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FRUIT NOTES
Prapored by Pomology Sfoff
Deportment of Horticulture
University of Massachusetts
Amherst
JANUARY - 1959
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SMALL FRUIT MEETING
Your 1958 Federal Income Tax (Farmers)
Thoughts on Pruning
Notes on New Varieties
The Aphids on Apple II
Prices - Last Five Years
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Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, Dale H. Slellng, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and J
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agrlcultire and County Extension Services cooperatfr
Publication approved by Bernard Solomon, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.
une 30, 1914;
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POMOLOGY SECTION = DEPARrfoEN-r OF HORTICULTURE
Anderson, James F. - Instructor
Teaches courses in peat control, smnill furlt culture and
systematic Pomology. Active in the testing of new varieties*
Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research
Leader of small fruit research working chiefly on strawberries
and blueberries.
French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture
Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breading, active
in small fruit variety testing.
Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist
Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.
Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor
Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other depart-
mental courses „ Currently also doing research on fruit
marketing.
Southwick, Franklin W. •- Professor, Research
Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.
Also, teaches certain advanced courses.
Weeks, Walter D. - Associate Professor, Research
Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and
strain tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.
Contributors to This Issue From Supporting Fields
Lawrence D. Rhoades - Extension Specialist in Farm Management
Ellsworth H. Wheeler - Extension Entomologist
Frederick E. Cole- Extension Marketing Specialist
SMALL FRUIT MEETING
A Small Fruit Meeting will be held in the Middlesex Room of the Student Union
Building at the University of Massachusetts on Wednesday, Janxiary 21, 1959. The
meeting will be an all day session beginning at 10:00 A.M. and ending at 4:00 P.M.
The topics discussed at this meeting will be as follows:
Chemical Weed Control
Newer Small Fruit Varieties Worthy of Trial
Soil Fumigation
Blueberry Maggot Control
Fruit Rot Control
Cyclamen Mite Control on Strawberries
General Recommendations for Insect Control
William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
YOUR 1958 FEDERAL INCOME TAX (FARRIERS)
If you had gross income of $600 or more during your tax year and you are a
citizen or resident of the United States, you must file a Federal Income Tax return
even though no tax is due. This also applies to minor children. There is only
one exception to this rule. If you are 65 years of age or over at the end of your
tax year you are not required to fil«-* a return unless your gross Income is $1200 or
more.
When to file your income tax return
If at least two-thirds of your gross income is from farming and your tax year
starts January 1, you have two choices.
1. File your return and pay the tax on or before February 15, 1959; or
2. File an estimate of your tax and pay this amount by January 15, 1959.
Then file your return and pay any balance due by April 15, 1959.
Where to file
Mail your return to the District Director of Internal Revenue for the district
in which you live. For Massachusetts, this is Boston, Massachusetts.
The forms you use
As a farmer you use these forms for filing your tax return.
Form 1040 - this is your return on which you compute your tax.
Schedule F. This form gives you a place to list all your farm income and
deductions and determine your net farm profit or loss. Attached to this form is
the form on which you figure your social security tax.
Schedule D. This form is used to show your gains and losses from sales of
capital assets and certain property used in your farming business such as dairy,
or breeding animals and farming equipment.
-2-
Form 1096 and 1099 - information returns are used to report payments to
individuals of $600 or more in the course of your trade or business in any calendar
year for wages, interest or rent. Separate copies of Form 1099 are to be given to
each individual to whom you made payments which total $600 or more.
If you are a member of a partnership then the partnership uses Form 1065
together with Schedule F and Form 1040.
Tax
One major change which affects farmers is an optional first year depreciation
allowance on new or used tangible personal property purchased after December 31, 1957,
with a useful life of _6 years or more . The additional allowance is 20 percent of
the cost (not reduced by salvage) and may be obtained only in the first tax year ,
that a depreciation allowance is allowable on such property. The aggregate cost
upon which the additional allowance may be based may not exceed $10,000 on a separate
return and $20,000 on a joint return. The additional allowance may be taken even
though the property was not owned the full year . After taking this additional
allowance you may also take the regular depreciation to which you are entitled for
the year, computed after adjusting the basis of the property for the additional
depreciation allowance. The property must have been purchased. If part of the
basis of the property is determined by reference to the basis of other property
such as a non-taxable exchange, that part cannot be considered for the additional
allowance. If, for example, you are allowed $600 on an old tractor which you
trade in on a new $3,000 tractor only $2400 will qualify.
Example
On November 1, 1958 you bought a truck for $4,000. You estimate the useful
life at 10 years and a salvage value of $500. Your depreciation deduction on a
separate return, using the straight-line method, may be computed as follows, if
you so elect :
20% of $4,000 $800.00
107o of $2,700 ($4,000 less 800 less 500)
Depreciation for 2 months (2/12 x 270) 45.00
Depreciation for 1958 on separate return $845.00
For 1959 and later years if there are no other adjustments to the basis of
this property, your depreciation deduction would be $270. After figuring your
special depreciation allowance you can use the sum-of-the-years-digits or declining
balance method of depreciation, if you wish.
Social Security Taxes
You must file a return and pay a social security tax on your earnings as a
self-employed farmer even though you would not other^jise be required to file an
income tax return. The rate of tax is 3 3/8 percent of earning up to the maximum
of $4,200. (The rate increases after January 1, 1959 to 3 3/4 percent and the
maximum earnings are increased to $4,800).
-3-
If you employ someone to work for you, you must deduct 2 1/2 percent of his
wages if they total $150 for the year or if he worked on 20 different days during
the year on a time basis. You also pay 2 1/2 percent of his wages as a social
security tauc. You do not withhold social security tax on your father's or mother's
or your wife's or your husband's wages if they work for you nor on wages of your
children if they are under 21 years of age and work for you,
—Lawrence D. Rhoades
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
THOUGHTS ON PRUNING
Pneumatic pruning equipment is used in a number of fruit orchards. Growers
who have used such equipment report labor savings ranging from 25% to 50%, How-
ever, the time spent in the decision phase of pruning cannot be shortened by
modern equipment. This phase depends upon the man doing the pruning. The ability
to "size-up" each tree and to arrive at a quick but sound pruning decision is
reflected in the number of trees pruned in a day.
Growers should be on the alert to avoid becoming "trigger happy" with power
pruners. Due to the ease of cutting with power tools there is a tendency to
make excessive cuts. This results in branches with the fruiting area located
mainly as a fringe near the terminals. This is brought about by the removal of
too many lateral branches from the scaffold limbs. The process begins near the
trunk and often continues nearly to the end of the scaffold branches.
Many Massachusetts fruit growers report favorably on the use of rotary
mower-shredders for shredding prunings and mowing in the orchards. The prunings
are collected in the aisles between the trees and the limbs over 2 1/2 inches in
diameter are hauled away. However, when piling the prunings in the aisles high
windrows should be avoided because of the difficulty encountered when passing
over them.
This is the logical year for growers anticipating a snow-ball bloom to do
heavy pruning where the need exists. The objective of the apple grower is to
obtain a high percentage of fruits of the size, color and quality demanded by
the market. The grower cannot afford to grow small, poorly colored fruits. There-
fore, pruning to eliminate weak wood and thereby many potential culls is in order.
The most common pruning suggestions made by the writer during visits to
orchards involve the pruning of young trees, filler trees and tall trees.
Too many instances apple trees of bearing age receive first attention and
the grower does not get time to prune the young trees. The longer the young
trees are neglected the more difficult it is to shape them. If a tree is allowed
to go unpruned for four or five years, it is frequently impossible, without drastic
pruning, to develop a well balanced framework with scaffold limbs properly spaced,
and a modified leader.
In the case of filler trees it is generally suggested that they be pruned as
lightly as possible in order to hasten fruitfulness and to obtain maximum production
before removal. However, when filler trees begin to crowd the permanent trees or
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Interfere with orchard operations they should be pruned heavily on the sides
adjacent to the permanent trees. By adopting this system of pruning the filler
trees may be left two or three years longer before removal. However, in many
orchards the suggestion is to prune the filler trees close to the ground.
The main problems of caring for tall trees is how to lower their height
and how they should be pruned once the height is lowered. Some growers are still
attempting to lower tree height by cutting off all branches above a certain level.
This will not accomplish the desired results 1 Instead, a large number of water
sprouts will develop near the pruning cuts and many of these will grow to a height
greater than before lowering was attempted. To reduce tree height growers should
remove entirely tall branches or cut back to well placed strong lateral branches,
depending on the tree under consideration.
In some cases growers are attempting to lower the tree height in one year and
are not leaving enough branches or water sprouts to shade exposed limbs. Such a
procedure results in considerable sunscald. If a tree has a number of tall branches,
all of these should not be removed in one year. Remove over a 2 or 3 year period.
One of the objectives of lowering tall trees is to replace old wood on the
remaining limbs with young, vigorous fruiting wood. Some growers have left too
many water sprouts which are poorly placed. These water sprouts are in a key
position to receive the water and nutrients that othen^ise would go to the parent
scaffold branch. If too many of these water sprouts are left they may dwarf the
parent branch beyond their point of origin. Growers should remove all but the
most desireably located x^ater sprouts. It is the hope of the growers that as the
water sprouts develop side branches they will settle toward the outside of the
tree. Sometimes the water sprouts can be trained toward the outside of the tree
by heading back to an outward growing lateral branch.
---W. J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
NOTES ON NEW VARIETIES
APPLE
Beacon - A seedling of Malinda introduced by the University of Minnesota. Beacon
is a fairly attractive early apple of Early Mcintosh season or later. It may
warrant limited trial as an early apple. The Fenton and Miller's Red varieties
are indistinguishable from Beacon and in all probability are Beacon renamed.
Crandall - A Rome Beauty x Jonathan cross introduced by the Illinois Agricultural
Experiment Station. Crandall is a late winter apple. It has not done well for us.
The fruit runs small and is poorly colored. Fruit quality is poor. Crandall does
not appear to be worthy of trial.
Monroe - A Jonathan x Rome Beauty cross introduced by the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station. Monroe is a late winter cooking apple of only fair quality.
It is a fairly attractive apple with good color. The tree is very susceptible to
powdery mildew. Monroe does not look like a promising variety for Massachusetts.
-5-
Ruby - A Gallia Beauty x Starking cross from the Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Station. Ruby is a winter apple. The fruit has good size but it has a dull un-
attractive red color. Fruit quality is poor. Ruby does not appear to be an
outstanding variety under our conditions.
W. D. Weeks
PEACH
Richhaven - An attractive, well colored, yellow fleshed peach of Halehaven season.
The fruit has good size and quality. Worthy of extensive trial.
M. A. Blake - An attractive yellow fleshed peach which ripens a few days ahead of
Elberta. Fruit has good size, quality, and very little pubescence. This peach
looks very promising as a late-season variety to replace Elberta. Worthy of
extensive trial.
---W. D. Weeks
PEARS
Alexander Lucas - An attractive French winter pear which is large, yellow with
a blush and good quality. It's season is late fall and early winter.
Chap in - A seedling of Seckel which resembles Seckel in general characteristics
but ripens nearly a month before Seckel. It is very sweet and excellent in
quality.
Ewart - A large greenish yellow pear netted v;iLh russet and has a fine, melting,
tender, juicy flesh. The season is a month later tlian Bartlett.
Gorham - Fruit resembles Bartlett in size, color, and shape. Ripens two weeks
later than Bartlett and keeps a month longer. The quality is good to excellent.
This variety is particularly recommended for dessert and canning.
Red Bartlett - A sport of Bartlett which resembles Bartlett in every respect
except color which is red rather than yellow.
0. C. Roberts
RED RASPBERRIES
Early Red - An early, medium sized fruit of medium red color, moderately firm
and fairly good quality. Growth and production are satisfactory. Winter hardiness
is fairly good. No virus disease has been observed on it as yet, but it is moderate-
ly susceptible to spur blight. Worthy of limited trial.
Muskoka - A midseason variety, with medium sized attractive red fruit which is
moderately firm and good quality. Canes are moderately winter hardy and show
little spur blight. No virus found on it to date,
Fuyallup - From the fruit standpoint this variety is outstanding in size, firmness,
distinctive flavor and very good quality. It ripens about with Latham, but
preli.uinary cvi-cncc sugsesis thrX it D::ay aoc be sufficiently winter hardy for
commercial use.
-6-
Other new varieties under test but still not ready for evaluation include
Canby, New Hampshire and Sumner, Crimson Cone has been quite inferior in size,
firmness and quality. It is not recommended even for trial.
A. P. French
STRAWBERRIES
Armore - This University of Missouri introduction looks very promising. The
plant is very vigorous, and forms many runners. The fruit is large, firm and of
fine flavor. Armore has been one of the top producers in our trials but falls
short in fruit appearance and is not resistant to red stele.
Blaze - An introduction of the New Hampshire Experiment Station. The plants are
vigorous, productive and produce a moderate number of runners. The fruits are
large, light in color with white centers, fair in firmness and good quality. Blaze
is not resistant to red stele, but is worthy of trial where this disorder is not
present.
Ear li dawn - This U.S.D.A. introduction has been the earliest ripening variety in
our trials. The plants are moderately productive, of fair vigor and form a satis-
factory number of runner plants. The fruit is of medium size, firm, tart and of
fair to good quality. Earlidawn is susceptible to the common strain of red stele
but may be of value where red stele is not a factor, because of its earliness.
Redglow ~ A U.S.D.A. introduction for the midseason. The plants are tall, vigorous
and produce numerous runners. The fruits are attractive, of medium to large size
and of good quality. Redglow is resistant to the common strain of red stele but
is susceptible to mildew.
Surecrop - An introduction of the U.S.D.A. and the Maryland Experiment Station.
The plants are tall, vigorous and produce numerous runners. The fruit is of medium
size, attractive and of good quality though tart. Surecrop show promise where red
stele is a problem.
Pocahontas - An introduction from the U.S.D.A. The plants are of moderate vigor
and runner production, the berries were of medium size, attractive, firm, sub-acid,
but of very good quality. Pocahontas was one of the top producers in this season's
trials at Amherst.
Vine land - An introduction of the Ontario Experiment Station. The plants are of
moderate vigor, yield and runner production. The fruit was of medium size, with
prominent raised seeds, tender and of good quality.
Merrimack - This New Hampshire introduction may have a place as a very late ripen-
ing variety. The plants are tall, vigorous and form a moderate number of runner
plants. The fruit is of medium size, attractive and of good quality.
---J. F. Anderson
BLUEBERRIES
Earllblue is the earliest of the new varieties as its name suggests. The
bush is upright, vigorous, well shaped, easy to prune, and propagate, but not
quite so productive as some of the older early varieties. The fruit is light
blue and very firm, hangs to the bush well, and has good flavor. The clusters
are medium size and medium open. The birds as well as humans appreciate its
earliness. Earliblue is recommended for trial until more is known about its
adaptability in various parts of the State.
Blueray is a second early following Bluecrop in the Rancocas-Stanley season.
The bush is erect, somewhat spreading, vigorous, and productive. The berries are
very large, firm, light blue, hang to the bush well, have very good flavor, but
have a poor scar, and are subject to mummy berry. The clusters are small and
compact. It has considerable cold resistance. Recommended for trial till more
is known of its adaptability over the State.
Bluecrop is an early mid-season variety following Blueray. Ripens about
Stanley season. The bush is upright, vigorous, productive, and easy to prune
and propagate, but a bit slow in getting started. The fruit is very light blue,
very firm, has a small scar and very good flavor. The clusters are large and
medium loone which makes for easy picking. Ripening is quite uniform. Bluecrop
is outstandingly resistant to spring frosts. It is considered a promising com-
mercial variety by those who have tried it. Recommended for trial till further
tests prove its adaptability to all parts of the State.
Berkeley is a mid-season variety to follow Bluecrop, a few days ahead of
Jersey. The bush is upright, vigorous, productive, and easy to prune and prop-
agate. The fruit is very large, round, light blue, and firm with a mild, sweet
flavor. The berries are about the most attractive of any cultivated variety.
So far, it has not suffered unduly from winter cold. It is recommended for both
commercial and home planting.
Herbert is a late variety ripening with Rubel. The bush is spreading and a
bit slow growing, but productive and easy to propagate. The fruit has a good
scar, is slightly flattened, a bit dark in color, large and fine flavored, but
too tender skinned for distant shipment. It is almost as frost resistant as
Bluecrop. Because of its frost resistance, productivity, and excellent flavor,
it is recommended for trial.
Coville is a very late variety ripening about ^ TT^^k after the peak of the
Rubel season. The bush is upright, spreading, vigorous, productive, easy to
prune, and relatively easy to propagate. The fruit is large, round, a bit dark,
firm, a good shipper, ripens rather slov/ly, and is tart until fully ripe. It
has a highly aromatic flavor which is very pleasing. When picked on the tart
side, it is outstanding for pie making. Recommended for commercial and home
planting.
Ivanhoe is an early variety of about Stanley season. Not many have been
planted in the State which is probably fortunate. It is better adapted farther
south. Here it is subject to frost damage, tends to drop when ripe, and cracks
badly after rains. Not recommended.
John S. Bailey
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
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THE APHIDS ON APPLE II
Apple Grain Aphid
The apple grain aphid causes very little damage to foliage and no damage
to fruit. And yet, usually, it is the most abundant aphid on apple buds, spur
leaves and blossom clusters until shortly after bloom.
Many times, growers spend money for materials and labor to control this
harmless aphid. And often such applications are too late to prevent losses from
any rosy apple aphids which may be present.
The effective, preventive programs for rosy aphid, outlined. in the November -
December issue of Fruit Notes, will eliminate grain aphid infestations completely.
Worry and unnecessary expenditures also should be eliminated by carrying out these
"insurance" programs.
More About the Aphid Itself
Last fall, during September and October, v/inged females produced on grains
and g^rcaea left those plants and migrated to apple. Here they produced living
progeny which were wingless females. After having been mated with winged males
from grain and grass host plants these females laid overwintering eggs.
The eggs resemble those of the rosy apple aphid. The tiny, black ovals are
found now (December) tucked into crevices around buds on slow growing terminals,
on fruit spurs, and wherever there is rough bark along the branches.
Hatching starts early, even before any green tissue is showing. Literally
hundreds of young apple grain aphids may be found clustering on swollen buds in
the Silver Tip and Green Tip stages of bud development. Normally hatching is
completed within 7 to 10 days.
The nymphs feed on the sap of leaves, flower buds and bud stems but do not
cause distortion of these parts.
The growth of these first generation nymphs into stem mothers is completed
in about 2 weeks, sometime early in the Up~to-Pink stage. Stem mothers are
yellowish green with a distinct row or band of diamond- shaped, darker green
areas extending lengthwise along the mid-line of the back.
Sometime before Pink the stem mothers, without mating, start to produce
living young, 2 to 3 per day for up to a month. Under favorable conditions
enormous populations may be present during bloom and shortly after.
Most of the second generation nymphs, and all of those in the third genera-
tion on apple, develop into winged females which migrate to grains or grasses and
there produce living young, which represent the first of a series of summer broods
on these host plants.
Here again is a complicated life cycle involving two host plant types, one
egg laying generation, three winged forms, and many broods in which are found only
the non-mating females capable of producing living young.
-9-
There is the one big difference as compared to the rosy apple aphid. There
is no damage .
Oh, a few of the big basal leaves on new terminals may be curled or distorted
a little along about first cover time. And aphids may be found underneath them.
But they are apple grain aphids, with developing wings. In a week or so they will
be gone.
It is not necessary to control the apple grain aphid'.
Carry out one of the "insurance" programs suggested for rcjsy apple aphid
and get the fringe benefits of apple grain aphid kill and freedom from worry'.
---E„ H. Wheeler
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
120s 140s 160s ^^^ '^'2 inch and up
Prices - U. S. Fancy - Faneuil Hall and Country Point
1953 - '54 - '55 - '56 ~ '57
A comparison of the crate and the cell pack on recent markets provides some
interesting information on price relationships. The Special Apple Market Report
as published by the Mass. Department of Agriculture provides the data.
The cell-pack has increased in popularity during the last five years and
the crate is not used as much now as formerly. Not every market report had prices
on all four packs so that prices were tabulated on days in 1955, 1956 and 1957
when all four packs were reported. In the two previous years, 1954 and 1953, the
120s and I40s were not quoted frequently enough to be tabulated.
Number of Reports Tabulated
Years Faneuil Hall Country Point
1953-54 ^\* 20*
155-55 21* 13**
1955-56 26 26
1956-57 39 22
1957-58 38 20
*cell-pack 160s and eastern crates 1\ inch and up only
**cell-pack 140s and 160s and eastern crates 2^ inch and up only
The make-up and representativeness of the quotations and the quality of the
contents of the packages will, of necessity, have to be assumed to be constant
throughout the period although neither assumption may be valid through no fault
or oversight of the market reporters.
The chances are good that a count of the 2\ inch and up in the crate would
average close to 140, so that a comparison of the 140 cell-pack price would be
the more appropriate if qualities were the same. The prices of the 1\ inch and
up in the crate are closer to the 160 count in the cell pack and will be used in
comparisons. No evidence is available as to why a "2);. inch and up pack sells for
less than a straight 1\ inch pack although some persons mav have olausible reasons.
-10-
Average Prices, Mcintosh, U. S. Fancy grade
Cell-pack 120s lAOg leOg and Eastern crate V^ inch and up
Faneuil Hall and Country Point - Five years.
FANEUIL HALL COUNTRY POINT
Ysars 120s 140c 160^ 2^" up 120.^ 140.; 160« 2k" up
1953-54 - - $3.27 $2.82
1954-55 - - 3.03 2.59
1955-56 $2.63 $2.44 2.09 1.92
1956-57 4.14 3.96 3.70 3.56
1957-58 2.54 2.41 2.17 1.89
-
-
$3.33
$3.22
-
$3.90
3.56
3.28
$2.91
2.61
2.23
2.11
4.32
4.15
3.76
3.70
2.99
2.88
2.41
2.09
3.41
3.21
2.80
2.63
-
3.38
-
.
-
-
3.06
2.88
3 yr. /v,3.10 2.94 2.65 2.46
4 yr. Av. -
5 yr. Av. - - 2.85 2.56
Several observations are possible:
Ik" and up and 160s
The Ik" and up in the crate averaged 29c less than the 160s in the cell-pack
at Faneuil Hall for the five years and 18c less at Country point. This dif-
ference is 19c and 17c in an average of the last three years at city and
Country point.
The difference between the 2V' up crate and the 160 cell-pack in each of the
five years at Faneuil Hall was 45c, 44c, 17c, 14c and 28c respectively and at
Country point lie, 28c, 12c, 6c and 32c respectively.
Faneuil Hall and Country Point
The difference between Faneuil Hall and Country point prices for the 120s 140s
160s and 2V up respectively was 31c, 27c, 15c and 17c in the recent three years,
120s and 140s
Three year differences between 120s and 140s, city and country, were 19c, 18c
and 13c - average 16.6c in the city and 30c, 17c and lie - average 19.3c in the
country - 1955, 1956, 1957.
140s and 160s
The three year differences between 140s and 160s, city and country, were 35c,
26c and 24c - average 28.3c in the city and 38c, 39c and 47c - average 41.3c
in the country - 1955, 1956, 1957.
Price of 100 apples
Per 100 apple price differences might bring out another angle of the differences
in price due to size. On the basis of quotations for the last three years
100 apples of the 120 count size, average, both city and country, may be calr
culated to be $2.71; 100 apples of the 140 count size - $2.20 and 100 apples of
the 160 count size $1.70. Calculating returns from a 3,000 apple tree on the
basis of price differences due to size, emphasizes the Importance of size.
These figures also considered in connection with an assumed average cost of
production and marketing, wholesale, of $2.60 ($1.25 plus $1,35) er-ohasize the
importance of the larger sizes and the pack used.
The above figures also illustrate that average returns for average packs are.
tor a portion of the industry, close to the break-even point. Better returns than
average - above the break-even point - through better than average selling of
better than average packs is the aim and result of good marketing.
Frederick E. Cole
FRUIT NOTES
Prepared by Pomology Staff
Department of Horticulture
University of Massachusetts
Amherst
FEBRUARY 15, 1959
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Fruit Promotion in Hampden County
Fruit Outlook
Trees on East Mailing VII Maintain High Yields
Stacking Apples in Refrigerated Storages
Orchard Pest Control by Air Dusting
The Aphids on Apples — III
Control of Orchard Mice Sometimes Necessary
in Winter
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loued by the Cooperative Extension Service, Dale H. Slellng, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acta of May 8 and June 30, 1914j
University of Maasachuaetts, United Statea Department of Agrlcultire and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication approved by Bernard Solomon, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.
POMOLOGY SECTION - DEPARTirSITr OF HORTICULTURE
Anderson, James - Instructor
Teaches courses in pest control, small fruit culture and
systematic Pomology, Active in the testing of new varieties,
Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research
Leader of small fruit research, working chiefly on strawberries
and blueberries.
French, Arthur P, - Head, Dspartincnt of Horticulture
Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active
in small fruit variety testing.
Lord, William J, - Extension Fruit Specialist
Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.
Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor
Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other depart-
mental courses. Currently also doing research on fruit
marketing,
Southwick, Franklin W, - Professor, Research
Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.
Also, teaches certain advanced courses.
Weeks, Walter D, - Associate Professor, Research
Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and
strain tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.
Contributors to This Issue From Supporting Fields
C, Lyman Calahan, Extension Horticulturist, University of Vermont
E, J. Rasmussen, Extension Horticulturist, University of New Hampshire
G, Everett Wilder, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Hampden County
E. H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist
Frederick E. Cole, Extension Marketing Specialist
John W. Peterson, Mammal Conservation Supervisor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service
-2-
The Hampden County Fruit GroTrers Association had a display and booth in the
Massachusetts Building at the 1958 Eastern States Exposition. Apples and Certified
Cider were sold and Johnny Appleseed (John O'Shauahnessy, Loomis Street, Southwick,
Massachusetts) demonstrated the art of grafting, A 10 or 12 year old apple tree
with fruit of different varieties attached was displayed.
The Greater Springfield Chamber of Coxjr.erce Breakfast f^^ October first h«ld at
the Highland Hotel saluced the Hampden County Fruit Industry. This was the high-
light of our advertising campaign and was a spectacular affair. Some 250 business
men and women were present at the Chamber of Cc^iTnerce Breakfast, where cider was
served in the place of orange juice and apple pie v;as part of the menu.
Russell P, Dale, Jr, as chief greater, saluted the H-nmpden County Fruit
Growers and gave a brief history of the organiza" Ion, He also ccninented on the
fact that Hampden County Gro-ers could cc-npete v/ith growers anytJhere in the
country when it came to growing fine apples.
The dining hall was decorated with apple posters and a Hampden County Fruit
Growers sign.
A bag of fancy Macs was passed to each person present at the breakfast by
Johnny Appleseed, as he or she passed from the dining hall to the lobby.
—Everett Wilder
County Extension Agent in Agriculture
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
FRUIT OUTLOOK
An improved employmsnt situation and relatively high consumer incomes will
be favorable factors in the marketing of apples stored from the 1958 crop. Apples,
generally, were put into storage in good storage condition.
Operators of controlled atmosphere storages face their most critical market-
ing season, so far, in the spring and early sunnter carkets. Ho;/ever, consumer
acceptance of crisp apples from controlled atmosphere storage has been the most
significant developT.ent in apple marketing since standard cold storage methods
became prevalent over twenty years ago.
There is a reported increase of 225,000 bushels in the quantity of apples in
"CA" storage in Massachv^t^etts which is more than double the quantity stored with
this improved method from the 1957 crop. This increased tonnage, together with
increased tonnage reported to other New England states and New York, places an
unusual responsibility on the marketers of apples during the winter, spring and
early summer months. Most of the apples in the new type of storage are of the
Mcintosh variety.
Condition of the apples, as placed on the market, will continue to have an
important bearing on prices received. The rate of consumer acceptance of apples
since harvest will also have a bearing on the rate of out-of-storage movement
of late apples.
-3-
Adjustments are being made in the handling of standard storage apples to have
them cleared from storage before the "CA" apples start to move. The extent and
success of these adjustments can only be knovm after the season has ended. Close
study of available market information is necessary as individual forecasts of
movement and price are made by packers and shippers.
Increases in population, the concentration of the producing industry in the
hands of skilled commercial growers and Increasing skills in marketing create a
favorable long-time outlook for the industry as a whole. Persistent reports of
new plantings of popular varieties in economical units indicate a growing strength
in the industry. Substantial accomplishment in keeping costs of production on a
practically level plane in recent years has kept the local industry competitive
and the outlook for apple production in Massachusetts is favorable on the basis
of expected regional competition and demonstrated consimier acceptance of good
apples .
-—Frederick E. Cole
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
TREES ON EAST MAILING VII MAINTAIN HIGH YIELDS
Production records in 1958 from a block of 15 year Mcintosh on East Mailing
II and VII Indicate that these trees are capable of producing high acre yields
of fruit. The average yield for E.M. II was 11 boxes per tree while the average
yield for E.M. VII was 12 boxes per tree. The spread of those trees is somewhat
over 20 feet so that a planting distance of 20* by 30* is required. With this
planting distance there are 72 trees per acre which at the above rates would
produce 864 boxes per acre for E.M. VII and 792 boxes for E.M. II,
A closer planting plan might be adopted where the slope of the orchard site
permits sprayer travel in two directions. Under this condition it would be
possible to set the trees 15' by 20* so that when the trees commence to crowd
every other tree in the 15 foot row would be removed leaving a 20 by 30 planting
distance. With this planting plan the number of trees per acre would be doubled
and the yield could theoretically be increased to 1600 to 1700 boxes per acre
as long as the trees were not crowded. Whether or not a grower adopts this close
planting plan will depend on the orchard site available and his willingness to
double the cost of trees for planting.
— W. D. Weeks
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
STACKING APPLES IN REFRIGERATED STORAGES
A number of apple growers in New Hampshire are stacking apples in their
storages on pallets which certainly requires less labor and makes handling easier
than stacking by hand. However the cost of fork lifts is considerable and the
pallets require some space thereby reducing the amount of fruit that can be
placed in storage. Some growers feel that the extra boxes stored by hand stack-
ing more than off sets the extra cost of labor required.
-4-
William Lievens, Woodmont Orchards in Derry has worked out a good system
of hand stacking in his new 20,000 box storage. The storage is high enough to
stack 18 boxes high and this is done in 3 layers of 6 boxes each. 3 x 8 x 3/4
plywood is used to walk on while stacking the second and third layers. Suffi-
cient plywood was purchased for a walk way the length of the storage rooms
for both the second and third layer.
Stacking is Ptarted 4 boxes wide (the boxes set the long way with the wall)
along the wall opposite the door to the storage. The inner 3 stacks are covered
with plywood which leaves the stack next to the wall uncovered. Next this outer
row of boxes is stacked 12 high. Then another row is added to the lower layer
and the plywood moved out to cover this last row of boxes. This exposes another
row in the second layer which is stacked 12 high. This is continued until 4 rows
have been added to the second layer. The inner 3 rows of the second layer are
next covered with plywood which leaves the ron* next to the wall open for stacking
18 high. Then by adding a row of boxes first to the lower layer, and moving the
plywood out and next to the second layer, and moving the plywood out and then
stacking the third layer the storage can be progressively filled.
The plywood provides a good working area and because it keeps all of the
fruit in the top layers well covered there is less damage of bruising the fruit
than when narrow boards are used.
-— E. J. Rasmussen
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
ORCHARD PEST CONTROL BY AIR DUSTING
(Editor's note - This is the first of a series of articles in which
Professor C. Lyman Calahan discusses "Orchard Pest Control by Air Dusting".)
The use of the airplane for the application of apple pest control materials
has become an accepted and highly effective commercial practice by Vermont orchard-
ists since 1949. This does not mean that the method is new because an Indiana
orchard was airplane-dusted as long ago as 1925, and the use of airplanes for
the application of pest control sprays and dusts to field crops and to timber-
land has been on a commercial basis for a long time. The discovery of DDT, follow-
ed by the opening of the so-called "organic era" of, in many instances, highly
specific and effective insecticides and fungicides, made possible the effective
use of dusts especially when applied by air borne equipment.
The first air dust test blocks were in the Southern Vermont Orchards at
Bennington back in 1949 and were a cooperative field trial project between the
U. S. Rubber Company and Mr. Paul Bohne who managed the orchard at that time.
It included 120 acres and Dichlone (Phygon) was the material used for primary
scab control with spectacular results. The first air dust recommendations were
published for use by Vermont orchardists in 1952 and the first full season air
dust schedule was published in 1954. During the 1958 season two air operators
applied around 300 tons of dusts to 33 orchards on a full season schedule and
about 10 more orchards on a primary scab control season schedule. One orchard
has not had any spray or dust materials applied to it in any other form except
air dusts for seven consecutive seasons. Several other orchards have been run on
this program for six seasons and are producing fine fruit without losses to scab
or insects.
-5-
Some of the reasons why planes are being used In Vermont are as follows:
1. Scab control is equal to or better than by other methods. This is because
better timing is possible for many growers due to the fast rate of applica-
tion (1 acre per minute), use of highly effective materials, and better cov-
erage in the top centers of large trees. Growers are frequently able to save
an application in the event infection conditions do not develop because the
time required to make an application is so short, and in many instances they
do not order an application until they are certain that an infection period
is actually developing,
2. With only a few exceptions, air dusting produces a very excellent fruit
finish, especially on the more russet susceptible varieties. Many Vermont
growers are convinced that improved finish and lack of h&rvest-time residues
adequately offset higher material cost as compared with spraying.
3. Dust schedules reduce the harmful effect of phytotoxicity by materials to
foliage probably because the residual properties of a material in dust form
do not favor a heavy build-up, and over-concentration and over-application
are avoided.
4. Reduced labor requirements, especially of a seasonal nature, have an import-
ant effect especially in the smaller acreage orchards. Competition for
qualified seasonal labor by our dairy industry and manufacturing is becoming
quite keen. On the other hand, year-round hired labor may need to be put on
another job. This method has been most convenient to growers when illness
or other emergencies arose.
5. Air dusting has definitely reduce spray machinery requirements, especially
during the time of primary scab control when fast coverage is so essential.
A grower may convert to spraying during the cover treatments and continue to
get by with equipment which is otherwise too small. Lighter equipment to
handle sunmer schedules usually means that a grower can own lighter, smaller
and more versatile tractors. Air dusting should be a means to extend the
serviceable life span of tractors and sprayers.
6. The overcoming of orchard rutting, especially during the wet spring months,
was an important reason for some of our Champlain Valley growers converting
to air dusting. The re-establishment of a good, unmolested sod cover has
been possible for the first time in many instances. The problem of soil
compaction by heavy machinery during periods of wet soil conditions should
not be overlooked.
7. A dust schedule, whether applied by airplane or ground equipment, may solve
a water supply problem.
8. Airplane dusting has been a help as an emergency measure in the event of
ground equipment breakdown during critical times.
9. Air dusting has helped solve the problem of effective pest control with
absentee management.
-6-
10. The use of the airplane make possible the convenient extension of the prun-
ing season well Into the pre-bloom time because the brush removal problem
to make room for ground-operated spray and dust equipment does not exist.
— C. Lyman Calahan
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
THE APHIDS ON APPLE - III
Green Apple Aphid
This Is the most abundant aphid on apple. It Infests terminals, water
sprouts and young trees throughout the season. Winged, migratory forms appear
In every generation and relnfestatlon and build-up to damaging numbers can be
very rapid.
The apple aphid Infests pear, hawthorn, crabapple, quince, and other
members of the rose family. Migration between hosts occurs throughout the
season.
The "Insurance" programs described for rosy apple aphid In December "Fruit
Notes" will kill the green apple aphlds on treated trees. They do not "Insure"
against relnfestatlon from outside sources.
Baldwin, Red and Golden Delicious, Cortland, Gravensteln, and Greening
are most seriously Infested but Mcintosh often serves as an Important source
for migrating aphlds.
Relatively cool weather with an abundance of moisture favors succulence
and thus the apple aphid. The relative abundance of syrphld fly, lace wing
fly, and lady beetle predators is another very important factor governing the
extent of apple aphid build-up. Unfortunately, many present day insecticides
kill these predators and parasites.
Three types of Injury are caused by the green apple aphid, (1) leaves
of terminals are stunted and distorted, terminal gro\^h is shortened and even
crooked, (2) fruit and leaves become smutted frcsa a growth of sooty mold
in the honey dew secretion, (3) in severe infestations aphlds may feed on the
fruit causing gnarllng or dimpling.
Regardless of the program followed earlier you need to watch for green
apple aphid build-up in early and mid-summer when control can be a part of your
regular summer schedule.
More About the Aphid Itself
During late September and October wingless, egg laying females and wingless
males were produced and after mating, overwintering eggs were deposited.
The oval, shiny, black eggs cannot be dlstinqulshed from those of rosy and
grain aphlds. However, they are most abundant on water sprouts and the vigorous
terminals of both old and young trees.
-7-
Hatching scarts soon after fruit buds start to show green, later than the
grain aphid, but earlier than rosy aphid. In 7-10 days hatching is complete
and the nymphs are sucking sap from the new growth of leaves, stems and flower
parts. At this time, the green ap^ple aphid usually is outnumbered by the grain
aphid and no injury is seen.
The growth of these first generation nymphs into stem mothers is completed
in 2 to 3 weeks, sometime about Pink or a few days earlier. These stem mothers
are a uniform pale green easily distinguished from grain and rosy aphids.
Shortly before bloom the stem mothers, without mating start to produce
living young. This process may continue for a month or more at a rate of 1 to
3 (naximum 10) nymphs per day.
From 60 to 75 per cent of these second generation nymphs develop wings,
migrate to new leaves, terminals, or threes and there produce living young
the beginnings of new colonies. The wingless forms in each generation simply
produce living young, thus greatly increasing the numbers of aphids at their
original colony site.
From 10 to 17 generations have been recorded in a season, all of them on
apple or related plants.
Thus we see, in the green apple aphid, a much less complicated life cycle.
All the generations may occur on apple. Also, they contain only winged and wing-
less, non-mating females, capable of bearing living young, except for the fall
generation of sexual, wingless forms that mate and lay the overwintering eggs.
The green apple aphid will bear close-watching until maturing terminals
slow down their rate of increase.
Control
SPRING ; "Insurance" programs carried out over the x^hole farm w ill prevent
all worry about green apple aphid until July. The severity of reinfestation
will then depend upon the nearness and abundance of untreated host plants in
the vicinity, weather conditions, varieties, presence of succulent water
sprouts, abundance of natural enemies on nearby host plants and in the orchard,
and your spray program.
Early spring control of all aphids is strongly recommended for lead
schedule orchards. The dinitros would be the least destructive to beneficial
insects.
Any one of the "insurance" programs suggested for rosy aphid should be
adequate for early green apple aphid control in all orchards on the organic
insecticide schedule.
SUMMER ; The summer build-up of green apple aphid becomes noticeable in
June and may continue well into July in favorable seasons.
-a-
Water sprouts are very susceptible to early and continuous heavy infesta-
tions. Also, they are very difficult to spray vrall. These are two very good
reasons for getting water sprouts pulled out of trees by early July. You will
save money on pruning too.
In the lead arsenate schedule, dcmeton, nicotine sulfate and TEPP are
the preferred aphicides because they will cause the least harm to beneficial
insects. Spraying must be thorough and should be done before extensive curl-
ing has occurred.
For the organic schedule, demeton in either III or IV Cover should be
enough in most situations. It should be used before the foliage matures.
Other phosphates, such as Diazinon, Trithion, malathion and TEPP, should
be adequate if used in a series of 2 or 3 applications for codling moth starting
with III or IV Cover. With TEPP and malathion, it may be necessary to shorten
the interval between sprays because reinfestation can take place very rapidly.
The new carbamate insecticide, Sevin, is also an aphicide and may be used
against both codling moth and the green apple aphid in summer Cover Sprays.
Sevin does not kill mites.
You cannot depend upon natural enemies where materials such as methoxy-
chlor, DDT, TDE, dieldrin and the residual phospliates are used. Susceptible
varieties are very likely to become infested --- seriously so, if v;eather
conditions are favorable and choice breeding areas, water sprouts, remain
in the trees.
Know the situation in your orchards at all times. Start sunmer control
measures before extensive curling has been done. Repeat the application
soon enough to prevent build-up after reinfestation. Choose materials which
give you the advantage of added effectiveness against other pests.
E. H. Wheeler
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
COtmiOL OF ORCHARD MICE SOIIETIIiES NECESSARY IN WINTER
The control of meadc./ mice in orchards should be undertaken in the Fall and,
if necessary, in Winter and Spring. The greatest damage to fruit trees is sustain-
ed during late Fall and Winter. Damage is usually more severe during a hard
winter with continuous deep snot/, but severe injury may occur at any season.
One thorough application of poisoned bait in the Fall may give protection for
the Winter, but the orchardist should re-examine his orchard after Fall poison-
baiting, during the Winter, and in early Spring as reinfestation from adjoining
areas may occur--thus making additional poisoning necessary. Zinc Phosphide- treated
Oats should be used in Winter if there are many runways in the snoi'/. When pruning
in the orchard, carry a supply of Zinc Phosphide-treated Oats and place a teaspoon-
ful in active runs at each tree base where mouse activity is observed. In this way,
a two- fold purpose can be accomplished and the mouse breeding potential reduced.
The best time in Winter to inspect the orchard is usually after a thaw
when the trails are more evident. One teaspoonful of poisoned oats should be
placed every tx^enty feet directly in the active runuays under cover. It is not
advisable to place bait in exposed runways because they were made under snow
cover and are no longer in use. If trees have been girdled during the winter,
the orchard should be treated with poisoned apple in the Spring before bridge-
grafting; otherwise, the mice are apt to eat the grafts and continue to injure
the trees.
FRUIT PROMOTION IN HAMPDEN COUNTY
Hampden County Fruit Growers booth in the Massachusetts
Building at the 1958 Eastern States Exposition.
Chamber of Coomerce Breakfast held in Springfield Massachusetts
featuring Hampden County apples and cider. Shown in the picttira
(left to right) Johnny Appleseed (John O'Shaughnessy) , Ralph Roberts
President of Hampden County Fruit Growers Association, Mrs. Alma
Doaoghue • Official Greeter, Mr. Sullivan - President of Chamber of
Coomerce and Mr. Bisconti - Official Greeter.
FRUIT NOTES
Prsparad by Pomology Staff
Department of Horticulture
University of Massachusetts
Amherst
MARCH 12, 1959
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Cyclamen Mite - A Pest of Strawberries
1959 Fertilizer Recommendations
Weed Control in Small Fruits
Blueberry Maggot
Orchard Pest Control by Air Dusting
^\
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-.'j^
'i >c
Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, Dale H. Sieling, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculti»e and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication approved by Bernard Solomon, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.
POMOLOGY SECTION - DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
Anderson, James - Instructor
Teaches courses in pest control, small fruit culture and
systematic Pomology. Active in the testing of nei^ varieties.
Bailey, John S. - Associate Professor, Research
Leader of small fruit research, working chiefly on strawberries
and blueberries.
French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture
Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active
in small fruit variety testing.
Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist
Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.
Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor
Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other depart-
mental courses. Currently also doing research on fruit
marketing.
Southwick, Franklin W. - Professor, Research
Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of storage and nutrition.
Also, teaches certain advanced courses.
Weeks, Walter D. - Associate Professor, Research
Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and
strain tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.
C ontributors to This Issue From Supporting Fields
E, H, Wheeler, Extension Entomologist
William E, Tomlinson, Jr„, Research Professor at the Cranberry Station
C. LyiTiau Calafian, Extension Kortic'.ilfciiri.<:;t, University of Vermont
CYCLAMEN MITE ■ A PEST OF STRAWBERRIES
What l3 This Pest ; It is a tiny mite, practically invisible to the naked eye,
much smaller than the common red spider or 2-spotted mite. It occurs on
many different plants both in the greenhouse and outside. It sucks juices
from the plant tissues.
Symptoms of Injury ; Heavy infestations result in severe dwarfing and stunting.
Early symptoms are a vnrinkled, deformed appearance of the new leaves. The
plants appear dense or crowded and the leaflets are held vertical rather
than horizontal because of the shorter stems. Finally some of the inner
leaves are killed outright. Crops are greatly reduced, worthless or lost
altogether.
Seasonal Development and Habits ; Adult females overwinter in crevices between
the bases of leaf stems. Become active in spring but all active stages avoid
light and require a high humidity. They remain in unopened leaves in plant
crowns or between parts of leaves or flCTjers . Eggs, nearly as large as the
females, are laid singly but as many as 3 each day for several days. Eggs
hatch into larvae which feed, enter a "pupal" stage and then become adults.
At 70O F an entire generation requires only about 14 days. Just a few females
on a plant when it is set can result in a heavy infestation before the season
ends or before fruiting.
How Introduced Into a Field ; Cycleimen mites get into a field most commonly on
infested planting stock . Some infestations can be traced to movement from
nearby infested plants or weeds.
How Are They Spread ; (1) By migration from mother to daughter plants or adjacent
ones, (2) carried by birds and insects, (3) wind-borne, (4) carried by workers
in the fields.
Some Important Points Related to Control of Cyclamen Mite
Mites are in Protected Spots ; A majority of the populatioix. remains within crown
in unfolded leaflets or other parts and inside sheaths at base of stems.
Hard to reach with a spray. Impossible to reach with dusts. Low-gallonage
sprays are not effective.
Many Common Miticides do not Kill Cyclamen Mite ; Allen and associates in Cal-
ifornia tested over 50 chemicals 1952-56. Found only 3 to be really effec-
tive; endrin (available but cannot be used during bearing year except after
harvest); isodrin (not on the market); Thiodan (available but caimot be used
during bearing year except before bloom or after harvest) . Kelthane is only
fair in single applications but can be used after bloom during fruit bearing
year.
None of the organic phosphates (parathion, malathion, etc.) or the systemics
(demeton, etc.) give effective control and in fact their use may result in
more trouble.
-2-
Control of Cyclamen Mite - Strawberries
A. For Plant Growers and on Non-bearing Beds or After Harvest .
Material: Thiodan - emulsifiable concentrate (2 lbs. active/gal.)
OR endrin - emulsifiable concentrate (1.6 lbs. active/gal.)
How Much: 1 quart per 100 gals, at 400 gals, per acre (or 1 gal. of
concentrate in from 300 to 500 gals, per acre).
PLUS an excess of some wetting agent.
Note: An excess of spray mixture used to drench the plants
is more important than high pressures. Spray directly down
into plant crowns.
When: On New Beds (especially for plant growers):
Apply 3-4 weeks after setting plants.
Repeat twice at 14 day intervals.
OR when Infestation is Found ; i^
Make 1st treatment at once. f
Repeat in 2 weeks in mid-summer, in 3 weeks if cooler.
Repeat again if needed,
B, Spring Treatment to Fruiting Bed ,
1, BEFORE Bloom only:
Material: Thiodan, used as directed above and on labels.
2, Before or AFTER Bloom:
Material: Kelthane - emulsifiable concentrate (EC) or wettable powder (WP)
How Much: 1 quart Kelthane EC OR 2 lbs. Kelthane WP per 100 gals.
at 400 gals, per acre (or 1 gal. of EC or 8 lbs. of WP in
from 300-500 gals, per acre.)
PLUS an excess of some wetting agent.
Note: An excess of spray mixture used to drench the plants
is more important than high pressures. Spray directly down
into plant crowns.
When: Make 1st treatment when infestation is found.
If before bloom, repeat in 2 weeks,
— E. H. Wheeler
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
1959 FERTILIZER RECQin-IENDATIONS
V7e are not suggesting any changes in fertilizer recommendations for 1959 over
1958 except in those blocks which appear to have prospects of a heavy bloom. In
blocks with a heavy bloom it may be desirable to reduce the nitrogen application
by one third. The following table gives suggested amounts of fertilizer to apply
to trees with an average bloom.
Suggested Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Apple Orchards
J^
proximate Amounts per Tree
Potential bushel
yield of tree
Less than 15
15 - 25
More than 25
Nitrogen
required
Potash
required
Pounds
0.66
0.66-1.00
1.33-2.00
Pounds
1.3
1.3-2.0
2.7-4.3
Ammonium
Nitrate
Pounds
?,.0
2.0-3.0
4.0-6.0
Muriate
of Potash or 0-15-30
Pounds
2.1
2.1-3.3
4.5-7,1
Pounds
4.3
4.3-6.6
9.0-14.3
8-16-16
Pounds
8
8-12
16 - 25
The suggested amounts of materials to apply in the table are for band applica-
tions under the spread of the branches. When the materials are broadcast over the
entire orchard floor it may be necessary to increase the rate of application in
order to obtain the same tree response as with the band applications. Fertilizer
materials other than those given in the tables may be used so long as they are
applied at rates which provide equivalent amounts of nitrogen and potassium.
The tree's magnesium and calcium requirements can best be met by maintaining
an adequate dolomitic liming program. The pH of orchard soils should be maintained
between 6 and 6.5. If a soil test shows that the pH of soil is 5.5 or below,
magnesium sulfate sprays should be applied to prevent possible occurrenec of m-ji-
nesium deficiency. It takes from 3 to 5 years before dolomitic limestone is
effective in correcting magnesium deficiency. When magnesium sulfate sprays are
used apply 2 to 3 sprays of epsom salts at the rate of 20 pounds per 100 gallons
of water. These sprays should be timed by calyx, first, and second cover sprays.
To avoid possible incompatibilities the epsom salt sprays should not be combined
V7ith the regular insecticidal and fungicic il sprays.
Boron should be applied to orchard soils every three years. Borax is the
most common material used. The rates of application per tree vary with age and
size. Apply one quarter pound of borax to young trees, one-half to three-
quarters pound to medium age and size trees, and three-quarters to one pound to
large or mature trees. In no case should the rate of one application of borax
exceed 50 pounds per acre. Boron may be applied as a foliar spray on a trial
basis. Polybor-2 or Boro Spray applied at 1/2 pound per 100 gallons of spray
one and three weeks after petal fall have given satisfactory results in Nev7
York State,
The amounts of fertilizer applied to trees which have received annual
applications of 200 pounds or more of hay mulch per tree may be materially re-
duced or entirely eliminated. Tree performance should serve as a guide in de-
terrainins the extent to v/hich the rates of fertilizer may be reduced.
In young non-bearing orchards it may be possible to produce sufficient high
quality mulching material for the young trees by broadcasting 500 to 800 pounds
of mixed fertilizer per acre. Place the mulch in a band under the spread of the
-4-
branches. The amount of fertilizer required for the trees with this system of
culture will vary with the quantity and quality of mulch replied around each tree.
If the trees are not making sufficient grov;th one-eighth pound of ammonium nitrate
per year of tree age may be applied to the mulch.
Recommendations for fertilizing peach orchards are given in the following
table. The amounts given may need to be increased if the trees are in a heavy
sod. A suggested increase would be to double the amount of nitrogen.
Suggested Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Peach Orchards
Tree Age
3-6
6-9
9-12
12 & over
Ammonium
Nitrate
Approximate amounts per tree
Pounds
1 -1%
l%-2
2 -4
Muriate
of Potash or
0-15-30
Pounds
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-8
Pounds
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-12
3-16-16
Pounds
2-4
4-6
6-8
8-16
Wo D. Weeks
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
WEED CONTROL IN SHALL FRUITS
In spite of considerable experimentation weeds continue to be a major
problem in most small fruit plantings. For a time the use of chemicals looked
so promising that we had visions of the hoe and the cultivator as collectors items.
Like most dreams this one was short lived. Many chemicals have been tried but
while a few have proved helpful, none are ideal. All have limitations. If these
limitations are recognized and the best use possible is made of the materials
available, chemicals can be useful tools in the fight against weeds.
Whenever chemicals are used, the directions on the container should be
read carefully and follov/ed. Thus, strav/berry plant injury from missuse of the
chemical can be avoided. If the intended use is not mentioned on the label, the
chemical has not been approved for that use under Public Law 518, a law which
protects the public from the promiscuous use of pesticides injurious to human health.
Strawberries
For the control of summer weeds scsone is the only chemical which can be
recommended at present. It will kill germinating seeds but after the seedlings
are one-fourth inch high they become too tou^h to be affected. Therefore, it is
necessary to cultivate and hoe the bed just before application and to have the
soil moist. In a dry soil weed seeds will not germinate and the sesone may break
do\im before it becomes effective. Use 2 lbs, per acre in very light soil, 2% lbs.
per acre in light soil, 3 lbs, per acre in heavy soil and 4 lbs. per acre in very
heavy or highly organic soils, Retreatment will usually be needed in 3-4 v/eeks.
It is safest to delay the first application till 14-21 days after the plants are
set. Injury to early rooting runner plants can be avoided by not applying sesone
while they are rooting.
-5-
The usefulness of 2,4-D in the strawberry field is strictly limited. It can
cause severe injury when runner or fruit buds are forming or when blossoms or
fruit are on the plants. Therefore, little time is left when 2,4-D can be used
safely. The best and safest use is In connection with bed renovation, right
after the crop is off and fruit buds have not yet started to form. At 1/2 - 1
pound per acre it can aid in controlling broad leaved weeds.
In Massachusetts for the past two falls no material has been recommended for
the control of winter weeds. The recommendation to use Chloro IPC was discontinued
because of severe injury following its use in several states including three cases
of injury in Massachusetts following applications made in the fall of 1957. It
is now pretty well agreed that the injury was caused by too heavy applications.
Chloro IPC is a powerful growth inhibitor which interferes with cell division.
To use it in excess of one pound per acre is courting trouble. One pound per
acre means one pound of actual Chloro IPC distributed evenly over 43,560 square
feet. Some growers have had trouble because they sprayed over the strawberry
rows and not between them, thus unwittingly doubling the rate of application.
Others have had trouble following spot spraying where there is no control over
rate. Chloro IPC is formulated so that there are 4 poundsactual per gallon. One
quart in 20-40 gallons of water evenly distributed over an actual acre will give
good chickweed control and there should be no injury to the strawberries. Another
important point in avoiding injury is to be sure the plants are dormant.
In New Jersey and further south growers are using a combination of one pound
of Chloro IPC and 2 pounds of Sesone applied in late fall or early winter to
control chickweed and other winter weeds. The Sesone controls some weeds which
are not sensitive to Chloro IPC.
Another possibility for winter weed control is one of the dinitros (such as
Premerge or Sinox P. E.) used at the rate of one pound in 20-40 gallons of water
per acre. These chemicals kill by contact. Their effectiveness depends on
thorough coverage. They are much more active at high temperatures on sunny days
but may injure the strawberries unless the plants are fully dormant.
Small chickweeds 2-4 inchiis tall are much more susceptible to DN's than larger
plants. If the chickweed is matted, only the top layer will be killed.
Some soil fumigants, such as methyl bromide and VPM or Vapam, are effective
weed control agents but because of high cost, difficulty of application or both
have been used very little in strawberry fields.
Blueberries
The dinitros at 2-4 pounds per acre can be used around cultivated blue-
berries but care must be used not to spray the young tender shoots starting from
the base. DN's should be used while weeds are small. They will kill only the
weeds present. There is no residual effect.
Diuron at 2 pounds per acre applied once in early spring will keep most weeds,
except deep rooted perennials and a few annuals such as plantain, out all season.
Use only on plants which have been two or more years in the field.
Raspberries
A dinitro at 2-4 pounds per acre in 20-40 gals, of water can be used as a
directed spray. Care should be exercised to keep the spray off young shoots.
-6-
Since raspberries are quite tolerant of 2,4-D, it can be used at 1/2 - 1
pound per acre in 20 - 40 gals, of water for the control of broad- leaved weeds.
To avoid injury to the raspberries; (1) delay spraying till the tend
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Issued by the Cooperative Eitenalon Service, Dale H. Siellng, Dean and Director, in furtherance o( the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperatuig.
Publication approved by Bernard Solomon, State Purchasing Agent, No. 19.
-2-
suppliers, almost all of the dust used is stockpiled at plane side in a shed at
several landing locations and is not handled by the individual grower. The air
operator has installed electrically operated mechanical dust loaders which makes
it possible for the pilot to easily load the plane even without stopping the
engine. Growers simply telephone in their order for an application and at that
time state what material is to be flown and from which supplier. A duplicate
copy of the issue slip is the basis for billing by the supplier.
This system has greatly increased the application rate, especially where
a number of small orchards are involved. Orchards located near Burlington are
30 and 50 miles from the Middlebury Airport and for the last few seasons have
never had a pound of dust material stored at the orchard. They happen to be
single load size blocks and the material is brought by plane from the central
stockpile for each application.
The number of acres which can be serviced by a single plane will depend on
many factors. Under our conditions, I believe a single Stearman can handle 700
acres even with many 30-50 acre blocks involved throughout the three northwestern
Vermont counties and two northeast New York counties, and our scab control
problem is difficult,
A few additional precautions or suggestions may be of help to newcomers to
this modern method to make y<"ur air dusting more effective and easier. First
and foremost, be sure to employ only skilled pilots who are backed up by a
good concern, always use good materials and do not attempt home mixing. Do your
part to prevent drift even if you have to wait another day for poison application
to be made. Take care to coordinate with state agencies and do a good job of
public relations work. Don't shave the application rate per acre to cheat the
operator out of money he needs to be in business or to save dust because you may
not get good control. Orchardists who are licensed pilots should never attempt
to do their own work. Good flying proficiency is absolutely necessary and can-
not be obtained on a part-time basis, especially from the standpoint of avoid-
ing accidents.
The effectiveness of air dust programs have been proven for a number of
years for many of Vermont's leading apple growers and 1 am sure it will V7ork
just as good for other growers.
---C. Lyman Calahan
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
CHEMICAL THINNING OF APPLES
Following a moderate 1958 crop we anticipate a heavier bloom generally
on Mcintosh and some other varieties this spring. It has now been rather
definitely proven by Dr. C. P. Harley at Beltsville, Md„ that NAA thinners
do have a direct influence on blossom bud formation of some varieties even
when no thinning is involved. Many of us in this area hav<^ suspected this
for a long time on varieties which are not inherently very biennial, such as
Mcintosh. It is certain, however, from many years' records and observations
that NAA or NA Amide is not capab;': of inducing annual production in some
strongly biennial varieties, such as Baldwin or Early Mcintosh, in some
seasons even when heavy thinning is accomplished.
-3-
For Mcintosh it seems quite certain that these thinners applied from 10
to 20 days after petal fall are very helpful In promoting flower bud formation
for the following year. This Influence may be more Important in some instances
than a reduction in fruit set since growers are not anxious to produce Mcintosh
in excess of 3 inches in diameter. The risk of overthinning Mcintosh with
NA Amide at suggested concentrations ie small.
At a recent meeting at Rutgers University where chemical thinning was
discussed by a large proportion of the research people in this field east of
the Mississippi River, there seemed to be considerable agreement that the
degree of thinning obtained could not be predicted on the basis of temperature
and humidity at the time of spraying. We believe it is still best to avoid
cool, cloudy weather and hot weather, however, when using chemical thinners.
Many feel that a frost a week or two before spraying, even if it has no
influence on fruit set, greatly increases the thinning potential of NAA or
NA Amide and a marked reduction in concentration is advisable. We have some
data contrary to this view but this may be the exception, so reduce the spray
concentration if temperatures of 28°F have been experienced prior to spraying.
In the Shenandoah-Cumberland area the use of Tween 20 at 1 pint per 100
gallons as an additive with low concentrations of NAA is being suggested for
some varieties. Our results with Tween 20 are not sufficiently outstanding
to justify the general use of this or other additives with chemical thinning
sprays. If you have not been able to thin Golden Delicious adequately with
NAA, for example, the addition of 4 ounces of Tween 20 per 100 gallons of
water to a 10 or 15 ppm NAA spray might be worth a try, but I don't believe
many growers have had trouble thinning Gold Delicious with 20 or 30 ppm of
NAA alone.
As you know thinning Red Delicious chemically is a risky business and
our results have been quite erratic. Dr. Art Thompson of Maryland is certain
that NA Amide is not a desirable material for this variety and suggests 10
to 15 ppm (4 to 6 ounces per 100) of NAA at about 15 to 21 days after full
bloom (about the same as 10-15 days after petal fall). NA Amide, he believes,
increases the tendency toward the development of "pygmy" fruit. On the other
hand, we have seen serious overthinning with NAA on Delicious particularly
under poor drying conditions. Unless you are having a serious biennial
problem with Red Delicious, we advise caution when using NAA on this variety.
It may be best to spray a different fraction of a variety like this at 3 or 4
day intervals since we have no way of being sure which day will give the most
desirable results. This same procedure may be followed for Mcintosh and other
fall and winter varieties to reduce the chances of under or overthinning all
the trees of a given variety.
— F. W. Southwick
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES ON HONEY BEES
A, HOW BEES MAY BE POISONED:
1. Contamination of water , nectar or pollen with pesticides which have
stomach poison action on bees. Contaminated water and pollen can kill
-4-
both the adults and the developing brood of bees. Probably contaminated
nectar kills mainly adult bees but this may depend on the speed of klll»
2» Direct contact with the pesticide during application. Primarily kills
the field bees but brood may die from neglect. Repeated applications may
seriously effect the colonies.
3. Exposure to residues of pesticides that have high toxicity to bees. Under
some conditions, high mortality to adult bees results. There is a lack
of sufficient information to determine how serious the effects of such
exposures may be on the brood.
4. Effects on brood . May be direct by poisoning , or indirect from starva -
tion or exposures to extremes of temperature .
B. SUGGESTIONS FOR AVOIDING BEE POISONING:
1. Proper timing . Do not spray plants that are attractive to bees during
bloom with materials known to be toxic to these insects.
2* Spraying in the early morning or in the evening will reduce bee losses
since fewer will be exposed to direct contact with the pesticide.
3. Do not use higher concentrations or more spray than is necessary,
4o Avoid contamination of area where spraying equipment is filled, particular-
ly if there is an accumulation of water being visited by bees.
5» Clipping or spraying with an herbicide to prevent bloom will reduce bee
losses if ground cover in area to be sprayed contains dandelions or other
weeds attractive to bees.
6. Notify local beekeepers if extensive spraying is to be done; they may be
able to take measures to reduce bee losses.
TOXICITY OF PESTICIDES TO HONEY BEES
From Anderson and Atkins, 1958 California Agriculture 12 (12): 3-4 with modification
Anderson and Atkins set up four groups of pesticides based on their varying
toxicities to bees. Much original information was presented, some of which was
obtained from laboratory experiments. Most of the more important materials were
also tested in the field. It must be emphasized that weather conditions in
California may influence the effects of most pesticides so as to give very
different results than we might obtain in the Northeast.
1. Materials that are toxic to bees which should not be used if there is a
possibility of bee poisoning at the time of treatment or within several
days thereafter:
•Idrin dleldrin lead arsenate
BHC ENOSBP (DN211) lindane
calcium arsenate Guthion parathion
chlordane heptachlor Sevln
Diazinon
1
-5-
2. Materials that are highly toxic to bees but which may be used if certain
precautions, Involving proper method and timing of application, recommended
dosages and avoidance of high temperatures, are followed:
Di - Syston
malathion
Phosdrln
Sabadilla
TEPP
phorate (Thimet)
3. Materials that are only moderately toxic to bees which may be used if
dosages and timing are correct. Should not be applied directly on bees
in the field or on the colonies:
chlorobenzllate
ethlon
TDE (DDD)
Perthane
DDT
Tedion
endrin
Thiodan
Toxaphene
Trithion
4. Materials that are relatively non-toxic but deliberate spraying of bees
even with these materials, should be avoided.
allethrln
Aramlte
Bordeaux mixture
captan
copper oxychloride
copper sulfate
cuprous oxide
Cyprex
Delnav
Dimite (EMC)
DNOCHP
ferbam
Genlte
IPC
Karathane
maneb
MCP
methoxychlor
chlorobenzlde (Mitox)
CMU
nicotine
OMPA
ovex
pyrethrin
rotenone
Ryania
sulfur
demeton (Systox)
thlram
zineb
ziram
2,4-D
2,4,5-T
WARNING
Most pesticides are poisonous. Read and Follow all Directions
on Labels. Handle carefully and store out of reach of children,
pets and livestock.
I
— F, R. Shaw
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
STRAWBERRY VARIETY NOTES
Varieties reconmended for camnercial planting include Midland, Howard 17,
Temple, Catskill, Vermilion, Robinson and Sparkle. Earlidawn, Redglow, Surecrop,
Armore, Blaze and Merrimack are reconsnended for trial planting. 20th Century is
suggested for trial as an everbearer.
Your attention is again called to the fact that several new varieties being
offered for sale are indistinguishable from older commercial varieties. A few
examples are listed on the next page with the original name given first.
Armore Indistinguishable from
Robinson " "
Midland " "
Sparkle " "
Gem " "
-6-
Red Cluster
Kardinal King and Scarlet Beauty
Crimson Flash and Adonis
Paymaster
Superfection and Brilliant
•—James F. Anderson
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
RED STELE; NUMBER ONE MENACE OF THE STRAWBERRY
Red stele has became the nvmber one enemy of strawberries in the eastern
states. It appeared in Massachusetts about 20 years ago. For awhile it spread
very slowly but during the past few years it has appeared in many fields, particu-
larly in southeastern Massachusetts.
Red stele is a root disease which has never been found in any other part of
the plant. It is caused by a fungus which lives in the soil as well as in the
roots of strawberry plants. This fungus forms resting spores which can remain
alive in the soil for 18 - 20 years till temperature and moisture conditions
are just right and strawberry roots are present. Then these spores germinate
and infect the strawberry roots.
The disease gets its name from the appearance of the roots of infected plants <
In spring when the soil is cool and wet the central core or "stele" turns a brick
red. This can be observed by stripping off the outer "skin" of the root with
the thumbnail or making a slanting cut with a knife. The roots of infected plants
fail to branch so that they have a "rat-tail" appearance. The leaves of infected
plants wilt. If the infection is not too severe and warm dry weather occurs,
the plants may appear to recover but symptcHos are sure to reappear the follow-
ing spring when the soil is again cool and wet. If the infection is severe
and the soil remains cool and wet, many plants of susceptible varieties may die
leaving bare spots in the field.
Red stele can be spread by infested soil particles clinging to tools and
machinery, to the feet of workers, birds or animals, by water-movement through
drainage, washing or by irrigation with water contaminated by spores or by
setting of infected plants.
The red stele fungus has a sexual stage and, therefore, occasionally
produces mutants, or "sports". As a result there are now five known "races" of
red stele. Only four have been found under field conditions. When red stele
was first discovered and only one race was known, several strawberry varieties
showed considerable resistance. Among these were Aberdeen, Pathfinder, Fair-
land, Sparkle, Temple, and Vermilion. Then other races, to which these varieties
are not resistant, appeared and decimated these varieties.
Plant breeders are working to develop varieties resistant to red stele.
The first variety resistant to more than one race of red stele was Stelemaster
which is resistant to three races. Yield and fruit quality are such that this
mmM mm
variety is valuable only where other varieties cannot be grot-m because of red
stele. Later Surecrop, which is resistant to two races and partly resistant to
a third, was introduced. Both fruit and plant characters of this variety are
superior to Stelemaster. In fact, it looks promising as a commercial variety in
many sections and certainly will be where red stele is a problem.
How can a grower protect himself against red stele? If he has no red stele,
he should take every precaution against bringing it into his fields. The danger
of spread from nearby sources is slight unless there is actual drainage from an
infested field or contaminated cultivation implements are used in a disease free
field.
The real danger lies in the setting of infected plants either from nearby
or distant sources. Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the desirability of
obtaining disease free planting stock. It should be easy to obtain clean stock
but because of the ignorance, indifference or carelessness of some nurserymen,
infected stock is shipped too frequently. Recently several cases have been
noted where red stele suddenly appeared in previously uninfested areas which
could not have occurred except from the setting of infected plants. It pays to
know about the source of planting stock.
If red stele has already been found on susceptible varieties, the grower
can either stop using the field for strawberries or he can try a resistant
variety. If any of the varieties resistant to one race of red stele became
infected, then it's grow Stelemaster or Surecrop or quit growing strawberries.
The question is frequently asked, isn't there some soil treatment which will
keep red stele under control. There are two soil fumigants, methyl bromide and
chloropicrin which will reduce the incidence of red stele to 5 per cent or less.
These materials are very expensive both to obtain and to apply. It is very doubt-
ful that their use would be profitable. Many other materials have been tried but
none has proved satisfactory under all conditions.
The best answer to the problem is don't get red stele. Know the nursery
that supplied your plants and let them know you want clean plants. Cheap plants
can be mighty expensive if they bring in red stele. If you get red stele, plant
resistant varieties or you'll probably be forced out of the strawberry business.
—John S. Bailey
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
DARROW - A NEW BLACKBERRY
On last September 18th the New York Agricultural Experiment Station intro-
duced a new blackberry variety. It is named Darrow in honor of Dr. George M.
Harrow who was for many years in charge of the research work with small fruits
at the Plant Industry Station of the United States Department of Agriculture
at Beltsville, Maryland.
Darrow (N.Y. #24338) originated from a cross between N.Y. 15826 (Eldorado x
Brewer) and Hedrick (Eldorado x Brewer) . As tested at Geneva N.Y. it is note-
worthy among blackberries for its vigor, reliably heavy production, firmness and
good quality. There it also appeared more cold resistant than other varieties
and selections. Ripening starts early about with Eldorado and continues over a
-8-
long season. Tests at the University of Massachusetts are too preliminary to
know how It will behave here.
Few blackberries are grown In Massachusetts. To frequently nursery plants
have turned out to be a worthless sterile seedling, a varietal mixture or a
combination of these. The softness of the ripe fruit has made It Impossible to
market It In good eating condition. The thornlness of the canes, which makes
picking difficult, has discouraged some. The rapid spread of the plants after
they get established can be a problem.
Oarrow appears to solve some of these problems. It should be worth a trial
for anyone Interested In blackberries. It Is unfortunate that a fruit which has
such fine flavor and makes such excellent jelly should be so long neglected.
-—John S. Bailey
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
GROWTH STUDIES OF THE CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES
Studies concerned with some of the growth characteristics of the blueberry
plant and Its fruits were made by V. G. Shutak, R. Hlndle, Jr., and E. P.
Christopher and reported In the University of Rhode Island Agricultural Experi-
ment Station Bulletin 339 titled "Growth Studies of the Cultivated Blueberry".
The following material was taken from that bulletin and should be of Interest to
the cultivated blueberry growers of Massachusetts.
In the study to determine the relationship of blueberry wood thickness to
other characteristics, measurements of one-year-old wood were taken just above
the basal swelling. The wood was classified as follows: (a) thin - diameter
less than 0.1 inch; (b) medium - from 0.1 to 0.2 inches; and (c) thick - over 0.2
inches .
With the five varieties studied (Dixi, Atlantic, Pemberton, Rubel and Pioneer)
it was found that blueberry blosscnns on thin wood normally opened before those on
thick wood. Blossoms on mediimi wood usually opened scnnetime between the other two«
In other wood thickness relationships, flower bud development in the fall was
found to occur earliest on thin wood and latest on thick wood. There appeared to
be no significant relationship between wood thickness and days required for a
berry to mature. Fruit and leaf size appeared to be positively correlated with
wood thickness. Since thick wood contains more and larger conducting vessels, the
authors suggest that this greatly increased water conducting capacity results in
the Increased fruit and leaf size.
The authors report that berry growth as measured by calculated volume may be
divided into three stages - a period of rapid growth followed by a period of less
rapid expansion, and finally a period of very rapid increase. The last stage of
growth was found to occur mainly after the berries turned blue. Their data suggest
the Importance of delaying harvest as long as practical after blue coloration appean
However, as stated by the authors "Some varieties begin to drop berries a few days
after blue color is obtained and waiting for maximum size may result in harvesting
a small crop."
Ripening studies showed that the largest berries ripened in the shortest time
and the smallest berries took the longest. "No correlation between size and
-9-
posltlon In the cluster was noted. The ultimate size seems to be largely deter-
mined during the initial growth period,"
Bags of aluminum foil and white and black cloths were used to control
light conditions for berries on the bush and special chambers were used to study
temperature Influence on the harvested berries. They found that "alumintjm
and both black and white cloth bags delayed maturity but resulted in larger
fruits » Harvested berries ripen faster at high temperature and in the light.
However, color formation will proceed in the absence of light."
-~W. J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN THE CONTROL OF
BROWN ROT OF PEACH AND OTHER STONE FRUITS
The brown rot fungus organism attacks blossoms, twigs, and fruit to cause
blossom blight, twig blight, stem cankers, and fruit rot. The fruit and trees
can be protected by spraying at the right time.
The source of spores for spring infection are mummies on the tree from fruit
rotted and previous year, mummies on the ground, and twig and stem cankers from
infections of the previous year. The spores on these organs may be overwintered
spores or newly produced spores. They Infect blossoms and twigs which in turn
produce additional spores to infect fruit and twigs later in the season.
There are two critical periods when most of the infections take place and
which need careful grower attention if conditions are favorable for Infection.
They are (1) during bloom and (2) as the fruit approaches ripening.
Blossoms are especially vulnerable during the 7 to 14 days of the bloom period.
The fungus attacks the flower parts, especially when they start to wither, and causes
blossom blight. It then grows down into the twig to cause twig blight and stem
cankers .
Infection can occur dally if there is rain or moisture from fog or heavy dews.
Infection will take place in 6 to 7 hours when the temperature is 45°F, in 4 hours
at 60°F, and in 3 hours at 70°F. A tight protective schedule with sulfur or dichlone
Is necessary for control of blosscm blight If there are rains during bloom. When
rains are heavy and wash off spray deposits, it pays to spray or dust again without
delay.
The other critical time for control of brown rot is when fruit approaches
maturity and the closer to maturity the more easily it become infected and the
faster the fruit rots. Here again, Infection depends on moisture and also there
is more of it if insects are not controlled and there are feeding injuries.
Beginning one month before harvest, it will pay the grower to watch the weather and
spray to protect during rains and to renew spray if heavy rains wash off spray de-
posits. The last spray of the season can be with captan which will delay rot longer
than other fungicides after peaches are harvested.
— C. J. Gllgut
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
FRUIT NOTES
Prepared by Pomology Staff
Department of Horticulture
University of Massachusetts
Amherst
MAY 8, 1959
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Irrigation of Strawberries
Elements in Successful Marketing of Appalachian Apples
Insect Control on Young Apple Trees
Stand-by Generators for the Farm
Farm Employers' Social Security
Farmers' Social Security
Employers' Payroll Records for Social Security
Pomological Paragraphs
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Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, Dale H. Slellng, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
^^^ Xirx io
POMOLOGY SECTION - DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
Anderson, James - Instructor
Teaches courses In pest control, small fruit culture and
systematic Pomology. Active In the testing of new varieties.
Bailey, John S, - Associate Professor, Research
Leader of small fruit research, working chiefly on strawberries
and blueberries.
French, Arthur P. - Head, Department of Horticulture
Does some teaching in Pomology and in Plant Breeding, active
In small fruit variety testing.
Lord, William J. - Extension Fruit Specialist
Chiefly connected with fruit growers' problems, other than pest
control, and does research. Editor of FRUIT NOTES.
Roberts, Oliver C. - Associate Professor
Teacher of pest control, fruit marketing and other depart-
mental courses. Currently also doing research on fruit
marketing.
Southwlck, Franklin W. - Professor, Research
Most of his time is spent in research on chemical thinning,
preharvest drop, several aspects of stoiage and nutrition.
Also, teaches certain advanced courses.
Weeks, Walter D. • Associate Professor, Research
Active on research in nutrition, root stocks, variety and
strain tests and winter hardiness. Also, teaches certain
advanced courses.
Contributors to This Issue From Supporting Fields
E« H. Wheeler, Extension Entomologist
F. E. Cole, Extension Marketing Specialist
R. W. Klels, Head, Agricultural Engineering Department
L. D. Rhoades, Extension Specialist in Farm Management
IRRIGATION OF STRAWBERRIES
A Massachusetts strawberry grower states "experience has taught us that any
Massachusetts grower engaged In the production of any crop where the return In
dollars per acre Is high must have some method of providing extra water In time
of need. It Is true that in many years a grower might "get by" without it, but
under today's conditions "getting by" is not enough. To stay in business a
grower must get the utmost in both quantity and quality from his planted acreage.
During the decade of growing strawberries, there has not been a year that I have
not been able to use supplemental water to good advantage whether it be to Insure
a sufficient number of vigorous plants, for frost protection or to irrigate the
fruiting bed." This summarizes very nicely the need of irrigation facilities
when growing strawberries.
Strawberry plants have the bulk of their roots in the top foot of soil,
therefore, they are easily affected by drought. In general, strawberry plants
require about one inch of water every seven to 10 days during their growing and
fruiting seasons. The actual amount, however, depends upon climatic conditions and
plant population and vigor. The writer has seen plants In a fruiting bed almost
completely wilted after two days of a hot, dry wind. Soil type also has an
important bearing on how often the land needs irrigation. Soils vary from loamy
sands with low water holding capacity to silt loams with high holding capacity.
To Irrigate successfully the grower must know the soil and plant condition and
how to operate the Irrigation equipment effectively.
When planning an irrigation system consult the personnel of the Soil Conser-
vation Service and the Agricultural Extension Service, it may save dollars now
and headaches later. Massachusetts Extension Service Leaflet No. 246 titled
"Irrigation for Massachusetts Fainns - why, how, when" contains much valuable
infoxmation and may be obtained through your County Extension Service or the
Extension Service, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.
Depth to Irrigate depends upon crop grown and in the case of strawberries
moisture penetration of 12 Inches should be satisfactory.
When to irrigate can be determined by making actual rainfall measurements
plus the examination of the soil in the field. Empty coffee cans make practical
and economical rain gauges « The height of rain in the can, as measured by a
ruler, will give inches of rainfall. These same cans are useful for the deter-
mination of distribution and amount of water applied with sprinkler irrigation
systems. Soil moisture meters can be purchased which aid growers to determine the
need and time for irrigation.
Growers have found it advantageous to irrigate the new strawberry beds as
soon as possible after setting in order to firm the soil around the roots. This
was particularly valuable during 1957. During the drought of chat year,
growers irrigated new strawberry beds as often as every 10 to 15 days.
A high moisture level is necessary at fruiting time. However, an over supply
of moisture may lead to large, soft, poor-keeping berries. One Massachusetts
strawberry grower states that "If the spring is dry, the fruiting beds are watered
heavily just before ripening of the first fruit. If the weather continues dry,
water is applied once more in the middle of the harvest season. I like to apply
apply water in the morning to give the plants and fruit time to dry before evening."
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By the maintenance of high soil moisture level prior to the harvest season, Irriga-
tion during harvest can be kept to a tninimuin. This should help reduce the occur
rence of large, soft fruit and gray-mold rot,
"-W, J, Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
ELEMENTS IN SUCCESSFUL MARKETING OF APPALACHIAN APPLES
Taken from February issue — Virginia Farm Economics No. 157
Adopted from the thesis of Robert 0. Grisso, "An Economic Analysis of the Elements
that Affect the Success of Marketing Apples in the Appalachian Apple Belt" Decembt
1958, by J,M. Johnson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute,
Conclusions
This study indicates some practices that producers might incorporate into
their operations to improve their ability to compete for satisfactory sales
outlets:
(1) Rely more heavily on U.S.D.A. grading standards and discontinue use of
state grading standards. State grading standards that vary ixaax state to
state are confusing and misleading.
(2) Put more emphasis on grading of fruit and strive to keep well within
tolerance rather than barely complying with the grade.
(3) Reorganize the packing operations in order that the packs preferred by
the trade may be furnished,
(4) Emphasize more strongly the marketing phase of the apple enterprise by
seeking out the more desirable buyers early in the season, granting them
the opportunity of knowing what the expected crop will be so that they
can adjust their operations accordingly.
The size of the grower, his location in respect to markets, and time of
sale have effects on his ability to sell his apples to an advantage. However,
other factors, such as the reputation of the grower, the quality of fruit packed
and the flexibility of his operation in regard to complying with the buyers*
demands were also definitely factors related to success in marketing. Therefore,
it cannot be said that the small grower located in an area not considered to be
convenient to markets, or those not having storage facilities cannot stay in the
apple business and compete price-wise with his larger, more favorably located
competitor with storage facilities. These apparent handicaps may be overcome
by a reputation for a quality pack, advance arrangements for sales, and taking
full advantage of the local market for fruit.
In our present-day dynamic economy, new ideas and technological advancements
are occurring almost overnight. If the Appalachian Apple Belt is to continue in
the competitive race. It will have to anticipate the new advances in production
and marketing techniques and adjust operations at a faster rate.
— F. E. Cole
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INSECT CONTROL ON YOUNG APPLE TREES
Round-headed Apple Tree Borer, Green Apple Aphid and Buffalo Treehopper
are the insects most likely to damage young apple trees in Massachusetts,
Occasionally the white Apple leaf hopper, San Jose Scale, European Red Mite and
several leaf-chewing insects such as Bud Moth, Tent Caterpillar and Gypsy
Moth cause some injury.
In applying insect control measures to young trees, materials that favor
increases in some pest species, such as mites, should be avoided in so far as
possible.
Apple Tree Borer ; The adults of this insect are beetles about three-
quarters inch long and with prominent white stripes on a grayish-brown background.
Beetles emerge frcxn their tunnels in tree trunks during late May and June and do
some feeding on foliage. Eggs are laid in the bark near the ground from late
June until late August. After hatching, three seasons are required for full
development of the larva or borer. Trees are greatly weakened or killed out
right by the larval feeding.
The most practicable control is spraying the entire young tree and ground
cover close around it in late May and through June to kill the adults. Such
applications might correspond to the First and Third Cover sprays in the bearing
orchard. In severe infestations, additional applications corresponding to the
Second and Fourth Cover sprays would be advisable.
Lead arsenate is effective in such a program and would do little harm to
beneficial species while controlling some leaf chewers in addition to the borer.
Lead arsenate would have no effect upon leaf hoppers, treehopper s or aphids.
Green Apple Aphid ; This is the most abundant of the summer aphids or plant
lice on apple. Large numbers of wingless and migratory, winged forms are produced
in some 15 generations from early spring until frost. Leaves on terminals become
greatly distorted and in severe infestations the new twig growth may become twisted
and the tree misshapen.
Parasites and predators may be enough to check the green aphid on young,
unsprayed trees during some seasons. In years favorable to the aphid, natural
controls will not be adequate, damage will result and the young trees will act as
a serious source of reinfestation for the bearing orchard.
Systemic phosphates such as demeton and Phosdrin must be handled carefully
but will give excellent control of the green aphid (and mites) with minimum harm
to beneficial forms.
Malathion is the easiest to handle of the phosphates but often gives poor
control unless treatments are very thorough and repeated at frequent intervals.
TEPP, Diazinon and Trithion are other organic phosphates which might be used.
TEPP must be handled carefully and must be repeated, but is easy on beneficial
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forms because of its very short residual effect. Both Trithion and Diazinon
are longer lasting.
BHC (benzene hexachloride) may be substituted for lead arsentate in one
or more of the sprays suggested for apple tree borer and should give control
of green aphid as well as borer.
Leafhoppers should be controlled by any of the materials mentioned except
lead arsenate.
Buffalo Treehopper ; This insect damages young apple trees by slitting
the bark of twigs and smaller branches to lay eggs. This occurs in August and
the eggs hatch the following April and early May. The nymphs fall to the ground
and feed on the cover crop until they become adults beginning about mid-July.
Alfalfa, sweet clover and bindweed are favorite food plants.
Keeping the young orchard free of suitable host plants and weeds is often
practicable and in some situations an effective control for this insect.
Where necessary, sprays or dusts of DDT or BHC may be applied to the ground
cover and trees sometime in late July or as the adults appear in the trees.
(If the cover crop is to be used as feed for cattle, substitute methoxychlor
for DDT or BHC) . About 4 pounds of a 50% wettable powder DDT (4 pounds of a
10-12% gamma BHC) should be applied per acre.
— E, H. Wheeler
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
STAND-BY GENERATORS FOR THE FARM
Electric power suppliers do an excellent job of providing dependable power
and satisfactory service. Power failures are very infrequent and usually for
very brief periods. But no electric power supplier can guarantee continuous
service. Should farms which are highly dependent upon electric power have stand-
by units? The answer depends upon the nature of the operation, the electrical
equipment involved, the loss a power failure might cause and the dependability
of the power supply.
For some operations a stand-by generator may be justified and provide needed
protection.
Type . Small electric generators can be driven either by a direct-connected
engine or by your tractor. Each type has both advantages and disadvantages. The
engine-driven unite are easier to locate: you can put them in a corner of the
basement, the garage, or any building near the main service entrance. Tractor-
driven units must be placed where they can be belted to the tractor. It is best
to operate the tractor inside. If it is to be operated outside, a rubber belt
is essential. Voltage and speed of the tractor- driven unit must be controlled by
the speed of the tractor.
One disadvantage of the engine-driven unit is the upkeep and servicing
that are required to keep it in operating condition. The farm tractor is ready
to operate at all times, and it can therefore be used with little added trouble
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and expense. Relative costs also make the tractor-driven unit more practical.
For a given capacity It costs less than hialf as much as the engine-driven unit.
Some units are mounted on a trailer and driven by the power take-off shaft
of the tractor. This type can be stored out of the weather and moved quickly
to the power center when needed. For this reason it is useful for operating
welders, power tools, water pumps, etc., in remote sections of the farm where
electric power is not available. It also eliminates the need for the somewhat
troublesome belt drive.
Size . Generators come in sizes from 3,000 to 20,000 watts. On most farms
a 3,000 to 5,000 watt unit is large enough to operate the essential equipment.
It would not be practical to install a unit large enough to operate all of the
electrical equipment on a farmstead. The first thing, then, is to decide what
equipment must be operated and how much needs to operate at one time.
The wattage demand of motors is about as follows:
1/4 horsepower - 300 watts
1/2 horsepower - 575 watts
1 horsepower - 1,000 watts
One point to remember is that a motor requires more wattage for starting
than for running. When you are operating more than one motor, you should start
the larger one first and then the smaller one.
Locating and connecting. Put the generator as near the main service entrance
as you can. Size of wire to use will depend on size of the unit and distance it
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