apples, being in
strong demand for the Christmas trade. The fruit is about
mediiun in size; in form it is roundish and somewhat conic.
The skin is of a light bright-red color that deepens to purplish
black in the best colored specimens, with a striped appearance
toward the apex. The flesh is white and often streaked or
tinged with red. The quality is very good. In New York
the season of the Fameuse is from October to midwinter.

19. Mcintosh. — The Mcintosh apple is similar to the
Fameuse but is adapted to a wider range of climatic conditions.
The tree varies in growth and productivity according to the
region where it is grown; in some localities it is considered
to be a slow grower and not very productive ; in other localities
it is considered to be a strong grower and to be hardy and
productive. It comes into bearing fairly early and, as a rule,
yields good crops. The fruit is medium to large in size ; roundish
to oblate in form ; and whitish yellow or greenish in color, deeply
blushed with bright red and striped with carmine; ripe, highly
colored specimens become a dark, purplish red. The flesh is
white or slightly yellowish and, like that of the Fameuse is
often tinged with red. The quality is very good and the fruit
is highly prized for dessert purposes. In New York the
Mcintosh ripens during the last of September and can be kept
until about the last of October in ordinary storage, or until
about January in cold storage. The Mcintosh lacks sufflcient
firmness to stand much handling, and consequently is more
often sold locally than otherwise. However, in the Bitter Root
Valley of Montana, and other high sections of the West, the

14 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

variety is grown rather extensively and the fruit is shipped long
distances to market.

20. Hubbardston. — The Hubbardston is a desirable apple
that ripens between the fall and late winter apples. It is
grown commercially in parts of New York and Northern
Pennsylvania, and in most cases has proved to be a profitable
variety. The tree is vigorous and generally of good size, but
tends to overbear; unless it is carefully pruned and otherwise
cared for, however, it is likely to be only moderately vigorous
and of medi-um size. The tree is susceptible to apple canker,
and for this reason it is well to top work the variety on some
such variety as the Northern Spy. The fruit is medium to
large in size and generally roundish ovate in form. The skin
is either smooth or roughened with dots, flecks, or veins of
russet. The color is yellowish or greenish, blushed and mottled
with red that varies from a dull brownish red to a bright, clear
red. Large, regular dots are conspicuous on the surface, espe-
cially on the red portions of the fruit. The prevailing effect
of a well-colored specimen is red mingled with yellow or green.
In Fig. 4 a well-colored Hubbardston apple is shown at the top
of the page; this apple was grown in Northern Pennsylvania.
The flesh of the Hubbardston is whitish, slightly tinged with
yellow, and the quality is very good to best. The season is
from October to January.

21. Puxnpkin Sweet. — The Pumpkin Sweet, often known
as the Pound Sweet, is an early-winter variety that is well
known in New England, New York, and Northern Pennsylvania.
By many it is esteemed- as one of the best sweet apples for
baking, but generally it is not valued for dessert because it is
rather coarse and has a peculiar flavor. The fruit is sold in local
and special markets and has a limited demand in the general
market. The tree is medium in size, is rather vigorous, and
tends to be upright in habit. The fruit is large to very large;
the form is globular to roundish conic; and the skin is rather
thin, tough, and smooth. In color the skin is green, eventually
becoming clear yellow, marbled with greenish yellow stripes of
white scarf skin radiating from the cavity. In Fig. 4 the apple

Fig. 4

§3 24909

Fig. 5

§3 24909

§ 3 VARIETIES OE APPLES 15

at the bottom of the page is a Pumpkin Sweet that was grown in
Western New York. The flesh of the Pumpkin Sweet is tinged
with yellow, and is firm and mediiun in texture; the quality is
good. The season of this variety extends from October to
January. The Pumpkin Sweet is grown commercially only
to a limited extent, but is often found in home orchards.

22. Northern Spy.- — The Northern Spy, more commonly
known perhaps as the Spy, is a widely known winter variety
of apple that is grown commercially and in home orchards in
about the same localities that produce Baldwins and Rhode
Island Greenings. The tree is large, vigorous, and upright,
but is a slow grower and comes into bearing rather late. When
mature, however, the trees are good yielders. The fruit is
usually large to very large in size and generally roundish conic
in form. The under color, in the case of well-matured speci-
mens, is a clear pale yellow, which is nearly concealed by a
pinkish red splashed with carmine. The prevailing color effect
is red or reddish striped. In underripe apples the yellow color
may predominate, but such fruit is often of inferior quality.
In Fig. 5 a Spy is shown at the top of the page; this apple was
grown in Pennsylvania.

Among the disadvantages of the Spy for commercial planting
are its slow maturity and the fact that in some seasons it is not
a reliable cropper. To offset these disadvantages, however, are
the facts that the Spy is well and favorably known on the
market and can generally be depended on to bring a good price.
The season is somewhat shorter than that of the Baldwin or
Greening, as the fruit, particularly if bruised, is susceptible to
rotting in storage. Usually in ordinary storage the apples
cannot be kept much later than February or March, and in cold
storage they are likely to deteriorate if left longer than March.

23. Tompkins King. — The Tompkins King, or King, one
of the highest quality apples produced, is grown in about the
same region as the Baldwin, the Northern Spy, and the Greening.
The tree is rather vigorous but is seriously subject to injury
from sun scald, canker, and an injur}^ that occurs to the trunk
near the surface of the ground, which is generally spoken of as

16 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

collar rot. The lateral branches are rather slender and some-
what drooping. The fruit is large to very large and in form is
romidish to somewhat oblate, sometimes inclined to conic.
The skin is smooth or in some cases is roughened with russet
dots. The color is yellow, mottled and washed with orange
red that often shades to deep red and striped and splashed with
bright carmine. Numerous white or russet dots are con-
spicuous on the surface. The prevailing color is an attractive
red with a small amount of yellow. In Fig. 5 the lower apple
is a Pennsylvania-grown King of excellent color. The flesh
of the King is a rich yellow in color, tender, aromatic, and
juicy; in quality it is very good to best. The King does not
keep well in late storage; in ordinary storage its limit is Decem-
ber or January ; in cold storage, about February. It is probably
at its best about Christmas.

The King is much in demand on most markets, and sells for
good prices. It is very attractive in appearance, and being of
excellent quality, is well adapted for fancy trade. However,
the fact that the trees are so subject to disease makes the
planting of the variety commerically a questionable practice.
Some orchardists have found that by top working the King
on some variety that is less susceptible to collar rot better
results can be obtained than by growing the trees on their
own stocks.

24. Yellow Bellf lower. — The Yellow Bellflower is one of
the oldest of American varieties. The tree is large in size,
vigorous, a good grower, and fairly hardy, but often does not
produce satisfactory crops. The fruit is variable in size and
roundish oblong in form. The skin is thin and smooth. In
color, the fruit is a pale lemon yellow, often becoming brownish
yellow where exposed to the sun. The apples are very attract-
ive and are excellent both for dessert and for cooking purposes.
The flesh is white, tending slightly toward yellowish; the
quality is good. By some the flesh is thought to be somewhat
too acid early in the season. The season for this variety is
about the same as that of Tompkins King, the cold-storage
limit being about January. The YeUow Bellflower is grown

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 17

extensively in home orchards, but on account of the tendency
of the trees to bear poorly it is not grown on a very large
scale in commercial orchards.

25. Ortley. — The Ortley is a pale-yellow apple of the
Yellow BeUflower type that has long been under cultivation.
The tree is moderately vigorous, medium in size, and roundish
or spreading in form. The fruit is large or medium in size and
oblong conic varying to roundish conic in shape. The skin
is moderately thin, smooth, waxy, and of a pale whitish-yellow
color, varying to rich yellow in well-developed fruit. The
flesh is whitish tinged with yellow, crisp, juicy, and of good
flavor. The season of the fruit is from October to February.
The Ortley is severely subject to attacks of various insects and
of the scab fungus, and requires thorough treatment to protect
it from these troubles.

26. Jacobs Sweet. — The Jacobs Sweet variety has about
the same season and is grown in about the same localities as
the Tompkins King. As a home-orchard variety it has con-
siderable merit, but for commercial planting it is not particu-
larly desirable. The tree is vigorous, attains good size, comes
into bearing young, and, as a rule, yields crops annually.
The fruit is large to very large and is of roundish form inclined
to conic, sometimes slightly oblate. The skin is tough, slightly
waxy, and glossy, and in color is clear yellow or greenish, often
with a blush of red. Fig. 6 shows a Jacobs Sweet apple that was
grown in Northern Pennsylvania. The flesh is whitish, tinged
with yellow, juicy, and very sweet. The quality is good, the
apples being especially desirable for baking. In New York
the season is from October to March or April.

27. Blue Pearraain. — The Blue Pearmain is an old variety
that was at one time extensively planted in home orchards in
the East. It is rarely grown in commerical orchards. The
tree is rather large, spreading, and moderately vigorous. The
fruit is above mediimi to large in size; it is roundish inclined
to oblate in form. The skin, which is rough, is yellow, washed
and mottled with red, often deepening on one side to nearly
solid red, splashed and striped with deep purplish carmine,

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

§ 3 24909

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 19

and overspread with an abundant blue bloom, from which the
variety derives its name. The flesh is yellowish, rather coarse,
decidedly aromatic, and of good quality. The season of the
Blue Pearmain is from about October to March; often, however,
the apples begin to shrivel if kept longer than January.

28. Banana. — The Banana, or Winter Banana, variety is
grown commercially in some sections of the Northwest. It
does fairly well also in parts of the eastern and central apple-
growing regions. The tree is medirmi in size, vigorous, and a
fair grower; it comes into bearing early and yields moderate
crops, being, in most cases, an annual bearer. The fruit is
medium to large in size, and roundish conic to oblong conic
in form, often oblate and flat at the base. The skin is smooth,

■ fairly thick, tough, and waxy. In color, the apples are a
bright pale yellow with a dark pinkish blush. In Fig. 7 a
Banana apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple was
grown in Pennsylvania. The apples, being yellow, show bruises
readily. The flesh is whitish, tinged with yellow, moderately
firm, tender, and juicy; the quality is good to very good. The
apples are better for dessert than for cooking, being too mild
in flavor for the latter purpose. They command a good price
on the market, being of an attractive appearance and of good
dessert quality. They will keep in cold storage until about
March, but as they show bruises readily it is generally desirable
to market them earlier in the season.

29. Baldwin. — The Baldwin is by far the most important
commercial winter apple grown in America. It is grown exten-
sively in New York, Pennsylvania, New England, parts of
Northern Ohio, Southern Canada, Michigan, and in some of
the high mountain sections of Virginia and West Virginia.
The Baldwin is a standard fruit in both American and foreign
markets, and is one of the principal varieties handled in cold
storage.

In sections where the Baldwin is especially adapted, the tree
is a strong grower, long lived, and vigorous. However, the
tree is somewhat slow in coming into bearing, but when it
reaches maturity it bears very abundantly. As generally

248—9

20 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

grown, the tree bears biennially rather than annually. The
fruit, if grown properly, is usually above medium in size, and is
rather uniform; in form it is roundish, inclined to conic, or
sometimes roundish oblong. The cavity is acute and medium
to rather deep; the calyx is small to rather large; the basin is
abrupt, and varies in different specimens from narrow to
moderate in width. The skin is tough and smooth; the color
is a light yellow or green, blushed and mottled with bright
red and striped rather indistinctly with carmine. The prevail-
ing color effect is red, as may be seen in Fig. 7, which shows a
Pennsylvania-grown Baldwin apple at the bottom of the page.
Whitish or grayish dots are conspicuous, as a rule, being some-
what numerous and smaller toward the basin than toward the
cavity. The flesh is yellowish in color, moderately coarse in
texture, and the quality is good to very good; the fruit is
suitable for both dessert and cooking purposes. In New York
the season extends from November to March in ordinary
storage, or to May or June in cold storage.

Among the advantages of the Baldwin as a commerical apple
are its good quality, its red color, its good shipping qualities,
its good keeping qualities in cold storage, and the fact that it
is well known by consinners. These qualities make it in demand
on the market. A disadvantage of the variety is that it is
likely to be troubled with Baldwin spot, a disease that manifests
itself in small brown flecks in the flesh of the fruit. This
disease is a physiological one and no remedy is known. Other
disadvantages of the Baldwin are that it tends to be a biennial
bearer and that unless it has proper culture the apples are likely
to be small in size.

30. Smokehouse. — The Smokehouse is an early- winter
variety that is grown rather extensively in Southern Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey. The tree is
vigorous, healthy, and hardy; it comes into bearing rather young,
and is a good yielder, usually producing crops annually. The
trees are likely to form dense heads, and for this reason should
be kept well pruned to insure highly colored fruit. The fruit
is from medium to large in size and generally roundish oblate

-m^

Pig. 8

Fig. 9

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 23

in form; sometimes, however, it approaches oblate conic.
The skin is thin and tough, and is either smooth or shghtly
roughened with russet hnes and russet dots. The color is
yellow or greenish, mottled with rather dtdl red, sometimes
deepening to solid bright red, indistinctly mottled, striped, and
splashed with carmine. Fig. 8 shows a Smokehouse apple
that was grown in Maryland. The flesh is lightly tinged with
yellow, and is rather firm, crisp, and juicy; the quality is good.
The Smokehouse is especially prized for dessert. Its season
is from October to February in storage.

31. Black Gilllf lower. — The Black Gilliflower apple is
well known in the markets of America. The tree is mediiun
in size, a vigorous grower, and generally a reliable cropper.
The fruit is medium in size, and very characteristic in form,
being long ovate to oblong conic. The skin is thick, tough,
and smooth. The color is yellowish or greenish, generally
covered with red, which, in highly colored specimens, becomes
a dull purple. Fig. 9 shows a Black Gilliflower apple. The
flesh is whitish or yellowish and becomes mellow on standing.
The Black Gilliflower seems to be in considerable demand in
southern markets. It is grown commercially to some extent,
largely on account of being a v/ell-known variety that will
bring fair prices on the market. The season is frorn October
to January or February.

32. Missouri. — The Missouri, or Missouri Pippin, is a
well-known market apple of the Middle West, especially of Mis-
souri, Kansas, and Illinois. The tree is moderately vigorous,
irregular in outline, and rather short lived; in the Mississippi
Valley the trees usually do not live to be more than 20 years
old. The trees come into bearing young, however, and for
this reason they are much used for fillers in commercial orchards.
The fruit is medium to small in size, and roundish inclined to
conic in form. The skin is thick, tough, smooth, glossy, and
thinly coated with a grayish bloom. The color is a pale green
overspread with bright red and striped with purplish red.
Highly colored specimens are almost solid red, except for
conspicuous russet or pale-gray dots. A Missouri apple is

Fig. 10

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 27

illustrated in Fig. 10. The flesh is yellowish or greenish, firm,
medium to rather fine grained, rather tough, and not very
juicy. The quality is fair to good. The season in common
storage extends to January, and in cold storage to about April.

33. Rambo. — The Rambo is a northern apple that has
been under cultivation in America for a long time. Its origin
is unknown. The tree is of medium size, moderately vigor-
ous, and susceptible to winter killing. The wood is brittle
and for this reason the branches are easily broken. The fruit
is medi-um in size and roundish or somewhat oblate in form.
The skin is thin and rather tough; in color it is a pale greenish
yellow, mottled with red and striped with carmine. The pre-
vailing color is a red with contrasting yellow. Fig. 11 shows
a Rambo that was grown in Southern New York. The flesh
is white, tinged with yellow or green; it is juicy, rather fine
grained, and of good to very good quality, particularly for
dessert. The variety is recommended for home-orchard plant-
ing, but it is not especially desirable for commercial orchards.
Niunerous small Rambo orchards are found in New York,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, and some of the Central States. In
ordinary storage the apples keep imtil November, and in cold
storage until February.

34. Ribston. — The Ribston is an apple that is in season
about with Hubbardston and Tompkins King. It is an old
variety, having originated over 200 years ago in Yorkshire,
England. It is grown commercially in Nova Scotia and Onta-
rio, and much of the fruit is exported to England. , The tree
is medium in size, hardy, vigorous, healthy, comes into bear-
ing young, and is usually an annual bearer. The fruit is
medium in size and is roundish in form, often somewhat flat-
tened at the base. The skin is either smooth or slightly rough-
ened with russet ; in color it is a deep yellow or greenish yellow,
overspread with a dull red. Fig. 12 shows a Ribston apple
that was grown in Nova Scotia. The flesh is tinged with yel-
low, is firm and juicy, and the quality is very good. The
season extends from September to December or January or
later.

^; I?

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

30 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

35. Tolman. — The Tolman, or Tolman Sweet, is a yellow,
rather attractive sweet apple that is grown to a limited extent
in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Southern Canada,
and in the prairie regions of the Central States. The tree is
moderately vigorous, a good grower, long lived, and very
hardy. The fruit is about average in size, and is nearly glob-
ular in form. The skin is tough and in many specimens is
marked by a suture line that extends out from the cavity and
sometimes reaches as far as the basin. The color is a pale
yellow, sometimes slightly blushed. Fig. 13 shows a Tolman
apple. The flesh is white, firm, and rather hard; in quality it
is very good. The taste is decidedly sweet. The variety is
not planted to any extent in commercial orchards; but often
the fruit from small orchards can be disposed of locally to a
special trade. In ordinary storage the apples will keep until
about January 1 and in cold storage to about March or April.

36. York Imperial. — The York Imperial, known locally
as the Hillside apple, is a widely known variety that is grown
commercially in Southern Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, and westward into Missouri and Kansas. When
grown in regions farther north, the fruit is likely to be deficient
in size, color, and quality. This variety originated as a chance
seedling near York, Pennsylvania, and largely on account of
its excellent keeping quality when kept in ordinary storage,
it soon became distributed to the near-by regions and later
was adopted for commercial planting in the Central States.

The tree is vigorous, a thrifty grower, a good cropper, and
bears biennially, or, in some cases, annually. The fruit is
medium to large when grown under favorable conditions.
In form it is roundish oblate and distinctly oblique, or lop-
sided, as shown in Fig. 14, which illustrates a York Imperial
apple from Southern Pennsylvania. The lopsided form is a
distinct characteristic of the variety. The skin is tough,
bright, and smooth. The color is a green or a yellow blushed
with a pinkish red and sometimes striped indistinctly with
carmine. The flesh is yellowish, firm, and fairly juicy; in
quality it is generally good, but in some cases only fair. The

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 33

fruit varies as to the length of time it will keep in storage.
In cellar storage it will sometimes keep until April or later
and at other times it may last only through January. In
cold storage it seems to scald badly, and may last only through
February.

37. Smith Cider. — The Smith Cider apple is well known
in Southeastern Pennsylvania and Northeastern Maryland
and is grown to some extent in Western Ohio and Eastern
Indiana, principally in home orchards. The tree is moderately
vigorous and has long, stout, straggling branches. The fruit
when well grown is from medium to large in size, but under
average conditions it is below medium. The form is round,
sometimes oblate inclined to conic. Occasionally, the sides
are unequal, as in the York Imperial. The skin is thin and
tough and either smooth or slightly roughened with russet
lines about the basin. The color is a pale yellow or green,
mottled and shaded with pinkish red, and splashed and striped
with a bright carmine. The prevailing color effect is a striped
pinkish red. Fig. 15 shows a Smith Cider apple that was
grown in Maryland. The flesh is whitish in color and firm in
texture. The apple is juicy, of good flavor, and especially
desirable for cooking purposes. It will keep in cellar storage
until January or February and sometimes longer. In cold
storage it can be kept until March.

38. Cranberry.- — The Cranberry is a fall or early- winter
variety that is well known in parts of New York and Southern
Canada. The tree is large, vigorous, hardy, and, as a rule,
productive. The fruit is large in size and roundish oblate in
form. The skin is smooth and glossy; in color it is a clear
yellow, overlaid, in the case of well-colored specimens, with
blushes, splashes, and stripes of scarlet. Fig. 16 illustrates a
Cranberry apple that was grown in Ontario. The flesh is white
or sometimes slightly yellowish, firm^ juicy, and of fair to
good quality. The fruit is more desirable for cooking than for
dessert. The season varies according to the locality where
the fruit is grown. In Ontario and Northern New York the

34 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

apples will keep until midwinter; in Southern New York they
will last onh^ until about the first part of December.

39. Esopus. — The Esopus, or Esopus Spitzenburg, com-
monly known simply as the Spitzenburg, is an apple of the Bald-
win type, but is of better quality and more highly prized as a
fancy dessert fruit than the latter. It is also a good-qual-
ity cooking apple. The variety is grown commercially to a
limited extent in New York and other of the Eastern States,
but its importance as a commercial apple is greatest in the
northwestern fruit-growing section of the United States.

The tree of the Spitzenburg is rather a slow grower and gen-
erally rated as a moderate cropper. The fniit ranges from
medium to large in size; the form is rather broad and flat at
the base, varying from oblong to roundish ovate or roundish
conic. The skin is tough and often waxy, and is roughened
by russet dots. The under color is yellow and is overlaid with
bright red inconspicuously striped with a darker red. In well-
colored specimens the red assumes a purplish tint and the sur-
face is marked with pale yellow and russet dots. In Fig. 17
a fancy Washington-grown Spitzenburg apple is shown at the
top of the page. The flesh of the Spitzenburg is yellowish in
color, crisp, and tender in texture, and of very good to best
quality. The season extends from November to February
or March in ordinary storage and to May or June in cold storage.

The advantages of the Spitzenburg are high color, good
quality, and uniformity of shape. When packed in attractive
packages the apples bring a fancy price on the market. The
disadvantages of the variety are that the tree is a slow grower
and is subject to canker, and that the fruit is subject to apple
scab. These troubles can largely be controlled, however, by
careful spraying, pruning, cultivating, and fertilizing.

40. Arkansas Black. — The Arkansas Black, a seedling
of the Winesap, is a beautiful apple, is a good keeper, and
brings good prices on the market, but it has the disadvantage of
being rather non-productive. The tree is only moderately
vigorous. The fruit is medium in size, and nearly round in
form. The skin is smooth and waxy, and in color is yellow

Fig. 17

§ 3 24909

Fig. 18

§ 3 24909

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 35

overlaid with a bright red that on the side exposed to the sun
becomes a purpHsh red. In Fig. 17 an Arkansas Black apple
is shown at the bottom of the page; this apple was grown in
Washington. The flesh of the Arkansas Black is yellowish,
firm, crisp, and fairly juicy; in quality it is good to very good.
In cold storage the fruit will keep until April or May. On
account of its non-productivity the variety is not recommended
for extensive planting.

41. Westfield. — The Westfield, or Westfield Seek-No-
Furihsr, commonly known simply as the Seek, is an old
favorite dessert apple. In some sections it has proved to be
a reliable cropper, but in other sections it has not been very
productive. The tree is mediimi to large in size, spreading,
and moderately vigorous to vigorous. The fruit is usually
about medium in size and roundish conical in form. The skin
is tough and smooth; in color it is rather a deep yellow tinged
with green, shaded and splashed with dull red, and striped
with deep carmine. The flesh is slightly tinged with yellow;
it is firm, crisp, aromatic, and of good to best quality. The
season of this variety in ordinary storage is late fall and early
winter, but when properly handled it may be held in cold
storage about as late as the Baldwin.

42. Jonatlian. — The Jonathan is a variety produced from
a seedling of the Esopus Spitzenburg. However, it is more
hardy, productive, and shows more health and vigor, and is
adapted to a wider range of territory than the Spitzenburg,
but the fruit is smaller and is somewhat more deficient in keep-
ing quality. The Jonathan does fairly well in New York
and Northern Pennsylvania, but it seems better adapted to the
apple-growing regions of Southern Pennsylvania, Maryland,
and the Central and Western States, where it is of considerable
commercial importance.

The tree is medium in size, is a fairly reliable cropper and
comes into bearing rather early. The fruit ranges from small
to- medium in size; it is from roundish conic to roundish ovate
in form. The cavity is acute to acuminate, deep and wide,
and is sometimes slightly furrowed. The basin is deep, abrupt,

248—10

36 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

and varies from wide to moderately narrow. The skin is thin,
tough, and smooth; the under color is yellowish overlaid with
a lively red that is indistinctly striped with carmine. Often
a splash of yellow is seen near the cavity where a twig or a leaf
has shaded the fruit. This condition can be seen in Fig. 18,
which shows a Jonathan apple at the top of the page; this
apple was grown in Pennsylvania. The flesh of the Jonathan
is yellowish or whitish, often marked with red. The apples are
juicy and spicy, and the quality is very good to best. The season
of the Jonathan is from October to some time in January if kept
in ordinary storage, and to February or March if kept in cold
storage. The fruit is highly desirable for the Christmas trade.

43. Delicious. — The Delicious is a rather new variety
of apple that is very promising for commercial planting, espe-
cially in the fruit-growing regions of the Northwest. The

Fig. 19

tree is a strong grower and produces a large quantity of pollen;
the latter quality makes the Delicious useful for planting with

Fig. 20

§ 3 24909

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 37

varieties that are deficient in the quantity of pollen produced.
The fruit is large to very large and oblong conic in shape.
The skin is thin and smooth, almost polished; in color it is a
pale yellow overlaid with splashes and stripes of different
shades of red. The prevailing color effect is a pleasing red.
In Fig. 18 a Delicious apple is shown at the bottom of the
page. A characteristic of the fruit is five points that project
from the basin, as shown in Fig. 19. The flesh of the Delicious
is a pale yellow, tender, and moderately juicy. The quality is
of the best, especially for dessert. ,

44. Rliode Island Greening. — The Rhode Island Green-
ing, commonly known simply as the Greening, is the best known
green apple in America. It is an important commercial variety
in New England, New York, Northern Pennsylvania, Southern
Canada, and parts of Ohio and Michigan. In fact, it is about
as well known and in as great demand on the market as the
Baldwin.

The tree, when properly managed, is a reliable cropper,
yielding fruit annually. It is large in size, spreading in habit,
and has dense foliage. The fruit is above medium to large in
size; it is grass green in color in autumn, later developing a
slightly yellowish tinge. The apples are never striped, but
occasionally they develop a rather bright cheek. In form they
are roundish oblate. The skin is rather thick, tough, and
smooth, and is covered with grayish white or russet dots that
are more numerous toward the basin than elsewhere. In
Fig. 20 a Rhode Island Greening apple is shown at the top of
the page. The flesh of the Rhode Island Greening is yellowish,
firm, fine grained, and juicy; in quality it is very good. The
Greening is highly prized for cooking, and by many is thought
to be an excellent dessert fruit notwithstanding the fact that
it has a rather peculiar flavor. The Greening is a good shipper,
is well known to consumers, and, where the location is favor-
able, is a profitable variety to grow. Its season is about the
same as that of the Baldwin.

45. Northwestern, — The Northwestern, or Northwestern
Greening, is similar in some respects to the Rhode Island

38 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

Greening. The Northwestern, however, is hardier than the
Rhode Island Greening, and for this reason has been planted
in districts where the climate is too severe for the latter. The
tree is hardy and vigorous, and, although it is likely to come
into bearing late, is a good cropper, yielding fruit, as a rule,
biennially. The fruit is large to very large in size, generally
roundish in form, and greenish or yellowish in color. The
dots vary from small to large and are conspicuous. In Fig. 20
a Northwestern apple is shown at the bottom of the page;
this ■ apple was grown in Iowa. In quality the fruit of this
variety is inferior to that of Ihe Rhode Island Greening,
ranking only fair for both cooking and dessert. The variety
is best known in Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, where it is
grown commercially to some extent. The fruit will keep fairly
well in cold storage until April or May.

46. Green Newtown. — The Green Newtown is very simi-
lar to the variety known as the Yellow Ne^vtown, which is
described later; in fact, it is thought by some horticulturists
that one is a strain of the other, and it has not been determined
which was the parent and which was the seedling. Green
Newtown trees are rather slow of growth, attain fair size, and
under favorable conditions come into bearing young; they are
good yielders. The tree is slightly drooping in habit. The
fruit ranges from moderate to very large in size; it is usually
roundish oblate in form; the skin is rather tough and may either
be smooth or slightly roughened. The color is generally grass
green when the fruit is picked, but the apples are likely to
become yellowish on standing. The flesh is either yellov/ish
or tinged with green according to the color of the skin, and
the quality is of the best. The apples are highly prized both for
cooking and for dessert. The season may extend anywhere
from February to April, or May, depending on where the fruit
was grown and the method of storage.

The Green Ne^vtown variety is markedly influenced by
environment, and the locations where it can be grown success-
fully are limited. The lower part of the Hudson River Valley
in New York, the Piedmont and mountainous regions of Virginia

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 39

and North Carolina, and certain localities in California, Oregon,
and Washington are favorable for the production of the variety.

47. Yellow Newtown. — The Yellow Newtown variety
differs in but a few particulars from the Green Newtown. The
tree of the former is slightly more vigorous and in habit it is
more erect than that of the latter. The fruit is like that of
the Green Ne^vtown, except in color of the skin and in color
and flavor of the flesh. At harvest time the apples are yellow,
and often there is a pink blush spread over a part of the surface.
The flesh is yellowish and the flavor is mild and aromatic.
As a commercial variety, the Yellow Newtown is highly profit-
able. Like the Green Newtown, it is susceptible to environ-
mental conditions and grov/s well only in certain localities. Its
area of production is about the same as that of the Green
Newtown.

In Albemarle County, Virginia, the Yellow Newtown grows
exceedingly well, and formerly it was thought that the apples
produced in this region were a distinct variety, and they
were known as Albemarle Pippins; this term is still frequently
applied to fruit of the Yellow Newtown variety. Hundreds
of barreh of so-called Albemarle Pippins are exported to
England annually. The beginning of the demand for this
fruit can be traced to a peculiar incident. During the first
year of the reign of Queen Victoria of England, Andrew Steven-
son, a resident of Albemarle County, was Minister to the Court
of St. James, and from among the Albemarle Pippins he had
shipped to England for his Ovvn use, he presented several
barrels to Queen Victoria. She was much pleased with the fruit
and out of courtesy to him removed from Albemarle Pippins
the tax levied on fruit. From that time to the present the
demand for Albemarle Pippins has grown steadily in English
markets.

48. King David. — The King David is a new variety of
considerable promise. It is thought to be a cross between
the Jonathan and the Arkansas Black. The tree greatly
resembles that of the Jonathan but is said to be more vigorous
and hardy. The fruit also resembles that of the Jonathan but

40 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

is larger and of a deeper red color. In flavor, the fruit is very
rich and spicy. The season of the King David is said to be a
little longer than that of the Jonathan. This is a good variety
for planting where fruit is wanted for fancy trade or for export.

49. Ben Davis. — The Ben Davis is probably grown over
a wider area than any other variety. In fact, it is thought
that more Ben Davis trees are grown than those of any other
apple. The section best suited to the production of this variety
is Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Illinois, and Arkan-
sas ; however, it has been found to succeed fairly well wherever it
has been planted, and many Ben Davis orchards are found in
New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and parts of Canada.

The tree of the Ben Davis is medium in size a,nd is rather a
rank grower when young; it has coarse, strong wood that will
stand under heavy crops. The form tends to be upright and
roundish, becoming rather spreading in old trees. The fruit
is usually above medium to large in size and roundish conic to
somewhat oblong in form. The skin is tough, waxy, bright,
sm^ooth, and glossy. The color is clear yellow or greenish,
mottled and washed with bright red, and striped and splashed
with dark carmine, which gives the prevailing effect of bright
deep red or red striped. In Fig. 21 a Ben Davis apple is shown
at the top of the page; this apple was grown in Virginia. The
flesh of the Ben Davis is whitish, slightly tinged with yellow,
firm, and moderately coarse, tending to be slightly tough.
The quality, as rated by horticulturists, is good, but to the lay-
man it is only fair or even poor.

The principal advantage of the Ben Davis is the heavy crop
it bears. When other varieties are on the market it sells
for a low price, but often late in the season dealers get a good
price for the fruit. From the standpoint of the apple market it is
doubtful whether the planting of Ben Davis should be increased.
The season extends as late as June or July if the fruit is kept
in cold storage.

50. Gano.^ — The Gano is an apple of the Ben Davis type,
but it is somewhat superior to the latter in quality. It is
thought to be a better apple for northern regions like New

Pig. 21

§ 3 24909

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 41

York and Northern Pennsylvania than the Ben Davis. The
tree is usually vigorous and of the same upright spreading
habit as the Ben Davis. The fruit is medium in size and
roundish conic in form. Often the cavity is slightly furrowed.
The skin is smooth and waxy, and is light yellow in color,
overlaid with light pinkish or purplish red obscurely striped.
Often the red is almost a solid color. The general color effect
is a fine clear red. In Fig. 21 a Gano apple is shown at the
bottom of the page; this apple was grown in Pennsylvania.
The flesh of the Gano is whitish, slightly tinged with yellow,
firm, and coarse in texture. The quality is, perhaps, a little
better than that of the Ben Davis. The season of the Gano is
about the same as that of the Ben Davis.

51. Winesap. — The Winesap apple is one of the oldest
grown in America. It is what may be termed a middle-latitude
apple and is well known in Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia,
Arkansas, Missouri, and some of the Western States. The
tree is of medium size, rather vigorous, comes into bearing early,
and is usually an annual cropper. The fruit tends to be small,
although when grown under favorable conditions it attains a
good size. The form of the Winesap is usually roundish, slightly
conical, and truncate at the base. The skin is medium thick,
tough, smooth, and glossy. The ground color is yellow, or
greenish, overlaid with deep red indistinctly striped and blotched
with a dark purplish red. The prevailing effect is a bright deep
red. In Fig. 22 a Winesap apple is shown at the top of the
page; this apple was grown near Selah, Washington. The flesh
of the Winesap is yellowish, and sometimes veins of red can be

.seen running through it. The apples are juicy and crisp, and
the quality is good to very good. The ordinary limit in cold
storage is April.

52. Black Ben Davis. — The Black Ben Davis is an
apple of the Ben Davis type, but is resembles the Gano more
than the Ben Davis. The Black Ben, as it is often called, is
grown to a considerable extent in the Central and Western
States. The tree, when young, is upright, but on reaching
maturity it becomes rather spreading and dense. The fruit

42 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

is medium to large in size, and roundish ovate to roundish conic
in form. The skin is thin, tough, smooth, and glossy. The
under color is a clear pale yellow, but it is, on well-matured
specimens, covered with a brilliant red that becomes a dark
purple on the side exposed to the sun. The season lasts until
April and May if the fruit is kept in cold storage. In Fig. 22
a Black Ben Davis apple is shown at the bottom of the page;
this apple was grown in Washington.

53. Rome Beauty. — The Rome Beauty is an old vari-
ety that is commonly grown in the latitude of New Jersey and
Southern Ohio; it is grown also in parts of Missouri, and in
some of the Pacific Coast States. The tree is not particularly
vigorous but attains medium size and comes into bearing early.
The fruit ranges in size from medium to very large; in form it
is roundish to roundish conic, sometimes slightly oblong.
The skin is thick, tough, and smooth. The color is greenish
or yellowish mottled v/ith bright red that, on well-colored
specimens, deepens to almost a solid red on the exposed cheek.
The prevailing color is red mixed with yellow. In Fig. 23 a
Rome Beauty apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple
was grown in Washington. The flesh of the Rome Beauty is
nearly white, with a slight tinge of yellow or green; it is juicy,
crisp, of an agreeable taste, and of good quality. The fruit
is used for both dessert and cooking purposes. The season of
the Rome Beauty extends to about April or May, if the apples
are kept in cold storage.

54. Stayman Winesap. — ^A seedling of the Winesap,
known as the Stayman Winesap, is considered by many to be
better for general cultivation than its parent. The variety
was originated in 1866 from the seed of the Winesap by
Dr. J. Stayman, of Leavenworth, Kansas, from whom it derives
its name. The tree is fairly vigorous and the form is spread-
ing and rather open. The fruit is from medium to very large
in size and is roundish conic to globular in form. The skin is
smooth, rather thick, and tough. The under color is greenish
or yellowish, often almost completely covered with a dull red
over color that is rather indistinctly striped with carmine.

Fig. 22

§ 3 24909

Fig. 23

§ 3 24903

Fig. 24

§ 3 24909

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 43

The prevailing effect is a pleasing red. In Fig. 23 a Stayman
Winesap apple is shown at the bottom of the page; this apple
was grown in Washington. The flesh is yellowish or greenish
in color, crisp, and juicy; in quality it is good to very good.
The range for planting is about the same as that of the Wine-
sap. The fruit will keep in storage until April or May.

55. Salome. — The Salome variety originated about 1852
in Illinois and has become rather widely disseminated. The
tree is vigorous, attains a large size, and is a good cropper, but
tends, to yield in alternate years. The fruit is usually below
medium in size, and is roundish oblate and often elliptical in
form. The skin is thin, tough, and smooth; the under color is
rather a pale yellow or green, being overlaid with carmine
stripes and a blush. Often the apples are marked toward the
cavity with whitish bloom. In Fig. 24 a Pennsylvania-grown
Salome apple is shown at the top of the page. The flesh of
the Salome is yellowish, firm, and moderately fine grained;
it is of good to very good quality. The season extends from
November to March.

56» Wagener. — The Wagener is an apple of the Northern
Spy type, and is much used in New England, New York, and
Northern Pennsylvania as a filler in commercial orchards.
The reason for this is that the tree is dwarfish in size, and
although a rather slow grower, comes into bearing at an early
age. The trees are vigorous when young, but on reaching
maturity they become rather weak and are short lived. But
these qualities do not detract from their use as fillers. The
fruit is medium to large in size and roundish oblate in form.
The skin is thin, tough, smooth, and glossy. The color is pale
yellow covered with a bright pinkish red, striped with bright
carmine. The prevailing effect is a bright, light red. In Fig. 24
a Wagener apple is shown at the bottom of the page ; this apple
was grown near Scranton, Pennsylvania. The flesh of the
Wagener is whitish, slightly tinged with yellow, juicy, and
tender. Its quality is very good to best, being similar to the
Spy in this respect. The season extends from October to
February or later. Wageners are in demand on the market

Fig. 25

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 45

and command a good price, largely on account of their color and
quality. Often they are sold as Spys by unscrupulous dealers.

57. Arkansas. — The Arkansas, known also as the Mam-
moth Black Twig, another apple of the Winesap class, is distinct
from the Arkansas Black. The tree is rather large and vigorous,
but is inclined to be a shy bearer. The fruit is from mediiim
to large in size, and roundish and often slightly oblate in form.
The color is greenish or yellowish overlaid with a dull, deep red,
often obscurely striped with darker red. Fig. 25 shows a well-
colored apple of the variety. The flesh of the Arkansas is yel-
lowish, firm, and fairly juicy. The apples are good keepers,
lasting in cold storage until about May. The variety has been
extensively planted in some of the Southern and Southwestern
States, but is has not proved to be commercially successful,
largely on account of being a poor bearer.

58. Ralls. — The Ralls, also known as the Geniton and
Genet, is a middle-latitude variety that does especially well in
the Missouri apple-growing section. The tree is a heavy crop-
per in alternate years, and alternates probably more distinctly
than most other varieties. It is long lived in the Missouri section
and does well not only on thin land, but also on heavy bottom
land. Its greatest value for the section to which it is adapted
is its late blooming habit. Even in the most unfavorable
areas it is practically never killed by late freezes; thus even in
low bottoms it is almost a sure cropper in alternate years.
The fruit ripens very late, and is generally below mediimi in size,
although on young trees it is often above medium; the form is
roundish oblate, varying, to roundish. The skin is smooth with
a yellow or greenish under color that is blushed and mottled
with pinkish red and indistinctly striped with dull carmine.
This is overspread with a light bloom and broken stripes of
whitish scarf skin, which gives the apple a rather dull appearance.
The flesh is whitish, firm, and moderately fine grained. The
quality of the fruit where grown in Missouri is very good, but
when grown in northern latitudes the apples ripen so late
that the quality is only medium. In ordinary storage the
season is from December to April.

Fig. 26

*♦+ ** *f ** ** ***i?

i«

Fig. 27

48 VARIETIES OF APPLES § 3

59. Ingram. — The Ingram, a seedling of the Ralls, origi-
nated about 1850 on the farm of Martin Ingram, near Spring-
fieid, Missouri. The tree blooms nearly as late, bears fruit of
better quality and much better color, is a more rapid grower,
and has stronger branches than that of the Ralls; the trees
tend to bear in alternate years, but not to such a marked extent
as the Ralls. The tree is adapted to conditions such as those
found in Missouri; on account of the trees blooming so late,
the fruit requires a long season for development and for this
reason the variety is not adapted for culture in northern lati-
tudes. The tree is vigorous, with moderately stout branches.
The fruit is below medium to medium in size, and roundish
conic to roundish oblate tending to be oblique in form. The
skin is thick, tough, and smooth. The color is a bright greenish
yellow or pale yellow washed, mottled, and striped with two
shades of red. In regions where it can reach its best develop-
ment it is almost entirely overspread with a rather dark red.
An Ingram apple that was grown in Missouri is shown in
Fig. 26. The flesh of the Ingram is tinged with yellow; it is
firm and hard but becomes crisp and tender late in the season.
The quality is very good. In Missouri, the season of the
Ingram is from December to June. This is one of the best of
cold-storage apples, specimens having been kept in fairly good
condition for 2 years. It is probably the safest variety that can
be planted in the Ozark section, and if the tree is kept pruned
rather heavily the fruit will attain a good market size.

60. Roxbury. — The Roxbury is a russet apple that is
grown commercially in some sections where the Baldwin,
Spy, and Greening are grown. The tree is medium to large
in size and fairly vigorous. When grown on rich soil in favor-
able locations it is generally a reliable cropper. As a rule,
this variety is a biennial bearer. The fruit is of about medium
size and oblate or oblate conic in form. The skin is some-
times smooth but usually is roughened with a greenish to
yellowish-brown russet. Dots of russet or gray are conspicuous
on the surface. A Roxbury of good size and form is shown
in Fig. 27. The flesh of the Roxbury is yellowish or greenish

Fig. 28

50 VARIETIES OF APPLES §3

and the quality is good to very good. A particular advantage
of the variety is that it is a good keeper. The season of the
fruit, when it is kept in cold storage, extends from December
to as late as July.

61. Golden Russet. — The Golden Russet variety is
grown commercially in some sections of the Eastern States.
It is an excellent storage variety, sells well in the general mar-
ket, and is particularly in demand for shipment to north-
western and southern markets. The tree is from medium to
large in size, and from moderately vigorous to vigorous. The
fruit varies from below to above mediiim in size. The skin is
thick and moderately tender; it is usually almost entirely cov-
ered with a greenish or yellowish russet, which, in highly col-
ored specimens, becomes a golden russet with a bronze cheek.
The flesh is yellowish, rather fine grained, tender, juicy, and
very good. The Golden Russet is valuable as a cider apple.
The season is from December to April or later.

62. Pewauliee. — The Pewaukee is a northern-grown
variety that was originated by crossing the Oldenburg and
the Northern Spy. The tree is vigorous, medium to large
in size, and a strong grower. It bears at a fairly early age
and with good care is a reliable cropper; it usually bears bien-
nially, but sometimes annually. The fruit is from medium
to large in size, and is roundish oblate to roundish ovate in
form. The cavity is often very small and shallow. The skin
is smooth and rather tough, and is of a grass green or yellow-
ish color that is mottled with orange red and striped and splashed
with carmine. The prevailing effect is a mixture of red and
yellow, or red and green. Fig. 28 illustrates a Pewaukee apple
that was grown in New York State. The flesh of the Pewaukee
is whitish, tender, and rather coarse. The quality is fair to
good either for cooking or dessert. The season varies some-
what. Often the fruit may be kept in cold storage until April;
again it may go down in January or Februar^^ For commer-
cial planting, the Pewaukee is not particularly desirable,
largely because it is not well known by consumers and there-
fore is not in much demand on the market.

Fig. 29

§ 3 24909

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 51

63. Grimes. — The Grimes, or Grimes Golden, apple is
adapted to middle latitudes and is one of the best quality apples
produced. In West Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana many com-
mercial orchards of this variet_v are proving very profitable.
The tree is moderately vigorous, the branches are short, curved,
and crooked. It bears biennially, although in some cases
annually, and is a good cropper. The fruit is medium to large
in size and roundish oblong, often truncate in form. The skin
is tough and slightly roughened. The color is deep yellow
with scattering pale yellow or russet dots. In Fig. 29 a Grimes
Golden apple is shown at the top of the page; this apple was
grown in Southern Ohio. The flesh of the Grimes is yellow,
firm, tender, and of very good to best quality. The fruit
loses some of its quality and is likely to scald in storage. How-
ever, the apples can be kept until January or February in cold
storage. The Grimes is recommended for commercial plant-
ing in the districts mentioned and is worthy of trial in home
orchards in these and other similar sections.

64. White Pearmain. — The White Pearmain, or White
Winter Pearmain, as it is sometimes called, is a favorite dessert
apple in some parts of the Central and the Western States.
The variety is not grown extensively in commercial orchards,
but is much prized for home orchards. The tree is vigorous
and wide spreading. In size the fruit is from medium to large,
and in form is roundish ovate to oblong conic. The skin is
tough and smooth. The color is a pale yellow or greenish
shaded with brownish red. In Fig. 29 a White Pearmain
apple is shown at the bottom of the page. The flesh is yellow-
ish, tender, and juicy; in quality it is Yerj good to best. The
White Pearmain can be kept in storage until about March.

65. Huntsnaan. — The Huntsman variety, commonly
known among growers as the Huntsman Favorite, is grown to a
considerable extent in Missouri and Kansas. The Huntsman
is a dessert apple of high quality, but it is more often found in
home orchards than in commercial plantings. The tree is
vigorous, and is a late but regular bearer and generally prolific.
The fruit is of mediimi to large size and is roundish oblate

248—11

Ftg. 30

Fig. 31

Fig. 32

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 55

and slightly conic in form. The skin is thick but tender, and
the color is yellow, slightly greenish, often having a red blush.
Fig. 30 shows a Huntsman apple that was grown in Missouri.
The flesh is yellowish, rather firm, and juicy; in quality it is
good to very good, especially for dessert. The apples can be
kept in cold storage until April.

66. Willow. — The Willow, or Willow Twig, variety is
grown largely in the Mississippi Valley. The tree is large,
vigorous, and of upright habit. The fruit is large to medium
in size, and roundish inclined to conic in form; sometimes it is
roundish oblate. The skin is smooth and rather glossy. The
color is a yellowish green, blushed and miottled with red, and
striped and splashed irregularly with a deeper red. • The
general effect is a dull red. Fig. 31 shows a Willow apple
that was grown in Missouri.' The flesh of the Willow is either
yellowish or greenish, firm, coarse, and juicy; the quality is
only fair to good. The season extends to May if the fruit is
kept in cold storage. The apple is susceptible to scab, blight,
and bitter rot, and for this reason fruit growers are not plant-
ing it as extensively as in the past.

67. Mann. — The Mann variety is grown on a small scale
commercially in New York, the New England States, and
Ontario. The tree is medium, to large, vigorous, hardy, a
reliable cropper, and a good yielder. The fruit is mediimi to
large in size, and roundish inclined to oblate in form. The
skin is thick and tough. The color is a deep green that becomes
yellow as the- season advances. Fig. 32 shows a Mann apple
that was grown in Ontario, Canada. The flesh of the Mann is
yellowish and coarse; at first it is hard and firm, but becomes
tender on standing. The quality is fair to good, being inferior
to that of the Rhode Island Greening. The fruit can be kept
until May in cold storage.

68. Stark. — The Stark is a late winter apple that is widely
disseminated throughout the United States and Canada. The
tree is vigorous, and ranges in size from large to moderately
large. It is a reliable cropper and very productive. The
fruit is large to medium in size; sometimes it is very large.

Fig. 33

§ 3 VARIETIES OF APPLES 57

In form it is roundish, inclined to conic, varying to slightly
oblate or roundish ovate. The skin is either smooth or slightly
roughened with russet dots. In the fall the color is a pale
green; as winter advances the color becomes a yellow more or
less blushed and mottled and rather indistinctly striped with
red. The prevailing color effect is a dull green or yellow mixed
with red. Fig. 33 illustrates a Stark apple that was grown in
Ontario, Canada. The flesh of the Stark is yellowish and firm;
in quality it is fair to good. The apples can often be kept in
storage until May; if held until late in the year they are likely
to bring good prices.

APPLE CULTURE

(PART 1)

ESTABLISHMENT OF AN APPLE ORCHARD

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

1. Size of Or chard. — One of the first questions that comes
up in planning an apple orchard is that of the size of the orchard.
Before this question can be settled in a satisfactory manner it is
advisable to know something of the factors that will determine
how many acres of orchard one man can care for, doing the work
in accordance with approved methods. It is obvious that in
practically all cases it will be desired to make the planting as
large as feasible in order that the incom.e may be correspondingly
large. At the same time it is evident that there is a limit to
the size of orchard that one man can work, and if it is intended
that the owner will merely supervise there is also a limit to the
acreage he can oversee. Som.e authorities on orcharding speak
of the size of orchard a man can care for advantageously as a
unit, and there has been considerable discussion as to what
acreage constitutes an apple-orchard unit. It is apparent that
the question is not one that can be answered definitely, because
there are many factors that must be taken into consideration in
each case. If a man with limited capital is undertaking to
establish an orchard and at the same time to raise grain or vege-
table crops sufficient to make a living until the orchard comes
into bearing, it is evident that he will be obliged to restrict his
planting of trees more than will the man who has capital enough
to carry him through the non-productive period of the orchard.

. §4

2 APPLE CULTURE § 4

Under some conditions a man may be able to put out a large
acreage of trees, employing laborers to do the necessary work;
under other conditions labor may be so scarce or expensive that
such a plan is not feasible. If good orchard land is abundant
in a given locality one man can superintend a much larger
acreage than would be possible in a section in which suitable
orchard sites are scarce and widely separated. Spraying and
harvesting are two orchard operations that require the most
labor, and it is imperative that they be performed at the right
time. Failure to give them attention at the proper time may
result in a heavy loss to the grower. This being the case, it is
easy to see that a larger force of men will be required to spray
and harvest in an orchard planted to a single variety or to
varieties that bloom and ripen at approximately the same time
than in another of the same area in which varieties that bloom
and ripen in sequence are planted. These and other factors
operate to make the question of what constitute an apple-
orchard unit so complex that no attempt to lay down certain
definite figures can be satisfactory. The prospective apple
grower must investigate carefully the conditions that prevail
in his locality and in his individual case and decide for himself
what size of unit he is warranted in establishing.

2. Som.e orchardists undertake to determine the size of unit
by the capacity of a power spraying outfit, since this is one of
the most expensive items of the orchardist's equipment. One
power sprayer should handle 30 or 40 acres of orchard in ftill
bearing, except in cases in which the trees have been allowed to
reach enormous size and in sections where the land is very hilly.
But here again the question of whether or not the orchard is
planted with varieties that bloom and ripen in sequence will
determine to a large extent the size of unit. As a general rule,
a larger orchard unit of summer and winter apples mixed can
be handled than of winter varieties alone, not only because
there is a wider range of blooming period under the former con-
ditions but also because fewer sprayings are required for the
former. In an orchard made up of 10 to 15 acres of summer
apples, 15 to 20 acres of fall apples -like the Jonathan and

§4 APPLE CULTURE 3

10 acres of very late bloomers like the Ingram that are also
late in ripening, the time available for giving any one spray-
ing of the orchard is greatly extended, and as fewer sprayings
of the summer apples are necessary, a large orchard can be
covered with one sprayer. Furthermore, in such a case the
picking would be prolonged through a longer season and there
would be less trouble about getting sufficient labor to harvest
the crop, so an orchard of this kind could be considerably
larger for the same equipment than one made up of varieties
blooming and ripening at about the same time.

If considerable other farming is being done, 20 acres would
perhaps be an average unit for an apple orchard. With an
orchard of this size, the danger that the spraying could not be
done at the proper time because of other crops that need atten-
tion would probably not be great.

The estimates set forth here are based on the labor required
to care for an apple orchard in full bearing. Before the
orchard is in full bearing a larger unit probably could be
managed with the same equipment.

3. Capital Required.- — It is a common mistake among
beginners in apple orcharding to overlook the fact that capital
is necessary in estabhshing an orchard. Probably more orchards
are failures because of lack of capital than lack of knowledge
on the part of the owners.

In estimating the capital necessary for the establishment of
an orchard, it is best to consider it independent of the cost of
the land, since the latter item is so variable that no estimate
that will be of much value can be given. The beginner in
orcharding should have, first of all, money enough to secure the
land required and the necessary equipment. To this must be
added the cost of caring for the orchard each year until it comes
into bearing, which may be estimated at about $20 an acre.
In some sections it will be more than this, and in some sections
and especially with a man who is exceedingly industrious and
a good manager, it will be less. This estimate includes the cost
of trees at about 15 cents each, the cost of breaking the ground,
planting, and caring for the trees each year. In some sections

4 APPLE CULTURE §4

the orchard will come into steady bearing at about 6 years of
age, in others at 8 or 9 years of age; thus the necessary capital
in addition to the equipment would be, for 40 acres, $800
a year for 5 years, which would be $4,000, and for 8 years
would be $6,400. If the orchard is located in a section where the
cost of maintenance cannot be made from crops grown between
the trees, the orchardist should have this amount of capital avail-
able in addition to the cost of equipment, except where he does
the work himself and can live and keep his team on a smaller
income than $800 a year. If the orchard is in a section where
the use of orchard heaters is necessary, about $2,000 for 40 acres
should be added. The following summary of the cost of equip-
ment and maintenance of an orchard of, say, 40 acres will per-
haps be of some assistance by suggesting the approximate
capital required.

Power sprayer $ 200 to $300

Team 300 to 400

Harness, wagon, plows, harrows,

and small tools 200

Packing shed, boiling plant, picking

and packing utensils 200 to 300

Orchard heaters (if required) .... 2,000

Maintenance to eighth year 6,400

$9,300 to $9,600

This outlay would in most cases be sufficient for a larger unit
if other conditions are such that they will permit of the handling
of a large one. At least two men can be kept busy the year
round on a 30- or a 40-acre unit and generally an extra man
and an extra team will be required at times. The labor
required for picking will vary so much that it is impossible to
estimate the number of men necessary. Before the orchard
comes into bearing one man with a team could probably
maintain it when no special problems like irrigation, etc., are
involved.

It will be noted that the estimate given does not include
the cost of land or irrigation, neither does it make an allowance
for any return that may be secured from crops between the

§4 APPLE CULTURE 5

rows. As mentioned, these may often be made to yield the
$6,400 for maintenance.

In some cases, as for example in sections where apple grow-
ing has been uniformly profitable or when the orchardist has
the confidence of a money-lending institution or a person of
means, it miay be possible to borrow a part or all of the capital
required. But unless some such favorable condition is pres-
ent it is not likely that he will be able to obtain an advance
of money sufficient to meet his requirements when he has
nothing but orchard land and equipmicnt for security.

If the orchard is located in a section where crops between
the rows can be grown with a reasonable certainty of a profit
before the trees come into bearing, a smaller capital at the
beginning m.ay be sufficient than if the growing of crops between
the trees is som.ewhat hazardous. In scm-e sections the soil
is so poor that the cost of growing crops between the rows
is almost equal to the returns, and in such sections it may be
that the only crops that can be at all profitably grown are
the small fruits like strawberries, raspberries, etc. These are
crops that are somewhat hazardous and in them.selves require
a considerable outlay of capital, so where they are to be used
as a catch crop, miore capital for the orchard should be avail-
able than where some cheaply grown crop like sweet com or
potatoes can be handled profitably. If a small orchard is being
put out and there is a good demand for labor in the com-mu-
nity a man m.ay be able to earn enough to care for his own
orchard by working for other people and in this case his labor
becomes equivalent to capital. If he does not have oppor-
tunity or inclination to derive an income from such a source
the only way that he could be justified in beginning with a
very small capital is to have a certainty of making running
expenses for the orchard from crops grown between the rows
or on other land.

4. Increasing the Size of tlie Orchard. — Doubling or
trebling the unit for an apple orchard would approximately
double or treble the equipment and expenses, except that
in some cases five men could probably handle 80 acres of

6 APPLE CULTURE §4

bearing orchard as readily as three men could handle 40 acres.
This would not always be true, and it is not likely that further
multiplying the unit would reduce the expense per imit, since
with additional men working in different places without a fore-
man they would not likely do as much work. The experience
of practical growers has been that doubling and trebling the
unit does not generally reduce the cost per unit.

SELECTION OF SITE
5. Soils Suitable for Apple Orchards. — The selection
of a soil suitable for commercial apple orcharding is a matter
that should receive careful considera,tion from the grower.
It is of course true that apple trees thrive on a great variety
of soils. The man who is planning only a sm^all home orchard
may be justified in selecting for this purpose a soil that is not
altogether suitable or in making some experimental plantings
with a view to determining what the possibilities of a certain
soil are with respect to apple production. On the other hand,
the man who is putting out a commercial orchard will not,
as a rule, care to accept a soil that is defective in any essential
requirement nor will he find it advisable to make extensive
experimental plantings.

In general, authorities agree that the apple tree thrives best
on a deep, well-drained, gravelly or even stony soil. Prof.
F. A. Waugh, an orchardist who has made a careful study of
the subject, states that as a rule a gravelly loam that is fairly
rich in plant-food is the ideal apple soil. Gravelly and stony
soils are usually well-drained soils and it seems likely that it
is because of this fact that apple trees thrive well on areas
in which loose broken stone is abundant; there are, however,
sections in which the apple tree does extremely well on sandy
loams and silt loams and on almost every other type of soil
that is deep and well drained.

Depth of soil is a particularly important requirement in
selecting a site for a commercial apple orchard. Although a
good, deep soil is desirable for almost any crop, it is all but
indispensable for growing apple trees. The chief objection to

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 7

a shallow soil is that it affords an inadequate reservoir for the
storage of moisture. In the case of annual plants the injury
done by a dry year is, as a rule, confined to the year in which
the drought occurs, but in the case of trees the injury done on
a dry year may destroy the work of a large number of years.
The growth of the trees during a given year depends so much
on the condition in previous years that the tree is not able
to adapt itself to withstanding drought, and therefore is more
seriously injured by a drought than annual plants. On a
mature tree practically the entire leaf surface is attained
within a few weeks after the leaves begin to open and before
any one season's drought can shorten the growth. A drought
then in a shallow soil would cut short the water supply for the
tree with a full leaf surface, so that injury would be much greater
than to an annual plant, because the latter would make slower
growth during a drought and therefore have smaller leaf sur-
face and would be thus adjusted to withstand the adverse
condition. Furthermore, the effect of severe cold seems to be
less in a deep soil and the fruit is almost always larger.

For the same reason that a soil should be deep, it should be
well drained. Tree roots will go no deeper than the depth to
which the soil is well aerated. Further, if the soil at times tends
to be mucky near the surface, experience indicates that the tree
is much shorter lived. In the Ozark region the red clay subsoil
makes ideal conditions for tree roots. The loess soil found
along the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers is also excel-
lent. This loess soil is considered by some to be the most nearly
ideal fruit soil there is. It is rich in plant-food to a very great
depth. It is made up of very small particles and yet it drains
well, since it contains very small quantities of clay. Although
apple trees take away large quantities of soil fertility, the
trees will do exceedingly well on a soil that is not considered
fertile soil from the standpoint of farm crops. This is prob-
ably because of the deep-rooting habit of the trees.

6. Elevation of Orchard Site. — One of the most impor-
tant factors in determining the success of an apple orchard is
' the effect of late spring frosts, and the location of the orchard

8 APPLE CULTURE §4

with reference to the prevention of damage from this influence
is an important consideration. It will be much better to have
to ship the apples several hundred miles from a section where
failures on account of frost are rare than to be in a section
where frosts are so common that the crop will be lost so often
that no profit will be left after maintaining the orchard, or
where great expense is entailed in heating the orchard.

The elevation of an orchard site will determine to a large
extent the degree to which late spring frosts will injure the
blossoms. Although it is true that, as the elevation of a large
area increases the average temperature for the given section
decreases, at the same time in any given section on a still,
clear night the higher points will be warmer. This is because
cold air is heavier than warm air and tends to settle into low
places. Thus, in a broken country there are almost always
elevated areas where there is less danger from killing frosts
than in a level country. On the other hand, in a. broken
country the valleys are in m.ore danger than the hills because
of this settling of the cold air into the valleys. Experience
indicates, however, that a wide valley is not likely to be of any
benefit in carrying away the cold air, since the wind is likely
to stir the cold air up and prevent settling; in the narrow val-
leys, where the wind must blow across rather than up and down,
there will be settling even when there is a good deal of wind.
However, on a very windy night there is not a great settling of
the cold air and the temperature on the hill top is likely to be
nearly the same as that in the valley.

7. Slope of Land . — In another Section it has been shown
that the slope of the land may have something to do with the
susceptibility of an orchard to injury from spring frosts by
affecting the time of blooming. If the slope is rather steep
and the trees are large, the trees may bloom later on the north
slope than on the south slope, for the reason that every tree
will throw a shadow on the tree next north of it, and thus the
twigs will not be warmed up by receiving the direct sunlight
on warm sunny days. However, if the slope is not steep enough
for one tree to throw shadow on another, there will be little

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 9

if any difference, since the cold soil on the north is not likely
to have much influence on the time of blooming, for it is the
temperature of the twigs and not that of the roots that largely
determines the time of blooming. The soil remains colder on
the north than on the south slope, because each ray of sunlight
is spread out over more surface, but if the trees stand erect
each one will receive jus't as direct sunlight on one slope as
on the other provided one tree does not cast a shadow over
another. In general, a north slope is considered better than
a south slope for the reason that the soil on the former is
generally richer than that on the latter. Other considerations
that are objectionable on a south slope are that the thawing
on warm days in winter causes a slipping down the hill of the
soil, and further that since the soil is warmer on the south
slope the humus is burned out faster in such areas than on a
north slope.

8. Exposure of Site. — In choosing a site the exposure
may be important in its effect on the temperature, on evapora-
tion, on the number of windfalls, and on the breaking of the
trees by winds.

The only time that a windward exposure will affect the tem-
perature of an orchard is when the orchard is in a location
like that near a body of water. When the temperature of the
water is higher or lower than that of the surrounding country
the wind may bring a lower or a higher temperature than that
of the orchard. In some cases protection from wind might
actually make the orchard colder by deflecting the wind from
over the soil of the orchard; and in the late spring when the
water is colder than the surrounding country, protection frorn.
wind wotild leave the orchard warmer.

In sections where the trees are frozen up for a long time in
winter, protection from wind might prevent winter killing by
lessening the rapid evaporation from the twigs during the time
they are frozen up and cannot secure moisture from the soil
to replace that evaporated. Thus, in a climate like that of
Western Nebraska or the Dakotas a windbreak may be bene-
ficial in preventing the drying out of the twigs.

248—12

10 APPLE CULTURE § 4

In any climate where there is danger of serious winds in
summer, a windbreak would be beneficial in preventing wind-
falls, and the splitting of trees, but many orchardists prefer
to have this windbreak simply an additional two or three rows
of fruit trees than to have a windbreak of forest trees near.

A windbreak made of forest trees is sometimes trouble-
some in bringing and harboring insects and making still-air
pockets that increase the danger from spring frosts, and in
weakening the growth of the trees near the windbreak. In
a region where high winds prevail, a windbreak of forest trees
may be desirable, but in the average fruit section it probably
is not.

9. Proximity to Markets. — ^Accessibility to markets is
an important factor in determining the success of an orchard,
and in selecting a location this should always have careful
consideration. In locating for the summer apple business,
the distance from market will be of particular importance,
since the apples may have to be shipped in refrigerator cars
and thus transportation become rather expensive, and of
course in supplying any local market the distance that the
fruit must be hauled wiU be of great importance, because haul-
ing by wagon is expensive, and, as a rule, there will be more
or less injury to the fruit unless the roads are very good. A
difference of a few hundred miles from market, however,
amounts to less in determining the success or failure of an
orchard enterprise than adaptability of the section to fruit
growing. It would be much better to be 1,000 miles from_ a
large market like New York City in a good apple-growing
section than to be only 500 miles away where the soil and
climatic conditions are not so well adapted to apple growing.
However, shipping is one of the greatest expenses of the orchard
business and the distance the fruit must be shipped will of
course have considerable to do with the net profits. Thus
the market in cities in Texas and other southern points where
apples are not grown is generally better than the northern
markets, and a location in Southern Missouri and Northern
Arkansas or other good apple-growing sections near these

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 11

markets is desirable on this account. If it is intended to supply
a local market, the quantity of apples grown in the neighbor-
hood will be of importance, since the local demand will be lim-
ited and the market might be easily oversupplied. In this case
a locality in which only a few growers are in the business may
be preferable, but where the apples are shipped to the general
market it is particularly desirable to be in a section where a
great many apples are grown, since a large number of the best
buyers will be likely to come into the district and there will
doubtless be an opportunity for cooperative marketing. It is
also likely that in such a section certain supplies for the orchard,
especially the oil for heating if this is necessary, will be some
cheaper, because larger quantities will be used.

SELECTION OF VARIETIES

10. The selection of varieties to be planted is one of the
important questions the man who plans to establish an orchard
is called upon to decide. If the orchard is largely for home use
and it is not expected to make it a revenue producer to any
great extent, the owner is undoubtedly justified in humoring
personal preferences, in planting many different varieties, and
in doing considerable experimental planting. Such a course
is, however, extremely unfavorable to the best success of a
commercial orchard. In the latter case it is particularly
important that a proper selection of varieties be made. The
important points to be borne in mind in connection with this
selection are the growing of varieties suitable to the market
available and the growing of varieties adapted to the section
in which the orchard is located. It is obvious that market
requirements should be considered in selecting varieties for an
orchard, for to attempt to force one variety on a market that
calls for and is willing to pay a premium for other varieties
is to work at a distinct disadvantage. It is, of course, true that
if a given variety is not in demand in one market it is always
possible for the grower' to ship to another market, but it is
also true that such a course is likely to involve a more or less
heavy transportation charge. Occasionally there are special

12 APPLE CULTURE § 4

considerations that may justify the additional expense, but
as a general rule the orchardist will find it advisable to cater
to general markets that are reasonably close at hand.

1 1 . The selection of varieties that are adapted to the locality
in which the orchard is located is perhaps even more impor-
tant than the question discussed in the preceding article.
It is no more possible to name a best variety of apples or a
most profitable variety of apples than it is possible to say that
a given soil is best. A variety of apples that does well in one
section may be entirely unsuited to another section, hence
suggestions for the selection of varieties must be along general

'lines. Unless the orchardist is already posted as to what
varieties are being grown successfully in his section, one of
the first steps should be to obtain this information. This
may be done by visiting successful orchards in his locality,
by correspondence with horticulturists and horticultural asso-
ciations, and by a study of periodicals devoted to orcharding.

12. In the following paragraphs some general suggestions
with reference to standard varieties suitable for various apple-
growing sections are offered, but it should be understood that
they are, as stated, general suggestions, and that it is expected
that the grower will consider them in connection with the
other sources of information already enumerated.

Throughout the United States and Canada there is, of course,
a wide diversity of soil and chmatic conditions, but it is pos-
sible to divide this area into sections in which these conditions
are, to a greater or less extent, uniform. Different authori-
ties on apple growing make somewhat different divisions of
the territory, and it is obvious that the lines of division between
two sections cannot be sharply drawn. The classification of
sections given herewith is offered merely as a general indication
of localities in which approximately similar conditions as to
apple growing exist. The varieties mentioned in connection
with the different sections are not strictly limited to those
sections, and there are likely to be restricted areas in any or all
of the sections in which the conditions will differ from the gen-
eral average of the region. Notwithstanding these departures,

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 13

however, the general facts set forth in the classification will
serve as a guide to an orchardist in selecting varieties to meet
his conditions.

13. Varieties for the New York Section. — By far the

most important apple-growing section in North America is
what may be designated the New York section which com-
prises, in addition to the state of New York, the New England
states, Pennsylvania, and parts of Ohio and Michigan. The
leading variety of the New York section is the Baldwin and two
other varieties that are extensively planted and successfully
grown in the section are the Northern Spy and the Rhode
Island Greening. A very large percentage of the crop is made
up of the varieties mentioned, but there are, of course, many
other varieties that do well and yield satisfactory returns.
Among these may be mentioned Tompkins King, Roxbury,
Golden Russet, Hubbardston, Esopus, Spitzenburg, Ben Davis,
Tolman Sweet, Twenty Ounce, Seek-No-Further, Fameuse,
Yellow and Green Newton, Oldenburg, Wealthy, Mcintosh,
Alexander, Blue Pearmain and Rome Beauty.

In a considerable portion of Michigan the apples grown are
similar to those grown in New York, though a number of
Michigan seedlings have come to be of considerable importance,
and in the sandy region of Northern Michigan the Oldenburg
is grown very largely for marketing in the summer. Wealthy,
Fameuse, and Mcintosh are also good apples in this section,
as they are in Wisconsin and parts of Minnesota. Even in
extremely cold regions like the Dakotas these varieties do fairly
well, but some hardy Russian varieties like the Wolf River and
Alexander are perhaps better for such localities.

14. Varieties for the Virginia Section. — The region
to which some authorities have given the name Virginia sec-
tion comprises New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, and parts of Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana.
Some of the varieties most extensively grown in the Virginia
section are the Ben Davis, Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Rome
Beauty, York Imperial, Green and Yellow Newton, Albemarle,
and the Winesaps. In the higher moimtain regions of this

14 APPLE CULTURE § 4

section the Baldwin and other apples that are popular in the
New York section are extensively grown. The Grimes Golden
is said to reach its best development in the" Virginia section.
A part of this section, especially Delaware, Virginia, Mary-
land, and adjoining localities is particularly noted for the pro-
duction of summer apples.

15. Varieties for tlie Missouri Section. — The Missoiiri
section includes Missouri, Arkansas, part of Illinois, Kansas,
and Oklahoma, and some regions adjacent to these states.
The Ben Davis is the predominant variety in the section, and
some of the other more important varieties are Jonathan, the
Winesap group. Grimes Golden, Ingram, and York Imperial.
Probably the best winter apple for this section is the Ingram.

The Ben Davis group includes varieties known as Gano,
Black Ben, and Ben Davis. Of these, the latter is probably
most extensively planted, but it is possible that the Gano or
the Black Ben is more valuable. The Winesap group includes
the Winesap, Stajmian, Arkansas, Arkansas Black, King David
and others.

New varieties that are promising in this section are King
David, Delicious, Stayman Winesap, and Magnate.

In Southern Illinois summer apples have come to be exten-
sively grown. Yellow Transparent, Benoni, Sops of Wine,
Early Harvest, Maiden Blush, and Wealthy are grown. The
Wealthy is also grown extensively in Missouri. Apparently
the best siimmer apple for the Ozark region in Missouri and
Arkansas is Benoni, since it seems to be adapted to that soil
and withstands spring frosts.

16. Varieties for the Colorado Section. — In the Colo-
rado section, which includes the state from which it is named
and adjoining regions in which conditions are similar, there is
a very wide range of varieties. The Bellflower is extensively
grown, as well as Wealthy, Alexander, Mcintosh, Jonathan,
Rome Beauty, and the Winesap class. The Wealthy and
Alexander are especially well adapted to the higher mountain
regions.

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 15

17. Varieties for tlie Northwest. — In the Hood River

district of the Northwest, the most important varieties are the
Spitzenburg and Newtown. The Ortley is also coming into
prominence in this region. In other sections of the Northwest,
the Spitzenburg, Newtown, and Ortley varieties are important,
as are also the Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Winter Banana,
Arkansas Black, Winesap, King David, and Delicious; and the
Ben Davis is also a common variety. The Winesap type of
apples is grown more in the warmer valleys of the Northwest.
In the Bitter Root valley only the hardiest varieties are grown
successfully, the two most important being Mcintosh and
Alexander, though Wealthy and Fameuse are also grown.

SELECTION OF NURSERY STOCK

18. Buying of Nursery Stock. — In most cases the man
who is putting out an orchard will find it advisable to buy his
nursery stock directly from a nursery, and it is, of course, well
to know something of the honesty and reliability of the nursery-
man. If it is planned to order from a nursery in any large
quantity, it will always be advisable to ask for the wholesale
price list and to get quotations from more than one firm, since
considerable may be saved in some cases by so doing. The
practice of buying from agents and accepting their advice
as to varieties, age of trees, and other details is not one that
is likely to prove satisfactory. No nursery trees should be
accepted that do not bear a certificate from a state or a national
nursery inspector showing that the nursery is free from danger-
ous insects and diseases. The buyer should also insist on get-
ting the varieties he orders. Some nurserymen take the liberty
of substituting in case they are unable to supply the variety
ordered, and for this reason it is a good plan to specify on each
order that no substitution will be accepted.

19. Appearance of Nursery Trees. — ^A good rule for
guidance in the selection of nursery stock is to choose trees
that have made a good, vigorous growth in the nursery. Trees
that have made a slow, weak growth in the nursery may be as
likely to live as those that have made a more vigorous growth,

APPLE CULTURE

but the former will probably be a year or two later than the
latter in coming into bearing, and, as a rule, the mature trees
will scarcely be as good.

The roots of a good nursery tree should be strong and well
developed, and there should be, for best results, four or five

large rather than a lot of small roots clustered around the old
root that formed a part of the graft. In Fig. 1 (a) is shown a
desirable 1-year-old tree; in (6) is shown a good 2-year-old
tree; and in (c) is shown a 2-year-old tree that has made a
slow, weak growth, probably due to a poor soil in the nursery.

§4 • APPLE CULTURE 17

20. Age of Nursery Trees. — Beginners frequently make
the mistake of selecting 2-year-old trees, regardless of their
quality, in preference to 1-year-old trees. A good-sized,
healthy 1-year-old tree is better under some conditions than a
2-year-old tree, and some orchardists declare a strong prefer-
ence for the former. The location and spacing of the branches
on a 2-year-old tree will be determined by the condition under
which the tree was grown in the nursery. Usually there will
be a dense growth of limbs beginning about 1| or 2 feet up
on the main stem, then a space containing no limbs, then
another dense growth of young limbs. Such a condition often
makes it difficult for the orchardist to start branches exactly
where it is desired to have them. A large 1-year-old tree, say
4 feet in height, can be cut back a little before planting, and
still be left long enough that the four or five limbs desired can
be spaced so chat none of them will be closer than 5 or 6 inches
from its nearest neighbors. However, a good 2-year-old tree
will usually withstand more adverse conditions, especially
severe cold if planted in the fall, than will a 1-year-old tree.

21. Northern- Grown and Soutliern- Grown Trees.

Some difference of opinion exists among orchardists as to
whether or not northern-grown trees are hardier than southern-
grown trees. It may be said, however, that most authorities
are agreed that a tree is hardy or tender according to the vari-
ety rather than according to where the tree was grown. For
example, each Ben Davis tree is a part of the original Ben Davis
tree and its ability to withstand cold is determined by hereditary
qualities that existed in the original Ben Davis tree rather than
by the climatic condition under which a tree was grown in the
nursery. Of course, if trees are grown in a southern nursery
and continue to grow so late in the fall that the wood does
not have time to ripen before freezing weather, they are in no
condition to withstand winters farther north. The best plan
is to insist on trees that are well matured rather than on trees
that have been grown in a certain section.

22. Value of Trees Propagated by Various Methods.

Some nurservmen claim that a tree made from a whole-root

18 APPLE CULTURE § 4

graft will be permanently a better tree than one made from a
piece-root graft. They base this claim on the fact that a tree
from the whole-root graft will have a tap root — that is, a root
running straight down from the body of the tree — and will
tend to grow deep; with a piece-root graft, the tap root will
have been lost and the roots will tend to spread out in the soil.
From the description of grafting operations as detailed in
another Section, it will be seen that this claim is ridiculous,
since in both cases the tap root has been cut; the only difference
is that in one case the root has been cut a little shorter than in
the other. As a matter of fact, the only advantage of the whole-
root graft is to the nurseryman. Sometimes he is able by the
system of grafting whole roots to secure a larger percentage of
trees that will grade, say, 4 feet or over when they are 1 year old.

Actual experience with whole-root and piece-root trees shows
no difference in bearing qualities or ability to root deep in the
soil. At the Missouri Experiment Station there are a nimiber
of Jonathan trees, one-fourth of which were secured from piece
roots taken from the first piece at the top, one-fourth from piece
roots taken from the second piece from the top, one-fourth
from piece roots taken from the third piece from the top, and
one-fourth were from whole roots, the roots being actually
whole roots and not large piece roots such as are commonly
spoken of as whole roots. In every case the piece-root trees
are as profitable as the whole-root trees.

Some nurseries claim better results from budded trees than
from grafted trees, the theory being that there is not a per-
manent union between che stock and the scion in the case of
the grafted trees. These claims are usually made by agents
who, in many cases, have with them a portion of a grafted
tree cut through lengthwise in such a way that the original
graft shows and they often emphasize strongly the fact that
this has never permanently united but has only been grown
over with new wood. As a matter of fact, if a budded tree
were cut through to show where the bud was inserted, it would
be found that the old dead end of the stock is there just as it
is in the case of the grafted tree, and it may be said that there
is absolutely no fundamental difference between budded and

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 19

grafted trees in this respect. Of course, if the budded tree
were budded on a 2-year-old root instead of a 1-year-old root,
it should be larger at the end of the first year, and a very large,
strong, stocky whip is the most ideal tree to set; but if these
can be secured from grafted trees they are equally as good as
from budded trees.

23. Home Propagation of Apple Trees. — If a man is

sufhciently acquainted with the niursery business, it may at
times be profitable for him to propagate his trees, especially
if he has limited capital and is doing his own work on the farm.
The stocks and scions can be secured much more cheaply than
the trees, and he can care for them at odd times or by working
overtime. But, as a rule, it is only in case of a man who has
had considerable experience in this work that this course would
be advisable, and then it will not pay unless he has a soil that
will grow a strong, young tree. If a man is hiring his work
done it wiU certainly not pay, for the reason that by growing
them on a small scale the work will have to be done in a less
efficient manner or more expensive manner than if they are
grown on a large scale as in a nursery. Further, if there is
lack of skill on the part of the workmen so that only a small
percentage of the trees grown make good trees, home propa-
gation is likely to be extremely unsatisfactory.

PLANTING OF APPLE TREES

24. Time of Planting'. — ^Apple trees may be planted in
the spring or in the fall, and there has been much discussion
as to whether spring planting or fall planting is best. In Can-
ada and the northern part of the United States away from the
Great Lakes, spring planting will probably always be most
advisable, for in such climates there is likely to be consider-
able winter injury to the young trees planted in the fall. Trees
planted in the spring escape some adverse conditions that must
be endured by trees planted in the fall, and unless there are
some distinct advantages in fall planting, spring planting is
usually preferred. However, it is well known that soil at a

20 APPLE CULTURE §4

depth of a few inches remains warm in the fall long after the
air becomes too cold for plant growth. Then, unless the roots
have a rest period like the tops, it woiild be expected that some
root growth would be made in the fall and thus the trees would
be ready to start off into a more rapid growth in the spring.
This matter has not been tested as extensively as it should be,
but a few tests have indicated tmquestionably that in a mild
climate such as that in Missouri, Illinois, Virginia, etc., there
may be root growth in the fall. The Missoiiri Botanical
Garden, cooperating with the Nebraska Experiment Station,
foimd that in some cases root growth was made by apple
trees in the fall when the trees were planted early in the fall,
and the Missouri Experiment Station has confirmed this finding.

The important test of fall planting, however, is the growth •
made by the trees the season following as compared with spring-
planted trees. As the result of the experiment at the Missouri
Botanical Garden, the following figures v/ere given for the
growth of the roots and top: The trees were dug on July 2
and top and root growth measured. In the case of Ben Davis
apples the average top growth for fall-planted trees was
14 inches, and the root growth 8 inches; for spring-planted
trees the top growth was 12 inches and the root growth 5 inches.
In the case of fall-planted Shackleford trees, the top growth
was 17 inches and the root growth 5 inches; for spring-planted
trees the top growth was 7 inches and root growth 9 inches.
In the case of fall-planted Winesap trees the top growth was
12 inches and the root growth 8 inches; for spring-planted trees
the top gro^vth was 7 inches and the root growth 6 inches.
In the case of fall-planted Oldenburg trees the top growth was
7 inches and the root growth 7 inches; for spring-planted trees
the top growth was 10 inches and the root growth 8 inches.

25. In experiments conducted at the University of Missouri
beginning in 1908, the twig growth was measured and the
diameter of the trees was determined by means of calipers
in the fall of 1909 after all growth had ceased! The average
linear growth of the fall-planted trees was 224to inches per
tree, and the average increase in diameter was yf inch; the

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 21

average linear growth of the spring-planted trees was 124
inches, and the average increase in diameter was if inch. In
the season of 1910, the total linear growth of the fall-planted
trees was 80j feet and the average increase in diameter was
1^ inches; the average linear growth of spring-planted trees
was 63iV feet, and the average increase in diameter was
IJ inches. It will be seen from this that the fall-planted trees
showed remarkably better growth than the spring-planted
trees.

In the latter experiments the trees planted in the spring had
the best of conditions through the winter, which was a very
mild one; the trees came through in excellent condition, were
left standing in the nursery where they grew, and were trans-
planted from the nursery to the orchard, so that there was the
least possible shock from the transplanting.

Such a course as this is seldom if ever practicable in the case
of an orchardist buying trees from a nursery. Trees pur-
chased for spring planting are almost always those that have
been dug by nurserymen the preceding fall and stored in bins,
cellars, or storehouses through the winter. Although this
method of handling trees is absolutely necessary in any nursery
that does a large business, it is objectionable for the reason
that the trees are kept at a comparatively high temperature
during the winter and the process of respiration that goes on
under this condition tends to use up the plant-food stored up
in the tree, and in this way the food available for spring growth
is reduced. In this respect fall planting is preferable to spring
planting, for fall-planted trees do not pass the winter in stor-
age but in the orchard, where the temperature is not favorable ■
to respiratory action, hence the supply of plant-food is not
materially reduced. However, it is never advisable to plant
in the fall if the soil is very dry. Under such conditions there
is a risk that the soil will contmue dry and in this case the trees
are likely to die during the winter. If the soil is in moist
condition at the time of planting, however, there is little
danger that it will become too dry for the trees during the
winter, since the soil does not dry out greatly through the
winter.

22 APPLE CULTURE §4

26. For spring planting, which will in most sections "of
the United States and Canada be more satisfactory than fall
planting, nursery stock should be ordered the preceding fall,
and it is likely that in most cases fall deHvery of the stock will
also be advisable. In extreme northern sections fall delivery
may not be advisable, because where winter temperatures are
extremely low there is a better chance of the trees enduring
them without injury in the nurseryman's storehouse than in
a cellar or improvised storehouse belonging to the orchard-
ist. However, in fruit sections where the winters are not so
rigorous, the trees can usually be kept through the winter
in better condition outside than in the nurseryman's store-
house. Furthermore, by ordering in the fall, the buyer is
more certain to get the trees grown by the nursery from which
he is ordering, and can thus know something about the
conditions under which they are grown; in the spring the
nursery is lilcely to be out of certain varieties that may be
desired and in such cases the trees would perhaps be secured
from some other nursery.

27. Some special precautions in the storage of nursery
stock between the time of delivery and the time of planting
is usually necessary. In most cases trees will be received from
the nursery all the way from one week to several weeks before
it is desired to begin planting. But even if the orchardist is
ready to begin planting the very day the trees are received
it will probably be necessary to store some of them while others
are being planted, and unless this storage is under suitable con-
ditions great injury may be done to the young trees. Orchard-
ists commonly resort to what is known as heeling-in as a means
of preventing injury to nursery stock when it is not possible
or advisable to plant it immediately on its receipt from the
nursery.

To heel-in trees, a trench is dug with a straight side against
which the roots are placed and a slanting side on which the
tops lie, as shown in Fig. 2 (a). This trench should be dug
approximately 1 foot deep, in a well-drained place. All bundles
of trees should be opened and the trees distributed along the

APPLE CULTURE

trench so that the earth can be packed firmly around each
tree. The soil should be fiUed in over the roots and up at least
6 or 8 inches on the trunks. A row of nursery trees heeled-in
according to the plan described is shown in Fig. 2 (b) .

It has been observed that few men will take as much care
to heel-in trees as should be taken, and doubtless many trees

(aj

are seriously injured in this way. If a tree is thus injured it
may, in time, recover from the effects, but it can scarcely make
as good a tree as if proper attention had been given to the
details of heeling-in.

28. Sometimes, when the trees are secured in the fall and
well-drained soil is available, it pays to cover both the roots
and the tops of the trees. The advantage of this is not alone

24 APPLE CULTURE §4

in preventing freezing, but also in preventing the starting of
the trees into growth by warm days in winter. Heeled-in in
this way they do not reach a temperature above that of the
soil, which, during the winter, is never high enough to start
growth. This is a very desirable method in southern apple-
growing sections to prevent starting growth during winter
if the trees are not set in the fall, and is also very desirable in
extreme northern sections as a means of preventing winter
injury to the trees. But, as stated, it is not permissible except
in localities where well-drained soil is available.

29. Distance for Planting Apple Trees. — The ques-
tion of proper distance for planting apple trees is one that
deserves careful consideration by the man who is putting out
an orchard. Undoubtedly many beginners rnake the mistake
of getting the trees close together. With average varieties,

25 feet apart each way may be considered the minimiim dis-
tance, and 50 feet apart each way is about the maximum, but
this latter distance is certainly too great if it is intended to
keep the trees down to manageable size. In rich soils probably
35 feet may be taken as an average distance for planting,
although in many soils this may be a greater distance than is
necessary if the trees receive the proper repressive pruning.
It is unquestionably a serious matter to get trees planted too
close. It is not uncommon to see orchards in which the trees
are so close that most of them fail to set good bloom, and in
sections in the same orchard where a few trees are missing the
trees that had more room may have set a good crop of bloom.
Just what the distance should be under good system of repres-
sive pruning has not been carefully determined, but experience
indicates that an average of 25 feet for thin hill soil will give
desirable results; for a soil where trees make a rather vigorous
growth, 30 or 35 feet may be taken as a more desirable distance.

SYSTEMS OF PLANTING

30. A number of different systems of planting with refer-
ence to the number of trees per acre, the spacing of trees in the
rows and the rows in the orchard, are in use among practical

APPLE CULTURE-

orchardists. The most important systems will be described
in succeeding paragraphs, but no attempt will be made to
enumerate aU of Lhe various modifications of these systems
that are made to meet special conditions. It is well for the
beginner to study the plans outlined and determine for himself
which is best suited to his conditions, for it cannot be said that
any one is unqualifiedly best.

Of the planting systems that are described subsequently
some permit the planting of a greater number of trees on a
given area than others. In Table I are given figures that will
enable an orchardist to determine approximately how many
trees may be planted on a given area by the various systems.
In the case of small plantings or plantings on plots of irreg-
ular shape it may not be possible to get the full number
specified in the table, but except under such conditions the
figures are accurate enough for practical purposes.

TABLE I
NUMBER OF TREES TO PLANT PER ACRE BY VARIOUS SYSTEMS

Distance Apart

Square System

Quincunx

System

Hexagonal

System

16X16

170

303

196

18X18

134

239

154

20X20

108

192

124

22X22

148

104

24X24

132

25X25

125

26X26

114

28X28

100

'30X30

32X32

33X33

36X36

40X40

45X45

248—13

APPLE CULTURE

31. Square System. — Doubtless the system most com-
monly used is what is known as the square system, in which the
trees are arranged in squares. In Fig. 3 is shown a small tract
laid out for planting trees by the square system, with some of
the trees in place at a. The distance between the trees in a row
is the same as the distance between rows. As before stated, this
system of planting is extensively followed, and its simplicity
makes it well adapted for inexperienced orchardists. Never-
theless, it has its disadvantages, one of the chief of which is the
fact that it does not distribute the trees evenly over the area
planted. The trees are all the same distance apart in the rows

-@:7—

■/.■Kk

Fig. 3

and cross-rows, but in a diagonal direction the distance between
trees is considerably greater. For example, in Fig. 3 if the trees
are planted 30 feet apart in the rows, the rows will also be 30 feet
apart but the distance between alternate trees in two adjacent
rows will be somewhat in excess of 42 feet, and if the trees are
planted 40 feet apart in the rows the diagonal distance between
trees will be upwards of 56 feet.

If fillers, which subject is discussed elsewhere in the Section,
are used in the square system of planting, one plan is to alter-
nate fillers with permanents in each row. Thus, in Fig. 3 the
trees marked / would be fillers. When the fillers are removed

§4

APPLE CULTURE

the permanent trees are still in the square system but the rows
and cross-rows will run diagonally with the original rows and
the distance between rows and trees will be the diagonal of
the original squares. Other methods of planting fillers in the
square system are discussed under the subject of fillers.

32. Quincunx System. — ^A plan of orchard planting known
as the quincunx system is in favor with some orchardists, but
it cannot be said that the system is extensively used. As sug-
gested by the prefix quin, m.eaning five, the trees are planted
in fives. Four trees are planted in a square as in the square
system and a fifth tree is placed in the center of the square.
Fig. 4 is a diagram of a field partly lined off to indicate the

■mm

Fig. 4

points at which trees are to be planted. When this plan of
planting is followed the usual course is to set permanent trees
in the comers and a filler in the center of the square. It will
be seen from the diagram that after the removal of the fillers
the remaining trees are in the square system. The distance
between trees in the square will be the same and the distance
between the filler and the trees in the square will be one-half
of the diagonal of the square. Thus, if the trees are 30 feet
apart in the square, the diagonal will be about 42 feet and

28 APPLE CULTURE §4

the center tree will be a little more than 21 feet from each
comer tree.

33. Hexagonal System. — ^Another plan of orchard plant-
ing is known as the hexagonal system. By this system
the trees of the second row alternate or break joints with those
of the first row and those of the third row alternate with those
of the second. The trees are all the same distance apart,
but the distance between the rows is less than the distance
between trees in the rows. The diagram in Fig. 5 will show
how this condition is brought about. In this case it is assumed
that the trees are planted 30 feet apart in the row. The first
tree in the second row is set opposite a point midway between
the first and the second trees in the first row and 30 feet from
each of them . The second tree of the second row is set opposite

30 Feei- Firsi- ffoM

Fig. 5

a point midway between the second and the third tree of the
first row and 30 feet from each of them, and the same plan is
continued throughout the orchard. Each tree is 30 feet from
adjacent trees in the same row and also 30 feet from adjacent
trees in adjoining rows, but the distance between the rows them-
selves is a little short of 26 feet. This system permits the plant-
ing of about 15 per cent, more trees on a given area than the
square system.

The hexagonal system of planting is desirable for the reason
that it distributes the trees evenly over the field, which is not
the case in either of the systems previously described, but it is
objectionable if fillers are to be used, because in this case it is
difficult to place the fillers in such positions as to leave the per-
manent trees in a desirable arrangement after removing the

APPLE CULTURE

former. One of the plans that will leave a regular arrangement
is to make each alternate row all fillers and alternate fillers with
permanent trees in the remaining rows. Such an arrangement
is illustrated in Fig. 6, in which the large trees represent per-
manent ones and the small trees are the fillers. An examination
of the diagram will make it clear that the removal of all the
fillers sacrifices such a large percentage of the trees in the
orchard that such a plan is obviously objectionable. As a
means of avoiding this sacrifice different methods of thinning
the trees are frequently resorted to and often the result is that

S5--^s— -t.#— ^-

.I.J-

■ft"

s-j-p-

i—i - «S — I - ■

■S3— j--

Fig. 6

some fillers are allowed to remain so long that many of the
trees are seriously injured by crowding.

34. Combination Systems. — Not infrequently a com-
bination of two of the systems described is found to be better
adapted to the needs of the orchardist than any one of them
alone. One such combination plan is described herewith, but
others may be worked out. The plan referred to is illustrated
in Fig. 7, from which it will be seen that the planting is in the
square system, with trees 20 feet apart. In the odd-numbered
rows, that is the first, third, fifth, etc., fillers are alternated
with permanent trees. In the even-numbered rows fillers and
half fillers are alternated, the temi half filler' signifying a tree

APPLE CULTURE

that is to remain in the orchard longer than a filler but is iilti-
mately to be removed in order to give the permanent trees
room. In the diagram, permanent trees are indicated by p,
half fillers by h.f., and fillers by/. The fillers may be taken out

— eo'-o'- -I- eo'-o" 4

(St 43h-

cu-

(-:

'^.

-<M

■^*

-^fi^

W-

Fig. 7

-(h.f;

,^P

by removing alternate diagonal rows. When this is done the
remaining trees are in the qmncunx system. Later, when the
half fillers are removed, the remaining trees are in the square
sysbem, the trees being 40 feet apart. A point in favor of this
system of planting is that if the permanent trees for any

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 31

reason fail to make a satisfactory showing before the fillers are
removed the latter may be retained as permanent trees and
the unsatisfactory trees removed.

USE OP PILLEBS

35. The interest, taxes, and cost of cultivating 40 acres of
land with, say, 50 trees to the acre will be as much as with 100
trees to the acre, and while the trees are young the expense
of pruning and spraying is comparatively small. If no profit-
able crops other than fruit can be grown between the rows,
and this will be the case in some hilly, stony land, it may some-
times be desirable to plant what are known as fillers — that is,
plant other trees in addition to those it is intended to leave
permanently. These fillers may be of the same variety as the .i
trees meant to be kept permanently, or they may be some
other variety that comes into bearing earlier. In all cases
the intention is to get as many crops as possible from the fillers
and when the trees get so they will interfere, to cut out the fill-,
ers, leaving only the permanent trees. It is obvious that the use
of fillers may materially increase the income from an orchard
during the early years of its life, but there may be another
advantage. For example, a man may not be certain which of
two varieties he prefers to have as his permanent trees. If he
plants them alternately in the row each of them will be better
known by the time they come into bearing and he can be more
certain which he prefers to keep for his permanent trees. The
danger, however, in the use of fillers is that if the orchard con-
taining fillers is profitable, the orchardist will be extremely
reluctant to cut the latter out soon enough and may leave them
until the vigor of the permanent trees- is impaired or the form
of the trees injured.

Some plans for the planting of fillers in an orchard have been
suggested in connection with the descriptions of the various
systems of orchard planting, but others may be used.

If it is planned to use the square system, the fillers may be
planted in the row in one direction, and usually the rows are
best left the full distance apart in the other direction. Then,

32 APPLE CULTURE §4

supposing that the permanent trees are 30 feet apart, the
rows would be 15 feet apart one way and 30 feet apart the
other, as in Fig. 8. It is possible, also, to insert the fillers
so that the temporary planting will be in the quincunx

p f p

» '^ <© -Q » ^ ^ Q —

Fig. 8

system and the permanent orchard, after the removal of the
fillers, will be in the square system. Thus, if the permanent
trees are 30 feet apart each way, a filler may be planted in the
center of each of the squares, which will give a quincunx system,

p p p

^. /pV-Jo'-o"/l/w-/vip\

\. /' \ 40 '\

, , I Ml -^"l

/ \ / \ I

Fig. 9

as shown in Fig. 9, and when it is necessary to cut out the fillers,
it wiU be an easy matter to simply cut out these complete
rows. By this system there is the further advantage that no
trees of the fillers will be closer than 21 feet from the perma-
nent trees. If an orchard is on hill land, however, this may

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 33

necessitate temporary plowing in the wrong direction over the
hill. In this case planting between the trees in the permanent
rows would perhaps be preferable.

In planting an orchard that is to contain fillers, it is advis-
able to plant one variety at a time, thus reducing the chance
for mistakes.

36. Peaclies as Fillers. — Sometimes, instead of using
different -varieties of apples as fillers, peaches are planted
between the apple trees. Advocates of this practice point out
the fact that, as the life of the peach^ree is much shorter than
that of the apple tree, the former may go through ics full bear-
ing period before it needs to be cut out of an apple orchard.
If the peaches and apples are to receive the same kind of cul-
tivation, this practice may be desirable. However, it necessi-
tates going into the orchard at different times for the spraying ;
that is, the apples would be sprayed at one time and the peaches
at another, or with a different mixture. A further disadvantage
is that the land where an apple orchard is to be located will
seldom be altogether desirable for peach growing. Further-
more, it is likely that in many cases the apple trees will be
in the way at the time of picking the peaches. These objections
may not be serious, and in some cases it may be desirable to
plant peaches or some other stone fruits, as fillers in an apple
orchard, but orchardists who have tried the plan have found
various little inconveniences that they did not expect, and
have generally found it undesirable to mix these fruits in the
same planting.

37. Pears as Fillers. — Pears may at times be used for
fillers, since pear trees tend to grow upright. However, there
are some objections to this practice. One of these is that pears
are almost as long-lived as apples and do not come into bearing
much earlier. Another is that if the apples are varieties that
are subject to blight, there would be a very great disadvantage
in having pears in the orchard, since they may infect the apple
trees with the disease.

38. Small Fruits as Fillers. — In sections where small
fruits can be grown profitably, they are planted between the

34 APPLE CULTURE §4

trees instead of using tree fruits as fillers. The advantage of
this plan is that the orchardist can begin to get something from
the small fruits much sooner than from the tree fruits ; and they
are free from some of the disadvantages of tree fillers; espe-
cially, there is no danger that they will not be cut out in time.
Some orchardists have become wealthy on the strawberries
grown between apple trees before they came into bearing, and
thus if for any reason, the grower should fail to secure profits
from the trees, he is still financially ahead. Strawberries are
desirable in an orchard, since they require the cultivation that
is adapted to the requirements of the orchard, and are not
greatly injurious to the soil. Strawberries, however, are profit-
able only where the grower is reasonably near a local market
so that they can be shipped by express or hauled into market,
or in a section where there are many other people growing
strawberries and the growers can cooperate in getting their
fruit on the market.

Blackberries, also, have been grown very satisfactorily
between apple-tree rows, but they are not as desirable as straw-
berries, since they present more difficulty in getting through
the orchard for spraying, etc., and in most sections they are
not as profitable as strawberries.

Other bush fruits have been used with various degrees of
success. Some orchardists grow gooseberries in an orchard,
and find them fairly satisfactory. The shade afforded by the
trees seems in some cases to benefit the gooseberry plants, so
that they make a better growth than they would on open
ground.

39. Removal of Fillers. — The question of tillage after
the trees begin to reach good size brings up the question of
when to remove fillers, if temporary trees have been used
between the permanent ones. The general advice may be
given to cut out the fillers as soon as the outer spread of their
branches begins to reach the outer spread of the branches of
the adjacent trees. The tendency on the part of the grower is
to allow the fillers to stand too long ; he wants to get one more
crop from them. Frequently, they are allowed to remain until

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 35

they themselves are crowded so they cease to produce well
and until in turn they crowd and injure the permanent trees.
The orchardist should be prepared to remove the fillers promptly
as soon as the permanent trees need all the room. Ordinarily,
it is a simple matter for the orchardist to tell by observation
when two adjacent trees begin to interfere with each other's
best development.

METHODS OF PLANTING

40. Plan of the Orchard. — In laying out a large orchard,
it is not best to have the entire orchard in one block; it should
be laid out into several blocks with roadways around them.
Usually there should be roadways around every 40 acres and
in addition to this there should be a wide row probably every
eight or ten rows. For example, if the distance the trees are
set is 25 feet, probably the tenth or eleventh row should be
35 feet, or if the trees are to become large and are set 35 feet
apart, the distance between the tenth and eleventh rows should
be 40 feet, though in many cases with the trees 35 feet apart
they will not become so large that these wider rows will be
necessary.

There are several reasons for planting an orchard in blocks of
about ten rows as suggested. In hatding out the brush from
pruning, it is often practical to use a hay frame and haul large
spreading loads. In this case hauling between the ordinary
orchard rows would injiire some of the limbs. Furthermore,
it is convenient to get through with loads of fruit if wider roads
are left at intervals. Another reason for planting the trees
in blocks is to seciu-e pollination. Many of the varieties used
commercially must be pollinated from some other variety.
Thus, with the Jonathan, it is necessary to have some variety
Hke Ben Davis, Delicious, or Wealthy to pollinate it. It is
best to alternate in blocks rather than in rows for the sake of
convenience. Ten rows is here suggested as a size of the block,
because so far as experience indicates, five rows seems to be
as far as pollination is satisfactorily accomplished. In a plant-
ing of ten rows of Ben Davis or Delicious, and ten rows of
Jonathan, then ten rows of Ben Davis or Delicious, and so on,

36 APPLE CULTURE § 4

there will be five rows of Jonathan pollinated well from the
other variety in each direction.

41. Preparation of Soil for Planting. — In planting
young trees, it is desirable to secure vigorous vegetable growth
just as in the case of com or any other crop that may be grown.
It is therefore desirable to have the land in as good a condition
for rapid vegetative growth as it is possible to get it without
the expenditure of an excessive amount of money. There may
be occasional cases where it does not pay to go to the expense of
working the land into a good state of fertility and cultivation
before planting, particularly if the soil is light and gravelly.
In m'any cases, even though the soil is very poor, an excellent
growth can be secured on the young trees by the use of fertil-
izers. However, in the case of a heavy clay soil that is badly
worn, the fertihzers do not show the immediate benefits that
they do with hght soils. For this reason it is more important
with clay soils to get the soil into a good state of fertility and
cultivation before the orchard is planted, even if to do this it
is necessary to grow crops like cowpeas for a year or two before
planting the orchard.

42. Most orchard soils are timber soils rather than prairie
soils, and if it is new land, clearing will be the first operation
in preparation for orchard planting. If the timber is very
large and the soil rich and the style of orcharding is to be
intensive, that is if a good deal of money is to be expended on
an acre and there is rather certain prospect for a good return,
it will pay to get the stumps out of the land while clearing.
In this case the cost of clearing is high, particularly if there are
many large trees. In certain districts of the Northwest where
clearing the land of the stumps is practiced, the cost varies
from $75 to $200 an acre. With many hill soils in some apple
sections of the country, such an expenditure would not be
justified by the returns that can be hoped for from an acre.
Where the land is merely cleared without pulling or blasting
the stumps, the cost of clearing will range from $8 to possibly
$40 an acre, depending on the kind of timber. In some cases
the timber on the land will pay for the clearing, though with a

§4 APPLE CULTURE 37

great deal of orchard soil the timber on the land is not valuable.

For best results the ground should be broken deep before the
planting of the trees. As a rule, it may be said that the heavier
the clay, the deeper it should be broken, and on an average
from 5 to 7 inches would be approximately the proper depth to
break.

Tile drainage is not generally necessary in an orchard, because
soils that are of such a nature as to require such treatment
are, as a rule, unsuitable for orchard purposes. Furthermore,
tile drainage is likely to be rather inefficient in an orchard, for
the reason that the roots of the trees will penetrate the drains
and clog them.

43. Trees that are to be planted in the spring should be set
out as early as possible, and, as it is a well-known fact that
fall-plowed land becomes warm and dry enough to work in
the spring sooner than spring-plowed land, the ground should
be broken in the fall, and, if possible, it is advisable to leave it
rough until spring. It is usually better, just before planting
time in the spring, to work the ground down thoroughly, not
only so it will be in condition that the trees can be set more
easily, but because thoroughly worked-down soil makes marking
off of the land much easier and much more accurate.

If fall planting is to be practiced, it is better for the soil in
most cases, especially on hill land, if it can be left rough after
plowing. If it is worked down smooth in the fall there is likely
to be more or less injury from settling down the hill in winter
and also from washing; furthermore, the soil will not work so
well in the spring. More care will be necessary in setting the
trees if the ground is not harrowed down thoroughly in the
fall when planted, but they can be set in this way and the addi-
tional cost is not great enough to pay for working the soil down
in the fall and certainly not great enough to pay for the cost of
working it down in the fall and breaking it again in the spring.
If a crop is to be grown in the orchard this breaking in spring
would certainly be necessary, since the ground will settle much
more if worked down in the fall than if it is left rough. How-
ever, under some conditions it will be nearly impossible to get

88 APPLE CULTURE § 4

straight rows at the time of planting if the soil is left very
rough. In this case a light harrow should be used that will
only level oJff the rough places without working the ground deep.
In an old, worn soil in which for any reason the trees wiU
not respond readily to a small, inexpensive quantity of fertilizer
applied to them, it may in some cases pay to summer fallow,
that is, to let a growth of weeds get started and plow them
under during the simimer, letting the soil stand bare until cime
to plant the trees. Such practices as these may be further
desirable, both in clay soil like that mentioned, and in a very
poor, sandy soil in which it is imperative to have a certain
quantity of vegetable matter worked into the soil to get satis-
factory growth.

44. Preparation of Nursery Trees for Planting. — ^At

time of planting, a certain amount of pruning will be necessary
on both the top and the roots of the trees. Pruning of the
top is required, first, for the reason that it is necessary to
reduce the evaporating surface of the tree, since the ability of
the plant to secure water has been reduced by the breaking
up of the root system in transplanting. If no pruning were
done the leaf surface would become disproportionate to the root
system and consequently evaporation from the leaves would
be much more rapid than absorption by the roots. Another
consideration that requires pruning of the top is that an
unpruned tree is much more likely to be affected by strong
winds than one that has had a part of the top removed, for the
roots, not being well established, do not afford a secure anchor-
age and the tree is likely to be blowri to an inchned position.
If the top is reduced there will be less leaf surface exposed to
the wind, hence trees so treated are able to withstand strong
winds. A third object of pruning at this time is to remove
undesirable limbs and leave only those that are well spaced and
that will give a mature tree of the desired form.

Small 1-year-old trees usually require nothing more than
cutting off the end, and if the wood has ripened up well in the
nursery even this may not be necessary. Large 1-year-old trees
should be cut back to a 3-foot or a 3|-foot length, as shown at a

APPLE CULTURE

in Fig. 10; 2-year-old trees, however, require more pruning. In
general, they should be cut back to 3^ or 4 feet, superfluous
limbs removed, and the limbs that are allowed to remain should
be cut back about one-half of their length. In Fig. 11 dotted
lines represent the approximate points at which cutting should
be done on an average 2-year-old tree.
After deciding what limbs are desired co
make a symmetrical, well-balanced tree,
all others should be removed.

Regardless of whether the tree is 1 or 2
years old, the necessary pruning on the
roots is to cut off the ragged ends, thus
leaving smooth ends instead of the
broken ones left by the tree digger;
and if there is a thick mass of fibrous

roots, to cut out some of chem.

In the case of trees with very

long roots, it is entirely desirable

to cut them back so that a hole

not more than 12 or 15 inches

square will be large enough to
jk** set them. There is no appar-
ent advantage in having very

long roots on the trees when

they are set, and it is much

better to have short roots than

to have long roots twisted or

bent in the setting.

Fig. 11

Fig. 10

45. Dipping of Trees.

Some orchardists dip the tops

and even sometimes the roots

of nursery trees in hme-sulphur
solution or miscible oil just before planting. The object of
this treatment is to kill all San Jose scale that may by any chance
be present, also woolly aphis or other injurious insects of this
class. Experience has shown, however, that it is dangerous to
dip the roots in lime-sulphur, and slight injury may sometimes

40 APPLE CULTURE § 4

come from dipping the tops, though dipping the tops down to
the roots may be practiced without serious injury if care is
exercised. The Geneva, New York, Experiment Station made
thorough tests of dipping trees, using standard Hme-sulphur,
from which it was evident that even wetting the roots with
hme-sulphur caused serious injury. Any treatment that causes
injury that can be detected on the tree is certainly to be
avoided, for slight injury that is not detected may still be
enough to weaken the growth of the tree, and if there is any
one thing that the orchardist should work for it is a vigorous
growth of the tree the first few years. It is safer to use trees
that have been inspected by competent inspectors and to avoid
the processes like dipping and fumigation as far as possible.

46. Locating Trees in Straight Rows. — ^The surest
method of securing absolutely straight rows in an orchard is
to have a surveyor locate every tree, and this is sometimes
practiced in sections where the trees are sufficiently long-lived
and profitable and where the question of appearance is of suf-
ficient importance to justify such an expensive method. It is
likely that in most cases, however, the expense of this method
will be prohibitive. One of the most convenient methods of
securing straight rows in square planting is to locate the out-
side rows around the field carefully, probably by the aid of a
surveyor if the fences are not known to be on the line or if
the lines of the field are not definitely known, and to set a
row of stakes with one stake where each tree is to be located
in these rows around the field. If the lines of the field are
definitely known any intelligent man's judgment will suggest
methods of getting these stakes in the right place around the
field. Then through the center of the field in each direction,
another row of stakes is set as shown in Fig. 12.

With a field laid out in this way, there are always two stakes
available in two directions for determining the proper location
for each tree in the orchard. For example, the proper location
for a tree may be determined by sighting across stakes as
indicated by the lines in Fig. 12. The usual method is to set
a peg at the point where each tree should go as determined

APPLE CULTURE

41.

by sighting; but since the stake must be removed when the
hole for the tree is dug a planting board is commonly used to

•

•
•

•

J .

•

•
•

•

• 1

•'

•
•

Fig. 12

get each tree in its proper place. In Fig. 13 is shown a planting
board by means of which a tree can be planted exactly where
the stake originally stood. The notch of the board is fitted

Fig. 13

against the peg that represents the place for the tree and then
two pegs are driven into the ground through the holes in the
ends of the board. These pegs are left until the hole for the
tree is dug, and when the tree is to be set in the hole the board

248—14

APPLE CULTURE

is again placed on the pegs so that the holes in the ends pass
over these pegs. The method of using the planting board is
clearly shown in Fig. 14.

47. A cheaper method of laying out an orchard' is to use
a team and some form of plow, probably a bull tongue in most
cases, and mark off the rows in each direction, sighting to the
stakes that have been previously set around and across the
planting as mentioned. This method is probably as often

Fig. 14

resorted to as any other. It is also possible to locate the trees
without using either the system of marking or the planting
board but simply by sighting to stakes in each direction at the
time the tree is set. This method, however, is not so accurate
as the others, especially if the land is not level.

The field may be laid off with a plow in each direction by
using stakes that are set at the time of plowing. That is, say
an orchardist is laying off a planting east and west, the first
row is carefully located by three or four stakes set east and
west. Then, as the man doing the plowing passes the stake,
he measures off the proper distance to the next row and sets

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 43

the stake over to it. This will give him a line of stakes to come
back on in making the next row. It will be best to have an
assistant to help set the first end. The rows are located in
the other direction in the same way. Although this may not
locate the trees with mathematical precision, under most con-
ditions it is accurate enough.

48. In some cases the trees are located by means of a wire
such as is used with a check-rower com planter. A row is
first carefully laid out, and each tree in the row located, say
east and west at each end of the field; the wire should then be
stretched across the field north and south with some sort of
markers on it so spaced that each marker will represent the
correct position for a tree. The place for each tree may be
marked with a stake or a hole may be dug before the wire is
moved.

In hilly land it may be difficult to get the trees in straight
rows up and down the hill, though this is desirable on account
of the appearance. However, in all cases it is advisable to go
around the hill rather than over it, and it may be necessary to
set the trees in circles around the hill rather than in straight
rows across it. In this case the contour of the hill will generally
determine the method used for locating the trees.

49. Where trees are set by the hexagonal system, an excel-
lent way to locate the trees and get them in straight rows is
to locate the trees in the first row by means of surveying
instruments or some other accurate method. Then, with a
large triangle of wire, the length of each side of which is the
distance apart the trees are desired, the other trees may be
located. One point of the triangle is placed at the first tree
in the first row and one at the second tree in the same row,
making the points come exactly to the tree; then when the
triangle is drawn out and held level the other point is at the
right position for the first tree of the second row. For locating
the second tree, a point of the triangle is placed at the second
tree in the first row and a point at the third tree in the same
row; then the other point locates the second tree in the second
row. This, of course, can be carried on throughout the orchard.

APPLE CULTURE

If the orchard is in hilly land, the stakes used for locating
the trees should be tall, and the triangle should be held in
a horizontal position when locations for trees are being
determined.

50. Tools Used in Planting.— The tool most commonly
used in planting is a hght spade. If the soil is stony, work can
be done more rapidly by cutting off the comers of the spade
as shown in Fig. 15 (a) . In very stony land a mattock or grub-
bing hoe such as is shown in (b)
may perhaps be a better tool to set
trees with than a spade.

Some persons advocate blasting
the holes for trees. A crowbar or
other heavy iron bar is used to make
the hole about 3 feet deep and a
small charge of dynamite, usually
half a stick, is exploded in the hole;
then with a spade a hole is dug for
the tree. lb is claimed that such
an explosion tends to break up any
layer of hard subsoil that may be in
the soil and to favor better growth
of the tree roots. A great many
orchardists report good results from
this method, but it has not been
sufficiently tested by accurate ex-
periments to justify positive indorse-
ment of it. There is reason to
believe that in some soils it will give good results, for trees
imiformly make a better growth the first and second summers
on porous, well-drained soil where the roots can go deep than
they do on soils lacking these characteristics. If suitable con-
ditions can be produced by blasting it would seem desirable.

51. Handling of Trees. — ^At the time of setting it is
important to have enough trees on hand to set the entire plant-
ing that is staked off, and it is usually desirable to take trees
enough to set say four or five rows and heel them in about five

Fig. 15

§ 4 APPLE CULTURE 45

rows from the first row and carry this on throughout the plant-
ing, so that the trees will not have to be carried a long distance
during the planting process. In very large plantings it is
customary to have the trees in wagons and have the man in
the wagon throw them out and a boy carry them to the holes as
fast as the men can set them. In no case should the roots of
the trees be left exposed to the air until they become dry. It
is much better if the roots of the trees at the time of setting
are moist enough that the soil will stick to them. If only one
man is setting, the roots of not more than ten or twleve trees
should be exposed at one time unless weather conditions are
very favorable, as when the air is saturated with moisture.
All other trees should be carefully heeled-in by the method
previously mentioned. Of course, they need not be heeled-in
as carefully if they are to be planted within a few hours as if
they are to stay several days in the trench. As a rule, water
is used around the roots at planting time in only very small
plantings. If the soil is in good condition with reference to
moisture and the planting is done carefully, the use of water
is not generally necessary or even desirable.

In very few cases should trees be set any deeper than they
were set in the nru-sery. In a very porous, warm soil it may
be well to set them slightly deeper, but deep setting, especially
in a soil that tends to be compact, is likely to break the ends
of the roots. Furthermore, when the soil is so cold that new
roots start very slowly and the soil is not so well supplied with
the necessary elements of plant-food, deep setting is not to
be recommended. Some persons practice deep setting to keep
the trees from being blown to a leaning position, but this is
not to be recommended, for if the top of the tree has been suf-
ficiently pruned and the tree is set firmly it is not likely to be
blown to a leaning position.. In fact, the tree will probably
become braced sooner and firmer if it is set shallow, for under
this condition new roots will start more quickly than if planted
deep.

In setting trees, it is best to place the part having the most
branches to the southwest in sections where there is trouble
from sun scald on young trees. This is more likely to give a

40 APPLE CULTURE §4

shade for the body of the tree against the southwest sun and
thus afford some protection against sun scald for the first and
second winters.

The usual procedure in setting a tree is to grasp it with one
hand and hold it upright in the position it is to occupy per-
manently, work in some earth with a spade with the other
hand until the tree is firm enough to stand erect, and then
throw in some loose earth and grasp the tree and pull up on
it slightly, pressing the earth Very firmly with the feet. In
some cases it is best to throw a spade of loose earth over the
pressed earth at the top to act as a mulch to retain the moisture.
Of course, this process of setting should never be done when
the soil is too wet to work if the best results are expected.
Especially is this true with clay soil which may become cemented
around the tree.

APPLE CULTURE

(PART 2)

MANAGEMENT OF APPLE ORCHARDS

INTRODUCTIOIS

1. Immediately after the establishment of an apple orchard
the question of the management of the property comes up for
consideration, and the subject is one to which the owner will
do well to give his best thought and attention. It is, of course,
true that some orchards are failures because of unsuitable loca-
tion or of improper planting or of choice of unsatisfactory
varieties, but, undoubtedly, most orchard failures are due to
poor management. In this Section attention is given to the
subjects of tillage, pruning, thinning, fertilization, and the reno-
vation of old orchards. The first four subjects pertain to the
yearly routine in all orchards, and much of an orchardist's
success depends on his skill in carrying out these operations.
The subject of the renovation of old orchards is of import-
ance in this connection, for the reason that many new orchard
plantings are put out on farms that already have on them old
orchards in a more or less neglected and run-down condition.
Apple-orchard management includes also the subjects of spray-
ing, harvesting, marketing, and irrigating. The importance of
the subjects of spraying, harvesting, and marketing, however,
warrants their consideration in separate Sections, and as the
subject of irrigating of apple orchards is not of importance
except in certain restricted localities, it also will be considered
in a separate Section.

§5

APPLE CULTURE . § 5

TILLAGE OF APPLE ORCHARDS

TILLAGE OF YOUNG APPLE ORCHARDS

2. Tillage of an orchard during the first year after plant-
ing the trees is no doubt more important than in any subse-
quent year in the history of the orchard. It is of the
greatest importance that the trees have a good, healthy start
and tillage the first year is favorable to a prompt and vigor-
ous growth of the trees. This fact will be more evident when
it is considered that soil is cold in spring and that it slowly
warms up to a good depth. Often newly transplanted trees
come out in leaf before much growth begins. Not infrequently
newly transplanted trees leaf out well, then apparently stand
still for a while until the spring or early siunmer is well
advanced. Usually this condition is due to the fact that the
beginning of the root growth is retarded by a cold soil. The
atmosphere warms up more rapidly than the soil and starts
the buds while the roots below are comparatively inactive.
Early and frequent cultivation helps to warm the soil to a
greater depth and to stimulate root growth. In order to
start the growth of the root system when growth of the tree
above starts early, spring plowing is desirable.

3. The depth of spring plowing depends largely on the
character of the soil. In loose sandy soils, plowing may be
shallow. It is never desirable to plow much deeper than the
surface soil, for turning up raw unweathered subsoil leaves an
unsatisfactory surface for subsequent tillage. Land that has
not previously been worked to sufficient depth should not be
plowed deep suddenly. It is best to increase the depth of
the soil gradually by plowing a Uttle deeper each year.

Care should be taken never to plow deep enough to injure
the roots of the yotmg trees. In certain soils and localities,
trees root deep and deep plowing may be safe, but in other
soils shallow root growth is made and deep plowing is not
permissible. In this case it may be advisable to plow the

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 3

land deeper midway between the rows beyond the spread of
the root system, and more shallow adjacent to the tree row
where there is danger of cutting the tree roots.

4. After plowing in spring, shallow tillage should be main-
tained throughout the growing season. This work should
be done with the type of harrow that will best maintain a
good dust mulch. A crust should never be allowed to form
on the soil. If prolonged rains fall on a moderately heavy
soil and weeds get a start it may be necessary to use a disk or
cutaway harrow to break the surface. In mellow soils, a
spring tooth or an Acme harrow, which merely pulverize the
surface, may be adequate.

The time to cease tillage is a question on which opinions
differ. Some orchardists advocate ceasing tillage in mid-
summer in order to give the trees ample time to ripen their
wood for winter; others advocate continuing tillage until the
close of the simimer. No definite date can be given at which
tillage should stop, for it varies with the character of the soil,
the amoimt of rainfall during the given season, the rapidity of
growth of the trees, and to a marked degree with the charac-.
ter of the winter that prevails in the locality. There is some
danger of winter-killing if the trees go into winter in a soft,
sappy condition. In Canada and the northern part of the
United States, where severe winters prevail, tillage should
cease early, perhaps in midsummer, in order to give time for
a thorough ripening of the wood before cold weather comes
on. In sections where winters are mild or where, with a given
variety, winter injury is not usual, tillage may continue to
a much later date, perhaps until early autumn. In certain
soils, particularly those that are dry, wann, light, and not
very fertile, trees tend to ripen their wood earlier than in very
rich soils that hold a large quantity of capillary moistiire.
If in a given season young trees are making an abnormally
succulent growth, tillage may be allowed to wane early in the
season. In a season when slow, weak growth is being made,
or where summer droughts prevail, tillage to save moisture
may be continued until early autumn.

APPLE CULTURE § 5

TILLAGE OP BEARING APPLE ORCHARDS

5. Most orchardists agree that young trees should have
thorough tillage until they reach bearing age, but the question
of the tillage of bearing orchards is one on which there is less
uniform agreement of opinion. It is doubtless true, how-
ever, that the majority of orchardists agree that at least some
tillage should be maintained throughout the life of the orchard.

As a rule, bearing apple orchards should be plowed in early
spring to warm up the -soil and to facilitate the storage of
moisture from spring rains in the subsoil below. As in young
orchards, the depth of this plowing depends on the character
of the soil and the depth of root growth of the trees. Even
greater care should be taken not to injure the roots of bearing
trees than is needed in the case of young trees. The repair
of the injury to a root on a tree of bearing age is relatively
slower than in the case of a young tree. Feeding roots of
bearing trees become much more numerous and they spread
much more uniformly throughout the soil than in the case of
young trees. The deeper the plowing, the better, provided it
does not go below the top soil or injure the root system of the
tree.

6. Shallow surface tillage should be maintained throughout
the season by means of harrows or other stirring implements.
As a rule, there is less tendency for a soil in similar condition
to crust or bake hard under the shade of large trees and there
is less tendency for weed growth than in the open sunlight
between young trees that do not shade the groimd. This,
however, should not lead the grower to believe that tillage
may be less frequent or may justifiably be neglected in bear-
ing orchards.

7. As trees reach bearing age, the question of what time
during the sunpner to cease tillage probably becomes more
important than is the case with trees before they reach bear-
ing age. A yoimg tree is tilled to get strong, vigorous wood
growth, and the question of its immediate fruiting demands very
little consideration. With the old tree, the grower must take

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 5

into consideration not only a maintenance of wood growth but
also the inducing of fruit-bud formation. It will be remem-
bered that excessive wood growth opposes the formation of fruit
buds, that is, the reproductive process of the tree. If an
orchard of bearing age is making such an abundant wood
growth that it bears fruit sparingly, tillage should be so
adjusted as to check this wood growth to some degree and to
favor the setting of fruit buds. Frequently an orchard that
is making a rampant growth may be thrown into bearing by
ceasing tillage early in the season. On the other hand, if an
orchard has fully established the bearing habit and is set-
ting fruit abundantly, thorough tillage should be given in order
to enable the tree to carry and mature this fruit crop. In
general it may be said that the richer and more drought resist-
ant the soil, the earlier may tillage cease; the poorer or dryer
the soil, the later may tillage be kept up.

8. Another important consideration is the dormant or
rest period of the tree. In certain sections, fruit trees may
be injured by their fruit buds starting into growth in late
winter or too early in spring, and as a result of this premature
growth being injured by subsequent cold. It is desirable to
hold the buds of fruit trees. donnant in spring until danger of
injury from frost is past. It has been determined that the
donnant period of a tree is of fairly uniform duration, conse-
quently it may be said that as a general rule the earlier it
becomes dormant in the fall, the earlier will it tend to emerge
from the dormant condition in spring; the later it goes into
the dormant condition in autumn, the later will it tend to wake
from its winter sleep and begin spring growth. For this rea-
son, in sections where trees suffer from the swelling of their
buds in late winter, or where they bloom out so early in spring
as to be subject to injury from late frosts, it is well to pro-
long the growing season as late the previous fall as may be
done without danger of their growing into winter in an exces-
sively succulent condition.

9. Where severe winter climates prevail, more precau-
tions should be taken for the ripening of the wood in autumn

6 APPLE CULTURE § 5

than in a milder climate, and it is also true that in the severe
climates there is less need of prolonging the dormant period,
because there is less danger of trees starting growth imtil
settled spring conditions become well established. In mild
climates, however, this tendency of fruit buds to swell and
grow in late winter or to blossom too early in spring is pro-
nounced, and for this reason it is considered good practice
to induce the tree to carry its leaves in the fall until hard
frosts actually begin. In such sections there is little danger
of forcing the trees into winter in a too succulent condition,
hence the grower need not take much thought for the autumn
ripening in the wood. In mild climates, a dormant tree is
rarely winter-injured, even though it carries its leaves up to
the beginning of winter.

CATCH CROPS

10. Catch crops are extensively grown in orchards, either
for enriching the soil or for the revenue that may be derived
from them. Usually they are annual crops such as may be
grown and cultivated without interfering with the normal
culture that should be given to orchard soil in accordance
with the preceding paragraphs, and they are most commonly
grown while the trees are young and before they reach bearing
age. While the fruit trees are small and do not fully occupy
the entire area in the orchard, a part of the space between the
rows may often profitably be given to incidental crops that
mature in a short period. Furthermore, space between the
rows in an orchard is more valuable for the catch crops them-
selves during the early years than it is later when the trees
have become large enough to shade the ground. An orchard
is a long-time investment, since it does not begin to yield
returns directly until the trees come into good bearing. Often
it is very helpfiil to grow catch crops annually for a time, in
order that the land may bring some return before the orchard
itself begins to yield fruit.

11. Catch crops may be grown expressly for the revenue
they yield, irrespective of their relation to the good of the trees.

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 7

It is highly desirable, however, to exclude catch crops of such
character as may in any way injtire the fruit trees. The
desirability of growing catch crops for revenue depends some-
what on a number of factors. One of these is the price of the
land. Where land values are high, it is often desirable to
produce catch crops that will return an annual income on the
investment, but where land values are comparatively low the
owner may be able to wait for the orchard to come into bearing
without depending on the revenue from catch crops. Another
factor is the quality of the soil. If the soil in the orchard
is poor and thin and the orchard trees need all the available
plant-food in it, catch crops should not be grown unless the
plant-food that they remove from the soil can be returned in
the form of fertilizer. Where soils are rich, catch crops often
may be grown luitil the orchard reaches bearing age without
in any way injuring the future, productiveness of the orchard
itself. As a rule, better ciiltivation will be given to an orchard
in which some valuable catch crop is being grown between
the trees than when no such crop is grown. It is not wise,
however, to place too much stress on the annual income from
a catch crop if its production opposes in any way the future
development of the orchard.

12. Catch crops may contribute directly or indirectly
to the fertility of the orchard even on poor soils. If an orchard
soil is light, sandy, and low in plant-food but otherwise well
adapted Xo the growing of vegetables or small fruits, the owner
may be enabled to put fertilizer on the orchard by using the
revenue derived from these crops for the purchase of fertil-
izers, which he could not afford to apply if there were no imme-
diate income from the orchard land. Under certain circum-
stances, it is possible to build up the fertility of an orchard
soil before the fruit trees come into bearing by the production
of catch crops that justify expenditure for fertilization and
soil improvement. This is an example of indirect improvement
of the soil by growing catch crops. Certain catch crops,
particularly the legumes, may be grown so as to enrich the
soil in nitrogen and perhaps improve its physical condition

8 APPLE CULTURE §5

as well. This is direct improvement of the soil by means of
catch crops. Any building up of soil made possible by the
growing of temporary crops leaves the soil in just that much
better condition when the trees come into bearing and call
for a large supply of plant-food.

13. Under certain conditions, catch crops may be grown
for soil improvement with no idea of adding plant-food to it.
For example, in newly cleared lands, if the soil is rich, corn
crops are frequently grown between the trees in young orchards
to help subdue the stumps of the forest trees and sprouts that
spring from them. The com crop helps to pay for careful
cultivation of the land and for the labor involved in cuttinj,^
out the sprouts and its shade may reduce the vigor of sprouts
that do grow. Almost any cultivated crop in a new soil helps
to subdue the soil and to bring it to a good state of tilth. It
is also true that soils that wash may be held in place by
certain types of catch crops.

14. The grains used as catch crops are usually those that
pass the winter in the growing state, like winter wheat or rye.
A grain crop should rarely, if ever, be allowed to mature its
seed in the orchard. Its direct purpose as a crop should be
that of winter or spring pasture for small stock such as pigs,
lambs, or poultry. It may benefit the orchard land by pre-
venting erosion of the soil, by taking up readily available
plant-food that otherwise might wash off in abundant rains
or be leached down into the subsoil below, by shading the soil,
by preventing the heaving of the soil by frosts, and by adding
humus to the soil when the remnants of the crop are plowed
under in the spring. Where grains are thus employed, they
are usually sown early in the fall to get good growth in order
to cover the land well and hold it in place during the winter.
They are usually allowed to stand in spring until they have
made an abundant leaf growth, and are then turned under to
add humus to the soil. Meantime they may have served a
valuable purpose as a pasture crop during the fall and early
spring. Care should be taken, however, in pasturing orchards
during wet times, even with small animals, as the soil may be

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 9

badly puddled by their tramping. It should also be further
borne in mind that certain animals if pastured in the orchard
may injure fruit trees. Goats, mature sheep, and colts often
injure the trees if allowed to graze among them. A large
number of hogs pastured on a small area may do injury to the
tree trunks by constantly rubbing the bark. As a rule, how-
ever, the orchard crops mentioned may be grown profitably for
pasturage, provided care and judgment are used with respect
to the character and number of animals pastured.

15. Potatoes are often a profitable catch crop in orchards
wherever the soil is suited to their production. The same
plowing, handling, and tilling of the soil that the potatoes
need is adapted also to the needs of the fruit trees themselves.
Potatoes are a low-growing crop and there is less danger of
their interfering with the growth of the trees than would be
the case with a taller-growing crop like com, which may shade
young fruit trees if planted too close to them. Almost any kind
of garden vegetable that admits of good cultivation may be
grown in a young orchard provided the soil is rich enough.

16. Melons are often grown with success in young orchards.
They draw somewhat heavily on plant-food, however, par-
ticularly potash, and for this reason their planting is inadvisa-
ble in thin soils unless fertilizer is applied.

The small fruits generally constitute an important catch
crop for orchards. Strawberries are low growing and do not
compete to an undesirable degree with the fruit frees. Further-
more, as a rule, clean cultivation is given to strawberries through
the summer and they are mulched in winter, both of which
are favorable to the best development of the orchard. If
strawberries are grown, however, plants should be carefully
renewed by cutlivation between the rows each season. Old,
neglected strawberry plantings overgrown with weeds are a
menace to an orchard. Blackberries, on account of their
rooting habit, loosen orchard soils and frequently leave the
land after a few years in better condition for fruit trees than it
was before the blackberries were planted. Raspberries may
be grown, but they are somewhat objectionable for the reason

10 APPLE CULTURE §5

that the raspberry is subject to crown gall, which frequently
attacks fruit trees. In sections where this disease is common,
the planting of raspberries in the orchard is, for that reason,
to be avoided.

COVER CROPS

17. Cover crops include, in general, those crops which are
grown for the improvement of orchard soil, or for its protec-
tion at times. Cover crops are, in the main, distinguished from
catch crops in that the latter usually are grown to yield a
direct revenue, although, as pointed out in the preceding pages,
this is not always the case. Cover crops, on the other hand,
are more frequently employed for the benefit of the orchard
soil. Catch crops are usually cultivated crops; cover crops
are more frequently sowed crops.

Cover crops may be employed to check wood growth of
trees and throw them into bearing, to prevent leaching of
the soil fertility, to prevent soil washing, to add himius'or
nitrogen to the soil, or to smother sprouts on newly cleared
land. Attention has elsewhere been called to the fact that
fruit trees sometimes may run to wood growth rather than to
fruit production. Cover crops are sometimes employed in
rampant-growing young orchards to check their growth and
throw them into bearing. The formation of fruit buds usually
begins in the early part of the summer. For that reason cover
crops to check wood growth and stimulate the development
of fruit buds are usually sown in May or June. Cowpeas are
often used as cover crops in the South and field peas or
vetches for a similar purpose in the North. All of these are
leguminous crops and serve the purpose of adding nitrogen
to the soil. On deep, rich porous soils orchards are sometimes
even seeded down to clover for a year or two to throw them
into bearing. On certain soils this may be done with success.
Even grasses are sometimes employed for a season, but the
grower should not be deceived into believing that, since a
cover crop may throw an orchard into bearing, the orchard
should remain under this same cover crop indefinitely. Not
infrequently a season's cropping will throw the trees into

§5 APPLE CULTURE 11

bearing and the combined effects of the cover crop and the pro-
duction of a fruit crop that follows may check the growth of
the trees in the orchard. Once a bearing habit is established,
it is usually best to resume cultivation and in most cases the
trees will no longer run to excessive wood growth.

18. Only a part of the plant-food existing in the soil is
ever available or soluble in water at any given time. Addi-
tional plant-food, however, is rendered available from year to
year. This should be saved in the soil or used for the pro-
duction of some useful crop; otherwise, it may be carried off
largely over the surface by washing rains, or it may leach down-
wards by the settling of water in the soil, where it will remain
out of reach of the roots of the fruit trees. While fruit trees
are young and have very limited spread of root system, a bare
tilled orchard soil may lose much of its available plant -food.
If cover crops are grown they will use this plant-food as it
becomes available, and it may be returned to the soil by plow-
ing these crops under or by pasturing them. Furthermore,
the addition of organic matter that resiilts from plowing such
cover crops under makes the soil more retentive of valuable
plant -food, for it forms a sort of a screen in the soil that pre-
vents waste of plant-food by leaching. For this purpose the
grower may apply either grain crops as a winter cover or
legumes as a summer cover. The same crops that prevent
leaching of plant -food may also serve the purpose of prevent-
ing erosion of the soil. Soils that wash badly should never
be allowed to lie bare, except while cultivation is going on.
All cover crops turned under perform the additional ofhce of
adding humus to the soil and the leguminous cover crops add
nitrogen as well.

19. Time of Sowing Cover Crops. — If a cover crop is
being grown for the ptupose of throwing an orchard into bear-
ing or for other reasons that permit the use of a full season crop,
the time of sowing will be the same as when the crop is grown
outside of the orchard. The cases mentioned are, however,
exceptional, and, as a rule, it is best to grow such cover crops
as will not conflict with the cultivation of the orchard during

248—15

12 APPLE CULTURE § 5

the early part of the season. Toward the southern part of
the United States, cultivation may continue until the first of
July, and there will yet be time to grow a crop of cowpeas,
one of the most important cover crops for the Southern States.
Vetches, wheat, or rye should be sown early enough in the
fall so as to secure a good cover for the ground for winter, or
to make sufficient growth to afford good winter pasture, if
desired. The farm system employed and the use to which
cover crops are to be put will help to determine the time of
planting each. For example, one successful orchardist uses
rye in a part of his orchard for autumn, winter, and early
spring pasture for young hogs. This is followed by oats in
another portion, or by rape, which is not pastured until June.
Cowpeas are then put in late in June or early July to furnish
late simimer and early autumn pasture. In this way all the
land in the orchard is gotten over on rotation, with cover crops
arranged to form the best possible succession of feed for hog
pasture. With such a judicious plan of rotation cover crops
may serve a very valuable purpose on the farm outside of their
relation to the orchard soil itself.

20. Time to Plow Cover Crops Under. — ^As a rule,
cover crops should lie on the ground through the winter and
be plowed under when cultivation begins in spring. Even
the legumes will lose very little of their plant-food if allowed
thus to lie on the soil, and any loss by decomposition of the
plants will be more than compensated for by the shade and
cover afforded to the soil. If green cover crops are used, they
should be plowed under at least before they go to seed and
before the spring weather is very far advanced. It is unwise
to allow a cover crop to lie in an orchard until summer and
then suddenly plow the crop under and begin tillage. Such
a procedure is likely to induce late growth in the trees. Further-
more, any root pruning that results from the plowing may be
very injurious to the trees in midsummer; although they may
not be injured at all by a similar root pruning in early spring
while dormant. Cutting off roots in midsummer when the trees
are in full leaf and hence are calHng for a maximum supply

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 13

of water may have the same effect as severe drought, but
root pruning by plowing in spring when the tree is dormant,
if judicious, may not prove injurious in any way. As a rule,
it is not wise to plow orchards in autumn in sections where
deep freezing of the soil prevails. Toward the south, however,
autumn or even winter plowing may be carried on successfully
whenever the soil is in condition to be worked. For this rea-
son, spring turning under of cover crops is advised for the
North, but they may, in regions of mild winter, be plowed
under in the fall or even in winter, if necessary.

21. Leguminous Cover Crops. — The clovers, cowpeas,
field peas, soybeans, garden beans, and the vetches are satis-
factory cover crops in sections that are adapted to their cul-
ture, and since they are leguminous plants they have the addi-
tional advantage of adding nitrogen to the soil. If the entire
crop produced is turned under or is pastured on the ground
to pigs before turning under, a much larger supply of
nitrogen will be added to the soil than the plants take from
it. If these crops are grown, harvested, and removed from
the soil, their roots and stubble may not return as much
nitrogen as was drawn from the soil in their production, but
these legumes have, nevertheless, the effect of mellowing and
flocculating the soil. They root deeply and leave the soil in
most excellent condition for subsequent tillage. For improv-
ing either the fertility or the structure of the soil they are
regarded as the most valuable cover crops for orchards. Which
to choose depends largely on the location, type of soil, and
also the purpose to which the crop may be put, that is, whether
it is to be harvested or pastured. In the southern part of the
United States the cowpea is the one great orchard cover crop,
but in the northern part where the climatic conditions are
not suitable for growing cowpeas, field peas are extensively
grown. Either of these crops fvirnishes excellent pasturage
for small stock, and usually it is more profitable to pasture
them and then turn the stubble under than it is to turn the
entire crop under. If pastured, a large part of the crop is
returned to the soil in the form of manure. In the South the

14 APPLE CULTURE § 5

soybean is a more abundant seed producer than the cowpea,
and where feed for hogs or for poultry is desired, the soybean,
perhaps, comes nearer to meeting the requirement than the
cowpea. Any of the legumes mentioned are suitable for hay,
and where it is desirable to get a hay crop from the orchard
soil, any of them may be grown for this purpose, although
clovers and cowpea usually produce better hay crops than
the others. The common white bean, or navy bean, although
sometimes cultivated in orchards, is probably the least
valuable to the orchard of any of the legumes mentioned,
although it undoubtedly adds more nitrogen to the soil
than is removed from it by the crop unless the entire plant
is harvested. The farmer considers it harder on the soil than
the other legumes, but in some districts, especially in the
North, the bean is a very profitable farm crop and may con-
sequently pay for applying fertilizer or organic matter to the
orchard.

22. Non-Leguminous Cover Crops. — ^Among the non-
leguminous cover crops that are sometimes used for orchards,
buckwheat, rye, winter wheat, and barley are probably most
commonly used. Some orchardists have used oats, but the
best authorities regard them as objectionable on account of
the fact that they are said to be heavy feeders and hence take
large quantities of plant-food from the soil, and furthermore
they use large quantities of water and consequently are likely
to leave the soil too dry for the trees.

SOD CULTURE

23. Sod Culture is a term adopted in somewhat recent
years, and signifies that the soil in the orchard is not culti-
vated but is permanently seeded to grass, clover, or other
sod crops that will maintain themselves and that the growth
produced remains to die down on the ground or is cut and
allowed to lie, thus forming a mulch. It should be distin-
guished from simply maintaining the orchard in grass that
is to be mowed for hay or pastured to stock, by the fact that

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 15

under the former system whatever the sod crop produces in
the way of new growth each year is allowed to remain on the
orchard soil to make an ever-increasing mulch and to add
humus to the soil. On certain soils and in certain localities,
orchards have proved profitable when handled in this manner.

24. Advantages of Sod Culture. — Some of the objects
sought in sod culture are: to prevent erosion of the soil, espe-
cially on steep slopes; to avoid the labor and expense of soil
tillage; to avoid the danger of injiny to the roots by plow-
ing and tillage in soils where the trees root very near the
surface ; to retain soluble plant-food near the surface in soils
that leach badly; and to maintain a cool cover in soils that
dry out or heat up badly during summer.

It is probable that the most important reason for sod
culture is to hold the soil in place on slopes so steep that
even temporary tillage cannot well be given without exces-
sive erosion. Many steep hillsides may profitably be planted
to orchards and maintained in sod culture where the soil could
not be held in place if even brief early spring tillage were
practiced annually and followed with cover crops later in the
season. Even granting all the advantages of tillage in an
orchard alternated with the growth of cover crops, it is in
many cases better to maintain the orchard in permanent sod
and hold the permanent surface soil in place than to till and
allow the soil to slip away into the valleys and streams below.
Again, there are certain soils that have such a tendency to
wash when cultivated that it is difficult to hold them in place
even when the slope is not great. This is particularly true
of soils largely made of excessively fine particles. It is also
true of a soil that heaves badly and slides during alternate
thawing and freezing in winter. Some soils, if bare, also
run together, crust over, and bake badly in a dry time.
Good tillage is difficult under these conditions, and a good
dust mulch can hardly be retained in place. Where either of
these conditions prevail, sod culture may be justifiable.

In certain fine, light, sandy soils the sand can be held in
place only by retaining an abundance of plant fiber in the soil

16 APPLE CULTURE §5

or by maintaining a sod mulch. In such soils, as soon as til-
lage has been maintained for a few years, the sand will begin
to drift, moving about so that it is impossible to hold the soil
in place about the roots of the trees. If such soils are long
kept bare, it becomes impossible to get a stand of cover crops
due to the sifting of the sandy surface soil. Often, in such
a locality, the only practical way of holding the soil in place
is by the means of permanent sod.

Undoubtedly there are conditions under which sod culture
may succeed better than methods of tillage. Wherever sod cul-
ture is maintained, however, the fact cannot be too strongly
emphasized that sufficient growth should be secured to main-
tain a thick mulch in connection with the sod. The term sod
culture seems to be contradictory, since the maintenance of
a sod does not admit of tillage, which is usually implied by
the term culture, but it should be remembered that under a
sod, where the grasses or other plants forming it fall down and
die on the ground annually, any soil will take on a mellow and
flocculent condition. This condition becomes closely akin
to the mechanical or physical condition of the soil brought
about by good tillage. There are undoubtedly certain soils that
will, under tillage and burning out of the humus, become more
compact, run together, bake worse, and suffer more from
drought than they v/ill under what is termed sod culture.

25. Disadvantages of Sod Culture. — It should be
understood that there are certain fundamental disadvantages
in sod culture, one of which is that the grass or other plants
forming the sod take from the soil moisture and plant -food that
is needed by the trees. It is believed by some that grasses or
sod-forming plants not only compete with the roots of the
trees but that they have a more or less injurious effect on soil
that is being utilized for orchard purposes and hence are prej-
udicial to the best health of orchard trees. It is not definitely
known to just what degree sod plants may be injurious or
interfere with the growth of orchard trees, but there seems
to be reason to believe that some such action takes place.
Another objection to sod culture is that many insects miiltiply

§5 APPLE CULTURE 17

much more abundantly in orchards under cover of permanent
sod than in cultivated ground. This is particularly true of
the curculio. Many species of noxious orchard insects hiber-
nate in the soil and may be smothered or destroyed by stir-
ring the soil at the right time of year, but this method of insect
fighting is not feasible in an orchard that is under sod ciilture.
It is also true that fungous diseases that develop in decayed
leaves or fruit and other trash under the trees will develop
much more abundantly where sod is maintained than where
surface tillage and a dry dust mulch prevail.

MULCH CULTURE

26. The method of Orchard management known as mulcli
culture consists in applying to the ground a mulch of mate-
rials grown elsewhere, whereas in the sod-culture method just
described the mulch material is grown in the orchard. Straw,
strawy manure, weeds from the fence rows or roadways, leaves,
corn stalks, or any organic material grown on other lands may
be hauled into the orchard and used as a miilch about the trees.

Most of the reasons mentioned for sod ctilture, the condi-
tions under which it may be maintained, and the general
merits and demerits will apply with equal force to mulch cul-
ture. Although it is true that, as a rule, mulch culture is
too expensive for large orchard areas, there is an important
point in mulch culture that should be emphasized. It usually
should be the beginning of sod culture, in order to hasten
the formation of a mulch, because 1 or 2 years are required
to establish a mulch by sod culture. Consequently the soil
drys out, cracks in a dry time, and the orchard trees are likely
to suffer from drought. The strongest advocates of sod cul-
ture usually emphasize the desirability of placing all possible
additional mulch under the trees in the orchard during the
first year or two, while the sod mulch is establishing itself.

After seeding an orchard for sod culture in the spring,
grasses are allowed to grow and are mowed frequently diuing
the season — perhaps three or four times in the season. In
addition, on the appearance of dry weather in late summer.

18 APPLE CULTURE . §5

any available straw or other mulch that can be had should be
spread under the trees. If at any subsequent time the sod
does not make cover enough to protect the ground against
baking, drying out, and cracking open, additional mulch shotdd
be hauled in. If the trees are young and consequently feeding
in restricted areas, this miilch should be spread under the trees
as far as their outspread of branches, but if the trees are large
the mulch is usually distributed evenly between the rows.

Mulch culture has an advantage over sod culture in the
fact that a mulch drawn into the orchard may be applied to
any depth necessary to protect the soil from drying out or
baking and it may be increased at any time. The tendency
in sod culture is to depend on the sod to form at least the main
part of the mulch. Mulch culture, however, has the dis-
advantage of being far more expensive, as it is obviously
cheaper to produce the miilch on the orchard area itself than
to devote other land to mulch production and haul the mulch
to the orchard.

PRUNING OF APPLE TREES

OBJECTS OF PRUNING

27. Pruning consists in the removal of superfluous or
undesirable branches from trees or plants and is one of
the important details of apple-orchard management. Not-
withstanding the importance of pnming, there is a wide dif-
ference of opinion among orchardists as to the details of the
operation, and it must be admitted that the subject is one
that is not well understood.

28. Pruning to Reduce Leaf Surface. — It has been
explained elsewhere that it is necessary to reduce the leaf
surface at the time of setting, since the roots have been cut
and thus the ability of the tree to secure water from the soil
has been reduced. If a full leaf surface is left, there is danger
that the evaporation may be so great as to weaken materially
the tree or even cause its death during a dry summer. Pru-
ning to reduce the leaf surface may also be necessary in the

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 19

case of old trees whose tops have become very large, in the
case of weak trees, in the case of trees growing in a soil where
the roots are not able to penetrate deeply, and in the case of
trees whose wood has been badly injured in winter.

29. Pruning to Control Shape. — It is only by pruning
that the desired shape of a tree can be maintained. The
natural growth of the tree is not likely to be along lines desired
by the orchardist, hence it is necessary to resort to artificial
means of controlling the shape. As explained in detail on
subsequent pages, it is by judicious pruning that the orchardist
makes his trees high-headed or low-headed and establishes a
pyramidal or an open-headed form as desired. Some varieties
lend themselves to one of these forms better than others, but
pruning to maintain the form is necessary in all cases.

Pruning is also necessary to prevent the trees from becoming
too tall in some cases and too straggling in others. The growth
of the trees may be made more stocky by pruning, especially
if considerable cutting back is done, and this is essential in
the case of most varieties to give the desired form of head and
strength of limb.

30. Pruning to Regulate Vigor of Growtli. — The

vigor of growth of a tree can be very largely regulated by
pruning. Pruning, especially in winter, tends to invigorate
the tree by inducing a heavy growth of wood during succeed-
ing seasons. After pruning, growth will continue later in the
summer and the new twigs will be larger and stronger than
if left unpnnied. On the other hand, summer pruning may
be done at a time that it will reduce the vigor of the tree, and
in a few cases this also may be necessary.

31. Pruning to Control Size. — The size of a tree can
be very materially affected by pruning. It has been estab-
lished by the experience of many practical growers and experi-
menters, especially that of Professor Pickering, of the Wobum
Experiment Station, England, that pruning is a dwarfing proc-
ess. Although a tree, after a severe pruning in winter, will
make more vigorous growth the summer following, it will

20 APPLE CULTURE § 5

seldom make sufficient growth to replace what was cut off
plus what growth would have taken place if no pruning had
been done. After 20 years of rather severe pruning, trees
will, as a rule, be considerably smaller in most soils and
climates than if no pruning had been done. There are excep-
tions to this, however, in the case of thin soil in climates in the
southern part of the apple-growing region. Thus in the Ozark
region, cases have been observed in which pruning had the
opposite effect; that is, it increased the size of the tree. There
were cases in which the soil was poor and the climate not well
adapted to the apple, and as a result the trees became bark
bound. Severe pruning overcame this condition and permitted
the trees to make a more vigorous growth than would other-
wise have been possible. It has been found that pruning in
summer has more of a dwarfing effect than pruning in winter.

TIME OF PRUNING

32. The time of pruning will depend on the condition of
the tree and the extent of pruning to be done. If it is merely
necessary to cut out a few crossed limbs or to remove a few
limbs that are filling up the center of the head in an undesir-
able manner, the pruning may be done at any time that is
most convenient ; but if considerable wood is to be cut off, it is
advisable to give the matter of doing it at the proper time
careful consideration.

Generally speaking, it may be said that winter pruning is
most desirable, for pruning at this time tends to invigorate
the tree. However, if a tree is making too rapid growth and
is not fruiting well, it may be advisable to prune in summer,
though probably the safer plan would be to resort to some
other method to check growth and induce fruiting. Summer
pruning is supposed to encourage fruitfulness, and growers
have at times successfully resorted to summer pruning as a
means of throwing unproductive trees into bearing. But it
shoiild be pointed out that this method is not uniformly
successftil and is hardly to be generally recommended. To
induce fruitfulness, summer pruning must be done shortly

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 21

after length growth of wood ceases in the summer. Pruning
earlier than this will have a very similar effect to winter pru-
ning, and will not increase fruitfulness, and pruning later will
tend to check the formation of fruit buds and to produce a
rather undesirable growth. Furthermore, it may be said
that even pruning at the proper time does not always produce
fruitfulness on an over vigorous tree, and it is generally much
safer to plant the too vigorous growing varieties on thin soil
and thus check their growth and encourage fruitftilness than
to plant them on rich soil and depend on simimer pruning to
throw them into bearing.

TYPES OF HEADS

33. For the purpose of this discussion, a fruit tree may be
regarded as made up of two parts, namely, the trmik, which
consists of the lower part of the main stem extending from
the ground to the point where the first branches are thrown
off; and the head, which comprises the part of the tree above
this point. Orchardists recognize several distinct types of
heads, and a man who is establishing an orchard should have
a knowledge of the different types, the advantages and dis-
advantages of each, and an understanding of the pruning by
which he may induce the formation of type desired. Apple
trees may be pruned a high-headed or a low-headed type.

34. When a tree has been so trained as to develop its
head comparatively high from the ground, as shown in Fig. 1,
the tree is said to be high -headed, and when it has been so
trained as to develop its head relatively close to the grotmd,
as shown in Fig. 2, it is said to be low-headed.

Owing to the fact that somewhat different methods are
followed in the various apple-growing sections, it is difficult
to say just what constitutes the dividing line between high-
headed and low-headed trees. A tree in one section may be
considered to be low headed and in another, where methods
are somewhat different, to be high-headed. In general it
may be said, however, that trees headed higher than from
36 to 40 inches are high-headed trees, and probably most

APPLE CULTURE

§5

advocates of low-headed trees will prefer to head their trees
from 18 to 30 inches from the ground.

Where the soil is rich and the trees are to be permitted to
get very large, high-headed trees may be necessary, in order
to enable a team to get reasonably close to them in cultivating.
High-headed trees may be necessary, also, in case of very
vigorous-growing varieties like the Northern Spy^ since pruning

to keep down the size of these may result in too vigorous wood
growth at the expense of fruit growth. The high-headed
tree was more common in early fruit-growing days before
spraying was necessary than it is now. Progressive orchard-
ists object to it for the reason that the spraying of high-headed
trees is slow, expensive, and unsatisfactory, and picking the
fruit, pruning, keeping out canker, and other details of care
are also expensive and not likely to be done effectively in the

APPLE CULTURE

case of a high-headed tree. In nearly all sections growers are
coming to prefer trees with low heads, even with the vigorous
growing varieties, and by enriching the soil, seeding down to
grass and pruning heavily are usually able to get as good

results with smaller trees and possibly a somewhat larger
number of them per acre.

35. Of the low-headed trees there are two forms, the
pyramidal-lieaded, in which the tree has a central leader
as shown in Fig. 3 (a), and the open-headed, as shown in
(&). In the p5rramidal form, as will be seen in the illustration,
the main stem, or trunk, extends to the top of the tree and side
branches thrown off from it make up the head. In a tree of
the open-headed form the head is formed from four or five

§5 APPLE CULTURE 25

of the lower side branches, the main stem being cut of£ above
the uppermost branch.

The advantages claimed for the pyramidal-headed tree
with a central leader over the open-headed tree are: (1) the
limbs are smaller in proportion to the body of the tree and are,
therefore, less liable to split down when they break off; (2) if
one is broken off, it is only a small part of the tree and there is
therefore less injury than would be the case if a limb of an
open-headed tree were broken off; (3) the limbs are also shorter
and not so badly bent under a load of fruit; (4) the body of
the tree and main limbs are in a measure protected from the
direct rays of the sun and thus not so likely to suffer from sun
scald in winter; (5) if the tree is neglected for a year or two,
smaller injury results than with the open-headed tree.

There are some distinct disadvantages, however, with this
form of head. These are: (1) it is very difficult to maintain
the central leader after the tree gets old, and forks in the top
of a fairly tall tree are expensive to correct; (2) too much of
the fruit is borne in the shade and the color is not so good as
in the case of the open -headed tree; (3) probably the most
serious objection is that, on account of the shade, the fruiting
wood is kept largely on the periphery, so that no considerable
shortening can be done without greatly reducing the nimiber
of fruit buds for the crop following the pruning, since the wood
that is taken off in shortening the branches is the wood that
bears the fruit buds.

36. The advantages claimed for the open-headed tree over
the pyramidal form are: (1) fewer limbs are used and those left
are maintained in a healthier condition, because they have
room to develop; (2) the tree is more open to admit sunlight
and the wood is, therefore, healthier, and the fruit is better
colored and better developed; (3) the pruning and spraying,
especially the latter, and the picking of the fruit can be done
more cheaply and more thoroughly; (4) the trees can be cut
back to the desired extent each year without danger of
too greatly reducing the number of fruit buds, because the
fruiting wood is kept further down the limbs, which favors

2G APPLE CULTURE § 5

healthy growth to the very base of the Hmbs in some cases;
(5) the fruit borne does not exert a great strain on the limbs,
because, instead of being borne entirely at the end where
there is the greater leverage, it is distributed throughout the
length of the limb ; and (6) experience shows that fruit on the
open-headed tree is more uniformly large than on a tree of
the other type. This is probably on account of its being dis-
tributed along the limb instead of clustered at the end, as is
likely to be the case in pyramidal -headed trees.

The disadvantages of the open-headed tree are: (1) the
small number of limbs, usually not more than four, and as
these must be large there may be danger of the limbs split-
ting down; (2) the limbs are likely to be longer, because the
tree tends to spread out rather than grow up and this takes
up more space. These disadvantages, however, are offset by
clipping the trees annually and thus making them stocky
so they will stand up well under a load. They are also offset
to some extent by directing the growth of the main limbs
upwards so that they will stand up under the load better and
by furnishing artificial support for the limbs when they are
heavily laden with fruit.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FRAMEWORK

37. Three or four years will be required for establishing
the framework of either the pyramidal-headed or the open-
headed tree, and in doing this certain precautions should be
observed. For instance, weak crotches and bad forks should
be avoided, and two limbs should not be allowed to come out
directly opposite each other on the trunk of a tree; the limbs
should be spaced 6 or 8 inches apart along the trunk, and two
limbs should not come near each other on the same side of the
tree. In establishing the framework of the open-headed tree,
only about four or five main branches should be allowed to
develop; for the pyramidal-headed tree, from seven to ten main
branches may be developed, and these should be well
spaced around the central leader.

APPLE CULTURE

PRUNING FOR PYRAMIDAL HEAD

38. A common mistake in starting a pyramidal-headed
tree is to allow the limbs to come out too near each other, as
shown in Fig. 4 (a). This error results from the fact that
when the trees are small the limbs do not appear to be crowded,
but when such trees approach maturity it will be found that
the limbs are close together and
growth cannot take place near
the base. A more desirable
spacing of limbs is illustrated
in (b) where no two limbs are
directly opposite each other.

The pruning of a 2-year-old
nursery tree for the pyramidal
head must be done with a view
of giving the central leader the
advantage, of preventing the for-
mation of weak forks, and of
forcing the growth into the slow
growing limbs by clipping back <*=,,^
the rapidly growing limbs. The
high limbs on the main leader
will, as a rule, grow more rapidly
than the lower ones, and these,
therefore, are usually cut back
more severely than the lower
ones.

Fig. 4

39. During the first summer
the buds that come out where
no limbs are desired should be
rubbed off, and the winter after the first summer's growth the
new growth on each of the desired limbs should be cut back
approximately one-half, though on the upper limbs it will
probably be necessary to cut back more than one-half, and
possibly the lower hmbs should be cut back a little less than
one-half. This same winter it may be necessary to cut off some

248—16

APPLE CULTURE

of the twigs from the main limbs that are left, since it is
important that the secondary branches, also, will be well spaced
and stocky.

40. During the second winter it will again be necessary
to cut back the main branches and the leader in about the
same manner as suggested for the first winter. If the leader

(a)

(b)

Fig. 5

is not growing rapidly enough it will, in all cases, be necessary
to cut back the main branches more than was suggested, in
order to force the growth into the leader.

41. The general extent of the pruning that should be done
to a tree in its third year is illustrated in Fig. 5, which shows
in (a) a tree before it has been cut back and in (6) the tree

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 29

after it has been cut back. During the next few years, the
necessary pruning is to keep the secondary branches — that is,
the branches springing from the main branches — and the
branches- springing from the secondary branches well spaced in
order to permit light to reach all parts of the tree; it is also
important to cut out limbs that tend to cross and those that
are badly injured, and to prevent forks by cutting tack limbs
that are growing rapidly and giving indications of becoming
too large.

42. As a general rule the trees should not be permitted to
get any taller than they are at the age of about 8 or 9 years ; after
this age the center of the top should be cut back to about the
same point each year, otherwise pruning of the tree will become
very expensive in later years, on account of the extreme height
of the top. The method recommended is only a modified
form of the real central-leader tree, for a central leader, if
maintained throughout the life of the tree and permitted to
become taller each year, develops into an extremely unde-
sirable form, and spraying, pruning, harvesting, etc., become
uneconomical and difficult or impossible.

PRUNING FOR OPEN HEAD

43. In pruning to form an open-headed tree, the grower
should have in mind a definite ideal and work toward it. The
best results can be secured by beginning with large 1-year-old
trees, such as the one illustrated in Fig 6, (a), for in this case
buds can be permitted to grow where limbs are desired and all
others removed when they start growth. If it is necessary to
start with 2-year-old trees, it may be advisable to cut off all
existing branches, select about four buds that will produce
branches at desired points, and allow these to grow. Occasion-
ally, a 2-year-old tree may be found that has four good, stocky
branches properly spaced for the development of the desired
form of head and in such cases these branches may be allowed
to remain and all others removed; the branches selected for
the formation of the tree should be from 4 to 6 inches apart

APPLE CULTURE

§5

and be evenly spaced around the trunk. Unless such limbs are
to be found on a young tree it will be best to remove all
limbs as directed and permit new ones to start at desired
points. Stockiness is of even more importance in establishing
an open-headed tree than one with a pyramidal head, and
this stockiness is secured by clipping the limbs back.

44. Pruning' the first winter should be to cut back each
of the four branches one-half and cut the central, or main,
stem back just about even with the top branch so that it will

i«^.

(a)

heal over. During the second summer it may be necessary
to rub off sprouts that tend to push up into the center, and,
thus throw the growth into those limbs that it is desired to
retain. The pruning in the second winter should be directed
toward cutting back both the main and the secondary branches
about one-half and keeping the secondary branches well spaced
on the main branches, by cutting off all superfluous secondary
branches. These branches should be at least 6 inches apart
on the main branches. The points for cutting back the main
branches are indicated by dotted lines in Fig. 6 (b) .

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 31

45. Pruning similar to that recommended for the first
and second years may be necessary in the third summer; the
third winter the pruning should be to space the third-year
branches on the secondary branches and to cut back all new
growth about one-half for the purpose of securing stockiness.
A 3-year-old tree properly primed is shown in Fig. 6 (c).

46. The spacing of the limbs and cutting back of the
twigs should be carried on in later years, but the cutting back
should be less severe up to the time the tree reaches bearing
age unless the tree tends to be slender, in which case the cut-
ting back should be somewhat more severe in order to promote
stockiness. If the tree tends to spread too much, the ends
of the branches may be cut back to an upright limb, thus
forcing the growth upwards.

47. Water sprouts may give somewhat more trouble in
the case of the open-headed than in the case of the pyramidal-
headed tree; undesirable water sprouts should be rubbed off
during the first winter, so that the growth will go into desira-
ble limbs. Occasionally a water sprout may come at a place
where a limb is desired, and in this case it may be made into
a desirable branch by cutting it back about one-half, and
following this the next year by cutting back each of its
branches about one-half.

PRUNING OP BEARING APPLE TREES

48. The pruning of a pyramidal-headed apple tree should
be to cut out crossed or injured limbs, to shorten those that
are growing too long, and to cut down the central leader in
order to prevent the tree from becoming too tall. Some
annual clipping, also, is necessary in order to help keep up
the vigor of the tree.

Annual clipping of an open-headed bearing tree is of more
importance than in the case of the pyramidal-headed tree,
since it is necessary both to keep up the vigor of the tree and
to keep the limbs stocky and strong. It may be necessary
to cut out growth that takes place in the center of an open-
headed tree and tends to fill up the space in the head, or it

32 APPLE CULTURE § 5

may be necessary to cut off the outer limbs and push the
growth into upward-growing branches in order to prevent
the tree from becoming too spreading in form.

Fruit growers do not usually recognize the importance of
pruning to regulate fruitfulness. If a tree receives little or no
pruning, and especially if it is not well cultivated, after it
becomes old each spur will bear a fruit bud on its end.
Usually a spur that bears a flower cluster one year will be
barren the year following. The result will be that the tree
will bear an excessively heavy bloom one year and no bloom
the next; that is, the tree will alternate a heavy crop with no
crop. With somewhat heavy pruning, and especially if this
pruning is associated with good cultivation, a considerable per-
centage of the spurs in any one year will not have fruit buds,
and thus will be left to set fruit buds for the year following.
In other words, a medium niimber of fruit buds will set each
year instead of a very large number on alternate years. Thus
pruning and cultivating to give the trees greater vigor of
growth will prevent alternating with most varieties. How-
ever, with some varieties alternating is a very fixed habit that
apparently cannot be broken entirely by any known method
of care. While a tree kept in vigorous condition by good
pruning and cultivation will have a lighter bloom each year
than it would have on the cropping year where it is left to
make a weak growth and alternate, it does not necessarily
follow that the crop of fruit will be lighter. In fact, the crop
of fruit ripened is very likely to be almost as large each year
as the crop ripened on the alternate years with a weak tree.
This is true because the fruit is likely to be larger and also
because the bloom is healthier and more likely to set fruit
than that on the weaker alternating tree. It has been found
that a large percentage of the pollen on old neglected trees is
sterile, so that there is often Hable to be a light set of fruit
from a very heavy bloom.

Pruning of bearing trees will also be necessary at times to
control certain diseases like blight and canker. Badly bhghted
and cankered areas should be cut out and all forms of diseased
limbs cut off and the wounds painted.

APPLE CULTURE

DETAILS OF PRUNING

49. An important detail to be observed in pruning, par-
ticularly in the case of large trees, is to leave wounds that will
heal readily. One of the most common errors in this respect
is that of cutting off limbs at such a distance from the trunk
or parent branch as to leave stubs varying from a few inches
to a foot or more in length. These stubs are not only
unsightly and inconvenient in thinning and spraying operations,
but they are also a source of serious injiiry to the tree itself.
By the removal of the outer end of the limb the stubs have
been deprived of nourishment, and as a result the bark on the
stub dies and falls away. The exposed wood decays, and

ultimately the decayed area extends into the trunk or the
larger branch from which the stub protrudes. In this con-
dition the wound is difficult to treat, and if untreated is likely
to destroy the tree sooner or later.

In Fig. 7 (a), is illustrated a tree pruned in such a way as
to leave a stub a on the trunk and a stub 6 on a limb. In (b)
is shown the manner in which these stubs begin to decay, the
dotted lines indicating how the decay will ultimately extend
into the adjacent wood. In (c) is shown the ultimate result
of this neglect. If instead of leaving stubs as shown in Fig.
7, the limbs are removed by making the cut close to the trunk,

APPLE CULTURE

the trouble just described will be avoided, for in this case the
tree is able to cover the wound with new tissue that protects
it from organisms that cause decay. The plant-food neces-
sary for this new growth is available at this point, for there
is leaf surface just beyond to supply it. For the reason just
explained, it is usually advisable to cut off the limbs as close
to the trunk or the parent branch as possible, although this is
not always the case. Frequently there is more or less of an
enlargement at the base of a limb. In such cases, cutting the
limb at the point where it joins the trunk will result in a much
larger wound than if it were cut about half way through the

^^^^i

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

enlargement and the smaller woimd will heal more quickly
even though it is a little further from the trunk than the
larger wound.

Figs. 8 and 9 give a good idea of the healing process that
takes place over a properly made wound. Fig. 8 shows cal-
lous tissue just beginning to cover a wound, and Fig. 9 shows
the wound almost covered with new growth.

50. As a safeguard against the entrance of organisms
causing decay, all wounds except possibly very small ones
should be painted with either common white-lead paint or
with grafting wax, and if the wound is very large it should be
painted every season until it is healed over.

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 35

When a limb is to be shortened it is always advisable to cut
it at a point where there is a strong branch thrown out from
it. Care should be taken to avoid splitting a large limb that
is being cut back, because such a split is likely to extend down
and injure wood it is desired to retain. A method by which
splitting may be prevented is to saw in about an inch or more
on the under side of the limb, then to saw the limb off from the
upper side about an inch below where the cut was made on the
lower side. The limb will thus be sawed off before the lower
side of it becomes so weak that it will split down. Very large
limbs should be first cut off a foot or more beyond where they
are ultimately to be cut, thus reducing the danger of a serious
split by removing a large part of the weight before the final
cut is made.

THINNING OF APPLES

51. Successful apple orchardists have found that it is
not, as a rule, advisable to permit trees to mature all the fruit
they set. The practice of removing by hand a part of the
fruit before maturity is known as tliinning, and is now an
established routine in most apple orchards.

By removing some apples from a tree the fruit that remains
develops to a larger size, better form, and acquires a better
color than would have been possible if thinning had not been
done. Thinning is commonly recommended not only for the
improved quality of the current season's crop but to improve the
chances for the crop the following season; that is, to prevent
alternate seasons of good and poor crops. The theory is that
the spurs from which the fruit is pulled in thinning will set fruit
buds for the following season, and the spurs on which the fruit
is allowed to remain and mature will form only wood buds.
Experience, however, so far does not fully bear out this theory
for in the case of an experiment at Geneva, New York, thin-
ning failed entirely to affect alternating. In other experi-
ments, it seems to have some slight effect, and it is possible
that if thinning is practiced from year to year, the trees may
be kept from the habit of alternating, but it is not likely

36 APPLE CULTURE § 5

that thinning will break the habit of alternating in a tree after
it is once fixed. Most orchardists are agreed that an effec-
tive way to prevent alternating is by careful annual pruning
and ciiltivation, and that thinning associated with these proc-
esses may be beneficial, but that thinning alone cannot be
depended on to prevent alternating.

It pays best to thin in sections where the growers are
cooperating so that the increased number of fancy apples can
be handled to a good advantage, for thinning is favorable to
the production of fancy fniit. If these fancy apples must
be put into barrels with the No. 1 quality and sold for the same
price, the profits of thinning are not great, but if there are
enough growers shipping together that all the fancy apples may
be put into a pack that will be offered in large enough quan-
tities to impress the market, thinning is more likely to pay.
In some experiments, thinning has reduced the total number
of bushels or barrels picked; in other cases it has not; that is,
the increased size of the fruit has offset the reduced nimiber.
In practically all cases, however, more money is received for
the fruit of thinned trees than for the fruit from similar trees
not thinned. The fruit from thinned trees has in all experi-
ments shown an appreciably better color than from unthinned
trees.

Thinning is of special importance in the case of certain
varieties that have a strong tendency to overbear, and hence
to produce fruit that is small and irregular. On the other
hand, there are some varieties that are not, as a rule, heavy
bearers, and with these thinning may not be necessary. Even
in the latter case, however, the removal of a few fruits at points
where several are clustered together may be advisable.

Thinning is usually done from the first of June to the first
of July; the earlier it is done after all the fruit has fallen that
is going to fall in early summer, the better.

The usual practice is to thin clusters to only one fruit and
leave no two fruits closer than 6 inches apart. In some cases
a space of 8 or 9 inches between fruits is maintained.

The cost of thinning varies from 9 or 10 cents to 60 or 70
cents per tree, depending on the size and form of the tree.

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 37

Very large trees 20 or 25 years old will cost 50 cents or more ;
properly pruned trees 8 or 10 years old can be thinned for
10 or 12 cents.

FERTILIZATION OF APPLE ORCHARDS

52. The elements that are likely to be deficient in a
soil are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and occasionally
calcium, and with most crops a deficiency of one of these
materials becomes the limiting factor for that crop. Thus,
applying an excess of potassiimi when phosphorus is the ele-
ment that is deficient does little or no good and in some cases
may actually do harm. A healthy, vigorous wood growth
indicates that sufficient nitrogen is present, and deficiency
of nitrogen results in limited growth. The lack of potassium
or phosphorus also results in a rather weak growth, but the
effect of a deficiency of these two elements on growth is not
so marked as is the case when nitrogen is lacking. Potassium
is thought by many growers to give a better color to the fruit,
but careftd experiments do not bear out this opinion. Lime
is useful as a means of correcting acid soils, but since an apple
soil is seldom acid, lime may be entirely omitted in a discus-
sion of the fertilization of an apple orchard.

53. It is well known that apple trees bear profitable crops
on a very poor soil, yet analyses show that an apple crop
actually takes away annually from the soil more nitrogen and
potassium than a crop of grain. It has been found that an
annual crop of 15 bushels of wheat to the acre takes away
from the soil in 20 years 659.58 pounds of nitrogen, 210.6
pounds of phosphoric acid, and 323 pounds of potassium.
An acre of apple trees from 13 to 33 years old and bearing a
crop of 15 bushels to the tree in 20 years takes away from the
soil, in the fruit, 498.6 pounds of nitrogen, 38.25 pounds of
phosphoric acid, and 728.55 pounds of potassium; and in the

I- leaves, 456.75 pounds of nitrogen, 126 pounds of phosphoric
acid, and 441 pounds of potassium. It will be seen, assuming
that all the leaves go back to the soil, that considerably more
potassium is removed by the apple crop than by the wheat

38 APPLE CULTURE § 5

crop. Reasoning from these results it would seem that potas-
sium is a very important orchard fertilizer and that all ele-
ments of fertility would have to be applied, especially to an
old orchard and that, even in a medium rich soil, fertilizers
may need to be applied. Further, since the orchardist is deal-
ing with a crop that is so valuable that a small percentage
of increased yield would pay for the fertilizers, the use of fer-
tilizer in an orchard would seem to offer better results than
the use of fertilizer with grain crops, with which often a con-
siderably increased yield will not pay for the cost of the fer-
tilizer, since the value of the crop per acre in any case is not
great.

54. It may be well now to tiim to experimental results
to see whether these assumptions are borne out by experience.
It is plain that before an experiment with fertilizers can be
given any credence it must be carried on for a considerable
number of years, certainly not less than iour or five. A num-
ber of long-time experiments of a rather extensive nature have
been tried. One of the first of these to be published was an
experiment carried on for 12 years with trees more than
40 years of age to begin with, on a soil of medium richness in
Western New York. This experiment was in the use of potas-
sium and phosphate only. Some varieties showed an appar-
ent gain from the treatment; others showed a loss. The net
result from the use of fertilizer was a benefit of about $99 for
5 acres, and the cost of the fertilizer was about $74.50, leaving
a profit of only about $24.50. This did not pay for apply-
ing the fertilizer, and as the difference is within the range of
error the experiment seems to indicate that the advisability
of using fertilizers in an orchard having a soil of reasonable
fertility is somewhat questionable. Another experiment for
15 years with young trees, showed no benefits from the use
of either potash, phosphorus, or nitrogen.

55. At the Wobum Experiment Station, England, in a
rich soil a long-time experiment failed to show any beneficial
results, even on old trees, from the use of any form of fer-
tilizer; however, it is reported that on a thin soil the sam^e

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 39

experiment station has secured profits from the use of fertilizers.
The Massachusetts Experiment Station , secured profits from
the use of potassium, nitrogen, and phosphorus, and espe-
cially from the use of barnyard manure. At the Pennsylvania
Experiment Station, nitrogen has proved to be a valuable
fertilizer to apply to an orchard ; potassium has not uniformly
shown any benefits; and the use of phosphate has not shown
marked benefits. The use of barnyard manure and a com-
bined fertilizer on a sod-mulch orchard gave remarkably bene-
ficial results — very much more beneficial results than on a
cultivated orchard on the same kind of soil. In fact, the use
of nitrogen-bearing fertilizer with a sod-mulch seemed entirely
to offset the lack of cultivation, though this may not be the
case under other circumstances. At no experiment station has
potash shown any positive effect in improving the color of fruit.
It would seem from these experiments that on any orchard
soil the use of either potassium or phosphorus fertilizers or
both may be profitable if either or both of these elements
are deficient in the soil. Nitrogen can more often be used
with profit than either potassium or phosphorus. It is found,
however, that in practically all cases nitrogen injiuiously
affects the color of the fruit. At the Pennsylvania Experi-
ment Station it seemed to be evident that the use of potassium
and phosphate combined with nitrogen to some extent reduces
the injiirious effect of nitrogen. Stable manure, though more
expensive than chemical nitrogen, seems in the case of a sod-
mulch orchard to give more beneficial resiilts, and in the case
of a cultivated orchard the beneficial results from the use of
chemical fertilizers were. as great as from the use of stable
manure.

56. It is scarcely possible to make any recommendations
that will apply to all soils. However, first it w^otdd be well
for the orchardist to assimie that his trees, if they are making
a good, healthy growth and bearing well, do not need fer-
tilizing; this is true, also, if the trees are not bearing well, on
account of frost, insect, or fungous injuries, etc. If the soil
is reasonably fertile and the orchard neglected, good pruning,

40 APPLE CULTURE § 5

cultivation, and spraying should certainly be resorted to
before fertilizing. IJowever, if the orchard is well cared for
and the trees are not sufficiently vigorous, it may be profitable
to use commercial fertilizer, especially fertilizer containing
nitrogen. In all cases it is well to watch the results that are
obtained by the application of different mixtiu-es and by this
means determine what the soil needs. The following is sug-
gested for the first application: Actual nitrogen, 30 pounds
per acre; actual phosphoric acid, 60 to 75 pounds per acre;
actual potash, 50 pounds per acre.

These amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash
can be secured by using any of the following combinations:

1. Nitrate of soda (15| per cent, nitrogen), 100 pounds;
dried blood (12| per cent, nitrogen), 100 pounds; steamed
bone meal (24 per cent, phosphoric acid and 1 per cent, nitro-
gen), 250 to 300 poimds; sulphate of potash (50 per cent,
potash) 100 pounds.

2. Nitrate of soda (15 per cent, nitrogen), 100 pounds;
dried blood (12| per cent, nitrogen), 120 pounds; acid phos-
phate (15 per cent, phosphoric acid), 400 to 500 poimds; std-
phate of potash (50 per cent, potash), 100 poimds.

3. A 6-12-10 fertihzer, 500 poimds.

If the soil is known to be high in either phosphorus or
potash — ^that is, if a grain or vegetable crop will not respond
vigorously to applications of either phosphorus or potash —
the amounts of these elements could be greatly reduced in
the fertihzer tried, and the amount of nitrogen, even in a poor
soil, largely reduced by substituting leguminous cover crops.
It may be well at times to alternate stable manure with chem-
ical fertihzers the first and third years, using about 10 tons
to the acre.

57. Time of Applying Fertilizers. — It is not possible
to give absolute directions as to the best time for applying
chemical fertihzers, because various conditions will require
different practices. However, so far as experience has gone,
it seems to indicate that the best time is shortly after the
blooming period of the trees. Dried blood or sulphate or

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 41

ammonia miay be applied earlier, but if nitrate of soda is used
it should be applied at the time suggested, for at this time
the trees can make use of it readily and this fertilizer does not
remain in the soil for any great length of time.

58. Fertilizing of Young Trees. — In a great many
orchards where it will not pay to fertilize the old trees, espe-
cially in the case of nitrogen, the ill effects of which will more
than offset the beneficial results it will pay handsomely to
fertilize young trees, at the time of setting, with about 1 to
to 1| pounds of dried blood or | to f pound of nitrate of
soda, in a radius of 1| or 2 feet, and repeat the application
the second year. Of course, after the first and second years
the amounts of :fertilizer used shotdd be increased, since the
area on which it is spread will be larger as the roots grow.
The use of leguminous crops on the soil may entirely replace
the use of nitrogen in many cases.

RENOVATION OF OLD APPLE ORCHARDS

59. The renovation of old apple orchards is a somewhat
important phase of orcharding and one that can often be made
profitable. It is by no means true that all old, neglected
orchards can be made to pay satisfactory returns by renova-
tion. In many cases neglect has gone so far and insect and
fungous troubles have worked such havoc that time and money
spent in renovation would be largely if "not wholly wasted.
But, on the other hand, there are many instances in which a
judicious expenditure in the renovation of an old orchard has
been made to pay handsome returns. Whether or not renova-
tion will pay in any particular case will depend on numerous
factors. Perhaps one of the most important of these is the
question of capital available. In many cases at least the
first year after renovation begins no crop can be expected,
and if a man has not the capital to give the orchard this nec-
essary care without a crop to defray the expenses, he should
probably hesitate to begin. The condition of the trees with
reference to age, vigor, height, shape and distance apart, are

42 * APPLE CULTURE § 5

additional factors that should have serious consideration.
If the trees are not old, for example, it may not be necessary
to lose a crop in order to get them back into good condition.
Especially is this true in a fairly good soil. But if the trees
have run up too high a head to be handled profitably they will
have to be cut back and the center to some extent cut out.
This treatment may involve the loss of the crop the summer
following although this is not necessarily the case.

60. The stand of trees is another important considera-
tion in determining whether it will pay to renovate an old
orchard. Generally speaking, unless as much as 50 or 60
per cent, of the trees are in good, healthy condition, and 15 or
20 per cent, more of them are sufficiently healthy to be brought
back to good condition by careful treatment, it will hardly
pay to attempt to bring the orchard into profitable bearing,
since cultivation, etc. for the poor stand will be as expensive
as for a good stand.

61. The kind of soil on which the old orchard is located
is also an important factor. If the soil is not a reasonably
good orchard soil, generally it will not pay to go to the expense
of renovating an old orchard, especially if the soil is such that
it could be profitably devoted to some other crop. Of course,
there will be exceptions to this, as in cases, where on account
of good local markets, an orchard would be profitable even
on a poor orchard soil.

62. The question of being located where there is reasona-
ble certainty of getting a crop nearly every year is of very
great importance. If the orchaid is located in a valley where
there is almost sure to be frequent damage from late spring
frosts, it will generally not be profitable to renovate it unless
it is intended to make use of orchard heaters. Generally
speaking, it may be said that in a section where the orchard
is run down because there had been so many crop failures,
that is, because it has not paid to keep it up, it would not,
as a rule, be advisable to spend money in renovation.

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 43

63. The prevalence of insect pests and fungous diseases,
is of some importance. It is true that these troubles can be
successfully combated in many cases, but if the trees are badly
injured by borers or other insects that leave permanent injury
to the bodies of the trees, or if the orchard is badly infected
with different forms of apple canker, its renovation may be
inadvisable, since in many cases it would be impossible to
bring the trees into a healthy condition and keep them that
way for any length of time.

64. It may also be said that to a large extent the success
of such a venture will depend on the man who undertakes
it. It will require a man who is fairly well acquainted with
the orchard business and who knows what he wants to do in
the matter of renovating the orchard to get the best results.
He should also be very certain that he is going to have the time
and inclination to give the orchard the necessary care after
it is worked over. In most cases it has been observed that
if the orchard is under new management the renovation is
more likely to be thorough and effective, and the trees to have
the necessary care than if the man who has been neglecting
it undertakes the renovation.

65. Metliods of Renovating an Old Apple Orcliard.

No general mles can be laid down for working over an old
orchard, for each orchard will require special treatment, depend-
ing on its condition. In undertaking any renovating, it should
be the intention to give the trees the best of care, to get
the soil in good physical condition, and generally to take all
necessary measures to promote as healthy a growth as in the
case of growing young trees. Dead limbs should be removed,
and it is likely that many limbs that are not dead should be
cut out in order to give room for others and bring the trees
to a size and shape that will permit of economical spraying,
thinning, and harvesting. Undesirable stubs, splinters, etc.
that have resulted from improper pruning or breaking of limbs
by winds or other causes should be removed and all wounds
painted. The severity of the treatment will depend on the
condition of the orchard. As suggested, a young orchard,

248—17

APPLE CULTURE

especially if it is not badly infected with canker or seriously
infested with insects like borers or fruit-tree bark beetles, does
not need anything like so severe cutting as an old orchard.
Often merely thinning and cutting out to the proper shape,
getting the soil in good condition, and beginning the practice
of spraying will be sufficient to bring the orchard into healthy
condition. On the other hand, where the orchard is badly
injured, severe cutting may be necessary.

66. In many oases the trees will be set too close and it
may be necessary to cut out some of them, but the orchardist

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v3>

<§

<2>

£2

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Fig. 10

should carefiilly consider whether it will be better to cut out
some of the trees or cut all of them back severely and keep
them dowti in size. It is not advisable to attempt to grow
trees too large on a thin soil. Small trees can be more prof-
itably handled than large ones, provided there are enough
trees on the ground to make up for the lack of size. In any
soil a distance of 25 feet each way is sufficient if the trees are

APPLE CULTURE

kept down in size. However, in many cases it is unquestion-
ably necessary to cut out some of the trees. If the orchard is
set in hexagonal form it is usually a good plan to cut out every
other row; if the trees are set in the square form it may
be better to cut out alternate trees in each row, as indi-
cated in Fig. 10, in which r designates the trees that are to be
removed. In shaping the remaining trees, if they are young
and it is desired to prune them to an open head, the center

Fig. U

may be cut out say 8 or 10 feet high and all the weaker limbs
and some of the superfluous stronger ones cut out so as to
leave only six or seven limbs that are well spaced around the
body of the tree. Usually five or six limbs will be sufficient,
and these should be shortened back a little to make them
stocky and to make them push out new growth further down
the limb.

APPLE CULTURE

§5

In Fig. 11 is shown a tree in which five hmbs have been
retained and the points to which these limbs are to be cut
back are indicated at a. Old and badly neglected trees should
be cut back rather severely. A tree of this kind is illustrated
in Fig. 12, and the extent to which it may be advisable to cut
it back is shown by the white line drawn through the head.
It will also be advisable to thin out the limbs considerably in
the center to form, to some extent, an open head.

*'..i«iiiillli

■■'■iiiriiiSiiiiiH

Fig. 12

67. As an illustration of the severe cutting back that was
necessary in a certain old orchard, the views shown in Figs. 13
and 14 are of interest. Fig. 13 shows the orchard before
prunning and well illustrates the extreme height and undesira-
ble form commonly assumed by neglected apple trees. In
Fig. 14 is shown a view of the same trees after they were pruned.
It will be seen that the high limbs have been shortened back
and much of the thick, bushy growth removed. In the case

§5 APPLE CULTURE 49

of such trees as are shown in Fig. 14 it would undoubtedly
be advisable to still further reduce the length of the highest
limbs, but to avoid injury to the trees from excessively severe
pruning the latter work may be delayed 2 or 3 years or until
the trees have somewhat recovered from the shock of the first
pruning.

Severe pruning should be done somewhat gradually; that
is, it is better to do a part of it each year for 2 or 3 years
than to do it all in a single season. In the case of trees that
require very severe pruning, it is often advisable to leave more
of the lower limbs than will be desired in the renovated tree.
Later, when the tree has put out new top growth, the super-
fluous lower limbs may be removed.

Another point to be avoided in severe pruning operations
is the making of numerous large wounds close together. If
this is done the effect is somewhat the same as girdling the
tree. If it is found necessary to remove several large limbs
that join the trunk close together, the danger of girdling may
be avoided by cutting some of them in such a way as to leave
a stub 1 or 2 feet long. Later, when the wounds on the trunk
have healed or are nearly healed the stubs should be sawed off
close to the trunk. All large wounds made in this work
should be painted each year until entirely healed.

68. Soil Treatment for Renovated Orcliards. — In

working over an old orchard, the owner should bear in mind
the practices that have been recommended for the general
care of an apple orchard. If the soil is badly run down, prob-
ably the most desirable thing would be to grow a crop of cow-
peas or vetch or some other leguminous crop for the sake of
its beneficial effect on the soil. The use of orchard fertilizers
may in some cases be resorted to and in all probability
there is no time when fertilizing will pay better than at the
beginning of the spring after the trees have been cut back
in winter; especially is the use of barnyard manure or nitrog-
enous fertilizer to be recommended then. In a soil very
low in any other essential material, as potassium or phos-
phorus, these should be applied to secure best results from

50 APPLE CULTURE §5

the nitrogen. In many cases, resorting to winter cover crops
will show very marked benefits, especially in the case of a soil
on a south hill slope, and the use of cover crops should certainly
be part of the system of management if the orchard is located
on a hillside.

69. Spraying Metliods for Renovated Orchards. — It

will generally be profitable to give a dormant spraying for
old, neglected trees in a renovated orchard. When serious
pests such as San Jose scale are present they should be com-
bated as directed in another Section. A very heavy dormant
spray should be given for insects that will be nestled in the
bark, and for spores of fungi. This will be beneficial also in
clearing the bark of algse and lichens that grow on it. Even
after an orchard has been cut back so severely that no crop
is expected, at least one spraying to keep apple scab and other
fungous diseases off the foliage might be made to give the
orchard the very best opportunity to make a good growth
the first summer. Even if the orchard does not have a crop,
it should have the same care the second summer after renova-
tion as would be given to any bearing apple orchard.

70. Top Working of Trees. — In many cases the varie-
ties found in an old orchard will not be those that are profi-
table. In other cases the orchard may be made up of a single
variety that is self-sterile, so that the introduction of some
other variety for cross-fertilization is necessary. There are
undoubtedly many orchards that are failures because of lack
of proper pollination, and in going over an old orchard the
varieties should be carefully studied with reference to this
question. If necessary, varieties should be selected that are
known to be satisfactory for the cross-pollination of the
varieties predominating in the orchard, and the former
should be top-worked into the latter. The time for doing
this will vary from late winter, say the latter part of
February or any time in March, up to possibly the middle of
May, in the northern section of the country, though early spring
grafting is usually considered best.

§ 5 APPLE CULTURE 51

In working over the trees the grafts should be set in stubs
that are directed outwards and will form desirable limbs.
The limbs in the center that are not wanted may well be
left temporarily as sap pullers — that is, for the purpose of
furnishing foliage to supply nourishment; they should be cut
out when they have served the purpose. The first season
after the grafts have been set they should make a large growth.
Many water sprouts will come from the old stubs ; those at the
end of the stub should be carefully rubbed off so they will not
interfere with the growth of the grafts. Part of those along
the side of the limb may also be rubbed off; it is often desira-
able to leave some of the water sprouts and either to bud them
in the summer with the same varieties as the grafts inserted
or to whip-graft on them the winter following.

If more than one of the grafts on the end of a stub live,
probably some of them should be kept cut back to give one
the advantage, and usually after a few years when the stub
is about healed over all except one may be cut off. The tree
should then be kept pruned as much as it would be in the
case of a good open-headed tree ; it should be kept from becom-
ing too dense in the center, and after the grafts have made con-
siderable growth, say after 3 or 4 years, it should be clipped
back a little each year to keep it from getting too tall and to
to keep the growth down on the tree.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

INJURIES DUE TO LOW TEMPERATURE

INJURIES DURING DORMANT PERIOD OF PLANTS

1. Killing of Fruit Buds. — Severe, winter weather may
cause various degrees of injury to fruit buds. The degree of
the injury depends on the temperature, the prevalence of winds,
whether the air is dry or moist, the condition of the tree at the
beginning of cold weather, and probably other factors or con-
ditions that are not known. If the injury is very severe the
fruit buds and the fruit spurs, of those trees that bear fruit
spurs, may be killed. In less severe cases the fruit buds only
are entirely killed. In the latter cases the buds turn brown
throughout and do not open at the time for blossoming. In
other cases the injury is less severe and the buds open into
blossoms, but many of the pistils, or the central portion of
each blossom which, if uninjured, matures into the fruit, are
killed. In Fig. 1 are shown several blossoms, two in cross-
section, one of these having a small brown or black pistil a
which has been frozen, and the other a healthy green pistil b.

2. Killing of Twigs and Large Stems. — The killing of
the wood of trees, like the killing of the buds, depends on
various factors, the most important of which are the condition
of the tree at the time that cold weather arrives, intense cold,
very wet soil, and the heaving of land by frost.

Dead wood is darker than live, active wood and usually can
be easily recognized. If the wood is killed during the early

COPYRIGHTED BY INTERNATIONAU TEXTBOOK COMPANY. AUU RIQHTS REeERVED

§6

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

part of the winter the injury is probably caused by cold weather
coming before the trees have reached a sufficiently dormant
state to withstand the cold. At the time the leaves fall, espe-
cially if they are killed by frost, the trees cannot withstand
nearly so low a temperature as they can a month later. That
is, the trees must be allowed several weeks after the leaves fall
in which to attain a dormant condition so that they can with-
stand severe cold without injury. In those regions of the
United States and Canada where severe cold weather is
likely to occur in the early part of the winter, it is advi-
sable for the fruit grower to resort to methods of culture

that will force the trees
into an early dormant
condition. This end is
usually obtained by stop-
ping cultivation and by
planting, usually in
August, a cover crop that
^^* will make a rapid growth
during the autumn.

If the wood is killed
during the latter part of
winter, the injury is pro-
bably caused by a very
cold period that lasts for
several weeks, during
which time the twigs and
limbs lose much mois-
ture by evaporation, and as the branches are frozen they can-
not take up moisture to replace that which was evaporated.

It has been observed that the greatest injury from winter-
killing of fruit trees occurs in orchards that are not well drained
and to those trees that stand in low or wet places in orchards
that are otherwise well drained. In such cases the trees are kept
in a growing condition until late in the fall and do not attain
a sufficiently dormant condition by the time cold weather
arrives. A very wet soil in an orchard can usually be bene-
fited by thorough and proper drainage.

Fig. 1

§ G APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 3

3. Killing of Roots. — The roots of fruit trees will gener-
ally not survive a temperature lower than from 25° to 22° F.
Therefore, if the roots are exposed to the air they will be killed
by the winter temperature in almost any apple-growing section
in the United States or Canada, but the temperature of the
soil does not fall nearly so low as that of the air and rarely
becomes low enough to kill tree roots. In fact, it is desirable
that a few inches of the surface soil be frozen during the winter,
as such freezing has a tendency to force the trees into a dormant
condition. It has been observed that if a heavy fall of snow
occurs before the soil freezes the soil does not become frozen,
and more trees are killed than if the soil freezes. However,
there is more danger from winter-killing of the roots if the soil
freezes several feet deep than if only from 4 to 6 inches at the
surface becomes frozen, because the deeper the ground freezes
the colder the frozen portion becomes.

INJURIES DURING THE PERIOD OF VISIBLE
ACTIVITY OF PLANTS

4. The injuries that occur to plants while they are in a
noticeably active condition, that is, after the buds have begun
to swell in the spring and until the plants have assumed a dor-
mant condition in the fall, are commonly known as frost
injuries, although injuries that are caused by freezing temper-
ature but without the deposits of frosts may occur at this
time of the year.

5. Frost Dijury to Apple Buds. — Ordinarily, fruit buds
are not injured by the low temperatures that usually accompany
spring -frosts. However, if spring frosts are accompanied by
such low temperatures that it is customary to speak of them
as freezes, rather than as frosts, the unopened buds may be
killed. Apple buds, even after they are open far enough for
the white color of the petals to show at the tip of the buds,
are not often seriously injured by a temperature of 25° F.
However, instances are on record where a temperature as
low as 18° F. has occurred after the color of the petals was

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

distinguishable without seriously injuring the buds. But, in
such cases, a combination of unusual conditions may have
existed that prevented the killing of the pistils of the fruit buds.
It is safe to say, however, that apple buds, after the white
begins to show at the tips of the buds, are nearly always killed,
or at least seriously injured, by a temperature of 20° F. or less.

6. Frost Inj ury to Apple Blossoms . — It is not definitely
known exactly how low a temperature apple blossoms will
endure without injury. But a careful observer and investi-
gator states that while blossoms are fully expanded a com-

FiG. 2

paratively light frost will kill them and that a temperature
of 28° F. is nearly always fatal. Apple blossoms are more
easily killed than are peach blossoms, although the peach crop
is more often killed by spring frosts than is the apple crop.
This is due, however, to the fact that peach trees usually bloom
earlier in the season than do apple trees. Sometimes there is
apparently a second crop of apple blossoms that appears after
the first crop has been killed by frost. In many cases, however,
the so-called second crop of blossoms is simply those blossoms
that would normally have come out a little late. In other cases
the late blossoms develop from those buds that formed in the
axils of the leaves the previous year.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

.3;^,,

7. Frost Injury to Young Apples. — After the blossoms
have fallen and the young apples have set, the fruit may not
suffer from severe freezes. The claim has even been made by
some observers that fruit shortly after it has set will not be
seriously injured by being ^

frozen solid. Recovery ^k

from such freezes certainly
cannot always be the case,
because it is a fairly well-
established fact that the
injury such as is shown on
the young apples in Fig. 2
was caused by frost. Such
apples often continue to
grow, but the mature apples
will show a russet, corky
zone, as illustrated in Fig. 3.
Other observers and investi-
gators claim that very young
apples, that is, apples imme-
diately after the blossoms have fallen and the fruit is said to
have set, are more easily injured by frost than are the blossoms.
Newly-set apples are certainly very likely to be killed by a
temperature of from 30° to 28° F.

Fig. 3

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

§6

PREVENTION OF FROST INJURIES

8. More or less moisture always exists in the atmosphere
in the form of an invisible vapor. When this invisible vapor
is condensed by a falling temperature, clouds, or fogs, are

formed; if the moisture in the clouds
is further condensed at a temperature
above the freezing point rain is formed;
and if condensed at a temperature at
or below the freezing point snow is formed. If
the moisture of the atmosphere that is in imme-
diate contact with the surface of the earth is
condensed at temperatures above the freezing
point, dew is formed, and if this moisture is con-
densed at or below a freezing temperature frost is
formed. Frost is, therefore, the moisture of the
air condensed at or below 32° F. on the surface
of the earth or on plants or other objects.

9. Prediction of Frost. — The conditions
under which damaging frosts may occur are so
nimierous and varied that it is very difficiolt to
tell when frosts will occur and when they wiU
not. However, frost may be expected during the
HI I III ^^^^^ ^' ^^ nightfall, the dew point is 42° F. or
less. The dew point is the temperature of the
air at which dew is deposited. And when the
dew point falls to 32° F. or lower, frost will occur.
The dew point is determined by means of wet-
bulb and dry-bulb thermometers and a specially
prepared table known as a dew-point table.
The most accurate kind of an instrument for the determina-
tion of the dew point is shown in Fig. 4 (a), and is known
as a sling psychrometer. This instrument consists of a wet-
bulb and a dry-bulb thermometer, securely fastened to a

§6

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

support, which, in turn, is attached to a handle in such a way
that the thermometers and their support may be whirled on
one end of the handle. A case in which the sling psychrometer
may be kept while not in use is shown in (6) . The bulb of one
of the thermometers is covered with a thin piece of cloth and
just before it is used this bulb is dipped in a cup of water and

TABLE I

DETERMINATION OF THE DEW POINT

Difference in the

Reading of the

Dry- and

Wet-Bulb

Thermometers

Degrees F.

3
4
5
6

7
8

ID
II
12
13

14
15

Reading of Dry-Bulb Thermometer. Degrees F.

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Degrees of Temperature F. at Which Dew is Deposited

16
II

25
21

17
II

33
30

23
18
12

40
38
35
32
28
24

47
45
42
40

37
34

69
67

66
64
62
61
59
57
55
53
51
49
47
45
42

the cloth covering thoroughly saturated; hence, the name wet
bulb. Care must be used to avoid getting water on the naked,
or dry, bulb. The instrument is then whirled rapidly for
from 15 to 20 seconds and the temperature of the wet-bulb
thermometer noted; the whirling and the noting of the tem-
perature of the wet -bulb thermometer is repeated until the

248—18

8 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6

temperature is the same at two consecutive readings. This
temperature, unless the air is saturated, will be less than that
of the dry-bulb thermometer, and the difference between the
reading of the wet-bulb and that of the dry-bulb thermometer
should be accurately determined. After these data are secured,
the dew point may be determined by the aid of Table I as follows :
If the temperature of the dry-bulb thermometer is 49° F. and
the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer is 41° F., the
difference in temperature is 8° F. The dew point will be found
in the table at the intersection of the horizontal row in which 8
occurs in the column of figures at the left side of the table and
the vertical column headed by the number nearest the tempera-
ture of the dry-bulb thermometer, 50°. The dew point in this
case would be 31° F., and frost should be expected to occiu"
that night.

10. Average Dates of tlie Occurrence of Frosts.

Table II, which is taken from the United States Weather
Bureau reports, shows the date of the latest recorded killing
frost in spring, the date of the earliest recorded killing frost in
autumn, the average date of the occurrence of the last killing
frost in the spring, and the average date of the occurrence of
the first killing frost in autumn at various points in different
states in the United States.

11. Factors Affecting tlie Occurrence of Killing
Frosts. — Certain factors such as the altitude, the latitude, the
topography of the land, the position in relation to large or deep
bodies of water, and the motion of the air all exert their influence
on the occurrence of frosts in any locality. The humidity of
the air is also a factor that exerts an influence on the occurrence
of killing frosts. If the air is saturated, that is, if it contains
all the moisture it will hold, there is little danger from frost so
long as the temperature of the air remains above the freezing
point. If the temperature is at or below the freezing point,
a saturated atmosphere may retard frosts to a certain extent,
but just how much is not known.

The reason that saturated air may prevent injury from frosts
is that evaporation of moisture from a plant takes place readily

TABLE II
DATES OF LATE SPRING AND EARLY AUTUMN FROSTS

Station

Alabama :

Mobile

Montgomery

Arizona :

Phoenix

Yuma

Arkansas :

Fort Smith

Little Rock

California:

Eureka

Fresno

Los Angeles

Red Bluff

Sacramento

San Diego

San Francisco

San Luis Obispo . .
Colorado :

Denver

Grand Junction. . .

Pueblo

Connecticut :

New Haven

District of Columbia

Washington

Florida:

Jacksonville

Jupiter

Pensacola

Tampa

Date of
Latest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Spring

Mar. 28
Apr. 5

Mar. 31
None

Apr. 6
Apr. 14

May I
Apr. 14
Apr. 8
Apr. 25
Apr. 26
None
Apr. 20
Apr. 8

June 6
May 15
May 23

May 30

May II

Apr. 6
Apr. 7
Apr. 6
Mar. 19

Date of
Earliest

Recorded
Killing
Frost in

Autumn

Oct. 31
Oct. 21

Nov. 9

None

Oct. 15
Oct. 22

Nov. 7
Nov. 18
None
Nov. 15
Oct. 28
None
Nov. 18
Nov. 19

Sept. 12
Sept. 27
Sept. 12

Sept. 15

Oct. 2

Nov. 12
Nov. 18
Nov. 12
Nov. 28

Average

Date of

Last

Killing
Frost in

Spring

Feb. 24
Mar. II

Feb. 18
None

Mar. 4
Mar. 20

Apr. 2
Mar. 4
Apr. 8
Feb. 26
Feb. 16
None
Jan. 8
Feb. 20

May 6
Apr. 14
Apr. 26

Apr. 20

Apr. 7

Feb. 14
Feb. 14
Feb. 23
Feb. 8

Average:
Date of.
First
Killing-
Frost in
Autumn

Nov. 30
Nov. &

Dec. 7

None

Nov. 4
Nov. 10

Dec. 8
Dec. 15
None
Dec. 6
Nov. 15
None
Dec. 26
Dec. 27

Oct. 5
Oct. 21
Oct. 5

Oct. 17

Oct. 21

Dec. 6
Dec. 29
Dec. 5
Jan. 9

TABLE H — (Continued)

Station

Georgia :

Atlanta

Augusta

Macon

Savannah . . .
Illinois :

Cairo

Chicago

Springfield . .
Indiana :

Evansville . . .

Indianapolis .
Iowa:

Davenport . .

Des Moines.

Dubuque. . . .

Keokuk

Sioux City. .
Kansas :

Concordia. . .

Dodge

Topeka . .

Wichita

Kentucky :

Lexington . . .

Louisville . . .
Louisiana :

New Orleans

Shreveport . .
Maine :

Eastport

Portland

Date of

Latest
Recorded

Killing
Frost in

Spring

Date of
Earliest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Average

Date of

Last

Killing
Frost in

Spring

Apr. 15

Oct. II

Mar. 24

Apr. 17

Oct. 8

Mar. 20

Apr. 18

Nov. 5

Mar. 15

Apr. 5

Nov. I

Feb. 27

Apr. 19

Sept. 30

Mar. 29

May 29

Sept. 18

Apr. 18

May 22

Sept. 25

Apr. 20

Apr. 21

Sept. 30

Apr. 10

May 21

Sept. 21

Apr. 16

May 22

Sept. 18

Apr. 22

May 22

Sept. 12

Apr. 28

May 21

Sept. 27

Apr. 20

May 4

Sept. 18

Apr. 13

May 2 1

Sept. 13

May I

May 19

Sept. 27

Apr. 24

May 27

Sept. 23

Apr. 17

May 19

Sept. 28

Apr. 8

May 15

Sept. 23

Apr. 6

May 20

Sept. 30

Apr. 18

May 14

Sept. 24

Apr. 6

Mar. 27

Nov. 19

Jan. 24

Apr. 2

Oct. 20

Mar. 4

June 19

Sept. 8

Apr. 28

May 31

Sept. II

Apr. 14

Average
Date of

First
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Nov. 7
Nov. 9
Nov. 14
Nov. 26

Oct. 28
Oct. 15
Oct. 16

Oct. 30
Oct. 19

Oct. 14
Oct. 8
Oct. 13
Oct. 15
Sept. 27

Oct. 14
Oct. 15
Oct. 13
Oct. 19

Oct. 23
Oct. 29

Dec. 15
Nov. II

Oct. 12
Oct. 18

TABLE II — {Continued)

Station

Maryland :

Baltimore

Massachusetts :

Boston

Nantucket

Michigan :

Alpena

Detroit

Escanaba

Grand Haven . . . .

Marquette

Port Huron

Sault Ste. Marie.
Minnesota :

Duluth

Minneapolis

Moorhead

St. Paul

Mississippi :

Meridian

Vicksburg

Missouri :

Columbia

Hannibal

Kansas City

Springfield

St. Louis

Montana :

Havre

Helena

Nebraska :

Lincoln

North Platte

Date of
Latest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Spring

Date of
Earliest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Average

Date of

Last

Killing
Frost in

Spring

May 3

Oct. 6

Apr. 4

May II

Sept. 30
Oct. I

Apr. 26

Apr. 24

iVpr. 10

June 9

Sept. 6

May 14

May 31

Sept. 21

Apr. 30

June 16

Sept. 9

May 14

May 28

Sept. 23

Apr. 28

June II

Aug. 22

May 15

June 6

Sept. 22

May 8

May 29

Sept. 5

May 16

June 8

Sept. 15

May 3

May 20

Sept. 13

Apr. 27

June 8

Aug. 25

May 14

May 25

Sept. 20

May 6

Apr. 10

Oct. 8

Mar. 20

Apr. 6

Oct. 19

Mar. 6

May 9

Sept. 28

Apr. 14

May 14

Sept. 30

Apr. 14

May 4

Sept. 30

Apr. 10

May 19

Sept. 30

Apr. 16

May 22

Sept. 30

Apr. 2

June 6

Aug. 27

May 14

June 9

Sept. 5

May 10

Sept. 12

Apr. 18

May 23

Sept. 10

May I

Average
Date of
First
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Nov. 4

Oct. 22

Nov. 5

Sept. 26
Oct. II
Oct. I
Oct. 10
Oct. 2
Oct. 9
Sept. 24

Oct. 5
Oct. 8
Sept. 22
Oct. 5

Nov. 2
Nov. 12

Oct. 15
Oct. 15
Oct. 24
Oct. 13
Oct. 27

Sept. 13
Sept. 25

Oct. 9
Sept. 28

TABLE II — {Continued)

Station

Nebraska — Continued

Omaha

Valentine

New Mexico:

Santa Fe

Nevada:

Winnemucca

New Jersey :

Atlantic City

New York:

Albany

Binghamton

Buffalo

New York

Oswego

Rochester

North Carolina:

Charlotte

Hatteras

Raleigh

Wilmington

North Dakota:

Bismarck

Williston

Ohio:

Cincinnati

Cleveland

Columbus

Sandusky

Toledo

Oklahoma :

Oklahoma

Date of
Latest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Spring

May 19
June 21

May 18

June 20

Apr. 25

Date of
Earliest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Apr. 30

Sept. 18
Sept. 12

Sept. 27

Aug. 22

Oct. I

May 30

Sept. 23

May 21

Sept. 16

May 29

Sept. 23

Apr. 30

Oct. 5

May 29

Sept. 25

May 30

Sept. 26

Apr. 26

Oct. 8

Apr. 19

Nov. 7

May 6

Oct. 8

May I

Oct. 16

June 7

Aug. 23

June 10

Aug. 18

Apr. 24

Sept. 30

May 22

Oct. 2

May 17

Sept. 21

May 17

Oct. 8

May 29

Sept. 9

Average

Date of

Last

Killing
Frost in

Spring

Oct. 7

Apr. 15
May 9

Apr. 15

May 15

Apr. II

Apr. 24
Apr. 27
Apr. 25
Apr. 10
Apr. 27
May I

Apr. I
Feb. 28
Apr. 5
Mar. 27

May 15
May 18

Apr. 14
Apr. 16
Apr. 16
Apr. 14
Apr. 24

Apr. 2

Average
Date of

First

Killing

Frost in

Autumn

Oct. 12
Sept. 18

Oct. 19

Sept. 24

Nov. 4

Oct. 17
Oct. 6
Oct. 16
Nov. 6
Oct. 19
Oct. 19

Nov. 4
Dec. II

Nov. 4
Nov. 15

Sept. 21
Sept. 14

Oct. 25
Oct. 31
Oct. 16
Oct. 26
Oct. 15

Oct. 31
12

TABLE H — (Continued)

Station

Oregon :

Baker City

Portland

Roseburg

Pennsylvania :

Erie

Harrisburg

Philadelphia. .

Pittsburg

Rhode Island:

Block Island . .

Narragansett . .
South Carolina:

Charleston

Columbia

South Dakota:

Huron

Pierre

Rapid City. . .
Tennessee :

Chattanooga. .

Memphis

Nashville

Knoxville

Texas :

Abilene

Amarillo

Corpus Christi

El Paso

Fort Worth...

Galveston

Palestine

San Antonio . .

Date of
Latest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Spring

June 24
May 9
May 16

May 17
Apr. 26
Apr. 29
May 29

May II
May 30

Apr. 2
Apr. 17

June 8
May 19
May 21

May 14
Apr. 16
May 14
Apr. 24

Apr. 16
May 23
Mar. 19
Apr. 22
May I
Mar. I
May 30
Mar. 20

Date of
Earliest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Sept. 4
Oct. 13
Sept. 25

Oct. 12
Oct. 3
Oct. 3
Sept. 25

Oct. 30
Sept. 21

Nov. 9
Oct. 19

Aug. 23
Sept. 12
Sept. 13

Sept. 30
Oct. 2
Oct. 8
Oct. I

Oct. 24

Oct.

Nov.

16
30

Oct. 23
Oct. 22
Dec. 4
Oct. 20
Nov. 9

Average
Date of

Last
Killing
Frost in
Spring

May 25
Mar. 17
Apr. 15

Apr. 22
Apr. 10
Apr. 8
Apr. 26

Apr. 12
Apr. 23

Mar. I
Mar. 23

May 13
Apr. 30
May I

Apr. 2
Mar. 24
Apr. 2
Apr. 3

Mar. 15
Apr. 16
Feb. 27
Mar. 20
Mar. 18

Feb. 5
Mar. 13
Feb. 25

Average
Date of
First
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Sept. 27
Nov. 16
Oct. 30

Oct. 29
Oct. 24
Oct. 30
Oct. 19

Nov. 16
Oct. 16

Nov. 30
Nov. 8

Sept. 20
Sept. 30
Sept. 20

Oct. 26
Oct. 28
Oct. 24
Oct. 27

Nov. 15
Nov. I
Dec. 25
Nov. 10
Nov. 19
Dec. 25
Nov. 13
Nov. 30

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

§6

TABLE II— (Continued)

Station

Utah:

Salt Lake City.
Vermont :

Northfield

Virginia :

Lynchburg ....

Norfolk

Wytheville

Washington :

Seattle

Spokane

Tatoosh Island

Walla Walla..
West Virginia :

Elkins

Parkersburg . . .
Wisconsin :

Green Bay. . . .

La Crosse

Madison

Milwaukee

Wyoming :

Cheyenne

Lander

Date of

Latest
Recorded

Killing
Frost in

Spring

June 1 8

June 7

May 7
Apr. 26
May 26

May 27
June 8
Apr. 19
May 12

May 24
May 22

May 30
June I
May 13
May 29

June 1 1
June 18

Date of
Earliest
Recorded
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Sept. 22

Aug. 27

Oct. 4
Oct. 15

Sept. 14

Oct. 18
Sept. 7
Nov. I
Sept. 28

Sept. 28
Sept. 24

Sept. 16
Sept. 21
Sept. 29
Sept. 25

Aug. 29
Aug. 23

Average

Date of

Last

Killing
Frost in

Spring

Apr. 23

May 13

Apr. 14
Mar. 27
Apr. 23

Mar. 21
Mar. 23
Mar. 14
Apr. 4

May 18
Apr. II

Mays
May 2
Apr. 21
Apr. 29

May 22
May 19

Average
Date of

First
Killing
Frost in
Autumn

Oct. 18

Sept. 16

Nov. I
Nov. 12
Oct. 7

Nov. 22
Oct. 17
Dec. 15

Nov. 7

Oct. 10
Oct. 17

Oct. 4
Oct. 8
Oct. 17
Oct. 10

Sept. 16
Sept. II

if the air is dry, and this evaporation lowers the temperature
of the plant. If, however, the air is saturated, evaporation
of moisture from plants cannot take place. The degree of
protection will, of course, depend on the degree of saturation,
or of humidity.

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 15

12. Means of Preventing Frost Injuries. — ^In almost
every section of the United States there is some danger of loss
in the business of fruit growing from injuries to the fruit crop
due to frosts. In fact, the killing of the fruit crop by frosts
is an important factor in determining whether or not fruit
growing in any locality will be a success. The preventing of
a fruit crop from being killed by frost not only saves the value
of the crop for the current year, but makes the fruit-growing
industry in the community more stable and enables the business
to be more easily carried on in succeeding years; because most,
or at least some, fruit growers, desire to borrow money occasion-
ally, and loans are more easily secured if the fruit growing
business is a well-established industry in the community.

13. Mulching with such crops as winter vetch or rye
grown in an orchard has a tendency to keep the soil cool, and by
so doing may tend to retard the time of blooming. This
action, however, is very slight, as it is largely the temperature
of the twigs and buds and not that of the soil that determines
the time of blooming.

14. Whitewashing of fruit trees may have the effect
of slightly retarding their blooming period. However, the
retardation is so little that the whitewashing of the trees for
this purpose is not generally considered to be practical. The
principle involved in the use of whitewash is that the white
surface of the bark, twigs, and buds, after they are whitewashed,
will not absorb the rays of the sun and consequently will not
attain a temperature as high as the surrounding atmosphere.

15. Irrigation is used as a means of preventing frost
injuries in irrigated regions when the temperature gets so low
that frost is expected. The water used in irrigating gives off
heat and usually prevents severe injury, provided the temper-
ature does not go below 28° F.

16. Spraying of fruit plants with water is effective in
preventing injury from frosts, but the spray must be applied
as long as the low temperature continues. If the spray is
stopped, the temperature of the plants is quickly reduced and

16 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6

wet plants will not stand without injury as low a temperature
as dry plants.

17. Smudging, which is the burning of some material
that will make a cloud of dense, moist smoke, is a means of
preventing damage by frost. This is an old practice and is
effective in preventing frost injuries where the conditions in
and around the fruit plantation are such that a uniform, dense
smudge can be retained as a blanket over the plantation until
aU danger of frost is past. The fuel used should be of a kind
that biHTLS slowly; it is claimed that better results will be
obtained if damp fuel is used or if water is added to the fire
so that a steam or vapor is formed than if the fire is allowed
to blaze. Such material as damp leaves, old hay, straw, manure,
sawdust, brush, grass, in fact, any slow-burning material may
be used as fuel in the making of smudges. A mixture of 1 part
of coal tar and 2 parts of sawdust has been recommended as
a very desirable smudge fuel. The fuel should be on hand in
the orchard so that the fires may be lighted as soon as indications
of frost appear.

Smudging is more often effective in preventing frost if the
orchard is located on level land than if on a slope or on rolling
land, because in the latter cases there are more likely to be
air-currents, which prevent the smudge from settling like a
blanket over the orchard. The principle involved in smudging
is that the cloud of smoke and vapor acts as a blanket spread
over the orchard and thus prevents the heat stored in the soil
and in the trees of the orchard from radiating.

18. Orchard heating is warming the air of an orchard by
means of fires kept burning at the time frost is likely to occur.
Although this is an old practice, it has been gaining much favor
in the past few years, and is now considered one of the most
practical means of preventing frosts in orchards.

The fuels used for orchard heating in the United States are
the western oils, often spoken of as distillates, crude petroleum
of the Mississippi Valley and the Eastern States, fuel oil obtained
from the refining of petroleum, and coal, wood, straw, manure,
and shavings; oil and coal are the important fuels used for the

APPLE PESTS. AND INJURIES

purpose. In burning, all of the fuels mentioned produce a
dense, heavy smoke and in some sections the practice of orchard
heating is known as smudging.

If coal is used in orchard heating, it is generally necessary
to have some sort of kindling to start the coal in the heaters,
and it is also necessary to light the heaters a few hours before
the temperature reaches the danger point; it is, however,
impossible to know whether or not to light the heaters on
some occasions. For this reason some grade of oil is most
largely used for orchard-heating purposes, although coal may
be used with success in regions where coal is relatively cheap
and oil is relatively expensive. Wood may be burned in small
heaps on the ground, but some kind of burners must be pro-
vided if oil or coal is used as a fuel. The burners, or heaters,

Fig. 5

in which the oil is burned are usually some form of galvanized-
iron or of ordinary sheet -iron pots or vessels that will hold from
1 to 4 or more gallons of oil. The 2-gallon size is, probably,
under most conditions, the most desirable size. A large num-
ber of heaters for the burning of oil has been made with various
shapes and devices that are supposed or claimed to make the
heating more effective. Several oil-burning heaters are shown
in Fig. 5, and a coal-burning heater is shown in Fig. 6.

It is recommended that heaters of a simple form of construc-
tion be used; that they be supplied with a lid that can be
easily placed on the heater while the oil is burning and that

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

Fig. 6

cannot be blown off by the wind. The more desirable heaters
are supplied with some appliance for reducing the burning
surface, especially if the heater has a capacity of 2 or more

gallons of oil.

19. The number of
heaters required to pre-
vent frost injuries to
blossoms or very young
fruit in an orchard will
vary greatly, depending
on the location of the
orchard, the temperature,
and the wind. If the
orchard is protected
from wind and has fair
air drainage, fifty or sixty
heaters to the acre may be sufficient. Experience indicates,
however, that there should be in any orchard at least one
heater for each tree and that an average of one hundred heaters
to the acre is desirable. Also, the
orchardist should have a torch for light-
ing the oil in the heaters and a small
gasoline can, such as the one shown in
Fig. 7, from which a small quantity of
gasoline may be placed on the oil in the
heater to facilitate lighting.

To be prepared to combat frost suc-
cessfully by means of oil heaters the
orchardist must provide for the storage
of a sufficient quantity of oil for heating
the orchard at least three times. The
oil should be on hand before it is needed
for the fighting of frosts. Assuming
that 1^ gallons of oil is burned in each
heater and that one hundred heaters are used per acre, it would
require, therefore, 150 gallons of oil to the acre for each heat-
ing of the orchard. Thus, for a 10-acre orchard it would be

Fig. 7

ilil

Wii
ilii'

■ililfW">

20 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6

advisable to have on hand 4,500 gallons of oil; this should be
stored in a large cement cistern or in large galvanized-iron tanks.
In addition, there should be a good 400-gallon tank that could
be readily mounted on a wagon and used for distributing the
oil in the orchard. This tank should be equipped with one or
two hose and nozzles, such as the outfit shown in Fig. 8.

20. The cost of the equipment necessary for fighting frost by
means of heating the air will, of course, vary with the cost of labor
and material. Approximately, the cost for the orchard-heating
equipment for a 10-acre orchard may be siunmarized as follows :

1,000 orchard heaters $150 to $400

1 storage tank for oil 75 to 175

1 hauling tank 40 to 75

2 torches and gasoline cans 2 to 3

Total $267 to $653

The cement storage tank will last indefinitely, but the other
equipment will, in time, have to be replaced. Therefore, in
estimating the annual cost of the equipment for heating a
10-acre orchard, the depreciation of equipment should be
considered. Assimiing that the permanent equipment other
than the cement storage tank will last for 10 years, the annual
cost of heating a 10-acre orchard may be summarized as follows :

Depreciation of equipment $ 19.20 to $ 47.80

4,500 gallons of oil (usually less oil is used) . . 112.50 to 225.00
2 men placing and fill-
ing heaters, 1 day $3.00 to $ 4.00

1 team placing and fill-

ing heaters, 1 day 1.50 to 2.00

2 men lighting and

tending heaters . . 3.00 to 4.00
Total for one heating $7.50 to $10.00

Labor for three heatings 22.50 to 30.00

Hauling oil from railroad station to farm .... 16.00 to 24.00
Approximate total annual cost for

10-acre orchard $170.20 to $326.80

Approximate total annual cost per acre $ 17.00 to 32.70

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 21

In addition to the equipment mentioned, a few good tested
thermometers should be provided. It is necessary to have
them tested, because thermometers of fair grade often vary
from 2 to 5 degrees; such thermometers should be checked
with some tested thermometer and the corrections, if any,
made for each one. These thermometers may then be placed
at various places throughout the orchard. There are on the
market thermometers equipped with an alarm bell that rings
when the temperature drops to a dangerous degree. These
alarms cannot always be depended on; therefore, too much
reliance should not be placed in them, however convenient
they may be.

21. Heaters may be placed in an orchard and filled any time
after the buds have begun to swell and are in danger from
injury by frost; but they should be in place and ready for use
before the time for their use occurs. They should be placed
under the trees but not so near them that the trunks will be
injured by the blaze from the burning oil. If coal is used as a
fuel, a small quantity of kindling must be placed under the coal.
The fires are lighted by means of a torch usually made of a
bunch of waste fastened to the end of a wire and saturated with
oil. This torch is lighted and placed, partly submerged in the
oil heater, and immediately under the kindling in the coal
heaters. If a small quantity of gasoline is poured on the
surface of the oil from a small can firing takes place very quickly.
The use of the gasoline, however, is dangerous unless care is exer-
cised in using it. Its use should not be entrusted to children
or to persons -who will not use care in keeping the gasoline can
and the torch separated as far as possible.

If a dangerous temperature is expected, one man should
remain in the orchard during the night and carefully note the
temperature as indicated by the thermometers. If a frost is
imminent, other men should be wakened to help in lighting
the heaters. During the heating the attendants should care-
fully watch the rise or fall of the temperature and regulate the
fires accordingly. If the temperature rises beyond the danger
point, the fires shoiild be put out and thus save fuel. The

:iiS'&^:

^M-,

—^^....^^ i

m£ ■

"^ '«

l^ft"":/'

: ;T*f ■■ . ■ ■ " ■

M-

■.>-:^-i.:y-"-: ■ - ;

: 'J •;•"*■" '^ - /. «

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 23

heaters may, if necessary, be refilled while they are burning
by running oil into them through a hose attached to a tank,
such as that shown in Fig. 8. An orchard in which the fires
are burning is shown in Fig. 9.

To prolong the usefulness of orchard heaters, they must be
well cared for throughout the year. Most orchardists collect
the heaters after all danger from frosts is past and store them
in a shed in or near the orchard. Any shed or building that will
keep out the rain and snow will answer this purpose. Other
orchardists, after they have finished using their oil heaters for
any season, fill them with oil and place them near the trunks
of the trees. This method of storing saves time and does not
necessitate so large a storage tank for oil as where the heaters
are stored in a shed, and if the heaters are of galvanized iron
and are provided with neatly fitting lids they will remain in
good shape for several years.

INSECTS AND DISEASES OF THE APPLE

INSECTS AFFECTING THE APPLE

22. It is estimated that over $700,000,000 is annually lost
from the work of insects in the United States. Probably no
crop suffers greater from the ravages of insects than does the
apple crop. It is estimated that in New York State alone
an annual loss from the codling moth, including the expense
of spraying, is at least $3,000,000. Although there are a great
number of insects that may at times infest apple orchards,
most of these insects are controlled by spraying the trees with
an insecticide. It is important, therefore, that a fruit grower
become acquainted with each of the more common apple insects
and the means of combating them.

23. Apple-Tree Borers. — The apple tree is attacked by
three species of borers, the round-headed apple-tree borer, the
spotted apple-tree borer, and the fiat-headed apple-tree borer.

248^19

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

§0

Fig. 10

The adult round -lieaded apple-tree borer, shown in
Fig. 10 (a), is a long-homed beetle with two white stripes down
its back and is from f to neariy 1 inch in length. The adults
vary a month or so in the time they emerge from the pupal

stage, but they usually come
out about the last of May.
Due to the fact that the
adiilts may emerge during
a period of from 1 to 2
months, the eggs are de-
posited during a period ex-
tending for nearly 2 months
from about the last of May.
The eggs are pale rusty
brown in color, |- inch long,
about one-third as wide as
long, and about one- third
as thick as wide. They are deposited at night, usually in the bark
of the trunk near the ground, but they are sometimes deposited
higher up. A side view of the larva is shown in Fig. 10 (b) , and a
view from above is shown in (c). During the first year after
hatching these larvas, or borers, burrow into the sap wood and
downwards. The second year a borer usually works more or
less into the hard wood and upwards; the third year it gnaws
out to the bark, where a cocoon is made and from which the
adult emerges. It is, therefore, 3 years from the time an egg
is deposited until the insect hatching from that egg develops
and emerges as an adult. A single borer seldom kills a tree,
but if several borers, as is often the case, are in one young
apple tree, it is very likely to be killed.

Another insect that closely resembles the
round-headed apple-tree borer is the spotted
apple-tree borer, the adult of which is illus-
trated in Fig. 11. As may be seen by comparing
Fig. 10 (a) with Fig. 11, the chief difference in
the appearance between the round-headed and ^'^- ^^

the spotted apple-tree borers is that each of the two white stripes
on the back of the former insect are represented by three white

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

spots on the latter insect. The eggs of the spotted apple-tree
borer are laid in pairs about ^ inch apart along the trunk and
large branches of the tree, and as soon as these eggs hatch the
larvas, which in appearance can scarcely be distinguished from
the larvas of the round-headed apple-tree borer, work in oppo-
site directions around the branch. Like the round-headed apple-
tree borer, the spotted apple-tree borer spends the first year in
the sap wood, the second year in the hard wood, and the adult
insect emerges the third year.

The adiilt flat-headed apple-
tree borer is illustrated in
Fig. 12 (a) and the larva in (b).
The adrdts are about | inch in
length and appear during the
spring, at about the time the
adtdts of the round-headed apple-
tree borer appear, and deposit
their eggs diuing the daytime on
the bark and limbs of the trees.
The larvas of the fiat-headed apple-tree borer usually mine
into the sap wood only. They hibernate on the approach of
cold weather and in late spring form pupas within the infested
trees. The adults emerge from the pupas and eat their way
out. The work of the flat-headed apple-tree borer can be told
from that of the round-headed apple-tree borers by the shape
of the holes that they mine ; the hole of the round-headed apple-
tree borer is round and that of the fiat-headed apple-tree borer
is oblate.

Fig. 12

24. Although apple-tree borers are not particularly numer-
ous, they do exist in considerable numbers in some sections.
And from the fact that they cannot be killed by spraying, their
work seriously weakens the trees of apple orchards, and if they
are not successfully combated they will eventually destroy
many trees, especially young trees.

The presence of the insects in the trees may be detected by
the injured appearance of the bark near the ground. If the
insects are in the tree, there may be present at the surface

26 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6

of the bark sawdust-like cuttings of the borers; the bark may-
present a dead, shriveled appearance; jelly-like secretions may
be present on the surface of the bark; or it may present a
bruised or injured appearance.

Borers are combated by two general methods: (1) By pre-
venting them from getting into the trees, and (2) by destroy-
ing them after they get into the trees.

The preventive method consists in attempting to keep the
adult insects from depositing their eggs in the bark of the trees.
This may be accomplished by placing mechanical barriers
around the trees or by washing them with some solution that
has a tendency to repel the insects. One of the most common
barriers consists of from two to four thicknesses of newspaper
loosely wrapped around the trunks of the trees. The paper
should be tied in place by a cord, or string, that will yield or
break with the expansion of tree as it grows. A small mound
of earth should be thrown around the outside of the paper at
the bottom of the trunk of the tree and the paper at the top
of the trunk should be tied rather tightly with the string so that
the beetle cannot get down behind the paper and obtain access
to the tree. Wood veneer or wire netting may be used instead
of the paper to place around the trees. That part of the trunk
immediately above the wrapping and the lower limbs of the
tree should be treated with some deterrent. A wash made by
reducing soft soap or fish-oil or whale-oil soap to the consistency
of thick paint by the addition of washing soda or of caustic
soda in solution has been recommended as a successful repel-
lant to the adult insects of the apple-tree borers.

Clean cultivation around the trees is one of the best means
of preventing injury from borers. Grass, weeds, or water
sprouts should not be allowed to grow and accumulate around
the base of the trees, as the accumulation of such material forms
a suitable place for the insects to lay their eggs.

If a tree is found that is injured beyond recovery it should
be taken out and destroyed by fire, so that the larvas that it
may contain will be killed before they have an opportunity to
develop and infest other trees. The insects in slightly infested
trees may be cut out and destroyed.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

25. San Jose Scale. — The one insect that has probably
caused more damage to apple orchards than any other insect
is the San Jose scale. The insects proper are very small and
yellowish in color. For a short time after their birth the young
insects may be seen crawling about. They have six legs; and
a head with eyes, antennae, and a long, thread-like beak through
which they take their food. But in from 12 to 36 hours after
their birth the young insects attach themselves to the bark,
fruit, or leaves of a tree and secrete from their bodies waxy
filaments. This waxy
secretion soon forms a
scale over the insect
and it is this scale
that the orchardist
usually sees and not
the insect proper,
which, after the scale
is formed, loses its
legs, eyes, and anten-
na, and only the
thread-like beak and
an anal plate are dis-
tinct and these only
under a high -power
microscope. In fact,
the insects become
only masses of organ-
ized protoplasm and
present but little resemblance to the young crawling insects.
The insects, when they attach themselves to leaves, fruit, and
smooth young bark, cause a reddish color to appear around
the scales, and their presence is usually easily recognized by
this red-colored tissue.

The immature San Jose scales are most easily recognized
by orchardists, because the immature scales are circular, almost
black, have a nipple-like prominence near the center of the
scale, and the nipple is surrounded by one, two, or three
depressed circular rings. A section of an apple limb that is

Fig 13

28 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6

infested with San Jose scale is shown magnified several times
in Fig. 13.

The reason that the San Jose scale is so damaging in an orch-
ard is that the insects are very small and to unobserving per-
sons are not noticed until they are present by the millions
and the trees have begun to die from the damage done by the
insects. It is estimated that there are from two to five and
possibly more generations of the insects each year, and that the
progeny of a single female insect in the latitude of Washington,
D. C, may be almost three and one-quarter billion insects in
a single year. It is easy to understand, therefore, why it is
that a tree with only a few San Jose scale on it in the spring
may be alraost covered with them by fall.

On apple trees, San Jose scale usually infest the small twigs;
rarely are the scales found on the thick, rough bark, and the
leaves and fruit are infested only on very badly infested trees.
The old scales are of a grayish color and in badly infested orch-
ards the scales give a gray, ashy color to the limbs of the trees.

San Jose scale is pretty generally distributed over the United
States, and those sections where it has not been found have no
assurance of immunity. There are several ways of distributing
the pest, probably the most common of which is by means
of nursery stock. Young trees should be purchased only from
a nurseryman that can show a certificate of inspection.
Orchardists should learn to recognize San Jose scale and to
examine carefully each tree received from a nursery. During
the crawling stage of the life of the insects, that is, from their
birth until they attach themselves, they may crawl from tree
to tree where the branches touch; the young insects may crawl
onto the feet of birds and be carried several miles and crawl
off onto another tree; the young insects may be blown from
tree to tree by the wind; and they may also be distrib-
uted on infested fruit, but this means of distribution is not
considered to be of great importance.

26. If an orchard is found to be infested by San Jose scale,
it should be sprayed thoroughly. The most popular spray is
lime-sulphur, although miscible oils are used extensively.

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 29

The miscible oils are less disagreeable to apply than lime-sul-
phur but there is a slightly greater danger of injuring the twigs
with the former than with the latter.

Lime-sulphur of a specific gravity of about 1.03 should be
applied in the fall soon after the leaves have fallen or in the
spring before the buds begin to swell noticeably. If commer-
cial brands of lime-sulphur are used, it is usually necessary
to dilute 1 gallon of the concentrate solution with 9 gallons of
water to secure a solution with a specific gravity of 1.03, but
to insure the proper specific gravity of the spray mixture a
hydrometer should be used.

Although the spring spraying has been found a little more
effective than the faU spraying, some orchardists recommend
and practice fall spra3dng. The reason for this practice is that
if anything should prevent the completion of the spraying
during the fall the work could be finished in the spring, whereas,
if something should prevent spraying the entire orchard in
the spring, the spraying with a strong spray solution would
have to go undone. However, lime-sulphur with a specific
gravity of from 1.007 to 1.01 may be applied to the trees dur-
ing the summer months without injury to the foliage and may
check the increase of San Jose scale.

Miscible oils are used principally as winter sprays in com-
bating San Jose scale. Commercial brands should be used
as directed by the manufacturer, but if home-made miscible
oil is used it should be diluted from ten to twelve times, that is,
from 9 to 11 gallons of water should be added to each gallon
of miscible oil to make from 10 to 12 gallons of the emulsion,
or spray.

27, Oyster-Shell Scale. — ^Perhaps the most common
scale insect that is found in apple orchards is the oyster-shell
scale, also known as the oyster-shell bark louse. The character-
istic appearance of a part of an apple limb infested by this
insect is illustrated in Fig. 14 (a), and a single female, with a
section of the scale removed to show the eggs, is sho^vn enlarged
in (b). The scales that cover the female insects are dark
brown or grayish in color, about | inch in length, and shaped

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

somewhat like an oyster shell. The scales of the male insect
are much smaller than those of the female.

In the latter part of August the female insects lay from
forty to one hundred small, reddish eggs; these remain over
winter under the scale, and during the latter part of May hatch
into small lice-like insects, which crawl out from under the scale
and move slowly over the bark for a few hours, when they
attach themselves to the bark and remain there for the rest
of their lives. In the first molting, the insects lose their eyes,
legs, and antennae, and immediately begin secreting the mate-
rial of which the scale is formed. The females die soon after

Fig. 15

laying their eggs, and, as there is only one brood in most parts
of the United States, the oyster-shell scale does not multiply
anything like so rapidly as the San Jose scale. As is the case
with the San Jose scale, the oyster-shell scale insects may be
carried from tree to tree during the period that they are
crawling, by birds or by the wind.

Although the oyster-shell scale is very widely distributed
throughout the United States, it does not often occur in suf-
ficiently large numbers to do great injury to orchards. How-
ever, if orchards are neglected, oyster-shell scale may become
somewhat serious.

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 31

The same methods of control are recommended for the
oyster-shell scale as for the San Jose scale, and if spraying is
practiced for the destruction of San Jose scale little need be
done for the oyster-shell scale.

28. Scurfy Scale. — Scurfy scale are illustrated in natural
size in Fig. 15 (a). The larger scales are the females and the
smaller scales are the males. An enlarged female scale is shown
in (6) and a male scale in (c) .

Scurfy scale, although very common in apple orchards, is
not considered a serious pest ; in fact, it has never been reported
to have caused serious damage to apple trees. The life history
of the scurfy scale is practically the same as that of the oyster-
shell scale, and the methods of control are also the same.

29. Codling Motli. — The insect that causes wormy apples
is known as the codling moth. This insect exists in practically
all parts of the world in which
apples are grown. The mature
codling moth, shown in Fig. 16,
is about f inch across the ex-
panded wings, which have some-
what the appearance of grayish-
brown watered silk, and emerges
from 1 to 3 weeks after apples

blossom. Within a few days after emerging the moths begin
to deposit their eggs, most of them on the foliage of the tree.
In from 5 to 10 days after being laid the eggs hatch into small
whitish worms, or larvas, about yg i^ch long. If the eggs are
hatched on the leaves, the larvas usually feed a little on the
tender leaves and then crawl to the nearest apple. Most of
the larvas enter the apples through the calyx, within which
they feed for a short time and then eat their way into the core
of the apple. Here the larvas usually consume a portion of the
flesh of the apple and the apple seeds, and, becoming fully grown
at from 3 to 4 weeks of age, eat their way out through the
sides of the apples, leaving round exit holes. Full-grown larvas,
which are about f inch long and are whitish or pinkish in color,
find a convenient place to spin their cocoons in which they

^J*^

■^.

;|i

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

transform into pupas and usually emerge as mature moths in
about 8 weeks from the time the eggs were laid. The charac-
teristic appearance of the interior of an apple injured by codling
moth larvas is shown in Fig. 17.

Under certain conditions, a few of the larvas of the first
brood hibernate during the winter, but in most parts of the
United States only the larvas of the second brood of moths
hibernate over winter. A rminber of cocoons are often found
on the under side of a piece of bark as it is pulled from an
apple tree. The larvas of the second brood of codling moth
usually enter the apples from the side or from the stem end.

30. Codling moths are combated by the use of arsenical
poisons and by destroying the hibernating larvas. All loose
bark on the trunk of apple trees in an infested orchard should
be removed from the trees and burned so as to destroy the
larvas that may be attached to the under side of the bark.

ft') X

Fig. 18

As practically all the larvas of the first brood of codling
moths enter the young fruit by eating through the blossom end,
or calyx, of the apple, it has been found that the most effective
way to kill the young larvas is to place poison in the calyx of

34 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § G

the youiig apples. As the calyx of the apple closes about
10 days after the blossoms faU, it is necessary to make the first
spraying while the calyx of the young apple is open as shown
in Fig. 18 (a). It is difficult, though possible, to force a spray
into a calyx in the condition shown in (6), but it is too late to
spray effectively for codling moth when the calyx has closed
to the extent shown in (c). Sometimes the trees are treated
with a spray in from 3 to 4 weeks after the blossoms fall, and
with a third spraying in from 8 or 9 weeks after the blossoms
faU to kill the larvas of the second brood. Therefore, to
successfully combat codling moths, it is advisable that the
orchardist spray the trees with an arsenical poison within a
week or 10 days after the blossoms fall and again in from 2 to
3 weeks and a third time in from 4 to 5 weeks after the second
spraying.

The poison most often used is arsenate of lead. About
2 pounds of the paste form or 1 pound of the powder form are
used to make 50 gallons of spray. About | pound of Paris
green or 1 quart of stock solution of arsenite of lime may
likewise be used to make 50 gallons of spray. It is a very com-
mon and commendable practice to use 50 gallons of lime-
sulphur solution with a specific gravity of from 1.007 to 1.01
with which to add the poisons mentioned. A lime-sulphur
solution of the strength mentioned is usually obtained by
adding from Ij to I5 gallons of a standard concentrate lime-
srdphur solution to 50 gallons of water. However, if the codling
moth alone is to be combated, the arsenical poisons may be
added to water.

31. Lesser Apple Worm. — ^An insect that closely resem-
bles the codling moth is the lesser apple worm, and as the work
of the two insects are strikingly similar, the same m.ethods are
used in combating them.

32. Apple Maggot. — A small, yeUo wish-white, footless
maggot about ^ inch long when full grown and known as the
apple maggot, or the apple railroad worm, is shown in Fig. 19 (a).
The adult form of this insect is a blackish colored fly shown
in (6). It is a little smaller than the common house fly and

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

may be distinguished from other flies that may be seen on
apples by the four rather distinct black bands across each wing
and by the three or four white bands across the abdomen.

This insect causes much damage to summer and faU apples
in the New England States and has been found in many other
sections of the United States. The female fly deposits its eggs
just beneath the skin of the apples ; sometimes twelve or fifteen
eggs are deposited in a single apple and from 300 to 400 eggs
are deposited during a season. The young larvas, or maggots,
on hatching, immediately begin eating into the apple. They
burrow around through the flesh of the apple, and if several
of them are present in the same apple it is likely to be eaten

Fig. 19

Fig. 20

full of small brownish burrows and present an appearance such
as is shown in Fig. 20. The apple maggots reach fiill growth
about the same time that the apple in which they are living
ripens. Then the maggots work out of the apple, and, if in the
orchard, work about 1 inch into the ground, where they pupate.
If the apples are stored in a box the brownish pupas may be
■ found in the bottom of the box.

As the apple maggot does all its eating entirely within an
apple, there is no chance for the orchardist to poison this pest.
However, a large part of the infested apples drop from the
trees, and if these apples are gathered up and destroyed twice
a week the damage of the apple maggot will not be great. If

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

hogs are allowed to run in the orchard they will eat the fallen
apples and thus destro}^ the maggots.

Fig. 21

33. Plum Curculio. — In Fig. 21 is shown the plum cur-
culio, which often gnarls and disfigures the apple by depositing
its eggs on the inside and by eating small
portions from the surface of the apple. The
female beetle cuts a small hole in an apple and
then deposits her egg, after which she cuts a
crescent-shaped wound around the puncture.
The characteristic crescent-shaped wound of
the plrmi curculio is illustrated at a in Fig. 22.
The scar caused by the beetle eating the
apple is illustrated at b.

The insects begin depositing eggs in the
apples when they are not over j inch in diameter and con-
tinue until August. The eggs hatch in from 4 to 6 days and
the young larvas immediately burrow in the fruit, causing it to
fall within a few days. The larvas mature in about 3 weeks
and crawl from the apple and
pupate in the ground or under
rubbish and emerge in about
4 weeks as adult insects.
Many of these insects hiber-
nate during the winter and
lay eggs the following year.

In young orchards, where
the trees are small, the in-
sects may be jarred from the
trees during the latter part of
May and during June onto
a sheet spread beneath the
tree. This practice is suc-
cessful only as long as the trees
are small and easily jarred. Frequent sprayings with arsenical
poisons reduces the injury but Httle. Probably the most effective
method of combating the plimi curculio is to keep the orchard free
from weeds and to cultivate it frequently during May and June.

Fig. 22

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

Fig. 23

34. Apple Curculio. — In Fig. 23 (a) is shown the adult
form of the apple curculio and in (b) the larval form. This
insect is about J inch long and on the wing covers are four
prominent humps. These insects lay their eggs in the apples
for about 2 months after
the blossoms fall. A scar
on the fruit similar to that
shown at a in Fig. 24 is
caused by the insect deposit-
ing an egg. The mature
beetle eats sparingly of the
apple and the scar caused
*by its feeding is shown at b.
The eggs hatch within a week after being laid and the larvas
develop in about 3 weeks and pupate within the apple. The
mature insects emerge in about 1 week after the larvas pupate.
These insects eat very sparingly of the apples, hibernate during

the winter among rubbish,
grass, or leaves, and deposit
eggs the following year.

The methods of controlling
the apple curculio are the
same as those suggested for
the plum curculio. However,
the apple curculios eat so little
of the apples that the spray-
ing with arsenical poisons is
practically useless.

35. Apple-Tree Tent
Caterpillar. — The adult
moth of the apple-tree tent
caterpillar, shown in Fig. 25
(a) is of a reddish-brown color, and has two nearly parallel,
oblique, light-colored bands across the front wings. These
moths appear from May until July, depending on the latitude,
and in from 5 to 6 weeks after apple trees blossom they deposit
their eggs in clusters of from 200 to 300 eggs each. The eggs

Fig. 24

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

are packed closely together in a grayish-brown, knot-like band
around, or nearly around, a twig, as shown in (b). Each egg
mass is covered with a frothy, glue-like material that gives a

'yMi^«^*wSiiLiL^.

glistening surface to the entire mass. These eggs remain
throughout the summer and winter and hatch the next spring
just about the time the leaf buds are expanding. The young
larvas soon begin to feed on the opening buds and leaves, and,

§ 0 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 39

working in colonies, they pass down the twigs to a fork, where
they spin a silken web, or tent, as shown in (c) . The caterpillars
live in their silken tent during the night and stormy weather,
but if the day is clear they crawl out to eat. The tent is
enlarged from day to day as the caterpillars increase in size.

A tent with several one-third grown caterpillars is shown
in (d). A full grown caterpillar, as shown in (e), is about
2 inches long and is black in color ; it has a white stripe down its
back, a pale, oval, blue spot on each side of each segment of the
body, and is sparsely covered with yellowish hairs.

When fiill grown the caterpillar seeks some sheltered place,
spins around itself a thin cocoon of tough white silk, transforms
to the pupa, and in about 3 weeks emerges as a mature moth.

The apple-tree tent caterpillar may be effectively combated
by spraying the trees just before they blossom with a spray
containing | poimd of Paris green or from 2 to 3 pounds of
arsenate of lead in each 50 gallons of spray solution. Or, the
insects may be destroyed by applying a torch to their nests
during a cloudy or cold day.

36. Fall Web Worm. — ^A caterpillar that is often mistaken
for the apple-tree tent caterpillar is the fall web worm. This
caterpillar is so named because it spins a large web over the
twigs and foHage on which it feeds. The web of the fall web
worm is distinguished from that of the apple-tree tent cater-
pillar in that the web of the latter is always woven aroimd a
fork of a small limb and does not include foliage in its meshes,
and the web of the former is always spun over the leaves on
which the caterpillars live, as shown in Fig. 26 (a) . The mature
moth, shown in (6), is from 1 to 1| inches across the expanded
wings, is white or white with a ntimber of black spots, and
emerges late in June or in July. These moths lay eggs in
clusters of from 400 to 500 eggs each on the leaves of the trees.
The eggs hatch in about 10 days, and the young caterpillars
begin spinning a web over the foliage on which they feed. The
young caterpillars appear to be nearly all head and hair, but
the full grown caterpillars, two of which are shown in (c), are
about 1 inch long, somewhat woolly, and are thickly covered

248—20

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

with long hairs, some black and some white, that project from
numerous black or black and yellowish tubercles. In color,
the caterpillars vary from light yellow to almost black. They
become full grown in from 4 to 6 weeks and seek a secluded
spot, where they spin a cocoon in which they spend the winter
in the pupal stage and emerge as mature moths in June or Jtdy.
In some parts of the United States there seems to be two broods

Fig. 26

of the fall web worm. The first brood of moths appears in
April and May, and the second brood in August and September.
Spraying with any of the sprays recommended for the codling
moth when the young caterpillars first appear will prevent the
fall web worm from doing much damage. In fact, if sprays
have been applied in combating the codling moth, but little
trouble will develop from the fall web worm.

37. Canker Worms. — One of the most important of the
leaf-eating caterpillars that attack apple trees is the canker
worm. There are two species of this worm, the spring canker

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

worm and the fall caiiker worm. The female of both species
is wingless, as shown in Fig. 27 (a).

The moths of the spring species emerge from the ground and
crawl up the trunks of the trees. This occurs from January
until May, but usually during March and April. Here they
lay their eggs in irregular masses. The eggs, in about 1 month,
hatch into caterpillars that are cominonl}^ known as measuring
worms or as loopers. The young caterpillars at first eat holes
through the leaves, but the full-grown caterpillars, one of which
is shown in (6), devour the entire leaves. The caterpillars have,
in addition to three pairs of true legs, one pair of prolegs, or
leg-like appendages, near the rear of the body with which they
hold to a twig. The caterpillars, especially the young ones,

Fig. 27

have the habit of suspending themselves on fine threads of
silk from trees. The caterpillars become full grown in 4 or
5 weeks and enter the soil, where they pupate and remain until
they emerge the following spring as mature moths.

The faU canker worms differ from the spring species in that
the mature moths emerge from September to December and lay
their eggs, which do not hatch until the following spring; that
the eggs are laid in clusters of about one himdred each and are
deposited in straight rows; and that the caterpillars have two
pairs of prolegs.

Orchards that are cultivated annually or that are sprayed
annually for codling moth are seldom troubled with canker
worms. Wherever canker worms are troublesome, however,
they should be combated by preventing the female moths from
climbing up the trees to deposit their eggs, or the caterpillars.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

()

while they are feeding on the leaves, may be poisoned by spray-
ing with any of the arsenical sprays that have previously been
recommended for combating the codling moth. The female
moths may be trapped as they crawl up the trunks of the
trees by placing a band of some sticky substance, such as
tanglefoot fly paper, around the trees.

38. Yellow-Necked Apple Caterpillar. — During late
simimer the tips of apple-tree limbs are sometimes defoliated by

Fig. 28

a cluster of yellow-necked apple caterpillars, such as shown in
Fig. 28 (a). That part of the caterpillar immediately back of
the jet-black head and commonly spoken of as the neck is of a

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 43

bright orange-yellow color; it is from this yellowish-colored
band that the insect, gets its name.

If one of these caterpillars is touched or if the limb to which
it clings is jarred the insect raises its head and tail in the air
and holds on to the limb by means of its abdominal prolegs.
The characteristic position assumed is shown in Fig. 28 (b) .

If the colonies of these caterpillars are abundant it is best to
spray the trees with an arsenical poison, say 3 pounds of arse-
nate of lead to 50 gallons of water. If only a few colonies are to be
destroyed, this can best be accomplished by swabbing the cater-
pillars off the limb with a rag or a handful of waste saturated
with kerosene, or the tip of the limb on which the insects are
clustered may be cut off and the caterpillars crushed or burned.

39. Red-Humped Apple Caterpillar. — ^A species of
caterpillar whose habits are very similar to the yellow-necked
apple caterpillar is
shown in Fig. 29
and is known as the
red-htmiped apple
caterpillar. The
caterpillar received
its name on account ^ „„

Fig. 29

of the red hump

made by the fourth segment of its body. This hump and the
head of the insect are of a bright coral red and makes its
identification comparatively easy.

The same measures are recommended in combating the red-
humped apple caterpillar as for the yellow-necked apple cater-
pillar.

40. Brown-Tailed Moth. — In some of the New England
States the brown-tailed moth is very destructive to apple
orchards. The moth, which emerges during midsummer, is
white except at the tip of the abdomen, which is in the form
of a tuft, or bru-sh, and has a golden-brown color. Egg masses
consisting of from 300 to 400 eggs are deposited late in Jrdy,
usually on the terminal leaves of the branches, and are covered
with fine, brown hairs from the tip of the abdomen of the female

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

moth. The eggs hatch in about 3 weeks from the time they
were laid and the young larvas feed on the surfaces of the leaves,
but do not eat the web -like framework of the leaves. The young
cateipillars soon begin to bind adjoining leaves together, and by
fall have several leaves completely siuroimded by a tough web
and firmly fastened to a twig. This leaf nest, if viewed from
a little distance, presents the appearance of a couple of dead
leaves. The interior of the nest consists of from forty to sixty
small pellets of silk, in each of which are wrapped from three
to twelve young caterpillars. The caterpillars come out of their
winter nest at the time the buds open in the spring and feed

Fig. 30

on the unfolding foliage. The caterpillars mature in from 5 to
6 weeks and pupate in white silk cocoons spim among the leaves
of the tree, and emerge as mature moths in about 3 weeks.

Control of the brown-tailed moth consists in pruning off and
burning all winter nests and in spraying with about 4 pounds
of arsenate of lead in 50 gallons of water about the time the
eggs hatch.

41. Gipsy Moth. — In the United States the gipsy moth is,
so far as known, confined to the New England "States, but it is
a serious pest and there is danger of its spread into other states.

The male moth, shown in Fig. 30 (a), is of a brownish-yellow
to greenish-brown color; it is about 1| inches across the

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

spreaded wings, and flies during the day with a peculiar zigzag
flight. The female moth, shown in (b), is neariy white with
numerous black spots; she has a wing expanse of about 2 inches,
but fortunately is unable to use her wings for flight; and, in a
few days after emerging lays, on the bark of the trees, from
400 to 500 eggs in a mass covered with yellowish hairs from
her body. In the following spring, about the first of May, the
eggs hatch, and the caterpillars live on the foliage of the trees
until about midsummer, when they pupate. The pupal stage
lasts only about 10 days. The mature caterpillar, shown in

(c)

Fig. 31

(c), is of a dusty, sooty color, and has a pair of blue spots on
each of the first five segments of its body and a pair of red
spots on each of the next six segments. The caterpillars are
readily distinguished by means of these blue and red spots.
To control the gipsy moth in the apple orchard, the egg
masses should be painted in winter with creosote and the trees
sprayed in the spring when the eggs are hatching with 5 pounds
of arsenate of lead in 50 gallons of spray solution.

42. Tussock Moths. — The tussock moths are common
pests of shade trees, and where they are abundant the cater-
pillars prove to be destructive of foliage on apple trees. In

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

Fig. 31 (a) is illustrated the mature caterpillar of the willow
tussock moth ; in (b) is shown the caterpillar of the rusty tussock
moth, the most common and injurious of the tussock moths;
and in (c) is shown the caterpillar of the white-marked tussock
moth.

Tussock moths emerge from the middle to the last of June.
The females are wingless and bear no resemblance to the winged
male moths; in fact, the females look more like fat spiders than
moths and usually lay their eggs on the cocoons from which
they emerge. These eggs hatch early in July and the cater-
pillars mature during the late summer and pupate and emerge
as mature moths during the fall. The female moths of this
second brood lay eggs that remain over winter and hatch about
the first of May, thus making two complete broods each year.

The destruction of egg masses during the winter months

Fig. 32

and spraying as for the codling moth or for the gipsy moth
will prevent serious damage from tussock moths.

43. Climbing Cutworms.- — A dozen or more species
of cutworms make a practice of climbing apple trees and other
fruit plants at night, feeding on the opening buds and young
tender foliage, and then returning to the soil, where they remain
in hiding during the day. Because these insects work during
the night only, the first knowledge that an orchardist may
receive of their presence is that certain young trees fail to put
forth leaves or that young foliage from a whole branch or of
an entire tree suddenly disappears. Three of these cutworms
are shown in Fig. 32. When the presence of cutworms is sus-
pected the orchardist should visit the trees at night with a dim

§'6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 47

light and he may be able to see the pests at work. The climb-
ing cutworms are usually most numerous when the orchard is
in sod or when the sod has been plowed under just before the
planting of the trees.

To prevent attacks from cutworms, the soil in which the
young trees are to be planted should be plowed late in the fall
the year before the young trees are planted. When the pests
are very numerous they may be poisoned by spraying the trees
with almost any of the arsenical sprays that have been recom-
mended for combating other caterpillars.

44. Bud Moth. — As the buds of apple trees begin to swell
and to open they are sometimes attacked by small, dirty white

Fig. 33

caterpillars from i to | inch in length. These young cater-
pillars make a nest for themselves by spinning a fine web
around the unfolding leaves, causing them to assume a
crumpled condition, as shown in Fig. 33. The caterpillars
attain full size, which is about | inch long, during the early
part of summer, when they pupate in small, silk-lined nests,
from which the moths emerge in about 10 days. The moths

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

soon lay their eggs, which hatch in a few days and the young
caterpillars feed on the under side of leaves until fall, when they
spin on the twigs small silken cases in which they spend the
winter; they finish their growth in the following spring.

A solution of 5 pounds of arsenate of lead and 50 gallons of
water sprayed on the trees just as the buds are bursting and
again just before the trees blossom will destroy the caterpillars
of the bud moth.

45. Pistol Case Bearer. — An interesting little cater-
pillar that, in some sections, is a destructive pest in apple
orchards, is shown enlarged several times in Fig. 34 (a) ; in (&)

are shown several of the peculiar pistol-shaped cases in which
the caterpillars live and in which they move from place to place
on the twigs and leaves. The partly grown caterpillars are
about I of an inch long; they hibernate during the winter and
early in the spring feed on the unopened buds and young leaves,
but later devour the entire leaves except the large veins and
the midribs. The caterpillars become full grown, or about
I inch long, during early simimer, when they attach their silken
cases to twigs and pupate. In about 10 days the moths emerge

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

and lay their eggs on the under surfaces of the leaves. The
eggs hatch within a few days and the very young caterpillars
at first eat the tissue between the surfaces of the leaves.

The pistol case bearer can be effectively controlled by spray-
ing with an arsenical poison just before the buds open and
again as soon as the leaves are out.

46. Cigar Case Bearer. — In Fig. 35 (a) is shown the
caterpillar of the cigar case bearer, an insect whose habits and

life history are practically the same as those of the pistol case
bearer. The cigar case bearer has received its name on account
of the resemblance of its covering case to that of a very small
cigar. In (b) is shown the effects of the cigar case bearers
and also several of the cases on the partly eaten leaves. Cigar
case bearers are controlled by the same methods as the pistol
case bearer.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

§6

47. Fruit-Tree Leaf Roller. — ^An insect that sometimes
causes a very great loss to the apple crop in some parts of the
United States is the fruit-tree leaf roller. The moths emerge,
usually during June, and lay their eggs in a mass on a twig or
small limb and completely cover the eggs with a gimimy-like,
brown substance that protects them from the weather. These
egg masses remain on the trees until the latter part of the fol-
lowing spring, when they hatch. An egg mass in which a part
of the eggs have hatched and the young caterpillars have eaten
out through the gummy covering is shown in Fig. 36 (a). The

Fig. 36

caterpillars, one of which is shown in (b), are of a light straw
color, with the head and first segment of the body sometimes
almost black. The young caterpillars spin a few fine silk threads
around a few leaves, drawing them into more or less of a loose
cluster inside of which the young pests feed. As soon as the
fruit has set, a caterpillar draws a few leaves around an apple
and then feeds on the apple. It is by eating the young apples
that the caterpillars cause the greatest loss.

The fruit-tree leaf roller can be successfully combated by
spraying the trees with a solution made by adding 4 pounds of
arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

48. Apple Leaf Miner. — ^A very small caterpillar, known
as the apple leaf miner, has occasionally caused considerable
damage to apple orchards in certain parts of the United States.
A small moth about ^ inch across its expanded wings deposits
its eggs on the under side of apple leaves during April and May.
The eggs hatch in about 10 days and the young caterpillars eat
their way from the eggs directly into the leaves, where they live
by eating small trumpet-shaped mines between the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaves. An
apple leaf, showing the character-
istic mines of the apple leaf miner,
is illustrated in Fig. 37. The
caterpillars become full grown, or
about I inch long, in about 3 weeks,
when they pupate within the leaf.
There are usually two and some-
times iour or five generations a
year.

The caterpillars of the last brood
pass the winter in the leaves, and
because of this fact the most
effective way to destroy the apple
leaf miners is to collect and burn
all apple leaves in the fall or to
plow them under.

49. Apple-Tree Buccula-
trix. — The larva, or caterpillar,
of the tiny moth known as the
apple-tree bucculatrix sometimes
does considerable damage to apple trees by mining, or eating,
practically all the tissue of the leaves except the upper sur-
face. The caterpillars are scarcely ever more than I inch long,
but when they occtu in large numbers the white cocoons, which
are about | inch long and in which the caterpillars pupate,
almost cover the twigs. There are usually two broods a year;
the caterpillars of the second brood remain on the tree all
winter in the little white cocoons. ■

Fig. 37

52 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § 6

Spraying the trees during the winter with a lime-sulphur
solution of a specific gravity of 1.03 will kill the hibernating
pupas, and the arsenate-of-lead spray recommended for the
codling moth will kill the caterpillars as they are eating the
leaves.

50. Palmer Worm. — An insect that makes very irregular
appearances in apple orchards is the palmer worm. These
so-called worms, which, when full grown are about | inch long,
are the caterpillars of smaU ashen colored moths. The cater-
pillars vary in color from flesh to yellow, are tinted with green,
and are sparsely covered with fine hairs. They appear in large
numbers and at long intervals; sometimes as many as 50 years
elapse between their appearances. They eat all the soft tissue
of the leaves.

When use is made of an arsenical spray as in combating the
codling moth, little damage to an apple orchard will follow the
appearance of the palmer worms.

51. Brown Mite. — The presence of brown mites, also
known as clover mites, in an apple orchard is indicated by a
sickly, faded appearance of the leaves. Although the mites
feed on the leaves, they deposit their egg's on the twigs and
limbs, and if the mites are particularly abundant their eggs
often cause the twigs to present a red color, especially during
the winter.

Probably the best method of combating brown mites is to
spray the trees during winter with lime-sulphur, of a specific
gravity of 1.03, which will destroy the mite eggs.

52. Woolly Apple Aplils. — A very serious insect to young
apple trees and apple trees in an unthrifty condition is a small
plant louse known as the woolly apple aphis. The name woolly
aphis was, no doubt, given to this insect from the fact that a
bluish-white, cottony, waxy mass is secreted in threads from
the abdomen of the insect. This cottony, or wool-like, secretion
gives a colony of the insects a bluish-white, or mold-like, appear-
ance. The life history of this insect is peculiar in many respects,
and an understanding of its life enables orchardists better to
combat the insect. The colonies are largely composed of

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

mature, wingless females, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 38 (a) .
This form of the insect appears throughout the summer months
and produces from two to twenty young wingless females each
day; these mature in from 8 to 20 days and begin giving birth
to young. In the fall, the wingless females produce a brood
of winged females, one of which is shown in (6) . These winged

females migrate to other trees and give birth to from four to
six wingless males and females. The sexual male insect is
shown in (c) and the sexual female insect in (d).

The mouth parts of the sexual forms are very poorly devel-
oped, and neither the male nor the female takes any food.
They mate, however, and the female lays a single large black
egg, which is usually deposited under a loose piece of bark
somewhere on the lower part of the trunk of the tree. The
female with the large egg extruded, but still attached to her
body is shown greatly enlarged in (e) . This egg hatches in the

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

early spring into a wingless female like that shown in (a), thus
completing the life cycle of the insect.

The woolly apple aphis lives both on the limbs and on the
roots of apple trees. It is most often found on young green
twigs of the trees such as water sprouts and on the leaves and
in wounds. A colony of these insects is shown in Fig. 39 (a)
on a twig and in a wound in the bark of a small apple tree.
Whenever these insects are found on the trunk and limbs of
a tree, they are almost sure to be on the roots also, and it is

Fig. 39

on the roots that the most damage is done. Roots of young
apple trees infested with the woolly apple aphis develop knot-
like galls, and if not relieved from the sucking of the insects,
the roots will eventually die. As soon as a root dies the insects
move to a fresh root, so that the absence of the insects on a badly
galled root does not indicate that the insects have left the tree,
but that they have simply moved to some other root. The
galls, or knots, caused by the woolly apple aphis are shown
in (6).

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

53. The insects on the twigs and fohage can be destroyed
by spraying with a 7-per-cent. solution of kerosene emulsion,
that is, a mixture of 1 gallon of the kerosene emtilsion and
about 13 gallons of water; with miscible oil diluted from 30
to 40 times; with tobacco extract or decoction, diluted accord-
ing to the directions on the package; or with a solution of
1 pound of whale-oil soap and
6 gallons of water. A winter
spray of lime-sulphur of a specific
gravity of 1.03 is effective in
destroying any hibernating in-
sects and the eggs.

The insects on the roots of
trees are not so easily killed as
those on the twigs and foliage.
It is recommended that the earth
for a depth of from 4 to 5 inches
and for a radius of about 2 feet
around each tree be removed and
from 1 to 5 pounds of tobacco
dust, from 2 to 3 gallons of a
10-per-cent. kerosene emulsion,
or a dilute tobacco extract be
sprinkled over the area from
which the earth was removed.
The earth should then be re-
placed.

54. Green Apple Aphis.

In Fig. 40 is illustrated an apple
twig that shows the character-
istic effect of the common green
apple aphis, or green apple louse.
enlarged, is shown in Fig. 41 (a), and a colony is shown on the
under side of a leaf in (b) . The insects feed usually on the under
surface of the leaves, causing them to curl and crinkle and finally
to drop off, but the insects also attack the tender tips of grow-
ing shoots, especially grafts and water sprouts. The injury

248—21

Fig. 40

One of these insects, much

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

§6

caused by the insects is mostly confined to young trees, but
where they are excessively abundant the foliage of old trees
and the young fruit may be injured. The latter will become
stunted and misshapen.

The first brood of the green apple aphis appears just before
the leaf buds open. This brood is hatched from eggs that were
laid the previous fall on the twigs, especially in forks, around
the buds, and leaf scars. All the insects of this first brood
are wingless females. They develop and give birth in about
6 weeks to the second generation of females, which are generally
wingless. Each female gives birth to from fifty to one hun-
dred young. The insects of the third generation, which appear
in about 6 weeks after the second generation, usually develop

Fig. 41

wings and migrate to other trees in the immediate vicinity.
All the insects that are bom during the summer are females,
but as soon as cool weather approaches in autumn, both males
and females are bom, and the females lay the eggs from which
the first brood is hatched in the spring. During the late fall
all the insects are killed by cold.

The same methods of control are applicable for the green
apple aphis as for the woolly apple aphis above the surface of
the soil.

55. Miscellaneous Aphides Affecting Apple Trees.

Besides the woolly and the green apple aphis, which are espe-
cially apple-tree pests, there are several species of aphides that
at times prove injurious to apple trees. Among these occa-
sionally injurious pests are the rosy apple aphis, the European

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

grain aphis, and the clover aphis. In respect to their effect on
apple trees, these insects resemble very much the green apple
aphis, but they vary in respect to color and character. The
methods of combating them are the same as those recom-
mended for the woolly apple aphis.

56. Leaf -Blister Mite. — ^Within recent years a micro-
scopic mite known as the leaf -blister mite has attacked apple
foliage. Leaf -blister mites, which are not more than to o" inch

Fig. 42

in length, pass the winter in the buds, but on the arrival of wann
weather they emerge and as the leaves unfold the mites burrow
into them and feed on the tender tissue. Although the mites
are too small to be easily seen by the unaided eye, their presence
in the leaves is readily recognized by the reddish blisters that
form on the young leaves. These blisters later turn almost
black and present a corky appearance. If the mites are espe-
cially numerous, a large number of the leaves may fall and the
mites will attack the young apples. An apple twig on which

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

both the leaves and fruit are infested by the leaf-bHster mite
is shown in Fig. 42.

Leaf-bhster mites are kept under control by spraying as soon
as most of the leaves have fallen in the autumn or just as the leaf
buds begin to swell in the spring, with a 10-per-cent. kerosene
emulsion, with miscible oil, or with lime-sulphur used the same
as in combating San Jose scale. If an infestation of the mites
is very serious, both the fall and the spring spraying are recom-
mended; ordinarily, either spraying will be sufficient.

57. Buffalo Treeliopper. — The curious-looking insect
illustrated in Fig. 43 (a) and known as the buffalo treehopper

Fig. 43

is often the cause of considerable damage to small limbs of the
apple tree. It is green in color and about f inch long. Buffalo
treehoppers damage the small limbs of apple trees by depositing
their eggs in two characteristic, curved wounds in the limbs
from early in August imtil killing frost occurs. From six to
twelve eggs are placed in each slit, or wound, and each female
insect may make several of the double wounds. The bark

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

between the curved slits is cut entirely loose when the eggs are
deposited and soon dies. If the wounds are numerous, as is
shown on the twig illustrated in (6), the twig is necessarily
badly stunted and may die. The eggs hatch during May and
June, and the nymphs, or young insects, feed on all kinds
of succulent vegetation. The orchards that suffer worst from
the egg-laying injuries of these little pests are those that are
grown up in weeds.

To prevent the buffalo treehopper from causing any con-
siderable damage to an orchard, all weeds should be kept
cut down and trees that are badly injured by the insects
should be well pruned and the limbs that are removed should
be burned.

58. Periodical Cicada. — In Fig. 44 (a) is shown the
mature periodical cicada, commonly known as the seventeen-
year locust. In (b) is illustrated the skin cast by the full grown

Fig. 44

nymph. Large ntimbers of the adults appear during May and
June of every seventeenth year, although a few may appear
during the sixteenth year, when large numbers of the nymphs
may be found near the surface of the groimd. In about 3 weeks
after the appearance of these insects the females begin deposit-
ing their eggs in the trunks of small trees and in the small limbs
and twigs of large trees. The female makes a wound in the
wood in which she deposits several eggs; it is claimed that each
one deposits from 300 to 500 eggs. The damage done to an
orchard by these insects is caused by these wounds. The

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

effects of such wounds are shown in Fig. 45. On small branches
the wound causes the branch to die from the point of the wound
to the tip, and on large limbs the scars caused by the wounds
are points of attack for borers and the wooly apple aphis.

The adult cicadas do not eat but suck the juices of plants.
It is, therefore, impossible to poison them. Many of the

mature nymphs of the cicadas will
be destroyed during April and May
of the year that they are known to
be due to appear, if hogs are allowed
to run on land that is known to be
infested by the cicadas. Young
orchards should not be planted dur-
ing the year or two just previous
to the year that cicadas are to
emerge in that vicinity; neither
should budding, grafting, or pruning
be practiced the year before they
are to emerge. In July all twigs in
which cicada eggs have been de-
posited should be pruned off and
burned.

59. Fruit-Tree Bark Beetle.

In Fig. 46 (a) is shown, magnified
many times, a little black beetle
about ^ inch long known as the
fruit-tree bark beetle and also as
the shot-hole borer. The latter name
has been given to the insect from
the fact that the larva, which is
shown in (6) , riddles the bark of infested branches with small
holes, such as are shown in the upper part of (c). The lower
part of (c) shows the galleries of the fruit-tree bark beetle as
they appear under the bark of an infested apple twig. Three
or four generations of these insects probably occur each year.
In combating the fruit-tree bark beetle, it is recommended
that all badly infested branches and even small trees that are

Fig. 4.5

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

badly infested should be cut out and burned. The trees should
be ciiltivated and placed in a healthful, growing condition,
because the insects attack
injured, dying, or dead trees.

60. Apple-Tree Pru-
ner. — ^A long-homed, brown-
ish beetle varying in length
from I to f inch appears dur-
ing June or July and deposits
its eggs in small twigs. The
larva, upon hatching, works
its way down the small twig
until it reaches a larger
branch, from which it gnaws
away so much wood that the
first wind breaks off the twig.
The larva then completes its
development in the severed
twig.

This insect is comparatively easy to keep in control by
simply gathering all broken twigs that may be found in the
orchard during the autimm and burning them.

Fig. 46

APPLE DISEASES

61. There are a number of diseases common to apples in
most sections that are very serious, and a larger niimber that
are less serious and are controlled by the same treatments
that control the most important diseases. In sections where
apple growing is a comparatively new industry, apple orchards
may be reasonably free from diseases, but in most sections
where the climate is suitable the diseases are likely to be intro-
duced before apple growing has been carried on very long.
Therefore, to grow apples successfully, the orchardist must
learn to combat the diseases that attack the apple tree and its
fruit.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

§6

The effect of disease cannot be remedied ; that is, the leaves
or fruit cannot be cured of disease after it has become estab-
lished in the fruit or leaves. The only possible method of
combating disease is by preventive measures; that is, by
measures to prevent the growth on the fruit or leaves of the
organisms that cause disease.

The most important preventive measure is spraying with
some substance that is sufficiently toxic to fungus or bacteria
to prevent their growth and yet not seriously injure the foliage
or fruit. The only other available method of fighting disease
is by destroying injured parts so that there will be no source
of infection.

62. Bitter Rot. — The most destructive apple disease in
the leading apple-growing districts is claimed by many author-
ities to be bitter rot, also known as ripe rot, and as apple

Fig. 47

Fig. 48

anthracnose. The first two names are somewhat misleading,
as the disease does not always cause the affected apple to
become bitter, nor does the disease attack ripe fruit only;
twigs and limbs are sometimes affected.

The early stages of the disease are shown by small brown
spots in the tissue of the apple just beneath the skin. As
the disease advances these spots become larger and appear

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 63

on the surface of the apple as soft, usually wet, brown, tan, or
black, circular, rotten spots. As soon as the spots have attained
a size of about | inch in diameter the center portion of the
circle is sunken and the rotten part develops rapidly. That
part of the fruit near the rotten spot is usually bitter, and it is
this character that has caused the disease to be named bitter
rot. The early stage of bitter rot is shown in Fig. 47. As the
rotten spots increase in size, their surfaces become somewhat
shriveled and wrinkled, as shown in Fig. 48, and near the center
of the affected area appear very small spore-bearing pustules
barely visible to the eyes without the use of a magnifying glass.

.'•v^
%-

Fig. 49

Diseased apples usually fall from the tree, but sometimes an
apple affected by bitter rot may remain on the tree and become
dried and wrinkled, as that shown in Fig. 49. These dried
and wrinkled apples are sometimes known as mummies.

Bitter rot also attacks twigs and young branches, causing
cankers, or rough spots, on the bark, as is sho^vn in Fig. 50.

The first stages of bitter rot usually appear during Jtdy
and August, but under exceptionally favorable conditions,
such as sultry, warm, rainy weather, and in the southern part
of the apple-growing section the disease may appear much
earlier. During warm, sultry, rainy seasons bitter rot may

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

spread very rapidly and cause great loss of apples within a
week. It has been estimated by persons who have made a
careful study of the loss caused by bitter rot that some years
this disease alone causes a loss of $10,000,000 to the apple
growers of the United States.

To keep bitter rot under control in an apple orchard, the
orchardist should pick and destroy all diseased apples and cut
out and bum all cankered limbs. In addition to these pre-
cautions, it is recommended that the orchard be sprayed with

4-6-50 Bordeaux mixture, as
lime-sulphur fails to control
it. In sections where the dis-
ease is well established, the
first application should be
made about 6 weeks after the
blossoms fall ; a second appli-
cation should follow within
^•'P¥''J^ 2 weeks if the disease is seri-
W^W.P^ifW ous, or within 3 weeks if it
'#.-'/.&. // IS only slight. Iwo more ap-
plications at intervals of 2
or 3 weeks are necessary in
sections where the disease is
very serious.

63. Apple Scab. — The

most widely distributed and
one of the most damaging dis-
eases of the apple is apple
scab. It is more serious in a wet climate than in a dry one,
and, as it is favored by cool weather, it is more serious in the
northern part of the apple-growing section than in the southern
part, although successfiil orchardists find it necessary to com-
bat apple scab in all apple-growing regions.

Apple scab is well described by its name. It is seen as
scabby dark spots on the foliage and fruit. The newly infected
areas on leaves are usually circular in form and have a greenish
or light surface, but when older they turn black. Leaves

Fig. 50

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

infected with scab are shown in Fig. 51. Badly infected leaves
become distorted and finally may fall off. Spots on the fruit
are also circular in form and similar in color to those on the
leaves. The infected areas usually begin as small spots and
as they enlarge they unite and form large, dark, irregular areas,
which stop the growth of the apple at the point of infection
and may very seriously distort the shape of the fruit. Sev-
eral badly infested apples are shown in Fig. 52. Varieties of

Fig. 51

apples vary greatly in their susceptibility to attacks of scab;
some varieties are almost free from it and other varieties are
very readily susceptible.

The scab lives through the winter on the fallen leaves and
spreads from them to the young leaves in spring. Usually
the worst infection will be on the lower branches in very early
spring.

This disease can be controlled by the use of either Bordeaux
mixture or lime-sulphur; in fact, it is one of the most easily
controlled diseases. The trees should be sprayed, just before

Fig. 52

Pig. 53

Fig. 54

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 67

the blossoms open, with a Bordeaux mixture of a strength of
4-4-50, and again just after the blossoms fall with litne-sulphur
of a specific gravity of from 1.007 to 1.01, or with a 2-3-50 Bor-
deaux mixture. In some sections where scab is very prevalent
it may be necessary to spray again within 2 or 3 weeks, using
either the weak Bordeaux mixture or the weak lime-sulphur.

64. Pink Rot. — Apples that are infested with apple scab
are very likely to be infested during autumn, especially if the
weather is wet and muggy, with a mold that grows on the scabby
spots ; at first it is white, but later turns pink. The skin around
and the flesh under the pink miold turns brown and bitter.
The brown spots increase in size rapidly and the market value
of the apples is soon destroyed. An apple badly infested with
pink rot is shown in Fig. 53.

Pink rot follows apple scab and by successfully spraying for
apple scab the orchardist will have no losses from pink rot of
apples in the fall after the apples are harvested.

65. Apple Blotcli. — ^A disease that is common in the
southern part of the apple-growing region and that resembles
apple scab in its effect on the fruit, leaves, and twigs is
apple blotch. The first evidence of this disease on the fruit
is a very small, inconspicuous, light-brown, somewhat star-
shaped blotch. The blotch spreads radially until it attains
a diameter of from | to § inch, and becomes darker in color.
The margin of these patches always has a broken appearance.
Sometimes the spots are so numerous that they join together
and form large blotches, which may cover one-half or more
of the apple. This disease sometimes causes the surface of
infested apples to crack. These cracks, or cankers, often
intersect, forming crosses. Several apples infested with apple
blotch are shown in Fig. 54. Apple blotch appears on the
leaves as very small, irregular-shaped, light-brown or yellow
spots, very much smaller than those of the apple scab. On
the twigs, especially on the fruit spurs and rapidly growing
shoots, small cankers are produced that often show cracks
in the dead bark as shown in Fig. 55. These cankers are gen-
erally small, being about i inch wide and | inch or more long.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

§<^>

At first they appear as very small purplish-black blotches,
but as they increase in size they become brown in the center
and retain a purplish margin, although they may finally become
gray.

Apple blotch apparently lives through the winter on the twigs

Mil

Pig. 55

Fig. 56

and it is from them that infection of the leaves and fruit takes
place in the spring, about 4 or 6 weeks after the blossoms fall.
The only remedy that has been found to control apple blotch
is spraying with Bordeaux mixture; lime-sulphur has, so far
as known, failed to control it. The first spraying should be
given 3 or 4 weeks after the blossoms fall, so that the Bordeaux

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 69

will be on the leaves and fruit at the time the infection
usually takes place, and in sections where the disease is com-
mon it may be necessary to apply two or three more spray-
ings at intervals of 3 weeks. The Bordeaux mixture should
be used at a strength of 4-4-50.

66. Black Rot. — A disease that causes reddish-brown
spots to occur on apple leaves early in the spring is known as
black rot. This disease resembles bitter rot in that both dis-
eases attack the foliage, the fruit, and the limbs. Black rot
probably causes the greatest injury to large limbs, on which it
causes rough, black, wounded areas, or cankers, such as the one
shown in Fig. 56. The bark on the cankered part of a limb is
usually dead and the new bark and the wood growing around
the dead part produces a sunken area that is characteristic of
the disease. In badly infected orchards the cankers sometimes
surround, or girdle, a limb and thus kill it.

At first, black rot shows on apples as small reddish-brown
spots, but as the spots increase in size the entire fruit becomes
infected and assumes a very dark-brown or black color. Badly
infected apples sometimes shrivel, but they do not take on the
characteristic shriveled, wrinkled, mummified appearance of
apples infected with bitter rot.

The fungus that causes black rot also attacks the leaves
and causes the disease known as leaf spot and as frog eye. The
spots on the leaves caused by black rot are at first very small
purplish spots, which, as they enlarge, .become reddish-brown
and finally a grayish color. During the early part of the sum-
mer the spots are circular, but during the latter part of the
summer the spots may enlarge and become irregular in shape.

The same treatment is recommended for black rot as for
bitter rot.

67. Pacific-Coast CarLker. — ^A disease that causes much
loss in apple orchards in the northwestern part of the United
States and in British Columbia is known as Pacific-coast canker
and as black-spot canker. This disease infects the bark and
sap wood of the twigs and branches of trees and also the fruit
after it has been placed in storage.

711

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

The cankers on the twigs and limbs are similar in general
appearance to bitter-rot canker, although the Pacific-coast
canker is somewhat more roimd, and, when old, the dead,
diseased part is separated from the healthy part by a distinct
fissure and may finally faU. out, leaving the wood exposed.

Pacific-coast canker first appears on the fruit as smaU, light-
brown, circular, rotten spots, which later turn very dark brown
or black and become tough, wrinkled, and dry, with concen-
tric circles of spore-bearing pustules. An apple partly rotted
by this disease is shown in Fig. 57.

68. Miscellaneous Cankers. — Several different kinds
of cankers are reported and described by various plant pathol-
ogists, but, because of the
fact that the twigs and
branches infected by these
cankers are so similar to
those that are shown in
Figs. 50, 55, and 56 that a
microscopic examination of
the fungus causing each
disease is necessary for a
determination of the par-
ticular disease, and because
practically all canker dis-
eases are treated the same
way, even a brief descrip-
tion of several cankers, including the Illinois canker, the Euro-
pean canker, and the hark canker, are not presented in this Section.

69. Soft Rot. — The rot of apples near the end of their
keeping season is known as soft rot, also as bin rot and as blue
mold. The trouble is known as soft rot, because the light tan-
colored rotten part of the apple is soft and watery; as bin rot,
because this rot does not usually attack apples until they are
stored, usually in bins; as blue mold, because over all cracks
in a decaying apple appear a very short fur-like growth of
fungus. This fungous growth is white at first, but soon changes
to a bluish green. The spores of this mold cannot force their

v# ^

' '.'t-'.*

Fig. 58

§ 6 24909

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

way through the healthy skin of an apple, therefore, the best
means of controlling soft rot is care to prevent bruising or
breaking the skin of the apples.

70. Fly Speck and Sooty Blotcli. — The disease illustrated
in Fig. 58 is known as fly speck, as sooty blotch, and also as
cloiid. Although the disease is commonly spoken of as two dis-
tinct diseases, authori- __^
ties are generally agreed J" j^
that both conditions,
that is, the small black
specks that closely re-
semble fly specks and
arranged in clusters and
the black soot-like
blotches, are caused by
the same fungus . How-
ever, some apples may
show only the sooty
blotches and other
apples only the fly-
speck spots. Both the
small specks and the
blotches appear about
the time that the apples
begin to maXvse and the
specks or the blotches
develop more rapidly
during moist weather
and in orchards with
dense foliage than dur-
ing dry weather or in an orchard where the trees are open
headed and well pruned.

The market value of apples that are badly discolored by fly
speck or sooty blotch is often materially reduced. The disease
is easily controlled by the sprays recommended for bitter rot.

71. Apple Rust. — Orchards in the vicinity of cedar trees
are subject to a disease known as apple rust, also as cedar rust

248—22

Fig. 59

72 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §6

and as ntst. This disease is usually easily recognized by the
yellowish orange-colored spots on the leaves. Although the
spots occur also on the fruit and the twigs, the spots on the
leaves are by far more common and more noticeable than are
those on the fruit or the twigs. The appearance of this disease
on infected leaves and twigs is shown, in Fig. 59. The effect
of the disease on the fruit is shown in Fig. 60. The fungus that
causes this disease spends the winter on cedar trees, producing
on them growths, or knots, known as cedar apples. In Fig. 61
are shown cedar apples in three stages of maturity. In (a) is
shown a cedar apple as it appears during early winter; during
the spring these cedar apples or gall-like growths appear as
shown in (6) ; and in (c) is shown the large gelatinous growth

Fig. 60

expanded by spring rains. From this latter form are pro-
duced the spores that cause the rust on the apple leaves,
twigs, and fruit during the summer.

If rust is injurious to orchards, all cedar trees in the vicinity
of the orchard should be destroyed. If this is impracticable,
it is recommended that the orchard be sprayed with Bordeaux
mixture as is recommended for apple scab.

72. Fruit Spot of Apples. — A disease that sometimes
attacks apples grown in the eastern half of the United States is
known as the fruit spot of apples. This disease appears from
the first to the middle of August as small spots on the surface
of the apples. On red apples the spots are of a deeper red than
the rest of the apple and on light or green apples the spots are

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

of a darker green color. As the fruit ripens the spots appear
more prominent and on red apples, such as the Baldwins, which
are especially susceptible to the disease, often become brown
or black. Also the flesh just beneath the spots on the skin

Fig. 61

becomes brown and corky. The effects of this disease are
confined to the skin and to the tissue immediately beneath it.
The same treatment that is recommended for apple scab
will effectively control fruit spot of apples. However, if only
the latter disease is to be combated the sprays may be applied
about 1 week later than when applied for apple scab.

7t APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES §G

73. Baldwin Spot . — The effects of a disease that somewhat

resembles fruit spot of apples and is variously known as Baldwin
spot, fruit pit, and hitter pit are numerous small, brown flecks
throughout the diseased apples and especially in the outer
I inch of the pulp. During the early stages of the disease
small spots or slight depressions resembling small bruises appear
on the surface of the apples. The color of the spots, or pits,
is practically the same as that of the apple on which they
occur. Later, the pits become more distinct, showing as sunken
areas of from i to J inch in diameter. In fact, as the disease
advances, several of the pits may join and form one large pit.
Also, the surface of the pits becomes dark brown. Baldwin
apples are supposed to be especially susceptible to this disease,
although other varieties are known to be attacked. It is
reported to be worst during warm, rainy seasons and in the fruit
on limbs or trees that have been weakened by canker or by
overbearing. Also, the disease is more apt to appear in large
overgrown than in medium-sized apples.

The cause of Baldwin spot is not known neither is there any
known way to prevent it.

74. Apple Scald. — The skin of some apples changes while
they are in storage to a brownish color. This change of
color of apples in storage in known as apple scald, the first
effects of which are the appearance of light-brown spots on the
apples. These spots gradually enlarge until they finally cover
the entire surface of the apple. The color changes to dark
brown and finally may become almost black. At first only the
skin and the outer part of the flesh of the fruit are discolored;
later a large part of the flesh becomes discolored. The trouble
is not definitely understood, but fruit that is grown and matured
under favorable conditions will usually keep through its normal
keeping season without injury.

75. Fire Blight. — The disease commonly known as fire
blight, but also known as twig blight, is generally more serious
on the pear than on the apple. The effects of the disease can be
seen most readily in spring, about 3 weeks after the blossoming
period, at which time many of the flower clusters shrivel and

§ G APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 75

die and the twigs turn black and dry up as if scorched by fire.
During the winter the disease may be recognized by the leaves
remaining on the diseased branches. This disease is caused
by bacteria that gain entrance into the twigs either through
the blossoms or through wounds. The disease travels down-
wards through the twigs at a rate of 2 or 3 inches per day if
conditions are favorable, but has been known to travel 1 foot
or more in a single day. However, under conditions favorable
to the healthful growth of a tree, fire bhght usually affects only
a few inches of the tips of the branches.

Many of the diseased twigs and branches die the first year of
the infection and the bacteria in the branches die also; but a
few, probably only a very few, of the diseased branches remain
alive, and it is in these branches that the bacteria live during
the winter months. As the sap begins to flow during the spring,
the infected twigs become the centers of infection and from
them exudes a milk-like fluid that teems with the bacteria
that are the direct cause of the disease. Young apples some-
times are infected and as a result become gorged with a slimy
material that likewise teems with the bacteria that cause fire
blight. Both the milk-like fluid in the twigs and the slime in
the apples attracts insects, especially bees, which carry the
bacteria to other parts of the tree or to other trees and thus
spread the infection.

Fire blight cannot be controlled by spraying. The only
known means of successfully combating the disease is by cutting
out and burning every twig that shows infection. All apple,
pear, quince, wild crab apple, mountain ash, service berry,
and hawthorn trees in or within | mile of the orchard should
be examined and all twigs showing the effects of flre blight
should be cut out and burned. The best time to cut out the
diseased portions of the trees is probably during the fall, for
the contrast between healthy and diseased twigs is readily seen
at that time. In cutting out the diseased twigs the orchardist
should remove the twig from 6 to 12 inches below the indication
of the disease. If a cut should be made into diseased wood
the knife or the cutting part of the pruning instrument used
should be sterilized by wiping it with a cloth saturated with a

7(;

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

strong solution of bichloride of mercury, which is more com-
monly known as corrosive sublimate. A solution having a
strength known as 1 to 1,000 should be used. Directions for
making a solution of this strength can be secured from druggists
who sell the material. All large wounds made in cutting out
diseased branches should be disinfected with the corrosive-
sublimate solution.

76. Root Rot. — In certain apple-growing sections many
apple trees die without any visible cause for the trouble, but

on examination the
root system of a dead
tree will be found to
be not only dead but
partly decayed. Root
rot is claimed to be
most prevalent in
orchards that have
been planted on land
that has recently been
cleared of forest
growth. Also, some
investigators are in-
clined to associate the
mushroom fungi
known as clitocybe
with the disease, and
because of this associ-
ation the disease is
sometimes called
clitocyhose. As a
matter of fact, it is
reasonable to believe
that there may be several diseases that affect the root system
of trees and cause their death.

As the first symptom of diseases that destroy the root systems
of trees is the dying of the trees, practically the only means
of control are those of prevention. It has been recommended

Fig. 62

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 77

that all sttunps and roots shoiild be removed from the soil
and one or two grain or other general farm crops be grown on
it before apple trees are planted. All infected parts of diseased
trees should be burned.

77. Crown Gall. — Growths such as the one shown in
Fig. 62, and known as crown gall and also as plant cancer, are
sometimes found on nursery trees. This disease is caused
by bacteria and is very infectious. Apple trees should not be
sectired from nurseries in which crown gall is known to exist,
and aU trees showing this disease should be burned.

78. Mildew.— A dense, light-colored, felt-lilce fungous
growth that sometimes occurs on the foliage of yoimg apple
trees is known as mildew. This disease is common!}'- found on
young apple trees in the nursery, but it sometimes attacks
rapidly growing young trees in orchards.

Mildew is easily kept from causing any considerable damage
by spraying with Bordeaux or with lime-sulphur as recom-
mended for any of the diseases that affect the foliage of the
apple tree. If it is desired to treat the disease separately, as is
sometimes the case in nurseries, an application of an ammoniacal
copper-carbonate solution should be made as the leaves unfold
and should be repeated every 2 weeks imtil time for budding.

MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES

79. Sun Scald. — The dying of the bark usually on the
southwest side of the trunks of trees is sometimes known as
sun scald. Sometimes the bark cracks and falls away from the
tree; in other cases it does not. In Fig. 63 is shown the trunk
of a young apple tree injured by sun scald. This injury is
caused by the unequal heating of different sides of the trunk
of the tree during the winter. Sometimes injury similar to
sun scald is observed on the northeast side of the tree. Injury
in such cases is claimed to be caused by a freeze occurring in
the fall before the northeast side of the tree has become accus-
tomed to cold weather. The northeast side of a tree is the last
part to become dormant in the fall.

APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES

Sun-scald areas are easily infected by the spores of fungi that

cause the various cankers, and for this reason all sun-scalded areas

should be scraped down to healthy bark and wood and be painted.

Sun scald may be prevented by growing low-headed trees

so that the branches may shade the trunk and by placing a tree

protector around the tree
during the winter. White-
washing the tree trunk also
tends to prevent the tree
from becoming unduly
heated on the side exposed
to the direct rays of the
sun.

80. Girdling of
Trees. — Rabbits will eat
bark from young trees and
sometimes from trees 4 or
5 inches in diameter, from
the surface of the ground
to as high as they can
reach. If the bark is eaten
off entirely around the tree
it will die, as plant-food
cannot reach roots except
through the live tissue of
the bark. Mice often gir-
dle small or even large
trees near, or just below,
the surface of the ground.

One of the best ways to
prevent rabbits from eat-
ing the bark of trees is to
kill the rabbits. If this
is impracticable, a piece

Fig. 63

of wood veneer or wire netting should be placed around the
trunks. The wood veneer or wire netting shoiild extend from
the ground upwards for from 18 to 20 inches. In some

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 79

sections, instead of protecting each tree, the orchardist
surrounds the orchard with a rabbit-proof fence. A wood-
veneer protection around a tree with the soil banked up around
the base of the protector is the best means of preventing
injury from mice. However, if rubbish in which the mice
may hide is not allowed to accumulate about the orchard but
little injury will be caused by these pests.

81. Breaking of Trees. — The limbs of trees sometimes
break under heavy crops of fruit in summer and under loads
of ice in winter. To prevent the trees from being broken, the
fruit should be thinned or the limbs should be held up by means
of props. If small trees are heavily loaded with fruit the limbs
on one side of the tree are sometimes tied by means of wire or
cord to limbs on the opposite side of the tree. Sometimes a
wire or cord is placed outside of all the principal branches and
then drawn taut, thus supporting the branches of the entire
top. If there is danger of the tree splitting down the trunk, a
bolt should be placed through the body of the tree or through
two opposite limbs in such a manner that they will brace each
other. Probably the best means of preventing trees from being
broken down by ice or by an exceptionally heavy crop of fruit
is to keep the trees weU pruned.

82. Bark Binding. — The bark of trees sometimes becomes
so tough and rigid that it prevents the natural growth of the
body of the tree. This condition of the bark may be caused
by various conditions, such as a sudden checking of the growth
of the tree, thus reducing its vigor; the rubbing of hogs or other
livestock against the bark of trees; and the growth of lichens
and other parasites on the bark.

Bark binding may be prevented by keeping the trees in a
vigorous condition, by not pasturing hogs permanently in the
orchard, and by spraying the trees sufficiently to keep the bark
free from disease and in a healthy, growing condition.

After the bark has become bound, possibly the best remedy
is to thoroughly scrape off all dead, loose, and diseased bark
and if necessary to slit tlie bark up and down the trunk of the

80 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES § G

tree. Pruning the trees severely so as to produce a vigorous
growth will often accomplish satisfactory results.

83. Rough. Bark. — On some trees the old bark breaks
loose, keeping the body of the tree and main limbs very rough.
This does not necessarily indicate an unhealthy condition of
the tree, but the rough bark is a disadvantage in that it forms
a sheltering place for insects like the codling moth, and is a
possible host for some plant diseases. Many of the best
orchardists scrape aU the rough bark from the trees. To do
this, a triangular trowel with a strong handle is used.

84 . Spray Inj ury . — ^Although sprays are the most valuable
remedies that orchardists can use in combating insects and
fungous diseases that attack the apple orchard, the sprays some-
times cause injury to the foliage and fruit of the sprayed trees.
The principal spray injury is that caused by Bordeaux mixture.
This injury is commonly known as Bordeaux injury, and
affects both the leaves and the fruit. The injury is much worse
during rainy, wet, muggy weather than during dry, bright
weather; it begins to appear in a few days after the spray is
applied and continues to increase in extent for several weeks.

The injiu-y causes the leaves to become spotted; at first the
spots are very small and circular, but later they enlarge and
become irregular in shape and the leaves may turn yellow and
fall. In some cases as many as one-half of the leaves have
reported to have fallen as a result of Bordeaux injiu-y.

The injury on the fruit first appears as very small brown or
black specks. These specks enlarge and cause on the mature
apple the characteristic corky russeting like that on a Rhode
Island Greening, shown in Fig. 64. Badly injured fruit is
nearly always distorted somewhat in shape. The russeted
areas are more or less shrunken and sometimes the half -grown
injiired apples are shrunken and cracked like those injured by
scab, but they do not show the characteristic scabs. The late-
keeping quality of apples is greatly reduced by Bordeaux
injury, as is also the sale value of newly picked apples.

If lime-sulphur causes injury or russeting to the fruit it is so
slight that investigators cannot distinguish the injury from the

Fig. 64

§ 6 24909

§ 6 APPLE PESTS AND INJURIES 81

natural russeting of maturing fruit. Lime-sulphtu does, how-
ever, cause some injury to the foHage. This injury consists
of brown spots or brown margins appearing on the leaves and is
supposed to be caused by the lime-sulphur becoming more
saturated as it dries. Sometimes the entire leaves are affected
at once, but lime-sulphur injury is at its worst in a few days
after the spray is applied.

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,
AND MARKETING

HARVESTING OF APPLES

PICKING

1. Picking Receptacles. — A picking receptacle that is
often used for apples is the round half-bushel basket with a
swing handle, a form of which is
shown in Fig. 1. Such baskets
are easy to handle and when they
are used there is less likelihood
of the fruit being bruised than
when larger receptacles are used.
It is a good plan to line the
baskets with burlap or some sim-
ilar material, as shown in the
illustration; this has a tendency
to prevent bruising of the fruit.
An S-shaped wire hook is usually
attached to the handle in order
that the basket may be hung on
a limb, thus allowing the picker
to have free use of both hands
for picking.

In some sections, wide-topped 10-quart galvanized-iron pails
are used as picking receptacles and are found to be very satis-
factory. These pails are easier to handle than baskets, and, as

§7

Fig. 1

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

a rule, will last longer, but they are somewhat more expensive.
Burlap should be used for lining the pails to prevent bruising of
the fruit.

In Fig. 2 is illustrated a patented fruit-picking receptacle
that has some excellent features. It is simply a bottomless pail
that is lined with canvas, the canvas extending below the
lower rim of the pail. When the receptacle is being used to
hold fruit, the draw string, which can be seen in the illustration,
is pulled taut and the ring is placed over the hook on the side
of the pail. When the pail is to be emptied it is lowered into

Fig. 2

the box or barrel, the draw string is released, and the fruit is
allowed to pass out of the lower end of the canvas. By using
the device in this way there is practically no bruising of the
fruit.

In Fig. 3 is shown a picking receptacle that is used to some
extent in the western part of the United States. It consists of
a metal container that is made in such a way that it will break
apart at the middle, a wire frame and a clamp for holding the
two halves together, and a web strap for carrying the device.
When the container is to be emptied all that is necessary is to

§7

AND MARKETING

release the clamp, this allowing the container to break at the
middle, as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Apple pickers often make use of a two-bushel grain sack as
a picking receptacle. The sack is carried by ineans of a small

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

rope or strap, which is tied to a comer of the sack at each end
and thrown over one shoulder of the picker, as shown in Fig. 5.
Such a receptacle is convenient, as both hands are free to do
the picking, but the fruit in the sack is almost sure to be bruised
by the movements of the picker. For this reason, sacks 'are

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

unsatisfactory for picking receptacles and careful orchardists
will not sanction their use.

In Fig. 6 is illustrated a receptacle known as the apron picking
bag. This has been found to be a good picking receptacle par-
ticularly for fancy fruit. Such bags can be purchased cheaply

§7

AND MARKETING

or they may easily be made at home. One of the principal
advantages of this receptacle is that the fruit is not poured out
but must be taken out carefully by hand. This may seem to be
a disadvantage, but it should be remembered that fancy fruit
must be handled without being even slightly bruised. Another

Fig. 7

advantage of the apron picking bag is that it hangs in a con-
venient position for the picker.

In Fig. 7 is shown a patented picking bag that is extensively
used in some sections. The bag is emptied by loosening a draw
string; this allows the apples to pass out through the bottom
of the bag, as illustrated in Fig. 8.

248—23

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

A number of other patented picking receptacles that have
more or less merit are on the market. Before purchasing one
of these devices a grower should consider whether, by its use,
there is a likelihood of the fruit being bruised. No form of
picking receptacle that is likely to cause injury to the fruit
should be used in an apple orchard.

2. Ladders. — It is important, when picking apples, to have
a good supply of ladders available. The kind to use will depend

- m^.

Fig. 8

largely on the height of the fruit above the ground. Where the
fruit is hanging near the ground, step ladders are suitable.
Of these there are two general types, the common step ladders
with four legs and the so-called fruit ladders with three legs.
Several forms of the latter are shown in Fig. 9. These ladders
are especially desirable for use on uneven ground, as they will
stand steadily and are not troublesome to move about the trees.
For fairly tall trees the so-called Japanese ladder, which is
illustrated in Fig.. 10 (a), is satisfactory. Ladders of this kind

Fig. 9

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

are light, easy to handle, and are fairly stable on the groimd.
In Fig. 10 (b) is shown a form of ladder that can be easily trans-
ported from one part of the orchard to another. This ladder can
be used with either the end a or the end b uppermost, as desired ;
if the fruit is high, the ladder should be placed so that the end a
is uppermost, but if the fruit is near the groimd, the ladder
should be turned over so that the end b is uppermost. As a rule,
ladders of this kind are made so that the end a, when uppermost.

Fig. 10

is twice as high from the ground as the end b, when it is upper-
most. The single-rail form of ladder, which is illustrated in
Fig. ID (c), is sometimes used when the fruit is on taU trees.
This ladder, although light and. easy to handle, does not stand
very steadily.

In Fig. 11 are shown three forms of .ladders that are used for
picking fruit from high-headed trees. The form of ladder shown
in (a) is termed regular ; the forms shown in (6) and (c) are Imown

§7

AND MARKETING

as pointed. The ladder shown in (c) is an extension ladder and

is designed for picking fruit

from very high trees. Reg-
ular ladders are generally

placed against the sides of

the trees and for this reason

are not entirely satisfactory,

as such practice is likely to

break the branches. The

so-called pointed ladders

are provided with a strip

of wood a, which may be

placed in crotches formed

by limbs. When used in

this manner there is little

danger of the ladder injur-
ing the trees.

Another good form of

picking ladder is the plat-
form ladder, one of which c^^ ^^> c^^

is shown in Fig. 12. This ^'''- ^^

ladder consists of three Hght ladders that are hinged onto a

common support a. Two of these platform ladders with a

board laid across them
through the tree form a very
desirable scaffold for use
when picking apples that are
in the center of trees, the
pickers being able to get
through the trees without
injuring the fruit spurs or
limbs.

3 . Wagon for Use When

Picking Apples. — ^Forhaul-

^^'^' -^^ ing fruit about an orchard

during the picking season, a low-down wagon, such as the one

shown in Fig. 13 (a), is desirable, as less lifting of the fruit

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

packages is necessary than when an ordinary high-wheeled
wagon is used. A frame of a size to hold a certain number of
the packages being used shotild be built onto the wagon bed.
When the distance between the trees will allow it, the frame
should be made wide; if the trees are close together, the
frame must, of course, be made^ narrow. It is important that

the frame be strong in order that a large number of fruit pack-
ages can be hauled at a load. Bolster springs, a form of which
is shown in Fig. 13 (6), should be used on the wagon to prevent
jarring of the fruit.

4. Receptacles for Orcliard Transportation of Fruit.

For the transporting of apples from the orchard to the packing
shed, crates such as those shown in Fig. 14 are convenient. The
crates shown in (a) and (b) hold 1 bushel, and are light, easy to
handle, and durable. Folding crates, such as those shown in (c)
and (d), also are sometimes used for this purpose. Bushel boxes
with a slot cut in each end, a form of which is shown in (e) , are
used in some sections. Some growers use an especially con-
structed box that holds about 1| bushels, made with the ends
slightly higher than the side; such a box is shown in (/).

§7

AND MARKETING

5. Methods of Picking. — Unless the crop is of poor
quality, apples should be picked by hand, and each fruit, as it is
taken from the tree, laid, not dropped, into the receptacle. The

Fig. 14

dropping of an apple even a short distance will cause a bruise
and thus injure the fruit.

Apples should always, if possible, be picked with the stems on,
especially those that are to be kepL for winter consumption; if
the stem is pulled out, rot-producing organisms may get into

12 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7

the fruit through the opening. A picker should exercise care,
when picking apples, not to injure the fruit spurs. If the fruit
is ripe enough to part from the spur readily when a slight twist
is given to it, there is little danger of injury, provided the picker
is careful.

Shaking of the trees should be resorted to only when the apples
are to be used for evaporating or for cider making, or are to be
sold as culls.

6. Time for Picking. — In general, it may be said that
apples are ready for picking as soon as they have acquired a good
color and will part from the spur readily. A good test for deter-
mining whether they are in condition to be picked is the color
of the seeds ; an apple picked just as che seeds turn a light brown,
but before they become dark around the edges, will have a good
flavor and will keep much better than if more mature when
picked. Still it may not always be good management to pick
the fruit when the seeds and the color indicate that it is ready
for picking. Summer apples that are valuable primarily for
cooking are. of ten picked when they are not more than two-
thirds ripe, and winter apples that are to be exported to a distant
market, say from the United States or Canada to Siberia, are
often, of necessity, picked rather green in order that they may
be shipped early to avoid danger of freezing in transit.

Some varieties of simimer apples ripen very unevenly and
consequently it is necessary to make pickings at intervals of
2 or 3 days in order to get the fruit from the trees in the best
condition. Other varieties, of course, ripen more evenly. In the
case of fall and winter varieties, the fruit ripens more or less
imevenly. Some progressive growers practice making two or
three pickings and find that it pays. Most growers, however,
follow the custom of picking all of the apples from a tree at
the same time.

Varieties differ considerably as to the length of time the fruit
will hang on the tree after becoming mature. The fruit of some
varieties, if allowed to become very ripe before being picked,
will rot at the core in storage. The Jonathan is an example of
this class. The grower should, therefore, consider the variety

§ 7 AND MARKETING 13

when deciding how mature the apples should become before
they are harvested.

7. Management of Pickers. — In order that a large quan-
tity of fruit may be harvested in a given time and that the fruit
and the trees may be injured as little as possible, good executive
ability is needed in managing apple pickers. Two general plans
of hiring pickers are followed by growers, namely, hiring by the
day and hiring by the bushel. Experience shows that there are
advantages and disadvantages in both methods. As some
pickers will do more work in a given time than others, there is
likely to be dissatisfaction if all receive the same wages. It is
possible, in a way, to overcome this diffictdty by paying different
amounts to different laborers, but this also may cause dissatisfac-
tion and will require tactful management. Under some condi-
tions it is possible to arrange the pickers into different groups
and pay a different rate for each group. Mr. A. I. Mason, of
Hood River, Oregon, follows this plan and finds it practicable.
He employs old men and women who cannot climb ladders
quickly to pick the fruit from the lower limbs, these pickers
standing on the ground while working. The second group is
made up of young girls who pick from low, light step ladders that
they can handle easily. The third group is composed of young
men who pick from tall ladders and remove the fruit from the
tops of the trees. The rate of wages is, of course, different for
each group.

If conditions are such thac only men are available as pickers,
any arrangement whereby different wages is paid to different
groups would be very likely to cause dissatisfaction. For this
reason, growers who hire by the day generally have a standard
wage scale, and when a, man is found to be doing poor work he
is discharged.

An advantage of hiring by the bushel is that it is usually less
expensive than hiring by the day, but there is, however, likely
to be much breaking of branches and spurs and bruising of the
fruit. Often a picker is found who picks a large quantity of
fruit in a day but is very careless about breaking the trees and
injuring the fruit. Such a man is really less desirable than one

14 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7

who picks an average quantity of fruit but is careful of both
fruit and tree.

The system of hiring to adopt should, of course, depend
largely on conditions, but in most cases the wage system has
proved to be the more satisfactory.

GRADING

8. Profits in Grading. — Proper grading of the fruit is
a detail of the apple business that no grower should neglect.
In fact, it is difhciiLt to conduct an orchard profitably without
careful grading of the product. Apples shoiild be graded as to
quality, size, and color. It is poor business to mix apples that
will rot quickly with those that will keep, say, for several
months, because the infection of the inferior fruit is soon carried
to the sound fruit. It is poor business also to mix fruit of dif-
ferent sizes together in the packages offered for sale, for such
fruit lacks much in appearance and will bring less on the market
than fruit assorted to size. For box packing, which is described
later, it is imperative that apples be very uniform in size. Those
to be placed in the same box should not vary more than about
I of an inch, as it is extremely difficult to secure a uniform pack
if the variation is greater. It is desirable to grade apples as
to color, as this greatly improves the appearance. The price
received for a package of fruit of uniform color is usually much
greater than that received for a package of fruit of the same
quality and size that is not so graded. Even in the case of fruit
that is not highly colored, careful sorting to color causes it to
have an improved appearance and consequently to sell for a
higher price.

9. Number of Grades. — In many sections apples are
graded into three grades, which are known, respectively, as
No. 1, No. 2, and culls. If, however, apples are marketed by an
association, or if the individual orchard is a large one, or if the
fruit is sold on a local market, grades better than No. 1, known
generally as jancy and choice, are likely to be very profitable.

The standard grades estabhshed by the United States govern-
ment for apples packed in barrels and shipped or offered for

§ 7 AND MARKETING 15

shipment in interstate or foreign commerce or sold or offered for
sale in the District of Columbia or the territories of the United
States are as follows: Minimtim size 2| inches, 2| inches, and
2 inches.

10. Grade Standards. — The standards established by
the National Apple Shippers Association are as follows :

Requirements jor No. 1 Apples: The standard diameter size
for No. 1 apples of such varieties as Ben Davis, Willow Twig,
Baldwin, Greening, and others Idndred in size, shall be not less
than 2| inches. The standard diameter size for such varieties
as Romanite, Russet, Winesap, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and
other varieties kindred in size, shall be not less than 2| inches.
In order to be graded as No. 1, apples must, at the time of pack-
ing, be practically free from worm injury, surface defacement,
and broken skin; they must have been hand picked from the
tree, and must be of a bright, normal color and shapely form.

Requirements for No. 2 Apples: In order to be graded as
No. 2, apples must be of a diameter size of not less than 2\ inches.
They must have been hand picked from the tree, and must be
free from broken skin and bruises. Apples of this grade must be
packed with as much care as No. 1 fruit.

No standards for apples better than those grading as No. 1
have been established by the National Apple Shippers Associa-
tion. The standards in vogue for such fruit are simply personal
standards of individual growers or are those adopted by various
fruit-growing associations. The Hood River Apple Growers
Union, of the Hood River district in Oregon, has adopted the
following requirements for apples shipped as fancy and choice:

Fancy Apples: The fancy grade consists of perfect apples
only. They must be free from worm holes and stings; from
scale, fungus, scab, rust, or any other disease; and from all
insect pests, decay, and injury. They must be free from
bruises and limb rubs, and the skin around the stem must not
be broken. All apples must be clean, fully matured, and not
deformed, and must have a healthy color. Spitzenburgs must
have 70 per cent, or more of good red color. All red apples
must be of good color.

16 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7

Choice A pples : The choice grade consi sts of high-grade apples
that are a little below fancy. Apples with worm holes or broken
skin are not acceptable for this grade. Limb rubs must not be
larger than a 10-cent piece. Only two stings will be allowed,
and these are allowed only where neither sting has seriously
broken the skin of the apple. No apples wiU be accepted
that are infected with San Jose scale or dry rot, or that
have an open or a black bruise. Apples having fungus spots
larger than |-inch in diameter are not acceptable for this
grade.

The Yakima Valley Fruit Growers Association has adopted
the following regulations with reference to the grades extra
fancy, fancy, and C:

Extra Fancy Apples: Extra fancy apples are perfect, well-
formed apples that are free from all insect pests, worm holes,
stings, scale, scab, sun scald, dry rot, water core, or other
defects. Limb rub, skin puncture, bruises, or other evidence of
rough handling shall be considered defects. All apples heavily
coated with dirt or spray must be cleaned. All the apples must
be well matured and of natural color characteristic of the vari-
ety. Spitzenburg, Winesap, Jonathan, Arkansas Black, Gano,
Lawver, and other solid-red varieties must have 75 per cent,
of good red color. Ben Davis, Rome Beauty, Baldwin, Wagner,
and other varieties of similar color must be 50 per cent. red.
Red-Cheek Pippins and Winter Bananas must have a red cheek.
Sizes smaller than 163 to the box should be excluded from this
grade except that Winesaps may include sizes not smaller than
225. All apples of the extra fancy grade must be carefully
wrapped and properly packed; the boxes should be lined with
white paper, with cardboard on top and bottom only.

Fancy Apples: Apples of the fancy grade must be free from
all insect pests, worm holes, stings, scale, sun scald, dry rot,
water core, or other defects. Skin puncture, bruises or other
evidence of rough handling shall be considered defects. Slight
limb rub will be permitted. All apples must be well matured.
Fruit of this grade must be carefully wrapped and properly
packed ; the boxes should be lined with white paper, with card-
board on top and bottom only.

§ 7 ' AND MARKETING , 17

C Grade Apples: Apples of the C grade shall be merchantable
apples not included in the extra fancy or fancy grades. The
apples must be free from all insect pests, worm holes, and scale,
but will include misshapen apples or apples having a limb rub
or other similar defect. Apples of this grade may also contain
two worm stings or have slight bruises. They need not be
wrapped and cardboard need not be used, but all boxes should
be lined.

The United States government has enacted a law establishing
standard grades for apples packed in barrels; this law applies,
of course, only to apples that are shipped or offered for shipment
in interstate or foreign commerce, or that otherwise are subject
to federal jurisdiction. The following are extracts from this
law:

Sec. 2. That the standard grades for apples when packed in barrels
which shall be shipped or delivered for shipment in interstate or foreign
commerce, or which shall be sold or offered for sale within the District
of Columbia or the territories of the United States shall be as follows:
Apples of one variety, which are well-grown specimens, hand picked, of
good color for the variety, normal shape, practically free from insect and
fungous injury, bruises, and other defects, except such as are necessarily
caused in the operation of packing, or apples of one variety which are
not more than 10 per cent, below the foregoing specifications shall be
"standard grade, minimum size 2^ inches," if the minimum size of the
apples is 2^ inches in transverse diameter; "standard grade, minimum
size 2 J inches," if the minimtim size of the apples is 2\ inches in transverse
diameter; or "standard grade, minimum size 2 inches," if the minimum
size of the apples is 2 inches in transverse diameter.

Sec. 3. That the barrels in which the apples are packed in accordance
with the provisions of this Act may be branded in accordance with sec-
tion 2 of this- Act.

11. Methods of Marking Grades. — In the United States,
the various grades of apples are generally marked No. 1, No. 2,
fancy, choice, C, or culls. Unfortunately, however, No. 1 or No. 2
fruit is often marked fancy or choice. No. 2 is marked No. 1, or
culls are marked No. 2. Such practice leads to confusion and
is very unsatisfactory, especially when the fruit is offered on
the general market or is exported, as the terms are likely to
mean one grade in the case of one grower's fruit and another
grade in the case of that of another grower.

18 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING § 7

The federal government has enacted a law regarding the
marking of apples packed in barrels. Following are extracts
from the law:

Sec. 5. That barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be mis-
branded within the meaning of this Act —

First. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating
that the apples contained therein are standard grade and the apples when
packed do not conform to the requirements prescribed by section 2 of
this Act.

Second. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indicating
that the apples contained therein are standard grade and the barrel fails
to bear also a statement of the name of the variety, the name of the local-
ity where grown, and the name of the packer or the person by whose
authority the apples were packed and the barrel marked.

Sec. 6. That any person, firm, or corporation, or association who
shall knowingly pack or cause to be packed apples in barrels or who shall
knowingly sell or offer for sale such barrels in violation of the provisions
of this Act shall be liable to a penalty of one dollar and costs for each
such barrel so sold or offered for sale, to be recovered at the suit of the
United States in any court of the United States having jurisdiction.

In Canada, definite standard names have been designated by-
law for each grade of fruit. This avoids confusion and has been
a means of securing a good reputation in England for Canadian-
grown apples. Following are given extracts from the Canadian
Fruit Marks Act of 1901, which deal with this phase of the fruit
business :

4. Every person who, by himself or through the agency of another
person, packs fruit in a closed package, intended for sale, shall cause the
package to be marked in a plain and indelible manner, before it is taken
from the premises where it is packed:

(a) with the initials of his Christian name, and his full surname and
address ;

(&) with the name of the variety or varieties; and

(c) with a designation of the grade of fruit, which shall include one
of the following six marks: for fruit of the first quality. No. 1, or XXX;
for fruit of the second quality. No. 2, or XX; and for fruit of the third
quaUty, No. 3, or X; but the said mark may be accompanied by any other
designation of grade, provided that designation is not inconsistent with,
or marked more conspicuously than, the one of the said six marks which
is used on the said package.

5. No person shall sell, or offer, expose, or have in his possession for
sale, any fruit packed in a closed package and intended for sale, unless
such package is marked as required by the next preceding section.

§ 7 AND MARKETING 19

6. No person shall sell, or offer, expose, or have in his possession for
sale, any fruit packed in a closed package, upon which package is marked
any designation which represents such fruit as of No. 1 or XXX, finest,
best, or extra good quality, unless such fruit consists of well-grown speci-
mens of one variety, sound, of nearly uniform size, of good color for the
variety, of normal shape, and not less than 90 per cent, free from scab,
worm holes, bruises, and other defects, and properly packed.

7. No person shall sell, or offer, expose, or have in his possession for
sale, any fruit packed in any package in which the faced or shown surface
gives a false representation of the contents of such package; and it shall
be considered a false representation when more than 15 per cent, of such
fruit is substantially smaller in size than, or inferior in grade to, or dif-
ferent in variety from, the faced or shown surface of such package.

8. Every person who, by himself or through the agency of another
person, violates any of the provisions of this Act shall, for each offense,
upon summary conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding one dollar
and not less than 25 cents for each package which is packed, sold, offered,
exposed, or had in possession for sale contrary to the provisions of this
Act, together with the costs of prosecution; and in default of payment of
such fine and costs, shall be Hable to imprisonment, with or without hard
labor, for a term not exceeding one month, unless such fine and the costs
of enforcing it are sooner paid.

9. Whenever any fruit in any package is found to be so packed that
the faced, or shown, surface gives a false representation of the contents
of the package, any inspector charged with the enforcement of this Act
may mark the words "falsely packed" in a plain and indelible manner
on the package.

(2) Whenever any fruit packed in a closed package is found to be
falsely marked, the said inspector may efface such false marks and mark
the words "falsely packed" in a plain and indelible manner on the package.

(3) The inspector shall give notice, by letter or telegram, to the packer
whose name is marked on the package, before he marks the words "falsely
packed" or "falsely marked" on the package.

10. Every person who not being an inspector wilfully alters, effaces
or obliterates wholly or partially, or causes to be altered, effaced or oblit-
erated, any marks on any package which has undergone inspection shall
incur a penalty of forty dollars.

The marking of packages of apples with various trade names
is often practiced, and if used in addition to an honest mark of
the grade such marking is often advantageous to a grower who
sells his fruit on a local market or to a special trade, for the name
may become an important factor in advertising the fruit from
a particular orchard. In fact, it is likely to have much the effect
of labels such as are described later.

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

12. Method of Grading. — The grading of apples to size
can be done by means of machines that are on the market or
it can be done by hand. A convenient plan, when grading by
hand, is to have a table arranged with receptacles for the fruit.

Fig. 15

as shown in Fig. 15. A grading board, such as is illustrated in
Fig. 16, will be found helpful, especially to an inexperienced
grader. As shown in the illustration, this board has five
holes of various dimensions. The board should be placed so

Fig. 16

that apples can be dropped through the holes quickly. After
a little experience in grading fruit has been acquired, a grader
will find that a grading board is not needed, as it will be possible
for him to judge the size of an apple simply by looking at it.

AND MARKETING 21

PACKING

13. Packing House. — Some kind of a packing house or
shed is almost a necessity if a large number of apples are to be
packed. Growers sometimes pack the fruit in the open air, but,
in this case, rainy or cold weather is likely to interfere with
operations just at the height of the harvesting season. The
packing house need not be an expensive affair, but it should be
well lighted and be a comfortable place in which to work. The
interior should be arranged conveniently with sorting and
packing tables that will facilitate rapid and careful handhng
of the fruit.

14. Barrels for Apples. — In America, the barrel is still
used more than any other package for apples, and market quota-
tions are generally given in terms of this package. In New York,
the largest apple-producing state, the law specifies the following
with reference to barrels :

Barrels of Apples, Quinces, Pears, and Potatoes: A barrel of pears,
quinces, or potatoes shall represent a quantity equal to 100 quarts of grain
or dry measure. A barrel of apples shall be of the following dimensions:
head diameter, 17|- inches; length of stave, 28^ inches; bulge, not less than
64 inches outside measurements.

The United States government has enacted a law establishing
a standard barrel for apples. Following are extracts from the
la-v\r:

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That the standard barrel for
apples shall be of the following dimensions when measured without dis-
tension of its parts: Length of stave, 28^ inches; diameter of head,
17 J inches; distance between heads, 26 inches; circumference of bulge,
64 inches, outside measurement; representing as nearly as possible 7,056
cubic inches: Provided, That steel barrels containing the interior dimen-
sions provided for in this section shah be construed as a compliance
therewith.

Sec. 4. That all barrels packed with apples shall be deemed to be
below standard if the barrel bears any statement, design, or device indi-
cating that the barrel is a standard barrel of apples, as herein defined,
and the capacity of the barrel is less than the capacity prescribed by
section 1 of this Act, unless the barrel shall be plainly marked on end

248—24

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

and side with the word or figures showing the fractional relation which
the actual capacity of the barrel bears to the capacity prescribed by sec-
tion 1 of this Act. The marking required by this paragraph shall be
in block letters of size not less than seventy-two point 1-inch Gothic.

In Canada, the law makes the following specification:

All apples packed in Canada for export for sale by the barrel in closed
barrels shall be packed in good and strong barrels of seasoned wood,
having dimensions not less than the following: 26 J inches between the
heads, inside measure, and a head diameter of 17 inches, and a middle
diameter of 18^ inches, representing, as nearly as possible, 96 quarts.
When apples, pears, or quinces are sold by the barrel, as a measure of
capacity, such barrel shaU not be of lesser dimensions than those specified
in this section.

A barrel usually has two hoops at each end and either one or
two half way between each end and the bulge. In Fig. 17 are
shown the two types. Barrel heads can be had in from two to
four pieces. Often the heads can be procured wi th the parts held

together by means of
wire staples. A head
of this type is very
convenient to handle.
Large growers or
associations often
buy sawed-out mate-
rial for barrels and
put the parts to-
gether on their own
premises. This prac-
tice saves freight
charges and enables
the grower to make use of labor in seasons when orchard work
is not pressing. Barrels used for apples should always be new
and clean ; the practice of using second-hand or soiled barrels
is unsatisfactory, and is often the means of losing sales.

15. Boxes for Apples. — ^The bushel apple box, two forms
of which are shown in Fig. 18, is coming into wide use, especially
for the best grades of apples. Fancy apples that have been care-
fully graded, for example, are often handled at a better profit

Fig. 17

§7

AND MARKETING

in boxes than in barrels. The standard-sized box in Canada is
10 in. X 11 in. X 20 in., inside measurement. In the United
States, some growers use a box 10 in. X 11 in. X 20 in., and
others use one that is lOJ in. X 11| in. X 18 in. ; these are the
two forms illustrated.
In the northern part
of the United States,
thel0i"Xlli"X18"
box is often termed
by growers the stand-
ard box, and the
10" X 11" X 20" box,
the special box.

In the making of
apple boxes, f-inch
material is used for
the ends, f-inch mate-
rial for the sides, and
i-inch m_aterial for the
top and the bottom. The sides need to be thick enough not to
bulge, but the top and bottom should bulge easily, but not break.
The ends need to be thick enough to hold the nails well and to

Fig. 18

Fig. 19

give strength to the box. Cleats about f-inch wide are usually
used across each end of the top and bottom. Spruce is a desir-
able wood for apple boxes ; it is white, neat in appearance, and

24 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7

does not split easily when nailed. The lumber for boxes is prac-
tically always bought sawed to the right dimension, the boxes
being made up at the orchard. This buying of the material
knocked down reduces expense.

In nailing a box, four 4-penny nails are generally used for each
end of each side, and four for each end of the top and the bottom,
the box thus requiring thirty-two nails. When a box is being
put together it is well to have some kind of a form to hold the
ends in place while the nails are being started. In Fig. 19 is
shown a bench with a form for this purpose. The two ends for
the box are placed in the grooves on the bench, and two pieces
of the side nailed to them. The ends and the side are then
turned and the other side and bottom are nailed in place.

A good workman can put
together from one hundred to
two hundred boxes a day.

16. Busliel Baskets for
Apples. — ^For a local market,
the bushel stave basket, one of
which is illustrated in Fig. 20,
has been found to be fairly
satisfactory. These baskets
are light, diirable, inexpensive,
and easy to pack and to
handle. For use on a general
wholesale market they are not satisfactory, however, because
the trade is not accustomed to purchasing apples put up in
this way. A further objection to their use is the fact that they
cannot be piled more than four or five high without injury to
the fruit in the bottom baskets.

17. Packing of Apples in Barrels. — The first operation
in packing a barrel of apples is to fasten securely the end that is
to be the top by driving four 5-penny nails into each piece of the
head, as shown in Fig. 21. The nails should be driven obliquely
through the upper hoop, the end of the stave, and into the wood
of the head. Two liners — small, flexible strips of wood — are
then nailed across the ends of the pieces of the head, the liners

Fig. 20

§7

AND MARKETING

following the curve of the barrel. If the liners are not flexible
enough to fit readily to this curve, they should be placed in water
for an hour or so before being used. For the liners 3-penny nails
should be used, the nails being clinched on the outside of the
barrel.

The next step is to nail the hoops — except the two on the end
that will be uppermost while the barrel is being filled — ^to the
staves of the barrel by driving two 3-penny nails through each
hoop, one on each side of the barrel, as shown in Fig. 22. These

T*T^

Fig. 21

Fig. 22

nails will go through the staves and, in order to prevent injury
to the fruit, must be clinched later.

The barrel is next reversed so that the end formerly at the
top rests on the floor, the two upper hoops are loosened, the head
is removed, and the nails that have been driven through the
hoops are clinched. A circle of paper the size of the end is then
placed in the bottom of the barrel.

The barrel is now ready for filling, and in order that the pack-
age, when opened, will make a good appearance, the apples that
are placed in what is now the bottom are arranged in regular
order, or faced. Fig. 23 shows the appearance of a well-faced
barrel after being opened at the top. The face should be made

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

up of apples that are about an average of those that go into the
package.

It is unwise as well as dishonest to use better apples for the
face than for the interior, as experienced buyers are not usually
misled by such practices. The apples of the face are placed
stem end down for two reasons: first, the face will be more
attractive, and, second, the stem end usually presents a broader
surface to come in contact with the head, and thus the skin of
the apples is less likely to be bruised when the barrels are han-
dled. In arranging the face, the packer secures several apples of
uniform size and color and places them around the outer edge of
what is now the bottom of the barrel; next he lays another circle
of fruit just inside of the first one and so on until the face is
completed; usually one apple is placed in the center, this com-
pleting the layer. It is impor-
tant that the apples be fitted in
firmly, but not so firmly that the
layer will tend to bulge badly,
because in this case after the
barrel is packed some of them
may turn over on the side, or
buckle, as fruit men say, and the
barrel will show a disarranged
face when opened.
Packers generally place a second layer in the barrel by hand.
Some make a practice of arranging this layer in the same manner
as the first and thus really make a double face; others simply
place the apples cheek downwards at the joints made where tliree
apples of the face come together. After the placing of the second
layer the barrel is ready for further filling. If the fruit has been
sorted into baskets, or pails, these should be lowered one at a
time into the barrel and the fndt emptied. In no case should the
apples be dropped from a height of more than a few inches. Some
oichardists, when packing apples, make use of a table like the one
illustrated in Fig. 24. The fruit is allowed to run into the barrel
from the table, the lower end being removable. Growers who
use this table try to avoid bruising of the fruit by having a
length of burlap extend into the barrel; they claim that the

Fig. 23

AND MARKETING

apples, in falling on the burlap, will not be bruised. Such prac-
tice is not to be recommended, for no matter how careful the
packer may be, the frmt is likely to be bruised. The careful
emptying of a pail or basket of fruit will require a little more

Fig. 24

time than rolling the apples from a table of this kind, but
fewer apples will be injured.

When the barrel is about one-third full it should be racked,
that is, jarred slightly in order that the fruit will settle. This
is accomplished by rocking the barrel back and forth, being
careful not to allow the edge to get more than about 2 or 3 inches
off the floor. The filling is then continued until the barrel is
about two-thirds full, when it is again racked. Following this
racldng, it is filled to within an inch or two of the chime, the
exact distance depending on the size of the apples and on the
variety. A follower, one of which is shown in Fig. 25, is now
placed on the apples and held there
and the barrel racked for the last time.
The follower is used to hold the apples in
place and level the fruit preparatory to
arranging the last apples in the barrel. ^i^- 25

This accessory is easily constructed, being simply two or three
boards nailed together and cut to fit the shape of the barrel ; it is
provided with a handle and is padded with burlap or other thick
cloth. The arranging of the last apples in the barrel is knowTi
as tailing, and is one of the most difficult operations of apple

APPLE HARVESTING. STORING,

§7

barreling. The apples are placed with stems up and are arranged
in regular order, much the same as in the face, although, as a rule,
they are not placed in concentric circles, but are merely arranged
in a level layer. The main object of tailing is to secure an even
surface in order that the head, when placed in position, will hold
all the apples in the barrel snug and firm. The top of this last
layer of apples should extend to, or, in some cases, slightly above
the ends of the staves. When the head is put on the barrel the
apples will be forced down into the barrel, but this is necessary,
or otherwise the barrel will become slack, as fruitmen say, and
much fruit will be injured by rolling about in the barrel. Inex-

(a)

(b)

Fig. 26

perienced packers often fail to have the apples far enough above
where the head will be placed. It is surprising how much pres-
sure a barrel of apples will stand without much injury to the
fruit. Thick-skinned apples like Ben Davis and Gano will stand
more pressure without injury than thin-skinned apples like
Northern Spy and Mcintosh, but even thin-skinned varieties
must be pressed down sufficiently to avoid slackness in the
barrels. Above the last layer is generally placed a circle of
paper similar to that used in the face end.

After the tailing is finished, the barrel is headed. For this
work, use is made of what is known as a barrel press, two fornis

§ 7 AND MARKETING . 29

of which are shown in Fig. 26, the one shown in (a) being a screw
press, and the one in (b) a lever press. Both forms are in com-
mon use among packers, some preferring one form and some
the other.

When a barrel is to be headed the upper hoop is removed, the
one just below it is loosened by being driven upwards, the head
is laid in place on the apples, and the lower part of the press is
caught under the bottom of the barrel. But before the apples
are pressed into the barrel, the top hoop is slipped onto the
barrel so that it can be driven downwards to tighten
the staves before the press is removed. When all of
these details have been arranged pressure is exerted
and the head is forced down to the chime. The hoops
are then driven downwards to their proper position
and the top is nailed and liners put in place, as was
done in the case of the other end. To avoid splitting
the hoops when driving them to place, it is well to
make use of a hoop follower, a piece of hard wood
shaped as shown in Fig. 27. After being headed the ^^'^' ^"^
barrel is turned over and the grade marked on the top. It is
then laid on its side, as there is less likelihood of it becoming
slack than if left on end.

18. Packing of Apples in Boxes. — Of recent years, the
packing of apples in bushel boxes has come into vogue in many
parts of the United States and Canada. This style of package is
especially desirable for choice and fancy fruit, well-packed boxes
of these grades often bringing excellent prices.

One of the first requisites for good and rapid box packing is a
properly constructed packing table. Fig. 28 shows an approved
form of table that will hold three or four bushels of apples and
accommodate two packers. It is simply a burlap-covered frame
supported by legs and having boards arranged at the ends for
supporting the boxes to be packed. The dimensions shown in the
illustrations can, of course, be varied to suit the convenience of
the packers. Two layers of burlap are used on the frame, the
bottom one being nailed and the top one merely hooked in place
so that it can be removed easily to enable the packer to shake off

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

any leaves and dirt that accumulate. A piece of garden hose is
nailed around the top edge of the table to prevent bruising of the

Fig. 28

fruit. When being packed, the boxes are tilted as shown in the
illustration and are prevented from slipping by the strip a.

The hod h is for hold-
ing sheets of wrap-
ping paper, the use
of which is discussed
later. The hod, which
is removable, is held
in place by two right-
angled hooks c and a
bracket that supports
it against the side of
the box.

The sides, bottom,
and top of apple boxes
are generally lined
with white paper.
Newspaper stock is
extensively used for
this purpose, although in some localities the growers prefer a
glazed paper. The sheets of paper are cut so that they are

Fig. 29

§ 7 AND MARKETING 31

slightly narrower than the length of the box. Two are used for
a box, each sheet covering a little more than half the bottom, all
of the side, and about half of the top. To avoid tearing of the
sheet where the bottom of the box is joined to the side when
the bottom bulges after the top is nailed, the sheets are plaited
at the place where they will come in contact with this part of
the box. While the box is being filled, the paper that will
cover the top hangs over the sides. Fig. 29 shows a box lined
and ready for packing.

At the top and bottom of the boxes, and sometimes between
the layers of fruit, sheets of unglazed paper or cardboard are
placed. This gives a neat appearance to the pack, and is useful
in taking up inequalities between the layers, and in preventing
rubbing of the fruit while the cover is being nailed.

Box-packed apples are generally wiped before being placed in
the package, especially if the fruit was sprayed late in the season
with a spray mixture containing lime. But even if no spray
that will whiten the fruit has been used, it is probably a good
plan, on account of the improved appearance of the fruit, to wipe
off the dust. A pair of cheap cotton gloves is better for wiping
apples than a rag, as the operation is done more quickly and the
gloves protect the hands from the cold. The Hood River Apple
Growers Union instructs its members as to the wiping of fruit
as follows : Wipe the apples just enough to make them clean and
get off the spray. Do not polish them.

Growers find, as a rule, that in box packing it pays to wrap
each apple in paper. Wrapped fruit is easier to pack than
unwrapped, it goes into the market looking fresher, there is no
opportunity for decay to spread from one apple to another, and
if the packing is well done there is little chance of the package
becoming slack. On the other hand, wrapped fruit requires
slightly more time for packing, there is a cost of 2 or 3 cents a
box for paper, and when the box comes to market the fruit
cannot be seen at a glance as can unwrapped fruit.

Newspaper stock is good paper for wrapping fruit. The size
of sheets to use will depend, of course, on the size of the apples,
the average sizes of sheets being 8 in. X 10 in., 10 in. X 10 in.,
and 10 in. X 12 in.

32 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7

Not much time is required to wrap an apple. The method is
as follows: A sheet of paper is grasped from the holder on the
pacldng table with one hand, and an apple from the table with
the other hand, and the two brought together over the box, and
as the apple is placed in the box, the paper is folded around the
fruit, its ends being kept underneath by the weight of the apple.
In order that one sheet of paper may be grasped at a time
packers find it convenient to wear a rubber stole on the thumb
or first finger of the left hand.

The apples are placed in the box in layers, and for this reason
it is imperative that they be uniform in size. The arrange-
ment of the layers may
be in one of three ways
known, respectively, as
the straight, the diago-
nal, and the offset pack.

19. In the straiglit

pack, the apples are
placed in straight rows
lengthwise and cross-
wise of the box, as
shown in Fig. 30. This
is one of the most dif-
ficult packs to make,
especially if the fruit is
not graded accurately
to size. Each layer in
the box is the exact duplicate of each other layer, containing
the same number of apples placed directly over those of the
preceding layer. Only apples of approximately the same size
can be packed in this way, as otherwise the rows will not
come out even.

Packs of this land may be arranged in 5, 4, or 3 tiers, the
arrangement depending on the size of the fruit. These packs are
known, respectively, as 5-tier, 4-tier, and 3-tier packs. In a
5-tier pack there will generally be 8 cross-rows, or 40 apples to
the layer, and 5 layers to the box, thus making 200 apples to the

Fig. 30

AND MARKETING

box. A 4-tier pack has, as a rule, either 6, 7, or 8 cross-rows, or
24, 28, or 32 apples to the layer, and 4 layers to the box, making
96, 112, or 128 apples to the package. In a 3-tier pack, there
are generally either 5 or 6 cross-rows, or 15 or 18 apples tothe
layer, and 3 layers to the box, making 45 or 54 apples to the
package.

The straight pack presents a neat appearance, but there is
likely to be considerable bruising of the fruit, as each apple is
directly above or below some other apple.

Fig. 31

20. In a diagonal pack, so named from the diagonal
course of the rows, the apples are arranged as fehown in Fig. 31.
Packers usually prefer this pack to the straight pack because
it is easier to make and the apples can be packed with a little less
careful grading. In (a) is shown what is called a 3-2, or 4|-tier,
pack. The 3-2 has reference to the number of apples in the
cross-rows, there being three in the first row, two in the second,
and so on; the expression 4|-tier is derived from the fact that
there are three complete and two incomplete tiers, which, if
placed end to end, would make 4| solid tiers. The number of
apples in a 4|-tier box ranges from 150 to 200. In (b) is shown

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

what is known as a 2-2 diagonal, or a 3|-tier, pack. As a rule,
there are 64, 72, or 80 apples in a pack of this kind.

To start a 3-2 diagonal pack, an apple is placed in each comer
of one end of the box and a third midway between them. There
will thus be left two open spaces, neither of them as wide as the
diameter of one of the apples. These spaces will, however, allow
the two apples of the second row to partly slip between those

TABLE I
DATA CONCERNING STRAIGHT AND DIAGONAL BOX PACKS

No.
of Apples
per Box

Tier

Pack

No.
of Apples
per Tier

No.

Layers

Size of Box Used

45
54
63

3
3
3

Straight
Straight
Straight

5
6

3
3
3

10|"XlirX18"
10 "Xll "X20"
10 "Xll "X20"

2-2 Diagonal

4-4

10i"Xlirxl8"

2-2 Diagonal

4-5

iorxiirxi8"

2-2 Diagonal

5-5

lorxiirxis"

2-2 Diagonal

5-6

10rXlU"Xl8"

2-2 Diagonal

6-6

10 "Xll "X20"

104

2-2 Diagonal

6-7

10 "Xll "X20"

112

2-2 Diagonal

7-7

10 "Xll "X20"

120

2-2 Diagonal

7-8

10 "Xll "X20"

128

Straight

10 "Xll "X20"

144

Straight

10 "Xll "X20"

150

4-i

3-2 Diagonal

lov'xiirxis"

163

3-2 Diagonal

6-7

■5

10i"Xll|"Xl8"

175

3-2 Diagonal

7-7

lorxiirxis"

ISS

3-2 Diagonal

7-8

10 "Xll "X20"

200

3-2 Diagonal

8-8

10 "Xll "X20"

of the first row. The second row has three open spaces, conse-
quently there will be three apples in the next row; in the next
there will be two, and in the next three, and so on until the other
end of the box is reached. Sometimes the last row will contain
two apples and sometimes three, depending on the size and the
shape of the fruit. In starting the second layer of a 3-2 pack,
two apples instead of three are placed for the first row; these two
apples will fit in the two spaces left by the three apples of the
corresponding row in the first layer. The apples of the second

§7

AND MARKETING

layer tend to fill up the vacant spaces of the first layer. The
third layer is begun with three apples, and the fourth with two ;
thus the odd-numbered layers are alike, and the even-numbered
ones are alike.

The 2-2 diagonal pack is used for apples that are too large
for a 3-2 pack. It is started by placing an apple in one comer
of the box and a second one midway between this first apple
land the other side. The two apples of the second row are then
placed to fit into the open spaces thus left ; the third row is then
placed like the first one, and the fourth, like the second, and so
on until the layer is finished. In starting the second layer, the
apples are placed just the reverse of the way they were in the first
layer, the first row coming over the opening between the apples
of the first row beneath and the second over the opening in the
second row of the first layer, etc.

In Table I is given data concerning straight and diagonal box
packs. This table is compiled from information published by
Prof. C. I. Lewis, of the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.

21. The offset pack resembles the diagonal pack in appear-
ance but differs in the arrangement of the fruit. The two fonns

36 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7

of the offset pack that are most commonly used are shown in
Fig. 32; in (a) is shown the form known as the 3-3, or 3|-tier,
pack and in (6) is shown the form known as the 4-4, or 4|-tier,
pack.

The 3-3 offset pack is started by placing three apples in one
end of the box so that they touch each other and one of them
touches the comer of the box. This leaves a space at the oppo-
site comer. The size of the apples should be such that the space
at the side of the row is about equal to one-third or one-half of
the diameter of each fruit. The second row of three apples is
started on the opposite side of the box, the first apple fitting
down partly into the open space of the first row. The third row
is started on the same side as the first, and this alternating is
continued until the layer is complete. The first row of the
second layer is started on the opposite side of the box from the
first roV of the first layer and the rows are alternate as in
the first row. The third layer is like the first and the fourth
like the second, and so on.

The 4-4 offset pack is like the 3-3 pack except in the number
of apples in a row.

The offset pack is an easy one to make, but the large open
spaces at the sides give much opportunity for the box to become
slack. In addition, these spaces give the appearance of the
box not being full, which is likely to injure its sale.

22. No matter which pack is used, the shape of the apples
determines whether they shall be placed on the end or the side.
As a rule, round or oblate apples are packed on end and oblong
varieties on the side. However, to secure the proper bulge
described later, some of the apples in a box may be turned one
way and some the other way.

It is obvious that to avoid bruising of the fruit the boxes
must be packed so that they will not become slack in transit.
Therefore, firmness of the pack is of prime importance. Each
apple should be fitted snugly and tightly into place, but, of
course, pressure enough to bruise the fruit should not be applied.
Apples will shrink somewhat in storage and this makes firmness
of the pack doubly important. To insure a firm pack, the fruit

§7

AND MARKETING

should extend to the ends of the box. Often fruit is packed so
that there is as much as a quarter of an inch of space at the end
of the box but such practice should be avoided. If the packer
finds that a layer is not coming out well he should repack a few
rows choosing slightly larger apples, or turning a few on the side
or on the end, as the case may require. By exercising judgment
in selecting the apples as the packing is being done, a novice will
soon learn to make a firm pack.

A bulge at the top and the bottom of the box is necessary to
avoid slackness in a packed box of apples, as the spring of the
boards will keep the fruit firm even after it shrinks slightly.
Most packers like a bulge of f inch on both the top and bottom.
To get this bulge it is necessary that the apples be packed so
that the last layer of apples comes out about flush with the two

Fig. 33

ends at the top of the box, and about 1| inches higher than the
side at the middle of the box, as shown in Fig. 33 (a). The box,
when nailed, will then bulge at both top and bottom, as shown
in (fe) . In order that the proper bulge may be secured it is neces-
sary that the second, third, and subsequent layers be slightly
higher at the center than at the ends. This is done by choosing
slightly larger apples, or if the apples are oblate, by turning
some of them on the side.

In the case of very large apples it is sometimes difficult to get
them to come flush with the ends, and to avoid crushing the
fruit a cleat is nailed on top of the end of the box and the cover
placed above this cleat. The Hood River Apple Growers Union,
of Oregon, gives the following instructions about this matter
to its members:

248—25

ra)

Fig. 34

AND MARKETING

"Packers shotild. pack apples so that they will not be above
the top of the box at either end. Growers will be allowed to
refuse to nail a box unless so packed. If absolutely unavoidable
in very large apples, the grower will be sure to put on cleats
under the lid at both ends."

To facilitate the nailing of covers on the boxes where a large
number are packed, some kind of a nailing press that will hold
the box securely while the cover is being nailed is necessary.
Box presses for this work can be purchased from dealers in
orchard supplies.
Fig. 34 shows a de-
sirable form. When
the box has been
filled and is ready
for nailing, it is
placed on the press,
and the boards of
the cover are placed
on the top, as shown
in (a). Cleats are
then placed across
the ends and the
clamps a are forced
down on these
cleats by pressure
on the foot-lever.
The cleats are then
nailed as shown in
view (&) , after which
the clamps are released and the box is removed from the press.
The nails are held in the box b, where they are accessible to the
one doing the nailing.

In Fig. 35 is shown a press that is constructed of steel. The
operation of this press is similar to that of the press just
described, except that it is not necessary for the nailer to bear
down on the foot-lever while the nailing is being done, the press
locking itself until released by the lever shown at the bottom
of the illustration.

Fig. 35

40 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, §7

23. Packing of Apples in Baskets. — ^When apples are
being packed in bushel baskets, a basket is filled about half full
of fruit and is then racked slightly to level the pack. The basket
is next filled to within a few inches of the top, and is again
racked, this time a follower being used. The package is next
faced by arranging the top apples in a level layer. This layer
should extend above the edge of the basket for an inch or so,
the exact height depending on the height of the rim of the
cover. In order to give an attractive appearance, the apples
of the face should be of uniform size and color. After the face
has been completed, the cover is put in place and fastened.
If the type of cover illustrated in Fig. 20 is used, a nail placed
in the center of the strip that passes through the handle will
keep the cover in place.

STORING OF APPLES

24. The fact that apples, especially those of fall and winter
varieties, can be kept for several months in storage before being
used, very much lengthens the period during which this fruit
can be consumed. Facilities for the storage of apples are almost
indispensable, so far as the grower is concerned, for with them
he is enabled to hold the fruit at times when there is a plentiful
supply on the market and to dispose of it when the supply
becomes less. One advantage of apple orcharding over the
growing of many other kinds of fruits is the fact that the apple
keeps well in storage.

It is the nature of all fruits to ripen and then to disintegrate.
The ripening process does not take place as rapidly at low tem-
peratures as at high; therefore, the purpose in the storing of
fruit in cold places is to prolong the ripening process. In the case
of some varieties, ripening cannot be greatly prolonged; in the
case of others, it can be retarded so that the fruit will keep in
storage for as long as 2 years.

The best temperature for storage rooms is the lowest it is
possible to obtain without freezing the fruit. Experience has
demonstrated that for apples this temperature is from 31° to
33° F.; at lower than 31° F. there is danger of apples freez-
ing. It is important that apples be placed at a low temperature

§ 7 AND MARKETING 41

as soon as possible after they are picked; if left for a few-
days in the orchard, especially if the weather is hot, they may
ripen more than during a month or two in storage. The
maturity of the fruit too, has something to do with its keeping
quality in storage. Overripe fruit will disintegrate sooner than
fruit that has just reached full development and attained good
color. Closely associated with the length of time apples will
keep in storage is the length of time they will keep when taken
out of storage. If they have been stored for a long time, they
will usually keep for but a short time after taken out of the
storage room. Apples held in storage for a short time keep
longer after they are taken out of storage, of course, than those
kept in storage for a longer time.

Varieties of apples vary greatly in the length of time they will
keep in storage. Ben Davis, Mann, and some of the Russets
are good keepers ; Wealthy and Wagener will' keep only until
about January or February. Some varieties like the Jonathan,
for example, are poor keepers in the cellar or a.t ordinary tem-
peratures but are good keepers in cold storage; occasionally a
variety, the York Imperial for instance, does better in cellar
storage than in cold storage. It has been foimd, also, that a
variety grown in a northern latitude or at a high altitude has
better keeping qualities in storage than the same variety grown
farther south or at a lower altitude.

Fruit of good quality is necessary for successful storage.
Apples that are partly decayed are sure to spoil if kept for any
length of time, even at a low temperatiire, and wormy or other-
wise defective fruit is not worth the cost of storage. Apples
should be carefully sorted, therefore, before being placed in
storage, and only those of the best quality reserved for the
storage room; the second grade, or inferior fruit, should be
disposed of at once for what it will bring.

After apples have been placed in storage they should be
undisturbed until ready to be moved, for excessive handling
seems to injure the keeping quality.

25. Commercial Cold Storage. — In cities and towns
apple growers can generally find commercial cold-storage houses

42 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7

in which space is for rent. When contemplating the renting of
space, a grower should ascertain whether the storage house in
question has stored apples successfully in the past, for often
plants are not conducted primarily as storage places for fruit,
but rather for meat, eggs, and butter. These products require
a lower temperature than fruit does; and if separate rooms of
the proper temperattire ar« not maintained for fruit, it is likely
not to keep satisfactorily.

The price for commercial storage space varies in different
localities. The usual rate for bushel boxes or baskets is from
15 to 25 cents from picking time to April 1, and for barrels is
from 25 to 60 cents. There is usually an additional charge per
month for fruit left in storage after April 1.

26. Farm Cold Storage. — Growers whose orchards are
at a considerable distance from market or shipping stations, or
who cannot find convenient or cheap facilities for storing fruit
in commercial storage houses, often find it advantageous to
maintain a storage house on the farm. Such houses can be used
to hold the fruit temporarily, or if they are well constructed,
during the whole season. Individual conditions will, of neces-
sity, determine whether or not such a house is required or is
practicable.

Ice is often used as the cooling agent in storage houses of
farms, but the principal disadvantage is the fact that it usually
must be kept from winter until the next fall before being used
in the fruit house. Therefoie, unless ice is plentiful and cheap,
ice storage is not especially economical. When used in fruit-
storage houses, the ice is placed in a room above the one where
the fruit is stored, and cold air from this room is conducted by
means of shafts to the lower part of the storage room and the
warm air is conducted from the storage room through shafts
that open at the roof. All of the walls should be built with dead-
air spaces for insulation.

27. In the northern part of the United States and in the
provinces of Canada, storage houses that are cooled by ventila-
tion are much used. This plan of cooling is economical and if
properly managed is very satisfactory. The cold air is admitted

§7

AND MARKETING

near the bottom of the room, and is, of course, from the outside;
the warm-air outlets are in the ceiling. The number of cold-air
intakes and warm-air outlets will, of course, vary with the size
of the building, but they should be ample to secure a good circu-
lation of air when desired and should be provided with opening

2 Ce//i'n^^^^ Bu/Mi'nff Paper

and closing devices that can be operated at will. Several cold-
air intakes are preferable to one, and if the room is longer than,
say, 14 to 16 feet, it is advisable to have two outlet ventilators
in the ceiling. For a room 12 ft. X 12 ft. or 12 ft. X 14 ft., one
outlet will be sufficient. The walls should be made with at least
one dead-air space, and two such spaces are preferable. These

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

provide against outside changes of temperature and are
absolutely necessary for proper insulation.

28. In Fig. 36 (a) is shown a well-designed storage house of
the type cooled by ventilation. It is 24 feet long, 14 feet wide,
and 10 feet high at the ridge. The walls are made with two
dead-air spaces. Two ventilators a and four intakes b, two in
each side, are provided. In (b) is shown the wall construction
of the house. The temperature changes in the house are secured
by opening and closing the intakes and outlets. For several

Fig. 37

days before the house is to be used, the doors and windows are
closed, and on cool nights the air ducts are opened and in the
morning before the sun gets high they are closed. This
tends to cool the air on the inside. If a particularly cool day
occurs, the doors and windows are opened. After the fruit has
been placed in the house, the temperature is watched and the
ventilators and intake ducts opened and closed accordingly.
When freezing weather occurs, the doors and windows are
opened during the warmest part of the day, or if necessary, oil
heaters are used to reduce the temperature.

§7

AND MARKETING

In Fig. 37 is illustrated a frame storage house of sufficient size
to hold about 1,500 bushels of apples in bulk. The house is
16 feet wide and 24 feet long, outside measurements, and has
10-inch double walls that are packed with sawdust. Ventilation

'-0~ ^I5'A

(ft)

Fig. 38

The

is secured by means of ventilators a and intake chutes h.
doors at the side and end are also used for ventilation.

A concrete storage house that is suitable for use where from
about 6,000 to 7,000 bushels of apples are stored annually is
shown in Fig. 38. In (a) is shown the exterior appearance of the
building. Four roof ventilators and two air intakes are provided.

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

The first four pipes in the roof, or those back to a, are ventilators;
the pipe at the back is an intake chute that extends downwards
through the rear wall to a point near the floor. The other intake

■i^i^^^ng^f^

is shown at b. The dimensions and method of construction are
shown in view (6). The apples are stored in bins arranged as
illustrated. A house of this kind can be built for from $800 to
$1,200, depending on the cost of material and labor.

§7 AND MARKETING 47

In Fig. 39 is shown a storage house that is constructed of
stone, concrete, and cement plaster. As in the house just
described, there are four roof ventilators a, and two intakes, the
pipe at the back being an intake, as in the house shown in Fig. 38 ;
the other intake is shown at 6. In view (6) is shown the dimen-
sions and method of construction of the house. The front of the
house is constructed of concrete and over the roof is placed about
1 foot of earth. The interior is divided into two rooms, the front
one being used as a packing room and the rear one as a storage
room. The front room is 20 feet long and the rear room is 60 feet
long. The apples are kept in bins, arranged as shown in the
illustration. The storage room will hold between 6,000 and 7,000
bushels of apples. Such a house can be built for about from
$1,200 to $1,500.

When a good cellar is available, winter apples may be kept
there in fairly good condition until January or February and
often later. A cellar for apples must be frost-proof but at the
same time it should be cool and somewhat moist.

29. When comparatively few apples are to be stored, they
can be satisfactorily taken care of in pits dug in the ground.
The size of the pit will depend, of course, on the quantity of
fruit to be stored; as a rule, from 30 to 50 bushels is about as
large a quantity as should be stored in one pit. The excavation
may be about 3 or 4 feet obep, and a trench should be dug around
it to provide drainage. A small quantity of straw is piled in the
pit, the fruit is piled on this straw, then a layer of straw is placed
over the fruit, and boards are placed over this. It is well to make
the pile cone-shaped and to arrange a bottomless box of wood
from the top to the outside air to provide ventilation. Above
the straw and boards a thin layer of earth is piled, and as the
weather becomes colder more earth is added. Apples will keep
very well in such a pit, especially if the fruit is not often
disturbed. Perhaps the best way is to take all of them out at
the same time; however, it is possible to open the pit occasion-
ally and remove a few apples, and still have the others keep
fairly well.

48 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

MARKETING OF APPLES

RETAIL MARKETING

30. When a grower sells apples at retail direct to consumers
or sells to retail merchants who, in turn, sell to consumers, he
has a personal acquaintance with his customers and is thus
enabled to cater to their individual demands. This acquaintance
gives him an opportunity to sell varieties that, although they
have good qualities, are not well known on the general market.
On a local market small quantities of fruit can be disposed of,
and, as a rule, the margin of profit on the individual package is
likely to be greater than if the fruit is sold at wholesale. In addi-
tion, competition is likely to be less when fruit is sold at retail
than when it is sold at wholesale, as special customers that will
buy the grower's fruit year after year may be secured, whereas
in the wholesale market the fruit is in competition with large
quantities of the same kind and quality. Often, too, a grower
who sells apples at retail can secure the profit that otherwise
would go to commission men and wholesale merchants. In this
case, however, he must, in a measure, do the work of these men,
bearing the cost of collections, loss in bad debts, cost of delivery,
etc. The grower who is selling apples to private customers can
often save the price of the fruit package by delivering in bags,
used boxes, crates, etc., leaving the consumer only the fruit.

A grower selling at retail must keep in touch with the local
demands for fruit and the prices as shown by market quotation,
and make his prices accordingly. He is salesman as well as
grower, and his success will depend largely on his ability to
handle each operation. A good grower may be a poor salesman,
and a poor grower a good salesman ; in the case of either success
may not be attained. It is when a grower is good both at the
production end and the selling end that he is likely to be a
success at selling at retail. .

§ 7 AND MARKETING 49

WHOLESALE MARKETING

31. Apples sold on the wholesale, or general, market are
handled in large quantities and the margin of profit on each
package to the grower is usually smaller than if sold at retail.
The fruit is generally handled by a commission man or other
middleman, and hence the grower does not come into direct
contact with the consumer. When apples are grown for the
wholesale market, only a few varieties should be offered for sale
and these should be of the standard varieties that are quoted on
the general market. As a rule, only first-class fruit should be
offered at wholesale, and it shordd be well packed and be in the
type of package generally handled on the particular market to
which it is shipped. Careful grading of the fruit is also a prime
reqmsite, as the appearance of the produce has much to do with
the price it will bring.

A grower who sells at wholesale must study the market
demands, for different markets desire different varieties of fruit.
Boston, Philadelphia, New York, Chicago, St. Louis, and, in
fact, all large markets differ somewhat as to market demands,
and thus it is to the advantage of a grower to find out which
market is likely to pay the best price for the variety or varieties
he has for sale.

32. A grower usually has several methods by which he can
dispose of his crop at wholesale. A buyer may come to the
orchard and offer a certain amount for the crop as a whole, or
may offer to take the crop at so much a barrel or box for the
apples packed, or may contract for the fruit picked and delivered
to the packing tables. Again, the grower may pack the fnut
himself and ship it to commission men at market centers who
will dispose of it and return the grower the balance due after they
have deducted commissions and other expenses.

Whether to sell direct to buyers or through commission men
will depend largely on local conditions and on the grower's
knowledge of market prices and market demands. No general
rule as to which method is the better can be given; each
grower will have to solve this problem for himself.

50 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING, § 7

When about to sell a consignment through a commission man,
the grower should find a dealer who has the reputation of being
thoroughly honest and who knows the demands of the trade in
the market in which he sells. Such a dealer is in a position to
give the grower advice that, if heeded, will be the means of
making him additional profit. All apples shipped to the commis-
sion man shoiild be graded and honestly packed; a few poorly
graded and dishonestly packed consignments will so injure the
reputation of a grower that when his fruit comes to the market
it is looked on with disfavor. When a commission man is found
to be thoroughly reliable and satisfactory, he should be retained
year after year. If a different commission man is retained each
year it will be necessary for each one to learn the merits of the
grower's fruit.

33. Cooperative selling of apples is perhaps the ideal way
of disposing of them, provided all members and officers of the
selling organization do their work faithfully and well. The
greatest success in cooperative selling is attained when the fruit
is put on the market under a brand that becomes known as a
guarantee of an absolutely honest grade of goods. Such goods
will have a reputation in the market that will cause them to sell
for prices higher than is generally received for the same grade
of produce. Cooperative selling of a certain brand of apples is,
as a rule, better than the selling of a brand by an individual
grower, for but few growers have fruit enough for sale annually
to impress a market to an appreciable extent.

34. Many apples are shipped annually and sold at wholesale
to foreign markets, principally to England. Many of the boxed
apples from the West, including the Spitzenburg, Delicious,
and Newtown Pippin, find a ready sale in England, as do the
Northern Spy, King, Greening, Baldwin, Fameuse, and Mann
of the Eastern States and Canadian Provinces. Apples that
are to be shipped to foreign countries should be very carefully
graded and securely packed, as only good fruit that reaches its
destination in good condition will sell readily.

As a large part of the apples exported go to Great Britain, it
is well for a grower to know something of selling methods at

§7

AND MARKETING

Liverpool, Glasgow, and London, the principal ports in Great
Britain for the sale of apples. The fruit, as a rule, is sold at auc-
tion. Each shipment

n 1^ — Q

PACKEDAND ,, ^' jii'i'.i--'.- '-"P'^'/X^ ^, 'W"*™ YAKIMA
SH1PPE08Y >]y;</JCJi/'j.L,ii UilJ,Oll W*SH.U.SA

tl BLUE RmSON BRAND '1

is kept separate and
before the auction any
buyer may go among
the packages and open
as many as two of each
lot. Then at the auc-
tion, one package is
opened and bids are
made on the whole
shipment or on any
part of it. Thus, it
may be seen that to
be sure of the piir-
chaser opening a pack-
age of good fruit, the
shipment should be
imiformly good.

In Great Britain,
fruit is sometimes sold
by shippers direct to
dealers or to private
salesmen, the pur-
chaser thus saving the
commissions charged
at the auction. This
method of selling is
especially desirable for
growers or associa-
tions that can guarantee their fruit to be of a uniformly good
grade.

Fig. 40

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION ABOUT MARKETING

35. Labels for Apple Packages. — Experience has shown
that the use of appropriate labels on apple packages is a paying
proposition, especially if the fruit is of one of the best grades.

A label serves to ad-
vertise the products
of an orchard, and
if it is always used
for fniit of uniform
grade, it guarantees,
in a way, to the com-
mission man and the
purchaser that the
fruit in the package
is of good quality.
Consumers soon learn
to recognize and call
for labeled fruit from
certain orchards, and
this fact has been
worth much to cer-
tain growers. A label
should be neat, at-
tractive, and sugges-
tive of the quality of
the fruit. In Figs. 40
and 41 are shown re-
productions of litho-
graphed labels used
for boxed fruit grown
in the Pacific Coast
States. Fig. 42 shows
the forms of label
used for boxes, baskets, and barrels by a fruit company in
Pennsylvania. In Fig. 43 is shown an inexpensive but attrac-
tive label used by an Ohio grower for a particular variety;
the original from which this cut was made is printed on pink

inr^:i^NCl^

EA.HIHN COMPANY.

SAK1ACRUZ

Fig. 41

§7

AND MARKETING

paper with green ink and the effect is very pleasing. In
Fig. 44 is illustrated a label used by a Pennsylvania company
for boxes of fancy fruit. It is printed in red ink on white paper,
and is very attractive. Fig. 45 shows a label for barrels used by
an orchard company of Maryland. The small cut in the center

vARfETY-fANCY Northern Spys

Fig. 42

cf this illustration is a half-tone engraving showing an orchard
scene. The half-tone is printed in black ink and the rest of the
label in blue ink, white paper being used. The label is suffi-
ciently large to cover the entire head of a barrel.

36. Keeping in Touch witli the Market. — Whether a
grower seUs to a commission man or to retailers or to consumers

248—26

APPLE HARVESTING, STORING,

§7

TALMAN
SWEETS

GOOD FOR BAKING

FROM

Clover Leaf Fruit Farm

direct, he shoiild keep informed about current prices of fruit. The
telephone and daily market reports, both local and general, will
aid in this matter. If his fruit is sold by an association this work

will, of course, be done
for him. As late fall
and winter varieties
of apples can be kept
for a time in cold stor-
age, the grower or
association can hold
the fruit until the mar-
ket seems right for a
sale. In the case of
summer and early fall
varieties, storage is
not so much of a help,
but even with most of such varieties the fruit can be kept for
a time. In selling summer varieties on a local market, a grower
should watch the shipments of peaches and avoid sending a
large consignment of apples to market when peaches are there
in abundance, for con-
sumers are more likely
to purchase summer
apples when peaches
are scarce than when
plentiful.

W. W. Farnsworth
Waterville, Ohio.

Fig. 43

THIS BOX CONTAINS FANCY APPLES

GROWN AND PACKED AT

EXETER FRUIT FARMS

Every apple in this box is guaranteed to be
perfect in size, shape and color, free from
worms, scale and all fungus diseases. All
persons are warned not to repack or refill this
box without first destroying this label.

No. Apples-
Variety

W. J. LEWIS & BRO.

Pittston. Pa.

37. Maintaining
the Price of Apples.

On a local market, and
on a wholesale mar-
ket, when possible, it
is well to ask a good
price for first-class
apples. Consumers
are, as a rule, willing to pay well for good fruit, and the grower
who gives his time and energy to the production of such fruit
should have just compensation.

Fig. 44

§7

AND MARKETING

38. Use of Clean Packages. — All barrels, boxes, baskets,
and crates that are to be retained by the consimier should be
new and clean; it is poor business to place apples in soiled
packages and offer them to a customer, even at a slightly lower
price than for fruit in a new package. Attractiveness counts
for much ; it creates a desire for the fruit and thus makes it more
salable.

Fig. 45

39. Importance of Careful Grading and Packing.

Whether fruit is to be sold in large or small lots, careful grading
and honest packing are essential for the securing of good prices.
Grading to size and color gives a more uniform and hence a more
attractive appearance, and grading to quality insures that a
package will keep well, and thus not be a disappointment to the
consumer. Honest packing is a means of securing satisfied
customers, which are necessary to the success of any form of
merchandising. If customers are satisfied they will ask for
apples from the grower's orchard when they wish-to purchase
fruit again.

56 APPLE HARVESTING. STORING, ' § 7

40. Importajice of Honest Labeling. — Honest labeling
of packages is a matter of business that the grower cannot fail
to neglect. The marking of a barrel No. 1 when it shoiild be a
No. 2, or a box fancy when it should be choice, is poor business,
for it will be the means of dissatisfying customers and, if
discovered by wholesale buyers, will result in. a small check
being returned to the grower.

41. Advertising of Fruit. — ^The grower who sells his
fruit on a local market is, in a sense, a merchant and as such
should advertise his product. This he can do by practicing
carefiil grading, honest packing, honest labeling, and by using
clean and attractive packages. In addition, he should advertise
in local newspapers or in other such mediums of publicity. An
advertisement in a local paper stating that a certain grower
offers apples for sale and that the apples are all sound and free
from defects, is almost sure to be a good business move. Adver-
tising by means of attractive labels, as previously explained, and
by attractive displays of fruit where consumers will see them,
are good methods of attracting attention. Fruit growers' asso-
ciations make extensive use of such means; in fact, some asso-
ciations employ advertising managers whose business it is to
see that the public becomes acquainted with the brands and
fruit of the association.

UTILIZATION OF INFERIOR APPLES

42. The utilization of inferior apples is an important prob-
lem connected with marketing of the products of an orchard.
In fact, the working up of otherwise waste apples into some
salable form is often the means of bringing considerably
increased profits to a grower. Among the products that can
be made from culls are evaporated apples, canned apples,
apple butter, apple jelly, apple cider, and apple vinegar.

43. Evaporated Apples. — One of the principal products
that can be made from second-grade fruit is evaporated apples.
Experience has proved that fall and winter apples give a better
yield and quality of dried fruit than do summer apples. The

§7

AND MARKETING

average yield of evaporated apples is from 5 to 7 pounds per
bushel of fresh fruit. In most sections where apples are produced
abundantly, commercial evaporating houses are to be found
where the grower can dispose of apples not suitable for packing.
These establishments generally evaporate fruit more cheaply
than a grower can, and therefore, where such a house is conve-
niently near the orchard, it usually pays the grower to sell his
ciills rather than to evaporate them himself. However, there
are on the market
small evaporators that
can be used on the
farm, and where no
commercial establish-
ment is near, they can
be made an effective
means of preparing
ctdls for market. One
of the simplest evap-
orators for home use is
illustrated in Fig. 46.
It is simply a box that
is placed on top of a
kitchen range or stove.
The fruit to be evap-
orated is placed in the
drawers, or trays, a,
which have galvan-
ized wire screen bot-
toms, and the heat
from the fire in the
stove does the evaporating. This evaporator can be used, also,
on a gas, gasoline, or kerosene stove.

In Fig. 47 is shown an evaporator with a furnace attached.
The fruit, when prepared for evaporating, is placed in the trays
a, which are then put in place in the evaporator. The capacity
of the machine illustrated is from 30 to 50 bushels of apples per
day, but machines of this type that range in capacity from 4 to
150 bushels per day can be purchased.

Fig. 46

AND MARKETING

In Fig. 48 is shown another form of evaporator with a furnace
attached. This evaporator is made of metal and can be pur-
chased in sizes ranging from 3 to 30 bushels per day. The
evaporator illustrated has a capacity of from 5 to 7 bushels per
day.

Evaporated apples are placed on the market whole, in quar-
ters, in sixths, or sliced. Perhaps the commonest method is to
market them in slices a quarter of an inch in thickness, the cut
being made across the apple
at right angles to the core.
Mechanical parers, corers,
slicers, quarter ers, etc. are
on the market. Small ma-
chines that work by hand
or foot power can be had
and their use is recom-
mended whenever a grower
has enough fruit to evap-
orate to make their use
practicable.

After the fruit has been
pared and cored and, un-
less evaporated whole, cut
into quarters, sixths, or
slices, it is treated for a
short time to the fumes of
burning sulphur, which" pre-
vent the discoloring of the
pieces by preventing oxida-
tion. Special appliances,
known as color setters, in which the sulphur is burned, are
supplied with large evaporators. When use is made of the
cook-stove type of evaporator, a small piece of sulphur the
size of a pea is placed on the top of the stove. This sulphur
soon ignites and the fumes prevent the discoloration of the fruit
in the trays above.

Following the color setting, as the process just referred to is
called, the fruit is placed on trays in the evaporator and heated

Fig. 48

60 APPLE HARVESTING, STORING §7

until a certain amount of the moisture in the fruit has been
evaporated. The length of time necessary for evaporation will,
of course, vary with the heat and with the size of the pieces.
No general rule as to time can be given. In this matter the
grower should be guided by the directions that come with the
machine. The condition of the fruit is, however, somewhat of
a guide as to when the fruit is sufficiently evaporated. When a
handful of pieces is squeezed into a m.ass in the hand they should
be springy enough when pressure is released to separate and
show no signs of sticking together. Moisture should not be in
evidence on the surface of the pieces, nor should juice show when
one of the pieces is cut or broken.

44. Canned Apples. — Most of the canned apples on the
market are put up by commercial canning factories. If a
grower is near an establishment of this kind he can often get
a fair price for his second-grade apples. Small canning outfits
suitable for use on farms are on the market at prices ranging
from $100 to $300 or inore, depending on the size, capacity, etc.
They can be used for peaches, small fruits, tomatoes, and other
vegetables as well as for apples. Whether or not it will pay a
grower to own and operate a small canning outfit will depend
largely on the quantity of fruit and vegetables that he will have
for canning and the availability of labor.

45. Apple Butter. — There is considerable demand on
the market for home-made apple butter, and if a grower can
work up a special trade for this product he is likely to find that
apple-butter making is a profitable way to utilize apples that
would otherwise be wasted.

46. Apple Jelly. — The making of apple jelly at home for
sale commercially is not generally conducive to profit, as the
grower must compete with large manufacturers. If, however,
a grower can make jelly for a special trade and be sure of the
sale of the product at a fair price, it is possible to make this a
profitable method of disposing of inferior fruit. Small outfits
for the making of jelly can be purchased from dealers in canning
supplies.

§ 7 AND MARKETING 61

47. Apple Cider and Apple Vinegar. — The poorest
apples from the orchard can be made into cider and used as
such, or the cider can be allowed to turn to vinegar. The
making of cider is a business apart from the growing of apples,
and usually a cider mill can be found in any community where
business warrants it. The profits from apples made into cider
are small, and if much time is required to get the fruit to the
mill, it is often more profitable to feed such apples to the live-
stock of the farm.

PEAR CULTURE

(PART 1)

INTRODUCTION

1. The pear-growing industry of the world, although very
old, has, from the beginning, been subject to more or less
adverse conditions that have operated to discourage extensive
production. In the early writings of the Greeks and Romans,
numerous references are made to pears and to pear ciilture,
but emphasis is placed on the fact that the pears were of ver^^
poor quality and could be used only to make beverages. In
English and American horticrdtural works of the latter part of
the 18th century and the first of the 19th century, as much
space is devoted to pears as to apples, but there is a tone of
discouragement in the discussion of pears, owing to the fact
that fire blight was becoming prevalent and wiping out the
industry. Although a great many varieties of pears were
described at that time, some works describing as many as seven
hundred, few were of value for dessert use, the pear being grown
primarily for cooking purposes and for the production of a
cider known as perry. About the middle of the 19th century,
considerable interest was aroused in the pear as a result of the
introduction of certain improved varieties. However, from
that time to the present, fire blight has been more or less prev-
alent and this, together with various other conditions, has
discouraged many persons from attempting to raise pears.

2, With the exception of a few states, pear growing in the
United States has been on the decline for several years. In
the northern tier of states, including certain of the New England

§8

2 PEAR CULTURE § 8

States, New York, Michigan, and others, the pear-growing
industry seems to be holding its own, and, in some cases, is
sHghtly on the increase. In the Southern and Middle States
the industry is on the decline. In the states of the Pacific
slope, particularly Oregon, there has been an increase in the
industry, but in certain of the Rocky Mountain States, like
Utah and Colorado, a decrease has occiured. A summarized
statement of the status of pear growing in various states
arranged alphabetically, follows.

Alabama: Pear growing is at a vStandstill in Alabama, due
chiefly to fire blight. The principal varieties grown in the
northern part of the state are Kieffer, LeConte, and Garber;
in the southern part of the state Magnolia and Golden Russet
are the chief varieties.

Arizona: In Arizona the industry is probably on the increase,
although fire blight has been very serious in some sections.
The principal varieties are Bartlett, Winter Nelis, and Kieffer.
Other varieties that do well are Clapp Favorite, Flemish,
Howell, LeConte, Anjou, and Seckel.

Arkansas: Few plantings of pears are being made in Arkan-
sas at the present time because of the prevalence of fire blight.
Kieffer, Garber, and similar varieties are the principal ones
grown.

California: For years California has been the leading pear-
growing state. From the early eighties to the beginning of
the present century an enormous development of the industry
took place. During the last decade, however, fire blight has
done serious damage. This is doubtless due to the fact that
growers failed to take proper steps toward controlling the
disease. More difficulty has been experienced in fighting the
blight in irrigated regions than in those where irrigation is not
practiced.

Colorado: In Colorado pear growing is confined to the west-
em slope. Fire blight is very severe, rendering the industry
unpopular. The principal varieties grown are Bartlett, Kieffer,
Anjou, Flemish, and Seckel.

Connecticut: There are very few pear orchards in the state,
the total acreage of commercial orchards being estimated at

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 3

not more than 50 acres. A few pears are grown in home orch-
ards. The chief varieties grown in the state are Bosc, Anjou,
and Seckel.

Delaware: The growing of Kieffer pears in Delaware is
rather extensive. New plantings of this variety are being made.
Recently, however, fire blight has attacked the Kieffers and
the industry seems to be threatened. There are a few plant-
ings of Bartlett, Anjou, and Lawrence.

Florida: It is probable that ■ the growing of pears will
never become a commercial industry in Florida. Pear growing
in the state is on the decrease, due to ravages of fire blight.
The most popular varieties grown are Kieffer, Garber, and
Cincincis.

Georgia: The industry in Georgia has never been profit-
able. Many orchards have been ruined by fire blight, which
seems difficult to control. The Kieifer is the chief variety
grown.

Idaho: The industry is not as great in Idaho as it was for-
merly, but some interest is being manifested at the present time
in the planting of varieties such as Bartlett, Anjou, Winter
Nelis, Flemish, and Howell.

Illinois: The industry in Illinois is thought to be decreas-
ing rapidly, due to ravages of fire blight. The Kieffer is still
grown commercially in some sections.

Indiana: The industry is on the decline in Indiana, due to
prevalence of fire blight. The most popular varieties grown
are Bartlett, Clapp Favorite, Tyson, Flemish, Sheldon, and
Seckel.

Iowa: Pears are little grown in Iowa. Knoxville is the only
place in the state where the market is supplied by a local orch-
ard. A few growers are making a success with such varieties
as Kieffer, Bartlett, and Flemish.

Kansas: Pear growing is at a standstill in Kansas. The
principal varieties grown are Kieffer and Garber.

Kentucky: Pears in small quantities are grown in aU sec-
tions of Kentucky, but there are very few commercial orchards.
Fire blight has done serious damage in the state. The prin-
cipal varieties are Bartlett, Kieffer, Seckel, and Garber.

4 PEAR CULTURE § 8

Maine: Pear growing in Maine practically amounts to
nothing. The southwest counties grow a few pears, the varieties
being Bartlett, Clapp Favorite, Flemish, Seckel, and Vermont
Beauty.

Maryland: In Maryland pear growing is not increasing
but is thought to be holding its own. A considerable acreage
in the state is planted to Kieffers. Other varieties grown to a
limited extent are Bartlett, Anjou, and Clairgeau.

Massachisetts: In Massachusetts pear growing is on the
increase at the present time, but has decreased greatly in the
last 50 years. The industry shows some signs of reviving.
The principal varieties grown .commercially are Bartlett,
Seckel, Bosc, and Anjou.

Michigan: Pear growing is thought to be slightly on the
increase in the state. The Bartlett is the principal variety
grown.

Missouri: Pear growing in the state is thought to be at
a standstill. The Kieffer is the principal variety grown,
but a few plantings of Garber, Anjou, and Seckel are
found. Recently, it is said, the Lincoln variety has come into
favor.

Montana: The industry amoimts to little in Montana.
Fire blight has been serious.

Nebraska: Pear growing as an industry is not considered
important in Nebraska, there being only a few commercial
orchards. The Kieffer is the principal variety grown; other
varieties sometimes found are Bartlett, Sheldon, Seckel, and
Flemish.

New Mexico: The growing of pears is on the increase in
New Mexico, several valleys in the state giving promise of
producing excellent crops. Fire blight has never been serious.
The principal variety is the Bartlett.

New York: According to a report of the Geneva Experiment
Station, pear growing in New York is holding its own, with
possibly a slight increase. The Cornell Experiment Station
reports that the industry is slightly on the increase. The most
popular varieties are Bartlett, Seckel, Kieffer, Clapp Favorite,
Sheldon, Bosc, Anjou, Clairgeau, and Winter Nelis.

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 5

Oklahoma: Little is known of the true status of pear grow-
ing in the state; it is thought, however, that comparatively
few pears are grown. Fire blight is the most serious drawback.
The Kieffer is the favorite variety, Garber and Seckel being
grown sparingly.

Oregon: From all indications Oregon will soon supplant
California as the leading pear-growing state. There is an
enormous area and a splendid opportunity for pear growing
in the Rogue River, the Umqua, and the Williamette valleys,
and in some of the mountain valleys like the Hood River, it
seems probable that pear culture will become much more impor-
tant than it has been in the past. Pears from the Rogue River
Valley have topped the markets of the world in. both quality
and selling price. Oregon fruit growers are being advised to
specialize to some extent on pear growing.

Pennsylvania: Pear growing has been on the decrease in
Pennsylvania for several years, although at the present time
there are indications of a renewal of interest in the industry.
The decrease in pear growing in the state is attributed to ravages
of fire blight. The principal cormnercial varieties are Kieffer,
Clapp Favorite, Bartlett, Flemish, Seckel, Anjou, and Sheldon.

RJtode Island: In Rhode Island the growing of pears is
confined almost entirely to home orchards, there being prac-
tically no commercial orchards in the state. The principal
varieties are Clapp Favorite, Bartlett, Sheldon, and Seckel.

South Carolina: It is believed that pear growing is on the
increase in South Carolina and that the industry may become
of some importance. The principal varieties grown are Bart-
lett, Kieffer, Seckel, Garber, and LeConte, Kieffer being the
most popular.

South Dakota: Very few pears are raised in the state. The
winds are too severe to be favorable to pear growing and fire
blight is prevalent.

Tennessee: There is practically no commercial pear grow-
ing in Tennessee. A few Kieffers, Garbers, and LeContes are
grown in home orchards.

Texas: Very few pears are grown in the old agricultural
districts of Texas. At one time the industry was started on

0 PEAR CULTURE § 8

an enormous scale, but most of the plantings have disappeared.
Kieffer is practicall}^ the only variety grown, although some
Chambers and Bartlett plantings are found. It is said that the
plantings of the Bartlett are doing well.

Utah: Pear growing is very much on the decline in Utah,
due to fire blight. The principal varieties are Kieffer, Flem-
ish, Anjou, Bartlett, and Clapp Favorite.

Vermont: In Vermont pear growing dwindled to nothing
about 20 years ago, due to the fire blight.

Virginia: The pear-growing industry in Virginia is prob-
ably not increasing. Fire blight has discouraged the growers.

Washington: It is thought that pear growing is on the decline
in the state. The principal varieties are Bartlett, Clairgeau,
and Winter Nelis.

West Virginia: Pear growing in West Virginia amounts to
practically nothing, being confined to a few home orchards.
It is estimated that at least 95 per cent, of the pears grown in
the state are Kieffers. Other varieties grown on a smaU scale
are Garber, Seckel, Clairgeau, Bartlett, Howell, Lawrence,
Mount Veriion, and Danas Hovey.

Wisconsin: There are few if any commercial pear orchards
in the state. Kieffer, Flemish, and Seckel varieties are grown
to some extent in home orchards.

Wyoming: Pears are being planted freely in the state at the
present time. Bartlett, Seckel, and Kieffer are the most
popular varieties.

3. Owing to the fact that pear growing is declining in many
.states and is at a standstill in others, it is obvious that there
is no danger of overproduction. Although there may be some
seasons when pears of varieties like the Bartlett will not bring
desirable prices, on the whole the price will doubtless remain
high. It is believed by competent authorities that for the next
20 years, at least, pears will be one of the most profitable finiits
to grow. In order to be successful in the business, however,
growers must exercise care in the selecting of orchard sites and
in managing orchards so as to avoid fire blight. These points
will be discussed later.

PEAR CULTURE

CLASSIFICATION OF PEARS

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

4. Botanically, the pears that are cultivated in North
America for their fruits may be divided into two groups: the
European group and the Oriental group. The pears of these
two groups are so widely different that an understanding of
each is necessary.

5. European Group of Pears. — The European group of
pears originated from the native pear of Europe, Pyrus com-
munis. Many varieties of this group had their origin in Amer-
ica, but they are, of course, seedlings of the European pear.
Examples of these are the Seckel, Lawrence, Howell, Clapp
Favorite, Wilder, Tyson, and others. On the other hand,
many varieties of the European group have been imported
directly from Europe. Examples of these are the Anjou, the
Angouleme, and the Bartlett. Pears of the European group
have been grown in this country from the time of the earliest
settlements. They are noted for their productivity and fine
quality; the trees, however, are not as hardy as is desired,
being very susceptible to fire blight.

6. Oriental Group of Pears. — The Oriental group of
pears originated from the native pear of China and Japan,
commonly called the sand pear, Pyrus sinensis. The sand pear
was introduced into America many years after the European
pear. The trees of this stock were hard}^ and productive,
and were able to thrive in much warmer regions than those
of the European pear. Owing to the fact that the fruit was
practically worthless for eating purposes, however, the sand
pear was never extensively grown in this country.

About 1870 a satisfactory cross was made between a variety
of the European pear and the sand pear. The new pear, the

248—27

8 PEAR CULTURE § 8

result of this cross, was named Kieffer, in honor of its orig-
inator, Peter Kieffer, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Later
crosses between the European pear and the sand pear resulted
in the varieties LeConte, Garber, and others. These hybrids,
owing to their resistance to fire blight and to the fact that they
would thrive in the South under conditions that would cause
other varieties to fail, created considerable interest in pear
growing. Within recent years, however, it has been discovered
that these hybrid varieties are not as resistant to fire blight as
was formerly supposed.

COMMERCIAL CLASSIFICATION

7. From the standpoint of the commercial orchardist, pears
may be divided into two classes : dwarf pears and standard pears.
This classification is based on the method of propagation.

8. Dwarf Pears. — A pear tree propagated by the budding
of pear wood onto quince stock is known as a dwarf tree. As
a rule, the Angers quince is used as propagating stock, although
in some sections where the climate is mild the Portugese quince
has proved satisfactory. Dwarf trees are dwarfed in habit,
are productive, and come into bearing at an early age.

In the case of some varieties of pears, there are important
advantages in the growing of the trees as dwarfs. High-
quality varieties that come into bearing late, such as the Comice,
Glout Morceau, Bosc, Anjou, Winter Nelis, and particularly
the Angouleme, bear fruit of higher quality and the trees come
into bearing at an earlier age when grown as dwarfs. Also,
in the case of varieties that, when grown in the usual way,
do not develop their ultimate qualities until the trees have
borne several crops of fruit, the growing of the trees as dwarfs
will cause the latent qualities to develop at once. One of the
most important advantages of the dwarf form of tree is its
adaptability for use as a filler in pear orchards of standard
trees.

Dwarf pears have been grown in the East for a great many
years but only recently has interest in dwarf trees been aroused
in the West. At the present time progressive growers of. the

10 PEAR CULTURE § 8

Pacific slope are experimenting with the dwarf, largely because
cf its value as a filler. In general, it may be said that the grow-
ing of dwarf pears is of rather small commercial importance.

9. Standard Pears. — A pear tree propagated by the bud-
ding or grafting of pear wood onto pear stock is known as a
standard tree. Standard pear trees are longer lived than dwarf
trees, attain larger size, and are capable of yielding heavier
crops of fruit, but they usually come into bearing later. A
large percentage of the commercial orchards at the present time
are of standard trees, although there are a number of dwarf
orchards in the East and a few in the West. Owing to the fact
that standard trees are almost exclusively grown in most sec-
tions, the following discussion of pear culture willdeal largel}^
with this form of tree. A young pear orchard of standard
trees is shown in Fig. 1 ; this is a Western orchard and is furrowed
for irrigation.

VARIETIES OF PEARS

10. Horticultural reference works written prior to a half
century ago contain descriptions of hundreds and in some cases
thousands of varieties of pears. A large percentage of these
varieties, however, were suitable only for culinary purposes
or for the production of perry. Many have become extinct
and many others are now grown on such a small scale that they
are practically negligible. A discussion of such varieties is
unnecessary; consequently, in the following descriptions, men-
tion will be made of only such varieties as are of importance
at the present time. The name used in each case is the one
adopted by the American Pomological Society, the recognized
authority on nomenclature.

11. Varieties of the European Group. — The following
are the most important varieties of the European group of
pears :

12. The Chambers, or Early Harvest of Kentucky, variety
is commonly known as the sugar pear. The tree is an upright
grower. The fruit is small and roundish; the skin is of a yellow-
ish color, which often becomes a brown, and is dotted with

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 11

green; the flesh is sweet but has a tendency to be dry unless
the fruit is picked before it is too ripe. The Chambers is
one of the earhest pears grown, ripening in early July in the
latitude of Southern New York. The variety is desirable for
home orchards but is not very satisfactory for commercial
planting, owing to the fact that the fruit will keep but a few
days after being picked.

13. The Bloodgood variety of pear originated on Long
Island, New York. It has become of considerable importance
in California. The tree is generally hardy, comes into bearing
early, and produces an abundance of fruit. The fruit is of
medium size; the skin is yellow, with russet dots and network
markings ; the flesh is yellowish white, buttery, melting, and of
a rich, sugary, aromatic flavor. The Bloodgood ripens in
midsummer. Like most early pears, it is better if picked early
and ripened indoors. The variety is excellent for home orch-
ards, and the fruit, on account of its earliness, often sells well
on the market, although it is not very attractive in appearance.

14. The Glffard is a popular variety in Southern Canada
and in parts of New York and in the New England States.
The tree is fairly vigorous, reasonably productive, and healthy,
but tends to be a scraggly grower. The fruit is m.edii.un to
large in size; the skin is of a light-green color, often marbled
and dotted with red on the exposed side; the flesh is white,
juicy, melting, and of a vinous flavor. In northern states the
fruit ripens about the middle of August. The Giifard is con-
sidered a good variety for home markets.

15. The Koonce variety originated in Illinois. The tree
is hardy, productive, and healthy, tending to bear regularly.
The fruit is large to medium in size; the skin is greenish yel-
low in color and has small russet dots; the flesh is white, often
granular, and of only fair quality. In the latitude of Missouri
the fruit ripens in midsummer; in northern states it ripens
in October. The variety is especiall}^ valuable for use as stock
in double working the pear on the quince. Koonce pears are
used for culinary purposes.

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 13

16. The Clapp Favorite variety originated in Massa-
chusetts. The tree is a strong grower, tending to be rather
upright but spreading considerably when fruiting, and is very
productive. The fruit is large; the skin is a pale yellow, mar-
bled and splashed with crimson on the exposed side, and thickly
sprinkled with brown dots; the flesh is white, fine grained,
juicy, sweet, and vinous in flavor. -A Clapp Favorite pear is
shown in Fig. 2. The fruit ripens about 10 days before that
of the Bartlett; it should be picked before it is fully ripe. The
Clapp Favorite is one of the best varieties for home orchards
and is grown extensively in commercial orchards. It is a
valuable pear for canning.

17.; The Bartlett pear is of European origin, being known
in Europe as the Williams Bon Chretien. It is the leading
commercial variety, is in demand on the market, and is one of
the most profitable pears to grow. The fruit is large and varies
somewhat in form ; the skin is thin and of a bright-yellow color,
often blushed on the exposed side; the flesh is white, juicy, and
of a very good quality. A Bartlett pear is illustrated in
Fig. 3. The fruit of 'this variety is excellent for canning,
preserving, and evaporating. The season of the Bartlett is
midsummer.

18. The Tyson is a well-known American variety that is
grown extensively in home orchards. The tree is upright,
vigorous, and productive. The fruit is medium in size; the
skin, when the fruit is fiilly ripe, is yellow, is sometimes rus-
seted on one side, and often has a red cheek that is dotted with
brown; the flesh is a yellowish white in color, juicy, sweet,
and variable in texture. The season of this variety is about
the same as that of the Bartlett.

19. The Flemish, or Flemish Beauty, variety is of Euro-
pean origin; it is known by different names in different coun- .
tries. The tree is vigorous and hardy and tends to come into
bearing at an early age, after which it usually bears heavy crops.
The fruit is generally large; the skin is of a yellow color, often
marbled and covered with patches of light russet; the flesh
is white, juicy, and sweet, and is of a very good quality.

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 15

In the latitude of New York the season of the Flemish is
vSeptember.

20. The Hardy variety is a summer pear in some localities,
an early autumn pear in others, and a late autimm pear in still
others. The tree is a strong, erect grower, and has an abun-
dance of foliage. The fruit is large; the skin is of a greenish
color, often russeted; the flesh is rich in flavor and dehcious.
A Hardy pear is shown in Fig. 4. The fruit of this variety is
well received in some markets.

21. The Seckel pear was originated in Pennsylvania.
The tree is generally small with a rounded head; it is likely to
be a slow grower but is fairly hardy and, as a rule, healthy.
Often the tree is late in coming into bearing but when once in
bearing it is a reliable cropper, provided it is cared for properly.
The fruit is very small, but what it lacks in size it m.akes up
in quality; the skin is a yellowish brown, with a russet-red
cheek; the flesh is fine grained, sweet, very juicy, melting, and
buttery, being excellent for eating in the natural condition
or for pickling and spicing. A Seckel pear is shown in Fig. 5.
Because of the small size of the fruit, the Seckel does not meet
with much demand in many markets, but in markets where it
is well known it is highly appreciated and brings good prices.
The season is from the last of August to the last of October.

22. The Worden, or Warden's Seckel, variety of pear is
said to be an improvement over the Seckel, the fruit having
better keeping qualities and being handsomer. The tree is
fairly hardy and productive and bears fruit in clusters. The
fruit is of medium size; the skin is of a yellowish-brown color,
with a russet-red cheek; the flesh is juicy and delicious. The
Worden ripens in October but will keep until December. It
is used for dessert purposes.

23. The Lincoln is a promising new variety of pear. A
great many pears have been put on the market under this
name, but most of these are worthless. The tree, it is claimed,
is resistant to blight. The fruit is said to be large and of
splendid quality; the skin is a clear yellow, with a red cheek;

^-'^xm

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 17

the flesh is firm, rich, juicy, and of high flavor. The propa-
gators claim that the fruit is excellent for both dessert and
canning purposes. Owing to lack of data it is impossible to
state whether or not this variety justifies the claims made
for it.

24. The Howell variety of pear originated in Connecticut.
The tree is generally a vigorous grower of upright habit, comes
into bearing early, and when of bearing age, usually bears
annually. The fruit is large; the skin is of a light-yellow color,
often almost red on one side; the flesh is white, mellow, and
rather juicy. A Howell pear is illustrated in Fig. 6. In north-
ern sections the Howell matures from the middle of September
to well into October. The variety is increasing in popularity
on the Pacific coast, due largely to the handsome appearance
of the fruit and to the fact that the trees have a tendency
to be annual bearers. The Howell is a dessert and market
pear.

25. The Verraont Beauty variety of pear is said to have
been originated in the Lake Champlain district of Vermont.
The tree is hardy and vigorous. The fruit is of medium size
and tends to be round; the skin is yellow, often tinged with
pink; the flesh is of very good quality. The season of this
variety is October. The Vermont Beauty is a dessert pear.

26. The Sheldon pear is very popular in some sections
of the eastern part of the country. The tree is an upright,
vigorous grower, generally being round headed, and tends to
bear early. The fruit is of medium size and roundish; it is
often affected by core rot, due, no doubt, to hanging on the tree
too long. The skin is of a greenish-yellow color, covered with
a thin russet, and often is blushed with a light red on the side
exposed to the sun; the flesh is sweetly aromatic in flavor and
is juicy. A Sheldon pear is shown in Fig. 7. In the region
of Southern New York the Sheldon matures in October. The
variety is favorably received in many markets.

27. The Ang'ouleme variety, known also as the Dtichess
and the Duchess d' Angouleme, is of French origin. The variety

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 19

is grown extensively along the Atlantic seaboard. The tree is
generally vigorous; and the wood does well when grafted onto
that of other varieties or onto that of the quince. The fruit
varies in size from large to very large ; the skin is of a greenish-
yellow color, and is more or less streaked and spotted with
russet; the flesh is white, juicy, and of fine flavor. An Angou-
leme pear is shown in Fig. 8. In the latitude of Southern New
York the fiiiit matures in October and November. If the
Angouleme is properly grown it is an attractive pear of good
quality, but it must be properly grown to be profitable. The
pears are valuable for both dessert and culinary purposes.

28. The Malines pear, often called the Josephine de
M alines, is a very popular variety in Europe. The tree tends
to be hardy and is a good bearer. The fruit is medium to large
in size; the skin is yellow, tinged with green on the shaded side
and blushed with red on the exposed side, and is covered with
russet dots ; the flesh is yellow tinged with red, melting, sugary,
juicy, and of good quality. A Malines pear is shown in Fig. 9.
The fruit matures late in the fall and has extremely good keeping
qualities.

29. The Drouard variety, known also as the President
Drotiard, is a European pear that has been grown in this country
for some time but only recently has come into prominence on
the Pacific coast, where it has proved to be a heav^^ bearer,
greatly outyielding the Anjou and the Comice. The tree does
especially well if grown as a dwarf, bearing heavily the fourth
5^ear after planting. The fruit is large, and often irregular
in form; the skin is yellow, netted and washed with russet;
the flesh is creamy white, tender, perfumed, and very good.
The fruit rarely is afflicted with core rot. In northern latitudes
the Drouard is a fall pear, but if the fruit is well handled it can
be kept until February.

30. The Louise variety, often spoken of as the Louise
Bonne de Jersey, is a French pear that is well kno\vn in the
northern part of the United States, in Ontario, and in British
Columbia. The tree is hardy, vigorous, upright, and pro-
ductive on rich soil. The fruit is large; the skin, which is

20 PEAR CULTURE § 8

smooth, is of a greenish color, with a brownish-red cheek and
numerous red and brown dots; the flesh is white, fine grained,
juicy, buttery, aromatic, and of good flavor. The fruit of this
variety has excellent shipping qualities. In northern latitudes
the Louise pear ripens in Septem.ber and October.

31. The Clair geau variety of pear is noted for the attract-
iveness of its fruit. In fact, the mere appearance of Clairgeau
pears often makes it possible to sell them for fancy prices.
The Clairgeau tree is erect, is a vigorous grower, has handsome
foliage, comes into bearing early, and is a heavy bearer. The
fruit is very large, although different pears of the variety often
vary considerably in size; the skin is very yellow and often
bears cinnamon-colored streaks covered with russet dots;
the flesh varies widely in quality, being very poor in some cases
and only fairly good in others. In Fig. 10 three Clairgeau
pears are shown at the top of the page. In the latitude of
Southern New York the fruit matures in late fall.

32. The Bosc variety of pear was originated in Belgium,
and, unfortunately, is not as well known in America as it should
be. When properly grown it is one of the most delicious of
pears, but its unattractive appearance has been against it.
Recently, however, the public has come to know it better and
the demand is constantly increasing. The tree is vigorous
and bears regularly. The fruit is of large size and is generall}^
tapering ; the skin is usually of a dark-yellow color with more or
less green often overlaid with a cinnamon russet, and occasionally
there are streaks or dots of red; in some regions the color becomes
almost an entire russet. The flesh is delicious, being melting,
buttery, and very rich. In Fig.- 10 four Bosc pears are shown
at the bottom of the page. The Bosc keeps well in cold stor-
age and for this reason it is becoming one of the leading winter
varieties. In northern sections the fruit matures in October.

33. The Cornice pear is a French variety that has prac-
tically topped the market for American-grown pears, ship-
ments from the Rogue River Valley of Oregon having sold
for as high as $10 a box. It is one of the favorite varieties for
the Enghsh Christmas market and keeps reasonably well in

Fig. 10

Fig. 11

§8 24909

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 21

cold storage. The tree is an upright and moderately vigorous
grower when young but later becomes broad and spreading;
unfortunately the tree comes into bearing late and is not very
productive. The fruit is usually large ; the skin is of a greenish-
yellow color that is often russeted and on the side most exposed
to the sun the color is often a shade of crimson; the flesh is of
the highest quality, being white, melting, and extremely juic}^
Three Comice pears are shown in Fig. 11 at the top of the page.
In northern sections the fruit matures in October and
November.

34. The Anjoti pear is becoming one of the most popular
varieties grown on the Pacific coast and in many sections of
the Eastern States. ■ The tree is vigorous and has an open,
round head. The fruit is usually large, is of good quality, and
can be kept in cold storage until January or even February;
the skin is greenish-yellow in color, with occasionally a trace of
russet and a shade of crimson on the side most exposed to the
sun; the flesh is fine grained, juicy, and of a rich flavor. In
Fig. 11 three Anjou pears are shown at the bottom of the
page. In northern sections, such as in the latitude of Chicago,
the fruit matures from October to November.

35. The Danas Hovey variety of pear, sometimes known
as the Winter Seckel, was originated in Massachusetts. The
tree is productive. The fruit is small; the vSkin is generally
greenish yellow; the flesh is yellow, sweet, juicy, and aromatic.
This is a good variety for dessert use. The season is about the
same as that of the Comice.

36. The Glout Mqrceau is an old variety of French origin
that was at one time grown extensively in the eastern part of
America. It has suffered considerable damage from blight
and scab and is now not grown as much as it was formerly.
The variety, however, should receive attention. It is highly
prized by the English trade, being considered equal to the
Comice. The tree is usually spreading, and although it does
not come into bearing early, it usually produces, when mature,
regular and abundant crops. The fruit is generally large;
the skin is a pale greenish yellow in color; the flesh is very fine

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 23

grained, white, melting, sugary, and extremely delicious. In
northern sections the fruit ripens in October and November.

37. The Biel pear is a well-known and popular variety
in England. The tree is vigorous, hardy, and productive.
The fruit tends to be large; the skin is of a light green color
that tends to become yellowish and is dotted and often patched
with russet; the flesh is cream colored, generally fine in tex-
ture, buttery, juicy, and of an aromatic flavor. In northern
regions the fruit ripens in November but will keep until
January.

38. The Mount Vernon variety of pear originated in
Massachusetts. The tree is productive. The fruit is medium
to large in size; the skin is yellow, with patches of cinnamon-
colored russet; the flesh is juicy, melting, vinous, perfumed,
and of very good quality. The Mount Vernon is a late pear.

39. The Forelle variety is often spoken of in Europe as
the Trout pear. The variety has been grown in this country
for many years but only recently has attracted much atten-
tion. It is doing especially well in the Santa Clara region of
California and for the last few years has brought fancy prices.
The tree is hardy and bears good crops. The fruit is very
attractive; the skin is of a greenish color, turning to yellow,
and is washed with deep red and speckled with crimson dots ; the
flesh is white, very delicate, melting, and rich. The Forelle
needs warm soil and a sunny exposure. The season is late fall
but the fruit can be kept until February.

40. The Lawrence pear is one of the hardy winter varie-
ties that is much valued in the eastern part of the United States.
The tree is usually a good bearer and makes a moderate growth.
The fiiiit is medium in size; the skin is of a light -yellow color,
with some russet; the flesh is melting, sweet, aromatic, and juicy.
A Lawrence pear is shown in Fig. 12. In the latitude of
Southern New York the fruit ripens in December.

41. The Columbia pear is grown to some extent in Cali-
fornia and in parts of the South. The tree is a handsome
grower and a good bearer. The fruit is large; the skin is of a

248—28

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 25

greenish-yellow color; the flesh is of good quality. A Columbia
pear is shown in Fig. 13. This is a late winter variety.

42. The Winter Nelis is perhaps the most popular of the
winter varieties. The tree often comes into bearing rather
late. The fruit often tends to be rather small but when well
grown it is of superb quality. The pears are yellow in color
but may have patches of russet ; the flesh, when the fruit is well
grown, is very fine grained, buttery, sweet, juicy, and of good
quality. A Winter Nelis pear is shown in Fig. 14. The pears
of this variety keep well if properly handled, and often bring
high prices. The Winter Nelis should be planted on deep,
rich soil and the crops should be thinned well.

43. The Patrick Barry is considered a desirable variety
by some persons and by others it is considered too inferior to
grow. The fruit is of exceptionally good keeping quality,
specimens having been kept for more than a 3^ear. The variety
has displaced the Winter Nelis in some regions. The tree
comes into bearing early and tends to bear annually. The
fruit is rather large; the skin varies from almost a complete
russet to a rich golden russet on a deep ^^ellow; the flesh is
usually very juicy and melting, but is extremely variable in
quality. The Patrick Barry matures in late winter.

44. The Easter Beurre variety of pear is grown somewhat
extensively on the Pacific coast, particularly in California.
The tree is a moderate grower, has a round head, and, under
favorable conditions, is a good bearer; it must, however, be
grown on rich soil. The fruit is large ; the skin is usually yellow,
which may be somewhat russeted, and often brownish on one
side; the flesh is fine, white, sweet, and juicy. The Easter
Beurre is a late winter variety; the fruit often keeps until April.

45. Varieties of the Oriental Group. — The following
are the most important varieties of the Oriental group of pears :

46. The Kieffer pear is a hybrid that is supposed to be a
cross between the sand pear and some European variety such
as the Bartlett. It is the most popular variety in the South
and in parts of the Middle West, and is increasing in popularity

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 27

elsewhere, particularly for cooking purposes. The Kieffer has
always been noted for its resistance to fire blight. The tree is
vigorous and very productive. The fruit keeps and ships well,
and will probably stand rougher handling than that of most
other common varieties. It is an inferior pear for eating as
it comes from the tree but is of merit for canning and preserv-
ing. The fruit is from medium to large in size; the skin is
yellowish in color with a tinge of red on the exposed side, and is
often sprinkled with small russet dots; the flesh is coarse and
juicy. A Kieffer pear is shown in Fig. 15. In the latitude
of Southern New York the fruit ripens in October and Novem-
ber. The Kieffer is not a valuable variety north of the 43d
parallel of north latitude.

47. The LeConte is another hybrid variety that was
originated by a cross of the sand pear and the European pear.
The tree is, as a rule, a vigorous grower, prolific, and hardy.
The fruit is large; the skin is yellowish in color; the flesh, like
that of the Kieffer, is of poor quality. A LeConte pear is
shown in Fig. 16. In the latitude of Southern New York the
fruit matures in October and November. The LeConte suc-
ceeds best in the extreme southern part of the United States.

48. The Garber is a pear of the Kieffer type, but its season
is much earlier than that of the Kieffer. The tree is fairly free
from blight, is hardy, healthy, and productive. The fruit is
large; the skin is a beautiful bright yellow in color; the flesh
is of poor quality. A Garber pear is shown in Fig. 17.

49. The Cincincis is an oriental variety of the Kieffer
type that succeeds as far south as Southern Florida. The tree
is a heavy bearer. The fruit is large and rough in appearance;
it is much like the Kieffer in quality. The pears are used for
culinary purposes.

50. The Suwanee is a comparatively new variety that was
originated in Southern Georgia. It is said to be very resistant
to fire blight. The tree bears annually and is a heavy yielder.
The fruit is large and of good color. This variety does well
in Florida.

28 PEAR CULTURE § 8

51. The Golden Russet, or Japan Golden Russet, variety
is a hybrid that stands heat and drouth well. The tree is a
vigorous grower, strong, free from blight, and very produc-
tive. The fruit is large, nearly round and very firm; the skin is
entirely covered with russet; the flesh is firm and juicy. The
pears are used largely for cooking and canning.

PEAR PESTS AND INJURIES

DISEASES

52. There are very few diseases that affect the pear seri-
ously. One, however, the fire blight, is one of the most
destructive and serious plant diseases found in America at the
present time. In some sections the pear is seriously affected
by pear scab, a disease that closely resembles apple scab. Also,
at times, a disease known as pear-leaf blight is troublesome.
Occasionally, pear-leaf spot, rust, crown gall, and brown rot cause
damage. With the exception of fire blight, however, the
diseases of the pear are not particularly formidable.

53. Fire Blight. — The fire-blight disease of the pear has
for many years been a terrible menace to the pear-growing
industry, and besides, has destroyed many quince and apple
trees. The name of this disease is well chosen, as an affected
tree, with its shriveled branches and shrunken, blackened
twigs, has the appearance of having been injured by fire. The
disease is caused by bacteria, consequently spraying is of no
value whatever in combating it.

Generally, the first warning that a grower has of the presence
of fire blight in his orchard is the wilting of the twigs on one or
more of the trees. Often but one or two twigs on a tree are
affected at first, and in this case the disease is not very con-
spicuous. Soon after the twigs wilt the foliage turns black
and the wood dies.

In Fig. 18 is illustrated the appearance of blight-infected
twigs. In some instances the attack may be light, the blight
going no farther than the twigs and spurs; in other instances

PEAR CULTURE

it may run rapidly down the trees to the main branches and
even to the roots. If the disease is confined to the twigs, spurs,
and small branches, it often dies out without causing much
damage; if, however, the large branches and the trurik are
affected, the tree may die in a short time or the disease may
remain as what is called hold-over blight.

If a grower will go through his orchard during the dormant
season he should be able to find all patches of wood affected with
hold-over blight. When the dis-
ease is in an active state, as it is in
hold-over blight, it can be detected
to a certain degree by the discolora-
tion of the wood, which is generally
somewhat reddish in color. All
suspected patches should be cut into
and if the inner bark is of a bright
reddish color and is soggy with
sticky sap, the grower shordd con-
sider this evidence as being suffi-
ciently conclusive to warrant the
destroying of the affected wood. If
the symptoms are not very pro-
nounced it is advisable for the
grower to consult some person who
has had experience with the disease.

In early spring, patches of wood
affected with hold-over blight exude
sap, as shown in Fig. 19. This sap
is teeming with the causal bacteria.
Insects, such as bees and wasps, are attracted by the sweet
juice, which adheres to them, and consequently become agents
of infection. The insects carry the bacteria to blossoms on
other trees and often to wounds on the branches and trunks,
and thus spread the disease.

The susceptibility of a pear tree to fire blight is largely
influenced by external conditions. A general statement may
be made that any condition that causes a tree to make a very
rapid growth, resulting in tender shoots, favors the development

Fig. is

PEAR CULTURE

of the disease. From this it may be deduced that the pear
shoiild not be planted on rich soil, that it should not be over-
stimulated with nitrogenous fertilizers, and that the amount
and time of cultivation should be governed by the rate of growth
of the trees. Also, varieties differ considerably in their suscep-
tibility to fire blight. The Kieffer, LeConte, Garber, Winter
Nelis, and Angouleme are less susceptible than the Flemish,
Bartlett, Seckel, and Clapp Favorite. In general, varieties of
the Oriental group are much more resistant to fire blight than
those of the European group. At one time it was thought that
the Kieffer was absolutely resistant, but this has been found

to be erroneous.

It has been conclusively
demonstrated that where cli-
matic conditions are favorable
and growers are willing to
combat the disease by proper
methods, it is possible to hold
fire blight in check. Orchards
must be inspected frequently,
both in summer and in winter,
and all affected wood must be
cut out and destroyed. In
cutting out blighted wood, the
cut must be made considerably
below the point of attack.
Before each cut is made the pruning implement must be steril-
ized with a strong antiseptic; a l-to-1,000 solution of corro-
sive sublimate, or bichloride of mercm-y, is generally used. A
convenient method of applying the antiseptic is to wipe the
implements with a sponge soaked in the solution. This steril-
izing is absolutely necessary, as otherwise bacteria may be
carried from infected wood to wood that is not infected.
Great effort should be made to cut out all patches of wood
affected with hold-over bUght, so that there will be no exuda-
tion of infected sap in the spring.

Occasionally, pear trees will bear scattering blossoms in the
summer, especially if they have been injured by frosts in the

Fig. 19.

PEAR CULTURE

spring. These late blossoms are a disadvantage if fire blight is
prevalent in the locality, as they will be visited by insects that
bear the bacteria and thus will become centers of infection.
When fruit buds appear in summer they should be immediately
removed.

As has already been stated, fire blight is much more preva-
lent where the trees have made too rapid growth. For
this reason, care must be exercised in the selection of an
orchard site and in the cultivating, fertilizing, and irrigating
of the trees. These points will be discussed in the subsequent
Section.

54. Pear Scab.- — The fungous disease known as pear scab
is often very troublesome in regions that are subject to warm,
humid conditions in late spring and
early summer. It seems to be more
prevalent, too, in the Eastern States
than on the Pacific coast . Pear scab
is so similar to apple scab, which
has already been described in a pre-
vious Section, that a discussion of
its life history and characteristics is
not necessary. It often causes
much of the fruit to fall and the
affected pears that remain on the
tree are scabby and much deformed.
Fig. 20 illustrates the appearance of pears affected with the
disease.

Plant pathologists differ as to the treatment that should be
given to prevent pear scab. Some recommend winter spraying
and others consider this unnecessary. In general, however,
the following synopsis of the spraying required is agreed on
by all:

1. Just as the fruit buds are showing a pinkish color, but
before they open, spray with Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur
solution. If Bordeaux mixture is used, it should be of the
3-3-50 formula; if lime-sulphur solution is used, it should be
of the summer strength.

Fig. 20

PEAR CULTURE

2. When most of the petals have dropped, spray again with
either Bordeaiix mixture or lime-sulphur solution as recom-
mended in paragraph 1.

3. From 10 days to 2 weeks later spray again.

4. From 10 days to 2 weeks later spray again.

55. Pear-Leaf Blight. — The fungous disease known as
pear-leaf blight attacks the foliage and sometimes the fruit of
the pear and the quince. Occasionally it becomes so bad that
it defoliates the trees, or at least weakens them so that the
foliage turns yellow. At times the disease becomes very bad
in nurseries; at one time it discouraged American nurserymen
from propagating the pear.

A characteristic symptom of pear-leaf blight is the spotted
appearance of the leaves. The spots, which are particularly

evident on the upper
surface of the leaves,
have a reddish center
with an outer border
of a dark shade. In
case the blight attacks
the fruit, the reddish
spots appear and
usually crack. It
should be understood,
however, that spots
on the leaves and cracks in the fruit do not always indicate
leaf blight ; other diseases have much the same symptoms.

The spraying treatment already recommended for pear scab
will usually hold the pear-leaf blight in check.

56. Pear-Leaf Spot. — The fungous disease known as pear-
leaf spot occurs principally in the eastern part of the United
States. It attacks the leaves of orchard and nursery trees,
often causing premature defoliation. Affected trees are not
seriously injured unless the leaves fall, in which case they may
show a reduction in vigor the next season. The spots on the
leaves may readily be distinguished from those of the leaf
blight by their color. Three fairly well differentiated zones of

Fig. 21

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 33

color may usually be seen in a spot: the center zone is ashen
gray, the surrounding zone is brown, and the outer zone is pur-
plish. These color details are lost in old leaves, but they are,
as a rule, prominent in fresh ones. The general appearance
of an affected leaf is shown in Fig. 21. Some varieties, lilce the
Clairgeau, Anjou, Bosc, and Bartlett, suffer more from the
disease than varieties like the Winter Nelis, Kieffer, and
Angouleme.

The spraying already recommended for pear scab is effective
in preventing the leaf-spot disease.

57. Rust. — The rust that attacks the pear is very similar
to the rust of the apple, although it is, as a rule, less injurious.
Two stages of the disease occur : a summer stage and a winter
stage. The summer stage produces the rust found on the
leaves of the pear and the winter stage causes the familiar
cedar apple of the cedar tree. The remedy, as in the case of
the apple, is to remove all red cedar trees from the neighborhood
of the orchard, thus eliminating the source of infection. If
this is impossible, the trees should be sprayed with Bordeaux
mixture immediately after the early spring rains, as recom-
mended in the case of the apple.

58. Crown Gall and Brown Rot. — The pear, like the
apple, is attacked by crown gall and brown rot. Inasmuch
as these diseases have already been described in a previous
Section, further discussion is unnecessary.

INSECTS

59. Most of the common insects that attack the pear also
attack other fruits such as the apple, peach, and pltmi. Some
of these insects have already been described in previous Sections,
consequently a full discussion of them is unnecessary here.
The most important insect enemies of the pear are: the pear
psylla, pear thrips, the leaf-blister mite, the pear slug, the San
Jose scale, the coddling moth, the green apple aphis, the fruit-
tree hark beetle, the oyster-shell scale, the scurfy scale, and borers.

PEAR CULTURE

60. Pear Psylla. — In some parts of the United States,
especially in New York State, an insect known as the pear
psylla has become a serious pest in pear orchards. The presence
of the psylla in injurious numbers on a tree is usually indicated
by an abundance of a waterish, sticky liquid, called honey dew,
at the axils of the leaves and fruits. In New York State this
may be first detected during the latter part of May or early
in June. This liquid later becomes covered with a black mold,
which gives the trees a blackish, unsightly appearance. Certain
ants and flies are very fond of the honey dew, and often congre-
gate in large numbers on infested trees. The presence of these
insects on a pear tree should arouse the suspicions of an
orchardist and should lead to a close inspection of the trees.

The adult psylla is an active four-winged insect, measiu-ing
about To inch in length. It has been compared to a miniature

seventeen-year locust.
An adult psylla is
shown in Fig. 22 (a).
The winter adiilts ap-
pear early in spring
and deposit eggs for
the first brood in pro-
tected places in the
bark. The eggs hatch
in a few days, and the
young larvas, or
nymphs, one of which
is shown in Fig. 22 (b), at once begin to suck the juices from
the young leaves and twigs. A favorite place for the young
larvas is in the axils of the leaves at the base of the fruit
stems. Two or three da^^s after hatching, the larvas cover
themselves with honey dew, which finally becomes so abun-
dant that it besmears the leaves and fruit. The extent of the
injury done in this way varies, of course, with the number of
the larvas. When the larvas are very nimierous they take so
much nourishment from the trees that the new growth is
seriously checked. The whole tree assumes a stunted, un-
healthy appearance. As a result, the fruit crop is greatly

Fig. 22

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 35

lessened and in some cases the trees are killed. Trees weak-
ened by the psylla often fail to survive the winter.

The following control measures for the psylla have been
recommended by the New York Agricultural Experiment
Station :

1. Practice clean culture in the orchard so that there will be
no accumulations of weeds to serve as wintering places.

2. Remove all rough bark in order to prevent the adults
from wintering on the trees and to render them more exposed
to spraying mixtures. Bark is most easily detached imme-
diately following a wet period. Care should be exercised not
to cut into live tissue.

3. Spray thoroughly to kill the adults with Blackleaf 40, a
commercial nicotine preparation, using f pint to 100 gallons of
water, and 3 pounds of soap; the spraying should be done
preferably during a warm period in November or December,
or during March or early April. Select a day when the mixture
will not freeze on the trees. For spring spraying, some growers
prefer a miscible oil, using 1 gallon diluted with 15 gallons
of water.

4. Spray the trees thoroughly with lime-sulphur mixture of
the winter strength to destroy the eggs. This treatment should
be made during the latter part of April or early in May, or just
before the blossom clusters open.

5. Spray the trees thoroughly just after the blossoms drop
to kill the newly-hatched nymphs, using Blackleaf 40 as in
paragraph 3, and 3 pounds of soap or kerosene emulsion diluted
with 8 parts of water. Direct the spray into the axils of the
leaves and fruits and wet both surfaces of the leaves.

If the work is well done it is not necessary to carrj^ out all
of these measures each year. If the trees have been carefully
scraped a combination of the treatment recommended in
paragraphs 3 and 4 or 3 and 5 should be sufficient. Some
growers have entirely controlled the psylla with only the treat-
ment recommended in paragraph 3.

61. Pear Thrips. — In California, particular^ in Santa
Clara, Contra Costa, Solano, Alam.eda, Yolo, Sacramento,

PEAR CULTURE

Napa, and Sonoma counties, the pear thrips is at present the
most important insect pest with which pear growers have to
contend. This insect attacks not only the pear but also all
other deciduous fruits. The extent of damage done by the
thrips in recent years has been so enormous that special agents
have been detailed by the United States Department of Agri-
culture to study the insect.

Injury by the thrips is caused by the feeding of the adults
on the developing buds and early blossoms; by the deposition
of eggs in the fruit stems, leaf stems, and newly formed fruit;
and by the feeding of the larvas in the blossoms and on the
young fruits and foliage. On pears the greatest injury is

Fig. 23

produced by the adults, which often prevent the trees from
blooming. The feeding injury is not produced by a biting or
chewing process. By rasping the tender surfaces of the develop-
ing fruit buds and the young fruits with their hardened mouth
parts, the thrips rupture the skin, causing an exudation of sap,
which is often followed by more or less fermentation, especially
before blooming.

The adults, one of which is shown greatly enlarged in Fig. 23,
first appear on the trees about the middle of February and
emergence from the ground continues until early April. By
the time the fruit buds have swollen sufficiently to separate
the bud scales slightly at the tip, the adults force their way
within, feeding on the tenderest parts inside the buds. When

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 37

the thrips are present in sufficient numbers the buds are com-
pletely destroyed and the trees fail to bloom. As soon as the
first leaf vSurfaces or fruit stems are exposed egg laying usually
begins. The first eggs are deposited about the last of February
and oviposition continues until near the middle of April.
Most of the eggs are deposited just under the epidermis in the
fruit stems, in young fruit, and in leaf stems. The eggs hatch
in from 5 to 17 days, the average time being about 8 days.
By the time the trees are breaking into full bloom the adults
have done most of the damage caused by their feeding, ovi-
position is at its height, and many of the earlier-appearing
adults are dying off and larvas are beginning to appear in
numbers. The first larvas can usually be found about March 20,
and are in maximum numbers on the trees, feeding on the small
fruit and young foliage, from the first to the middle of April.
Reaching their full development, the larvas drop from the
trees, of their own accord or with falling calyxes, or are blown
by wind or knocked off by rain. After the middle of April
the number on the trees diminishes rapidly, and by the last of
April all the larvas are off the trees and in the ground. Here
they work do-wn into the first 3 or 4 inches of hard soil below
the loose surface mulch and construct a tiny cell, where they
remain until the following spring. Pupation takes place in the
ground and the insects emerge as adults.

A great deal of experimental work has been done with a view
to finding an effective means of controlling the pear thrips,
but as yet no entirely satisfactory method has been discovered.
In view of the fact that new information concerning this insect
is continually being brought to light and that any recommen-
dation made for its control would likely soon be out of date, it is
not deemed advisable here to give any of the experimental con-
trol measures. In case an infestation of thrips occurs the owner
of the orchard should consult the nearest experiment station.

62. Leaf -Blister Mite. — The leaf -blister mite that attacks
the pear and other horticultural crops is not a true insect; it
belongs to the same class of animals as the spiders, scorpions, etc.
The mites are very small, being invisible to the unaided eye.

PEAR CULTURE

The mites pass the winter on the trees, under the bud scales,
and attack the leaves as soon as these begin to push out in the
spring. They bore small holes from the under side to the
interior of the leaf, where they deposit their eggs, and with their
progeny feed on the tender cells of the. leaf substance. Their
activities within the leaf tissues quickly result in the develop-
ment of galls, or swellings. These are at first small, pimple-
like eruptions, especially evident on the iipper surface of young
leaves, and are of a reddish tinge. The spots soon increase in
size, the largest becoming as much as | inch in diameter. On

pear leaves the spots, as

a rule, become red as
they grow. On the under
side of the leaf the galls
are whitish and blister-
like, not differing much
from the general color of
the leaf surface. Later
the}^ turn brownish or
black, due to the death
of the injured leaf cells,
lose much of their thick-
ness, and some may
become somewhat
shrunken. If orchards
are sprayed thoroughly
to prevent San Jose

scale, no additional spraying is likely to be necessary to hold

in check the leaf -blister mite.

Fig. 21

63. Pear Slug. — The pear slug, which attacks the pear
and cherry and sometimes the plum, is often found on pear
trees in May and June, or later. The slugs skeletonize the upper
surface of the leaves, which are likely to fall prematurely. In
the case of young trees the entire foliage miay fall. The slugs
are dark, sticky larvas about | inch in length; they are large
at the head end and taper gradually. Fig. 24 (a) shows a larva
in the normal state ; (b) shows a larva with the slime removed ;

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 39

(c) shows the adttlt, or parent, which, is a saw fly about i inch
long; and (d) shows the work of the larvas on a leaf. The
saw flies lay eggs in the leaves about the time the foliage is
out, and from these eggs the slugs hatch.

Pear slugs may be easily destroyed by spraying infested trees
with any of the arsenicals when the work of the pests is first
noticed. They may also be destroyed by whale-oil soap
(1 pound of soap to 4 gallons of water) used as a contact insecti-
cide. Hellebore, air-slaked lime, or almost any fine dust will,
if thoroughly dusted over the trees, destroy most of the larvas.

64. San Jose Scale. — The San Jose scale attacks the pear
as badly as it does other fruits. However, the pest does not
cause as much alarm as it did at one time, owing to the dis-
covery of effective control measures and the dissemination of
information concerning it. The control measures are much
the same in the case of all fmits.

65. Coddling Motli. — The coddling moth is much less
injurious to the pear than it is to the apple, and in many pear-
growing regions little attention is paid to it. Occasionally, how-
ever, it does considerable damage to a pear crop. If the pest is
sufficiently injurious to warrant spraying, the same control
measures recommended in the case of the apple should be used.

66. Green Apple Apliis. — The green apple aphis is fre-
quently found on very young pear trees and sometimes on
older ones. If the pest is properly combated it is comparatively
easy to control, but, as a rule, growers discover its presence too
late to prevent damage to the trees. The control measures are
the same as in the case of the apple.

67. Fruit-Tree Bark Beetle. — The fruit-tree bark beetle
is more likely to attack diseased or dying trees than healthy
trees and is often found in neglected orchards. As a rule, if an
orchard is properly cared for serious attacks by this pest will
not occur. In case the trees become badly infested it is some-
times advisable to remove and destroy them. A thorough dis-
cussion of this insect has already been given in a previous
Section.

248—29

40 PEAR CULTURE §8

68. Oyster-Shell Scale and Scurfy Scale. — The oyster-
shell scale and the scurfy scale sometimes attack pear trees,
but generally the attacks are confined to trees that are low in
vitality. The control measures are the same as in the case of
the apple.

69. Borers. — The three borers that attack the apple,
namely, the round-headed borer, the spotted borer, and the
fiat-headed borer, also attack the pear. The control, measures
are the same in both cases.

MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES

70. Frost Injuries. — ^Pears bloom early in the spring,
earlier than most apples, and for that reason they are often
damaged by frosts. Orchards planted on unfavorable sites
are, of course, more likely to be injured by frosts than orchards
planted on favorable sites, but even if the site has been selected
with considerable care, occasional injuries, are likely to occur.

There are several ways in which pears may be injured by frost.
If a severe frost occurs while the trees are still in bud, the
buds will usually turn black and fall off. If the frost occurs
while the trees are in bloom, the pistils of the blossoms will
generally die and a large percentage of the blossoms will fall from
the tree. Pears produced from the blossoms that remain may
be small or they may be fairly good sized, but in either case they
will be unusually thick at the neck, especially around the stem,
this giving the fruit somewhat of an unnatural appearance; such
pears are seedless. If a severe frost occurs after the petals have
fallen and the fruit has set, a considerable percentage of the
yoimg pears will drop, and much of the fruit that does not drop
will be injured in various ways. A common form of fruit injury
is what is known as neck ringing. By this is meant the forming
of a band of russet around a pear, usually on the neck. Pears
thus blemished are sold as culls. Again, the injury may be
of such a nature as to retard the growth and development of
the fruit.

Unfortunately, it is impossible to give accurate information
regarding the exact temperature at or below which pears will

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 41

be injured by frost. Many tables have been published giving
the temperature at which frost injury begins, but these have
been found to be only local in their application. For example,
in most of the tables published so far, a temperature of 29° F. is
given as the minimum that fruits will withstand, but in the
Williamette Valley of Oregon a temperature of 25° F. has been
withstood by pears. The moisture content of the atmosphere,
the presence of fogs, cloudy weather, all have a bearing on the
amount of frost that plants will withstand. However, the
general statement may be made that a temperature lower
than 29° F. is likely to be disastrous to a fruit crop. If a grower
is located in a region where the temperature drops to this point
or lower it is advisable for him to provide some artificial means
for protecting the orchard.

Recent investigations have demonstrated that the artificial
heating of orchards by smudge pots is of great value when the
temperature is low enough to menace the crop. The use of the
pots has already been explained in a previous Section.

71. Sun Scald. — In spring, the weather is often very warm
during the day and rather cold at night. Under such conditions
the sap of the trees will start to rise rapidly and will get chilled,
and as a result, the trees will be likely to siiffer from sun scald.
In some sections sun scald is at times a serious trouble, especi-
ally in the case of varieties that start growth early and trees
that are planted on light soils.

The preventive measures - against sun scald already recom-
mended in the case of the apple apply also to the pear.

72. Girdling of Trees. ^ — Unfortunately, many young
pear trees become girdled, due to such pests as rabbits, gophers,
mice, etc. If a tree is completely girdled the top will die and,
unless treatment is given, the tree may be lost. In case of
complete girdling it is sometimes possible to bridge-graft a
tree, but if the tree is young it is usually best to cut it off
below the wound and thus force out new sprouts from which a
new body can be developed.

It is difficult to control the various pests that are responsible
for girdling. In the case of rabbits and gophers no doubt the

42 PEAR CULTURE § 8

best means of control is to kill the pests with guns and traps.
There are on the market rabbit-proof fences that are fairly
effective, but in localities where rabbits are numerous it is
unwise to depend on a fence alone to protect an orchard. The
damage done by gophers is chiefly underground and the first
indication of damage is the wilting of a tree or the failtire of
a tree to start growth in the spring. Mice can often be con-
trolled by painting the trunks of the trees with whitewash to
which has been added a considerable quantity of arsenic,
strychnine, or other such poison. By keeping straw away
from the bodies of trees and keeping the ground free from
rubbish, mice can be prevented from wintering in the imme-
diate vicinity of trees.

73. Sour Sap. — ^Pear trees occasionally suffer from sour
sap. This trouble is often confused with fire blight, but the
two are entirely dissimilar. Wood affected with fire blight
has a reddish tinge, which is characteristic of the disease. The
leaves of trees affected with sour soap often become yellow and
sometimes the trees die. In all probability the sour sap con-
dition of trees is due to excessive moisture in the ground during
the early growing months, and there is a possibility that the same
conditions that cause sun scald also aid in bringing about
soiu: sap.

74. Breaking of Trees. — One of the principal causes of
trees breaking is improper pruning. Breaking occurs also as a
result of improper methods of propping up the branches and
insufficient thinning of the fruit. The breaking of branches
is often due to some form of winter injury. It may be that the
heart wood has been injured and has turned black, consequently
when the trees are bearing a heavy crop of fruit the branches
are unable to sustain the load. Occasionally, breaking of trees
and branches is due to ice and snow; young trees, especially,
break because of heavy loads of ice or snow.

If trees are properly pruned, thinned, and propped the
damage due to breakage is not likely to be very severe. When
breaking of branches occurs, the branches should be cut back
to clean wounds; if bad splits occur it is often possible to bolt

§ 8 PEAR CULTURE 43

the split parts together. If most of the branches have been
broken off of young trees the trees can be cut back severely
or be regrafted, thus forcing out new sprouts from which a good
top can be developed.

75. Bark Binding. — ^Pear trees are subject at times to
bark binding. This trouble is most likely to be experienced
when the trees are young and growing rapidly. The bark,
which cannot expand fast enough to allow the tree to develop
properly, becomes tough and the tree ceases to thrive. Trees
are sometimes said to be bark bound when they have ceased
to grow because of neglect, but this is not true bark binding,
as the trees will respond to proper culture. In case of true
bark binding some growers have secured good results by spraying
with a soap spray or even with lime sulphur. In bad cases,
relief may often be secured by slitting the bark with a sharp
knife, care being taken not to cut into the wood. If trees are
not forced too much in the fall, and are tilled properly in spring
and summer there will be little trouble from bark binding.

76. Rough. Bark. — ^Pear trees, especially old ones, are very
subject to rough bark. At one time considerable importance
was attached to this trouble, owing to the fact that investi-
gators attributed it to a form of blight. It was called crater
blight and was thought to be a serious disease. At the present
time little importance is attached to it.

PEAR CULTURE

(PART 2)

PEAR-ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT

SIZE FOR A PEAR ORCHARD

1. One of the first and most important points that must
be considered by a prospective pear grower is the acreage to
plant. This is, of course, largely an individual problem, con-
sequently it can be discussed only in an abstract way. In
general, it may be said that the most desirable size for a pear
orchard can be determined only after a consideration of such
factors as the nature of the locality, the kind of soil, the variety
or varieties to be grown, the amount of capital available, and
whether or not the orchard will be the sole source of income.

If the locality is one in which pear growing is extensively
practiced it is likely that labor will be available when needed
and that the transportation facilities are adequate for prompt
disposal of the fruit. If, on the other hand, there are few or
no orchards in the locality, it may be that labor conditions
and transportation facilities are such that it would be inadvis-
able to make an extensive planting. Also, in a locality in
which there is a wet and a dry season, more intensive culti-
vation is necessary, in order to conserve moisture, than in a
locality where there are intermittent rains ; consequently, fewer
acres can be cultivated, other conditions being equal. On the
Pacific coast, where the seasons are alternately wet and dry,
it has been the experience of growers that under average

§9

2 PEAR CULTURE §9

conditions one man can do most of the work necessary in a
40-acre orchard up to the time the trees come into bearing.

Light soils are easier to cultivate than heavy ones; conse-
quently, if the soil of a locality is fairly light a grower wUl be
justified in planting a larger orchard than if the soil is extremely
heavy. In the case of a reasonably light soU, one man can
usually cultivate about 40 acres of orchard, whereas, in the case
of a very heavy soil, such as adobe, about 25 acres is all that
can be handled properly. Minor soil differences are, of course,
negligible and should not be considered in deciding on the
acreage to plant.

If only one variety of pear is to be planted it would be unwise
to plant as large an acreage as if several varieties are to be
planted, as in the former case the pears would all mature at
the same time, whereas in the latter case the harvesting season
would extend over a considerable period. In the case of local-
ities where the labor supply is uncertain, this is an important
point to consider.

2. The capital required per acre to establish a pear orchard
varies greatly in different sections and with different conditions.
Considerable good pear land is available that can be purchased
for from $50 to $150 an acre, and there are a few regions where
satisfactory land can still be procured for as little as $5 to $10
an acre. The average planting will be about one himdred
trees to the acre. Pear trees can usually be purchased for
from 10 to 30 cents each, 20 cents being an average price.
Estimating the planting to be one hundred trees per acre
and the price per tree to be 20 cents, the trees alone will cost
$20 an acre. It will probably cost 4 or 5 cents a tree to stake
the ground for planting and to plant the trees. Estimating
the cost of this work at 5 cents a tree, the cost per acre will
be $5, making the total cost for merely procuring the trees
and setting them $25 per acre. It is possible, under certain
conditions, to establish an orchard for as little as $10 an acre;
under other conditions, it may cost several times this amount,
depending on whether the trees are purchased or are grown by
the orchardist, on the kind of trees planted, and on the number

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 3

planted per acre. The cost of cultivating an orchard and other-
wise caring for it up to the age of bearing varies so greatly
under different conditions that it is impracticable to give an
estimate. It is claimed by some authorities that an orchard
can be established and cared for up to the time of bearing,
provided land is purchased at a reasonable price and the orch-
ard is properly managed, for about $250 to $300 an acre. In
many cases the cost will be less, of course, and in other cases
more.

If an orchard is to be the sole source of income to a grower
it is probable that a larger planting will be made than if the
orchard is merely to be a side line to some other business. It
should be borne in mind, however, that in some localities where
pear trees bear very irregularly it would be unwise to depend
on a pear orchard for a living.

LOCATION FOR A PEAR ORCHARD

CHOOSING OF A GENEKAi LOCATION

3. If a person desires to engage in pear growing and is in
possession of land that is suitable for the purpose, all that is
necessary is to select a nimiber of different varieties that will
delevop to a high state of perfection under the conditions that
prevail. If, however, no suitable land is possessed and it is there-
fore necessary for a grower to go into the market for land, he
should choose a location where the fruit grown will be of high
quality and where fire blight is either not prevalent or is under
control. The pear wiU grow under a great variety of conditions,
even greater, perhaps, than the apple. If it were not for the men-
ace of fire blight, the growing of pears would not be particularly
hazardous. As the disease is so destructive, however, extreme
caution should be observed in choosing a location for an orchard.
The reasons for this statement will be given subsequently.

Some of the most important points that should be considered
in the choosing of a general location for a pear orchard are:
The distance from market, the transportation facilities, the

4 PEAR CULTURE § 9

quantity of pears grown in the locality, the class of people
growing pears in the locality, and the climatic conditions.

4. Distance From Market. — ^As a factor in affecting the
desirability of a location for pear growing, the distance from
market is of much less importance than it was at one time'.
The introduction of cold-storage plants, refrigerator cars, and
other improved facilities for the handling of crops has greatly
lengthened the season of pears and has broadened the market.
In certain sections, however, if summer and fall varieties are
grown, lack of proper facilities for handling the crops will
make it necessary to dispose of them in a relatively short time.
Under such conditions it is of advantage, of course, to be near
a large center of population where there is a demand for the
fruit. In addition, if an orchard is located near a large market
the expense of shipping the fruit to market will naturally be
less, as a rule, than if the orchard is distant from market.

In some regions where the growers are organized, the rail-
roads have granted a flat rate for the transporting of fruit.
For example, the carload rate for pears shipped from the western
part of Oregon is exactly the same as the rate that prevails
in the eastern part, which is several hundred miles nearer the
market than the western part. Thus, all pear growers in
Oregon are able to obtain the same carload rate for eastern
shipments. In addition, many of the railroads are now estab-
lishing what are known as storage-in-transit rates. Where
these rates are operative a grower can ship fruit to one city,
place it in cold storage, and then ship it on to another city
at exactly the same rate that would have been charged had the
fruit been shipped directly to the second city. As an illustra-
tion, an Oregon grower can ship pears to Chicago, place them
in cold storage, and later, if desired, ship them on to Cincinnati
at the same rate that he would have obtained if he had shipped
the pears from his orchard directly to Cincinnati. These
storage-in-transit rates are a great boon to fruit growers, as
they cut down the expense of distributing a crop. At the
present time there is a tendency for fruit growers' associa-
tions to establish cold-storage plants in the large centers of

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 5

population so that, by means of storage-in-transit rates, the
fruit can be economically distributed to the smaller cities and
towns. All of these progressive steps in the handling of fruit
serve to minimize the importance of the distance from market.

5. Transportation racilities. — Careftd consideration
should be given to the transportation facilities of a locality before
it is chosen for pear growing. Where fast freights, refrigerator
cars, and ice for precooling are available, pears can be handled
much more efhciently and economically than where such serv-
ice is not available. Also, it is often an advantage to be on
the main line of a railroad, as the rates are likely to be lower
than on a branch line. Transportation by water is generally
cheaper than transportation by rail and is especially valuable
for small shipments such as are made by growers where crops
are not large enough to be shipped in carload lots.

6. Quantity of Pears Grown in the Locality. — It is

a decided advantage to choose as a location for a pear orchard
a locality in which there is a large acreage devoted to pear
growing. In such a locality an orchard will, in case the owner
wishes to sell it, bring a higher price than in a locality where
few pears are grown. In addition, pear buyers are much
more likely to visit a locality where there is a possibility that
they will be, able to purchase a carload or perhaps a train load
of fruit than where there is only the product of one orchard
to be purchased. This last is a very important point, as it
is usually more profitable and satisfactory to sell fruit to a
buyer than to sell it by correspondence. The large com-
mission houses make it a practice to send representatives from.
time to time to the various pear-growing centers ; consequently,
the growers of these centers are able to keep in touch with
market conditions much better than are isolated growers.

7. Class of Persons Growing Pears in tlie Locality.

With the exception of controlling fire blight, probably less skill
is required to grow pears than to grow apples. However, the
susceptibility of the pear to fire blight and the desti-uctiveness
of the disease make it highly important that it be controlled;

6 PEAR CULTURE §9

and this is possible only where the disease is understood and
intelligently combated. For this reason, the class of persons
engaged in the growing of pears in a locality is of considerable
importance in affecting the desirability of the locality for pear
orcharding. In one of the great Oregon pear districts, the
pear orchards of an entire county were menaced by fire blight
simply because a few growers refused to accept the fact that
fire blight is a bacterial disease.

Fortunately, at the present time it is not so difficult to con-
vince growers of the necessity for combating blight as it was
formerly. Before establishing an orchard, however, it would
be well for a grower to become informed regarding the class
of persons engaged in the industry in the neighborhood. If
the growers are ignorant and disinclined to accept new ideas
and practices it would probably be inadvisable to plant an
orchard in the locality.

8. Climatic Conditions. — From a climatic standpoint,
the ideal location for a pear orchard is a region where there is
plenty of rainfall, where the temperature in summer does not
become extreme, and where frosts do not occur when the trees
are in bloom. If a region is too dry the trees will not thrive
unless irrigated. Excessive heat in summer makes the handling
of summer and early fall pears extremely difficult. The likeli-
hood of frosts occurring when the trees are in bloom, is, obvi-
ously, a strong point against a region as a location for an
orchard. In the United States, the best climatic conditions for
pear growing are found in the northern tier of states and in
certain of the Western States, particularly Washington, Oregon,
and California. In many of the semiarid regions where irriga-
tion is necessary to grow the trees and the temperature becomes
very high, it is often difficult to control fire blight. Pears can,
of course, be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions,
but they will do best where the conditions previously mentioned
prevail.

PEAR CULTURE

CHOOSING OF A SITE

9. The selecting of a suitable site for a pear orchard is
an extremely important point. The general location may be
well adapted to pear growing and good varieties for the local-
ity may be chosen, but if the immediate site is not suitable,
failure will result. In the selecting of a site, the following
points should receive consideration: The nature of the soil,
the elevation, the exposure, and the water and air drainage.

10. Soils for Pear Orchards. — The kind of soil that is
best for pear .growing depends largely on the region and on the
variety that is to be grown. In New York State pears thrive
best on clay loams, and in Pennsylvania they do especially
well on alluvial soils. In Maryland, where a large number of
KiefEers are grown, pears do well on sandy soils and, in some
cases, on clay soils. Growers in most of the Southern States
prefer rather poor .soils, the light loams being chosen because
of the fact that trees will not make such profuse growth on
them as on strong soils, and consequently will be less subject to
fire blight. In Indiana, pears thrive best on clay loams and
suffer less from blight if the soil is poor. Michigan growers
prefer clay loams. In Illinois, the trees seem to thrive best
on rich, black soils, but on such soils they are likely to be killed
by blight. In Oregon, pears do well on a variety of soils ranging
from the heaviest adobe, on one hand, to the lightest granitic
soil, on the other hand. In general, it may be said that in the
northern tier of states clay loams seem to be the best soils for
standard pears; that in the Southern and the Middle- Western
States the unfertile loams are preferred; and that in the Western
States soils that are neither very rich nor very poor are con-
sidered the best. Dwarf pear trees develop a fibrous root
system and consequently thrive best on a rich, moist soil that
has a subsoil of porous clay.

In localities where the rainfall is light in summer and where
water is not available for irrigation, it would not be wise to
plant an orchard on soils that will not hold moisture. For
example, on the Pacific slope, where there is a dry season, it

8 PEAR CULTURE § 9

wotdd not be advisable, unless water for irrigation is available,
to plant pear trees on land that has a subsoil of sand, coarse
gravel, or hard rock. Even though irrigation water is avail-
able, the presence of gravel near the surface of the ground is
likely to make irrigation out of the question. Pears will often
thrive on ground where the subsoil is a stiff clay or hardpan,
provided the subsoil is overlaid with from 30 to 40 inches of
suitable top soil, but if the soU is thin, a subsoil of this character
will render land undesirable for pear growing. . In some sec-
tions, pear trees thrive on soil that is underlaid with disin-
tegrating rock, the trees apparently living on the disintegrated
material.

On the Atlantic seaboard, depth of soil is not as essential
in pear growing as it is on the Pacific slope. This condition
is due to the fact that during the growing season there is more
rainfall in the Eastern States than in the Western States, and
consequently there is less need for conserving moisture.

Different varieties of pears seem to do better on certain
kinds of soil than on others. The Bartlett, the Comice, and
the Howell probably do best on light loams. The Bartlett
is a pear of remarkable adaptability, however, thriving on a great
variety of soils and under a great variety of conditions. The
Anjou, the Bosc, and the Winter Nelis seem to do best on
strong loams; unless the Winter Nelis is grown on soil fairly
rich in plant-food, the fruit will, in time, become very small.

11. Elevation for Pear Orchards. — It would be impos-
sible to state that there is a definite elevation at which the pear
will thrive better than at any other. In the Rocky Mountain
States, particularly Utah and Colorado, pears are grown suc-
cessfully at as high an altitude as 4,000 feet above sea level;
in the Pacific Coast States they do best when grown at an
altitude of less than 2,000 feet; in the: Middle Western and the
Eastern States most of the commercial orchards are at a com-
paratively low elevation; and in many of the Southern States
the higher altitudes seem to be better for pears than the lower
altitudes, as the trees make a more desirable gro^vth. From
these statements it may be seen that the best altitude for pears

§9 PEAR CULTURE 9

varies with the locality. The indications are that pears, at
least certain varieties, will not thrive on as high elevations as
will apples.

12. Exposure for Pear Orchards. — If summer or fall
varieties are to be planted, a southern slope is the most pref-
erable one to choose, as a southern exposure is conducive to
early ripening. However, in frosty localities a southern slope
is somewhat objectionable, because the trees are likely to bloom
so early that frost will damage the fruit crop, and in addition,
the trees may be injured by sun scald. In regions where frosts
are to be feared, a northern or a western exposure is the most
preferable. If a locality is free from frosts it makes very little
difference what exposure is chosen.

13. Water and Air Drainage for Pear Orchards.

Water drainage is perhaps not as important in the case of the
pear as in the case of the apple, nevertheless the pear requires
land that is fairly well drained. Trees that are grown on water-
logged land are low in vitality and consequently succumb
easily to insect pests and plant diseases. In addition, trees
grown on wet soil are not likely to bear well.

Air drainage is very important in the case of the pear, owing
to the fact that the trees bloom early and are very susceptible
to frost injury. However, on even gently rolling land it is
likely that the air drainage will be sufficient. In very high
altitudes it is often of advantage to choose a site in the vicinity
of a canon, as the canon breezes will afford considerable
protection from frosts. Pear orchards should not be planted
on low, flat areas, or on level areas at the immediate base of
high elevations, as wsuch sites are likely to be frosty.

CHOOSING OF VARIETIES

14. The selecting of suitable varieties of pears for a par-
ticular locality is a point that is of much more importance
than it was formerly thought to be. Varieties differ consider-
ably in their adaptation to different regions. Some varieties
do not develop well under certain climatic conditions; others

10 PEAR CULTURE § 9

do not do well on certain soils. In the New England States
and in most of the Northern States such varieties as the Bart-
lett, Bosc, Anjou, Flemish, Seckel, Lawrence, Sheldon, Clair-
geau, and Angouleme are the leaders. In the Southern States
and in many parts of the Middle West the Kieffer, LeConte,
and Garber are becoming the leading varieties. On the Pacific
coast, where pear growing has become commercialized more
than in any other part of the country, a great many varieties
are found. In California the Bartlett, Anjou, Comice, Howell,
Winter Nelis, and Patrick Barry are the most popular varieties.
In Oregon and Washington the leading varieties at the present
time are the Bartlett, Howell, Clairgeau, Anjou, Comice, and
Winter Nelis, but the Glout Morceau, Hardy, and Patrick
Barry are rapidly increasing in popularity.

In the discussion of the status of pear growing in the dif-
ferent states, mention is made of the varieties that are in greatest
favor in each state. This should give a general idea of the
varieties that are adapted to a general locality, but before
planting an orchard it is a good plan for a grower to ascertain
from his state experiment station the most desirable varieties
for his particiilar location.

PROCURING OF TREES

15. It is not, as a rule, advisable for a grower to attempt
to propagate his own trees. Considerable skiU. is required,
especially in budding, and besides, it wiU usually prove to be
more economical to purchase the trees. Notwithstanding
this fact, however, it is well for a grower to know something
of the way in which pear trees are propagated.

16. Propagating of Trees. — Standard pear trees are
propagated by grafting or budding the variety desired onto
seedling-pear stocks. A few years ago practically all of the
pear seedlings used in this country were grown in France. In
many cases seeds were collected in this country and sent to
France for the production of seedlings, which were subsequently
returned to America. One reason for this was that the

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 11

American nurserymen had a great deal of trouble with leaf
blight and other diseases, which attacked the seedlings.
Another reason was that the seedlings could be produced
cheaper in France than in America. At the present time,
however, a great many seedlings are produced in this country,
American nurserymen having learned how to combat the
diseases and how to grow seedlings economically. Former!}'-,
nearly all of the seed used for the production of seedlings was
that, of the European pear. Of late years niurserymen, particu-
larly those of the Pacific coast, have been using for this purpose
seed of the Oriental pear. The present popularity of Oriental
pear stock is due to the fact that it is more resistant to fire
blight than European pear stock, and that the trees make
excellent growth in the nursery.

For the production of seedlings, plump, well-developed seeds
from vigorous, healthy trees are selected. The seeds are
stratified in the fall and kept there until time to plant them in
the spring. When the ground has become warm enough for
the planting the seeds are sown in rows wide enough apart
for cultivation. It is important that the ground be kept
fairly moist, otherwise the seeds will not germinate. As soon
as the seedlings come up they are cultivated, the cultivation
being continued at frequent intervals throughout the summer.
Pear seedling form a long tap root with a few, if any, side roots.
For this reason they are usually taken up in the fall and the
tap roots are cut back so that they are not more than from 6 to
8 inches long. After this cutting back of the roots, the trees
are either replanted in nursery rows and earthed up to prevent
winter injury, or, preferably, are heeled-in in a frost-proof
cellar. In the spring, the trees are transplanted to a new loca-
tion. By the following August, in most of the Northern and
Pacific Coast States, the trees can be budded; in the Southern
States, budding can usually be done during July.

In the case of standard trees, budding is practiced much more
extensively than grafting. Grafted trees do not seem to grow
as well as budded trees, consequently they are not in as great
demand. Either budding or grafting may be accomplished
in the same way as with apples.

248—30

12 PEAR CULTURE § 9

Varieties such as the Kieffer, Garber, and LeConte, which
belong to the Oriental group of pears, can be propagated by
means of cuttings, this method being extensively used in the
South.

Dwarf pear trees are propagated by budding or grafting
the pear onto quince stock. Some varieties do not unite well
with the quince, however, and in the case of these it is neces-
sary to double-work the trees. This process consists of bud-
ding or grafting the quince stock with a variety of pear that
is known to unite well with the quince; then when the resulting
tree has grown to a sufficient size it is top-worked to the desired
variety. Formerly, the Angouleme was the principal variety
used for the first budding or grafting, but at the present time
the Koonce is considered the best variety for this purpose.

17. PuTcliasiiig of Nursery Trees. — If a person desires
to purchase pear trees he should, if possible, make a tour of
the available nurseries in order to examine the stock. If this
is done he will be able to select trees that are free from serious
insect infestations and fungous diseases, and that have good
root system. In most states there are laws that prohibit
the sale of trees affected with certain of the destructive insect
pests and fungous diseases, but unless the purchaser knows
the reliability of a partictdar nursery, it is a good plan for him
to examine the trees before buying.

There is a growing tendency on the part of orchardists to
plant younger and smaller trees than were formerly in demand.
A few years ago, growers preferred 2-year-old trees, but at
the present time the greatest demand is for 1 -year-old trees.
In the case of 1-year-old trees a grower has a much better
opportunity to form the tops than in the case of 2-year-old
trees, and in addition, trees planted when they are 1 year old
retain more of the root system and make a better growth than
trees planted when they are 2 years old.

Many persons when buying nursery trees make the mistake
of purchasing the largest ones they can obtain. It is always
best to purchase well-grown and well-matured trees rather
than overgrown trees on the one hand or stunted trees on the

PEAR CULTURE

other hand. Many of the
overgrown trees are soft.
The sap does not go down
rapidly enough in the fall
and consequently the trees
are susceptible to winter in-
jury or even to injury from
cold periods in the autumn.
Much of the trouble that is
experienced with 1 -year-old
trees may be attributed to
improper methods of han-
dling after the trees are re-
ceived from the nursery.

In selecting trees, care
should be exercised to choose
those that are thrifty, clean,
and of medium growth. It
would not be safe to say
that only straight trees
should be purchased, as
those of some varieties, such
as the Winter Nelis and
the Bosc, are usually very
unshapely while they are in
the nursery and often even
until they come into bear-
ing. It is extremely desir-
able to procure trees that
are well supplied with buds,
as in this case the grower
will be able to prune so that
the branches will be properly
spaced. Fig. 1 shows desii-
able 1 -year-old trees; in (a)
is shown a Comice tree and
in (6) is shown a Winter
Nelis tree.

14 PEAR CULTURE §9

18. If a grower desires to procure trees from a nursery he
should place his order early so as to avoid any possibility of
disappointment. When the trees arrive at the railroad sta-
tion, if they are shipped, the grower should get them promptly
in order to be sure that they will not be injured. The trees
should then be heeled-in until time to plant them. It is desir-
able, in heeling-in the trees, to have the tops point toward
the south; this is especially important if the planting is to be
done in the spring, as the trees will not be as likely to start to
grow as if the tops pointed toward the north. If considerable
time is to elapse from the time the trees are received until
they are planted in the orchard, it is best to heel them in singly
rather than in bundles. Trees heeled-in singly are not so
likely to be injured by scald as those heeled-in in bundles.
The soil should be tamped firmly about the roots, and if there
is danger of very cold weather, it is advisable to scatter a little
mulch, such as decayed leaves or straw, on the ground around
the trees.

PLANTING OF TREES

19. Time for Planting. — ^Where the climatic conditions
are suitable it is better to plant pear trees in the fall than in
the spring. Fall planting has the advantage over spring plant-
ing in that the trees become firmly established in the soil before
winter sets in and are thus able to start growth in the spring
before the ground can be put in condition for spring planting.
This is an important advantage, as the trees make a good
growth in the early part of the season before summer droughts
occur. In many localities, however, it is not advisable to
plant pear trees in the fall. If the winter temperature of a
locality becomes very low at times, such as zero or lower, fall-
planted trees would be likely to sustain injury the first winter
from freezing of the roots. In general, it may be said that if
there is any doubt as to the best time to plant trees, it is a
good plan to choose the spring. In the case of fall planting
the trees may be planted any time from late fall to almost
spring. If spring is chosen as the time for planting, the trees

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 15

should be set in the ground as early as it can be got in proper
condition.

20. Preparing of the Soil. — The pear will grow on more
poorly drained land than the apple, but nevertheless it will
not do well unless it has fairly good drainage. If the land is
poorly drained the trees will be low in vitality and will not
produce well. It is doubtful, however, whether it is advis-
able to plant pear trees on land that requires systematic drain-
age over the entire area, as plenty of good land for pear growing
can be obtained that does not need much, if any, draining.
In case some draining is necessary, the tile should be laid fairly
deep, from 4| to 5 feet being, as a rule, a good depth.

It is important that land for pears be thoroughly prepared
before the trees are planted. If the planting is to be done in
the spring and the soil is stiff, it is advisable to plow the ground
in the fall, especially in climates where there is considerable
freezing in winter, as the alternate freezing and thawing will
pulverize the soil. Fall plowing is advantageous, too, in regions
where there is danger of summer drought, as the soil will absorb
a great deal of moisture that will be of value during the grow-
ing season. Of course, if it is not convenient to plow the grotmd
in the fall for spring planting, the plowing can be done early
in the spring. If the planting is to be done in the fall, the
plowing should be done a sufficient length of time before the
trees are to be set to allow of getting the land in proper order.

The depth to plow depends largely on the nature of the soil.
In the case of soils that are light and mellow and do not have
a stiff-clay subsoil, less preparation will be required than in the
case of heavy soils. An excellent plan in the case of extremely
heavy soils is to plow the ground in lands, leaving the dead
furrows where the rows of trees are to be set. It is well to
break up the bottoms of the dead furrows by running a subsoil
plow through them two or three times. This method affords
a good tilth under the trees and provides a measure of under-
drainage. Under average conditions it is advisable to plow
from about 8 to 9 inches deep, if possible, and harrow the
ground well before planting.

16 PEAR CULTURE § 9

When the planting is to be done in spring and the land has
been plowed the previous fall, the soil should be thoroughly
worked in the spring until it is in good condition. For this
work a disk harrow, a spring-tooth harrow, a clod crusher,
or a roller |nay be used. If the ground is liunpy a corrugated
roller can be used to advantage.

In some sections it may be desired to strip areas of their
timber and to prepare the land for pear planting. In this
case the stimips should be removed by dynamite or some other
means and the ground worked down thoroughly before the
planting is done. If the soil is very loose and rich, it is advis-
able to grow other crops on the land for 2 or 3 years ; if pears
are planted on soil that is very rich the trees will make too
rapid growth and consequently will be very susceptible to fire
blight.

21. Distance for Planting. — There is no specific dis-
tance at which pear trees will do better than at any other dis-
tance, consequently the distance for planting is largely a matter
of personal opinion. Some of the most experienced growers
have found that a good distance for planting standard pears
is 15 feet apart in the rows, the rows being 30 feet apart. The
object of planting thus is to obtain large crops of fruit from the
ground until the trees become large enough to interfere with
each other, when each alternate tree in the rows is cut out,
leaving the trees a distance of 30 feet apart. In case it is not
desired to use pear fillers, a good distance for planting is 20 to
22 feet apart each way.

Dwarfs are sometimes planted 10 feet apart each way, but
15 feet each way, or 193 trees to the acre, is better. This
distance gives room to drive through the grounds for spraying
and gathering the fruit.

The various planting systems such as the square, the
quincunx, and the hexagonal, which have already been described
in a previous Section, may be used also in the case of the pear.
The grower can choose the system that he prefers.

22. Arrangement of Varieties. — In commercial pear
orcharding there is a tendency to plant the trees in large blocks.

§9

PEAR CULTURE

leaving out a row here and there to provide driveways. Grow-
ers often go to an extreme in this, however, planting single
varieties in large blocks only to discover when it is too late
that the trees will not set fruit well, due to self -sterility. The
matter of pollination is an important point to consider in
arranging the varieties in a pear orchard.

TABLE I

BLOOMING PERIOD OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF PEARS

Variety

Date of

First
Bloom

Date of

Full
Bloom

Clairgeau

Kieffer

Lawrence ....

LeConte

Anjou

Angouleme . . .
Bloodgood . . .

Tyson

Clapp Favorite

Flemish

Howell

Patrick Barry.

Seckel

Winter Nelis . .

Lincoln

Mt. Vernon . . .

April 6
March 29
April 6
March 29
April 8
April 9
April 8
April 9
April 8
April 10
April 8
April 8
April IT
April 9
April 6
March 29

Apri
Apri
Apri:
Apri
Apri
Apri
Apri:
Apri:
Apri
Apri:
Apri:
Apri:
Apri:
Apri:
Apri:
April II

13
II

13
15
14
18
16
15
15
18
16
20
16

It is impossible to divide pears into arbitrary classes with
reference to their capacity for self-pollination. A variety
'that, in one locality, is self -sterile may, in another locality, be
self -fertile. For example, in most parts of the East the Bartlett
seems to be self -sterile but on the Pacific coast it is generally
self-fertile. However, all varieties have a tendency either to
be self-sterile or self-fertile. The following common varieties
are more or less self-sterile: Angouleme, Anjou, Bartlett,

18 PEAR CULTURE § 9

Clairgeau, Clapp Favorite, Howell, Lawrence, Sheldon, and
Winter Nelis. Common varieties that have a tendency to be
self -fertile are : Bosc, Seckel, Angouleme, Flemish, Kieffer, and
LeConte.

The best plan in planting pears is to choose at least two or
three varieties, the blooming periods of which overlap, and
plant these in oblong blocks of four rows each. This will insure
proper pollination. Mr. C. I. Lewis, of the Oregon Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, has collected data regarding the
average date of the first bloom and of iuR bloom of the common
varieties when grown in Oregon. Table I gives this data. The
blooming time of a partictilar variety varies, of course, in dif-
ferent localities, but the variation is much the same in the case
of all other varieties.

23. Preparing of Trees for Planting. — If pear trees
are planted in the fall, winter, or very early spring, the tops
should not be pruned until the trees start to grow. If the
tops are pruned at the time of planting, the trees may suffer
from dieback or may lose buds that are essential to the
development of a good framework. In case the plant-
ing is done in late spring after danger of freezing is past,
the tops of the trees may be pruned at the time of
planting.

Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the
proper method for trimming young pear trees when
they are set. Different trees require considerably dif-
ferent trimming; consequently, it is impossible to give
specific instructions for the operation. As a rule, dwarfs
and small 1-year-old trees are trimmed to a whip,
which is headed back to about a 2-foot length, as
shown in Fig. 2 at a. Large 1-year-old trees and
2-year-old trees are cut back to a length of 25 inches
or more, depending on the size and form of the tree.
Fig. 2 and all but from three to five of the best branches that
are retained are cut back to short lengths. This method of
trimming is illustrated in Fig. 3; in (a) is shown a large 1-year-
old Cornice tree before pruning; in (b), a 1-year-old Comice tree

Fig. 5

22 PEAR CULTURE §9

after pruning; in (c), a 2-year-old Winter Nelis tree before
pruning; and in (d), a 2-year-old Winter Nelis tree after pru-
ning. In Fig. 4 (a) is shown a 2-year-old Bartlett tree before
pruning; in (6), a 2-year-old Bartlett tree after pruning; in (c),
a 2-year-old Cornice tree before pruning ; and in (J) , a 2-year-old
Cornice tree after pruning.

The roots of pear trees should be pruned at the time of setting
the trees. All decayed and broken roots should be removed,
and the long roots should be shortened, from about one-third
to one-half of the root system being removed. Fig. 5 illus-
trates the method of pruning roots; in (a) is shown the roots
of a Winter Nelis tree before pruning; in {b), the roots of a
Winter Nelis tree after pruning; in (c), the roots of a Comice
tree before pruning; and in (d), the roots of a Comice after
pruning.

Pear trees are set in the ground in much the same way as
apple trees, the' ground being staked as described in Apple
Culture, Part 1. It is advisable, when possible, to have all
of the stock at hand before the planting is begim, so that if
it is necessary to discard any trees it can be done at the outset
and new trees ordered to take the place of those not desirable
for planting. As pears are generally planted on clay soils,
it is better not to dig the holes until just before the trees are
to be set. If the soil is very stiff, fairly large holes should
be dug, and if it is available, good top soil should be placed in
the bottom of the holes. Although on certain soils it might
pay to put some water in the holes when the trees are planted,
this is never done in the case of commercial orchards. When
only a few trees are planted, however, this can often be done
to advantage. Standard trees should generally be set about
2 inches deeper than they were in the nursery, and great care
should be taken to set them firmly, as loosely-set trees often
die. Dwarf trees are usually planted so that the union is
about level with the surface of the ground, so that when the
soil settles the imion will be a little above the groimd.

PEAR CULTURE 23

PEAR-ORCHARD MANAGEMENT

TILLAGE OF PEAR ORCHARDS

TILLAGE OF YOUNG PEAR ORCHARDS

24. Young pear orchards are cultivated for about the same
purposes and in much the same manner as young apple orch-
ards. In the case of pear orchards, however, more care must
be taken not to overstimulate the trees by too much cul-
tivation than in the case of apple orchards; overstimulation
of young pear trees results in a sappy growth of wood, which
renders them very susceptible to attacks of fire blight.

As a rule, a young pear orchard should be plowed each spring,
although if the soil is very light, disking may be practiced
occasionally instead. The disking of orchard ground as a sub-
stitute for plowing is not, however, practiced as extensively
as it was a few years ago. In soils of good tilth that are not
underlaid with a stiff-clay subsoil, the roots of the trees will
have a tendency to grow downwards and plowing, if com-
menced when the trees are young and kept up for several years,
will remove only a few of the surface roots, thereby encouraging
the remaining roots to grow deeply into the ground, a condition
that is desirable. In case the soil is underlaid with a stiff-clay
subsoil, however, the roots will not grow deeply into the ground
but will extend laterally through the upper soil; in such cases
plowing may cut and break off so many roots that the trees
will be injured. Under such conditions it would undoubtedly
be advisable to disk the ground rather than to plow it.

25. It is important for young pear trees to make a steady
growth, especially in spring and early summer. This growth
should not be a puny, sickly one on the one hand, or an

24 PEAR CULTURE §9

over-luxuriant, rapid one on the other hand. In order to
secure a desirable growth, careful attention must be given to
the orchard in the spring. On heavy soils it is a good plan
to start the plowing as soon as the ground can be worked.
On light soUs plowing should not be started until the weather
has become settled, as early plowing in the case of such soils
tends to start the trees into activity, causing the sap to rise,
which may result in sun scald, sour sap, or other troubles.
The plowing, in either case, shordd be rather deep.

After the ground has been plowed the soil should be worked
into good condition. In the case of heav^^ soils it is often a
good plan to work the ground with a disk harrow soon after
plowing in order to prevent baking of the soil. A spring-tooth
harrow will be found to be of value where there is considerable
turf, or sod, that must be torn to pieces after plowing. A spike-
tooth harrow is effective for pulverizing heavy soils. A smooth-
ing implement such as the Acme harrow or the Kimball weeder
is very desirable for orchard work; the Kimball weeder is a
favorite implement on the Pacific coast. For mashing clods
and leveling the surface of the ground, the common drag is
useful. If a drag is used it is a good plan to make it in two
sections and fasten these together side by side, as when made
in this way a drag will not have a tendency to level merely the
high places. An implement that is rapidly coming into use
on the Pacific coast for orchard cultivation is the corrugated
roller. This implement grinds up the soil and pulverizes it
very efficiently. It will save a lot of work, especially in the
case of clay or adobe soils.

After the ground has been got in order all that will be neces-
sary, in case intercrops are not grown, will be to harrow it at
frequent intervals throughout the season. The nimiber of
harrowings to give will depend on the soil, climatic conditions,
etc. In general, the ground should be harrowed siifficiently
often to prevent weeds from growing or the ground from baking.
In dry regions, great care should be given to the ground dur-
ing June and Jidy, so that weeds and baking of the soil will not
cause moisture to be lost. However, if it is possible to cease
cultivation by the middle of July or the first of August it should

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 25

be done. There is no advantage to be gained by cultivating
young trees after they have made desirable growth and there
are many disadvantages. If cultivated further the trees will
be encouraged to make more wood growth, which is not wanted.
It is best to have the trees get into winter condition as early as
possible.

If a pear grower desires to grow other crops between the
rows of trees as a matter of economy, this may be done for a
few years after the trees are set without any detriment to the '
orchard, provided the crop is such as to require thorough culti-
vation. To grow among the trees the first season after plant-
ing there is no better crop than com. It requires thorough
ciiltivation and affords a shade to the young trees at a season
when they most need protection from the heat of the sun.
Other crops, such as potatoes, cabbage, peas, beans, melons, etc.,
may be grown to advantage. Small grain or grasses which do
not require ctdtivation should not be allowed in a newly
planted orchard. All these crops take from the soil plant-food
that is needed for the orchard.

TILLAGE OF BEARING PEAR ORCHARDS

26. As soon as a pear orchard comes into bearing the grow-
ing of intercrops should be discontinued. As a rule, the orchard
should be plowed in early spring to warm up the soil and to
facilitate the storage of moisture from spring rains in the sub-
soil below. Even greater care should be taken not to injure
the roots of bearing trees than is needed in the care of young
trees. Shallow surface tillage should be maintained through-
out the season by means of harrows or other stirring implements.

SOD AND MULCH CULTURE

27. Sod Culture. — ^Although it is usually advisable to
practice clean tillage in the case of pear orchards, there are
certain conditions under which it might be advisable to put
an orchard in sod. In many parts of the Eastern and Middle
Western States, especially, pear trees tend to make a very

26 PEAR CULTURE § 9

rapid growth and consequently are extremely susceptible to
attacks of the fire blight. In such a case sod cialture is to be
recommended, as it will tend to retard the growth of the trees.
Also, many pear orchards are planted on steep Mllsides where,
if clean tillage were practiced, considerable erosion would occur.
Under such conditions, sod culture would be much preferable
to clean tillage. In all cases where sod culture is practiced,
however, a sufficient growth of grass should be secured to
maintain a thick mulch.

28. MulchL Culture. — ^When pears are planted on very
heavy soils, mulch culture is often particiilarly advantageous.
For example, on the Pacific coast, where pears are often grown
on heavy adobe soils that are sticky and hard to handle, it is
likely that in many cases mulching is the most effective and
economical method of soil management. However, before
adopting the mulch-culture system, a grower should experiment
on a small part of his orchard in order to ascertain whether or
not the system is satisfactory.

29. Catch Crops and Cover Crops. — The use of catch
crops and cover crops in orchards has already been discussed
in Apple Culture, Part 2. The information given in the Sec-
tion referred to applies also to pears; consequently, it need not
be repeated here.

PRUNING OF PEAR TREES

30. The principles that underlie the pruning of the pear
are not materially different from those that underlie the pruning
of the apple. In the case of each the relation of bud develop-
ment to fruiting is almost identical and the principle of building
a strong, sturdy tree the first few years is the same. It is com-
monly believed that pear trees do not require as much pruning
as apple trees, many persons holding to the belief that pear
trees should not be pruned at all. It is true that the pear tree
has more of a tendency to assimie a balance between the top
and the root system than the apple tree, and that the former
tends more to produce a crop annually than the latter. It is

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 27

true also that as color is not as important in pears as in certain
varieties of apples, it is not as essential to prune the pear tree
for the admission of sunlight to the fruit as it is to prune the
trees of these certain varieties of apples for this purpose. Not-
withstanding these facts, it should not be said that it is of less
importance to prune the pear than it is to prune the apple.

The trees of varieties like the Anjou require fairly heavy
pruning, especially during the first few years after they com-
mence to bear. Trees of varieties like the Winter Nelis and
the Bosc are difficult to prune during their, early growth, as
they grow very crooked and irregular. Some varieties have
an upright habit of growth and some make a slender, straggling
growth. All need attention each year.

31. Time for Pruning. — In most localities, pears are
pruned in late winter or early spring. In parts of California
and in some of the Southern States, however, pruning is done
in the fall without any bad effects. In regions where cold
periods occur it is advisable, in the case of young trees, to do
the pruning in spring after growth has started.

The proper time for summer pruning varies from the middle
of July to the middle of September, depending on the vigor
of the trees. The Oregon Experiment Station has found,
after limited experimentation, that the best time for simimer
pruning of pears, except the Bartlett, is late in the season when
the trees are ceasing their vegetative growth and the terminal
buds are becoming plump; the indications are that the best
time to prune the Bartlett in summer is in June.

32. Metliods of Pruning. — Most growers now favor the
low-headed type of tree, which has already been discussed
in a previous Section. Of this type of tree there are two forms,
the pyramidal headed and the open headed, which, also, have
already been described. Most pear growers at the present
time prune for the open-headed form or some modification of
it, as pyramidal-headed trees are difficiilt to manage in case

-they become infected with fire blight. Many western pear
growers now favor what is known as the modified-center form
of open-headed tree. A leader is allowed to grow for 2 or

248—31

PEAR CULTURE

3 years, so as to give a better distribution of the scaffold
branches.

Pruning of the pear should be begun at the time of planting
by cutting the young trees back, as has already been explained.

This cutting back will cause sev-
eral of the upper buds to grow,
thus starting the top, or head, at
the proper height. The young
shoots should be watched and
only such left to grow as are to
form the main branches. Strong
shoots that tend to grow oblique-
ly outwards should be selected
for retaining. At the beginning
of the second year these shoots
should be cut back to the extent
of about one-half of their growth,
as illustrated in Fig. 6, the lines
showing where the cuts should
be made.

The same plan of pruning
should be continued the third
and fourth years, about one-
half of each year's growth being
removed. Caution should be ex-
ercised, however, to study each
tree; no arbitrar}^ rule can be
laid down for pruning trees. In
Fig. 7 (a) is shown a 3-year-old
Anjou tree before being pruned,
and in (b) is shown a 3-year-old
Anjou tree after being pruned.
Fig. 8 (a) shows a 4-year-old Bart-
lett tree before being pruned and (b) shows the same tree after
being pruned. When the growth is cut back the top bud should
be one on the side of the branch facing the direction in which
the growth needs to be diverted; this will facilitate shaping the
tree into the form desired.

Fig. 6

PEAR CULTURE

33. When pear trees reach the bearing age, they should
be pruned so as to keep them from becoming too rangy and
dense. When trees tend to become rangy, the terminal growth
of some of the leaders should be cut back to a strong lateral.
If this method of pruning is followed there will be less likelihood
of forcing out water sprouts and sucker growth than if all the
leaders are cut back to the same length. If a tree tends to

Fig. 7

become too dense or the wood too spindling, some of the weaker
wood should be thinned out. When trees have a tendency to
make too much wood growth, it is advisable not to prune too
heavily in the spring. The best plan is to prune pear trees
moderately each year, so that excessive pruning will not be
necessary. In Fig. 9 is illustrated a Comice tree before pni-
ning. Fig. 10 shows the same tree after pruning. Summer

PEAR CULTURE

pruning is sometimes practiced in pear orchards for the purpose
of overcoming the habit that the trees of some varieties have of

Fig. 8

bearing the fruit on the end of the twigs of the previous year's
growth. It is also of advantage when the trees are growing
too much wood at the expense of the fruit. If trees are pruned

32 PEAR CULTURE §9

in the spring and again in the siurmier the vegetative vigor can
be greatly reduced. In sirmmer pruning the usual practice
is to remove from about one-third to one-half of the terminal
growth of that season.

MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

34. Fertilizing of Pear Orchards. — ^Little attention
has been paid by growers to the fertilizing of pear orchards,
because the pear, as a rule, makes a too rapid growth even
without fertilizer. In rare cases it may happen that, because
of some unusual condition of the soil, the trees will not make
a satisfactory growth or will not produce good crops. In such
instances fertilizers may be needed to correct the defect. How-
ever, before applying either stable manure or commercial fer-
tilizer to a pear orchard, a grower should conduct a fertilizer
experiment. A simple experiment is as follows: (1) On one
row or a part of one row sufficient to give accurate data, apply
stable manure at the rate of 1 ton per acre, or nitrate of soda
or high-grade dried blood at the rate of 75 pounds per acre.
(2) On a similar area apply at the rate of 200 pounds per acre
either, muriate or sulphate of potash, or 1 ton of unleached
wood ashes. (3) On a similar area apply at the rate of 350
pounds per acre a good grade of acid phosphate. (4) Apply on
a similar area manure or nitrate of soda as recommended in
(1) and muriate or sulphate of potash or wood ashes as recom-
mended in (2). (5) Apply on a similar area manure or nitrate
of soda as recommended in (1) and acid phosphate as recom-
mended in (3) . (6) Apply on a similar area potash or wood
ashes as recommended in (2) and acid phosphate as recom-
mended in (3). (7) Apply on a similar area the materials
recommended in (1), (2), and (3). (8) Leave a row or a part
of a row between each of the fertilized plots as a check plot.
This experiment is much more simple than might be thought,
as the fertilizer combinations are built up one from another
and all of the fertihzer materials named are easily secured.
In order to supply accurate data, the experiment shotild be
conducted for several years.

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 33

The time and manner of applying manure or commercial
fertilizer to a pear orchard are the same as in the case of the
apple.

35. ThirLQing of Pears. — It is a mistake to allow pear
trees to overbear, as the fruit will be small and the trees will
be likely to develop a tendency to bear only in alternate years.
All deformed, inferior, and insect-infested fruit, as well as per-
fect fruit that is less than from 4 to 6 inches apart on the limbs,
should be removed from the trees. This thinning is usually
done after what is known as the June drop, or during the last
of June or the first of July. If pears are thinned the remaining
fruit grows much larger than it otherwise would, and at har-
vesting time a grower wiU find that there will be more bushels
of first-grade fruit on the trees than if the pears had not been
thinned. Besides, the trees will be spared from bearing an
excessive burden and will be more likely to bear a crop the next
year.

36. Renovation of Neglected Pear Orchards. — If

neglected pear trees are not too old and still have sound trunks
they can often be brought into a state of profitable bearing.
In case the orchard has not been plowed for several years it is
doubtful whether it would be advisable to plow it, because
if this were done the roots of the trees would likely be severely
injured. In general, it may be said that if the orchard is in
a region where it is difficult to obtain sufficient moisture, the
orchard should be plowed, but otherwise sod or mulch culture
should be practiced.

The tops of neglected trees should not be pruned too heavily
at first, as this would result in a heavy growth of water sprouts,
which would be unfavorable to fruit production. The best
plan is to cut out all weak and diseased wood at the dormant
pruning and head back the terminal growth moderately by
summer pruning. If the trees are too high headed the branches
should be cut back to a strong lateral. In case the trees are
of undesirable varieties, they can be top-worked to the varieties
desired.

34 PEAR CULTURE § 9

SPRAYING OF PEAR TREES

37. The various diseases and insects of the pear, with their
control meastires, have already been discussed in the preceding
Section. It is not the purpose here to repeat the information
already given, but rather to present the different sprayings in
chronological order. The following sprayings are recommended
for the pear :

1. Just as the leaf buds are swelling but before they are
open, spray with lime-sulphur solution of a specific gravity
of 1.03, to which has been added 2 pounds of arsenate of
lead to each 50 gallons of the spray solution. This spray-
ing is for the control of the San Jose scale and the leaf -blister
mite.

2. After the leaf buds are open, but just before the first
blossoms open, spray with lime-sulphur solution of a specific
gravity of 1.006, or with Bordeaux mixture made by mixing
4 pounds of copper sulphate, 4 pounds of lime, and 50 gallons
of water. This spraying is for the control of the pear scab.
The remedies for pear scab vary considerably in different sec-
tions; consequently, it is advisable for a grower to consult
the nearest experiment station with reference to the control
of this disease.

3. When the petals of the blossoms are still falling and the
calyxes are still open, spray with from 2 to 3 pounds of arsenate
of lead mixed with 50 gallons of the same lime-sulphur solution
given in paragraph 2. This spraying is for the control of the
codling moth, pear scab, and any other fimgous disease present.

4. In case the pear psylla is present in the locality, spray,
just after the blossoms have fallen, with dilute kerosene-soap
emulsion, made by mixing 1 part of kerosene-soap stock solu-
tion and 6 parts of water; or spray with whale-oil soap made by
mixing 1 pound of whale-oil soap and from 4 to 5 gallons of
water; or spray with one of the tobacco extracts, using a 2.7-per-
cent, nicotine preparation diluted with from 65 to 100 parts
of water. This spraying is for the control of the pear psylla
and should be repeated at intervals of from 3 to 7 days until
the insects are under control.

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 35

5. From 10 to 14 days after the spraying described in para-
graph 3, spray again with the same materials. This spraying
is principally for the control of the codling moth and the pear
scab.

6. The green aphis is controlled in the same way as in the
case of the apple. This pest should be sprayed for as soon as
it appears, before the leaves curl, and is easy to control if this
rule is followed.

HARVESTING, STORING, AND MARKETING OF

PEARS

HARVESTING

38. Picking of Pears. — It is often somewhat difficult
to determine when pears are ready to be picked. If they are
allowed to hang on the trees too long they will develop a high
color but become mealy in texture. On the other hand, if
pears are picked too soon they will shrivel and be deficient in
flavor. Most pear growers make the mistake of allowing
the fruit to hang on the trees too long. As a rule, as soon as
pears can be snapped from the spurs by a gentle twist they are
in the best condition for picking. Often growers pick their
pears early by clipping the stems; this enables them to take
advantage of high prices that prevail early in the season. If
a person is experienced in picking pears this practice may be
followed without injury to the fruit, but an inexperienced per-
son is likely to sustain considerable loss. Pears may be clipped
early if the picking is done at the proper time, but it is difficult
to determine just what is the proper time.

About the same picking receptacles are used for pears as for
apples. Any of the common receptacles will prove satisfac-
tory, provided the picker exercises care in handling the fruit.
When unskilled labor is employed, however, it is advisable
to provide receptacles that will minimize, as much as possible,
the likelihood of the pears being injured. A desirable form of
receptacle, under such conditions, is the common galvanized-
iron pail. Another good receptacle is a basket provided with a

36 PEAR CULTURE § 9

bail. Pails and baskets prevent bruising of the fruit when the
pickers are descending the picking ladders and besides, may be
emptied with little injury to the pears.

A desirable form of picking ladder is the Japanese stepladder.
The Japanese ladder is easy to handle and does not injure the
trees like some other ladders. The common stepladder also
is extensively used in the picking of pears. Whatever form of
ladder is chosen it should be such as not to injure the trees;
this is a A^ery important point in the case of the pear.

As has already been stated, pears are generally picked by
simply twisting them from the spurs. Pickers should be
cautioned to handle the fruit with the greatest possible care,
as even slight bruises may be very damaging. Pickers soon
acquire the ability to judge size, which is essential to good pick-
ing. Inexperienced pickers often make use of a wire ring hung
from the neck with a cord so that it can be readily applied to
a pear; if the inside of the ring is made the size of the smallest
pear to be picked, any pear that it will slip over without touch-
ing is too small for picking and should be allowed to remain
on the tree until the next picking. The minimum size of pears
to be picked will depend on the variety and on the locality.
The trees are usually picked over a number of times until all of
the pears have been harvested. In the case of some varieties like
the Bartlett the picking seasons often last from 4 to 6 weeks.

For the transporting of pears from the orchard to the packing
shed, crates such as those recommended for apples will be foimd
satisfactory. A low wagon provided with springs can be used
for hauling the fruit from the orchard.

Perhaps the best system for the management of pickers is to
hire them by the day and pay them at the end of each week.
It is essential that extreme care be exercised in the handling
of pears, and for this reason it is not advisable to hire pickers
at a certain rate per bushel, as in this case they are lilcely to do
the work carelessly in order to pick a large quantity of fruit.
Often it is a good plan to provide each picker with tickets or
coupons, one of which is to be placed in each orchard box of
fruit picked. This will enable the foreman to ascertain the
quality of work that each picker is doing.

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 37

39. Grading of Pears. — It has been proved by experience
that there is less profit in the grading of pears than in the gra-
ding of almost any other kind of fruit. Pears of the same variety
that are grown under similar conditions are, as a rule, fairly
uniform in size, and do not require much grading. Notwith-
standing this statement, it will usually be found that simple
grading is profitable. Obviously, pears that are undersized,
infested with insects, deformed, or blemished in any way should
not be packed with first-class pears. The grading that is
required, however, can be done by the packer, a special assorting
of the fruit not being necessary.

Most of the prominent growers and fruit associations sort
pears into two grades known as fancy and choice. Following
are the specifications of the Yakima Valley Fruit Growers
Association for the two grades:

In order to be graded as fancy, Bartlett, Anjou, Comice,
Flemish, Clapp Favorite, Clairgeau, and pears of kindred
varieties must be not smaller than 2| inches in diameter;
Winter Nelis pears must not be smaller than If inches in
diameter. All fruit must be free from worms, insect stings,
scale, picking bruises, blemishes, evidence of rough handling,
scab, or deformity of any kind whatever.

Pears, in order to be graded as clioice, must be sound, free
from worms, insect stings, scale, and disease; slightly mis-
shapen pears, or those showing limb rub or other like defects,
may be included. No pears less than 2| inches in diameter,
except Winter Nelis, shall be accepted. In fact, stock in this
grade must be only a little below fancy.

40. Packing of Pears. — ^Pears are packed in a great
many different kinds of packages. On the Pacific coast the
pear box is the commonest package for fancy and choice fruit.
The standard box is usually 18 inches long, 8| inches deep,
and 11| inches wide; the half box is usually of the same width
and length as the standard box but is only half as deep. A
standard box when packed with fruit weighs approximately
50 pounds, and the half box about half as much. Kieffer pears
are often packed in barrels and hah barrels. Bushel baskets

38 PEAR CULTURE § 9

also are commonly used in the East and Middle West for pack-
ing Kieffers; this form of package is popular for all varieties
when the fruit is intended for local sale. In New York State,
growers of Seckel pears often use a keg for packing the fruit.
Sometimes pears are marketed in large Climax baskets, in
which case they are generally packed in crates, or carriers,
that hold a dozen or more of the baskets. In case pears are
to be sold on the local market, and consequently do not have
to be shipped, they are sold in bushel and half-bushel baskets,
light barrels, etc.

41. Before being packed in boxes, pears shoiild be graded
to size and quality. Each pear should be wrapped in paper
and placed in the box with the blossom end of the pear toward
the end of the box. Each pear should be placed firmly in posi-
tion and pressed down so that it fits snugly and cannot be shaken
from side to side when the box is moved. Usually, a pear is
picked up with the left hand from a box of loose pears, and
paper from the paper rack is picked up with the right hand.
The ■ pear is placed in the paper in the right hand with one
motion, the paper closed around the pear with both hands,
and the pear placed in position in the box. The packer usually
has a place near a window so that he can have plenty of light.
Each packer is provided with a box of loose pears from which
he packs, another box for culls, and two or three'boxes that he
is packing at one time.

Packing of pears in boxes has not been standardized as much
as the box packing of apples. However, recently a number of
the western fruit associations have adopted standards for box
pear packs. In general, the packing of pears in boxes is so
similar to apple packing, which has already been described
in a previous Section, that a detailed discussion is unnecessary.
The style of pack in general vogue is the diagonal pack. The
number of rows, tiers, and layers will depend, of course, on the
size of the pears. Perhaps the packs most often used are the
2-2, 3-2, and 3-3. Fig. 11 (a) shows a 2-2 pack; (b), a 3-2
pack; and (c), a 3-3 pack. The method of making these packs
is the same as in apple packing.

PEAR CULTURE

In the case of pears, greater bulge is given to the box than
in the case of apples; the bulge should, as a rule, be about
f inch at both the top and bottom. The boxes are often lined
with paper, the top layer of fruit being covered with lace paper.
The method of nailing the boxes is the same as described for
apples.

When pears are properly packed in boxes they can be shipped
any distance if handled and braced properly. The bulge is

only on the top and bottom of the box; consequently, the
boxes should always be placed on their sides. This effectually
prevents crushing of the fruit.

42. When baskets are used for packing, the top layer is
usually arranged so as to give a neat appearance to the pack-
age. When carriers are used some effort is generally made to
put the pears in regular order. If kegs or half barrels are used
the pears are occasionally laid in individually, the stems point-
ing inwards and the calyxes toward the outside of the keg
or barrel; sometimes this system is varied by placing the first
row so the stems point inwards and the second row so that they
point outwards. When barrels are used, about the only placing
of specimens that is done is in producing the face of the barrel.

40 PEAR CULTURE § 9

STORING

43. Because of the relatively small output of pears, not
as much experience has been gained in the storing of this fruit
as in the storing of apples. However, the experience that has
been gained has proved that pears can often be as successfully
and profitably handled in cold storage as apples. If pears are
picked without injury, packed in a cool place, and stored where
a sufficiently low temperature can be maintained, they can be
kept for months. But if pears are bruised in handling and then
exposed to a warm temperature in packing they will be almost
sure to deteriorate if placed in cold storage. If pears are held
at about 32° F., they seem to hold up much better than if they
are held at a higher temperature. Also, if they are wrapped
in paper, they will hold up better than if not wrapped.

Pears improve in quality, flavor, and lusciousness while in
storage, provided they have been picked before ripening.
Pears that have developed to a proper size on the trees,
although hard and of seemingly poor quality for eating, wiU,
in a few weeks or months, develop or ripen to their very finest
condition.

Pears, like apples, can be maintained fairly well in home
storage, that is, in cellars or in specially constructed storage
houses. They should be wrapped in paper, as in cold storage.
As a rule, however, pears cannot be kept much after Thanks-
giving in home storage.

MARKETING

44. The pear is not as well known in fruit markets as the
apple. This is largely due to small production, careless packing,
and unfamiliarity on the part of the public with the best vari-
eties. However, the pear is rapidly increasing in popularity
and there is reason for the belief of many authorities that the
marketing of pears at remunerative prices will become less
difficult each year.

Pears are marketed in the same way as apples, consequently
little discussion of this subject is necessary. Each grower
must determine after a study of his own conditions whether

§ 9 PEAR CULTURE 41

it will be more profitable to sell the fruit on the local market
or to consign it to a wholesaler. In the case of large orchards,
it is often the best plan to sell the entire crop to a buyer for
a commission house. In the case of small orchards, the best
prices can often be obtained by building up a special retail
trade. A great deal of fruit is now being handled by asso-
ciations, which sell to wholesale buyers, thus eliminating the
local dealers. When fruit is handled in this way the grower
must wait until the association receives pay for the fruit and can
apportion it to each grower. This is because the association
usually has a large number of small lots that must be sorted
so as to ship as many pears of one kind, pack, and grade in
one shipment as are required. In many cases it is an advantage
to ship only one variety of pears in a carload lot.

Many growers make the mistake of shipping their pears to
markets that are glutted with fruit or that do not have a demand
for the particular variety or varieties the grower has to sell.
It is always advisable to know as much as possible about the
conditions and demands of a market before shipping fruit to it.
This information can be obtained by corresponding with reliable
dealers.

Fancy and choice pears should be put up in an attractive
package and be properly labeled, so that the prospective cus-
tomers will know where and by whom the fruit was grown.
Cull pears can often be disposed of to canneries at prices almost
equal to those obtainable for fancy and choice grades.

CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND
QUINCES

CHERRIES

CLASSES OF CHERRIES

1. For convenience cherries ma}^ be divided according to
the acidity of the fruit into three classes — sour cherries, sub-
acid cherries, and sweet cherries. There is, however, much
overlapping, and often it is somewhat difficult to determine
the class to which a variety belongs. The Pacific Coast States
produce most of the sweet and subacid cherries that appear
on the market. Recently, however, certain districts along the
shores of Lake Michigan have begun to compete with the
Pacific Coast States in the production of sweet cherries.
Throughout the Middle West and in the Eastern States most
of the cherries grown are of the sour varieties.

2. The sour clierries most frequently grown belong to
two general groups: (1) the amarelles, which are light-colored
cherries with slightly flattened ends and have a colorless juice;
and (2) the morellos, which are dark-colored cherries of heart
or of spherical shape and have a dark-colored juice. The number
of new varieties of sour cherries is being increased b}^ propa-
gation from seed in the Eastern and the Central States and by
importations from Russia and other parts of Europe.

As a class, the sour cherry trees are characterized by a low,
round-headed type of growth and have the habit of suckering

§20

248—32

2 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

from the roots; the flowers are in small clusters from lateral
buds and generally appear before the foliage; the leaves arc
light or grayish green, are narrowed to a point, and are hard;
the fruit is roundish and always red; the flesh is soft and sour.

3. The subacid cherries are those that cannot be called
either sour or sweet and they belong to a small group known
as the dukes group. The varieties of this group are believed
by some of the best horticulturists to have originated from
the crossing of sweet and sour cherries. In type of tree gro^vth,
in flowers and foliage, and in shape of the fruit the varieties
of the dukes group resemble the sweet cherries, but in flavor
the fruit resembles sour cherries more nearly than sweet, being
subacid and in some cases fairly acid. The fruit of the dukes
is heart shaped, excellent in flavor, juicy, and usually tender.
However, the fruit is subject to rot and ships very poorly,
and for these reasons the cherries of the dukes group are not
grown so extensively as those of other groups. One very
undesirable feature of this group of cherries is that all the fruit
on a tree does not ripen at about the same time, the ripening
period extending over a considerable length of time.

4. The sweet clierries grown in the United States belong
to three groups: (1) the mazzard group, which includes the
common native sweet cherries of the Eastern States and the
mazzard seedlings that are imported from Europe and used by
nurserymen for stocks; (2) the heart, or gean group, the fruit of
which is usually heart shaped and has soft flesh; and (3) the
higarreau group, the fruit of which is heart shaped, hard
fleshed, and of a light color, the typical fruit being light red
on one side and whitish or lemon colored on the reverse side.

As a class, sweet cherry trees are characterized by having a
tall-growing and erect habit and a bark that tends to peel
somewhat like the bark of a birch tree; the flowers are flimsy
and appear in clusters on spurs with the foliage; the leaves are
large and usually limp and gradually taper to a point; the
fruit is variously colored, and may be either spherical or heart
shaped ; the flesh may be either hard or soft and is generally
sweet.

Fig. 1

§20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 3

5. Important Varieties of Sour Cherries. — The follow-
ing is a list of some of the important varieties of sour cherries,
with a brief description of each variety:

The Baldwin, which is a variety of the morello group, is
regarded as promising. The trees of this variety have stout,
spreading tops and are good bearers. The fruit ripens in mid-
season and is of good size and quality.

The Briisseler Braune is a variety of Russian origin.
The trees of this variety are meditim to large in size, upright
in growth, and have long, slender branches. In some sections
of the country the trees of this variety have been found to be
poor bearers. The fruit, which is illustrated in the lower part
of Fig. 1, is very late in ripening. It is medium in size and
quality, and is astringent.

The Dyehoiise is a variety of the amarelle group. The
trees of this variety are not so vigorous as those of the
Montmorency variety, which will be described later. The
fruit of the Dyehouse is medium to small in size and light
red in color. The flavor is slightly acid and the quality is
very good.

The Morello, or English Morello, is, as the name indicates, a
variety of the morello group and is one of the oldest and best
varieties of sour cherries grown in the eastern part of the
United States. The trees are mediimi in size, slender but
spreading in growth, and are hardy. The fruit is medium in
size, roundish in shape, and of a reddish-black color. It is
very sour and slightly astringent. The flesh and juice are dark.
The fruit is firm and has excellent shipping qualities.

The Montmorency, a variety of the amarelle group, is the
standard variety of sour cherries grown in the United States.
There are two strains of Montmorency, the Long-stemmed Mont-
morency, or the Montmorency Ordinaire, and the Short-stemmed
Montmorency. The Short-stemmed Montmorency, however, is
little grown in the United States. The Long-stemmed Mont-
morency is the one sold by nurserymen and is the one to which
the following description refers. This is the variety desired by
canners. The trees are hardy, good bearers, and come into
bearing early. The fruit, which is illustrated in the upper part

CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES

of Fig. 1, ripens in mid-season, is of medium size and of a rich
dark-red color. It is acid and very good in flavor.

The Ostlieim is a variety of the morello group, and really
consists of a nimiber of strains. The variety has been grown
in the United States for nearly a century. The trees are slender

Fig. 2

in growth but are very hardy. The fruit is large and round and
of dark, reddish-brown color. It is juicy, medium acid in
flavor, and moderately good in quality. The skin is tough.
The Phillippe, or Louis PhilUppe, is a variety of the morello
group. The trees of this variety are upright and spreading in

§20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 5

growth and are said to be productive. The fruit is medium to
late in ripening, of medium size and good quaHty and is dark
re4 in color. It is acid and has tender red flesh.

The Riclnnond, or Early Richmond, is a well-known variety
of the amarelle group. The trees of this variety are hardy,
vigorous, and profuse and regular bearers, but are inclined to
be short lived. The fruit, which is illustrated in Fig. 2, ripens
early or moderately earl}^ in the season. It is of medium size,
light red in color, acid, very juicy, and rather rich in quality.
The fruit keeps only a short time after being picked, and is
therefore fit only for local-market and home use.

The Suda is a variety of the morello group. The trees of
this variety resemble those of the English Morello but are more
upright in growth. They are profitable bearers in some sec-
tions. The fruit of this variety can hardly be distinguished
from that of the English Morello.

The Wragg is a standard variety of the morello group. The
trees resemble those of the English Morello variety. The
fruit also resembles that of the English Morello, but is a little
larger and is somewhat later in ripening. By some authorities,
this variety is considered identical with the English Morello.

6. Important Varieties of Subacid Clierries.^ — The

following is a list of some of the most important varieties of
the dukes group and a brief description of each variety:

The trees of the variety Eugene are upright in growth and
fairly productive, but lack in vigor. The fruit of this variety
is among the earliest to ripen and lasts over a long season.
The fruit is medium to large in size, amber red in color, and has
a fine flavor. The flesh and juice are dark.

The Hortense, or Reine Hortense, is a variety that is char-
acterized by trees that are good growers and universal bearers.
The fruit of this variety is among the largest of all cherries.
It is heart shaped and of a beautiful glossy red, or a deep pink
color. It is excellent for canning, but is too soft and juicy for
shipment.

The Magnifique is a productive variety. The trees are
Upright and spreading in growth. The fruit is among the latest

G CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § iM)

of the cherries to ripen, and for this reason it is of value. The
fruit is too small and of too light a shade of red to take well in
the market. It is firm, juicy, and of mild flavor, but is not of
the highest quality. The flesh is pale yellow in color.

The May Diike is one of the most popular varieties of the
subacid cherries. The trees are hardy, vigorous growers,
and productive. The fruit is among the earliest cherries to
ripen and tends to ripen over a long season. It is large, of a
dark-red color, very rich and juicy, of acid flavor, and excellent
when ripe.

The Montr euil, or Belle de Montreuil, is a comparatively
new variety. The trees are vigorous, free from disease, upright,
spreading in growth, and productive. The fruit is glossy dark
red, almost black. The flesh and juice is dark red. The fruit
is medium in quality.

The Olivet is a variety that is frequently reported as impro-
ductive. The trees, however, are strong, spreading growers.
This variety was produced by a cross between a duke and a
morello. The fruit is large and of a dark-red color. It ripens
early, is of good quality, and is especially good for canning.

7. Important Varieties of Sweet Cherries. — The

following is a list and a brief description of some of the most
important varieties of sweet cherries:

The Bing- is a variety of the bigarreau group that is regarded
as promising. The trees are strong growers. The fruit ripens
in mid-season, is very large, almost black in color, firm fleshed,
and of high quality.

The Centennial is a variety of the bigarreau group, and
is said to be a seedling of the Napoleon, a variety that will be
described later. The trees of the Centennial variety are vigor-
ous, productive, and fairly hardy. The fruit is large in size
and ripens late. In color, it is yellow, marbled with crimson.
It is very sweet and is a good shipper. This variety is con-
sidered promising, especially on the Pacific coast.

The Elton is a variety of the heart group. The trees of
the variety are good growers but in some parts of the country
are found to lack in productiveness. The fruit ripens about

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 7

mid-season. It is very large, heart shaped, and of a pale
yellow color with a red blush. The fruit is of the best quality,
but is subject to rot and is therefore not a good shipper,
although it is excellent for home use. The flesh is light colored
and firm.

The Lambert, which originated in Oregon, is a variety of
the bigarreau group. The trees are hardy, vigorous, and strong
growers. The fruit is large to very large and heart shaped; in
color, it is dark amber, turning to a dark red as the fruit
matures. The flesh is dark, rich, firm, juicy, and of good flavor.
The pit of this cherry is small for the size of the fruit.

One of the most popular sweet cherries is the Napoleon;
also called the Royal Ann, a variety of the bigarreau group.
The trees of this variety are strong and vigorous in growth
and very productive. The fruit, which is illustrated in Fig. 3,
ripens about mid-season. It is large and in color yellow
shaded with red. The flesh is light colored, firm, juicy, and of
good quality.

The Rockport is a variety of the bigarreau group. The
trees are moderate to vigorous in growth. The fruit ripens
between early and mid-season. It is large, heart shaped, and
red shaded with amber. The quality is very good. The fiesh
is firm and juicy.

An old and well-known variety that does well under many
conditions is the Spaiiish, or Yellow Spanish, which is a variety
of the bigarreau group. The trees of this variety are strong
growers and are productive. The fruit ripens from mid-season
to late, is large, and of a pale, waxy-yellow color with a red
blush. It is of good quality.

The Tartarian, or Black Tartarian, is one of the oldest and
most popular varieties of the heart group. The trees lack in
vigor and hardiness when compared with those of some other
varieties of the group. The fruit, which is illustrated in Fig. 4,
is very large, dark red in color, and mildly sweet. It is of good
quality and generally brings high prices.

One of the new varieties that has made a good reputation is
the Windsor, which is a variety of the bigarreau group. This
variety originated in Ontario and some of the best growers have

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

10 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

recommended it as a variety that should be included in nearly
all cherry orchards. The trees are hardy, vigorous, and very
productive. The fruit tends to ripen late, is heart shaped,
dark reddish brown, and of fine quality. The flesh is firm and
of a dark-red color.

A variety that is recommended for home use and for near-by
markets is the Wood, also called Governor Wood, which is a
variety of the heart group. The trees of this variety are
strong, vigorous growers, and are productive. The fruit
ripens early, is medium to large in size, and in color is pale
yellow with a reddish blush. The fruit is of good quality but
is subject to rot. The flesh is tender and juicy.

CHERRY-ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT

SIZE, LOCATION, AND SITE

8. size. — Throughout the greater part of the country
few cherry orchards of more than 10 acres in extent exist. In
some of the Pacific Coast States, however, extensive orchards
of sweet cherries have been under cultivation for some years.
Recently some large orchards of sour cherries ranging in size
vip to 150 acres have been planted in Ontario and Quebec, in
parts of New York and Pennsylvania, along the shores of Lake
Michigan, and in the vicinity of St. Louis. One such orchard
in Western New York consists of 50 acres of Early Richmond,
50 acres of Montmorency, and 50 acres of English Morello.

9. Location. — As has been said, the area in which cherries
may be grown is widely distributed throughout the United
States and Canada. There are, however, certain sections that
are not adapted to the growing of cherries. In sections where
the atmosphere is very dry, as on high plains, cherries cannot be
profitably grown, because even if the trees make good growth
they do not bear well. A point that must be considered in
selecting a location for a cherry orchard is the availability of
labor for harvesting the crop, which must be done in a compar-
atively short time.

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 11

The character of the soil must also be considered in selecting
the location for a cherry orchard. The ideal soil for the sweet
cherry is a deep, sandy loam. A clay subsoil may not interfere
with the growth if the soil is well drained and the clay is not
too compact. The soil should contain sufficient organic matter
to retain moisture well, but it should not be too rich in nitrogen,
as this will tend to stimulate a rank wood growth, which leads
to exudation of sap and causes the tree to be unfruitful and
short lived. The sour cherry will thrive on soil adapted to the
growth of the sweet cherry and may also be grown with profit
on well-drained clay loam.

10. Site. — The selection of a proper site for the cherry
orchard is very important, as no other hardy fruit is so suscep-
tible to injury by frost or cold rain during blooming time.
Especially is this true of the sweet cherries.

The ideal site is a high elevation which has good air drainage
as w^ell as good water drainage. Such a site tends not only to
lessen the danger of injury by late spring frosts, but also reduces
the damage by brown rot. If the grower has a choice of equall>'
desirable land sloping in different directions, a northern slope
should be selected, as the opening of buds in the spring is
retarded more than on other slopes. The proximity of large
bodies of water also lessens the danger of late frosts.

SELECTION OF VARIETIES

11. In selecting the varieties of cherries to be grown in a
commerical orchard, a grower should select from the varieties
that have been successfully grown in that section. In the
Pacific Coast States, sweet cherries are grown practically exclu-
sively, and the following varieties have been recommended for
growth in that region: Black Tartarian, Napoleon, Windsor,
Yellow Spanish, Rockport, Elton, Bing, Lam.bert, and Cen-
tennial ; of these the Black Tartarian and the Napoleon varieties
probably stand first in importance. In the Sierra Nevada
Mountains in the eastern part of Oregon, the dukes are widely
planted, as they are more hardy and stand the winters better

12 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

than the varieties just mentioned. In the Central West, sour
cherries are planted almost entirely. The varieties most widely-
grown are Dyehouse, Early Richmond, Montmorency, English
Morello, and Wragg. In the Eastern States, sour cherries are
largely grown, although some sweet cherries are also grown.
The state of Michigan leads the other Eastern States in pro-
duction of sweet cherries, and here about 1 acre of sweet to
10 acres of sour cherries is grown. The sweet cherry most
grown in Michigan and in other sections of the East is the
Windsor, which is better adapted to clay loam than is any other
variety of sweet cherry. The Napoleon and Yellow Spanish
varieties, as well as the Magnifique and Montreuil, varieties of
the dukes group, are also grown. The principal sour cherries
grown in the Eastern States are Montmorency, Early Rich-
mond, Ostheim, English Morello, and Wragg.

X ijOC'}^ ai

■thiol

CHERRY NURSERY STOCK

12. Propagation of Cherry Trees. — The usual method
of propagating cherries is by budding. Seedlings 1 year old
are planted and are budded the following summer as soon as buds
are ripe on the parent, which is sometime in August in the
Northeastern States, and somewhat earlier in sections having
a warmer climate. Two kinds of stock are used for propaga-
ting cherries, the mazzard, a seedling sweet cherry, and the
mahaleb, a seedling sour cherry. Trees grown on mahaleb
stock are more dwarf in habit and are said to be more hardy
in the West than are trees grown on mazzard stock. For some
years the Eastern nurserymen have been budding both sour and
sweet cherries on the mahaleb, but there is now a demand for
the sweet cherries on mazzard roots to be planted on light
soils, and some experiments in New York seem to indicate that
even on fairly heavy soils the mazzard is the better root for
sour cherries, but even in that locality the mazzard stock
sometimes suffers severely during hard winters.

13. Nursery Trees. — It is best to order 1-year-old cherry
triges for planting as trees of this age may be headed as low as

20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES

desired. They will also have a greater proportion of their
roots remaining upon them than will trees which have been

Fig. 5

allowed to grow longer in the nursery. Another advantage
of 1 -year-old trees is that being small they are much easier to
handle and less expensive to ship. In preparing the trees for

14 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

planting the same precautions should be observed as in the
case of plums.

A No. 1 grade 2-year-old sour cherry tree of the Montmorency
variety is shown in Fig. 5 (a) ; it measured 5 feet 6 inches above
the bud and 9 inches below the bud, and calipered | inch. A
No. 1 grade sweet cherry tree of the Napoleon variety is shown
in (6) ; it measured 6 feet 3 inches above the bud and 9 inches
below the bud, and calipered 1 3^ inches.

PLANTING OF CHERRIES

14. Methods of Planting. — The methods of planting
cherry trees are the same as those already outlined for other
fruit trees, with the possible exception that when cherry trees
are planted in the cold parts of the Prairie States and north of
the 41st parallel, it is deemed to be good practice to plant
them 6 to 12 inches deeper than they stood in the niu^sery row,
and this is of special importance on the high, rolling land that
is the most suitable for cherry orchards. As a rule, it is wise
in any section to plant cherry trees somewhat deeper than they
stood in the nursery.

15. Time of Planting. — A large proportion of cherry
trees are dug in the fall, and since a great many plantings
are made in the fall, nurserymen, to rush the work, strip the
foliage, frequently three or four weeks before it would fall
naturally; this tends to weaken the trees and increase the loss,
which is usually charged to autumn planting. In the judgment
of some experienced growers, fall planting, made just as soon
as the leaves drop naturally, is preferable to spring planting,
as trees well planted in the fall are generally in better condition
than trees in the nursery ceUar.

The advantages of fall planting are that a better callus of the
injured surface of the root is secured and some roots develop
before winter. The soil being warmer in October than at any
other time of the year, the growth of roots is encouraged more
at that time than in spring. When trees are spring planted,
the growth of foliage is made largely at the expense of the food

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 15

stored in the truiik, and it is some time before the roots can
develop marked activity. In fact, it is frequently June before
new growth can be seen on the roots. If spring planting is
practiced, it should be done as early as possible.

16. Distance for Planting. — Sour cherries are set as
close as 10 feet or 12 feet apart; 18 feet by 18 feet is a common
distance. The sour varieties would be better planted 20 feet
by 20 feet, and sweet cherries should be planted 30 feet apart
each way, for in favorable locations the sweet cherry will make
a large tree 40 to 50 feet high.

ORCHARD OPERATIONS

17. Cultivation. — The soil for cherries is prepared in the
same way as that for plums. A cultivated crop, such as com,
potatoes, beans, etc., or garden truck, is frequently grown
between the trees for the first 3 or 4 years, if Ihe soil is sufficiently
rich. If intercropping is not practiced and the land is entirely
given up to the trees, shallow cultivation is maintained until
the middle of July or thereabouts. At this time cultivation
ceases and a cover crop of some kind, for example, Crimson
clover, oats and barley, buckwheat and rape, or one of various
other crops is planted. The important point is to have a good
mat of material on the ground to hold snow and afford pro-
tection to the roots. In addition, these crops have some value
as fertilizers. Many successful growers contend that it is
absolutely necessary for a successful cherry orchard that it
have good cultivation during its early life and that the trees
be developed to a good size before bearing. A little more care
must be taken in growing sweet cherries than in growing sour
cherries. The sour cherry will stand forcing, but the sweet
cherry may be made to grow too rapidly, in which case most
of its energies will be devoted to the production of wood gro^vth
and little to the production of fruit. When the trees come into
bearing it is generally advisable to maintain good cultivation
in the case of the sour cherries, but in some cases it is profitable
to sow clover in the sweet-cherry orchard and let it remain for

IG CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

two or three seasons, especially if the trees are making much
growth. Each grower will have to decide for himself as to
the best method to pursue. It is safe to say that on sandy land
cultivation should be maintained for both sweet and sour
cherries. It is very important that cultivation be started as
soon as possible in the spring, in order to retain as much mois-
ture as possible in the soil.

The tillage implements are those usually used in other
orchards.

18. Priming. — Compared with most other trees, the
cherry should receive little pruning, especially after the first
2 or 3 years. During the first year just sufficient wood should
be removed to give the tree a spreading habit. The head
should be started within 18 inches of the ground and according
to some of the most successful growers should consist of from
three to five main branches with a leader. Low-headed trees
are secured by allowing siifficient distance between the trees
and by heading in from the first year. It may be necessary to
cut back the growth one-half each year until the tree comes
into bearing. If this is done there must also be judicious
thinning of the shoots, which are induced to grow because of
this method of cutting back. After the trees reach bearing
age little other pruning than to take out interfering or diseased
wood is needed.

19. Fertilizing. — The question of the desirability of
fertilizing cherry orchards depends largely on local conditions.
In general, however, where Crimson clover or Red clover can
be grown as a catch crop and turned under in the spring, there
will be little need to apply nitrogenous fertilizers. It is stated
by some growers that the application of phosphate fertilizers,
especially in the form of acid phosphate, tends to aid the trees
in maturing their wood. Some growers recommend the appli-
cation of 3 pounds of muriate of potash and 15 pounds of acid
phosphate per tree, and in some cases the application of from 100
to 250 pounds of muriate of potash and from 300 to 500 pounds
of acid phosphate per acre is recommended. From 300 to 400
pounds of muriate of potash and an equal quantity of ground

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 17

bone have been applied per acre with good results. Wood
ashes, when obtainable, may be applied at the rate of from 50 to
100 bushels per acre in place of the muriate of potash. In each
case the nitrogen is to be secured by plowing under legtuninous
crops. Some growers use a 2-8-10 complete fertilizer at the
rate of 400 to 800 pounds per acre.

20. Spraying. — The first spray shoiild be applied to
cherries before the buds break and should consist of lime-
sulphur of a specific gravity of 1.03, or 32° Baiime diluted
1 to 8. The second spray should be applied just before the
fruit buds open and should consist of lime-sulphur of a specific
gravity of 1.007, or 32° Baume diluted 1 to 40, and containing
1| to 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of liquid. This
spray may be repeated as soon as the fruit sets and may be
followed by two or three subsequent sprayings if necessary.
Some growers use Bordeaux mixture in place of lime-sulphur
for all sprays except the first. Self -boiled lime-sulphur is some-
times used as a ftingicide spray after the fruit forms.

21. Renovation of Old Ciierry Orciiards. — The cherry,
especially in the Eastern States, grows to a good size and lives
to a great age, some trees being over a hundred years old, but
there are few old cherry orchards. There has been no great
cherry business, and it is difficult to state how long an orchard
will continue to be profitable. One authority states that
probably 30 years is the limit of the most profitable age, for
after that time the trees are so large that the expense of pick-
ing the fruit and taking care of the trees becomes too great.
Before renovating an old orchard, an individual should consider
these factors and determine whether it would not be better to
plant a new orchard. Cherry trees may be expected to bear at
5 years of age and at 10 years to be making handsome returns;
and generally it will take 2 or 3 years to get an. old orchard
into shape even if it can be accomplished at all.

18 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

HANDLING OF THE CHERRY CROP

22. Harvesting." — ^The labor of picking has been a serious
problem in cherry growing, as the fruit matures very rapidly
and must be quickly removed or it will spoil. For this reason,
a grower should not plant a large cherry orchard unless he is
sure he can secure pickers at the proper time. The fruit should
be harvested in two or three pickings, as it does not ripen uni-
formly. The pickers should use ladders and should not be
allowed to climb around in the trees, as this is liable to injure
the bark and also to break the branches. Pickers are usually
paid from f to 1 cent per pound, although some growers prefer
to hire by the day, because of the greater care exercised by the
pickers. Fruit for shipping should be picked with the stems
on, but at the same time care must be taken not to remove
the fruit spur to which the stem is attached. When the fruit
is picked for a short haul to a cannery, it is allowed to become
more mature than when it is to be shipped. It is also picked
without the stems, which is much easier for the picker and less
injurious to the tree.

One of the most successful growers in Michigan harvests all
of his cherries by spreading sheets under the trees and per-
mitting the pickers to clip the fruit off with scissors and allow
it to fall on the sheet, leaving about | inch of the stem on the
cherry. Fruit picked in this way sells at a higher price than that
which has long stems attached. Cherries should be picked
while dry. As soon as the fruit is picked it should be placed
in the shade or removed to the packing house.

23. Grading and Packing. — The fruit is poured from the
picking baskets onto the packing table. If it can be allowed
to cool before it is graded it can be handled much better. Gra-
ding and packing usually constitute one operation. The fruit
should not be shipped in large bulk, as for example in half-
bushel packages, as the fruit is easily crushed. Baskets holding
not more than 8 or 10 pounds are used. Some growers pack
cherries in berry boxes and use the 16-box berry crate as a
carrier. Very fancy fruit packed in 1- or 2-pound packages

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 19

and shipped in carriers will often bring a much higher price
than if put up in larger packages.

When cherries are to be shipped in small boxes, the tops of
the boxes are nailed on and the bottoms left off, and the box is
packed from the bottom. Cherries are placed in rows on the
inside of the top, with the stems all turned into the box. After
the inside is covered, forming the facing, the box is filled and the
bottom nailed on and the box turned and marked on the faced
side. Lace-edged paper is often placed in the box before the
fruit is put in. If baskets are used for packing, the fruit is
put in and faced on top. For fancy fruit, facing pays. If the
fruit is to be sent to the canner it is not graded so closely and.
is usually shipped in 8-pound baskets without facing.

24, Storing. — Cherries are regarded by cold-storage men
as extremely perishable. The way in which the fruit is handled
before it is placed in storage has much to do with its keeping.
Cherries that have been properly picked and handled and
covered with a layer of cotton batting have been kept in good
condition for a month at a temperature of 30 degrees, which
is the temperature found best for storing cherries.

Cherries as well as plums have been held in storage frozen
at a temperature of from 5 to 12 degrees for several months.
They must, however, be used immediately on being taken out
of storage. Little has been done thus far in holding cherries
in storage for commercial purposes.

25. Marketing. — The problem of marketing is similar to
that of all other perishable fruits, but by cooperation a number
of small growers can dispose of their crops to as good advantage
as the large grower can. Generally speaking, Eastern-grown
fruit will not stand up quite as well as that grown in California ;
there is, therefore, more risk in handling. California cherries
can be placed on Eastern markets in April when Eastern trees
are in bloom and remain in the market until July. The Eastern
grower is hardly warranted in going into the business unless
he has a near-by market such as a canning factory that will
take large quantities of fruit at very short notice. Such a
factory constitutes one of the best markets for a large grower.

20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

If the price is determined before the fruit is consigned to the
market the grower is not subject to the risk that is taken when
fruit is consigned on commission, as the market may be glutted
when the fruit arrives. There is a large and insistent demand
on the part of canners for white cherries, that is, the sweet,
light-colored cherries, and for red cherries, especially the
Montmorency. The price ruling during the last few years
has been about 5 cents per pound.

CHERRY PESTS AND INJURIES

INSECTS

26. The black cherry aphis is an insect that so far as
known attacks only the cherry and does serious injury only to
the sweet chferry. Beth the winged and the wingless forms of
this aphis are shining black. The insects assemble in large
numbers on the young shoots or limbs near the base, before
spreading to the rest of the tree. If careful watch is kept the
insects may easily be destroyed while so clustered and thus may
be prevented from spreading to other parts of the tree. The
presence of the insects is indicated by a large amount of honey
dew on the foliage. The infested leaves soon begin to curl and
form a protection for the insects. The black cherry aphis
should be controlled by the use of contact insecticide sprays,
which should be applied before the leaves curl.

27. The San Jose scale and other scale insects that have
been discussed in connection with the growing of other fruits
sometimes attack cherries. The remedy is the same as already
given for these insects. The sour cherry does not stiff er as
severely from the attack of San Jose scale as does the sweet
cherry.

28. The plum curculio sometimes injures cherries. The
remedy is to spray with arsenate of lead as described for plums.

29. The cherry fruit fly is an insect native to America.
The adult insect is a fly slightly smaller than a house fly; it is

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 21

black in color and has a yellowish head and legs and three or
four white bands across the abdomen. This insect deposits eggs
just under the skin of the cherry. The eggs hatch in a few days
into little maggots, similar in appearance to the apple maggot ;
these burrow through the flesh of the cherry, leaving a rotting
cavity. When full grown the maggots leave the cherry and
pupate just below the surface of the ground, under rubbish,
or in the bottom of baskets
in which the fruit is packed.
Little has been done toward
controlling this insect. A
similar fly has recently
been controlled in South
Africa by spraying the foli-
age with arsenate-of-lead
solution sweetened with
brown sugar. The sugars,'
attracts the flies, which ase

-]3^.. Fig. 6

killed by the poison. This

remedy is worthy of trial if the cherry fruit fly should become
a very serious pest. Early spring flowing will no doubt bury
many of the pupas and prevent the flies from emerging. All
fruit that falls or that remains on the trees after harvest
should be destroyed. Fig. 6 represents the cherry fruit fly.

FUNGOUS AND CLIMATIC INJURIES

30. The fungous disease known as black knot that causes
the black, irregular knotty growth on plum trees also attacks
cherry trees. The remedy is to cut out and bum the affected
branches as soon as they are discovered. Fig. 7 shows cherry
branches affected with black knot.

31. Brown rot is the most serious fungous disease with
which cherry growers have to contend, and some varieties of
sweet cherries are especially subject to its attack. Fruit that
cracks is especially liable to be attacked. Hot, moist atmos-
pheric conditions, when occurring at the time the fruit is

CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

ripening, are favorable to the spread of this disease. Bordeaux
mixture has been used with partial success to control the
fungus, but the foliage of the sweet cherry is very susceptible
to injury by Bordeaux. Some growers believe that self-boiled
lime-sulphur will prove to be an excellent remedy for the
disease. Injury from this fungus may be lessened by picking

^^^

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^^^^^^^^^ "'

^
''^

W:=^&^'_^wM:

^^~2^^^"^^^^^^^^^^

K^f^

/k ^ ^^-^^'^^^^sL^^r-^^^^^^k

Fig. 7

the fruit before it is fully ripe and when it is perfectly dry.
Fig. 8 shows Montmorency cherries affected with brown rot.

32. Powdery mildew sometimes attacks the fruit and
leaves of the sour cherry. The description and remedy for this
fungus has been given in a previous Section.

33. The shot-liole fuiigus described in another Section
also affects cherries. The remedy is the same as in the case of
plums.

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES

34. An injury known as sun scald is frequently seen on
cherry trees, and especially on sweet cherry trees. This injury
is prevalent in the West and South and as far north as Massa-
chusetts. It occurs usually in the late winter or the early
spring on the south or the west side of the trunk or of the
larger branches. It is caused by alternate freezing and thawing,

Fig. 8

causing contraction and expansion, which bursts the bark on
the side of the tree toward the sun. The injury is most prev-
alent on trees that are growing rapidly. If trees are headed
low so that the trunks are shaded there is less danger of this
injury occurring. In some of the Western States the trunks
are shaded with netting, matting, or a board to prevent this
injury.

24 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

APRICOTS

35. The apricot tree is a vigorous grower and produces
fruit both on the spurs and on the last season's twigs. The
fruit ripens in advance of the peach and plum and has the
general appearance of the peach, but its pit, which is broad,
smooth, and somewhat fiat, is more like that of the plum.
The earliness of the blooming period of the apricot has been
the greatest drawback to its being planted in almost all sections
where the peach thrives. In many of the sections where the
apricot has been tried, the fruit is nearly always killed by late
spring frosts. In many cases the failure of the plants to thrive
and to produce fruit has been due to the planting of wrong
varieties. With a better knowledge of frost conditions and of
methods of protection from frosts, the area over which apricots
can be grown has recently increased very rapidly.

The demand for apricots is so great that they will always
bring good prices.

The same general statements that have been made in regard
to the selection of a location for a peach orchard are applicable
to the selection of a location for an apricot orchard. It should
be remembered, however, that apricots bloom earlier in the
spring than do peaches and, therefore, cannot be grown with as
much safety in localities that are subject to late spring frosts
as can peaches.

36. Varieties of Apricots. — Brief descriptions of some of
the best commercial varieties of apricots are as follows :

The Moorpark is one of the latest-ripening varieties. The
fruit is large and uniform in size, nearly round in shape, and in
color is orange with a deep orange-colored cheek. It is a free-
stone and the flesh is bright yellowish orange in color, is firm and
juicy, has a rich, high flavor, and the quality is good.

The Royal is a leading variety for canning and drying.
The fruit is large, roundish in shape, the color is a dull yellow

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 25

with an orange cheek and a faint blush, and is a freestone.
The flesh is Hght orange in color, is firm and juicy, has a vinous
flavor, and is classed as good in quality.

The Peach variety is one of the best. It ripens in mid-
season and dries to a deep golden-yellow color. The fruit is
very large, has flattened sides, and a well-marked suture, and
is of an orange color. The flesh is orange yellow in color, is
juicy, rich, and highly flavored.

The Tilton variety resembles the Peach variety in respect to
size, shape, and time of ripening, but it is more deeply colored.
It dries well and is a good canner and shipper.

The fruit of the Newcastle variety is of mediimi size and is
valuable for supplying the early market.

The fruit of the BlerLheim variety is above mediimi in size
and is of an oval shape and an orange color. The flesh is deep
yellow in color, juicy, and has a rich flavor. This variety is in
great demand for canning and drying.

37. Selection of Nursery Stock. — The apricot may be
grown on either peach, apricot, almond, or plum stock. The
peach seedling is used most as stock on which to graft apricot
scions. The plimi should be used as stock for heavy soils, and
the peach or the bitter almond should be used as stock for
light soils. The almond root should not be used as stock in
sections troubled by gophers, as these animals are very fond of
it and often destroy large orchards of trees grown on this root.

The pits from which the stock is to be grown are usually
obtained at canneries and kept from drying out until the follow-
ing spring, when they are planted in rows 3| feet apart, and the
pits 3 inches apart in the row and are covered 3 inches deep.
The planting can also be done in the fall. The pits may be
kept from becoming dry by placing a 2-inch layer of pits in
a bottomless box placed on the ground and on top of the pits
a 2-inch layer of sand. This operation is repeated until all the
pits are covered.

A good nursery tree should be 1 year old and from 4 to 5 feet
high. Branches or well-developed buds should be well dis-
tributed along the trunk to within 10 inches of the roots.

20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

The trunk, or stem, must be stocky, the roots weU developed,
and have numerous small branching rootlets. A tree with
only a few large roots will start growth very slowly.

Nursery stock should be purchased from well-known nursery
firms, and if possible from a nursery located in the district in
which the orchard is to be grown.

38. Planting of Apricot Trees. — As soon as the trees
are received from the nursery they should be heeled-in until
they are to be planted. Apricots are planted from 20 to 30 feet
apart. The suggestions in regard to the preparations of the
soil for peaches and to the planting of peaches are applicable
to apricots.

39. Priming of Apricot Trees. — The time that elapses
between the setting of trees and the time that they begin
bearing is the period of formation of the trees and will cover
the first 3 years of their existence in the orchard. The first
year the tree should be headed back to within 15 inches of the
ground, and as the apricot is a very rapid grower there will be
many more shoots than are required. As soon as the twigs
reach a length of 6 inches all on the stem, from the groimd up
to a point 8 inches above the surface, shoiild be removed, above
this point only five branches should be left and these well placed
aroimd the stem. After the trees have become dormant, pre-
ferably along toward spring, the remaining branches should be
cut back from one-half to two-thirds of their growth and the
side shoots on them thiimed to from three to five shoots on
each branch and each shoot should be cut back to spurs of
three buds. This pruning leaves stubs of about 1| feet in
length as a foundation on which to build the tree. The pruning
for the next 2 years should be such as to make the tree as stocky
as possible. To accompHsh this the pruning the second and
the third year should be almost as severe as that given the
first year. The sprouts on the trunk and all drooping branches
should be removed to allow Hght and air to get into the head
of the tree, otherwise the twigs and spurs in the center will be
smothered out. All main branches should be cut back about
one-half.

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 27

From the fourth year good crops of fruit shoiild be expected,
and as the habit of the tree is gradually to extend the bearing
wood farther and farther away from the trunk and the spurs
near the body to break off or die, a rather vigorous heading back
must be practiced. Heading back favors new growth on the
trunk and on the large branches near the body, thus keeping
the fruiting surface more evenly distributed. The extent of
the pruning depends on the growth of the trees. A vigorous
growth may be cut back one-half and a light growth one-third,
but the branches should be kept thinned and cut back so that
the sunshine can get to the center of the head to ripen and
color the fruit.

40. Renovating Apricot Orchards. — The first step in
renovating an old orchard is to give the land a thorough plow-
ing, preferably during the faU. The orchard should then
receive a thorough pruning. All suckers from around the base
of the trees and all broken and diseased branches should be
removed and the head cut back very severely. If the orchard
has not been pruned for some years, at least one-half the length
of aU branches should be removed. The orchard should then
be sprayed thoroughly with lime-sulphur, 1 gallon of stock
solution of 30° Baimie test to 7 gallons of water, making a
spray of a specific gravity of about 1.03.

41. Fertilizing. — The most common fertilizers in use for
apricot orchards are dried blood, bone meal, nitrate of soda,
muriate of potash, and superphosphate.

If the leaves of the trees are of light color and the growth
of the trees is poor, the application of from 150 to 200 pounds
of nitrate of soda per acre sown broadcast and cultivated luider
will have a beneficial effect. If the fruit is not up to standard
as to flavor and texture, an application of from 400 to 500 pounds
per acre of a mixture consisting of 1 part of acid phosphate, or
superphosphate, and 2| parts of muriate of potash will be
beneficial.

If a complete fertilizer is desired about 500 pounds per acre
of the following mixture can be used: Nitrate of soda, 150

28 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

pounds; muriate of potash, 250 pounds; acid phosphate, or
superphosphate, 100 pounds.

A chemical fertilizer should be applied during the spring.
Cover crops or green maniire are valuable in improving the
fertility of orchard soils.

42. Apricot Pests and Injuries. — The apricot tree is
one of the healthiest of fruit trees. There are but few insect
pests and fungous diseases that seriously injure the tree or
its fruit, but the tree is very susceptible to injury from frost.
In fact, it is climatic conditions more than anything else that
curtails the production of apricots. The principal insect
enemies of the apricot are the plum curculio, the peach borer,
and the San Jose scale. The worst disease that affects the
apricot is the shot-hole fungus, which causes considerable
damage by perforating the leaves with small holes similar to
shot holes and by causing numerous small scars on the fruit
that materially reduce its value. These pests and injuries
are combated by the same methods that have been recom-
mended elsewhere.

43. Harvesting of Apricots. — The stage of maturity at
which apricots should be picked depends on whether the fruit
is to be shipped, canned, or dried. For shipping or for canning
purposes, the fruit should be well colored and ripe, but only ripe
enough to be firm; that is, it should not be ripe enough to be
in the least soft. Fruit that has begun to soften will not stand
shipping and should be dried.

An orchardist should have a good supply of picking buckets
of the 12-quart, wide-mouth type, and field boxes, which should
be of uniform size and hold about 1 bushel. Good step ladders
are a necessary part of a picking equipment. All fruit that
is ripe enough to ship should be gathered at one picking.
One or two apricots should be picked at a time and laid, not
dropped, into the receptacle. A number of apricots should
not be held in the hand at one time, as they are very apt to
be squeezed and bruised. All the lower fmit should be picked
and placed in the boxes and the fruit in the top of the tree
picked from the step ladders and placed in the buckets. The

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 29

boxes or buckets should not be heaped, as there would be too
much weight on the fruit in the bottom of the box or bucket.
The fruit should not be emptied out of the boxes or buckets,
but taken directly to the packing house and picked out. Every
time the fruit is handled its shipping quality is impaired. All
the fruit should not be picked at one picking, because it does
not all ripen at the same time. The trees should be gone over
several times before all the crop is removed.

44. Grading and Packing of Apricots. — ^Part of the
grading can be done as the fruit is being picked by leaving all
deformed or diseased specimens in the orchard. The final
grading is done by the packers. All soft, broken-skiimed,
undersized, and otherwise blemished fruit is culled out by the
packers as the fruit is sorted according to size and packed.

Apricots are packed in carriers containing four baskets 8 in.
X8 in. X4 in. in size. Paper is used to line the baskets and to
place between each layer of fruit. The style of pack that is
used depends on the size of the fruit. When it is possible, some
form of the diagonal pack, as described for apples, is used. The
diagonal pack allows fruit to be so distributed that each fruit
bears a part of the pressure and weight of other fruits in the
pack. Also, the fruit in diagonal packs sirffers less from ship-
ping than it does in other forms of packs, especially the straight
pack. However, small fruits are usually placed in straight
packs because it is easier to bring the fruit to the top of the
basket by using the straight pack than by using the other
forms of packs.

45. Marketing of Apricots. — The apricot is one of the
most perishable of tree fruits, the season for it in the fresh
state ending almost with the last picking. As a result, the
larger number of apricot consumers are more familiar with the
canned or dried product than they are with the fresh. Shippers
realize that the only limit to the consumption of the fresh fruit
is its keeping qualities, and that anything that will lengthen
its season will also increase the profits. At present careful
attention is being given to precooling and to shipping the
fruit in refrigerator cars. It has been found that by cooling the

30 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

fruit before loading and then carefully icing the cars, apricots
can be put on all the large markets in America in carload lots
and then distributed from there to the near-by small towns.
If the shipper has access to a good cold-storage plant at the
receiving station, the shipment can be unloaded right into the
storage room. This will give him a chance to hold his fruit
for a better market.

Some of the most difficult problems that are found in the
marketing of the apricot is to get the grower educated to pick
and to pack his crop properly. A poor shipment is nearly
always due to the fruit being roughly handled, to having stood
in the sun after it was removed from the trees, to having been
packed in a dirty packing house, or to poor packing.

46. Drying of Apricots.— At the present time the bulk
of apricot drying is done in the sun on a small plot of ground
set aside for the purpose. When the drying season approaches,
the drying yard is cleaned up and the trash removed. The fruit
is allowed to get riper than that used for shipping. In many
orchards the fruit is shaken off of the trees. However, it is a
much better plan to pick the fruit. The fruit is taken to a
shed where it is cut, never torn, in half and the pit shaken out.
The halves are spread, skin side down, on a tray and subjected
to the fimies of burning sulphur, from | an hour to 2 hours,
depending on the condition of the fruit. This is done in order
to make the fruit dry to a light amber color. The length of
time in the sulphur box required to give this color can be
learned only by experience. The trays containing the fruit
are then placed in the sunshine for from 3 to 6 days, the exact
time necessary to dry the fruit completely varying with the
climatic conditions and also with the condition of the fruit.
A few apricot growers dry their fruit in evaporators. About
6 pounds of green fruit will make 1 pound of dried fruit.

20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 31

QUINCES

INTRODUCTION

47. The quince is grown commercially less extensively than
any of the other tree or bush fruits, and although a compara-
■ tively limited quantity of this fruit is offered for sale, experience
proves that when a grove is rightly taken care of it can be made
very profitable. One of the best examples of the truth of this
statement is the history of a neglected quince grove of | acre in
New York State. The trees were about 30 years old and had
been practically abandoned. No fruit had been secured for
4 or 5 years, but it was thought by the owner that the trees were
worthy of renovation. Accordingly he pruned out the dead
wood, cultivated the land, and sprayed the trees. The first year
after the renovation no fruit was grown, but the succeeding years
showed good results, the returns for the next 6 years being
as follows: $112.50, $119, $150, $138.20, $138.75, $185.25.
When it is remembered that these returns were from | acre
of trees that had been neglected for 30 years, they seem sur-
prisingly large.

Quince trees generally begin to bear a small quantity of fruit
the third or the fourth year after being planted. They should
be in full bearing in 10 years after being planted, when an
annual yield of a bushel to a tree can be expected. The life
of a tree after coming into bearing averages from 30 to 40 years.

The demand for quinces would undoubtedly increase were
more fruit of good quality offered for sale. Quinces are very
acceptable for canning, evaporating, and the making of jelly,
marmalade, and. preserves, and when boiled and served hot
with cream or butter they are an excellent dessert ; another use
is to bake them with Pound Sweet apples to be served as baked
apple and quince. The Chicago market will take a large

32 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

quantity of fruit for this last-named purpose; in fact, they are
used to such an extent for this purpose that the supply of
quinces has an influence on the price of Pound Sweet apples.
The price of apples of this variety is likely to be low, if but
few quinces are offered on the market.

Among the points that can be given in favor of growing
quinces commercially are: (1) The trees are almost sure to
bear regularly if they have the proper care ; (2) as the trees are
small, seldom averaging over 15 feet in height, they are easily
sprayed and pruned, and the fruit is easily thinned and har-
vested; (3) quinces are late bloomers, usually not coming into
blossom until all danger of frost has passed ; (4) the fruit is not
very perishable, being about like apples in this respect; (5) the
prices received for first-class fruit have in the past been large,
and it is to be expected that, even with a marked increase in
acreage, the prices will continue to be large, as there would
be a tendency to increase the consiunption if enough quinces
were offered for sale to let consimiers learn of the many good
qualities of this excellent fruit.

IMPORTANT VARIETIES OF QUINCES

48. Descriptions of some of the important varieties of
quinces suitable for planting in the United States and Canada
are given below. Several other varieties are sold by nursery-
men, but those described are the most important ones for both
home and commercial planting.

The Orange, or as it is also known, the Apple quince, one of
which is illustrated in Fig. 9, is probably the most important
commercial variety. The tree is a moderately vigorous grower
and has wide, spreading branches. The fruit is variable in size
and shape and may be pear shaped or be flattened on the end
like an apple. The color of the fruit is a pale orange and the
surface is moderately covered with down. The flesh is very
firm and of a good flavor. When grown under the most favor-
able conditions, the fruit of this variety can be kept until
February. It ripens about mid-season.

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 33

The Champion is an American variety of quince of rather
recent origin. The tree is an upright grower and usually attains
a somewhat greater height than trees of the Orange variety.
The fruit is large and pear shaped and is furrowed about the
stem. The color is generally a greenish yellow, and the fruit is
covered with a prominent fuzz. The quinces are late in matur-

FiG. 9

ing and in some sections do not ripen well, but when grown
under good conditions the fruit is said to be one of the best
keepers.

The fruit of the Rea, is from a third to a half larger
than the fruit of the Orange variety. The tree is small, as a
rule, only about two-thirds the size of trees of the Orange.

248—34

CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES §20

The fruit is large to very large. The color is orange and the
surface is generally smooth, lacking the pronounced fuzz of
the varieties previously described. The fruit is of good quality
and ripens early but does not keep as well as fruit of the Orange.

Fig. 10

The trees need good cultivation for the best success. A quince
of this variety is illustrated in Fig. 10.

The tree of the Meech, also known as the Meech Prolific,
variety of quince is something like that of the Orange variety.
The trees have the spreading habit well developed. They bear
young and are usually good croppers. The fruit is of good
appearance but is inclined to be small, and largely for this
reason it is not as valuable for market purposes as the fruit

CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES

of some of the other varieties. In some sections it is claimed
to be one of the most productive of varieties, but in other
sections this claim has not been borne out.

The Missouri, or Missouri Mammoth, is a variety of quince
that is generally regarded as being very prolific. The tree
is large, in fact, the largest of any of the varieties of quinces

Fig. 11

described. The trees bear reasonably young, and, as a rule,
give fair crops. The fruit is of fair size and is rich and aromatic.

The Bourgeat is a variety of quince that can be held in
storage until spring. The tree is a strong grower and is regarded
as being a very good bearer. The fruit is large in size, of a
bright yellow color, and has a very small core; its keeping qual-
ity is of the best.

The Van Deman variety of quince is a recent introduction
of Luther Burbank, of California, and by some it is claimed to

36 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

be one of the hardiest and surest bearers in existence. The fruit
ripens throughout a comparatively long season, and it is claimed
to have excellent keeping qualities.

The Pear variety of quince, illustrated in Fig. 11, is grown
to a limited extent in quince-producing regions. The trees are
of average size and are considered to be moderate bearers.
The fruit ranges from medium to large in size; the skin is a
diill reddish yellow, covering a firm, tough, and rather dry flesh.
The flavor is good but slightly inferior to that of the Orange
variety. The fruit ripens late and has excellent shipping
qualities.

QUINCE- ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT

49. Selection of Location. — In selecting a location for
the establishment of a quince orchard, about the same factors
should be considered as with any of the other tree fruits,
except that, on account of the late blooming habit of the trees,
a location somewhat more subject to early spring frosts, may
be chosen if desired.

The best type of soil for quinces is generally conceded to
be a clay loam that is fairly retentive of moisture, but one
that is well drained. On very light soils the trees grow quicldy,
but they are short lived and usually unproductive.

50. Selection of Varieties. — Although but few varieties
of quinces are found in cultivation, in establishing a grove it is
generally a good plan to plant several varieties that mature at
different times during the season, in order that the fruit may be
had in succession. As with other fruits, it is well to ascertain,
if possible, from growers in the vicinity which varieties do best
in the locality where the trees are to be planted.

51. Propagation of Quinces. — The quince can be propa-
gated in one of four ways: (1) By budding, (2) by mound
layering, (3) by root grafting, and (4) by cuttings. The
budding method is the one most often employed by nursery-
men. Seedlings of a variety known as Angers which are
imported from France, are. used as stocks, and after budded
they are trained either in a tree or a bush form, according to

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 37

the ideas of the nurseryman. If they are received from the
nursery as bushes, the head being formed within 6 or 7 inches
of the ground, the orchardist can form a permanent head at
whatever height he desires. If, on the other hand, the nursery-
man trains the young plant in the tree form, the head will be
formed when the grower receives the trees, and he will have no
opportunity to form the head according to his own desires.

When quinces are propagated by mound layering an old
plant is cut back to encourage a growth of sprouts, and when
these are well started a mound of soil is thrown over the crown.
After the sprouts have taken root they are detached and sold
as young quince plants. A disadvantage of mound-layered
plants is their tendency to form numerous sprouts after being
planted.

In root grafting, the quince scions are grafted on apple-tree
roots. After being allowed to grow for a year the roots are
dug and if the quince scions have formed roots the apple roots
are removed and the young quince replanted.

Nurserymen who have light soils sometimes propagate the
quince by hardwood cuttings. These cuttings are placed in
the soil and after they take root are transplanted.

52. Purchasing of Young Quince Trees. — When pur-
chasing young quince trees, it is important that a grower visit
the nursery and select the trees himself. He should aim to get
thrifty, vigorous specimens, preferably those not older than
2 years from the time of budding. They should be headed
low, not more than 10 inches from the ground. Too often pur-
chasers try to get as large a tree as they can for a given price.
This is a mistake, for such trees are usually headed too high,
and they are likely to be 3 or 4 years old and to be culls from
previous years. The young trees should be examined carefully
for borers, and any that show signs of injury from this insect
should be discarded. Trees showing evidence of fire blight
should also be discarded, for they will not only be practically
worthless themselves but will carry infection to other trees.

The purchaser should guard against getting seedling trees —
that is, those on which the buds of the cultivated variety did

38 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES §20

not take. Often as high as 30 or 40 per cent, of the buds fail
to grow, and unless the young trees are carefully examined a
large percentage are very likely to be seedlings. With a little
practice, however, it is not difhcult to tell the seedlings from
the cultivated varieties, for the distance between the buds on
the twigs of the seedlings is usually much less than in the case
of cultivated varieties. In view of the fact that there is such a
likelihood of getting seedling stock, it will pay the grower, when
purchasing quince trees, to deal with a reliable nurseryman,
one from whom redress can be secured if the trees prove to be
untrue to name.

53. Planting of Quince Trees. — Quince trees may be
planted either in the spring or the fall, but probably the major-
ity of growers prefer spring planting. When planting in the
spring, it is advantageous to get the trees from a near-by nursery
so that they can be placed in the ground a day or so after being
dug, preferably the next day. Experience shows that trees
planted soon after being taken from the nursery make a much
more satisfactory growth than those dug the faU. previous and
stored during the winter. With fall-planted trees it is also
an advantage if the trees are planted soon after being taken
from the nursery row.

When the quince is planted soon after being taken from the
nursery row and if it has a good head started within a few
inches of the ground, all the pruning necessary at the time of
planting is to remove any excess of limbs, not even cutting
back the terminal. However, if the tree has become dried in
shipment and the tips of the limbs are dead, all such parts
shoiild be pruned ofif.

The preparation of the soil, the laying out of the grove,
and the setting of the trees are the same for the quince as for
other tree fruits. It is especially important in the case of
quince trees, however, that the soil be tamped well about the
roots. For commercial planting, quince trees should be placed
about 15 feet apart each way. The trees will then have suf-
ficient room in which to develop a low, spreading head. Too
close planting is as unadvisable as for other kinds of fruit trees.

20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 39

MANAGEMENT OF QUINCE ORCHARD

54. Pruning. — The question of how much or how httle
to prune quince trees is one on which growers do not agree.
Some prune their trees severely, as much as one-half of the new
growth each year, but such men are usually those who force
the trees with nitrogenous fertilizers, and who must therefore
prune severely to keep the trees within bounds. Other growers
allow the trees practically to grow at wUl from the time they
are planted until they come into bearing, pruning only enough
to keep the fire blight in subjection and to keep them headed
back slightly. Most growers agree, however, that after the
trees come into bearing, some annual heading in and cutting
back of fruit-bearing branches is desirable in order to improve
the size of the fruit. This cutting back of fruit-bearing wood has
the same effect as thinning, for the quince, like the peach, bears
fruit on wood of the previous year's growth. Pruning should
not be so excessive, however, as to cause a large growth of tender
sprouts, for such growth is subject to attacks of fire blight.

55. Spraying. — ^As with other fruits, combined fungicidal
and insecticidal sprays are used for quince trees. Following
is a system that is in use by several successful growers:

1. Just before the blossoms open, spray with Bordeaux
mixture (6 pounds of copper sulphate, 6 pounds of lime, water
slaked, 50 gallons of water) ; Bordeaux mixture appears to be
well adapted to the requirements of the quince. Arsenate of
lead (2 or 3 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of fungi-
cide solution) should also be used with the fungicide spray at
this time. This spraying is for the control of leaf and fruit
spot or black spot, rust, and curculio.

2. Immediately after the blossoms have fallen, or even
while the last of the petals are falling, spray with Bordeaux
mixture (3 pounds of copper sulphate, 4 pounds of lime, water
slaked, 50 gallons of water) and arsenate of lead (2| or 3 pounds
of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of spray solution) . This spray-
ing is for the control of the same troubles mentioned in para-
graph 1.

40 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES §20

3. From three to four other sprayings at intervals of 10 days
after the spraying described in paragraph 2 will be sufficient
to keep the fruit and foliage in excellent condition.

56. Cultivating and Cover Cropping. — ^A quince grove
should be kept well cultivated until some time in July, when
a cover crop should be sown, and as the quince is comparatively
shallow rooted, cultivation should be shallow. The kind of
cover crop to use will depend largely on the richness of the soil.
If the soil is deficient in nitrogen, a legimiinous crop should
be sown, but if the trees seem thrifty and not in need of new
wood growth, some non-legimiinous crop should be used. The
non-legumes recommended as cover crops for plum and cherry
orchards are applicable for quince groves.

57. Intercropping of a Quince Orchard. — ^While the
quince orchard is young, beans or some other cultivated crop
may be grown between the trees, but owing to the short dis-
tance between trees there is usually little profit in the extra
crop. The better plan seems to be to keep all the space between
the trees well cultivated until the cover crop is sown in July.

58. Fertilizers for Quince Groves. — In many of the
best commercial quince groves, barnyard manure is applied
each year, enough being used to keep the trees in good but not
excessive growth. In other orchards, commercial fertilizer
containing phosphoric acid and potash is used, the nitrogen
supply coming from legimiinous cover crops. The quan-
tities that have been used by some successful growers in New
York State are from 300 to 500 pounds of acid phosphate and
from 200 to 300 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. Other
growers use from 200 to 400 pounds of ground bone and from
200 to 300 pounds of muriate of potash per acre. If a com-
plete mixed fertilizer is desired, it shoiild analyze 2 per cent,
nitrogen, 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent, potash.
From 400 to 800 potinds per acre is the usual range of applica-
tion. An excessive wood growth should not be encouraged for
quince trees, and for this reason fertilizers excessively rich in
nitrogen should be used sparingly, if at all.

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 41

59. Treatment of Winter-Killed Quince Trees. — Fre-
quently young quince trees, and sometimes mature trees, are
injured by winter killing. If the lower part of winter-injured
trees is covered with snow there is likely to be life left below the
snow level. In such a case, if the top is removed before growth
starts in the spring, the tree may form a new head. The dead
parts should be removed early in March so that growth can
start early.

60. Protecting Quince Trees From Mice. — Mice fre-
quently injure the trunks of young quince trees, and to guard
against them it is well to provide the trees with wire guards,
especially during the winter months. Painting the trunk
with white paint is often advised for this trouble, but it is less
effective than the use of wire guards.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING OF QUINCES

61. The quince is ready for harvesting as soon as the
fruit has turned a good color. Picking is done in the same
manner as for apples. Great care should be taken not to
bruise the fruit, because each bruise soon becomes a dark-
brown spot that detracts greatly from the appearance of the
product.

The fruit should be carefully graded, and at the time grading
is done each quince should be wiped with a cloth to remove the
fuzz adhering to the surface. The removal of this fuzz causes
the fruit to have a better appearance than otherwise. Most
growers make three grades of quinces, besides the culls. Each
grower generally has his own standard of grading, but as a
rule the first-grade fruit will consist of quinces of the largest
size and best color. That placed in the second grade will be
somewhat smaller in size, and some of the quinces may be
slightly off color. The third-class fruit wiU be made up of
small sized but sound fruit and some poorly colored specimens
of fair size.

The first and second grades are usually packed in small con-
tainers, the very best often being placed in peck-size climax

42 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

baskets, and the second grade in kegs holding about a bushel,
or sometimes in half barrels. The third-grade fruit is usually
packed in standard apple barrels.

Quinces are not often held in storage, as there is generally
a sufficient demand in the fall to induce growers to sell at that
season of the 3^ear. The fruit can be kept in cellar storage as
late as January or February. The temperature recommended
for quinces in cold storage is 35° F.

The problems involved in the marketing of apples are applic-
able also to quinces. The demand is, as a rule, very good,
and growers have practically no difficulty in disposing of their
crops. When possible to do so, it seems that the retailing of
quinces locally is a good method of marketing. A small pack-
age can be used, and consumers will soon learn of the merits
of the fruit and buy accordingly.

QUINCE PESTS AND INJURIES

62. The quince is subject to attack by the San Jose scale,
the codling moth, borers, and the quince curculio.

Although the San Jose scale attacks quince trees, it does them
but little harm, as the trees seem able to withstand the effects
of this insect without appreciable injury. However, since the
scale can be spread from one species of plant to another, it is
sometimes well to spray dormant quince trees with lime-
sulphur solution in order to prevent the scale from spreading.

63. The codling moth injures the quince in the same
manner that it injures the apple and pear, and can be con-
trolled in the same way — that is, by spraying with an arsenical
poison.

64. The round-headed apple-tree borer causes con-
siderable injury to quince trees unless precautions are taken to
remove the insects, which are found from a point about 2 or
3 inches below the ground level to 1 or 2 feet above the ground.
They excavate burrows in the trunk and crown and can be
destroyed by digging into the burrows with a sharp knife or wire,

§ 20 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES 43

after which the wounds should be disinfected with mercuric-
chloride solution of a strength of 1 to 1,000, and if a serious
wound has been made it shoiild be covered with grafting wax.

65. The quince curculio is a snout beetle somewhat
larger than the plum curculio, and is broader shouldered and
has a longer snout. Two views of this beetle are shown in
Fig. 12. The size is indicated by the vertical line. The
beetles are ashy gray in color, mottled with ocher yellow and
white. On the wing covers are seven narrow longitudinal
elevations with two rows of dots between each. The beetles
appear some time during June, when they puncture the imma-
ture fruit, making cylindrical holes in which they deposit
their eggs. The eggs hatch in a few days and the larvas make
burrows into the fruit near the
surface, not penetrating the core.
In about a month the larvas
become full grown and leave the
fruit and bury themselves in the
ground, where they remain until
May, when they pupate. In a
few days the beetles appear and
soon begin to puncture the fruit
and deposit their eggs. This in-
sect is combated by spraying the foliage with an arsenical
poison, sometimes by jarring the trees as described for plums,
and also by collecting the fruit that falls prematurely to the
ground.

66. The bag worm, known also as the basket worm,
described previously as affecting apples, also attacks the quince.
It can be combated by gathering and destroying, during the
winter, the cases that contain the eggs for the next brood.

67. Among the most destructive diseases affecting the
(Quince are fire blight, or pear blight; fruit spot, or leaf blight;
rust; black rot; ripe rot; pale rot; and quince rust.

68. Fire blight, or pear blight, is the most destructive dis-
ease of the quince, and as in the case of the pear can be combated

CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES

only by preventing infection and by destroying infected
parts. The grove should be gone over once or even twice a
week during the growing season; every leaf and twig that
shows infection should be removed and the cut surfaces dis-
infected with a solution of mercuric chloride of a strength of
1 to 1,000. This solution may be applied with a swab. It
is advisable to cut off the limb about 8 to 10 inches below the

Fig. 13

point of apparent infection. All parts removed from the trees
must be taken from the orchard and burned to prevent fur-
ther infection of the trees. Any trees growing wild in the
vicinity that show evidence of the blight should be removed
and burned. The wild haw is very likely to carry this disease.

69. Fruit spot, or leaf blight, affects both the leaves and
the fruit of the quince. The leaves become spotted and drop

CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES

prematurely, causing the tree to lose vigor and vitality. The
fruit becomes covered with small brownish spots that gradually
increase in size and turn black. Fig. 13 shows quinces affected
with fruit spot. The disease is controlled by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur. The first spraying should

Fig. 14

be made just before the blossoms open, and the second soon
after they fall. Two more sprayings at intervals of 10 days
or 2 weeks will be found beneficial.

70. Black rot and ripe rot are similar to these diseases
of the apple, and are combated in the same manner as for the
apple. The same treatment is also effective for pale rot,
which is often a very destructive disease of the quince. This
rot begins as a pale almost colorless soft spot on the skin of
the fruit. The spot soon wrinkles and turns a pale blue and

46 CHERRIES, APRICOTS, AND QUINCES § 20

the skin becomes ruptured. The disease spreads rapidly and
soon destroys the fruit.

71. The disease known as quince rust is similar to apple
rust, and, like the latter, comes from adjacent cedar trees and
produces swellings or the so-called cedar apples. The trouble
affects both the fruit and the leaves of the quince. Fig. 14
illustrates the effects of the quince rust. The remedy for the
trouble is to remove, if possible, all cedar trees from the neigh-
borhood of the grove. Another method of control is to spray
the affected trees with Bordeaux mixture or with one of the
sulphur compoiinds at the time the gelatinous horns are pres-
ent on the cedar apples.

INDEX

Note. — All items in this index refer first to the section (see the Preface) and then to the page
of the section. Thus, "Anjou pear, §8, p21," means that Anjou pear will be found on page 21
of section 8.

Advertising of fruit, §7, p56

Age of apple nursery trees, §4, pl7

Agitator, Propeller,' §2, p44

Swinging, §2, p44
Air drainage for pear orchards, §9, p9
Albemarle Pippin apple, §3, p39
Alexander apple, §3, plO
Altitude, Influence of, §1, p4
Amarelle cherries, §20, pi
Ammoniacal copper carbonate, |2, p25
Angouleme pear, §8, pl7
Anjou pear, §8, p21
Anthracnose, Apple, §6, p62
Aphides affecting apple trees. Miscellaneous,

§6, p56
Aphis, Black cherry, §20, p20

Clover, §6, p57

European grain, §6, p57

Green apple, §6, p55

on pears, Green apple, §8, p39

Rosy apple, §6, p56

Wooly apple, §6, p52
Apple anthracnose, §6, p62

aphis. Green, §6, p55

aphis on pears. Green, §8, p39

aphis. Rosy, §6, p56

aphis, Wooly, §6, p52

barrel. §7, p21

baskets, §7, p24

blossoms, Frost injury to, §6, p4

blotch, §6, p67

box presses, §7, p38

boxes, §7, p22

buds. Frost injury to, §6, p3

butter. §7, p60

caterpillar. Red-humped, §6, p43

caterpillar. Yellow-necked, §6, p42

cider. §7, p61

crates and boxes, §7, pll

Apple curculio, §6, p37

diseases, §6. p61

Insects of the, §6. p23

jelly, §7, p60

leaf miner, §6, p51

louse. Green, §6, p55

maggot, §6. p34

nursery stock, Selection of. §4. pl5

nursery trees. Age of, §4, pl7

nursery trees. Dipping of. §4, p39

nursery trees for planting. Preparation of,
§4, p38

nursery trees. Handling of, §4, p44

nursery trees propagated by various methods.
Value of, §4, pl7
^.orchard. Establishment of an, §4, pi
^-orchard, Soil suitable for, §4, p6
^_prchards. Fertilization of, §5, p37
orchards. Management of, §5, pi
-erchards. Renovation of old, §5, p41
..,orchards. Tillage of bearing, §5, p4
jDrchards, Tillage of young, §5, p2
. packing table, §7, pp27. 30

pests and injuries, §6. pi )

quince, §20. p32 ' "'

railroad worm. §6, p34

rust, §6, p71

scab, §6, p64

scald, §6, p74

Shippers Association, National, §7. pl5

storage houses, §7, p43

Terms applying to fruit of, §3, pi

-tree borer on quinces, Round-headed.
§20, p42

-tree borers, §6. p23

-tree bucculatrix, §6, p51

-tree pruner, §6, p61

-tree tent caterpillar, §6, p37
' trees, Fertilization of young, §5, p41

trees. Framework of, §5, p26

248—37

INDEX

Apple trees, High-headed, §5, p21

trees. Home propagation of, §4, pl9

trees. Low-headed, §5, p21

trees. Miscellaneous aphides affecting, §6, p56

trees. Open-headed, §5, p23

trees. Planting of, §4, pl9

trees. Pruning of, §5, pl8

trees. Pruning of bearing, §5, p31

trees. Pyramidal-headed, §3, p23

ti-ees, Terms applying to, §3, pi

trees, Top working of, §5, poO

vinegar, §7, p61

worm. Lesser, §6, p34
Apples, Advertising of, §7, p56

Canned, §7, p60

Cedar, §6, p72

Evaporated, §7, p56

Fall and winter varieties of, §3, p9

for the Colorado section. Varieties of, §4, pl4

for the Missouri section, Varieties of, §1, pl4

for the New York section, Varieties of, §4, pl3

for the Northwest, Varieties of, §4, pl5

for the Virginia section. Varieties of, §4, pl3

Frost injury to young, §6, po

Grading of, §7, pl4

Harvesting of, §7, pi

in barrels. Packing of, §7, p24

in baskets. Packing of, §7, p40

in boxes. Packing of, §7, p29

Marketing of, §7, p48

Method of grading, §7, p20

Methods of planting of, §4, p35

Packing of, §7, p21

Packs for, §7, p33

Picking of, §7, pi

Selection of varieties of, §4, pll

Storing of, §7, p40

Summer varieties of, §3, p6

Thinning of, §5, p35

Varieties of, §3, pi

Wagon used in picking, §7, p9
Apricot nursery trees, §20, p25

orchards, Fertilization of, §20, p27

orchards. Renovating, §20, p27

pests and injuries, §20, p28

trees, Planting of, §20, p26

trees. Pruning of, §20, p26
Apricots, Drying of, §20, p30

Grading and packing of, §20, p29

Harvesting of, §20, p28

Marketing of, §20, p29

Varieties of, §20, p24
Arkansas apple, §3, p45

Black apple, §3, p34
Arsenate of lead, §2, pi •

Arsenite of lime, §2, ppl, 4
Artificial propagation, §1, pl4

Association, National Apple Shippers, §7, pl5

Yakima Valley Fruit Growers, §7, pl6
Autumn frosts. Table of dates of late spring and
early, §6, p9

Bag worm on quinces, §20, x>43
Bags, Picking, §7, p4
Baldwin apple, §3, pl9

cherry, §20, p3

spot, §6, p74
Bamboo extension rod. Brass-, §2, p42
Banana apple, §3, pl9
Bark beetle. Fruit-tree, §6, p60

beetle on pears, Fruit-tree, §8, p39

binding, §6, p79

binding of pear trees, §8, p43

grafting, §1, pp20, 25

louse, Oyster-shell, §6, p29

Rough, §6, pSO
Barrel sprayers, §2, p32

Barrels, Apple, pear, quince, and potato,
§7, p21

Packing of apples in, §7, p24
Barry pear, Patrick, §8, p25
Bartlett pear, §8, pl3
Basket worm on quinces, §20, p43
Baskets, Apple, §7, p24

Packing of apples in, §7, p30

Picking, §7, pi
Baume and specific gravity hydrometer read-
ings for liquids heavier than water. Table
of comparison of, §2, plG
Bearing apple trees, Pruning of, §5, p31
Beetle, Fruit-tree bark, §6, p60

on pears, Fruit-tree bark, §8, p39
Belle de Montreuil cherry, §20, p6
Ben Davis apple, §3, p40
Benoni apple, §3, p8
Bigarreau cherries, §20, p2
Bin rot, §6, p70 ,
Binding of apple trees. Bark, §6, p79

of pear trees. Bark, §8, p43
Bing cherry, §20, p6
Bitter pit, §6, p74

rot, §6, pp62, 70
Black Ben apple, §3, p41

Ben Davis apple, §3, p41

cherry aphis, §20, p20 .

Gillifiower apple, §3, p23

knot of cherries, §20, p21

rot, §6, p69

rot of quinces, §20, p45

-spot canker, §6, p69

Tartarian cherry, §20, p7

Blenheim apricot, §20, p25
Blight, Fire, §6, p74

of pear trees. Crater, §8, p43

INDEX

Blight of pears, Fire, §8, p28

of quinces, Leaf, §20, p44

on quinces, Fire, or pear, §20, p43

Pear-leaf, §8, p32

Twig, §6, p74:
Blister mite, Leaf-, §6, p57

mite on pears. Leaf-, §8, p37
Bloodgood pear, §8, pll
Blooming period of different varieties of pears,

Table of, §9, pl7
Blossoms, Frost injury to apple, §G, p4
Blotch, Apple, §6, p67

Sooty, §6, p71
Blue mole, §6, p70

Pearmain apple, §3, pl7
Bon Chretien pear, Williams, §8, pl3
Bordeaux injury, §6, p80

mixture, §2, p22

nozzle, §2, p40
Borer on quinces. Round-headed apple-tree,
§20, p42

Shot-hole, §6, p60
Borers, Apple-tree, §6, p23

on pears, §8, p40
Bosc pear, §8, p20
Bourgeat quince, §20, p35
Box presses, Apple-, §7, p38
Boxes, Apple, §7, ppll, 22

Packing of apples in, §7, p29
Branch layering, §1, pl9
Breaking of pear trees, §8, p42

of trees, §6, p79
Brown mite, §6, p52

rot of cherries, §20, p21

rot of pears, §8, p33

-tailed moth, §6, p43
Brusseler Braune cherry, §20, p3
Bucculatrix, Apple-tree, §6, p51
Buckeling of apples in barrels, §7, p26
Bucket spray pump, §2, p30
Bud moth, §6, p47
Budding, Propagation by, §1, p28
Buds, Frost injury to apple, §6, p3

Killing of fruit, §6, pi
Buffalo treehopper, §6, p58
Butter, Apple, §7, p60

Canker, Black-spot, §6, p69

European, §6, p70

Illinois, §6, p70

Pacific-coast, §6, p69

worms, §6, p40
Canned apples, §7, p60
Capital required for an orchard, §4, p3
Case bearer. Cigar, §6, p49

bearer, Pistol, §6, p4S

Catch crops, §5, p6

crops for pears, §9, p26
Caterpillar, Apple-tree tent, §6, p37

Red-humped apple, §G. p43

Yellow-necked apple, §6, p42
Cayuga Red Streak apple, §3, pl2
Cedar apples, §6, p72

rust, §6, p71
Centennial cherry, §20, pC
Chambers pear, §8, plO
Champion quince, §20, p33
Cherries, Amarelle, §20, pi

Bigarreau, §20, p2

Classes of, §20, pi

Duke, §20, p2

Fertihzation of, §20, pl6

Fungous diseases of, §20, p21

Grading of, §20, pl8

Harvesting of, §20, pl8

Heart, or gean, §20, p2

Marketing of, §20, pl9

Mazzard, §20, p2

Morello, §20, pi

Packing of, §20, pl8

Pruning of, §20, pl6

Sour, §20, pi

Spraying of, §20, pl7

Storage of, §20, pl9 ,

Subacid, §20, p2

Sweet, §20, p2

Varieties of sour, §20, p3

Varieties of subacid, §20, p.5

Varieties of sweet, §20, pG
Cherry aphis. Black, §'20, p20

fruit fly, §20, p20

nursery trees, §20, pl2

orchard. Size, location, and site of a, §20, plO

orchards. Cultivation of, §20, pl5

orchards. Renovation of old, §20, pl7

pests and injuries, §20, p20

trees. Planting of, §20, pl4
Chretien pear, Williams Bon, §8, pl3
Cicada, Periodical, §G, p59
Cider, Apple, §7, p61
Cigar case bearer, §6, p49
Cincincis pear, §8, p27
Clairgeau pear, §8, p20
Clamp, Hose, §2, p43
Clapp Favorite pear, §8, pl3
Cleft grafting, §1, p20

Climatic conditions on pears. Influence of,
§9, p6

injuries of cherries, §20, p23
Climbing cutworms, §6, p44
Clitocybose, §6, p76
Cloud, §6, p71
Clover aphis, §G, p57

INDEX

Clover mite, §6, p52
Codling moth, §6, p31

moth on pears, §8, p39

moth on quinces, §20, p42
Cold storage of apples. Commercial, §7, p41

storage of apples. Farm, §7, p42
Colorado section, Varieties of apples for the,

§4, pl4
Columbia pear, §8, p23
Combination systems of jJlanting, §4, p29
Comice pear, §8, p20
Compressed-air hand sprayer, §2, p32

-air sprayers, §2, p39
Contact insecticides, §2, ppl, 6
Cookers, Lime-sulphur, §2, p9
Copper carbonate, Ammoniacal, §2, p25

-sulphate solution, §2, p25
Cover crops, §5, plO

crops for pears, §9, p26

crops for quinces, §20, p40

crops, Leguminous, §5, pl3

crops. Non-leguminous, §5, pl4

crops. Time of sowing, §5, pll

crops. Time to plow under, §5, pl2
Cranberry apple, §3, p33
Crater blight of pear trees, §8, p43
Crates, Apple, §7, pH
Crops, Catch, §5, p6

Cover, §5, plO

Leguminous cover, §5, pl3

Non-leguminous cover, §5, pl4

Time of sowing cover, §5, pll

Time to plow under cover, §5, pl2
Crown gall, §6, p77

gall on pears, §8, p33

grafting, §1, pp20, 25
Cultivation of cherry orchards, §20, pl5

of quinces, §20, p40
Curculio, Apple, §6, p37

on cherries. Plum, §20, p20

Plum, §6, p36

Quince, §20, p43
Cut-off, §2, p43
Cutting, §1, pl4

Propagation by, §1, pl4
Cuttings, Hardwood, §1, pl4

Heel, §1, pl4

Mallet, §1, ppl4, 15

Root. §1, ppl4, 17

Simple, §1, pl4

Single-eye, §1, ppl4, 15
Cutworms, Climbing, §6, p44

Danas Hovey pear, §8, p21
Dehcious apple, §3, p36
Deman quince. Van, §20, p35

Dew point, §6, p6

point. Table of determination of the, §6, p7
Diagonal pack for apples, §7, p33
Diel pear, §8, p23

Dipping of apple nursery trees, §4, p39
Diseases, Apple, §6, p61

of cherries. Fungous, §20, p21

of pears, §8, p28
Disk nozzle, §2, p41
Distillate oils, §2, pp6, 19
Districts, Pear, §8, pi
Dormant period of plants. Injuries during,

§6, pi
Double-action spray pump, §2, p34
Drainage for pear orchards, Air and water,

§9, p9
Dressings for wounds, §1, p47
Drouard pear, §8, pl9
Drying of apricots, §20, p30
Duchess d' Angouleme pear, §8, pl7

of Oldenburg apple, §3, p7
Duke cherries, §20, p2

cherry. May, §20, p6
Dwarf pears, §8, p8
Dyehouse cherry, §20, p3

Early Harvest apple, §3, p7

Harvest of Kentucky pear, §8, plO

Richmond cherry, §20, p5
Easter Beurre pear, §8, p25
Elevation for pear orchards, §9, p8

of orchard site, §4, p7
Elton cherry, §20, p6
Emulsion, Kerosene, §2, pp6, 19
English Morello cherry, §20, p3
Esopus Spitzenburg apple, §3, p34
Essentials of fruit- culture, §1, pi; §2, pi
Eugene cherry, §20, p5
European canker, §6, p70

grain aphis, §6, p57

group of pears, §8, p7

group of pears. Varieties of, §8, plO
Evaporated apples, §7, p56
Exposure for pear orchards, §9, p9

of site, §4, p9
Extension rod, §2, p42
Extensive pruning, §1, p41

Facing of apple barrels, §7, p25

Fall and winter varieties of apples, §3, p9

Pippin apple, §3, p9

web worm, §6, p39
Fameuse apple, §3, pl3
Fertilization of apple orchards, §5, p37

of apricot orchards, §20, p27

INDEX

Xlll

Fertilization of cherries, §20, pl6

of pear orchards, §9, p32

of quinces, §20, p40

of young apple trees, §5, p41
Fertilizers, Time of applying, §5, p40
Fillers in apple orchard, Use of, §4, p31

Peaches as, §4, p33

Pears as, §4, p33

Removal of, §4, p34

Small fruits as, §4, p33
Fire blight, §6, p74

blight on pears, §8, p28

blight on quinces, §20, p43
Flat-headed apple-tree borer, §6, p25
Flemish pear, §8, pl3
Fly speck, §6, p71
Forelle pear, §8, p23
Framework of apple trees, §5, p2G
Frog eye, §6, p69
Frost, §6, p6

injuries. Means of preventing, §6, pl5

injuries on pears, §8, p40

injuries. Prevention of, §6, p6

injury to apple blossoms, §6, p4

injury to apple buds, §6, p3

injury to young apples, §6, p5

Prediction of, §6, p6
Frosts, Table of dates of late spring and early

autumn, §6, p9.
Fruit, Advertising of, §7, p56

buds. Killing of, §6, pi

culture. Essentials of, §1, pi; §2, pi

fly. Cherry, §20, p20

growing, Market factors affecting, §1, plO

growing. Natural factors affecting, §1, p3

of apple. Terms applying to, §3, pi

pit, §6, p74

plants, Propagation of, §1, pl3

plants, Pruning of, §1, p31

spot of apples, §6, p72

spot of quinces, §20, p44

-tree bark beetle, §6, pGO

-tree bark beetle on pears, §8, p39

-tree leaf roller, §6, p50
Fungicides, §2, p21

and insecticides. Combined, §2, p28
Fungous diseases of cherries, §20, p21

Gall, Crown, §6, p77

on pears. Crown, §8, p33
Gano apple, §3, p40
Garber pear, §8, p27
Gas-power sprayer, §2, p36
Gasoline-power sprayers, §2, p37
Gean, or heart, cherries, §20, p2
Genet apple, §3, p45

Geniton apple, §3, p4.5
Giffard pear, §8, pll
Gipsy moth, §6, p44
Girdling, §6, p78

of pear trees, §8, p41
Glout Morceau pear, §8, p21
Golden Russet apple, §3, p50

Russet pear, §8, p28
Governor Wood cherry, §20, plO
Grading, Importance of careful. §7, p55

of apples, §7, pl4

of apples, Method of, §7, p20

of apricots, §20, p29

of cherries, §20, plS

of pears, §9, p37

of quinces, §20, p41
Grafting, §1. pp20, 27

Bark, §1, pp20, 25

Cleft, §1, p20

Crown, §1, pp20, 25

Kerf, §1, pp20, 25

Piece-root, §1, p27

Propagation by, §1, p20

Root, §1, p20

Splice, §1, pp20, 27

Stem, §1, p20

Top, §1, p20

wax, §1, p22

Whip, §1, pp20, 26

Whole-root, §1, p27
Grain aphis, European, §6, p57
Gravenstein apple, §3, p9
Green apple aphis, §6, p55

apple aphis on pears, §8, p39

apple louse, §6, p55

Newton apple, §3, p38
Greening apple, §3, p37
Grimes apple, §3, p51

Growth, Pruning to regulate vigor of, §5, pl9
Grubbing hoe, §4, p44

Hand sprayer. Compressed-air, §2, p32

sprays, §2, p30
Hardwood cuttings, §1, pl4
Hardy pear, §8, pl5

Harvest of Kentucky pear. Early, §8, plO
Harvesting of apples, §7, pi

of apricots, §20, p28

of cherries, §20, pl8

of pears, §9, p35

of quinces, §20, p41
Head, Pruning for open, §5, p27

Pruning for pyramidal, §5, p27
Heads, Types of, §5, p21
Heart, or gean, cherries, §20, p2
Heating, Orchard, §G, plG

XIV

INDEX

Heel cuttings, §1, pl4

Hellebore, §2, ppl, 5

Hexagonal system of planting, §4, p28

High-headed apple trees, §5, p21

-headed trees, §1, p39
Hillside apple, §3, p30
Hoe, Grubbing, §4, p44
Hold-over blight of pears, §8, p29
Home propagation of apple trees, §4, pl9
Hoop follower, §7, p29
Hortense cherry, §20, p5
Hose, §2, p43

clamp, §2, p43
House, Packing, §7, p21
Houses, Apple storage, §7, p43
Hovey pear, Danas, §8, p21
Howell pear, §8, pl7
Hubbardston apple, §3, pl4
Huntsman apple, §3, p51
Hydrometer, §2, pl5

readings for liquids heavier than water.
Table of comparison of Baume and specific
gravity, §2, pl6

Illinois canker, §6, p70
Ingram apple, §3, p48
Injuries, Apple pests and, §6, pi

Apricot pests and, §20, p28

Cherry pests and, §20, p20

during dormant period of plants, §6. pi

during the period of visible activity of plants,
§6, p3

on pears, Frost, §8, p40

Pear pests and, §8, p28

Prevention of frost, §6, p6

Quince pests and, §20, p42
Injury, Bordeaux, §6, p60

Lime-sulphur, §6, pSl

Spray, §6, p60
Insecticides, §2, pi

and fungicides. Combined, §2, p28

Contact, §2, ppl, 6

Poisonous, §2, pi
Insects attacking cherries, §20, p20

attacking pears, §8, p33

of the apple, §6, p23
Intercropping of quinces, §20, p40
Irrigation to prevent frost injury, §6, pl5

Jacobs Sweet apple, §3, pi 7

Japan Golden Russet pear, §8, p28

Jelly, Apple, §7, p60

Jersey pear, Louise Bonne de, §8, pl9

Jonathan apple, §3, p35

Josephine de Malines pear, §8, pl9

Kentucky pear. Early Harvest of, §8, plO
Kerf grafting, §1, pp20, 25
Kerosene emulsion, §2, pp6, 19
Kettle, Steam-jacketed, §2, pl7
Kieffer pear, §8, p25

Killing frosts. Factors affecting the occurrence
of, §6, p8

of fruit buds, §6, pi

of roots, §6, p3

of twigs and large stems, §6, pi
King apple, §3, pl5

David apple, §3, p39
Knapsack sprayer, §2, p30
Knives, Pruning, §1, p46
Knot of cherries; Black, §20, p21
Koonce pear, §8, pll

Labels for apple packages, §7, p52
Ladders for pruning, §1, p46

Picking, §7, p6
Lambert cherry, §20, p7
Lawrence pear, §8, p23
Layer, §1, pl7
Layering, Branch, §1, pl9

Mound, §1, pl9

Propagation by, §1, pl7

Tip, §1, pis

Vine, §1, pl8
Lead, Arsenate of, §2, pi
Leaf blight of quinces, §20, p44

blight. Pear-, §8. p32

-blister mite, §6, d57

-blister mite on pears, §8, p37

miner, Apple, §6, p51

roller. Fruit-tree, §6, p50

spot, §6, p69

spot. Pear-, §8, p32

surface. Pruning to reduce, §5, pl8
LeConte pear, §8, p27
Leguminous cover crops, §5, pl3
Lesser apple worm, §6, p34
Limbertwig apple, §3, pl2
Lime, Arsenite of, §2, ppl, 4

-sulphur, §2, pp6, 26

-sulphur cookers, §2, p9

-sulphur injury, §6, p81

-sulphur. Self-boiled, §2, ppll, 16. 26
Lincoln pear, §8, pl7
Locust, Seventeen-year. §6, p59
London purple, §2, ppl, 5
Long-stemmed Montmorency cherry. §20, p3
Louis Philippe cherry, §20, p4
Louise pear, §8, pl9
Louse, Green apple, §6, p55

Oyster-shell bark, §6, p29

INDEX

Low-headed apple trees, §5, p21
-headed trees, §1, p39

Machinery, Spraying, §2, p29

Mackintosh apple, §3, pl3

Maggot, Apple, §6, p34

Magnifique cherry, §20, p5

Maiden Blush apple, §3, p8

Malines pear, §8, pl9

Mallet cuttings, §1, ppl4, 15

Mammoth Black Twig apple, §3, p45

Mann apple, §3, p55

Market factors affecting fruit growing,

§1, plO
Marketing of apples, §7, p48

of apricots, §20, p29

of cherries, §20, pl9

of pears, §9, p40

of quinces, §20, p41
Markets, Proximity to, §4, plO
Mattock, §4, p44
May Duke cherry, §20, p6
Mazzard cherries, §20, p2
Meech quince, §20, p34

Mice, Protecting quince trees from, §20, p41
Mildew, §6, p77

on cherries. Powdery, §20, p22
Miner, Apple leaf, §6, p51
Miscible oils, §2, pp6, 16
Missouri apple, §3, p23

quince, §20, p35

section. Varieties of apples for the,
§4, pl4
Mite, Brown, §6, p52

Clover, §6, p52

Leaf-blister, §6, p57

on pears. Leaf-blister, §8, p37
Mole, Blue, §6, p70
Montmorency cherry, §20, p3

Ordinaire cherry, §20, p3
Montreuil cherry, §20, p6
Moorpark apricot, §20, p24
Morceau pear, Glout, §8, p21
Morello cherries, §20, ppl, 3
Moth, Brown-tailed, §6, p43

Bud, §6, p47

Codling, §6, p31

Gipsy, §6, p44

on pears. Codling, §8, p39
Moths, Tussock, §6, p45
Mound layering, §1, pl9
Mount Vernon pear, §8, p23
Mulch culture for apples, §5, pl7

culture for pears, §9, p26
Mulching to prevent frost injuries, §6, pl5
Mummies, §6, p63

N
Napoleon cherry, §20, p7

National Apple Shippers Association, §7, pl5
Natural propagation, §1, pl3
Neck ringing on pears, §8, p40
Nelis pear. Winter, §8, p25
Newcastle apricot, §20, p25
New York section. Varieties of apples for the,

§4, pl3
Non-leguminous cover crops, §5, pl4
Northern-grown apple nursery frees, §4, pl7

Spy apple, §3, pl5
Northwest, Varieties of apples for the, §4, pl5
Northwestern apple, §3, p37
Nozzle, Bordeaux, §2, p40

Disk, §2, p41

Vermorel, §2, p40
Nursery stock. Selection of apple, §4, pl5

trees. Age of apple, §4, pl7

trees. Apricot, §20, p25

trees, Cherry, §20, pl2

trees for planting. Preparation of apple,
§4, p.38

trees. Procuring of pear, §9, pl2

trees propagated by various methods. Value
of apple, §4, pl7

trees, Quince, §20, p37

Offset pack for apples, §7, p35
Oils, Distillate, §2, pp6, 19

Miscible, §2, pp6, 16
Oldenburg apple, §3, p7
Olivet cherry, §20, p6
Open head. Pruning for, §5, p29

-headed apple trees, §5, p23
Orange quince, §20, p32
Orchard, Capital required for an, §4, p3

establishment, Quince, §20, p36

heating, §6, pl6

Increasing the size of the, §4, p5

Location for a pear, §9, p3

management, Pear, §9, p23

site. Elevation of, §4, p7

Size for a pear, §9, pi ■

Size of, §4, pi

Soil suitable for apple, §4, p6
Orchards, Management of apple, §5, pi

Renovation of old apple, §5, p41

Soil treatment for renovated, §5, p49

Spraying methods for renovated, §5, poO

Tillage of bearing apple, §5, p4

Tillage of young apple, §.5, p2
Oriental group of pears, §8, p7

group of pears, Varieties of, §8, p25
Ortley apple, §3, pl7
Ostheim cherry, §20, p4

XVI

INDEX

Oyster-shell bark louse, §6, p29
-shell scale, §6, p29
-shell scale on pears, §8, p40

Pacific coast canker, §6, p69

Packages for apples. Use of clean, §7, p55

Packing house, §7, p21

Importance of careful, §7, p55

of apples, §7, p21

of apples in barrels, §7, p24

of apples in baskets, §7, p40

of apples in boxes, §7, p29

of apricots, §20, p29

of cherries, §20, pl8

of pears, §9, p37

of quinces, §20, p41

table, Apple, §7, pp27, 30, 32
Pale rot of quinces, §20, p45
Palmer worm, §6, p52
Paris green, §2, ppl, 3
Patrick Barry pear, §8, p25
Peach apricot, §20, p25
Peaches as fillers, §4, p33
Pear barrel, §7, p21

blight on quinces, §20, p43

culture, §8, pi

districts, §8, pi

-leaf blight, §8, p32

-leaf spot, §8, p32

-orchard management, §9, p23

orchard, Location for a, §9, p3

orchard. Size for a, §9, ppl, 7

orchards. Air drainage for, §9, p9

orchards. Elevation for, §9, p8

orchards. Exposure for, §9, p9

orchards. Fertilization of, §9, p32

orchards. Renovation of neglected, §9, p33

orchards. Site for, §9, p7

orchards. Tillage of bearing, §9, p25

orchards. Tillage of young, §9, p23

orchards. Water drainage for, §9, p9

pests and injuries, §8, p28

psylla, §8, p34

quince, §20, p36 ■

rust, §8, p33

scab, §8, p31

slug, §8, p38

thrips, §8, p35

trees. Planting of, §9, pl4

trees, Procuring of, §9, plO

trees. Propagation of, §9, plO

trees, Spraying of, §9, p34
Pears as fillers, §4, p33

Botanical classification of, §8, p7

Catch crops and cover crops for, §9, p26

Commercial classification of, §8, p8

Pears, Diseases of, §8, p28

Dwarf, §8, p8

European group of, §8, p7

for different states, Varieties of, §8, p2

Grading of, §9, p37

Harvesting of, §9, p35

Influence of climatic conditions on, §9, p6

Insects attacking, §8, p33

Marketing of, §9, p40

Oriental group of, §8, p7

Packing of, §9, p37

Sod and mulch culture for, §9, p2.5

Standard, §8, plO

Storing of, §9, p40

suitable to a location. Varieties of, §9, p9

Table of blooming period of different vari-
eties of, §9, pl7

Thinning of, §9, p33

Varieties of, §8, plO

Varieties of European group of, §8, plO

Varieties of Oriental group of, §8, p25
Periodical cicada, §6, p59
Pests and injuries, Apple, §6, pi

and injuries. Apricot, §20, p28

and injuries. Cherry, §20, p20

and injuries. Pear, §8, p28

and injuries. Quince, §20, p42
Pewaukee apple, §3, p50
Philippe cherry, §20, p4
Pickers, Management of, §7, pl3
Picking apples. Wagon used in, §7, p9

ladders, §7, p6

Methods of, §7, pll

of apples, §7, pi

of pears, §9, p35

receptacles, §7, pi

Time of, §7, pl2
Piece-root grafting, §1, p27
Pink rot, §6, p67
Pippin apple. Fall, §3, p9
Pistol case bearer, §6, p48
Planting board, §4, p41

Combination system of, §4, p29

for apple trees. Time of, §4, pl9

Hexagonal system of, §4, p28

of apple trees, §4, pl9

of apples. Methods of, §4, p35

of apricot trees, §20, p26

of cherry trees, §20, pl4

of pear trees, §9, pl4

of quince trees, §20, p38

Preparation of soil for, §4, p36

Quincunx system of, §4, p27

Square system of, §4, p26

Tools used in, §4, p44
Plum curculio, §6, p36

curculio on cherries, §20, p20

INDEX

xvii

Poisonous insecticides, §2, pi
Population, Location in respect to, §1, plO
Potassium sulphide, §2, p26
Potato barrel, §7, p21
Pound Sweet apple, §3, pl4
Powdery mildew on cherries, §20, p22
Power sprayers, §2, p35
President Drouard pear, §8, pl9
Presses, Apple box, §7, p38
Price of apples. Maintaining the, §7, p54
Propagation, Artificial, §1, pl4
by budding, §1, p28

by cutting, §1, pl4

by division, §1, pl3

by grafting, §1, p20

by layering, §1, pl7

by seeds, §1, pll

Natural, §1, pll

of apple trees. Home, §4, pl9

of cherry trees, §20, pl2

of fruit plants, §1, pl3

of pear trees, §9, plO

of quinces, §20, p36
Propeller agitator, §2, p44
Pruner, Apple-tree, §6, p61
Pruning, Details of, §5, p33

Effects of, §1, p34

Extensive, §1, p41

for open head, §5, p29

for pyramidal head, §5, p27

knives, §1, p46

Ladders for, §1, p46

Method of, §1, p37

of apple trees, §5, pl8

of apricot trees, §20, p26

of bearing apple trees, §5, p31

of cherries, §20, pl6

of fruit plants, §1, p31

of pear nursery trees, §9, pl8

of pear trees, §9, p26

of quinces, §20, p39

Principles of, §1, p31

Purpose of, §1, p31

Repressive, §1, p41

saws, §1, p44

shears, §1, p42

Styles of, §1, p41
Time of, §5, p20

to control shape, §5, pi 9
to control size, §5, pl9
to reduce leaf surface, §5, pl8
to regulate vigor of growth, §5, pl9
Tools for, §1, p42
Psylla, Pear, §8, p34
Pump, Bucket spray, §2, p30

Double action spray, §2, p34
Pumpkin Sweet apple, §3, pl4

Pyramidal head. Pruning for, §5, p27

headed apple trees, §5, p23
Pyrus communis, §8, p7
sinensis, §8, p7

Quince barrel, §7, p21

curcuUo, §20, p43

nursery trees, §20, p37

-orchard establishment, §20, p36

pests and injuries, §20, p42

rust, §20, p46

trees from mice, Protecting, §20, p41

trees, Planting of, §20, p38

trees. Winter-killed, §20, p41
Quinces, Commercial possibilities of, §20, p31

Cover crops for, §20, p40

Culcivation of, §20, p40

Fertilization of, §20, p40

Grading and packing of, §20, p41

Harvesting of, §20, p41

Marketing of, §20, p41

Propagation of, §20, p36

Pruning of, §20, p39

Selection of varieties of, §20, p36

Spraying of, §20, p39

Storage of, §20, p42

Varieties of, §20, p32
Quincunx system of planting, §4, p27

Railroad worm, Apple, §6, p34

Ralls apple, §3, p45

Rambo apple, §3, p27

Rea quince, §20, p33

Red Astrachan apple, §3, p7

-humped apple caterpillar, §6, p43
June apple, §3, p6
Reine Hortense cherry, §20, p5
Renovated orchards, Soil treatment for,
§5, p49
orchards. Spraying methods for, §5, p50
Renovating apricot orchards, §20, p27
Renovation of neglected pear orchards, §9, p33
of old apple orchards, §5, p41
of old cherry orchards, §20, pl7
Repressive pruning, §1, p41
Reproductive activity, §1, p35
Retail marketing of apples, §7, p48
Rhode Island Greening apple, §3, p37
Ribston apple, §3, p27
Richmond cherry, §20, p5
Ringing on pears. Neck, §8, p40
Ripe rot, §6, p62

rot of quinces, §20, p45
Rockport cherry, §20, p7
Rod, Extension, §2, p42
Rome Beauty apple, §3, p42

XVlll

INDEX

Root cuttings, §1, ppl4, 17

grafting, §1, p20

grafting, Piece-, §1, p27

grafting, Whole-, §1, p27

rot, §6, p76

stock, §1, pl3
Roots, Killing of, §6, p3
Rosy apple aphis, §6, p56
Rot, Bin, §6, p70

Bitter, §6, p62

Black, §6, p69

of cherries. Brown, §20, p21

of quinces, Black, §20, p45

of quinces. Pale, §20, p45

of quinces. Ripe, §20, p45

on pears. Brown, §8, p33

Pink, §6, p67

Ripe, §6, p62

Root, §6, p76

Soft, §6, p70
Rough bark, §6, p80

bark of pear trees, §8, p43
Round-headed apple-tree borer, §6, p24

-headed apple-tree borer on quinces,
§20, p42
Rows, Planting of trees in straight,

§4, p40
Roxbury apple, §3, p48
Royal Ann apricot, §20, p24

cherry, §20, p7
Runners, §1, pl4
Russet pear. Golden, §8, p28
Rust, Apple, §6, p71

Cedar, §6, p71

Pear, §8, p33

Quince, §20, p46

S
Salome apple, §3, p43
San Jose scale on apples, §6, p27

Jose scale on cherries, §20, p20

Jose scale on pears, §8, p39

Jose scale on quinces, §20, p42
Saws, Pruning, §1, p44
Scab, Apple, §6, p64

Pear, §8, p31
Scald, Apple, §6, p74

on cherries. Sun, §20, p23

on pears, Sun, §8, p41

Sun, §6, p77
Scale on apples. Scurfy, §0, p31

on cherries, San Jos6, §20, p20

on pears. Oyster-shell, §8, p40

on pears, San Jose, §8, p39

on pears, Scurfy, §8, p40

on quinces,^ San Josd, §20, p42

Oyster-sheli. §6, p29

Scale, San Jose, §6, p27
Scion, §1, p20
Scurfy scale, §6, p31

scale on pears, §8, p40
Seckel pear, §8, plS

pear. Winter, §8, p21

pear, Worden's, §8, pl5
Seeds, Propagation by, §1, pll
Seek apple, §3, p35

Self-boiled lime sulphur, §2, ppl, 16, 26
Setting of pear trees, §9, p22
Seventeen-year locust, §6, p59
Shape, Pruning to control, §5, pl9
Shears, Pruning, §1, p42
Sheldon pear, §8, pl7
Shipping facilities, §1, pll
Short-stemmed Montmorency cherry, §20, p3
Shot-hole borer, §6, p60

-hole fungus on cherries, §20, p22
Simple cuttings, §1, pl4
Single-eye cuttings, §1, ppl4, 15
Site, Elevation of orchard, §4, p7

Exposure of, §4, p9

for a cherry orchard, §20, pll

for a pear orchard, §9, p7

Selection of, §4, p6
Size, Pruning to control, §5, pl9
Slack in apple barrels, Prevention of,

§7, p28
Slope of land, §4, p8
Slug, Pear, §8, p38
Small fruits as fillers, §4, p33
Smith Cider apple, §3, p33
Smokehouse apple, §3, p20
Smudging to prevent frost injury, §6, pl6
Sod culture for apples, §5, pl4

culture for pears, §9, p25
Soft rot, §6, p70
Soil for planting. Preparation of, §4, p36

Suitability of, §1, p9

suitable for apple orchard, §4, p6

treatment for renovated orchards, §5, p49
Soils for pear orchards, §9, p7
Sooty blotch, §6, p71
Sops of Wine apple, §3, p9
Sour cherries, §20, pi

cherries. Varieties of, §20, p3

sap of pear trees, §8, p42
Southern-grown apple nursery trees, §4, pl7
Spade, §4, p44
Spanish cherry, §20, p7

Specific gravity hydrometer readings for
liquids heavier than water, Table of com-
parison of Baume and, §2, pl6
Spitzenburg apple, §3, p34
Splice grafting. §1, pp20, 27
Spot, Leaf, §6, p69

INDEX

XIX

Spot of quinces. Fruit, §20. p44

Pear-leaf, §8, p32
Spotted apple-tree borer, §6, p24
Spray injury, §6, p80

pump. Bucket, §2, p30

pump. Double-action, §2, p34
Sprayer, Compressed-air hand, §2, p32

Gas-power, §2, p36

Knapsack, §2, p30

Traction, §2, p35
Sprayers, Barrel, §2, p32

Compressed-air, §2, p39

Gasoline-power, §2, p37

Power, §2, p35
Spraying machinery, §2, p29

methods for renovated orchards, §5, p50

of cherries, §20, pl7

of pear trees, §9, p34

of quinces, §20, p39

outiit. Accessories for, §2, p40

to prevent frost injury, §6, plo
Sprays and their preparation, §2, pi

Hand, §2, p30
Spring and early autumn frosts. Table of dates

of late, §6, p9
Spy apple, §3, pl5
Square system of planting, §4, p26
Standard pears, §8, plO
Stark apple, §3, p55
Stayman Winesap apple, §3, p42
Steam-jacketed kettle, §2, pl7
Stem grafting, §1, p20
Stems, Balling of large, §6, pi
Stock, §1, p20
Stolons, §1, pl4
Stool, §1, pl9
Storage houses, Apple, §7, p43

of apples, §7, p40

of cherries, §20, pl9

of pears, §9, p40

of quinces, §20, p42
Straight pack for apples, §7, p32
Straight rows. Locating trees in, §4, p40
Strainer, §2, p8
Subacid cherries, §20, pp2, 5
Suda cherry, §20, p5
Sugar pear, §8, plO
Sulphur dust, §2, p26

Lime-, §2, p6
Summer varieties of apples, §3, p6
Sun scald, §6, p77

scald on cherries, §20, p23

scald on pears, §8, p41
Suwanee pear, §8, p27
Sweet chen-ies, §20, p2

cherries. Varieties of, §20, p6
Swinging agitator, §2, p44

Table, Apple packing, §7, pp27. 30

of blooming period of different varieties of
pears, §9, pl7

of comparison of Baume and specific gravity
hydrometer readings for liquids heavier
than water, §2, pl6

of data concerning straight and diagonal box
packs, §7, p34

of dates of late spring and early autumn
frosts, §6, p9

of determination of the dew point, §6, p7

of number of trees to plant per acre by vari-
ous systems, §4, p25
Tailing of apples in barrels, §7, p27
Tartarian cherry, §20, p7
Temperature, Influence of, §1, p3

Injuries due to low, §6, pi
Temperatures for storage of apples, §7, p40
Tent caterpillar. Apple-tree, §6, p37
Terms applying to apple trees, §3, pi

applying to fruit of apple, §3, pi
Thinning of apples, §5, p35

of pears, §9, p33
Thrips. Pear, §8, p35
Tillage of bearing apple orchards, §5, p4

of bearing pear orchards, §9, p25

of quinces, §20, p40

of young pear orchards, §9, p23
Tilton apricot, §20, p25
Time of planting for apple trees, §4, pi 9
Tip layering, §1, plS

Tobacco extracts and decoctions, §2, pp6, 21
Tolman apple, §3, p30
Tompkins King apple, §3, pl5
Tools for pruning, §1, p42

used in planting, §4, p44
Top grafting, §1, p20

working of apple trees, §5, p50
Tower, §2, p44
Traction sprayer, §2, p35
Treehopper, Buffalo, §6, p58
Trees, Age of apple nursery, §4, pl7

Apricot nursery, §20, p25

Breaking of, §6, p79

Cherry nursery, §20, pl2

High-headed and low-headed, §1. p39

Home propagation of apple, §4, pl9

in straight rows. Locating, §4, p40

Planting of appk, §4, pl9

Propagation of pear, §9, plO

Pruning of apple, §5, plS

Quince nursery, §20, p37

Selection of apple nursery, §4, pl.5

Terms applying to apple, §3, pi
Trout pear, §8, p23
Trunk, §5, p21

INDEX

Tussock moths, §6, p45

Twenty-ounce apple, §3, pl2

Twig blight, §6, p74

Twigs, Killing of, §6, pi

Tyson pear, §8, pl3

Van Deman quince, §20, p35

Varieties of apples, §3, pi

of apples. Description of, §3, p6
of apples. Fall and winter, §3, p9
of apples for the Colorado section, §4, pl4
of apples for the Missouri section, §4, pl4
of apples for che New York section, §4, pl3
of apples for the Northwest, §4, pl5
of apples for the Virginia section, §4, pl3
of apples. Selection of, §4, pll
of apples. Summer, §3, p6
of apricots, §20, p24
of cherries. Selection of, §20, pll
of European groups of pears, §8, plO
of oriental group of pears, §8, p25
of pears, §8, plO

of pears for different states, §8, p2
of pears suitable to a location, §9, p9
of pears. Table of blooming period of dif-
ferent, §9, pl7
of quinces, §20, p32
of quinces. Selection of, §20, p36
of sour cherries, §20, p3
of subacid cherries, §20, p5
of sweet cherries, §20, p6

Vegetative activity, §1, p35

Veneer grafting, §1, pp20, 27

Vermont Beauty pear, §8, pl7

Vermorel nozzle, §2, p40

Vine layering, §1, pl8

Vinegar, Apple, §7, p61

Virginia section, Varieties of apples for, §4, pl3

Wagener apple, §3, p43

Wagon used in picking apples, §7, p9

Water drainage for pear orchards, §9, p9

Influence of bodies of, §1, p6
Wax, Grafting, §1, p22
Wealthy apple, §3, pl2

Web worm, Fall, §6, p39
Westfield apple, §3, p35

Seek-No-Further apple, §3, p35
Whip grafting, §1, pp20, 26
White Pearmain apple, §3, p51
Whitewashing to prevent frost injury,

§6, pl5
Whole-root grafting, §1, p27
Wholesale marketing of apples, §7, p49
Williams Bon Chretien pear, §8, pl3
Willow apple, §3, p55
Wind break, §1, p8
Winds, Influence of, §1, p7
Windsor cherry, §20, p7
Wine Apple, §3, pl2
Winesap apple, §3, p41
Winter Banana apple, §3, pl9

-killed quince trees, §20, p41

Nelis pear, §8, p25

Seckel pear, §8, p21

varieties of apples, Fall and, §3, p9
Wolf River apple, §3, plO
Wood cherry, §20, plO
Wooly apple aphis, §6, p52
Worden pear, §8, pl5
Worden's Seckel pear, §8, pl5
Worm, Apple railroad, §6, p34

Fall web, §6, p39

Lesser apple, §6, p34

on quinces. Bag, §20, p43

Palmer, §6, p52
Worms, Canker, §6, p40
Wounds, Dressing for, §1, p47
Wragg cherry, §20, p5

Yakima Valley Fruit Growers' Association,
§7, pl6

Valley Fruit Growers' Association grades for
pears, §9, p37
Yellow Bellflower apple, §3, pl6

-necked apple caterpillar, §6, p42

Newton apple, §3, p39

Spanish cherry, §20, p7

Transparent apple, §3, p6
York Imperial apple, §3, p30

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