Full text of "Fruit notes"

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UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
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FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massochusetts, Amherst

FEBRUARY 28, 1963

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Bird Damage Research in Massachusetts
Fertilizer Recommendations for 1963
Extension Entomology Program
Strawberry Planting Time
Mechanization for Strawberry Growing
Leaf Analysis

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Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in firtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland. State Pu^hasing Agent, No. 44.

Bird Damage Research in Massachusetts

Investigations of bird damage to commercial fruit crops In Massachusetts
were continued during this past summer. A review of past findings in this
study resulted in the initiation of a different approach to this troublesome
problem. Formerly research, was directed at the testing of scare devices which
would, if successful', give Immediate relief. Now, however, it is thought that
studies of the basic biology of the individual species involved will provide
much of the badly needed Information about behavior of depredating birds.

No entirely successful scare device has yet been developed. Firearms give
immediate relief, but they require that the cropped area be regularly patrolled.
Reflectors and scarecrows are ineffective. Firecrackers and exploders give
temporary relief, but songbirds soon become accustomed to the noise and Ignore
it. Hawk and owl decoys give only temporary relief from bird depredation.

Total enclosure of areas, especially small cultivated blueberry plantings,
has been the most satisfactory control measure to date. Such materials as
tobacco cloth netting, nylon fish net, chicken wire, and netting made from
twisted paper have been used for this purpose. They are all highly effective
but are expensive to install.

A statewide fruit damage survey in 1962 showed a loss of 35 per cent of 157
acres of uncovered cultivated blueberries and a loss of 17 per cent of 220 acres
of peaches. A similar survey in 1961 disclosed a loss of 37 per cent of 121
acres of blueberries and a 3 per cent loss of 148 acres of peaches. Surveys
covering only cultivated blueberries for the years 1955-1958 have shown losses
of 38 per cent, 20 per cent, 19 per cent, and 27 per cent respectively. If these
surveys show a true pictttre of the bird damage situation then, we can assume
that this heavy economic loss is stable, even though local areas may be more
heavily damaged in some years than in others.

Five hundred and fifty-seven birds were banded at the University orchards
during this past summer in order to trace bird movements. Two hundred and
forty-two of these, including robins, blue jays, starlings and bronzed grackles,
were marked with plastic-coated nylon wing tags for field identification. Some
of them were marked with numbered tags for individual field identification.
Local birdwatchers were then asked to report the sighting, location, species
and date of all marked birds seen. By October 1, 1962, 152 Individual sightings
had been recorded. Several of these sightings were undoubtedly repeats for the
same bird, as not all of the tags carried numbers and the numbered tags could
not be identified in every instance. Only 3 of these sightings were outside a
3 mile radius of the orchard. This shows that the fruit damaging birds remained
local for some time after being captured and released. Of notable significance
is the fact that only 19 of the marked birds were subsequently recaptured in the
University orchards even though intensive mist netting was carried out for the
entire fruit season. An analysis of this data shows that even though the marked
birds remained in the near vicinity of the orchards, most of them did not revisit
the area after once being captured.

In view of the special attention given to individual species in behavioral
studies the Baltimore oriole was considered separately. This species caused
damage to all fruits in the University orchards, though principally to grapes
and peaches. Because of their small size they were not marked for field identi-
fication. Consequently it was necessary to recapture banded individuals in
order to learn of their movements. One hundred and forty-nine of these were
captured, banded, and released. Seventy-five of these individuals were banded
and released at a point 2.1 miles from the University orchard. Only 4 of these,
or five per cent were subsequently recaptured in the orchard. In contrast 19
per cent, or 14 individuals of the control group or those released at the
point of capture were again netted. Apparently the transporting of this species
to a distant point before releasing had some effect on movements.

The Baltimore orioles tended to converge upon fruit in groups of from
twenty to thirty individuals. The flocks were easily captured even though they
were feeding in peach orchards several acres in extent because individual birds
damage fruit on several trees on each visitation.

Future research will be given to the robin, the chief depredating species
according to grower surveys and personal observations. A few of the questions
which must be answered include:

1. How permanent, in relating to range, are the feeding habits developed
by adult robins upon their arrival in the spring?

2. How far will young robins move from their nests to establish a feeding
locality?

3. How do young robins establish a feeding locality?

4. Why will a field sometimes be heavily damaged in one year yet receive
negligible damage the following year?

5. Why are the cultivated crops preferred when abundant crops of natural
foods are readily available?

The knowledge gained from studies of individual species, including the
principal fruit damaging birds: robins, starlings, blue jays, bronzed grackles
and Baltimore orioles will be essential to any method of reducing damage to
commercial fruit crops.

J.IBRAPY
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■--Albert E. Hester, Graduate Assistant
Dept. of Forestry and Wildlife
Management

•3-

Fertllizer Recommendations for 1963

There will be no basic changes in recommendations this year compared to
previous years. We are still of the opinion that adjusting nitrogen to the
proper level which will produce the maximum yield of highly colored fruit of
maximum storage life is the key to a successful orchard fertility program, it
may take two or more years to determine the amount of nitrogen required to produce t
desired level. This is especially true in those blocks which are too high in
nitrogen.

In our fertilizer experiments, we have found that it may take two or more
years for reduced rates of nitrogen to be effective. We have also found that
omitting nitrogen applications from trees which were high in nitrogen did not
significantly reduce yields below trees receiving normal rates of nitrogen.
It appears that it may be necessary in some situations to omit nitrogen in order
to bring nitrogen down to the desired level.

We are suggesting that growers should:

(1) Apply no more than normal rates of nitrogen.

(2) Omit or reduce nitrogen applications by one half in those
blocks which have produced fruit with poor color.

Suggested rate of fertilizer for normal applications are given in the
following table.

Normal Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Apple Orchards
Approximate Amounts per Tree

Potential bushel Nitrogen Potash Ammonium Muriate

yield of tree required required Nitrate of Potash or 0-15-30 8-16-16

Pounds

Less than 15

0.66

1.3

2.0

2.1

4.3

15 - 25

0.66-1.00

1.3-2.0

2.0-3.3

2.1-3.3

4.3-6.6

8-12

More than 25

1.33-2.00

2.7-4.3

4.0-6.0

4.5-7.9

9.0-14.3

16-25

The suggested amounts of materials to apply in the table are for hand appli-
cations under the spread of the branches. When the materials are broadcast over
the entire orchard floor it may be necessary to increase the rate of application
in order to obtain the same tree response as with the band applications. Ferti-
lizer materials other than those given in the tables may be used so long as they
are applied at rates which provide equivalent amounts of nitrogen and potassium.

The tree's magnesium and calcium requirements can best be met by main- I
taining an adequate dolomitic liming program. The pH of orchard soils should be
maintained between 6 and 6.5. If a soil test shows that the pH of soil is 5.5 or
below, magnesium sulfate sprays should be applied to prevent possible occurrence
of magnesium deficiency. It takes from three to five years before dolomitic
limestone is effective in correcting magnesium deficiency. When magnesium sul-
fate sprays are used apply two to three sprays of epsom salts at the rate of 20
pounds per 100 gallons of water. These sprays should be timed by calyx, first
and second cover sprays. To avoid possible incompatibilities the epsom salt
sprays should not be combined with the regular insecticidal and fungicidal sprays

-4-

Boron should be applied to orchard soils every three years. Borax is the
most common material used. The rates of application per tree vary with age and
size. Apply one-quarter pound of borax to young trees, one-half to three-quarters
pound to medium age and size trees, and three-quarters to one pound to large or
mature trees. Boron may be applied as a foliar spray on a trial basis.
Polybor-2 or Boro Spray applied at one-half pound per 100 gallons of spray one
and three weeks after petal fall have given satisfactory results in New York
State.

The amounts of fertilizer applied to trees which have received annual appli-
cations of 200 pounds or more of hay mulch per tree may be materially reduced or
entirely eliminated. Tree performance should serve as a guide in determining the
extent to which the rates of fertilizer may be reduced.

In young, non-bearing orchards, it may be possible to produce sufficient
high quality mulching material for the young trees by broadcasting 500 to 800
pounds of mixed fertilizer per acre. Place the mulch in a band under the spread
of the branches. The amount of fertilizer required for the trees with this
system of culture will vary with the quantity and quality of mulch applied around
each tree. If the trees are not making sufficient growth, one-eighth pound of
ammonium nitrate per year of tree age may be applied to the mulch.

Recommendations for fertilizing peach orchards are given in the following
table. The amounts given may need to be increased if the trees are in a heavy
sod. A suggested increase would be to double the amount of nitrogen.

Normal Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Peach Orchards

Approximate Amounts per Tree

or 0-15-30 8-16-16
Pounds Pounds

Tree Age

Ammonium
Nitrate

Muriate
of Potash

3 - 6
6 - 9
9 - 12
12 & over

Pounds

%-l
1 -Ik

1 -h

Pounds

1-2
2-3

3-4
4-8

2- 4

4- 6

6- 8

8-12

8-16

Walter D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Extension Entomology Program Areas of Responsibility within the

College of Agriculture Staff.

No single individual now has entire responsibility for the Extension
program concerned with insects and their control and related subjects. Instead,
several persons are listed officially as part-time extension and have accepted
responsibilities for specific or general areas. Others, although not officially
assigned to extension responsibilities, do assist in certain parts of the program.
The following outline is provided for your convenience.

staff Member

Areas of Repponsibillty

Headquarters at Amherst

E. H. Wheeler

Dairy, Poultry, other Livestock and associated buildings

etc., Forage crops. Tobacco all statewide. Vegetables

and Potatoes Berkshire and Valley counties. Small

fruits (except blueberries) Berkshire and Valley

counties. Miscellaneous requests (except Apiculture).
Pesticides in general. General coordination of Reports
etc.

H. E. Wave

F. R. Shaw

Tree Fruits -■
Blueberries -•

statewide. Low-bush and Cultivated
Berkshire, Worcester and Valley counties,

Bees and Beekeeping

statewide,

Headquarters at Waltham

W. D. Tunis

Floriculture

Horticulture

eastern counties
cranberries)

statewide. Commercial Ornamental
statewide. Vegetables and Potatoes

Cultivated Small Fruits (except
eastern counties. Coordination of

Reports etc. from Waltham.

W. D. Whitcomb

W. J. Garland

Assistance in Tree Fruit, Small Fruit, Vegetable,
Floriculture and Commercial Ornwental Horticulture
programs eastern counties. Miscellaneous requests.

Miscellaneous requests and assistance in programs listed
under W. D. Whitcomb.

A number of areas or commodities are not accounted for in the above listing.
The following guide lines will be useful in these cases.

Cranberries

handled entirely by Cranberry Experiment Station Staff. Prof.
W. E. Tomlinson assists also in the programs for Cultivated
Blueberries.

Forestry and Christmas Trees program in this area carried out in cooperation

with W. B. Becker or the Experiment Station Staff at Amherst.
J. H. Noyes, Extension Forester and the Bureau of Insect Pest
Control, Department of Natural Resources and others. E. H. Wheeler
will aid in general coordination where this may be helpful.

Mosquitoes, Ticks, Flies etc. (Pests affecting health, comfort and recreation)

information available through staffs of the Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology at Amherst or entomologists at Waltham Field
Station and Cranberry Experiment Station. Main responsibility
assumed by E. H. Wheeler in cooperation with other personnel at
Amherst and Waltham and associated with the State Reclamation
Board and several Mosquito Control Projects.

-6-

Shade Trees and Related Municipal Problems information available through

staffs of the Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology,
(especially the Shade Tree Laboratory) or entomologists at
Waltham Field Station, particularly C. S. Chater.

Structural and Other Home and Home Grounds Pest Problems joint responsibility

of staffs in entomology at Amherst, Waltham and East Wareham.

E. H. Wheeler will assist the general coordination of the program

where helpful.

---£. H. Wheeler

Professor of Entomology

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

STRAWBERRY PLANTING TIME

It will soon be time to plant many things including strawberries. The
standard practice in New England has been and still is to dig and set the plants
as early in the spring as the soil can be worked. Delaying the planting almost
always results in a reduced crop no matter how carefully the plants are handled.
Even if they are dug in very early spring and held in cold storage, the later
the plants are set, the smaller the crop.

Since not enough strawberries are raised in New England to satisfy the
demand, many plants have been shipped in from southern nurseries. In the past,
this has often been unsatisfactory because growth often starts before or during
shipment and all too frequently arrived in very poor condition. These shipping and
storage problems plagued the nurserymen who produced the plants as well as the
growers who purchased them. Often heavy losses were incurred because of
deterioration of plants in storage. Fortunately, new methods for packing and
storing strawberry plants are not only bringing solutions to these old problems
but also opening up possibilities for solutions to other problems in strawberry
growing.

The first change in strawberry plant storage methods was brought about by
the Introduction of polyethylene film. This film is somewhat permeable to gases
but not to water. This meant that carbon dioxide could diffuse out of a package
surrounded by this material and oxygen could pass in but water would be retained.
Therefore, plants could be packed in "poly" bags or crates lined with "poly" film
without the usual damp sphagnum or other moist material. This partly solved the
plant storage problem by providing vastly improved moisture control.

The second change was initiated by the discovery that dormant strawberry
plants can be stored at below freezing temperatures. If the plants are fully
dormant when dug, they can be stored at SG^F for several months without Injury.
If the temperature rises above freezing, molds are likely to develop. If it drops
below 28°F, the crowns may be injured by cold.

Thus, by digging when the plants are fully dormant and storing them at 30°F
in polyethylene containers or polyethylene lined containers, strawberry plants can
be held in storage for several months. These plants come out of storage in
excellent condition and make a vigorous growth when planted.

One of the benefits of this new method of storing is that plants in good
condition are available for setting any time of the year. In areas to the south
of us where the seasons are longer, this method of storing plants has been used
to very good advantage.

In Virginia stored plants set in mid-August have yielded as well as plants
dug and set in the spring. By setting the bed in August the grower saves much
labor in caring for the bed. This is particularly true in regard to weed control
since the period of germination of most of the worst weeds is past-

In southern California, the use of cold storage strawberry plants set in
August has made it possible to increase the early season portion of the crop when
prices are high.

How then will this benefit New England? At present the chief benefit
appears to be the possibility of obtaining plants in much better condition from
southern nurseries. Experimental evidence indicates that late planting in this
section is too uncertain.

In one year cold storage plants set in early June yielded as well as plants
set in early May. The June set plants v;e.ve thoroughly irrigated immediately after
setting and a prolonged and unusual rainy period followed so that the newly set
plants had unusually good conditions for growth. In another year cold storage '
plants set in mid-May, early June or late June yielded less than freshly dug plants
set in late April. In this experiment the later the plants were set the less the
yield.

Therefore, it appears that for those in New England who get their strawberry
plants from southern nurseries, the plants can arrive in excellent condition for
planting. Such plants should be set Immediately on arrival. Holding them after
arrival results in detcvtoracion. So far holding plants in cold storage for late
planting has produced uncertain results here and is not recommended.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

MECHANIZATION FOR STRAWBERRY GROWING

The national conference on the strawberry held at Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, New Jersey January 24 and 25 was an extremely interesting and
successful conference. A wide variety of subjects were presented by research
workers from all over the United States and Canada. All the talks were concise
and to the point.

-8-

One group of talks which seemed especially timely was on labor-saving machinery,
Among these one discussion concerned a runner-cutting machine which has been
developed by a grower in Connecticut. This is a rather large machine and is drawn
behind a tractor and operated from the pov^er take-off. This machine appears quite
promising.

Several growers in the northwest have developed a picking machine which
resembles very closely the pickle pickers used in the Connecticut Valley. These
are simply long narrow moving platforms on which the pickers lay face down and
pick the berries as the platforms are moved slo\7ly across the field by a tractor.
A second smaller type of picker has been developed in which the pickers sit upright
in a frame over the row and pick between their legs as the machine is drawn slw^ly
across the field.

One of the most interesting developments in mechanization was shov^n by
Dr. Frank Gilbert of Wisconsin. A large grower in that state has almost completely
mechanized his operation except for picking which is done by the public. This
grower has gone so far as to have not only separate sprayers for weed control and
Insect and disease control, but has different types of sprayers which are best
adapted to each operation.

This Wisconsin grower is one of the few who have fully appreciated the
difference between spraying for weed control and spraying for insect and disease
control and has adapted his equipment to each job. Too frequently growers forget
that in weed spraying, rate of application and volume of material are extremely
important. They make up their spray material and then do "a very thorough job
of spraying". This usually results in an excessive application of the herbicide
with consequent Injury to the crop. It can't be emphasized too strongly that
spraying for weed control and spraying for insect and disease control are two
entirely different types of operations. Attempts to combine the two have usually
proved to be quite unsatisfactory.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

LEAF ANALYSIS

High nitrogen level in Mcintosh orchards has been a consistent problem for
the last several seasons, even in a light crop year such as 1960. Treee which
have received the same fertilizer program for several years will have a nitrogen
level which is ,2 to .3 of a per cent lower in a light crop year than it is in a
heavy crop year.

Leaf Analyses of Mcintosh Orchards

Year

No. of
Samples

High Nitrogen

Per Cent of Samples With ;
Loft7 Potassium

Low Magnesium

1959

136

1960

1961

108

1962

151

46.3
36.7
50.0
48.0

15.4

10.2

5.6

19.2

38.2
9.2
8.3
9.2

It can be noted in the table that low potassium level was mora prevalent
this year than the two previous seasons. However, since the samples are not from
the same orchards each year, it is not feasible to interpret any trends. For
example, one might say the reason for the increase in percentage of samples with
low potassium in 1962 might be due to dry weather. On the other hand, rainfall
was ample in 1959 and low potassium levels were quite prevalent.

Leaf samples were obtained from 40 orchards ir 1962. In twenty-three of
these orchards growers used a complete fertilizer but 16 growers used no nitrogen
in some blocks. Some growers are not using nitrogen in an attempt to lower the
nitrogen level in the trees and thereby increase fruit firmness and color.
Growers attempting to lower the nitrogen level in their orchards should realize
that it may take two or more years for this to occur following reduced rates of
nitrogen application. On the other hand, a moderate nitrogen level should be
maintained.. Leaf analyses should be requested from county agents in order to
follow the effect of the fertilizer program adjustments.

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Propqrod by Pomology Stoff, Deportment of Horticulture

Cooperotive Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

APRIL 10, 1963

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chemical Weed Control in the Orchard

Peach Tree Borer Control on Young Peach Trees

Pomological Paragraph

Reducing Load of Fruit on the Leader
of Trees on Moiling Rootstock

The Chemical Thinning of Apples in 1963

Winter Losses of Honey Bees

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Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director. In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent. No. 44.

CHEMI CAL WEED CONTROL IN THE ORCHARD

The elimination of grass and weeds under fruit trees may materially aid
tree growth and mouse control. However, successful use of chemical weed killers
requires close attention to details. With chemical weed control it is necessary
to - read the label - follow the instructions - apply only on crops specified -
not apply more than the suggested amount - make applications only during suggested
seasons - and calibrate your sprayer to insure rate of application.

Sprayer Calibration

Calibration of the sprayer is as important as following the directions on
the chemical label. Overdosage can cause injury to trees. Speed of sprayer,
nozzle spacing, application rate and discharge rate per nozzle are the four
major factors to consider in calibrating a farm sprayer. Farm equipment dealers
can furnish information on sprayer calibration and proper nozzling.

If using a hand gun, the rate of discharge can be found by determining the
time required to fill a container of known gallonage. This procedure will enable
the grower to time the application for each tree.

If the amount of herbicide desired per acre is dissolved or suspended in
100 gallons of spray solution, then each gallon of spray solution should cover
the number of trees listed in Table 1. Note that the heading for the first column
is "distance sprayed from the middle of the trunk". This is an important
consideration when spraying around large trees one foot or more in diameter. The
number of square feet in the area three feet from the trunk of large trees is
greater than that within 3 feet from the trunk of small trees.

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and regulations.
Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachusetts requires that all
pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered with the Massachusetts Department
of Public Health. Trade names, where used for clearness, do not indicate
endorsement nor imply that similar products are not satisfactory.

WARNING I MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS
AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT OF REACH OF
CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

■2-

Table 1. Number of trees to cover with 100 gallons or with 1 gallon of spray

solution when applying at the rate of 100 gallons per acre and spraying
the stated number of feet from the tree trunk on all four sides of the
tree.

Distance sprayed from
middle of the trunk

3 feet

4 feet

5 feet

6 feet

7 feet

8 feet

No. Trees/100 Gals.

Approx. No.

Trees/Gal.

Calculated

Calculate

Calculated

Cal

culated

as a square

as a circ

as a square

a circle

1210

1539

681

868

436

555

303

385

222

283

170

217
Equipment

1-3/4

Many of the herbicides used for weed control are wettable powders that form
suspensions rather than true solutions. If agitation is not sufficient, the
materials will settle out and result in a higher concentration of herbicides in
the bottom of the tank. This, in turn, could cause serious injury when the mixture
is applied around the trees.

Mechanical agitation cannot be provided as easily as jet agitation. Jet
agitators have been developed which can be connected to the pressure line between
the pump and the by-pass valve. The agitation consists of a head with three
orifices from which streams of spray solution are expelled. It is suspended by a
hose to the bottom of the tank where the expelled streams agitate the spray
suspension.

Herbic:fdes should not be applied with a high-pressure spray rig unless it
is modified. The equipment should have an operational pressure of 30 to 40
pounds per square inch. Low pressure and 1ot7 gallonage rates help avoid
forcing the spray into the soil - a common cause of herbicide injury.

There are two basic types of general farm sprayers - boomless and boom
equiped. Either of these is available with a variety of pumps and carriers and
can be tractor or trailer mounted. The boom sprayers in common use would have
to be modified for orchard grasF control because of the limited area to be covered.

He rbicid es

The chei lical weed control recommendations for 1963 are given in Table 2.
The table is for the convenience of the reader but the information -contained is
necessarily brief. For further information read the notes which sunriiarizes the
weed control trials conducted in 1962. The lower dosage rates given in the table
may result in satisfactory weed control and gives a greater margin of safety. For
the most satisfactory results apply the foliage-active herbicides when the grass
is 6-12 inches in height.

Table 2. Weed control recommendations for fruit trees - 1963

Crop

Herbicide and the
Amount/Acre on Area
Treated

Weeds Controlled

Remarks

Apples
Bearing

DALAPON 857, WP
(DCWPON) 5-10 lbs.

Perennial grasses

The 10 pound rate gave the
best control of grass of all
materials used in 1962. Does
not control annual weeds. It
is reported that Idared trees
are sensitive to DALAPON
(DOWPON).

DALAPON 857„ WP
(DOWPON) 5-10 lbs.
plus DIURON 807, WP
(KARMEX) 2-4 lbs.

Perennial grasses
and annual weeds

Do not use combination under
dwarf or semi-dwarf trees.

DALAPON 857, WP
(DOWPON) 5-10 lbs,
plus SIMAZINE 807,
WP 2-4 lbs.

Perennial grasses
and annual weeds

Safe to use on semi-dwarf
trees in addition to those
on seedling roots.

Non-bearing

DALAPON 857, WP
(DCWPON) 5-10 lbs,

Perennial grasses

The 10 pound rate gave the
best control of grass of all
materials used on non-bearing
trees in 1962. Does not
control annual weeds. Trees
should be at least 4 years of
age.

DALAPON 857, WP
(DCT'JPON) 5-10 lbs.
plus DIURON 807,
WP (KARMEX) 2-4
lbs.

DALAPON 857, WP
(DOWPON) 5-10
lbs. plus
SIMAZINE 807,
WP 2-4 lbs.

Perennial grasses
and annual weeds

Do not use combination under
dwarf or semi-dwarf trees.
Trees should be at least
4 years of age.

Perennial grasses
and annual weeds

Trees should be at least 4
years of age.

AMIZINE 7 lbs,

Perennial grasses Use on trees established one
and annual weeds year or more.

AMITROLE 50% WP
(WEEDAZOL or
AMINO TRIAZOLE)
4 lbs.

Perennial grasses
and annual weeds.
Poison Ivy

Use on trees established one
year or more. For best control
of poison ivy, apply during
June or July. A combination
AMITROLE (WEEDAZOL or AMINO
TRIAZOLE) with SIMAZINE or
DIUROM (KARMEX) will improve
the weed control. Do not use
the combination with DIURON
(KARMEX) on dwarf or semi-
dwarf trees.

AMITR0LE-T2 lbs./
gal. (CYTROL or
AMITROL-T) 1 gal.

Perennial grasses
and annual weeds.
Poison Ivy

For best control of poison ivy
apply during June or July. Use
on trees established one year
or more. A combination of
(AMITROLE-T (CYTROL or AMITROL-T)
with SIMAZINE or DIURON (KARMEX)
will improve the weed control.
Do not use the combination with
DIURON (KARMEX) on dwarf or
semi-dwarf trees.

Pears
Bearing

DALAPON (DOWPON) or DALAPON (DOWPON) plus DIURON (KARMEX) may be used
in bearing pear orchards. The recommendations for the use of these
materials are the same as those given for bearing apple trees.

Non-bearing

Peach
Bearing

DALAPON (DOWPON), DALAPON (DOWPON) plus DIURON (KARMEX), AMITROLE
(UEEDAZOL or AMINO TRIAZOLE) may be used in non-bearing pear orchards.
The recommendations for the use of these materials are the same as
those given for non-bearing apple orchards.

DALAPON (DOWPON) is labelled for use under bearing peach trees.
However, it should be used with care because peach trees are easily
injured with this material. Apply at rate of 5 pounds 857, WP per
acre on area treated.

-5-

I. DALAPON (DOWPON)

Dalapon applied at the rate of 10 pounds per acre gave the best grass control
of all the materials used in 1962. Although the control with 5 pounds of dalapon
was not as satisfactory, this rate gives a greater margin of safety because of the
tendency to overdose.

Good grass control v;as obtained in June and July when it was 18 to 24 inches
high. Although the grass was killed, it remained standing and constituted an ex-
cellent mouse cover. It is recommended that tall grass be mowed and allowed to
make 8-10 inches of regrowth prior to treatment.

When the sod cover is predominately grass, dalapon may be the only herbicide
necessary the first year of use. When weeds are present in the orchard, either
diuron or simazine can be added to the spray to control the seedling weeds that
might othen^ise move in where the grass was suppressed. Do not use the combina-
tion of dalapon and diuron on semi-dwarf or dwarf trees.

H. AMIZINE

Amizine is a mixture of simazine and amitrole. It has label clearance for
use in bearing apple orchards but must not be applied under trees after full
bloom. The label also states DO NOT ALLOW SPRAY ip CONTACT STEMS , FOLIAGE OR
TRUNKS OF TREES SPRAYE D. This is a serious limitation since it is difficult for
the grower to spray without accidental wetting of the trees. Therefore, it is
suggested that the use of amizine be limited to weed control under non-bearing
apple trees.

Amizine at the rate of 7 pounds per acre gave good grass control but failed
to suppress all broadleaf weeds - vetch and milkweed.

III. SIMAZINE

Simazine 857, WP at the rate of 4 pounds per acre failed to give satisfactory
control of grass in several trials conducted in 1962. The treatments were applied
during May and June under trees having well-established grasses. This time of
application was used because many orchardists apply herbicides in May and June.
Simazine should be applied as a pre-emergence treatment and is not effective
when used at the 4 pound rate on established and growing vegetation. The best
use of simazine in our orchards, v/hich are grov/n under the sod-mulch system of
culture, is in combination with a label-approved contact weed killer such as
dalapon. The combination should eliminate many weeds which are likely to take over
where the grass has been subdued. Simazine stunts but does not eliminate all
sorrel, vetch, dandelions and other weeds.

Trials have been established using Simazine under apple trees on October 15,
November 1 and as soon as the snow leaves the ground.

IV. GRANULAR SIMAZINE

Granular simazine has label clearance for use under non-bearing apple trees
at the rate of 50 to 75 pounds per acre. This material should be applied prior
to v;eed emergence.

Some growers have obtained good control of established grass and weeds
vrith granular simazine applied in May. It is the writer's opinion that the
granular simazine was applied under the non-bearing apple trees at a rate in
exfcess to that recommended. In trials conducted in 1962, granular simazine
applied at the rate of 75 pounds per treated acre failed to control grass.

Trials have been established using granular simazine under apple trees on
October 15, November 1 and as soon as the snow leaves the ground.

V. DIURON (KARMEX)

Diuron at the rate of four pounds per acre gave varying degrees of orchard
weed control in several trials conducted in 1962. The treatments were applied
during May and June under trees having xtoII -established grasses. This liming
was used because many orchardists apply herbicides in May and June.

Diuron 'ill not give satisfactory control of deep-rooted grasses or well-
established annual weeds consistently. These weeds should be removed prior
to treatment. Since most of our apple orchards are in sod, the best use of
diuron is in combination with dalapon. Dalapon controls grasses bvit has no
practical effect on other weeds. T'le combination will control grass and
eliminate or dwarf many weeds which are likely to take over where the grass
has been subdued. Diuron stunts but does not eliminate all sorrel, vetch,
dandelions and other weeds.

Trials have been established using diuron under apple trees on October 15,
November 1 and as soon as the snow leaves the ground.

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Peach Tree Borer Control on Young Peach Trees

Successful control of peach tree borers by a preplanting treatment was re-
ported in an article published in the June 1962 issue of the Journal of Economic
Entomology , by E. H. Smith of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station
at Geneva. Since control measures are often omitted on young trees until they
come into bearing, this simple method of treatment before planting should be of
great value, especially, if new trees are planted among older ones which can
serve as a source of infestation.

The treatment consists of dipping tho, roots and the basal portion of the
trunk in a v;ater suspension of 5 to 10 pounds of 50?/, endosulfan (Thiodan)
v/ettable pov/der per 100 gallons. V.'ettable powder formulations r'^quire constant
agitation. Although the results reported were based on dipping individual trees,
presumably bundles of 10 to 25 trees could be dipped at one time. After treat-
ment the trees were air dried before planting.

Both the 5 and 10 pound rate gave complete control of borers during the
first growing season. There was no evidence of chemical injury to the roots or
trunks hy either rst-^ under New York conditions. Since the Iwwr rate gives
complete control, there appears to be little reason for using the higher rate.

Control measures against the borers in subsequent years will require trunk
sprays which should be applied to coincide with hatching of the earliest eggs.
(Usually early to mid-july.)

---H. E. V.'ave

Department of Entomology and
Plant Pathology

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Reducing Load of Fruit on the Leader of Trees on Mailing Rootstock

Growers should avoid allowing too many fruit to develop on the leader of
trees on Mailing VII rootstock when they start to bear. This was evident in an
orchard of 4-year Red Delicious and Mcintosh on E. Mailing VII this past month.
Some of the leaders were arched toward the ground and in a few instances were
broken off because of the t^eight of the previous crop.

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

TH E CHEMICAL THINI^IIIG OF APPLE S IN 1963

This spring we anticipate a somewhat heavier bloom and potential crop on
many of our Mcintosh trees than existed in 1962. The situation with other varieties
is less clear-cut and v/ill vary as usual from orchard to orchard.

Our experimental results of the past 3 years indicate that Sevin is an excel-
lent thinner for Mcintosh and Delicious when applied from one to three weeks after
petal fall. In fact, it seems to be as good or better than NAD or NAA for Mcintosh
thinning and the best choice for Delicious at rates of 0.5 to 1.0 lb. (50% W.P.)
per 100 gallons. Sevin has no visible harmful influence on the foliage at these
concentrations and its chances of overthinning are minimal. It seems to be the
safest thinning material we've ever used on these two varieties. In addition, it
has about the same capacity to induce annual flowering as other thinning materials
when the degree of thinning vjith these materials is comparable.

-8-

Sevin is not the complete ansv/er for thinning all varieties, however. It's
a very mild thinner and for this reason will not reduce the set of heavy setting
Early Jlclntosh and IJealthy trees sufficiently by itself. For such varieties it
may be necessarj-^ to use Sevin once or twice during the period from petal fall to
7 to 10 days later and then follow up with an NAD or NAA application after another
7 to 10 days elapse. Also, Sevin may not thin Golden Delicious appreciably or
Bald^i?in as well as MAD or NM.

Our 1963 revision, of Special Circular 189, Chemical Thinning of Apples is
now available through your County Extension Service or by writing to the Mailing
Room, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts. This circular contains
our suggestions for the use of NAD, NAA and Sevin as thinning agents on most of our
commercial apple varieties.

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

WINTER LOSSES 0. ? HONEY BEES

The winter of 1962-63 is considered to be the most severe in many year.
Some concern has been expressed relative to the effects of the V7inter on honey
beec .

Actual data at this time are fragmentary and somewhat variable. In Vermont,
heavy winter Tcss is anticipated. Pennsylvania reports that colony losses in the
central part of the state will be rather hi£;h. In New York, apparently colonies
are wintering well in spite of the fact that they have not been able to have good
cleanr3ing flights.

Data from Massachusetts indicate that losses will be above average. One
beekeeper in Worcester Coun:y reports a 5 per cent loss of his own bees but a 25
per cent loss in the apiary of a friend. From personal observations and
conversations with beekeepers in various parts of the state, I would anticipate
from 10 to 30 per cent winter loss, in other words above average losses are
anticipated.

The problem is intensified by the lateness of spring. As of March 27 in
Amherst, I have observed no bees bringing in pollen even though colonies have
had good flight on several days. This v/ould lead me to suspect that colony build'
up may be slower than normal and that colonies may dwindle in strength if they
cannot replace the old bees that have over^-rintered.

It \70uld seen advisable for fruit grovrers, v/ho depend on rented bees for
pollination, to contact in the near future the beekeepers who provide colonies in
order to make certain that sufficient bees for pollination will be available.

Those who ovm their own colonies would do v7oll to check colony condition
to make sure the colonies are alive and vzell provided with honey anil pollen. If

colonies appear to be light in weight, they can be fed. For complete directions
on spring care of bees, Massachusetts Extension Service Leaflet 148 - BEECEEPING
is available,

F. R. Shaw

Dept. Ent. fit Pi. Path.

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepored by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Mossochusetts, Amherst

MAY 8, 1963

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chemical Weed Control in Small
Fruit Plantings

Approved Farm Stand Meeting

Pesticides vs. Honey Bees

Pomological Paragraph

A New and Safer Superior Oil for
Fruit Trees

X-Disease of Peach

M/l

'%■

K-U

-^^

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Pta-chasing Agent, No. 44.

GIIEIIICAL WEED CONTROL I N bllAL L FIIUIT PLANTIIIGS

Chemical weed control is the newest of v;eed control methods and is undergoing
rapid changes as new materials are introduced. Therefore, this discussion will
be limited to chemical methods. For a fuller discussion of x^eed control in small
fruit plantings, see Fruit Notes for June 1962.

Before using chemicals, several important points should be considered.
Fir St , chemicals cannot entirely replace cultivation, at least not with such
crops as strawberries and raspberries. Especially for the strawberry, the soil
needs to be kept in a friable condition for the prompt and rapid rooting of
runner plants. Seco nd, chemicals, like a sharp knife, can be a great help if
properly used; improperly used they may result in severe injury. Third, spraying
with weed killers is entirely different from spraying with fungicides or insecti-
cides. With the latter, one makes up a mi;:ture of the proper strength and sprays
until the plant and foliage are thoroughly covered v;ithout particular regard to
the amount of the spray mixture applied. On the other hand, recommendations for
the application of herbicides are usually based on so many pounds or so many
gallons of the commercial material, or so many pounds of actual active ingredient,
per acre. Therefore, it is very unwise to get careless about amounts where
chemicals are being applied for weed control. The equipment used should be cali-
brated so that the required amount can be applied fairly accurately. The County
Agricultural Agent or equipment manufacturers can usually furnish the information
needed for this calibration. Fourth, use of chemicals on food products is
strictly regulated by law. These laws are for the protection of both the producer
and consumer. To be released for sale and use, a chemical must be approved by the
United States Department of Agriculture as not injurious to the crop and by the
Federal Food 6c Drug Administration as not hazardous to human health. The use of
a chemical has to be approved for each kind of plant to which it is applied.
In many cases this use is limited to a certain region of the country. Also, rates
of application and timing are specified. Therefore, it is extremely important
that the user of any chemical for weed control on or around fruit plants read the
container label very carefully and follow its directions precisely.

WARNING: MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOT ALL DIRECTIONS
AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE
OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

FOLLOW ALL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS.

Avoid contaminating streams, lakes and ponds with insecticides.

NOTE

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and regulations.
Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachusetts requires that all pesti-
cides sold in Massachusetts be registered with the Massachusetts Department of
Public Health. Trade names, where used for clarity, do not indicate endorsement
nor imply that similar products are not satisfactory.

-2-

Strawberries

Sesone (SES) has been recommended for the control of summer weeds in straw-
berries for a number of years. If used according to directions, it is a fairly
good weed killer and is very unlikely to damage the strawberry plants. This
chemical is in an inactive form when applied to the soil. It must be changed to
the active form by bacteria before it becomes effective. Furthermore, it is
effective against germinating seeds and very small weeds only. After the weed
seedlings become 1/4 of an inch tall or more, Sesone is not effective.

To obtain the best results with Sesone, the field should be thoroughly cul-
tivated and hoed to eliminate all weeds i.mmediately before application. Because
of the necessity for bacterial action to make Sesone active, the soil should be
at a moisture content suitable for a good seed bed. If the soil is very dry and
there is no rain for several days, it may be necessary to irrigate in order to
make Sesone effective.

The usual rates of application for Sesone are 2 pouvids per acre on very
light soils, 2-1/2 pounds per acre on light soils, 3 pounds per acre on medium
soils, and 4 pounds per acre on heavy soils. For small areas, one level teaspoon-
ful for 150 square feat equals one pound per acre.

Since newly set strawberry plants are sensitive to Sesone, it is safest to
wait two to three weeks after planting before making the first application.
Applications made while runner plants are rooting may cause temporary injury and
"delay in the rooting process. When Sesone is used during the bearing year, avoid
undesirable residue by not making applications later than one week before picking
begins.

2,4-D was one of the first of the modern weed killers used on strawberries
and looked very promising for a time. Hox^ever, it was soon found that it could
seriously upset runner growth if applied during the period of runner development.
Furthermore, if it is applied during fruit bud formation or at any time when
there are flowers or fruit on the plants, the result is small misshapen berries.
Therefore, the periods when 2,4-D can be used are quite restricted. Probably its
greatest usefulness is in assisting to clean up the bed after the first crop where
the bed is to be renovated and a second crop produced. The recommended rate is
1 to 1-1/2 pounds of actual 2,4-D acid equivalent per acre.

Chloro-IPC (GIPC) is useful for the control of fall and winter weeds, par-
ticularly chickweed. This is a material which can be extremely helpful if used
properly but can do serious harm if not used according to directions. First, it
should never be used until the strawberry plants have become dormant. This is
usually the middle of November or later. Second, it should never be used in
excess of recommended rates. Although it has been cleared for use at rates up to
3 pounds per acre, it is felt that under Massachusetts conditions 1 pound per acre
is much safer.

There are several of the dinitros wh:Lcl\ Iv.v,' been cleared and can be used
for the control of fall and winter weod^ in s trawbcvries but In i iassacnusetts
these are generally Icgs effectivi. than Chloro-IPJ. i.'hese materials are not
selective and act by killing the tops of plants. jjecause of this "burning" action,
they are much more effective on warm sunny days tiian on cold days. Li'-c JIPC,
they must be applied after the strax^7bL;rl■i■:3 become dormant. oince Virarin, sunny
days are not plentiful after mid-ijovember , the i.isefulucss of these nvt'rials is
limited. Since there arc several formuj.ati'jns of tliese materials, ii- is wise to
follow very closely the manufacturer's directions as to rate of application.

Dacthal is the most recent materia] to be cleared for weed control in straw-
berries. Like Sesonc, it appears to be more effective when applied to a weed
free soil. In Ohio satisfactory results followed four applications made in a
single season at rates of 4 to 6 pounds active ingredient per acre. Summer
applications have some carry-over effect into the fall for controlling chickweed
and other fall weeds. Late October or early Jovember applications were found to
be very effective in controlling fall and winter weeds. During 1962 Dactlial
looked promising both in grower and experimental trials.

Blueberries

Diuron has been cleared for use as a weed killer in blueberries at the rate
of 2 pounds per acre. It is most effective when applied to a weed-free soil in
early spring. In no case should it be applied vrithin 60 days of harvest. Diuron
is quite effective against most annual broadleaf weeds and grasses but is much
less effective against the deep-rooted perennials.

Chloro-IPC has also been cleared for use around cultivated blueberries up to
a total of 12 pounds per acre applied during the dormant season. Since this is
essentially a grass and chickweed killer and can be used only during the dormant
season, its usefulness is limited.

2,^^-0 up to 3 pounds per acre has also been cleared for use on cultivated
blueberries but care should be e::ercised not to get it on the leaves of the
plants. Since its use is limited to fall application and it is effc^ctive only
against broadleaf weeds, its use in blueberries is also limited.

Raspberries

Only two materials have been cleared for we 'd control in raspberries in the
Northeast. 2,4-D can be used to control broadleaf weeds since mature canes are
quite resistant to it. However, care should be e::ercised to use a directed spray
and not to use it at a time when the grov/ing tins of the new canes will be sprayed.
It may be applied at the rate of 1 pound actual acid equivalent per acre.

Chloro-IPC, as x</ith strawberries and blueberries, can be used as a dormant
application up to a total of 8 pounds per acre.

Simazine 80-W has been cleared for use on [grapevines at least 3 years o]d.
It should be applied before the weeds emerge in the spring at rates from 2 to 6
pounds per acre.

Dalapon may be used for grass control up to 14.8 pounds per acre. The spray
should be so directed that it does not hit the vines.

Diuron, as previously stated, is most effective when applied in the spring
before weeds germinate. It can also be applied in the fall for the control of
fall and winter weeds. The total amount applied should not exceed 4.8 pounds per
acre. If the application is split, half may be applied in the spring and half in
the fall.

The herbicidal formulas of dinitro may also be used on grapes up to a total
of 1.9 pounds per acre active ingredients. These are most useful where most of
the weeds are annuals.

Amino triazole may be used as a dormant application at rates not to exceed 2
pounds per acre on vines 3 years old or older.

When ever using herbicides, read the lab ej^ c ar e ful ly unt ij^ jrou t]lor oughl^
understand its directions . Then fo llo w th em exactly.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

APPROVED FARM STMD MEETING

The annual spring meeting of the program members was held in April at which
time there was a free exchange of ideas and discussion of the rules and regulations
of the program. The inspections and price reports are two outstanding assets of
the Approved Farm Stand Program in the opinion of the program members.

The members requested that the report of apple prices at the Approved Farm
Stands be continued. In the past, three reports have been issued - pre-season,
one month later, and one month later. These reports give the operators first-
hand Information on apple prices at other Approved Farm Stands.

The Approved Farm Stands are inspected tv/ice during the fall months by an
Inspector hired by the program members. Plaques are awarded annually to the
outstanding Approved Farm Stands. The 25 per cent of the membership with the
highest quality of packs receive the awards.

VJilliam J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PESTIGIDES VS. HOMY BEES

It is recognized that pesticides are necessary for the production of a
crop of saleable fruit. To obtain a fi-uit set, bees are necessary to trans-
fer pollen from the anthers to the stigmas. Consequently it is to the advan-
tage of both the fruit grower and the beekeeper to minimize the chances for
bee losses through exposure to pesticides toxic to bees.

Honey bees may be poisoned by contact with sprays or dusts at the time of
application, by exposure to residues of pesticides and possibly in a few
instances, from a fumigating action. For example, parathion has been reported
to have fumigating effects on bees even under field conditions. Since bees
collect nectar, pollen and water and carry them to the hive, these materials,
if contaminated, are capable of causing loss of brood (immature bees), "nurse
bees" and the queen. The extent of damage from poisoned pollen, water and
nectar may range from slight (often imperceptible) to loss of the entire colony
depending primarily on the toxicity of the pesticide and its peraistance in pollen.

To obtain information on the effects of pesticides on honey bees in
Massachusetts, we established a research project to investigate, among other
problems, the effects of these materials on honey bees. We have exposed bees to
direct applications and also to deposits and residues of a number of pesticides.
Among these were DDT, carbaryl (alone and in combination with certain fungicides),
Dylox, Eastern States Garden & Orchard Spray, endosulfan, Guthion, malathion,
dieldrin, naled, Imidan, Zectran, dodine, endrin and the microbial formulation
Thuricide.

In these experiments, where bees were sprayed directly, the organic phosphates
(including Guthion, naled, Dylox and Imidan) were more toxic than the other
materials tested. Carbaryl and endosulfan, while somewhat less hazardous, were
not sufficiently so to warrant their substitution for the phosphates. DDT and
Thuricide exhibited the least toxicity with the latter causing no discernible
mortality. It is of interest to note that some honey bees are becoming resistant
to DDT.

Exposure to dried pesticide residues on foliage yielded variable results
depending on materials and dosage. In most instances, bees exposed to deposits
on the day of application had an appreciable reduction in length of life. However,
deposits of DDT or Thuricide did not cause appreciable reductions in length of
life.

Exposures of honey bees to residues four to five days after application also
produced results which varied with the treatment. For example, carbaryl in
combination with thirara was more toxic than in similar combination with ferbam
or glyodin. Both dieldrin and Guthion residues were highly toxic after four days
producing 50 per cent mortality within 36 and 24 hours respectively. The remainder
of the pesticide residues did not cause appreciable mortalities after four or five
days.

• 6-

Our suggestions for reducing bee losses from pesticides include:

1. Spraying early in the morning or in ttie evening, since fewer bees will be
exposed to direct contact action of pasticides at these times.

2. Do not spray plants attractive to bees during their bloom period with"
materials known to be toxic to these insects.

3. Avoid contamination of the area where spraying equipment is being filled.
Bees often collect water from such accumulation and may thus be poisoned.

4. There is evidence that if spraying with toxic materials is necessary during
the bloom period, colonies can be partially protected by covering them with
moist burlap during the application period. This may reduce the hazard of
contact action but not the effects of residues.

F. R. Shaw

Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

P OMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Red Delicious More Popular than Mcintosh in Vending Machine s

During a recent visit to some packing sheds in New York State, the writer
visited with a grower who had vending machines for apples. The grower stated
that 657o of the apples sold from these machines were Red Delicious and 357o
Mcintosh.

— -William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

A NE W AND S AFER SUPERICffl OIL FOR FRUIT TREES

A new 60 second superior oil is being evaluated and tested as a possible
replacement of existing oil types. The nev; oil has been designed to provide
complete safety to foliage when applied after considerable new growth has
occurred, possibly even including cover sprays. Previously, oil sprays could
be applied only during the dormant or delayed dormant bud stage due to their
tendency to injure foliage, or due to their incompatability with other spray
materials.

-7-

To design an oil with this potential, specifications called for a highly
refined petroleum oil low in unsulfonated residues and with a short residual.
The unsulfonated residues are highly toxic to plant tissues. Injury can also
be eliminated or greatly reduced if the oil does not persist on the foliage after
completing its pesticidal action.

Since the mode-of-action of the highly refined petroleum oils are largely
or wholly mechanical - causing death by asphy^ciation, they preclude the develop-
ment of resistance characteristic of organophosphorus and other pesticides. If
use of the 60 second oil can be extended to include the cover sprays for the
control of such pests as the European red mite, a new era in mite control may
result. Furthermore, since petroleum oils, as used, are exempt from a tolerance,
they present no residue problem on fruit.

Besides the European red mite, oil sprays have been used effectively to
control scales, aphids, mealy bugs, and psyllids. They are also effective
ovicides for codling moth, oriental fruit moth, leaf rollers, and cankerworms.

H. E. Wave

Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

X- DISEASE OF PEACH

Twenty years ago X- Disease of peach was common in many orchards and caused
extensive and serious losses. Systematic removal of diseased trees by growers
and eradication of chokecherries, which carry the disease, near orchards has
brought the disease under control. An occasional tree with X-Disease is still
found but, frequently, reports of X-Disease turn out to be other troubles which,
at least in part, cause similar symptoms.

Names, Cause and Plants Attacked ;

The disease was first reported from Connecticut in 1933 and was called
X-Disease because the cause was not knovra. The name still persists but other
names for the disease are eastern X-Disease, yellow-red disease, yellow-red
virosis and eastern yellow-red virosis.

Stoddard, in 1938, worked with the disease in Connecticut and reported the
cause to be a virus and that, "as far as is known, X-Disease occurs in nature
only on peach, nectarine and chokecherry" . It has also been found on sweet and
sour cultivated cherries and has been transmitted artificially, by budding and
grafting, to many plants related to peach, cherry and plum and even to unrelated
plants such as tomato, carrot, parsley and periwinkle. Wild black or rum cherry
( Prunus seroti na) and beach plum (P. maritina) could not be infected and are
considered immune.

-8-

Symptoms on Peach :

Diseased trees appear normal and cannot be distinguished from healthy trees
for the first 6 or 8 weeks after growth starts. The leaves are normal and so are
the flowers. About mid- June, leaves on branches scattered throughout the tree,
or on only one or t\<ro branches, start to turn yellow, develop yellow-red blotches,
become brittle, and, on many, spots fall out leaving a ragged tattered leaf.
Some leaves may roll longitudinally with the edges rolled upward, and others may
be distorted or twisted. Often normal leaves are interspersed with the diseased
leaves.

Up to this point, the sjrmptoms are similar to those caused by any one of
several conditions. But with X- Disease the leaves drop, beginning at the base
of the twig and progressing toward the tip, until finally there remains only a
tuft of undersized green or yellowish leaves at the tip.

The immature fruit on severely diseased branches drop soon after leaf
symptoms appear. Fruit on less severely diseased branches may grow to maturity
but are undersized, ripen prematurely, have poorly developed pits, and an insipid
slightly bitter taste. Branches with normal leaves and no disease symptoms pro-
duce normal fruit.

Diseased bearing trees leaf out normally in spring and may live for many
years but become commercially worthless in 2 to 4 years after becoming diseased.
Seedling trees 3 years old or less may be killed before they reach bearing age.

Symptoms on Chokecher ry :

The change in leaf color begins about the same time as on peach - i.e. 6
to 7 weeks after growth starts in spring or about mid- June. Newly infected choke-
cherries start off with dull green or yellowish leaves which become brilliant
yellow, orange or red by August. Often the midrib remains green. The second and
third year after infection the leaves are less brilliantly colored and even dull.
Tufts or rosettes of small stunted leaves develop on the ends of the branches some
of which die and eventually the whole plant dies.

Transmission ;

The disease has been transmitted from peach to peach, peach to chokecherry,
chokecherry to peach and chokecherry to chokecherry. Transmission has been
successful with buds, bark patches, and grafts but not with plant juice.

The disease first appears in an orchard near the edges, near diseased choke-
cherries. It may spread to other trees in an orchard at the rate of 20% of the
trees in one year. How does it pass from chokecherry to peach and from peach to
peach in an orchard so rapidly? No one really knows. Certainly there is no
budding or grafting of diseased chokecherries onto commercial peaches and no
grafting from peach to peach in an established orchard. It is believed that
insects may be the carriers and there is some evidence to support this view. In
experiments, the virus has been successfully transmitted to healthy plants by at
least one leaf hopper.

Control ;

X-Disease has been successfully brought under control by the following
practices .

(1) Removal of diseased peach trees as soon as they are found - they will be
unproductive and die eventually anyway. Cutting out diseased branches
in an attempt to save the tree does not work.

(2) Killing chokecherries for some distance around the orchard. This can be
done easily with the modern effective chemical weedlcillers . Also killing
other cherries such as pin or bird cherry which may be carriers.

(3) When starting a new orchard, killing out the chokecherries and other wild
cherries in the area and then planting disease- free plants obtained from
a reliable nursery.

C. J. Gilgut

Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

MAY 28, 1963

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Storage of Peaches
Pomological Paragraph

Netting to Protect Small Fruit Frorti Birds
Winter Injury

Systemics for Aphids on Nonbearing Apple Trees
Observations of New York State Orchards and

Packing Sheds
Margin — Mark-up
Size and Yield of Mcintosh Apple Trees on E.M. II

and VII Rootstocks
Progress at the Horticultural Research Center

Renovation of Farm Buildings

Tree Fruit Plantings

Small Fruit Plantings

^•

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'^^

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in fi»therance o/ the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914
University of Massachusetts, United States bepartment of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Ageot, No. 44

COUNTY EXTENSION AGENTS IN SUPPORT OF THE FRUIT PROGRAM

BARNSTABLE

BERKSHIRE

BRISTOL

DUKES

ESSEX AND
MIDDLESEX

FRANKLIN,
HAMPDEN AND
HAMPSHIRE

NORFOLK

PLYMOUTH

WORCESTER

Oscar S. Johnson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Cape Cod Extension Service, Barnstable (Tel. FOrest 2-3255)

Dick L. Boyce, County Extension Agent In Agriculture,
Berkshire County Extension Service, Federal Building,
Pittsfield (Tel. Plttsfield Hlllcrest 8-8285)

Harold 0. Woodward, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Bristol County Agricultural School, Center Street,
Segreganset (Tel. Dlghton NOrmandy 9-3611 or 9-2361)

Ezra I. Shaw, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Dukes County Extension Service, Vineyard Haven
(Tel. Vineyard Haven 694)

Max G. Fultz, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Middlesex County Extension Service, 19 Everett Street,
Concord (Tel. Concord EMerson 9-4845)

G. Everett Wilder, Pioneer Valley Extension Agent in
Agriculture, Hampden County Improvement League, 1499
Memorial Avenue, West Springfield (Tel. Springfield
REpubllc 6-7204)

Howard Wilson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Norfolk County Agricultural School, 460 Main Street,
Walpole (Tel. Walpole MOntrose 8-0268 or 8-0269)

Dominic A. Marini, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Plymouth County Extension Service, Court House, Brockton
(Tel. Brockton JUnlper 6-4993)

William R. Goss, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Worcester County Extension Service, 36 Harvard Street,
Worcester (Tel. Worcester PLeasant 3-5477)

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered
and cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and regu-
lations. Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachusetts requires
that all pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered with the Massachusetts
Department of Public Health. Trade names, where used for clearness, do not
indicate endorsement nor imply that similar products are not satisfactory.

WARNING I MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS
AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT OF REACH OF
CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

STORAGE OF PEACHES

Several years ago it was rather common to find peaches stored at 40°F or
higher. As a reminder to growers, research workers have found that a storage
temperature of 32°F Is most suitable for peaches. There is practically no
softening of fruit at this temperature. Haller and Harding (U.S.D.A. Technical
Bui. 680) showed that peaches soften 20 times as fast at 80°F as at 32o (Table 1)

Table 1. Dally Rate of Softening of Peaches at Various Temperatures.*

80OF

7 OOF

60°F

50OF

40OF

320F

lbs.

4.0

3.4

2.0

1.1

.34

.19

*Mean of 4 varieties for two years.

In addition to the slower ripening rate of peaches at 32°F, less mealiness
and breakdown occurs at this temperature than at higher storage temperatures.
Haller and Harding found that abnormal ripening takes place If peaches are stored
between 36° and 50OF for any extended period of time. Undesirable flavor developed
at 50°F and rapid flavor loss and internal breakdown and mealiness occurred at
40° and 360F.

Growers who have had poor results when storing peaches for two or three weeks
might try delayed storage. If the peaches are to be sold at the roadside stand,
hold them at 70 to 80°F after harvest, until they are practically eating ripe
before placing them in storage. This procedure as research results have shown
may prevent the development of mealiness. Fruit to be sold to stores should not
be held as long at 70 to 80°F because firmer fruit is necessary for this method
of sale.

A delay In storage is not necessary if peaches are to be held in storage for
only three or four days.

Only peaches free of bruises and brown rot infection should be stored. Even
under the most favorable conditions peaches cannot usually be stored longer than
two or three weeks .

---William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Netting to Protect Small Fruit From Birds

At present there appears to be no satisfactory method of protecting fruit
from the depredations of birds except covering with some sort of netting, A list
of suppliers of netting can be obtained by dropping a card to the Editor of
Fruit Notes, Department of Horticulture, French Hall, University of Massachusetts.

WINTER INJURY

Bearing apple trees in several orchards suffered considerable injury to the
trunks during the winter of 1962-1963. The bark on the injured trees was in some
instances split, but most frequently pulled away from the wood. Therefore, it
was necesfjary to thump the bark in order to determine injury. A hammer is a
satisfactory tool for this purpose.

Although the winter injury was predominantly on the north side of the tree,
in two orchards the south side of the tree trunk was affected.

The results of grower and personal observations revealed that the winter injury
was mainly confined to bearing Mcintosh trees. One grower estimated 657o or more
of his bearing Mcintosh trees 12 years or older were injured. Cortland, Macoun,
Red Delicious, Golden Delicious and Early Mcintosh had little or no injury.

The winter of 1955-1956 was the previous time that severe winter injury
occurred. The Injury was most severe and extended to the lower scaffold limbs.
Also, it was most evident on the south side of the trees. Variety susceptibility
was similar to that of this past winter.

In 1955-1956 the injury appeared to be correlated with pruning in late
December and early January. This was not the case this past winter. Although,
one grower who keeps excellent records, reported that on trees pruned January 4, 1963
the injury was much more severe than on those pruned January 24 to February 5.
The inconsistensy of plant response to environmental factors always makes inter-
pretation difficult.

The main purpose of this article is to have a written account of the damage
and the method of treatment. Experience gained with the repair of damage that
occurred in 1955-1956, which was recorded in the May 1956 issue of Fruit Notes,
was of value this past spring.

Prior to 1955-1956 growers used a hammer and tacks to tighten the bark to the
wood on winter injured trees. In 1956, gun-type staplers with 9/16 inch staples
were used. The staples were driven one or two inches apart in order to insure good
bark-wood contact. The injured area was then painted with cold water soluble
asphalt emulsion commonly used as a grafting compound. Mcintosh trees having very
little "tight bark" prior to treatment made remarkable recovery.

In 1963, gun staplers and air guns are being used. These air guns are being
operated from a compresser used for pneumatic pruners. One grower is using one
inch crown staples of 21/32 inch length in the air gun. The same grower welded
a handle on a mowing machine cutter bar section (serrated) which he used for
scraping off the old shedding bark prior to stapling.

---William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

SYSTEMICS FOR APHIDS ON NONBEARING APPLE TREES

The green apple aphid causes serious injury to young nonbearlng trees If not
controlled. The injury is twofold: new growth is stunted and deformed by toxic
secretions In the saliva of feeding aphids, and the honey dew secreted by the
aphids drips on the foliage and provides an ideal medium for sooty molds to grow.
This reduces the photosynthetic area of the leaves and results in poor tree
growth.

Since most growers do not take the time to adequately spray or dust for
Insects on young nonbearing trees, a systemic insecticide might prove helpful,
especially in aphid control. Its use would make repeated applications unnecessary.
Application of a suitable systemic should be made before the aphid Infestation
has had time to build up. Several of the systemic phosphate materials have been
used successfully in experimental trials against aphids. With few exceptions,
systemic insecticides are not yet cleared for use on bearing trees.

Two methods of application are available for use on nonbearing trees:
(1) foliar application, and (2) soil application (granular) . Demeton at 3/4
pint/100 gallons as a full coverage foliar spray is currently recommended for
aphid control on bearing trees and can be used at this dosage on nonbearing trees.
Di-syston 107o granular, applied at 4 ounces for each inch of trunk diameter, has
given good control of aphids. Spread granular uniformly from trunk to dripline
on all sides, work into soil, and water thoroughly. Higher dosage may be neces-
sary on heavy organic soils. Follow label directions and do not overapply.

H. E. Wave

Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

OBSERVATIONS OF NEW YORK STATE ORCHARDS AND PACKING SHEDS

Visits to fruit growing areas in other states are always of interest and
profitable. Growers should make an effort to visit orchards and packing sheds in
their own area and in other fruit growing regions, because ideas obtained during
these visits will result in better oi'chard and packing house management procedures
and in savings. In March, three Massachusetts apple growers and the writer had
the opportunity to visit orchards and packing sheds in the Hudson Valley and
Champlain areas. Below are a few comments on what we observed.

Orchard Managemen t

There appears to be a tendency to leave more scaffold limbs in bearing apple
trees in New York than Massachusetts. Interplanting young trees in bearing
orchards was frequently observed. Having two ages of trees in the block presents
a spray, fertilizer and pruning problem. Naturally\ the New York growers are well
aware of this fact and many would prefer to rotate blocks of trees rather than
rotate trees within a block.

-5-

As with many Massachusetts growers, the New York apple growers are concerned
with the nitrogen levels in their Mcintosh orchards. It was of interest to note
that for the Peru area (Champlain) Dr. Arthur Burrell considered the nitrogen
level of 1.80 to 1.90 per cent for bearing Mcintosh was optimum even though the
climate is more favorable for color development than in many other Mcintosh
producing areas. In Massachusetts, we have set an optimum of 1.80 to 2.00 per
cent nitrogen for bearing Mcintosh.

Eighty-five to 90 per cent of the acreage in the Peru fruit growing area is
planted to Mcintosh which presents a problem at harvest. Large crews are
necessary to harvest the fruit in prime condition.

There is little interest in semi-dwarf trees and Red Delicious in the Peru
area because of the fear of winter injury.

Bulk Boxes - New York apple growers are gradually switching from field crates to
bulk boxes, because of the savings in container cost, labor, transportation and
storage space. However, many of the growers are cautious in the adaption of this
type of container because of cost of water dumpers and driers, space requirements
of this equipment and their dislike to use grading machines for Mcintosh apples.

The question of bulk boxes is foremost in the minds of many apple growers
throughout the New England-New York area. Growers are interested in the possible
savings with their use but at present if water dumpers are to be used, they are
feasible only in the larger packing sheds. Over-mechanization of our smaller
packing sheds must be avoided. It is very easy to over-invest in equipment
without obtaining sufficient increase in efficiency to warrant the investment.

Packing Sheds - The degree of mechanization of the New York packing houses varies
considerably from area to area within the state. In the Peru area apples are
hand packed directly from field crates and very little packing equipment is used.
Packing houses in the Hudson Valley area are using apple sorting and sizing
equipment for regular storage apples but some go to hand packing of CA Mcintosh.

Xa the hand packing operations, individual packers averaged 70 to 80 bushels
of packed fruit per day. On the other hand, it appeared that the per woricer
output of packed fruit in some highly mechanized packing sheds Was not much higher.

A recent report on packing apples in the Northeast (Marketing Research Report
No. 53) stated that all-manual packing operations were the most efficient in
comparison to mechanized packing operations as long as skilled packers can be
obtained, the wage rate remained low, and the daily volume did not exceed the
space available for packing stations. "Should the cost of labor rise, the manual
operations would rapidly become more costly and the mechanized packing lines would
become relatively more efficient. Or, if skilled labor should become difficult
to hire, the manual packing line would become less efficient, because it requires
greater skills of its workers than do the other more mechanical lines."

Several efficient hand grading operations were observed in New York and some
of the procedures and packing area arrangements if adapted by some Massachusetts
growers would increase the efficiency of the hand packing operation. The
arrangement of the work stations for the individual packers in some of the New York

)

State packing sheds was similar to that described by Perkins and Burt (An Improved
Work Station for the Manual Sorting, Sizing and Packing of Apples - Maine Agr. Exp,
Sta. and U.S.D.A. Misc. Publication 641). All work stations are tilted toward
the packer which gives a clear view into each container and males it easier to
slide full containers from the packing platform. Some growers placed metal strips
on top the packing platforma or cover them with sheet metal to further facilitate
the ease of sliding full containers. The supply racks are located directly over
where the cartons were being packed- The racks are divided into sections with
pads and partitions in each section for the carton being packed directly below
it. A chute was provided for the disposal of cull apples. These are constructed
of wood or sheet metal. The packer merely drops the cull apples Into the chute
and they roll into a box. This eliminates the necessity of the packer having to
reach under the table to dispose of cull apples.

In one storage a switch was located by each packer. When a packer had a
full carton she flicks the switch which turns on a red light. The lights are
located so they can be easily seen by the man who is responsible for keeping the
conveyer loaded with fruit for packing and the removal of filled cartons. This
helps reduce the shouting and confusion in the packing shed,

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

MARGIN --- MARK-UP

The terms "margin" and "mark-up" are being used in discussions of prices of
apples to retail stores. There does not appear to be a uniform understanding of
the two terms .

A 257, margin is approximately equal to a SSZ mark-up.

A 337., margin is approximately equal to a 507, mark-up.

A 407« margin is approximately equal to a 667o mark-up.

A 507„ margin is approximately equal to a 1007o mark-up.

The word "approximate" is used here because of the current practice of rounding
the percentages of odd numbers to whole cents.

"Margiri' is used generally in the analysis of retail businesses because the
total sales for a period is the one solid figure available. All costs of goods
sold, labor, overhead and profit must come out of the total sales amount. In
this instance, "margin" is used to represent the percentage of the retail price
retained by the store.

"Mark-up" is used as a method of arriving at a retail price when costs are
more significant than price appeal. "Mark-up" is based upon the cost of goods
at wholesale. Now a days price appeal is considered important in retail pricing
and is the basis for the 39, 49 and 59 cent prices. "Mark-up" is therefore
seldom used.

-7-

The following examples will Illustrate the difference between the two. A
50-cent retail price is used in these examples, rather than the prevailing A9c
price merely to simplify the arithmetic. Fractions are rounded to the nearest
cent.

a) A store margin of 257„ on a 50c: item at retail is 13c - price to grower 37c.

A mark-up of 33% on this wholesale price of 37c would result in a retail
price of A9c •

b) A store margin of 33% on a 50c item is 17c - price to grower 33c. A mark-up

of 50% on this wholesale price would result in a retail price of 50c.

c) A store margin of 40% on a 50c item is 20c - price to grower 30c. A mark-up

of 66% on this wholesale price would result in a retail price of 50c.

d) A store margin of 50% on a 50c item is 25c - price to grower 25c. A mark-up

of 100% on this wholesale price would result in a retail price of 50c.

Fred E. Cole

Professor Emeritus
Department of Agriculture
and Food Economics

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

SIZE AND YIELD OF McINTOSH APPLE TREES
ON E.M. II AND VII ROOTSTOCKS

The branch spread of 19 year old Mcintosh trees on E.M. II and VII rootstocks
was determined by taking two measurements at right angles to each other. Measure-
ments were made from the tip of the outermost branch on one side of the tree to the
outermost tip on the opposite side. The average spread of trees on E.M. II was
25 feet. The smallest tree had a spread of 20 feet and the largest tree had a
spread of 28 feet. Trees on E.M. VII were a little larger and more uniform in size.
The average spread was 29 feet with a range of 27 to 31 feet. No attempt has been
made to confine the spread of these trees by pruning. Some heading back has been
done in the tops of the trees to restrict tree height. The height of the trees
ranges from 12 to 14 feet.

The average annual yield per acre during the past 19 years for trees on E.M. II
was 547 boxes per acre, and 619 boxes for E.'M. VII trees. These yields were
calculated on the basis of a 20 ft. x 30 ft. planting distance for permanent trees.
Trees on seedling rootstocks planted 30 ft. x 40 ft. would have to have average
yields of 15 and 17 boxes per tree to equal the yields of trees on E.M. II and VII.

The average yield in 1962 for E.M. II was 1447 boxes per acre and for E.M. VII
1483 boxes per acre.

Walter D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PROGRESS AT THE HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTER

Renovation of Farm Buildings

Since the Trustees of the University were given the property In Belchertown
for our Horticultural Research Center last June, a good deal of work has gone
into planting plans, land improvement and preparation. In addition, considerable
effort was spent this past winter renovating the existing farm buildings.
Although further work remains, we feel that a great daal has been accomplished.

Our foreman, Loren Glazier, and his men plus several from the University
maintenance staff have accomplished the following things:

1. Rewired the entire main barn complex.

2. Installed heating units so that all major areas can be kept warm during
the winter.

3. Reroofed many areas where it was needed.

4. Laid concrete flooring under the entire main hay barn and cow stanchion
area so that we now have an acceptable place to house and service our
machinery and vehicles.

5. Installed modern toilet, shower, and lunch room facilities suitable for
our personnel and visitors.

6. Remodeled an area at the south end of the buildings to provide office
space for our foreman and storage space for small tools and supplies.

A number of smaller jobs too numerous to mention have been taken care of,
also. Certainly, those of you who had a chance to visit the Center last summer
will now have no difficulty spotting the improvements that have been made in our
physical facilities.

F. W. Southwick

Tree Fruit Plantings

Extensive planting of experimental blocks has not been made at the
Horticultural Research Center this spring because trees, which had to be custom
propagated last summer, will not be ready for planting until 1964. One small
planting was made to study the effects of rates, and placement of fertilizer and
lime on the growth of newly set apple trees.

Several East Mailing and Mailing Merton rootstocks were planted to establish
a stool bed.

The large field north of the barn will have some 3,000 feet of drainage tile
installed this summer. We plan to set most of this area to apple trees next
spring.

W. D. Weeks

Small Fruit Plantings

Plants of nine named varieties of blueberries and a considerable number of
unnamed selections are being grown in a nursery for field planting In the spring
of 1964. A variety raspberry planting is being started this spring. Also, a
comparison is being made of commercial vs. virus-free stoclc of raspberries.
Strawberry plantings were made to test the yield potential of several named
varieties and unnamed selections. Also, an experiment was started to compare
the yields of new stocks of virus-free catskill plants with commercially produced
superior stock which has a very low virus content.

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperofive Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

JULY 8, 1963

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Annual Summer Meeting of the Massachusetts
Fruit Growers' Association

Critical Factors to be Considered in Automating
Control of the Atmosphere in C-A Storage of
Apples

Pomological Paragraph - New Publications Available

Damage to Bagged Mcintosh Apples in Shipping

Containers by Impact '^"N'

Pomological Paragraph — Storage Holdings

Boron for Peach Trees

Response of Raspberries to the Winter of 1962-63

'■-'->. />':^

'A mil

■■V--'/A

-^^

U.ued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914-
University of Massachusetts. United States Bepartment of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperatine
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

ANNUAL SUMl'IER MEETIMG
of the
MASSACHUSETTS FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATIOI
ill Cooperation wiih Lhe
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

Orchard of Arthur D. Bishop, Shelburae, Mass.
Thursday, July 25, 1963

Program

10:00 A.M. Tour of orchards - Arthur D. Bishop, Guide. Items of special

interest include: Young Mcintosh and Delicious on Malus robusta II,
five hardy stocks, and EM VII; weed control and tree mulch plots.

12:00 NOON Lunch - Sandwiches, dessert and cold drinks will be on sale.

1:30 P.M. Important Production and Marketing [rends in the Apple Industry,
Dr. A. B. Burrell, Peru, New York.

2:15 P.M. Some Factors to Consider for Late Storage of Apples.
Dr. F. W. Southwick, University of Massachusetts.

2:A5 P.M. Crop Prospects for 1963.

Mr. A. Warren Clapp, Massachusetts Department of Agriculture.

3:00 P.M. Apple Promotion Opportunities and Materials.

Mr. Rockwood Berry, New York and New England Apple Institute,

3:15 P.M. Late Season Insect Control.

Drs. H. E. Wave and E. H. Wheeler, University of Massachusetts,

How to get there: Mohawk Trail (Route 2) to Shelburne Center, which is approxi-
mately 3 miles east of Shelburne Falls, At Shelburne Center
road sign turn south and follow "M.F.G.A. Field Meeting"
signs to Bishop's Orchard.

CRITICAL FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN AUTOMATING
CONTROL OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN C-A STORAGE OF APPLES

Recently, there have appeared on the market, at least two units designed to
generate or to control the atmosphere for C-A storages. In evaluating these units
for possible installation in existing C-A rooms or in new construction, the
following critical factors may provide basis for a decision.

The potential advantages of automating the control of the C-A process are
mainly: a savings in labor costs; an increase in reliability; and an operating
advantage, in being able to open the C-A room, unload a portion of the produce
stored, and then close the C-A room and operate again. The control pattern with
these new units may show less variation than with manual control, but the
quantitative improvement in fruit quality as a result has not been established.

CA PROCESS HAS BEEN BIOLOGICAL. WITH MANUAL CONTROL

With the CA process, as it is known today, generation of the atmosphere
has been achieved primarily by biological means, with chemical absorption towers
to aid in the control of the excess CO2 *nd nitrogen gas as an aid in reducing
•xygen level to operating conditions. The atmospheric composition has been con-
trolled manually by the operator on the basis of an Orsat analysis.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MECHANIZATION AND AUTOMATION OF CA

Application of time clocks to program CO2 towers or to program addition
•f nitrogen or outside air, represents some mechanization but no t automat ion
since self control of the process is not possible by simple mechanization.

Indicator-controllers or recorder-controllers with sensing and control
capabilities for humidity, oxygen level, and CO2 level have been available for
some time but their application to automatically control the CA process has been
slew due to high initial cost. However, these instruments require periodic
calibration, which is usually against an Orsat analysis or a mixture of purchased
gases of known composition.

LIMITED AUTOMATION OF CA PROCESS ALREADY ACHIEVED

Of the variables that require control for the CA process (CO2 level, O2
level, humidity and temperature), temperature control has already been automated
and in a well designed refrigeration system humidity control is inherent.
Therefore, any further automation of control must deal with the variables of
CO2 and O2 levels.

"COME-DOWN" AND "OPERATING" PERIODS IN CA

There are two distinct periods in the operation of a CA storage; the period
commonly referred to as the "come-down" when the O2 level drops from approximately
217, to 3% and the CO2 level increases to 5% (for Mcintosh); and the period
commonly referred to as the "operating" period, when the atmosphere is maintained

-2-

at a. relatively constant composition. Requirements to automate these two periods
are different and it should be recognized that the commercial units presently
available attempt to generate the required atmosphere as needed or in excess,
thus reducing the requirement for relative gas tight room. However, a certain
degree of gas tightness is still required and lower operating costs are achieved
with a tighter room.

If one generates the required atmosphere, instead of achieving it biologJcally
one is attempting to gain a fruit quality advantage from a rapid O2 drop. If one
generates the atmosphere in excess, he minimizes the need for automatic controls,
since the atmosphere generator components can be progranmied with time clocks or
other devices, although this makes lowest cost operation difficult. The advantage
in rapid O2 drop has not been substantiated at this station in studies over
three seasons. However, a rapid O2 drop has some operating advantage in that a
CA room could be opened, partially unloaded and then operated again as CA,

John W. Zahradnlk

Agricultural Engineering Department

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

New Publication s Available

The following publications have recently been printed and are available by
writing to the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts.

Raspberry Growing. Extension Leaflet 48. Revised May, 1963.

Controlling Weeds in Small Fruit Plantings with Chemicals. Special Circular
215. April, 1963.

Out of Storage Movement and Prices of Mcintosh Apples in Massachusetts.
Publication 388. January, 1963.

---William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

DAMAGE TO BAGGED McINTOSH APPLES IN SHIPPING CONTAINERS

BY IMPACT

Shipping tests conducted with Starr apples by F . A. Perkins in New Jersey
have shown that placement of the bags within a master carton materially affects
the quality of the fruit. Less damage to apples occurred when twelve, 4-pound
bags were laid horizontally in two tiers as compared to that occurring in a

-3-

contalner holding twelve pounds of apples vertically in a single tier. Perkins
concluded that much of the severe damage on Starr apples was caused by impacts
during handling and trucking the apples and not the result of minor vibrations
which nemally occur in transportation of the fruit.

The study reported below was undertaken to study the relationship between
bag placement in master cartons and mechanical damage caused by impacts, where
the damage occurs, and how it may be reduced.

Method of Study

All mechanical damage on composited samples of Mcintosh apples was encircled
with a Btarking pencil prior to the study. The apples were then jumble-packed in
3 pound capacity polyethylene bags.

The standard procedure of many Massachusetts growers bagging apples is to
place 2-\ inch and up diameter apples in the bags. Therefore, in two tests
random sized apples were bagged. In another test uniform sized apples were used
in comparison to these of random size.

Two types of master containers were used in the study. A fibreboard carton
designed to hold twelve 3 pound bags vertically in a single tier. The interior
•f this carton was divided by non-test C Flute corrugated partitions into 12
vertical cells for additional protection of the apples. The second fibreboard
master carton was designed to hold twelve 3 pound bags with 4 bags laid horizon-
tally per layer in 3 layers. A non-test C Flute corrugated pad was placed between
the bottom and middle and the middle and top layers of apples. Additional
protection was provided by non-test C Flute corrugated partitions which separated
the bags in each partition.

In one trial, the effectiveness of a non-test C Flute corrugated partition
and ^ inch thick Ethafoam pad (expanded polyethylene product of the Dew Chemical
Company, Midland, Michigan) as a means of reducing bruise damage was tested.

The filled containers were dropped 3 times from a height of 12 inches to a
wooden floor by a mechanical drop-impact tester. After treatment, the apples
were allowed to remain at room temperature for 48 hours to allow the bruised
areas to darken. All the fruit in the test were examined for stem punctures and
bruises.

Results

In 4 trials, the number of % and 3/4 inch diameter bruises was less in
cartons with horizontal bag placement than in those with vertical placement
(Table 1).

-h

Table 1, Mechanical damage to Mcintosh apples In cartons holding twelve 3 pound
bags vertically in a. single layer in comparison to damage occurring on
apples in cartons with four 3 pound bags laid horizontally in each of
three layers. Cartons dropped 3 times from a height of 12 inches.

Number

of Brul

ses

Avg. Brui

sed

Apples WitV

Trial

Bag Placement

Apples

3/4"

I'V

Area/fru

Stem

PunctuTi

1961

sq. in.

1«

Vertical

439

295

139

.3060

■\

110

Horizontal

445

219

.2635

Vertical

720

488

198

.2909

193

Horizontal

720

293

.1328

143

1962

Vertical

720

311

184

.2282

112

Horizontal

720

204

.1397

114

Vertical

720

313

164

.2131

119

Horizontal

720

177

.0954

108

*Trial 1; 4 cartons per treatment,

''Trial 2; 6 cartons per treatment,

*^Trial 3; 5 cartons per treatment,

*^Trial 4; 5 cartons per treatment,
10.8 pounds.

Average fruit size 2.93. Flesh firmness - 10.6 pounds.

Average fruit size 2.84. Flesh firmness - 10.9 pounds,

Average fruit size 2.65. Flesh firmness - 10.9 pounds.

All fruit between 2.60-2.70 inches. Flesh firmness

The bag placement had no consistent influence on the number of 1 inch bruises and
the number of apples with stem punctures.

The apples used in trial 3 were sized prior to bagging so that each bag
contained a similar number of various size fruit. The sizes ranged from 2.30-
3.00 inches and averaged about 2.65 inches. The fruit used in trial 4 were from
the same let of composited apples as in trial 3 but were of uniform size (2.60-
2.70 inches in diameter). The data in Table 1 show that with the exception of
1 inch bruises for the horizontal bag placement the amount of mechanical damage
to the uniform sized fruit did not differ from that on random sized fruit.

More Bruising in Bottom of Cartons

The apples in the bottom of the cartons are subject to severe bruising from
the impact of dropping. This is particularly noticeable with the horizontal bag
placement since most of the serious damage occurs on the apples in the bottom
layer of bags. The data obtained in Trial 1 is used as an illustration of this
point (Table 2).

Table 2. Mechanical damage to Mcintosh apples by layers In four cartons with four
3-pound bags laid horizontally in each of three layers and dropped three
times from a height of 12 inches.

Layer Apples

Number of Bruises

T7V' 172^^ 3W' F

No.

Top

145

Middle

150

Bottom

150

Avg. Brui

sed

Apples With

Area/Fru

Stem Punct.

Sq. In.

No,

.1571»

32*

.1969*

31*

.5252^

30*

100** 70* 3* 3*
96* 62* 20* 5*
84* 87* 57b 41b

♦Figures with same letter do not differ significantly.

Bagged Mcintosh apples in the bottom layer of the cartons with horizontal
bag placement had significantly mere 3/4 inch and 1 inch diameter bruises and
total bruised area than the upper two layers. There was no significant difference
ia the damage to the apples in the top and middle layers. The number of stem
punctured apples did not differ significantly between the three layers.

The surface of 90 per cent of the apples in contact with the container bottom
was bruised with 30 per cent being 1 inch in diameter or larger.

Additional Protection Reduces Bruising

A pad of 1/4 inch Ethafoam or a corrugated partition placed on the bottom of
mister cartons, holding four 3-pound bags in each of three layers, reduced the
Incidence of 1 inch diameter bruises and the average bruised area (Table 3) .

Table 3. The effect of additional protection against mechanical damage from impact
to Mcintosh apples in twelve 3-pound bags in four cartons with four 3-
pound bags laid horizontally in each of three layers. The cartons were
dropped three times from a height of 12 inches.

Protection

Apples

Iven Bottom

No. of
Cartons

No. of
Apples

Number of

Bruises

Avg. Bruised
Area/Fruit

w/Stem

of Carton

1/4"

1/2"

3/4"

Punct.

Sq. In.

No.

one

445

280**

219*

85*

49*

.2930*

93*

orr. Pad

431

234*

196*

67*

25b

.2294b

106*

" Ethafoam

435

210*

165*

56*

.1741^

95*

Figures with same letter do not differ significantly.

The only bruises found on the apples surfaces in contact with the Ethafoam
were three ^-inch bruises. However, Ethafoam probably is too expensive for grower
use as a means of reducing impact damage.

Tha number of apples with stem punctures was not influenced by the treatments.

-6-

Suimnary

)

Bagced Mcintosh apples In master containers are serleusly bruised when the ^
apples are trapped. This study showed that horizontal bag placement In comparison
to vertical placement will reduce bruising caused by impact.

The apples in the bottom of the cartons are subject to severe bruising from
the Impact of dropping. This Is particularly noticeable with the horizontal bag
placement since most of the serious damage occurs to the apples in the bottom layer
of bags .

The use of pads as a means of increased protection to the bottom layer of
fruit reduced bruising.

---William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Storage Holdings

A record has been kept of the Apple Storage Holdings on October 15 and
November 1 from 1933 through 1962 in Massachusetts and of the New England and
New York CA Holdings from 1956 through 1962. A copy of this information may be
obtained from the Editor of Fruit Notes.

---William J. Lord

I I I i I I I I I I I I I I I I

BORON FOR PEACH TREE^

It would appear that boron should not be applied to peaches unless a real
deficiency occurs. Boron deficiency sjmiptoms in the peach are characterized by
failure of both leaf and flower buds to "break" normally when spring growth
starts. The buds remain alive until full bloom and turn brown and die. Stem
tissue may appear normal for two or three weeks after the buds die.

We have no evidence of boron toxicity occurring in Massachusetts peach orchards.
However, reports from North Carolina and New Jersey indicate that the peach is more
sensitive to excessive applications of borax than the apple.

In North Carolina annual applications of 1/8 and 1/4 pound of borax per tree
were made to Georgia Belle peach trees. Fruit from trees receiving the 1/4 pound 1
rate was characterized by earlier ripening, a reduction in red coloration, insipid ■
fruit flavor, and a softer more mealy texture. The 1/8 pound rate per tree
appeared to be close to the maximum tolerance of the trees.

In New Jersey 3/4 pound of borax per tree hastened fruit maturity, fruit
flavor was flat and insipid and fruit was poorly colored with many split pits.

Tree symptoms of excess boron are characterized by witherin;^ and dying back
of terminal shoots in mid and late season, small can' er areas along the shoots,
rough bark, prominent lenticels, excessive development of lateral shoots which
gives a bushy type growth,

Walter D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

RESPONSE OF RASPBERRIES TO THE WINTER OF 1962-63

As is Indicated In the following table, there was very little winter injury
to the raspberry plants in our variety planting at Amherst. None of the injury
was of commercial significance as normal heading-back of the canes would
eliminate most of the Injured wood.

Estimate of Cane Killing of Raspberries 1962-63

7o of Cane Killed

7= of Cane Killed

Canby
Comet
Durham
Early Red
Gatineau
Lake Geneva
Latham
Madawaska

10.0

Milton

2.0

Muskoka

2.0

0.0

New Hampshire

1.0

2.0

N.H. #56-2

2.0

September

1.0

2.0

Sumner

3.0

1.0

Thames

2.0

0.0

Success

2,0

•-James F. Anderson

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

AUGUST-SEPTEMBER, 1963

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Compressor Low-Side Control Adjustment for
High Relative Humidity in CA Rooms

Pomological Paragraph

Report Storage Holdings Promptly

Scold Control for 1963

Pomological Paragraph

Large Apples Have No Place in Polyethylene Bags

The Harvest and Storage of Delicious Apples

Warning

A Labor Saver

//'

•-^?^=^

?X-'/a

-<j=»'^

Issued by the Cooperstlve Extension Service. A. A. Splelman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agricultu-e and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

COUN TY EXTEN SION AGENTS IN SUPPORT OF THE FRUIT PROGRAM

BARNSTABLE

BERKSHIRE,
FRANKLIN,
HAMPDEN and
HAMPSHIRE

Oscar S. Johnson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Cape Cod
Extension Service, Barnstable (Tel. FOrest 2-3255)

G. Everett Wilder, Pioneer Valley Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Hampden County Improvement League, 1499 Memorial Avenue,
West Springfield (Tel. Springfield REpublic 6-7204)

BRISTOL

DUKES

ESSEX and
MIDDLESEX

NORFOLK

PLYMOUTH

WORCESTER

Harold 0. Woodward, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Bristol County Agricultural School, Center Street, Segreganset
(Tel. Dighton NOrmandy 9-3611 or 9-2361)

Ezra I. Shaw, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Dukes
County Extension Service, Vineyard Haven (Tel. Vineyard Haven 694)

Max G. Fultz, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Middlesex
County Extension Service, 19 Everett Street, Concord (Tel.
Concord EMerson 9-4845)

Howard Wilson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Norfolk
County Agricultural School, 460 Main Street, Walpole (Tel.
Walpole MOntrose 8-0268 or 8-0269)

Dominic A. Marini, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Plymouth County Extension Service, Court House, Brockton
(Tel. Brockton JUniper 6-4993)

William R. Goss, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Worcester County Extension Service, 36 Harvard Street,
Worcester (Tel. Worcester PLeasant 3-5477)

WARNING I MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT OF REACH OF
CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

Aificdltml

En^ineet'in^

COMPRESSOR LOW-SIDE CONTROL ADJUSTMENT FOR HIGH RELATIVE HUMIDITY

IN CA ROOMS

In view of the fact that most humidistats presently available are designed
to operate in the range of 30-70 per cent relative humid:'.ty and good control at
85-90 per cent relative humidity is difficult, a practical solution to maintain
at least 85 per cent relative humidity is as follows:

1. Thoroughly wet down boxes and fruit on loading.

2. Use mist nozzles to saturate the air as it leaves the refrigeration
cooling coils.

3. Periodically measure R.H. by means of a wet and dry bulb thermometer
and operate mist nozzles accordingly.

4. Adjust the low pressure (suction side) control on the compressor, so
that at CA room operating temperatures of 37°F / 1-2°F, the outside
surface temperature of the refrigeration cooling coils does not fall
below 340F / 1-2 °F. This coil surface temperature will prevent the
R.H. from dropping below 85% once it has been attained. The table
following gives the suction pressures corresponding to 34°F for the
two most commonly used refrigerants in CA rooms.

Low side gag e pres sure corresponding to 340F .

Refrigerant

Freon 12
Ammonia

Theoretical

31.7 psi
50.2 psi

Allowance for 3° temp. diff.
inside to outside of coil

29.3 psi
46.3 psi

Use of these small temperature differences between the inside of the coil
and the room will reduce the Btu capacity of the coil to about 307, of what most
colls are designed for. This should be of no serious consequence, since the
maximum cooling load on the coil is during loading and initial cooling. The
change in low side cutout recommended above would take place after this peak
load has passed.

One possible complication might result in a situation where one compressor
was used simultaneously on a 37°F CA room and on a 32°F cold storage where lower
low side pressures corresponding to a coil temperature perhaps below 32°? would
be required. In this case, a back pressure regulating valve would be required
on the low side line from the coil in the CA room.

John W. Zahradnik

Agr'l. Engineering Department

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH
Report Storage Holdings Promptly

At a recent meeting of the Marketing Committee of the Massachusetts Fruit
Growers Association, growers complained about the delays in learning about prices
and storage holdings. Warren Clapp, who was present, explained that a few
growers are consistently slow in making their reports. The Marketing Committee
urges these few growers to improve their reporting. There is no need to use up
public funds that we need elsewhere for follow up phone calls and most important
it is unfair to delay information reaching your fellow growers.

Our only salvation in fruit growing is in working together to do a better
job. Remember if you hold your information for a phone call, you are costing us
all money and loss of time.

Marketing Committee

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

SCALD CONTROL FOR 1963

Scald control for our varieties is not simply a question of what chemical to
apply. Scald varies tremendously with variety (sometimes between strains of a
variety), the type of growing season experienced, maturity of the fruit when
harvested, period of time from harvest to storage, how it is stored (regular cold
or CA) and how long it is to be stored. Because of the importance of the above
factors in the development of scald the blanket use of Stop-Scald (ethoxyquin) or
CPA (diphenylamine) on all stored apples is not warranted. In addition, neither

of these materials is so reliable that its use guarantees scald coated. In
years such as 1959-60, unusually hot weather during August and September may
markedly increase the susceptibility of some varieties to this disorder.

The Available Materials
S TOP-SCALD (ethoxyquin )

This material should be used after harvest at the rate of 3 pints per 100
gallons of water (2700 ppm.)« It has a residue tolerance of 3 ppm. Preharvest
tree sprays are not advised because of the coinmon appearance of dark-spot ,
res idue marks on the fruit and they may be considerably less effective than
post-harvest dips, sprays, or flooding applications. Also, Stop-Scald is
generally inferior to DPA for scald control on Cortland and Delicious. Stop
Scald's chief advantage over DPA is that it is not as apt to cause surface
injury to fruit that is box or bin flooded or dipped. This material has no
ripening action on stored fruit. Do not apply to fruit more than once. Allow
fruit to drain well after treatment. Keep the solution well agitated. A 100
gallon batch can be expected to treat about 1000 bushels of fruit. All fruit
treated after harvest must carry the label "Eth o >cyquin treated to retard spoilage '
The letter ing mu st be as larg e a s other grade labels .

D PA (diphenylam ine )

This material will be sold as a 55% and 837 formulation. Except for a few
varieties that are somewhat susceptible to DPA injury it should be applied at
the rate of 2000 ppm. (2 pounds of the 83% or 3 pounds of the 55% formulation).
Solutions for use on Rome Beauty and Baldwin should be reduced to 1000 ppm. (1
pound of the 83% or 1 1/2 pounds of the 55% formulation) to reduce the chances
of injury to the fruit. The residue tolerance is 10 ppm. This material is
generally m ore effective for sc ald control th an any other known chemical method
on most va rieties .

a . Preharv est DPA Spra ys

In Massachusetts tests dilute (IX) sprays have been nearly as effective as
post-harvest treatments. The fruit must be harvested within 36 hours following
treatment to be effective, however. Thorough coverage of the fruit surface must
be obtained. Do not apply sprays when temperatures are 80°? or higher. Do not
make repeat applications with DPA unless a heavy rain occurs between a tree
application aad harvest. Apply DPA separately as a dilute (IX) spray.

b. Post-Harvest DPA Treatments

Keep the suspension well agitated. A 100 gallon batch can be expected to
treat 1000 bushels of fruit. Excellent drainage of excess DPA suspensions is
necessary to avoid collection of liquid material around the fruit in the bottom
of containers when crate or bin-dipping, spraying or flooding is practiced.
Those who work with DPA should use rubber gloves and avoid inhaling the DPA
dust. DPA can be applied to fruit wraps and used for scald control by those
interested in wrapping each apple. This chemical has no apparent ripening action
on stored apples. A ll fruit treated after harvest must have a label on the
shipping container stating, "Tr eated with diphenylamine to retard spoilage" in
letters as large as the grade labels used on the package .

-4-

varietal suggestions
M cintosh

Results of the past 5 years at Amherst show that Mcintosh placed in CA
storage will not scald appreciably through April. This statement is predicated
on the assumption that the fruit is picked at a flesh firmness of 15 to 17
pounds (Magness -Taylor tester with 7/16 inch head), moved from the orchard to
storage within 24 hours and cooled to 32°F promptly. CA storage may not always
control scald on this variety indefinitely but only delay the time of its
appearance. Consequently, some scald may develop on some lots of CA Mclrt osh
in May or June which were entirely free from it earlier. It is suggested that
DPA, if used at all on Mcintosh, be applied only to those lots of fruit held
into May and June.

Scald on regular cold storage Mcintosh is generally not a problem until
after January at which time the bulk of this fruit should have been sold. Our
results with DPA or Stop-Scald have not been outstanding for controlling
scald on Mcintosh held beyond January in regular cold storage.

CORTLAND

In contrast to Mcintosh, CA storage often increases the severity of scald
on Cortland in comparison to regular cold storage. Cortland keep.'> exceedingly
well in CA (same requirements as Mcintosh) except for scald. Therefore, chemical
treatment with scald inhibitors is a necessity if Cortland are to be stored in
CA or beyond January 1 in regular cold storage. DPA is distinctly superior to
Stop-Scald on this variety. In years when mean temperatures are well above
average for 6 weeks or so before harvest, even DPA may not control this disorder
adequately. However, DPA may be expected to provide sufficient scald control in
most years so that Cortland may be considered for trial in commercial CA rooms.

DELICIOUS

Results obtained with this variety indicate that CA may reduce scald on
Delicious sometimes but the reduction may not be great enough to eliminate the
need for scald control chemicals in some years. This variety is so valuable
that DPA is suggested for fruit (particularly the early picked, less mature
fruit) placed in CA or to be stored beyond January 1 in regular cold storage.

ROME

During the past two seasons CA storage alone has provided commercial scald
control on the Romes harvested after October 10. However, DPA is suggested at
1000 ppm. (1 pound of the 837, or 1.5 pounds of the 557. formulation) as a
preharvest treatment (since 2000 ppm. may occasionally cause some fruit injury)
to Romes held in regular cold storage beyond January regardless of when they
were picked. Stop-Scald is probably more suitable than DPA as a post-harvest
treatment for Rome since it controls scald well and is less apt to injure the
fruit than DPA. Work from other areas indicate that the suggestions given for
the chemical treatm ent of ^ome appl y equally well to Baldwin .

F. W. Southwick

I I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I

- J-

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Large Apple s Have No Place in Polyethylene Bags

At a. recent Marketing Committee Meeting of the Massachusetci Fruit Growers
Association there was a discussion of how to handle large size apples, especially
Mcintosh. After considerable talk by committee members who arc pickers and after
seeing and hearing reports by Fred Cole and Bill Lord (See Table below) it was
unanimously agreed that 3" Macs do not belong in poly bags. Tn.-j- bruise, break
down and generally discourage repeat sales for Macs.

The best solutions offered were cell cartons or overwrap trays. However,
in the case of the trays, it was urj^ed that packers remember that overwrapping is
expensive, the apples are brought for eating out of hand, and that Mrs. Consumer
expects to pay more for them; thertifore, nothing should happen to down-grade
the fruit in these packages.

The following table from a recent study by F. E. Cole and W. J. Lord
(Selling Apples to Retail Food Stores - Publication 380) substantiates the
statements above.

Table 1. Relationship between fruit size of Mcintosh apples in retail stores and
per cent of apples below U. S. No. 1 grade because of bruises, November
and December 1960.

Size (In c hes)

Over 3 inch
3 inch
2 3/4 inch
2 1/2 inch
2 1/4 inch

Per Cent
i_n Grade
■ 36.4%
46.8%
50.2%
60.3%
78.5%

Per Cent of
Apples Below
Grade Because

of Bruises

85.7%
67 . 1%
63 . 2%
51.0%
35.0%

— Marketing Committee

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

THE HARVEST AND STORAGE OF DELICIOUS APPLES

Water core and internal breakdown of Delicious apples was a major problem
during the 1962-1963 storage season. Because of the prevalence of water core
at harvest, some growers did not hold some lots of Delicious for late storage.
As the storage season progressed, it became apparent that these growers made a
wise decision and avoided considerable financial loss.

The disappearance of water core and the occurrence of internal breakdown
appears to be related to the severity of water core at harvest. In 1926,
Brooks and Fisher of the U. S. D. A. stated that picking at the proper stage
of maturity is the most practical preventive now known for water core. This
statement still holds true in 1963.

The data presented in Table 1 indicate that, under conditions at Arnherst,
Delicious should be picked before mid-Octobei in order to minimize storage

losses due to internal disorders

Unfortunate

, storage scald may be a

probl

em in some ye

ars. For exam

pie, the data

Table 1 show that only A

.1 pe

cent

of the Starking Delicious harvested on Octo

ber 9, 1961

had internal

disor

ders 1

after

storage plus

7 days at room temperature.

tlowever, 21

per cent of these

fruit

had storage

scald.

Table

1. Per cent

of Starking Delicious having

water core a

t harvest in

1959-

1962

and per

cent having internal disorde

irs

and scald a

fter regular

32°

storage

andi seven days

at room tempe

;rature.

After Storage

Pit

Picking

Apples with Water

Core at Harvc

!St

Total

7 Days at
Int. Disorde

Room
r

Temp . 1
Seal.

Date

Slight

Medium

Severe

1959

7„

10/1

21.1

0.0

21.1

3.6

10/15

48.3

9.3

1.5

59.1

23.1

10/29

37.0

9.2

25.0

71.2

28.6

1960

9/29

22.2

5.1

1.3

28.6

0.9

7.6

10/10

24.7

8.0

15.6

48.3

19.6

0.0

10/20

40.7

3.7

6.3

50.7

10.5

0.0

1961
9/29

0.0

0.4

42.7

10/9

3.5

0.4

0.0

3.9

4.1

21.3

10/24

48.0

5.5

4.6

58.1

35.3

0.3

1962

9/28

17.9

0.0

17.9

0.5

6.0

10/10

19.4

9.0

, 9.0

37.4

44.9

0.0

10/24

24.3

14.3

39.1

77.7

76.8

0.0

^Stored

until: 1959

- 3/7/60; 1960

- 3/2/61; 1961

- 4/3/62; 1962 - 4/1/63.

Growers should watch the maturity of Red

Delicious appl

es carefully.

Under

the conditions at

Amherst, Richa

red Delicious

apples appear

to be more suscept

ible

to water core than

those of the

Starking strain.

The amou nt

and severit>

' of

water core may be observed by sampling and cutting the more mature Delicious
apples on the tree. The fruit should be harvested before or while the disorder
is limited to a series of small water-soaked spots bordering the primary vascular
bundles. However, growers should plan to treat the Delicious held for late
storage with DPA for scald control.

storage tests conducted during two seasons failed to show any consistent
effect of CA, in comparison to regular storage on the severity of scald of
Richared and Starking Delicious apples. However, CA storage may reduce the
severity of internal breakdown of both Richared and Starking Delicious apples
having considerable water core at harvest.

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

WARNING

THIS is for YOU - the food or feed producer.

YOU are L EGALLY responsible for the CHEMICAL RESIDUES
that remain in or on Y OU R produce. (Fruit, vegetables, milk, meat, eggs,
feed etc.)

Avoid ILLEGAL RESIDUES by £ollov, lng DIRECTIONS on
LA BELS and in P_E^ S JT C NT R L ~C"~HirR T S. and preventing DRIFT
to other crops. You cannot cover up an illegal residue so chemists can't find it.

KNOW what you are usingl KEEP a LABEL with a list of Active Ingredients ,
(Trade names are not enough)

KEEP a RE CORD . It will show FDA inspectors that YOU are reliable,
cooperative and K NO W what you are doing.

Massachusetts growers have a good record to date. Let's apply chemical pesticides
as they should be used and continue to produce a safe , wholesome product.

STAY ALIVE - protect yourself and your help.

RED SKULL and C R S S B N E S and the RED word POISON are

used only when the danger is great. Seeing these on a label means B E CAREFUL

really careful.

E. H. Wheeler

Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology

-8-

A LABOR SAVER

E asy Way to Unload T railer

An easy way of unloading a trail-
er of apples has been devised by a
Massachusetts grower. Two roller con-
veyors are placed on the platform of a
flat bed trailer. On the conveyors are
placed 3 pieces of plywood 5/8" x
37 1/2" X 69" and one piece 5/8" x
18 3/4" X 69". Since leveling takes
place at the unloading dock, the
trailer is loaded with one layer of 35
boxes.

Sliding of the conveyors and plywood off the trailer is prevented by a 32 x
3-2. plank having two bolts that protrude and fit in holes bored in the trailer
bed.

To unload the boxes of apples the trailer is backed up to a platform at the
unloading dock. The platform with two roller conveyors on it is at the same
height as the trailer bed. The retaining plank is removed and the trailer is
quickly unloaded by grasping the boxes at the front of the trailer and sliding
the load onto the platform. Another set of ply\70od boards are placed on the
trailer and the driver is off for another load of apples without any further
delay.

The platform is of sufficient size to hold 2-2 trailer loads of apples. This
also helps eliminate waiting at the unloading dock.

The boxes are leveled by women and then a man places them on a skid for
storage.

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

SEPTEMBER 20, 1963

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Feathered Friends or Foes

Pomological Paragraph
Picker's Tapes

Approved Farm Stand Meeting

Pomological Paragraph
Knov/ the Condition of Fruit in Storage

The Morses' "Big Apple"

How to Make Calls to the University

Orchard Mouse Recommendations —
Fall 1963

Pomological Paragraph

Foliage Color in Apple Orchards in
September

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-^4

Issued by ttie Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in fixtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University ot Masaachusetts, United Statea Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

MAILING LIS T REVISION

In accordance with penalty maillug regulations, the mailing list for Fruit
Notes is being revised. Enclosed with this issue is a return card for you to
indicate if you wish to remain on the mailing list. Return this card promptly
so as not to miss the next issue of Fruit Notes to be mailed in November.
Persons receiving this periodical by subscription will not receive a card, but will
be sent the usual renewal notice at the time their subscription expires.

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and regulations.
Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachusetts requires that all
pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered with the Massachusetts Department
of Public Health, Trade names, where used for clearness, do not indicate
endorsement nor imply that similar products are not satisfactory.

WARNING'.' MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT OF REACH OF
CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

FEATHERED FRIENDS OR FOES

There is no doubL in the minds of most indivldualc, whether gardeners, farmers, or
bird watchers, that birds in general are beneficial to mankind. Nearly all species
at one time or another are insect or weed-seed eaters; and some subsist entirely
on these foods. However, some compete directly with man for food, thereby
causing considerable amounts of economic d.image to fruits, small grains, truck
crops, and to th ■ livestock and poultry industries.

In the New England area, bird depredations to agricultural crops generally take
place at two distinct times of year. First, great losses occur when tree fruits
and berries ripen. Usually at this time damage is also occurring to sweet corn
and other garden crops. A second loss occurs during severe winter months when
groups of winter resident birds utilize poultry, mink, pheasant, and cattle feed
areas to obtain food. Each type of damage, whether occurring in the summer or
winter, is iBually a unique problem and may be caused by a variety of birds,
depending on surrounding habitat, season of the year, and product involved.

Little is known as to why agricultural products in this area are apparently
receiving more depredations today than ten years ago. Several theories have been
advanced: (1) reduction of desirable feeding 1-abitat for birds because of
increased building; (2) reduction in numbers of farms, thereby concentrating
birds at remaining farm areas; (3) a decrease in available insects that birds
normally eat due to the increased use of insecticides; and (4) a population
increase in some species of birds. It seems logical to assume that all of these
factors have contributed to greater bird depredations during the last few years
and that no one factor is responsible for the problem.

Contrary to what most farmers believe, there are comparatively few bird species
causing crop depredations in the New England area. However, these few cause
considerable damage each year. VJhen all agricultural crops are considered, the
six most troublesome species are: starlings, robins, Baltimore orioles, red-
winged blackbirds, grackles, and catbirds. Other bird species are pests at times,
but usually only isolated problems involving these species occur. Of the six
mentioned, starlings, rod-winged blackbirds, grackles, and Baltimore orioles are
in the blackbird group; the remaining three are classified as songbirds.

Of the species mentioned, only the red-winged blackbird is not a serious depreda-
tor of fruit. However, red-winged blackbirds have gained unfavorable reputations
because of the amounts of damage that they cause to si-zeet corn plantings. Other
truck crops,, for instance peas, squash, onions, may be damaged by birdE--but due
to small acreages and other more preferred foods, damage of this sort is minute.

Bird damage to agricultural crops is difficult to alleviate or prevent. Many of
the species involved are protected by Federal and State laws, but even if they
were not control would be dif ficult--f or each situation varies according to
habitat, species and nui-iibars . Those species that are not protected may be
destroyed, but usually they are in such numbers that destruction of a few serves
no purpose. Even so, it might prove beneficial if unprotected problem bird species
were reduced, if such a reductional progrcun covered a large geographical area.
But this type of program cannot be advocated until much more is learned about
the habits of the bird species involved.

To date, there appears to be at least two courses open to an individual whose I
crop is jeopardized. He may exclude the birds from the crop by covering it or !
he may use some type of scaring device. Exclosures made of lasting material i
and erected properly are birdproof, resulting in complete protection. However,
they are expensive and impractical unless used on small acreages on a high-income
crop.

Small fruits, such as blueberries, strawberries, and grapes lend themselves to the
exclosure type of protection. Other crops, such as small grains, and peaches
cannot be covered economically. Therefore, scaring devices must be employed where
bird losses are heavy. Scaring devices do not eliminate bird depredation, but
they do help in reducing amounts of damage. However, it must be remembered that
scaring devices arc most effective on flocking bird species; hence, starlings are
much more apt to be deterred with noise than robins or orioles. The effectiveness
of a scaring device depends on habitat, crop to be protected, species causing
damage, type of device, and manner in which it is used.

The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service is fully aware of the seriousness of bird
problems and is currently conducting basic research and field investigations to
develop ways and means of effectively combatting these problems. In order to
be acceptable, control methods must be selective so that only the culprits
responsible for the damage will be punished. Also, control methods must be
safe — presenting a minimum hazard to humans and desirable animals and birds.

Richard N. Smith

U. S. Fish and
Wildlife Service

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH
Pic ker's Tapes

Growers are making good use of picker's tapes not only for tallying the
number of boxes harvested by each picker but as a means of determining who
picked the apples and from what block of trees they were harvested.

Every morning during harvest the orchard foreman gives each picker a roll
of the tape which is used to identify the boxes harvested by each picker. A
serrated section having the picker's number and the box number is fastened to a
top edge of each apple box.

In one orchard, the foreman keeps a daily record of: (a) names of pickers;
(b) the date; (c) the name or number of the section of the orchard being
harvested; (d) the first box number on the tape handed to each picker in the
morning; (e) the box number on each tape at the end of the day; and (f) the
results of the bruise count made by the checker. By inspecting the tape the
grower can determine the above data for any box during harvest, storage, or
packing period.

APPROVED FARM STAND MEETING

The summer meeting of the program members was held on August 15th at the
Waseeka Farm in Ashland, at which time there was a free exchange of ideas and
discussion of selling at farm stands. To some program participants the
meetings, inspections and price reports are the principal benefits of the
program rather than the Approved Farm Stand Sign.

A brief review of United States Grades of Apples was made to clarify some
points in question. It was emphasized that "Drops" (an apple that shows evidence
of having been on the ground) is not an official grade classification. Drops
should be sold unclassified or as Drops (Unclassified) for the benefit of the
customer.

A drop could be placed in one of the numerous grade classifications If it
shows no evidence of having been on the ground and meets the grade requirement.
However, drop Mcintosh without bruises are rare.

There appears to be some misunderstanding concerning the requirements of
the Utility grade. Utility is a good grade of apples and not a home for culls.
The Apple Sorters Manual which can be obtained from your County Agent specifies
grade requirements.

The availability of only plastic cartons in the future is of major concern
to the participants of the Approved Farm Program. The problem with plastic
cartons for cider Is that of sealing. Many operators have found only stapling
the wax containers was unsatisfactory and used a sealing device. At present,
no economical sealing device is available for plastic cartons. It seemed to
those present at the meeting that a top fold or other device for closing could
and should be developed for plastic cartons. At present the plastic carton is
considered to be unusable.

It appeared to be the opinion of the group that careful consideration should
be given to Including " All apples must be clean " as a future regulation of the
Approved Farm Stand Program. The term'hlean" to mean free from apparent residue
or dirt .

During the discussion of special displays and decorations It was emphasized
that all displays and decorations should be built to promote apples. There are
only a few items that you can sell at the orchard roadside stand without taking
something away from the principal product - apples .

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Know the Condition of Fruit in Storage

The use of picker's tapes, chalk or other devices to mark stored boxes of
fruit is worthwhile. Jordan H. Levin, Head, Fruit and Vegetable Harvesting

-4-

Investlgation, ARS, USDA, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
stated at the Conference on Factors Affecting Fruit Condition held in February 1961
at Rutgers - The State University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, "One simple practice
which I feel everyone who stores fruit should follow is to label each box or lot
with the date of harvest. The fruit should be put in storage so fruit at proper
maturity could be t ikci out last, and overripe fruit and fruit picked at an early
stage of maturity taken out first. Few growers realize the importance of maturity
to storage life and fruit condition and thus fail to take the little time
necessary to keep such records."

---William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

THE MORSES' "BIG APPLE"

Any fruit grower who knows a peach of an operation will drool over this
Norfolk County family enterprise which is rapidly growing into the largest fruit
farm in the area. The Big Apple fruit farm located on Arnold Street in Wrentham,
Massachusetts has been built into a thriving family-run retail business and is
under the supervision of son, Peter, a Stockbridge School graduate. Apples,
peaches, pears, apricots, strawberries and blueberries are produced for sale at
the stand.

Although Arnold Street is a side road, the use of signs draws a fine retail
business to the farm stand and cider mill which are in a converted barn. A 1007.
retail business has been built up and cider has baccme one of their major items.

At first, the Morses were buying cider from other mills but transportation
costs were prohibitive. Although cider was a convenience item for customers,
the demand was so great that the Morses felt that the loss should be turned into
profits by installing their own mill.

Preparations for the new mill began in 1959 by investigating all types of
cider mills. In 1960 they toured through New York state searching for ideas for
a press. After a long search, it was decided to get what they considered the
best press on the market. Their conclusion was the Willmes Press.

The Willmes Press is basically an inflatable rubber bag, which squeezes the
juice from the fruit. This German-made press is filled with pomace in the
horizontal cylinder, which consists of a slotted screen periphery enclosed in an
open housing of cylinder ribs. The press is closed, the bag inflated and the
pomace squeezed outward against the slotted screen.

The operation cost $15,000 to install and took three years to construct and
work the "bugs" out to where it is now a one-man, semi-automatic operation.

All apples are cooled and washed before grinding and then rice hulls are
mixed with the apples during the grinding process to prevent packing in the press
and permit easier juice flow. Pomace is exchanged with dairymen for manure.

The yield of cider in peak season is 4 gallons per bushel and 3 1/2 in
winter, an extra gallon over conventional presses. The press holds 25 bushels of
pomace per cycle of 20 minutes. The lov;- operating expense has also increased
profits .

The stand's volume of 75 gallons a week has increased 3007, to about 250
gallons a week the first year. Season is from early harvest to early spring.

Everything is packaged in waxed cartons from _„.
1/2 pints to quarts and 1/2 gallons. Glass jugs
are filled if customers bring them.

The Morse family is happy on their 50-acre
fruit farm, and we mean the whole family -
Mr. 6c Mrs. Morse, Peter Thomas Jr., Greg and
Stephen. They all contribute time and plenty
of energy to make the Bis Apple a big success.

Peter Morse has travelled widely in search
of ideas and has one of the most mechanized
operations around. Whether it's a self-
propelled aerial picker-pruner or weed control
sprayers, Pete makes them himself in their ovzn
shop.

ft
•

•■

^^^Hh% jI

|£^

Pete Morse points out the filter
press and pumps. One pump is
used just for the filter. The
other pump has two valves on the
intake side and two on the
discharge end wiiich allows the
pump to be used for two pumping
jobs.

Pete Morse shows the juice tray which is
rolled out of the way when the cylinder
is tipped to allow the pomace to drop to
the take-away auger below.

Outside of the mill: at left bulk bin used
for storing rice hulls and air compressor
with gas engine. Inside of the mill:
Filter Press and Willmes Presser.
Foreground is pomace auger.

— Howard Wilson

County Extension Agent in Agriculture
Norfolk County

-6-

H_W TO MA KE CALLS TO THE UNIVERSITY

Growers wishing to call some member of the University staff can now dial
their party directly without going through the central switchboard. University
personnel may be reached directly by prefixing their present extension by
545-2. The new telephone numbers of the Pomology Staff and Department of
Entomology and Plant Pathology members frequently called are:

Prof. John Bailey - 545-2244

Dr. Constantine Gllgut- 545-2280

Dr. William Lord - 545-2248

Dr. Frank Southwlck - 545-2244

Dr. Herbert Wave - 545-2284

Dr. Walter Weeks - 545-2244

Dr. Ellsworth Wheeler - 545-2280

— -Williaw J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

ORCHARD MOUSE RECOMMENDATIONS— FALL 1963

Orchard mice can be controlled by placing poisoned baits in mouse trails by
hand, broadcasting, or by using the trail builder machine.

The BROADCAST METHOD is fast and very effective for MEADOW MICE that feed
and travel on the surface. A man can hand bait an orchard about as fast as he
can walk the tree rows. Forcibly throw a small handful of bait into the matted
grass within the drip area of the tree. Be sure to treat both sides of the tree
row. Baiting should be done when the grass is dry so the bait will sift through
where the mice can readily find it. A hand or tractor-drawn seeder is faster and
also does an effective job. The recommended rate of application varies between
6 and 10 pounds per acre, depending on density of ground cover and the severity
of the mouse infestation. The method is not recommended for controlling pine
mice because of their subsurface activities and habits.

HAND BAITING, although slow and laborious. Is still a good control method
for PINE MICE on small acreages. For large acreages, a MECHANICAL TRAIL BUILDER
produces good results. Both the Zinc Phosphide Rodenticide-treated apples and
the Zinc Phosphide-treated Steamed-crushed Oats should be used for this species.
When using the Trail Builder, make parallel applications on each side of the tree
within the drip area of the tree. Four to six pounds of bait per acre should be
used. When using any poisoned bait, the importance of favorable weather during
treatment and for at least two days following cannot be overemphasized!

-7-

We do not recommend the use of ENDRIM for controlling orchard mice In
Massachusetts orchards for several reasons. The results achieved with Endrln
applications In most cases do not Justify the additional expense. Secondly,
there is a very real danger of contaminating wells and public water supplies in
hilly terrain, especially when using a residual, highly-toxic material. Care
should be exercised not to spray vegetation that will be consumed by domestic
animals. Also, any drops present during spraying should not be harvested or
used for human or animal consumption. Since Endrln is highly toxic to fish
at very low concentrations, this material should not be used where it may drain
into farm ponds or state stocked waters. If used, careful adherence to label
restrictions must be followed and the orchard should be posted.

HERBICIDES are being used increasingly to control vegetative growth near
trees. This will be helpful In reducing mouse infestations. However, growers
should check carefully to determine the infestation of mice before winter sets
in. Mice may do severe damage under snow cover; hence, it is important to get
the orchard treated well ahead of sleet and snow. Some of the most devastating
damage has occurred in early winter when a sleet storm covers the grass with ice
and is followed by snow.

RODENT CONTROL IN APPLE STORAGES

The storage should be baited as it is being filled. Strychnine-treated
Steamed-crushed Oats are the recommended bait for mouse control in storages.
They maintain their poisonous quality under the humid conditions inside.
Teaspoonful quantities of this bait should be placed in stations such as cigar
boxes, short lengths of pipe, or sections of rolled roofing paper. These stations
should be placed under the pallets, as well as along the walls. Since mice may
not travel more than a few feet during the entire winter, numerous bait stations
should be used. A room 20' x 20' should have at least 15 bait stations. One
application of this bait ordinarily provides adequate protection for the winter.

ORCHARD MOUSE BAITS

Orders and remittances for the following materials should be sent to:
RODENT CONTROL FUND, University of Massachusetts, Old Conservation Building,
Amherst, Massachusetts. Prices are F.O.B. Amherst, Massachusetts. Postal
regulations do not permit mailing poisons. Shipments will, therefore, be made
by REA Express or Truck Freight, with the shipping charges collect. MAKE CHECK
PAYABLE TO: Treas., Rodent Control Fund.

Zinc Phosphide RODENTICIDE (l~Ounce Cans) $ .30 Can

(Packed 25 cans to the carton)

Zinc Phosphide-treated Steamed-crushed OATS. 35 lb.

(In 10, 25, and 50-pounds bags)

Strychnine-treated Steamed-crushed OATS 35 lb.

(In 10 and 25 pound bags)

These orchard mouse baits are available also from farmer-owned cooperatives.

- — John W. Peterson

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

-8-

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Foliage Color in Apple Orchards In September

Prior to the 1963 harvest we were blessed with excellent weather conditions
for development of red color on apples. However, at harvest the foliage of
apple trees in some orchards appeared light in color. This was particularly
true in areas having insufficient rainfall, or on shallow rooted trees or those
on light soil, and where growers have been attempting to lower nitrogen levels.
In some instances, growers wished that additional nitrogen had been supplied.
However, weather conditions are not predictable, and firm red apples are
preferred to soft green fruit. Therefore, we believe the decision to reduce
nitrogen was sound and that the maintenance of 1,8 to 1.9 per cent nitrogen level
in bearing Mcintosh trees should be the goal of orchardists desiring firm red
apples.

—William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amfierst

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1963

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Winter Injury

Research from Other Areas

Pomological Paragraph

Cider Notes

Deer and Rabbit Control With Chemical Repellents

Pomological Paragraphs

New Jersey Peach Tree Survey
National Strawberry Conference

Carburetor Air Cleaner Maintenance

Dr. Franklin W. Southwick Named Head of
Horticulture Department

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, In firtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

MAILING LIST REVISION
In accordance with penalty mailing regulations, the mailing list for Fruit
Notes Is being revised. Enclosed with this Issue Is a return card for you to
indicate If you wish to remain on the mailing list. Return this card promptly
so as not to miss the next i'^sue of Fruit Notes to be mailed in January.
Persons receiving this periodical by subscription will not receive a card, but
will be sent the usual renewal notice at the time their subscription expires.

SAVE THESE DATES

The 70th Annual Meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association,
Inc. in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts Extension Service will
be held in the Gardner Armory, Gardner, Massachusetts on January 7 and 8, 1964.

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and regulations.
Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachusetts requires that all
pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered with the Massachusetts Department
of Public Health. Trade names, where used for clearness, do not Indicate
endorsement nor Imply that similar products are not satisfactory.

WARNING I MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT OF REACH OF
CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

winter Injury

The results of H. A. Rollins, Jr. and et al published In Ohio Agricultural
Experiment Research Bulletin 901 show that for a short period after apple trees
are heavily pruned, the cold resistance of the trees is reduced. They suggest
that prior to January, growers should avoid pruning the more tender apple varieties
if severe low temperatures are predicted within a few days.

The findings of H. A. Rollins, Jr. and et al substantiate the observations
of growers who have noted winter injury to apple trees pruned just prior to a
period of sub-zero temperatures.

---William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS

The results of a fruit tree survey conducted in New York was discussed by
B. A. Dominick in the November 1962 issue of the New York State Horticultural
Newsletter. Surveys of this type are of value in determining the future trends
of the fruit industry. Because the varieties grown in New York are similar to
those in our Massachusetts orchards, the information taken from B. A. Dominick's
article is of particular interest.

It can be noted below that in western New York, Monroe and Idared account
for 7 and 6 per cent respectively of the total non-bearing trees. Idared has
been recommended for trial in Massachusetts for the last several years. The
Monroe variety was discussed in the January 1963 issue of Fruit Notes by
Dr. W. D. Weeks in the article titled "Notes on New Apple Varieties". This
variety was introduced primarily as a processing apple but has good dessert
qualities. Dr. W. D. Weeks is of the opinion that where a dual-purpose variety
is desired, Monroe appears worthy of trial.

Apple Varieties in Eastern N. Y.

"While recent plantings of young apple trees in both sections of the State
have been at rates high enough to maintain bearing tree numbers, the percentages
vary widely between different varieties in both areas. Included in the tables for
Eastern and Western New York are each variety of apples amounting to at leant one
per cent or more of trees under eight years of age or those eight years old or
older. In Eastern New York, Mcintosh is the leading variety among bearing trees
accounting for 42 per cent of the total (table 2). This variety accounts for
only 27 per cent of the total non-bearing trees of all varieties. Only 16 per
cent of the Mcintosh trees are non-bearing, while the estimated percentage
necessary to maintain the number of bearing Mcintosh trees is estimated to be
18. Among the five leading varieties, Delicious promises to be more important
in the area in the future with 39 per cent of all the non-bearing trees. Followed
by Mcintosh, the next most important variety in young plantings is Golden Delicious
with 10 per cent of the total. Rome follows Golden Delicious with eight per cent.
No other variety accounts for as much as four per cent of the total young trees.

-2-

Table 2. Relative importance of apple varieties and how they are being maintained,
Eastern New York, January 1, 1962.

Bearing

Non- bearing

Variety

treesa

trees^

per cent

of total

Mcintosh

Delicious

Cortland

Rome

Golden Delicious

Northern Spy

R. I. Greening

Baldwin

Early Mcintosh

Stayman Winesap

Milton

Macoun

Lodi

Spartan

i J.

Idared

Wellington

Jersey Red

Other

Proportion
Non-bearing

per cent
16
42

7
20
38

3
*

38
19
9
22
57
94
98
99
100

Total 100

Number of trees (000) 878

^!Eight years and older.
"Under eight years.
*Less than one per cent.

100
261

Apple Varieties in Western N. Y.

"In Western New York, Rhode Island Greening leads the bearing trees with 19
per' cent of the total, followed closely by Mcintosh with 18 per cent (table 3).
Rome, Baldwin and Cortland account for nine or ten per cent each of the total
bearing trees. Delicious leads all the other varieties in recent plantings and
amounted to 20 per cent of all trees less than 8 years old. Rome is second with
13 per cent and Rhode Island Greening and Golden Delicious are tied with 10 per
cent each. Some newer varieties and older ones important in plantings in Western
New York are Monroe with 7 and Idared with 6 per cent of all young trees".

•3-

TablG 3. Relative importance of apple, varieties and how they are being maintained.
Western New York, 1962.

Bearing

Non-bearing

Pro

portion

Variety

treesa

treest>

Non

-bearing

per cent

of total

r cent

R. I. Greening

Mcintosh

Rome

Baldwin

Cortland

Delicious

Northern Spy

Ben Davis

Wealthy

Twenty Ounce

Golden Delicious

Early Mcintosh

Jonathan

N. W. Greening

•k

Monroe

Idared

Webster

Wellington

Other

■■ ^

Total

Number of trees (OC

100

>0)1.112

100
440

^Eight years and older.
t»Under eight years.
*Less than one per cent ,

•--William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

R. G. Hill, Jr., Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station reports in Research
Bulletin 903 titled "The Effect of Sod as a Soil Management Practice Upon the
Growth and Yield of the Peach" that peach trees may be expected to produce growth
and yields comparable to those under cultivation if ample quantities of moisture
and nutrients are available. Under the conditions of this study the nitrogen
level of the peach trees grown in the bluegrass sod was maintained at approximately
that of the trees grown under cultivation by doubling the rate of nitrogen applied.

It is of Interest to note that Dr. W. D. Weeks of our pomology staff has
suggested that peach trees in sod should receive about twice the normal rate of
nitrogen.

-4-

Slnce the foliage analysis service is limited to sampling In problem
blocks only, the grower must rely on experience and observations of annual
terminal growth for evaluating nitrogen status of his trees. Non-bearing peach
trees should produce 18 inches of terminal growth and bearing trees 12 to 15
inches. Without irrigation, it is difficult to obtain this amount of growth
during a summer like 1962.

---William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CIDER NOTES

Sanitation

Food plants throughout the nation are continually visited by Federal Food
and Drug inspectors, state public health personnel, city Inspectors and others.
Many of the plants have their own sanitarian supervising a clean-up crew. Why?

Many reasons can be given but the principal one is that clean, wholesome
food processed in a clean, sanitary plant has more appeal to the consumer plus a
longer storage life. Tests on frozen, canned and refrigerated foods have
definitely shown that as the number of bacteria, yeasts and molds rises, there is
a corresponding loss in flavor, color, and storage life.

Fresh cider reacts in the same way. Thorough cleaning with hot water,
brushes, sanitizers and detergents of the press, tanks, grinder or grater, racks,
press cloths, elevator, and other equipment plus the floors and walls will
insure good said tation. Equipment should be dismantled, hosed off, and then
cleaned. House flies and fruit flies while reduced in numbers by a good sani-
tation program, still must be controlled with a spray program.

Combining refrigerated storage of the finished apple cider with a good
sanitation and fly control program will pay off in a better keeping product and
satisfied customers.

Call It "Ap-peel" Cider

At a recent meeting of ciderfanciers, the product produced from apples
containing one orange peel per bushel of apples had "decidedly" greater appeal
than any other straight or combination-cider product. (From "Food Processing")

Next Year's Cider

Ever notice how flat and insipid early cider is? Why not plan now to
produce and freeze cider from Baldwins, Greenings, crabapples, Jonathans or like
varieties to give a lift to early cider. By producing it now, holding it frozen
until next Fall, you can give a lift to early cider flavor, as well as boosting
sales.

Kirby M. Hayes

Food Science and
Technology

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

DE ER AND RABBIT CONTROL WITH CHEMICAL REPELLENTS

DEER CONTROL :

With Winter approaching, the problem of DEER browsing on fruit trees may
become acute in many orchards. There are various means of controlling deer,
depending upon the situation and the economics involved. If the financial
expenditure can be justified, deer-proof fences can be used. Fencing affords
year-round and long-term protection. A second means of minimizing damage is
by using chemical repellents. Basically, there are two types of repellents:
area repellents; and taste repellents.

To date, area repellents have proved unsatisfactory. Taste repellents are
more practical and effective. The function of a taste repellent is to make the
treated material less desirable and palatable. Taste repellents are divided
into two groups: Winter or dormant season; and Summer or growing season.

It is appropriate that we discuss the dormant season repellents at this
time. The duration of effectiveness of any repellent is primarily dependent
upon weather conditions. Usually under normal conditions a repellent, with a
sticker, will last for 2 or 3 months; one without an adhesive material tends to
wash off or become diluted more readily.

The NEW IMPROVED, Z.I. P. is a ready-to-use concentrate which contains a
sticker. One gallon of NEW IMPROVED Z.I. P. should be mixed with one gallon of
water and stirred thoroughly,

ARASAN 75 is another effective repellent. For brush application , mix 1
pound of Arasan 75 with 1 quart of Rhoplex AC-33 or Latex 512R and 2-1/2 quarts
of water. For spray application , use Arasan 75 with 0.5 millimeter orifices or
larger and 50-mesh strainer. Stir this mixture frequently.

When ARASAN 42-S is used, mix 1 quart of Rhoplex AC-33 or Latex 512R with
2 quarts of water and add 1 quart of Arasan 42-S. Mix these ingredients thoroughly.
When using Arasan 42-S, mix only enough material for immediate use as the solids
in the finished preparation settle after standing several days and are difficult
to mix into suspension again. This mixture may be applied as a spray or by brush.

Arasan contains Thiram. Other commercial products containing Thiram as a
repellent agent are available. However, if any of these materials are used,
close adherence to the directions on the label should be followed.

When applying a repellent, treat all the terminal tips to at least 6 feet
above the expected snow line. If difficulty is encountered when trying to get
the material to adhere to the smooth bark of young stock, add 1/4 ounce
Methocal (1500 c.p.s. viscosity) per gallon and 3/4 ounce of Hexadecanol-ethanol
per gallon. The weather-resistant qualities of the mixture are also increased
by the addition of these materials.

Applications of repellents should be made before snowfall; and frequent
checks should be made throughout the area to determine how well the material is
standing up to the elements. If an area has had a past history of damage, plans
should be made to treat this location.

-6-

RABBIT CO NTROL;

Although COTTONTAIL RABBITS are an important game animal, they can cause
serious damage to fruit trees, cultivated blueberry plants and nursery stock.
Cottontail populations are relatively local; removing or excluding these animals
can be accomplished by live trapping, shooting, fencing, and the usr of repellents.

For Winter protection, use repellm ts such as IMPROVED Z.I. P., ARASAN, and
RINGWOOD. The formulas and means of application for IMPROVED Z.I. P. and ARASAN 75
are the same as for controlling deer. However, when using ARASAN 42-S for control-
ling rabbits, use 3 quarts of water. RINGWOOD REPELLENT is a commercial product
that is sold in ready-to-use form. RINGWOOD is recommended for use only during
the dormant season. This repellent can be applied by spray gun or brush. Usf^
benzol, or a similar solvent, to clean spray equipment before using for other
purposes. This material is highly inflammable and should not be used near an
open flame.

All bark and twigs, to a height that rabbits might reach during a heav/
snowfall, must be coated with the repellent. Trees should be checked frequently
to determine when the area should be re-treated. If damage begins to reoc':ur, the
area should be treated immediately. Effective duration for rabbit repellents is
about the same as for deer. As a general rule-of-thumb, for all rabbit repellents
1 gallon will treat 100 two-four foot trees by brushing; or, 300-600 trees by
spraying. Applications should be made early in November.

Rene M. Bollengier, Jr.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS
New Jersey Peach Tree Survey

The most popular peach varieties in New Jersey as reported in the
September, 1963 issue of Horticultural News are: 1. M A. Blake, 2. Rio-Oso-Gem,
3. Red Haven, 4. Sunhigh and 5. Triogen. These 5 varieties accounted for 49%
of the peach trees in the state. A sharp drop in plantings of Elberta, J. H. Hale,
Jerseyland, Summercrest, Sunrise and Triogem has occurred since 1957.

In the last 6 years the number of peach trees in commercial orchards has
Increased 8 per cent. On the other hand, the number of commercial peach growers
in New Jersey has declined from 499 in 1957 to 345 in 1963. Forty-four per cent
of the 1,079,192 peach trees were young trees, 5 years old or less.

In summary, it appears that the peach industry in New Jersey is expanding
but is in the hands of fewer growers .

William J. Lord

-7-

National Strawberry Conference

On January 24-25, 1963 a National Strawberry Conference was held at Rutgers
University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, A very fine program was arranged by the
members of the Horticultural staff. Speakers from all over the United States
and several foreign countries gave short, pointed talks on a wide variety of
subjects. An excellent report of this conference "The Strawberry, Varieties,
Culture, Marketing, Pest Control" has been compiled by Carter R, Smith and
N. F. Childers, Copies of this report can be obtained by sending a check or
money order for $2,50 to N. F. Childers, Department of Horticulture, Rutgers
University, Nichols Avenue, New Brunswick, New Jersey,

This report contains brief summaries of the latest information on strawberry
insect, disease and nematode control, the booming Mexican strawberry industry,
varieties, planting problems, irrigation, nutrition, winter protection, weed
control, labor saving machinery, and economics and marketing,

John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CARBURETOR AIR CLEANER MINTENANCE

An air cleaner is standard equipment on every tractor now manufactured,
purpose is to prevent dust, grit, and other foreign matter from entering the
engine with the air.

Its

Many tractor troubles arise from the lack of air cleaner service yet it is
difficult to get farmers to recognize the importance of this maintenance chore.
Under severe dust conditions an engine would be worn out and completely ruined in
less than a week's operation if it were not equipped with an efficient air cleaner,
Proper servicing is essential if the air cleaner is to maintain its original
efficiency.

Lack of Service Reduces Power and Causes Wear

A tractor engine requires about 225,000 cubic feet of air per day -- enough
to fill four farm silos and this amount of air can contain as much as \ pound of
dust. Without an air cleaner all
this dust would be drawn into the
engine and cause terrific wear.

Without proper service an
air cleaner can become so plugged
with dirt that air flow to the en-
gine is restricted thus reducing
its maximum horsepower output.
Air cleaner neglect is also a
quick ticket to the repair shop
because poor cleaner maintenance
accelerates wear of rings, pistons,
sleeves, and bearings and promotes
the formation of oil sludge and
other engine troubles.

ftpuht^'^

-8

A Schedule for Proper Servicing

Most air cleaners on present day
tractors are of the oil bath type.
These cleaners collect dirt in
four places that require periodic
cleaning.

1. in the screened cap or precleaner.

2. On the sides of the center pipe.

3. In the bottom of the oil cup.

4. In the filter element.

Most cleaners will continue to
perform efficiently if operators
will follow this schedule:

Daily or Every 10 Hours - Remove

and inspect the oil cup. If more

than ^ inch of dirt has collected,

or if the oil has thickened,

discard the old oil, scrape dirt

out of the cup, wash the cup in

kerosene, refill to the oil level

bead with fresh oil, and replace

the cup. It is important that

the proper oil level be maintained in the cup whether it is or is not cleaned.

Check the lower screen of the filter element and remove any chaff or dirt while

the cup is off. The screened cap or prefilter should also be checked daily and

cleaned if necessary.

Every 60 Hours - In addition to the regular 10 hour maintenance, remove the air
cleaner from the tractor, disassemble it and wash it thoroughly in kerosene.
Clean the oil cup, precleaner, and valve cover breather by washing in kerosene.
Inspect air cleaner hoses and clamps to make sure there are no air leaks.

What Oil to Use - The oil for the air cleaner should be the same viscosity and
type as the oil used in the crankcase. Too heavy an oil will choke the tractor
causing it to lose power and waste fuel. Oil that is too light will be pulled
into the engine where it will form harmful deposits. Also, the resulting low oil
level in the cleaner will permit dirt to enter the engine. Used oil is not
satisfactory for use in air cleaners since it already contains carbon, unburned
fuel, and dirt.

Special Warning to Diesel Owners

Because diesel tractors require more air than gasoline
models, the air cleaner will require more frequent ser-
vice. Using too light an oil in the cleaner cup or
overfilling the cup can cause a runaway engine. As ex-
cess oil is drawn into the air cleaner it provides an
uncontrolled fuel source and though the governor will
shut off the regular fuel supply, the engine will con-
tinue to run on the oil supply from the air cleaner
gaining uncontrollable speed and possibly causing ex-
tension damage. The engine can be stopped by blocking

-9-

the air cleaner inlet. It is best to prevent such emergencies by using the
proper amount of oil of the correct viscosity.

Remember -

Proper air cleaner care insures longer engine life I

M. Boyd

Agr'l. Eng. Dept.

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

DR. FRANKLIN W. SOUTIIWICK NAMED HEAD OF HORTICULTURE DEPARTMENT

Dr. Franklin W. Southwick, research professor of pomology at the University
of Massachusetts since 1948, has been named head of the department of horticulture
in the College of Agriculture, President John W. Lederle announces.

Dr. Southwick, an alumnus, pomology '39, succeeds Professor Grant B. Snyder
who retired June 30 of this year.

From 1945-48 Dr. Southwick was an assistant professor in the department of
pomology at Cornell engaged in Extension and research work. Prior to this time
he did research and teaching in the horticulture department at the University of
Connecticut .

Dr. Southwick obtained his M. S. degree in horticulture from Ohio State
University in 1940, and his Ph.D. from Cornell University in 1943, majoring in
pomology with a minor in plant physiology and plant anatomy.

Radie H. Bunn

Communications Specialist

I t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Sfoff, Deportment of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Mossochusetts, Amherst

JANUARY 10, 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Mailing List Revision

Varieties of Pears and Quinces for Massachusetts

Pomologicol Paragraph

Apple Variety Observations from Bristol County

The Mexican Strawberry Industry

New Apple Varieties for Future Production "^i ,

Checking Apple Varieties

Varieties of Blueberries for Massachusetts

Plum Variety Observations

AOv/i

f:n

Si5;-:

rt.xsu>

'hilB*

' *■/■

'^4

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman. Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

MAILING LIST REVISION

If you did not return the mailing list revision card for Fruit Notes
enclosed with the October issue, you will find another card enclosed
with this issue. This card must be returned if you wish to receive
future issues of Fruit Notes.

VARIETIES OF PEARS AND QUINCES FOR MASSACHUSETTS
Pear Varieties

Variety

Recommended For

Harvestirtf^ Season

Clapp Favorite

Early Seckel

Bartlett

Go r ham

Devoe

Seckel

Flemish

Ewart

Bosc

Anjou

Dumont

C
T
C
C
T
C
C
T
C
C
T

& H

Mid-August
Late August
Early September
Mid-September
Mid-September
Mid-September
Mid-September
Mid-September
Late September
Late September
Early October

T - Trial H - Home Garden C - Commercial

Varieties so marked are not equally adapted to all sections of the State.

Variety Notes

Clapp Favorite Fruit greenish yellow with a blushed cheek, good quality, large

attractive, tends to blacken at core when over-ripe, does not ";eep
well. Tree hardy, productive, susceptible to fireblight.

Early Seckel

Bartlett

Gorham

Devoe

Seckel

Flemish

A seedling of Seckel. Resembles its parent in coloring but is
larger and Has a more distinct neck. Fruit is attractive, very
good in flavor and keeps well for an early variety. Tree is medium
in size, vigorous and productive.

Leading commercial pear variety. Fruit yellow, good quality, large
size, firm, ships well. Tree medium in size, productive, adapted
to wide variety of soils, is susceptible to fireblight.

A seedling of Bartlett which it resembles in size and color. Flesh
is white, tender, melting and juicy. Holds in storage longer than
Bartlett and may be a desirable variety to extend the Bartlett
season. Said to require a higher level of nutrition than Bartlett
to maintain production.

A large, attractive pear of oblong pyriform shape, clear yellow with
a red blush, good quality. Tree is vigorous and very productive.
Tendency to ripen unevenly may necessitate spot picking.

Fruit bronze color, small, excellent quality, a popular variety for
pickling. Tree large, upright-spreading, productive in alternate
years, immune to fireblight.

Fruit large, attractive, excellent, highly susceptible to pear scab
which can be controlled effectively with modern fungicides. Tree
large, vigorous, very productive in alternate years, highly resistant
to winter cold.

Ewart

Bosc

Anjou

Damont

Fruit large, yellowish-green with some russeting, good quality,
keeps well in storage, less attractive than Bartlett. Tree is
moderately productive and is more blight resistant than Bartlett.

Fruit russet, large with long neck, excellent quality when ripened
properly, excellent keeper and shipper. Tree medium size, zig-zag
growth, productive, tendency to biennial bearing.

Fruit greenish, large, good quality, good keeper and shipper.
Desirable as a late market variety. Tree large, may lack in vigor
and production.

A late ripening pear of medium to large size and obtuse pyriform
shape. The flesh is firm, juicy and the quality very good. The
tree is vigorous and productive.

Quince Varieties

Quince production in Massachusetts is primarily a home garden enterprise
although there are a few commercial plantings. This fruit is used entirely for
jellies and preserves. Quince trees are notoriously susceptible to fireblight
and quince rust. These diseases are not so serious in Massachusetts as to
preclude the growing of this fruit provided adequate control measures are employed.
Two varieties only are propagated by Eastern nurserymen, namely Orange and
Champion. Characteristics of these varieties are as follows:

Orange Fruit roundish, greenish yellow, medium size, flesh pale yellow,
tender, mild. Ripens in October a few days ahead of Champion.
This variety is by far the more popular.

Champion Fruit large, pear shaped, yellowish, with considerable pubescence,
flesh pale yellow, firm slightly astringent, aromatic, mild
subacid. Somewhat inferior in quality to Orange.

—James F. Anderson

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Special Circular Revised - Special Circular No. 247 titled "Pollination of
Fruit Plants" has been recently revised and is available through your county
extension service or by writing to the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts.
Tliis circular discusses the pollination requirements of our common fruit. Also,
some of the apple varieties grown in New England which are generally suitable
cross-pollinizers for each other are listed.

—William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

APPLE VARIETY OBSERVATIONS FROM BRISTOL COUNTY

Idared

Monroe

Melrose

Excellent size and color. Bears young, annual bearer and does
not overset. Good keeping quality, excellent baker and good for
pie. Fair as fresh fruit. Tree on small side. Picks late.

Tree like Rome but fruit superior in quality. Picks late.
Would plant in preference to Rome or Baldwin.

Tends to be biennial.
Monroe .

Fruit less attractive than Idared or

Spencer
Spartan

Good size, vigorous tree, picks late.

Excellent color but small. Harvest date follows close to
Mcintosh.

Bridghara
Delicious

N.Y. 44416-6

Niagara

Puritan

Lacks Delicious fruit shape. Tree also coarser (diameter of the
one year x^ood much larger than on other Delicious sports),

Macoun X Spy. Late, large attractive fruit of excellent quality.
Fruit russets in Bristol County. Slow maturing tree.

Two weeks earlier than Mcintosh. Fruit large and attractive
but quality only fair. Would plant in preference to Milton.

Two pickings about mid-August. Fruit large, often irregular,
attractive. Too acid for fresh fruit. Soft if picked too ripe.

Mass. A 11*

Transparent X Cortland. Trial samples distributed same time
as Puritan. Should not be discarded. Better than Wealthy,
Gravenstein or Duchess as a cooker. Bears young, alternately
light and heavy. Fruit large, smooth, attractive if allowed
to mature.

*Editor's Note - Mass, A 11 was one of several seedlings developed at University
of Massachusetts, It was discarded in preference to Puritan.

---Harold 0. Woodward

County Extension Agent
Bristol County

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

THE MEXICAN STPvAIJBERRY INDUSTRY

It will probably surprise you, as it did me, to learn that Mexico not only
has a strawberry industry but exports a considerable amount of berries to the
United States.

-4-

Mexico has two strawberry growing areas. Onp. is near Irapuato about 200
miles northwest of Mexico City, at an elevation of about 5,700 feet. The other
is a new area in the vicinity of Zaraora a few miles east of Guadalajara at an
elevation of about 6,000 feet. The two areas are about 200 miles apart.

The principal varieties are Klondike and Florida 90. Klondike is preferred
for freezing and Florida 90 for fresh fruit. Most of the berries are frozen.
Only a small portion is shipped fresh.

Fruit is harvested all twelve months of the year. During November, December
and January the crop is light. The heaviest picking is in March, April, May and
June. By far the largest part of the berries exported to the United States is
frozen.

Imports of Strawberries from Mexico in 1,000 Pounds

1959 1960 1961 1962

Frozen 14,064 25,017 29,817 32,421

Fresh 51 562 579 751

If the Mexicans solve their quality control problems, many more fresh berries
will be exported to the United States.

— -John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

NEW APPLE VARIETIES FOR FUTURE PRODUCTION

The choice we make in planting new varieties now will determine what the
production of new varieties will be in 1973. How successful we ai*e in choosing
a profitable variety cannot be fully determined until we have enough volume of
fruit to determine consumer acceptance of the variety. Planting any new variety
is a calculated risk until consumer acceptance has been determined.

The method of sale may be a factor in the selection of a new variety. A
variety which has desirable qualities for a processing apple may not have suffi-
cient quality and appeal for sale on a retail stand or in the fresh fruit market.
However, some varieties possess suitable qualities for both processing and fresh
fruit sales. These varieties are called dual-purpose types.

New varieties which have been tested for a sufficient number of seasons to
indicate their potential value will be discussed first.

Purjtan is an early attractive red apple which ripens just ahead of Early
Mcintosh. Puritan appears to have made a favorable impression in the trade as
an early apple. It may possibly replace Early Mcintosh. The attractive Mclntosh-
like appearance and good size are Puritan's major strong points. Puritan tends to
be biennial and its fruit quality is only average as it has a rather tart flavor.

-5-

V/clllnp,ton is a large fnj.rly attractive apple which ripenn with Melba. It
has average quality, but is primarily a processing apple. Wellington has never
set a full crop in our test planting, although other varieties in the same
block have set full crops and some have overset. Wellington also has very tender
foliage which is very susceptible to spray injury. It appears doubtful that
Wellington has much potential as a variety for the future in this area.

Spartan is an attractive well colored dark red apple x^jhich ripens about a
v.'eek after Mcintosh. It has excellent quality and good storage qualities.
Spartan's most serious weakness is lack of fruit size. Spartan is potentially a
good retail stand variety.

Idarcd is a verj' attractive bright red winter apple which ripens about one
nonth after Mcintosh. It has good quality and a long storage life. The tree is
productive and annual. Idared is a dual purpose apple and offers much promise
.",s a future variety.

Melrose is another dual purpose apple which ripens about three weeks
after Mcintosh. It has excellent quality and is an attractive dark red r'hen
well grown. Under some growing conditions Melrose is subject to russeting.

Spencer is a late maturing high quality apple. The fruit is attractive bright
red. Ivfhile Spencer is primarily a dersert apple, it is also suitable for pie. The
fruit may be subject to storage disorders if held too long in storage. Spencer is
a promising apple for roadside stand trade.

Monroe is a late maturing processing apple which ripens about one week after
Delicious. It is bright red and fairly attractive when V7ell colored. It has
fair to good dessert qualities. Tonroc foliage is susceptible to powdery mildew.
Monroe appears to fit the need wliire a processing apple is desired.

A second list of varieties which have not been tested, but are worth watching
as future varieties would include Tydeman's Red and Niagara which ripen before
Mcintosh. New varieties ripening after Mcintosh would include Wayne, Spigold,
Mutsu, and Sungold, and the spur type Delicious and Golden Delicious sports.

W. D. Weeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CHECKING APPLE VARIETIES

Apple varieties make an interesting suhiect for discM""?nn by both Mie
consumer and the grov7cr. r-< -s with farm saTjs.ooi-a find many customers with
an interest in old Lime varieties. However, except for sales at roadside stands
or for cider, there is little n^i^'er intero-^t in growing old varieties. Interest
in new varieties is great, however,

Apple varieties carry the key to production economics and consistent crops.
Although not generally discussed, the variety is recognized by marketing

-6-

specialists to be an integral part of a successful selling program. Moreover,
it should be kept in mind that variety selection determines to a great degree
the success or failure of an orchard operation for years to come. There is no
better example of this than Mcintosh, which has set a long time pattern for the
New England apple industry.

Promising new varieties should be given thorough testing by growers I Top-
working trees is a time saving way to get a quick look at the fruit. Information
on tree growth, hardiness and production is best obtained over a longer period of
time by starting with trees budded to the desired varieties.

Don Priest of Groton is supplying us with some valuable information on the
performance of several new varieties. He has top-worked trees to Spartan, Ruby,
Idared, Spencer and Mutsu. Of the Geneva, New York Experiment Station crosses,
he is testing Spigold and two promising selections still under number. These
are N.Y. 44416-6 (Macoun x Red Spy) and N.Y. 43021-2 (Red Spy x Golden Delicious).
The fruit of the latter is brilliant blush, pinkish-scarlet over a light yellow
ground color with high quality. Mr. Priest was slightly disappointed in fruit
size of N.Y. 43021-2 during the past dry summer. The delicate, high eating qua-
lity of even the smallest sizes was remarkable, however. Other years the size
has been good.

Spartan is a favorite with Don Priest and with other growers testing the
variety. Don has fruited Spartan for several years and it has proven to be an
annual producer of high quality fruit that handles and keeps ';ell in storage. It
is a consistently attractive dark, red apple. The principal weakness of Spartan
is small fruit size. Extra attention is needed to improve its size.

Picking maturity is a factor in determining the storage life of Spartan.
Downing Brothers of Westford checked this point by comparing fruit harvested on
September 20 with fruit picked on October 2, 1963. These dates were considered
to be the harvesting extremes of this variety and the apples tend to substantiate
this claim. A recent examination of these fruit reveals that those harvested on
September 20 were in firm condition with little apparent ripening. An earlio
harvest date might have adversely affected the flavor. The Spartan apples har-
vested on October 2 had attained excellent eating quality but appeared too mature
for long storage.

Another promising development is a sport found at the Pinecrest Orchards of
Stephen Sabin, Groton. This resembles regular Mcintosh in appearance except for
its unusually bright red color. The sport seems to be firmer than other strains
of Mcintosh.

These are merely a few comments on some of the varieties which we believe
show promise. Special Circular 212-A will give you a brief but useful descrip-
tion of apple varieties currently being recommended for Massachusetts.

Max Fultz

Regional Agricultural Specialist

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

VARIETIES OF BLUEBERRIES FOR MASSACTIUSETTS

y.nrlety^''

Recommended For

Harvesting Season

Earliblne

Collins

Blue ray

Bluocrop

Berkeley

Herbert

Jersey

Coville

C
T
C
C

T
C
C

& H

Early

Midseason

Late

C - Commercial

*In approximate order of ripening.
T - Trial H - Home Garden

Variety Notes

Earliblue Ripens early, fruit light blue, very firm, good flavor, cluster medium
size, medium loose. Bush upright, vigorous, well shaped, easy to prune
and propagate, fairly productive. Especially attractive to birds.

Collins Ripens early, midway between Earliblue and Bluecrop. The bush is erect,
vigorous, and moderately productive. May winter kill in cold x^7inters
or cold locations. The fruit is borne in medium-sized, rather tight,
attractive clusters. The berries are as large as Earliblue, firm, light
blue in color and highly flavored. Fruit does not drop nor crack.
Recommended for trial as a second early.

Blueray Ripens early, just after Earliblue, in Rancocas-Stanley season; fruit

clusters small, tight, attractive; berries very large, firm, light blue,
aromatic, very fine flavored if fully ripe; bushes erect, somewhat
spreading, vigorous and productive. Has considerable cold resistance.

Bluecrop Ripens early mid-season, fruit very light blue, very firm, good flavor,
small scar, clusters large, medium loose. Bush upright, vigorous and
productive, easy to propagate. Resistant to spring frost and winter
cold.

Berkeley Ripens mid-season, fruit very large, light blue, firm, mild flavor,
scar large and dry; bush upright, vigorous, productive, easy to
propagate and prune.

Herbert Ripens late, fruit large, fair blue, good scnr, flavor good, skin

tender; bush spreading, vigorous, productive and easy to propagate.
Superior for local market and home use.

Jersey Ripens late, fruit medium to large, fair blue, attractive, firm, good
flavor, but tart if not fully ripe, good scar, open cluster; bush
upright, vigorous, productive, hardy.

-8-

Coville Ripens very late, fruit large, firm, good scar, highly aromatic flavor,
tart when not fully ripe, good blue, attractive; bush upright, spread-
ing, vigorous and very productive.

- — John S. Bailey

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PLUM VARIETY OBSERVATIONS

Burmosa A large attractive plum ripening in late July. The fruit is a cherry
red, of high quality and a freestone. The tree is small in size and
of moderate vigor. Production was light in 1963. Japanese type plum.

Brilliant This red plum is of good size and quality. Brilliant ripens with

Formosa in early August and is inferior to that variety in size, flavor
and appearance. Brilliant is more productive than Formosa in our
planting. Japanese type plum.

Great Yellow - A Japanese type plum ripening in early August. The fruit is of good
size, good quality and a freestone. The tree is productive and the
fruit hangs well on the tree. Great Yellow ripens with Shiro and is
superior to Shiro in size and quality. Shiro May have a slight
advantage in color.

Howard Miracle - A large, attractive, high quality Japanese plum. The fruit is a
golden yellow with a light red blush. Howard Miracle was picked on
August 30th in 1963. The crop was very light in 1963 but it is too
early to make an evaluation as to its productiveness.

Red Heart Another Japanese type plum ripening in mid-August. Red Heart has

proven to be a very good producer of medium size plums. This variety
has failed to develop satisfactory fruit quality under our conditions.
Red Heart is said to be a very good pollinizer for other Japanese
varieties.

Golden Transparent Gage - A high quality plum ripening in the third week of

September. The fruit tends to be small and is golden yellow with
numerous small red flecks. The tree is fair in production and dwarf-
ish in habit. European type plum.

Pacific An attractive prune type plum of very high quality. The fruit is quite
firm and keeping quality appears to be excellent. The fruit ripens in
mid-September; ripening has been uneven in the past two seasons.
Pacific has been a good producer in Amherst. European type plum.

New York 981 - A large reddish purple plum of very high quality. This attractive
plum ripens in early September and appears to be promising. The
selection should be productive. European type plum.

New York 826 - A late ripening plum of good size and quality. This selection
ripened in early October and was quite productive. It is a prune
type of reddish black color. European type plum,

—-James F. Anderson
I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

FEBRUARY 10, 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Research from Other Areas

Pomological Paragraph

Stub Pruning

Growth in CA Storage Holdings In Massachusetts

Pear Variety Evaluation - 1963

Pomological Paragraph

Lygus Bugs as o Cause of Fruit Deformity in
Strawberries

Pruning Bearing Apple Trees

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Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in fixtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

COUNTY EXTENSION AGENTS IN SUPPORT OF THE FRUIT PROGRAM

BARNSTABLE

BERKSHIRE,
FRANiaiN,
HAMPDEN and
HAMPSHIRE

Oscar S. Johnson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Cape
Cod Extension Service, Barnstable (Tel. FOrest 2-3255).

G. Everett Wilder, Pioneer Valley Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Hampden County Improvement League, 1499 Memorial Avenue,
West Springfield (Tel. Springfield REpublic 6-7204)

BRISTOL

DUKHS

Harold 0. Woodward, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Bristol County Agricultural School, Center Street, Segreganset
(Tel. Dighton NOrmandy 9-3611 or 9-2361).

Ezra I. Shaw, County Extension Agent in Agriciilture, Dukes

County Extension Service, Vineyard Haven (Tel, Vineyard Haven 694),

ESSEX, Max G. Fultz, Regional Agricultural Specialist, Middlesex County
MIDDLESEX and Extension Service, 19 Everett Street, Concord (Tel. Concord
WORCESTER EMerson 9-4845).

NORFOLK

PLYMOUTH

Howard Wilson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Norfolk
County Agricultural School, 460 Main Street, Walpole (Tel.
Walpole MOntrose 8-0268 or 8-0269).

Dominic A. Marini, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Plymouth County Extension Service, Court House, Brockton
(Tel. Brockton JUniper 6-4993).

WARNING.' MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS
AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT OF REACH OF
CHILDRF:N, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS

(Items included under this heading are for your information and may not apply to
Massachusetts conditions in all instances.)

MALLING MERTON ROOTSTOCKS

In the March-May 1963 issue of Farm Research, Karl Brase discussed his
observations of Mcintosh, Red Delicious and Monroe on 4 Mailing Merton Rootstocks.
The follbwing is information taken from the article.

M.M. 106

On heavy soil at Geneva, New York, Mcintosh, Monroe and Red Delicious on
M.M. 106 rootstocks have resulted in trees of a size one-half that of the same
variety on seedling roots. Tlie size controlling effect is more pronounced on
Monroe than on either the Red Delicious or Mcintosh varieties. Growth performance
under the test conditions indicate that the important apple varieties grown in New
York on M.M. 106 might best be planted 15 feet apart in the row and 30 betvjeen rows.

The roots of M.M. 106 provides good anchorage since they arise at nearly a
right angle from the trunk and are equally well distributed on two sides.
"Furthermore, sucker growth from the root system of the tree, often occurring when
E.M. VII makes up the root system, is absent with trees on M.M. 106. Although a
longer test period is needed to critically evaluate this apple rootstock, results
obtained thus far indicate advantages over the presently much used E.M, VII
rootstock."

M.M. Ill

The growth of Monroe, Mcintosh and Red Delicious on M.M. Ill indicates that
the trees will be of similar size as those on E.M. II. Depending upon the variety,
the trees will be 1/2 to 3/4 the size of the same variety on seedling roots.

The larger anchorage roots are more numerous than on M.M. 106. "Observations
made during the past very dry summer indicate that trees on M.M. Ill in comparison
with other E.M. and M.M. stocks were not affected by prolonged drought periods.
Similar experiences as to the drought-resistance of M.M. Ill are reported from
test areas in England."

Brase states for a tree of medium vigor such as Monroe, 15 feet by 30 feet
planting distance should be ample. On stronger growing varieties the planting
distance in the row might be increased to 20 feet.

M.M. 104

Brase reports that trees grown on M.M. 104 will be no smaller than 3/4 the
size of the same variety on a seedling rootstock. Also, the trees do not reach
full bearing as rapidly as those on M.M. 106 and M.M. 111. "Our test plantings
indicate that the three varieties tested will not bear much earlier than those on
standard seedling rootstocks, but that after full bearing age is reached, fruit
production will be heavier than that of trees on seedling rootstocks."

The anchorage roots of M.M. 104 are not well distributed and the trees have
a somewhat one sided root system. Brass points out the neces: ity of giving atten-
tion to proper placement of roots when planting and that the strongest root should
be directed towards the prevailing x^ind.

The performance of the trees in the teHt area indicates that trees on M.M. 104
are best adapted to lighter well drained soils. On these types of soil, 20 feet by
30 feet planting distance appears to be a minimum.

M.M. 109

Tills rootstock has no size controlling effect. It is similar to E.M. II in
that it has one-sided anchorage root development. However, M.M. 109 appears to be
better adapted to heavy slowly drained soils than 104.

In conclusion, Erase states: "It must be kept in mind that these four clonal
rootstocks of the M.M. series are new, but deserve trying out. For the fruit tree
nurseryman, they have definite advantages over the older E.M. rootstocks, and
orchard trials thus far are encouraging wider use of the four M.M, stocks in com-
mercial orchard operations."

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I }, I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PAI^GRAPH

' ^ick-your-own" Method of Sale

It was of interest to note on the program of the Indiana Horticultural Society
Orchard Tour that an orchardist to be visited in Kenosha, Wisconsin sells the crop
from 13 acres of cherries and 35 acres of strawberries under the "pick-your-own"
system of marketing. This grower started xjith 3 acres of strawberries in 1950 and
has expanded to 35 acres in 1963.

It is the editor's opinion that Massachusetts fruit growers, particularly
those who raise small fruit, have not fully exploited the possibilities of the "pick-
your-own" method of sale.

—William J. Lord
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

STUB PRUNING

Stub pruning of young apple trees is being advocated in some states. Tliis
means that undesirable limbs on the young trees are left instead of being removed.
If the limbs are competing with the selected scaffold limbs, they are stubbed back
to 6-12 inches in length. The theory behind stub pruning is that by leaving extra
limbs on the tree, the leaf surface is increased, resulting in more growth and

-3-

earlier production. The extra limbs also help to produce wide angles by forcing
the scaffold limbs to grow outward instead of growing in a more upright position.

To learn more about this system of pruning, in March of 1962, 458 one, two
and three year old Delicious and Mcintosh trees were selected for a pruning demon-
stration at the Marshall Orchard in Fitchburg. Approximately 1/2 of the trees
v;ere pruned the ordinary way with the complete removal of undesirable branches.
On the remaining trees, the undesirable branches were shortened to about 6 to 12
inches. Trunk circumference measurements were taken at the beginning of the
demonstration and during November, 1962 and 1963. The data in Table 1 show that
the stub pruned trees made more grovjth, as indicated by increase in trunk circum-
ference, than the trees pruned the regular way.

Table 1. Increase in Trunk Circumference of Stub Pruned Trees in Comparison to
Those Receiving Regular Pruning.

Variety

Trees
Planted

Stub Pruned

Avg. Increase in Trunk
Circumference (3/62-11/63)

Re;;ular Pruned

Delicious

1939
1960
1961

cms .
6.02

5.83
6.49

cms.
5.82
5.30

5.94

Mcintosh

1960
1961

6.17
5.86

5.36

5.69

The writer is of the opinion, however, that stub pruning only should be
practiced by those growers who carefully prune young trees annually.

Sucker growth from many stubbed
branches was 3-4 feet in length at
the end of the first growing season.
These very vigorous shoots from the
stubbed limbs with narrow crotches
were apt to be upright and interfere
V7ith the development of scaffold
limbs above. It seemed necessary to
cut back these vigorous shoots se-
verely. Consequently, the writer
suggests that most limbs with nar-
row crotches be completely removed
rather than stub pruned in spite of
the somewhat better overall growth
where stub pruning is practiced.

Sometimes a bud on the lower
side of a stubbed branch will de-
velop into a desirable shoot. As
shown in Figure 1, the growth may
be more horizontal than the branch
from which it originates.

Figure 1. The arrow points to the location
where the branch was stubbed in March 1962.
The limb originating from the stub bears the
white tag. Picture taken November 20, 1963.

-4-

Thcrefore, stubbing of some branches \<iith narrow crotches, whixh because of
location would be desirable to keep, may be beneficial.

In conclusion, because of the necessity of annual pruning of the young trees
to continually remove, replace or restrict the growth from stubbed limbs, the
practice is only suggested for trial by growers that conscientiously prune young
trees annually.

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

GROWTH IN CA STORAGE HOLDINGS IN MASSA CHUSETTS

Approximately 50 per cent of the Mcintosh crop in Massachusetts storages on
November 1, 1963 was in CA and 40 per cent of the total stored crop was in this
type storage (Table 1). Naturally, these percentages will fluctuate with crop
size but the data clearly illustrates the rapid increase in CA storage holdings
since 1956.

Table 1. Apple Storage Holdings in Massachusetts On November 1, 1955 through 1963.

(thousands of bushels)

Mcintosh

% of Stored '

Standard CA Mcintosh ' S^tandard
Year Storage Storage Crop in CA ' Storage

All Varieties

7. of Total
CA Stored Crop
Storage In CA

1956

736

1957

1,362

1958

1,012

1959

1,023

1960

646

1961

1,208

1962

929

1963

661

118

181
397
437
473
585
610
655

12.9
11.7
28.2
29.9
42.3
32.6
39.6
49.8

1,232
1,951
1,594
1,630
1,162
1,791
1,483
1,108

118

194
442
471
486
634
698
746

8.7
9.0

21.7
22.4
29.5
26.1
32.0
40.2

Data obtained from the Special Apple Market Report.

—William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

-5-

PEAR VARIETY EVALUATION - 1963

Chapin - A seedling of Seckel that is harvested in early August. The fruit was
small to medium in size, green with a red blush. Chapin resembles
Seckel except for a more prominent neck. The flesh is fine textured,
juicy, free of grit cells and of good quality.

Devoe - The fruit is a clear yellow often with a blush-red cheek, oblong pyriform
in shape and of good quality. Devoe has been a heavy producer with a
tendency to ripen unevenly. The fruit was harvested in the second week
of September and held in storage until December. Devoe is worthy of
trial.

Grand Champion - A russet sport of Gorham which it resembles in size, shape and
quality. The fruit is overspread with a uniform "cinnamon" russet and
is very attractive. The fruit tended to shrivel in storage. As this
was our first crop, its productivity is undetermined.

Packham's Triumph - The fruit is large in size, greenish yellow in color, free
from blemishes and although the surface is somewhat rough it is an
attractive pear. The flesh is white, fine melting, free of grit cells
and of very good quality. The fruit was harvested in late September
and held up well into early January. As the fruit was harvested from
a top-worked tree, an evaluation of tree characteristics cannot be given.

Alexander Lucas - A late ripening pear of medium size, smooth surface, obovate,
obtuse-pyriform shape and greenish yellow color. The fruit is of good
quality, Alexander Lucas was harvested in the third week of September
and keeps well into December. Production appears to be satisfactory.

Dumont - A late ripening pear of medium size, obtuse pyriform shape and yellow

color. The flesh is firm, juicy and the quality very good. The fruit
was harvested in late September and kept well into early January. The
variety has been productive under our conditions and is worthy of trial.

---James F. Anderson

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH
Entering CA Rooms

Some operators of CA rooms are taking unnecessary chances when entering rooms
to repair equipment. Some are using "make-shift" equipment; others enter the
room by themselves. Never enter a sealed CA room without a suitable air mask or
an oxygen mask . NEVl'.R GO IN A CA ROOM ALONE .

Some growers borrow respirators from the local fire or police departments.
Bor row at le a st two . Be sure that you know how to operate the equipment properly .
Tr3^ it out before you go into the room . Be sure the tanlcs have a full charge of
oxy gen or air .

In some instances it is more desirable to purchase your own respiration
equipment. Or else, several CA operators in an area can purchase the equipment
jointly.

Your County Agent has information concerning where suitable equi.pment can
be purchased.

William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

LYGUS BUGS AS A CAUSH OF FRUIT DEFOllMITY IN STRATOERRIES

Deformed strawberries generally referred to as "cat-faced" or "nubbined"
berries, occur commonly and sometimes abundantly in some strav^berry plantings.
Some of the causes of "cat-facing" are insects, weather, and lack of pollination.
Furthermore, this injury can be directly attributed to the failure of individual
achenes or seeds to stimulate receptacle development, either due to insect injury
or to lack of pollination. Insect injury to the achenes can occur during the bud
stage, during blossoming, or even during early fruit formation. Lack of pollina-
tion is more pronounced during years v;hen early spring weather is cold as this
results in the curtailment of bee activity.

An article published in the December issue of the Journal of Economic
Entomology by W. V/. Allen and S. E. Gaede, of the University of California, stated
that even with adequate pollination achenes can be destroyed so that they do not
stimulate complete fruit development. Their study showed that lygus bugs, such as
our common tarnished plant bug, are important in destroying achenes both before
and after pollination. They accomplish this by puncturing and injecting a poison-
ous substance into the individual achenes wliich stops development of the berry in
the immediate area of the puncture, llie most susceptible period for injury to
occur is from the time the flowers open until the achenes have completed their
enlargement. Since flowers are open for only a few days (3 to 4), whereas the
achenes are enlarging for over a week (10 to 12 days) , it becomes apparent that
more damage may be caused by lygus bugs after blossoming.

It is possible to distinguish damage to berries v;hether caused by lack of
pollination or by lygus bug attack. With lack of pollination, the achenes are all
small and uniformly pale green in color. I'Jlien the berries mature, the unpollinated
achenes become somewhat collapsed but do not turn brown until the fruit is nearly
ripe. With lygus bug attack, a few of the enlarged achenes in the cat-faced
areas turn a light brown color long before the berries ripen.

Where lygus bugs are the cause of cat-facing, the application of insecticides
V7ill greatly decrease this damage. For current control recommendations on this

-7-

insect, consult your Pest Control Chart for Strawberries. The cat-facing in the
ripe fruit arises from injury that was caused four or five weeks earlier, but by
keeping a close watch on the developing fruit, it is possible to observe the
effects of control in about txi^o weeks,

H. E. Wave

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

PRUNING BEARING APPLE TREES

The right perspective in regard to pruning is necessary when we attempt tc
relate it to the entire orchard operation. Many growers approach pruning in an
apologetic fashion. They are likely to be on the defensive concerning the method
used, for too much or too little pruning, or for over-emphasizing its importance.

Common opinions about pruning are that no two individuals prune alike or
that it actually makes little difference how It is done as far as its final effect
on tree growth and fruit production. There is often indifference to the impor-
tance of making the right cuts from the standpoint of effectiveness and efficiency
of the pruning operation.

Although some differences in opinion on pruning exist, there are certain
basic principles that should be followed in order to develop strong trees which
are capable of high yields and the production of a large percentage of good
quality fruit. One grower may select different limbs to cut than another. How-
ever, by following certain basic principles the end results are similar.

Finally, bear in mind that pruning reduces the number of growing points and
total leaf area. Pruning is more likely to decrease rather than increase the
total yield per tree, and the leaves are the food factories of the tree. Thereby,
pruning should be limited to those cuts that will (1) eliminate weak wood, (2)
allow even, light distribution throughout the tree, (3) change direction and/or
height of growth, and (4) help spray coverage. Also, good pruning practices will
reduce the yearly expense of this operation. Well pruned trees are easier and
more economical to harvest.

Now that we have discussed the purpose of pruning, the following pruning
tips may be of help. Even though the growth response to pruning is localized
largely in the immediate area of the cut, detailed pruning should be eliminated
whenever possible because of the time and expense involved. Bulk pruning
(removal of large limbs that will "open" up the tree) should replace detailed
pruning. This will help eliminate the practice of pruning the smaller fruiting
wood along the main limbs with the end result of having the fruiting wood only
at the periphery of the tree. Not only will the area in the inside of the tree
become non-productive, because the removal of the fruiting wood, many water
sprouts originate in the vicinity of the cuts which interfere with spray coverage
and penetration of sunlight.

Keep small cuts larger than finger size. Decide what limbs should be eli-
minated and then remove them. Considerable time can be wasted in the decision

-8-

phane of pruning. The first impression is usually the best. When the tree is
finished do not keep trying to find more cuts to make. They are relatively
unimportant and slow up the pruning operation.

Organize your pruning I Make the most essential cuts first. You can then
more readily determine the remaining cuts to be made. If you use a saw and
lopping shears or pole pruner, a good system to follow is to make the necessary
saw cuts from the ground and then in the top of the tree. After this is done
prune with the lopping shears or pole pruners in the top and work back towards
the ground and then finish the job with the shears from the ground.

Prune as follows:

1, Remove broken and diseased branches.

2o Remove water sprouts which are not needed to protect branches from
sunscald or to provide for branch removal.

3. Eliminate crossing and parallel branches which tend to shade more
desirable branches.

4. Remove weak drooping branches which are severely shaded and have few
fruiting spurs.

5. Remove branches which are growing toward the center of the tree.

6. Remove suckers which arise at the base of the tree.

7o Reduce the height of excessively tall trees by complete removal of a
branch or by heading back to a strong outward growing lateral.

8o Head back canopy forming limbs in the middle to top section of the tree.

Water sprouts in the tops of the trees present a problem when trying to
control height. Retain those that tend to bend or encourage them to bend by the
removal of shoots on the side opposite the desired direction of bending. If a
"stiff" water sprout must be retained, head back to a strong lateral. The
practice of merely heading back a Vi^ater sprout will only encourage new upright
growth from the promixity of the pruning cut.

Max G. Fultz

Regional Agricultural Specialist

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

MARCH 10, 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Varieties of Strawberries for Massachusetts

Pomological Paragraph

Should We Continue to Plant Trees on E.M.
Vii Rootstocks?

Pomological Paragraph

Apple Marketing Outlook

Fertilizer Recommendations for 1964

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Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in fi»therance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914
University of Massachusetts, United States beparlment of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES FOR MASSACHUSETTS

Jlaviety_

Recommended for

Earlidawa

Midland

Redglow

Surecrop

Midway

Catskill

Fulton

Robinson

Fletcher

Sparkle

Frontenac

Vesper

Trial

& H
C

& H
T
C
T

& H
T
T

H - Home Garden

Harvesting Season

Very early

Early

Early midseason

Midseason

Late

Very late

C - Commercial

Varieties so marked are not necessarily equally adapted to all sections
of the State.

Variety Notes

Earlidav/n - A very early ripening variety. The fruits are of medium size, firm

and of fair to good flavor. The plants are productive and of moderate
vigor. Earlidawn is recommended where red stele is not a factor.

Midland - An early ripening variety with large firm fruit of very good flavor.
Midland produces many large, coarse berries and the berries are in-
clined to be dark in color. The variety, though a poor plant maker,
has been a good producer. Good yields are obtained only with virus
free plants. Midland is not resistant to red stele.

Redglow - This early-midseason variety is vigorous and productive. The berries
are of good size, very attractive and of good flavor. Redglow is
resistant to the common strain of red stele.

Surecrop - Recommended largely because of its resistance to several strains of
red stele. The fruits are attractive, medium in size and fair to
good in flavor. The plants are vigorous and moderately productive.

Midway - The fruit is of good size, a deep red color, glossy and very good in
flavor. The plants are vigorous, productive and resistant to the
common strain of red stele.

Catskill - A leading commercial variety with many growers because of its large
size, attractiveness, good quality and vigorous, productive plants.
Quite susceptible to leaf spot and requires a high level of fertil-
ity for good production. A good freezer.

Fulton - This new variety rates high in firmness, appearance and flavor. The
plants are vigorous and productive. Fulton is not resistant to red
stele.

Robinson - Its large, attractive, bright red fruit, high yield and abundant

runner production have made this variety commercially important in
many parts of the state. The quality and firmness of the fruit,
however, are below average.

Fletcher - The fruit is of good size, attractive with very good flavor. The
plants are vigorous and productive. Fletcher has rated slightly
below Fulton in firmness, appearance, flavor and production in tests
in Amherst. Fletcher is not resistant to red stele.

Sparkle - One of the important late season varieties. Its outstanding values
are productiveness, firmness, good quality, and resistance to red
stele disease. Berry size is medium to large in early pickings but
tends to decline rapidly. It is rated as a good freezer.

Frontenac- A late ripening variety with vigorous and productive plants. The
fruits are large, medium to dark red in color, good in flavor and
moderate in firmness. Frontenac is not resistant to red stele.

Vesper - The plants are large, vigorous and productive. The fruit ripens late,
is very large in size, attractive, moderate in firmness and good in
flavor. Vesper has prominent protruding seeds. This variety merits
trial because of its large size, attractiveness, lateness and produc-
tiveness. Vesper is not resistant to red stele.

James F. Anderson

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Examine Apple Trees for Winter Injury

Winter injury to trunks of apple trees generally becomes apparent in April.
It usually is necessary to thump the bark on the trunks to determine injury,
since frequently no splitting occurs, A hammer is a satisfactory tool for this
purpose.

Trees pruned in November and December may be more susceptible to injury.
However, during the winter of 1962-1963 Mcintosh trees pruned in January and
February in two orchards had severe winter injury.

Gun-type staplers or air guns are efficient devices for tightening the bark
to the v;ood on winter injured trees. With the gun-type staplers, 9/16 inch
staples are suggested. The staples should be driven one to two inches apart
to insure good bark-wood contact. Paint the injured area with a cold water
soluble asphalt emulsion.

3 -

The air guns are operated from a compressor used for pneumatic pruners. One
inch crown staples of 21/32 inch length are suitable for tightening the bark.

In 1963, one grower welded a handle on a mowing machine cutter bar section
(serrated) v;hich he used for scraping off the old shedding bark prior to
stapling. Another grower scraped off the loose bark with the claws of a
hammer.

-- William J. Lord

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

SHOULD WE CONTINUE TO PLANT T R EES ON E.M. V I I ROOTSTOCK S?

The most popular size controlling rootstock in Massachusetts has been
E.M. VII. Now another series of rootstocks. Mailing Merton (M.M.), are being
tested at various experiment stations and in growers' orchards, some of which
may have distinct advantages over E.M. rootstocks. An excellent discussion
of the performance of trees on E.M. and M.M. rootstocks was given by Prof. Karl
Erase, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, at the Massa-
chusetts Fruit Growers' Annual Meeting held at Gardner in January. His report
will appear in the Report of the 70th Annual Meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit
Growers' Association.

At present we have had more experience with the performance of trees on

E.M. rootstocks than on M.M. Although trees on M.M. are worthy of trial, trees

on E.M. VII are suggested for extensive plantings of Mcintosh, until more is
known about the performance of M.M. stocks.

Under some circumstances, trees on seedling rootstocks may be more desir-
able than those on size-controlling rootstocks, for example on exposed, windy
sites. The need of size-controlling rootstocks for Red Delicious is doubtful.
In many of our orchards. Red Delicious aren't excessively large trees, since
they lack the inherent vigor of Mcintosh in this region. Some growers believe
they can control the size of seedling trees by pruning without too much diffi-
culty, Mcintosh on seedling roots has produced yields of 1000-1800 bushels per
acre in Massachusetts.

We feel the final decision rests with the grower. Our obligation is to
supply the best possible information upon which the grower can make his decision.

Recently, it has been suggested that growers plant trees on M.M. instead
of E.M. rootstocks to avoid virus problems. Prof. Karl Erase provides the
following thoughts on this subject, and he is quoted directly as follows.

"Those who advise your growers to use the Mai ling -Merton
rootstock clones instead of certain East Mailing clones, because the
former do not carry a latent virus or latent virus complexes, better
first inform themselves about latent virus diseases in apple varieties
and rootstocks.

- 4 -

Even among the MM group are clones that do not have a single
mother plant that indexes virus free on certain indicators. The same
is true of many of the so-called super strains of our well advertised
varieties. There are latent virus diseases present in apple varieties
as well as in certain apple rootstock clones. But before one condemns
the use of certain rootstock clones, one has to prove that the latent
virus actually affects growth, bearing, and the end product, namely
the fruit.

Virus diseases that do harm, of course, should be eliminated -
I am referring here to those with visible symptoms either on the tree
or the fruit. As long as we do not know what effect the latent virus
present in the rootstock has upon the variety, we should not condemn
the use of the rootstock.

We have used EM VII and others in the EM group for more than
30 years successfully and shall continue to do so. As far as we know
now, the latent virus present in EM VII has not affected in any way
the varieties we have grown on this rootstock.

I see no advantage in the use of rootstocks free of latent virus
if we have to grow on them varieties that carry also a virus in a
latent stage.

It will take a number of years to prove or disprove that the
latent virus present in EM VII is harmful and affects the performance
of the trees. As long as this is unknown, growers should not be
alarmed about it,"

-- William J. Lord
/ I I I I I I I I I

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Soil Versus Leaf Analyses

"Fertilizers for Fruit Crops" was the title of an article by A.L. Kenworthy
in the 91st Annual Report of the Michigan State Horticultural Society. In his
article he mentions that experience has shown that there is a very poor relation-
ship between soil tests and actual needs of fruit trees. Leaf analysis is the
most reliable diagnostic method. Leaf analysis combined with a thorough knowledge
of the crop considered will provide the most reliable method of determining
fertilizer needs for fruit crops.

-- William J. Lord
/ I I I I I I I I I

APPLE bL\RKETING OUTLOOK

The apple marketing situation is discussed by Fred Perkins, Department
of Agricultural Economics and Marketing, Rutgers, New Brunswick, New Jersey
in Economics Information Report No. 2. Below is his analysis of the factors
that affect the future of the apple industry.

" Production Trends

During the recent five year period 1959-1963, the U.S. apple
crop amounted to 126,8 million bushels, 108,5 million, 126,7 million,
125,4 million, and 122.8 million, for an average annual crop of 122.1
million bushels.

Statistics show that the production trend for most major pro-
ducing areas in the U.S. is upward, indicating increases of more than
10 million bushels can be expected to provide average national crops
of from 130 to 135 million bushels by 1966, There is also the further
possibility that if all producing areas in the U.S. should have favor-
able weather conditions in a given year, a bumper national crop of
some 147 million bushels might result.

Varietal Planting s

Nationally, the variety to increase most heavily in the future
is Red Delicious, As a percentage of total production, slight increases
will also occur for Winesap, Rome and Golden Delicious; while decreases
will occur for the Mcintosh, Staymen and York varieties.

Population Estimates

The U.S. population and the U.S. production of apples are both
expected to increase a total of 8.5 per cent over the next five years
for an annual increase of about 1.7 per cent. This means that apple
consumption must continue at its present level if the industry is to
maintain its position over the next five years. On the brighter side,
the statistics show that the composition of the population will be
such in five years that 22 per cent of the people in the U.S. will be
under 10 years of age and 49 per cent will be under 25 years old.
Therefore, the increase in population and shifts in its age classifi-
cations may help the apple industry - if more younger people are en-
couraged to eat and enjoy apples.

Consumer Patterns

In the early '20's, the total annual consumption of apples
averaged more than 50 pounds per person, but over the years it has
decreased appreciably. For the period 1941-50, total apple consump-
tion averaged 30 pounds per person, compared to 28 pounds for the
last 10-year period, 1951-60.

During this period, fresh sales of apples decreased an average
of four pounds per person; canned sales increased two pounds, while
other processing uses remained relatively unchanged.

6 -

This downward trend in consumption has been influenced by
shifts in the demand for apples brought about by population changes,
improved incomes, new trends in consumption preferences and changes
in the status of substitute or competing products.

Per capita disposable incomes in the U.S. has been steadily in-
creasing over the years and is expected to continue to rise. This
should result in a good future demand for apples - if strong promo-
tional efforts are continued.

Storage Trends

During the period 1946-60 about 44 per cent of the U.S. produc-
tion of apples was placed in refrigerated storages. This volume has
increased gradually to approximately 54 per cent of the 1963 crop
being placed in cold storage.

Revolutionary changes in the methods used to hold apples have
occurred in very recent years with the introduction of C.A.
(controlled atmosphere) storage. In 1946, a total of 76,500
bushels of apples were stored in C.A. Today nearly 10,000,000
bushels are stored in C.A., of which nearly one-quarter are in
Tectrol storage. These C.A. stored apples have met with good
buyer reaction.

Mcintosh, Delicious, Jonathan, Rome, and the Newton have
accounted for the major varieties commercially stored to date in C.A.

Fairly substantial increases in C.A. storages throughout the
country are still likely, even though the high premium price re-
ceived will probably not be received to the extent that it has
in the past.

As C.A. storage holdings increase, two things may happen:
(1) larger quantities of apples might be sold later in the year
than has been the custom in the past, and as a result, apples
will become more available to Mrs. Consumer on a twelve month
basis, or (2) more apples from C.A. will be sold earlier in the
year than has been the practice in recent years, which may force
greater competition on those selling apples from regular storage
late in the season. Given a choice, buyers will choose C.A.
apples over regularly stored apples - even at a slightly higher
premium. (Very likely--both possibilities outlined above will
occur) .

Price Trends

Generally speaking, apple prices are influenced by two key
factors--supply or quantity available and demand, which is the
volume of apples consumers will purchase at various price levels.
From statistical studies, it is estimated that about 96 per cent
of the year-to-year fluctuation in apple prices is explained by
variations in the size of the crop and changes in consumer income.

7 -

A 1 per cent increase in production is estimated to decrease prices
by nearly .8 per cent, where a 1 per cent increase in income will
up prices by about 1 per cent.

Since 1949, there have been nine years when the total U.S.
apple crop was more than 110 million bushels. For these years,
the price received by growers averaged $1,61 per bushel. This
compares to $2.12, or an average difference of 51 cents per bushel,
for the five years during the same 14-year period when the total
U.S. production was less than 110 million bushels.

Ways to improve prices include producing quality apples, im-
proving grade standards, using better packages, selling at road-
side, conducting direct delivery programs, developing specialized
market outlets and, in certain cases, creating a customer desire
for grower-identified apples. To maximize income, the individual
grower should seek the most profitable grades and quantities of
apples to sell in line with his own particular situation. Collec-
tively, growers must encourage greater demand and increased
consumption of apples.

Export Prospects

Traditionally, the apple has played an important role In the

U.S. export trade. However, while apples got off to a strong start

a century ago, their present position in the export trade has been

considerably reduced. During the five-year period 1934-39, on the

average about 10 per cent of the U.S. apple crop was exported. For

the period 1957-61 this percentage had dropped to slightly over

3 per cent. In 1962, only about 2.3 per cent of the U.S. apple crop

was exported. As apple production in Europe trends upward, future

prospects for the export market in Europe appears less favorable

than in the past."

-- William J. Lord

--This article will be concluded in the April issue of Fruit Notes--

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FERTILIZER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR 1964

For the past several seasons, we have suggested reduced rates of nitrogen
in those blocks which had a record of poor fruit color. Growers who have re-
duced or omitted nitrogen in some blocks may feel that the nitrogen level is
now too low. Growers have two possible choices - they can increase the rate of
nitrogen application, ox they can maintain the present rate and apply a urea
spray around first cover if the foliage indicates a low level of nitrogen.

Another factor to consider in determining the rate of nitrogen application
is the amount of pruning which the trees receive. Trees Vi/hich have received a
heavy pruning will require less nitrogen than trees lightly pruned.

8 -

The suggested rates of fertilizer for normal applications are the same as
in former years .

Normal Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Appl e Orchards

App roxim a te Amounts per Tree

Potential bushel
yield of tree

Less than 15
15 - 25
More than 25

Nitrogen Potash Ammonium Nitrate

required required Nitrate of Potash or 0-15-30 8-16-16

Pounds Pounds

0.66 1.3

0.66-1.00 1,3-2.0

1.33-2.00 2.7-A.3

Pounds

2.0

2.1

4.3

2.0-3.3

2.1-3.3

4.3-6.6

8-12

4.0-6.0

4.5-7.9

9.0-14.3

16-25

The suggested amounts of materials to apply in the table are for hand appli-
cations under the spread of the branches. When the materials are broadcast over
the entire orchard floor it may be necessary to increase the rate of application
in order to obtain the same tree response as with the hand applications. Ferti-
lizer materials other than those given in the tables may be used so long as they
are applied at rates which provide equivalent amounts of nitrogen and potassium.

The tree's magnesium and calcium requirements can best be met by maintain-
ing an adequate dolomitic liming program. The pH of orchard soils should be
maintained between 6 and 6.5 „ If a soil test shov7s that the pH of soil is 5.5
or below, magnesium sulfate sprays should be applied to prevent possible occur-
rence of magnesium deficiency. It takes from three to five years before dolomitic
limestone is effective in correcting magnesium deficiency. When magnesium sulfate
sprays are used, apply two to three sprays of epsom salts at the rate of 20 pounds
per 100 gallons of water. These sprays should be timed by calyx, first and sec-
ond cover sprays. To avoid possible incompatibilities, the epsom salt sprays
should not be combined with the regular insecticidal and fungicidal sprays.

Boron should be applied to orchard soils every three years. Borax is the
most common material used. The rates of application per tree vary v/ith age and
size. Apply one-quarter pound of borax to young trees, one-half to three-quarters
pound to medium age and size trees, and three-quarters to one pound to large or
mature trees. Boron may be applied as a foliar spray on a trial basis,
Polybor-2 or Boro Spray applied at one-half pound per 100 gallons of spray
one and three weeks after petal fall have given satisfactory results in New
York State,

In young, non-bearing orchards, it may be possible to produce sufficient
high quality mulching material for the young trees by broadcasting 500 to 800
pounds of mixed fertilizer per acre. Place the mulch in a band under the spread
of the branches. The amount of fertilizer required for the trees with this
system of culture will vary v/ith the quantity and quality of mulch applied
around each tree. If the trees are not making sufficient growth, one-eighth
pound of ammonium nitrate per year of tree age may be applied to the mulch.

Recommendations for fertilizing peach orchards are given in the following
table. The amounts given may need to be increased, if the trees are in a heavy
sod. A suggested increase would be to double the amount of nitrogen.

Normal Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Peach Orchards

Appro:<

imate Amounts

^er_

Tree

Anmonium

Muriate

Tree Age

Nitrate

of Potash

: 0-15-30

8-16-16

Pounds

3 - 6

k-1

1-2

2- 4

6-9

1 -1^5

2-3

4- 6

9-12

l%-2

3-4

6- 8

12 & over

2 -4

4-8

8-12

8-16

-- Walter D. VJeeks

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepored by Pomology Stoff, Deportmsnt of Horticulture

Cooperotive Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

APRIL 10, 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Role of Bees in the Pollination of
Deciduous Fruits

Get Good Strawberry Plants In Well
Prepared Soil

Apple Marketing Outlook

Chemical Control of Weeds in the Orchard

Chemical Thinning of Apples

'/A.

L^'V>

'*;

Issued by the Coopfratlvc Extension Servic;, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Apfx-oved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

COUNTY EXTENSION AGENTS IN SUPPORT OF THE FRUIT PROGRAM

BARNSTABLE

BERKSHIRE,
FRANKLIN,
HAMPDEN and
HAMPSHIRE

Oscar S. Johnson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Cape
Cod Extension Service, Barnstable (Tel, FOrest 2-3255).

G. Everett Wilder, Pioneer Valley Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Hampden County Improvement League, 1499 Memorial Avenue,
West Springfield (Tel. Springfield REpublic 6-7204)

BRISTOL

DUKES

ESSEX,

MIDDLESEX and
WORCESTER

NORFOIiC

PLYMOUTH

Harold 0. Woodward, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Bristol County Agricultural School, Center Street, Segreganset
(Tel. Dighton NOrmandy 9-3611 or 9-2361).

Ezra I. Shaw, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Dukes

County Extension Service, Vineyard Haven (Tel. Vineyard Haven 694).

Max G. Fultz, Regional Agricultural Specialist, Middlesex County
Extension Service, 19 Everett Street, Concord (Tel, Concord
EMerson 9-4845)

Howard Wilson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Norfolk
County Agricultural School, 460 Main Street, Walpole (Tel.
Walpole MOntrose 8-0268 or 8-0269).

Dominic A. Marini, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Plymouth County Extension Service, Court House, Brockton
(Tel. Brockton JUniper 6-4993).

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and regulations.
Chapter 7 27, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachusetts requires that all
pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered with the Massachusetts Department
'of Public Health. Trade names, where used for clearness, do not indicate
endorsement nor imply that similar products are not satisfactory.

WARNING! MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS
AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT OF REACH OF
CHILmEN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

THE ROLE OF BEES IN THE POLLINATION OF DECIDUOUS FRUITS

F. R. Shaw
Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology

The principal insects of value in the pollination of fruit in New England
include honey bees, solitary bees and bumble bees. Honey bees overwinter as
colonies consisting of n queen plus many thousand workers. Solitary bees include
a great number of species. These pass the winter in the adult stage in sheltered
locations. In the spring, each female constructs her own nest, usually in the
soil, collects pollen and nectar, and lays an egg in each cell. True colonies
are not formed. Bumble bees, like solitary bees, hibernate. In the spring, the
fertilized females construct their nests, obtain food and rear young. These are
worker bumble bees. The workers help to enlarge the colony by gathering pollen
and nectar and tending to the young.

Relative Importance of Different Kinds of Bees for Pollination

1. Honey bees are the only pollinating insects that can be increased
in numbers and located where needed, from a practical viewpoint,

2. Honey bees are less dependent on favorable weather for flight than
solitary bees. Bumble bees are superior in this respect.

3. Honey bees are more constant to ^ single species of plant when
collecting nectar or pollen than are solitary bees or bumble bees.
Investigations in Canada have indicated that honey bees are 80 per
cent constant, solitary bees 55 - 70 per cent and bumble bees

65 per cent.

Characteristics of Colonies Most Suitable for Pollination

1. Should be strong. It is suggested that there should be sufficient
bees to cover 5-6 frames as a minimum (determined by checking colony
when temperature is 60-65 F.) Such colonies should be sending
40-50 bees per minute at these temperatures unless rain, wind,
light or other factors are unfavorable.

Farrar made comparison of flight rate of different types of colo-
nies during pollination period. A portion of his data is
reproduced below:

Type of colony Temperature 90° F. Average No. bees

Relative Humidity 507, flying per minute

3 lb. package 15

5 lb. package 50

3.5 lb, overwintered colony 65

7 lb. overwintered colony 128

2o Colonies should be queen right.

3. Colonies should be disease free.

- 2 -

Number of Colonies Needed Per Acre

An old "rule of thumb" recommendation was one colony per acre. We now
recognize that it is difficult to select a standard that will apply under all
conditions due to variation in populations of pollinators naturally present,
weather factors, colony condition, exposure of orchard and other factors.

Location of Colonies in Orchard

Most recent investigations demonstrate the advisability of placing colonies
in groups throughout the orchard taking advantage of natural wind breaks or pro-
viding artificial cover if necessary. Colonies should face south or southeast.

When to Move Colonies Into the Orchard

It is not recommended that bees be placed in orchard ahead of bloom since
the bees may become trained to visit other flowers. It is suggested that the
colonies be moved in when bloom has opened or even to wait a day or so if
conditions for flight appear to be satisfactory.

Some of the Problems Facing Beekeeper Who Rents Bees for Pollination

1. Loss of queens or colonies during moving,

2. Swarming.

3. Exposure to disease.

4. Exposure to pesticides.

How Bees May Be Poisoned

1. Contamination of water, nectar or pollen with pesticides which
have stomach poison action on bees. Contaminated water and pollen
may kill both the brood (immature bees) and the adults. Poisoned
nectar kills mainly adult field bees but there are some exceptions
depending on speed of action of pesticide and distance bees have
to fly.

2. Direct contact with pesticide during application, adult field bees
are primarily affected but brood may die from neglect. (Starvation
or exposure to extremes of temperature) .

3. Exposure to pesticides having prolonged residual action. In some
instances heavy mortalities have resulted from exposure to residues
on leaves, twigs, or blossoms on which bees may crawl or rest.

Comparative Toxicity of Pesticides to Honeybees

Anderson and Atkins (University of California) set up four groups of pesti-
cides based on their comparative toxicities to bees. Much original information
was presented, some of which was obtained from laboratory experiments. Most of
the more important materials were also tested in the field. It must be empha-
sized that weather conditions in California may influence the effects of most
pesticides so as to give very different results than we might obtain in the
Northeast,

1. Materials that are toxic to bees which should not be used if there
is a possibility of bee poisoning at the time of treatment or with-
in several days thereafter:

BHC dieldrin lindane

calcium arsenate Guthion parathion

Diazinon lead arsenate carbaryl (Sevin)

2. Materials that are highly toxic to bees but which may be used if
certain precautions, involving proper method and timing of applica-
tion, recommended dosages and avoidance of high temperatures, are
followed:

malathion Phosdrin TEPP

3. Materials that are only moderately toxic to bees which may be used if
dosage and timing are correct. Should not be applied directly on bees
in the field or on the colonies:

chlorobenzilate endrin endosulfan (Thiodan)

TDE (DDD) ethion carbophenothion

DDT tetradifon (Tedion) (Trithion)

4. Materials that are relatively non-toxic but deliberate spraying of
bees even with these materials should be avoided.

captan Karathane demeton (Systox)

dodine (Cyprex) methoxychlor thiram

dioxathion (Delnav) chlorobenzide (Mitox) 2,4-D

ferbam ovex 2,4,5-T

Genite sulfur

What Is Being Done to Reduce Danger of Poisoning?

1, Research on comparative toxicities of pesticides to bees. This pro-
vides information of value in making recommendations for the use of
such materials,

2, Investigations on possible use of substances repellent to bees. These
would be included in sprays in order to cause bees to avoid treated
surfaces,

3, Extension specialists recognize danger of poisoning and recommend
measures to minimize poisoning. Among these might be (1) proper
timing to avoid pesticide applications to plants attractive to bees
while in bloom, (2) applications in early morning or in evening
when fewer bees will come in direct contact with poison, and (3)
avoidance of contamination of area where spraying or dusting equip-
ment is being filled, particularly if there is standing water in
vicinity by bees.

- 4 -

Suggestions to Improve Grower- Beekeeper Relations
Have definite agreement as to:

1. Number of colonies wanted.

2. Strength of colonies,

3. When colonies are to be moved in and out of orchard. Beekeeper
needs 48-7 2 hours notice.

4. Distribution of colonies in orchard.

5e Avoidance of use of harmful pesticides while bees are in orchard,
6. Rental price with terms of payment.

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

GET GOOD STRAWBERRY PLANTS IN WELL PREPARED SOIL

John S, Bailey
Department of Horticultural
Science

The importance of starting with good strawberry plants is becoming increas-
ingly more evident" Good plants are not only free from disease but also in good
physical and nutritional condition (well developed plants with a large crown and
root system, high in food reserves and mineral nutrients).

In a recent Report of the Committee on Deciduous and Small Fruits of the
Council on Fertilizer Application, it is stated, "The pre-planting application
of fertilizers is gaining acceptance among the growers of small fruits, especially
strawberries. The sensitivity of the strawberry to nitrogen and potassium salts
is well kriown. In order to avoid this effect, the green manure crop is fertilized
heavily the season before the land is to be set with strawberries. This system
seems to work very well and its use will probably increase." This statement is
worthy of more attention and more thought.

A strawberry plant grower of my acquaintance has for years made a practice
of turning under large amounts of heavily fertilized green manure crops before
setting strawberry plants, and subsequently applying no more fertilizer. The
result has been unusually large, vigorous daughter plants.

In some of our experimental work with strawberry plants, we started out with
virus-free plants which were unusually large and vigorous. There was no response
to a large variety of fertilizer treatments. These plants were probably so high
in nutrient reserves as a result of unusually high soil fertility in the nursery
that they needed little, if any, fertilizer the following year.

This all points to two very important practices in starting a strawberry bed.
First, get your soil well prepared by turning under heavily fertilized green
manure crops (or farm manures, if available). Second, obtain good vigorous plants

- 5

high in mineral and food reserves. Such plants will really "take off" and gr

ow.

Remember that good plants mean plants free of all disease, not just virus-
free. Be especially careful not to bring red stele into your bed. Also, be
fussy about the size and vigor of the plants. The free plants obtained from a
neighbor may not be so cheap in the long run.

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

APPLE MARKETING OUTLOOK

Fred Perkins
Department of Agricultural
Economics and Marketing
Rutgers

--Continuation of the article that appeared in the March issue of Fruit Notes in
which Fred Perkins analyzes the factors that affect the future of the apple industry.

" Packaging Trends

In recent years, there has been a tremendous increase in the sales
of fresh prepackaged fruit and vegetables in the U.S. Today, consumer
packages must have eye appeal. They must provide for convenience, be
reasonable in cost and give greater confidence in the quality and fresh-
ness of the contents.

The most widely used consumer package for apples is the polyethylene
bag. It is estimated that from 35 to 45 per cent of all apples are sold
at retail prepackaged in bags. Medium to large size apples, however, do
not fit well into 3 to 5 pound capacity bags--further, there is little
protection afforded to these larger apples from bruising.

Especially promising, for display and protection, are the newly
developed shrinkable films now used widely on some commodities and on
a test basis for others. (These over-wrapped packages usually hold
from 6 to 8 apples) .

Let's take a look at the shrink film situation for apples. There
is general agreement that volume production offered by shrink film opera-
tions offers real potentialities of reducing the cost of packing apples
in consumer trays over former techniques and that bruising, especially
to the larger sized and easily bruised apples, is substantially reduced
over bagging by using consumer tray packs.

With twenty or more suppliers of equipment and various films, how-
ever, the job of selecting the best product or material to use becomes
difficult. Perhaps the best general concensus of opinion is that no
one product now on the market is highly recommended by all users (not

manufacturers) to be the best in every respect. A number of users ex-
pressed concern over wrinkling of the film, costs, condensation, etc.
Some packers feel that large volumes are required to justify high
overhead costs of equipment and therefore shrink film packaging can be
best used by large growers or packers who can specialize and lower their
per unit packing costs.

Some retailers and chain store organizations have been reluctant
to pay a slight premium for prepackaged apples to help offset the added
cost involved in shrink film packages, even though their net profits
might be increased.

There are people closely associated with the industry who say that
shrink film packages are primarily supplementary in nature and should
be used along with bagged apples to maximize sales. Others feel that
the total consumer acceptance for some tray packed apples has not yet
been adequately proven. Some retailers advance the theory that to
maximize sales we should be thinking of even larger units especially
at harvest time, during the Halloween season, and on other special
occasions.

There is no question that polyethlene jumble-filled bags and shrink
film packages are here to stay. From a grower standpoint, it appears
presently that tray packages are proving most advantageous to distant
shippers and producers who are handling large volumes of the softer
flesh varieties of apples.

Competition

From the marketing aspect, the time has passed when producers can
rely heavily on local buyers to sell their apples to, without meeting
strong competition from other producing areas and from a multitude of
highly advertised and competitive items being offered for sale to con-
sumers. The marketing pattern for apples with few exceptions has now
become exceedingly more complex.

U.S. apple producers must continually do a better job of meeting
the price, quality and services offered by competitors.

Some of these needs can best be met by individuals, while others
require the joint effort of all producers, well organized and working
together in harmony, to do the job. Only those producers who are will-
ing to recognize the changes taking place in the apple industry today
and who are willing to adjust their operations accordingly will con-
tinue to be successful in the apple business in the years ahead.

Costs and Efficienc y

In many cases, efficiency is the most critical factor in deter-
mining whether a profit or loss results from the production and sale
of apples. Present economic conditions in marketing apples indicate
an efficiency of the highest degree is needed in order to be success-
ful in today's extremely competitive situation.

Efficiency calls for the adoption of new production practices to
lower costs while producing a quality product. In addition, improved
handling, storing, grading and packaging practices and selling techniques
for apples are needed.

As the trend toward specialization and increased size of business
in the apple industry continues, added emphasis must be continuously
devoted toward improving accounting procedures and obtaining information
to make better management decisions."

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS IN THE ORCHARD

VJilliam J. Lord
Extension Pomologist
Department of Horticultural
Science

Chemical weed control should not be considered as a substitute for mulch,
but as an aid in orchard management, when insufficient mulching material is
available. Then, it is suggested that herbicides be applied only to the grass
that can't be machine mowed under the trees.

In general, the results from herbicide applications have been satisfactory.
However, successful use of herbicides requires close attention to details. Fruit
trees have been severely injured or killed by over-dosage with herbicides.

While several herbicides are labeled for use in apple and pear orchards,
only dalapon may be used under bearing peach trees. However, peach trees are
easily injured with this material.

Our experimental results of the past two years indicate that amizine or
amitrole-T (commercial product Amitrol-T) plus diuron or amitrole-T (Amitrol-T)
plus simazine may give partial control of poison ivy plus grass control if
applied just prior to fruit set. Although these materials will not give complete
control of poison ivy Virith this timing, they should help prevent the rapid influx
of this weed in the area where grass has been controlled.

Dalapon fails to control annual weeds. However, our results indicate that
when the sod cover is mainly grass under bearing apple trees, dalapon may be the
only herbicide necessary. The following year, simazine or diuron may be used
with either dalapon or amitrol T (Amitrol-T) . Amizine which contains amitrole
and simazine also is suitable.

Dalapon is the only material labeled for use in bearing apple orchards after
June 1 of any year. Diuron may be used up to June 1, and amizine, amitrole T
(Amitrol-T) and simazine must be applied prior to fruit set of apples. The
restriction on timing is similar in bearing pear orchards. However, amizine and
simazine are not labeled for pear trees.

- 8

9^JL 12^^S^}!^3^J:^§^SS}-3JLSi}-J£}^J^9Jf. A^^j_ Cjl^j? ical^ We£^ci_^ qnt r ol In The Orch ar d
is n ow available through your County Extension Service or by writing to the Mail-
ing Room, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts. This circular con-
tains our suggestions for the use of herbicides labeled for orchards.

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CHEMICAL THINNING OF APPLES

Franklin W. Southwick

Department of Horticultural

Science

The crop in most orchards in 1963 was not excessive on our leading varieties
so I would anticipate a rather heavy bloom in many Mcintosh blocks. Some chemical
thinning may be desirable if good pollinating weather prevails at blossomtime and
a late spring frost is not a serious threat. Some moderate thinning of heavy
setting Mcintosh trees is usually necessary to assure annual flowering. This is
a much more important reason for thinning Mcintosh in this area than the necessity
for improving fruit size. On the other hand, many other early to late apple vari-
ties need chemical thinning not only to improve the chances of annual flowering
but also to significantly improve fruit size.

The problem of chemical thinning Mcintosh has been given sufficient attention
so that we know that Lt can be satisfactorily done with either NAD (Amid-Thin) or
Sevin when these are applied from 1 to 3 weeks after petal-fall. Sevin is an
extremely safe and reliable thinner over a very wide range of concentration. Data
shown in Table 1 illustrate this point very clearly. Sevin thinned to the same
degree at all concentrations from 1/4 to 2 lbs. per 100 gallons of water. Since
Sevin has no temporary size depressing action on persisting apples and causes no
visible foliar effects, it has these advantages over NAD. The primary advantage
NAD has over Sevin as a chemical thinner of Mcintosh is that NAD thinned trees
may occasionally exhibit a heavier "return or repeat" bloom than similar trees
thinned to the same degree with Sevin.

Table 1. The Influence of Chemical Thinners on Fruit Set and Size of Mcintosh
Apples. 1963.

Fruits/cm.

Avg. Fruit
Diameter

No. of

of Limb

Treatment •'•

Applied

Trees

Circumference

(Inches)

1. Check

7.0

2.64

2. Sevin - \m^

PF+18

5.6

2.69

3. Sevin - l/2#

PF+18

5.7

2.70

A. Sevin - 1#

PF+18

5.8

2.71

5. Sevin - 2#

PF+18

5.5

2.70

6. NAD - 25 ppm.

PF+18

5,1

2.65

Amounts of Sevin (50% wettable) used in 100 gals, of water.
^Fruit size measurements made Sept. 4, 1963 (35 fruits at random per tree).

- 9

Although Sevin Is an excellent material for Mcintosh and an outstanding
niiiterial for thinning Delicious, it is such a mild thinner that it won't do
an adequate thinning job on such heavy setting varieties as Early Mcintosh.
Table 2 shows its limitations on this variety.

Table 2. The Influence of Chemical Thinners on Fruit Set and Size of Early
Mcintosh Apples. 1963.

Treatment

Applied

No. of
Trees

Fruits/cm.
of Limb
Circumference

Avg. Fruit

Diameter
(Inches)

1. Check

19.9

2.11

2. Sevin-3# + Tw.20
NAD-50 ppm.fTw.20

PF
PF+10

7.9

2.36

3. Sevin-3#

NAD - 50 ppm.

PF
PF+10

9.5

2,32

4. Sevin-3# + Tw.20
NAA - 20 ppm.+Tw.20

PFno

7.6

2.A7

5. Sevin-3#

NAA - 20 ppm.

PF
PF+10

6.9

2.41

6. Sevin-3# + Tw.20
Sevin-3# + Tw.20

PF
PF+10

15.9

2.22

7. NAD - 50 ppm.+Tw.20
NAA - 20 ppm,+Tw.20

PF
PF+10

7.2

2.46

■•■Amounts of Sevin (50% wettable) used in 100 gals, water. Tw,20 equals Tween 20

at 4 oz„ per 100 gals.
2
^ Fruit size measurements made August 6, 1963 (60 fruits at random per tree) about

2 v;eek.s before harvest commenced.

The data in Table 2 show an exceptionally fine series of chemical thinning
jobs done with applications of Sevin at petal-fall plus NAD or NAA 10 days later
or by applications of NAD at petal-fall supplemented by NAA 10 days later. In
addition, the use of Tween 20 as a v/etting agent seems to be of slight benefit
as far as increasing thinning and ultimate fruit size. On the other hand, two
applications of Sevin (Treatment 6) even at 3 lbs. per 100 gallons each time was
inadequate on these Early Mcintosh. The story is not complete on these treatments,
however, since we won't have "repeat bloom" data on these trees until later this
spring. At this time it is rather certain that Sevin must be supplemented with
either NAD or NAA in order to get adequate thinning on Early Mcintosh.

V.'e have been trying to get information on the new early variety, Puritan,
in recent years. Since this variety is the result of a Mclntosh-Red Astrachan
cross, we anticipated that it would set heavily like virtually all other early
apples and be quite biennial in production, as well. Table 3 represents some
typical results on some 10 year old Puritans.

- 10

Table 3. Tlie Influence of Chemical Thinners on Fruit Set and Size of Puritan
Apples. 1963.

Treatment
XEer_J.O,0„£al.s_,X

1. Check

2, Sevin 1#

._AEplied_.
fF+14

No. of
Trees

Fruits/cm.
of Limb
Circumference

10
10

6.4
4.0

Avg, Fruit
Diameter
(I nches)

2.53
2.58

■'-Fruit size measurements made August 6, 1963 (30 fruits at random per tree) about
1 week before harvest commenced.

It is apparent from Table 3 that these Puritan did not need to be thinned with
Sevin at all to obtain suitable fruit size. Similar results over the past few
years and comparable observations by growers have convinced us that Puritan may
be the rare early apple which doesn't often overset. Of course, all trees of this
variety arc relatively young and oversetting may become a problem as they get older.
However, we suggest that young Puritan should not be chemically thinned even where
interplanted with other varieties that are suitable cross-pollinizers . NAA and NAD
should not be used on Puritan since they are apt to be quite injurious to Puritan
foliage and very apt to overthin this variety, ■

Unfortunately, Puritan is extremely biennial even though it doesn't overset.
We are now in the process of trying some other treatments that we hope will tend
to induce annual flowering on this and other hard-to-make-annual varieties.

Details concerning chemical thinning of various apple varieties will be
available in our Special Circular No. 189 sometime in April, as usual.

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massochusetts, Amherst

MAY 10, 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Response to Irrigation and Soil Moisture Use
By Mcintosh Apple Trees

Orchard Insect Surveys with Traps

Chemical Weed Control in Small Fruits

Economics of Pest Control

Records Are Important

Mulches and Plastic Soil Moisture, Soil
Temperature and Plant Growth

Pomological Paragraph

Factors Affecting Nutrient Content of
Apple Foliage

Vr^'

7/i

VI.

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Splelman, Dean and Director, In ftrttierance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
Universlt> of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Pirchasing Agent, No. 44.

RESPONSE TO IRRIGATION AND SOIL MOISTURE USE
BY MCINTOSH APPLE TREES

William J. Lord
Extension Pomologist
Department of Horticultural Science

The value of irrigation of Mcintosh orchards located on the better soils
in Massachusetts is questioned by L.F. Michelson, W.J. Lord and D.L. Field in
their recent Massachusetts Experiment Station Publication No. 537, 1963.

The irrigation studies they report upon were conducted in a Mcintosh or-
chard from 1956 to 1962, inclusive. In this investigation, the orchard was
irrigated in 1957 and 1962, but a fruit growth response was obtained only in
1957. Even in this instance, some possible disadvantages of irrigation occurred.
For example, 277, of the irrigated fruit had water-core, while only 4.3% of those
from non-irrigated trees had the disorder in 1957. Twenty- four per cent of the
irrigated fruit in 1957 was 3 inches or larger in diameter, but these larger
apples are softer, more susceptible to bruising and are often less suitable for
present markets than sizes 2 1/2 and 2 3/4 inches in diameter.

The orchard selected for the study was located on a soil with only 0.7 to
1.9 inch per foot moisture holding capacity. The majority of Massachusetts or-
chards are located on drumlins or drumloid hills with soil having an estimated
available moisture holding capacity of more than 1.5 inches per foot of soil to

a depth of 3 or 4 feet or more.

A major problem encountered in this irrigation study was the extreme varia-
bility of soil moisture measurements under a given tree and among adjacent trees.
This variability illustrates the problem of obtaining a reliable estimate of the
soil moisture available under apple trees.

Moisture extraction by individual Mcintosh apple trees was studied. It was
found that the degree of the moisture depletion increased, as the sampling loca-
tion progressed toward the tree trunk.

Those persons interested in receiving a copy of Experiment Station Publica-
tion 537 may do so by writing the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts in
Amherst or your County Extension Service.

WARNING I MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS
AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS . HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT OF REACH OF
CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

ORCHARD INSECT SURVEYS WITH TRAPS

H.E. Wave
Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology

An interesting item on fruit insect surveys appeared in the February issue
of the Journal of Economic Entomology by E.R. Oatman, University of California
Citrus Research Center, Riverside. This article describes a trapping method
for detecting economically important species or orchard fruit insects in Wis-
consin. The method described uses an all-directional light trap, which is
equipped with a 15-watt BL (blacklight) fluorescent lamp mounted vertically
between a single baffle. The lamp is enclosed by a cylinder of 1/4 inch screen-
ing to keep out insects larger than the codling moth. Cyanide granules were
used to kill the trapped insects. Traps, operated through June, July and
August were emptied and examined 3 times a week.

Insects trapped by this method included: Codling moth, red-banded leaf
roller, eye-spotted bud moth, strawberry leaf roller and others.

Information obtained with the blacklight traps helped to establish the
time of emergence, population abundance and seasonal distribution, including
the number of generations per season of tho principal pest species. The timing
and number of sprays needed for adequate insect control can be greatly improved
through this method.

Some commercial growers in Wisconsin, taught to recognize the adults,
operate their ovm light traps and disseminate the information gathered to
others in the area.

CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN SMALL FRUITS

J.S. Bailey
Department of Horticultural Science

Weeds are serious enemies of many crops including small fruits. Among the
small fruits, strawberries are the most seriously hurt by weeds. Many a straw-
berry bed has had to be abandoned because weeds choked out the berry plants. The
rapid development of weeds, during the first fruiting year with the resulting
problem and expense of getting rid of them, is one of the chief reasons why
strawberry beds in the northeast are fruited only once. If weeds were kept
under control so that the bed could be fruited two or three years, the cost
of growing berries could be considerably reduced.

With cultivated blueberries and raspberries, the problem is not quite so
serious, because these plants grow above most weeds and, therefore, do not suffer
from shading as strawberries do. Tliey do suffer from competition for soil nutri-

- 3

ents and moisture. Most blueberry varieties are shallow rooted, at least most
of their feeding roots are near the surface. This poses a double barreled
problem. Deep cultivation to kill weeds can destroy many feeding roots. If
the weeds are not eliminated, they compete with the blueberries and may reduce
growth. Several years ago, I saw a row of blueberries part of which had been
treated with a weed killer. The weed population was very small compared with
that in the untreated part of the row. The leaves of the treated part were
darker green, and chemical analysis proved they contained more nitrogen than
the leaves on bushes in the untreated part.

Raspberries also have many of their feeding roots near the surface where
weed competition can become a serious problem. This is particularly true if
the rows are not kept narrow. A wide row with many plants is very difficult
to keep free of weeds by mechanical means. The really good grower doesn't allow
the rows to get more than a foot wide at the base. Even in a narrow row, weed-
ing by cultivation is laborious and costly.

Chemical weeding has not entirely eliminated the need for cultivation and
probably never will, but properly used, it can be a big help. Special Circu-
lar 215, "Controlling Weeds in Small Fruit Plantings with Chemicals" has recent-
ly been revised. Anyone wishing detailed directions for chemical weed control
in small fruit plantings should send to the office of his county Agricultural
Extension Service or to the Hailing Room, Massachusetts Agricultural Extension
Service, Amherst, Massachusetts.

ECONOMICS OF PEST CONTROL

Max G. Fultz

Middlesex County Extension Service

Concord, Mass.

The item of pest control in the apple operation is an expensive one.
Compared with that of a decade ago, it actually has not increased in proportion
to many other expenses of the operation. Compared with some txjenty years ago,
there is, hov;ever, some substantial difference. In spite of all the yearning
for the good old days, however, the modern way has much in its favor.

A factor that has been injected with more emphasis over the years as an
expense deterrent has been the sensational production increases. This has the
same effect on the basic cost per unit of production as a reduction in expenses.
What is even more important from the marketing standpoint is a parallel in-
crease in percentage of well-colored, sound, generally high grade fruit. Des-
pite the hazards of a complex and formidable line-up of chemicals, the percentage
of russeted, rough- finished or netted fruit is less than it once was. This is
in comparison with the old days, first of lime sulfur and then the milder sul-
furs. Despite the great step forward taken with the advent of mild wettable
sulfur fungicides, the further improvement has been marked with the introduction
of organic fungicides with "kick-back" and arresting properties for better scab
control and improved finish, if properly used.

- 4 -

Stating these advantages cannot be done lightly without at once recognizing
the need for better understanding of the increasing number of chemicals. Such
diverse selection means varying response to different weather conditions, to
combinations with other materials in relation to compatibility, to variety dif-
ferences, etc. As a matter of fact, in the days of limited choices of fungi-
cides and insecticides, one could predict with considerable certainty the
results of simple combinations such as arsenate of lead and sulfur. In other
vjords , injury to foliage or fruit, although admittedly not occurring so often,
still may happen as a surprise and is not always easy to explain.

Accordingly, the economics of pest control demands a very good balance of
judgment. Most growers will accept a little more outlay for materials that
will produce the result desired. Most are not inclined to omit a spray if there
is reasonable doubt about the feasibility of doing so. This decision cannot be
mathematical, for one can suffer much more in actual loss and down-grading of
fruit than can possibly be saved by leaving out one application. A fallacy in
figures that is too frequently presented is gauging the percentage of control
to the operation. For instance, 90 percent control cannot be set as a point
of attaining the most profit. Nor can this be set at 75, 80 or any other per
cent. On paper, hoii/ever, it is possible to produce figures of diminishing re-
turns above a certain point. The trouble is that pest damage often occurs so
quickly that the stopping point in percentage cannot be accomplished short of
disaster.

All of this does not mean, nevertheless, that one cannot achieve pest con-
trol effectively and still inject efficiency and practical saving into the job.

Emphasis should be placed on dosing correctly. Those who feel that "if a
little will do good, drastically increasing the mixture strength will do better"
waste money. They also increase chances for foliage and fruit injury and
damage to fruit finish. The residue problem is increased. With concentrating
of materials more or less common, it has become increasingly important to
figure dosage accurately.

The operation of the equipment can affect greatly the cost of pest control.
Applying too much can have the same results as indicated with mixing too strongly.
On the other hand, poor results will occur if the mixture is too weak or the
application too light, not distributed well and generally not thorough. With
air blast sprayers, accuracy in operation pays in money. Gallons per tree is
the index and observing the coverage in application and deposit comprise the
check. All are essential--tractor speed, nozzle capacity and nozzle arrange-
ment and adapting the rig to the job. Substantial checking as the season starts
and as conditions change during the season will go far towards accurate, effi-
cient operation of the rig.

For setting up the air blast sprayer for proper delivery this formula has
been used effectively over the years. It will bear repeating here.

Gallons per minute per Rate of travel in One half of dilute

X gallonage

sprayer side feet per minute (F) required per tree (G) ^
equals

required for average tree X concentration Average tree spread in feet (S)

X or

in block at given speed desired Distance between trees (D)

R = F X 1/2 G Also this has been written R = F x G

XxSorD 2xXxDorS

Another variation is that some feel that tht_ distance (D) between trees
in large bearing orchards rather than the actual spread (S) is accurate enough.

Pest Control is critical. It can make or break the operation.

**********

RECORDS ARE IMPORTANT

E.H. Wheeler
Department of Entomology
and Plant Pathology

Records of pesticide applications, complete and accurate records, can
help growers in many ways.

They protect the food or feed producer - the growers, should any questions
arise concerning pesticides used and the possibility of residues.

Records help producers make better management decisions based upon results
obtained earlier that season or in previous years.

Regulations established by the Food & Drug Administration do not require
the keeping of such records. However, records do help a producer explain to
inspectors what he has been using and when he used it. The absence of records
may lead an inspector to suspect that something is wrong.

If no records are available, prospective buyers may ask to have a sample
of the food or feed product analyzed for pesticide residues before completing
the purchase contract. The producer would be expected to stand the expense of
such an analysis.

Trade names are not enough to identify the chemical used. Any user of a
pesticide on food or feed crop should know the identity of the chemicals, the
active ingredient (s) in the trade-named product.

Records should show the identity of the active ingredients, the type of
product used such as wettable powder, dust, granular or liquid, the dosage per
100 gallons or per acre, the number of applications and the dates of those
applications.

Any producer who keeps accurate records on the points suggested above can
prove to anyone very easily that he knows what he is doing.

Any producer who follows label directions or other sound, up-to-date
recommendations should have no worries when his records are examined or his
produce analyzed.

READ and FOLLOW DIRECTIONS or LABELS. KEEP RECORDS OF PESTICIDE USE.

**********

6 -

MULCHES AND PLASTIC SOIL COVERS AFFECT SOIL MOISTURE,
SOIL TEMPERATURE AND PLANT GROWTH

Martin Weeks
Department of Agronomy
and
William J. Lord

Mulches include any protective material or covering that rests on the
soil. They have been used for centuries by farmers, gardeners and fruit
growers to protect plants from drought and weed competition and to prevent
rapid changes in temperature from injuring root systems. Mulching materials
in these early times have included dust, gravel, a variety of organic materials
such as straw, old hay, manure or leaves. It has always been difficult to ob-
tain sufficient quantities of the natural materials that are free of weeds or
other objectionable constituents. For this reason, in recent years paper and
plastic mulching materials have been produced together with machinery that
aids in applying them uniformly to the soil.

Mulches are used mostly in accordance with rule-of-thumb experience either
of the grower himself or of his neighbors. Since some of these mulches and
plastic covers do have a pronounced effect on soil climate the principles
governing their effects should be of interest.

Porous mulches permit more-or-less evaporation of soil moisture depend-
ing on the material. Whether they conserve any moisture may depend on the
length of time between rains and the degree to which they prevent runoff. Also,
their effect on transpiration plays some part in conservation. In a controlled
experiment, workers at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station found recently
that unmulched soil evaporated 1.25 to 5 times more water than mulched soils
in a given time. In this work a gravel mulch was most effective, a corn cob
mulch less so and a dust mulch least effective in retarding evaporation from
the soil surface. Orchardists in some areas have traditionally used a straw,
hay or manure mulch in combination with sod cover. One effect of this practice
was to supply nitrogen and some potassium to the trees. It has been especially
beneficial at times on shallow soils. One disadvantage is the fact they form
conditions favorable for mice.

During the last two or three years, grower interest has developed concern-
ing the use of plastic as a means of weed control under non-bearing trees. The
question has been asked as to the effect of plastic on soil temperature and
moisture.

Waggoner, £t al. (Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 63A) have made an extensive
study of plastic mulching: its principles and benefits. Their results show
that in the spring, black plastic has little ability to warm the soil. On the
other hand, clear plastic has great ability to warm the soil, and their data
show that the depth of soil thawing on March 17, 1958 was double that of under
black plastic. Aluminum film and hay mulch both retarded the warming of soil.

The data obtained by Waggoner, et al. show that during the summer months
soil temperatures were 4 to 10 degrees higher under clear plastic than under
a hay mulch. Black plastic sheets had little, if any, effect on soil temperature,

In the Connecticut studies, clear plastic permitted weed growth that was
mentioned as an objectional feature. In limited trials with clear plastic
under apple trees in Massachusetts, it was found that the grass and broadleaf
weeds were controlled during the summer months. During cool weather growth of
grass and broadleaf weeds was stimulated. Whether the competition of the grass
and broadleaf weeds during certain periods of the growing season is sufficient
to have a detrimental effect on tree growth is not known.

Other questions pertaining to the use of small plastic sheets under apple
trees remain to be answered. What is the effect of plastic mulches on the
rooting habit of apple trees? Research with tobacco and other crops has shown
that under plastic mulch, root growth near the surface was appreciably greater
but root extension at deeper levels was not affected.

\-Jhat is the effect of plastic mulches on tree growth? Will the higher
soil temperature under clear plastic have an effect on tree growth in
comparison to black plastic or hay mulch?

Until more is known about plastic for mulching apple trees, it is
suggested that black plastic may be tried under nev<7ly planted trees if
insufficient hay mulch is available to suppress grass and broadleaf weed growth.
After the trees have been established more than a year in the orchard, the
grower has the choice between black plastic, hay mulch or herbicides to con-
trol grass and broadleaf weeds. When hay mulch is available, it remains the
number one recommendation.

* * * *

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Plastic for Mulching Under Apple Trees

William J. Lord

There is grower interest in the use of black plastic as a means of weed
control under apple trees. Black plastic is now available in rolls of individ-
ually serrated squares with each square perforated to facilitate placement
around the tree trunk.

How much of a problem mice will be under the black plastic is not known -

reports have been conflicting in this regard. We are trying to at least obtain

a partial answer to this question in a demonstration experiment comparing black
plastic with hay mulch.

Placement cost will at least equal that of the material assuming that
36" X 36" squares are used. A report from New Jersey indicated that 3 men
were able to place the plastic squares at the rate of thirty trees per hour.
T^^o men placed the squares and a third man covered the edges with soil.

In our mulching demonstration, one man unrolled the plastic and ripped
off the squares. One man ripped the serration in the middle of the square
and placed the plastic around the tree. A third man followed and pinned the
4 corners of each square into the soil by placing the point of a shovel on the
plastic and thrusting it into the soil. Gravel which was hauled into the or-
chard was then placed on the edges of the plastic. Not taking into account
the time necessary to get the gravel, 3 men were able to place 40 plastic

squares in 52 minutes.

Various other methods of laying the plastic are being tried by growers.
One grower placed hay over the plastic. In another instance, short pieces of
wire were bent U-shape and thrust through the plastic to keep it in place.

•/< i< -k i< ■k it

FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRIENT CONTENT OF APPLE FOLIAGE

W.D. Weeks
Department of Horticultural Science

Crop size can have a considerable effect on the quantity of several
elements in apple foliage. Leaves from a tree with a large crop will contain
more nitrogen and less potassium than leaves from a tree with a light crop.
Leaves from a light crop tree may have a leaf nitrogen which is .2 and .3 per
cent lower than the same tree when it has a full crop. Differences in leaf
potassium as great as .4 per cent may occur between heavy and light crop years.
Calcium follows the same trend as nitrogen and exhibits about the same differ-
ence as nitrogen in leaf content between the light and heavy crop year. Leaf
magnesium is slightly higher in a heavy crop than in a light crop year. Crop
size has little, if any, effect on leaf phosphorus.

The relative amount of one element in relation to another may effect the
mineral content of the leaf. For example, leaves which are relatively high in
nitrogen tend to have lower levels of potassium and phosphorus and higher
levels of magnesium and calcium than leaves from trees which have a low to
medium level of nitrogen. High levels of potassium may depress leaf magnesium
and calcium, particularly if the soil supply of magnesium and calcium are low.
However, moderate levels of potassium do not seriously depress magnesium where
there is an adequate supply of magnesium.

Another factor which may influence the leaf content of some elements is
soil moisture or rainfall. Leaf potassium is generally lower in dry growing
seasons than in years with adequate soil moisture. Magnesium is generally
lower in years which have above normal rainfall during the early part of the
growing season. The magnitude of the change in leaf content caused by seasonal
rainfall will depend upon the wetness or dryness of the season and the supply
of nutrients in the soil. Soil moisture extremes, either wet or dry, which
prevent the development of new roots could conceivably reduce the leaf content
of essential elements.

*****

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

JUNE 10, 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Baited Sticky Board Traps for Timing
Apple Maggot Emergence

Safety Booklet

New Common Names for Some Pesticides

Raspberries in Massachusetts,
Past, Present and Future

Save This Date

Pomological Paragraph

Prof. John S. Bailey Retires

Spring Meeting of Approved Farm Stand
Operators

y/i

.'^.

»/»

'^•*

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in firtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 191
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

BAITED STICKY BOARD TRAPS FOR TIMING APPLE MAGGOT EMERGENCE

H. E. Wave

Department of Entomology

and Plant Pathology

A baited sticky board trap suitable for use in determing apple mag-
got fly emergence has been described by George Still in the January-Febru-
ary, 1964, Ohio Farm and Home Research . Twenty-eight percent ammonia* was
used as the attractant. Ordinary household ammonia (4%) can be used also
but this only lasts for a day and has to be replaced every day. The strong-
er ammonia lasts 3-4 days without losing its attractancy.

Figure 1. Sticky board trap with bait
container in place.

The trap is made of 1/8-inch masonite 5 x 6 inches square A 3/8-inch
diameter hole is located in the center of the square ^° f ^^^^^e ammonxa
vanors to attract flies on the opposite side of the panel. Both sides ot jn^
nanelare painted with 2 coats of yellow enamel. The paint gives the panel a
M^ht baelground for observing trapped flies and also provides a smooth surface
for applying the sticky material.

The author of the article states that 2 brands of sticky compounds
are satisfactory for use on the panels. One, "Stickem", is obtainable
in 1-pound containers from local nurseries, hardware stores, or from the
supplier, Michel & Pelton Co., Oakland, California. The other "Bird
Tanglefoot", is available in 1/10 gallon tubes which fit caulking guns.
If a local supplier cannot furnish them, they may be obtained from the
Tanglefoot Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.

The sticky material is applied to both surfaces of the panel with
a putty knife, preferably one with coarse serrations. The panel may be
cleaned of debris and dead insects whenever necessary by scraping with
a smooth blade and washing with xylene or kerosene.

The ammonia is placed in a 2-ounce prescription bottle, obtainable
at drug stores. The bottle is lightly stuffed with absorbent cotton and
wired to the panel so that the cap is just below the hole drilled in the
center of the square (fig. 1) • A l/L|--inch hole is bored through the
plastic top of the bottle to allow the ammonia fumes to escape from the
saturated cotton.

Traps should be placed well up in trees and within the foliage if
possible. Foliage and limbs close enough to the traps to cause rubbing
or sticking in high winds should be removed. The sticky board can be
hung in the tree by attaching wire or string to a hole bored in one cor-
ner and pulling it over a limb or by climbing into the tree to attach it,

To record the earliest apple maggot emergence, traps should be put
in operation by the middle of June in Massachusetts. Depending on
weather, the earliest emergence varies from mid- June to early July.

After counting, the trapped flies should be removed with the point
of a jackknife blade or some other sharp -pointed instrument to prevent
counting the flies again later.

*Twenty-eight percent ammonia is considered a poison and purchasers are
required to sign for it at drug stores.

**************

SAFETY BOOKLET

John F. W. Schulze
Rural Civil Defense Specialist

How experienced is your farm help? How much new help must you hire
each year? Do you depend on teenagers to complete your harvesting crew?

Should your answer to the last question be "yes", there is a safety
booklet for young farm workers available to you in limited numbers. The
publication has been prepared by the U, S. Department of Labor and con-
tains nine pages of suggestions that will help to minimize accidents and
injuries.

It is suggested that each young worker be given a copy of the book-
let to read and keep as a guide in continuing safe work practices. Per-
haps you would like a copy for yourself to use as a reference in instruct-
ing your adult workers.

For your supply of this useful booklet, write to: Mr. John F.W.
Schulze, Chairman, Farm and Home Safety Program Committee, 211 Stock-
bridge Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass. (01003)

**************

NEW COMMON NAMES FOR SOME PESTICIDES

H. E. Wave
C. J. Gilgut

Recently, several pesticides used on fruit were given new common
names. To keep you abreast of these changes, the following list of ac-
cepted common names together with their trade names is provided. Some
of the names in the list are not new but were added to make the list
complete.

Common Name

binapacryl

carbaryl

carbophenothion

demeton

dioxathion

endosulfan

mevinphos

phosphamidon

tetradifon

cap tan

dichlone

dodine

ferbam

folpet
glyodin
karathane
thiram

Trade Name

Morocide

Sevin

Trithion

Systox

Delnav

Thiodan

Phosdrin

Dimecron

Tedion

Captan 50 W, Orthocide

Phygon XL

Cyprex

Fermate, Carbamate, Cremate,

Karbam Black, etc.

Phaltan

Crag Fungicide

Karathane

Thylate

**************

RASPBERRIES IN MASSACHUSETTS
PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

John S, Bailey
Department of Horticultural
Science

A dish of raspberries with a little sugar and cream is a delight
to the palate whether you are a gourmet or not. Why are raspberries
not in larger supply in our markets? Is there any likelihood of their
becoming more plentiful? Let's take a look at the history of raspberry
growing in Massachusetts first, then sum up the present, and look in
our crystal ball to see what the future holds.

In the late teens and early twenties, there was enough of a rasp-
berry industry so that Massachusetts berries were going to market in
considerable quantities. According to the census of Agriculture, in
1920 there were M-81 acres of raspberries in the state from which 934,656
pints were marketed. This industry was based mostly on the variety
Cuthbert, which is a high quality variety still grown to a very limited
extent in very favorable situations. It has two serious weaknesses.
It is very susceptible to virus and to cold injury. It was principally
virus infection, especially the mosaic type, which ruined most fields
of Cuthbert, By the late twenties, the raspberry industry in the state
was definitely on the decline. Growers, those who had the courage to
stick with raspberry growing, were looking for a variety to replace Cuth-
bert, Many varieties have been tried and are still under trial, because
the ideal variety has not been found.

At present, most commercial growers depend on the variety Latham.
It was originated in Minnesota and selected because of its outstanding
cold resistance. It also is slightly more virus tolerant than most
other varieties. Unfortunately, it is very susceptible to spur blight,
a fungus disease for which there is no satisfactory control. The fun-
gus of spur blight often develops near the base of a cane, girdling and
killing it during the winter so that the injury looks like winter kill-
ing. Winter injury, virus and other diseases are not the only problems
of the industry.

Picking raspberries is a slow and often disagreeable job. As the
economy went into an upward trend, pickers became more difficult to ob-
tain and they demanded higher wages, thus increasing the cost of pro-
duction. Also, raspberries are a very perishable fruit. A little mois-
ture in the container and the berries mold and break down in a few hours,
Tl-ie result is a messy, unsaleable product.

All these troubles have harassed the industry to the point where
many growers have stopped growing raspberries. In 1960, the few who
still persisted had 68 acres which produced 78,768 pints, about 8,5%
of the 1920 crop. Thus, it is obvious that raspberry growing is at a
very low ebb in the state. Most of the plantings are small, an acre or
less. The demand for raspberries is still good but has to be satisfied
mostly by frozen fruit or fruit shipped in from other states.

- b

Predicting the future of raspberry growing in Massachusetts is
about as certain as predicting the weather years in advance. However,
there are some practices, some results of research and some trends that
point to a better future for the raspberry grower in Massachusetts.

First is the control of virus troubles. For several years. Dr. R.
H. Converse of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture has been working on the
raspberry virus problem. By persistent search and special methods, he
has collect 28 varieties of red raspberries free of virus. At present,
only a small supply of a few of these varieties has been distributed to
nurseries for multiplication and distribution. Very few growers will
be able to get these superior stocks in 1964, but in a year or two after
the supply has been built up in nurseries, plants of most desirable var-
ieties should be available. The problem of keeping the^e superior stocks
virus free in commercial plantings has not been solved, but the grower
will be able to start a planting with far better plants than have been
available for a long time.

The problem of cold injury will not be solved but may be somewhat
alleviated by the use of virus free plants. The cold resistance of vi-
rus free compared with virus infected plants will have to be determined
by research, but one would expect healthy plants to stand more cold
than sick ones.

The use of chemical weed control is a promising method for reduc-
ing the requirements for labor and thus the cost of production. Spec.
Cir. 215 of the Massachusetts Agr. Extension service gives the details
for the chemical weeding of raspberries.

With the increase in the overall prosperity of the country, the
problem of obtaining pickers becomes increasingly difficult. Some of
the Massachusetts growers have solved this by adopting the "pick-your-
own" system of marketing. This system not only eliminates the necess-
ity for obtaining pickers, but it solves one of the worst marketing
problems, getting the fruit into the hands of the consumer in good con-
dition.

There is a development which gives promise of assisting in getting
raspberries to market in good condition. A chemical, dihydroacetic
acid, has been used to retard the growth of molds on berries. It does
not eliminate mold but slows its growth so that the fruit has a much ^
better chance of reaching the consumer in good condition. This chemi-
cal could be helpful where berries are marketed at a roadside stand.

It is very unlikely that any sizeable raspberry industry will de-
velop again in Massachusetts. However, for the grower who has a favor-
able locatjon near even one of the smaller centers of population, the
prospects for successfully handling an acre or so of red raspberries is
brighter.

SAVE THIS DATE

The annual summer meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers'

Association in cooperation
with the Cooperative Exten-
sion Service, College of
Agriculture, University of
Massachusetts, will be held
at the Horticultural Research
Center at Belchertown, on
July 15.

One of the projects at
the Research Center has been
top working some Baldwin trees
to Red Delicious in order to
have sufficient fruit of this
variety for storage studies.
Walter Weeks and George Olanyk
are shown doing the top working.

**************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Mechanical Harvesting of Strawberries

In a talk presented at the 68th annual meeting of the Virginia
State Horticultural Society, David Friday of the Friday Tractor Company,
Hartford, Michigan, stated that they have been working on the mechanical
harvesting of strawberries for ten years and have made little or no
progress. David Friday was of the opinion that--

"It will take a new variety that has all of its berries ripe at one
time, and the fruit tough enough so that the patch can be combined all
at once.

We had one of Dr. Scott's experimental seedlings (USDA) out of
thousands on our farm last year that had 50 per cent of its berries ready
to pick at one time, but this is not enough. This means that in 10 years,
if you want strawberries to eat, you will have to pick them yourself.
Unless there is a breakthrough in mechanical harvesting, some of these
high harvest labor crops will be mainly grown around large population cen-
ters and offered in pick-yourself patches. This trend is already in prog-
ress around Chicago, Cleveland and Detroit."

Editor's Note - The "pick your own" method of harvesting strawberries has
kept a number of Massachusetts growers in business during the last sever-
al years. With the introduction of virus free raspberry plants and bet-
ter weed control materials, growers may find the growing of this crop
profitable if they are sold by this method also.

**************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH
Northwest Fruit Industry

At the 68th Annual Meeting of the Virginia State Horticultural
Society, Dr. L. P. Batjer, U.S.D.A., Wenatchee, Washington, stated
"the newest development in the Northwest fruit industry is the real-
ization that we have too many apple trees". A tree census conducted
in 1961 revealed that Washington has 5.1 million apple trees which rep-
resents a 66 per cent increase over the number of trees in 1949. Of
these, 71 per cent of the Red Delicious trees and 87 per cent of the
Golden Delicious trees are under 10 years old.

The average apple crop in Washington for the past ten years was
21 million boxes. Batjer estimates that within 5 to 10 years an aver-
age crop will be 34 million boxes, a 65 per cent increase.

-- William J. Lord
***************

PROF. JOHN S. BAILEY RETIRES

Professor John S. Bailey, Associate Professor of Research, Depart-
ment of Horticultural Science, retires on June 30, after 41 years of
service to the University and the fruit growers.

Born in East Aurora, New York, he was raised in Lakewood, Ohio.
He received his B.S. in 1922 from Michigan State College and qn M.S.
from lowas State College in 1923. Prof. Bailey did further graduate
study at Cornell University from 1926-1927.

Prof. Bailey joined the staff of the Massachusetts Agricultural Col-
lege at Amherst in 1923 as an Investigator in Pomology. He was advanced
to Assistant Professor in 1926 and to Associate Professor in 1952.

Between the years of 1952 and 1958, he was headquartered at the
Cranberry Field Station at Wareham, Massachusetts, where he conducted
research on strawberries, blueberries and beach plums. During the sum-
mer of 1957, he took a 6 months sabbatical and made a special study of
small fruit growing on the west coast from Southern California to Brit-
ish Columbia, Canada.

His intensive study of the inheritance of certain fruit and foliage
characters in peach trees from 1924 to 1949 led to the start of a chrom-
osome map for peaches. Later he became well ]<nown for his research with
small fruit. He has published research on the propagation, nutrition
and pruning of cultivated blueberries, and winter hardiness of raspberries.
His research results were instrumental in obtaining grower acceptance of
virus-free strawberry plants, soil fumigation for strawberries and chem-
ical weed control in small fruits. Prof. Bailey has published over 50
papers in technical journals and Extension Service Publications.

He holds membership in the American Society for Horticultural Science,
Alpha Zeta and Sigma Xi.

**************

SPRING MEETING OF APPROVED FARM STAND OPERATORS

Fred E. Cole
Inspector, Approved Farm Stand Program

The annual spring meeting of the Approved Farm Stand Program members
was held on May 20th, at the Red Apple Farm in Phillipston, at which time
there was a free exchange of ideas and discussion of selling at farm stands.
The following are notes from general discussion.

Red Apple Farm wipes all apples. Considered it a sales advantage.
The wiping of apples is gaining in practice.

Box liners of fix.n are in use for Golden Delicious, Russets and pears.
The extra weight at packing time pays for the film bag.

There was a reported tendency to shift from 8 qt. packages to 4 qt.
packages on some stands.

The question of weight rather than measure for retail packages was dis-
cussed at length. Conclusions seemed to be to stay with measure for several
important reasons from standpoint of roadside sales.

The advantage of choice of variety, size of packs and size and grade of
apples on Approved Farm Stands was considered a substantial sales advantage.

Jams and jellies are moving OK. There seemed to be some items which
moved faster than others and orders are being trimmed accordingly. Fruit
syrups - Blackberry, Blueberry, Strawberry - are "taking hold". Maple
products and honey are continuing popular,

Apple sectioner is a good item. There is need for a good apple corer.

Mrs, Clieney explained the use of the recipe of "Open-faced Mcintosh
Sandwich" on radio and TV.

The annual debate as to whether radio or newspaper ads were most help-
ful was carried on with newspapers getting the edge. Local differences
were apparent.

Product Liability Insurance was considered a necessity by some operators,

There was some discussion regarding the proposed shortening of the "CA"
storage period with the concensus of opinion in favor of maintaining present
requirements and not for taking the risk of losing present advantages.

A motion was made by Charles Dowse, of Sherbon, seconded by Walker
Cheney of Brimfield, and voted unanimously as follows:

"All drops shall be marked as to grade or marked "Unclassified"
but the term 'drops" may be used with the name of the variety
in addition to the above requirement' . A typical mark for drops
might be 'Mcintosh Drops, U.S. Utility' . The grade designation
provides a minimum standard for apples in the pack.

y -

The group discussed the desirability of any change in the rules and
regulations of the Approved Farm Stand Program and made no changes other
than the one above regarding the use of the term "drops". The existing
rules were working satisfactorily and profitably.

**************

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered
and cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and
regulations. Chapter 727, Acts of 1950, Commonwealth of Massachusetts
requires that all pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered with the
Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Trade names, where used for
clearness, do not indicate endorsement nor imply that similar products
are not satisfactory.

warning: most pesticides are poisonous, read and follow all
directions and safety precautions on labels. handle carefully and store
out of reach of children, pets and livestock.

FRUIT NOTES

Prepored by Pomology Staff, Deportment of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

JULY TO, T964

TABLE OF CCNTENTS

Increased Blueberry Profits: A Speculation

New Staff Members

Pomological Paragraph

Mechanical Harvesting of Blueberries

Pomological Paragraph

The Economics of Irrigating Apples in
the Hudson Valley

Pomological Paragraph

Annual Summer Meeting

'^•

IM^

r«,i':^^

^m.

'■A''

'^^

Uiued by the Cooperative Extension Servi.-.f , A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, Unit-rd States L)epartment of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
P'jbllcation At.proved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

»yt 0-p-ni!rophenyl thiophosp^
P«tro!sum Derivaflvd Solvent ..
ih ..... _..._

Setting Point - W* C.
»« 3 pounds DDT per gallon.
mm m pounds Methyl Parathion per gesw^

Jlt-^ ENTIRE LABEL. USE STRICTLY IN ACCORjj
ANCE WITH LABEL CAUTIONS, WARNINGS ANt^
R CTIONS; AND IN CONFORMITY WITH FED
_^^AL AND STATE REGULATIONS.

^ WARM AREA. PROTfc

DISCARDING THIS CONTAINeSJ.
I'^sTAaESPOONFUtS CAUSTi'"
ASHING SODA (SODi

WFR W!TH

The most important 21 words in pest control

You see those 21 words— or words like
them — on every pesticide container
you buy. They're the whole key to
pesticide performance.

It takes thousands of hours of test-
ing to come up with label directions.
Laboratory and field tests conducted
by professional chemists and agricul-
tural scientists. Tests that have to
meet the most stringent standards of
government agencies.

But the important thing is what
happens when you use the product.
Those thousands of hours of tests
behind the label directions have but
one purpose: to help you get the
safest, most effective and economical

pest control possible. And following
those directions is the only way to
make sure you're getting it. That's
why it's so important to read and
understand the label before using
any chemical product.

NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS ASSOCIATION
1145 Nineteenth Street, N.W. Washington 6, D.C.

INCREASED BLUEBERRY PROFITS: A SPECULATION

J. S. Bailey
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

With some people, speculation is a popular pastime. Like most
speculators, we shall not be any richer, but we may be wiser.

Birds like blueberries. In fact, the birds like them so well
that getting the berries first has become a serious grower problem.
If he picks early, he sacrifices both quality and quantity. If he
waits, tbe bushes must be covered with some kind of netting or a large
part of the crop will be lost. Covering the bushes is very expensive.
Can this cost be recovered?

Let's look at some figures and do some figuring. In 1957, Dr.
Shutak and his associates published some interesting figures on blue-
berry development. They tagged berries and measured the volume when
they turned blue and again after 3 and 6 days. Here are their figures:

Increase in Volume after Development of Blue Coloration of Highbush
Blueberries

Volume

Percent

Quarts

Variety

No.

Days

Increase

Volume

Increase per

fr(

3m Blue

Ccu . mm)

Increase

1000 Ots.

Bluecrop

280.3

18.3

183

Bluecrop

580.0

38.2

382

Ivanhoe

256.3

18.4

184

Ivanhoe

464.2

29.6

296

Earliblue

276.1

26.3

263

Pemberton

292.4

18.5

185

Dixi

578.5

11.1

111

Now, let's do the figuring. Leaving the Bluecrop berries on the
bushes 3 days after they turned blue increased the crop by 183 quarts
for every 1000 quarts picked. If your yield is about average, 3000
quarts per acre, the increase from delayed picking is 3 x 183=549 quarts
or 1098 pints. At 3 pints for a dollar, the added income amounts to
$3 66. If picking is delayed 6 days, the increased return is even more
startling - $764 per acre.

Now, how much are you losing, if the bushes are not covered? Let's
assume the birds get 25 per cent of the crop, a conservative figure in
some cases. Then the birds get 750 of those 3000 quarts or 1500 pints.
At 3 pints for a dollar, that's $500.

So you cover the bushes:

Saved 1500 pints (D 3 for $1 $ 500

Leaving the berries 6 days to size up 764

TOTAL Savings to OFFSET Netting Cost $ 1264

Fantastic? Probably I Even if you cut that figure in half, it
would go quite a way toward paying for covering the bushes with netting.

********

NEW STAFF MEM]:!(:RS

Franklin W. Southwiek

Head, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

During the winter and spring we actively searched for well trained
young men to fill positions which became available in the Department of
Horticultural Science through retirement of former staff members. Three
positions were available and all of these have now been filled. A brief
description of the training and interests of the men who have accepted
these positions follows.

Dr. Allen V. Barker - Dr. Barker was born and attended higli school
in McLeansboro, Illinois. He did his undergraduate work at the Univer-
sity of Illinois in Agricultural Science and graduated with high honors
in 1958.

He continued his studies at Cornell University where he majored in
soil science and minored in plant physiology and biochemistry and obtained
his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in 1959 and 1962, respectively. His tliesis
work, under the direction of Dr. Richard Bradf ield , was concerned with the
influence of potassium and nitrogen on the growth and composition of corn
plants.

In 1962 Dr. Barker was appointed a Post-Doctoral Fellow at North Car-
olina State College in the Department of Soils, where he has been working
with Drs. W. A. Jackson and R. J. Volk on plant physiological problems.
His most recent work is related to the effects of NHlj on photosynthesis,
respiration and growth of plants.

Dr. Barker's background in soil science plus his interest in plant
nutrition and other physiological problems should make him a very valuable
addition to the new Plant and Soil Sciences Department (combined Horticul-
tural Science and Agronomy Departments) being established July 1, 196t+.
He joins our staff on July 1, 1964.

Dr. William J. Bramlage - Dr. Bramlage is a native of Ohio and went
to high school in Dayton. He graduated with honors from Ohio State Uni-
versity in 1959. At Ohio State he majored in Hort i.cu i ciirp witu a n^i.Too
interest in tree fruits.

Dr. Bramlage continued his studies at the University of Maryland
under the direction of Dr. Arthur Thompson. His thesis work at Mary-
land i\/as related to the influence of early-season boron sprays on fruit
color, finish, maturity and storage life of apples and on carboliydrate
changes and enzyme activity in the fruits. This work has recently been
published in Maryland Agricultural Station Bulletin A-129, 1963. Dr.
Bramlage majored in Horticulture at Maryland and minored in plant physi-
ology, biometrics and biochemistry and received his M.S. and Ph.D. de-
grees in 1961 and 1963 respectively.

Following receipt of his Ph.D., Dr. Bramlage has been employed at
the U.S. Horticultural Field Station, Agricultural Marketing Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fresno, California. At Fresno, Dr.
Bramlage has been concerned with the evaluation of gamma radiation as
a means of reducing losses of fruits and vegetables during storage and
marketing.

We antit'ipn Ic IhjiL Dr. I'.iMin I age will make s isni I'.ican I. (!on Lr\i hii I i mis
to our L"eacli.1n,t!; aiul rt'searc-h progi\Tni.s .in the area of pos t-iiarvest pliysi-
ology of ecMiiioniie crops. lie joins our staff .Tiiiy 1 , l')6i|.

Dr. If. V. l^arsh, Jr. - Dr. i^arsh was brought up in tlie local Con-
necticul: Valley area, and obtained his precollege education at Deerfield
Academy. At the University of IMlassachusetts he was a chemistry major
and graduated with a B.S. degree in 195'^ After a period in the Armed
Services, ho continued his education at the University of IMassachuset ts
in horticulture with a minor in botany and obtained his IM.S. degree in
1958. His I^.S. degree work provided substantial evidence that seed abor-
tion was not a necessity nor the basic mechanism causing young apple
abscission following an application of NAA (naphthalene acetic acid)
shortly after petal-fall.

He continued his graduate work at North Carolina State in plant
physiology and biochemistry under Dr. Harold Evans (now at Oregon State
University) . His work at North Carolina State involved an investigation
of the role of iron in chlorophyll metabolism. Dr. Marsh received his
Ph.D. in 1961 and then spent a summer at Brookhaven National Laboratory
at Upton, L.I., in the laboratory of Dr. Robert SmilJie, where he studied
an enzyme which functions in both photosynthesis and carbohydrate break-
down.

In the fall of 1961, he accepted a post-doctoral appointment in the
Biochemistry Department of Cornell University under Dr. Martin Gibbs.
During a two-year period at Cornell he worked with a group attempting to
establish definitive evidence as to whether or not the citric acid cycle
operates in plants. For the past year Dr. Marsh has been employed at the
Research Laboratories of the United Fruit Company at Noi^wood , Mass.

Dr. Marsh has the training and interest to initiate basic research
programs dealing with plant response. He has already indicated a desire
to study the mechanisms involved in abscission of young apple fruits fol-
lowing application of growth regulators, such as NAA for apple thinning.
He'll join our staff sometime in September, 1964.

********

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

X-Disease - Cornell Extension Bulletin 1100 titled "X-Disease of Peach
and Cherry Trees and Its Control" is a publication that should be of in-
terest to peach growers. In addition to a discussion of X-Disease and
its control, the publication contains some excellent photographs which
aid in identifying chokecherry.

By sending 20 cents, a copy may be obtained from the Cooperative
Extension Service, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

- - William J. Lord

A * ******

MECHANICAL HARVESTING OF BLUEBERRIES

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The followin-r is an article taken from Agricultural Research Volume
12, No. 8, February, 196^1 :

"Some agricultural leaders predict that fruit crops not harvested
mechanically will someday be of minor importance, grown only as
specialty items.

ARS and State agricultural engineers are working to prevent this
from happening with blueberries. In cooperative research at Mich-
igan State University, East Lansing, ARS engineers G. E. Monroe
and J. H. Levin have developed an experimental machine that will
harvest cultivated blueberries at less that 1 cent a pound for labor.

Three men and a harvester that incorporates the principles of the
experimental unit should be able to do the work of 120 men harvest-
ing by hand. One man would drive the machine while two handle ber-
ries.

The experimental unit consists of two rotating spindles, mounted
vertically on a steel frame, that straddle a row of blueberry bushes.
Each spindle has 160 vibrating 'fingers'.

As the unit moves down a row, the spindles rotate like giant turn-
stiles, moving the vibrating fingers in and out of the bushes.
Mature blueberries are shaken off the plants and caught in wooden
boxes carried at the base of the machine.

Blueberries ripen over a 4 to 6 week period and three harvests are
usually necessary to get most of the fruit. Because of the extended
harvest season, hand pickers usually make only one or two harvests,
then move on to other crops. As a result, tons of fruit often go
unharvested. The new harvester should eliminate this problem and
thus enable growers to market a far larger crop of cultivated blue-
berries .

Experience hand pickers, who earn about 8 cents a pound, harvest
less than half an acre of blueberries in 8 hours. In contrast, the
machine can harvest more than half an acre in only 1 hour.

The development of the experimental machine is another step toward
mechanization of fruit harvesting. In 1958, Levin and two other
ARS engineers at Michigan, S. L. Hedden and H. P. Gaston, developed
a hand-held, electrically operated vibrator and catching frame that
cut the cost of harvesting blueberries to 3 . 5 cents a pound.

Last summer, the hand-held equipment was used to harvest about 3 5
percent of Michigan's blueberry crop and 20 percent of the New
Jersey crop. These two States produce about 70 percent of all U.S.
cultivated blueberries."

********

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Hot Water Treatment of Peaches - Research conducted by personnel of the
Agricultural Marketing Service indicates that hot watei" shows promise
as a control of fruit and vegetable spoilage. Treatment in water at
130 F. for 2 to 3 minutes reduced decay of peaches to a small fraction
of the amount present in untreated peaches.

- - William J. Lord
********

THE ECONOMICS OF IRRIGATING APPLES
IN THE HUDSON VALLEY

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

C. G. Forshey, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Hud-
son Valley Laboratory, Highland and B. A. Dominick, Jr., Department' of
Agricultural Economics, Ithaca, in the January-February issue of Farm
Research presented their analysis of the Economics of Irrigating Apples
in the Hudson Valley. The information presented was based on data ob-
tained from an apple irrigation project conducted in the Hudson Valley
since 1955.

The article is of particular interest since irrigation studies on
apples was conducted in a Massachusetts orchard from 1956 to 1962,
inclusive. In the Massachusetts investigation, the orchard was irrigated
in 1957 and 1962, but a fruit growth response was obtained only in 1957.
The orchard selected for the study was located on a soil with only 0.7
to 1.9 inch per foot moisture holding capacity. The majority of Massachu-
setts orchards are located on drumlins or drumloid hills with soils having
an estimated available moisture holding capacity of more than 1.5 inches
per foot of soil to a depth of 3 or 4 feet or more. Therefore, the value
of irrigation of Mcintosh orchards located on the better soils in Massa-
chusetts is highly questionable. Irrigation may be of value only in years
of limited rainfall in orchards on soils of low water holding capacity
and/or where trees are shallow rooted .

Forsheys' and Dominicks' economic analysis of irrigating apples in
the Hudson Valley is as follows :

"Both experimental evidence and practical experience have indicated
that the success of irrigation of apples is dependent upon four fac-
tors :

Soil type - Apples will size surprisingly well on a good deep
loam even during the driest years. It is the shallow and
coarse textured soils that will be most responsive. For rea-
sonable returns, appreciable acreage must be located on soils
such as Hoosic gravelly loam or Cossayuna sandy or gravelly
loam.

- 6 -

Equipment - To irrigate efficiently, the grower should have
sufficient pipe to cover 2 to 3 acres, depending on the dis-
tance from water supply, and a pump to deliver a minimum of
one-half inch per hour to this acreage. Less pipe or less
power greatly increases the cost per acre inch and reduces
the acreage that can be covered.

Water supply - If irrigation is to be undertaken seriously,
there should be enough water to apply 12 inches to 30 acres,
or more, in even the driest years . This requires 7.5 million
gallons.

Varieties - The increase in yieJ.d that can be expected is not
enough to support this expensive operation. Sales value of the
fruit must also be increased. This requires more of a price
differential between sizes than $2.00 appJes will provide.

Assuming that all of the above conditions are satisfactorily
met, the response to supplemental irrigation will then be dependent
upon rainfall. That the practice might be highly profitable in very
dry years like 1962 is generally conceded. The practical question
that arises is, what happens to this profit when it is spread over
the intervening years when irrigation is unnecessary or unprofitable?

In computing the cost of irrigation, interest and depreciation
were charged on the basis of the average number of hours the equip-
ment might be operated per year. Using the number of days during
the growing season that soil moisture was below the critical level,
and assuming that an alert grower would want to irrigate almost every
day that such conditions prevailed, it appears that the equipment
might be used more than 600 hours in years like 1957 and 1962, or it
might not be needed at all, as was the case in 1956, 1959, and 1960.
But the annual average for the 9 years 1955 - 1963 was approximately
200 hours.

The response of Delicious apples to irrigation in 1962 is pre-
sented in Table 1.

Table 1. - The Effect of Irrigation on Size and Yield of
Delicious Apples - 1962

Fruit size - percent of total

Less than Yield - field

Treatment 2h in. 2% - 3 in. 3 in. and up boxes per tree

Unirrigated 33.4 66.6 16.1

Irrigated 17.8 76.9 5^^3 18.3

The response to irrigation obtained with Delicious in 1962
showed a net return per acre of $162. The added income was derived
from two sources; more bushels of apples and larger-sized apples.
After allowing for utilities and wastage, the volume of apples har-
vested and sold from the irrigated orchard increased 14- percent
compared with the unirrigated block. Irrigation resulted in 40 per-

- 7

cent more bushels of apples of size 2^ inches and larger and nO per-
cent fewer bushels of apples smaller than 2% inches in diameter.
Tliis increase in size of individual apples as well as the added num-
ber of bushels contributed to the increased net returns. This is
typical of response to Irrigation in this area. Increases in number
of bushels picked are usually rather modest. Increased returns will
be realized only if the variety irrigated is one with a substantial
price differential between sizes.

During the period under study (1955 - 1963), irrigation of apples
was profitable in the Hudson Valley only during 1952 and 1957. The
net return from irrigating Golden Delicious in 1957 was $] 57 per acre.
Therefore, the total return for the past 9 years would amount to
$319 per acre. However, if optimum soil moisture conditions had been
maintained throughout each of these growing seasons, it would have
been necessary to apply some water in 1955, 1958, 1961, and 1963.
This would have required a total of 21 inches. These unproductive
efforts add $12 5 to the costs and reduce the net return to $194.

Interest and depreciation amount to $900 per year. The average
net return for the two profitable years was $160 per acre. Assuming
that the previously mentioned conditions of soil, equipment, water
supply, and variety are satisfied, irrigation equipment would pay for
itself if the response in the order of that in 1957 and 1962 could
be obtained on about 3 5 acres or more as frequently as once in 5 years.
Added net returns would be possible with a more favorable response
such as more bushels of apples, greater size changes, larger price
premiums between sizes or by irrigating, more acres of bearing apples."

********

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Reducing Load of Fruit on the Leader of Trees on Size Controlling Stock -
Growers should avoid allowing too many fruit to develop on the leader
of trees on size controlling rootstocks. In fact, in some areas it is
recommended that fruit should be removed from the trees until the fourth
year. Then for the succeeding year or two, depending upon tree size,
the removal of fruit from the leader should be continued.

********

ANNUAL SUiMMER MEETING

of the

MASSACHUSETTS FRUIT GROWERS ASSOCIATION

in Cooperation with the

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS

Horticultural Research Center, Univ. of Mass., Belchertown*

Wednesday July 15, 1964-

10:00 A.M. Tour of the Research Center plantings and its present
facilities.

12:00 Noon Sandwiches, Coffee, Cold Drinks and Ice Cream will be served
by the Women's Auxiliary of the Belchertown American
Legion, Post 239.

1:30 P.M. A Word of Welcome - M.F.G.A. President Charles A. Dowse, Jr.

1:35 P.M. Progress Report of the New England Apple Council - William
Doe and William Hermann

1:50 P.M. The Fruit Grower and his Labor Problem - Philip Good,

Executive Secretary-Treasurer, Massachusetts Farm Bureau
Federation

2:30 P.M. Increasing Apple Harvest Efficiency - Dr. Howard A. Rollin, Jr.
Horticulturist, V.P.I. , Virginia

3:15 P.M. Crop Estimate for 195^1 - Warren Clapp, Massachusetts
Department of Agriculture

3:25 P.M. Insect Control Problems from Now until Harvest -
Dr. Herbert Wave, University of Massachusetts

*Directions: - From Belchertown center, proceed on Route 181 about 2.5
miles toward Palmer, bear left on Mt. Sears Road (Cold
Spring Road on some maps) 0.7 miles to Sabin Street,
bear left to the Research Center. If approaching
Belchertown from Palmer, take Route 181 from Route 20.

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Deportment of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massochusetts, Amherst

AUGUST-SEPTEMBER 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

For MORE Customers - Have FEWER Flies

Pomological Paragraph

Mechanizing the Harvesting and Handling of Apples

Pomological Paragraph

Direct From Tree To You

Pomological Paragraph

:U;J\

-^«

Issued by the Coop- alive Extension Servi. e, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, In firtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30 1914-
University of Mas-iachusetts. United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE

Available upon request through your County Extension Service or
by writing to the mailing room, University of Massachusetts, are the
following publications:

Special Circular No. 254 - Preharvest Drop Control of Apples

Special Circular No. 246 - Be A Better Apple Picker

Special Circular No. 246A - Be A Better Apple Picker (Spanish
Translation)

Special Circular No. 277 - Scald Control for Apples

Extension Publication 422 - Proceedings of the New England - New
York Controlled Atmosphere Storage Seminar

********

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are regis-
tered and cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal
laws and regulations. Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Mass-
achusetts requires that all pesticides sold in Massachusetts be regis-
tered with the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Trade names,
where used for clearness, do not indicate endorsement nor imply that
similar products are not satisfactory.

WARNING! MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL
DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND
STORE OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

For MORE Customers - Have FEWER Flies

E. H. Wheeler
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology

Flies do NOT attract customers, but many roadside and farm stands
and cider pressed DO attract flies.

You, Mr, Owner or Operator, can DO SOMETHING ABOUT IT.

1- CLEAN UP and KEEP CLEAN!

Flies are attracted to moisture - especially juices from fruits,
vegetables, milk, eggs, and meats. Fruit pomace and any decaying
fruit, vegetable or meat scraps are attractive to flies. Even
small amounts, if moist, may be a breeding ground for more flies.

Provide tight containers with tight covers such as galvanized cans
for wastes. Stand them on a hard, easily cleaned surface. Empty
waste containers and clean them every day. Bury or burn the
wastes immediately - flies travel farther than you may think pos-
sible.

Clean out and remove empty boxes, baskets, cartons, etc. Store
them as far from the stand or mill as possible. A dump out back
may be out of sight, but the flies it attracts and breeds will be
out front in full view.

2. SCREENS are WORTHWHILE.

Screen insects out wherever possible. For the tiny fruit flies
it helps greatly to paint screening with an oil solution of 1%
diazinon.

3. USE RESIDUAL INSECTICIDES ON SURFACES!

Apply residual materials to all surfaces on which flies commonly
rest in and around the stand or mill; include nearby fences,
refuse areas, etc. AVOID contamination of edible products and
ecruipment .

Wettable powders leave a visible deposit; emulsifiable concentrates
diluted with water do not; oil solutions are not diluted and leave
no visible deposit.

Emulsifiable liquid concentrates of ronnel (Korlan) , dimethoate
(Cygon) and diazinon are most suitable and effective for long
lasting residual applications. Malathion and naled (Dibrom) re-
main effective for just a few days. Follow all directions on con-
tainer labels for correct dilution and precautions in use.

- 2 -

4. BAITS SUPPLEMENT other MEASURES to control the HOUSE FLY.

Baits containing dichlorvos (DDVP) , trichlorfon (Dipterex) , diaz-
inon or malathion are available under many brand names. Use them
sparingly, but frequently, on all horizontal dry surfaces in or
around the stand or mill where flies tend to gather. Bait sprays
may be prepared and used according to directions on the labels of
ronnel, dimethoate and diazinon.

5. SPACE TREATMENTS ESSENTIAL TOOI

Stands and cider mills that can be closed up completely or enough
to prevent cross ventilation may be "space treated" with a finely
atomized spray or aerosol. All flies then in the building should
be killed by the treatment; there is no_ residual effect.

Apply space treatments at closing time and at other times as op-
erations permit and the number of flies make it desirable. COVER
FOOD and FOOD HANDLING EQUIPMENT.

Pyrethrin or allethrin, each synergized by materials like piperonyl
butoxide, sulfoxide or others, are the chief killing agents. Some
products contain methoxychlor or other materials. Extra care to
prevent contamination of food or equipment must be used if insecti-
cides other than pyrethrins or allethrin are included in the pro-
duct.

Apply space treatments by using oil based pyrethrin or allethrin
"fly sprays" in hand or electrically operated atomizers or by using
aerosol "bombs". Large (5 lb.) bombs are less expensive than
smaller types if used according to directions. Otherv\7ise the
smaller types may be just as convenient and no more costly.

Read the list of "active ingredients" to get what you want. Fol-
low "directions for use" to do the best job safely.

Try resin strips containing 20% dichlorvos (DDVP,Vapona) if you can
reduce ventilation at least part of the time. Determine the space
and follow directions so as to obtain an effective concentration
of vapor.

6. FANS HELP

Fans that direct a current of air across displays may help greatly
to keep flies off those products especially attractive to them.
"Curtains" of moving air currents directed across doorways from
inside or above will reduce the number of flies which enter.

BUT

Without your complete attention to NO. 1, you cannot expect the
suggestions under No.'s 2, 3, '+, and 5 to solve your fly problem.

* ****** *

- 3 -

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

CA Storage Hazard - The June 18, 1963 issue of Produce News carried a
story about two men that nearly lost their lives by wandering into a
CA room. The storage manager stated that the room was well marked and
the reasons for danger stated.

Let's prevent this happening in Massachusetts! Apparently signs
will not do the job.

- - William J. Lord
********

MECHANIZING THE HARVESTING AND HANDLING OF APPLES

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Most efficiencies in apple production have been made in the grow-
ing, storage and selling operations. As a result, harvesting costs
make up a large share of the total cost of raising apples. A study of
49 apple enterprises in Ulster County, New York, in 1962, showed that
harvesting costs averaged approximately 45 cents per bushel where yields
were about 350 bushels per acre. (Fruit-Farm Management Letter, No. 9,
March 24, 1963 - B. F. Stanton and B. A. Dominick, Jr. , Department of
Agricultural Economics, Cornell University)

Picking costs were approximately 40 per cent of the total cost of
harvesting. Other harvest labor, including such jobs as distributing
boxes prior to harvest, leveling boxes, hauling fruit to storage, and
supervision of labor crews accounted for 30 per cent of the harvest
costs. The other cost items were: harvest equipment - 2 per cent,
housing labor - 5 per cent, truck and tractor - 6 per cent, and con-
tainers - 17 per cent.

Stantons' and Dominicks' studies show that approximately 70 per
cent of the harvest cost is labor. The increasing difficulty of obtaining
labor and the high cost when it is available is a problem of increasing
magnitude in all agriculture.

Research on Mechanization of Fruit Harvest

Research on mechanizing the harvesting and handling of fruits has
in(!reased many fold the last 10 to 15 years. Today, studies are current-
ly being conducted on the mechanical handling and harvesting of apples,
peaches, apricots, prunes, dates, citrus, grapes, and blueberries.

A. R. S. Special Report, United States Department of Agriculture,
22-88 published in February, 1964 discusses the progress that research

_ ^. ..

is making to mechanize the harvesting and handling of fruits. A few
of the examples cited in this publication are as follows: "During 1962,
about 2 million i^ounds of sour cherries were harvested mechanically at
a cost approxima cely % cent per pound against 3 cents per pound usually
paid handpickers." "Compared to handpicking, mechanically harvesting
Stanley Prune plums saves the grower about 23 cents per bushel." "One
man can mechanically harvest as many blueberries as six handpickers and
six men can harvest as many cherries as 33 handpickers."

Growers have constructed and tried apple picking aids of various
types for many years: stilts, mobile ladders, and platforms, and hy-
draulic lifts, etc. The platforms and lifts are in use by some growers
for pruning and thinning in addition to picking. Growers' use, however,
has been limited because many of these devices have failed to perform
the necessary functions satisfactorily and economically.

Use of Mobile Towers Studied in Virginia

Dr. Howard Rollins, Jr. reported on the use of mobile towers in
Virginia during the fall of 1963 (Proceedings of the 68th Virginia
State Horticultural Society). He is quoted directly as follows: "Two
different types of mobile orchard towers were used in 1963 studies. One,
referred to as the "wish basket", is manufactured by the Friday Tractor
Company of Hartford, Michigan. It is a tractor drawn unit with hydraulic
controls powered by a tractor -powered ptimp. The man in the basket is
able to place himself anywhere in the tree that he might wish. The
equipment is basically designed for pruning. To adapt it to harvesting,
a two and a half bushel bucket was fitted to the front of the basket.
The bucket contained a bladder which was gradually deflated allowing
the fruit to settle slowly to the bottom of the container. A trailer
carrying bulk bins was drawn behind the "wish basket", and the picker,
upon filling the two and a half bushel basket, maneuvered himself to
the bulk bin and released the fruit.

The second mobile tower included in the test was manufactured by
the Edwards Equipment Company of Yakima, Washington, and is referred
to as the "Dynasoar". It is a self-propelled mobile unit. The "Dyna-
soar" tower was fitted with a specially constructed conveyer system and
automatic bulk bin filler by Dr. Cunningham and Mr. Pfost in order to
provide a means of continually moving fruit from the picker.

In order to evaluate the potentials of the mobile orchard towers,
a detailed comparison of the ability of a picker to harvest fruit using
each of the two towers and a conventional ladder was made. A total of
13 5 trees were harvested during the course of the tests. Each of the
three pickers harvested 15 trees with each of the three methods. Each
step of the harvest operation was timed with a stop watch. Fruit samples
were collected and later appraised for bruising.

A critical evaluation of the data revealed that under the condi-
tions of this test the use of mobile orchard towers did not increase
the efficiency of the pickers. In fact, their rate of picking was slow-

er with the mobile orchard towers than with conventional ladders. It
is believed that with additional operator experience, better adopted
orchard conditions, and refinements in the equipment, the efficiency
of the picker could be improved. However, even with these improvements,
it is doubtful that the equipment would be practical in the harvest
operation.

The fruit picked with the "Dynasoar" showed less bruising and the
fruit picked with the "wish basket" more bruising than fruit picked by
conventional ladder methods. However, the differences were not suffi-
cient to be major factors in the evaluation of this particular test.

On the basis of the 1963 results, there appears to be little prom-
ise in the use of mobile orchard towers to ease the harvest labor require-
ments. It also appears that future efforts should be concentrated in two
principal areas: (1) modification of the tree to facilitate harvest
either by hand or by machine, (2) development of mechanical fruit removal
procedures.

Work will continue. The problem is a difficult one, but one that
must be solved."

Mechanical Harvest of Baldwin Apples in Massachusetts

Mechanical harvesting of apples using an inertia shaker and col-
lecting equipment has been tested in several states including our own.
In 1961, Arthur Selders , graduate student; Department of Agricultural
Engineering, University of Massachusetts initiated a study to develop
and evaluate a system of harvesting and handling Baldwin apples from
the tree to the processing plant by the use of mechanical equipment.
The equipment consisted of a commercially manufactured tractor mounted
tree shaker, a collector unit and power driven conveyor system, bulk
boxes, a tractor fork lift and a truck. Apples were removed from the
tree with the shaker, collected and conveyed into the bulk boxes which
were then handled in the orchard and loaded onto the truck with the
tractor fork lift for transporting to the processing plant.

Quality of the fruit was acceptable to the processor and the
wastage factor was only slightly higher than for hand-picked fruit.
However, severity of rot on mechanically harvested apples held in stor-
age may be a problem.

Our Agricultural Economists calculate that a volume of approximately
6,000 bushels of apples harvested by this mechanical system is necess-
ary before any savings can be realized. With a volume of 10,000 bush-
els, a grower could expect a savings of from $500 - $1000, depending
upon harvesting rates obtained.

The utilization of machine-picked apples for processing looks prom-
ising. However, trees must be modified to facilitate equipment place-
ment.

- 6

Will Mcintosh Be Harvested Mechanically?

Whether or not mechanical harvesting of Mcintosh will ever become
a reality is not ]<nown. Growers have planted semi-dwarf and dwarf
trees so that they will make a solid hedge row. Whether or not these
trees can or will be hearvested mechanically is also a question. What
the writer is quite certain of however is that an increasing number
of growers are going to invite the public to "pick your own" fruit.
It is a natural, for orchards located near centers of population.

Until mechanical harvesting of Mcintosh apples becomes a reality
we must continue to strive for efficiency by making use of those aids
for handpickers that fit our operations: self-propelled lifts, plat-
forms, pick and drop equipment, pallets, bulk boxes, lift equipment, etc.

Modifying Trees to Facilitate Harvest Efficiency

Dr. Howard Rollins, Jr. at V. P. I. Blacksburg, Virginia, suggests,
"If we cannot develop machinery to reduce labor i^equirements with con-
ventional trees, we may be able to modify the tree to facilitate greater
harvest efficiency. If a high density hedge row planting could be
established with trees planted about six feet apart, in a row and trained
to provide a "wall" of trees 5 feet thick and 10 to 14 feet high, har-
vest labor efficiency could be increased. Men riding at two levels on
a low trailer moving slowly down the tree row could reach the center
of such trees. They could pick either on to a conveyor or into conven-
tional picking bags and consequently dump the fruit into a bulk bin
also on the low trailer. With such a system, additional equipment costs
would not likely exceed equipment savings. For example, no ladders
and less bulk bin placement would be necessary.

With such a high density hedge row production system, a picker
could harvest significatly more fruit during a given period of time,
than is true in conventional plantings. In conventional orchards a good
picker can harvest 100 bushels of apples a day and by receiving 15<;^ a
bushel, he receives a day's pay of $15. On the other hand, if he were
able to pick 200 bushels of apples during the same period of time, still
at the ISt;: per bushel rate, his day's wages would be doubled without
increasing the per bushel cost to the grower. With such a pay incentive
harvest help may become available that is not presently available.
Energetic workers with full time employment elsewhere might wish to put
in a week or two picking apples in lieu of a vacation or local workers
may be willing to put in 6-8 hours additional work late in the after-
noon and during the early evening hours to earn a little extra pay.
Night harvesting could be effectively carried on through the use of
flood lights in such hedge row plantings. It is also possible that
since the work would be lightened, women could be more effectively used
in the apple harvest operation.

Another factor to be kept in mind is that high density hedge row
plantings would bo better adapted to ultimate complete mechanization
of the apple harvest operation. If fruit removal equipment is developed.

- 7 -

It is likely to be used more effectively in plantings where fruit is
oriented along the relatively uniform plane that would exist in high
density hedge row plantings. These plantings would also have the
potential for other increases in production efficiency such as early
production, higher yields per acre, more efficient use of pesticide
chemicals, and more uniform fruit quality.

It is true that high density hedge row plantings are a great diver-
gence from what we currently consider as conventional fruit production
practices. However, the general approach is not new. Various sections
of Europe have been forced into such systems, largely due to limitations
in available land, a number of years ago. Up until recently there has
been no need. In this country, to move in this direction; however the
economics of fruit production has changed the picture and made such
approaches more practical. "

********

POMOLOGICAL PAEAGRAPH

Timing the Apple Picker - A time and motion study of apple picking was
conducted by H. P. Gaston and J. H. Levin and reported in the quar-
terly Bulletin of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Volume
36, August, 1953. Their studies showed that approximately 40 per cent
of the fruit was picked from the ground and 60 per cent fr'om ladders.
On the average, 73 per cent of the pickers' time was devoted to picking
apples. Nineteen per cent of the pickers' time was spent moving fruit
from tree to crate and returning to picking position. Three per cent
of the pickers' time was devoted to moving ladders and 5 per cent rest-
ing, eating apples, smoking, etc.

- - William J. Lord

* * * A •* * * *

DIRECT FROM TREE TO YOU

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

"Dir-ect from tree to you" Is a new method of harvesting and mar-
keting apples currently being investigated by Anthony C. Cunningham,
Department of Agricultural Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York, and reported in the September - November, 1963 issue of Farm
Research. Apples are picked directly into quarter-bushel cartons and
the filled containers stacked on pallets or platforms so that they can
be handled mechanically from the orchard to the supermarket. The pal-
lets also serve as display racks in the stores.

A shoulder harness has been devised to hold 2 cartons into which
the picker places the Mcintosh apples. Since the fruit are sold as
orchard i^un apples, no grading is attempted other than instructing
pickers to avoid undersized, misshapen, or damaged apples.

Two years of testing in 16 supermarkets indicated that sales
increased and that in-store labor requirements were reduced. Average
weekly apple sales, during the 3-month test period, increased 45 per
cent. The test period was of insufficient duration to determine the
extent of repeat sales of apples in the quarter-bushel cartons, however.

EDITOR'S NOTE - Pallet handling of fruit from the orchard to the store
is the basic feature of this apple mai'keting method. Also, the quarter-
bushel cartons are attractive and easy to palletize. Tliis approach
is somewhat comparable to harvest time store delivery by some Massachu-
setts growers of orchard-run Mcintosh in peach baskets. Under the
Massachusetts Apple Grading Law, orchard-run fruit must be marked as
"Unclassified". The term "Unclassified" is not a grade in itself, but
is used to indicate that no grade has been used.

********

POMOLOGICAL PAMGRAPH

Hand Packing From Bulk Boxes - The convenience of bulk boxes in the
harvest and storage operation is well established. The investment in
a water dumper, grading machine, and in many instances a new packing
shed, has discouraged growers considering bulk boxes. A few growers
are hand packing from bulk boxes and are satisfied with the operation
as a means of taking advantage of the convenience of bulk boxes with-
out involving a considerable financial investment in packing equipment.
The writer is of the opinion more growers should consider hand packing
from bulk boxes.

- - William J. Lord

********

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Deportment of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Mossochusetts, Amherst

OCTOBER 10, 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Roadside Marketing

Orchard Mouse Identification and Control Techniques

The Disappearance of Water Core and the Occurrence
of Internal Breakdown in Water-cored Richared
Delicious During Storage

Pomological Paragraph

Cider Notes

//■'.

'^^,

'^^a

Isaued by th» Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, In furtherance of the Acta of May 8 and June 30, 1914-
University of Massachusetts, United Stales Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperatinR.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Pis-chasing Agent, No. 44.

ROADSIDE MARKETING

William J. Lord
Deparment of Plant and Soil Sciences

The following excerpts were taken from an article in the Hoosier
Horticulture Newsletter prepared by Jerome Hull, Jr. , Extension Pomol-
ogist, Purdue University, It discussed some of the proceedings of the
4th annual Ohio Roadside Marketing Conference of November 22, 1963. I
believe many readers will find the information about the Oak Glen mar-
keting program, pick-your-own method of selling, the case study of the
Lynd roadside market and the information on cider interesting and useful.

"The keynote speaker at the Roadside Marketing Conference was Mr.
Wilson Parker from Yucaipa, California. He has developed an outstanding
market at his orchard located about 30 miles east of Los Angeles. Mr„
Parker's ranch is the largest of 14 ranches growing fruit in the Yucaipa-
Oak Glen area. These orchardists retail nearly all their production
(amounting to approximately $1,000,000 annually) directly to the consumer.

Mr. Parker reported the Oak Glen apple area is approximately 6 to 8
miles in length and elevated, rugged territory. It is an extremely scenic
area and thus many potential customers combine a tour of this scenic
area with a visit to the roadside fruit markets. Parker revealed they
started in their marketing enterprise by exhibiting their fruit at fairs
one year, winning $8,000 to $9,000 in one year which was then used to
start the Oak Glen marketing program. Their promotion now attracts approx-
imately 500,000 customers into this scenic area each year. Parker's mar-
ket now attracts so many customers that he carries one half million dol-
lars liability insurance and must fence much of his ranch to prevent
customers from stealing fruit from the orchard. He also hires a detec-
tive to prevent shoplifting in the market.

The Oak Glen Association consists of 12 apple growers who hire a
publicity man to write press releases about their scenic area and its
local apple markets and distribute these to newspaper editors. Parker
indicated their biggest break in advertising came from tie-in advertis-
ing with automobiles I Automobile editors, anxious for a fresh and dif-
ferent approach to introduce new car models, agreed to use apple harvest
scenes for background and were very successful. This has also helped
promote their area's scenery. Ford showed a 1/2 hour colored TV travel-
ogue of the Oak Glen area. (You cannot buy this kind of promotion.) As
a result of all this promotion. Oak Glen, considered a relatively wild
area 15 years ago, is considered one of the most promising areas in the
country today.

The scenic aspect of the area and the promotion by the fruit grow-
ei's has tremendous appeal. Parker reports newspapers now write and re-
quest to be placed on the Association's mailing list to receive their
press releases.

The Oak Glen Association finances itself through a 1^'^ per box assess-
I ment obtaining $3000 from the growers and $500 from three local restau-
rants also benefiting profitably by the many hungry people visiting the
area. The Association spends its $3500 budget as follows:

- 2 -

$1,000 Salary of Publicity Director
500 Publicity Director's expenses
1,000 Fall picnic for food editors, travel
editors, etc.
500 Buy apples for distribution to editors,

etc.
500 Brochures and similar material

Parker revealed that the press party is held in the area about Sep-
tember 15. They invite all food editors of newspapers in southern Cali-
fornia, travel editors, etc., and the extension personnel from the Univer-
sity of California involved in home economics. In other words, any person
or editor involved in promoting food and travel.

Parker stated they really have no organization. It is kind of a loose
association. In the past 17 years the fruit growers in the Oak Glen area
have agreed on only four things: (1) a need for advertising for their
area; (2) no signs to be erected in the area except on each individual's
property (They do not desire to mar the scenic beauty of the area with
many roadside signs.); (3) an agreement to pay l^^^ per box assessment per
year for Association fees; and (M-) to bring in no outside apples for local
marketing. He indicated that growers have never been able to agree upon
prices and quality to be offered at their local markets.

Grower Experience with "Pick-Your-Own"

"An interesting feature of the conference was a discussion of pick-
your-own direct selling. Robert MacQueen of Holland, Ohio, markets both
apples and peaches by this method. He harvests 20 acres of peaches uti-
lizing three men (one foreman and two men) and pick-your-own customers.
Variety selection is very important for successful pick-your-own peach mar-
keting. For example, he raises Early Red Fre , an early poor quality peach
not adapted to pick-your-own marketing. It is not a canning variety and
doesn't hold up very well. Consequently he begins his pick-your-own mar-
keting with Redhaven. It takes two to three days for his customers to
pick 2 50 Redhaven trees. He closes his orchard after each variety is picked
and waits for the next variety to get ripe. He wants each variety to be
fully ripe before opening the orchard to pick-your-own customers for that
variety.

MacQueen has been charging the same price for his peaches each year
since he started pick-your-own marketing ($2.75 per bushel). All he pro-
vides the customer is a ladder. If they desire, they can purchase baskets.
He does not permit pick-your-own customers in the orchard for less than
one bushel of fruit. If they desire less than one bushel, they can purchase
it at his local sales shed. He advised having only one way into the orchard
and only one way out.

MacQueen stressed pruning out trees and proper fruit thinning. He
desires large perfect peaches and has had very favorable customer reaction.
Customers use this opportunity for family events such as picnics, etc.
plus the opportunity to obtain tree-ripe peaches. He gives his customers
a sheet of instructions covering his pick-your-own policy, etc. Likewise
he carries $200,000 liability insurance.

- 3

MacQueen opens his apple orchard to pick-your-own customers about
October 10, after harvesting his Jonathan and Red Delicious. He has
25 acres of apples and charges $2.25 per bushel, the main varieties con-
sisting of Rome, Baldwin, Wagner, and Winesap.

W. W. Magill, retired Kentucky Extension Horticulturist, related
his experiences and success with pick-your-own peach marketing. He
pointed out that customers will not break any more trees and branches
than most hired pickers. He finds that most customers pay the same price
for peaches either off the tree or the ground.

Ralph Folsom, Belief ontaine, Ohio grower, markets five acres of
small fruits and 30 acres of orchard on a pick-your-own basis. He ob-
tains 25<: per quart for his strawberries and in his outstanding straw-
berry patches gets 3 5<!: per quart on a pick-your-own basis."

Case Study of a Roadside Market

Two Ohio State University students, Mitchell Lynd and Thomas Bennett,
presented findings of their case study of the Lynd roadside market located
on Route 40 east of Columbus. (The Lynd market handles 400 to 450 dif-
ferent items - spending about 1.6% of gross sales for advertising.) They
jotted down license plate numbers of all customers stopping at the market
between July 27 and September 1 and obtained the adresses of these indiv-
iduals from the Bureau of Motor Vehicles and mailed a questionnaire to
them.

Questionnaire replies revealed that 74% of the customers stopping at
the market learned about it through roadside signs. During the period
of the survey, customers from 31 states, the District of Columbia, and
Ontario, Canada visited the market. The majority of the consumers came
from the eastern part of Ohio. The majority of out-of-state customers
came from Pennsylvania, New York and California - in that order.

The survey revealed that people living closer to the market stopped
more often. Likewise the average purchase for city people (those indiv-
iduals living in a city of 10,000 or more) was 27% higher than for rural
people. The questionnaire requested the customers to rate the market
on freshness of product, cleanliness, quality of product, flavor of prod-
uct, appearance of product, selection of product, friendliness of sales-
men, prices and interest to market. It was interesting to learn that
everything rated higher during the week days than on the weekends. This
is probably partially related to the increased activity from heavy week-
end sales when customers received less personal attention.

A portion of the questionnaire obtained information from the cus-
tomers about their attitude towards farm markets in general. Reasons
listed why people go to farm markets were fresher produce, good selection,
cheaper prices, better quality, homelier atmosphere, better attention by
salesmen. The people also replied they would stop at farm markets more
often if (1) they were closer (this would indicate a demand for more farm
markets), (2) they had more money, (3) there was more selection besides
fruit and vegetables, (4) signs appeared earlier, and (5) prices were
well displayed. Some criticisms listed for farm markets in general were
(1) many not clean and unattractive, (2) many sales people know nothing

about handling people or produce, (3) not enough parking space, (4) dirty
trashy, unorganized, (5) dirty attendants. Some criticisms listed for
the market where the survey was made included not enough shade, prices
too high, traffic problem getting out of the market, trash cans overflow-
ing, too many items, and too many gnats and flies. (Customers indicated
gnats and flies could be controlled at fair grounds and consequently why
couldn't they be controlled at roadside markets.)"

Preserving Cider

"Eldon Banta, Ohio State University Extension Horticulturist, distrib-
uted the following information at the Roadside Marketing Conference. Meth-
ods of preserving cider have been greatly improved and the following rec-
ommendations have been widely adopted by Ohio cider makers. Potassium
sorbate (sodium sorbate may be substituted) is added to freshly pressed
cider to produce a concentration of .05 to .075 percent. Adding seven
ounces of potassium sorbate to each 100 gallons of cider produces a .05%
concentration and 10% ounces per 100 gallons makes a .075% concentration.
The .05% concentration seems to keep cider as well as the higher concentra-
tion. Potassium sorbate is a completely safe preservative and imparts no
off flavor to cider as did sodium benzoate when it was being used. Drug
companies are the primary sources of the sorbate.

Fresh cider preserved with the potassium sorbate has been success-
fully kept for nine months at 35°F, 106 days at M-O F, but for only five
days at 70 to 75 F. Treated cider must be refrigerated for long keeping
and good flavor.

Proceedings Available Upon Request

The complete Proceedings of the Roadside Marketing Conference have
been published and are available upon request by writing Prof. Edwin J.
Royer , Extension Specialist, Fruit and Vegetable Marketing, Ohio Cooper-
ative Extension Service, 2120 Fyffe Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210.

A*******

ORCHARD MOUSE IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL TECHNIQUES

John W. Peterson, District Agent
U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Meadow and Pine Mouse damage may be serious in orchards. The presence
of meadow mice is easily detected by their active surface trails, grass
clippings, chewed apples, and girdled tree trunks and crown roots. Pine
Mice, hov\?ever, are often difficult to detect because of their subterranean
habits. Pine Mouse damage to root systems causes irreparable injury to
trees before they appear unhealthy. Surface signs indicating their pres-
ence are small mounds of loose soil, breather holes leading into deep tun-
nels and apples eaten from underneath. Meadow Mice are usually widely
distributed in an orchard, whereas Pine Mice may occur in isolated colonies.

There are two distinct physical characters which separate Pine and
Meadow Mice. The Meadow Mouse has conspicuous eyes and a tail that is
twice as long as the hind foot while the Pine Mouse has inconspicuous
eyes and a tail the same length as the hind foot.

Broadcasting of Zinc phosphide treated oats or apple gives adequate
control of Meadow Mice but should not be relied upon to control Pine Mice.
Where Pine Mice are widely distributed the placement of Zinc phosphide
treated apple and oats at five foot intervals in artificial trail systems
made by the trail building machine is preferable as it eliminates the
search for mouse tunnels. The construction of a good trail is the key
to success with the trail builder. This requires a good sod, reasonably
moist soil, and a carefully adjusted cutting disc so that the sod is not
turned over but merely lifted and dropped back into place. Baiting
should be conducted in fair weather and only fresh baits should be used.

Where Pine Mice occur in isolated colonies, hand placement of Zinc
phosphide treated oats or apples in the mouse tunnels will give excellent
results.

The success of any mouse control method can be checked by comparing
the mouse population before and several days after the control operation.
This can be done by the use of snap traps baited with apple and set at
right angles to the trail system. Equal numbers of traps should be set
for the same length of time under similar weather conditions.

Zinc Phosphide Rodenticide and Zinc Phosphide treated steam-crushed
oats are available from the following sources:

AGWAY INC. (formerly Eastern Farmers' Exchange and GLF)

Farm Bureau Association

Essex County Cooperative Farming Assn.

If it is not convenient to obtain these materials from the above,
orders may be placed directly with: RODENT CONTROL FUND, University of
Massachusetts, Old Conservation Bldg. Annex, Amherst, Mass 01003. All
shipments are made via REA Express with shipping charges - COLLECT.
These materials are classified as poisons and cannot be mailed.

NOTICE TO MASSACHUSETTS FRUITGROWERS

It has been called to our attention by the Massachusetts Division of
Fisheries and Game that under Chapter 131, Section 87, as amended by
Chapter 3'+5, Acts of 1963, that a permit will be required to place poison
in orchards for the control of mice. Requests for permits must be in
writing and must state the specific area involved, bait to be used, and
period of time during which such work will be conducted. Approval will
only be granted for Zinc Phosphide-treated baits. Applications should be
sent to the Director, James M. Shepard, Massachusetts Division of Fish-
eries and Game, 73 Tremont Street, Boston, Masslachusetts .

********

- 6 -

THE DISAPPEARANCE OF WATER CORE AND THE OCCURRENCE OF INTERNAL
BREAKDOWN IN WATER-CORED RICHARED DELICIOUS DURING STORAGE

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Delicious and its strains are susceptible to water core, a disorder
chiefly associated with mature and over mature fruit. Mild cases of
water core may disappear during storage, but severely affected fruit often
develop internal breakdown. Since it is not always possible for growers
to harvest their Delicious before they become severely affected with this,
disorder, it is essential to determine when internal breakdown appears
during storage and if its occurrence can be predicted with any reliability.

Materials and Methods

To determine the disappearance of water core and the occurrence of
internal breakdown in Red Delicious, fruit seriously affected with this
disorder were harvested on October 10 and 15, 1953. Fruit harvested on
each date were obtained from trees in separate blocks in the University
orchards at Amherst.

The fruit were composited and one sample examined for the presence
of water core within several hours of harvest and another after remaining
at room temperature for 7 days. The percentage of water-cored fruit was
recorded and its severity classified as slight (less than 30 percent) ,
medium (30 to 50 percent) , and severe (more than 50 percent of the cross -
sectional area of the fruit affected) . The remaining fruit were placed
in regular cold storage at 32 -3 6 F in air within several hours after
harvest. At approximately monthly intervals, two samples of fruit from
each harvest date were removed from storage to determine the presence
and severity of water core and internal breakdown. One sample was exam-
ined on the day of removal and the other after remaining at room temper-
ature for 7 or 8 days .

Results

The percentage of fruit affected with water core decreased except
during the last month of storage (Figure 1) . Most of the water core of
medium and severe classification disappeared from both lots of Delicious
by mid- January, however (Figure 2). On the other _hand, the data in
figure 3 show that approximately 12 percent of the apples harvested on
October 15, 1963, stored until November 12, and examined on November 19,
had internal breakdown. Although not shown, approximately 6 percent of
the Delicious harvested on October 10, 1963, stored until December 13,
and examined on December 20, had internal breakdown.

The severity of internal breakdown increased during storage (Figure 1)
and increased during the 7 day holding period at room temperature after
each removal date (Figure 3) .

- 7

Woter core In fruits harvested 10/10/63

Water cofe in fruits harvested 10/15/63

ereoKdown in truits horvested 10/15/63

ereohdown in fruits horvested 10/10/63

'^^-•-— "

N \
\ \
\ \
\ \

.//""

?- 1 1 \ —

FruiU horvested 10/10/63
Fruits horvesled 10/15/63

10/10/63 11/12/63 12/13/63 1/13/64 2/13/64 3/11/64 4/13/64

IO/?5/63 DATES FRUITS EXAMINED

Fig. 1. The disappearance of water

core and the occurrence of internal

breakdown in Richared Delicious.

Fruits examined at harvest and when

removed from storage at monthly
intervals.

12/13/63 1/13/64 2/10/64

DATES FRUITS EXAMINED

Fig. 2. The disappearance of water core
of the medium and severe classification
from Richared Delicious during storage.
Fruits examined at harvest and when re-
moved from storage at monthly intervals.

40-

Q
<

o
cr

UJ
Q.

30--

20-

lO-

ilL

10/15 10/22

11/12 11/19
1963 —

12/13 12/20

2/13 2/20 3/11
1964

3/18

4/13 4/21

DATES FRUITS EXAMINED

Fig. 3. The occurrence of internal breakdown in water-cored Richared Delicious
during storage and following storage plus 7 days at room temperature. Fruit
examined at harvest and when removed at monthly intervals and at monthly inter-
vals plus 7 days at room temperature. Fruit harvested 10/15/63.

Summary

A study was conducted to determine the disappearance of water core
from seriously affected Richared Delicious and the occurrence of internal
breakdown.

Although water core gradually disappeared during the storage period,
particularly that of the medium and severe classification (30 percent or
more of the cross-sectional area affected) , internal breakdown was serious
withi)i a month or two, depending upon the lot after storage. The sever-
ity of internal breakdown increased during a 7 day holding period at room
temperature.

The data indicate that lots of Delicious seriously affected with
water core should be sold as soon after harvest as possible.

********

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Emptying Containers at Roadside Stands - At many roadside stands, sales
personnel transfer apples that are displayed in baskets to bags which are
used as the "carry-home" package by the customer. At one of these stands
the following sign was noted: "Allow Us to Empty Your Basket. We Are As
Proud of the Bottom As the Top. In Exchange For The Basket We Gladly
Give You A Dividend Of A Few Extra Apples."

This is good promotioni Also, it gives sales personnel an opportun-
ity to make a final check on apple quality.

- - William J. Lord

********

CIDER NOTES

K. M. Hayes
Department of Food Science & Technology

Refrigeration

Many cider mill operators including all Certified operators use
refrigeration to preserve cider. Cider should be cooled immediately
after pressing and stored at a tenperature between 32 and 36 F. At
these temperatures, cider retains its original flavor for one" to two
weeks without danger of fermentation. Settling can take place under
refrigeration.

Refrigeration is especially adaptable where cold storage facilities
for fresh fruit are available. If a refrigerated room is not available,
the operator can install an insulated metal or wooden tank and cool the
cider with a small refrigeration unit.

- 9

For display purposes at roadside, used upright display cabinets
with glass doors are excellent. These self-contained refrigerated units
can be often purchased from companies supplying equipment to retail stores.
Household refrigerators can also be used. The important feature when
making and selling cider is to keep it under refrigeration at all times
to maintain the quality.

Looking Back and Forward

With the beginning of a new cider season, perhaps a look at past
years ' activities is in order. If you can answer yes to the following
questions and will do the same this year, customers will return to buy
more .

1. Was my price competitive and fair?

2. Is my mill clean enough for customer inspection at any time?

3. Do I use only clean sound apples?

4. Do I blend two or more varieties?

5. Will my cider hold up at least 5 days without fermenting in a
home refrigerator?

6. Are my press cloths clean and sweet smelling?

7. Do I use hot water and a sanitizing agent to clean my press and
room?

8. Do I store my cider under refrigeration?

9. Do I use approved methods of fly control?

Sanitation

The keeping quality of cider is directly related to the sanitation
practices observed during the operating season. Unsanitary practices
foster the growth of micro-organisms, which cause fermentation or produce
undesirable flavors in the final product.

After a day^s run, observe the following procedures in cleaning the
cider plant:

Dismantle the press for cleaning. Rinse it thoroughly with a hose
to remove surface dirt. Scrub all parts of the press thoroughly, using
a sanitizing or detergent-sanitizing solution. Where possible, use hot
water for both the rinsing and the scrubbing operations.

Sanitizing compounds may be of the chlorine or quaternary ammonium
types. Dairy-cleaning compounds are usually of these types, and they are
easily obtained. Directions given by the manufacturer of the solution
for cleaning dairy equipment will be satisfactory for cider plants.

********

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

DECEMBER 10, 1964

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Your Farm Truck and Interstate Commerce

Publication Available

Higliway Motor Vehicles Use Tax

Outlook On Pear Psylla

Building Farm Stand Sales

Carbon Dioxide Requirements of Apples in CA

Pomological Paragraph

Winter Fruit Meetings

'^',

' .'.'iy/./i

..KM*...

rt.^z~j\

^/^

^ v.- v.*.

'^i

fM-

:^^

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in f«-therance of the Acts of May 8 end lune 30 1914
University of Massachusetts, United States Bepartment of Agriculture and County Extension Services cSoMraUng '

Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

COUNTY EXTENSION AGENTS IN SUPPORT OF THE FRUIT PROGRAM

BARNSTABLE

BERKSHIRE,
FRANKLIN,
HAMPDEN and
HA^1PSHIRE

Oscar S. Johnson, County Extension Agent in Agi'iculture ,
Cape Cod Extension Service, Barnstable (Tel. FOrest 2-3255)

G. Everett Wilder, Pioneer Valley Extension Agent in Agri-
culture, Hampdon County Improvement Lea,gue, 1499 Memorial
Avenue, West Springfield (Tel. Springfield REpublic 6-7204)

BRISTOL

DUKES

Peter W. Stanley, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Bristol County Agricultural School, Center Street, Segi^e-
ganset (Tel. Dighton NOrmandy 9-3611 or 9-2361).

Ezra I, Shaw, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Dukes
County Extension Service, Vineyard Haven (Tel. Vineyard
Haven 694) .

ESSEX. Max G. Fultz, Regional Agricultural Specialist, Middlesex
MIDDLESEX and County Extension Service, 19 Everett Street, Concord (Tel.
WORCESTER Concord EMerson 9-4845).

NORFOLK

PLYMOUTH

Howard Wilson, County Extension Agent in Agriculture, Nor-
folk County Agricultural School, 460 Main Street, Walpole
(Tel. Walpole MOntrose 8-0268 or 8-0269).

Dominic A. Marini, County Extension Agent in Agriculture,
Plymouth County Extension Service, Court House, Brockton
(Tel. Brockton JUniper 6-4993).

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered
and cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and
regulations. Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massacliusetts
requires that all pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered with the
Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Trade names, where used for
clearness, do not indicate endorsement nor imply that similar products
are not satisfactory.

warning: MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIREC-
TIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE OUT

OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

YOUR FARM TRUCK aNI) INTERSTATE COMMERCE

Lawrence D. Rhoades
Department of Agriculture
and Food Economics

If yovi use your farm truck to transport property across state
lines even if you own the property and drive the truck yourself , you
may be subject to some provisions of tlie Interstate Commerce Act„

The important requirements:

(a) minimum age for drivers is 21 years

(b) a physicians certificate of physical examination for each dri-
ver (including owner drivers) must be oljtained and kept on
file.

Register must be maintained at principal place of business
listing all accidents v\/]iich result in death or injury of any person or
in damage to property to an extent of $250 or more (Massachusetts law
passed by last legislative session and effective now, requires report
of accidents causing $200 of property damage) „

Drivers must have at least (8) hours rest after each (10) hours
of driving, and they may not drive after any combination of driving and
on-duty time equalling fifteen (15) hours, nor may they be required nor
permitted to remain on duty for more than sixty (60) hours during any
period of seven (7) consecutive days„ DRIVERS MUST MAINTAIN daily
"drivers log" on the prescribed form which will show their entire activ-
ities during each twenty-four hour period. However, any driver used
v\;holly in driving a motor vehicle having not more than two axles and
whose gross weight does not exceed 10,000 pounds is exempt from the
daily limitations on driving hours and need not maintain driver's logs,
though lie must observe the 60 hour on duty limitation^

Records of inspection, maintenance, repairs, lubrication and driver's
trip report must be maintained „

Farm Trucks

Motor vehicles controlled and operated by any farmei' when used in
the transportation of his agricultural commodities and products thereof
or in the transportation of supplies to his farm, are subject to the
regulations above, which apply to private carriers with these modifica-
tions.

(a) If the vehicle does not exceed a gross weight, including the
load of 10,000 pounds, the minimum age of the driver is 18 years not 21.

(b) Physical examinations and physician certificates are not re-
quired for drivers of farm trucks „

((■) Tarni I rui'k clr.i.vcrs inns t observe tlic daily uiid wpok.ly liniJta-
tions as t(j clrivln,i^ and on-duty time. However, any driver^ used wholly
in driving a moto)^ vehicle havin,u; not more than two axles and whose
gross weight is less than 10,000 pounds is exempt from the limitation
on driving hours, unless used to transport passengers, explosives, or
other dangerous articles. Drivers of such vehicles are not exempt from
the on chity limitations.

Most tarmers transport by private carriage and if tliey wish ?7iay
operate as private carriers wlien transporting their own commodities and
supplies to and from their farms. NOTE the limitations above for farm-
ers, if a farmer engages in private carriage and transports other prod-
uc}ts than liis own products and supplies then he is a private carrier
and the regulations of minimum age, physical exams, drivers log, etc.
appJy„ A farmer must be one or tlie other , he can' t be both .

Suggestions: Just in case, get £ physicians certificate for your -
self and anyone wlio drives for you (its a good idea anyway) . Keep a_
drivers log , and Keep a^ record of truck maintenance , repairs , lubrica-
tion and so on .

Wlietlier you are a farmer or a private c:arrier, you ilo not have to
have ICC plates, but depending on the size of tlie veliicle and its use,
you are subject to some regulations.

Wivite to Josejjh H. Lacouv

District Supervisor
Interstate Commerce Commission
338 Post Office Building
Springfield , Mnssacliusetts

for a copy of Motor Carrier Information Bulletin No„ i and appendix,
and to Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Wash-
ington, D. C. for 3 cents you can get printed "Motor Carrier Safety
Regulations".

* * •.'.- * * •.>; * *

PUBLICATION AVAILABLE

A. E. Dcijartmental Series 363 entitled "A Review oi' Roadside Mar-
keting" literature is available by writing the Department of Agricul-
tural Economics and Rural Sociology, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, Wooster, Ohio.

J. E. Jeffries and M. E. Cravens, the authors, liavc presented the
major findings of farm or "roadside" marketing studies on: (a) metliods
of retail selling; (b) location ol stands; (c) pliysical facilities of
roadside stands; (d) operating practices and policies; (e) advertising
and promotion; (f) proch.icts sold; (g) maintaining product quality;
Qi) record keeping and, (i) characteristics of the custoniers.

- 3

HIGHWAY MOTOR VEHICLES USE TAX

Lawrence D. Rhoades
Department of Agr-iculture
and Food Economics

The Interstate Highway System that is being built in the U. S. is
financed in part by the Federal Gasoline Tax. The federal tax on tires
and the Highway Motor Vehicle Use Tax.

Any highway motor vehicle with sizes larger than the limits below
must pay a highway Use tax to the Internal Revenue Service.

Single Units

Two axled trucks for use as a single unit with actual unloaded
weight in excess of 13,000 pounds „

For use in combinations

Two axled truck- tractor with actual unloaded weight of 5,500 pounds.
Who pays the tax ?

The return and payment is made by the person to whom the truck is
registered,,

Tax year

July 1 to June 30

When is tax due ?

Tax is due by the end of tlie month following the month when the
vehicle is placed in use .

Penalties are provided for failing to file a return , for late fil -
ing and for filing a false or fraudulent re turn „

form used. No. 2290, which is obtained from District Director,
Internal Revenue Service, 174 Ipswich Street, Boston, Mass. 02215,
Also ask for publication No. 349 I.R.S.

* A * A A A * A

L^ -

OUTLOOK ON PEAR PSYLIA

H, E. Wave
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology

The pear psylla. Introduced into Connecticut about 1832, is a major

insect pest of pears throughout the United States. Its role in pear

culture is being reexamined by entomologists of the New York Agricultur-
al Experiment Station.

In an article appearing in the March-May 195i| issue of Farm Research,
a quarterly bulletin published by the New York State Agricultural Exper-
iment Station, entomologists, A. L. Jones and E. H. Smith state that the
renewed interest in pear growing, especially the practice of increasing
vigor of the trees to obtain better yields, is expected to favor the
increase of such insects as the pear psylla.

The pear psylla is reported to have developed resistance to insec-
ticides in the Pacific Northwest and there is a real likelihood that
this could occur in the East„ Studies by the New York State Agricul-
tural Experiment Station have shown that under some conditions psylla
may increase fire blight infections.

In order to obtain more effective and lasting controls, they are
re-evaluating some earlier research on this pest, including the insects
biology.

The psylla overwinter as adults under loose bark of pear trees.
They begin their activity earlier in the spring than most other pear
insects. During warm days in March and April they begin depositing
their eggs in crevices on fruit spurs and on the new leaf growth as it
emerges.

Late season build up of psylla has been observed to occur in pear
plantings which results in a large overwintering population. This would
suggest the possible need for either a late season or a spring-dormant
spray treatment to assure low population levels early in the season.

Dormant applications of 60-second petroleum oils have proven highly
effective against all stages of the psylla except eggs. Besides killing
adults and nymphs, petroleum oils also prevent egg laying by adults
until after green tissue appears „ Adults appear to be killed only when
spray deposits hit them directly whereas nymphs may be killed by the
oil deposits as they crawl over it to the emerging leaf tissue. While
oils are not effective ovicides against this pest, they do provide sat-
isfactory control by preventing oviposition of adults and by killing
newly emerged nymphs .

********

BUILDING FARM STAND SALES

G. W. Wilder
Regional Agricultural Agent

Attitude

1. Be friendly - One reflects his attitude upon others.

2. Take a personal interest in your customers - Inquire about
them, their children, pets, or car if it is new.

3. Learn to call them by name - Everyone like to be recognized.

U. Be concerned about their wants and needs - SeJl the customer
the variety or varieties most suitable for his needs. The
saying, "The customer is always right," commands respect, how-
ever.

5. Sell each customer something - If possible to do so without
offense, be agressive.

6. Invite each customer to come back - This tells him that you ap-
preciate his patronage.

Appearance

1. Salesroom, farm and sales personnel should be neat and clean -
Most people prefer to buy where conditions are tops.

Gimmicks to Attract Customers

1. Large sign at farm entrance - Attractive signs draw the atten-
tion of potential customers.

2. List of apples grown on farm - Post this in your salesroom.

It is an introduction to the kinds of fruit that are available,

3. Provide samples - with sign "Try one" or other appropriate
wording. This is especially helpful in introducing new var-
ieties.

4. Use your imagination - Draw on entire family for suggestions.
Visit other roadside stands and salesrooms to get ideas.

Complimentary Products

1. Sweet cider - without a doubt the biggest drawing card other
than apples.

2o Jam and jellies - make attractive displays.

- 6 -

3. Maple syrup - A good item on many stands.

4. Gift cartons - Appropriate before Thanksgiving and Christmas,
Advertising

1. Signs on busy highways - Used to advertise your farm and di-
rect customers to it„

2. Make good use of the newspapers - One of the most productive
forms of advertising. People will travel a long way to buy
if they like you and your product.

3. A satisfied customer is your best form of advertising.

* * * * •.'.- * A A

CARBON DIOXIDE REQUIREMENTS OF APPLES IN CA

William J. Lord
Department of Plant S- Soil Sciences

The placement of lime in CA rooms to supplement caustic or water
scrubbing is being practiced by many storage operators. Since tlie pos-
sibility of maintaining extremely low COn levels (less than 2%) exists,
growers have asked whether these levels would be detrimental to the
keepability of apples. Recently, we came across a report by S. W.
Popritt in the Summary Report of Research 1952, Summerland, B. C, and
published in September, 1964, which thi^ows some light on the subject.

Porritt reports that near 0% COp with 3% Op results in more rapid
softening, greater rate of acid loss and considerably more physiologi-
cal disorders than atmospheres with 2% or more CO2. "Flesh browning of
Newtown, Mcintosh, and Spartan apples, skin bronzing, probably allied
with scald, browning of vascular bundles in Spartan, and a general in-
crease of mold growth have been consistently associated with near 0% CO2
atmospheres . "

Data of this type indicate that growers should strive to maintain
the CO2 level in Mcintosh rooms at 2 -3% for the first M- - 6 weeks and
M-.O - 5.S% thereafter. The Indiscriminate use of lime withing CA rooms
should be avoided if one is to be sure of CO2 levels above 2% through-
out the storage period.

* * A * A * A A

7 -

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Printing on Polyethylene Ba^s - Several years ago it was suggested
that printing on polyethylene bags be placed the long way of the bag
since most bags are displayed on their sides in stores. Some growers
have adopted this suggestion. In the writer's opinion, the variety name
sliould be featured on the bag with the amount of printing kept to a

minimum.

William J. Lord

A * A * A A A

WINTER FRUIT MEETINGS

The 71st Annual Meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Associ-
ation, Inc., in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts Exten-
sion Service will be held in the Leominster Armory , Gardner, Massachu-
setts, on January 5 and 7, 1965. The Leominster Armory is located only
a short distance off of Route 2, when turning north on Route 13, head-
ing towards North Leominster.

The complete program is not available at this time. However, the
program at present includes the following:

Dr. W. J. Lord, University of Massachusetts

What We Have Learned From Irrigation Studies

Dr. Go N. Agrios, University of Massachusetts
Apple Cankers and Dieback

Dr„ L. F„ Hough, Horticulture and Forestry Department, Rutgers
University

Peach and Nectarine Varieties

Dro Dean Asquith, Pennsylvania State University
Research Findings on Mite Control

Mr. Paul Bohne, area supervisor. Research and Development
Department, United States Rubber Company, Naugatuck Chemical
Division

The Amazing Possibilities of a Plant Growth Regulator in

the Future of Fruit Production

Dr. F. W. Southwick and Dr. W. J. Lord, University of Massachusetts
Preliminary Research Findings with B-9

Dr. D, H. Palmiter, Hudson Valley Laboratory, Highland, New York
Recent Developments on Apple Disease Control in the Hudson
Valley

- 8 -

Dr. H. E. Wave, University of Massachusetts

Changes in Insect Control Recommendations for 1965

Dr. Charles Maxwell, Canada Dept. Agr. Res. Sta. , Fredericton,
New Brunswick

Research Findings on Apple Maggot Control

Dr. L. Fo Michelson, University of Massachusetts

Moisture Extraction and Rooting Habit of Apple Trees

Dr. C. J. Gilgut, University of Massachusetts

Changes in Disease Control Recommendations for 1965

Mr. Delmer Robinson, Jr., President of the National Apple Insti-
tute

Mr. Fred Corey, Executive Vice President, National Apple Institute
Trends of the Apple Industry - National and Internationally

********

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

JANUARY 10, 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Progress at the Horticultural Research Center
Pomological Paragraph
^New Peach introductions
Random Thoughts on Blueberries
Observations of Dry Lime Scrubbing
Newer Varieties Worthy of Trio!

C-^

'M/i

'')!i!Bi

fe%?'

■^4

Ilsued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Splelman, Dean and Director. In f>»therance of (he Actn of May 8 and June 30. 1914
University of Maesachusetts, United Slates Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland. State Purchasing Agent. No. 4^.

PROGRESS AT THE HORTICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTER

As you may recall, in the fall of 1961 it became apparent that the
old University of Massachusetts orchard area in Amherst, which had been
available for fruit research and teaching purposes for over 50 years,
was needed for dormitories to accomodate an additional 1,300 students
at the University. When this information was made known to the Direc-
tors ol the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association, Mr. Jonathan Davis,
Derwood Frost, Elmer Fitzgerald, G. Stacy Gay and Jesse Rice were author-
ized to see what could be done to establish a new site for fruit and
other liorticultural research and teaching at the University.

This group found the Robert Hanifin Farm at Belchertown available
and immediately initiated a fund raising campaign for its purchase so
that it might eventually be presented to the University for continued
horticultural research and teaching. By the spring of 1962 over $40,000
was pledged by approximately 200 individuals, associations and industries
which have an interest in commercial horticulture in Massachusetts and
New England. On June 26, 1962, at a banquet sponsored by the University
administration, with Dr. John W. Lederle, President; Dr. Frank L. Boyden,,
Chairman, Board of Trustees; Dr. A„ A. Spielman, Dean of the College of
Agriculture and the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association Directors
as invited guests, this Horticultural Research Center was presented to
the Trustees of the University of MassachusetTis as a Trust. We are cer-
tain that gifts of this sort to universities are rare. Also, the con-
tributors have been so interested in this project that 100 per cent of
the money pledged has been received.

The Horticultural Research Center consists of about 215 acres of
land, what was once a dairy barn complex, a common storage and a farm
house. About 7 5 acres of cleared land appear to be very suitable for
fruit. The remainder is either in woodland or pasture. This center is
15 miles from Amherst and is situated above much of the surrounding
countryside, with ,an excellent view of the distant Holyoke Range.

In order to put the land and buildings in shape for experimental
purposes following its acquisition by the University, much effort, time
and additional money has been expended. The following is a list of the
major accomplishments at this Research Center during the past two years.

1. Prior to planting trees approximately one mile of tile
drains were laid to improve soil drainage in two large areas.

2. The barn complex has been extensively repaired and repainted.
Concrete floors, asphalt driveways, overhead doors, toilet facil-
ities, rewiring and heating systems have been installed so that we
now have good facilities for storage and servicing of equipment and
supplies plus comfortable working quarters for the orchard foreman
and his labor force.

3. Approximately three miles of deer fence (eight feet high)
has been erected around the areas which are to contain the horti-
cultural plan tin[-:^s . The presence of deer in large numbers made it
virtually impossible to grow trees otherwise.

4. About 1,000 fruit trees plus several species of small
fruits and ornamental crops have been planted. From these and
future plantings we expect to obtain new information relating to
rootstocks, viruses, insect and disease control, nutritional re-
quirements for fruit trees, new strains of our important varieties,
influences of chemicals to tree performance, etc.

5. The house where the orchard foreman is to reside after
November 1, 1964, has or will have, a completely new heating sys-
tem, new concrete cellar floor, rewiring, modern plumbing, consid-
erable remodeling, reroofing, plus exterior paintings

6„ Within about two years from now a new cold storage and
packing facility is expected to be constructed at this Research
Center. This building which is now in the planning stage should
contain a variety of CA storage rooms up to small commercial size,
a large packing area, and research and teaching laboratories.

Trustees of the Horticultural Research Fund

**************

Pomological Paragraph

Fruit Varieties Recommended for Massachusetts - The following Special
Circulars which list varieties recommended for Massachusetts are avail-
able through your county extension service or by writing to the Mailing
Room, University of Massachusetts.

Circular Title

Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts

Peaches for Massachusetts ........ ,

Pears & Quinces for Massachusetts,
Strawberries for Massachusetts. .. ,

Circular No.

,212-A
,212-B
,212-C
,212-D

Blueberries for Massachusetts 212-E

Blackberries & Raspberries for Massachusetts. ... .212-F

Grapes for Massachusetts ,. .............. . . 212-G

Plums for Massachusetts.......... ............. 212-H

William J. Lord

**************

NEW PEACH INTRODUCTIONS

W. D. Weeks
Department of Plant & Soil Sciences

Several new peach varieties have been recently introduced which
appear to be worthy of trial. However, we do not have these introduc-
tions established at the Horticultvu^al Research Center in Belchertown
at present, so the variety descriptions are based primarily on the
originator's descriptions. Some oi' the introductions are so recent that
trees may not be available for planting this season^ The varieties will
be listed in approximate order of ripening.

Reliance is a new introduction from the New Hampshire Agricultural Ex-
periment Station which is extremely bud hardy. It has survived minimum
temperatures of -2S°F. The fruit is nearly round, moderately fuzzy and
has a dull red color. The bright yellov'j flesh is juicy, medium firm,
slightly stringy, of good flavor and ripens with Golden Jubilee or about
24 days before Elberta.

Washington is the first of a new series of introductions from Virginia.
Its f ] ovcors are reported to be extremely tolerant of spring frosts. The
fi'uits are round ovate in shape. The skin is about three fourths cov-
ered with bright red color. The flesh is orange yellow with bright red
at the pit. The flesh is fine textured; its flavor resembles Sunhlgh
but is slightly more acid. Washington ripens about 3 days after Triogem
or 21 days before Elberta.

Glohaven is one of Stanley Johnston's latest introductions from Michigan.
Its fruit buds and blossoms are above average in hardiness. The fruits
are large and nearly round in shape. The skin is highly colored and has
very light pubescence or fuzz. Fruit flesh is clear yellow and firm
textured. There is very little red color around the pit cavity. The
fruit ripens just after Halehaven or about 14 days before Elberta.

Redgueen was selected by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station
because of its bud hardiness. The fruit is large, well colored and of
good quality. It has as much firmness and shelf life as Elberta. It
is of the same season as Glohaven or about 14 days before Elberta.

Cresthaven is another introduction from Michigan which is above average
in vv'ood and bud hardiness. Fruits are medium-large and nearly round in
shape. Fruit skin has an abundance of bright red color with no notice-
able pubescence. The flesh is clear yellow and firm textured. There is
considerable red color around the pit cavity. Cresthaven ripens between
Summercrest and Blake or about 7 days before Elberta.

Madison is one of the frost resistant introductions from Virginia. The
fruit has medium size and is highly colored. Pubescence is short and
fruit is above average in attractiveness. The flesh is bright orange
yellow, firm and fine textured. It has a mild, rich flavor. It ripens
7 days before Elberta.

- n

Jcrseyquc'cn is a New Jersey peach which was introduced to replace Elberta,
Fruits are well colored bein<^ bright red, large, round and firm. Flesh
is yellow with very good mild flavor. The fruits of Jerseyqueen hold up
very well in shipping and handling. It ripens with Elberta.

Jefferson is another of Virginia's introductions which has blossoms that
are resistant to spring frosts. The fruits are large and well coloredo
Tlie flesh is yellow and comparable to that of J. H. Hale in firmness and
iJavor. Jefferson ripens two to three days after Elberta.

vtAvtvtijttfc^AA'.V^A'jt^t

RANDOM THOUGHTS ON BLUEBERRIES

William J. Lord
Department of Plant & Soil Sciences

Blueberry variety recommendations for Massachusetts remain the same
as for the last several years. Earliblue, Blueray, Bluecrop, Berkeley,
Jersey and Coville appear to be the principal varieties being planted.

Although interest in cultivated blueberries appears to increase
yearly, the writer is of the opinion that the acreage increase has been
less startling. Most of the planting has been done by home gardeners
and persons that desire to supplement their incomes by growing culti-
vated blueberries.

Prevention of bird depredation continues to be the principal prob-
lem for growers of cultivated blueberries. Several companies are now
selling netting for bird control. Although the cost of netting is high,
without it growers with small acreages would soon be out of the blue-
berry business. As it was pointed out by Prof. J. S. Bailey in a prev-
ious issue of Fruit Notes, the berries saved and the increased fruit
size possible by delayed harvest will go a long way toward paying for
covering the bushes with netting. For those who are interested, a list
of companies selling netting can be obtained by writing your County Agent,

The use of a starling trap proved beneficial to a grower using this
device for the first time last year. Experience with these traps is
limited in cultivated blueberries, but their value in lowbush blueberry
fields is not questioned.

Last summer a letter was received asking if by chance some culti-
vated blueberries purchased had been harvested green by the grower and
then ripened by some process. Although they appeared attractive when
purchased, the person stated that they were the most tart and acid blue-
berries ever produced. Unfortunately, this is the reputation gained by
cultivated blueberries with many customers.

- 5

Growers know better than the writer how to regulate harvest to in-
sure better flavored berries. Picking once a week is usually often
enough. Even then, pickers should be cautioned against harvesting ber-
I'ies with reddish tinge around the stem.

»j^ t^ ^* •{« fi* *t* ^i* ^- *^ ^A frt^ ^^ ^^ *j^

OBSERVATIONS OF DRY LIME SCRUBBING

William J„ Lord
Department of Plant & Soil Sciences

Information obtained by the Extension Pomologist indicates that
13 CA rooms are being dry-lime scrubbed in Massachusetts during the
196M--1965 storage season. In addition numerous growers placed lime in
rooms to supplement the caustic, water or dry lime scrubbers.

As of December 10, the dry lime scrubbers are maintaining the de-
sired carbon dioxide level with the exception of 2 rooms at one storage.
The difficulty at the storage was corrected by changing the lime.

Lime in amounts as high as 0.53 pound per bushel of apples was
stacked in rooms to supplement the scrubbers. The effectiveness of lime
for maintaining carbon dioxide at the desired level varied considerably
and was not directly related to the amount used. For example, one room
with OcM-7 pound of lime per bushel of apples was caustic scrubbed the
11th day after closing. At another storage, 0.29 pound of lime per bush-
el of apples held the carbon dioxide below 5oO per cent for 54 days.

The savings in caustic with the use of lime in the rooms was con-
siderable. It appears difficult, however, to predict the effectiveness
of a given amount of lime.

Research indicates that atmospheres of less than 2 per cent carbon
dioxide for Mcintosh may be deleterious to the fruit. The time period
that carbon dioxide was below 2 per cent varied from 1 to 20 days after
closing in the storages using lime as a supplement to scrubbing. Whether
or not a 20 day period below 2 per cent carbon dioxide would be deleter-
ious to the fruit is not known. Growers that use lime as a supplement to
scrubbers might devise some way to restrict air movement around the lime
bags. The suspension of a polyethylene sheet over the lime which can be
raised or lowered is a possibility.

It is anticipated that other growers will convert to dry lime scrub-
bing next year. The placement of a fan in the lime box is recommended.
Some may wish to keep the caustic scrubber connected as an emergency
method of scrubbing.

A word of caution, the limo box should be well constructed and re-
iiilni^ced to pi'ovent deflection, v\/hich could result in a leak, when the
lime is placed in the box.

^ :^ ^ '.V '.V v^ '.V ^; *.V ^ ^ *.V ^ *.V

NEWER VARIETIES WORTHY OF TRIAL

James F, Anderson
Department of Plant & Soil Sciences

The following report briefly describes the newer fruit varieties
under test in the University plantings that are worthy of trial by com-
mercial growers and home gardenei^s.

STRi\WBERRIES

Among the recently introduced varieties that one might consider
for planting in Massachusetts are Fulton, Frontenac, Fletcher, Midway
and Vesper.

Since the performance of a strawberry variety is greatly influenced
by climatic soil and cultural conditions, it is suggested that growers
test any new variety on a small scale before planting it on a commercial
basis .

Fulton - A mid-season variety which has performed very well in Amherst.
Tlie plant is vigorous, a good runner producer, very productive and free
from leaf diseases. The fruit is medium in size, attractive, very firm
and of very good flavor, Fulton is not resistant to red stele.

Fletcher - The plant is vigorous and a good runner producer „ The yield
is good. The fruit ripens in the late mid-season, is large, firm, attrac-
tive, very good in flavor and is said to be an excellent freezer.
Fletcher has no resistance to red stele.

Frontenac - The fruit is large, medium to dark red in color, attractive,
good in flavor and moderately firm. Frontenac is said to be excellent
for freezing. The plants are large and form sufficient runners for a
good bed. Frontenac is susceptible to drought, which could account for
its failure to reach its full yield potential in our trials last summer.

Midway - A mid-season variety ripening with or slightly before Catskill.
The plants are vigorous, good plant makers and very productive. Midway
is resistant to the common races of red stele, but may show some mildew.
The fruit is medium to large, deep red, glossy, attractive and very good
in flavor. Variable size and a tendency for green tips has been noted
in past trials. Midway is well worth trial in commercial quantities,
especially in soil where r^ed stele has been a problem. Midway performs
best on soils of good moisture holding capacity.

Vesper - The plant is lar^e , vigorous and a good runner producer. The
fruit ripens very late, two to three days after Jerseybelle. Yields
have been considerably higher than Jerseybelle in our Amherst trials.
Vesper is a little darker red than Jerseybelle, is very large in size,
has prominent yellow seeds and a glossy skin, all of which make it very
attractive c The fruit is moderately firm and good in flavor. Limited
observations by growers indicate that berries should be harvested while
light red in color. Dark berries may be soft and non-marketable. This
variety merits trial because of its lateness, productivity, large size
and attractiveness. It should not be planted where red stele is a prob-
lem c

Data as to season, berry size and yield for some of the more impor-
tant varieties that were included in 1964 trials will be found in the
following table.

STRAWBERRY VARIETY EVALUATION - 1964
University of Massachusetts
Horticultural Research Center
Belchertown, Massachusetts

Varietv

Season
% Early

(1)

Late

Berry Size *- -'
1st 3rd 5th

Number of Calculated Yield
Pickings Quarts per Acre

Ear lid awn
Midway
Fu I ton
Sparkle
Catskill
Fie tcher
Frontenac
Vesper

56
13
9
9
7
5
3

9
10
19
21
27
40
70

272
383
329
285
372
356
267
466

227
337
256
227
360
301
277
389

185
254
185
192
291
230
310
303

11,384

13,242

12,974

7,732

14,941

9,917

7,144

13,649

OJSeason June 10 to July 6 (11 pickings)

% Early - percentage of total crop of each variety picked in first

3 pickings
% Late - percentage of total crop of each variety picked in last
3 pickings
(^^) Berry size - average weight in grams of 25 berries

PLUMS

Those Massachusetts growers contemplating planting plums are re-
ferred to Special Circular 212-H Plum Varieties for Massachusetts. Var-
ieties suggested for commercial planting in that circular include For-
mosa, Santa Rosa, Yakima, and Stanley.

Formosa - A Japanese type plum ripening during the first week of August.
The fruit is large, attractive, red blushed and of very good quality.
The trees are moderately productive and the fruit holds up well in stor-

a;j;c'. Sai'ta Rosa, another Japanese type plum ripens about a week later

than I'ui'iiusa. The 1 ruits are large, attractive, reddish purple and of

good qiinlity. Santa Rosa handles and keeps well. The trees are moder-
ately productive.

Yakima - A European type plum that ripens in the third week of August.
The fruits are large, prune shaped, reddish purple, freestone and of
good quality. The tree is moderately productive.

Stanley - An attractive prune type plum which is suitable for both can-
ning and fresh use. The fruits are blue in color, medium to large in
size. The flesh is greenish yellow, juicy, firm and of good quality.
StanJey is a freestone variety that ripens in early September. Stanley
is both productive and annual.

Among the newer plum varieties tested at Amherst, the following
show merit and might be worthy of trial.

Burmosa - A Japanese type plum Introduced by the California Experiment
Station. The tree is small in size and of medium vigor. Production was
heavy in 1964. Indications are that Burmosa may tend to be biennial.
Tlie fruit is yellow with a reddish blush, good in quality and a freestone.
Burmosa ripens in late July.

Great Yellow - A Japanese type plum ripening in early August. The fruit
is of good size, good quality and a freestone. The tree is productive
and the fruit hangs well on the tree^ Great Yellow ripens with Shiro
and is superior to Shiro in size and quality. Shiro may have an advan-
tage in color and firmness.

Howard Miracle - A large, attractive, high quality Japanese plum. The
fruit is a golden yellow with a light red blush. The firm fleshed fruit
was picked during the third week of August. Production was light, due
to poor fruit set this past season.

Pacific - An attractive prune type of plum of high quality. The fruit is
quite firm and keeping quality appears to be excellent. The fruit ripens
in mid-September. Ripening has been uneven. Pacific has been a good
producer in Amherst.

PEARS

Chap in - A seedling of Seckel that is harvested in early August. The fruit
is small to medium in size, green with a red blush. Chapin resembles
Seckel except for a more prominent neck. The flesh is fine textured, juicy,
free of grit cells and of good quality.

Devoe - The fruit is a clear yellow often with a blush-red cheek, oblong
pyriform in shape and of good quality. Devoe has been a heavy producer
with a tendency to ripen unevenly. The fruit was harvested in the second
week of September and held in storage until December. Devoe is worthy
of trial.

- 9 -

r.irkhunrs Triumph - Tlie fruit is large in si/.c, greenisli yellow in color,
tree ivm blemishes and although the surface is somewhat rough it is an
attractive pear. The flesh is v\;hite, fine melting, free of grit cells
and of very good quality. The fruit is harvested in late September and
hnlds up well into early January. As tlie fruit was harvested from a
1 iip-woi'kcd tree, an evaluation of tree characteristics cannot be given.

Alexander Lucas - A late ripening pear of medium size, smooth surface,
iihovate, obtuse-pyrif orm shape and greenish yellow color. The fruit is
of good quality. Alexander Lucas was harvested in the third week of
September and keeps well into December. Production appeal's to be satis-
lactory.

Dum.ont - A late ripening pear of medium size, obtuse pyriform shape and
yellow color. The flesh is firm, juicy and the quality very good. The
fruit is harvested in late September and has kept well into early Janu-
ai'y in tlie past years. Tlio variety has been productive under our condi-
tions and is worthv of trial.

**************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Mo s sac hu setts, Amherst

FEBRUARY 15, 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Insurance

Pomological Paragroph

Research From Other Areas

Marketing New England AppUt

When Should Peach Trees Be Pruned?

Pomological Paragraph

Decomposition of Herbicides In Soils

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in f trttierance of the Acta of May 8 and June 30 1914-
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

INSURANCE

Lawrence D. Rhoades
Extension Specialist in Farm Management

Rarely does the morning edition of the newspaper or the early morn-
ing radio news report come out without a report of a fire loss. Fre-
quently, the report reads something like this:

"Fire Chief estimates the damage at $30,000 PARTIALLY COV-
ERED BY INSURANCE" (capitals are ours) .

If you haven't changed the amount of insurance coverage on your
property, your barn, poultry house or fruit storage, in the past 5 years,
the likelihood is that your insurance coverage is less than it should be.
Why? First , building costs have continued to increase; second , additions
may have been made; third, buildings may have been remodeled or extensively
repaired without increasing the insurance coverage.

It's too late to read your policies after the fire occurs.

Here are some questions to ask your insurance agent.

How much insurance do I have and what risks are insured?

Do any of my policies have a co-insurance clause?

A co-insurance clause usually results in a lower premium, but it
works this way.

Assume you have equipment valued at $10,000. Your policy, if it
has the common 80% co-insurance provision, should be for $8000. But in-
surance costs money, so you insure for only $6000. If the property is
completely destroyed, your company will pay you $6000. But, what if you
have a partial loss, say half the the property is destroyed? Do you
get $5000 compensation, half the value, since the loss is less than the
coverage? The answer is NO. Your compensation would be figured:

Actual Insurance amount divided by the amount of insurance
that should be carried times the amount of the loss or
6000

8000

X 5000 = $37 50 = the amount paid on your loss,

Why? You didn't keep your part of the bargain and carried only 3/M-
of the coverage you said you would when you accepted the policy terms by
paying the premium.

Ask your agent how a loss would be settled on your farm buildings.

If you bought property and an insurance policy was assigned to you,
the insurance company must assent (agree) to the assignment.

If the property is mortgaged, a "loss payable clause" should be
part of the policy to protect the lender, and indirectly, you .

Ask your agent the insurable value of your property. Mistakes do
occur, particularly if several agents or companies are involved, and in-
surance may be written for more than the insurable value of the property.
However, no insurance company will pay for more than its share of the ac-
tual cash value of the property at the time of a loss, even if you've
paid for the extra coverage.

Ask your agent to tell you what circumstances will suspend or void
your policy.

Don't overlook insurance on feed and stored crops.

Remember that livestock are often smothered rather than actually
burned; be sure that death losses from this cause are covered.

Provide more than one means of entrance and exit to buildings for
both animals and humans, and be sure that these are not blocked and that
doors open out, not in.

Fire extinguishers are actually worth their weight in gold if they
are of proper type and size and are properly located.

Buildings deserve lightning rod protection in many locations. Prop-
er installation with an "underwriter's label" will reduce your insurance
premium rate. In some locations, trees near a building should have light-
ning rods.

Farm fires usually cause heavy losses, often because the fire has a
good start before it is discovered.

Several companies manufacture fire alarm systems which are simple
to install and which can be placed in areas where fires are likely to
start, such as near electric motors that are likely to overheat. Systems
can be self-contained alarm units, or a series of temperature sensing
units set to go off and trip an alarm, wired in a low voltage circuit to
an alarm bell. Knowing when and where a fire is starting, or likely to
start, may make it possible to reduce fire losses, since fires have small
beginnings .

Three rules for insurance buyers.

A. Buy comprehensive ("wide" or "many risk" coverage) insurance
when available.

B. Buy deductible insurance when you can. (You assume the first
$50 or $100 of a loss.)

C. Buy insurance against the calamity.

Because many buildings were wired for electricity some years ago,
and in many cases additional electric equipment, fans, electric motors,
heaters, coolers, and electric lights have been added, original wiring

- 3

may be overloaded and may be a potential hazard. Electric wiring and
circuits should be checked by a competent electrician if new equipment
has been added. Fires caused by faulty wiring are on the increase I

***************

Pomological Paragraph

15,000 Shopping Centers by 1975 have been predicted by the International
Council of Shopping Centers. Just 17 years ago there were only about 50
shopping centers in the U.S. The current growth rate sees one center
opening every 10 hours each day of the year. By 1970, a mere 2,000 re-
tailers may be doing close to i+0% of all retailing. This would leave
about 1,200,000 stores to handle the balance of the business. Further,
the shopper is changing; the woman shopper today accounts for about 50%
of retail expenditures vs^. 85% a few years ago. In about 5 years the
American consumer is expected to spend more money on services than on
non-durable goods. Self-service will be even more commonplace than today.
These retail trends are worthy of note and serious consideration.

L. D. Tukey - Pennsylvania State Horticultural Reviews

***************

RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The Effect of Type and Season of Pruning on Growth and Yield of Dixigem
Peach Trees .

E. F. Savage, ejt. aJ . , Georgia Experiment Station, Athens, Georgia,
report that yields, fruit size, and tree growth were essentially the
same on Dixigem peach trees pruned vase-shaped as compared to the modi-
fied leader system. (Vase-shape trees are opened center trees with 3
or L+ scaffolds rising from the trunk at about the same height. Modified
leader pruned trees, which are recommended for Massachusetts, have 3 to
5 main scaffold limbs equally distributed around the tree and are at
least 6 inches apart vertically.)

The labor requirement to maintain vase-shaped trees was consider-
ably higher since the prunings removed from these trees averaged 33.9
per cent heavier than those from modified leader trees.

4 -

Modified leader trees were found to be less subject to damage from
low temperatures because they had fewer horizontal limbs.

Summer pruning (early August) , in comparison to pruning during the
dormant season, resulted in dwarfing and a gradual decline in yield.
Summer-pruned trees were more susceptible to cold injury, also.

***************

MARKETING NEW ENGIAND APPLES

Rockwood Berry

310 State Street

Springfield, Massachusetts

The apple production in New England, New York and New Jersey repre-
sents about 25% of the National crop or more than 33,000,000 bushels.
We know that apples from this area are marketed in at least 15 of the
major United States terminal markets. Why isn't this production sold
entirely within the growing area?

According to the 1960 census the population of New England, New
York and New Jersey was over 35,000,000. The 3 northern states of New
England accounted for about 2 million; Massachusetts, Connecticut and
Rhode Island had over 8 1/2 million. New York 16.8 million; New Jersey
a little over 8 million people. This concentration of 18% of the total
United States population is considered to be the greatest market geo-
graphically of any similar area in the United States. If everyone in
this 8 state area consumed approximately 1 bushel per person, all of the
apples produced here would be marketed in the Northeast. However, we
know that average per capita consumption of apples in all forms is about
30 pounds. At least, this is the available supply per person. We also
know that many apples from other areas are marketed in the Northeast.

To balance our supply of apples against the potential home market,
let us assume :

1. That the average per capita is 30 lbs. per year

2. That outside apples do not come into our markets

3. That the average production from 19M-8 to 1962 is a fair
average of our supply.

Then we would find that Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont with a
total population of under 2 million produce M-, 278, 000 bushels of apples.
The people in this 3 state area apparently consume 1,473,000 bushels,
leaving 2,805,000 bushels to be marketed elsewhere.

On the other hand, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island with
a population of 8 1/2 million produce 4,228,000 bushels or over 2,000,000

short of consumer needs. Balancing out the figures for New England, we
find about 600,000 bushels more than the area can consume at the 30 lbs.
rate .

New York, with a population of 16.8 million and an average produc-
tion of 21,000,000 bushels, has 8 1/2 million more bushels than can be
consumed in the State. On the other hand. New Jersey needs 2 1/2 million
bushels more to meet the supply required at 30 lbs. per capita. There-
fore, the 8 state area produces about 6 1/2 million more bushels than
will be consumed by the population in this area. This quantity represents
about 20% of the average crop and we must remember that it is based on
the assumption that no other supplies come in from the outside.

How big a market do we need for 6 1/2 million boxes of apples? This
represents about 8,200 car loads (800 bu. per), which would supply a mar-
ket the size of Boston for 8 months. Perhaps this partly explains why
we are in markets such as Miami, Tampa, Washington, D. C, Philadelphia,
Cleveland and other points west.

Creating Demands for Apples

Assuming that more apples can be consumed in New England and New
York, where would we expect it to occur? Before finding an answer, I
believe we have to re-state our over-simplified statistical finding "that
30 lbs. is the average per capita consumption for apples". This is not
a measure of demand for apples. It is simply a statistic; therefore, we
may assume that:

Some people eat more than 30 lbs. per year

Some people do not eat apples

Some people use only apple products

Some people know all about apples

Some people seldom see them.

Perhaps we can assume that farm people do consume more than city
people. It may be that there are far more people who know less about
apples today than ever before. Basing this on the facts of the popula-
tion explosion and the decrease in farm population, this assumption has
some validity.

To increase demand for apples, it appears to me that we need to
reach consumers in the large urban and metropolitan areas. None of these
areas are in the 3 northern New England States. For instance, metropol-
itan Boston has more people than all of Maine, Vermont and New Hampshire
combined.

Two cities, Hartford and New Britain. Conn., have more people than
the State of New Hampshire.

The metropolitan area of Springfield, Chicopee and Holyoke has
100,000 more people than all of Vermont.

- 5

More than 60% of the New York State population lives in metropoli-
tan New York City (10.7 million).

Creating apple demand in these concentrated areas of population
requires planned programs with sufficient support to carry through to
the consumers. There are several approaches, none of which can be en-
tirely successful without strong industry support. Education is one
approach. It is needed to tell school children about apples. The effec-
tiveness is long-range, but much needed because more and more children
are growing up today without ever standing in the shade of an apple tree.

Promotion and publicity -- another form of education -- is needed
to alert the consumers about apples and the availability of apples.
Through advertising by way of newspapers, radio and television, we reach
consumers at specified times. Advertising as a "salesman's helper" can
be geared to promoting a specific variety at a particular period in selec-
ted markets. For instance, 3 radio stations in Springfield, Mass. would
reach far more people in one week than all radio stations in Vermont and
at far less cost per listener.

To reach the ultimate consumer of your product, we must start with
an idea. Consumers must be sold an idea. It might be that "apples are
great for snacks" or more specifically "Mcintosh are great for snacks".
If the consumer accepts this idea and buys Mcintosh apples, somebody has
made a sale.

***************

WHEN SHOULD PEACH TREES BE PRUNED?

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

It is generally stated that peach trees should be pruned in the
latter part of February or in March, after the danger of extremely low
winter temperatures has ceased. Quite often, however, growers prune
their peach trees during bloom. This may be done because weather con-
ditions or other work delay pruning till past the dormant season. Also,
some growers delay pruning in order to observe the extent of winter in-
jury to buds before pruning. The question arises as to how late in the
spring, pruning may be done without reducing the amount and quality of
the fruit, or the growth of the trees.

The experiment conducted by the late Dr. A. Leon Havis , Plant Indus-
try Station, Beltsville , Maryland, entitled "Pruning Peach Trees at Dif-
ferent Periods in the Spring" gives some interesting information concern-
ing the comparative effect of pruning in the dormant season, at different
periods in the spring, and of no pruning at all.

- 7 -

The trees used for the pruning tests were 12-year-old. Elberta trees
which had been pruned uniformly previous to the experiment. Fifty trees ;
of uniform size, vigor, potential yield, and previous crop and growth
records, were selected. Ten trees were used for each of the periods of
pruning: dormant, full bloom, shuck fall, 3 weeks after shuck fall and
no pruning. The tests were conducted over a 5 year period.

The results obtained by Dr. Havis show several advantages of pruning
during the dormant season. The yield of dormant-pruned trees was higher
than that on those pruned at full bloom, shuck fall, or 3 weeks after
shuck fall. Yields of dormant -pruned trees in comparison to those not
pruned were about the same , but the fruit was larger on the dormant-pruned
trees. Fruits from the unpruned trees were significantly smaller than
those from the trees receiving the pruning treatments. The largest fruits
were produced by the trees pruned latest in the season, since relatively
few fruits per tree remained as a result of the heavy drop of flowers and
fruits under this treatment.

Fruits produced on trees pruned at full bloom or at shuck fall or
left unpruned, matured earlier than the ones produced on the dormant-
pruned trees and those pruned 3 weeks after shuck fall.

The longest shoot growth was produced by the dormant-pruned trees.
But no significant difference in shoot length occurred among the trees
pruned at full bloom, at shuck fall, or three weeks after shuck fall,
although the trend was toward shorter growth as pruning was delayed.
Shoot growth on the unpruned trees was considerably less than with any
other treatment.

The largest number of flower buds per foot of shoot length was pro-
duced by the dormant-pruned trees. The next largest number was produced
on trees pruned at full bloom. No significant difference in the number
of flower buds per foot of shoot-length, occurred among the trees pruned
at shuck fall, or three weeks after shuck fall, or those that received
no pruning.

The data obtained by Havis indicate that from the standpoint of
shoot growth and fruit size, it is advisable to prune even as late as
3 weeks after shuck fall, rather than not to prune at all.

The experiment cited above shows that in most instances growers
should try to prune their peach trees during the dormant season. When
winter injury has occurred to the buds , the degree of pruning should be
decided upon after examining the flower buds or after forcing some branches,
By following this procedure, the grower can determine the extent of win-
ter injury to flower buds and prune accordingly, without having to wait
until full bloom. If winter injury to the wood is evident, pruning should
be delayed until the extent of the damage is known.

***************

- 8 -

Pomological Paragraph

CA Storage Capacity

CA storage construction has been drastically reduced since 1961,
with only 3 new rooms constructed and operated for the first time dur-
ing the 1964-1965 storage season. Records kept by the Extension Pomol-
ogist indicate CA storage capacity for approximately 808,000 bushels in
Massachusetts .

William J. Lord
***************

DECOMPOSITION OF HERBICIDES IN SOILS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Fruit growers, like all individuals that use herbicides, are inter-
ested in the fate of these materials in soils. Considerable research
has been conducted on the relation of decomposition to soil types, envi-
ronment and chemical structure of some herbicides. These research find-
ings have been reviewed by T. J. Sheets and his co-workers (T. J. Sheets
--"Persistence of Herbicides in Soils"--Proc . W.W.C.C. 19: 37-4-2, 1962,
and T. J. Sheets, C. I. Harris, D. D. Kaufman, and P. C. Kearney--"Fate
of Herbicides in Soils"--Proc. N.E.W.C.C. 18: 21-31, 1964). Most of the
information was taken from these articles.

"The amount of soil water, the water solubility of herbicides,
and the degree and tenacity of soil adsorption may have con-
siderable influence on the persistence of herbicides. Most
organic herbicides are leached more readily in sands and sandy
loams than in clay loams, clays, and soils high in organic
matter. "

Because of this, the recommended dosage of herbicides is usually
less for a sandy soil than for a clay soil.

Degradation by soil micro-organisms is one of the major pathways
by which organic herbicides are detoxified. Most organic herbicides are
inactivated most rapidly in soil under the conditions optimum for growth
of micro-organisms.

"Temperature, rainfall, wind, and sunlight affect the persist-
ence of herbicides directly and indirectly through their ef-
fects on soil processes. Temperature affects vaporization,
adsorption, chemical reactions, adsorption and metabolism by
micro-organisms and higher plants, solubility, and leaching.
In addition to directly causing movement and dilution in the

soil, rainfall and irrigation supply water to the soil; and
water is essential for the occurrence of many of the processes
which promote the dissipation of herbicides from soils. Air
movements influence vaporization and, therefore, loss of her-
bicides from soils."

Dr. Sheets, et. al. arbitrarily classified herbicides into four
groups based on the time usually required for inactivation in soils:

(a) to 3 weeks (c) 3 to 12 months

(b) 3 to 12 weeks (d) More than 12 months

These are arbitrary classifications, since many factors influence
the decomposition of herbicides and therefore a herbicide may fit more
than one group .

Herbicides that are usually inactivated within 3 weeks, which are
of interest to fruit growers, are amitrole and dalapon. Both of these
materials are labeled for use in apple orchards.

Simazine and diuron, which are in frequent use in our orchards,
generally are inactivated between 3 and 12 months. Under some environ-
mental conditions, diuron and simazine have persisted more than a year,
however.

"When organic herbicides applied at recommended rates for selec-
tive weed control in crops have persisted for 1 year, the con-
centration in the soil has been very low at the end of the
year."

***************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Deportment of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

MARCH T5, 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foliar Calcium Sprays Reduce Apple Bitter Pit

Pomological Paragraph

Results of Leaf Analyses

Virus-Free Red Raspberry Plants

Some Insect Pest of Cultivated Blueberries

Macs Must Be Kept Cold

Spray Materials are Dangerous in Fires!

//''

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[IM/l

m/^

^7^

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No, 44.

FOLIAR CALCIUM SPRAYS REDUCE APPLE BITTER PIT
Mack Drake, W. D. Weeks, J. H. Baker, D. L. Field and G. W. Olanyk''-

Bitter Pit disorder of apples was recorded in Germany in 1829 and
1862, and was officially recognized in Australia in 1892. Bitter pit
(also called stippen, Baldwin spot, or fruit spot) occurs where apples
are grown throughout the world - Europe, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, Japan, Northeastern U.S.A. and Canada, etc. Some of the more
susceptible varieties are Baldwin, Northern Spy, and Cortland in North-
eastern U.S.A. and Canada; Golden Delicious, Red Delicious, Starking,
Jonathan, Winter Pearman in South Africa; Sturmer, Cox's Orange Pippin
and Cleopatra in Australia and New Zealand.

Physical Characteristics of Bitter Pit

South African scientists divide bitter pit into "tree pit" and
"storage or store pit", which is reduced by calcium foliar sprays, and
"confluent pit" found in fruit at harvest - this latter was not reduced
by calcium sprays. It is thought that pitting is induced in the orchard,
but in some cases it may not develop until the fruit is in storage.
Maximum storage pit developed in Australia and South Africa when fruit
from susceptible trees was picked 2 to 3 weeks early - before the dis-
order had fully developed on the fruit. Often it is a hidden disease
because fruit free of pit at harvest may develop pits during storage.
Bitter pit, not to be confused with internal corky abnormalities, such
as boron deficiency - is characterized by brown depressed spots approx-
imately 0.2 inches in diameter in the fruit flesh immediately under the
skin. In the most susceptible varieties, a greater number of spots ap-
pear near the calyx end.

Smock, in New York, stated that in early stage of development,
groups of cell walls beneath the inner skin (hypodermal) of the fruit
collapse. Initially, neither the inner (hypodermis) nor the outer skin
(epidermis) are affected, but in advanced development, the walls collapse
and become torn. With the collapse of large areas of fleshy tissue just
beneath the surface, both inner and outer skin tissues become distorted,
are depressed and turn brown or black (Figure 1), spoiling the apple's
appearance. The pitted areas are not removed by automatic peelers in
processing, and apples with the bitter pit disorder are not acceptable
in the better grades of fruit.

Value of Balanced Mineral Nutrition . A high level of nitrogen, low
calcium, small crop set, large fruit size, heavy pruning and moisture
stress, are reported to increase the fruit's susceptibility to bitter
pit. Research during the past decade shows that bitter pit development
is related to low calcium content of leaf or fruit. Martin, from Aus-
tralia, reports nearly twice as much calcium per cell for sound as for
pitted fruit. Kidson and coworkers, in New Zealand, show that the cal-

Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor and Technical Assist-
ants, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst.

clum content of the skin fi^om normal apples is double that of pitted
fruit and in several cases the magnesium is higher in the skin of pit-
ted than in normal fruit. Recent evidence Indicates it is not simply
the level of calcium, but the relative balance of calcium to nitrogen,
to magnesium, to potassium and to boron which must be considered. For
example: Yamazaki and Mori, from Japan, show that bitter pit in Jona-
than apples occurred when calcium was absent from the nutrient solution
and that it was increased by added nitrogen at each of 3 levels of cal-
cium nutrition. Rose et al, of the U.S.D.A., reports that adding mag-
nesium (Epsom salts) to irrigation water produces symptoms similar to
Baldwin spot, indicating the importance of the calcium-magnesium ratio
in apple nutrition. Garman and Mathis , at the New Haven Experiment
Station in Connecticut, reduced bitter pit by injecting a calcium salt
solution through the calyx-end while the apple was growing on the tree,
and induced bitter pit by injecting a magnesium solution. They report
that the magnesium to calcium ratio was 4 to 1 in pitted and 1 to 1 in
normal fruit. Baxter, in Australia, reported that this disorder can be
artificially induced by a calcium deficiency brought about by spraying
the leaves with a magnesium salt solution or by injecting calcium che-
lating agents .

Cation Balance . The
sum of the nutrient cations
(calcium + potassium + mag-

ml:

BlTTEFi Pir

Fig. 1. Bitter pit on Baldwin apples.
The top row of apples show only a slight
indication of the disorder; whereas, the
remainder of the fruit are severely pitted.

nesiumj in tissue of a given
plant species tends to be a
constant. Leaf potassium is
higher and calcium and mag-
nesium are lower with a light
as compared to heavy crop.
Thus, if leaf potassium is in-
creased by fertilizer appli-
cation or by crop size, cal-
cium and magnesium will be
depressed. If leaf potas-
sium is low, calcium and mag-
nesium will be relatively
high. Likewise, increasing
the level of magnesium in
the leaf, reduces calcium and
potassium, while in contrast
increasing leaf calcium reduces
magnesium and potassium. Al-

though, leaf calcium usually
is low for those trees with pitted fruit, Massachusetts research shows
that for a given calcium level in the leaf, a greater incidence of bit-
ter pit is associated with a relatively high leaf magnesium or potassium
level. This illustrates the importance of maintaining a desirable bal-
ance of the nutrient cations, calcium, potassium and magnesium, in the
leaf tissue. Because calcium moves slowly into the soil and through the
conducting tissue of the tree, foliar fertilization by spraying with cal-
cium salt solutions, is required to raise the level of calcium quickly
in the apple leaf and conducting tissue. Garman and Mathis compared

apple leaf and fruit analysis of 9 trees on August 17 and on October 1,
and found over a 50% reduction in fruit calcium, and a 30% gain in leaf
calcium by October 1. They reasoned that leaf calcium was increasing
at the expense of fruit calcium and proposed late summer foliar calcium
applications. Competition by the leaf with the apple fruit for calcium
has been suggested as one reason for greater incidence of bitter pit
with a small crop, since in these light crop years, there is relatively
greater shoot and leaf development.

Reduction of Bitter Fit

Incidence of bitter pit has been reduced greatly by the foliar ap-
plication of calcium solutions on trees with a history of producing pit-
ted fruit. Garman and Mathis , in Connecticut, U.S.A., Ginsburg and Bey-
ers, in South Africa, Jackson, and Kidson and coworkers in New Zealand,
Martin, et al in Australia, Yamazaki et al in Japan, and Smock and others
have made major research contributions in this area. In South Africa,
Ginsburg and Beyers reported that 3 spray applications of 1 per cent
solution of calcium nitrate (8 pounds/100 gal. water) , beginning about
2 weeks after bloom and repeated at 2 week intervals , reduced bitter
pit from 20 to 2 per cent.

Solutions of either calcium nitrate or calcium chloride have been
effective in reducing bitter pit. The Japanese have demonstrated that
incidence of bitter pit was increased by nitrogen. Thus, in theory,
calcium nitrate, by supplying foliar nitrogen, would be somewhat less
effective than calcium chloride in reducing bitter pit. However, obser-
vations by Dillon in Australia, at the Massachusetts Experiment Station
and elsewhere, indicate that the use of calcium chloride is more likely
to result in injury to the leaf margin or leaf scorch. When foliar ap-
plications of calcium nitrate are used, corresponding reductions in fer-
tilizer nitrogen applications should be scheduled.

Growers who are interested in applying calcium foliar sprays may
obtain recommendations from Dr. W. J. Lord, Extension Pomologist, Uni-
versity of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Sources of Nitrogen - In the 93rd Annual Report of the State Horticul-
tural Society of Michigan, A. L. Kenworthy stated that recent research
has shown that there are no obvious differences in the effect of vari-
ous nitrogen sources on fruit trees. This gives support to our state-
ment that it is the amount of actual nitrogen applied that is important
and not the source, therefore, the selection should be based on cost.

***************

- 4 -

RESULTS OF LEAF ANALYSES

William J. Lord and Bertram Gersten, Control Service

Maintaining the desired nutritional level of fruit trees is a dif-
ficult task because of crop size, pruning, weather and tree-to-tree var-
iation. However, through leaf analyses, careful observations, some dif-
ferential fertilization and use of a foliar application of urea on weaker
trees, you can at least partially solve the problem.

Leaf analyses have shown that low potassium levels have been preva-
lent for the last 2 years. We know that leaf potassium is generally
lower in dry growing seasons than in years with adequate soil moisture.
However, not all trees sampled were low in potassium and some of these
trees with adequate potassium were located on lighter soils. It would
appear, therefore, that low potassium levels weren't entirely due to the
dry growing season, and the rate of application should be increased in
some orchards.

For the last several years, a number of growers have omitted or re-
duced nitrogen applications in order to increase fruit firmness and color.
Analyses of leaves obtained from commercial orchards during the past 2
summers, indicate that the rate of nitrogen application should be increased
in some orchards. At the time of sampling, we observed that many of the
Mcintosh trees were low in vigor. Terminal growth was less than 6 inches
on some trees.

***************

VIRUS -FREE RED RASPBERRY PLANTS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The USDA has released for multiplication by nurseries, virus-free
stocks of Amber, Canby, Cuthbert, Fairview, Latham, Marcy, New Hampshire,
Newburgh, Puyallup, September, Sunrise, Taylor, Viking, and Washington,
varieties of red raspberries.

Correspondence with nurseries having these mosaic virus-free stock,
indicates that only a very limited supply of these is available for sale
in 1965. It will be a year or 2 before anything but a limited number
of virus-free plants will be available.

The January 1965, issue of Agricultural Research reports that virus-
free raspberry plants receiving regular insect control programs, remained
relatively free from reinfection in the field for 2 years or more. This
is a considerably longer period than had been anticipated.

Growers desiring to make inquiries about purchasing virus-free red
raspberry plants, may write the Editor of Fruit Notes for the names of
nurseries to contact.

- 5 -

SOME INSECT PESTS OF CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES

William E. Tomlinson, Jr.
Cranberry Station, East Wareham

The different insects that are kno^^m to infest cultivated blueber-
ries are quite numerous, but fortunately only a few are of enough impor-
tance to require the use of pesticides. The important ones in Massachu-
setts have been cranberry weevil, cranberry fruitworm, cherry fruitworm,
blueberry maggot, and Japanese beetle. Several others are occasionally
troublesome.

Much future trouble from a few insects can be avoided by proper
pruning. Stem galls should be removed and disposed of in such a manner
that the gall -producing wasps they contain cannot emerge from the galls
and infest new twig growth in the spring. The galls preferably should
be burned, or at least buried under several inches of soil. Canes in-
fested with stem borers should be removed whenever noticed, regardless
of the time of year, but during the pruning operation is an excellent
time to be on the watch for signs of their activity. Orange -colored
frass pellets under an infested cane indicate an active borer. Be sure
to remove the cane below where it is tunnelled and probe for any tunnels
in the crown with a twig or wire if they have worked that far down in
the bush. Though not an entirely reliable scale insect control, regular
removal of older, less productive canes low in the crown, is helpful in
retarding the development of serious scale insect infestations. When
scales do become abundant, a thorough spraying with superior oil in the
dormant season is a dependable control.

On quiet, warm, sunny days in the spring, after the fruit buds swell
but before bloom has opened, is the time to be on the alert for cranberry
weevil, especially on bushes around the edges of the field. An occasion-
al one can be ignored, but if they occur several to the bush, the field
should be treated. The weevils lay eggs in the unopened blossoms and
the developing larvae feed on the flower parts, one larva per blossom.
Because of their small size and earliness in the season, they may go un-
detected for several seasons, with the result that they build up to out-
break numbers, and the small crops that result may be attributed to some
other cause, such as frost or lack of pollination.

After the blossoms have set, the small green fruit is siibject to the
attack of several different species of insect larvae. Two are of very
little importance, though they account for a few less fruit almost every
season. The grub of the plum curculio'is the first of these, its pres-
ence being indicated by a crescent-shaped scar on the berry. A few are
noted almost every year in Massachusetts , but in North Carolina this is
a major blueberry pest.

Another minor pest is the maggot of a small fly that develops in the
green fruit. At picking time these appear as ripe berries, except for a
small green circular area on one side of a berry that hasn't ripened nor-
mally due to the feeding and secretions of the maggot of this midge. A

few are seen almost every year, but never in my experience have they
been seen in numbers that warrant control measures, even if we had any.

Another "worm" is the grub of a small weevil known as the currant
fruit weevil. This is usually a minor pest, but has been the cause of
serious crop loss in at least one Massachusetts field. The beetle lays
her egg in the berry stem or in the berry close to the stem, and the grub
works into the green berry and feeds therein. Infested berries color
prematurely and are small and shrivelled. They may get into the first
picking, but generally they have been knocked off or have dropped off
by the time of later pickings. In the usual light infestation, malathi-
on or carbaryl as recommended for the next two pest should keep it from
building up to serious proportions.

The two most important green fruit pests throughout the range of the
cultivated blueberry are the cranberry fruitworm and the cherry fruitworm.
These are the culprits that like to wander around in the package under
the cellophane and make you wish you were in some other business at times.

Cranberry fruitworm is the more obvious of the two because of the
frassy web it makes as it feeds in a cluster of berries. Each worm may
destroy half a dozen or more berries before it finishes feeding. The
caterpillar is green until nearly mature when it takes on a reddish brown
tinge on the back and sides. It is about 1/2 inch long when mature.
When through feeding it drops to the ground and spins a hiburnaculum of
web and sand, where it remains until the following spring when it trans-
forms to an adult and starts another infestation.

The cherry fruitworm feeds in a manner similar to the cranberry
fruitworm, but it does not make a web. Often the first indication of
its presence is the appearance of prematurely-coloring fruit. The num-
ber of berries each larva feeds in is not known, but is probably some-
what less than is the case of cranberry fruitworm. Don't let that mis-
lead you, as they can make up in numbers for their smaller size and ap-
petite. As many as 75 have emerged from a pint, and 2 to 3 dozen per
pint is not uncommon in a moderate to heavy infestation. The worm or
caterpillar is a bright orange -red color and is about 1/3 of an inch long
when full grown. It has the habit, when finished feeding, of boring into
old pruning stubs or scars on the bush where it spends its life until the
following season, when it transform to a moth to start the trouble all
over again.

Control of these 2 pests is obtained with timely applications of
carbaryl or malathion. If both are present in damaging numbers, 3 appli-
cations may be needed, but usually 2 are all that are required. The
first application should go on toward the close of bloom (75% set) of
early varieties, and a second application 10 days later. A third appli-
cation a week after the second may be worthwhile in a heavy cherry fruit-
worm infestation.

The last, but by no means least important, of the blueberry "worms"
is blueberry maggot. This past summer saw it more abundant than usual

7 -

throughout the area, with fly counts on my sticky traps running 2-4 times
higher than for several years .

This is a pest of ripe fruit, though some seasons if flies emerge
early, eggs are deposited in green fruit. However, they don't mature
until after this fruit is ripe. Because of a long fly emergence period,
as well as fly migration, they can and do cause trouble throughout the
picking season.

To control, apply carbaryl or malathion at 7 to 10-day intervals,
starting when the first few normal berries turn blue. Picking bushes
clean and regularly helps keep this pest from having a chance to develop
into a serious infestation.

In those areas where Japanese beetles are numerous, it is a very
serious pest of cultivated blueberries because of its fondness for ripen-
ing berries and tender foliage. On warm, sunny days, they congregate in
large numbers on the top berry clusters and seriously damage the crop by
their scoring of berries. Carbaryl gives outstanding control of this
pest, therefore, in those areas where Japanese beetles as well as maggot
are a problem, carbaryl is the first recommendation for control of these
two pests.

In addition to these, fall webworms and Datana worms, which feed in
groups and sometimes defoliate individual bushes, cause some concern at
times. Also, several sucking insects, such as heath spittlebug, plant
bugs and leafhoppers are minor drains on the bushes, and the sharp -nosed
leafhopper has the added distinction of spreading the stunt disease virus
of blueberry. All of these lesser pests are controlled by the controls
aimed at the more serious pests, such as fruitworm and maggot.

***************

MACS MUST BE KEPT COLD

William J. Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

As a part of a larger experiment conducted in our storages in Am-
herst, we compared the storage life of Mcintosh apples held in 2 different
regular air storages. Both of these storages were set to maintain a tem-
perature of about 32 F. However, one room had an excellent temperature
control system and averaged 32.4 F. over a 3-month period, while the other
room had a poor temperature control system and averaged 34.5°F. in the
morning during the 3-month period. Furthermore, the temperature in the
poorly controlled room rose to 38-40° 3 times a week during an afternoon
defrosting cycle. The behavior of the apples in these 2 rooms illustrated
strikingly the necessity of a good temperature control system.

In Table 1 are shown the flesh firmness readings on the fruit when
removed from the 2 rooms. The apples from the poorly -controlled room

- 8 -

were as soft, after only 63 days of storage, as were those from the well-
controlled room after 113 days of storage. Thus, only a couple degrees
increase of the storage temperature shortened the storage life of the
apples by S0_ days .

Table 1. Firmness (lbs. pressure) of ^fcIntosh apples when removed from
storage . ______^_

Storage
temperature (°F.)

Days in £

storage
84

103

113

15.5 12.5
15.5 10.5

11.5
9.6

11.4
9.7

10.5
8.9

10.6
9.0

32.4
34.5

When the apples were held at room temperature for 7 and 14 days af-
ter removal from storage, the rate of softening continued to show the
50-day differential between the 2 rooms (Table 2) . The apples from the
warmer room were as soft after 63 days as were those from the colder
room after 113 days, after both 7 and 14 days at 70-75 . The quality
of the fruits from the 2 rooms was very noticeably different. At every
examination, the fruits from the poorly-regulated room were distinctly
softer in texture. Also, after storage for 84-113 days, the apples from
the poorly-regulated room were yellower than the others.

Table 2. Firmness (lbs. pressure) of Mcintosh apples held at 70-75°F.
after removal from storage.

Days at
70-75°F.

Storage
temperature

f°F,

Days
84

in storage
91 103

113

32.4
34.5

9.4
8.8

9.7
8.5

9.3
8.1

9.2
8.3

8.3
7.6

32.4
34.5

8.7
7.9

8.6
7.6

8.4
7.4

8.6
7.1

8.2
7.2

These results show the absolute necessity of maintaining the storage
temperature very near to 32° for Mcintosh apples, if you are to market
good fruits out of regular air storage. If your storage is operating
only a couple of degrees above 32°, you may be reducing drastically the
storage life of Mcintosh apples.

***************

9 -

SPRAY MATERIALS ARE DANGEROUS IN FIRES I

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Science

Firemen were hospitalized due to inhalation of phosphate fumes and
smoke while fighting recent fires on two fruit farms.

Hospital attendants failed to recognize phosphate poisoning and the
firemen were treated for smoke inhalation.

Fortunately , the fire commissioner brought to the hospital, a copy
of an Extension Service Letter, which described phosphate poisoning and
proper atropine treatment.

Otherwise , some firemen hiay have died.

The above happened in Monroe County, New York ("Dangers to Firemen
When Spray Materials Burn" by Richard Norton, Monroe County Fruit Agent -
January issue of New York State Horticultural Society News Letter) .

It Could Have Happened in Massachusetts I

Here are some recommended steps for preventing it from happening:

1. Inform your fire department officials of the chemical storage
and its contents before the emergency.

2. Store the chemicals in one place, preferably in a structure sep-
arated from other buildings.

3. Keep all chemical-containing buildings locked and inaccessible
to children and irresponsible persons.

M^. Label all buildings containing chemicals as to their contents,

5. The list of Poison Information Centers should be posted in a
conspicuous place, and make its presence known to the members
of your family and all employees .

PESTICIDE SAFETY IS YOUR RESPONSIBILITY

***************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

APRIL 15, 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Effect on Massachusetts Farmers of Changes
in the Migrant Labor Situation

Pomological Paragraph

Poison Ivy Control in Bearing Apple Orchards

Pomological Paragraph

How Pesticides are Named

Mouse Activity Under Plastic and
Hay Mulches

Pomological Paragraph

Profits on New York Cost-Account Farms

Chemical Weed Control Circulars are now
Available

Chemical Thinning of Apples

Z<:»A

^^^

'iJ:i\

«r--

1- ^i-i^

>^-v:

-jK:

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielmen, Dean artd Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

THE EFFECT ON MASSACHUSETTS FARMERS OF CHANGES
IN THE MIGRANT LABOR SITUATION

Earl I, Fuller and Lawrence D. Rhoades
Department of Agriculture and Food Economics

Federal regulation now requires the payment of $1.30 an hour mini-
mum to all farm workers on Massachusetts fai-ms hiring foreign nationals.
British West Indians and Jamaicans as well as the Mexican Bracero are
foreign nationals. Puerto Ricans are not. The same wage rate will pre-
vail in New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island and New Hampshire. Connecti-
cut farmers must pay $1.4-0 per hour.

These pay scales are only one indication of some nationwide trends:

1. The Mexican Bracero workers are apparently going to be unavail-
able in competing vegetable and fruit areas.

2. A national minimum wage law is likely within the next 5 years.
Many states already have them.

3 . Labor unions are still active in attempting to organize farm
workers .

These are factors that managers in the fruit and vegetable business
will have to consider in years ahead.

SHORT RUN EFFECTS

Several things are likely to happen in the immediate future:

1. Reductions in crops such as celery, melons, and strawberries
are likely to occur on the West Coast or wherever these high-
er labor-requiring type crops are grown and where the producer
now relies heavily on foreign labor.

2'- Producers in the same situation are likely to shift to low

labor-requiring crops such as onions and potatoes. These are
crops that are now highly mechanized.

3. The pressure to develop mechanical harvesting techniques will
increase. Remember that there is no crop that cannot be har-
vested mechanically if enough research and time is spent on
the problem.

4. Mexico and Canada will continue to grow in vegetable and fruit
production.

5. There should be higher prices for higher labor-requiring crops,
but lower prices for low labor-requiring crops.

6. The small growers supplying most of their own labor from the
family could benefit in the short run.

LONG RUN EFFECTS

It takes time for a change like this to work itself out in the
economy. As it does some ti-ends should be evident:

.1 . The relative advantage of the production of crops for process-
ing as compared to the fresh market shift in favor of process-
ing. The reasoning behind this is as follows: Quality require-
ments ai^e lower for processing. Mechanization can proceed more
rapidly. Continued hand labor retjuired for fresh market pro-
duction will increase cost and then market price. Consumers
will tend to shift some of their preference towards the proc-
essed, and lower cost, form of the product.

2. The usual effect of increased mechanization in a business is
increased overhead. For mechanization to be economical will
require an increase in the size of the business.

3. Small growers will have to:

a. Accept lower net returns;

b. Quit the business;

c. Grow in size;

d. Intensify efforts to develop a speciality (higher priced)
market and consequently take on more of the marketing
functions .

4. Areas of the country that have terrain suitable for mechaniza-
tion will have an advantage.

MANAGERS CREATE CHANGE AS WELL AS ADJUST TO IT

But which soils, climates, and market situations will enjoy long
run advantages is never clear. Where and by whom new varieties and
machines are invented will have a great deal to do with the production
side. Marketing patterns don't just happen, either. Market relation-
ships involve managers making decisions and sound sales efforts have
their effect. It will take group action on the part of Massachusetts
growers to gain advantages here.

On an individual farm basis, growers can take advantage of these
trends by moving with them or ahead of them in many instances. Shifts
in crops, or shifts in labor supply may be in order. But don't forget
the market. Because of it, there may be times when you can move coun-
ter to the trend.

Fruit and vegetable production in Massachusetts has remained re-
markably stable over many, many years. Managers have made these kinds
of adjustments many, many times.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Spencer Apple - The few growers who have fruited Spencer report
good acceptance of this variety at roadside stands. The high quality
of Spencer apparently will bring repeat customers for the variety.

***************

POISON IVY CONTROL IN BEARING APPLE ORCHARDS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Amizine and amitrole-T (commercial product Amitrol-T) are labeled
for use in bearing apple orchards but they may be used only prior to
fruit set or after harvest. With this timing, however, only partial
control of poison ivy can be obtained, because the herbicide must be
applied to leaves.

At full bloom of apple trees, many poison ivy stems have not pro-
duced foliage; therefore, treatments applied at this time fail to give
satisfactory results. For example, in 1962 and 1963 only Hl% and 26%,
respectively, of the poison ivy was killed by sprays applied at full
bloom. Since the amount of foliage present on poison ivy stems at full
bloom of apple trees varies from orchard to orchard and from tree to tree,
the effectiveness of sprays for poison ivy control may be quite variable.

However, applications of amizine or amitrole-T repeated yearly show
promise for the gradual elimination of poison ivy. Retreatment in 196^1
of the plots sprayed in 1963, increased the control of poison ivy from
26% to 86%.

The timing problem may now be lessened slightly because "Prior to
Fruit Set" is now defined as meaning an application must be applied be-
fore 90% of the apple petals have fallen. This means that spray appli-
cations of amizine or amitrole-T may be made after the full bloom period
and that leaf development on poison ivy will be more advanced.

Post-Harvest Treatments Under Bearing Trees

The usefulness of amizine or amitrole-T as post-harvest sprays
appears dependent upon the presence of a full complement of leaves on
the poison ivy stems. Treatments applied on September 27, 1961, while
the foliage was still green, gave 99% control. Sprays applied on October
11, 1961, when foliage showed fall coloration, gave 90% poison ivy con-
trol. Treatments applied on October 11, 1962,. when the poison ivy stems
were partly defoliated, gave an average control of only 10%.

Amizine or amitrole-T sprays applied soon after harvest of varieties
maturing prior to Mcintosh, would generally precede frosts and should

,n;.iv(' satisfactory poison ivy control. The effectiveness of these herb-
icides for poison ivy control under trees of Melntosli liarvest season
and later would be dependent on the earJ iness and severity of frost and
its effect on the poison ivy foliage.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Double Headinja; - Double heading of apple trees the year of planting
appears to be gaining grower acceptance. One method of double heading
is to prune the one-year-old whips 4-5 inches higher than desired at
time of planting. Wlien the top-most shoots are 1 to 6 inches long (gen-
erally in early June), the leader is cut back an additional 4 or 5 inches.
This will eliminate limbs with sharp crotch angles in the upper part of
the tree and force out more wide-angled side branches.

Some growers prefer to head the one-year-old whip to the desired
height at planting. Then after the top-most shoots on the leader are
I+-6 inches long, all are removed except for the one most suitable for
the leader.

***************

HOW PESTICIDES ARE NAMED

E. H. Wheeler, Professor of Entomology
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology

Carbaryl is the common or generic name now being widely used for
Sevin insecticide. Carbaryl will be used to designate this particular
active ingredient on labels. Many growers who are seeing the new term,
carbaryl, listed in state recommendations for insecticide treatments
may wonder what this name means. By knowing this, mistakes may be avoided.

The common' name for Sevin has been accepted by the International
Organization for Standardization, the American Standards Association
and the British Standards Institution.

Common names are adopted to clarify and standardize the nomencla-
ture of a product throughout the world. Governmental and scientific -
groups can more readily use a generic or common name of a material in
recommendations and corrununications without sponsoring or favoring a par-
ticular trade-marked brand name.

Why carbaryl? Sevin insecticide can be described chemically as a
carbamate compound or an aryl urethane. Dr. Maurie Semel, of the New
York Vegetable Research Station, Long Island, suggested combining the
terms carbamate and aryl into "carbaryl" as a descriptive common name.

Ttie trade marl< , Sevln, was selected by Union Carbide Corporation
because more llian 7,000 compounds were screened before the product was
discovered. Sevin actually was compound No. 7,7'|Lk Company scientists
began calling it "Seven". Tlie word was deliberately misspelled as
"Sevin" in order to register it as a trade name. Its chemical name is
1-naphthyl N-methylcat^bamate .

A*;.***********;.-

MOUSE ACTIVITY UNDER PLASTIC AND MY MULCHES

John W. Peterson, District Agent
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Amherst, Massachusetts

Since the advent of plastic, there has been a question as to its
value as a mulch under young fruit trees. Of particular concern is its
attraction or repellency to mice. Therefore, studies were conducted in
1963 and 196^1 in cooperation with Extension Pomologist William J. Lord
and Regional Agricultural Agent G. Everett Wilder to evaluate mouse ac-
tivity under hay- and plastic -mulched trees and under those having the
vegetation controlled by herbicides. Tests were conducted in Abner Peck
and Sons' orchard in Shelburne, Massachusetts. The data collected dur-
ing the 1963 test was considered invalid because there was a low mouse
population in the area selected, making it difficult to measure differ-
ences in mouse activity. Hence, it was decided that another test would
be carried out in 1964

The 1964 tests showed no significant difference in mouse activity
under trees mulched with hay or black plastic. The presence or absence
of simazine around tree bases showed no attraction or repellency to
mice. From the standpoint of orchard mouse control, it is better to
have no cover around the tree bases, as indicated by the fact that where
the vegetation was controlled with simazine, no mouse activity was ap-
parent.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Hardware Cloth Guards - A grower reports that his carton stapler
is useful for stapling together hardware cloth wire guards used for
mouse protection. Generally, M staples are used on each 24 inch high
guard. The guards, which are prepared on a rainy day, are ready for
placement around the newly planted apple whips. Naturally, it would
usually be impossible to slip the guards down the stems of older trees,

***************

6 -

PROFITS ON NEW YORK COST-ACCOUNT FARMS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Data presented by Del Kearl, Agricultural Economics Department,
Cornell University, in the November, 1964^, issue of the New York State
Horticultural Society News-Letter, show that in general, fruit enter-
prises have been more profitable than the crops and livestock enter-
prises .

With the exception of a few years such as 1959, apple growing has
been profitable and returned well over a dollar, for each dollar invested
(Table 1).

Table 1.

RETURN PER DOLLAR OF COST FOR TREE FRUIT
Cost-Account Farms in New York

Period

Apples Peaches Pears

Sweet

Cherries

Sour

1919-23

$1.15*

192M-28

1.41

1929-33

1.15

$1.14

1934-38

1.14

1.34

1939-43

1.27

1.44

1944-48

1.33

1.53

1949-53

1.24

0.99

1954-58

1.16

0.73

1959

0.92

1.04

1950

1.37

0.95

1961

1.09

0.78

1962

1.23

0.84

$0.96

1.05
1.65
1.11

1.45
2.07

1.88
1.93
2.59
3.04

$1.77

1.34
1.85
1.79
1.69

$1.68**

1.79
1.60
2.10

1.35

$1.03

1.04
1.10
1.28
0.96

*1920-23 ^1930-33

**Before 1954 the cherries enterprise costs and returns were not kept
separate .

It can be noted in the data presented by Del Kearl, that peaches,
profitable in the thirties and forties, have returned less than cost
since 1950. Pears, the other tree fruit of particular interest to Mass
achusetts growers have been very profitable in New York State in most
years .

***************

CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL CIRCULARS ARE NOW AVAILABLE

The 196S Revision of Special Circular ^15 entitled "Controllinfj;
Weeds in Small Fruit Plantings With Chemicals" and Special Circular 283
entitled "Cliemical Weed Control Recommendations for Tree Fruits" are
now available. Copies may be obtained through your County Extension
Service or by writing to the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, Massachusetts.

***************

CHEMICAL THINNING OF APPLES

F. W. Southwick
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Chemical thinning has been discussed for a good many years in this
publication and elsewhere, so I presume most fruit growers are aware
that we have such satisfactory thinning materials as NAD (Amid-Thin) ,
NAA (naphthaleneacetic acid) or its sodium salt, sold under a variety
of labels and Carbaryl (Sevin) . The details related to the use of these
compounds for thinning most of our varieties are contained in Special
Circular 189 which is available from the University of Massachusetts or
from your Regional Fruit Specialist.

It is the intention here to show some recent data comparing sever-
al types of chemical thinning treatments, plus scoring, on "return"
bloom of some very biennial varieties. Experimenters and growers have
been generally successful in obtaining annual flowering of such varie-
ties as Mcintosh, Golden Delicious and Wealthy following the use of
chemical thinners. However, it is much more difficult to obtain con-
sistent annual flowering, even following heavy chemical thinning, on
such varieties as Baldwin, Early Mcintosh and Puritan. Consequently,
we have emphasized in our recent work the relative effectiveness of dif-
ferent chemical thinners for stimulation of flowering. We have been in-
terested, also, in what thinning treatments, if any, should be used once
a moderate-to-heavy "return" bloom is obtained.

In Table 1 are some data obtained over a 2 -year period on some
Early Mcintosh where scoring, in addition to the chemical thinning, was
tried in 1953.

The data in Table 1 show quite clearly that "return" bloom in 1964-
is primarily related to the degree of thinning in 1963. Sevin, which
thinned slightly but significantly, improved fruit size somewhat, but
the reduction in fruit set was so slight that those trees receiving two
applications of Sevin (at petal fall and again 10 days later) in 1963
were barren, like the checks in 1964. Our attempts to improve the
"return" bloom on these rather lightly thinned Sevin-treated trees by
scoring (severingthe bark completely in 3 places - each ring of severed
bark about 1/2 inch apart) about 4 weeks after full bloom also failed.
Scoring increased "return" bloom in only one instance (Treatment 3) .

Obviously, scoring is not as effective a treatment as substantial chem-
ical thinning for inducing annual flowering of mature Early Mcintosh
trees. However, it may occasionally improve the ajnount of "return"
bloom obtained if used as a supplement to chemical thinning.

Table 1. The influence of chemical thinning and scoring on fruit set,
size and return bloom of Early Mcintosh apples. 1963-614.

196L|^

1963
Treatments

Fruits/cm.

of limb

circumference

Avg. fruit
diajneterp
(inches)

Blossom clusters per
cm. of limb circ.o
Unscored Scored

1. Check

2. Sevin-3#(50%

NAD -50 ppm.

.P,

■)

4
19.9a

9.5c

2 . 11a
2.32c

0.2a
12.7c

0.2a
13.7c

3. Sevin-3#(50% W.P.) 6 . 9d 2.t+ld 7.7b 15.1c

NAA-20 ppm.

4. Sevin-3#(50% W.P.) 15.9b 2.22b 0.1a 0.2a

Sevin-3#(50% W.P.)

5. NAD-50 ppm. 7.2cd 2.46cd 12.6c 13.1c

NAA-20 ppm.

Applied at petal-fall and 10 days after petal-fall, respectively. Six
trees per treatment.

Fruit size measurements made August 6, 1963 (60 fruits at random per

tree) about 2 weeks before harvest commenced.

3
All but one major limb per tree scored 3 times on June 13, 1963.

li
Means followed by different letters are significantly different at the

5% level.

The question of whether or not a moderate or heavy "return" bloom
should be chemically thinned is frequently asked. Until now, we've had
very limited data on the subject, but it was our general observation
that good "return" blooms on heavy-setting varieties like Early Mclntojsh
usually require a continued chemical thinning treatment, otherwise over-
setting and biennial bearing recur. Also, it has been observed that
chemical thinners may be less effective in reducing fruit set on "return'
blooming trees than they are on biennial trees in their "on" year.
Table 2 provides some information on this subject.

- f)

Table 2. Tlie influence i of chemical thinning on fruit set and size of
"Return" and "On" blooming Early Mcintosh trees. 1964

19611
Treatments

Applied'

"Return" Bloom Trees

1. Check

2. Sevin-1#(50% W.P.) PF

■ NAD -50 ppm. PF+13

3. NAD-50 ppm. - PF

M. Sevin-1#(50% W.P.) PF

NAA-20 ppm. PF+13

5. NAA-20 ppm. PF+13

6. NAD-50 ppm. PF+13
"On" Bloom Trees

7. Sevin-1#(50% W.P.) PF
NAA-20 ppm. ' PF+13

Fruits per cm.

of limb
circumference

19.2a+

S.Ocd
13.9b

8.8c

9.5c

14.2b

Avg. fruit
diajneter
(inches)

2.01a

2.15cd
2.ipbc

2.2Ue
2.17d
2.07ab

5.7d

2.34f

Five trees per treatment.

^PF=Petal-fall; PF+13=13 days after petal-fall.

3
Fruit size measurements made August 7, 196I+, (35 fruits at random per

tree) about 2 weeks before harvest commenced.

Means followed by different letters are significantly different at the
5% level.

From these data, it is evident that, when a relatively heavy "return"
bloom is obtained on a heavy setting variety such as Early Mcintosh,
chemical thinning needs to be continued at essentially the same rate as
for "on" trees. In fact, these data indicate that the "on" trees are
easier to thin than the "return" blooming trees. Failure of fruit to
size as well on the "return" blooming trees, even when well thinned,
may be related to the two dry summers of 1963 and 1964, or to this fac-
tor plus the influence of two successive heavy crops on a normally bien-
nial variety. The exhaustive effects of annual cropping may tend to re-
duce tree (including root) growth; consequently, the rate of fruit growth
is less than that which occurs on trees bearing similar crops in alter-

]()

11,-1 to years only. In addition, it should be remembered tli/it scoring may
have some deleterious effects if done annually, and it tends to increase
the severity of Bitter Pit on susceptible varieties like Baldwin.

****** A**A*AA-.VA

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are regis-
tered and cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws
and regulations. Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachu-
setts requires that all pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered
with the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Trade names, where
used for clearness, do not indicate endorsement nor imply that similar
products are not satisfactory.

warning: most pesticides are poisonous, read and follow all di-
rections AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE
OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Deportment of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Mossochusetts, Amherst

MAY 15, 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Gamma Irradiation of Fresh Fruit

Duration of Receptivity of Highbush Blueberry
Flowers to Pollination

Publication Available

Grower Comments on Ripening of Blueberries

Vesper Strawberry

Pomologicai Paragraph

Handling Strawberries for Fresh Market

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Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furttierance of the Acta of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States t)epartment of Aericulture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

GAMMA IRRADIATION OF FRESH FRUIT

William J. Brajnlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

When man learned to release the tremendous forces of atomic energy,
his first use of that power was to build a bomb - the Atomic Bomb. But
before the first bomb was exploded, he was already dreaming of harness-
ing these same atomic forces for peaceful uses.

Among the forces produced from radioactive materials are gamma rays.
These are highly penetrating rays with the capacity to kill living cells
of both plants and animals. Scientists soon learned to apply controlled
doses of these gamma rays to kill unwanted or dangerous cells, and this
is the basis for using radioactive materials to treat cancer patients.
Similarly, attempts have been made to kill, through irradiation, the fungi
and bacteria that cause decay of food. It is with this aspect of irrad-
iation that we, as agriculturists, are personally concerned.

Much work has been done on food irradiation, and we frequently find
articles in the newspapers and magazines giving glowing accounts of the
use of these "magic rays" to preserve food indefinitely - without refrig-
eration. Indeed, there have been some notable successes: irradiated
bacon, requiring no refrigeration, may soon be on the market; irradiated
potatoes, that won't sprout, are now being sold in Canada; and research
continues to look promising for retarding spoilage of fresh strawberries
through irradiation. However, most of the press reports have been unduly
optimistic, for food irradiation is beset with severe problems.

To sterilize a food product, that is, to kill all the bacteria and
fungi on and in it, requires a massive dose of radiation. Such doses
very often not only kill the microbes, but also cause severe changes in
the foods, for example, changes in the color, taste, odor, or texture
of the food. Dreams of replacing canning and refrigeration with irrad-
iation have been largely abandoned because of the failure to prevent
these changes. A notable exception to this problem, however, is bacon,
which tolerates a sterilizing dose of radiation without undergoing change.

When we consider irradiation of fresh fruits, we run into another
immense problem. UnJ.ike processed foods, fresh fruits are living organ-
isms, and so, they as well as bacteria and fungi can be killed by gamma
rays. All living cells are not equally susceptible to these rays-, so
our only hope is that we can seriously injure or kill disease-causing
organisms without seriously injuring the fruits. Fortunately, some of
the most serious disease-causing fungi are among the most radiation-
sensitive organisms. These are the Penicillium species, which cause
blue mold of apples and blue and green molds of citrus; Botrytis cinerea. ,
which causes much of the decay of strawberries; and Monilinia fructicola ,
which causes Brown Rot of peaches and plums. These fungi can be injured,
though not completely killed, by relatively light doses of radiation.

2 -

But unfortunately, even such light doses prove to be quite injur-
ious to most fruits. Although the fruits are not killed by such doses,
they are changed. Most fruits are softened by the treatment, and some-
times, as with grapes and pears, very greatly softened. Color is some-
times affected: peaches are made redder, while plums are sometimes
prevented from turning blue, and pearls develop a mottled green-and-
yellow instead of a yellow color. But most serious of all, irradiated
fruits often fail to develop their normal flavor during subsequent rip-
ening. Since fresh fruits are prized for their characteristic flavors,
a. loss of these flavors is a prohibitive effect of a treatment.

Another form of injury to fruits is a reduction of their normal
resistance to disease-causing fungi. Since light doses of radiation do
only injure, not kill the fungi, this is a very serious problem. If ir-
radiated fruits are stored for an extended period after treatment, they
very often develop more decay than non- irradiated fruits, for in time,
the fungi recover from the treatment while the fruits do not. Also,
if the fruits become re-contaminated with fungi, their resistance to
these organisms is less than that of unirradiated fruits. This means
that radiation could not be used prior to a long storage period; its use
would be restricted to a short time before the fruits would be used,
such as for a reduction of decay during immediate marketing.

Another problem is expense. An irradiation facility is a very ex-
pensive piece of equipment, and one that requires great skill and elab-
orate precautions for operation. Although it has been found that sprout-
ing of potatoes can be prevented by a very light dose of radiation and
without other injury to the tubers, only in certain situations would ir-
radiation of potatoes be economical, at least at the present stage of
technology. Such a situation now seems to exist in Canada.

So, it can be seen that there are many problems confronting fruit
irradiation. But conspicuously missing from this list of problems is
the one that immediately comes to mind in a discussion of irradiation.
Irradiation does not make the fruits radioactive. The gamma rays are
the product of a radioactive source. They are not themselves radioac-
tive, nor do they make the objects they strike radioactive. Irradiated
foods are not radioactive '.

Numerous experiments have been made on many different kinds of
fruits under many types of conditions. In these experiments, only one
fruit has consistently responded well to irradiation, and that is the
strawberry. The market life of strawberries is usually extended 2-3
days by irradiation, without injury to the fruit. For a fruit as per-
ishable as strawberries, this extension of market life is quite signif-
icant. Research is continuing on this crop, and it is quite possible
that in the near future irradiated berries will be arriving on our mar-
kets from California. California offers a. unique potential for this
operation, for its largest production area has a harvest period of at
least 3-4 months, with a fairly uniform volume of production during this
period. This produces an economic situation that cannot be matched in
the East.

- 3

It is likely that the encouraging results from irradiation of straw-
berries and potatoes will continue to stimulate research on ways to
treat other fresh fruits and vegetables. However, the great sensitivity
of most fresh produce to gamma rays will impose severe restrictions on
radiation usage. In addition, the great expense of a radiation facility
will impose additional economic restrictions unless future technological
break-throughs can greatly reduce its cost. We can expect to continue
reading in the popular press, glowing accounts of the use of "magic rays"
to preserve foods, for this is fertile ground for journalists, but such
reports should be met with a healthy skepticism. Irradiation is certainly
no cure-all for post-harvest diseases of fruits.

***************

DURATION OF RECEPTIVITY OF HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY FLOWERS TO POLLINATION

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Studies conducted by J. N. Moore at Beltsville, Maryland, and re-
ported in the Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural
Science , (Vol. 85) indicate that, under field conditions, some fruit
set of cultivated highbush blueberries occurred even when pollination
was prevented for 8 days after opening of blossoms. The per cent fruit
set was significantly reduced, however, when pollination was delayed 6
days or longer on Coville and 8 days on Blueray.

Delaying pollination also resulted in a decrease in average weight
per berry. A decrease occurred on Blueray when the pollination delay
was only 2 days, whereas a 6-day delay was necessary for a significant
reduction to occur on Coville. Nevertheless, an 8-day pollination de-
lay resulted in a more marked reduction in berry weight on Coville than
on Blueray.

As Moore pointed out, varietal differences in length of pistil re-
ceptivity to pollination may be important when unfavorable conditions
for bee activity occur or when the bee population is limited.

***************

PUBLICATION AVAILABLE

Technical Information Series Publication No. 2 , entitled "A Mech-
anical Harvesting and Handling System for Processing Apples" is avail-
able from the Mailing Room, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. This

publication summarizes the results of an experimental harvesting and
handling system tested in a commercial orchard in Massachusetts with
the Baldwin variety of apples in 1962.

***************

GROWER COMMENTS ON RIPENING OF BLUEBERRIES

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The comments below were written by Mr. 0. W. Stewart, Elm Street,
R.F.D. 2, Kingston, Massachusetts, in response to an article that ap-
peared in the January, 1965, issue of Fruit Notes entitled "Random
Thoughts on Blueberries". I'm sure that readers will find his comments
of interest and value. Mr. Stewart is co-chairman of the Research Com-
mittee of the Massachusetts Cultivated Blueberry Association.

"These further random thoughts on cultivated blueberries are promp-
ted by your interesting comments in the January 10th issue of Fruit
Notes .

"I am restricting these thoughts to the ripening of the fruit, bas-
ing them on my past dozen years of experience of growing 1 1/2 acres of
blueberries completely enclosed under netting.

"Speaking broadly, I have found that any blueberries, grown under
good cultural conditions, will be sweet if permitted to ripen fully on
the bush.

"The fact that blueberries have turned blue does not in itself mean
that they are ripe. Varieties differ considerably in the time, after
becoming fully blue, until the fruit is completely ripe and sweet.

"Berries of some varieties become sweet almost as soon as they turn
blue. Among these are Earliblue, Wolcott, G.N. - 87 and Berkeley.

"On the other end of the ripening scale are Blueray, Bluecrop, Her-
bert and Coville. Such varieties will be deliciously sweet and flavor-
some only after they have been on the bush - blue - for a period up to
a week and sometimes longer.

"Then there are intermediate varieties which become sweet after a
blue period of two to four days. I think the Collins variety may be in
this group, with Dixi and others. My variety listings here are far from
complete and there will be overlapping in times and in different years.
For instance, a prolonged hot spell in early August can cause midseason
and late varieties to start ripening together.

"After blueberries are picked, some further ripening can occur,
but from my observations, only if they have already ripened near to the
point of sweetness. When picked soon after turning blue, fruit of the
varieties requiring nearly a week or so of blue color to be sweet, will
almost surely remain unripe and sour.

"Birds are responsible for part of the poor reputation of culti-
vated blueberries with many people. That is, combined with growers who
pick unripe berries to get ahead of the birds.

"There are as yet no reliable ways of repelling birds. The only
remedy for the bird problem is to exclude them from crops susceptible
to bird loss .

"Many blueberries are still grown in the open without covering or
enclosure of any type. As a result, growers are faced with the dilemma
of either losing much of the crop to birds, or picking blue but unripe
berries and placing them on sale or shipping them to market.

"The public should be made aware of the fact that many progressive
growers are assuming additional costs in protecting their plantings with
netting in order to exclude birds and delay harvest, thus providing
riper and sweeter berries."

Editor's Note : In the July 10, 1964, issue of Fruit Notes , Professor
J. S. Bailey presented data from Rhode Island that showed the increase
in fruit volume after development of blue coloration of highbush blue-
berries. This increase in volume will result in a. sizeable yield in-
crease per acre. In one year, the added income derived by prevention
of bird depredation and leaving the berries to "size-up" will go quite
a way toward paying the cost of netting.

***************

VESPER STRAWBERRY

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The performance of Vesper in grower plantings indicates that it has
better quality than Jerseybelle, and is more productive. The fruit rip-
ens late, is very large in size, attractive, moderate in firmness and
good in flavor .

Vesper berries appear to soften quickly after they become ripe on
the plant. Therefore, it is the opinion of some that Vesper should be
harvested daily, or picked every other day while the color is still on
the "pink side".

6 -

Because of the lateness of bloom, one of our local strawberry nur-
serymen reports that he Is recommending Vesper to growers who have fre-
quent frost da;nage to strawberries. Also, he reports good acceptance
of Vesper by roadside stand operators.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PAIIAGRAPH

Pruning rake : Raking prunings from under fruit trees, in the writ-
er's opinion, is less laborious than gathering and windrowing them by
hand. The pruning rake utilizes tongs of hay dump-rakes which are at-
tached to a metal bar. The bar is attached to the 3 -point hitch of the
tractor and is offset to facilitate raking under trees. The prunings
are raked and then dumped in a windrow by stopping the tractor and
lifting the rake .

One grower has the third leg of the 3 -point hitch longer than the
other two, and this is attached underneath the hay rake bar. Thus,
when the rake is raised, it automatically dumps the prunings. With a
14 foot offset rake, he can collect and windrow prunings in 2 5 acres of
orchard a day.

***************

HANDLING STRAWBERRIES FOR FRESH MARKET

William J. Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Some timely suggestions on the handling of strawberries are con-
tained in a recent publication, "Handling Strawberries for Fresh Mar-
ket", Calif orni a Agricultural Experiment Station Extension Circular 527,
by F. G. Mitchell, E. C. Maxie, and A. S. Greathead, of the University
of California, Davis.— This publication is summarized below.

In discussing handling of strawberries, first of all we must appre-
ciate the nature of the strawberry, one of the most perishable of all
fruits. Strawberries are essentially full-ripe at harvest, and being
very rapidly respiring living material, they will destroy themselves in
a relatively short time, even without the presence of decay organisms.
The berries have a very thin, tender skin that is easily broken, and in
addition, the flesh is so tender that any time the fruit is squeezed, it
becomes bruised and will discolor.

—This publication may be obtained from the California Agricultural
Experiment Station Extension Service, Davis, California

As any grower knows, strawberries are very susceptible to attack
by decay organisms. The most common strawberry fruit rot is gray mold,
and the fungus that causes this mold _is present in every strawberry
field at all times . Although the fungus can penetrate the unbroken skin,
any injury inflicted during harvesting and handling favors the develop-
ment of gray mold. In addition to careful handling, practices that will
reduce rot are the application of fungicides in the field-/, careful
picking so as to exclude all decayed berries from the packages, and prop-
er cooling of the berries.

Let's consider picking a little more closely. For maximum quality,
fruits should be picked when they are full-ripe yet firm, but market
requirements may dictate earlier picking. The berries should always be
picked with the caps on, and any berry with any sign of rot on it should
always be thrown away . The picking operation should be closely super-
vised, for keep in mind that picker damage can nullify all other attempts
to maintain fruit quality.

The most important way to slow down spoilage of strawberries is to
remove field heat and maintain the fruit at a low temperature. Field
heat will build up rapidly in berries exposed to the sun. Harvested
berries should always be placed in the shade, but should also be taken
from the field as quickly as possible. A slight breeze will greatly in-
crease the warming of berries even in the shade. An air velocity of
just 5 miles an hour (a very mild wind) warms the fruit nearly to air
temperature in 20 to 30 minutes. Get the berries under refrigeration
soon after harvest .

How important is temperature? When the temperature of strawberries
is reduced from 50°F. to 32°, their life expectancy is increased two-to
four-fold. If the temperature of the berries reaches 85-90°F. , as can
happen when picked berries are left in the open field, the market life
of the fruit is reduced to only a few hours . For maximum life, straw-
berries should be kept as close to 32°F. as is practical. And the fas-
ter you can get the temperature down, the longer the berries will keep.
Forcing cold air over the berries, once they are under refrigeration,
will greatly reduce their cooling time.

The problems of handling strawberries during marketing are similar
to those during harvesting. Tlie berries must be handled gently for as
they get older they are injured even more easily than at harvest. And
they must be kept cool. If you expect to hold the berries longer than
one day, keep them at a temperature below 40°F., preferably at 32°. And
if displayed berries cannot be kept refrigerated, display only a couple
hours' supply at a time.

Following are some specific suggestions for getting your strawber-
ries to the consumer with the minimum loss of quality:

1. Pick the berries when they are well-colored, but firm.

—See "Pest Control Chart for Strawberries", available from Mailing Room,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, or your County
Agent

2. Pick them carefully, with caps on, and throw away any berry
showing any rot.

3. Handle the berries gently at all times.

4. Keep picked berries shaded, and get them out of the field as
quickly as possible.

5. Don't delay cooling. The ideal holding temperature is 32°F. ,
and the closer the berries are to this temperature, the longer
they will keep. The effect of temperature is dramatic; it
means the difference between a life of several hours and a life
of several days.

6. Keep the berries refrigerated at all times, if possible.

***************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

JUNE 15, 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Save This Date

Red Delicious Sports

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Usued ''y«he Cooperative Eitension Service, A A. Spielman, Dean and Director. In f»-therance of the Act. of May 8 and June 30, 1914-
University of Massachusetts, United States bepartment of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperatinE
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent No 44

SAVE THIS DATE

ANNUAL SUMMER MEETING
of the
MASSACHUSETTS FRUIT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION
in cooperation with the
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
will be held at the
FARM OF CHARLES A. DOWSE, JR., MAIN STREET
SHERBORN,* WEDNESDAY, JULY 14, 1965

The program is not available at this time. As customary,
the meeting will start at 10:00 A.M., with a tour of the farm,
roadside stand and packing facilities- Lunch will be served
at noon and the speaking part of the program will start at
1:30 P.M.

*Directions: For those coming from western Massachusetts,
leave the Mass. Pike at Exit 13 in Framinghajn. Then proceed
East on Route 30 about 1 mile to Route 27. Go south on Route
27 (across Route 9) through Natick. The farm is located about
2 miles beyond Natick on Route 27.

For those coming from Essex County and southeastern New
Hampshire, take Route 128 and then Route 16 through Wellesley
and South Natick to Route 27. Turn right on Route 27 and pro-
ceed for approximately 1/2 mile.

RED DELICIOUS SPORTS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The Extension Pomologist had the privilege of participating in a
panel discussion on Red Delicious sports at the Annual Meeting of the
State Horticulture Association of Pennsylvania in February, 1965. The
following are the comments of the other participants on the performance
of Red Delicious sports in Pennsylvania and West Virginia as taken from
the February, 1965, issue of Pennsylvania Fruit News .

C. M. Ritter
Department of Horticulture
The Penna. State University

"For the past five years studies of some 25-30 Delicious color
sports of the Delicious apple variety have been under study at Univer-
sity Park.

The vast array of these sports - over 60 named so far - are very
confusing to most growers. The question of which one (s) to plant is al-
most impossible to answer because of the varying responses of the sever-
al sports to diverse soil and environmental conditions. For this reason
we have assembled at University Park a continually increasing number of
these sports, both standard and spur types, in order that their fruit
characteristics may be observed under a single set of cultural and envi-
ronmental conditions.

"The following is a thumbnail sketch of the appearance and skin
color of 15 Delcious sports as grown in the College Orchards at Univer-
sity Park.

"In the following summaries the 'standard' for color comparison is
regular Delicious except where otherwise noted.

"BRIDGHAM RED:

A color sport of regular Delicious with a light red color of about
the same intensity of the parent type. It usually is solid red over
more than 80% of the fruit although this varies widely. The type is
poor and the sport is little or no better than the parent type.

"GARDNER:

The fruit color is good to excellent. It is solid red washed and
of a brighter red intensity than the parent. However, it lacks
typiness and carries a definitely greenish ground color.

"KIRBY:

The size and color are fair to very good, however, the color tends
to fade or become dull as the fruit nears harvest. It has very
prominent lenticels which may detract from its appearance. Better
than the standard type.

'SHOTWELL:

The fruit run slightly smaller than the parent type. The fruit has
a very good bright red wash over the whole apple, but it lacks the
typiness of the western-grown Delicious.

"VANCE ;

The color is excellent - one of the four or five best in this resoect
at University Park. The size is usually slightly smaller than the
parent type. The crowns are very prominent, but in cross section the
fruit is round, rather than ribbed.

"RICHARED :

Excellent bright cherry-red color, has desirable Delicious type.
This is one of the best of the sports now fruiting at Penn State,

'ROYAL RED:

A sport of Richared, the fruit possess excellent color and Delicious
type. The solid red color may become too dark for some, but this
does not appear as a. deterrant to its planting in the state. An
excellent strain both in tree and fruit characteristics.

'STARRING:

Possesses both solid red wash and rather pronounced darker red
stripes. Some growers find the stripes objectionable, but opinion
is divided. Shape and type are only fair to good.

'EARLIRED :

Of the sports now fruiting at University Park, this is the only
one which exhibits any marked degree of difference with the average
Delicious. It averages approximately 3A" larger size than any of
the strains now fruiting. Whether or not this is a juvenile char-
acteristic remains to bo seen. Shape is poor and the fruit tend to
internal breakdown more than the other sports. The color is very
good and this sport may hold promise where a specialty market de-
mands large size.

"HI EARLY RED;

This is one of the M-5 "best sports as grown at University Park -
at least equal in color, and color pattern, and shape to Royal Red,
Many specimens do, however, exhibit rather pronounced stripes.

3 -

'HI F^ED:

As grown at University Park the color is a rather "muddy" red, var-
iable and is little, if any, better than the standard Delicious.

'IMPERIAI,

An excellent sport, at least equal to Royal Red and Hi Early Red
in color and intensity and shape. It does not have pronounced
stripes.

"RED KING:

A fairly typey sport, with excellent dark red color, it does show
pronounced dark red stripes.

"RED QUEEN:

Excellent color, with some striping, it is a rather good Delicious
type.

"TURNER:

Color and type are quite variable. The ground color remains green.
This sport shows little promise for Pennsylvania orchards.

"Of the 15 sports listed above, the VANCE, RICHARED, ROYAL RED, HI
EARLY RED, and IMPERIAL appear to have the most promise at this time.
As the other sports, now growing at University Park, come into bearing
this statement may well have to be changed."

William B. Lower
Boyers Nurseries and Orchards
Biglerville, Pennsylvania

"We prefer Royal Red, on standard rootstock, among all of the Deli-
cious strains, excluding the spur types. However, the economy of the
smaller tree on standard rootstock has influenced us to plant more of
the spur-type Delicious. Our experience with the Redspur Delicious is
rather limited as we have fruited them for only five years. However,
we now believe that they definitely have a place in our planting plans.

"In evaluating the spur-types, we must weigh them against the per-
formance of the standard tree-size strains. Some growers say that they
cannot live with the slow growth habit of the spur-types, nor can they
build a good tree because of the upright limb angles. Another problem
is the possibility of damage to the fruit from limb - or spur - rubs
during some years. Possibly, this will affect the Golden Delicious spur-
type trees more than the Red Delicious types.

"Because the spur type is less vigorous than the regular Delicious
sports it should be planted on the heavier (clay loams) soil types and
serious consideration should be given to irrigating them. These trees

need to be planted close, but there is a danger from crowding with too
many trees. Further mildew may be a problem during wet years where
poor air drainage exists in the thickly planted orchard. In orchards
where the spur-types are planted 100 to 200 trees per acre and the stan-
dard sized trees are set 50-75 trees per acre, the grower may need two
sets of equipment to do a good spray job. Despite all of these negative
aspects we believe that the use of the spur-type trees is economically
sound.

"This past season the limb-rub damage on apples from our spur-type
trees was very small. In grading we felt that they were commercially
quite profitable. Tlie yield and size were good, and there was less loss
due to lack of red color than in any of the other Delicious strains that
vv/e have in our orchards . The fruit from our Royal Red and Shotwell trees
were larger and brighter in color than those from the spur-type trees,
but the loss due to pooi^ coloring inside the tree was greater.

"The most widely planted and the oldest Delicious spurs that we have
is the Bisbee strain of Starking. We have some 20 strains of Red Deli-
cious fruiting and of these the Bisbee produces the typiest apple -
longer and narrower than any other. The authorities will tell you that
the lightness of the soil, height of elevation, and continous moisture
produces the longer fruit - I don't question this but I do know that we
get the best type fruit from the spur Delicious. The solid color of
this spur-type fruit is more of a dark purple than a cherry-red, the
skin is thicker and the fruit matures later than Starking. The spur-
type apples store well - coming out late in the season with good eating
quality.

"Topred, a sport of Shotwell, looks good to us. Its color is bright-
er than the Starking sports, although the tree characteristics are sim-
ilar.

"The Wellspur and Redspur sports of Starking have a slow growth
habit and the problem of upright limbs. In our experience they both
have a lower red color factor than either the Bisbee or Millerspur strains,

"Miller Sturdyspur is so new with us that we hesitate to make an
evaluation. Our small trees have wider crotches and are less vigorous
than the standard sports. The fruit color is a good cherry-red without
dullness. We are told that the fruit matures earlier than Bisbee and
is of good size. The only trees of this strain that I have observed are
in their third growing season.

"In summary; with the spur-type Delicious, we obtain a reduction
in tree size, early bearing is induced, good anchorage is obtained with
the standard rootstock and the stiff upright growth of the main limbs
practically eliminates propping. The quality and color of the fruit is
acceptable, if not quite all that might be desired."

- 5

Edwin Gould
West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station
Kearneysvllle, W, Viginia

"Current trends in the apple industry emphasize the importance of
varieties. They are one of the basic essentials for success. The deci-
sion as to which varieties to plant is a very difficult one to make. It
is not so difficult, however, to know which varieties are most profitable
at any given time. The problem of special concern is in predicting fu-
ture demands. There has been a significant trend towards fewer and fewer
varieties in most commercial orchards throughout this country. This has
resulted primarily from the pressure of distributor demand. In West Vir-
ginia most new developments now consider only about three m.iin varieties;
Red and Golden Delicious and Yorks. Of these three varietii's only the
Red Delicious is consistently dependable for the fresh market.

"The Red Delicious is rapidly becoming the most popular variety of
apples grown in West Virginia. There has been a significant increase
in plantings of Delicious in all new developments considered for the
fresh market. There are a number of factors responsible for this sig-
nificant trend. It is by far the most popular variety grown in this
country today. It is a premium variety in most markets. The recent
discovery of many very promising new budsport strains of Delicious has
been another important factor. There is much concern that it may already
be overplanted. This may well be true but the continued heavy plantings
in all areas where it can be grown emphasizes the general belief that
there will never be an overproduction of good, well-colored Red Delicious
until there is an overproduction of apples for the fresh market. An
overproduction of Red Delicious, however, would tend to adjust itself
rather quickly because there is little demand for it by the processing
industry.

"The recent discovery and the development of a large series of very
impressive new budsport strains of Red Delicious indicates an even more
promising future for this already popular variety. The first important
series of budsport mutations of Red Delicious was discovered more than a
half -century ago. Several of these became established and have been an
important factor in developing the Delicious variety to its present pop-
ularity. The first of a new series of budsport strains was discovered
about twelve years ago. Since then a large number of very promising
strains have been discovered and brought under commercial development.
In the first series of mutations the main factor of concern was the time
and intensity of fruit color formation. In the latest series, however,
there are two dominant factors of consideration. In addition to the
fruit color formation there is a very interesting and highly important
semi-dwarf spur-type tree growth characteristic factor in many of the
new mutations. The combination of the two factors emphasizes the im-
portance of these new strains.

"We now have more than seventy of these new budsport strains of
Red Delicious under evaluation. Some of these have been under develop-
ment for several yeaz^s while still others are just being introduced.
Approximately one-third of the new selections are semi-dwarf spur-type

- 6

strains. There are many reasons for the intensive effort to evaluate
the relative merits of these various new strains. Perhaps the most sig-
nificant factor is the increasing demand for more intensive fruit color.
For many years most of the fruit in this country was packed under a U. S.
No. 1 grade with a maximum color requirement of twenty-five per cent for
most varieties. The demand today is for one hundred per cent color.
Thus full color has become an important factor in market demand. The
second factor has been the recent trend towards dense plantings in com-
bination with tree size control. Thus, the reason for the special in-
terest in the new strains with both fruit color and dwarfing character-
istics. It is very significant that we should be favored with so many
promising new strains in our most popular variety. It is also interest-
ing that the mutations affect the two most important factors: fruit
color formation and tree growth characteristics.

"Extensive information is now available on many of the new budsport
strains of Red Delicious. It will be many years, however, before ade-
quate evaluations are available for general commercial use. In the mean-
time these new strains are being planted exclusively in all areas where
adequate good fruit color is a factor. Progressive management will rec-
ognize the importance of obtaining the latest available information be-
fore making additional new plantings. It is expected that current rat-
ings will change with additional information and as new selections are
evaluated and introduced.

"Current evaluations indicate that some of the more promising new
standard strains of Red Delicious include such selections as Topred,
Houser, Chelan Red, Red Prince and Ryan Red. From the standpoint of
earliness, intensity and quality of fruit color formation, these selec-
tions have been very impressive. In some areas the Harrold strain has
been very good. Under conditions where adequate good color Is not too
difficult to obtain selections such as Royal Red and Imperial have proven
to be very satisfactory. It should be emphasized, however, that from
the standpoint of earliness and intensity of fruit color formation, prac-
tically all of the new mutations are far superior to existing strains
such as Starking and Rlchared. There is concern that some of these new
strains may carry too intense a color factor and become too dark by time
of picking maturity. This may well be true in some areas. In many of
these new strains there undoubtedly will be some sacrifice in quality
for quantity of color. Current trends, however, would indicate prefer-
ance for a dark, fully colored apple over a green one. Seldom does too
much color result in reduced profits.

"The semi-dwarf spur-type strains are of special interest in new
developments. Most of the strains now under commercial development
have been evaluated quite extensively. Available information Indicates
very little difference between the various selections. Those which
have been well evaluated include Starkrimson, Sturdyspur, Redspur and
Wellspur. There may be a slight preference for these strains in the
order listed but under field conditions it is quite difficult to dif-
ferentiate between them. In general, the spur -types have not been quite
as impressive under Eastern conditions as have some of the standard
strains. Under adverse conditions they tend to color late with a dull

7 -

muddy under-color and may finish off somewhat darker. Under similar
conditions they tend to develop green flesh which may well persist to
time of overmaturity. As a result of excessive fruit spur development,
they tend to overset and become biennial. The upright growth character-
istic also favors excessive limb or spur rub during the first few crop
years. These comments are intended to emphasize some of the less favor-
able characteristics of the spur-type strains. They are not intended
to discourage planting them. They should certainly have a prominent
place in any sizeable planting of Red Delicious. The ideal would be a
strain with fruit characteristics of strains such as Topred or Houser
combined with the tree growth characteristics of the spur-type.

"Special consideration is being given to the relative maturity and
keeping qualities of the various new budsport strains of Red Delicious.
Information on this factor, however, leaves much to be desired. Most
of our experimental developments are just now reaching the stage where
significant specific data can be obtained. Limited data together with
extensive observations indicate rater definite trends. These indica-
tions, however, may v\?ell change with more significant data. Informa-
tion now available indicates that there is not very much difference in
time of relative maturity between the different strains. At this time
there would not seem to be more than four or five days difference in
time of maturity between strains. This degree of difference is no great-
er than that observed for the same strain grown under different condi-
tions and on different age trees. In general, all of the spur- type
strains appear to be about the same in time of maturity. They all ap-
pear to be late in maturing. There are indications that there is a
correlation between fruit color pattern and time of maturity. Strains
with a solid color pattern such as Houser, Chelan Red and Royal Red
appear to mature somewhat later than the striped color pattern strains
such as Topred, Red Prince, Red Queen and Red King. This would indicate
the desirability of selecting several strains for any sizeable planting
of Red Delicious."

(Editor's Notes: Although our experience with Red Delicious sports is
limited, most are too dark in color when grown in New England orchards.
We prefer the cherry-red color of Richared.

At the meeting in Pennsylvania, Dr. C. M. Ritter displayed Red
Delicious sports grown on the Pennsylvania State University Horticul-
tural farm and discussed in his article quoted above. To the eyes of
a New Englander, the majority of sports displayed were either too dark
or dark with objectionable stripes. The color of Richared was outstand-
ing.

Professor Edwin Gould mentioned that special consideration is be-
ing given to dates of maturity and keeping qualities of the Red Deli-
cious sports. Selection of several strains to spread the harvest sea-
son of Red Delicious would be advantageous. This is particularly im-
portant since we know that watorcore is associated with over-maturity.
Based on the incidence of watercore, data obtained at Amherst indicates
that Richared matures earlier than Starking.)

***************

AMMATE

WilliajTi J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Animate is now labelled for use in apple and pear orchards for the
control of poison ivy. It can be applied any time during the growing
season but is most effective if applied during late June or July.

It is used at the rate of 60 lbs. per 100 gallons of water. The
addition of a good spreader-sticker will increase considerably its
effectiveness .

If the first application does not result in a complete kill, re-
treating may be done later in the season or the next year. Annua te is
effective, non-toxic to humans or animals, noninf lamable and very read-
ily soluable in water. On the other hand, it is non-selective and will
kill almost all plants if applied in sufficient quantity. It is very
corrosive on metals and should never be left in the "weed" sprayer longer
than necessary. After its use, the sprayer, should be very thoroughly
washed both inside and out. Some spray lime, baking soda or soap powder
added to the wash water will help to do a thorough job.

***************

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are regis-
tered and cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws
and regulations. Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachu-
setts requires that all pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered
with the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Trade names, where
used for clearness, do not indicate endorsement nor imply that similar
products are not satisfactory.

WARNING! MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL
DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE
OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

JULY — AUGUST 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Storage and Ripening of Pears

Tree Numbers in Washington, and Projected

Production
Roadside Marketing
New Hampshire Fruit Tree Survey
Pomological Paragraph

Further Observations on Dry Lime Scrubbing
Publications Available
Pomological Paragraphs

\ •

-^^^^^

r«,3-£U.'S

■')!'

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in ftrtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

STORAGE AND RIPENING OF PEARS

William J. Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

A high-quality pear is truly a delicacy, but it's a delicacy much
too seldom offered to the public. Storage or ripening at an improper
temperature very often results in the failure of pears to develop their
full potential quality. Recent work by Dr. S. W. Porritt of Summerland,
B. C, Research Station of the Canada Department of Agriculture has
clearly illustrated the sensitivity of pears to temperature conditions.

Unlike apples, most pear varieties do not ripen normally in cold
storage. Porritt found that Bartlett pears ripened normally at 60° and
70° F, but not at lower temperatures. At 50 , they developed a dry tex-
ture and poor quality. At 30 , the fruit failed to soften, and further-
more, after extended storage time they even lost their capacity to ripen
when brought to 60-70°; this loss of ripening capacity was preceded by a
yellowing of the fruits at 30°, although they did not soften.

Anjou pears differ from most other varieties. For one thing, they
will ripen normally at low temperatures. In Porritt's study, Anjous
ripened normally at temperature of 32° to 50°, though of course, the
lower the temperature, the more slowly they ripened. Anjous were also
different in that when held at 50° or higher, they failed to ripen prop-
erly unless they were first stored at 30-40°. Thus, they required a
period of cold storage prior to ripening. This requirement seems to be
intensified if the fruits are picked prematurely.

Not unlike apples , storage temperature has a marked effect on the
storage life of pears. Porritt's results showed that for Bartletts,
storage life at 30° was extended 1+0% and 70% over that at 32° and 34°,
respectively; for Anjous, storage life at 30° was extended 3 5% and 125%
over that at 32 and 3M-°, respectively. A long storage life demands
good temperature control in the storage.

Another factor that sharply influenced quality of pears was the
speed with which the fruits were brought to 30° after harvest. Porritt
held Bartlett pears at 65° for 1, 2, 3, or M- days before cooling them
to 30°, and also used periods of 4-, 6, 8, 10, or 14 days to cool the
pears from 65° to 30°. In every case , the longer the delay in cooling
to 30° , the more rapidly the pears deteriorated . The delay in cooling
had an especially striking effect on the occurrence of core breakdown;
for example, pears held at 65° for 0, 1, 2, or 4 days before storage at
30° developed 0, 26, 52, and 71% core breakdown, respectively, after 12
weeks in storage plus 10 days at 70 .

From these results, which agree closely with results from other
studies, several guidelines can be laid down for handling of pears:

1. After harvesting, cool the fruits as rapidly as possible;

2. Store the pears at 30 ;

- 2 -

3. For maximum quality, ripen the pears at 60-70°.
A convenient index of how well pears are holding-up in storage is their
color. When the fruits begin to lose their green color, they must be
marketed quickly, for their storage life has ended.

***************

TREE NUMBERS IN WASHINGTON, AND PROJECTED PRODUCTION

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The 1961 Washington Fruit Tree Census recently published, shows
that in central Washington, the number of fruit trees increased by 25%
from 1949 to 1961. Apple trees increased by 6^%, Bartlett pears by 51%,
winter pears by 27%, and cherries by 17%. Prune tree number increased
by only 1%, and peaches, apricots and plums decreased.

Comparison of the 1961 census in central Washington with the 1949
census of the whole state shows that there were 7 times as many Golden
Delicious trees in 1961 as in 1949 and nearly 3 times as many Red Deli-
cious trees. The number of Rome Beauty trees remained about the samej
while varieties such as Winesap, standard Delicious and Jonathan decreased
in tree number.

Based on apple tree numbers for the entire state, an estimated pro-
jected production for 1965 of 34,000,000 bushels of apples was obtained.
This compares with an average production from 1957-1961 of 23,000,000
bushels.

Additional production increases are anticipated during the 5 year
period of 1965-1970.

***************

ROADSIDE MARKETING

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

While recently visiting roadside stands in several Northeastern
states, some interesting innovations were noted.

Plastic bags are frequently being used to line the wooden display
baskets. This enables the grower to maintain the farm stand atmosphere
with the wooden basket, while utilizing the plastic bag as the take -home
container. The customer makes her selection and carries the basket (1-16

quarts) to the check-out counter. The clerk seals the bag with a wire
"twistum" and hands it to the customer.

Baskets are expensive and they tear seat covers and clothles of the
customer. Plastic bags are neither expensive not abrasive, and they are
easier for the customer to dispose of than baskets. The apples in the
plastic bag will not spill on the floor or seat of the car, as frequently
happens with some baskets and paper-handle bags.

The stands visited varied as to the use of the plastic bags. Fre-
quently, however, the plastic bags were used as the take home package
for only the lower quality fruit.

At one stand, in addition to the price for the container of fruit,
the approximate cost per pound was indicated. This was done to make the
customers realize the economy as well as the extra quality derived by
purchasing fruit at roadside stands.

Selling other items besides fruit without destroying the farm stand
atmosphere is a problem of concern with stand operators. Two roadside
stand operations were making and selling pies. Another stand was sell-
ing frozen pies. The pies appeared to be a profitable item and an ex-
cellent way to utilize lower grades of fruit and the talents of a few
housewives in the community. Other stands were selling high quality
specialty items of processed food products that made attractive displays
and increased gross sales.

***************

NEW HAMPSHIRE FRUIT TREE SURVEY

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The New Hampshire Fruit Tree Survey, based on production in 1963,
shows that Hillsboro and Rockingham are the leading apple -producing
counties in the state. Hillsboro County produces approximately 50% and
Rockingham County slightly more than 25% of the state's entire apple
crop.

The 25 largest orchards produced 1,118,624- bushels of apples in
1963, or 72% of the state crop. Two orchards produced 100,000 to 125,000
bushels each.

Based on number of trees on standard root stock, Mcintosh, Delicious
(regular and red strains) , Baldwin and Cortland were the M- leading varie-
ties in New Hampshire. It was of interest to note, however, that only
174 of the 1^1,898 Baldwin trees were 13 years of age or less.

Of the apple trees on standard root stock, there were 3.6 times as
many Mcintosh as Delicious (regular and red strains) . Of the trees 7

- ^■

years of age or less, however, Mcintosh outnumbered Delicious (regular
and red strains) by only a 2-to-l margin.

Golden Delicious will become more important in the future since
over 60% of the trees on standard root stock of this variety are 7 years
of age or less.

Spur-type trees and trees on size-controlling rootstocks made up
about 8% of all apple trees recorded in the 1963 survey, but of the trees
7 years of age or less, nearly half were of these types.

The number of spur-type Red Delicious trees and trees of this varie-
ty on Mailing II and VII rootstock were approximately equal. Spur-type
Red Delicious and those of this variety on size -controlling rootstocks
outnumbered Mcintosh on size -controlling rootstocks 8172 to 4-880.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PAJIAGRAPH

Dominic A. Marini
Regional Agricultural Specialist
Southeast Extension Region

Winter injury may be more of a problem in strawberry growing than
is generally realized. Vermont horticultural researchers have found
that strawberries can be injured by a temperature of 28 F, resulting in
smaller plants and reduced yields. Plants are killed at temperatures
between 15° and 20°F.

The kind of weather conditions to which plants are exposed influences
the severity of injury. It was found that injury increased as the rapid-
ity of freezing increased. By the same token, injury increased as the
rate of thawing increased. And the longer the period of exposure to low
temperature, the more severe the injury.

Snow was found to be the best cover for protecting plants from win-
ter injury. A snow fence consisting of a row of sunflowers grown 6
inches apart increased the snow cover to the extent that the strawberry
bed was still snow-covered after a January thaw while the surrounding
ground was bare. The seed heads were cut off the sunflowers to prevent
breakage. A spacing of 8 rows of strawberries between rows of sunflowers
is recommended.

***************

FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON DRY LIME SCRUBBING
W. J. Lord, Bertrajn Gersten and J. W. Zahradnik

A large percentage of our CA volume during this past storage season
was in rooms that were partly or completely lime scrubbed. With one ex-
ception, no difficulty was encountered with dry lime scrubbers in main-
taining the CO2 level below 5%, once this level had been attained. The
difficulty at this storage was corrected by changing the lime. Prior
to changing the lime at 6:30 P.M. on November 14, the CO2 level was 5.7%
and rising. By 9:00 A.M. the next morning, after changing the lime, the
CO2 had dropped to 3.5%. This indicates the feasibility of changing
lime during the storage season.

Field Observations

During October, IQeU, 30 lime samples were obtained from several
grower-owned storages for analysis of carbon dioxide content prior to
use in lime boxes. The CO2 content ranged from 0.71 - 1.6%. At the
end of the storage season, the CO2 content varied considerably from bag
to bag in the same lime box. For example, 3 bags of lime, each having
0.88% CO2 equivalent content prior to storage, analyzed 21, 29, and 31%
C0„ equivalent respectively, at the end of storage. At another storage,
3 Dags of lime with initial similar analysis had 15, 26 and 27% CO2
equivalent content after the storage season. Whether or not this vari-
ability is caused by variable air movement around the bags is not known.

The effectiveness of lime placed in rooms to supplement the caustic
soda, water or dry lime scrubbers was variable, also. For example, one
room with 1/2 pound of lime per bushel of apples was caustic soda scrubbed
the 11th day after closing. At another storage, 1/2 pound of lime per
bushel of apples held the CO2 below 5.0% for 90 days.

Placement of lime in rooms can result in a considerable saving in
caustic soda. As an illustration, one storage operator generally used
1000 pounds of caustic soda during the first 7 days after closing a
room of 17,500 bushel capacity. In 1964, 2000 pounds of lime was placed
in the room (0.1 pounds per bushel), and only 50 pounds of caustic soda
was necessary during the first 7 days after closing. After the first 7
days in 1964, the CO2 level was maintained with periodic charges of 50
pounds of caustic soda instead of 100 pounds every day.

Assoc. Prof., Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Asst. Prof., Feed and Fertilizer Control Service and

Assoc. Prof., Department of Agricultural Engineering, respectively.

- 6 -

Changes That Lime Undergoes in the Scrubber

There are 3 types of lime in commercial use: carbonates, hydroxides
and burnt or caustic lime. The carbonate forms are of no value for scrub-
bing, since they are naturally saturated with CO2. Because of its caustic
properties, burnt lime presents a potential danger to the user and may
prove hazardous when subjected to scrubbing conditions. Hydrated lime,
the hydroxide form, is the only lime that should be used for scrubbing.

Although the expression of guarantee on the bag is in terms of CaO
and MgO, the Ca and Mg are actually in the hydrate form, Ca(0H)2 and
MgC0H)2.

The reaction that takes place in the scrubber is as follows:

Ca(0H)2 + CO2--- CaC03 + H2O
Mg(0H)2 + CO2--- MgC03 + H2O

With the dolomitic limes, less CO2 absorption takes place than
with the high-calcium hydrated limes. This is due to the lower reactiv-
ity of the Mg(0H)2 in dolomites. Consequently, greater amounts of dolo-
mitic lime are needed, depending on the Mg(0H)2 content, than if high-
calcium hydrated limes are used.

Preliminary Tests

At the University storage, we tested one bag each of 3 different
types of lime in a small dry-lime scrubber. We realize that these results
cannot be regarded as representing the 3 limes, because of the small size
of the sample, but the data in Tables 1 and 2 are of interest from the
standpoint of rate and final apparent equilibrium level of CO2 absorbed.

The high-calcium lime (lime A) absorbed CO2 to a greater degree
than did limes B and C (Table 1) . The CO2 absorption of limes B and C
did not differ appreciably.

Table 1: Comparative carbon dioxide absorption of three types of lime,
19611-55

Sampling % COp content in lime:

date

10/19
11/23
12/21

1/18

2/19

3/19

% CO2 uptake

B**

c***

2.1

6.2

1.6

22.9

16.9

10.5

18.8

22.0

11.1+

23.2

20.4

21.6

38.2

25.8

22.4

39.6

27.2

24.6

37.5 21.4 23.0

*A High-calcium hydrate lime - (CaO, 72-74%; MgO, 0.2-0.
**B Hydrated dolomitic lime - (CaO, 43-45%; MgO, 26-28%)
***C Dolomitic spray lime - (CaO, 45%; min. MgO, 3r "

7 -

The initial rate of COo absorption was the greatest with the high
calcium lime. It is the initail rate of CO2 absorption which determines
the scrubber size for a given sized storage and a given number of lime
loadings .

Beginning in November, we obtained a lime sample at the top of the
bag and a representative sample of the entire bag content. The CO2
equivalent content at the top of the bag was higher during the early
stages of storage than the CO2 equivalent of the representative sample
(Table 2). By the end of storage, however, the CO2 equivalent content
at the top of the bag and throughout the bag were similar.

Table 2: Carbon dioxide equivalent of lime in top of bags in compari-
son to entire bag content.

Date

% CO2 content in lime:

Entire

Top

Entire

Top

Entire

Top

bag

of
bag

bag

of
bag

bag

of
bag

11/23

22.9

38.9

16.9

28.8

10.5

27.1

12/21

18.8

38.7

22.0

28.9

11.4

27.6

1/18

23.2

36.7

2Q.^r

28.5

21.6

26.5

2/19

38.2

36.1

25.8

27.4

22.4

25.8

3/19

39.5

37.8

27.2

27.8

24.6

26.4

Bags of lime placed vertically in scrubber.

Summary

On the basis of the above field observations and the preliminary
tests at the University, it appears that the following practices are
justified.

1. Purchase of high calcium hydrated lime bagged in paper highly
permeable to CO2 to achieve the initial high rate of CO2 ab-
sorption and thereby minimize scrubber size.

2. Purchase of lime according to the tentative specifications of
not more than 8% carbonates as CO2.

3. Addition of not more than 1/3 pound of lime per bushel of ap-
ples in the storage when used as a supplement to other types

of scrubber in order to minimize the possibility of excessively
low CO2 level.

Reseach indicates that atmospheres of less than 2 per cent carbon
dioxide for Mcintosh may be deleterious to the fruit. The time period

- 8

that carbon dioxide was below 2 per cent varied from 1 to 20 days after
closing in the storages using lime as a supplement to scrubbing. Whether
or not a 20 day period below 2 per cent carbon dioxide would be deleter-
ious to the fruit is not known. Growers that use lime as a supplement
to scrubbers might devise some way to restrict air movement around the
lime bags. The suspension of a plastic sheet over the lime which can be
raised or lowered is a possibility.

***************

PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE

Available upon request through your County Extension Service or
by writing to the mailing room. University of Massachusetts, are the
following publications:

Special Circular No. 254*- Preharvest Drop Control of Apples

Special Circular No. 246 - Be A Better Apple Picker

Special Circular No. 246A- Be A Better Apple Picker (Spanish
Translation)

Special Circular No. 277*- Scald Control for Apples

Leaflet - Ladder Safety in the Orchard

*These were printed in 1963. Since there are no changes in recom-
mendations, the information is still valid.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Growing Young Apple Trees: A 100 inch minimum total terminal growth
should be the growth standard for apple trees the year of planting. If
your trees make 150-170 inches of growth, consider it a job well done.

A Time Saver: A Massachusetts fruit grower finds having two. sets of
picking ladders worthwhile in spite of the additionsl expense. This
makes it possible to have ladders waiting for the pickers instead of
the pickers waiting for ladders. The time loss waiting for ladders
when moving from orchard to orchard is eliminated.

***************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

SEPTEMBER^OCTOBER 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Maitachusatts Appl» Tr«« Survay Plannvd
What Makes PoopI* Buy?

[IM/l

'vf ^<?

-^'-i -'—•■

'^ '•*i.^^

'im^

-^4

I»»ued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Splelman, Dean and Director, in fi»ther«nce of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914-
University of Massachusetts, United States bepartment of Aericulture and County Extension Services cooperating
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE TREE SURVEY PLANNED

Byron S. Peterson

United States Department of Agriculture

Statistical Reporting Service

In 1955 the Departments of Horticulture and Agricultural Economics
at the University of Massachusetts cooperated in a Massachusetts apple
tree survey. This survey provided information on the number of farms
with 100 or more trees and the age and variety distribution for the
State and by counties. Similar surveys had been made in 1925 and 1940.
Plans are now being made for a similar survey to be made following har-
vest of the 1965 crop. Publication is planned for the spring of 1966.

The 1965 survey has been planned in cooperation with each of the
New England States so that it will be possible to show details for each
State and for the region. New York State also is actively planning for
a 1965 fruit tree survey so it is expected that for selected data it
will be possible to show New York-New England totals.

Financial support for the 1965 survey will be provided by the Mass-
achusetts State Department of Agriculture and matched Federal funds un-
der provisions of the Agricultural Marketing Act of 19M-6. The Depart-
ment of Plant and Soil Sciences and the Extension Service are active co-
operators in the survey while overall coordination will be the respon-
sibility of the New England Crop Reporting Service.

As with all surveys of this kind, the most important element is
the assistance of growers who provide information for the orchards they
operate. The survey form will be mailed to each orchardist who will be
asked to complete and return the form. The summary of these reports
will provide timely information that will be useful in making plans for
planting, producing and marketing Massachusetts and New England apples.

***************

WHAT MAKES PEOPLE BUY?

Henry V. Courtenay
(Reprinted from "Hoosier Horticulture" by permission of Prof. Henry V.
Courtenay, Extension Specialist, Consumer Economics, Purdue University,
Lafayette, Indiana.)

This is the age of the consumer and the age of consumer research.
Since more than 90% of all consumer food purchasing is done by women,
let's take a look at this female consumer. Let me start by making the
profound statement that 'women are different from men' . They are dif-
ferent in ways that behoove your consideration in terms of your roadside
market operation.

- 2 -

For example, women's armbones are at a slight angle. They have
difficulty turning the steering wheel of an auto for very sharp turns.
One taxi company which employs both men and women drivers reports that
the women drivers are responsible for 3 times as many crumpled fenders
as men. This problem which women have with steering wheels was a fac-
tor in the innovation of power steering. And it is a factor important
to you — make a wide smooth turn-off for your roadside market. Women
don't like to make sharp turns and they have difficulty negotiating
them. So, a good entrance to your market and the provision of adequate
parking space are important factors both from a functional and psycho-
logical standpoint in consumer marketing at roadside markets.

Women hear better than men . They are more sensitive to sound,
hence soft, sweet music is conducive to more sales whether it's in a
store or at a roadside market.

Women have a highly developed sense of smell . They often judge
products by sniffing them. That's why new detergents and cleaning
products are perfumed. That's why hSLby oil must have a "baby smell."
And your roadside market must smell like a fresh fruit and vegetable
garden to motivate consumers to buy. If it smells of rotten fruit and
garbage cans, you lose.

Women have keener taste than men . They like to taste things, hence
the sales motivation value of food demonstrations in stores and the dis-
playing of various items to taste and try at your roadside market.

Women see better than men . Research shows they have fewer eye de-
fects than men- (color blindness occurs 8 times as often in men as it
does in women). Women notice small details - untidiness, dusty items,
rotted produce , fruit flies , dirty or broken windows , shabby buildings ,
peeling paint, saggy doors, trash strewn floors, untidy operators, shoddy
background or landscape and the pot holes and puddles in your market
driveway. Of course these things chase consumers away from your market
and the opposites of these things are positive sales motivators.

Since women have sharp eyesight they are very conscious of colors
and shades of color; that's why lipstick manufacturers supply their
product in 101 different shades. Realization of this color factor is
the reason why we now see pastel colors in soaps, tissues, appliances,
shortenings and detergents.

Women often associate the quality of a product with the color of
the package. In a coffee study, identical cups of coffee were placed
opposite 3 different colors of coffee cans --dark -brown, golden-brown,
and yellow. A large majority of the women who taste-tested the coffee
said the cup opposite the dark-brown can was too strong, the one near
the yellow can was too weak, the one beside the golden -brown can was
best- -although all the coffee was the same.

The fact that women are very conscious of color has implications
for your roadside market operation. Landscape with colorful flowers,
shrubs, and trees. Make displays to take advantage of the contrasting
array of colors in your products.

- 3

Paint-up in bright pastel shades, use gay, colorful crisp, fresh
looking packages and wrapping materials. Dress up your market with
colored buntings, banners and colored lights, but don't detract or over
do it. It can become offensive.

Women are more emotional and superstitious than men . They are more
apt to live in two worlds — one real and one of fantasy. So that they
have a stronger predisposition toward satisfying their many psychologi-
cal needs, which takes me out of the realm of tangible factors that in-
fluence women's buying and into the area of desires, wants, and motives.

Middle aged women buy red convertibles because this gives them the
feeling of being young. People are supposed to associate oranges with
feelings of friendliness; grapefruits are associated with elegant re-
serve; and plain wrapped boxes of candy are more acceptable to calorie-
conscious indulgers than candies in a fancy box. The dieter doesn't
feel as guilty about buying them.

Today's ads are designed on the basis of these kinds of findings.
A product is sold to cater to psychological needs as well as physical
needs. For example, aspirin isn't really sold as medicine, it's now a
sort of hormone to sweeten your disposition. Coke isn't just a drink,
it's the phenomenon that makes things go better. Pepsi makes you think
young, be sociable, and belong to the modern generation. Detergents
put giants in washing machines and provide you with a knight in shining
armor who is stronger than dirt; household cleaner creates a white tor-
nado. Expensive soap isn't sold to wash a wonan's dirty neck, it's to
give her allure and make her squeaky clean all over.

The point is that in this new era of the consumer there is a lot
more to a product or service than its physical characteristics. Any
product and service including your roadside market is a whole bundle of
attributes, physical and psychological. A whole cluster of ideas sur-
round it.

So, consumers don't simply buy a product, they buy your products
and a whole bundle of tangible and intangible attributes --a whole clus-
ter of ideas that surround your products. They buy these products not
only to satisfy physical needs, but equally important, they buy the
whole bundle of attributes to satisfy various psychological desires,
needs and motives.

One of the most important concepts in consumer psychology is that
the consumer's response is not directly related to the Stimulus. It is
related to the Consumer's Perception of the stimulus. Perception is
the key factor. It's the Consumer's perception that counts. Percep-
tion in a broad sense, includes the notion of consumer desires, needs,
motives, attitudes, preferences, expectancies and values--a whole slew
of psychological factors. Some of these factors are :

(1) A desire for a feeling of security with respect to physical
financial, and psychological well-being.

(2) A desire for recognition (emulation, devotion, superiority,
ornamentation) .

(3) A desire for new experiences (excitement, thrills).

(4-) A desire for achievement or response (creativity, rev?ard,
reinforcement) .

Build an image around your roadside market and your products that
satisfy these desires, needs, motives, and people will more readily pat-
ronize your roadside market and buy your products.

Let me tie together some of these consumer desires, needs and mo-
tives.

The first step in attempting to motivate consumers is to examine
your consumer market. Frequently we are quite sure we understand a sit-
uation even though we don't.

(1) Roadside Market Image . The image of your store or market is
not what you think it is, but what other people think it is. We are
back to the concept of consumer perception .

To project a favorable image your roadside market must meet people's
desires or motives mentioned earlier.

Think about your market image.

Do you guarantee your merchandise?

What about weights and measures? (Shoppers feel better if a cus-
tomer's scale is available to them - even if they don't use it. The
presence of it creates confidence.)

Are the apples or peaches on the bottom of your pack "okay"?

Is every area clean? (Studies we conducted show that one untidy
or dirty looking department can reflect an "unsanitary-health hazard"
image of the whole store.) This makes the customer feel insecure about
your foods. The same applies to a roadside market.

A carelessly groomed clerk projects the image of a slovenly store
or roadside market. Keep yourself and your personnel fresh and clean
looking as well as your products and your market.

If you sell eggs watch for broken ones that drip over the customer
or her auto on the way home. Women have a real fear about transporting
cartons of eggs; we f ound . in a Houston study that this was the main rea-
son for preferring cartons over-wrapped with cello-film. It was also a
reason for buying eggs from door-to-door peddlers rather than at markets.

Can your customers walk up and down the aisles of your market with-
out doing a two-step in and out between crates from which you are re-

filling the stock? Is your market littered with full and empty contain-
ers. Put them out of sight.

Price signs are important. Grocers call them shelf talkers. They
tell the customer the prices without her having the embarrassment of
asking you. People don't like to ask prices if there is a risk they
won't buy that item. "Knowing" these things help consumers satisfy their
need for achievement.

The highway signs and advertising that marks the approach to your
market also projects an image. A Beverly Hill Billy effort with multi-
size letters , wrong spelling, and runny paint smudges and a board or
two hanging off the sign can hardly be expected to project an image of
quality and imagination. Signs should be attractive, colorful, neat,
and readable. Signs should give information immediately pertinent to
the consumer who is driving past in an auto. Tell briefly what you sell,
how far ahead your market is, which side of the road, and price informa-
tion on one or ti»70 of your "special" items. Signs should be spaced
along the highway well ahead of the approach to the market in sufficient
numbers (say 3 or 4-) to catch the glance of that 60-70 mph. driver.
They should, at a distance, give time for the information to register
with the customer and permit time to plan a turn off at your market.
If possible, provide an extra "lane" for traffic to enter into and slow-
down before turning. Sixty to seventy feet would be good. Mark this
lane with a sign. Make the actual turnoff curve wide and smooth rather
than a sharp turn. Provide adequate parking that doesn't block the
drive-in area.

These things, together with lighting, landscaping, well-kept build-
ings and clean, well-groomed personnel are crucial to your roadside mar-
ket image. They help meet the consumers' need for security, achievement,
recognition and new experiences.

Project a favorable image of your roadside market through your ap-
pearance, your good manners, the market's cleanliness, and a tidy, gay,
glamorous and exciting atmosphere. Your market can project an image
which creates the consumer attitude that shopping is rewarding, pleasant,
exciting and fun.

You might also consider the notion of combinations of enterprises
in your roadside market--gift shop, refreshments, even children's pony
rides or a "roadside zoo" that draw consumers to your operation because
they are nearly always indulgent toward their children. Also, these
things help give a roadside market a uniqueness in its bundle of attri-
butes that could well attract families on their weekday, evening and
Sunday afternoon drives.

What uniqueness of personality does your market have?

Does your market have the right face, the wrong face, or is it just
a faceless nothing? It's how the consumer sees it that matters --consumer
perception is the key.

6 -

Number and Variety of Products: This includes assortment of prod-
ucts. It includes the idea of bulk and non-packaged products versus
prepackaging. You may need both. It involves the variety of package
sizes. It involves the notion of what fruits and vegetables women es-
pecially come to a roadside market for, rather than going to the super-
market. Is it sweet corn at one season, strawberries at another, melons
at a third? What are the items that are most favorable image projects
for roadside markets? Find which ones and use them to the full in your
roadside signs, ads, promotions, and displays.

Quality : So far as many consumers are concerned, quality is not
based on grades and standards prescribed by a technical definition or
the measurements of experts in the particular industry. It depends more
on people's tastes, preferences and values. The point is that quality,
as a motivating factor, must be defined in terms of your consumers and
potential consumers.

Point of Sale Materials and Displays : Nearly two out of three of
the consiimer's final purchasing decisions are made right in the store at
the point of sale. This is also true for most consumers patronizing
roadside markets.

Here are some key factors when considering point of sale and dis-
play as a tool to motivate consumers.

(1) Your products should have that "fresh picked, high quality
look" in a setting that complements this idea. Cull and restock after
each rush of customers.

(2) Prices should be clearly displayed on all merchandise, and
also names of items in some cases should also be included.

(3) Make displays look large enough to be seen from the road and
to attract attention. This can be achieved without using a volume of
products in the display that is too large for the sales volume of the
item which would cause spoilage. The way to do it is to realistically
dummy the core of the display and also tilt it for maximum display ef-
fect.

(4) Display highly perishable items on ice or refrigerated shelves.
This prevents unnecessary spoilage as well as projecting a quality image
and giving your customers a feeling of security in that you handle the
products with care.

(5) Provide paper towels at the display for the use of customers
who bag their own items. This helps meet the consumer recognition need.

(5) Most women are "waist to eye -level" shoppers. Display the
items you want to "push" at this level.

(7) Point of sale colored posters are available from your fruit
and vegetable organizations. Recipes and information on home handling,
storage, and use are available for everything from home-made broth to

- 7

cherry tarts from USDA and various state universities. Much of this
material could be used effectively at the point of sale, but isn't.

(8) Create a gay festive atmosphere at the point of sale by using
streamers, crepe paper, banners and so on, however, don't overdo it.
Exercise good taste--exercise restraint.

(9) Here are some general principles for effective displays and
shelf talkers:

(a) Consider interest impact- -headline, art work, make-up,
size, color, etc.

(b) Use persuasive power--so that the consumer feels she has
to have the product.

(d) Consider timing factor--display in harmony with the sea-
sonality of the product and the time the consumer will
derive greatest benefit from it.

(10) Ideas for Special displays :

(a) In summer, group picnic items on a picnic table. You
could use mimeographed lists of items needed for picnics,
beach parties or vacation.

(b) Use of shopping cart displays or other mobile displays.
This permits changing items to customer traffic locations
without disturbing customer shopping patterns.

Ads and Promotions are closely related to point of sale and displays
in so far as consumer motivation is concerned. Roadside markets located
around the outskirts of a specific city, town, or trading area, might
develop cooperative ads in the newspapers --like supermarket food ads.
This idea might even be developed along the lines of the Roadside Mar-
ket Circle for a family auto drive. One special for each of the road-
side markets could be advertised and a map of the "Magic Circle" com-
plete with points of interest and attractions could be marked on the ad.
This could cut the cost of advertising and establish a customer traffic
pattern.

Personnel is a very crucial part of the total bundle of attributes
you are merchandising at your roadside market. Be clean, including fin-
ger nails. Be appropriately well groomed. Be courteous. Be friendly.
Be honest. Be sincere. Don't hound your customers like a private eye —
simply be conspiciously available should they need help. Be informed
about your products, their qualities, varieties, uses and storage prob-
lems. Remember the customer's needs for recognition, security, achieve-
ment, and new and pleasant experiences.

- 8

When people came together to trade and transact business they also
wanted to exchange news and culture in an atmosphere of gaiety and live-
liness. Today too many business people make the situation more and more
impersonal, cold and drab. Your sales presentation, your approach, your
communication should be new and interesting each time you wait on a cus-
tomer. Your service and your approach should take the consumer out of
the rut, away from the sameness of everyday life, and bring some meas-
ure of drama and glamor into the situation. Think about the things you
say to customers. If we want to motivate we ought to put people in the
right mood.

Remember, the typical woman shopper. "Drawn" from some 12,000 in-
terviews, she has been profiled as follows:

"She is 35 years young, has two children and brings them with her
to shop about half the time. Her husband makes a little under $6,000
a year. She spends about $1,200 of this on food. She drives two miles
to the food store, passing another supermarket on the way, because peo-
ple there don't seem helpful or polite enough.

"She does not carry a shopping list but uses the market itself as
a reminder of what to buy. She changes brands often for no reason, and
is a pushover for new items, whether foods or household gadgets. She
lives to buy items that have recipes on the package. She changes stores
from time to time to be a good shopper and for the excitement of trying
something new.

"She loves trading stamps, coupons, and games of chance to satisfy
her desires and needs for achievement, hoarding or gambling. She is an
eye-level to waist-level shopper. Merely by moving a product 18 inches
higher on the display rack, the merchandiser can increase its sales--and
sometimes its price.

"Also, she likes to buy from filled rather than partially filled
shelves. Except for those items she uses constantly, she cannot remem-
ber prices from day to day and her arithmetic is terrible. She invari-
ably goes for lO*? items sold three for 29<?. But she will also buy more
of a 33<: item if it is offered three for 99(1:."

This is a quick profile of the consumer.

Roadside merchandisers, part of your job is to lie awake nights
dreaming up new ways to woo and beguile the consumer. Set some tender
traps for her and put an element of romance, glamor and excitement into
the prosaic roadmarketing business. If your wife thinks you're being
overzealous with these consumer women tell her you only love them for
their money.

***************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperotive Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1965

TABLE OF CONTENTS

New England Fruit and Trade Show

European Apple Industry

Investment Credit On Orchards

Insect Species Collected From Apple Trees

"Empty" Pesticide Containers?

Observations On Bird Control

Recent Publications

' !M/i

/'>*5^^?';

^/5^5!^

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://0

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, In ftrtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914:
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

NEW ENGIAND FRUIT AND TRADE SHOW

The New England Fruit and Trade Show of the Massachusetts Fruit
Growers' Association, in cooperation with the Massachusetts Cooperative
Extension Service, and with the Pomological and Horticultural Societies
of New England, Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, the New Eng-
land Apple Council and the New York and New England Apple Institute co-
operating, will be held at Suffolk Downs, Boston, Massachusetts on Jan-
uary 5 and 6, 1966. The success of our first New England Fruit and
Trade Show depends on your attendance!

The complete program is not available at this time. However, in
addition to speakers from our own New England States, we have persons
from Idaho, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Washington, D.C. and Ot-
tawa, Canada on the program.

The complete program will be mailed by the Massachusetts Fruit
Grov\;ers' Association and also will be available from the County Exten-
sion Services.

Directions to Suffolk Downs: For those coming from west of Boston,
take the Mass. Pike into Boston. At the last exit, follow the signs to
Callahan Tunnel. Go through the tunnel and turn right. Follow Route
C-1, North Shore. Suffolk Downs is on the right, off C-1 just prior to
Texaco 's gas tank farm.

From Southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island, take the South-
east Expressway to Callahan Tunnel.

For those coming from Essex County, southeastern New Hampshire and
Maine, take Route 9S to Route 1. If using Route 93, follow this route
to Route 128, then proceed north to Route 1. Follow Route 1 towards
Boston. Where Route 1 comes into a rotary, follow signs that indicate
C-1, Logan Airport and Sumner Tunnel. Follow C-1 through a number of
rotaries, being careful to remain on C-1 (along this route C-1 joins
with Routes 60 and lA) . Signs will indicate when you approach the Suf-
folk Downs area. Suffolk Downs will be on your left.

All pesticide chemicals mentioned in this publication are registered
and cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with federal laws and
regulations. Chapter 727, Acts of 1960, Commonwealth of Massachusetts
requires that all pesticides sold in Massachusetts be registered with
the Massachusetts Department of Public Health. Trade names, where used
for clearness, do not indicate endorsement nor imply that similar prod-
ucts are not satisfactory.

warning: most pesticides are poisonous. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DI-
RECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE
OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS. AND LIVESTOCK .

2 -

EUROPEAN APPLE INDUSTRY

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

An article in the May 10, 1965, issue of Foreign Agriculture by
Gilbert E. Sindelar, Fruit and Vegetable Division, Foreign Agricultural
Service and entitled "What's Happened to Our Apple Market in Europe -
and Why" contains many facts of interest.

Prior to World War II, the United States was the world's largest
exporter of apples for fresh use. We now rank about sixth. In terms
of volume, total export has decreased from an average of 10 million
bushels in the 1930 's to a little over 3.5 million bushels in recent
years. During this time, export of apples to Western Europe, our major
market, has decreased from 8.5 million bushels to an average of about
2 million bushels.

According to Mr. Sindelar, the reasons for this loss of the Western
European market trace back to the period immediately following World War
II.

"War had crippled the exporting industries of most European nations,
seriously limiting their ability to earn dollars with which to pay for
needed imports. This prompted, in some cases, the complete prohibition
of imports, including apples. Today, most of Europe is enjoying a high
level of economic well-being, but despite this, the opportunities for
furthering U.S. trade in apples to anywhere near prewar levels have been
dimmed by the rapidly increasing self-sufficiency of the European market.

With only a very few exceptions, the apple industry in Western
Europe has expanded greatly, and this growth has been largely a postwar
development accomplished under the veil of protectionism. Although it
is recognized that the dollar exchange shortages are no longer a valid
argument for the maintenance of trade barriers, political pressures from
the home front have fostered a continuation of restrictions. The fron-
tiers of many European countries still remain closed to imports, either
wholly or partially, until the marketing of locally produced fruit has
passed its peak."

Italy now leads in production

Due to a spectacular increase in apple production within a rela-
tively short period of time, Italy now leads Europe in apple production.
Before World War II, Italy averaged only about 13 million bushels of
apples a year. By the early 1950 's, average production had risen to
36 million bushels and, in 1964, production reached a new high of 108
million bushels.

Most of the post-war expansion in Italy's apple production has
taken place in the Po Valley which now produces more apples than did the
whole of Italy in 1940.

American-type varieties are important in the post-war plantings.
These include 4 different sports of Red Delicious, Golden Delicious,
Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Winesap and Gravenstein and they accounted for
•+1/0 of the 1963 apple crop in Italy.

According to Sindelar, planting activity appears to have subsided
in Italy and interest in other fruits such as pears and peaches has in-
creased.

France Production Increase Spectacular

Ten years ago, France produced about 20 million bushels of apples

for dessert purposes. Production now has increased to approximately 4-5

million, and within a few years, crops in excess of 60 million bushels
are anticipated.

Golden Delicious plantings have been extensive and now account for
nearly one-half of the total crop of apples for dessert purposes.

Prior to World War II. France was a market for a million bushels
of apples from the United States. Now, the U.S. exports virtually no
apples to France.

Apple Industry Expanding in Belgium and Netherlands

By 1970, apple production in Belgium may be 50% larger than the
present 7 to 8 million crop.

Before World War II, the Netherlands produced an average crop of
3.5 million bushels; in 1964, a 17 million bushel crop was harvested.
Only a moderate production increase is anticipated in the future, however,

Golden Delicious is the leading variety in new plantings in Belgium
and the Netherlands.

Moderate Planting Increase in West Germany

A moderate increase in new apple plantings has occurred during the
last 10 to 15 years in West Germany. Little change in production is
anticipated, however, because of removal of older plantings.

Prior to 1960, West Germany often was the leading apple producer
in Europe and since yearly production varied considerably, it used to
have a marked effect on the overall European crop. The production in-
creases in Italy and France tend to dwarf the impact of a short crop in
West Germany.

Contrary to the other European countries, the varieties planted in
the new orchards in West Germany have been those of European rather than
American origin.

- 4 -

The United Kingdom - Our Best Pre-war Customer

Apple production in the United Kingdom has almost tripled since
the 1930's, rising to nearly 30 million bushels in 1963.

Cox Orange Pippin is the most prominent variety being planted.

***************

INVESTMENT CREDIT ON ORCHARDS

Lawrence D. Rhoades and Earl I. Fuller
Department of Agricultural and Food Economics

Amendments to the Internal Revenue Code which became effective in
1961 provided for a special direct federal income tax credit for qual-
ified investment in certain property used as an integral part of "manu-
facturing, production, or extraction."

The property must be tangible personal property or other tangible
property, must be depreciable property and must have a useful life of
four years or more.

Income tax regulations include the cultivation of orchards in the
terms "manufacturing," "production" and "extraction."

New property which would qualify for investment credit includes
property purchased after December 31, 1961 and where the original use
of the property commences with the taxpayer and commences after that
date.

Used property would include all other property that meets the tests
but is not new property.

The determination of whether the property qualifies must be made
with respect to the first taxable year the property is placed in ser-
vice.

Property is considered as placed in service in the taxable year in
which the property is placed in a condition or state of readiness and
availability for a specifically assigned function or the year in which
depreciation begins, which ever is earlier.

Fruit bearing trees and vines are not considered to be in a state
of readiness and availability or subject to depreciation until they
have reached an income producing state.

All expenditures to bring orchard trees and vines to a producing
state should be capitalized and thereafter a fair and reasonable annual
allowance for depreciation is permitted.

5 -

If John Fruitgrower purchasod 20 acres of bearing orchard in 1965,
for $12,000 and 10 acres of 3 year old orchard for $2,000, he would al-
locate part of the purchase price to the land and part to the trees:
tlie arithmetic might go like the following:

Bearing orchard land, 20 acres $ 2,00U

15 year old trees 10,000

Estimated remaining life on trees 15 years

Investment credit on $10,000 used property

? TOO tax credit

Depreciation straiglitr line 10,000 _ $5^7 ^ annually

15 ^

T]irc>e year old orcliard

land value, 10 acres $ 1,000

Growing trees $ 1,000

add expenditures (cap-
italized) to bearing
age 1970 3,000

4,000

Trees qualify as new property in year of bearing 197 0.
Estimated life 1970-1990.

Investment credit 1970 $4,000

$ 280 tax credit

Depi'eciation $ 4,000 = $200 per year annually (Beginning in 1970)
20 years

Ori-'hard trees and vines qualify for investment credit cither as
new or used property if purchased.

In the case of additional orchard plantings such property qualifies
in the year of bearing; its cost is the capitalized value of the trees
at the time, for depreciation purposes and this cost is the amount which
is used for determining investment credit.

***************

INSECT SPECIES COLLECTED FROM APPLE TREES

H. E. Wave
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology

Fruit growers may be interested to l<now that at least 763 species

of insects have been Identified from insect collections taken from apple

trees. Only a small number of these insect species are of economic im-
portance to the industry.

An ecologica] study of Insect populations on apple, conducted in
Wisconsin by Dr. E. R. Oatman et al. and published in the December 1961
issue of the Journal of Economic Entomology, showed this number of spe-
cies to be present on ai^ple. A mature, isolated block of 3 acres, con-
taining Snoi\?, Greening and Wealthy, was used in t1ie study, wTiieh covered
a period of 4 years. The insect fauna was surveyed weekly beginning at
the Silvertip Stage and continued until frost. Survey metliods included
limb-.jarring; sampling of leaves, spurs and terminals; trunk-banding;
and sticky-board and black-light trapping.

In the study, a total of 43 species were considered ccruiomjcally
im])ortant to the app]e crop. About half the species (22) reported to
be in.jurious to apple were lopidoptcrous (moth) species „ In addition
to the 43 injurious species, many species were predaceous or parasitic
on other insects, i.e. they were beneficial.

A *.'.' *.t A 'Jt A ^ '. V ^ A ^ A A A A

"EMPTY"' PESTICIDE CONTAINERS?

E. H. l^/heeler
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology

An "empty" pesticide container is NEVER "emptyl"

Tliat's not a joke! It c^ould be very serious I

Did you ever get al-1 the powdered pesticide out of a_ patter bag or
a_ drum ':' Of course not; nobody does I

Did you ever get those last few drops of liquid pesticide out of a
can , drum , pail or bottle ? Not without rinsing and even then you didn't
get out all the rinse water; and just rinsing does not remove some pesti-
cidesl

"Empty" pesticide containers are dangerous to have around - even
for a short time. Most of them contained concentrated - not dilute -
pesticides. Some contained highly poisonous and/or volatile chemicals.

It's too easy for someone to put food, feed or drink into that
"clean" pail or bottle that's handyl

Common sense should tell you to get rid of those "empty" pesticide
containers soon and so as to not create a further hazard .

You could be legally liable if someone is injured or made ill be-
cause you have let "empty" pesticide containers stay around.

Ilore ai^e some ^Ide l.inc;s:

1. Follow any directions i'or disposal tluit you find on labels.

2. Burn combustllj.l o oontaincrs (excopt containers oJ" Imrmonc- type
vv^eed killers, 2,4-D, ete.) in a pubJ io en? eommoroiaJ incinora-
tor or a plane approved by the local Board of HeaJ th (e\'en ij
on your own land) , Keep m/eryone out of the smoke .

-) . Bury ashes from burning and all non-i;'eturnablc eontaine7\'^
(after carefully breaking, puncturin'j; and, 'or erushii;g) at
least 18 inclie;- cu' more deep in a j)ubl.ie dump fnotify the sup-
ervisor) or on f)rivate land at a site approved by the loea.l
Board of HeaJtIi (cn'(^n if on your own land). Such ,i site must
not be on a public uatcr supply watershed, wliere any stream
may become (contaminated or where the buried mater i.cl is I ike I \'
to be disturbed.

'h 'h *.V 'h "h '}: "?: 'J' '.k 'k'k'k •** ^ A*

OBSfRVATIONS ON BIRD CONTROL

Dominic A. Marini
Regiona.1 Agricultural SpeciaJist

Ave.l ijia Tavares, \vhi) grows 7 acres of cu.Ltivated blueberi'ies in
y\ctisbnet (Bristol County). ]i;is I ound the New York starling traj) lieJplul
.\\) rechuMng bii^d damage to his croj).

Ml". Tavares used .'-3 ol the traps in his jilantation tliis year. The
number of birds cauglit varied from day to day; he caught more than JOt)
on some days, mostiy stariings and grackles. For bait he used corn,
bread crumbs or rice and he found cooked macaroni also an cfTective bait.

Although the traps do not eliminate all bird damage, Mr. Tavares
feels that they have reduced it substantially. He strongly urges other
growers to build traps also, in a campaign to reduce the population of
destructive species of birds „ Plans for the trap are available from the
U.Sc Fish and Wildlife Ser^vice or your County Extension Service.

David Grindle, owner of "Blueberry Haven"? a 3 l/'2 acre cultivated
blueberry plantation in Hanson, believes that protecting his crop from
bird damage with netting has doubled his yield. In 1955, lie harvested
more than 20,000 quarts, v\/hile the largest previous crop without netting
was 10,000 quarts.

Grindle is protecting his crop with used l.ish netting - he ])rel'cM's
the rayon to the cotton. This is the fourth year foi^ the rayon and lie
thinks that it will last for at least 2 or 3 more years, while the cot-
ton does not stand up as well.

Costs are estimated as follows: netting $2,000, wire $100, used
1 .l/'4" pipe $200 - plus family labor. Holes for the pipes were punched
witli a crowbar and then they were driven in with a sledge hammer. Four
ho.lcs were drilled in the top of each pipe and the wires were run throiigji
them. Plastic cups wore placed over the ends of the pipes to prevent
the net from catching and tearing. Four men put up the net in one week.

Some growers have felt that the cost of nettings is prohibitive,
that it doesn't pay. But v\;lien there is a possibiiity of doubling your
eroji , can you afford not to net?

*{* ftja *!« *1* ^Xu ^X* *^^^ ^(* ^^ ^C ^^ '^ tj^ *^

RECENT PUBLICATIONS

You may u^'ish to send for one or more of the following publications:

.1. Market Your Fresh Apples. USDA Marketing Bulletin NOo ^.t.
Available from Office of Information, USDA, Washington, D.C.
20250

2. Influence of Certain Fungicides on Apparent Photosynthesis

of an Entire Apple Tree. Bulletin 529. Available from Maine
Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine.

^. Diseases and Insect Pests of Raspberries and Other Cane Fruits,
Publication 880. Available from Information Division, Canada
Department of Agriculture, Ottawa.

4. Observations on Winter Injury to Apple and Pear Trees in the
Hood River Valley. Station Bulletin 595. Available from the
Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University,
Corvallis.

5., Management and Cost Control in Producing Apples for Fresh Mar-
ket. Bulletin 1001. Available from Agricultural Experiment
Station, Ithaca, New York.

^fr ^V A ^^ ^frAVir'itAAA^frAA

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

JANUARY-FEBRUARY T966

TABLE OF CONTENTS

New Apple Varieties for Trial in Massachusetts

Pomological Paragraph

Harvesting Sequences of New Peach Varieties

Plum Variety Evaluation - 1965

Pomological Paragraphs

Pear Variety Evaluation - 1965

Strawberry Variety Evaluation - 1965

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NEW APPLE VARIETIES FOR TRIAL IN MASSACHUSETTS

W. D. Weeks
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Quinte

Niagara

Spartan

Appears to be the better of three early varieties devel-
oped by the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa. Fruit is
attractive and well-colored. Quinte bears annually but
may require thinning for adequate size.

An attractive Mcintosh type apple which ripens two weeks
before Mcintosh. It is similar to Mcintosh in its growth
habit, productiveness and appearance.

A promising new variety from British Columbia. Fruit has
good color and quality but has tendency to small size.
Tree is vigorous and of good structure, annual, will pol-
linate Mcintosh.

Idared

Spencer

Mutsu

Attractive, bright red winter apple. Good quality and
size. Dessert and cooking. Tree productive, annual,
worthy of extensive trial.

Fruit attractive, bright red, quality excellent, good for
dessert and pie. Tree hardy, productive, annual.

Golden Delicious type fruit which is less susceptible to
fruit russeting and storage shrivel. Tree vigorous and
productive, triploid -pollen not viable. Possible substi-
tute for Golden Delicious.

Ruby An attractive Rome type apple. Fruit has good size and

color, quality average. Tree has poor branch structure.

Jerseyred A late Rome type apple from the New Jersey Agricultural
Experiment station. Fruit large, well-colored, better
quality than Rome. Jerseyred has triploid -pollen.

***************

PCMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Virus -free Red Raspberry Plants - For those who have been waiting for
virus-free red raspberry plants, it appears that a few will be
available this year. One nursery has a limited supply of Latham.

***************

HARVESTING SEQUENCES OF NEW PEACH VARIETIES

W. D. Weeks
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The following new varieties are listed in their approximate order
of harvesting:

Sunrise

Sunhaven

Coronet

Goldgem

Washington

Richhaven

Glohaven

Redqueen

Cresthaven
Madison
Blake

Jerseyqueen
Jefferson

This list provides a harvesting season of about 7 weeks, commencing
with Sunrise, which is '+4 days ahead of Elberta and ending with Jefferson,
which is 3 or M- days past Elberta. Descriptions of these varieties have
appeared in past issues of Fruit Notes.

***************

PLUM VARIETY EVALUATION - 1965

J. F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The following is a report of the performance of some plum varieties
in our Amherst orchards in the summer of 1965. Of these, Formosa, Santa
Rosa, Yakima and Stanley are currently recommended for commercial plant-
ing. Growers planning a new plum orchard must give consideration to the
problem of pollination. To insure successful pollination, it is advis-
able to plant more than one variety of a particular type: namely, two
or more Japanese varieties or two or more European varieties. Readers
are referred to Special Circular No. 21+7 for a more complete discussion
of the pollination problem.

Burmosa A Japanese type plum introduced by the California Experiment
Station. The tree is small in size, medium in vigor and
tends toward biennial production. The fruit is attractive,
yellow with a bright red blush, becoming completely overlaid
with red, medium to large in size, of good quality and a free-
stone. The fruit was ripe about July 23, and held well in
storage, Burmosa appears promising.

Methley A Japanese type plum that ripens with Burmosa. The fruit

is small, dark red, red-fleshed and fair to good in quality.
Methley does not appear promising under our conditions.

Brilliant An introduction of the Missouri Experiment Station. This
Japanese plum ripens with Formosa. It is red in color and
of good size and quality. Brilliant is more productive than
Formosa, but is inferior to Formosa in size, quality and ap-
pearance.

Formosa A Japanese type plum that ripens in early August, The fruit
was tree ripe on August 10, this year. The tree is large,
vigorous and moderately productive. The fruit is large, at-
tractive and the yellow color tends to be completely over-
laid with red as the fruit ripens. The quality is very good.
Formosa holds up very well in storage.

Great Yellow A Japanese type plum that ripened in the second week of
August. Production this year was moderate. The fruit of
Great Yellow is medium to large in size, good quality and
a freestone. The fruit hangs well on the tree, but there
is a tendency for the skin to pull away at the stem when
the fruit is picked late. This variety was rated high in
flavor by all v\7ho tried it, but there may be some buyer re-
sistance because of its color.

Shiro A Japanese type plum that ripens with Great Yellow. Shiro
is a very attractive bright yellow plum. The trees tend to
be biennial in bearing and thinning may be necessary to at-
tain good size. Production was good this year. Great Yel-
low has been superior to Shiro in size and flavor.

Santa Rosa A large, reddish -purple Japanese plum of good quality. The
tree is large, vigorous and moderately productive. Santa
Rosa ripens about a week later than Formosa. The fruit
keeps and ships well.

Washington A large, high quality Gage plum ripening in late August.

The trees in our Amherst orchards have been very productive.
The color of this European plum is not especially attrac-
tive and there could be some resistance by those unaware of
its excellent flavor.

Howard Miracle A large, attractive, high quality Japanese plum. The
fruit is golden yellow with a light red blush. The firm-
fleshed, freestone was picked in late August. Production
was very good this year. The flavor of this variety is not
typical of a plum and might be objectionable to some.

Pacific An attractive, blue prune type plum of good quality. The
fruit is quite firm and the keeping quality is excellent.
Pacific has been a good cropper in Amherst, but ripening
is quite uneven. The fruit begins ripening in the second
week of September. Pacific is a European type plum.

- ^

Yakima A European type plvim that ripens in late August. The fruits
are large, prune -shaped, reddish purple, freestone and of
good quality. This variety has been only moderately produc-
tive in our trials.

Redheart A Japanese type plum that was introduced by the California
Experiment Station. Redheart has proven to be a very good
producer of medium-sized, heart-shaped, red-fleshed plums.
The fruit has not developed satisfactory flavor in our or-
chards. Redheart ripens in the third week of August. This
variety is said to be a very good pollinizer for other Jap-
anese plums and may prove valuable for that purpose alone.

Elephant Heart The fruit of this variety is large, dark red and heart-
shaped. The flesh of this Japanese type plum is firm,
blood -red in color and good in quality. The tree is large
and vigorous. Though Elephant Heart has tended to be a
light producer in the past, its yield was very good this
yearo Elephant Heart ripens in early September and would
be a desirable variety if yields can be maintained.

Stanley An attractive prune type plum which is suitable for both
fresh use and canning. The fruits of this European plum
are blue in color, medium to large in size. The flesh is
greenish-yellow, juicy, firm and of good quality. Stanley
is a freestone that ripens in the second week of September.
The tree is both productive and annual. Those growers wish-
ing a similar type plum for an earlier market may wish to
consider New York 795 or New York 797.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Chemical weed control - Orchard help removing grass and weeds from around
the base of fruit trees, was a common sight in orchards in November.
Much of this laborious task can be eliminated by chemical weed con-
trol, since a number of herbicides are labelled for use in apple and
pear orchards and 3 materials are labelled for peach orchards. More
growers should make use of these materials to eliminate hand mowing
and as an aid in the mouse control program.

***************

Plastic containers for cider - Because of the difficulty and expense of
sealing plastic-coated cartons, the use of half-gallon plastic jugs
as containers for cider was an innovation at many roadside stands
this fall. Consumer acceptance of this container appears to be good.

***************

5 -

PEAR VARIETY EVALUATION - 1965

J. F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

There appears to be increased interest in growing pears in Massa-
chusetts, particularly by those operating roadside stands. It is hoped
that the information presented in this article will be of value to the
potential growers of pears. Harvest dates and pressure test readings
mentioned in the write-ups are for the 1965 harvest season and are given—
as a point of interest only. Harvest dates will vary from season to sea-
son and orchard to orchard. The pressure tests were made with a Magness-
Taylor pressure tester, using a 5/16" diameter head in contrast to the
7/16" diameter head used for apples. The following 7 varieties have been
recommended for commercial planting in Massachusetts for a number of
years.

Clapp Favorite The fruit is large , greenish-yellow with a blushed cheek
and good in quality. The fruit has a high susceptibility
to core breakdoi\;n if picked late. The fruit is usually ready
for harvest in mid-August in Amherst. The tree is hardy and
productive, but it is highly susceptible to fire blight*.

Bartlett

Gorham

Seckel

Flemish

Bosc

A medium to large, attractive, high quality pear. Bartlett
is picked in late August or early September. We picked
Bartlett on August 27, when the average pressure test read-
ing was 20 pounds. The tree is medium in size and is pro-
ductive.

A seedling of Bartlett which it resembles in size and color.
The flesh is white, tender and juicy. Unlike most pear var-
ieties, the fruit will ripen in cold storage. Last season
the fruit held up well in storage until the end of January.
The fruit was harvested on the 3rd of September when the
average pressure test was 13 pounds. This fruit was eating
ripe in cold storage in early December. Gorham is said to
require a higher level of nutrition than Bartlett to main-
tain production.

A popular variety for pickling. The fruit is small, often
with a bronze russet and very high quality. The tree is
large, upright spreading, and productive in alternate years.

A large attractive, high quality pear. The fruit was picked
September 3rd, when the average pressure test was 12 pounds.
Flemish is susceptible to pear scab, but this can be readily
controlled with present fungicides. The tree is large vig-
orous, very hardy and productive in alternate years.

This russeted pear is harvested in late September. The
fruit was picked September 22nd, when the average pressure
was 14- pounds. The crop was very heavy and there was some
fruit drop. The fruit is large and has excellent flavor

when ripened properly. Stored fruit was In excellent con-
dition in late December, The tree is productive with a
slight tendency towards biennial bearing.

Anjou A late ripening pear of large size and good quality. Anjou
is a good shipper and a good keeper. The fruit was picked
with Bosc and the pressure at the time of harvest was 13
pounds. The trees are large and have been good producers.
Anjou is often reported to be a shy producer.

The following 8 varieties appear to be worthy of trial.

Early Seckel A seedling of Seckel that resembles its parent in coloring
but tends to be larger and to have a more distinct neck.
The fruit is attractive, very good in flavor and keeps well
for an early fall variety. The fruit was- picked August 19th,
the pressure test averaged Ih pounds on this date. The tree
is medium in size, vigorous and productive.

Devoe

The fruit is a clear yellow with a blushed red cheek, oblong
pyriform in shape and with good quality. Devoe is a heavy
producer, but the fruit tends to ripen unevenly and to be
variable in size and coloring. Thinning might be desirable.
The fruit was picked September 3rd when the pressure was 13
pounds.

Ewart

The fruits are large, yellowish-green with some russeting
and good flavor. Ewart is less attractive than Barlett.
The fruit was picked September 3rd, with an average pressure
test of 18 pounds. Ewart has been moderately productive in
our orchard. Fruit ripened in late December developed good
flavor and texture.

Dumont A late ripening pear of medium to large size. The flesh is
firm, juicy and the quality very good. The fruit was harves-
ted September 22nd, and at that time the pressure test aver-
aged 13 pounds. Fruit ripened in late December developed
good flavor and texture.

Starkrimson A red bud sport of Clapp Favorite. The fruit is similar in
size, shape and quality to Clapp, but has a solid red sur-
face color. The fruit was harvested August 20th and held
up well in storage to early December. This variety would
add color and interest to a pear display, but we are not
certain as to the buyers' reaction to a red pear.

Grand Champion A russet sport of Gorham, which it resembles in size,
shape and quality. The fruit is overlaid with a uniform
cinnamon russet and is very attractive. The trees in our
planting are too young to evaluate as to productivity.

Alexander Lucas A late ripening pear of medium size, smooth surface

and a greenish-yellow color. The fruit is of good quality.

Alexander Lucas was harvested September 22nd and continues
to hold up well in storage in late Decmber. Production has
been good.

Packhams Triumph The fruit is large greenish -yellow and although the
surface is somewhat rough, it is an attractive pear. The
flesh is white, fine, melting, free of grit cells and of
very good quality. The fruit was harvested with Anjou and
Bosc this season. Fruit ripened in late December developed
good flavor and texture. We are unable to evaluate this
variety as to production and other tree characteristics as
our source of fruit was from a top -worked tree.

*We experienced a mild outbreak of fire blight in our College orchards
this summer for the first time in many years. Varieties affected in-
cluded Clapp, Dumont, Phelps, Bartlett and Caywood.

***************

STRAWBERRY VARIETY EVALUATION - 1965

J. F, Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Among the newer varieties that one might consider for planting in
Massachusetts are Fulton, Frontenac, Fletcher, Garnett, Midway and Ves-
per.

Since the performance of a strawberry variety is greatly influenced
by climatic soil and cultural conditions, it is suggested that growers
test any nev; variety on a small scale before planting it on a commercial
basis.

Fulton A mid-season variety which has performed very well in Am-
herst. The plant is vigorous, a good runner producer, very
productive and free from leaf diseases. The fruit is medi-
um in size, attractive, very firm and of very good flavor.
Fulton is not resistant to red stele.

Fletcher The plant is vigorous and a good runner producer. The yield
is good. The fruit ripens in the late mid -season, is large,
firm, attractive, very good in flavor and is said to be an
excellent freezer.

Garnet This variety was recently named by the New York Agricultural
Experiment Station. We have tested Garnet as N. Y. #43 for
several years. The plants are vigorous, forming a full bed
and have been productive. The berries are large, attractive
moderately firm and have a good flavor. Garnet is of the
Sparkle season and is not resistant to rod stele.

Frontenac The fruit is large, medium to dark red in color, attractive,
good in flavor and moderately firm. Frontenac is said to be
excellent for freezing. The plants are large and form suf-
ficient runners for a good bed. Frontenac is susceptible to
drought, which could account for its failure to reach its
full yield potential in our trials last summer.

Midway

A mid-season variety ripening with or slightly before Cat-
skill. The plants are vigorous, good plant makers and very
productive. Midway is resistant to the common race of red
stele, but may show some mildew. The fruit is medium to
large, deep red, glossy, attractive and very good in flavor.
Variable size and a tendency for green tips has been noted
in past trials, Midway is well worth trial in commercial
quantities, especially in soil where red stele has been a
problem. Midway performs best on soils of good moisture
holding capacity.

Vesper

The plant is large, vigorous and a good runner producer.
The fruit ripens very late, two to three days after Jersey-
belle. Yields have been considerably higher than Jersey-
belle in our Amherst trials. Vesper is a little darker
than Jerseybelle, is very large in size, has prominent yel-
low seeds and a glossy skin, all of which make it very at-
tractive. The fruit is moderately firm and good in flavor.
Limited observations by growers indicate that berries should
be harvested while light red in color. Dark berries may be
soft and non-marketable. This variety merits trial because
of its lateness, productivity, large size and attractive-
ness. It should not be planted where red stele is a prob-
lem.

Data as to season, berry size and yield for some of the more impor-
tant varieties that were included on 1965 trials will be found in the
following table. Yields and other fruit characteristics were greatly in-
fluenced by a deficiency of rainfall both in the 1963 and 1964 seasons.

Variety

Midway

Catskill

Sparkle

Garnet

Fulton

Fletcher

Frontenac

Vesper

Season^ -'
% Early % Late

f21

Berry Size ^ ^

1st 3rd 5th

13
6

9
15
27
31
38
t+1
65

410
394
296
492
345
365
342
526

311
360
239
305
291
295
328
410

223
244
173
200
174
163
240
264

Number of
Pickings

6
7
6
6
6
6
6
6

Calculated Yield
Quarts per Acre

11,340
10,764
5,309
7.155
5,772
8,523
6,686
6,652

-'-Season June 11 to July 6 (11 pickings)

%Early - percentage of total crop of each variety picked in first 3 pickings.

%Late - percentage of total crop of each variety picked in last 3 pickings.
^Berry size - average weight in grams of 25 berries.

***************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

MARCH-APRIL 1966

TABLE OF CONTENTS

New York - New England CA Seminar

Sunrise — A New Strawberry Variety

Bird Damage Research

Pomological Paragraph

Housewives for Apple Pickers in 1965

The Causes and Significance of Dying Apple
Tree Branch and Crowns

'-^^

nj;l\

r-^^^#^.l

"SS^v

Olii^,

^<i

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean end Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

NEW YORK - NEW ENGLAND CA SEMINAR

The CA Storage Seminar, which has become a biennial event, is sched-
uled for April 28, at the Student Union Building of New Paltz State Col-
lege at New Paltz, New York. These seminars which are a cooperative ef-
fort of the Extension Services and research staffs of the Colleges of
Agriculture of New York and the New England states, have proven to be a
successful method for keeping growers and industry informed of the lat-
est CA storage developments.

Registration for the CA Seminar will be at 9:?)ii in the foyer of the
Student Union at New Paltz State College. The registration fee of $3.50
will cover costs of refreshments, lunch and publication of the proceed-
ings.

You will be sent a copy of the proceedings if you attend the semi-
nar. If you cannot attend, but would like a copy of the publication,
it may be purchased upon request. Enclose a check payable to the De-
partment of Pomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, for $1.00.

If you do plan to attend, please fill out the form below. Dr. R. M.
Smock needs to know how many are coming to plan the luncheon.

Do not send payment with the form below. Payment will be made at
registration time.

Tear off form below and mail to R. M. Smock, Department of Pomology,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

Name

Mailing Address_

If you want to use this form for other names and addresses, list them
below.

Name

Mailing Address^

Name

Mailing Address_

2 -

SUNRISE - A NEW STRAWBERRY VARIETY

J. F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Sunrise , a new red stele resistant, early ripening strawberry var-
iety, developed cooperatively by the Maryland Agricultural Experiment
Station and the United States Department of Agriculture, is now avail-
able to growers. The variety was named and released to nurserymen in
November, 1964-, so that the supply of virus-free plants could be in-
creased and made available to growers in the fall of 1965.

Sunrise was tested from Massachusetts to North Carolina and west-
ward to Missouri. The variety was most satisfactory in the southern
Midwest portion of the United States.

Sunrise is resistant to 3 races of the red stele fungus and to Ver-
ticillium wilt. The leaves are resistant to leaf scorch and mildew,
but very susceptible to leaf spot.

We fruited Sunrise in our experimental plots in Amherst in 1958,
1959, 1960 and 1961. The fruit, under our conditions, was bright red,
glossy, smooth and uniform in shape. The size was medium to small and
variable. The plants were vigorous and made a good bed. The yield, as
related to other varieties under trial at the time, was fair. A com-
parison of Sunrise and Midway growing under similar conditions is of-
fered :

Sunrise ^-. -. Midway ,-, >.

qts./acre^ qts./acre

1958 6,933 8,929

1959 i+,719 8,712

1960 8,820 10,563

(1) This is a calculated yield.

Sunrise did not appear to be especially promising under our Amherst
conditions. However, it may be worth testing where an early ripening
variety is desired and red stele is a problem.

***************

BIRD DATIAGE RESEARCH

David H. Hirth, Graduate Assistant
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management

For the last four years a concentrated effort has been made to in-
vestigate the basic ecology of the robin here in Amherst. Interest in

this type of study was stimulated by the work of Richard N. Smith, who
found the robin to be a primary source of damage to fruit crops by birds
in the state of Massachusetts. Smith, working in cherry, blueberry, and
grape plantations at the University, noted that there was practically no
population turnover at times when the fruit crop was ripe. Experiments
with various scare devices were run with little or no success. For this
reason Smith recommended that a great deal more fundamental information
on the daily lives and activities of species responsible for fruit dam-
age was needed before any effective, economically feasible, control meas-
ures could be proposed.

In the last two summers the robin project has been aimed simply at
studying the ecology of this bird, rather than studying its habits with
regard to fruit depredation specifically. The basis for this work has
been a population of wing-tagged individuals. Three hundred and twenty
birds were tagged in two summers. The tags, devised by A. E. Hester,
were circular with a diameter of 1 1/2 inches and made of plasticized
cloth attached to each wing by means of an aluminum poultry clip. Com-
binations of letters painted on these tags enabled me to identify an in-
dividual bird at a range of 100 yards with a 20 power telescope.

Observations of tagged birds at the University cherry orchard and
two blueberry plantations completely corroborate those of Smith with re-
spect to age group and population turnover. After the second week in
June immature birds, rather than adults, caused most of the damage. In
196M-, 31% of the immatures captured at the cherry orchard were seen
feeding there again; and M-9% of the immatures captured at one blueberry
plantation were seen feeding there again. It is safe to assume that
the actual number returning to these sites was far higher than these fig-
ures indicate. As an indication of the strength of the affinity these
birds have for a particular fruit plantation, it is interesting to note
that being captured in nets, banded and wing-tagged in no way acted as
a deterrent to their returning.

The first wave of nestling robins is ready to leave the nest during
the last ten days of May. The fledglings remain in the immediate vicin-
ity of the nest for 2-3 weeks depending on the cover available. In
most cases these fledged immatures then move quickly to the nearest
fruit crop, wild or cultivated, and become part of a flock of robins
centered on this source of abundant food. The flock is composed pri-
marily of immatures, but also contains adults that have been released
from nesting duties. The adults tend to wander more widely, however,
and are less predictable in their movements than are the young birds.
Fledglings generally did not travel further than a half mile to join a
local feeding flock.

Very little is known about how the actual dispersal of fledglings
or immatures from nests takes place. Do they move on their own initia-
tive or are they led to feeding areas by parents? Immatures are often
seen at feeding areas begging food from adults. Whether these adult
birds are the parents of the begging fledglings is open to question.
Observations of tagged immatures this spring indicated that some birds
find their way to feeding areas by themselves and some by following
parents. One immature that had moved away from its parents' territory

1+ -

was seen at the University cherry orchard a week later, and probably
arrived there \\?ith no parental guidance. A nestmate of this bird re-
mained near the nest site and was constantly attended by both parents.
Eighteen days after fledgling, the nestmate was seen begging on the
ground and subsequently following both parents in the air, still beg-
ging, as they flev\/ directly toward the cherry orchard, one -third of a
mile away. There is apparently no single explanation of how immatures
find their way to feeding locations and fruit crops.

Feeding flocks will apparently remain intact for as long as there
is an adequate fruit supply in a given area. In 196M-, one flock of
robins, about 75 birds, seemed to remain virtually unchanged from the
end of June until the last week of August. The reason for this was that
three successive fruit crops, tatarian honeysuckle, cultivated blueber-
ries and wild, black cherries, all bordering the same small wood lot,
provided a continuous supply of food for eight weeks. Certain condi-
tions make some fruit crops more susceptible to heavy depredation by
flocks of robins than others. Preferred feeding habitat for robins in-
cludes a brushy cover and a suitable loafing site nearby. Loafing areas,
where birds spend the warmest parts of the day when they are not actively
feeding, seem to be invariably in woods, broadleaf or evergreen, where
there is an open floor. This enables the birds to browse in a shaded
place for insects and to enjoy good visibility of potential predators.

Netting operations were carried on at two blueberry plantations at
the University this year. One was bordered on two sides by bushes and
by a wood lot with a loafing area on another. This plantation was an
ideal center of activity for a large flock of robins. The other plan-
tation was situated in the middle of the University apple orchard. The
nearest cover, some woods, was about 150 yards away. This plantation
was visited by robins, but only individual birds, rather than a flock.
If this example is typical of robin behavior, a strong relationship be-
tween habitat and degree of depredation by robins certainly exists.

A large percent of the robins' food consists of fruit during the
summer months. In this study they were seen to do heavy damage to cul-
tivated cherries and blueberries. Also eaten by robins were wild tatar-
ian honeysuckle, black raspberries, and black cherries. Peaches and
wild and cultivated grapes were not touched by robins. Baltimore ori-
oles, however, were observed doing considerable damage to both.

***************

PROLOG ICAL PARAGRAPH

Williain J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Problems in growing apricots in Michigan - Stanley Johnston and
E. Moulton, Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University,

published Extension Folder F-318 in 1962 on "Problems in Grov/ing Apri-
cots in Michigan," and their observations seem pertinent since there is
some interest in apricot growing in Massachusetts.

Winter injury and breaking of trees at the bud union are cited as
being two problems that resulted in apricot tree loss. Young trees,
especially those from 2 to 5 years of age, are apt to make excessive
growth which matures late and, therefore, they are more subject to low
temperature injury during November and early winter. Mature apricot
trees are considered much hardier than mature peach trees and consequent-
ly winter injury is less of a problem on older than on young trees.

To reduce loss from winter injury, one of the suggestions is that
young trees not be forced to make more than 2 feet of annual growth.
Excessive growth also aggravates breakage at the bud union.

The publication can be obtained by writing to Michigan State Uni-
versity, East Lansing, Michigan.

***************

HOUSEWIVES FOR APPLE PICKERS IN 1965

Ben Drew
Westford, Massachusetts

In common with most Massachusetts apple growers, I was faced with
an apparent labor shortage for the 1965 apple harvest. In 1964, my
crop had been harvested by 10 Canadians, 20 Florida migrants and an as-
sortment of local help. In 1965, however, the chances of again using
Canadian laborers appeared to be slight. To be eligible for the vague
possibility of again obtaining Canadians, it would have been necessary
to place all the available migrant and local help under the "criteria
regulations," to pay a very substantial transportation cost for the
Florida crew, and to endure other nuisance regulations of the "criteria."

In late July, I decided not to apply for Canadians. To fill the
gap of an estimated 500 bushels per day of picking capability, I placed
a large advertisement in the Lowell, Massachusetts, newspaper. This ad
was aimed at the active housewife, who might have 4 hours during the
day to devote to an outside activity, and who might be anxious to earn
money as well as joining other women in an outdoor activity. I would
like to stress that the ad did not attempt to glamorize the job, but
stressed the realities of physical fitness. The ad asked them to come
to the farm on a certain day - - and on that day, about 40 women of all
ages and capabilities appeared. We took their names, carefully described
the job of apple picking, and told them that a training session would
be held in August.

By post card, about 20 women were asked to the training session --
and 16 came. They practiced setting ladders, using picking buckets and
then they actually picked some Gravensteins. We discouraged 2 appli-
cants during the training session, and screened out 2 others who were
rough, and gave promise of being even rougher if hired.

We hired a retired couple to supervise these women, and although
they hardly knew an apple from a peanut, they learned quickly and did
a splendid job.

The women picked the smaller to medium-sized trees and were paid
25 cents per box. They were assisted by an experienced, older man who
helped set the ladders and picked the hard-to reach branches.

From one season's experience with this unusual labor crew, I have
drawn the following conclusions:

1. Housewives are a real potential source of harvest help.

2. Women can successfully pick from step ladders and from short
straight ladders on trees which are not over 15 feet tall.

3. Women can pick apples carefully, but at the start they need
extra help and supervision.

i|. Women can earn enough at the standard piece work rates, to at-
tract them to the job, but they should be told in advance that
with good picking 5 to 7 boxes per hour is average for women.

5. It is necessary to allow flexibility in the hours of work to
fit particular family problems.

6. By creating an atmosphere of consideration and courtesy, through
competent supervision and suitable arrangements for their per-
sonal convenience, it is possible to add dignity and appeal to
apple picking and will, I believe, bring help from a group
which is not ordinarily a part of the usual labor force.

7. Although we did not attempt to glamorize the job of apple pick-
ing, I also must say that with a group of capable, responsible
women, there still will occur most of the problems incurred with
regular picking crews, with a few special ones for the ladies

as well.

***************

THE CAUSES AND SIGNIFICANCE OF DYING APPLE TREE BRANCH AND CROWNS

George N. Agrios
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology

In almost every apple orchard, some trees have a few branches with
sparse foliage and small leaves, or have branches on which the leaves
suddenly turn yellow and die. A whole tree might show similar symptoms
and may die, either quickly or after a relatively long period of decline.
In many orchards the number of branches or trees showing these symptoms
is not great and they are removed, as a matter of course, during the
growing season or at the time of pruning. In an increasing number of
orchards, however, more and more branches and trees of all ages are dying
and their removal is not only time-consuming and costly, but also is re-
ducing total yield appreciably.

Although a number of unfavorable conditions may result in branch
or tree death, the most common cause is infection by fungi. The latter
penetrate the bark through pruning wounds, bruises or other openings,
and cause a collapse of tissues, resulting in girdling and death of the
crown beyond the ring of collapsed tissues.

Several fungi have been found associated with dying apple branches
and trees in Massachusetts. Cytospora is the fungus most commonly iso-
lated from infected trees of most ages. It is argued, and there are
good reasons to believe, that this fungus attacks branches already dead
or about to die; but its widespead occurrence in our area on trees of
various ages and degree of vigor seems to demand a closer examination
of the preferences of this pathogen. Sphaeropsis is the next most com-
monly found fungus on apple and it not only kills branches but also
causes fruit rot (black rot) and leaf spots (frogeye leaf spot) . Other
fungi isolated from apple cankers include Phomopsis (rough bark) , Phoma
(Brooks fruit spot) , Cytosporella , Botryosphaeria , Gloeosporium (apple
tree anthracnose) , and Fusarium.

These fungi usually persist on infected apple branches and prunings,
sometimes on infected fruits or leaves and, in a few cases, on other
kinds of trees near the orchard. All of them produce spores on the in-
fected tissues. In most cases the spores are contained within dark or
amber-colored fruiting bodies which can be easily seen on the bark of
affected tissues at certain times of the year. The fruiting bodies of
the various fungi mature at different times during the growing season;
thus, some of them release their spores in the spring, others in the
summer or early fall, and some produce spores throughout the growing
season. The spores are carried from branch to branch and from tree to
tree by rain, wind, insects, birds, and by man and his tools.

Whether or not new infections will take place in an orchard depends
on the presence of fungus spores in the area, the condition of the trees,
temperature and moisture at the time the spores land on the trees. The
presence of large cuts or wounds on branches seems to promote the onset of
infections , and many infections begin at very small wounds made by the

- 8

pruning or breaking of small twigs or suckers. Large cuts, however, are
important since they take longer to heal, and therefore, remain suscep-
tible longer than small ones. Of even greater significance is the fact
that the infection at these large cuts may even spread to remaining
large branches and greatly reduce the bearing surface of the tree.

Most canker -causing fungi usually attack trees low in vigor. Quite
frequently, however, very small cankers can be found around wounds on
young, vigorous trees, but the spread of the fungus is prevented by a
layer of callus tissue produced by the vigorous, healthy cells surround-
ing the fungus. In this situation, the fungus may starve after a few
years -- unless the tree is suddenly weakened; then the fungus can over-
run the plant defenses and cause a larger infection. It is also pos-
sible, although there is no direct experimental proof concerning these
fungi, that the greater the number of infections occurring in an area,
and the longer the time they remain unchecked on normally resistant,
vigorous trees, the greater the chance for the appearance of new, more
virulent races of the fungus. Such new races can then attack vigorously
growing trees that would have been unaffected by the older, less viru-
lent races of the fungus.

The presence of fungus cankers in well sprayed orchards indicates
that the fungicides used for the control of apple scab, rust, powdery
mildew and summer rots are either not effective against canker -causing
fungi or that the timing of these sprays is wrong for the prevention of
infection. Furthermore, the rapidity at which the fungi spread indicates
that these fungicides have no effect on the canker once infection has
taken place. This leaves growers defenseless against the apple canker
fungi .

During the past year, growers found it necessary to remove an in-
creased number of branches and trees killed by the canker fungi. Some
growers estimate that this removal reduced the bearing surface in some
blocks by 10 per cent -- causing a proportional 10 per cent reduction in
yield.

Eradication of all cankers by pruning or surgery is an extremely
difficult, and often an impossible task; therefore, usually enough can-
kers remain as a source of inoculum for renewed spreading of the disease.

The systemic fungicide required to prevent or control infection by
the canker fungi has yet to be discovered. Until it is discovered, keep-
ing apple trees vigorous, removing cankers as soon as they appear by
frequent and proper pruning, and covering large wounds with a tree wax
or paint seems to be the most effective means of avoiding losses from
canker-causing fungi.

Much more information is needed about the fungi and their habits.
A conscientious grower no longer fears apple scab, powdery mildew or
rust fungi, because he knows how to control them. But, it took many
years of work by scientists to obtain information about these diseases
and to develop fungicides for their control. Information available on

- 9

the cause and control of fruit tree cankers is extremely sparse, however,
and much is outdated. Yet, losses from cankers are increasing year af-
ter year and there is no end in sight.

Several misconceptions about cankers seem widespread among the
growers. Many growers describe cankers as "fire blight", but we found
no apple trees affected by this disease (which is caused by a bacter-
ium) in any part of the state. Others attribute the cankers on their
declining trees to viruses. Although this is much more difficult to
disprove, this does not seem to be the case either. The most that virus
infections can do, aside from their ov7n peculiar symptoms, is to weaken
and predispose trees to fungus infections. Cankers, however, are caused
by fungi and are generally easily detected and identified. Finally,
some growers blame the cankers on winter injury, drought, poor nutrition,
and so forth. There is no doubt that these factors may result in tree
injury, but it is the fungus infections on these trees that cause the
greatest damage, since the progress of the infections continues , long
after the occurrence of the condition that helped the fungi become es-
tablished.

***************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

MAY -JUNE 1966

TABLE OF CONTENTS

How do YOU Measure Up?

A New Approoch With Picking Equipment

Improving Apple Harvest Efficiencies With The
"Three Team Method"

Dichlobenil Now Labelled For Fruit Trees

Poison ivy Control Trials

Recent Publications

A Glimpse at the Michigan Fruit Industry

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Spielmen, Dean and Director, in firtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are
registered and cleared for the suggested uses in
accordance with state and federal laws and regu-
lations. Where trade names are used for identi-
fication no product endorsement is implied nor is
discrimination intended.

WARNING: MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND
FOLLOW ALL DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON
LABELS, HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE IN ORIGINAL CON-
TAINERS WITH CCWPLETE LABELS, OUT OF REACH OF CHILD-
REN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

HOW DO YOU MEASURE UP?

E. H. Wheeler
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology

Young children are poisoned by pesticides more frequently than any
other age group .

Improper storage of pesticides and unsafe disposal of "empty" con-
tainers are major causes. Youngsters are curious and they get from
"here to there" before anyone knows it.

If your children, or anyone's children, can get to your pesticides
or "empty" containers there is something wrong - something that is YOUR
responsibility to correct.

Think over these suggestions - how do YOU measure up?

1. Store all pesticides (and other hazardous materials) in origi-
nal, plainly labeled containers.

2. Have one place for pesticides - one which can be locked ! (Anoth-
er spot may be needed for products spoiled by freezing). A shed,
garage or other open area is not a safe place to keep pesticides.
Opened packages increase the danger.

3. A separate, well-marked building is best. Second best would be
an enclosed corner or end of a structure in which no animals
are housed - no people either.

4o Never leave pesticides outside the locked storage even though
you may be planning to use them again tomorrow.

5. Pesticides and "empties" left unattended in the open at the mix-
ing-filling station are an invitation to tragedy in this day
when farms are not so isolated from non-farm families.

6. A ditch, stream bank or an open dump anywhere is NOT a safe
place to throw "empty" pesticide containers.

7. Burn "empties", that will burn, in a spot where ashes can be
buried; this amount of heat does not destroy some pesticides.
And remember, smoke from organic phosphates is especially dan-
gerous .

8. Bury bottles and metal containers 18 inches or deeper at a spot
where, in so far as possible, you have determined there is no
chance of later exposure or that waters can be polluted. It is
best to break bottles and to puncture and/or crush cans and drums,
but, do it in the hole or so that surface soil is not contaminated.
Avoid splashing with the concentrate I

Rememberl Accidents with pesticides don't just happen - somebody
lets them happen - someone who didn't "measure up".

***************

A NEW APPROACH WITH PICKING EQUIPMENT

Max G. Fultz
Regional Agricultural Specialist

Harried and worried as are apple growers with the harvest labor
problem, it is logical and likely that they will turn to management
means to help solve the problem. Solutions that can be contained within
the industry have always been the favored and perhaps most effective an-
swers to problems. The urgent need for mechanical substitutes or aids
for human labor became increasingly apparent in 1965. Despite some re-
search with mechanical picking contrivances, most leaders of the industry
hold little hope that a mechanical picker will be available in time to
get the industry past the present crisis. Mcintosh, as well as other var-
ieties, are too delicate and easily bruised for anything but perfection.

Emphasis on harvest aids to increase the efficiency of the picker,
seems most practical. For many years, growers have constructed and tried
apple picking aids of various types; stilts, mobile ladders, platforms,
hydraulic lifts and so forth.

This photograph shows the attempt by
Roger and Gordon Kimball to increase
harvest efficiency by using a mechan-
ical lift. The Kimballs ' orchard
property in Littleton, Lunenburg and
Ashby, Massachusetts, is on rolling
hills with most slopes gradual rather
than excessively steep.

The machine used by the Kimballs en-
ables one man to lift himself up and
maneuver into position for picking,
controlling the operation entirely
from the bucket as shown. A small
platform in front will hold filled
boxes, another, back of the picker,
holds 3 empties in the conventional
3 box "nest".

The Kimballs feel that a mechanical
lift can be economical, but only if used as a part of a picking team,
and for other jobs such as pruning and thinning. The machine operator
expects to harvest the tops of the trees, leaving the fruit on the lower
branches to be picked from the ground or from short ladders by the re-
mainder of the team. They have used 25 per cent of the tree height as

- 3

a starting point, but plan to continue experimenting in 1966 to deter-
mine what portion of the top should be picked to make the team opera-
tion most economical. We should hope economists and other growers will
help with calculations.

This approach is different from that of a movable platform that
carries the entire crew, but has the same objective of making harvest
more efficient and of taking some of the heavy work out of the opera-
tion.

We are presenting the information in this article as an example of
a growers 's attempt to increase harvest efficiency. It seems possible
that some type of mechanical aid may prove helpful, but it must be econom-
ical and adapted to the trees and orchard terrain. In addition, costs
can be distributed if the device can be used for other jobs. A device
will be helpful if it can be used in conjunction with a crew harvesting
from the ground or from short ladders. This could increase the number
of available competent pickers. "Picking the Top" may well become an
easy and desirable part of the operation.

***************

IMPROVING APPLE HARVEST EFFICIENCIES WITH THE
"THREE TEAM METHOD"

Dr. L. F. Whitney
Department of Agricultural Engineering

The on-coming apple harvest, again with prospects of a dwindling
labor supply, requires some serious thoughts as to how to best use this
labor. The "Three Team Method of Picking Apples"* may be a management
technique which can be used toward this end. Devised in England, the
system ^^7as evaluated at Michigan State University ten years ago, A 15%
improvement in picking rates ivas demonstrated without a substantial in-
crease in equipment investment. In 1965, one consultant in Oregon in-
stalled this system for an apple growing client with an avowed increase

D/0.

A ground based crew first picks all apples that can be reached from
the ground in a conventional manner, then moves on to the next tree.
Women and older pickers might constitute such a crew. Note that all
apples below the 6' level would be removed before ladders and succeeding
picker crews arrive, thereby eliminating the possibility for fruit to be
knocked to the ground.

Picker "specialists" working on seven foot stepladders - or other
equipment such as platforms - remove the fruit below the 12 foot height.

*"The Three Team Method of Picking Apples" by J. H, Levin and H. P. Gas-
ton, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. Article 38-65.

' Finally, other picker "specialists" working with conventional lad-
ders follow to pick the remaining top level of the tree. Again, with the
lower apples removed, less fruit are bruised or lost as drops.

The method is not without problems, since a piecework differential
becomes necessary. Naturally, the ground based pickers can pick into con-
ventional bags at the fastest rate, approximately 12 bu/hr; on 7 ft. step-
ladders, l\ to 9 bu/hr; from 18 ft. ladders, 4% - 5 bu/hr.

Two methods have been suggested to overcome this difficulty. The
best method: a "team" divides the day's efforts equally. This is a lot
easier said than done, but one grower in California asserts that his sup-
ervision problems are considerably reduced because one worker will prod
another - to the mutual benefit of all. The foreman's responsibility is
largely limited to bruise control and associated problems. The second
method employs a combination of minimum wage and bonus - all of which in-
volves more paper work and supervision. As an example, a minimum wage of
say $1.60 might be set with a "plus or minus" bonus system. The ground
based workers would receive 15(|^/bu. over a minimum 10/bu/hr. requirement;
the 'hiid section" pickers, 20<^/bu. over 7 bu/hr.; and the "top pickers".
25<?/bu. over 5 bu/hr. Individual rates and payment schedules would need
to be worked out to suit one's own experience with pickers.

While this method had not received much acceptance 10 years ago
when first introduced to this country, times have changed insofar as the
availability of labor is concerned. More recent acceptance is in evidence
in many fruit growing locations. Perhaps there may be something here
worthy of consideration for New England's growers.

A limited number of bulletins which describe this method in more de-
tail have been secured and can be obtained at no cost by writing to the
Agricultural Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst,
Massachusetts .

***************

DICHLOBENIL NOW LABELLED FOR FRUIT TREES

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Dichlobenil (commercial product Casoron) has label clearance for use
in bearing and non-bearing apple, peach, pear and prune-plum orchards.
This material is available in wettable powder and granular form.

Like simazine and diuron, dichlobenil destroys germinating seeds of
annual weeds. This means that to be most effective in our sod-mulch or-
chards, dichlobenil would have to be used with a contact herbicide. In
2 tests at the University orchards, however, mixtures of dichlobenil and
contact herbicides gave good initial grass and broadleaf weed control,
but did not control grasses (the principal weed problem) as the season

advanced. This indicates that the soil residue of dichlobenil was not
sufficient to give season-long control of grass and broadleaf weeds in
the first year of use. Repeated annual application would perhaps pro-
vide better control than we have obtained. Growers who would like to
try dichlobenil might use this material in orchards where weed control
programs have already been initiated. In these orchards, the grass and
broadleaf weed cover has already been partly eliminated and weakened, and
dichlobenil might be more effective.

Late fall and early winter applications (Nov. 1 to Dec. IS) of gran-
ular dichlobenil are suggested for control of quackgrass in orchards.
^Therefore, Regional Specialist Dominic A. Marini and the writer have in-
itiated 3 trials to test the effectiveness of early-November and mid-
November applications of dichlobenil for grass and broadleaf weed control.

The results of these trials should be available prior to the fall of 1966.

***************

POISON IVY CONTROL TRIALS

William J. Lord and G. Everett Wilder
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

&
Regional Agricultural Specialist

A study, recently completed, was conducted to test the effectiveness
of 3 herbicide formulations containing amitrole when applied near full
bloom for 3 consecutive years, 1963 through 1965, under Mcintosh apple
trees for the control of poison ivy.

The results obtained indicate that unsatisfactory poison ivy con-
trol is obtained under apple trees from 1 application of an amitrole-
containing herbicide applied near full bloom. However, satisfactory con-
trol can be obtained with repeat applications of this material, although
it appears that complete eradication of poison ivy by applications near
bloom of apple trees requires more than 3 consecutive yearly applications.
Without complete eradication, failure to spray on an annual basis would
result in a rapid re-infestation of this weed.

The label for a herbicide containing amitrole has recently been
changed, and it now defines "prior to fruit set" as being before 90%
petal fall. This permits applications that may be several days later
than the treatments applied in these tests. Since poison ivy leaf expan-
sion is generally rapid in mid -May, yearly applications of amitrole -con-
taining herbicides used just prior to 90% petal fall may result in better
control than those obtained in this study.

***************

- 6 -

RECENT PUBLICATIONS
You may wish to send for one or more of the following publications :

1. An economic study of apple production on size-controlled trees.
A.E. Res. 186. Available from Agricultural Experiment Station,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

2. Maine blueberry recipes. Bulletin 516. Available from Cooper-
ative Extension Service, University of Maine, Orono, Maine.

ifc**************

A GLIMPSE AT THE MICHIGAN FRUIT INDUSTRY

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

For the fifth consecutive year, I have had the opportunity to make
a brief tour through a "foreign" fruit-growing district. This year, I
viewed the Michigan fruit industry, and herein is a report of my obser-
vations.

Young Plantings

Though it is not possible to thoroughly and accurately analyze an
industry following a brief inspection, several observations stood out
clearly. One of these is that a considerable increase in production of
apples will soon occur in Michigan. Recent plantings have been heavy,
and great numbers of young trees are to be seen. These trees are planted
on some fine orchard sites. Only the ominous labor shortage dampens the
enthusiasm of the industry.

Dwarf apple trees are prevelant in these younger plantings, mostly
on EM VII rootstock. Mcintosh performance on this rootstock is satis-
factory, but as in Massachusetts, the rootstock produces suckers and
the trees tend to lean. Tree spacing of 16' by 25' is apparently suit-
able for this variety on EM VII.

Clean cultivation of the orchard for the first 2 or 3 years after
planting is considered a good practice in Michigan. In the older non-
bearing orchards, a strip in the tree row is generally kept free of
grass and broadleaf weeds with herbicides, and the remainder of the or-
chard floor is in sod. Broadleaf weeds that are resistant to the herbi-
cides have invaded these intra-row strips, but a recently labelled herbi-
cide and another which hopefully will be labelled in the near future
should help control these weeds.

7 -

Mold -and -Hold Pruning

"Mold -and -hold pruning" is a relatively new phrase to the Massachu-
setts fruit industry. I obtained the following concept of this pruning
system. Do little or no pruning and fertilize heavily the first 5 to 8
years to obtain a large bearing surface. Trees of some varieties may
be scored with a Ivnife to induce flower bud initiation after the fourth
or fifth year. When the trees are bearing fairly heavily and are of the
desired size, reduce the rate of fertilization and hold the tree size
by pruning. Tree size can be restricted by heading back or complete re-
moval of side limbs that crowd or get too long. When heading back a limb,
make the cut outside a younger shoot nearer the center of the tree. To
prevent the trees from getting taller, cut back any limbs or remove water-
sprouts which grow beyond the predetermined maximum height. Considerable
detailed pruning also is involved, because in addition to the corrective
cuts, all new growth is headed back. Since detailed pruning stimulates
growth, nitrogen fertilization must be adjusted to tree needs.

Hilltop Orchards

At Hilltop Orchards in Hartford, Michigan, we observed the perform-
ance of several apple varieties on various rootstock with varied plant-
ing distances. Of particular interest, was a planting of Jonathan, Red
Delicious, and Golden Delicious on Mailing VII rootstock. These trees,
which were spaced 16' by 24', averaged 9 years of age and by our stan-
dards had received little or no pruning. In 1965, the per acre yield
of these Jonathan, Red Delicious and Golden Delicious trees was 951 bushels,
602 bushels and 937 bushels, respectively. The present size of these trees
will be maintained by the mold -and -hold system of pruning. To me, the
trees appeared to be too thick, but this situation could be easily cor-
rected by gradual removal of some surplus scaffold limbs.

One block of trees at Hilltop Orchards was planted in a double
hedgerow--interplants set to one side and between the trees in the row.
The double hedgerow is made possible by use of herbicides between and
under the trees. This planting system, along with mold-and-hold pruning,
may permit keeping the interplanted trees permanently. Whether or not
the double hedgerow is more satisfactory than closer spacing in the row
and between rows as a method of increasing tree numbers per acre, is not
known. Personally, I favor a single hedgerow system. However, this is
an opinion I

Wallace Heuster, Manager of Nursery Production and Sales at Hill-
top Orchards, took us to the orchard of Everett Wiles, also in Hartford.
There we observed a block of mature Jonathan on standard rootstocks
being maintained at a 20' by 24-' planting distance. The growth was being
restricted by removal of all upward growing wood and by the cutting back
of scaffold branches. The tree spread appeared equal from top to bottom,
but most unusual was the removal of the vigorous wood and the leaving of
the drooping wood. We were told that yields of 1500 bushels per acre
were being harvested from this block. To me, this is further proof that
close plantings of trees on standard rootstocks can be maintained by
pruning to restrict tree size and to favor fruit color.

Tree Walls

At present, attempts to increase efficiency of apple harvest through
increased mechanization have not been encouraging, and many persons be-
lieve that orchard modification holds more promise. If tree height is
lowered and the trees are trained to a solid hedgerow of restricted width,
harvest efficiency can be increased. It was of interest to observe the
tree walls being developed by Dave Friday, in Hartford, Michigan. These
were described by Friday in the December, 1965, issue of the American
Fruit Grower.

Standard Red Delicious and Golden Delicious on seedling roots were
planted 12' by 18' by Friday in 1958, The trees were heavily fertilized
and they made about 35 inches of terminal growth per year for the first
3 years . The trees were not pruned for 3 years , and in the fourth year
the central leader was removed. Two weeks after petal fall, in the
third year, the Red Delicious were scored with a linoleum knife and
these trees had a snowball bloom the following spring. The Red Delicious
again v\7ere scored the following 2 years. It was not necessary to score
the Golden Delicious. The orchard produced 500 bushels per acre in the
fourth year, 800 bushels the fifth year, and 1000 bushels per acre the
sixth year.

Friday plans to hold the trees to their present size by cutting
off any limb that gets too long and letting another grow to take its
place. He stated that maximum tree height should be 14 feet and that
the rows should run north and south to permit maximum exposure to the
sun on both sides of the rows.

Friday's newer plantings are spur types on seedling roots. Because
of the upright growth of these trees, he is experimenting with chemicals
and bending techniques to restrict vegetative growth, encourage early
fruiting, and to develop a tree wall. One system being tried is the ty-
ing together of branches of adjacent trees. Upward growing branches
are bent downward and scaffold branches extending into the middle of the
rows are pulled into the tree row.

The most practical bending technique to restrict growth and encourage
early fruiting is not known. Techniques that involve tying limbs to wire
trellises, to clips forced into the ground, or merely tying together the
branches of adjacent trees may develop. Techniques developed probably
will vary with variety and growing area.

Conclusion

The Michigan fruit industry is a rapidly expanding one, and the
growers are experimenting with many practices that we might consider rad-
ical. However, from these experiences, we may find solutions to some of
our problems. The developments in the Michigan industry will be inter-
esting and Important to note for many years to come.

***************

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by Pomology Stoff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Mossachusetts, Amherst

JULY-AUGUST 1966

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Mailing List Revision

Apparent Boron Toxicity

Heat Treatments to Reduce Post-Harvest
Decay of Fruits

A Useful Toy

CA Storage in Michigan

Pomological Paragraph

Carbon Dioxide Uptake of Stored Lime

Research From Other Areos

.■^///i

'if/

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in firtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent, No. 44.

MAILING LIST REVISION

In accordance with penalty mailing regulations, the mailing list
for Fruit Notes is being revised. Indicate on the form below whether
or not you wish to continue to receive Fruit Notes , and mail to William
J. Lord, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, French Hall, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003.

/ / YES... Leave my name on your mailing list.

/ / NO. .. .Remove my name from your mailing list.

Name _____^

Address

Zip Code

APPARENT BORON TOXICITY

William J. Lord, Dept. of Plant and Soil Science

and
Bertram Gersten, Feed and Fertilizer Control Service

An excess of boron may
therefore, growers are caut
ment. Since boron toxicity
from 1-year-old Mcintosh tr

have a deleterious effect on fruit trees;

ioned against over-application of this ele-
is not common, pictured here are leaves

ees which show typical symptoms of boron tox-
icity. Leaf injury from an over-
application of boron is distinctive
in that a loss of green color occurs
along the midrib and larger lateral
veins, being first apparent at the
base of the leaf blade. In severe
cases, loss of chlorophyll is more
extensive than shown in the picture,
marginal leaf scorch develops, and
the leaves drop .

Samples of "normal" appearing
leaves were obtained from a Massa-
achusetts orchard on July 30, 1965,
from: A) 5 trees showing slight
foliar injury; B) 2 trees with very
slight foliar injury; C) M- trees
showing no apparent injury, but
from the rows where the injury oc-
curred; and D) M- trees in a row ad-
jacent to the rows with affected
trees. Trees most severely injured
could not be sampled because of de-
foliation and/or because leaves
without the symptoms could not be
obtained. The average boron level
of the trees in group A was 97 ppm,
in group B, 83 ppm, in group C,
70 ppm and in group D, 50 ppm.

Since foliar symptoms of boron toxicity are distinctive and the
limited data indicate an abnormally high boron level (3 0-50 ppm appears
to be common boron levels of apple trees) , we feel sure that an over-
application of boron had occurred.

***************

IICAT TREATMENTS TO REDUCE POST-HARVEST DECAY OF FRUITS

W;illiam J. Bramlage
Departnic?nt of P]ant and Soil Sciences

It has Inns been known that exposure of fruits to a brief period
of high tempera txn^e can reduce decay from certain organisms. Until the
recent controversies over cliemical residues focused attention on non-
chemical disease-control measures, little practical consideration was
given this knowledge. But during the past few years, the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture has been conducting numerous tests with heat treat-
ments, and some of these tests have been quite successful.

Peaches r'cspond very well to heat treatments. In an early report
by V\/.L. Smith, e_t al . (U„S.D.A. Mktg. Res. Rept. No. 643), it was sliown
that the organisms Monilinia fructicola and Rlilzopus stolonifer , which
cause most of the post-Jiarvest rot of peaches, are very susceptible to
heat inactlvation. Most of the ungerminated spores on the fruit surface,
as well as the vegetative growth of established infections under the
skin of the fruit, were killed by a 3 -minute dip in 130 F water, and
subsequent decay was greatly reduced and market life extended. However,
the 3-minute dip sometimes Injured the peaches, causing a tan mottling
on the skin, and although this injury was not severe, it was objection-
able. This report emphasized that a heat treatment must be followed by
rapid cooling of the fruit or storage life wou.ld be reduced and hydro-
cooling was recommended.

A recent report by Smith (Proc . Va . State Hort. Soc . 54:95-97.) i-iw
recommends the use of a 2\ minute dip in water at 125-128 F. This ex-
posure avoids the injury to the fruit and still produces substantia] re-
ductions of decay. The time and temperature of the dip are critical;
too short an exposiu:-e or too low a temperature does not provide disease
control, and too long an exposure or too high a temperature results in
injury. Bulk dips of the fruit are practical and effective, and the
treatment can readily be applied along the packing line. A hot water
dip should be followed by hydrocooling, and it is essential that the hy-
drocooling be done sanitarily, that is, the water must contain sufficient
chlorine to prevent re-inncul atlon with fungal spores.

Hot water treatments have been used commercially for 3 years in the
Southeast on peaches. . Some earJy results were discouraging, but the
problem proved to be uusairitary hydrocooling, not the hot water treatment
itself. Witli careful control of time and temperature of dip and of san-
itation, decay of peaches is usually markedly rcnhu-'cd by the heat treat-
ment.

Another expej'imental approacli to lieat treatments involves the use
of hot air instead of hoL wn tcrr . Holding strawberries at 110° F at 98%
relative Juiinidity for 30 iniiuit'cs 1ms greatly rcducet) decay. Such a
treatment iniglil pi'ovc coiniiKM'c iu Tl y feasible, h\\\ tliis lias yet to be es-
tablished .

- 3 -

111 England, tests are now being made on heat treatments witli apples.
This is being done primarily to control gloeosporium rots, but heat
treatments can also reduce scald. Hot water dips (113° F, for 6 minutes)
were found to be effective in controlling rots, but since they involved
some serious handling problems, hot air treatments are now being tested.

Heat treatments have been tested on numerous commodities, frequently
with success. Adaptation of laboratory tests to field conditions are
few, however. Nevertheless, the use of heat treatments for post-harvest
disease control may hold much promise for the future.

A**************

A USEFUL TOY

G. David Blanpied
Department of Pomology - Cornell University

During one of the discussion periods at the 1964 CA Seminar, one
of the growers expressed interest in a toy listening device for detect-
ing leaks in CA rooms. This toy, which is a sound -magnifying device
available from a well-known mail order house, is advertised as a spying
device for listening to distant conversations. We purchased one of
these toys and found that it was of some value in detecting leaks in CA
rooms. One cannot use the device to locate leaks at great distances.
It cannot be used to detect leaks which cannot be heard by unaided ear,
but it is useful for quick scanning of joints, pipe and conduit exits,
door seals, etc. It simply speeds up the location of leaks which nor-
mally require the listener to pass his caulky ear 2 Inches from every
nail hole in the room. It's easier to pass your hand than your ear over
all those possible sources of leaks. The listening device allows you
to put your ear in your hand.

***************

CA STORAGE IN MICHIGAN

Williajn J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

While visiting the apple industry in Michigan last March, the fol-
lowing notes on CA storage were made and may be of interest to others.

Contrary to CA storages in New England, galvanized sheets commonly
were used to obtain a gas seal and the majority of rooms seen were water
scrubbed. Lime was being used to supplement water scrubbing, however.
Since most CA rooms in Michigan are water scrubbed, a smaller percentage

of the rooms will be convei^ted to dry lime scrubbing than in New England
where caustic soda scrubbers are most common.

At the Barden Orchards in South Haven, we saw a CA storage with
"pole-barn" type of construction. According to Dr. Don Dewey, Michigan
State University, the walls and ceilings of the rooms are insulated with
4 inches of Styrofoam, but the floors have no insulation. The insula-
tion is protected on the exterior wall by corrugated metal but is left
exposed on the interior side. The refrigeration in these rooms also is
unique in that the Hardens' utilized Krajnmer straddle units, which are
unitized completely and installed by hanging over the wall at the time
of erecting the storage.

Storage operators in Michigan pay a $25 fee to the Michigan Depar't-
ment of Agriculture for each CA room. The minimum storage period, witli
not more than 5% oxygen, for certification as CA apples is 90 days for
all varieties, with the exception of the Jonathan, which has a 60 day
minimum storage period.

Representatives of the Food and Standards Division of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture affix a seal to the door of each CA room at closing.
Whenever an interruption in the storage period occurs, this Department
must be notified within 48 hours after opening the room. Upon investi-
gation, the room may be resealed by an authorized representative of the
Food and Standards Division of the Department of Agriculture. However,
the rules and regulations governing CA storage state - - "The oxygen
level in any sealed controlled storage may exceed five (5) per cent for
an accujTiulated time, not to exceed ten (10) days (240 hours) during the
storage period. The storage period shall be increased to 100 days for
all fruit except Jonathans, which is seventy (70) days when the atmos-
pheric conditions have been interrupted."

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Russet of Golden Delicious - During a visit with Dr. Arthur E. Mitchell,
Michigan State University, he stated that Golden Delicious are most sus-
ceptible to pesticide injury and subsequent russeting from pre-pink to
5 weeks after bloom and that this variety is most susceptible at petal
fall. To reduce russet, he suggested a cap tan or thylate fungicide pro-
gram from pink to 5 weeks after bloom and to delay the use of insecti-
cides until first cover. And, at that time, Guthion should be the only
insecticide used.

- 5 -

(Editor's Note: In the Northeast, where the plum curculio is a. severe
problem, this program would not be advisable for two reasons; (1) under
our eonditions, a Calyx (petal fall) spray is needed for curculio and
(2) Gutliion is not as effective as dieldrin under curculio conditions
encountered in some of our orchards.)

***************

CARBON DIOXIDE UPTAKE OF STORED LIME

William J. Lord, Dept. of Plant and Soil Sciences

and
Bertram Gersten, Feed and Fertilizer Control Service

Is lime that has been stored of value for carbon dioxide (CO2) re-
moval from CA storages? In an effort to find an answer to this question,
lime samples from bags obtained in the fall of 196^1, but not used in a
lime scrubber during the 1964-1965 storage season, were analyzed in
September, 1965.

Even though the CO^ content of air is very slight (0.025%), it is
apparent in Table 1 that considerable uptake of CO^ occurred over a
1-year period. Also, as one would suspect, the CO2 content of the outer
portions of lime in the bag was greater than that of a composite lime
sample from the entire contents of the bag.

Table 1. Carbon dioxide content of lime in September, ige^, and after
approximately 1 year storage in packing shed.

Lime"

Carbon dioxide content of lime

Composite sample
Sept. 1961+

Composite sample
Sept. 1965

Sample of periphery
of bag contents
Sept. 1965

9.7

20.3

A
A
B
B
C
D

1.4
1.4
1.6
1.6
6.2
2.1

7.9
5.9
7.0
3.8
8.0
8.0

21.5
25.4
20.4
9.2
20.0
12.6

There were 3 bags oi Lime A, 2 of Lime B, and ] each of Limes C and D.

- 6 -

The limes, however, were far from being saturated with CO2. Anal-
yses performed on lime from the same lots, but placed in scrubbers dur-
ing the 1964-65 storage season, showed that after 1 month of use in a
dry lime scrubber, a composite sample from 1 bag each of limes B, C and
D had CO2 equivalents of 10.5%, 16.9% and 22.9%, respectively. At the
end of storage, these limes had CO2 equivalents of 23.0%, 21.4% and
37.5%, respectively. Bags of lime from the same lot as lime A had CO-,
equivalents of 25-30% at the end of the storage period. Consequently,
even though considerable COp was absorbed during a year's storage of
these limes, they would still have been of value for scrubbing.

Further Tests Conducted in 1965-1966

To further test the value of other than "fresh" lime for scrubbing,
the carbon dioxide contents of 3 types of lime in a dry-lime scrubber
were compared to those of similar types of lime stored outside the scrub-
ber during the 1965-66 storage season. The limes inside and outside the
scrubber were sampled at monthly intervals from November through March.

For simplicity, only the data obtained from the analyses of a high-
calcium hydrated lime are presented in Table 2, but data obtained for
the other 2 types of lime (a hydrated dolomitic lime and a dolomitic
spray lime) were similar.

Table 2. Carbon dioxide absorption of lime in a dry-lime scrubber in
comparison to similar lime stored outside of the scrubber

Carbon dioxide content of lime

scrubber

Sampling
date

Compos J
sample

te
2

Top
bag

10/18/65

11/18/65

12/15/65

1/18/66

2/16/66

3/16/66

9.
15.
19.
27.
34.

3
3
1
3
8
6

4
33
35
33
35
35

4
4

Outside scrubber

Composite
sample*^-

Top of
bag

2.4
2.0
4.7
3.9
3.1

2.4
13.7
17.3
16.5
15.7

%igh-calcium hydrated lime - (CaO, 72-74%; MgO, 0.2-0.6%). Bags placed
vertically inside and outside of scrubber.

Lime sample obtained with a sampling tube thrust diagonally 3 times
from top to bottom of bag.

It is apparent from Table 2 that in the bags stored outside the
sci'ubbor, no appreciable change in CO2 content occurred other than sur-
face absorption by the lime. These data substaiitiate the data presented
in Table 1 and indicate that other than fresh lime would be of some value
for CO2 removal.

- 7 -

However, if such lime wore used, it might be necessary to change
the lime before the end of the storage season. Therefore, the labor
involved in changing the lime, if this becomes necessary, compared to
the cost of fresh lime, should be considered when deciding whether or
not to use "old" lime.

Another point worth noting about the data in Table 2 is the pattern
of absorption of CO2 by the lime in the scrubber. By November, the lime
at the surface (on the top) of the bag was essentially saturated with
CO2. The composite sample showed, however, that the inner contents of
the bag were not nearly saturated. But, the CO2 content of the inner
contents rose at a steady rate throughout the storage season, until in
March the inner and outer samples had almost identical CO2 contents.
It would appear, then, that at least in our experimental lime scrubber
penetration of the atmosphere through the entire contents of intact bags
of lime was readily occurring, and full utilization was being made of
the lime in the bag.

***************

RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Pollination Studies on the Highbush Blueberry - Due to con-
cern among highbush blueberry growers in Michigan about inadequate pol-
lination, Joseph Dorr and E.G. Martin, Department of Entomology, Michi-
gan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, investigated this problem
and the results of their studies are reported in the quarterly Bulletin
of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Volume f+8 , No. 3, Feb-
ruary, 1965. Their studies indicate that:

1.. The bee population working many Michigan highbush blueberry

plantings is inadequate for optimum pollination. Lack of ade-
quate pollination reduced yield and fruit size, and delayed
maturation of the berries.

2-. Honeybees are capable of pollinating highbush blueberries.

3. Honeybees appear to have varietal preferences. They were ob-
served to fly over Earliblue to work other varieties and did
not work Coville well.

fj-. The honeybees were most numerous on the bushes close to the
hives. Therefore, it was suggested that an even distribution
of beehives throughout the planting should result in the most
complete pollination.

5. Bumblebees are efficient pollinators of highbush blueberries
and efforts should be made to maintain or increase their num-
bers in areas where this fruit crop is grown.

***************

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with state and federal laws
and regulations. Where trade names are used for identification, no
product endorsement is implied nor is discrimination intended.

WARNING: MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL
DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS, HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE
IN ORIGINAL CONTAINERS WITH COMPLETE LABELS, OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN,
PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

FRUIT NOTES

Prepored by Pomology Staff, Department of Horticulture

Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

SEPTEMBER — OCTOBER T966

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Mailing List Revision

New England Fruit Meeting

Some Fruit Problems and Research Progress in
the Mid-Atlantic Region

The Importance of Humidity During Post-Harvest
Hand! Ing of Fruit

Fruit Production as Related to Branch Diameter

How Much Does a Pressure-Test Tell You?

//■

[!?>///l

""'■■^^SM^r^.

~S^~^\-i

'^4

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spietninn, Dean and Director, in fwtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.
Publication Approved by Alfred C. Holland, State Purchasing Agent. No. 44.

MAILING LIST REVISION

If you did not return the mailing list revision form in the July -
August, 1966, Fruit Notes , you will find another form below. This form
must be returned if you wish to receive future issues of Fruit Notes.
Mail the mailing list revision form to William J. Lord, Department of
Plant and Soil Sciences, French Hall, University of Massachusetts, Am-
herst, Massachusetts 01003.

/ / YES... Leave my name on your mailing list.

Name

Address

Zip Code

- 1 -

NEW ENGLAND FRUIT MEETING

Foi^ financial reasons, the 1967 New England Fruit Meeting and Trade
Show will be held at the New Hampshire Highway Hotel, Concord, New Hamp-
shire, instead of Suffolk Downs, Boston. The meeting is scheduled for
January 5 and 6, 1967.

Travel time from Amherst to Concord, New Hampshire, is the same as
from Amherst to Suffolk Downs.

The hotel is accessible to all major highways. Routes 3 and 93,
which lead to Concord, are accessible from anywhere in Massachusetts.
Persons coming from western Massachusetts and southern Vermont, may find
Routes 9 or 10 to Keene , New Hampshire, and then Routes 9, 202, 89 and
93 to the Highway Hotel most convenient.

***************

SOME FRUIT PROBLEMS AND RESEARCH PROGRESS IN
THE MID-ATLANTIC REGION^

A. H. Thompson
Department of Horticulture, University of Maryland

Perhaps the most serious fundamental problem to be found in the Ap-
palachian fruit growing area, is that of lack of adequate soil water.
Thousands of acres of orchards are growing in this region on thin shale
soils which have never had an adequate reservoir of soil water to sustain
profitable fruit production under conditions as we know them today. The
problem has become acute in this, the fifth consecutive year of drought.
Not only has precipitation in these past 5 seasons been inadequate to
size the crop, but it is also clear that the cumulative effects of
drought are markedly shortening the economic life of our orchards. The
statement is now being repeated in fruit circles of the area, that plant-
ing on thin shale land can mean as much as 10 years off the productive
life of an orchard. It is clear that future orchards must be grown on
soils deep enough to hold an adequate reservoir of water, or in cases
where orchards are planted on shale land, that sufficient irrigation
water be avilable to use annually.

Annual applications of nitrogen to both apples and peaches in Mid-
Atlantic orchards have pretty well taken care of the need for this ele-
ment. Among other elements, magnesium and boron are on a stand-by basis

iThis article is a summation of the talk presented at the Annual Summer
Meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers' Association, Horticultural
Research Center, Belchertown.

- 2 -

in the minds of fruit growers and researchers alike, to be used when and
where needed. Calcium as a plant nutrient is being given more and more
attention in this region. Calcium has long been cited as the needed
treatment in Delicious orchards to correct internal bark necrosis, com-
monly known as apple "measles." However, surface applications of cal-
cium have largely failed to correct this disorder, and perhaps the fail-
ure is due, in a large measure, to failure to get the calcium down in
the rooting zone of the trees. For this and other reasons, growers are
now encouraged to plow down calcium in the entire orchard area before
planting a new block of trees. The precise nature of internal bark ne-
crosis and its correction remains a debatable matter in Appalachia.

The Maryland Experiment Station has closed out 15 years work on
chemical thinning of apples and turned the matter over to growers. No
single compound has proven to be the best for all varieties. On Golden
Delicious, the most commonly sprayed variety, we find that the combina-
tion of Naphthaleneacetic acid and Tween 20 is the most reliable and ef-
fective from year to year, and we have growers in Maryland now with as
much as 10 consecutive years of experience with this combination. Sevin,
the new insecticide, is the only compound recommended for Rome Beauty
and Red Delicious in Maryland, while Amid-thin is the preferred compound
on most other varieties, including York Imperial. Recent research has
shown that Sevin will thin the York variety just as well as Amid-thin,
but Sevin-sprayed Yorks will not "come back" with an off-year crop. No
satisfactory thinning compound has yet been developed for spray thinning
of the peach.

New plantings of apples in the Mid-Atlantic region indicate that
the York Imperial variety is going to remain the dominant variety in
this region for some time to come. In the Spring of 1966, area nurser-
ies were sold out of trees of this variety, a situation which provides
unmistakable evidence of what is going to be around 20 years from now.
Rome Beauty is still being fairly extensively planted in this region,
whereas Stayman and Jonathan have been declining for some time. Like
other apple -producing regions of the nation, the Mid-Atlantic section
has been planting thousands of Red Delicious trees. Among the new non-
spur red sports of Delicious, Ryan Red, Topred, Red Prince, Red Queen,
and Hi-Early have proved in area tests to be outstanding strains, whether
grown under good coloring conditions in the mountains or under the poorer
coloring conditions on the coastal plain. The 3 best known of the spur
types, namely Starkrimson, Redspur, and Wellspur, leave much to be desired
as far as fruit characters are concerned. The fruits are higher in chlor-
ophyll than are non-spur type fruits, and quality of the spur-type fruit
remains inferior until the Christmas holiday period or somewhat later.
Through the middle to the latter part of the apple storage season, how-
ever, spur-type fruits have been very acceptable in Maryland tests. The
vegetative characteristics of the spur-type tree are very exciting, how-
ever, and make the choice between a spur and a non-spur type very dif-
ficult indeed when planting a new orchard. Golden Delicious has been
very heavily planted in the Mid-Atlantic region and the current emphasis
is on finding a russet-free Golden. Several interesting entries in this
race are at hand, including Sungold from New Jersey, the Milburn Gold in
Maryland, and the Kelly Golden from Kentucky. Of this group, however,
only the Milburn Golden is a true Golden Delicious, whereas the other 2

- 3 -

are seedlings. From experience thus far gained in this matter, it is
clear that Golden Delicious trees do vary in susceptibility to russet,
and that russet-free selections can be made and propagated to advantage.
More will be heard of this in the future.

The modern debate over the close planting of dwarf trees in the new
apple orchard has raged in Appalachia as it has elsewhere, and the truth
has yet to be learned. The extent to which dwarf plantings have been
made in the Mid -Atlantic region has to this point been modest, but people
are interested and plantings are being made. Plantings seen by the wri-
ter on EM IX have generally been failures under Mid -Atlantic conditions.
More interest, however, was centered around EM VII in the beginning, an
interest that now has given way to MM 106, a similarly-sized stock that
presumably provides better anchorage and produces fewer suckers. Such
non-vigorous roots tocks have proved disastrous, however, when combined
with such varieties as the York Imperial, and this has led to current
interest in more vigorous stocks such as MM 111. Coupled with this in-
terest in more vigor is a fascination with close-planting of spur types
on either seedlings or vigorous clonal stocks with the idea of "mold and
hold" pruning and training to keep the trees in bounds. Stories of fan-
tastic tonnage coming out of the West on close planting have stimulated
interest in this sort of thing, and a few growers have succumbed to the
press releases and have close plantings in the ground. Many undoubted-
ly lead only to disaster because they are planted on thin soils that can-
not deliver the water to sustain the plantings in a normal year. Others
will come to the same end because of failure of management. It should
be pointed out that neither growers nor researchers have yet learned how
to "mold and hold" in Appalachia. We have seen it in this nation and in
Europe, but until it is done successfully here, such a practice must be
viewed as experimental.

Fruit production in Appalachia today is in a state of rapid transi-
tion. The critical labor situation dictates the trial of practices that
were unheard of just 5 years ago, and the intense exploration of ways
and means to facilitate the biggest job of all, that of harvest. Growers
themselves are doing as much experimenting as researchers in new plant-
ing distances in stock and scion combinations, in an effort to arrive at
long-term answers. There will be many failures, but there will be suc-
cesses too. In the view of the writer, successes of the future will re-
sult from the combination of the provision of adequate soil water, and
the application of superior management.

***************

THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMIDITY
DURING POST-HARVEST HANDLING OF FRUIT

William J. Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

l\rhile the importance of temperature during handling and storage is
usually vv^ell recognized, the importance of humidity is often overlooked.

- u-

This oversight can lead to serious consequences in either of 2 ways: if
humidity is too high, decay is accelerated; and if humidity is too low,
weight loss is accelerated. As we are now entering into the storage sea-
son, a review of these problems seems appropriate.

Fungal spores are always present on the surface of fruits. For the
spores to germinate and the fungi to attack the fruit, moisture is needed.
If the humidity around the fruit is at or near 100% relative humidity
(RH) , spores will rapidly germinate, and if free moisture is on the fruit,
germination is even more intense. Once spores are germinated, high hu-
midity must continue as the young fungi develop, for if they dry out
they will die. However, growth is very rapid, and high humidity is nec-
essary only for a period of hours before infections become established
and unaffected by humidity changes. To reduce the disease problem, stor-
age recommendations usually call for 90-95% RH, never 100%.

However, at anything less than 100% RH, moisture loss occurs and
the fruits consequently lose weight and may shrivel. To understand and
appreciate the seriousness of the moisture-loss problem, we must under-
stand the concept of "vapor pressure." Relative humidity tells us the
percent of saturation with water vapor of the atmosphere at a given tem -
perature. But as temperature changes, the saturation value changes, and
therefore RH changes, for it is a relative rather than absolute value.
Vapor pressure (VP) , on the other hand, is an absolute measure of the
moisture in the atmosphere. Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by
the water vapor in the atmosphere. If the atmosphere is kept saturated
while temperature is increased, RH will continue to be 100%. However,
VP will rise markedly, simply because at a higher temperature the atmos-
phere can hold more moisture. Since we dare not maintain 100% RH within

a storage, another term becomes important vapor pressure deficit (VPD) .

This value is the difference between the VP at saturation (100% RH) and
that at whatever RH and temperature exist at a given time. VPD is ex-
tremely important, because rate of moisture loss is directly propor-
tional to it.

VPD increases sharply as RH falls at a given temperature, or as tem-
perature rises and RH remains constant, and it rises extremely fast as
temperature rises and RH falls. This is illustrated in Table 1. At 32° F,
VPD increases from 0.229 to 2.290 as humidity drops from 95% to 50%; and
at a constant 95% RH, the VPD increases from 0.229 to 0.887 as temperature
rises from 32° to 68 F. The meaningfulness of these figures lies in the
fact that rate of moisture loss is directly proportional to VPD, and that
a fair estimate of the differences in effects of various conditions on
rate of moisture loss can be found by dividing the larger VPD by the
smaller VPD. Therefore, in our above examples, at 32° F moisture will
be lost 10 times as fast at 50% RH as at 95% RH (2.29 '- 0.229). Any
comparison can be made among the values in Table 1, and so it can be
seen that if fruit is changed from 32° and 95% RH, to 50° and 85% RH,
rate of moisture loss will be increased 6 times (1.38 - 0.229); or from
32° and 95% RH to 68° and 60% RH, moisture loss will be increased about
31 times (7.016 ^ 0.229). It should now be clear that both humidity and
temperature are important factors influencing moisture loss. And, as
temperature increases, humidity control becomes increasingly important
in reducing moisture loss.

- 5 -

Table 1. Vapor pressure deficits at various temperatures and humidities,

Relative
humidity

Temperature C°F)

100
95
90
80
70
60
50

Vapor pressure deficit (mm mercury)

.229

.327

.460

.877

.1+58

.654

.920

1.754

.916

1.308

1.840

3.508

1.374

1.962

2.760

5.262

1.832

2.616

3.680

7.016

2.290

3.270

4.600

8.770

The importance of moisture loss is obvious when fruits begin to shriv-
el. Their salability is rapidly lost. However, moisture loss can be
significant even though shrivelling has not developed, because a fruit
usually loses about 5% of its weight before any shrivelling occurs. This

means that when fruits show traces of shrivelling, 5% of their weight

and 5% of your income have literally evaporated. Conscientious main-
tenance of humidity, and reduction of moisture loss, will save you money .

Every storage should have a humidity gauge in it, and it should be
read frequently. If RH falls below 90-95%, the room should be humidified,
with care taken that RH does not greatly exceed 95%. Golden Delicious
should always be stored in unsealed polyethylene bags, since they are ex-
ceptionally subject to moisture loss due to a poor wax covering on the
skin. And, particular attention should be given to humidity control fol-
lowing storage when the fruits are at a higher temperature, because mois-
ture is being lost rapidly.

If you are packing fruit in perforated polyethylene bags following
storage, you need not worry about excessive moisture loss after storage,
for humidity will almost always be near 100% in these bags. The problem
under these conditions will be to prevent condensation of moisture in
the bags, which will then stimulate fungal growth and subsequent fruit
decay. Condensation will very quickly occur if warm packages are placed
into cold storage.

Thus, we are back to our 2 -pronged problem: to maintain humidity
high enough to keep moisture loss at a minimum, yet low enough to reduce
decay. This problem is important to anyone handling fresh fruits and
vegetables, and it should be well understood.

***************

- 6 -

FRUIT PRODUCTION AS RELATED TO BRANCH DIAMETER

Richard B. Taylor-'- and William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

In a recent study, fruit production from apple spurs associated
with branches of specific diameters was determined. Four trees each of
11 -year-old Mcintosh and Red Delicious and 13-year-old Cortlands were
used in the study and the total percent of fruit harvested from branches
of different diameters was determined.

For all 3 varieties, approximately 78% of the total fruit harvested
were from spurs associated with branches of 1/2 inch to 1 1/4 inch diam-
eter. The percent of fruit harvested from spurs on branches of 1/2 inch
to 1 inch diameter was 40% for Mcintosh and S3% for Red Delicious. How-
ever, for the Cortland variety 65% of the fruit came from spurs on
branches of 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter, which indicates the "willowy" na-
ture of Cortland wood.

The number of fruit harvested on all 3 varieties from spurs associ-
ated with wood greater than 2 inches in diameter was negligible. This
information and that presented above indicates the importance of good
pruning techniques and the encouragement of new vigorous wood. When
pruning bearing apple trees, the drooping ends of branches and the down-
ward growing laterals should be removed, leaving most of the upward and
outward growing (and consequently younger) parts of the tree. Water
sprouts which are out of place and limbs that tend to crowd others should
be removed, also. What should be left in a bearing tree, after pruning
is completed, is largely young or middle-aged fruiting wood, and no 2
branches trying to occupy the same space.

Considerable thought and experimentation now is being devoted to
the development of tree walls which could be harvested by persons riding
at various levels on a trailer as it moves down the tree row. This
spring, the question arose as to what percentage of the crop on large
apple trees could be harvested by reaching-in from the periphery of the
branches. The data obtained in the study mentioned above indicate that
approximately 60% of the fruit on 35 lower scaffold limbs on the 3 vari-
eties could have been harvested by reaching-in from the tree periphery.
Naturally, the percentage harvested would be influenced considerably by
pruning, tree-size and other factors.

***************

^Present address: ZigZag Road, R.D. #1, Albion, New York 14411

- 7 -

HOW MUCH DOES A PRESSURE-TEST TELL YOU?

William J. Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Crispness is one of the most important attributes of apple quality,
and consequently measurement of fruit firmness is an important index of
quality. Firmness is most commonly measured with a Magness -Taylor pres-
sure tester, an instrument first described in 1925, yet one which is
widely used even today.

Because individuals use the pressure tester differently, the read-
ings obtained by different persons often do not agree. However, if an
individual is careful to apply the pressure tester in a consistent manner,
his own readings taken on different fruit samples are usually rather com-
parable. I have found that if the fruit is tested against a solid sur-
face (for example, a table top) and the plunger is inserted slowly, quite
comparable results are obtained.

But how much does a pressure test tell you? Presumably, it is an
index of fruit texture. During storage tests in the 1965-66 season,
samples of Mcintosh apples were pressure-tested and then were offered to
a panel of 10-14 individuals to evaluate for texture under controlled
conditions. These judges had to evaluate 6 different samples against a
standard fruit sample, and evaluations were made at 15 different time
intervals. In 27 of these comparisons, significant texture differences
were detected by the panel, and in 23 of the 27 instances, significant
differences had been measured with a pressure tester. In 7 other compar-
isons, samples with significant pressure differences were not detected
as having significant texture differences by the panel. Because the over-
all test was a large one involving many samples, an average pressure dif-
ference of only 0.2 lbs. between samples (20 fruits per sample) was sig-
nificant statistically. That such small differences in firmness could
be so indicative of detectable texture differences is indeed remarkable.
The conclusion is inescapable that pressure tests were a reliable index
of fruit texture .

Pressure tests are very commonly used as a maturity index to deter-
mine time of harvest, and also as a means of predicting storage life or
shelf life after storage. These usages are based on the fact that as
fruits ripen, the layer of pectin between individual cells breaks down,
causing the cells to separate to some degree and therefore to soften.
As a maturity index, pressure tests are valuable if used along with
other indices, but they certainly are not definitive guides to be used
by themselves. As a means of predicting storage or shelf life, pressure
test may be very misleading. This was clearly shown by our storage tests
of the past 2 seasons.

In 1964, we harvested Mcintosh at 2 stages of maturity and the pres-
sure tests averaged 16.2 and 14.8 lbs., respectively. In 1965, fruits
of approximately comparable maturity averaged 15.9 and 14.4 lbs. at har-
vest. Thus, if firmness were a reliable predictive index, the fruits
should have responded similarly in both years to similar storage condi-

- 8 -

tions. However, they responded very differently, holding up quite well
in storage the first year and deteriorating very rapidly the second year.

Pressure tests of the fruits at removal from storage in the first
season were a good index of their subsequent shelf life. The firmer the
fruits, the better they kept following storage. In the second season,
however, firmness was very misleading. The fruits softened rapidly dur-
ing storage, and the higher the temperature, the more rapidly they
softened. Controlled atmosphere did not prevent this softening, and
after 70-90 days of storage, CA fruits were significantly softer than
ones from 32° F regular storage. Using firmness as a guide, we would
conclude that CA had produced poorer fruits than regular storage after
these storage intervals, and that the CA fruits would deteriorate more
rapidly following storage than those from regular storage.

Such was not the case; the CA fruits held up better following stor-
age than those from regular storage. They maintained a greener ground
color and developed less internal breakdown than ones from regular stor-
age. Furthermore, they developed no scald or brown core, whereas those
from regular storage developed both disorders. As an index of post-
storage shelf life, pressure tests were very misleading in comparing CA
and air storages in this second year; thus, they cannot be relied upon
as a predictive index.

In discussing pressure testing, mention should be made of a fairly
recent innovation, the so-called Mechanical Thumb. This is a device
which may be attached to a regular pressure tester and permits pressure
testing without destroying the fruit. With the Mechanical Thumb, read-
ings are made without removing the peel and they result in only a small
bruise on the apple.

The Mechanical Thumb was developed primarily for use by inspectors,
so that an adequate number of fruits might be sampled without destroying
packed fruit. However, some interest has developed in its utility for
other purposes. In a recent study CPi^oc • Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci . 87:100-
103), Dr. G. E. Mattus of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute compared
the use of a Mechanical Thumb with that of a regular pressure tester on
over 1,3 00 lots of apples of 5 different varieties. He found that read-
ings with the Mechanical Thumb were subject to influence by more vari-
ables than those taken with the pressure tester, and therefore were less
reliable. It seems, then, that except in unusual circumstances where
destruction of the fruit is a serious deterrent to taking adequate read-
ings, the regular Magness -Taylor pressure tester is a more reliable tool
than the Mechanical Thumb.

The results of our tests have shown that the reliability of pressure
tests depends upon what they are used for. As an index of fruit quality,
pressure differences were closely related to texture differences. As an
index of maturity, pressure tests were useful. But used as a prediction
of storage life or shelf life, pressure tests were sometimes grossly
misleading.

***************

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massochusetts

A. A. Spielman

Deon and Director

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

* Official Business

379 - 8/66

Permit No. 1216

904

Penalty for Private Use to Avoic
Poyment of Postage, $300.

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1966

TABLE OF CONTENTS

A Grower's Experience with Dwarf
Apple Trees in Massachusetts

Pomological Paragraph

The Relationship of Fruit Size and
Water Core and Breakdown of
Delicious

Productiveness of Blueberry Varieties

A Reminder About Safe Disposal

Bird Depredation of Blueberries and
Attempted Control in Massachusetts

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.

A GROWER'S EXPERIENCE WITH DWARF APPLE TREES IN MASSACHUSETTS

Dominic A. Marini
Regional Agricultural Specialist, Southeast Extension Region

There is much discussion about the practicality of apple trees on
EM IX rootstocks for commercial orchards. Advantages attributed to
dwarf trees are: earlier bearing, higher yields per acre, and ease of
pruning, spraying and harvesting. Few growers in New England have had
actual experience with dwarf trees, however. Deciding to find out for
themselves, the Morse family, operators of Pine Hedge Orchards in Wren-
tham, Massachusetts, established a planting of dwarf apple trees in
1961. Here is their experience to date.

The Morses planted a one -acre block to Mcintosh, Cortland, Red
Delicious and Golden Delicious, all on EM IX rootstock. A planting dis-
tance of 8 feet X 12 feet was selected, requiring 4-53 trees for the 1
acre block. The trees are supported on trellises of 7-foot-long, pres-
sure-creosoted posts set 2 feet in the ground and spaced 2h feet apart.
Four number 9 galvanized wires stapled to the posts complete the trellis.
The. bottom wire is 2 feet above the ground, while the others are spaced
1 foot apart above it. The cost of establishing this acre of dwarf
trees was about $1,000 for trees, posts and wire, plus labor for which
they have no record.

Eight limbs per tree are trained to the trellis -- 1+ on each side
of the main leader -- by twisting the limbs around the wire 1 or 2 turns.
Spring type clothes pins are used to hold the branches in place. Wire
"twistems" ^vere found unsatisfactory since they frequently girdled the
limbs, whereas the clothes pins expand as the limbs increase in circum-
ference. Brittleness of the graft roots is the main reason why good
support is essential for these trees.

Sod is permitted to grow between the rows and the area in the tree
row is kept free of weeds by means of a Friday cultivator and the use
of herbicides. The weed-free tree rows aid the mouse control program,
which is critical, since mice are fond of these trees, and prevent weed
growth into the lower branches of the trees.

The Morses used simazine to control weeds the first year after plant-
ing, but some of the trees were injured and about 3 trees died. (Insuf-
ficient agitation of the herbicide may account for part if not all of
this damage.) Following the elimination of the grasses and broadleaf
weeds with simazine, poison ivy flourished. At the sacrifice of 1-year' s
crop, amitrole was used to eradicate this obnoxious weed. In 1956, dal-
apon and 2-4 D (Dacamine M-D*) were used to control perennial grasses and
broadleaf weeds with good results and there was no apparent injury to
the trees.

The fertilizer program for the orchard has been horse manure supple-
mented with commercial fertilizer.

The Morses have found that the varieties differed considerably in
the vigor of their response. Cortlands are extremely vigorous and dif-
ficult to confine within the alloted space. Golden Delicious are more
vigorous than Mcintosh, and Red Delicious trees are the least vigorous
of the <4 varieties.

The earliest bearing trees produced their first crop in the third
season (1963). In 1965, Cortlands produced 3/4 to 1 bushel per tree,
Mcintosh, about 1 bushel, and Golden Delicious, 1 to 2 bushels per tree.

In 1966, Cortlands produced slightly more than a bushel per tree,
Mcintosh, about 1/2 bushel, and Golden Delicious, 1 bushel per tree.
There were only a few Red Delicious, some of which were 4-5 inches in
diameter.

From their limited experience, the Morses have found that trellised
trees produce well and require a minimum of care when once established.
The trees begin to bear early, the fruit develop good color, and possibly
the per-acre yield may exceed that harvested from trees on seedling
roots. Pruning is relatively easy and can be done with inexperienced
help. Although the Morses use their air-blast sprayer and spray 4 rows
at a time, it could be done with a small sprayer equipped with a boom.
Ease of harvest is a definite advantage. Ladders are not necessary and
fruit can be harvested by women or high school boys. It is necessar^y
to pick from each side of the row since lateral branches protrude in the
row about 2 feet on each side of the tree. The Morses have found that
preharvest drop is not a serious problem and that those fruit that do
drop are not badly bruised.

The greatest problem encountered to date is the production of ex-
tremely large soft fruit with short storage life, particularly with Cort-
lands and Red Delicious. Weed control is another problem, but recently-
labeled herbicides now make possible the control of a greater spectrum
of weed species.

When asked what they would do differently if planting more dwarf
trees, the Morses said they would thoroughly prepare the soil prior to
planting. Rocks would be removed and organic matter would be worked
into the soil. Under their conditions, Cortland and Golden Delicious
would be spaced 10 feet apart in the row, while a more vigorous root-
stock might be used for Mcintosh and Red Delicious, such as Mailing 26.

After 5 years experience with dwarf trees, the Morses feel that
they are still in the experimental stage and that there are many un-
answered questions. They are not "sold" on dwarf trees yet, and do not
intend to plant more unless further experience indicates satisfactory
performance .

***************

3 -

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Trees on Dwarfing Rootstock in New York State - The New York Fruit
Tree and Vineyard survey reflects the national trend of increased plant-
ings of apple trees on dwarfing rootstocks. Approximately 51 percent of
the trees less than 12 years old in the western counties of New York
State are on dwarfing rootstocks, and about 29 percent of the trees less
than 12 years old in the eastern counties' are on these stocks.

***************

PRODUCTIVENESS OF BLUEBERRY VARIETIES

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Dr. A.D. Draper, et al. (Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Misc. Rpt. 118. 1966,
pp. 93-96) reported that in replicated trials of blueberry varieties and
selections that were set in 1959, Herbert, Bluecrop and Blueray produced
the highest yields over a 4-year period (1961-6M-) at Hammonton, New
Jersey. The mean yields per plant for these 3 varieties over the i+-year
period were 11.0 pints, 9.2 pints and 7.5 pints, respectively. Collins,
Berkeley, Earliblue and Coville, the other named varieties tested, pro-
duced mean yields over the same L|--year period of M-.7 pints, 4.1 pints,
3.9 pints and 3.0 pints, respectively. None of the selections yielded
as well as Herbert, Bluecrop or Blueray.

Cross pollination was possible at the experimental site at Hammon-
ton and the plants of all varieties and selections grew vigorously;
therefore. Draper et al. concluded that the yield differences were
largely a reflection of differences in fruit set and development.

In a recent letter to the writer, Dr. Draper stated that the unpro-
ductiveness of several varieties such as Earliblue and Coville appears
to be related to pollination. Dr. Draper, who is a Research Geneticist
with the Fruit and Nut Crops Research Branch of the U.S.D.A., further
stated that they would continue to recommend Collins, Berkeley., Earli-
blue and Coville in areas of high bee activity. The Darrow variety,
however, has been released as a possible replacement for Coville, but
as yet the winter hardiness of this variety is not known.

***************

- ^-

A REMINDER ABOUT SAFE DISPOSAL

E.H. Wheeler
Professor of Entomology
Leader, Pesticide Chemicals Program

From an editorial in Pest Articles and News Summaries 12(3) :116, published
in Britain by the Ministry of Overseas Development and prepared by the
Tropical Pesticides Information Service, to whose Editor acknowledgements
are due.

"Just for once we are about to belly-ache about pesticides -
and not, we believe, without just cause. We are alarmed at
the increasing number of poison cases reported from various
parts of the world and believe that more common-sense instruc-
tion is required.

"Death by poisoning is indeed a harrowing business as a glance
at any poison manual will show. Headache, giddiness, blurred
vision, weakness, nausea, cramps and diarrhoea; sweating,
miosis, frothing at the mouth, vomiting, cyanosis, papilledema,
convulsions, coma - followed by death in respiratory paralysis

"It would be tragic indeed should it happen to one of our loved
ones - a wife or child, through our own carelessness, thought-
lessness or neglect. Already there are more than enough of
these gruesome cases.

"Even the minutest quantity of a toxic chemical left in a used
container can be a real danger to children and animals, and
it cannot be emphasized often enough - empty containers must
be rendered harmless by thorough rinsing (water miscible res-
idues only!) , or destroyed by burning or buried.

"Partly full containers should always be stored tightly closed
in a safe place away from feedings tuffs and out of reach of
children.

"Play it safe. Bury the container, not the child I"

***************

THE RELATIONSHIP OF FRUIT SIZE AND WATER CORE AND
BREAKDOWN OF DELICIOUS

Williajn J. Lord and Richard A. Damon
Departments of Plant and Soil Science and Statistics, respectively

It is stated in literature that water core is more severe in large
than in small Red Delicious and that small apples make better recovery
from this disorder. A study conducted by the authors during the 1963 -
1964- and 1964 - 1965 storage seasons showed that Delicious fruit that
averaged 1/3 to 1/2 inch smaller diameter than other fruit from the same
pickings were sometimes as severely affected with water core or internal
breakdown as the larger fruit. Small but severely water-cored apples
developed internal breakdown as soon during storage as the larger fruit.
In both years, breakdown was present after 1 month of cold storage plus
7 days at room temperature, and at removal after 2 months of cold stor-
age. Consequently, severely water-cored Delicious apples should be dis-
posed of soon after harvest, regardless of fruit size.

***************

BIRD DEPREDATION OF BLUEBERRIES AND ATTEMPTED
CONTROL IN MASSACHUSETTS^

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Both cultivated blueberries and lowbush blueberries are produced
and sold commercially in Massachusetts. With a few exceptions, however,
these are produced in many small plantings or fields by part-time farm-
ers with several farm enterprises. More than 3 00 acres of cultivated
blueberries are grown commercially throughout Massachusetts. The low-
bush blueberry industry is centered in the Granville -Blandford area of
Hampden County and in Northern Worcester County. Production of lowbush
blueberries is estimated at 300 tons.

Complaints of Bird Damage Voiced Many Years

The location and proximity of most small cultivated blueberry plant-
ings in Massachusetts to optimum songbird habitat makes them exceedingly
vulnerable to depredation. For these reasons, damage has been severe and
complaints loud and numerous. As a result of these complaints, a Bird
Control Project was initiated in 1956 by the Department of Wildlife Man-
agement at the University of Massachusetts, with 3 major objectives:
(a) to determine the species of birds doing the damage, (b) to determine
the extent of damage, and (c) to attempt to find means of reducing or
eliminating bird depredation. The results of the findings have been sum-
marized at periodic intervals (2,3,5,6,7).

Excerpts of talk presented at the North American Blueberry Workers'
Conference, University of Maine, April 6-7, 1966.

6 -

Bird Species Causing Damage

Bird species causing damage to the cultivated blueberry crop are
mostly songbirds, including robins, Baltimore orioles, bluejays, cat-
birds, towhees and sparrows; and blackbirds including starlings and
grackles (5,6). Although species causing the damage varies consider-
ably with the area because of behavior patterns, surrounding habitat
and food preferences. Smith (8) in 1963, reported that robins were one
of the greatest problem species.

Starlings are the main depredating species in lowbush blueberries
in Massachusetts.

Extent of Damage

A substantial crop loss occurs each year in non-covered cultivated
blueberry plantings. By questionaire and personal contact, it was de-
termined that crop losses in cultivated blueberries for the years 1955-
1958 were 38 per cent, 20 per cent, 19 per cent and 27 per cent, respec-
tively (5). A survey was again conducted by Smith (7,8) in 1960 and
1961. Based on a M-1 per cent questionnaire return, 27 per cent of the
fruit on 310 acres of cultivated blueberries in Massachusetts were lost
to birds in 1960. A 37 per cent crop loss occurred on 121 acres reported
in 1961.

No known survey of bird damage to lowbush blueberries in Massachu-
setts has been conducted.

Control Methods

Numerous bird damage prevention devices have been used by growers
and tested by graduate students working on the bird control project.
To date, however, the only totally effective method of preventing bird
depredation is by complete enclosure of the planting. Although many of
the larger growers still rely on firecrackers and exploders, those with
limited acreages now are covering their plantings.

Nettings of various types are available for exclusion of birds from
blueberry plantings; many of which we have field tested: tobacco cloth,
used fish net, kraft paper yarn, nylon, polyethylene and acrylic webbing.

A netting must be durable, economical and easy to handle. Large
dimensions also are a desirable feature. Tobacco cloth lacks durabil-
ity and tensile strength. The polyethylene net tested (7/15" or 1" mesh)
lacked tensile strength and its use was abandoned after one year's test.
The net with 7/16" mesh, however, would be of value for protection of
strawberries against bird depredation because generally no framework is
built over the plants. Some of the nettings require considerable sewing
together at the initial installation due to their small width; for ox-
ample, kraft paper yarn and nylon. Used cotton fish netting, which is
sold by the pound, has small holes that must be patched and is difficult
to handle in comparison to nylon net. Although we have not field-tested
the net, nylon fish net now is available. The main advantages of fish
netting are low initial cost, tensile strength and large dimensions.

- 7 -

Since 1960, when we suggested to the distributor that the used fish
net would be of value to blueberry growers, an excess of 100 tons have
been sold for this purpose. Initially, the netting came in odd shapes
and lengths. Now the material is much more uniform and comes in widths
of 60 to 130 feet and very large lengths.

The durability of the various nettings is unknown by us and the
comments on the various nettings are based on field observations and
not research. The kraft paper yarn and nylon nettings, given ordinary
care will last many years. Our field test with cotton fish net indi-
cates that it will last for at least 4 growing seasons.

CXir limited observations of the acrylic webbing causes us to ques-
tion the usefulness of this product for protecting cultivated blueberries
from bird depredation. It is difficult to erect and keep in place and
the fibers become entangled with the bushes and berries and cling to
harvested fruit. Further testing of this material is needed, but at
present we even question the usefulness of acrylic webbing for the home
gardener.

The cost per square yard of netting is very variable -- 3 to 21
cents. When purchasing netting, prime considerations in addition to
cost are: durability, ease of erection and space required for storage.

The cost of netting to enclose one acre of blueberries ranges from
approximately $170 to $1190, depending on the type purchased. Although
the initial cost of netting is high, the fruit saved and the increased
size of berries makes enclosure of our cultivated blueberry plantings
economically feasible. Blueberries increase considerably in size after
first turning blue. With netting, growers can delay harvest without
fear of bird depredation.

New York Starling Trap

Bird depredation became a serious problem in the Granville -Blanford
lowbush area about 5 years ago, with crop losses of 50% reported. Since
covering these fields was not economically feasible, the New York star-
ling trap was considered worth trying. Although crop losses were and
are still high, growers feel that the trap has prevented heavier losses
and in many cases saved their crop. For best results: place the traps
on high ground, keep them clean, keep well supplied with fresh water and
bait, and always leave 5 to 10 birds in the traps to attract others.
One trap to each 15 to 20 fruiting acres seems adequate. A wide variety
of baits are used: blueberries, grain, cherries, and apples. Trapped
birds can be humanly disposed of by covering the trap with plastic and
gassing.

Although live traps of the type mentioned are legal in Massachusetts,
they are less prone to public criticism when used in isolated plantings.

Based on 5680 square yards: 4850 to cover top and 840 for the sides,
The square yards for the sides were figured for an area 210' x 210'
with 9' sides.

The use of the New York starling trap In most cultivated blueberry plant-
ings is limited since the principal depredating species are songbirds
which must be released. One Massachusetts grower has reported the New
York starling trap helpful, however (M-) .

Research on Bird Control Continues

The bird control research by the Department of Forestry and Wild-
life Management has turned to more basic biology of the individual depre-
dating species. Hester (2), in 1963, banded several bird species at the
University orchards to trace bird movements. Captured and banded birds
remained local for some time after being released, but most did not re-
visit the orchard. Behavioral studies with the Baltimore oriole by Hes-
ter (2) showed that transporting this species 2.1 miles from point of
capture before releasing, had some effect on movement back to point of
capture. Both Smith (8), in 1963, and Hirth (3), in 1966, reported that
robins have a strong affinity for a particular fruit planting and that
practically no population turnover occurs vv;hen the fruit crop is ripe.
Being captured in nets, banded, and wing- tagged apparently failed to act
as a deterrent to robins (3) .

Observations made by Hirth (3) , in the University of Massachusetts
fruit planting, indicate that after the second week in June, immature
robins caused most of the damage. There is apparently no single explan-
ation of how these immature birds find their way to feeding locations and
fruit crops.

Blueberry plantings bordering bushy or wooded areas are prone to
depredation by flocks of robins, since these areas constitute ideal sites
for songbirds (3) .

Summary

Bird depredation of fruit crops is a problem of great magnitude in
Massachusetts. Therefore, many growers of cultivated blueberries now
rely on nets to prevent bird depredation and growers of lowbush blueber-
ries have found that the New York State Starling Traps have prevented
heavier losses to birds. These devices are merely stop-gap answers to
the problem, however, and better bird control techniques are needed.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Bailey, J.S. 1954. Increased blueberry profits: a speculation.
Fruit Notes . July 10th issue: 1.

2. Hester, A.E. 1963. Bird damage research in Massachusetts. Fruit
Notes . February 28 issue: 1-2.

3. Hirth, D.H. 1956. Bird damage research. Fruit Notes . March-April
issue: 2-4.

4. Marini , D.A. 1965. Observations on bird control. Fruit Notes .
November-December issue: 7-8.

5. Pike, D.B. 1960. Research findings on bii^d ^'ontrol in small fruit
plantings. Fruit Notes . March 15th issue: 3-5.

6. Smith, R.N. 1961. Bird damage to fruit. Fruit Notes . April 5th
issue: 1-3.

7_ , 1961. Bird damage to Massachusetts cultivated blue-

berry and peach crops. 1960. Fruit Notes. May 5th issue: 2.

8. . 1963. A study of environmental and population factors

in relation to damage to orchards caused by birds. Master's Thesis.
Department of Wildlife Management, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst.

***************

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Mossachusetf s

A. A. Sprelman

Dean and Director

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

Official Business
387 - 12/66 - 926

Permit No. 1216

Postage ond Fees Paid
United States Department of Agricultur

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

JANUARY— FEBRUARY 1967

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cold Injury to Peach Trees

New Apple Varieties

Pomological Paragraphs
Bird Damage to Apples
Suitability of Blueberry Varieties for Freezing

Plum Varieties for Massachusetts

Varieties of Strawberries for Massachusetts

Newer Varieties Worthy of Trial

COLD INJURY TO PEACH TREES

William J. Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

In a talk given last year in New Jersey (Horticulture News ^7 : 26-34),
Dr, E.F. Savage described some very interesting findings in Georgia about
cold injury to peach trees.

Growers in the Coastal Plain area of Georgia have always been plagued

by the very short life of their peach orchards the average life of trees

there is only 8 years. Many years of investigations showed that nutrition,
diseases and nematodes all may play a part in this problem, but the basic
cause was not uncovered. However, recent findings seem to have pin-pointed
this basic cause: it appears to be cold injury.

This cold injury usually occurs in early soring v,;hen the trees have
become physiologically active, not during the winter when the trees are
in their rest period. And it does not have to get very cold to produce
injury, in 194-9, a low temperature of 26°F. killed thousands of trees.
The injury occurs primarily in the cambium and phloem tissues, and appears
as a discoloration in the cambium extending from the ground level upward
to 2-3 inches above the crotch along the scaffold limbs. After a few
warm days, a characteristic *'sour sap" odor resulting from fermentation
of the injured tissues occurs.

Results of studies by Dr. Savage's group at Experiment, Georgia,
are rather startling. They have found that tree trunk temperature is
much higher in winter than in summer. This happens because in the winter
solar radiation penetrates directly into the bark, and is absorbed by the
dark-colored bark. Such large amounts of heat are accumulated that trunk
temperature may rise M-0°F. or more above air temperature. This situation
does not occur in the summer because (1) the trunk is shaded by leaves
and (2) cool water is being drawn through the trunk, from the soil to the
leaves .

Of course, these high trunk temperatures persist only during daylight
hours. At night, trunk temperatures fall to near air temperature. Thus,
if a bright, sunny day is followed by a cold night, violent fluctuations
of trunk temperature can occur. For example. Savage described a sunny,

66°F. day followed by a M- F. night in 1963 the tree trunks were exposed

to about a 100 F. temperature drop in 10 hours. If the tissues are dor-
mant, they may survive such a shock, but if they are physiologically ac-
tive, severe injury and subsequent death of the tree can be expected.

An important factor in this situation is trunk size. The larger
the trunk, the more heat will be absorbed and retained during solar ir-
radiation. Seldom does injury occur to less-than-4-year-old trees, sim-
ly because they do not absorb as much heat and therefore experience such
violent temperature fluctuations- This is also why most of the injury
occurs in the trunk rather than in scaffold branches.

- 2

Another important factor is wind. On a bright, sunny day, heat
will not accumulate in the trunk if a mild breeze is blowing, so wind
can be a protective influence. But at night, a wind will significantly
lower the temperature of the trunk on the windward side, and therefore
may be a damaging influence.

It should be clear, then, that this cold injury is the result of a
combination of environmental and physiological factors. Work is now un-
der way in Georgia to find an economical way to protect the trees from
this injury. It has been found that wrapping trunks with aluminum foil
backed with fiberglass is effective protection, but it is not economical.

Do these results obtained in Georgia have any application to us in
New England? They do indeed I Eggert reported from New Hampshire some
years ago (Proc . Amer . Soc . Hort . Sci . 45: 33-36) that between December,
1943, and March, 1944, peach tree trunks reached 60°F. or higher on 18
different days, and reached 80° or higher on 5 different days. On most
of these days, air temperature was at or below 32 F. He found that
trunks of apple trees, on the other hand, underwent far less severe tem-
perature fluctuations, and this difference between kinds of trees he at-
tributed to differences in smoothness, thickness, color, and texture of
their bark.

How much can be done practically to reduce cold injury to trees is
highly debatable. Nevertheless, the findings of Dr. Savage's group
should help us to understand why trees respond to their environment in
the way that they do, and should help us to evaluate problems that may
develop.

***************

NEW EARLY APPLE VARIETIES

Walter D. Weeks
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Ouinte Quinte originated in Canada. It is one of the earliest
red varieties to be released in recent years. It ripens
just after Lodi and seven to ten days before Melba.
Quinte is an attractive red apple with fruit quality
equal to Melba. As it is not a large apple, it may re-
quire thinning to get good size in some locations. The
tree is hardy and it bears annually.

Julvred Julyred is a New Jersey introduction. It ripens about a
week before Melba. The fruits are an attractive medium
red. Fruit quality is good, it has better shelf -life and
shipping ability than most early summer varieties. July-
red is a promising new early dessert variety.

Tydeman's Red A promising late summer apple from England which ripens
about three to four weeks before Mcintosh. The fruit is
attractive, bright red and has good quality. Habit of
tree growth is poor as it makes a straggly growth.

Niagara A good quality Mcintosh type apple from New York, which
ripens about ten days to two weeks ahead of Mcintosh.
Niagara is similar to Mcintosh in tree and fruit charac-
teristics .

Wliile we have these new early apples in our plantings at the Horti-
cultural Research Center in Belchertown, they have not yet fruited.
The descriptions of the varieties are based on their performance in
other locations. However, we feel they are worthy of limited trial by
growers interested in extending their harvesting and marketing season.

****************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Bird Damage to Apples : A 3 -year study of bird damage on apples (Proceed -
ings of the American Society of Horticultural Science 85: 66-72) conduc-
ted by Lloyd A. Mitterling, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecti-
cut, in a 9-acre orchard containing the varieties Cortland, Mcintosh and
Richared Delicious, among others, indicated that the birds preferred them
as food in the order listed. Most of the damage was caused by blue jays
which preferred Cortland. Crows, orioles, robins and starlings also fed
on apples. The damage in apples was greater on trees at the periphery
of the orchard than in the center of the orchard.

****************

Suitability of Blueberry Varieties for Freezing : James F. Gallender and
Harold Stammer, Department of Horticulture, Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center, Wooster, Ohio, studied the suitability of 18

cultivated blueberry varieties for freezing as related to the quality

flavor, color and texture of thawed berries. Although all 18 varieties
were acceptable, the following varieties tended to have better quality
upon thawing and were recommended for freezing: Jersey, Coville, Dixi,
Cabot, Earliblue, Berkeley, June, Adams, Atlantic and Pioneer. - fFruit
Crops Research. - 1966, Research Summary 6 , August, 1966. Ohio Agricul-
tural Research and Development Center, Wooster, Ohio.)

****************

PLUM VARIETIES FOR MASSACHUSETTS

James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Variety

Recommended for

Harvesting Season

Burmosa (J)
Formosa (J)
Shiro (J)
Great Yellow (J)
Santa Rosa (J)
Yakima (E)
Bradshaw (E)
Elephant Heart (J)
Imperial Epineuse (E)
Stanley (E)
Bavay (E)
Oneida (E)

T
C - H

T
C - H
C - H

H
C - H

Late July

Early August

Early to mid-August

Mid -August

Late August

Early to mid-September

Late September

(J) Japaneses Species

(E) European Species

T - Trial H - Home C - Commercial

Varities so marked are not equally adapted to all sections of the State,
Note: To insure successful pollination, it is advisable to plant more
than one variety of a particular species.

Burmosa

Formosa

Shiro

Variety Notes

The tree is small in J5ize, medium in vigor and
tends toward biennial production. The fruit is
yellow with a bright red blush, becoming com-
letely overlaid with red, attractive, medium to
large in size, freestone and good in flavor.

The tree is large, vigorous and moderately pro-
ductive. The fruit is large, attractive and
the yellow color tends to become completely over-
laid with red as the fruit ripens. The flavor
is very good and the fruit holds very well in
storage.

The tree is medium is size and vigor. Shiro
tends to overset and thinning may be necessary
to maintain good fruit size and annual produc-
tion. The fruit has a very attractive, bright
yellow color, is of medium-small size and good
flavor.

- 5

Great Yellow The tree is medium in size and vigor and a

good producer. The fruit is medium to large
in size, good to very good in flavor and a free-
stone. The fruit hangs well on the tree, but
there is a tendency for the skin to pull away
at the stem when the fruit is picked late.
Great Yellow is superior to Shiro in size and
flavor, but rates lower in firmness and color-
ing.

Santa Rosa The tree is large, vigorous and moderately pro-
ductive. The fruit is large, reddish-purple
and good in flavor. The fruit keeps and ships
well.

Yakima The tree is large, vigorous, upright and moder-

ately productive. The fruits are large, prune-
shaped, reddish -purple, freestone and of good

quality.

Bradshaw The tree is medium to large in size and produc-

tive. The fruit is above medium size, blue and
of good quality. Bradshaw is recommended for
those who desire a succession of varieties in
the home garden.

Elephant Heart The tree is large and vigorous. The fruit is

very large, dark red and heart-shaped. The
flesh is blood-red in color and good in quality.
Elephant Heart is a desirable variety where
high yields can be maintained.

Imperial Epineuse The tree is large, upright-spreading and produc-
tive. The fruits are reddish-purple in color,
medium to large in size and of excellent flavor.
This rather unattractive prune is recommended
for the home orchard where high quality is de-
sired. This variety is highly susceptible to
brown rot.

Stanley The tree is medium in size, vigorous and produc-

tive. This attractive blue prune is medium to
large in size and very good in quality. Stanley
is a desirable variety for canning.

Bavay The tree is large, upright, vigorous and moder-

ately productive. This green gage type plum is
of medium to small size, unattractive, but of
high quality. Bavay is recommended for the home
garden.

6 -

Oneida

The tree is medium in size, vigorous and pro-
ductive. The fruit is large, reddish-black,
prune -shaped and very good. Oneida keeps well
in storage and appears to be worthy of trial
where a late ripening plum is desired.

****************

Variety

VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES FOR MASSACHUSETTS

James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Recommended for

Harvesting Season

Earlidawn

Midland

Redglow

Surecrop

Midway

Catskill

Fulton

Robinson

Fletcher

Garnet

Sparkle

Frontenac

Vesper

T = Trial

C
C & H
C & H

C
C & H

T
C & H

H = Home garden

Very early

Early

Early- midseason

Midseason

Mid-late

Late

Very late

C = Commercial

Varieties so marked are not necessarily equally adapted to all sections
of the state.

Earlidawn

Variety Notes

A very early ripening variety. The fruits are of medium
size and of fair to good flavor. The plants are produc-
tive and of moderate vigor. Earlidawn is recommended
where red stele is not a factor.

Midland

Redglow

An early ripening variety with large firm fruit of very
good flavor. Midland produces many large, coarse ber-
ries and the berries are inclined to be dark in color.
Good yields are obtained only with virus-free plants.
Midland is not resistant to red stele.

This early -midseason variety is vigorous and productive.
The berries are of good size, very attractive and of
good flavor. Redglow is resistant to the common strain
of red stele.

Surecrop Recommended largely because of its resistance to sever-
al strains of red stele. The fruits are attractive,
medium in size and fair to good in flavor. The plants
are vigorous and moderately productive.

Midway The fruit is of good size, a deep red color, glossy and

very good in flavor. The plants are vigorous, produc-
tive and resistant to the common strain of red stele.

Catskill A leading commercial variety with many growers because

of its large size, attractiveness, good quality and vig-
orous, productive plants. Quite susceptible to leaf
spot and requires a high level of fertility for good
production. A good freezer.

Fulton The plant is vigorous, a good runner producer, very pro-

ductive and free of leaf diseases. The fruit is of med-
ium size, attractive, very firm and of very good flavor.
Fulton is not resistant to red stele.

Robinson Its large, attractive, bright red fruit, high yield and

abundant runner production have made this variety commer-
cially important in many parts of the state. The qual-
ity and firmness of the fruit are below average.

Fletcher The plant is vigorous, a good runner producer and produc-
tive. The fruit is of medium size, firm, attractive,
very good in flavor and is said to be excellent for freez-
ing. Fletcher is not resistant to red stele.

Garnet The plant is vigorous, forms a full bed and is productive.

The berries are large, attractive, moderately firm and
have a good flavor. Garnet is not resistant to red stele.

Sparkle One of the important late season varieties. Its outstand-
ing values are productiveness, firmness, good quality,
and resistance to red stele disease. Berry size is med-
ium to large in early pickings but tends to decline rap-
idly. It is rated as a good freezer.

Frontenao The plant is large and forms sufficient runners for a
good bed. The fruits are large, long, wedge-shaped,
medium to dark red in color, moderately firm and good
in flavor. Frontenac is considered to be excellent for
freezing. This variety is not resistant to red stele.

Vesper The plants are large, vigorous and productive. The fruit

ripens late, is very large in size, attractive, moderate
in firmness and good in flavor. Vesper has prominent
protruding seeds. This variety merits trial because of
its large size, attractiveness, lateness and productive-
ness. Vesper is not resistant to red stele.

****************

NEWER VARIETIES WORTHY OF TRIAL

James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The following report briefly describes some of the newer or less
common fruit varieties under test in the University plantings that may
be worthy of trial by commercial growers and home gardeners. Since the
performance of a variety is greatly influenced by climatic, soil and
cultural conditions, it is suggested that any new variety be tested on
a small scale before planting it on a commercial basis.

PEARS

Chap in

Starkrimson

A seedling of Seckel that is harvested in early August.
The fruit is small to medium in size, green with a red
blush. Chapin resembles Seckel except for a more prom-
inent neck. The flesh is fine textured, juicy, free of
grit cells and of good quality.

A red bud sport of Clapp Favorite. The fruit is similar
in size, shape and quality to Clapp, but has a solid red
surface color. The fruit was harvested August 20th and
held up well in storage to early December. This variety
would add color and interest to a pear display, but we
are not certain as to the buyers' reaction to a red pear.

Grand Champion A russet sport of Gorham, which it resembles in size,

shape and quality. The fruit is overlaid with a uniform

cinnamon russet and is very attractive. The trees in

our planting are too young to evaluate as to productivity.

Packhain's The fruit is large in size, greenish yellow in color.
Triumph free from blemishes and although the surface is somewhat
rough it is an attractive pear. The flesh is white, fine
melting, free of grit cells and of very good quality.
The fruit is harvested in late September and holds up
well into early January. As the fruit was harvested from
a top-worked tree, an evaluation of tree characteristics
cannot be given.

Alexander Lucas A late ripening pear of medium size, smooth surface, obo-
vate, obtuse-pyriform shape and greenish yellow color.
The fruit is of good quality. Alexander Lucas was harves-
ted in the third week of September and keeps well into
December. Production appears to be satisfactory.

Dumont

A late ripening pear of medium size, obtuse pyriform
shape and yellow color. The flesh is firm, juicy and
the quality very good. The fruit is harvested in late
September and has kept well into early January in the
past years. The variety has been productive under our
conditions and is worthy of trial.

PLUMS

Washington

A large, high quality, green gage plum ripening in late
August. This old variety is seldom grown today because
of its reputation for poor production, however, the trees
in our Amherst orchards have been very productive. The
color of this European plum is not especially attractive
and there could be some resistance by those unaware of
its excellent flavor.

Howard Miracle

Pacific

Mohawk

A large, attractive, high quality Japanese plum. The
fruit is golden yellow with a light red blush. The firm-
fleshed, freestone was picked in late August. Production
was very good this year. The flavor of this variety is
not typical of a plum and might be objectionable to some.

An attractive, blue prune type plum of good quality. The
fruit is quite firm and the keeping quality is excellent.
Pacific has been a good cropper in Amherst, but ripening
is quite uneven. The fruit begins ripening in the second
week of September. Pacific is a European type plum.

This variety, along with Oneida and Iroquois, was recently
najned by the Geneva Experiment Station. Mohawk is an at-
tractive blue prune, ripening in late August. The size is
medium to large and the quality very good. Production has
been moderate. Mohawk is said to be self -unfruitful.

Iroquois

An attractive blue prune that ripens in early September
about a week before Stanley. The fruit is of medium size,
longer than Stanley and of good quality. The tree is
productive. There was some splitting of the fruit when
the trees first came into bearing. Iroquois is said to be
self-fruitful

STRAWBERRIES

Gala

A very early-ripening variety recently named by the New
York Agricultural Experiment Station. In trials at the
University, the berries were medium in size, moderately
firm, slightly rough and irregular in shape. The plants
were vigorous and moderately productive.

Sunrise

This new red stele resistant, early ripening variety was
fruited in our plots in 1958, 1959, 1960 and 1961, The
fruit was bright red, glossy smooth and uniform in shape,
The size is medium to small and variable. The plants
were vigorous and made a good bed. The relative yield
was fair. Sunrise may be worth testing where an early
ripening variety is desired and red stele is a problem.

****************

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts

A. A. Spielman

Dean and Director

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

Official Business

392 - 1/67 - 950

Permit No. 1216

Postoge and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE

MARCH -APRIL 1967

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Economic Changes in Marketing Fruits and
Vegetables in the United States

Recent Publications

Zinc Levels in Massachusetts Apple Orchards

1967 Guide to Orchard Fertilization

Foliar Calcium Sprays for Bitter Pit Control

ECONOMIC CHANGES IN MARKETING FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES IN THE UNITED STATES

Excerpts from

Remarks by Floyd F. Hedlund at the

XVII International Horticultural Congress,

University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland,

August 19, 1966

(Every fruit grower knows that the marketing of fresh fruits and vege-
tables has changed greatly in recent years, and is continuing to change.
This presentation by Mr. Hedlund discusses the national economic changes
that are occurring in marketing, and should give New England growers a
cleai^er view of the changes occurring in their markets Editors.)

The food industry--the business of feeding our people --is this
country's largest industry. The food bill in the United States amounts
to $85 billion annually. Fruits and vegetables are a significant part
of the food business. Nearly 25 percent of retail grocery store sales
of food are accounted for by fresh and processed fruits and vegetables.
Each person in the United States on the average consumes about 500 pounds
of fruits, vegetables, and potatoes each year.

The United States farmer; during the first quarter of this year, re-
ceived--on the average for all products--41 percent of the consumer's
food dollar. The farm to retail spread, amounted to 59 percent. For
fruits and vegetables, the farmer received 27 percent. The remaining
73 percent of the consumer's fruit and vegetable dollar covered all mar-
keting and processing costs. This spread reflects the high degree of
processing, packaging, refrigeration, and special handling required in
the marketing of fruits and vegetables.

Production Picture

Eight million acres in the United States are devoted to the pro-
duction of horticultural commodities. These include nearly three mil-
lion bearing acres of fruit and tree nuts. Last year's production of
fruits and vegetables total 55 million tons--15 million of potatoes and
sweet potatoes, nearly 20 million of vegetables, and 20 million of fruit
and tree nuts. Over the years, production of these commodities has
trended upward, exceeding slightly the increase in population.

Cash receipts by farmers from fruits and vegetables total $4 billion
a year, or more than 10 percent of the total of $37 billion from all
agricultural production including both crops and livestock. Receipts
from fruit and tree nuts totaled about $1.75 billion, and those from veg-
etable crops $2.25 billion.

A generation ago, a typical farmer produced food and fiber for 10
persons--today for 37 persons. Disposable personal income on a per cap-

Floyd F. Hedlund, Director, Fruit and Vegetable Division, Consumer and
Marketing Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

ita basis is five times the level of 30 years ago. This is reflected
in increased consumption of fruits and vegetables. Consumer preferences
have resulted in shifts to convenience foods and to new products. This
has been reflected in increased processing. Thus our markets in total
are larger not only because of more people, but because of the effect
of urbanization. But more significantly, these markets are constantly
changing because of the wants and preferences of people and larger in-
comes to satisfy these desires.

Changing Patterns of Consumption and Market Structure

Per capita consumption (on a farm weight basis) of fruits has in-
creased nearly 10 percent over the past 30 years, while that for vege-
tables has increased by 25 percent. However, there has been a material
shift from fresh use to processing. For example, consumption of all
fruits in fresh form has been reduced by one -third, while that in pro-
cessed form has more than doubled.

There have been many changes in wholesale distribution over the
years. Even though the volume of fruits and vegetable marketed has
been increasing, a smaller volume is being handled by terminal market
wholesalers. Direct buying by large retail organizations--both corpor-
ate and voluntary chain- -has had a sharp impact on the wholesale markets.
The decreasing volume handled has been reflected in a sharp reduction in
the number of wholesaler firms. Wholesalers have moved toward providing
specialized services for customers, such as institutional outlets and
groups of retailers, either wholesaler-sponsored or where the retailer
group sponsors the wholesaling operation. The importance of auctions
has been declining. A major trend in wholesaling has been the reloca-
tion of terminal markets from the old center city locations to suburban
areas, where more adequate facilities can be built.

About two-thirds of the fresh fruits and vegetables move to market
by motor truck. This is in sharp comparison to a generation ago when
most shipped-in supplies moved by rail. Trucks have been steadily in-
creasing their share of the produce transportation business. More rapid
service and direct delivery are among the major advantages of truck ship-
ments. Much of the shift to trucks has been in short and medium haul
business. However, trucks are gaining in importance even on the long
haul from Pacific to East Coast.

The food retailing industry under the various pressures of changing
technology and competition has moved in the direction of general, as
contrasted to specialty food stores, of larger stores, and of larger
firms. The modern supermarket is made possible by the mobility of con-
sumers, arising from the automobile and improved highways. In 1965,
there were 227,000 grocery stores, barely half the M-M-0,000 in existence
in 1935. Sales were nine times those of thirty years earlier. Average
dollar sales per store increased eighteenfold during this period. The
growth in number of items handled has been spectacular, increasing from
less than 900 in 1928 to 3,000 in 1946; to 4,700 in 1955; to 7,100 in
1965.

Over the past several years there has been an expansion in so-
called "convenience stores." These stores are relatively small in size
and provide quick, easy-to-shop facilities, and remain open at late
hours .

Impact of Chansins Market Structure

The changing structure of both production and marketing has had
sharp impact upon the relationship among and within groups in the fruit
and vegetable industry. Marketing today is a complex matter and a
highly competitive business. The picture is complicated by various in-
tegration and contractual arrangements and by the quality and quantity
requirements of a mass distribution system. Producers have responded
in various ways to the changing market structure.

Production has been concentrated in fewer hands and many farmers
have turned to cooperatives, bargaining associations, marketing orders,
and other arrangements in efforts to assure themselves of a voice in
and a larger share of the returns from the processing and marketing of
their production.

Farmers, through marketing cooperatives, have sought to improve
their returns and to achieve greater bargaining power. Cooperatives
have been most successful in connection with fruits and of lesser im-
portance in the marketing of vegetables. In a number of cases, grower
cooperatives are involved in processing--as in raisins, dried prunes,
and some fruits and vegetables. Several are dominant factors in the
industry. There are approximately 650 fruit and vegetable marketing
cooperatives with sales of fresh and processed products in excess of
one billion dollars annually.

Promotion

Since few farmers are large enough to justify or support broad in-
dividual promotion of their product, various agricultural groups with
common interest in particular commodities have given increased attention
to promotion and advertising as a means of increasing demand for their
products. In some cases dominant cooperatives have supported promotional
activities over extended periods. In other cases, promotional efforts
of producers have been supported by processors, shippers, retailers, or
others in the industry. However, many agricultural groups engaged in
promotion and advertising are organizations established pursuant to
State or Federal legislation. These are usually operated as Commissions
or Boards, and derive their funds through a small assessment on products
marketed.

***************

- 4

RECENT PUBLICATIONS

You may wish to send for one or more of the following publications:

1. Fruit Varieties in New York State: Berries. Extension Bul-
. letin 1167.

2. Fruit Varieties in New York State: Apricots. Extension Bul-
letin 1168.

3. Raspberry growing in New York State. Extension Bulletin 1170.

i+. Combating Replant Problems in Orchards. Extension Bulletin
1169.

All these publications are available from the Cooperative Extension
Service, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

***************

ZINC LEVELS IN MASSACHUSETTS APPLE ORCHARDS

W.J. Lord, Bertram Gersten and J.H. Baker
University of Massachusetts

Zinc deficiency in apple orchards has been considered a problem in
western United States for many years, but only recently has it been of
concern in New England. In 1965, Stiles and Goff in Maine presented
data showing a relationship between zinc level and yield of Mcintosh
and suggested that this element may affect tree growth, limit yields,
and affect fruit color development. Siles reported that 35 Mcintosh
leaf samples from Maine apple orchards in 19614- averaged only 8.0 ppm
zinc. Since these orchards were considered to be highly deficient in
zinc, a tentative optimum standard of 37.5 ppm has been suggested by
Stiles. In contrast to these results, a block of Mcintosh trees in cen-
tral Massachusetts with a record of high yield (average yield in 1961
and 1962 was 50 bushels per tree per year) were found to contain only
10-12 ppm of zinc. These trees, though well below the proposed optimum
levels for zinc, show no signs of zinc deficiency.

Critical level of a nutrient is the level above which a plant is
amply supplied and below which it is deficient in that element. A crit -
ical level for zinc in apple leaves is difficult to establish from lit-
erature. Chandler et al. in 1934 reported ^--S^- ppm zinc in deficient
apple leaves in California orchards and 4-80 ppm in healthy leaves.
Thomas et al . in 1949 found 14-65 ppm zinc in healthy young apple trees
in Pennsylvania. In 1964, Uriu and Koch in California suggested that
13-14 ppm could be the borderline between zinc deficient and zinc suffi-
cient levels. Heeney et al . , in 1964, also suggested a critical level
of 15 ppm of zinc for eastern Ontario.

Zinc Levels in Massachusetts Orchards

Leaf samples were obtained in several Massachusetts orchards in
1965 and again in other orchards in 1966 to determine zinc levels.
Since Stiles indicated that manganese also might be critically low in
Maine orchards--35 Mcintosh leaf samples in 1964 averaged 6.4 ppm man-
ganese--the level of this element also was determined. The data for
the zinc and manganese levels in Mcintosh trees sampled in Massachusetts
are shown below.

Table 1. Zinc and manganese levels of Mcintosh apple trees in several
Massachusetts orchards.

Orchard

No. of trees
sampled

Zinc

Mn.

1
2
3

5
6
7
8
9
10

5
4
4
5
6
5
5
5
40

1965

11.8

18.8

14.0

37.0

17.0

36.3

18.6

39.2

13.3

26.3

17.4

79.4

11.8

154.0

14.4

26.4

13.2

32.0

Average

15.0

53.8

1966

11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
20

21.0

29.4

14.2

65.2

10.4

76.8

10.2

72.8

11.0

38.8

9.8

41.4

9.8

29.4

11.8

45.0

13.4

Average

12.4

49.9

Leaves from each tree constituted a sample

It can be noted in Table 1, that the average zinc levels of the
Mcintosh leaf samples in 1965 and 1966 were 15.0 and 12.4 ppm, respec-
tively, which are higher than those reported by Stiles in Maine. The
lowest zinc level found in any individual tree was 10 ppm in 1965 and
7 ppm in 1966. Zinc levels as low as 1.4 ppm have been reported in
Maine .

Based on the critical levels suggested by Uriu and Koch and Heeney
et al . , it would appear that the zinc level in some Mcintosh apple trees
in Massachusetts may be at the critical level. Whether or not zinc
treatments would be of value in some orchards is not known. For example,
the trees in Orchard 1 (Table 1) are very vigorous and productive and
exhibit no apparent visual symptoms of zinc deficiency. In fact, no
definite visual symptoms of zinc deficiency have been observed on any
of our visits to orchards. Benson, in Washington state, has said that
the best guide to zinc needs in the Pacific Northwest is the visual ap-
pearance of symptoms. It will be of interest to examine trees in or-
chards 16 and 17 for visual symptoms of zinc deficiency in 1967.

Effect of Zinc Level on Tree Performance

In 196M-, a soil management experiment was established in a block
of 3 -year-old Mcintosh trees on EM VII in Shelburne, Mass. Since the
nutritional status of these trees was known, it was of interest to com-
pare tree performance as related to 2 levels of zinc by comparing the
performance of those trees with 20+ ppm with those having 12 or 13 ppm
in 1965. The calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, manganese, and iron levels
of the "high" and "low" zinc trees did not differ, but nitrogen and po-
tassium were somewhat higher in the "high" zinc trees.

Table 2- Terminal growth and fruit color of Mcintosh as related to
2 levels of zinc.

No. of
trees

Zinc
1965 1966

Terminal growth-*-
1965 1966

Fruit color
1965 1966

.££

23.6
12.7

21.6
13.2

18.8
21.4

15.1+
15.6

60
61

69
73

Average of 15 terminals

Percent red color, average of 20 fruits

Although the experiment was not established to determine the re-
sponse of Mcintosh to various levels of zinc, it is apparent that the
mean terminal growth and fruit color did not differ between the "high"
and "low" zinc trees (Table 2) . Since the trees with 12 or 13 ppm in
1965 are vigorous and show no visual symptoms of zinc deficiency, the
critical level for zinc in Massachusetts appears to be below this level.

Soil Applications of Zinc

Soil applications of zinc sulfate have generally been unsatisfac-
tory for the correction of zinc deficiency in apple orchards except
occasionally on acid soils. Since our orchard soils are acid and tests
with soil applications of zinc are more convenient than spray applica-
tions in grower orchards, a study of the effectiveness of a soil appli-
cation of zinc sulfate for increasing the zinc level in a mature North-
ern Spy orchard was established in April, 1965. No increase in zinc
level occurred in the leaves during the year of application (1965) or

through mid-July of 1966. Therefore, it was of interest to determine
the zinc content of the grass and soil under the treated trees. The
results of these analyses are shown in Table 3 .

Table 3. Zinc level in grass and soil under Northern Spy trees after
receiving a soil application of zinc sulfate.

^^..^ Cppm) ifl Zinc in soil (ppm) on 9/1/55 at depths of:"
- 9/1/56"^ 0-1" 1-2" 2-3" 3-1+" 4-5" 5-6" (

Zinc
Treatment-" grass 9/1/56^ 0-1" 1-2" 2-3" 3-4" 4-5" 5-6" 6-8"

Zn SO4 69.2
Check 27.9

200

5.7

2.7

1.9

1.7

1.6

2.2

1.7

1.4

1.1

0.9

Ten lbs. zinc sulfate applied April 14, 1955
2Ten trees per treatment
■^Average of 5 treated and 5 untreated trees.

It can be seen in Table 3 that the zinc level of the grass in 1966
was increased by the soil application of zinc sulfate on April 14, 1965,
and that most of the zinc is apparently fixed in the top 2 inches of
soil. Why the zinc content of the apple leaves was not increased is not
known. However, these data and the leaf analyes from several other
trials of 1-year duration make us question the value of soil applications
of zinc.

Summary

In preliminary trials, mean zinc levels in some Massachusetts apple
orchards were found to be 15.0 ppm in 1965, and 12.4 ppm in 1966. Al-
though some trees may be low in zinc, at present no visual deficiency
symptoms have been observed and consequently zinc treatments are of
questionable value in most orchards. The data also suggest that soil
applications of zinc sulfate may be of no immediate value in raising the
zinc level in apple leaves.

***************

1967 GUIDE TO ORCHARD FERTILIZATION

W.D. Weeks
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Our basic suggestions for orchard fertilization have not changed
from past recommendations. Nitrogen is still the key to a satisfactory
fertility program and the rate of application to each tree should be
adjusted to give the maximum yield of firm, highly colored fruit. A
careful study of tree growth during the growing season and a check of
the fruit at harvest can be most helpful in determining the nitrogen
requirements of the tree.

Suggested rates of fertilizer for normal applications to bearing-
age apple trees are given in the following table.

Normal Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Apple Orchards

Approximate Amounts per Tree

Potential Bu. Nitrogen Potash Ammonium Muriate

Yield of Tree Required Required Nitrate of Potash or 0-15-30 8-16-16

Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds

Less than 15 0.55 1.3 2.0 2.1 4.3 8

15 - 25 0.56-1.00 1.3-2.0 2.0-3.3 2.1-3.3 4.3-6.6 8-12

More than 25 1.33-2.00 2.7-4.3 4.0-5.0 4.5-7.9 9.0-14.3 16-25

The suggested amounts of materials to apply in the table are for
hand applications under the spread of the branches. When the materials
are broadcast over the entire orchard floor, it may be necessary to in-
crease the rate of application in order to obtain the same tree response
as with the hand applications. Fertilizer materials other than those
given in the tables may be used so long as they are applied at rates
which provide equivalent amounts of nitrogen and potassium.

The tree's magnesium and calcium requirements can best be met by
maintaining an adequate dolomitic liming program. The pH of orchard
soils should be maintained between 6 and 5.5. If a soil test shows that
the pH of soil is 5.5 or below, magnesium sulfate sprays should be applied
to prevent possible occurrence of magnesium deficiency. It takes from
three to five years before dolomitic limestone is effective in correcting
magnesium deficiency. When magnesium sulfate sprays are used, apply two
to three sprays of epsom salts at the rate of 20 pounds per 100 gallons
of water. These sprays should be timed by calyx, first and second cover
sprays. To avoid possible incompatibilities, the epsom salt sprays should
not be combined with the regular insecticidal and fungicidal sprays.

Boron should be applied to orchard soils every three years. Borax
is the most common material used. The rates of application per tree vary
with age and size. Apply one -quarter pound of borax to young trees, one-
half to three-quarters pound to medium age and size trees, and three-
quarters to one pound to large or mature trees. Boron may be applied as
a foliar spray. On an annual basis Polybor-2 or Boro Spray is applied
at one -half pound per 100 gallons of spray one and three weeks after petal
fall.

The amounts of fertilizer applied to trees which have received annual
applications of 200 pounds or more of hay mulch per tree may be materially
reduced or entirely eliminated. Tree performance should serve as a guide
in determining the extent to which the rates of fertilizer may be reduced.

It is suggested that the need for minor elements be established be-
fore making extensive corrective treatments. Limited trials indicate
that soil applications of zinc may not be effective in improving the zinc
nutrition of the tree. While we have no evidence of widespread micro-
nutrient deficiencies such as zinc and manganese, it is possible that
some orchards may be approaching low levels of these elements. Studies
in Maine indicate that when mild cases of these deficiencies occur, fung-

icides containing zinc and manganese may supply sufficient quantities
of these elements to correct the deficiency. However, in severe defi-
ciencies separate sprays containing zinc or manganese must be applied.

In young, non-bearing orchards, it may be possible to produce suffi-
cient high quality mulching material for the young trees by broadcasting
500 to 800 pounds of mixed fertilizer per acre. Place the mulch in a
band under the spread of the branches. The amount of fertilizer required
for the trees with this system of culture will vary with the quantity and
quality of mulch applied around each tree. If the trees are not making
sufficient growth, one -eighth pound of ammonium nitrate per year of tree
age may be applied to the mulch.

Recommendations for fertilizing peach orchards are given in the fol-
lowing table. The amounts given may need to be increased, if the trees
are in a heavy sod. A suggested increase would be to double the amount
of nitrogen.

Normal Rates of Fertilizer for Bearing Peach Orchards

App

roximate Amounts

per

Tree

Ammonium

Muriate

Tree Age

Nitrate

of Potash

0-15-30

8-16-16

Pounds

3-6

h - 1

1-2

2 - t+

2-1+

6-9

1 - 1%

2-3

t+ - 6

L+ - 6

9-12

1% - 2

3-1+

6-8

6 - 8

12 & over

2-1+

4-8

8-12

8 - 16

***************

FOLIAR CALCIUM SPRAYS FOR BITTER PIT CONTROL

Mack Drake and W.D. Weeks
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Foliar calcium sprays are recommended for bitter pit susceptible
varieties, such as Baldwin, Northern Spy, and possibly Cortland and Red
Delicious, especially on trees with a light crop or those that have pro-
duced pitted fruit in recent year.

We recommend using calcium nitrate (fertilizer or technical grade)
at the rate of 5 pounds/100 gallons of water. A spreader or wetting
agent such as Triton B should be used at the rate of 3 fluid ounces/100
gallons of water.

Apply 3 sprays at 2-week intervals. The first spray is applied
about 2 weeks after petal fall. Preliminary tests indicate that 3 sprays
are as effective as 6 or 9 sprays applied throughout the growing season.

- 10 -

It appears that the criticaJ period for the Initiation of bitter pit is
in the early stages of fruit growth, rather than later in the season.

Without a surfactant, droplets of the calcium solution concentrate
at the leaf margins producing a burn or scorch. Similarly, droplets
concentrate on the fruit surface causing lenticel spotting.

Spray when good drying conditions prevail. Spraying when leaves
are wet or in late afternoon increases the danger of leaf scorch.

Calcium chloride (technical or industrial grade) may be used at
the rate of 3 pounds/100 gallons of water instead of calcium nitrate,
but there is greater danger of leaf scorch from calcium chloride.

While foliar calcium sprays reduce the incidence of bitter pit,
they do not eliminate bitter pit. We have not been able to obtain 100
percent control of the disorder in any four experiments.

***************

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massochusetts

A. A. Spielmon

Dean and Director

Cooperative Agriculturol Extension Work

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

398

Official Business

3/67 - 955

Permit No. 1216

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

MAY-JUNE 1967

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Tree Spacing and Apple Orchard Modification

The Highbush Blueberry Industry

Pomologicol Paragraph (Tree Spacing)

Chemical Weed Control in Strawberries

Random Thoughts on Chemical Weed Control
in Orchards

Paroquat Now Labeled for Non-Bearing Fruit Trees

TREE SPACING AND APPLE ORCHARD MODIFICATION

Williajn J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

During the last 2 or 3 years, growers have been literally bombarded
with talks at meetings and with articles in publications concerning tree
walls, mold-and-hold pruning and size-controlled rootstocks. Along with
these innovations has been a renewed interest in the age-old practice
of scoring. The advocates of these practices are attempting to develop
orchards with early and heavy production per acre from trees that can
be harvested during a shorter period of time with the minimum of harvest
laborers. Therefore, it is of interest to reflect on what we were doing
in Massachusetts orchards before this bombardment, what is happening now,
and what may happen in our orchards in the future.

What We Were Doing

During the 1950' s, growers became concerned about the tree height
in many of their older plantings with tree spacing of M-O' x M-0' . Many
of these tall trees were in blocks originally planted 20' x 20', but
growers had failed to restrict tree size and thereby lower limbs were
"shaded out" and the trees grew tall from crowding.

The "Allen" way of lowering trees was introduced to Massachusetts
in 1952, but growers finally settled for a more gradual lowering of
trees to 18 feet or less. Since 1960, we have advocated restricting
tree size and shaping trees like Christmas trees branches in the up-
per half of the trees are cut back to insure the maintenance of vigor-
ous and fruitful lower limbs.

From 1960 through 1965, M-5% of the trees planted were on size-con-
trolling rootstocks, with the majority on E.M. VII. These trees were
spaced 20' x 30', giving 72 trees per acre. In a few orchards, however,
growers experimented with trees on E.M. IX, with trees on E.M. VII spaced
20' x 15' and with plantings having off -set rows.

What is Happening Now

As a result of the bombardment with proposed orchard innovations,
many growers are critically analyzing their orchards and their cultural
practices. They know that productive, mature Mcintosh trees planted
M-0' x M-0' can produce yields of 1000 bushels or more per acre annually.
But , it is many years before these trees at these planting distances at-
tain sufficient bearing surface to produce these profitable crops I
Therefore, growers reason that the answer to the problem of slow pro-
duction increases is to plant a large number of trees per acre to obtain
a large bearing surface early in the life of the orchard. Questions
remain as to what dwarfing stock is most suitable and what tree spacing
and pruning system to use.

At present, EM VII rootstock continues to be the preferred stock
for Mcintosh, but an increasing number of trees on Mailing -Merton (M.M,)
106 are being planted. In fact, it appears that the demand for M.M. 106,
exceeds the supply. Grower decision on rootstock for Delicious is not
clear-cut, however. Although many are being planted on E.M. VII, some
growers question the need for putting this variety on a size -controlling
rootstock, since it is not as vigorous growing as Mcintosh. Contrai^y
to many other fruit growing areas, the number of spur Delicious being
planted is limited.

The limited experience gained with trees of E.M. IX indicates that
this rootstock is of questionable value even in orchards of growers who
are willing to devote extra time to these plantings .

There is little interest in a planting system with off -set rows

Interplants set to one side and between the trees in the row as means

for obtaining larger tree numbers per acre. Therefore, plantings with
close spacing in the row and between the rows are being established by
some growers 6' x 14', 10' x 18', 15' x 21' and so forth.

What May Happen in the Near Future

With a few exceptions, growers will devote only part of their acre-
age to close tree spacings, and it is doubtful that many plantings with
spacing closer than 12' x 18' will be established. Unless something un-
foreseen happens, it also is doubtful that tree walls will become a
reality, except on a very limited scale, because the bending and pruning
techniques necessary for the development of the tree wall appear to be
too laborious. Instead, the trees in these close plantings will be kept
as individual units.

Trees in some of our older blocks will be gradually lowered to 12'
to 14', and past experience indicates that this can be accomplished
without too much difficulty.

Most growers, regardless of whether or not they have plantings with
close tree spacing, will mulch and/or fertilize heavily the first 5 to
6 years to obtain a large bearing surface. The trees may be scored,
particularly Delicious, to induce flower bud differentiation. Once the
tree starts bearing, the rate of fertilization will be reduced to help
red color development on fruit and to hold back tree size. Restriction
of tree size by pruning will receive major emphasis, since trees of 14
feet or lower are desired. Restricting size and maintaining productiv-
ity of trees spaced 7' to 12' apart in the row will challenge the horti-
cultural ability of the grower, however.

Summary

Plantings with close tree spacings will prove successful only if
growers are willing to pay attention to details. A grower's ability as
a horticulturist may play an increasingly Important role in his success
in the future. The ultimate answer as to the planting distance, height
and spread of our trees is not known. Many of the answers may be found
by the industry itself and probably no one system of culture will be

prevalent.

***************

3 -

THE HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY INDUSTRY

Willlajn J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

It is evident from reading the Proceedings of the North American
Blueberry Workers' Conference (Maine Agricultural Experiment Station
Misc. Rpt. 118) that a rapid expansion of the highbush blueberry indus-
try has occurred in some states during the last decade. On the other
hand, in Massachusetts and all of New England, the industry has expanded
slowly since the majority of the plantings are small and are being op-
erated by part-time farmers. To give readers some pertinent facts about
the highbush blueberry industry in the leading producing states, the
writer has included below information obtained from the Proceedings of
the North American Blueberry Workers Conference and from correspondence
with blueberry workers from these states. Since blueberry acreage and
production are not generally published in the USDA Crop Reporting Ser-
vice, such data presented below generally are the best estimate from a
variety of sources.

New Jersey

Frederick A. Perkins, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey,
reports that during the last 10 years, blueberry acreage in his state
has increased about 60 percent and that there are now over 8,000 acres
producing around 2 million trays (12 pints - 11 pounds) annually. Most
of the acreage is in Burlington and Atlantic counties , located in south-
eastern New Jersey.

Bluecrop , Jersey and Weymouth varieties produce slightly less than
one -half of the total commercial production. According to Perkins, the
average yield in 1965 was estimated at 260 12-pint trays per acre.

During the 1950' s, about 60 percent of the blueberries were sold
for fresh fruit and M^O percent were sold for processing. In recent
years, however, about 80 percent of the crop has been sold for fresh
fruit.

Perkins stated, "New Jersey is the dominant supplier of fresh mar-
ket, cultivated blueberries, with the season extending from around June
20 to August 20. The peak of production is marketed from July 10 to
August 1st. Most of the berries are sold in large-city markets of New
York, Philadelphia and Boston, with other shipments to major cities
throughout the U.S."

North Carolina

Gene J. Galletta, Department of Horticulture Science, North Carolina
State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, reports the following inform-
ation about the North Carolina blueberry industry.

1+ -

The hlghbush blueberry acreage has approximately doubled during
the last decade and is still expanding. The industry is concentrated
in the southeastern part of the state with 3500-1000 acres of which
about 75 percent are producing. There are about 50 acres of rabbiteye
blueberry (Vaccinum ashei) varieties, of recent North Carolina and
Georgia origin, in Coastal and Piedmont North Carolina. Although the
fruit of the rabbiteye varieties are now confined to local and home
garden sales, it is believed that the fresh and processing potential of
this species will be more extensively utilized in the future. "The rab-
biteye species has a distinctive fruit quality, tremendous productive
potential, a ripening season following the highbush, the advantage of
minimal maintenance following establishment, and a broader tolerance to
a variety of soils than the highbush species," Galetta says.

The major highbush varieties grown are Wolcott and Murphy. The
acreage planted to varieties such as Berkeley, Bluecrop and Earliblue
Is limited because of their susceptibility to cane canker, except in
the mountain area of North Carolina. Highbush blueberry varieties now
being planted are mainly Wolcott, Murphy, Croatan, Morrow (a new vari-
ety) , Jersey and Berkeley.

Galetta reports that the major problems of the Industry are the
labor shortage, the best economic p runing of bearing bushes, resurgence
of a more virulent form of the stem canker fungus, the recent fruit set
failure of the Wolcott variety and "uneven" propagation results.

Michigan

Jerome Hull, Jr., Extension Specialist in Horticulture, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, MichigcLn, gives the following estimates
of the highbush blueberry industry in Michigan.

The 195^1 Michigan Agricultural census reported M-,160 acres of high-
bush blueberries and production of about 10 million pounds. The present
blueberry acreage is about 9,000 acres with 7,000 to 8,000 acres of bear-
ing age, and within the next several years an Increase to 10,000 acres
is anticipated. Blueberry production in 196M^, was approximately 22
million pounds. In 1966, a yield of 22 million to 23 million pounds
was anticipated. Generally, 60 percent of the production Is processed
and the remainder sold as fresh fruit.

Approximately 50 percent of the present acreage is planted to
Jersey, but the popularity of this variety is declining because of un-
satisfactory productlon--small seedless berries. Although the cause of
these small seedless berries is not known, poor pollination is suspected.
The Rubel variety is still popular in Michigan and accounts for 20 to
25 percent of the highbush acreage. The variety appears to be holding
its own acreage-wise, because it appears to be ideally adapted to mechan-
ical harvesting. Five to 10 percent of the present acreage is planted
to Stanley, which has been popular for the early market season. This
variety, along with Rancocas and Weymouth, is no longer being planted,
however, as the popularity of Bluecrop has Increased during the last few

years and now accounts for approximately 10 percent of the highbush
blueberry acreage. More acreage of this variety would have been planted
if more plants had been available.

Oregon

Mrs. Elvera Horrell, Extension Agricultural Economist, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, Oregon, furnished the following data on the high-
bush blueberry industry in Oregon as reported in the U.S. Census of
Agriculture, 1959 (General Report).

Oregon Blueberries

Farms reporting
Acreage

Avg./farm
Quantity harvested, qts.

Avg./acre
Value, dollars

Avg./qt.

1959

127

693

5.5

221,791

320

62,213

1954

108

130

1.2

105,364-

810

34,770

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Tree Spacing - During the past 2 years, the writer has visited a
number of apple orchards with close tree spacings, and has concluded
that trees on E.M. VII spaced closer than 15 feet in the row will be
difficult to manage as individual tree units. An exception may be spur-
type Delicious, which due to their upright growth characteristic, might
be spaced 12 feet apart.

Tree spacing between rows should be sufficient to allow room for
use of bulk boxes while leaving space to drive past the boxes. There-
fore, a good planting distance for most varieties on E.M. VII would
appear to be 15' x 25'.

***************

CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN STRAWBERRIES

Dominic A. Marini
Regional Agricultural Specialist - Southeast Region

Because of potentially high yields and strong demand, strawberries
can be a profitable crop. Control of weeds is essential to the attain-
ment of high yields, however, and since a strawberry bed occupies the
land for about 16 months , a great deal of hand labor may be required to
keep the bed weed-free. Because of the potential return, a greater in-
vestment in labor and other inputs can be justified with strawberries
than with many other crops. However, where labor is not available, or
where there is competition with other crops for labor, herbicides can
be used to substantially reduce the high labor requirement of strawber-
ries.

Until recently, a satisfactory herbicide for use on strawberries
was not available. Now, 2 currently available materials, dacthal and
diphenamid, when used properly and under the right conditions, can pro-
vide satisfactory weed control. Both herbicides must be applied to a
weed-free soil, since they do not control established weeds. Further-
more, 1/2 to 1 inch of rain or irrigation is necessary following appli-
cation for good weed control, since they must be washed into the soil
to be effective.

Dacthal is recommended at the rate of 8 to 12 pounds of the 75 per-
cent commercial product per acre. It remains effective for about 6
weeks, so several applications are required for season-long control.
A late summer or early fall application provides good control of chick-
weed, a serious problem in most strawberry beds. Dacthal may be applied
early in the spring, prior to weed germination to control weeds in bear-
ing beds.

Dacthal is particularly effective against crabgrass and other annual
grasses, and against purslane, chickweed and lambs quarter. It is weak
against ragweed and red root pigweed, and poor against galinsoga, smart-
weed, mustard and other cruciferous weeds. Where galinsoga is a serious
problem, use of dacthal is not recommended.

In some cases, injury has been observed where dacthal was applied,
appearing as a puckering of certain leaves and somewhat resembling virus
symptoms. It is not known whether or not this injury has any effect on
runner formation or on the crop.

Diphenamid is recommended at the rate of 4 pounds active ingredient
per acre 5 pounds of the 80 percent product or 8 pounds of the 50 per-
cent product. It controls a wider range of weeds than dacthal and pro-
vides longer lasting control, but it may not be used within 12 months
of harvest. This means that only one application may be made, soon after
planting in April or May. Shallow cultivation improves its effectiveness.
No injury has been observed following its use.

Recent investigations have shown that a combination of 2 herbicides
frequently provide more effective weed control than either material
used alone. In some cases the effect is additive, resulting in a wider
range of weeds controlled; in other cases the combination controls cer-
tain hard-to-kill weeds not controlled by either material alone.

In one 1966 field trial, the combination of diphenamid and sesone
(SES) gave the best results of 5 different treatments. Both materials
were applied together in the same spray, diphenamid at the rate of 3
pounds of the 80 percent product per acre and sesone at 3 pounds per
acre. In another trial, the combination of diphenamid and dacthal, each
at 1/2 the recommended rate, gave the best results of 5 treatments.
The combination of dacthal at the rate of 8 pounds per acre and sesone
at H- pounds per acre gave better control than dacthal alone.

On the basis of recent experience, it appears that the best choice
for controlling weeds in strawberries at the present time is a combina-
tion of diphenamid with sesone or dacthal. The use of diphenamid is
limited in that it may not be used within 12 months of harvest. The
weed population on your fa^-m would also have a bearing on your choice
of herbicide. A little experimenting with th'^^se nombinations on your
farm is advisable, to see which performs best for you under your condi-
tions.

***************

RANDOM THOUGHTS ON CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN ORCHARDS

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Chemical weed control is rapidly becoming a standard practice as
a means of eliminating hand mowing and as an aid in the mouse control
program. At present, most growers use a hand gun to apply herbicide
sprays to a limited area around the base of each tree. However, a more
reliable control of gallonage is obtained and at a lower cost of appli-
cation if a tractor -mounted spray boom is used instead of a hand gun.

Effect on Tree Growth

Whether or not growth of young fruit trees would be improved by
chemical weed control would depend upon existing cultural practices,
growing conditions and perhaps by the nutritional status of the tree.
Under good growing conditions, it is doubtful that chemical weed con-
trol would be superior to hay mulch for enhancing apple tree growth, or
superior to mulch or cultivation in promoting peach tree growth. How-
ever, when young trees are growing in a well-established sod and rain-
fall is inadequate for optimum growth, chemical weed control may benefit
growth.

Virtually complete elimination of weeds (grass as well as broad-
leaf weeds) may be desirable from the standpoint of mouse control, but
it is questionable whether this degree of weed control would result in
more terminal growth than when considerably less weed control was ob-
tained.

Value of Chemical Weed Control

In the writer's opinion, there is no substitute for a hay mulch
program in newly established apple orchards. Mulch will eliminate most
weed competition and enhance the potassium and nitrogen levels in the
trees. As the apple trees become older, however, few growers attempt
to continue a mulching program other than mowing and letting the grass
lie. A chemical weed control program would be of value in these situations
to supplement the mouse control program. The treated areas under the
trees serve as a barrier between the mouse and its potential food source

the tree and should provide some protection from mice during late

fall and winter. With the advent of snow, however, this protection is
lost. The snow will provide the necessary cover to allow mice to reach
the tree, feed on it, and thus produce damage.

Recent Label Clearances

Recent label clearances now make it possible for growers to con-
trol a broader spectrum of weeds and to apply an herbicide whenever it
is convenient. Because of timing restrictions on herbicide usage and
tolerance to most herbicides; bindweed, poison ivy, dandelions and sor-
rel became problem weeds where chemical weed control was practiced.
The labeling of Ammate X, Dacamine W and dichlobenil (Casoron) has
helped solve these problems. Ammate X is available for the control of
poison ivy in apple and pear orchards. Dacamine i+D, which has no restri-
tions on preharvest interval or frequency of use in apple and pear orch-
ards, controls broadleaf weeds such as poison ivy, dandelions, sorrel,
field bindweed and hedge bindweed. (These bindweeds are commonly called
morning glory by growers.)

Growers wishing to rely on a fall weed program may use granular
dichlobenil in appl^ pear and peach orchards. This material will control
a broad spectrum of perennial and annual weeds when applied during the
late fall-early winter months. In our tests, dichlobenil has given out-
standing control of sorrel, broadleaf plantain, buckhorn plantain and
dandelions, which are tolerant to some herbicides. However , this mater -
ial should be used on a trial basis only, since further testing of rates
of application and tree response to this herbicide is needed .

Summary

If used properly, herbicides are a useful tool in orchards. The
main benefits derived from their use are the elimination of hand mowing
and the aiding of the mouse-control program. Because of label clearances,
it is now possible to control a broader spectrum of weeds, prevent the
influx of weeds tolerant to some herbicides, and to apply an herbicide
whenever it is convenient.

•A- A A * A ft A A A A A A A A A

- 9

PARAQUAT NOW lABELED FOR NON -BEARING FRUIT TREES

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Paraquat is a liquid-formulation herbicide which kills both broad-
leaved and grassy weeds on contact. The chemical is translocated to
some extent within both grass and broadleaf weeds but becomes inactive
on contact with the soil . In other words, soil residue is not a prob-
lem with this material.

Paraquat acts as a chemical mower burning succulent stems and

foliage of the weeds with which it comes in contact. The effect of
this burning action can be noted within several hours after application.

For best results, use 3 quarts of paraquat per sprayed acre in 100
gallons of water. When used with a recommended spreader, the amount of
paraquat per acre may be reduced to 2 quarts. Apply paraquat in May
when grass is 8-10" high. A repeat application will be necessary for
season-long control, however. In following years, one annual applica-
tion of paraquat may be sufficient.

Paraquat may be used under trees the year they are planted. This
herbicide also would be useful if temporary burning to the ground cover
were desired; for example, when conditions of drought exist.

Paraquat may be used with diuron or simazine. These mixtures will
provide quick "knock-down" of weeds as well as a residue in the surface
soil which may keep the treated area relatively free of weeds during
the growing season.

Below are the recommendations as they will appear on the paraquat
(ORTHO Paraquat) label. (Dealers presently hold some supplies of para-
quat that do not bear this recommendation on the label.)

" NON -BEARING (Young Plantings) FRUIT CROPS AND WINDBREAK, SHADE
AND ORNAMENTAL TREES: For control of annual broadleaf weeds and grasses
and for top kill of perennial weeds and grasses in the interspaces and
around the base of non-bearing (young plantings) fruit trees and vines
such as Apples, Apricots, Citrus, Poaches and Grapes and other trees
such as Arborvitae, Ash, Elm, Fir, Oak and Pine - Use 1.0 to 2.0 quarts
of ORTHO Paraquat per sprayed acre in 50 to 200 gallons of water. Apply
as a directed spray to thoroughly cover weeds and grasses. Add wetting
agent, such as ORTHO X-77 Spreader, at 8 ounces per 100 gallons of spray.
For best results apply when the weeds and grasses are succulent and
growth is one to six inches high. Repeat applications as necessary to
control newly germinated weeds and grasses and to control regrowth of
perennials. CAUTION - Spray contact of succulent stems and foliage may
result in injury from spot burning, desiccation and/or defoliation. Use
coarse spray and avoid applications during windy conditions to avoid
drift."

* * * * * * *********

10 -

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with state and federal
laws and regulations. Where trade names are used for identification,
no product endorsement is implied nor is discrimination intended.

Gjoperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Mossachusetts

A. A. Spielman

Director of Extension

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 19 M

Official Business
403 - 5/67 - 955

Permit No. 1216

Postage ond Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE

JULY-AUGUST 1967

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Apple Rootstock Studies

Pomological Paragraph

Paying Apple Pickers by the Bucket

New Overwrapped Trays for Mcintosh Apples

A New Publication Available

Cooling Apples in Bulk Boxes

New England Fruit Tree Survey

Pomological Paragraphs

Growth in CA Storage Holdings
Polyethylene Envelopes for Pallets
Publications Available

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service. A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.

APPLE ROOTSTOCK STUDIES

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Recently, A. P. Preston, East Mailing Research Station, Kent, Eng-
land, published the results of 15 years' experience with apple trees on
all the Malling-Merton (M«M,) clones and Mailing (M.) XXV, and compared
their performance with trees on older clonal rootstocks (The Journal of
Horticultural Science M-1 (No. 4) :3M-9-3 60, October, 1966). These trials
showed that none of the trees on the new clones were as small as those
on M.IX. Trees on M.M.106 and M.VII were similar to each other in size
and cropping but unlike M.VII, M.M.106, was free from suckering. M.M.lll
and M.II made trees of similar size, but Cox on M.M.lll yielded 20% more
fruit than on M.II over the 15-year period of the trial; this was not
solely an effect of earlier bearing for the difference in yield persisted
through years 11 to 15. Trees on M.M.IOM- were larger than those on M.II
and M.M.lll were heavy -bearing.

No large differences in fruit size between trees on different root-
stock occurred and in some instances fruit size on the same rootstock
varied greatly for different varieties and different soils. This indi-
cates that rootstock is not one of the major factors affecting fruit
size. Preston pointed out, however, that among the most fruitful root-
stocks, trees on M.IX, M.VII, M.II, M.XXV, M.M.106 and M.M.lll all pro-
duced relatively large fruits. On the other hand, fruits from the heavy-
yielding trees on M.M.104 were smaller than those from trees on M.IX.
Fruit from trees on M.M.lll were not smaller than those from M.II, even
though yields were higher on M.M.lll.

Fruit color was recorded and showed only small differences betv\'een
rootstocks .

(M.VII is the common size-controlling rootstock in our orchards at
present. A few growers have trees on M.II, but most favor M.VII, because
trees may be smaller on this rootstock. There is interest in M.M.106,
since it is free of suckering and also it is reported that trees on this
rootstock are better anchored than those on M.VII. Editors)

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Paying Apple Pickers by the Bucket . An apple harvest procedure new to
the Extension Pomologist, but in use in Appalachia, is that of paying
pickers by the bucket rather than by the bulk box. A picking crew which
may consist of 10 to 12 men, empty full picking buckets into the same
bulk box, A checker, who stands by the box, records the buckets harves-
ted by each crew member and also examines the fruit for excessive physi-
cal damage. This harvest procedure has merit because the consolidation
of the crew simplifies management.

RESEARCH IN OTHER AREAS
NEW OVERWRAPPED TRAYS FOR MCINTOSH APPLES

William J. Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Mcintosh apples are very easily bruised, and it is not uncommon to
find packages of badly bruised fruit on the market shelf. A package
that will protect the fruit from rough or careless handling is badly
needed for this variety.

In a recent study, a new molded-pulp, high-post tray with a poly-
vinyl-chloride shrink-film overwrap was evaluated against conventional
3 -pound polyethylene bags and 6 -fruit trays with shrink-film overwraps
by R. T. Hinsch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Mcintosh apples were packed in commercial packing houses in Michigan
and truck shipments were made to Cleveland and distributed to several
retail food stores. Examination in these stores showed that 7% of the
apples in the high-post trays were bruised, in contrast with 78% in the
polyethylene bags and 50% in the trays. Furthermore, none of the apples
in the high-post trays had serious bruises, while 25% of those in poly-
ethylene bags and 3% of those in trays were seriously bruised.

The cost of the packaging materials and direct labor per pound of
apples was 1.6 cents for the polyethylene bag, 3 cents for the high -post
tray, and 3.3 cents for the 6 -fruit tray.

These data are found in the publication ARS 52-16, "New Overwrapped
Trays for Mcintosh Apples," available from the Office of Information,
USDA, Washington, D.C. 20250.

***************

A NEW PUBLICATION AVAILABLE

Watercore, a non -parasitic disorder of apples, is a problem of
yearly concern to growers in New England. Its presence has a two-fold
effect on fruit quality; not only does it affect appearance and flavor
of the apple, but it also frequently leads to internal breakdown follow-
ing harvest. U.S. Apple Standards require that U.S. No. 1 or U.S. Fancy
fruit be free of watercore damage after January 31, and when 3 or more
vascular -bundle areas are affected with watercore, the apple is consid-
ered to be damaged. For U.S. Extra Fancy, no trace of watercore is
allowed after January 31. A grower thus may incur substantial losses
from watercore through both downgrading of sound fruit and development
of internal breakdown.

Therefore, a publication entitled "Watercore and Internal Breakdown
in Delicious Apples" has been prepared by W.J. Bramlage and W.J. Lord to

acquaint growers with what is known about watercore and what might be
done to reduce losses resulting from it. This publication is available
from your County Extension Service or from William J. Lord, French Hall,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01002.

A**************

COOLING APPLES IN BULK BOXES

WilliajTi J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Rapid cooling of fruit in storage is an extremely important phase
of cold storage management. Cooling of apples from field temperature
to 32°F within 2 or 3 days instead of 4 to 6 weeks can make a great deal
of difference in the keepability of apples. With the adoption of bulk
boxes by the apple industry, the cooling of fruit in these large con-
tainers becomes a problem of extreme importance if optimum storage life
is to be obtained.

Research by G . 0. Patchen and G. F. Sainsbury (TJSDA Marketing Re-
search Report No. 532, 1962) has shown that a bulk box constructed with
either the sides or bottom having approximately 8 to 11 percent free
area (air space between boards) will provide cooling characteristics as
good as those of standard field crates on pallets. Free air space on
the sides gave cooling results comparable with free air space on the
bottom of the bulk boxes.

Previous studies by Sainsbury showed that when containers of fruit
are placed directly in contact with outside walls, heat is transmitted
through conduction that affects the temperature of the fruit. The fruit
temperature may be 1° or 2°F higher or lower, than fruit in adjoining
bulk boxes, depending on whether outside temperatures are higher or
lower than those inside. To prevent this from occurring, the bulk boxes
should be stacked at least 6 inches from outside walls. Similar space
is needed near the inside ^^/alls to insure adequate air circulation past
and through the stacked boxes.

The rows of stacked boxes should be parallel to the flow of air from
the diffuser or duct openings. With two-way-entry pallets, a row of
boxes constitutes an almost solid barrier to the flow of air, and placing
the stacks perpendicular to the flow of air impedes air movement. More
uniform holding temperatures are obtained when stack rows are parallel
to air flow.

Stack rows should be made up of bulk boxes of similar size, so that
the fork space of the pallets is continuous from front to back of the
row, allowing a continuous air channel. Although the bulk boxes may be
nearly similar in height, any difference is cumulative. A 1-inch dif-
ference in height in each layer can blank off the channels at the top
of the stack.

Patchen and Sainsbury had the following comments about the impor-
tance of air circulation:

"Air circulation appeared to play the greatest part in tlie coo.l ing
rate of the apples stored in pallet boxes.

When the cooling air units are overhead in the center of a storage,
the air circulates over the top of the fruit and out to the side wal.ls;
then downwards and back through stack row channels and pallet fork spares
The volume of air moving in the channels and pallet fork spaces is less
near the bottom of the stack than near the top. This causes a small rise
in temperature of the cooling air as it passes by successive stacks
(especially when the fruit is warm) in the rows. Therefore, the last
pallet boxes passed by the air, cool more slowly than the first pallet
boxes that are in contact with the colder air.

l\/hen thermocouples were placed in apples at the outer edge, at bot-
tom, top, and middle positions, and in the air at the center of the pal-
let box, the sides and bottom were found to cool the fastest. The air
temperature beside the center apple was always slightly colder than the
adjoining apple. Warm air rises, and as the air was warmer for most of
the test at the top of the pallet box, this indicated a circulation of
air through the apples. This shows the necessity of having air circu-
lating above the pallet box to remove this warm air. The apples at the
top of the pallet box remained slightly warmer than the apples at the
center of the pallet box until near the stabilizing temperature, at
which time they were approximately the same.

The apples at the bottom and sides of the pallet box cooled very
rapidly and stayed from 1° to 3 cooler than the center apple, until
near the stabilized temperature. The widest variation occurred near
the beginning of the test.

From the data obtained in these tests, the cooling-rate variation
for apples of different size could not be determined, if any existed.
The variation of air circulation and location of the pallet box in the
stack had the largest effect upon the cooling rate."

***************

NEW ENGLAND FRUIT TREE SURVEY-1965

W. D. Weeks
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The following tables were constructed from the data which appeared
in the recent publication of the New England Crop Reporting Service.

In Table 1, the number of apple trees by age groups and the percent
of the total number of trees in each age group for each New England
state are presented.

5 -

Table 1. Number and percent of total apple trees by age groups for each
state in New England.

1 to 6 Years 7 to 11 Years 12 to 21 Years

No.

Maine

56,080

23.3

30,1+83

12.7

N. H.

52,523

31.1

20,021

11.9

Vt.

56,500

35.1

17,970

11.1

Mass.

64,220

20.4

33,431

10.6

R. I.

3,553

15.2

1,102

4.7

Conn.

30,822

21.9

21,052

14.9

No.

22+ Years
No. %

Total

53,370 22.0

26,411 15.7

12,848 8.0

56,671 18.0

2,654 11.4

25,405 18.0

100,857 42.0

69,707 41.3

73,890 45.8

160,930 51.0

16,058 68.7

63,776 45.2

240,790
168,662
161,208
315,252

23,337

141,055

Massachusetts 1
while Rhode Island h
A comparison of the
total tree numbers s
New Hampshire lead w
percent, Connecticut
Island last with 15.
of their industry Ve
while Massachusetts
their neighbors.

eads in the total number of trees in all age groups,
as the smallest number of trees in each age group,
percent of trees by age groups in relation to the
hows that for the 1 to 6 year age group Vermont and
ith 3 5.1 and 31.1 percent followed by Maine with 23.3
21.9 percent, Massachusetts 20.4 percent, with Rhode
2 percent. These data show that based on the size
rmont and New Hampshire have been planting more trees,
and Rhode Island have been planting fewer trees than

Rhode Island and Massachusetts have a larger proportion of their
trees in the older age group with 68.7 and 51.0 percent in the 22 year
and older group. New Hampshire and Maine have 41.3 and 42.0 percent of
their trees in this age group. Connecticut and Vermont have 45.2 and

45.8 percent of their trees in the old tree group.

Table 2 shows the number and percent of apple trees in New England
by states and age groups.

Maine has 22.9 percent of the total trees in New England with 21.3
percent of the trees under 7 years and 22.3 percent of the trees under
12 years. New Hampshire has 16.1 percent of the total trees, but it has

19.9 percent of the trees under 7 years and 18.7 percent of the trees
under 12 years. Vermont with only 15.3 percent of the total trees has
21.4 percent under 7 years and 19.2 percent under 12 years. Massachusetts
has 30.1 percent of the total trees with 24.4 percent of the trees under

7 years and 25.2 percent under 12 years. Rhode Island has only 2.2 per-
cent of New England's tree population. It has 1.3 percent of the trees
under 7 years and 1,2 percent under 12 years. Connecticut has 11.7 per-
cent of the trees under 7 years and 13.4 percent under 12 years. It
has 13,4 percent of the total tree numbers in New England.

6 -

Table 2. Number and percent of apple trees in New England by states
and age groups.

Trees Und

er 7 Years

Trees Under 12 Years

No.

% N.E.

No.

% N.E.

Total

% N.E.

Maine

56,080

21.3

86,564

22.3

240,790

22.9

N. H.

52,523

19.9

72,544

18.7

168,662

16.1

Vt.

56,500

21. L+

74,470

19.2

161,208

15.3

Mass.

64,220

24.1+

97,651

25.2

315,252

30.1

R. I.

3,553

1.3

4,655

1.2

23,337

2.2

Conn.

30,822

11.7

51,874

13.4

141,055

13.4

Since future production of an apple producing district is
dependent upon the numbers of young trees in relation to the total tree
population, it should be possible from the data in the two tables to
project the future of the apple industry in the different New England
states.

On the basis of young trees under 12 years, it would appear
that Vermont and New Hampshire can expect an increase in production.
Massachusetts and Rhode Island might expect a decrease, since their
percent of young trees shows a decrease in relation to their total tree
population. Maine and Connecticut should expect to maintain their cur-
rent production, since their percent of young trees is equal to the per-
cent of total tree population.

Massachusetts will still remain the leading producer of apples
in New England for sometime because of its greater total tree numbers.
However, it appears that a gradual shift in production to the three nor-
thern states will take place in the future.

***************

Pomological Paragraphs

Growth in CA Storage Holdings . In 1956, the Division of Markets, Massa-
chusetts Department of Agriculture, began listing CA storage holdings
in its Special Apple Market Report. The increase in CA holdings since
1956 is of interest, and is shown in the table below.

Since 1963, approximately half of the Mcintosh crop in storage on
November 1, has been CA. During this same period, CA has accounted for

140% oi" more of the total apple crop in storage. As a point of interest,
in 1961, we had the largest stored apple crop on record.

Apple-storage holdings (thousands of bushels) in Massachusetts on Novem-
ber 1, of the years 1956 to 1966.

Mcintosh

All Varieties

1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966

Regular CA Fct. stored Regular CA PcTT stored
Year storage storage crop in CA storago storage crop in CA

730

1,362

1,012

1,023

646

1,208

929

661

602

670

412

118

13.9

181

11.7

397

28.2

437

29.9

473

42.3

585

32.6

610

39.6

655

49.8

667

52.6

699

51.1

552

57.3

1,232

1,951
1,594
1,630
1,162
1,791
1,483
1,108
1,019
1,128
771

118

8.7

194

9.0

442

21.7

471

22.4

486

29.5

634

26.1

698

32.0

746

40.2

788

43.6

793

41.3

679

46.8

Polyethylene Envelopes for Pallets . Polyethylene box liners are in com-
mon use as a means of extending the storage life of Golden Delicious
apples. Growers who palletize field boxes should consider the use of
a polyethylene envelope over the entire pallet rather than using poly-
ethylene liners in each box.

Publications Available . The publications listed below are available
from your County Extension Service or from William J. Lord, French Hall,
University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01002.

1. Apple Sorters' Manual - Extension Publ. No. 10, Revised June,
1967. All growers and packers should obtain copies of this publication
in which is incorporated the changes in the United States Standards for
Grades of Apples that became effective September 1, 1964.

2. Be a Better Apple Picker - Special Circular 246, Reprinted
April, 1966.

3. The Economics of Handling Apples in Bulk Boxes - Extension
Publication No. 9, April, 1967.

4. Scald Control for Apples - Special Circular No. 277, Revised.
August, 1967.

5. Preharvest Drop Control of Apples - Special Circular No. 254-.
Reprinted, 1966.

***************

Cooperative Extension Service
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts
A. A. Spielman
Director
Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work
Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

Official Business

411 - 7/67 - 980

Permit No. 1216

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

OCTOBER 15, 1967

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Headlines Like These Hurt!

Let's Promote "Mcintosh Country"

Distribution of PURE Strychnine and
PURE Zinc Phosphide to be Discontinued

Control of Orchard Mice

Rabbit Control in Cultivated Blueberries

Harvesting and Storing Pears

Fewer Flies Mean More Customers

HEADLINES Like These HURT

El 1 sworth H . Wheel er
Professor of Entomology
Leader, Pesticide Chemicals Program

••..>M<*S-:i!!»:5*;iSsS«i;SSsSiB:KS;:r*^^^^

Herbicide Product Found
On Bank of Reservoir

— The
story has
not ended, contrary to some
reports.

I Moderate Toxicltj'

Empty bags of atrazone, a

[herbicide of moderate toxicity,;

have been found in a corn

field adjacent t o the WBV^

jflHB Reservoir by officer

Could things done in YOUR operations result in this kind of news?

Or could YOU be the cause of an even greater tragedy?
haps? Not all pesticides have "Moderate Toxicity"!

A child p e r ■

A field, ditch, stream bank or an open dump anywhere is NOT a safe
place to leave "empty" pesticide containers. They are never empty

Burn "empti es " , that will burn (except hormone- type , 2,4-D, etc.,
weed killers) in a spot where ashes can be buried; this amount of
heat does not destroy pesticides. And remember, smoke from organo
phosphate insecticides is especially dangerous.

Bury bottles
if possible,

mined there is no chance
polluted. Break bottles
but do it in the hole or
Avoid splashing with the

and metal containers at least 18 inches down, deeper
at a spot where, in so far as possible, you have deter-

of later exposure or that waters can be
and puncture and/or crush cans and drums
so that surface soil is not contaminated
concentrates 1

Rememberl Accidents with pesticides don't just happen - - somebody
lets them happen - - someone who failed to carry out his full respon-
sibility.

***************

LET'S PROMOTE "McINTOSH COUNTRY"

Ral ph Bal dasc ro
New York and New England Apple Institute

(Talk presented at the Annual Summer Meeting of
the Mass. Fruit Growers' Assoc, July 12, 1967, at the
Horticultural Research Center, Belchertown, Massachusetts)

A year ago this week, I sat on one of the chairs you are now
occupying. I listened to a number of learned men discuss apple
growing and research being conducted to improve the crop. Today,
I stand before you as one of the speakers. But, I don't pretend
to know anything about growing applesl Since joining the New York
and New England Apple Institute last July, I have almost avoided
the technical aspects of the apple; I can't tell scab from scald
or rust from rot and maybe that is for the best. My time has been
spent in the market place, the place in my opinion that needs more
of your attention, more research and more of your learned help.

You will admit that growing is no longer the great problem
it was and as production problems arise they are recognized and
solved by capable people in the Land Grant Colleges. But, selling
is and always has been a problem, and as our customers become more
urbanized, this problem will become even more complicated

Are these only figures and percentages that really don't affect
YOU? Does it make any difference to you what variety of apples your

neighbor grows? Yes, it does make a difference to YOU in expenses,

sales and ultimately in profits. Advertising and marketing expenses
are substantially reduced mainly because we produce so many good
Mcintosh appl es .

- 3 -

of the
and mo
are ba
advice
our sa
themes
moti on

our

con
re i
ck,"
. P
1 es

has

i n s t i t

sumer

mporta

"Shin
romoti
aids a
our ra

been

ute h
adver
ntly ,
e up
on of
nd po
di ,
ef f ec

as fo

t i s i n

the
your

Mcln
i nt-o
newsp
t i V e .

1 arge
advert
been c
Mclnto
V e r t i s
severa

perc
i si n
atas
sh n
ing
1 va

entage
g budg
trophi
ow. H
and ma
r i e t i e

of y
et ov
c. W
oweve
r k e t i
s of

our p
er se
e bel
r , on
ng pr
equa 1

r many y
g budget
customer
life wit
tosh has
f-purcha
aper and
W i t h u
roductio
veral va
i e v e we
ly Di vi n
g r a m if
product

ears c

on Mc

has s

h a Ma

been
se mat
TV ad
t Mcln
n, we w
r i e t i e
need m
i ty CO
we we
ion w i

oncen
Intos
een i
c," a
the m
e r i a 1
v e r t i
tosh ,
oul d
s. T
ore m
uld g
re f
th ou

trate
h. Y
t , te
nd ot
ajor
s , em
sing,
repr
have
he re
oney
ui de
reed
r pre

d th
ou h
11 in
her
emph
ploy
An
esen
to s
suit
for
a su
to a
sent

e ma
ave
g hi
equa
asi s
i ng
d th

jon
seen
m "M

of
the
is ,

ting
prea

wou
adve
cces
dver

res

it,
acs
good
all
same
pro -

suc
d ou
Id h
rti s
sful
ti se
ourc

h
r

ave
ing
ad-

es .

If you are a student of advertising, serious or casual, you
are surely aware of how strongly companies try to put their brand
name before the public. Trade-mark acceptance is, in the considered
opinion of the largest companies, their key to greater sales. It
keeps their present products selling at a good profit, allows intro-
duction of new and allied products with built-in consumer accept-
ance and provides an image for their total marketing program

Now, what do we do about the remaining percentage of our apple
crop that is marketed outside of the Crisp-aire period. We have
tried within the means of our budget, to identify "Apples from New
York Orchards" or "Apples from New England Orchards" with the In-
stitute name on all our ads. This is really not enough. The pic-
ture is bigger than that. The picture is that Eastern New York
and New England are the largest producing areas for Mcintosh in
the country to the tune of 76% of the total nationwide crop of Mc-
intosh. We should be striving to weld these 2 areas into a unified
entity and present this idea to the trade and consumers in an ex-
citing fashion.

The most logical course to follow in view of our Mcintosh pro-
duction is to identify the area as "Mcintosh Country." After all,
if we don't promote Mcintosh, no other segment of our industry will
It is not important to other geographic areas and we are glad of it
It makes our area more important because nowhere, nohow, can anyone
grow the apples we do in "Mcintosh Country."

- 4

This year we are out to get a bigger share of the apple mar-
ket because this year we think we will have a bigger crop.

This year we think we can go further under the banner of
"This is Mcintosh Country."

This year we have something new for retail stores, and we in-
tend to see most of them.

This year we have new advertising.

This year we have a premium offer.

So, help us to help you. The next time someone asks you

where you are from, tell them Mister "I'm from Mcintosh Country

You'll be surprised how many consumers recognize you.

***************

DISTRIBUTION OF PURE

STRYCHNINE AND PURE
BE DISCONTINUED

ZINC PHOSPHIDE

Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Univ. of Mass., Old Conservation Bldg.

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003

The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife recently announced
its discontinuance of the sale of Pure Zinc Phosphide and Pure
Strychnine Alkaloid Powder. This in no way affects the availabil-
ity of the Zinc Phosphide Rodenticide and Zinc Phosphide-treated
Steamed-crushed oats recommended for the control of orchard mice
or the Strychnine-treated Steamed-crushed oats recommended for the
control of mice in apple storages. As in the past, these materials
will still be available through farmer cooperatives and the Wild-
life Services Fund Office, University of Massachusetts, Old Con-
servation Building, Amherst, Massachusetts.

***************

CONTROL OF ORCHARD MICE

Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Univ. of Mass., Old Conservation Bldg.

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003

The winter months are the time of year when orchardists can
expect mouse damage to fruit trees unless precautions are taken

- 5 -

to prevent this. Most fruit growers know from past experience
which areas and blocks of trees are most subject to girdling. It
is still a good idea, however, to make a fall survey of the orchard
to determine whether new trouble spots have developed. Any areas
having many mouse trails, chewed apples or the characteristic fan-
shaped mounds of soil pushed up by pine mice, have potential mouse
damage problems. These are the areas where a thorough mouse con-
trol program should be undertaken.

MEADOW MICE

The
New Engl
root col
compl eme
quire fo
by the a
and weed
the year
the high
rotary m
tation c
and d i s p
avoid.

sear
and .
1 ar u
n t i n g
od an
1 tera
s i n
, but
est.
ower .
overi
ersed

e the

Thei

p. C

the

d she

tion

the

espe

Remo

The

ng th

, lea

surf a
r i n j u
ontrol
other .
Iter f
of the
rchard
ci al ly
val of
se mac
e orch
vi ng t

c e - 1 i

ry to

of t

Si n

or su

se tw

shou

i n t

this

h i n e s

ard f

hear

ving
f ru
hese
ce t
rvi V

ne
Id b
he f

mou
do

1 oor
ea

mi ce
it tr

mi ce
hese
al , s
cessi
e don
all w
se CO
not 1
. Th
pen a

most
ees i

can
a n i m a
ome p
ties .
e per
hen m
ver c
eave
e mat
nd ex

comm
s bar
be in
Is li
rotec
Clo
i odi c
ouse
an be
a lay
e r i a 1
posed

on to
k chewi

two pa
ke all
tion ca
se mowi
ally th
popul at
st be d
er of m

is c h
, a sit

rchards in
ng from the
rts , each
others re-
n be gained
ng of grass
roughout
ions are
one with a
owed vege-
pped fine
uation mice

Perhaps a more effective way of curbing vegetation in the
orchard is by the use of herbicides. When used properly, herbi-
cides will create a barren area around trees. These open areas
are avoided by meadow mice. The larger the cleared area, the more
protection that can be expected.

Control of vegetation should not be used as the primary method
in meadow mouse control, only as a supplement to the use of toxic
baits designed for mouse control. Also, remember that during the
winter deep snow will provide the needed cover for mice and they
will be able to reach the trees without becoming exposed.

The use of Zinc Phosphi de- treated steamed-crused oats is still
the best method for controlling orchard mice. These treated oats
may be applied either by the Trail Builder Machine or by broadcast-
ing, using 6-10 pounds per acre. All sections of the orchard hav-
ing meadow mice should be treated in the fall. For extra protection
a buffer strip around each block of trees should be baited. This
additionally-treated area will provide a greater distance that mi-
grating mice have to cover before reaching the orchard. For those
areas having an overabundance of mice, an extra treatment may be
needed if the initial one did not give adequate control. Hand
placement or broadcast of Zinc Phosphide Rodenti ci de-treated apples
is a good follow-up method.

Periodic checks during the winter months, particularly after
a thaw, may reveal spots still having meadow mouse infestations.
A tablespoonf ul of Zinc Phosphide-treated steam-crushed oats poured
into the holes may give added protection for the remaining winter
months .

PINE MICE

Pine Mice are the underground species found in many New Eng-
land orchards. Damage caused by these animals is primarily the
girdling of root systems of apple trees. This form of injury is
not readily apparent until the tree loses its vigor, the leaves
take on a yellowish cast, or suckers sprout from the damaged roots.

Control of pine mice is more difficult and seldom as effect-
eve as for meadow mice. The broadcast method of poisoned baits
recommended for mouse control may get a few pine mice but usually
not enough for adequate protection. Also, it si'ould be noted that
control of vegetation may not have any effect on pine mouse num-
bers because of their living habits.

To obtain good control, it means that Zinc Phosphi de- treated
baits must be placed where the animal spends most of its time--in
underground trails. If the infested area is small, hand baiting
of the pine mouse natural runways using treated oats or apple cubes
is effective. The larger the number of runs per tree that are
treated, the better the control will be.

For larger areas, the use of the Trail Builder machine in
proper adjustment, is an advantage. By making artificial trails
on 2 or 4 sides of each tree, a great number of the pine mouse
natural runs are intersected. Most of the commercially-available
Trail Builder machines have automatic dispensers which will put
out 35-45 bait placements, when all 4 sides of a tree are treated.

Whether an orchard ist hand baits for pine mice or uses a
machine, there is one absolute necessity: the artificial trail
and the natural runs must be kept as clean as possible" ! Pine mi ce
maintain clean, well-packed trails. ATI foreign matter and debris,
especially soil, are removed by the mice. In doing this, the mice
quite often will cover or carry out the treated bait with the other
materials. This can reduce considerably the amount of control to
be attained.

***************

RABBIT CONTROL IN CULTIVATED BLUEBERRIES

Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Univ. of Mass., Old Conservation Bldg.

Amherst, Massachusetts 01003

With the large numbers of rabbits that have been seen during
the summer months, it is logical to expect more than the average
amount of rabbit damage to cultivated blueberries during the winter

Thiram (ARASAN 42-S*) is a repellent for the protection of
fruit trees, ornamentals, and nursery stock. This material is
available in the New England states through local distributors of
farm supplies. Manufacturer's recommendations for mixing and ap-
plication should be followed. For longer protection under severe
weather conditions, a sticker such as RHOPLEX AC-33* or LATEX 512-R*
should be added to the repellent solution.

Z.I. P.* is a ready-to-use
repellent. This material also
states through distributors of
recommendations for mixing and
The sticker is included in the

concentrate with a "Z.A.C.*" base
is available in the New England
farm supplies. The manufacturer's
application should be followed,
prepared mix.

Other prepared repellents which can be used for protecting
fruit trees and shrubs against rabbit damage are: TAT-GO*; NIBONEX
NO-NIB'L RABBIT REPELLENT*; MAGIC CIRCLE RABBIT REPELLENT*. TAT-
GO* and MAGIC CIRCLE RABBIT REPELLENT* are not registered for sale

in Massachusett s , howev e r .

Enol and

ited in the New
tered in your state
f acturers .

may

_ Distribution of these products is lim-
area and orders for the repellents regis-
have to be placed directly with the manu-

If the blueberry plantation is not too large, fencing may be
used to keep out the rabbits. A fence of lij-inch mesh and high
enough to extend two feet above the high snow mark should keep the
animals out of the area, CAUTION must be taken to
that no rabbits are trapped inside the fenced area
can do extensive damage because no other food will
except the blueberry bushes.

make certain
for one animal
be available

*Trade names

8 -

Further information on rabbit repellents, as well as live
trapninq and fencing of rabbits, may be obtained by writing to
the office of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service at Amherst, Mass
achusetts .

( Note : Mention of
endorsement by the

the foregoing products in no way
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)

implies their

***************

HARVESTING AND STORING PEARS

W.J. Bramlage and J.F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Most pears grown in New England are marketed locally by the
grower, which means that high quality is necessary for repeat sales
at the roadside stand or retail store. Pears can be a
quality commodity, but producing this quality requires
The fruit must be harvested at the right stage, stored
and ripened properly to produce this premium quality.

very high
special care
correctly ,

Unlike most fruits, pears cannot be tree-ripened, because they
will develop internal breakdown. They must be harvested green,
but at a rather definite stage of maturity. This maturity is best
determined by flesh firmness, and it has been repeatedly found that
the Magness-Tayl or pressure tester is an adequate tool for this
determination. This is in marked contrast with apples, where the
pressure tester has very limited value as a maturity index.

In determining pear maturity, the Magness-Tayl or pressure
tester is used the same way as on apples, with one very important
exception: a 5/16" diameter head must be used instead of the 7/16"
head used for apples. Since the green pears are much harder than
apples, the smaller head is essential to get a meaningful reading.
Using the 5/16" head, the following pressure- test ranges have been
established as indices of optimum maturity for major varieties:
Bartlett, 20-17 pounds; Bosc, 15-12 pounds; Anjou, 15-13 pounds;
Comice, 13-11 pounds; Gorham and Flemish, 14-12 pounds.

It is important that pears be harvested at the proper stage
of maturity. Fruit picked too early tends to shrivel in storage
and to develop poor quality when ripened, while over-maturity re-
sults in shortened storage life and the development of breakdown
disorders. Susceptibility to certain physiological disorders,
especially CO^ injury, is associated with advanced maturity.

All varieties of pears can be stored safely at the lowest tern
perature at which they will not freeze, which ranges from 27 to

29°F

- 9

ith a good temperature-control system,
t 30 F for maximum storage life. Storage
will lengthen storage life significantly

Therefore, in a storage w
pears should be stored a
at 30° rather than 32-34

Since pears are quite prone to shriveling, especially at the
narrow stem-end of the fruit, humidity control is particularly im-
portant. Maintaining the storage at 90-95% R.H. is considered to
be optimum. However, packing the pears in perforated polyethylene
bags is an excellent way to control shriveling due to moisture loss

The Anjou variety of pears is very susceptible to scald. In
the Pacific Northwest, it has been found that dipping the fruit in
2700 ppm ethoxyquin (Stopscald*) will provide adequate control of
this disorder, and a fungicide is commonly applied with the Stop-
scald* will provide adequate control of this disorder, and a fung-
icide is commonly applied with the Stopscald to reduce decay dur-
ing storage.

Pears have been shown to respond well to CA, although the
commercial adoption of this storage method has been much less than
for apples. It has been found in the West that the best atmosphere

for Barlett and Anjou
necessary since pears
browncore to develop.
York to determine the
and it is anticipated

and 1% COp; the
sensitive to

1 ow COp 1 evel i s

is 3% 0,

are ver^ sensitive'^to this gas,''which causes

Experiments are now being conducted in New
best CA conditions for Eastern-grown pears,
that CA storage will become a significant

factor in pear storage in the near future.

Varieties differ in their storage life, and this inherent dif-
ference is accentuated by the harvest maturity and the storage con-
ditions to which they are subjected. In general, however, Bartletts
seldom keep well beyond December-January, Boscs beyond February,
or Anjous beyond March. Pears may lose their capacity to ripen
properly with too-long storage, and this terminal point of storage
is usually shown by light yellowing of the skin of pears in the
storage room.

Perhaps the greatest deterrent to prime quality is improper
ripening of pears. Most pears do not ripen in storage, thus must
be ripened after storage. All that is needed to achieve peak qual-
ity is to hold them at 60-65 F until sufficiently soft and yellow,
yet only too often they never attain this peak. Proper ripening
is the culmination of all the grower's efforts to provide the con-
sumer with a high quality item. If the pears are not ripened or
are ripened at too high or too low a temperature, not only is the
consumer being robbed of quality, the grower is being robbed of the
satisfaction, reputation, and repeat sales that could have been
generated by that lost quality.

*Trade name

***************

FEWER FLIES MEAN MORE CUSTOMERS

El 1 sworth H . Wheel er
Professor of Entomology
Leader, Pesticide Chemicals Program

Flies in and around your roadside stand or farm salesroom can
hurt your business. There are ways to reduce their numbers. Such
procedures should be a regular part of Good Management.

Common house flies are attracted to moist, decaying organic
material such as fruit and vegetable refuse and manures. The tiny
fruit flies go for fermenting plant juices, while green and blue
"bottles" prefer meat, garbage and dog stools. All these flies
travel amazing distances, but a large population means they are
breeding nearbyl The first step in controlling them is obvious.

CI ean up and keep i t clean !
flies out front and inside,
can take the place of sanitation

A refuse pile out
Do it e\/ery day.

back means
Nothi ng

Apply residual sprays on surfaces where flies rest; do
not contami nate foods . Repeat as necessary.

All around the outs i de , use dimethoate (Cygon*) or ronnel
(Korlan*) or Diazinon* emulsible concentrate, diluted with
water as directed on labels.

Use ronnel on inside surfaces that can be treated without
danger of food contamination.

Employ space treatments to kill flies inside at closing
time and when convenient or necessary at other times.

Use aerosols containing either pyrethrins or DDVP (Vapona*)
Follow directions to avoid food contamination.

(Note:

If ventilation can be controlled or if it is not excessive,
the yellow resin strips from which DDVP (Vapona*) vapor is
volatilized at a constant rate may prove useful. Don't
expect results if directions are not followed as to ventila-
tion and number of strips per unit of space.

Other suggestions to help control flies: air currents
created by fans; fly baits, used as directed; yellow Bug-
lite* bulbs; Geigy Snip Bands* hung as directed.

Where trade names are used for identification, no product
endorsement is implied nor is discrimination intended.)

*Trade name

***************

- 11 -

WARNING : Most pesticides are poisonous. Read and follow all di-
rections and safety precautions on labels. Handle carefully and
store in original containers with complete labels out of reach of
children, pets and livestock. Dispose of "Empty" Containers Right
Away in a Safe Manner and Place. Do not Contaminate Water, Foods
or Feed .

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts

A. A. Spielman

Director

Cooperative Aqricuitural Extension Work

Acts of Mny 8 and June 30, 1914

Off'cial Business
415 10 67

Permit No. 1216

969

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER, 1967

TABLE OF CONTENTS

New England Fruit Meetings and Trade Show

Dichlobenil, A Promising Herbicide for the Orchard

Pomological Paragraph

Harvesting Cultivated Blueberries Mechanically

Research from Other Areas

Effect of Sunlight on Apples During the Growing

Season
Comparison of Growth Habit and Leaf Composition

of Starkrimson and Starking Delicious Trees
Suitability of Strawberry Varieties for Freezing
Effect of Winter Mulches on Strawberry Yields

Pomological Paragraph
Publication Available

Cider Notes

Issued by the Cooperative Extension Service, A. A. Spielman, Dean and Director, in fxjrtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914;
University of Massachusetts, United States Department of Agriculture and County Extension Services cooperating.

NEW ENGLAND FRUIT MEETINGS AND TRADE SHOW

The New England Fruit Meetings and Trade
at the New Hampshire Highway Hotel, Concord,
meetings are scheduled for January 10 and 11,

Show will be he! d
lew Hampshire. The
1968.

The hotel is accessible to all major highways. Routes 3 and
93, which lead to Concord, are accessible from anywhere in Massa-
chusetts. Persons coming from western Massachusetts and southern
Vermont may find Routes 9 or 10 to Keene, New Hampshire, and then
Routes 9, 202, 89 and 93 to the Highway Hotel most convenient.

•k****ie********-k

DICHLOBENIL, A PROMISING HERBICIDE FOR THE ORCHARD

W.J. Lord and D.A. Marini
Extension Pomologist and Regional Agricultural Specialist

A weed
ular herbi c
spring work
cently was
of perennia
ness in Mas
azine, howe
earlier stu
1 nef fecti ve
results to
was initiat
of granular
weed contro
versity app
in Amherst

contro
ides wo

1 oad i
1 abeled
1 and a
sachuse
ver, ha
dies by

with f
the con
ed to e

di chl
1 i n or
le orch
and the

1 progr
ul d be
n orcha

for la
nnual w
tts has
s been

Lord a
all app
trary .
val uate
beni 1 ,
chards .
ard i n

Ashley

am based
of value
rds is h
te fall
eeds und

not yet
tested f
nd Wilde
1 ication

Therefo

the eff

in compa

Test p

Bel chert

peach

on 1 a

to or

eavy .

use to

er fru

been
or fal
r show
, some
re , in
ecti ve
ri son
lots w
own , t
rchard

te-fa

chard

Gran

cont

it tr

estab

1 app

ed th

frui

the

ness

wi th

ere e

he Un

in A

11 appli
i s ts , be
ular die
rol a br
ees, but
1 i shed .
1 i cation
at this
t grower
fall of
of fall
granul ar
stabl i sh
i versi ty
cushnet .

cation of gran-
cause the
hlobenil re-
oad spectrum
its effective-
Granular sim-
, and while
herbicide was
s have reported
1965, a study
appl i cations

simazine for
ed at the Uni-
peach orchard

At
in the e
orchard
othy. W
mulch sy
grass , o
The Ash!
area app
was in s
grass, q
eluded b
yarrow ,

the time of treatment in November, 1965, the primary weeds
stablished sod at the Belchertown orchard were quack grass,
grass, sweet vernal grass, red fescue, dandelion and tim-
eeds at the Amherst peach orchard, grown under the sod-
stem of culture, were primarily quack grass, Kentucky blue-
rchard grass, dandelions, yellow foxtail and red sorrel,
ey peach orchard was kept under cultivation except for an
roximately 12 feet in diameter around the trunk. This area
od principally composed of Kentucky bluegrass, orchard
uack grass and bentgrass. The broadleaf weeds present in-
roadleaf plantain, buckhorn plantain, common chickweed,
red clover, curly dock, sorrel and dandelions.

G simazine and G dichlobenil were applied on 2 dates in Novem-
ber, 1965, in each orchard (Table 1). The materials were hand
broadcast over a circular area 4 feet in radius from the middle of

the trunk of each peach tree in the test. In the apple orchard,
the herbicides were applied to a circular area 8 feet in diameter
on grassy areas between the trees. The concentrations used are
indicated in Table 1. Single-tree plots were used and each treat-
ment was replicated 10 times in each orchard.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The fall applications of G dichlobenil provided outstanding
weed control from May into October in 2 of the 3 orchards, whereas
fall applications of G simazine failed to provide acceptable weed
control at any location (Table 1).

Table 1. Effectiveness of fall applications of granular simazine
and granular dichlobenil for the control of weeds in the
orchards .

Percent weed control , 1966

Treatment

Acushnet

Amherst

Bel chertown

6/28 9/7 10/6 6/13 9/8 10/6 6/13 9/8 10/6

Simazi ne

Early Nov. 44 38 25

Mid-Nov. 47 29 28

Dichlobenil

Early Nov. 95 93 90

Mid-Nov. 97 91 87

G simazine and G dichlobenil applied at 3.2 lb ai/A and 8.0 lb
ai/A, respectively. Dates of application 11/1/65 and 11/15/65 at
Amherst and Belchertown; at Acushnet 11/4/65 and 11/19/65.

Analysis of variance of the data in Table 1 showed that in
June the percentage weed control from the late application of herbi
cides at the 3 locations was significantly better than that from
the earlier application. By September, however, this influence of
timing was no longer apparent.

The interaction of location and material was significant on
each of the 3 observation dates. At all locations in June, weed
control from dichlobenil was significantly better than from sima-
zine. The percentage weed control Kith simazine at Acushnet in
June was significantly less than at Amherst and Belchertown. In
September and October, weed control with dichlobenil was signifi-
cantly less at Belchertown than at Amherst and Acushnet and the
effectiveness of simazine and dichlobenil at Belchertown did not
differ significantly. Weed control with dichlobenil was signifi-
cantly better than with simazine at Acushnet and Amherst in Septem-
ber and October, however.

At the concentration used, simazine failed to eradicate the
well-established perennial grasses, particularly at Amherst and
Acushnet, and dandelions were tolerant to the herbicide. These
observations are in agreement with earlier findings by Lord and
Wilder and indicate that simazine should be used with a contact
herbicide that will eradicate dandelions and improve the control
of perennial grasses.

The unsatisfactory weed control in the dichlobenil plots at
Belchertown was due to the tolerance of sweet vernal to this her-
bicide. Due to reduced competition from other weeds, the growth
of the sweet vernal scattered throughout 19 of the 20 plots was
vigorous and the percentage of weed-covered area decreased from
95% on May 25 to 43% on October 6.

Although dichlobenil failed to completely eradicate all the
well-established perennial grasses and even though some infiltra-
tion of these grasses from the periphery of the plots occurred,
the control obtained with this herbicide was comparable to that
obtained with spring application of herbicides in other experi-
ments by the authors. As the summer progressed, annual broadleaf

weeds and grasses principally smooth crabgrass, barnyard grass,

threeseed mercury and yellow foxtail invaded both the simazine

and dichlobenil plots

Quackgrass, Kentucky bluegrass, orchard grass, dandelions and
sorrel are the predominant weeds in most Massachusetts orchards
grown under the sod-mulch system of culture. Since dichlobenil
gave outstanding control of these weeds, further testing of this
herbicide is warranted. However, lower rates of application must
be tested since it is labeled for use in orchards at 4 to 6 lbs ai/A

SUMMARY

The effectiveness of fall applications of granular simazine
at 3.2 lab ai/A and granular dichlobenil at 8 lb ai/A for the con-
trol of grasses and broadleaf weeds in peach and apple orchards
was evaluated. Dichlobenil gave outstanding season-long control
of perennial grasses and broadleaf weeds except for sweet vernal
grass, while simazine failed to provide acceptable control. The
control of dandelions, broadleaf plantain, buckhorn plantain and
red sorrel with dichlobenil was outstanding. However, further work
is needed to determine the effectiveness of dichlobenil at lower
rates .

***************

- 4 -

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Harvesting Cultivated Blueberries Mechanically - According to
J.H. Levin, Leader, Fruit and Vegetable Harvesting Investigations,
AERD, ARS, USDA, East Lansing, Michigan, over 85% of the 1965, blue-
berry crop in Michigan was harvested with hand held vibrators.
These devices enable a worker to harvest blueberries at rates 6-7
times as fast as by hand. - (Levin, J.H. 1967. Harvesting fruits
and vegetables mechanically. ^•J_. Hort . Soc- Hort . News . 48(No. 2)
22, 24, 26, 28.

***************

RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS

Wi 1 1 i am J . Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Effect of Sunlight on Apples During the Growing Season : The ef-
fects of exposure to different amounts of sunlight on size, color,
soluble solids, firmness, acidity and pH of Mcintosh and Red Deli-
cious apples were studied by D.R. Heinicke and reported in Volume

89 of the
Science

Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural

The study showed that there are 3 distinct light zones in
apple trees which affect fruit quality in British Columbia: a zone
of inadequate light for marketable fruit (less than 40% full sun-
light (FS); a zone of adequate light (40 to 60% FS); and a zone
for optimum development of fruit quality (above 60% FS)

Mcintosh decreased with increased light exposure. Heinicke be-
lieved, however, that this was an indirect effect of light caused
by its effect on fruit size and maturity, rather than a direct
effect of light exposure. Nevertheless, it is interesting to
note that there was no firmness difference in Delicious despite a
substantial size difference. The pH and acidity of the juice from
fruit of neither variety was affected by light exposure.

Editor's Note: The data obtained by Heinicke re-emphasize the
importance of pruning. Trees should be pruned so that all the
fruit spurs have reasonably good exposure to light. This means
development of a uniformly "thin" tree and the gradual elimina-
tion of older shaded parts which tend to produce inferior fruit.
At harvest time, you have a good opportunity to observe the color
and size of fruit on different parts of the tree. The number and
location of small, poorly colored apples show which branches or
parts of branches need attention during the pruning season.

ic'kit^'kifk-k'kitii'k'kicic

Comparison of Growth Habit and Leaf Composition of Starkrimson and

Starking Delicious Trees : M
State University, Corvallis,
compact mutant Delicious (Sta
cious as to growth habit, lea
of the leaves. The results o
ceedings of the American Soci

1966.
f rui t
face
t a i n e
c a 1 c i

St
ing
per
d a

um t

arkr
spur
foot
grea
han

imson
s , mo
than
ter d
did S

had
re no

Star
ry we
t a r k i

shorte
des pe
king,
ight,
ng.

West wood and Q.B. Zielinski, Oregon
compared 3-or-4-year-ol d trees of a
rkrimson) with standard Starking Deli-
f structure, and chemical constituents
f this study were reported in the Pro -
ety of Horticultural Science 88 : 9-13,

r shoots, fewer lateral shoots, more
r foot, and more leaves and leaf sur-
Starkrimson leaves were thicker, con-
and more chlorophyll, nitrogen and

The authors concluded that the growth characteristics of Star-
krimson in comparison to Starking Delicious are more favorable for
light di stri bution, beari ng surface, photosyntheti c efficiency and
production potential.

•k'k-k-kickie'kicic-kic'kick

Suitability of Strawberry Varieties for Freezing : James F. Gallan-
der, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster,
Ohio, studied the suitability of 15 strawberry varieties for freez-
ing. The berries were frozen for 6 months and then thawed and eval-
uated by a taste panel for color, flavor and texture. The Premier
variety was used as a standard of comparison.

Earlidawn, Midway and Pocahontas were rated significantly bet-
ter in color than Premier because of their attractive, bright and
uniform red color. The most preferred variety in regards to color
was Earlidawn which has bright red centers.

Fletcher and Frontenac were rated good but their color scores
were not significantly better than Premier. The 2 varieties least
preferred for color by the taste panel were Arm^ore and Jerseybelle.

Flavor differences among varieties was min'or and no variety
preference could be established from the study. This lack of dif-
ference may have been due to the sugar added during processing.

Although several varieties were acceptable for freezing by
the taste panel, Earlidawn, Midway, Pocahontas and Surecrop were

selected as being outstanding in the 3 qualities scored color,

flavor and texture. The frozen fruit of these, vari eti es was char-
acterized as having firm texture, good flavor and attractive red
color

***************

Effect of Winter Mulches on Strawberry Yields

Investigations by
Fredericton, New
the Proceedings of

snoweo tnat over
boughs and shavings

W.D. Collins, Canada Department of Agriculture,

Brunswick, Canada, and reported in Volume 89 of

the American Society for Horticultural Science ,

a 5-year period mulches of oat straw, evergreen

provided adequate winter protection for strawberries. Yields were

less when the plants received no winter protection, were mulched

before temperature at crown level fell to 20 F, or were mulched

with sawdust or fall-seeded oats. Applications of extra nitrogen

increased yields of the sawdust-mulched plots substantially during

the final 2 years of the study, however.

The amount of oat straw used (1.5, 3.0 or 4.5 tons/acre) had
no effect on yield in 3 of the 5 years. In the other 2 years, how-
ever, lower yields followed mulching with 4.5 tons of straw. These
results indicate that a thick mulch is not only unnecessary, but
also may reduce yield of strawberries.

The number of times the temperature at crown level dropped to
between 32 F and 20 F, or the accumulated cold units expressed as
degree-days-bel ow-40 F, appeared to be useful indices for deter-
mining the time to mulch. Yield was almost invariably depressed
when less than 10 light frosts preceded the mulch application, and
15 to 20 frosts were optimal. Plants mulched at 50 to 80 degree-
'days-bel ow-40 F after October 1, produced good crops.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Publication Available : Growers of strawberries should find of
value, Washington State University (Pullman, Washington) Extension

Bulletin, entitled "Strawberry Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms."
This bulletin describes 9 nutrient deficiency symptoms of straw-
berries, and contains colored illustrations of these deficiencies

***************

CIDER NOTES

Ki rby M . ■ Hayes , /

Department of Food Science and Technology

A question that often arises is how to make good cider. Al-
though there is no easy answer, or hard and fast rules, two of the
most important factors to consider are maturity and variety.

Maturi ty

Firm-ripe apples those that are ripe enough to eat out of

hand make the best cider and give the highest yield. Immature

or overripe apples lower the quality. Early-maturing varieties
should be allowed to ripen sufficiently to yield a high-quality
juice.

V a r i e ty

The best cider is usually made from a blend of different var-
ieties of apples. A blend provides an appealing balance of sweet-
ness, tartness, and tang, as well as aromatic overtones.

A single variety of apple seldom
However, Mcintosh has been used alone
the peak of its maturity.

makes a satisfactory cider
successfully, but only at

Sometimes the desired fullness and balance can be obtained
from two varieties. A blend of three or more varieties is better.
Using several varieties permits greater latitude in varying the
proportions to obtain the desired blend, and also allows practical
management of the available supply.

Many commercially important varieties may be separated into
four groups according to their suitability as cider material:
Sweet subacid, mildly acid to slightly tart, aromatic and strin-
gent. A strict classification is not possible because many vari-
eties have a number of different flavor characteristics. For
example, Delicious may be listed in both the sweet subacid and
aromatic groups. Moreover, varieties differ in their character-
istics from one area to another.

Varieties in the sweet subacid group are grown primarily for
eating raw; they usually furnish the highest percentage of the
total stock used for cider.

Varieties in the aromatic group have outstanding fragrance,
aroma and flavor that are carried over into the cider.

Crabapples, in the astringent group, provide tannin - a con-
stituent difficult to obtain in making a high-grade cider. The
juices of this astringent group also are highly acidic. Only a
small quantity of these apples should be used in the blend.

Use the following list as a guide in selecting the right
blend of verieties. ^tcJ^-^

Sweet subacid group: Baldwin, Delicious,. ZoTX.'\^x\<\jC-rw^y\uA^I^<ic<xtw^

Mildly acid to slightly tart group: Winesap, Jonathan,
Northern Spy, R.I. Greening.

Aromatic group: Delicious, Golden Delicious, McIntcsh_,£W2^A£j

■^^ -^Astringent group: Florence Hibernal, Red Siberian, Transcen-
dent, Martha.

By fitting the above suggestions to your operation, using
sound clean apples, pressing in a clean mill, and storing and dis-
playing the finished product under refrigeration, you can keep your
customers coming back for more.

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered
and cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with state and
federal laws and regulations. Where trade names are used for
identification, no product endorsement is implied nor is discrim-
ination intended'.

WARNING: MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL

DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS, HANDLE CAREFULLY AND

STORE IN ORIGINAL CONTAINERS WITH COMPLETE LABELS, OUT OF REACH
OF CHILDREN, PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts

A. A. Spielman

Director

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Service

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

Official Business
418 - 11/67 - 970

Permit No. 1216

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculturi

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE

JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Perennial Peach Canker, Its Causes, Development and Control
For Trial — Recent Peach Introductions
Recent Small Fruit Introductions
Pear Variety Notes

PERENNIAL PEACH CANKER
ITS CAUSES, DEVELOPMENT AND CONTROL

George N . Agri os
Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology
University of Massachusetts

There is probably no peach orchard in the state that does
not have at least some trees whose branches or trunks are infec-
ted with the perennial peach canker. In some orchards, however,
so many peach trees are infected with cankers and so severe are
the infections, that heavy losses in yield and in trees occur
annually. And, as it happens with most diseasfs, the orchards
with severe infections of peach canker can expect more of the
same or even worse losses unless measures are taken to control
the disease.

What is Perennial Peach Canker?

The perennial peach canker is an area on a peach twig, branch
or trunk in which the plant tissues are dead, discolored, col-
lapsed and, sometimes, disintegrated. In young cankers, the bark
may still be in place, but the tissues underneath are brown, dead
and filled with gum. In older cankers, the original bark has usu-
ally been broken up and has become disorganized, the tissues under-
neath have disintegrated and turned black and the margins of the
canker are usually raised by means of rolls of callus tissue pro-
duced in the healthy areas surrounding the canker. In the spring,
young and old cankers usually exude gum which at first is color-
less or amber-colored, but later turns brown.

Cankers are usually spindle-shaped or ellipsoidal at first
and surround a stub, twig or dead limb. Cankers grow much longer
up and down the limb than they do laterally on the limb. They
may grow several inches in length per year and continue to grow
for several years .

Cankers damage trees by girdling and killing the limbs above
the canker, or by so weakening the limbs that they break off under

the stress of a storm or of the weight
weakened by cankers either die or grow
pruned off and are lost to production,
keep trees sickly and unproductive for
later cause the death of the tree.

of a fruit crop. Limbs
so poorly that they are

Cankers on the trunk may
many years and sooner or

What Causes the Perennial Peach Canker? -_

Perennial peach cankers are caused by either one of the two
fungi, Yalsa cincta and Valsa leucostoma. The name Cytospora
usually reserved for the asexual stage of the fungus, is frequently
used instead of Valsa, since the Cytospora stage is by far the one
most commonly found in nature. The disease is also known as Valsa
canker or Cytospora canker.

- 2

T
in mor
they d
their
about
as the
Above
86^F.
at 1 ow
f as tes
cl i nes
til th

he two
phol ogi
iffer f
growth .
38°F.

temper
that , g

On the

temper
t at 81

again,
e tempe

fung

cal

rom

Bo
V . o
atur
rowt

oth
atur
-86^

but
ratu

i , y^

charac
each
th fun
incta '
e rise
h b e g i
er han
es , bu
F. Ab
compl
re bee

aincta
t e r i s t
t h e r i
gi sta
s grow
s , and
ns to
d, V.
t its
ove th
ete ce
omes a

and
i cs
n th
rt t
th r

it
decl
leua
grow
at t
ssat
bout

V. I
and
e ra
gr
ate
rpac
i ne
osto
th c
empe
ion

104

euGos
a b i 1 i
nge o
ow wh
impro
hes i
and c
ma ge
n t i n
ratur
gf gr

tree
coll
kers
cank
spor
duri
bei n
by i
over
diss
cank
of s

Bot
s an
apse
. N
ers ,
es a
ng w
g St
nsec

sho
emi n
ers
pore

h Va
d br

of
umer

eac
re e
et p
icky
ts,
rt d
ated
i s i

sup

Isas
anch
the
ous

h py
xude
eri
, ar
bi rd
ista
ove
nver

ply-

liv
es .
cell
pimp
sni d
d, t
ds,
e no
s an
nces
r re
sely

e 1 n
The
s of
le-1
i urn
hey
form
t sp
d ma
. I
lati
pro

the ba

fungi

recent

ike pys

contain

are emb

1 ong a

read by

n . Spl

n gener

vely sh

porti on

rk and
sporul
1 y i n V
n i d i a
i ng up
edded
mber-c

wind
ashing
al , th
ort di
al to

sapw
ate s
aded
appea

to 1
i n a
ol ore
but a

rai n
e spo
stanc
the d

toma resemble each other
ty to cause disease, but
f temperature that favors
en the temperature is
ves steadily and quickly
ts peak between 65-70 F.
omes to a halt at about
ts off to a slow start
ues to improve and is
e, the growth rate de-
owth does not occur un-

ood of infected or dead
oon after the death and
bark of new or old can-
r over the surface of the
00,000 spores. When the
sticky substance and,
d tendrils. The spores,
re easily disseminated
may also spread spores
res of these fungi are
es and the incidence of
istance from the source

How Perennial Teach Cankers Develop

The spores of the peach canker fungi are released during
March, April and May and, sometimes, in early June. Most cankers
originate from infections that take place during late March, April
and May, although a second wave of infections take place during Oct-
ober and November. Depending on the locality and the prevailing
weather conditions within each year, these periods may be longer
or shorter, but it is evident that infections take place during the
cool months of the year, although, presumably, spores are present
throughout the year. Both the low winter temperatures and the
high temperatures of the summer months seem to effectively inhibit
initiation of new infections.

Even when the temperature is favorable, spores can cause in-
fection only when they land on injured or dead bark. The most
common point of entry of the fungus, especially in young trees,
seems to be unhealed pruning wounds and stubs. This is followed,
in order of lesser importance, by fruit spurs or pedicels, terminal
dieback, dead buds, winter injury, mechanical injury, lenticels,
leaf scars, insect borers, etc. Extreme winter cold seems to be the
most important factor in predisposing peach trees to perenni al can-
ker through resulting injuries to peach trees, such as bud killing
and dieback of twigs.

So
eel i u m
of the
( enzyme
and col
cause t
the fun
instead
grows i
t i n an
end of

Wounding or killing of peach tissues results in the production
of wound gum in the surrounding areas when moisture and temperature
conditions are favorable. When a wound becomes infected with the
Yalsa fungi, however, the wound gum region is much more extensive
than in an uninfected wound. Such qum is usually proportional to
the amount of tissues killed and is known to serve as a barrier to
further invasion of tissues by fungi. The Yalsa fungi, however,
although slowed down by the wound gum barrier, are not stopped and
can grow through it by means of appressoria and slender penetration
threads .

speci

spri n

resum

until

enl ar

devel

f i rs t

few y

come

f ungu

cause

wel 1

Thus ,

summe

site

y . le

These

annua

aosto

they

The
es t
g mo
e th

the
ge a
opme

two
ears
i nac
s , w
s en
V . a
i nto

the
r an
than
uoos

can
1 ex
ma C
beco

seasona
hat cau
nths , r
ei r exp

low w i
gain t h
nt. V.

years
, the r
t i V e a f
h i c h p r
1 argeme
inata,

the fa

V . leu
d fall .

V . cin
toma i S
kers al
p a n s i n
ankers
me i n a c

I dev
ses i
emai n
a n s i
nter
e fol

cine
and m
ate
ter 5
ef ers
nt of
it re

II un
aosto

V.
cta^

much
so CO

afte
sel do
ti ve .

el opm

t. V

unch

n aga

tempe

1 owi n

ta ca

ay be

f exp

or 6

high

cank

mains

til t

ma ca

leuco

and t

smal

nti nu

r the

m bee

ent of t
. aincta
anged du
in in c
ratures
g spring
nkers en
come one
a n s i n 1

years o
er tempe
ers in t

active
he adven
nkers co
stoma, h
he overa
ler than
e to enl

first t
ome long

he c
can
ring
tobe
set
, fo
1 arg

f 00

s si
f ac
ratu
he c
duri
t of
nti n
owev
n s
tha
arge
wo y
er t

anke
kers

the
r an
i n .
1 1 ow
e mo
t or
ower
ti vi
res ,
ool
ng t

the
ue t
er,
i ze
t of

for
ears
han

r va
enl
hot

d CO
The

ing

St r
mor
and

ty.

al s
spri
he s

1 ow
en
i s a
of c

7.
sev
i s
3 or

ri es
arge

mon
ntin

can
the
api d
e lo

can

The
be
ng m
umme

wi n
larg
n ev
anke
ainc
era!
quit

4 i

with t

during
ths of
ue to e
ker beg
same st
ly duri
ng . In
kers se

7. leu
comes a
onths ,
r month
ter tem
e throu
en weak
rs prod
ta cank

years ,
e smal 1
nches b

he Valsa
the cool

summer ,

nl arge

ins to

ages of

ng the
the next

em to be-

aostoma

c t i V e and

bu t , un-

s and

peratures

gh the

er para-

uced by

ers .
but the
V. leu-

efore

In vigorous trees, the advance of the canker is stopped quickly
by the formation of a ring of callus tissue which heals the wound
and inhibits the further growth of the fungus. In trees of poor-
vigor, however, or trees weakened in any way, callus formation is
slow and the fungus usually advances before such tissue can form.
In weakened trees callus is formed during the periods of cessation
of growth of the fungus, such as during the hot months of the sum-
mer or during the warm spells in the winter, but even these callus

- 4 -

tissues are too weak to stop the advance of the pathogen once it
is well established in the plant.

How Can Perennial Peach Cankers be Controlled?

There is no single, effective and easy control measure for
this disease. One must keep in mind, however, that it is mostly
trees of low vigor that become infected, that the pathogen can
spread to trees only when it is present nearby, and that it can
attack trees either by penetrating through unhealed wounds or by
first growing on dead twigs, buds, etc. A control program depends
largely on doing well the many things required to keep the trees
in good vigor, to eliminate nearby sources of the pathogen, to
prevent unnecessary wounding of peach trees and aid rapid healing
of unavoidable wounds, and to minimize killing of bark, twigs and
buds by low winter temperatures. Certain fungicides have been
proven helpful but will not, alone, control the disease.

The following practices followed over a period of years help
reduce the spread and prevent development of perennial peach can-
kers .

Trees should be fertilized adequately and pruned properly to
insure vigorous growth. Excessive or late season application of
nitrogen ferilizer, which prevents normal maturing of peach trees
and increases their susceptibility to early winter injury, should
be avoided. Pruning should be done late in the spring after growth
starts, and even after bloom, at which time pruning wounds heal
quickly and are less frequently infected with canker fungi. Prun-
ing cuts should be made close to the branch, since stubs seldom
heal properly and provide ideal sites for canker infections which
spread to the larger branches. All dead wood and twigs, killed
by any cause, should be cut and, along with the prunings, should
be removed from the orchard and burned as soon as possible. Branches
with cankers should be removed whenever possible. However, if the
cankers are on large scaffold limbs or tree trunks, the infected
area should be first cut and scraped, then the cleaned-out wound
should be disinfected with 1 part mercuric chloride in 500 parts
of water, and, finally, the disinfected wound should be covered
with a water-asphalt-emulsion wound dressing. Hopelessly cankered
trees should be removed and burned.

*Trade name

- 5 -

Rece
of Idaho
py ri d i ent
carbazone
sorbed by
cant cont
h e X i m i d e
subsequen
protected
heal i ng o
on trees
acti vi ty

nt re
indie
h i 1 ,
, bot

peac
rol a
thi OS
t inf

tree
f air
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again

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ates th
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h trees
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emi carb
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s from
eady in
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St the

by Hel ton
at certai
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and give
the peach
azone spr
by canker
subsequen
fected wo
c t e d with
es tab! i sh

and
n ch
e-14
enta

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can
ays

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t i n
unds

can
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assoc
emi cal
84), a
1 s tag
d prev
ker f u
compl e
gi , wh
f ecti
. Bot
kers ,
nf ecti

iates a
s , espe
nd cycl
e , are
enti ve ,
ngus Ya
tely pr
ile Oma
ns , but
h compo
demons t
ons .

t the
c i a 1 1
ohexi
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and
Isa a
otect
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i t a
unds,
rated

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y sod
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ly ab-
erradi -

Cyclo-
ees from
not only
romoted
sprayed
a p e u t i c

References

Helton, A.W. and K.G. Rohrbach. 1967. Chemotherapy of Cytos-pova
canker disease in peach trees. Phytopathology 57: 442-446.

Hickey, K.D. and K.G. Parker. 1967. Peach cankers and their con-
trol. Penn. Fruit News Vol. XXXXVI (4): 15-20.

Hildebrand, E.M. 1947. Perennial peach canker and the canker com-
plex in New York, with methods of control. Covnell Univ. Agri.
Expt. Sta. Memoir 276: 1-61.

McCubbin, W.A. 1918. Peach canker. Can. Dept. Agria., Bull. 37,
1-20, illus .

***************

FOR TRIAL - RECENT PEACH INTRODUCTIONS

Walter D. Weeks
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

This trial list of peach varieties is presented so that grow-
ers may select new introductions to supplement varieties that they
are presently growing. The varieties are listed in approximate
order of ripening. Many of them have not yet fruited in our new
plantings at the Horticultural Research Center, and some of the
more recent ones have not been planted yet. Therefore, the descrio-
tions are based primarily on those given by the originator. The ■
performance of these new peaches under Massachusetts conditions
may or may not be similar to that in their place of origin.

Collins is a medium sized early peach that ripens before Sunrise.
The tree is hardy, vigorous and productive. The flesh is yellow
and quality is good for an early peach. It is semi-cling when
picked.

Golden Dawn is a seedling
orchard of Jonathan Davis

peach that was discovered in the Bolton
in 1953. It is a yellow peach of high

- 6

quality which ripens about the time of Erly-Red-Fre . Golden Dawn
apparently is hardy of bud as it was one of the few varieties to
have fruit this past season.

Relianoe is a new introduction from the New Hampshire Agricultural
Experiment Station which is extremely bud hardy. It has survived
minimum temperatures of -25 F. The fruit is nearly round, moder-
ately fuzzy and has a dull red color. The bright yellow flesh is
juicy, medium firm, slightly stringy, of good flavor and ripens
with Golden Jubilee or about 24 days before Elberta.

Sunqueen, an attractive, high quality oeach that ripens with Sun-
high. It was selected because it is somewhat more resistant to
bacterial spot than Sunhigh.

Washington is the first of a new series of introductions from
Virginia. Its flowers are reported to be extremely tolerant of
spring frosts. The fruits are round ovate in shape. The skin is
about three fourths covered with bright red color. The flesh is
orange yellow with bright red at the pit. The flesh is fine tex-
tured; its flavor resembles Sunhigh but is slightly more acid.
Washington ripens about 3 days after Triogem or 21 days before
Elberta.

Glohaven is one of Stanley Johnston's latest introductions from
Michigan. Its fruit buds and blossoms are above average in hardi-
ness. The fruits are large and nearly round in shape. The skin is
highly colored and has very light pubescence or fuzz. Fruit flesh
is clear yellow and firm textured. There is very little red color
around the pit cavity. The fruit ripens just after Halehaven or
about 14 days before Elberta.

Redqueen was selected by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment
Station because of its bud hardiness. The fruit is large, well
colored and of good quality. It has as much firmness and shelf
life as Elberta. It is of the same season as Glohaven or about 14
days before Elberta.

Cresthaven is another introduction from Michigan which is above
average in wood and bud hardiness. Fruits are medium-large and
nearly round in shape. Fruit skin has an abundance of bright red
color with no noticeable pubescence. The flesh is clear yellow
and firm textured. There is considerable red color around the pit
cavity. Cresthaven ripens between Summercrest and Blake or about
7 days before Elberta.

Madison is one of the frost resistant introductions from Virginia.
The fruit has medium size and is highly colored. Pubescence is
short and fruit is above average in attractiveness. The flesh is
bright orange yellow, firm and fine textured. It has a mild, rich
flavor. It ripens 7 days before Elberta.

Jerseyqueen is a New Jersey peach which was introduced to replace
Elberta. Fruits are well colored, being bright red, large, round
and firm. Flesh is yellow with very good mild flavor. The fruits
of Jerseyqueen hold up very well in shipping and handling. It
ripens with Elberta.

Jefferson is another of Virginia's introductions which has blos-
soms that are resistant to spring frosts. The fruits are large
and well colored. The flesh is yellow and comparable to that of
J.H. Hale in firmness and flavor. Jefferson ripens two to three
days after El berta .

***************

RECENT SMALL FRUIT INTRODUCTIONS

James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Two blueberry varieties, Lateblue and Elizabeth were
introduced in 1967. Neither of these has been tested in our Uni-
versity plantings and the following notes are taken from the intro-
ducers' descriptions. We have fruited the Gala strawberry.

Lateblue was introduced by the U.S.D.A. and the New Jersey Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. The plants are erect, vigorous and
consistently productive. The fruit is borne in medium-sized clus-
ters. The berries are highly flavored, firm, light blue in color
and have small stem scars. They are smaller and ripen about one
week after Coville. One of its outstanding features is simultan-
eous ripening of fruit in a short period of time.

Elizabeth was developed by the late Miss Elizabeth White and was
introduced by the New Jersey Cultivated Blueberry Council, Inc.
It has an unusually long picking season. The berry color is a med-
ium blue and its size very large being about equal to Herbert.
Its dessert quality and flavor are rated as excellent. It is very
sweet and aromatic. The clusters are very loose and easily picked.
The scar is small. Elizabeth is similar to Coville in vigor and
growth habit. The plant is said to be a good producer and to be
hardy. Elizabeth appears to thrive best on moderately peaty soils
and is not recommended on very sandy soils

Gala was introduced in 1966, by the New York Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. It is a very early ripening variety. As grown in
our plots, the berries were medium in size, moderately firm, slight-
ly rough and irregular in shape. The plants were vigorous and mod-
erately productive. Though the variety did not appear to be prom-
ising as grown under our conditions, growers desiring a y^ry early
ripening variety may find it worthy of trial.

***************

- 8

PEAR VARIETY NOTES

James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil

Sciences

Because of an increased interest in pear growing in Massachu-
setts, particularly by those operating roadside stands, the follow-
ing comments are reprinted from earlier issues of Fruit Notes.
Harvest dates and pressure test readings mentioned in the write-
ups are for the 1965 harvest season and are given as a point of
interest only. Harvest dates will vary from season to season and
orchard to orchard. The pressure tests were made with a Magness-
Taylor pressure tester, using a 5/16" diameter head in contrast to
the 7/16" diameter head used for apples. The following 7 varieties
have been recommended for commercial planting in Massachusetts for
a number of years .

Clapp Favorite The fruit is large, greenish-yellow with a blushed
cheek and good in quality. The fruit has a high suscep-
tibility to core breakdown if picked late. The fruit
is usually ready for harvest in mid-August in Amherst.
The tree is hardy and productive, but it is highly sus-
ceptible to fire blight.

Bartlett A medium to large, attractive, high quality pear. Bart-
lett is picked in late August or early September. We
picked Bartlett on August 27, when the average pressure
test reading was 20 pounds. The tree is medium in size
and is productive.

Gorham A seedling of Bartlett which it resembles in size and

color. The flesh is white, tender and juicy. Unlike
most pear varieties, the fruit will ripen in cold stor-
age. Last season the fruit held up well in storage until
the end of January. The fruit was harvested on the 3rd
of September when the average pressure test was 13 pounds
This fruit was eating ripe in cold storage in early
December. Gorham is said to require a higher level of
nutrition than Bartlett to maintain production.

Seokel A popular variety for pickling. The fruit is small,

often with a bronze russet and very high quality. The
tree is large, upright spreading and productive in al-
ternate years .

Flemish A large attractive, high quality pear. The fruit was

picked September 3rd, when the average pressure test was
12 pounds. Flemish is susceptible to pear scab, but
this can be readily controlled with present fungicides.
The tree is large, vigorous, very hardy and productive
in al ternate years .

- 9 -

Bosa This russeted pear is harvested in late September. The

fruit was picked September 22nd, when the average pres-
sure was 14 pounds. The crop was very heavy and there
was some fruit drop. The fruit is large and has excel-
lent flavor when ripened properly. Stored fruit was in
excellent condition in late December. The tree is pro-
ductive with a slight tendency towards biennial bearing.

The following four varieties have been under test in our Uni-
versity plantings for a number of years and appear to be worthy of
trial .

Chapin A seedling of Sfckel that is harvested in early August.

The fruit is small to medium in size, green with a red
blush. Chapin resembles Seckel except for a more prom-
inent neck. The flesh is fine textured, juicy, free of
grit cells and of good quality.

Starkrimson A red bud sport of Clapp Favorite. The fruit is sim-
ilar in size, shape and quality to Clapp, but has a
solid red surface color. The fruit was harvested August
20th and held up well in storage to early December. This
variety would add color and interest to a pear display,
but we are not certain as to the buyers' reaction to a
red pear.

Paakham ' s The fruit is large in size, greenish-yellow in color.
Triumph free from blemishes and although the surface is some-
what rough it is an attractive pear. The flesh is white,
fine melting, free of grit cells and of very good quality
The fruit is harvested in late September and holds up
well into early January. As the fruit was harvested from
a top-worked tree, an evaluation of tree characteristics
cannot be given.

Dumont A late ripening pear of medium size, obtuse pyriform

shape and yellow color. The flesh is firm, juicy and
the quality very good. The fruit is harvested in late
September and has kept well into early January in the
past years. The variety has been productive under our
conditions and is worthy of trial.

***************

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested uses in accordance with state and feder-
al laws and regulations. Where trade names are used for identifi-
cation, no product endorsement is implied nor is discrimination
intended.

WARNING: MOST PESTICIDES ARE POISONOUS. READ AND FOLLOW ALL DIREC-
TIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS, HANDLE CAREFULLY AND STORE
IN ORIGINAL CONTAINERS WITH COMPLETE LABELS, OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN
PETS AND LIVESTOCK.

Cooperative Extension Service
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts
A. A. Spielman
Director
Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work
Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

427

Official Business

1/68
Permit No. 1216

970

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agricultur

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

MARCH-APRIL 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

New England Apple Harvesting and Storage Symposium

The Use of Boron on Apple Trees in the Champlain Valley of
New York

Pomological Paragraph — Nitrogen Level of Mcintosh Trees
High in 1967

No Ladders in Peach Orchards?

Pomological Paragraph - Pruning Peach Trees

Vermont Orchard Growth

Varieties of Grapes for Massachusetts

NEW ENGLAND APPLE HARVESTING AND STORAGE SYMPOSIUM

held
sent
pi e
and
of t
vest
i ng
Alar
i ngt
L.D.
Uni V
Conn
Mass

A N

on
ati
harv
i n p
his
i nq ;
from
. F
on ;

Tuk
ers i
ecti
achu

ew Engl
March 2
n s will
est mec
OS t-har
sympos i
(2) ha
tree w
ea tured
J.H. Le
ey , Pen
ty; J.C
cu t ; an
setts .

and Ap
6 and

be ma
hani za
ves t p
um are
r V e s t i
alls;

speak
V i n , U
nsyl va
. Cain
d F.W.

pie Har
27, at
de on r
t i n , s
rob! ems

: (1)
n g aids
and (4)
ers wi 1
SDA, Ea
n i a S t a
, Genev
S u t h vy

V e s t i n
the Un
ecent
torage
. The
a d a p t i
f or s
ex ten
1 be A
st Lan
te Uni
a , New
i c k an

q an

i ver

*-ese

con

ma i

tand

di na

sing

vers

Yor

d L.

d Sto
si ty
arch
s true
n top
rchar
ard-s

the
rl age
, Mi c
ity;
k; Al
F. Wh

rage S
of Mas
and de
tion a
ics fo
ds for
i z e d t
harves
, USDA
h i g a n ;
G.E. R
fred B
i tney ,

ympos
sachu
vel op
nd ma
r the

mech
r e e s ;
t sea
, Wen

C.T.
ehkug
arney

Uni V

1 um
sett
ment
nage

fir
ani c

(3)
son
atch

Mor
1 er ,
, Ea
ersi

will be
s . Pre-
s i n ap-
ment ,
s t day
al har-

harvest-
with

ee. Wash-
row and

Cornel 1
s ton ,
ty of

Demonstration of Massachusetts' apple harvesting aid and an
even"''ng of films on mechanical harvesting is planned with opportun-
ity for informal discussion

Registration for the symposium is necessary. Registration
forms and programs will be mailed to fruit growers in Massachusetts
by the Regional Fruit Specialists; to growers in the other New
England States by their State Specialists. Others desiring inform a
tion on this program should contact Professor R.G. Light, Agricul-
tural Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

***************

THE USE OF BORON ON APPLE TREES IN THE
CHAMPLAIN VALLEY OF NEW YORK

Arthur B. Burrell, Peru, N.Y.
Emeritus Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University

The symptoms now recognized as those of boron deficiency evi-
dently have occurred here since the 1860's. Outbreaks of boron
deficiency symptoms usually have been related to drouth with losses
being minor in years of good moisture supply. However, on certain
sites, boron deficiency symptoms occurred every year and no orchard
of the area totally escaped losses from boron deficiency before
boron treatments were made.

Now every fruit grower applies boron as crnsistently as he
applies nitrogen. This is regarded as insurance. The usual prac-
tice is to include Solubor*at the rate of one-half pound per 100
gallons in two sprays soon after petal-fall. When this is done
annually, the exact stage of development of the trees is not im-
portant. Usually one boron spray is applied about ten days after
petal-fall and the other at 20-30 days after petal-fall. The Solu-
bor is added to whatever pesticides are being used. No incompati-
bilities have been identified but deliberate experiments with some
of the newer pesticides have not been made. The grower usually at-
tempts to avoid extremely hot weather and to avoid applying it just
ahead of a heavy rain, but no critical tests of these factors have
been made.

Pesticide spraying in this area usually is at 4X
tration. Burrell Orchards have used 8X for 14 years,
is correspondingly concentrated and the gallonage per

to 6X concen-
The Sol ubor
tree reduced

The aim is to apply about
cations. This results in
chards. When the tank is
(dilute spray basis), the
Pesticide sprayings seems
this is far below 4 pounds

2 pounds per acre at each of the 2 appli
4 pounds per acre per year on mature or-
mixed at one-half pound per 100 gallons
amount received by young trees in normal
to meet their needs for boron, although
per acre on a very young orchrd.

Mild i n jury
blast sprayer is
up mainly as white
extends a short distance
veins. This evidence of
mon if we were to put on
plication.

to a few leaves close to the outlet of the air-
common but of no apparent significance. It shows
areas along the midrib. The white occasionally
out from the midrib along the principal
over-dose doubtlessly would be more com-
the required 4 pounds per acre in one ap-

Editors' note: Symptoms most frequently recognized by growers are
found in or on the fruit-- internal cork, pebbled surface of fruit,
open calyx or abnormally dark red color of red-skinned varieties
as they mature. Symptoms on the vegetative parts of the tree are
die-back of shoots and shoots with leaf rosettes.

*Trade name

3 -

Mid-terminal leaves collected in early August commonly show
about 35 ppm of boron. Leaf-content of boron is not considered a
reliable guide to the need for boron applications. A tree could
show ample boron during a period of adequate soil moisture, yet
later develop boron deficiency in the fruits if a drouth ensued.
However, early-August sprays containing Solubor greatly increase
the boron content of flesh of fruits harvested in mi d-feptember ;
thus rapid translocation of boron to the fruit must occur.

Mixed fertilizers containing boron at commonly employed rates
have failed to prevent boron deficiency in our fruits. Possibly
after enough years of use, results would have been different. How-
ever, soil moisture content is well known to influence availabil-
ity to the plant of soi 1 -contai ned boron.

bran
of a
orch
plan
spre

1 n s
Vail

sti p
brow
It i
not

Whe
ches
pple
ard
e ap
ad s

Sti
pi te

ey.
pen .
ning
s ea
rese

n ap
has
lea
area
pi i c
eeme

ppen

Our
In

of
sily
mbl e

p 1 y i n
give

ves a
some

a t i n

d to

2
occ

the b
test
some

f rui t
el im
stip

g boron to the ground, ring
n the most consistent incre
nd fruits. Broadcast appli
times have been only parti a
on a fairly narrow band no
be satisfactory in a few te

urs abundantly on trees of
orbn treatments routinely a
s have not shown a relation
varieties, such as Baldwin
flesh around the apple cor
inated by the use of boron,
pen. (See Cornell Extensio

application under the
ases in boron content
cations over the whole
lly effective. Air-
greater than branch
sts on bearing trees.

susceptible varieties
pplied in the Champlain
ship between boron and
, we get a diffused
e from boron deficiency

This symptom does
n Bulletin 426, 1940)

It seems doubtful that the "cork spot" of the variety York is
related to boron deficiency of Mcintosh and other varieties in
New York.

'Also called bitter pit and Baldwin spot

***************

Pomological Paragraph

Nitrogen Level of Mcintosh Trees High in 1967. An unusual number
of Mcintosh apples were harvested during October, 1967, because
the season was late and red color development was slow. Leaf an-
alysis indicated that high nitrogen (N) levels may have been part-
ly responsible for the slow red color development in some orchards.

Research has shown that in comparison with fruit from Mcintosh
apple trees maintained at moderate levels of N (1.80-2.00 per cent
on a dry -weight basis), high N levels (higher than 2.15 per cent)
tend to delay both the red and yellow color development of Mcintosh
apples. Analyses of leaf samples taken during late-July and early
August in 1967, from 29 bearing Mcintosh blocks in Massachusetts
and southern New Hampshire showed that the N level in these blocks
averaged 2.3 per cent, which is in excess of the N levels condu-
cive to good red color development.

***************

NO LADDERS IN PEACH ORCHARDS?

Ernest G. Christ
Extension Horticulturist
Rutgers - The State University
New Brunswick, N.J.

(Since most growers are interested in minimizing ladder use in
peach orchards, the following article reprinted with the permis-
sion of E.G. Christ from the January, 1967, issue of Horti cul tural
News , New Jersey State Horticultural Society, should be of inter-
est. The pruning system discussed below requires careful pruning,
particularly during the formative years of the peach tree--Edi tors

Several successful peach growers have told me they cannot
afford ladders in peach orchards and have not used any for many
years. Others are looking toward the elimination of ladders be-
cause the economics of peach growing may not permit the use of
ladders in the near future. Labor may use a short ladder and go
up one or two steps but the seven and 8-foot ladder is probably on
the way out.

To eliminate the need for ladders for pruning, thinning and
harvesting peaches, it is obvious the trees must be kept low or
about seven feet maximum in height. The main framework of the
tree must be kept at about five feet maximum in height with annual
fruiting wood extending to seven feet. This is done entirely by

- 5

pruning of course because we do not use dwarfing rootstocks on
peaches. Some growers might say they have been doing just this
and it is being done quite generally through the state. Trees are
cut hard and held down to size and we are mowing the tops off and
holding them down, but this is not exactly what we mean.

Careful Pruning

Careful and perhaps time consuming pruning is required to
hold a bearing peach tree at a maximum of seven feet in height and
still produce heavy yields. A fast job of mowing or a severe cut-
ting back of the tree may keep it down to size but this kind of
pruning often results in heavy sucker growth and not the best pro-
duction. The tree must be directed to a horizontal spreading form
rather than the typical vase shape.

year .
years
third
right
so th
of fr
i ng w
unbra
remov
undes
is do
ner .

Holdi

Str

and

year

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e wei

u i t i n

cod m

nched

ed.

i rabl

ne to

This

ng t
ong
as t

it
ts a
ght
g wo
us t

f ru
Thre
e, u

ma k

hea

he t
scaf

he
i s
re
of
od
be

i t i n
e an
prig
e th
vy g

ree down and spreading begins in about the third
fold limbs are established during the first two
ree begins to produce a bushel or more in the
runed to grow more horizontal and spreading. Up-
emoved and only a minimum of cutting back is done
he fruit will spread the tree. Careful selection
ust be made while pruning. Strong, upright grow-
emoved in preference to one- and two-foot long
g shoots. Short, weak fruiting shoots should be
d four-year-old trees may produce quite a bit of
ht, strong growing shoots as the first pruning
e tree grow in a more horizontal spreading man-
rowth becomes less as the tree bears fruit.

As a peach tree reaches full production (5-8 years) much of
the fruiting wood is in a three to four foot band in the top of the
tree beginning from seven or eight feet to 11 or 12 feet in height.
This low pruning maintains the band of fruiting wood at the four
to seven foot 1 evel .

New System of Pruning?

Is this a new system of pruning? Perhaps not, but it is not
a simple cutting back of the tree to keep it low. It involves
more thought and more careful selection of fruiting wood and thin-
ning out of both weak and over vigorous shoots and the saving of
the heavily budded one and two foot fruiting shoots. The pruning
requires more time than just plain hard pruning because more thin-
ning out of weak wood and selection of the best fruiting wood is
done .

We have observed trees pruned to this low system and some
have been held to a seven-foot height for 35 years and have good
fruiting wood throughout the large spread of fruiting area. Pro-
duction has been good also--five to eight field crates per mature
tree. We have established a few demonstration trees in all peach

producing areas and these will eventually show what is difficult
to describe in writing. Some growers may say this is nothing new
but this exact type of pruning is not being done in any orchard
that I know of .

Can we afford to use ladders in peach orchards? If we want
to eliminate the ladder in the peach orchard, it is obvious the
tree must be held down to size. The band of productive fruiting
wood must be held down to a maximum height of seven feet at prun-
ing. As fruit is produced these limbs will bend down so no ladders
are required to harvest the fruit. Also, the hand thinning can be
done from the ground. This is a distinct advantage.

To prune a tree to the low--no 1 adder--system , one must do a
careful job and train men to understand the principle and objective
Unless a careful job is done, this system cannot be successful.

***************

Pomological Paragraph

Pruning Peaoh Trees: Peach trees generally made excessive growth
in 1967, and those in the formative stage (1-4 years) will need
particular attention to eliminate weak crotches that have developed.
Scaffold branches with undesirable crotches, but which are well
located within the general periphery of the tree, may be left but
should be pruned severely so that they will be dwarfed. Eventually,
they may be removed if lateral branches develop that might make
suitable replacements.

******************

VERMONT ORCHARD GROWTH

C. Lyman Calahan, Extension Horticulturist
University of Vermont

A glance at the rate Vermont apple growers have been planting

trees in recent years will give the best clue to why the state's

apple production has been increasing and is expected to reach aver-
age crop-sizes of \h million bushels by around 1970.

Since 1955, Vermont orchardists have been adding trees to
their orchards at the rate of about 15,000 per year, and during
this time only one planting has been made by a newcomer to the in-
dustry. The production from these young trees is beginning to add
up, and it contributed substantially to the 1,300,(00 bushel apple
crop in 1967, the largest crop since the "Farm Orchard" lost out

at the time of World War I. Comparing this 1967 crop with the av-
erage crop of 700,000 bushels during the 1940-1950 period clearly
shows that apple production in the state is on the increase.

The 1966 New England Fruit Tree Survey showed that almost one-
half of Vermont's apple trees have been planted since 1955, com-
pared to an average of about 30% for the other New England States.
Like neighboring states, Vermont's apple trees are becoming concen-
trated in fewer and fewer orchards. Over half of the orchards sur-
veyed are made up of 1,000 or more trees. Eleven orchards in the
state each have more than 3,000 trees and 5 of these are growing
more than 5,000 trees.

About 47% of Vermont's apple trees are in Addison County which
is in the heart of the Champlain Valley. Another 20% are growing
in the Connecticut River Valley section of the state. Bennington
and Rutland Counties account for the remainder of the trees, except
for about 4% of the total located in Grand Isle County.

Although about 63% of the trees are Mcintosh, this variety
produced 80% or more of the apples for the 6 crop years since 1961.
Recent plantings contain an even higher percentage of Mcintosh and
it is anticipated that the production of this variety will increase
considerably during the 1970's. Delicious is a poor second and
accounts for about 15% of the tree population. Planting rates of
Northern Spy and Cortland have not offset tree losses of these var-
ieties since 1945.

Increased interest is being shown in varieties ripening before
Mcintosh for in-state marketing, but they are not being planted in
numbers sufficient to keep Vermont from being an almost one-variety
producer, that variety being Mcintosh.

***************

VARIETIES OF GRAPES FOR MASSACHUSETTS

James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Himrod An early ripening seedless grape resulting from a cross

between Ontario and Thompson Seedless. Its clusters are
large and rather loose. The berries are medium, oval,
sweet, yellow, vinous and good. The vine is not com-
pletely winter-hardy under our conditions and should be
restricted to the more favored sites.

Van Buren An attractive black grape of good to
The vine is vigorous and productive,
susceptible to downy mildew.

excel 1 ent qua! i ty .
It is particularly

V a r 1 e ty
H i m r d
Van Buren
Ontario
Seneca
F r e d n i =<
Buffalo
Del aware

Worden
Cook

Brighton

Romul us

Niagara

Concord

T - Trial

8 -

Recommended for

&
H
H

8
H

&
H
T

H =

= Home

garden

Harvesting Season

Very early

Early

Midseason

Late

C = Commercial

Varieties so marked are not necessarily equally adapted to all sec-
tions of the state. Late ripening varieties are recommended for
those areas with a sufficiently long growing season to permit
satisfactory ripening of the fruit

Ontario An early ripening white grape of high quality. The

clusters are medium in size and tend to be loose. The
berries tend to shatter considerably within a few days
after harvest. The vines are medium in vigor and pro-
ductivity and are hardy.

Seneca An early ripening white grape with a thin, tender, ad-

herent skin. The berries are medium in size, oval and
have excellent flavor. The clusters are medium in size
and compactness. Seneca is susceptible to winter injury

Fvedonia A good quality black grape especially recommended for

the roadside stand trade. The clusters are compact and
medium in size. The vine is vigorous, hardy and pre-
dictive. It should be pruned less severely than Concord

- 9

Buffalo A black grape with medium to large size, sweet, vinous

flavor and good adherence. The clusters are large and
tend to be loose. The vine is vigorous and productive
and the fruit holds very well in storage. Buffalo tends
to overbear if not properly pruned and to be susceptible
to winter i n .i u r y .

Delaware A high quality red grape with small clusters and berries.
The vines are hardy and are moderate in vigor and pro-
duction. Delaware would add to the attractiveness of
displays on a roadside stand.

Warden Similar to Concord but ripens a week to ten days earl-

ier. While slightly superior to Concord in quality and
attractiveness, it has a tendency to crack when ripe
and shatters badly within a few days after it is harves-
ted. A desirable variety for local trade and the home
vi neyard .

Cook This is an attractive black grape with an abundance of

bluish bloom. Adherence of the berries is good and the
quality is excellent. Vines are productive and the
fruit holds in storage unusually well. Recommended for
comme*"cial planting and is a desirable variety for the
home vineyard.

Brighton A reddish grape which ripens a few days ahead of Concord.
Produces large bunches of high quality grapes. While its
commercial possibilities are limited, it is recommended
particularly for the home vineyard. Brighton is self
unfruitful and should be planted near other varieties
for cross-pollination.

Romulus A sister seedling of Himrod. The clusters are large,

compact and the berries small, yellow, seedless, sweet,
vinous and good in quality. Like Himrod, Romulus is
susceptible to winter injury and should be restricted
to the more favorable sites.

Niagara A white grape of high quality with

ters. Would add to attractiveness
side stand. Ripens with Concord.

1 arge compact cl us-
of display on a road-

Concord The particular merits of Concord are its adaptability
to a wide variety of soils, its productiveness, hardi-
ness, vigor and shipping quality. Concord requires a
growing season of approximately 160 days for proper
ripening of its crop.

***************

Cooperative Extension Service
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts
A. A. Spielman
Director
looperative Agricultural Extension Work
Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1 91 4

Official Business
431 - 3/68

Permit No. 1216

985

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W, J. BRAMLAGE

MAY-JUNE, 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CherTiiCal Weed Control in Strawberries

Pomological Paragraphs

Proceedings of Roadside Market Conference
Chemical Weed Control in Red Raspberry Plantings

Growing Young Apple Trees

Research From Other Areas

Save This Date

Publication Available

New York State Fruit Industry Revisited

CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN STRAWBERRIES

Dominic A. Ma rim"
Regional Agricultural Specialist - Southeast Region

Be
berri es
to the
bed occ
labor m
p 1 e n t i
can be
However
t i n w i
tial ly
shoul d
feet we
ary to

cause

can
a 1 1 a i
u p i e s
ay be
a 1 re
j u s t i
, w h e
th ot
reduc
be no
ed CO
keep

of
be a
nmen
the
req
turn
fied
re 1
her
e th
ted,
ntro
the

pote

pro
t of

1 an
u i re
, a

wi t
abor
crop
e h i

tho
1 we
soil

nti al ly
f i t a b 1 e

high y i
d for ab
d to kee
greater
h strawb

is not
s for la
gh labor
ugh , tha
re avail

1 oose i

high
crop
elds
out
p th
i nve
erri
avai
bor ,
req
t ev
able
nor

yiel
. Co
, how
16 mo
e bed
s tmen
es th
lable

herb
ui rem
en if
, som
der f

ds and
ntrol
ever ,
nths ,

weed-
t in 1
an wit
, or w
i ci des
ent of

an he
e cult
or run

str
of w
and
a gr
free
abor
h ma
here
can
s tr
rbic
i va t
ners

ong dem
eeds is
since a
eat dea
Beca

and ot
ny othe

there

be use
a w b e r r i
i d e tha
ion wou

to tak

and ,
ess
str
1 of
use
her
r cr
i s c
d to
es .
t ga
Id b
e ro

straw-
en t i a 1
awberry

hand
of the
inputs
ops .
ompeti -

subs tan'

It
ve per-
e necess-
ot.

At the present time, we are recommending two materials for
Controlling weeds in strawberries, dacthal and diphenamid. Both
herbicides must be applied to a weed-free soil since they do not
control established weeds. Also, moisture is necessary for best
results; 1/2 to 1 inch rain or irrigation is needed within a week
after application. Slight injury in the form of distortion or yel-
lowing of older leaves has been observed with both materials. This
is temporary, however, and does not appear to affect runner forma-
tion or yields.

Dacthal is recommended at the rate of 8 to 12 pounds of the
75 percent commercial product per acre. It remains effective for
about six weeks, so several applications are required for season-
long control. A late summer or early fall application provides
good control of chickweed, a serious problem in most strawberry beds
Dacthal may be applied early in the spring, orior to weed germina-
tion, to control weeds in bearing beds.

Dacthal is particularly effective against crabgrass and other
annual grasses, and against purslane, chickweed and 1 ambsquarter .
It is weak against ragweed and red root pigweed, and poor against
galinsoga, smartweed, mustard and other cruciferous weeds. Where
galinsoga is a serious problem, use of dacthal is not recommended.

Diphenamid is recommended at the rate of 5 to 7 1/2 pounds of
the 80 percent formulation per acre or 8 to 12 pounds of the 50 per-
cent formulation. It controls a wider range of weeds than dacthal
and provides longer-lasting control. Shallow incorporation of 1
to 2 inches soil depth improves its effectiveness.

Until recently, diphenamid was labelled for use on strawberries
up to 12 months of harvest. With recent changes in registration,
it is now permissable to use diphenamid on strawberries up to 60

- 2

days before harvest. This means that it
on a bed that will be harvested in June,
mends an interval of at least six months

can be used in early April

The manufacturer recom-
between applications.

Recent investigations have shown that a combination of 2 her-
bicides frequently provides more effective weed control than either
material used alone. In some cases the effect is additive, result-
ing in a wider range of weeds controlled; in other cases the com-
bination controls certain hard-to-kill weeds not controlled by
either material alone.

In two years of trials, the combination of diphenamid and
sesone (SES) has consistently given the best results of all herbi-
cides and combinations of herbicides tested. Both materials were
applied together in the same spray, diphenamid of the rate of 3
pounds of the 80 percent product per acre and sesone at 3 pounds.
Another combination, 8 pounds of dacthal plus 4 pounds of sesone
produced better results than dacthal alone.

None of the above materials or combinations provides satis-
factory control of galinsoga, a very serious weed problem on many
farms. Tenoran*, an herbicide recently registered for use on straw-
berries, is suggested for trial where galinsoga is a problem. In
limited trials in 1967, Tenoran appeared promising as a control of
this weed. Tenoran may be applied at pre- or early post-emergence;
brcadleaf weeds should be less than 2 inches in height and grasses
less than 1/2 inch in height for post- emergence application. Ten-
oran is applied at the rate of 8 pounds of 50 percent wettable
powder per acre. It may be applied within sixty days of harvest;
not more than two applications in any one year are recommended.
When used at pre-emergence , rain or irrigation should follow for
bes t resul ts .

*Trade name

•**************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS
Proceedings of Roadside Market Conference:

of the

A
New

still available of the Proceedings

k^et Conference of February, 1967 . The charge per copy is

limited supply is
Jersey Roadside Mar -

and copies
Specialist
Science, Rutgers,

5 c e n t s

may be obtained by writing to Morris Fabian, Extension
in Marketing, College of Agriculture and Environmental

New Jersey 08903

Chemical Weed Control inRed Raspberry Plantings : Although sima-

they
It
control

zine and diuron are labeled for use in rasoberry plantings,
are primarily effective in controlling germinating weed seeds
may take several years use of these herbicides before good

of established perennial weeds is obtained. Therefore, deep-rooted
perennials should be eliminated from the planting before using
either diuron or simazine, or else you must depend on the gradual
elimination of these weeds by annual applications of these herbi-
cides .

***************

GROWING YOUNG APPLE TREES

William J . Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The February, 1968, New York State Horticultural Society News
Letter contained a supplement with two articles by R.L. Norton,
Fruit Agent in Monroe and Orleans Counties on "Growing Young Apple
Trees Rapidly" and "Pruning Young Trees for the Future." Of par-
ticular interest were the following statements pertaining to growth
of trees on various roots tock/sc i on combinations at 5 locations in
Monroe County, New York.

"I expect and get an average of 8 to 10 feet of accumulative
terminal growth on apples the f irst year the trees are set in the
orchard on moderate growing varieties. On the stronger growing
varieties such as Mutsu, Greening and Wayne, the average total ter-
minal growth is 10 to 12 feet. Trunk growth on Mcintosh, for exam-
ple, on MM 106, has an average measurement of 11 3/4 inches in the
fourth growing season; this reflected an average annual growth of
2.8 inches. This typical kind of growth has been obtained each
year on hundreds of trees since 1962, without any supplementary
watering during the growing season. However, this kind of growth
will not be realized on poorly drained soils. Furthermore, my
test orchards are located in Western New York, varying from 2 to 20
miles from the shores of Lake Ontario. Possibly other areas have
weather, soil or other environmental restrictions which would pro-
hibit such growth response."

The writer is in full agreement with Norton in that we should
anc can obtain 10 or more feet of total growth on newly set trees
under favorable conditions. In the February, 1963, issue of Frui t
Notes , the writer presented the following data (Table 1) from
growth measurements made on 15 two-year old Mcintosh and 15 one-year
old Red Delicious trees on EM VII planted in a grower orchard in
1962. It was mentioned that growth like that shown in the table
might well constitute a goal for other Massachusetts growers.

A good orchard soil, thorough preparation of the site, opti-^
mum nutrition level and freedom from weed competition are essential
in order to obtain growth equivalent to that cited by

the writer

Norton and
the^^orchard where the author obtained the growth

measurements, the land was bulldozed and then limed at the rate of
3 tons per acre. A stone rake was used and then the area was fer-
tilized with 500 lbs. of 10-20-20 applied as a broadcast applica-
tion. The area was again smoothed with a stone rake and the trees
planted. Topsoil that has been bulldozed off the area in the pro-
cess of clearing the land was used in the planting holes. After
planting, 3 or 4 forksfull of cow manure was spread around each
tree. A mixture of grass seed and oats was sown. During the sum-
mer, oats sown in the soring were cut and raked around the trees
for mulch.

Tab! e 1 . Growth the Year
on EM VII , 1962

of Planting of Mcintosh and Red Delicious

Vari ety

Avg . number
of terminals

Avg . i nches of
growth/terminal

Avg. total
growth (inches)

McI ntosh

Red Delicious

10.9
6.8

15
23

170
161

Since the article on "Growing Young Apple Trees" was published
in the 1963 issue of Fruit Notes , several recent findings and ob-
servations in respect to fertilization, mulching and chemical weed
control and plantings on size-controlling rootstocks are of inter-
est. These are discussed below.

Fertilization

I
i ng ap
or i ts
For ex
actual
actual
by Dr .
about
Carol i
(0.67
Gol den
season
amount
amount
in e X c
as com
compar
cl e on
Wester
time 1
amount
theref
f e r t i 1

n the

pie t

egui

ampl e

N) a

Norm

f e r t i

na gr

lb N)

Deli

than

on 2

of N

ess

pared

ed to

grow

n New

/2 lb

i s a

ore ,

i z i n g

past, the rul e-of-thumb for fertilization of non-bear-
rees was the application of 1/4 pound of sodium nitrate
valent of nitrogen for each year of age of the tree.
, a two-year-old tree would receive 1/2 pound (0.08 lb
nd a five-year-old 1 1/4 pounds of sodium nitrate (0.20 lb
r its equivalent. It was of interest to read a comment
an Childers in the Autumn, 1967, issue of HORT SCIENCE
lizer practices in North Carolina. He stated that North
owers were using 2 pounds of ammonium nitrate per tree
, hand applied, under 2-year-old Spur Delicious and
cious. Although North Carolina has much longer growing

Massachusetts, some of our growers are using half this
-year-old trees (0.33 lb N) plus mulch and an equivalent

on 4-year-old trees (0.67 lb N). These amounts are far
f that if the rul e-of-thumb were followed 0.08 lb N

to 0.33 lb N under 2-year-old trees and 0.16 lb N as

0.67 lb N under 4-year-old trees. Norton, in his arti-
ing young trees, stated that his 2-year-old trees in

York are fertilized twice in the soring, using each

of nitrate of soda-potash fertilizer (15-0-14 analysis. This
pproximately 2 times the rule-of-thumb. It appears,
that in an attempt to grow young trees fast, growers are

at rates in an excess to the old rule-of-thumb. Since

- 5 -

most of our trees in Massachusetts are in sod and compete to some
extent with grass for nitrogen, rates 2 and 3 times that of the
rul e-of-thumb on non-bearing trees seem reasonable. However, the
fertilizer should be applied as early as possible in the spring to
help avoid late growth and subsequent winter injury.

discontinued the
_£ --e of herbi-
ur orchards
hese trees

In this respect, we studied the response of 3-year-old Mcin-
tosh trees on EM VII to simazine applications, hay and black plas-
tic mulch from April, 1964, to April 1967. Although no differences
in tree growth occurred among treatments, hay mulch increased leaf
N and potassium, and high leaf potassium was associated with de-
pressed magnesium and calcium. Therefore, under the conditions of
this experiment, chemical weed control was a suitable replacement
for the sod-mulch system of culture. The data pointed out, however,
the necessity of adjusting the fertilizer program to the soil man-
agement system being used in order to maintain an optimum level of
nutrition.

Whether or not growth of young fruit trees would be improved
by chemical weed control, depends upon existing cultural practices
growing conditions and perhaps upon the nutritional status of the
tree. When young trees are growing in a well-established sod and
N and soil moisture are limiting, chemical weed control may bene-
fit growth. This response is apt to be less as the trees become
older.

Herbicides

Soci

at t
youn
grow
thi s
cont
herb
Engl
find
site
unde
cl ea
Dl ac
des i
cont

In
ety
he E
g or
nun

s ta
rol
i ci d
and

mer
s .

rap
ranc
k pi
red .
act

the
News

Febru
lette

ffor
char
der
tion
of V
es .
hill
it i
Unti
pi e
e f
as ti
E_x
of n

d Sta
d dou
grass

are
egeta

Alth
s i de
n pi a
1 las
trees
r thi
c whe
treme

ary ,
r, D
tion
bled

man
now
tion
ough
orch
nti n
t sp

the
s us
n we

car

1968,
r . Jer
in En
tree
agemen
eval ua
under
compl
ards m
gs of
ring,

s p r i n
e and
ed con
e i n a

1 ssu
ome H
gland
s i ze
t. H
ting

the
ete c
ay no
200
no he
g of
is mo
trol
£pl i c

e of
ull ,

reve
and y
e s ta
a met
trees
ontro
t be
r mor
r b i c i
plant
re pr
by me
ati on

Michigan State Horticul tural
~~' tudy

aled

ield

ted

hod

and
1 of
des i
e tr
de w
ing.
acti
ans

mus

men t

that

i n c

also

of ma

betw

vege

rabl e

ees p

as re

Par

cal a

other

t be

i oned

cul ti
ompari
that r
i n t a i n
een th
tati on
, this
er acr
commen
aquat
nd eco

than
taken

LEJ .

shoots and foliage may result in injury

that a s
v a t i n i
son to t
esearche
ing comp
e rows w
on our
p r a c t i c
e on lev
ded for
now has
n m i c a 1
hay mule
si nee s_2.

n a

rees

rs at

lete

ith

New

e may

use

label

than

h i s

ray

Plantings on Size Controlling Rootstocks

ti on

orch

fact

heav

ume

Sci e

Tree
s and
ards ,
ory a
1 ly w
91 of
nee p

Stat

of i

res p

was

opi n

size

a 1 a

tree

rate

unde

e Uni

nters

onse

earl i

ion t

foil

s the

rge b

star

of f

r som

s on

car

i t
nd t
i tho

the
ubl i
vers
took
to E
era
hat
owed

des
eari
ts b
erti
e CO

dwa
e mo
i s e
hat
ut f

Pro

shed
i ty ,
s on
M IX
nd g
grow
lat
i rab
ng s
eari
1 i za
ndi t

rfing ro
re sharp
V i d e n t t
some bl o
i r s t b t
c e e d i n q s

ots to
ly th
hat t
cks of
a i n i n
of t

cks a
an th
ree p
tree
g sui
he Am

ppea
ose
erf
s ha
tabl
eri c

r to
onse
rmanc
ve be
e bea
an So

in 196 7
had the
growth
, propor
reater f
th reduc
eras a
i 1 i ty of
urface b
ng , howe
t i n to
ions to

, A.N
foil
and f
t i n a
1 ower
ti on
resu 1
grow
ef ore
ver ,
help
hel p

. Rob
owi ng
1 ower
1 to
i ng .
i nduc
t of
ing t
heav
it ma
red c
restr

erts
s ta
ing
its

Con
es f
heav
he y
y cr
y be
ol or
i ct

and
temen
of ap
1 engt
trary
1 ower
i er c
oung
p p i n
nece
deve
tree

ref 1 e
e d 1 in
e i s
en al
ring
c i e ty

ct g
g ro
1 ess
1 owe
surf
for

rowi ng
ots .

than
d to b
ace .

H r t i

c n d i -
In some
satis-
ear

In Vol -
cul tural

L.T
ts ab
pi e t
has

to t
ing,
r p p i
trees
g occ
ssary
1 opme
size.

Blan

out

rees

an i

he w

redu

ng.

rap
urs .

to
nt

ey. Or
the in
. "Th
nterst
i d e 1 y
c t i n

This
idly t

Once
reduce
n f rui

egon
f 1 uence
e initial
ock ,
held
in tree

empha-
obtai n

the

the
t and

Summary

In the past, bearing trees received first priority for good
management practices, and non-bearing trees were apt to be neglected
Since new plantings are the future livelihood of the grower, early
heavy fruit production on young trees should be a prime objective.
The loss of growth in young orchards due to neglect represents a
substantial financial loss to the operators.

***************

RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS

Department

William J . Lord
of Plant and Soil

Sciences

Mechanical Harvesting of Strawberries : Some agricultural author-
ities believe that unless mechanical harvesting of strawberries
becomes a reality, in the future fresh berries may become econom-
ically unavailable to a large percentage of our population. There-
fore, there is considerable interest in the development of a mechan-
ical harvester for this fruit.

Researchers at Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, are testing a
harvester based on the concept of only one harvest. This, of course
requires the selection of varieties with concentrated ripening and
of the varieties tested at Iowa State, the most satisfactory have
been an unnamed selection (Iowa 22-6014), Surecrop, and Sparkle.

- 7

In addition to having fairly concentrated ripening, these varieties
possess a brittle peduncle and are reasonably firm, all important
factors in mechanical harvesting.

***************

SAVE THIS DATE

The Annual Summer Meeting of the Massachusetts Fruit Growers'
Association, in cooperation with the Cooperative Extension Service,
will be held at the Horticultural Research Center, Belchertown, on
July 17, 1968. One of the features of the meeting will be demon-
strations of a self-unloading bulk bin trailer and a granular her-
bicide applicator.

**•*■********■>***

PUBLICATION AVAILABLE

Those persons interested in the production of blueberries,
grapes, raspberries and strawberries, may wish to obtain a copy
of the new publication Small Fruit Culture. This publication dis-
cusses topics such as site selection, varieties, planting, soil
management, pruning, bird damage and its control, harvesting and
marketi ng .

Copies of the publication are available from your County Ex-
tension Office or the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, French
Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01002.

***************

NEW YORK STATE FRUIT INDUSTRY REVISITED

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

During March, 1963, 3 Massachusetts apple growers and the
writer visited orchards and packing sheds in the Hudson Valley and
Lake Champlain area of New York in search of ideas in fruit grow-
ing. In April, 1968, the same areas and many of the same orchards
and packing sheds were revisited. The intervening 5 years have
produced numerous changes, and those of particular interest are
the mechanical hedging and topping of apple trees, use of self-
unloading bulk bin trailers, hand-packing of apples from bulk bins,
and grower-fabricated bulk bin dumners. Comments on these devel-
opments are as follows.

Meahaniaal hedging and topping: To reduce or restrict tree size
and to reduce cost of pruning, growers are hedging and topping
trees mechanically. Crist Brothers, Walden and Leonard Clark, Mil-
ton, use a sickle-bar mower while Forrence Brothers, Peru, use a
commercial hedger and topper. These growers were in agreement
that mechanical pruning is best suited to younger blocks as a meth-
od of restricting spread and height once the desired tree size has
been obtained. Lowering tall trees drastically by topping was con-
sidered undesirable, particularly in the Peru area where winter in-
jury is a problem of much concern.

Detailed cuts with hand tools and/or pneumatic pruners are
required to complete the pruning operation. Generally in the year
of hedging and/or topping, the follow-up cuts are confined to 1-
and 2-year wood. Some shoots and water-sprouts not previously cut
by the hedger or topper are headed back, but few are actually re-
moved. Heading back of shoots and watersprouts forces lateral
growth and increases the number of growing points. The greater the
number of growing points, the easier it is to restrict tree size.

The introduction of mechanical pruning might well have intro-
duced a new term pruning systems since it is apparent that a

definite pruning cycle involving different procedures may develop.
For example, the first year trees may be hedged along the rows,
the second year across the rows and the third year all the trees
may be topped. Each year follow-up pruning cuts are made. The
follow-up pruning may consist of stubbing and thinning cuts for 2
years and saw cuts the third year.

Where mechanical pruning was observed, the trees had at least
a third more scaffold limbs than is common in Massachusetts. Since
some Massachusetts growers are attempting to restrict tree size by
making a few relatively large cuts, it would be of interest to com-
pare the 2 pruning methods. Also, it is possible that apple canker
may be increased due to the number of stubs left by mechanical prun-
ing .

9 -

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Hand ^aakina frc^ bulk bins: Four storages in Peru were hand pack-
ing from bulk bins. Each operation was somewhat diffe>^ent, but
each grower was attempting to make the operation as efficient as
possible. In 3 packing sheds, the bulk bins are set on frames which
can be rotated by the packers. The frames may be stationary or on
rollers. When the frame is stationary, it is necessary to allow
room between the packing station and the bin so that the bulk bin
can be turned. As a result, the cartcns dre farther from the bins.
When the frame is on rollers, it can be pushed away from the pack-
ing station, the bin turned and then returned to its original loca-
tion.

Grower- fabricated bulk bin dumpers: Both Vito Truncal i, Marlboro,
and Michael Lembo, Modena, have designed and constructed their own
bulk bin dumpers. The dumper constructed by Mr. Truncali sets at
floor level and can be operated in a room with a 9-foot ceiling.
A bin of apples is set on a lift with roller sections in front of
the tank. When the bin in the tank is empty, this bin and the full
bin are hydraul i cal ly lifted simultaneously. The full bin is pushed
onto the roller section occupied by the empty bin. The empty box
slides onto another roller section where it remains until drained.
The empty bin is then turned, pulled onto rails and allowed to
slide to the floor.

- 10

The dumper constructed by Mr. Lembo has 2 unique features:
(1) the bins are tilted into water rather than being submerged;
and (2) the dumper handles 2 bins at a time. This commercially
available dumoer can be operated in a room with an 8-foot ceiling.

Summary

The equioment and procedures described above are those of gen^
eral interest to Massachusetts fruit growers. Other procedures
and equipment of more specialized nature were seen and will be dis
cussed at fruit meetings during the summer.

Growers throughout the United States are constantly develop-
ing procedures and adapting equipment in attempts to reduce costs
and/or labor. By taking trips to other fruit growing areas, the
writer and growers making similar trios are attempting to glean
ideas that may be of value to the Massachusetts fruit industry.

*****************

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested use in accordance with Federal and State
laws and regulations. Where trade names are used for identifica-
tion , no product endorsement or discrimination is intended.

warning: most pesticides are poisonous, read and follow all
directions and safety precautions on labels. handle carefully and
store in original containers out of reach of children, pets and
livestock. dispose of empty containers right away, in a safe
manner and place. do not contaminate forage, streams or ponds.

Cooperaliv Fvtrn>;,inn Scrviri!
Linn . ' i; M-hllS^lls

Anih. ■ t-iU'^rU'^

A A Spto'^Ti.in
ni'i.; tor
Coopprntiv" A<iiii iillur.ll ExtPncion Wnck
^j^ nf Mav S and Jiip«?, 30, IP 14

44? - 5 68

Permit No. 1216

1000

^^jOst-qge and Fees Paid
UnitpnStates Departmpnt of Agriculture

DR. WM. J. LOPD
PLANT & SOIL SCIENCES
FHEl^iCH HALL

0100^

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

JULY-AUGUST, 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Best Understocks for New England Orchards

Pomological Paragraphs
Harvest Labor
Why

Clean Tree Bases
Blackbird Control

Strawberry Bed Fumigation

Observations of Fruit Research Activities in England

Pennsylvania Apple Industry

Northeast Mechanical Fruit Harvesting Demonstration
Days

THE BEST UNDERSTOCKS FOR NEW ENGLAND ORCHARDS

C. Lyman Calahan, Extension Horticulturist
University of Vermont

Apple growers have clearly proven that they are yery much
interested in planting young apple trees on size controlling root-
stocks. EM VII has been planted more than all of the other size-
controlling stocks in this area, but with full knowledge that
there are some shortcomings with this stock.

Now a very significant shift from EM VII to MM 106 is occur-
ring, mostly because there is some hope that Mcintosh will grow
better on this stock. Unfortunately, our experience with growing
this newer rootstock in a cool climate and shallow or poor soils is
far too limited, leaving us unable to offer meaningful advice to
those planting MM 106 rootstocks.

At the University of Vermont Horticultural Research Center,
we do have a research project under way to evaluate new rootstocks,
but it may be several years before much meaningful data will be
available. We selected M-26, MM 104, MM 106 and M. robusta 5 as
understocks in an effort to run the entire spectrum of size control
vigor and hardiness. The Mailing stocks came directly from East
Mailing as stoolshoots.

Mcintosh and Richared Delicious were used as 2 of the scion
varieties. A third scion, our own Vermont Spur Delicious, was used
to learn more about the growth response of a spur type on the least
vigorous and most vigorous stocks used in the experiment. In addi-
tion, the variety Mutsu was used, not because it shows much commer-
cial promise, but because it is a very vigorous triploid and is
suspected not to be completely winter hardy.

Unfortunately, an experiment of this kind cannot be gotten
under way as quickly as we would desire. The trees were finally
orchard planted last spring after almost 4 years of "lead time"
had elapsed. (Preliminary work was begun in 1963, and the stocks
were planted as stoolshoots in the spring of 1965. They were
budded that fall and grown at Burlington and Ottawa during the sum-
mer of 1966.) Furthermore, it is entirely possible that by the
time this orchard is mature, and meaningful data can be obtained,
these rootstocks will have become a mere curiosity, passed over by
the development of more promising stocks. And even if better root-
stocks are not found by then, we may be caught a little short-
handed on 2 or 3 counts when it comes to good research findings to
help the grower plan his plantings in the years ahead. First, we
won't know for a long time how successfully we will be able to grow
Mcintosh and Delicious in the hedgerow system, on the more vigor-
ous stocks, by limiting tree size with control pruning. A good
economic comparison between such trees and one on dwarfing root-
stocks will require a lot of careful work. Secondly, we are rap-
idly going in the direction of accepting the spur-types in order

- 2

to take advantage of their natural dwarfing effect built right in-
to the scion variety. Spur types are already available for Deli-
cious, Golden Delicious, Spartan and Mcintosh, the varieties of
real interest to New England growers. Experience with the spur
types on the size-controlling rootstocks, while not being encour-
aging, is very limited, and here again, good comparisons will re-
quire much work.

Some leading nurserymen are concerned about this problem and
are now looking at M. robusta 5, M. robusta seedlings, and even
Mcintosh seedlings as understocks for the spur-types. The softwood-
cutting method has been perfected for the production of M. robusta
stocks and it is expected that this stock will be used for some
time to come in Eastern Canada. In our plantings at Burlington,
we have bearing-age spur-type Delicious on clonal M. robusta , and
younger trees on M. robusta seedlings, and excellent growth of the
scion variety has been produced.

Other varieties, including 3 spur-types of Mcintosh and 1 of
Spartan, are being grown in our plots on M. robusta clonal stock.
Experience with M. robusta seedlings has been limited and there is
reluctance to work with them, partly because of the confusion that
is certain to follow with clonal M. robusta . M. robusta seedlings
from open pollinated M. robusta 5 grown here at our Research Center
and those grown by Prof. Ed Rasmussen, (retired) at Durham, New
Hampshire, have always been more vigorous than domestic seedlings.
At least 1 Canadian nursery and 1 domestic nursery are now trying
M. robusta seedlings in a limited way.

The suitability of Mcintosh seedlings as a stock for the spur-
types is well worth investigation. Mcintosh seedlings produced
here at Burlington proved to be almost as hardy as M. robusta 5
clonal stock in laboratory tests. A small planting of Starkrimson
Delicious on Mcintosh seedlings now starting to bear in Bill Darrow
orchard in Putney, Vermont, has made excellent growth. A Delicious
planting on domestic seedlings in Shoreham, is one of the best
young bearing-age Delicious plantings in Vermont.

Our Canadian collegues are working with controlled crosses to
produce seedlings that will hopefully be size-controlling but still
be adapted to a wide range of soil conditions and be cold-hardy.
Numerous problems have been solved in the past by using good seed-
lings and it is certainly possible that new seedling understocks
will be available in the future for New England orchards.

***************

- 3 -
POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

***************

Why : Why is the lettering so large on the "open" sign and so small
on the "closed" sign at many roadside stands? Why do stands adver-
tise "sweet corn" or "fresh strawberries" in the middle of January?
Why do stands and cider mills take great pride in neatness only
during the season that they are open? Why do some stands fail to
display price signs?

***************

Clean Tree Bases ; Elimination of grass cover around the tree base
helps to prevent mouse damage and in the case of peach trees, fac-
ilitates better spray coverage for peach borer control. A practi-
cal way to eliminate the grass cover around the base of trees is to
apply sand or gravel around the base of the trees, and to annually
apply herbicides to this area.

***************

Bl ackbird Control : John E. Seubert, Animal Depredation Division,
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Maryland stated at a
conference on blackbird depredation that th.e value of scare tech-
niques for bird control are increased if something occasionally
happens to a bird. When the flock does not respond to non-lethal
scare devices, the occasional shooting of a bird or treating the
population with a chemical frightening-agent will help prevent

birds from learning that fakes are being used Proceedings North

American Conference on Blackbird Depredation in Agriculture , Ohio
State Cooperative Extension Service Publication.

- 4

STRAWBERRY BED FUMIGATION

Walter E. Knox, Jr., Graduate Assistant
Department of Plant Pathology

Several species of nematodes have been reported to cause in-
jury to strawberry plantings; under Massachusetts growing condi-
tions, Pratylenchus penetrans , the lesion nematode, appears to be
most important. This particular nematode occurs throughout the
northeast, and because of its broad host range, which includes
many cover crops and a large number of annuals and perennials, it
is a potential threat to strawberry growers.

Symptoms of disease caused by P^. penetrans :

Lesion nematodes have been implicated in the disease complex
known as black root rot of strawberry. The whole plant is affected,
but first symptoms are visible on the roots. Brown lesions 1 mil-
limeter long appear on the roots, rapidly merging to form a brown
to black root system. Often, the outer cylinder of root tissue
will slip off, exposing the vascular tissue. Such root damage is
usually accompanied by the invasion of bacteria and fungi. Above
ground symptoms include generally poor growth, of plants, suscepti-
bility to drought, and failure to produce runners.

Control of Black Root Rot :

Control is a two-fold operation. Of primary importance is the
selection of strawberry stock substantially free from nematode in-
fection. Such plants will have white roots free from characteristic
lesions. All other attempts at control will fail should infected
plants be set in the field

In order to be effective, most fumigants require that the soil
temperature be 60 F or above. Therefore, under our growing condi
tions, August or September is the best time to fumigate

and cold.

OBSERVATIONS OF FRUIT RESEARCH ACTIVITIES IN ENGLAND

(The following excerpts were taken from an account of ^^ • Jerome
Hull, Jr.'s observations made during visits to research centers in
southern England and published in the February 1968, issue of Michi-
gan State Horticultural Society Newsletter. We believe you will
find his observations of interest. — Editors)

"At the Long Ashton Research Station near Bristol, I visited
with Dr. Bould. Bould's correlation studies between leaf nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium with plant vigor, have revealed leaf an-
alysis to be a sound basis for determining the nutrition status of
tree fruits and fertilizer needs with little regard to soil type.
Bould also found the effect of the nitrogen status at different
times of the year ^ery important. He reports that a low nitrogen
level in the tree at the time of floral differentiation affects
differentiation and that nitrogen shortage later in the season af-
fects embryo longevity and pollen tube growth.

"Dr. Luckwill discussed his studies with growth retardants Alar
and cCC. Applications of 2,000 parts per million of Alar restric-
ted vegetative growth and promoted flowering of apple trees. How-
ever, such treatments are expensive and Luckwill does not consider
them practical where dwarfing rootstocks are available. He believes
the chemical would have merit for overcoming excessive vegetative
growth and inducing flower bud development. Used in such a manner,
only one application would be necessary since the cropping effect
in subsequent years would be sufficient to maintain the tree in a
fruitful condition.

"Studies with pillar pruning at Long Ashton have not been en-
couraging. The extensive pruning or cutting necessary with this
system encourages excessive vigor. To be successful, pillar prun-
ing probably would be practical only on very poor soils or with
very limited rainfall. In general, English growers who have tried
pillar pruning have failed because excessive tree vigor has resulted.

"Apple virus investigations at Long Ashton indicate that the
health status of the plant interacts with the nutrient uptake at
certain stages of development. Viruses have also been observed to
reduce the production of stooled cuttings of dwarfing rootstocks.
The fungus disease Phythophora catorium has been observed to inter-
act with the viruses killing only infected stock. Likewise, virus-
free rootstock has been observed to produce orchards with uniform
tree size, while diseased stock did not.

Grower

:ry

the rotation of the 3 differ
of the 3-year-old wood, it i

- 6 -

"Most strawberries produced in this area of England are grown
under cloches. Cloches are glass coverings placed over the straw-
berry row to promote early season fruit maturity. Utilizing this
very specialized method, growers have been able to produce 3-4 tons
of berries per acre and gross $6 ,000-$9 ,000 per acre. The average
berry price in recent years has been about 84 cents per pound.

"Growers use yery limited quantities of nitrogen in their straw-
berry production. Large quantities of nitrogen result in excessive
leaf development but not in increased fruit development, and also
result in delayed fruit maturity. They are more interested in grow-
ing berries (not leaves) and in obtaining early ripening.

"Studies on root development in a special laboratory at East
Mailing reveal that fruit trees have two flushes of root growth.
The first period of root growth occurs before the period of active
vegetative growth, and the second and more extensive root growth
period occurs after the vegetative flush of growth. Strawberries
planted in March had roots extending to a 4-foot depth by early
August.

"A study on light intensity throughout the tree indicates a
good correlation between fruit size and light intensity. Fruit
size was observed to decrease when fruit was produced more than one
yard from the outside periphery of the tree. East Mailing scien-
tists have also cut the wood of some large apple trees, separating
it into one-, two-, and three-year-old wood. As much as 80 per cent
of the wood from some trees was scaffold wood. This would indicate
that for very large, older trees, much of the plant's food producing
Capacity was being diverted to maintaining scaffold wood rather
than to maintaining producive fruiting wood."

***************

PENNSYLVANIA APPLE INDUSTRY

William J. Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

C.A. Porter, from Pennsylvania State University, reported in
Farm Economics , August, 1967, that apple production should increase
in Pennsylvania in the future. Although the total acreage in apples
declined 3 per cent between 1964 and 1967, increased tree numbers
per acre in young plantings should more than offset this deficit.
Crops of 13 to 14 million bushels are predicted by 1970 if weather
Conditions are as favorable as for the 11 million bushel crops of
1964 and 1965.

The 1967 apple tree survey revealed that 83 per cent of all
trees are Delicious, Golden Delicious, York, Rome or Stayman. Jon-
athan and Mcintosh account for an additional 8 per cent of the trees
According to Porter, the two most noteworthy changes regarding vari-

7 -

eties, are the increased rate of planting York and the fact that
Golden Delicious has overtaken Stayman and is now the third most
important variety (based on tree numbers), following Delicious and
York.

Approximately two thirds of all apple trees in Pennsylvania
are located in 4 counties — Adams, Franklin, Berks and Lehigh.
Adams County has the most trees, accounting for 39 per cent of all
the apple trees in Pennsylvania.

As in all fruit areas, there are now fewer commercial orchards
in Pennsylvania but the holdings are larger than in the past.
There are now 168 orchards having at least 2,500 apple trees, and
these orchards account for 72 per cent of all apple trees in the
state.

***************

NORTHEAST MECHANICAL FRUIT HARVESTING DEMONSTRATION DAYS

Thomas E. LaMont, Secretary
New York State Horticultural Society
Albion, New York 14411

The New York State Horticultural Society and the New York State
Extension Service are jointly sponsoring a two day show at which
mechanical fruit harvesting equipment for tree fruits, vineyards,
and berries will be exhibited and demonstrated. This will be held
at the Chateau Winery and adjoinging farms two miles east of Lewis-
ton, New York, on Route 104, and about eight miles north of Niagara
Falls, on Tuesday and Wednesday, August 13 and 14. Mechanical aids
and closely related equipment such as tree toppers and hedgers also
wi 1 1 be on displ ay .

This is the first meeting of its kind for fruit growers in the
East, and will be of interest to all growers to help them move into
this new area of mechanical harvesting. The Perry Apple Harvester,
manufactured by C.J. Perry & Son, Gasport, New York, will be shown
and demonstrated. This machine will handle cherries and other fruits
The Gould Harvester, manufactured by Gould Bros, of Milpitas, Calif-
ornia, will be shown and demonstrated by Harry Smith of Ontario,
New York.

For cherries, the Friday and Homelite Harvesters will be shown
and demonstrated along with the Ace machine made by Plummer Bros,
of Hastings, Michigan. Hydro Coolers, both ice and refrigerator
models will also be exhibited.

Both the Gerrans limb shaker and the Shockwave truck shaker
will be shown and demonstrated.

8 -

Tree toppers will be shown by two local growers. These are
heavy-duty mowing machines mounted on fork lifts for changing the
height and angle of cut.

An over-the-row harvester for raspberries, blackberries, low
bush berries and currants will be shown by the Blueberry Equipment
Company of South Haven, Michigan.

Persons wanting booklets on the things to see or a list of
motels in the Niagara Falls area should write to the Chamber of
Commerce, Niagara Falls, New York 14302.

***************

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested use in accordance with Federal and State
laws and regulations. Where trade names are used for identifica-
tion, no product endorsement or discrimination is intended.

warning: most pesticides are poisonous. read AND FOLLOW ALL
DIRECTIONS AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON LABELS. HANDLE CAREFULLY AND
STORE IN ORIGINAL CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND
LIVESTOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER
AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS OR PONDS.

Cooperative Extension Service

University of IVIassachusetts

Amherst, IVIassachusetts

A. A. Spielman

Director

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

Official Business
451 - 7/68

Permit No. 1216

985

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE

SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER, 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

In Memoria

Dr. Walter D. Weeks

Bird Damage - What Is It?

Things to Remember as You Harvest Apples

Chemicals to Help with the Harvest

Pomological Paragraph
Blight-Resistant Pears

Origin of Some Old and New Apple Varieties

Fruit Color - Its Nature and Changes

New Publications of Interest

IN M E M R I A
Dr. Walter D. Weeks

Dr. Walter D. Weeks, Associate Professor of Pomol-
ogy in the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, died
on July 25, 1968, after a relatively short illness. Dr.
Weeks obtained his B.S. and M.S. degrees at the Univer-
sity of New Hampshire and his Ph.D. at the University of
Massachusetts in 1941.

He was a Research Assistant at Rutgers University
and an Associate County Agent in Worcester County, Mass-
achusetts, before joining the faculty at the University
of Massachusetts, in 1945. During his professional ca-
reer, he was especially well known for his research on
nutrition, clonal rootstocks, vegetative varietal char-
acteristics and the influence of growth regulators on
the abscission of apples and other deciduous tree fruits
He published over twenty research articles in books,
technical journals and bulletins during his lifetime and
was a regular contributor to Fruit Notes.

He was a member of the American Society for Horti-
cultural Science and Sigma Xi . He served as Chairman of
the Northeastern Rootstock Conference in 1951 and as a
member of the National Committee on the Mineral Nutri-
tion of Horticultural Crops in 1963.

son

Surviving Dr. Weeks are his wife, Doris, and his
Paul .

BIRD DAMAGE - WHAT IS IT?

Lloyd A. Mitterling
Plant Science Department
University of Connecticut

Storrs, Connecticut

Abraham Lincoln was credited in 1864 with making the comment,
"The world has never had a good definition of the word liberty,
and the American people, just now, are much in want of one." That
comment aptly defines the American fruit growers' situation regard-
ing bird damage today, except that what we need is not a definition
Of liberty--we need control of birdsl

Our knowledge concerning the control of bird damage is about
on a par with the entomologists' knowledge concerning insect con-
trol in the 1920's. The pomologists feel inadequately prepared
to cope with the problem; the game biologists hasten to explain
that the problem does not concern them; and the majority of orni-
thologists flatly refuse to recognize it. Generally then, we can
say that the field is left to anyone who is i nterested . . .and , there
are few who are.

Effective bird-damage control must be based on the answers to
two questions:

1. What is the crop being damaged?

a. When does the damage occur?

b. How severe is the damage which does occur?

2. What bird species are responsible for the damage?

a. Why do they do it?

b. Where do they do it?

Logically, analysis of damage should start with the crop. It
so happens, however, that birds inflict damage to varying degrees
and at different times of the year, depending on the locality of
the fruit crop. Their aim is to satisfy an innate drive for food
and/or moisture. The damage they do depends upon their needs.

Consequently, I believe that our first consideration should
be concerned with question 2.b., Where do birds do the damage?
This means we must recognize the ecological situations in which
damage is occurring. With that knowledge, we can gain valuable
clues about why the damage is occurring and which bird species are
responsible.

For example: In late March or early April, we notice bud dam-
age on some of our apple trees. If the orchard is located in an
isolated area surrounded by shrubs and brushy growth with good
cover, then the damage is probably due to grouse ov* partridge and

- 2

they probably fed on the buds for their food value. On the other
hand, if the orchard is located in an area which is relatively
heavily populated, as many of our southern New England towns are,
grouse may not be the culprit. With the increased number of bird
feeders in such an area, many bird species may be attracted to
that region. If the feeders remain empty for a period during a
snow storm or other adverse conditions that create inconveniences
for those who feed the birds, some bird species, such as Grosbeak,
may turn to bud feeding. Again, the feeding is simply fulfilling
an energy vacuum.

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ay be in-
rm-weath-
and cow-
bl uejays
ecies re-
a t i n in
e species
rred in

culprits
nded by
y by
unded by

M
to the
Young
food a
tors r
fully
unabl e
to mea
the lo
costs
what p
deci de

uch
fled
fledg
nd ar
e 1 a t i
inade
to a
sure
ss sh
more
ercen

f the

gling

1 i ngs

e aim

ng to

quate

ccura

damag

oul d

than

tage

dama
s of

have
ost a

seve

when
tely
e, th
be in
the d
of th

ge th
sever

1 ess
Iways
rity

we a
asses
e nex
veste
amage
e los

at occurs in the summer may be related
al species, such as bluejays and orioles,
fear, are less selective about their
hungry or thirsty. There are many fac-
of bird damage, and our records are woe-
ttempt to measure damage. We are simply
s it at this time. When we have learned
t problem will be: What percentage of
d in control measures? If the control
, it obviously won't be feasible. But
s is a feasible investment? This we must

Our knowledge of how to control bird damage is very limited,
but we do know that carbide guns and similar noise makers are in-
fluential against bluejays and orioles "when properly used." Un-
fortunately, "proper use" in one situation may not be "proper" in
another. Apparently, the abundance of "wild" food in an area is
related to the effective use of carbide guns. If there is an abun-
dance of wild food, the guns will deter the birds from the crop
much more readily than if there is a limited wild food supply.

Currently, crop protection with various types of netting ma-
terials is an extensive type of control being attempted in some
areas. These nets are expensive and generally are inefficient pro-
tection for such crops as cherries, peaches and apples. Perhaps
where bud damage is severe. We'll need a new type of culture sys-

tern for crops such as these, to facilitate protection measures and
permit the harvest of an undamaged crop. It could also be true
that intensive efforts during the damage-occurrence period may be
less expensive than an extensive season-long control measure such
as use of netting.

The problem of bird-damage to fruit crops is of growing sig-
nificance, and it is important that ornithologists become aware of
and involved in the problem. They need to recognize that the de-
velopment of a general ornithocide will be forthcoming if some re-
lief is not soon found for the grower. Furthermore, the grower
needs to recognize that while all bird species may be culprits,
many may be so only during brief periods of duress. Thus, cooper-
ation between the ornithologists and the fruit growers is essential
to a solution of the problem.

***************

THINGS TO REMEMBER AS YOU HARVEST APPLES

Wi 1 1 iam J .
Department of Plant

Bramlage
and Soil

Sciences

Harvest time is usually hectic, and with all the problems of
weather, labor and equipment it is only too easy to overlook or
forget some of the basic principles involved in getting fruit of
the best possible quality to the consumer. Consequently, a few
reminders on these principles follow.

Pay attention to fruit maturity . Matur

Fruits

development of
during the harv
these changes c
ed at an immatu
vor or color, a
and scald after
be very suscept
How do you iden
qui ck tests curr
pecially underc
probably the be
No one needs to
There is not mu
give us the bes
when fruit are
to handle them
not improve in

the fruit at harvest,
est season, especially if the
annot be compensated for afte
re stage, apples will never d
nd they will be highly suscep

harvest. If overmature at h
ible to internal breakdown an
tify maturity? Many indices
ently used are precise. Pres
olor), abscission and flavor
St guide is your experience w

tell you the fruit are immat
ch we can do to control matur
t means so far developed. Bu
being harvested either immatu
accordingly. Do not store su
storage; they will only produ

ity is the stage of
are changing rapidly
weather is hot, and
r harvest. If harvest-
evelop top-quality fla-
tible to shriveling
arvest, the fruit will
d to storage rots,
can be used, but no
sure tests, color (es-
are all helpful , but
ith your own fruit,
ure or overmature,
ity, although Alar will
t we need to recognize

re or overmature and
ch fruit. They will
ce problems.

Handle apples as though they were eggs . Eggs break easily
and so do apples. A cut or a stem puncture is a wide open door to
rot-producing fungi. A bruise harms the appearance and can stimu-

late ripening, since bruises stimulate the production of ethylene
gas, the ripening hormone. Unlike maturation, wounding is under
our control and we need to preach and to practice gentle handling
endlessly.

Don't let water stand on fruit

gus s
germi
Penet
are w
hours
1 a d i
f rui t
Also,

Of CO

tent,
ature
41° F
than

pores
nati n
rated
arm.
, inf
ng th
, the

if y
ndens

rel a
. Fo
. Fr
1 day

These
g spores
the frui
It is a
e c t i n s w
e storage
n it w u 1
our stora
a t i n as
tive humi
r example
uit shoul
or decay

spore
canno
t. B
safe
ill

wi th
d be
ge is
tempe
dity
, 70%
d be

will

s can
t sur
ut f u
bet t
ccur

wet
wel 1

humi
ratur
will

R.H.
expos

resu

not ge
Vive i
ngi gr
hat if
and ro
fruit,
not to
d at t
e fall
increa
at 50
ed to
It.

. No
rminat
f they
ow fas

fruit
ts wil
And

humid
he t i m
s. Wi
se sha
F wi
no mor

fruit wil
e if they

dry out
t, especi

are wet

I develop
if you mu
fy the st
e of load
th consta
rply with

II be aim
e than 95

1 be f
are d
before
ally i
24 con
. Try
st loa
orage
i n g , b
nt moi
falli
ost 10
% R.H.

ree of fun-
ry, and

they have
f the fruit
t i n u a 1

to avoid
d with wet
immediately
e careful
sture con-
ng temper-
0% R.H. at

for more

Don't 1
Fruit s
time, a
They wi

any shr
i ncome
suscept
coati ng
immatur
Every s
readi ly
moi stur
Dry woo
and pal
ly wett
the air
fruit a
the dan

houl d
nd th
11 us
i V e 1 i
has 1
ible
, sho
e app
torag

avai
e 1 OS
d wi 1
lets
ed th

and
re in
gers

et fruit dry out
_^_ ^

ex
e high
ual ly
ng, SO
i teral
to wat
ul d be
les of
e shou
lable
s from
1 abso
go i n t
orough
ul tima
the b
of wat

posed
er the
lose 5

you c
ly eva
er los

store

other
Id hav
and ar

frui t
rb 1 ar
stor
ly in
tely f
oxes t
er sta

T
le

to no

tempera
% of the
annot re
porated.
s becaus
d in uns

his i
ss th
ture,
ir we
ly on
Gol
e of
ealed

v a r i e t i
e a good
e extrem

is the
ge quant
age aire
storage,
rom the
wet th
nding on

es mi

humi

ely V

use

i ties

ady n

they

fruit

em, t

the

s the
an 90%

the mo
ight be

appear
den Del
their p

polyet
ght wel
dity ga
al uable
f dry w

of wat
early s

will a
. And
hen you
frui t .

ther
R.H.
re cr
fore
ance .
i c i u
oorly
hylen
1 be
uge i
. On
ood a
er, a
atura
bsorb
if yo
must

side
for a
i tica
they

Tha
s , wh

deve
e bag
hand!
n i t .
e pri
s box
nd un
ted

this
u wai

be c

of th
ny le
1 thi
will
t 5%
ich a
loped
s . S
ed li
The
me ca
es or
1 ess
r are
wate
t unt
oncer

e COT n .
ngth of
s is .
show
of your
re so

wax

omewhat
kewi se.
se are
use of

pal 1 ets
boxes

quick-
r from
il the
ned with

Cool fruit as quickly as possible . At harvest, apples are
respiring near peak rates, and temperature has profound effects at
this time. Cool them as fast as possible after harvest. Storage
life can be quickly lost at this time, and this loss can ne^er be
made up. Since pre-cooling methods are seldom used for apples,
quick cooling means getting them out of the sun and into the stor-
age as fast as possible, and the use of sufficient refrigeration
capacity for a rapid pull-down of temperature.

found that at 34.5° the fruits
ones held at 320 for 90 days,
perature control j_s important.

were as soft after 40 days as were
A 50-day difference for 2.50: Tern-

***************

CHEMICALS TO HELP WITH THE HARVEST

Wil 1 1 am J . Braml age
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The problems of pre-harvest drop and scald of apples have been
greatly reduced with the development of chemical control measures.
Most of these measures have become pretty well established. How-
ever, the clearance of Alar for use will require some rethinking
of control approaches, as there are still many unanswered questions
on where Alar fits into the fruit growers' arsenal of chemicals.
Meanwhile, a review of current recommendations seems in order.

Drop control : The 2 chemicals recommended for drop-control
are naphthal eneacetic acid (NAA) and 2, 4, 5-trichl orophenoxypro-
pionic acid (2,4,5-TP). NAA is recommended for early varieties and
Mcintosh. It may be applied at 10 or 20 ppm and as 2 sprays about
10 days apart, but should not be applied within 2 days of harvest.
2,4,5-TP is recommended for late varieties, applied once at a con-
centration of 20 ppm or less. When properly used, NAA will delay
drop at least 1 week and 2,4,5-TP will reduce drop for up to 4
weeks.

Do not use these chemicals indiscriminately or too early, for
they will hasten ripening though retarding drop. 2,4,5-TP, in par-
ticular, has tens ripening of early-maturing varieties considerably,
hence the recommendation of NAA for these varieties. Only apply
stop-drop sprays if you need them. If you can harvest a large por-
tion of your fruit, especially your CA fruit, before drop becomes
Serious do not spray this portion, for you will only be reducing
their storage life.

For more complete information on Stop-drop recommendations,
consult Special Circular No. 254, available from your regional
specialist in Massachusetts .

Scald control : Scald is always a danger, as most varieties
of apples are susceptible and susceptibility varies greatly from
season to season. The 2 most important factors influencing sus-
ceptibility are fruit maturity and pre-harvest temperature. The
more immature the apples, the worse they are likely to scald. And
the warmer the weather just prior to harvest, the worse scald is
likely to be.

Two chemicals that usually provide good scald control are di-
phenylamine (DPA*) and ethoxyquin (Stop-Scald*). We recommend the

3pm, and should not be repeated. Neither DPA nor Stop-Scald cause:
iny appreciable ripening of fruit, but both can cause surface burn:
)n fruit if the apples are not drained well after dipping. Also,
both chemicals require solution agitation or they will settle out.
If properly used, these chemicals will greatly reduce the scald
problem; but due to the variations occurring in susceptibility,
they do not guarantee scald control.

For further details on use of these chemicals, consult Special
Circular No. 277, available from your Massachusetts Regional Spe-
cial i St.

Fungicides ; If apples are dipped for scald control, can a
fungicide be incorporated into the solution to reduce storage rots?
This question frequently arises, and while we have not tested this
usage in Massachusetts, it has been tested by a number of research-
ers elsewhere. At the 1968 New England Fruit Meetings, Dr. R.H.
Daines reported on his tests at Rutgers University. He has found
that while some new and uncleared fungicides appear very promising,
of the currently available materials, only Captan has given bene-
fit. He found that 2 lbs. of Captan per 100 gallons of water re-
duced blue mold by about 50%. Dr. R.M. Smock, of Cornell Univer-
sity, has also noted decay reductions with this treatment, but re-
ports that this level of Captan cannot be recommended as it causes
excessive residues. Last year, several Massachusetts growers used
1 lb. of Captan (85%) per 100 gal. of water and were satisfied with
results. That is the current recommendation being made by Cornell
Uni versi ty .

*Trade names.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Blight-Resistant Pears : Star, Lee and Mac, 3 f irebl ight-resistant
pear varieties, have been introduced by the New Jersey Agricultur-
al Experiment Station. Mac and Lee are as blight resistant as
Kieffer* while Star is less resistant than Kieffer. However, Mac
has not been as thoroughly tested as the other two new varieties.

Under conditions in New Jersey, Star ripens about the time of
Clapp Favorite, Lee ripens just after Bartlett and Mac is harvested
about 2 weeks after Bartlett. — From Horticultural News , New Jersey
Horticultural Society, May, 1968.

♦(Editors' Note: Fireblight resistance of Kieffer is considered
to be moderate. )

ORIGIN OF SOME OLD AND NEW APPLE VARIETIES

Wil 1 iam J . Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

This past winter it was suggested that an article in Fruit
Notes on the origin of some old and new apple varieties would be
of interest and of value to readers. Apparently, customers occa-
sionally ask the roadside-stand operator about the origin of a
vari ety .

Most of the apple varieties planted in this country origin-
ated here, but the history of many is obscure and except for vari-
eties more recently introduced, few came into existence as the prod-
uct of the plant breeder. Most of the varieties originated as
chance seedlings and were discovered and introduced into cultiva-
tion by some observer or admirer of the fruit. Mcintosh, Delicious,
Wealthy, Northern Spy and Baldwin are examples of commercial vari-
eties that originated as such chance seedlings.

The following is a list of some of the apple varieties being
Sold in Massachusetts and their origin. Where varieties have re-
sulted from a controlled cross between two other varieties, the
origin of such varieties is expressed by placing the letter "X" be-
tween the parent varieties. For example, the Milton variety is a
cross between Yellow Transparent X Mcintosh.

Bal dwin A chance seedling in an orchard at Wilmington, Massa-
chusetts. It was propagated and widely introduced in
Eastern Massachusetts as early as 1784.

Cortland Originated from the cross of Ben Davis X Mcintosh.
The cross was made at Geneva, New York, by the New
York State Agricultural Experiment Station, and it
was introduced for trial about 1915.

Davey Open-pollinated seedling of Mcintosh. Originating in
North Grafton, Massachusetts, in the orchard of S.
Lothrop Davenport, it was introduced commercially in
1950.

Del i cious A chance seedling originally distributed under the
name Hawkeye, it was discovered in Iowa in 1881.

Early Yellow Transparent X Mcintosh. Developed in Geneva,
Mcintosh New York, by the New York State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, it was introduced for trial in 1923.

Golden Originating as a chance seedling in West Virginia, it
Del i cious was introduced by Stark Brothers in 1916.

Idared

Lodi

Macoun

Jonathan X Wagener. It was developed in Moscow, Idaho,
by the Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station and was
introduced commercially in 1942.

Montgomery X Yellow Transparent. Developed in Geneva,
New York, by the New York State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, it was introduced for trial in 1924.

Mcintosh X Jersey Black. Another of the varieties
developed in Geneva, New York, by the New York State
Agricultural Experiment Station, it was introduced for
trial in 1923.

Mcintosh Originated as a chance seedling in Dundas County, Ontar-
io, Canada. Propagation of this variety began in about
1870.

Melba

Mel rose

Milton

Open-pollinated seedling of Mcintosh. It was devel-
oped in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, by the Division of
Horticulture, Central Experimental Farm, and was in-
troduced commercially about 1924.

Jonathan X Delicious. Originating at the Ohio Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, it was introduced com-
mercial ly in 1944.

Yellow Transparent X Mcintosh. Originating in Geneva,
New York, at the New York State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, it was introduced for trial in 1923.

Monroe

Northern

Spy

Puritan

Jonathan X Rome Beauty. Originated in Geneva, New
York, by the New York State Agricultural Experiment
Station. It was introduced as a named variety in 1949

This variety originated in a seedling orchard at East
Bloomfield, New York. In 1852, the American Pomolog-
ical Society listed it as a new variety of promise.

Mcintosh X Red Astrachan. It resulted from a cross
made by Professor F.C. Sears at the University of
Massachusetts about 1929.

Red
Astrachan

Rhode

Island
Greeni ng

Rome Beauty

Roxbury
Russet

This is a Russian apple imported by the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society in 1835.

Locality of the origin is not known with certainty,
but it probably originated as a seedling in the vicin-
ity of Newport, Rhode Island.

This variety originated as a chance seedling in Law-
rence County, Ohio, before 1848.

It is thought that this variety originated in Roxbury,
Massachusetts, early in the seventeenth century.

Spartan Mcintosh X Yellow Newtown. The cross was made at Sum-
merland, British Columbia, by the Dominion Experiment-
al Station, and the variety was introduced commercial-
ly in 1936.

Spencer Mcintosh X Golden Delicious. Originated in Summer-
land, British Columbia, Canada, by the Dominion Exper-
imental Station. It was introduced commercially in
1959.

Weal thy This variety orginated in Excelsior, Minnesota, from
seed of the Cherry Crab about 1860 planted by Peter
M. Gideon.

Wei 1 inqton Cortland X Crimson Beauty. Originated in Geneva, New
York, by the New York State Agricultural Experiment
Station. It was introduced commercially in 1955.

Winter Originating on a farm near Adamsboro, Cass County,
Banana Indiana, about 1876, it was introduced in 1890.

Yellow This variety was imported from Russia by the United
Transparent States Department of Agriculture in 1870.

***************

FRUIT COLOR - ITS NATURE AND CHANGES

Wi 1 1 iam J . Braml age
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Color is a critically important component of fruit quality, a
major force in attracting or repelling prospective consumers. It
is also a component of quality that is constantly changing as fruits
ripen, and which consequently finds use as an index of ripeness.
Because of its great importance, color warrants our understanding
and careful consideration in the handling of fruit.

Color of plant tissues generally results from the interaction
of 3 classes of pigments: the chlorophylls, the anthocyanins , and
the carotenoids. Let's first consider the nature of these pigments,
and then examine the prime factors that influence their development.

The chlorophylls produce the green color in plant tissues. It
has been said that these are the most important compounds in nature,
for they are the substances that trap energy from the sun, convert
it to chemical energy, and allow it to be stored as food. All of
man's food, and consequently his very existence, derives from this
process. Although green fruits obviously contain chlorophyll and
are capable of making food, most of the food in a fruit has been
transported in from the leaves, which are rtuch more efficient "food
factories" than are fruit.

In an immature fruit, chlorophyll is constantly being broken
down and re-made, so that a healthy fruit retains a rich green
color. But as a fruit matures, chlorophyll synthesis gradually
ceases and the pigment that breaks down is no longer replaced.
Thus, a ripening fruit rapidly loses its green color, this change
being so characteristic that it can be used as a maturity index.

Th
for mos
phylls,
anthocy
tive.
are usu
f rui t,
all red
V a r i e t i
tified
Of the
obvious
that of

e antho

t of th

which

a n i n s a

Colorat

ally mo

In app

V a r i e t

es . In

in sing

fruit i

that c

apples

cyam
e red
have
ppear
ion f
re th
les ,
ies ,

cont
1 e va
s an
olora

ns are
and bl
a very

to fun
rom the
an 1 an
the sam
though
rast, a
rieties
i nterac
t i n of

a large
ue colo
importa
c t i n s
se pigm
thocyan
e 3 ant
in diff
t least

of blu
tion of

bluebe

family
rs in na
nt physi
imply in
ents is
in prese
hocyanin
erent pr

14 anth
eberries

all the
rries is

of pigmen
ture. Un
ol ogical
making a
no simple
nt in a c
s seem to
oportions
ocyanins
Since
pigments
much mor

ts responsible
like the chloro-
function, the

structure attrac-

matter. There
ertain kind of

be present in

in different
have been iden-
the actual color

present, it's
e complex than

An i
ments may
to purple
vi ronment
thocyan in
centratio
pie if th
si ightly
of the an
Slight c h
of the CO
berri es .
due to ra
This synt
it can go
black und
ment.

ntere
prod
, dep
with
i s p
n of
e pH
less
thocy
anges
lore
Howe
pid s
h e s i s

too
er Ne

sti ng
uce a
e n d i n
i n th
roduc
any p
of ce
acid,
anins

in a
hange
ver ,
ynthe

acco
far,
w Eng

feature
color r
g on the
e eel 1 s .
ed. On
igment,
lis rise
Thi s c
and thu
cidity i
s during
most of
sis of n
mpaning
as in th
land con

of an
anging
ir con
A pi
the ot
color
s si ig
hange
s chan
n this

ripen
the fo
ew ant
ripeni
e case
d i t i n

thocyanins
from pink
centrations
nk fruit wi
her hand, w
can turn fr
htly, that
of acidity
ges the col
way may be
ing of frui
rmation of
hocyanins a
ng is usual
of the Del
s--they sim

is that the sam
to red to black

and the chemie
11 turn red as
ithout a change
om red to blue
is, if the cell
changes the str
or they produce

responsible fo
ts like plums a
red and blue co
s the fruits ri
ly very desirab
icious sports t
ply form too mu

e pig-

to blue
al en-
more an-

in con-
to pur-
s become
uctures

r some
nd blue-
1 r s is
pen .
le, but
hat turn
ch pig-

The third family of pigments is the carotenoids. They produce
most of the yellow and orange colors in nature. In addition, one
of these pigments (lycopene) produces a red color and is responsi-
ble for red and pink colors in some fruits, for example tomatoes,
watermelons, and pink grapefruit. Most of the carotenoids function
merely as attractants, but one of them (beta carotene) is very im-
portant nutritionally, for it is converted into vitamin A.

Most fruits contain only small amounts of carotenoids until
they begin to ripen. During ripening, considerable carotenoid syn-
thesis occurs, and this along with the loss of chlorophyll accounts
for the yellowing often used as an index of fruit ripening. This
synthesis continues until death of the fruit, so intense yellowing
often makes a valid index of overmaturity .

There are a number of
these are the following:

factors that Influence color. Among

1. Temperature: High temperature will, of course, cause
fruits to ripen faster and thus accelerate the normal changes as-
sociated with ripening. But it can also alter these changes. It
is know, for example, that above 90O F lycopene (the red carotenoid)
will not form, and therefore, a tomato ripened above this tempera-
ture will not be red. There is also evidence that high tempera-
tures can interfere with anthocyanin synthesis. On the other hand,
relatively low temperatures (40-50° F) accelerate anthocyanin syn-
thesis, resulting in the frequently observed fact that cool weath-
er produces redder fruit.

many
harve
pen t
is no
col or
above
to fo
is no
lowi n
that
the w
light

2. L
fruit
st li
be
t tru
ins
400

rm an
t nee
g pro
suppl
ay fr
i ng w

i g h t :
, incl
ttle r
expose
e of a
torage
F, and
thocya
essary
ceeds
ementa
uit ar
oul d a

Light i
uding mo
eddening
d to 1 i g
11 fruit

in the

even am
n i n in t

except
during s
1 lighti
e stored
Imost ce

s nee
st va
occu
ht fo
s, th
dark,
ong a
he da
in mi
torag
ng in
, in
rtain

essary
r i e t i e
rs exc
r an e
ough.

if th
ppl es ,
rk. F
nute q
e. Th

stora
stacks
ly be

for a
s of a
ept on
xtende

Cranb
ey are

the V
or car
uanti t
ere ha
ges wo

of bo
very s

nthocy
pples .

the f
d peri
erries

held
a r i e ty
otenoi
ies , a
ve bee
uld im
xes , a
light.

amn

Thu
ew fr
od of
, for
at a

Beac
d syn
nd as
n som
prove
ny im

synthe
s , fol
uits t

time .

examp
temper
on is
thesis

a res
e sugg

color
provem

sis in
lowing
hat hap-

This
1 e , will
ature
reported
, light
ul t yel -
estions
. But
ent from

3. Sugar content: For synthesis of either anthocyanins or
carotenoids to proceed, a tissue must contain a high sugar content.
This fact is very important for coloring of leaves and flowers
which have much lower sugar contents than fruit, and it is probably
the reason why low quality fruit are often poorly colored.

Nutrition: It is well known that high levels of nitrogen can
produce poorly colored fruit, since they accentuate chlorophyll
and suppress anthocyanin synthesis. It has also sometimes been re-
ported that high potassium and high boron stimulate anthocyanin
Synthesis, but findings are not consistent with these elements.

Can anything be done about fruit color? Basically, of course,
it is controlled by the genetics of the plant. With apples, we
are most interested in red color, and our problems have been great-
ly reduced with the selection of the anthocyanin-rich mutants (red
Sports) as well as through development of stop-drop sprays which
allow the fruit to mature more fully. Yet problems still occur as
a result of high temperature, overf ertil i zation , or low sugar con-
tent. Once we harvest apples, there is nothing we can do to im-
prove red color except to employ the old process of sun coloring,
which is seldom advisable. Considerable research has been con-
ducted to find a means of inducing red color, but to date no method
has been found to overcome the requirement for substantial quanti-
ties of light in order for anthocyanins to be synthesized. Never-
theless, color does change following harvest, because the loss of

- 12 -

chlorophylls and synthesis of carotenoids proceed in the dark and
at low temperatures. These changes are clearly associated with
the aging processes in the fruit, and if they are understood, they
can be used as an index to fruit qual i ty--used by growers, inspect-
ors and consumers.

***************

NEW PUBLICATIONS OF INTEREST

Wil 1 iam J . Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The Canada Department of Agriculture has recently published
an easy-to-read handbook on storage requirements of fruit and veq-
etables. This publication. Handbook on the Storage of Fruits ana
Vegetables for Farm and CommerciaT Use , (Canada Dept. of Agricul-
ture Publication 1260, 1967) sRould be of interest and value to
anyone involved in handling these commodities.

The handbook is divided into 4 parts. A general section dis-
cusses the storage environment and the general requirements of
fresh produce. It also considers certain types of injury to pro-
duce. There then follow 2 sections listing specific requirements,
including recommended storage temperature and humidity, of a large
number of fruits and vegetables. The handbook concludes with an
appendix showing how to figure heat loads in storages.

This publication can be obtained by writing to the Information
Division, Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada.

Another recent publication that might be of interest is USDA
Home and Garden Bulletin No. 141, How to Buy Fresh Fruit .

The bulletin is aimed at the homemaker. It gives tips on se-
lecting produce with an eye for eating quality, makes recommenda-
tions on proper handling of fruit at home, and offers suggestions
on the best use of certain varieties of fruit.

It might prove quite valuable to be aware of what the home-
maker is being urged to watch for and to watch out fori This

publication may be obtained by writing to the Office of Information,
USDA, Washington, D.C. 20250.

***************

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested use in accordance with Federal and State
laws and regulations. Where trade names are used for identifica-
tion, no product endorsement or discrimination is intended.

warning: most pesticides are poisonous, read and follow all
directions and safety precautions on labels. handle carefully and
Store in original containers out of reach of children, pets and

LIVESTOCK. dispose OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MANNER
AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS OR PONDS.

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts

A. A. Spielman

Director

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

Official Business
456 - 9/68 - 1000

Permit No. 1216

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

NOVEMBER - DECEIViBER, 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

New England Fruit Meetings and Trade Show

Pomological Paragraph

Herbicides in stone fruit plantings

Hydrocooling Apples

Let's Avoid a Tragedy!

Factors Contributing to Low Temperature Injury
in Strawberries

Publication Available

Research From Other Areas
Hedge Pruning of Fruit Trees

Cider Notes

Pomological Paragraph
Delicious Sports

Fruit Notes Index for 1968

WE APOLOGIZE

We regret the tardiness of the September-
October issue of Fruit Notes . The issue went
to press the first of August, but due to un-
avoidable circumstances, it was delayed in the
duplication and mailing processes.

NEW ENGLAND FRUIT MEETINGS AND TRADE SHOW

The New England Fruit Meetings and Trade Show will be held at
the New Hampshire Highway Hotel, Concord, New Hampshire. The meet-
ings are scheduled for January 8 and 9, 1969,

The hotel is accessible from all major highways. Routes 3 and
93, which lead to Concord, are accessible from anywhere in Massa-
chusetts. Persons coming from Western Massachusetts and Southern
Vermont may find the most convenient route to be Routes 9 or 10 to
Keene, New Hampshire, and then Routes 9, 202, 89 and 93 to the
Highway Hotel .

This year, the new room adjacent to the trade show will be
available for the meetings. This room has greater seating capacity
than the Banquet Room used in the past.

Below is the tentative program as of October:

Wednesday, Forenoon

10:05 Herbicides -- Application Equipment and Persistence
C.A. Langer, University of New Hampshire
Warren C. Stiles, University of Maine
William J. Lord, University of Massachusetts

l0:45 Research Findings on Apple Maggot
Leo Boulanger, University of Maine
Richard Moore, Connecticut Experiment Station, New Haven

11:15 "Measles" of Delicious

Herbert Wave, University of Maine
C.G. Forshey, Cornell University

11:45 M.F.G.A. Annual Business Meeting

Wednesday, Afternoon

1:30 Mechanical Pruning

Cal Plummer, Hastings, Michigan
C.G. Forshey, Cornell University

2:30 Rootstocks and Pruning in Relation to Production

A.D. Crowe, Canada Department of Agriculture, Research
Station, Kentville, Nova Scotia

3:00 Latest Research Findings on Pine Mice Control

Howard Tietjen, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,
Denver, Colorado

3:45 Recent Trends in Washington State Fruit Industry
William Luce, Yakima, Washington

Mednesday Even-jng - Banquet

Banquet Speaker: William Luce, Yakima, Washington

Thursday, January 9

9:30 Panel: Organizing the Harvest Operation Using Bulk Boxes
Moderator - C.A. Langer, University of New Hampshire

10:10 The Red Mite Problem

James L. Brann, Jr., Cornell, University

10:40 Estate Planning
George Ecker

11:10 Panel: Orchard Equipment Innovations and Time Savers
Moderator - C. Lyman Calahan, University of Vermont

Thursday Afternoon

1:30 Extending the Harvest Season with Alar

Franklin W. Southwick, University of Massachusetts

1:50 - 3:00 Topics on Marketing and Labor
Speakers to be Announced

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Herbicides in stone fi^uit plantings: During the fall of 1967, we
applied 4% granular dichlobenil at the recommended dosage with a
hand-operated mechanical spreader under our plum, peach and cherry
trees at the Horticultural Research Center. Phytotoxi ci ty symp-
toms this summer were very prevalent on plum leaves. Several cher-
ry trees also exhibited these symptoms, but they were almost non-
existent on peach leaves. Symptoms are tip burn and marginal yel-
lowing of leaves.

We have concluded that the margin of safety between optimum
results and phytotoxici ty is too small to risk the use of a hand-
operated mechanical spreader for distribution of dichlobenil under
plum and cherry trees.

***************

3 -

HYDROCOOLING APPLES

Wi 1 1 iam J . Braml age
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Drs. H.A. Schomer and G.A. Patchen of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Wenatchee, Washington, recently published a report en-
titled, "Effects of hydrocooling on the dessert quality and storage
life of apples in the Pacific Northwest." In their study. Red De-
licious (Starking), Golden Delicious, and Winesap apples were ei-
ther hydrocooled to a core temperature of 40 F or to 40 at a depth
of 1/2" in the fruit, or else air-cooled to a core temperature of
35 F in 3, 7, 14, or 28 days. The apples were all stored at 30-31°F
and evaluated for quality and condition at intervals from November
to as late as August. Quality evaluations included firmness, sol-
uble solids, acidity, and the use of a taste panel.

The tests showed that the hydrocooled fruit and the fruit that
Were air-cooled in 3 or 7 days were comparable in quality and stor-
age life expectancy. However, those fruit requiring 14 or 28 days
for cooling to 35 were inferior, especially the Red Delicious which
became unfit for consumption. It is interesting to relate these
findings to an earlier report by Dr. Blanpied in New York ( Proc .
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci . 70:58-66). In comparing hydrocooled Mcintosh
to ones air-cooled in 3 days or in 1,2 or 3 weeks, Blanpied found
clear differences in favor of hydrocooling during the first 3
months of storage, but after 4-5 months storage, hydrocooled fruit
were comparable to those air-cooled in 3 or 7 days.

The results of these tests indicate that for long-term stor-
age of apples, hydrocooling offers no advantage to the fruit over
air-cooling, unless the fruit cannot be cooled within a week by air.
However, it should be noted that the use of hydrocooling can con-
siderably reduce the requirements for refrigeration capacity in the
storage, since "pull-down" requires much more capacity than is
needed for temperature maintenance.

The publication by Schomer and Patchen
tained free from the Office of Information,
20250.

(ARS 51-24) can be ob-
USDA, Washinton, D.C.

'k'k'k'k'k'k-k'k-kic-kicicic-k

LET'S AVOID A TRAGEDY

El 1 sworth H . Wheel er
Professor of Entomology
Leader, Pesticide Chemicals Program

Young children are poisoned by pesticides more frequently than
any other age group. Improper storage of pesticides and unsafe dis-

4 -

posal of "empty" containers are major causes. Youngsters are cur-
ious and they get from "here to there" before anyone knows it.

If your children, or anyone's children, can get to your pesti-
cides or "empty" containers there is something wrong something

that is YOUR responsibility to correct.

Check these suggestions — is your place tragedy proof?

1. Store all pesticides (and other hazardous materials) in origi-
nal, plainly labeled containers.

2. Have one place for pesticides — one which can be 1 ocked ! (An-
other spot may be needed for products spoi 1 ed Fy f reezi ng ) . A
shed, garage, or other open area is not a safe place to keep
pesticides. Opened packages increase the danger.

3. A separate, well-marked building is best. Second best would

be an enclosed corner or end of a structure in which no animals
are housed — no people either.

4.
5.

Never leave pesticides
you may be planning to

outside the locked storage even though
use them again tomorrow.

Pesticides and "empties" left unattended in the open at the
mixing-filling station are an invitation to tragedy in this
day when farms are not so isolated from non-farm families and
children roam more freely.

6
7

A ditch, stream bank or an open dump anywhere is
place to throw "empty" pesticide containers.

NOT a safe

Burn "empties", that will burn, in a spot where ashes can be
buried; this amount of heat does not destroy some pesticides.
And remember, smoke from organo phosphates is especially dan-
gerous .

Bury bottles and metal containers 18 inches or deeper under
compacted soil at a spot where, in so far as possible, you have
determined there is no chance of later exposure or that waters
can be polluted. It is best to break bottles and to puncture
and/or crush cans and drums, but, do it in the hole or so that
surface soil is not contaminated. Avoid splashing with the
concentrate I

Rememberl Accidents with pesticides

body lets them happen someone who didn

sponsibi 1 i ty .

don't just
t "measure

happen-
up" to

--some-
hi s re-

******************

5 -

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO LOW TEMPERATURE INJURY

IN STRAWBERRIES

Bertie R. Boyce
Department of Plant and Soil Science
Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station
University of Vermont

Winter injury occurring in strawberry plants can be a serious
problem in northern regions. The degree of injury may range from
none, to that severe enough so the plants do not survive. Inter-
nal crown discoloration is often used in the field as an indication
of the degree of injury: the darker the crown tissue, the more se-
vere the injury. Our experiments have indicated that enough injury
can occur to reduce yields without discoloring the crown tissue.
Moderate injury can go undetected and yet reduce berry size or num-
ber and thus total yield. This may be the cause of relatively low
yields that cannot be attributed to other factors.

How much injury occurs and how vigorous the plants will be
the following spring, depend upon many factors. These factors can
be divided into three groups: (1) conditions that determine how
much resistance to low temperature injury the crowns will attain;
(2) conditions that bring about injury; and (3) conditions to which
the plants are subjected following injury. Most of the strawberry
hardiness research at Vermont has dealt with the first two groups.

How much resistance to low temperatures will be attained dif-
fers with varieties. We have screened many varieties under arti-
ficial freezing conditions and found a wide range among them. Cat-
skill and Sparkle were among the hardier varieties tested, while
Earlidawn was among the least hardy. Nutrition, soil moisture, and
fall temperatures all play a role in determining how hardy the
plants will become. If mulched too early, the degree of hardiness
attained will be substantially less. Periodic sampling and arti-
ficial freezing indicate that maximum hardiness is not reached un-
til mid-November in the Burlington area.

A strawberry plant, after reaching its maximum hardiness, is
still not a hardy plant. Tissue temperatures low enough to kill
strawberry plants would not injure peach buds. If the crown tem-
peratures approach 20 F, injury will probably be severe enough to
reduce yields. If the crown temperatures reach 10 F, the plants
are unlikely to survive.

In controlled freezing tests, rapid freezing and thawing in-
creased crown injury. This probably is not a factor under field
Conditions because close proximity to the soil and a covering of
mulch usually prevent rapid freezing or thawing.

The amount of injury increases as the time the tissue remains
frozen increases. This could be significant at temperatures above
that where the plant is killed, but within the temperature range

- 6

where plant injury occurs,
jury increased over a 5-day
24°F to 12°F. Although the
the freezing period, it was
occupies in crowns of field

Under laboratory conditions, crown in-
period within the temperature range of
amount of injury increased throughout
most rapid during the first day. Therm-
plants here have recorded temperatures
of 20"F or lower for periods longer than 5 days.

Repeated freezing and thawing under controlled conditions sig-
nificantly increased crown injury compared to plants frozen only
once. The more often they were frozen, the more injury resulted.
Increased injury of this nature on field plants may be more of a
problem in early spring than during the winter. Crown temperature
recordings have indicated that during the winter, plants covered
with mulch or snow seldom thaw out. But in the early spring, crowns
frequently freeze and thaw, especially on unmulched plants.

Each spring injury may be more of a problem than is commonly
recognized. Hardened strawberry plants placed under ideal grow-
ing conditions began to lose their hardiness within two days. Af-
ter a week, they had lost an appreciable amount of resistance. If
this occurs under field conditions, the plants would be subject to
injury during early spring at temperatures that would be of little
concern in the winter.

Mulching plants in the fall of the year is presently the only
practical means of reducing the chances of low temperature injury.
A straw mulch minimizes the adverse effects of many of the above
factors. Continuous snow cover offers by far the best protection;
unfortunately , i t cannot be depended on. Six inches of snow will
keep crown temperatures above the point of injury when air temper-
atures drop to -20 F. Snow fences or other means of accumulating
snow over the plants may help reduce injury, especially when low
temperatures follow a mid-winter thaw before additional snow cover
occurs .

Once the tissues are injured, the growing conditions the fol-
lowing season will influence the vigor, yield, and even survival
of the plants. With a specific amount of injury, plants growing
under optimum conditions will have a better chance than under ad-
verse conditions.

***************

PUBLICATION AVAILABLE : Available from New York State Agricultural
Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, is Bulletin No. 817, entitled
"Propagating Fruit Trees in New York." In this publication, the
following topics are discussed: (1) appropriate rootstocks for
use with various species and varieties of deciduous fruit trees;
(2) methods for growing rootstocks from seeds; (3) propagation of
clonal rootstocks by means of stooling beds and cuttings; and (4)
budding and grafting techniques.

- 7

RESEARCH FROM OTHER AREAS

Department

Wi 11 iam J . Lord
of PI ant and Soi 1

Sciences

Hedge Pruning of Fruit Trees : The effects of mower pruning on the
growth and production of fruit trees in Michigan were studied by
CM. Hansen, R.P. Larsen and G. Monroe and reported in Volume 50
(No. 3), of the Quarterly Bulletin of the Michigan Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.

The study showed that top hedging with a sickle bar-type mower
plus follow-up pruning by hand reduced labor and was satisfactory
for continuing growth and productivity of peach trees.

Conventional hand pruning required 15 minutes per tree. Top
hedging followed by finish hand pruning reduced time to 12 minutes
Per tree. When top hedging was followed by a minimum of hand prun-
ing, which consisted of only major cuts to eliminate broken and un-
desirable branches, the pruning could be accomplished in 3 or 4 min-
utes per tree.

hedging alone stimulated excessive top growth and the lower
interior branches were shaded out after 2 or 3 years. The type of
fruit wood produced by hedge pruning also was greatly inferior to
that produced by conventional pruning. However, 3 or 4 large prun-
ing cuts each year, to keep the lower areas open to sunlight, main-
tained the growth and productiveness of the entire tree.

Yield comparisons of conventional hand pruning, top hedging

pi us hand finish pruning, top hedging pi us minimum hand pruning,

top hedging only , and top and side hedging, showed no significant

differences among pruning treatments during 4 of the 5 years of
evaluation (1960-64).

In 1962, trees which received top and side hedging had signif-
icantly higher yields than those receiving the other pruning treat-
ments. This difference did not hold for subsequent years, however,
and there was no significant difference in the overall average
yields for the 5 years. No data for fruit size was obtained and
this possible effect of pruning treatments needs further evaluation.

The hedge pruning results with cherries and apples were some-
what similar to those with peaches. There were no significant dif-
ferences in cherry yields during the two years in which data were
obtained. Pruning labor for cherries was reduced somewhat, but not
as much as with peaches. The effect of hedge pruning on apple trees
Was difficult to evaluate since the trees were not grown in a hedge
row, but the implication was that there were no apparent effect on
yield.

The authors concluded that since other cultural practices, such
as fruit thinning, are so closely related to pruning, a great deal

of further evaluation is needed before hedge pruning could be gen-
erally recommended to Michigan fruit growers. They were of the
opinion, however, that careful hedging followed by needed hand prun-
ing might result in substantial labor savings to fruit growers.

***************

CIDER NOTES

Kirby M. Hayes
Department of Food Science and Technology

Chemicals may be used to preserve cider for a few days or
weeks. Potassium sorbate, a relatively tasteless material, is

referred instead of benzoate of soda and is just as effective.

enzoate of soda imparts a burning taste that many people find of-
jectionabl e .

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

In a personal communication with Mr. Ballard, he stated that
the Bisbee ( Starkrimson) strain has contributed heavily to the
problem of dark Delicious, since large plantings of this strain
now are coming into full production.

FRUIT NOTES INDEX FOR 1968

(This index of major articles has been prepared for those who keep
a file of Fruit Notes. The numbers in parentheses indicate the
Pages on which the item appears.)

January -February

Perennial Peach Canker, Its Causes

(1-5)
For Trial - Recent
Recent Small Fruit
Pear Variety Notes

March-Apri 1

Peach Introductions
Introductions (7)
(8-9)

Development and Control
(5-7)

The Use of Boron on Apple Trees

New York (2-3)
Nitrogen Level of Mcintosh Trees
No Ladders in Peach Orchards? (4
Pruning Peach Trees (6)
Vermont Orchard Growth (6-7)
Varieties of Grapes for Massachusetts

in the Champlain Valley of
in 1967 (4)

High
■6)

(7-9)

May- June

Chemical Weed Control in Strawberries (1-2)
Proceedings of Roadside Market Conference (2)
Chemical Weed Control in Red Raspberry Plantings
Growing Young Apple Trees (3-6)
Mechanical Harvesting of Strawberries (6-7)
New York State Fruit Industry Revisited (8-10)

(2)

July-August

The Best Understocks for New England Orchards (1-2)

Harvest Labor (3)

Why? (3)

Clean Tree Bases (3)

Blackbird Control (3)

Strawberry Bed Fumigation (4)

Observations of Fruit Research

Pennsylvania Apple Industry (6

September-October

Activities
•7)

in England (5-6)

Bird Damage - What Is It? (1-3)

Things to Remember as you Harvest Apples (3-5)

Chemicals to Help with the Harvest (5-6)

Blight Resistant Pears (6)

Origin of Some Old and New Apple Varieties (7-9)

Fruit Color - Its Nature and Changes (9-12)

- 10 -

November-December

New England Fruit Meetings and Trade Show (1-2)

Herbicides in Stone Fruit Plantings (2)

Hydrocooling Apples (3)

Let's Avoid a Tragedy! (3-4)

Factors Contributing to Low Temperature Injury in

(5-6)
Hedge Pruning of Fruit Trees (7-8)
Cider Notes (8)
Del i cious Sports (8)

Strawberri es

***************

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested use in accordance with Federal and State
laws and regulations. Where trade names are used for identifica-
tion, no product endorsement or discrimination is intended.

warning: most pesticides are poisonous, read and follow all
directions and safety precautions on labels. handle carefully and
store in original containers out of reach of children, pets and
livestock. dispose of empty containers right away, in a safe man-
ner and place. do not contaminate forage, streams or ponds.

Cooperative Extension Service
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts
A. A. Spielman
Director
Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work
Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

Official Business
462 - 11/68 - 1,000

Permit No. 1216

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W, J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

JAIMUARY-FEBRUARY 1969

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Varieties of Raspberries and Blackberries for Massachusetts

Recent Small Fruit Introductions

Pomological Paragraph
Alar and the N Dilemma

Effects of Nitrogen on Russet of Golden Delicious:
A Progress Report

A Look at the Variety Mcintosh

Economic Implications of Concentrate Spraying

VARIETIES OF RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES
FOR MASSACHUSETTS

James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil

Sciences

Vari ety

September

Tay 1 or

Latham

Milton

Fal 1 red

September

Clyde

Bristol

T ■
C ■

Raspberry Varieties
Type Recommended for

Harvest Season

"Red

Purpl e
Black

Tri al

Commercial
adaoted to

C & H

C (limited)

C & H

Early

Midseason

Late

Everbearer

Late

Midseason

September

Tayl or

Latham

Milt

H - Home garden
■Varieties so marked are not equally
all sections of the state.

Variety Notes

An everbearing type. The summer crop ripens in early
July. The fruit of September is of good size, attrac-
tive, bright red, reasonably firm and of fair to good
quality. The plants are ^^er^ productive, easily
picked and satisfactorily winter hardy. The fall crop
begins ripening in late August.

This variety is being grown successfully on a commer-
cial scale in the higher elevations of Franklin and
Worcester Counties. Under such conditions, the plants
are tall, vigorous, hardy and productive, and the
berries, large, firm, attractive and have good quality
However, its susceptibility to and severe injury from
virus diseases makes it unreliable in most other areas
of the state.

The fruit of this popular variety is of good size,
bright red, but only average in firmness and quality.
The plant is vigorous and one of the most winter hardy
when spur blight is controlled. Susceptibility to
Spur blight and mosaic are its most serious weaknesses

The fruit of this variety ripens slightly after Latham
The berries are of good size, bright red color and
wery good quality. The plants are tall, vigorous,
productive, remain free from mosaic, but are somewhat
susceptible to leaf curl. Milton is only moderately
winter hardy.

Fal 1 red

Clyde

Bri s tol

Darrow

Bai 1 ey

The fall crop of this everbearing variety begins
ripening in mid- August. The berries are of good
size, firm and have good flavor. The plants are
orous and productive. Fallred is best grown for
fall crop only.

vig-
the

A large fruited purple raspberry. The berries are
attractive, firm, tart and good in quality. The
plants are \iery vigorous, hardy and productive.
Clyde is most suitable for culinary use.

Black raspberries are not generally satisfactory in
Massachusetts because of their great susceptibility
to virus diseases. Bristol is one of the more desir-
able varieties. It produces large attractive, firm
berries of good quality. The plants are vigorous and
Productive as long as they remain free from virus
diseases .

Blackberry Varieties

This new early ripening blackberry variety is recom-
mended for trial. The plants are hardy, vigorous
and productive. The berries are large, firm, attrac-
tive and have good flavor.

This variety ripens a little later than Darrow. The
plants are hardy, moderately vigorous and productive.
The berries are moderately firm, attractive and have
good flavor.

Trailing types, such as Boysenberry, Loganberry and Youngberry are
not sufficiently winter hardy and productive in most
parts of the state. However, the Boysenberry has
been reported as reasonably satisfactory in a few
locations.

***************

RECENT SMALL FRUIT INTRODUCTIONS

James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

The following report briefly describes some of the recent
small fruit introductions that might be of interest to both com-
mercial growers and backyard gardeners.

Strawberri es
Rari tan

A new midseason strawberry variety was named and in^
troduced by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment
Station in February, 1968.

- 3

Raritan was fruited in our trials in 1962, 1967 and
1968. This variety produces very attractive fruit
having a high gloss, bright red color, depressed
yellow achenes and a large showy calyx. The berry
size was variable, ranging from large to medium.
The fruit is firm, has good flesh color and a very
good strawberry flavor.

The plants produce runners freely and make a good
matted row. Yield records in 1962 and 1967, would
Suggest Raritan to be a productive variety (Yield rec-
ords were not obtained for Raritan in 1968).

Raritan is not resistant to red stele or verticillium
wilt and is recommended for trial only in fields free
of these disorders .

R e d c h 1 e f

This midseason strawberry variety was released in
February, 1968, by the Maryland Agricultural Experi-
ment Station and the Crops Research Division of the
U.S.D.A. Redchief was included in our variety trials
for 1965, 1966, 1967 and 1968.

Bl ueberry
Bl uetta

The fruit is attractive with a medium red color,
bright gloss, large reflexed calyx and is above med-
ium in size. The berries are firm, have good inter-
nal color and good dessert quality.

The plants are of moderate vigor and produce runners
in sufficient quantities to make a good matted row.
Redchief has yielded very well in our past trials usu'
ally among the top three or four producers.

Redchief is resistant to 5 races of red stele-root
rot and intermediate in resistance to verticillium
and would be of value where these disorders are pres-
ent. Redchief appears worthy of trial.

A new blueberry variety released by the Crops Research
Division of the U.S.D.A. and the New Jersey Agricul-
tural Experiment Station in December, 1967.

The plants of Bluetta are short, compact-spreading and
medium in vigor. The fruit is medium-sized, light
blue in color, firm but has broad stem scars. The
fruit is said to have more flavor than Weymouth and
to be more resistant to spring frosts than Weymouth.
Its outstanding features are early ripening and con-
sistent production. The above notes are based on
performance of the variety in New Jersey as the plants
at the Horticultural Research Center are too young for
satisfactory evaluation.

- 4 -

Fed Raspberries: The Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station has
introduced a number of new raspberry varieties that may be of value
in Massachusetts. None of the varieties listed has been tested in
our plantings, but they are being mentioned because of their re-
ported resistence to injury from fluctuating winter temoeratures ,
a factor of some importance in Massachusetts. These descriptions
are based on their performance in Maryland.

Reveille A very early ripening variety. Reveille resembles

Sunrise and is of the same season. It is much lar-
ger, has excellent color and quality. It is too soft
for commercial use, but its size and earliness makes
it excellent for home or roadside sales.

.entry

An early midseason variety, the berries are firm, med-
ium red in color and high in quality. Resembles Tay-
lor. This variety has greater resistance to injury
from fluctuating winter temoeratures.

Scepter

Resembles September with the fall crop being ten days
earlier. The spring crop is midseason. The berries
are large, medium red and moderately soft. It is
very vigorous.

Citadel A large midseason variety, very large, very firm and
dark red. It may pick with difficulty under some
conditions. It is extremely vigorous and highly re-
sisant to leaf-spot diseases.

The above four raspberry varieties and most of those listed on
oages 1 and 2 of this issue are available in limited quantities as
"Registered Stock" or "Foundation Stock."

*****************

PMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Alar and the N Dilenma:

"foresight" when
our McI ntosh trees .
Can always inform you
within the desirable range
confirms your own observations

_____ Our "hind-sight" is always better than our
it comes to regulating the nitrogen (N) level of
After analysis of leaves sampled in July, we
whether or not the N level of your trees is
In many instances, the
But the fertilizer

been applied
season .

and it is too late to make corrections

analysis merely
has already
for the current

Trees excessively high in nitrogen have greater pre-harvest
drop, have softer fruit and poorer fruit color. Many growers have
blocks of Mcintosh that consistently bear large, soft, striped ap-
ples that drop excessively. Alar will be of great benefit in these
blocks and other blocks of trees excess-fvely hfab in n, sincp tF'i«:
growth retardant helos to counteract the effects of high N.

EFFECTS OF NITROGEN AND POTASSIUM ON RUSSET OF GOLDEN DELICIOUS:

A PROGRESS REPORT

Mack Drake, John H, Baker and James F. Anderson
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

A nitrogen and potassium fertilizer study was begun in a 10-
year-old Golden Delicious block in 1964, in cooperation with J. A.
Davis and Sons, Sterling Junction, Massachusetts. Before treatments
were initiated, leaf analysis and trunk circumference were used in
selecting and grouping trees. Nine treatments were established.
Consisting of 3 levels of applied nitrogen with 3 levels of applied
potassium in 6 replications. Results to date are as follows.

Initially, leaf nitrogen and potassium were relatively high.
After 4 years of treatment, low, medium and high ranges of leaf ni-
trogen and potassium are developing (Table 1), but a greater spread
between low and high is desired.

Table 1. Leaf nitrogen and potassium (% dry weight) as influenced

by annual applications of nitrogen and potassium fertilizer

1965
2.00

N2 2.06

T
e s p e c i
ferti 1
gen tr
in 196
and 12
1 eaf n
that a
the de
with f
are be

ime i
ally
i zed
eatme
7. T
% (1.
i trog
bout
sired
rui t
g i n n i

2.19

1967
1.97

2.02

2.23

1965
1.58

1.66

1.65

1967
1.78

1.88

2.00

s required to produce a wide spread in leaf analysis,
in this case where we started with trees growing on well
soil. The leaf nitrogen spread between low and high nitro'
nts was about 9.5% (2.00-2.19) in 1965 and 13% (1.97-2.23)
he leaf potassium spread was about 4% (1.58-1.65) in 1965
78-2.00) in 1967. Thus, the spread between low and high
en and potassium is increasing with time. We estimate
4 additional years of treatment are needed to establish

range in leaf nitrogen and potassium for correlation
quality. Nevertheless, some differences in fruit quality
ng to appear among the treatments.

Russet : In 1966, the late Dr. W.D. Weeks observed a trend in rus-
seting among the treatments and this was confirmed in 1968. A ran-
dom sample of 30 apples from each tree was scored for russet in
November, 1966, by Dr. Weeks and in November 1968, by James F.
Anderson. Each apple was scored as light, medium or severe in rus-
set, based on area covered and severity of roughness.

6 -

Correlation between increased leaf nitrogen and severity of
ru!^set was positive in both 1966 and 1968. For each increase of
0.1c' in leaf nitrogen in the year preceding the crop, russet in-
creased 5.8% in 1966 and 4.1% in 1968. The preliminary data sug-
gest that russet of Golden Delicious becomes objectionable when
leaf nitrogen is increased above 2.0%. As seen in Table i, the I

or untreated) level was 2.00 in 1965 and 1.97 in 1967

C
nega t i
preced
The pr
era te
decrea
In thi

M
f 3 sed
s :n 1 h
of the
Of the
crease
t i n t

orrel at
ve . Fo
i n g the
el imi na
i n c r e a s
ses bel
s orcha

uch of
on the
nct-1 i
surf ac
surf ac
in r u s
1 osse

1 on
r ea
cro
ry r
es i
ow 1
rd,

this
Unit
ke r
e; F
e; U
seti
s i n

betwee
c h i n c
p , rus
esul ts
n 1 eaf
.9% po
the K^

russe
ed Sta
usseti
ancy ,
tility
ng mig

eye-a

n increased leaf potassium and russet was
rease in leaf potassium of 0.1% for the year
set decreased 1% in 1966 and 2.3% in 1968.
indicate that at about 1.9% potassium, mod-
potassium should reduce russet and that
tassium should produce increased russet,
level was 1.58 in 1965 and 1.78 in 1967.

ting was of the smooth net-like condition.
tes Standards for Apples, the allowances for
ng are as follows: Extra Fancy, up to 5%
up to 15% of the surface; No. 1. ud to 25%
, up to 100% of the surface. Thus, an in-
ht result in a reduction in grade in addi-
ppeal and storage life.

Color: In both 1966 and 1968, increasing leaf nitrogen above 2.0%
reduced the oer cent yellow color. In contrast, increasing leaf
potassium above 1.9% slightly increased the per cent yellow color.

Thi s prel iminary report may serve as a guide for growers of
Golden Delicious who have submitted leaf samples for chemical anal'
ysis. Russet is likely to increase and yellow color decrease if
Ipaf nitrogen is increased above 2.0%. Russet may be decreased
and yellow color increased by increasing potassium above 1.9%.

***************

A LOOK AT THE VARIETY McINTOSH

C. Lyman Calahan, Extension Horticulturist
University of Vermont

Not too Mery long ago, we frequently heard Mcintosh producers
talking about the need for another good variety to follow or to re-
place Mcintosh. You all know the reasons--McIntosh tends to mature
all at once at harvest, it is subject to severe pre-harvest drop,
the fruit condition is poor after mid-winter, and even scab control
is a problem.

Times have changed and now it has been some time since anyone
suggested the need of a new variety to replace part of our Mcintosh

- 7 -

production. Indeed, in the future, it may not be possible to pro-
duce too many good Mcintosh. What has brought about this change
in outlook?

The first approach to solving one of the inherent weaknesses
of Mcintosh was the initiation almost 25 years ago of an elaborate
and complex apple breeding program to develop a scab-resistant
strain of Mcintosh. This project is still in existence and an ex-
tensive planting of scab-resistant selections is now nearing pro-
duction in southern Quebec.

has
to
thes
sume
cant
i n w
and
ing

trol
tie,
show
exte
mate
coul
new

The
been
ther
e de
r .

red
h i ch
occa
of
, al

if
i ng
ndi n
ri al
d me
plan

gen

und

i nh

vel

Pre-

ucti

McI

s i on

vers

thou

any,

grea

g th

on
an e
ting

eti c

erst

eren

pmen

harv

ons

ntos

ally

i ze

gh d

of
t pr
e Ma
Mac
ven
s th

appr
andab
t wea
ts ar
est d
of fr
h may

long
or ri
iffic
our c
omise
c har
produ
a hig
an ev

oach
ly si
kness
e of
rop c
uit 1

be k
er .
pe f r
ul t a
ommer

as a
vest
cti on
her p
er be

to sol
ow . I
es of
great
ontrol
osses
e p t in
The ce
uit w i
nd exp
cial c

means
season

will
ercent
fore .

ving the
n the mea
Mcintosh
val ue bot

material
at harves

a firm c
11 carton
th the mi
ensive, i
rop is 1

of sol vi

Just w

be is not

age of tr

scab p
ntime ,
have m
h to t
s made
t. Th
n d i t i

made
n i m u m
s almo
St to
ng the
hat th

easy
ees of

robl e

seve
ateri
he gr

poss
en ca
on fo
poss i
of lo
St pe
scab .

drop
e imp
to de

this

m with
ral so
a 1 i z e d
ower a
i b 1 e s
me CA
r 6 to
ble th
ss . S
rfect
Now,

probl
act of
termi n

vari e

McI ntosh
1 utions

and
nd con-
i g n i f i -
storage

9 months
e market-
cab con-
and 1 i t-

A 1 a r is
em and

this
e. It
ty in

What then can we expect of Mcintosh? It is already a very old
variety, according to one report the original tree escaped the
scythe in 1796 and lived for 112 years. Supposedly, Mcintosh first
Came to New England at Newport Center, Vermont in about 1869. So,
this variety is already more than 170 years old.

How long will it be the most important variety in our area?
The question cannot be answered easily. Lack of cold hardiness
ruined the Baldwin when it was almost 200 years old! The Rhode
Island Greening lasted almost 250 years as an important variety.
Northern Spy dates back to about 1800 and is going out of the scene
fast. All this makes Delicious a relative youngster, because it
only dates back to about 1880. New Mcintosh plantings in recent
years almost guarantees that consumers will be getting this fine
apple for at least another fifty years, if not longer.

It looks like the Mcintosh trees you plant next spring will
be a safe bet.

***************

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts

A. A. Spielman

Director

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Work

Acts of May 8 and June 30. 1914

Official Business
468 - 1/69 - 980

Permit No. 1216

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAAALAGE

MARCH-APRIL 1969

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Program Planning for the New England Fruit Meetings of 1970

What's New With CA Storage

Pomological Paragraph

Nitrogen Level of Mcintosh Apple Trees in 1968

Herbicide Toxicity and Hazards

Handom Thoughts on Chemical Weed Control in Orchards

Extension Studies Planned for 1969

Pomological Paragraph

Peach Leaf Color in Fall and Nitrogen Level

PROGRAM PLANNING

FOR THE
OF

NEW ENGLAND
1970

FRUIT MEETINGS

As in past years, the presidents of each horticultural or pomolog-
ical society in New England and the Extension Fruit Specialists
from each of these states are members of the Program Committee
for the 1970 New England Fruit Meetings. The committee will meet
in mid-June to discuss the program for these meetings. Members of
the committee welcome suggestions from you regarding possible top-
ics and speakers. If you have any suggestions, now is the time to
express them for consideration by your committee.

WHAT'S NEW WITH CA STORAGE

William J. Bramlage
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

A National Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference was spon-
sored at Michigan State University by the M.S.U Department of Horti-
culture on January 27-28, 1969. This conference was attended by CA
research personnel from throughout the U.S. and from many other
countries, and the participants discussed current information and
thinking on all aspects of CA storage. The conference very success-
fully up-dated information on CA storage, and it was the author's
privilege to participate in it. A resume of the conference proceed-
ings is presented here.

The conference was divided into 6 sessions, and one of these
sessions dealt with construction of CA storages. R.M. Smock (Corn-
ell) discussed methods tried in New York and pointed out many im-
portant observations. He noted that moisture accumulation in the
walls is a critical problem--as a result of it the wooden structures
of many rooms have rotted. He has never found moisture problems in
the ceiling of rooms with wel 1 -venti 1 ated attic spaces i\n which
case the exterior vapor seal should be omitted). He feels that
flat roofs on a CA storage present a moisture-accumulation hazard
and should be avoided. In the walls, wood should be kept to a min-
imum, he believes, and where used, it should be redwood or pressure-
treated timber. He has observed a number of rooms that have a ven-
tilated space running between the exterior wall and the insulation,
with the exterior vapor seal left off, and he has seen no moisture
problems in these walls.

Dr. Smock noted that while rooms have been successfully built
with no gas seal in the floor, there have been enough failures that
it would be better to install floor gas seals. For wall gas seals,
he personally favors 28 gauge galvanized iron sheeting. However,
sprayed-on polyurethane is working very well, and he believes that
it is approaching a competitive level in cost and should be given
very serious consideration as a gas seal.

J.W. Zahradnik (Massachusetts) discussed the use of polyvinyl-
chloride as an external gas seal, and pointed out that when proper-
ly applied it works excellently. He discussed an engineered con-
cept of CA construction that has been used and which has resulted
in a structure largely built by farm labor during the winter; this
storage cost $2.02 per box to construct in 1967, in contrast to a
comparable structure built for $2.20 per box in 1957. Dr. Zahrad-
nik also noted that he feels a floor seal is very important, and
that he favors the use of wood in the structural framework wherever
possible to reduce costs.

H.C. Dostal (Purdue) presented a movie showing construction of
an experimental Styrof oam-dome CA storage at Purdue. This dome
took 5 men 12 hours to construct, and haS immense structural strength

- 2

This storage has not yet been tested,
watch i ng .

but it will certainly bear

Another session of the conference dealt with atmosphere regu-
lation. The highlight of this session was a paper by Bernard Gaut-
ier, from Rhone-Poul enc Company, Paris, France. Mr. Gautier dis-
cussed the use of large polyethylene bags with s i 1 icone-covered
windows in them. These bags can be placed over pallets of fruit
and sealed, and the atmosphere in the bags will be determined by
the size of the silicone surface. The silicone regulates diffusion
of O2 and CO2 into and out of the bags. The size of the window
that would be used would depend on the temperature, variety, atmos-
phere desired, etc. These bags are rather expensive but can be
used for at least 4 seasons, and are being used commercially in
France .

The use of these bags has certain advantages and disadvantages
Advantages include the facts that you can have CA without gas-tight
rooms; that the rooms can be opened at any time and individual pal-
lets can be removed; and that there is no human danger involved in
entering the room. Mr. Gautier also argued that the method was
25% cheaper than conventional CA.

Disadvantages include the facts that it takes about 20 days
for atmospheric equilibrium to be established in the bags (although
once established, it is said to be very stable); that individual
bags cannot be checked each day; and that it is not easy to make
compensations for incorrect atmospheres.

Mr. Gautier also noted that whole rooms can be regulated by
using large silicone diffusers for gas exchangers. Using this meth-
od, volatiles from the fruits diffuse out, but you cannot get CO^
below 3%.

It seems likely that use of these bags will be tried in the

U.S. in the coming years, and it will be very interesting to see

how well they work under our conditions, and to see wnat are the
relative economics of their use.

This
Harv
ref r
much
cone
seal
(whi
1 iqu
idly
wide

A th

i s a
ey (U
i g e r a

to p
entra
ed un
ch in
id ni
, and

usag

i r d s e s
boomi n
SDA, Ca
t i n is
rotect
ti ons
its con
cl udes
trogen

a tmosp
e.

s 1 on

g fi

lifo
1 ac
the
f CO
tai n
most
i s a
heri

cons i dere
eld, and s
r n i a ) disc
king and w
produce .
P (such as
T n g dry i c

commodi ti
dded . Ai r
c m d i f i c a

d i n
ever
usse
here
Comm

s tr
e , w
es)

tra
ti on

-tra
al a
d ai

mod
odi t
awbe
here
are
ns i t

dur

ns i t
spect
r shi
i f ied
ies t
r r i e s
as ot
pi ace
of p
ing a

m d i f i
s were
pments
atmos
hat w i
) are
hers s
dins
roduce
i r tra

ed at

cons

of p

phere

11 wi

often

e n s i t

eal ed

i s e

nsi t

mosphe
idered
roduce
s are
thstan

pi ace
i v e to

units
xpandi
is att

res .
. J.R.
, where
doi ng
d high
d i n

CO2

ana
ng rap-
ai ni ng

R.E. Woodruff (United Fruit Company) pointed out that bananas

1-5% COo). but that banana ooats

respond excellently to CA
are not equipped for CA.

(1%
The

current practice is to put the

o >

- 3

bananas in large polyethylene bags, evacuate the bags and seal
them for shipment. Inadequate control of the atmosphere results
in some fermentation due to exhaustion of 0,
efits have been sizeable.

but the overall ben-

T.G. White (Oxytrol Division) and J.R. Lugg (Trans-Fresh Cor-
poration) discussed their companies' commercial units for atmospher-
ic modification of truck and rail units. Mr. Lugg noted that over
6,000 transportation units (trucks and railroad cars) are now
equipped for atmospheric modification, and this number will soon
increase by 50%. This equipment is used for both transcontinental
and overseas shipments. It is apparent that much of the produce
coming from the West Coast is already being carried under modified
atmospheres, and that the proportion will rise rapidly.

An interesting point noted in this session is that the Tectrol
Division of Whirlpool Corporation is no longer making generators
for CA storages. Their patents have been sold to a Japanese com-
pany, and it is anticipated that this company will, in the not-too-
distant future, begin to produce generators. The Trans-Fresh Cor-
poration is, however, an outgrowth from Tectrol and it builds gen-
erators, but solely for transit vehicles.

A half day of the conference was devoted to discussion of com-
mercial CA requirements and recommendations for various crops.
Numerous researchers presented findings which added up to the fol-
lowing. Of the many commodities that have been tested, only apples,
pears, and bananas are established as being highly responsive to
CA. For apples, 3% O2 and 2.5-5% CO2 (depending on variety) are
recommended. For pears, 1% O2 and 5% COp are recommended for fruits
harvested at an early (and desired) maturity. Ones harvested at a
late maturity are very susceptible to internal browning when ex-
posed to CO2, so they should be held at 1% O2 and 0% COg.

F.M. Isenberg (Cornell) presented his results on storage of
cabbage, which show that cabbage responds very well to 1% 0^ and 5%
COp. However, wide variation in response existed among hybrids, and
at Cornell they are currently selecting genetic lines which respond
well to CA.

R.E. Anderson (USDA, Maryland) reported that peaches and nec-
tarines could be stored with some benefit under 1% Op and 5% CO
but that storage time was limited to 6 weeks for peaches and 9
for nectari nes .

weeks

Tests with such crops as grapes, citrus, tropical fruits, pota-
toes, sweetpotatoes , tomatoes, sweet corn, and cantaloupes, as well
as with numerous kinds of flowers, have resulted in no commercial
recommendations due to poor or highly variable results. A prelim-
inary and very cautious recommendation of 2% O2 and 20% CO2 was
made for strawberries by G.J. Stadelbacher (Maryland), but this
must be considered as a preliminary recommendation. It is apparent
that only a limited number of commodities are suitable for CA stor-
age, at least with current CA techniques.

- 4

Th
i c a 1 e f
these ,
20% CO2
to air,
under h
in air.
accumul
appl es .
by a re
the gen
(Mary! a
high CO
certai n
which w
desi rab

e fin

f ects

M. U

supp

the

i gh C

G.D

ati on

Thi

c i r c u

erato

nd) p

2 on

vol a
oul d
le.

al ses
of CA
Ota (U
ressed
f 1 ower
Op wer
/Blan
of et
s has
1 a t i n g
r i s p
resent
strawb
tiles
sugges

s ion

stor
SDA,

ethy
s pro
e muc
pied
hy 1 en
parti
gene
urgi n
ed da
e r r i e
(othe
t tha

of the
age on
Cal ifor
lene pr
duced V
h more
(Cornel
e in CA
cul ar p
rator .
g ethyl
t a i n d i
s may a
r than
t compl

conf e
produ
nia )
oduct
ery 1
res is
1) sh

stor
e r t i n

Care
ene a
c a t i n
ctual
ethyl
ete p

rence c
ce . Am
showed
ion, an
ittle e
tant to
owed CO
ages do
ence to
shoul d
s wel 1
g that
ly be d
ene) un
urging

onsid
ong t
that
d tha
thyle
di se
ncl us
es St
room
be t
as CO
much
ue to
der t
of vo

ered t
he p i
for fl
t even
ne , F
ase th
i V e 1 y
imul at
s bei n
aken t
G.
Of the
accum
hese c
latlle

he phy
nts no
owers ,

when
1 owers
an one
that a
e ri pe
g cont
ensu
J. Sta

benef
ul atio
ondi ti
s woul

siol og-

ted were

10 or
returned

kept
s kept

1 arge
ni ng of
rol 1 ed
re that
del bacher
it from
n of
ons ,
d be un-

To summarize this conference, it is apparent that there is
world-wide interest in expanding the benefits now being obtained
from CA storage. It can be argued that many of the findings in
other areas are not applicable to our own situations and problems,
but if one is to evaluate current trends and gamble on future devel
opments, he needs to know just what is happening. CA is clearly a
large part of the future of produce handling around the world, and
periodic conferences like this one are needed to coordinate inform-
ation and ideas on the subject.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Nitrogen level of Mcintosh apple trees in 1968

Nitrogen (N) is a
It has been stated

difficult nutrient to regulate in fruit trees,
that all nutrients except N can vary over a considerable range
without harmful effects on tree performance or crop quality. In
practically e'^ery orchard sampled in 1968, the N levels were with-
in tlie desirable range for bearing Mcintosh trees (1.80-2.00 percent
on a dry weight basis). To the contrary, in 1967, leaves sampled
from 29 bearing Mcintosh blocks in Massachusetts and southern New
Hampshire showed that the N level in these blocks averaged 2.3 per-
cent which is in excess of the N levels conducive to good red color
development. We were fortunate that the hot weather during the
1968 harvest season was not confounded with excessively high N lev-
el s .

***************

HERBICIDE TOXICITY AND HAZARDS

E.H. Wheeler
Professor of Entomology
Leader, Pesticide Chemicals Program

(Adapted from article by Dr. J.E. Dewey,
Volume 4 (No. 10), December, 1968).

in Cornell Newsletter,

Many users of herbicides have not realized that herbicides are
pesticides and that they can be highly toxic. Many users treat her-
bicides as though they were no more toxic than drinking water. Be-
cause of this total disregard for possible toxicity, many needless
accidents have occurred.

Even materials like 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are not free from hazard,
as well illustrated by deaths resulting from the ingestion of com-
mercial formulations and sickness following inhalation and excessive
contact as reported by the National Clearinghouse for Poison Con-
trol Centers

As
sider P
and han
and 400
would b
case of
Based o
a c c i d e n
trigger
tia ted ,

no . know

or 3 weeks ,

a f u
araqu
died

mg/k
e con

thes
n cas
t , ex
ed an

i t a
n ant

rther illustration of the hazards of herbicides, con-
at and Diquat, These materials have been widely used
with reckless abandon. The oral LDrn to rats is 150
g respectively. Other things being equal, these levels
sidered only moderately toxic. Unfortunately, in the
e materials, other things do not appear to be equal,
es in which these materials have been taken orally by
tremely small quantities taken into the lungs have

unknown lung deterioration. Once this action is ini-
ppears that death is almost certai n and that there is
i dote . Death may result in a few days , a week, or 2
dependi ng on the dose.

From a practical point of view this means that care should be
taken not to breathe the mist of these sprays. Breathing the mist
or drift is believed to be more serious than low level ingestion.
Masks should be worn to remove droplets and particulate matter
from the air inhaled. Drift may he more a hazard to others than to

- 6

the applicator and should be considered. The vapor pressure of both
materials is low and the vapors are not believed to be of a signif-
icant practical hazard.

These materials may also offer a hazard to the eyes. A farmer
in England splashed some di quat-paraquat-surf actant into his eye.
He washed the eye. A mild irritation occurred for the next 3 days.
A week later he was hospitalized and suffered severe damage to the
eye. Thus, care should be taken to avoid splashing of the eyes--
goggles, safety glasses, or a face shield should be worn.

The present labels for these materials bear a "WARNING" state-
ment "DO NOT INHALE", "DO NOT GET ON SKIN", "DO NOT TAKE INTERNALLY.
Observation of the use of the material does not indicate that the
hazards are realized or the warning followed.

When using a pesticide--any pesticide--handle it as a highly
toxic ma teri al --avoi d becoming a statistic.

***************

RANDOM THOUGHTS ON CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL IN ORCHARDS

Wi 1 1 iam J . Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

It is now possible to chemically control a broad spectrum of
weeds, prevent the influx of weeds tolerant to some herbicides and
to apply an herbicide whenever it is convenient. However, phyto-
toxicity to young fruit trees because of excessive dosages of herbi-
cides continues to be a problem in some orchards. The injury is
generally the result of over-dosage when hand-held spray guns and
mechanical spreaders are used. Occasicnally, herbicide drift or
direct spray contact on tree foliage and fruit is a problem encoun-
tered with tractor-mounted spray booms. To minimize this difficulty,
use a coarse spray and avoid applications during windy conditions.
The boom should be mounted in front of the driver, so that he can
make boom adjustments more easily.

Paraquat

Paraquat is worthy of consideration by growers having past
difficulties with herbicide injury. This herbicide becomes inac-
tive on contact with soil and therefore presents no problem of res-
idue. However, at least one repeat application during the summer
will be necessary for season-long weed control. Since soil mois-
ture is generally more limiting in the late summer than during May
and June, the best timing for the repeat application of paraquat,
in order to enhance trunk growth and fruit size, and to control
annual weeds, is mid-July and later.

- 7

Those growers who like the quick "knock-down" of weeds with
paraquat, but wish to avoid the necessity of a repeat application
during the year, could apply a mixture of paraquat pi us simazine o_r
diuron. The spray mixture should keep the treated area relatively
free of weeds during the growing season.

Herbicides in Stone Fruit Plantings

The margin of safety between herbicide tolerance and toxicity
is less for stone fruits than for apples. There are several rea-
sons for this. Stone fruits are frequently planted on lighter soils
with less organic matter content, and organic matter is known to re-
duce toxicity of herbicides considerably. Furthermore, they are apt
to be cultivated rather than mulched. Mulch is a source of organic
matter and consequently adsorbs herbicides. Finally, they are in-
herently more susceptible to herbicides than are pome fruits.

Although the writer has successfully used several herbicides
in peach orchards, the exact amount applied was known. In the hands
of some applicators, paraquat may be the only safe herbicide to use
in peach orchards because of their tendency to apply excessive dos-
ages.

Growers who are currently cultivating their peaches might con-
sider the use of an herbicide and the discontinuation of this prac-
tice. An herbicide program may be more economical and our studies
show that tree performance should be equivalent to that obtained
from cultivation.

D i c h 1 b e n i 1

dichl
this
late-
a t i 1 e
appl i
ef f ec
have
of Ma
Weed
of th
i n Ma

Growers
obenil b
h e r b i c i d
fall or

and may
ed when
ti ve mus
found th
rch are
control
e 150-lb
rch (Tab

like
ut oc
e. T
early
pers
tempe
t be
at ap
as ef
rati n

than
le 1)

the conv
c a s i n a 1
his is p
-wi nter
i s t only
ratures
appl i ed
p 1 i c a t i
fecti ve
g s in 19

of the
. Both

enien
ly th
artic
appl i
a fe
are 1
in ea
ns of
as ap
68 sh

100-1
rates

ce of
ey des
ul arly
cation
w days
ow, th
rly sp
dichl
p 1 i c a t
owed ,

b rate
i n No

the
ire

tru
s .

on
eref
ring
oben
ions
howe

of
vemb

late-
a spr
e whe
Dichl
the s
ore ,
. In
i 1 in

the
ver ,
a p p 1 i
er we

fall app
ing appl
n early
obenil i
oil surf
appl icat
1 imi ted
the 3rd
previous
greater
cation n
re equal

1 ica

icat

snow

s hi

ace

ions

tri

Nov
effe
f Hi

ly e

t i n of
ion of
s prevent
ghly vol -
unl ess
to be
al s , we
4th week
ember .
ctiveness

chlnhpnil

f fecti ve.

Table 1. Effectiveness of November and March applications of 4%
granular dichlobenil for the control of weeds.

Application rate
(lbs commercial
product)

Percent weed control mid-August, 1968, result-

i ng from applications:

Nov. 1, 1967 Nov. 15, 1967 March 21, 1967

100
150

88
85

59
84

- 8

Terbacti

Terbacil, the herbicide most recently labeled for use in or-
chards, may be used under non-bearing and bearing apple and peach
trees that have been established 3 or more years. Contrary to
other herbicides terbacil is less toxic to peach than apple trees.
Our experience with this herbicide is very limited but experience
both in Maine and Massachusetts indicates that its use should be
avoided on light soils with low organic matter content.

Summary

If used properly, herbicides are a useful tool in orchards.
Our 1969 recommendations for orchard weed control can be obtained
from your County Agent in early spring. Read the recommendations
carefully and prior to application read the label on the herbicide
container for further information.

***************

EXTENSION STUDIES PLANNED FOR 1969

Wi 1 1 iam J . Lord
Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Extension studies have served as a teaching method and have
provided suggestions and answers for increasing the efficiency of
fruit production. Frequently, they have been a cooperative effort
of two or more members of the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences
or conducted in cooperation with other departments of the College
of Agriculture. During 1969, extension studies will continue to
constitute an integral part of our Fruit Extension Program. To
keep growers informed of what studies are anticipated, they are
listed below with the names of the individuals responsible for
these activities.

I. Evaluation of Waxing of Apples

A. Purpose: Determine the response of Delicious and Mcin-
tosh apples to waxing before storage.

B. Method: A study will be conducted during the 1968-69
storage season. Apples will be waxed in a commercial
packing line at harvest time, and effects on their post-
harvest life will be evaluated. Delicious will be eval-
uated directly after waxing and after post-waxing air
storage. Evaluation will include weight loss, appearance
change, watercore loss and internal breakdown development
Mcintosh will be evaluated directly after waxing and
after post-waxing air storage; the evaluations will in-
clude weight loss, appearance change and development of
brown core.

- 9 -

Faculty: W.J. Bramlage and Michael R. Shtpway (Graduate
Research Assistant), Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

II. Evaluation of Alar, A Growth Regulator for Apple Trees

A. Purpose: Determine the response of Delicious apple trees
to annual applications of Alar.

B. Method: Two studies will be continued during 1969, one
of which was initiated in 1965, and the other in 1968.
One set of Delicious trees will receive their fifth con-
secutive annual application of Alar applied either in
July or August at the rates of 1000, 2000 or 4000 ppm.
Other trees will receive their second consecutive annual
application of Alar at the rates of 500 or 1000 ppm in
mid-June or mid-July. The effect of the Alar treatments
on tree growth, fruit size, fruit flesh firmness, repeat
bloom and the occurrence of watercore and internal break-
down will be determined.

C. Faculty: W.J. Lord, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

III. Chemical Weed Control

Purpose: To evaluate the performance of new herbicides

under Massachusetts conditions and to determine herbicide

persistence in soil, and the response of fruit crops to
herbicides.

Method: Initiate or continue studies to determine:

1. Tree response of Jerseyland peach trees to annual
applications of simazine and simazine plus paraquat
mixture (initiated in 1966).

2. Simazine residues in soil and mulch under Mcintosh
apple trees receiving annual applications of this
herbicide (initiated in 1964).

3. The concentration of simazine in soil that is toxic
to apple trees (initiated in 1968).

4. The response of Delicious and Mcintosh apple trees
and Earli-Red-Fre and Richhaven peach trees to annual
applications of dichlobenil (initiated in 1965).

5. Effect of simazine on microorganism population in
orchard soil (initiated in 1968).

Faculty: Regional Fruit Specialists - D.A. Marini and
G.E. Wilder; W.J. Lord and H.B. Gunner, Professor of Soil
Microbiology.

10 -

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

Peach Leaf Color in Fall and Ni trogen Level : In a peach orchard
at the Horticultural Research Center having 3 levels of nitrogen
(N), the effect of N on leaf coloration and leaf drop in the late
fall is very striking. The higher the N level, the greener was the
foliage, and the lower the N level, the earlier was the leaf drop.
With great accuracy, one could select the low, medium and high N
trees. Growers might profitably use fall leaf coloration of peach
trees of the same variety, as a guide to fertilization the coming
spring. Trees apparently low in N could be marked with paint as
an indication that extra fertilizer is needed for the coming year.
This is feasible since many growers fertilize on an individual
tree basis rather than appying a broadcast application.

***************

All pesticides mentioned in this publication are registered and
cleared for the suggested use in accordance with Federal and State
laws and regulations. Where trade names are used for identification
no product endorsement or discrimination is intended.

warning: most pesticides are poisonous, read and follow all
directions and safety precautions on labels. handle carefully and

store IN ORIGINAL CONTAINERS OUT OF REACH OF CHILDREN, PETS AND
LIVESTOCK. DISPOSE OF EMPTY CONTAINERS RIGHT AWAY, IN A SAFE MAN-
NER AND PLACE. DO NOT CONTAMINATE FORAGE, STREAMS OR PONDS.

Cooperative Extension Service

University of Massachusetts

Amherst, Massachusetts

A. A. Spielman

Cooperative Agricultural Extension Worl<

Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914

Official Business
470 - 3/69

Permit No. 1216

980

Postage and Fees Paid
United States Department of Agriculture

FRUIT NOTES

Prepared by the Department of Plant and Soil Sciences

Cooperative Extension Service

College of Agriculture

University of Massachusetts, Amherst

EDITORS

W. J. LORD AND W. J. BRAMLAGE

MAY-JUNE 1969

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Strawberry Weed Control

Pomological Paragraph

New Edition of "Modern Fruit Science" is now available

New Return of the Marmota Monax

Pomological Paragraphs
Leaf Analysis Service
Alar Sprays for Delicious
Rapid Absorption of Paraquat by Weeds

Research From Other Areas

Does Ozone Reduce Decay of Fruits and
Vegetables After Harvest

Thoughts on the Apple Harvest Problem

Cost of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Control
Systems for Controlled Atmosphere Storages

STRAWBERRY WEED CONTROL

Dominic A. Marini
Regional Fruit & Vegetable Specialist
Southeast Region

Since a strawberry bed occupies the soil for about 16 months,
controlling weeds is an important consideration in producing a crop.
Herbicides, properly used, can be an economical substitute for
scarce and increasingly expensive labor in combating weeds. A few
growers have managed to eliminate hand hoeing, but most have found
that they must supplement herbicides with some hoeing. Complete
elimination of cultivation of strawberries is not desirable, since
the soil must be kept loose and open to facilitate rooting of run-
ners .

Herbicides must be properly used to be effective. Most mater-
ials recommended for strawberries are pre-emergence herbicides;
they kill germinating seeds but are not effective on established
weeds. As such, they must be applied within 2 or 3 days after
planting or cultivation. No strawberry herbicide is effective in
dry soil; rain or irrigation within a few days of application is a
necessity. Weed population also has a bearing on choice of mater-
ials since not all herbicides are equally effective in controlling
a particular weed. Finally, good equipment, properly calibrated
to deliver the recommended amount of material uniformly to a meas-
ured area, is necessary for successful weed control.

The following materials are recommended for weed control in
strawberries for 1969: Dacthal* (DCPA); diphenamid (Dymid*, Enide*),
Sesone*, and Tenoran* (chl oroxuron). None gives full-season control.
The latest trend in weed control is the use of herbicide combina-
tions. Sesone* is recommended only in combination witheitha^ Dacthal*
or diphenamid. Better control of a broader range of weeds results
when these materials are combined than when used separately. Dur-
ing the past 2 seasons, the combination of diphenamid and Sesone*
has consistently given us the best results of all treatments in
trials conducted in Southeastern Massachusetts.

In 1968, the price of Dacthal* was reduced considerably re-
sulting in its increased use. One grower made 3 applications dur-
the season and eliminated hoeing of strawberries on his farm. It
is most effective for the control of crabgrass, purslane, chick-
weed and lamb's quarters, while it is not effective on Galinsoga
and is weak on ragweed and smartweed.

Regulations governing the use of diphenamid were changed dur-
ing 1968. It is now permissible to apply this herbicide within
60 days of harvest. Plants should be established about 3 weeks
before application and a period of 6 months should elapse before
another application is made.

Tenoran* was cleared for use on strawberries in 1968. It Is
the only herbicide recommended for both pre-and post-emergence use
on strawberries. For post-emergence use, the smaller the weeds
the better the results; broadleaved weeds should be less than 2
inches in height while annual grasses should be less than one-half
inch in height. In 1968 trials, pre-emergence treatments were more
effective than post-emergence treatments, particularly for annual
grass control. Tenoran* has promise as a control for Galinsoga,
a serious problem on many farms. Plants should be established be-
fore application and not more than 2 treatments may be made in 1
year.

For complete details on dosage rates and application instruc-
tions, refer to your 1969 Chemical Weed Control Recommendations
for Small Fruits and the manufacturer's directions on the label.
Read the label and observe all application directions and safety
precautions.

*TRADE NAME

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPH

New Edition of "Modern Fruit Science" is Now Avail abl e : Many fruit
growers are familiar with the book on orchard and small fruit cul-
ture written by Dr. Norman F. Childers, Rutgers University, entitled
"Modern Fruit Science." A new 1969 edition of this book is now
available from Horticultural Publications, Rutgers Un\V6raity, New
Brunswick, New Jersey 08903.

Anyone looking for an up-to-date reference book on fruit cul-
ture should find "Modern Fruit Science" of value. Dr. Childers
estimates that approximately 30 per cent of the book is new. He
has given emphasis to (a) compact fruit trees, (b) chemical weed
control in fruit crops, (c) mechanical harvesting and pruning, (d)
soil management, (e) chemical thinning, (f) pest control, (g) pro-
duction trends and (h) economics of growing and marketing of each
crop. The appendix contains, among other things, suggestions for
management of labor and for dealing with labor unions, and also
suggestions for securing maximum allowable tax deductions.

***************

THE RETURN OF THE MARMOTA MONAX

Edward R. Ladd, Wildlife Biologist
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
DIVISION OF WILDLIFE SERVICES
University of Massachusetts

The Marmota monax , better known as woodchuck or groundhog, is
a source of fable as well as nuisance to the farmer. In fable,
the popular belief is that if the groundhog sees its shadow on
Groundhog Day, February 2, it will return to it'
will continue for 6 weeks longer. The animal's
er prophet has been disputed.

s burrow
accuracy

and winter
as a weath-

However, the damage caused by this nuisance animal is real.
In the early spring when it comes out of hibernation, its claws
are long and its incisor teeth have grown considerably. The animal
sharpens its claws and wears down its teeth on nearby trees, shrubs
buildings or fence posts. The clawing and gnawing, especially on
trees in orchards, causes wounds which eventually may kill a tree.

The woodchuck is a hearty feeder and lives almost entirely on
green succulent plants. It is this foraging on market garden crops
and backyard gardens that creates complaints; and calls for con-
trol measures arise.

The most efficient and humane way to control the woodchuck
whenever it becomes a nuisance is to gas its burrow. The U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service developed a Gas Cartridge some years ago which
still produces the best results.

The GasCartridae does not work perfectly &very time for every-
one, even though the Pocatello Supply Depot has attempted to pro-
vide a trouble-free item. Last year when the new red fuse was in-
troduced, some difficulty was experienced in that it did not always
ignite the gas cartridae. In 1968, a change in fuse types was nec-
essary when the former manufacturer became totally occupied with
military contracts.

Information on the shortcoming of the new red fuse was passed
on to the supply depot and it went to work to locate a better fuse.
It has located a manufacturer of one that supposedly will be iden-
tical to the brown fuse — the one that produced almost trouble-
free resul ts .

Cooperators having gas cartridges on hand with faulty fuses
may wish to write to the Wildlife Services Fund, University of
Massachusetts, Old Conservation Building, Amherst, Massachusetts
01002, and request a supply of replacement fuses for which there
will be no charge .

Gas Cartridges must not he used in woodchuck burrows that are
located under buildings or near buildings because of the ftre haz-

- 4

ard. Also, extreme care must be exercised when using the gas cart-
ridge during extremely dry weather. Information is available on
the trapping of woodchucks by writing this office.

***************

POMOLOGICAL PARAGRAPHS

Leaf Analysis Servic

by so
since
er pr
the g
s i n s
the p
the c
ity
of re
coul d
made
stora

me of

the a
i r to
rower

conce
rompt
urrent
f exce
d col
bean
concer
ge for

the
naly

the
can
rn i n
serv

har
ssi V
ran
t i c i
ning

f ru

Farm
sis a

harv
exami
g f er
ice c
vest
e dro
d poo
pated

the
its f

e^: The leaf analysis service being developed
Supply Companies should prove very valuable
nd its interpretation is available to the grow-
est of Mcintosh. With the analysis in hand,
ne the trees and fruits and make sounder deci-
tilization the following spring. Furthermore,
an alert the grower to possible problems for
and storage season. For example, the possibil-
p because of low leaf magnesium and the lack
r keepability of fruit due to high nitrogen

from the analyses. Better judgments can be
type of storage (CA or regular) and length of
rom various blocks with this information.

Alar Sprays for Delicious : An Alar spray applied in early or mid-
August may be beneficial on Deliciou