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FUEL OIL

IN
INDUSTRY

By
STEPHEN O. ANDROS, A. B., E. M.

Member American Institute of Mining Engineers.
Former Asst. Prof, of Mining Research, Engineering
Experiment Station, University of Illinois. Author
of "Coal Mining in Illinois" and "The Petroleum
Handbook."

THE SHAW PUBLISHING COMPANY

910 South Michigan Blvd., Chicago.

1920.

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London
All rights reserved

Publications of

SHAW PUBLISHING COMPANY

OIL NEWS

A semi-monthly technical trade journal published on the 5th and
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A comprehensive daily service containing the latest reports on produc-
tion, refining, jobbing and marketing, and giving briefly all news items
of general interest to the petroleum industry. Price, $5.00 per month.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

An exposition of the qualities of fuel oil and methods of testing,
storing and burning it, together with a full description of its applica-
tion to industrial and domestic . furnaces. Price, $3.75.

THE PETROLEUM HANDBOOK

A reference book of the petroleum industry for the use of producers,
refiners, marketers, jobbers, investors, salesmen, engineers and
students. Price, $2.00.

PETROLEUM DATA SHEETS

Accurate and classified data printed on loose leaves of uniform size
for filing. These sheets cover all subjects related to petroleum and
its technology.

42373T

CONTENTS
Chapter Page

I. Principles of Fuel Oil Combustion 5

II. Physical and Chemical Properties of Fuel Oil 17

III. Comparison of Coal and Fuel Oil 44

IV. Colloidal Fuel 61

V. Distribution and Storage 69

VI. Heating, Straining, Pumping and Regulating 117

VII. Arrangement of Boiler Furnaces 132

VIII. Types of Fuel Oil Burners 145

IX. Fuel Oil in Steam Navigation 157

X. Oil-Burning Locomotives 171

XI. The Manufacture of Iron and Steel 184

XII. Heat Treating Furnaces 193

XIII. Fuel Oil in the Production of Electricity 198

XIV. Fuel Oil in the Sugar Industry 206

XV. Fuel Oil in the Glass Industry 216

XVI. Fuel Oil in Ceramic Industries 223

XVII. Heating Public Buildings, Hotels, and Residences 230

XVIII. Oil in Gas-Making 237

APPENDIX. Fuel Oil Uses 241

INDEX. . 242

TABLES

Page

1. Pounds of Air per Pound of Oil and Ratio of Air Supplied to

that Chemically Required 7

2. Boiler Efficiency for Excess Air Supply (Oil Fuel) 8

3. CO2 and Fuel Losses 10

4. Physical Changes in Air Due to Temperature 15

5. Analyses of Typical American Oils Used as Fuel 18

6. Equivalent Readings for the Saybolt, Redwood and Engler Vis-

cometers 25

7. Baume Scale and Specific Gravity Equivalents 32

8. Conversion of Barometric Pressure in Centimeters to Inches.... 34

9. Corrections of Flash Point for Normal Barometric Pressures 36

10. Calorific Values of Various Oils 41

11. Production of Coal in United States 45

12. Analyses of Coals of Illinois, Indiana and Western Kentucky.... 40

13. Coal Burned During Banking Periods 53

14. Stack Sizes for Oil Fuel 144

15. Comparative Performances of Oceanic Steamship Mariposa, Using

Oil as Fuel , 161

16. Factor for Equivalent Evaporative Values, Coal vs. Oil 178

17. Average Coal and Oil Costs 179

18. Locomotive Fuel Results 179

19. Atomizer Pressures 181

20. Fuel Consumed in Production of Electric Power in First Three

Months of 1920 199

21. Sources of Electric Power — Thousands of Kilowatt-Hours Pro-

duced 200

22. Evaporative Test of Oil-Fired Boiler at Electric Plant 203

23. Analyses and Calorific Values of Begasse 209

24. Monthly Fuel Requirements in Percentages of Total for Season.. 230

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Curves Showing Heat Losses Due to Excess Air 9

2. Orsat Apparatus for Testing Flue Gases 11

3. Dense Smoke from Burning Oil Tanks 12

4. Saybolt Standard Universal Viscosimeter 21

5. The Engler Viscosimeter 24

6. Chart for Quick Determination of Saybolt Equivalents 26

7. Proper Method of Reading Hydrometer 28

8. Tagliabue Closed-Cup Tester 31

9. The Mahler Calorimeter 38

10. An Electrically Driven Centrifuge 40

11. Bedded Impurities in a Seam of Illinois Coal 45

12. Size Elements of Lump Coal and Screenings 46

13. Percentage of Weight of Coal Which Passes Through Various

Screens 48

14. Influence of Moisture in Coal on Evaporative Power of the Fuel. 51

15. Influence of Ash on Fuel Value of Dry Coal 52

16. Colloidal Fuel After Standing One Year Under Water 62

17. The Oil Tanker "Nuuanu" 70

18. An Oil Barge on San Francisco Bay 71

19. Delivering Fuel Oil to a Mail Steamer 72

20. Pump for Loading Barges with Fuel Oil 73

21. Derrick for Handling Heavy Hose on Barge 74

22. A Tank Car 75

23. Storage Tank Along the Mexican Railway 78

24. Locomotive Loading-Tanks Along Lines of the United Railways

of Havana 79

25. Reservoir Tank with Automatic Float Valve 81

26. Steel Storage-Tank for Fuel Oil 82

27. A Typical Reinforced Concrete Fuel Oil Reservoir 83

28. Concrete Oil Tanks Which Without Damage Withstood a Hur-

ricane and Flood 92

29. A Tank Truck 115

30. Temperature-Capacity Curve for Mechanical Oil Burner 119

31. Heater Used with Live or Exhaust Steam 120

32. A Type of Spiral Heater 121

33. Pumps and Heaters at City and County Hospital Power Plant,

San Francisco . , 123

34. A simple Oil Strainer 124

35. Another Type of Strainer 124

36. A Modern Pumping System 125

37. Another Type of Pumping System 126

38. A Pulsometer 127

39. Burner Regulator 128

40. Master Controller 129

41. Interlocking Damper Device 131

42. Fuel Oil Pump Set Controlled by Regulator 133

43. Fuel Oil Pumping, Heating, and Regulating System for Power

Boilers 135

44. Application of Baffle Wall 136

45. Eliminating Dead Spaces with Baffles 137

46. An Inclined Baffle 137

47. An Oil-Burner Under a Vertical Tubular Boiler 138

48. Oil Burning System for Scotch Marine Boilers 139

49. Application of Oil-Burning System to the Stirling Watertube

Boiler 140

50. Oil Burning System Applied to Return-Tubular Boiler 141

51. A Babcock and Wilcox Oil Furnace, Patented 142

52. A Mechanical Oil Burner. . 146

Figure Page

53. Classes of Spray Burners 148

54. Possible Modifications of the Drooler Burner 150

55. Types of Burner Tips 153

56. "Coaling Ship" 158

57. Fuelling with Oil 163

58. Fuelling Station at Palik Papan, Dutch Borneo 164

59. Fire Room of S. S. Manoa 165

60. Hinged Firing Front for Scotch Marine Boilers 166

61. Oil-Burning French S. S. Lieutenant de Missiessy 169

62. General Arrangement of the Staples and Pfeiffer System for

Scotch Marine Boilers 173

63. Oil Burning Equipment as Applied to Santa Fe Locomotives... 174

64. Locomotive Firebox and Fire Pan Arrangement with Oil Burn-

ers 175

65. The Booth Oil Burner Used as a Standard on the Santa Fe.... 177

66. Von Boden-Ingalls Burner 178

67. Arrangement of Oil Burning Equipment as Used by The Bald-

win Locomotive Works 180

68. Iron Ore Blast Furnace 184

69. Bessemer Converter 185

70. Sketch of Oil Burning Open-Hearth Furnace 186

71. Water Cooled Oil-Burner in Open-Hearth Furnace 187

72. Swinging Oil Burners in Open-Hearth Furnace 187

73. Layout of Oil System 188

74. Construction of Oil Storage Tank 189

75. Charging an Oil-Burning Open-Hearth Furnace 191

76. Furnace for Case Hardening and Heat Treating Gears 194

77. Continuous Rod-Heating Furnace 194

78. Oil-Burning Brass-Melting Furnace 195

79. Tempering Bath Furnace 195

80. Large Car-Type Furnace 196

81. Oil Heaters and Pumps in California Electric Plant 201

82. Boiler Room Showing Piping for Oil Burners in California

Electric Plant 202

83. Mill for Crushing Sugar Cane 207

84. Furnace Burning Begasse and Oil 207

85. Typical Filter Press 208

86. Centrifugal Separator 210

87. Type of Char-Filter 212

88. Oil-Driven Tractor Pulling Plows on Sugar Estate 213

89. Typical Closed Pot for Glass Making 217

90. Regenerative Furnace 217

91. Glass Tank Equipped with Oil Burners 218

92. Blowing Window Glass 219

93. Glory Hole Furnace 220

94. An Oil-Burning Brick Kiln 224

95. Periodic Lime Kiln 225

96. Oil-Burning Rotary Cement Kiln 225

97. Oil-Burning Rotary Cement Kiln 227

98. Oil-Burner Installation at San Francisco Hospital 231

99. Firebox Construction of Schoolhouse Hot-Air Furnace 231

100. Oil-Burner Equipment Installed in San Francisco Schools 232

101. Fuel Oil Burner Installation in Chicago Schools 233

102. Boiler Room of Modern 60-Room Apartment Hotel 234

103. Fuel Oil Heating Residence Boiler and Kitchen Range 235

104. Oil-Burner Applied to Hotel Range 235

105. Oil-Burner Applied to Bakers' Oven 236

106. Apparatus for Gas Making by Lowe Process 238

107. Charging Floor of Gas-Generating Apparatus 239

CHAPTER I

PRINCIPLES OF FUEL OIL COMBUSTION

Combustion is nothing more nor less than a chemical union
of oxygen with some combustible material such as carbon. The
decaying autumn leaf is an example of combustion. In this case
the organic matter of the leaf forms a slow chemical union with
the oxygen of the air. Heat accelerates all chemical unions and
the greater the intensity of the heat applied, the more rapidly the
elements unite. The process of the combustion of the autumn leaf
is slow because insufficient heat is developed to induce rapid com-
bustion.

The explosion of black powder, dynamite or any other of the
high explosives, is another example of combustion. Black pow-
der is a mechanical mixture of sulphur, charcoal and potassium
nitrate. In this mixture theoretically each particle of sulphur has
beside it one particle of charcoal and one particle of potassium
nitrate. Sulphur, which burns easily, is put in the mixture to
generate sufficient heat for the liberation of the oxygen which is
contained in the potassium nitrate. Inasmuch as all of the ele-
ments necessary for combustion, that is, heat-giving substance,
combustible material, and oxygen are combined in black powder,
the rate of burning is thousands of times greater than is that of the
decaying automn leaf. Since sulphur, charcoal, and potassium
nitrate are only mechanically mixed, it follows that in practice
every particle of sulphur does not have adjacent to it a particle
of charcoal and a particle of potassium nitrate. Accordingly the
speed of combustion of black powder is relatively slow as com-
pared with that of the high explosives in which the oxygen-carry-
ing material and the combustible are chemically united so that no
matter how finely the explosive may be divided, each atom is com-
posed of the combustible and of the oxygen-giving material. The
heat necessary for the union of combustible and oxygen in the
high explosives is generated by an easily explosible detonator.
The intense rapidity of combustion in high explosives is shown ,bv
the fact that if a pipe five miles long were filled with nitroglycerine

OIL\IN INDUSTRY

and a blasting cap detonated at one end, the entire column would
be converted into gas in about one second.

From these examples it will be seen that the speed and effi-
ciency of combustion depend upon the intimacy of the mixture
of combustible material with oxygen, and that combustion may
extend over a long period of time or may be instantaneous. To
the engineer, combustion means the chemical union of the com-
bustible of a fuel and the oxygen of the air at such a rate as to
cause rapid increase in temperature.

Fuel oil consists principally of various combinations of hy-
drogen whose chemical symbol is H, and carbon (C), together
with small amounts of nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), sulphur (S),
and water (H2O). The moisture in oil fuel should not exceed
two percent because it not only acts as an inert impurity, but
must be converted into steam in the furnace, which still further
reduces the heat value of the fuel per pound. In the ordinary
furnace all the oxygen for the combustion of fuel oil is obtained
from the air which is a mechanical mixture of 79.3 parts of
nitrogen by volume and 20.7 parts of oxygen.

When the combustible elements of fuel oil unite with oxygen
they do so in definite proportions which are always the same
Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur require theoretically a certain fixed
amount of air for complete burning. The formula for the com-
plete combustion of carbon is C -|- O2 = CO2. One pound of
carbon requires for complete combustion 2.66 pounds of oxygen.
The dry air requirements for the combustion of one pound of
carbon are 11.58 pounds. The formula for the combustion of
hydrogen is 2H2 + O2 = 2(H2O) (water). One pound of hy-
drogen requires for complete combustion 8.00 pounds of oxygen.
For the combustion of one pound of hydrogen, 34.8 pounds of
dry air are required. The formula for the complete combustion
of sulphur is S -(- O2 = SO2. One pound of sulphur requires for
its complete combustion 1.00 pound of oxygen. For the combus-
tion of one pound of sulphur, 4.35 pounds of dry air are necessary.

The theoretical air requirements for different densities of
fuel oil have been compiled by C. R. Weymouth (Trans., A. S.
M. E., Vol. 30, p. 803), and are given in Table 1.

It is not possible to burn oil practically with the theoretical
air requirements, and sometimes in furnaces of poor design 100

PRINCIPLES OF FUEL OIL COMBUSTION

to 200 percent of excess air is used with a resulting great loss of
heat. The maximum excess air required should be 25 percent.
Insufficient air gives incomplete combustion with a consequent
loss in unburned heat units and an excess of air cools the flame
and carries away large quantities of heat in the flue gases. The
air excesses for various boiler efficiencies are given in Table 2.

Table 1.— POUNDS OF AIR PER POUND OF OIL AND RATIO OF AIR
SUPPLIED TO THAT CHEMICALLY REQUIRED.

Percent CO2

Light Oil.

Medium Oil.

Heavy Oil.

by Volume

C, 84%; H, 13%; S,

C, 85%; H, 12%; S,

C, 86%: H. 11%:

as Shown by

0.8%; N, 0.2%; O, 1%;

0.8%; N, 0.2%; O, 1%; )S, O.S %; N, 0.2 %; O'.'l %

Analysis of

H'O, 1 %.

H2Q, 1 %.

H'O, 1 %.

Dry

Chimney

Lb. of

Ratio of Air ! Lb. of

Ratio of Air

Lb. of

Ratio of Air

Gases.

Air per
Lb. of Oil.

Supply to
Chemical

Air per
Lb. of Oil.

Supply to
Chemical

Air per
Lb. of Oil.

Supply to
Chemical

Require-

ments.

51.40

3.607

51.93

3.704

52.45

3.803

41.31

2.899

41.71

2.975

42.12

3.054

34.58

2.427

34.90

2.490

35.23

2.554

29.77

2.089

30.04

2.143

30.31

2.198

26.17

1.836

26.39

1.883

26.62

1.930

23.37

1.640

23.56

1.680

23.75

1.722

21.12

1.482

21.29

1.518

21.45

.555

19.83

1.391

19.43

1.386

19.58

.419

17.76

1.246

17.88

1.276

18.01

.306

16.46

1.155

16.57

1.182

16.69

.210

15.36

1.078

15.45

1.102

15.55

.127

14.39

1.010

14.48

1.033

14.57

.056

Figure 1 shows the heat losses due to excess air in burning
fuel

It is well known that with charcoal or coke a very intense
combustion can be maintained with very little smoke and within
a comparatively small space. The reason for this is that even at
the highest temperature the fuel is solid. Therefore, no carbon
can leave the fuel bed except as a constituent of CO or CO2.
When carbon is not supplied with sufficient air for complete com-
bustion it burns to CO instead of to CO2. When carbon is burned
only to CO it provides only two-thirds of the heat which it is
capable of yielding up when burned to CO2. When completely
burned, fuel which consists of 100 per cent carbon will show a
percentage by volume of 20.7 CO2 in the flue gases. Under good
furnace conditions, when burning fuel oil which contains a high
percentage of carbon the average theoretical CO2 percentage of
flue gases is from 13 to 14 per cent. Table 3 shows the corre-

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

spending losses that occur when various percentages of C(X are
indicated in the flue gases.

In order to determine whether the fuel oil is obtaining the
correct amount of air, it is necessary to analyze the flue gases.
A flue gas analysis gives the proportion by volume of the principal
constituent gases produced by the combustion of any fuel. The
gases usually determined in such an analysis are CO2, O, and CO.
The volume remaining after these gases are removed is considered
to be nitrogen (N).

The apparatus most commonly used for flue gas analysis is
known as the Orsat. The Orsat apparatus (See fig. 2) is de-
Table 2.— BOILER EFFICIENCY FOR EXCESS AIR SUPPLY (OIL

FUEL)

Excess Air Supply, Percent

100

150

200

Assumed temperature of escap-
ing gases, deg. Fahr

400

450

475

490

Over
500

Corresponding ideal efficiency of
boiler, percent
Possible saving in fuel due to re-
duction of ail supply to 10 per
cent excess, expressed as per-
cent of oil actually burned un-
der assumed conditions

84.2
0

80.27
4.67

77.66

7.78

75.22
10.68

Under
70.94

Over
15.76

Under
67.09

Over
20.32

scribed as follows : "The burette "a" is graduated in cubic centi-
meters up to 100, and is surrounded by a water jacket to prevent
any change in temperature from affecting the density of the gas
being analyzed. For accurate work it is advisable to use four
pipettes, "b," "c," "d," "e," the first containing a solution of
caustic potash for the absorption of carbon dioxide, the second
an alkaline solution of pyrogallol for the absorption of oxygen,
and the remaining two an acid solution of cuprous chloride for
absorbing the carbon monoxide. Each pipette contains a number
of glass tubes, to which some of the solution clings, thus facilitat-
ing the absorption of the gas. In the pipettes "d" and "e," copper
wire is placed in these tubes to re-energize the solution as it be-
comes weakened. The rear half of each pipette is fitted with a
rubber bag, one of which is shown at "k," to protect the solution
from the action of the air. The solution in each pipette should
be drawn up to the mark on the capillary tube. The gas is drawn

PRINCIPLES OF FUEL OIL COMBUSTION 9

into the burette through the U-tube "h," which is filled with spun
glass, or similar material, to clean the gas. To discharge any air
or gas in the apparatus, the cock "g" is opened to the air and the
bottle "f " is raised until the water in the burette reaches the 100
cubic-centimeter mark. The cock "g" is then turned so as to close
the air opening and allow gas to be drawn through "h," the bottle
"f" being lowered for this purpose. The gas is drawn into the.
burette to a point below the zero mark, the cock "g" then being
opened to the air and the excess gas expelled until the level of
the water in "f" and in "a'' is at the zero mark. This operation
is necessary in order to obtain the zero reading at atmospheric

2 !
10— g
100-™

3 Carbon Dioxide (COj) and Oxygen (O), percent 13 U 15 16 17 18 19 2C

— 20 Excess air. pounds 50 60 70 80 90 400

— 200 300 400 Excess air, percent 700 800 900 1000

6.000 10,000— Loss. B T U —15,000 —20.000

FIG. 1. — Curves showing heat losses due to excess air. Calculated on follow-
ing conditions: Oil as fired — 18633 B. t. u., 84.73 per cent carbon. 11.74
per cent hydrogen, 1.06 per cent sulphur, o per cent nitrogen, 0.87 per
cent oxygen, 0.7 per cent moisture, and 0.4 per cent sediment; atmos-
pheric temperature, 55° F. ; humidity, 88; stack temperature, 500° F.;
Kern oil, 15° B.

pressure. The apparatus should be carefully tested for leakage,
as well as all connections leading thereto. Simple tests can be
made as, for example : If after the cock "g" is closed, the bottle
"f" is placed on top of the frame for a short time and again
brought to the zero mark,, and the level of the water in "a" is
above the zero mark, a leak is indicated. Before taking a final
sample for analysis, the burette "a" should be filled with gas and
emptied once or twice, to make sure that all the apparatus is filled

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

with the new gas. The cock "g" is then closed and the cock "i"
is opened and the gas driven over into "b" by raising the bottle
"f." The gas is drawn back into "a'J by lowering "f" and when
the solution in "b" has reached f*he mark in the capillary tube, the
cock "i" is closed and a reading is taken on the burette, the level
of the water in the bottle "f" being brought to the same level as
the water in "a." The operation is repeated until a constant read-
ing is obtained, the number of cubic centimeters, absorbed as
shown by the reading, being the percentage of CO2 in the flue
gases. The gas is then driven over into the pipette "c" and a sim-
ilar operation is carried out. The difference between the resulting

Table 3.— CO2 AND FUEL LOSSES.a

Percent CO2.

Percent Excess Air

B. t. u. Loss.

Percent Fuel Loss.

15.6

186

317

1.7

447

2.4

633

3.4

856

4.6

1118

1435

7.S

120

1900

10.2

152

2460

13.2

198

3205

17.2

273

4380

23.5

396

6340

34.

635

10150

54.5

reading and the first reading gives the percentage of oxygen in the
flue gases. The next operation is to drive the gas into the pipette
"d." the gas being given a final wash in "e," and then passed into
the pipette "c" to neutralize any hydrochloric acid fumes which
may have been given off by the cuprous chloride solution, which,
especially if it be old, may give off such fumes, thus increasing
the volume of the gases and making the reading on the burette
less than the true amount. The process must be carried out in
the order named, as the pyrogallol solution will also absorb car-
bon dioxide, while the cuprous chloride solution will also absorb
oxygen. As the pressure of the gases in the flue is less than the
atmospheric pressure, they will not of themselves flow through

a. Weymouth, Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 30, p. 803.

PRINCIPLES OF FUEL OIL COMBUSTION

the pipe connecting the flue to the apparatus. The gas may be
drawn into the pipe in the way already described for filling the
apparatus, but this is a tedious method. For rapid work a rubber
bulb aspirator connected to the air outlet of the cock "g" will
enable a new supply of gas to be drawn into the pipe, the apparatus

FIG. 2. — Orsat apparatus for testing flue gases

then being filled as already described. Another form of aspirator
draws the gas from the flue in a constant stream, thus insuring
a fresh supply for each sample. The analysis made by the Orsat
apparatus is volumetric. If the analysis by weight is required it
can be found from the volumetric analysis as follows: Multiply
the percentages by volume by either the densities or the molecular

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

weight of each gas, and divide the products by the sum of all the
products; the quotients will be the percentages by weight. For
most work sufficient accuracy is secured by using the even values
of the molecular weights. The even values of the molecular
weights are :

Carbon Dioxide (COa) . .
Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Oxygen (O)

Nitrogen (N)

28
32

A typical flue gas analysis is as follows : Carbon dioxide, 12.2 ;
carbon monoxide, 0.4; oxygen, 6.9; nitrogen, 80.5; total, 100.0.

FIG. 3. — Dense smoke from burning oil tanks

Inasmuch as perfect combustion of coal will give a higher
CO, reading than perfect combustion of oil, a possible error may
arise among engineers who have been familiar with coal burning
in interpreting the CO2 content in flue gas when burning fuel oil.
The possibility of this error may be demonstrated by the following
example : Assume a sample of coal having the following ultimate
analysis : Carbon, 73 percent ; hydrogen, 4 percent ; oxygen, 8
percent, and the residue ash. In each pound of coal it will
be necessary to supply for complete combustion of the carbon

PRINCIPLES OF FUEL OIL COMBUSTION 13

0.73 X 2% = 1.95 pounds of oxygen. The oxygen required for
the complete combustion of the hydrogen will be 0.04 X 8 = 0.32
pounds. The total oxygen required, therefore, will be 1.95 -f- 0.32
= 227 pounds. The coal itself, however, contains 0.08 pounds
of occluded oxygen. Subtracting this amount from the total oxy-
gen required leaves 2.19 pounds of oxygen, which must be fur-
nished by the air. The amount of air necessary to supply the re-

2.19
quired oxygen is = 9.53 pounds and this amount of air will

0.23

contain 7.34 pounds of nitrogen. The amount of CO2 in the flue
gas which will be produced by the 0.73 pounds of carbon in one
pound of coal is 0.73 X 3% = 2.68 pounds. Water vapor to the
amount of 0.36 pounds will be formed by the combustion of the
hydrogen, but the water vapor before reaching the Orsat appara-
tus will condense, and, therefore, will not appear in the analysis.
Hence, flue gas will contain 2.68 pounds of CO2 and 7.34 pounds
of nitrogen, totalling 10.02 pounds of gas for each pound of coal.

2.68

This will give by weight X 100 = 26.7 per cent CO9 and

10.02
7.34

- X 100 = 73.3 per cent of nitrogen. The relative volumes
10.02

26.7 73.3

of COo and nitrogen will be — - = 1.21 for CO2 and - - = 5.24

22 14

for N, since the ratio of the weights of N to CO2 is 14 to 22. By

1.21

volume the percentages will be— —=18.8 per cent CCX and

6.45

5.24
- = 81.2 per cent N. Follow the same calculation through

6,45

with an average sample of fuel oil. This may be assumed to con-
tain 85 per cent carbon, 12 per cent hydrogen and 3 per cent oxy-
gen. The oxygen required by the carbon of the fuel oil will be
2.27 pounds and combustion will produce 3.12 pounds of CO,.
The oxygen required for the combustion of the hydrogen will be
0.96 pounds of oxygen per pound of oil burned and water vapor
will be produced to the amount of 1.08 pounds. The net oxygen
requirements will, therefore, be 2.27 +'0.96 — 0.03 = 3.20 Ibs.
To provide this amount of oxygen 13.91 pounds of air must be

14 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

introduced and this amount of air carries with it 10.71 pounds of
nitrogen. As in the combustion of coal the water vapor will be
condensed and the flue gas per pound of oil will be 3.12 -|- 10.71
= 13.83 pounds, which by weight will have a composition of 22.5
per cent CO, and 77.5 per cent nitrogen. The percentage of CO2
by volume will be 15.6 and the percentage of N will be 84.4.

It is, of course, understood that these calculations are based
on ideal theoretical conditions where there is complete combus-
tion without excess air. In the samples of coal and oil under
discussion, the coal might theoretically give an 18.8 per cent CO2
reading whereas the oil could not possibly show a higher percent-
age than 15.6 because the oil has a greater amount of hydrogen
than has the coal and hydrogen requires oxygen for its combustion
and the air supplying the oxygen brings with it nitrogen which
appears in the flue gas. The water vapor that the hydrogen pro-
duces does not appear in the flue gas analysis and the hydrogen,
of course, does not produce CO2. It is easily seen that the higher
the hydrogen content of the fuel, the lower will be the theoretical
CO2 percentage in the flue gas.

A factor which is rarely considered in efficiency tests of fuel
oil is the humidity of the atmosphere at the time of the test. With
a high humidity of the atmosphere some of the oxygen in a given
space is displaced by water vapor, and, therefore, for complete
combustion of the fuel oil an excess in the volume of air will be
required with a consequent loss of heat in the stack. In tests
conducted by the U. S. Naval Liquid Fuel Board, the decision was
arrived at that when operating a boiler at a given capacity the
efficiency varies inversely with the humidity.

Table 4 gives the physical changes in air brought about by
changes in temperature. Relative humidity is expressed as a
percentage and is the ratio of the quantity of water vapor which
is present in the air at any given temperature and pressure to the
quantity of vapor necessary to saturate completely the space
occupied by the air.

Since in the charcoal fire at the temperature of the union of
the carbon with oxygen the fuel is solid, it can present a large
surface upon which the oxygen can act, and an atom of carbon
cannot break away from the fuel bed without being first united
with at least one atom of oxygen and forming CO. In burning
fuel oil the fuel is already on the way to the chimney before it

PRINCIPLES OF FUEL OIL COMBUSTION

is even partially burned and is carried along by the current of
gases. Therefore, before being cooled, plenty of time must elapse
or otherwise it will form soot. If the oil is not properly atomized
at the burner the separate oil particles are too large and at the
same time are not surrounded with a sufficient number of par-
ticles of air to insure their complete combustion. The heavier
drops of oil progressively distill and particles of free carbon or
soot are deposited. The lighter oils and gases resulting from this
distillation consist, like the gases from coal, principally of carbon
and hydrogen. In an atmosphere deficient in oxygen the hydro-
Table 4.— PHYSICAL CHANGES IN AIR DUE TO TEMPERATURE

Weight of Water in

Temperature
of the Air.

Weight of 100,000
Cubic Feet of Pure Air.

100,000 Cubic Feet of
Saturated Aqueous

Quantity of Water per
100,000 Cubic Feet

Vapor.

of Air.

Deg. F.

Pounds.

Gallons.

8,635.4

6.9

0.823

8,459.4

11.1

1.329

8,275.5

17.6

2.114

8,106.3

27.6

3.312

7,943.9

40.7

4.878

7,787.9

58.2

6.979

7,637.9

82.1

9.843

7,493.5

114.0

13.686

7,354.6

156.2

18.776

7,220.6

211.3

25.439

100

7,091.4

282.4

34.058

gen burns first and the carbon is deposited. Naturally when we
consider that oil is a liquid originally and not a dense substance
like coal, and particularly that it is blown into the furnace by
compressed air or steam, the likelihood of its incomplete com-
bustion with consequent deposition of soot is much less than is
the case with coal.

An essential for the successful burning of fuel oil is the ex-
posure of the largest possible surface to the action of the oxygen
of the air. Bulk oil presents comparatively a small surface. If
a tank of fuel oil is ignited, the air is able to reach only the upper-
most surface of the liquid and combustion is relatively slow and
incomplete, being accompanied by dense clouds of black smoke
consisting of unburned carbon. (See fig. 3.) When fuel oil is
broken up into fine drops the surface exposed is the sum of the

16 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

surface of all the drops. The smaller the drops the more nearly
spherical they are. Drops of oil one one-thousandth of an inch
in diameter are known to assume the spherical form with a
rigidity comparable to that of a steel ball one inch in diameter.
The drop of oil assumes this spherical form through "surface
tension," which is a very peculiar property belonging to both
solids and liquids. Cohesion of the molecules appears to be
greater at the surface than within the body of the globule. Co-
hesion may be explained as an attractive force between particles
of the same material. It appears as though a thin envelope sur-
rounds and holds together the particles composing the drop of oil.
The work necessarily performed by the atomizing agent is
simply the work of stretching the surface of the drops. It will
easily be seen, therefore, that to properly atomize fuel oil to such
a form that it can be burned efficiently under boilers is purely
mechanical rather than a chemical problem.

CHAPTER II

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF

FUEL OIL

Crude petroleum in its raw or unrefined state varies con-
siderably in character and appearance, according to the locality
from which it is obtained. Petroleum is a very complex mixture
of organic compounds which are chiefly hydrocarbons, that is,
compounds composed of hydrogen and carbon. Although the
hydrocarbons are the chief constituents of petroleum it also con-
tains in small amounts, sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen. While
petroleums from various sections of the country differ consider-
ably in character, they may, however, be divided into three main
classes :

1 . Those in which the residue is predominantly paraffin wax.

2. Those in which the residue is predominantly asphalt.

3. Those in which the residue is a compound of paraffin wax

and asphalt.

The paraffin petroleums of the United States occur chiefly in the
eastern part of the country. The asphaltic petroleums are found
in California and in the Gulf region and the compound paraffin-
asphalt base petroleum is found generally in the mid-continent
field.

It is possible to burn crude petroleum itself as a fuel and
nearly one-fifth of the domestic consumption is thus utilized, but
while the evaporative efficiency of crude and refined oil is prac-
tically the same no matter from what locality the oil may come,
the danger of using crude oil is much greater than that of using
fuel oil. The most of the petroleum produced in the United States
is refined into a series of products. The four main products ob-
tained through the distillation of petroleum in refineries are gaso-
line, kerosene, fuel oil, and lubricating oil. There are, of course,
a large number of by-products obtained in the process of refining
of which benzine, vaseline, paraffin, road oil, asphalt and petro-
leum coke are well-known examples. Table 5 gives analyses of
typical American oils used as fuels.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

I N. CO 00 CO 00 • -^ 00 • O O Q O O '— ' O

O^ iO ^^ ^-H t^* • i"^ i"H • CO *""* CO ^t* CO OO ^O

t^tq^to^cq^-^ • oo^ i>^ °i<:viT*lT*l'— 1^*1^

oo"oo"oo"oo"oo" ' cToo" t*d*tto*<3*d*d*

^^^^^ j?r .^^^^^^^

•t^COO'-H
CO O iO TtH

• c5 I-H c5 o

•-n ^ «> «

§00 rt C i
>t-i cOpLt^qcO

Hil

CO • T^ •
00 t^ 00 O 'CO

r-! • o •

^5 & A £

i-H t^- *O t^- GO * ' t>* C^l ^ C

^OOOO • • oi • CO i-J T-H -(NCOO

^ CO Oi

00 00 i-<

O l^ »-H '—
CO(M^CO

(M Tfi CO CO O

ico

o • o i— 1 1>

r-l • O^'* CO

Tt CO1* -O (N ^H

t>- cO i-< 00 Tt< O 'O • O O cO • O CO CO

CO CO iO »O cO "tf • <N -OOiCO -CDC^Ci

COCOCOCOiO^O '^H •C^^'^t1 -T^COt>-

oooooooooooo -oo -oooooo oooooo

•^ l— I O '— ' C<1

CO C5<M *O"0

00 *O CO ^D '^

»O iC t^ CO • 00 CO <M 00 ^t1 CO (N <N O

O5 O5 Oi 00 • OO 00 00 00 OO O5 Oi O5 Oi

'OOQOOOQOO

o o o o o o

(McOt^^t^cO ' CO lOOO COO1> OOQ
iO i— I CO CO CO CO ' 00 <N »O 00 rfH O I-H i— i O

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 19

When crude petroleum is distilled, the most volatile products
are given off first. Gasoline, as the term is commercially used,
covers those products which are more volatile than kerosene and
includes, therefore, some benzine and naphtha. The next most
volatile constituent of crude petroleum is kerosene, which is the
common type of illuminating oil and is heavier than gasoline, but
lighter than distillate which is taken out immediately after kero-
sene and can be considered a high grade special fuel oil. Under
the heading fuel oil are included all of those distillates which are
heavier than illuminating oils and lighter than lubricating oils.
Fuel oil, therefore, includes gas oil. Gas oil is nothing more than
a high-grade fuel oil which is used in the manufacture of gas.
The term fuel oil also includes the residuum left after gasoline
and kerosene only have been extracted from petroleum.

Inasmuch as the crude oils from different sections of the
country vary widely in chemical composition, it is only natural to
expect that the fuel oils obtained as a result of the distillation of
these crude petroleums will also vary widely in ultimate analyses.

In purchasing fuel oil it is sufficient to specify the desired
viscosity, specific gravity, flash point, calorific value, water con-
tent, and sulphur content. The specifications of the U. S. Navy
for fuel oil at Atlantic and Gulf ports are :

SPECIFICATIONS

"(a) Fuel oil shall be a hydrocarbon oil free from grit,
acid and fibrous or other foreign matter likely to clog or injure
the burners or valves. If required by the Navy Department it
shall be strained by being drawn through filters of wire gauge
having 16 meshes to the inch. The clearance through the strainer
shall be at least twice the area of the suction pipe and strainers
shall be in duplicate.

(b) The unit of quantity to be the barrel of 42 gallons of
231 cu. in. at a standard temperature of 60° F. For every de-
crease or increase of temperature of 10° F. (or proportion
thereof) from the standard, 0.4 of 1 per cent (or prorated per-
centage) shall be added or deducted from the measured or gauged
quantity for correction.

(c) The flash point shall not be lower than 150° F. as a
minimum (Abel or Pennsky-Marten's closed cup) or 175° F.
Tagliabue open cup. In case of oils having a viscosity greater

20 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

than 8 Engler at 150° F. the flash point (closed cup) shall not be
below the temperature at which the oil has a viscosity of 8 Engler.

(d) Viscosity shall not be greater than 40 Engler at 70° F.

(e) Water and sediment not over 1 per cent. If in excess
of 1 per cent the excess to be subtracted from the volume or the
oil may be rejected.

(f) Sulphur not over 1.5 per cent.

NOTE: — If the Engler viscometer is not available, the Say-
bolt standard universal viscosimeter may be used. Equivalent
viscosities :

88 Engler 300 seconds Saybolt

40 Engler 1,500 seconds Saybolt"

VISCOSITY OF FUEL OIL

The viscosity of an oil is inversely proportional to its fluidity,
and is a measure of the internal friction in the oil itself, that is.
of its resistance to free flowing. Inasmuch as there are a number
of different instruments for the purpose of measuring viscosity,
and since there is no recognized standard instrument or method
of measuring it, the term "viscosity" means nothing unless there
are also stated the name of the instrument used, the temperature
at which the viscosity was determined, and the amount of oil
tested. The viscosity of an oil is generally stated as the time
in seconds required for a given quantity of the oil in question
to flow through a small orifice at the stated temperature. It can
be stated as the ratio of the time of flow of the oil being tested
to the time of flow of water or some oil chosen as a standard at
a stated temperature. Common types of viscosimeters or instru-
ments for measuring the viscosity of oil are the Engler, Saybolt
and Tagliabue. In stating viscosity the name of the instrument
used should always be given. Figure 4 shows a Saybolt visco-
simeter. The tentative test for the viscosity of lubricants adopted
by the American Society for Testing Materials11 is as follows:

1. Viscosity shall be determined by means of the Saybolt
Standard Universal Viscosimeter.

2. (a) The Saybolt Standard Universal Viscosimeter is
made entirely of metal. The standard oil tube J is fitted at the
top with an overflow cup E and the tube is surrounded by a bath
L. At the bottom of the standard oil tube is a small outlet tube
through which the oil to be tested flows into a receiving flask R,

a. Reprinted by permission.

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL

FIG. 4. — Saybolt Standard Universal Viscosimeter.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

whose capacity to a mark on its neck is 60 (±0.15) c.c. The
lower end of the outlet tube is enclosed by a larger tube, which
when stoppered by a cork, N, acts as a closed air chamber and
prevents the flow of oil through the outlet tube until the cork is
removed and the test started. A looped string is attached to the
lower end of the cork as an aid to its rapid removal. The bath is
provided with two stirring paddles, K, and operated by two turn-
table handles F. The temperatures in the standard oil tube and
in the bath are shown by thermometers, A and B. The bath may
be heated by a gas ring burner P, steam U-tube H, or electric
heater, C. The standard oil tube is cleaned by means of a tube
cleaning plunger V, and all oil entering the standard oil tube shall
be strained through a 30-mesh brass wire strainer Q. A stop
watch is used for taking the time of flow of the oil and a pipette,
fitted with a rubber suction bulb, is used for draining the over-
flow cup of the standard oil tube.

(b) The standard oil tube should be standardized by the
United States Bureau of Standards, Washington, and shall con-
form to the following dimensions:

Minimum

Normal

Maximum

Dimensions.

CM.

Inside Diameter of outlet tube

0. 1750

0. 1765

0. 1780

Length of outlet tube

1.215

1.225

1.235

Height of overflow rim above bottom of outlet

tube

12.40

12.50

12.60

Diameter of container of standard oil tube. . .

2.955

2.975

2.995

Outer diameter of outlet tube at lower end —

0.28

0.30

0.32

3. Viscosity shall be determined at 100° F. (37°.8C.).
130° F. (54°.4 C.), or 210° F. (98°.9 C). The bath shall be held
constant within 0°.25 F. (0.14° C.) at such a temperature as will
maintain the desired temperature in the standard oil tube. For
viscosity determinations at 100 and 130° F., oil or water may be
used as the bath liquid. For viscosity determinations at 210° F.,
oil shall be used as the bath liquid. The oil for the bath liquid
should be a pale engine oil of at least 350° F. flash point (open
cup). Viscosity determinations shall be made in a room free
from draughts, and from rapid changes in temperature. All oil
introduced into the standard oil tube, either for cleaning or for
test, shall first be passed through the strainer. To make the test.

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 23

heat the oil to the necessary temperature and clean out the stand-
ard oil tube with the plunger, using some of the oil to be tested.
Place the cork stopper into the lower end of the air chamber at
the bottom of the standard oil tube. The stopper should be suffi-
ciently inserted to prevent the escape of air, but should not touch
the small outlet tube of the standard oil tube. Heat the oil to be
tested, outside the viscosimeter, to slightly below the temperature
at which the viscosity is to be determined and pour it into the
standard oil tube until it ceases to overflow into the overflow cup.
By means of the oil tube thermometer keep the oil in the standard
oil tube well stirred and also stir well the oil in the bath. It is
extremely important that the temperature of the oil in the oil
bath be maintained constant during the entire time consumed in
making the test. When the temperature of the oil in the bath and
in the standard oil tube are constant and the oil in the standard
oil tube is at the desired temperature, withdraw the oil tube ther-
mometer ; quickly remove the surplus oil from the overflow cup
by means of a pipette so that the level of the oil in the overflow
cup is below the level of the oil in the tube proper ; place the
60 c.c. flask in position so that the oil from the outlet tube will
flow into the flask without making bubbles ; snap the cork from
its position, and at the same instant start the stop watch. Stir
the liquid on the bath during the run and carefully maintain it at
the previously determined proper temperature. Stop the watch
when the bottom of the meniscus of the oil reaches the mark on
the neck of the receiving flask. The time in seconds for the
60 c.c. of oil is the Saybolt viscosity of the oil at the temperature
at which the test was made.

Other viscosimeters in use are the Engler, Tagliabue, Scott,
Redwood, Penn. Ry. pipet, McMichael, Lamansky-Nobel, Ost-
wald, Martens, Stormer, Ubbelohde, Lepenau, Kuenkler, Albrecht,
Arvine, Barbey, Cockrell, Doolittle, Gibbs, Mason, Napier, Nas-
myth, Phillips, Reischauer, Magruder. The Engler viscosimeter
(See fig. 5) is used most extensively in Germany and its dimen-
sions are as follows:

Inside diameter of the inside vessel for oil. . . .106 mm.

Height of vessel below overflow 25 mm.

Length of the oil jet 20 mm.

Inside diameter of the oil jet upper end 2.9 mm.

Inside diameter of the oil jet lower end 2.8 mm.

24 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Length of jet projecting from lower part of

outer vessel 3.0 mm.

Width of jet .4.5 mm.

FIG. 5. — The Engler viscosimeter.

The quotient of the time of outflow of 200 c.c. of oil divided
by the time of outflow of 200 c.c. of water is taken as a measure
of the viscosity or is the so-called Engler degree. The Redwood
viscosimeter is used extensively in England.

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL

Table 6.— EQUIVALENT READINGS FOR THE SAYBOLT, RED-
WOOD AND ENGLER VISCOMETERS.

Saybolt
Time.

Redwood
Time.

Engler
Number.

Saybolt
Time.

Redwood
Time.

Engler
Number.

28.0

26.6

1.00

200

168

5.34

29.0

27.4

1.03

300

252

8.01

30.0

28.3

1.06

400

336

10.7

3.1.0

29.2

1.08

500

420

13.4

32.0

30.1

1.11

600

504

16.0

33.0

31.0

1.14

700

588

18.7

34.0

31.9

1.16

800

672

21.4

35.0

32.8

1.19

900

756

24.0

36.0

32.7

1.22

1000

840

26.7

37.0

34.6

1.25

1100

925

28.4

38.0

35.4

1.27

1200

1010

32.0

39.0

36.3

1.30

1300

1090

34.7

40.0

37.1

1.32

1400

1180

37.4

41.0

37.9

1.35

1500

1260

40.0

42.0

38.8

1.37

1600

1340

42.7

43.0

39.6

1.40

1700

1430

45.4

44.0

40.4

1. 42

1800

1510

48.1

45.0

41.2

1.45

1900

1600

50.7

46.0

42.0

1.47

2000

1680

53.4

47.0

42.8

1.50

48.0

43.6

1.52

At and above 200 Saybolt, the Red-

49.0

44.4

1.55

wood time is obtained by multiplying

50.0

45.2

1.57

by 0.84, and the Engler number by

55.0

49.2

1.69

multiplying by 0.0267, thus:

60.0

53.2

1.81

Redwood time = 0.84 X Saybolt

65.0

57.2

1.93

time. Engler number = 0.0267 X

70.0
75.0

61.2
65.1

2.05
2.17

Saybolt time. For Engler numbers
6.0 and over, Redwood time = 31.3 X

80.0

69.0

2.29

Engler numbers.

85.0

72.9

2.41

90.0

76.8

2.54

95.0

80.8

2.67

100.

•85.0

2.80

110.

93.5

3.04

120.

101.

3.29

130.

109.

3.54

140.

118.

3.80

150.

126.

3.05

160.

134.

4.31

170.

143.

4.56

• • — . •

180.

151.

4.82

190.

160.

5.08

200.

168.

5.34

Table 6 gives equivalents of Saybolt times, Redwood times,
and Engler numbers.6 Intermediate values can be obtained by
interpolation. Fig. 6 is a charta for the quick determination of
these equivalents.

a. Compiled by Carl D. Miller, Ph.D., Associate Editor of Oil News.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Knowledge of the viscosity of fuel oil is valuable for de-
termining the ease with which the oil can be pumped through
pipe lines with or without heat. Although the viscosity of fuel
oil increases with the density, tests have shown that oils of the
same specific gravity from different localities often differ quite
widely in viscosity.

Fuel oil, as regards viscosity, may be divided into two general
classes, namely: Class 1. Asphaltic base crudes, residuums, or

200

zoot —

—

;5Q-^

1500.

SO.-^

—

a -

45" —

•3

/5ft

40--

iroa —

J40L_z

—

1.4-^

5 JI

1 :

1 Z

1 I

-S Z

| £

5
1 -

1 I

-S —

-a —

OJOO.

•X

i ^

41 —

IOOC/.

? —

1 _

1 _,

*l —

j- '

^—

•"'

-rS —

^ z

">/00 —

fc _

lu _

,000:

g —

VI.3— -

—

j -

J»

—

<? ~

«3S-^

—

su>— —

—

2.0

—

500.

3£—

—

|.fc-—

SO.

—

SCO.—

—

fft-^

—

/.oJ

—

Exaryifile

—

^mytsoJt ti-™e IOC i.s |-oavi<t IV\ the -center chart.

—

I'°~B

Rea-wood. tivvtei a.t tV»« yifV/t avia. 1.3 OY\ the *cj\e
0\- E-r\i\er vn/mtcK*

FIG. 6. — Chart for quick determination of Saybolt equivalents.

other oils which require heating facilities to reduce the viscosity
in order that the oil may be handled by the storage and burning
equipment. Class 2. Oils of a sufficiently low viscosity to make
heating equipment unnecessary. In general, an oil in Class 1
should not have a viscosity above 2,000° Engler at 60° F. Oils of
a higher viscosity than this can be used at plants provided with
special equipment. It is imperative that oils of this class be heated

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 27

to a temperature at which they have a viscosity of 12° Engler or
lower before they reach the burner, in order to obtain proper
atomization. It is desirable that this viscosity be obtained at a
temperature below the flash point of the oil, in order to minimize
fire hazards and to insure uniform feed to the burner. For an
oil of Class 2, 12° Engler at 60° F. is the approximate maximum
viscosity permissible.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Fuel oils are commonly sold and described as of a certain
specific gravity or else as of a certain degree Baume. Through-
out the oil-burner industry the Baume reading is generally used.
The specific gravity of fuel oil is the relation by weight of a given
volume of distilled water to the same volume of fuel oil when
both are weighed at a temperature of 60° F. The specific gravity
of fuel oil can be determined by the hydrostatic balance, by
hydrometers, and by the specific gravity bottle. Throughout the
oil industry the gravity as determined by the hydrometer is uni-
versally referred to. The principle of operation of the hydrom-
eter is based on the law that a solid body floating in a liquid will
displace a quantity of the liquid equal in weight to the floating
body. Hence a body of constant weight and proportion will al-
ways sink to the same extent into a liquid of a certain density and
will sink to a greater or less extent as the density decreases or
increases. Because when a liquid expands or contracts with tem-
perature, the density of the liquid varies accordingly, therefore,
when the hydrometer is constructed the scale must be standard-
ized for a certain temperature. As it is not always convenient
to have the liquid at the temperature for which the scale of the
hydrometer is arranged, it is often necessary to apply a correc-
tion for temperature variation.

The standard hydrometer used in the oil industry was evolved
by Baume. Baume's hydrometer has an arbitrary scale. For
liquids lighter than water, Baume took for zero the point on the
stem to which the hydrometer sank in a solution of 10 parts of
salt and 90 of water. For the point 10 in the scale he took the
level to which the hydrometer sank in distilled water. The space
between the two marks he divided into 10 equal parts and called
each space a decree and he continued the scale with the same inter-
vals between the marks. The proper method of manipulating a
hydrometer must be adhered to if accurate results are desired.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

The following instructions are in line with those given by the
U. S. Bureau of Standards.

FIG. 7. — In reading the hydrometer the line of sight should first strike slightly
below the plane of the oil surface (Left). The eye should then be slowly raised unti'l
the line of sight grazes from beneath the surface of the oil (Right).

It is essential that before it is used the hydrometer shall be thor-
oughly cleaned and dried. The liquids to be tested should be
contained in clear, smooth, glass vessels of suitable size and shape.
Thorough mixing of the liquids is requisite, before the hydrom-

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 29

eter test is made, by means of a stirrer that reaches to the bottom
of the vessel, so that the liquid will be uniform in density and
temperature throughout. A perforated disc or a spiral at the
end of a sufficiently long rod will give the best results as the up
and down motion serves to disperse layers of the liquid of dif-
ferent density. The temperature of the surrounding atmosphere
should be taken into account also and the temperature of the
liquid being tested should be the same as the atmosphere, as
otherwise its temperature will be changing during the test, thus
causing not only differences in density, but also doubt as to the
actual temperature. The temperature of the hydrometer itself
should also be the same as that of the liquids being tested. When
immersing the hydrometer it should be slowly sunk into the liquid
slightly beyond the point where it floats naturally and then al-
lowed to float freely. Surface tension effects on hydrometer
observation are a consequence of the downward force exerted on
the stem by the curved surface of the liquid or "meniscus" which
rises on the stem and which affects the depth of immersion and
consequent scale reading. The liquid for which the hydrometer
is intended must be specified, therefore, because a hydrometer will
indicate differently in two liquids having the same density, but
different surface tensions. Hydrometers may be compared with
each other if they are of equivalent dimensions., however, even if
the liquid used differs in surface tension from the specified liquid,
but comparisons of dissimilar instruments, in such liquid, must
be corrected for the effect of surface tension. Spontaneous
changes in surface tension occur in many liquids, due to the for-
mation of surface films of impurities, which may come from the
apparatus, the liquid, or the air. Errors from this source may be
avoided by the purification of the surface by overflowing imme-
diately before making the observation. Air bubbles must be
allowed to disappear from the surface of the liquid before taking
the scale reading. In reading the hydrometer scale, the eye is
brought to the height of the level surface of the liquid and the
point on the scale read, which appears to coincide with the level
surface. In reading the thermometer scale, the errors of parallax
are avoided by so placing the eye that near the 'end of the mercury
column the portions on either side of the stem and that seen
through the capillary appear to lie in a straight line. (See fig. 7.)
The line of sight is then normal to the stem. The readings of the

30 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Baume hydrometer may be changed to those of absolute specific
gravity as determined by a hydrostatic balance by the following
formulas which hold for oil and for all other liquids lighter than
water.

Specific Gravity = —

lou — J >aume reading

Baume — • — 1 30

Specific Gravity

Example: What. is Baume of oil specific gravity .8092?
--130 = 43° Baume.

Table 7 gives the Baume scale and specific gravity equivalents.
FLASH POINT

When oils are heated to a sufficiently high temperature, vapors
are driven off which are inflammable and which create the danger
of explosion. The temperature at which the oil gives off suffi-
cient vapor to form a momentary flash when a small flame is
brought near the surface of the oil is called the "flash point." The
flash point is determined by heating the oil in a suitable device
and testing with a lighted taper or with a spark. There are two
types of flash testers, the open-cup and the closed-cup. There are
many makes of both types on the market. The most common
closed-cup testers are the New York State, the Pensky-Martens
and the Abel, and the most common open-cup testers are the
Tagliabue and the Cleveland. Figure 8 shows the Tagliabue
closed-cup testera which may be operated with either gas or oil
to supply the ignition flame. The method of testing with the
standard "Tag" closed-cup tester as outlined by the American
Society for Testing Materials, Tentative Standards 1917, pages
445-6 are as follows :

The test must be performed in a dim light so as to see the
flash plainly. Surround the tester on three sides with an in-
closure to keep away drafts. A shield about 18 inches square
and 2 feet high, open in front, is satisfactory. See that tester
sets firmly and level. For accuracy, the flash point thermometers
which are especially designed for the instrument should be used

Bulletin D 398, C. J. Tagliabue Manufacturing Company.

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL

FIG. 8. — Tagliabue closed-cup tester. A. Thermometer, indicating the temperature
ot the oil. B. Thermometer, indicating the temperature of the water bath. C. A minia-
ture oil well to supply the test flame when gas is not available, mounted on the axle
about which the test-flame burner is rotated, which axle is hollow and provided with
connection on one end for gas hose and provided also with needle valve for controlling
gas supply, when gas is available, the gas passing through the empty-oil well. D. Gas
or oil tip for test flame. E. Cover for oil cap, provided with three openings, which are
in turn covered by a movable slide operated by a knurled hand knob, which also oper-
ates the test flame burner in unison with the movable slide, so that by turning this knob,
the test flame is lowered into the middle opening in the cover, at the same time that
this opening is uncovered by the movement of the slide. F. Oil cup (which cannot be
seen in the illustration) of standardized size, weight and shape, fitting into the top of
the water bath. G. Overflow spout. H. Water bath, of copper, fitting into the top of
the body, and provided with an overflow spout and opening in its top, to receive the oil
cup and water bath thermometer. J. Body, of metal, attached to substantial cast metal
base provided with three feet. K. Alcohol lamp for heating the water bath. L. Gas hose.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Table 7.— BAUME SCALE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
EQUIVALENTS.*

Pounds

°B.

Specific

0 B.

Specific

0 B

Specific

Gravity

Gallon

Gravity

Gallon

Gravity

Gallon

1.000

8.33

0.8383

6.99

0.7216

6.01

0.9929

8.27

0.8333

6.94

0.7179

5.98

0.9859

8.21

0.8284

6.90

0.7143

5.96

0.9790

8.15

0.8235

6.86

0.7107

5.92

0.9722

8.10

0.8187

6.82

0.7071

5.89

0. 9655

8.04

0.8140

6.78

0.7035

5.86

0.9589

7.99

43,

0.8092

6.74

0.7000

5.83

0.9524

7.93

0.8046

6.70

0.6965

5.80

0.9459

7.88

0.8000

6.66

0.6931

5.77

0.9396

7.83

0.7955

6.62

0.6897

5.74

0.9333

7.77

0.7910

6.59

0.6863

5.71

0.9272

7.72

0.7865

6.55

0.6829

5.69

0.9211

7.67

0.7821

6.51

0.6796

5.66

0.9150

7.62

0.7778

6.48

0.6763

5.63

0.9091

7.57

0.7735

6.44

0.6731

5.60

0.9032

7.52

0.7692

6.40

0.6699

5.58

0.8974

7.47

0.7650

6.37

0.6677

5.55

0.8917

7.42

0.7609

6.33

0.6635

5.52

0.8861

.7.38

0.7568

6.30

0.6604

5.50

0.8805

7.33

0.7527

6.27

0.6573

5.47

0.8750

7.29

0.7487

6.23

0.6542

5.45

0.8696

7.24

0.7447

6.20

0.6512

5.42

0.8642

7.20

0.7407

6.17

0.6482

5.40

0.8589

7.15

0.7368

6.13

0.6452

5.37

0.8537

7.11

0.7330

6.10

0.6422

5.35

0.8485

7.07

0.7292

6.07

0.6393

5.32

0.8434

7.02

0.7254

6.04

0.6364

5.30

as the position of the bulb of the thermometer in the oil cup is
essential. Put the water-bath thermometer in place. Place a
receptacle under the overflow spout to catch the overflow. Fill
the water bath with water at such a temperature that when test-
ing is started, the temperature of the water bath will be at least
10° C. below the probable flash point of the oil to be tested. Put
the oil cup in place in the water bath. Measure 50 c.c. of the oil
to be tested in a pipet or a graduate and place in oil cup. The
temperature of the oil must be at least 10° C. below its probable
flash point when testing is started. Destroy any bubbles on the
surface of the oil. Put on cover with flash point thermometers
in place and gas tube attached. Light pilot light on cover and
adjust flame to size of the small white bead on cover. Light

a. U. S. Bureau of Standards, United States Standard Tables for Petro-
leum Oils, Circular 57, 1916, p. 57.

Note. — Degrees Baume may be converted to specific gravity by adding
130 to the number of degrees Baume and dividing the sum by 140.

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 33

and place the heating lamp, filled with alcohol, in base of tester
and see that it is centrally located. Adjust flame of alcohol lamp
so that temperature of oil in cup rises at the rate of about 1° C.
(1.8° F.) per minute or not faster than 1° C. (1.8° F.) nor slower
than 0.9° C. (1.6° F.) per minute. Record the "time of applying
the heating lamp," record the "temperature of the water bath at
start," record the "temperature of the oil sample at start." When
the temperature of the oil reaches about 5° C. below the probable
flash point of the oil, turn the knob on the cover so as to introduce
the test flame into the cup and turn it promptly back again. Do
not let it snap back. The time consumed in turning the knob
down and back should be about one full second, or the time re-
quired to pronounce distinctly the words "one thousand and one."
Record the "time of making the first introduction of the test
flame" and record the "temperature of the oil sample at time of
first test." Repeat the application of the test flame at every
0.5° C. rise in temperature of the oil until there is a flash of the
oil within the cup. Do not be misled by an enlargement of the
test flame or halo around it when entered into the cup or by
slight flickering of the flame; the true flash consumes the gas in
the top of the cup and causes a very slight puff. Record the
"time at which the flash point is reached," and the "flash point."
If the rise in temperature of the oil from the "time of making
the first introduction of the test flame" to the "time at which the
flash point is reached" was faster than 1.1° C. or slower than
0.9° C. per minute, the test should be questioned and the alcohol
heating lamp adjusted so as to correct the rate of heating. It will
be found that the wick of this lamp can be so accurately adjusted
as to give a uniform rate of rise in temperature of 1° C per min-
ute and remain so.

Repeat Tests — It is not necessary to turn off the test flame
with the small regulating valve on the cover, but leave it adjusted
to give the proper size of flame. Having completed the prelim-
inary test, remove the heating lamp, lift up the oil cup cover and
wipe off the thermometer bulb. Lift out the oil cup and empty
and carefully wipe it. Throw away all oil samples atter once
using in making test. Pour cold water into the water bath, allow-
ing it to overflow into the receptacle until the temperature of the
water in the bath is lowered to 8° C. below the flash point of the
oil as shown by the previous test. With cold water of nearly

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

constant temperature it will be found that a uniform amount will
be required to reduce the temperature of the water bath to the
required point. Place the oil cup back in the bath and measure
into it a 50 cc charge of fresh oil. Destroy any bubbles on the
surface of the oil, put on the cover with its thermometer, put
in the heating lamp, record time and temperature of oil and water
and proceed to repeat test as described above. Introduce test
flame for first time at a temperature of 5° C. below flash point
obtained on the previous test.

Precautions. — Be sure to record barometric pressure either
from laboratory barometer or from nearest Weather Bureau Sta-
tion. Record temperature of room. Note and record any flicker-
ing of the test flame or slight preliminary flashes when the test
flame is introduced into the cup before the proper flash occurs.
Record time and temperature of such flickers or slight flashes if
they occur.

With the Cleveland open-cup tester, the oil is poured into the
oil cup within 5 mm. of the top. The flame is then applied to
the air bath in such manner that the temperature of the oil in the
cup is raised at the rate of 5° C. per minute. The testing flame
is made from a piece of drawn glass tubing, making a flame about
5 mm. in length. This flame is applied to the surface of the oil
every half minute. A distinct flicker or flash over the entire
surface of the oil shows that the flash point is reached and the
temperature at this time is recorded.

Table 8.— CONVERSION OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE IN CENTI-
METERS TO INCHES.

2 3

27.559

27.598

27.638

27.677

27.716

27.756

27.795

27.835

27 .874

27.913

27 .953

27.992

28.031

28.071

28.110

28.150

28.139

28.228

28.268

28.307

28.346

28.386

28.425

28.465

28.504

28.543

28.583

28.622

28.661

28.701

28.740

28.779

28.819

28.858

28.898

28.937

28.976

29.016

29.055

29.094

29.134

29.173

29.213

29 .252

29.291

29.331

29.370

29.409

29 .449

29 .488

29.528

29.567

29.606

29.646

29.685

29.724

29.764

29.803

29.842

29.882

29.921

29.961

30.000

30.039

30.079

30.118

30.157

30.197

30.236

30.276

30.315

30.354

30.394

30.433

30.472

30.512

30.551

30.590

30.630

30.669

Table 8 gives figures for the conversion of barometric pres-
sure in centimeters to inchesa and Table 9 gives corrections of the
flash point for normal barometric pressure.*

a. Bulletin No. 15, Kansas City Testing Laboratory, page 317.

, PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 35

BURNING POINT

The burning point of fuel oil is the temperature at which
the vapor arising from the surface of the oil ignites and burns
continuously. It is obtained both with the closed and open-cup
tester by continuing the flash point test and noting the tempera-
ture at which the vapor gives a continuous flame.

Closed-cup testers are considered to give more reliable results
for flash point determinations than do open-cup testers, because
they permit , better control of the rate of heat, uniformity of
mixing the oil and exclusion of drafts. With a closed-cup tester
lower results are always obtained than with open-cup testers,
because the inflammable vapors given off by the oil are concen-
trated.

CALORIFIC VALUE

In order to make a comparison between fuels, it is necessary
to know the amount of heat wrhich a given quantity of the fuel
will give off when burned. The amount of heat which a given
quantity of a fuel gives off is known as the calorific value or heat
value. The standard measure of heat in this country is the British
thermal unit. One British thermal unit is the amount of heat
necessary to raise one pound of pure water from 62° F to 63° F.
It is possible to calculate the calorific value of a fuel from its
elementary composition, but calculations which are based upon
the ultimate analysis of a sample may be very misleading because
the heat of combustion is dependent upon the state of combination
of the elements in the substance, and is never equal to the sum of
those of its elements taken proportionately.

Determination of the calorific value of fuels is made by means
of a calorimeter. In a calorimeter a weighed amount of fuel is
completely burned, and the heat generated by the combustion is
absorbed by a fixed weight of water, the amount of heat being
calculated from the increase in the temperature of the water.
A calorimeter, which has been accepted as the best for such
work, is one in which the fuel is burned in a steel bomb filled
with compressed oxygen. The function of the oxygen, which is
ordinarily under a pressure of about 25 atmospheres, is to cause
the rapid and complete combustion of the fuel sample. The fuel
is ignited by means of an electric current, allowance being made
for the heat produced by such currents and by the burning of
the fuse wire. Among the standard calorimeters used are the

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Atwater, Mahler and Kroeker bombs. Fig. 9 shows the Mahler
calorimeter. The apparatus consists of: A water jacket, A,
which maintains constant conditions outside of the calorimeter
proper, and thus makes possible a more accurate computation of
radiation losses; the porcelain-lined steel bomb, B, in which the
combustion of the fuel takes place in compressed oxygen ; the
platinum pan, C, for holding the fuel ; the calorimeter proper, D,
surrounding the bomb and containing a definite weighed amount
of water; an electrode, E, connecting with the fuse wire, F, for

Table 9.— CORRECTIONS OF FLASH POINT FOR NORMAL
BAROMETRIC PRESSURES.

To correct readings made at other pressures to the standard barometric
pressure of 760 mm.

Barometer
Millimeters.

Correction
Degrees C.

Barometer
Millimeters.

Correction
Degrees C.

700
705
710
715
720
725
730
735
740
745

- 2.1
- 1.9
- 1.7
- 1.6
- 1.4
- 1.2
- 1.0
.9
.7
— .5

750
755
760

765
770

775
780
785

.3
.2
0

+ .2
+ -4
+ .5

+ .7
+ .9

igniting the fuel placed in the pan, C ; a support, G, for a water
agitator; a thermometer, I, for temperature determination of the
water in the calorimeter. The thermometer is best supported by
a stand independent of the calorimeter, so that it may not be
moved by tremors in the parts of the calorimeter, which would
render the making of readings difficult. To insure accuracy
readings should be made through a telescope or eyeglass ; a spring
and screw device for revolving the agitator; a level, L, by the
movement of which the agitator is revolved; a pressure gage, M,
for noting the pressure of the oxygen admitted to the bomb.
Between 20 and 25 atmospheres are ordinarily employed ; an
oxygen tank, O; and a battery or batteries, P, the current from
which heats the fuse wire used to ignite the fuel.

The description of the operation of one bomb calorimeter is
typical of all of thema. The lower half of the bomb is placed in

a. Bulletin No. 15, Kansas City Testing Laboratory.

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 37

the cast iron holder. About one gram of the oil is weighed to
the nearest 0.0001 gram into the fuel pan and is placed in the
bomb on the fuel pan holder. If the oil is volatile it is not
advisable to pour the fuel directly into the fuel pan. For this
purpose small gelatine capsules weighing .1 gm. are used and may
be filled with ignited asbestos and into this the light oil is dis-
charged from a weighing pipet. The capsule is immediately
closed, leaving a minimum amount of air space. A similar capsule
has been previously weighed and its calorific value determined. A
stock of standardized capsules should be kept on hand in an air-
tight receptacle. The platinum fuse wire is cut equal in length
to the taper pin wrench, which is connected to the terminal, being
careful that it does not touch the pan. The wire is bent down
so that it is covered by the oil or by the lips of the capsule. The
upper half of the bomb is carefully fitted on the lead gasket to the
lower half. The nut is screwed down over the upper half, being
careful not to cross the threads. The bomb nut is now tightened
by the use of the long wrench, being careful to cause no sudden
jerking or vibrating which will throw the oil from the pan. The
bomb is now carefully lifted out and placed on the swivel table
and connected with the oxygen piping. The valve in the top of
the bomb is opened about one turn and the valve in the
oxygen cylinder is carefully and slowly opened so that the pres-
sure in the bomb as shown by the indicator rises to 300 pounds.
The bomb valve is now closed and the oxygen cylinder valve is
closed. Exactly 1,900 grams of water at a temperature of about
4° below room temperature is weighed into the calorimeter water
bucket. This is placed in the calorimeter container. The bomb
is connected with the electric wire and is introduced into the
water, being careful to place it in the center of the bucket. Two
100 watt lamps placed in parallel are in series with the fuse wire
when a 110 volt circuit is used for firing. The stirring motor is
placed in series with a 60 watt lamp on a 110 volt circuit. The
cover is put on, the connections to the bomb wire are made and
the stirrer is introduced as far down as it will go. It should not
touch the bomb. The thermometer is introduced and stirring is
continued for about 5 minutes. The temperature is. read and the
stirring continued for exactly 5 minutes and the temperature is
again read and the charge is fired by quickly throwing in the
switch and withdrawing it. The stirring is continued for 5 min-

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

utes, the temperature being read at minute intervals or at the end
of 5 minutes, unless extreme accuracy is required. The stirrer is
then run for an additional 5 minutes and the temperature is again
read. The thermometer is corrected in accordance with the cor-
rections furnished by the Bureau of Standards. The radiation
corrections may be applied to each one-minute interval, but for

ordinary purposes 1/5 of the radiation for the 5 -minute period
before firing is applied on the 5-minute period immediately after
firing and 4/5 of the radiation in the third 5-minute period is
applied on the 5-minute period immediately after firing. The
calorimeter constant (usually about 2,400) is determined by a
blank test using exactly 1 gram of benzoic acid. This constant

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 39

always remains the same with the same calorimeter, but must be
determined each time a change is made in the calorimeter. In the
case of oil in which it has been necessary to use the capsule the
correction made must be applied for the calorific value of the
capsule. This is most conveniently applied to the corrected net
rise in temperature of the thermometer. To convert British
thermal units per pound to calories per gram, multiply by 5/9.
To obtain the water evaporative power, multiply the B.t.u. per
pound by 1.035. To obtain the B.t.u. per gallon, multiply the
B.t.u. per pound by the weight per gallon. An approximation of
the heating value of fuel oil can be obtained by the following
formula :

B.t.u. in Ibs. per gallon = 18700 + 40 (° Be— 10).
A standard of 18500 B.t.u. to the pound of pure fuel oil is
a good figure to be taken as a basis if the fuel oil is to be
purchased on calorific determinations. A bonus may be paid for
calorific value in excess of this figure and deductions made if
the heat value of the fuel is below 18,500 B.t.u. 's per pound. The
heat value of fuels is measured by the number of British thermal
units contained in one pound of the fuel and this statement fur-
nishes a direct comparison between fuels. Table 10 gives the
calorific values of various oils.a

WATER CONTENT

Fuel oil should not contain more than 2 per cent by volume
of water and sediment. The method of determining the amount
of water and sediment in fuel oil is as follows : "A definite
volume of the oil sample should be thoroughly shaken or 'cut'
with an equal volume of gasoline of a specific gravity not greater
than 0.74, and centrifuged. An appropriate tube that goes with
a special machine is commonly used for this purpose. (See
fig. 10) .b Centrifuging should be continued until there is a clear
line of demarcation between the water and sediment and oil in
the bottom of the tube, and until a constant reading of water and
sediment is obtained. From this reading the percentage by
volume of water and sediment is computed. If the oil under
consideration has a specific gravity greater than 0.96 one volume
of oil to three volumes of gasoline should be used rather than
equal volumes. When there is a question that the gasoline used

a. Fuel Oil and Its Uses, Tate-Jones and Company, Inc.

b. Courtesy of C. J. Tagliabue Company.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

for thinning the oil in making this determination renders insoluble
certain of its fuel constituents, then mixtures of gasoline and
carbon disulphide, or of gasoline and benzol may be used for
"cutting," providing the specific gravity of such mixtures is not
greater than 0.74. If, after continued centrifuging, a clear line
of demarcation between the impurities and the oil is not obtain-
able, the uppermost line should be read. If this procedure proves
unsatisfactory, 100 C.C. of the sample may be distilled with an
excess of hydrocarbons saturated with water and having boiling
points slightly above and below that of water. Distillation is
continued until all of the water has been distilled over into a
graduated tube. The water in the oil is thus distilled over and
readily collects at the bottom of this tube, where the percentage

FIG. 10. — An electrically driven
centrifuge.

may be read off. The percentage of sediment in the oil may then
be determined on the sample remaining in the distilling flask by
"cutting" it with gasoline and centrifuging. The percentage of
water obtained in the tube added to the percentage of sediment
gives a total percentage to be deducted for moisture and
impurities.

SULPHUR CONTENT

Appreciable sulphur content in a fuel oil is objectionable.
However, a content of 4 per cent or less is not sufficiently objec-
tionable to cause the rejection of a fuel oil for general purposes.
(In general, experiments in burning fuel oils of various sulphur
content have shown that the corrosive effects on the boiler tubes
or heating surfaces are negligible. However, with steel stacks and

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL

low stack-gas temperatures, considerable corrosion in the stack
has been noted.) In handling these oils, prior to burning, the
corrosive action of the sulphur on steel storage tanks, piping, etc.,
is quite apparent and should be considered. If the oil is to be
used for special metallurgical or other purposes where sulphur
fumes are decidedly objectionable, it is necessary to specify a
limiting figure for the sulphur content of the oil. The sulphur

Table 10.— CALORIFIC VALUES OF VARIOUS OILS3.

Beaume0

Specific
Gravity

Pounds
in a
Gallon

Calculated
B. T. U.
per Pound

Calculated
B. T. U.
per Gallon

Remarks

.9722

8.10

18810

152361

.9655

8.05

18850

151743

.9589

7.99

18890

150931

.9523

7.94

18930

150304

Mexico, California,

.9459

7.88

18970

149484

Crudes and Fuel Oil.

.9395

7.83

19010

148848

.9333

7.78

19050

148209

.9271

7.73

19090

147506

.9210

7.68

19130

146918

.9150

7.63

19170

146267

.9090

7.58

19210

145612

.9032

7.54

19250

145145

.8974

7.49

19290

144482

.8917

7.44

19330

143815

.8860

7.39

19370

143144

.8805

7.34

19410

142269

Kansas, Oklahoma

.8750

7.29

19450

141790

Pennsylvania Fuel Oil,

.8695

7.25

19490

141303

Fuel Oil.

.8641

7.21

19530

140811

.8588

7.16

19570

140121

.8536

7.12

19610

139623

.8484

7.07

19650

138926

a. Fuel Oil and Its Use, Tate-Jones & Co., Inc.

42 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Table 10.— CALORIFIC VALUES OF VARIOUS OILS.— Continued.

Beaume0

Specific
Gravity

Pounds
in a
Gallon

Calculated
B. T. U.
per Pound

Calculated
B. T. U.
per Gallon

Remarks

.8433

7.03

19690

138421

.8383

6.99

19730

137913

.8333

6.95

19770

137402

.8284

6.91

19810

136887

Ohio, Pennsylvania and
West Virginia Crudes,

.8235

6.87

19850

136370

California and Kansas
Refined.

.8187

6.83

19890

135849

.8139

6.80

19930

135524

.8092

6.76

19970

134997

.8045

6.72

20010

134367

.8000

6.68

20050

133934

.7954

6.64

20090

133398

.7909

6.60

20130

132858

|
|

.7865

6.57

20170

132517

[Kerosene and Gasoline.
I

.7821

6.53

20210

131971

.7777

6.49

20250

131423

content can be determined in the bomb calorimeter after the
calorific value has been determined. The calorimeter is opened
by gradually allowing the pressure to diminish and the bomb is
carefully and thoroughly washed out with distilled water. The
pan is placed in the beaker with the washings and about 10 cc.
of hydrochloric acid is added. The contents of the beaker are
treated with bromine, heated to boiling temperature for about 10
minutes, filtered and washed and the sulphur in the filtrate precipi-
tated with 10 cc. of barium chloride solution. The precipitated
barium sulphate is filtered, washed and weighed in the usual man-
ner. The weight of the barium sulphate X 13,733 and divided by
oil.

Fuel oil in this country is purchased by volume and not by
weight. Table 10 shows that a gallon of oil of high specific
gravity has a higher calorific value than a gallon of oil of low

PROPERTIES OF FUEL OIL 43

specific gravity. This fact should he remembered by users of
oil fuel, because in buying fuel calorific value is sought. Indi-
vidual conditions and requirements at the points of consumption
influence to a large degree the specifications for viscosity, flash
point and sulphur content. Definite specifications can be drawn
for a fuel oil which will meet practically all requirements, but it
can readily be seen that such specifications will exclude much of
the fuel oil now available, and for most purposes the requirements
need not be severe. Hence, it is advised that in purchasing fuel
oil the individual requirements be studied, and that as lenient
specifications as possible be written, which will insure an oil that
will be satisfactory for the conditions for which it is intended.

CHAPTER III
COMPARISON OF COAL AND FUEL OIL

The term "Coal" as applied to fuel is very loosely used. The
word is applied to a variety of substances ranging from turf
through peat, lignite, semi-bituminous and bituminous coals to
anthracite. It is obvious that no comparison can be drawn
between coal and any other fuel unless the specifications of the
coal are stated. The value of the chemical analysis of a sample
of a given coal to an engineer, power-plant superintendent, or coal
dealer, is a matter that has given rise to much discussion. The
general weight of opinion seems to be that an analysis is often of
the highest value, and that the time and labor involved in making
it are well spent. However, it is clear that analyses are of greater
value to some engineers or users of coal than to others ; and that,
at the present time, they cannot entirely supplant in all cases the
information to be obtained from carefully conducted tests in
boiler furnaces but should supplement such information, when the
latter is obtainable.

In the testing of coals in the Government service the chief
difficulties in the way of accepting or rejecting untried coals on
the basis of chemical analyses alone have proved to be as follows :

(1) An ordinary analysis of a coal shows the percentage of
ash, but does not indicate the extent to which this ash may fuse
or slag on the grate bars of the furnace, and thus seriously inter-
fere with the rate and completeness of the combustion. Though
progress has been made toward the determination of the liability
to clinker, through a study of the composition of the ash, the
results obtained are not as yet altogether satisfactory.

(2) There seems to be a variability in the heating value of
the volatile matter in the coal, which is not clearly indicated by
the percentage of the volatile matter, as determined either by the
usual methods, or by the ordinary calorimetric determinations.

(3) The caking of the surface coal in the fire box appears
to interfere with the draft, and hence, with the rate arid complete-
ness of the combustion, and, therefore, impairs the fuel value of
the coal to a degree that is not ordinarily indicated by chemical
analyses.

COMPARISON OF COAL AND FUEL OIL

For all practical purposes the coal produced in the United
States may be divided into three classes, anthracite, bituminous
and lignite. The great bulk of the country's coal supply, however,
is bituminous or soft coal. Table 11 shows the production of coal
in recent years in the United States .

FIG. 11. — Bedded impurities in a seam of Illinois coal.

Table 11.— PRODUCTION OF COAL IN UNITED STATES.

Year

Total
(In tho

Bituminous
usands of gro

Anthracite
ss tons)

1909-13 (5 year average). .
1914

457,716
458,505
474,660
526,873
581,609
605,546
508,000

380,515
377,414
395,200
448,678
492,670
517,309
432,000

77,201
81,091
79,460
78,195
88,939
88,237
76,000

1915

1916 . .

1917 . .

1918 . . .

1919

Bituminous is the chief steam coal and when comparisons are
made between coal and fuel oil, bituminous coal is used as a basis.
Bituminous coal deposits are almost always underlain by fire
clay and almost always are overlain by a stratum of shale. The
fire clay is the residuum of the original soil in which grew the

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

COMPARISON OF COAL AND FUEL OIL 47

luxuriant vegetation that supplied the material for the coal seams.
When the swamps in which this vegetation grew subsided and
when the water covering them grew deeper, a fine silt was de-
posited and this silt through pressure became the shale of today.
In addition to the impurities such as bands of clay, shale or
pyrites which, as shown in fig. 11, are found in the coal itself
as it lies in the seam, the method of mining employed in the United
States is responsible for the addition to the coal of fire clay from
the floor and shale from the roof. A sample of coal taken at the
face of a mine is only roughly indicative of the coal loaded in
railroad cars at that mine. Although theoretically all pieces of
fire clay, shale and pyrites or iron sulphide, are hand picked by
the miner and thrown to one side, in practice great quantities
of these impurities are loaded out by the miner and appear at
the tipple on the surface. Inasmuch as these impurities are
usually of small size, a greater percentage of impurity will be
found in the small sizes of coal and the screenings or slack coal
will contain a very high percentage of impurities. This is well
illustrated in fig. 12, which shows tlTe size elements of commercial
2-inch screenings and the size elements of l^J-inch screenings.
Of the 2-inch screenings, 66.8 per cent passed through a 1-inch
screen, 41.1 per cent through a ^-inch, and 26.9 through a
i^-inch. Of the 1%-inch screenings, 95.5 per cent passed through
a 1-inch screen, 57.6 through a X'-mcn< and 37.6 through a
M-inch. (See fig. 13. )a

The sizes larger than screenings are used for domestic and
special purposes. The screenings or slack coal are used for steam
purposes, inasmuch as sized coal is much too expensive to be
burned under industrial boilers. Slack coal which contains as low
as 12 per cent ash is of extremely good quality and in practice
many slack coals are burned which carry as high as 25 per
cent ash.

Illinois is a representative industrial state. The varieties of
fuel used in Illinois power plants are central bituminous coal, as
represented by those of the coal fields of Illinois, Western Ken-
tucky and Indiana and eastern bituminous and semi-bituminous
or soft coals from the Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Eastern
Kentucky fields. All of these coals are composed of the following
materials in varying proportions :

a. Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Convention of the International Railway
ruel Association, 1917, p. 133.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

( 1 ) Solid or fixed carbon which burns with a glow and
without flame.

(2) Gases or volatile materials which escape from the coal
when it is heated and which burn with a flame.

(3) Gases or volatile matter and water which escape from
the coal when it is heated and which do not burn.

(4) Ash or mineral matter which does not burn and which
remains as ashes after the coal is burned.

The bituminous coals of the central field (Illinois type) con-
tain from 40 to 55 per cent of fixed carbon, 10 to 25 per cent of
combustible gas, 5 to 15 per cent of non-combustible gas, 8 to 15

SIZE OF THE SCREENS-INCHES

FIG. 13. — Percentage of weight of coal which passes through the various screens.

per cent of moisture, and 8 to 15 per cent of ash. When improp-
erly fired or burned in furnaces* not adapted to their use, central
bituminous coals give off so large an amount of sooty material
that flues are often quickly clogged. These unconsumed volatile
products also represent a direct loss of heat value. Coals of the
Illinis, type ignite easily and burn freely.

The moisture arid non-combustible gases present in all coals
are detected only by chemical analysis. They not only do not
produce heat, but represent a definite loss because they absorb
and carry off heat which would otherwise be available for useful
purposes. The term moisture in coal does not mean the water
adhering to the surface of the lumps, but that contained within

COMPARISON OF COAL AND FUEL OIL

the pores of the coal. A coal containing a high percentage of
moisture by analysis may appear perfectly dry.

The ash content of different coals varies greatly. Ash is
non-combustible mineral matter, which not only has no heating
value, and therefore, represents a portion of the coal from which
no return is received, but it may hinder the free burning of the
combustible components of the coal. If the ash contains certain
mineral substances, it may by clinkering greatly interfere with
the process of firing and with the cleaning of grates. The ash
normally is removed through the ashpit into which often passes
also a certain amount of unburned coal. For this reason the
amount of ashes removed from the pit usually represents a larger
percentage of the fuel fired than the analysis of the ash content
indicates.

The eastern bituminous coals contain from 5 to 10 per cent
of ash, from 25 to 35 per cent of combustible gases, from 2 to 5
per cent of moisture and non-combustible gases, and from 55 to 65
per cent of solid carbon. They are more generally of the coking
variety than are the Middle West coals. In general, they are
higher in heating value and lower in ash. They are more friable
and are not so well suited for transportation and repeated hand-
ling as are many of the central bituminous coals.

Table 12 gives the analysis of these coals.

Table 12.— ANALYSES OF COALS OF ILLINOIS, INDIANA AND
WESTERN KENTUCKY.*

(Figures are for face samples and for coal "as received.")
ILLINOIS (AVERAGE ANALYSES).

District

Coal
Bed

Moisture

Volatile
Matter

Fixed
Carbon

Ash

B. t. u.
(Heating
Value)

LaSalle

16.18

38.83

37.89

7.08

10,981

Murphysboro

9.28

33.98

51.02

5.72

12,488

Rock Island and

Mercer Counties

13.46

38.16

39.75

8.63

11,036

Springfield-Peoria

15.10

36.79

37.59

10.53

10,514

Saline County

6.75

35.49

48.72

9.04

12,276

Franklin and Williamson

Counties

9.21

34.00

48.08

8.71

11,825

Southwestern Illinois . . .

12.56

38.05

39.06

10.33

10,847

Danville; Grape Creek

coal

14.45

35.88

40.33

9.34

10,919

Danville ; Danville coal . .

12.99

38.29

38.75

9.98

11,143

a. Engineering Experiment Station, University of Illinois, Fuel Economy in the
Operation of Hand Fired Power Hants.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

INDIANA (TYPICAL ANALYSES).

District

Coal
Bed

Moist ur e

Volatile
Matter

Fixed
Carbon

Ash

B. t. u.

(Heating
Value)

Clay County

Green County
Green County
Sullivan County
Sullivan County
Sullivan County

(Brazil
block)
IV
V
IV
V
VI

15.38
13.53
10.30
12.15
12.14
14.86

32.66
33.54
36.31
33.48
35.17
31.65

46.08
45.38
41.64
46.23
43.73
46.14

5.88
7.55
11.75
8.14
8.96
7.35

11,680
11,738
11,218
11,722
11,516
11,324

KENTUCKY (AVERAGE OF COMPOSITE SAMPLES).

_ .

i5. t. u.

Coal

Volatile

Fixed

(Heating

District

Bed

Moisture

Matter

Carbon

Ash

Value)

8.17

36.82

45.17

9.83

11,867

7.33

38.28

45.28

9.11

12,056

9.67

34.86

46.46

9.01

11,695

"As received" samples represent the coal as taken from the mine. It is probable
that the values given are tairly representative of the coal as purchased from local
dealers.

Moisture in coal represents an appreciable loss in economy
inasmuch as the coal may carry 16 per cent moisture and the heat
required to evaporate it must be furnished by the coal itself, thus
decreasing the amount available to heat water in the boiler. In
excellent practice the per cent of the calorific value of coal as
fired, which is lost by the evaporation of free moisture, is given
by Gebhardta as 0.5 per cent ; in average practice, 0.6 per cent ;
and in poor practice, 0.7 per cent.

Fig. 14 is a chartb prepared by Mr. Joseph Harrington, com-
bustion engineer, showing the influence of moisture in coal on
its evaporative power as a fuel. With a moisture content of 30
per cent, slightly more than 10,000 heat units out of a total of
15,000 are available.

It is obvious that ash is simply a diluting material, but never-
theless when slack coal is burned the ash content of the coal has
been transported from the mine to the industrial plant, which
may be hundreds of miles away. Freight for the ash and mois-
ture content of slack coal must be paid for, although they are not
only of no value, but actually are an added expense in operation.
(See fig. 15.) The loss of coal through the grates is a serious
item. The refuse from a fuel is that portion which falls into the

a. Gebhardt, Steam Power Plant Engineering p. 05.

b. Hays School of Combustion, Instruction Book Number Two, page 12.

COMPARISON OP COAL AND FUEL OIL

pit in the form of ashes, unburned or partially burned fuel and
cinders. In steam boiler practice the unconsumed carbon in the
ash pit ranges from 15 to 50 per cent of the total weight of dry
refuse depending upon the size and quality of coal, type of grate
and rate of driving. The loss resulting from this waste of fuej
ranges from 1.5 to 10 per cent or more, of the heat value of the
fuel. It is impossible to assign a minimum value because of thi
various influencing factors, but numerous tests of recent installa-
tions, equipped with mechanical stokers, indicate that actual loss
ranges from 1.5 to 5 per cent of the heat value of the fuel at

Ifctfo

N»

£•«

t'~

123

% *

«C

^MM

^niii

fit

tt»

""I

Jtft

2a6

%*»

> x

FIG. 14. — Influence of moisture in coal on evaporative power of the fuel.

normal driving rates. Coal which necessitates frequent slicing is
apt to give greater losses from this cause than a free burning coal.
The losses of B.t.u. due to the combustible matter in the
refuse per pound of coal as fired may be calculated by the follow-
ing formula :

A X 14600

(1-C)^

Where A = chemical ash in coal

C = percentage of combustible matter in the refuse.
14600 = calorific value in B.t.u. of one Ib. of carbon burned

to CO,.
At a coal-burning installation a continuous 24-hour full load

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

test may show that 80 per cent of the heat of the coal is absorbed
by the boiler, but when the heat represented by a month's evap-
oration is divided by the heat of the coal fed to the furnace during
the same period the efficiency may drop to 70 per cent or lower.
In an eight-hour day plant the fires must be banked at the con-
clusion of the day's run and this banking occasions a fuel loss

1UU

90
80
70

I «°

i 50

i»

30
20
10

Influence of Ash on Fuel Value of Dry
Coal. (Illinois Screenings)
B. & W. Boiler, Chain Grate.
Screenings with 12.5 Per Cent Ash
taken at 100.

I0"1"

s.\y.E.

3cl.l906

..™ 4

10 20 30 40

Per Cent of Ash in Dry Coal

FIG. 15. — Influence of ash on fuel value of dry coal.

which is obviated when oil is used. Table 13 gives the coal
burned during banking periods :

In hand-fired boilers another loss is occasioned by the opening
of the fire box door, which admits a great inrush of cold air,
reducing fire box temperatures and preventing the complete com-
bustion of carbon so that the loss of heat units through the stack-
is greately increased.

COMPARISON OF COAL AND FUEL OIL

PULVERIZED COAL

To overcome the obvious disadvantages in burning raw coal
screenings, the idea was conceived of pulverizing the coal and
introducing the pulverized coal into the furnace by air pressure.
The early attempts to burn pulverized coal under stationary boilers
were unsuccessful because the coal was not thoroughly dried and
was not pulverized finely enough. In introducing the powdered
coal into the furnace, too high pressures were used, resulting in a
blow-pipe effect creating zones in the furnace in which the gases
had high velocity. The impingement of these gases against the
refractories caused a serious erosive action. Later experiments
showed that seven feet per second is the maximum velocity which
can be maintained without destruction of the refractories. The

Table 13.— COAL BURNED DURING BANKING PERIODS .»

Coal Fed to Fur-

Rated

Ratio

Hours

nace, Lb. per Boi-

Capacity

Kind of Stoker

Heating to

Kind of Coal

Banked

lerHp.-Hr.

of Boiler

Grate

Surface

A 1 B | C

250
500

Stationary grate
Chain grate

35
65

Buckwheat
Bit. scrg.

0.20
0.40

0.35
0.52

1000

350

Chain grate

Bit. No. 3

0.32

0.62

1600

250

Chain grate

Bit. scrg.

0.35

0.71

1450

1200

Underfeed

Bit. scrg.

0.18

0.20

2600

550

Underfeed

Bit. scrg.

0.29

0.37

1165

150

Stationary grate

Bit. mine run

0.58

0.69

560

Stationary grate

Poc. lump

0.81

0.95

300

400

Murphy

Bit. scrg.

0.26

0.33

1350

(A) Coal fired during banking period.

(B) Coal fed to furnace during baking period including that required to put
boiler into service at end of banking period.

object of pulverizing the coal is to make a more complete mixture
of the coal particles with the air in order that complete combus-
tion may be obtained with a low percentage of excess air. All
grades of coal can be burned in pulverized form with high
efficiency, regardless of the percentage of ash. The additional
cost of pulverizing the coal is, however, an important item. In
an address recently delivered before the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Mr. H. B. Barnhurst, chief engineer of
the Fuller Engineering Company, gave the following estimate
of the cost of pulverizing coal :

a. Gebhardt, Steam Power Plant Engineering, p. 72.

54 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

"The following cost of pulverizing is made of a number of
items as follows : Power, repairs, drier fuel and labor. The first
two items are nearly constant. The drier fuel will vary slightly,
according to the price at which coal is received. The cost of labor
diminishes as the quantity of coal increases. In the following
table the power is assumed as costing ^-cent per kw-hr. Repairs
at 7 cents per net ton. The dried fuel is based on coal at $5 per
net ton delivered with an average moisture content of 7 per cent,
assuming that 6 per cent of moisture would be driven off per
pound of coal in the drier. The furnace labor is assumed at 50
cents per hour."

COST OF PULVERIZING AND DELIVERING THE PULVERIZED
FUEL TO BOILER FURNACES.

Daily

Capacity

Cost of

Number

Repairs

Drier

Power

Cost of

in Tons

Labor

Labor Hours

Fuel

Pulverizing

30c

56c

30c

56c

25c

51c

20c

46c

120

18c

44c

160

17c

43c

240

13c

39c

320

lie

37c

400

lOc

36c

480

9.5c

35. 5c

640

104

34c

800

6.75c

108

32.75c

960

114

32c.

1,120

116

31c

No interest, depreciation, insurance or taxes have been included in the
above total.

Although experiments in burning pulverized coal were begun
as early as 1876, there has not as yet been any thoroughly satis-
factory method of taking care of the ash resulting from the burn-
ing of tne coal. When a slack coal with a high ash percentage is
pulverized, the pulverized coal still contains the same percentage
of ash as did the slack. Under the high heat developed in a fire
box which burns powdered coal this ash forms a pasty slag which
adheres to the sides and bottom of the fire box. The removal of
this slag is accomplished with great difficulty and unless the slag
is removed at frequent intervals, draft is interfered with and
heat radiation to the boiler is decreased. Mr. C. F. Herrington,

COMPARISON OF COAL AND FUEL OIL 55

probably one of the highest authorities in the United States on
the burning of powdered coal, makes in Engineering News the
following comparison between oil and powdered coal :

"Of the three fuels, powdered coal, oil and water gas, fuel
oil has come into use far more than any other. The U. S. Navy
Yards have been consistent in their adoption of it. All now use
fuel oil for heating operations, many to the complete exclusion
of coal. Without a doubt, fuel oil is one of the easiest of fuels to
handle; it can be carried in pipes anywhere so long as there is
air pressure or pump pressure behind it. It requires only a com-
paratively small outlay for equipment — all that is necessary is a
couple of storage tanks, a pump to fill the storage tanks from the
cars, a piping system to the furnaces, and means to secure the
necessary pressure. As a fuel for burning under boilers, pow-
dered coal may some time be a success. The use of powdered
coal in Portland cement manufacture has proven very economical
and here it has come to stay. But when it is claimed that it is
equally good for various heating operations, such as welding,
shingling, annealing, riveting and forging, there is likely to be a
difference of opinion."

In a recent article in^ an engineering paper the following
advantages were claimed for powdered coal :

(1) "Complete combustion, doing away with losses due to
the carbon contained in the ash and in the escaping volatile
matter." This is not correct, for if one stands for an hour watch-
ing one of these furnaces working, as the writer did, he will be
completely covered with fine, unburned powdered coal, which has
escaped through the furnace doors. This has become such a
nuisance to the surrounding machinery and workmen that
attempts are now being made to relieve these conditions by placing
a hood over the furnace door and connecting it into the furnace
stack. This has not proven successful as yet, and probably will
not until an exhaust fan is provided to discharge this unburned
coal through the roof.

(2) "Total absence of smoke." Certainly this is not true
inside of the shop, for powdered-coal furnaces, due to their non-
uniform feed, smoke worse than oil. Powdered coal, as is well
known, must be very dry to be pulverized and, when pulverized
and allowed to remain quiet for 48 hours, it cakes and requires
that a man knock on the bins to loosen it. This leads to uneven

56 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

combustion in the furnace with large quantities of smoke when
there is a large amount of coal coming through the burner and
no smoke when the coal is sticking back in the bins. No doubt
this is largely due to inefficient handling of the feeder and burner ;
even so, a total absence of smoke cannot be claimed when such
conditions are met.

(3) "A cheaper grade of coal may be used." The best coal
for powdered fuel has a volatile content of not less than 30 per-
cent, not more than 8 percent ash, and 1^4 percent sulphur.
I think the readers will agree that coal meeting these specifications
is of no very cheap grade. Pulverized coal must be handled with
great care, for if it is mixed with any quantity of air, it is highly
explosive, as the records of accidents in cement plants will prove.

Another very serious objection to powdered coal, due to the
incomplete combustion of all the coal ejected into the furnace, is
that this coal lies on the work, and when the work is taken out
of the furnace, if not cleaned off, it is apt to be hammered into
the work and make flaws which later are likely to be more or
less serious according to the nature of the work. This is a fact
seen from personal observation and cannot be denied. Powdered
coal is not good for small furnaces, as it requires too large a
chamber for combustion, and from the experience of users of
powdered coal it is not desirable to have a combustion chamber
separated by a bridgewall from the working chamber. It is found
that the lesser of two evils is to remove the bridgewall and blow
the powdered coal directly upon the work, which aggravates the
condition mentioned above. If the large furnaces are changed
from fuel oil to powdered coal, there will remain the small fur-
naces, and especially the portable ones, which will have to work
on fuel oil. Then there would be the expense of handling two
kinds of fuel where before there was but one. The pulverizing
plant is to be considered. When it is reported that it costs only
30 to 50 cents a ton to perform a multitude of operations, I feel
that some one has misplaced the decimal points, as will be shown
later on.

COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCIES

Now comes the debatable point of what is the efficiency of
the furnace when using the different fuels. The powdered coal
advocates will claim that the efficiency should be figured on the
B.t.u. basis. That is, if a furnace burns, say 22 gallons of oil

COMPARISON OF COAL AND FUEL OIL 57

to do a certain piece of work and each gallon contains 140,000
B.t.u., 3,000,000 B.t.u. in all, it will take 3,000,000 B.t.u. in coal
to do the same work, but the coal is cheaper. If oil were 5 cents
a gallon, it would take coal at $10 a ton to equal the cost ; so the
reader will perhaps agree that this is not the proper method of
comparing efficiencies, any more than saying that the cost of
gasoline per gallon is the operating cost of running an automo-
bile. The true way is to measure the efficiency of the furnace by
the comparison of the input and output, and below are given
results of some efficiency tests made for a well-known concern
contemplating a revision of its furnace practice.

Powdered Coal — (Furnace using preheated air for com-
bustion.)

Furnace cold at 60° F.

Steel and furnace heated to 2200° F.

Rise in temperature, 2140° F. •

By test, 6.29 Ib. of steel heated per pound of coal burned.

Specific heat of steel, 0.117.

0.117 X 2140 = 250 B.t.u. per Ib. of steel.

250 B.t.u. X 6.20 = 1572 B.t.u. output.

1 Ib. of coal — 14,000 B.t.u., input.

1572 X 100

Efficiency = = 11.3%

14,000

Fuel Oil — Same furnace with same rise in temperature and
the same charge of work.

Heated 8.68 Ib. of steel per pound of oil.

1 Ib. of oil = 19,400 B.t.u. input.

25 B.t.u. X 6.29 = 1572 B.t.u. output.

2170 X 100

Efficiency = =11.3%

19,400

Another furnace using fuel oil. (Not using preheated air.)

Temperature rise from 1200° to 2200° = 1000° F.

Charge of wrought iron, 2150 Ibs.

Oil required, 22 gal.

2150 Ib. X 113 B.t.u. — 242,950 B.t.u. output.

1 gal. oil = 140,000 B.t.u.

140,000 B.t.u. X 22 = 3,080,000 B.t.u. input.

58 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

242,950 X 100

3,080,000
FIRST COST

In making comparison as to the relative first costs and oper-
ating costs, let us assume a plant now using fuel oil with a con-
sumption of 50,000 gallons of oil per month at a cost of 5 cents
per gallon, delivered at the shop. (These estimates were made
for the company already mentioned.)

(1) Fuel Oil:

Cost of equipment (storage tanks in place, auxiliary pressure
tanks in place, piping and fittings in place, steam connec-
tions, furnace connections, tank car connections, tank
pumps and air-blast outfit) ............................. $21,100

Contractor's profit (15%) .................................. 3,16:>

$24,26:,
Engineering and contingencies (10%) ....................... 2,43.")

$26,700

(2) Powdered Coal:

Pulverizing machinery, house, foundations, trestle and track,
electric wiring, conveyors, walkways, motors, burners and
controllers (30), furnace bins (30), furnace changes,
hoods and connections, etc .............................. $68,100

Contractor's profit (15%) .................................. 0,900

$78,000
Engineering and contingencies (10%) 7,800

$85,800
(2A) Fuel Oil for Small Furnaces:

Tank in place, auxiliary tank in place, piping and fittings,
furnace connections, tank-car connections, pumps, air

blast, etc $ 8,800

Contractor's profit (15%) 1,300

$10,100
Engineering and contingencies (10%) 1,000

$11,100
Summary :

Fuel Oil $27,000

Powdered coal with fuel oil 97,000

FUEL CONSUMPTION OF PLANTS

For the fuel-oil plant, at 50,000 gallons of oil per month and
140,000 B.t.u. per gallon, 7,000,000 B.t.u. are consumed per
month.

COMPARISON OP COAL AND FUEL OIL 59

If we allow 10 pounds of coal at 14,000 B.t.u., equal to 1 gallon
of oil, \ve have 500,000 pounds or 250 tons of coal used per month,
for the powdered-coal plant. In addition, this plant consumes
about 8,000 gallons of oil, the difference being compensated for
by coal required in drying the main fuel supply."

TOTAL COSTS
Fuel Oil Plant (Estimated cost, $27,000) :

Fixed charges : Interest (5%) $ 1,350

Depreciation (12%) 3,240

Taxes and insurance ( 1% ) 270 $ 4,800

Operation: Oil (50,000x0.05x12) 30,000

Labor, 1 man 1,000

Electrical current, steam, air ,. . 500

Miscellaneous supplies 200 31,700

Total yearly charge $36,560

Powdered Coal Plant (Estimated cost, $97,000) :

Fixed charges : Interest (5% ) $ 4,850

Depreciation ( 10% ) 9,700

Taxes and insurance ( 1% ) 970 $15,520

Operation: Coal (250x2.50x12) 7,500

Oil (6,000x0.05x12) 4,800

Labor (1 operator, 2 assistants) 2,000

Electricity for motors 5,000 19,300

Total yearly charge $34,820

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LIQUID FUEL

From the foregoing it becomes evident that there are certain
advantages which oil fuel has over coal when burned under
boilers. These advantages may be summed up as follows :

(1) It is often found that it is desirable to push boilers far
beyond their normal rating for a shorter or longer period of time.
Tests that have been made by the United States Navy Depart-
ment with fuel oil show that the heat absorptive powers of boilers
is very great, and that this pushing can be accomplished with only
a small drop in efficiency. In their tests with fuel oil the evapora-
tion per square foot of heat surface has been increased from three
pounds of water from and at 212 degrees F. to fifteen pounds of
water. During this increase in rating, which is 500 per cent of
the normal rating, there was a loss in efficiency of only two per
cent. Boilers can be pushed twice as rapidly with oil as they
can with coal.

(2) The loss of heat up the stack is diminished owing to

60 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

the smaller amount of air necessary for the complete combustion
of oil over its equivalent in coal.

(3) A more equal heat distribution in the combustion cham-
ber is possible inasmuch as the fire box doors do not have to be
open for firing and as a consequence there is higher efficiency.

(4) The cost of handling fuel is reduced because it is done
mechanically by pumps when fuel oil is used and the reduction
in the number of firemen is in the proportion of five or six to one.

(5) A large increase in steam capacity is possible. The
grate area absolutely limits the amount of coal that can be burned
efficiently, whereas the amount of oil that can be burned efficiently
is not affected by the grate size. The output of boilers can be
augmented by 30 to 50 per cent by substituting oil for coal.

(6) Fires can be started and stopped instantly as required,
avoiding standby losses, and this required head of steam can be
rapidly obtained from a cold boiler and can be maintained with
the utmost regularity. No fuel is lost through banking.

(7) The storage tanks for fuel oil can be located where
desired, while coal bins must be near the boilers.

(8) The life of the boilers is prolonged because in hand-
fired coal furnaces a combination of stresses on the furnace plates
occurs when the furnace doors are frequently opened.

(9) Fuel oil can be burned to smokeless combustion with-
out sparks.

While fuel oil will undoubtedly effect the economies claimed
for it, there are several disadvantages attendant on its use. These
may be enumerated as follows :

(1) Fire risk is increased and city ordinances, while becom-
ing less stringent, still look with disfavor on its use.

(2) Under certain conditions-the vapor from fuel oil forms
an explosive mixture with air.

(3) Nearly all fuel oil burners make an objectionable roar-
ing sound.

(4) Auxiliary apparatus is necessary to start an oil fire or
to maintain it, or both.

(5) Fuel oil has a tendency to leak through valves and joints
in the svstem.

CHAPTER IV
COLLOIDAL FUEL

Mr. Lindon W. Bates, in a paper read before the New York
section of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, has
the following to say regarding Colloidal Fuel :

Colloidal Fuel is a combination of liquid hydro-carbons with
pulverized carbonaceous substances, the components so combined
and so treated as to form a stable fuel capable of being atomized
and burned in a furnace. It is made in three forms, a liquid,
a gel and a mobile paste. The new composite is intended primarily
to be used as fuel. While the designation "Colloidal" is given
it because so much of the combination is in the colloidal state, the
name is not scientifically adequate, since much of the solid com-
ponent is not reduced to colloidal dimensions. The title is, how-
ever, descriptive because of the important colloid-like characteris-
tics of the composite. It is liquid up to the ratios of oil sixty
percent and coal forty percent or thereabouts. It is a mobile
paste up to the ratio of oil twenty-five percent and coal seventy-
five percent. All kinds of oils and solid carbons may be used
The cheap coal breakages and wastes are all available. The liquid
is used in the self-same , way as oil fuel and with the same
apparatus. The coal particles are maintained in a state of suspen-
sion in the oil during the time required for the use of the fuel
— days, weeks or months. (See fig. 16. )a

It is of interest to read the results of a special study made
Jan. 3, 1920, by Messrs. Dow and Smith, Chemical Engineers, of
New York City, to confirm certain technical aspects of Colloidal
Fuel Grade 15, a typical grade, containing 38% mixed coal and
coke, in Mexican Reduced Oil, made in August, 1919, and shipped
to the Imperial Japanese Navy in Japan :

"We have examined your sample of colloidal fuel to deter-
mine whether electrolites cause a precipitation of any of the
suspended particles.

"Oil News, Feb. 20, 1920. P. 26.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

"We first tested your fuel in a glass cylinder to determine
whether or not there was any subsidation, with the following
results :

"100 cc. of the colloidal fuel with a depth of 6" was allowed
to stand for 24 hours at a temperature of 115° F. At the end
of the 24 hours the very top of the fuel was analyzed and that
taken from the very bottom of the cylinder.

Fuel Oil Floating Colloidal Fuel Colloids! Fuel Kept

on Water Sealed Under Water Under 7'ater One Year

Unaltered

j e.

Rc»»«rch Laboratory
Kodtk Ptrk

FIG. KJ-. — Colloidal fuel after standing one year under water.

"The top contained 33.8% insoluble in benzole.

"The bottom contained 36.4% insoluble in benzole, showing
an increase of 2.6 of coal particles in the bottom over the top.
This subsidation represents the particles of coal that have become
destabilized since the sample was manufactured. It must not be
inferred that a continuous and progressive subsidation would take
place, that is, the subsidation in the second 24 hours would be only
a fraction of a per cent, and would merely represent the particles

COLLOIDAL FUEL 63

which in that time had become destabilized. Some idea as to
the quantity can be obtained from the fact that this sample,
being five months old, shows only 2.6% of the particles had be-
come destabilized in that time.

."Three lots of the fuel 100 cc. each were then shaken up with
electrolites, sodium chloride, alum and copper sulphate, 5 grams
of the powdered electrolite being used to this quantity of fuel.
After the three cylinders had stood 24 hours there was no per-
ceptible difference in the top and bottom, and therefore, no
apparent precipitation by the electrolites.

"We have examined your colloidal fuel thinned with benzole
under the ultra-microscope and find that it is filled with particles
which have the Brownian Movement. We should judge that
about half of the particles visible showed this action and they
varied in size from those which were quiescent to others which
had had an active ran^e of 0.00325 mm.

"We also passed the benzole solution of your fuel through
the finest hardened filter paper and found that the filtrate con-
tained numerous colloidal particles.

"We examined your colloidal fuel under the microscope and
measured the size of the visible particles with 1000 diameter mag-
nification. We noted several particles in the field .001 of an inch
across and .002 of an inch in length. There were numerous par-
ticles ranging from this down to invisibility. The majority of
the particles appeared to be about .0001 of an inch in diameter.
There is, of course, no doubt but that the particles diminish in
size to that of molecules, as was shown by an examination under
the ultra-microscope, and also from the fact that we know that
portions of coal are soluble in mineral oils."

Colloidal Fuel enjoys several special qualities. The calorific
value per unit volume is greater than that of straight on unless
coals of very low heat value and specific gravity are incorporated.
The reason is that coal is heavier than oil though of less calorific
content per pound, so that the coal content most frequently raises
the calorific value per unit volume. The addition of coal is hot
an adulteration of the oil, but it makes an increase of the heat
units in the resultant gallon of liquid fuel. Thus in a composite
made up of 35% by weight of pulverized anthracite coal of 14,000
B.t.u. per pound and 1.6 specific gravity and 65% oil of 18,200

64 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

B.t.u. per pound and .96 gravity, a gallon of the composite has
165,000 B.t.u., while oil has 146,000 B.t.u. per gallon.

Owing to its coal content, Colloidal Fuel is heavier, while
oil is lighter than water. The character of the composite is such
that it may be stored under a water seal and its fire may be
quenched with water. The feature is of vast importance since
an oil fire cannot be extinguished with water, and hence the
rules governing the use of fuel oil are justifiably drastic. Not less
than 6.4% of all fires are caused by "Fuel Oil," according to
the records of the National Fire Prevention Association.

The Board of Standards and Appeals of New York City
adopted a set of rules, which became effective December 1, 1919,
to admit liquid fuel into the city. Rule 1 contains the following
provision :

"The term 'oil used for fuel purposes' under these rules
includes any liquid or mobile mixture, substance or compound
derived from or including petroleum."

The rule is phrased so as to admit Colloidal Fuel, which is
a liquid or mobile mixture including petroleum. Co'.loidal Fuel
is also in an exceptionally favorable situation under the Tenta-
tive Regulations of the National Fire Protection Association,
adopted on November 3, 1919. These set the standard in the
United States and Canada. "Oil burning equipments are those
using only liquids having a flash point above 150° F. closed cup
tester." The word "liquids" as selected includes the new fuel.
Section 1, Paragraph A, provides: "For liquids of 20° Baume
and below, tanks may be of concrete," and Section 4, Paragraph
34, states: "Where it is necessary to heat oil in storage tanks in
order to handle it, the oil shall not be heated to a temperature
higher than 40° F. below the flash point, closed cup." This
excludes several varieties of fuel oils which require preheating
over or close to their flash point in order to flow. This is not the
case in the Coloidal Fuel. The Laboratory of the National Board
of Fire Underwriters has certified that Grade 13, a typical
example of the new fuel, had a flash point of 266° F. and Grade li)
had 273.2° F. Grades 13 and 15 were preheated in practice to
about 130° F and 180° F. respectively. The apparent ignition
temperature was 779° F. and 788° F. respectively, while neither
gave off volatiles at room temperature or at 104° F., nor gave

COLLOIDAL FUEL 65

evidence of spontaneous heating. It is for these reasons that
Coloidal Fuel enjoys unusual safety features.

The combining of pulverized coal with oil and of tar with oil
to make a liquid fuel has in the past had inventive devotees. As,
however, petroleum does not ordinarily dissolve coal or tar, the
problem was how to overcome the comparatively rapid and uncon-
trollable separation or settling out or sedimentation of some of
the components. The present success was born immediately of
the war efforts and was conceived to meet the possible shortage
of liquid fuel in the Allied Navies.

The art of suspending as colloids in liquid hydrocarbons
certain carbonaceous substances has been long practised. Lubri-
cants are in use made of less than 1% of Acheson graphite of 2.1
specific gravity reduced so that the size of the particles is about
75 //, n (within colloidal limits) and suspended in oil by the addi-
tion of gallotannic acid. Colloids of charcoal and lampblack are
known. It is also reported that if coal is reduced under high pres-
sure or high speed disk-grinding and lengthy trituration in oil,
the coal may be brought into the state of stable combustible
colloid.

Suspension of high percentages of particles above colloidal
sizes is found to be, however, quite without precedent. So also
the peptization of carbonaceous matter in liquid hydrocarbons,
producing a stable composite, is new. No prior art exists for
producing a stable fuel of oils having carbonaceous matter as
natural impurities, like the asphaltum and free carbon found in
pressure still oil. In another field, that of rendering stable a
compound of two or more unmixable or partly mixable liquid
hydrocarbons for fuel needs, any prior art is also of little record.
Many liquid hydrocarbons will mix. Others and these of the
important burning liquid hydrocarbons have till this time proved
obdurate to union — for instance, fuel oil and tar have heretofore
refused to mix or have mixed only partially. Emulsions have
be.e.n made of non-mixing liquid hydrocarbons for use in creosot-
ing and disinfecting, but no such emulsions much less suspensions
concerning unmixing liquid hydrocarbons for use as fuels have
heretofore been created.

Up to 40% by weight of pulverized coal can be suspended
with 60% by weight of oil, making liquid Colloidal Fuel. Up to
75% of carbon can be incorporated in the mobile pastes. Mobile

66 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

gels can be made from either the liquids or the pastes. Colloidal
Fuel may be a combination of any two or more of the forms. It
will be understood, therefore, that between these states in varying
blends and degrees of load, a large number of fuels either liquid
or mobile, may be produced. Further, several of the forms have
a natural tendency to transform themselves. For instance, liquid
Colloidal Fuel stabilized for liquidity during a definite period of
say, days or months, tends later to gel from the bottom of the
container up. At that stage, the viscosities of the lower or gel
stratum will be different from that of the thinner upper stratum.
The fuel, nevertheless, has not given up the influence of its treat-
ment. It remains atomizable, even though the gel be denser. In
both layers and in the intermediate layers also, all the constituents
are present and synchronize in burning. The gel thus formed is
easily restored to a liquid state by heat or stirring or pumping.
Sometimes even a tap upon the wall of the container will restore
pristine liquid form. The colloidalizing treatment while arti-
ficially stabilizing the composite promotes also a gel formation.
Conversely, the creation of a gel even in early stages helps to
stabilize the compound since particles with more difficulty precipi-
tate in a gel.

Colloidal Fuel is a composite whose particles are in three
states of dispersion — solution, colloid and suspension. They give
the characteristics of the three conditions. Some of the particles
pass through a filter — many do not. Many are visible and meas-
urable under microscopic inspection. Others are not. Some
show active Brownian movement ; others show slower movement ;
others no such motion at all. In considering the changes and
stabilization under the treatment of Colloidal Fuel the division
of the carbon surfaces must be noted. A cube of coal one centi-
meter on each side exposes a surface of six square centimeters.
Such a cube pulverized so that 85% passes through a 200 mesh
screen exposes surfaces of about 1872 square centimeters. The
ratio of surface to volume has been multiplied over 300 times.
Such a cube reduced to colloidal size (or .1/x diameter) develops
a surface of 60 square meters — a multiplication of one hundred
thousand. In Colloidal Fuel, most of the carbon particles are not
reduced to colloidal sizes. Many remain much above these limits
and above the colloidal borderland.

For the manufacture of the new fuel, the coal should be
reduced so that about 95% passes through a 100 mesh screen and

COLLOIDAL FUEL 67

85% through a 200 mesh screen. A finer pulverization, while of
advantage, is not essential to the process. Coarser particles than
those cited above may be temporarily or partly stabilized, serving
sufficiently well certain fuel uses. For the reduction, mechanical,
electric or chemical means may be used, but an ordinary coal
pulverizing ball or tube mill is most economical.

To carry the load of a high percentage of carbon at normal
and working temperatures the base oil employed should be in
a certain range of viscosities which the treatment secures. While
a lower viscosity does not hinder the creation of Colloidal Fuel,
it lessens the load which the liquid hydrocarbon can stably carry.
If the product sought is to be a gel or paste, the initial viscosity
is of less concern. If the liquid medium provided is of over
high viscosity to produce a liquid fuel with the percentage desired
of load, a "cut back" can be introduced to lower viscosity. This
"cut back'' can be of another suitable hydrocarbon. If the me-
dium provided is of over low viscosity, the process is reversed
and the viscosity is raised by introducing a liquid hydrocarbon
which adjusts the density. Several other ways, of course, exist
for securing the right viscosity, such as, for instance, heat and
emulsification.

With the right quality of fixateur or peptizing agent, stability
is most readily and satisfactorily secured through its use. Vary-
ing the amount introduced makes adjustment simple. In general,
the shorter the time, the less the degree of stability desired, the
lower the temperature, the less the load and the finer the grinding,
so much less fixateur or peptizing agent is needed. If a gel or
paste is required, less of the agent is essential than if a liquid is
sought. The introduction of more agent than is demanded for
liquid stabilizing begets a tendency to early, complete and con-
sistent gellification. The amount of the agent therefore intro-
duced, must be a matter of knowledge from experimentation. It
must be such a quantity and quality as will secure adequate
stability at the temperature of storage and preheater. In practice,
virtually, the maximum of a good quality of fixateur which has
ever been employed to secure a stable liquid is an amount which
adds 2% by weight of the essential substances to the fuel. The
minimum producing an appreciable result is about .1%. Ordi-
narily between l/^% to \l/2% is used. Higher percentages of cer-
tain peptizers or stabilizers are required than of others. If
gaseous means are used these percentages do not hold. Between

68 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

these outer limits the quality of fixateur and peptizer for par-
ticular products has been very accurately determined by experi-
ence and the effects recorded of different percentages blended
with various ratios and kinds of components of the Colloidal
Fuel.

Colloidal Fuel carrying up to 40 percent of carbon is prac-
tically equivalent to the class of heavy oil in relation to handling
to the preheater stage. At 68° F. its viscosity will hardly be
below 65° Engler, except when only the carbon particles found
in pressure still oil are stabilized. The viscosity ordinary will
range between 160° and 350° Engler, depending upon the com-
ponents and other factors. At higher temperatures that obtain
in the preheater, it behaves as do the lighter class of oils. Col-
loidal Fuel is really only a laden, stabilized oil and the problem
of burning both is largely the same. Viscosity is under perfect
control. The installations for burning oil, burn liquid Colloidal
Fuel without any material change. Some slight modification is
required for burning the pastes and gels since there must be suffi-
cient pressure to carry the fuel to the atomizer. If the gel is
broken up by pumping or if it becomes liquid in the preheater,
pressure for conveying it alone is needed. Existing mechanical
or steam, or air oil burners are adapted to Colloidal Fuel. Several
varieties have been used.

CHAPTER V

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

Oil refineries are built at points strategically located with re-
spect to production and markets. From the refineries fuel oil is
delivered to a station located in the center of the industrial dis-
trict to be served and it is delivered from the refineries to these
central stations by water or by rail. Many companies supply fuel
oil to countries lying overseas. To these countries fuel oil is
transported by ocean-going tankers and oil barges. There were
in May, 1920, 93 steam tankers aggregating more than one mil-
lion deadweight tonnage building in American shipyards for pri-
vate companies. All but two of these ships burn fuel oil under
their boilers for power and these two are equipped with Diesel
engines.

Many of the tankers now in use carry fuel oil on outward
voyages, but return to the United States laden with some other
bulk liquid. The Philippine Vegetable Oil Company, for example,
now has in operation two such tankers operating between San
Francisco and Manila.51 The two vessels now in operation are
the "Nuuanu" and the "Katherine." They are specially equipped
for carrying petroleum products, either bulk or case oil, for the
Standard Oil Company from the Richmond refinery to Hong-
kong and returning via Manila, where a cargo of cocoanut oil is
taken for delivery at the storage tanks of the Philippine Vegetable
Oil Company at San Francisco. The "Nuuanu" was the first
tanker to be placed in operation in this special service and has
recently made her third round trip, each time carrying petroleum
oil to Hongkong and returning via Manila, where a cargo of
cocoanut oil was taken on. The auxiliary motor ship "Nuuanu"
(See fig. 17) was before her conversion to an oil tanker the iron
sailing vessel "Highland Glen" of the following dimensions:
Length over all, 211 feet; breadth, 34 feet, and depth, 19 feet 6
inches. The power plant consists of a 320-b. horsepower model
"M-ll" Bolinder engine, the machinery being placed in an unused
part of the ship and not interfering with the existing bulkheads.

"Oil News, December 5, 1919, P. 28, C. W. Geiger.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

This vessel has been able to make a speed of over seven knots,
loaded, in ordinary weather without the assistance of sails. On
her first trip from San Francisco to Manila via Hongkong the
time occupied in making the voyage to Manila was 45 days. She

FIG. 17. — The oil tanker "Nuuanu."

arrived in San Francisco with a cargo of about 1,100 tons of bulk
cocoanut oil, making the trip from Manila in 46 days. So well
satisfied with the work of the "Nuuanu," the Philippine Vegetable
Oil Company purchased the former British ship "County of

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

Linlithgow," renamed her the "Katherine" and converted her into
a tanker for the same service. The "Katherine" was equipped
with many features not included on the "Nuuanu," but these new
features are now being- installed on the "Nuuanu." The "Kather-
ine" can carry about 2,600 tons. Both vessels carry sufficient fuel
to make the round trip. Fuel is carried in two tanks, one tank
being located in the engine room and the other in the cofferdam
separating the cargo tanks from the engine room. The oil is de-
livered from these tanks to the engine by duplex pumps operated

FIG. 18. — An Oil Barge on San Francisco Bay

by steam. The "Nuuanu" carries a crew of 30, including the
chief engineer, first and second engineers, two wipers, captain,
first and second mate and the usual number of sailors.

For delivering fuel oil to vessels either in the stream or at
the dock a very extensive fleet of oil barges is operated on San
Francisco Bay by the Standard Oil Company, Shell Oil Com-
pany, Union Oil Company, and the Associated Oil Company. In
Oil News, September 20, 1919, page 11, the following account of
the operation of these barges is given by C. W. Geiger:

"A large fleet of barges is maintained by the Standard Oil
Company. Its units are principally barges with the steam tug
Standard No. 1 in constant attendance, and working with them

72 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

are the power barges Benecia and Contra Costa. The power
barges are manned by both day and night crews, and are ready, to
make fuel oil deliveries around the harbor at any time during the
entire twenty-four hours. The convenience of this service to
steamship operators can readily be imagined, and the company
has materially added to its fuel oil business because of it. The
barge Contra Costa is propelled by a gasoline engine and has a
capacity for carrying 7,500 barrels of oil in her tanks. The
Benecia, which is also propelled by a gasoline engine, has a

FIG. 19. — Delivering fuel oil to a mail steamer.

capacity for carrying 2,200 barrels. The carrying capacity of the
remaining barges is as follows: Barge No. 1, 4,500 barrels; barge
No. 2, 800 barrels ; barge No. 3, 2,000 barrels ; barge No. 4, 5,500
barrels; barge No. 5, which operates on the river, 2,000 barrels
(See fig. 18) ; barge No. 6, 650 barrels; barge No. 7, 5,000 bar-
rels; barge No. 8, 2,200 barrels. The following barges operate
on the rivers : San Jose, stern wheel steamer, 500 barrels ; Petro-
leum No. 3, stern wheel steamer, 1,500 barrels. The river trade
demands a boat drawing not more than five feet of water, and
here the stern paddle-wheel type of boat is necessary for carrying
cargo and towing light-draft barges. Owing to the shallow water
and many snags in the river, a propeller is out of the question.
Cargoes of fuel oil as high as 15,000 barrels are taken on by
some of the trans-Pacific steamers (See fig. 19). All of the four
oil companies mentioned maintain large storage tanks ad-
jacent to the water front at San Francisco, with receiving

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

and discharge pipes leading to the docks. In addition to
supplying oil to the steamers in the bay, these barges de-
liver oil from the refineries operated by the various oil companies
in the vicinity of San Francisco, to these oil storage tanks ad-
jacent to the water front. These tanks supply fuel oil to the
smaller vessels that tie up at the oil docks. The Standard Oil
and the Shell Oil each maintain such storage tanks at the northerly
end of the water front, from which point the numerous lumber
schooners and fishing boats are supplied. At the southerly end

FIG. 20. — Pump for loading barges with fuel oil.

of the water front, in the vicinity of 16th and 17th streets, such
storage stations are maintained by the Standard Oil, Union Oil,
and the Associated Oil Companies. In addition to supplying oil
to the smaller vessels, these storage stations supply the oil trucks
that deliver oil through the City of San Francisco. The Shell
Oil Company operates barges which take on oil at the loading
station at Martinez and are towed to the S-an Francisco water
front by a steam tug used for this exclusive purpose. During the
busy seasons gasoline tugs are rented from the local launch com-
panies. These barges have a carrying capacity ranging from
1,030 barrels to 3,000 barrels. The barges are all of wooden con-
struction, being built especially for this type of service. Barge
No. 4 is 148 feet in length, 35 feet in width and 6 feet 10 inches
in depth. She draws 5 feet 6 inches when loaded and 3 feet 6
inches light. Barge No. 3 is 78 feet in length, 23 feet in width,
and 6 feet 10 inches in depth, and draws 6 feet 6 inches when

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

loaded and 2 feet 6 inches when light. Barge No. 1 is 116 feet
in length, 32 feet in width and -10 feet 2 inches in depth, and draws
7 feet when loaded and 3 feet 6 inches light. She has a carrying
capacity of 2,950 barrels of oil. The 250 horsepower steam tug
Priscilla was built especially for tending these barges. They are
operated on the tides, being towed from Martinez when the tide
is going out aud returned with the incoming tide. Approximately
140,000 barrels of oil are handled monthly by these barges. Barge
No. 4 is equipped with a gasoline-operated generator which pro-

FIG. 21. — Derrick for handling heavy hose on barge.

vides electric current for lighting, which greatly facilitates night
operations."

The railroads are among the principal users of fuel oil in
this country. For filling the fuel storage tanks of the railroads
the oil is transported in tank cars. Mr. Robert Clarke, Jr., de-
scribes the development of the tank car as follows :a "In 1865
the car tank, mounted on a railroad flat car, made its appearance.
Mr. Lawrence Myers — who was represented as the patentee of
this type of tank on wheels, — called it the "Rotary Oil Car." A
number of the first tanks on cars were constructed of iron, but
the majority were built of heavy pine planks, a material more
rt ' readily obtainable ajid lower in cost. In shape these tanks were

a. The Petroleum Handbook, Andros, p. 151.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

practically the same as the small iron-hooped wooden tank in use
•at the wells, being round and of smaller diameter at the top than
the bottom and holding from 40 to 50 barrels each. On each flat
car two of these tanks were mounted — one at each end over the
trucks — making the capacity of the car between 80 and 100 bar-
rels. The first of these ''Rotary Oil Cars" arrived in Titusville,
Pa., on November 1, 1865, where it received a cargo of oil at

FIG. 22. A Tank Car.

the Miller farm, the terminus of the first successful pipe line from
Pithole. Miller farm was located four miles below Titusville on
the banks of Oil Creek, Pa. This car was the property of the
Eagle Transportation Company of Philadelphia, Pa., who owned
the patent rights and who proposed to build and operate a tank
line on all railroads for the transportation of crude and refined
oils. With customary progressiveness we find the builders and
users of tank cars soon making improvements in design and con-
struction of the original car. Dillingham and Cole, a firm of
machinists with shops located at Titusville, Pa., in 1866 received
a contract for fitting 60 tanks on cars for the Oil Creek railroads —
now a part of the Pennsylvania Railroad System — -with a rather

76 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

ingenious gate-valve or cock that could not be opened without
having a wrench that was especially made for the purpose. These
tanks were constructed of iron and mounted on flat cars at each
end over the trucks, similar to those of the Eagle Transportation
Company. The capacity of these cars was about 90 barrels. This
new method of shipping was indeed a step in the right direction,
for it eliminated a very considerable loss of oil resulting from
leakage in transit, reduced the liability of serious conflagrations
and did away with the necessity of a return of thousands of bar-
rels to the producer, besides eliminating cooperage charges. Until
1870 this type of car, in which the iron-hooped wooden tank was
employed, was used extensively in transporting crude oil to mar-
ket. In the late sixties, however, the forerunner of the present
type of tank car was introduced — a design of car in which a
horizontal cylindrical tank replaced the two small wooden ones
The first of these cars was shipped to the Oil Creek region in
1868 and sidetracked at the Boyd farm for loading. A radical
change was made in the designing of these new tanks in that
they were fitted with a dome which allowed the oil to expand
without injury to the tank. These cars had a capacity of 80 to 90
barrels. Later this was increased to 100 barrels, which became
the standard for that period. The. advantages of this new type
of car were quickly recognized by both oil and railroad men ; in
fact, its adoption was so general that by the end of 1872 the ma-
jority of the old type of cars had disappeared. About May 1,
1872, the Oil Creek and the Lake Shore Railroad companies
issued orders that after that date none of the old type of tank
cars would be accepted for transportation over their roads. With
few exceptions, this ruling was generally adopted by other rail-
ways, although even as late as 1876 they were still accepted by the
Allegheny Valley Railroad, extending from Oil City to Pittsburgh.
By 1880 the last of the early wooden tank cars had disappeared
from service. It is particularly true of American progressiveness
and business acumen that the introduction of a new process or
new method of doing something in one field is soon applied with
equal success to other fields and so it has been with the tank car.
Today there are thousands of tank cars in service carrying other
products than petroleum and its by-products. The Master Car
Builders' Association state in their specifications covering the
design and construction of tank cars that a tank car is "any car
to which one or more metal tanks, used for the transportation of

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 77

liquids or compressed gases, are permanently fastened," and in
order that these tank cars may be designed and constructed to
meet the service requirements of a wide range of products they
have designated that there shall be five classes of tank cars, classi-
fied as follows :

"Class 1. — Tank cars for general service, with steel under-
frames or without underframes, built prior to 1903.

"Class 2. — Tank cars for general service, with steel under-
frames, or without underframes, built between 1903 and May 1,
1917.

"Class 3. — Tank cars for general service, built after May 1,
1917.

"Class 4. — Tank cars for the transportation of volatile in-
flammable products whose vapor pressure at a temperature of
100° F. exceeds ten pounds per square inch, built after May 1,
1917.

"Class 5. — Insulated tank cars of specially heavy construc-
tion, built after January 1, 1918, for the transportation of liquid
products whose properties are such as to involve danger or loss
of life in event of any leakage or rupture of the tank."

The importance of good, strong, sound and thorough con-
struction in tank car design cannot be overestimated. Upon these
factors depends the life and efficient service of the car. A poorly
designed and constructed tank car is not only a menace to the
railroads hauling them, but also the shipper, consignee and the
industrial centers through which the car may pass.

Fig. 22 shows a tank car.

In general the storage tanks erected by the railroads are
steel cylinders. The size of a storage tank will naturally be a
little in excess of a multiple of 6,000 gallons, for the reason that
6,000 gallons is the capacity of a regulation tank car. So, then,
storage tanks will properly have capacities greater than 6,000,
12,000, 18,000 and so forth, gallons. Fig. 23 shows a 20,000-gal-
lon fuel oil tank along the Mexican Railway ,a and Fig. 24 shows
locomotive loading tanks along the lines of the United Railways
of Havana.b

a. Reprinted by permission of Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Co., Ltd.

b. Courtesy of Sinclair's Magazine.

•FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

For the storage of fuel oil at small industrial plants and at
hotels, apartment houses, and residences, the steel tank has been
in general use. Mr. S. D. Rickard, Consulting Engineer, Wayne
Oil Tank & Pump Company, gives the following advice concern-
ing storage tanks :

"Too great care canot be used in the selection of the oil
storage tank, or tanks. It is a great deal more difficult to con-

FIG. 23. — Storaee tank along the Mexican Railway.
(Courtesy of Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Co.)

struct an oil-tight tank than to construct a tank simply for the
storage of water. It is very difficult and sometimes impossible
to repair a leaking tank, and a great deal of oil may be lost before
the leak is discovered. All tanks should be inspected and labeled
by the Underwriters' Laboratories of the National Board of Fire
Underwriters.

Fuel oil storage tanks should be cylindrical in shape and
placed underground so that the top of the shell is at least two feet
below ground. These tanks should be of sufficient capacity to
allow for a working supply in case deliveries are delayed, and so

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 79

that tank cars can be entirely emptied as soon as they are received,
avoiding demurrage charges. Where shipments are to be received
in single carload lots, a 12,000-gallon tank is the smallest size that
should be installed. However, many installations embody two
or more tanks varying in capacities from 8,000 to 25,000 gallons.
It should be specified that the tank be fitted with all of the
pipe flanges and the manhole at one end of the shell on top. In
this way it is possible to build a box with a trap door over one
end of the tank whereby all pipe connections and the manhole
may be easily gotten at.

FJG. 24. Locomotive Loading Tanks Along Lines of the United Railways

of Havana.
(Courtesy of Sinclair's Magazine.)

It is good practice to fit a fuel oil tank with the following
flanges and manhole: one 10" x 16" manhole, one 3l/2" suction
flange, one 4" fill flange, one iy2" vent flange, one \l/2" return
pipe flange, and one l/2r' indicator flange.

Every fuel oil tank should be constructed with internal steam
coils of proper design. Although it might be possible to obtain
a light oil at the time the tank is installed, it may become neces-
sary at any time to burn a heavy oil, which would require heating.

Each storage tank should be fitted with a tank gallonage
indicator. These indicators show at a glance the contents of the
tank. They may be placed inside of the nearest building, outside
of the building against the wall, directly over the tank, or on the
side of aboveground tanks."

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

When it is impossible to place the main storage tanks below
ground or below the level of the burners, a small 5 or 10 barrel
reservoir tank should be placed underground below the main
storage. This reservoir tank is then fed by gravit^ from the
overhead tanks. Just inside the small reservoir tank is placed a
float valve, as shown in Fig. 25. This valve closes whenever the
oil in the small tank reaches a certain level. The suction and
return pipes should run from this small underground tank in
the usual manner. In this way the danger of flooding a building
with oil is avoided. Fig. 26 shows a typical steel storage tank for
fuel oil.

The Butler Manufacturing Company, Kansas City, made the
following quotations as of July 1, 1920, for storage tanks, f. o. b.
Kansas City :

HORIZONTAL TANKS SUITABLE FOR UNDERGROUND USE BUT
WITHOUT UNDERWRITER'S LABEL.

Size

Capacity

Weight

Gage Material

Dealer's Price

Retail Price

3x5

260 gal.

289

12 gage BA

$ 59.80

$ 74.70

3>^x 5

350

352

67.40

84.26

4x5

460

416

78.60

98.20

4x6

560

473

' 12

84.05

105.75

5x5

725

565

94.20

117.50

5x6

870

635

102.00

127.40

5x7

1015

705

109.10

136.40

5x8

1160

775

116.70

145.90

6x6

1250

814

121.50

151.83

6x8

1675

980

139.00

173.80

6 xlO

2100

1175

156.90

196.15

These horizontal tanks will be equipped with 4" fill opening, I" vent, 2"
outlet; also, each tank will be given one coat of asphaltum paint.

VERTICAL WELDED STORAGE TANKS.

Size

Capacity

Weight Ibs.

Gage

Dealer's Price

Retail Price

5x4

575 gal.

453

12BA

$ 95.40

$119.40

6x6

1250

747

129.30

161.63

7x6

1700

891

150.75

185.50

7x8

2280

1083

179.00

224.00

8x8

2975

1288

208.30

260.40

9x9

4240

1640

244.00

305.00

openings and plug, a return
2" outlet tap in side near

These vertical tanks have cone cover with 4" fill
bend and nipple screwed into plug for use as vent,
bottom, one coat of red paint to be applied.

On all tanks quoted above blue annealed steel is furnished, which is especially
adapted for welding. All seams will be carefully welded and the tanks will be thor-
oughly tested under air pressure before leaving the factory to insure that they are
oil-tight. If any tanks when first filled, are found to be leaking, necessary repairs
will be made when the oil is removed.

In the event tanks of greater capacity, heavier material, or tanks bearing under-
writer's label are required, quotations will be made on receipt of exact requirements.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

It is only recently that concrete has been considered a suit-
able material for making containers for fuel oil. The knowledge
of the desirability of concrete for oil storage tanks was acquired
during the war through the practical elimination of steel plates.

Mr. H. P. Andrews, in a paper read before the American
Concrete Institute, states that reinforced concrete has proved to
be satisfactory in many ways, if intelligently handled. As it is
necessary to install most fuel oil reservoirs underground, steel
tanks rust if not protected. Concrete can be designed better to
resist exterior stresses, as hydrostatic or earth pressures. It has

Frto LIME Fnon flpove QgoutoTgrm

FIG. 25. Reservoir Tank with Automatic Float Valve.
(Courtesy of Wayne Oil Tank and Pump Company)

the dead weight to better resist upward hydrostatic pressure in
soils which often are filled with water. It does not attract light-
ning like steel, nor if properly constructed is it affected by elec-
trolysis. It is a non-conductor of heat and cold, thus retarding
evaporation of oil in summer, and also retarding the lowering of
the temperature of the oil in winter, an advantage in pumping.
In case of a conflagration the oil is much safer in a concrete con-
tainer than in steel. But, as previously stated, oil reservoirs of
concrete must be designed correctly, the concrete proportioned
correctly and mixed and placed correctly in order to get satis-
factory results. And by satisfactory results it is meant that there
shall be no leakage or seepage when built or, thereafter, to cause

82 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

fire hazards or financial loss. When these necessities have been
provided for, reinforced concrete reservoirs will contain fuel oil
of a consistency up to 40° B., and practically all fuel oils are below
this, the Mexican oils having a specific gravity as low as 16° B.
For the lighter oils, including kerosene, gasoline or benzine, some
provision should be made for a lining of special material, and the
writer understands that the U. S. Shipping Board has been
making some extended experiments along this line. The design
and the location of a fuel oil reservoir may be considered from
various standpoints. (1) Location. The reservoir should be
located a safe distance from inflammable structures as far as pos-
sible consistent with pumping requirements, covered with at least
18 in. of earth, if near buildings, to decrease fire hazards and also
to minimize oil evaporation. If distant from buildings it should

FIG. 26. Steel Storage Tank for Fuel Oil.
(Courtesy Wayn£ Oil Tank and Pump Company.)

be at least half underground, and if possible, the excavated ma-
terial should be used in banking up around it. (2) Size. The
reservoir should be limited in size for two reasons : First, the
necessity of not -exceeding a day's working limit in the operation
of pouring concrete so that joints between operations may be
eliminated ; and secondly, so that in case of an accident or fire in
any reservoir, that too much oil in storage will not be involved.
This size limit should not be over 300,000 gallons under most
conditions, and the majority of contractors have not the facilities
to construct properly a reservoir of this capacity. (3) Shape.
The reservoir should be circular in shape, the better and more
directly to take care of involved stresses and to avert danger of
tensile or temperature cracks. (4) It should be so proportioned
and designed as to limit the number of pouring operations of

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

84 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

concrete, so as to avoid joints between these operations. (5)
Care should be taken to provide for all exterior stresses, such
as hydrostatic pressure from ground water, earth pressure on
walls, and roof if reservoir is buried, and also to avoid as far
as possible concentration of loads on walls or footings. Where
joints are absolutely necessary they should be so protected that
there will be no leakage through them. Regarding hydrostatic
pressure, while engineers have found from tests that this pressure
in soils is only about 50 per cent of the full head of water, it
is not safe to design for stresses less than the full head, as any
deflection in the concrete admitting a film of water between the
earth and the concrete will produce the full hydrostatic pressure.
(6) To so design the reservoir, piping and vents as to comply
with municipal regulations and insurance requirements. (7) To
protect temporarily or permanently concrete surfaces so that oil
will not come in immediate contact with them if concrete is
less than six weeks old. (8) To so design the false work for
holding concrete temporarily in place that it will not fail or be
distorted while placing concrete. It is especially necessary to
provide for the firm holding of wall forms, as the pressure of
several feet of concrete poured quickly as a monolith is intense,
and any give of the forms after the concrete has obtained its
initial set breaks up the crystals already formed, allows expansion
of the concrete mass, with resultant porosity and loss of strength.
(9) To design the concrete so that it will resist all exterior
stresses to which it is subjected and so that it will be oil-proof.
And one of the principal features of this design is to make the
walls of circular reservoirs in tension, sufficiently thick so that
the ultimate strength of the concrete in tension will not be ex-
ceeded. It is not meant, of course, to leave out the steel rein-
forcement so that the stress will theoretically be borne by the
concrete, but, nevertheless it will actually be borne by it unless
some unforeseen weakening of the concrete should throw it upon
the steel. An extended investigation by the writer on high
circular concrete standpipes for water showed that if the concrete
in the wall was stressed beyond its elastic limit or ultimate
strength, which is practically identical, vertical hair cracks will
appear of sufficient width to admit water into the body of the
concrete. This ultimate tensile strength in a 1:1^:3 concrete
from tests made for the writer at the Watertown Arsenal was
203 Ibs. per square inch. Where the concrete is in large sectional

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 85

areas and reinforced, this tensile strength probably will be some-
what higher. If a stress not exceeding 150 Ibs. per square inch
is allowed in tension there will be no danger of these vertical
cracks appearing. (10) To design the reinforcement so that it
will take care of all interior and exterior stresses and with fittings
to hold it rigidly in place while concrete is being poured. Steel
in tension in walls should not be stressed over 10,000 Ibs. per
square inch to conform with insurance companies' requirements.
Personally, the writer does not think that it is necessary to figure
the stress as low as this, under usual conditions, having satis-
factorily constructed many reservoirs using a stress of 14,000
pounds, but of course, the lower stress is an additional safeguard
against inferior workmanship by inexperienced contractors and
against any decrease in bond strength due to oil penetration of
concrete. It is probably unwise to depart radically from in-
surance companies' recommendations. For other parts of the
reservoir the recommendations of the Joint Committee on Con-
crete, Plain and Reinforced, should be followed. All reinforcing
rods in concrete exposed to oil should be of a deformed section
for better bending value. To carry out these requirements neces-
sitates the employment of competent engineers, experienced in the
work, to make the design and specifications and to superintend
construction. The concrete should be no leaner than a mix com-
posed of 1 part of cement, \l/2 parts of sand and 3 parts broken
stcne or gravel. To this mix should be added a "densifier." Hy-
drated lime has been found economical and satisfactory for this
purpose, using ten Ibs. of dry lime to each bag of cement. The
stone must be hard and clean, trap rock, granite or gravel being
the best material. The sand must be free from any deleterious
matter; and should be well graded. Cement should be of an
established quality. The concrete should be deposited contin-
uously in concentric layers not over 12 ins. deep in any one place.
No break in time of over thirty minutes is permissible in de-
positing concrete during any one operation, and if any delay
occurs, the previous surface must be chopped up thoroughly with
spades before the next layer of concrete is deposited.
The different operations in pouring are :

1. The pouring of floor and footings.

2. The pouring of entire wall.

3. The pouring of roof.

86 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

In small reservoirs the wall forms may be supported so that
the footings, floor and wall may be poured in one continuous
operation. An approved joint or dam must be made between
the floor and the wall. When the materials are obtained they
should be mixed by a plant of sufficient size and power to carry
out each separate pre-arranged operation without danger of delay
during the process. The materials should be mixed at least 2 .
minutes in the mixer, using just enough water to obtain a plastic
mix without excess water coming to the surface after concrete
is deposited, and a measuring tank should be used so that the
amount of water may be kept uniform. The concrete when de-
posited in forms should be well spaded by at least four competent
laborers who are not afraid to use their muscle in compacting
the concrete thoroughly and working out the trapped air bubbles.
Reinforcement should be of round deformed bars conforming
to "Manufacturer's Standard Specifications for Medium Steel."
These bars should be bent or curved true to templates carefully
placed in their predesigned location and rigidly maintained there
by mechanical means. No laps should be less than 40 diameters
and no two laps of adjacent rods should be directly opposite each
other. The forms should be of a good material, strongly made
and braced, or held in place by circumferential bands so that no
distortion, allowing displacement of concrete during its initial
set, is possible. The surface of the floor should be trowelled
smooth as soon as it can be done properly. If all previously
named precautions are taken, there should be no defects in the
wall to correct. Concrete mixed and placed as recommended
herein is practically oil-tight, but as oils are somewhat detrimental
to fresh concrete, it is advisable to put on an interior wash or
coating to protect the fresh concrete from the action of the oil
for such a time as may be necessary for it to cure and harden
sufficiently. Silicate of soda, while not a permanent coating, has
been used satisfactorily for this purpose according to this speci-
fication for oil-proofing. The surface of the floor and the interior
surface of the wall are to be coated with silicate of soda of a
consistency of 40° B when applied as follows : First coat. One
part of silicate of soda and three parts of water, applied with
brush and all excess liquid wiped off with cloth before drying.
Second coat. One part silicate of soda and two parts water
applied as above. Third coat. One part of silicate of soda and
one part water, applied with brush and allowed to dry. Fourth

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 87

coat. Applied same as third. The dome roof is economical to
construct where earth covering is not required and where all
concentrated loads on walls are eliminated, which might tend to
produce unequal settlement with resultant cracks. The inverted
dome at the bottom gives additional storage capacity with only
increased cost of excavation and lessens height of wall thus re-
quiring less shoring of banks in loose soils. It allows a better
drainage of the reservoir than a flat floor, and better resists up-
ward exterior pressure. The recommended maximum dimensions
for this type of reservoir are as follows : Diameter, 60 feet ;
height of wall, 12 feet, rise of roof dome, l/6th to ^th dia ;
drop of inverted dome not over l/10th dia. The floor and roof
should be reinforced both circumferentially and radially to pro-
vide against temperature and other stresses. There are many
details which might be added, but the information given is in-
tended to cover the principal features." Fig. 27 shows a typical
reinforced concrete fuel oil reservoir.

The Portland Cement Association in its Bulletin "Concrete
Tanks for Industrial Purposes" is authority for the statement
that at present there is in the United States concrete tank storage
for over 790,000,000 gallons of oil. Concrete tanks for oil storage
are not an experiment, but their use for such purposes has rapidly
developed during the past three years because of unusual con-
ditions during the war. There are examples of concrete oil
tanks that have 15 years of service to their credit, thus proving
their success in this field. The economy and advantages of the
concrete oil tank have established it as a standard type of oil
storage container, particularly as relates to the needs of industrial
plants using fuel oil. Although such tanks can be built above
ground, the greatest advantages are derived from placing them
underground and covering with two or three feet of earth. Under
such conditions the stored oil is maintained at a fairly even
temperature, losses from evaporation of the lighter oils are re-
duced, and greater protection to tank contents is afforded against
fire from lightning or other causes ; therefore, the insurance on
surrounding buildings is not increased because of the presence
of stored oil. Insurance on contents of the tank is also less. In
addition, there is the advantage that the storage container does
not occupy valuable yard space necessary for plant operation or
other storage, and the tank may be placed at any convenient loca-
tion, even under a railroad sidetrack or plant driveway. So far

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

as it has been possible to collect data, the following list, correct to
August 1, 1919, shows industrial concerns in the United States
and Canada using from 1 to 11 concrete oil storage tanks or
reservoirs and the capacity of the storage listed :

ARIZONA

Company
Queen Laundry

Location
.Bisbee

Year
Built
1918

ARKANSAS

Ozark Refining Co Ft. Smith 1912

Lignite Products Co Camden 1917

CALIFORNIA

Associated Oil Co San Francisco 1910-11

Union Oil Co. of Cal San Louis Obispo

Kern Trading & Oil Co Bakersfield 1913-14

Standard Oil Co San Francisco 1906-15

Union Oil Co Port Richmond

General Petroleum Corp Los Angeles 1915

So. California Edison Co Los Angeles 1911

W. H. Jameson ...Corona 1913

Indian Valley Ry. Co Paxton 1917

Libby, McNeill & Libby San Francisco 1916

Napa Valley Electric Co St. Helena 1912

CONNECTICUT

American Brass Co Torrington and

Waterbury 1918

New Departure Mfg. Co Bristol 1919

Lawton Mills Corp Plainfield 1919

Yale & Towne Mfg. Co Stamford

French River Textile Co Mechanicsville 1919

Versailles Sanitary Fibre Co Versailles 1918

Fafnir Bearing Co New Britain 1919

FLORIDA

St. Johns Electric Co St. Augustine 1919

Southern LTtilities Co Miami 1919

Southern Utilities Co Arcadia 1919

St. Augustine Ice Co St. Augustine 1919

Southern Utilities Co Palatka 1919

Southern Utilities Co Ft. Lauderdale 1919

Southern Utilities Co Ft. Myers 1919

Southern Utilities Co Okeechobee 1919

Southern Utilities Co Tarpon Springs 1919

Southern Utilities Co Titusville 1919

ILLINOIS

Symington Chicago Corp Chicago 1918

American Steel Foundry Co Granite City 1918

Cribben & Sexton Co Chicago 1918

Pressed Steel Car Co Hegewisch 1918

Rockford Drop Forge Co Rockford 1912-18

Parlin & Orendorff Co Canton 1918

Crescent Forge & Shovel Co Havana 1917

Keystone Steel & Wire Co Peoria 1919

Galesburg Coulter Dis. Co Galesburg 1918

Greenlee Bros. & Co Rockford 1918

A. Hershel Mfg. Co Peoria 1919

Mt. Vernon Car Mfg. Co Mt. Vernon 1918

Capacity
Gallons
18,500

260,000
12,000

337,500,000

190,000,000

100,000,000

60,000,000

40,000,000

21,000,000

2,000,000

110,000

32,000

16000

10,000

1,320,000

500,000

225,000

117,000

110,000

72,000

36,000

53,000
50,000
30,000
28,000
28,000
23,000
23,000
23000
23,000
23,000

750 000

350,000

300,000

250,000

175,000

125,000

110,000

85,000

63,000

55,000

50,000

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

Year Capacity

Company Location Built Gallons

Electric Wheel Co Quincy 1918 43,000

Octigan Drop Forge Co Chicago 1918 15,000

Whiting Fdry. & Equip. Co Harvey 1918 13,000

INDIANA

Muncie Gear Works Muncie 1918 24,000

IOWA

Charles City Gas Co., Charles City 1916 30,000

Moline Oil Co Clinton 1917 20,000

KANSAS

Garden Sugar & Land Co Garden City 1907 2,000,000

Howard Oil Co Mt. Hope 1910 18,000

Williamson Milling Co Clay Center 1909 18,000

KENTUCKY

Neha Refining Co Lexington 1918 150,000

MAINE

Goodall Worsted Co Sanford 1919 . 600,000

Great Northern Paper Co Madison 1919 380,000

Wyandotte Worsted Co Waterville 1919 115,000

MASSACHUSETTS

Pacific Mills Lawrence 1919 1,300,000

American Steel & Wire Co Worcester 1918 1,000,000

Merrimac Chemical Co Boston 1918 690,000

Manufacturing Plant Everett 1918 650,000

Thomas Plant Shoe Co Roxbury 1917-18 160,000

Holtzer-Cabot Electric Co Boston 1918 100,000

Osgood Bradley Car Co Worcester 1918 100,000

Christian Science Pub. Co Boston 1918 70,000

Pentucket Mills Haverhill 1919 70,000

MICHIGAN

Studebaker Corp Detroit 1918 825,000

American Car & Foundry Co Detroit 1918 400,000

Chicago Ry. Equipment Co Detroit 228,000

Detroit Steel Castings Co Detroit 1918 200,000

Timken-Detroit Axle Co Detroit 1918 200,000

Packard Motor Car Co Detroit 1918 127,000

Detroit Steel Products Co Detroit 1918 100,000

Great Lakes Eng. Works Detroit 1918 100,000

Detroit Steel Casting Co Detroit 1918 78,000

Bower Roller Bearing Co Detroit 1918 75,000

Briscoe Motor Corp Jackson 1918 60,000

Buhl Malleable Co Detroit 1918 35,000

Russell Axle Co Detroit 1918 34,000

Detroit Twist Drill Co Detroit 1918 20,000

MINNESOTA

City of Redwood Falls Redwood Falls 20,000

MISSOURI

Curtis & Co. Mfg. Co St. Louis 1917 1,500,000

No. American Refining Co Sheffield 840,000

Commonwealth Steel Co St. Louis 1918 240,000

Laclede Steel Co St. Louis 1918 240,000

American Brake Co St. Louis 1918 65,000

Kuhne Bros. Merc. Co Troy 1918 18,000

NEBRASKA

Wells-Abbott-Nieman Co Schuyler 1917 70,000

So. Nebraska Power Co Superior 1916 26,000

T. F. Stroud & Co Omaha 1913 12,000

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

NEVADA

Year Capacity

Company Location Built Gallons

Desert Power & Mill Co Millers 1907 145,000

NEW HAMPSHIRE

Clearmont Paper Co Clearmont 1917 215,000

NEW YORK

Titanium Alloy Mfg. Co Niagara Falls 1917 110,000

Bossert Corp Utica 1918 60,000

NORTH DAKOTA

Steele Light & Power Co Steele 1917 16,000

OHIO

Federal Glass Co Columbus 1917 450,000

Aluminum Castings Co L. . .Cleveland 1918 115,000

Wellman-Seaver-Morgan Cleveland 1918 103,000

American Brass Co Columbus 1918 100,000

Bonney-Floyd Co Columbus 1917 90,000

Shaw-Kendall Engineering Co Lakewood 1918 88,000

City Light & Water Plant Bryan 1918 40,000

Star Aluminum Co Ashland 1918 20,000

Globe Mach. & Stamp. Co Cleveland 1917 14600

OKLAHOMA

Muskogee Refining Co Muskogee 1917 180,000

Oilton Refining Co Oilton 1915 100000

Anadarko Cotton Oil Co Anadarko 1915 65,000

Baker Cotton Oil Co Hobart 32,000

Shawnee Gas & Electric Co Shawnee 1909 30000

PENNSYLVANIA

Westinghouse Air Brake Co Wilmerding 1917-18 250,000

Amer. Brake Shoe & Fdry. Co .Erie 1918 182,000

Steel Car Forge Co Ellwood City 1918 150,000

Union Switch & Signal Co Swissvale 1918 150,000

Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co E. Pittsburgh 1918 125,000

General Electric Co Erie 1918 100,000

Valley Forging Co Verona 1918 86,000

H. H. Robertson Cambridge 1918 80,000

Pittsburgh Seamless Tube Co Beaver Falls 1918 70,000

Fort Pitt Spring Co McKees Rocks 1918 52,000

Morris Bailey Steel Co Wilson 1918 50,000

Erie City Iron Works ^ Erie 1918 30,000

Mathews Gravity Carrier Co Ellwood City 1918 27,000

Union Iron Works.... Erie 1918 20,000

Neely Nut & Bolt Co Pittsburgh 1918 21,000

RHODE ISLAND

International Braid Co Providence 1918 600,000

Revere Rubber Co Providence 1918 400,000

Gorham Mfg. Co Providence 1918 305,000

Peace Dale Mfg. Co. Peace Dale 1918 300,000

Lonsdale Mfg. Co Lonsdale 1918 280,000

Jenckes Spinning Co Pawtucket 1918 150,000

National India Rubber Co Bristol 1919 150,000

Alsace Worsted Co Woonsocket 1919 110,000

Budlong Rose Co Auburn 1919 100,000

Esmond Mills Esmond 1919 100,000

Rosemont Dyeing Co Woonsocket 1919 92,000

American Silk Spinning Co Providence 1919 80,000

Montrose Worsted Co Woonsocket 1919 45,000

TENNESSEE

Davidson Co. Turnpike Bd Nashville 1916 50,000

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

. Joyton
.Winters
. Harrisburg
.Athens
.Seymour

TEXAS
Company Location

Empire Gas & Fuel Co Gainesville

San Antonio Gas & Elec

Lone Star Brewing Assn San Antonio

Joyton Cotton Oil Co

Winters Cotton Oil Co

Texas Portland Cement Co

Athens Brick & Tile Co

Seymour Cotton Oil Co

VERMONT

Wallingf ord Mfg. Co Wallingford

Jones & Lamison Mach. Co Springfield

WISCONSIN

Nevvport-Hydro-Chemical Co Carrollville

National Brake & Electric Co Milwaukee

Fairbanks, Morse & Co Beloit

State of Wisconsin

Geo. H. Smith Steel Cast. Co Milwaukee

Dane County

Appleton Water Works Appleton

Milwaukee Forge Machine Co Milwaukee

CANADA

Leaside Munition Co., Ltd Leaside

Motor Trucks, Ltd Brantford

British Munitions, Ltd Montreal

Empire Mfg. Co., Ltd London, Ont.

Steel Co. of Canada Swansea

Massey Harris Co., Ltd Toronto

International Harvest Co. of Canada, Ltd. .Hamilton, Ont.

Verity Plow Co., Ltd Brantford

Cockshutt Plow Co., Ltd Brantford

D. A. Brebuer Co., Ltd Hamilton, Ont.

Can. Shovel & Tool Co., Ltd Hamilton, Ont.

Dominion Sheet Metal Corp Hamilton, Ont.

Year
Built

1918

1903-12

1909

1917
1906

1913
1918

1918

1916-17

1917-18

1918

1919

1918

1917

1918
1918
1918
1917
1918
1918
1917
1918
1918
1918
1918
1918

Capacity

Gallons

15,000,000

600,000

228,000

55;000

50,000

44,000

27,000

12,000

100,000
30,000

850,000

265,000

175,000

146,000

73,000

50,000

2^,000

18,000

280,000
120,000
100,000
70,000
65,000
45,000
42,000
42,000
30,000
12,000
12,000
12,000

The France & Canada Oil Transport Co., Aransas Pass,
Tex., has two 55,000-bbl. cylindrical oil storage tanks of rein-
forced concrete, 110 ft. inside diameter and 33 ft. deep, which
are probably the first concrete oil tanks of such large size to be
built entirely above ground. While in many locations economy
would be secured by building the tanks wholly or partly below
ground, thus getting the advantage of added insulation as well
as the outside earth pressure, these tanks were located on sand
foundation not more than 1 ft. above water level and construction
above ground was necessary. The nature of the location re-
quired that the tanks be supported by piling, which would have
been equally necessary for steel tanks. Each tank is supported
on some 600 piles cut off at water level and capped by a heavy
reinforced concrete slab covering the entire area. The walls
were built with sliding forms. Because of the intense summer
heat in that section of the country and the desire for absolute
insurance against temperature cracking, it was decided to make

92 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

the walls double by constructing an outer shell separated from
the main wall by a 5-in. air space. This decision was reached
because no former experience was available as a guide for de-
signing an entirely above ground oil tank of this size. As the
result of experience with these tanks, however, the engineers are
inclined to believe that the outer wall could be omitted with
safety. The tanks were treated on the inside with an oilproof
coating, for while they are built to hold a low gravity oil, it was
felt that they might be used for very light oils at some future
date and it would be wise to provide for this possibility. The
tank roof supported by concrete beams and columns is a concrete
slab covered with 1 ft. of sand. A gas-tight expansion joint is
provided where roof joins the walls. Each tank was surrounded

FIG. :8. Concrete Oil Tanks Which Without Damage Withstood a
Hurricane and Flood.

with an earthen dike to conform with insurance requirements and
equipped with the usual filling and discharge lines, swing pip.1
and other fittings. During the severe Gulf hurricane of Sept. 14,
1919, the tanks were partly filled with oil, each containing about
30,000 bbls. The engineer who designed and built them says :
"The water rose some 15 ft. accompanied by a 98-mile wind. The
storm was ihe 'most severe ever experienced on the Texas coast,
which means much. Our tanks were absolutely unprotected
from the full fury of the hurricane. Apparently heavy timbers
or possibly parts of the pipe lines were driven against the east
tank, and slight damage to the outer wall in one place resulted.
So severe was the storm that all of the surrounding sand was
washed away, and at places near and even under the tanks, there
is now from 10 to 18 ft. of water (See fig. 28). The pipe lines
were demolished, valves broken off of the tanks, and the oil was
lost but the concrete tanks remained intact. Had these tanks
been of any material but concrete they would have been de-
stroyed." '

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 93

Mr. James B. Brooks,a General Superintendent of Buildings
and Construction, for the Westinghouse Air Brake Company,
refers to the company's fuel oil tanks at Wilmerding, Pennsyl-
vania as follows : "During September, 1917, the Westinghouse
Air Brake Co. constructed four concrete fuel oil tanks at Wil-
merding, Pa., and during July, 1918, it constructed six more.
The tanks were 15 ft. wide, 25 ft. long and 9 ft. deep with a
capacity of 25,000 gals, each, or a total capacity amounting to
250,000 gals. The company has similar concrete tanks at Swiss-
vale, Pa., with 300,000 gals, capacity, built like those at Wil-
merding. The concrete in the tanks was made from one part
cement, two parts sand and four parts pea gravel. The following
method of construction was adopted. Excavating was done by
crane and grab bucket and after squaring up the bottom, the
reinforcing bars were placed for the floor slab, with ends of bars
bent up 90 deg. so as to enter the wall. These rods were wired
together and held in place by being suspended from 2 by 8-in.
timbers placed several inches above the floor level. The entire
floor slab for one tank was then poured, well tamped and finished
rough. No. 16-gage galvanized iron strip, 6 in. wide, riveted
and soldered at joints so as to make a continuous band, was then
imbedded in the floor slab to a depth of 3 in. and placed so as
to be on the center line of wall and projecting into it 3 in. The
outside wall forms were then set up after which the reinforcing
rods were placed, wired together and fastened to the form. In
the meantime the forms and timbers for suspending rods for
floor slab No. 1 were being set up and used for floor slab No. 2,
the joint between the slabs being filled with pitc'h. The inside
forms for wall, beams, and top slab were then set up and rein-
forcing rods placed for beams and top slab. Extreme care was
taken in cleaning the slab at bottom of wall form, and, before
pouring walls, a mixture of one part cement and one part sand
was placed in bottom of form and around galvanized strip so as
to make a tight joint. The side walls, beams, top slab and man-
hole are all cast in one piece, the only joint in the concrete being
between the floor and bottom of wall. The inlet pipe cast into
the top slab near the manhole is a 4-in. nipple and the outlet
pipe is a 2l/2 in. brass pipe threaded its entire length, offering a
rough surface for concrete to adhere to. The forms were re-
moved in 3 or 4 days and the entire inside of tank was given a

a. Engineering World, March, 1920, p. 278.

94 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

coat of plaster 5/2 -in. thick, made up of one part cement and one
part sand, troweled to a very smooth surface. The tanks are
placed in a double row with a 3-ft. covered passageway between
them, with manholes and ladders giving access to pipe and valves
leading from tanks. Owing to the possibility of a slight weaken-
ing of the concrete due to the action of the oil, the tanks are
heavily constructed and reinforced. Allowance was made for a
weakening of 10 or 15 per cent. The top of tank is designed
for a uniform loading of 400 Ibs. per sq. ft., thus allowing this
space to be used for the storing of miscellaneous material. The
tops of tanks are 18 in. below yard grade and are covered with
cinder so as to keep down excessive change in temperature. The
tanks are filled from tank cars by gravity and piped so that oil
can be directed to all or any one tank. They have given perfect
satisfaction to date after continuous service and show no signs
of seepage or cracks. Not even discoloration caused by oil pene-
tration shows on the outside. It is the writer's opinion that it is
unnecessary to use waterproofing material in the construction of
concrete tanks where it is intended to store heavy fuel oil. The
oil penetrates to a depth of 2 or 3 in., fills the pores and stops
further penetration; therefore, the walls should be at least 8 in.
thick to allow for this pore filling process whereas a 3 or 4-in.
wall may possibly show seepage. Owing to the fact that the
light oils, such as gasoline and benzine, are very penetrative and
have little or none of the sealing qualities found in the heavy
fuel oil, it would be necessary that a water-proofing compound
in a paste form mixed with the water for mixing concrete should
be used, and the interior of tank should have a ^-in. coat of
plaster made up of one part cement and one part sand mixed with
a first-class waterproofing compound upon which may be placed
a solution of silica of soda, applied with a brush."

The fire hazard created by storage of fuel has generally been
over-estimated by the insurance companies and until very recently
the regulations for the storage and use of fuel oil in the larger
cities have been much more stringent than is necessary for pro-
tection against fire risk.

NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION RULES

The tentative regulations for the storage and use of fuel oil
prepared by the National Fire Protection Association (revised
November 3, 1919) are as follows:

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 95

Section 1.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR METAL TANKS.
UNDERGROUND TANKS.

1. Materials of Construction.

(a) Tanks shall be constructed of galvanized steel, basic open hearth steel or
wrought iron of a minimum gauge (U. S. Standard) depending upon the capacity, as
given in Tables 1 and 2. For liquids of 20° Baume and below, tanks may be of
concrete.

TABLE 1.
Capacity (Gallons) Minimum Thickness of Material

1 to 560 14 gauge

561 to 1,100 12

1,101 to 4,000 7

4,001 to 10,500 Yt inch

10,501 to 20,000 & "

20,001 to 30,000 tf "

(b) In outlying districts to be prescribed by inspection departments having
jurisdiction, tanks not exceeding 1,100 gallons in capacity, if located ten feet or more
from any building, may be constructed as follows:

TABLE 2.
Capacity (Gallons) Minimum Thickness of Material

1 to 30 .- 18 gauge

31 to 350 16

351 to 1,100 14

2. Joints and Connections.

All joints shall be riveted and soldered, riveted and caulked, brazed, welded or
made by some equally satisfactory process. Tanks shall be tight and sufficiently
strong to bear without injury the most severe strains to which they may be subjected
in practice.. Shells of tanks shall be properly reinforced where connections are made
and all connections made through the top of tank above the liquid level.

3. Rust Proofing.

All tanks shall be thoroughly coated on the outside with tar, asphaltum or other
suitable rust resisting material, dependent upon the condition of soil in which they
are placed. Where soil is impregnated with corrosive materials, tanks shall also be
made of heavier metal.

4. Venting of Tanks.

(a) An independent, permanently open vent terminating outside of building
shall be provided for every tank.

(b) Vent openings shall be screened (30 by 30 nickel or brass mesh or equiva-
lent) and shall be of sufficient area to permit proper inflow of liquid during the
filling operation and in no case less than two inches in diameter; shall be provided
with weatherproof hoods and terminate twelve feet above top of fillpipe, or if tight
connection is made in filling line, co a point one foot above the level of the top
of the highest reservoir from which the tanks may be filled and never within less
than three feet, measured horizontally and vertically, from any window or other
building opening.

(c) Where a battery of tanks is installed vent pipes may connect to a main
header, but individual vent pipes shall be screened between tank and header. The
header outlet shall conform to the foregoing requirements.

5. Filling Pipe.

Filling pipe shall extend to within six inches of the bottom of tank and when
installed in the vicinity of any door or other building opening, shall be as remote
therefrom as possible and never within five feet; terminal shall be outside of building
in a tight, non-combustible box or casting, so designed as to make access difficult by
unauthorized persons.

6. Manhole.

Manhole covers shall be securely fastened in order to make access difficult by
unauthorized persons. No manhole shall be used for filling purposes.

7. Test Well or Gauging Device.

A test well or gauging device may be installed, provided it is so designed as to

96 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

prevent the escape of oil or vapor within the building at any time. Top of well
shall be sealed and where located outside of building, kept locked when not in use.

8. Setting of Tanks.

(a) Tanks to be buried underground with top of the tanks not less than three
(3) feet below the surface of the ground, and below the level of any piping to which
the tanks may be con.nected, except that in lieu of the three (3) feet cover, tank
may be buried 18 inches below the ground level and a cover of reinforced concrete
at least 6 inches in thickness provided, which shall extend at least one foot beyond
the outline of tank in all directions; concrete slab to be set on a firm, well tamped
earth foundation. Tanks shall be securely anchored or weighted in place to prevent
floating.

Where a tank cannot be entirely buried, it shall be covered over with earth to
a depth of at least 3 feet and sloped on all side?, slopes not to be less than 3 to 1.
Such cases shall also be subject to such other requirements as may be deemed
necessary by the inspection department having jurisdiction.

If tank cannot be set below the level of all piping to which it is connected,
satisfactory arrangements shall be provided to prevent siphoning or gravity flow in
case of accident to the piping.

(b) Tanks shall be set on a firm foundation and surrounded with soft earth
or sand well tamped in place, or encased in concrete as outlined in Section 12 (b).

(c) When located underneath a building the tanks shall be buried with top of
tanks not less than 2 feet below the level of the floor. The floor immediately above
the tanks shall be of reinforced concrete at least 9 inches in thickness, extending at
least one foot beyond the outline of tanks in all directions, and provided with ample
means of support independent of any tank.

ABOVE GROUND TANKS.

9. Materials of Cbnstruction.

(a) Tanks, including top, shall be constructed of galvanized steel; basic open
hearth "Steel or wrought iron of a minimum gauge (U. S. Standard) as specified in
Tables 3 to 7, inclusive. No open tanks shall be used.

(b) For liquids under 20° Baume', tanks may be of concrete.

TABLE 3.
Horizontal or vertical tanks not over 1,100 gallons capacity.

Capacity (Gallons) Minimum Thickness of Material

1 to 30 18 gauge

31 to 350 16 "

351 to 1,100 14

TABLE 4.
' Horizontal tanks over 1,100 gallons capacity.

Minimum Thickness of Material

Maximum Diameter Shell Heads

Not over 5 feet 10 gauge 7 gauge

5 feet to 8 f e"et 7 " J4 inch

S feet to 11 feet 1A inch Y& '

TABLE 5.
. Vertical tanks over 1,100 gallons capacity.

Under8 in diameter and containing not more than 5,000 gallons.

Bottom No. 8 gauge,
Bottom Ring No. 8 gauge,
Other Rings No. 10 gauge,
Top No. 12 gauge. .., »,

.TABLE 6.

Under8 feet in diameter and containing more than 5,000 gallon^ but not

more than 10,000 gallons. •-_._.

Bottom No. 8 gauge,
Bottom Ring No. 7 gauge,
Other Rings No. 8 gauge.
Top No. 12 gauge.

a. Dimensions omitted in printed form. — Author.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

TABLE 7,

Other vertical tanks to be of thickness not less than indicated in the following
table, the figures referring to U. S. Standard gauge:

2nd 3rd
Diameter Top Ring Ring
Feet Top Ring from from

4th 5th
Ring Ring
from from

6th
Ring

from

Bottom

Tcp

Top

Top Top

Top

80 ....

3-0

5-0

2-0

4-0

2-0

4-0

3-0

2-0

40 and less. .

of capacity greater

than given

Table 7 shall

be of

material

sufficient in thickness to hold the contents, with a proper factor of safety.

(d) No vertical tank shall exceed 35 feet in height.

(e) Riveted joints shall have an efficiency of at least CO per cent.

(f) Joints — See paragraph 2.

(g) Rust proofing — See paragraph 3.

10. Roofs or Tops.

No wooden or loosely fitting metal roofs or tops shall be permitted. Roof or top
shall be without unprotected openings; shall be firmly and permanently joined to the
tank, and all joints made as noted in paragraph 2.

11. Venting of Tank.

(a) A permanently open vent conforming to paragraph 4 shall be provided.

(b) A safety valve shall be provided, or a hinged, self-closing manhole cover
kept closed by weight only.

(c) Approved explosion hatches having a. combined area of not less than \l/z
per cent, of the roof area shall be provided for every tank exceeding 200,000 gallons
capacity.

12. Setting of Tanks.

(a) Tanks shall be set upon a firm foundation, and shall be electrically grounded

(b) Tanks with bottom more than one foot above the ground shall have foun-
dation and supports of non-combustible materials, except wooden cushions.

13. Embankments and Dikes.

(a) In locations where above-ground tanks are liable, in case of breakage or
overflow, to endanger surrounding property, each tank shall be protected by an
embankment or dike. Such protection shall have a capacity of not less than one
and one-half times the capacity of the tank surrounded, and to be at least 4 feet
high, but in no case higher than ]/^ the height of tank when height of tank exceeds
16 feet.

(b) Embankments or dikes to be made of earthwork or reinforced concrete.
Earthwork embankments to be firmly and compactly built of good earth from which
stones, vegetable matter, etc., have been removed, and to have a crown of not less
than 3 feet and a slope of at least 2 to 1 on both sides.

(c) Embankments or dikes shall be continuous, with no openings for piping or
roadways. Piping shall preferably be laid over embankments; where it is necessary
to install pipes through embankments concrete wing walls shall be provided. Brick
or concrete steps shall be used where it is necessary to pass over.

TANKS INSIDE BUILDINGS.

Note: Inside storage is regarded as much more hazardous than outside storage.

Where used the following requirements shall be rigidly applied.
14. Setting and Heat Insulation of Tanks. . v

(a) Tanks shall not be located above the lowest story, cellar or basement of
building.

(b) Tanks shall be located below the level of any piping to which they may

98 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

be connected, or if this is impracticable, satisfactory arrangements shall be made to
prevent siphoning or gravity flow in case of accident to the equipment or piping.

(c) Tanks shall be set on a firm foundation supported independently of the
floor construction and completely enclosed with a heat insulation of reinforced
concrete not less than 12 inches in thickness (8- inches for concrete tanks) with at
least a 6-inch space between tank and concrete insulation filled with sand; for concrete
tanks, a top insulation of 12 inches of sand without concrete covering shall be
deemed sufficient.

(d) Walls of tanks, including those for insulating purposes, shall be constructed
independently of and not in contact with the building walls. Eight inches of concrete
and 6 inches of sand will be accepted as insulation for metal tanks when located in
a fire-resistive oil room or special oil storage building. The space occupied by the
sand insulation shall be drained through the insulating concrete wall by means of a
pipe not greater than 2 inches in diameter.

15. Venting of Tanks.
See paragraph 4.

SECTION 2.

SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONCRETE TANKS.

Note: Concrete tanks are more susceptible to deterioration than metal tanks it
there is any defect in the preparation of the cement as well as in the
selection of the ingredients for the concrete and their mixing and
pouring. The two most important features of tank design are the foun-
dation and the reinforcing steel. Concrete tanks shall therefore be per-
mitted only after detailed plans and specifications prepared by an engineer
specially experienced in concrete tank construction have been approved
by the inspection department having jurisdiction. Furthermore, it is
essential that the construction work be entrusted only to thoroughly
competent concerns.

16. Type of Construction.

The entire tank, including roof, shall be of reinforced concrete.

17. Reinforcement.

(a) Reinforcement shall be designed to take care of all interior and exterior
stresses, and with fittings to hold it rigidly in place while concrete is being deposited.
It shall be properly proportioned and located to reduce the shrinkage cracks to a
minimum.

(b) The fiber stress in the steel shall not exceed 10,000 pounds per square inch.

(c) Reinforcement shall be of round, oval or square twisted, deformed bars.
All bars shall conform to the Standard Specifications for Medium Steel of the Ameri-
can Society for Testing Materials.

(d) The bars should be bent or curved true to templates and carefully placed
in their predesigned location. No lap splice shall be less than 40 diameters, and
no two laps of adjacent rods shall be directly opposite each other.

18. Forms.

Forms shall be of good material, strongly made, tight and braced or held in place
by circumferential bands, so that no distortion allowing displacement of the concrete
during its setting is possible. The use of wires through the concrete is prohibited.

19. Material — Aggregates.

(a) The cement used shall meet the Standard Specifications for Portland Cement
of the American Society for Testing Materials.

Sand shall be clean, well graded, and shown by colormetric test to be free from
organic or other deleterious matter.

Coarse shall be clean, hard stone, preferably limestone or trap rock, ranging in
size trom J4" to 1". No quartz gravel or granite composed largely of quartz shall
be used.

Water shall be free from oil, acid, strong alkalies or vegetable matter.

(b) The materials shall be so proportioned that concrete of the greatest density
shall be obtained. A mixture not leaner than 1 part of cement, \l/t parts of sand,
and 3 parts of coarse aggregate shall be used.

20. Mixing.

(a) Mixing shall be done in a mechanical hatch mixer of sufficient size and
Pjower to carry out each prearranged operation without danger of delay during the
procece.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 99

(b) Duration of mixing shall be at least two minutes, using just enough water
to obtain a plastic mix without excess water coming to the surface after concrete
is deposited. A measuring tank shall be used so that the amount of water may
be kept uniform.

Note: Emphasis is laid upon the necessity of measuring the water content.
With I:ll/2:S mixture, the water content should be 5l/2 gallons per bag
of cement.
21. Depositing or Pouring of Concrete.

(a) The concrete shall, where possible, be deposited continuously in concentric
layers not over 12 inches deep in any one place so that a monolithic structure will
result.

(b) Where continuous pouring is impracticable, the pouring operations shall be
in the following order:

1. The pouring of footings and floor.

2. The pouring of walls.

3. The pouring of roof.

(c) No break in time of over 30 minutes shall occur during any one operation.
Where delays less than this interval occur, the previous surface shall be thoroughly
chipped with spades, swept clean, and a mixture of 1:1 mortar brushed on before
next layer of concrete is deposited.

(d) When deposited in forms, concrete shall be thoroughly spaded against inner
and outer faces, so that will thoroughly compact and work out all trapped air.

22.

If walls and floors are not poured in one operation, an approved joint or dam
shall be provided between the floor and wall. Two methods are suggested:

1. By means of a strip of galvanized iron 6 inches wide, with joints riveted
and soldered so as to form a continuous band. This strip will be vertically embedded
3 inches in the floor slab, and on the center line of the wall. The floor slab under
the walls shall be thoroughly cleaned, and before pouring the walls, a mixture of 1:1
mortar should be placed in the bottom of the forms and around the galvanized strip
to make a tight joint.

2. Finish the joint of floor as nearly square as possible. Before depositing new
concrete, the surface shall be thoroughly chipped with chisel, hammer or pick, and
the surface thoroughly cleaned and wet down with water. A thick, creamy grout
mortar composed of 1 part of cement and 1 part of sand shall then be deposited
to a depth of at least 2 inches. Immediately following this operation, the new concrete
shall be deposited. Method No. 1 shall be followed by all except those thoroughly
experienced in the construction of concrete oil tanks.

23. Freezing.

During freezing weather all material used in making concrete, particularly the
coarse aggregate, shall be heated, and precautions taken to prevent freezing during
pouring. After pouring, the concrete shall be kept above 40° F., until it has obtained
its final set, but such period shall be at least 72 hours. Walls and floor shall be
trowelled smooth as soon as final setting occurs.

24. Aging or Curing.

The tank shall be aged or cured at least four weeks before being placed in use.
Two methods for accomplishing this are suggested:

1. Fill tank with clear water.

2. Coat the floor, interior walls and under side of roof with 40° Baume, Sodium
Silicate and keep the exterior well dampened. A good method of applying the sodium
silicate is as follows:

First Coat — 1 part of sodium silicate and 3 parts of water. Apply with brush
and wipe off all excess liquid with a cloth Before drying.

Second Coat — 1 part of sodium silicate and 2 parts of water, applied as first coat.

Third Coat — 1 part of sodium silicate and 1 part of water applied with a brush
and allowed to dry.

Fourth Coat — Same as third.

25. Venting of Tanks.
See paragraph 4.

26. Fill Pipe.

See paragraph 5.

100 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

27. Test Well or Gauging Device.
See paragraph 7.

28. Oil Proofing.

The interior of tanks shall be oil-proofed. This work shall be done only by
concerns experienced in oil-proofing. A bond guaranteeing work for a term of years
shall be furnished.

Section 3.
LOCATION AND CAPACITY OF TANKS FOR LIQUORS ABOVE AND BELOW

20° BAUMfi (sp. gr. .933).
UNDERGROUND STORAGE.

29. Tanks shall preferably be located at least 50 feet from important buildings.
When this cannot be done, the limit of individual tank capacity permitted shall be
dependent on the location of tanks with respect to adjacent buildings, as follows:

(a) 15.000 gallons capacity if tank is so located that the top is above the lowest
floor or pit of any building within 10 feet. In this case the tank must be entirely
enclosed in concrete as outlined in paragraph 14 C.

(b) 15,000 gallons capacity if tank is so located that the top is below the lowest
floor or pit of any building within 10 feet.

(c) 20,000 gallons capacity if the tank is so located that the top is below the
lowest floor or pit of any building within 15 feet.

(d) 30,000 gallons capacity if tank is so located that the top is below the lowest
floor or pit of any building within 20 feet.

(e) 40 000 gallons capacity if the tank is so located that the top is below the
lowest floor or pit of any building within 25 feet.

(f) 60,000 gallons capacity if tank is so located that the top is below the lowes*
floor or pit of any building within 30 feet.

(g) 80,000 gallons capacity if tank is so located that the top is below the
lowest floor or pit of any building within 35 feet.

(h) 110,000 gallons capacity if tank is so located that the top is below the
lowest floor or pit of any building within 40 feet.

(i) Unlimited capacity may be permitted for underground tanks used only
for the storage of liquids of 20° Baume and below if tank is so located that
the top is below the lowest floor or pit of any building within 50 feet.

(j) Quantities of liquids above 20° Baume that may be stored at distances
greater than 50 feet, shall be at the discretion of the inspection department having
jurisdiction.

ABOVE-GROUND STORAGE.
30.

(a) The relation between gross capacity of tanks and the permissible distance
from other property is shown in Table 8. No unprotected tank shall be within 60
feet of the nearest building.

(b) No tank shall be located closer to the building than a distance equal to
the height of that wall of the building, facing the tank.

TABLE 8.

Capacity of Tanks Capacity of Tanks

Minimum Distance to Line of Adjoining (Gallons) (Gallons)

Property or Nearest Building Liquids above 20° Be Liquids 20° Be

and below
100,000
128,000
200,000
266,000
400,000
666,000
1,333,000
2,666,000
31. Permissible Reduction in Distances.

(a) Where all buildings have standard, parapetted concrete or masonry exterior
walls without unprotected openings on the sides facing tanks, or,' where tanks are
protected by concrete or masonry fire walls parapetted not less than 10 feet above

96,000

150 000

100

200 000

150

300,000

250

500,000

300

1,000,000

350...

, 2,000,000

DISTRIBUTION AND STDR&&E v^^HA

top of tank and extending at least 10 feet beyond tank extremes, in both directions,
the distance given in Table 8 may be reduced 50 per cent.; provided, however, that
no tank shall be located closer to building than a distance equal to 80 per cent, of
the height of exposed wall.

(b) Where openings in exposed walls are deemed a vital necessity, the inspection
department having jurisdiction may permit openings dependent upon the construction
and occupancy of the building. In this case openings shall be protected by fixed
standard wired glass windows or standard fire shutters. In no case, however, shall
the total area of such openings in any one store exceed 10 per cent, of the superficial
area of the wall of one story, 15 feet in vertical height being considered the equivalent
of one story.

32. High Water.

Tanks shall be so located as to avoid possible danger from high water.

33. Streams Without Tide.

When tanks are located on a stream without tide, they shall, where possible,
be down stream from burnable property.

34. Tide Water.

On tide water, tanks shall be located, if practicable, well away from shipping
districts.

STORAGE INSIDE OF BUILDINGS.

35. Liquids above 20° Baume.

The storage within buildings of oils above 20" Be', is prohibited.

36. Permanently Set Storage Tanks Inside Buildings for Liquids of 20° Baume

and Below.

(a) In ordinary buildings the gross capacity of tanks shall not exceed 5,000
gallons.

(b) In fire-resistive buildings the gross capacity of tanks shall not exceed 10,000
gallons.

(c) In any building, if cut off in a special fire-resistive oil room or oil storage
building conforming to requirements given in paragraph 37, the gross capacity of
tanks shall not exceed 50,000 gallons, with an individual tank capacity not exceeding
25,000 gallons.

Section 4.

FIRE-RESISTIVE OIL STORAGE ROOMS AND BUILDINGS.
37.

Special fire-resistive rooms within buildings for the storage of oil shall be con-
structed as follows:

Walls shall be not less than 12 inches if brick or 8 inches if reinforced concrete;
floor and ceiling shall be of concrete at least 8 inches thick or its equivalent. Door
openings to other rooms or buildings shall be provided with sills sufficiently raised to
create a receptacle capable of containing twice the capacity of the largest tank or the
full capacity if only one tank; said door openings shall be protected by an approved
automatically closing fire door on each side of the wall; no combustible material
shall be used in construction. Great care shall be taken to insure proper ventilation.

Section 5.
PIPING— GENERAL REQUIREMENTS.

38. Cross Connections.

Cross-connections permitting gravity flow from one tank to another shall be pro-
hibited. This shall not be construed as prohibiting properly gated connections through
subdivisions in any individual tank.

39. Workmanship.

All pipe connections to tanks and other oil containing or using devices shall be
made in a substantial workmanlike manner.

40. Type of Material.

All piping shall be of the standard, wrought iron type. No pipe less than J^-inch
internal diameter will be permitted. '

41. Installation.

Piping shall be run as directly as possible, without sags, and so laid that pipes
pitch toward the supply tank without traps; provision shall be made for expansion,
contraction, jarring and vibration.

iQ2 .F.D.EL OIL IN INDUSTRY

42. Tests.

Piping after installation shall be tested to a pressure of not less than 150 pounds.

43. Unions.

Unions, if used in place of right and left couplings, shall be of an approved type.

44. Protection to Piping.

(a) Piping between any separated oil containing or using parts of the equipment,
shall be as far as practicable, laid outside of the building, underground, and if
necessarily inside, it shall preferably be laid in a trench with proper metal cover,
if on floor or subject to mechanical injury it shall be protected.

(b) Pipes leading to the surface of the ground or above the floor, particularly
risers to furnaces, shall be eased or jacketed when necessary to prevent loosening

or breakage.

45. Outside Piping.

(a) All outside piping shall be laid in solid earth, or in a trench. Oil pipes
shall not be located near, nor in the same trench with other piping, except steam
lines for heating. Propping the pipes on wooden blocks shall be avoided.

(b) Openings for pipes through outside walls below the ground level shall be
made oil-tight and securely packed with flexible material.

46. Valves.

(a) All valves shall be of an approved type.

(b) Shut-off valves shall be provided on both sides of any strainer which may
be installed in pipe lines; in discharge and suction lines to pumps; in discharge and
return lines to any tank, as near tank as practicable, and in branch lines near burners.

(d) A pressure relief valve shall be installed in supply line to burners and so
arranged as to return surplus oil to supply tank.

(e) The use of automatic shut-off valves for the oil supply is recommended.

47. Oil Level Indicating Device.

A device for indicating the level of the oil is desirable. Where used, such an
attachment shall be connected through substantial fittings that will minimize exposure
of the oil; no devices shall be used, the breakage of which will allow the escape of oil.

Section 6.
HEATING.

48. Heating of Tanks.

(a) Where it is necessary to heat oil in storage tanks in order to handle it,
the oil shall not be heated to a temperature higher than 40° F. below the flash point,
closed cup.

(b) Heating shall be done by means of properly installed coils within the tank,
using only steam or water. Thermostatic control shall be provided for all heating
devices.

49. Heaters, Other Than Those for Tanks.

(a) Heaters shall be of substantial construction, all joints shall be made oil-tight.

(b) Only steam or water shall be used for heating.

Section 7.

BURNERS.
50.

(a) The burner mechanism shall be so designed as to not enlarge the orifice, and
so that the needle valve cannot be unscrewed and removed in operating.

(b) Where atomizing mediums are employed, the power supply to the oil pump
shall be so arranged that the operation of the pump shall automatically stop, on cessa-
tion of flow of the atomizing medium at the burner.

(c) Burners shall be so designed as to be free from stoppage by carbonization,
to not permit leakage of oil and so that they may be easily cleaned,

(d) Burners containing chambers which allow dangerous accumulation of gases
shall be prohibited.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 103

Section 8.
PUMPING SYSTEMS.

51. Systems employing gravity feed or pressure on tanks are prohibited.

52. Pumps.

(a) Pumps shall be in duplicate, of an approved design, and secure against leaks.

(b) They shall be located in a room cut off from oil burning devices and pro-
vided with entrance which can be reached without passing through room where
burners are located; if this is not practicable, provision shall be made for remote
control.

(c) Pumps used in connection with the supply and discharge of storage tanks
shall be located outside the tank or embankment walls, and at such a point that they
will be accessible at all times, even if the oil in the tank or reservoir should be on fire.

NEW YORK REGULATIONS

The Board of Standards and Appeals of the City of New
York makes the following provisions for the storage and use of
fuel oil :

FUEL OIL RULES.
Rule 1. Definition. Flash Point and Specific Gravity.

The term "oil used for fuel purposes" under these rules includes any liquid
or mobile mixture, substance or compound derived from or including petroleum.

All oil used for fuel purposes under these rules shall show a minimum flash
point of not less than one hundred and seventy-five (175) degrees Fahrenheit, in an
open cup tester, or if cloced cup te ter be used a minimum of not less than one
hundred and fifty (150) degrees Fahrenheit, and its specific gravity shall be not less
than .933 (20 degrees Baume) at a temperature of sixty (60) degrees Fahrenheit;
and must not be fed from the tank to the suction pump at a pre-heat temperature
higher than its flash point.
Rule 2. Manner of Storage.

Oil to be used as fuel for commercial, heating and power purposes on the premises
where stored shall be at all times contained in metal tanks with all openings or con-
nections through the tops of the tanks, except a clean-out plug in the bottom; and,
when located inside of a building, must at all times be placed in the cellar or lowest
story of such building, and at least two (2) feet in a horizontal direction from any
supporting portion of the structure, and if practicable shall be buried underneath the
lowest floor or ground.
Rule 3. Location of Tanks. Existing Buildings.

No storage of fuel oil shall be permitted in a building of frame construction
within the fire limits, or in buildings of hazardous occupancy as so defined by the
fire commissioner.

If placed in buildings already erected, if not buried beneath the lowest floor or
ground, such tanks shall be placed in an enclosure the floor of which shall be at least
three (3) feet below the surface of the cellar or lower story; or if by reason of water
or foundation conditions, or if on rock bottom, the tank may be placed above the
surface of the ground, but in any case subject to the conditions as hereinafter described
under Rule 5.
Rule 4. Location of Tanks — New Buildings.

In buildings hereafter erected the bottom of the fuel oil service tanks shall be
located in, or below the floor level of the cellar or lowest stoiy as shall be determined
by the Superintendent of Buildings under the provisions of Rule 2.
Rule 5. Enclosure of Tanks.

In either existing or new buildings such fuel oil service tanks shall be enclosed
in an unpierced wall and floor of approved masonry or reinforced concrete, made
oilproof and waterproof, and not less than twelve (12) inches in thickness; and also
of sufficient thickness to properly support any lateral pressure, and to be of lateral
dimensions at least one (1) foot greater on all sides than the outside dimensions
of the tank. These walls are to be carried up to a height of at least one (1) foot

104 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

above the tank, or the supply and feed connections thereto, and roofed over with
reinforced concrete or its equivalent at least twelve (12) inches thick and capable of
sustaining a live load of at least three hundred (300) pounds per square foot; and if
not buried below the ground, placed so as to leave a clear and open space (except
for pipe connections) of at least two (2) feet between such roof over the enclosure
and the under side of the ceiling above. The roof of every enclosure shall contain
a manhole with fireproof cover properly weighted, but not fastened, placed immedi-
ately above the supply and feed connections and the manhole in top of the tank.

Where found impractical to set the bottom of the tank three (3) feet below the
floor of the cellar or lowest story, the tank shall rest on steel or masonry supports,
and the bottom of the tank shall be at least one (1) foot above the floor of the
enclosure, and the enclosure wall and floor as above specified shall be unpierced and
the space below the horizontal centre line of the tank and within the enclosure
formed by the surrounding unpierced walls shall have a capacity of at least sixty
(60) per cent of the capacity of the tank.

The space within the enclosure surrounding the tank shall be at all times vented
to the air outside of the building by iron or other fireproof conduit at least two
and one-half (2l/>) inches diameter, connecting the enclosure at a point just above
the floor level, and which shall finish above the street surface with proper connection
at that point to permit the Fire Department to flood the enclosure.

A separate similar vent without Fire Department connection shall enter the
enclosure just below its ceiling.
Rule 6. Capacity of Tanks.

In existing or new buildings of non-fireproof construction no fuel oil service tank
containing over ten thousand two hundred (10,200) gallons, and in buildings of fire-
proof construction no tank containing over twenty thousand (20,000) gallons, shall
be placed in any single portion of the cellar or lowest story unless such portion be
separated from the rest of the cellar by walls of masonry or reinforced concrete
with openings protected by automatic fireproof doors, with sills placed high enough
above the cellar floor to contain capacity of tank located therein, in addition to the
enclosure as already specified for the tank, and such portion be ventilated to the
outer air. More than one such single tank may be installed if enclosed and separated
as above.

When tanks are buried so that the top of the roof over the enclosure wall is
level with the cellar floor, the capacity of any such tank may be increased by one
hundred (100) per cent.
Rule 7. Service Tanks Located Outside of Buildings Within Fire Limits.

Within the fire limits, tanks to contain fuel oil for use on the premises, and of
a capacity and at distances specified below, may be placed above ground outside
of the building if such tank does not exceed fifteen (15) feet in height above the
surface of the ground and if 'completely enclosed in the same manner as provided for
in Rule 5.

Distance to Nearest
Building in Feet Not Exceeding Capacity in Gallons

40 71,400

30 40,800

20 30,600

10 20?400

5 10,200

If such service tanks are entirely buried and roofed below the surface of the
ground, the capacity in gallons may be increased by two hundred (200) per cent.
Rule 8. Outside General Storage Fuel Oil Tanks Located Above Ground Within
the Fire Limits.

Such general storage tanks located within the fire limits shall not exceed twenty-
five (25) feet in height, shall be built of metal, and shall be surrounded with a dike
of unpierqed masonry of reinforced concrete not less than four (4) feet in height,
with a capacity of at least that of the tank to be' protected. The walls and floor
,o,f such dikes must be continuous, and oilprfeof arid 'Waterproof, and must not be built
within ten (10) feet of the walls of the tank. If tanks are placed in battery the
dikes shall be rectangular in shape, and the dike wall separating them as well as the
dike wall within one hundred (100) feet of any structure, shall be carried up as a

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 105

fire stop to a height of four (4) feet above the head of the tank and coped with
stone or concrete, and any openings in walls above the dike shall have automatic
fireproof doors.

The capacity of any such single general "storage tank within the fire limits shall
not exceed one hundred thousand (100,000) gallons, and the gross capacity of storage
shall not exceed the following tables:
To line of adjoining property
or nearest building (feet) Gallons

75 100,000

100 150,000

150 250,000

200 , 500,000

Such general storage tanks may have extra fill and emptying connections as the
Fire Commissioner may determine.
Rule 9. Outside General Storage Fuel Oil Tanks Located Outside the Fire Limits.

Such general storage tanks shall be protected by dikes and fire stops as provided
under Rule 8, shall not exceed thirty-five (35) feet in height above the ground, and
may be constructed either of metal or of concrete reinforced with steel in order to
resist the oil pressure.

If built of concrete, the walls and floor of such tanks shall be continuous and
shall be not less than eight (8) inches thick, mixed in the proportion of 1:1^:3
graded and mixed in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 5, Code of Ordi-
nances. The walls shall be of sufficient thickness so that the tensile stress, disregarding
the steel reinforcements, shall not exceed one hundred and fifty (150) pounds per
square inch. The horizontal and vertical reinforcement shall be properly proportioned
and placed to provide for expansion and shrinkage without leakage, and the stress
in the steel shall not exceed ten thousand (10,000) pounds per square inch.

As soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to be self-sustaining, the forms
shall be removed and all cavities filled with a one to one (1:1) mortar thoroughly
rubbed in and all irregularities trowelled smooth.

The concrete shall harden at least twenty-eight (28) days before use, and the
surface of the floor and the interior surface of the walls shall be protected by coating
with a sodium silicate solution or Other equally good protection to prevent oil coming
in contact with the concrete.

The maximum gross capacity of any such single tank when situated outside the
fire limits shall not exceed two hundred and fifty thousand (250,000) gallons, but
the gross storage capacity may -be double that specified in the tables under Rule 8;
and when such tanks are placed at least two hundred and fifty (250) feet from the
line of adjoining property or the nearest building, the gross capacity may be unlimited.
Rule 10. Material and Construction of Tanks.

1. All fuel oil storage tanks within the fire limits shall be constructed of wrought
iron, galvanized steel, basic open hearth or electric steel plates of gauge corresponding
to the capacity as specified in the following tables:

TANKS ' PLACED UNDERGROUND.

Thickness of Material

Capacity in Gallons U. S. Gauge

500 14

1,000 ' 12

5,000 7

10,000 y4 inch

20,000 5/16 •<

30,000 ; 3/s «

TANKS PLACED ABOVE GROUND. (Horizontal.)

Thickness of Material
Maximum Diameter ' U. S. Gauge

in feet . Heads ' Shell

5- • • .... ...C 7 10

8 • • • • • • , J4' inch 7

'-* H " 1A inch

106 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

TANKS PLACED ABOVE GROUND. (Vertical.)

f — .imcKuess ui ivxaienai, u
2nd 3rd 4th

. o. uauge— — ^
5th 6th

Diameter

Top

Ring

Feet

Top

Ring

from

Bottom

Top

40 and less.

. .10

45 .

55 .

2—0

..10

3-0

2—0

4—0

. .10

2—0

4—0

SO ..

. ,10

3-0

5-0

2. Tanks of greater capacity than above shall be proportionately heavier and of
sufficient thickness to safely hold the contents.

3. All joints shall be riveted and caulked, brazed, welded, or made by some
equally satisfactory process, and the tanks braced sufficiently to withstand all stresses
due to transportation or use. All riveted joints shall have an efficiency of not less
than sixty (60) per cent.

4. The top cover shall be of the same material as used in the construction of
the tank, permanently secured to the tanks without other openings than provided for
in these rules. A safety valve shall be installed on all tanks placed outside of
buildings.

5. All outlets and inlets shall be through the top or cover of the tank, except
for the clean-out plug as provided for under Rule 2, and in general storage tanks
a water drain not exceeding one (1) inch diameter may be permitted.

6. All metal tanks shall be thoroughly coated on the outside with tar, asphaltum,
or other suitable rust-resisting protection. When buried in soil impregnated with
corrosive materials, steel tanks shall be entirely covered with a two-inch thickness of
cement mortar or shall be of heavier metal in addition to being protected as specified.

7. All above ground storage tanks exceeding two, hundred thousand (200,000)
gallons capacity shall be provided with approved explosion hatches having a combined
area of not less than one and one-half (1J^) per cent of the roof area of the tank.

8. All tanks shall be tested and muit withstand a pressure of not less than
twenty-five (25) pounds per square inch shop test.a

Rule 11. Vent and Fill Pipes.

1. Each fuel oil tank shall be provided with a separate steel vent pipe and a
separate steel fill pipe of at least two (2) inches diameter placed in the top of the
tank. The vents for enclosure around tank shall be as specified under Rule 5.

2. Vent pipes for fuel oil tanks located in the lower story or buried under
buildings shall be run to a point outside the building, above the street surface and
at least twelve (12) feet above the fill pipe and shall terminate in a weatherproof
hood or a gooseneck, protected with non-corrodable screens of not less than thirty
by thirty (30 x 30) nickel mesh or equivalent. Such vent shall not be located within
five (5) feet either veitfically or horizontally of a window or other opening or an
exterior stairway or fire escape.

3. The receiver terminal of fill pipes shall be located in a metal box or casting
provided with means for locking and the delivery terminal shall be connected through
the top of the tank at a point furthest remote from the vent.

Rule 12. Fuel Oil Feed Systems.

1. Systems fed by gravity or force systems between tank and pump shall not
be permitted.

2. Pump suction feed systems only will be approved and anti-syphon system
must be provided.

a. This requirement is extremely unreasonable and is not based on engineering
principles. A pressure of five (5) pounds per square inch shop test for fuel oil tanks
is acknowledged by all engineers to be ample security against leakage. — Author.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 107

Rule 13. Pumps and Piping.

1. Feed pumps for fuel oils shall be of approved design, so arranged that
dangerous pressures will not obtain in any part of the system and shall be located
outside of enclosure walls around storage tanks, but so placed as to be accessible
at all times, and provision shall also bs made for remote control. They shall be
installed in duplicate when directed by the Fire Commissioner and shall be provided
with a by-pass to permit the draining of the oil for repairs.

A separate hand pump shall be provided for starting purposes.

2. Oil conveying pipes shall be carried above the tank outlet; if laid underground
after leaving the tank to be carried in a separate trench enclosed in fireproof or non-
conducting material. They shall be of extra heavy standard wrought iron, steel or
brass pipe with substantial fittings and not less than one-half (^) inch in size and
if covered it shall be with asbestos or other approved fireproof material. Overflow
pipes shall be at least one size larger than supply pipes and shall be carried back
to the receiver terminal.

3. All connections shall be tight with well-fitted joints. Unions shall have at
least one face made of brass with conically-faced seats.

4. Connections leading to outside tanks shall be laid below the frost line and
shall not be located near or placed in same trench with piping other than steam
lines for heating. All pipes leading to the surface of the ground shall be cased or
jacketed to prevent loosening or breakage. Openings for pipes through outside walls
below the ground level shall be securely cemented and made oil-tight.

5. Piping shall be run as directly as possible, without sags, and be properly
supported to allow for expansion, contraction, jarring and vibration and draining.

6. Piping between any separated oil container or using parts of the equipment,
should be laid as far as practicable outside of the building, underground, and inside
piping in a trench with metal cover or protected by not less than three (3) inches
of concrete.

7. Piping under pressure must be designed with a factor of safety of not less
than six (6), and shall in every case be tested to a pressure of not less than one
hundred and fifty (150) pounds after installation.

Rule 14. Controlling Valves.

1. In fuel oil piping systems, readily accessible shut-off valves shall be provided
in the supply line of fuel oils as near to tank as practicable, on both sides of any
strainer which may be installed in pipe lines, in the main line inside the building,
at each oil consuming device, and a gate valve in the discharge and suction pipes
near the pump. Provision shall be made to insure the cessation of oil supply from
tank to the burner when the pump is not in work.
Rule 15. Heating.

1. All heating to reduce viscosity of fuel oils in storage tanks in any building
shall be only by means of hot water coils and the oil shall not be heated above
one hundred and forty (140) degrees Fahrenheit.

2. All outside pipes subject to freezing shall be protected with a heating line
of steam or hot water.

Rule 16. Fuel Oil Burners.

1. Burners containing chambers which allow dangerous accumulation of gases
or containing oil-conveying pipe or parts subject to intense heat or stoppage from
carbonization are prohibited.

2. Oil shall be supplied through orifices not larger than necessary to supply
sufficient oil for maximum burning conditions when the controlling valves are
wide open.

3. The mechanism shall be so designed that, where manual or automatic control
is provided, operated at some distance from the burner, the flame cannot be extin-
guished except by closing the main shut-off valve in line to burner. Approved
gas-pilot lights or equivalent will be acceptable.

4. A check valve of approved type shall be installed in each oil, steam and air
line near the burner.

5. Smoke pipes shall be installed between the burners and chimney, and any
dampers in smoke pipes shall not exceed eighty (80) per cent of the area of the
pipe. Necessary regulation of draft shall be accomplished by dampers in the fire
or ash pit doors.

108 FUEL OIL IX INDUSTRY

6. Burners shall be installed with overflow attachment so arranged that surplus
oil will drain by gravity from the burner into a substantially constructed reservoir.
Such reservoir shall be constructed of brass, copper or galvanized iron plate not less
than No. 18 U. S. gauge in thickness and shall be provided with a vent pipe with
weatherproof hood leading outside the building.

7. The supply of oil and air or steam for atomizing shall be interlocked, so
that if the steam or air should fail the oil will be automatically shut off.

Rule 17. Fuel Oil Fire Extinguishing Equipment.

1. Every tank with a capacity of over ten thousand (10,000) gallons shall be
equipped with a system of steam pipes, blanketing gas or other approved system
for use in case of fire, so arranged and installed as to adequately protect surrounding
property.

2. When steam is used, the steam supply pipe shall not be less than one-half (l/2)
inch in size, the boilers shall be conveniently located, and shall be controlled by
valves outside the tank enclosure.

Rule 18. General Devices.

All devices used in connection, with oil-burning apparatus, such as indicators,
gauges and burners, shall be of such character as to minimize leakage and exposure
of oil, and shall be connected through substantial fittings. Devices which are subject
to breakage and escape of oil shall be prohibited.

Thermometers with large clear reading scales, placed in approved thermometer
wells with screwed top connections, shall be installed at convenient and prominent
positions in the oil supply pipe lines between the service tank and the pumps and
also between the pumps and the burner, to indicate the temperature of the oil.
Rule 19. Instruction Cards.

Cards giving complete instructions for the care and operation of the fuel oil
system shall be permanently fixed near the apparatus.
Rule 20. Operation of Plant.

Such fuel oil-burning plants may be operated only by a licensed engineer or by
a licensed operator who shall be a citizen of the United States, who can read and
write the English language, and who is familiar with the practical working of such
plant, as evidenced by the certificate of the Fire Commissioner.
Rule 21. Installation.

No installation of fuel oil plants shall be commenced until after the approval
of plans by the Fire Commissioner, which plans shall be submitted to him for
examination, together with the certificate of the Superintendent of Buildings that
the proposed construction of the enclosure and the location of tanks is in accordance
with the requirements of the Building Code and of these Rules.

Adopted, Nov. 6, 1919. JOHN P> LEO> Chairman.

WM. WIRT MILLS, Secretary.

CHICAGO REGULATIONS

Chicago's regulations for the storage and use of fuel oil are
as follows:

STORAGE AND USE OF FUEL OIL AND THE CONSTRUCTION AND

INSTALLATION OF OIL BURNING EQUIPMENT

Section 76. Large supply or storage tanks for oils having a flash point above
150 degrees Fahrenheit shall be constructed in the manner hereinafter set forth.

CAPACITY AND LOCATION OF TANKS.

(a) Tanks shall be so located as to avoid undue exposure of adjacent com-
bustible property, and in all cases where a doubt exists as to the proper location
of same under the terms of this ordinance the location shall be subject to the
approval of the Chief of Fire Prevention and Public Safety. The distances specified
in the following table are for plants or storage tanks located outside the districts
defined in Section 37 of this ordinance:

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 109

TABLE 1.

MINIMUM DISTANCE OF TANKS
To line of adjoining
unprotected building

or property To line of To line of

Capacity which may adjoining any existing To any

in gallons be built upon protected building frame building other tank

1,000 10 feet 5 feet 20 feet 2 feet

2,000 20 feet 10 feet 40 feet 2 feet

16,000 25 feet 15 feet 50 feet 2 feet

24,000 30 feet 20 feet 60 feet 2 feet

36,000 40 feet 25 feet 80 feet 3 feet

48,000 50 feet 35 feet 100. feet 3 feet

Provided, that the aggregate capacity of all tanks in any one yard, enclosure
or plant shall not exceed 300,000 gallons, and no one tank shall contain in excess
of 48,000 gallons.

(b) Each above ground tank shall be surrounded with an embankment or dike
not less than four feet in height and having a capacity not less than fifty per cent
greater than the tank to be protected.

(c) Embankments or dikes shall be made of reinforced concrete or brick and
shall have a crown of not less than one foot and a slope of at least one and one-half
inches to the foot on both sides'.

(d) Embankments or dikes shall be continuous, with no openings for piping or
roadways. Piping shall be laid well below the foundation of the embankment. At
points where it is necessary to pass over the embankment, properly built steps or
concrete roadways shall be provided.

(e) Adjacent tanks shall be protected against danger from each other by fire
walls of brick or concrete not less than 12 inches thick and extending not less than
3 feet above and beyond each tank. Each such fire wall shall have a fender or
return wall of the same height and thickness at each end, and extending 3 feet on
each side of said wall.

Section 77.

HEIGHT OF TANKS.

(a) Vertical tanks shall be so constructed as not to exceed thirty feet in height.

MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION OF TANKS.

(b) Tanks shall be constructed of iron or steel plates of a gauge depending upon
the capacity as specified in the following table:

TABLE 2.

THICKNESS OF METAL FOR ABOVE GROUND TANKS.
Horizontal.

^— Minimum Thickness— >
Maximum Diameter . Heads Shell

Not over 5 feet -fg in. & in.

5 feet to 8 feet % in. ^ in.

8 feet to 11 feet ^ in. J4 in.

Vertical.

Capacity 5,000 gallons or less; diameter less than 40 feet:
Bottom, No. 8 U. S. Standard Gauge

Bottom Ring, No. 8 U. S. Standard Gauge
Other Rings, No. 10 U. S. Standard Gauge
Top, No. 12 U. S. Standard Gauge

Capacity 10,000 gallons or less; diameter less than 40 feet:
Bottom, No. 8 U. S. Standard Gauge

Bottom Ring, No. 7 U. S. Standard Gauge
Other Rings, No. 8 U. S. Standard Gauge
Top, No. 12 U. S. Standard Gauge

(c) Other vertical tanks shall be of material having a thickness of not less than
indicated in the following table, in which the figures in all columns, excepting the
first, refer to U. S. Standard Gauge:

110 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th

Diameter Top Ring Ring Ring Ring Ring

Feet Top Ring from from from from from Bottom

Top Top Top Top Top

80 10 7 7 3 0 3-0 5-0 10

75 10 7 7 4 1 2-0 4-0 10

70 10 7 7 4 1 2-0 4-0 10

65 10 7 7 5 1 0 3-0 10

60 10 7 7 5 2 0 2-0 10

55 10 7 7 5 3 1 2-0 10

50 10 7 7 7 4 1 0 10

45 10 7 7 7 5 3 1 10

40 and less... 10 77753 2 10

All riveted joints shall have an efficiency of at least 60 per cent.
Tanks of greater capacity than as specified above shall be of material of sufficient
thickness to safely hold the contents and proportionately heavier, subject to the
approval of the Chief of Fire Prevention and Public Safety.

(d) Materials to be used in smaller tanks shall be as required in Table 3, Sec-
tion 43 of this ordinance.

(e) All joints of such tanks shall be riveted and soldered, riveted and caulked,
brazed, welded or made by some equally satisfactory approved process. Tanks must
be tight and sufficiently strong to bear without injury the most severe strains to
which they are liable to be subjected in transportation or use. Tanks shipped com-
plete must be suitably reinforced to prevent injury to joints.

(f) All tanks shall be provided with a vent pipe terminating in a weatherproof
hood containing a non-corrodible screen. In case such vent pipe is not permanently
open a suitable safety relief must be provided. In all cases where, in order to
provide a means for relieving pressure, manhole covers are not provided with bolts
or clamps the openings must be protected by a non-corrodible wire mesh screen cf
not less than 20x20 meshes per square inch, which may be removable but must be
normally securely held in place.

(g) Outside surfaces of tanks shall be thoroughly protected against corrosion by
a suitable rust-resisting paint.

SUPPORTS FOR TANKS

Section 78. All tanks shall be set upon a substantial foundation, and, when ele-
vated above the ground level, supports shall be of non-combustible material, with the
exception of suitable wooden cushions. All above ground tanks shall be thoroughly
£"ounded electrically.

MEANS FOR EXTINGUISHING FIRES IN TANKS

Section 79. Tanks and dikes shall be equipped with suitable means or devices,
satisfactory to the Chief of Fire Prevention and Public Safety, for extinguishing or
retarding fire in such tanks or dikes.

PUMPS

Section 80. All pumps used in connection with the supply and discharge of any
tank constructed under the provisions of this chapter shall be located outside of the
reservoir walls, and at such a point that they will be accessible at all times, even if
the oil in the tank or reservoir should be on fire.

PIPE CONNECTIONS

Section 81. (a) All oil conveying pipes shall be laid underground and such pipes
shall not, under any circumstances, break through the reservoir walls above the sur-
face of the ground.

(b) The above provision does not apply to pipes laid well below the surface of
the ground.

CONTROLLING VALVES

Section 82. (a) There shall be a gate valve located at the tank in each oil con-
veying pipe. In case two or more tanks are cross-connected there shall be a gate
valve at each tank in each cross-connection.

(b) There shall be a gate valve m the discharge and suction pipes near the
pump and a check valve in the discharge pipe, located underground.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 111

INDICATOR.

Section 83. There shall be a reliable indicator provided for each tank to show
the level of the oil in the tank. Such indicator shall be of such a form that its
derangement will not permit the escape of oil.

PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS.

Section 84. A complete set of plans and specifications of any proposed installa-
tion under the provisions of this chapter shall be submitted to the Bureau of Fire
Prevention and Public Safety before beginning construction.

CHAPTER VIII.
INDIVIDUAL OIL-BURNING EQUIPMENTS FOR OTHER THAN HOUSEHOLD

PURPOSES.
Section 85. CAPACITY AND LOCATION OF TANKS.

(a) Within the districts defined in Section 37 of this ordinance, all tanks con-
structed under the provisions of this chapter shall be located underground with the
tops of such tanks not less than 2 feet below the surface of the ground and below
the level of the lowest pipe in the building to be supplied. Such tanks may be per-
mitted underneath a building if buried at least two feet below the lowest floor, if
such floor is of concrete not less than six inches thick. All tanks shall be set on a
firm foundation and surrounded with soft earth or sand, well tamped into place. No
air space shall be allowed immediately outside of such tanks. Any such tank may have
a test well, provided such test well extends to near the bottom of the tank and the
top end shall be hermetically sealed and locked except when necessarily open. When
any such tank provided with a test well is located underneath a building, the test
well shall extend at least 12 feet above source of supply. The limit of storage per-
mitted shall depend upon the location of such tanks with respect to the building to
be supplied and adjacent buildings, in accordance with the following table:

TABLE 3.
PERMISSIBLE AGGREGATE CAPACITY IF LOWER THAN ANY PORTION

OF A BUILDING WITHIN RADIUS SPECIFIED.
Capacity Radius

30,000 gallons 50 feet

20,000 gallons 30 feet

15,000 gallons 20 feet

11,500 gallons 10 feet

10,000 gallons Less than 10 feet

(b) When located underneath a building, no tank shall exceed a capacity of

10.000 gallons, and the basement floors of such building are to be provided with ample
means of support independent of any tank or concrete casing of same.

(c) Outside of the district defined in Section 37 of this ordinance, above ground
storage tanks may be permitted as specified in Table 1, Section 76, of this ordinance:
Provided, that drainage away from combustible property in case of breakage of tanks
shall be arranged for same or that dikes shall be built as provided for in Section 76
of this ordinance.

(d) When above ground tanks are used all piping must be so arranged that in
case of breakage of such piping the oil well will not be drained from the tanks. This
requirement shall be understood as prohibiting the use of any gravity feed from
storage tanks.

MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION OF TANKS.

Section 86. (a) All such tanks shall be constructed of iron or steel plate of a
gauge depending upon the capacity as specified in the following tables:

TABLE 4.

Underground tanks inside of the districts defined in Section 37 of this ordinance,
or within 10 feet of a building when outside such districts.
Capacity— Gallons Min. Thickness of Material

1 to 560 14 U. S. Standard Gauge

561 to 1,100 12 U. S. Standard Gauge

1,101 to 4,000 7 U. S. Standard Gauge

4,001 to 10,500 Yi in.

10,501 to 20,000 Tsg in.

20.001 to 30,000 y& in.

112 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

TABLE 5.

Underground tanks outside of the districts denned in Section 37 of this ordi-
nance, provided the tanks are 10 feet or more from a building.
Capacity — Gallons Min. Thickness of Material

1 to 560 18 U. S. Standard Gauge

31 to 350 16 U. S. Standard Gauge

351 to 1,100 . 14 U. S. Standard Gauge

1,101 to 4,000 7 U. S. Standard Gauge

4,001 to 10,500 J4 in.

10,501 to 20,000 T5S in.

20,001 to 30,000 y& in.

Tanks of greater capacity than 30,000 gallons must be made of proportionately
heavier material, subject to the approval of the Chief of Fire Prevention and Public
Safety.

(b) All joints of such tanks shall be riveted and soldered, riveted and caulked,
welded or brazed together or made by some equally satisfactory approved process.
Tanks must be tight and sufficiently strong to bear without injury the most severe
strains to which they are liable to be subjected in practice. The shells of tanks shall
be properly reinforced where connections are made, and all connections shall, as far as
practicable, be made through the upper side of tanks above the oil level.

(c) All such tanks shall be thoroughly coated on the outside with tar, asphaltum
or other suitable rust-resisting material.

FILL AND VENT PIPES

Section 87. (a) Each underground storage tank having a capacity of over 1,000
gallons shall be provided with a vent pipe at least 1 inch in diameter extending from
the top of the tank to a point outside of the building. Such vent pipe shall termi-
nate at a point at least 12 feet above the level of the top of the highest tank car or
other reservoir from which the storage tank maybe filled. The terminal of such vent
pipe shall be provided with a hood or gooseneck protected by a non-corrodible screen
and shall be located remote from fire escapes, and never nearer than 3 feet, meas-
ure-d horizontally and vertically, from any window or other opening. Vent pipes
from two or more tanks may be connected to one upright, provided the connection
is made at a point at least one foot above the level of the source of supply.

(b) Tanks having a capacity of less than 1,000 gallons may be provided with
combined fill and vent pipes, if the same are so arranged that the fill pipe cannot be
opened without opening the vent pipe, and such pipes terminate in a metal box or
casting provided with a lock.

(c) Fill pipes for tanks which are installed with permanently open vent pipes
shall be provided with metal covers or boxes which are to be kept locked except
during filling operations.

(d) Fill and vent pipes for tanks located under buildings shall be so constructed
that they will run underneath the concrete floor to the outside of the building.

FILTERS.

Section 88. Suitable approved filters or strainers for the oil stored or used in
any such tanks shall be installed and the same shall, wherever practicable, be located
in the supply line before reaching the pump. Filters shall be arranged so as to be
readily accessible for cleaning.

FEED PUMPS.

Section 89. (a) All feed pumps used for any installation under the provisions of
this chapter must be. of approved design, secure against leaks. Any stuffing box in
connection therewith, if used, shall be provided with a removable cupped gland designed
to compress the packing against the shaft and arranged so as to facilitate removal.
Packing affected by the oil must not be used.

(b) Such feed pumps shall be arranged so that dangerous pressures will not be
obtained in any part of the system, and such feed pumps shall be inter-connected with
the pressure air supply to the burners in order to prevent flooding.

GAUGE GLASSES AND PET COCKS.

Section 90. Glass gauges, the breakage of which would allow the escape of oil,
are hereby prohibited. Pet cocks shall not be used on oil carrying parts of the system.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE 113

RECEIVERS OR ACCUMULATORS.

Section 91. (a) Whenever receivers or accumulators are used, they shall be
designed so as to secure a factor of safety of not less than 6 and must be subjected
to a pressure test of not less than twice the working pressure.

(b) The capacity of oil chamber must not exceed ten gallons.

(d) They shall also be provided with an automatic relief valve set to operate
at a safe pressure and connected by an overflow pipe to the supply tank, and so
arranged that the oil will automatically drain back to the supply tank immediately
on closing down the pump.

AUXILIARY TANKS.

Section 92. (a) Wherever auxiliary tanks are used, their capacity shall not exceed
ten gallons.

(b) They shall be of substantial construction, equipped with an overflow, and
so arranged that the oil will automatically drain back to the supply tank on shutting
down the pump, thereby leaving not over one gallon where necessary for priming, etc.

(c) If such auxiliary tanks are vented, the opening shall be at the top, and such
opening may be connected with the outside vent pipe from the storage tank above
the level of the source of supply.

PIPING.

Section 93. (a) Standard full weight wrought iron, steel or brass pipe with sub-
stantial fittings shall be used and shall be carefully protected against injury. Piping
under pressure must be designed to secure a factor of safety of not less than 6, and
after installation the same must be tested to a pressure not less than twice the work-
ing pressure.

(b) All piping shall be run as directly as possible, and laid so that the pipes are
pitched toward the supply tanks without traps.

(c) Overflow and return pipes shall be at least one size larger than the supply
pipes, and nc pipe shall be less than one-half inch in diameter.

(d) All connections shall be perfectly tight with well-fitted joints. Unions, if
used, shall be of approved type, having at least one face of the joint made of brass
and having conically faced seats, obviating the use of packing or gaskets.

(e) Pipes leading to the surface of the ground shall be cased or jacketed wherever
necessary to prevent loosening or breakage, and proper allowance shall be made for
expansion and contraction, jarring and vibration.

(f) Connections to outside tanks shall be laid below the frost line and shall
not be located near nor placed in the same trench with other piping.

(g) Openings for pipes through outside walls shall be securely cemented and
made oil tight.

VALVES, ETC.

Section 94. (a) Readily accessible shut-off valves shall be provided in the sup-
ply line as near to the tank as practicable and additional shut-offs shall be installed
in the main line inside of the building and at each oil consuming device.

(b) Controlling valves in which oil under pressure is in contact with the stem
shall be provided with stuffing boxes of liberal size containing removable cupped
glands designed to compress the packing against the valve stem, and arranged so as
to facilitate removal. Packing affected by the oil must not be used.

(c) Approved shut-offs for the oily supply in case of breakage of pipes of
excessive leaking in the building shall be installed.

Section 95. It shall be the duty of the Chief of Fire Prevention and Public
Safety to enforce all the provisions of this ordinance, and he shall have full power to
pass upon any questions arising under the provisions of this ordinance, subject to
the conditions, modifications and limitations contained therein, and he shall have
similar power and authority in and about the enforcement of this ordinance as is
now granted to him by the terms and provisions of an ordinance "Creating a Bureau
of Fire Prevention and Public Safety," passed by the City Council on the 22nd day
of July, 1912, and appearing on pages 1543 to 1620, inclusive, of the Journal of the
Proceedings of said date, and all ordinances amendatory thereof and supplementary
thereto.

Section 96. Article XVII of an ordinance "Creating a Bureau of Fire Preven-
tion and Public Safety," passed by the City Council on the 22nd day of July, 1912,

114 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

and appearing on pages 1543 to 1620, inclusive, of the Journal of the Proceedings of
said date, and all ordinances amendatory of and supplementary to said Article XVII
are hereby repealed, and Sections 1683 to 1692, both inclusive, and Sections 691 to
694 y3, both inclusive, of The Chicago Code of 1911, and all amendments thereto, are
hereby repealed.

Section 97. Penalty. Any person, firm or corporation that violates, neglects of
refuses to comply with, or resists the enforcement of, any of the provisions of this
ordinance, shall be fined not less than twenty-five dollars ($25) nor more than two
hundred dollars ($200) for each offense, and every such person or corporation shall
be deemed guilty of a separate offense for every day on which such violation, neglect
or refusal shall continue.

Section 98. This ordinance shall take effect and be in force from and after its
passage and due publication.

Fuel oil is being used as a substitute for coal in so many
small industrial plants, office buildings, hotels, apartment houses
and residences that a distribution problem has been created which
only the motor truck can solve arid at the present time the motor
truck supplements railways, waterways and pipe lines in the de-
livery of fuel oil from the refinery to the ultimate consumer.
Competition in the oil business is very keen and the retaining of
customers depends very largely upon the service rendered. Trans-
portation from central stations to the ultimate consumer must be
reliable, elastic and economical. The use of the motor truck in
fuel oil delivery is described by Mr. Alfred F. Masurya as fol-
lows: "What rail and waterways are to the industry so far as
the long haul is concerned, the motor truck is to the delivery of
supplies and products in and between communities. The opera-
tion or administration of each distributing center is independent
of the other ; that is, each center is a unit, yet a part of the whole.
The area of each distributing center, the frequency of compara-
tively long hauls, repetitive delivery of large loads, the necessity
of rapid and certain distribution regardless of climatic or road
conditions, have called the motor truck into general use and
subordinated, if not eliminated, the use of the horse. It has been
demonstrated that a 1^-ton truck will replace not less than two
2-horse-drawn wagons of 700-gallon capacity, while the capacity
of the tank or motor truck is 650 to 675 gallons. In some in-
stances, however, larger trucks will displace from six to nine
horses and two or three horse-drawn wagons and effect a con-
siderable saving in labor. A 2^ -ton truck is usually operated by
one man. Larger units usually have a helper. This, however,
does not hold true in every case. In a well-regulated concern a
study is made by a traffic man of the conditions under which

a. The Petroleum Handbook, Andros, p. 158.

DISTRIBUTION AND STORAGE

115

each truck operates and the labor supplies depend on delivery
conditions. While it is usually admitted that in a short radius
of ten miles the teams, from a money standpoint, are the most
economical to operate, it is true that it is much easier to obtain
individual help to operate motor trucks than it is to drive teams.
The truck has the advantage of being able to perform the work
more satisfactorily in the heat of the summer and in the intense
cold of the winter season. In other words, a truck is a more
flexible unit and meets more of the conditions. For this reason
it gives better service to the trade. These considerations are

FIG. 29. A Tank Truck.

causing trucks to replace horses in most instances. The motor
truck takes up the delivery of oil where the railway, the water-
way and the pipe line leave off. Only when a station runs out
of a supply and it is impossible to deliver a new supply in time
by rail, is the motor truck called into use where the railroad
would otherwise be used. The type of truck used in hauling
from refineries to the central stations is a Sy2 or a 7^2-ton ca-
pacity, the size depending upon the road conditions and local
road regulations or city ordinances. The most economical unit
for hauling from a central station in the country or smaller cities

116 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

covering a mileage of 60 to 65 per day is a 2l/2 -ton truck, whereas
in the larger centers the 3^ -ton truck is the one mostly used,
covering a radius of 35 to 40 miles per day. In the delivery
of fuel oil in what is known as bulk deliveries, motor trucks of
the following capacities are advisable : 2^2 -ton truck, 650 gallons ;
3l/2 -ton truck, 1,000 to 1,200 gallons, depending on road condi-
tions; Sy2-ton truck, 1,350 to 1,500 gallons; 7>^-ton truck, 1,800
to 2,000 gallons. With the present road and bridge conditions
the 2,000-gallon tank is too large. On good roads and pavements
the larger capacities can be used successfully and economically.
During the war one or two concerns used tanks of this capacity
when the deliveries from refineries to central points were held
up by the congestion on the railroads.

In some cases where the tanks are in inaccessible locations,
it is necessary to deliver the oil to containers on a higher level
than the vehicle. In such cases a pump is usually installed upon
the truck which is operated by power delivered from the motor,
otherwise no special loading equipment is required in the handling
of oil. Delivery hours run from 7:00 a. m. to 6:00 p. m. In
some cases they may be a little earlier. Another advantage of
the motor truck is that it cuts down the number of hours a man
has to work, because it shortens the time necessary to make
deliveries of oil. It is very seldom that an old employe who has
driven a team for a number of years and is broken in on a motor
truck wishes to go back to the old type of vehicle. He finds the
truck an interesting study and takes much interest in and care
of it. It has been proved in most instances that the old time
horse driver, who is broken in and carefully instructed, makes
a much better motor truck driver than a professional chauffeur.
The motor truck occupies a prominent place in the delivery of
fuel oil, a place which cannot be filled by any other method of
delivery. The motor truck possesses the speed, capacity and en-
durance, regardless of weather or other conditions, and is far
more economical than any other method. In fact, the 'motor
truck generally proves to be the most economical unit to handle.
The saving effected by units of this character is usually reflected
in the ultimate cost to the consumer." Fig. 29 shows a motor
tank wagon.

CHAPTER VI

HEATING, STRAINING, PUMPING AND
REGULATING

For the most effective atomization all fuel oil should be
heated in order to increase its fluidity and all fuel oil below 20 de-
grees Baume gravity must be heated in order to insure the proper
flow of oil through the burners. Certain crude oils at the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere are of great viscosity, which
viscosity increases as the temperature gets lower. At 30° to
40° F., which is not an unusual outdoor temperature, the fluidity
of the oil is so slight that it is almost impossible to pump the oil
or to force it to the burner. It is therefore necessary where fuel
oil is to be used in regions which are subjected to severe winter
temperatures that there should be means for heating the oil so
that the oil may more readily flow to the pumps. The usual
manner of accomplishing this is not to attempt to heat the whole
tank or bunker of oil, but simply to heat the oil immediately
surrounding the suction pipe to the pumps. This can be easily
accomplished by placing a coil of a few turns of steam pipe
about the suction pipe. In all pipes intended for the transmission
of crude oil it is desirable that connections should be made to
them so that steam can be turned into the pipes after shutting
off the oil. These pipes can be thus cleaned by the heat and the
force of the blowing steam, and any deposited asphalts, paraffins,
or condensed hydrocarbons can be cleared out before the pipes
become choked so as to impair their efficiency. The heating of
the oil should be always recommended as an aid to secure better
operation of pumps and burners, but, this heating should never
be carried to such a degree of temperature as will cause de-
composition of the hydrocarbons of the oil. Heating fuel oil
above its flash point increases the fire hazard and should be
avoided.

One of the best methods of providing for uniform fluidity
throughout the system is to parallel the oil pipe lines with steam
lines. When this is done and when a suitable pre-heater is also
installed a uniform flow of oil is provided. Exhaust steam has
nearly as great a heat content as live steam and is usually used

117

118 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

for heating oil. The fluidity necessary to be obtained for perfect
atomization depends upon the capacity of the burner. Fig. 30
shows a temperature capacity curve for a mechanical oil burner.
In the case of oil as heavy as 10 to 12 degrees Baume' or lower,
a separate heater should be used with live steam and exhaust
steam.

Various types of heaters are on the market. The heater
shown in fig. 31 can be used with exhaust or live steam or with
both. The oil enters at the bottom and passes up through the
heater in a thin film as the oil passage is formed by the space
between two thin cylinders placed concentrically. Steam is ad-
mitted at the top, surrounds the outer cylinder, and also flows
into the inside of the inner cylinder thus keeping the oil sur-
rounded on all sides by a steam jacket. The oil travels up and
out the top while the steam enters at the top and exhaust from
the bottom so that the hot oil leaving the heater is always drawn
from that part of film nearest the hottest steam. The outer
steam space is made by a large-sized pipe of suitable length which
surrounds the outer cylinder mentioned above. This large pipe
is insulated by means of asbestos and magnesia pipe covering
which reduces the radiation loss from the sides of the heater.

Fig. 32 shows a spiral oil heater. The oil entering
this heater unit between the two shells takes a spiral
course upward to the space between the two shell heads from
whence it flows down through the seamless steel coil and out to
the discharge header. In the event of an operator closing the
inlet and outlet oil valves without cutting out the steam to heater,
thereby causing the dead oil in the unit to heat and expand to
a pressure which might create a rupture, a safety valve "A"
is provided for each unit and set to operate before an excessive
pressure can be attained. Steam is admitted and condensate
carried off as shown.

Fig. 33 shows the installation of pumps and heaters at the
City and County Hospital power plant, San Francisco.

When using air either at high or low pressure as a spray-
ing medium it is exceedingly desirable that the air be superheated
before passing to the spraying tip, as thereby a considerable gain
in efficiency can be anticipated.

Inasmuch as crude oils have been obtained from the earth

HEATING AND PUMPING

119

they necessarily carry more or less sand or grit. The more
viscous the oil the easier the sand and grit are held in suspension.
In any installation of an oil burning plant special provision should
be made for straining out all sand and foreign matter. Sand in
oil not only clogs the burner openings but also wears out the
small annular nozzles. Nearly all of the strainers inserted in oil
burning systems are simple in construction and are often formed
of a wire-gauze gasket set in the joints of the oil pipe. In order
to take out the strainer for cleaning, however, it is necessary
with such an installation to unbolt the joints of pipe and the

TEMPERATURE OF OIL, °F.

g i i § g

250

g «0

ft 400

FIG. 30. Temperature-Capacity Curve for Mechan-
ical Oil Burner. Texas crude oil (gravity, 18° B.,
flash point, 240° F.) used in a Peabody burner
producing a round flame at 200-pound pressure.

more satisfactory arrangement is to use some strainer of the type
shown in Fig. 34. Strainers of this type can be easily removed
without tools or wrenches. The wire-gauze used in strainers
should be made of wires of a width of mesh work equal to about
one-half the width of the oil orifice in the burner. In the best
practice a strainer is placed on each side of the oil pump, serving
the two purposes of preventing sand from entering the pump
and keeping any particles of old packing or other material from
the pump itself from going through the system into the burner.
Fig. 35 shows another type of strainer. By simply remov-
ing one cap screw the strainer can be withdrawn from the casing
and thoroughly cleaned.

120

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Any water entering an oil storage tank will settle to the
bottom of the tank. When the oil is drawn from a fixed outlet
at the tank bottom, this water will enter the system.

There is no practicable device that will directly separate the

FIG. 31.

Heater Used with Live or
Exhaust Steam.

(Courtesy of Tate,. Jones & Co., Inc.)

water from the oil. This separation can only be satisfactorily
effected by allowing the water to settle to the bottom of the tanks
by gravity. It therefore follows that if the suction to the oil
pumps are placed in the bottom of the tanks, water will be often
drawn when only oil is desired. A thread of water blown into

HEATING AND PUMPING

121

122 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

the oil burner effectually extinguishes the flame in the furnace,
and if oil does not soon follow the water, there may be difficulty
in relighting without introducing an outside flame.

With most burners it is desirable that a uniform pressure
should be maintained on the oil circuit to the burner. If it
were possible to keep the pumps automatically and perfectly
regulated, a uniform pressure could be secured. There are many
devices on the market which set out to secure this uniformity of
action. Oil-pressure regulators similar to those used as regula-
tors on steam mains have been tried, but in general have been
found to be unsatisfactory, owing to the fact that the moving
parts become clogged with sand or hydrocarbon. A so-called
oil pressure regulator used as a single device is seldom satis-
factory. A reliable plan is to provide the oil chamber of the
pump with what would correspond to an air chamber on the
water pump, or to provide a separate tank or chamber in which
a constant air pressure is maintained on top of the oil by addi-
tional means. There are a number of designs of apparatus on
the market which contain this feature of an oil air chamber,
and corresponding regulating apparatus, which have given satis-
faction. Many of these installations contain automatic arrange-
ments whereby the change of level of the oil in the chamber
effects a control of the steam supply to the oil pump, and thus
affords an automatic method of controlling the quantity of the
oil supply to the burner system. In all oil installations it is very
important that the control of the oil pump and of the steam to
the burner or of the compressed air, where air is used, should
be so arranged that in case the delivery of any one of these fluids
is reduced, or interrupted, a corresponding reduction or shutting
off should be effected in the supply of the other elements. It
is especially important that oil should in no case continue to be
forced or pumped to the burners when the steam or air required
for spraying is shut off, as in such an event the unsprayed oil is
liable to flood in upon the hot brickwork and a furnace explosion
is sooner or later likely to occur. The underwriters' regulations
in many cases specifically require that in the event of the stoppage
of the oil flow to the burner all the other functions shall be
caused automatically to cease. These are precautions dictated
by considerations of ordinary safety, and various applications of
valves and devices are in the market whereby these results can
be attained.

HEATING AND PUMPING

123

124

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Fig. 36 shows a specially designed pumping system for sup-
plying fuel oil in uniform quantity and at even pressure. It
consists of a duplex pump and receiver mounted on a cast-iron
drip pan supported at a convenient height on cast-iron legs. The
pump takes the oil directly from the storage tanks and at set
pressure automatically forces it through the receiver to the

FIG. 34. A Simple Oil Strainer.
(Courtesy G. E. Witt Co.)

burners, through suitable pipe lines, the machine serving one or
any number of burners within its capacity with equal uniformity.
The receiver contains a coil of pipe, which can be connected with
the exhaust of the pump, heating the oil, if necessary, through
a medium of water. A special governor is furnished which auto-
matically stops and starts the pump as the pressure in the receiver
rises and falls. The receiver is specially equipped with the glass

FIG. 35. Another Type of Strainer.

gauge, pressure gauge, thermometer, etc. This pumping system
is constructed both of single and double type. In the double
type one pump is operated at a time, and the other is held in
reserve in case of breakdown. Fig. 37 shows another type of
pumping system.

HEATING AND PUMPING

125

A pulsometer should be installed in the line between pump
and furnace so as to prevent variation of pressure due to piston
action. For a 3" feed line, a 15" pipe 5' long with a provision
at the bottom for the removing of sediment will be found bene-
ficial. Fig. 38 shows a pulsometer.

Mr. C. D. Stewart writing in Oil Newsa states as follows :

FIG. 36. A Modern Pumping System.
(Courtesy W. N. Best, Inc.)

"On the Pacific Coast where oil burning was first practiced to
any large degree automatic apparatus has been devised and de-
veloped since the use of fuel oil began, and today most of the
plants in that territory are equipped with mechanical oil stokers.
Automatic systems are firing boilers at high efficiency in plants

a. Oil News, November 20, 1919, page 12.

126

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

of nearly every character, including power stations, sugar re-
fineries, canneries, spinning mills, smelters, ferry boats, river
boats, etc. It may be of interest to describe a stoking system
operating on the step principles and providing for the accurate
control of the three (3) elements of combustion in every step.

FIG. 37. Another Type of Pumping System.
(Courtesy of Staples & Pfeiffer.)

Atomizing steam, fuel oil and drafts are changed in each step
of the fire in proportions that give the highest possible CCX
throughout the entire range. Line drawings, as shown, illustrate
the apparatus as applied to these installations.

Fig. 39 is a diagrammatic view of the burner regulator, one
of which is applied to each burner.

HEATING AND PUMPING 127

Fig. 40 is a diagrammatic view of the Master Controller
Set, controlling the entire plant, whether one or fifty boilers.

Fig. 41 is a cross sectional view of the Interlocking Damper
Device, the number per plant varying according to the work to
be done.

Briefly, the operation of this apparatus is as follows :

Boiler steam pressure present at all times above the dia-
phragms of the Master Controller Set causes it to function so as
to step up the fires in case of a drop in steam pressure and to

FTG. 38. A Pulsometer.
(Courtesy W. N. Best, Inc.)

step down the fires in case of a rise in steam pressure. Fuel oil,
which is under pressure to the burners, is also used as the actu-
ating medium to perform the work of opening and closing the
oil and steam valves to the burners and closing the dampers.
Weights, as a safety measure, are used to open the dampers.
The Master Controller Set, acting under the influence of boiler
steam pressure, admits fuel oil pressure to the interlocking
damper devices to close the dampers and releases it from the
damper devices to permit the opening of the dampers by the
weights. The Interlocking Damper Device was so named because
of -its construction, which is an application of the principle used

128

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

in railway switch and interlocking plants. In the performance
of its functions a step up in the fire cannot be brought about
until the dampers are open an amount that will give correct com-
bustion for that step of the fire, and a step down in the fire is
made before the dampers close an amount to give the correct
combustion for a lower fire.

The individual burner regulator, as illustrated and described
in this article, provides for a three (3) stage fire on each burner,

FIG. 39. The Burner Regulator.

however, more or fewer steps can be provided where conditions
make it desirable. The regulator consists of three main portions :
One portion comprises fuel oil and atomizing steam orifice valves,
which regulate the amount of fuel and atomizing steam that flows
to each burner in each stage of the fire. Another portion com-
prises plunger valves which govern two stages of the fire. A
third portion comprises actuating pistons which open and close
the plunger valves. The three stages of the fire are known as
pilot, medium and maximum fires. The pilot fire is not auto-
matic and, therefore, not governed by a plunger valve. The size

HEATING AND PUMPING

129

of this fire is determined by the opening of the pilot orifice valves
which consists of one oil and one steam valve. The medium fire

FIG. 40. The Master Controller.

orifice valves govern the size of the fire in the second stage, but
no flow takes place by these orifice valves until the medium

130 FUEL OIL IX INDUSTRY

plunger valve is unseated. The maximum fire orifice valves do
the same for the maximum fire and the maximum fire plunger
valve starts and stops the flow by the orifice valves. When the
installation is completed, each step of the fire is set according
to the needs of the plant and the drafts adjusted to give the
maximum efficiency in each stage, and with the fluctuation in
steam pressure, the apparatus will function day after day without
variation in efficiency. The Master Controller Set is designed
to maintain steam pressure within 3 Ibs. of the maximum at all
times. The Master Controller, as illustrated, comprises two (2)
portions, but in a number of large power plants, the Master Con-
troller Set comprises four (4) portions and the plant so piped
that a group of boilers sufficient to carry the normal load of the
plant is on one portion of the Master Controller and these boilers
are fired at their maximum rating. Other boilers are connected
in series with the Master which functions only in case an ab-
normal load develops and these boilers are used only for the peak
load. In this way still higher efficiency is realized by keeping a
certain group of boilers operating normally at their designed
capacity. There are a number of applications to this principle
which have been made on the Pacific Coast due to the flexibility
of the unit principle. Still another refinement that is interesting
has been worked out in one or two large power plants which are
used as standby plants to pick up the electric load in case of an
interruption on the hydro lines. When this interruption comes, it
is necessary to have the steam plant on the line in the shortest
possible time, as every second counts. Accordingly the Master
Controller Set, instead of being connected to the steam pressure
at the boiler, is tapped into the steam mains at the turbine, with
the result that the instant the load comes on the turbines, the
Master Controller feels the steam drop instantly and has the fires
under the boilers before the steam gauges have recorded any
variation. As a result, one of these plants has gone from zero
to maximum load instantly with a maximum drop in steam pres-
sure of only six pounds."

Fig. 42 shows a fuel oil pump set controlled by a spring-
control diaphragm regulator.

Fig. 43 shows a fuel oil pumping, heating and regulating
system for power boilers.

HEATING AND PUMPING

131

1. Body

2. Cylinder

3. Cylinder Cap

4. 14" Union

5. Piston

6. Piston Nut

7. Piston Rod

8. Piston Valve

9. Piston Valve Stop

10. Spring

11. Bonnet

12. Bonnet Nut

13. Stop Guide

14. Stop

15. Sprocket Chain

16. Sprocket
18. Gland

T. 9
FIG. 41. THE INTERLOCKING DAMPER DEVICE.

CHAPTER VII
ARRANGEMENT OF BOILER FURNACES

The only object of burning fuel under a boiler is to convey
heat to the water inside the boiler. Any furnace arrangement
which allows the heat provided by the combustion of the fuel to
escape up the stack is an inefficient arrangement. It is, of course,
impossible to attain 100 percent efficiency in the burning of fuel
in furnaces. It should be emphasized, however, that the furnace
is simply a means of transferring to the water the heat units
contained in the fuel.

In burning fuel oil under boilers, all of the oil should be con-
sumed before it reaches the boiler surface because the impinge-
ment of the flame upon the boiler surface retards or arrests com-
bustion. Practically all of the modern oil burners introduce the
oil into the furnace in finely divided particles for the purpose of
shortening the duration of the burning and the oil spray is thor-
oughly mixed with air before it is raised to the furnace tempera-
ture. Careful attention to the design of the furnace is of much
more importance than is the selection of a burner.

Incandescent brick work around the flame is, of course, de-
sirable, but in many cases a satisfactory compromise is effected by
using a flat flame burning close to the white-hot floor through
which air is steadily flowing. Even in a cold furnace a good
burner will maintain a suspended clear and smokeless flame. The
path of the flame should be such that heat is uniformly dis-
tributed over the boiler heat-absorbing surface without direct
flame impingement. The linings of furnaces should be kept tight
and there should be no openings except those necessary for the in-
troduction of the mixture of fuel oil and air. Improper insulation
results in radiation of heat from a furnace. Each square foot
of exposed wall or arch surface represents a loss of heat through
radiation. The refractories used should be the best obtainable,
of uniform thickness, and as mechanically perfect as possible.
Under ordinary firing the first pass of the boiler should be located
directly over the furnace in order that the heating surface may
absorb the radiant heat from the incandescent fire brick. Gen-
erally speaking, it is not desirable to have fire brick arches and

132

ARRANGEMENT OF BOILER FURNACES 133

target walls because they localize the heat with a resultant burn-
ing out of tubes or bagging of shell on account of the limited
overload capacity.

FIG. 42. Fuel Oil Pump Set, Controlled by a Spring-Control Diaphragm.
(Courfesy Fisher Governor Company)

The velocity of the gases in their passage through the fur-
nace should not be so high that complete combustion of the oil
does not take place. The problem of obtaining complete com-

134 PUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

bustion is comparatively simple. Sufficient oxygen must be sup-
plied to burn the hydrocarbons contained in the fuel oil and excess
air must be avoided.

The following statement in the Report of the U. S. Naval
"Liquid Fuel'' Board gives concisely the fundamentals of fur-
nace design : "A liquid fuel such as crude petroleum requires an
ample combustion space, more indeed than does almost any other
sort of combustible material. The relative dimensions — length,
breadth, and depth — of the combustion spaces are of minor im-
portance. The primary requisite is volume, and that alone, pro-
vided all parts of it are traversed by the same quantity of gas
in a given time ; in other words, provided the gases are not short-
circuited through or across some parts of the space to the neglect
of others. Thus, if a current of gas flows through a cubic foot
of space at the rate of 1 cubic foot per second, each particle
of gas will spend one second within the space, regardless of
whether the space is long and narrow or short and wide. In a
long and narrow space there is less chance of the gases taking
a short cut, and herein lies the sole utility of introducing baffles in
the combustion space. Indeed, there is a strong objection to their
introduction arising from the fact that the narrower the passage
the greater will be the velocity of flow and the greater the distance
to be traversed. Since the resistance that the draft pressure must
ovrcome is proportional to the square of the velocity of flow
and to the length of the passage, it follows, that for a given
volume of combustion space the draft resistance will be propor-
tional to the cube of its length. The advantages are, therefore,
in favor of the combustion space of large cross section and short
in the direction of the flow of the gases.

As to the difficulty arising from the tendency of the gases to
follow the path of least resistance and to flow, for instance, with
too great velocity at the center of the space and too little at the
sides, that can always be checked by means of retarders placed
so as to equalize the velocity over the cross section of the current.
The difficulty, therefore, reduces itself to the mere trouble of
finding out where to place the retarders, and this is obviously a
question to be settled by experiment. What is true in this matter
of the combustion space is also largely true of the tube space.
The process of diffusion, so important to combustion, continues
after the combustion is complete, and must have a good deal to do
with the rate at which heat is abstracted from the gases by the

ARRANGEMENT OF BOILER FURNACES

135

136 FUEL OIL IX IXDUSTRY

heating surfaces. As affecting the necessary amount of draft
pressure, a tube space short in the direction of flow of the gases
and of large cross-sectional area is better than one of small area
and long in the direction of flow ; but on account of the lesser
velocity of flow through the short space the gases within it will
be less thoroughly mixed by eddying, and the importance of ar-
ranging the heating surfaces so as to permeate all parts of the
space will be increased."

FIG. 44. Application of Baffle Wall.

The following essential requirements govern boiler and fur-
nace design, according to the U. S. Bureau of Minesa: "(1) The
heating surfaces must be arranged in such a way that the gas
passages are long and of small cross section so as to give a small
hydraulic mean depth, the hydraulic mean depth being defined
as "the quotient of the area of the cross section of the gas stream
divided by the perimeter formed by the boiler heating surface
touched by the< gases." An increase of the ratio of the length

a. Efficiency in the Use of Oil Fuel, Wadsworth, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Page 15.

ARRANGEMENT OF TOILER FURNACES 137

of gas path to the hydraulic mean depth of the cross section of
the path increases the efficiency of the boiler, because the hot
molecules of gas will strike the heating surface oftener and
will have to travel smaller distances to reach this surface. The

FIG. 45. Eliminating Dead Spaces with Baffles.

amount of heat given up to this surface by a given volume of
gases will therefore be greater, and both boiler and furnace ef-
ficiency will be higher. This ratio can be increased, either by
increasing the length of the gas path, or by reducing the hydraulic

FIG. 4fi. An Inclined Baffle.

mean depth. The length of the gas path can be increased by
either increasing the length of the boiler or by placing baffles and
thus putting parts of the heating surface in series with one an-
other. (2) The heating surface should asee" as much of the fur-
nace as possible in order to increase the amount of heat imparted

138

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

to it. This effect should not be so pronounced that the heat will
be radiated to the heating surface too rapidly, for the furnace
temperature would then be reduced below that required to support
combustion. (3) The combustion space of the furnace must be
so constructed that the burning particles of fuel shall be com-
pletely consumed before they can touch the relatively cold boiler
surface ; also this space should enlarge in the direction of the

FIG. 47. An Oil-Burner Under a Vertical Tubular

Boiler.
(Courtesy of John Foerst and Sons.)

flow of the heated and expanding gases, as the capacity of a fur-
nace for burning oil is limited almost entirely by the furnace
volume. The furnace should be lined with refractory brick,
which when very hot radiate heat and assist the combustion of
the fuel."

Mr. K. L. Martin, writing in Oil News,a discusses furnace

a Oil News, April 20, 1920, p. 17.

ARRANGEMENT OF BOILER FURNACES 139

design for burning fuel oil as follows : "An authority on oil burn-
ing recently stated that the selection of a burner, while important,
was secondary to the proper design of the furnace. Nine-tenths
of the trouble experienced in the installation of oil burners could
be avoided if the proper attention were paid to getting the com-
bustion space large enough and to locating the walls opposite the
burner far enough away so the flame does not strike them. A
study of the best stationary boiler practice using steam atomizing
furnaces would indicate that a ratio of one cubic foot of furnace
volume should be provided for every boiler horsepower to be de-
veloped. In other words, a 500-horsepower boiler which is ex-

FIG. 48. Oil Burning System for Scotch Marine Boilers.
(Courtesy of Vulcan Engineering Co.)

pected to run at 200 percent of rating should have approximately
1,000 cubic feet of space below the tubes. Furnaces have unques-
tionably been operated with proportionately smaller combustion
space but the constant tendency of all furnace design, not only
for oil but for powdered coal, and modern stokers is decidedly
for larger combustion space.

This has resulted in higher boiler settings, fourteen feet from
the floor to the bottom of the front header being common, and in
the moving back of the bridge wall to a point ten, eleven, or even
more feet from the front wall. As installations are frequently

140

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

made in boilers where the height is fixed and usually too low,
the most common way to get the necessary furnace volume is to
move back the bridge wall. Until recently this has made neces-
sary the laying of a horizontal shelf of T-tile on the lower row
of tubes to joint the old cross baffle with the top of the bridge
wall in its new position. This practice had several objections :

1. The T-tile must necessarily be small in order to get them
in place and the resulting mosaic is full of open joints through

^^mmn

FIG. 49. Application of Oil-Burning System to the Stirling Watertube

Boiler.
(Courtesy of Hammel Oil Burner Company.)

which a quantity of hot gases short circuit directly from the fur-
nace chamber to the third pass and escape up the stack.

2. Those gases which do not escape travel along underneath
the baffle until they meet the elbow formed by the horizontal and
vertical baffles. The tubes at this point are already exposed to
the radiant heat of the flame and to the gases rising directly from
the front of the furnace, and the resulting concentration of the
heat is often too much for the tubes and failures are frequent.

3. The horizontal baffle forms a shelf on which the soot is
deposited and while this deposit is not as troublesome as in coal

ARRANGEMENT OF BOILER FURNACES 141

burning boilers, it still has to be reckoned with. These troubles
have been remedied by the design of a baffle wall so constructed
that, while absolutely gas tight, it can be built at any desired in-
clination and the horizontal baffle entirely eliminated. One of the
first applications is shown in fig. 44. This boiler was originally
coal burning and was converted to oil burning in a manner all too
frequent — by taking out the grates, laying a checker work and
inserting a couple of burners through the front wall. At the
end of six months they had replaced over a hundred tubes, the

FIG. 50. Oil Burning System Applied to Return-Tubular Boiler.
(Courtesy of Staples and Pfeiffer.)

remainder were bent so .that the tubes in some rows were down
on the tube in the next, the furnace linings had been replaced
several times and complaints from the authorities as to the smoke
were insistent. Neither the ratings nor the economies anticipated
had been obtained. Realizing the opportunity for better design
made possible by the new type of baffle wall, the bridge wall was
moved back to a point ten feet from the front wall so that the
flame no longer played upon it. The horizontal shelf and right
angle baffle was replaced by a long inclined baffle wall starting
from the top of the wall and making an angle of 45° with the

142 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

tubes. At the same time the floor of the furnace was lowered
42 inches.

This furnace has now been in continuous service for nearly
three years and the original linings are in the furnace. No tubes
have been renewed except about three months ago. A few of the
worst of the bent ones left in when the change was made, with
the expectation they would soon burn out, were replaced. High
ratings and satisfactory economy have been realized. No repairs
to the baffles have been necessary. It will be noted that the wide

FIG. 51. A Babcock and WMcox Oil Furnace, Talented.

open throat of the first pass gives every opportunity for the
radiant heat from the flame and the reflected heat from the fur-
nace wa'lls and floor to strike the tubes. The wide opening also
means a low velocity for the gases and abundant time for their
heat to be transmitted through the steel walls of the tubes to the
water inside.

The gases are cooled as they pass by the tubes and naturally
shrink in volume and tend to draw away from the front header,

ARRANGEMENT OF BOILER FURNACES 143

leaving a dead space at its top. The inclined wall contracts the
space as the gases cool, so that they need every cubic inch of space
to get through and every square inch of heating surface is flooded
with hot gas. This action is continued through the second and
third passes. The result is shown in fig. 45.

In another installation a low setting had been used in connec-
tion with coal fires. Before the existence of the new baffle was
known, the bridge wall was moved back, a horizontal shelf built
and a back shot burner installed. At the end of 54 days they
had been unable at any time to develop more than rating for the
boiler, and they had lost 12 tubes. The inclined baffle (fig. 46)
was installed in a similar boiler alongside the first as an experi-
ment and at the end of 57 days no tubes had been replaced and
they had carried a load averaging 200% of rating. As this meant
a development of 100,000 more horsepower per year per boiler,
the first boiler was immediately rebaffled and has since given
equally good results."

The application of fuel oil burners to any type of furnace is
easily performed. Fig. 47 shows an oil burner under a vertical
tubular boiler. Fig. 48 shows an oil-burning system for Scotch
Marine boilers. Fig. 49 shows an oil-burning system applied to
the Stirling water-tube boiler and fig. 50 to a return-tubular boiler.
Fig. 51 shows a Babcock and Wilcox Oil Furnace, patented.

CHIMNEY DESIGN

The same procedure is gone through in the design for stacks
for oil fuel firing as for coal burning. The required draft in the
furnace at maximum overload in each case is obtained by the
necessary height and the maximum volume of gases generated
determines the proportion of the area of the stack. When coal is
burned there is seldom any danger of too much draft, but the
economy of oil-fired furnaces is greatly affected by excessive
draft and for this reason the various draft losses through the
boiler and breaching must be estimated very carefully. A bed of
coal on the grate occasions loss of draft, but with oil fuel this
loss is negligible and in addition on account of the smaller volume
of gases discharged per boiler horsepower hour, the pressure loss
through the boiler will be less than with coal. To a more or less
degree the action of the burner itself acts as a forced draft. For
this reason both the height and area of a stack for any given

144

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

capacity of boiler will be less for oil firing than for coal firing.
Mr. C. R. Weymoutha has prepared the most authoritative table
for proportioning stacks for oil fuel. The data prepared by Mr.
Weymouth are given in Table 14.

TABLE 14.— STACK SIZES FOR OIL FUEL

Stack Diameter,

Height in Feet Above Boiler-Room Floor

100

120

140

160

161

206

233

270

306

315

208

253

295

331

363

387

251

303

343

399

488

467

295

359

403

474

521

557

399

486

551

645

713

760

519

634

720

847

933

1000

657

800

913

1073

1193

1280

813

993

1133

1333

1480

1593

980

1206

1373

1620

1807

1940

1373

1587

1933

2293

2560

2767

1833

2260

2587

3087

3453

3740

108

2367

2920

3347

4000

4483

4867

120

3060

3660

4207

5040

5660

6160

Figures represent nominal rated horsepower; sizes as given are good for 50 per cent
overloads. Based on centrally located stacks, short direct flues and ordinary operating
efficiencies.

aTrans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 34.

CHAPTER VIII
TYPES OF FUEL OIL BURNERS

The first recorded attempt to use oil as a fuel was in 1861,
when Werner, a mechanic employed in a refinery in Russia,
burned the residuum obtained from the refinery in an open fur-
nace. The desirability of a liquid fuel was obvious and subse-
quent to Werner's attempt, each year produced its quota of
designs for oil burners until at the present time there are on file
in the United States, British and Continental patent offices several
thousand designs of oil fuel burners. Very few of these patents
were designed in accordance with the fundamental principles
which should underlie such devices. The main function of a
burner is to atomize the oil thoroughly so that it is broken up
into very small particles forming a mist in which each particle
of oil is surrounded with an envelope of air ready for immediate
and complete combustion. The thousands of designs of fuel oil
burners which differ from each, other in minor respects may be
divided into three major classifications:

(1) Vapor burners.

(2) Mechanical burners.

(3) Spray burners.

VAPOR BURNERS

The report of the U. S. N. "Liquid Fuel Board" states that
the impossibility of successfully operating burners designed on the
principle of superheating the oil to a point bordering on gasifica-
tion, has been both theoretically and practically demonstrated.
The conclusions in regard to such burners expressed by Com-
modore Isherwood many years ago holds true now as then. The
liquid oil has, in all cases, to be transformed into oil gas before
it can be burned. This transformation can be made by the direct
application externally of heat to the liquid, but the temperature
of the oil on the vaporizing surface is higher than the temperature
required to decompose it, the result being deposition of solid
carbon in the form of coke, which soon fills the vaporizing vessels
and renders them useless. This coke is frequently so hard that
cold chisels can scarcely detach it, and if thrown into a fire even

145

146 FUEL OIL IX INDUSTRY

in small fragments it burns with excessive slowness, like graphite.
Whenever the vaporizing vessel is subjected to a high tempera-
ture, like that of a boiler furnace, the decomposition of the oil and
deposition of coke go rapidly on, so that in the course of a few
hours any vessel of practicable size is filled by it. All apparatus
exposed to anything like furnace or flame temperature will inevita-
bly fail from these causes in the future, as they have in the past.

MECHANICAL BURNERS

Among the thousands of oil burners which have been de-
signed there are many which affect vaporization by entirely
mechanical means. Since the early days of oil burning, various
plans have been proposed to effect vaporization by entirely me-
chanical means. Early inventions contemplated the use of oil
running over surfaces exposed to the action of flames and the
burning taking place directly on the exposed surface of the oil.

FIG. 52. A Mechanical Oil Burner.

All such plans proved decidedly inefficient owing to the fact that
the air supply could never be brought to the burning surfaces of
oil in quantities sufficient to effect complete combustion. Conse-
quently all mechanical burners operating on that plan have been
long since abandoned. The next field of invention that gave
indication of success was to design burners in which the oil would
be sprayed positively by mechanical action. Mechanical action
can be resorted to, for the purpose of spraying oil by two general
methods : First, to force oil outward under considerable pressure
from a properly formed orifice, by the action of a special pump ;
second, by whirling or flinging the oil outward from a rapidly
revolving mass or burner head. Figure 52 shows a mechanical
burner which can be regulated very closely by means of the ad-
justing rod. With all mechanical burners the tips are required to
be very small in the diameter of orifice, usually not over •£% of an
inch. The objection to burners of this type, as compared with

TYPES OP FUEL OIL BURNERS 147

the stcam-atomization type, is the equipment required. Also,
the general conical shape of the flame and the tendency toward
blast action frequently requires change in the furnace to insure
successful use. Professor Jiles W. Haney of the Department
of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nebraska, writing in
Oil Xews,a has the following to say concerning mechanical burn-
ers : "A mechanical burner atomizes the oil by giving it a cen-
trifugal throw through small slots tangentially placed in the
burner. The air is fed in around the burner so that it assists in
breaking up the oil. The oil, heated almost to its flash point, is
pumped to the burner under pressure and as it passes a central
spindle, spirally grooved, a rotary motion is given to the oil caus-
ing it to fly into a spray by centrifugal force on issuing from the
nozzle. The particles of oil are burned when they come in con-
tact with the necessary air to effect combustion. This type of
burner has the prime advantage of returning the steam used by
the pumps and healers as feed water to the boilers. The steam
used for operating it is much less than that for other burners,
ranging from Y\ percent to 1 percent of the total steam generated.
These considerations have made its use in marine work quite
general, and in stationary plants where feed water is an important
item. The ease of control is another important advantage of the
mechanical burner. For a given boiler capacity a greater number
of these burners are installed than in the case of steam atomizing
burners ; the number of burners in operation varying as the load
on the boiler. This scheme can be worked very satisfactorily
since each burner has its individual air supply, which also can be
shut off with the burner. This cannot be done when the main
air supply comes through a checkerwork at the bottom of the
furnace. Another control method is that of changing the pressure
of the oil supplies to the burner. A good burner will atomize
moderately heavy oil with an oil pressure varying from 30 to 200
pounds per square inch ; then since the rate of flow of the oil dis-
charged through a given orifice is proportional to the pressure on
the oil at the orifice, a low rate of flow will occur with a low
pressure and a high rate of flow will result with a high pressure.
The pumping equipment can be connected up so that it will auto-
matically control the rate of flow of the oil to the burners as the
load varies."

a. Oil News, February 20, 1920, page 16.

148

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

SPRAY BURNERS

In spray burners the oil is atomized by a blast of steam or
compressed air. The most efficient burner for any purpose is the
simplest possible piece of mechanism using the least possible
amount of steam or air for atomizing purposes. An analysis of
the various types of spray burners made by the U. S. N. "Liquid
Fuel Board" shows that five general classes will cover practically

Drooling
burner.

Atomizer
burner.

Ill

Chamber
burner.

Injector
burner.

[T Projector
' burner.

FIG. 53. Classes of Spray Burners.

all the main features of construction. These five classes of oil
burners may be thus grouped :

1. Drooling burner.

2. Atomizer burner.

3. Chamber burner.

4. Injector burner.

5. Projector burner.

These five classes are shown by fig. 53, in which each burner
is pared down to its very simplest elements of construction, leav-

TYPES OF FUEL OIL BURNERS 149

ing out all unnecessary features of manufacture or detail which
might be regarded as merely accessory.

1. Drooling burner. — The name selected for this burner,
while perhaps unusual, best expresses its function as seen from
the diagram; the oil simply oozes out, or properly "drools" out,
at the orifice over and on to the steam jet. In this case the drool-
ing oil is simply carried away on a jet of flaring steam. The
action is supposed to be as follows : As the steam issues forth it
expands within the layer or film of oil which is being carried into
the air by the fire box. It may be thought that this rather rough
method of effecting vaporization would hardly be possible or
satisfactory; yet as large numbers of these burners have been
and are in actual use, they can not be regarded as crude or unsat-
isfactory.

2. The Atomizer burner. — In this burner the oil is brought
through an orifice from which it is swept off by a brush of steam
or air. It is, in short, a principle made use of in an ordinary
cologne sprayer. This form of spraying or atomizing is a very
old invention, and its capabilities for spraying into a fine mist
have long been appreciated.

3. Chamber burner. — In this burner the oil and steam are
more or less mingled within the body of the burner and pass out
from the tip or nozzle as a mixture, and then, owing to the ex-
pansion of the steam, the oil is rapidly broken into minute
particles. Burners of this type are simple in construction and
have been carried through a large range of design.

4. Injector burner. — Burners of this type are analogous
to the injector often used for boiler feeding and similar purposes.
Here the steam and oil rising, each through its own passage,
mingle within cone-shaped passages, and as a mixture passes
through a contracted nozzle, and then outward through a reversed
flaring cone. Burners designed on these lines have the principle
common to injectors in general, that they can draw or suck the
oil to them and force the mixture of steam and oil outward at
considerable velocity. Burners of this type have been in use
for forty years or more on the railroads of Russia and have be-
come with that nation what might be regarded as a standard type.

5. Projector burners. — In burners of this type the oil is
pumped to the oil orifice and from there is caught by a passing
gust of steam and blown off. This might be regarded as a sub-

FUEL OIL IN IXDUS'/'RY

classification of Xo. 2, the atomizer burner, except for the fact
that the brush of steam is located some distance from the oil
orifice, and this sweeping brush of steam, as usually constructed,

Basic section of drooling burner.

Straight shot burners*

Long slot burner.

Fan-tailed burners.

Rose burners.

FIG. 54. Possible Modifications of the Drooler Burner.

is arranged to entrain a certain amount of air further to aid in
spraying and in combustion.

By changing the pressure on the atomizing medium or by
some slight variation of construction a long or short flame of
special advantage for some particular purpose, may be produced

TYPES OF OIL FUEL BURNERS 151

in the first four of the types described above. As an example,
the possible modifications of the drooling burner are shown in
fig. 54. In this illustration the first sketch shows the basic form
of the drooling burner. This subdivides into four special classes
designated as A, B, C, and D. In form A is shown the drooling
burner made in its simplest possible form, the upper view show-
ing simply two drilled holes, the larger for oil and the smaller
for steam, while the lower view shows two pipes in a double
T-elbow, the larger pipe being for oil and the smaller for steam.
Burners have often been made in this exceedingly elementary
form, and will give results without any further recourse to mech-
anism. For convenience, this subdivision A is termed as
"straight shot burners," due to the fact that the flame formed
will have considerable length. In form B the basic section of
the drooling burner is developed into a class which gives two long
slots. In this form a large number of burners have been con-
structed, and in another part of this report results of tests are
given on the Santa Fe burner, which has been largely used on a
railroad of that name. In this simple form of a box-shaped cast-
ing these burners have gained a wide use, especially for railroad
work. The construction is of course crude, but the results from
a practical standpoint have been quite satisfactory, due to the fact
that there are no complicated parts, and it is almost impossible
to choke up any of the openings even with quite a dirty oil.
Where burners are required to use a very heavy oil or residuum,
or even a tar, these burners will always operate. This form B,
which, for convenience, has been termed the long-slot burner, can
be developed into the additional form C, or a fan-tailed burner.
In form C there are two burners which can be devised. The first
form, in which the fan-tailed effect spreads through but a small
arc of a circle, and the second form, in which the fan-tailed effect
is extended so as to cover the arc of the entire circle. The first
form will cover a large amount of surface in a wide or square
firebox, while with the second form the burner can be placed
in the center of a grate and the flame will extend outward in the
form of a continuous sheet and cover the entire firebox or grate
area, such uses being desirable, for example, in the fire box of
vertical boilers, such as fire engines, etc. The last form or
modification, form D, can be developed from the basic section of
this drooling burner by conceiving that the section is revolved
around an axis parallel with the burner axis. By revolving the

152 FUEL OIL IX IXDUSTRY

section around an axis on the steam side there will be derived a
burner of the style shown in the upper part of the pair of form
D, or by revolving the basic section around an axis near the
oil side we get a form of burner shown as the lower one. Either
of these two burners, while apparently very different in form
from the basic section, yet are nothing more or less than a devel-
opment of the original type. Burners of this style should prob-
ably only be used where very heavy consumption of oil is required.
In heavy metallurgical operations, brick kilns, and where a large
volume of flame is desired such burners have a wide field of
usefulness.

Practically all of the basic types can be further modified by
special design of their tips or orifice, thus leading to still greater
variety and often to greater improvement in their spraying qual-
ities. These modifications of tips can be reduced to a series of
classes independent of the other possible mechanical arrangements
of the burners. Fig. 55 shows types of burner tips. Form 1 :
The design of the tip is in itself a matter of much moment, as
the configuration of the tip edges has a very important physical
effect on the formation of the spray, and whether the material
which it is intended to spray is forced through by steam, com-
pressed air, or even by the effect of its own pressure supplied by
a pump, the edge over which the spray last passes has a deter-
mining effect on the state of subdivision of the spray. In form 1
is represented an ordinary nozzle with a sharpened edge at the
point of exit. If a proper angle is selected for this edge, and the
edge itself is well sharpened, the outgoing stream instead of pass-
ing out in a straight line, as from a hose nozzle, is caused to
diverge, and if divergence ensues, of course there follows an
expansion in the volume of the outgoing liquid which causes a
condition of more or less subdivision of the particles of the fluid.
In form 2 is shown a design of orifice in which this effect is
heightened by introducing a cone in the center of the conical
orifice. The physical reason why this increased divergence is
secured is due to the fact that the cone takes the place of any
streams of oil which in the first case had the tendency to travel
in the straight lines of the solid core of fluid. All the lines of
fluid traveling down the cone surface meet in collision at the edge
and tip of the cone and rapidly expand owing to the pressure
which was behind them. In form 3 there is again indicated the
same type of sharpened cone-shaped orifice, but outside of this is

TYPES OF OIL FUEL BURNERS

153

placed a diverging cone upon which the outgoing spray strikes and
receives a greater amount of divergence than the orifice edges
would alone have produced. This diverging cone is usually
placed with its stem extending within the orifice, although at the
right of the diagram is shown a case where the diverging cone is
supported from the outside. The amount of divergence effected

Spraying
from a sharp
edge.

Spraying
by centrifu-
gal action
by tangen-
tial inward
delivery.

VI.

Sprayirtg
by ball noz-
zle.

VII.

Spraying
by- pepper-
box nozzle

FIG. 55. Types of Burner Tips.

by this cone can be controlled to any extent by the position or
shape of the diverging surface of the cone. In form 4 there is
shown an orifice similar to form 1, but increased divergence of
the cone of spray is obtained by circulating the fluid in a rotary
manner before issuing from the sharpened orifice, the physical
result of which is that as soon as the fluid leaves the orifice the
effect of centrifugal action is manifested to fling the oil tangent-

154 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

ially outward to some distance. In the diagram, as shown, this
centrifugal effect is obtained by passing the fluid through spiral
passages. Form 5 represents the original style of orifice, but the
casing is so shaped as to obtain the rotational effect of the pre-
vious tip by admitting the fluid tangentially to the interior of the
chamber. The effect on the resulting cone or spray is the same
as in the previous example. Form 6 : The type of nozzle is
changed by inserting a ball in the outgoing current of spray, thus
mechanically breaking up the action by requiring the spray to
strike the ball, this being nothing more or less than the old
familiar type of the dancing ball, long made familiar in water
nozzles and pneumatic nozzles as a curiosity. Its effectiveness as
a spraying agent is probably no greater or as great as a well-
designed and proportioned orifice of form 3. Form 7 represents
a class widely different from any of the preceding, which for lack
of any other properly designative term might be called the
"pepper-box nozzle." Its effectiveness for a certain class of burn-
ers may be made very great, but it always suffers under the great
disadvantage of a multitude of small holes, which are exceedingly
liable to become choked up by foreign matter or by the hydrocar-
bons formed at the tip of a burner while in action.

It is understood, of course, that in the description of types of
burners just given either steam or air may be used as the atom-
izing agent. Steam is generally employed for stationary boilers
and locomotives. When steam is used as the atomizing agent no
auxiliary apparatus such as air compressors or oil pumps are re-
quired. Compressed air is most valuable in the case of a battery
of boilers where high efficiency is essential.

Discussing the subject of atomization, W. N. Best says :a
"Compressed air or steam is preferable to low pressure air be-
cause it requires power to thoroughly atomize liquid fuel. With
low pressure or volume air, you are limited to the use of light oils,
whereas with compressed air or steam as atomizer, you can use
any gravity of crude oil, fuel oil, kerosene or tar which will flow
through a ^-inch pipe. For stationary boilers, steam at boiler
pressure is ordinarily used to atomize the fuel. In furnaces the
most economical method of operation is the use of a small quan-
tity of compressed air or dry steam through the burner to atomize
the fuel, while the balance of the air necessary for perfect com-

a. Science of Burning Liquid Fuel, Best.

TYPES OF OIL FUEL BURNERS 155

bustion is supplied independently through a volume air nozzle
at from 3 to 5 oz. pressure. Every particle of moisture which
enters a furnace must be counteracted by the fuel and it is there-
fore essential, if steam is used as atomizer, that it be as dry as
possible. It is folly to attempt to use steam as atomizer on a small
furnace, especially if the equipment is located some distance from
the boiler room, for oil and hot water do not mix advantageously.
Numerous tests have proven that with steam at 80 Ibs. pressure
and air at 80 Ibs. pressure, by using air there is a saving of 12
percent in fuel over steam, but of this 12 percent it costs 8 percent
to compress the air (this includes interest on money invested in
the necessary apparatus to compress the air, repairs, etc.), so
there is therefore a total net saving of 4 percent in favor of com-
pressed air."

Spray burner systems are classed as "high pressure" when
the oil and steam (or air) are supplied to the burners under a
pressure of over 2 Ibs. per sq. in. and as "low pressure" when the
pressure is less than 2 Ibs.

Mr. S. D. Rickard, writing in Oil News,a says that the most
essential points in an oil-burning system are: "1. That it supply
oil in sufficient volume to the burner in a clean and properly
heated condition, and under a constant and automatically regu-
lated pressure, free from pulsations.

2. That it supply air in sufficient volume to the burners
(when of that type) in a clean and fresh condition, and under a
constant and automatically regulated pressure, free from pul-
sations.

3. That it supply steam to the burners (when of that type)
in a dry, hot state, and under sufficient pressure.

4. That the air and oil supply be connected, or co-ordinated,
in some way so that should the air supply fail, the oil supply will
be instantly cut off.

The burning of oil is in reality the continuous feeding of
two ingredients (oil and air) in proper proportion into the com-
bustion chamber in such a manner that a chemical mixture will
be secured and good combustion will be the result. It will be ap-
preciated that whenever the oil or air pressures are not constant,
or pulsate, it is impossible to secure good combustion. In short,
whenever the oil or air supply pulsates, it is safe to say that just

a. Oil News. May 5, 1920, p. 18.

156 FUEL OIL IX INDUSTRY

50 percent of the time good combustion is not obtained. The
pressures of oil and air must also be automatically regulated ; or
otherwise, whenever a burner is started up or shut down it will
be necessary to adjust all of the other burners in the system. It
will also be appreciated that when wet steam is fed to a burner
an excess of oil must be burned to overcome the cooling effect
of this water and convert it into steam.''

CHAPTER IX
FUEL OIL IN STEAM NAVIGATION

Dr. George Otis Smith, Director of the U. S. Geological Sur-
vey, in an address before the American Iron and Steel Institute,
May, 1920, states that the requirements of the American Navy
and the new Merchant Marine present a priority demand on fuel
oil. Dr. Smith said : "Admiral Griffin, the chief of the Bureau
of Steam Engineering of the United States Navy, informs me
that the oil-burning vessels ready for service aggregate more
than 6,000,000 horsepower and that other vessels under construc-
tion will bring this total up to nearly 9,000,000 horsepower. The
navy now needs 8 million barrels of fuel oil a year, yet this figure
is small compared with the requirements of the Shipping Board,
which are stated by Mr. Paul Foley, its Director of Operations, as
40 million barrels for 1920 and 60 million for 1921. If the
American flag is to fly on the seven seas the motive power to
carry it must be assured, and here is one demand for fuel oil
which alone equals the present output of our refineries for about
four months. Surely no American with vision wishes to con-
template even the possibility of a shortage of fuel oil that would
endanger the immediate availability of these battleships, cruisers,
and destroyers or interfere with the successful operation of the
passenger and freight steamers in the construction of which our
Nation has invested so many nrllion."

All of the advantages inherent in oil burning on shore are
applicable to its use in steam navigation. On an equivalent bunker
weight the higher calorific value of fuel oil as compared to coal
increases the ship radius of afction by 50 percent. A ton of coal
occupies 43 cubic feet, while a ton of oil occupies 36 cubic feet,
and, consequently, with equivalent bunker space the ship's radius
of action is increased 80 percent and this advantage can be
greatly increased by carrying fuel oil in double bottom tanks.
Ship Building and Shipping Record states that during the war
it was found possible to utilize the double bottom for storing oil
without any great alterations. But there are stringent rules laid
down by the registration societies and the Board of Trade which

157

158

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

must be conformed with. The flash point of oil fuel is not to be
less than 150° F., according to the former, while the latter require
a minimum of 175° F. in the case of passenger vessels. Any
double-bottom, peak, or deep ballast tank which is able to pass the

FIG. 56. "Coaling Ship."

ordinary watertightness tests can be used. Owing, however, to
the spacing of rivets, they will probably not be oiltight, but if
steps are taken to deal with any leakage which may occur, they
can be accepted. To limit the wash from side to side the center
line division must be reasonably oiltight, but it is sufficient

FUEL OIL IN STEAM NAVIGATION 159

merely to close the drainage holes by bolted plates. Lloyds re-
quire that the tanks should stand a head of water to the top of the
rilling pipes, the load waterline, or 12 ft., whichever the greatest.
Special attention is required for all the piping and pumping ar-
rangements, with the intention of preventing oil from finding an
entrance into the machinery space, and draining the compart-
ments as completely as possible. Coal bunkers will usually be
found unsuitable in construction; it is, however, suggested that
electric welding might be used with advantage. Both the B. O. T.
and Lloyds require that special precautions be taken for dealing
with leakage ; the double bottom must be sheathing, with ceiling
standing on grounds at least 2 in. above the tank top, and bulk-
heads must be closely sparred to prevent cargo from touching
the plating and to allow leakage to drain freely to the gutters and
wells. Oil must not be stored in a compartment adjacent to crew
or passengers, and cofferdams must be fitted between oil and
fresh-water tanks. Thus, although the details require careful
treatment, the difficulties of conversion of existing ships are not
great. From experience gained during the war, it is found that
on no occasion has the cargo been deleteriously affected if the
details have been thus considered."

The ability to force boilers with oil-fired furnaces to 50 per
cent above normal rating without a great strain on the personnel
is a decided advantage, and the quickness with which an oil-
burning ship can get under way is a very important point in its
favor for naval use. The U. S. Shipping Board, in announcing
that 636 of the 720 vessels now under construction for the
Emergency Fleet Corporation will burn oil fuel, justify their
abandonment of coal as follows :

1. Less bunker space required, a barrel of oil being equal
to one ton of coal, and occupying four-sevenths of the space. 2.
Oil can be carried in spaces, e. g., the double bottom, not avail-
able for cargo. 3. Cargo can be carried where coal is now. 4.
Greater despatch in bunkering, of special advantage in view of
the shortage of ships. 5. No labor or machinery required to
handle ashes. 6. No stoking, reducing the number of crew and
labor costs. 7. Uniform pressure is easily maintained, insuring
a steady speed, and reducing boiler depreciation due to uneven
temperature.

In a 5,000-ton D. W. ship, 16 engineers are required for coal

160 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

and 12 for oil ; in an 11,000-ton ship, 27 and 18 men are required
respectively.

The Shipping Board fleet of steamers is composed of ap-
proximately 10 million deadweight tons, of which 8 million tons
are oil-fired. The Shipping Board has established bunkering sta-
tions at St. Thomas, Rio Janeiro, St. Vincent, Bermuda, the
Azores, Brest, Dizerta, Constantinople, Colombo, Singapore.
Manila, Shanghai, Durban, Sidney, Wellington, Honolulu and
Panama.

The Tide Water Oil Company in ''Fuel Oil" gives the follow-
ing data from a report to the Naval Advisory Board : "A 5,000-
ton deadweight coal burning ship, 2,000 rated H. P., steaming at
12 knots per hour, will require approximately 37 days' time and
1,060 tons of coal to make a round trip between New York and
French channel ports. This shows that 21 percent of the ship's
deadweight capacity would be required by her fuel. The same
ship burning oil could make the trip in 34 days, and requiring
only 584 tons of oil, or less than 12 percent of the ship's dead-
weight capacity for fuel. Thus an oil-burning ship's cargo
capacity is increased 9 percent or 468 tons per voyage. By
storing the oil in double bottoms, which is standard practice, a
5,000-ton deadweight capacity ship can carry 689 tons, or 27 per
cent more general cargo per trip, than a coal-burning ship of
equal deadweight. The speed of a 5,000-ton boat in continuous
service has been increased 10 percent by changing its fuel to oil.
This is largely due to steady steam and increased boiler capacity
affording maximum and constant propeller speed. Hence, a
further 10 percent of cargo goes to the credit of oil-burning
ships during their steaming time only, all of which is a net gain
The cost of handling oil fuel is about 70 percent less than that
of coal, owing to the fact that the oil is handled mechanically
and the ash handling is entirely eliminated. The fire-room crew
is materially reduced, generally by one-half to two-thirds of the
crew necessary for coal firing. Efficiencies of boilers are in-
creased by 8 to 10 percent and steaming capacities from 35 to
50 percent, which is due to more rapid and perfect combustion
obtainable. All of the foregoing saving features figure materially
in the dollars and cents column."

"Coaling Ship" has always been regarded as a most arduous
duty (see fig. 56). Ships of the "Wyoming" class in the navy

FUEL OIL IN STEAM NAVIGATION

161

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162 FUEL OIL IX INDUSTRY

carry as much 3,000 tons of coal, which is lifted aboard by large
electric and steam winches after large bags have been rilled in the
lighters or colliers. Coaling a ship is usually an all-day job and
an "all hands" detail, whereas fueling on an oil burner is both
clean and speedy. Fig. 57 shows the method of fueling- with
oil, and Fig. 58 shows a fueling station in the Orient.

Although oil had been successfully used under ship's boilers
for a long time prior to 1904, it was the favorable report of the
U. S. Naval "Liquid Fuel" Board in that year which gave a de-
cided impetus to -the use of fuel oil on the sea. The investigation
of this Board was conducted with such scientific accuracy and its
report was so comprehensive that the Board's findings still are
regarded as irrefutable. The Board made an extended series of
tests for the purpose of determining the relative value of
coal and liquid fuel for naval purposes and, in addition, it made
a careful study of the performance of the S. S. Mariposa of the
Oceanic Steamship Company and of the S. S. Nebraskan of the
American-Hawaiian Steamship Company, both vessels being fitted
for oil burning. Table 15 gives the comparative performances of
the Ocean Steamship "Mariposa" using oil as fuel.

It is interesting to compare the test of the Mariposa with
tests of the 8,800-ton steel steamer West Conob. The report of
the Conob's test was submitted to the author by Mr. C. W. Geiger
and covers the six hours' builder's trial off S-an Pedro, California,
on May 20, 1919. On this trial trip the West Conob's three
boilers were under steam pressure of 200 Ibs. The temperature
of the oil to burners was 205 degrees, and that of the stack 460
to 475 degrees. The temperature of boiler feed water was 200 to
215 degrees. An average of 411.1 gallons of oil was consumed
per hour.

The following data are taken from the log of the S. S. West
Conob, on voyage 1, San Francisco to Honolulu:

Departure 9:14 a. m., San Francisco Lightship, June 13,
1919.

Arrived 4:26 a. m. Honolulu, June 21, 1919.

Average knots per hour, 11.1.

Average fuel per day, 211.2 barrels.

Average fuel per knot, .8.

Revolutions per minute, 79.5.

FUEL OIL IN STEAM NAVIGATION 163

FIG. 57. Fueling With Oil.
(U. S. Navy Official Photograph)

164 FUEL OIL IX INDUSTRY

The fuel oil capacity of the West Conob is 6,359 barrels in
double bottoms; 1,100 barrels in after peak; 2,141 barrels in each
of two deep bottom tanks ; and 320 barrels in the two settling
tanks, making a total of 12,060 barrels. The oil storage tanks
were filled to capacity when the vessel started on her first voyage
to Hong Kong. Nineteen hundred and ninety-three barrels of
oil were taken on at Honolulu ; 3,850 barrels were taken on at
Hong Kong. On the return trip 2,100 barrels were taken on at
Honolulu, the vessel having 1,047 barrels in the tanks when she
arrived at S'an Francisco.

The West Concb is 423 ft. 9 inches in length over all, 29 ft.
9 in. depth and beam molded of 54 feet. Her displacement, light,

FIG. 58. A fueling station at Palik Papan, Dutch Borneo.

is 3,751 tons; loaded, 12,401 tons. She is equipped with a triple
expansion reciprocating engine of the inverted type of 3,500
h. p. The cylinders are 28^ in. by 47 in. by 78 in. with 48-in.
stroke. There are three Foster water tube boilers, each having
a heating surface of 4,150 square feet, and 827 2-inch tubes and
52 4-inch tubes. The propeller is 17 ft. 1 in. diameter with a
pitch of 15 ft. 3 in. and a developed area of 102 square feet. The
designed speed is 11 knots an hour.

The vessel is equipped with the Coen system of mechanical
oil burning equipment. There are two duplex oil pumps 6 in. by
4 in. by 6 in. with a capacity of 30 gallons each per minute. These
pumps are mounted one above the other, each being large enough
to supply all the burners, thus one set is always held in reserve.
They draw their supply from the settling tanks through a 4-inch

FUEL OIL

STEAM NAVIGATION

165

pipe. The oil is pumped from one settling tank at a time. The
discharge pipes leading to the heaters are 3 inches in diameter
reduced to 1 inch at the heater, of which there are three sets,

with five heaters to a set. Two sets are operated at a time, the
third being held in reserve.

The oil enters the heater unit between two shells and takes a
spiral course upward to the space between the two shell heads

166

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

from whence it flows down through the seamless steel coil and out
to the discharge header. In the event of an operator's closing the
inlet and outlet oil valves without cutting out the steam to the
heater, thereby causing the dead oil in the unit to heat and expand
to a pressure which might create a rupture, a safety valve is pro-
vided for each unit and set to operate before an excessive pressure
can be attained.

FIG. 60. Coen Hinged Firing Front for Scotch Marine Boilers.

Each individual coil is under control and can be cut in or
out independent of the others. No cleaning is required except
blowing out with steam. The inner shell being a floating mem-
ber eliminates expansion and contraction strains. The cold oil
entering and circulating between the inner and outer shells acts ,
as an insulator, making covering of the units unnecessary.

A standard temperature for all fuel oils cannot be fixed for
the "efficient temperature" will vary as the different oils vary in

FUEL OIL IN STEAM NAVIGATION 167

viscosity and gravity. However, a temperature ranging from 210
degrees F. to 230 degrees F. has been proven to be the most
efficient stage for residuum fuel oil. Lighter oils require a much
lower temperature. Heavy Mexican oils require a temperature
ranging from 275 to 300 degrees F. The steam pressure to the
heaters is reduced to 100 Ibs. For stand-by the oil is maintained
at a pressure of 30 to 35 Ibs. and for full speed ahead 125 Ibs.
There are five burners to each boiler. The oil pipes leading from
the heaters to the burners are \l/> inches in diameter and reduced
to y% -inch at the burner. The burner consists of a special angle
valve, a short piece of tubing, a tip, a cap to hold the tip in place
and a steel rod running through the burner to provide means for.
regulating the discharge from the tip. With this burner, the fire-
man has at his immediate command not only means for regulating
the size of his operating fire, but means whereby he can instantly
substitute a stand-by and vice versa, with one quick turn of the
burner valve wheel. During the noon hour when tied up at dock,
all burners are shut off except one.

In starting a fire in a cold boiler, the fireman first sees that
all valves in the burner feed lines are closed. He then tracks
the valve in the return line, and starts the oil pump. He then
admits steam to the oil heater and allows the oil to circulate
through the lines until the thermometer shows the proper tem-
perature. When the oil has attained the proper temperature, he
closes the valve in the return line, and opens the dampers in the
firing front and stack. He inserts a lighted torch directly in
front of the burner tip and opens the burner valve wide. He
then opens the valve in the burner feed line wide when the fire
readily lights. Fig. 59 shows this system of burners which is
installed in the Matson Navigation Company's steamer Maiioa,
and Fig. 60 shows the hinged firing front for a mechanical burner.

The Matson Navigation Company operates 7 oil burning
steamers of their own between San Francisco and Hawaiian
Islands, and nine Shipping Board steamers. The company's own
steamers consume about 600,000 barrels of fuel oil yearly. The
Matson steamer Matsonia has a fuel oil capacity of 21,000 barrels.
This steamer consumes 10,000 barrels on the round voyage be-
tween San Francisco and Honolulu. The steamer takes on oil to
her full capacity at San Francisco, and delivers the surplus into
tanks at Honolulu for use by the steamers operated by the com-

168

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

pany for the Shipping Hoard, and for use of the company's own
steamers in case they need it. The Manoa, with a capacity of
16,500 barrels, consumes 6,500 barrels on the round trip. This
vessel also delivers the surplus into tanks at Honolulu for the
same purpose as the Matsonia. Fig. 61 shows the oil-burning
French S. S. Lieutenant de Missiessy, of the Compagnie des
Messageries Maritimes.

The Staples and Pfeiffer oil-burning system has been in
operation on a large number of steamers on the Pacific for many
years. This system is somewhat different in operation from the
Dahl and Coen systems, as the system atomizes the oil by means
of steam or compressed air. The oil is heated and forced through
the burners by pumps, and in addition steam or compressed air ii
introduced into the burner which atomizes the oil. (See fig. 62.)
The following data are from the steam trials of the U. S. R. C.
Golden Gate, which is equipped with the Staples & Pfeiffer oil-
burning system :

Run, November 23, 1911.

BABCOCK & WILCOX WATER TUBE BOILER,

TRIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINE.

Duration hours . .

1.50

1.00

Water evaporated, totals for run Ibs

8332.00

8013.00

Total equivalent, from and at 212 deg. F. Ibs. .
Fuel oil corrected for moisture — total Ibs

9798.43
614.90

8098.76
600.00

WATER PER HOUR—

Main engine and aux

..Ibs. .

5320.66

7664.50

Oil pump

. . Ibs . .

87.00

98.00

Oil burners

Ibs

147.00

250.50

Total for all purposes

. . Ibs . .

5554.66

8013.00

Total equivalent, from and at 212 deg. F
Fuel oil corrected for moisture per hour

....Ibs
. .Ibs

6532.29
409.90

9098.76
600.00

Evaporation, Ibs. water per bbl. oil

. . ..Ibs

13.55

13.35

Factor of evaporation

1.176

1.135

Evaporation, Ibs. water per lb. oil, equivalent .
Total heating surface

. . ..Ibs
. .sq. ft . .

15.99
2034.00

15.16
2034.00

Evap. per sq. ft. head surface, per hour, equivalent
Percent of total equiv. evaporation for atomizing oil

3.21
2.25

4.47
- 2.75

Efficiency of boiler .

. . . . percent . . .

82.55

78.50

PRESSURE BY GAUGE—

At boiler

Ibs

145.00

144.00

At engine . .

Ibs

135.00

133.00

First receiver

. . Ibs

21.00

36.00

Second receiver.

. . ..Ibs

1.00

4.00

Vacuum

inches

23.00

Oil to burner

Ih*

45.00

TEMPERATURES F., DEGREE, AVERAGE—

Feed

. . . . Deg. Fahr.

89.00

125.00

Stack

. . . . Deg. Fahr.

453.00

516.00

Fuel oil to burner

. . . . Deg. Fahr.

124.00

128.00

Main engine revolutions per minute
Total h. p. mach. eng. and aux

125.90
253.92

147.60
396.85

Horsepower of auxiliaries, estimated

17.10

19.54

Water per hour per H. P., equivalent
Fuel oil per hour per H. P., total

.'.'.'.'.ibs.'. '. '/.'.'.

24.65
1.61

21.82
1.51

Fuel oil per hour per I. H. P

1.73

1.58

FUEL OIL—

Specific Gravity 0.952

Fire point

280.00

Degrees, Baume' 17.00

Calorific value

B. t. u. . . .

18648.00

Flash ooint. . . .190.00

Moisture

.005

FUEL OIL IN STEAM NAVIGATION

169

170 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Probably nothing can illustrate the superiority of oil over
coal as fuel for steamers, more clearly than the history of the
Oceanic Steamship Company's steamers Ventura and Sonomo.
These vessels were originally coal burners operating between
San Francisco and Australian ports. Because of the disadvan-
tages of coal as fuel these steamers were tied up in San Francisco
Bay for over two years. They were converted to oil burners in
1915 by the Union Iron Works of San Francisco, and have been
in operation between San Francisco and Australian ports ever
since. It has never been necessary during these six years of oper-
ation to make any repairs to boilers.

The Ventura is equipped with eight boilers, 24 furnaces,
8,000 H. P. The Sonoma is of similar equipment. These steam-
ers burn from 19,000 to 21,500 barrels on the round voyage, the
distance for the round voyage being 13,475 miles. The total tank
capacity is 18,290. This amount is taken on at San Francisco. At
Honolulu a sufficient amount of oil is taken on so that the supply
will total 16,500 barrels when leaving that port, and on the return
trip sufficient oil is taken on at Honolulu so that there will be
4,500 barrels in the tanks, which is ample to bring the vessel to
San Francisco, and still have a three days' supply on hand. These
steamers are of 10,000 tons displacement each. The rated speed
is 17 knots an hour, but they only maintain a speed of \Sl/2 knots
an hour on the trip to Australia and return.

The Shipping Board steamers are now being equipped with
heating coils in the double bottoms so that the steamers may use
the heavy oil which is found at certain points. The heavy
Mexican oils especially require these coils so that the oil may be
heated in order to be handled by the oil pumps. This will en-
able the steamers to be operated on any kind of oil.

CHAPTER X
OIL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES

In 1882 Thomas Urquehart, Superintendent of Motive
Power of the Griazi-Tsaritzin Railway of Russia converted 143
of the locomotives of this railroad from coal-burners to oil-burn-
ers and made service tests on them which showed that one pound
of oil equaled 1.78 pounds of coal. The oil had a calorific value
of 18,600 B. t. u. and the coal used, a Russian anthracite, con-
tained 24,920 B. t. u.

In the year 1888, Dr. Charles B. Dudley presented to the
Franklin Institute of Philadelphia a comprehensive paper dealing
with the subject of oil fuel for locomotives. Dr. Dudley founded
his conclusions largely on a series of experiments which had been
conducted by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. He deter-
mined that, based on the relative heat values of the fuels, one
pound of oil was equivalent to one and three-quarters pounds of
coal ; while taking into account the various incidental economies
due to the use of oils, one pound of the latter was practically
equivalent to two. pounds of coal. Dr. Dudley pointed out the
following advantages which oil has over coal as a fuel for loco-
motives :

1. Less waste of fuel: First, from smoke and unburned
gases which go out the smoke stack; second, cinders,
which are carried through the tubes and deposited in the
smoke box or exhausted from the stack; third, fuel,
which escapes through the grates.

2. Economy in handling fuel.

3. Economy in handling ashes.

4. Economy in cleaning locomotives, the absence of smoke
and cinders in using oil being the source of this saving.

5. Less waste of steam at the safety valve. The oil is under
positive and practically instantaneous control, and with
proper attention the working steam pressure of the boiler
may be maintained under all conditions of operation with-
out the safety valve being allowed to open. Steam lost
through the safety valve simply means so much fuel gone

171

172 FUEL OIL IX IXDUSTRY

to waste. The occasional raising of safety valves cannot
be prevented with the best handling of an ordinary coal
fire.

6. Economy in cleaning ballast. The cinders thrown out of
the smoke stack of coal-burning locomotives are not only
a loss on account of not being burned, but also because
they fall on the track and choke the ballast, especially
where rock ballast is used, thus interfering with the
drainage.

7. Economy of space in carrying and stowing fuel, as a
pound of oil does not occupy as much space as a pound
of coal and a higher heat value is obtained per pound
of oil than of coal.

8. No fire from sparks.

9. Very little smoke and no cinders.

10. Possibility of utilizing more of the heat.
A report of the Indian Government on a comparison of oil
and coal on the Northwestern Railway of India gives the follow-
ing advantages of burning oil in locomotives : ( 1 ) Release of en-
gines and rolling stock required for carrying coal ; (2) saving cost
of unloading and stacking coal and putting on tenders; (3) loco-
motives cleaner and more comfortable for the staff, and easier
work for the firemen, also there is a saving of one fireman per
engine, as Indian locomotives as a rule carry two; (4) saving of
fuel during period locomotives are standing at stations or in
yards; (5) rapidity with which steam can be raised; (6) larger
blast pipes can be used to reduce back pressure in cylinders; (7)
less wastage of fuel in transit and in stock and probably consider-
ably less stolen; (8) absence of sparks and smoke when the ad-
mission of air, steam and fuel are properly regulated. No ashe-;
to be removed from ashpan or smoke-box, no ashpits to be
cleaned."

The recent determinations made by the Missouri, Kansas,
and Texas Railroad of Texas are of interests This road figures
its 1918 fuel (coal) cost around $6,250,000, and its 1920 fuel (oil)
cost at less than $4,750,000, or a saving by substitution of oil for
coal of approximately $1,500,000. Detailed investigation by ex-
perts have shown that 3^ barrels of oil are the equivalent of one
ton of coal, and the cost of handling the oil is one cent a barrel.

a. Oil News, Sept. 5, 1919, p. 44.

OIL BURNING LOCOMOTIVES

173

Cost of movement of coal from mines to point of use averaged
4 mills per ton per mile last year. Fuel coal consumption aggre-
gated 630,000 tons at average cost of $3.50 f. o. b. mines, or
$2,200,000, and average handling cost was approximately 17.95
cents per ton, or nearly $111,000, and average transportation cost
was 83.1 cents or around $513,500, a total of over $2,800,000.
Oil cost is figured initially as follows, in round figures : Cost of
oil $1,320,000; handling, $21,500; transportation, $854,000; cost
of oil used in heating, $65,800; total, $2,261,300 for 2,226,000
barrels. A report to this railroad on the waste of coal in locomo-
tive consumption follows : "Coal in the first 24 hours after it
leaves the mines will depreciate 2 percent on account of evapora-

FIG. 62. General Arrangement of the Staples and Pfeiffer System for Scotch Marine

Boilers.

tion of the moisture it contains. Investigation heretofore made
also shows that the average 100,000 capacity car, in addition to
running 2 percent short on account of evaporation, will average
1,000 pounds additional shortage on account of discrepancies in
tare weights, mine weights, etc. There are further losses due to
theft and loss in transit. No figures are available to show just
what coal loses through deterioration in handling, and through
storage, but it has been thoroughly established that every time
coal is handled or moved it loses heat-producing value. Various
authorities have agreed that there is an average loss equivalent

174

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

to 5 percent between the mine and the locomotive due to the
causes above enumerated, i. e., evaporation, theft, loss in transit,
deterioration in handling, storage, etc."

Among the many foreign railways which have converted all
or part of their locomotives from coal-burners to oil-burners are :
The Austrian State Railways, Western Railway of France, Paris,
Lyons, and the Mediterranean, Paris and Orleans Railway, South
Russian Railway, Roumanian State Railway, Los Angeles Rail-
way, Taltal Railway, Mexican Railway, Chilian Railway, Tehuan-

Carrier
Do/nper

FIG. 63. Oil Burning Equipment as Applied to Santa Fe Locomotives.

tepee National Railway, and the Mexican National and Inter-
oceanic Lines.

The United States Geological Surveya names the following
railways in the United States which use fuel oil in their loco-
motives :

Arizona:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.
Southern Pacific Company.

a. Petroleum in 1917, by John D. Northrop.

OIL BURNING LOCOMOTIVES

175

Arkansas:

Kansas City Southern Railway Co.
California:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.

Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad.

Northwestern Pacific Railroad Co.

San Diego & Arizona Railway Co.

San Diego & Southeastern Railway Co.

Southern Pacific Co.

Tonopah & Tidewater Railroad Co.

Western Pacific Railroad Co.
Florida:

Florida East Ccast Railway Co.
Georgia:

Central of Georgia Railway Co. (on Tybee district).

-ffcoaea

Rre* f-tstoe *StfM/?9

FIG. 64. Locomotive Firebox and Fire Pan Arrangement with

Oil Burners.
Idaho:

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Co.

Great Northern Railway Co.

Oregon Short Line Railroad Co.

Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Co.

Washington, Idaho & Montana Railway Co.
Kansas:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.

Kansas City Southern Railway Co.
Louisiana:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.

Houston & Shreveport Railroad Co.

Kansas City Southern Railway Co.

Louisiana Railway & Navigation Co.

Louisiana Western Railroad Co.

Morgan's Louisiana & Texas Railroad & Steamship Co.

New Orleans, Texas & Mexico Railway.

176 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Missouri:

Kansas City Southern Railway Co.
Montana:

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co.

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Co.

Great Northern Railway Co.

Oregon Short Line Railroad Co.
Nebraska:

Chicago & Northwestern Railway Co.
Nevada:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.

Bullfrog Goldfield Railroad Co.

Las Vegas & Tonopah Railroad Co.

Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad.

Southern Pacific Co.

Tonopah & Goldfield Railroad Co.

Tonopah & Tidewater Railroad Co.

Western Pacific Railroad Co.
New Mexico:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.

El Paso Southwestern System.

Southern Pacific Co.
New York:

Delaware & Hudson Co. (in the Adirondacks).

New York Central Railroad Co. (in the Adirondacks, including Old Forge and

the Fulton Chain).
Oklahoma:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.

Kansas City Southern Railway Co.
Oregon :

Great Northern Railway Co.

Northern Pacific Railway Co.

Oregon Trunk Railway.

Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Co.

Southern Pacific Co.

Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railway Co.
South Dakota:

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co.

Chicago & Northwestern Railway Co.
Texas:

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway System.

Beaumont, Sour Lake & Western Railway.

Fort Worth & Denver City Railway Co.

Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio Railway Co.

Galveston, Houston & Henderson Railroad Co.

Houston, East & West Texas Railway Co.

Houston & Texas Central Railroad Co.

International & Great Northern Railway Co.

Orange & Northwestern Railroad.

St. Louis, Brownsville & Mexico Railway.

San Antonio & Aransas Pass Railway Co.

Texarkana & Fort Smith Railway Co.

Texas & New Orleans Railroad Co.

Texas & Pacific Railway.

Trinity & Brazos Valley Railway Co.
Utah:

Los Angeles & Salt Lake Rarlroad Co.

Southern Pacific Co.
Washington:

Bellingham & Northern Railway Co.

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Co.

OIL BURNJXG LOCOMOTIVES

177

Great Northern Railway Co.
Northern Pacific Railway Co.
Oregon Trunk Railway.

Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Co.
Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railway Co.
Washington, Idaho & Montana Railway Co.
Wyoming:

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co.
Chicago & Northwestern Railway Co.

The quantity of fuel oil consumed by all railroad companies
that operated oil-burning locomotives in the United States in
1917 was 45,707,082 barrels, a gain of 3,580,665 barrels, or 8.5 per
cent over 1916, and a larger consumption than in any other year.

FIG. 65. The Booth Oil Burner used as a standard on the Santa Fe.
The oil falls on the steam jet and is atomized and carried to the flash
wall of the firebox. The edge of the steam jet extends Ms-inch beyond
the edge of the oil opening on each side, so all the oil is atomized,
money being permitted to fall in the pan unburned.

The total distance covered by oil-burning engines was 146,997,144
miles, and the average distance covered per barrel of fuel oil
consumed was 3.2 miles. Oil-burning locomotives were operated
in 1917 over 32,431 miles of track in 31 states.

The Santa Fe Railway System has at the present time (June,
1920) approximately 3,160 locomotives, of which two-thirds use
coal and one-third use oil. The general arrangementa of oil-
burning equipment representing present practice on the Santa Fe
Railway is shown in figs. 63 and 64. Fig. 65 shows the Booth
oil- burner used as standard on the Santa Fe. Mr. Bohnstengel

a. Oil Burning Practice on Locomotives, Walter Bohnstengel, Proceedings of
Twelfth Annual Convention, International Railway Fuel Association.

178

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

gives the following data on Santa Fe locomotives : "The burner
is made and tested in the Santa Fe shops. Good results are ob-
tained from lV2-inch burners on small locomotives, while the
larger power is provided with 2 and 2^ -inch burners. For the
Mid-Continent oil, a 1^-inch pipe is used to convey the oil from
the tank to the firebox, while with California and Mexican oil, 2-
inch piping is used to the firing valve. Both the oil and steam
connections between engine and tender must be flexible to follow
the curves and variations; the older types were rubber hose and
are still used to some extent, but as rubber is not durable for
either oil or steam, it has been largely replaced by flexible metal-
lic joints."

The number of barrels of oil required to produce a locomo-
tive boiler evaporation equivalent to one ton of coal for various
conditions is shown by Table 16.

FIG. 66. Von Boden-Ingalls Burners.

TABLE 16. FACTOR FOR EQUIVALENT EVAPORATIVE VALUES,
COAL vs. OIL

Coal,

Barrels California Oil

Barrels Mid Continent Oil

Heat Value,

To One Ton Coal

B. t. u. Per

Pound

Hand Fired

Stoker Fired

Hand Fired

Stoker Fired

11,500

2.95

2.56

3.07

2.66

11,600

2.97

2.58

3.10

2.68

11,700

3.00

2.60

3.13

2.71

11,800

3.03

2.62

3.15

2.73

11,900

3.05

2.64

3.18

2.75

12,000

3.08

2.66

3.20

2.78

12,100

3.10

2.69

3.23

2.80

12,200

3.13

2.71

3.26

2.82

12,300

3.15

2.73

3.28

2.85

12,400

3.18

2.75

3.31

2.87

12,500

3.20

2.77

3.34

2.89

OIL BURNING LOCOMOTIVES

179

Locomotive Furnace Efficiency — Oil Burner, 75 per cent.
Coal, hand fired, 60 per cent. Coal, stoker fired, 52 per cent.

California Oil — Heat values, 18,550 B. t. u. per Ib, Weight.
8.0 Ib. per gal.

Mid Continent Oil— Heat value, 19,000 B. t. u. per Ib.
Weight, 7.5 Ib. per gal.

Oil— 42 gal. per bbl. Coal, 2,000 Ibs. per ton.

The figures in Table 16 hold only for the relations stated.

The average cost of coal and oil for locomotive use from
1909 to 1919 inclusive, are shown in Table 17.

TABLE 17. AVERAGE COAL AND OIL COSTS

Year

Cost of Coal
Per Ton

Cost of Oil
Per Barrel

1909

$1 . 530

1910

1.650

0.527

1911

1.630

0.472

1912

1.690

0.532

1913

1.800

0.500

1914

1.900

0.446

1915

1.745

0.400

1916

1.820

0.580

1917

2.380

0.697

1918

3.140

0.997

1919

3.510

1.424

The general average for all locomotives on the system is
shown by Table 18.

TABLE 18. LOCOMOTIVE FUEL RESULTS
A. T. & S. F. Railway System

Gross 1000 Ton Miles

Total Fuel— Lb.

Fuel Per 1000

Ton Mile— Lb .

Year

Coal

Oil

Coal

Oil

Coal

Oil

1909

16,040,276

8,070,236

3,648,196,030

1,189,504,930

227

147

1910

18,824,990

9,868,037

4,126,982,270

1,492,019,110

219

151

1911

-19,292,704

11,310,659

3,991,532,000

1,660,989,870

207

147

1912

18,278,168

12,842,472

3,814,399,600

1,850,896,400

209

144

1913

20,626,718

12,095,065

3,942,891,200

1,704,359,263

191

141

1914

21,036,407

10,678,616

3,818,514,710

1,414,208,050

181

132

1915

21,962,754

13,655,095

3,779,843,000

1,677,782,860

172

123

1916

22,455,557

17,587,327

3,759,233,600

2,139,531,200

167

122

1917

25,015,575

20,195,544

4,296,203,900

2,380,453,820

171

118

1918

24,324,979

19,094,296

4,135,067,900

2,190,272,735

170

115

1919

25,556,469

*•

17,353,521

4,113,172,500

1,950,162,870

161

113

180

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

The gross ton mileage figures on which the fuel consumption
is based are arrived at by multiplying the miles run by locomotives
by the total gross weight of the trains hauled. The weight of the
locomotive is not included.

The oil is usually brought to the division and to intermediate
storage tanks in tank cars, from which the oil is drained into
sumps by pits or pipes and is thereafter pumped by means of

OIL BURNING LOCOMOTIVES

181

centrifugal, rotary or reciprocating pumps into storage or service
tanks.

The oil is taken on the tender from the service tank through
a crane similar to water cranes. At terminals these cranes are
frequently some distance apart but at fuel stations on the road
the water and oil cranes are usually so located that water and oil
may be taken at the same time, resulting in a minimum consump-
tion of time for taking fuel and water. There is always danger
of explosion resulting from igniting the gases coming from the
oil and hence precaution is essential in oil handling. Proper sign
boards are placed wherever necessary. Some places are simply
marked "Danger — keep lighted torches or lanterns away," at
other places more elaborate signs which give reasons for pre-
caution are evident. To lessen this danger to a certain minimum,
the flash point is specified in purchasing oil. The oil must also
be free from dirt and water that would cause poor combustion.

The amount of atomizer required is an item that requires
judgment. One locomotive requires little steam, another more to
properly atomize the oil. In connection with some recent tests, a
pressure gauge was placed in the atomizer line next to the burner
on two freight locomotives, the one carrying 200 pounds, the
other 225 pounds boiler pressure. The atomizer steam is supplied
by a ^4-inch pipe h'ne, the steam being regulated by means of a
24-inch globe valve. The average pressure at the burner for dif-
ferent valve openings was as shown in Table 19.

TABLE 19. ATOMIZER PRESSURES

Atomizer Valve Handle

Pressure — Lb

. Per Sq. In.

Boiler

At Burner

"Cracked open"

200 to 225

5 to 10

l/s turn

200 to 225

15 to 25

% turn
H turn
^/2 turn • •

200 to 225
200 to 225
200 to 225

30 to 40
50 to 70
130 to 150

Wide..;

200 to 225

160 to 180

These locomotives had 2^ -inch Booth burners with standard
^2-inch steam atomizer opening."

The Southern Pacific Railway has a large number of oil-
burning locomotives in service on its lines. The Southern Pacific

182 FUEL OIL IX INDUSTRY

uses the Von Boden-Ingalls burnera shown in fig. 66. In front
of the oil outlet is placed a corrugated lip, which retains any
drippings from the burner, and is said to assist in atomizing the
oil. The burner is placed in the front end of the fire-pan. Ad-
mission of air takes place through a number of horizontal tubes,
placed under the burner, and these tubes can be covered by an
external damper operated from the cab. The Von Boden-Ingalls
burner is so arranged that oil may be taken in either at the top
or bottom of the oil chamber, as is the more convenient. The
opening not in use is closed by a plug.

Fig. 67 shows the arrangement of oil-burning locomotive
equipment as used by the Baldwin Locomotive Works. It was
formerly their practice to place the burner in the rear end of the
furnace and burn the oil under a brick arch. In service, however,
when the engine was being heavily worked, the draft frequently
lifted the flame over the arch, thus causing incomplete combustion
and an excessive amount of smoke. The horizontal draft ar-
rangement with burner placed in the front end of the furnace has
been found in practice to give very much better results.

Mr. Charles E. Kern is authority for the following state-
ment : "The 80,000,000 barrels of fuel oil now used annually on
the steam railroads of the country is reported to the Interstate
Commerce Commission as. 20,000,000 tons of coal and is equiva-
lent to one-seventh, speaking roughly, of the entire fuel require-
ments of the railroads of the United States. This estimate is
made upon the basis of statistics for the first six months of 1919.
During these six months the steam railroad freight service used
35,302,800 tons of coal or equivalent in fuel oil. The passenger
service used 14,770,000 tons, switching service 10,187,000 tons,
mixed special service 1,001,000 tons and stationary plants 8,200,-
000 tons. Double these figures and we have a total of about
140,000,000 tons of coal or its equivalent in fuel oil, and of the
entire amount 20,000,000 tons was, in fact 80,000,000 barrels, of
fuel oil. Thirty-six of the great steam railroad systems of the
United States use in whole or in part fuel oil. The Central
Western Division consumes annually about 21,500,000 barrels of
fuel oil. This division includes the Santa Fe, Chicago, Burlington
& Quincy, Northwestern & Pacific, Los Angeles, Salt Lake, Rock
Island, Colorado Southern, Fort Worth & Denver City, Southern
Pacific and the Arizona Eastern. The Northwestern region con-

a. Oil Burning Locomotives, The Baldwin Locomotive Works.

OIL BURNING LOCOMOTIVES 183

sumes about 6,250,000 barrels of oil as follows : Chicago &
Northwestern, 1,000,000 barrels; Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul,
1,250,000. barrels; Great Northern, 1,900,000 barrels; Southern
Pacific, 1,300,000 barrels; the Spokane, Portland & Seattle, 750,-
000 barrels ; and the Northern Pacific, 275,000 barrels. The New
York Central normally uses approximately 4,000,000 barrels of
fuel oil annually and the Delaware & Hudson about 1,800,000 bar-
rels. The Long Island road uses fuel oil. The Florida East
Coast requires about 1,000,000 barrels; the Wichita Falls &
Northwestern requires about 1,250,000 barrels; the Missouri,
Kansas & Texas, 1,250,000 barrels; Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe,
7,000,000 barrels ; the Galveston Wharf, 250,000 barrels ; Trinity
& Brazos Valley, 900,000 barrels ; Morgan's Louisiana & Texas,
6,000,000 barrels; Houston, Belt Terminal, 750,000 barrels;
Texas & Pacific, 10,000,000 barrels; Gulf Coast Lines, 5,000,000
barrels; St. Louis Southwestern, 5,000 barrels; Kansas City
Southern, 1,000,000 barrels; International & Great Northern,
1,500,000 barrels; Fort Worth Belt Line, 50,000 barrels; St.
Louis & San Francisco, 900,000 barrels; Missouri, Kansas &
Texas Railway of Texas, 3,000,000 barrels, and the Gulf, Colo-
rado & Santa Fe, 80,000 barrels."

CHAPTER XI
THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL

The importance of a nation depends upon its agricultural
resources, its fuel deposits, and its iron deposits. It is a dif-
ficult matter to determine which of these resources is the most
important or which has contributed most largely to the advance
of a country. Undoubtedly the great industrial predominance

FIG.

Iron Ore Blast Furnace.

of the United States is due to the fact that this country is rich in
all three resources. It is, however, possible that industrial
prominence depends more upon iron deposits than upon the other
two factors, because the foundation of our present industrial
structure is steel. Steel is the most important of all manufactured

184

MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL

185

products, and the development of special grades is largely respon-
sible for the enormous amount of building construction, the great
extension of railroads, and the great multiplication and expansion
of industry that has occurred in recent years. Steel is a finished
product of which iron is the raw material. The ores of iron are
red hematite (Fe2 O3), brown hematite, the limonite of the miner-
alogist (2 Fe2 O3 and 3 H ,O), magnetite (Fe3 O4), and siderite
(Fe Co3), these being mixed with more or less silica, clay, etc.,
besides containing a small percentage of manganese, phosphorus
and sulphur.

To extract the metallic content from any ore, it is necessary
to get rid of the impurities. With all metals this is done by melt-
ing the ore by intense heat and adding what is known to the metal-
lurgist as a flux. A flux is any mineral, usually lime, which

FIG. 69. The Bessemer Converter.

unites with the impurities of the ore to form a liquid slag which
floats upon the molten metal. The metal can then be drawn off
from the bottom of the furnace, but is still in a more or less
impure state and needs to be refined. This is the case with iron.
Crude iron is made in very large circular vertical blast furnaces
(see fig. 68), which are lined with refractory fire brick. In the
blast furnace ore and limestone, which is used as a flux, together
with the coke necessary for providing the intense heat, are raised
to the top of the furnace by a hoist (A) and discharged into the
hopper (B) and these materials fall into the hopper (D) at the
top of the furnace by lowering the bell (C). When the bell (E)
is lowered the materials are dropped into the furnace. The two
bells and hoppers are provided to prevent the escape of large
volumes of gas from the top of the furnace. In order to provide
sufficient air for combustion of the coke enormous volumes heated

186

FUEL OIL IX INDUSTRY

to 1,100 to 1,500 degrees F. are blown through a set of pipes
called "tuyeres'' near the bottom of the furnace at a pressure of
12 to 15 pounds per square inch. The burning coke melts the
charge, producing intense local heat. About three-quarters of a
pound of coke is used per pound of pig iron made. The air blast
coming through the tuyeres is heated by passing it through

irtKWOOD No 4
(OIL BURNER

-t BURNEF.

FIG. 70. Sketch of Oil Burning Open-Hearth.
(Courtesy of Tate-Jones & Co., Inc.)

"stoves" which are large cylindrical structures rilled with a
checker-work of fire brick. One blast furnace usually has three
or four "stoves." After the chemical action is completed within
the furnace the crude iron is drawn off into moulds called "pigs."
Pig iron, however, contains impurities which must be burned
away before a good quality of steel is produced. Of the im-
purities found in iron, graphite is unique, inasmuch as it is rarely
found in other metals. It is present in the form of flakes or thin

MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 187

FIG. 71. Water Cooled Oil-Burner in Open-Hearth Furnace.

FIG. 72. Swinging Oil Burners in Open-Hearth Furnace.
(Courtesy of Tate-Jones & Co., Inc.)

188

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

plates in sizes varying from microscopic proportions to approxi-
mately l/s sq. in., disseminated throughout the body of the metal
and forming an intimate mechanical mixture. It is necessary
that the iron from which steel is to be made be low in sulphur and
low in phosphorus, but both of these impurities are always pres-
ent and must be burned away. When sulphur is present in too

r,^j3r-<M«V),

i fO.yMete*'

r\<S ' j T-* " "
CJ»j P'KLtl^. a*- IVa.

_ _£«rj_ =r±^H-Z^i-, _

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it.

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FIG. 73. Layout of Oil System at Middletown Plant of American Rolling Mill Co.

great quantities in steel, the steel is rendered hot short, that is,
when heated, on account of the presence of the sulphur the steel
will bend or break. The amount of sulphur present for good
results should not exceed 0.06 percent. It is much better to keep
the sulphur content below 0.04 percent, which is the generally
accepted specification for open hearth steel. Phosphorus in-
creases the strength of steel but renders the metal cold short or
brittle. For constructional purposes steel should be specified with
phosphorus not to exceed 0.04 percent, which is the general
specification for open hearth steel.

Steel, like cast iron, is. an alloy of iron and carbon, or iron,
carbon and other metals. The dividing line between steel and

MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 189

190 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

cast iron is at a carbon content of 2.2 per cent, i. e., all iron with a
carbon content greater than this amount is cast iron, and all under
this amount is steel or wrought iron. The physical properties
of steel are greatly influenced by the amount of carbon, alloying
elements and impurities present. The process of manufacture
has much to do with the value of the metal for various purposes.

The general influence of carbon on steel is to give the steel
greater tenacity and also to render it harder and stiffen Man-
ganese increases the tensile strength of steel while the ductility is
probably somewhat decreased. Silicon, as an alloying element,
tends to increase the tensile strength, but to decrease the elonga-
tion and reduction of area. Nickel has a strengthening effect
without decreasing the ductility. Chromium tends to make steel
intensely hard and to give it a high elastic limit in the hardened
or suddenly cooled state, so that it is neither deformed per-
manently nor cracked by extremely violent shocks. Chromium
accelerates the case hardening process. Vanadium seems to
render the steel more homogeneous and to render the effects of
the other elements greater than in steels without vanadium, but
otherwise of a similar composition.

Steel is made from pig iron by four different methods. The
Bessemer process is the cheapest and produces the largest quan-
tity. The Bessemer process is conducted in the converter shown
in fig. 69. The crucible process and the cementation process
produce only small quantities of steel supplying the demand for
fine tools, watch springs, needles, etc. For constructional work
the most reliable method is the open hearth. In the open hearth
process a flame playing upon the open bath of the molten metal
removes the impurities. In the open hearth process pig iron,
scrap iron and iron ore are melted in regenerative, reverberatory
furnaces. Without the regenerative principle a sufficient tem-
perature cannot be maintained to keep the charge properly fused
ufter the impurities are oxidized. For this reason, air for com-
bustion is heated to over 1,000° F. before it enters the combustion
chamber. Measured quantities of ore, iron scale or other oxides
added to the bath of molten metals react with the impurities
present and serve to keep the mass thoroughly agitated. Silicon,
manganese and carbon of the pig having a greater affinity for
oxygen, oxidize first, protecting the iron of the pig and scrap
from oxidation. Any oxidized iron will form slag on coming into
contact with silica.

MANUFACTURE OF IRON AND STEEL 191

The carbon is oxidized by reaction with the iron ore. Figure

70 shows an open hearth furnace equipped with an oil burner.
Oil as a fuel for open hearth furnaces has many advantages. The
repair cost of the fuel oil burner is about 40 percent less than
when gas is used. A more even temperature may be maintained
because the heat of the furnace is easily regulated. When oil is
used a different chemical reaction takes place in the furnace and
a superior quality of steel is produced and a lower grade of scrap
iron can be used. For these reasons many large steel plants in
the East have equipped their furnaces with fuel oil burners. Fig.

71 shows an open hearth furnace at Erie, Pennsylvania, equipped
with a water-cooled oil burner. Fig. 72 shows an open hearth fur-
nace in Pittsburgh, Pa., using swinging oil burners.

FIG. 75. Charging an Oil-Burning Open-Hearth Furnace.
(Courtesy American Rolling Mill Co.)

The equipment of open hearth furnaces with oil 'burners is
inexpensive. One open hearth furnace having one burner for
each end of the furnace must have a reversing stand for reversing
the flow of the oil and when the furnace is acting as the atomizing
agent. This reversing stand is located on the charging flood. It
must also have a pumping system for pumping oil from the stor-
age tank and regulating the supply to the burner. In addition, it
must have a reducing valve for regulating the atomizing and the
necessary valves, tank and pipe. For firing open hearth furnaces
a swinging burner is commonly used. A water-cooled burner is
used when the end of the furnace is so near to the 7T~II of the

192 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

building that there is no room for a swinging burner or when the
furnaces are close together. A circulation of water through a
24-inch pipe prevents the burner from being melted off by the
heat of the furnace.

The pressure at which the oil is fed to the burner varies con-
siderably at different plants but oil at 45 pounds and air or dry
steam for atomizing at 40 pounds will probably give the best re-
sults under the average conditions. The question of whether
compressed air or dry steam is best for atomizing seems to be an
open one. About one-half of the plants use steam and the other
half air as an atomizing agent. It is very important, however,
that the steam be dry and it is usually well to put a drip in the
steam line near the furnace and in some cases provide for super-
heating the steam before it enters the burner. An air or steam
pressure reducing valve should be put in the line to cut the com-
pressor or boiler pressure down to the proper point for atomizing.

The American Rolling Mill Company of Middletown, Ohio,
in the manufacture of its Armco Iron uses fuel oil in many of
its operations. Fig. 73 shows the layout of its plant with respect
to fuel oil distribution. Fig. 74 shows the method of construction
of its oil storage tank. Fig. 75 shows the method of charging
open hearth furnaces at this plant.

CHAPTER XII
HEAT TREATING FURNACES

Heat treatment, it is generally understood, comprises the
heating of steel to a temperature slightly above the critical point ;
quenching in oil or water ; re-heating to some temperature to give
the desired physical properties and cooling slowly. Mr. James II.
Herron in the Journal of the Cleveland Engineering Society,
September, 1914, says that "the importance of determining the
correct temperature and exercising the greatest care in heating
cannot be over emphasized. This is especially true of the higher
carbon and alloy steels. If the value of the steel is not actually
impaired, a resulting condition may occur which would render
the treatment valueless.

"One of the most important forms of heat treatment is case
carbonizing or so-called case hardening. Steel to be carbonized is
packed in some carbonaceous material and heated for a given
length of time at temperatures varying from 1600 to 1750 degrees
F., depending upon the depth of penetration of the carbon desired.

"It has become common practice to give case carbonized parts
a double heat treatment, i. e., heat for the refinement of the core,
quench in oil, subsequently heat at a lower temperature for the
refinement of the case and quench in. water, after which the ma-
terial may be drawn to the extent necessary for the physical
properties desired.

"In the heat treatment of steel castings, proper annealing is
of the greatest importance. Unfortunately commercial annealing
is not what it should be, and if much is expected from the material
it should be properly annealed or heat treated. By heat treating
large steel castings with the carbon range of 0.20 to 0.60 percent
the elastic limit can be increased about 50 percent with little de-
crease in the ductility."

Mr. E. J. Janitzky, Metallurgical Engineer, Illinois Steel
Company, in the Journal of the American Steel Treaters Society,
December, 1918, gives the following discussion of the theories
of heat treatment : "Although not going too deeply into the his-
tory of the theories that have been developed. in regard to hard-

193

194

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

ening, it might be interesting to describe in non-metallurgical
phraseology their contents. There are several theories for the

FIG. 76.

A Furnace for Case Hardening and Heat Treating Geais.
(Courtesy of Tate, Jones and Co., Inc.)

hardening of steel, the more important one being the stress
theory, the carbon theory and solution theory. The stress theory
basis its contention on the high stressing of the outer shell of the

FIG. 77. Continuous Rod-Heating Furnace.
(Courtesy of Tate, Jones and Co., Inc.)

steel when shrinking onto the interior and the stress set up in
the crystal change from the hot to the cold metal. The fact that

FIG. 78. Oil-Burning, Tilting Crucible Type, Brass Melting Furnace.
(Courtesy Wayne Oil Tank & Pump Company)

FTG. 79. Tempering Bath Furnaces.

196

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

cold working hardens steel is offered in support of this theory.
The carbon theory contends that the hardness resulting from
quenching steel is due to the condition the carbon exists in in
the steel, it being recognized that carbon can easily exist in several
allotropic forms. The solution theory contends that carbon is in
solid solution with the iron. This seems to be the most logical
and all phenomena can be explained by it. It will likewise be
obvious that no theory so far presented fully satisfies for an
acceptable explanation of the phenomena involved and that new

FIG. 80. A Large Car-Type Furnace.

avenues of approach must be found to obtain a correct answer
to this apparent enigma. The most progress in heat treatment
has been attained with the advent of alloy steel. With few ex-
ceptions all alloy steels are heat treated for use, the treatment
developing in them physical properties they are capable of pos-
sessing. No general laws regarding the effects of treatment of
alloy steels can be laid down. Some steels when quenched from
a high heat are hardened and others are softened, the latter being
generally those with the higher contents of certain of the alloying
elements. In respect to the effects of heat treatment, each steel

HEAT TREATING FURNACES 197

is considered by itself. Developments in the manufacture of alloys
steel and in the heat treatment of steel have occurred somewhat
simultaneously during the past thirty years. The highest merit is
obtained from the adoption of both developments together, that
is, the use of heat treated alloy steels. Usually heat treatment has
contributed more to the superior properties of the metal than has
the use of alloys. The effect of alloying elements in alloy steels
are various, thus nickel increases the elastic limit compared to
tensility, chromium increases hardness of quenched steel, and
manganese destroys magnetic susceptibility effects, all of which
are valuable for certain purposes."

Most of the advantages of fuel oil under boilers are retained
in its use for furnaces. Oil is especially desirable in furnaces
because it gives a clean heat and one which is very readily kept
uniform. Forging and heating furnaces of all kinds can be
started and shut down instantly with fuel oil and an early attain-
ment of the maximum temperature is reached with accurate and
easy regulation, hi enameling and japanning work, especially,
where dust must be avoided, fuel oil is being used more and more.
Fuel oil is in common use in all heat treating furnaces, especially
in those for large and small annealing, tool dressing, bolt heading,
drop forging, heavy forging, rivet rod, nut punching, continuous
rod, plate and flanging, flue welding, pipe bending, pack harden-
ing, case hardening and tempering. Figs. 76, 77, 78r 79 and 80
show oil burners applied to various types of furnaces.

CHAPTER XIII

FUEL OIL IN THE PRODUCTION OF
ELECTRICITY

The production of electricity in the United States in 1919,
according to the U. S. Geological Survey, totaled 38,900,000,000
kilowatt-hours, of which 24,160,000,000 kilowatt-hours, or 62.1
percent, were produced by fuel power. During the year 1919 the
total fuel consumption for the production of electricity by public
utility plants was as follows : Coal, 35,000,000 short tons ; oil,
11,050,000 barrels; gas, 21,700,000 M. cu. ft. The quantities of
fuel consumed in January, February and March, 1920, by states,
in the production of electric power are given in Table 20. From
this table it will be seen that California, Texas, Florida, and
Arizona depend chiefly upon oil as a source of power. Table 21
shows the source of power in the United States for these three
months.

The figures for January, February and March are based on
returns received from about 2,800 power plants of 100 kilowatt
capacity, or more, engaged in public service, including central
stations, electric railways, and certain other plants which con-
tribute to the public supply. The capacity of plants submitting
reports of their operation is about 90 percent of the capacity of
all plants listed. The average daily production of electricity in
kilowatt-hours for the three months was as follows: January,
124,600,000; February, 119,800,000; and March, 121,800,000. Of
this electricity, 33 percent in January and February and 38 per-
cent in March were produced by water power.

The mean daily output for the first quarter in 1919 was
105.3 million kilowatt-hours and the mean daily output for the
first quarter of 1920 was 122.2, an increase of 16 percent.

In 1918 in California, $4,742,000 was spent for fuel oil by
companies engaged in the production of electricity. The follow-
ing description of California oil-burning installations in central
stations is of interest* :

"It has been found necessary in line with the Pacific Gas &
Electric Company's policy of continuous service to maintain

C. W. Geiger, Oil News, April 5, 1920.

198

FUEL OIL IN ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

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% steam-generating plants in the larger load centers, each plant
being capable of carrying all the connected load, in the district

TABLE 21.— SOURCES OF ELECTRIC POWER. THOUSANDS OF
KILOWATT-HOURS PRODUCED

By Water Power

By Fuels

State

January

February

March

January

February

i
March

Alabama

34,864

36,780

39,354

14,452

7,929

9,736

Arizona

8,567

6,883

8.899

6,276

5,708

6,423

Arkansas

132

120

130

9,290

8,326

9,056

California

166,806

148,839

203,595

113,446

111,797

92,222

Colorado

12,784

12,082

12,665

22,811

19,282

20,416

Connecticut

9,069

8,553

17,607

59,25b

49,801

52,120

Delaware

()

6,807

6,138

6,263

District of

Columbia

23,317

20,763

21,356

Florida

965

818

1,024

10,897

10,461

11,211)

Georgia

43,816

42,016

43,697

10,696

8,260

8,770

Idaho

48,564

43,336

43,065

1,348

1,133

1,315

Illinois

14,831

14,147

14,588

260,723

239,928

246,478

Indiana

2,943

2,741

3,637

91,817

71,503

73,351

Iowa

55,538

49,415

54,417

31,733

30,337

38,84(5

Kansas

1,741

1,240

1,598

35,913

32,391

32,916

Kentucky

23,449

21,768

22,711

Louisiana

18,126

16,755

17,884

Maine

23,491

20,866

23,658

1,577

1,614

918

^laryland

284

327

131

31,261

26,889

21,530

Massachusetts

21,987

16,248

34,367

147,914

129,365

123,042

Michigan

51,749

47,291

64,503

138,379

129,875

130,523

Minnesota

28,053

26,705

32,889

36,157

30,083

25,681

Mississippi

5,848

4,783

5,075

Missouri

5,720

3,987

4,916

54,143

52,672

53,740

Montana

89,574

90,411

104,991

596

540

515

Nebraska

909

662

668

20,436

17,305

18,028

Nevada

3,416

3,420

3,180

852

845

882

New Hampshire

4,322

4,001

5,223

5,166

4,289

2,319

New Jersey

143

102

161

101,478

88,120

94,975

New Mexico

1,593

1,447

1,529

New York

227,033

203,282

248,218

382,194

338,960

328,475

North Carolina

52,880

45,576

57,560

10,745

9,040

9,670

North Dakota

2,718

2,270

2,170

Ohio

1,490

2,101

3,222

259,335

234,061

252,803

Oklahoma

217

182

231

17,163

15,245

15,935

Oregon

32,359

28,323

32,125

7,845

8,624

7,788

Pennsylvania . . . .«

45,359

43,500

56,881

329,625

294,483

326,074

Rhode Island

355

436

719

37,114

32,599

26,876

South Carolina

60,531

52,212

55,165

5,768

4,563

4,976

South Dakota

477

474

1,162

3,382

3,258

2,789

Tennessee

39,443

31,664

40,125

9,926

11,581

9,818

Texas

231

380

55,424

49,651

53,266

Utah

13,932

14,635

18,565

Vermont

15,467

11,732

18,969

786

1,038

344

Virginia

13,809

16,441

21,310

30,435

24,240

22,219

Washington
West Virginia

103,981
1,776

94,907
2,334

98,839
2,101

4,480
96,221

2,849
83,501

3,450
94,479

Wisconsin

37,843

32,321

43,585

42,336

43,606

43,733

Wyoming

152

145

154

4,585

4,178

4,162

Total

1,277,499

1,161,543

1,418,233

2,584,839

2,313,862

2,358,869

Total by water power and fuels

3,862,338

3,475,405

3,777,102

In some of the States electricity is produced by the use of wood as fuel. During
March about 17.0 million kilowatt-hours, or 0.4 percent of the total for the month,
were produced by wood-burning plants. The following list gives the States and their
output in millions of kilowatt-hours, which produces the larger amounts of electricity
by the burning of wood: Oregon, 7.4; Minnesota, 1.7; Wisconsin, 1.3 Idaho, 1.3;
Washington, 1.1; California, 0.5; Louisiana, 0.6; and Florida, 0.4.

which it is meant to supply ; thus Station A in San Francisco,
with four turbines of capacity of 57,000 kilowatt, Oakland with
21,000 kilowatts and Sacramento with 5,000 kilowatts. Ordi-

FUEL OIL IN ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION 201

narily the steam turbines are connected in parallel with the trans-
mission line and then if the line goes out of service the turbines
automatically pick up the load. Station A in emergency cases
has generated one-third of the company's entire output. It is
operated 365 days yearly.

Probably no other electric light and power plant in the world
can handle its fuel in such large quantities and so quickly as Sta-
tion A. The oil is stored in two steel tanks, one of 25,000 bar-

FIG. 81. Oil Heaters and Pumps in California Electric Plant.

rels capacity and one of 10,000 barrels capacity. Two separate
pipe lines lead from the tanks to the company's wharf, through
which oil may be discharged from steamers.

The plant uses 5,000 barrels of fuel oil a day at the maximum
and 2,500 barrels a day on the average. The oil is heated to a
temperature of 165 to 175 degrees and fed to the furnaces at a
pressure of 65 Ibs. The fuel oil pumps discharge into a common

202

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

pipe 4 inches in diameter that leads to the burners. (See fig. 81.)
The burners are of special design, and were made by the com-
pany's workmen. Steam for atomizing the oil is supplied to the
burners at normal load of 200 Ibs., through a T\-inch hole, but
on a heavy load the steam is by-passed through a ^-inch hole.
The plant originally was equipped with 27 boilers, but with the
installation of a new 15,000-kilowatt turbine in July, 1919, four
of the original boilers were removed and eight 822 horsepower
vertical water tube boilers were installed. There are four fuel oil
pumps and four oil heaters in the boiler room. (See fig. 82.)

In December, 1908, a 9,000 kilowatt turbine was installed in
the Oakland steam plant of the Pacific Gas & Electric Company,

FIG. 82. Boiler Room Showing Piping for Oil Burners in California Electric Plant.

but in 1911 it was deemed advisable to further protect the con-
sumers of the company by installing a sister unit of greater
capacity to meet any emergency that might arise, so in 1911 a
12,000 kilowatt vertical turbine was installed. This new turbine
is supplied with steam from four 773-horsepower water tube boil-
ers of the Parker type, each boiler containing 366 four-inch tubes
20 feet long, heating surface 7,734 square feet and grade surface
48 square feet.

The turbine can be operated in parallel with the main trans-
mission lines of the company or separately on the Oakland load.
The arrangement of the plant is such that extension can be made

FC/£L O/L IN ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

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204 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

in the future without in any way interrupting the service. The
efficiency of the turbines either when floating on the line and used
for voltage regulation or in giving assistance to the transmission
lines has been fully demonstrated. Their ability to quickly take
a load in cases of emergency renders them invaluable when
viewed from the standpoint of auxiliaries to the hydro-electric
system.

The steam-generating station of 5,000 kilowatt capacity at
Sacramento is connected with the transmission lines from Col-
gate, Alto, and Folsom systems as well as the main transmission
line irom Oakland. With its installation of 5,000 kilowatts, this
plant is capable of carrying the full Sacramento district load. In
normal operation a machine is kept floating on the line, using a
minimum amount of steam, but with enough boilers under steam
to respond instantly to emergency calls. Although designed as a
stand-by or auxiliary, the fact that all the hydro-electric stations
are taxed to the full capacity will put the steam plant in constant
commission as a generating station.

The building has a structural steel frame, with walls, floors
and roof of reinforced concrete. The building is L-shaped, hav-
ing a total length of 156 feet, width 100 feet at the generation
end, and 71 feet at the boiler end of the building. The boiler
room is one story high, the height to the roof being 40 feet above
the first floor level.

The boiler room is large and well lighted and airy. The
light is from above a glass-covered monitor or weather-board
Three batteries composed of two Sterling boilers each are in-
stalled with room for an additional battery. The boilers are of
the water tube type, each containing 600 314-inch tubes, three
42-inch drums and one 18-inch mud drum. Each boiler is rated
at 822 horsepower. The high pressure steam pipes are designed
for 200 pounds steam pressure with 125 degrees superheat. Each
battery of boilers supports one smoke stack 7 feet 6 inches in
diameter, mounted on breeching. These stacks stand 100 feet
above the floor and 60. feet above the roof.

The fuel oil is fed through Peabody back shot burners, three
to each boiler. Fuel oil pumps are of the Worthington duplex
type. Provision is made to carry a full month's supply of oil
for fuel. Storage tanks are placed on the extreme east end of
-the property, about 450 feet east of the building. These are two

FUEL OIL IN ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION 205

riveted steel tanks, the capacity of each being 10,000 barrels. The
tanks are about 50 feet in diameter and 30 feet high. The tank
walls and top are supported inside by timber bracing to prevent
the tank collapsing when empty in a high wind. Each tank is
supported on a reinforced concrete pad 30 inches deep and about
50 feet in diameter. A reinforced concrete retaining wall 12
feet high and 95 feet in diameter surrounds each tank. This is
a safety precaution to hold the oil in case of a fire or of the tank's
failing. The capacity of the concrete retainer is made equal to
that of the tank.

Oil is brought to the tanks through 8-inch standard screw
piping. Provision is made for the delivery of oil from barges
on the river or from cars. On the oil wharf there is an oil mani-
fold with four 6-inch connections. Along the spur railroad which
runs in front of the building is a car manifold with four 4-inch
connections. The service oil is brought to the building through
an 8-inch pipe line encased in sawdust with a 2-inch steam line to
heat the oil. Just outside the south end of the boiler room are
two rectangular oil service tanks of 200 barrels capacity each.
These are encased in reinforced concrete. They are placed below
the ground level and are accessible through manholes.

Table 22 gives an evaporative test made at the Redondo plant
of the Pacific Light and Power Company. The data are given
through the courtesy of the Hammel Oil Burner Company. The
test was made on a 604-horsepower Babcock and Wilcox boiler
equipped with Hammel Patent Furnace and Oil Burners, the
boiler being in regular service and under the usual plant operating
conditions.

CHAPTER XIV
FUEL OIL IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY

Although sucrose or cane sugar (C12H22O11) is found in
many plants, its extraction is often unprofitable because it is
usually found in association with other substances. Only a com-
paratively small quantity of the sucrose will crystallize if dextrin,
glucose, "invert sugar," or dissolved mineral salts are present in
considerable quantities. Sugar is obtained commercially from
various sources, the most important of which are sugar cane,
sugar beet, sugar maple and the date palm. Although the sorghum
plant contains considerable sugar it has not been possible to obtain
from it a satisfactorily crystallized product, even after much
experimentation, because its sugar content varies and in addition
it contains a large percentage of gums and dextrin. As a com-
mercial product, in the peculiar flavor of maple sugar lies its only
value. When maple sugar is refined it cannot be distinguished
f ro-rn ordinary cane sugar, because it loses the maple sugar taste.
Date palm sugar is shipped for refining and is produced in India
as a low-grade crude sugar, where it is known as "jaggary."

Practically all commercial sucrose is obtained from the sugar
cane and the sugar beet. A warm and moist climate is neces-
sary for the growth of the sugar cane and there must be periods
of hot and dry weather. Sugar cane is a member of the grass
family and it is propagated by budding. A plant and several
shoots are produced from each bud and these shoots form cane
clumps. The height of the stalks varies ; some being only four
or five feet high, while some attain the height of twenty-five feet.

Practically all of the supply of sugar comes from Louisiana,
Brazil, the West Indies, the Sandwich Islands, the Philippine
Islands, Java, and Mexico. The climate suitable for sugar cane
is not suitable for sugar beets, which require a temperate climate.
Germany, France, and the United States raise great quantities of
sugar beets.

In the growing cane plant, as is the case with many fruits,
it is not until the plant reaches maturity that sucrose is secreted.

206

FUEL OIL IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY 207

Ripe sugar cane has about the following analysis :

Sugar 18 %

Fibre 9.5%

Water 71

FIG. S3. Mill for Crushing Sugar Cane.

Other matter 1.5%

After the juice is squeezed from the ripe cane its analysis is
about as follows :

FIG. 84. A Furnace Burning Begasse and Oil.
(Courtesy of Babcock & Wilcox Co.)

Water 80 %

Sucrose 18 %

Glucose 0.30%

Gums ....... i ' , «. 1.40%

Mineral Salts 0.30%

208 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

The actual yield of sugar, however, is not equal to the an-
alysis, because ordinarily 16 to 20% of the juice cannot be ex-
tracted from the waste cane pulp, which is called "begasse." The
mineral salts can *be decreased in the mature cane if the soil in
which it grows is plentifully limed, because the lime precipitates
salts deposited by surface water and the decomposition of the soil.
The preparation of raw sugar from the cane is divided into four
operations :

(1) Extraction of the juice.

(2) Clarification of the juice.

(3) Evaporation of the juice to crystallization.

(4) Separation of the crystals from the liquor.

In the field the leaves are stripped from the cane and the

FIG. 85. A Typical Filter Press.

stripped cane is taken to the mill, where it is crushed and all of the
juice extracted which it is possible to squeeze out. A great deal
of the sugar is lost if fermentation begins, and consequently
the crushing must be done very soon after the cane is cut. The
crushing mills are very simple and are made up of two or three
horizontal rolls having a diameter of 30 to 60 inches (see fig. 83).
The axes of the rolls are parallel and the bearings of the rolls are
adjustable. If the mill contains three rolls, the cane passes be-
tween the top roll and the first bottom roll and then between
the top and the second bottom rolls. The second bottom roll is
set nearer to the top roll than is the first, so that the crushing
is done in two stages. The cane is ordinarily passed through two
or three of these crushing mills and about sixty to seventy percent
of the juice is extracted. In Louisiana shredder machines are
used which consist of toothed wheels that revolve at different

FUEL OIL IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY

209

speeds. The cane is put through these wheels before it is taken to
the mills and is broken up into a soft and pulpy mass. When
cane is shredded before being sent to the mills the extraction of
the juice averages a little over 75% of the total content of
the cane. After the cane has come from the crushing mills it is
put into about ten or twelve percent of cold or hot water to which
milk of lime has been added. It is then passed through the crush-
ing mill again and an increase of two or three percent more juice
is obtained. The extracted juice runs off in the trough and the
begasse or "trash" is used for fuel under the boilers. This waste
fibre when used alone as a fuel requires elaborate and expensive
equipment for burning. In many instances begasse is the sole

TABLE 23— ANALYSES AND CALORIFIC VALUES OF BEGASSE

Source

Moisture

Ash

B. t. u. per Ib.
Dry Bagasse

Cuba . .
Cuba
Cuba
Cuba
Cuba
Porto Rico ....
Porto Rico ....
Porto Rico ....

51 50
49 .10
42.50
51.61
52.80
41 .60
43 . 50
44.20
52 10

43.15

43 74
43.61
46.80
46.78
44.28
44.21
44.92

6 00
6 08
6 06
5.34
5.74
6.66
6.31
6.27 ,

47.95
48.61
48.45
46.35
45.38
47.10
47.72
46.50

"o'.4l"
0.41
0.41

2.90

.57
.88
.51
10
.35
.35
.90
2 27

7985
8300
8240

'8359
8386
8380
8230

Louisiana
Louisiana .

54.00
51.80

8370
8371

Java

46.03

6.56

45.55

0.18

1.68

8681

fuel used, but in the more modern plants fuel oil is used to supply
the necessary additional heat units. Table 23 gives the analyses
and calorific values of begasse.a

In Hawaii, where there are modern furnace installations only
1J/2 to 2 gallons of oil are required per ton of cane treated, but
the plants in Mexico and Louisiana which have not this modern
equipment, use as much as 10 gallons of oil per ton of cane
treated. The average horsepower required for each ton of cane
handled per twenty-four hours is \y2. This means that a plant
handling 2,000 tons of cane in twenty-four hours requires 3,000
boiler horsepower. The begasse, owing to the condition in which
it comes from the mills, supplies only two-thirds of the heat units
required, and fuel oil supplies the additional horsepower.

A special design of furnace for burning fuel oil in conjunc-
tion with begasse is not necessary, because the oil burner can be
inserted above the fire doors through a hole in the boiler front.

a. Steam, Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox Co., p. 206.

210

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

The burner can be pointed so that its flame passes through the
flame from the begasse. The oil flame will form carbon if it is
cooled by coming in direct contact with the begasse. A very
satisfactory method of installing auxiliary oil burners is to place
them at the rear of the furnace so that the flame passes towards
the front. Before the introduction of fuel oil the additional heat
units necessary were supplied by coal, but fuel oil used in con-
junction with begasse shows an increase of about 20.8 percent
of boiler horsepower over that obtained by the use of coal and
begasse. Fig. 84 shows a furnace for oil and begasse.

When the juice comes from the mills it contains small pieces
of cane and these are removed by straining the juice through wire
screens. In addition to the pieces of cane the juice also contains

FIG. 86. A Centrifugal Separator.

organic acid, nitrogenous bodies, and invert sugar in solution.
These are all very susceptible to fermentation and must be re-
moved. The process of removal is called "defecation." The
juice is passed through a heater which is placed in the vapor pipe
of the vacuum pan and thence into the defecator tanks, heated by
steam coils. In these tanks milk of lime is added for neutralizing
the acids. After neutralization, the juice is left slightly acid and

FUEL OIL IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY 211

turns litmus paper red. Another function of the lime and of the
heat is to coagulate the albumin and a portion of the gums. The
juice is rapidly boiled and the coagulated material rises to the top.
The scum, consisting of lime salts which hold all the impurities
entangled in it, is usually about 2 inches thick. The scum is al-
lowed to stand about three-quarters of an hour when it begins
to crack. At this point the scum is either skimmed off or else
the juice is drawn off beneath it. The scum is run into tanks
where it is mixed with more lime and sawdust. The purpose of
the sawdust is to make the cake more porous in the subsequent
filter-pressing. The juice obtained from the filter-press (see
fig. 85) is run into the juice from the defecators and the entire
quantity of juice is now ready for evaporation. On the successful
work of defecation depends the amount and the quality of the
sugar produced.

In all modern sugar houses enormous pans are used for
evaporation. The juice is generally concentrated three times,
after which the solution will contain about fifty percent of solids,
at which point crystallization begins. The liquor is then trans-
ferred to a simple vacuum pan called the "strike" pan, where the
evaporation is continued slowly under a high vacuum with the
object of building up the crystals on the crystal points.

When the crystals have reached the desired size in the
"strike"' pan, the mixture of crystals and syrup is run into storage
tanks where it is slightly cooled. From these tanks it is run into
centrifugal separators (see fig. 86), where the molasses is sepa-
rated from the sugar. The sugar obtained in the centrifugal ma-
chine is called the "first suear" and is at once packed for ship-
ment. The first sugars, if thev are of srood quality, contain 95 to
97 percent pure suear and are lieht colored. The molasses sepa-
rated from the first sugar is called "first molasses," which con-
tains about 50 percent of sucrose. The molasses is diluted and
again defecated with lime and the clarified syrup thus obtained
is again boiled in the vacuum pans yielding a "second sugar."
The second sugar crystallizes slowly and it is necessary for the
concentrated syrup to stand from three to seven days in a room
kept at a temperature of sixty degrees C. until crystallization is
completed. The mass is then put through the centrifugal sep-
arator and yields a "second" or "molasses sugar" and second
molasses. The sugar thus obtained is not uniform in quality
and can either be shipped for what it will bring on the market

212

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

or it can be dissolved in water and the resulting syrup added to
the juice going to the vacuum pan.

It does not pay to attempt to recover the forty percent of
sugar contained in the second molasses, although it is sometimes
fermented to make rum or alcohol. It also has a fuel value and
is often injected into the furnace in a fine stream. The second
molasses is not suitable for table use or for cooking purposes.

From whatever source raw sugar is derived it is always more
or less colored and impure. To obtain pure white sugar the raw
sugar must be refined. Refining is not usually done in the same
countries that produce the raw sugar. Sugar refining is a simpler

FIG. 87. Type of Char-Filter.

process than the preparation of the raw sugar, but much ex-
pensive machinery and careful attention to detail are necessary.
The process consists in dissolving the crude sugar, separating
the impurities from it, and re-crystallizing it. Refineries usually
have the melting tanks on the ground floor. Ordinarily each tank
has a capacity of 16,000 Ibs. of sugar, to which water is added
to form a syrup of 1.25 specific gravity. This syrup contains
about 55 percent of solids. The melter which contains an efficient
mixer or stirring apparatus has a false bottom which retains the
coarse impurities such as straw, pieces of cane, leaves, sticks and
stones. Heat is supplied to the melter by closed steam coils.
The melter is filled about one-third full of water at a temperature
of 170° F., after which the stirrer is put in motion and the first

FUEL OIL IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY

213

charge of sugar is dumped in. The sugar dissolves in about 15
minutes and the liquor, which now is a light straw to dark brown
color is pumped directly to the ublow-ups." The blow-ups are
defecators which hold about 16,000 Ibs. of sugar. These defec-
ators are also heated by closed steam coils, but each defecator
also has a perforated coil through which air is forced for the pur-
pose of agitating the liquid. For centrifugal sugars the tempera-
lure is kept at 160° F., but more heat is necessary for lower
grades of sugar. This defecation removes any fine suspended
dirt, gums, organic acids and impurities.

The temperature is now raised to boiling and the air blast is
turned on for about 20 to 30 minutes. When deep cracks appear

Oil-Driven Tractor Pulling Plows on Sugar Estate.
(Courtesy of Sinclair's Magazine.)

in the scum, the liquor is poured off and passed into bag filters.
The liquid from these filters must be perfectly clear if the sugar
is to be white.

The bag filter is a long narrow bag of twilled cotton which
is supported by an outside cover of coarse, strong netting,
which can sustain a considerable weight. These bags are often
five to six feet long and eight inches in diameter. The bags are
suspended in a closed room which is about 12x6x8 feet. The
room contains an open steam coil which heats the bags to 180° F.
before the liquor is allowed to run into them. First runnings are
always re-filtered because they are muddy. When the liquor runs
clear it is collected in tanks which are placed above the char-

214 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

filters. It is customary to allow the filtration to continue for
about 24 hours because the bags become clogged with slimy mud
making the filtration very slow. At the end of 24 hours the bags
are flushed with pure water, which is drawn out by a suction pipe
and returned to the defecators. The bags are then flushed with
hot water until the liquor draining from them contains only two
percent of solids. In order to get rid of the soft mud the bags
are then turned inside out in a tank of hot water and are thor-
oughly washed and dried. The mud which is washed from the
bags contains about 20 percent sugar and is sent to special tanks
where the liquid is made strongly alkaline by lime and is then
filter-pressed. The clear liquor from the filter-press is used to
flush the bag filters and to mix with the melting water for raw
sugar. The straw colored liquor contained in the tanks above
the char-filter is now passed through the char-filter. The char-
filter is shown in fig. 87. These filters are about 24 feet deep and
8 feet in diameter and contain bone-char in grains passing a No.
16 sieve and remaining on the No. 30 sieve. About one pound of
bone-char is used for each pound of sugar melted. Because the
filter becomes clogged at times, it is often necessary to use com-
pressed air to force the liquor through the char. The filtered
liquor from the char-filter is now delivered to copper vacuum
pans, which are about 12 feet high and 10 feet in diameter. Each
pan is connected with a condenser by a goose-neck. For granu-
lated sugar the boiling is carried on at about 160° F., and is con-
tinued until grains appear, at which time some syrup is added
slowly until the crystals have reached the desired size. When the
crystals are large enough, air is slowly admitted to the vacuum
pan and the vacuum pumps are started. The magma of sugar
and syrup is drawn off through the bottom valve into coolers or
mixers, which are directly beneath the vacuum pans. In order to
prevent the grains from growing again into a mass, the magma
is stirred while cooling. The sugar and the syrup are now sepa-
rated in centrifugal machines. In the separator the sugar is
washed for the purpose of removing any adhering syrup and it is
then dropped into a storage bin, from which it is carried by a
belt conveyor to the granulator. The granulator is heated by
steam and is a long iron cylinder set at a slight incline. The cylin-
der is made to rotate slowly which prevents the grains of sugar
from sticking together. During its passage through the granu-

FUEL OIL IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY 215

lator the sugar is thoroughly dried and is then conveyed to a
series of sieve reels, where it is separated into three or four sizes.
In addition to its use in furnaces in the preparation of raw
sugar, fuel oil is also often used under boilers at the refineries. A
more recent development has made it adaptable to the preparation
of ground for the planting of sugar cane and for the transporta-
tion of the cane to the mills. In order to prepare sugar land for
the crop it must be plowed, cross-plowed, harrowed, rolled, and
furrowed. Before tractors using fuel oil were employed many
mule-teams and much labor were necessary. With the introduc-
tion of oil-driven tractors the work is performed at less than
one-third the former cost. Figure 88 shows an oil-driven tractor
drawing plows on one of the sugar estates in the Philippine
Islands.

CHAPTER XV
FUEL OIL IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY

Glass beads have been found in early Egyptian mummy cases
which are at least 3,000 years old. The glass industry also flour-
ished in Rome, but in the middle of the thirteenth century Venice
became the center of the industry and later Bohemia took the
lead in glass manufacturing.

The necessary materials for making glass are silica, some
alkali, and lime or lead. Glass is known in commerce under va-
rious names, but it is always a mixture of silicates. The silica
was formerly derived from quartz or flint, but on account of the
expense of preparation of these raw materials, quartz sand and
soft quartzites are now used except for glass of a very fine qual-
ity. Alkali is derived from the carbonate or sulphate of soda or
potash.

The first process in glass manufacture is grinding the raw
materials and thoroughly mixing them. In some instances to
insure perfect mixing the batch is reground. When a thorough
mixture is assured the batch is shoveled into the furnace together
with a certain amount of broken glass called ucullet," which melts
at a very low temperature and assists in starting the fusion of the
ground raw materials. Care must be taken that iron is present in
only minute quantity, because it turns the glass a dark green.
Where color is no objection as in common bottle glass and other
cheap grades, a larger amount of blast furnace slag can be used.

The fuel for glass making should yield a long flame without
smoke or soot. Furthermore, delicate heat control is essential.
With the use of fuel oil the losses sustained by reason of varying
and unreliable temperatures have been materially reduced. The
discovery of natural gas had a great influence on the glass in-
dustry and most of the largest plants are located in and around
Pittsburgh, because it was the center of the gas territory. Fuel
oil is now most generally used in glass making. In the burners
used in glass making only high pressure should be used for atom-
izing the oil.

There are several forms of glass furnaces. The common pot
furnace has a central opening through which the- flame and hot

216

FUEL OIL IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY

217

gases come up from the grate which is below the hearth. The
pots are placed in a circle around this opening and the flame is
deflected down to the pots by a flat arch roof. Pots for glass
making must be made of only the best material, and must be very

FIG. 89. Typical Closed Pot.
(From Outlines of Industrial Chemistry, Thorp.)

carefully constructed. There are two kinds of glass pots, open
and closed. Open pots are usually slightly greater in diameter
at the top than on the bottom. The diameter of the top is from
three to five feet and the pots are usually three to five feet deep.
They give a quick melt, but are expensive and fragile. The dimen-
sions of closed pots (see fig. 89) are: Length, 5 feet; width,

FIG. 90. Regenerative Furnace.
(From Outlines of Industrial Chemistry, Thorp.)

Zl/2 feet; height, 4 feet. Through the construction of the neck
built into the wall of the furnace neither fire gases nor flame can
come in contact with the glass. Closed pots are always used for
lead glass. Before putting pots in the glass furnace they are
heated in a special furnace with a slow rise of temperature. The
life of pots is very uncertain, but sometimes they last for months.

218

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

The regenerative type of furnace shown in fig. 90 has the air
for combustion passing through one flue in the combustion cham-

FIG. 91. Glass Tank Holding 6^ Tons Equipped with Oil Burners.
(Courtesy of Anglo-Mexican Petroleum Products Co., Ltd.)

ber then through the furnace and down the other flue. The intake
chamber heats the incoming air and the escaping gases heat the

FUEL OIL IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY

219

lining of the exhaust chamber which is made of checker- work
brick. At twenty-minute intervals the air current is reversed and
so the intake air is always well heated. The oil burner at one of
these furnaces used compressed air for atomizing the oil at 40
pounds pressure and 140° F. The walls of this type of furnace
would crack with uneven expansion and it requires approximately
three weeks to bring the furnace up to its proper working tem-

FIG. 92. Blowing Window Glass.
(Courtesy of Tide Water Oil Co.)

perature. This furnace can. also be used as a tank furnace when
a large quantity of one kind of glass is to be made. A large deep
tank replaces the pots. At one end of the tank the raw materials
are continually introduced and from the other end the glass is
constantly withdrawn. Fig. 91 shows an oil-burning glass tank
holding 6l/2 tons.

When the raw materials have become melted and the gases

220

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

formed by fusion have escaped in bubbles and the melt has come
to a state of high fusion, the liquid glass is allowed to stand at a
raised temperature. The object of this is to free the glass en-
tirely from bubbles and this part of the process is called refining.
When allowed to cool after having been fused, the glass first be-
comes pasty and then rigid. Without passing through this pasty
stage, glass blowing would be impossible, and only cut or molded

FIG. 93. Glory Hole Furnace.
(Courtesy of Tate-Jones & Co., Inc.)

ware could be manufactured. As a rule, the higher the percent-
age of silica the more difficult the glass is to fuse and the harder
and more brittle it becomes.

In the manufacture of plate glass the melted glass is poured
on a table made of thick, narrow segments of cast iron, bolted'
together and planed on top. To smooth the surface of the glass
and to give the plate uniform thickness, a heavy iron roller is
passed over the pasty mass. As soon as the plate is rolled, it is

FUEL OIL IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY 221

transferred to a furnace which is directly in front of the table
and which has been heated to the temperature of the glass. This
is called the annealing oven. When the plate has been trans-
ferred to the annealing oven it is closed and the burners are ex-
tinguished and the plate is allowed to cool for a number of days
very slowly. Upon again removing from the annealing oven, the
plate is uneven and rough. It is placed en a table and heavy cast
iron rubbers slide over its surface with a whirling motion while
water and coarse sand are sprinkled on it. About half the thick-
ness of the plate is cut away during grinding and polishing.

Window glass is always blown. After the refining, the glass
is allowed to become pasty and then the blower begins his work,
as shown in fig. 92. The pipe of the glass blower is a straight
piece of iron tubing 4 or 5 feet long. A lump gathers on the end
of the pipe and by blowing through it while whirling it between
the hands, the blower forms a hollow globe of glass. The hollow
globe is again heated in the furnace called the glory hole ( see fig.
93) and when soft is rolled on a flat surface and then swung in
a vertical circle. In order to allow room for vertical swinging,
the blower stands on a plank or bridge placed across a deep pit.
While swinging, the blower occasionally blows through the pipe
until the globe becomes a hollow cylinder closed at ©ne end and
opening into the pipe at the other. The closed end of the cylinder
is re-heated until soft and then blows out. A hollow cylinder
open at both ends is thus formed and with a diamond is cut
lengthwise and put into the flattening furnace which maintains a
temperature sufficient to soften the glass. The cylinder slowly
opens and spreads out on the floor of the furnace in a flat sheet.

The regenerative tank furnace is particularly adapted to the
manufacture of bottle glass.a A typical furnace of this kind may
be 75 feet long, 16 feet wide, and the depth to the level of the door
may be 5 feet. As the glass comes from the doors it is taken by
the bottle machine and made into bottles which are then passed
through the annealing furnace. They are carried by an endless
chain gear into the furnace to a revolving table and are conveyed
into the hottest part of the furnace, which is usually at a tempera-
ture of about 100° F. At this degree the bottles come in direct
contact with the flame and then pass out the door by another
endless chain gear. The entire operation requires about 36 hours.

a. Outlines of Industrial Chemistry, Thorp.

222 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Bottle glass is melted and refined in this tank furnace at a con-
sumption of 140 gallons of oil per ton of glass.

Fuel oil is very generally used now by the large glass fac-
tories because the flame can come in direct contact with the glass
without producing any discolorization or injuring the glass in any
way. In addition, the temperature control is perfect and many
articles that were formerly ruined by fluctuations in temperature
can now go through the process without injury, due to the main-
tenance of an absolutely uniform temperature.

CHAPTER XVI

FUEL OIL IN CERAMIC INDUSTRIES

In the manufacture of clay products any fuel which causes
discoloration by uneven heating, soot or smoke, is undesirable
and unprofitable. Coal is out of the running in the manufacture
of ceramic products, such as vases and dishes, and oil is the
preferable fuel even in manufacturing enameled, vitrified, fire and
common brick.

Many enamel ware manufacturers use the muffle kim. When-
ever it is necessary to treat the ware with two or more coats of
enamel, it is necessary to apply all but the first coat at a higher
temperature. In burning common brick about five days are re-
quired to water smoke and burn and 35 to 50 gallons of crude oil
per thousand bricks are required. A longer time, higher tempera-
ture and greater consumption of oil per thousand bricks are neces-
sary in the burning of fire bricks, but the process is similar to
that used for common brick.

In burning brick with oil the amount of fuel required varies
with the quality of clay or shale used. One large plant in Kansas
is burning brick using 100 gallons of oil per 1,000 brick. This
includes fuel for running their boilers to operate the plant. The
presence of carbon in clay is always a serious problem where
coal is the fuel, because in case the carbon is ignited and burns
freely, the fires in the furnace have to be drawn, all air supply
shut off and the carbon allowed to smolder until completely
burned out. In pulling a coal fire, the doors must be open and
an excess of air rushes into the kiln before it can be daubed, not
only checking the ware but supplying large quantities of oxygen
for combustion of the carbon in the clay which might overburn the
entire kiln. An oil fire does away with these dangers. It can be
instantly turned off or turned down and the air inlets closed with-
out loss of fuel or danger to kilns. Fig. 94 shows an oil-burning
brick kiln of a capacity of 500,000 brick.

Limestone as quarried is calcium carbonate, and its com-
position expressed chemically is CaCo3. To make quicklime,
which is CaO, it is necessary that the carbon dioxide, CO2, be
driven off by heat. Carbon dioxide begins to come off at a tem-

223

224

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

perature of about 750 degrees F., but a temperature of over 1,300
degrees is required to completely reduce the stone to calcium
oxide. There are always some impurities present in the original
limestone and the actual yield of quicklime varies from 30 to 55
percent of the limestone. The different quarries produce lime-
stone of different densities and consequently the difficulty of re-
ducing the stone to quicklime varies. The dense and compact
stones yield the best quality of lime.

The old method of burning lime in the "periodic" kilns is
wasteful of fuel and time. This type of kiln is shown in fig. 95.

FIG. 94. An Oil-Burning Brick Kiln.
• (Courtesy of W. N. Best, Inc.)

The kiln is made of large blocks of limestone or of brick. Two
or three feet from the ground an arch (A) of large blocks of
limestone is turned. The fire is built under the arch and the lime-
stone is piled on top of the arch, the lumps varying in size from
that of a cocoanut just above the arch to that of a goose egg at
the top of the kiln. After the fire is started, the temperature is
raised very slowly for six or eight hours to prevent the limestone
arch from crumbling. After this interval the temperature is kept
at a full red heat for two days or more when the fire is allowed
to burn out and the kiln cools. During the time of cooling, dis-
charging and recharging, the kiln is idle and much time is lost.
Moreover a large amount of fuel is wasted in heating the walls
of the kiln after each recharging.

FUEL OIL IN THE CERAMIC INDUSTRY 225

When fuel oil is used in burning lime all the disadvantages of
the periodic kiln are eliminated because the production is con-
tinuous. Furthermore, oil burned lime commands a ready market
because of its greater cleanliness. There are two types of kiln

FIG. 95. A Periodic Lime Kiln.

which have proven remarkably successful with fuel oil. One, the
"continuous" kiln, is vertical and this kiln should be charged with
lumps of stone about the size of a man's head. If the temperature
is too low or the lumps too large, the stone will not be calcined to
the center and the lumps will not slake. At the burning zone the
width of the kiln should not exceed eight feet, because with a

FIG. 96. Oil-Burning Rotary Cement Kiln.
(Courtesy of W. N. Best, Inc.)

greater width the heat may not penetrate to the center of the
charge. The combustion chamber should be large enough to
allow combustion to take place before the oil enters the kiln, thus
insuring a soft, long flame and permitting the gases to pass readily
to the center of the kiki. A low pressure air burner is preferable

226 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

for this purpose and it should be so constructed as to thoroughly
atomize the oil. Air should be admitted around the burner, giving
complete combustion by passing through the flame.

The second type is called the "rotary" kiln, shown in figs. 96
and 97. This type had been universally adopted for the burning
of Portland cement, and its proven efficiency showed its adapt-
ability to lime burning when the lime is to be ground and hydrated.
The lime produced in the rotary kiln is broken into fine pieces and
consequently is not desirable for building lime. The size of the
rotary kiln for lime burning is regulated to a great extent by the
desired capacity, and there is a difference of opinion as to the
proper diameter and length to secure the most economical results.
The idea of the rotary kiln was first conceived by Crampton in
1877, but no practical application was made till Ransom patented
his design in England in 1885. The rotary kiln is really nothing
more than a plain cylindrical tube supported by four or five sets
of heavy roller bearings and driven by a train of gear wheels The
revolving speed is controlled by regulators and is from 1 to 2l/2
R. P. M., depending upon the material to be burned. The tube is
inclined towards the discharge end at an inclination of one to
twenty-five. The rotation of the cylinder by reason of its in-
clination slowly advances the material toward and out of the
lower end. The most popular sizes of rotary kilns for the larger
plants are 7 to 7^2 feet in diameter by 100 to 125 feet in length.

The great Air Nitrates plant at Muscle Shoals, Alabama,
built by the government, has 8 by 125 ft. rotary kilns for burning
the lime used in the electric furnaces in the first step of the
process. Repairs are very low in the moving parts of a rotary
kiln and its life is about 20 years.

The disposal of the large quantities of lime sludge that are
daily produced in the causticizing operation by those pulp mills
using the soda or the sulphate process and by the alkali works,
has long been a serious problem. The lime has so much actual
value that it should not be thrown away. The price paid for lime
probably averages $4 per ton f . o. b. plant, and the cost of dispos-
ing of the waste sludge is at least 25c per ton. This means that
the waste sludge has a value of $4.25 per ton if burned back to
lime. About 1900 the western beet sugar plants began to use
the rotary kiln for re-burning their spent lime. The results have
been perfectly satisfactory and today such installations are com-
mon. Lime sludge can be re-burned far more cheaply than new

FUEL OIL IN THE CERAMIC INDUSTRY 227

lime can be bought. It is, of course, impossible to re-burn the
same lime indefinitely, as it gradually becomes contaminated from
constant use, mainly from the linings of the kilns. The custom-
ary practice is to introduce a certain quantity of new lime into
the circuit periodically. This usually amounts to about 15% of
the lime used. The quality of the recovered lime depends to a
great extent on the quality of the original stone from which it
was produced.

Portland cement is manufactured from a mixture of ma-
terials containing lime and silica in definite proportions. The
raw materials are usually limestone in some form and clay or

FIG. 97. Oil-Burning Rotary Cement Kiln.

shale. The materials are pulverized raw and mixed either in the
form of a dry powder or in a wet condition and are then delivered
to the rotary kiln in which the required chemical changes take
place. The temperatures required for burning cement clinker are
from 2,800 to 3,000 degrees F. To withstand these high tempera-
tures a lining having high refractory qualities must be employed.
It must also have the quality of withstanding decomposition by
the chemical action taking place within the kiln.

During the passage of the mixed material through the kiln
there are two stages of physical and chemical changes. Water
and carbon dioxide are driven of? at an average temperature of

228 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

1,800 degrees F. in the first stage and in the second the burned
mass is fused to clinker at high temperatures.

The rotary kilns used in cement plants vary in dimensions,
but the tendency is toward greater length and diameter. In 1890
they were about 4 feet in external diameter and 40 feet long.
At present they are 8 to 12 feet in diameter and 200 to 275 feet
long. The economy of the kiln has been greatly increased by
increasing its length and this is in .part due to the carbon dioxide
being driven off from the materials before they reach the com-
bustion zone in the kiln and in part to the reduction of heat losses.
With long kilns the average amount of oil required to burn one
barrel of cement is 11 gallons.

In handling oil for fuel it is necessary to provide storage
tanks of sufficient capacity to keep the plant running for a rea-
sonable period of car blockade or other possible failure of the
source of supply. They must also be erected far enough from
the rest of the plant to avoid fire hazard and yet sufficiently near
to eliminate long pipe lines. For unloading from tank cars it is
usual to provide a steel or concrete sump, to which the oil is
emptied directly and from which it flows by gravity or is pumped
to the storage tanks. The latter in turn connect with, say, 1,000-
gal. "measuring tanks," from which the daily supply is taken into
the plant. Further pumps, then, must be provided to send
the oil to the kiln burners under pressure, or the same effect can
be produced by gravity if a side hill unloading and storage suf-
ficiently above kiln level is feasible. Where oil pumps are used, it
is desirable to have them in duplicate, and also to have a duplicate
or ring system of piping, so that any section can be cut out or by-
passed if repairs become necessary.

Before being" admitted to the burner spray nozzles, the oil
must have its temperature raised sufficiently for atomizing in a
steam heater designed for this purpose. The low-pressure system
requires a blower, but the high-pressure system takes a com-
pressor, about the same actual volume of free air being drawn
through the intake in either case. The high-pressure system
effects a much better atomizing of the oil but, of course, it costs
considerably more for the compressor, motor, electric current and
other running expense.

For each rotary kiln two oil burners or multiples thereof are
ordinarily used, one being equipped with a round-point nozzle

FUEL OIL IN THE CERAMIC INDUSTRY 229

and the other with a flat nozzle. The former is designed to throw
the flame to the rear of the kiln and the latter to hold the flame
near to the front. By this arrangement of nozzle units and proper
regulation of the burner, the temperature can be accurately con-
trolled at any point in the kiln.

The competitors of fuel oil at cement plants are natural gas,
producer gas, and powdered coal, of which the last competes most
actively. The advantages of oil over coal are obvious. It can be
transported with much greater facility; no coal drying, grinding,
or conveying machinery is necessary ; the kiln can receive its sup-
ply of fuel in a minimum of time simply by turning a valve ; and
the supply can be regulated with the greatest ease.

CHAPTER XVII

HEATING PUBLIC BUILDINGS, HOTELS AND
RESIDENCES

The increasing cost of coal and the uncertainty of obtaining
a supply when it is most needed have brought about a steadily
increasing use of fuel oil for the heating and lighting plants of
public buildings, hotels, apartment houses, and private residences
and for many domestic purposes.

A direct comparison of the cost of one million B. t. u. of coal
and one million B. t. u. of oil is not an index to the desirability of
burning oil under the boilers of these plants. It is necessary to
consider also the freedom from smoke and dust which fuel oil
burning insures and it is also necessary to remember that during
the spring and fall months very little heat is required to provide a
comfortable temperature in buildings. If coal is used, the con-
sumption of fuel must continue after this temperature is attained,
but oil burners can be shut off, stopping fuel consumption, when
the desired temperature is reached. Table 21 gives the percent-
ages of total fuel for the season required for the different months.

TABLE 24— MONTHLY FUEL REQUIREMENTS IN PERCENTAGES
OP TOTAL FOR SEASON

State

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

New York

;{

Michigan

Pennsylvania . .

Ohio

Missouri

The ease with which fuel oil burners respond to peak load de-
mands for heat and light makes them especially desirable for office
buildings. Elimination of the expense of ash removal when burn-
ing oil is also a point to be considered.

Fig. 98 shows the oil burner installation at the San Francisco
Hospital. The San Francisco Hospital consists of ten buildings,
costing $3,500,000, and is maintained by the City and County of
San Francisco for the treatment of its sick poor. It has accom-
modations for 1,000 patients. It is the practice at the hospital
plant to heat the oil to a temperature of about 270 degrees, forcing

230

HEATING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUILDINGS 231

it through the burner tip at about 130 pounds pressure. The sy^
tern consists primarily of two duplex oil pumps and two oil heat-
ers and burner. Two pumps and two heaters are provided, so

FIG. 98. Oil-Burner Installation at San Francisco Hospital.

that in case of a breakdown, or in case of overflow, there will
always be one pump and one heater in reserve. About 50 barrels
of fuel oil are used each day, the supply being carried in a 12.000-

FIG. 99. Sectional View of Firebox Construction of a Schoolhouse Hot-air Furnace.
(Courtesy of Fess System Co.)

gallon steel tank placed under the floor of the fire room. As a
protection the steel tank is surrounded with a brick wall. The
power plant consists of four 250-horsepower Heine boilers, and

232

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

the entire boiler room is looked after by one fireman. Since the
plant was installed ,six years ago, it has never been shut down.
It is absolutely necessary that this plant be in constant operation
because the hospital is completely isolated from all outside
sources of power. Electricity for power and light are generated
by four 125 kilowatt Curtis turbine generator units. There are
138 motors throughout the hospital which operate the equipment
of the hospital. All steam and hot water for the hospital is sup-
plied by the power plant.

Fuel oil is peculiarly adapted to school power plants. Fig. 99
gives a sectional view of a schoolhouse hot-air furnace. Fig. 100
shows the oil-burning equipment now installed in all new San
Francisco schools.

FIG. 100. Oil-Burner Equipment Installed in San Francisco Schools.

During the coal famine in Chicago in the winter of 1919,
many of the Chicago schools installed fuel oil burners. The oil-
burning systems were installed and burning in four days.a The
installation provided at the schools has the steam-atomizing pres-
sure system of supplying oil to boiler firing. For conditions such
as obtained at the schools selected, this was the quickest and most
economical, as well as the simplest installation that could be
made. The equipment consisted of storage tank, or tanks, duplex
steam-driven oil pump, steam and oil piping, oil burners, and a.
small auxiliary boiler. The following description, with minor
variations, will outline a typical installation :

Two horizontal, steel storage tanks, 6 ft. in diameter by 12 ft.
long, each having a capacity of 2,000 gallons of oil, were installed.

a. Oil News, Jan. 5, 1920, p. 38.

HEATING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUILDINGS 233

These tanks were so inter-connected by piping as to permit of
either tank being drawn from or filled separately, thereby insur-
ing an uninterrupted service of oil to the burners. Inside each
tank and surrounding the suction pipe, a pipe coil was placed,
through which the exhaust steam from the oil pump is discharged
for the purpose of heating up the oil sufficiently to keep it in a

FIG. 101. Fuel Oil Burner Installation in Chicago Schools.

free-flowing condition during cold weather. As the tanks are
located outdoors and exposed to all degrees of weather, they were
insulated with hair felt and a weather-proof covering in order
to conserve the heat supplied from the exhaust-steam coil and
to keep the whole mass of oil in as free-flowing condition as pos-
sible. A by-pass from the live-steam line to the exhaust-steam

234

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

line was provided, so that when occasion requires live steam can
be used for heating the oil.

A two-inch pipe was run from the tanks to the oil pump to
provide suction to the pump, and a pipe 1^4 m- m diameter was
run from the pump and along the front of the boiler, from which
a connection was provided to each burner. A pressure relief valve
was installed in the discharge line from the pump and releasing
into the suction line. This valve affords relief in case the pres-
sure on the discharge line should go higher than desired. A
pressure gauge was installed on the discharge line so that the
operator can know at all times the pressure of oil supplied to
(he burners.

FIG. 102. Boiler Room of a Modern 60-Room Apartment Hotel.

The main steam header in the boiler room was tapped and a
connection made for the branch steam line to supply steam for
operating the oil pump and for atomizing the oil at the burners.
A connection was made from this branch line to each burner.

The pump for supplying oil under pressure to the burners is
an ordinary duplex, piston-type steam pump, equipped with a con-
trol governor for maintaining a steady pressure on the oil dis-
charge line.

To furnish steam for operating the oil pumping system when
the main boilers are cold, an auxiliary upright "Donkey" boiler

HEATING PUBLIC AND PRIVATE BUILDINGS 235

of 6 to 10 H. P. capacity was provided. As soon as steam is
raised on the main boilers this auxiliary boiler is cut out of the

103. Fuel Oil Heating a Residence Boiler and a Brick

Kitchen Range.
(Courtesy of The Fess System Co.)

system and the fire allowed to die out. Fuel for firing the small
boiler is largely furnished by the paper and refuse collected from
the school rooms on the preceding day.

FIG. 104.

(Courtesy W. S

Oil-Burner Applied to Hotel Range.
. Ray Mfg. Co.)

Fig. 101 shows the installation in the Chicago schools.

Owners of large and small apartment houses have been quick
to see the advantages and the ultimate economy of burning fuel
oil. Fig. 102 shows the boiler room of a modern 60-room apart-

236

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

ment house. The oil is pumped from an underground tank 100
feet distant. This equipment operates one low-pressure steam-
heating boiler and one water heater. This building is furnished
with a steady steam pressure automatically regulated at four
pounds gauge pressure, and with hot water at 140°.

Steam heating companies usually estimate that each square
foot of direct steam radiation will require 500 Ibs. of steam per
season. In Federal buildings with a heating and ventilating
apparatus, each 7,000 cu. ft. of contents will require 1 boiler horse-

FIG. 105. Oil-Burner Applied to Bakers' Ovens.
(Courtesy of S. T. Johnson Co.)

power. Under normal conditions 1 B. H. P. will supply 138 sq.
ft. of radiation. One square foot of steam radiation gives off
about 260 B. t. u. per hour and 1 square foot of water radiation
gives off about 160. One B. t. u. will raise the temperature to 55
cu. ft. of air 1 degree F. One pound of oil will evaporate
approximately 12 Ibs. of water per hour in a heating boiler and
100 sq. ft. of radiation will require 33 1/3 Ibs. of water per hour.
Fig. 103 shows a sectional view of a residence where fuel oil
is used for the heating boiler and in a brick set kitchen range.
Fig. 104 shows a fuel oil burner applied to a hotel range. The
close regulation of heat possible with an oil burner makes fuel
oil an ideal fuel for ranges and for bakeries. Fig. 105 shows a
bakers' oven burner.. When firing is finished this burner swings
back out of the way and lies flat against the side of the oven.

CHAPTER XVIII

OIL IN GAS-MAKING

William Murdock of London, first employed coal gas for
illuminating houses, and his system was introduced for lighting
the streets of London in 1812 and for lighting the streets of Paris
in 1815. Since the introduction of Murdock's system, gas lighting
has developed remarkably.

The gas produced during the carbonization of coal is a mix-
ture of fixed gases, vapors of various kinds, and at times also
globules of liquids held in suspension and carried forward by the
gas. Water-gas is produced by the action of steam on incandes-
cent carbon and is composed chiefly of hydrogen and carbon mon-
oxide. Water-gas is not luminous, but has a high heat value. The
luminosity of a gas depends upon the presence of hydrocarbons,
and in order to render water-gas luminous it is carbureted with
gases derived from oil which are rich in illuminants. Illuminating
water-gas can be made by two general methods :

( 1 ) The carburetted gas is made in one operation.

(2) Non-luminous gas is prepared and then carburetted by
a second process.

There are several systems for making oil-gas which are dis-
tinguished from those known as carburetted water-gas systems.
Among these may be mentioned the Pintsch, the Blaugas, and the
Peebles process. In all of these the oil gas is made by cracking
the oil in retorts. In the Pintsch process a transverse partition
divides the retort into an upper and lower chamber. In the upper
chamber the oil is cracked and vaporized, the vapor passing into
the lower compartment, which is heated to nearly 1000 C., where
permanent gases are formed. In the Peebles process the oil is
only partly cracked, and only the very volatile hydrocarbons leave
the apparatus. In the Blaugas process gas-oil is conducted into
the retorts just as it is in the manufacture of Pintsch and other
oil gases and is vaporized and decomposes in this retort under the
temperature of about 550 to 600 degrees C., this low temperature
being employed to prevent the production of a large percentage of
fixed gases. After the oil has thus been distilled the gas is con-

237

238

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

ducted in the usual manner through coolers, cleaners and scrub-
bers in order to remove the tar from the gases, and the gases are
then conducted into large holders for storage.

From the holder the gas is drawn into a three-stage or four-
stage compressor, where it is compressed to 100 atmospheres.
Under this pressure the oil gas is reduced to 1 /400th of its volume,
the gas so obtained being of a specific gravity approximately the
same as atmospheric air. It has a calorific value of about 1,800
B. t. u.'s per cu. ft., or approximately three times the heat value
of ordinary city gas.

FIG. 106. Apparatus for Gas Making by Lowe Process.
(From Outlines of Industrial Chemistry, Thorp.)

The manufacture of oil-gas by the three processes mentioned
is for the purpose of transporting it for the lighting of railway
cars or isolated buildings, and also for steel and cast iron welding,
brazing, soldering and for all other purposes where a uniform gas
with high heat units is essential. About eight gallons of oil are re-
quired per 1,000 cu. ft. of gas.

By far the greatest consumption of oil in gas manufactured
is in the manufacture of carburetted water-gas. The process for
the manufacture of carburetted oil-gas was devised by Prof. Lowe
in 1874. The Lowe process is carried out as follows :

The generator (Fig. 106) is filled with anthracite coal or

OIL IN GAS-MAKING

239

coke, which is brought to incandescence by a blast of air. The
gases from the generator, at this time consisting mainly of carbon
monoxide and nitrogen, enter at the top of the carburetor, a
circular chamber lined with firebrick, and containing a "checker-
work" of the same material ; while passing down through this, the
gas is partly burned by an air blast which enters the apparatus
near the top, and the checker-work is heated white hot. The
gases pass on to the ''superheater,'' a taller chamber, also filled
with checker-work. At the bottom of this an air blast is intro-
duced to complete the burning of the producer gas and to raise
the temperature of the checker-work to a very bright red heat.

FIG. 107. Charging Floor of Gas-Generating Apparatus in which Oil Is Used for

Enrichment.
(Courtesy Tide Water Oil Company.)

From the top of the superheater, the waste gases escape into a
hood leading into the open air. When both the carburetor and
superheater have reached the desired temperature, the air blasts
are cut off, and the steam is introduced into the generator, where it
is decomposed by the incandescent fuel, according to the reactions.
The water-gas thus formed passes into the carburetor, while
a small stream of oil is being introduced through a pipe at the top.
The oil is decomposed by contact with the hot checker-work, form-
ing illuminating gases which mix with the water-gas, and, passing
into the superheater, are completely fixed as non-condensable
gases.

240 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

It is customary to run the air blast for some eight minutes,
when the fuel reaches a temperature of about 1100° C. The
steam, superheated before entering the generator, is run about six
minutes, until the temperature of the generator and carburetor
has fallen below the point at which decomposition occurs. In or-
der to economize heat, the hot carburetted gas is passed through
a pipe surrounded by a jacket, within which the oil is circulating,
thus heating it before it enters the carburetor. The lower end of
the pipe leading from the superheater is closed by a water seal to
prevent any backward rush of the gas during the operation of the
air blast. It is customary to lead the gas from the superheater
into a storage holder, from which it is drawn through the purify-
ing apparatus. In this process, the blowing of air and of steam
are intermittent, but the actual formation of gas is accomplished
in one operation. The impurities in the water-gas are essentially
the same as those in coal gas, and the method of washing and
purifying are the same.

In the making of carburetted water-gas of 535 B. t. u.'s per
cu. ft. about three gallons of gas oil are required. As the B. t.
u.'s per cu. ft. increase the amount of oil necessary for the man-
ufacture of the gas increases, and if gas of 600 B. t. u.'s per cu. ft.
is required, approximately 3.75 gallons of oil per 1000 cu. ft. are
necessary. Generally gas-makers assume a consumption of 3^
gallons per 1000 cu. ft. of carburetted water-gas. Fig. 107
shows the charging floor of a gas generating apparatus in which
oil is used for enrichment.

APPENDIX
USES OF FUEL OIL

Feul oil has come into general use in the industries and its
use is not limited geographically. A list of the purposes for
which fuel oil may be used would comprise every known industry.
It is in common use, however, for the following purposes :

Annealing Furnaces

Asphalt Mixers

Assay and Fusion Furnaces

Babbit Melting

Billet Heating

Bake Ovens

Boiler Making

Bolt Furnaces

Brazing and Dip Brazing

Breweries

Brick Making

Bullion Melting

Candy Furnaces

Canneries

Case Hardening

Cement Works

Cement Kilns

Cloth Singeing

Continuous Heating

Cook Stoves

Copper Melting

Core Drying

Cranes

Cremating

Crucible Furnaces

Cupel lation Furnaces

Cycle Making

Drop Forging

Electric Power Plants

Enamelling

Fire Engines

Fo'undries

Galvanizing

Gas Making

Glass Making

Glass Melting

Glass Binding

Gold Cyanide Smelting

House Heating

Incinerators

Japanning

Ladle Heating

Lead Baths

Lead Melting

Locomotives

Nut Making

Ore Smelting

Petroleum Distillation

Pipe Bending

Plate Heating

Pottery Baking

Pumping Works

Ranges

Rivet Heating

Rivet Making

Rolling Furnaces

Rotary Kilns

Sand Drying

Screwmaking

Shaft heating

Shipbuilding

Shovel Making

Smelting

Silver Refining

Smithy Work

Spring Tempering

Steam Cranes

Steam Shovels

Steam Boilers

Steel Melting

Sugar Refining

Tea Drying

Tempering

Tilting Furnaces

Tinplate Making

Tin Smelting

Tractors

Tool Making

Tube Making

Tire Heating

Water Heaters

Welding

Wire Annealing

Wire Making

Zinc Distillation

241

Index

A Page

Advantages of fuel oil 59

in steam navigation 159

for locomotives 171

Air, composition of 6

physical changes in, due to temper-
ature 15

Air nitrates plant, lime kilns at.... 226
American Society for Testing Mate-
rials, flash point test of 30

viscosity test of 20

Andrews, < H. P., concrete tank speci-
fications 81

Appendix 241

Arrangement of boiler furnaces 132

Asphaltic petroleum 17

Atomizer pressures 148

in Santa Fe locomotives 181

Atwater calorimeter 36

Page

Babcock and Wilcox oil furnace....

Baffling oil furnace

Bagasse, See Begasse.
Bakers' Ovens, oil burners applied to
Baldwin Locomotive Works, oil burn-
ing equipment used by

Barges for carrying fuel oil

Barometric pressure

Baume hydrometers

Baume scale, specific gravity equiva-
lents of

Begasse, analysis of 207,

as fuel

calorific values of

Bessemer converter

Best, W. N., discussion of atomiza-

tion •

Blaugas process of gas making

Bohnstengel, Walter, description of

Santa Fe locomotives

Boiler efficiency for excess air supply
Boiler furnaces for oil burning, ar-
rangement of

Boilers, Babcock and Wilcox, fuel oil
burner under

return tubular, fuel oil burner un-
der

Scotch-Marine, fuel oil burner un-
der

Stirling water tube, fuel oil burner
under

Types of

Vertical tubular, fuel oil burner

under

Booth oil burner

Brass-melting furnace

Brick-making, fuel oil in

British thermal unit, definition of...
Bunkering stations of Shipping Board
Burners,

atomizer

chamber

drooling

mechanical

injector

oil, types of

oil, U. S. N. Liquid Fuel Board
report on

projector

spray

vapor

Burner tips, types of...

Burning point of fuel oil

Butler Manufacturing Company, tank
prices

142
140

230

180
71
34
27

209
207
209
185

154
237

177

132
142
141
139

140
132

138
177
195
223
35
160

148
148
148
146
148
145

145

148
148
145
152
35

Calorific value of colloidal fuel

of coal 49

of fuel oii 3,->t 44

Calorimeters, description of .' 35

standard types .' . 30

Carbon, air requirements for 6

combustion of . 6

Carburetted water-gas,

manufacture of 238

oil required for 240

Car type furnace 196

Case hardening furnace 194

Centimeters to inches, conversion of 34

Centrifuging 39, 40

Ceramic industries, fuel oil in 223

Chamber burners 148

Charging an oil burning open-hearth

furnace 19J

Chicago regulations for oil storage.. 108
Chicago schools, oil burning equip-
ment for 232

Chimney design for oil burning 143

Clay products, manufacture of 223

Cleveland open-cup tester 30

Closed-cup testers, types of 30

Coal, analysis of 49

ash in 49, r>0, 52

bituminous 45

classes of 43

compared with fuel oil 44

moisture in 50, 51

production of 45

pulverized 53

sizes of 47

testing of 44

Coal fields in U. S 47

Coen hinged firing front Iu6

Colloidal fuel, B. t. u.'s in 63

definition of 61

fixateur for 67

percent of coal suspended in 65

Concrete storage tanks 81, 98

concerns using in U. S 88

Combustion, efficiency of 6

principles of fuel oil 5

Conversion of centimeters to inches. 34

COo and fuel losses 10

content in flue gasses 8, 12

Crude petroleum,

classes of 17

composition of 17

Disadvantages of using fuel oil.,... 60
Distribution of fuel oil ............. 69

to consumer .................... 114

Drooling burner .................. 148

modifications of ............. 150. 151

Efficiencies, fuel oil vs. powdered coal 56
Electricity, fuel oil in production of. 198
amount of fuel consumed in pro

duction of 199

Electric power, sources of 200

Engler viscosimeter 20, 23, 24

Evaporative values, coal vs. oil 178

Explosives, combustion of 5

Factor for equivalent evaporative

values 17&

Federal buildings, boiler horsepower

for 236

Filters 112. 117

INDEX

243

Page

Filter press, type of 208

Flashpoint of fuel oil 19, 30

Flue gas analysis, typical 12

Fuel consumed in production of elec-
tric power 199

Fuel oil,

air requirements for combustion of 7

B. T. U.'s in 39

burning point of 35

burner tips for 1*2

calorific value of 35, 41

chemical combustion of 6

compared with coal 44

compared with pulverized coal.... 56

combustible elements of 6

consumed by railroads 177, 182

definition of 19

distribution of 69

flash point of 19, 30

for locomotives, advantages of.... 171

in ceramic industries 223

in gas-making 237

in glass industry 216

in manufacture of iron and steel. 184

in open-hearth furnaces 186, 187

in Portland cement manufacture. . 227

in production of electricity 198

in steam navigation 157

in the sugar industry 206

moisture in 6, 39

physical and mechanical properties

of 17

specific gravity of 27

specifications of 19

storage of 69

sulphur content of 40

tests of 20

under boilers 132

viscosity of 20

water content of 39

Fuel oil burners,

mechanical 146

spray 148

types of 145

vapor 145

Fuel oil storage 69

Chicago regulations 108

National Fire Protection Associ-
ation Rules 94

New York City regulations 103

regulations for 94

Furnaces, heat treating 193

Furnace design, for oil burning. . . . 132
fundamentals of 134, 136

Gas oil, definition of 19

for gas making 240

Gasoline, definition of 19

Gas making, oil in 237

process of 238

Gasses, flow of in furnaces 134

flue, analysis of 12

testing of 8

velocity of in furnace 133

Glass, composition of 216

furnaces, forms of 216

industry, fuel oil in 216

Glory hole furnace, in glass making. 220

Golden Gate U. S. R. C., steam

trials of 168

Haney, Jiles W., discussion of me-
chanical burners 147

Heaters, for fuel oil systems 118

Heating, by steam 102, 117

hotels, by fuel oil 230

public buildings, by fuel oil 230

residences, by fuel oil 230

Page

Heat treating furnaces 193

Hotel heating 230

Hotel ranges, oil burners for 235

Humidity, boiler efficiency affected by 14

Hydrogen, air requirements for 6

combustion of 6

Hydrometers,

Baume 27

determination of specific gravity by 27

proper method of reading 28

Injector burners 148

J
Janitzky, E. J., discussion of heat

treatment . 193

Kerosene, definition of...
Kilns, lime, fuel oil in..
Kroeker calorimeter

Layout of oil system

Lime burning, fuel oil in

Lime kilns, types of

Limestone, composition of

Lieutenant de Missiessy, steamship.
Liquid fuel,

advantages and disadvantages of.
Locomotives, oil burning

oil first burned in

fuel results, Santa Fe system

Santa Fe, atomizer burners in...
Lowe process of gas-making

224

188
224
224
223
169

59
171
171

179
181

238

Mahler calorimeter , . 36, 38

Manoa, S. S., fire room of 165

Manufacture of iron and steel, fuel

oil in 184

Mariposa, S. S., fuel oil data of.... 161
Martin, K. L., discussion of furnace

design 138

Master Car Builders' Association speci-
fications 76

Mechanical oil burners 146

Mexican railway storage tanks 78

Mill for crushing sugar cane 207

Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad,

fuel oil data of 172

Monthly fuel requirements for heat-
ing buildings 230

N
National Fire Protection Association,

rules for oil storage 94

Navigation, steam, fuel oil in 157

New York City regulations for oil

storage 103

Oceanic Steamship Company's steam-
ers 170

Oils, American, calorific values of . . . 41

sulphur in 41

used as fuel 18

Oil, in ceramic industries 223

in gas-making 237

in glass industry 216

in heat treating furnaces

in manufacture of iron and steel.. 184

in Portland cement manufacture.. 227

in production of electricity 198

in steam navigation 157

in sugar industry 206

Oil barges 71

244

INDEX

Page
Oil burners,

mechanical 146

spray type 148

types of 145

vapor 145

Oil burning locomotives 171

railroads using 174

Oil burner tips 152

Oil heaters 117

spiral 118

types of 118

Oil storage tanks, construction of... 189

Oil system, layout of 188

Oil tankers 69, 70, 71

Open-cup testers, types of 30

Open-hearth furnaces, fuel oil burn-
ing 186

Orsat apparatus 8, 11

Paraffin petroleums 17

Peebles process of gas-making 237

Pensky-Martens closed-cup tester... 30

Periodic lime kilns 224

Petroleum, asphaltic 17

composition of 17

crude, as fuel 17

paraffin, occurrence of 17

products of 17

Philippine Vegetable Oil Co 70

Pintsch process of gas-making 237

Piping 95, 101, 107, 112, 113

Pipes, steam, for heating oil. .. .117, 124

Plate glass, manufacture of 220

Portland cement,

Advantages of oil in manufacture

of 229

Composition of 227

fuel oil in manufacture of 227

Pressure on oil circuit, regulation of. 122

Prices of steel storage tanks 80

Pulsometer, in oil burning system . . . 125

Pulverized coal 53

compared with fuel oil 56

efficiency of 56

Pumping systems for burners. .. 117, 124

Railroad companies, fuel oil con-
sumed by 177

Railroad storage tanks 74,77

Railways using fuel oil 174

Redwood viscosimeter 23

equivalent readings for 25

Regenerative furnace in glass-making. 218

Regulating 117

Regulation of pressure in oil circuit 122
Regulators in oil burning systems. . . 126

Reinforced concrete reservoir 83

Reservoir storage tanks 81

Residence heating 236

Return tubular boiler, fuel oil burner

under 141

Rickard, S. D., essential points in oil

burning system 155

selection of storage tanks 78

Rod-heating furnace 194

Rotary kilns for lime burning 226

San Francisco hospital, oil burning at 230

San Francisco schools, oil burning

equipment 232

Santa Fe Railway System, oil burn-
ing equipment of 177

Saybolt, viscosimeter 20, 21

equivalents for readings of 26

Schools, Chicago, oil burning equip-
ment 232

San Francisco, oil burning equip-
ment

School power plants, fuel oil in 232

Sediment in fuel oil 20

Shell Company's barges 73

Shipping Board, bunkering stations. . 160

steamers 160

Sources of electric power 200

Specifications of fuel oil 19

Specific gravity, Baume equivalents

of 32

of fuel oil 27

Spiral oil heater 118

Spray burners 148

Stack sizes for oil fuel 144

Standard Oil Company's barge 71

Steam coils in storage tanks 79

Steam for heating 117

Steam navigation, fuel oil in 157

Steel storage tanks 79, 95

Stirling water tube boiler, fuel oil

burner under 140

Storage of fuel oil 69

Storage regulations 94

National Fire Protection Associa-
tion 94

Chicago 108

New York City 103

Storage Tanks 96, 111

along Mexican Railway 78

concrete 81

of railroads 74, 77

steel 78,82

Straining, in burning systems. . .117, 119

Sugar industry, fuel oil in 206

Sulphur content of fuel oil 40

Tagliabue. closed-cup testers 30, 31

open-cup testers 30

viscosimeters 20

Tank car development 74

Tanks, storage, concrete 81, 98

storage, steel 79, 95

Tank trucks 115

Tank wagons in oil delivery 114

Tankers for carrying fuel oil 69

Tempering bath furnace 195

Tests of oil-burning steamships..... 161
of oil-fired boiler at electric plant. 203

for fuel oil 20

Testers, closed-cup 30

open-cup 30

Tide Water Oil Company, data on

oil burning ships 160

Tips of oil burners 152

Trans-Pacific steamers, oil cargoes of 72

Trucks, motor, delivery by 115

Uses of fuel oil...... 241

U. S. Navy specifications 19

Valves 81, 102, 110, 113

Vapor burners . 145

Vertical tubular boiler, oil burner

under 138

Viscosimeters 20

equivalent readings for . » 25

types of 23

Viscosity of fuel oil 19,20, 22

test of 20

Von Boden-Ingalls burners 178

Water content of fuel oil 20, 39

separation of 120

Water-gas, manufacture of 238

West Conob, S. S., data on oil burn-
ing 162

Westinghouse Air-Brake Company,

concrete tank specifications 93

Weymouth, C. R., data on stack sizes 144
Window-elass making 221

232 Window-glass making

INDEX

CATALOGUE
SECTION

Page

American Petroleum Products Co 246

Anderson & Gu'staf son, Inc . 247

James B. Berry's Sons Co 248

Butler Mfg. Co 249

Carhill Petroleum Co., Inc 250

Carson Petroleum Co 251

Daily Oil News Report 273

Davis Welding & Mfg. Co 252

Franklin Oil Works 253

General Refining Co 254

Grider, Inc., Arch D 255

Indiahoma Refg. Co 256

Johnson Oil Refg. Co 257

Keystone Oil & Mfg. Co 258

Lake Park Refg. Co 259

Maguire Pet. Co., C. L 260

Midco Oil Sales Co 261

Mutual Oil Co 262

Oil News 272

Penna Flex. Met. Tub Co 263

Petroleum Handbook 274

Shaffer Oil & Refg. Co 264

Sloan & Zook 265

Southern Oil Corp 266

Steam Corp., The 267

Tagliabue Mfg. Co., The 268

Wayne Oil Tank & Pump Co 269

Wenger Armstrong Pet. Co 270

Worthington Co., The 271

246 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Absolutely Reliable Shipments

HIGH GRADE

FUEL OILS

From Advantageous Points

AMERICAN PETROLEUM
PRODUCTS COMPANY

Chicago Warren, Pa. Cleveland

Peoples Gas Bldg. Williamson Bldg

Tulsa New York

Lynch Bldg. London, Eng. 11 Bnoadway

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY 247

ANDERSON &GUSTAFSON, Inc.

Refinery: ^^SfSfe^ Refinery:

GUSHING, <^fw^l/e^£> COLUMBUS,
/-\lfi A ^^^^ftSpTTChl^^^^^ OHIO

vx 1^, L/\ • ^^^spA^BBB*^^^^^ v/n»V^

Refiners and Marketers

PETROLEUM AND ITS PRODUCTS

FUEL OIL — GAS OIL

With our two refineries located at
Gushing, Oklahoma and Columbus,
Ohio — together with our storage facili-
ties in Chicago, and our own tank
cars — we are in a position to render
A. & G. service on all your requirements.

We have an efficient traffic department
in every office listed below and we dis-
patch special service men to points of
congestion.

Send us your inquiries
General Offices:

Transportation Bldg., Chicago, 111.

Branch Offices:

NEW YORK CITY KANSAS CITY SHREVEPORT, LA. TULSA, OKLA.

Wool worth Bldg. Drear-Leslie Bldg. Columbia Bldg. New 1st Nat. Bk. Bldg.

AUGUST A, GA. SAN FRANCISCO ST. LOUIS FT. WORTH, TEX.

Lamar Bldg. Mills Bldg. Ry. Exchange Bldg. 609 Throckmorton St.

CLEVELAND, Citizens Bldg. WICHITA FALLS, TEX., City Nat. Bk. Bldg.

248

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

FUEL

OIL

SUPPLY

Refineries in Many Fields
Connections in All Fields

Whether a cargo, a train-
load or a carload is
needed, our resources
and connections enable
us to promptly provide
a supply.

Customers place a high
intrinsic value on our
fixed policy of promising
nothing we do not expect
to do — doing all that we
agree to do.

Throughout 25 years of
experience in the oil in-
dustry, conscientious ful-
filment of contract has
been the key note of
our business.

Write or wire for quotations

Petroleum

CHICAGO, ILL.

New York Philadelphia

Products

OIL CITY, PA.

London, Eng. Tulsa

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

249

A Real Tank

For Real
Burners

One of the
problems that
confronts the
users and the
sellers of oil
burners alike
is the stor-
age of the
fuel.

A lea k y
tank means
a dissatisfied
customer, re-
gardless o f
the satisfac-
tion of the
burner.

Everyone
Is Satisfied

With

Butler Tanks
Butler Fuel
Storage Tanks
are not ex-
periments;
they have
stood the test
from every
angle.

Butler
Tanks are
constructed
with lapped
seams, double
riveted, with
the exception
of seam around
the bottom
where rivets
are very

closely set. The solder is sweated entirely through the seam, and the
spacing of the rivets is closer than in any other tank we know of. Every
Butler Tank is inspected and made oil tight before it leaves our factory.
The special construction of the cover makes it vapor tight and dust proof.
Each top is strongly reinforced inside with an angle riveted to the tank.
The cone cover fits closely inside the tank and is tightly riveted to this
angle. The top edge of the side is flanged over and down against the
cover tightly all around, then carefully soldered.

NOTE: Butler Fuel Tanks can also be furnished knocked down. This
type is ideal for long shipments and is of particular value where tank is
desired in basement. It is not necessary to remove walls or make special
excavations in such instances if Butler Bolted Fuel Tanks are installed.
Simply erect tank in allotted space.

This type of tank comes completely knocked down. It is easily erected,
being put together with bolts at the seams. The fabrication is accurate
and all parts fit together readily and easily. When erected, Butler Bolted
Fuel Tanks are rigid and strong, they are constructed vapor-proof and are
satisfactory in every way.

Such tanks as Butler makes are a boon to the Fuel Oil Industry. Butler
Tanks have friends throughout the entire country,-

Ask for special bulletins and prices. They can be furnished up to 1,500
gallons when desired.

BUTLER MANUFACTURING CO.

Kansas City, Mo. Minneapolis, Minn.

250 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

DIFFICULT PROBLEMS EASILY SOLVED
AGAINST FIRE

A HIGH GRADE RELIABLE
FIRE INSURANCE POLICY

FOR FIRE

A CARHILL PETROLEUM CO.
FUEL OIL CONTRACT

WITH BOTH DOCUMENTS IN YOUR SAFE YOU'RE SAFE

The best and cheapest fuel is
at the command of our supply
department and the fastest and
most efficient methods of quick
delivery are at the finger tips of
our service department.
Try us.

CARHILL PETROLEUM Co., inc.

Oliver Bldg. Kennedy Bldg.

Pittsburgh, Pa. Tulsa, Oklahoma

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY 251

Carson Petroleum Co.

Complete Line

PETROLEUM
PRODUCTS

SPECIALTIES

Q&S

DOMESTIC OR EXPORT

HOME OFFICE

208 South La Salle Street

CHICAGO, ILL.

252

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

The Davis Welding & Mfg. Co.

Cincinnati, Ohio

New York Office: 200 Fifth Avenue; Suite 936

Tel. Gramercy 6274

PRODUCT: Truck Tanks, Standardized Truck Tank Bodies,
Underground Storage Tanks, Specially Designed Fuel Oil Tank
Bodies.

DESCRIPTION: Davis-Ohio patented construction truck
tanks are all outside welded. They are fitted with Davis-Ohio
patented manholes ; Davis-Ohio patented emergency valves ;
Davis-Ohio patented standardized under-frames ; Davis-Ohio
steel, wood-lined and attached bucket boxes, and Davis-Ohio
bumpers. We have an engineering department equipped to
design special tanks to meet special requirements of all kinds.

REPRESENTATION: Main Sales Office, Cincinnati, Ohio.
New York Office. Traveling representatives cover the entire
country.

1,200-gallon fuel oil tank on 5-ton truck for the Gulf Refining Company —
Heating coils, 2 cross sectional surge plates and one longitudinal surge plate,
14" manhole, 6" filler opening, two 2" McDonald vents, 8" piping and 8"
gate valve.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY 253

1877 192O

Franklin OilWorks

ESTABLISHED 1877

43 years of complete satisfaction
rendered our customers is your
guarantee that we are qualified to
meet your requirements with the
same excellent service.

Let Us Prove It

Phone, wire or write your needs
of Pennsylvania, Western or
Mexican Fuel or Gas Oils to us.

FRANKLIN OIL WORKS

General Offices and Works

FRANKLIN, PENNSYLVANIA

254 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

FUEL OIL

The increased demand for oil for various
fuel purposes has caused a shortage of
this product which can only be relieved
by discovery of new fields or a reduc-
tion in the gravity. Now is the time to
install the necessary heating units to
handle the heavier oils.

GAS OIL

This product has fallen short of the
demand and will always be a high-
priced fuel. We advise all manufac-
turers to investigate the use and econ-
omy of heavier gravity oils.

DISTILLATES

This product will be in demand for use
in Diesel type engines and the new do-
mestic heating systems which are rapidly
gaining favor.

WHEN IN NEED OF PETROLEUM
FUEL WIRE OR WRITE TO

GENERAL REFINING CO.

14 E. JACKSON BLVD.
CHICAGO, ILL.

TULSA ARDMORE CLEVELAND

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY 255

For an Assured Supply

of Your

Fuel Oil Requirements

Over a short or long
term period, you can
safely place your orders
with us and know that
you will be cared for
as specified in our
agreement.

Our various connec-
tions enable us to
promptly fulfill any
and all orders.

Specifications positive-
ly adhered to.

Phone or wire —

ARCH D. GRIDER, Inc.

Nebraska Bldg., Tulsa, Okla.

256

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

SUPERIOR
QUALITY

EFFICIENT
SERVICE

REFINERS OF

Gasoline, Kerosene, Fuel Oils

and

Naphtha

•REFINERIES
OKMULGEE,OKLA-E.STLOUIS ILL

MAIN OFFICE

6O9 Federal" Reserve Bank

St.Louis, Mo.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

257

The Value of
Natioii-Wide
Resources

Our offices are located strat-
egically in the heart of the
Pittsburgh iron industry, the
Detroit motor industry, and
the oil fields of Oklahoma.
From our central Chicago
office stretch railway lines
in every direction. Thus we
have nation-wide resources
at our command.

Equipped with our own tank
cars, and a traffic department
that gets deliveries, we give
our customers the dual advan-
tage of the lowest price consist-
ent with dependable service.

JOHNSON OIL REFINING CO.

CHICACO

208 S. La Salle St.
DETROIT PITTSBURGH TULSA

Laboratory Insurance

So unprecedented is the
demand for gasolene and
lubricants that it is par-
ticularly difficult for manu-
facturers to secure a uni-
form grade of fuel oil.

Only by analytical tests
can a buyer be certain of
the B. T. U.'s in a ship-
ment.

To insure our customers
a maximum of value for
their purchases, we test all
oil shipped by us. It is a
measure of protection which
has earned us the confi-
dence of scores of the larg-
est industrial organizations.

JOHNSON

FUEL OIL

Gasolene
Lubricants

Naphtha
Gas Oil

Fuel Oil
Flux Oil

Kerosene
Road Oil

258 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Keystone Refinery at Robinson, Illinois.

PRODUCT: Gasoline, Kerosene, Gas Oil, Fuel Oil
* Neutrals, Wax.

DESCRIPTION: We have refineries at Robinson, 111.,

and Pryse, Kentucky, which enables

us to supply Keystone products several days ahead of
tank cars from Oklahoma. The Keystone Company has
400 tank cars with which to further prompt service.
The standing of the company and its financial strength
assure the buyer that he will be taken care of — that all
contracts will be fulfilled. Expert buyers in the field are
able to secure the best the market affords. Our
customers may be depended on to testify that Keystone
prices are standard in industrial markets.

REPRESENTATIVES: Home office, m North

Market Street, Chicago;

Branch Offices, New York, Cleveland, Ohio; Saginaw,
Michigan; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Shreveport, Louisiana.

Prices on request

KEYSTONE OIL & MANUFACTURING CO.

Ill North Market Street, Chicago

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY 259

Lake Park Refining Company

Manufacturers and Marketers

GASOLINE
NAPHTHA
KEROSENE
GAS OIL
FUEL OIL
600 CYLINDER STOCK

(Light Green Color)

also

Marketers Blended Gasoline
REFINERIES

Okmulgee, Oklahoma Ponca City, Oklahoma

GENERAL OFFICES BRANCH OFFICES

Kansas City, Mo. Tulsa, Oklahoma

324 Rialto Bldg. 519 Mayo Bldg.

260 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

• • THE • .

C L MAGUIRE

PETROLEUM CO.

Specializing in the market-
ing of high grade tested

FUEL OIL

&
GAS OIL

CHICAGO

McCORMICK BUILDING

NEW YORK PITTSBURGH

17 BATTERY PL. CENTURY BLDG.

WASHINGTON, D. C. ST. PAUL

MUNSEY BUILDING 661 PELHAM ST.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY 261

Quality Goods via Quality Service

FROM

Midco Wells

Midco Pipe Lines

Midco Refineries

Midco Tank Cars

TO YOU

MIDCO LIGHT FUEL OIL

Gravity 32/36

Straight Refined

Not a Residue

Over 19,000 B. T. U.'s per Ib.

Free Flowing

Less than y2% sulphur

Pure Paraffine Base

MIDCO HEAVY FUEL OIL

Gravity 24/28
Less than Y-2% sulphur
Pure Paraffine Base
Free Flowing at 60° F.

And All Other Petroleum Products
In Tank Cars or Train Loads

Let your inquiries come forward —
They will receive our immediate attention.

MIDCO OIL SALES COMPANY

Contractors to the U. S. Government

Phones
Long Distance 214 or Local Main 2252

1901 Conway Building

CHICAGO

262 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

RELIABILITY

The Watch-word of Mutual Products

Fuel Oil for shipment from

three refineries in our own

cars.

Traffic department, which is

alive, to get your shipments

to you on time.

Let us figure on your require-
ments.

MUTUAL OIL CO

Refineries: General Office:

Chanute, Kansas Mutual Building

Glenrock, Wyo. 1 3th and Oak

Cowley, Wyo. Kansas City, Mo.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

263

"PENFLEX"
FUEL OIL HOSE

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

A N all-metal flexible hose that is not
^^ affected by fuel oil. Made in all
sizes and lengths, fitted with standard
couplings. Thousands of lengths now
in constant service.

Ask for special Bulletins on "Penflex"
Hose for the Oil Industry

Pennsylvania Flexible Metallic Tubing Company

WESTERN SALES DEPT.
447 PEOPLES GAS BLDG., CHICAGO, ILL.

PRINCIPAL OFFICE AND FACTORY
PHILADELPHIA, PA.

264 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

SHAFFER

OIL AND REFINING
COMPANY

OUR OWN

HIGH GRADE CRUDE OIL,
MODERN REFINERY

AND

LARGE FLEET OF TANK CARS

INSURE A DEPENDABLE

SUPPLY OF

FUEL OIL

208 So. LaSalle Street

CHICAGO

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY 265

FUEL OIL
GAS OIL

DISTILLATES

S. & Z. keeps faith with
every buyer of its products.

Frankly and openly we state
specifications and delivery and
at a price that is the least that
can be consistent with the quality
to be delivered.

Producers, Manufacturers and Market-
ers of Petroleum and Its Products.
(Connections in All Fields)

Send us your requirements now for future or
spot delivery

SLOAN & ZOOK

BRADFORD, PA.

266

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

A Group of Agitators at the Southern Oil Corporation's Refinery at Yale, Okla.

A LARGE part of the Southern
**• Oil Corporation's business is
the production, refining, transport-
ing and wholesale distribution of
highest grade Fuel Oil.

" Southern" Fuel Oil is shipped
promptly, anywhere, from our refin-
ery at Yale, Oklahoma. Write or
wire for prices on tank car quantities.

SOUTHERN OIL CORPORATION

General Offices: Security Bldg., Kansas City, Mo.
Refinery: Yale, Oklahoma Chicago Office: The Rookery

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

267

Automatic Oil Heating

E2UID fuel is the most efficient of all fuels in all types
of industries. The present age has developed mechan-
ical devices affecting complete combustion, yielding
higher efficiencies and causing the public to suddenly realize
that at last we have
reached a means en- '* — ?
abling us to turn our
backs on the dirt and
disagreeable charac-
teristics of black coal.

The Steam Corporation
of Chicago is offering every
home in the country an
opportunity to avail itself
of this freedom, offering
not only freedom from
dirt and the irksome
drudgeries of coal han-
dling, but yielding the
formerly unknown and
complete enjoyment of
positively uniform tem-
perature.

All accomplished by NOKOL, the automatically controlled and
electrically driven oil heater.

Simple ! Satisfying ! Safe !

The burner is adaptable to nearly all types of present heating instal-
lations. It merely necessitates the removal of the grate bars and a
beautiful clean oil flame is substituted for the old uncertain, smoky,
wasteful coal fire.

The device consists of a thermostat and regulator for automatic
control, a motor and blower to supply the liquid fuel and air; and a
nozzle and combustion chamber for creating proper mixture of oil and
oxygen, effecting complete combustion. Ignition is assured by an ever
burning pilot light.

Sturdy in structure, accurate and thorough in design, the pride of
useful mechanical appliances.

NoKol has thoroughly proven that it offers solution to all coal
problems. Besides rendering many happy conveniences, it benefits the
home owner with better health condition by completely eliminating
varying temperatures so encouraging to our deadly foes, pneumonia
and influenza.

Automatic Oil Heat ing

On the National Board of Fire Underwriters list of approved appliances.

THE STEAM CORPORATION

215 North Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois

268

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Precise Testing

of the flash point of the fuel oil is essen-
tial because it determines the maximum
temperature to which the oil can be safely
subjected in the heaters. Moreover, as
efficient atomization and economical
combustion are directly affected by the tem-
perature maintained in the heaters, a
thoroughly accurate and reliable tester
should be used.

That the TAG Closed Flash Point
Tester meets "Ehese requirements is
evidenced by the fact that it has been
standardized by the U. S1. Bureau of
Standards, adopted by the National
Paint, Oil and Varnish Association, etc.

Ask for Catalog F-598 which includes many other valuable oil testing
instruments for fuel oil users.

Economical Burning

is assured with a TAG Oil
Burner Controller regulating
the amount of oil and vapor-
izing medium admitted to
the burners, also the control
of dampers. The following
advantages are thus effected:

(1) An even boiler pressure
under a wide variation of load
is automatically maintained ;
(2) Oil consumption is de-
creased; (3) Steam or air used
for atomization is reduced; (4)
Adjusting ratio of oil to steam

or oil to air in mixture supplied to burners is eliminated
Load to each boiler of a battery is distributed automatically; (6)
Maximum engine or turbine efficiency is obtained by keeping
the steam pressure uniform; (7) Labor is reduced due to lack
of need for frequent attendance. Ask for Catalog F-425.

N. B. — We can also supply automatic controllers for
heaters, storage tanks, pumps, etc. — automatic level Controllers —
a safety device for automatically shutting off the oil supply to
burners when the vaporizing medium fails — indicating and re-
cording thermometers, etc.

C. J. TAGLIABUE MFG. CO.

Bush Terminal Brooklyn, N. Y.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

269

Oil Burning Furnaces

Cut No. 3015

Tilting Self-Contained
Crucible Type

Cut No. 3035

Tilting
Non-Crucible Type

— for melting brass, bronze, copper, aluminum,
nickel, gold, silver and other non-ferreous
metals. Also for reduction of cyanide precipitates

These Wayne Metal-Melting Furnaces attain a new standard in
rapid heats at right temperatures ; strong, sound castings ; min-
imum loss of metal; and economical use of fuel.

The burners tilt with the furnaces continuing the fire while
pouring, protecting the metal and maintaining it at an even
temperature. The whole or part of the melt may be poured
or held without chilling, overheatnig or oxidizing. Working
conditions for the operator are ideal.

In the crucible type the crucibles are never removed or han-
dled by tongs, are never subjected to sudden temperature
changes and consequently are much longer lived.

These are but a few of the many advantages that make the
Wayne Oil-Burning Metal-Melting Furnaces worth your
investigation. Wayne engineers are at your service in advis-
ing and planning, without cost or obligation. Write today
for bulletins Nos. 3015FOI and 3035FOI.

Wayne Oil Tank & Pump Co.

743 Canal St. Fort Wayne, Ind.

A national organisation with offices in thirty-four
American cities. Representatives everywhere.

270

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

FUEL OIL

GAS OIL

We specialize in Fuel and Gas oils.

Straight run from the Crude, free from water,
slugs and foreign materials. Any gravity to
meet your most exacting requirements.

Let us figure with you on your requirements
for either SPOT SHIPMENT or on a
CONTRACT.

Wire, write or phone our nearest office.

WENGER, ARMSTRONG PETROLEUM CO.

CHICAGO, ILL.

TRANSPORTATION BUILDING

PITTSBURGH, PA.

UNION ARCADE BLDG.

TULSA, OKLA.

DANIELS BLDG.

DALLAS, TEXAS

ANDREWS BLDG

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

271

The Worthington Company

123 W. Madison Street
Chicago, 111.

Product; Oil burners
for homes, apartment
buildings, store and
office buildings. These
burners are made to
fit any type of heating
system, steam, water
or vapor. Installations
require no change or
remodelling of heating
plant, and can be made
by any efficient plumber
in a short time.

Description; Worth-
ington Burners are
gravity feed burners
and are made in vari-
ous sizes. They have
been tested for over
four years. In Kansas

City, Missouri, alone there are over 1,000 installations, and
every burner is giving full satisfaction. The fuel used is dis-
tillate of 36 degrees Baume. This fuel is vaporized and thor-
oughly mixed with air before burning. This accounts for the
high quality of the heat produced and for the fact that there
is no smoke or soot. The burners do not carbonize and require
no attention after starting. Two special advantages are, (1)
the burner heats at the grate line and, (2) it is an "over-feed"
burner with flame spreader which will not burn out the furnace
dome. This burner is of especial value to owners of private
homes, and to those who appreciate cleanliness and convenience.

Representatives; informati0n can be secured from repre-
sentatives in nearly every large city, or the company will be
glad to put those interested in touch with the nearest office.
All inquiries promptly answered.

Prices and full description on request.

272 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

Issued 5th aud 20th
Each Month

ONLY TECHNICAL OIL PUBLICATION

Oil News is the only technical
magazine in the petroleum in-
dustry.

Oil News is without doubt
the most widely read and
quoted oil publication.

Its purpose is to give its
readers new ideas, better meth-
ods, and practical suggestions
that will prove helpful to them
in their own business.

A well edited, well illus-
trated magazine with an inter-
national circulation.

A YEAR

Subscription Price

SHAW PUBLISHING COMPANY

MEMBER MEMBER

Audit Bureau of Circulation Associated Business Papers, Inc.

GALESBURG, ILL CHICAGO, ILL

Bank of Galesburg Bldg. 910 S. Michigan Ave.

FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY 273

DAILY

OIL NEWS
REPORT

A comprehensive daily
service, containing the
latest reports on
production, refining,
jobbing and marketing,
and giving briefly all
news items of general
interest to the petro-
leum industry.

Price $5.00 a Month

SHAW PUBLISHING COMPANY

GALESBURG, ILL. CHICAGO, ILL.

Bank of Galesburg Bldg. 910 S. Michigan Ave.

274 FUEL OIL IN INDUSTRY

THE

PETROLEUM

HANDBOOK

A reference book
for the petroleum
industry : : :

•/or the use of producers,

J refiners, marketers,
jobbers, investors, sales-
men, engineers and
students : : : : :

Price $O.OO

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SHAW PUBLISHING Co.

GALESBURG, ILL. CHICAGO, ILL.

Bank of Galesburg Bldg. 91 0 S. Michigan Ave.

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or to the

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ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS
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