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COMPLETE
GEOGRAPHY
BY
ALEXIS EVERETT FRYE
Former Superintendent of Schools of Cuba
AUTHOR OF "CHILD AND NATURE," "BROOKS AND BROOK BASINS," "PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY,"
"ELEMENTS OF GEOGRAPHY," "HOME AND SCHOOL ATLAS," "TEACHERS'
MANUAL OF METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY," ETC.
BOSTON, U.S.A., AND LONDON
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS
©be &t&otsettm press
PREFACE.
Commerce. A geography that seeks to lay a broad basis for the study of nations must throw a strong
search-light upon their commercial relations. Commerce and the related industries take a leading place in this
book, — those of our own country being illustrated by twenty original maps [pages 130 to 141).
Physical Features. The intelligent study of a country's resources must be based on its physical features.
For this reason the surface-forms and climate of the various parts of the world are fully treated in the text
and pictures.
Order of Lessons. Most teachers using this book will doubtless present the lessons in the order in which
they appear, yet those who wish to complete the study of the United States in detail, before giving a broad
view of other lands, can readily turn from the early lessons on the natural regions of our country (pages 30
to 52) to the study of its people, its industries, its states, etc. (pages 123 et seq.).
Sizes of Type. The text which needs the most careful study is in large type. The descriptive matter in .
small type does not call for close study, but may be used for supplementary reading.
Illustrations. Nearly all the pictures in this book were engraved directly from photographs. To the
selection and grouping of subjects for the photographs, the author has given fully as much time and care as
to the text itself. The aim has been to present characteristic or typical forms that are educative.
Spelling of Geographic Names. This book follows the rulings of the United States Board on Geographic
Names, — the highest authority in our country.
There has long been confusion in the usage of capital letters. This book adopts what seems to be the
best modern usage and allows the capital in specific names, such as Rhine and Andes, but not in class names,
such as river and plateau; thus Rhine river. The United States Board rules out the apostrophe from names of
places within the United States.
Study and Reference Maps. Two series of maps are used in this book, — the one containing such details
as are needed in connection with the text ; the other being the most complete series of reference maps ever
placed in any text-book. Special attention has been given to the modeling of the relief maps of the continents
and of the United States. It is thought that for purposes of comparison the little globe maps will prove
helpful.
Acknowledgments. William Morris Davis, Professor of Geology in Harvard University, has given valu-
able assistance in this work, — especially in the treatment of winds and elementary land-forms.
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Mr. Justin H. Smith, of Boston, Mr. Cyrus C. Adams, of New
York, and Mr. Frank F. Murdock, of North Adams, Mass., for many helpful suggestions ; to Miss Gertrude Beatrice
Wright, of the Normal Art School, Boston, for her skilful assistance in modeling the relief maps ; and to Mr. Henry
Gannett, Chief Topographer of the United States Geological Survey, for the skill and excellence with which he has'
drawn the industrial maps of the United States.
ALEXIS E. FRYE.
Entered at Stationers' Hall
Copyright, 1895, 1902
By ALEXIS EVERETT FRYE
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
27.6
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
THE EARTH. PAGE
Introduction 1
Form and Size of the Earth 2
The Land and the Sea 2
Directions 3
Directions on the Earth .3
The World Eidge or Primary Highland ... 4
Continents or Grand Divisions ..... 5
The Oceans 6
The Waste of the Land ....... 6
Rainfall .......... 7
Springs and Streams . 7
Land Waste on the Way to the Sea ... 8
Work of the Winds 8
Snow and Ice 9
Rivers and River Systems 10
River Basins and Divides 11
Young and Old Lands . 11
Flood Plains and Deltas 12
Coastal Plains and Lake Plains . . . . .13
Mountains 14
Volcanoes . . . 15
Waves 17
Shore Forms 17
Belts of Heat 18
Changes of Season . . . . . . . .18
The Zones of Light .19
Seasons of the Heat Belts .20
Latitude and Longitude ....... 22
Winds and Rainfall . . ... • - • 22
Winds and Rains of Winter and Summer . . 24
Ocean Currents %&
The Moon and the Tides ^
NORTH AMERICA.
North America . 27
The Rocky Mountains . . . • • • • 30
The Sierra Nevada 32
The Cascade Range 33
PAGE
The Great Basin ........ 33
The Colorado Plateaus 37
The Columbia Plateau ....... 38
The Coast Range and Valleys ..... 38
The Yukon Region . . . . ' . . .39
Highland of Mexico .40
Central America ........ 41
The Appalachian Highland ...... 41
Old Appalachian Range and Piedmont Belt . . 42
The Great Valley and Allegheny Ridges . . 43
The Allegheny Plateau ....... 44
The Laurentian Highland ...... 45
The St. Lawrence Basin 45
The Western Plains 47
The Prairies .48
The Northern Plain ....... 49
Gulf Coastal Plain ........ 50
Atlantic Coastal Plain 51
SOUTH AMERICA.
South America 53
The Southern Andes 56
The Middle Andes .56
The Northern Andes ....... 57
The Highland of Brazil ....... 58
The Guiana Highland 59
The Selvas 59
The Gran Chaco and the Pampas .... 60
The Llanos , , .61
ASIA.
Asia 63
The Altai Highland 64
Central Basin Region . 64
The Highland of Tibet 65
Highlands of Southwest Asia 66
The Arctic and Caspian Slopes 67
The Pacific Slope 69
India .
Asiatic Islands
EUROPE.
Europe 75
Region of the Alps 76
The Spanish Peninsula ....... 77
The Po and the Apennines 78
The Balkan Peninsula 80
The Plain of Hungary 80
The Scandinavian Peninsula . . . , ■ . .81
The British Isles . 82
Low Europe 84-86
AFRICA.
Africa 87
Egypt and the Nile 89
Northern Africa and the Sahara Desert . . 91
Sudan 92
The Kongo Basin 93
Southern Africa 94
AUSTRALIA.
Australia ......... 95
New Zealand and other Islands ..... 97
RACES OF MEN.
Homes of the Races 99
The Negro or Black Race 100
The American or Red Race 101
The Malay or Brown Race 102
The Mongolian or Yellow Race .... 103
The Caucasian or White Race 104
Religions and Governments. 105
PLANTS.
Where Plants Grow 107
Soil, Water and Heat ...... 107
Plants of the Hot Belt 108
Plants of the Warm Belts 109
Plants of the Cool Belts 110
Plants of the Northern Cold Belt .... Ill
ANIMALS.
Animals, — Their Habits and Uses .... Ill
Animals and their Homes . . . . . . Ill
South American Realm 113
Northern Realm 114
TABLE OF
CONTENTS.
PAGE
. 70
African Realm .
72
Oriental Realm
Australian Realm
PAGE
116
117
118
COMMERCE.
Domestic and Foreign Commerce .... 119
Highways of Trade, — Water Routes .... 119
Railroads 121
Aids to Commerce . . . . . . . . 121
Time Belts and International Date Line . . 122
THE UNITED STATES.
Distribution of People . 123
Government . 124
Climate, — Temperature 127
Climate, — Winds and Rainfall . . . . 129
Cotton 130
Wheat and Indian Corn . . . . . . 131
Oats, Barley, Rye and Tobacco . , - . . . 132
Forests and Fruits 133-134
Horses, Mules and Hogs ....... 134
Cattle, Dairy Products and Sheep .... 135
Fisheries . . . 136
Coal and Iron 137-138
Petroleum and Natural Gas ...... 139
Gold and Silver ........ 140
Copper, Lead, Zinc and Building Stone . . . 141
GROUPS OF STATES.
New England States . . ... . . 142
Middle Atlantic States ....... 144
Southern States 146-148
Central States . 150-153
Southwestern States ....... 154
Northwestern States ....... 156
COUNTRIES AND COLONIES.
Canada and Newfoundland 158
Mexico, Central America, West Indies . . . 159
The British Isles 162
Countries of Low Europe, — Western Part . . 164
Mediterranean Countries 166
Other Countries of Europe 166
Countries of South America . . . ..'"". 168
Countries of Asia . . . . . . „ , 170
Countries of Africa 173
States of Australia 175
INDEX TO TEXT.
Note. — All figures refer to pages. Map pages are marked thus, 173°; picture pages are marked thus, 16*. Look first for pages in full face
type (174); less important pages are in light face type (173). Lesson titles are in capitals (Africa).
Abyssinia 173°, 174.
Abyssinia, plateau 89.
Acapulco 159, 159°.
Aconcagua 55°, 56.
Acropolis 80* 145°, 146.
Adelaide 175°.
Adige river 75°, 78.
Adirondack mts. 32°, 46.
Adriatic sea 75°, 79.
jEgean sea 161°.
Afghanistan 171°, 172.
Africa 87, 88°, 173°.
Climate 87.
Countries 173°.
Relief map 88°.
Surface 87.
Age of land 11, 12.
Aguas Calientes 159°.
Air 15 ; see also winds.
Akron 151, 151°.
Alabama 138, 147°, 148.
Alamo 149.
Alaska 29°, 39, 40* 123,
126, 137, 159°.
Albany 145°.
Alberta 159°.
Albuquerque 155°.
Alexandria 173°, 174.
Alhambra 78*.
Algeria 173°, 174.
Algerian 91*.
Algiers 91, 173°, 174.
Allegheny plateau 32°,
41, 44*, 136, 139.
Allegheny ridges 32°,
41, 43, 44, 138.
Allegheny 145°, 146.
Alligators 59, 113*, 114*.
Alluvial fan 8* 71.
Alpacas 57, 113* 169.
Alpine lakes 78.
Alps 75°, 76, 77, 84.
Altai highland 64.
Amazon basin 55°, 59,
168.
Amazon river 55°, 59.
Amazon vs. Kongo 94.
America 5°, 106.
American 104*, 149.
American race 101, 102.
Amsterdam 86, 165°, 166.
Amur river 63°, 69, 117.
Anam 171, 171°.
Andes mts. 53*, 55°, 56,
57* 113, 140, 169°.
Andorra 77, 106, 165°.
Animals 111°-118.
Animal realms 111°.
African 116*.
Australian 118*.
Northern 114*.
Oriental 117*.
South American 113*.
Annual rainfall 129°.
Antarctic circle 20°.
Antarctic ocean 6°.
Ant-eater 113*.
Antelope 117.
Antwerp 86, 165, 165°.
Apennines 75°, 77, 78,79.
Apes 116, 117.
Apia 98, 175°.
Appalachian highland
35°, 41, 123, 137,
138, 144, 148, 151.
Apteryx 118*.
Arabia 67, 104, 171°,
172.
Arabian sea 66, 171°.
Arabs 91* 105*.
Aral basin 92.
Aral sea 63°, 68, 69.
Archangel 161°, 167.
Arctic circle 20°, 81.
Arctic ocean 6°.
Arctic slope 49, 67.
Areas of
Continents 178.
Countries 177.
Earth 27.
Lakes 179.
Oceans 178.
States 180.
Argentina 60, 61, 163,
168, 169°.
Arica 169, 169°.
Arizona 126, 141, 155°.
Arkansas 149°.
Arkansas river 31, 32°.
Armadillo 113*.
Armor plate 139, 146, 163.
Artesian wells 109.
Art galleries 164, 165, 166.
Aryans 104, 105.
Aryan type 104*.
Asia 62°, 63, 117, 121,
139, 170, 171°.
Climate 63, 64.
Countries 170, 171°.
Relief map 62°.
Surface 62°, 63.
Asia Minor, see South-
west Asia.
Asiatic Islands 72, 171°,
175°.
Asiatic Turkey 171°, 172.
Assiniboia 159°.
Assouan 90, 173°.
Asuncion 168, 169°.
Atacama desert *55°, 57,
169°.
Atbara river 89°.
Athabasca 159°.
Athens 80, 165°, 166.
Atlanta 147°.
Atlantic coastal plain
32°, 51, 52, 134, 147.
Atlantic fisheries 137.
Atlantic ocean 6°.
Atlas mts. 89°, 91*.
Attar of roses 80.
Auckland 175°.
Augusta 147°.
Auk 115* 116.
Aurora 20.
Austin 149, 149°.
Australia 83, 95, 96°,
104, 105, 106, 118,
121, 136, 138, 140,
141, 162, 163, 175°.
Climate 95.
Relief map 96°.
States 175°.
Surface 95.
Australian Alps 95, 97°.
Australians 95*, 97, 100*.
Austria-Hungary 81,
165°, 166.
Axis of earth 4, 18.
Azof 161°.
Azores 132*, W°.
Bad lands, Utah 12*.
Bahama islands 52, 118,
159°, 160.
Bahia 168*, 169°.
Baku 106*, 171°, 172.
Balearic islands 161°.
Bali 95, T°.
Balkan mts. 75°, 80.
Balkan pen. 75°, 80.
Baltic sea 81, 85, 161°,
162, 167.
Baltimore 120, 131, 133,
136, 144, 145°, 146.
Baluchistan 171°, 172.
Bamboo 73*, 108*.
Banana 108*, 134, 160.
Banca 141, 175°.
Bangkok 171°.
Bangor 133, 143°.
Banks of Newfoundland
41, 136, 158, 159°.
Bantu people 100.
Banyan 73*, 109*.
• Barbados 159°, 160.
Barcelona 161°, 166.
Barley 56, 110, 132, 158.
Bar 16* 17, 51, 52, 71.
Barre 143°.
Barren lands 50.
Barrier reefs 98, 175°.
Basin region of Asia
63°, 64.
Basin region of U.S.
32°, 133, 154.
Basques 78.
Batavia 175°.
Bath 142* 143°.
Baton Ilouge 149°.
Batum 171°, 172.
Bay City 151°, 152.
Bay of Bengal 71, 171°.
Bay of Biscay 161°.
Bay of Bundy 159°.
Beaver 45* 50, 114*, 115*.
Bedouin 91, 92*.
Belfast 84, 163°.
Belgium 85, 131, 138,
165°, 167.
Belize 106, 159°.
Belts of heat 18°.
Benares 171°.
Ben-Nevis 75°, 82.
Benue river 89°, 93.
Berbers 91.
Bergen 161°, 167.
Bering sea 29°, 116, 126°.
Bering strait 29°, 64, 69.
Berlin 86, 164* 165°, 167.
Bethlehem 67*, U°.
Bighorn 114*.
Big Horn mts. 32°.
Big trees 32*.
Bifliton 141, 175°.
Binghamton 145°.
Birmingham,' Ala., 147°,
148.
Birmingham, Eng. , 163°.
Bismarck 153°, 154.
Bison 114*.
Black forest 85.
Black hills 32°, 48, 154.
Black mts. 43, F°.
Black race 100, 105.
Black sea 76, 86, 161°, 167.
Blackstone river 143°, 144.
Bluefields 159°.
Blue Grass region 152.
Blue mts. 95, 97°.
Blue Nile 89°.
Blue ridge 32°, 43.
Bluestone 141.
Boa 113*.
Boers 174.
Bogota 169°, 170.
Boise 156, 157°.
Bokhara 171°, 172.
Bolan pass 63°, 66.
Bolivia 113, 140, 169°.
Bolivia, plateau 55°, 56.
Boma 173°, 174.
Bombay 72, 170* 171°.
Boots and shoes 135, 142,
143, 156.
Bordeaux 165°.
Bore or tidal wave 26*.
Borneo 72*, 73, 99*, 102,
117, 171, 175°.
Bosphorus 80* 165°.
Boston 42, 106, 119, 120,
121* 130, 135, 136,
142*, 143°, 144, 175.
Bradford 163°.
Brahmanists 102, 105.
Brahmaputra river, 63,
65, 71, 170, 171°.
Brass 141, 144, 163.
Brazil 58, 59*, 100, 113,
119, 144, 168, 169°.
Brazilian highland
55°, 58.
Breadfruit 97, 108*.
Bridgeport 143°, 144.
British Columbia 158,
159°.
British Guiana 169°, 170.
British possessions 78, 83,
106, 160, 172, 174.
British Isles 82, 83,
97, 124, 131, 132,
162, 103°. See also
England, Great Bri-
tain, Ireland, Scot-
land, Wales.
British Museum 80.
Brockton 143°.
Brooklyn 43*, 120, 131,
144, 145°.
Brown race 102°, 105.
Brussels 85, 161°.
Budapest 165°, 167*.
Buddhists 102, 105, 172.
Buenos Aires 61, 168,
169°.
Buffalo 47, 120, 145°.
Buffalo Bayou 149°.
Buffaloes 114, 115*-117*.
Building stone 141.
Bulgaria 165°.
Burlington, Iowa 153°.
Burlington, Vt. 142*,
143°.
Burma 171°.
Bushmen 94.
Butte 156, 157°.
Cabinet woods 60.
Cables, ocean 122, W°.
Cactus 38*.
Cairo 90, 172*, 173°.
Calcutta 72, 170*, 171.
California 32°, 38, 39,
95, 124, 131, 134,
139, 140, 155°, 156.
Callao 53*, 169°.
Cambodia 171°.
Cambridge, Eng. 163.
Cambridge, U. S. 142,
143°.
Camden 145°, 146.
Camels 64, 67, 92, 112*,
115*, 116*.
Campos 59, 135.
Canada 83, 104, 106, 113,
131, 143, 158, 159°,
162 ; see Laurentian
highland and North-
ern plain.
Canals 46*.
China 70.
Europe 167.
Holland 85.
Russia 86.
United States 121°.
Canary islands 173°, 174.
Candia, or Crete 165°.
Cantabrian mts. 75°, 78.
Canton, China 68*, 171°,
172.
Canton, Ohio 151°.
Canyon of Colo. 37*
K°.
Cape Breton 159°.
Cape Cod 50, 137, 143°.
Cape Fear river 147°.
Cape Hatteras 137, 147°.
Cape Horn 55°, 56*, 124.
Cape of Good Hope 89°,
94, 121, 173°, 174.
Cape Town 94, 173°.
Caracas 169°, 170.
Caravans 64, 66, 93, 172.
Cardiff 163°.
Caribbean sea 159°, 160.
Caribou 45, 50, 114*.
Carolina highland 32°, 43.
Caroline islands 98, 175°.
Carpathian ; see Kar.
Carpets 136, 165, 172.
Carson City 155°, 156.
Cascade mts. 32°, 33.
Caspian sea 63°, 68, 69,
86, 92, 161°, 167.
Caspian slopes 67.
Cassava 59, 93.
Cassiquiari river 55°, 61.
Castes 105.
Cattle 48, 49, 59, 60,
61, 64, 68, 76, 79,
82, 86, 90, 113, 117,
118* 132, 135°, 142,
148-156, 158, 162,
166, 168, 174, 175.
Caucasus mts. 75°, 86.
Caucasians 102, 104.
Cavern of Luray 43, 145°.
Cayenne 169°.
Celebes 73, 171, 175°.
Central America 41,
101, 113, 159°, 160.
Central states 150,
151°, 153°.
Cevennes 77, 165°.
Ceylon 72, 104*, 171°.
Chalk cliffs, Dover 84*.
Chamois 112* 114, 115*.
Chamouni 8*.
Charcoal 137* 138.
Charleston, S. C. 52, 130,
147°.
Charleston, W. Va. 145°,
146.
Charlotte 147°.
Chattanooga 147°, 148.
Chautauqua 145.
Cherokee nation 149°.
Chesapeake bay 52, 133,
136, 145°, 146.
Cheviot hills 83, 163°.
Cheyenne 156, 157°.
Chicago 46, 49, 119*,
121, 131-135, 138,
139, 144, 150*, 151°.
Chicago river 150°.
Chickasaw nation 149°.
Chile 56, 57, 140, 169°.
Chimborazo 55°, 58*, 79.
Chimpanzee 93, 116*.
China 63°, 64, 69, 70,
103, 109, 119, 144,
156, 162, 171°, 172.
Chinese 70, 103*, 124.
Chinese empire 171°.
Chinook 129.
Choctaw nation 149°.
Christiania81, 161°, 167.
Christians 102, 105, 106*.
Cinchona 56*, 57.
Cincinnati 150* 151°.
Cinnamon 72, 73*.
Civil day 122.
Cleveland 47, 120, 139,
150*, 151°.
Cliff dwellings 37*.
Climate of U. S. 127°,
128°, 129°, 130.
Climatic maps,
Heat belts 21°.
Rainfall in U. S. 129°.
Temperature in U. S.
127°, 128°.
Winds 24°.
Seasons 21°,
Clocks 144, 166.
Cloves 73*.
Coal 44, 49, 83, 85, 86,
137°, 138, 145, 146,
148, 150, 157, 158,
163, 164, 165, 169.
Coastal plains 12*, 13*.
Africa 87.
Llanos 61.
Russia 86.
Siberia 67.
United States 32°, 50,
51, 52.
Coast range 32°, 38, 156.
Cochin China 171°.
Cocoa 57* 162, 168, 169.
Cocoanuts 72, 97* 108*.
Codfish 136*, 137°, 158.
Coffee 59* 67, 73, 144,
145, 160, 168* 172.
Coke 137* 138.
Cold waves 50.
Colombia 58, 169°, 170.
Colombo 171°.
Colon 159°.
Colorado 140, 141, 155°.
Colorado canyon 37*,K°.
Colorado plateaus 32°,
37, 38, 155.
Colorado river 31, 32°,
36, 37*.
Colorado Springs 155°.
Columbia plateau 32°,
33, 38.
Columbia river 32°, 33,
38, 39, 157°T
Columbia, S. C. 147°.
Columbus, Ga. 147°.
Columbus, Ohio 151°.
Commerce 119, 121.
Concord 143°.
Condor 57* 113*.
Connecticut 143°, 144.
Connecticut river 11*,
133, 143°, 144.
Constantinople 80, 106,
165°, 166.
Constitution of U. S. 124.
Consuls 121, 122.
Continental divide 31.
Continents 5.
Copenhagen 165°, 166.
Copper 46, 141°, 150,
155, 156, 163, 169.
Coral 2* 52, 97, 98* 148,
Cordoba 168, 169°.
Corinth, isthmus 75°, 80.
Cornwall 84, 141.
Corn 49, 56, 57, 83, 90,
93, 110, 131°, 132,
140, 146, 148, 149,
153, 154, 168, 175.
Costa Rica 159°.
Cotopaxi 55°, 58.
Cotton 43, 51*, 52, 59,
71, 76, 83, 90, 92,
93, 109*, 119, 124,
130°, 132*, 140-149,
159, 163, 164, 166,
169, 172, 173.
Mills 130°, 143-148.
Cotton gin 124.
Cotton-seed oil 130, 149.
Covington 151°, 152.
Coyote 48*.
Creek nation 149°.
Crete, or Candia 165°.
Crocodile 93, 116*, 117*.
Cuba 52, 106, 159°, 160 ;
see also Sup.
Currents of Indian O. 70.
Cutlery 138, 139, 163.
Cuzco 57, 169°.
Cyclones 71.
Cypress swamp 43*.
VI
INDEX TO TEXT.
D
Dairy44,76,135*°, 143,
153, 165, 166.
Dakota farm 49*, 152*.
Dallas 149°.
Damascus 171°, 172.
Danube river 77, 80, 165°.
Dardanelles 165°.
Dates 66, 67, 109, 172.
Davenport 153°.
Dayton 151°.
Dead sea 63°, 67*.
Death valley 32°, 36.
Deep sea 2, 3.
Deer 112* 114* *115.
Dekkan 15, 63°, 71, 72.
Delaware 123, 145°, 146.
Delaware bay 52, 145°.
Delaware river 43, 145°.
Delhi 68* 171°.
Delta plains 12.
Brahmaputra 71.
China 69.
Colorado 36.
Danube 81.
Ganges 71, 117.
Mekong 70.
Mississippi 51.
Niger 93.
Nile 90.
Po 78, 79.
Rhine 85.
Rhone 77.
Tahtse, Alaska 13*.
Yellow 69.
Zambezi 94.
Denmark 61, 82, 106,
161°, 166.
Denver 31,48, 154* 155°.
Deserts,
Atacama 57, 169°.
Gobi 63°, 64, 92.
Kalahari 87, 89°, 94.
,S'aftara87,90°,91,92*.
Des Moines 153°.
Detroit 47, 120, 150*
151°, 152.
Diamonds 94*, 166, 168.
Directions 3, 4°.
Distributary 13.
District of Columbial26,
145°.
Divides 11.
Continental 31.
India 71.
Rocky mts. 31.
South America 61.
Dnieper river 101°.
Dover, Del. 145°, 146.
Dover strait 84*, 163°.
Dresden 164. 165°.
Drowned valley 16*, 17*,
39, 45, 120.
Drumlin 10*, 49.
Dublin 162*, 163°.
Dubuque 153°.
Duluth 120. 153°, 154.
Dundee 163°.
Dunedin 175°.
Dunes 9*, 33, 64, 91.
Dutch East Indies 171.
Dutch Guiana 169°, 170.
Dwarf willow 111*.
Dwina river 75°, 86.
Dyaks 72*, 73.
Dyewoods 60, 108.
Dykes 15, 85.
Earth 2.
Area 27.
Axis 4, 18.
Orbit 18, 19*.
Revolves 18.
Rotates 3.
Earthquake 14, 15, 58, 76.
Earthquake wave 17.
East Indies 73, 108, 121,
133, 171.
Eau Claire 151°, 152.
Ebony 108.
Ebro river 75°, 78.
Eclipse 2.
Ecuador 57*, 59, 169°.
Edinburgh 162*, 163°.
Eddying storm 23°, 129.
Eider duck 45* 116, 115*.
Egypt 89, 131, 173°.
Egyptian 89*, 105*.
Elbe river 85, 164, 165°.
Elephant 70*, 71*, 89,
93, 116* 117*
Elevated railroad 120.
Elk 115*.
England 75°, 82, 83, 119,
120, 130, 132, 135,
141, 144, 162, 163°;
see also British Isles
and Great Britain.
English channel 163°.
Equatorial currents 25°.
Equatorial rains 23, 24°,
58, 61, 87, 93, 95.
Erie 145°, 146.
Erie canal 43*, 131, 145°.
Ermines 50, 115.
Eskimo 1, 20*, 50, 103*,
114* 157.
Essequibo river 59, M°.
Euphrates river 63°, 66.
Eurasia 5°, 68, 75, 103.
Europe 75, 105, 106,
117, 121, 135, 139,
144, 161°, 165°.
Canals 167.
Climate 75.
Countries 161°, 164°.
Relief map 74°.
Surface 75.
Evansville 151°.
Falkland islands 169°.
Fall River 142, 143°.
Fargo 153°, 154.
Farm machines 149-153.
Fez 173°, 174.
Figs 66* 67, 109*.
Fiji islands 98, 102,*175°.
Fingal's cave 84* 163°.
Finland 75°, 86.
Finns 103.
Fiord 17*, 81, 82*.
Fire temple 106*.
Firth of Clyde 163°.
Firth of Forth 163°.
Fisheries 136* 137°.
Flax 84, 110, 164, 167.
Flood plains 12, 13*.
Amazon 59.
Ganges 71.
Mackenzie 50.
Mississippi 49*, 50, 51.
Nile 90.
Orinoco 61.
Rhine 86.
Florence 165°, 166.
Florida 52, 118, 123, 134,
137, 147°, 148.
Flour 49, 119, 131, 133,
145, 146, 149, 150,
151, 152, 153, 154,
156, 172.
Forests 31, 32, 33, 38,
39, 43, 44, 46, 50, 52,
57, 59, 68, 80, 81, 85,
86, 87, 92, 93, 97,
110, 111, 133°, 134,
142, 143, 145, 147,
150, 151, 154, 157,
158, 166. See also
lumber.
Form of earth 2.
Formosa 171°.
Fort Smith 149°.
Fort Wayne 151°.
Fort Worth 149°.
Fossil shell 3*, 13.
France 77, 78, 84, 85,
86, 104, 106, 119,
123, 130, 131, 136,
138, 140, 144, 164,
165°, 171, 174.
Frankfort, Ky. 151°.
Frankfurt 164*.
Fraser river 33. 159°.
Freetown 173°, 174.
French Guiana 169°, 170.
French Indo-China 171.
Friendly islands 98, 175°.
Fruits 134°.
Fuchau 171°, 172.
Furniture 133, 150, 152.
Fur seals 39*, 157.
Fujiyama 72, 73*, R°.
Galapagos islands 169°.
Galveston 130, 149°.
Ganges 71, 117, 170, 171°.
Garonne river 165°, 167.
Geneva 165°, 166, 167*.
Genoa 165°, 166.
Georgetown 126, D°.
Georgia 123, 130, 137,
141, 147°.
Geral mts. 55°.
Germany 85, 86, 119,
124, 130, 131, 132,
135, 136, 138, 139,
140, 141, 144, 164,
165°, 167, 174.
Geyser 30* 31, 82.
Ghats, Western 63°, 72.
Giant's Causeway 75°,
84*.
Gibraltar 75°, 78.
Gila river 32°, 155°.
Gilbert islands 98, 175°.
Giraffe 89_, 116*.
Gironde river 85, 165°.
Glacial lakes 10, 78, 86.
Glacier 9*, 10*, 76, 97.
Glasgow 83, 163°.
Glass 44, 86, 146, 151,
164, 165, 172. '
Gloucester 137, 143°.
Gnu 116* 117.
Gobi desert 63°, 64, 92.
God 105.
Gold 31, 32, 36, 72, 93,
97, 124, 135, 140°,
141, 154, 155, 156,
162, 175.
Golden Gate 39* 155°.
Gorilla 116*.
Gottenborg 167, N°.
Governments 105, 124.
Grain 131°, 132°; see
also wheat, corn, etc.
Grain elevator 120*.
Grampian hills 163°.
Granada 78, N°.
Gran Chaco 55°, 60.
Grand divisions 5°.
Grand Manan 16*, 143°.
Grand Rapids 151°, 152.
Granite 141, 143.
Grapes 39, 79, 86, 109,
110* 134°, 166.
Great Basin 32°, 33,
65, 67, 140.
Great Britain 75°, 82,
83, 84, 97, 106, 119,
123, 131, 135, 136,
138, 139, 140, 144,
148, 160, 162, 163°,
170, 172, 174; see
British Isles, Eng-
land, Ireland, Scot-
land, Wales.
Great Lakes 32°, 45, 46,
120, 123, 133, 134,
137, 139, 150, 158.
Great Salt lake 32°, 36*.
Great Valley 32°, 43.
Greece 80, 104, 165°, 166.
Greenland 10*, 45, 82*,
106, 111* 115, 125°.
Green mts. 30*, 32°, 42*
Greenwich 22, 163°.
Grindstones 141.
Guadalquivir river 75, 78.
Guam ; see Sup.
Guatemala 159°.
Guayaquil 169°.
Guiana 59, 169°, 170.
Guinea 173°.
Gum arabic 108*.
Gulf coastal plain 32°,
43, 44, 50, 51, 134.
Gulf of Bothnia 161°.
Gulf of California 125°.
Gulf of Finland 161°.
Gulf of Guayaquil 55°.
Gulf of Guinea 173°.
Gulf of Mexico 125°.
Gulf of St. Lawrence
125°.
Gulf stream 25, 27, 52,
81, 128.
Guthrie 149°.
Habana ; see Havana.
Haiti 159°, 160.
Hakodate R°.
Halibut 41, 136.
Halifax 158, 159°.
Hamburg 86, 164, 165°.
Hamilton 158, 159°.
Hamites 93, 104, 105°.
Hanoi 171°.
Harbors 17, 52, 120, 121.
Hardware 142, 144, 163.
Harrisburg 145°.
Hartford 143°, 144.
Hastings 75°, 84*, 163°.
Havana 52, 159°, 160*;
see also Sup.
Haverhill 143°.
Havre 165°.
Hawaiian ids. 98* 175°;
see also Sup.
Heat belts 18°, 21°.
Heat equator 21°, 23, 24.
Hebrides 163°.
Helena 156, 157°.
Hemispheres 4°, 5°, 120°.
Hemlock 135, 145.
Hemp 73, 110, 150, 152.
Hemp, Sisal 159.
Herat 171°.
Hides 135," 149, 158, 168,
170, 174.
Highlanders 82, 83*.
Highways of Trade 119,
U-V°.
Himalaya mts. 63°, 64*
65* 66, 70, 71, 92,
114, 117.
Hindu Kush mts. 63°, 66.
Hindu religion 171.
Hindus 71*, 72, 99* 104*.
Hippopotamus 116*.
Hoangho 63°, 69.
Hobart 175°, 175.
Hoboken 145°.
Hogs 49, 80, 114*,' 132,
134°, 150.
Holland 85*, 86, 165°.
Holyoke 143°.
Homes of races 99*.
Honduras 159°.
Hongkong 70, 171°, 172.
Honolulu 98*, 156.
Horses 60, 67, 68, 86, 92,
114, 117* 134, 152.
Hot spring 30*, 31.
Hot Springs 149°.
Hot waves 50.
Houston 149°.
Hudson bay 45, 50, 125°.
Hudson river 43*, 50,
131, 141.
Hudson valley 123, 144.
Hue 171°.
Hugli river 170, 171°.
Humboldt river 32°, 36.
Hungary 80, 133, 164,
165°, 166, 167.
Hydraulic mining 140*.
Iberian peninsula 77.
Ibex 114, 115*.
Ice and Snow 9.
Iceberg 9*, 10*.
Ice floe 20*.
Ice jam 50.
Iceland 82, 161°.
Ice sheet 10*, 42, 45, 49,
81, 86.
Idaho 141, 156, 157°.
Illinois 135, 138, 141,
151°.
Immigrants 124.
Incas 57.
India 70, 71, 83, 99*,
105, 106, 108, 109,
117, 131, 133, 140,
162, 170, 171°.
Indiana 140, 151°.
Indianapolis 151°.
Indian ocean 6°.
Indians 41, 45, 50, 59,
60* 99* 101* 113,
123, 132, 157, 158*
179.
Indian Territory, see
Oklahoma.
India-rubber 60, 94, 108*.
Indigo 108*, 160, 162.
Indo-China 63°, 70, 171.
Indus river 63°, 65, 71.
Inland climate 128.
International date
line 120°, 122.
Iowa 153°.
Iquique 169°.
Iran plateau 66, 92.
Ireland 82*, 83*, 84*
85*, 162* 163°.
Irkutsk 171°, 172.
Iron 44, 46, 77, 81, 83,
85, 86, 138°*, 139,
144, 145, 146, 148,
150* 151, 152, 153,
160, 163, 172.
Iron gate 77*, 80.
Irrigation in
Altai highland 64.
Asiatic Russia 172.
California 39.
Chile 56*.
Euphrates 66.
Great Basin 36.
India 71.
Iran*66.
Nile valley 90.
Northern Africa 91.
Po valley 79.
Warm belts 109.
Western plains 31, 47,
48, 129.
Italy 75°, 78, 79, 119,
124, 134, 162, 164,
165°, 166, 174.
Itasca lake 153°.
Ivory 92, 93, 94, 104,
116, 172, 174.
Jackson 147°.
Jacksonville 147°, 148.
Jaguar 113*.
Jamaica 159°, 160.
James river 43, 52, 145°.
Japan 68, 72, 73, 106,
109, 114, 119, 140,
144, 156, 171°, 172.
Japan current 40.
Japanese 73, 103*, 172.
Java 72*, 73, 102* 171,
175°.
Jersey City 120, 144,
145°, 146.
Jerusalem 171°, 172.
Jetties 39, 47*.
Jewelry 143, 146, 165.
Jews 102, 1Q5*.
Jordan river 67.
Juneau 157, B°.
Jura mts. 75°,- 76°, 77.
Kabul 171°, 172.
Kadiak 126°.
Kaffirs 94*, 100*.
Kalahari 87, 89°, 94.
Kamchatka 171°.
Kamerun mts. 89°, 93.
Kangaroo 118*.
Kansas 131, 153°, 154.
Kansas City, Kan. 48,
134, 135, 153°, 154.
Kansas City, Mo. 153°.
Karakoram mts. 63°, 65.
Karpathian 75°, 77.
Kashmir 65*, 66, 104*.
Keewatin 159°.
Kenia 89°, 93.
Kentucky 151°, 152.
Kerosene 139.
Key West 147°, 148.
Khaibar pass 63°, 66*.
Khelat 171°, 172.
Khiva 171°, 172.
Kilauea 98, 175°.
Kilimanjaro 89°, 93.
Kimberley 94*, 173°.
Kingston 159°, 160.
Klondike 158, B°.
Knoxville 147°, 148.
Kong mts. 89°, 92.
Kongo river 89, 93*, 95.
Kongo state 93, 173°,
174.
Kongo vs. Amazon 94.
Koran 105.
Korea 171°, 172.
Kremlin 167*.
Kuenlun mts. 63°, 65.
Kuka 93, Q°.
Kyoto 171°, 172.
Labrador 45, 158, 159°.
Labrador current 128.
Lachine rapids 27*.
La Crosse 151°, 152.
Ladrone islands 98, T°.
Lagoon 16* 17,51,79, 97.
Lake plains 13*.
Caspian 69.
Hungary 80.
Kashmir 65*, 66.
Prairies 48.
Red river 48.
Lakes,
Baikal 67, 171°.
Champluin 43, 142,
143°.
Como 75°, 78.
Erie 134, 137, 145°.
Garda 75°, 78.
Geneva 75°, 76, 77.
George 42*, 43, 145°.
Huron 32°, 46.
Killarney 75°, 84.
Ladoga 161°.
Lucerne 76, 77*, 0°.
Maggiore 75°, 98.
Michigan 32°, 137, 152.
Nicaragua 41, 159°.
Ontario 32°, 133, 137.
Superior 32°, 45, 67,
133, 138, 139, 150.
Tanganyika 89°, 93.
Tchad 89°, 91, 92.
Titicaca 55°, 56* 57*.
Victoria 89°.
Wenner 75°, 81.
Lake Superior region 46,
133°, 138°, 141°.
Land and Sea 2.
Landes84, 85*.
Land hemisphere 4°.
Land's End 84*.
Landslide 15, 65, 76.
Land waste 6, 8.
Lansing 151°.
La Paz 169°.
Lapland 75°, 81, 103*.
La Plata, see Plata.
La Plata valley, see Plata
valley.
Laramie 156, 157°.
Laramie plains 30, 32°.
Lassa 171°, 172.
Latitude 22.
Laurentian highland
29°, 42, 45, 46, 81.
Lava plains 15*, 31*.
Columbia plateau 38.
Deccan 72.
Lawrence 142, 143°.
Lead 141, 156.
Leadville 155°.
Leaning tower 80*.
Leather 135, 142, 145,
146, 152, 165.
Leavenworth 153°, 154.
INDEX TO TEXT.
Vll
Lebanon 63°, 65*, 67*.
Leeward islands 159°.
Leipzig 164, 165°.
Lemon 39, 79, 109, 134°.
Lena river 63°, 68.
Lengths of rivers 178.
Leopard 116*.
Lesser Antilles 52, 159°.
Levees 51, 152*.
Lewiston 143°.
Lexington 151°, 152.
Liberia 173°, 174.
Lichens 49, 50* 111.
Lick Observatory 38, 39*.
Liege 165°.
Lighthouses 119* 121.
Lima 53* 169°.
Lime and limestone 141.
Lincoln 153°, 154.
Linen 84, 110, 163, 165.
Lion 116*.
Lisle 165°.
Little Rock 149°.
Liverpool 83, 120, 162*
163°.
Llama 57, 58, 113*.
Llanos 55°, 61, 135.
Lobster 112*, 136*, 137°.
Lochs 82.
Locomotives 139, 143.
Loire 165°, 167.
Lombok 95, T°
London 83*, 120, 144,
162*, 163°.
Long Island 50, 143°.
Sound 143°, 144.
Longitude 22.
Longs peak, 31, 32°.
Lorelei 86*.
Los Angeles 155°, 156.
Lotus 90* 108*.
Louisiana 148, 149°.
Louisville 133, 151°, 152.
Lowell 130, 142, 143°.
Lower California' 33*,
159°.
Low Europe 80, 84, 86,
104.
Lumber 55, 133°*, 134,
143, 145, 147, 148,
150, 151, 152, 153,
155, 158, 162, 167;
see also forests.
Lynchburg 145°, 146.
Lynn 143°.
Lyon 77, 165°.
Lyre bird 118*.*
M
Mackenzie river 29°, 50.
68.
Mackerel 136* 137°.
Macon 147, 147°.
Madagascar 94, 102, 173°,
174.
Madeira river 55°, 59.
Madison 151°.
Madras 72, 170* 171°.
Madrid 161°, 166.
Maelstrom 81, N°.
Magdalena river 55°, 58.
Magellan strait 55°, 56.
Magnetic pole 3.
Mahogany 108.
Mails 122.
Maine 141, 143°, 158.
Makassar 175°.
Malaga 161°, 166.
Malay peninsulal41, 171°.
Malay race 73, 102*°.
Mammoth cave 43, 151°.
Managua 159°.
Manchester, N. H. 142*,
143°.
Manchester, Eng. 163°.
Manchester canal 163°.
Manchuria 171°.
Mandalay 171°.
Manila 175° ; see Sup.
Manitoba 158, 159°.
Manufacturing 130° 131,
133, 134, 135, 136°,
138°, 139, 142, 144,
147, 150, 163, 165.
Maori chief 102*.
Map drawing 178°.
Maps; see climatic, po-
litical, production,
relief.
Marathon 75°, 77*, 80.
Marble 141, 143.
Marseille 165°, 166*. .
Marshall islands 98, 175°.
Marthas Vineyard 137,
143°.
Maryland 123, 145°, 146.
Maskat 171°, 172.
Massachusetts 123, 135,
137, 141, 142, 143°.
Mauna Loa 98, 175°.
Meat 134°, 135°, 136°.
Mediterranean coun-
tries 165°, 166.
Mediterranean sea 118,
161°.
Mekka 171°, 172.
Mekong river 63°, 70.
Melbourne 174*, 175°.
Memphis 51, 147°, 148.
Mercury freezes 128.
Meriden 143°, 144.
Meridian 147°, 148.
Meridian of Greenwich
22, 163°.
Merrimac river 143°.
Mersey river 83, 163°.
Mesa 37*.
Mexicans 41* 104* 149.
Mexico, city, 41, 159°.
Mexico, country, 30, 40,
57, 101, 123, 137,
140, 159°. L°.
Miami valley 49*, 1°.
Michigan 141, 151°, 152.
Micronesia 98, 175°.
Middle Atlantic states
144, 145°.
Middle basin 63°, 64, 92.
Middle park 30, 32°.
Milan 79, 165°, 166.
Military academy 145.
. Millet 70, 71.
Millinery 165.
Milwaukee 47, 120, 151°,
152.
Minneapolis 49, 131, 133,
152* 153°, 154.
Minnehaha falls 27*.
Minnesota 153°, 154.
Mississippi 147°, 148.
Mississippi river 31, 32°,
47,51,119,150,154.
Mississippi vs. Nile 90.
Missouri 141, 153°.
Mitchells peak 32°, 43.
Mobile 146*, 147°, 148.
Mocha 171°, 172.
Modeling 178°.
Mohammedans 102, 105,
166, 172.
Mohave desert 32°, 36,
154* 155°.
Mohawk valley 43*, 123,
134, 144, 145°.
Monaco 78*, 0°.
Monarchy 105.
Mongolia 171°.
Mongolian race 102°,
103.
Monkey 113* 117*.
Monrovia 173°, 174.
Monsoons 24°, 70.
Montana 140, 141, 155,
156 157°
Mont Blanc 75°, 76*, 77.
Montenegro 165°.
Montevideo 61* 168,
169°.
Montgomery 147°, 148.
Montpelier 143°.
Montreal 46, 158*, 159°.
Moon and tides 26*.
Moors 77, 78* 91, 105*.
Moose 45, 114*.
Moraine 10, 49, 86.
Morocco 173°, 174.
Moscow 86* 161°, 167*.
Mosque 106*.
Mosses 60*.
Moultrie, fort 146*.
Mountains 14*.
Fold 44*.
Heights 179.
Mt. Ararat 63°, 67.
Mt. Blanc, 75°, 76* 77.
Mt. Cenis tunnel 75°, 79.
Mt. Elburz 75°, 86.
Mt. Etna 75°, 79.
Mt. Everest 63°, 65*.
Mt. Hamilton 38°, K°.
Mt. Hekla 75°, 82.
Mt. Hood 30*, 32°, 33.
Mt. Kenia89°, 93.
Mt. Kilima-Njaro 89°, 93.
Mt. Logan 40, 93, 126°.
Mt. Mansfield 42*, 143°.
Mt. Mitchell 32°, 42*, 43.
Mt. Rainier 32°.
Mt. San Francisco 32°.
Mt. Shasta 32°, 33*.
Mt. St. Elias 40*, 126°.
Mt. Washington 42, 143°.
Mt. Whitney 32°, 32.
Mulberry 73, 77, 79, 109.
Mules 134.
Munich 164, 165°.
Murray river 95, 97°.
Musk deer 65.
Muskegon 151°, 152.
Music boxes 166.
N
Nanling mts. 63°, 69.
Nantucket 143°.
Naples 79, 165°, 166.
Narragansett bay 143°.
Nashville 147°, 148.
Nassau 159°, 160.
Natchez 147°, 148.
Natural bridge 42*, 43.
Natural Gas 139, 140,
144, 150.
Naval academy 146.
Navy yards 142, 143,145,
146, 148, 156.
Nebraska 153°, 154.
Negritos 73.
Negro race 41, 90, 92,
93, 94, 99*, 100,
102°, 124, 160, 180.
Negro river 59, 89°.
Nelson river 29°, 50.
Netherlands ; see Hol-
land.
Nevada 140, 155°, 155.
New Albany 151°.
Newark 145°, 146.
New Brunswick 158, 159°.
New England 42, 119,
130, 133, 135, 136,
142, 143°.
New England highland
32°, 42, 141.
Newfoundland 41, 158,
159°.
Banks 136, 159°.
New Guatemala 159°.
New Guinea ; see Papua.
New Hampshire 123,
143, 143°.
New Haven 143°, 144.
New Jersey 123, 137,
145°, 146.
New Mexico 126, 155°.
New Orleans 51, 119, 130,
147, 148, 149°.
Newport, R. I., 143°, 144.
Newport, Ky. 151°, 152.
New South Wales 175°.
New York bay 52.
New York city 43*, 83,
120, 131, 132, 133,
135, 144, 145°, 146,
147, 148, 155, 165.
New York, port 120.
New York state 123, 133,
135, 136, 139, 141,
144, 145°.
New Zealand 97, 118,
136, 175°.
Niagara falls 46*, 145°.
Nicaragua 41, 159°.
Nicaragua canal 41.
Niger river 89°, 92, 93.
Nile river 89°, 90,
116, 174.
Nile vs. Mississippi 90.
Niter 169.
Norfolk 130, 145°, 146.
Norsemen 81.
North America 27, 28°,
125°, 158, 159°.
Climate 53, 127°-129°.
Countries 123, 125°,
158, 159°.
Relief maps 28°, 32°,
34-35°.
Surface 27-52.
North cape 81*, 161°.
North Carolina 123,147°.
North Dakota 153°, 154.
Northern Africa 91.
Northern lights 20.
Northern plain 29°,
49 50
North park 30, 32°.
North sea 85, 161°.
North star 3, 18.
Northwestern States
156, 157°.
Northwest Territory 158,
159°.
Norway 81*, 161°, 167.
Nova Scotia 158, 159°.
Nubia 173°.
Oahu 98, 175°.
Oakland 155°, 156.
Oasis 91, 92*.
Oats 110, 132°.
Ob river 63°, 68.
Ocean currents 25, 25°.
Ocean routes 120°, 121.
Oceans 6°.
Oder river 85, 165°, 167.
Odessa 86, 161°, 167.
Ogden 155, 155°.
Ohio 138, 139, 140, 141,
145, 150, 151°.
Ohio river 44, 50, 133,
134, 137, 150, 151°.
Oil ; see petroleum.
Oil-cake 130, 149.
Okhotsk sea 63°, 64.
Oklahoma 101,126,149°.
Old Appalachian range
41, 42, 43.
Olive 67, 79, 109, 162.
Omaha 153°, 154.
Oman 171°, 172.
Ontario 158, 159°.
Opium poppy 108*, 172.
Oporto 166, N°.
Orange river 89°, 94.
Oranges 38*, 39, 52, 78,
79, 109, 134°.
Orang-outan 117*.
Orbits 18, 19*, 26*.
Orchard fruits 110, 134°.
Oregon 156, 157°.
Orinoco river 55°, 61,
113, 170.
Orizaba 40.
Orkney islands 163°.
Ornithorhynchus 118*.
Osaka 172, S°.
Oshkosh 151°, 152.
Ostrich 93, 94, 116*
Ottawa 158, 159°.
Otters 50, 115.
Ottoman Empire 166,
173, 174.
Oxford 163°.
Oyster 118, 136*, 137°.
Ozark highland, 32°, 44.
Pacific fisheries 137°.
Pacific islands 97, 102,
118, 175°, V°.
Pacific ocean 6°, V°.
Pagans 102, 105.
Pagoda 106*.
Palms 60*, 108.
Palm oil 93, 94, 174.
Pamir plateaus 63°, 66.
Pampas 55°, 60, 113.
Panama 53, 55*°, 58,
124, 159°, 160.
Paper 143, 172.
Papua, see New Guinea.
Para 60, 144, 168, 169°.
Paraguay 168, 169°.
Paraguay river 55°, 61.
Paraffin 139.
Parallels 22°.
Parana river 55°, 60.
Paris 164* 165°, 167.
Parkersburg 145°, 146.
Parliament 160*, 162.
Parrot 113*, 118*.
Parsees 104*.
Parthenon 80.
Passes of Alps 79*.
Patagonia 57, 60.
Paterson 145°, 146.
Pawtucket 143°, 144.
Peaches 52, 134°.
Pearls 118, 172.
Peat 84.
Peccary 113*, 114*.
Pecos 32°, 48*.
Peking 171°, 172.
Pennsylvania 123, 135,
136, 138, 139, 140,
145°, 146.
Penobscot river 133, 143°.
Pensacola 147°, 148.
Pepper 73*.
People in U. S. 123, 124°.
Peoria 151°, 152.
Pernambuco 58*, 168,
169°.
Persia 66, 171°, 172.
Persian gulf 63°, 66.
Peru 57, 101, 113, 140,
169°.
Peruvian bark 56* 168.
Petersburg 145°, 146.
Petroleum 44, 86, 115,
139°*, 140, 144*,
146, 150, 164, 172.
Philadelphia 120, 123,
124, 135, 136, 138,
139, 144, 145°, 146.
Phosphate 147.
Philippine islands 73,
171 ; see also Sup.
Piedmont belt 32°, 41,
42, 43, 133.
Pierre 153°, 154.
Pikes peak 31, 32°.
Pindus mts. 80.
Pisa 80, O0.
Pittsburg 44, 138, 139,
145°, 146, 151.
Plain of China 63°, 69.
Plain of Hungary 80.
Plant belts 107-111.
Plata river 168, 169°.
Plata valley 55°, 58, 60,
113, 136.
Plateaus,
Abyssinia 89°.
Bolivia 55°, 56, 57.
Mexico 29°, 40.
Tibet 63°, 65.
Pnum Penh 171, 171°.
Po river 75°, 77, 78, 79.
Polar currents 25°, 45.
Pole, magnetic 3, 125°.
Political maps,
Africa 173, Q°.
Alaska 126, B°.
Arctic regions X°.
Asia 171, R°.
Australia 175, T°.
British Isles 163, P°.
Canada 159, L°.
Central Africa X°.
Central America 159.
Central Europe 165,
0°.
Central States 151, 1°,
153, H°.
Europe 161, N°.
Greece, Ancient U°.
Historical X°.
Italy, Ancient IP.
Mexico 159, L°.
Middle States 145, E°.
New England 143, D°.
No. America 125, A°.
Northwestern States
157, K°.
Palestine, Ancient U°.
So. America 169, M°.
Southeast Asia S°.
Southern States 147, F°,
149, G°.
Southwestern States
155, J°.
United States 126, B°.
West Indies 159.
World, commerce V°.
Pompeii 79*, U°.
Popocatepetl 29, 40, 41*,
159°.
Population 99-104.
Center 124°.
Cities 124°, 177, 181.
Countries 111.
States 180.
United States 124°.
World 99, 102, 178.
Porcelain 103, 164.
Pork 134°, 135, 142.
Port au Prince 159°, 160.
Portland, Me. 143, 143°.
Portland, Ore. 39, 156*,
157°.
Porto Rico 159°, 160;
see also Sup.
Port Said 87, 90*, 173°.
Portsmouth 143°.
Portugal 77, 104, 161°,
166, 171, 174.
Potomac river 43, 145°.
Potosi 169°.
Pottery 144*, 146, 168*.
Prairies 32°, 48, 49*,
114, 119, 123, 131,
132, 133, 135, 136.
Pribilof islands 39*, 40,
116, 126°, 157,3°.
Primary highland 4, 5.
Prince Edward I. 158,
159°.
Production maps 130-
141.
Cattle 135.
Coal 137.
Copper 141.
Corn 131.
Cotton 130.
Dairying 135.
Fisheries 136.
Forests 133.
Fruits 134°.
Gold 140.
Hogs 134.
Iron 138.
Oats 132.
Petroleum 139.
Sheep 135.
Silver 140.
Tobacco 132.
Wheat 131.
Pronouncing Vocabu-
lary 182.
Providence 143°.
Pueblo 101*, 155°.
Puget sound 39, 157°.
Puma 113, 114*.
Puno 56*, 57, 169°.
Pyramid 89*, 90, 173°.
Pyrenees mts. 77, 161°.
Quagga 116*, 117.
Quebec 158*, 159°.
Queensland 175°.
Quicksilver 32, 38.
Quincy, 111. 151°, 152.
Quinine 57, see Peruvian
bark.
Quito 55°, 57, 169, 169°.
Races of Men 99-104,
102°.
Racine 151°, 152.
Railroads 119, 121°.
Time Belts 122°.
Rails 138, 139, 146, 163.
vm
INDEX TO TEXT.
R a i i ill 23°, 24°,
129°.
Raised maps; see relief .
Kai<in> 80, 1:54.
Raleigh 147°.
Raogo . 171°.
Reading 145°, 146.
Red ka< i. 101, 102°.
Red river 32°, 148, 149°.
river prairies 48, 60,
154, 168.
Red sea 07, 118, 171°,
172.
Redwood forests 38.
Reindeer 60, 68, 81, 115*.
Reindeer moss 50*, Ob.
Relibi m
Afrit < 88.
Asia 62.
Australia 96.
/•. trope 71.
North America 29.
/ highland 6.
• !.!, A tnerica 64.
/',<;.',-/ States 32, 34.
FPorW ridge 6.
Races 102.
.-I uliiiiiJ. realms 111.
Religions 105.
Republics 106.
Reservations 101, 179.
Revolution of earth 18.
Rhine river 75°, 70, 85,
86*, 165°, 167.
Rhinoceros 110". 117'.
Rhode Island 12:;, 143 ,
Rhone river 75"-', 70, 77,
105% 107.
Rice 51, 52*, 71. 7:1. 90,
147. 14*. 171. 17-:.
Richmond 62, 133, 145°,
146.
Riga 101°, 107.
Rio de Janeiro 58, 168*,
109°.
Rio Grande 30, 31, 82°,
47*, 50, 1R3, 155.
Rio Negro 55°, 01.
liivi us 10, 11, 178.
Rochi ster 49. 145°.
Ro. kv .mts. 30,31, 32°,
39, 70, 124, 140.
Rom" 79. 80, 105° 100*.
Rosin 52. 147.
Rotation of earth 3.
Rotterdam 104*, 165°,
166.
Roumania 165°.
Roumelia 165°.
of Trade 119,
120°. 121°, V-W°.
Rubber 60. 142,144,160,
102. 168, 109, 174.
Russia 64, -5-. 86, 100,
119. 124, 131, 132,
R53, 136, 101°, 167.
Russian Empire 107,
171°, 172.
Russian oil 130, see Baku.
Russians 104*. 157.
Rutland, 143. 143°.
Rye 110. 132.
Sable 114*, 115.
155 . 156.
Sagebrush 31*, 47, 110*.
Saginaw 151°, 152.
Saginaw bay 161°, 152.
Sahara desbbi '•'-. 87,
91*. 92*, 93, 101,
114, 173°, 1/4.
Saigon 171. 17 P.
St Albans 143. 143°.
St. Bernard pass 79*.
St. Gotthard 75°, 70*, 79.
St. Helena 85, 17:3°.
St. John 158, 159'.
St. Johns 158, 159°.
St. Joseph 153°, 153.
St. Lawrence basin 32°,
43, 45.
St. Lawrence river 45,
46, 120, 123, 143,
158, 159 .
St. Louis 131, 132, 133,
146, 148, 152*, 153°.
St. Mark's 107*.
St. Marys strait 46*,
151°.
Si. Paul 163°, 154.
St. Peter's 100.
St. Petersburg 80, 161°,
167.
Salem, Ore. 157, 157°.
Salmon 39, 45. 07, 136*
137°, 157.
Salt 80, 145, 140. 152.
Salt desert 60, R°.
Salt Lake City 30, 154*,
155°.
Salvador 159°.
Sam-.a 97*, 98*, 175°.
San Antonio 149°.
Sand bars 16*, 17.
Sandstone 111.
Sandwich ids., see Ha-
waiian ids. 175.
Sangay 58.
San Francisco 38, 39*,
98, 120, 124, 131,
141, 155°, 156, 100.
San Francisco river 55°,
58.
San Jose 159°.
San Juan 159°, 160.
San Luis park 30, 32°.
San Marino 75°, 79, 80*,
100.
San Salvador 159°.
Santiago 108*, 169°.
Santiago, see Sup.
Santa F6 155°.
Santo Domingo 160.
Santos 168, M°.
Saone river 75°, 77.
Sardinia 105°.
Saskatchewan 159°.
Savannah 52, 130, 147°.
SCA N" III N A VI A S !" E N I K -
BULA 75°, 81.
Scotland 82, 83*, 104*
163, 103°.
S ranton 145°, 146.
I. l-BOTTOM 2, 13.
fcjea of Azof 161°.
Sea of Galilee 67 ; see
Lake Gennesaret U°.
Sea islands 130.
Seal 39*, 40, 67, 08, 81,
112*, 114*.
Seaports 120.
Si, a sons 18, 19, 20, 21°.
Seattle 157, 157'.
Seine river 20*, 105°.
Selvas 53, 65°, 59,
113.
Semites 102% 104, 105*.
Senate 123*. 125.
l] 171% 172.
Servia 165°.
Shanghai 70, 171°, 172.
Shannon river 84* 163°,
Sheep 00. 01. 04. 08,82,
80, 00. 91. 97. 113,
114* 118*, 135,
136% 145, 14M, 154,
155. 150, 158. 166,
108, 1G9, 174, 175.
Sheffield 163°.
Shetland islands 163°.
Shipbuilding 142* 144*,
145, 140, 103, 150.
Shobb FORMS 16*, 17.
Shoshone falls 38*, K°.
Shreveport 148. 149°.
Siberia 67. 68, 103, 140,
107, 171°, 172.
Siberian railroad 172, R°.
Sicilv 79. 105°.
Sierra Leone 173°, 174.
Sierra Madre 29°, 169.
Sierra Nevada 32°,
124, 130, 155.
Silk 68* 70, 73, 76, 77,
. 79, 103, 109, 140,
156, 159, 102-0, 172.
Silver 31, 36, 57, 124,
135, 140°, 141, 155,.
156, 169.
Simoon 91.
Singapore 72*, 141, 171°.
Sioux City 153°, 153.
Sioux Falls 153°, 154.
Sisal hemp 159.
Sitka 157, 159°.
Slate 141*.
Slaves 100, 101, 124.
Smelting 138, 155, 156.
Smyrna 171°, 172.
Snake river 31, 32°, 38.
Snow and Ice 9, 22*.
Snowdine 50, 58.
Son. and Plants 107.
"Soo " canal 46*.
South Africa 140, 173°.
South African Rep, 173°.
Sooth America 53, 101,
113, 108, 169°.
Climate 53.
Countries 168, 109°.
Belief map 54°.
Surface 53.
South Australia 175°.
South Bend 151°.
South Carolina 123, 130,
147, 147°.
South Dakota 140, 153°,
154.
South park 30, 32°.
South Sea Islanders 98.
SOUTHERN PLAIN 50, 83, '
90, 100, 119, 124.
Soothers statks 146,
147°, 148, 149°.
Southwestern states
154, 155°.
Southwest Asia 66, 67,
171°.
Spain 77, 78, 104, 106,
123, 141, 100, 101°,
162, 166, 171, 174.
Spaniards 57, 73, 78*,
123, 134, 160.
Sphinx 89*, 90.
Spices 73*, 162, 165.
Spitzbergen 8*, W°.
Spokane 157°.
Sponges 2*, 118, 137°,
148, 160*.
Springfield, 111. 151°,
152.
Springfield, Mass. 143°.
Springfield, Mo. 153°.
Springfield, Ohio 151°.
Staff a 84*, 163°.
Staked plain 32°, 48*.
Standard time 122°.
Stanford University 154*,
155°.
Stanovoi mts. 63°, 68.
Steamships 83, 119*, 138.
Steel, see iron.
Steppes 03°, 68*, 86, 89,
114, 119, 130.
Stockholm 81.101°, 167.
Storms 10*, 23°.
Strait of Dover 103°.
Strait of Gibraltar 75°,
78.
Strait of Magellan 55°,
50.
Straits Settlements S°.
Sucre 169. 169°.
Si dan 92, 93, 99*, 100*
104, 173°, 174.
Suez canal 87, 90* 121,
140, 171, 173°. 174.
Sugar 51*, 59, 73. 80, 80,
90, 93. 9-*. 109, 119,
144. 148, 150. 159,
100, 162, 104. 105,
166, 108-170, 172.
Sugar beets 80, 80, 104,
105. 100.
Suliman mts. 63°, 66.
Sumatra 73, 99*, 102,
141, 165, 171, 175°.
Sun 2, 18.
Supreme Court 125.
Susquehanna river 43,
145°.
Sweden 81, 101°, 167.
Sweet potato 109.
Swiss plateau 75°, 76.
Switzerland 106, 119,
105°, 166.
Sydney 174*, 175°.
Syracuse 49, 145°.
Table mountain 94.
Tabriz 171°, 172.
Tacoma 157°.
Tahlequah 149.
Tallahassee 147°.
Tanning 135, 145, 146.
Tapioca 59.
Tapir 113* 117*.
Tashkendl71°, 172.
Tasmania 97°, 175°.
Tea 1* 70, 73, 109, 114,
156, 162, 105, 172.
Teak 72, 171.
Teheran 171°, 172.
Tehuantepec 158°.
Telegraph 122.
Telephone 122.
Temperature 127°.
Tennessee river 43, 126°.
Tennessee 141, 147°. 148.
Terni falls 70*, 79.
Territories 120.
Texas 119, 130, 134, 135,
130, 148, 149°.
Texas prairies 32°, 49,
148*, 149, 154.
Thames river 83, 163°.
Thermometers 128.
Thian Shan mts. 63°, 66.
Thirteen colonies 123.
Thousand Isles 145°,lo8*.
Thunderstorms 129.
Tiber 79, 165°.
Tibet 65, 00, 171°, 172.
Tibetan 04*.
Tidal marsh 10*, 18.
Tides 26*.
Tiflis 171°, 172.
Tiger 70, 112*, 117.
Tigris river 00, 171°.
Timbuktu 93, 173°.
Time Belts 122.
Tin 84, 141, 144, 175.
Titicaca, lake 50*, 57*.
Tobacco 43, 52, 73, 80,
109* 124, 132°,133,
144, 140, 147, 148,
150, 152, 153, 159,
100, 164-166, 168. .
Tokyo 171°, 172.
Toledo 151°.
Tonga 98*, 99*; see
Friendly ids. 175°.
Topeka 153°, 154.
Toronto 158, 159°
Torrid zone 19, 20°.
Toucan 113*.
Tower of London 83*.
TBADK HIGHWAYS 119.
Trading stations 94.
Trade winds 23°, 24°.
Trans - Caucasia 171°,
172.
Transvaal, or So. African
Rep. 173°, 174.
Tree ferns 80, 08*, 95*.
Trenton 144, 145°, 146.
Tribal government 105.
Trieste 105°, 167.
Trinidad 159°.
Tripoli 100. 173°, 174.
Tropics 19, 20°.
Tsetse fly 110*, 117.
Tundras 49, 63°, 68, 86,
111*.
Tunis 173°, 174.
Tunnels 76.
Turkey 80, 106, 165°,
166, 172.
Turkestan 171°, 172.
Turpentine 52, 140*, 147.
Turtles 97, 118.
Twilight 3.
Two-ocean pond 31.
U
United States,
Area 123.
Boundary 123.
Chinese 124.
Cities 142-157, 181.
Climate 127°-129°.
Commerce 119, 120,
121, 130-141, 160,
163-165, 172, 174.
Government 124.
Indians 101, 179.
Negroes 100, 180.
Number 125.
People 104, 123, 124.
Population 180, 181.
Products 130°-141°.
Rainfall 129°.
Relief maps 32°, 34°.
States 142 to 157,
180.
Surface 30 to 52.
Temperature 128°.
Winds 23°, 24°, 129°.
Ural mts. 08, 86, 161°.
Ural river 161°.
Uruguay 108°, 169.
Utah 155°.
Valdai hills 75°, 80.
Valencia, Sp. 161°, 166.
Valencia, Ven. 169°, 170.
Valparaiso 50, 169°.
Vancouver island 159°.
Vapor 7.
Vatican 80, 166.-
Vegetables 52, 147, 155.
Venezuela 169°, 170.
Venice 79* 105°, 166*.
Vera Cruz 40, 159°,
160.
Vermont 141, 143°.
Vesuvius 15*, 79*.
Vicksburg 51, 147°, 148.
Victoria, Aus. 175.
Victoria, B. C. 158*,
159°.
Victoria falls 94.
Victoria Nyanza 89°.
Vienna 81, 105°, 167.
Vineyards 39* 78, 79,
86, 165.
Virginia 123, 145°, 146.
Virginia, city 155°, 156.
Vistula river 85, 165°.
Viti-Levu 98, T°.
Vladivostok 171°, 172.
Vocabulary 182.
Volcanic islands 97.
Volcanoes 15*, 56, 57,
58, 72, 79, 82, 98.
Volga river 85*, 86.
W
Wales 82, 83, 163°.
Wallace's line 95.
Walrus 114* 116.
Wasatch mts. 31, 32°.
Washington, city 126°.
Washington, state 157°.
Waste of land 6.
Watches 76, 144, 1(36.
Water and plants 107.
Waterbury 143°, 144.
Water hemisphere 4°.
Waterloo 85*, 105°.
Water parting 11.
WATER BOOTES 119.
Waterspout 8*, 9.
Waves 3*, 9, 17.
Weather Bureau 129.
Weathering 6, 7*.
Welland canal 46.
Wellington 175°.
Westerly winds 23°-25.
Western Australia 175°.
Western Ghats 63°, 72.
Western plains 31, 32°,
47, 48, 124, 133,
135, 154.
West Indies 52, 113, 133,
134, 144, 159°, 160 ;
see also Sup.
West Point 43*, 145°.
West Virginia 139, 145°,
146.
Whaleback 120*, 150*.
Whalebone 115.
Wheat 38, 49, 66, 66, 67,
71, 78, 80, 83, 90,
94, 110, 131°, 132,
140, 144, 149, 153,
154, 156, 157, 162,
167-109, 174, 175.
Wheeling 145°, 146.
Whirlwinds 9.
White mts. 32°, 42*, 42.
White Nile 89.
White race 102°, 104.
White sea 161°, 107.
Wichita 153°, 154.
Willamette valley 32°,
39, 156, 157.
Wilmington, Del. 145°,
146.
Wilmington, N. C. 147.
Winds 8, 22, 23°, 24°.
Wind River mts. 81, 32°.
Windward islands 159°.
Wine 78, 134, 162, 104,
165, 166.
Winnipeg 158, 159°.
Winona 153°, 154.
Winston 147°.
Wisconsin 151°, 132.
Wool 44, 82, 94, 135,
136°, 142, 149, 150,
157, 158, 102, 104,
107, 108, 174, 175.
Woolen cloth 135, 136°,
142, 163, 105.
Woolly elephants 68.
Woonsocket 143°, 144.
Worcester 142, 143°.
World ridge 4, 5°.
Wyoming 156, 157°.
Yablonoi mts. 03°, 64.
Yak 64* 65, 114, 115*.
Yale University 144.
Yam 93.
Yangtze river 63°, 69.
Yarkand 171°, 172.
Yazoo river 32°, 51.
Yellow pine 147, 148.
Yellow race 102°, 103.
Yellow river 69 ; see
Hoangho 171°.
Yellowstone park 30*, 31,
32°, 114, 156.
Yenisei river 63°, 68.
Yokohama 73, 170°, 171°,
172.
Yosemite valley 32°, 33*.
Youngstown 151°.
Yucatan 159°.
Yucca 38*, 154*.
Yukon biver region 39.
Zambezi river 89°, 94.
Zebra 116* 117.
Zebu 71* 117*.
Zinc 141.
Zones 19, 20°.
Zuni 101* 154*.
Zurich 165°, 166, 167*.
1PPOP0T7
Tins book describes the earth as our home.
We ought to know a great deal about the earth, because
we live on it and use many of its products.
The earth supplies us with food, clothing and all other
useful things. Do you not wish to know where wheat
and corn grow ? — where grassy plains are covered with
cattle, horses and sheep ? — where fields are white with
cotton or blue with flax ? — where trees are cut down,
floated to the mills and sawed into lumber ? — where coal,
iron ore and granite are taken out of the earth ?
All these products, and many more, are found in
various parts of the United States, our own country, but
some of the things which we use are raised by people in
other lands. From this book we are to learn what kind
of country those people live in, how they dress, what
work they do, what they buy of us and what they sell to us.
We shall also learn why the same kinds of products are not found in all parts of the
earth. Our study will lead us to the cold land of the Lapps, where the sun shines low in
the sky for several weeks each summer without setting. In that region, the warm sea-
son is too short to ripen much grain, but the flesh, milk and skins of reindeer supply food
and clothing.
In other cold parts of the earth, there are vast fields of ice and snow, upon which
Eskimos hunt the seal or the polar bear. How different is their life from ours ! They
see no grain ripening in fields, no cattle grazing in pastures, no fruit hanging on trees.
This book describes wide regions of shifting sand, where no rain falls and no plants
grow, except near a few springs. There the people travel mostly on the backs of camels.
Do you know how tea leaves are dried and how silk is woven into fine cloth ? You will learn how, when you read
about the yellow people in Japan and China.
There are warm lands where coffee berries and many kinds of spices grow. Do you not wish to learn about the
people who send us coffee, cloves and nutmegs ? Every day as we study this book and look at its pictures, we
shall learn something about the earth, — its forms of land and water, its plants, its animals or its people.
Geography treats of the earth as the home of man.
2
FORM AXD SIZE OF THE EARTH.
America.
The Old World.
1. Form and Size of the Earth.1 earth is about 25,000 miles. Many millions of people live
The earth is a great ball of land and water, surrounded on the 6arth' and Jet a larSe Part of the land is not use(L
by a shell of air. If a train of cars were to travel day and night at the rate of
We see so small a part of the earth at a time that it thirty miles an hour, how long would it take to go 25,000 miles ?
2. The Land and
the Sea.
The greater part of
the earth is a mass of
rock. On the land most
of the rock is covered
with soil. Fine mud, or
ooze, covers the rock un-
der the sea.
Many parts of the
land do not rise very
high above the sea, but
other parts are lofty and
rugged. Some moun-
tains rise higher than
most of the clouds which
we see, — even four or five miles into the air.
Most parts of the sea near the land are shallow.
Far from the shores the sea is in many places two
miles deep, and in some places the bottom is four or five
miles below the surface.
The land and the surface of the sea have light by day
and darkness by night.
They have also warm and
cold seasons. No sunshine
reaches the deep parts of
the sea. The deep water
is therefore cold and dark.
The land has many val-
leys and mountains, but a
large part of the sea-bottom
is a great smooth plain.
The wind blows sand
and dust over the land and also makes waves on the
surface of the sea, but the deep sea is
very still. Part of the rain falling on
the land feeds brooks and rivers which
carry or wash loose soil down the slopes
and help to wear valleys in the land.
Thus the form of the land is slowly
changed.
Nearly all the soil which is washed
into the sea settles in the shallow water
near the shores. The smooth bottom of
the deep sea hardly changes at all, for
there are no streams to wear valleys in
sponge -j. it, and very little soil from the land
reaches these quiet waters.
Coral — J.
does not look like a ball, but there are many proofs that
the earth is round. Here are a few of them :
1. Many persons have gone around the earth.
2. As ships sail out to sea, their hulls are lost to sight
while their sails are clearly seen.
8. When travelers go day after day towards the north
or the south, new stars rise over the
horizon before them, while the stars
behind sink beneath the horizon.
4 . So] 1 1 et imes the earth moves between
the sun and the moon and casts a shadow
on the moon. The edge of this shadow
always looks like part of a circle.
The sun and the moon arc round, like the
earth. The moon is smaller than the earth, but the sun is many-
times larger.
The shadow of the earth on the moon is called an eclipse of the
moon. There may also be an eclipse of the sun, when the moon is
between the earth and the sun.
The great body of salt water which surrounds the land
is called the sea. Various
parts of the sea are known
as oceans. The oceans lie
in broad hollows on the
earth.
The two maps above show
the land and the water on
both sides of the earth.
Sea-Urcbln — |.
The earth is so large
that the distance from side to side, through the center,
is nearly 8000 miles. The greatest distance around the
1 For pronunciation of difficult words, see the Vocabulary in the Supplement.
Deep-Sea Spirula — J.
DIRECTIONS ON THE EARTH.
A Fossil Shell.
Animals and plants, or parts of them, are often buried in the
layers of sand and mud which are formed in the sea. During long
ages, many layers form and gradually harden to rock. The remains
of animals or of plants bedded in the rock are called fossils.
Plants and animals of many kinds live on the land.
Seaweeds, fish and other kinds of creatures abound in
the shallow waters near the seashores, but the cold and
dark depths of the sea have only a few kinds of plants
and not nearly so many kinds of
animals as live either in the shore
waters or on the land.
The picture on page 136 shows a
few of the many kinds of fish which
are found along the shores of our
country. Have you ever seen any fish
like those ?
Some of the small pictures on
this page and that opposite show a
deep-sea fish and a few other forms of deep-sea life.
We shall study the land more than the sea, because we
live on the land and get from it most of the things we use.
3. Directions.
In our country all shadows cast by the sun at midday
point due north. When you stand with your back to the
midday sun, as seen from our land, you face the north.
Your back is then towards the south.
Have you ever seen the north star ? Do you know how to find
it by means of the two stars called pointers, in the "Dipper"?
North is the direction along the earth's surface towards the
north star. South is the opposite direction.
Which is the north side of your schoolroom ? Which is the
south side ? Name some objects
north of your schoolhouse. Name
some objects south of it.
When you face the north,
east is on the right side, and
west is on the left.
When you face the south, which
direction is on the right ? Which
is then on the left ?
Only twice each year1 the sun
rises due east of us and sets due
west, but it always rises in the
eastern part of the sky and sets in
the western part.
Name some objects east of your |j
schoolhouse. What street near
by runs about east and west ?
Point midway between north
and east. This direction is called
northeast and may be written N. E.
Where will you look for southeast?
S.W. ? For N.W. ?
Here is the picture of a mariner's compass. Under its glass cover
is a round card, naming the points of the compass, — N., S., E., W.,
N.E., S.E., etc. On the under
side of the card is a steel mag-
net in the form of a needle or
bar that swings on a pivot.
The needle generally points
almost north and south.1
By means of the compass,
the sun or the stars, sailors can
at all times tell the direction in
which they are moving. With-
Mariner's Compass. . . . , , n.
out this simple magnet-needle,
the task of steering vessels from port to port would be very difficult.
4. Directions on the Earth.
The earth is always turning round like a ball spinning
as it flies through the air, but the earth turns only once
in twenty-four hours, — a day and night.
The sun can light and warm only a little more than
one half2 of the earth
at a time. As the earth
turns, or rotates, some
parts of it are turning
into the sunlight while
other parts are turning
away from it. One side of the earth has day while the
other side has night.
As the earth rotates, its surface moves from west to
east. The sun seems therefore to " rise " in the east and
" set " in the west.
1 The needle points to the magnetic pole of the earth. Find this pole on
the map of North America, page 125.
Deep-Sea Fish-
Where will you look for
1 About March 21 and September 22.
Waves on the Seashore.
2 If there were no air the sun would light very little more than half the
earth at a time. There would then be no twilight, and the sun would not
be visible after it had actually sunk beneath the horizon line.
THE WORLD RIDGE OR PRIMARY HIGHLAND.
Bright daylight would be tiresome, if it lasted all the time, with could see the sun overhead, or nearly so, at noon every day. The
no dark hours for rest and sleep. The nighttime would be cold and
dismal, if there were no sunshine to heat and light the earth.
Far away in the north, there is a point on the earth,
known as the north pole.
It is under the north
star, which is often
called the pole star.
Opposite the north pole,
on the other side of the
earth, there is a point
called the south pole.
The word pole means
pivot, or point on which
a thing turns. The earth
does not rest on any-
thing, but turns in space
as if held by a line run-
regions near the equator have no winter. The hot season lasts all
the year. Snow and ice are not found there, except on the tops of
high mountains.
By climbing any very high mountain near the equator, a person
may find the same changes
in climate as in going from
the equator to either polar
region.
The lands in the hot
belt teem with life. Dense
forests cover many parts
of the surface. Birds, in-
sects and large animals also
abound. In later lessons
we shall read about some
of these animals.
We shall see maps
of the earth in many
positions, but we shall
ning from pole to pole. We can think of such a line, and always be able to tell the directions on them, if we
Map A.
Map B.
These points are in
we will call it the axis of the earth.
]STo person lias yet reached either pole,
regions of ice and snow.
In our land every midday shadow points towards the
north pole, and so all north lines
that we may imagine on the earth
meet at that point. Going in the
opposite direction, all south lines
meet at the south pole.
East-and-west lines go round the
earth in circles. . The largest of
these circles is midway between
the poles and is called the equator,
because it divides the surface of the
earth into two equal parts. All
east-and-west lines run parallel with
the equator. When we face the
north pole, east is along the lines
to the rigrht, and west to the left.
Map D.
Key to the World Ridge Map, page 5.
remember that north and south are towards the poles,
while east and west are parallel with the equator.
How many arrows on map A point north ? How many point
south ? Which arrows point north on map B ? On map C ?
Which arrows are flying south on map B ? On map C ?
How many arrows on map A point east ? Which fly east
on map B ? On map C ?
Which arrow -points west on map A ?
On map B? On map C?
^v\y^\ iffr^ ^ maP °^ ^a-lf a globe, or sphere, is
^MM%mA called a hemisphere. Hemi means half.
One of the little hemispheres on this page
shows the side of the earth having the most water.
The other shows the side having the most land.
How many lines on the Land Hemisphere are drawn
north-and-south ?
Which pole is not shown on map D ? How many
north-and-south lines are shown on this map ?
Knowing how to tell the directions on the earth,
we may now study the positions of the great bodies
of land and water.
Of course there are no real circles to be seen on the earth, but
we may imagine such lines and name or number them. We shall
find that these lines are very useful in helping to locate places on
the globe. The equator is far south of us. If we were near it we
Water Hemisphere.
Land Hemisphere.
5. The World Ridge or Primary Highland.
Most of the lands on the earth are in large bodies,
instead of being scat-
tered in small islands.
The land is not evenly
distributed over the
earth. Most of it is
north of the equator
and therefore much
nearer the north pole
than the south pole.
About one fourth of
the earth's surface is
land, — the rest is
water. Only a small Map c.
CONTINENTS OR GRAND DIVISIONS.
on the outer side of this highland, descend
to narrow lowlands along the shores.
Mark on the map the place where
you live. On which side of the
equator are the ends of
the primary highland ? In
how many places does the
equator cross the highland?
Which part of the pri-
// mary highland is nearest
/ the north pole ? Nearest
the south pole ?
Map showing the "World Ridge.
part of the surface south of the equator is land. The sea
is not wholly cut into separate oceans by the lands, but
it spreads in one large body around them.
Through the great bodies of land, we can trace a long
chain of highlands, somewhat in the shape of a horseshoe.
We will call this
chain of highlands
the world ridge, or
the primary highland
of the world. The
greater part of the
world ridge consists
of long and wide
plateaus, broken by
mountains and val-
leys. In many places
it is hundreds of
miles in width. 'Some
parts of the world
ridge are not very
high.
On both sides of
the primary high-
Continents or Grand Divisions.
Each of the great highlands in the
world ridge forms the backbone of a large
body of land. These lands are North
America, South America, Eurasia and Africa.
Southeast of Eurasia lies a great body of land
called Australia. See map below.
Which of these bodies of land are north of the equator ?
Which are crossed by the equator ?
There are two parts of Eurasia, — Asia on the east, and
Europe on the west. Which part is the larger?
North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa
and Australia are called continents, or grand divisions.
Which of these continents is wholly south of the equator ?
. Bering strait cuts through the primary highland and
separates the Old World from America, or the New World.
land, the land slopes away to the shores and there dips
beneath the sea. Most of the longer slopes are on the
inner side of the horseshoe-shaped highland.
These slopes make wide plains between the primary America? Australia or North America ?
highland and the sea. In many places the shorter slopes, Which continent is farthest from your home ?
Which continents are in America ? Which are in the Old World ?
What isthmus connects the two parts of America ?
Where is the isthmus of Suez ? What seas does it separate ?
Which is the larger, — Africa or Eurasia ? Africa or -North
THE OCEANS.
7. The Oceans.
The oceans cover about
three fourths of the earth's
surface and wholly or part-
ly separate the continents
from one another.
We may think of the
vast area of water around
the south polar regions as
the main body from which
all other parts of the sea
extend like arms. Thus,
the Pacific is a broad arm
lying partly between Amer-
ica and the Old World, on
the outer side of the primary highland. The Atlantic ocean is a long and crooked arm reaching northward between
America and the Old World, on the inner side of the primary highland. The Arctic ocean is like a large gulf at the
northern end of the Atlantic ocean. The Indian ocean is a short but broad arm partly between Africa and Australia.
The Antarctic ocean spreads round
the south pole.
"What three oceans extend northward
from the Antarctic ocean ?
Which ocean is east of America ?
Which is west of America ? Which of
these two oceans is the larger ?
On which side of the Old World is
the Atlantic ocean ? On which side is
the Pacific ocean?
"What small ocean adjoins the Atlantic
on the north ? Which pole is near the
middle of that ocean ?
What ocean is south of Asia ? What
lands partly surround that ocean ?
Name the continents which border on
the Pacific ocean; on the Atlantic ocean;
on the Arctic ocean. What oceans border
on North America ? On Asia? Australia?
Africa ? South America ?
Let us now learn how the rain, the rivers, the winds
and the ice change the surface of the continents.
8. The Waste of the Land.
As the weather changes from
warm to cold, or from wet to dry,
all rocks exposed to the air and
the rain slowly decay, but many
years may be needed to loosen only
a few grains. As rocks decay or
crumble they are said to iveather.
The loosened parts weather finer
and finer, forming rock waste or
land ivaste. In some places the rock
waste is thirty or forty feet in
depth, but in most places it is
thinner. Finely crumbled rock
mixed with plant and animal mat-
ter is called soil. Year after year, plants grow and decay, while myriads
of insects and worms live and die in the fine rock waste. The remains of
the plants, the insects, the
worms and other creatures
mingle with the fine rock
waste to form the dark rich
topsoil. The roots of most
plants grow in the topsoil.
When it is moist, the plants
take from it part of the
food needed for their
growth.
If rocks were so firm that
they would not weather, the
plants which require soil could
not grow. There would be no
trees to supply lumber or fuel,
and no cotton fiber to weave
into cloth.
RAINFALL. — SPRINGS AND STREAMS.
In lands that have but little rain and frost, rocks In some dry countries, pipe wells are driven or sunk to
weather very slowly. In our own country, where rains reach a supply of groundwater. These wells are often drilled
are common and where winters bring frosts and thaws, through layers of rock, beneath which the water is creeping.
the decay of rocks is more rapid.
The monument shown in the pic-
ture stood for thousands of years in
a warm land, where rain seldom falls.
There its surface showed but few
signs of decay.
Not many years ago, this monu-
ment was brought to our country.
The rock then crumbled so fast that
it became necessary to protect the
surface from the weather.
9. Rainfall.
Vapor rises from the oceans,
and the winds carry it about.
The vapor forms clouds from
which rain sometimes falls on both the continents and
the oceans.
On steep hillsides, much of the rainfall is quickly
shed into rills, brooks or larger streams, washing away
some of the surface soil. The streams are thus filled
with rapid currents of muddy water and often overflow
their banks.
On flat land, a large part of the rain sinks into the
ground, instead of running away. If the soil is loose and
sandy, almost all the rainfall sinks into it.
When the rain ceases and the sky clears, some of the
water which is then left on the ground rises in vapor.
The drying of the ground is often quickened by winds
and sunshine. "Water that changes to vapor is said to
evaporate.
In windy summer weather, many of the large clouds which are
seen on the day after a rain are made of water that has evaporated
from the ground.
Rain water that stands till it evaporates does not help
in washing soil down the slopes. The water which soaks
into the ground does but little
of that work. The rain water
which runs off the surface
washes away the greatest
amount of soil.
10. Springs and Streams.
Water that soaks into the
ground is called ground water.
It creeps slowly through the
Water may often be seen coming
out of the ground through little crev-
ices, thus forming springs. Many
springs are found at the foot of hill-
slopes. Others appear along
borders of brooks or rivers. In
many places the ground water
is found rising in the beds of
streams or lakes.
The spring which is farthest
up the valley trough is called
the source, or head, of the stream
that it feeds.
Surface water is often muddy,
but nearly all ground water is
clear, because it moves too
slowly to carry waste. Spring
water is therefore much better
than surface water for drinking.
Wells also are supplied by
ground water.
Most springs flow so slowly that the supply of ground
water from one rain lasts till rain again falls. Such
springs flow in both rainy and fair weather. In long
dry spells, or drouths, springs yield less and less water,
or they may even cease to flow. The streams then
become very low, or perhaps dry up. When soil is frozen,
water cannot sink into it. In lands that have long; freezing:
seasons, plentiful rains are needed in autumn to give a
good flow
of water
before the
severe
frosts
harden
the soil.
This monu-
ment is called
Cleopatra' s
Needle. It was
brought from
Egypt and now
stands in Cen-
tral Park, New
York.
In winter, when the ground is
frozen, the rain water and the melt-
ing snow run quickly to the streams
and often flood them. They then
cut away their banks and wash
soil towards the lower land. the rock waste down their valleys,
It is the ground water which makes the soil of meadows spreading it over the flooded lands or even carrying it to
wetter than that of hillsides. Ground water often creeps the sea. The flooded rivers often carry down large blocks
slowly through loose rock beneath the soil. In this way of ice and trunks of trees. These do much damage in break-
the water may travel underground for many miles. ing down bridges and clogging the beds of the streams.
A Stream in Dry Weather.
8
LAND WASTE ON THE WAY TO THE SEA.
11. Land Waste on the Way to the Sea.
We have learned that in rainy weather the surface
is washed down the slopes, but in both wet
and dry weather the whole sheet or layer
of soil and coarser rock waste is
very, very slowly creeping down-
hill. With every change from
wet to dry, from warm
to cold, or from frost ;<jjg
to thaw, the rock .A
slopes at the foot of the crags. The finer waste is washed
into the lowlands,
waste When waste is washed down from valleys on mountain slopes,
it sometimes forms great fan-shaped heaps. These
may grow so large that they push away streams
which flow in the valleys at the base of the
mountain slopes. These heaps of waste
are called alluvial fans. They often be-
come very large in dry countries where
the streams are not strong enough
to wash the waste down the val-
leys. Coarse waste forms steep
alluvial fans, but the slopes are
more gentle where the waste is fine.
On gentle slopes, the soil
moves very slowly and be-
comes deep and fine. There
the rocks may decay for many
feet below the surface, thus
making plenty of soil for the
roots of plants. In order to reach
the firm rock, the waste must be
dug away to a great depth.
The topsoil in valleys consists mainly
of fine waste that has been washed from
the higher land. Most of the ground water flows
into the valleys and helps to keep the soil moist.
For these reasons many of the best farms are in
lowland valleys.
Rock "Waste at
Foot of Cliff
(Spitzbergen).
Steep Alluvial Pan.
12. Work of the Winds.
waste is weathering finer and finer as it moves down the
slopes. The fine and light surface waste creeps fastest.
The undersoil scarcely moves, and the firm rock beneath
stands still. The steeper the slope, the faster the waste
creeps.
On many steep hillsides the fine waste creeps and
washes away nearly as fast as it forms, and only the
coarser rock waste is left. The roots of grass and trees
do much to prevent the soil from being rapidly carried
away.
On rough hills,
there are often
rocky ledges
from which the
waste is washed
or blown nearly
as soon as it
forms. On some
mountains, bare
crags cover much
of the surface.
The coarse rock
waste rolls down,
Gently-Sloping Alluvial Fan (Cnamouni, Alps). making Steep
Strong winds
cannot reach soil
that is covered
with grass or
trees, but in dry
lands where there
are but few plants
the winds sweep
over the ground
and scatter fine
rock waste far
and wide. Coarse
sand is drifted
along like dry
snow in winter.
The particles
of sand are blown
against one an-
other and against
bare rocks. Thus
both the sand and
the rocks are
ground to dust.
In deserts, where the
drifting sand is plentiful, it gathers in
SNOW AND ICE.
9
hills called dunes. Some of these sandy hills are from
three hundred to six hundred feet high. Dunes are also
found on sandy shores. Waves throw
sand upon the beaches, and the winds
may then blow it inland. Fields, forests
and villages are sometimes buried by
drifting sand.
Desert whirlwinds take up fine dust,
which may then be blown many miles
away. Some of the dust falls into the
sea, and the winds thus help along the
work of rivers.
Sails of ships on the ocean west of the desert
of Sahara are often covered with reddish dust
from that barren
region. Locate
this great desert
on the map of
Africa.
Whirlwinds at
sea are generally
formed under
heavy clouds
from which whirl-
ing funnel-shaped
spouts seem to
descend and join
the spray raised
from the Avaves. The long whirling funnels are called waterspouts.
Waterspouts occur most frequently over the oceans near the
equator, but they are also seen east of our country, over the warm
parts of the ocean. The whirling winds of waterspouts are some-
times strong enough to dismast vessels.
Winds not only
blow dust and
sand about,
but they also
sweep over
the sea and
make waves.
The waves
which roll
against the
land wash
stones and
sand back and forth
on the seashore, grinding
them very fine.
Winds mix the different parts
of the atmosphere and keep it
fresh and pure. They carry water
vapor from the sea to the land, and
thus help to determine which parts
of the land shall yield grain and
fruits and which parts shall remain
barren
Winds scatter the seeds of some kinds of plants, and also aid in
the flight of birds by lifting them, somewhat as kites are lifted.
If it were not for
currents of air there
would be no sailing-
vessels nor wind-
mills.
Winds are some-
times so violent
that they wreck
vessels and blow
down trees and
buildings. In later
lessons we shall learn
more about the work
of winds.
■'"'y^Bs£ix^M^l. .
13.
Wind-Swept Desert of Sahara.
Snow and Ice.
On some mountains,_ snow lies all the year and becomes
very deep in the high valleys. Rain soaks into the
snow, making it more compact. The heavy mass slowly
Rock Waste at the End of a Glacier.
Eskimos.
changes into ice. As the layers of ice on a mountain grow
thicker they creep down the slopes. When the ice enters
the lower and warmer valleys, it gradually melts and
forms brooks or rivers. Such a body of ice slowly
moving down a slope is called a glacier.
10
RIVERS AisTD RIVER SYSTEMS.
Glaciers carry along rock waste that rolls onto them
from higher ground. They drag along stones, gravel,
sand and clay also, beneath the ice, — scraping the sur-
face over which they creep. The ice sometimes hollows
out basins in the bottoms of valleys.
Coarse rock waste is left in uneven heaps near the
melting ends of glaciers, but most of the
finer waste is carried away by the glacier
streams which flow into the lowlands.
See picture on page 9.
Sometimes the heaps of waste make bar-
riers across river valleys, and lakes then
form above
barriers.
Rock waste mov-
ing on a glacier, or
left in a heap at the
end of a glacier, is called a moraine. The side or lateral moraines
are formed of waste that is scraped from the sides of the glacier
trough or that falls onto the border of the moving ice. When two
branches of a glacier unite, the moraines along the sides which
meet form a medial moraine. The picture of a glacier on this page
shows both medial and lateral moraines.
The heap of waste at the end of a glacier is a terminal moraine.
In former times there were glaciers in some parts of the world
where none are now found. Lakes abound in such regions. The
water lies in the basins scraped out by the ice, or behind the bar-
riers which the rock waste formed across old river valleys.
One of the pictures on this page shows a rocky ledge, smoothed
and rounded by the action of ice. Another picture shows a long
low hill, built of coarse rock waste which was left in this form by
an ancient ice-sheet. Such a hill 13 called a drumlin. There are
many old glacial lakes, smoothed rocks and .drumlins in the north-
east portion of our country.
When glaciers push their
way into the ocean, huge
blocks of ice break off and
float away. These floating
masses are called icebergs.
They carry stones, gravel
and fine rock waste into
the sea.
When the icebergs melt, what
becomes of this rock waste ? See
picture on page 9.
Icebergs chill the damp air
around them and thus cause
dense fogs. Many vessels have
struck blocks of floating ice and
have been sunk or partly wrecked.
Far away in the north is a land
called Greenland. The interior of that
land is covered with a thick sheet of ice
and snow that moves very slowly towards
the ocean on either side. Wide and deep
glaciers from this ice-sheet creep into the sea,
where huge blocks of ice break off and form
icebergs.
Rivers and River Systems.
Some rivers start from springs. Others flow
from lakes, swamps or melting ice and snow. The
beginning of a river is called its head or source.
While on the way to the sea, a river becomes
larger and larger as it is joined by other streams
from side valleys.
Large cities are often built near
rivers. If the water flows swiftly,
it may be used to turn mill wheels.
If the rivers are deep enough, steam-
ers and other vessels may go from
place to place, carrying passengers
and freight.
In dry countries where no branches
join the rivers, they become smaller
and smaller as they flow along, and they may even disappear before
they reach the sea. The water often continues as ground water
much farther than it can be traced in the surface streams.
Many wells in dry regions are fed by ground water thus supplied
by vanishing streams. In some deserts, travelers can reach the
ground water by scraping away the sand in the valley troughs.
The water may be only a few feet beneath the surface.
During long periods of drouth, trees may be kept alive by the
ground water which reaches their roots deep in the rock waste.
RIVER BASIN'S AND DIVIDES.
11
The lower end of a river, where
it flows into the sea or into some
other body of water is known as
the mouth of the river.
Many of the largest cities in the
world are built near the months of
rivers. These cities carry on trade with
one another, and collect and distribute
merchandise for the people in the inland
valleys.
A river and all its branches form
a river system. The largest or the
River Systems
longest stream in a system is known as the main river.
How many river systems are shown in the above picture ?
There are many river systems in each of the continents. Some
of the main rivers
flow three or four
thousand miles from
source to mouth. On
the way they receive
many branch streams
called tributaries.
Large rivers are some-
times tributaries of
still larger rivers.
The deep parts of
rivers,where steamers
and other crafts may
go from place to place,
are said to be navi-
gable. Some rivers are
navigable for many hundred miles from the sea.
lower the slopes of their basins
are worn.
Some of the most important
divides on the earth cross wide
plains whose slopes are too gentle
for the eye to detect.
The Amazon basin in South America
is the largest in the world. Its main
river pours into the ocean more water
than any other stream. This basin is
crossed by the equator and covers more
than two million square miles. Steamers
can go for thousands of miles up and down the many branches of
the Amazon system.
The Mississippi basin is the largest in North America, but is
only about one half as large as the Amazon basin. The map on this
page shows where these great basins are.
and River Basins.
America.
15. River Basins and Divides.
All the land which sheds water into a single river
system forms a river basin. The basin generally takes
the same name as the main
river in the system.
Find the line which bounds the
basin of the river marked C in the
picture at the top of this page.
This line runs along the top, or
crest, of the ridges, and separates
the slopes in basin C from those
in the other basins which adjoin it.
Such a line is called a divide or a
water parting. It divides the
slopes of the basins.
A river system
drains all the land
which forms its basin .
From the slopes of the
basin, the streams
carry the land waste
towards their mouths.
The longer the streams
continue to flow, the
Flooded Connecticut River.
16. Young and Old Lands.
A swift river rolls stones and sand along in its bed and
thus wears it deeper and deeper. After long ages the
bed in which the river flows
may be worn down almost to
the level of the sea. Then
the slope of the stream will
be gentle. Its current will
be slow and its wearing
power very slight.
Most large rivers flow slow-
ly, because they have already
worn their beds down to gen-
tle slopes. The slow
current favors the use
of boats on rivers.
While a stream is
deepening its bed, the
rock waste all over its
basin is weathering
finer and finer. This
waste is always creep-
ing and washing into
12
YOUNG AND OLD LANDS.
Narrow Valleys In a Young Land (Colorado).
the valley bottom or into streams that carry it away.
Thus the valley grows wider and its side slopes become
more gradual. The uplands or hills on either side become
smaller and lower, as they slowly waste away.
In a very long time, even a highland may be worn
away to a lowland. Thousands of years are needed for
this great work, but the earth is very old, and highland
after highland has been worn down.
Lands whose valleys are not yet widened may be called '
young, even though their streams have been working for
thousands of years.
The picture at the top of this page shows a young land in which
rivers have cut only narrow valleys. The uplands between the
valleys are almost level and the
rock waste creeps slowly down the
gentle slopes and then falls into
the valleys.
Many small streams are gnaw-
ing into the upland and after a
time it will not be so smooth as
it now is. We may know that
this is a young land, because the
streams have not yet carried much
of it away.
quickly from the uplands and carries away much land waste. In
the old land, most of the upland is worn down and only a few
hills remain. In time, even the hills will waste away. Then the
streams will become sluggish, but they may be useful as water ways.
We cannot watch a land grow to old age, for the change is very
slow, lasting many hundred thousand years.
17. Flood Plains and Deltas.
After heavy rains, or after much snow has quickly
melted, great volumes of water run down the brooks and
into the rivers. Then the rivers often overflow their
banks and spread over the flat meadows, called flood
plains, on either side.
Flooded rivers are very muddy, for they not only cut
their own banks, but their swollen branches also bring
them a great deal of land waste from the sides of their
Lands whose valleys are
greatly widened, and whose
hills or mountains are almost worn away, may
be called old.
Middle-Aged Land.
Old Land.
valleys. The water moves slowly
on the flood plains and deposits
thin layers of mud, called silt.
When the flood is over, this silt
gives fresh food to plants.
In narrow valleys the flood
plains extend for only a short distance on either side of the rivex.
In broad valleys the flood plains may be several miles wide.
Many people live
on flood plains because
they are so fertile. In
dry countries, flood
plains are the best
places for people to
settle, because the river
water can be led in
canals and ditches
across such plains.
Most of the silt
Mountainous Region. borne along by
In the middle-aged country, the uplands are deeply rivers IS slowly
and widely cut by valleys. The rain water runs washed down the
Mountainous Region and Coastal Plain.
COASTAL PLAINS AND LAKE PLAINS.
13
channels to the sea. A large part of the silt settles near
the river mouths, where the water flows more slowly.
Delta in Alaska.
The settlings, called sediment, form low and flat plains
in which the rivers often divide into many branches, called
distributaries. The distributaries sometimes change their
course, cutting new chan-
nels across the plain.
Lowlands thus formed
at the mouths of rivers
are known as deltas. Most
deltas are the lower ends
of flood plains built out
into the sea. The soil of
delta plains is generally
fine and fertile.
In. the far east, about half-
way round the earth from us,
there is a large delta plain on
which millions of Chinese people live,
delta was made by the Yellow river.
This river sometimes takes a new course across its
delta plain. Fields, villages and cities are then flooded
or swept away, and many people are drowned.
The Mississippi river, in our own country, has made
a flood plain several miles wide and hundreds of miles
long. Its lower part is a very large delta plain. These
lowlands built by the great river are
very fertile.
Coastal Plains and Lake Plains.
Many parts of the land were
formerly under the shallow water
City on a Narrow Flood Plain. (Ems, Prussia.)
smooth by layers of silt washed from the land. When
evenly uplifted, the smooth bottom forms plains having
very gentle slopes. Fossil sea-
shells are often found in the
rocky layers of such land.
A plain that was once part
of the sea-bottom and that is
now near the coast is called
a coastal plain.
Before the coastal plain shown
in the picture on the opposite page
was raised from the sea, the shore
I OAK OTA LAKE' PLAIN.
of the ocean border. Ages ago they were slowly raised
from beneath the sea and 'became dry land. The sea-
bottom near the shores of the continents is slowly made
was nearer the high land.
The mouths of the rivers
were then at the old
shore line. The rivers
now flow across the
young coastal plain.
The rivers A and B
were at one time in
separate systems but
are now joined into one.
Every continent has
coastal plains at some parts of its border. These plains vary
in width from a few miles to hundreds of miles. The surfaces
of coastal plains quickly weather into fine soil and often make
good farming lands. The map on the next page shows a large
coastal plain in our own country. Near the coast the plain is still
14
MOUNTAINS.
Mountains (Junglrau, Alps).
smooth, but farther inland it is already much worn by streams.
Pine forests cover parts of the plain, while cotton and tobacco
grow in the more fertile districts.
Some plains were formed under
lakes and were laid bare when the
water was drained away.
One of the pictures on page 13 shows a
great lake plain, with broad harvest fields.
This plain is so young that hardly any
valleys are -worn below its level surface.
Find the lake plain on the map below.
Many lake plains are found in val-
leys among mountains. These plains
are small, but in regions where the
steep slopes have only a thin and
stony soil left on them, the meadows
in the old lake bottoms are of great value for farming.
Plains that stand high above sea level are called pla-
teaus. Most of the rocky layers in plateaus
M were made very long ago beneath the sea.
Some plateaus are so old that broad valleys have
been worn in them, thus making many small plateaus
out of each large one. The map on this page shows
a high and wide plateau region in our own country.
Low plains can have only shallow valleys, but
plateaus are often broken by deep valleys, making
travel very difficult.
19. Mountains.
Mountains are rugged parts of the earth's
surface that rise high above the surrounding
country. They are generally formed by the
wearing of deep valleys in regions that have
been greatly uplifted. The mountains are the
high parts not yet worn away.
While the great masses are being lifted, their
rocks sometimes fold or break underground. Every
snap or slip in the rocks causes the surrounding .
region to tremble. The trembling is called an earthquake.
Some earthquakes are very faint, but others are violent enough
Valleys cut In a Plateau.
to throw down houses,
earthquakes.
The next lesson tells another cause of
The United States.
Some mountain regions are worn away
to sharp rocky peaks. The mountains of
other regions are rounded like domes. Still
others have flat tops and steep sides.
A high and rugged ridge, or several such
ridges near one another, may be called a
mountain range. Some ranges are hundreds
of miles long.
Find five ranges on the map. Which of these
ranges lie along the border of the great plateau
region in our country ?
A number of ranges having the same
general direction in one great highland
form a mountain system.
All the ranges in the western part of our
country belong in the Rocky Mountain system.
This mountain region was very unevenly lifted
VOLCANOES.
15
and is now so greatly worn away that its surface has gone down
to beds of rock that were once deeply buried. It is in such deep
layers of rock that veins yielding gold and 'silver ore are found.
When the surface is worn down near them they can be
mined.
High mountains reach into the upper air which
is cold, even when the air in low valleys not
many miles away is very warm. On the lofty
peaks, three miles or more above sea level,
the air is so light or thin that persons find
it difficult to breathe there. The lower air,
near the level of the sea, is dense because
it is pressed down by all the air above or
upon it.
Winds are active around high mountains
and clouds form quickly in the cooled air as it
rises to cross the ranges. When the air is
cooled enough, it gives out snow or rain.
Snow often falls on the mountains, while
rain is falling in the lower valleys.
Great snowslides or landslides sometimes
rush from the mountain sides into the val-
leys, uprooting trees and burying houses.
A slide of snow or of rock waste is called
an avalanche.
Some plateaus, deeply cut
streams, are called mountains,
many mountains are higher
than plateaus and are not so
evenly raised above the sea.
20. Volcanoes.
In some parts of the
world, melted rock, or lava,
has been pushed up from
beneath the surface through
breaks in the surface rocks,
and has cooled in great
cone-shaped heaps or in
sheets. In some places this
is still going on.
Steam and gases sometimes burst forth
with the lava, shaking the surrounding
country and thus causing severe earth-
quakes. The lava is then blown into frag-
ments called ashes, or even into fine dust
that may be carried many miles by the
wind. Cones built of lava and ashes have
steep sides, with hollows or craters in the top,
where the gases and ashes were blown out.
Lava often escapes through cracks, or fissures,
in the sides of cones as well as from the
craters.
When the lava is pushed out quietly, it does
not form such steep-sided cones. The molten
rock then runs in long streams or sheets,
and sometimes covers many square miles of country. The more
liquid-like the lava, the farther it flows and the gentler the slopes
of the cone become.
Each of these cone-shaped masses is called a volcano.
It may be no larger than a hill, or it may be two or
three miles in height.
The bursting forth of lava from a volcano or
a fissure is called an eruption. Many erup-
tions must take place to build up a great
volcanic cone.
The molten rock from volcanoes
sometimes spreads out in wide plains.
In some places, lava has poured from
long fissures in the earth's surface and
has formed plains that cover many
thousand square miles.
The picture marked "Lava Plain, Idaho,"
shows part of a great lava plain in our
country. The lava has weathered slightly
and its scanty soil now supports sage brush.
The plateau shown in the picture on the
opposite page is built of many thick lava
sheets.1 It is older than the lava plain
shown on this page, for the surface of the
former is more deeply cut by valleys.
The lowest picture in the group shows a
stump, or column, of lava known as the Mato
Tepee or Bear Lodge. This column filled
the passage in the rocks through which the
molten lava rose from its deep
source. At that time the surface
of the country was much higher
than at present. It has since
worn away, and the hard lava
of the column remains standing
above it.
Deep fissures filled with hard
lava have been laid bare, when
the softer rock about them has
been worn away. These old lava-
filled fissures sometimes rise like long
rocky walls, and are known as dykes.
There are many lava necks and dykes in
the western part of our country.
Most volcanoes are found not many
miles from the coasts of the continents,
or on islands not far offshore. Many
more volcanoes are found near the Pacific
coast than near the Atlantic.
Besides these, a large number of small
islands have been wholly built by volcanic
action, sometimes even growing from the
deep floor of mid-ocean.
Some eruptions have also taken place on
the continents several hundred miles from the
seacoast, as in the Kocky mountains of our
country, but such eruptions are rare.
As we study the different countries, we
shall learn more about volcanoes, some of
which have destroyed cities and towns.
1 This plateau is in the Western Ghats, India, and is part of the Deccan
lava flow. In that region, the lava has spread over an area of about
200,000 square miles.
16
SHORE FORMS.
WAVES. — SHORE FORMS.
17
21. Waves.
Winds blowing over the
sea make waves. Under
strong winds the waves are
sometimes thirty or forty
feet high, from trough to
crest.
If a hanging rope is struck
or shaken, waves glide along it.
The rope simply bends to form
the waves.
The water in waves only rises
and falls, like the waves in the rope, but the wave-forms travel
forward. The larger they are, the faster they move. In the open
sea some waves travel at the rate of more than a mile a minute.
Storms at sea are dangerous chiefly on account of the waves.
They pitch vessels about and sometimes wreck them.
The great waves produced in a storm may spread far across the
ocean. They lose height as they go, and are then called swell.
When the swell approaches shallow water near shores, it
increases in height again and rolls forward in the form of breakers
or surf on beaches.
Waves on beaches often wash pebbles and sand up and down,
grinding them finer and finer. Great storm-waves are strong enough
to move large blocks of rock.
When severe earthquakes occur near coasts or at the bottom of
the sea, they produce broad waves, called earthquake waves, that
travel with great speed. Such waves rolling upon shallow shores
become very high and strong. Vessels in harbors are sometimes
dragged from their moorings and carried by earthquake waves far
up the shores.
22. Shore Forms.
Straight or regular shores are found where smooth
bottoms have been slowly raised from the sea.
Along such shores there are but few bays in which vessels can
find shelter from winds and waves, but there may be good harbors
in the river mouths.
Irregular shores occur where hilly or mountainous
lands have partly sunk beneath the sea.
Valleys that have sunk beneath the sea are said to be
drowned. The drowned valleys form hays. Deep, long
and narrow bays are known as fiords. The ridges, hills,
or other parts of the land between the drowned valleys,
may form islands or peninsulas.
Breakers or Surf.
A neck of land joining a
peninsula with another body
of land is called an isthmus.
A strait is a body of water
joining two larger bodies of
water. A strait may be
many miles in width, but
it is always narrower than
the bodies of water which
it connects. The word
strait means narrow.
Some long and shallow
straits are called sounds. The name sound may also be
given to any body of water partly inclosed by islands.
Sounds and straits are often only drowned valleys. Some
of them are very deep.
Large arms of the sea are called bays, gulfs or seas.
Some of these are hundreds of miles long and wide.
Bodies of water that afford shelter to vessels are known
as harbors. Many fine harbors are found in the mouths
of rivers or in drowned valleys.
Along ir- ^ay^-,.^ g^.— - -■■r^t.^^xsr-^^^^sss^^^^mss^sttSi^^
regular coasts
vessels find
shelter in bays
or behind is-
lands. Men
living near
such coasts
generally be-
come good
Sailors. A Fiord, Norway.
Storm-waves slowly wear away parts of some coasts.
The waves beat most violently on headlands that jut far
out into the sea. As these are worn back, their steep
faces form sea-cliffs.
Low and sandy shores may be so rapidly worn that houses are
undermined and washed away.
In cold regions floating ice helps to change the shore lines.
Tons of sand, pebbles and large rocks become imbedded in the ice
and are thus borne out to sea. Ice is also driven by waves against
the shores, where it helps to grind even the rocky cliffs.
Rock waste from headlands often forms beaches at the
foot of the cliffs. Part of the waste is also carried by
The picture at the bottom of this page shows several fiords waves along the shores, where it is spread out into beaches
formed by the partial drowning of the
mountainous region shown in a picture
on page 12. Some fiords are many
miles long and are very deep.
There are many fiords along the
northwest coasts of North America
and Europe.
The word peninsula means al-
most an island. Peninsulas are
only partly surrounded by water.
Fiords or Drowned Valleys.
or built into bars, cutting off
parts of bays. In this way the
shores become straighter.
Waves often gather sand from
shallow bottoms and throw it
up in bars off low shores, thus
partly inclosing bodies of water,
called lagoons.
Fine waste from the land
settles in the quiet lagoons, and
18
BELTS OF HEAT.
water-plants then grow there. In time the lagoons may
thus be filled, forming marshes. There are many
thousand acres of marsh land formed in this way along
the eastern coast of our country.
, Sometimes the beaches and bars are made of cobblestones or of
pebbles worn round and smooth, by being rolled against one another.
Many beaches and bars are made of sand. More than one half the
shores of the United States are low and sandy.
23. Belts of Heat.
The sun is a hot globe more than a million times as
large as the earth. This great globe is very far away, yet
it keeps the earth warm enough to support life.
If, when Columbus set sail on his first voyage to America, some
object could have left the sun and traveled at the rate of twenty-
five miles an hour towards the earth, that object would still be
several million miles away from the earth. The average distance
of the earth from the sun is about 93,000,000 miles.
hot belt lies a belt of land and sea on which the sun's
rays fall with but little slant. We will call these two
belts the warm belts.
Between the warm
belt and the cold belt,
on each side of the
equator, lies another
belt on which the
rays fall with a great
deal of slant. These
two belts are the cool
belts.
Figure 1.
The sun's rays shine through clear air without warming
it very much, but they warm the clouds and the dust in
the air, and also the surface of the land and the sea. All
these help to warm the air about them, but the land and
the seas warm the air much more than the clouds and
the dust do.
Figure 1 shows how the sun shines on different parts of the
earth. Over the line B all the rays are nearly vertical. Over the
line A the rays strike the earth with greater slant. As many rays
shine on B as on A, but the slanting rays spread over the greater
surface, and therefore cannot heat it so much. The more nearly
vertical the rays are, the greater their heating power.
Near the equator the sun's rays are vertical, or nearly
so, at noon every day. There the air is hot all the year,
except high above sea level. That region of hot air is
called the hot belt.
Around the poles the rays are very slanting, and the
air is always cold or cool. The polar regions are known
as the cold belts.
Between the hot belt and the cold belts, there are other
belts neither so hot nor so cold. On either side of the
In later lessons we shall learn why the lines between the belts
are somewhat irregular.
Between the heat belts, there are no sudden changes from hot to
warm, from warm to cool, or from cool to cold. All the way from
the belt of greatest heat to the places of greatest cold, there is-
only a very gradual change.
There is very little land in the
cool and cold belts south of the
equator. Name in order the heat
belts which would be crossed in
going from pole to pole.
24. Changes of Season.
Once a year the earth
moves, or revolves, in an
almost circular path round
the sun. This path is called
the earth's orbit.1
The earth is one of many bodies,
called planets, that revolve round
the sun. The diagram on the oppo-
site page shows which part of the
s^lSjB^'*' orbit the earth moves through each
month. The arrows indicate the direction in which the earth moves.
The earth's axis does not stand upright from the plane
of its orbit, but slants so that the strongest sunshine falls
north of the equator during about one half of the year,
and south of the equator during the other half.
All the year the
axis of the earth
I points towards the
north star and is
therefore called a
fixed axis.2 Every
moment the earth
changes its own posi-
tion with regard to
Figure 2. the sun, but the
1 The orbit is an ellipse, with the sun near the center.
2 Although the earth's axis makes no perceptible change from year to
year, yet in long ages a great change takes place. In about 12,500 years
the bright star Vega, in the constellation of Lyra, will be the north star.
In about double that length of time, the axis will again point towards the
present north star.
Even now the north star is not exactly in line with the earth's axis.
THE ZONES OF LIGHT.
19
/
direction of the axis remains the same. The northern about one fourth the distance from the equator to the
end of the axis leans towards the sun in June, when the poles. The belt of land and water lying between or
sunshine is strongest north of the equator ; and away within the tropics is called the torrid 4 zone. It includes
from the sun in December, when the sunshine is strongest the greater part of the hot belt.
south of the equator.1 As the earth moves round its orbit, When the sun is over the equator, the line between daylight and
the sun's rays are strongest north of the equator during darkness passes through both poles. See figure 2.
our spring and summer, but south of the
equator during our autumn and winter.
Half the year, the vertical rays fall north
of the equator, but they fall farthest north on
the twenty-first day of June. At that time
the northern summer and the southern winter
begin. See figure S.
During the other half of the year the ver-
tical rays shine south of the equator, but they
shine farthest south on the twenty-first day of
December, — at about Christmas time. Then
the northern winter and the southern summer
begin. See figure Jf.
Our spring opens on the twenty-first day of
March, when the vertical rays fall on the
equator, and the days and nights are every-
where of equal length. The earth is then
moving in that part of its orbit which brings
the vertical rays farther and farther north of
the equator and makes our days longer than
the nights. The spring is the warming season
between winter and summer. See figure 2.
The first day of our autumn brings the earth
to that part of its orbit where the sun again
shines over the equator, but the vertical rays
are each day moving southward, making our
nights longer than our days. The northern
autumn, or the cooling season between summer
and winter, begins on the twenty-second day of
September. See figure 2.2
25. The Zones of Light.
Diagram showing the Position of the Earth In its Orbit each Month.
When the sun is over the tropic of Cancer, the light extends far
The line around the earth, upon which the vertical rays beyond the north pole, but does not reach the south pole, because
only about one half the earth is lighted at once, bee figure 8.
When the sun is over the tropic of Capricorn, a region all around
the south pole is in the light, but the north polar region is in dark-
ness. See figure Jf..
These figures show
that at all times the lines
between light and dark-
Capricom.3
Plg The tropics are at
1 Owing to the fact that the sun is not in the center of the earth's orbit,
and that the earth does not move at the same rate of speed in all parts of
its orbit, the vertical rays fall north of the equator for about 185 days,
and south of the equator for about 180 days.
2 For some purposes, the seasons are divided at the beginning of March,
June, September and December. Thus, the average temperature of summer
is based on the temperature of the entire months of June, July and August.
fall when farthest
north, is called the
tropic of Cancer.
The line upon which
the vertical rays fall
when farthest south
is called the tropic of ness are 3ust asJar from
the poles as the sun is
north or south of the
equator. When the sun
is over either tropic, the
lines between light and
Figure 4.
darkness must therefore
be at about one fourth of the distance from the poles to the equator.
When the sun is over the equator, every place from
pole to pole has twelve hours of day and twelve hours of
3 The word tropic means the turning place, and applies to the line over njght. As the earth moves along that part of its Orbit which
which the sun seems to turn backward on its journey. Cancer, the Crab, ^ ^Q yertical rays farther and farther north of the
and Capricornus, the Goal, are names of groups of stars through which the
gun once seemed to pass when over the tropics.
4 Torrid means parched ; frigid, cold ; temperate, moderate.
20
SEASONS OF THE HEAT BELTS.
Map of the Zones.
equator, the days in the northern hemisphere become
longer and the nights shorter. The farther north a place
is, the longer its daylight then lasts.
As the sun shines farther north of the equator, there is
a growing cap around the north
pole, within which there is no dark-
ness. When the sun is farthest
north, the cap of constant daylight
is bounded by the Arctic circle.
As the earth moves in that part
of its orbit which carries the vertical
rays away from the tropic of Cancer,
the cap of constant daylight in the
far north grows smaller, and it
finally disappears when the sun
crosses the equator.
As the sun moves south of the
equator, a cap of constant darkness
grows around the north pole, while
a cap of constant daylight around
the south pole grows till it reaches
the Antarctic circle. The Arctic and the Antarctic circles
are known as the polar circles.
Which of these lines bounds the north frigid zone? Which
bounds the south frigid zone ? The frigid zones include almost all
parts of the cold
belts or cold caps.
What circles
bound the temper-
ate zones? These
zones include most
parts of the cool
belts and the warm
belts.
Thus we see
that at the north
pole, daylight lasts
for six months, or
while the sun is
north of the equa-
tor. During that
time the south pole
is in darkness.
While the sun is
south of the equa-
tor the south pole
is in constant day- Ferns growing on Trees, India.
light, and the north pole is in darkness.
At the polar circles the longest period of light or
of darkness is twenty-four hours. The Arctic circle
has its longest daylight when the sun is over the
tropic of Cancer. When do places on the Antarctic
circle have their longest period of light?
Between the Arctic circle and the north pole the
.longest periods of daylight vary from twenty-four
hours to six months. Each place within this circle has continuous an(l the sunshine of that season is slanting and weak,
light for a day, or for some greater length of time not more than The winters are therefore very cold, especially in the
six months. Each place has only one of these long days yearly, i The northern lights are called the aurora borealis. ' The southern lights
but it has also many days, or periods of light, less than twenty- are called the aurora australis.
four hours long. The nearer the pole, the longer the great period
of daylight lasts.
The south frigid zone has the same number of light and of dark
periods as the north frigid zone. The longest period of daylight in
any place within either of the polar circles lasts during the longest
period of darkness in some place just as
far within the other polar circle.
26. Seasons of the Heat Belts.
The open oceans and the air over
them do not warm much in summer
nor cool much in winter. The
greatest changes in heat take place
over wide lands. These heat very
quickly in the strong sunshine of
the long summer days, and they
cool very quickly in the long winter
nights. The larger the land area,
the more extreme its seasons are.
Cold Belts. The seasons in the
cold belts are a long and extremely
cold winter, and a short cool summer.
During the long winter nights, how cold the air of these belts
must become ! Ice and snow cover the land and almost all parts
of the polar seas. Only a few places in the Arctic ocean are kept
open by water drifting from the warmer parts of the Atlantic.
Even during the long daylight of summer, the air of the cold
belts cannot become very warm, because snow and ice cover most
of the land and sea near the poles and a large part of the sunshine
is taken to melt a portion of this snow and ice. The few people
living within the northern cold belt are found mostly near the
shores past which the warmer waters drift from the south.
These people get their food mainly by hunting and fishing,
or by tending herds of reindeer. No people live in the
southern cold belt.
Brilliant lights, called the aurora,1 sometimes appear in
the polar skies, and are also seen from places far beyond
the frigid zones. The auroras diminish the darkness of
the long polar night.
Cool Belts. In the northern
cool belt the lands are wide.
There the winter days are short,
Caught In an Ice Floe In Baffin Bay
Eskimo Boy.
SEASONS OF THE HEAT BELTS.
21
COJ-D
c
northern half of the belt, where snow covers the ground
for several months each year, and where heavy frosts are
common in the late spring and the early autumn.
In spring and summer the days of this cool belt are
long and the sun's rays are not very slanting, except in
the northern part of the belt. The summers thus become
very warm, especially in the southern half of the belt.
In the cool belt of the south there is not much land,
and the climate therefore changes but little. The air over
the oceans remains steadily cool, while over the narrow
lands it varies only from warm to cool.
Warm Belts. The lands in the northern warm belt are
wide, but the days and nights do not differ greatly in length,
and the sun's rays are never very slanting. The winters
on the lands are cool but not cold. The summers are
very hot. On the northern oceans, both in the cool and
the warm belts, the change of seasons is much less than
on the lands.
The winters and the summers of the lands
in the southern warm belt are well marked, but
these lands are small compared with the oceans in
the same belt. The change of seasons is greatest
on the small land interiors, and least near the
coasts and on the oceans.
Hot Belt. In the hot belt the slant of the
sunshine varies but little, and the days and nights
are always about twelve hours long. There the
change of seasons is very slight, and there is no
winter. The air is hot nearly all the year.
The line of greatest heat around the earth is
called the heat equator. It shifts north and south
once a year, always towards the places where the
sunshine is strongest. The line of greatest heat
therefore follows the movement of the sun.
The positions of the heat equator in our winter and our summer
are shown on this little map. The southern edge of the shaded
belt is the heat equator for January. The northern edge is the
heat equator for July. Let us not forget that our winter months
are the summer months in places south of the hot belt.
During the time between January and July, — the first half of
the year, — the heat equator shifts slowly northward, through the
entire width of the shaded belt on the map. During the latter half
Northern Lights.
of the year, the
heat equator moves
slowly southward
across the same
belt.
The heat equator
moves farther from
the true equator on
the lands than on
the sea, because the
land warms much
more quickly than
the water.
As the heat equator shifts north and south, the weather
of all the heat belts shifts with it, back and forth once a
year, following the sun.
During our summer, hot weather spreads into the northern
warm belt ; the warm weather shifts into the cool belt ; the cool
we*ather shifts into the cold belt ; the cold weather dwindles away
and perhaps disappears from the north polar region.
M.
.*" ^:T-— ■*V.
o
L
D
Heat Belts and their Seasons.
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
-,££-
IJSSjftM^
^^w-
Range of the Heat Equator.
During our winter, the cold weather of the northern cold belt
spreads far southward over the cool belt; the cool weather shifts to the
warm belt ; andwarm weather only is feltat the border of the hot belt.
South of the equator, the opposite changes are meanwhile taking
place. When the warmer weather swings northward from the
equator, the cooler weather shifts towards that line from regions
south of it ; but owing to the smallness of the southern lands and
the vastness of the oceans, the seasons south of the equator do
not present great extremes of heat or cold.
In all the heat belts, the highlands are cooler than the
lowlands. Even near the equator, the tops of very high
mountains are covered with snow all the year.
1 Figure 5 shows the plan on which the
above map of the Heat Belts is made. It is
as if the places on the globe were lifted out-
ward, away from the center of the globe,
and drawn upon the paper cylinder, which
is then cut apart and spread out as in the
above map. In such a map, the cold and
the cool belts appear much too large, for
the polar circles are stretched to the full
length of the equator.
Figure 5.
22
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.
27. Latitude and Longitude.
Every circle, both large and small, may be divided into
360 parts, each of which is called a degree.1
How many degrees are there in one fourth of a circle ?
In half a circle ? In one sixth of a circle ?
The distance from the equator to either pole is
ninety degrees (90°), or one fourth of a great
circle running north and south around the earth.
The tropic of Cancer is 23|-0 north of the equator,
and the tropic of Capricorn is just as far south of
the equator.
How far are the polar circles from the poles ? How
far are those circles from the equator ?
The tropics and the polar circles are parallel
with the equator, and are therefore called parallels.
We may think of other parallels at 1°, 10°, 30°,
•or any number of degrees as high as ninety, from the
equator.
Parallels show how far places are north or south of the equator.
Thus the city of New Orleans is 30° north of the equator, —
written 30° K. That city is at one third the distance from the
HQRTH POLE
and is marked 0° on the maps. See colored map of British
Isles. The meridians which show degrees are generally
numbered from 1 to 180 east from Greenwich, and also
HORrtPOUE
80°— B"° .
Degrees of Latitude.
80° ' 90^=~S0°
* SOUTH POLC
Parallels of Latitude.
n^^:r-;:::^::-^::>:--N
Degrees of Longitude.
SOUTH POLE
Meridians of Longitude.
equator to the north pole. See colored map of North America.
There are many other places on the same parallel, or at the same
distance from the equator.
All places on any one of the north-and-south lines
running from pole to pole have midday at the same time.
These lines are therefore called me-
ridians, meaning midday lines.
We may think of any number of me-
ridians and number them, beginning with
either of them. The line with which
the numbering begins is called the prime
meridian, meaning the first.
The prime meridian most com-
monly used by sailors passes through
Greenwich, near London. This is
known as the meridian of Greenwich
1 A 60th part of a degree is called a minute.
A 60th part of a minute is called a second.
Ten degrees, thirty minutes and forty seconds
may be written — 10° 3CK 40". Lightning.
from 1 to 180 west. These numbers count the degrees
around the equator or the parallels.
New Orleans is on the meridian 90° west of Greenwich, —
written 90° W. Knowing both the parallel and the meridian of
that city, we may locate it at 90° W. and 30° N.
The number of degrees at which any place
lies north or south of the equator is called the
latitude of that place. The number of degrees
at which any place lies east or west of a given
prime meridian is called the longitude of the
place.
Latitude means the broad way ; longitude means the
long way.
In ancient times, when nearly all the shipping in the
world was on the Mediterranean sea, the long way was
east and west ; the broad way was north and south.
What is the latitude of New Orleans ? What is its
longitude ? Find out the latitude and longitude of the
town or city in which you live.
What is the latitude of the tropics ? Of the polar circles ?
28. Winds and Rainfall.
Winds. Cold air, being heavier than hot air, flows to-
wards and creeps under the hot air, pushing it upwards.
As all parts of the earth are not heated alike, the air is
kept in motion. Some of the currents of air move along
the earth's surface, and others flow far above it. The
winds, or sur-
face currents,
are the more
Arctic Snow Crystals.
important to
know, as they
gather moist-
ure for the
lands and do many other kinds of useful work.
Wide currents of air flow into the hot belt from the
regions on both sides. If the earth did not rotate, each
of these currents would flow due south or north, towards
WINDS AND RAINFALL.
23
the heat equator. The turning of the earth on its axis on the way. Lowlands in the path of these winds are
turns these winds westward, so that they flow into the generally dry, but the windward sides of highlands in the
hot belt from the northeast and the southeast.
These winds are called the trade winds. On the oceans
they are very steady, and blow with little change by day
or by night. The trade winds are seldom interrupted by
bad weather or storms.
NORTH PQip
Every wind takes the name of the di-
rection from which it blows. The trade
winds blow from an easterly direction and
are therefore called easterly winds.
These winds caused great fright among
the sailors of Columbus. Day after day the
wind moved the ships steadily westward,
and the sailors did not see how they could
ever return against it. These winds are
now helpful to commerce.
Between the northeast and the
southeast trade winds there is a
narrow belt where the winds are
weak and irregular, often dying
away to a calm.
This narrow belt of weak winds lies
along the heat equator and shifts north
..and south with it. This belt is the region where the air from
-the trade winds becomes hottest and lightest and is therefore
.-slowly lifted into the upper atmosphere.
SOUTH POLE
General Plan of the "Winds.
(The dotted areas indicate rain.)
trade wind belts receive abundant rainfall.1
When air rises to cross highlands, it expands and cools. Some
of its vapor may then be condensed into clouds which may yield
rainfall on the slopes of the highlands.
Some of the great deserts in the world
are lowlands in the path of the trade winds.
In desert regions the winds gather so much
dust that the sky is pale-blue or even gray.
There is a very large amount of
vapor in the equatorial belt of weak
winds, and almost every afternoon
or evening, when the warmer air
rises most actively, rains pour down,
with thunderstorms and squalls.
This rainy belt is called the equa-
torial rain belt.
The rains of the equatorial belt
on the land often occur late at night,
as if condensed by the cooling of the
tops of the clouds which last over
from the afternoon.
So much rain falls in the equatorial rain belt that the surface
water of the oceans in this belt is a little less salt than the oceans
under the drying trade winds.
On highlands and on windward coasts the rainfall from
Far
Outside the trade wind path, the winds of the warm
-and the cool belts vary in direction from time to time and the storms of the westerly winds is very heavy.
;are often stormy, but they blow mostly from the west inland the rainfall is much lighter.
.and are therefore called the westerly winds.
Between the westerly winds and the trade winds
there are weak, irregular winds that generally have
,dry weather.
The storms of the westerly wind belts
,are great whirls, or eddies, that drift along
to tlge eastward over the sea and the land.
In these eddying winds are broad areas of
clouds, often yielding rain or snow.
The ,round map on this page illustrates some of
the eddying storms on their way across the cool
,and the warm belts on both sides of the equator.
In the cold belts, the winds are variable and
.often stormy. They generally blow in about the
same direction as .the trade winds, — most fre-
quently from the northeast in the north polar
region, and from the southeast in the south polar
j region. These are ealled polar winds.
Bainfall. When the air is cooled it can-
not hold so much vapor as when warmer.
When cooled enough, the vapor in it forms
^clouds, often with rain or snow. When
Eddying Storm moving eastward across the United States.
Note. — The arrowheads show that the winds are eddying towards the storm center, where the dark shading
shows the rain area, and the lighter shading the cloud area. The winds, rains and clouds are whirling eastward.
The small map on this page shows several of these storm eddies. See maps on the next page also.
;the air grows warmer it can hold more vapor, and no
clouds then form in it.
The trade winds blow towards the heat equator and
.therefore do not give out rainfall unless they are chilled
The above map shows a storm eddy crossing our country. As
the cloudy and rainy eddy drifts eastward, clear weather follows it.
1 The term rainfall includes rain, snow, hail and all other forms of
falling water or ice.
24
WINDS AND RAINS OF WINTER AND SUMMER.
The -winds in an eddy whirl faster than the storm center moves as it goes- south. Such places have two wet seasons and two dry
forward in its path. Waves caused by the whirling winds run seasons yearly,
ahead of the storm and often give warning of its approach. Lowlands that are reached by the equatorial rain belt when it is
farthest north or south have a
Winds and Rains of January — Northern Winter
short wet season and a long dry
season. Wet weather prevails only
while the rain belt is over these
places. Dry weather comes when
the rain belt moves away and the
trade winds prevail.
In the lowlands having the
single rainy season each year,,
grass and flowers grow in abun-
dance while the wet weather
lasts, but in the dry months the
vegetation withers away. In some-
places the ground then becomes,
parched and dry, like a desert.
The trade winds blow towards-
the heat equator. Where these
winds cross the true equator to
reach the heat equator, they change
their direction, as shown on the
maps.
When the heat equator reaches-
southern Asia, the southeast trade-
winds cross the equator and flow
as southwest winds towards that continent. While the heat-
equator is in the south, the northeast trade winds blow from
Asia, and on crossing the equator become northwest winds, as.
The westerly winds blowing inland from over the
oceans are neither hot in summer nor cold in winter.
The great bodies of water over which they blow, and
from which they get their moisture warmth, have nearly
the same temperature both in winter and in summer.
The westerly winds, therefore, give an even temperature are called monsoons, or season winds
to the western coasts of the
continents in the warm and
the cool belts.
shown on the above map.
Winds that reverse their direction in opposite seasons
The western coast of our own
country owes the mildness of its
climate to the westerly winds from
over the Pacific ocean. Western
Europe also has a more even
temperature than the inland
regions farther east.
29. Winds and Rains of
Winter and Summer.
The equatorial rain belt lies
along the heat equator and
shifts north and south with
it. This rain belt is north
of the true equator in July,
and mostly south of it in
January. When the heat
equator and the rain belt
move away from a region,
the drying trade winds blow there, and a dry season Since the belts of trade winds shift north and south at
follows a wet season. about the same time that the heat equator shifts, the
Some places on or near the true equator are visited by the outer borders of these belts are farther from the truo
rain belt twice each year, — once as it moves north, and again equator in summer than in winter.
Winds and Rains oi July — Northern Summer.
OCEAN CURRENTS.
25
During the northern summer, when the border of the trade wind
belt is farthest north, the regions south of the equator have their
winter, and therefore the southern border of the trade wind belt
is then nearest the equator. As the southern summer approaches,
the southern border of the trade wind belt moves away from the
equator.
The westerly wind belts shift north and south with
the belts of trade winds. As a result, some places feel
the steady trade winds in .summer and the stormy
westerly winds in winter. - Such places have dry summers
and wet winters.
In winter a large part of the west coast of North America and
all the west coast of Europe receive rainfall from the stormy
westerly winds. In summer the trade winds extend over the
southern parts of these coasts and cause drouths.
Parts of the west coasts of the three southern continents have
similar changes from winter to summer.
The westerly winds and
their storm eddies are strong-
est in the winter season.
That is the time when the
coasts and the mountains on
which they blow receive the
most rainfall, — rain or snow.
The western coast lands of
continents in the cool and
the warm belts, therefore,
have their heaviest rainfall
in winter.
During the summer season,
the westerly winds are less
active and their storms are
weaker and fewer.
In winter the air over the
northern continents is ' cold
and heavy.1 In that season, '■
therefore, the winds from
over the sea do not reach the interior of the continents
so easily as in summer when the air over the land is warm
and light. For this reason, the interior regions of the
northern continents receive their rainfall chiefly in
summer.
30. Ocean Currents.
Winds blowing day after day for a long time against
waves in the sea cause the surface water to drift slowly
along and thus form ocean currents. These currents move
much more slowly than the winds or the waves.
In each ocean the currents move in the general direction
of the winds over them. The trade winds blow the ocean
#
1 The places of greatest cold in winter are not over the Arctic ocean, but
at some distance southward from the Arctic coasts of Asia and North
America. In that season therefore the polar winds do not flow inland over
the continents, to any great extent, but are pushed out from the lands. In
summer, when the inland regions are very warm and when the air over
them is light, the polar winds reach farthest into the northern lands.
currents westward, and the westerly wrinds blow them
eastward. The lands prevent the currents from moving
round and round the earth and require them to circle
around, or eddy, in each ocean.
The Atlantic and Pacific oceans have eddies both north and
south of the equator. The Indian ocean has a large eddy south of
the equator, but the ocean currents north of the equator flow back
and forth with the season winds, or monsoons, which prevail over
that ocean.
The ocean eddies north of the equator move slowly in the direc-
tion in which the hands of a clock turn. The ocean eddies south
of the equator move in the opposite direction, or against the hands
of a clock.
In the southern cool belt the oceans spread all the way round
the earth. There the drifting waters on the southern sides of the
Pacific, Atlantic and Indian eddies unite to form a great current
sweeping slowly towards the east. This current flows entirely
Chart of the Ocean Currents.
around the Antarctic ocean and may be called the Antarctic eddy.
It receives cold water from the south polar ocean.
Ocean currents that move slowly over a broad surface are called
drift currents. These seldom flow more than a mile an hour. Cur-
rents that are driven through narrow passages may move three or
even four miles an hour. These rapid currents are called streams.
Part of the water of the North Atlantic eddy flows
between the island of Cuba and the mainland of North
America. The current issuing from this passage is called
the Gulf stream. Joining the rest of the eddy, the Gulf
stream spreads as a broad drift far to the northeast. Part
of this drift turns back southward into the hot belt, and
part branches towards the Arctic ocean.
The large branch of the North Atlantic eddy which runs
northeastward into the Arctic ocean bears much warmth
to it. A cold current from the Arctic ocean flows south-
ward along the northeast coast of North America.
As we study the different continents Ave shall learn of other cur-
rents that warm or cool the air flowing towards the land.
26
THE MOON AND THE TIDES.
31. The Moon and the Tides.
Twice each day,1 the ocean slowly rises and falls on its
shores. For about six hours, the water creeps up the
beaches and against the foot of cliffs.
During the next six hours, it slowly settles
back. This rise and fall of the water is
called the tide. The tide is not felt at sea
and is seldom very strong on headlands,
but in narrowing bays
the water may rise ten,
twenty or thirty feet.2
There is a tide on
the side of the earth to-
wards the moon and an-
other on the opposite side. The tides are caused chiefly
by the attraction of the moon, but partly also by the sun.
At all times there are two faint bulges of high tides whose broad
wave-forms travel swiftly across the oceans. In the open oceans the
tides follow the movements of the moon, but on reaching the shallow
waters near the margin of the lands, the tides increase in height
and advance much more slowly, — lagging far behind the moon.
As the earth turns on its axis, the moon seems to revolve round
it from east to west. The moon
holds in place the great tidal
wave-forms, while the earth
turns on its axis. Thus, it is
the turning of the earth which
makes the two tides appear
daily, just as it makes the sun
rise and set.
If you will note the time
of the moon's setting, you will
find that it is nearly an hour
later each day, showing that the moon's position is farther east
each successive night at a given hour, and that the earth must
rotate almost an hour longer than a day, in order to make the
moon set. This is the reason why the tides are nearly an hour
later each day.
The moon goes round the earth from west to east in about a
month. The long diagram on this page shows the path of the
earth and the moon for nearly one month, on their way round the
sun. The larger circles, half light and half dark, indicate the posi-
tion of the earth each day;
while the smaller circles
indicate the position of
the moon. The days of the
month are numbered, —
1, 2, 3, etc.
The groups of arrows
pointing downward repre-
sent the sun's rays and
show why the upper sides
of the earth and 'the moon
in the diagram are light.
At the outset, the dark face of the new moon is
turned towards the earth.
The little arrow flying upwards between days 7
and 8 shows the point where one half of the light
side of the moon may be seen from the earth.
The arrow pointing upwards near the figure
which marks the end of the fifteenth day, shows the position of
full moon, when all the light side is turned towards the earth.
From this time on, the moon shows less and less of its light side,
till the new moon again appears.
Tides cause currents to flow in and out of bays. Tidal
currents help to scour the mud and sand from the bottom
of shallow bays and to wash the rock waste farther away
from the shores. Twice a day these currents carry sea
water into and out of the bays and thus keep them pure.
The flowing in of the tide is called its flood ; the flow-
ing out is its ebb.
r£Em?£s^-, _
£*~
*<fijK2
H?--'r
---tiL
&~
.rf^^ -^?i^^^/^^
Uj3
--*TL
■ ~'fi
- ' \
yi '
The Crescent Moon.
The Bore or Tidal Wave (Seine River, France).
It is important to know when high or low tides occur in
different harbors, for the tidal currents are of great assistance to
vessels sailing in or out. At the mouths of some harbors the
water at low tide is not deep enough for vessels to enter. They
must then wait for the high tide.
Parts of the Orbits of the Earth and Moon.
29KD.
* More exactly, in 24 hours and 50 minutes. In some narrowing bays and river mouths, the tide forms a high
Some places have but one tide a day, and others have more than two wave followed by several smaller waves. These roll in with great
tides in that time. speed and often do much damage. Such a wave formed by the
* in rare cases it rises sixty feet. tide is called a bore.
27
NORTH AMERICA.
32. North America.1
North America is broad in the north, but it tapers
towards the south. This continent covers nearly one
twentieth of the earth's surface.2
North America consists mainly of a great western
highland, a lesser eastern highland and a central plain.
This continent crosses the warm and cool belts, and
also enters the cold belt on the north and the hot belt on
the south. Only a small part of the continent is in the
hot or the cold regions. Far the greater part is in the
belts having cold or cool winters and warm or hot
summers.
In the warm belt the winter is short and mild, but
northward the cold season lengthens, till near the Arctic
coast there are only a few weeks of mild weather each
summer. The extreme north of the continent is cold and
dreary.
1 The Map Studies on page 29 are to precede this lesson. Refer often to
the relief maps. Locate every place named in the text.
2 The area of the earth's surface is about 200,000,000 square miles,—
more exactly, 197,000,000.
Only the southernmost part of North America is
reached in summer by the equatorial rains. The high-
land of Mexico receives rains from the trade winds on
its eastern slopes, but the western slopes are not well-
watered. The wide middle portion of the continent is in
the path of the eddying storms of the westerly winds.
The westerly winds from over the North Pacific eddy give a
mild and even climate to the greater part of the west coast of
North America, for the seasons over the broad ocean do not change
so much as over the land.
In the interior of the continent, far from the sea, the summers
are very warm and the winters very cold. There the change of
seasons is much greater than near the coast.
On the east coast the winter weather is mild when the southeast
wind blows from over the Gulf stream, but is very chilling when
the northeast wind from over the Arctic current reaches the land
or when cold air flows out from the interior of the continent.
When the cold heavy air of winter covers the interior of North
America, not much moist air can flow in, and the inland rainfall is
therefore not heavy. When the warm light air of summer spreads
over the interior, the moist winds from the sea flow inland and
give plentiful rains, except on the lowlands among the western
mountains and on the plains along the eastern base of the Rocky
mountains.
RELIEF MAP OP NORTH AMERICA
MAP STUDIES.
29
33. Map Studies.1
On the relief map of North America locate the place where you
live. See opposite page.
What oceans border on North America? What continent
adjoins it on the south ? Iu what direction is Europe from North
America ? Which part of our continent lies nearest Asia ?
Turn to the map of the heat belts and tell what you can about
the seasons in North America. See map on page 21.
Which part of North America is in the path of the westerly
winds ? Of the trade winds ? See maps on page 2 If..
In what direction does the Rocky mountain highland extend ?
Along which side of the continent does it lie ? Which part of this
highland looks the highest ? The widest ?
Into what gulf does the Colorado river flow ? Name a large
river flowing into Bering sea.
Where is the Appalachian highland ? In what direction does
it extend ? Is it higher or lower than the Eocky mountain high-
land ? Is it longer or shorter ? Wider or narrower ?
On which side of the Eocky mountains are there vast plains ?
Name the largest river flowing into the gulf of Mexico. What
highlands are on the east and west sides of the Mississippi basin ?
Which part of the central plain is drained by the Mississippi
river and its branches ?
1 For drawing and modeling, see guide map in the Supplement.
AMERICA
What river forms the outlet of the Great Lakes ? What high-
lands are separated by the valley of this river ?
Which portion of the central plain is in the basin of the Nelson
river ? Into what bay does this river flow ?
Describe the course of the Mackenzie river. Which part of the
central plain does it drain ?
What bodies of water partly surround the peninsula of Florida ?
The peninsula of Labrador ? The peninsula of Alaska ? The
peninsula of Lower California ?
Sketch the general outline of North America,- — using only three
straight lines. In what general direction does the east coast
extend? The west coast? The north coast? Which coast is
the longest ?
Draw the north coast of this
continent ; the west coast ; the
east coast,
irregular ?
Which is the most
Maps showing the Position of North America among the Continents and Oceans.
Note : Whenever the name of
a city or a country is used, locate
it at once on the colored map of
the continent which is being
studied.
All places named in the text
can be found either on the key
maps or on the simple colored
maps in the body of the book. The
maps in the Supplement probably
contain the names of all places to
which you will need to refer in
any part of your school work.
30
THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.
rious ranges lying along
this plateau are known
34. The Rocky Mountains.1
The widest part of the Rocky mountain highland is
about midway between the isthmus of Panama and Bering
strait.
In this broad portion, lofty ranges almost inclose a vast
plateau, about a mile above sea level and several hundred
miles wide. The va-
the eastern side of
as the Rocky moun-
tains. This chain
extends far north-
ward into the
basin of the
Yukon river,
and southward
to the Rio
Grande,
at the
is spread over the lower land. The plains along the eastern base of
the Rocky mountains are made of the waste which in past ages has
been washed from the great range. Many of the Rocky mountain
peaks are over two miles and a half high.
Where are the Laramie plains ? See map on page 82. These
plains are in a high plateau region that interrupts the Rocky
mountain chain. The route of the first railroad built across our
country leads over the Laramie plains.
South of the Laramie plains the Rocky mountains con-
sist of parallel
Utah.
Mammoth Hot Springs.
place where that river forms the
boundary between .our cbuntry and
Mexico.
In the Rocky mountains, as. in all high mountains, bare crags
stand out near the summits, and coarse stony waste creeps down
the slopes into the valleys. The finer waste is washed farther and
1 The surface of the United States, occupying a broad belt across the
middle part of Xorth America, is treated much more at length than any
other part of the earth, not only because we ought to know the geography
of our own country, but also because the full knowledge of the surface and
resources of our land affords the best key to its history.
Yellowstone Falls.
ranges, running mostly
north and south. Among
these lie many high plains
known as parks. The parks are lofty basins shut in by
ranges on nearly all sides.
Among these are the North, the Middle, the South, and the San
Luis parks. Each of these contains several hundred square miles
of land that is quite level and is covered with rock-layers made of
waste washed from the surrounding mountains. Some parts are
wooded, and other parts are grassy or rocky.
The parks are drained by rivers that have cut deep and narrow
valleys, or canyons, through the ranges. The sources of the Platte,
THE ROCKY MOUNT AIXS.
31
the Arkansas, the Colorado and the Rio G-rande are in this
park region. Eailroads through this rough country often
follow the canyons, but the wagon roads generally lead over
the passes in the mountains.
Among the famous mountains of
this region are Pikes peak and Longs
peak. These rocky masses, patched
with snow, may be clearly seen from
the plains on the east of the great
chain.
"The Wasatch range rises
along the western part of the
Rocky mountains. The Colo-
rado river receives streams
from the east slope of the Wa-
satch range.
From the region of the Lara-
mie plains the Rocky mountains
bend towards the northwest
and there the great western
highland of the continent be-
comes narrower.
Where is the Wind River range ?
This high range contains sources of
streams that belong in three large
river systems, — the Colorado, the
Columbia and the Mississippi.
Locate the Yellowstone park. This
park has been reserved for the nation
and is therefore called a "national
park." It is famous for its geysers,
hot springs, falls and canyons.
Some of the geysers throw streams
of hot water more than two hundred
feet into the air. Steam escapes
with loud roaring and makes
the ground tremble. The water
in some of these fountains falls
back into basins, to be belched forth
again. In other geysers the water is
broken into fine spray and is carried
away by the wind.
In many basins the water does
not spout but only rises and forms
pools, or hot springs. These often
overflow and make terraces of stone,
like those in one of the pictures on
the opposite page.
In Yellowstone park is a small
body of water known as Two-Ocean
pond. In ordinary weather this
pond finds an outlet to the gulf of
Mexico, through branches of the
Mississippi river; but in times of
heavy rains, part of the overflow
from the pond reaches the Pacific
ocean, by way of the Snake and Columbia rivers.
Two-Ocean pond is on the continental divide, — the
divide between the slopes which descend to the
Atlantic ocean and ti.e Pacific.
Sagebrush.
The rainfall is not very heavy on those parts of the
Rocky mountains which are in the United States,
because the great chain lies far away from the sea,
and much of the moisture
brought by the eddying storms
of the westerly winds from
over the Pacific ocean falls on
high ranges near the Pacific
O CD
coast.
The rainfall in the Rocky moun-
tains, as in other parts of the earth,
is heavier on the ranges than on the
neighboring lower lands. Streams
from the mountains feed many of
the rivers, and canals from these
are often led out to water the
plains.
In summer, thunderstorms some-
times start over the high mountains
and drift eastward, watering the
plains east of the ranges. Snow
often falls on the mountains, while
rain is falling on the lower lands.
Only small parts of the
Rocky mountains are forest-
clad, but even this light sup-
ply is valuable, because the
lower lands of this region are
almost treeless, on account of
the dryness.
This deep - worn highland
yields more silver ore than
any other part of our country.
Gold is another valuable
product. The city of Den-
ver has had very rapid
growth because it is in the
midst of a great grazing
country on the plains and is near
rich mines in the mountains.
Northward from the border
of the United States, the
Rocky mountains are not very
far from the Pacific coast, and
therefore receive plentiful rain-
fall. For a great distance the
range is still loftv. Its summits
are heavily snow-clad, and large
glaciers are found on its slopes.
The mountains, as well as the
lower parts of the highland,
are heavily wooded.
Owing to the vegetation on the slopes of the
Rocky mountains in Canada, ore-bearing rocks are
not so easily found there as in our own country.
32
THE SIERRA NEVADA.
Copyright, 1895, by A. E. Frye.
Key to Relief Map on pages 34 and 35
35. The Sierra Nevada.
Where are the mountains that form the Sierra Nevada ? This
name means snowy range.
The lofty Sierra Nevada rises in steep slopes from the
plateau on the east, but descends in gentle slopes to the
low valley plain on the west. This
range receives heavy winter snowfalls
from the storms of the westerly winds.
In summer, the rains are not plentiful,
because the trade winds then reach
farther north, and storms are fewer.
The summer streams from the
Sierra are fed by the melting snow.
The broad uplands of the west
slope of the range are heavily
wooded. The east slope is drier,
and its forests are therefore lighter.
Most of the Sierra forests consist of cone
trees, — pine, spruce and fir. They supply
lumber to the cities and towns in the low-
lands west of the range. On the mountain
slopes are found groups of the famous "big
trees." Some of these are more than a
thousand years old and have a height of over
three hundred feet. They are the largest trees known in the
world. Mt. "Whitney, near the southern end of the range, is higher
than any peak of the Rocky mountains in the United States.
Ages ago the Sierra Nevada was greatly worn down. When the
surface reached the deeply-buried layers, veins of rock containing
gold were then uncovered. There were grains and nuggets of gold
in the waste which was washed from the mountains and which
formed beds of gravel along their western base.
In that ancient time, volcanoes among the
mountains poured forth lava that flowed
down the valleys and buried the gravel of
the river beds. In the ages which have since
passed, the mountain region has again been
uplifted and the volcanoes and the lava-flows
have been greatly worn away. New valleys
have been cut, and in many places the gold-
bearing gravel under the lava has been laid
bare. The gravel beds are now dug out for
the gold which they contain.
The picture on page 140 shows how miners
sometimes use water to wash down a gravel
bed. The water forces the gravel down a
trough, across the bottom of which are small
cleats or grooves holding quicksilver. The
gold is gathered by the quicksilver, and the
gravel is washed away.
1 Key to figures and letters on the map : The
heights of peaks are given in the Supplement.
1. Yellowstone Park. 4. Sontn Park.
California "Big Tree."
H = Mt. Hood.
J = Mt. Whitney.
L = Longs Peak.
2. North Park.
3. Middle Park.
M = Mitchells Peak.
P = Pikes Peak.
R = Mt. Rainier.
5. San Luis Park.
V. = Death Valley.
'S = Mt. Shasta.
V= Mt. San Francisco.
Y=Yosemite Valley.
THE CASCADE RANGE.
33
The lavarflows blocked many river valleys and thus formed
lakes. In time, many of these were drained and their beds became
meadows, making the best farming lands now to be found among
the mountains. One river has cut a deep valley from east to west
across the northern part of the Sierra Nevada. Elsewhere the range
can be crossed only over high passes.
The Yosemite valley is on the Pacific slope of the
Sierra Nevada. See map on page 82. The depth
of this wonderful valley is so great, and
its sides are so steep, that hundreds
of people visit it every year
In some places, its steep
sides are about half a mile
in height. Beautiful
streams from the upland
leap over cliffs into the valley.
In wet seasons, one small river falls
more than a fourth of a mile, but during
summer drouths it often dries up.
Southward from the Sierra Nevada, broken
ranges extend into the peninsula of Lower California.
This peninsula is in the dry belt along the outer border of
the trade winds and is too far south to feel the westerly
storms, even in winter.
36. The Cascade Range.
From the great volcanic cone of Mt. Shasta, the Cascade
range extends far northward. As a whole, it is not so
high as the Sierra Nevada.
A large part of the Cascade range is built of lava, and
the highest peaks in this range are volcanoes. The sides
of most of them are deeply worn, showing
that a long time has passed since their lava
flowed. Some of the peaks bear large
glaciers. Mt. Hood is one of the highest.
In recent years a few peaks in the Cascade
range have sent out small jets of steam, and at
least two craters have given forth showers of
ashes, but no lava-flow has been known to take
place since white men first went to the region.
The lava on some peaks is very firm and has flowed
so recently that it has hardly begun to weather.
At the place where the Columbia river
breaks through the Cascade range, the
stream has cut a gorge down almost to sea
level, draining the interior country where
there was once a large lake. This deep
gorge lays bare the edges of many lava
sheets and shows them to be very thick.
Rapids break the flow of the Columbia
river, at the place where it passes through
the range. By means of canal locks, river steamers and
other crafts can now pass these rapids
westerly winds reach this range at all seasons, but the
winter is the time of heaviest rainfall, as on all other coast
regions in the path of the westerly winds. The mountains
are covered with forests of valuable timber.
The Fraser river drains a rugged region between
the Coast range and the Rocky mountains. Like
the Columbia river, the Fraser has cut a deep
valley through the Coast range.
37. The Great Basin.
Between the Wa-
satch range and the
Sierra Nevada lies a
wide plateau region known as
the Great Basin. The central part
is almost a mile higher than sea level.
The surface of the Great Basin is broken by
many north-and-south ranges, between which lie long
troughs not many miles in width. The region is dry, be-
cause the high Sierra Nevada lies along its windward side.
There is more rain on the mountains than in the troughs, and
streams have carved many valleys in the steep slopes of the ranges.
The rock waste has been washed into the troughs, making gravelly
and sandy plains. See picture at the bottom of page 36.
The rainfall being light, many of the mountain ranges are bare
of trees, and the plains are almost deserts. In these plains, there
are shallow hollows, or sinks. Winter rains flood the sinks and
thus form lakes, but summer drouths cause the lakes to shrink.
Some of the places covered by lakes in winter are smooth dry
plains in summer. In these desert plains, the wind drifts the sand
into dunes which often cover the surface for many miles.
Yosemite Valley, California.
The streams of the Great Basin dry up on the plains
or enter lakes from which the water evaporates, for there
The Cascade range is so far north that even in summer is not enough water to overflow and cut valleys in the
the trade winds do not reach it. The storms of the slopes to the sea.
Copyright, 1895, by A. E Frye.
RELIEF MAP OF THE
UNITED STATES
36
THE GREAT BASIN.
Great Salt Lake,
Utah.
The plains
in the Great
Basin are so dry that
they are seldom
covered with grass, except along the streams running from the
mountains. Canals have been made to lead water from these
■.
Young Mountains or Tilted Blocks, — Northwest Part of Basin Region
streams to irrigate parts of the plains. A few cities and towns
have grown up along the streams and canals.
Some of the deep-worn ranges in this region have rich mines of
gold and of silver ore. These have led to the building of other
small cities and towns, but the Basin region is only thinly settled.
The streams of this region, like nearly all other streams on
the earth, wash salt from the soil. The salt is formed by the
weathering of certain kinds of rocks. The amount of salt carried
by a river during an entire season may be very small, but if the
river flows for ages into a basin having no outlet, much salt
gathers there. Water standing in such a basin forms a salt lake.
There are many salty valleys and salt lakes in the Great Basin.
One of these, Great Salt lake, covers about two thousand six
hundred square miles. This lake widens in rainy weather and
shrinks in time of drouth. A cupful of its water contains a table-
spoonful of salt, — more than four times the quantity in a cupful
of ocean water. Salt Lake City, the largest city in the Great Basins-
is near the shore of this lake.
Many centuries ago, when there was a wetter climate, a much
larger body of water filled the basin in which Great Salt lake lies.
The old lake then overflowed northward at the lowest pass in the
enclosing mountains and discharged to a branch of the Columbia
river. The old shore lines may still be seen on the mountain sides,
nearly 1000 feet above the level of Great Salt lake.
In what direction does the Humboldt river flow ? This is one
of the streams which run into sinks and form salt lakes. The first
railroad built across the continent follows the Humboldt river past
the ends of about fifteen ranges.
In the low southwest part of the Great Basin, there is a sink
that dips below the level of the sea. This is known as Death Valley
and is noted
for its dry-
ness and
its intense
summer
heat. Still
farther
south lies
the Mohave
desert,
stretching
from the
Sierra Ne-
vada to the
Colorado river.
A region extending northward from the gulf of California 'was
once covered by that body of water, but was cut off
by the delta of the Colorado river. The region being
very dry, the water in the old head of the gulf has
long since dried away, leaving a desert plain. Some-
times a distributary from the Colorado river flows
into* the hollow and forms a temporary lake.
The Basin region includes not only the Great
Basin, but also two smaller districts that are partly
drained to the sea. One of these is southeast, and
the other northwest, of the Great Basin. On the
map {page 32) they are separated from the rest of
the Basin region by lightly-dotted lines.
In the northwest part of the Basin region, the
mountains are so young that no deep valleys are yet
worn in their sides. These mountains are edges of
huge blocks, tilted like those shown in the picture.
The shape of the blocks has hardly changed since the
region was thus broken up. Lakes lie in the troughs between the
tilted blocks. Most of the lakes have no overflow to the sea.
Colorado Plateau Region (page 37).
Basin Ranges and Troughs, — Wet Season.
THE COLORADO PLATEAUS.
37
38. The Colorado Plateaus.
A broad region southeast of the
Great Basin consists of lofty plateaus
in which rivers have cut long and
deep canyons. This highland region
is known as the Colorado plateaus.
The rainfall on the Colorado pla-
teaus is light, because high ranges lie
to windward, near the Pacific coast.
The higher and cooler parts of the
plateau receive the most rainfall.
The largest rivers in this region are
fed by rains and melting snow on the
Rocky mountains.
These plateaus were, formed ages ago by the slow uplifting of
great blocks of land, many miles long and wide. The surfaces of
some of the blocks are a mile or a mile and a half above sea level.
The edges of the higher blocks form cliffs a thousand or more
feet high. In many places the rocky layers rise one over another,
in broad benches, as shown in a picture on the opposite page.
Across these plateau blocks, the Colorado river has cut a great
the lavas came are now to be Been. These
necks form steep hills, or buttes.
Borne of the lavas which flowed
from the volcanoes to the lower land
now form small table-lands, or mesas,
the surrounding surface having
been worn away.
m The Colorado plateaus are
7 very thinly settled, for most
Lower Colorado.
parts of them are dry and barren, or covered with sage-
brush. On several of the higher parts and near the
Young Volcano.
canyon, with steep sides all rugged with
spurs and ravines. There one may see the
rocks, layer on layer, of which the plateaus
are made.
For a long distance the Colorado canyon
is about a mile deep. Its sides consist
of rocks of many colors, — gray, brown,
red, yellow and purple. At times of sun-
rise and sunset, first one color and then
another catches the light or is thrown into
shadow, — making a marvelous display.
The Colorado canyon is a young river
valley. Unlike most valleys, it does not
serve as a place to live iu or as a route of
travel. The rapids in the river prevent
navigation; the canyon is so deep and
narrow that it can be followed only with
great danger; and travel across it from
cliff to cliff is almost impossible.
Several large volcanoes have been built
on the Colorado plateaus, and many lava-
flows have spread over their surfaces.
Some of the volcanoes have wasted away,
so that only the necks through which
Ancient Cliff Dwellings.
Mesa and Volcanic Neck.
streams there are groves and grassy
tracts.
On some of the mesas, tribes of Indians
make their homes. The steep sides of
the mesas afford protection from enemies.
Bains of strange dwellings are found
in shallow caves under the cliffs in some
of the canyons of the Colorado plateau
region. The Indians who made th<
dwellings disappeared before the wl
men set foot in that country. The people
of that ancient race are now called '-'Cliff-
dwellers." They knew how to weave coarse
cloth and to make pottery. Their villages
were built in the cliffs in order that the
tribes might be safe from attack.
Many kinds of cactus plants thrive in
this dry plateau country. Some of these
are small, but others grow to trees.1
1 On the next page there are pictures of two
species of cactus trees and also of a tree yucca,
or Spanish bayonet. The latter has stiff bayonet-
like leaves.
38
THE COLUMBIA PLATEAU.
39. The Columbia Plateau.
What large river drains the region on the north of
the Great Basin ? Name the largest south branch of
this river.
What mountains are on the east and the west sides
of the Columbia plateau. See map on page 32.
The Columbia plateau is about half as high
as the Colorado plateau region. The north and
east parts of the Columbia plateau are
broken by rugged mountains. Great lava
plains form the south and west parts. This
plateau is in the path of the westerly
winds, and receives more rainfall than the
Great Basin, for the Cascade mountains
are lower than the Sierra Nevada.
In the northeast portion of the Columbia
plateau there are many fertile valleys.
Some of these are wooded with pine
and fir trees. Other parts have deep
and rich soil which in recent years
has yielded large crops of wheat.
The lava plains in the southwest are
mostly dry and barren, except near the
streams.
Long ages ago, the great lava-floods of this region
were poured into a broad lowland where the lava cooled
and formed an immense plain between high ranges on the east
and the west. A picture on page 15 shows part of the lava plain,
and one of the cuts on page 31 shows a cooled lava wave.
The lava plain of the Columbia region covers many thousand
square miles,1 and in places is hundreds of feet deep.
__ Ages have
passed since the
great flows of
lava took place.
Eivers have now
worn canyons in
the lava beds.
The narrow flood
plains are fertile
and afford fine
soil for the
growth of wheat,
but most of the
region is barren
and therefore
thinly settled.
The Snake river has cut the longest and deepest of these canyons.
Near the head of its canyon, the river plunges over the edges of
some of the lava beds, making falls of great size and beauty.
These are known as the Shoshone falls.
Along the sides of the canyon, both above and below the falls,
can be seen the lava and ashes, layer on layer, through which the
river has cut its channel.
1 The lava-flows in this part of the continent cover from 150,000 to
200,000 square miles, — an area equal to about one twentieth that of our
whole country-. Part of the lava-flows took place in Canada. They are
the greatest in the world, except perhaps those of the Deccan peninsula,
in India.
40. The Coast Range and Valleys.
West of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade
mountains lie several mountain ridges form-
ing a low Coast range. Being near the ocean,
and in the path of the westerly winds,
this range has a milder and more uniform
climate than the regions in
interior of the con-
tinent. Most parts of
the range are wooded.
Near the foggy coast
north of San Francisco
bay grow the giant red-
wood trees which yield
valuable lumber. The
redwoods are almost as
large as the " big trees " of
the Sierra and belong in the
same family. In the moun-
tains south of the bay, there is one of
the few places in the world where
quicksilver is found.
One of the largest telescopes yet made is
located on Mt. Hamilton, in the Coast range
south of San Francisco. The object glass of
the telescope is a yard in diameter. Seen
through this great instrument, the moon
appears to be only a few miles away.
The long lowland plain between the Sierra Nevada and
the Coast range is called the valley of California. It is
covered with waste washed from the mountains. This
great valley has plentiful winter rains, but its summers
are dry. Its principal products are wheat and fruit.
Many streams from the Sierra are still building up the floor of
the valley plain with their flood deposits. The streams flow in
shallow channels and are easily turned aside to irrigate the land.
The great port of San Francisco, on the fine bay of the
same name, owes its rapid growth to the discovery of
gold in the Sierra
Nevada and to
the wonder-
ful fertility
of the val-
ley of
Califor-
nia.
Orange Grove, California.
San Francisco bay is the
drowned valley of a river that once
cut through the mountains. It is the
only break in the Coast range west of the Sierra Nevada, and forms
one of the best harbors in the world. The streams which flow
THE YUKON REGION.
39
from the west slope of the Sierra run along the valley, then unite Puget sound is a drowned valley that leads sea-water
and enter San Franeiso bay. through the Coast range and forms many fine harbors.
In the south the valley of California ends where the The region about the sound is in the path of the westerly
Coast range and the Sierra Nevada bend towards each storm eddies and is one of the leading lumber districts
in the world. Its mountain slopes are covered with
pine, fir and spruce.
For a long distance northward from the head of Puget sound,
the mountainous coast region is broken by deep valleys, now
partly sunk beneath the sea. The drowned valleys form many
fiords running far inland, and also long sounds behind islands.
Puget sound is the most important of these drowned valleys.
Steamers can follow the quiet waters of these sounds and thus
avoid the rough ocean outside.
other and meet. Still farther
south are many small but
fertile valleys. In that region
the summers are hot and dry, but the winters are
mild and rainy. During the dry season, water for the
fruit groves is led in ditches from the mountains.
Oranges, lemons, grapes, and many other kinds of fruit
thrive in the valleys.
„— a. Owing to the mild-
ness of the climate,
the cities of southern
California have be-
come well known as*
health resorts.
The Willamette
valley lies between
the Cascade and
Coast ranges. This
Lie* Observatory, Mt. HamUton. region is Well
watered and is very fertile. Portland has a fine harbor on
the Willamette river and has therefore grown to be the
leading center of trade in the region.
Sand bars form at the mouth of the Columbia and make entrance
difficult for large vessels. Massive stone walls, called jetties, have
been built
to narrow
the channel
and thus
deepen the
mouth of
this great
stream. The
San Francisco— Golden Gate.
Columbia river is famous
for its salmon fisheries. •
Where is Puget sound ?
What large island partly
incloses this great sound?
See. map of United States
in the Supplement.
Old CUtt House and Seal Roclis.
Pur Seals, ■W^
Pribiloi Islands.
Rivers bearing plentiful waste from
the mountains have built deltas at the heads of many of the fiords,
thus forming smooth-floored valleys only a little above sea level.
.41. The Yukon Region.
Northward from the Columbia plateau the high-
land is mountainous but not very high nor very
wide, except in the border ranges.
What mountains border this region on the east ? What
range is on the west ?
In the far northwest, the ranges of the Rocky
Mountain highland spread apart in the great penin-
sula of Alaska. The main range bends westward along
the coast, to the end of the Alaskan peninsula.
The greater part of Alaska is drained by the Yukon
river. This is one of the largest streams in America.
The air of Alaska is cold, but clear and bracing.
The southwest shore of Alaska has a mild climate,
although so far from the equator. The ocean winds are
40
HIGHLAND OF MEXICO.
there warmed by the drift from the Japan current. Warm
moist winds from the sea are chilled in rising over the
mountain slopes in Alaska and therefore yield very heavy
snowfall.
Among the high peaks of this region are Mt. Logan and Mt.
St. Elias. For a long time Mt. St. Elias was thought to be the
highest peak on the continent, but Mt. Logan, recently discovered
a few miles farther
inland, is ^^^ ^"""""Ss^ V
more ^s^ ^v -y
than
a fourth of a mile
higher, — a little
more than three
miles1 and two
thirds above sea
level.
Alaska belongs to
the United States,
but these high peaks
are just east of the
border line between
Alaska and Canada.
From the snowy
mountains in Alaska,
many glaciers descend
to fiords and yield
countless icebergs. Streams
flowing from beneath the
glaciers build deltas in \
' front of the ice. The delta
shown in the picture on page 13 was
thus made.
One of the pictures on this page shows
the melting end of an Alaskan glacier.
As the great stream of ice slowly creeps
down from the upper snow-fields, rock waste
falls upon it, and near the lower end trees grow in
the soil on the ice. In the picture, the face of the glacier looks
like a cliff almost hidden by the trees in front of it and upon it.
The shore-waters and many of the streams of Alaska abound in
fish. The people in this district prepare great quantities of
salmon for market.
Where is Bering sea ? In summer large herds of seals visit the
Pribilof islands, in Bering sea, to rear their young. Many of
these seals are killed for their fine fur. The islands on the south,
partly inclosing this sea, contain many volcanoes now active. .
What lands are separated by Bering strait ?
JMt. Logan, 19,539 feet ; Mt. St. Elias, 18,024 feet.
42. Highland of Mexico.
West of the gulf of Mexico rises the lofty highland of
Mexico. This great mass of land is narrow in the south
but broad in the north where it merges into the Basin
region and the Kocky mountains.
The highest range of mountains running northward in
Mexico is the Sierra Madre.
The narrow southern end of the plateau of Mexico is
about a mile and a half above sea level. A chain of large
volcanoes extends east and west across this end
of the highland. Some of the craters are more
than twice as high as the plateau.
Orizaba is the highest of these peaks, but its
summit is more than a thousand feet lower
than that of Mt. Logan.
Popocatepetl is another high peak in
this volcanic region. Indians that live on
the sides of Popocatepetl take sulphur in
large quantities from the crater.
Northward from this chain of vol-
canoes stretches the lofty plateau.
Below it, on the east, lie narrow
marshy coastal plains. The region
west of the Sierra Madre resembles
the Basin region of our country.
Mexico lies north of the equatorial
rain belt but is in the track of the
trade winds. The wet season on the
plateau and in the eastern coastal
plain prevails in summer when the
moist air from over the sea blows in-
land. Most of the western slope of
the highland of Mexico is dry, because
the winds that blow over it are warm-
ing on their way towards the heat
equator. The region is too far north
to be reached by the equatorial rains
and too far south for the moist
westerly winds. See maps on page 24.
The highland of Mexico is so near the
coasts that there are no large river basins on
either side. In times of heavy rainfall, many
small streams on the east slope rush down
gorges that they are wearing in the side of
the plateau, and overflow parts of the narrow coastal plain.
Several low ranges divide the high plain into shallow troughs
like those in the Great Basin. The rainfall is so light that from
most of the basins there is no overflow to the sea, and therefore no
deep canyons have been cut in these parts of the plateau. In rainy
seasons water collects in the basins and forms lakes. When the
rains are over, the water in many of the lakes dries away.
The eastern coastal plains of Mexico are hot and unhealthful.
They consist largely of swampy land, densely wooded.
There are no good harbors, because there are no drowned
valleys nor large river mouths. The gulf coast of Mexico ia
fringed with long sand bars built offshore by the waves. Vera
SALMON
SEINE
CENTRAL AMERICA.
41
Cruz, the chief port, is on the narrow coastal plain, and
sand bars partly protect the harbor from storms
Because of height and nearness to
the equator, the climate of the plateau
of Mexico is mild all the year, and
there are no long periods of great
heat or cold. This plateau produces
oaks, cedars and other trees, as well
as many smaller plants like those in
the southwest part of our country.
Millions of Indians and white
people live on the plateau of Mexico.
The chief city is called Mexico. It is situated in a beauti-
ful hill-encircled valley nearly a mile and a half above
sea level.
43. Central America.
Which part of North America
is called Central America ?
IS
Popocatepetl, Mexico
of North
reaches from
Mexican Cart.
Water Carrier,
Mexico.
Most of this region
rugged country. Its highest parts are volcanic ranges
rising mainly along the Pacific border, but branching
inland. These ranges are not nearly so
high as the great volcanic range in
Mexico. The Pacific coast of this region
is bold and rocky.
Central America is in the belt of the
trade winds and receives rains chiefly on
the east slope. In summer this land has
also the equatorial rains which water
the west as well as the east coast.
The eastern coastal plain of Central America
is a continuation of that in Mexico. These
damp lands are densely wooded and are covered
with jungles in which many wild beasts live.
Plants grow so quickly there that it is difficult
to keep the lands cleared for farming.
Among the ranges of Central America are broad plains,
or upland valleys, that average about half a mile in
height. The soil of these plains consists mainly of
weathered volcanic ash, very fine and fertile. Many
white people, Indians and Negroes live
in these upland valleys.
Locate Lake Nicaragua. This lake
is part of a route that has been selected
for a canal between the two oceans.
On an island in the lake there is a
volcano whose sides were at one time
laid out in beautiful gardens. Not
many years ago, great streams of lava
and ashes burst from the crater and
flowed down the sides of the cone,
burying the gardens many feet deep.
Another volcano in Central America
ooured a flood of water over a town
and washed away its houses. The water came from a
lake that had formed in the crater. There are many
crater lakes in this region.
In many parts of Central America are ruins
of temples and idols made by Indians who
held the land when the white men first went
there. Most of the ruins are now overgrown
with trees.
44. The Appalachian Highland.
East of the Rocky mountains spreads
the great central plain
America. This plain
the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic ocean.
The Appalachian highland is east of the southern half
of the central plain. This highland extends southwest
from the gulf of St. Lawrence nearly to the gulf of
Mexico.
The Appalachian highland is well supplied with rain-
fall at all seasons. Moist winds reach it from over the
gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic ocean. The slopes of
the highland are
wooded with oak,
maple, cone-bearers
and many other
kinds of trees.
The Appalachian
highland consists of
several regions which
maybe named as follows:
The Old Appalachian
range, — including the
New England highland,
the Blue ridge, the Carolina highland, and other ridges having
various names.
The Piedmont Belt. The word piedmont means foot of the
mountains, and is here applied to the rolling or hilly land along
the eastern foot of the Old Appalachian range.
The Great Valley, — a long and narrow lowland on the west of
the Old Appalachian range.
The Allegheny ridges, — rising on the west of the Great
Valley.
The Allegheny plateau, — a broad upland region next on the
northwest.
The boundaries of these regions are shown by lightly-dotted lines
on the map. See page 82.
Note : The large island of Newfound-
land, though beyond the gulf of St.
Lawrence, may be treated as part of
the Appalachian highland. This island
has sunk partly beneath the sea, making
a very broken coastline. In the ocean
southeast of the island are shallow
places known as the banks of New-'
foundland. These banks abound in
cod, halibut and other kinds of fish.
The ridges of the Ozark highland
resemble the Allegheny ridges. See
lesson 47 ; also map on page 82.
Century Plants, Mexico.
Mexican Village.
42
OLD APPALACHIAN RANGE.
45. Old Appalachian Range and Piedmont Belt.
The portion of the Old Appalachian range known as
the New England highland stretches from the gulf of St.
Lawrence to the Hudson river.1 This highland consists
of a broad and rolling upland, above which rise hills and
mountains. The surface is also broken by many valleys
in which lakes abound.
llic highest group of peaks in this highland is known
as the White mountains. The Connecticut valley, with its
of this region are nearly all on the seacoast or near the
falls in the rivers. Boston is the greatest seaport in
this region.
The surface of the New England highland was heavily scoured
by the ancient ice-sheet from the Laurentian highland. The weaker
rocks were worn away, and rock waste was left unevenly spread
over the region. When the ice melted, the streams were held back
in the scoured basins and behind the barriers of drift, or rock
waste, thus forming numerous lakes. Many of the streams were
pushed aside from their old valleys and were made to flow over
ledges from which they now fall in rapids and cascades. Since the
ice melted, there has not been time for the streams to cut down
the ledges and drain the lakes. Towns and cities have grown up
fine farming lands, lies between this group and the
Green mountains.
lit Washington, one of the White mountains, is the highest
peak in the northeast part of our country.
The rolling or hilly piedmont slope of the New Eng- at the falls and rapids where water power is supplied to many
land highland reaches to the sea. The cities and towns mills and factories- The coastline of this piedmont slope is very
irregular, for the land has sunk partly beneath the sea, forming
deep bays or fiords which separate headlands and islands. Waves
1 The New England states occupy only part of this highland.
THE GREAT VALLEY.
43
river towards the Great Lakes. Northward the valley
route leads through lake George and lake Champlain.
on the exposed shores are cutting cliffs1 but the rocks are so hard with other valleys to make an open highway northward
that they wear away very slowly. to the gt> Lawrence basin and westward up the Mohawk
For some distance southwest of the Hudson river, the
Old Appalachian range is neither so high nor so wide as
in the New England highland. This lower part looks
like a long and narrow plateau. Still farther southwest,
the old range becomes higher
and wider and is there called
the Blue ridge.
On the south, the Blue
ridge runs into the Carolina
highland, which contains the
highest peaks in the whole
range.
Mt. Mitchell, one of the Black
mountains in the Carolina highland, is about
& mile and a fourth high and overtops all
other peaks in the Appalachian highland.
The piedmont slope east of the Blue
ridge and Carolina highland is a hilly
region gradually descending to the
wide coastal plain, with its farm lands,
its pine forests and its cypress swamps.
This part of the piedmont is a fine
farming district and is noted for its
large crops of cotton and tobacco.
46. The Great Valley and Allegheny Ridges.
The Great Valley in the Appalachian highland is a long
lowland, with mountains on the east and the west. At
the north, the Great Valley opens into the St. Lawrence
basin ; and at the south, into the Gulf coastal plain. The
greater part of the long val-
ley is covered with farms.
The largest rivers rising in
the Appalachian region do not
run along the Great Valley but
across it, and escape by deep and
narrow gorges worn through the
inclosing highland. The Hud-
son, Delaware, Susque-
hanna, Potomac and
James rivers rise in the
highland west of the Great
Valley and flow across the
valley and the Old Appa-
lachian range. See colored
map of Middle Atlantic
states.
The Tennessee river
rises in the old range east
of the long valley, but
flows westward across the valley and reaches the Ohio river.
The most important of these cross-gorges in the Ap-
palachian range is that of the Hudson river, for it unites
1 See pictures of Grand Manan, page 16.
A Cypress Swamp.
Erie Canal.
A large part of the
Hudson gorge has been
slightly drowned, making
a fine water way far in-
land from the seacoast.
Nearly three fourths of
a century ago, the long
Erie canal was built along
the Mohawk branch of
the Great Valley, from lake Erie to the Hudson river.
This canal furnishes a cheap route of trade between the
Great Lakes and the Atlantic seacoast. Railroads now
follow closely along the same route. The great port of
New York owes its growth largely to its position on an
excellent harbor at the
mouth of the Hudson val-
ley, where trade can easily
be carried on, both inland
and across the oceans. The
other gorges which cross
the highland are also used
as lines of travel.
Water slowly dissolves lime-
stone and thus forms caves or
caverns. There are many of
these in the Appalachian region.
The Cavern of Luray, in the
Great Valley of Virginia, is one of the most beautiful.2 See
picture on page 44-
The roofs of caves sometimes fall, making deep gorges; or
only a small part may remain standing in the form of an arch.
The Natural Bridge shown in the picture on page 42 is in
the Great Valley. This rocky arch is over 200 feet high.
See colored map of Middle Atlantic states.
The long even-crested ridges or folds west of the Great
Valley, as far north as the Hudson gorge, may be called the
2 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, is larger than that of Luray.
44
THE ALLEGHENY PLATEAU.
Allegheny ridges. They often extend for
many miles in a straight course, without
any peaks. See note to picture below.
These ridges are all forested, and
the valleys between them are good
farming lowlands. The streams
which gather in these inner valleys
escape through narrow notches, or
gaps, in the ridges. The chief rail-
roads and wagon roads enter the
inner valleys through these gaps.
The northern part of the Allegheny
ridges supplies almost all the hard
coal and some of the iron ore used
in our country.
47. The Allegheny Plateau.
The eastern side of the Allegheny
plateau falls by steep slopes into
valleys next to the Allegheny ridges. On the west and
south, the plateau descends gradually to the prairies and
the Gulf coastal plain.
The rocky layers of the plateau contain
beds of soft coal and iron ore. The
many valleys cut by branch streams
expose these valuable beds on the
slopes, so that they can be easily
found and mined. The northern
half of the plateau yields great quan-
tities of petroleum and natural gas.
Pittsburg has grown up at the
place where two rivers unite to
form the Ohio. This gity is noted
for its coal trade, iron mills and
glassworks. The Ohio river forms
a fine water way from Pittsburg to
the Mississippi river.
The southern half of the Alle-
gheny plateau is mostly drained by
two large tributaries of the Ohio
river. These streams and their
branches have worn cleep valleys, making a very rugged
region. Travel is difficult and this part of the plateau
is not so thickly settled as that farther north.
This plateau is so greatly worn by branching streams that it is
known to be older than the smoother plateau of the Columbia
basin, where the valleys are narrower.
The rivers of the Allegheny plateau receive
water so quickly from the many steep
valley-slopes that they "often rise ^
thirty or forty feet in floods.
Nearly all these rivers flow into
the Ohio.
Most of the higher parts
of the Allegheny plateau are
forested and yield valuable
timber. The lower western
portions of the upland have
been cleared of trees and now
form rich farming and graz-
ing districts, — famous for
wool and for dairy products.
The Ozark highland, west of the Mississippi river, resembles-
parts of the Appalachian highland. The southern part of the
Ozark region has many straight and even-crested ridges through
which the 'rivers have cut gaps like those in the
Allegheny ridges.
The northern half of the Ozark
highland is a plateau whose main
slope is towards the Missouri river.
This plateau is greatly worn by
streams and in form resembles the
Allegheny plateau; but many of
the even uplands in the Ozark
region are open prairies.
Note : This picture shows part
of one of the Allegheny ridges.
The folded rock-layers were once
covered by many others, but they
have long been exposed to the
weather and have therefore wasted
away.
THE LAURENTIAN HIGHLAND.
45
Its mineral
48. The Laurentian Highland.
The St. Lawrence river flows in a valley
that separates the Laurentian highland
from the Appalachian.
The Laurentian highland extends
from the Labrador peninsula south-
west towards the Great Lakes;
thence running north of these bodies
of water, the highland bends to the
northwest and approaches the Arctic
coast not far from the west shore of
Hudson bay.
Northwest of the St. Lawrence gulf
and river the highland is a desolate region
strewn with boulders and broken by val-
leys. Bare rocky hills rise in some places
but no part deserves the name of moun-
tain range.
This region -was once mountainous, but ages
ago it was worn down to a low but rough, plateau
wealth has not been developed to any extent.
The northeast part of our continent has sunk partly beneath the
sea, making the coast line very irregular. The St. Lawrence val-
ley was thus partly drowned, forming a broad gulf and carrying the
navigable waters far inland.
In the valleys of the low plateau are many lakes and
swamps through which streams flow. Near these grow
thick forests that make traveling very difficult. The
people travel mostly in canoes through lakes and streams,
thus avoiding the swamps and forests.
The winter winds which reach the peninsula of Labrador, from
over the northern lands, are cold and piercing. The winds which
blow over it from the sea are always chilly, for a cold polar current
sweeps past this part of the Atlantic coast.
Many fur-bearing animals are found in this desolate region.
Among these are beavers, foxes, martens and muskrats.
species of large deer, the moose and the caribou, graze on
mosses and tender shoots of trees in this cold country. See
pictures on page 50. Ducks, geese and other seafowl abound
along the rocky shores.
As the winters are severe, the rocky uplands rugged and
the valleys swampy, the old highland is thinly settled. The
few thousand Indians and still fewer white people who make
their homes in that cold country live by hunting.
South and west of Hudson bay, the highland
rises but little above the neighboring plains.
Far to the north and northeast of the Laurentian
highland are many large islands. Ages ago these
were probably part of the continent and were after-
wards separated from it by the sinking of the land.
The largest of these islands is Greenland. What have
you read about the great ice-sheet of Greenland ?
The creeping ice scrapes away the rock waste
beneath, and rubs the rocks round and smooth, -
scratching them with stones and sand that are dragged
along. See picture of rounded rocks, page 10.
Similar rounded and scratched rocks are found all
over the Laurentian highland and over the northern
part of the Appalachian highland. It is therefore
believed that these regions were once
covered with an ice-sheet like that which
now covers Greenland. Their many lake
basins were made chiefly by the scraping
of the ice and by the uneven heaping of
the waste, or drift, which the ice left.
In these regions many streams
were turned aside from their old
valleys by barriers of drift, and
were thus made to flow over rocky
ledges where we now find
falls and rapids. If it had
not been for this action of
the ice-sheet, there would
be no lakes and but few
falls in countries as old
•'* as the Laurentian or the
New England highland.
In the southern part of
the Appalachian high-
land, where ice has not worked,
there are no lakes, and falls are
fewer than in the New England highland. The streams have had
time to deepen their channels and thus drain the ancient lakes.
49. The St. Lawrence Basin.
The Great Lakes fill hollows on the southward slope
from the Laurentian highland. These lakes and the
St. Lawrence river, with all the streams flowing into
them, form the St. Lawrence - system .
The basins of the Great Lakes were deepened, though not wholly
formed, by the rubbing or scouring of the ancient ice-sheet which
moved across them from the Laurentian highland.
Cider Duck and. Nest.
No long slopes send
large rivers to the Great
Lakes. Much of their
water supply comes di-
rectly from rain and
snow. The bottoms of
all the lakes, except Erie, de-
scend below sea level. The surface
of lake Superior is about an eighth of a
40
THE ST. LAWRENCE BASIN
mile higher than the mouth of the St. Lawrence. The
outlet of this lake is known as St. Marys strait. It is
not navigable, because it descends in rapids to the level
of lake Huron.
Rapids In St. Marys Strait.
Lock in the " Soo " Canal.
The so-called St. Marys
strait is a river about
sixty miles long. Which picture shows the rapids in this river ?
Vessels avoid these rapids by going through the "Soo" canal. One
of the pictures shows a steamer ready to come from the canal lock.
There are no rapids to prevent vessels from sailing
between lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie, but between
lakes Erie and Ontario there is an abrupt descent of the
upland country, in a low bluff.
Niagara river, the outlet of lake Erie, originally fell over the
northern edge of this upland, thus forming the falls of Niagara.
Syice then the river has slowly cut a deep gorge back into the
bluff, — the falls always keeping at the head of the gorge. They
are now about six miles back from the edge of the bluff.
The falls of Niagara are about three fourths of a mile wide and
one hundred and fifty feet high. Below the falls, the river rushes
through its long gorge, making rapids of great size and grandeur.
Niagara PaUs.
The cliffs of Niagara consist of layers of limestone on softer rock.
From time to time, as the lower rock is worn away, huge masses of
limestone break off and fall into the gorge. The stream must have
worked thousands of years to cut this great valley, yet that time is
short compared with the period during which
the Hudson river was cutting its long gorge.
A large water way, known as the
Welland canal, has been made to join
lakes Erie and Ontario.
From lake Ontario the St. Lawrence
river forms a water way to the sea.
The river has rapids, but canals have
been built past them. Going down
the stream, many steamers pass over the rapids. The
city of Montreal is below the lowest rapids, near the
head of the drowned part of the valley. That city
marks the limit of navigation for ocean steamers on the
St. Lawrence river.
Where is lake Champlain ? Into what river does its outlet
flow ? What mountains are west of this lake ? See map, page US.
The rocks
of the Adiron-
dack moun-
tains and of
the highland
south and
west of lake
Superior are
like those in
the Lauren-
tian highland.
They are roots of old worn-down mountain ranges, and
the land surface which long ago was high above the mineral
layers is now brought down close to them. Both these
small highlands yield large quantities of iron ore. The
rocks of the old region south of lake Superior contain not
only the richest known deposits of iron ore, but also much
copper.
The lightly-dotted line shown a little south of lake Superior on
the map, page 32, marks off a district that is drained by streams of
the Mississippi system, yet the district is part of the old deep-worn
highland described above. A lightly-dotted line has also been
placed round the Adirondack highland, yet parts of it belong to
the Hudson and St. Lawrence basins.
The slopes around the upper three Great Lakes form
the leading lumber district in our country. The forests
yield both hard and soft woods, such as are used in
making furniture and in building houses.
The St. Lawrence system is the best inland water way
in the world. Hundreds of large steamers and other
vessels help carry on trade between the lake ports and
bear away many of the products of the mines, the farms,
the forests and the workshops.
The largest of all these ports is Chicago. This city has
grown very rapidly, because it is within easy reach of
Niagara Gorge.
THE WESTERN PLAINS.
47
forests around the upper lakes, of farms and pasture
lands in the central plain, of iron mines near lake
Superior, and of coal fields in the plain on the south.
Locate Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit and Milwaukee.
These lake ports are smaller than Chicago, but they
resemble it in their trade.
50. The Western Plains.
Except in the far north, the part of the great central
plain lying next east of the Rocky mountains has a long
gradual slope eastward.
In some places, bench lands rise high above the general
level of the country.
Describe the course of the Missouri river. This stream from
its mountain source to the gulf of Mexico is thought to be the
longest on the earth. The name of the stream is often written
Missouri-Mississippi, because the Missouri joins the Mississippi
long before the latter reaches the gulf of Mexico. Describe the
course of the Arkansas river.
Large rivers like the Missouri and the Mississippi often do much
damage when flooded. They sometimes cut into their banks, —
destroying fields and washing away railroads.
Jetties are built in some places to protect the river banks.
One of the pictures on this page shows a simple form of jetty. It
consists of branches woven among stakes that are driven into the
These plains are far inland and receive little rain. The
westerly winds lose most of their moisture in crossing
the Rocky mountain highland.
The northern part of the region includes the frozen
plains near the Arctic ocean. See Lesson 52.
South of the frozen portion are the wooded plains in
Canada. The rainfall there is not heavy, but it has time
to sink into the soil, for the hot season is short and the
cold ground dries slowly. Snow lies in the forests for
several months each year. Large streams flow eastward
from this region.
In our own country, south , of the wooded plains, lie
the dry Western plains. Parts of these plains, near the
mountains, are more than a mile above sea level.
From the Rocky mountains many large rivers flow east-
ward across the dry plains. These streams run swiftly
down their sandy valleys and carry an immense quantity
of land waste. Dry upland plains stretch from one valley
to another. Most of these uplands are gently rolling.
river bed. The jetties not only prevent the swift currents from
striking the bank, but they also cause the muddy water to eddy into
still places between them and there deposit mud or sand.
Some river banks are protected by interwoven branches,' making
mattress work like that shown in the picture. Powerful force
pumps are first used to slope the banks. Then the mattress is
made and sunk, — reaching from flood level far down upon the
river bed. Swift currents cannot cut through the mattress work
till it is worn out.
The dry plains are not a desert, nor are they fertile.
Sagebrush thrives in many places, and scanty grass grows
almost everywhere. The best lands are in the large river
valleys, or near the mountains where many small streams
flow. There are good farms where canals and ditches
have been made to turn aside river-water over the land.
48
THE PRAIRIES.
Many attempts have been made to get water from wells to irri-
gate the dry plains, but the supply of ground water is so small
that a great part of the plains cannot be irrigated.
Large herds of cattle graze on the western plains.
Kansas City, Kansas, has grown to be a leading market
for these cattle, and that city sup-
plies large quantities of
beef to other parts of the
country. Denver is
the leading city of
the plains.
about as fast as a railroad train, give brief rains to belts of
country from fifty to two hundred miles wide, but leave dry regions
on either side, until other storms come to water them.
Violent squalls usually blow out from the storms, in front of
the rain. Destructive tornadoes sometimes occur beneath the storm-
clouds. Houses are often blown down, and trees are uprooted.
The soil over much of the
prairie region is fine, deep
and rich.
It has
been made
in various
ways. In
the south-
ern part
of the
prairies,
the sur-
face has
The Black hills form a small mountain area rising out
of the plains. There are valuable gold mines in the old
rocks of these so-called hills.
The southern end of the dry plains is known
as the Staked plain.1 This is a broad smooth
upland, high enough to be called a plateau.
In summer, hot southwest winds often blow from over the
Staked plain. They are dry and parching. Crops west of the
Mississippi river are sometimes greatly injured by these hot blasts.
What river forms part of the southern boundary of our country ?
The Western plains are thinly settled, because so little
of the land receives water enough to make it productive.
51. The Prairies.
urv pl(-.;n:
The lowlands in the upper Mississippi valley consist of
level or rolling grassy plains, called prairies. They merge
into forest lands on the east and south, i
into dry plains on the west, and into colder
plains on the north.
The chief rivers in the prairie region have
cut shallow valleys in the upland through
which they flow. The valleys are wider
and more numerous in the southern prairies
than in the northern.
Most of the rain which falls in the
prairies is brought by summer winds
from over the warm gulf of Mexico.
The heaviest rains fall on the parts
of the prairies east of the Mississippi
some distance west of the river there is plenty
of rain ; but still farther west, towards the dry plains,
the crops often suffer in periods of drouth.
The summer rains of the prairies generally fall from thunder-
storms. Great cloud-masses several miles high, moving eastward
: Or Llano Estacado (stockaded plain).
for long ages been
exposed to the weather.
The slopes being gentle, the soil moves away very slowly and
therefore has time to form to a great depth.
The northern part of the prairie region was once covered by the
great ice-sheet which moved from the Laurentian highland across
the St. Lawrence valley. This ice-sheet dragged much rock waste
into the prairies, spreading it out as a deep layer of soil. The
waste was scraped from rocks of many kinds, and was
ground and mixed under the ice. Soil of this kind is
called till. The sheet of till has buried many old
valleys and has made the northern part of the
||l prairies smoother than it was before the ice-sheet
came, and smoother than the southern parts
of the prairie region now are.
A third kind of prairie soil is the sediment
of shallow lakes that covered parts, of the
surface, after the ice-sheet had melted back.
Some of the finest and richest prairie soils
are of this kind.
The prairies in the valley of the Ked river
of the North were thus formed. These
prairies lie partly within the United States
and also extend northward far beyond the
border of our country, into Canada.
Ages ago a great lake covered the region
now known as the Red river prairies. Muddy
streams flowed into the lake, and fine soil settled evenly over the
bottom. When the lake was drained, the smooth bottom became a
level plain. The water flowed off long ago, and yet the plain is so
young that streams have hardly cut its surface. The Red river
prairies form part of the Nelson river basin.
THE NORTHERN PLAIN,
49
This region is famous for its wheat. One of the pictures below,
marked Dakota farm, shows a part of the lake plain that is in the
United States.
South of each of the Great Lakes there are belts of low hills
made of rock waste dragged there by the ancient ice-sheet which
crept from the snowy Laurentian highland. These hills are old
moraines heaped on the surface of the country at the melting front
of the ice-sheet. Many small lakes lie in hollows among the
hills. Farther south, where the ice did not reach, lakes are rare.
West of lake Michigan are found a great number of drumlins,
or rounded glacial hills. These were formed under the ice-sheet
which built the hilly moraines a little farther south. Another
remarkable group of drumlins occurs south of lake Ontario,1 along
the line of the Erie canal.
The prairies form one of the richest grain regions in
the world. Wheat and corn are leading products. The
former is hardy, but the latter is easily killed by frost ;
hence, the warmer
prairies in
Most of the cattle and hogs in our country are raised
on the prairies, where there is plenty of grass and corn.
In the prairies southwest of Lake Michigan are extensive
coal fields yielding immense quantities of soft coal.
Chicago has grown to be the greatest meat-packing
center and grain market in the world, because the city
is so near the fertile prairies, and because the railroad
and steamer lines centering at Chicago reach so large a
part of our country.
Minneapolis has fine water power and is near the
wheat regions. This city therefore leads the world in
making flour.
The great agricultural region of the middle Mississippi
valley has its chief trade center at St. Louis. This city
has a very large traffic by railroads on all sides and by
boats down the great river.
Besides the prairies of the Mississippi
basin there is a region east of the
Staked plain, known as the Texas prai-
ries. Much of this prairie region is tree-
less but not barren like the dry plains
the south yield the more
corn, while those in the cooler half lead in harvests of
wheat.
Few trees grow wild in the prairies, except along the
streams, but many trees have been set out on the prairie
farms. Most forest trees thrive best in loose and coarse
soil, like that found on hills or on old mountain slopes.
The prairie soil is very fine and firm, but yields readily
to the plow.
Water sinks slowly into this compact soil. Heavy
rains therefore swell the streams. In springtime, before
the frozen soil has thawed, rains and melting snow often
cause the rivers to spread far and wide oyer their flood
plains. These floods often do much damage, but they
also leave coatings of fine soil on the plains.
1 In riding between Rochester and Syracuse, south of lake Ontario,
many drumlins may be seen.
■x^- west of it.
The Texas prai-
more for
'arming than for grazing;.
Their surface is more
varied than that of the
prairies of the upper Mississippi valley.
52. The Northern Plain.
,The Northern plain of North America extends from the
prairies to the Arctic coast, and lies mostly in the cold
belt. The summers are short ; the winters are long and
severe. Near the Arctic shore, the daylight of summer
is continuous for six or eight weeks. The darkness of
winter lasts for an equal length of time.
In the far north the soil is frozen to a great depth.
In summer it thaws for only a few inches below the sur-
face. The region is cold and desolate nearly all the year.
Along the Arctic shore there are low and level plains, called
tundras, from seventy to one hundred miles wide. During the short
summer these rdains become swampy, and are then covered with
mosses and lichens, rushes and ferns, as well as with several kinds
of small flowering plants, but there are no forests in the tundras.
50
GULF COASTAL PLAIN".
The Mackenzie river flows from the cool belt far into 53. Gulf Coastal Plain.
the cold belt. When the spring thawing begins in the The broad lowland which follows the seacoast from
southern part of the Mackenzie basin, the water runs the Rio Grande to the Hudson river1 forms one great
northward till checked by the ice which at that time clogs coastal plain. The part which borders on the gulf of
the channels. The streams then spread
far over their flood plains, which remain
covered till the ice-jams in the north melt
away and allow the flood-water to run off.
Floods of this kind occur each year, not only
in the Mackenzie basin, but also in every river
valley whose main stream flows northward into
the Arctic ocean.
Large herds of reindeer, called caribou, roam
over the cold plain in the far north. In summer
they feed on the lichens, mosses and stunted
shrubs which grow along the shores of the
Arctic ocean. Many thousand caribou live in
the so-called Barren Lands west of Hudson bay.
As the cold season approaches, the deer travel
southward into forest regions where they can
find food and shelter.
Small tribes of Indians live on the
bleak Northern plains, and small bands
of Eskimos are found along the shores
of the Arctic ocean and Hudson bay.
To these people, the deer are of great
value. The flesh of the caribou is one of
chief sources of food, and the skins are used
in making clothing and tents. Even the
bones are shaped into simple tools and
weapons.
The basin of the Nelson river is mostly
in the cool belt. The southern part of that
basin includes the wide fertile prairies of the
Red river valley, — famous for their crops of wheat ;
for although the winters are very cold, the summers
have long days of strong sunshine, and plants grow there
very rapidly.
It is chiefly from this broad interior region that the eastern and
southern parts of our country receive cold winds in winter. In
that season the wide cover of snow over the interior plains becomes
intensely cold. The lower air is then greatly cooled and tends to
flow outward to the warmer regions.
The cold waves are especially severe when
one of the whirling westerly storms moves to
the Appalachian highland, and the cold winds
flow rapidly southward behind it. Freezing air
may then be carried even to the gulf of Mexico
and to the southeast coast of our country.
The western and northern parts of the
Nelson basin are thinly settled. They jjjjl
are forested and abound in many kinds
Mexico slopes mainly towards the south, but the
Atlantic coastal plain slopes towards the southeast.
bhinbeeb In all parts the streams flow mostly at right
angles with the coast, because that is the
direction of the slope which the land
took when it rose from the sea.
The Gulf coastal plain is known as
the Southern plain. The greater part
of this plain is low rolling upland. It
is cut into eastern and western parts
by the wide flood plain of the
Mississippi river.
The part near the shore is young,
but farther inland the plain is older
and much worn by streams that have
extended their courses across it
from the higher and older interior.
A large part of the Gulf
coast is low, sandy and bar-
ren. The shallow waters
along the shore afford few
landing places for large vessels.
The harbors are at the river
mouths or as far upstream as
the tides are felt.
On the western side of the gulf of Mexico, long
id bars have been formed offshore by the waves,
ry few inlets to the inclosed lagoons are held open
through the bars, because the tides there are weak. Galves-
chief port of this part of the coast, is built on the end of
one of these sand bars.
The Southern plain is in the warm belt and receives
heavy rainfall from moist winds that blow from over the
gulf of Mexico. The summers are long and hot ; the
winters are short and mild, except in the northern por-
tion. Near the Gulf coast, frosts are rare and snow is
almost unknown.
It is from this region and from over the
warm waters of the gulf of Mexico that the
"hot waves" of summer are chiefly drawn to
the upper Mississippi and Ohio valleys. These
hot waves are southerly winds drawn inland on
the front of advancing whirls in the westerly
winds. The dampness of the Gulf winds makes
their heat the more oppressive.
Nearly all parts of the Southern plain
of fur-bearing animals, such as beavers, otters and ermines.
Several large lakes extend northwestward in the basins of the
Nelson and Mackenzie rivers. These bodies of water, together
with the Great Lakes, form a remarkable chain stretching along the
south and southwest borders of the old Laurentian highland.
Arctic Ptarmigan.
were at one 'time wooded, and forests still cover the
greater portion of the region. Pine lumber is a valuable
product of these forests.
1 Long Island, Cape Cod, and the lowland east of Mexico, form narrow
extensions of this great coastal plain.
ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIX.
51
Large districts in the South have been cleared of trees
and now rank among the most productive parts of our
country. Cotton is the leading crop on these cleared lands.
The cotton plant needs very long and hot summers to ripen its
seeds and to produce the fiber which grows around them. Cotton
fiber is made into cloth, thread and rope. In a later lesson we
shall learn much more about this useful plant.
Rice thrives on low flood plains and on the swampy
borders of lagoons behind coastal sand bars. At times
the rice fields must be flooded to make the plants grow.
filled with standing water, forming a curved lagoon. Many lagoons
on the wide flood plain show former courses of the river.
For ages the Mississippi river has carried down large quantities
of silt and built its flood plain far out into the gulf of Mexico,
making a great delta. Every minute this broad stream carries
into the gulf of Mexico enough silt to fill an ordinary schoolroom.
The low delta plain comprises thousands of square miles. Many
parts are marshes and wooded swamps. Other parts are wide
stretches of grass land. Many distributary streams cross the delta,
and a large number of lakes lie in shallow hollows between them.
Between the mouths of the distributaries are large salt bays that
the river has not yet filled with silt.
New Orleans, the largest city in the South, and the
only large city on the flood plain of
< _\\ y the lower Mississippi, is sit-
uated about one
hundred miles
above the
Below the mouth of the Ohio
river, the Mississippi has cut a
broad valley in the coastal plain and
has spread out a flood plain on the
valley floor, from thirty to fifty miles
wide. For about a thousand miles the
Mississippi river winds through the great
flood plain, inclosed on the east and west by
low bluffs that border the coastal plain.
When heavy, spring rains fall and snow melts in the north, the
great river overflows parts of its lowland far and wide. In times
of flood, the river deposits more silt near the main channel than
farther away, and the surface of the flood plain therefore slopes
gently away from the river.
The small rivers coming from the coastal plain into the flood
plain of the Mississippi cannot keep their course up the gentle side-
slopes of the flood plain to the main river, so they turn doAvn the
valley, near the bluffs. One of these rivers, the Yazoo, is shown on
the relief map on page 32.
Banks of earth, called levees, have been built for hundreds of
miles along the great river, to keep the rising water from flood-
ing the fields. In times of heavy floods the levees are often
broken ; and as the flood plain slopes away from the river,
the lowlands are quickly flooded. Thousands of acres of cotton,
sugar cane and grain are then destroyed. A break in the levee is
called a crevasse.
Villages on the flood plain are often built close along the river
banks, where there is the least danger from floods, because the
banks are the highest parts of the flood plain.
The Mississippi river meanders, or flows in long bends or loops,
in the flood plain. Year after year the river wears away the necks
of the loops, now and then cutting across one of them. Then the
stream flows in its new channel, and the deserted part is left
v
mouth of the great river. This city has «&
a large trade in cotton, sugar, rice and other products
of the Southern plain. Several other cities, such as
Memphis and Vicksburg, are built where the Mississippi
river flows past the bluffs. These river ports are im-
portant cotton markets.
54. Atlantic Coastal Plain.1
Southeast of the piedmont belt lies the Atlantic coastal
plain. As in the Gulf coastal plain, the region near the
sea is young and smooth, while the plain farther inland is
older and is more deeply and widely cut by streams that
flow across it from the Appalachian highland.
The widest part of the Atlantic coastal plain is south-
east of the Carolina highland. Thence the plain narrows
1 Teachers who so prefer will find no difficulty in going from this lesson
directly to the later lessons on the United States, — its people, resources,
commerce, etc. Most teachers, however, will doubtless continue to present
the topics in the order in which they appear.
52
ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN.
northeastward to the month of the Hudson river, where
the piedmont belt reaches the coast.
The southern part of this coastal plain is in the warm
belt and has seasons like those of the Gulf coastal plain.
The northern part of the Atlantic coastal plain has the
seasons of the cool
belt. Southeast
over
the warm Gulf stream
help to make the
r> , -i • , t Recent Coastline showing Bars.
winters ot this coastal
plain milder than those of the inland regions in the same
latitude.
The long Atlantic coastal plain has plenty of rainfall.
It is brought by winds from over the gulf of Mexico and
the Atlantic ocean.
The higher and older part of the coastal plain, where
the rivers have worn wide valleys and made fertile flood
plains, is rolling or hilly. The
southern half of this upland
country, like the piedmont belt
which adjoins it, is famous for
its cotton crops. Farther
north, tobacco is a leading
crop of the uplands and the
piedmont. The soil is also
suited to the growth of
grain.
In the lower and younger
part of the coastal plain, where
the land is flat and little worn,
the rivers are sluggish.
Large parts of the younger
coastal plain are covered
with forests of pine. These ;~
yield turpentine, rosin and
lumber. This lower part
of the plain is also noted for its fruit
groves, — oranges in the south and
peaches in the north. Great quantities of early
vegetables are raised in the younger coastal plain
and are shipped mostly to the large northern cities.
When the smooth sea-bottom was lifted up to form the
Atlantic coastal plain, it made a very regular coastline.
Since valleys were worn in the plain, the northern and
middle portions have partly sunk beneath the sea, drown-
ing the lower parts of the valleys and thus making bays
with excellent harbors. Among these are New York,
Delaware and Chesapeake bays. Near the heads of these
bays are situated the great ports of New York, Phila-
delphia and Baltimore.
Several large cities are built on the rivers along the line where
the piedmont belt meets the coastal plain. The rivers are there
broken by falls or rapids that give fine water power. In the
northern and middle ports of the coastal plain, where the valleys
have been slightly drowned, the larger streams, as far as the falls,
are open to vessels from the sea. Bichmond, near the lower falls
of the James river, is a good example of this class of cities.
In the southern part of the plain, the land slopes so
gently under the sea that good harbors are found only
in the river mouths. Sand bars, built by waves, lie along
the coast and partly inclose many sounds. Inlets through
the sand bars are kept open by tidal currents.
The best cotton in the world grows on some of these
border islands and on the shores of the mainland near by.
The soil is sandy, but the plants which grow in it produce
long and fine fibers.
Large quantities of rice are raised in the wet lands in
the warmer parts of the Atlantic coastal plain, as well as
in the Gulf coastal plain. This grain thrives in lagoon
swamps inside the sand bars, and in river swamps which
at certain times can be flooded or drained.
Charleston and Savannah are im-
portant ports for cotton, rice and
pine products. These cities are on
tidal rivers and have good harbors.
The peninsula of Florida, lying between
the gulf and the ocean, is chiefly a coastal
plain formed by the uplifting of the sea-
bottom, but partly also the work of
coral polyps. Tiny creatures of this
kind, in countless numbers, are still
very active in building the southern
portion of the peninsula farther out
into the warm Gulf stream.
Southeast of Florida lie the low
Bahama islands.1 These consist
mainly of huge banks of shell and
coral limestone. Only small parts
of the great banks rise above the sea.
West
The islands of the
Indies are mostly the upper
portions of mountainous country that has been
partly drowned. The flooded valleys in this
region form many large and deep harbors.
The city of Havana, on one of these drowned valleys, is the
chief port of Cuba and the largest seaport in the "West Indies.
Many of the small islands of the West Indies stretching in a
chain to the northern coast of South America are almost wholly
volcanic. See Supplement for full text on West Indies.
1 Neither the Bahamas nor the West Indies are parts of the coastal
plain, but owing to their position they may be studied here.
53
fStk^- •
Until 1903 Panama
was part of Colombia, a
country of South America. But
Panama is now a republic. By treaty it has
sold to the United States the right to dig a ship
canaL across the isthmus. This canal will be
the property of the United States. A railroad
now crosses the isthmus.
On which
SOUTH AMERICA.
55. South America.1
Why is a canal needed?
What large sea is north of this isthmus ?
coast is the city of Panama ?
The Andes highland consists of a great moun-
tain system, with many long and high valleys
between its ranges. This highland extends about
one fifth of the way round the earth.
The west slope of the Andes is short and in most
parts steep. East of this highland lie broad plains. In
the valley of the Amazon are the selvas, or forest plains.
Other parts of the plains are grass lands.
The great plains are broken on the northeast by the
highland of Guiana, and on the southeast by the high-
land of Brazil. These are much lower than the Andes.
The north and middle parts of South America are in
the trade wind belts and therefore have frequent rains
wherever these winds rise over the mountains. The
South America is not so large as North America. Both
these continents have the same general outline, narrowing equatorial raill belt also shifts north and south across the
towards the south. _ _ northern half of the continent.
The two lands resemble each other in their relief or Thg gouthern part of tlie continent reaches far into the
surface forms. Each has a long western highland and ^ bdt ^ the path of ^ stormy westerlv winds,
also a great central plain, with lower eastern highlands.
The Isthmus of Panama joins the two parts of America.
Along this neck of land, the primary highland consists
of a hilly ridge. Passes among the hills are only about
three hundred feet above sea level.
i The Map Studies on page 55 are to precede this lesson. Kefer often
to the relief maps. Locate every place named in the text.
The warm equatorial currents of the Atlantic, moving westward
under the trade winds, divide on the eastern point of South America
and sweep along the northeast and southeast coasts.
South America extends far into the southern ocean and turns
a great volume of cold water northward along the west coast. The
winds which blow ashore from over this current are cold in the
south, but become warmer towards the equator.
RELIEF MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA
MAP STUDIES.
55
Strait of'**-* £
Magellan /-iii^te"RA del fOEGO
FALKLAND
IS.
SOUTH AMERICA
KEY TO RELIEF MAP
SCALE OF MILE'S
200 <00 600 800
56. Map Studies.1
In what direction is South America from ]STorth America ?
What Isthmus unites these continents ? What oceans lie east and
west of both ?
On which side of the equator is the greater part of South
America ? Over "which part of this continent does the belt of
equatorial rains shift north and south ? Which part is in the belt
of westerly winds ?
In what direction does the Andes highland extend? Which
coast does it follow? Which part of the highland looks the
highest? The widest?
Compare the Andes highland
and the Rocky mountain high-
land as follows : Which is the
higher? The longer? The
wider ? In what respects are
they alike ?
Where is the plateau of Bo-
livia? What lake is on this
plateau ?
Where is the highland of
Brazil? Compare it with the
Andes highland, in length ;
in width ; m shape. Compare
the Brazilian and Appalachian
highlands in width and shape.
1 In the Supplement there is a
guide map for drawing and model-
ing. Read the note on page 29.
Where is the Guiana highland ? Is it larger or smaller than
the highland of Brazil ?
On which side of the Andes is the great plain of South America?
What highlands are on the northeast and the southeast ?
Describe the course of the Amazon river. In which heat belt
does the greater part of the Amazon basin lie ?
Where is the Plata river ? AVhich river system drains the
larger basin, the Amazon or the Plata ?
To which river basin does the northwest
City of Panama.
slope of the Brazilian highland belong ? The southwest slope ?
Which part of the central plain is drained by the Orinoco river ?
What highland partly separates the basin of the Orinoco from that
of the Amazon ?
Compare the central plains of North America and South
America, as follows : What large river system drains the southern
part of each ? The northern part ? The north-central part ?
Draw the general outline of South America, — using only three
straight lines. State the general direction of each coast. Which
is the longest ?
Sketch the Pacific coast of all America. See guide maps in the
Supplement. Which is the more regular, the west coast of North
America or that of South America ?
Sketch the north coasts of both continents. Which of these
coasts is the more irregular ? Which is in the colder belt ? Sketch
the east coast of all America. Compare the two parts.
Where is the Caribbean sea ? Name a river flowing northward
into this sea. Where is the San (or Sao) Francisco river ?
56
THE SOUTHERN AND MIDDLE ANDES.
57. The Southern Andes.
The southern portion of the Andes has partly sunk
beneath the sea. Many fiords now occupy deep valleys
worn in the western slope. Ridges and peaks that the
sea did not entirely cover form a fringe of islands.
Cape Horn is on one of these rocky islands, at a little less
than two thirds of the distance from the equator to the south pole.
Near cape Horn the sea is often made very rough by the
stormy west-
erly winds.
ff\ For this rea-
son, steam-
ships go
through the
strait of
Magellan,
instead of
r ounding
the cape.
Small bands
of Indians,
known as Fuegians, live on the islands south of the strait.
Cape Horn.
About halfway between cape Horn and the sharp bend
in the Pacific coast, the Andes chain is very high. Some
of the peaks are more than four miles above sea level
and are white with snow all the year.
"West of this part of the Andes lies the long and
narrow plain of middle Chile. The land near the sea is
rugged but not ver}T f^
high. The plain is
between this rough
coast land and the
Andes.
We have learned that
the belt of westerly
winds moves north and
south with the sun. In
the cold season these
winds blow nearer the
equator than in the hot
season. .
The plain of Chile, like
the valley of California,
is crossed by the stormy
westerly winds in winter,
but in the summer season
these winds move farther
from the equator, beyond
both these regions. The
cold months therefore
form the wet season. -3
Owing to the winds from
over the cold ocean current on
the west, Chile has no very hot season.
The rivers which cross the plain of Chile are short. In
times of heavy rain and thaw they overflow parts of the
Wheat, barley and corn. In the hot months, when the
westerly winds move away to the south, the streams are
fed by snow melting on the high slopes of the Andes.
A large amount of the river water is turned into canals
and ditches to irrigate the grainfields and vineyards.
Valparaiso is the chief port in Chile.
Below the snow line the west slope of the southern Andes
is heavily wooded. Among the trees are pine and oak.
The mountain pass shown in the picture below is not far from
the volcanic cone of Aconcagua. This pass is two miles and
a half above sea level, — higher than many clouds. In some parts,
long slopes of coarse rock waste rise on either side, and there is
neither water nor fuel.
Years ago the journey across this highland was made on mules
or on horses. A railroad now crosses the Chilian Andes.
There are many volcanoes in this region, and earthquakes are
frequent.
58. The Middle Andes.
The plateau of Bolivia lies in the widest part of the
Andes. It is the highest
plateau in America and is
shut in both on the east and
the west by lofty ranges.
The plateau of Bolivia aver-
ages about 12,000 feet in
height. It is three times
as high as the Great Basin
in North America.
On the plateau of Bolivia there is a large sheet of water,
known as lake Titicaca. This lake has an outlet which carries
0 j. ■•— — ™..,~ -. „„„vw^w. ^.^^ wo.^ uao au uumcu YV-LLUUl Uitllies
plain and deposit fine soil for the next season's crop of a small portion of the water southeastward, but much of the water
THE MIDDLE AND NORTHEKN ANDES.
57
evaporates and the lake is therefore slightly brackish. The outlet
does not reach the sea but flows into a salt swamp.
Lake Titicaca is in the northern part of a region having no
drainage to the sea. This region extends southward into Patagonia.
Titicaca is the largest lake in South America and is the loftiest
large body of water in the New World. It is only surpassed in height
Much of the bark is stripped from trees. Some of it is also
taken from slender shoots that spring up from the roots of trees
which have been cut down. The descendants of the Incas gather
large quantities of the bark.
For more than a thousand miles along the west slope
of the middle Andes, there is a region
known as the rainless coast. The desert
. of Atacama, at the
southern end of the
rainless coast, merges
into the fertile plain
of middle Chile. This
by some of the lakes in the great central highland of
Asia. This lake is nearly as high as the mountain pass
about which we read in lesson 57, yet the lake shore
is dotted with towns and villages. Although high, the
plateau of Bolivia is too near the equator to be very
cold. Corn and potatoes grow around the lake, and
cattle, alpacas and llamas graze there. The mountains
yield much silver ore.
Steamboats navigate the lake, and a railroad leads
down to the coast. The steamers and cars connect at the town of
Puno which is shown in one of the pictures on the opposite page.
Northwest of Bolivia the plateau is neither so wide
nor quite so high. In the Andes of Peru, the ranges
on the east are separated by long and deep valleys in
which many rivers flow to the lowlands. The rains of
the trade winds are very heavy on this eastern mountain
slope which is therefore covered with dense forests.
Many years ago a band of white men from Spain, in Europe,
went into the highland of the middle Andes. They found there
a race of Indians whose rulers were called Incas, and the same
name was given to all the people who were ruled by the Incas.
The Indians had cities built of hewn stone, and their roads
and bridges were better than any that the Spaniards who went
there could make. Cuzco was the chief city of the Incas, and it
still contains ruins of their beautiful stone work.
The Spaniards were, very cruel to the Indians and made slaves
of them. The descendants of the Incas still live on the highland,
but white men are rulers of the whole land.
Have you ever tasted quinine, — a bitter medicine that is often
used to cure fevers and colds? It is made out of the bark of cin-
chona trees. These grow wild in forests 'on the east slope of the
middle Andes, and have been transplanted into other warm lands.
Coal Dock, Llampopata, Lake Titicaca.
desert is at the northern end of the country of Chile.
Although close by the sea, the slope descending to the
rainless coast is barren except in the flood plains of
several small rivers. This region, like the dry west coast
of Mexico, is too near the equator to feel the storms of
the westerly winds and is not near enough to the equator
to receive rain from the shifting equatorial rain belt.
The small rivers of the west slope are fed by rain and
by snow melting on the high parts of the ranges which
are reached by trade winds from over the Atlantic.
59. The Northern Andes.
In the northern part of the Andes are many high and
wide valleys, walled in by mountain ranges. Some of
these valleys are covered with coarse wash from the
mountains and are dry and barren. Others are coated
with fine soil, largely made of weathered volcanic ash.
One of the most noted of these high valleys is that of
Quito, a little less than two miles above sea level.
The valley of Quito is in the midst of one of the most noted
groups of volcanoes in the world. There are cones so old that
58
THE HIGHLAND OF BRAZIL.
Condoi.
The middle chain
their sides are deeply cut by- streams, and cones smooth with recent
flows of lava and showers of ashes.
Some of the volcanoes are very active. Cotopaxi, about twice
as high as the plain of Quito, is the loftiest active volcano known.
The summit of this great cone is buried in snow and is
often hidden by clouds. Another famous peak is
Chimborazo. This giant cone is higher than Coto-
paxi but is not active.
One volcano, named Sangay, in this group is
the most active known. It throws out a
jet of lava four or five times an hour. The
stream rises several hundred feet into the
air. Once in a while a larger stream of
molten rock is belched forth to a height
of more than one third of a mile. The
country is shaken, and sounds like the
heaviest thunder are heard.
Many earthquakes occur in this volcanic
region. For this reason most of the houses
are built low and flat. They are made
chiefly of sun-dried bricks. During one earth-
quake, about a century ago, forty thousand
people are said to have been killed in Quito.
In the extreme north the Andes
divide into three main ranges. The
western range is not very high and
it ends near the isthmus of Panama.
runs almost due north. The eastern range curves for
some distance along the northern coast.
The long valleys east and west of the middle chain are
drained by the Magdalena river and its branches. The
Magdalena river is the
chief water way in
Colombia and is navi-
gable for many miles
from the sea.
Many cities and towns
have been built in lofty
valleys among the
northern Andes. These
valleys, although near the equator, are too high to be
very hot.1 The climate of the low coast region is hot
and unhealthful. The coast towns serve as ports for the
upland cities.
The great vulture called the condor is often seen high up among
the Andes. This huge bird, the largest that flies, lays her eggs on
bare crags where they are generally safe from enemies.
The condor is so strong that it often kills sheep, young llamas
and other animals. For this reason, the people who live in the
lofty Andean valleys are glad when one of these birds is slain.
The northern Andes are in the belt of equatorial. rains.
The eastern slope, which receives the rains of the trade
winds, contains the sources of many large rivers. From the
1 Near the strait of Magellan the snow line is only half a mile above
sea level. Towards the north the snow cap shrinks farther away from
the lower level, till near the equator it is three miles high. The parts
of the ranges above the snow line are dreary wastes of snow and ice.
Chimborazo.
western slope, several smaller streams flow into the
Pacific. There are forests on both sides of the highland,
but those on the east are much the denser, as the rainfall
is there so heavy. On the western coast, the equatorial
rain belt does not shift very far south, because
the heat equator is there pushed north-
ward by the cool ocean current.
60. The Highland of Brazil.
The highland of Brazil is shaped
like a triangle, with one side lying
along the east coast This coastal
part is the highest. As a whole,
the highland of Brazil is only about
one sixth as high as that of the
Andes, or about equal to the Ap-
palachian highland.
The coast ranges of Brazil turn many
river branches inland. These streams
reach the sea by flowing round the ends of the
ranges. Thus the San 1 Francisco river winds
northward through a wide valley a thousand
miles long, before it finds an opening to the
sea. Other streams are turned inland by the
coast range farther south, and they reach the sea through the
broad mouth of the Plata river.
Long rivers flow northward and southward from about
the middle of the highland of Brazil. This part of the
highland is a plateau, not yet deeply cut by streams.
Farther north and south, deep and wide valleys have been
worn in the plateau, leaving long ridges between them.
Rapids and falls abound in most of the streams and make
them unfit for water ways.
The coast of this highland region is not broken by
long bays. The best harbor is that of Rio de Janeiro. It
is deep and broad, and ranks among the finest in the
world. Rocky reefs help to form harbors in some places
along the coast of Brazil. See picture below.
A large part of the highland of Brazil is reached
Harbor of Pernambuco.
by the equatorialrain belt. The hot months therefore
form the wet season. - In the dry season, there are heavy
night dews, with occasional rains from the trade winds
as they rise over the highland.
1 The English form of the Portuguese word Sao is San.
THE GUIANA HIGHLAND. — THE SELVAS.
59
Towards the coast, dense forests cover large areas in
this highland. In the inland region, where the rainfall
is lighter than it is near the coast, there are wide grassy
plains known as the campos. Herds of cattle graze on
the campos.
Many useful plants are raised on the highland, —
•chiefly in the rainy eastern part. Among these are
•coffee, sugar cane, cotton and cassava.
Coffee is the leading product in this region. The coffee trees
or shrubs thrive in lands having warm weather all the year,
with plenty of rain. In Brazil they grow best on the plateau
and the slopes of low
ranges, at quite a dis-
tance from the sea.
Each coffee berry has
two seeds. These are
roasted and ground, be-
fore being used.
Eio de Janeiro is the
greatest coffee market in
the world.
There are two species
of cassava plant, — the bitter and the
sweet. From the roots of these plants
many kinds of food are made by the
white people, the Negroes and the In-
dians of Brazil.
Boots of bitter cassava contain a
•deadly. poison,'but this is driven out by
grating, pressing and baking. Tapioca
is made from this root. Cassava is one
of the chief articles of food used by poor
^people in Brazil.
61. The Guiana Highland.
On the northeast the great plain of
South America is broken by the Guiana highland.
This highland is for the most part a much-worn
plateau, with flat-topped hills and mountains rising in
high cliffs from wide valleys. One of these table moun-
tains, near the central part of the highland, rises about a
mile and a half above sea level, hut most of the peaks
.are not half so high.
This highland is reached by the equatorial rains and
therefore has its wettest season during the hot months. In
-all seasons, the highest portions are well watered, for the
trade winds give out rain as they rise over the highland.
On the north of the Guiana highland lies a wooded coastal plain.
Large swamps that extend 'along the shore are the home of many
alligators. The slope passes so gently under the sea that at low
tide wide tracts of sand and mud are laid bare.
Much of the south slope of the highland consists of
rough hills and bare rocky valleys, for the winds from
the sea give their rains mostly to the northern slopes.
Find on the map the Essequibo river. This stream flows,
from the plateau through a dense forest and is noted for its grand
cataract. The river has cut a long gorge about an eighth of a
mile deep, into the head of which the water now plunges.
62. The Selvas.
The slopes east of the crest of the Andes are mainly
in three great river basins. The divides between these
basins cross the highlands of Brazil and Guiana, and the
lowlands farther inland.
The Amazon basin is between the other two. The
highest parts of its long slope are in the Andes. The
lowest parts are coastal swamps, more than two thousand
miles east of the snowy peaks. The side slopes
descend from the highland of Brazil on the
south, and that of Guiana on the north.
The Amazon basin is the largest in the world.
It comprises about one third of the continent.
This basin is in the equatorial rain belt and
its rainfall is very heavy. The
Amazon river carries more water to
the ocean than any other river in
the world. Its muddy
water is seen at sea for a
great distance from land.
Some branches of the
Amazon rise in the
Andes, and the water
which follows the
winding banks down
from these sources to
the mouth flows about
four thousand miles.
The nearest approach of the
Amazon basin to the Pacific ocean is
the source of the Paute river, in
Ecuador, only about thirty miles east of the gulf of Guayaquil.
No other river in South America, flowing to the Atlantic ocean,
rises so near the Pacific coast.
The main branches of the Amazon are the Madeira
river on the south and the Negro river on the north.
Large steamers go up the Amazon from the sea to
the foothills of the Andes. For great distances many of
the tributaries are deep, wide, and free from rapids.
The length of navigable streams in the Amazon system
is greater than the distance round the earth.
Part of the wide mouth of the Amazon has so strong a tidal
wave, or bore, that boats cannot outride it. Xo towns are situated
on the shore swept by this tidal wave.
This is one of the great rivers which make flood plains. For
this reason the lowlands are nearly level, — sloping only a few
inches to the mile. The streams there are sluggish and the silt
which they carry is very fine. In the rainy season the rivers in
the lowland generally rise thirty or forty feet and spread far and
wide over the flood plain.
Dense forests, called selvas. cover the lowlands of the
Amazon basin. Long vines hang from the trees, and
1
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ASIA . — M AP ST UDIES.
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64
THE ALTAI HIGHLAND.
are flowing towards warmer surfaces and can therefore hold more
moisture than they bring. The heaviest rains are given to the
south and southeast slopes of Asia, by the winds from over the
Indian and Pacific oceans, because these damp winds are moving
into cooler belts and up the high border ranges.
"When the sun is south of the equator, the great central high-
land with its desert region becomes very cold. The cold air being
heavy, then flows seaward and yields hardly any rain.
67. The Altai Highland.
For a long distance low
From the rocky shore of Bering strait the world ridge
turns to the southwest in Asia
ranges of mountains
follow the Pa-
cific coast.
A Tibetan and nis Yai (Himalayas).
What range is near the northwest shore of the sea of Okhotsk ?
Where is the Yablonoi range ?
The Yablonoi range runs into the Altai highland which
extends inland towards the middle of the continent. The
Altai plateau is about as high as the Great Basin in the
United States.
The Altai highland is in the belt of the westerly winds,
but their direction changes greatly with the seasons,
because the air over this great continent is by turns very
warm and very cold. The rainfall of this far-inland region
is light. Most of the rain falls on the mountain ranges.
In what direction do most of the streams from this highland
flow ? What heat belt crosses it ? What part of North America
is in the same belt ?
The Altai highland and a large part of the great plain
on the north are forested with cone-bearing trees. In the
broad valleys among the ranges, grain thrives and cattle
find good grass land. Most of the towns in this region
are built near the foot of the mountains, where the
streams can be used to irrigate the land.
68. Central Basin Region.
The dry Basin region of central Asia is south and
southeast of the Altai highland. The eastern part of this
almost rainless basin is called the desert of Gobi. The
western part is the Middle Basin.
What mountain range lies along the eastern border of the desert
of Gobi? What high ranges inclose the Middle Basin on the
north and the south?
^ The desert or" Gobi is about as high as the Great
39k Basin in our country, — 4000 feet. The
Middle Basin is not quite so high.
The Basin regions of Asia and North
America are alike in many respects. They
are at about the same distance from the
equator, — nearly half way to the north
pole. Their surfaces are broken by low
ranges, between which lie long troughs.
None of their streams reach the sea, but all
waste away or flow into salt lakes or marshes.
In both basins, the sides of the trough-like
valleys are covered with" coarse waste from
the ranges, while the middle parts of the val-
leys receive the finer waste carried by the few
streams. Strong winds that sweep over por-
tions of the surface, -lay bare the rocky ledges,
and drift the sand into dunes. Most of the
towns are built near the mountains where
the streams flow out into the open valleys.
These streams are fed mostly by rain or by
snow melting on the high border ranges.
Less than half' the region marked Gobi on the
maps is really a barren waste. The desert runs
east-and-west through the central portion, and even
that is not so barren as the Middle Basin farther west.
In eastern Gobi, summer rains sometimes last for two or three
days. Grass then springs up and provides food for the camels and
horses in the caravans which carry tea from China to Siberia,
whence it is taken to Eussia. Over a large part of the so-called
desert of Gobi, camels and sheep eke out a living on grass and bushes.
When it is noon in the Middle Basin, it is midnight in the Great
Basin of North America. Can you tell why ?
The western part of the Basin region of Asia is drier than the
Great Basin of North America, for the former is much farther from
the sea and is also inclosed by higher ranges on the windward sides.
The people in the western part of the Basin region of Asia lead a
wretched life. Streams flowing at one time may be dry at another,
and river valleys may thus become barren. The people are then
forced to roam about in search of paskires for their cattle and sheep.
The old towns are sometimes buried by drifting sand.
THE HIGHLAND OF' TIBET.
65
69. The Highland of Tibet.
South of the Basin region rises the great highland of
Tibet. Large portions of its plateau 1 surface are nearly
half a mile higher than lake Titicaca, and some of the
peaks are twice as high above sea level as the plateau
over which they rise. The highlands of Tibet and
Bolivia are on almost opposite sides of the earth.
The rainfall of the inner part of the highland of Tibet
is very light, owing to high ranges on its southern
or windward border. Many of the valleys of
Tibet are like those in the Great Basin of North
America, but the former are much the higher.
They are covered with waste from the inclosing
ranges. Streams from the mountains run into
the valleys, but there is not enough water to over-
flow and reach the sea. The lakes and marshes
in these inclosed valleys are therefore salt.
Several of the lakes in the western part of the
highland of Tibet are the highest in the world,
being about 17,000 feet above sea level.
In some places, where the salt lakes or marshes
dry away, the surface is covered with layers of i
white salt. Birds-of-passage often mistake these
salty plains for bodies of water and descend
to them.
The inner part of Tibet is
almost a desert. Owing to its
great height it is very cold,
except during the days of a
short summer season. The
soil is poor and there are long
periods of drouth. Large herds
of wild yaks and musk deer
search out grassy places near
the streams and on the moun-
tain sides. Few people live
in the inner part of Tibet.
Three huge mountain ranges rise above the
plateau of Tibet. These are the Kuenlun on the ^
north, the Karakoram on the northwest, and the
Himalaya on the south.
The word Himalaya means the abode of snow. Even in summer
the snow line is about two miles below the highest summits.
Mt. Everest is thought to be the highest peak on the earth. It
rises more than five miles and a half above sea level.
The Himalayas are so lofty that they form a barrier to about one
half of the air and three fourths of the moisture moving towards
them. There is very little moisture in the air above the peak of
Mt. Everest.
The effect of such a barrier is very marked. Few of the kinds
of plants which thrive south of the Himalayas axe found north of
the great chain. There is but little food to be found on the lofty
slopes, and not many wild animals therefore can travel from one
side of the chain to the other.
1 The average height of the plateau of Tibet is 14,000 or 15,000 feet.
The Himalaya mountains separate two races of men, — the
yellow people on the north and the white people on the south.
Owing to the difficulty of crossing the range, these races have neither
traded nor warred to any great extent with each other.
Just north of the Himalaya chain, the valleys in the
plateau of Tibet are deep, because for a long time their
had outlets to the sea
carried away a great
of waste from the
valleys. These val-
leys are drained by
two large rivers,
the Indus and the
Brahmaputra, —
the one flowing
rivers have
and have
quantity
westward and the other eastward
behind the range, and then escaping by deep gorges that
they have cut through the mountains.
The upper parts of the Indus and Brahmaputra rivers
are fed chiefly by snow melting on the lofty mountains.
Along the sides of these streams are found most of the
people who live in the highland of Tibet. They have
small gardens and herds of yaks. To the natives of
Tibet, the yaks are as useful as cattle are to us.2
Compared with the Appalachian mountains, the Himalayas are
very young. Their slopes are steep and the waste is quickly
washed away. Sometimes great landslides take place, — often
blocking river valleys and thus forming lakes. When these
suddenly break through the barriers, the water sweeps in a flood
2 Lesson 114 tells some of the uses of yaks.
66
HIGHLANDS OF SOUTHWEST ASIA.
down the valleys, doing much damage to villages and farms.
During the rainy summer seasons, mud avalanches pour down
the slopes of many of these mountains. The rock waste has filled
some valleys to the depth of from 500 to 1000 feet.
The southern slopes of the Himalayas face the moist
monsoons from over the Indian ocean and
have very heavy rainfall when the south-
west trade winds of summer blow.
The Himalaya mountains are in several paral-
lel ranges. The outer or southern ranges are the
youngest. Owing to the heavy rainfall, many
branches of the Ganges and Indus rivers are so
strong that they have held their places and cut
their valleys through the younger outer ranges
which hare been raised across their courses.
The work of these rivers shows how slowly
the Himalaya mountains have been formed.
While the ranges were being forced upward, the
rivers were cutting their channels, and the moun-
tains could not have been raised faster than the
streams wore down the solid rock ; for the depth
of the gorges shows that the streams have held
their places for ages. -Many of these gorges are so narrow and
steep-sided that they cannot be followed. The inner valleys of the
highland are generally reached over lofty passes in the ranges.
On the east, the highland of Tibet sends long streams
down the slopes of China. Several large rivers from
the highland bend also to the southeast. These rivers
How in long valleys between lofty ranges wmich extend
into the peninsulas of south-
east Asia. The mountains
art' heavily forested.
One of the pictures on page 66
shows part of the vale of Kash-
mir, situated among the Hima-
layas not far from the place
where the Indus river cuts across
the chain. The level land of this valf
was once the bed of a lake. The river
which now meanders across the lake
plain is a branch of the Indus. The
part shown in the picture is about a
mile above sea level, and the water
must flow a thousand miles or more
before it reaches the sea.
At the western end of the high-
land of Tibet stand the Pamir
plateaus. We may think of this
region as the mountain center of
Asia. Almost all the loftiest
ranges of the continent radiate from the Pamirs.
Eastward stretch the three huge ranges of Tibet. To-
wards the northeast run the Thian Shan mountains along
the border of the Middle Basin. The Suliman rano-e
extends to the coast (see map, p. 6$) and cuts oil' India from
southwest Asia. The high Hindu Kush chain stretches
westward along the northern border of the plateau of Iran.
Khaibar Pass
70. Highlands of Southwest Asia.
The southwrest portion of Asia is mostly a plateau region
forming part of the great Asian highland.
Where is the plateau of Iran ? "What mountains are on the
northeast ? What range is on the east ?
The plateau of Iran is about one third
as high as the plateau of Tibet. The
former is almost inclosed by mountains
and is too far wTest to receive the rainy
summer monsoon which blowTs from the
southwest towards the Himalayas.
The plateau of Iran resembles the Great
Basin of North America. Both have small
streams, salt lakes and salt swamps. In
both, the valley troughs are covered with
waste from the ranges ; in places, sand
drifts into dunes ; the people settle chiefly
near the ranges, where the mountain
streams can easily be used to irrigate the
land ; canals and ditches lead the water over the cultivated
districts. As a whole, both regions are dry and un-
productive.
In the Suliman range are two important passes over which
caravans have gone for centuries. The Khaibar pass is one of the
chief gateways between the high region of Iran and the low fertile
plains south of the Himalaya mountains. This pass is only about
half a mile above sea level. See map on page 63.
Another low place in the crest of the Suliman range is the
famous Bolan pass, southwest of the Khaibar. This pass has been
the scene of many fierce conflicts between caravan guards and the
natives of the mountain region. In recent years the native tribes
lave been subdued.
Persia occupies the greater
part of the plateau of Iran and
extends from the Caspian sea to
the Arabian sea.
Pig Tree and Pigs
On the plateau of Iran is a region
known as the Persian salt desert.
This covers a large area and con-
sists of solid salt several feet thick
in most places. In some parts it
is of unknown depth. Centuries
must have passed while the water which
has now evaporated was depositing this
great bed of salt.
What gulf is on the southwest of Persia?
y* ^^ What country is west of Persia ? See colored
p ^ map of Asia.
Southwest of the plateau of Iran lies a small river
valley sloping to the Persian gulf. The greater part of
this valley consists of the flood plains of two rivers, — the
Tigris and the Euphrates. Canals have been made to
lead water over the plains, and some parts of them are
very productive. Wheat is the leading crop. Figs and
dates also thrive here.
THE ARCTIC AND CASPIAN SLOPES.
01
"For many centuries this valley has been peopled by the white The slopes of the Dead sea valley are mostly barren. Rain sel-
race. Under strong rulers, the people thrived and made fine dom falls in this region, except on the mountains. All summer the
systems of canals to irrigate the land. Then the crops were large, hot sunshine pours down upon bare and rocky slopes.
great cities were built, and the nation became prosperous. m • i * * i_- • ^ ^ i t
For a long time the rulers have been weak. The land has been The PenmSula of Arabia M mOS% a deSert PlaW In
overrun by thieving tribes that have not only robbed the many respects it resembles the Great Basin but
tillers of the soil, but have also destroyed many o
their canals. Fearing these robbers and also
having heavy taxes to pay to their cruel rulers
the people have allowed the remaining canals
to go to ruin: Many parts of the valley that
were once fertile have become sandy and
barren.
The Persian gulf is the shallowest of five
arms of the sea that almost surround the
portion of Asia extending westward from the
plateau of Iran. Name the other four seas.
A low plateau spreads out towards
these seas. Its average height is about
one half that of the Great Basin in our
country. A large portion of the region
is desert, but there are also many grassy
slopes and fruit groves. The land is poorly tilled.
Between what seas does the Caucasus mountain range extend ?
There are many old lake basins in the region south of
the Black sea. These contain small lakes, most of which
have no outlets, for there is not now enough rainfall to
supply more water than evaporates. Several small rivers
flow down the north slope of the plateau. Mt. Ararat, in
this plateau region, is a famous volcanic cone a little
more than three miles and a fourth high.
Many small but fertile slopes descend from western
Asia to the Mediterranean coast. They receive light rain-
fall from the westerly
winds. Figs, olives and
grapes in large quantities
are raised in that district.
The Dead sea is in one of
the most famous valleys on the
earth. The water of this sea is
about ten times as salt as that
in the ocean and is also very
bitter. The sea is not quite fifty
miles long. Its surface is about
one fourth of a mile below the
level of the ocean.
Steep slopes descend to the east and west shores of this
inland sea, but a wide marsh spreads round its southern end.
The wet land is thickly covered with bushes and coarse grasses.
At the northern end of the Dead sea lie wide mud-plains across
which the river Jordan flows to enter the sea.
North of the Dead sea is a beautiful lake known as the sea of
Galilee. This lake also is below sea level, but its water is fresh,
because the river Jordan forms its outlet. This river also feeds it.
The Jordan and the two lakes are in one long valley. It is shut
in by high land on both sides. One low range near the southwest
shore of the Dead sea contains a deposit of rock salt about six miles
in length.
much drier. Dates and wheat are raise I
in some of the narrow valleys near moun-
tain ranges. Camels and horses also
graze there.
Some of these valleys not far from the
sea are thickly settled. Until recent years
the chiefs have kept travelers out of this
part of the country. Many of the chiefs
have great wealth and fine buildings.
The hilly slopes near the southern
end of the Red sea are famous for
their coffee crops.
71. The Arctic and Caspian Slopes.
Cedar of Lebanon.
The northern part of Eurasia consists
mainly of a broad low coastal plain. The Ural mountains
run north and south across the plain and form a post ion
of the boundary between Asia and Europe. The Arctic
lowland in Asia is known as the plain of Siberia. Nearly
all of this plain is in the basins of three large river
systems.
Name three rivers flowing across the plain of Siberia. Where
do they rise? Which of these rivers, through one of its branches,
receives the overflow of lake Baikal ?
This lake is about one fourth of a mile above sea level and is
almost encircled by forested mountain slopes.
Lake Baikal is the largest body of fresh water in Asia, but it is
not quite half so large as lake Superior. The
water of this lake is very deep, and it abounds in
salmon. In summer many seals are caught along
its shores. It is curious to find seals in this
lake, for they are usually seen only in the oceans.
Russian traders navigate the lake while it is
open, and when it freezes they cross it on
sledges. It is a useful highway of trade.
A large part of the plain of
Siberia lies within the
Arctic circle. For two
months or more in winter,
the greater portion of the
Arctic coast of this plain
is in darkness. The
longest period of summer
daylight lasts for an equal
length of time. South of
the Arctic circle, in all parts
of the Siberian lowland, the summer days are long and
the winter days are short.
Being far from the equator and far inland from the
warmer oceans, the plain of Siberia has long and very cold
68
THE ARCTIC AND CASPIAN SLOPES.
winters. The summers are short. They are cool in the
northern part of the plain, but warm in the southern part.
The map of the heat belts, page 21, shows how far south the cold
belt extends in Siberia. There, in the lower part of the Lena basin,
is the coldest winter region known in the world. The ground is
frozen to the depth of several hundred feet, and even in summer
the soil thaws for only a few feet below the surface. The extreme
cold is due to the fact that the region is far inland from the warmer
oceans, that the winter nights are long, and that warm winds from
the far south cannot cross the great central highland.
The average temperature in the coldest part of Siberia is only a
few degrees above zero. The winter average is more than 50° below
zero ; and 90° below have been recorded.1
Along the Arctic coast of Siberia are mossy marshy
plains called tundras. They resemble the marshy plains
along the Arctic coast of North America. Heavy floods,
like those
South of the tundras, as in North America, lie the forest
plains. Most of the trees are cone-bearers, — larch, fir and
pine. The forest belt crosses northern Eurasia, from the
Pacific ocean to the Atlantic. In Asia the forests extend
southward to the border of the desert of Gobi, the Middle
Basin and the dry plains around the Caspian sea.
In the Ob basin, east of the Ural mountains, the growth of trees
is very dense. There the forested swamps cover many thousand
square miles.
Like the rest of the forest belt, the Ob swamps abound in fur-
bearing animals. Among these are squirrels, sables, bears and
reindeer. Hunters in the Ob swamps must use great care, for
large areas consist merely of thickly-woven roots and grasses
floating on water. A false step may cost a life.
The forest belt is broken in many places by wide open
plains. In the warmer parts of the Siberian river basins,
the plains yield harvests of wheat, rye and oats. Even
in places where only about three feet of loose soil overlie
deeply-frozen subsoil and
rock, some
grain
Mackenzie valley,
occur in the tundras
and for a long dis-
tance south of them.
What causes these
floods ? See lesson 52.
In the gravelly river
banks of the Siberian tundras, fossil elephants are found. These
had woolly coverings that fitted them to live in the cold plains.
The "woolly elephants" are unlike any now found on the earth ;
yet the flesh of these great beasts, after being buried perhaps for
many centuries in the frozen ground, is sometimes found well-
preserved and is eaten by dogs.
The tusks of these fossil woolly elephants have for a long time
supplied part of the ivory so finely carved in China and Japan.
In summer large herds of reindeer visit the tundras to
feed on reindeer moss. As the cold season advances, the
deer go southward to places where they can find food and
daylight. White bears and seals are seen along the
Arctic shore, but both the plant and the animal life are
scanty. The region is dreary and desolate, except for a
few weeks in summer.
1 At the trading station of Verkoyansk, 350 feet above sea level.
map of Asia in the Supplement.
See
is raised, but early frosts
often destroy the crops.
A railroad is being built from west to east across the plain of
Siberia, but at present the great rivers form the main highways of
trade and travel. Turn to the relief map on page 62, and you will
see that the Ob, Yenisei and Lena rivers branch towards one
another in such a manner that, except in two narrow places, there
is a water way from the Ural mountains to the Stanovoi range.
In summer many steamers navigate the rivers, and in winter the
smoothly-frozen surfaces of the streams make excellent roads. The
winter travel is mainly on sledges drawn by deer.
The natives of the Siberian plain belong to the yellow race.
Many white people from the great plain in Europe have settled in
Siberia, and these now greatly outnumber the natives.
Along the southern border of the forest belt, the open
plains, or steppes, are covered with fine fertile soil. Large
crops of grain are raised, and many cattle, sheep and
horses graze on the plains.
The southwest part of the northern plain of Asia is
drained towards the Caspian and Aral seas. As the region
is low and far inland, it has only light rainfall and is there-
fore almost treeless. The rain comes in summer when the
sea-winds blow over the heated plains. In winter the
heavy air tends to flow outward from this region.
THE PACIFIC SLOPE.
69
The grass in any one part of this region is not plentiful enough
to support the cattle and sheep. The people therefore wander with
their herds from place to place, living in tents and carrying all their
possessions with them. Such wandering people are called nomads.
East of the Caspian sea, the plain is
desert-like and barren, except where streams
from the mountains are led aside in canals
to irrigate the land.
The surface of the Caspian sea is lower than
the level of the ocean, but the surface of the Aral
•sea is higher. Both these seas are salt.
The Caspian sea is more than four times as
large as lake Superior. The southern end of this
sea, near the mountainous coast, is very deep.
Thousands of people earn their living by catch-
ing fish in this great salt lake or in the rivers
which flow into it. Many steamers and sailing
vessels are engaged in carrying freight between the Caspian ports.
The Caspian and Aral seas were once much wider than at present,
— -probably at the time when a great lake stood in our Basin region.
The Aral sea then had an outlet leading to the Caspian. As the
climate became drier and the seas shrunk away, the margins of
their shallow bottoms formed salty plains. These plains now spread
in a wide belt around the seas but yield only coarse grasses.
72. The Pacific Slope.
From Bering strait to the Amur basin, the east slope of
Asia is very narrow and therefore has no large streams.
The Amur river is the natural highway from the Altai
plateau to the Pacific coast. The basin of this stream is
so far from the equator that the winters are long and
severe. The region is thinly settled and is largely over-
grown with forests.
Name two rivers that flow across the plain of China. Where do
these rivers rise ? What mountain range divides the middle parts of
their basins? Where
is the Nanling range ?
Which heat belt
crosses the basin of the
Hoangho or Yellow
river? In which belt
is the greater part of
the Yangtze river
basin ?
The southeast
slopes of Asia, in-
cluding the basins
of the Yellow and
Yangtze rivers, are
watered partly by
rains from the sum-
mer monsoon and
partly from winter
storms. The summer rains are much the more abundant.
The great delta plain of China is made of soil carried
down by the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, — mostly by the
former. This delta plain contains many thousand square
miles and is one of the most thickly settled regions in the
world.
Above the delta plain, the Yellow river flows through a district
covered with deep yellowish soil. This was brought as dust by the
Chinese Tea House.
Loess Beds, Yellow River Basin, China.
winds from the dry inland Basin region. The area covered by
this soil is far greater than that of the lava plains of the Columbia
plateau region.
In some places the yellowish soil, called loess, is hundreds of
feet in depth. It fills valleys, buries hills and rises far up the
slopes of mountain ranges. Rivers have cut deep valleys in it, and
in the sides of the valleys, at points which the streams no longer
reach, millions of Chinese people have dug caves for homes. This
soil is very fertile, and gardens cover a large part of the region.
The Yellow river has carried clown countless tons of the yel-
lowish soil and has made of it the larger part of the great delta
plain of China. Each year the plain grows farther into the sea, for
no ocean current strong enough to carry away the silt sweeps past
the mouth of the river. Cities in China that were once seaports
are now far inland.
The delta plain of the Yellow river, like every other delta plain,
slopes gently away on both sides from the muddy river which brings
down the soil. Banks have been built along the river to keep it
in its proper channel. Several times the water has burst through
the banks and rushed in floods over the plain. Cities and towns
have been swept away, and many thousand people have been
drowned. The Chinese call the river China's sorrow, on account of
the destruction and suffering it has caused.
Each overflow of the Yellow river has given it a new course
across the fertile plain and a new mouth about which to deposit
sediment and thus build its delta forward. In the course of
centuries, the river has shifted its mouth three hundred miles back
and forth along the coast.
The Yellow river takes its name from the yellowish soil which
discolors the water. This river performs its chief work in making
delta lands, for it is of little use to steamers entering from the sea.
The current in some places is very swift, and numerous bars form,
not only at the mouth of the river, but also far upstream.
As the river has changed its course, and as it is hardly navi-
gable, only a few large cities have grown up along its banks.
The Yangtze river has built the southern part of the
great delta plain of China. This stream forms the best
water way on the eastern slope of Asia, and is open to
large steamers for more than a thousand miles from the
ocean. Many of the greatest cities in China have grown
up on the banks of the Yangtze river.
Above the delta plain, for a long distance inland, the
basins of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers are rolling or
70
INDIA.
hilly. The western portions of the great basins are in the streams flow in the valleys between these ranges. The
mountainous regions of Tibet. longest of the streams is the Mekong river.
The leading exports from China are tea and silk. Rice The course of the Mekong is in many places broken by
and a grain called millet are among the chief food products, rapids. The river is therefore not open to navigation,
except for about three hundred miles from its mouth.
The Mekong is building a delta plain, but it is not nearly
so large as the delta plain of the Yellow river.
A. Chinese Junk.
The tea plant is hardy, but it grows best in a hot, moist and
even climate. It needs a great deal of rain, yet the plant dies if
placed in swampy land.
Several times a year, crops of leaves are picked for curing. Care
is taken to nip off the leaves without
injuring the buds which grow where the
leaves join the branches. The youngest
and earliest leaves are the most delicate
and give the best-flavored tea.
The green leaves which are to be
cured and sold as black tea are first
spread on trays to dry. The leaves are
then roasted for a few minutes and
afterwards rolled between the hands to
press out the juices. As the leaves dry, they turn black and are
then ready for use.
The green and the black teas are made from the same kind of
leaves, but for green tea the process of drying is completed as
rapidly as possible after picking. About four pounds of fresh
leaves are needed for each pound of tea.
Silk is made of fibers spun by silkworms. These little creatures
feed on the leaves of mulberry trees.
Each' worm makes a silken case, or cocoon, by spinning fine long
threads and winding them around its body. Some of the cocoons
contain more than two miles of silky fiber, and yet
they are only about as large as robins' eggs
The cocoons are put into hot water to kill
the silkworms ; otherwise they would gnaw
their way out, spoil the cocoons and fl)'
away as moths. The fiber is unwound
from the cocoons and is made into
thread or cloth.
Southeast Asia and the adjacent
islands are famous for their fine silks.
Hongkong and Shanghai have a
large trade in tea and silks.
Canals extend almost the
whole width of the great delta
plain of China and form fine |
water ways. They supply water
also for large tracts of land on
which rice and other products
are raised. A large inland trade
is carried on by way of these
canals and rivers.
More than two thousand years ago, a
high and wide wall was built along the _
former boundary of China, to shut out fierce "*■
Tartar tribes on the north. The wall runs for Trained Elephants, India
more than a thousand miles over mountains and through wide val-
leys. Many parts of the great wall are now crumbling to ruins.
China contains about one fourth of the people in the
world. The Chinese belong to the yellow race.
From the Tibetan highland mountain ranges extend
into the great peninsula of southeast Asia. Swift
73. India.
The great country of India is bordered on the north by
the Himalayas. In the south it contains the plateau of
the Dekkan in the large V-shaped peninsula. Between the
Himalayas and the Dekkan are broad river plains.
India is in the path of the monsoons. In the hot
season these winds blow from the sea to Ihe -land ; in the
colder season they blow from the land to the sea.
In the Indian ocean north of the equator, not only the winds but-
the currents also flow back and forth as the seasons change. Soon
after the wind alters its direction, it turns back the ocean current,
and both flow together till the monsoon again shifts with the season..
The Himalaya mountains form the greatest rain and
snow producer in the path of the summer monsoons from,
over the Indian ocean. Both the northern and the
southern slopes of this range are drained by rivers that
flow into the low plains of India.
The largest annual rainfall in any part of the world is
supposed to be at the town of Cherrapunji, in
the mountains about two hundred miles north
of the bay of Bengal. This town is- a
little more than 4000 feet above sea level
and is walled in on the north by steep
ranges rising 2000 feet higher.
The moist monsoon from the sea.
ascends more than a mile before it sur-
mounts the ranges. In rising over them,,
the air expands, cools and gives down,
from 400 to 600 inches of rain each,
year upon the town.
The snows of the Himalayas are-
increased by winter storms which drift,
eastward, like those of the westerly
winds elsewhere. The northern
plains of India often receive light
- rains in the same season. This fact
seems to show that in winter,
the belt of westerly winds,
reaches far enough south to in-
fluence the climate of northern
India, both in the mountains,
and in the plains.
To avoid the extreme heat of the plains, many
Europeans living in northern India spend the hot
season on the "hills," or low ranges along the southern border of
the Himalayas.
Below the snow line, forests cover the southern slopes of the
Himalayas. Near the foot of the range, trees, vines, bushes and
grasses form dense jungles in which tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses
and other huge beasts are found. One of the pictures on page 68-
shows some of the tree ferns of that region. See pictures, p. 117~
INDIA.
71
■■■■« \
These
Above the wet jungles is a belt of hard-wood trees, — oak and
walnut.- Still higher, the mountain slope is covered with rhododen-
dron shrubs with their acres and acres of large showy blossoms.1
Between these and the snow line stands the belt of soft-wood or
cone-bearing" trees.
Most of the rivers of the plain of
India are included in three systems, —
the Indus on the west, the Brahmaputra
on the east, and th6 Ganges in the
middle part.
These three river basins are in the
warm belt and also in the path of
the moist southwest monsoons. The
climate is therefore hot or warm most
of the year. The heavy rains fall
while the summer monsoon lasts. The
dry season occurs when the winds blow
from the land to the sea. See maps
on page 24.
All along the foot of the Himalayas, as
of other high ranges, cool evening breezes flow
from the mountain valleys and enter the warmer lowland
winds last far into the night and greatly lessen the sultry heat.
The upper portion of the Indus lowland, near the foot
of the Himalayas, is well
watered and is the richest
wheat region in India. The
lower part of this river basin
is a desert.
Large sand bars form shoals
in the bed of the Indus river.
Navigation is therefore difficult,
but steamers succeed in going up
the river as far as the wheat
country.
The plain of northern
India, like that of the valley
of California, is formed of
land waste brought by the rivers from the mountains.
Many branches of the Ganges river rise in the southern
slope of the Himalayas. So much waste in the form of
alluvial fans (see page 8) has been washed from the
slopes of this range, that the Ganges
river has been pushed far southward
towards the Dekkan. Near the
mountains the coarse waste forms
steep slopes, but far out in the val-
ley the fine waste forms very gentle
slopes.
On the lowland, the divide be-
tween the Indus and Ganges basins
State Elephant, India.
A Zebu Cart, Ceylon.
Near the base of the mountains, the gravels are moist with
ground water and are covered with forests; but the greater part
of the plain has no forests, and over much of the surface there are
few trees, except in irrigated gardens.
The Ganges system has built very
large flood plains, sloping only a few
inches to the mile. In the rainy
season, these plains are flooded far and
wide, thus receiving fresh soil from
the highland slopes. The Ganges and
Brahmaputra rivers unite in making
a large delta plain crossed by a great
network of distributaries.
The plains of the Ganges basin are
carefully irrigated by means of canals
and ditches leading from the rivers.
The rainfall of the summer season is
thus made to serve for the entire year,
often through long periods of drouth.
a Hindu. Before India became a British possession,
suffering from famines was common when-
ever the rains came late or in small quantity. There is not so
much suffering now, because the English people have improved
the canals and have also built railroads which can quickly carry
supplies to famine-stricken provinces.
Bice is the leading crop in the delta lands and in the
lower parts of the flood plains. Farther inland, millet is
the chief product and is the staple food in nearly all
parts of India. Cotton is the most valuable article of
export from the Ganges plain.
The Ganges river is navigable for more than a thousand
miles through its great flood plains, and is alive with boats
carrying products from place to place.
In summer, violent thunderstorms occur in the Ganges plain.
Squalls precede these storms and fill the air with dust. Then
follow the clouds with lightning and rain, and all go sweeping down
the plain.
Destructive cyclones, or violent whirling storms, are common in
the great delta plain of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. The
winds sometimes drive the sea-water onto the low delta lands,
forming storm floods in which thousands of people are drowned.
The Brahmaputra
river, like the Indus,
flows in a deep in-
land valley on the
north flank of the
Himalaya range.
Cutting through the
eastern part of the
range, the Brahma-
putra crosses the low
is formed where the plain built by the rivers is a little P^ °f northeast <- •«- * -™
higher than on either side, east or west. Mla and J°™ lta ^ * lth that of the Ganges ™er.
This great double delta is slowly growing southward into
the bay of Bengal.
1 The flowering shrubs in the picture of Mt. Mitchell, on page 42, are
rhododendrons. They often cover thousands of acres.
72
ASIATIC ISLANDS.
The teak tree abounds in India and in the large peninsula of
Indo-China still farther east. When the wood of the teak has
been thoroughly dried, it will not shrink, warp nor crack, even
under the tropical sun. This wood is very strong, is easily carved,
and takes a fine polish. These qualities
make it very valuable.
The lowlands of northern India,
except the desert region of the lower
Indus, are densely peopled. These
lowlands, together with the V-shaped
peninsula on the south, support
about one fifth of the people in the
world. Most of the natives are
called Hindus. They belong to the
white race.
Ages ago the people now known
as Hindus moved into India, prob-
ably from some part of central
Asia, and conquered the native
tribes. Many of the descendants
of these natives are now found
in the hilly or mountainous
regions of India. Highlands are
often a place of refuge for man,
as well as for the lower animals.
Southward from the Ganges
basin extends the great V-
shaped peninsula of the
Dekkan. This is mostly a
low plateau region, about
equal in height to the Appalachian high-
land. The peninsula has low ranges
facing the sea on both sides and is
partly separated from the rest of India
by a hilly range on the north. With-
i.i the triangle thus formed, about
100,000,000 people have
made their homes, — many
more than dwell in our
entire country.
The Dekkan is highest on the
west side, and its main streams
therefore flow eastward into the
bay of Bengal. The Western
Ghats rise abruptly from a
narrow coastal plain. The steep
western slope is in the path of
the southwest monsoon, and
therefore receives very heavy
summer rainfall. The rains of
the inland plateau east of the
Western Ghats are not so heavy.
Can you tell why ?
During the wet season the rain water is stored in large hollows
or reservoirs; then when the dry seasons come, the water is led in
ditches over the lower tilled land.
The lava-flows of the Dekkan peninsula have been fully as great
as those in and around the Columbia plateau. In each case the
molten rock covered many thousand square miles. The Dekkan
lava-flows are much the older and the more deeply cut by valleys.
The surface is finely Aveathered, making dark soil that is very
fertile. The middle picture on page 14 shows part of this plateau.
The portion of the Dekkan that is not
buried in lava is mostly an old mountain
region greatly worn down. Gold is found
in the stumps of the old mountains.
The rivers which flow eastward across
this peninsula have made flood plains and
deltas of wonderful fertility. For ages
these lowlands have yielded immense
crops of rice. All over the peninsula,
except on the rugged mountain slopes,
cotton and grain are raised. There, as
in northern India, millet is the chief
article of food among the masses of poor
people. Cocoanuts are a leading
product. See picture on page 97.
The island of Ceylon, off the
southern coast of India, is very
fertile and yields about the same
kinds of products as the adjacent
mainland. Large quantities of
cinnamon, tea, coffee and cinchona
are exported from this island.
Railroads lead from nearly
all parts of India to the port
of Bombay on the west coast,
to Calcutta in the Ganges
delta, and to Madras on the
southeast coast. These are
the chief ports through which the cot-
ton, rice and other products are sent to
foreign countries, and through which
clothing and tools are received in
Asiatic Islands.
Long curving chains of
islands lie east and south-
east of Asia and partly in-
close large border seas.
These islands contain hun-
dreds of volcanoes, many
of which are now active.
Fujiyama, in Japan, is the
most noted of these volcanoes.
Its cone rises about two miles
and a half above sea level, and
its crater is very deep. Fuji-
yama is not now active, but
nearly two hundred years ago it
burst forth and sent a heavy
shower of ashes far and wide
over the country. Its great cone was cracked and split. Many
thousand people in the surrounding country were killed during
the eruption.
To the people of Japan, Fujiyama is a sacred mountain, and
many pilgrims ascend it each summer.
ASIATIC ISLANDS.
73
The large islands in the Japan group consist mainly of
old volcanic hilly country, but there are also many wide
plains. Tea, grain and the mulberry tree are raised in
the uplands, while nearly all the lowlands are
used for rice fields. Here, as in China, rice is
a very valuable food product.
A coarse grass-like plant called bamboo
grows in Japan, as well as in most parts of
southeast Asia and the border islands. Bam-
boo is also found in other warm lands. The
hollow jointed stems grow to the height of I
forty or fifty feet, but some stems are more
than seventy feet high. '
Houses are in part made of strips of bam-
boo stems. The tender shoots are served as
food. The softer parts of the stalks are beaten
into pulp and are used in making paper. Strip
of bamboo are made into baskets, chairs, beds and ■
various other articles, though the Japanese themselves
do not use chairs or beds.
Bamboo.
quantities are raised
on these islands,
but chiefly in Java.
The banyan tree is
found in some parts
of the East Indies and
on the mainland of
southeast Asia. The
branches of this tree
send down shoots that
take root in the ground.
These shoots also
branch and the new
branches send down
other shoots. A single
tree may thus spread
WW and form a grove covering several acres.
Java is the most productive and the
most densely populated island of the East
Indies. This one small island supports a popu-
The rivers of Japan, though short, are useful for floating lation equal to one third that of the United States.
logs of cedar and pine from the hilly districts to the saw-
mills near the coast. Lame
flat-bottomed boats on
these streams carry prod-
uce down to the ports.
Most of the people in the East Indies belong to the
brown race. Many white people from Europe have
settled along the coasts
of the islands, especially
in the seaports. Nearly all
The people of Japan the islands are claimed by
belong to the yellow race, nations in Europe.
Fujiyama, Japan.
Their number is more than
half as great as that of
our own nation. Yoko-
hama is the chief port
Sumatra consists mainly of
a mountain region along its
southwest coast, and broad low-
lands Stretching from this high- Mikado's Palace, Japan.
land to the northeast coast. The rivers which cross this lowland
are building great deltas. Coffee and sugar are valuable exports.
Borneo is one of the largest islands in the world. Its area is
through which foreign nations trade with the Japanese
Silk, tea and rice are important exports.
Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, the Philippine and equal t0 nearly one tenth that of the United States, exclusive of
many other islands southeast of A
are often called the East Indies.
Alaska.
Thousands of years ago these island
were probably connected with Asia.
The seas around them are mostly shal-
low, and the broken coastlines formed
by the drowning of valleys show that
the land has settled. Moreover many
of the same kinds of large animals
are found both on the mainland and on
the large border islands, but not beyond
the deeper water which separates these
islands from those nearer Australia.
Locate Java on the key map, page 97.
In what direction is it from Borneo?
From Sumatra? From Australia ? From
the mainland of Asia? What rain belt
crosses Java, Borneo and Sumatra?
The groups of islands in the East. Indies
have a hot climate and abundant rainfall
•Their soil is therefore very productive.
Sugar, coffee, tea, spices and rice in large
This great island has a central plateau from which several
ranges branch into the coastal lowland.
Among the Malay people of Borneo are many
tribes of Dyaks. These are thought to be descend-
ants of the earliest natives. The Dyaks build
houses or huts of bamboo, as shown in the picture
on the opposite page. These natives weave
cloth and make iron tools. Among the
large animals of Borneo are the wild ox
and the orang-outan, a man-like ape.
There are also many wild pigs.
The Philippine group consists of more
than 1000 islands. In the more rugged
portions of these islands are found thou-
sands of dwarf people called Negritos,
The more fertile lands are held by Malays.
There are also many Chinese and some
white settlers, — the latter being mostly
Americans and Spaniards. The islands
once belonged to Spain, though now under
the control of the United States.
Large quantities of sugar, hemp and tobacco are
raised on these islands and are the most valuable exports
from Manila, the chief seaport. See Supplement.
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EUROPE.— MAP STUDIES.
75
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76
REGION OF THE ALPS.
77. Region of the Alps.
The outlet of the Black sea separates the
plateau region of southwest Asia from a
chain of highlands stretching westward to
the Atlantic coast. The Alps which form
the mountain-center of southwest Europe
are about as high as the Rocky mountains
in the park region.
The Alps have many sharp peaks, for they are
too young to be greatly worn down. They are not
nearly so old as the Appalachian highland. Slight
earthquake shocks are frequent in the Alps and
are taken to mean that the mountains are still
growing higher.
As in other young and steep-sided mountains,
there have been many snowslides and landslides
in the Alps. Villages have thus been destroyed and many people
killed. Violent blasts of wind are brushed down by large snowslides
and advance even beyond the snow, blowing down trees and houses.
Among the Alps are great snow-capped peaks down whose sides
long glaciers slowly wind, melting in the valleys. Mt. Blanc, the
loftiest of these
Ridges and Troughs of the Jura Region.
Beautiful lakes abound near the margins of the Alps. The Rhone
river flows into and out of Lake Geneva, while the waters of Lake
Lucerne find their outlet in a branch of the river Bhine.
Thousands of cattle graze in the valleys among the
Alps. As the warm season approaches and the winter
snow melts away, the cattle are driven to the grassy
up the mountain sides. The cold season
high, a little higher than Mt. Whitney in the Sierra Nevada.
The snow-cap on Mt. Blanc reaches halfway down its sides.
The Alps are pierced by several railroad tunnels. The St.
Gotthard tunnel is nearly ten miles, long, —the longest in the world.
It connects the Swiss plateau with the basin of the Po river. Mt.
Cenis tunnel is near the western end of the Po basin.
finds the herds again in the
lower valleys. Cheese is a
valuable product in this high-
land region and is a leading article of export.
There is very little coal in the Swiss plateau, but
swift streams supply plenty of power for the mills and
factories. The Swiss people weave large quantities of
silk and cotton goods, and make many fine watches.
THE SPANISH PENINSULA.
77
The western part of the Alps bends southward between of these mountains has been worn down to layers of rock
the valleys of the Po and the Rhone. This part of the that were once deep in the earth. They are rich in iron
mountain chain extends to the
shore of the Mediterranean sea.
A long branch called the Apen-
nines runs the entire length of
the peninsula of Italy.
. On the western side of the
Rhone valley rises the broad
range known as the Cevennes.
These mountains are much
older and lower than the Alps
and contain the sources of
many streams flowing west
ward to the Atlantic.
The Jura mountains extend
from the Rhine river southwest
into the valley of the Rhone.
They consist chiefly of low
arches or folds, so
young that they
have not yet been
greatly worn. See
picture on opposite
page.
From lake Ge-
neva the Rhone
river follows a
winding course
through the south-
ern part of the
Jura ridges and
then unites with
the Saone, turnin
almost due south.
The mulberry tree
upon whose leaves the
silkworm feeds is com-
mon in southern Europe.
The city of Lyon, at
the junction of the
Rhone and Saone rivers,
has the largest silk
manufactories in the
world.
The Rhone, like all
other rivers flowing
into seas having only
faint currents, is mak-
ing a delta. This river
is so rapid that only
steamers can stem its
current above the delta plain, and thus reach Lyon.
On the north of the Swiss plateau, many old and low
mountains extend far out into Germany. The surface
„ i ore and other minerals.
There are so many mines in these old moun-
tains that the Germans speak of all mining as
mountain work (Berywerk).
On the east the Alpine highland reaches out
to the Karpathian range through which the Dan-
ube river has cut a gorge called the Iron Gate.
See Lesson 81. On the southeast the highland
sends out branch ranges into the Balkan penin-
sula. These are mostlv low, like the mountains
shown in the picture of
Marathon, on this page.
78. The Spanish
Peninsula.
great
penin-
southwest
The
sula in
Europe is known as
the Spanish penin-
sula} ' The lofty
Pvrenees mountains
extend across its
isthmus. This great
peninsula is shared
by two countries. —
Spain and Portugal.
Among the moun-
tains of southwest
Europe, the Pyrenees
are next in height
to the Alps and
form a lofty barrier
between France and
Spain. Railroad lines
have been built
around the ends of
the Pyrenees range.
Far in among these
mountains is the little
state of Andorra. It
occupies a few small
but elevated valleys.
There are only a few
thousand people in the entire state,
and most of them are shepherds.
It is claimed that more than a
thousand years ago, Andorra was set
free for the help its people gave to
the Franks, or people of ancient
France, in their wars against the
Moors who then held parts of Spain.
Andorra is now free only in name.
The little state pays tribute both to France and to a Spanish bishop.
1 This peninsula is sometimes called the Iberian peninsula, after the
Iberian tribes which lived there long ago.
78
THE PO AND THE APENNINES.
Some of the buildings made by the Moors may still be seen in Gibraltar is a fortress belonging to the British nation. The
the Spanish peninsula. Grandest of all is the Alhambra, — the north and east sides of the huge rock are very steep, but the west
palace and fortress of the Moorish kings. It is in the city of side has a more gentle grade, and a town has been built at its foot.
Granada. This was the last stronghold of the Moors in Spain, and This side is also strongly fortified by immense walls and galleries,
was captured the year that Columbus first set sail for the New most of which are heavily armed with cannon.
World. See map of Eu-
rope in the Supplement.
A few hundred thou-
sand people known as
Basques live in the
Cantabrian mountains
of northwest Spain.
The Basques are the
remnant of early tribes
that once held the
Spanish peninsula.
These mountains, like
many others in the
world, are a place of
refuge for the descend-
ants of a conquered
people. The Basques
are mostly shepherds.
The Spanish penin-
sula consists mainly
of broad table-lands,
The Alhambra, -
• Moorish Palace, Spain.
with a border of narrow coastal above sea level. This plain is
plains on the east and the west. Mountain ranges almost from the Alps and the Apennines,
inclose the upland region, and other ranges extend across of flood and delta plains.
79. The Po and the
Apennines.
Following the Medi-
terranean coast from
Spain to Italy, we pass
Monaco, the smallest
state in Europe. The
total area of the state
is only about eight
square miles. It is near
the southeast corner of
France. The city of
Monaco, in the state of
the same name, occupies
a rocky headland, as
shown in the picture.
The Po river flows
through a plain that
is not many feet
made of waste worn
The lowland consists
Spanish Milkman.
it. The general level is about half a mile above the sea.
This broad upland surface is
swept by chilly winter winds and
is parched by summer sunshine.
Only the spring and autumn
months are mild. The rainfall
is so light that the plateaus are
almost treeless.
In what direction do the principal
mountain ranges in the Spanish penin-
sula extend? Where is the Sierra
Nevada of Spain ?
Describe the courses of the Ebro and
Guadalquivir rivers.
The river valleys in this peninsula are fertile. Those
of the Ebro and Guadalquivir rivers form the broadest
lowlands, but even these are not very broad. The narrow
coastal plains also are fertile. Those on the west and
southwest coasts receive heavy rainfall ; those on the east
are well irrigated from immense reservoirs in the uplands.1
Wheat and barley are the chief grain crops, but the penin-
sula is noted for its vineyards and orange groves. Wine
is the chief article of export. ■
On the southern coast of Spain, near the strait of Gibraltar, a
small but famous peninsula extends into the sea. The body of
the peninsula consists of a mass of rock about two miles and a half
long, known as the Rock of Gibraltar. This Rock was once an
island, but sandy waste filled in the strait at its northern end, and
now a flat neck unites the Rock with the mainland.
1 Many of the reservoirs were built centuries ago by the Moors.
The melting snow and ice in the high Alps feed many of the
Po branches. One of these flows from a glacier on Mont Blanc.
Along the northern border of the plain, near the foot of the Alps,
are some of the Alpine lakes that are famous for their beauty.
Among these are Como, Garda and Maggiore. These lakes lie in
places where the country seems to have been bent down, changing
parts of the river valleys into basins. Former glacial action has
aided in scouring out the lake basins, and much waste brought
down by the ice still lies in heaps, or moraines, around the foot of
the lakes.
Monaco.
The Adige river drains part of this lowland but does not join the
Po. The floods of these rivers are so dangerous that long banks,
or dykes, have been built to confine the water. As the streams
continue to fill their channels with waste from the mountains, the
dykes are. built higher. In some places the surfaces of the rivers
are now higher than the plain.
THE PO AND THE APENNINES.
79
The streams flowing from lakes into this lowland are clear, but
those coming directly from the mountains carry sand and finer
rock waste, and are building up the plain.
The marshy deltas of the Po and the Adige are rapidly growing
into the Adriatic sea. Some places that were once seaports are
now several miles inland. Along the coast, sandy islands almost
inclose lagoons.
The city of Venice is built on islands in one of these lagoons.
In this city, canals partly take the place of streets. Boats £H
called gondolas are seen everywhere on the canals.
Irrigating canals reach almost every part of the
valley of the Po and the Adige, making it one
large garden. Grains of all kinds thrive there,
and the foothills are covered with vineyards. The
meadows are mowed five or six times a year, —
yielding fine grass for dairy cattle. Mulberry
trees abound.
Milan, the largest city in the Po valley, is a
great railroad center and therefore a distributing
point for exports and imports.
Kailroads from this city lead through the St. Gotthard and
Mt. Cenis tunnels, about which we read in lesson 77. The St.
Bernard pass is one of the most famous passes in the routes over
the Alps from the Po valley. Since the building of the railroads,
these 1 o f t y
passes have
been little used
by travelers.
From the
fertile plains
in the north,
the Apen-
nines extend
towards the
southeast
m&*~
Venetian
Gondolier.
Pass of St. Bernard.
through the entire length of the peninsula of Italy. This
range is older than the Alps and has no such lofty peaks
as those rising on the northwest of the Po
basin, but the upper parts of the Apennines
are buried in snow all winter.
Cold winds from the northeast often
sweep over the Apennines, but the
foothills and coastal plains southwest
of the range are sheltered and pro-
duce many kinds of fruit. Among
these are oranges, lemons, olives and
grapes. This region is also famous
for mulberry trees. Silk is the most
valuable export from Italy.
There are many volcanoes in southern
Italy and the neighboring islands, but there is only one active
volcano- on the mainland of Europe. That one is Vesuvius, near
the bay of Naples, on the southwest coast of Italy.
Many centuries ago the fertile sides of Vesuvius were covered
with vines and olive trees. The people who then lived on the
slopes of the volcano did not know that their home was near a
crater that might at any time pour forth
lava and bury them.
There came a time however l when a
great cloud of steam and dust rose from
the crater and spread far out over the
land and the sea. Lightning played
among the clouds, and showers of
ashes fell on the groves, the vine-
yards and the cities.
For three days the thick dust
shut out the sunlight. Bright
flashes lit up the clouds, as the
gases burst out and blew off the
top of the glowing mass of lava.
The hot steam changed to rain
and mingled with the ashes, mak-
ing rivers of mud that flowed down
the mountain sides, sweeping away
the vines and trees and burying the
cities. When the eruption ceased, the
layers of mud and ashes were so deep that no
trace of the houses could be found. Centuries
passed and people no longer knew where the
cities were buried ; but beneath new vineyards and mulberry groves 2
lay many works of art, and the ruins of temples, homes, baths
and paved streets. Some of these have now been dug out, and
they teach us a great deal about the customs of
the Roman people who lived in that early time.
After this eruption, Vesuvius was not very
active for about fifteen hundred years. Then it
a'rain became violent and killed thousands of
o
people. Now and then the volcano breaks forth,
but not with such force as in ancient times.
Mt. Etna, on the island of Sicily, is the
loftiest volcano in Europe, yet it is only a little
more than half as high as Chimborazo.
Rome, the most noted of ancient cities,
stands on the banks of the Tiber, a small Itallan plPer-
river flowing from the Apennines in middle Italy. About
one third of the words in our language are derived from
Latin, — the language of the ancient Romans.
The beautiful Terni falls, shown in the picture on page
76, are about 70 miles north of Borne. The water in
one part of the falls leaps down 330 feet.
On the northeast
slope of the Apen-
nines, not far from
the source of the
Tiber, lies the small
free state of San Ma-
rino. The state covers
only thirty-two square
miles and has a popu-
lation of about 8000 ;
1 The eruption took
place in 79 a.d. The
cities of Pompeii, Iler-
culaneum and Stabia*
were buried.
2 The eggs of the silkworm were first carried from China to Europe
about 550 a.d., — nearly five centuries after the great eruption.
Excavations in Pompeii.
80
THE BALKAN PENINSULA.
but small as it is, San Marino is a very old state. Most of the
people in this small state tend cattle or raise wine grapes.
The leaning tower shown in the picture is in Pisa, a city on the
Arno river, Italy. Two thousand years ago, Pisa was only two
miles from the mouth of the
Arno; now it is six miles, for
the river has meanwhile built
its delta out into the sea.
The famous leaning tower is
183 feet high, and it leans 13
feet from an upright position.
The walls of the tower are very
thick and are made of marble.
'•
,.,>BBbl~«._ -.ts^»
.
■-.■--" ,
; .'_,- .
- /" '^^^Je^*' ...:;.V^*^ ' ' ~"r '" ■ ■;■
— -Sv-^>-,- — — j
80. The Balkan Peninsula.
San Marino.
Many ranges branch from the eastern end of the Alps.
Some of these turn towards the southeast and divide into
smaller ranges forming the highland in the Balkan penin-
sula. This broad peninsula stretches from the
Black sea to the Adriatic.
The Balkan range is the highest in the
peninsula. These mountains extend east and
west along the southern border of the Danube
basin*.
77, the ancient Greeks won a great victory over a large army of
Persians. This plain lies between the mountains and the sea.
Most of the mountains in Greece are small and greatly worn, like
those which overlook the plain of Marathon.
The broken coastline of Greece,
and the many bordering islands,
show that this land has been
partly drowned. Most of these
islands are spurs from the Pin-
dus range, not wholly covered by
water. Some of the islands are
of volcanic origin.
The southern part of Greece is
a peninsula having a very narrow
neck known as the isthmus of
Corinth. A ship canal has been
cut through this isthmus. The small raisins of Greece are called
currants, — a corruption of the word Corinth. Currants are the
most valuable product which Greece sends to other countries.
Many years ago the Greeks were famous for their
learning and for their works of art. They built grand
temples in which they placed beautiful statues made
of marble or of ivory and gold. Many of the marble
statues and the ruins of some of their temples still
exist. The most famous temples were built on a
fortified hill known as the Acropolis, in Athens.1
81. The Plain of Hungary.
Where does the Danube river rise ? Describe its
course. Name a mountain range on the north of the
Danube basin. Name a range on the south.
Forests of pine and oak grow on the Balkan slopes
and in other parts of the rugged highland of this
peninsula. Thousands of swine feed on the acorns.
The roses which thrive near
the Balkan range yield a per-
fume known as attar of roses. r™ -xr • , -i -i • • ->
apoiio Belvedere. ihe Karpathian mountains partly divide
The lowlands in the Bal- High Europe from Low Europe.
kan peninsula are very fertile. More The lowland part of the Danube basin which lies south-
than one half the land is arable, or fit west of the Karpathian mountains is known as, the plain
for plowing. The hilly portions afford of Hungary. This is a young plain which was formerly the
good pastures, bed of a lake.
The middle belt of the Balkan pen- The leading
insula is occupied by Turkey. Owing products are
to the poor way in which the country sugar beets
is governed, the people are shiftless and grain,
and do not make good use of their The plain of
land. Wheat, raisins and tobacco are Hungary sup-
valuable products. Constantinople, on ports nearly
the strait called the Bosphorus,is the chief port of Turkey, one fourth as
Leaning Tower of Pisa.
The Pindus mountains are low
backbone through
the southern part
of the peninsula.
There, in the small
country of Greece,
many deep and
broad valleys lie be-
tween the branches
of this range.
but they run like a
On the plain of
Marathon, shown in
the picture on page
The Bosphorus.
many people The Acr°*olis' Atbeils-
as there are in the United States. The Danube and its
branches form a water way to almost every part of the
plain. The main river affords an outlet eastward.
The Danube leaves the plain of Hungary at the place where
the inclosing ranges on the eastern side of the old lake basin are
lowest. The river has there cut a long gorge across the range.
This gorge is known as the Iron Gate. See picture, page 77.
1 On the highest part of this hill stood the Parthenon, — grandest of all
the temples. Within and without the Parthenon were statues and friezes
which rank foremost, among ancient sculptures. Many of these are now
preserved in the British Museum, in London.
The Apollo Belvedere, a copy of a beautiful Greek statue, is now in the
Belvedere gallery of the Vatican in Rome.
THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA.
81
Norwegian Hunter.
In the gorge the river flows swiftly over a rocky bed. A large
amount of money has been spent in blasting away the rocks in the
river, and a long canal has been built past the rapids.
Below the gorge the river wanders through fertile lowlands on
its way to the Black sea. The Danube is building a great delta
through which a ship channel is with diffi-
culty kept open.
In the upper part of the Danube basin,
large forest areas have been cleared. In
rainy seasons, therefore, the water now runs
quickly to the streams, washing gravel into
the valleys, and causing floods in the low-
lands. An attempt is being made to re-
forest the upper slopes.
Far the greater part of the Danube
basin is in the country of Austria-
Hungary, which includes the plain
of Hungary. The leading articles of
export from that country are beet
sugar, grain and lumber. Vienna, the largest city, is built
near the place where the Danube river leaves the moun-
tain district on the west and enters the plain of Hungary.
82. The Scandinavian Peninsula.
The Scandinavian peninsula is the largest peninsula in
Europe, — being more than a thousand miles long. The
highland in this great tongue of land is very old, like that
in the Laurentian highland.
The Scandinavian highland was once worn low, then raised
again, cut by deep valleys, and at length partly drowned.
The western slopes of this highland are steep and
rugged. They descend to many long and deep fiords.
Along the coast are countless islands formed by the
partial drowning of the highland.
The western slopes of the Scandinavian highland resemble the
sides of the Alps in having glaciers, torrents, falls, lakes and
forests ; but unlike the Alps, the old Scandinavian mountains- are
often flat-topped, and together they form a rugged plateau.
There are some small ice-sheets on the Scandinavian highland.
Long ago the ice-sheets were much larger. They then spread to
the lands on the south and east of the Baltic sea and its arms.
These ancient ice-sheets scraped out many basins where lakes are
now found. They also deepened valleys that
are now drowned, forming fiords.
The Sogne fiord, the largest of the drowned
valleys, is more than a hundred miles long.
See picture on page 82. Streams on the high-
land leap down the cliffs into the fiord.
Along the west coast of the great penin-
sula extends a series of banks over which
the water is shallow. Beyond them the water
is very deep. These banks, like the shoals along many other
shores, abound in fish.
The Lofoden islands form a group off the northwest coast of the
peninsula. The tide rushes with great force between two of these
islands. Boats are sometimes lost in this strong tide, known as
the maelstrom.
Norwegian Cart.
The eastern slope of the Scandinavian highland is more
gentle than the western, and descends to a rolling lowland.
Many rivers cross this lowland and flow into the gulf and
sea on the east and south.
There are many beautiful lakes in this peninsula. Of these the
most useful are lakes Wenner and Wetter. See Plate N.
The Scandinavian peninsula is in the path of the moist
westerly winds. The steep western slopes therefore receive
much heavier rainfall than the lowland on the east.
Although the northern part of this peninsula lies within
the Arctic circle, no portion is in the cold belt. The
mildness of the climate along the coast of this northern
land is largely due to the drift from the Gulf stream
part of the North Atlantic eddy.
In winter the sea and gulf on the east of the peninsula, as well
as the wide straits leading into them, are frozen over, for here the
mild winds from the ocean do not enter. At the same time, the
ocean around North cape is free from ice. Thus the heat given
to ocean currents in the torrid zone proves a great blessing to
people in this far-away land.
The North cape is so far
from the equator that in the
warm . season the sun for
more than two months does
not sink below the horizon.
During the cold season there
is a night of equal length.
The other days and nights
vary in length from a few
minutes to twenty-four
hours.
Two countries com-
prise the greater part
of the Scandinavian peninsula. They are Norway on the
west, and Sweden on the east. Nearly all the people in
these countries belong in the white race, but the Lapps in
the north are a branch of the yellow race.
Some of the Lapps keep herds of reindeer. Others
catch fish in the lakes, streams and sea. In winter their
land is buried in snow and ice.
Large crops of grain are raised in the southern lowland
of the Scandinavian peninsula, and there most of the
people live. This peninsula is in the great forest belt
which extends from the Atlantic ocean
to the Pacific. Norway pine and fir are
leading exports. There are also rich
mines of iron ore in the old rocks of
the peninsula.
The people in these countries carry
on trade chiefly through the two large
cities of Stockholm and Christiania.
North Cape, Norway.
The peninsula and islands of Denmark form a part of Scandi-
navia. The surface, climate and products of Denmark are similar
to those of the lowlands in southern Sweden and Norway. The
people of these three countries, except the Lapps, are called
Norsemen, meaning northmen.
82
THE BRITISH ISLES.
Iceland and the southern part of Greenland belong to Denmark.
Iceland is a volcanic island about 300 miles long. Its middle
region is a table-land less than half a mile above sea level and
covered with lava and sand. Parts of the island are buried in ice.
Most of the people in Iceland live near the coasts. The chief
exports are codfish, wool and eider
down. No grains and only a few
vegetables are raised on the
island. The best-known of the
Iceland volcanoes is Mt. Hekla. It has been in eruption several
times since the island was settled by the Danes. Volcanic dust
from Mt. Hekla has been carried as far as the Scandinavian penin-
sula. Iceland is remarkable for its geysers, one of which throws
a column of water about one hundred feet into the air.
83. The British Isles.
Two large islands and many smaller ones form the
group known as the
British Isles. Largest
of these is Great Britain,
the most important is-
land in the world, yet
it is only one fortieth
as large as the United
States. Ireland is second
in size among the Brit-
ish Isles.
The British Isles are
at about the same dis-
tance as the Labrador
peninsula from the
equator, but the islands
enjoy a mild climate and jaunting car, Ireland.
even seasons, while the peninsula has low temperature
with severe seasons. A great branch of the North
Atlantic eddy drifts past the coast of the British Isles
and tempers the westerly winds which prevail there.
The westerly winds over La-
brador bring great changes
of heat and cold from the in-
terior of North America.
The slopes of the British
Isles which face the Atlantic
receive of course the heaviest
rainfall from the westerly
winds, but all parts of the
islands are well watered.
Most of the high land in
Great Britain is in the north
and west parts. There the
rocky coast, like that of
western Scandinavia, is
broken by many fiords
and fringed with small
I islands. The south and
east parts of the island
are mostly lowland, with
clayey or sandy shores.
The island of Great Britain
is in three divisions. What
range of hills separates Scot-
land from England ? Where
is Wales ?
The northern portion of Scotland is very rugged, but
it contains no lofty chain like the Alps.
The Scottish highlands consist mainly of lofty uplands and long
narrow valleys. Some of the uplands are flat-topped, like those of
the Scandinavian highland.
Ben-Nevis is the highest point of land in the British Isles. It
is a rounded mountain, not quite two thirds so high as Mt. Mitchell.
On the summit of Ben-Nevis there is a weather observatory
where winds and clouds are constantly observed. Much has thus
been learned about the upper air cur-
rents from over the North Atlantic
ocean. This is one of the few high-
level observatories in the world.
Many of the streams in the Highland
glens spread into beautiful lakes, or
lochs. These may be counted by hun-
dreds. They were formed by glacial
action, like the lakes in the northeast
part of our country.
The cattle and sheep of the Scottish
highland take high rank in quality.
This region is so rugged that it is thinly peopled. The Highlanders
are mostly descendants from a race of brave people that were
long ago driven from the lowlands by invaders from the mainland
of Europe.
1 This monument at Culloden marks the site of the battle which decided
the fate of the house of Stuart, a royal family in Scotland.
Culloden Monument.1
THE BRITISH ISLES.
Southward from the Scottish highlands
spread the rolling or hilly lowlands of a fine
farming district. Under many of the farms
are mines of iron ore and of coal.
Where is the Clyde river ? A rich farming and
mining belt crosses the Clyde basin and ex-
tends to the coast both on the east and
the west. See map on jjage 75.
Owing to the nearness of iron and
coal, the city of Glasgow, on the
Clyde river, has become a great manu-
facturing center. Iron steamships
built on the banks of the Clyde may
be seen in all the large ports in the
world.
The mountains in England and
Wales are little more than high hills.
Southward from the Cheviot hills, the highland gradually
becomes so low that it merges into the lowland. In
Wales, the ranges are
higher than in Eng-
land. This highland
district in England
and Wales is good
grazing land. It is
also one of the rich-
est coal and iron re-
gions in the world.
Many large manu-
facturing cities are
therefore located in
this part of Great Britain. Their foreign trade is carried
on chiefly through the great ports of Liverpool on the
Mersey river, and London on the Thames.
The middle and southeast parts of England
form a rich farming and grazing lowland, but
it cannot raise enough grain and cattle to feed
the millions of people
who live in that coun-
try. Shiploads of
wheat, corn and beef
are sent from the
United States to Eng-
land. Shiploads of
cotton also from our
Southern plains are
sent to the English
mills. In return we re-
ceive many kinds of
Cloth and Of iron goods. Tower pf London.
Scotch
Highlander.
Scene on the Coast of Ireland.
Before coal was used in factories, and before iron was needed
for engines and machines, the farming lowlands of England formed
the richest part of the country. Western England, with its mines
and factories, has now far outstripped the eastern lowlands, not
83
only in wealth, but also in population ; not because the
farms are poorer, but because the manufacturing dis-
tricts made the greater progress.
London, the largest city in the world, is on
both banks of the Thames. This is the
longest stream in the British Isles, yet
it is little more than one half as long
as the Hudson river. The Thames, the
Hudson and the Mersey valleys are all
slightly drowned, forming deep water
ways. They carry the shipping for the
largest three seaports in the world, —
London, New York and Liverpool.
On this page are pictures of
two of the famous buildings in
London. Westminster Abbey
is a very old cathedral in which
for centuries the
rulers of England have been
crowned. The Tower of London
is an ancient fortress or castle.
Many famous men and women
have been imprisoned there and
then executed near by, but it is
no longer used for a prison.
Many centuries ago, the site
of London was the place where
a number of roads met on the
banks of the Thames. Marshes
and forests made the roads con-
verge in that neighborhood and
there a town was started. At first the river was crossed by a
ferry ; then as the town grew to a city a bridge was built. Many
large bridges now cross the Thames in London.
The slight drowning of the Thames valley carries
the deep tidal waters as
far up the river as Lon-
don. When the people of
England began to trade
by way of the ocean,
London became the
principal trading station,
because the city stood at
the highest point on the
river where ocean vessels
could meet the river
boats and exchange car-
goes with them.
jSTo other city in Great
Britain is so well situated
as London to carry on
commerce with the main-
land of Europe.
The British nation now
has a great number of
large and small colonies
or possessions scattered
over the earth. Among these are Canada, Australia and India.
London owes its growth largely to the trade of the British people
who reside in the colonies. Before 1776, the eastern part of what
is now the United States was a British possession.
Westminster Abbey.
84
LOW EUROPE — WESTERN PART.
The groups of low mountains or hills in Ireland are
mostly near the coast. The inland district is a wide plain.
The heavy rollers, or storm-waves, from the North Atlantic
beat violently against the rugged
coast of western Ireland and cut
back the headlands into high
sea-cliffs. For this reason the
coast is dangerous for shipping.
The waves beat so strongly on
the steep cliffs that even in fair
weather boatmen can hardly
land without seeking one of the
harbors in the bays.
Ireland, in the path
of the westerly winds,
lies to windward of
Fingal's cave, Isle of Staffa. Qreat Britain and
therefore receives the heavier rainfall. Ireland is often
called the "Emerald Isle," because the grass there is
green all the year. The inland district has fine grazing
lands, and the
country is
noted for its
dairy prod-
ucts.
Large areas
of the plain in
Ireland are low
and boggy.
They are so
level that they
cannot easily be
drained and are
therefore of lit-
tle value for farming or grazing. Thick layers of decaying moss
cover the bogs and supply a kind of fuel known as peat, or black
turf. The peat bogs are therefore of great service.
The soil in many parts of Ireland is suited to the
growth of flax.
Among fiber plants,
flax ranks next in
value to cotton, for
cloth making. The
flax grown in Ire-
land is made into'
the fine linen for
which the city of
Belfast has long
been noted.
that the coasts are wearing back, and that the strait of Dover was
once narroAver than it now is.
Land's End is a cape at the southwest point of England. This
cape is not far from the tin mines of Cornwall.
Giant's Causeway, Ireland.
Shannon River, Ireland.
Lakes of Killarney, Ireland.
The small pictures on
this page show some
of the places of great-
est interest on or near the coast of the British Isles.
The cliffs of Dover face the strait of Dover. The high shore is
made of chalk and in clear weather can be seen from the coast of
France. On the French coast also are white cliffs that can be seen
from Dover, These high banks, like all other shore cliffs, show
Hastings, England.
Hastings is a fishing town southeast of London. Not far from
this town a famous battle was fought nearly a thousand years ago,
when William the Conqueror crossed over from France and invaded
England. This is known as the battle of Hastings.
Giant's Cause-
io ay is on the
north coast of
Ireland. FingaVs
Cave is on the is-
land of Staffa, off
the west coast of
Scotland. The
rocky columns,
shown in these
pictures, are
made of lava.
Sheets of lava, in
cooling, are often
divided by cracks
into countless columns like these. The beautiful lakes of Killarney
are among the low mountains of southwest Ireland. The Shannon
river drains the middle lowland of
the Emerald Isle.
84. Low Europe —
Western Part.
West of the Alpine highland
lies the lowland of France,
chaik cliffs, Dover, England. In what general direction da
the rivers of this lowland flow ? Name two of them.
Between the Pyrenees and the wide mouth of the
Gironde river
extends a young
coastal plain,
low and flat.
This region is
known as the
Landes and con-
sists of wide
marshes and
sandy tracts.
*> Land's End, England.
LOW EUROPE — WESTERN PART.
85
Northward from the middle Pyrenees stretches a gently-sloping
alluvial fan built of waste from the mountains. The length of this
fan, from the mouth of the mountain valleys to its outer edge, is
about fifty miles.
The people in the Landes are mostly shepherds. Some of these
go about on long
stilts, but the
custom is dying
out. The eastern
part of the Gironde
basin has many
large vine-
yards.
windmills and cattle. One portion of these flat plains
is known as Holland, or the Netherlands, — meaning
lowerlands. On the southwest is Belgium.
The Rhine river, above its delta plain, has cut a deep
valley through a broad rolling upland.
Many of the Rhine branches also have
worn valleys in
this upland.
The Ehine is nav-
igable to the border
of the Swiss plateau.
A channel has been
cut for this river, in
its middle course,
so as to give a more
direct route than
through its old
windings. T h e
Ehine has formed
plains on
many large
have been
The valley-
sides, sloping down
to the flood plains,
:enein
bus si a
Northward from the Gironde
river the central part of France is rolling and hilly.
Very low plains lie along the southern shore of the
North sea. Part of this lowland is a young coastal plain,
and part is the delta plain of the Rhine river. In some
places, the land surface has sunk below the level of the
sea, and dykes have been built to keep out the salt water.
Portions of the plain have been reclaimed from the sea.
Lagoons were surrounded by dykes to prevent more water
from flowing into them and were then pumped dry.
The coastal plain forming part of this lowland is covered with a
layer of sand containing seashells, and is therefore known to have
been formed under the sea. Beneath the sand are layers of peat
made of land plants, showing that the region was dry land before
the sandy layer was deposited by the sea. In the peat are found
Eoman coins about two thousand years old. These coins show
how very young the coastal plain must be, for it is younger than
the peat. This part of Europe must have been under the sea and
raised again within the last two
thousand years.
Canals form a network
over these lowlands and
afford cheap water ways to
all parts of the low country.
Thousands of windmills are
kept busy pumping water
from the fields into the
canals. A man's wealth
may there be counted in
Battle-scarred House, Waterloo,
Belgium.
are f a r-
famed for
their vine-
yards.
The up-
land through which the Ehine flows is an old mountain region
worn low and even, and then raised again. This is the old region
mentioned near the close of lesson 77.
Most parts of these low mountains are wooded, and the Germans
therefore speak of them as forests and not as mountains. Thus,
they refer to the Black forest (Schwarzivald) — meaning Black
mountains. In the forests are firs, pines, oaks and beeches, —
both soft-wood and hard-wood trees.
This old upland region, rich in iron ore and coal, ex-
tends across Belgium and into France; also, eastward
through Germany. The old mountains which rise above
the upland are the hardest parts of the region, not yet
worft down to the general level.
The battle-scarred house shown in the picture is near the village
of Waterloo, about nine miles southward from Brussels, in Belgium.
The house was torn by shot and shell in the great battle of Water-
loo, in which the power of Napoleon was broken. This famous
French general was banished to the lonely island of St. Helena,
where he died. See map on page, 89.
Northeastward from the Netherlands, low swampy or
sandy coastal plains border on the North and Baltic sea-
coasts. These lowlands are crossed by the Elbe, the Oder
and the Vistula rivers, flowing from the border of the
highland region.
86
LOW EUROPE — EASTERN PART.
Castle
In this lowland ended the ancient ice-sheets which crept from
the snowy Scandinavian highland across the Baltic sea. See lesson
82. As the ice melted at its southern end along the coast of Ger-
many, the rock waste which had heen dragged along formed many
low hills, or moraines. In the hollows among these moraines lie
countless little lakes.
Along the south shore of the Baltic sea are many
bays partly inclosed by bars like those along the
Carolina coast in the United States.
The regions on the west and north of
the Alpine highland are in the path of
the westerly winds of the cool belt and
are therefore well supplied with rainfall.
Cereals are plentiful in the rolling up-
lands, and many of the sunny slopes of
the river valleys are covered with vine-
yards. Most of the grapes are used in making
wine, some of which is sent to our country.
A large and thriving industry, on the plains
reaching from France through Germany and into the
valley of the Danube, consists in raising sugar beets and
making sugar from their juice.
We have learned that iron ore, coal and other minerals
abound in the old mountain
uplands. These products
have led to the building
of mills and factories of
almost every kind. Cloth
and iron goods are leading
manufactures.
Excellent clay for mak-
ing pottery, and sand for
making glass, are found
in many parts of the region west and north of the Swiss
highland.
The western part of Low Europe is thickly settled,
because the climate is good, the country is suited to easy
travel, and products are plentiful. Among the great
centers of trade are Paris, Antwerp, Amsterdam, Hamburg
and Berlin.
85. Low Europe — Eastern Part.
The great lowland of eastern Europe is known as the
'plain of Russia. It forms with the Siberian plain the
northern lowland of Eurasia. The plain of Russia
stretches from the Black sea and the Caucasus mountains
to the Arctic coast, and includes one half of the continent.1
One of the richest petroleum fields known in the world is in the
region of the Caucasus mountains. Oil abounds near both the
east and the west ends of the range. In recent years much atten-
tion has been given to the boring of wells, and to the refining and
shipping of the oil. This region now rivals the oil fields in the
northern part of the Allegheny plateau.
1 Mt. Elburz, in the Caucasus range, is the highest mountain in Europe,
but its summit is nearly 1000 feet lower than that of Mt. Logan.
Lorelei Rock on the Rhine.
The cold and heavy winter air of the interior plain
of Russia helps to keep out the sea-winds. The heaviest
rainfall therefore is in summer when the heated air is
light and is easily pushed upward by the cooler winds
from over all the border waters. These sea-
winds of summer cause showers and thun-
derstorms like those on our prairies.
As the whirling westerly storms pass over
the Russian* plain they draw in warm winds
from the south and cold winds from the
north, giving changeable weather
like that in the Mississippi valley.
The northern portion of
the plain of Russia consists
of frozen treeless tundras like
those along the Arctic coasts of
America and Asia. South of the
on the Rhine. tundras lies the forest belt which crosses
the northern plain of all Eurasia.
The portion of the Russian plain known as Finland is
very flat and contains thousands of lakes. The southern
half of Finland is in the forest belt, but the northern
part merges into the desolate tundras.
The surface of Finland was scoured by the ancient ice-sheet
which spread out from Scandinavia. This region, like New Eng-
land, has many lakes formed by the scouring of the ice or by tne
heaping of its rock waste. There are also many falls caused by the
turning of streams into new channels across rocky ledges.'
On the south of the forest belt are fertile treeless
plains extending to the Black sea and to the salty steppes
around the Caspian sea. The plains, except in the drier
salty portion, yield immense crops of grain, and afford
pasturage to large numbers of cattle, horses and sheep.
Through the forest belt and across the plains flows
the Volga, the largest river in Europe. The Volga basin
comprises about one fifth of the plain of Russia. The
main river in this basin rises in marshes near the Valdai
hills. These hills are only a few
hundred feet above sea level, but
many large streams rise in or near
them.
For a long distance the Volga flows east-
ward, separated by an almost level plain from
the Dwina on the north. Into what bodies
of water do these rivers flow ?
The Volga river, with its network
of canals, forms the main water way
through the Russian plains. It reaches
almost all parts of the forest and grain districts, the min-
ing region in the Ural mountains, the fur belt in the
Dwina basin, the oil wells near the Caucasus range, and
the salt beds around the Caspian sea. These water
routes lead to all the border seas of the plain of Russia.
St. Petersburg is the largest city in Russia. Odessa is
the chief grain port in the southern part of the great plain.
Old Bell of Moscow.
87
AFKICA.
86. Africa.1
A deep and wide canal about one hundred miles has
been dug across the isthmus of Suez. The canal has no
locks, for the two seas which it connects are on about the
same level.
Before the Suez canal was made, the water route from all ports
in Europe to India led around the cape of Good Hope. Vessels
can now go through the canal and thus save about 4000 miles in
the voyage. Port Said is at the Mediterranean end of the canal.
See picture on page 90.
The canal is used chiefly by steamers and they pay a high toll.
Sailing' vessels that pass through the canal are towed, and as the
expense is very great, nearly all vessels that depend on sails and
wind go round the Cape.
Africa has a rounded outline, broken by very few bays.
Almost the entire continent is a highland. Its average
height above sea level is double that of Europe. The
southern half is higher than the northern, and the eastern
part is higher than the western. The coastal plains are
very narrow, because the border ranges of the highland
lie near the sea. Almost all parts of the continent inland
from the coast
ranges consist of
plateaus.
All the great
rivers of this
continent have
falls or rapids,
and not a stream
is open very far
inland to large
vessels from the
sea. Great areas
in Africa are
deserts. The
coastal regions
near the equa-
tor are very un-
healthful. For
these and other
reasons, large
parts of Africa
are still little
known. Until
the present cen-
tury, only parts
of the coastal
regions of the "Dark Continent" had been explored,
except the lands in the north; but we know far more
about inner Africa to-day than was known about inner
North America one hundred years ago.
i The map studies on page 89 are to precede this lesson.
Water Carrier of Morocco, Northern Africa.
Africa is the hottest of the continents. Only the ex-
treme southern part of this great land mass is in the cool
belt.
A wide region across the middle of the continent is
visited by the equatorial rains. The southeast coast is in
the path of the
trade winds from
over the Indian
ocean. These
winds give rain-
fall to the sea-
ward slopes of
the highlands in
their path, but
give very little
moisture to the
inland region of
southern Africa.
The Sahara
desert is swept
by the northeast
trade winds.
Their effect is
very drying, be-
cause they blow
mostly from over
wide land areas
and gradually be-
come warmer as
they approach the heat equator.
At the north and south ends of the continent,
the highland slopes facing the sea receive winter
rains when the. trade winds shift towards the
equator, and the storms of the westerly winds
reach those parts of the continent. See maps
on page 24.. The summers are dry.
Because of this arrangement of winds and
rains, Africa has a wide forest belt across its
equatorial region, where the rains are frequent
and heavy. On both sides of this belt, the
forests merge into open grassy plains, where
the rains are lighter, — falling when the equa-
torial rain belt moves over them. Beyond these
grassy plains lie desert regions, — the Sahara
in the north and the Kalahari in the south.
Near the equator the summer heat is not so strong as
it is in the deserts. In the middle belt of the continent,
clouds shut out much of the sunshine, and dense forests shelter the
ground when the sun shines from a cloudless sky. In this belt,
the land and the air are also cooled by frequent rains.
Intense summer heat is felt in the Sahara and Kalahari deserts,
but especially in the former, although it is so far from the equator.
There are neither trees nor grasses to shield the surface. During
Woman of Morocco.
RELIEF MAP OF AFRICA
MAP STUDIES. — EG VPT AND THE NILE.
89
the day, the dry sand or rock is quickly heated, and in turn heats
the air. During the night, the bare surface and the cloudless air
often become very cool.
The southern half of Africa is not so hot as the northern. In
the south the continent is narrower and the interior is nearer the
sea. The inland regions are therefore sooner reached by sea-winds,
with clouds and occasional rains.
MADEIRA IS,
CANARy,
87. Map Studies.
Note : Now that we have studied four continents, we should be
able to read maps, without the aid of many questions.
Describe the position of Africa with regard to the other con-
tinents and the oceans.
Sketch the map of Africa. Which of the continents that we
have studied does it most closely resemble ?
How does Africa compare in size with North America ? With
Asia ? Compare globe maps.
What does the relief map show about the surface of Africa?
Describe the courses of five large
rivers in this continent.
Refer to the maps on pages 21,
24 and 25, and tell what you can
about the heat belts and seasons in
Africa, — the winds which carry
moisture to it, — and the ocean cur-
rents which reach its shores.
In what respects is Africa like
any other continent? In what re-
spects does Africa differ from each
of the other continents ?
What seas almost sever Africa
from Eurasia ? What isthmus con-
nects the two land masses .?
Sphinx and Pyramid, Egypt
88. Egypt and the Nile.
The highest plateau in Africa is that of Abyssinia. Its
east slope facing the Red sea is
steep and is not broken by large
river valleys. The west slope is
more gentle and is
drained by branches
of the Nile river.
The main river
n^\ /T^ °^ the -^ne system
rises in the lake
*■.-. ■. -1 region of middle
sft. Africa and is the
only large river
' flowing northward to
the Mediterranean sea.
The basin of the Nile is
thought to be about as
large as that of the Mis-
sissippi.
On which side of
Egyptian.
Where is lake Victoria (Victoria Nyanza) ?
the equator does the greater part of this lake lie ?
Lake Victoria
is about three
fourths of a mile
above sea level.
Its outlet is the
river Nile.
Name two
Nile branches
that rise in the
highland of
Abyssinia.
For about five
hundred miles
along the White
Nile, above its
junction with
the Blue Nile,
there is only a
narrow fringe
of verdure. The rainfall is light and the country on both sides of
the river resembles the steppes of Eussia. In some places however
are park-like plains where grassy
tracts alternate with groves. Giraffes
and elephants browse in the wooded
parts of the plains. Acres of lilies
float on the still water of the river,
and many crocodiles and hippopota-
muses swim about.
The Blue Nile and the Atbara are
the main branches from the east.
During the northern summer, when
the equatorial rains reach the high-
land of Abyssinia, many torrents
pour down these tributaries ; but as
the dry season approaches, the tor-
rents dwindle away till only muddy
90
EGYPT AND THE NILE.
pools or even dry channels remain. The deeply-cut beds of these
streams show that a great amount of waste has been carried away.
A large part of the finer waste is borne down the Kile.
For hundreds of miles this great river flows through the desert
and does not receive a single tributary. There the river has
cut a long and broad valley and has made a flood plain several miles
in width. Every summer, after the equatorial rains have fallen
in the highland of Abyssinia and in the
lake region of middle Africa, the Kile
overflows its flood plain and deposits a
thin coating of new soil. Most of this sed-
iment is given by the Atbara to the Kile.
This river carries a large amount of
rock waste down to the Mediterranean
sea and there adds to a great delta which
has been growing for ages. When the
Kile is flooded, it pours into the sea
nearly five times as much water as when
the flood has gone down.
The Kile river is about as long as the
main stream in the Mississippi basin.
The course of the Kile, however, is
broken by rapids or cataracts which
The Mississippi river becomes broader and deeper as it flows
onward, but the Kile becomes narrower and shallower in its lower
course. Can you tell why ?
In harvest time on the fertile delta and flood plains of
the Nile may be seen cotton, sugar cane, rice, wheat,
corn and other products like those raised on the Southern
plains of the United
States. Cattle and
sheep also graze in the
pastures of the Nile
valley.
The flood plains of
the lower Nile are one
of the most thickly
settled parts of the
world. Most of the
people belong to the
white race, although
their skin is very
dark. Millions of
Negroes dwell in the
greatly hinder navigation. Large
vessels can ascend the river as
far as the first cataract, near the
tropic of Cancer. Several cara-
van routes across the desert lead
to the river port of Assouan, below this
cataract. There the gums, oil, salt or ivory
carried for hundreds of miles by camels, can be
placed on boats and floated down to the large
cities in the delta plain. Small vessels can be hauled over the first
cataract and can then sail up to the second. There are many boats
on the river between the upper cataracts.
How different is the basin of the Kile from that of the Missis-
sippi! One has only a narrow strip of fertile land with wide
deserts on either side. The other also has its fertile flood plain,
but this is bordered by uplands of wonderful fertility.
How different are the rivers in these great basins ! The Kile is
open to large vessels for only about five hundred miles in a direct
line from its mouth, and within that distance there is not a single
tributary. The Mississippi and its branches afford thousands of
miles of water navigable from the sea and leading to almost every
part of the wide fertile plain.
Entrance to Suez Canal.
basin of the upper Nile, in middle Africa.
Cairo, the trade center of the delta and flood plains of
the Nile valley, is the largest and most important city in
all Africa. It is a very old city.
In Lower Egypt are found the greatest monuments ever built by
man. They are known as pyramids and are the tombs of the ancient
kings. See picture on page 89. Several pyramids can be seen from
the citadel of Cairo. One of these is now 450 feet high, and the
length of each side of its square base is about 750 feet, or nearly
one seventh of a mile.
The Sphinx shown in the same picture is not far from Cairo.
This curious monument, showing a man's head on a lion's body, is
nearly 200 feet long, and was mostly carved from a ledge.
NORTHERN AFRICA AND THE SAHARA DESERT.
91
89. Northern Africa and the Sahara Desert.
desert tribes are mostly wandering Arabs, or Bedouins,
and Berbers. Although their skin is swarthy they belong
The highland which includes the Atlas mountains con- to the white race. See picture of Bedouin on next page.
sists of long and narrow plateaus with border ranges. Many Negroes also live in some portions of the great
These plateaus, like other high plains between ranges, desert lying northward from lake Tchad,
receive but little rainfall and ^.^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ A few low mountaiu
.. Ti i p f ^0msssiia!sass'm:*^=sa*~ T! I? " ■'^'^'•"-'■•■■bsb-^, ranees rise in
are suitable only lor _^^sS^^^ *&>. ^^^^^^^ \^ ,
,^^0^^^ '' "SBS.- ' ^^^^"^^fe, ^ne des-
pasture land. ^ ^ j ert Eain
occasion-
ally falls
on these
ranges as
the winds
An Arab City near a Water Gap.
The northern slopes of this highland receive rains from
the westerly winds in winter. These slopes are fertile
and produce cereals and fruits like those of
southern Europe. The slopes of the highland
which face inland are almost barren, because
they are on the lee side of the mountains.
Most of the people in the lands on the north
of the Sahara desert have dark or swarthy
skin, but they belong to the white race.
The Algerian, or native of Algiers, shown in the
picture on this page, is a fine example of the north
African people.
Small streams from the Atlas mountains flow into
the border of the desert, and even after they dwindle
;away, their ground water supplies many wells that
have been sunk in that dry region. The water
from these wells is used for irrigating groves of
date palms, - the chief food plants of that dis-
trict Thousands of wells have been sunk along
the border of the desert south of the Atlas range.
The desert of Sahara, though about as large as the
United States, supports only about one fortieth as many
people. Most of these live near the fertile places,
where there are wells or natural springs
oases.
or
The
Crossing the Sahara Desert.
rise over them, and small streams then flow into the lower
desert lands. During the winter months the highest peaks
in the desert are capped with snow.
In the middle and eastern parts of the desert, the surface
consists largely of stony table-lands. Some of these are a mile
high. They are swept by hot dry winds which blow away the dust
from their stony or gravelly surfaces.
Near the desert mountains and table-lands are many springs
around which date trees grow. Some grain also is raised there.
The western part of the desert of Sahara is mainly
a great sandy region in which countless dunes form.
Some of these are more than six hundred feet in
height. See desert dunes, page 9. Much less than
half the great desert of Sahara is a sandy waste.-
Violent winds, like the squalls of our thunder-
storms but without rain or clouds, often raise great
quantities of dust in the Sahara. These hot winds,
called the simoon, sometimes darken the sky with
dust. Caravans hardly survive the stifling heat and
dust of the simoon. The camels crouch to the ground,
and the men wrap their heads in their cloaks.
Along the southern base of the Atlas moun-
tains, near their eastern end, is found a long
depression leading from the Mediterranean
sea into the desert. Some parts of this de-
pression hold shallow lakes, as shown on the
relief map. At one time it was thought that a
large area in the desert could be flooded through
the long depression, but more careful study has
shown that only a very small area is below the
level of the sea, while far the greater part of the
desert is a plateau region.
The Sahara is the largest desert on the earth. This desolate
region is too far south to receive rains from the westerly winds,
92
SUDAN.
and too far north to be reached by the equatorial rain belt. Even
along the Atlantic coast of the desert, there is no rain. The drying
trade winds blow there almost all the year round. The winds are
active in the daytime, but they generally fail after sunset.
Although hot in summer, the desert air, especially at night, is cool
when the sun is far south.
The Sahara desert is
Bedouin Camp in the Sahara Desert.
part of a great belt of arid regions whose rainfall is so
light that they have no overflow to the sea. The desert
belt crosses Arabia, Iran, the Middle Basin and the Gobi
region. A wide branch of this barren belt spreads
northward around the Aral and Caspian seas.
We have studied about the great mountain barrier
of the Himalayas. The Sahara also forms a barrier
between northern and southern Africa. No cattle,
horses nor sheep are native to the lands south of the
vast barren region, but many of these animals have now
been taken there. On the other hand, middle and south-
ern Africa have many kinds of animals that are not
found north of the desert. See page 116.
We have read that the Himalayas rise between
the yellow and the white races. The Sahara lies
between the homes of the white and the black
races, although large numbers of the white and
the black people have now mingled in the border
lands of the desert and in the desert itself.
90. Sudan.
A wide belt of country south of the
Sahara desert is known as Sudan. It ex-
tends from the Atlantic coast to the highland of Abyssinia.
What gulf is south of western Sudan ? What large river from
Sudan flows into this gulf ?
What lake receives the drainage of the interior region between
the Niger and the Nile basins ?
Sudan is wholly north of the equator but is within the
range of the equatorial rains. They are heaviest, how-
ever, in the southern part, and decrease towards the bor-
der of the Sahara desert. Southern 'Sudan therefore is
heavily forested, but northward
the trees give place to open
grassy plains which merge into
the desert. The greater part of
the country is fertile.
Eastern Sudan is in the Nile
basin. See lesson 88.
The greater part of central
Sudan is in the basin of lake
Tchad, — the largest basin of in-
terior drainage in Africa.
The main stream which feeds lake
Tchad flows from the rainy forest coun-
try far in the southeast. Very little
is known about the region in which
the stream rises.
Lake Tchad is shallow and its banks
are low. As the season changes from
wet to dry, the lake varies greatly in
size. In the rainy summer season, it
becomes larger than lake Superior and then during the dry winter
months shrinks to about one fourth its size. As the lake becomes
smaller, its borders form swamps or marshes covering many
thousand square miles.
When lake Tchad is swollen by rains, it overflows towards the
northeast. The overflow follows a wady, or river channel that is
dry except in the wet season. The wady from lake Tchad leads
into the desert, where the water evaporates or disappears in the
sand. This overflow keeps the water of the lake almost fresh.
There are many large towns and villages
in the park-like district south of lake Tchad,
and the region is thickly settled. Most of the
people are Negroes.
These people are well advanced in many respects"
beyond the savage state, for they carry on an extensive
trade and have some manufactures.
The towns near lake Tchad are trade centers
where caravans meet. The ivory tusks of ele-
phants form a leading article of export. Camels
and horses in large numbers are reared for mar-
ket. Grain and cotton are important products.
The so-called Kong mountains are chiefly the southern
border of a much-worn plateau that rises in broad terraces
from the coast of the gulf of Guinea and spreads far
northward. The inland slope of this old plateau is in
the basin of the Niger river.
The Niger basin is thought to be about three fourths as
large as that of the Mississippi. The Niger river rises
in the hilly district near the southwest end of the old
plateau region. After making a great bend northward,
THE KONGO BASIN.
93
is covered with forests and
coarse grass. Small steamers
from the sea can go a few
hundred miles up the Niger,
before their progress is stopped by rapids ; but the steamers can
ascend the Binue branch to a point about 600 miles from the
river mouth. No other river in tropical Africa is navigable for so
great a distance inland from the sea.
Timbuktu, on the Niger, was once an important center of the
caravan trade, but it is now far surpassed by towns farther east,
such as Kuka and Kano which together have a population of about
100,000. See Africa in the Supplement. Each year many camels
cross the desert, carrying ivory, ostrich feathers and gold dust from
the basin of the Niger. The caravans return southward with cloth,
trinkets and salt.
The coastal regions south and southwest of the Niger
basin are reached by the equatorial rain, and most parts
of them are forested. White people from Europe have
many trading stations along this coast. The products are
like those of the Niger basin.
The western portion of Sudan, like nearly all other
portions, is thickly settled. Most of the people are
Negroes, but many others belong to a very dark branch
of the white race, known as Hamites.
The Kamerun mountains near the head of the gulf of Guinea
consist of one large volcanic peak and many small ones.
91. The Kongo Basin.
The Kongo basin occupies the greater part of middle
Africa and lies west and southwest of the upper Nile
basin. Almost all the Kongo basin is a plateau with a
general slope westward. The average height of the
region is about half a mile above sea level.
The Kongo basin is mainly in the southern portion of
the equatorial rain belt and parts are heavily wooded. This
basin is thought to be the
second largest in the world.
The Kongo, like the
in the lake
region of middle Africa. One branch of the Kongo is the
outlet of lake Tanganyika. Other branches flow from
smaller lakes farther south.
In dry seasons the overflow from lake Tanganyika
ceases, and the channel of the outlet is overgrown with
reeds. The lake water is therefore slightly brackish.
East of the lake region rise two volcanic peaks, the highest
mountains in Africa. They are named Kenia and Kilimanjaro.
The former is about as high as Mt. St. Elias. The summit of
Kilimanjaro is a little higher than that of Mt. Logan.
There are rapids and falls in the Kongo river at the place
where it cuts its valley down from the plateau to the low and nar-
row coastal plain. These falls prevent vessels going far inland
from the sea. Above the falls, the river is at all times wide, and
during the rainy seasons it often spreads for miles from bank to bank.
Small steamers have been carried overland past the falls and
now navigate the upper river. There they find an open water way
for thousands of miles along the trunk stream and its branches.
The Kongo pours more water into the sea than any other river
in Africa. Eor several miles out from the mouth, the fresh water
of the great stream scarcely mingles with the salt water of the
ocean. This large flow from the river shows how heavy the rainfall
in the Kongo basin must be.
The vegetation of the Kongo basin is very luxuriant.
Among the useful food plants are the cassava, the yam,
the plantain, corn and sugar cane. Palm oil and cotton
are other important products.
Palm oil comes from the seeds of certain kinds of palm trees.
The seeds are crushed and then boiled or melted down, and are
thus made to yield a valuable oil.
The yam is a large fleshy rootstock resembling the sweet potato.
In nearly all hot parts of the world, yams are a common article of
food.
Plantains and bananas are almost alike, but the pulp of the
latter is the more delicate.
"What have you read about cassava ? See lesson 60.
The basin of the Kongo is the home of many large and
fierce animals. Among these are the chimpanzee, the
crocodile and the rhinoceros. Every year thousands of
elephants are killed there for their tusks.
94
SOUTHERN AFRICA.
The natives of the Kongo basin belong to the black race.
Their number runs far into the millions. They live mostly
in small towns and villages. Many of the huts of these
black people >w.. are ^ made of grass, woven
into mats and
Very little rain falls
the seaward slopes of the eastern mountains,
on the inland desert plains.
Bands of small people called Bushmen live in the Kalahari desert
wherever there are tufts of grass upon which antelopes may feed.
The Bushmen have no gardens but live by hunting the antelopes.
These small savages belong to the Negro race.
The main sources of the Orange river system are
i the eastern coast ranges of southern Africa. The
greater part of the Orange basin is very dry.
Even the main river is too shallow for steamers,
and many of the branches flow
only during the wet season.
There is good pasturage in the
eastern part of the basin,
White people have established many
trading stations along the coast and on
the upper Kongo and its -tributaries.
These traders purchase ivory, palm oil
and other products.
The two great forested river basins of the
torrid zone differ widely in many respects. The
Amazon basin slopes to the east ; the Kongo, to the
west. The one is mainly a lowland ; the other, a
plateau. The former has twenty-five thousand miles of
streams navigable from the sea ; the latter has only
ninety miles. The Amazon basin is sparsely peopled by
scattered tribes of Indians ; the Kongo basin supports tens of
millions of Negroes.
In what respects do these basins resemble each other ?
92. Southern Africa.
In the Zambezi basin are found the same changes from
forest to grass land and then to desert, as in Sudan. The
forests of the Zambezi basin are densest in the northern
part, where the equatorial rains fall in summer. The
southern part of the basin reaches the Kalahari desert.
The Zambezi is the largest African river flowing into
the Indian ocean. This stream is thought to drain an
area equal to about two thirds that of the Mississippi
basin.
Locate the Victoria falls. These falls mark the place where the
river leaves the great inland plateau. At the falls the Zambezi
river is a mile wide. The water plunges into a chasm about 400 feet
deep, and then runs out through a narrow zigzag gorge.
The Zambezi has built a large delta. The distributaries which
cross it are generally barred with sand, but vessels that can float
over the bars may ascend for about three hundred miles.
The natives of the Zambezi basin are savages of the
black race. They raise grain and have herds of cattle.
The Kalahari desert is in the path of the trade winds from over
the Indian ocean, but those winds lose most of their moisture on
but the middle and western
parts are little more
than a desert.
The southern part of
._ Africa, including nearly
all the region south of the
Orange river and a small area
north of it, is known as Cape
of Good J lope. It is crossed
from east to wrest by a
rugged plateau that forms
the southern end of the
great African highland.
The seaward slopes of this plateau,
like those of the Atlas highland, have
winter rainfall and summer drouth.
During the wet months, when the wes-
terly winds prevail, the short streams
swell to torrents, but in the dry season
they dwindle away.
Wheat and other grains thrive
on the seaward slopes of Cape
of Good Hope, and many cattle,
sheep and ostriches are reared
there. Wool, ostrich feathers and
hides are valuable exports.
The richest diamond mines in the world are at Kim-
berley. The value of the diamonds is greater than that
of all the other exports of Cape of Good Hope.
The native people of this country belong to the Negro
race, but white people from the British Isles control the
land and form about one fourth of the population. Cape
Town is the chief port in southern Africa.
Near Cape Town rises a huge flat-topped rock called Table moun-
tain. Southward from this rocky mass extends a small peninsula
ending in the well-known cape of Good Hope.
Madagascar, the largest island off the coast of Africa,
is about two and one half times as large as Great Britain.
Its coastal region is mostly low and unhealthful, but the
interior consists largely of grassy or wooded plateaus.
The leading exports are hides and India rubber.
95
AUSTRALIA.
93. Australia.1
Australia, the smallest of the continents, is about equal
in area to the United States, not including Alaska.
This small continent consists mainly of a half-circle of
low plateaus and ranges, around a wide central desert
plain. Except in the southeast, the. ranges
little more than hills. The Australian \ Alps
are about equal in height to the
ranges of the Appalachian high-
land.
The Pacific slope of Aus-
tralia is in the path of the
trade winds. The seaward
slopes of the Australian
Alps and the Blue moun-
tains2 are therefore well
watered. " After crossing
the mountains, these
winds can give very
little moisture to the
basin of the Murray
river. The streams of
this basin are fed chiefly
by rains in the high-
land on the southeast.
In what season do the
equatorial rains reach north-
ern Australia ? See maps
on page 2^. What winds
carry rains to the southern
coast ? What other conti-
nents receive rains from the
same belt of winds ?
When the equatorial
rains of the southern summer
occur in the campos of Brazil
and in the Kongo basin, they reach the"^
northern part of Australia also. In that
season the drying southerly winds, mov-
ing towards the heat equator, pass over
the plain of middle Australia. During
the southern winter, the winds blow out-
ward from this continent and therefore yield
little rain. Thus the middle plain is almost rainless.
The basin of the Murray river is thought to be about
one third as large as that of the Mississippi. The Mur-
ray river and its branches form the only large river system
in Australia, and yet even the main stream of this system
is not deep enough to float large sea-going vessels.
After heavy rainfall in the mountains, small vessels can
1 The Map Studies on page 97 are to precede this lesson.
2 The Katoomba falls are in the Blue mountains.
ascend the Murray and some of its branches ; but in sea-
sons of drouth the rivers become too shallow for ship-
ping, and some of them are little more than chains of
ponds or shallow pools.
Inland Australia has a number of large lakes with no
outlet to the sea. These lakes are fed
by long shallow streams from the
border ranges. During the dry
seasons, many of the lakes
dwindle away to salt marshes.
Most of the Australian trees
are evergreens. Some of them
shed their bark instead of their
leaves, and many turn the
edges of their leaves to the sun.
The giant eucalyptus trees are of
this kind. They grow to a great
height. Several species of Australian
eucalyptus trees are now common in
California.
The largest forests in
Australia are in the eastern
highland region, where
the rainfall is heaviest.
Wide areas of the in-
land plain are
covered with coarse
scrubby bushes.
The wild animals of
this continent differ
widely from those in
the other continents.
None of the kinds of
large animals in the
other continents which
we have studied are
native to Australia.
Just east of Java are two
small islands named Bali and
■*f Lombok. They are separated
- by a narrow strait that forms
part of a deep-water line known
■■■■- '-i. Australians. as Wallace's line. It runs northeast past
Celebes and divides the islands of the East Indies into two groups
whose animals differ widely. Those on the side of the line nearest
Asia resemble the animals of that continent, while those on the
other side of the line resemble the animals of Australia. For this
reason, it is believed that some of the islands were at one time
joined to Asia, and the others to Australia. This is the line of
deep water referred to on page 73. See map on page 111.
Australia has many animals with pouches, or folds of skin on
the under sides of their bodies. Some animals carry their eggs in
these pouches. Others carry their helpless young, till they are
strong enough to take care of themselves.
96
V
v
<♦-.
*»^>
RELIEF MAP OP AUSTRALIA.
NEW ZEALAND.
97
AUSTRALIA
KEY~TO RELIEF MAP
SCALE OF MILES
o 200 too sooisoinooo
The kangaroo is the best known of the pouched animals. It
often grows to the size of a man. This animal has very strong
hind legs and moves swiftly by leaping. Kangaroo skin is tanned
and thus made into leather. This is used in the manufacture of
shoes, satchels and other articles.
Lesson 117 describes some of the other curious animals of
Australia.
The natives of Australia belong
to the black race. They are savages
and live wretched lives. The total
number in all the tribes is only
about thirty thousand.
The fertile portions of the
continent are inhabited by
white people, mostly from the
British Isles. The white men
have driven the savages from
these fertile lands. The pop-
95. New Zealand and Other Islands.
A little more than a thousand miles southeast of Aus-
tralia lie two large islands and several small ones form-
ing the group known as New Zealand.
The mountains of southern New Zealand, rivaling in
height the Kocky mountains, receive heavy rainfall from
the westerly winds. Great glaciers descend the slopes of
the New Zealand mountains.
Many parts of these islands
are forest-clad.
Among the trees
are lofty pines and
large tree-ferns.
The natives
of New Zea-
land belong
to the brown
race. Their
number is
small com-
pared with
that of . the
white people
mMSm
Cocoanut Tree.
Cocoanuts.
Samoan Princess.
as that of our
own country.
Neither sheep,
cattle, wheat nor corn are native to Aus-
tralia, yet they now form the chief sources
of wealth there. The continent is famous
for its gold mines, — mostly situated in
the hilly belt along the Pacific margin.
94. Map Studies.
Describe Australia, — its size, its place among
the oceans, its direction from the other conti-
nents, its position in the heat and wind belts, its
highlands and lowlands, its rivers, its coastline.
In what respect is Australia like Africa ? In
what respect does Australia differ from North
America? Locate New Guinea; Tasmania; New
Zealand ; the Fiji and Samoa islands.
who have in recent
years chosen those is-
lands for their home.
Sheep-raising is the
chief industry in New
ulation of Australia is only Zealand, although there were no sheep on the islands
about one twentieth as great when the white men first settled there.
The island of New Guinea is about three
and one half times as large as Great Britain.
Except along some parts of the coast, New
Guinea is in the possession of black people who
do very little to develop its resources, although
the lowlands of the island are fertile.
Fiji Warrior.
Coral and Volcanic islands. Cocoanuts,
breadfruit, fish and turtles are almost the
only food of the natives on most' of
the small Pacific islands.
Many of the low islands in the Pacific
are of coral origin. Some are in the
form of long bars, or reefs; others take
the shape of rings, or atolls, inclosing
lagoons.
The higher islands far out in the
Pacific are volcanoes. Many of these
98
PACIFIC ISLANDS.
are still active, but others are extinct. Coral reefs, called
barrier reefs, surround most of the lofty islands.
There are about 300 islands in the Fiji group, but only two of
these are of fair
size. The most
important is Viti-
Levu. These is-
lands are chiefly
of volcanic origin.
They are rugged
and mountainous.
1! i' fore white
men settled on
some of the islands,
the Fijians were
cannibals, as were
also many other
groups of Pacific, or "South
Sea," islanders. The custom
of eating human flesh has not
wholly disappeared from all
the islands.
The Fijians have strong and
well-built bodies, as shown
They carry provisions, but depend on rain for drink. Perhaps
the lonely islands far out in the Pacific were in many instances
first peopled by castaways who while out in their boats were
driven from their homes by winds and ocean currents.
the picture on page 97. As a
race, they are fierce and warlike.
Southeast of the Fiji group are the Tonga islands, of !
which Tonga is the largest. Since white people first went to [
these islands to teach the natives, most of them have learned to read
The Samoa islands are northeast of the Fiji group. Apia is the
chief town. The Samoans are very skillful in using
canoes, and for this reason their islands are often
called the Navigator 's islands.
Northeast from New Guinea are several
groups of islands which together take the
name of Micronesia, meaning small islands.
Among -these groups, the Ladrones are
Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.
mostly of volcanic origin; but
the Caroline, Marshall and Gil-
bert islands are chiefly the work of coral polyps.
The savages who dwell in these islands may
be grouped with the people of the brown race ;
but in language and customs, the Micronesians differ
from the natives of the large islands of the East Indies.
The natives of the Marshall islands are very skillful in sailing
canopy. These islanders often take voyages lasting several months.
The Hawaiian islands are
near the tropic of Cancer about
2000 miles southwestward
from San Francisco. These
islands were built up by vol-
canic action, from the deep
bottom of the middle Pacific.
They form the most impor-
tant group among the many
islands which rise far out
in that ocean.
The natives of the Ha-
waiian islands belong to the1
brown race. Many people of
white and the yellow races also have*
settled there. A few years ago the white people took
charge of the affairs of the islands. In 1898 they were
annexed to the United States. See Supplement
The lowlands of the islands are fertile. Among the
products are sugar cane and rice. Nearly all the Hawaiian
foreign trade is with the United States. In exchange for
sugar, our country sends provisions and clothing.
Hawaii is the largest of the group of eight islands.
Honolulu, the chief city, is on the island of Oahu. This
city is reached by steamships from San Francisco.
The Kilauea crater, in the Hawaiian islands, is not very high,
but it is the largest active crater known. The floor of this crater
is a lake of hot lava which at times rises above the rim and runs
off in great streams. The Mauna Loa crater, near that of Kilauea,
pours forth more lava than any other volcano yet found.
99
RACES OF MEK
96. Homes of the Races.
We have seen that the people in various parts of the earth do
not all look alike, do not eat the same kinds of food, do not wear
the same style of clothing, nor live in the same kinds of houses.
Near the Kongo river there are black savages living in straw
huts, with no books, no lamps, no rifles.
The people of the earth are divided into five groups, or
races. The people of one race differ from those of the
other races in color, in size, in the shapes of their skulls,
in kinds of hair, in language, and in other respects.
In some places we shall find that people of two or more
races live side by side, but certain lands are known as
The Indians in the selvas spend their time in fishing and
hunting. They wear but little clothing and use blowguns and
bows and arrows.
On the islands southeast of Asia, brown people live in bamboo
huts, and raise rice, coffee and spices. There the boys make
baskets, and the girls weave cloth.
We have read about the Chinese with their long braided hair
and their slanting eyes. We have learned that they weave fine
silk and pack boxes of tea.
We know that white people live in our own country and in
many other countries. We have seen their books, railroads, ships,
workshops and homes, or pictures of them.
the home of each race. Thus, America is the
home of the Indian, or red-brown race. Most
of the brown people are found on islands south-
east of Asia. The north and east slopes from the
Asian highland are the home of the yellow race.
The home of each race is bounded on nearly all sides
by oceans, deserts or lofty highlands. The desert of
Sahara lies between lands of the black and the white
races. The Himalaya mountains separate homes of
yellow and of white people. The land of the Indian is
bounded on all sides by the sea.
No race is now limited to its original home, for the
people of each race have spread more or less into the
lands of other races. Thus, white people are now found
in nearly all settled parts of the earth.
There are about 1,500,000,000 people in the world.
100
THE NEGRO OR BLACK RACE.
97. The Negro or Black Race.
In what part of Africa do people of the black race live? See
map on page 102. What large river basins are in this region ? What
desert is on the north ? What oceans are on the east and west ?
The natives of middle and southern
Africa vary in color from black to
brown. Most of them have broad flat
noses, thick lips and black frizzly hair.
The true Negroes are found in nearly
all parts of Sudan, but the people in
the tribes southward from Sudan to
the cape of Good Hope also belong
to the Negro race.
The black natives of Australia are classed with the Negro
race. Their color is dusky brown, and their hair is curly.
The number of Australians is small, compared with the number
of white people who now live in that continent. There are only-
Negress
Australians.
about thirty thousand in all the tribes. These are thinly scattered
around the continent, chiefly within about two hundred miles of the
coast. The Australians are savages of very low grade. They wear
but little clothing, and tattoo the skin.
One of the native weapons is the boomerang. This is a curved
stick which may be thrown in such a way that it will return to the
thrower. Wooden spears and stone hatchets also are used.
^-1--
t
Kaffir Huts
Negro Children at the Paris Exposition.
Most of the tribes living south of
Sudan form a large branch of the
black race, known as the Bantu
people. Their language does not
resemble that of the Negroes of
Sudan, but no other marked differ-
ence has yet been discovered.
The Kaffirs of southern Africa belong to the Bantu
branch of the Negro race. One of the pictures on this
page shows a common form of Kaffir hut.
The Negroes in some parts of Africa build houses,
weave coarse cloth, and make spears, bows and shields.
Many of the black people raise cattle, and plant grain.
If the long rivers of Africa were open to ships from the
sea. the savages might more easily learn how the white
man dresses, prepares food, tills the soil, uses books,
and defends himself.
Millions of black people have been taken from their
homes in Africa and sold as slaves, but the slave trade has
now been almost stopped. The climate of their native The number of people
land fitted the Negroes to work in the low and hot regions in the black race is
of the earth. Many of the people of Brazil, the West about 150,000,000,— one
Indies and the southern plains of our own country are tenth of the people on
free descendants of African slaves. the earth.
The savages of Papua, or
New Guinea, belong to the
black race.
We know very little about the
Papuans. They paint their
bodies and go about almost naked.
The tribes of the inner
part of the island are
said to be very fierce.
Kaffir Gin.
THE AMERICAN OK RED RACE.
101
98. The American or Red Race.
This group is made up of Indians,— the native tribes
of America.
Most of the Indians have high cheek-bones and straight
black hair. Their skin is reddish-brown or copper color.
The Indians _ often paint their faces and bodies in
streaks of bright fa red, and the early white settlers in North
America called \% them red men. The Indians called the
white men pale- 1 1| faces.
At one time the red-brown savages
roamed over nearly all parts of the
United States, but most of them were
in the eastern half of the
country, where game was
abundant and where corn
could easily be raised. The
women planted gardens of
corn, and the men spent
their time hunting deer,
bison and other animals.
The Indian taught the
early white settler how to
make soft shoes of deer-
skin, and canoes of birch bark. From the savage the
white man learned also how to make Indian corn grow in a forest.
Eings of bark were cut from the trunks of the trees, or the bark
was burned off, so that the sap could not flow. The trees soon
died, and the corn could then ripen in the hot sunshine.
It is thought that about 250,000 Indians lived in this country
when the first white settlers came to its shores.
tribes are now living in Oklahoma. See colored map of
the United Stati s.
About one third of the Indians in our country live u
houses of wood or of brick. They own large herds of cattle,
raise grain and fruit. In some places they have good schools.
Some tribes still live in tents. Others build pueblos. — hoc
or villages made of sun-dried bricks or of stone.
The native weapons are the bow and arrow and the tomahawk,
or hatchet. The Indians shoot the arrow and throw the toniai,
with great skill. Many are now skillful witli rifles.
The Indians had no horses before the Europeans came to A:
but most of the savages are now excellent riders.
Millions of Indians live in Mexico, Central America
and South America. Some of these are still savages, but
many have mingled with people of the white race
and have given up most of their savage customs.
In Mexico alone there are nearly 5,000,000 Indians, while
as many more people in that country are part Indian and part
white. Xot one fifth of the inhabitants of Mexico are pun-
white.
In all the countries of South America the races are gre
mixed. Most of the white people live near the coasts, but
there, as well as farther inland, are found several million
Indians and thousands of Negroes. The latter are mostly
descendants of freed slaves.
The Indians of the interior of South America are savages ot
low grade and will doubtless remain so until that region is
settled by white people. The
Indians of the selvas are scat-
tered in many small tribes.
When the first white settlers
came to America, the Indians of
Peru and Mexico had teni
and other buildings of stone.
They made cloth and worked in
copper and gold, but the use of iron
was not known to them. They
built good roads and bridges.
A Pueblo.
These people had made more
progress than any others in the
red race.
A Zunl "Water Carrier,
The number now
remains about the same, with perhaps a slight increase.
Nearly all the Indians in the United States are now
upon reservations. These are large tracts of land set
apart as homes for the tribes. Only a few small tribes twelfth as many people as the black race. Most of the
dwell east of the Mississippi river.
The American or red race includes only about one
The most thrifty Indians live in the torrid zone.
102
THE MALAY OR BROWN RACE.
Fiji Islanders
99. The Malay or Brown Race.
In what part of the world is the brown race found? Name three large islands peopled
this race. What are some of the products of these islands?
What great island east of Africa is settled in part by people of the brown race ?
by
The people of the brown race have coarse black hair, flat faces and short skulls.
Many of them have strong and well-built bodies.
The brown people live mostly on islands, but their home includes also the
Malay peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, Madagascar and Java are the most important
islands peopled by the brown race, but the region includes countless islands that
extend for thousands of miles out into the Pacific.
Many people of the Malay race are yet savages. Others are traders or sailors. Many
thousand people of this race inhabit the northern part of New Zealand. These are known as
Ma oris. They are brave and warlike, and have fought hard to prevent the white man from
seizing their island home, but they have lost their largest and best parts of their islands.
The brown people raise a very large portion of the spices used
in the whole world.
The brown or Malay race includes only about one
/ | fourth as many people as the
\ black race.
Reference Tables.
Note: The statistics given below
are to a very large extent mere esti-
mates, not based on census returns.
These tables are placed here for
reference and not for memorizing.
Total Population or the World .
1,500,000,000
Caucasian
• • • • 690,000,000
MonS°lian 600,000,000
Negro . ...
Malay
American .
•'■" 150,000,000
• • v 35,000,000
12,000,000
Mixed Eaces 13,000,000
Christians . .
Buddhists . ,
Mohammedans
Brahmanists .
Jews . . . ,
Map of the Races.
400,000,000
500,000,000
• • 200,000,000
150,000,000
• • 8,000,000
Pagans and others . . . . 242,000,000
THE MONGOLIAN OR YELLOW RACE.
103
100. The Mongolian or Yellow Race.
Where is the home of the yellow race ?
Where is China? Japan? Siam? Anam? Siberia? See colored
map of Asia.
What great river basins of Asia slope to the Arctic ocean ?
The Japanese and the Chinese are famous for the weaving of
silk and the making of porcelain. They have not yet learned the
great value of coal, although there are coal beds in their countries.
These people know very little about machinery for weaving cloth
or for making iron and steel goods. In the great empire of China
there are only a few miles of railroad.
What large rivers of
Asia flow into border
seas along the Pacific
coast ? What race is
found in most parts of
these basins ?
The people of the
yellow and the brown
races resemble one Japanese Temple"
another. Most of them have
coarse black hair, flat faces and
short skulls.
The races differ slightly in color,
in the slant of their eyes and in
some other respects. The brown
race is perhaps a branch of the yel-
low race. The American Indians
also resemble somewhat the people of these two
groups.
The yellow race is found in nearly all parts of
Asia, on the north and east of the great central
highland. The home of this race reaches from the
Himalaya mountains to the Arctic coast, and also
includes every river basin sloping to the Pacific
coast of Asia.
Several centuries ago, the Chinese invented
printing and gunpowder, but for many years that nation
has made little progress. The Japanese have made more
progress than any other people of the yellow race. They
have good schools, and have been wise enough to adopt
many of the customs of the leading white nations.
Many tribes of yel-
low people are found
on the long Arctic
slope of Eurasia.
Japanese Raincoats
Some of these live
by fishing and hunting.
Others keep herds of
reindeer. These useful
animals supply the people with food
and clothing.
Many white people from Russia, in
Europe, have moved eastward across
Siberia and now far outnumber the
yellow people in that land.
The Lapps and Finns of northwest
Europe belong to the yellow race.
Small tribes of yellow people,
called Eskimos, live along the
Arctic shores of America.
There the summer is too short to
ripen grain. Seals, deer, bears, fish,
walruses and sea fowl supply food,
clothing,- heat and light.
Most of the Eskimos live in rounded
huts made of stones, skins or drift-
wood, and wear clothing made of the
skins of seals, bears and birds. Hunt-
ing parties often make huts out of blocks of snow. In winter all
the huts are buried in snow.
The yellow race includes more than one third of the
people on the earth. About one fourth of the human
race is found in China.
Woman of
Burma.
Chinese.
104
THE CAUCASIAN OR WHITE RACE.
101. The Caucasian or White Race.
What race lives in Africa north of the desert of Sahara ? What
race occupies the greater part of Europe ?
Between what races do the Himalaya mountains rise ?
Where have white people settled in North America? In South
America ? In Africa ? In Australia ?
The home of the white race in the Old World lies be-
tween the lands of the black and the yellow races.
It reaches from the desert of Sahara to the Arctic
shore, and includes also the part of Asia lying
south and west of Tibet. It is thought by many
persons that ages ago there
lived in central Asia a race
of people now called
Aryans. Large bands of
these people roamed about
in search of new homes.
Many of the Aryans
with droves of cattle, went
into India.
Many tribes of Aryans fought their way across Low
Europe. These have grown to the leading nations of
the world. They include the English, Irish, Scotch,
Welsh, Germans, Scandinavians,
Eussians and others, and most of
the white people in our country,
Scotch
Piper.
Canada, southern
Africa and Aus-
tralia. The people
in the peninsula
of Arabia and in the countries on the north of the
Sahara desert, as well as in parts of the desert
itself, are very dark, but most of them belong to the white race,
though not to the Aryan branch. These are called Semites.
The Semites gave us our alphabet and system of Arabic figures. The
Jewish people belong to the Semitic branch, but they are now scattered
throughout the leading countries of the world.
Many of the tribes in the Sahara desert and along its eastern
and southern borders form a still darker branch of the white
race, called Hamites.
The Hamites differ from the black race in having thin lips, narrow noses
and straight or curly hair. There are many Hamites in Sudan. They have
for ages mingled with the Negroes of that land, and the races have
become greatly mixed.
The white race outnumbers even the yellow
race. These two great races together include
all but about one seventh of the people in the
world. There are
nearly 700,000,-
000 people in the
Caucasian race.
Kashmir Soldier.
The descendants
of this branch of the
Aryans are now
called Hindus. Their country is one of
the most thickly settled in the world.
Other bands drove their herds west-
ward, and settled in the grazing lands of Persia. See the
map of Asia. After many years, one branch of these people
moved along the northern shore of the Mediterranean sea. The tribes of this branch
have grown to great nations in Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal and France.
Ceylon Girl.
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Mexicans.
RELIGIONS AND GOVERNMENTS.
105
102. Religions.
People who worship idols, or objects such as the sun, fire,
animals or images, are called pagans. As a rule, they believe
that there are spirits having
magical power to do good or evil.
savages
Egyptian Woman.
pagans. Most of
them belong to the
black and the red
races, but there are many savages
in each of the other races. About
one seventh of the people on the
earth are pagans.
India is the seat of a very old reli-
gion that divides its followers into classes called castes. The
four principal castes are the priests, the soldiers and rulers,
the merchants, the servants. Below these are the outcasts.
Brahma is one of the chief gods in this religion. The priests
are called Brahmans, and all the believers are Brahmanists.
About one half of the people in India, or one tenth
of mankind, are Brahmanists.
Many centuries ago a prince in India taught that caste had
• nothing to do with religion. He did not believe in a God.
This prince was called Buddha, and his followers are Buddhists.
The Buddhist religion in India soon passed away, but it
spread over central and eastern Asia.
Most of the people of the yellow race, or about
one third of the human race, are Buddhists.
The Semitic branch of the
white race has given to the
world the three religions whose
followers worship one God.
The Christians believe in one
God and the Bible ; the Jewish
people believe in one God but
not in the New Testament; the
Mohammedans believe in one
God, but their sacred book is
the Koran.
The Christians are mostly
descendants of the Aryans who
settled in Europe. The Chris-
tian lands include the greater
part of America, Europe and
Australia, and the many European settlements in nearly all
parts of the world. About one fourth of the people on the
earth are in Christian countries.
Mohammed, the founder of the religion which bears his name, lived
in Arabia about a thousand years before the first English colony settled
in America.
The Mohammedan religion has spread into northern Africa
and Sudan ; also, over nearly all southwest Asia, part of India,
and the largest of the islands settled by the brown people.
This religion includes among its followers about one seventh
of the human race.
103. Governments.
A number of savages living under one
ruler, or chief, form a tribe. A chief generally
has absolute power over the lives and prop-
erty of his subjects, but as the tribes become
more civilized the people secure more rights.
The tribal government is the com-
mon form of rule among pagans.
.
Arab Woman.
A body of people
above the savage
state, united under
one ruler, may be
called a nation. The
land inhabited by a
nation is known as a
country. The city in
which the laws of a
nation are made is
the capital of the
country.
Hamltes.
Semitic Type (Arab).
Among some nations the rulers have
absolute power. They make the laws
and enforce them, and also hold office
for life by right of birth. A nation
thus ruled is an absolute monarchy.
The rulers, or monarchs, take such
names as czar, shah, sultan, ameer.
The Mohammedan and Bud-
dhist nations, except Japan and
Persia, are absolute monarchies.
A government in which the ruler holds office by right of birth,
but is limited in power, is called a limited monarchy. Such
a ruler is commonly called a king, queen, emperor or empress.
A government in which the people elect their own
ruler is a republic.
106
REVIEW OF THE RACES.
The Christian nations, except Russia, are either limited
monarchies or republics. Russia and Turkey * are absolute
monarchies. France and Switzerland are republics.2 The
other nations of Europe are limited monarchies.
The nations in Europe have laid claim to nearly all parts of
Africa, as well as to some other lands. Great Britain possesses
Canada, Australia, India,
Belize,3 and part of Gui-
ana. The other two parts
of Guiana belong to
France and Holland.
Greenland and Iceland
belong to Denmark. The
nations in Europe govern
several other islands off
the coast of America.
Cuba has won its inde-
pendence and
public.
All the countries in
America are republics,
except those named
above as possessions
of nations in Europe
What bounds the land of the Negro on the north ? Where are
the Bantu tribes ? The Kaffirs ?
Where do the Papuans live ? In what part of Australia are black
natives found? In
what part of the
United States are there
many Negroes ?
Review
What races are separated by the Pacific
ocean ? By the Atlantic ocean ? By the
Indian ocean ? By the desert of Sahara ?
By the Himalaya mountains ?
1 Turkey is under the rule of Mahommedans, but most of the people of
European Turkey are Christians. Japan is a limited monarchy.
2 San Marino and Andorra are scarcely more than small cities. See
pages 77 and 79. s A colony in Central America.
4 For fuller account of our government, see lesson 125.
Where is the home
of the brown race ?
Name three large
islands of the East
Indies.
Where are Indians
found? Eskimos?
Lapps? Japanese?
Chinese ?
Where is the home
of the white race in the
Old World? Who.
were the Aryans?
W7here are the Hindus
found ? The Arabs ? The Egyptians ?
Tell what race or races are found in each of
these river basins: Amazon, Kongo, Mississippi,
Nile, Ganges, Lena, Niger, Plata, Mackenzie,
St. Lawrence, Volga, Yangtze, Amur.
What people live on the highest plateau ? In
the largest river valley? On the greatest desert ?
In the coldest lands ?
What races live along the shores of the Pacific
ocean ? Of the Indian ocean ?
To which race or races do the people in each
of these lands belong ? — China, British Isles,
Brazil, Arabia, Germany, United States, India,
Greenland, Borneo, Kussia, Japan, Kongo State,
Egypt, Peru, Mexico, Sudan, Java, Australia.
Pictures. — The "Mosque of St. Sophia" is a
Mohammedan place of worship in Constantinople. The
n * „ , "Fire Temple " is suPPlied wi*h gas from t** naphtha
wells of Baku, a port on the west coast of the Caspian sea. The « Rock
Temple "is a fine specimen of the Hindu temples in India. Pagodas are
common m ^ south east Asia. Paul Severe', signal lanterns were hung in
the tower of the " Old North Church." The lowest picture in the group is
the beautiful Trinity Church, Boston.
WHERE PLANTS GROW.
107
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105. Where Plants Grow.
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Can you name two plants that thrive in wet
l/f\f/' soil? Two that thrive in sandy soil ?
Where do water lilies grow? Do you know
where pussy willows are found?
Of what use are long roots to trees? Would
short roots be as useful ? Try to find a plant growing on
S the bark of some tree. Name two trees that drop their
leaves in autumn. Name two that hold their leaves all winter.
In what ways may seeds be scattered over level land ? How
may they be carried over high land ? Across rivers ?
Name two plants that yield fibers from which cloth is made.
' I Name three plants that are used in making medicine.
What is tar? What is India rubber? Name six food-plants. What articles are
made from sap ? From buds ? From leaves ? From seeds ? From bark ? From roots ?
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CACTUS
106. Soil, Water and Heat.
Plants cannot live in every place where their seeds may fall, but only
where the soil, heat and moisture are suited to their growth.
Meadow grass thrives in rich moist soil. Thistles often spring up in sandy and rocky
places. Water lilies take root in mud at the bottoms of ponds. Mosses cling to rocks
and trees. Clover seeks warm sunlight. Many ferns grow in shady, woods.
Seeds of swamp plants may be blown to dry sandy fields, but there they will die.
If thistle seeds are sown in a swamp they will rot. Some kinds of rice grow in flooded
fields, while many cactus plants thrive in deserts.
Some plants need a longer hot season than others in order to ripen their
seeds.
Orange blossoms often cover a tree in early spring while the branches are still loaded
with golden fruit from the last year's blossoms. The apple tree blooms in the spring-
time, and its fruit ripens before winter.
Bananas require hot or warm weather all the year ; while in the far north, where snow
covers the ground except for a few weeks- in summer, millions of poppies find time to
spring up, blossom, and ripen their seed.
A plant is not found in all places where the soil, heat and moisture are
suited to its growth. If the plant is not native to the place, its seeds or
the plant itself must first be taken there.
When white people first settled in America they found here no wheat nor cotton. After a time the seeds were brought across the
ocean, and now these plants are among the most valuable in the New World. Most of our grains and fruits are natives of other lands
v*t.
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108
PLANTS OF THE HOT BELT.
107. Plants of the Hot Belt.
f.4iMr
m
What lands are included in this belt ? See map on page 18.
What are the seasons in this belt ? When do the rainy seasons
come ? See page 2^,
The torrid belt is often called the belt of palms, because
so many palm trees thrive in
it. Among these is the use-
ful cocoa palm.
From the wood of its trunk
many useful articles!
are made. The fi-l| Jt
bers of the leaves
are woven into
ropes, cloth,
mats and
baskets.
S&^
Among the chief articles of food of people in the hot
belt are bananas, plantains and breadfruit. Bananas and
plantains are very much alike, — the ktter being slightly
the coarser.
Breadfruit grows to about the size of a child's head. The fruit
is often baked, and sometimes it is
ground to flour after being baked. On
many islands in the Pacific
bananas and breadfruit are
almost the only food
of the natives.
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The natives use
the nuts for food,
and make dishes out
of .the hard shells.
The cocoa palm thrives
best near the sea.
Some palm trees pro-
duce dates. These are
the chief article
of food of many
desert tribes. Other
*■ > palms yield wax, oil,
sago and wine.
India rubber is made
.a from the sap of many
f/'yM kinds of trees and vines
that grow in
the hot belt.
Many dye-woods
are also
-.tip'
h
belt are very 'j^ff
rich in spices.
There are found
the sweet-scented
kernels of nutmeg,
the biting flower buds
of the clove, the fra-
grant bark of the cin-
namon, the hot root-
stock of the ginger, and the
stinging dried berries of the
pepper.
This belt supplies the
world with coffee. Among
the other chief pro-
ducts are cotton,
sugar cane, rice
and the opium
poppy.
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Among
the trees
of the hot
belt yielding
valuable w<
are ebony, rose- *, -.-, ;£js ^M^^W ikr'-n
wood and ma- ^^V'jZ Wv:s7%-
hogany. xr4 /^'' v
Another useful product of
the hot belt is bamboo. This
is a very strong coarse grass-like
plant, growing to the height of sixty or seventy feet.
In India, China and the East Indies entire huts with their fur-
niture are made of bamboo. Its seeds and tender shoots are served
as food, on dishes cut from its tough joints. Other parts of this
plant are used in making baskets, paper, ropes, boats, cloth and
weapons.
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The vege-
tation of the
hot belt sur-
'$ i^W passes in va-
WmII J* riety and density
that of any other
belt. In places the
trees grow in dense
masses, with long vines
-^ffl^tQSpP1'' JfjVWweaving networks among th&
-euMABMjic^ branches. Many orchids of rich
color and beautiful shape grow
in the forests. There are also tree ferns, huge lilies and count-
less other plants which we can see only in hothouses.
The thick foliage shuts out the drying sunshine from the lands
in many parts of the hot belt. The rainfall being heavy, these
lands become very wet and therefore unhealthful for white
people.
PLANTS OF THE WARM BELTS.
109
108. Plants of the Warm Bslts.
What lands are in the northern warm belt? What lands are in
the southern warm belt ? See map on page 18.
What are the seasons in these belts ?
on the stalk, thte fields are again flooded, and the grain ripens
while standing in water.
Neatly all kinds of grain thrive in parts of the warm
belts. Among the other valuable plants arc tea, sugar
The plants of the warm belts resemble those in the cane, sweet potato and tobacco. Most of the tea cob
hot belt. Most of the trees are evergreens,.
that is, they do not shed their
leaves in winter. Figs, dates
olives and grapes abound, a
and large grov
of oranges and
lemons are a
source- of
wealth in
many
parts..
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J**:
from southeast Asia. There is also found the teak
tree which supplies valuable lumber, and
F(G5 the mulberry upon w\
leaves silkworm- feed.
Many species of cac-
tuses grow in Mexico
\BP- and the arid lands
J in the south-
.% , west p ir; of
the United
States.
Most of the
cactus plants
have leafless
stems, with large
of these belts.
Cotton also is one
of the leading prod-
ucts.
The most productive thorns.
cotton regions in the world The century plant
.# are the warm plains of the yields a valuable fiber
United States, India and from which cordage is
s
3A0S- 3
TREE
The value of this plant is
shown by the fact that about
one half the people of the earth
wear clothing made wholly of
cotton, and nearly all the rest
of the human race, except some
savage tribes, use
it in part of their
dress.
made.
In many parts of the
warm belts, and some parts
of the cool belts, there are
wet seasons followed by
months of drouth. In such
regions, the rains or the melted
snow of the uplands is often
gathered into reser-
voirs, for use c, ^ 4 v.
For ages -f ' ;
rice has been
one of the
leading food JL^
crops in China, ^
Japan, India and other
parts of the warm belts.
Rice grows both in low-
land and in upland regions.
The best rice is raised on flooded lands. One plan is to lay out the
fields in little furrows, about fifteen inches apart. In these the
seed is sown, and then water is let in. This stands till the seed
sprouts, and the water is then drained off. When a joint forms
during the
dry season.
Canal-
d itches from
sE'" these reservoirs lead
the water into gr<>
vineyards and vegetable gardens. If it
were not for this water supply, some of the
most fruitful regions of the earth would be
little more than deserts for half the year.
In places having seasons of drouth, water is sometimes obtained
by sinking, or driving pipes into the ground, thus reaching a sup-
ply of ground water. Many thousand of these artesian wells feed
ditches that lead water to groves and gardens in the warm belts.
110
PLANTS OF THE COOL BELTS.
109. Plants of the Cool Belts.
What lands are in the southern cool belt ?
What large river basins are wholly or in part in the northern
cool belt? What highlands in the Old World bound this belt on
the south ?
What are the seasons in the cool belt ?
Linen cloth and thread are made from the silky
fibers that form an inner bark round the
stalk of flax. Linseed oil is pressed
from flaxseed. This oil is largely
used in paints.
Hemp is used in making ropes
and coarse cloth.
Many hard-wood trees,
ing nearly
all the oar.
I.' . oats
and barley
an- hardy
grains and
thrive in
The cool belts are often called the belts of grains.
Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats and barley are raised in such as the oak, maple
nearly all parts of these belts. and walnut, grow in
Among the leading nations, wheat is the grain most the warmer parts of
widely used for food. The crops that supply the markets
of the world are raised chiefly in the prairies and other
plains of the cool belt-.
Corn is another valuable grain. It was raised
by the Indians long before the white man came
to this country. Corn is a rapid grower and is
wide-spread over the cool
belts and the lands still
nearer the equator. This
grain is better
suited to the
prairies having
hot summers,
than to the
British Isles
with their mild
weather lasfc-
cool belts.
Barley is per-
haps the most
wide-spread of
grains. It grows
both upon the Arctic
shore of Norway and in
the valley of the upper Nile,
not far from the equator.
Flax and hemp thrive in the
Next to cotton, flax is the most
valuable of the fiber plants.
the cool belts.
Forests of
cone - bearing
trees, called
evergreens,
thrive in the
colder parts of
these belts,
both on plains and
highlands. Trees
of this kind abound
also on the cool
mountain sides in
the warm and the hot belts.
The pine, spruce, fir, hemlock and cedar sup-
ply the most useful soft-wood timber. The
giant trees of California belong in this group.
The cone-bearers are of great value. They
are very wide-spread ; their wood is light and strong ;
they yield tar, pitch, rosin and turpentine. Try to find
out the uses of these products.
Orchard fruits, hay and vegetables thrive in many
parts of these belts.
Vegetables are not generally raised on such a large-scale as
the grains, yet the scattered vegetable crops, taken as a whole,
yield large returns.
The raising of vegetables for market is called market garden
ing. The best locations for market gardens are near large cities
where the fresh produce meets with ready sale. Try to find out
where the vegetables used in your home are raised. '
Hay is a very valuable crop in regions where many horses and
cattle are raised and where there are long periods of cold or
drouth.
Apples, pears, peaches and grapes are wide-spread over these
belts.
ANIMALS, -THEIR HABITS AND USES.
Ill
110. Plants of the Northern Cold Belt.
What lands are in the northern cold belt ? What large rivers
flow into the Arctic ocean ?
What have you learned about the seasons in this belt ?
Some kinds of pine, spruce, birch, willow and other
hardy trees grow in the warmer parts of the northern
cold belt. Northward the trees become fewer and
smaller, ending with dwarf birches and willows, only a
few inches in height, on the dreary plains near the Arctic
shore. There, in the cold marshy tundras are also found
mosses, lichens and stunted shrubs.
On the northwest coast of Greenland within a few hundred miles
of the pole, and also on the tundras, the summer sun melts the
winter snow which has buried the land. Little lakes form, and
CROWBE Fltf^jjgj
brooks run into the
sea. Sap starts in
the willow stems,
and Arctic hares
come from their
holes to feed on the
bursting buds. The
slopes are bright
with poppies, saxi-
frages and other hardy flowering plants.
Large patches of ground are then covered
with orange and gray lichens.1
All these things are seen where only a few weeks before the land
was wrapped in the snow and the darkness of the long Arctic winter.
What have you learned about the days and nights within the
Arctic circle ?
1 Adapted from Hayes' Open Polar Sea.
ANIMALS.
111. Animals,— Their Habits and Uses
What do cows feed on ? Hens ?
Cats? Bees? Horses?
What kind of covering has an oyster?
A lobster? A bear? An ostrich?
A snake ? A frog ?
1 Can you name two animals that live
both on land and in water ?
How does a cat defend itself? A
horse ? A cow ? A bee ?
How does a robin move from place
to place? A snake? A fish ? A
frog ? A horse ?
Name some of the uses of cows, — of
horses, —of dogs, — of sheep, — of hens,
— of seals.
112. Animals and Their Homes.
fitted to seize
proper food.
and devour its
k/
Tbe Animal Realms.
Every kind of creature grows
to suit its native haunts. By its
teeth, feet and other parts of its body, every animal is
the birds can
Ducks take their food
largely from ponds and
streams. These fowl
have webbed feet and can
swim easily and swiftly.
The oily bodies of ducks
grow very wide and are
thus well suited to float.
Along the inner edges of a duck's bill
are many bristles that form a kind of
strainer. When the duck swims with
her open bill in the water, insects
p / and small plants are caught in this
strainer.
The common woodpeckers have strong
bills to peck holes in bark where worms and in-
sects live. Each foot of the woodpecker has two
toes in front and two curved backwards. These
easily cling to the rough surfaces of trees and
climb very quickly.
112
ANIMALS, -THEIR HABITS AND USES.
Every kind of creature has the kind of covering that They may be swift and strong, but they cannot live in
suits its native home. regions that do not supply their food.
Whales that live in polar seas have thick layers of fat, or blubber, The warm parts of the Old World are the home of the elephant
to keep the icy water from chilling their muscles. Seals are covered and the giraffe. What prevents these animals from reaching South
with warm fur, rob- America ? Why cannot cattle cross wide deserts ?
ins with light
feathers, alpacas
with curly wool,
Many animals have been taken by man to new homes.
Cattle, sheep, hogs and horses have been shipped from Europe
across the ocean, and now thrive in many parts of America. Count-
less birds have been carried to places far from their native haunts.
Most animals have a much wider range than plants.
The former are always free to move from place
- — n to place as
the seasons
change or as
periods of
drouth come
on. The chief
barriers to
their travel
lobsters with strong shells.
is suited to certain haunts.
Animals make their homes in or near the
places that supply their food.
Moths of many kinds lay eggs on the leaves which will
form the food of the larvae when the eggs hatch. Spiders
weave webs in places where flies and other insects flit about.
Many birds build their nests in fruit trees. Most woodpeckers
make their homes in decaying trees where there are generally many
insects. Frogs lay eggs in. ponds where their tadpoles can feed.
Among wild animals there is always a struggle for food
and for life.
Tigers pounce upon deer and cattle ; many birds feed on worms
and insects ; owls destroy field mice ; polar bears catch seals and
fish. Each creature may be the prey of some other.
Every animal has some means of defense or escape.
The chamois leaps from crag to crag ; the rattlesnake strikes
with poison fangs ; the deer runs swiftly ; the frog dives into
water ; the ostrich kicks and runs.
Nearly all animals have power to move about and seek
new homes. There are places that animals cannot cross.
are oceans,
deserts and 1
highlands.
These fea-
ture s di-
vide the
earth into
great realms, each having some groups of animals that
differ from those of the other realms. Many kinds of
animals in each realm are also found in other realms, for
some can cross places that are barriers to others.
SOUTH AMERICAN REALM.
113
113. South American Realm. kept in flocks. The other, called the guanaco, is hunted
mi . n . , , c< ,, A . , . by Indians on the plains southward from the pampas.
This realm includes bouth America, Central America mi i • , • i , . i. 7 a •
, ,. w r ,. T, . , ' . ^-""^<* The large running bird known as the r/?m, or American
and the West Indies. It reaches from the plateau of . , . , -* . 7.
., . , « n r • ostrich, is round m the same region.
Mexico to Cape Horn. r, ■' , . . °, ,,
,, r . , , ,. , . . , , Cattle and sheep m great numbers graze on the pampas
Among the animals oi the Andes highland are the ■, ,-, « ™ ° . , ° . „0+- frt +i • .
* ° and the llanos. These animals are not native to this
ama an a pa a. ^^ ^ ^^ early brought by white settlers from
These are in the same family as the camel, but they have no Europe
Hides, wool and beef are leading articles of
JftG'JAB
>
of the alpaca and the
llama has a thick sole
that clings easily to the
rough rocks over which
these animals climb to
find grass.
Alpacas are kept in large flocks by the Indians of
Bolivia and of Peru. These animals are covered with
fine soft wool.
Llamas were at one time used in great numbers to carry silver
ore from the mountain mines to the coast, and to take back food
and clothing to the miners. Trains of cars and mules now do most
of this work. Llama wool is made into cloth, but this wool is not
so fine as that clipped from alpacas.
export from the valleys of
the Plata and the Orinoco.
Two large cat-like animals
are found in America. The
jaguar is the terror of nearly
all South America and is some-
times seen as far north as the Rio Grande. Pumas,
or panthers, range over the highland from the
southern end of the Andes to Canada. The con-
dor, largest of flying birds, may often be seen on
the high peaks of the Andes. This bird is so
strong that it sometimes kills sheep and deer.
ti • The selvas and the low plateau of Brazil are the home
humps of fat on their x
backs, nor broad pads of countless wild animals.
In these regions, Indians hunt the shy tapirs for their skins
and meat. These creatures feed on buds, leaves and tender shoots,
in the deep forest. Sharp-clawed ant-eaters tear open the ant-
hills, thrust in their long sticky tongues, and gather up the little
insects for food. Ant-eaters are often victims of long serpents
called boas. These serpents have no poison fangs, but they coil
around animals and slowly crush them to death.
There are armadillos, with bony armor; shaggy sloths that
cling to branches, by means of hooked toes, and feed on leaves and
fruit ; harmless iguanas, or lizards, four or five feet long, that lay
their eggs in the hollow parts of trees ; fierce peccaries that re-
semble small hogs and feed on roots and fallen fruit.
In the forest and along the streams may be seen
alligators, monkeys, parrots, toucans and other creatures
fine as that clipped from alpacas. _ without number. Brazil is the home of swarms of bright
Two other kinds of animals m South America resemuie
the llama. One of these, the vienHa, has fine wool and > eolored mseets.
114
NORTHERN" REALM.
114. Northern Realm.
The Northern realm embraces all the lands extending north-
ward from the plateau of Mexico, from the desert of Sahara and
from the Himalaya mountains.
All of North America, except its southern part, is within this realm.
What large river basins of this continent does the realm include?
Name five river basins of Asia that are in the Northern realm. What part
of Asia is not in this realm ?
What continent is wholly in the Northern realm? Which part of Africa
is in this realm ?
Bears are found in many parts of the Northern realm. Of these
the grizzly bear of the Rocky mountains is the strongest and
fiercest. Black bears prowl in the forest regions of North America,
both in the east and in the west. The fur of this species is soft
and of a glossy black color. It is often made into robes. Brown
bears are found in the Old World, from Japan to Spain.
Largest of all is the polar or white bear of the Arctic regions.
It feeds chiefly on seals and fish. In pursuit of these the polar
bear often dives into the icy water and swims long distances. This
creature is never found far from the sea in which its food lives.
Among the animals which make their home in the highlands
of this realm are the bighorn, or Rocky mountain sheep, the
chamois and the ibex of the Alps, the Kashmir goat and the yak
of Tibet.
The yak is of great service to the people of Tibet. It carries heavy
burdens, and supplies milk, meat and warm skins. Wild yaks live at a great
height. They have been seen nearly four miles above the level of the sea
The prairies, steppes and high plains of this realm
support millions of cattle, sheep and horses. These
animals are not native to any part of America.
Large herds of bisons, often
called buffaloes, at one time
grazed on the plains east of the
Rocky mountains. Many thou-
sand have been killed, and only
a few small herds are known
to exist. One of these herds
is in Yellowstone park and is
there protected by law from
hunters. The turkey is native
to America and is now one of
the most valuable of fowl.
3i
CHEEP j^jsSfsJWF
NORTHERN REALM.
115
«!>
■ a
WHITE BEAR
X
SEALS
SA
4 s
Millions of fur-bearing animals live in the great
pine-forest belt of the north, both in America and
Eurasia.
There the cunning beaver feeds on berries, leaves and
bark, and for safety builds its hut at the edge of a lake or RE
a river. The watchful otter follows the streams, looking for fish. The
sable, ermine and many other little fur-bearers also make this region their
home. The finest and best furs in the world come from the cold parts of the
northern realm.
The forest belt of the north is the home of the elk. This
animal is noted for its speed and for its broad flat antlers. The
American elk is called the moose. It is the largest of the deer
family.
The reindeer also belongs in the cold regions both of America
and the Old World.
The American reindeer on the mainland is called the caribou. Reindeer
range northward in Greenland to within less than a thousand miles of
the pole.
In the northern parts of Eurasia, reindeer are tamed and kept in herds.
The hoofs of this deer are very wide and are well suited for travel over
snow fields. The reindeer is very swift and can draw heavy loads.
The milk and the flesh of reindeer are used for food. Warm clothing
is made from the skins. On the bleak slopes of the Old World many a
man's wealth is counted in reindeer. In summer the deer feed on shoots
and leaves of shrubs and trees, but in winter they scrape through the snow
to find a little gray lichen called reindeer moss.
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During the very short Arctic summer many seals, sea
other creatures visit the far north, in search of food,
given to them downy feathers, soft furs or oily flesh,
to help keep them warm.
fowl and
Nature has
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Great whales plow the icy water. One kind has a large
sieve along each side of the mouth. The sieve is made of
horny blades called whalebone. By means of this sieve, the
whale gathers its food from
the sea-water which it takes
into its mouth. More than
a ton of whalebone has
been taken from the mouth
of a large whale.
Many whales were for-
merly killed for their oil.
Petroleum has now largely
taken the place of whale >
oil for lighting purposes. ^
m
w.
YAK
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11G
AFRICAN REALM.
ELAND
BABOON
ELEPHANT
The walrus is a large animal of the seal family, and lives along the Arctic
coasts. The walrus has strong ivory tusks that it uses to defend itself and to
dig shellfish from the bottoms of bays. It is killed for its oil, ivory, hide and
coarse flesh. Seals feed chiefly on fish that they catch with their sharp teeth.
They swim with great speed but are clumsy on the land. Some seals are valued
for their fine fur. Many of these are killed on the Pribilof islands in Bering sea.
Seals form a large part of the food of the Eskimos. Among the sea fowl which visit the
Arctic shores in summer, to feed and to hatch their young, are eider ducks, geese and auks.
115. African Realm.
The African realm includes the peninsula of Arabia and all
except the region north of the Sahara desert.
This realm is the home of many man-like apes. Among these the fierce
gorilla holds first place for size and strength. This species of ape is found
near the west coast of Africa, not far from the equator.
The gorilla feeds mostly on the fruit of palm and banana plants. Eor a nest it weaves
vines into rude hammocks or mats among thick branches. This strong beast is not found
in any other part of the earth.
The chimpanzee lives in about the same region as the gorilla and also far
inland near the upper Nile. Many other apes and monkeys are found in
nearly all parts of Africa.
The vast barren tracts in this realm are the home of the camel.
The camel has a wide sole under the toes of each foot to prevent it from sinking
into the soft sand. The nostrils can be closed at will, and veils of hair hang over the
eyes to keep out the hot stinging sand which often blows over the desert.
The camels of the African realm have single humps on their backs. The camels of
the desert region in central Asia have double humps.
Before the camel starts on a long journey, its master sees that the hump or humps
are very large. These odd swellings are masses of fat. When the beast has gone for a
long time without food, this fat nourishes the body.
Eor three or four days at a time, the camel will bear a heavy load across heated
deserts, without drinking. The body is supplied with water from pouches, or water-cells,
on the walls of the first stomach.
Camel's milk and flesh are used for food. The long hair that grows on the hump,
neck and legs of the camel is made into cloth.
One species of elephant is found in Africa. Each year thousands of these
beasts are killed for their ivory tusks.
The lion and the leopard live in many parts of this realm. They prowl
about the places in which they can pounce upon deer and other animals. Among the huge creatures that abound
in this realm are the thick-skinned rhinoceros with horned nose, the tall giraffe with long neck, the giant ostrich with
fine plumes and the dreaded crocodile with scaly armor.
The tsetse fly is about as large as the house fly and has almost the same colors as the honey bee. The home of this insect is in
parts of central and south Africa. The sting of the tsetse fly is fatal to cattle, horses and dogs, but harmless to man.
HIPPOPOTAMUS
ORIENTAL REALM.
117
monkeys*;-
CHEETAH
BANTENG orWILDOXof JAVA
Cattle are not native to this land, but many cattle are now raised
in the parts of the African realm which are free from the tsetse fly.
The Cape buffalo is found in the southern half of Africa.
In south and east Africa there are two kinds of animals related to the
common horse. These are the zebra and the quagga. They are hard to tame
and are of but little use to man. Antelopes in large numbers graze in most
parts of this realm. They are the swiftest of four-footed animals. The gnu,
or horned horse, is an antelope.
116. Oriental Realm.
The Oriental realm lies southward from the Himalaya and
Nanling ranges. See map on page 182. This realm extends
almost to New Guinea and Australia.
The orang-outan, one of the great man-like apes, is a native of
Borneo and Sumatra. Apes of this species weave rude nests among
branches and are rarely seen on the ground. Their food consists
chiefly of fruits and leaves.
The most useful animals in this realm are the zebu and the
buffalo. These are found in nearly all parts of southeast Asia and
have spread westward into Africa.
Zebus are a kind of cattle having great humps on their shoulders. Some
of these animals are used for riding, and they can travel all day at the rate of
five or six miles an hour. Zebus are also used for plowing, drawing carts and
doing other kinds of work.
The true buffalo of India is often found in the wild state. Tame buffaloes
are useful beasts of burden. These animals have very wide hoofs, and are
well suited to work on marshy or soft lands. Many buffaloes are now used
as draft animals in the marshy parts of southern Europe.
There are both wild and tame elephants in this realm. Many
of these huge beasts are trained to work, but the cost of feeding
them is very great, and their places are to a large extent being
taken by horses. The cat-like tiger is a native of Asia. It ranges as far north as the Amur river but avoids the great
central highland. The lion is also found in this realm.
The tiger feeds on cattle, deer and other animals. This fierce beast often swims from island to island in the Ganges delta.
The one-horned rhinoceros belongs in the Oriental realm. Two species are there found.
This huge beast sleeps during the day and comes from its haunt in the evening to browse on shrubs, leaves and grass.
Large crocodiles, called gavials, infest the Ganges delta and the lower parts of many streams m tins realm.
These reptiles have long narrow snouts and grow to the length of about sixteen feet. Gavials are of service to man, for they devour
the bodies of animals which float down the streams.
118
AUSTRALIAN REALM.
117. Australian Realm.
The Australian realm includes Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and many small islands in the Pacific ocean.
Most of the animals in this realm differ widely from those in other parts of the world. Many have pouches for
carrying their helpless young. Thftse pouches are made by folds in the skin on the under side of the body.^
The name kangaroo is given to several species of pouched animals. Some of these are about the size of rats.
Others are as large as men. Large kangaroos are hunted for their skins, from which fine soft leather is made. These
animals travel very swiftly, by making long leaps.
The emu is related to the ostrich. The plumage of the emu is long and hair-like,
but there are only the rudiments of wings. This bird cannot fly, but it runs with
great speed. The emu is hunted for the oil in its skin.
The apteryx of Xew Zealand belongs to the same order of birds as the emu, the ostrich and the
rhea. The duck mole (ornithorhynchus) of Australia lays eggs and sits on them,
but it is not a bird. The water mole has soft brown fur and may often be
seen in ponds and streams. It feeds mostly on insects and worms that live
in the water.
The echidna is covered with sharp spines. It feeds on ants and other
insects. This animal has no teeth, but from a long snout it runs out a sticky
tongue to seize its food. The echidna lays eggs but does not sit on them.
The eggs are hatched in its warm pouch, and there the little animals also
remain till they grow strong.
The Australian realm abounds in black swans, lyre birds, parrots,
brush turkeys, pigeons, ducks, geese and other kinds of birds.
Sheep and cattle are not native to Australia, but are now
counted there in millions.
The chief grazing regions are near the eastern ranges of the
continent.
118. Other Products of the Sea.
Pearls come from some kinds of shellfish.
finest are taken from pearl oysters. These
are found not far from the shores of nearly
all tropical seas.
Sponges are torn from rocks on the
bottom of the sea at depths that vary from
a few feet to several hundred. The sponges
of commerce come largely from the Mediter-
ranean and Red seas, and from the Bahama
islands off the coast of Florida. Most of the
fish which are used for food are caught near
the shores of the sea or in rivers and lakes.
Great turtles live
within or near the
tropics and form a
large part of the
food supply on many
tropical islands.
119
OOMMEEOE.
119. Domestic and Foreign Commerce.
No state nor country produces all the things which its
people need, but each has a surplus of some products.
Neither tea nor coffee grows in our country. Brazil, however,
is able to send us
millions of
pounds of
coffee
120. Highways of Trade, — Water Routes.
The principal highways of trade are oceans, railroads,
rivers and canals.
Besides the transportation on these great highways, we have
learned that camels bear loads of salt, ivory and oil across
broad deserts ; that reindeer drag sledges over the icy plains
of northern Eurasia; that yaks toil up and down the
Himalaya slopes; that llamas carry packs, or
bundles of goods, over some parts of the Andes.
These animals are of great service to man, for
they can bear burdens in places where there
mmmmm
m
each
Japan can supply us with tea.
England cannot raise grain or
beef enough for her own people,
but: the prairies of the United States and
the steppes of Eussia have wheat and
cattle to spare.
New England has skilled workmen and great
mills for cloth-making. No cotton grows in that
region, but enough is produced on the Southern
plains to supply all the mills in our own country, and many
Great Britain besides.
The buying and selling, or the exchange of goods, is
called trade. Trade on a large scale may be called com-
merce. Domestic commerce is that carried on
between various parts of one country. Foreign ^
commerce is that carried on between one
country and another.
Which of the following are domestic
trade and which are foreign? — Boston
sells boots and shoes to the people of
Texas. Brazil sends rubber to New York.
Chicago sends beef to nearly all parts of
our country and to Europe. France ex-
ports laces to the United States. Switzer-
land imports raw silk from Italy.
Great Britain leads in foreign
commerce. Germany ranks second;
France third; the United States fourth.
Our principal exports are cotton from the
Southern plains ; grain and flour from the prairies ; beef
and pork from the prairies and Western plains. Our
imports are chiefly sugar, coffee and cloth.
Eddystone
are no wagon roads, no canals, no rivers, no railroads, no arms of
the sea, — none of the greater highways of trade.
Aged people can recall the time when there was not a railroad
nor a steamship in the world. In those days the large rivers in
trading countries were alive with boats, while sailing vessels on
the oceans and inland seas went freighted from port to
port. Railroads are now used more than river boats,
and most of the freight which goes by water is
carried by steamers.
The rivers which are of greatest
use as routes of trade are those
which are deep and slow, and which
flow through the most productive
regions.
Thus the Mississippi river system forms
a great highway of trade for the states
which are reached by its navigable streams.
This river system branches among the grain-
fields, the forests, the grazing lands and the coal
fields of the upper Mississippi valley, and among
the cotton and sugar plantations of the South. Im-
Light, Bng. mense quantities of the products of these regions are
freighted on the main river and its branches. Large ocean steamers
ascend the Mississippi to New Orleans, to load with cotton, sugar,
rice and other products.
120
HIGHWAYS OF TRADE, — WATBB ROUTES.
Lakes and inland seas that lead in
the direction of trade centers are often
of greater service than rivers.
The water way along the Great Lakes is
of more importance than any other lake or
river route in the world. The rapid growth
of trade along this route is due to many
causes, among which are the following : The
grainfields, pastures, coal fields, oil wells,
iron mines and large manufacturing cities of
our country are chiefly in the northern half ;
the foreign trade of this region is carried on mostly
with countries of Europe ; the goods pass through
New York, Boston and other large Atlantic ports.
In this immense east-and-west trade, the Mississippi
system is of little use, because it leads southward to the
gulf of Mexico; but the Great Lakes extend far eastward
from the very heart of the producing regions, and there is
consequently more shipping on these lakes than goes to and from
any seaport in the world. Lines of steamers connect all the large
lake ports, — for example, Chicago with Milwaukee, Detroit,
Buffalo and other cities ; Detroit with Cleveland ; Buffalo with
GBEAT OCEAN KOUTES
OF COMMERCE
180J
NOTE:
Meridian 150 is tire Date Line used by
navigators; tbe dotted line is tbat'uaed by
peopleliving on tbe Pacific Islands.
forests, mines or manufacturing centers ; for
the exports must be taken to the shipping
points, and the imports must be distributed
from those points.
Many large seaports, such as
London, New York, Liverpool,
Boston and San Francisco, are on
deep harbors formed by the
slight drowning of river val-
leys. The harbors are in many
cases some distance inland,
at the head of the
drowned part of the
valleys. Tidal cur-
rents flowing in and
out of the rivers help
vessels to enter and
clear from the ports.
Thus, London is
seventy miles from the
mouth of the Thames,
— 70 miles inland towards the farms and workshops of busy Eng-
land. Montreal is about 1000 miles up the drowned valley of
the St. Lawrence. Philadelphia and Baltimore
are near the heads of two bays in slightly-drowned
valleys. The nearer a steamer can go to the places
which supply or receive freight, — the nearer to
the producer or the consumer, — the cheaper the
rates of transportation are.
The largest seaports of our country are along
the northeast coast. They have grown up where
they can most easily carry on trade both with
Europe and with the principal producing regions
of the United States. About one half the foreign
trade of our nation passes through the great port
of New York.1 Boston ranks second to that port.
Philadelphia and Baltimore also have a large
foreign and coastwise trade.
The larger
Grain Elevator and Whaleback Steamer.
map on this
page shows the
principal routes
Duluth. Small vessels from the Great Lakes can reach the ocean
also, by going down the St. Lawrence river and through the short
canals which have been built past rapids in this river.
The oceans form the main highway of trade between
distant nations. The sea spreads in one vast body around solid lines show the principal
the continents, so that a ship can sail from any one of mutes of steamers owned in the
the oceans
followed by steamers, and to a
certain extent by sailing vessels.
The dotted lines indicate routes
followed by foreign vessels. The
to all
others.
the
Seaports
handle freight
for ocean com-
merce. The
best ports are
on deep and
spacious har-
bors sheltered
United States.
Name six foreign ports that
can be reached by American
lines of steamers.
Elevated Railroad, New York.
from gales and storm-waves. The largest ports grow where they
can most easily handle exports and imports. Such cities are built
as near as possible to the producing regions, — whether farms,
England, with her ex-
tensive manufactures and
her numerous colonies, has
grown to be the center of
the world's ocean commerce.
1 The port or customs district of
New York embraces the city of New
York, including Brooklyn, together
with Jersey City and adjacent places
on New York bay.
Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
RAILROADS.
121
From western Europe the chief routes are as follows : In early times, inland towns and cities grew most rapidly along
By way of the Suez canal to Asia and Australia ; west the rivers> lakes and canals> but now tue most raPid growth in
and southwest to America ; south to the cape of' Good many partf s due almost
Hope, and thence to Australia and Asia.
From the large Atlantic ports of
the United States the routes
are as follows : Eastward to
Europe; southeast to the
cape of Good Hope, and
thence to Australia, south-
east Asia and the East
Indies ; southward along
the Atlantic coast, around
cape Horn, and thence to the
Pacific ports of America.
From San Francisco, the
routes lead westward to
Asia; and southwest to Australia
121. Railroads.
Freight Yard, Boston.
In progressive countries, railroads are fast
taking the trade away from rivers and canals.
For a long time after railroads came into use, freight
charges by rail were very high, while the rates on rivers
and Canals were much lower. In recent years, the charges
on railroads have become so low that most of the freight
goes in cars.
The building of steam railroads in the United States began
about 1830. The first railroad west of the Mississippi river was
built about fifty years ago. The first road from the Atlantic coast
to the Pacific was completed in 1869.
Most of the railroads in the world are
in the United States and Europe, and
nearly one half of these roads are in our
country.
The railroads of the United States are
four times as long as its navigable rivers,
or long enough to reach about seven times
around the earth. If these railroads were
destroyed, all the gold and silver money
in the world would not pay for rebuilding
them.
The growth of railroads in the United States
is due chiefly to the value of the products in
widely-separated regions ; to the lack of rivers
flowing from the inland districts to the eastern
seaboard ; and to the fact that the surface of a
great portion of the country is so level that the
railroads are constructed at low cost.
best locations are of course at the junctions of railroads or where
the railroads reach navigable waters. Thus, Chicago is not only
largest lake port in the world, but it is
also the greatest railroad center.
One of the maps on this page shows
the most important railroad and canal
routes in the United States. Still
others appear on the large maps of
the Supplement, showing the various
groups of states. Nearly every city
and town in our country can now
be reached by way of one or
more lines of railroad.
122.
Aids to Commerce.
The commerce of the
world is of such
great importance
■ that nations seek
in every way to
foster it.
Lighthouses are built on dangerous coasts and along the main
channels of harbors. Beacons, buoys, bells, foghorns and light-
ships are placed where they are most likely to give warning of
danger.
Along many parts of the coast, men and boats are stationed to
assist vessels in distress and to try to save the lives of sailors
whose vessels are wrecked. See picture on page 16. Harbors are
dredged and thus deepened ; rocks are removed from channels ;
sea-walls are built to shelter vessels from dangerous storm-waves.
For many years, railroads were built to carry passengers and
freight between thickly settled regions, but some of the newer lines
Commercial nations employ men known as consuls in all the large
seaports. The consuls try to promote trade, to protect shipping,
iave'opened the way into unsettled lands and have thus led to the and to secure rights that belong to the sailors of their nations. To
peopling of large areas. Before the railroads were built, these assist in th.s work, armed vessels are kept in readiness to go to
fandS were of little value, for there was no way to send products any port where commerce needs protection. One of the ; pictures on
idnua weie ux , 19 shows a modern warship belonging to the United States.
from them to the great centers of trade. i"*s
122
TIME BELTS AND DATE LINE.
Ocean cables, or lines of telegraph, under the sea, are a valuable
aid to commerce. When a steamer sails with freight for a foreign
port, agents abroad can be cabled when to expect it and what to do
with it. Consuls also can cable for help in times of trouble, and
important news of all kinds can be sent along these wires laid deep
in the sea.1
The regular mails and the telegraph lines on the land are of so
much assistance to trade that when storms blow down the wires
and block the mail trains, the wholesale trade almost ceases. The
telephone also has recently taken an important place in the world
of commerce.
123. Time Belts and International Date Line.
As the earth rotates from west to east, Boston is turned into the
sunlight about an hour earlier each morning than Chicago. After
sunrise in Chicago, darkness continues for more than two hours in
San Francisco. Can you tell why ?
How many degrees are there in a circle ? In how many hours
does the earth rotate 360°? How many degrees does the earth
rotate in one hour? The United States, exclusive of Alaska,
extends from the 67th meridian almost to the 125th. About how
many hours elapse each day while the midday sun is over some
part of our country ?
When it is midday along the 75th meridian, what time is it along
the 90th ? — Along the 105th ? — Along the 120th ? How far
apart are these meridians ? Which is nearest New York ? Which
is nearest Chicago ? Which is nearest San Francisco ?
If all clocks were set by the midday sun, calling midday twelve
o'clock, the time would differ in cities east or west of one another.
A watch, though correct in one of these places, would be wrong in
all others. A traveler could not then rely on his watch, for exact
therefore in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington,
Richmond, and all other places in this belt, are regulated
to agree.2
In like manner, all places in the Central belt, the
Mountain belt and the Pacific belt take their time from
the meridians of 90°, 105° and 120° respectively. As these
meridians are 15° apart, the time in each belt differs
exactly one hour from the time in the belt on either side.
The time in general use over a belt is called standard
time or railroad time.
In going from one time belt into another, travelers set their
watches forward or back one hour. Traveling eastward, which
way should the hands of a watch be moved when another time belt
is reached ?
The borders of the time belts are made irregular to favor rail-
road companies that wish to use uniform time over very large areas.
Which of these belts is the widest ? How many hours difference
in time is there between Boston and San Francisco ?
International Date Line. The common
day, often called the civil day, lasts from
midnight to midnight, — twenty-four hours.
In order that the civil day may have the
same number or date the world around, the
leading nations have agreed to use the date
of the days as they begin on the 180th
meridian.
For example, the fourth day of July begins on
the 180th meridian at midnight following the third
of July. At that time it is midday of the third
of July in Greenwich ; and six o'clock in the
morning of the same day in New Orleans, 90° W.
Then as the earth rotates towards the east, both
London and New Orleans are turned into dark-
ness, the one six hours ahead of the other. As
soon as it is midnight in London, that city begins
to count the new date of July 4th ; six hours
later New Orleans has its midnight and then its
fourth of July begins.
Thus it is with every city, • — its dates are counted from midnight
to midnight, and each day takes the same date as that given to the
latest new day on the 180th meridian. We may think of the new
date as traveling westward with the midnight. This date is given
to each place as soon as the midnight reaches it. When midnight
again occurs- on the 180th meridian, another date begins its journey
round the earth.
When vessels cross the 180th meridian, they either drop a day
or add one to the calendar. As the new date begins on that line, a
vessel sailing eastward across the line goes out of the area having
the new date and must therefore go back a day. Sailing westward,
the vessel enters the area having a new day and must therefore add
a day to the calendar. Thus when sailing eastward across the line,
railroad time.
In order to secure uniform time over large districts, Monday is dropped for Sunday ; but sailing westward over the line,
railroad companies have divided the country into four Saturday at once gives place to Sunday.
belts, each of which takes its time from a certain meridian. The meridian of 180°, at which all new civil days begin,
Timepieces in the Eastern belt are set by the true or is called the " International date line." 2
mean solar time on the 75th meridian. All timepieces
2 In order to avoid confusion in dates, the people living on islands on
1 The large commercial map of the world, in the Supplement, shows the either side of this line date the days of the week to agree with the nearest
routes of the cables. large land with which they trade.
THE UNITED STATES.
123
124. Distribution of People.1
After the famous voyage of Columbus, in 1492, the
various nations of western Europe sent expeditions to ex-
plore and settle the New World. Foremost among these
nations were England, France and Spain.
The French explorers went up the St. Lawrence river and the
Great Lakes, — thence down the Mississippi river. Others went
up the Mississippi from its mouth. Many people of French descent
now live in the lower Mississippi valley and speak the French
language, but they are greatly outnumbered by the English
speaking people in the same region. Most of the early
white settlers in the southwest portion of
our country came from Mexico, which was
tionary war, Great Britain gave up her claim to the thirteen
colonies.3
In 177G the states voted themselves free and independ-
ent, and all the states together were called the United
States of America.
At the close of the Revolutionary war our country reached from
the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi river, but Spain then held the
peninsula of Florida and a narrow strip of
land running westward along the Gulf
coast. Spain claimed also the vast re-
gion west of the Mississippi river.
Since the Revo-
lutionary war. the
United States has
gained the lands
westward to the
Pacific ocean, south-
ward to the eulf of
once held by Spain. The Spanish language is
still spoken by many people in the states that
border on Mexico.
The early English settlers in the
United States made their homes along
the Atlantic coast, and for many years
did not spread far inland.2
The rugged Appalachian highland, covered
with forests, stood between the coast settle-
ments and the prairies. There were no rivers flowing from the
prairies to the east coast of the United States. European nations
hostile to the English claimed the St. Lawrence and Mississippi
river systems, and for many years the English colonists could not
use those water ways.
The valley of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers would have opened
a way to the Great Lakes, if its upper part had not been held by
warlike Indian tribes. Other tribes farther south also held- the
lands a little back from the coast.
At length the year 1776 arrived, and with it came great changes
in the colonies. Great Britain had long made the colonists pay
taxes which they had no share in voting, but in that year the
colonies took the name of states and chose brave men who
met in Philadelphia and voted that their land should be no longer
under British rule. After a long struggle, known as the Bevolu-
1 There is a map of the United States on page 126.
2 Among the important settlements made by colonists of nations other
than the British were the following: the Dutch along the Hudson river;
the Swedes near the mouth of the Delaware river ; the French around
Charleston, S. C. ; the Spaniards in Florida.
Mexico, and also the great peninsula of
Alaska. The area is now a little more than 3,600,000 square miles.
When the struggle for freedom was over, many people
moved into the Allegheny plateau region and still farther
westward along the river branches. After a time wagon
roads were made across the Appalachian highland, and
later came the Erie canal and the railroads. Then the
growth of the country became very rapid, especially
when the prairies were reached and the fertile open lands
were found ready for millions of settlers. Forts and
trading stations on the rivers, the Great Lakes, the Erie
canal and the railroads, soon grew to towns and cities.
While the upper half of the Mississippi valley was thus
being settled, a great change was also taking place in the
8 They were : Xew Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecti-
cut. New York, Xew Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.
124
DISTRIBUTION OF PEOPLE. — GOVERNMENT.
Southern plains. Thousands of acres were planted with
cotton, and the region was very rapidly growing in
wealth and population.
Until about a century ago, cotton fiber was separated by hand
from the seeds. This was slow work, for a person could pick only
about a pound of fiber in a day. The price of cotton was therefore
high, and poor people could not afford to use much cotton cloth.
About fifty years ago, gold was discovered in California,
and many thousand people flocked there in search of for-
tunes. Some toiled across the dry Western plains and
the Rocky mountain highland. Others reached the gold
fields by way of the isthmus of Panama, — going by water
to and from that neck of land. Shiploads of gold-seekers
went round cape Horn and thence up the Pacific coast to
San Francisco. Gold in the Sierra Nevada led
to the settling of California; but products of
far greater value are now taken from the
grainfields, the vineyards, the fruit groves and
the pastures of that state. Silver and gold
have also been found in other parts of the
western highland, and towns and cities have
grown up in many places near the rich mines.
In 1776 the population of the United
States was less than 3,000,000. Now it is
about 84,000,000, including Alaska and the
island possessions, or nearly one twentieth
of the total population of the world.
The rapid growth of our country has
been largely due to the great number of
immigrants who have come from Europe,
— mainly from the British Isles, Germany,
Italy and Russia.1
Note. — The dots on the above map show the location of cities and large towns. The largest cities are indicated
by the largest dots. The star on the map shows the center of population according to latest census.
At length a machine was made to separate the fiber from the
seeds. The machine was called a cotton engine, — now shortened to
cotton gin. It has saw-teeth that draw the fibers through slits too
narrow to admit the seeds. A large gin can clean about twenty
bales of cotton in a day. A bale weighs about 500 pounds.
Before the cotton gin was invented, machines had been made
for spinning or twisting fibers into thread and for weaving the
thread into cloth. There was a large and growing demand for
cotton. The new machine made it possible to supply this fiber
without great expense and thus led to the
planting of cotton in all the states of the
Southern plains. Cotton has for many
years been the leading crop in that region.
Soon after the first English colo-
nists came to this country, they re-
ceived a ear^o of slaves from Africa.
Slavery spread with the growth of
the country, but the slaves proved
to be of greatest service in the cot-
ton and the tobacco fields of the
South. The invention of the cotton
gin created a great demand for cheap labor in the cotton
fields, and people of the black race were brought in ship-
loads from Africa.
At length all the slaves in our country were set free,
and most of them made their homes on the Southern
plains where they had worked and where many of them
had been born. About one tenth of the people in the
United States are Negroes.
Market In " Chinatown," San Francisco,
Which coast of the United States is the most
thickly settled ? Why ?
Which has the greater population, — the prairie region or the
western highlands ? What part of our country is the most thickly
settled ? Why ?
Where are the cities larger, — on the Great Lakes or on the
gulf of Mexico ? Which part of the Mississippi basin is the most
thickly settled ? Why ?
Why are there so few cities or towns on the Western plains ? In
the Great Basin? On the Columbia plateau? On the Colorado
plateaus ? In the great peninsula of Alaska?
Let us now learn how our nation is
governed.
125. Government.
The highest law of the nation is
known as the Constitution of the
United States. This written law, or
body of laws, was adopted in Phila-
delphia, in 1787,2 by men chosen
from the thirteen states. It has
since received several additions, or
amendments.
The Constitution outlines the form of our government ; names
the various offices ; indicates how the offices are to be filled ; defines
the authority of the officers ; limits the power of the law-makers ;
provides for a Supreme Court to decide questions that may arise as
to the powers of the national government ; and, in general, forms
the highest law of the land.
1 There are also about 119,000 Chinese in the United States. Their
largest colony is in San Francisco.
2 The Constitution went into effect on March 4, 1789.
GOVERNMENT.
125
The law-making, or legislative, department of the United The Supreme Court of the United States consists of a
States is known as Congress. It consists of two bodies, Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices appointed by
— the Senate and the House of Representatives. the President, with the consent of the Senate, and holding
The representatives are chosen by the people. The senators are office for life or during good behavior,
chosen by the law-making
bodies, or legislatures, in
the various states. There
are two senators from
each state, but the repre-
sentatives are chosen ac-
cording to the number
of people in each state.
Senators are elected to
serve for six years ;
representatives, for two
years.
The chief executive
officer is called the
President. He is
elected to serve for
four years, and his
chief duty is to enforce
or execute the laws.
He is Commander-in-
chief of the army and
navy of the United
States.
To aid in governing,
the President (with the
approval of the Senate)
appoints nine men who
are known as members
of the Cabinet. They
superintend the foreign
affairs, the money, the
army, the navy, the in-
ternal affairs, the com-
merce, the law cases, the
post offices, and the agri-
cultural interests, of the
nation.
With the President is
elected a Vice-President
who presides over the
Senate and who succeeds
to the office of President,
if it becomes vacant
during his term.
The President and
Vice-President are gen-
erally chosen by electors
who are elected by the
faTto agree, the national House of Eepresentatives elects a Pres- The chief duty of the Supreme Court is to protect the
ident, and the Senate elects a Vice-President. rights of the people, according to the Constitution.
A bill becomes a national law when it receives the consent of ^ powers that the states did not give to the nation,
a majority of each body of law-makers and the approval of the un(jer fae Constitution, they reserved for themselves.
President. If the President disapproves or vetoes a bill, it cannot ^^ are now forty-five states, and each resembles a
become a law without receiving a two-thirds vote of each body,
Senate and House of Eepresentatives.
republic. Each has its constitution, its Senate and House
126
MAP STUDIES.
127
122
117
112
107
102 Longitnde 97 West 92 from„ "_. Greepwich 8?
?*>*,
V
' oaf*
f \ a r <ih <
DutAique*-'
s.-^ \sS\ AT DES s
X&&& Ry^ IsSTl \MOINL_
ft
■ 'Das* L ^/<* iXj
b,*Sgfiei.p|. iei« ailU,e,L»Ciacj(oIl^^',' ^
k
NEW ENGLAND
AND COAST OF
MIDDLE ATI ASTIC STATES
(on enlarged Beak)
SCALE OF MIIE8 ^^
0 25 50 100 150 SI0
fe 7J0 .-:
of Representatives, its Supreme Court, its chief executive
officer called a Governor, — as well as other officers.
Some portions of our country do not belong in any
state, but are known as territories. Their governors and
judges are appointed by the President, with the consent
of the Senate, but the people of each territory elect their
other officers. The territories have also their own legis-
lative bodies.
There are now four territories,1 as follows : Alaska, Arizona,
Hawaii, New Mexico. From time to time, as the territories increase
in population, they are admitted into the Union as states. There
are also many island possessions.
The city of Washington, with its suburb Georgetown,
is on a tract of land set apart for the use of the govern-
ment. This tract is known as the District of Columbia.
It is neither a state nor a territory, but is under the con-
trol of Congress.
1 In 1906 Congress voted to form the state of Oklahoma out of the two terri-
tories of Oklahoma and Indian Territory. ' The latter was for many years set
apart as a home for several tribes of Indians, but many white people also lived
there.
Congress meets in Washington, the Supreme Court sits there,
the President resides in that city, and the members of the Cabinet
have their offices there.
The United States has grown to be the foremost repub-
lic and the wealthiest nation in the world.
126. Map Studies.
Bound the United States. Bound the state in which you live.
Which states border on the Atlantic ocean ? Which of these
states contain no part of the coastal plain ?
What state in the New England highland has no seacoast?
Where are the White mountains ? — The Green mountains? In
which states does the piedmont belt reach the coast?
Which of the Great Lakes border on New York ? What lake is
between that state and Vermont ?
Name the river between Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Which
states are on Delaware bay? — On Chesapeake bay? Name the
states which border on lake Erie. Which are separated by the
Potomac river? The city of Washington is in the District of
Columbia ; on what river is it built ?
What states are grouped around the Carolina highland ? Which
of these are partly, in the piedmont belt ? Between what states
CLIMATE, — TEMPERATURE.
127
Copyright, 1895, by A. E. Frye.
does the Savannah river flow? What states are crossed by the
divide between the Atlantic and the Gulf coastal plains ?
Name the states which border on the gulf of Mexico. In which
of these is the Mississippi delta? What river separates Texas
from Mexico? Between which of the Gulf states does the Missis-
sippi river flow ?
In what state does the Mississippi rise? Name the states along
the east bank of that river ; — along the west bank. Between
what states does the Ohio river flow ? Which of
these states are wholly or in part in the Allegheny
plateau ?
Name the states which border on lake Mich-
igan; on lake Superior. Which of the Great
Lakes partly surround Michigan ? Which states
are partly in the St. Lawrence basin and partly
in the Mississippi basin ?
What two large rivers are near the southern
and western borders of the prairies of the upper
Mississippi ?
Which states are partly in the prairies and
partly in the Western plains ? Which states are
crossed by the Rocky mountains ?
Name the two states that are almost wholly in
the Basin region. What three states include the
Columbia plateau region ? What states are crossed
by the Cascade range? In which state is the
Sierra Nevada ? Name the states lying along the
Pacific coast.
Which states border on Canada ? Which states
and territories are next to Mexico ? Name the
states crossed by the Arkansas river.
Which is the largest state in our country ?
Key to Relief Map on pages 34 and 35.
What bodies of water partly surround Alaska ? What country
is on the east of that territory ? Where are the Pribilof islands ?
127. Climate, — Temperature.
What belts of heat cross the United States ? How do the
seasons on the land in these belts differ from the seasons over
the oceans on the east and west ? See lesson 26.
CHART A. The above map shows that the greatest difference between January and
July temperature is found on the northern part of the prairies and Western plains. There is
less difference along the southern boundary and western coast.
128
CLIMATE, — TEMPERATURE.
At about what part of the distance from the equator to the Although the winters in this district are so severe, the tempera-
pole is the mouth of the Mississippi ? — The middle of Lake ture rises rapidly in spring. There the long days of summer ripen
Huron ? "What does this show about the location of our country ? great crops of wheat even northward in Canada. Cattle that can
barely survive the winter climate find abundant
pasturage in summer on the grassy plains. The
noonday heat may then reach 90° or 100°, even at
our northern boundary.
What is the difference of temperature between
the Gulf coast and the northern part of Minnesota
in January ? — In July ? See charts B and C.
The contrast of temperature between our
southern and northern boundaries is very
strong in winter, but slight in summer.
Many plants that live only through the
warm season thrive from the Gulf to the
Great Lakes, but longer-lived plants that
cannot survive cold winters are found only
in the south.
The range of temperature from summer
to winter on the Pacific coast is small {see
chart A), because the westerly winds from
over the broad Pacific temper the climate.
CHART B. — The greatest heat reaches northward in the middle of the country. The They are warmer than the land in winter,
cooler regions are along the northern boundary, on the mountains, and along the western coast. i , oon]pr 4^ summer As these westerlv
Our country lies between the steady heat of the equa- winds blow across our country, they gradually take the
torial regions and the extreme seasons of the polar cap.
From winter to summer, the change in the length of day and
the strength of sunshine makes a great change in temperature over
our country, but greater in the north than in the south. In winter
the rivers and most of the lakes in the northern part of the United
States are frozen ; the snow-caps of the mountains reach far down
into the valleys, and even the lowlands are sheeted over with
snow that spreads farther south as the winter season advances.
As the days lengthen and the sunshine becomes
stronger, the snow and ice melt away. Plant and
animal activity begin again.
In what part of our country is the change of
temperature from January to July the greatest ?
See chart A, page 127.
The change from winter cold to summer
heat in our northern interior is very great
for three reasons : first, — the winter sun is
low and the davlight short, but the summer
sun is high and the daylight long ; second, —
the temperature of the land surface changes
much more rapidly than that of the sea sur-
face; third, — although the coastal regions
feel the tempering effect of winds from
over the sea, yet the far-inland regions
do not feel that effect, not only because the
land is so broad, but also because high
mountains lie along the western side in
the path of the westerly winds.
During the long winter nights in the north-central part of our
country, when the calm dry air rests on the broad sheet of snow, the
temperature may fall to 40° or 50° below zero. In extreme cold,
spirit thermometers are used; for mercury freezes at 39° below zero.
temperature of the land over which they move. Thus
they carry the great heat of summer or the severe cold
of winter out from the interior to the east coast. The
changes of seasons on this coast are much stronger than
on the western coast.
The great difference of temperature between the northern and
southern parts of our Atlantic coast is partly the effect of the ocean
CHART C. — The greatest cold is in the northern interior. The warmer regions are the
western coast, the southern boundary, and the southeastern coast.
currents. Off this coast the warm Gulf stream and the cold polar
or Labrador current approach each other and tend to bring unlike
temperatures together. The effect is felt on the coast whenever the
winds blow inland. No polar current reaches our western coast.
129
128.
CLIMATE, - WINDS AND RAINFALL.
Climate, — Winds and Rainfall. How do you account for the light rainfall on the Western plains?
Although winds from some westerly point prevail at See lesson 50. What body of water supplies most of the moisture
most places in our country, yet their direction is variable for tlxe rainfa^ of tne prairies ? See lesson 51. In what season
does the greatest amount of rain fall there ?
The northern part of the western coast is
well watered, for it is one of the coasts
where the storms of the westerly winds
come directly from the ocean to the moun-
tainous land.
The southern part of our western coast
is one of the dry regions where the westerly
winds branch towards the trade winds.
The western interior of our country
generally has less than twenty inches of
rainfall in a year, except on the mountains.
Agriculture in much of this region is there-
fore uncertain, unless aided by irrigation.
The northern part has the most rainfall.
See charts D and E.
Over the eastern half of our country, the
yearly rainfall is everywhere more than
CHART D —The general distribution of rainfall for these seasons is the same as that twenty inches. It is least along the border
for the year ; but the northwestern coast has less than half its total rainfall during these of the dry Western plains and thence
seasons, while the southeastern coast and much of the Mississippi valley have more than half. increases to over fifty incheg towards the
They generally blow more from the land to the sea in sea on the south and east. The rainfall is heaviest
winter, and more from the sea to the land in summer, where the moist winds from over the warm gulf of Mexico
See charts on page 24.. The winds change their direction blow ashore on the Southern coastal plain, and also where
and strength also with every passing storm-eddy. See they ascend the Carolina highland.
chart on page 28. One great advantage in the climate of the eastern half
„,„«.« , -> -, ™ i of our country is the even distribution of its rainfall
bmoke from forest fires commonly spreads eastward. Clouds, J .
especially the higher ones, generally drift from some western point, throughout the year. There is no long dry season, and
Thunderstorms usually travel from west to east.
Even the great eddying storms move eastward.
The variable winds which we feel are chiefly in
the lower layers of the air.
The winds of the eddying storms are seldom
destructive on the land. They are of great service
in bringing most of our rainfall. On the sea and
the lakes, however, they are stronger and cause
many shipwrecks. The form and movement of
these storms is well shown on the daily weather
maps issued by the national Weather Bureau. The
changes in weather which the storms produce are
generally predicted. In ports, signals are hoisted
to warn sailors of coming gales.
As winds become cool, cloudy and wet when
they ascend mountain slopes, so they become
warm, clear and dry when they descend the lee-
ward slopes. For this reason, a mild dry wind
called the chinook is often felt in winter on the
plains along the eastern base of our northern
Eocky mountains. The chinook is of great service
in drying away the snow so that the cattle can
find grass.
In what season is the rainfall heaviest on the
western coast of the United States ? Why is the rainfall of the
Great Basin so light ? What have you learned about the rivers
and lakes of this region ? See lesson 87.
CHART B The regions of heaviest rainfall are in the eastern half of our country and
near the northwestern coast. The mountains have more rainfall than the lower lands in the
same region.
drouths are seldom severe enough to cause great loss.
Far inland where the rainfall is least, more than half
the rain falls in the warm season when it is most needed.
130
COTTON.
In Florida the rainfall is greatest in summer, when the
sea-winds blow toward the warm land. In winter the
winds tend to flow outward from the cold interior. The
rainfall of our eastern coast is therefore doubly unlike
that of the western coast. On
the former, the amount decreases
from south to north, with the
heaviest rains in summer.
On the western coast, the
amount of rainfall mcrea,-*-,-
from south to north,
with the heaviest
rain.- in winter. See
charts 1) and E.
129. Cotton.1
What lands that we have
studied, produce cotton?
See lessons 53. 5 4, 73 and
88. Which heat belt
crosses each of those lands ?
Is it a wet or a dry country?
"Where is the cotton belt of
the United States ? Describe
its surface. What regions are
partly included in the tinted area of
the Cotton map ? What are the seasons of this cotton belt ?
From over what part of the sea do its rain-bearing winds blow ?
Name some of the other products of the cotton district of our
country. See lessons 53 and 54. Tell some of the uses of cotton.
The best grade of cotton is known as Sea-island cot-
ton. It has long and strong fibers. It is raised in
southern Georgia, northern Florida and eastern South
Carolina. Most of the Sea-island cotton is sent to the
mills of England, to be woven
into cloth.
After cotton is picked from the
plants, it is put into cotton gins to
separate the fibers from the seeds.
The fibers are then pressed into bales
and are ready for market. This is
the raw cotton from which thread and
cloth are made. *
A valuable oil is pressed from the
seeds of cotton. This is known as
cotton-seed oil. It is used in -making
soap and other articles. Much of the
oil is refined and sold under the name
of " olive oil," but the real olive oil is
made from the olive fruit.
The oil-cake which remains after the oil is pressed from cotton
seeds is fed to cattle.
Texas, Mississippi and Georgia lead all other states in the
quantity of cotton produced. The chief ports through which
cotton is sent to foreign lands are New Orleans and New
York. Most of it goes to England, Germany and France.
Savannah, Ga. ; Galveston, Tex. ; Norfolk, Va. ; and Charleston,
S. C, have a large export trade in cotton.
The great centers of cotton manufacture in the United
States are the numerous cities and towns in the northeast
part and in the cotton belt.
The fine water power gave this portion of the
Union, especially New England, an early start in
manufacturing. There the
rivers, when cutting
through gravel beds in
their valleys, have reached
rocky ledges and have
therefore formed falls or
rapids. See lesson 45. Steam
has now largely taken the
place of water power, but
hundreds of mills with
their skilled workmen and
costly looms still hold the
cloth-making industry
chiefly to this district.
Fall River and
Lowell (see map, page
143) make more cotton
cloth than any other
two cities in America.
New York and Boston
Cotton requires a very long warm season
to ripen its seeds and thus produce the fibers
upon them. For this reason, the cotton areas
are found in the hot and the warm belts, but only in the handle much of the raw cotton used in the great cloth-
parts having plentiful rains. making states. Many cotton mills are now running in
i The reddish tint on the above Cotton map outlines the district known as the dties of tne South> and the Outlook is very bright f Or
the cotton belt of the United States. The darker the tint, the larger the yield, a thriving industry there.
WHEAT.
131
The United States ranks first in the production and New York, — every great city has extensive flouring mills,
export of cotton. About one third of the crop is used in Chicago and the other large lake ports handle hundreds
the mills of our own country, but raw cotton to the value of shiploads of wheat each year. The wheat crop of the
of about $250,000,000 is exported annually from the valley of California, either in the form of grain or of
United States. Three fifths of the quantity
go to the mills of Great Britain.
A large
part of the rest goes to Germany and
France. India1 and Egypt send large
amounts to European countries.
England leads in the manufacture of
cotton cloth. The United States holds
second place, and Germany third. Our
country imports fine grades of cotton cloth
from England, Germany and France.
130. Wheat.
There are several kinds of wheat. Some thrive
in scanty soil ; others, in deep alluvial soil. Some
grow best in hot lands ; others, in cooler climates.
For this reason, wheat is a wide-spread grain. It
has been cultivated from the earliest times, and is
thought to be native to Asia.
The wheat seed consists of a grain inside a thin
husk. The inner part of the grain is used in mak-
ing fine white flour, but the entire grain makes wholesome though
darker flour.
Wheat is hardier than corn, — not being so easily in-
jured by frost or by cool weather. For this reason the
cooler prairies, extending far northward even into Canada,
yield immense crops of wheat but scarcely any corn.
Moreover, wheat thrives in the warmer prairies and is a
valuable product as
far south as Texas.
Among the best
wheat regions in our
country are the follow-
ing : the northern prai-
ries in Minnesota and
the Dakotas ; the district
lying between the Ohio
river and the Great
Lakes and stretching
southwest into Kansas ;
the valley of California ;
the states between lake
Erie and the mouth of
Chesapeake bay.
flour, passes chiefly through San Francisco ; and this city
ranks second in the Union in the export of these products.
New York1 ranks first, and Baltimore third.
The United States leads the rest of the world in the
production of this important cereal. France, India and
Russia also produce very large crops.
Wheat and flour rank next in value to cotton as ex-
ports from the United
States. Like cotton
and corn, they find
a foreign market
chiefly in the British
Isles. France and
Belgium also buy
many shiploads of
our wheat.
131. Indian Corn.
Indian corn does not
thrive in places having
late spring frosts or cold
summer nights. The
growing plant is quickly
killed by frost, and cold
nights greatly hinder
the growth of the grain.
Moreover, if the summer
Minneapolis has
the largest flour
mills in the world.
Among American
, . j? _ . T . . ,r. v • +-u„ w^wb-rr. season is very rainy or foggy, the corn is liable to mold.
cities, St. Louis ranks next to Minneapolis in the produc- J •? &^>
tion of flour. Along the water way of the Great Lakes, Corn is wide-spread over the eastern half of our
the Erie canal and the Hudson river, — from Chicago to country, except in the marshy or sandy lands along the
1 Whenever the commerce of New York is mentioned, we should not for-
i In India, cotton cloth was made by hand for fully 2000 years before
America was settled by white people.
get that Brooklyn and Jersey City form parts of the port of New York.
132
OATS, BARLEY AND RYE.
gulf of Mexico, and in the extreme north where early When the early white settlers came to America, they
frosts are common or where there are dense forests. The found here a new kind of grain raised by the Indians.
best region for the growth of corn is in the southern half The white men gave it the name of Indian corn. Since
of the prai- that time this valuable grain has spread to nearly all fer-
tile lands having long and hot summer weather.
How did the Indians prepare the forest lands for cornfields ?
Why was it necessary to kill the trees ?
ries. This
corn belt
.stretches
\ j east and
See lesson 98.
132. Oats, Barley and Rye.
Oats are not native to America
and have not been so widely sown
in our country as corn or wheat.
west, passing between the cities of Chicago and
St. Louis. It reaches the border of the Alleghany
plateau on the east and the great plains on the
west.
Describe the seasons in this corn belt. What
winds bring most of the rainfall to the region ?
Corn meal is widely used in cooking, and is a health-
ful and nutritious food. When the grain is broken,
hulled and boiled, it is called hominy. In
some parts of the country, hulled corn
and milk form a favorite dish. Green corn, or
sweet corn, is often boiled on the cob and is ,
thus used for food. A large amount of
sweet corn is canned for market.
Great quantities of corn are used to
fatten live stock, especially hogs and
cattle. There is more live stock in the
corn belt than in any other part of the
United States.
Chicago and the other large
lake and river ports serve as centers
for the collection and distribution
of corn. New York and the other
great eastern seaports carry on a
large foreign trade in this grain.
The United States supplies the
larger part of the corn of commerce
In recent years, however, the crops of oats have
greatly increased and are now very valuable.
Oats are much hardier than corn, — often grow-
ing in a poorer soil and a colder climate, but thriv-
ing also in the fertile prairies and still farther
south in the coastal plains.
In the United States, as well as in other parts of
the world, the oat crops are largest in about
the same districts that produce the most
wheat and corn. ■ Nearly all the oats ex-
\ ported from our country are sent to
England.
Barley and rye are hardy grains,
but they do not take a leading
place among the cereal crops of
the United States. Rye is an impor-
tant food-product in Russia, Germany
and other parts of Europe.
' 133. Tobacco.
The tobacco of commerce consists
Corn Harvest in the Azores.
of the dried, or cured, leaves of
This grain is sent several species of plants. Some of these grow to the
chiefly to the British Isles and Germany, to help feed the height of six feet or more and bear large coarse leaves,
millions of people in the workshops of those countries. on their simple upright stalks.
FORESTS.
133
The most common mode of curing tobacco is as follows ■ The
tall stalks are cut off close to the ground, and the plants are then
hung up to dry on long rods in the curing houses or in the fields.
After a time the leaves are stripped from the stalks and are
bound in small bundles. These are placed in heaps on the floor to
ferment, or heat slowly till
certain changes take place in
the leaves. They are then ready
to be made into cigars, snuff or
other tobacco goods.
The chief tobacco districts
in the United States are the
Ohio river valley, the pied-
mont slopes east of the Blue
ridge, the district crossing
from lake Ontario to Chesa-
peake bay, and the Connec-
ticut river Valley. Lumber Camp in Maine.
Louisville is a famous tobacco market. New York,
St. Louis and Richmond are great manufacturing
centers for tobacco goods. All the gold mined yearly in
our country would not pay for the cigars and cigarettes
made in New York alone.
The United States raises more tobacco than any other
country. India, Hungary, Russia, and both the East and
the West Indies supply large quantities of tobacco.
Our country has a large export trade in leaf tobacco.
Immense quantities are sent through the ports of New
York and Baltimore to the manufacturing countries of
western Europe.
134. Forests.
Only a few trees
grow on the Western
plains or in the Basin
region of our country,
because the rainfall
there is so light.
Large areas in the
prairies are treeless,
but trees grow wild
in the lowlands along
the rivers, and many
have also been plant-
ed wherever the land
is settled.
The soil in most parts
of the prairies is very
fine and compact. Such soil is not so well suited to forests as the
looser soil of highlands or of moist sandy plains, but with care
people have made countless trees thrive about their prairie homes.
Fine dark soil, like that of the prairies, is found in the treeless
plains of southern Kussia.
The eastern half of our country, except portions of the
prairies, is quite heavily wooded and yields lumber of
many kinds. The forests around the upper three of the
Great Lakes consist mostly of pine, spruce and maple, but
other kinds of trees also abound there.
In the autumn, bands of lumbermen go into these forests, loc
camps, lay out roads, clear snags from the streams, and thus make
ready for the work of getting out logs or timber.
All through the winter, trees are felled and
then chopped or sawed into logs oi the
proper length. These are hauled to the
banks of streams and there piled
up to await the time of the spring
/it thawing.
When the streams are
Hooded and free from
the logs are floated down
to the mills and ti.
sawed into lumber, su
as boards, joists, beams
and planks.
Which states are in
the lumber region around the
upper three of the Great Lakes '.'
See the darker shading on the map.
What other valuable products are
found near Lake Superior ? See lesson 49.
Streams from this dense forest region flow to Minneap-
olis, and that city has grown to be a great lumber market.
Hundreds of thousands of barrels are made there each
year to hold the flour which the mills product;. Several
branches enter the Mississippi below this city and float
logs down to the mills in many other river ports.
Numerous saw-
mills are Ideated on
the small logging
rivers which flow
from the forests into
the Great Lakes.
These mills supply
lumber to the ports
onThe lakes. Chicago
has become one of
the leading lumber
markets intheworld.
Many cities in the
lake region manu-
facture furniture.
Among t hese C hica so
and Grand Rapids
rank highest.
The soft-wood
forest belt extends eastward across New York and New
England. This eastern portion has long been famous
for its lumber. Bangor has grown to be a great lumber
market.
This city is located on the Penobscot river, whose branches reach
far into the forest area, and whose valley has been slightly drowned,
making the stream as far up as Bangor navigable by large sea-going
vessels.
134
FORESTS. — FRUITS.
The Appalachian highland is forested with both soft-
wood and hard-wood trees. Forests of hard-wood trees
abound in the states of the Ohio basin.
Large quantities of grapes grow along the southern
shore of lake Erie and in the Mohawk valley. This
fruit is sold mostly in boxes to the people in the great
eastern cities. The grapes of California are
marketed largely in the form of raisins, but
great quantities of the grapes are pressed
for their juice which is made into wine.
Eaisins are sun-dried grapes. The curing of
the fruit requires very hot and dry "weather. A
few days of rain in the curing season may spoil a
year's crop. California is noted both for its raisins
and its grape wines.
Southern California and Florida have
many orange and lemon groves. These
districts supply the best oranges found in
our markets.
Most of the lemons and oranges imported into
the United States come from Italy. The West
Indies and Central America supply bananas.
136. Horses, Mules and Hogs.
IK Apples & Pears §|g] Peaches £Z3 Grapes BB Oranges '& Lemons. HoTSCS Cind MuleS. HorSCS Were first
The hard-wood forests in the states which border on the Great brought to America by Spanish explorers. These useful
Lakes have given this region the lead in the manufacture of agri- animals are now raised in nearly all grassy portions of the
cultural implements, carriages and wagons
Great forests cover a large portion of the Atlantic aud
Gulf coastal plains. These are perhaps the most valuable
yellow-pine forests in the world. They yield not only
lumber, but also turpentine, rosin and other naval stores.
New World. Mules also are common in most parts of
America, but chiefly in the warmer regions.
Horses and mules are raised in greatest numbers in the
most fertile districts, where there is work for them on the
farms. There are about one third as many horses as
What kinds of lumber are sawed in the mills around Puget cattle in our country
sound ? See lesson 10. Where is redwood found ? tt t\/t i j ■ , . n
Hogs. Many hogs are raised m every state m the
The United States produces more lumber, and manu- Tjnion? but clliefly in the districts which produce the most
f actures more wooden ware, than any other
country in the world does.
135. Fruits.
The United States is bountifully supplied
with fruits. Some of them are wide-spread,
but others are confined to small areas. The
most important peach areas in this country
include the coastal plain from the Potomac
river to the Hudson ; Georgia and the
states bordering on lake Erie.
This peach district includes many parts of the
Atlantic coastal plain. There the canning, pack-
ing and shipping of fruit form a very important
industry. There are extensive peach areas in
California, Missouri and Michigan.
There are several well-known apple
areas. One extends the entire length of
the Ohio valley and for quite a distance up
the Missouri valley. The districts east of lake Michigan
and southeast of lake Erie are famous for this fruit.
It abounds also in all the states eastward to Maine.
Pears have about the same range as apples.
corn.
This grain is the best fattening-food for swine.
Millions of bushels are used yearly for that purpose.
The principal pork-packing centers are the cities of
the prairies, especially Chicago and Kansas City (Kansas).
CATTLE AND DAIRY PRODUCTS.
135
Immense quantities of pork, bacon and lard are sent The hides of cattle are tanned and changed into leather. One
abroad, chiefly to England, Germany and other countries Part °^ *ke tanning process consists in soaking the hides in water
of western Europe. The pork products sent each year in which certain kinds of bark haye been steePe(L Hemlock bark
is often used, and as hemlock trees abound
in Pennsylvania, New York, Michigan and
the northern New England states, most of
the tanning is done there.
from our country to England alone have a higher value
than all the gold mined here in the same time.
The United States produces about as much pork as is
produced in all Europe.
137. Cattle and Dairy Products.
What are some of the articles made of leather ?
More boots and shoes are made in Massachusetts than
£ * • i . n„TT in any other state, and Boston therefore is a leading
Cattle are not native to any part of America, but they ^ Philadelphia deals largely in leather,
now thrive in great numbers on the prairies, the Western f 7- , 4
Butter, cheese and milk are known as dairy products.
New York ranks first among the dairy states ; but milk,
butter and cheese are valuable products in nearly all
parts of the prairies, as well as in the states
farther east.
The United States exports beef and cattle of
immense value to Great Britain and Ger-
many. Large quantities of dairy
products and leather also are ex-
ported to the same countries.
138. Sheep.
Wool ranks in value and
usefulness next to cotton as
a cloth-making fiber, but in
our country more woolen
than cotton cloth is made.
All the gold and silver ore
mined each year in the
fe--;- United States would not pay
for one third of the woolen cloth
made here in the same time.
plains, the pampas, the campos and the llanos, — m
short, wherever there is good grass land
There are many cattle in every ...
state in the Union, but most of
them are on the prairies, where
grass and corn are plentiful.
Large herds graze on the Western
plains, from Texas to Montana.
The great state of Texas raises
more cattle than any other state in
our country. Illinois ranks
second ; but in proportion to size,
this state ranks first.
As the population of the
Western plains is small,
nearly all the cattle raised
in that region are sent to
the cities farther east, — to
Chicago and Kansas City
(Kansas), where the beef is
dressed for market. The
prairies are more thickly settled, and the
cattle of that portion of the country are therefore mostly % Thg meat products of tllis city have a value of about $200,000,000
used near the places where they are raised. Chicago has a year>_or twice the value of the yearly output of gold and silver in
grown to be the largest meat-market in the world.1 our entire country.
Beef and Dairy Products.
136
FISHERIES.
There are three principal districts in
which large numbers of sheep are raised.
One of these includes the Allegheny plateau
and extends westward over the prairies ; another is in
Texas; the third lies west of the Sierra Nevada. There
are also many sheep in the Rocky mountain states.
In our country most of the woolen mills, as well as
the cotton mills, are in New England, New York and
Pennsylvania.
Boston is a great wool market, because it distributes
this fiber to the mills of New England. In the manufacture
of woolen carpets, Philadelphia ranks first in the world.
In the production of wool the leading regions of the world
are eastern Australia and New Zealand; the Plata basin; Great
Britain ; the steppes of Russia ; and the United States.
Our country must import wool and sheepskins, because it uses
more than it produces ; but the other regions export these products,
— chiefly to Great Britain, France and Germany.
139. Fisheries.
Oysters. Oysters are salt-water shellfish and are
the most valuable food product taken from the
shore waters of the United States. The
most extensive oyster fisheries in the world
are carried on in Chesapeake bay. Several
thousand boats and many thousand
men are there employed. Smaller .
ovster beds are found along several
other parts of the coast of our
country.
Baltimore is the center of
the oyster trade.
The oyster fisheries are scattered
along the coast from Cape Cod to
Mexico, — wherever the sea-bottom
is firm. Young oysters die unless
they attach themselves to hard substances, such
as shells, pebbles or larger stones.
Chesapeake bay yields about four times as many
oysters as all the other places on our coasts.
Many of the oysters are
gathered by means of tongs
having long handles. In
some places, dredges are
dragged over the bottom
to gather the shellfish.
In the oyster fisheries,
France ranks next to
the United States.
Great Britain also has
extensive oyster beds.
Cod and Haddock.
The cod fisheries rank
next in importance to
the oyster fisheries.
The codfish, and also
the haddock and the
halibut, are caught
mostly on hanks, or shoal places in the sea.
Off the coast of North America, the best fishing grounds for cod
and haddock are the banks of Neivfoundland, and Georges banks
northeast of Cape Cod. The halibut is found in about the same
places as the codfish. The former is the largest of flatfish and
sometimes weighs a hundred pounds.
Other Fish and Shellfish. The
clam and the lobster are
found along the shores
northward from Delaware
bay. Both are valuable
food products.
Mackerel migrate north-
ward along our coasts
in spring, and south- %
ward in autumn.
These fish are
FISHERIES. — COAL.
137
caught chiefly in large nets called seines. Eastern mack
erel are taken between cape Hatteras and
the gulf of St. Lawrence.
The salmon fisheries are a very important
industry on the Pacific coast, northward
from San Francisco bav. Fish of this
kind enter the rivers to spawn, or deposit
their eggs. The largest salmon can-
neries are near the mouth of the Co-
lumbia and along the coast of Alaska. \
The following table shows where the princi-
pal food fishes are taken or caught by fisher-
men of our country. The fisheries are arranged in the order of
value. The table is for reference only, and need not be memorized.
Atlantic coast : Oysters, Cape Cod to Mexico ; codfish, New Jer-
In the United States there
are three very large coal fields
and manv small ones. The
most important field extends along the
Appalachian highland. The second begins
not far from the head of lake Michigan
and reaches slightly beyond the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers. The third is west of
the second, beyond the Mississippi river.
The coal beds have had a remarkable history.
Each bed consists of the remains of great numbers
of plants, — mostly ferns and mosses. Long ages
ago, when the coal regions were lowlands, these
plants grew in broad swamps. A swamp may
have continued for centuries making its plant-
layer thicker and thicker, until buried in sand
and clay that were washed over it.
After the burial of one swamp, another formed
on the cover of sand and clay. Successive swamp-
layers were thus buried, one over another. When
they hardened, the layers of sand became sand-
stone ; the clay changed to slate or shale ; and the
swamp plants formed coal. There are generally
many beds of coal in a single coal field, showing
that swamps formed there many times. Some of
sey to the banks of Newfoundland; clams, Chesapeake bay to the coal beds are only a few inches thick; others are several feet.
Maine ; shad, Florida to Maine ; lobsters, Delaware bay to New Before steam engines were invented, coal was not very valuable.
Brunswick ; mackerel, cape Hatteras to gulf of
St. Lawrence; haddock, same as cod; bluefish,
Cape Cod to Mexico ; alewives, Georgia to gulf of
St. Lawrence ; squeteague, Cape Cod to Mexico ;
crabs, Chesapeake bay to Long Island; sponges,
Florida; menhaden, North Carolina to Maine;
mullet, North Carolina to Mexico ; herring, Mar-
thas Vineyard to Newfoundland; striped bass,
North Carolina to Rhode Island; Spanish mack-
erel, New York to Mexico.
Pacific coast: Salmon, San Francisco bay to
Alaska ; sea bass and flatfish, entire west coast
of our country, except the strait of Fuca. The
Pacific coast fisheries, except for salmon, have not
been well developed.
Great Lakes: Whitefish, lake herring, lake
trout, in all the lakes; pike perch, in lakes
Ontario and Erie.
Gloucester, on the coast of Massachusetts,
is the greatest fishing port in the Union.
Oysters
key to colors:
Cod, Clams, Lobsters,. Mackerelt Haddock Bffl Salmon
Sponges
f.-Si-.t Lake Fish lyv-vj
138
COAL. — IRON.
Pennsylvania, at the northern end of the Appalachian
coal field, supplies more than one half the coal used in the
United States. Illinois ranks second, and Ohio third.
Pennsylvania furnishes nearly all the anthracite coal mined in
the country, as
well as a large
part of the soft,
or bituminous,
coal. The hard
coal is found near
the northern end
of the Allegheny
ridges. The coal
of the Illinois
field aided great-
ly in the settle-
ment of the
prairies where
wood was scarce.
Large quan-
tities of soft
coal are put
into ovens that shut out most of the air. These are
heated till certain gases are driven off or burned. By
this process the coal is changed to coke, which is better
than soft coal for heating purposes.
Charcoal is made by burning or charring wood to which
very little air has access. Charcoal resembles true coal,
but the. former is much the lighter and the more porous.
All the large cities in or near the coal fields are im-
portant markets for coal. Among the cities having the
largest trade in this product are Philadelphia, Pittsburg
and Chicago.
Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France and Belgium
have extensive coal beds and iron mines, and have there-
fore taken a leading place among the manufacturing
countries of the world.
141. Iron.
There are four principal iron ore districts in the United
States. These are all in old worn-down mountain regions.
The most productive district is near the shores of lake
Superior. The
other districts
are the Alle-
gheny ridges
in Pennsylva-
nia; the Adi-
rondack moun-
tains in New
York; and the
southern part
of the Appala-
chian highland
in Alabama.
The process of
extracting iron
from its ore is
called smelting. The usual mode of smelting is as follows : The
ore and coal, with some limestone, are placed in a tall furnace, and
the coal is then set on fire.1 A hot blast of air is forced through
the burning mass to strengthen the fire. As the iron of the ore
melts, the heavy liquid settles to the bottom of the furnace and is
drawn off, while the impure matter, or slag, floats on the surface.
The furnace through which the blast of air is driven is known as
a blast furnace. The molten iron is usually run
into molds where it cools in short bars weighing
about one hundred pounds each. In this form the
metal is called pig iron, and is ready for shipment
to the foun-
dries where
it may be cast
into the form
of stoves, hy-
drants, posts
and scores of
other objects.
Iron that
is to be used
for certain
purposes .is
put through
a series of
heating pro-
cesses which
change it
into steel.
This is used
in making
rails, engines,
steamships,
cutlery, tools and other articles that must withstand a great deal
of wear and strain, or that must take keen edges.
The iron ore of the lake Superior district is plentiful
and pure. It is therefore so valuable that it competes
^ 1 In Pittsburg and some other cities, natural gas is used for fuel
Limestone mixed with the iron ore causes it to fuse, or melt, more quickly.
PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS.
139
with the iron ores in the other districts, even though When petroleum is heated, it gives off successive vapors as the
heavy freight charges must be paid to transport it great li<luid becomes hotter and hotter. These vapors are condensed and
then form gasoline, naphtha, benzine, kerosene, and other useful
liquids. Vaseline is made from the residue left in the vats after
heating. Lubricating oils and paraffin are valuable products of
petroleum.
There are two well-
known oil fields in
the world, — one in
the region of the Cau-
casus mountains ; the
other in the northern
portion of the Alle-
ghany plateau and
still farther westward
in Ohio. The Ameri-
can oil region is situ-
ated mainly in the
upper Ohio basin.
Of late Texas has
become a very rich
oil field.
distances.
Most of the lake Superior ore is carried by steamers to the
various lake ports, but
part is sent by rail. The
lake ports use only about
one third of the ore in
their own manufactures.
The rest is sent to inland
cities, mostly in the
states which border on
the Great Lakes.
A picture on the op-
posite page shows some
of the great docks built
for shipping ore from the
lake Superior district.
The principal iron
manufacturing cen-
ters are in the north-
east quarter of the
Union, near the coal
fields and the iron
Pittsburg
Pennsylvania, Texas,
Ohio and West Virginia
and the cities near^bv form the most important district, lead the other states in the production of crude oil. More than
„, . , n , , -n t>i~-i i i i • l seven eighths of the oil-yield of the Union comes from these states.
Chicago and other lake ports, as well as Philadelphia and
the other great seaports of the Atlantic coast, have ex-
New York, Colorado and California have valuable wells.
tensive iron mills and foundries. These cities manufacture
almost every kind of article made of iron or steel. Among
the leading articles are rails, locomotives, boilers, hardware,
cutlery, and armor plates for steamships.
The United States leads all other nations in the production
of iron ore. Great Britain ranks second ; Germany, third.
The United States exports iron goods to Cuba, Mexico and other
American countries, as well as to England.
Large quantities of tinned iron, cutlery, rails and other steel or iron
goods are imported into our country from Great Britain and Germany.
142. Petroleum and Natural Gas.
Crude petroleum comes in a liquid state from the ground.
Petroleum is thought to result from the decomposition of plants and
animals buried ages ago in the rock layers. The oil is now
reached by sinking pipes down to the oil-bearing layers
of porous rock. Some of these pipe-wells are a fourth
of a mile in depth. Thousands of wells have been
sunk, but many of these no longer yield oil. Others
yield a few barrels a day. The average flow is
perhaps from fifty to seventy-five barrels daily ; but
from some wells many thousand barrels of oil have
flowed in a single day.
When the natural flow of a well ceases, oil is
often obtained by pumping. Nitroglycerin is sometimes
exploded at the bottom of the wells. This breaks up
the porous rock and in many instances causes the oil
to flow very freely, although at times the wells are ruined by the oil is
explosion. One of the pictures shows a « shot well » at the moment A
of the explosion. A great column of oil is thrown into the air. cars.
Among the great cities
which refine large quantities
A Shot ■Well.
Oil Region, Pa.
of petroleum are Cleveland
and Philadelphia. Millions
of dollars worth of oil are
sent each year to the coun-
tries of western Europe and southeast Asia,
mostly through the ports of New York
and Philadelphia.
Long pipes have been laid from the tanks in the oil
fields to the cities in which the petroleum is refined.
Some of these pipes are hundreds of miles in length. The
sent through them by means of powerful force pumps.
large amount of oil is transported in great tanks placed on
Much of it is also shipped in bulk in barges or steamers.
140
GOLD AND SILVER.
What have you learned about the gold-bearing gravels of Cali-
fornia ? See lesson 35.
Gold is found pure in nature. It is most often taken
from veins of quartz rock or from old river gravels
In the oil fields, and extending somewhat beyond their formed largely of the washings of quartz veins.
The petroleum exported each year from the United States is of
greater value than the gold mined here in the same time. Great
Britain, Trance, Germany, Japan and India are among the best
customers for American oil.
limits, is found natural gas. This
gas, like the petroleum, is ob-
tained by sinking pipes in the
ground.
Natural gas in the ground is not
stored in caves or other great cavities,
but in porous rock, such as sandstone
or limestone. Layers of shale, or clay
rock, over the porous rock prevent the
gas from escaping.
The most valuable gas wells in
the United States are in Pennsylvania
Indiana, Ohio and West Virginia. The
low cost of natural gas has in recent years
caused very rapid growth in manufactures.
Natural gas is used chiefly for heating purposes.
The gas can be regulated to give strong and steady
heat, and this fuel is therefore of great value in
iron mills and glass-works. It is also used as fuel
in dwellings near the gas regions.
Many of the wells which once gave out gas
under great pressure have now run out. Others are fast becoming
weak. Still others have been flowing for years.
Natural gas and petroleum doubtless have a common origin in
the decay of plants and animals in ancient rock layers.
143. Gold and Silver.
Gold and silver are called precious metals, but they are
Hydraulic Mining.
Gold is separated from quartz by
crushing the rock and then mixing the
mass with quicksilver and water. The
gold and quicksilver soon unite with
each other. The amalgam, or com-
pound of the two metals, is heated and
the quicksilver is thus driven off, leav-
ing the gold. One
of the pictures on
this page shows a
smeltery where
work of this kind
is done.
Another picture
shows how a stream
of water may be
used to wear down
gold-bearing gravel
beds. Such work
is known as hy-
draulic mining.
The gravel, and the
gold which it con-
tains, are washed into a long trough, as described in lesson 35.
The richest gold fields in the world are the western high-
land in our country ; the mountains of southeast Australia ;
South Africa ; and Siberia. In recent years rich gold
deposits have been found in Alaska and northwest Canada.
Colorado leads the other American states in the quantity of gold
mined. California, Montana, Nevada and South
Dakota also take high rank in the production of
this precious metal.
Silver is rarely found in a pure state,
but is almost always combined with other
mineral substances.
America supplies most of the silver used
in the world. Until recent years, the chief
sources of silver ore were Mexico and the
middle Andes, — in Peru, Bolivia and Chile.
These countries still yield large amounts
of the metal.
Colorado, Montana and the states in the Great
Basin take the highest rank in the production of
silver ore. About two thirds of the ore mined in
our country are taken from the Rocky mountains of
Colorado and Montana.
In prosperous mining years the output
of gold and silver in the United States
not nearly so useful as iron. The value of the precious amounts to about $100,000,000, — equal to the cost of
metals is largely due to their scarcity. the Suez canal. This amount, however, is far less than
Which of the coins of the United States are made of gold? Which the value of either the corn, the wheat or the cotton
are made of silver ? Name some other uses of gold and of silver. raised in our country. The value of the silver is about
COPPER. — BUILDING STONE.
141
twice as great as that of the gold. San Francisco and the country, where it is most needed. Limestone is the
Denver owe their early growth largely to their nearness most valuable building stone quarried in the United States.
to rich deposits of gold and of silver ore. The principal limestone region extends in a broad belt
144. Copper and Other Metals.
The United States leads all other coun-
tries in the production of copper. The
most valuable mines are in Montana,
Michigan and Arizona.
Iron is the only metal more useful than copper.
The latter is often mixed with other metals to form
alloys. These are of greater service than pure
copper. Thus, bronze and bell metal are made of
copper and tin. Brass consists of copper and zinc.
Copper is often mixed with gold and silver to make
the precious metals more durable, especially in the
form of coins and jewelry.
Spain, Chile and Germany produce copper
in large amounts. England purchases about
one half of the copper mined in the United
States.
Lead and Zinc. Most of the lead produced in our
country comes from ores of silver mined in the Rocky
mountains of Colorado and Idaho.
Large quantities of zinc and lead are obtained from ores in the
Mississippi valley, especially in Illinois, Missouri and Kansas.
The United States and Germany lead in the
output of lead and zinc.
Tin. Very little tin is mined in
the United States. About one half
of the world's supply comes from
the Malay peninsula. Other
important sources of tin are
Banca and Billiton, two small
islands east of Sumatra ;
Cornwall, in southwest Eng-
land; and southeast Aus-
tralia. Singapore, an island
port near the southern end
of the Malay peninsula, ex-
ports more tin than any other
city in the world. England
supplies our country with the
tinned iron of which tinware
is made.
145. Building Stone.
The various kinds of build-
ing stone quarried each year
in our country greatly exceed
dlate Quarry
in value the gold which is mined here.
The granite alone is worth almost one half as much as
the gold. The states which rank highest in the production
of stone are those in the most thickly settled portion of
from the New England highland to the Ozark highland. ,
Pennsylvania and Illinois quarry the most limestone. A
great deal of limestone is heated, or burned, to make lime.
Marble is a compact limestone of various colors and
often showing beautiful veins. Vermont supplies more
than half the marble quarried in the Union.
Tennessee, New York and Georgia also
produce large quantities of this stone.
The most and the best granite is
quarried in New England. Massa-
chusetts and Maine supply more
than any other two states.
The largest amount of sand-
stone comes from Ohio and
Pennsylvania. In recent years,
Colorado has taken high rank
in the output of this fine build-
ing stone.
Bluestone is a variety of sand-
stone. This stone is formed of
small grains worn mostly from
quartz rock.
Bluestone is hard and durable.
It is therefore useful for street
work, such as paving, flagging and
curbing. Most of the bluestone
quarries are near the Hudson river.
The Berea grit of Ohio is largely
used in making grindstones. Many of
these useful stones are also imported from
Nova Scotia.
Granite Quarry. Pennsylvania supplies more than
half the roofing and flagging slate used in our country.
Vermont holds second place in the production of this
stone.
142
NEW ENGLAND STATES.
146. Review and Map Studies.1
What does the corner map of the United States on the opposite
page show about New England, — its position, size, etc.? Which is
farther north, — Boston orKome? — Boston or Portland (Oregon) ?
What have you learned about the surface of New England ? See
lesson 45. Why are there so many lakes and falls in this region ?
Which of the New England states is partly in the Great Valley ?
See page 4.6. Where is Lake Champlain?
Locate Cape Cod peninsula ; Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket ;
Penobscot bay ; Long Island sound. Why is the seacoast so ir-
regular ? See lesson 45.
Describe the course of the Connecticut river. Where is the
Merrimac river ? — The Blackstone river ?
What do the maps on pages 21, 24, 128 and 129 show about
the climate of New England? Why is its climate more severe
than that of the coast of Europe in the same latitude ?
The mills and factories of New England use great quan-
tities of cotton, wool, leather and rubber. Part of this
material comes through the port of Boston.
This city distributes cloth and leather goods made
in the mills and factories of this section. Shiploads of
western products — such as pork, cattle and beef — are
sent from this port to Europe.
Boston has excellent railroad connections with all parts of the
country. The Boston and Maine lines spread northward; the New
York, New Haven and Hartford railroad forms a network to New
York; the Boston and Albany, the Fitchburg and other lines afford
direct routes westward.
Boston, like all other great cities in our country, has
extensive manufactures.2 Among these, each of nearly
0U> SLATER MILL
PAWTUCK&Til
What are the leading
industries of New Eng-
land? See lessons 129,
133, 134, 137, 139 and 145. Locate the capitals of the New
England states.
147. New England States.
Manufacturing is the principal industry in New Eng-
land. In this group of states is made a large portion of
the cloth, the boots and shoes, the hardware, the firearms
and other goods of various kinds used in our country.
With excellent water power, deep harbors, soft-wood
forests, and quarries of building stone, New England has
grown rich and prosperous. No people in the world have
done more for public schools and libraries than the people
of New England.
Massachusetts. Boston, the chief trade center of
New England, now has a population of more than half a
million. ° This city is the capital of Massachusetts.
Boston owes its growth very largely to the fact that
here the railroads from the west reach the chief harbor
on the New England coast. Among American cities,
Boston ranks second in foreign commerce. It has also a
large domestic commerce.
1 Do not forget to locate every place named in the text.
fifty kinds
yields prod-
ucts every
year worth
from one
million to
twenty- five
million dollars. The most valuable manufacture is clothing.
There is a United States navy yard on Boston harbor.
Among the cities of this state, Worcester ranks second
in size. It is a railroad center and has a great variety of
manufactures.
We have learned that Fall River and Lowell manufacture
more cotton cloth than any other two cities in America.
It would take three fourths of all the gold mined yearly
in our country to pay for the cotton goods made in Fall
River alone. Lawrence, a little below Lowell on the Mer-
rimac, takes high rank in both woolen and cotton goods.
Cambridge is the seat of Harvard University.
2 The largest cities of the United States, in the order of size, are : New
York (including Brooklyn), Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis and Boston.
These cities rank in the same order in the value of their manufactures.
NEW ENGLAND STATES.
143
Lynn, Haverhill and Brockton lead in the manufactuie We have learned that Vermont produces more than
of boots and shoes. The value of these products in Lynn half the marble used in our country. Rutland is the
is about equal to that of the cotton goods in Fall River, center of the marble industry. St. Albans is noted for its
Springfield has a United States armory, where rifles for dairy products ; and Barre for its granite.
the army and navy are '
made.
More paper is made
in Holyoke than in any
other American city.
Maine. Portland, the
largest city in Maine,
is on a fine harbor and
has a large coasting
trade. In winter, when
the St. Lawrence river
is frozen over, Portland
serves as a port for
much of Canada's for-
eign trade.
Large cotton mills
have been built in
Lewiston, near falls
that supply fine water
power.
Bangor, at the head
of tide water on the
Penobscot river which
flows from the Maine
forest region, is a great
lumber market.
New Hampshire.
Manchester is one of
the cities having ex-
tensive cotton mills on
the Merrimac river.
Locomotives also are
made in this city.
Concord, the capital,
is well known for the
granite which is quar-
ried in its vicinity.
Portsmouth is the
only seaport on New
Hampshire's few miles
of coast. A United
States navy yard is
situated at Kittery,
Maine, opposite Ports-
mouth. War vessels are often repaired in navy yards. Rhode Island. Providence, the capital and second
Vermont The small rivers flowing into lake Cham- city in size in New England, is at the head of Narra-
nUrn ur< verv useful in floating logs down to the sawmills, gansett bay, — a partly drowned valley. This city has
Burlinf ton has the hest harbor on this lake, and has grown great woolen mills and the largest jewelry factories in
to be L Kreat lumber market. Montpelier is the capital. the United States.
144
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.
Pawtucket and Woonsocket, on the Blackstone river, western export trade to New York. Several railroad lines
have large cotton mills. In the old Slater mill of Paw- from east to west have been built across the Appalachian
tucket, cotton manufacturing in this country was first highland. This highland is rich in coal, iron ore, petroleum
started in 1790. See picture on page 142.
Newport, formerly a capital of the state, is a famous
summer resort.
Connecticut. New Haven is the largest railroad center
and port in Connecticut, and is the seat of Yale University.
This city manufactures hardware and firearms.
Hartford, the capital, is at the head of steamboat navi-
gation on the Connecticut river. Bridgeport is a manu-
facturing city on Long Island sound.
Waterbury is fa-|"
mous for brass
manufactures. Its
best-known articles
are watches, clocks
and pins.
Meriden leads in j
the manufacture
of silver-plated and
britannia ware.
148. Review and Map Studies.
and natural gas. The piedmont belt yields immense crops
of tobacco. The coastal plain is a leading fruit district.
Chesapeake bay has valuable oyster beds.
With all these advantages, this group of states has
grown wealthy, and two of its cities are among the larg-
est three in America. New York ranks first and Phila-
delphia third — Chicago being second.
New Yokk. New York is now the second city in
population in the world. In amount of foreign trade,
London alone surpasses the
port of New York. The
great seaport at the
mouth of the Hudson river
carries on more than half
the foreign trade of our
country.
The port of New York is
connected with the interior by
several trunk lines of railroad.
Among these are the New York
Central and the Pennsylvania
systems. The former extends
along the Hudson and Mohawk
valleys, reaching Buffalo on
Lake Erie. At Albany this line
connects with the Boston and
Albany railroad. The Pennsyl-
vania line runs to Philadelphia,
and thence to Pittsburg.
The chief exports from
New York are meats, cotton,
Most of these are sent to
OE.LAWARS
P LACHES
Which is larger, — Maine or New York ? Which is farther
north, — New York or Chicago? — Kichmond or San Francisco?
Refer to the maps on pages 21, 24, 128 and 129, and tell what
you can about the climate of these states.
Which states of this group are partly in the Atlantic coastal
plain ? What are some of the products of the piedmont and the
coastal plain in these states ? See lessons 45, 54, 18 4., 185 and 189.
Describe the Old Appalachian range in this group of states. See
lesson 45. Describe the Great Valley. See lesson 46. What two
branches of the Great Valley lead into the Hudson gorge ?
What useful products are taken from the Allegheny ridges and countrv
plateau in this group of states ? See lessons 4-7 and 140. What
two rivers unite at Pittsburg to form the Ohio river ?
Describe the main slopes of the land in this group of states.
Of what state is Long Island a part ? Locate the capitals of the
Middle Atlantic states.
petroleum, wheat and flour.
Great Britain and other countries of western Europe.
New York's principal imports are — cloth from Eng-
land, Germany and France ; coffee from Brazil and other
parts of tropical America ; cane sugar from the West
Indies, and beet sugar from Germany; tin plate from
England ; rubber from Para ; tea from China and Japan;
New York is the greatest manufacturing center in
America, The total value of the manufactures of this city
is greater than that of all the articles of import, into our
149. Middle Atlantic States.
The slight drowning of ancient coastal valleys has made
fine harbors for New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore,
— three of the greatest commercial cities of the Union.
The Hudson and Mohawk valleys turn much of the
The great value and variety of the articles made in this city may
be judged from the fact that there are more than one hundred and
fifty industries, each yielding products worth from $1,000,000 to
nearly $150,000,000 each year. The most important manufactures
are various articles of clothing, books, cigars, leather goods and
furniture.
*
New York and Jersey City prepare great quantities of meat for
home and foreign markets.
Brooklyn, now a borough of the city of New York, con-
tains over 1,000,000 people. Brooklyn' is joined to New
York proper by the largest suspension bridge in the world.
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES.
145
In the refining of sugar, Brooklyn ranks second only to and many tanneries have been built there. Leather goods
San Francisco. The roasting and grinding of coffee and form one of the chief manufactures of Philadelphia,
spices are important industries here, as in New York There are great cotton mills and oil refineries in this
proper. Brooklyn contains a United States navy yard. It city. Along the river front in and near Philadelphia are
has dry docks and
other facilities for
shipbuilding.
Buffalo has grown
to be a large city,
because it has a fine
harbor on Lake Erie,
is at one end of the
Erie canal, and is an
important railroad
center.
Great quantities of
western products pass
through Buffalo. Its
principal manufac-
tures are lumber and
flour. Meat-packing
is here an extensive
industry.
Rochester and Syra-
cuse are on the Erie
canal and the New
York Central railroad.
Eochester has large
flouring mills. Syra-
cuse is famous for its
salt-works.
Albany, the capital,
is an important rail-
road center and is
near the head of tide
water in the Hudson.
The United States
Military Academy is
at West Point.
Pennsylvania.
Philadelphia has a fine
harbor on the tidal
portion of the Del-
aware river. This /
city is not far
from rich mines of
coal and of iron ore
Philadelphia there
fore exports coal
Longitude
^T" L'l- f -w™ a^A «+pp1 o-oods immense shipyards. Nearly all the new iron ships of
and manufactures great quantities of iron and steel gooas. immense & v
One of the best sheep-raising districts in our country our navy were built hem
ui r. , j • ? ni,^ o-nrl Philarlelnhia The foreign trade of Philadelphia is very large. The
extends across this state and into Ohio and Pnilaaeipnia luei"lcf i b.
exienus cw,iu»s uu« »t rtQTm,>+a There citv ranks third in population among American cities.
now leads the world in making woolen carpets. Inere Clt£ran ? Snsouehanna is the state canital
are large forests of hemlock in northern Pennsylvania, Harnsburg, on the Susquehanna, is the state capital.
146
SOUTHERN STATES, — EASTERN SECTION.
Pittsburg's leading industry is the manufacture of iron
and steel goods. Among these are locomotives, steel rails,
car wheels, and armor plate for ships of war.
Excellent sand for glass-making is found in the upper
Ohio valley, and Pittsburg is famous for glassware.
This city has a large trade in soft coal and in petroleum.
The former city of Allegheny is now a part of the great
city of Pittsburg. This city has a large trade with other
river ports down the Ohio.
Scranton, Reading and Erie have large iron works.
New Jersey. Newark, the largest city in New Jersey,
is on the line where the piedmont belt adjoins the lower
coastal plain.
This city has large tanneries. Patent leather is a
leading product. Great quantities of jew-
elry also are made in Newark.
Jersey City forms an important part of the port of
New York. Many ocean steamers clear from the Jersey
City side of the harbor, because they can there meet the
freighted trains from several railroad lines that do not
enter the city of New York.
Paterson has the largest silk factories in the United
States. Camden, opposite Philadelphia, is one of the cities
having shipyards on the Delaware.
Trenton, the capital, is famous for its fine pottery.
Delaware. Wilmington contains more than one third
the population of the state. The chief manufactures of
the city are leather and cars.
The canning and packing of fruit form the leading
industry of Dover, the capital ,of Delaware.
Maryland. Baltimore is on a fine harbor not far from
the head of Chesapeake bay. The foreign commerce of
this city is about equal to that of Philadelphia.
Baltimore is almost surrounded by fruit districts. It
is not far from the piedmont tobacco regions of Virginia
and Pennsylvania. The long grain belt from Lake
Ontario to Chesapeake bay includes the country around
Baltimore. This bay supplies more oysters than are
taken from any other equal area in the world.
With these natural advantages, Baltimore takes high
rank in the canning and shipping of fruit and oysters,
and in the manufacture of tobacco articles and flour.
The United States Naval Academy is located at
Annapolis, the capital of this state.
Virginia. Richmond ranks next to New York and St.
Louis in the manufacture of tobacco articles. Richmond
is also a leading market for leaf tobacco.
This city is at the head of tide water on the James, and
has an active coasting trade. It is the state capital.'
Norfolk, the chief port of Virginia, ships great quanti-
ties of cotton. There is a large United States navy yard
| on the harbor,
opposite Nor-
folk.
Petersburg and
Lynchburg are
important to-
bacco markets.
West Vir-
ginia. Wheeling
is the center of
the iron industry of the
state.
West Virginia has ex-
tensive coal, oil and gas
ields.
Huntington is a coal and
lumber market.
Charleston is the capital.
Parkersburg has a large trade in petroleum.
150. Review and Map Studies.
If a ship were to sail due west from the strait of Gibraltar, what
part of our coast would it reach ? Describe the climate of this
section. See maps on pages 21, 2 If, 128 and 129.
Which of the states of this group lie partly within the Atlantic
coastal plain ? Name two valuable products raised near the coast.
See lesson 54- What are the leading products of the ^coastal plain
and of the piedmont belt farther inland ? See lessons*53 and 5 J,..
What have you learned about the Carolina highland ? See les-
son 45. Why is the northern half of the Allegheny plateau more
thickly settled than the southern half ? See lesson 47.
Locate the state capitals in this group.
151. Southern States, — Eastern Section.
The region at the southern end of the Appalachian
highland has rich mines of iron ore and of coal. The
uplands of this section form one of the most productive
cotton districts in the world. Corn and tobacco also
abound. Many falls and rapids at the lower border of
the piedmont in these states have in recent years led to
the building of extensive cotton mills.
SOUTHERN" STATES, - EASTERN SECTION.
147
Great areas of the coastal plain are covered with forests
of yellow pine which yield valuable lumber, rosin and
turpentine. Among the lesser products of this section
are early fruits and vegetables. The swampy coastal
lowlands produce great quantities of rice.
North Carolina. Wilmington has a good harbor on
the tidal waters of the Cape Fear river. The chief
exports are cotton and tobacco from the Is; and
Charleston takes high rank in the export of cotton
and rice.
Near Charleston, and in the river bottoms and marshy lands far-
ther south, is found a kind of rock known as phosphate rock. Large
quantities of it are prepared for use as a fertilizer.
Columbia, the capital, is the railroad center of the state.
Georgia. In Atlanta, the capital, several railroads
from the Atlantic coastal plain meet others from the
lumber, rosin and turpentine from the yellow-pine forests
of the coastal plain.
Raleigh, the capital, is in the cotton and tobacco dis-
trict, and is the leading cotton market in the state.
The city was named in honor of Sir Walter Raleigh.
Charlotte is an important railroad center, and therefore
a market for the products of the surrounding district.
Asheville is a beautiful mountain resort.
South Carolina. Charleston is the chief seaport of
South Carolina. It has a fine harbor easily reached from
all parts of the state.
Bradley i Paatu, Engr^t, M.r.
"Mississippi valley. This city is there-
fore a trade center for nearly all kinds of southern
products. Atlanta has extensive cotton mills.
Savannah is on the Savannah river, eighteen miles from
the sea. Only New Orleans and New York, among the
seaports of our country, surpass Savannah in the export
of cotton. This city has a large trade in rice, and leads
the world in the export of rosin and turpentine.
Augusta, Macon and Columbus are not only important
markets for southern products, but they also have large
cotton mills.
148
SOUTHERN GROUP, — WESTERN SECTION.
Which part of this section is the most thickly settled ? Why ?
See map on page 12 Jf. Locate the capital of each of. the states in
this group.
153. Southern Group, — Western Section.
The products and industries of this section resemble
those of the states farther east. Rice thrives in the
swamps along the coast and in the river valleys ; sugar
cane abounds in the flood and delta plains; forests of
Alabama. Mobile, at the head of Mobile bay, is the yellow pine and other trees cover large areas ; cotton,
principal port, and forms the outlet for a large portion grain and tobacco grow in abundance ; large numbers of
Florida. Jacksonville is the chief city. It is a leading
port for naval stores and lumber.
Pensacola has a fine harbor and ranks high in the export
of lumber. A navy yard is located near this port.
Key West is in a group of coral islands. It is noted for
cigars and sponges, and is a naval station. Tampa, also
noted for cigars, is the chief port for steamers to Cuba.
Tallahassee is the ca]3ital.
of the cotton and the lumber products of the state.
Birmingham is situated in the coal and iron district
near the southern end of the Appalachian highland. This
city has extensive manufactures of iron and steel.
Montgomery, the capital, has a large trade in cotton.
Mississippi. Vicksburg, Meridian and Natchez are im-
portant cotton
markets. Jackson is
the capital.
T i: x x e s s e e .
Nashville, the capi-
tal, is in a region
where both cotton
and tobacco are
produced. Large
areas in Tennessee
Nashville is a market for wheat,
lumber and tobacco.
Memphis is the largest cotton
market in the state, and the most
important river port between
St. Louis and New Orleans.
Memphis is also a railroad center.
Much of the cotton sent from this
city goes by rail to New York or to
other cities in the northeast part of our
country, where there are many cotton mills. cotton Picking
Chattanooga, like Birmingham, is in the coal and iron
district near the southern end of the Appalachian high-
land. Iron and steel goods are the chief manufactures
in both these cities.
Knoxville is the trade center of northeastern Tennessee.
152. Review and Map Studies.
What two territories are in this group ? Which is the larger, —
Texas or Xew England ? Which reaches farther south, — Texas
or Florida ? See map on p>age 126.
Describe the climate of this group of states. See maps on pages
21, 24, 128 and 129.
Describe the delta of the Mississippi. What have you learned
about the flood plains of this river ? See lesson 53.
cattle and sheep graze in the western portion of the
section, especially in Texas.
Among the states of our country, Texas takes first rank
for cotton and cattle. Louisiana produces more sugar
cane and rice than any other state.
Louisiana. New Orleans has an excellent harbor on
the Mississippi river and has grown to be
the largest city in the Southern states.
Though its import trade in foreign
goods is not large, yet its
foreign export trade surpasses
that of every other city in the
Union, except New York.
New Orleans sends yearly
to Europe cotton
valued at nearly
$100,000,000. This
city has alsp a very
large trade in sugar,
rice and corn.
New Orleans has
had rapid growth in
manufactures.
Among the cities of
our country, it takes
high rank in the re-
fining of sugar.
New Orleans is an
important railroad cen-
ter. The Southern Pa-
cific system connects it
with points westward to the Pacific coast. The Illinois Central,
the Queen and Crescent and other routes lead northward to
Chicago, Cincinnati and other cities.
Shreveport, on the Red river, is in a rich cotton district.
This city is the second cotton market in the state, and
has a large river traffic. Steamboat and railroad lines
connect it with New Orleans. Baton Rouge is the capital.
Texas. Texas is the largest state in the Union. Its
area is greater than that of all the New England and
What have you read about the Texas prairies ? See lesson 51. Mlddle states together. The state of Texas may be
What region is on the west of these prairies ? How do you account divided into three districts, each of which is as large as
for its dryness ? See lesson 50. Great Britain.
SOUTHERN GROUP, — WESTERN SECTION.
149
Dallas and Fort Worth are in the northeastern part of
the Texas prairies, — in a rich farming and grazing
district. Both these cities handle great quantities of
wheat and corn; and both have large flouring mills.
Dallas is a leading market for farming implements.
Fort Worth has great stock yards. Many cattle are sent
from this district to northern markets.
San Antonio is an important center on the Southern
Pacific railroad, and on the main railroad line runnino-
fell fighting to the last, rather than surrender. Texas was soon
afterwards admitted into the Union.
Galveston ranks high among the cotton ports of our
country. Among its other exports are hides and wool.
Houston is an important railroad center, and is situated
on the navigable Buffalo Bayou. Austin is the capital.
Arkansas. Little Rock is the capital and largest city
in Arkansas. Large quantities of cotton-seed oil and oil-
cake are made in this city.
southward into Mexico. This city is the trade center of
southwest Texas.
San Antonio is famous in the history of Texas. Not long after
the United States purchased the vast territory of Louisiana west
of the Mississippi river, thousands of Americans crossed the border
and settled in Texas, which was then a part of Mexico. When the
Mexicans tried to oppress the Americans, the latter rose in arms
and won the freedom of their state.
One of the fiercest struggles in this war took place in a building
known as the Alamo, in San Antonio. Here a small band of Amer-
icans was attacked by a large force of Mexicans. The Americans
Fort Smith is a trade center in the western part of the
state. Hot Springs is a well-known resort for invalids.
Oklahoma. In recent years Oklahoma has grown more
rapidly than any other state. Its fertile soil produces cot-
ton, corn and wheat. Many cattle and sheep graze in the
state. There are also rich coal lands.
Oklahoma and Guthrie are the principal cities near the
center of the new state. South McAlester and Muscogee
are leading cities farther east.
150
CENTRAL STATES, — EASTERN SECTION.
154. Review and Map Studies.
Which is farthest north, — Chicago, Boston or Borne (Italy)?
Which of the states in this section border on lake Michigan ?
Which state has the longest lake coast ?
Study the maps on pages 21, 24, 128 and 129, and then tell what
you can about the climate of this group of states.
Which part of this section is mountainous ? Which of the states
in this group are partly within the Allegheny plateau region ? De-
scribe this part of the plateau. Name some of its products. See
lessons 47, 136, 137, llfi and 11$.
Which of the states of this group lie partly within the St. Law-
rence basin ? Name some of the products of the old worn-down
wells of natural gas, supply fuel for the extensive manu-
factures. The eastern and southern portions of this
section hold first place in the production of wool, tobacco
and hemp.
Such are the natural advantages and fruitful industries
of the Central states to-day, although many people are
still living who can recall the time when most of the
region was a wilderness, and when even Chicago was only
a frontier trading town on the small river which now
flows through the second largest city in all America.
highland near lake Superior. See lesson Ifi.
Which part of this group of states is in the
great soft-wood forest belt? See lesson 134-
Which parts have valuable hard-wood forests '.'
What do you know about the soil of the prairies ? See lesson 51.
What are the principal products of the prairies ?
On what bodies of water does a vessel sail in going from Chicago
to Cleveland ? — From Duluth to Buffalo ?
Locate the capitals of the states in this section.
Central States, — Eastern Section.
Though the Central states have no seacoast, and there-
fore little foreign commerce, yet they have fine water
ways for inland commerce on the Great Lakes and the
Mississippi system. Moreover, most of the section is so
level or so gently rolling that railroads are built at small
expense, and freight rates by rail are therefore low.
These states form the best farming and grazing district
in our country, so that meat-packing and flour-milling
are very important industries. The iron mines in the
lake Superior region are without a rival. The copper
mines in the same district are only slightly surpassed by
those of Montana.
The pine forests around the upper lakes, and the hard-
wood forests a little farther south, give this section first
rank in lumber, as well as in the manufacture of farming
machines, furniture and carriages. Beds of soft coal, and
Ohio. Cincinnati has
about ten miles of water
front on the Ohio river,
and fully a score of rail-
road lines enter this city.
It has therefore grown to
be a center of trade for a
great area of farming and
grazing country. The chief manufactures of Cincinnati
are clothing and liquors. Large numbers of cattle and
hogs are raised in the Ohio valley, and many of these are
sold in Cincinnati. Meat-packing is therefore an im-
portant industry. Many kinds of iron goods also are
made here.
Cleveland is within easy reach of the coal fields of Ohio
and Pennsylvania ; of the oil districts in the same states ;
of the iron mines of the lake Superior region; of the soft-
wood forests of Michigan, and the hard-wood forests of
Ohio.
With these advantages, Cleveland has become a leading
city in iron and steel manufactures, in oil refining, in ship-
building, and in other great industries. Many steamers
for the lake traffic are built in this city.
CENTRAL STAGES, — EASTERN SECTION.
151
Columbus, the capital, is a trade center for middle Ohio
This city is noted for the manufacture of tine carriages
Toledo has docks several miles in length, and is a ship
ping point for grain, flour, iron ore, lumber and coal.
Dayton is the center
of a fine farming re-
gion and is also a great
manufacturing city.
Youngstown is an
important center of
iron manufactures.
Farming tools are made
in several of the large
cities of this section.
Among these are Spring-
field, Akron and Canton.
Indiana. Indian-
apolis is the center of
trade of the rich
farming and grazing
district of middle In-
diana. Several lines
of railroad meet in
this city. They bring
in grain and cattle,
and carry back the
various kinds of goods
which are needed on
the great farms.
Meat-packing and
flour-milling are lead-
ing industries in the
state capital.
Evansville is the
principal shipping
point for the grain,
flour and meat prod-
ucts of southwest
Indiana.
Fort Wayne is an
important trade cen-
ter in the northeast
part of the state.
Many railroad cars
are made in this city.
South Bend is . fa-
mous for its wagons
and plows
the goods imported into our country during the same
length of time.
From what regions does Chicago receive wheat, corn, cattle, hogs,
iron ore, coal, lumber ? What canal route leads through Chicago ?
New Albany is an important port on the Ohio river. Chicago is the greatest railroad center and lake port in
Illinois. In the value of its manufactures, Chicago the world. This city ranks first also as a meat, grain and
ranks second among American cities. The various lumber market. No other city in the Union makes as
articles made or prepared for *narket in a single year much furniture or as many farming implements. In the
in this great city are worth nearly as much as all manufacture of iron, only Pittsburg surpasses Chicago.
152
CENTRAL STATES, — EASTERN SECTION.
What have you learned about the Great Lakes as a water way?
See lessons 49 and 120.
Among the railroad lines which center in Chicago are the follow-
ing : the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern from Buffalo ; the
Pittsburg and Fort Wayne from Pittsburg; the Illinois Central
from New Orleans ; the Atchison, Tojmka and Santa Fe from south-
ern California ; the Wabash from Kansas City and St. Louis ; the
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul from Minneapolis and St. Paul.
Chicago, though much less in value. The chief manu-
factures of Milwaukee are liquors and flour. Large quan-
tities of meat are packed here.
La Crosse, Oshkosh and Eau Claire are lumber markets.
Racine is one of the cities which manufacture wagons
and farming implements. Madison is the capital.
Kentucky. This state takes the lead in the cultiva-
tion of tobacco and hemp. Louis-
ville is one of the largest tobaccc
markets in the world. Greaf
quantities of leather are tanned
here. Frankfort is the capital.
Covington and Newport are on
the Ohio river, opposite Cincin-
nati. These Kentucky cities,
though among the largest in the
The leading industry in
Peoria is the manufacture of
1 iquor s . Springfield
capital, is a trade center for
middle Illinois ; and Quincy, for
the western part of the state.
Mk iiigax. Detroit has a fine
harbor on the Detroit river.
This city, like Chicago and
Cleveland, is within easy reach
of the lumber and iron regions.
Detroit is noted for the manu-
facture of cars and iron goods.
Grand Rapids has excellent water power in falls of
the Grand river, and is also near the lumber districts. No
other city in the lake region, except Chicago, manufac-
tures as much furniture. Lansing is the state capital.
Saginaw, Bay City and Muskegon have an immense
trade in lumber. The most productive salt-works in our
country are in the district near the head of Saginaw bay.
Wisconsin". Milwaukee is the second city in size on
lake Michigan. This port has an excellent harbor, and
carries on an extensive lake commerce similar to that of
state, are really suburbs
of Cincinnati. They
contain many fine resi-
dences.
Lexington is in the
Blue Grass region, — a
district famous for fine
horses.
156. Review
and Map Studies.
Locate this group of states.
What two large cities in this
section are about halfway
between the equator and the north pole ? Which extends farther
north, — Maine or Minnesota? Which, states in this group are
west of Illinois?
What do the maps on pages 21, 24, 128 and 129 show about the
climate of this group of Central states ?
Where does the Mississippi river rise? What river of the
Nelson system rises near by ? How do you account for the richness
of the soil in the Red river prairies ? See lesson 51.
In which states do the prairies merge into the Western plains ?
Describe the general course of the Missouri river across this
group of states. Across which state does the Platte river flow?
Where are the Black hills ? What do they yield ? See lesson 50.
CENTRAL STATES, — WESTERN SECTION.
153
Describe the highland in southern Missouri. See lesson 47.,
Name the capitals of the states, in this group. Which of the
Which is on the Mississippi ?
capitals are on the Missouri river ?
Iowa. Des Moines, the capital, is in the heart of the
rich Iowa prairie region. This city is a market for grain,
cattle and dairy products, for which the state is famous.
157. Central States,
Western Section.
The prairie portion
of the states in this
Western section is in
the wheat and corn
area. Almost the en-
tire section is suited
to grazing. In the
northeast are portions
of the lumber and the
, iron districts.
The principal indus-
tries of these states
are farming, grazing,
lumbering, flour-mill-
ing and mining.
Missouri. St. Louis
has a population about
equal to that of Bos-
ton. The former city
is the principal trade
center of the middle
Mississippi valley, and
is reached by railroads
and rivers from nearly
all parts. Many of the
products of this fertile
valley find a market
in St. Louis ; and this
city sends out grocer-
ies, clothing and agri-
cultural implements.
No American city,
except Minneapolis,
surpasses St. Louis in
the production of
flour. This great river
port is near the Ken-
tucky tobacco district
and ranks next to New
York in the manufac-
ture of tobacco goods.
Meat-packing is an important industry in St. Louis.
Kansas City is one of the leading railroad centers in
the Mississippi basin. This city therefore has an ex-
tensive trade with the surrounding agricultural districts.
It is one of the greatest markets for farming implements
in the country. Jefferson City is the state capital.
St. Joseph and Springfield are important trade centers.
Sioux City is a large grain and meat market.
Dubuque, Davenport and Burlington are important river
ports and lumber markets. These cities have a large
trade in the agricultural products of the state.
Minnesota. The flour made yearly in Minneapolis
could not be purchased by all the gold mined in our
country during the same length of time. No otlier city
154
SOUTHWESTERN GROUP.
in the Union produces one half as much flour. More Omaha is a large railroad center and a shipping point
than one fourth of Minnesota is covered with forests for cattle and grain.
of white pine. The Mississippi river above Minneapolis Lincoln, the capital, is reached by several railroads and
is fed by many streams from the forest area, and this has grown to be the most important trade center in the
city has therefore become the leading lumber market in corn and wheat region of southeastern Nebraska.
the Northwest.
St. Paul is a great
railroad center, and
is at the head
of steamboat
navigation on
the Mississippi.
The principal
industry of the
state capital
consists in
gathering
the prod-
ucts of the
surround-
*
incr region,
and in shipping
supplies to the
farming and
the lumbering
districts.
Duluth is the
eastern terminus of the Northern Pacific railroad, and is
at the southwestern end of lake Superior. This city is
the outlet of the wheat district in the Red river prairies.
Winona is a lumber market on the Mississippi river.
North Dakota. This state lies north of the corn belt,
but its wheat district in the Red river valley has no
superior. A large part of this state affords excellent
grazing land for cattle and sheep. Fargo and
Bismarck, the capital, are the most important
trade centers.
South Dakota. The prairies in the
northeast part of this state form a por-
tion of the famous wheat region which
extends also into North Dakota. The
southeast part of South Dakota is in
the corn belt.
Sioux Falls and Pierre are points of
supply. Pierre is the state capital.
The Black hills, with their valuable
gold mines, lie mostly within the west-
ern part of South Dakota.
Nebraska. The best farming; land of
ican cities which surpass Kansas
Kansas. This
state, like the
states named
above, is about
half prairie and
half plains. The
chief products are
corn,wheat
and cattle.
The grains
grow best
in eastern
Kansas,
meat mar-
river. Chi-
OnlyAmer-
City in the
value of their meat-packing industries. Each year thousands of
cattle from the Texas prairies are sent north to be fattened in the
corn area of Kansas and the neighboring states.
Topeka, Wichita and Leavenworth are important market centers in
the grain and cattle districts. Topeka is the capital.
158. Review and Map Studies.
Locate this group of states and territories ? Which are territo-
ries ? See lesson 125.
What portion of the Atlantic coast of our country is due east of
California ? Which is farther north, — San Francisco or St. Louis?
If a ship were to sail due west from San Francisco, what large
Asiatic island would it reach ?
What do the maps on pages 21, 24, 128 and 129 show
about the climate of this group of states ?
Describe the park region of Colorado. See lesson
34.. Describe the Colorado plateaus. See
lesson 38. How does the Basin region differ
from the Colorado plateau region ?
In what respects does the valley of Califor-
nia resemble the plain of Chile ? See lessons
40 and 57. What are the principal products
of the Southwestern states ? See lessons ISO,
134, 136 and 143.
Locate the capitals of the states and terri-
tories in this group.
159. Southwestern Group.
This group of states and territories
Yucca Trees, Mohave Desert.
includes several regions whose industries
Nebraska, as of the two Dakotas, is in the eastern half differ widely from one another. On the east are the
of the state. Corn is the most valuable product. The grazing lands of the Western plain. Next on the west is
other half of the state forms part of the Western plains the rich mining district of the Rocky mountains. Still
where qattle-raising is the chief occupation. farther west and southwest are the thinly settled Basin
SOUTHWESTERN GROUP.
155
region and the Colorado plateaus. In the Sierra Nevada
is another mining belt and a lumber district. The valley
of California is one of the finest wheat and grape regions
in the world. The southern portion of this state excels
in high grades of oranges. The Coast range yields
excellent lumber.
California contains more than half the people in this
group of states and territories, yet even this great state
has a population smaller than that of New York city.
The raising of cattle and sheep is the principal industry.
Silver ore is mined in this territory.
Santa Fe and Albuquerque are the chief trade centers.
The former is the second oldest town in our country.
Utah. Utah now ranks third in the production of
silver, — Colorado being first, and Montana second. Some
portions of Utah, especially along the small river valleys,
are irrigated. They yield grain and vegetables.
Colorado. Denver is a supply city for mining districts
in the Rocky mountains, and for cattle ranches on the
Western plains. Few cities in our country have had
a more rapid growth than this state capital.
Pueblo and Leadville have large smelting works. The
latter city is in the heart of the Rocky mountains, nearly
two miles above sea level. It is one of the greatest silver-
mining cities in the world.
Colorado Springs is a well-known resort for invalids.
New Mexico. This territory is mostly in the basin of
the Rio Grande. Santa Fe" is the capital.
Salt Lake City and Ogden are important railroad centers
and points of supply. The former is the capital.
Arizona. Silver and copper are the principal products
of the mines in this territory. Arizona ranks high in the
output of copper. There are good irrigated farms in the
basin of the Gila river, west of the Colorado plateau
region. Phcenix is the capital.
Tucson and Phcenix have a large trade in outfits for miners.
Nevada. Silver and gold mining rank first among
this state's industries. The river valleys are suited to
farming and grazing. Carson City is the capital.
156
NORTHWESTERN GROUP.
Virginia and Carson City are well-known mining centers.
California. San Francisco is the natural outlet for
the products of the valley of California. More wheat is
exported from this seaport than from any other Amer-
ican city. It leads also in the refining of sugar.
San Francisco has a large inland trade in wheat, flour
and fruits. The principal manufactures of the city are
clothing, boots and shoes.
Among the imports are silk and tea from China and
Japan, and sugar
from Honolulu
There is a
large navy
yard
161. Northwestern Group.
The industries in this group of states are similar to
those in the group on the south. There are the grazing
districts of the Western plains, the mining regions of the
Rocky mountains, the barren lava plains, the wheat lands
in the Willamette valley, the forested slopes of the Cas-
cade and Coast ranges.
These five states together have a population less than
that of either New York or Chicago.
Montana. The chief occupations
in this state are
mining and cat-
tle-raising.
More cop-
on an
arm of San ^^**mm£n^0^ Francisco
northward from the Golden Gate.
Los Angeles is the largest trade center in southern Cali-
fornia. This city is an active fruit market.
Oakland is on the east shore of San Francisco bay.
Ferries cross the bav between these cities.
Oakland is largely a city of residences. It is the home
of many persons whose business is in San Francisco.
Sacramento, the capital, has a large trade in wheat.
160. Review and Map Studies.
Which is farther north, — Portland (Oregon) or Montreal ?
Refer to the maps on pages 21, 24, 128 and 129, and describe
the climate of the Pacific coast of this group. In what respect
does the climate of eastern Montana differ from that of western
Washington ? How do you account for the difference in climate
between Oregon and New England ?
In what direction do the Rocky mountains extend across this
group of states? Which of the states are partly in the Western
plains ? What valuable minerals are found in Montana ? See les-
sons lJfS and 144-
What part of this section is buried in ancient lava-flows ? See
lesson 39. Describe the Cascade range ; the Coast range. See les-
sons 36 and Jfi. Why is the seacoast northward from Puget sound
so irregular ? See lesson Jfi. Name the state capitals in this group.
Alaska. — Locate Sitka. See map on jpo,ge 126. Which is far-
ther north, — Sitka or St. Petersburg ?
Wliy is the climate of southwestern Alaska so mild? What
are the principal products of Alaska ? See lesson 41.
per is mined Hj
in Montana H
than in any
other state in the
Union. Colorado
alone surpasses it in the production of silver.
The gold mines of Montana are very productive.
Both Helena and Butte have a large trade in mining
outfits. There are also extensive smelting works in these
cities. Helena is the state capital.
Wyoming. This, state has few mines, but it has im-
mense cattle ranches. Cheyenne and Laramie are ' the
principal trade centers. The former city is the capital
and one of the largest cattle markets in America, because
it is the only shipping point for a large grazing area.
The greater portion of Yellowstone park is in north-
west Wyoming.
Idaho. Mining is the chief industry of Idaho, — with
silver, gold and lead as the products. The river valleys
in the northern part of this state form a very productive
wheat district.
Boise is the capital and the trade center of Idaho.
Oregon. The portion of this state east of the Cascade
range has large cattle ranches. The Willamette valley
is an excellent wheat district. Many sheep are also
raised here. The Cascade and Coast ranges are heavily
NORTHWESTERN GROUP.
157
forested, and they yield valuable lumber products. There
are extensive salmon fisheries in the Columbia river.
Portland, on the Willamette branch of the Columbia
river, is the commercial center of the state.
Salem, the capital, is in the wheat and the wool district
of the Willamette valley.
Washington. The industries of this state resemble
Wheat is the leading product of middle
those of Oregon.
The shore waters and the rivers of Alaska abound in
salmon. Fur seals in large numbers are taken on the
Pribilof islands.
Juneau is the capital of the territory. Sitka is on one
of the southeast islands. See Plate B, Supplement. Gold
is found in the Yukon valley and near the south coast.
The Klondike gold region is in Canada.
The first white settlers in Alaska were Russian fur
from
106
Old !*•»
, Lakes
R<=GINA
o VJ-
R-.
iC
\
Harris, *;• i ■ \
SEATUl*^.
, ' z- rl(
V
60
^Rr
_AjtoJ
^hRainier !fre r
««%!s>5»"^! Yakima
AjAitsburg. ' . Day ton
. ,-WallawaHa
.-vC-f
Qeam
,# Btefoft"*,; 'fljwinsstoj.
o**^
:--.
A
1 .^
„ ,/ ,,..: ; - J>'.ll'>n &'• • „* iiiMfflHIiiii T
J lower KlZ^£i#~^-f=K. A_ (V_
r~
,£? j* {
)
Bailey
JBellevne^
V
A
• Shoshone /^ \ f ^SrMfc.V<-~~>--. IV^
I Rawlins Q^
D
^./noethwesteen
GROUP
SCALE Of MIIES
100
"200
West -lit
Springs
liEvMiston^ } — .
Tw
12
-Q^R
o
10
from
108
106
and southeast Washington. The country around Puget
sound is one of the best lumber districts in the world.
Coal also abounds here. Washington shares with Oregon
the salmon fisheries of the Columbia river.
Seattle and Tacoma are important cities on Puget sound.
They have excellent harbors and are the trade centers of
the state. Both are large lumber markets.
Spokane, the center of trade in eastern Washington, has
fine water power. Olympia is the capital.
Alaska. Two thirds of the people in this territory
are Indians. The others are white settlers and Eskimos.
traders. In 1867 Russia sold Alaska to the United States
for $7,200,000. This is a small sum compared with the
value of the furs, the fish, the gold and the lumber which
this northern region yields.
Alaska is about one sixth as large as the rest of our
country, but only a small portion of this territory is
suitable for the homes of white people.
The best part of Alaska is the southwest coastal
region.
Rainfall is plentiful in this northern land, but the
warm season is too short to ripen, grain.
158
CANADA, MEXICO, WEST INDIES.
162. Review and Map Studies.
.Vote : The Dominion of Canada consists of various provinces and dis-
tricts. Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, Quebec, On-
tario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia are prov-
inces ; the other divisions, formed of parts of the thinly settled regions, are
called districts. The province of Newfoundland, including the northern
district of Labrador, is not a part of Canada ; but both Newfoundland and
Canada belong to the British Empire.
What large bodies of water partly surround the province of
Ontario ? What river separates Ontario from New York ? Through
what province does the St. Lawrence river flow ?
Locate Nova Scotia ; — New Brunswick ; — Prince Edward
island. What large island forms the northern part of the province
of Nova Scotia ? Between what provinces is the bay of Fundy ?
winter climate of Canada, except in British Columbia
and southeast Ontario, is more severe than that of the
states along our northern border.
The best portion of Canada is the region lying among
lakes Huron, Erie and Ontario, and thence extending
along the St. Lawrence river to Quebec. This region in-
cludes parts of both Ontario and Quebec. Barley and
wheat thrive here ; soft-wood forests abound ; and large
numbers of sheep and cattle find excellent pasturage.
In this productive area are found most of the large
cities of Canada. Among these are Montreal, Toronto,
Quebec, Hamilton and Ottawa. These cities have a large
trade in lumber, barley, sheep and wool, cattle and hides.
Newfoundland and the provinces of
Canada on
the gulf of
wolfe & montcal
monument" "
Which province of Canada includes a portion of the lied river
basin ? What large lake lies partly within this province ?
Name two provinces drained chiefly by the Saskatchewan river.
What two provinces meet in the Bocky mountains ? Which prov-
ince is almost wholly within the Bocky mountain highland ? Name
a large island belonging to this province.
Name three large lakes that form part of the Mackenzie system.
What large lake lies partly within Manitoba ? What do the maps
on pages 21 and 24 show about the climate of Canada ? See also
lessons 48. 52 and 127.
163. Canada and Newfoundland.
Canada is about equal in area to the United States, but
the population of the former is less than one twelfth that
of the latter.1 The provinces of Canada, — in their sur-
face, their products and their climate, — resemble the
portions of our country which they adjoin; but the
1 A large part of Canada once belonged to France, and many people of
French descent live in this portion of North America. They are now
greatly outnumbered by the English-speaking population.
St. Lawrence have exten-
sive fisheries. Halifax and
St. Johns send large quantities of codfish to our country.
Most of these are caught on the banks of Newfoundland.
New Brunswick, like Maine, is in the forest belt. St.
John exports lumber, largely to the United States.
The province of Manitoba includes parts of the Red
river prairie region. Winnipeg therefore exports wheat
British Columbia, like the state of Washington, has valu-
able coal mines, forests and fisheries. This province and
the Klondike region farther north {see Plate B, supple-
ment) yield large amounts of gold. The chief city of the
province is Victoria, on Vancouver Island.
164. Review and Map Studies.
Mexico. What bodies of water partly surround Mexico ? De-
scribe the highland of Mexico. See lesson 42. What have you
learned about the coastal region of this country ? Where is the
isthmus of Tehuantepec ?
MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES.
159
Refer to the maps on
pages 21 and 24, and tell
what you can about the
climate of Mexico. See
also lesson Jfe. Tell what
you know about the
people of Mexico, and
their form of government.
See lessons 98 and 103.
Central America.
Between what bodies of
water do the states of
Central America lie ?
What nation controls
Belize? See lesson 103.
Which of the Central
American states adjoin
Mexico ? Which is the
smallest state in this
group ? Between which
states is lake Nicaragua?
What have you learned
about this lake? See
lesson JfS. Where is the
Mosquito coast ? Panama
was once a part of Colom-
bia, but is now a republic.
Describe the surface and the climate of Central America. Locate
the following cities and towns : New Guatemala, Managua, Blue-
fields, San Jose, Panama.
West Indies. Locate Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Porto Rico, the
Leeward islands, the Windward islands.
110 Longitude
Mexico has rich mines of silver and other minerals.
The most valuable mines are in the region of the Sierra
Madre. This country has few mills or factories. The
chief manufacture is cotton cloth.
The leading: exports from Mexico to the United States
What do the maps on pages 21 and 24 show about the climate of ^ Aoau & 1
the West Indies ? Where are the following cities : Havana ? Port are silver, coffee and cattle. Our country sends cloth and
au Prince? Santo Domingo ? Kingston? Nassau? hardware to Mexico. The trade is carried on largely
across the Bio Grande, as well as through the ports of
165. Mexico, Central America and the West Indies. yera qtuz on the east, and Acapulco on the south.
Mexico. About
nine tenths of the
people of Mexico live
in the uplands, where
there is good farming
and grazing land.
Cattle-raising is here
a leading industry.
Among the agricul-
tural products are cof-
fee, cotton, sugar cane
and tobacco.
In some parts of
Mexico, especially in Yu-
catan, is raised a variety
of century plant that
yields a kind of fiber
known as Sisal hemp.
This hemp is shipped in
large quantities to our
country where it is used
in making rope and twine.
West from
Greenwich
160
MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES.
America con-
Guatemala,
Mexico, the capital and principal city of the republic,
has a population somewhat larger than that of San Fran-
cisco.
Central America. Central
tains several small states, —
Honduras, Salvador, Nic- ,
aragua, Panama J81I
and Costa Rica.
Part of the for-
eign trade of
Central America
is with the United
States. These
small tropical
belong to Great Britain. The island of Haiti comprises
the two small republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo.
There are about as many people in Cuba as in the city
of Chicago. Two thirds of the population of the island
are of Spanish descent, but there are many Negroes.
Havana, the capital and chief seaport, is one of the great-
est sugar markets in
the world.
There are nearly as
many people in the
island of Haiti as in
Cuba. The western
countries send us coffee, bananas, rubber
and indigo. Our country exports cloth and
hardware to the Central American republics.
West Indies. The name West Indies is given to the
groups of islands which partly inclose the gulf of Mexico
and the Caribbean sea. The products of these islands
are similar to those of Mexico and Central America, but
s~ x the most valuable are
sugar, tobacco and
coffee. For Cuba and
Porto Rico see the
Supplement. Jamaica
and the Bahamas
half of the island of Haiti
is settled chiefly by Negroes ;
the eastern half has a
mixed population of Negroes and people of Spanish
descent. The latter outnumber the former. Port au
Prince and Santo Domingo are the principal cities of the
island.
Jamaica and the Bahama islands are peopled largely by
Negroes, but there are also many British settlers. Kingston
and Nassau are the commercial centers of these islands.
San Juan is the principal city of Porto Rico. Barbados
is a very thickly-settled island belonging to the British
nation. This nation possesses most of the Leeward and
the Windward islands. France controls a few of them.
Westminster Palace, on the Thames, London.
161
EUROPE.
166. Review and Map Studies.
Which parts of Europe are mountainous ? Which are lowland ?
In what two regions do most of the large rivers of Europe rise ?
What countries are grouped about the Swiss plateau ? Which
of these countries border on the Mediterranean sea or its branches ?
What countries are wholly or partly included in Low Europe ?
Which of these countries border on the North sea ? — On the
Baltic sea ? What countries lie along the west coast of the Black
sea? What countries are crossed by the Arctic circle ?
Norway, Sweden and Denmark. What part of the coast of
North America lies due west of Norway ? How do you account
for the mildness of the climate on the west coast of Norway ? See
lesson 82.
Describe the surface of Norway and Sweden. Into what sea
and gulf do most of the rivers of Sweden flow ? What are some
of the products of the Scandinavian peninsula ?
What kind of surface has Denmark? What country adjoins
it on the south ? What
sea is on the west?
Longitude
Where is the ^gean sea? — The Adriatic sea? — The bay of
Biscay ? _The gulf of Bothnia ? — The sea of Azof ?
Spain and Portugal. What part of the Atlantic coast of
America is due west of Spain ? In what direction are the British
Isles from the Spanish peninsula ? Locate Portugal.
Describe the surface of the Spanish peninsula. See lesson 78.
What do you know about its climate? Name the principal prod-
Russia. Describe the surface of Russia. See lesson 85. How
were the many lakes and falls of Finland formed ? See page 86.
Describe the climate of the great Russian plain. See maps on
pages 21 and 24; also lesson 85. What are the leading products
of Russia ?
Describe the course of the Volga river ; - — of the Ural river.
Where is the Dwina river ? — The Dnieper river ?
Locate lake Ladoga; — the gulf of Finland.
Name the seas which partly surround Russia. On what large
bodies of water would a vessel sail in going from Odessa to St.
ucts of Spain and Portugal.
What bodies of water partly surround the Spanish peninsula?
What nation controls the rock of Gibraltar ? Where are the Bale- petersburg ? w^t countries of Europe border on Russia?
aric islands ?
162
THE BRITISH ISLES.
167. Review and Map Studies.
Describe the surface of Scotland ; — of England ; — of Wales ;
— of Ireland. See map on opposite page; also lesson 83. Locate
the Cheviot hills ; — Grampian hills ; — Ben-Nevis ; — Snowdon.
What part of Ireland is drained by the Shannon river ? Why
are the Thames and the Mersey rivers so deep ? See lesson 88.'
What have you learned about the basin of the Clyde river ? Why
is the northwest coast of the British Isles so irregular?
of the Cabinet supervise the foreign affairs, the treasury, the army
and other departments.
The British Isles constitute the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland. The United Kingdom, with all British colonies and
other possessions, forms the British Empire. The ruler of this
empire appoints a Governor or a Governor-General for each colony.
Some of the colonies take no part in governing themselves. Others
elect their own officers, except Governors ; but the British ruler
retains authority to veto any bill passed by a colonial government.
The fiords of Scotland are
called firt hs : what firth partly
separates England from Scot-
land ? Where is the firth of
Clyde ? — The firth of Forth?
Locate the Irish sea ; — St.
George's channel ; — English
channel ; — strait of Dover ;
■ — Dublin bay. Where are the
Orkney islands ? — The Shet-
land islands ? — The Hebrides ?
On what bodies of water
would a vessel sail in going
from New York to Liverpool ?
— From Xew Orleans to
London? Describe the
steamer route from London
to Bombay ; — Liverpool to
Hamburg.
What have you learned
about the occupations of the
people in the British Isles ?
See lesson 88.
168. The British Isles.
The government of the
British Isles is a limited
monarchy. The ruler
holds office by claim of birth, but his authority is limited.
The law-making power is given to Parliament.1
Parliament consists of two bodies, — the House of Commons and
the House of Lords. The members of the former are elected by
the people ; the members of the latter are nobles and bishops.
The execution of the laws is in the hands of a Prime Minister
who is assisted by a Cabinet. As in our government, the members
1 Parliament meets in Westminster palace, London. See page 160.
The large British possessions,
— such as the provinces of
Canada, and the commonwealth
of Australia, — have Parlia-
ments of their own.
The foreign commerce
of the British Isles is car-
ried on mostly through the
great ports of London,
Liverpool and Glasgow.
London controls most of
the British trade with
India, Australia and the
mainland of Europe ; also
a large part of the trade
with tropical America.
From China and India, this
great port receives tea, silk,
sugar, coffee, spices, indigo
and other products of south-
east Asia. Greece sends cur-
rants ; Italy and Spain send
olive oil and wine.
From the Baltic ports, ship-
loads-of lumber, wheat, cattle
and wool reach London.
Steamers from tropical America bring sugar, coffee, hides, rubber
and cocoa. Australia ships chiefly wool and gold.
London, with its great trade, has grown to be the
largest city and one of the chief seaports in the world.
Liverpool is the principal port for the manufacturing
district of northwest England. This port receives the
raw materials from abroad, and ships away the manu-
factured products.
THE BRITISH ISLES.
163
The United States sends more products to Liverpool than to any
other port in the world. Most valuable among these are cotton,
grain and meats. Large quantities of wool are sent from the Argen-
tine Republic and from Australia to Liverpool.
The exports of Liverpool are mostly cotton, woolen and silk
cloth; cutlery and other
kinds of hardware ; heavy
iron goods, such as en-
gines, rails and armor
plates.
The rise and fall of
the tide in the Mersey
at Liverpool is so great
that many steamers enter
inclosed docks to load
and unload. In these
docks the water can al-
ways be kept at the same
level. Other steamers use
great landing stages that
float, — rising and falling
with the tide.
heavy iron goods and cutlery. Bradford is noted for its
woolen manufactures. Cambridge and Oxford have famous
universities. Dublin is the center of trade for middle
Ireland. Belfast manufactures fine Irish linens.
Glasgow leads all
other cities in ship-
building. The success
of this city in making
iron steamships is due
chiefly to its excel-
lent harbor, its near-
ness to mines of coal
and iron ore, as well
as to its skilled work-
men. Glasgow carries
on a large foreign
trade for the manu-
facturing district of
southern Scotland.
Manchester is one
of the cities which
owe their growth to
the nearness of coal
and iron. This city
has the largest cotton
mills in the world.'
Great quantities of
woolen cloth also are
made here.
A ship canal has lately
been built from Man-
chester to the tidal por-
tion of the Mersey river.
Ocean steamers laden
with cotton or wool can now reach this city, and thus save the
cost of transfer by railroad from Liverpool.
Birmingham is famous for its work in metals, — iron,
Cardiff is the seat of the coal and the iron trade of
southern Wales.
Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, contains several
copper and brass. Among its best-known products are colleges. Dundee has the largest linen mills in Great
screws, nails, pens and firearms. Sheffield manufactures Britain.
164
LOW EUROPE, - WESTERN PART.
169. Review and Map Studies.
Gkk.ma.nv. What countries border on Germany? What seas
form part of its boundary ?
Describe the surface of Germany. See lesson 84- Name four
rivers that flow across this country. What part of Germany is in
the Danube basin ?
What winds bring most of the rainfall of Germany ? Name
some of the products of this country.
Switzerland. Describe the surface of Switzerland. See
lesson 77. Name some of the products of this country. What
countries surround Switzerland ?
Austrta-Hungary. What countries are on the north of Austria-
Hungary ? What sea is on the southwest ?
Describe the river system which drains the greater part of this
empire. Describe the plain of Hungary. See lesson 81. What
mountain range forms part of the boundary between Roumania and
the plain of Hungary ?
170. Countries of Low Europe, — Western Part.
Germany. Germany has rich coal and iron mines,
beds of clay for making porcelain, and sand for making
glass. The river valleys of this country are famous for
their wine grapes. Large areas are planted with sugar
beets and with cereals.
This country imports cotton from the United States ; wool and
flax from Russia and Hungary ; raw silk from Italy.
Fkante. Into what bodies of
water do the Rhone, the Gironde
and the Seine rivers flow ? What
strait separates France from Eng-
land? What mountains partly
separate France from Germany? Name
the mountain range between France and
Spain.
Describe the surface of France. See
lessons 77 and 84- What are some of
the products of this country? Where
is Corsica?
Bkloii/m. the Netherlands and
Denmark. What empire is east of
Belgium and the Netherlands? On
what sea do they border ?
Describe the surface of the land
along the southeast shore of the North
sea. See lessen 84-
Italy. "What mountains separate
Italy from France and Switzerland?
What country adjoins Italy on the
northeast '.' Name the bodies of water
which partly surround this peninsula.
Describe the Po valley, and name
its principal products. See lesson 79.
What have you learned about the
Apennines? — About the slopes on the southwest of the Apennines?"
Locate Sicily and Sardinia. Name a volcano in Sicily.
Baekax Countries. Between what four countries does the
Danube flow ? Where is Montenegro?
Name three seas that border on Turkey. What countries border
on the Adriatic sea ?
What have you learned about the surface of the countries in the
Balkan peninsula ? See lesson 80. Why is the coastline of Greece
so irregular ? Where is Candia ?
The principal manufac-
tures of Germany are cloth,
iron articles, beet sugar, glass
and porcelain. Large quan-
tities of these articles are
sent to the United States.
Besides cotton, our country
sends grain, meat,petroleum
and tobacco to Germany, —
largely through the port of
Hamburg.
Germany ranks second
among commercial coun-
tries.
Berlin, the capital, is the
third city in size in Europe.
This city is a great trade
center, and is the seat of a
famous university.
Leipzig has a large univer-
sity, and is noted for book-publishing. Munich and
Dresden have great galleries of painting and sculpture.
Hamburg, on the tide water of the Elbe, is the leading
port on the mainland of Europe.
France. The products and the industries of France
resemble those of Germany, but the former country ex-
tends southward into the belt where the mulberry tree
thrives.
LOW EUROPE, — "WESTERS" PART.
165
Paris, the capital, is the third largest city in the world.
It is situated on the Seine river, and is noted for its art
galleries and fine buildings. This city is the railroad
center of France.
Havre, at the mouth of the Seine, is the port of Paris.
Steamers from Havre reach nearly all great seaports.
Among the French exports to our country are silks,
woolens and millinery goods. The United States sends
about the same kinds of goods to Havre as to Hamburg.
Lisle is in the flax-growing region of northern France,
and is near coal mines. This city has large mills for the
manufacture of linen cloth and thread.
Belgium. Belgium has valuable coal mines, and is in
the flax district. Laces and linen are important manu-
factures in this country.
Sugar beets are a leading crop in Belgium. Here are
also beds of excellent sand for glass-making. The most
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Among the articles sent from Paris to Hew York are leather
goods, feathers, buttons, fans and jewelry.
Lyon, the center of the silk manufactures, is not far
from the coal region of the Cevennes, nor from the silk-
worm district of southern France.
Marseille is the largest port of this country. A canal
from the Rhone river to this city makes it the chief port
of the Rhone valley.
The Garonne basin produces great quantities of grapes.
Toulouse is in the vineyard district. This city and Bor-
deaux are famous for red wines.
valuable exports from this country to the United States
are beet sugar, glassware, cloth and firearms.
Antwerp, the chief port, is the center of the railroad and
canal systems which reach nearly all parts of Belgium.
Brussels is noted for carpets and laces. Liege is well
known for its firearms.
The Netherlands or Holland. The people of this
country are largely engaged in dairying and in raising
cereals. Holland has many colonies, among which are
Java, Sumatra and Dutch Guiana. These colonies send
tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar and spices to Holland.
166
MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES.
Amsterdam and Rotterdam are important ports. Many
skillful diamond-cutters live in these cities. Diamonds
and tobacco are the principal exports from Holland to
our country.
Denmark. This country resembles Holland in its
products. Copenhagen is the capital and principal city.
171. Mediterranean
Countries.
Spain. Madrid, the
capital and largest city
of Spain, is in the
central plateau.
Barcelona is the chief
city of eastern Spain.
This city exports
Genoa is the chief port of northwest Italy. Florence and
Venice have famous art galleries.
Turkey and Greece. The trade of the United States
with these two countries, as well as with the other Balkan
states, is very small. Constantinople is the capital of the
Ottoman Empire, including Turkey in Europe, Turkey in
Asia, Egypt and Tripoli. The chief ruler, or sultan, is
the head of the Mohammedan religion.
Athens, the capital of Greece, is famous for its
history, and for the ruins of its ancient temples.
Other Countries of Europe.
The swift streams of this country
supply good water power. Here
are also mines of brown coal,
| or lignite. Raw silk is brought
i from Italy ; cotton from our
country; flax from the countries
| of Low Europe. Switzerland
■ manufactures laces, silks and
| cotton cloth. Zurich is the
§ principal manufacturing city.
Geneva is noted for its watch-
| es, clocks and music boxes.
fruits, olive oil, silk
and wine. Valencia
is noted for its fine
silk manufactures.
Malaga is a wine and
fruit port.
Portugal. Lisbon is
the principal trade
of Portugal. This city, as
well as Oporto farther north,
has a large trade in wine
and in olive oil.
Italy. The leading ex-
ports of this country are
silks, wine, oil and fruits.
The imports are raw cotton,
sugar, coffee and other food
supplies.
Naples, on the beautiful
bay of the same name, is the
largest city in Italy.
Rome, the capital, contains the Vatican, or residence of
the Pope ; and St. Peter's, the largest cathedral in the
world. This city is famous for its historic ruins.
Milan is the most important city in the Po valley.
Constantinople, on the Bosphorus.
Dairying and hotel-
keeping are leading in-
dustries in Switzerland.
Every summer thousands
of tourists visit this country
to see its mountains, gla-
ciers, lakes and waterfalls.
Austria-Hungary. The
fertile plain of Hungary
yields grain, sugar beets and grapes. Cattle and
sheep here find good pasturage. The surrounding
highlands are rich in minerals. The higher slopes are
forested.
OTHER COUNTRIES OF EUROPE.
167
St. Mark's, Venice.
Vienna is the railroad center of the empire, and is also
a river port. This city has one of the largest and best
universities in the world.
Budapest, on the Danube, is the second city in impor-
tance in this country. It is the trade center of the plain
of Hungary. Trieste is the principal port of the empire.
Eussia. St. Petersburg is the capital of the Russian
Empire. Railroads and canals connect this city with the
productive parts of the great plain of Russia. See lesson 85.
The leading exports are wheat, flax, lumber and wool.
Moscow is the railroad
center of the empire.
This city has an im-
mense trade, not only
with other parts of
European Russia, but
also with Siberia.
The Kremlin, an old for-
tress in Moscow, covers
Norway and Sweden. These countries form the Scan-
dinavian peninsula. The United States has very little
trade with either.
Christiania is the chief port of Norway. It has a large
trade in lumber. Bergen is the second port of this
country.
Stockholm is the principal city of Sweden. Gottenborg
is the leading port.
One of the most important aids to commerce in Europe is the
system of canals and rivers forming a network over the lowlands,
and even uniting the large rivers in the highland region.
Canals from river to river cross the plain of Russia, so that
boats can carry freight to almost every city and large town in the
European portion of the empire. This great inland water system
reaches the Caspian, the Black, the Baltic and the White seas, as
well as the mining districts in the Ural mountain region. Most of
the freight in Russia is carried by boats on the canals and rivers.
On the west, the inland water ways of Russia connect with the
Vistula system. Boats from the Vistula can pass through tributa-
ries and canals that lead into the Oder, and thence to the Elbe and
the Rhine. All the large rivers of Germany thus help to form a
connected system, reaching nearly all ports of the empire, and
affording a cheap means of transporting freight.
about one hundred acres. Within its walls
are several famous buildings.
Odessa and Riga are important ports.
The former is the largest city on the
Black sea and is a famous wheat port.
Geneva.
Kremlin, Moscow.
The low countries of Belgium and
Holland are crossed by many canals.
From the Rhine valley, canals lead to
the Seine, thence to the Loire, and to
the Garonne. From the latter river,
boats can follow the canal route to
the Rhone river or to the Mediter-
ranean sea.
On the rivers and canals named
above, a boat can go from Marseille
to Paris, Berlin, Hamburg, St. Peters-
burg, Moscow, or even to the port
of Archangel on the White sea.
The Rhine and the Danube are
also connected by a canal in the
highland region, thus completing
the water route from the Xorth
sea to the Black sea, by way of
the plain of Hungary.
In some countries more freight
is carried on the canals than on
the railroads.
168
PERUVIAN POTTERY
SOUTH AMERLOA.
173. Review and Map Studies.
of
Describe the Andes of Chile; — of Bolivia and Peru;
Ecuador and Colombia. See lessons 57, 58 and 59.
Describe the surface of Brazil ; — of Argentina ; — of Chile ; —
of Venezuela. See lessons 60 to 6J/.-
Tell what you can about the climate and the products of the
seivas ; — of the llanos ; — of the gran chaco and the pampas ; —
of the highland of Brazil.
Bound Chile. Between what two countries is lake Titicaca?
Which countries of South America are crossed by the equator ?
What country includes the greater part of the Orinoco basin ?
Between what countries is the broad Plata mouth ? Which
countries of this continent do not border on Brazil ? Which coun-
tries have no seacoast ?
To which countries does Tierra del Fuego belong ? To what em-
pire do the Falkland islands belong ? What small countries in
South America belong to European nations ? What is the form of
government of all the countries of this continent, except the
Guianas ? See lesson 103.
Y74:. Countries of South America. 1
Brazil. Rio de Janeiro, the capital of this republic, is
on a deep and spacious harbor, sheltered by hills on all
1 Brazil was settled by Portuguese, and their language is still spoken
there. Spanish is the language of the other countries except the Guianas.
sides. This port is near the richest coffee district of
Brazil, and is the largest coffee market in the world;
but Santos, a small seaport southwest of Rio de Janeiro,
is a close rival.
Other exports from Kio de Janeiro are sugar, hides, tobacco and
diamonds.
The principal imports into Brazil are cotton cloth and
machinery.
Bahia, a large port northeastward from Rio de Janeiro,
resembles the latter in its foreign trade.
Pernambuco is the leading sugar port of Brazil. This is
one of the Brazilian ports partly inclosed by long rocky
reefs. See picture on page 58.
Para is on one of the wide distributaries of the Amazon.
This city has a large rubber trade.
Other exports from the Amazon basin, mostly through Para, are
cocoa, Brazil nuts, hides and Peruvian bark.
Argentina. The people of this republic are engaged
chiefly in raising cattle, horses, sheep, wheat and Indian
corn.
Buenos Aires, one of the principal ports of the conti-
nent, has a large foreign trade in hides, wool and wheat.
The leading imports are cloth and railway materials.
Cordoba and La Plata are important trade centers. The
former has a university and an academy of sciences.
Uruguay. A large part of this country is grazing
land for cattle and sheep. Wool and hides are the princi-
pal exports.
Montevideo is the capital and the largest port.
Paraguay. In this small republic the most valuable
product is Paraguay tea, or yerba mate. Asuncion, the
capital, is the commercial center.
SOUTH AMERICA.
169
Bolivia. This coun-
try has rich mines of
silver. Its rubber
product is of the finest
quality.
What have you read
about cinchona? See
lesson 58.
Bolivia has no sea-
port, but many of its
products are exported
Chile. This republic has great mineral wealth. In alpacas are reared in the highlands. Sugar, cotton and
the desert district of Atacama are found great quantities of wool are the leading exports. Cloth is the most valuable
niter, — a whitish salt used in the manufacture of gun- article of import,
powder. Copper and silver are abundant in the northern Lima is the largest city of this country. Callao is one
half of Chile. Rich
mines of coal are being
worked in the south-
ern half of this coun-
try.
The principal farm-
ing products of Chile
are wheat and wine
grapes.
Valparaiso is the
chief port. Most
of the imports, —
such as cloth, cat-
tle and sugar, —
are received into this
city. Large quantities
of niter and copper
are shipped from the
northern seaport of
Iquique.
Santiago is the capi-
tal and largest city of
Chile. This is one
of the Andean cities
which are built far
above the unhealthful
coastal region. San-
tiago is in a wide val-
ley on the western
slope of the Andes,
more than one third
of • a mile above sea
level.
through Buenos Aires, Arica (Chile), and other ports. of the principal seaports of western South America.
■J ■ 1 • i * -t~\ A * "
Potosi IS
La Paz and Sucre are the principal cities, roiusi is Ecuador. The staple product of Ecuador is cocoa,
noted for its silver mines. This country, like all the others crossed by the Andes,
Peru. Sugar cane and cotton are raised in the flood has rich mineral deposits.
plains of the small rivers of western Peru. Sheep and Quito is the capital. Guayaquil is its seaport.
170
-«ir*
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THE 5TRAN0, CALCUTTA
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Colombia. The leading export of this country is coffee.
Bogota, the capital, is over a mile and a half above sea
level. This country is very poor. It has for many years
been the scene of civil wars. In the year 1903 its best
department seceded and became the republic of Panama.
See page 53.
Venezuela. Coffee is the most valuable export from
Venezuela. Many hides are shipped from the Orinoco basin.
Caracas and Valencia are the most important cities of this country.
Guiana. The three colonies of Guiana are not thickly settled, and
the value of their trade is not very great. Sugar is the leading export.
The capitals of the colonies are the most important centers of trade.
ASIA.
175. Review and Map Studies.
There are five divisions of the Chinese Empire, namely: China, Tibet, Mongolia,
Eastern Turkestan and Manchuria. Describe the surface, the climate and the products
of each. See lessons 72, 69 and 68.
In like manner describe India (see lesson 73); — Siberia (see lesson 71); — Japan (see
lesson 74); — Persia, Turkey and Arabia (see lesson 70);— 'Java, Sumatra and the Philip-
pine islands (see lesson 74).
What country is on the north of the Chinese Empire ? Where are Anam and Siam ?
What countries border on the Arabian sea ? — On the Persian Gulf ? — On the Caspian
sea? What two countries are between India and Persia?
COTTON' "GREEN, BOMIaY
176. Countries of Asia.
India.
This country trades chiefly with Great Britain and with China.
The most valuable exports from India -are cotton and cotton seed, wheat, rice, opium, jute, tea and indigo. The
principal imports are cotton cloth and hardware.
Calcutta and Bombay are the greatest seaports of India. The former is about as large as the city of Philadelphia.
Calcutta, the capital of India, is on the Hugh river, in the Ganges delta. This city is the principal shipping-point
for the produce of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra basins. Railroads, rivers and canals form the inland highways
N'THIKS OF ASIA.
171
of trade to and from this great port. No large rive
carry products to Bombay, but the city ia reached by
railroads from nearly all parts of India. This port o*
its rapid growth largely to its situation on the w
being much nearer than Calcutta to the Suez canal and
the British Isles,
Madras is the largest seaport of southern India.
Benares is the chief seat of the Hindu religion, and is
French [ndo-Chtna. French [ndo-China includes
An . I ochin-China, Cambodia and other provhi
All thes under the control «»f Fran
The prod t French [ndo China are similar to tl.
of British India. Hanoi, Hue. Saigon and Pnum Penh are
the chief ra of trade.
Siam. This country is raled by a native king, — an
absolute monarch. The resources of the country are
100 QrMftirkfc TiO
one of the oldest cities in the world. In this holy city
of the Hindus, the north bank of the Ganges is lined
with great temples.
Rangoon is the chief port of Burmese India. This city
has a large trade in rice.
Delhi and Mandalay are large centers of trade in India.
See picture of old Delhi, page 68.
Locate Colombo and Singapore. What have you learned about
the latter city ? See lesson 144- Ceylon and the Straits Settle-
ments, as well as India, are British possessions.1
i France and Portugal control a few small colonies in the southern and
western parts of the Dekkan.
p>.urly developed. Teak and rice are the principal prod-
ucts. Bangkok is the chief city.
East Indies. Sumatra. Java. Celebes, and middle and
southern Borneo are possessions of Holland. They are
called the Dutch East Indies. Northwest Borneo is under
the rule of the British nation. The United States controls
the Philippine islands.
What have you learned about the islands named above ? Locate
Manila. Batavia and Makassar. Set map on 176.
China. The British nation controls the greater part of
China's foreign trade, though the United States has a
172
COUNTRIES OF ASIA.
small share in it. The island of Hongkong, on the coast
of China, is a British colony. It exports Chinese tea and
silk; and imports opium, cotton cloth, sugar and flour for
the great empire near by.
The United States imports tea and silk from China, —
chiefly from the ports of Shanghai, Canton and Fuchau.
Peking, the capital, and Canton are the largest cities of
the Chinese Empire. Yarkand is in the principal oasis of
the province of Eastern Turkestan. Lassa is the chief
city of Tibet.
Japan. Japan is the only limited monarchy in Asia,
having its own ruler. All the other independent countries
are absolute monarchies.
The exports of Japan are taken from its rice
swamps, its silkworm nurseries and its tea farms
The imports are mostly cloth, metal goods and
petroleum. Japanese trade is
carried on chiefly with the United
States and with Great Britain.
Russia in Asia. Siberia and Trans-Caucasia1 are
parts of the great Russian Empire, which comprises
about one seventh of the land-surface of the earth.
Bokhara and Khiva also are under the control of Russia.
Tashkend, the largest city in Asiatic Russia, is in a
district made fertile by irrigation. Tiflis is a city
through which Russia conducts a large part of its trade
with Persia and other countries of southwest Asia. The
railroad which carries great quantities of' petroleum from
Baku to the port of Batum passes through Tiflis.
Irkutsk and Vladivostok are centers of Siberian trade.
The latter city is the Pacific port of Siberia, and the ter-
Cairo, Egypt.
Japan is the most progressive of Asiatic countries. The Japa-
nese have good schools, railway and telegraph lines, and large manu-
factories. Among the latter are iron foundries, glass-works, paper
mills, cotton and silk mills. The people of Japan are noted for
the weaving of silk and the carving of ivory.
Tokyo is the capital and the commercial center of
Japan. Only two cities in America are larger than
Tokyo.
Yokohama, on the bay of Tokyo, is the chief seaport.
Osaka is an important manufacturing city. Kyoto is sur-
rounded by a great number of Buddhist temples.
Korea. The Japanese have recently won for Korea
its freedom from Chinese authority. The foreign trade
of this country is small, and is mostly in the hands of the
Japanese. Seoul is the chief city of Korea.
By the terms of the China- Japanese treaty of 1895, Korea was
made an independent kingdom, — an absolute monarchy.
minus of the Siberian railroad now being
built. See map of Asia in the Supplement.
Persia. Cereals and the opium-poppy grow
in the fertile portions of Persia, chiefly in the
districts near the Caspian sea. Many sheep
are reared in the highland regions. Dates
thrive along the coast, and pearls are obtained
from the border waters on the south. The
Persians are famous for their handmade carpets and rugs.
Teheran and Tabriz are the principal cities.
Afghanistan. This country is crossed by the caravan
routes that lead into India. Kabul is the chief city.
Baluchistan is a rugged country under the control of
the British. Most of the people are shepherds.
Asiatic Turkey. The products of this country are
similar to those of Persia, but the Red sea coast is famous
for its coffee. Mocha is the chief port for the shipment
of this coffee. Mohammed was born in Mekka.
Smyrna is the largest city and port of Asiatic Turkey.
Damascus has an extensive caravan trade with the Arabs.
Jerusalem is famous for its religious history. .
Arabia. Arabia, like Persia and Turkey, is a Moham-
medan country. See lesson 72.
Oman. Maskat exports dates, and imports rice.
1 Trans-Caucasia is the name of the Asiatic portion 01 the large Russian
province of Caucasus, lying on both sides of the Caucasus mountains.
AFRICA.
173
177. Review and Map Studies. ruler, of Egypt resides in Cairo, the capital. This is
Describe the Nile basin. See lesson 88. What part of this one of the oldest cities in the world.
What have you learned about Cairo? See page 90. Compare
Longitude
Longitude
basin is in Egypt?— In Nubia? What European nation claims
the region about the high-
land of Abyssinia ?
Where is Tripoli?
Where is Morocco ? De-
scribe the Sahara. See
lesson 89. In what respect
does the Sudan differ from
the Sahara ? See lesson
90.
Locate Liberia and
Sierra Leone. What na-
tion claims the region
stretching northeastward
from Liberia to the Medi-
terranean sea?
What state or country
comprises the greater part
of the Kongo basin ? Be-
■■ tween what two European
claims is lake Victoria?
What lake partly sepa-
rates Kongo State from
German East Africa?
Where is the territory
known as the French
Kongo ?
What European nation
claims a broad coastal belt
on both sides of the lower
Zambezi ? What name is
given to the middle re-
gion of the Zambezi basin ?
What European nation
controls Transvaal and
Cape of Good Hope ? See
lesson 92.
Describe the surface
and the products of Cape
of Good Hope. Locate
the Orange Eiver Colony.
What country is north
of it?
What have you learned
about Madagascar? See
lesson 92. Locate the
Madeira, the Canary and
the Mauritius islands.
For what is St. Helena
noted? See lesson 84-
Locate Zanzibar, Ta-
nanarive, Mozambique.
178. Countries of Africa.
Egypt. This country is nominally part of the Otto-
man Empire, though the Sultan of Turkey has very
little control over the affairs of Egypt. The Khedive, or
the location of this city with that of New Orleans,
farther from the equator?
Which is
The principal exports of Egypt are cotton and cotton
seed. The most valuable imports here, as in all other
174
COUNTRIES OF AFRICA.
African countries,
are various kinds of
cloth. Great Britain
NATiVE.
THROWING
BOOMERANG
French territory which now extends across the
Sahara and the Sudan.
The coastal districts of Tunis and Algeria have
many fertile valleys that produce wheat. Olives
grow here in abundance, and cattle and sheep find
good grazing land. The cities of Tunis and Algiers
export wheat, olive oil, wool and hides to France.
Morocco. The products of this country are similar
to those of Algeria. Fez and Morocco are the princi-
pal cities of Morocco.
Sierra Leone. This small colony belongs to the
British nation. Freetown exports palm oil.
This is a negro republic settled largely by
5^
controls the greater
part of the foreign trade of freed slaves from the United States. Monrovia, the cap
Egypt- ital, is named after a former President of our country.
Alexandria, in the Nile The chief exports from Monrovia are coffee and palm oil.
delta, is the largest seaport of this country.
M «-. . x , KoNGO State- The King of Belgium is the ruler of
Before the discovery of the route from Europe to India by way the Kongo State. Boma is the local capital,
the cane of Good Hone. Alexandria was nno nf €ha or^tost ™™f0 ^i , ^"^xuoa.
lne most valuable exports of the Kongo State are
coffee, rubber, ivory and palm oil.
Transvaal. Transvaal has rich gold fields. The
white settlers are chiefly English and Dutch, or Boers.
Tripoli. This portion of the Ottoman Empire is 'Pretoria- is the capital. Johannesburg is in the heart of
thinly settled. The population of the entire country of tile g°1(1 region. Transvaal belongs to the British.
Tripoli is smaller than that of Philadelphia. The capital Cape of Good Hope is a large and valuable British
is the only important city. possession. See lesson 92.
Tunis AND Algeria These countries have been added European nations have seized nearly all parts of Africa Plate Q
to the possessions of France. They form part of the (supplement) shows the claims of each.
of the cape of Good Hope, Alexandria was one of the greatest ports
in the world. When the East India trade with western Europe was
turned away from the Mediterranean sea, the port in the Nile delta
rapidly declined. The building of the Suez canal has greatly
increased the trade of Alexandria.
AUSTRALIA.
175
179. Review and Map Studies.
Describe the surface of Australia. Tell what you can about its
climate. See maps on pages 21 and 24 ; also lesson 93.
In what part of Australia is the state of Victoria ? Where is
Queensland ? What state is between Victoria and Queensland ?
Which state occupies a broad belt stretching north and south
across this continent ? What name is given to the most westerly
state in Australia ? Locate Tasmania.
The principal exports from Australia are wool, gold
and cereals. The most valuable imports are cloth and
iron goods. The largest seaports are in the southeast.
Dalgety is the capital of Australia.
Melbourne, the chief seaport of Victoria, is the largest
city of Australia. Its population is almost as large as
that of Boston. Melbourne has extensive manufactures.
Greenwich 170
180 Longitude West 170
159 West Fi 158 from 157 Greenwich
IKA^IAI | „ _ HAWAIIAJT.IS.
SCALE OF MILE8
■jjOV^ 0 20 40 60 80 100
XP^ ^ C?o United Stqte$.)
„MOLOKAI
-W
CHATHAM
JJ ir is.
%
!0
20
30
10
180 Longitude West 170
Tell what you have learned about New Zealand ; — New Guinea ;
the Fiji islands; — the Tonga islands; — the Samoa islands;
Micronesia ; — the Hawaiian islands. See lesson 95.
180. States of Australia.
The states in the southeastern part of this continent
are the most thriving. Here are vast grazing districts
that support millions of sheep and cattle. Large areas
are planted with wheat, Indian corn and other cereals.
Great quantities of gold and tin are mined. Middle and
western Australia are thinly settled.
Sydney, the principal port of New South Wales, is on a
long and deep landlocked bay. This is the oldest and
the second largest city in Australia.
Adelaide is the commercial center of South Australia.
Brisbane, on the river of the same name, is the capital
and leading port of Queensland. Hobart is an important
port of Tasmania.
New Zealand. The most valuable exports from New
Zealand are wool, gold and frozen meat. Dunedin is the
chief port of the South island ; Auckland, of the North
island. Wellington is the capital.
SUPPLEMENT
AREA AND POPULATION OF PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES AND COLONIES.
WORTH AMERICA
Year.
1901
Canada
1903
Costa Rica .
1904
Cuba
1903
Guatemala .
1904
Haiti (island)
1901
Honduras
1900
Mexico
1903
Newfoundland
1900
Nicaragua .
1901
Salvador
1900
United States
1904
Panama
8,000,000 100,000,000
Area. Population.
3,446,000 5,370,000
18,000 323,000
44,000 1,730,000
48,000 1,842,000
28,000 1,600,000
46,000 587,000
767,000 13,600,000
40,000 220,000
49,200 500,000
7,200 1,007,000
3,622,930 76,303,387 »
31,570 350,000
SOUTH AMERICA 7,000,000 36,500,000
1904 Argentina . . . . . 1,135,000 5,161.000
1904 Bolivia ..... 703,000 2,181 JOW
1904 Brazil 3,218,000 16,000,000
1904 British Guiana .... 91,000 295,000
1901 Chile 308,000 3,147,000
1904 Colombia 473,000 3,917,000
1903 Dutch Guiana .... 46,000 72,000
1904 Ecuador 116,000 1,206,000
1904 French Guiana . . . . 31,000 33,000
1900 Paraguay 157,000 636,000
1904 Peru 696,000 4,600,000
1902 Uruguay 72,000 978,000
1904 Venezuela 594,000 2,500,000
EUROPE
Year.
1900
1900
1900
1901
1901
1901
1900
1901
1901
1901
1902
1900
1900
1900
1904
1901
1900
1900
1903
1900
1905
1901
Austria-Hungary
Belgium
Bulgaria
Denmark
England
France .
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Italy .
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
Koumania .
Russia .
Scotland
Servia .
Spain .
Sweden
Switzerland
European Turkey
Wales . . ■ .
Year.
1900
1904
1900
1900
1904
1900
1904
Java
Korea .
Persia .
Philippines .
Russia in Asia
Si am
Asiatic Turkey
ASIA
1904 Afghanistan
1904 Arabia .
1900 Baluchistan
1904 Chinese Empire .
1901 India (British) .
1900 Indo-China (French)
1903 Japan .
3,800,000 360,000,000
Area. Population.
. 265,000 47,013,000
11,400 6,694,000
38,000 3,733,000
15,300 2,465,000
50,800 38,962,000
. 207,000 38,641,000
. 209,000 56,367,000
28,000 2,737,000
32,600 4,456,000
. 110,600 32,475,000
12,600 5,431,000
. 125,000 2,240,000
35,500 5,423,000
50,700 5,956,000
. 2,100,000 116,000,000
29,700 4,472.000
19,000 2,494,000
. 195,000 18,618,000
. 173,000 5,221,000
16.000 3,315,000
66,000 6,130,000
7,400 1,698,000
17,000,000 850,000,000 OCEANIA
250,000 5,000,000 1901 Hawaii .
170,000 1,050,000 1901 New South Wales
130,000 500,000 1901 New Zealand
4,376,000 426,337,000 1901 Queensland .
1,560,000 294,267,000 1901 South Australia
263,000 15,600,000 1901 Victoria
148,000 46,733,000 1901 West Australia
AFRICA
1904 Abyssinia .
1904 Algeria
1904 Cape of Good Hope .
1897 Egypt ....
1904 Kongo State
1904 Liberia
1904 Madagascar .
1901 Morocco
1904 Orange River Colony .
1904 Sahara
1895 Sudan ....
1904 Transvaal .
1904 Tripoli
1904 Tunis ....
11
Area.
51,000
82,000
628,000
128,000
6,560,000
220,000
523,000
,500,000
150,000
185,000
277,000
400,000
900,000
45,000
224,500
220,000
50,000
2,000,000
2,000,000
111,000
399,000
51,000
Population.
26,125,000
10,000,000
7,653,000
7,635,000
28,000,000
9,000,000
15,849,000
130,000,000
3,500,000
5,304,000
2,405,000
9,734,000
30,000,000
2,000,000
3,000,000
8,000,000
385,000
2,550,000
50,000,000
1,245.000
1,000,000
1,900,000
3,500,000 6,000,000
6,450
310,700
104,500
668,500
904,000
88,000
976,000
154,000
860,000
768,000
503,000
362,000
1,200,000
182,000
POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE WORLD.
NORTH AMERICA.
British America.
Year.
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1891
1901
1901
Montreal
Toronto .
Quebec .
Ottawa .
Hamilton
Winnipeg
Halifax .
St. John .
London .
St. Johns
Vancouver
Victoria .
Central America.
1904 Guatemala .
1901 San Salvador
1900 Leon . . .
1900 Managua .
1902 Panama . .
1900 San Jose . .
Mexico.
1900 Mexico . .
1900 Guadalajara
United States.
See page iv.
Population.
267,000
208,000
69,000
60,000
53,000
42,000
41,000
41,000
38,000
29,000
26,000
21,000
96,000
60,000
45,000
30,000
28,000
25,000
345,000
101,000
■West Indies.
1902
1903
1902
1902
1902
1902
Havana . . .
Port au Prince
Kingston . .
Santiago . . .
Matanzas . .
Cienfuegos . .
275,000
70,000
47,000
43,000
36,000
30,000
SOUTH AMERICA.
Argentina.
1904 Buenos Aires
1901 La Plata . .
1901 Cordoba . .
Bolivia.
1904 La Paz
1904 Sucre .
Brazil.
1900 Rio de Janeiro
1890 Bahia ....
1890 Pernambuco .
1890 Para ....
965,000
75,000
50,000
60,000
21,000
750,000
174,000
112,000
40,000
Chile.
Year.
1901 Santiago . .
1901 Valparaiso .
Colombia.
1902 Bogota . .
1902 Barranquilla
Ecuador.
1901 Quito . . .
1901 Guayaquil .
Guiana.
1891 Georgetown
1902 Paramaribo
1900 Cayenne . .
Paraguay.
1900 Asuncion .
Peru.
Population.
. 297,000
. 133,000
120,000
40,000
1903 Lima . .
1903 Arequipa
1903 Callao .
1903 Cuzco . .
Uruguay.
1902 Montevideo
Venezuela.
1894 Caracas . .
1894 Valencia . .
1894 Maracaibo .
EUROPE.
Austria- Hungary .
1901 Vienna . . .
1901 Budapest . .
1901 Prague . . .
1901 Trieste . . .
Belgium.
1902 Brussels . .
1902 Antwerp . .
1902 Liege ....
1902 Ghent. . . .
80,000
51,000
53,000
32,000
12,000
52,000
130,000
40,000
20,000
15,000
276,000
73,000
39,000
34,000
.1,675,000
. 733,000
. 202,000
. 134,000
587,000
287,000
166,000
163,000
BalJcan States.
1904 Constantinople
1904 Bukharest
1896 Athens .
1904 Saloniki .
1904 Sofia . .
1,203,000
276,000
111,000
105,000
68,000
Denmark.
Year.
1901 Copenhagen .
England and Wales
1904 London . .
1904 Liverpool .
1904 Manchester
1904 Birmingham
1904 Leeds . .
1904 Sheffield.
1904 Bristol .
1904 Bradford
1904 Cardiff .
Population.
. 378,000
France.
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
Paris . .
Marseille
Lyon . .
Bordeaux
Lisle . .
Toulouse
Havre . .
Germany.
1900 Berlin .
1900 Hamburg
1900 Munich .
1900 Leipzig .
1900 Breslau .
1900 Dresden .
1900 Cologne .
Ireland.
1901 Belfast . .
1901 Dublin . .
1901 Cork . . .
1901 Londonderry
Italy.
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
1901
Naples
Milan .
Rome .
Turin .
Palermo
Genoa
Florence
Venice
Netherlands.
1903 Amsterdam
1903 Rotterdam .
1903 The Hague .
.4,649,000
. 723,000
. 558,000
. 538,000
. 450,000
. 433,000
. 343,000
. 285,000
. 176,000
2,714,000
491,000
459,000
257,000
211,000
150,000
130,000
1,889.000
706,000
500.000
450,000
423,000
396,000
373,000
349,000
291,000
76.000
40,000
564.000
491,000
463.000
336.000
310,000
235.000
205.000
152,000
547,000
357.000
230,000
Norway and Sweden.
1903 Stockholm . . . 311,000
1900 Christiania . . . 228,000
1903 Gottenborg . . 135,000
1900 Bergen .... 72,000
Portugal.
Year. Population.
1900 Lisbon .... 357,000
1900 Oporto .... 168,000
Russia.
1897 St. Petersburg .1,313,000
1897 Moscow . . . .1,092,000
1897 Warsaw .... 756,000
1897 Odessa .... 450,000
1897 Riga 256,000
French Indo-China.
Year.
1900 Hanoi ....
Scotland.
1904 Glasgow .
1904 Edinburgh
1904 Dundee .
Spain.
1900 Madrid .
1900 Barcelona
1900 Valencia .
1900 Malaga .
Switzerland.
1904 Zurich .
1904 Basel . .
1904 Geneva .
1904 Bern . .
ASIA.
Asiatic Russia.
1897 Tiflis . .
1897 Baku . .
1897 Tashkend
1897 Irkutsk .
British India.
1901 Calcutta
1901 Bombay .
1901 Madras .
1901 Haidarabad
1901 Lucknow
1901 Rangoon
1901 Delhi . .
1901 Benares .
1901 Mandalay
1901 Singapore
Cliina.
1903 Peking
1903 Canton
1903 Tientsin
1903 Hankau
1903 Fuchau
1903 Shanghai
798,000
332,000
164,000
540,000
533,000
213,000
130,000
169,000
121,000
111,000
69,000
160,000
179,000
156,000
49,000
. 1,027,000
. 776,000
. 509,000
. 448,000
. 264,000
. 235,000
. 209,000
. 209,000
. 184,000
. 163,000
.1,000,000
. 880,000
. 750,000
. 700,000
. 624,000
. 620,000
East India Islands.
1903 Manila .... 220,000
1900 Soerabaya . . . 147,000
1900 Batavia .... 116,000
1900 Hue
1900 Saigon .
Japan.
1902 Tokyo .
1902 Osaka . .
1902 Kyoto .
1902 Yokohama
Korea.
1901 Seoul . .
Population-
. 150,000
. 50,000
. 37,000
.1,819,000
. 996,000
. 381,000
. 326,000
Siam.
1900 Bangkok
Southwest Asia.
1904 Teheran .
1904 Damascus
1904 Smyrna .
1904 Tabriz .
1904 Bagdad .
1904 Aleppo .
1904 Ispahan .
1904 Mekka .
1904 Kabul .
1904 Kandahar
1904 Jerusalem
1904 Herat . .
AFRICA.
197,000
350,000
280,000
225,000
201,000
200,000
145,000
127,000
70,000
. 60,000
60,000
50,000
42,000
30,000
1904
. 575,000
1904
Alexandria
. 330,000
1901
. 170,000
1904
Johannesburg
. 159,000
1900
Fez ...
. 140,000
1901
Algiers . .
. 97,000
1904
. 88,000
1904
Cape Town .
. 77,000
1904
1904
Tananarivo
. 55,000
1904
Morocco . .
. 50,000
1904
Port Said .
. 50,000
1904
Zanzibar
. 50,000
1904
Kimberley .
. 34,000
1904
Freetown .
. 34,000
1904
Tangier . .
. 30,000
1904
Tripoli . .
. 30,000
1904
Monrovia .
OCEANIA
6,000
1903
Melbourne .
. . 501,000
1901
Sydney . .
. . 488,000
1901
Adelaide
. . 162,000
1903
Brisbane
. 125,000
1901
Wellington
. . 40,000
1901
Auckland .
. . 39,000
1900
Honolulu .
. . 39,000
1901
Dunedin . .
. . 38,000
1901
Hobart . .
. . 25,000
i Exclusive of the island possessions (except Hawaii) and inclusive of 91,219 persons in the service of the United States stationed abroad.
i
GUIDE MAPS FOR DRAWING AND MODELING
Rivers, — Lengths and Drainage Areas.
Name.
Colorado .
Columbia
Mackenzie
Missouri-Mississippi
Nelson
Rio Grande
St. Lawrence .
Yukon .
Amazon .
Plata
Orinoco .
San Francisco
Danube
Dnieper
Dwina
Elbe
Rhine
Rhone
Seine
Thames
Volga
Amur
Brahmaputra
Ganges .
Hoangho
Indus
Lena
Ob .
Yangtze .
Kongo
Niger
Nile
Zambezi .
NORTH AMERICA.
Length
in Miles.
Basin Area
System.
Sq. Miles.
Pacific ....
2,000
230,000
Pacific ....
1,400
220,000
Arctic ....
2,400
440,000
Atlantic
4,200
1,200,000
Atlantic
1,800
355,000
Atlantic
1,800
180,000
Atlantic
1,030
300,000
Pacific
2,050
440,000
SOUTH AMERICA.
Atlantic
3,300
2,500,000
Atlantic
2,950
1,250,000
Atlantic
1,500
350,000
Atlantic .
1,680
190,000
EUROPE.
Atlantic
1,800
300,000
Atlantic
1,230
175,000
Arctic ....
700
140,000
Atlantic
550
42,000
Atlantic
960
65,000
Atlantic .
550
33,000
Atlantic
497
23,000
Atlantic
215
6,000
Interior
2,300
550,000
ASIA.
Pacific ....
1,500
600,000
2,000
425,000
1,500
400,000
2,700
540,000
Indian ....
2,000
320,000
2,550
600,000
2,500
920,000
Pacific .
3,000
700,000
AFRICA.
Atlantic
2,900
1,500,000
Atlantic
3,500
600,000
Atlantic
3,700
1,600,000
Indian ....
1,800
440,000
Guide Maps for Drawing and Modeling the Continents.
The relief maps on this page and on the two following pages are
intended as guides for drawing and modeling the continents. These
maps are purposely made very simple, yet they show the natural features
which exert the greatest influence upon the distribution of climates,
plants and animals.
Pupils should learn to sketch these maps from memory, without the
aid of straight guide-lines, except such as they themselves inyent.
The Teachers' Manual offers suggestions upon methods of drawing
and modeling the continents.
Areas of Continents and Oceans.
North America
South America
Europe . . .
Asia . . . .
Africa . . .
Australia . .
Square Miles.
8,000,000
6,850,000
3,800,000
17,000,000
11,500,000
3,500,000
Pacific
Atlantic .
Indian
Antarctic
Arctic
Inland Waters
Squabe Miles.
68,000,000
35,000,000
28,000,000
5,700,000
5,300,000
750,000
Total Population of the World, 1,500,000,000.
Caucasian .
Mongolian .
Negro . .
Malay . .
American .
Mixed Paces
690,000,000
600,000,000
150,000,000
35,000.000
12,000,000
13,000,000
Christians .
Buddhists .
Mohammedans .
Bramanists
Jews ....
Pagans and others
400,000,000
500,000,000
200,000,000
150,000,000
8,000,000
242,000,000
1 The lengths of rivers, and the areas of their basins, are in all cases
estimates. Those of Africa are least known. The basin of the Murray
river, in Australia, is thought to contain about- 500,000 square miles.
The area of the Yukon basin cannot now be closely estimated.
11
REFERENCE TABLES
Indian Reservations in the United States.
Area of Indian Reservations.
States and Territories. a
Acres. Square Miles.
Arizona 15,150,757 23,073
California 406,396 635
Colorado
Florida
Idaho ' 1,364,500 2,132
Indian Territory (see Oklahoma)
Iowa 2,965 4
Kansas 28,279 44
Michigan 8,317 13
Minnesota 1,566,707 2,447
Montana 9,500,700 14,845
Nebraska 74,592 lie
Nevada 954,135 1,491
New Mexico 1,667,485 2,605
New York 87,677 137
North Carolina 98,211 153
North Dakota 3,701,724 5,784
Oklahoma 26,397,237 41,245
Oregon 1,300,225 2,031
South Dakota 8,991,791 14,049
Texas — —
Utah 2,039,040 3,186
Washington 2,333,574 3,646
Wisconsin 381,061 595
Wyoming 1,810,000 2,828
Miscellaneous — —
Total, 1900 77,865,373 121,665
Total, 1880 154,741,349 241,800
Population on
Reservations
(Indians).
40,189
11,341
995
575
3,557
385
1,211
7,557
8,952
10,076
3,854
8,321
9,480
5,334
1,436
8,276
100,191
4,063
19,212
290
2,115
9,827
10,726
1,642
849
270,544
255,327
Heights of Principal Mountains.
NORTH AMERICA.
Height
Name. Location.
in feet.
Merced ario . . . Mexico .
22,397
Mt. McKinley
Alaska .
20,464
Mt. Logan
Canada .
19,539
Mt. St. Elias
Canada .
18,024
Popocatepetl
Mexico .
17,748
Dickerman
Washington .
15,766
Mt. Whitney
California
14,502
Blanca peak
Colorado
14,464
Mt. Rainier
Washington .
14,444
Mt. Shasta
California
14,380
Longs peak
Colorado
14,271
Mt. Holy Cross
Colorado
14,176
Pikes peak
Colorado
14,108
Fremonts peak
"W yoming
13,576
Mt. Wrangell
Alaska .
12,066
Mt. Hood .
Oregon .
11,9:34
Mt. Mitchell
North Carolina
6,711
Mt. Washingtor
t
New Hampshire .
6,279
Mt. Marcy
New York
5,467
Mt. Katahdin
Maine .
5,385
Jorullo
Mexico .
4,265
SOUTH AMERICA.
Aconcagua . . . Chile
23,083
Chimhorazo
Ecuador
20,498
Arequipa .
Peru
20,320
Cotopaxi .
Ecuador
18,880
Tolima
Colombia
18,069
Roraima .
Venezuela
7,874
Itacolurai .
Brazil .
5,740
Itambe
Brazil .
4,310
EUROPE.
Elburz .... Russia .
18,526
Mt. Blanc .
France .
15,780
Monte Rosa
Italy .
15,208
Olympus .
Turkey .
9,745
Etna .
Sicily .
9,652
Ymesfield .
Norway
8,543
Ben-Nevis .
Scotland
4,368
Vesuvius .
Italy
4,260
Snowdon .
Wales .
3,571
Stromboli .
Liparl Islands
3,090
ASIA.
Mt. Everest . . . India
29,002
Dapsang .
Tibet .
28,278
Kanchanjanga
India
28,156
Demavend
Persia .
18,500
Ararat
Turkey .
17,260
Mt. Hermon
Palestine
11,000
Mt. Sinai .
Turkey .
8,593
AFRICA.
Kilimanjaro . . . East Africa .
19,600
Kenia
East Africa .
19,500
Tenerife
Canary Islands
12,000
Mt. Miltsin
Morocco
11,400
Peak of Pico
Azores .
7,013
OCEANIA.
Mauna Loa . . . Hawaiian Islands .
13,600
Mt. Kosciusco . . . Australia
7,176
Kilauea
Hawaiian Islands .
4,040
Principal Lakes of the World.
— . Area in
Name. Sq. Miles.
Aral Sea 26,000
Caspian Sea • 170,000
Dead Sea 320
Great Salt Lake 2,600
Lake Baikal 12,500
LakeChapala 1,300
Lake Erie 7,750
Lake Huron 20,000
Lake Ladoga 7,000
Lake Michigan 22,000
Lake Nicaragua 3,050
Lake Ontario 6,950
Lake Superior 31,500
LakeTiticaca 4,000
Lake Victoria 40,000
iii
Elevation
Depth
in Feet.
in Feet,
48
— 84
3,000
— 1,312
700
4,200
60
1,600
4,500
7,000
. . .
573
210
581
700
55
730
581
870
130
240
247
730
602
1,108
12,874
3,300
, , 0
AREA AND POPULATION OF STATES
The United States.
States and Area ra Population
Territories. Square Miles. (1900).
Alabama 52,250 1,828,697
Alaska 590,884 63,592
Arizona 113,020 122,931
Arkansas ...... 53,850 1,311,564
California 158,360 1,485,053
Colorado 103,925 539,700
Connecticut 4,990 908,420
Delaware 2,050 184,735
District of Columbia . . 70 278,718
Florida 58,680 528,542
Georgia 59,475 2,216,331
Guam1 175 2 9,000 2
Hawaii 6,449 154,001
Idaho 84,800 161,772
Illinois 56,650 4,821,550
Indiana 36,350 2,516,462
Indian Territory (see Oklahoma)
Iowa 56,025 2,231,853
Kansas 82,080 1,470,495
Kentucky ..... 40,400 2,147,174
Louisiana 48,720 1,381,625
Maine 33,040 694,466
Maryland 12,210 1,188,044
Massachusetts .... 8,315 2,805,346
Michigan 58,915 2,420,982
Minnesota- 83,365 1,751,394
Mississippi 46,810 1,551,270
Missouri 69,415 3,106,665
Montana 146,080 243,329
Nebraska 77,510 1,066,300
Nevada 110,700 42,335
New Hampshire . . . 9,305 411,588
New Jersey 7,815 1,883,669
New Mexico .... 122,580 195,310
New York 49,170 7,268,894
North Carolina .... 52,250 1,893,810
1 Not included in National Census of 1900.
North Dakota .... 70,795
Ohio 41,060
Oklahoma 70,430
Oregon 96,030
Pennsylvania .... 45,215
Philippine Islands . . 127,853
Porto Eico *• 3,600 8
Ehode Island .... 1,250
South Carolina .... 30,570
South Dakota .... 77,650
Tennessee 42,050
Texas 265,780
Tutuila Islands 1 . . . 73 2
Utah 84,970
Vermont 9,565
Virginia 42,450
Washington 69,180
West Virginia .... 24,780
Wisconsin 56,040
Wyoming 97,890
319,146
4,157,545
790,391
413,536
6,302,115
7,635,426
953,243 3
428,556
1,340,316
401,570
2,020,616
3,048,710
6,000 2
276,749
343,641
1,854,184
518,103
958,800
2,069,042
92,531
Leading Cities
of the United States.
Cities.
Population
(1900).
New York, N. Y.
. 3,437,202
Chicago, 111. . .
1,698,575
Philadelphia, Pa.
1,293,697
St. Louis, Mo. . .
575,238
Boston, Mass.
560,892
Baltimore, Md. . .
508,957
Cleveland, Ohio .
381,768
Buffalo, N. Y. .
352,387
San Francisco, Cal
342,782
Cincinnati, Ohio
325,902
Pittsburg, Pa.
321,616
New Orleans, La.
287,104
Detroit, Mich. . .
285,704
Milwaukee, Wis.
285,315
Washington, D. C.
278,718
Newark, N. J.
246,070
Jersey City, N. J.
206,433
Louisville, Ky. .
204,731
Minneapolis, Minn.
202,718
Providence, P. I.
175,597
Indianapolis, Ind.
169,164
Kansas City, Mo.
. 163,752
St. Paul, Minn. .
163.065
Eochester, N. Y.
162,608
Denver, Colo.
133,859
Toledo, Ohio . .
131,822
Allegheny, Pa. .
129,896
Columbus, Ohio .
125,560
Worcester, Mass.
118,421
Syracuse, N. Y. .
108,374
New Haven, Conn. .
108,027
Paterson, N. J. .
105,171
Fall Eiver, Mass.
104,863
St. Joseph, Mo. .
102,979
Omaha, Neb. .
• 102,555
Los Angeles, Cal.
102,479
Memphis, Tenn.
102,320
Scranton, Pa.
102,026
Lowell, Mass. . .
94,969
Albany, N. Y. .
94,151
Cambridge, Mass.
91,886
Portland, Ore.
90,426
Atlanta, Ga. . . .
89,872
Grand Eapids, Mich
. 87,565
Dayton, Ohio . .
l 85,333
Eichmond, Va. . .
85,050
Nashville, Tenn.
80,865
Seattle, Wash. .
80,671
States Having the Largest
Negro Population.
States.
Georgia . .
Mississippi
Alabama . .
South Carolina
Virginia . .
Louisiana .
North Carolina
Texas . . .
Tennessee . .
Arkansas . .
2 Estimated.
1900.
. 1,034,813
. 907,630
. 827,307
. 782,321
. 660,722
. 650,804
. 624,469
. 620,722
. 480,243
. 366,856
8 Census of 1899 taken under the direction of War Department.
xv
REFERENCE TABLES
Cities and Towns of the United States
Having a Population of over 10,000. (.Census of 1900.)
Adams, Mass. . . . 11,134
Akron, 0 42,728
Alameda, Cal. . . 16,464
Albany, N.Y. . . . 94,151
Alexandria, Va. . . 14,528
Allegheny, Pa. . . 129,896
Allentown, Pa. . . 35,416
Alpena, Mich. . . 11,802
Alton, 111 14,210
Altoona, Pa. . . . 38,973
Amsterdam, N.Y. . 20,929
Anderson, Ind. . . 20,178
Ann Arbor, Mich. . 14,509
Ansonia, Conn. . . 12,681
Appleton, Wis. . . 15,085
Asheville, N.C. . . 14,694
Ashland, Wis. . . 13,074
Ashtabula, O. . . . 12,949
Atchison, Kan. . . 15,722
Athens, Ga. ... 10,245
Atlanta, Ga. . . . 89,872
Atlantic City, N.J. . 27,838
Attleboro, Mass. . . 11,335
Auburn, Me. . . . 12,951
Auburn, N.Y. . . . 30,345
Augusta, Ga. . . . 39,441
Augusta, Me. . . . 11,683
Aurora, HI. ... 24,147
Austin, Tex. . . . 22,258
Baltimore, Md. . . 508,957
Bangor, Me. . . . 21,850
Bath, Me 10,477
Baton Rouge, La. . 11,269
Battle Creek, Mich. . 18,563
Bay City, Mich. . . 27,628
Bayonne, N.J. . . 32,722
Beaver Falls, Pa. . 10,054
Belleville, 111. . . . 17,484
Beloit, Wis. . . . 10,436
Berkeley, Cal. . . 13,214
Beverly, Mass. . . 13,884
Biddeford, Me. . . 16,145
Binghamton, N.Y. . 39,647
•Birmingham, Ala. . 38,415
Bloomington, 111. . 23,286
Boston, Mass. . . . 560,892
Braddock, Pa. . . 15,654
Bradford, Pa. . . . 15,029
Bridgeport, Conn. . 70,996
Bridgeton, N.J. . . 13,913
Brockton, Mass. . . 40,063
Brookline, Mass. . . 19,935
Buffalo, N.Y. . . . 352,387
Burlington, la. . . 23,201
Burlington, Vt. . . 18,640
Butler, Pa 10,853
Butte, Mont. . . . 30,470
Cairo, 111 12,566
Cambridge, Mass. . 91,886
Camden, N.J. . . . 75,935
Canton, 0 30,667
Carbondale, Pa. . . 13,536
Cedar Rapids, la. . 25,656
Central Falls, R.I. . 18,167
Charleston, S.C. . . 55,807
Charleston, W.Va. . 11.099
Charlotte, N.C. . . 18,091
Chattanooga, Tenn. . 30,154
Chelsea, Mass. . . 34,072
Chester, Pa. . . . 33,988
Cheyenne, Wy. . . 14,087
Chicago, 111. . . 1,698,575
Chicopee, Mass. . . 19,167
Chillicothe, O. . . 12,976
Cincinnati, O. . . . 325,902
Cleveland, O. . . . 381,768
Clinton, la ... . 22,698
Clinton, Mass. . • 13,667
Cohoes, N.Y. . . . 23,910
Colorado Sp'gs, Col. 21,085
Columbia, Pa. . . 12,316
Columbia, S.C. . . 21,108
Columbus, Ga. . . 17,614
Columbus, O. . . . 125,560
Concord, N.H. . . 19,632
Corning, N.Y. . . . 11,061
Council Bluffs, la. . 25,802
Covington, Ky. . . 42,938
Cranston, R.I. . . 13,343
Cripplecreek, Col. . 10,147
Cumberland, Md. . 17,128
Dallas, Tex. . . . 42,638
Danbury, Conn. . . 16,537
Danville, HI. . . . 16,354
Danville, Va. . . . 16,520
Davenport, la. . . 35,254
Dayton, O. ... 85,333
Decatur, HI. . . . 20,754
Denison, Tex. . . . 11,807
Denver, Col. . . . 133,859
Des Moines, la. . . 62,139
Detroit, Mich. . . . 285,704
Dover, N.H. . . . 13,207
Dubuque, la. . . . 36,297
Duluth, Minn. . . 52,969
Dunkirk, N.Y. . . 11,616
Dunmore, Pa. . . . 12,583
East Liverpool, O. . 16,485
Easton, Pa. ... 25,238
East Orange, N.J. . 21,506
East Providence, R.I. 12,138
East St. Louis, 111. . 29,655
Eau Claire, Wis. . . 17,517
Elgin, HI 22,433
Elizabeth, N.J. . . 52,130
Elkhart, Ind. . . . 15,184
Elmira, N.Y. . . . 35,672
El Paso, Tex. . . . 15,906
Elwood, Ind. . . . 12,950
Erie, Pa 52,733
Evanston, 111. . . . 19,259
Evansville, Ind. . . 59,007
Everett, Mass. . . 24,336
Fall River, Mass. . 104,863
Findlay, O. . . . 17,613
Fitchburg, Mass. . . 31,531
Flint, Mich. . . . 13,103
Fond du Lac, Wis. . 15,110
Fort Dodge, la. . . 12,162
Fort Scott, Kan. . . 10,322
Fort Smith, Ark. . 11,587
Fort Wayne, Ind. . 45,115
Fort Worth, Tex. . 26,688
Framingham, Mass. . 11,302
Freeport, 111. . . . 13,258
Fresno, Cal. . . . 12,470
Galena, Kan. . . . 10,155
Galesburg, 111. . . 18,607
Galveston, Tex. . . 37,789
Gardner, Mass. . . 10,813
Geneva, N.Y. . . . 10,433
Georgetown, D.C. . 14,549
Glens Falls, N.Y. . 12,613
Gloucester, Mass. . 26,121
Gloversville, N.Y. . 18,349
Grand Rapids, Mich. 87,565
Great Falls, Mont. . 14,930
Green Bay, Wis. . . 18,684
Greensboro, N.C. . 10,035
Greenville, S.C. . . 11,860
Greenwich, Conn. . 12,172
Guthrie, Okla. . . 10,006
Hagerstown, Md. . 13,591
Hamilton, O. . . . 23,914
Hammond, Ind. . . 12,376
Hannibal, Mo. . . 12,780
Harrisburg, Pa. . . 50,167
Harrison, N.J. . . 10,596
Hartford, Conn. . . 79,850
Haverhill, Mass. . . 37,175
Hazleton, Pa. . . . 14,230
Helena, Mont. . . 10,770
Henderson, Ky. . . • 10,272
Hoboken, N.J. . . 59,364
Holyoke, Mass. . . 45,712
Homestead, Pa. . . 12,554
Honolulu, Hawaii . 39,306
Hornellsville, N.Y. . 11,918
Houston, Tex. . . 44,633
Huntington, W. Va. 11,923
Hyde Park, Mass. . 13,244
Indianapolis, Ind. . 169,164
Ironton, O. . . . 11,868
Ishpeming, Mich. . 13,255
Ithaca, N.Y. . . . 13,136
Jackson, Mich. . . 25,180
ackson, Tenn. . . 14,511
Jacksonville, Fla. . 28,429
Jacksonville, 111. .
Jamestown, N.Y.
Janesville, Wis. .
Jeffersonville, Ind.
Jersey City, N.J.
Johnstown, N.Y. .
Johnstown, Pa. .
Joliet, 111. . . .
Joplin, Mo. . .
Kalamazoo, Mich.
Kankakee, 111.
Kansas City, Kan.
Kansas City, Mo.
Kearney, N.J.
Kenosha, Wis.
Keokuk, la. . .
Key West, Fla. .
Kingston, N.Y. .
Knoxville, Tenn. .
Kokomo, Ind. . .
La Crosse, Wis. .
Lafayette, Ind.
Lancaster, Pa.
Lansing, Mich.
Lansingburg, N.Y.
Laredo, Tex. . .
Lasalle, 111. . .
Lawrence, Kan. .
Lawrence, Mass. .
Leadville, Col.
Leavenworth, Kan.
Lebanon, Pa. . .
Leominster, Mass.
Lewiston, Me.
Lexington, Ky.
Lima, O. . . .
Lincoln, Neb. . .
Little Falls, N.Y.
Little Rock, Ark.
Lockport, N.Y. .
Logansport, Ind. .
Lorain, O. . . .
Los Angeles, Cal.
Louisville, Ky.
Lowell, Mass. . .
Lynchburg, Va. .
Lynn, Mass. . .
McKeesport, Pa. .
Macon, Ga. . .
Madison, Wis.
Mahanoy, Pa. . .
Maiden, Mass.
Manchester, N.H.
Manila, P.I. . .
Manistee, Mich. .
Manitowoc, Wis.
Mankato, Minn. .
Mansfield, O. . .
Marietta, .0. . .
Marinette, Wis. .
Marlboro, Mass. .
Marion, Ind. . .
Marion, O. . . .
Marquette, Mich.
Marshalltown, la.
Massillon, O. . .
Mayaguez, P.R. .
Meadville, Pa.
Medford, Mass. .
Melrose, Mass.
Memphis, Tenn. .
Menominee, Mich.
Meriden, Conn. .
Meridian, Miss. .
Michigan City, Ind.
Middletown, N.Y.
Milford, Mass.
Millville, N.J. . .
Milwaukee, Wis. .
Minneapolis, Minn.
Mobile, Ala. . .
Moline, HI. . .
Montclair, N.J. .
Montgomery, Ala.
• Morristown, N.J.
Mt. Carmel, Pa. .
Mt. Vernon, N.Y.
Muncie, Ind. . .
Muscatine, la.
15,078 Muskegon, Mich.
22,892 Nanticoke, Pa.
13,185 Nashua, N.H. .
10,774 Nashville, Tenn.
206,433 Natchez, Miss.
10,130 Naugatuck, Conn
35,936 New Albany, Ind
29,353 Newark, N.J. .
26,023 Newark, O.
24,404 New Bedford, Mass.
13,595 New Britain, Conn. .
51,418 New Brunswick, N.J.
163,752 Newburg, N.Y. . .
10,896 Newburyport, Mass.
11,606 Newcastle, Pa. . .
14,641 New Haven, Conn. .
17,114 New London, Conn.
24,535 New Orleans, La.
32,637 Newport, Ky. . . .
10,609 Newport, R.I.
28,895 Newport News, Va. .
18,116 New Rochelle, N.Y. .
41,459 Newton, Mass. . .
16,485 New York, N.Y. . 3,
12,595 Niagara Falls, N.Y. .
13,429 Nome, Alaska . . .
10,446 Norfolk, Va. . . .
10,862 Norristown, Pa. . .
62,559 North Adams, Mass.
12,455 Northampton, Mass.
20,735 Norwich, Conn.
17,628 Oakland, Cal. .
12,392 Ogden, Utah .
23,761 Ogdensburg, N.Y
26,369 Oil City, Pa. .
21,723 Oklahoma, Okla.
40,169 Omaha, Neb. .
10,381 Orange, N.J. .
38,307 Oshkosh, Wis.
16,581 Oswego, N.Y. .
16,204 Ottawa, 111. .
16,028 Ottumwa, la. .
102,479 Owensboro, Ky.
204,731 Paducah, Ky. .
94,969 Parkersburg, W.
18,891 Passaic, N.J. .
68,513 Paterson, N.J.
34.227 Pawtucket, R.I.
23,272 Peabody, Mass.
19,164 Peekskill, N.Y.
13,504 Pensacola, Fla.
33,664 Peoria, III . .
56,987 Perth Amboy, N.J.
350,000 Petersburg, Va.
14,260 Philadelphia, Pa.
11,786 Phillipsburg, N.J
10,599 Pine Bluff, Ark.
17,640 Piqua, O. . .
13,348 Pittsburg, Kan.
16,195 Pittsburg, Pa.' .
13,609 Pittsfield, Mass.
17,337 Pittston, Pa. .
11,862 Plainfield, N.J.
10,058 Plymouth, Pa.
11,544 Ponce, P.R. .
11,944 Port Huron, Mich
15,187 Portland, Me. .
10,291 Portland, Ore.
18,244 Portsmouth, N.H
12,962 Portsmouth, O.
102,320 Portsmouth, Va.
12,818 Pottstown, Pa.
24,296 Pottsville, Pa, .
14,050 Poughkeepsie, N.Y. .
14,850 Providence, R.I.
14,522 Pueblo, Col. .
11,376 Quincy, HI. .
10,583 Quincy, Mass.
285,315 Racine, Wis. .
202,718 Raleigh, N.C. .
38,469 Reading, Pa. .
17,248 Revere, Mass. .
13,962 Richmond, Ind.
30,346 Richmond, Va.
11,267 Roanoke, Va. .
13,179 Rochester, N.Y.
21.228 Rockford, 111. .
20,942 Rock Island, HI.
14,073 Rome, N.Y. .
Va.
1,
Rutland, Vt. . . . 11,499
20,818 Sacramento, Cal. . 29,282
12,116 Saginaw, Mich. . . 42,345
23.898 St. Joseph, Mo. . . 102,979
80,865 St. Louis, Mo. . . 575,238
12,210 St. Paul, Minn. . . 163,065
10,541 Salem, Mass. . . . 35,956
20,628 Salt Lake City, Utah 53,531
246,070 San Antonio, Tex. . 58,321
18.157 San Diego, Cal. . . 17,700
62,442 Sandusky, O. . . . 19,664
25,998 San Francisco, Cal. . 342,782
20,006 San Jose, Cal. . . . 21,500
24,943 San Juan, P.R. . . 32,048
14,478 Saratoga Springs, N.Y. 12,409
28,339 Sault Ste. Marie, Mioh. 10,538
108,027 Savannah, Ga. . . 54,244
17,548 Schenectady, N.Y. . 31,682
287,104 Scranton, Pa. . . . 102,028
28,301 Seattle, Wash. . . 80,671
22,034 Sedalia, Mo. . . . 15,231
19,635 Shamokin, Pa. . . 18,202
14,720 Sheboygan, Wis. . . 22,902
33.587 Shenandoah, Pa. . . 20,321
437,202 Sherman, Tex. . . 10,248
19,457 Shreveport, La. . . 16,018
12,486 Sioux City, la. . . 33,111
46,624 Sioux Falls, S.D. . 10,266
22,265 Somerville, Mass. • . 61,643
24,200 South Bend, Ind. . 35,999
18,643 So. Bethlehem, Pa. . 13,241
17.251 Southbridge, Mass. . 10,025
66.960 South Omaha, Neb. . 26,001
16,313 Spartanburg, S.C. . 11,395
12,633 Spokane, Wash. . . 36,848
13,264 Springfield, 111. . . 34,159
10,037 Springfield, Mass. . 62,059
102,555 Springfield, Mo. . . 23,267
24,141 Springfield, O. . . 38,253
28,284 Stamford, Conn. . . 15,997
22,199 Steelton, Pa. . . . 12,086
10.588 Steubenville, O. . . 14,349
18,197 Stillwater, Minn. . . 12,318
13,189 Stockton, Cal. . . 17,506
19,446 Streator, 111. . . . 14,079
11,703 Superior, Wis. . . 31,091
27,777 Syracuse, N.Y. . . 108,374
105,171 Tacoma, Wash. . . 37,714
39,231 Tampa, Fla. . . . 15,839
11,523 Taunton, Mass. . . 31,036
10,358 Terre Haute, Ind. . 36,673
17,747 Tiffin, 0 10,989
56,100 Toledo, 0 131,822
17,699 Topeka, Kan 33,608
21,810 Trenton, N.J. . . . 73,307
293,697 Troy, N.Y 60,651
10,052 Union, N.J. . . . 15,187
11,496 Utica, N.Y. . . . 56,383
12,172 Vicksburg, Miss. . . 14,834
10,112 Vincennes, Ind. . . 10,249
321,616 Waco, Tex. . . . 20,686
21,766 Wallawalla, Wash. . 10,049
12,556 Waltham, Mass. . . 23,481
15,369 Warwick, R.I. . . 21,316
13,649 Washington, D.C. . 278,718
27,952 Waterbury, Conn. . 45,859
19.158 Waterloo, la. . . . 12,580
50,145 Watertown, N.Y. . 21,696
90.426 Watervliet, N.Y. . . 14,321
10,637 Wausaw, Wis. . . 12,354
17,870 West Bay City, Mich. 13,119
17.427 Westfield, Mass. . . 12,310
13,696 West Hoboken, N.J. 23,094
15,710 Weymouth, Mass. . 11,324
24,029 Wheeling, W. Va. . 38,878
175,597 Wichita, Kan. . . 24,671
28,157 Wilkesbarre, Pa. . . 51,721
36.252 Wilkinsburg, Pa. . . 11,886
23.899 Williamsport, Pa. . 28,757
29,102 Wilmington, Del. . 76,508
13,643 Wilmington, N.C. . 20,976
78.961 Winona, Minn. . . 19,714
10,395 Winston, N.C. . . 10,008
18,226 Woburn, Mass. . . 14,254
85.050 Woonsocket, R.I. . 28,204
21,495 Worcester, Mass. . 118,421
162,608 Yonkers, N.Y. . . 47,931
31.051 York, Pa 33,708
19,493 Youngstown, O. . . 44,885
15,343 Zanesville, O. . . . 23,538
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY
Key : ale, St, care, arm, final, all ; eve, end, her, recent ; Ice, ill, admiral ; old, on, for, anchor ; use, up, fur, awful ; food, foot ; ch as in chop ; g as in go ;
ng as in sing ; n as in ink ; th as in thin ; th as in the ; fi as ny in canyon ; oi as in oil ; ow as in cow ; n nearly like ng in sing (French nasal).
Aachen, alien.
Abaco, a/Tja-ko.
Aberdeen, ab-er-den'.
Abomey, ab-U-ma'.
Abyssinia, ab-Is-sin'i-a.
Acapulco, a-ka-pool'ko.
Acaray, a-kar'a.
Aconcagua, a-kon-ka'gwa.
Acropolis, a-krop'o-lis.
Adelaide, ad'e-lad.
Aden, a'den.
Adige, ad'I-je.
Adirondack, ad-i-ron'dak.
Adrian, a'drl-an.
Adrianople, ad-ri-in-5'pl.
Adriatic, ad-re-3.t'ik.
iEgean, e-je'an.
Afghanistan, af-gan-Ts-tan'.
Africa, afri-ka.
Agana, a-gan'ya.
Aguadilla, a-gwa-de'ya.
Ajaccio, a-yat'cho.
Akron, ak'ron.
Alabama, ai-a-ba'ma.
Alameda, a-la-ma'da.
Alamo, a'la-mo.
Alaska, a-laVka.
Albany, al'ba-ni.
Albay, al-bi'.
Albemarle, aTbe-marl.
Alberta, al-bert'a. ^
Albuquerque, al-boo-kar'ka.
Alderney, al'der-nl.
Aleppo, a-iep'o.
Aleutian, a-lu'shi-an.
Alexandria, ai-egs-an'dri-a.
Algeria, ai-je'ri-a.
Algiers, ai-jerz'.
Alhambra, al-ham'bra.
Allegheny, ai'e-ga-nl.
Alpena, al-pe'na.
Altai, al-tl'.
Altamaha, al-ta-ma-ka'.
Altoona, al-trjo'na.
Amadeus, am-a-de'us.
Amazon, am'a-zon.
Ameer, a-mer7.
Amiens, a'mi-aN'.
Amsterdam, am'ster-dam.
Amur, a-moor'.
Anam, a-n3,m'.
Andes, an'dez.
Andorra, an-doi-'ra.
Androscoggin, Sn-drgs-cSg'In.
Angers, ox-zha'.
Anglesey, an'gl-se.
Annapolis, an-nap'o-lls.
Anniston, an'Ls-ton.
Antarctic, an-tark'tik.
Anticosti. an-ti-kos'ti.
Antigua, an-te'ga.
Antilles, an-tll'lez or ox-tel'.
Antofagasta, an-to-fa-gas'ta.
Antwerp, ant'werp.
Apache, a-pa'cha.
Apalachee, ap-a-lach'e.
Apalachicola, a-pa-lach-I-ki/la.
Apari, a-pa-re'.
Apennines, Sp'en-ninz.
Apia, a'pe-a.
Appalachian, Sp-pa-la'chi-an.
Appomattox, ap-po-mat'toks.
Arabia, a-ra'bl-a.
Arabic, Si-'a-blk.
Aral, Sr'al.
Ararat, ar'a-rSt.^
Archangel, ark-an'jel.
Archipelago. ar-kI-peTa-g5.
Arctic, ark'tlk.
Ardennes, ar-dgn'.
Arecibo, a-ra-se'bo.
Areq*tipa, a-ra-ke'pa.
Argentina, ar-jSn-te'na.
Arica, a-reTta.
Arizona, ar-i-zo'na.
Arkansas, ai-Tcan-sa.
Arnhem, arn'hem.
Arno, ar'no.
Aryan, ar'yan.
Asben. as-ben'.
Asheville, ash'vfl.
Asia, a'shi-a.
Asiatic, a-shl-at'ik.
Assiniboia, as-sm-I-boi'a.
Assiniboine, as-sm'i-boin.
Assouan, as-swan'.
Astoria, as-to'ri-a.
Astrakhan, as-tra-kan'.
Asuncion, a-soon-se-on'.
Atacama, a-ta-ka'ma.
Atbara, at-ba'ra.
Atchafalaya, ach-af-a-H'a.
Atchison, ach'i-son.
Athabasca, ath-a-bas'ka.
Athens, ath'enz.
Atlanta, at-lan'ta.
Atlantic, at-ian'tik.
Atoll, a-tol'.
Auburn, a'burn.
Auckland, ak'land.
Augusta, a-gus'ta.
Aurora, a-ro'ra.
Au Sable, a sa'bl.
Austin, as'tm.
Australia, as-tra'11-a.
Australis, as-tra'lis.
Austria, as'tri-a.
Avon, a'von.
Azof, a-zof .
Azores, a-zorz'.
Bagdad, bag-dad'.
Bahama, ba-ha'ma.
Bahia, ba-e'a.
Baikal, bl'kal.
Baku, ba-koo'.
Balabac, ba-la-bac'.
Balanga, ba-lan'ga.
Balearic, bal-e-ar'Ik.
Bali, ba"le.
Balkan, bal-kan'.
Balkash, bal-kash'.
Ballarat, bal-la-rat'.
Baltic, bal'tik."
Baltimore, bal'ti-mor or -mor.
Baluchistan, ba-loo-chis-tan'.
Banca, bSn'ka.
Bangkok, bari-kok'.
Bangor, ban'gor.
Bantry, ban'tri.
Baracoa, ba-ra-co'a.
Barbados, bar'ba-dos.
Barcelona, bar-se-lo'na.
Basel, ba'zel.
Basque, bask.
Batabano, ba-ta-ba-no'.
Batangas, ba-tan'gas.
Batavia, ba-ta'vl-a.
Baton Kouge, bat-un roozh'.
Batum, ba-toom'.
Bay, bi (Luzon).
Bayamon, ba-ya-mon'.
Bayonne,ba-yon'.
Bayou, bl'oo.
Beatrice, be'a-tres.
Beaufort. bo;f6rt (N. C.) or bu'-
fiirt (S. C).
• Bechuanaland, bek-u-an'a-land.
! Belfast, bgl'fast (Me.) or bel-
fast' (Ireland).
Belgium, beTji-um.
Belgrade, bel-grad'.
Belize, ba-lez'.
I Bellaire, bel-ar'.
\ Belle Isle, bel II'.
' Benares, ben-a'rez.
j Bengal, ben-gal'.
| Benguela, ben-gala.
Ben-Lomond, ben-lo'mQnd.
Ben-Nevis. ben-neVIs.
Berber, berljer.
Berea, ber'e-a.
Bergen, beYgen.
Bergwerk, berg'vgrk.
Bering, be'ring.
j Berlin, b&VJin or Ger. bSr-len'.
i Bermuda, bgr-mu'da.
Bern, bern.
; Bethlehem, b6th1e-h6m.
| Bhutan, boo-tan'.
Biddeford, bid'e-ford.
Billiton, bil-li-ton'-
Binghamton, bmg'am-ton.
Binue, bin-oo-e'.
Birkenhead, berk'en-hed.
Birmingham, ber'ming-um.
Biscay, bisTca.
Bismarck, bis'mark.
Bissao, bis-sowN'.
Bloemfontein, blem-fSn'tln.
Boer, boor.
Bogota, bo-go-ta'.
Bohmerwald, be'mer-valt.
Bohol, bo-61'.
Boise, boi-za'.
Bokhara, bok-a'ra.
Bolan, bo'lan.
Bolivar, bo-le'var.
Bolivia, bo-liv'i-a.
Bologna, bo-lon'ya.
Boma, bo'ma.
Bombay, bom-ba'.
Boothia, boo'thi-a.
Bordeaux, bor-do'.
Borneo, bor'ne-o.
Bosna-Serai, bos-na^ser-i'.
Bosnia, boz'ni-a.
Bosphoms, bos'fo-rus.
Bothnia, both'ni-a.
Boyne, boin.
Bradford, brad'ford.
Brahma, bra'ma.
Brahmaputra, bra-ma-poo'tra.
Brazil, bra-zil'.
Brazos, bra'sos.
Bremen, bra'men.
Breslau, bres'low.
Brest, brest.
Brindisi, bren'de-se.
Brisbane, bris'ban.
Brooklyn, brook'lin.
Brule, brula.
Brunswick, brunz'wik.
Brussels, brus'selz.
Budapest, boo'da-pest.
Buddha, boo'da.
Buenos Aires, bwa'nos i'res.
Bukharest, bu'ka-resf.
Bulacan, boo-la-kan'.
Bulgaria, bool-ga'ii-a.
Burlii*gton, burling-ton.
Burma, bur'ma.
Butte, but.
Cadillac, k&d-Tl-lak'.
Cagliari, kal'ya-re.
Caimanera, ki-ma-na'ra.
Cairo,ka'ro(U.S.) ; krro(Egypt).
Calais, kal'is (U. S.) ; ka-la'
(France).
Calcutta, kal-kut'ta.
Caledonia, kal-e-do'ni-a.
California, kal-i-formi-a.
Callao, ka-ya'o.
Cambodia, kam-bo'de-a.
Cambrian, kam'brl-an.
Cambridge, kam'brij.
Campeche, kam-pa'cha.
Campos, kam'pos.
Canada, kan'a-da.
Canadian, ka-na'de-an.
Candia, kan'de-a.
Cantabrian, kan-ta'bri-an.
Canton, kan'ton(U.S.); kan-ton'
(China).
Cape Breton, bret'on.
Carabao, ka-ra^ba'o.
Caracas, ka-ra'kas.
Cardenas, kar'da-nas.
Cardiff, kar'dif.
Cardigan, kar'de-gan.
Caribbean, kar-Tb-be'an.
Carolina, kar-o-li'na.
Carpentaria, kar-pen-ta're-a.
Cartagena, kar-ta-je'na.
Caspian, kas'pT-an.
Cassava, kas'sa-va.
Cassiquiari, ka-se-ke-a're.
Catanduanes, ka-tan-doo-an'es.
Catoche, ka-to'sha.
vi
Caucasian, ka-ka'shan.
Caucasus, ka'ka-sus.
Cavite, ka-ve'ta.
Cayenne, ka-yen'.
Cayuga, ka-yoo'ga.
Cebu, se-boo'.
Celebes, sel-e'bez.
Cenis, se-ne'.
Cetinje, cha-ten'ya.
Cevennes, sa-venn'.
Ceylon, se-15n'.
Chalon, sha-loN'.
Chamouni, sha-moo-ne'.
Champlain, sham-plan'.
Chandeleur, shSn-de-loor'.
Chapala, sha-paia.
Charlotte, shar'lot.
Charlotte Amalie, -a-male-a.
Chatham, chat'am.
Chattahoochee, chat-ta-hoo'che.
Chattanooga, chat-ta-noo'ga.
Chautauqua, cha-ta'kwa.
Chelan, che-lan'.
Chelsea, chel'se.
Chemnitz, kem'nits.
Cherbourg, sher'burg.
Cherokee, cher-o-ke'.
Cherrapunji, cher-a-poon-je'.
Chesapeake, ches'a-pek.
Cheviot, chiv'e-ut.
Cheyenne, shi-en'.
Chicago, she-ka'go.
Chickasaw, chik'a-sa.
Chihuahua, che-wa'wa.
Chile, chela.
Chillicothe, chil-li-koth'e.
Chimborazo, chlm-bo-ra'zo.
Chippewa, chlp'pe-wa.
Choctaw, chSk'ta.
Christiania, kris-te-a'ne-a.
Christiansted, kris'te-an-sted.
Cienfuegos, se-en-fwa'gos.
Cincinnati, sin-sln-na'ti.
Clyde, klld.
Cochin China, ko'chin chi'na.
Cceur d'Alene, kur da-lan'.
Cohoes, ko-hoz'.
Colima, ko-le'ma.
Cologne, ko-lon'.
Colombia, ko-15m'be-a.
Colombo, ko-lom'bo.
Colon, ko-lon'.
Colorado, kol-o-ra'do.
Como, ko'mo.
Conception, kon-sep'shun.
Connecticut, k5n-net'I-kut.
Constance, kon'stans.
Constantinople, kon-stan-tT-
no'pl.
Coosa, koo'sa.
Copenhagen, ko-pen-ha'gen.
Cordoba, kor'do-ba.
Corfu, kor-foo'.
Corinth, kor'inth.
Corpus Christi, kor'piis kris'te.
Corrientes, kor-re-en'tes.
Corsica, k6r'si-ka.
Costa Rica, kos'ta re'ka.
Cotopaxi, ko-to-pak'se.
Covington, kuv'mg-ton.
Crimea, kri-me'a.
Culebra, koo-la'bra.
Culloden, kul-lo'den.
Cumbrian, kum'bri-an.
Curasao, ku-ra-so'.
Cuzco, koos'ko.
Cyprus, si'prus.
Dahomey, da-ho'ma.
Dakota, da-ko'ta.
Dallas, dai'as.
Damascus, da-mas'kus.
Danube, dan'ub.
Danzig, dant'zik.
Dardanelles, dar-da-nelz'.
Darfur, dar'foor.
Darien, da're-Sn.
Davenport, dav'en-port.
Decatur, de-ka'tur.
Dekkan, dek'kan.
Delaware, del'a-war.
Delhi, India, del'le.
Des Moines, da moin'.
Des Plaines, da plan'.
Detroit, de-troit'.
Dijon, de-zhoN'.
Dnieper, ne'per.
Dniester, nes'ter.
Dominica, dom-e-ne'ka.
Donegal, don-e-gal'.
Dovrefield, do-vre-fy§ld'.
Drave, drav.
Dresden, drez'den.
Drogheda, drolie-da.
Dublin, dub'lin.
Dubuque, doo-buk'.
Duluth, du-loUth'.
Duncansby, diin'kans-bi.
Dundalk, dun-dak'.
Dundee, diin-de'.
Dunedin, diin-ed'in.
Dungeness, dun-je-nes'.
Durango, doo-ran'go.
Dwina, dwe'na.
Dyaks, di'aks.
Eau Claire, 5 klar'.
Ebro, e'bro.
Ecuador, ek-wa-dor'.
Edinburgh, ed'in-bur-o.
Egypt, e'jipt.
Egyptian, e-jip'shan.
Elba, gl'ba.
Elbe, el'be.
Elberfeld, el'ber-felt, .
Elburz, el-boorz'.
Eleuthera, e-lu'ther-a.
Elgin, el'jin.
Elmira, el-mi'ra.
El Paso, el pa'so.
Elyria, e-lir'e-a.
Erz, erts.
Essen, es'sen.
Essequibo, es-sa-ke'bo.
Etna, et'na.
Euboea, ii-be'a.
Euphrates, u-fra'tez.
Eurasia, u-ra'shi-a.
European, u-ro-pe'an.
Evansville, ev'anz-vil.
Everest, ev'er-est.
Eyre, ar.
Falkland, fak'land.
Faribault, far-e-bo'.
Fez, fez.
Fezzan, fez-zan'.
Fiji, fe'je.
Filipino, fil-i-pe'no.
Findlay, find'la.
Finland, fm'land.
Fiord, fyord.
Firth, ferth.
Flamborough, flam'bur-ro.
Florida, flSr'1-da.
Fond du Lac, fon du lSk'.
Formosa, fdr-mo'sa.
Fort Wayne, -wan.
Frankfurt, frank'foort.
Eraser, fra'zer.
Frederichsted, fr6d'er-ik-sted.
Fremont, fre-m5nt'.
Fresno, frgs'no.
Fuchau, foo'chow.
Fuegian, fu-e'ji an.
Fujiyama, foo-jl-a'ma.
Galapagos, ga-lap'a-gos.
Galatz, ga'iats.
Galilee, gai'i-le.
Galveston, gai'ves-ton.
Galway, gal'wa.
Ganges, gan'jez.
Garda, gar'da.
Garonne, ga-r5n'.
Gasconade, gas-ko-nad'.
Genesee, jen-e-se'.
Geneva, je-ne'va.
Genoa, jen'g-a.
Georgia, j6r'jl-a.
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY
Geral, ha-ral'.
Gettysburg, get'iz-burg.
Geyser, gl'ser.
Ghats, gats.
Ghent, gent.
Gibraltar, ji-bral'tar.
Gila, he'la.
Girardeau, je-rar-d5'.
Gironde, zhe-r5Nd'.
Glasgow, glas'go.
Gloucester, glos'ter.
Gloversville, gluv'erz-vll.
Gobi, go'be.
Gondar, gon'dar.
Gottenborg, got'en-borg.
Grampian, grana'pi-an.
Granada, gra-na'da.
Gran Chaco, gran cha'ko.
Grand Manan, -ma-nan'.
Gratz, grets.
Greenwich, gren'wich (U. S.) ;
gren'ij (Eng.).
Grinnell, grin-el'.
Guadalajara, gwa-da-la-ha'ra.
Guadalquivir, gwa-dal-ke-ver'.
Guadalupe, ga-da-loop' (U. S.) ;
gwa-da-loo'pa (Spanish).
Guam, gwam.
Guanabacoa, gwa-na-ba-ko'a.
Guanajuato, gwa-na-hwa'to.
Guantanamo, gwan-ta'na-mo.
Guatemala, gwa-ta-ma'la.
Guayama, gwl-a'ma.
Guayaquil, gwl-a-kel'.
Guernsey, gern'ze.
Guiana, ge-a'na.
Guinea, gin'e.
Guthrie, guth'rg.
Guyandot, gl-an-d5t'.
Hagerstown, ha'gerz-town.
Hague, hag.
Hainan, hl-nan'.
Haiti, ha'ti.
Hakodate, ha-ko-da'te.
Halifax, hal'e-faks.
Halle, hal'le."
Hamburg, ham'burg.
Hamite, ha'mit
Hankou, hai kgw'.
Hanoi, ha-no'e.
Hanover, han'o-ver,
Hatteras, hat'ter-as.
Havana, ha-van'a.
Havre, ha'vr.
Havre de Grace, -de gras.
Hawaii, ha-wl'e.
Hebrides, heb'rl-dez.
Hekla, hek'la.
Helena, heTe-na.
Helgoland, hel'go-land.
Henlopen, hen-lo'pen.
Herat, her-at'.
Herculaneum, her-ku-la'ne-um.
Hiderabad, hi-der-a-bad'.
Hilo, e'lo.
Himalaya, him-a'la-ya. _
Hindu Kush, hin'doo koosh.
Hindustan, hfn-doo-stan'.
Hoangho, ho-ang-ho'.
Hobart, ho'bart.
Hoboken, ho'bo-ken.
Holguin, ol-gen'.
Holyoke, hol'yok.
Hondo, hon'do.
Honduras, hon-doo'ras.
Hongkong, hSng-kong^
Honolulu, ho-no-loo'loo.
Hoosac, hoo'sak.
Housatonic, hoo-sa-tonlc.
Houston, hus'tgn.
Hudson, hud'son.
Hue, hoo-a'.
Hugh, hoo'gle.
Humber, hum'ber.
Humboldt, hum'bolt.
Hungary, hun'ga-n.
Huron, hu'ron.
Iberian, I-be're-an.
Idaho, I'da-hr).
Illimani, el-ye-ma'ne.
Illinois, il-11-noi' or -noiz'.
Iloilo, e-lo-e'lo.
Inagua, e-na'gwa.
Incas, In/kas.
India, In'dl-a.
Indiana, In-di-an'a.
Indianapolis, m-dl-an-ap'o-lls.
Indies, in'dez.
Indus, In'dus.
Innsbruck, ins'prook.
Inverness, In-ver-ness'.
Ionian, 1-0'nI-an.
Iowa, I'o-wa.
Iquique, e-ke'ka.
Iran, e-ran'.
Irawadi, e-ra-wa'di.
Irkutsk, ir-kootsk'.
Ironton, rurn-ton.
Isla de Pinos, es'la da pe'nos.
Isla de Vieques, -vya'kas.
Ispahan, Is-pa-han'.
Ishpeming, ish'pem-ing.
Isle Royal, el rwa-yal.
Italian, i-tal'yan.
Itasca, I-tas'ka.
Ithaca, ith'a-ka.
Jalapa, ha-la'pa.
Jamaica, ja-ma'ka.
Japan, ja-pan'.
Jassy, ya/se.
Java, ja'va.
Jersey, jer'zi.
Jerusalem, je-roo'sa-lem.
Johannesburg, yo-ha'nes-bfirg.
Joliet, jo'le-et.
Jolo, ho-15'.
Joplin, jSp'lm.
Juan de Euca, hoo-an' da f ooka.
Juan Fernandez, -fer-nan'des.
Juarez, hwa'res.
Jucaro, hoo'ka-ro.
Juneau, ju-no'.
Jungfrau, yoong'frow.
Juniata, ju-ni-at'a.
Jura, ju'ra.
Kabul, ka'bool.
Kadiak, kad-yak'.
Kaffir, kaf'fer.
Kahoolawe, ka-ho-o-la'va.
Kalahari, ka-la-ha'ri.
Kama, ka'ma.
Kamchatka, kam-chat'ka.
Kamerun, ka-ma-roon'.
Kanawha, ka-na'wa.
Kankakee, kan-ka-ke'.
Kano, ka-no'.
Kara, ka'ra.
Karakoram, ka-ra-ko'ram.
Karpathian, kar-pa'thi-an.
Kashgar, kash-gar'.
Kashmir, kash-mer'.
Kaskaskia, kas-kas'ki-a.
Katahdin, ka-ta'din.
Katoomba, ka-toom'ba.
Kauai, kow-i'e.
Kecskemet, kech-kem-at'.
Kenia, ka-ne'a.
Kennebec, ken-e-bek'.
Kentucky, ken-tuk'I.
Keokuk, ke'o-kuk.
Khaibar, ka'e-bar.
Khartum, kar-toom'.
Khelat, kel-at'.
Khinghan, kin-gan'.
Khiva, ke'va.
Kiakhta, ke-ak'ta.
Kiauchau, ke-ow'chow.
Kilauea, ke-low-a'a.
Kilimanjaro, kil-e-man-ja-ro'.
Killarney, kil-ar'ni.
Kimberley, kim'ber-li.
Kiolen, kye'len.
Kirghiz, kir-gez'.
Kirin, kir'in.
Kirkcaldy, kir-kal'di.
Kittery, kit'er-i.
Klamath, kla'math.
Klondike, klon'dik.
Knoxville, nSks'vil.
Kobe, ko'be.
Kongo, kon'go.
Konigsberg, ko'nigs-berg.
Kordofan, kor-do-fan'.
Korea, ko-re'a.
Krakow, kra'ko.
Kremlin, krem'lln.
Kronstadt, kron'stat.
Kuenlun, kwen-loon'.
Kuka, koo'ka.
Kyoto, ke-5'to.
Labrador, lab-ra-dor/.
Lachine, la-shen'.
La Crosse, la kros'.
Ladoga, lad'o-ga.
Ladrones, la-dron'es.
Lafayette, la-fa-et'.
La Guaira, la gwl'ra.
Laguna, la-goo 'na.
Lamoille, la-moil'.
Lanai, la-na'e.
Lancaster, lank'as-ter
Landes, losd.
Lansing, lan'sing.
Laoag, low-ag'.
La Paz, la pas'.
Lapland, lap'land.
Laporte, la-port'.
Laramie, lar'a-me.
Laredo, la-ra'do.
Lasalle, la-sal'.
Lassa, las'sa.
Lassen, las'sen.
Las Vegas, las va'gas.
Laurentian, la-ren'she-an.
Lausanne, lo-zan'.
Lead City, led.
Leadville, led'vil.
Leavenworth, lev'en-worth.
Lebanon, leb'a-non.
Leghorn, leg'horn.
Leicester, les'ter.
Leiden, li'den.
Leipzig, lip'zik.
Leith, leth.
Lemberg, lem'berg.
Leon, la-on' (Spanish).
Leone, le-o'ne.
Lexington, lek'sing-ton.
Leyte, la'e-ta.
Liberia, ll-be'ri-a.
Libyan, lib'e-an.
Liege, le-azh'.
Lima, H'ma (U. S. ) ; le'ma (Peru)
Limerick, llm'er-Ik.
Limoges, le-mozh'.
Lingayen, len-ga-yan'.
Lipari, lip'a-re.
Lisbon, liz'bon.
Lisburn, lis'btirn.
Lisle, lei.
Liverpool, liv'er-pool.
Llano Estacado, ya'no es-ta-
ka'do.
Loanda, lo-an'da.
Loch, 16k.
Lodz, lodz.
Loess, les.
Lofoden, lo-fo'den.
Logan, lo'gan.
Loire, lwar.
Lombok, 15m-b5k'.
Londonderry, lun'dun-der-i.
Los Angeles, los an'gel-es.
Lough Neagh, loh na'.
Louisiana, loo-e-ze-a'na.
Louisville, loo'is- or loo'i-vil.
Louvre, loovr.
Lucerne, loo-sern'.
Lucknow, luk'now.
Luray, lu-ra'.
Luxemburg, looks'em-burg.
Luzon, loo-son'.
Lyon, le-ou'.
Macao, ma-kow'.
Mackenzie, ma-ken'zi.
Mackinac, mak'i-na.
Macon, ma'kun.
Madagascar, mad-a-gas'kar.
Madeira, ma-de'ra.
Madras, ma-dras'.
Madrid, mad'rid (U. S.) ; ma
drid' (Spain).
Maestra, ma-as'tra.
Magdalena, mag-da-la'na.
Magdeburg, mag'de-boorg.
Magellan, ma-jel'an.
Maggiore, mad-jo're.
Makassar, ma-kas'sar.
Malaga, mal'a-ga.
vii
Malakka, ma-lak'a.
Malay, ma-la'.
Malaysia, ma-la'shl-a.
Malolos, ma-lo'los.
Managua, ma-na'gwa.
Manchester, man'ches-ter.
Manchuria, man-chob're-a.
Mandalay, man'da-la.
Manila, ma-nil'a.
Manistee, man-is-te'.
Manitoba, man-I-to'ba.
Manitou, man'e-too.
Manitoulin, man-e-too'lin.
Manzanillo, man-sa-ne'yo.
Maori, ma'o-re.
Maracaibo, ma-ra-ki'bo.
Maranon, ma-ran'yon.
Marathon, mar'a-thon.
Marcy, mar'si.
Marias, ma-ri'az.
Marmora, mar'mo-ra.
Marseille, mar-sa'.
Martinique, mar-ti-nek'.
Masbate, mas-ba'ta.
Mashonaland, ma-sho'na-land.
Maskat, mas-kat'.
Massachusetts, inas-a-chu'sets.
Massaua, mas-sow'a.
Massillon, mas'Il-on.
Matabeleland, mat-a-be'land.
Matagorda, mfit-a-gor'da.
Matamoros, mat-a-mo'ros.
Matanzas, ma-tan'sas.
Matapan, ma^ta-pan' (Gr.).
Mauch Chunk, mak chunk'.
Maui, mow'e.
Maulmain, mal-min'.
Mauna Kea, mow'na ka'a.
Mauna Loa, -loa'.
Mauritius, ma-rish'i-us.
Mayaguez, ml-a-gwas'.
Maysi, mi'se.
Mazatlan, ma-sat-lan'.
Mediterranean, med-i-ter-ra'-
ne-an.
Mekka, mek'a.
Mekong, ma-k5ng'.
Melanesia, mel-an-e'shi-a.
Melbourne, mel'burn.
Memphis, mem'fls.
Menai, men'I.
Mendocino, men-do-se'no.
Menomonee, me-nom'Q-ne.
Meriden, mer'I-den.
Merrimac, mer'i-mak.
Mersey, mer'zi.
Merthy r-Ty dfil , mer-thgr-tid'f il .
Messina, mes-se'na.
Metz, mets.
Mexico, meksl-ko.
Miami, ml-am'i.
Michigan, mish'i-gan.
Micronesia, rnl-kro-ne'shi-a.
Milan, mil'an or mi-lan'.
Mille Lacs, mel lak'.
Milo, me'lo (Greece).
Milwaukee, mil-wa'ke.
Mindanao, men-da-na'o.
Mindoro, men-do'ro.
Minneapolis, min-e-ap'o-lis.
Minnehaha, min-e-ha'ha.
Minnesota, min-e-so'ta.
Mississippi, mis-is-ip'i.
Missoula, miz-oo'la.
Missouri, mis-oo'ri.
Mitylene, mit-e-le'ne.
Mobile, mo-bel'.
Mocha, mo'ka.
Mohammed, mo-ham'med.
Mohave, mo-hii'va.
Mohawk, mo'hak.
Molokai, mo-lo-kl'.
Moluccas, mo-luk'az.
Mombaza, mom-bas'a.
Monaco, m5n'a-ko.
Monastir, mSn-as-ter'.
Moncton, munk'ton.
Mongolia, mon-go'lT-a.
Monongahela, mo-n5n-ga-he'la.
Monrovia, mon-ro'vi-a.
Montana, mon-ta'na.
Montauk, mon-tak'.
Mont Blanc, mox Wok' or mount
blank.
Mont Cenis, moN'se-ne'or mount.
Montenegro, mon-ta-na'gro,
Monterey, mon-te-ra'.
Montevideo, mon-te-vid-e'o.
Montgomery, mont-gum'gr-I.
Monticello, mon-te-sel'lo.
Montpelier, mont-pe'll-gr.
Montreal, m5nt-re-al'.
Moraine, mo-ran'.
Moravia, mo-ra'vl-a.
Moray, niiir'a.
Morelia, mo-rfi'le-a.
Morocco, mo-rok'o.
Moscow, mos'ko.
Mount Lyell, -U'el.
Mount McKinley, -ma-kinll.
Mount St. Elias, -e-li'as.
Mount Tyndall, -tin'dal.
Mozambique, mo-zam-bek'.
Mukden, mook-den'.
Munich, mii'nik.
Murray, nmr'ra.
Muskatine, miis-ka-ten'.
Muskegon, miis-ke'gon.
Namur, na'mur.
Xanling, nan'lmg.
Mantes, nants.
Xanticoke, nan'ti-cok.
Nantucket, nan-tuk'et.
Naples, na'plz.
Xarragansett, nar-ra-gan'sgt.
Nashua, nash'ti-a.
Nassau, nas'a.
Natchez, na'chez.
Navajo, na'va-ho.
Naxos, nak'sos.
Nebraska, ne-bras'ka.
Neches, nech'ez.
Negritos, ne-gri'tos.
Negros, na'gros.
Nepal, na-pal'.
Netherlands, neth'er-landz.
Neuse, nus.
Nevada, ne-va'da.
Newark, nu'ark.
Newfoundland, nu'fund-land.
New Guinea, -gin'e.
New Hampshire, -hamp'shir.
New Orleans, -or'le-anz.
New Zealand, -ze'land.
Niagara, ni-ag/a-ra.
Nicaragua, ne-ka-rii'gwa.
Nice, nes.
Niger, nl'jer.
Nigeria, ni-jer'i-a.
Niihau, ne-how'.
Nimes, nem.
Niobrara, ni-o-bra'ra.
Nizhni Novgoi-od, nizh'nl nov'-
. go-rod.
Nome, nom.
Norfolk, nor'fok.
Norristown, nor'is-town.
Norway, n6r'wa.
Norwegian, nor-we'ji-an.
Norwich, nor'wich (U. S.);nor'-
rij (Eng.).
Nottingham, not'mg-am.
Nova Scotia, no'va sko'shi-a.
Nova Zembla, no'va zem'bla.
Nubia, nii'bi-a.
Nueces, nwa'ses.
Nuevitas, nwa-ve'tas.
Nuremberg, nu'rem-berg.
Nyanza, ni-an'za.
Nyassa, ne-as'sa.
Oahu, o-a'hoo.
Oakland, ok'land.
Oaxaca, wa-ha'ka.
Ob, 5b.
Ocmulgee, ok-miil'ge. '
Oder, o'der.
Odessa, o-des'sa.
Ogden, og'den.
Ogeechee, o-ge'che.
Okanogan, o-kan'o-gan.
Okechobee, 6-ke-cho'be.
Okefinokee, o-ke-fi-no'ke.
Okhotsk, 6-kotsk'.
Oklahoma, ok-la-ho'ma.
Oldham, old'am.
Olympia, o-lim'pl-a.
Olympus, o-lim'pus.
Omaha, o'ma-ha.
PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY
Oman, o-man'.
Omsk, omsk.
Onega, o-ne'ga.
Oneida, o-nl'da.
Ontario, on-ta'rI-5.
Oporto, o-por'to.
Oran, o-ran'.
Oregon, or'e-gSn.
Organ, ■dr'gan.
Orinoco, o-rl-no'ko.
Orizaba, o-re-sa'ba\
Orkney, Ork'ne.
Orleans, 5r-la-5Ns' (Fr.).
Osage, o-saj'.
Osaka, 6'za-ka.
Oshkosh, osh'kosh.
Oswego, os-we'go.
Otranto, o-tran'to.
Ottawa, ot'ta-wa.
Ottoman, St'to-man.
Ottumwa, 6t-tiim'wa.
Ouachita, wosh'i-ta.
Ouse, ooz.
Owyhee, o-wl'he.
Ozark, o-zark'.
Pacaraima, pa-ka-rl'ma.
Pachuca, pa-choo'ka.
Pacific, pa-slf'lk.
Paducah, pa-du'ka.
Pagan, pa'gan.
Pago, pa'go.
Pagoda, pa-go'da.
Paisley, paz'll.
Palawan, pa-la'wan.
Palembang, pa-lem-bang^
Palermo, pa-ler'mo.
Palestine, pal'es-tin.
Pamir, pa-mer'.
Pamlico, pam'H-ko.
Pampanga, pam-pan'ga.
Pampas, pam'pas.
Panama, pan-a-ma'.
Panay, pa-nl'.
Papuan, pap'u-an.
Para, pa-ra'.
Paragua, pa-ra'gwa.
Paraguay, pa-ra-gwl'.
Paramaribo, par-a-maxl-bo.
Parana, pa-ra-na'.
Paris, par'Is.
Parma, par'ma.
Parsee, par'se.
Parthenon, par'the-non.
Pascagoula, pfe-ka-goo'la.
Pasig, pa-sek'.
Passaic, pas-sa'ik.
Patagonia, pat-a-go'nl-a.
Paterson, pSt'er-son.
Patras, pa-tras'.
Pawtucket, pa-tuk'et.
Pecos, pe'kos.
Pedee, pe-de'.
Peking, pe-klng/.
Peling, pe-ling'.
Pennine, pen'nin.
Pennsylvania, pen-su-va'nl-a.
Penobscot, pe-nob'scot.
Pensacola, pen-sa-ko'la.
Pentland, pent'land.
Peoria, pe-o'rl-a.
Pepin, pe'pin.
Pernambuco, per-nam-boo'ko.
Persia, per'shi-a.
Perth, perth.
Peru,pe-roo'.
Philadelphia, fll-a-deTii-a.
Philse, file-
Philippine, fil'ip-In.
Phi lippopolis. f Il-Ip-op'o-lis.
Phcenix, fe'nlks.
Piedmont, ped'mont.
Pierre, per.
Pietermaritzburg, pe-ter-mar'
Its-burg.
Pike, plk.
I'ilcomayo, pn-ko-mi'o.
Pilsen, pITsen.
I'inar del Rio, pe-nar' del re'o.
Pindus, pln'dus.
I'inos, pe'nos.
Hrseus, pi-re'us.
Pittsburg, pits'burg.
Plata, pla'ta.
Platten See, pla'ten za.
Plymouth, plim'uth.
Pnum Penh, p'niim pen.
Polyp, pol'Ip.
Pomona, po-ino'na.
Pompeii, p5m-pa'ye.
Ponce, pon'sa.
Pontchartrain, pon-char-tran'.
Popocatepetl , po-po-kat-a-pa'-tl .
Port au Prince, port 5 prlns'.
Porto Rico, por'to re'ko.
Port Said, -sa-fid'.
Portsmouth, ports'muth.
Portugal, por'tii-gal.
Portuguese, por'tu-gez.
Potomac, po-to'inak.
Potosi, po-to-si'.
Poughkeepsie, po-klp'sl.
Prague, prag.
Pressburg, pres'boorg.
Pretoria, pre-tor'e-a.
Pribilof, pre-be-lof.
Prussia, priish'ya.
Pruth, prooth.
Puebla, pweb'la.
Pueblo, pweb'lo.
Puerto Principe, pweVto prin'-
se-pa.
Puget, pQ'jet.
Puno, poo'no.
Pyrenees, plr'e-nez.
Quagga, kwag'ga.
Quebec, kwe-bek'.
Queretaro, ka-ra'ta^rS.
Quincy, kwln'zl or -si.
Quito, ke'to.
Racine, ra-sen'.
Rainier, ra'ner.
Raleigh, ra'le.
Rangoon, ran-goon'.
Rappahannock, rap-a-han'ok.
Ravenna, ra-ven'a.
Reading, red'ing.
Rennes, ren.
Rheims, remz.
Rhine, rin.
Rhone, ron.
Riga, rl'ga (U.S.); re'ga (Rus.).
Rio Cauto, re'o kow'to.
Rio de Janeiro, -ja-na'ro.
Rio Grande, re'o gran'da.
Rio Negro, -na'gro.
Rio Virgen, -ver'hen.
Roanoke, ro-a-nok'.
Rochelle, ro-sheT.
Rochester, roch'es-ter.
Romano, ro-ma'no.
Romanzof, ro-man'tsof.
Rosario, ro-sa're-o.
Rotterdam, rot'er-dam.
Rouen, roo'6>r'.
Roumelia, roo-me'ie-a.
Roumania, roo-ma'ni-a.
Russia, rush'a.
Saco, sa'ko.
Sacramento, s5k-ra-men'td.
Saginaw, sagl-na.
Sagua la Grande, sa'gwa la
gran'da.
Sahara, sa-ha'ra.
Saigon, sa'e-gon.
Saint Albans, sant al'banz.
Saint Augustine, -a'giis-ten.
Saint Bernard, -ber-nard'.
Saint Clair, -klar'.
Saint Croix, -kroi'.
Saint Gotthard, go-tard'.
Saint Helena, sSnt he-le'na.
Saint Lawrence, sant la'rens.
Saint Louis, -loo'Is or -loo'i.
Saint Petersburg, -pe'terz-burg.
Saint Roque, -rok.
Saint Sophia, -so-fe'a.
Sakhalin, sa-ka-len'.
Salinas, sa-le'nas.
Salisbury, salz'ber-I.
Saloniki, sa-lo-ne'ke.
Saltillo, sal-te'yo.
Salvador, sal-va-dor'.
Salzburg, salts'boorg.
Samar, sa-mar'.
Samarkand, sam-ar-kand'.
Samoa, sa-mo'a.
San Antonio, san an-to'ni-o.
San Bernardino, -ber-nar-de'no.
San Cristobal, -kres-to'bal.
Sancti Spiritus, sank'tl spi'rl-
toos.
Sandhurst, sand'hurst.
San Diego, san de-a'go.
Sandusky, san-dus'kl.
San Francisco, -fran-sls'ko.
Sangamon, san'ga-mon.
Sangay, san-gf.
San German, san her-man'.
Sangre de Cristo, san'gra da
kres'to.
San Joaquin, san ho-a-ken'.
San Jose, -ho-sa'.
San Juan, -hoo-an'.
San Lucas, -loo'kas.
San Luis, -loo-es'.
San Marino, -maVre'no.
San Pablo, -pa'blo.
Santa Barbara, sSn'ta bar'ba-ra.
Santa Cruz, -kroos.
Santa Fe, -ia.
Santee, san-te'.
Santiago, san-te-a'go.
Santo Domingo, san'to do-
mln'go.
Santos, san'tos.
Saone, son.
Saratoga, sar-a-to'ga.
Sarawak, sa-ra'wak.
Sardinia, sar-din'I-a.
Saskatchewan, sas-kach'e-wan.
Sault Sainte Marie, soo sent
ma'rl.
Savaii, sa^vl'e.
Savannah, sa-van'a.
Save, sav.
Scandinavia, skS,n-dI-na'vI-a.
Schenectady, ske-nek'ta-de.
Schwarzwald, shvartz'valt.
Scilly, sil'i.
Scotland, skSt'land.
Scranton, skran'ton.
Seattle, se-at'l.
Sedalia, se-da'li-a.
Seine, san.
Selvas, seTvas.
Seminole, sem'I-nol.
Semite, sem'it.
Semitic, sem-It'Ic.
Seneca, sen'e-ka.
Senegal, sen-e-gal'.
Senegambia, sen-e-gam'bi-a.
Seoul, sa-ool'.
Serra do Mar, sar'ra do mar'.
Servia, ser'vi-a.
Severn, sev'ern.
Sevier, se-ver'.
Seville, seVIl, or sa-vil'ya.
Shamokin, sha-mo'kin.
Shanghai, shang-ha'I.
Shannon, shSn'on.
Shasta, shas'ta.
Sheffield, shef'feld.
Shenandoah, sh6n-2,n-do'a.
Shetland, shet'land.
Shoshone, sho-sho'ne.
Shreveport, shrev'port.
Siam, si-3,m'.
Siberia, si-be'rl-a.
Sicily, sls'l-li.
Sierra Madre, se-er'a ma'dra.
Sierra Nevada, -na-va'da.
Singapore, sin-ga-por'.
Sioux, soo.
Sisal, sls'al.
Sitka, sit'ka.
Smyrna, smer'na.
Snowdon, sno'don.
Sofia, so-fe'a.
Sogne, son.
Sokoto, so-ko-to'.
Sol way, sol'wa.
Somali, so-ma'le.
Somerville, siim'er-vil.
Souris, soo-re'.
Spokane, spo-kan'.
Stabise, sta'bl-e.
Staffa, staf'a.
Stanovoi, sta-no-voi'.
Steppes, steps.
Stettin, stet-ten'.
Steubenville, stii'ben-vll.
Stirling, sterling.
Stockholm, stok'holm.
Strassburg, strSz'burg.
Streator, stre'tor.
Stuttgart, stoot'gart.
Suakin, swa'kin.
Subic, soo-bek'.
Sucre, soo'kre.
Sudan, soo-dan'.
Sudanese, soo-dan-ez'.
Suez, soo-ez'.
Suisun, soo-e-soon'.
Suliman, soo-le-man'.
Sulu, soo-loo'.
Sumatra, soo-ma'tra.
Sunda, sun'da.
Sunderland, sun'der-land.
Susquehanna, sus-kwe-han'a.
Suwanee, sii-wa'ne.
Swansea, swon'se.
Sweden, swe'den.
Switzerland, swlt'zer-land.
Sydney, sld'ni.
Syra, se'ra.
Syracuse, sir'a-kus.
Syria, sir'I-a.
Tabriz, ta-brez'.
Tacoma, ta-ko'ma.
Tagus, ta'gus.
Tahlequah, ta'le-kwa.
Tahoe, ta-ho'.
Tallahassee, t3,l-a-has'e.
Tampa, tam'pa.
Tampico, tam-pe'ko.
Tananarivo, ta-na'na-re-vo.
Tanganyika, tan-gan-ye'ka.
Taranto, ta'ran-to.
Tarim, ta-rem'.
Tashkend, tash-k6nt'.
Tasmania, taz-ma'nl-a.
Taunton, tan'ton.
Taurus, ta'rus.
Tchad, chad.
Tegucigalpa, ta-goo-se-gal'pa.
Teheran, te-hran'.
Tehuantepec, ta-wan-ta-p6k'.
Tennessee, ten-nes-se'.
Terre Haute, ter-e hot'.
Texas, tex'as.
Thames, temz (Eng.).
Thian Shan, te-an' shan.
Tiber, tl'ber.
Tibet, tl-bet' or tlb'6t.
Tibetan, tlb'e-tan.
Tientsin, te-ent'sen.
Tierra del Fuego, te-eVra del
fwa'go.
Tiflis, tif-les'.
Tigris, ti'gris.
Timbuktu, tlm-book'too.
Timor, te-mor'.
Titicaca, tit-e-ka'ka.
Tocantins, to-kan-tens'.
Tokyo, to'ke-o.
Toledo, to-le'do.
Toiima, to-le'ma\
Tombigbee, tom-blg'be.
Tonga, ton'ga.
Topeka, to-pe'ka.
Toronto, to-r5n'to.
Torrens, tor'renz.
Tortola, t6r'to-la.
Toulon, too'loN.
Toulouse, too-looz'.
Trans-Caucasia, -ka-ka'shl-^.
Transvaal, trans-vai'.
Trieste, tre-est'a.
Trinidad, trln-i-d3,d'.
Tripoli, trip'o-li.
Tucson, tii-son'.
Tulare, too-la're.
Tunis, tu'nis.
Turin, tu'rln.
Turkestan, toor-kfe-tan'.
Tutuila, too-twe'la.
Ucayali, oo-kl-a'le.
Uinta, u-In'ta.
Ujiji, ooje'jg. _
Upolu, oo-po-loo'.
Ural, u'ral.
Uruguay, oo-roo-gwl'.
Uspallata, oos-pa-ya'ta.
Utah, u'ta or u'ta.
Utica, ii'tl-ka.
Valdai, val'dl.
Valencia, va-len'shl-a.
Valparaiso, val-pa-ri'so.
Vancouver, van-koo'ver.
Venezuela, ven-e-zwe'la.
Venice, ven'is.
Vera Cruz, va'ra kroos'.
Verde, verd.
Verkoyansk, ver-ko-yansk'.
Vermilion, ver-mll'yun.
Vermont, ver-mont'.
Verona, ve-ro'na.
Vesuvius, v6-su'vl-us.
Vienna, ve-en'a (Aus.).
Vincennes, vln-s6nz'.
Virginia, ver-jln'i-a.
Vistula, vls'tu-la.
Viti Levu, ve'te la'voo.
Vladivostok, vla-de-vos-tok'.
Volga, vol'ga.
Vosges, vozh.
Wabash, wa'bash.
Wachusett, wa-chix'sgt.
Waco, wa'ko.
Wadai, wa'di.
Wales, walz.
Warsaw, war'sa.
Wasatch, wa'sdch.
Waterloo, wa-ter-loo'.
Weihaiwei, wa-e-hl-wa'e.
Welland, wel'and.
Wellington, wel'Ing-tgn.
Wenner, va'ner.
Westminster, west'mln-stgr.
Wichita, wlch'I-ta.
Wilkesbarre, wIlks'Mr-I.
Willamette, wll-a'mSt.
Wilmington, wil'mlng-ton.
Winnebago, wln-e-ba'go.
Winnemucca, win-e-muk'a.
Winnepesaukee, wln-e-pg-sa'ke,
Winnipeg, wm'i-peg.
Winona, wl-no'na.
Winooski, wl-noos'ki.
Wisconsin, wls-kon'sln.
Woonsocket, woon-s5k'§t.
Worcester, woos'ter.
Wyoming, wl-o'ming.
Yablonoi, ya-blo-noi'.
Yadkin, ySd'kln.
Yakima, yak'I-ma.
Yakutsk, ya-kootsk'.
Yangtze, yang'tse.
Yarkand, yar-kand'.
Yazoo, ya-zoo'.
Yenisei, y6n-e-sa'e.
Yesso, yes'so.
Yokohama, yo-ko-ha'ma.
Yonkers, ySnk'ers. ,
Yosemite, yo-sem'I-te.
Yucatan, yoo-ka-tan'.
Yukon, yoo'kon.
Yuma, yoo'ma.
Zacatecas, zak-a-ta'k^s.
Zambezi, zam-ba'zg.
Zambezia, zg,m-be'ze-a.
Zamboanga, zam-bo-an'ga.
Zanesville, zanz'vll.
Zante, zan'ta.
Zanzibar, zan'zl-bar.
Zuider Zee, zoi'der za'.
Zululand, zoo'loo-land.
Zurich, tsii'rlk. * "
vni
SPECIAL SUPPLEMENT.
Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii, Philippines, Guam.
The long chains of islands that separate the Atlantic ocean
from the gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea are called the
West Indies. These islands are in several groups, the most
Monro Castle ; Entrance to Havana Harbor.
northern being the Bahamas; next in order follow the great
islands of Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Porto Rico,1 with their
border islets, together forming the Greater Antilles ; lastly,
many smaller islands, known as the Lesser Antilles,2 extend
from Porto Rico almost to the coast of South America.
At the close of the recent war with Spain, Porto Rico
(with its border isles) was ceded to the United States ; Spain
also gave up all claim to Cuba and its border isles, and Cuba
is now a republic under the protection of our country.
Cuba. Cuba, the " Queen of the Antilles," is the largest
island of the West Indies. In shape it looks like a cornu-
copia. Its length is about 750 miles. The island is about
130 miles from the mainland of Florida, and slightly less
from Yucatan. The area is 43,000 square miles — almost
as large as Pennsylvania, or nearly nine times as large
as Connecticut. Cuba may be roughly divided into three
regions _ mountainous in the east, hilly in the middle, level
in the west or southwest. The highest
mountain range, known as the Sierra
Maestra, follows the southeast coast.
Its general crest is about 4000 feet
1 The name Puerto Rico is often used. It
is the true form of the Spanish name, mean-
ing rich port. An Act of Congress has
established the corrupt form, Porto Rico, as
the name of the island. For pronunciation
of names see page 7.
2 Many of the Lesser Antilles belong to
the British nation, and that nation has offi-
cially (for purposes of government) divided
the islands into the Leeward islands — from
the Virgin isles to Dominica ; the Wind-
ward islands — southward to Grenada ; with
Barbados as a third separate colony, and with
Trinidad and Tobago as a fourth colony.
Sailors often refer to the outer chain of
islands in the Lesser Antilles, fronting the
Atlantic and in the direct path of the trade
winds, as the Windward islands; they also
apply the name Leeward to the islands along
the coast of Venezuela. This use of the
names should not be confused with the
official division into colonies, as shown on
the map.
Copyright, 1899, 1902, iy Alexis Everett Frye.
high, with a few peaks about twice as high. Guantanamo bay
is near the eastern end of this range ; Santiago, before which
our soldiers fought with such courage, is at the southern base
of the range. Towards the west the highland is rugged, with
hill ranges and deep valleys, but not so high as the
Sierra Maestra. The middle hill district is famous for
its beauty. Broad fertile fields occupy the greater
portion of southwest Cuba, and form the best agri-
cultural region of the island. The rivers are numerous
but small.
The coast of Cuba is largely fringed with coral
reefs, rocks and sand bars, making navigation difficult
and dangerous ; but there are also many excellent
harbors, ranking among the finest in the world. Of
these Havana is the best known.
Cuba is in the torrid zone, and its lowlands have hot or
warm weather almost all the year. As in other parts of this
Cuban Village near Santiago,
Entrance to Santiago Harbor.
zone, the rainy season comes during the hottest part of the
year, here lasting from May to Novem-
ber. The lowlands are then very un-
healthful, being subject to the scourges
of yellow and malarial fevers. Long
cool nights and sea breezes help to
temper this torrid climate, while the
hilly region affords refuge from the hot
and unhealthful coast lands. Among
the hills and mountains in nearly all
parts of the West Indies a fairly mild
climate is found at the height of 2000
feet and upwards. " Winter," or the
dry season, is the pleasant season in
these islands.
With high temperature and abun-
dant rainfall, vegetation in Cuba is
luxuriant. The hill and mountain
slopes are a tangle of shrubs and
scrubby trees, with forests of lofty
mahogany and ebony trees in the south-
east. Roadways in this island are very
poor, being often overgrown with
thicket. Few people live in the in-
land portions of the hilly or moun-
SPECIAL SUPPLEMENT, - C [JBA.
tainous districts , there vegetation
runs wild. Along the coasts of
these districts, however, and even
on some of the higher slopes, fruits
and coffee abound. The latter
thrives best on the hillsides.
The broad fields of the middle
and western provinces of the island
are very fertile, but during the war
for Cuban freedom the plantations
were mostly ruined, crops were
Homes in a Cuban Village
tolly one third of the people are
Negroes; the other two thirds in-
clude the white people, the mi
races and several thousand -
or laborers from China and
• Indies
The people are gathered eh
id the coast cities and the fertile
lands of the western half <>f the
island. In 1899 the population
was 1,572,797, according to the
destroyed and buildings burned,
xt ilflL • i * t, census of the War Departm
Now that Cuba is free from Spain, a few years will witness the Havana is the capital and largest city of Cuba. H ontains
growth of new plantations in this fertile country. one sixth of the p^ nf ^ isl;uuL Th[> h ^ ^ ^
Richest of all are the plains or savannahs of the west and road center, as well as the chief port. Havana owes wth
southwest portions of the island. Here are found most of the largely to its tine harbor, its nearness to the rich plantation.
western Cuba, its nearness to the CFnii
States, and the fact that it has long
been the capital of the island. The
principal exports are cane sugar and
tobacco. .Most of the export.- go to the
United States.
Santiago is the second largest city in
Cuba, and is the leading port of the
great sugar and tobacco plantations for which Cuba is famous, eastern province. With the destruction of the Spanish 0
Fruits also grow in abundance in all parts of the islands. when trying to escape fl,„n Santiago bay, and with the but
When white men first went to the West Indies, they found
there none of the great mammals so common elsewhere in
Hill District seen from Mayagaez Harbor, Porto Rico
Catting Sugar Cane Porto Rico
America. Of course the islands are now well stocked with
domestic animals. Birds of beautiful plumage are plentiful.
Fish and turtles abound and are valuable food products.
Iron and copper are valuable mineral products of Cuba.
The early explorers found in Cuba
many tribes of peaceful Indians,
numbering in all perhaps a million
people. During the first hundred
years of Spanish rule this vast
population disappeared. Other In-
dians were imported only to die in
slavery. After a time large num-
bers of African Negroes were taken
to Cuba as slaves. Slavery no
longer exists in the island, but
Street Scene, Mayaguez. Porto Rico.
render of Santiago itself, the power of Spain in the New World
was broken. The other principal ports of Culm are: Cienfuegos,
on the south coast: Matanzas and
Cardenas, east of Havana. Puerto
Principe and Holguin rank among
the large cities.
Porto Rico. Porto Rico has
in general the shape of a rectangle.
It is about 100 miles in length bv
36 in breadth, and is about three
fourths as large as Connecticut.
This island has no high moun-
santiago. Cuba tains, — its loftiest peak being only
SPECIAL SUPPLEMENT, — PORTO RICO.
Lake oi Lava, Hawaii.
Government Building, Honolulu.
Rico are very fertile
and contain most of
the cities and towns.
By far the most valu-
able product is coffee,
which thrives on the
gentle hillsides. Next
in value is sugar;
molasses and tobacco
are also valuable ex-
ports. Among the
chief imports are
cloth and metal
wares. The small island of Porto Rico contains more than
half as many people as Cuba. This fact shows that the former
island is the better cultivated. Out of a total of 953,243
three fourths of a mile in height. For the most part the inland people, more than one third are Negroes, mostly descendants
regions are hilly, with wooded ridges running east and west, of former slaves.
sending small rivers to the seacoast on all sides. A broad San Juan is the chief city of Porto Rico, though not the
largest. It is built on a
fine harbor on the north
coast, and is the capital
of the island.
Ponce, the largest city
near the south coast, is
connected with the capital
by a militaryroad running
across the island. San
German, Mayaguez, Agua-
dilla, near the west coast;
Arecibo, on the north;
and Guayama, on the
south, are other important
trade centers.
Hawaii. Far out in
the Pacific, in about the
same latitude as Cuba and
Porto Rico, and about
2000 miles from San
Francisco, lie the islands
of the Hawaiian group.
There are eight principal
islands and a number of
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS
Hawaiian Islands.
belt of coastal region consists of level tracts, or savannahs, alter-
nating with uneven ridgy areas. Porto Rico, like Cuba,
is in the torrid zone and has the wet and the dry seasons
of that zone ; but Porto Rico is noted for its health
ful climate, in con
trast with other
islands of the
West Indies.
The beautiful
hill regions af-
ford relief from
the intense sum-
mer heat of the
lowlands.
Native Hut, Hawaii.
The river valleys and coast plains of Porto
rocky islets in the group. The total area is about 6.449 square
miles. The large island of Hawaii embraces
three fifths .of this area and gives
name to the entire group.
Thus it is proper to speak
of the group as Hawaii or
as the Hawaiian islands.
The islands extend
northwest and south-
east for about 400 miles.
They are of volcanic ori-
gin, and are built up from
the ocean bottom, which is
here 16,000 to 18,000 feet
below the surface of the sea.
Native Girls, Hawaii.
Shrimp Fisher.
SPECIAL SUPPLEMENT, — HAWAII.
On the island of Hawaii rise two of the highest peaks in all largest ocean steamers can lie along the great quays, to load
the Pacific isles — the volcanoes of Mauna Kea (13,800 feet) or unload. In recent years Honolulu has made rapid progress,
and Mauna Loa (13,600 feet). The height of these peaks from It has good schools, tramways, electric lights, telephones,
the ocean bottom is greater than the
height of Mt. Everest above sea level.
Mauna Loa is active. On its east slope
is the huge active crater of Kilauea,
world-famed for its size and for the
grandeur of its seething lake of molten
lava. There are other active craters
on the island, and earthquakes are fre-
quent. Several violent eruptions have
taken place in recent years both on the
land and in the border bays. Thou-
sands of persons visit Hawaii every
year to study the volcanoes and hot
Street Scene In Manila.
beautiful public buildings and homes.
Owing to its mild even climate, this
city is a favorite resort for tourists.
It has good steamship connections with
San Francisco and the Orient.
Hilo is an important town on the
island of Hawaii.
The island of Molokai contains a
leper settlement. Leprosy is the worst
scourge among the natives, and the
victims are sent to Molokai to prevent
the spread of the disease.
Philippines. Another group of
springs, as well as to observe the people and enjoy the mild tropical islands, the Philippines, came under the protection of
climate. the United States at the close of the war with Spain. This
Though most parts of the islands are rugged with cones, great archipelago was discovered by Magellan during the famous
ridges and other forms of old lava flows, there are also many first voyage round the world. Only one of his ships reached
open valleys of great fertility. The rich soil is well watered,
home ; Magellan was killed in the Philippines.
This group of islands is southeast of Asia and partly en-
closes the China sea. There are eleven principal islands in
the group. The largest is Luzon, with an area nearly equal
to that of New York; next in size is the southern island
of Mindanao, nearly as large. The total area of the group
about 127,853 square miles — an area about equal
is
to that of all New England plus New
York state. Being on the line of great vol-
canic activity, which is very marked be-
tween Japan and Java, the Philippines
often suffer from eruptions and earth-
quakes. The islands are largely built of
volcanic rock and contain active peaks,
as well as hot springs, old and new lava
and the vegetation is luxuriant. Tropical fruits abound; sugar flows, huge fissures and other proofs of
and rice are the chief exports. former volcanic activity. The mountain
The natives of Hawaii are a happy, light-hearted race, re- ranges have in general a northerly trend,
sembling in features the Maoris, or brown people of New . bending to the northwest in some of the
Zealand. The Hawaiians are more intelligent than any other islands. The highest peaks rise only a
natives of the Pacific islands. When Captain Cook visited little more than a mile and a half above
Hemp Press, Manila.
the islands, about a century ago, the number
of natives there was about 200,000. Only
about one sixth of the number now remain,
though the total population is 154,000. There
are about 10,000 half-castes, 25,000 Chinese,
.60,000 Japanese, 15,000 Portuguese, 6000
Americans and several thousand white, people
of other nations. There are many schools
in Hawaii, and the children receive a fair
education.
Various chiefs, kings and queens ruled Ha-
waii until July 4, 1894, when the white people
of the islands formed a republic. In 1898 the
islands were annexed to the United States.
Honolulu. This city is the capital and chief
port of the islands. It is finely located on a
deep harbor on the south side of Oahu. The
Filipino Woman.
Family of Negritos
the sea.
Though most parts of
the islands are hilly or
mountainous, there are
river valleys, slopes and
plains of wonderful fer-
tility. Here, as in most tropical lands, the
wet season comes in summer, — or from May
to October, — with some rain during the other
months. Lakes, rivers and smaller streams
abound and combine with mountains and forests
to give beauty to the scenery.
The climate of the Philippines is tropical,
but with the great length of the archipelago
north and south comes variety in heat and rain-
fall. The large island of Luzon and its smaller
border isles have bright skies, with cool and
6
SPECIAL SUPPLEMENT,— PHILIPPINES.
PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS
pcdintangpChannei
| r^EALABAC I.
^Xaliac Str.
w*.
dry air, during the winter months. Even in summer the sea forests, without fixed homes, eating wild fruits and sleeping
breezes and many cool nights bring relief. The climate of the wherever they may be when darkness comes on.
northern islands is healthful. Most of the sickness among Of the seven and one-half million natives of this archipelago,
white people visiting them is caused by over-eating fruits, nearly all are Malays. In some parts of the islands they are
drinking alcoholic liquors or using fat, heat-giving foods, called Filipinos. For the most part the natives are peaceable
Care must also be taken to protect the body against sudden but brave, as well as honest and courteous.
chills. The southern islands have of course hotter weather The Malays of the cities and towns are bright and intelligent,
than the northern, but the former are free from the terrible but the people of forest and mountain tribes are " simple children
storms, called typhoons, that sometimes sweep over the
latter during the hot months.
With plentiful heat and moisture, these islands have
luxuriant vegetation. Hills and plains alike are buried
in foliage. Trees of many varieties yield dyes, gums and
cabinet woods. The cocoanut palm and bamboo thrive
throughout the islands, and are put to an infinite num-
ber of uses. The cocoanut is an important article of
food for the natives. Here, as in Cuba, tobacco and
sugar are leading products, but the staples for which the
islands have long been noted are fine tobacco and Manila
hemp, the latter being a fiber used for making rope and
twine. This is not true hemp, but is the fiber of a kind
of banana plant. It is hardy and grows best in the hilly
regions and in the weathered volcanic soils. " The crude
native implement for preparing the fiber is still the only
one in use ; it consists of a rough wooden bench with a
long knife-blade hinged to it at one end and connected
at the other to a treadle. Strips of the plant are drawn
several times between this blade and the bench, which
removes the pulp and outer skin, leaving the fiber, which
is then cleansed by washing, dried in the sun, and packed
for shipment." — National Geographic Magazine, Wash-
ington, June, 1898.
Large crops of rice are raised in the Philippines and
used there for food. Bananas are also a staple food
product. The orange, pineapple and other tropical fruits
grow in abundance.
Although the neighboring island of Borneo has large
wild animals, such as the elephant, the tapir and the
orang-outan, these are not found in the Philippines.
The only beasts of prey are small wildcats. The wild
buffaloes and wild hogs in the islands are thought to
have descended from tame animals that escaped to the
woods. The most useful animal is the tame buffalo,
known as the water buffalo, from its habit of rolling in
water. It is used to draw the rude plows and carts, as
well as to carry burdens on its back. Sheep and goats are of nature." On many of the islands the natives are little known,
also reared ; monkeys, huge bats, birds, snakes and insects and some of them are fierce and warlike.
abound.
Careful study of the mineral resources has not yet been made,
but it is known that gold, iron, copper, zinc, sulphur and coal
promise a rich reward to future miners in the islands.
The primitive people of the Philippines are thought to be
the Negritos, a dwarfish black race now found in the mountains
Many of the tribes of the interior live on wild fruits, fish
and game, with little thought of tilling the soil. The lance,
bow and arrows are native weapons. During the dry season
entire tribes wander through the forests, sleeping without other
shelter than the trees ; others make rude huts of rattan or palm
leaves ; still others settle in villages and make huts of bamboo,
of Luzon and Negros islands. They have the frizzly black hair, palm or rattan. On the various islands the natives differ in
thick lips and wide nostrils, such as are seen among the black intelligence, beliefs, habits and modes of living
natives of New Guinea. The Negritos were long ago hunted Many Chinese have settled in the larger towns and cities
from the lowlands, by stronger people of the brown race, -the They are thrifty and carry on most of the local trade and
Malays, - and now wander over the ranges and through the banking. A few thousand Spanish and other people of the
SPECIAL SUPPLEMENT, — GUAM.
white race live in Manila, Iloilo and other towns. Nearly all
the large towns are on the seacoast.
Manila. Manila, having a population of about 220,000, is
the capital and largest city of the archipelago. It is situated
on a fine bay, at the mouth of the Pasig river, the outlet of
Bay lake. The older part of the
city is on the south bank of this
river; the newer part is on the
north side. The modern build-
ings are mostly low and built of
wood, as they withstand earth-
quake shocks much better than
high stone structures. The greater
part of the foreign trade of the
islands passes through Manila.
The second port in importance
is Iloilo, on the island of Panay.
In exchange for hemp, tobacco
and sugar, the islands import
mainly rice, flour, cloth, coal and
kerosene. The foreign trade
amounts yearly to about $30,000,-
000 — one sixth being with the
United States. A large part of
the trade is carried on with Great
Britain.
Guam. Almost due east of
Filipinos (Philippine Natives) and Buffalo or Carabao
of Hawaii. The total area is only 420 square miles, with a
population of 10,000. Most of the people live on the island
of Guam — fully half of them being in the capital town of
Agana. At the close of the recent war with Spain, Guam
was ceded to the United States.
TUTTJILA AND MANUA ISLANDS.
These islands belong to a group
known as the Samoa islands. They
are far out in the Pacific, east of
Australia (see map on page 187).
Tutuila and the Manua group
belong to the United States. Their
best harbor is Pago Pago, on
Tutuila. It will be used as a
coaling station. Tutuila is rugged
with mountains, but there are
dense forests and fertile valleys.
The people belong to the white
race.
Wake Island. Far to the
northeast of Guam lies the small
coral island known as Wake island.
It belongs to the United States,
but nobody lives on it.
Virgin Islands. This group
of small islands lies east of Porto
Rico. Vieques, Culebra and a
Manila, about 1600 miles out in the Pacific, rises the island of few smaller rocky islands belong to the United States (see
Guam. It is the southernmost of a chain of islands stretching map on page 2). The Senate of this country has approved a
northward for about 500 miles (see inset on map of Philippines ; treaty for the purchase of St. Thomas, St. Croix (or Santa Cruz)
also full-page map of Australia, Micronesia, etc.). Magellan and St. John, from Denmark.
named these the Ladrones, or thieves' islands, because the natives Sugar is the principal product of these islands. The chief
stole some of his goods. The islands are small and mostly vol- port is Charlotte Amalie, on St. Thomas. It has a deep
canic, some having active craters. The climate resembles that and safe harbor.
Pronouncing Word List.
Agana, a-gan'ya.
Aguadilla, a-gwa-de'ya.
Antilles, an-til'lez.
Arecibo, a-ra-se'bo.
Balanga, ba-lang'ga.
Baracoa, ba-ra-ko'a.
Batabano, ba-ta-ba-nO'.
Bay, bi.
Bayamon, ba-ya-mon'.
Bohol, bO-6T.
Bulacan, boo-la-kan'.
Caimanera, ki-ma-na'ra.
Cardenas, kar'da-nas.
Cavite, ka-ve'ta.
Cebu, se-boo'.
Charlotte Amalie, shar'lot
a-ma/le-§.
Cienfuegos, se-en-fwa'gos.
Corrientes, kor-re-fin'tes.
Key : ale, at, arm, final ; eve, end ; ice, ill ; old, on ; use, iip ; food ; ch as in chop ; g as in go ; th as in thin ; ow as in cow
Culebra, koo-la'bra.
Filipino, fil-i-pe'no.
Guam, gwam.
Guanabacoa, gwa-na-ba-co'a.
Guantanamo, gwan-ta'na-mo.
Guayama, gwi-a'ma.
Hawaii, ha-wi'e.
Hilo, he'lo.
Holguin, ol-gen'.
Honolulu, ho-no-loo'loo.
Iloilo, e-lo-6'lo.
Isla de Pinos, es'la da pe'nos.
Isla de Vieques, es'la da
ve-a'kas.
Jolo, ho-lo'.
Jucaro, hoo'ka-ro.
Kahoolawe, ka-ho-o-la'va.
Kauai, kow-i'e.
Kealakekua, ka-a-la-ka-koo'a.
Kilauea, ke-low-a'a.
Mindoro, men-do'ro.
Molokai, mo-lo-ki'.
Ladrones, la-dron'as.
Lanai, la-na'e.
Leyte, la'e-ta.
Luzon, loo-zon'.
Maestra, ma-as'tra.
Manila, ma-nll'a.
Manua, ma'noo-a.
Masbate, mas-ba'ta.
Matanzas, ma-tan'sas.
Maui, mow'e.
Mauna Kea, mow'na ka'a.
Mauna Loa, mow'na lo'a.
Mayaguez, ml-a-gwes'.
Maysi, mi-se'.
Mindanao, men-da-na'o.
Negrito, ne-grl'to.
Negros, na'gros.
Niihau, ne-how'.
Nuevitas, nwa-ve'tas.
Oahu, o-a'hoo.
Pago, pa'go.
Palawan, pa-la/wan.
Pampanga, pam-pan'ga.
Panay, pa-ni'.
Pasig, pa-seg'.
Philippine, fil'ip-in.
Pinar del Kio, pe-nar'
re'o.
Ponce, pon'sa.
Porto Rico, por'to re'ko.
Puerto Principe, pwer'to
pren'se-pa.
Rio Cauto, re'o kow'to.
Sagua la Grande, sa'gwa la
gran'da.
St. Croix, croy.
Sarnar, sa-mar'.
Sancti Spiritus, sank'ti splrl-
toos.
San German, san her-man'.
San Juan, san hoo-an'.
Santiago, san-te-a'go.
Subic, soo-bek'.
Sulu, soo-loo'.
del Trocha, tro'cha.
Tutuila, too-twe'la.
PLATE A.
30
g
20
Qfi '{oty Cross Mi.
Pikes
AS
Los i L.'* t- ^s^-^l
""■*%BaA"\ -\\ vlj
^^6«'oW
,,;imore "s
127
ISLANDS/ c< ManzaniIl^CCohaii
AMERICA
SCALE OF MILES
0 100 200 4M 600
Comparative Area
400 MILES
PENNSYLVANIA
45,000 SQ. MILES£
THE WHOLE RECTANGLE CONTAINS
1 00,000 SQ. MI.LEIi
PLATE B.
£
» ^^^M
v
^<fe.
^%
fe-
/
'b** ri-£T^&r^y*S
S K
T^Tl?
-XlN*
<»<iT§J
**
"^
'^< /*
tea
''^ ^fi" \5*/ T^'i^-,
Oby\\ hiohwooo y
v)/ 2|\rMJ5' / JubiTH
Jfii
o>'*
>T
»lea
3/
o
\
J
Wi,
'g ?ffkf$*<*
/"'Si7P„S^^ Cr'^ ^ \ GtynaWfJ /«- ' "oodles'? ,
^/ff; Ir.,A J X.. 7 » / XV Xj . .-J Fl >J %
ilandani BISM-4RCff^«S«^°X
«4' A
'^ <?
s o
IS
aW
i2T
"iT^v. j AI1'anoe
San rranciscoA*,!
rV
^>^o.
°^^c
«Sl
>1 ^ \iMS^•o^iKi''3T,
La/amie
^E B
^,.
5*
- 2 north '-ii nS Pta* fterlingj
VZ&
'w-' J5 V/ _A t^k?^.
xNorthT«J|itte
rJ<^S^earney_a,JJ^Tori:
HoJdre
_V\ Comx
L.Winnipeg
B-U i °
H Greenwich 87
UNITED STATES
SCALE OF MILES
1 ^WfXwl j^UsJQ*H?S
' ~JaXLS
|4Eau<
RaribauSj\S7iaoii
v.KocE
Alpena
1oJ9
JflaS
>1^
tf.
-^ono
,m<>»
C.C"d
s=^fc
INC
ncil Bluffs
\,
•\ ..ASS
(Osiali
Mlkca1
<<>■■'
iaha
o*3Ll t> i , ^vi &»^r *™~ •>
jT;.ioa
*e*Cr°
*GF
■'■:••-
/Nevi
JS*
Six*5
"<»
™A/
oort Itt
Wile
^ett^ilfry^?^ureto\^,
Fort Smith\
Jot Springs
s«a5}t h^-^/%^^' rtSi!^!C-fe *"*■<&
*yt0T//ClevdMT^Pa^rfSSSS74^SSSJ-A -
N
:e1f "vf^^^l!16/ 1
Rome/
Sv
Sn&t01!
FtjyoS
(Dura
•VBK8^,. Tex
th >Tc«Wt_Eyler
'arsh^l
yC\Palestii,e
■"^:
%uM^^^^,
felGreenViU*
fazoqr-7 (^
otoiy
thcniSfCota11
ieau£ort
atvn»k
\HS»
Sew Iberia^
'FraoUiB
BrooW aven
j4t /Sa^¥u¥
ctsonv
ndioa
fe?
^
^
jrleans
Tistme
^e
M-or
N&r*^
■aj,
'Ifatosrordo
Bay
CKmtiJIay
a
u
L>
» Delta of the
' jfississW1 K-
F
c?# fff Cedar Keys
-CCanaue
ra(
o
PortTaa
'A
.V.
3^
E
a
C.Ron"1'!0
O
NEW PRpv'0£VCf ^^ ^) ^
"asdr°s
-ttft*
%."
DRYT0«T05»S .^.;>-^0- ^•I
9**
West
92
H
from
87
Greenwich 82
K
IB
56
•
25
PI.ATE ».
81
B Longitude
West
from
Greenwich
MIDDLE ATLANTIC
STATES
SCALE OF MILES
Whitt
£ jB^let).,2«/t- °»ove Sea Lev'Q
0 10 20 30 10 50 60 70
A
\
■r~
J6
eny%>hila^ilphia''lz.?J/ £/3$f - "tit Mart?
gSacketts Harbor
■fe.
'"-ntralS
/,/)°(P Jake w
TiEdjrSrd
!>
ixsackie [^ .^Ch|thama
44
• KercerV "^i
&
Brookvi
40
WE8TERN PART OF
TIRGDJIA
Same Scale
"T\.^. /^ * Kittannutg"
^^.New'Brighton jp , .
I>ubois
- *
D Apollo
J'airy^-
CWberlandV |illegSS^^*gSb®5vB^tf^*r
w£burj ] ^g^^SSS^ *|
Wheeling} ■ yj dharteroN fe ft ,*
Coudereport
tEmpprium, ^
, -k> WaVerhgSS-
Atll'engBbayre Great Ben„ . ~,.
cTroy \% Hontrose0 Susquehanna «^
TowandaVife. Q, <W*
o„ jV ^S%s ; Jt*br Forest *«„ ^ ,
0 Canton^ -a o ecityt&ta
Tunkhannoe¥\^>*°4,*^ *ArehbeiKj53U-
ExeterV @ •Duffmore ^-^°t
Old Korgfe . Scranton Port
Pittstonfc o Avoca Milr -
q\ Willia.mSport Ed»ardsdaie. ./nriikesbslrre I / y-^T^^'^f"
~ .Muncy^lymouth^™1^/"' | / /T M^
ATSKlX'' 'JS//
'-©augerties
M / <
ffr ^Philmont
RJiinep^ek,'
42
C.
Altoon
Ebensburg\
HoBidaysburg
Johnstown
>»erset
Lebanon
*Bedfor
^SSS&feh- % .j^.Middletown PhoenLVmU Norristown:} ^*^ W ^eS^a0cean^£arJ<:
_!&**■*« ^Marietta . - ^JfcL ^TOrifeW
Shippensburg* /^ ^£- -9 Lancaster ^^^g^gr/P^
Chambersbnrg _. _ J ^M/^0^'^ ^^^M^^ ^ /^^m
[a_^~*#ip7 Gloucester- WSBarnegat
^^•Wdpubu/yv Barnegat«« jnJe£
^efsdale,;^^^^^ Waf^on Gettysburg jHanova^!
». S'W„ \jy»M»-»SMJ ■■
38
V AXlent/own®t^* ^_,
'^rlestown.^^^on™ m <
Janding
—filbsecoit Inlet
^Atlantic City
May
_ "Bay
J^ford
astonl / '■■%,-Z3r>4- "
lorgetoi^-™1™! p^
iLfora'2>vKe5l,'Oth »*>>
rail
o
^^'
s
^y
JK
M Charles
^
-fi.Henru
V
V
40
SI
Longitude
79
West
from
77
Greenwich
j * ^O M' , N
PLATE E.
bans-^/S* Jtroj
j\ '^twj^f1 Mt.Mansfield
,»/^ F o JlRlchmond.
^•"fftH*^! Stratfor,
J,Rlchmond#
MT8. ■R«r\vffft'j / c ^N^*£ 8towe
aT/ / > Charlo(|te^K?te*bury JfP lbot
7 VA Camels\Hump £:\\MarabJfel*^arne!
/ '°^/erri8tals H B«tfi?l?0NTpEt,IE:
Bradfo^
>e%nd liAndovey T ™. /T
ihlaffl RumWdl „ ,,t
3erHnj
^o^^^Sa^^ ^?
Middlebutf
'iGepro-a
iiye*mflreW9»ls/'Trj
Lisbon ^p<>4F A J ^1»
oodsville ^W^«C \cJ^id\TO- ift^^o^^
yechill (?~^\BartIett Conftajj
Randolph
:jjandon'^M»3«XJfo''rfs?
.Pittsfora?' *V j©^
"'»■ *•>*• .rriiAaton reak^X ^■~r-?^ikCanaan '
,-, \ ILisbon
e
s.^ j/_Shre-wB
oultn
TPaw.
rfon
ft
Hartlandjfc?)a
Enfield.
I
a:
jtoi
O) WestnXn ster
hbay '
Othb^j' Harbor
**<?
IW'^*0^ ^Thon]:
jWindsorl
L J r\a.rfemoat -t>»»kiij
. LndlcwT-i (Pc~Z\_/l „ m-
pringflela, » Newport 3^ Bj^wen A^ BitlsfKld Roohea^
V I "*• ^K^Vt^W /T Sonle«»oJ
ChesterN/Cbarlestowi^ l^l/& V«0ff<:!0ED SaIn">J^
1 Allenstown
Ken neQ«SsSJF^rd
;\|8* Kenneb unk port
'W
**
FlSLE AU HAOT
^\
* '
"**
X\
ennington B|attleboro (Ha 3* "f "bof-o
a Athoi* 'r^fO
™ fLee ^Sw^hkraptottfca*^ \( •ffltrdwiik
Heqniken
_4ntr jm «]i W Ho^sC.jfayShe¥
Rt„.ft i ' /^-rliijrton HFalls /Jwinn^. l!14orofe-, Wear" Ap NeWm^wfUrr^^'6^
Portsmouth
oo*/Goftstl
iSWft
o;iSLES OF SH0AL8
[am'ptoa
^abrook
Wburyporfi
O.Ann
oucester
"tflSt
S*®Sf«S^
'Marblehead
i:.i ^&t.-t°»>«f$ „ Trv^^3fn!!h8B»^j'i3
VtvSf —
Hamngipn f
foke/r^u^l?S
\Palmer J / ^ %Mfi?'i,,Kh fen
r'a*
0
<£>
O
c
NEW ENaLANDi
STATES
SCALE OF MILES
10 20 30* 40 50 60 70 80
ordj
Wi!lffi«ord fl v«m JJ I &*M * ™*^t°HtJlCsr l/jf> ,
Havfen
^
• % "Al BLOCK I. ' -^L *^ ^
Montauk Pt.
C "West
e
PLATE F.
8 0&(0J^
PLATE G.
PEATE H.
104
102
C Longitude 100
D West
£ from 96
F Greenwich 94
92
90
88
A S S
J\ N J B n/ 1
^«%„
«
OU a|M ^X
/ hj! . (
■ -t
^rta^eJULEtaiiifcgj
*«„]1„ 1 ^ "^Mc^T^li St.Vincen'
^
<?>
Minot 7
Towne
»V (Minn
^
ifewftc
Mlltc.
.^r
^ Park^^fff toVar '
_ — !OL Ft.Totlen "''tt* f-l Pnrk.TLA. l.<
i Thief-River Falls ^
^T Washburn U.^iS^ J* , wV o HillsborS Ada^A pU,
4_jo_A) -tv.^w.a ik* Ir^Sa^ts*^
•Mandan,
Jamesto'
s-n.m^\'^\Joi's-^aPo^oD,^ $Vpa
—';-vVillian)s-_%ia LanWre^i
*_port /**^ j >A,
_r5f Eureka-
C/i
?r VW tiJ Sisseton,, ^'Wheatc,/ ^
Columbia?,
[\ Bangor ox - 3> j ■ o Lrroton^1
aeit7i«
1 Getty s
(Ft.Sully Ifi}
Blnnrj,
yt.Pierre'WPIEREE
EedfielcKyiAeigf]
Bed
£
-,1 Alice
) TirginiK|g°tfk Grand Maroon > ^
!'*»r „ *~ Hibbing « J- 1 y , / "&• -a
, 'Two rfr°flV V
Sarborsp'
3
^it,^6'
beciof.
'to %• -$* f-l . CO* l%razee
nsom") Sheldon w1 jp Barnes*i le \&Perhim S,
^i^>^^ T^d^ Leo,a2Xi.^ KSR^fHssHEn LrtsSn, ^ c^^tral states
V ^--»Siuk Cedter
Sa
Morris
>t., ojWatSay:;!>\prtonv{lle^-i -Bern
1\ i- f H f^^Tf^rjTwUma,
V
^tP ,43K^it0?%^brrh WESTERN 'SECTION
.k^~ r«»_,.i._SMa,dii
SCALE OF MILES
'Waterfrwn G&nit^' Hutehtko^^ff^Js t'^ W J
FaJK* » *T5..*,„;u,. >^T!haskiW»t^: . i MHTTatttmirS K
-0 20 40
80 100 120 140 160
Jiiadh
J»wn _„
KV -^^ („cyCa^rewood%* cfbv.ke P^^P^^^ ^3#,,^^3W^
3^5 in filler W.-^^00^ C4"> 'feL^ G1T^»0[°^ S®«
- Huron J« W^^t^jH|tfilufi^-^H%^™^
_ \ T^B«H2n'2.c'„o/Broo|ingS. IT si'^v ^^TX^^ft^TM/fci^Si
RedWiri,
Jim
.Pcmn
Wessington SprsX-1 |
IfoonsockeV Kh.
White/ Rw
'a;.
%
fif
y^^ Mitchell f Sioux\Fall;
Oh
Tr*—
^k
^adi-o'Di: -
Rushvffl.L- .^ Valentine.
M Harrison
Snake _ «
Hemingford
•Aiiiazice
tf^'. bf^fo 2fifrf ^^"LeSot'lirJ / ^3?fi^- V^te^^lvNorthwood \. -^
Vir Ct-kemrieO"' Spencer T^lo /, ) Mason^oha\lesCifir--!
Scotland0 ^-"no tFte","^udson%heldcy:^Krai„feBbtlrefA1P<?nV Citf'
Z**tm
.tsroniery LaKC v^itj m-
Farlfciwtlt. ^'iAAj\e'w,
Madis4( •P'HtoDSX. . Shames*' *•> Crw, j ^S^f^S
Weils' vt Chatfield* 3C
npa»»oon60CKea V«»</,,^ Cf*«£ ^^♦.Jawatonna^
HTOa^<^fTsfadisB •nf-
cP"w^n. ( ivia* f^W mpHus ^W^SfV Winnebago j
LaKsin;
)ut ■«L?r¥?tonPa?ker_ J Jti^t ^* **/%&. )f \Osage
WheeleT\5
TtRandaii^ > t 0 'yiluds<>n,-Sh,eldoK^E:
.LforA -rHawaPtn
/
w
J?.
/crmilliodfOiangt? City
^^f^^2^"
Ainsworth Atkinsoiu^sg'^6'"
^reighton*
Haitington
lSionx
/
nnB Sand Hills HyanniT
Jh
'^»<al
-? '^-JV^^^^ Albion
Oakdale
jGandyo ^ [Broken Bow\ ^.
(^""wOa^'V* 0,s"*4l^-5. 1 ^^K^'P^yV^.VulIert^
<ihKy
fi^orthPJattl^£a'laway \ '\5
2 Centra'
HP -J?
__ Madison PtA %?f
pGia;,t *
"WestTJnion
Cherokee
Sto?m.l4ke ^
^g^crCityWrt.Dodge1^
! _fc!diirnv¥Lake City-J?
, Hampton \ \\Vaverly
Eagjegicdve . •
Wis
conij
■^a^e^GhSfl1
y^
^
Oelwein
47
•City- lotya F^,lls
: Eldora ■
WaterJoot&j
.Monticello5^-
|\^VintonVL .A. " MaqiiokefPfeA
^C^rrollWVso^ feaiu^fe;Ue pfo^"^^
W ^Ttella- *haye|1eer^tYir--«i,l^%ockl41and
, Andubon
Periy
AdeM
. / / •
'Logati* Harlan
Misfctiri. Atlantic DES fflOp**
Wle;
rafi. Atlo
ey •
t«Tli>— *Sr,wetJ*"XkOii,.i'll 57'"5J ' ,Winterset
l/^^^^WahAt^ ^n,:11 B1°ff/
■^
Ihdianola
Knoxville
^Ir-Oj
* Sigournej-v^/ ;fjiU8Cattae
W- /
-vj I Siockviii?'^- t ^ .^^Har_vardf ^FrPnd^T '^^^'"-tS Hamburg 7 .XdSot-d ^ T^n faT ■ Ml
"fc^^^^^^^^aa^^^^i I felt iSkfk'S"
^D^rili i r.«fe**3 ife G)enWOod V Creston ^vSW>,1 /Chariton AlbiaX /^"^Sv" ^iSTi=^.
-S city S.Oa*>>-aari-. ^TilWa - « »CI « _» f-» — ■ -:s^=p — f — ^AlCPl^anK
t.MadiBon
* KiHok ^f Keokuk-
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^*'
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a'Eiina* <|antor|
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JtK ft"-^ A.\at\ » Jisrange^^
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'Ssr
ll^^rjinS^r^^o Smith Center Bd'fev\lle-,/,.'Ia2y»V"> Seneca
g^^jp^ ■ »*™<w "J^ Canker j
"Goodland"^!3Ly
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r
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Louiii^na
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>
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Lakin Garden
tZ&^l**1"" Kinney
ta^
h
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Nictef60"^ .Newton / Burlfnitoif^: Biea^nton*!;' »lWf ul)*5scebla e ^^eJjBoUaC>^0 Bonne Torre ■»
VHal.tead^Xi ,% ^S^^T%^^ ^H A^ ^V fflfl
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'GrempneHU M|f»hfield
Howa:
V:
h %v/b
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15
43
11
30
. li outon wmhv-k" - v, -•
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^.jtL ?*^S vn F°plaf7 7
jjppljn
.JIf?SS^
B
102
100 longitude D
98
West
96 from
93
91
17
B
PLATE I.
nong
\.
ISLE ROYAL
\>
A
APOStLES IDS
C>.»»STOCKTON I.
\ 87 Longitude D West 85 from E Greenwich
V
s u p V
MICHIPICOTEN l£>*v.
Elev.,002 ft- above Sea z J§! .fc,
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yvr/y+J-t r^riden„ .,
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ri-SJiiN i
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£>/-iondovi* *** ,
J^ I pr2lou%G.eenBay
y<g7ana Ra^ds :Swibna«i *£T K£waui
BlaekRiver /^ Waupaca; A/ppIeton. % "*pere
Shavanoy / *
tNeillsville |^vens Point •fc,;!!ie/y _ A'
Arcadia
^Fountain
'■Falls
'^
beaver/i. J
Great
* * V>_1;
N.MAMTOU l.Q
At S.MANITC
urg^on Bay
'Kaukanna
Winona^ttejape^^ Kecedah fw__J_ > ^ Two Rivets ^
eau Vecedah/ "" 1 £?9an 4Xufoa^RIe"a»l'»
V\i - P?i1 •Tomat \ BerliD^T^ • Chilton/Manitowoc'
*A-*OnalasKa. / , •WLisbon ; -Ber,]^^,nu-<MOsllkoSll
La 6rosse / MMstoa^V.^Tontelloj^^! .Wl'«ui Winnebago.
^ J ^IroX \ tX^fo^'duLac^ . JsheboyganN
?|%«1 h-^bouraY '^Waup'un*^ plymouth atfeboygan
yville
Falls
^
as
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0| fepiohlaad Center /Lo?1 Hlrieq*t Wcst Beod7 Port
V WSii'iSSdffi "5^ !_, Columbus ''Wanford ^Washington
Prairie diif YvjC? ^^^\_ ^/^ ■■* n aterido •.,-„! . • --. #*
^Thien A LXBoscobel^^ "^Z, . •«.„*^^iertow1f Cldarburg
IFenniniofe^^Jfineral Point ^~^VJ5ltefSonT'^~!^nJwa«kee
s Lancast«r\ I S tough ton *S J^fAiWnsoq WaukeshaS p« d"hT
.Platteville -Evansville . jpse™>* WhitewW *p. Milwaukee
Darlin^tnV: V^ Anesvllle iBurlintton N-J
CT ,f v.SM°nr0e. -<«Br|lhW. ♦E,i,ii?f'' fBacine
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s
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1 Frankfort.
^
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s
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undyr ^
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■Whitehall
Grand Haven
~ Sparta* . «Beldiug *Ta»-j "
~& ,lou,t | St. JohnsJ^T^ _„fc Hiuron
ri=-u
ar Rapids
f ^^*— ^pSilan'dO* ,iSi» ^«l)urand », I .- ' ' fl* ~ ■
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PttV Wastlngs « Irason Howell* Vonuac ••
* I • ^J*C_Otseeo ^^ev'"eL*-«VpaionB?B14s-«Kort^ville i ' ( i. SK A r, f L, T -C<
3 South Haven/. %V»t"seg„ ,V / V »Leslie Tf, • _ t„,t ;„f^i„A /Cbaiham/ -Q A ..
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8CALE OF MILE8
Beattyvifle^2-^ , -c^ i »^ / y / r5 \
Jg»*X'"ScDV* rf^-kz^o ^Htchfleld; VfV+v.> -Stanford ^ksaJr^UPi-evilTiC*/ f QA />f
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87
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from
85
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83
37
81
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PLATE K.
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O
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120 D Longitude E 100 F West 90 C 80 H from 70 | Greenwich J
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£iPa
°.-fe y Comparative Area,
£
400 MILES
T&iNBYLVANIA S
45,000 SQ. MILES V
THE WHOLE flECTANGLE
CONTAINS 100, 00Q SQ. MILES I
Lougi&ude 90 West Q from 80 Greenwich H
70
to
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85
80
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G ET
HK»8«gg8B£
Comparative/ Area -
J.;
400 MILES
PENNSYLVANIA
46,000 SQ. MILES
TJ4E WHOLE RECTANGLE
CONTAINS 100,000 SQ. WILES
M E X
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CENTRAXi AMERICA
AXD PART OF THE
WEST INDIES
SCALE OF MILES
100
200 300 400 500
ISLA OE PIN09 O
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Puert
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105
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-*
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85
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SCALE OF MILES
0 100~~ 2W~ 300 iOO 500 600 700 800
Comparative Area
o Ancn4^>i%lffiicliiV'ai/icfa2 £gJ%JvALOES peni isula i?'
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H
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BATNTE marie t
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8CALE OF MILE8
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Malmesbur^o
0 100 200 300 100 500 600
I I English
t I German
Bailroads :
I French
f Italian
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Spanish
irc/
^
2
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Comparative Area
--| 400 MILES
PENNSYLVANIA >
45,000 SQ.MILEsC
THE WHOLE RECTAWGLe
CONTAINS 100,000 3Q. MILES
A Longitude 10 West B
10 Longitude D East 20 from E Greenwich30
40
50
H
60
PLATE R.
PLATE S.
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16
H
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ITALY
AT THE TIME OF
AUGUSTUS
SCALE OF MILES
0 10 20 30 40 50
*t*
LADESTA"1 MEUTA
"stfnetrias <£
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lystus
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36
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AT THE TIME OF
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SCALE OF MILES
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/£GILIa'(\
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M
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0 10 20 30
33
PALESTINE,
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AND PART OF
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A.D. 70
SCALE OF MILES
32
THE NEhEB '/ V-. ■*>
31
30
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Cleopatrisf Y/7erooj)oM
(Suez) | \ Sinus
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28
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PLATE X.
SUPPLEMENT TO FRYE'S GEOGRAPHY
THK
New England States
BY
WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS
Professor of Physical Geography in Harvard University
BOSTON, U.S.A., AND LONDON
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS
Copyright, iHqi, /Q02, by Ginn &• Co.
66.8
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.
1. Relief and Drainage.1
Locate this group of states.
*
The area of New England is 66,465 square miles, —
about one fiftieth that of the United States.
Use the scale
on the map/ and
find how many
miles New Eng-
land measures
north and south;
— east and west.
What states
of our country
extend farther
north than
Maine ? Name
two countries in
Europe, and two
in Asia, that are
in about the
same latitude as New. England. What meridian is near the east-
ern point of Maine ? Name two countries in South America that
are crossed by this meridian. Which is farther east, Cape Horn
or the most easterly point of Maine ?
What part of New England is halfway between the equator and
the pole ?
What countries in the southern hemisphere are as far from the
equator as 4New England ?
The greater part of the surface of New England
descends from the interior towards the coast, forming a
rolling upland, above which mountains rise and below
which valleys have been worn out.
The interior is rugged and mountainous. This part
belongs in the Old Appalachian range. Towards the
coast, the uplands are lower and more open to settlement.
Summit of Mt. Monadnock, New Hampshire.
New England Upland.
This portion belongs in the piedmont belt ; but no
distinct boundary can be drawn between the two parts.
1 For map of New England, consult Index.
A small portion of southeast Massachusetts may be in-
cluded in the Atlantic coastal plain.
Standing on a hill, a little above the general level, one may see
the rolling surface of the upland for many miles on all sides. In
the interior, its height reaches one or two thousand feet. It may
there be thought of as an uneven plateau.
On the northeast the upland continues into Canada. On the
north it slopes gradually into the St. Lawrence valley. On the
west it descends more rapidly into the Great Valley, here known
as the Hudson-Champlain valley. On the southwest it extends
across southern New York, where it is cut by the deep gorge of the
Hudson.
The Connecticut valley is a long and deep trough extending
southward through the upland, west of its middle part.
The chief groups or ranges of mountains of the interior
highland are the White mountains of New Hampshire,
the Green mountains of Vermont, and a broken chain
crossing northern Maine.
Besides these groups or ranges, there are many single mountains
rising above the general level of the upland, — like Monadnock in
New Hampshire, Wachusett in Massachusetts, Green mountain (on
Mt. Desert) on
the coast of
Maine, and As-
cutney in Ver-
mont.
Many of these
lone mountains
look like old
volcanoes ; but
instead of hav-
ing been built
up by eruption,
their height is due to the excessive hardness of their rocks. They
have strongly resisted weathering, while the less resistant rocks of
the surrounding region have wasted away. These mountains show
that the whole region was once much higher than it now is.
The divides between the long rivers that flow south or southeast
to the Atlantic and the shorter rivers that flow west to the Hudson-
Champlain valley or north to the St. Lawrence valley do not follow
the chief mountain ranges, but lie on the upland east of the moun-
tains in Vermont, and north of them in New Hampshire and Maine.
The Missisquoi, Lamoille and Winooski rise east of the Green
mountains, but flow westward into Lake Champlain.
The Connecticut and Androscoggin drain a region north of the
White mountains, as well as south and southeast. The Kennebec,
Penobscot and the St. John gather their headwaters beyond the
highest mountains of northern Maine.
The valleys that are worn below the general level of
the upland vary greatly in form. They are generally
deep and narrow in the interior, where the upland is
high ; but shallow and wide near the coast, where the
upland is lower. The latter portion of the country is
therefore more easily occupied and traveled over, and
contains the greater part of the population.
Coastal Plain, Southeast Massachusetts.
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.
Where the upland is high and the rocks are so hard that they
weather slowly, the valleys are deep and narrow, — like the Deer-
field valley in western Massachusetts. Such valleys are useful in
guiding roads and railroads ; they give place for
many busy villages ; but they afford little room for
fields and for farming. The farms thereabout are
chiefly on the uplands.
Some of the valleys following belts of weak
rocks are broad and open, like lowlands within the
upland. Such is the greater part of the broad
lower Connecticut valley. Much of the best farm-
ing land and a number of the larger cities are
found in the open valleys of the interior.
New England is part of the region in northeast
America that was many thousand years ago deeply
covered by ice. The ice sheet filled its valleys,
spread over its uplands and buried all or nearly
all its mountains out of sight, creeping slowly to
the sea on the east and
south, and for a time con-
verting the region into an
ice plateau, like that which
covers most of Greenland
to-day.
The very irregular shore
lines and the numerous
islands of many New
England lakes, — such as
Moosehead and Winnepe-
saukee, — indicate that
they are generally caused
by choking ancient valleys
with glacial drift. The
lake waters therefore rise
on the valley slopes behind
the drift barrier, forming an irregular shore line, like that formed
where the land sinks partly beneath the sea.
Lakes are often used as natural reservoirs for water power in
their outlet streams, and for water supply of cities and towns.
New England stands lower now than formerly, for its
valleys are partly drowned, and its coastline is very irreg-
ular or broken. The Penobscot and Narragansett bays,
and many other arms of the sea form excel-
lent harbors. These have been of much
importance in determining the place of
early settlements along the coast, and thus
in fixing the position of many important
cities, such as Portland, Boston, Providence
and New Haven.
2. Climate.
Consult Index for this topic.
The position of New England in the cool
belt and in the northeast part of our coun-
try gives it a severe climate. In spring and
autumn there are rapid changes of season,
weather changes are numerous and strong.
July, the warmest month, averages about 75° in the south and
65° in the north. Southwesterly winds then prevail, bringing
warm or hot air from the Southern states. During the cloudy
or stormy weather caused
by passing storm eddies,
warm damp southerly
winds are often drawn in
from over the Gulf stream ;
as the storm center passes
by, the sky clears and fresh
northwest winds give cool-
er weather for a day or two.
In the fair weather of
summer, the inland valleys
have occasional spells of
very hot weather, while
the uplands have hot days
but cool nights. The coast
is cooled by the noonday
sea breeze.
Much rain falls in sum-
mer from thunderstorms
which drift across New
England from the west,
watering a belt of land
under their heavy clouds.
The winters in New
England are cold and se-
vere. January, the coldest month, averages
about 15° in the north and 30° in the south.
The prevailing winter winds are from the north-
west, bringing cold air from the Canadian plains.
Lakes and rivers are frozen and the ice is then
harvested. The eddying storms of winter are
frequent and strong. They move rapidly east-
ward ancTproduce many changes in the winds and temperature.
When the winter winds' come from the south from over the
Gulf stream, our weather is comparatively mild, with low clouds
and rain or snow. When the winter winds come from the Labrador
current, we have the chilling " northeaster," with heavy snow.
These cloudy winds are followed by clear and cold northwest winds,
bringing cold waves.
The lowest temperatures of winter occur in the calm nights that
Gorge of
Wlnooski River,
Vermont.
In winter the
Bar Harbor, Mt. Desert, Maine
follow cold waves. At such times the air m the valleys is colder
than that on the uplands and hills. Even on Mt. Washington it
may be warmer than on the surrounding lower lands.
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.
The total annual rainfall, including melted snow, averages about tourmalines of Maine, the beryls (the largest known) of New
35 inches in the northwest part of New England, increasing to Hampshire and Connecticut ; as well as topaz, amethyst and rose
about 50 inches in the south and along the coast. On the mountains quartz from various localities. Mineral spring water from New
the rainfall is heavier ;
the top of Mt. Washing-
ton having an average
rainfall of 85 inches.
The rainfall of New
England is well distrib-
uted through the year
and injurious drouths sel-
dom occur.
3. Mineral Products.
Building stones con-
stitute the most valu-
able mineral products
of the old mountain region of New
England. Granite, marble, lime-
stone, sandstone and slate are quar-
ried in large quantities.
All the New England states quarry
granite, but Massachusetts and Maine
yield twice as much as all the other states.
The marble quarries of New England
are almost all in the valleys of the Green
mountains in Vermont. Much more of
this beautiful stone is here produced than
in all the rest of the United States.
Limestone is quarried chiefly at a few
points on the coast of Maine, but also in
the Green mountain valleys.
lied sandstone, or " brownstone," is worked extensively in the
Connecticut valley, but Ohio produces much more sandstone than
any other state.
Roofing slate occurs among the Green mountains, and in Maine,
but a greater quantity is produced from the Great Valley in
Pennsylvania.
Mica for stove doors, soapstone for sinks, emery and whetstones
for sharpening tools, kaolin for pottery, clay for brick-making,
ocher for paint, are produced in various parts of New England.
The ores of the useful and the precious metals are not abundant
in New England. A few deposits of gold and silver and copper
Marble Quarry and "Works, Vermont.
Hampshire, Maine and
Massachusetts is sold
annually to the value of
nearly a million dollars.
4. Plants and
Animals.
When first settled
by white people, New
England was covered
with an almost con-
tinuous forest, — a
part of the forest belt
stretching westward beyond the
Great Lakes.
The trees were chiefly pine, spruce,
oak, ash, birch, hemlock, maple, elm
and poplar.
This original forest was frequently
injured by fire. Its tree-growth was
less dense than that of to-day ; and al-
though much land has now been cleared,
it is thought that there are as many
trees at present in New England as when
the early white men came.
In the south of New England the
forests now remain scattered over
the uplands ; in the north they ex-
Vinalhaven Granite "Works.
have been found, but they have seldom been a source of profitable
mining. Eare and beautiful minerals are found at many places in
the old rocks of New England. Among the most noted are the
tend over a large part of the surface.
The abundance and variety of hard-wood and soft-wood trees
have given rise to an active lumber industry in the interior, espe-
cially in Maine. In many villages and. cities, furniture and wooden
ware are manufactured. Much lumber is used for boxes in which
the manufactured products of New England are shipped to other
states. A large amount of wood is made into pulp for the manu-
facture of paper. Shipbuilding is practiced in several ports, but
less actively than formerly.
Grain is not raised in large quantity in New England.
Hay, garden products, apples and other fruits are of more
importance. Cranberries are a valuable crop in the
meadows among the hills of southeastern Massachusetts.
Much tobacco is raised in the Connecticut valley.
The early settlers found numerous wild animals ; but
now all the larger animals have disappeared, except in
the great forests of the north.
The larger animals still remaining are the moose, caribou, deer,
bear and wolf. The smaller animals of the forest area in the north
are the catamount, lynx or wild cat, beaver, sable, otter and marten.
The fox, raccoon, hedgehog or porcupine, skunk, woodchuck,
rabbit, squirrel, muskrat, mink and weasel are more common and
widely distributed.
The larger birds are the eagle, hawk, crow, owl, duck and par-
tridge. Many kinds of geese pass north and south over New Eng-
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.
laud in their annual migrations. Smaller birds are found in great
variety.
The vast numbers of food fish found in the shallow
waters along the New England coast, and on the " banks "
to the northeast, have given rise to fisheries of great im-
portance, in which many people are engaged.
What have you read about these fisheries ?
Which are the most important fisheries on the New England coast ?
What is the chief fishing port of the Union ?
Fishing was one of the earliest profitable industries in which the
New England settlers engaged.
5. Settlement of New England.
The discoveries in New England by Norsemen from Iceland or
Greenland, before the time of Columbus, are so vaguely recorded
that no definite account of them can be given.
For more than a century after the discovery of America
by Columbus, New England was visited only by explorers.
Among these
was Captain
John Smith,
who founded
the James-
town colony
in Virginia
(1607). Seven
years later he
made a ♦voy-
age from Eng-
land to our
coast. He re-
turned home
with a cargo
of fish and
furs ; and in
order to at-
tract colonists here from old England, he called the region
New England.
The- first permanent settlement in New England was
made in 1620, at Plymouth, by a band of about one
hundred English colonists.
These were "Separatists" from the Church of England who
were called Pilgrims, because they had left their English homes
and gone to Holland where they might be free to follow their
religious belief. Dissatisfied in Holland, a party of Pilgrims
returned to England, and thence sailed in the "Mayflower" for
America. After sighting Cape Cod and touching at various places,
they landed at Plymouth.
Other colonists known as "Puritans" soon followed,
making settlements at Salem (1628), Boston (1630), and
neighboring points. These later settlements formed the
colony of Massachusetts Bay, of which Boston soon be-
came the chief place. About three quarters of a century
after the landing of the Pilgrims, their colony was joined
to the Massachusetts Bay colony.
All these settlements were made in sheltered bays or on tidal
rivers, where vessels could find protection in stormy weather.
Among the settlements farther north were those at
Cutting Statues in Westerly Granite.
Lime Kiln, Rockland, Maine.
Saco, Portsmouth and Dover, thus founding what later
became Maine and New Hampshire.
These colonies grew more slowly than those farther south. The
settlements in Maine were later joined to the more powerful colony
of Massachusetts ; and those in New Hampshire were from time to
time under the same protection.
As the number of people along the coast increased, they made
settlements farther inland, generally selecting the more open valleys
where good land was found for farming on the terraces or flood
plains of the streams, or on the drift-covered slopes of the uplands.
Connecticut was settled in 1635-6, by people from
towns of the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies.
These people were tempted to move inland, by reports of
the fertility of the inner valleys. They founded the
towns of Wethersfield, Hartford and Windsor.
Before the time of these settlements, Connecticut had been
visited by the Dutch from their colony at New Netherlands (now
New York), and a trading fort had been built on the site of Hart-
ford. This was afterwards abandoned.
In 1639, the Connecticut towns — until then a branch of Massa-
chusetts — adopted a constitution for self-government, recognizing
the king of
England as the
only higher
authority.
This was the
"first written
constitution
k
to history, that
created a govern-
ment."
Curing Tobacco, Connecticut.
Eight years
after Boston was founded, a colony of Puritans settled in
New Haven, and other settlements were made near by.
6
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.
Later these were united with the older Connecticut colony, should be the boundary between New York and New Hampshire.
The first permanent settlement in Rhode Island was The New Hampshire settlers west of the river were dissatisfied
with this, and formed a separate government the
year after the signing of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence.
In these early years the people lived in a very
primitive way. There were no steamships. The
sailing vessels in which the colonists crossed the
ocean were not so large as many of the schooners
that now trade along our coast. There were no
steam engines, no railroads, no telegraphs, no
newspapers.
There were small sawmills, gristmills and tan-
neries ; but for a longtime there were no factories.
Nearly all the people were farmers, traders or
fishermen.
Thread was spun and cloth was woven by hand.
Most families made their own rough " homespun "
clothing. The finer cloth, and nearly all manu-
factured articles, were for a long time brought
from England.
The forests and harbors promoted shipbuilding.
Many vessels were employed in the fisheries, and
in trading along the coast. Some even made long
voyages to England and theWest Indies.
The public affairs of each small com-
munity, or toivn, were discussed and settled
by the legal voters in a meeting held once a year. Town
officers were then elected to look after the collection of
taxes, the making and keeping of roads, the conduct
of. schools and other public matters. In this simple way,
the foundation of our present form of government was laid.
As the number of people increased, the public affairs of each
colony were settled in a " General Court," to which delegates were
elected by the voters in towns. Governors for the
colonies were generally elected by the people ; but
^ in Massachusetts, from 1 692 until the Eevolu-
tion, they were appointed by the king of
England.
During the early years there
was often trouble with the In-
dians whose lands the settlers
, had taken. Many little bat-
tles were fought, in which the
Indians were usually defeated.
At present there are few Indians
in New England. In 1890 there
were 559 in Maine, at Oldtown and
elsewhere in the southeastern part of
the state. The Penobscot tribe sends
a representative to the legislature. In
New Hampshire there were only 16 ; in
Vermont, 34. Massachusetts then had 428,
on the peninsula of Cape Cod and on Marthas
Vineyard. Ehode Island had 180 Indians, mostly
in Washington county; and Connecticut had 228,
Statehouse, Augusta.
made at Providence (1636), by Roger Williams with a
band of followers from Salem.
Williams was a Puritan minister at Salem. He believed that the
government should not exercise authority over religious opinions,
— a belief now everywhere accepted in this country. For preaching
this doctrine, Williams was banished from the colony. After
many hardships he reached the head of Narragansett bay. Here
he bought land from the Indians, and founded the colony
of Providence. Other settlements by refugees from
Massachusetts were soon made on Narragansett
bay, at Portsmouth, Newport, Wickford and .*»
Warwick. At length all the settlements
on this bay were united into one colony
called the colony of "Ehode Island
and the Providence Plantations."
Officially, the present state still
retains this double name, though
commonly known as Ehode Island.
The interior state of Ver- 1
mont was naturally the last I
of the New England states to a
be settled. The first perma-l
nent settlement was made on
the "Dummer meadows," near
Brattle b or o, by colonists from
Massachusetts.
Statehouse, Montpelier.
Further occupation of Vermont was slow.
It was never a separate colony. Settlers entered
from the east, under grants of land from New
Hampshire ; and from the west under grants from New York, thus chiefly in New London county,
causing a long dispute between these colonies. At length the The Indians of New England have long since given up their
English king decided that the west bank of the Connecticut river savage customs.
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.
At the time of the war of the Revolution, there were
thirteen colonies that became separate states. Those in
New England were Massachusetts (including Maine), New-
Hampshire, Rhode Island and Connecticut.
Vermont was admitted as a state into the Union in 1791, but
the " Green Mountain Boys " took an active part in the Revolution.
Maine was not separated from Massachusetts, to become a state,
until 1820.
6. Government of the States.
During the Revolution each colony became a state and
adopted a constitution, thus establishing the highest law
of the state and denning the manner in which its
public affairs should be carried on. • Shortly
after the Revolution, when the constitu-
tion of the United States was adopted,
the general government was given
power to settle affairs that had to
do with more than one state
In this way a single nation
was made out of the thirteen
original states.
The authority of a constitution
comes from the consent given to it
by a majority of the people of the
state. " The people " here means
the citizens who have the right to vote
Each state constitution requires
that a Governor shall be elected
by the voters ; and that it shall be
his duty to see that the affairs of the
state are executed as directed by the con-
stitution and in accordance with law.
Capitol,
In Massachusetts and Rhode Island the Governors are
elected for one year ; in the other New England states, for two years.
The Governor is aided in his duties by various state officers.
Of these the most important are : — the Secretary of State, who
has charge of the state records and of correspondence with other
states ; the Treasurer, who has charge of the state's money ; the
Attorney-General, who advises the other state officers in matters of
law, and who has charge of state suits in the courts ; the Super-
intendent of Schools (called by different titles in different states),
who has general oversight of the public schools.
The Governor and all these state officers form the
executive department of the state government.
In order to meet the new conditions that arise in the
growth of a state, the constitution directs that two bodies
of law makers, called the Senate and the House of
Representatives (together forming the state legislature)
shall be elected and shall, subject to the constitution,
enact such regulations, or statutes, as are needed.
The manner of voting, the number of weeks each year during
which schools must be held, the inspection of factories, the season
in which game may be hunted or fish taken, and a great number of
other public matters are determined by statute law.
The members of the legislature constitul jts-
latin; (i, purlin' ,)t of the state government.
In order that any disputed questions arisi _ tween
the citizens of a state shall be fairly settled, they are
referred to the courts. After a public hearing, I
questions in dispute are decided by the com ting
under the laws of the state.
All officers of the courts belong to the judiciary depart-
meat of the state government.
7. Growth of New England.
For manv years before the interior of the United 8i
settled, the people of New England supported themse
on local products of farms and fisheries, receiving
most manufactured products from England.
"When the prairie region was opened to
settlement, many New England people
left their rugged hill country for the
broad fields and rich soil of the \\
At the same time the ingenuity and
enterprise of the New England
people were developed by the con-
stant effort needed to gain a living
in a new country. .Many ma-
chines were invented, by means
of which manufacturing and or!
work were greatly -aided,
wealth that had been gathered by
the people in the cities along the
coast enabled them to build mills
and factories in the inland towns.
When the settlement of the prairie si
and the growth of New England manu-
factures had well begun, the building
railroads gave great assistance to both i g
The farm products of the prairies and the manu-
Hartford. factured products of the East were exchange,;
rail, thus promoting the growth of an active trade between
the two parts of the country.
Railroads are now widely extended over New England, espe-
cially over the piedmont belt and along the chief valleys of the
interior, reaching all the important manufacturing and trading
cities and towns. On the lower land near the coast a network of
railroads connects the important harbor cities with the neighboring
inland cities and towns. Farther inland, where the valleys are
deeply cut in the upland, most of the railroads follow the river
banks, and cross the upland only between the heads of two opposed
valleys.
Trace examples of this kind in following on the map the rail-
roads from Fitchburg to Greenfield, and from Springfield to Pitts-
field ; east and west from Montpelier; on several lines between
the Merrimac and Connecticut valleys in New Hampshire. Note
the effect of the paired valleys of Millers and Deerfield rivers, and
of Chicopee and Westfield rivers, in Massachusetts, on railroad
routes. How do the railroads of Connecticut reach the interior of
the state from the coastal cities, as shown on the map ?
In recent years, many electric railroads have been built. These
are rapidly increasing in number and importance.
Besides numerous improvements on older forms of machinery,
many inventions of great value have been made by Xew England
people. These have frequently led to the building of large manu-
8
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.
facturing establishments. The following are a few of the most
notable inventions : — Blanchard's lathe, for turning ax handles,
wagon spokes, musket stocks, etc. ; Colt's revolving chamber for
pistols ; Howe's needle with the eye near the point, for sewing
machines ; Corliss' " cut-off " valve, for saving steam in engines ;
Blake's " transmitter,"
used with telephones ;
Whitney's cotton gin.
The coastwise trad-
ing that had been
begun in early times has
also been greatly ex-
tended. Manufactured
articles, lumber, build-
ing stone and ice are
shipped from New Eng-
land ports. Coal, grain,
cotton, wool and other
raw materials are
brought back. Hun-
dreds of schooners sail
between northern and southern ports. Thus it was
that as New England grew in wealth and population,
it became more and more a manufacturing and com-
mercial region, and less and less a farming region.
For this reason, in the last forty or fifty years many
upland villages have decreased in population ; but in
the same period the factory villages in the valleys have grown
rapidly. As a whole, New England has increased wonderfully in
both wealth and population.
The opening of new lands for settlement, and the ■ development
of new industries, have tempted many people to emigrate from
Europe to the United States, — chiefly from the British Isles and
Germany. The greater number of these emigrants have landed at
New York and gone inland ; but many have come to New England,
especially to the three southern states, In recent years, large
Memorial Hall,
Harvard University.
Austin Hall, Harvard Law School.
Yale University Buildings, New Haven.
numbers of French Canadians have come to our manufacturing
cities to work in the mills and factories, as at Lewiston, Manchester,
Lowell and Waterbury.1 The people of New England are noted
for their thrift, their attention to education and their general cul-
ture. Massachusetts ranks in manufactures fourth in the Union.
1 For area and population of the states, see Supplement.
8. Education.
Among the early acts of the colonists in New England
was the establishment of schools and colleges. Before the
end of the seventeenth century, nearly every town had
its school.
In 1636 the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay
colony voted a sum of about $2000 to found a college.
In 1638 John Harvard died and left his library and
half his property (about $4000) to this college. His
name, Harvard, was then given to the college ; and the
town where it was established, before called Newtown,
was named Cambridge, after the University in England
where John Harvard had studied. This was the first
college founded in the
English colonies. It has
now grown to be " Har-
vard University."
In 1644 a free public
school was established
by the town of Dedham,
near Boston. This
school was supported by
a general tax on the peo-
ple, and was the first
school of the kind in the
country. In 1701 a college was founded by the Connecticut colony
at Saybrook. In 1718 this college received gifts amounting to about
$4000 from Elihu Yale. The school was then removed to New
Haven, and was named after its benefactor. Elihu Yale was born
in New England, but went to England and later to India, where he
made a large fortune. The institution is now called "Yale
University."
Brown University, at Providence, R. I., and Dartmouth College,
at Hanover, N. H., were the next colleges founded in New England.
An extensive public school system is at present main-
tained in all the New England states. There are also
many colleges and technical schools where higher studies
may be followed.
Besides the primary and grammar schools in every town,
there are public high schools in the larger towns and cities.
These schools give a general education, or fit their scholars
for colleges and professional schools.
There are also many endowed schools and academies, supported
in part by money that has been given by generous people.
Manual training schools have recently been established to give
attention to various kinds of practical work in preparation for the
arts and trades, as well as to broaden the general education.
Business schools are found in the larger cities, where book-keeping,
telegraphy, etc., are taught. Normal schools, supported by state
funds, are established for the special education of teachers.
Technical schools, where engineering, chemistry and similar
subjects are taught, are now found in several of the large cities.
The most famous school of this kind in New England is the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, in Boston.
While most of the higher institutions of learning are open to
men only, some are open to both men and women. There are also
several colleges exclusively for women.
Public libraries are established in nearly all cities and in
most of the important towns.
MAIXE.
Physical Features.
The rugged interior of Maine is a portion of the New
England highland. It has a general altitude of from 1500
to 2000 feet, with many hills and low mountains still
higher. From the highland, a southward slope leads the
numerous rivers across the lower and more open piedmont
district to the sea.
The highest mountains of the state lie in an irregular belt about
one third of the way from the northern boundary to the coast.
They trend northeast from the White mountains to New Brunswick.
The elevation in feet of the chief mountains of the state is as
follows : Katahdin, 5200 ; Saddleback, 4005 ; Bigelow, 3600 ; Baker,
3589; Abraham, 3388 ; Spencer, 3100 ; Sugar Loaf, 3000.
Name five rivers of Maine. Which of these are wholly included
in the state ? Which one rises in Maine, but flows out of the state
on the way to the sea ? Which one rises in another state, but
crosses Maine ? Which flows out of Maine and then reenters the
state ? Which rivers form part of the state boundary ? Which
drains the larger area, the Kennebec or the Penobscot ? Bound
Maine.
The large lakes for which Maine is famous occur chiefly
in the northern upland, but many smaller ones are found
in the more open southern country. Over 1500 lakes and
ponds have been counted in the state. Their area ap-
proaches a tenth of the land surface.
Moosehead is the largest of these lakes. It has a very irregular
shore line and many islands, by which its beauty is much enhanced.
Locate six of the
large lakes of Maine.
By what rivers are
they discharged ?
Approaching
the coast, the
southern third of
the state belongs
to the piedmont
belt. It is a rol-
ling upland, with
many hills and a few
mountains rising
above the general
level and with many val-
leys worn below it. The
largest cities of the state
are in this district.
The tides are very strong in the bays of the eastern coast,
sometimes rising and falling as much as thirty feet. They cause
rapid currents in the narrow channels, and require high wharves to
serve at both high and low water.
Summit of Mt. Katahdin.
Cities and Towns.
The headlands and islands along the coast of Maine are
so much separated from one another and from the rest of
the state that they have not gained a large population.
There are about 300 islands large enough for occupation, besides
uncounted little islands and ledges.
The people of the headlands and islands
are chiefly occupied as fishermen
and sailors. Drying or canning
cod, mackerel, herring and lobsters
are leading industries in a
number of towns, such as
Eastport (5311 population)1;
Vinalhaven (2358) ; Deer Isle
(2047); Stonington
(1648). Vinalhaven
is well known for
its granite.
There are many
famous summer re-
sorts on the coast.
Among these are
Bar Harbor, Old
Orchard and York.
Portland Harbor.
Settlements on
the inner bays
The seacoast of Maine is the most irregular part of our and tidal rivers have the advantage of well protected
Atlantic coast. The fringe of headlands and islands, waters alongside or within the piedmont belt. Here a
separated by numerous bays and tidal rivers, varies from number of important cities and towns have grown,
ten to thirty miles in breadth.
Name the larger bays and islands of the coast. Where is the
fringe of headlands and islands broadest ? How far is Eastport
from Kittery ? The coastline of Maine, measured along the main-
land and island shores, is 4300 miles.
Portland (50,145) is the largest city in the state. It is
situated on a fine harbor in Casco bay, near the side of
1 The figures in parentheses placed after the names of cities and towns
give the population according to the national census of 1900. These
figures are for reference, and are not to be memorized.
Maine towards the other New England states.
Important railroad lines from the southwest,
northwest and northeast converge to this port.
In winter when the St. Lawrence river is frozen
over, Portland serves as a harbor for Canadian steam-
ships.
The most important of the varied manufactures
of Portland are machinery, clothing, lumber products,
boots and shoes. It exports lumber, wood pulp and
fish.1
Bath (10,477), on the tide water of the
Kennebec, has an excellent harbor and has
long been noted for shipbuilding. Iron as
well as wooden vessels are here constructed.
Belfast (4615), on Penobscot bay, has a
good harbor.
Boots and shoes, lumber, machinery and bricks
are manufactured here. Belfast exports granite and
farm products, and has shipyards.
The port of Kittery (2872) has a United
States navy yard. Hallowell (2714) has the
largest granite quarries in the state. Rock-
land (8150), Thomaston (2688), Camden (2825)
and Rockport (2314) quarry and burn great
quantities of limestone, and build ships.
The head of tide water is always a favorite
place for settlement. In New England, water
power is here frequently combined with
harborage.
Augusta (11,683), at a water power at the
head of tide on the Kennebec, was chosen as
state capital in 1832, on account of having a
more central location than Portland.
The capital city has important cotton factories,
publishes a large number of weekly papers, and
manufactures house finishings, paper and wood pulp.
1 The text in small type under " Cities and Towns "
is placed here mainly for reference. Pupils should study
such text relating to places near their homes, hut it is not
desirable to try to memorize all the text in small type.
The detailed knowledge of the minor industries of cities
and towns is far less important than the discovery of the
conditions upon which the growth of such places depends.
In connection with the latter, the following suggestions
may prove helpful to pupils, and may take the form of a
review :
Sketch a map of Maine, or trace a small map of the
state, and on it group the cities as follows. First, locate
all seaports mentioned in the text; second, locate the
places engaged in manufacturing ; third, locate cities and
towns in the order of population.
Describe the location of the seaports, the manufacturing
centers, the great centers of population. Try to tell why
the places were there located, — whether because of water
power, nearness to raw material, navigable water, or other-
wise. The same form of exercise may be used for all New
England, grouping only the largest and most important
cities.
12
MAINE.
Bangor (21,850) has great advantages of situation, from cities and towns at waterfalls or rapids, chiefly in
It lies far inland at the head of tide on the Penobscot, the southwestern part of the state, near the other New
England states. It is in this open jDiedmont district,
where population and manufactures are greatest, that
the railroads have been chiefly built.
Lewiston (23,761), the second city in population and
the second in manufactures, shares with Auburn (12,951)
the sixty-foot falls of the Androscoggin.
Lewiston produces cotton and woolen goods, and lumber and plan-
ing mill products. It has a large bleaching and dyeing establishment.
Auburn is the leading city of the state in making boots and
shoes. Among its other products are cotton goods, farming imple-
ments and carriages. .
Rumford Falls, on the Androscoggin, has fine water
power and is rapidly growing to be a leading center of
manufacturing. It has immense paper mills. The river
here descends 180 feet, in three falls.
Biddeford (16,145) and Saco (6122) share the lower
falls of the Saco river.
Biddeford produces cotton goods, machinery, boots, shoes and lum-
ber. Saco manufactures cotton goods, machinery, lumber and bricks.
Westbrook (7283) is a manufacturing center near Port-
land.
The principal ^products of
Westbrook are silk, cotton goods
and paper.
Shipping at Bangor.
is surrounded by a broad extent of piedmont country,
and receives from the upper basin of the river a vast
amount of lumber.
Bangor makes boots and shoes, machinery, cheese and butter
and a variety of lumber products. Great quantities of ice are
annually taken from the river and shipped to many ports.
Calais (7655) is at the
head of tide on the St.
Croix.
Lumber and shoes are manu-
factured here. Calais has a
foundry and machine shops,
granite quarries and plaster
mills. The raw plaster is
brought from Xova Scotia.
Brunswick (6806), at the
head of tide on the An-
droscoggin, is the seat of
Bow do in college, the oldest
college in the state.
Ice Cutting in Maine.
Waterville (9477) and
Skowhegan (5180) have
water power on the Kenne-
bec above Augusta.
Cotton and woolen goods, fur-
niture and stoves are manufac-
tured in Waterville; woolen
goods, shoes, oilcloth, wood pulp,
tools and lumber, in Skowhegan.
Brunswick manufactures cotton goods, wood pulp and paper.
Ellsworth (4297), with fine water power, produces lum-
ber and shoes. It has a shipyard and a large creamery.
Gardiner (5501) has fine water power from the Cob-
bosseecontee, which here falls into the Kennebec tide
water.
Oldtown (5763) and Orono (3257) are
manufacturing places on the Penob-
scot above Bangor.
Lumber, paper, pulp and machinery are manufactured,
cut on the river.
Ice is
The chief agricultural districts of the state are in tne
Aroostook valley (which comprises the largest area of
fertile farming land in the state), and the piedmont belt,
where the farms produce a large share of the food supplies
for the neighboring towns and cities. Hay, potatoes,
apples and dairy products are exported.
Far more valuable than the farm products, the fisheries
or even the lumber forests are the manufactured products
of the piedmont. Nearly all these manufactures come
Cotton Mills at Saco.
Both deal extensively in lumber. Besides this, Oldtown has
woolen mills. Orono has pulp and paper mills. In recent years the
manufacture of wood pulp in all this region has greatly increased.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
13
It is chiefly in the thickly settled piedmont district that The Connecticut river receives many side-streams
the several colleges of the state are located, — Bowdoin that have worn deep valleys in the highlands on the east
being the only college close to the coast. Bates College is and the west. Its upper course is frequently broken by
at Lewiston, Colby College at Waterville, and the Uni- rapids. Farther down the valley, there are long smooth
versity of Maine is located at Orono.
The rugged interior uplands, with
their heavy forests, are more
attractive to lumbermen than
to farmers. As a whole, the
northern part of the state is
very thinly settled.
As small settlements
are made in the forests,
the people are too few
and too scattered to have
town governments. Such
settlements are called
plantations.
These forests supply
not only lumber, but also bark for tanneries and wood for making
pulp and paper.
iNEW HAMPSHIRE.
Physical Features.
The White mountains, rising over the upland, are the
most striking physical feature of New Hampshire,
mountains are divided by deep valleys, or
notches, into several groups or ranges
The chief of these is the Presi-
dential range. Mt. Washington
is the highest summit.
The elevation in feet of the principal
peaks is as follows : Washington, 6293 ;
Adams, 5805; Jefferson, 5725; Clay,
5554 ; Monroe, 5390 ; Madison, 5380.
The Carter range is on the east of
the Presidential ; the Starr King group
and the Pilot range are on the north ;
the Franconia range and the Moosilauke
are on the west; and a number of
smaller groups are on the south.
Southward from the White
mountains, the plateau -like upland
extends into Massachusetts with
generally decreasing height. It
descends on the west into the val-
ley of the Connecticut ; on the east
into the valley of the Merrimac.
Several isolated mountains rise above
the highland. Among these are Kear-
sarge (2943 f.) and Monadnock (3186 1).
These
Statehouse (Capitol), Concord.
" reaches " between occasional
rapids or falls.
Great numbers of logs are floated
down the river, and many mills are
driven by its falls. The entrance
of side-streams often marks the
place where villages have been built
in the main valley.
The Merrimac has
several falls. These,
like many others in
New England, are
produced where the
river has cut its chan-
nel down to rocky
ledges. The falls af-
ford great water power and determine the growth of
important cities and towns.
The Androscoggin and the Saco drain the eastern and part of
the southern slope of the mountain area, — ■ thence flowing into
Maine. The basin of the Androscoggin within ISTew Hampshire is
mountainous ; that of the Saco in the same state is for the most
part a broad sandy upland.
East of the Merrimac and south of Lake Winnepe-
saukee, the upland is of moderate height. Much of this
district is covered with sandy drift left when the ancient
ice-sheet melted back.
The short seacoast of New Hampshire is for
the most part low and sandy. It is
indented by only one estuary or
drowned valley, — the Piscataqua.
What rivers flow into the tide water
of the Piscataqua ? Like the rivers of
Maine, these streams have falls even in
their lower courses.
The only outlying islands belonging
to New Hampshire are four of the Isles
of Shoals.
Cities and Towns.1
Owing to the shortness of the
water front, Portsmouth (10,637),
on the estuary of the Piscataqua,
is the only important port in the
state. New Hampshire is the
only New England state whose
largest city is not on a harbor.
The harbor of Portsmouth, ■ — deep,
capacious and rarely closed by ice, —
has led to the establishment of a United
States navy yard opposite the city, at
Kittery, Maine.
1 See footnotes on pages 9 and 11.
Before the growth of the inland manufac-
turing cities, Portsmouth was the most important
place in the state, and for a time prior to 1807
it was the capital. The chief products of the
city are boots and shoes, iron castings and malt
liquors. Portsmouth has a considerable coasting
trade, bringing in coal for the inland factories.
Dover (13,207) is situated where the
falls of the Cocheco river enter tide
water. This city has large cotton and
woolen mills.
The piedmont district is largely cleared
and occupied by farms. Many railroads
are built in this part of the state, and
a number of important inland manufac-
turing places are situated on its streams.
Rochester (8466) on the Cocheco, and
Somersworth (7023) on the Salmon Falls,
are active manufacturing cities.
Rochester produces woolen goods, shoes and
bricks. Somersworth manufactures cotton and
woolen goods, shoes, doors and other wood
work.
Exeter (4922) is the seat of Kobinson
Female Seminary and Phillips Academy,
a well-known school for young men.
The Merrimac valley contains the
largest three cities in the state. Their
growth is chiefly due to the water power
of the rivers and to excellent railroad
facilities.
Concord (19,632), on the terraces of
the Merrimac, is the capital. It has a
number of state institutions, such as the
state prison, New Hampshire Asylum for
the Insane and state library. Here is
also the well-known St. Paul's School.
There are extensive granite quarries in the
city. Its chief manufactures are cotton and
woolen goods, silverware, carriages, belting,
shoes and harnesses.
In front of the Statehouse in Concord stand
monuments to three of New Hampshire's favor-
ite sons, — Webster, Hale and Stark. The
latter name calls to mind the fact that many of
the militia of the " Granite State," under the
leadership of General John Stark, were among
the heroes of Bunker Hill.
Among the finest structures in Concord is the
United States government building.
Manchester (56,987), the largest city
in the state, is famous for its cotton mills.
This city is a remarkable example of
growth dependent on water power and
manufacturing.
18
VERMONT.
for the manufacture of weighing scales. Newport (3113),
on Lake Memphremagog, has a large lumber trade and
some manufacturing. It is a favorite summer resort.
Descending the long valley of the Connecticut river,
we find Brattleboro (6640), noted for its organ works and
other manufactures.
Fort Dummer, the site of the earliest settlement of English-
speaking colonists in Vermont, is* a little south of Brattleboro.
At Bellows Falls (4337) the Connecticut descends in
strong rapids. This fine water power is chiefly used in
paper mills.
Windsor (2119) is a manufacturing town of historical interest.
Here the first constitution of Vermont was framed, and the first
legislature met.
A large share of the population of Vermont, engaged in
agriculture, is scattered in small
villages and on farms.
Stock raising and dairying
are important industries.
Vermont is famous for
The Berkshire valley interrupts the highland near the western
border of the state. The floor of this valley is about 1000 feet
IE). Jul' ~ :■ I
its marble, and for its maple sugar and syrup. Lumber-
ing employs many men on the forested uplands.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Physical Features.
The upland of Massachusetts has its greatest height in"
the northwest part of the state. The portion west of
Worcester and the north course of the Nashua river
belongs to the New England highland. "Further east,
most of the upland is lower and may be classed with the
piedmont belt. The southeast part of the state is gener-
ally low and sandy and is part of the coastal plain.
The highland is divided by the broad Connecticut
valley into two parts, — a western highland, about 1600
feet in elevation, the southern continuation of the Ver-
mont highland ; and an eastern highland, with an altitude
about half as great. The latter is a continuation of the
New Hampshire highland.
Otter Creek and Killington Range.
above the sea. It is inclosed on the west by the Taconic range,
along which the state boundary line runs. The highest summits
of the range are East mountain (2660 feet), Mt. Everett (2624 feet),
Mt. Frizzell (2420 feet), Mt. Race (2395 feet).
Greylock (3535 feet) is the highest mountain in the state. It
rises from the floor of Berkshire valley. Hoosac mountain is a
ridge along the border of the adjoining highland, and is noted for
the tunnel that has been cut through it, joining the •Deerfield and
Hoosic valleys. Its highest summit is Spruce Hill (2588 feet).
Elsewhere, few mountains rise conspicuously over the highland.
Remington mountain (2146 feet) on the western highland, and
Mts. Grace (1628 feet), Watatic (1847 feet) and Wachusett (2108
feet) on the eastern highland, are the chief summits. The Blue
hills (635 feet) rise near the margin of the piedmont area, about
ten miles south of Boston. They have been taken by the state for
a public park.
Name the chief branches of the Connecticut river in Massa-
chusetts. By what river is the Berkshire valley drained"? What
large river enters Massachusetts from New Hampshire ? How far
is the adjacent state boundary from the eastward course of this
river ?
What river enters New Hampshire from Massachusetts ? What
river flows from Massachusetts into Rhode Island ? What rivers
flow into Boston harbor ? Where is the Farmington river ? — The
Quinebaug ? — The Sudbury ? — The Concord ? — The Ipswich ? —
The Taunton ?
The west-
ern highland
is deeply
trenched by
narrow val-
leys. Near
the northern
border of the
state, the
Deerfield
valley is a
thousand Deerfield Valley, Massachusetts.
feet deep, although only a mile wide.
The Connecticut valley is a broad lowland worn deep
in the hard rocks of the highlands along a belt of
relatively weak sandstone. At the northern border of
the state, it is three miles wide and 200 feet above the
MASSACHUSETTS.
19
sea ; at the southern border, it is twenty miles wide and
about 100 feet above sea level.
The floor of the lowland is spread over with clays and sands, in
which the river has cut a series of beautiful terraces.
A number of ridges consisting chiefly of slanting sheets of lava,
or trap, surmount the lowland. The trap being much harder than
the sandstone has not been worn down so low. The ridges slope
to the east, but descend in steep bluffs to the west. Mts. Tom
(1214 feet) and Holyoke (954 feet) are the highest.
The valleys of the eastern highland are wider and
shallower, and are therefore much better suited for occu-
pation than those of the western highland.
The piedmont area is a rolling hilly district of moderate
elevation, much like southern Maine. In this region
railroads diverge in all directions from Boston-; while
in the highlands, the railroads are few and are limited
mostly to the valleys.
The coastal plain includes the southeastern part of the
Strong tidal currents sweep through the narrower parts of Nan-
tucket and Vineyard sounds.
Cities and Towns.1
Massachusetts has the largest population and the
greatest wealth, though not the largest area, of any New
England
state.
Boston
(560,892),
the capital
of Massa-
chu setts
and the
largest city
Boston Public Library. j j^ N 3 W
England, lies on one of the most beautiful harbors of
the Atlantic coast. Since adding western railroad con-
body of the state, with the peninsula of Cape Cod and the nections to the advantages of the harbor, it has grown
outlying islands. The peninsula and the islands consist so rapidly that a large part of the city proper is built
chiefly of glacial moraines along the northern side, and on " made land," where the shallow tidal basins have
plains of gravel and sand sloping gently to their southern been filled with gravel.
side. Near the end of Cape Cod are many sand dunes.
The coast of Massachusetts is of more varied character than that
of any other New England state. The peninsula of Cape Ann is a
rocky headland. Eurther north are the long wave-built sand bars
of Plum island and Salisbury beach, behind which are extensive
marshes from one to fourteen miles wide.
From Cape Ann to Lynn, the coast is bold and rocky and is
occupied by many beautiful summer residences. Salem harbor is
a drowned valley. Boston harbor is the drowned part of the
Boston basin, — a lowland within the hilly piedmont area between
Lynn, Waltham and Quincy.
Many of the harbor islands are
drumlins.
The peninsulas of Nahant,
Winthrop and ISTantasket were
once islands. They are, now at-
tached to the mainland by sand
bars and tidal marshes. Long
sand bars, inclosing tidal marshes,
skirt the coast from Scituate to
Plymouth. At the latter place the
harbor is inclosed by a sand spit.
Some of the marshes have been
reclaimed by diking, and are used
as farm land.
A high sandy cliff has been cut
in the hills of Manomet. Sand
bars and marshes fringe the
greater part of Cape Cod bay.
Most of the "back" or eastern
side of the peninsula of Cape
Cod has been cut by the heavy ocean waves into a long, nearly
straight sandy cliff, continued by sand bars northward to Province-
town, and' southward in Nausett beach and the low island of
Monomoy.
The exposed sides of Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard are
made smooth by the ocean waves; but Buzzards bay, protected
from the open sea, still has an irregular shore line.
*M%
Statenouse (Capitol), Boston.
Besides Boston proper, the city limits include East Boston,
Charlestown, Eoxbury, Brighton, Dorchester, South Boston and
many villages on the south and southwest and up the valley of the
Charles river. Boston is a noted center of music and literature. It
is the seat of the Institute of Technology, Boston University and
Boston College. Printing and publishing is the great industry.
It is the fifth city in the United States in the value of its prod-
ucts. It has large dealings in wool and leather, as well as in manu-
factured articles of New England mills and shops. Many wealthy
banks, and the offices of many western railroads and mining com-
panies, are established in this
city. A large coasting and foreign
trade is carried on from this port.
It is a great provision market.
The product of refined sugar is
very large. Other products are
clothing, iron wares, machinery,
boots and shoes and rubber goods.
Its coastwise imports are coal,
lumber, fish, lime and building
stone. Its foreign imports are
chiefly manufactured articles from
Europe. Its exports are provi-
sions, cattle, cotton and leather.
More than half of these go to
Great Britain.
Closely surrounding Boston
lie a number of cities and
towns, the seat of various in-
dustries and the residence of
many persons whose business is in the great city. Thus,
about half the population of the state is gathered within
about fifteen miles of the statehouse. These surrounding
places and their characteristics may be briefly described
as follows :
1 See footnotes on pages 9 and 11.
73
72°30' Longitude
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REFERENCE TABLE
SHO"wrrsrG growth or the thirty-five largest
NEW ENGLAND CITIES.
Cities : 1900 1890
Boston 560,892 448,477
Providence 175,597 132,140
Worcester 118,421 84,655
New Haven 108,027 81,298
Fall River 104,863 74,398
Lowell 94,969 77,696
Cambridge 91,886 70,028
Hartford 79,850 53,230
Bridgeport 70,996 48,886
Lynn 68,513 55,727
Lawrence 62,559 44,654
New Bedford 62,442 40,733
Springfield 62,059 44,179
Somerville 61,643 40,152
Manchester 56,987 44,126
Portland 50,145 36,425
Waterbury 45,859 28,640
Holyoke 45,712 35,637
Brockton 40,063 27,294
Pawtucket 39,231 27,633
% Haverhill 37,175 27,412
Salem 35,956 30,801
Chelsea 34,072 27,909
Maiden 33,664 23,031
Newton 33,587 24,379
Fitchburg 31,531 22,037
Taunton 31,036 25,448
Woonsocket 28,204 20,830
Gloucester 26,121 24,651
New Britain 25,998 16,519
Everett 24,336 11,068
Meriden 24,296 21,652
North Adams 24,200 16,074
Quincy 23,899 16,723
Nashua 23,898 19,310
Sf'^ Priiceto^ Depot
MASSACHUSETTS
8CALE OF MILE8
^Baf-feS^-* y^ 0 5 10 15 20
^TSfejWifjJjycK^ * _^_ County Towns © Town Centers aties are underlined
*»-« — J- " Lighthouses. ~^"
Lightships
12"
30
22
MASSACHUSETTS.
Cambridge (91,886) is the seat of Harvard University.
Book printing is an important industry in this city.
Lynn (68,513) has for years been famous for its boot
and shoe factories. Its present rank is second in the
Union. There are large electrical works in this city.
Somerville (61,643) has large works for meat packing.
Its manufactures have had a very rapid growth. Tufts
College is located partly in this city and partly in Medford
1 8,244).
Among the products of Newburyport are cotton and woolen
goods, boots and shoes and machinery.
The tidal channels in the salt marshes about Ipswich (4658)
and Essex (1663) yield clams in large quantities.
Haverhill (37,175) has, after Brockton and Lynn, the
largest product of boots and shoes in America. Amesbury
(9473) is noted for its carriage shops.
Fall River (104,863), the chief city of southern Massa-
chusetts and the greatest cotton-spinning city in America,
Chelsea (34,072) manufactures rubber goods, boots and has far outgrown the water power from Watuppa pond,
shoes and furnaces. Stoneham (6197), Melrose (12,962), on which its mills at first depended. Steam power is now
Wakefield (9290) and Weymouth (11,324) are thriving largely used in the mills,
towns.
Newton (33,587), Brookline (19,935), Everett (24,336),
Dedham (7457) and Milton (6578) are favorite residential
suburbs, famous for their beautiful homes.
Maiden (33,664) and Quincy
| 23,899 ) manufacture leather.
Quincy is also famous for its
granite quarries, and Maiden
for its rubber works.
Waltham (23,481) has the
largest watch factory in the
world. Woburn (14,254) has
large tanneries. Hyde Park
(13,244) manufactures cotton
goods and tools. Watertown
(9706) contains a United
States arsenal. Arlington
(8603) and Belmont (3929)
Gloucester Harbor
Besides the cotton mills, there are large bleaching, dyeing and
calico-printing works. Large quantities of coal and cotton are brought
into Fall Biver. It has the advantage of being on an important line
of travel by rail and steamboat between Boston and New York.
New Bedford (62,442), on
a well-protected harbor on
Buzzards bay, has large cot-
ton mills.
This city produces also shoes,
machinery and a great variety of
other goods. New Bedford was
formerly the leading port of the
whale fishery ; but since the de-
velopment of petroleum wells, the
whaling industry has greatly de-
creased. At present New Bed-
ford and San Francisco maintain
small whaling fleets.
Plymouth (9592) is inter-
esting from its early history.
Its coasting trade is restricted
by the shallowness of its harbor.
The principal manufactured products of
cordage, cotton and woolen goods, tacks
and shoes.
Plymouth are
and nails, boots
South of Plymouth and east of Middleboro (6885), cran-
berries are raised in large quantities. Wareham (3432)
deals largely in oysters gathered from Buzzards bay.
The people of Cape Cod peninsula are chiefly occupied
in fishing and agriculture. Cranberries are here an im-
carry on market gardening. Concord
famous for its early history.
Northward from the Boston basin are several impor-
tant coastal cities. Among them are the following :
Salem (35,956) was formerly famous for its foreign
commerce, but this has been absorbed by cities having
direct connection with the interior states of the Union.
It has many manufactures, among them shoes, leather,
white lead, cars. It imports coal.
Beverly (13,884) manufactures boots and shoes. Pea-
body (11,523) makes leather and carriages. Danvers (8543)
is the seat of a great asylum for insane people.
Gloucester (26,121), on an excellent harbor near Cape Portant cr0P-
Ann, is the leading fishing port of the country. Many Sandwich (1448), Barnstable (4364) and Provincetown (4247)
vessels go to the Newfoundland or to Georges banks for are fche cHef Places on ' "the CaPe-" Many men from these towns
cod and halibut. There is a large fish preserving industry are emPloyed in the coastinS trade> as wel1 ™ ™ fishing.
, J Cottage City is a favorite summer resort. Vineyard Haven is
,,* . , , /(T(;on. . „,. ... ,, , an important harbor for coasting vessels. Nantucket (3006) was
Marblehead ( j 582) is a fishing port with a good harbor, formerly a leading port for whalers. Both Cape Cod and the out-
It is a noted yachting resort in summer. lying islands are visited in summer by many persons from the
Rockport (4592), near Gloucester, has large granite quarries. interior- Steamboats connect the islands with Woods Hole and
The stone is shipped mostly by sea. -"ew Bedford.
Newburyport (14,478) is a manufacturing city. A shoal In the southeastern part of the piedmont area, Taunton
at the month of the Merrimac greatly lessens the value of (SI?036)? at the head of tide water of Taunton river, is
the river to the cities on its lower course. tne most important city. It has varied manufactures.
MASSACHUSETTS.
23
Among the products of Taunton are cotton, boots and shoes, ('5721), near the spinning district of Rhode Island, pro-
brass ware, machines, tools, locomotives, tacks and nails. duces cotton goods. Market gardening and dairying are
Brockton (40,063) is now the leading city in the United important industries in this thickly settled district.
States in the manufacture of boots and shoes. Several The highland east of the Connecticut river contains a
neighboring villages take part in the same industry. number of manufacturing centers, generally situated in
North Easton (Easton has 4837 population) makes agricul- the valleys ; but only one, Fitchburg (31, -531), has become
tural implements. Attleboro (11,335) and Mans- _— -™™™™»_ a c^y. This city is in a narrow valley at a
field (4006) manufacture jewelry. North ' , water power of the Nashua river
Attleboro (7253) is a hive of industries, ^^0 ^S|bk. Among the varied products of Fitchburg are
In the Northern piedmont district, g
Lowell (94,969) is the chief city.
Here the falls of the Merrimac were*
dammed about three fourths of a
century ago. Canals were con-
structed on the southern side of
the river, and they are now lined
with great factories. Cotton goods
are the most important product.
Other important .manufactures are
woolen goods, foundry and machine
wares, patent medicines, worsteds,
hosiery, leather, boots and shoes.
At Lawrence (62,559) the rapids
of the Merrimac were dammed
over fifty years ago, and canals
were built along both sides of the
river. The chief product of the
great mills is now worsted goods.
Their cotton has long been famous,
flour mills, foundries and machine shops.
The slack water above the dam at Lowell reaches almost to
Nashua, and the slack water above Lawrence reaches to Lowell;
hence no new water-power cities can be built between these cities.
Granite Quarry, Quincy
There are paper and
cotton goods, worsteds, paper, machine and
foundry wares and planing mill products.
Granite is quarried on Eollstone hill.
On the eastern highland are many
farms yielding hay, dairy products, live-
stock, poultry and fruit. The forests
supply some lumber, but more is brought
from the north to the factories making
furniture, boxes and wooden ware.
Gardner (10,813) and Templeton
(3489) on the upland, have large
chair factories. Athol (7061) and
Spencer (7627) have boot and shoe
shops. Orange (5520) produces sew-
ing machines and wooden ware.
Millers Falls makes tools. Webster
(8804) has cotton and woolen fac-
tories and boot and shoe shops.
Southbridge (10,025) manufactures
spectacles, eye glasses and shoe
knives. An important granite (gneiss) quarry is worked
south of Palmer (7801). Leominster (12,392), Montague
(including Turners Falls) and Ware (8263) have a variety
of manufactures.
The broad Connecticut valley is one of the most attrac-
As at Manchester, Fall River and elsewhere, the mills are so t[ye parts 0f the state. It has a milder climate and better
extensive that steam is now largely used to supplement the
water power.
Worcester (118,421) lies in the valley that may be taken
to separate the piedmont area from the eastern highland.
It is an important railroad center and contains a large
number of factories and machine shops.
In the working of iron and steel, Worcester is the leading city
of the state. It has the largest wire mills in the country. Weav-
ing machinery and a great variety of foundry and machine products
are also made here. The city is an important center of trade for.
many surrounding factory towns.. It is the seat of Worcester Poly-
technic Institute, Clark University and Holy Cross College.
Eastward from Worcester, the piedmont area contains
many busy towns, — among them the following:
Marlboro (13,609, a city), Natick (9488), Milford (11,376),
Westboro (5400), Hopkinton (2623), Hudson (5454), Ash-
soil than the highland, and was early settled by colonists
from the coast.
Springfield (62,059) is the chief city in the district. It
is an important railroad and trade center, and the seat of a
United States
arsenal.
The chief
products of
Springfield are
cars, locomo-
tives, machin-
ery and tobacco
and paper wares.
Large sand-
stone quarries are worked at Longmeadow near by.
Westfield (12,310), on the Westfield river, has a variety
Athol.
land (1525), of which boots and shoes may be named as of manufactures,
the leading product ; Clinton (13,667), noted for carpets; Chicopee and Chicopee Falls (19,167) use the strong
Framingham (11,302), Foxboro (3266) and Wrentham (2720), water power of the Chicopee river, where it has cut down
where straw goods are an important product. Blackstone through the terrace plain to the sandstone ledges beneath.
24
MASSACHUSETTS.
The factories here make cotton goods, bicycles, swords, knitting
machines and agricultural tools.
Holyoke (45,712) is a manufacturing city of remarkable
growth since the
rapids of the
Connecticut
river were here
dammed. This
is a leading city
of the Union in
the production
of paper.
Other products of
Holyoke are cotton
and woolen goods,
cutlery and machin-
ery.
Northampton
(18,642) is an old settlement near
Mts. Tom and Holvoke, in the midst
of a rich agricultural district. It is the
seat of Smith College for young women
Including the villages of Florence and Leeds, on
water power of Mill river, the products are sill
cutlery, oil stoves, mirrors and emery wheels.
North Adams (24,200) has excellent water power and
in recent years has grown very rapidly.
The principal products of North Adams are cotton and woolen
goods, boots and shoes.
Adams (11,134) produces cotton and woolen goods
and paper.
Williamstown (5013) is the seat of Williams College.
Pittsfield (21,766) has a variety of manufactures,
woolen goods being the most important. The city is
in the midst of a rich agricultural district. Limestone
is quarried at several points in the Berkshire valley.
EITODE ISLAND.
Physical Features.
Along the northern boundary of the
state, the upland has a height of from
400 to 600 feet. Thence it descends
radually southward to the coast. Much
of the surface is wooded.
No part of the state is mountainous, but there are
P^ several hills which rise somewhat above the general
level and thus correspond on a small scale to such mountains
Amherst (5028), in the eastern part of the valley, is the as Monadnock and Kearsarge in New Hampshire. The highest of
seat of Amherst College and the State Agricultural College, these is Durfee hill (805 feet); next come Jerimoth hill (799 feet)
Greenfield (7927) is an important railroad junction. and Benson hm (794 feet>
The western highland is the most thinly settled region
in the state. Its upland farming villages are small and
isolated. Hay and fruit from the farms, lumber from the
forests, wooden ware, wood pulp, carriages and wagons
from the factories, are the chief products of the district.
Shelburne Falls (1508). produces cutlery, hardware, silk and
shoe pegs. Chester (1450) has valuable emery works.
The eastern and western highlands are crossed by two important
lines of railroad, which connect with western roads in the Hudson
and Mohawk valleys. The highest levels of these roads on the
eastern high-
land are a little
less than 1000
feet at Charlton
(1860), and a
little more at
Gardner. The
southern line
(Boston and
Albany) crosses
the western
highland by as-
cending the
long grade of Westfield valley and its branches to Washington,
and then descending to Pittsfield. The northern line (Fitchburg)
follows the deep Deerfiald valley to its elbow, and then passes
under Hoosac mountain by way of a tunnel four and three fourths
miles long, costing $20,000,000.
Deerfield River Terraces.
Turners Falls, Massachusetts.
The upland is much worn by streams whose open valleys are
from 200 to 300 feet deep near the northern border, but much
shallower in the south.
The most striking feature of the state is the broad
branching valley near its eastern side, now partly drowned
and forming Narragansett bay. This is one of the most
beautiful arms of the sea indenting the New England coast.
The Blackstone river enters Rhode Island from Massa-
chusetts, turning many mill wheels on the way. It is
called the Seekonk and Providence rivers successively in
its lower course, where it broadens at the head of the bay.
The Taunton river carries tide water into Massachusetts.
The arm of the sea called Sakonnet river is a drowned
valley of smaller size than that which formed Narra-
gansett bay.
The Pawtuxet river flows wholly within Rhode Island.
It has many lakes, swamps and falls on its course.
EHODB ISLAND.
25
Old Towei, Newport.
Old Church la Providence.
Built in 1772 or 1773.
The hills that rose above the ancient valley floor, before
Narragansett bay was formed, now stand as islands above
its waters. The largest of these are Aquidneck or Rhode
island, Conanicut island and Prudence island.
Near the southern coast, west of the rocky headland of
Point Judith, from Wakefield to Watch Hill, there is a
well-marked glacial moraine. It consists of a range of
gravel hills, one or two miles wide and from 100 to 200
feet high. The moraine may be traced westward through
Fishers and Plum islands,
to the northern hills of
Long Island.
The moraine near the
southern coast forms a bar-
rier in front of several streams
that descend from the upland.
They gather back of the mo-
raine, in swamps and ponds,
overflowing westward by the
Pawcatuck river which enters
Fishers Island sound.
The greatest battle of King
Philip's war was fought at an
Indian town near South Kingston, in this marshy district. About
one thousand Indians were killed there.
The bars along the southern coast, inclosing shallow lagoons, are
like those of much greater length in North Carolina. No harbors
and only a few villages are found on this low and exposed part of
the coast. It is much less useful than the sheltered shores of
the bay.
Cities and Towns.1
The whole of Rhode Island is in the piedmont belt,
where manufacturing cities and villages are numerous.
Its population is therefore denser than that of any other
state in the Union. It aver-
ages 407 people to the square
mile ; but if an equal area
of eastern Massachusetts or
southern New York were
taken, a still denser popula-
tion would be found.
A large part of the state is
cleared of forest and is under
cultivation, but agriculture is of
small importance compared with
manufactures. The chief value of
the farms is in supplying garden
and dairy produce to the cities
and towns. The staple articles
of food, — meat and flour, — come
from the "Western states.
Providence (175,597), the
capital of the state, stands „ m. .,,.,. , . . .. . ,
nearly at the head of the bay. This position is so advan- beinS ofte* filled wlth fishinS schooners 5 but * 1S now more famous
J . . , . . „ , ., • as a summer resort,
tageous to its own industries, as well as to its service as A United states ^ training ^.^ torpedo ^.^ and ^
a port of shipment for many interior cities and towns, war college are established here. -The "stone mill" of Newport
» See footnotes on pages 9 and 11. has been by many persons regarded as a relic of the early Norsemen;
that it has grown to be next to the largest city of New
England.
Providence has the further advantage of being somewhat
nearer New York than many busy cities of eastern New England.
It is therefore in the pathway of active traffic. Many railroads
connect the city with interior
points. Steam and sailing ves-
sels carry manufactured pro-
ducts to New York and other
ports, and bring coal, cotton,
wool, iron and grain in return.
The manufactures of Provi-
dence are varied. The most im-
portant are worsteds, woolen and
cotton goods, silver ware, jew-
elry, locomotives, machinery,
tools and screws. Many factories
in which these goods are pro-
duced are either the largest or
among the largest of their kind
in the country. Their products
hold high rank as standard
articles. The largest screw
factory in the world and the
largest jewelry works in America
are in this city.
Providence is the seat of
Brown University.
Newport (22,034), the
most noted seaside resort
in the United States, lies on an island in the outermost
well-protected harbor of Narragansett bay.
Until November 6, 1901, Newport was one of the capitals of the
state. For a long time, the chief importance of the city came from
its fisheries. It is still important in this respect, — its inner harbor
View of Providence.
a
Montreal 73°30'
73
Longitude
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CONNECTICTJJI-'
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SCALE of miles
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28
CONNECTICUT.
but it is now believed to have been built for a windmill, by one of Many villages in the following towns are actively
the early New England colonists. engaged in manufacturing : Johnston (4305), woolen goods ;
Warwick (21,316) is noted for the manufacture of cotton Cranston (13,343), bleaching, dyeing, print works and safe
goods.
Bristol (6901) has a good
harbor on a branch of the
bay, and is noted for boat
building. Rubber, woolen
and cotton goods are here
manufactured.
East Providence ( 12,1 38)has
chemical and electrical works.
Warren (5108) manufac-
tures cotton goods.
North Kingstown (4194) has large woolen mills. South
Kingstown (4972) contains a number of manufacturing
villages. East Greenwich (2775) has varied manufactures.
Tiverton (2977) manufactures fish oil and fertilizers.
Portsmouth (2105) formerly produced a small amount of anthra-
cite coal. James-
town and Nar-
ragansett Pier
are well known
summer resorts.
HjIWIIIlJIp
works; Cumberland (8925),
various manufactures; Bur-
rillville (6317), woolen goods ;
Coventry (5279), cotton and
woolen goods.
C020TEOTIOUT.
Summer Residence, Newport.
iiiiiiuiipiiiKi!!
HlllllllllllS) '
A Rnode Island Cotton MU1.
Fishing is
carried on from
many villages
on the bay.
Oysters, clams
and scallops are gathered in large quantities.
Westerly (7541) is the only important port outside Nar- above the general level of the upland. Of these the
ragansett bay. It has extensive granite quarries, as well highest is Bear mountain (2355 feet), a member of the
as cloth and thread mills. Printing presses are among Taconic range in the northwest corner of the state.
Physical Features.
The general upland of New England descends with much
regularity from the northern boundary of Connecticut to
the coast.1
The elevation of the upland near the northwest corner of the state
is about 1500 feet ; near the northeast corner about 500 feet. The
higher northern part of the upland may be classed with the New
England highland ; the
lower southern
part with the
piedmont belt.
No distinct
boundary is
drawn between
these regions in
this state.
Few moun-
tains rise
above the general level of the upland.
Connecticut Upland.
the products of Westerly.
Watch Hill, a summer resort on a point of the
moraine, is the most western settlement in the
state. 3STew Shoreham, on Block island, is
engaged in fisheries and has many summer
visitors.
The interior manufacturing cities
and towns are chiefly located at
falls of the Blackstone and Pawtuxet
rivers and their branches.
Pawtucket (39,231) is the second
city of the state in size. Here at
falls of the Blackstone, the first cotton
mill worked by water power in the United
States was built in 1790. The city now
has large cotton, worsted and thread mills, and Cioth weaving,
extensive bleaching, dyeing and print works. Rnode island.
Nearly all the streams follow the southward
slope of the upland, and many valleys have
been worn beneath its surface. In the
northwest, a number of valleys are 500
or 600 feet deep.
Eew streams in this state flow northward.
The north bend of the Farmington river,
and the Still river by Danbury, are almost
the only examples of the kind.
The most important lowland is the
broad valley, fifteen to twenty miles
wide, following the belt of red sandstone
that enters the state from Massachusetts
and continues south to New Haven. This
valley is well inclosed by strong slopes
from the eastern and western uplands.
The lowland is diversified by trap ridges like those of
Woonsocket (28,204), on both sides of the Blackstone, Massachusetts. The best known are East Eock (359 feet) and "West
near the state line, produces cotton, worsted and woolen Kock (400-700 feet) near New Haven ; the Hanging hills (1007 feet)
goods and machinery. Central Falls (18,167) and Lincoln b^ Meriden ; the Talcott mountain (965 feet) west of Hartford.
(8937) are noted for their great cotton and woolen mills. i No portion of the true coastal plain is in this state.
CONNECTICUT.
29
The sandstone lowland is very generally spread over with glacial
drift, making an excellent surface for farming. The drift is some-
times in the form of drumlins, as near Durham ; sometimes in broad
plains of clay and sand, in which the streams have cut terraces, —
those of the Scantic being well marked.
The Connecticut river follows the valley lowland east
of the trap ridges as far as Middletown ; but there enters
-a narrow steep-sided valley which leads it through the
eastern upland to the sound at Saybrook.
The chief tributary of the Connecticut in this state is the
Farmington. This stream issues from a deep and narrow valley in
the western upland, turns north at Farmington along the lowland
west of the trap ridges, crosses the range in a narrow gap at Tariff-
ville, and then terraces the drift plain on the way to the main river
at Windsor.
The principal stream of the southern part of the lowland is the
Quinnipiac, which flows through extensive tidal marshes at the head
of New Haven bay.
The southern extension of the Berkshire valley of
Massachusetts makes an important valley in northwest
Connecticut. Its floor is about 800 feet above sea level.
This valley is drained by the Housatonic. The river leaves the
open valley at Falls village and pursues a narrow and deep valley
through the upland to the sea. The largest tributary of the Hous-
atonic is the Naugatuck. Both these streams, like most others in
the upland, have numerous falls.
The chief river of the eastern part of the state is the Thames,
formed by the union of the Yantic and Shetucket. The Pawcatuck
and Byram are small rivers, making parts of the east and west
boundaries of the state.
The sinking of the uneven upland, by which the irregular
•coastline of New Engla*nd is produced, is of less amount in
the south than* in the north ; hence the coastal bays are
not so long in Connecticut as in Maine.
Many small harbors indent the shore between projecting
headlands of Connecticut, and most of the rivers are tidal
for several miles inland. Numerous small rocky islands
iringe the coast.
has slight tides as far up as Hartford, about forty miles from its
mouth. Vessels of light draft can ascend to the capital city. The
Housatonic is navigable to small vessels for twelve miles inland.
The sheltered waters of Long Island sound are of great service
in coastwise navigation. The tides here have a moderate rise and
fall, generally about six feet. Between Fishers and Gull islands,
at the east end of the sound, tidal currents flow actively, giving
this channel the name of "the Kace."
New Haven Harbor.
The original size of many shallow bays has been lessened by
delta plains of clay and sand, formed when the ice-sheet of the
glacial time was melting away. Smooth fields of great value were
thus formed along the coast, as those near Saybrook, Norwich and
elsewhere. New Haven bay, formed by the drowning of the
southern part of the sandstone valley, was much shortened in this
way. The delta clays are now used for brick making.
The Thames is a beautiful example of a drowned valley, having
navigable water and tides fifteen miles inland. The Connecticut
Firearms Manufactory, Hartford.
Fish, oysters and clams are important products of the
sound. Shad are taken at certain seasons from the tidal
rivers, especially from the Connecticut.
Cities and Towns.1
Connecticut was originally an agricultural and trading
colony, but it now ranks high among the manufacturing
states. The great increase in the population and wealth
of Connecticut has resulted largely from the remarkable
inventive ingenuity and business enterprise of its people.
The situation and natural features of the state have in many
ways been most helpful to its growth. The falls on its streams
supply excellent water power ; and as many of the falls are in the
lower course of the streams, the factories frequently have the double
advantage of large water volume and situation near the coast.
The numerous harbors promote coasting trade. Many steamboats
and sailing packets ply between the ports on the sound and New
York city, carrying out manufactured products and bringing in
coal, iron and grain. The shortness of the distance to New York
is very beneficial. Many manufacturing companies have salesrooms
in that metropolis.
The growth of varied industries has brought many per-
sons to work in this state. Thousands of immigrants
have therefore found a home here. With increasing
population, market gardening and dairying have become
more profitable, — especially in the southern and western
parts of the state. Much tobacco is raised.
An extensive system of railroads has been developed,
connecting all the larger cities and towns with one an-
other.
One important railroad follows the coast, forming a main line
between Boston and New York. Other lines ascend the valleys
towards the interior, or even pass northward into Massachusetts.
A few lines cross the upland east and west from valley to valley ;
but these have the disadvantage of steep grades.
1 See footnotes on pages & and 11.
30
CONNECTICUT.
New Haven (108,027), the largest city in the state, lies
on the bay that reaches farthest inland. It is at the
coastal end of the great Connecticut valley by which
communication is most easily held with the interior.
New London Harbor.
New Haven was formerly one of the two capitals of
the state, and is the seat of Yale University.
The principal products of New Haven are ammunition, firearms,
rubber goods, cutlery and many kinds of hardware, carriages, clocks,
corsets, starch. Fair Haven, a part of New Haven, has a large
oyster business.
Orange, including West Haven borough (5247), makes
pianos, buckles and cement pipe. Branford (5706)
makes locks and malleable iron.
Bridgeport (70,996), hav-
ing business connection with
a number of towns in the
inner valleys and being not
distant from New York, has
grown to be one of the most
important cities in the state.
Its products are chiefly sewing
machines, corsets, hardware, ma-
chinery, ammunition and brass,
rubber and silk goods. Fisheries
are carried on from its harbor.
On the Connecticut River at Hartford.
The town of Norwalk (19,932) claims the distinction of
containing two cities, Norwalk (6125) and South Norwalk
(6591). The latter has a large trade in oysters.
The town manufactures air and gas compressors, corsets, fur
hats, hardware, shoes, paper, felt and woolen goods.
The towns of Stamford (18,839 ; city, 15,997), Greenwich
(12,172), Stratford (3657) and several smaller towns on
the sound in the southwest of the state are the homes of
many Xew York business men, especially in summer.
Stamford's chief manufacture is hardware, including special
patterns of locks and keys. It makes machinery, dyes and shirts.
Greenwich makes belting, woolens and hardware.
New London (17,548), lying on an excellent harbor near
the eastern end of the sound, has a United States navy
yard. Early in the present century, many whaling
vessels were fitted out here. At present a number of
sealing vessels in Bering sea hail from this port ; but the
chief business of the city is manufacturing.
The principal products of New London are silk and woolen
goods, cotton gins, machinery, umbrellas, crackers. It is interested
in local fisheries, and is the port of a steamboat and railroad line
between New York, Boston and Worcester. Opposite, at Eastern
Point, Groton, steel ships are built.
Norwich (17,251), at the junction of the Yantic and
Shetucket, and at the head of the tidal estuary of the
Thames, has an admirable combination of water power
and harborage. It is a center of trade for the south-
eastern part of the state.
Cotton goods form the chief industry. Paper, and many iron
and steel goods, like firearms, machinery, printing presses, are also
made. There are also cotton mills at Jewett City (2224) in the
town of Griswold.
The excellent harbor of Stonington (8540) has for many
years been used by steamboats from New York, that con-
nect here with cars for Providence and Boston.
Stonington makes cotton, silk and woolen goods, printing presses
and fertilizers, and builds ships.
Montville (2395) produces paper and cotton and woolen goods.
Hartford (79,850), in the midst of a rich
agricultural and manufacturing district, has
become the second city of the state. Its
growth is largely due to
its being the state capital,
and lying farthest inland
of any city in Connecticut
that has good water com-
munication.
Hartford is largely engaged in
banking and insurance. Its great
variety of manufactures includes
fine tools, bicycles, machinery,
rubber and silk goods, carriages,
firearms, envelopes. This city
is the seat of Trinity College.
Middletown (city, 9589), the seat of Wesleyan Univer-
sity, lies on the Connecticut near the point where it leaves
the fertile lowland for the narrow lower valley. Mid-
dletown, like Hartford, has the advantage of tide water.
The principal jjp
products of Middle-
town are cotton, silk
and woolen goods,
rubber goods and
plated ware.
Portland (3856)
and Cromwell
(2031) have exten-
sive sandstone quar-
ries, and ship large
quantities of this
excellent building
stone by the river.
New Britain (25,998) is famous for its great factory of
builders' hardware; and Meriden (24,296) is the leading
First Watch Factory In
America, at Waterbury.
CONNECTICUT.
31
city of the United States in the manufacture of plated
and britannia ware. The leading industrial position of
these cities is not so much the result of any remarkable
natural advantages, as of the enterprise of their citizens.
They produce, also, other hardware, cutlery, tools, lamps, organs,
knit and woolen goods and house furnishing goods.
Wallingford (9001) is a manufacturing center in the
southern part of the great valley lowland.
This town produces silver, plated and britannia ware, brass and
rubber goods.
South Manchester (Manchester, 10,601) is the seat of
extensive silk factories. It is noted for the interest shown
by the mill owners in the welfare of the operatives.
Its prominence is largely due to its brass and copper
industries.
Nickel, silver- and gold-plated goods are also made, and needles,
nails, machines and furniture.
Litchfield (3214) is a favorite summer resort in a farming com-
munity. Norfolk (1614) is the highest town in the state.
Naugatuck (10,541) is one of the principal seats of the
rubber goods industry. It also produces knit underwear,
malleable iron and buttons.
Seymour (3541) manufactures worsted goods, edge tools and
hardware.
Ansonia (12,681) is one of the leading manufacturing
Cotton and woolen goods and paper are also made here, places on the Naugatuck. Its products consist largely of
Enfield (6699) includes Hazardville with _^~r- ;—" TilNL^__ 1°mSS ^^ C0PPer-
Clocks, pins, lamps, iron cast-
its gunpowder factories and
Thompsonville with its large
carpet works.
Windsor (3614), East Windsor
(3158) and Windsor Locks
(3062) produce silk and woolen
goods, paper and machinery.
Wethersfield (2637), Glaston-
bury (4260), Farmington (3331)
and other places on the valley
lowland are chiefly devoted to
agriculture. Tobacco is an im-
portant crop. Garden seeds are
here raised in great quantities,
and extensive peach orchards
have -been planted. Many metal
wares are produced.
Southington (5890) makes
hardware and cutlery. Berlin (3448) makes iron and steel frames 3,000,000 hats a year.
Sandstone Quarry, Cromwell, Connecticut.
ings and brass and copper wire
are made.
The city of Derby (7930)
and Shelton, a borough in
the town of Huntington
(5572), are close together at
the head of tide on the
Housatonic.
They produce brass goods,
pianos, plated ware, guns, woolen
and cotton goods and small wares.
Danbury (16,537) has the
largest hat factories in the
country, producing about
Bethel (3327) shares in this
industry.
In New Milford (4804) tobacco is the principal product,
furniture and lime are made.
Hats,
The eastern upland contains no large manufacturing
for buildings and bridges, also brick and tile.
Waterbury (45,859), the largest city within the western
upland, is noted for its extensive brass manufactures and
for the large number of inventions made by its mechanics.
Among the products of the city are tubes, wire, lamps, buttons, cities, but a number of busy cities and towns may be found
needles and pins. About 30,000 clocks and watches are here made ^ ^ valleyg? guch ag Wiiiimantic (8937), Rockville (7287)
in a day. jt> ( p p P*7\
Watertown (3100) makes silk goods, mouse traps and hardware. an u nam ^ /'
Bristol (9643) and Winsted, a borough in the town of
Winchester (7763), are important manufacturing centers.
Both are famous for clock making. They also produce
bells, hardware, knit goods and a variety of small articles.
Thomaston (3300) manufactures clocks, brass ware, cutlery, edge
tools.
Torrington (12,453), on the Naugatuck, is the leading
town of Litchfield county in population and manufactures.
Wiiiimantic is famous for its thread. It also produces silk and
cotton goods and fine machinery. Rockville is a noted center
for woolen and worsted goods. Sewing silk, envelopes and paper
are made here. Putnam makes cotton and woolen goods, spool silk,
thread, shoes. Thompson (6442) makes cotton and woolen goods.
Stafford (4297) has woolen mills, Danielson in the town of Killingly
(6835) makes the same textiles, also hosiery and harness. Plain-
field (4821) makes textiles and wooden goods.
Many other busy towns and villages are dotted over the state
wherever the soil can be tilled or water power be found.
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