The fur-trade and early Western exploration

THE UNIVERSITY

OF ILLINOIS

LIBRARY

9178

vze>7f

THE FUR-TRADE

and
EARLY WESTERN EXPLORATION

LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

THE FUR-TRADE

and

EARLY WESTERN
EXPLORATION

by
CLARENCE A. VANDIVEER

THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY

CLEVELAND, U.S.A: 1929

Copyright, 1929, by
THE ARTHUR H. CLARK COMPANY

TO
MY MOTHER

*&

884

96

Contents

Preface 13

Beginnings of the Fur-trade 17

Exploration and Trade 27

English, Dutch, and French Rivalry ... 37

Explorations of Radisson and Groseilliers . . 47

Marquette and Joliet - Early Waterways and Portages 57

Adventures of LaSalle in Canada and the West . 65

LaSalle on the Mississippi 75

Beginning of the Hudson's Bay Company ... 87

Count Verendrye and the Discovery of the Rockies . 99

English Supremacy - Hearne's Explorations . . 109

The Northwest Fur Company 119

The First Crossing of the Continent . . . 129

Trade and Exploration on the Pacific Coast . . 141

American Independence - Trans-mississippi Explorations i 5 1

Explorations in the Southwest 161

John Jacob Astor and the Fur-trade . . . . 171

Return of the Astorians- the American Fur Company 185
British and American traders in Oregon and the

Rockies 193

Union of the Northwest and Hudson's Bay companies 207

Jedediah Smith's California Expeditions . . . 215

Travels of Bonneville and Walker .... 225

Wyeth's Enterprise -a Fur-trade Rendezvous . . 235

Free Traders and Trappers 245

Some Famous Free Trappers 255

French Voyageurs or Coureurs de bois . . . 265

/Forts of the Fur-trade 275

Life at the Fur Posts 287

Later Days 297

Index 3°5

Illustrations

Interior View of Fort Garry .... Frontispiece
As it appeared in 1871

Exterior View of Fort Garry 93

From a photograph made in 1869

Fort Pierre 131

From an original drawing made by Alexander H. Murray in 1844

An early Fur-trading station 173

Fort Astoria near the mouth of the Columbia river in 181 3

Dr. John McLoughlin 197

From a miniature painted on ivory in 1838 or 1839

Fort Union 279

From an original drawing made by Alexander H. Murray in 18+5

Preface

The story of the fur-trade is very largely the story of
pioneer America. The fur-trade was the agency through
which all the vast interior of the continent was ex-
plored and made known to the world. The trapper and
the trader were the real pioneers and trail blazers,
while the rude trading posts they established at various
strategic points were the genesis of many of our mod-
ern cities. The story of the fur-trade, we might say, is a
twice-told tale, and yet, it seems, never has it been told
in a concrete manner and within the pages of a single
volume. Writers in the past seem never to have grasped
the real significance of the work performed by those
buckskin-clad, rifle-bearing fur hunters, who in the
pursuit of their chosen calling, so unconsciously pre-
pared the land for the advance of civilization.

That the reading public might become more familiar
with the history of the fur-trade, of the early explora-
tions of the West, and of the significant part the events
herein narrated have played in the history of America
and Canada, the writer has attempted the present work.
He does not claim to have brought to light any new
facts, nor can he hope to have avoided all mistakes, for
in the preparation of a work such as this, there is a vast
amount of conflicting material to be weighed and sifted,
but in all cases he has endeavored to follow what he has
considered the best authorities.

The task of preparing this volume has been a pleas-

14 THE FUR-TRADE

ant one and I greatly hope the reader too will not be
disappointed, that he will not find it dry and uninter-
esting. It is a story of great deeds, of triumphs modestly
achieved, and of failures and disasters patiently borne.
There are heroes aplenty and the villian is not lacking
in the play. In dealing with a theme so romantic the
writer has endeavored to keep on safe ground and never
to substitute the fanciful for the real. The truth itself
is colorful enough for all purposes.

In preparing this work the author has had the benefit
of the kindly advice and aid of Mr. A. R. Harding, in
whose magazine the chapters first appeared as a serial,
and to Mr. George Bird Grinnell, whose generous en-
couragement led to their being brought out in book
form.

Clarence A. Vandiveer
November, 1928

Chapter I
Beginnings of the Fur-trade

Beginnings of the Fur-trade

While Pedro Menendez was industriously engaged
in murdering Ribaut's colonists along the Matanzas
and Saint Johns rivers, and thus putting an end forever
to French claims to the beautiful peninsula of Florida,
other Frenchmen were more successfully laying the
foundation of a permanent state far to the northward
along the misty shores of the broad Saint Lawrence.
Basque fishermen had for some years frequented the
coasts of maritime Canada to load their vessels with the
finny denizens which swarmed in those waters, and
they, from time to time, met up with roving bands of
indians eager to exchange their valuable furs and pel-
tries for the cheapest and poorest goods of European
manufacture, knives, beads and trinkets of little or no
value. Quite a lucrative trade soon sprang up between
the fishermen and the savages, and the former soon
learned that it was far easier and a great deal more
profitable to trade for furs than to fish for a living.

One after another of these erstwhile fishermen went
into the fur business, and rude trading posts began to
appear along the shores of Anticosti and elsewhere. In
this feeble fashion was begun that mighty traffic which
was later on to embrace our entire continent in its varied
ramifications; it was to lead to a series of explorations
which was to lay bare the secrets of all North America;

18 THE FUR-TRADE

it was to lead to wars and international complications;
it was to determine the growth of communities, states
and cities, and in fact for several centuries the history
of the fur-trade was to be the history of Canada, and to
a lesser extent the history of the English colonies as
well.

The first traders were a wild, lawless crowd, and car-
ried on in a most high-handed manner in their wilder-
ness strongholds. They cruised about in small vessels all
along the coasts of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in search
of walrus tusks, and their labors were well repaid.
These hardy rovers were quite content to leave the
Spaniards to chase the phantoms of golden cities, mines
of precious stones and fountains of perpetual youth in
the sunny lands of the South ; they preferred the slower,
less spectacular but far surer wealth the fur-trade of-
fered in the frozen and inhospitable regions of the more
northern coasts.

The trade continued to expand and the traders grew
in number year by year. It was a game of each fellow
for himself until 1588, in which year the French gov-
ernment granted to two adventurers a monopoly of the
trade for a period of twelve years. This monopoly, the
first of the many, aroused such a howl of protest that it
was promptly revoked. Nevertheless, ten years later, the
French government granted to one LaRoche a monop-
oly of the fur-trade, along with all kinds of titles and
powers in the land which Cartier, Roberval and others
had explored and claimed for France. LaRoche failed
in everything he attempted and landed in a debtor's
prison, while the miserable crew of forty-one men he
had landed in Canada after suffering all kinds of mis-
fortunes in five years, had dwindled away to only eleven

BEGINNINGS OF THE FUR-TRADE 19

men. They accumulated a valuable stock of furs, how-
ever, and these the commander of the expedition, sent
out for their rescue, seized for himself, but eventually
he was compelled to restore his ill-gotten gains to the
rightful owners.

Pontgrave, a merchant of Saint Malo, and a Captain
Chauvin of the navy, next tried their hands at trade and
colonization. They built a rude cluster of huts at Ta-
doussac at the mouth of the Saguenay, but this settle-
ment was broken up before the winter was over and the
survivors were living upon the charity of the savages.

At this juncture two strong personages made their
appearance upon the historical drama of both the old
and the new worlds: Henry of Navarre, the gallant
victor of Ivry and Arques, and Samuel de Champlain,
who like his master had won renown in the religious
wars which had so long plagued France. Under Henry's
rule France recovered from much of the evil effects of
civil strife and started once more on the road to pros-
perity; under Champlain, Canada was to be made into
a real colony for France.

Champlain was induced to join in the Canadian ven-
ture by one DeChaste, a friend of his who had linked
his fortunes with the Amerian trade. Champlain and
Pontgrave were each given a vessel and sent on a voyage
up the Saint Lawrence. Passing the ruins of Tadoussac
the voyagers pushed on up the broad expanse of the
lordly river until they saw Mount Royal rising grim
and sentinel-like above the surrounding forests. Cartier
had been to this place sixty-eight years before and had
found the busy indian town of Hochelaga occupying
the site upon which now stands Canada's greatest city,
but Champlain found the place deserted by its former

20 THE FUR-TRADE

savage tenants and silence reigning throughout the
gloomy forests.

Progress beyond Mount Royal was halted by the La-
chine rapids, and so the explorers turned the prows of
their vessels toward home. Arriving in France Cham-
plain found that DeChaste had died and that a new
company had been formed, headed by Sieur de Monts,
who was given viceregal powers and a monopoly of the
fur-trade, all previous grants being annulled in his
favor. Of course these grants were followed by a storm
of protests from the old traders, but DeMonts had the
good sense to associate many of these discontented men
with him in the new enterprise. Champlain and Pont-
grave were among those who took service under
DeMonts.

It was resolved to establish the headquarters of this
company south of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the
region now known as Nova Scotia. They gave the name
of Acadia to their proposed settlement- a name which
was to be associated with much of the strife between
the French and the English later on and to furnish the
materials for Longfellow's beautiful poem Evangeline,
of which every school boy is familiar.

DeMonts began operations in Acadia by seizing the
trading vessels of one Rossignal who was poaching, un-
intentionally perhaps, upon his territory. Pontgrave,
who commanded one of DeMonts's vessels, made a
prize of four more fur-traders at Canceau. Pontgrave
was now sent back northward to trade with the indians
at Tadoussac, while DeMonts and Champlain pushed
on to the northward on a tour of exploration.

Upon reaching the Bay of Funday Baron de Poutrin-
court, one of DeMonts's men, asked for and received a

BEGINNINGS OF THE FUR-TRADE 21

grant of land for himself, which he gave the name of
Port Royal. DeMonts and Champlain chose an island
at the mouth of the Saint Croix for their winter quar-
ters. Here they were soon shut in by walls of snow and
ice while scurvy, that curse of the early explorers and
colonizers, raged with frightful consequences. Of the
seventy-nine men who had gone into winter quarters
only forty-four were alive when spring came.

Dissatisfied with this location the adventurers set out
in June to seek a more favorable site farther south. They
threaded the rocky and deeply indented shores of
Maine, passing the mouths of the Penobscot and the
Kennebec and sighting the distant White mountains,
finally entered Massachusetts Bay. They visited Ply-
mouth Bay where fifteen years later (in 1620) the Pil-
grim Fathers were to make their memorable landing.

But no place suited DeMonts and so they returned to
the Saint Croix, loaded up their possessions and trans-
ferred headquarters to Port Royal. Leaving Pontgrave
in charge of the station, DeMonts and Poutrincourt
went back to France for supplies and reinforcements.
Coming back the next year Poutrincourt found that the
station at Port Royal had been abandoned by all but
two men, provisions having given out, while the rest in
small boats were pushing on up the coast in search of
food. These men were soon found and again Port Royal
was occupied. DeMonts had remained in France, and
Poutrincourt soon returned to that country also to help
in smoothing over their affairs, which were not in the
best shape. Pontgrave and Champlain remained to
carry on the work of exploration and trade while an
able gentleman named Lescarbot took charge of Port
Royal.

22 THE FUR-TRADE

A description of one of these earliest trading posts
and an account of the life led by the traders will not be
out of place. Port Royal was a quadrangle of wooden
buildings enclosing a large court. An arched gateway
facing the water front gave ingress and egress and was
flanked with a bastion of palisades. Another bastion
mounted four cannon. The kitchen, forge and oven oc-
cupied the buildings between the bastions. Storehouses
and magazines occupied another side of the square. An-
other side was taken up by quarters for the men while
the remaining side was occupied by quarters for officers
and a dining hall.

Every effort was made by the commandant, Lescar-
bot, to test out the resources of the country. He planted
grain and vegetables, and labored in his garden until
far into the night. He kept up the spirits of his men by
creating the Ordre de bon temps, whose members vied
with one another in supplying luxuries for the table.
Each was to serve as quartermaster for one day, and of
course he tried to excel his predecessor in the variety
and excellence of the food served. Here in this wild
outpost of France and of the fur-trade, the traders and
their indian friends feasted and smoked away what
otherwise would have been a very lonely existence. The
long- winter evenings were whiled away in the drinking
of toasts and the singing of songs, and the naturally gay
disposition of the French gave vent to itself even though
the nearest civilized neighbors were the little handful
of Spaniards huddled together in far away Saint Au-
gustine.

Spring found the French eager to begin their trad-
ing, their building and their planting, but one fine
morning all this bustle and preparation was brought to

BEGINNINGS OF THE FUR-TRADE 23

an abrupt end by the arrival of a French ship with news
that DeMonts's monopoly had been rescinded. Sorrow-
fully they abandoned Port Royal, and after filling their
ships with a cargo of fish they set sail for France.

Poutrincourt came back to Port Royal with a fresh
batch of traders and colonists. Illicit traders, French
and Dutch, also cruised the coasts, dealing cruelly and
lawlessly with the indians. Poutrincourt's son patrolled
the coast in an endeavor to break up this unlawful trade,
while he himself seems to have spent a considerable part
of his time in quarreling with the Jesuits Masse and
Baird, whom he had been compelled to bring with him
back to Canada. The arrival of these two priests marks
the beginning of that remarkable story of heroism, pri-
vation, suffering and martyrdom which marks the ca-
reer of the Jesuits in Canada; it also marks the begin-
ning of strife between the civil authorities, who inva-
riably were vitally interested in the fur-trade, and the
black-robed priests, whose interests were often quite at
variance with those of the traders.

Meanwhile Champlain had established himself on
the natural rock fortress of Quebec. He had long been
under the spell of the beautiful Saint Lawrence, whose
course he had already followed as far as the rapids at
Mount Royal, and when DeMonts was obliged to give
up Port Royal he sought to reestablish himself on the
Saint Lawrence, and therefore he sent Champlain to
establish a station at Quebec and endeavor to found a
permanent colony there. Pontgrave was to have charge
of the fur-trade, Champlain of the colonizing and ex-
ploring. Exploration and trade were thus inseparably
linked together from the very first.

Champlain's military eye had at once taken in the im-

24 THE FUR-TRADE

portance of the natural rock fortress that commands the
narrow part of the Saint Lawrence, and he at once
further strengthened the place with a wooden wall and
moat, within which enclosure he erected the buildings
necessary for his needs. Mutiny soon raised its ugly
head, but Champlain promptly hanged the leader and
sent three of his chief advisors back to France. The rest
he freely forgave.

We would like to know the incidents of that first long
winter spent within the walls of Quebec, but no record
of them has come down to us. We do know that mem-
bers of the miserable Algonquin tribes flocked inside
the walls clamoring for food and for protection against
the Iroquois, those tigerish warriors who dwelt to the
southward of Lake Ontario and of the Saint Lawrence,
who kept the northern tribes in a perpetual delirium of
fear, and who ere long the French, too, were to learn to
dread. Such were the beginnings of Quebec.

Chapter II
Exploration and Trade

Exploration and Trade

While the savages were starving and begging and
shivering outside the walls of Quebec sickness was rag-
ing among the French on the inside, and by the time
spring had come the garrison of twenty-eight had
dwindled down to eight. The experiences of the first
winter at Port Royal were repeated at Quebec, the same
story of sickness and death was repeated among the
English at Jamestown and Plymouth. It was part of the
price exacted by nature for the conquest of the wilder-
ness of North America. With the return of the birds,
the blossoms, the wild flowers and the warm sunshine,
came an added blessing in the shape of Pontgrave's sup-
ply ship at Tadoussac, to which place Champlain hur-
ried with the request that Pontgrave come to Quebec
with supplies for the relief of his men, and that further-
more he should take charge of the place while he him-
self should set forth to put into operation the expedi-
tions of discovery which he had planned and studied
over during the long sad winter at Quebec.

Champlain's first move was destined to link insep-
arably his name with one of the most beautiful lakes in
all North America. It was also to gain for him and for
France the undying hatred of the ferocious Iroquois.
Late in June, 1609, with a few hardy Frenchmen and a
crowd of indian allies, Champlain embarked upon an

28 THE FUR-TRADE

expedition to the head of the Riviere des Iroquois, now
known by the various names of Saint Johns, Sorel and
Richelieu. The indians told him that the river was quite
free of obstructions, and that boats might pass unhin-
dered quite to the lake at its source. He soon learned, as
many a future explorer was to learn, how utterly unre-
liable the word of an indian was. Champlain was eager
to see the lake of which he had heard so much; his
allies were just as eager to try out the virtues of the
white man's weapons upon their enemies, the Iroquois,
and they were resolved to be revenged upon them even
if they had to go as far as the villages of those people
on the Mohawk. There were delays and vexations a
plenty in this expedition up the Richelieu, but Cham-
plain surmounted them all and finally passed on into the
lake. We may well imagine his feelings as his flotilla
glided among the islands at the head of the lake and
finally out upon its open waters, with the wooded masses
of the Adirondacks on his right hand and the rocky
ridges of the Green mountains stretching away on the
left.

Proceeding cautiously along the west bank for several
days, they finally encountered a band of Iroquois at the
point where FortTiconderoga was afterward built. The
savages came on to battle bravely, but when they beheld
the steel-clad Frenchman and saw the stick that he
pointed toward them belch forth fire and smoke and two
of their chief men sink down dead, they were panic-
stricken and fled in confusion, abandoning their camp,
their boats and all they possessed. Champlain's allies
killed a few of their enemies, took a few prisoners and
quite a lot of booty. It was an easy victory, perhaps the
only one these indians had ever won over the Iroquois,

EXPLORATION AND TRADE 29

and they were highly elated in consequence. They
danced and sang and tortured their captives with such
fiendish cruelty that Champlain turned away sick at
heart.

Despite their success in this "first battle of Ticon-
deroga" the allies retreated back to the Saint Lawrence.
Pontgrave, in the meantime, had been having trouble
with free-traders, those reckless fellows who from those
very earliest days of the trade on down to the very end,
continued to ply their profitable, though unlawful,
trade in spite of monopolies, orders of governors and
even of kings. Some of these free-lances had even at-
tacked Pontgrave, wounded him and held him as pris-
oner for a while, and many of the furs that had come to
Tadoussac and should have found their way into his
store-houses found their way into the vessels of his
rivals.

Troubles thickened about the traders and both Pont-
grave and Champlain returned to France, where they
found DeMonts in a life and death struggle to maintain
his rights. The assassination of Henry IV, in May,
1 6 10, was a further blow. The new king was a minor
and an imbecile, his mother, the regent, was a wicked,
unscrupulous woman and moreover a tool of the Jesuits,
and therefore could be counted upon to make things
unpleasant for all colonists and traders who displeased
the priests.

DeMonts was a man of grit. Perhaps he had more
grit than judgment, for he resolved to go ahead with his
plans without the royal sanction.

Champlain was soon back in Canada and ready for
new discoveries. He was anxious to find an overland
route to the great bay which Henry Hudson had discov-

3o THE FUR-TRADE

ered in 1609. His indian allies were so well pleased with
the victory he had helped them win over the Iroquois
that they promised to lead him westward by way of the
Ottawa to the upper Great Lakes. He gained still more
favor with them when he helped them to utterly exter-
minate a party of Iroquois at the mouth of the Riche-
lieu in June, 1610. All things seemed to combine to
thwart and delay the explorer however. Rival traders
dogged his footsteps, usurping the trade at Tadoussac,
and so annoying him at every turn that he resolved to
establish himself at a point near the foot of the Lachine
rapids, where he might enjoy the trade of the Ottawa
and the upper Saint Lawrence free from the annoyance
of rivals. The position he chose was one of extreme
strategic importance for the fur-trade as well as for
other purposes, and the fact that Montreal, the metrop-
olis of the Canadian dominion, has since grown up
around the spot, vindicates the judgment of the ex-
plorer.

Clearing a considerable space of ground he fenced it
in and planted grain within the enclosure. A crowd of
greedy traders had followed him up, all eager to take
advantage of his pioneering and help share the harvest
of furs which the region offered.

Champlain was well received by the few scattering
indians he met, but the latter were disgusted with the
swarm of greedy traders that had followed him unbid-
den. Montreal, the metropolis of the early fur-trade,
thus had its beginnings.

After endless haggling and quibbling between trad-
ers and savages, the latter at last withdrew further up
the river. Champlain paid them a visit and was carried
back to Montreal in a birch-bark canoe.

EXPLORATION AND TRADE 31

More visits to France, more difficulties with rival
traders, and more changes in the personnel of the com-
pany all conspired to hinder and delay Champlain's
plans for further exploration until the spring of 1613,
when once more he headed for the unknown.

From time to time reckless adventurers had pushed
on into the wilderness, joined bands of roving indians,
living their life, marrying their women, adopting their
dress and habits, and to all intents and purposes becom-
ing veritable savages themselves. These wild bush-
rangers made many valuable discoveries, but as their
explorations lacked official approval their reports were
either ignored or not believed. That little faith could
be placed in the word of some of these men may be
readily seen by the incident which we will now relate:

Among these wood-rangers who came to Champlain
with stories of remarkable finds was a young man
named Nicolas Vignau. This man told of being at the
head of the Ottawa where he had found a great lake
with a river flowing out of it to the northward, and
had descended this river to the sea where he found
the wreck of an English vessel. Champlain had
already heard rumors of such a wreck, and his brain
was fired with visions of a water route to Asia -
a fanciful vision which had lured so many explorers
to their doom. Embarking with an indian and four
Frenchmen, one of whom was Vignau, Champlain
ascended the Saint Lawrence to the Ottawa and thence
up that stream, portaging around rapids until they
could proceed no further. Wandering about among the
forests for some time, visiting indians and making in-
quiries everywhere, they failed to learn anything con-
cerning the sea of which they were in search. At last

32 THE FUR-TRADE

they came among indians with whom Vignau had once
lived, and from them learned that he had never been
farther than their villages, and that his story was a fab-
rication. Confronted with this evidence, Vignau broke
down and confessed to his imposture. Many a com-
mander would have hung the liar then and there and the
indians urged Champlain to do so, but he pardoned the
rascal and with a sad heart turned toward home. It is
impossible to fix a motive for the remarkable conduct
of Vignau in this matter.

Once more Champlain returned to France, this time
returning with a batch of Recollet friars, for unlike
most fur-traders, Champlain welcomed these religious
men into the country, but then we must remember that
Champlain was more of an explorer and colonizer than
he was a fur-trader. He was just as anxious to win the
souls of the indians as he was to secure their beaver
skins. Arriving at Quebec one of these priests, LeCaron,
was assigned as missionary to the Hurons ; another, Dol-
beau, was sent to the Montagnais; the rest remained at
Quebec.

All of the Algonquin tribes were eager to make an
alliance with the French against the Iroquois as a com-
mon foe, and Champlain thought this a wise plan to
follow. Could all the tribes be led to depend upon the
French soldiers for protection, upon the priests for
spiritual help, and upon the traders for their increasing
wants, he would be able to bind the tribes to France
with the strongest of bonds.

LeCaron was so anxious to reach the scene of his
labors that he pushed on in advance of the escort, and
thus was enabled to look upon the waters of Lake
Huron in advance of that leader. It is possible that one

EXPLORATION AND TRADE 33

of Champlain's men, Etienne Brule, had seen the waters
of Huron as well as several others of the Great Lakes,
for he had traveled far and wide among the Indians of
those regions before Champlain and LeCaron had set
out on their expedition. Champlain's party passed on by
the place where, in company with Vignau he had left
the river when on his wild goose chase after the phan-
tom of a waterway to Asia, on past Lake Nipissing, and
from thence to Lake Huron.

After visiting among the Hurons at their villages
Champlain proceeded to Lake Simcoe and the Trent
river, crossing over into the Iroquois country, in what is
now northern New York, and attacked the enemy, but
they met with such a rough reception that they retreated
over to the Huron country again. Champlain was back
in Quebec again in June, 1616.
While Champlain and his allies were preparing to
attack the Iroquois Etienne Brule had gone to the coun-
try of the Andastes to enlist the aid of that tribe, but he
arrived too late to be of assistance to his chief. He spent
three years in wandering amid new scenes, and is said
to have descended the Susquehanna to the sea. Later
on he fell into the hands of the Iroquois and was fright-
fully tortured by them until he succeeded in so working
upon their superstitious natures that they finally turned
him loose.

Permanent stations were now firmly established at
Quebec, Montreal, Tadoussac and Three Rivers, and
while the fur-trade was brisk the colony did not pros-
per. The traders were interested only in the indians'
furs, the priests in the indians' souls, and neither cared
much to see white settlers brought into the country.

Later on the government refused permission to

34 THE FUR-TRADE

protestants to emigrate to Canada, and allowed only
catholics to come over. As the protestants had griev-
ances at home which caused them to wish to emigrate
to America and the catholics were desirous of remain-
ing in the home-land, the result was that few colonists
were available. With all this meddling and intermed-
dling of the government, the priesthood and the rivalry
of traders, no wonder the colony did not flourish.

Already clouds were appearing on the southern hor-
izon and Canada was soon to feel the need of men to
defend her. England's neglected colonies were growing
and prospering amazingly and were casting jealous eyes
toward the north. Already the Acadian settlements had
been broken up by English from Jamestown and in 1625
the English, under Kirk, laid siege to Quebec. The
brave Champlain held on till the last but was finally
obliged to give up, but peace in Europe gave the place
back to France, and Champlain came back to die within
the walls of the city he had founded.

Chapter III
English, Dutch, and French Rivalry

English, Dutch, and French Rivalry

While from the first France had been the leader in
the fur-trade business, yet adventurers of other nations
were busy along the same lines. English vessels prowled
along the coasts trading and quarreling with the natives,
for the Anglo-saxon was never able to win the friend-
ship of the indians as was his Gallic neighbor, they
seldom intermarried or cohabited with the natives, nor
did they take to the wild free life of the forests as did
the gay and reckless men of French blood. Not until the
founding of the Hudson's Bay Company of later years
did the English learn how to deal successfully with the
savages.

As far back as 1607, one year before Champlain had
raised the French flag over the rocky fortress of Quebec,
the English had built their first permanent settlement at
Jamestown in Virginia. These early settlers were gen-
tlemen, unused to toil or hardship of any kind, and as
thoroughly unfitted for the wilderness life as men
could well be. There ensued a "starving time," at the
close of which most of the incompetents were in their
graves.

The best man in the Virginia colony was Captain
John Smith. This able and energetic man kept the set-
tlers at work, preserved the peace with the neighbor-
ing savages and made extensive explorations along the

38 THE FUR-TRADE

coast. He left a record of his adventures and explora-
tions which is both interesting and valuable, although
some of his statements must be taken with a liberal
pinch of salt, for the worthy captain was not above ro-
mancing- a failing which seems to have been common
among early explorers and not altogether uncommon in
our own day.

The fur-trade in the early English colonies was a sort
of free-trade affair and no records were kept, but it
would seem that English traders, went farther afield
and penetrated deeper into the western wilds than has
been generally supposed.

Fourteen years after Jamestown, Plymouth was set-
tled by the pilgrims. These newcomers were seekers
after religious freedom, and not gold-hunters or fur-
traders. The colonists which continued to pour into the
country were of the same stamp and mould as their pred-
ecessors, being settlers in the true meaning of the word.
A few trappers and traders hung about the borders of
the expanding settlements, and a few forts and trading
posts were erected by them at various places, and some-
times these men came in contact with French traders
and much bad blood was engendered, but for the most
part the English were content to dwell in settled com-
munities in the river valleys or within hearing of the
beating of the salt waves along the coast.

The Dutch, too, instead of going among the indians
for their furs were content to sit comfortably in their
snug houses along the Hudson and let the red man
bring the furs to them there. The Hudson had been dis-
covered by Henry Hudson in the year 1609 and four
years later New Amsterdam (New York) was founded
on the island of Manhattan at the river's mouth. Still

ENGLISH, DUTCH, AND FRENCH RIVALRY 39

later a trading post was built far up the river at Albany.
This remained an important station in the fur business
for many years. Wealthy merchants of Holland sent out
a small fleet in charge of such able navigators as Adrien
Block, Hendrick Corstianesen and Cornelius Mey, who
added much to the knowledge of geography on that
coast and brought back to Holland such flattering re-
ports that the merchants obtained a monopoly on the
trade of those regions for the period of three years.

In 162 1 the famous Dutch West India Company was
formed, and while great profits were realized from the
venture, little more was done toward extending opera-
tions into the interior. Like the English of those days
the Dutch were a maritime people, and their interests
were centered in territory accessible to navigable
waters. Dutch and French traders often came in con-
tact with one another around the headwaters of the
Hudson or in the valley of the Mohawk, for the latter
were sure to be everywhere where fur was to be ob-
tained. They also quarreled and fought with English
traders on the Connecticut.

Perhaps the question of supremacy in North Amer-
ica would have been fought out between the English,
the Dutch and the French years before it was had it not
been for the wall of the Iroquois confederacy which
lay between the Canadians and their neighbors to the
south. Champlain had incurred the undying enmity of
these people by his victory over them at the lake now
named for him, and later conflicts had widened the
breach. Englishman and Hollander, fortunately for
themselves, had made friends with this warlike people
and as it turned out, in their hands lay the balance of
power. Were it not for the Iroquois barrier, and, for

40 THE FUR-TRADE

the mistaken policy of France in regard to Canada,
North America might be French today instead of An-
glo-american. As it was, the French trader explored all
of interior America, marked out all the trails and por-
tages, only to be deprived of all the fruits of their labors
in the end by the prosaic sons of old Albion. The Hol-
landers on the banks of the Hudson and its tributaries
were also to suffer the same fate as the French. England
eventually absorbed all of New Amsterdam and the lit-
tle trading post on Manhattan, renamed in honor of the
Duke of York, grew in wealth and importance, but even
England was to lose her grip on this gateway of Amer-
ica, and in new hands and under a new flag the city was
destined to continue its marvelous growth until today
it more than rivals the proud old city on the banks of
the Thames.

Meanwhile, while the English were building per-
manent homes and contenting themselves largely in
agriculture and in maritime affairs, and the Dutch were
dozing and smoking and trading by turns at their com-
fortable little forts, the adventurous sons of France were
ranging the forests and threading the intricate water-
ways of the interior, building up their trade and push-
ing their explorations in all directions. In the Canadian
settlements the people were virtually slaves, they gained
no freedom in emigrating to America as did the Eng-
lish; instead, the hand of both church and state fell
harder upon them than in the home-land. The early
French traders had tried to keep free from the vassal-
age of the priesthood, but it had been forced upon them
nevertheless. A class now sprang up in Canada who
were determined to free themselves of this vassalage to
both church and state, and they did by avoiding the

ENGLISH, DUTCH, AND FRENCH RIVALRY 41

mission stations and settlements and taking to the woods.

The men who thus sought to emancipate themselves
soon came to be known as coureurs de bois, rangers of
the woods, voyageurs into the unknown. These men fol-
lowed the indian in his wanderings, his war excursions,
and his hunting expeditions, shared his rude life in the
smoky wigwams, married indian women and raised
large families of half-breed children, and to all intents
and purposes becoming veritable indians themselves.
Their superior intellect and training, added to the
knowledge of woodcraft which they soon acquired,
made them a peculiar feature of Canadian life; reck-
lessly brave, ridiculously superstitious, oftimes devout,
sometimes savagely cruel, but at all times gay and light-
hearted, these coureurs de bois offered the best mate-
rial possible for wilderness campaigns, and whenever
their leaders could keep their wild natures within
bounds they proved invaluable servants, but they chafed
at restraint and became very frequently a menace to and
a thorn in the side of priests, civil authorities, and
licensed traders, whose sensibilities were shocked by the
wild excesses and drunken orgies these wild men in-
dulged in during their infrequent visits to the frontier
posts. They also carried on an illicit trade in liquor with
the savages, with the same sad results that has always
attended the sale of intoxicants to uncivilized peoples.

One of the most famous of these early woods rangers
was Jean Nicolet of Three Rivers, who in 1634 na^
ventured into the regions of the lakes where he heard
rumors of a great river, probably the Mississippi ; he
extended his observations as far westward as the strait
of Sault Sainte Marie, and possibly even beyond; he
also passed through the straits of Michillimackinac and

42 THE FUR-TRADE

into Lake Michigan. It is thought that Etienne Brule,
another of the wild fraternity of the woods, was in these
regions previous to Nicolet, but this remains in the
realm of guesswork. Hearing of a tribe of people in the
region of Green Bay, in Wisconsin, who resembled the
Chinese, Nicolet, like many a deluded explorer before
and since, thought that he was near the Orient, and so
he dressed himself up in a robe gaily decorated with
figures of flowers and birds and with pistol in each
hand presented himself in the village of those people,
but he found them to be indians differing little, if any,
from all others he had met, and whatever notions he
may have formed were dispelled.

The exclusive monopolies in fur-trading which the
French king granted, the system of tolls and bribery
and tribute which crooked officials, and there were
always many crooked officials in Canada, imposed upon
the people was responsible for much of the lawlessness
of the woods rangers. At one time it was even planned
to restrict all the western trade to the one post at Mon-
treal, and accordingly great annual fairs were held
there.

These annual fairs were lively affairs. On the day
after the arrival of the indians there would be a sort
of social affair in which the smoking of peace pipes and
the declaiming of much high-toned oratory were prom-
inent features. Next day trade was begun. These gather-
ings must have been picturesque affairs indeed. Picture
in your mind the rough, wooden stockade, the shaggy
forests nearby; the swift, rushing river with its beach
littered with gay birch-bark canoes; tall, sedate chiefs
stalking about, all decked out in paint and feathers;
white officials, stiff, proud, and well aware of their own

ENGLISH, DUTCH, AND FRENCH RIVALRY 43

importance, decked out in gold braid and trimmings
almost as gaudy as the indians themselves; groups of
shy, gaping squaws, some young and pretty, others old,
wrinkled and hideous with the grime and smoke of
many camp fires; children naked as on the day they
were born, playing with the mangy village curs and
romping about in wild abandon; and last, but not least,
the coureurs de bois, in for a brief holiday from the
woods and ready to "paint the town red" just as soon as
liquor could be procured, a thing which the more or-
derly traders sought to avoid, their efforts being sec-
onded by the priests who were also sure to be present at
these annual gatherings, with a view to securing new
converts to Christianity and of forgiving any sins that
their older converts may have committed during the
year. Often these gatherings ended in the wildest of
orgies, in which white man and savage vied with one
another in scenes of the most disgusting and depraving
debauchery.

Chapter IV
Explorations of Radisson and Groseilliers

Explorations of Radisson and Groseilliers

The hand of authority meddled with everything in
French Canada, often with ruinous results. Attempts
were made to allow only licensed traders to operate,
and licenses were costly. Prices were to remain at fixed
figures, regardless of the law of supply and demand. As
a result of these rulings illicit traders were numerous,
while the officials, who very frequently shared in the
unlawful gains, winked at the offenders. When traders
had a surplus of beaver skins they burned them to create
a scarcity. By such methods was the trade carried on.
No wonder the French colony languished, while the
English colonies to the south, where trade was unham-
pered, grew by leaps and bounds.

Among those who laughed at the hampering and un-
just laws of governor and king were two daring and
capable men, whose achievements have never received
a tithe of the praise due them. Pierre Esprit Radisson
and his brother-in-law, Medard Chouart Groseilliers
had both seen service in wilderness trade and both were
fired with the spirit of adventure. Every rumor which
came from the far northwest but added fuel to the flame
of their zeal. Wealth, adventure and renown were the
prizes offered in exchange for effort, although neither
was blind to the possibilities of what might lie in store
for them. They knew for a certainty that hardship, toil,

48 THE FUR-TRADE

hunger and exposure were the lot of all explorers ; they
knew the danger from hostile indians with captivity,
torture and even death should they be so unfortunate as
to fall into their cruel hands, but while counting the
dangers they also counted the gains and were willing to
take the gambler's chance.

In June, 1658, Radisson and Groseilliers left Three
Rivers and turned their faces toward the unknown.
They stopped at Montreal long enough to raise a com-
pany of indians and voyageurs and then hurried on up
the river. The crew was inexperienced and disorderly
and gave the two adventurers much trouble. All efforts
to promote discipline or caution were brushed aside,
and they laughed and jeered at their cautious methods
and reproached them with cowardice. The grit of the
boasters was soon put to a test, for a band of Iroquois
apprised of their approach by the shouting and the fir-
ing of guns laid a skillful ambush for the party. When
the fighting was over the boastful French were retreat-
ing toward Montreal as fast as possible. Radisson and
Groseilliers and their indian allies were also moving
swiftly -not in the direction of Montreal, however, but
westward toward the setting sun. It would take more
than one war party of Iroquois to turn them back.

Autumn came to the north country, leaves were turn-
ing rapidly from emerald to yellow and crimson, there
was a keen, sharp tang in the air which warned of com-
ing snows and chilling blasts, and hurried our travelers
on to their proposed winter quarters at Green Bay.
Here they established themselves and lay snug while all
about them through the forests the wintry winds howled
and shrieked and piled up a wall of snow about the
walls of their rude shelter. Day after day they looked

RADISSON AND GROSEILLIERS 49

out over the white world about them and longed for
spring and sunshine, and dreamed of the new lands they
were to discover.

Early in 1659 they crossed over what is now Wiscon-
sin and beheld "a mighty river, great, rushing, pro-
found and comparable to the Saint Lawrence" - it was
the mighty Mississippi. The Spaniard De Soto had
gazed upon the lower reaches of this great river many
years before but these two unknown French trappers are
the first white men, so far as we now know, to see it in
the north. Ten years later the Jesuit, Marquette, came
to it by way of Fox and Wisconsin rivers and was un-
justly credited with the discovery. The reason why the
expedition of Radisson and his companion has been
passed over in silence can be explained only by the fact
that both men fell into disfavor with the Canadian offi-
cials, both civil and ecclesiastic, and so honors were
withheld from them. Like some of our own fur-trade
explorers their expedition lacked the stamp of official
sanction, and so the honors were passed on to other men.

Fortunately Radisson left behind him papers and
memorandums which have been rescued from oblivion
and given their place in history. He has written much
in praise of the land he discovered, its resources and the
chances it had to offer to those who wished to found
free, happy and prosperous communities. Radisson was
a catholic, but an extremely liberal one for those days,
and he remarks that it would be far more desirable to
win souls for Christ from among the natives of this land
than to quarrel and wage war over differences in creed
"when wrongs are committed under pretense of re-
ligion." Radisson and Groseilliers were on the Missis-
sippi fully a decade before Marquette and Joliet, and

5o THE FUR-TRADE

twenty years before LaSalle, but such is the strange
workings of fate that the later comers have become
famous while the real discoverers have scarcely yet
emerged from oblivion.

Just how far to the westward and southward our
travelers journeyed is a matter of mere guesswork. They
probably visited the Mandans on the Missouri, as some
of Radisson's descriptions seem to apply to those peo-
ple; he also speaks of mountains far in the interior
which would seem to indicate that he had at least been
apprised of the existence of the Rockies. While gather-
ing this store of knowledge concerning the western
country our heroes did not totally neglect the fur-trade
and when they finally went back to Montreal they car-
ried with them a most valuable cargo of fur.

On the return journey Radisson's indians were great-
ly frightened by rumors of Iroquois raiders, and it re-
quired all of the wits of the Frenchmen to keep their
followers from becoming panic stricken. At the rapids
of the Long Sault they had a skirmish with the enemy
which had taken refuge in a rude stockade, but they
easily put them to flight. Inside the walls the French-
men found evidences of a desperate fight. Charred,
blackened and mutilated corpses were scattered about,
while the recently ejected savages had left behind them
a number of fresh and bloody scalps.

Eight days later they learned that there had been a
terrible battle between the Iroquois and a band of
Frenchmen and Algonquins under the command of
Adam Dollard, who had built the fort in order to check
a party of Iroquois on their way to attack Montreal. A
band of Hurons had joined the party, but upon the
appearance of the enemy all but the chief deserted. The

RADISSON AND GROSEILLIERS 51

first attacks of the Iroquois were beaten off by the brave
band which numbered seventeen Frenchmen, four Al-
gonquins and one Huron, twenty-two in all. Outnum-
bered greatly but undaunted to the last, this Spartan
band held on stubbornly, piling up Iroquois dead in
heaps outside the walls of the stockade until at last in
one grand assault the enemy forced their way into the
fort, only to find every man down and weltering in gore.
There was no one left to lift a hand against the assail-
ants. Four Frenchmen were found to have a spark of
life still lingering, and these were brutally tortured un-
til death finally came as a relief. The Hurons that had
deserted their chief fared no better than those who had
sold their lives at such a high price, for the Iroquois
hunted them down and massacred them without mercy.

In this Canadian Thermopylae there was no messen-
ger of defeat. Dollard and every man under him had
paid the supreme price, but they had saved Montreal
from attack and by the fearful price they had exacted
from the Iroquois had discouraged them from pushing
the war further. Parkman gives a graphic account of
Dollard's heroic battle at the Long Sault, but makes no
mention of Radisson's fight at the same place a few
days later. It is doubtful if Parkman ever heard of this
fight at all.

Proceeding on down the Saint Lawrence Radisson
and Groseilliers ran the rapids in safety and were soon
at Quebec, where they were the heroes of the hour.
They were wined and dined and feted without stint, for
they had opened up a new region to the fur-trade and
moreover their rich cargo of furs was a welcome one,
for without them the fur-ships would have been com-
pelled to return to France without a single beaver pelt.

52 THE FUR-TRADE

Had our two adventurers done no more nor attempted
no more all might have been well but their appetite for
adventure had only been whetted, much less satisfied,
by their western experiences. Other fields awaited them,
there were rumors of a great bay to the north (Hud-
son's), and they were anxious to break a trail overland
to it from the south, but a jealous governor intervened.
To accomplish their objects both men were quite will-
ing to disobey or ignore the governor and the religious
authorities as well, and thus they arrayed both civil and
religious authorities against them at the same time.
Furthermore, they wished to reap the rewards of the
fur-trade without the payment of bribes, and this
touched the governor in the sorest spot. We will take up
the further adventures of Radisson and Groseilliers
later on in this story.

While there was much action, excitement and change
of scene in the lives of such adventurers and travelers as
Nicolet, Radisson, Grosseilliers and others of their
kind, for those traders who remained at the little iso-
lated trading posts life was dreary enough. True there
was the beauties of the wilderness in springtime, with
all the blossoming, budding and fragrance of that sea-
son, which was further enlivened by the return of the
birds and wild-fowl from the southland, then there was
the pleasant summer season with the river, now free
from ice, gliding swiftly by the door, murmuring mu-
sically along long quiet reaches and roaring savagely
at the rapids; with the forests decked out in all the
green finery of the season, silver birches gleaming
against the dark background of conifers and every
bough vocal with happy bird-life; but, then too, there
was the long periods of iron desolation when winter

RADISSON AND GROSEILLIERS 53

held the land in its icy grasp, and when the silence and
desolation of the season was almost intolerable to such a
gay people as the French. The visit of strange trapper
or indian was an event of importance at such times.

The daily routine of these traders was pretty much
the same from year to year, and the order of trading
when a band of indians visited the post was uniformly
alike, one day for establishing camp, one day for coun-
cil with officers, and on the third day the trading began,
the indians exchanging their furs for cloth, guns, am-
munition, knives, kettles, cooking utensils, and last but
not least, for glass beads and other articles of personal
adornment and decoration. The last day was likely to be
spent in a grand spree, after which they would bundle
their purchases into their birchen canoes and paddle
away into the wilderness, to be swallowed up in its
depths for another long year.

Chapter V

Marquette and Joliet- Early Waterways
and Portages

Marquette and Joliet- Early Waterways
and Portages

We now come to the period of Marquette's and Jo-
liet's Mississippi expedition. Pere Marquette was a
Jesuit priest of an adventurous nature, who like many
another missionary in savage lands was an explorer as
well as a preacher of the gospel; Joliet, a splendid
woodsman and an enthusiastic fur-trader. Both men had
heard rumors of the existence of a great river to the
south of the Great Lakes which could be reached by
easy portages and connecting tributaries. Perhaps more
than mere rumors had reached their ears, for we know
that ten years before Radisson and Groseilliers had dis-
covered this great river and probably the muddy Mis-
souri as well, but either knowledge of these men's ex-
ploit had been forgotten or had been disbelieved, or else
what is more probable, their report had been suppressed
by jealous rivals who wished to rob the two unpopular
traders of their glory. However this may be, Marquette
and Joliet, the priest and the trader, set out in 1673 to
find the "Father of Waters," one with an eye especially
open for the saving of souls, the other for the finding of
a good fur-producing country, but both longing to see
the river of their dreams. Both men were brave, hardy
and fearless, both were honored and respected by all
who knew them.

58 THE FUR-TRADE

With five companions in two canoes they followed
the route of Nicolet up Fox river into Wisconsin's love-
ly lake region, portaged across to the Wisconsin and
floated down that stream to the Mississippi, and on
down the great river into the unknown. Their inter-
course with the natives was peaceful and pleasant, they
enjoyed the weird scenery of the bluffs which bounded
the river, they feasted royally on buffalo, which they
found in incredible numbers on the rolling, grassy
plains which stretched in limitless expanse on either
hand. They passed the mouth of the Missouri whose
turbid flood came rolling in from the westward and en-
tirely changed the color and character of the river upon
which they were traveling. The mouths of the Ohio and
of the Arkansas were passed in turn, and finally our
travelers were convinced that the great river had its
objective point not in the Atlantic or the Pacific, but in
the Mexican gulf, in territory claimed by Spain. Ar-
riving at this conclusion they reluctantly abandoned
further exploration and turned their prows upstream.
They did not return to Lake Michigan by the way they
had come but went up the Illinois and across by the
Chicago portage instead.

Marquette and Joliet had been very fortunate in
their travels but now their good fortune came to an end.
Marquette was taken suddenly ill and died before get-
ting out of the wilderness. He was buried on the shores
of Lake Michigan by his faithful red converts, who
brought the sad news to the settlements. Joliet was not
present when Marquette passed away, having hurried
on ahead to carry the news of the discovery to Quebec.
Frontenac, the French governor, received him joyfully,
but when it came to procuring permission to trade in
the regions he had explored he met with a flat refusal

EARLY WATERWAYS AND PORTAGES 59

and the privilege was granted to Frontenac's friend,
Robert Cavalier de LaSalle instead. It was only an-
other case of not being allowed to reap where one had
sown.

We have seen how Marquette and Joliet proceeded
from Lake Michigan waters to those of the Mississippi
by way of the portage between the Fox and Wisconsin
rivers and returned by way of the portage between the
Illinois and the Chicago. These portage paths and in-
land waterways played a considerable part in the early
exploration and history of the interior of the continent.

Some of these portages have become quite historic.
The indians first located and established the paths con-
necting the heads of the various rivers, and when the
white man came he naturally made use of these ready
made trails in his trading and exploring expeditions.
The home-building Englishmen built their substantial
settlements at the head of bays and rivers along the At-
lantic coast. To his back was a wilderness almost devoid
of navigable waterways and beyond lay the blue wall
of the Appalachians. Consequently he never became a
riverman.

The coureurs de bois of French and indian extraction
had their homes along the mighty Saint Lawrence and
its tributaries, a perfect network of waterways by means
of which, with the occasional use of a portage path, he
could penetrate by boat almost to the far Cordilleras,
and we are to see Verendrye at the very foot of the
Rockies long before our own Daniel Boone had pene-
trated into Kentucky.

There was a portage from the Ottawa to Lake Nipis-
sing which in turn was connected with Lake Huron by
the French river. Champlain, Brule, the Jesuits and the
early voyageurs used this route from the very beginning.

6o THE FUR-TRADE

Another less used portage was one by way of Lake On-
tario, the Trent, Lake Simcoe, Lake Huron and con-
necting portage paths. Champlain used this route in his
unsuccessful campaign against the Iroquois in western
New York.

A chain of portages connected the western end of
Lake Superior with Lake of the Woods, Rainy lake and
tributary streams. The fur-traders early appreciated
the advantages of this route and the Northwest Com-
pany afterward built Fort William on these waters be-
cause of the conveniences offered for easy communica-
tion and travel.

There was a portage connecting Superior with the
Mississippi via the Saint Louis river. Other carries
were from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi by way of
the Calumet and Des Plaines, from the Saint Joseph
to the Kankakee and from the Saint Joseph to the Wa-
bash and thence to the Ohio. This route became an im-
portant one in the days of the Vincennes settlement. We
have already mentioned the two portages used by Mar-
quette and Joliet.

In Ohio the waters of Lake Erie were linked with
those of the Ohio by a number of carries and portages.
One from the Maumee led to the Wabash, another from
the Maumee led to the Great Miami. General Wayne
recognized the importance of these Maumee portages
and fortified them in 1794. By similar paths were the
Scioto and the Sandusky, the Muskingum and the Cuy-
ahoga united. The Ohio was further linked up with
Erie by portages from the Allegheny across to Presque
Isle and to Chautauqua lake. Niagara Falls cut off all
natural water communications between lakes Erie and
Ontario but two portages relieved the difficulty. There
was a portage from Lake Ontario to the Mohawk. Sev-

EARLY WATERWAYS AND PORTAGES 61

eral portages connected the Hudson river with lakes
George and Champlain. This route was much used by
the indians in their forays against one another, and in
later times was the scene of numerous invasions and bat-
tles between the English and French and the English
and American armies. The names of Diskeau, Johnson,
Montcalm, Howe, Burgoyne, Allen, Montgomery,
Gates, Schuyler and a host of others are inseparably
connected with these routes, routes which the indians
and the men of the fur-trade discovered and put into
use.

Two much used war trails were those from the Con-
necticut to the Saint Francis and from the Kennebec
and Dead river to the Chanderie, over which Benedict
Arnold led his brave continentals against the grim for-
tress of Quebec in 1775.

The English were always far better seamen than the
French but the latter, once the dash of indian blood was
added, far excelled as a river man and a canoe man.
The French colonist learned to depend upon water
transportation while the English depended more upon
overland routes, more as a matter of necessity than from
choice. The first American trappers and explorers used
the Missouri as their highway but later used the over-
land routes up the valleys of the Arkansas and the
Platte instead.

The indians had portage paths between the two main
tributaries of the Ohio and Atlantic coast rivers, the
Allegheny being linked to the Susquehanna and the
Monongahela with the Juniata. Likewise there were
portage paths between the Kanawha and the Potomac
and the Greenbriar and the James. None of these trails
seems to have been much used by the whites, however.

As so much of the fur-traders' traveling was done by

62 THE FUR-TRADE

water, several kinds of water-craft came into use. First
and foremost was the famous birch-bark canoe, which
was light and serviceable and had been used by the
indians for countless years before the coming of the
white man. It was the "ship of risk and adventure, be-
longing by rights to him who goes far and travels light,
who is careless of his home-coming. It is the boat that
now carries the voyageur and is now carried by him."
It rides the waves lightly and is easily propelled - also
it is easily capsized. The material for its construction
was always at hand in the north country. The birch
tree was stripped of its covering of tough paper-like
bark and stretched over a graceful framework of cedar,
the cracks were caulked with gum, a rude paddle was
whittled out and your voyageur was ready for a trip to
the farthest region. The birch canoe was the greatest
product of indian ingenuity, and the only savage-con-
structed craft that the white man has adopted perma-
nently for his own use. The Kootenais of the northwest
make a very useful canoe out of pine bark, the rough
side turned inward, which shows by its construction a
one time connection between its makers and the savage
craftsmen of the Pacific coasts of Asia. In the far south
the hollowed out log of the cypress tree was much in
use. On the plains of the far west where wood was scarce
the indians constructed a circular frame of willow over
which they stretched a buffalo hide. These rude and
unsatisfactory craft were known as "bull boats" and
were principally used to ferry across the plains rivers,
yet long journeys have been made in these crazy affairs
without mishap or accident.

Chapter VI

Adventures of LaSalle in Canada
and the West

Adventures of LaSalle in Canada
and the West

Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de LaSalle, now claims
our attention. Born in Rouen, France, November 22,
1643, he became a Jesuit early in life, but soon quit the
order and emigrating to Canada began his work in the
new land as fur-trader and explorer. With him the fur-
trade was only a means to an end. His desire was to
make his fame as a discoverer and a colonizer and not
as a fur-trader, but one needs money to carry on great
schemes, and this the fur-trade offered. His ability was
very soon recognized by the French authorities at Que-
bec, and he was extremely fortunate in cultivating the
friendship of iron-hearted old Frontenac, who aided
his plans in every way he could.

The first exploring expedition of LaSalle is the sub-
ject of much dispute and conjecture. In 1669 in com-
pany with some missionaries he visited the country of
the Senecas. The missionaries were mostly concerned
with the souls of the savages, but we suspect that La-
Salle was equally interested in finding the river Ohio,
of which the indians had told him at his home in Que-
bec.

Life among the Senecas was not such that even the
missionaries cared to stay long in their company, and so
the party moved to the western end of Lake Ontario.

66 THE FUR-TRADE

Here LaSalle met Joliet returning from an unsuccess-
ful attempt to discover the copper mines of Lake Su-
perior. (This was before Joliet and Marquette had
made their famous visit to the upper Mississippi.) Af-
ter talking with Joliet the missionaries concluded there
was a better field of endeavor awaiting them on the up-
per lakes, but LaSalle palmed sickness and remained
behind. The priests thought he would go down to Mon-
treal as soon as he was able to travel, but Montreal did
not fit into our adventurer's plans at all.

For two years LaSalle and those of the party who re-
mained made numerous excursions throughout the
country south of the lakes and in all probability made
some very important discoveries, but unfortunately all
records and maps of this expedition have disappeared.
It seems, however, that he secured a guide from the
Onondagas who conducted the party to the Ohio, down
which they descended as far at least as the falls at Louis-
ville.

Returning to Lake Erie, LaSalle is said to have pro-
ceeded by water to the Detroit river and from there on
to Lake Huron, exploring the Michigan shores as he
went, then crossing to Lake Michigan he passed over
by the Chicago portage to the Illinois and from there
on to the Mississippi. If this story be true LaSalle was
on the Mississippi several years before Marquette and
Joliet, but still a long time after Radisson and Groseil-
liers. There are many reasons for doubting this story.
LaSalle himself never seems to have put forth this
claim, and it was years later when some of his admirers
claimed this honor for him. That he found and ex-
plored the Ohio for some distance seems to be generally
conceded, but scant reliance should be placed upon the
alleged Mississippi expedition.

LA SALLE IN CANADA AND THE WEST 67

The Jesuits were extremely busy at this time in build-
ing missions and exploring the country, fathers Allouez
and Marquette being especially active in the work.

LaSalle returned for a time to his estate on the Saint
Lawrence where he set about preparing an elaborate
set of plans, gigantic in scope and purpose, which, had
they succeeded, might have changed the whole subse-
quent history of Canada, and North America as well.
Marquette's and Joliet's discovery of the Mississippi
and the conclusion they had reached as to its emptying
into the Gulf, fired him with the desire to win that
river and the great valley it drained, for France. Prior
discovery by DeSoto and the Spanish claims arising
therefrom did not bother LaSalle. He would build a
strong fort at the mouth of the river and people the val-
ley with French colonists. Fur-traders might bicker and
scheme and cheat and fight over the trade of the cold
Canadian forests, the Jesuits might rule and christian-
ize the indians of the Great Lake regions to their heart's
content, he would cut loose from both and found a
greater New France in the valley of the Mississippi,
where neither trader nor priest should predominate.

The governor, Count Frontenac, entered heartily
into his plans. The count was by far the ablest ruler
French Canada ever had, and in the enterprising and
courageous LaSalle he found a man after his own
heart. LaSalle's first move was to build a fort at the
western end of Lake Ontario, which he named after the
governor. This fort was intended to turn aside the trade
which had begun to flow down the Mohawk to the
Dutch posts on the Hudson. He furthermore planned
a fort at the falls of the Niagara to protect the portage
at that place, and here, too, he expected to build some
vessels with which to sail upon the upper lakes.

68 THE FUR-TRADE

The French king approved of LaSalle's plans, but a
storm of protest arose from both fur-traders and Jesuits.
Traders saw, or pretended to see, in this movement a
cutting off of much of their own trade and influence
and the enrichment of rivals instead. The Jesuits also
opposed their plans because they saw that the ultimate
aim of these forts was not protection against the Iro-
quois or against rival Dutch and English traders, as
was announced by the builders, but that through them
and others that might be established later, the valleys
of the Ohio and the Mississippi would pass into the
control of Frontenac and LaSalle, and that as a conse-
quence their dream of a second Paraguay in the Lake
region, where docile christianized indians would meek-
ly bow their heads to Jesuit rule, would vanish in thin
air. LaSalle in possession of the country would be a
stumbling block in their path. True, he was devoutly
religious and had even been educated for the priest-
hood, but he was now a fur-trader and it was quite evi-
dent that he wished to see white settlers in the west, and
settlers was something that neither Jesuit or fur-trader
wished to see. Both preferred to see the west peopled
by the indian and the beaver rather than by French
settlers, forgetting that French colonists and homemak-
ers alone could stay the ultimate western march of
English settlers from the seaboard.

Fort Frontenac in LaSalle's hands became a formid-
able place. He replaced the wooden walls on the land
side with walls of stone, added comfortable barracks
and quarters for the officers, also a forge, a mill and a
bakery. Nine cannon were mounted on the walls and
bid defiance to all enemies of New France. A small
garrison and a large force of farmers and workmen
were maintained at the place.

LA SALLE IN CANADA AND THE WEST 69

In spite of the protests which came pouring in the
French king, Louis XIV, not only granted all that La-
Salle asked, but he went farther and gave permission
not only to build the two forts asked for but as many
others as he pleased. He also granted a monopoly in
the trade in buffalo hides, but he did not favor a too
extensive settlement of the great western valleys. Pos-
sibly he did not wish to see Canada depleted of popu-
lation in order to form new settlements, and probably
he too wished to see the west populated with indians
and beaver, for the fur-trade was Canada's one source
of wealth. A statement made by this same king some
time later on seems to bear out this supposition: "I am
persuaded," says the grand monarch, "that the discov-
ery of the Sieur de LaSalle is very useless; and it is
necessary, hereafter, to prevent similar enterprises,
which can have no other result than to debauch the peo-
ple by the hope of gain, and to diminish the revenue
from the beaver." Perhaps, too, Louis feared the lawless
independence so often exhibited by these men of the
wilderness, once they had gotten so far away from the
firm grasp of the authorities at Quebec.

LaSalle set about to raise a company to finance and
carry out his projects. Frontenac in Canada lent him all
possible aid, while in Paris he succeeded in enlisting
the aid of several able gentlemen, among whom Henri
de Tonti, an Italian, was to prove an invaluable assist-
ant. Another remarkable man joined the company, the
brave, resourceful but somewhat untruthful Father
Hennepin.

In 1678, LaSalle and party established themselves
at Niagara and built the first vessel ever constructed
upon the upper lakes, naming it the Griffin in honor of
Frontenac, whose coat of arms bore that device.

7o THE FUR-TRADE

Early in 1679 the Griffin was finished and launched,
and away the adventurers sailed up the river to Lake
Erie, and on westward over its broad expanse. LaSalle
was anxious to get away from Niagara, for enemies at
Quebec and elsewhere had instigated his creditors to
sieze all his property except the fort at Frontenac. Also
his men were beginning to show signs of restlessness
and dissatisfaction. It was time to be moving. Entering
the Detroit river the party landed from time to time
to kill game, which was exceedingly abundant along
the banks. They feasted royally on bear meat and veni-
son, and the good spirits of the crew were restored for
a while.

On Lake Huron the Griffin encountered a storm
which threatened to send them all to the bottom, even
stout-hearted LaSalle seems to have despaired for a
time, but by hard work they managed to keep the ves-
sel afloat and finally reached the straits of Mackinac.
The sight of the Jesuit establishment there was a most
welcome one to the storm-tossed voyagers, but we doubt
if there was much sincerity behind the welcome the
traders of the place extended them. From the earliest
times Mackinaw was a boisterous, lawless place, swarm-
ing with reckless free traders who, like the Jesuits, had
very early recognized the strategic importance of the
place. The huts of these traders surrounded the mission.
Here the men who served God and the men who served
Mammon only, plied their callings side by side.

LaSalle's men mingled freely with the rollicking
traders on shore, and very soon he began to discover
signs of a return of the dissatisfaction which had
plagued him at Niagara. Some one was tampering with
them again. He had intended to turn the command over
to Tonti at this place while he went back to endeavor to

LA SALLE IN CANADA AND THE WEST 71

satisfy his creditors at Quebec, but owing to the attitude
his men had assumed he did not dare to leave them, so
so he pushed on with the expedition into Lake Michi-
gan and did a thriving business with the indians in that
section, finding them plentifully supplied with furs.

The Griffin was soon laden with a most valuable car-
go of peltries and LaSalle sent her back to Niagara,
while with his men he proceeded to the Saint Joseph,
where he built a fort. As we know, the Saint Joseph was
joined with the Illinois river by a short portage, and
this was the route LaSalle intended using in going to
and from Canada to his projected settlements in the
Mississippi valley. He seems not to have taken seriously
the king's expressed wish that no considerable number
of colonists be established in the far west.

Furious storms lashed the broad waters of Lake
Michigan creating a terrible sea, and the voyageurs as
they looked out over the seething tossing waters and
recalled their experiences on Lake Huron, wondered
how the Griffin was faring. Their apprehensions were
well grounded, for nothing was ever heard of either the
vessel or her crew. LaSalle waited at Saint Joseph in
vain for the Griffin's return, and at last he became thor-
oughly convinced that the vessel was lost. It was a most
serious blow, but instead of turning back he led his fol-
lowers over to the Illinois and built Fort Crevecoeur.
This post was the first establishment of the white man in
the country drained by the Mississippi and its tribu-
taries, it was the forerunner of the great teeming cities
which now line the banks of those rivers.

Chapter VII
LaSalle on the Mississippi

LaSalle on the Mississippi

LaSalle was at length fully launched upon his long
cherished plan of founding a French colony in the great
interior valley of the continent. He had met with many
hindrances, but none of them could turn him from his
purpose. He was of the type of men who build empires.
Neither plots or intrigues, seizure of property, com-
plaints of followers or even the loss of the Griffin shook
his firm resolve. It is well that he was made of such
heroic material, for war, desertion, misfortune, failure
and final assassination were to be his portion, but never
do we find his courage faltering or his firm purpose
shaken. He was to ultimately fail in all of his plans, but
he left behind him a name which stands high on the list
of explorers and heroes.

Having established himself on the Illinois, LaSalle
thought it safe to turn the command over to Tonti and
for himself to hurry back to Canada to attend to his
affairs. Hurrying overland from Lake Michigan to the
Detroit river, LaSalle struck across to Lake Erie, reach-
ing the lake in the region of Point Pelee, where he built
a canoe and proceeded by water to the fort at Niagara.
Here he learned of new disasters. Not only had the
Griffin been lost but the ship from France which was
laden with his goods, amounting in all to twenty-two
thousand livres, had been wrecked at the mouth of the
Saint Lawrence. In addition to this, many of his men

76 THE FUR-TRADE

had quit his employ and his rivals were unceasingly
busy. Misfortunes were coming thick and fast. Discour-
aged but still undaunted, he hurried to Frontenac and
from there on to Montreal, and soon succeeded in re-
pairing his fortunes to some extent.

Scarcely had LaSalle succeeded in bringing his af-
fairs in the east to a somewhat satisfactory shape when
bad news came from the west. A messenger arrived
bringing a letter from Tonti with the information that
soon after his departure the men at Fort Crevecoeur
had rebelled, burned the fort and made off with all the
plunder they could carry. The deserters had also de-
stroyed the fort on the Saint Joseph and seized a lot of
LaSalle's furs at Michillimackinac, and the main party
was now on Lake Ontario seeking for the harbor of
Albany while others were hurrying on to Fort Fron-
tenac, hoping to surprise and kill their commander
there. With his usual promptitude LaSalle gathered
around him those of his men who yet remained loyal,
and intercepting the mutineers and would-be murderers
he took them all prisoners and clapped them in jail.

Hurrying to the Illinois country LaSalle anxiously
searched for his faithful lieutenant, but Tonti was no-
where to be found. He was not surprised to find both
his forts in ruins, for he had been apprised of this mis-
fortune in Tonti's letter, but he was agreeably surprised
to find the boat they had been building for the descent
of the Mississippi but little injured.

The anxiety of the searchers was increased when
they came upon evidences of an Iroquois raid. The once
smiling valley of the Illini was a blackened waste.
Blackened ruins and bleaching bones were everywhere.
The tomahawk, the arrow and the fire brand had gotten

LA SALLE ON THE MISSISSIPPI 77

in their awful work, but what bothered LaSalle most
was the absence of his men. Could Tonti, and the few
who remained faithful to him, have perished in this
general massacre? Everywhere he went searching and
inquiring of the few miserable natives who had man-
aged to escape the general ruin that had come upon
their nation, but no tidings of the missing men came to
relieve his anxiety. Winter quarters were taken up on
the Saint Joseph, and we can imagine how sad and
gloomy that encampment must have been. At last came
the welcome news that Tonti was safe among the Pot-
tawattomies, and in the following May the two men
were reunited once more.

After the mutiny, Tonti and those who remained
faithful took up their abode among the Illinois. Then
came the Iroquois invasion with its whirlwind of fire
and slaughter. After vainly trying to patch up a peace
between the Illinois and their enemies and getting
wounded for his pains, Tonti and his men moved north-
ward to the region of Green Bay and took refuge among
the Pottawattomies.

Before leaving Fort Crevecoeur for his journey back
to Canada, LaSalle had sent the egotistic and talkative
priest, Hennepin, with two companions to explore the
Illinois to its junction with the Mississippi, and from
there he was to proceed on up that stream toward its
source. Hennepin obeyed orders until he was made
prisoner by the Sioux, and his further progress brought
to a halt. His principal exploit had been the discovery
of the falls of Saint Anthony but later on his ready
pen claimed much more to his credit, but Hennepin's
writings have gained for him little more than the repu-
tation of being a colossal liar.

78 THE FUR-TRADE

Meanwhile the daring leader of the coureurs de bois,
Daniel Greysolon DuLuth, had crossed over from
Lake Superior to the Saint Croix, down which he had
floated to the Mississippi. Hearing of three white men
among the indians farther down the river and fearing
that it might be Englishmen or Spaniards poaching on
French territory he hurried forward to ascertain the
truth of the matter. Hennepin and his comrades were of
course glad to be released from their captivity, and
followed DuLuth across the Wisconsin portage to Lake
Michigan and from thence on down to Quebec. From
Canada, Hennepin hurried over to France to publish
an account of the wonderful things he had done, and
incidentally a great deal that he did not do, with the
result that very little credence is now placed upon any
of his statements.

Late in December, 1682, LaSalle was ready for his
long deferred trip down the Mississippi. He had given
up his first idea of traveling in one large vessel and in-
stead embarked his men in canoes. At first their pro-
gress was somewhat hindered by blocks of floating ice,
but the farther southward they went the more pleasant
the weather became. They passed the mouth of the Mis-
souri, with its flood of yellow waters pouring in from
the westward and discoloring the hitherto clear, blue
waters of the Mississippi into a dirty brown throughout
the rest of its course. The mouth of the Ohio was next
passed, and soon after the party landed at Chickasaw
Bluffs to replenish their larder with wild game.

A small stockade was built at the Bluffs and given the
name of Fort Prud'homme. A small guard was left at
this place while the remainder reembarked and floated
on down to the Arkansas, where they visited an indian

LA SALLE ON THE MISSISSIPPI 79

village where the chief was persuaded to acknowledge
vassalage to France. Visits were made also to the vil-
lages of the Natchez and other tribes further on. Early
in April they reached the mouth of the great river and
gazed out over the peaceful expanse of the Mexican
gulf. It was an auspicious moment for them all, the
mystery of the magnificent river had been cleared up,
and they were the ones who had accomplished the task.
The arms of France were set up upon the shore, and the
land declared the property of Louis XIV under the name
of Louisiana.

The journey upstream was far more laborious than
the downward journey had been, when all one had to
do was to drift with the current. Also the indians proved
more troublesome than on the downward trips, while
provisions ran alarmingly low. To make matters worse,
LaSalle took violently ill and had to be left at Fort
Prud'homme to recover, while Tonti proceeded on with
the party. It was September before LaSalle was able
to rejoin his lieutenant at Michillimackinac.

LaSalle was much gratified with the success of his
Mississippi voyage, although from a money point of
view it had proved a dead loss. His original intention
of using one large vessel and collecting a cargo of furs
on the trip had been abandoned, and the canoes he had
substituted were too small to carry furs along with the
men and the supplies, and the trading part of the ex-
pedition had been abandoned. LaSalle's hope was to
establish a post near the mouth of the Mississippi and
use the sea for direct communication with France, thus
cutting loose from Canada altogether.

At a high cliff on the banks of the Illinois, called by
the indians, Starved Rock, LaSalle and Tonti built a

8o THE FUR-TRADE

fort which they named Saint Louis, in honor of their
French master. Here at this miniature Quebec the two
thought to establish themselves in the Illinois country
once again. Again disaster awaited LaSalle. Frontenac
no longer governed at Quebec and the new governor,
unfriendly to his plans, seized Fort Frontenac and sent
one of his officers to supersede LaSalle on the Illinois.
LaSalle was on his way to Quebec when he met this
officer and learned what his errand was, but smothering
his resentment he sent word to Tonti to receive the man
well, while he proceeded to France to lay his case di-
rectly before the king.

LaSalle reached France at an opportune time. Spain
had forbidden vessels of any other nation to sail on the
Gulf of Mexico, and in enforcing this demand she had
seized certain vessels that had ventured into those
waters. The grand monarch could not submit to this
extravagant claim of the Spaniards and was planning
the sending of warships to protect French nationals in
those parts, and in addition he contemplated the build-
ing of a fort somewhere on the Gulf coast. All this fitted
nicely into LaSalle's plans. As Louis now saw the neces-
sity of establishing French colonists in the great valley
if he intended to retain his hold on the country, LaSalle
asked to be allowed to found a colony there, and he
even proposed to conquer the northern portions of
Mexico should he be allowed to raise a company of
two-hundred men, these to be trained for six months at
the king's expense. He also asked for a small vessel of
thirty guns and a few cannon for his proposed fort.

Louis was in a generous mood, and gave the explorer
all he asked and more. A naval vessel, the July, thirty-
six guns, a small-armed vessel, a store ship and a ketch

LA SALLE ON THE MISSISSIPPI

were furnished. The naval force was placed under the
command of Captain Beaujeu, much to LaSalle's dis-
pleasure, for he did not like a divided command. On
land, however, he was to have sole authority. The king
also ordered the Canadian authorities to restore every-
thing they had seized from LaSalle at Fort Frontenac
and elsewhere.

Quarrels between LaSalle and Beaujeu began almost
at once, and continued from the time the expedition set
sail from Rochelle until it reached America. Stopping
at Saint Domingo enroute for supplies, LaSalle was
taken dangerously ill, and this discouragement was fur-
ther added to by malicious or misinformed persons who
represented the land to which they were bound in a
most unfavorable manner. The quarrels between the
two commanders continued to rage fiercely.

Sailing westward from Saint Domingo, they missed
the mouth of the Mississippi and passed on westwardly
along the coast. LaSalle was fooled by the lagoons at
Matagorda bay into thinking that he had found the
Mississippi, little dreaming that the river of his quest
lay hundreds of miles to the eastward.

Quarreling and sickness followed the landing at Ma-
tagorda. In attempting to enter one of the lagoons the
store ship was hopelessly wrecked, and only a portion
of the cargo could be saved. The indians also annoyed
them considerably. It seemed as though man and nature
haH joined forces against the explorers. LaSalle and
Beaujeu were still at loggerheads, and the latter finally
sailed away, leaving the land forces to get along as best
they could.

Excursions in all directions finally convinced LaSalle
that he was nowhere near the mouth of the Mississippi,

82 THE FUR-TRADE

but he concluded that the best thing he could do was to
safeguard his present position by building a fort for
shelter and protection. Provisions were low, and exist-
ence was kept up by constant hunting and fishing. Sick-
ness was rife and the little graveyard grew amazingly.
Discipline was lax. Little by little LaSalle was losing
his hold on his unruly crew, and now came as a crown-
ing calamity the loss of his remaining vessel and the loss
also of the greater part of the crew. There was but one
thing to do if he wished to save the remainder of his
men from death by starvation and sickness on that in-
hospitable shore, and that was to proceed to the Illinois
country without delay.

It must have cost LaSalle quite a bit in pride to thus
abandon his long cherished undertaking and give the
order for the northward march, but there was no help
for it. Day after day they marched on ; dark, silent for-
ests hemmed them in sometimes for days at a time;
again they wandered over wide stretches of sunny,
treeless plains, teeming with game. Under other condi-
tions the journey would not have proven an unpleasant
one, but LaSalle was sick at heart over the failure of
his plans, and his men were so discouraged and home-
sick that we can easily imagine that everyone was
gloomy enough.

Buffalo were everywhere and proved a blessing for
the travelers, furnishing them with both food and cloth-
ing. They also made rude "bull boats" of the hides,
which they used in crossing the streams. The men grew
more and more insolent as they struggled on, blaming
all their misfortunes on their brave commander. At
length several of them by watching their chance when
he was away from the main body, shot him down and

LA SALLE ON THE MISSISSIPPI 83

left his body for the wolves and vultures. The muti-
neers succeeded in intimidating those who had re-
mained loyal to their leader, and continued to run
things to their own notions.

At last the party reached the Arkansas and were over-
joyed to find an indian village with a tall crucifix stand-
ing in the center. This was an unmistakable sign of the
presence of white men, and soon after several French-
men made their appearance. The faithful Tonti had
gone down the Mississippi from his post in Illinois to
meet his chief at the mouth of the great river. Not find-
ing him there he had retraced his way to the Illinois,
leaving several men on the Arkansas to be on the look-
out for LaSalle. Concealing the fact that they had mur-
dered their leader the party made haste to reach the
Illinois and thence on to the Saint Lawrence and home.
Thus ended in failure LaSalle's great plans for a
French colony in the interior of the continent.

Chapter VIII
Beginning of the Hudson's Bay Company

Beginning of the Hudson's Bay Company

The destruction of the Hurons and the scattering of
others of the western indian nations by the Iroquois
caused a very serious falling off in the trade of Mon-
treal, Quebec, and other headquarters of the fur-trade.
Then the trade began to pick up again, but now the
bulk of the furs began to come in from the north in-
stead of the west. Down the Ottawa, the Saint Maurice,
the Saguenay and other rivers coming down out of the
North country, or pays den hant as the trappers called
that region, glided fleets of indian canoes, laden with
the finest of furs. The traders made inquiry concerning
this land of plenty. They already knew of the existence
of the great bay that Hudson had discovered and ex-
plored, but as yet no one had reached it overland from
the Saint Lawrence, and in consequence adventurous
souls were longing for permission to find this great bay
and share in the harvest of fur the region offered.

Among those who coveted a share of this northern
trade and whose appetite for adventure was as strong as
their desire for gain, were our old acquaintances, Radis-
son and Groseilliers, the discoverers of the upper Mis-
sissippi. They had gathered much information from the
indians in former journeys, and they burned with the
desire to be the first on the great bay of the north, just
as they had been the first to stand on the banks of the
great river of the west.

88 THE FUR-TRADE

A mixed party of Jesuits and traders started up the
Saguenay with the object of searching for the bay. They
had been given permission by the French governor to
carry on these explorations, but when Radisson and his
companion sought a similar permit they were told that
they might obtain the desired permission if they would
promise to turn over half of the furs obtained. In at-
tempting to procure better terms they only outraged
the governor, who thereupon forbade them to go on any
terms whatever.

Neither Radisson nor Groseilliers were noted for
paying strict regard to the laws or the orders of their
superiors, and they did not propose to be balked in
their desires this time. The wilds were calling, and they
obeyed the call rather than the orders of the governor.
With a few indian companions they stole forth from
Three Rivers at night and paddled up the Saint Law-
rence and on westward to Lake Superior. Some distance
to the westward of this great inland sea they erected the
first fur-post in the far northwest. This tiny fort was
triangular in shape, with rough log walls thatched over
with the branches of trees and furnished in the rudest
manner imaginable. Here the trapper-explorers spent
the long, lonely winter.

Instead of maintaining guard through the long win-
ter nights they arranged a system of wires about the
walls which were attached to bells inside the fort. These
were expected to arouse the trappers should anything
come in contact with the wires during the night. No
human foe molested them but wild animals occasionally
blundered into the wires and started the alarm bells
jingling. Indians came and went at intervals but they
always found the white men on guard.

BEGINNING OF HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY 89

When the weather began to moderate they visited a
village of Crees and found them starving. Their hunt-
ing had been unsuccessful and starvation was the result.
The two Frenchmen shared their misery until a change
in the weather brought game into the country again and
relieved their needs.

Meeting with the Sioux, the traders made a treaty
with those indians, and Radisson traveled extensively
in their country. We would be glad to know the nature
and extent of these travels, but have no way of finding
out.

Similar uncertainty attends their dash toward Hud-
son's Bay. It appears that they crossed the divide and
descended a river to salt water, which, if correct, could
be nothing less than Hudson's Bay. There has been
much controversy over this expedition, and the facts of
the case may never be satisfactorily decided.

Returning to Canada with a cargo of furs worth
$300,000 they were arrested, fined heavily, and Sieur de
Groseilliers was even imprisoned for a time. When ail
was settled up the two friends had barely $20,000 left
of their valuable cargo of pelts. They would have fared
far better had they complied with the governor's offer,
unreasonable as it had seemed at the time.

Other men had sought to explore Hudson's Bay. In
161 2, Thomas Button had explored Baffin land and
Nelson river; in 1619, the mouth of the Churchill was
discovered by a Dane named Munck; James and Fox in
1 63 1, Shapleigh in 1640, and Bourbon in 1656 -seven
explorers in all, had made discoveries of more or less
importance, but no permanent posts had been estab-
lished on those waters as yet. Both English and French
fur-traders coveted possession of this great fur store-

90 THE FUR-TRADE

house and Radisson and Groseilliers, aware of this fact,
and smarting from the injustice of the French authori-
ties, resolved to desert to the English.

In Port Royal, Nova Scotia, the adventurers met
Zachariah Gillem, a sea captain of Boston, who offered
his ship for a voyage to Hudson's Bay, but the season
was so far advanced that nothing came of the voyage.
Two vessels were chartered for a voyage during the
succeeding year, but one of the ships was wrecked while
going to fish at the Grand Banks and the traders were
held up by a lawsuit in consequence, and it was August
(1665) before they finally got away to England with
Sir George Cartwright to plan the establishment of a
trading post on the bay. On the way they fell into the
hands of a Dutch captain and the Frenchmen were
dumped ashore in Spain.

Reaching England, at last, their plans found favor at
court and that soldier of fortune, Prince Rupert, was
especially interested. The adventurous life of the fur-
traders and the wealth which the business held forth
appealed to the Prince, and he entered heartily into the
schemes of the Frenchmen.

In 1668, two vessels were sent out to America. Gro-
seilliers sailing with Gillem in, the Nonsuch, came
to anchor in the bay on August 4, at a point which he
and Radisson are supposed to have reached on their
overland expedition five years before. Here they erected
a post and here they wintered, loading their vessel with
a valuable cargo of furs. Radisson had sailed on the
other vessel, had been driven back to London by a gale
and had to postpone his visit to America, but our enter-
prising Frenchman improved the time of his enforced
idleness by wooing and wedding Mary Kirk. He was

BEGINNING OF HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY 91

also often in council with Prince Rupert formulating
plans for the future.

In 1670 a royal charter was granted to the "Adven-
turers of England trading into Hudson's Bay," and thus
was launched that famous organization known as the
Hudson's Bay Company, which is still doing business
in the frozen regions about the great bay, and whose
posts are still the only sign of civilization in those re-
gions. It has the distinction of being the oldest united
company in the world.

Prince Rupert was made first governor with head-
quarters in England and Charles Bayley was appointed
resident governor on the bay. Radisson and Groseilliers
were on the bay in 1671 aiding their English friends in
establishing posts at favorable points and trafficking
with the indians for their furs. The new posts were
named Fort Nelson, later York, Fort Albany, Fort
Hayes and Fort Rupert. All was progressing nicely
when a band of Frenchmen under Charles Abanel ap-
peared on the bay. The English suspected and even
openly accused Radisson and Groseilliers of treachery.
The situation became so uncomfortable that the two
men deserted and went over to their countrymen again.

A rival company had been organized by the French
at Quebec to compete with the English on the bay. This
new company was named the Company of the North,
and our two adventurers were soon enlisted in its em-
ploy. Two vessels were placed under their orders and
sent to the bay. After a stormy voyage they reached the
western shore of the bay and built a fort. Here Radis-
son met a party of illicit traders from Boston and a
large party of Hudson's Bay men. By making use of a
bit of skillful diplomacy Radisson outwitted and took

92 THE FUR-TRADE

both parties prisoners, though either party outnum-
bered his own.

The ease with which our two friends could transfer
allegiance from one crown to another, led to their being
suspected and mistrusted by both. They found their
rights ignored at Quebec to such an extent that Groseil-
liers retired entirely from trade, while Radisson turned
over his post on the bay to the Hudson's Bay Company
and again took service under the English, much to the
disgust of the men of his command.

Although at this time England and France were at
peace, the Canadian traders resolved to make a grand
effort to rout the English from the bay. The governor
of Canada sent Chevalier de Troyes from Montreal
with some eighty men to take possession of all the Brit-
ish posts. Among them went Pierre le Moyne dTber-
ville, the future founder of the Louisiana colony. This
party ascended the Ottawa and from thence overland
to Fort Hayes, which they took by surprise. Hurrying
on to Fort Rupert they surprised and captured that post
also, as well as a vessel which was lying at anchor
nearby. Eight Englishmen were killed at Rupert, the
rest becoming prisoners. As both Hayes and Rupert
were well built forts, their easy capture can only be
explained by the surprise and the suddenness of the
attack.

The victors now marched upon Fort Albany, but the
garrison there had been apprised of the doings of the
French and a surprise was impossible. Nevertheless
they were compelled to hang out the white flag when the
invaders trained the ten captured cannon from Hayes
and Rupert upon the walls of Fort Albany and com-
pletely riddled the place with balls.

OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

BEGINNING OF HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY 95

The success of the French on the bay was hailed with
delight at Quebec and with exasperation in the English
colonies. Both England and France ordered their Amer-
ican representatives to keep the peace, although we
imagine that Louis XIV was secretly delighted with
what Troyes had done.

The ousting of the English from Hudson's Bay was
only temporary. They returned, rebuilt their ruined
forts, and affairs went on again in the same way as
before. More forts were added as time went on, and
ere long the blood-red banner, with the magical
H. B. C. in white lettering emblazoned upon it, was
seen at all advantageous points throughout the whole of
that vast region of ice and snow - and furs.

Two ships from England visited the bay each sum-
mer, bringing in supplies and taking out cargoes of
furs. York Factory and Moose Factory were stopping
places for these vessels, and their arrival was the great
event of the year. Then only was mail received from or
sent to friends in distant England. There was much
revelry and jollifying on these occasions.

The French traders never fully agreed to the sur-
rendering of the Hudson's Bay to the English, and from
time to time daring voyageurs dashed into the region
and seized and pillaged rival traders.

In May, 1697, England and France now being at
war, Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville and his brother,
Serigny, led five French ships against the English on
the bay. Becoming separated from the other ships of his
fleet Iberville found his vessel alone in the presence of
three English vessels, carrying fifty-two, thirty-six and
thirty-two guns respectively. His own ship, the Pelican,
carried but forty-four, nevertheless Iberville hazarded

96 THE FUR-TRADE

an engagement. One English vessel was sunk, one sur-
rendered, and the third sought safety in flight -quite
a contrast from the usual results of naval battles be-
tween the two nations.

A furious storm now arose and Iberville's ship was
wrecked, but most of the crew got ashore in safety. The
missing ships now came up and men, cannon and stores
were put ashore for an attack on Fort Nelson, the prin-
cipal post of the English traders. On land, Iberville
was quite as successful as he had been on the water, and
after a brief bombardment the English surrendered.

All these successes availed the conquerors but little.
European treaties restored American conquests, and
once more the English returned to their battered forts
and reopened trade with the natives. Snugly quartered
in their stations at Fort Nelson (or York Factory) , Fort
Prince of Wales, Fort Rupert and other strategic points
they more than held their own against rivals, and ruled
over a realm larger than that of any European nation,
and their rule was as autocratic and absolute as that of
the czar of Russia himself.

Chapter IX

Count Verendrye and the Discovery
of the Rockies

Count Verendrye and the Discovery
of the Rockies

It is one of the strange facts of history that many of
the great discoveries made by explorers have been made
by them while searching for something else. Columbus
discovered America while seeking Asia; his Spanish
successors roamed hither and yon in search of fountains
of youth, golden cities and rich empires to plunder.
Sometimes, like Cortez and Pizarro, they were success-
ful; more often, like DeLeon, DeSoto and Coronado,
they failed in the objects of their journeys, and placed
little or no value upon the discoveries they did make. In
seeking a water route to Asia, Hudson had discovered
the great bay that now bears his name. English and
French seamen had made many additions to geographi-
cal knowledge after Hudson's day, but none found the
water route to the Orient which was the object of their
searchings. Now another valuable discovery was to be
made by a gallant Frenchman, who was endeavoring to
open a land route across to Pacific waters.

French priests, traders and voyageurs had pushed
far into the unknown wilds to the west and southwest
from Lake Superior. Following in the wake of the
Radisson, Perrot, Du Luth, Hennepin and LaSalle ex-
plorations, LeSueur made two excursions into the Sioux
country, and returning to France had persuaded the

ioo THE FUR-TRADE

king to grant him a monopoly on the fur-trade of those
regions. He sailed for the mouth of the Mississippi,
where Iberville had established a colony, following out
the plans of the great LaSalle.

In 1700, LeSueur led a party up the river into the
Sioux country. On the way they met an English trader
from Carolina, showing that even at this early day there
was rivalry between the traders of the two nations on
the great river as well as on the great bay to the north.
The travelers suffered much from hunger until relieved
by the missionaries on the Illinois. These black-robed
priests of New France came close behind the fur-clad
traders and trappers in the discovery and opening up
of new lands. It is to these two classes that we are in-
debted for the discovery of our great west.

LeSueur found Perrot established in a fort at Lake
Pepin, which he had built about five years before. Con-
tinuing on the travelers came to the Saint Peter, and
this they ascended to Blue Earth river, where they es-
tablished themselves. Two years later a part of the men
went down the Mississippi to Louisiana with a goodly
cargo of valuable furs. A small party was left behind to
hold the fort, but they soon grew discouraged and fol-
lowed the others down the river.

Small parties of hardy Canadian woods-rangers
moved constantly about over the interior of the country,
even pushing far up the turbid Missouri. They brought
back many kinds of reports, but one which aroused the
greatest interest was that of the existence of a river
which had its head near the source of the Missouri and
ran on down to the Spanish settlements on the Pacific,
or western sea as it was then called.

To ascertain how much fact there was in these rumors

THE DISCOVERY OF THE ROCKIES 101

Juchereau de Saint Denis, in 17 14, set out toward the
west, but going up the Red river instead of the Mis-
souri. Spain kept a jealous eye ever open for poachers
on her domains, or on lands she claimed to own, and the
Frenchmen were soon seized and their expedition
broken up. In 1719, LaHarpe started out from Natchi-
toches on an excursion into unknown regions, but he
discovered nothing of importance, while Du Tisne led
another party up the Missouri as far as Grand river,
but the indians refused him permission to proceed be-
yond that place.

Vast as was the continent of North America, Euro-
pean nations were jealous of all rivalry, even though on
the vast plains and far-reaching fertile valleys there was
land enough and space enough to take care of their
overflow populations for centuries to come. England
and France were engaged in a rivalry in the north and
east which could, and did, end only when one of the
rivals was vanquished ; Spain on her part had wiped out
the French settlements in Florida with a savageness
even remarkable for her, and now she saw the hated
Frenchman once more menacing her borders, and so she
resolved to expel them from the Mississippi country as
well.

In 1 72 1 a force of two-hundred men from New Mex-
ico marched eastward to expel the French, but they
never reached the French settlements for the indians,
not relishing Spanish intruders any better than the lat-
ter did the French, fell upon this army and completely
put it to rout. Anticipating further hostile moves on
the part of Spain, Bourgmont led a party of French to
a point above Grand river and there built a fort. The
French and indians got along well together, and further

io2 THE FUR-TRADE

danger from the Spaniards was soon an improbability.

The French fur-trader was the explorer of all western
North America, as far as the Rockies. Go where you
will beyond the Mississippi and Lake Superior and you
will find French names given to lakes, rivers and towns,
showing that he had been there in advance of his Anglo-
saxon rivals. His little trading posts became the sites of
later cities, and while he failed to make good his claim
he has left the impress of his presence upon the nomen-
clature of the entire region. English and American ex-
plorers but followed in the wake of the adventurous
Frenchman and profited by his endeavors.

The overland search for a road to the Pacific began
in earnest in June, 173 1, when Pierre Gaultier de Va-
rennes de la Verendrye and his sons, a nephew Jemerais
and a party of Canadians set out from Montreal to en-
deavor to unravel the mystery.

Verendrye had been a gallant soldier in the wars of
Louis XIV and had been desperately wounded at Mal-
plaquet. Later on he had come over to America, and
like all other adventurers of that day he was soon en-
gaged in the fur-trade. In 1728, he was in charge of a
small post at Lake Nipigon, and here an indian chief
regaled him with tales of a great western lake which
discharged its waters into salt water. Verendrye very
naturally concluded that this salt water must be the
Western Sea, and his ambition was fired for its discov-
ery.

His appeal to the king was unheeded, but better luck
attended his efforts among the merchants of Canada.
These men had seen scantily supplied traders plunge
into the western wilds only to emerge later on with a
fortune in furs. By sending out a large and well-

THE DISCOVERY OF THE ROCKIES 103

equipped expedition they reasoned that the fortunes of
all could be easily made. In reasoning thus the mer-
chants failed to take into consideration that in a joint
exploring and trading expedition one or the other ob-
jects would possibly be slighted, and that with a man
seeking glory rather than wealth, the trade would very
likely be the one neglected.

Verendrye set out well-supplied with necessities for
his expedition, and a still more liberal supply of prom-
ises of future aid. He was to learn to his sorrow and
loss just how unstable such promises were to prove.
Verendrye left Montreal with much pomp and circum-
stance in June, 1731, and by August was at the grand
portage which connects the western tributaries of Lake
Superior with those of Lake Winnipeg. Here so much
valuable time was lost that they were obliged to erect
winter quarters. They named their post Fort Saint
Pierre.

Time after time Verendrye was forced to return to
Montreal to hurry up supplies or obtain additional aid,
and in the meantime was doing much toward stopping
the flow of furs toward the English posts on Hudson's
Bay by establishing French posts at strategic points.
Fort Saint Pierre on Rainy lake, Fort Saint Charles on
Lake of the Woods, Fort Maurepas and Fort Bourbon
on Lake Winnipeg, Fort La Reine on the Assiniboine
and Fort Dauphin on Lake Manitoba. All this took
time, and we can imagine how Verendrye chafed at the
delay. Misfortunes multiplied, the brave and efficient
Jemerais died, many of the men were dissatisfied and
all but openly mutinous, and as a crowning disaster
Jean Verendrye, the count's eldest son, with twenty men,
was surprised and killed by Sioux. Still the brave com-

104 THE FUR-TRADE

mander held on to his original intention of crossing
over the continent to the Pacific.

Verendrye relied much upon indian information and
this, as usual, was misleading. They assured him that
the Mandans on the Missouri could show him the way
to the western sea and so in October, 1738, having, as he
thought, firmly established himself in the country,
Verendrye set out with twenty men for the Mandan
country. Pushing up the Assiniboine as far as the rapids
in bark canoes, the party landed and marched overland
to the Mandan villages on the Missouri. Here again
misfortune befell him. His interpreter had become
enamored with an Assiniboine beauty and deserted to
follow after the girl. Also the bag of presents, so vitally
necessary in dealings with indians, was lost.

There was nothing to do but retrace their steps to
Fort La Reine, which they did, leaving, however, two
men in the villages to learn the language. These men
remained with the Mandans something like seven
months, studying the language and traveling about with
them, with ears always alert to catch information of the
western sea. Finally they came across a man who told
them of a salt lake to the westward, beside which dwelt
men with beards, who sang from books and repeated
Jesus Maria. Evidently this man had in some manner
heard of the Spaniards in California. The man said the
French might be able to reach these people before
winter set in, although they would have to make a wide
detour to the south to avoid a warlike tribe called the
Snakes. Verendrye sent one of his sons, Pierre, to pur-
sue this discovery, but the young man returned the next
summer baffled.

Disregarding former failures, in the spring of 1742

THE DISCOVERY OF THE ROCKIES 105

Pierre and Chevalier Verendrye were sent forth by
their father to continue the search. These two brave
boys, with only two Frenchmen as followers, left La
Reine in April and proceeded at once to the Mandan
villages. It soon became clear that these indians did not
know the way to the sea they were seeking, but they told
of a tribe of Horse indians who could guide them
thither and from whom they were expecting a visit very
soon. The Frenchmen waited until midsummer for the
arrival of the expected guests, sharing the hospitality
of the Mandans, living with them in their great dome-
shaped mud huts and watching, perhaps sharing in,
their rude sports and games, but inwardly chafing all
the time at the delay.

Finally with a party of Mandans the Frenchmen set
out in hopes of meeting up with the Horse indians. They
passed through the region bounded on the north by the
Missouri and on the south by the Black Hills, saw the
dreary wastes and fantastically carved buttes of the Bad
Lands, saw the great herds of elk and sheep, were
nightly serenaded by bands of wolves, met with various
tribes of indians, and finally to their joy ran across the
very indians for whom they were in search.

The Horse indians, contrary to report, had no guides
to lead the white men to the Pacific, but, indian-like,
they said that another tribe, the Bow indians, could take
them to within a short distance of the sea, so following
up this will-o'-the-wisp quest they set out to find the
Bow indians, which tribe was possibly a part of the
great Sioux nation.

The Bow indians were found preparing for a war of
extermination against the Snakes. The Verendrye's
joined the war party and on June 1, 1743, came in sight

io6 THE FUR-TRADE

of the Big Horn range of the Rocky mountains. A camp
was established and here the women and children were
to remain, while the warriors carried terror into the
land of the Snakes. Pierre accompanied the war party,
while his brother remained in camp to guard the bag-
gage. Two weeks later Pierre stood at the foot of the
Rockies, that great mountain wall which was to bar
both he and his countrymen from the Pacific forever.
He was the first white man, so far as we know, to gaze
upon the great range in the northern part of the con-
tinent, although the Spaniards were already familiar
with the same range farther to the southward. Pierre
wished to scale this mountain wall to see what was be-
yond, or at least to ascend one of the higher peaks to
obtain a view of the sea. Little did he dream that one
thousand miles of mountains, plains and deserts still
separated him from the object of his search. But he
was denied even this small consolation, for as the war-
riors had not found the Snakes it suddenly dawned
upon them that perhaps the Snakes had received warn-
ing of their approach and had circled around them to
attack their women and children at the encampment, so
back they fled in the midst of a howling blizzard. Ev-
erything was found just as they had left it in camp, no
Snakes had put in their appearance, and their fears had
been groundless, but the scare had taken the wire-edge
off their fighting spirit and they headed back toward
their own country. The Verendryes could do nothing
else but follow, and thus ended their search for the
Pacific.

The remainder of Verendrye's story is but a repeti-
tion of LaSalle. Misfortune continued to dog his steps.
Enemies in the rear thwarted and ruined all his plans,
and in the end he lost all that he possessed.

Chapter X
English Supremacy- Hearne's Explorations

English Supremacy- Hearne's Explorations

The latter half of the eighteenth century was to wit-
ness changes of tremendous importance to French Can-
ada and to the English colonies along the Atlantic
seaboard. The rival nations were nearing the final
struggle which was to decide, not alone who was to
retain supremacy in the fur-trade of Hudson's Bay or
of the great valleys of the interior, but which of the
two peoples were to rule supreme on the continent -
such were the gigantic stakes for which each nation was
playing.

Much blood had already been shed in futile warfare,
but as yet nothing was settled, except that England of
all her conquests clung fast to Acadia alone. English
and Colonial troops had taken Louisbourg and Quebec,
and had hoisted their flags on those rocky fortresses, but
diplomacy restored what valor won, and these strong-
holds were given back to France. The Canadians on
their part had swept the English from Hudson's Bay,
but with the return of peace the English traders were
allowed to come back, and their crimson banner was
again raised over all the battered forts. France claimed
the Ohio valley by virtue of LaSalle's discovery, but
English traders invaded that region and established
themselves there. On every hand the two rivals met and
quarreled. This condition of affairs could not last for-
ever.

no THE FUR-TRADE

A trifling skirmish between a band of Virginians
under George Washington, and some indians and
Frenchmen under a partisan leader named Beaujeu
precipitated the crisis. War followed; Europe was
drenched with blood, while in America the rivals
fought to a finish. The Canadians, with the few French
troops that could be sent to their aid, put up a most
heroic fight, but they were hopelessly outnumbered. On
the Plains of Abraham before Quebec, Montcalm and
Wolfe fought the famous battle in which both com-
manders lost their lives and Louis XIV, all of his Amer-
ican possessions.

France lost because she had pursued a mistaken pol-
icy in regard to America. She had wished to govern too
much, and had fatally hampered the colonization of
Canada. Two things were almost foremost in the minds
of Louis and his advisors, the establishment of the
catholic faith, with the total exclusion of all other
forms of worship, and the establishing of a monopoly
on the fur-trade, which was made almost the sole occu-
pation of the Canadians. In upholding the hands of the
Jesuits, Louis was encouraging the establishment of a
religious tyranny in Canada, more rigorous than that of
the home-land. In granting monopolies to a favored few
was to stifle trade and commerce. Few catholics wished
to become colonists in a land where there were neither
religious or commercial advantages to be gained, and
by prohibiting protestants from settling in the colony,
the king was holding back the only class of people who
wished to emigrate. No wonder the colony languished.
The energy and enterprise of New France, chafing un-
der restrictions, broke loose from all restraint and took
to the woods, becoming coureurs de bois and voy-

HEARNE'S EXPLORATIONS iii

ageurs - splendid pathfinders and trail-blazers, but
poor colonists or home builders.

Southward all along the Atlantic coast compact Eng-
lish colonies were growing up in healthful neglect from
the home government. Individuality, enterprise and in-
itiative were given free reign. As a result these colonies
prospered and grew, and while no such record of ex-
ploration and trail-blazing enriches their annals as they
do those of the French colony, they were builders and
they built solidly and well. In attempting to grasp a
continent, the French neglected to establish a solid base
in their rear. The slower-moving Englishman consoli-
dated his power as he advanced, and when the time
came he had only to reach forward and the prize was
his.

The fall of New France left the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany masters of the fur-trade field for the time being.
The French traders were disorganized and discouraged
by defeat, but eventually they took heart again, reor-
ganized their ranks, and before long the English traders
were awakened from their drowsy life by a rivalry
that threatened their very existence. Thinking them-
selves at last secure from rivalry after the successful
ending of the French war, the Hudson's Bay traders
lay at slothful ease at their scattered posts along the
shores of the bay and waited for the indians to come to
them with their furs. The indian was charged an ex-
horbitant price for everything he purchased, paying
for each article many times its value in furs. It was a
time of golden harvest for the traders. The beaver skin
became the currency of the region, and "skin for skin"
became the motto of the company and was emblazoned
on its coat of arms. The value of everything was reck-

ii2 THE FUR-TRADE

oned in beaver skins, just as beads had been a basis of
trade among the indians.

The first intimation that this easy existence could not
last forever had come when Verendrye turned a goodly
part of the trade away from them by establishing his
forts at Lake Superior and Lake Winnipeg. French
voyageurs still remained in the country, and gradually
their rivalry began to be felt once more. Back in Eng-
land folk began to ask what England had gained
through all the support she had given to the company.
What had the traders done to extend English sover-
eignty in exchange for the liberal charter that had been
granted them? All the knowledge of the west and north-
west that had been gained had come from French
sources. It was time for the ancient company to wake
up, and wake up it did.

In 1769, the Hudson's Bay governor at Fort Prince
of Wales, Moses Norton, sent out an expedition under
Samuel Hearne to find if possible the Coppermine
river, which was supposed to connect with a northwest
water-passage to Asia.

Early one cold November while the stars were still
visible in the frosty sky Hearne, with two white servants
and a small band of indian guides, issued forth from
the gates of the fort and turned his face toward the un-
known. There was a salute of cannon from the fort, a
tingling of bells and creaking of harness as the husky
dogs dashed forward with their heavily-laden sleds.
There was a crunching sound of snow under the feet of
dogs and men, a cracking of whips, and then silence
settled down over the lonely place once more.

Day after day the party struggled through snow
drifts and frozen swamps, facing a cruel, cutting north

HEARNE'S EXPLORATIONS 113

wind which stung their faces like a whip lash. As they
advanced, food and fuel grew scarce, and they suffered
much from cold and hunger in consequence. Progress
was slow, about ten miles a day being the average
march. When game was killed the indians gorged them-
selves to repletion, taking no thought whatever of needs
of the morrow. Hearne's authority was set at naught,
and one morning the party arose to find that the guides
had deserted during the night. Several indians always
went in advance of the party and deliberately scared off
all game in hopes of compelling Hearne to turn back.
This plan failing, they plundered the sleighs one night
and marched off with the booty. There was nothing for
the white men to do but go back to the fort.

By February 23, 1770, Hearne was ready again for
another attempt. With two white servants, three Chip-
pewas and two Cree guides he once more set forth,
this time on snow shoes, for at this period of the
year that north country is buried under mountains
of snow. They carried few provisions, depending
mainly on the game they could shoot or snare. Fuel was
scarce and only the smallest fire could be maintained,
around which the little band huddled all the long night
through for warmth, while outside the frail sides of
their rude wigwam the cold Arctic winds moaned and
shrieked, and overhead the northern lights flashed and
crackled like an aerial prairie fire.

At times they were out of food for days, but always
game was secured in the nick of time to ward off starva-
tion. Even the rank flesh of a lean old musk-ox, which
at any other time would have been repulsive, was greed-
ily devoured and enjoyed. It took grit to proceed under
such obstacles, but Hearne had the necessary grit.

ii4 THE FUR-TRADE

With spring came the caribou, marching in vast
herds like buffalo, and covering the landscape as far as
eye could reach. The question of food no longer both-
ered them, but new troubles arose. The indians stole
much of his ammunition and some of his survey instru-
ments. He could now take no observations at the Arctic
circle without these instruments, so for a second time he
retraced his steps to Fort Prince of Wales, reaching that
post in November, 1770.

There was a brave and reliable chief who came fre-
quently to the fort and who also had somewhat of a rep-
utation as an explorer himself, who now came forward
and offered his services to Hearne, and as a result in less
than two weeks that persevering explorer was headed
northward once more. With Hearne went Matonabbee
the chief, with a small party of warriors and one wo-
man. They traveled as before on snow shoes and as be-
fore they suffered severely from hunger and cold ; also
they were relieved by the appearance of vast herds of
caribou.

At length they came to a small river which Matonab-
bee assured Hearne was the Coppermine or "Fur-off-
Metal-river" of his quest, and the latter at once realized
that he had run down another myth concerning a north-
west water route to Asia.

Bands of indians kept coming up from time to time
and joining the party, and as they continued to advance
they grow more cautious in their movements. Hearne
was convinced that something was afoot, but he could
get no satisfaction out of the stoical Matonabbee and
his followers. They were now in the land of the mid-
night sun where dwelt the Eskimo. One night, although
the sun was visible in the heavens and the light quite

HEARNE'S EXPLORATIONS 115

strong they came upon a village of Eskimo, all wrapped
in profound slumber. Then for the first time Hearne
learned the reason for all the recent caution and stealth
which his companions had been practicing. Matonab-
bee's indians burst upon this village like a swarm of
demons. After the massacre, the indians plundered the
village, and on the next day the party reached the Arc-
tic. It was now July.

Hearne has the honor of being the first white man to
reach the Arctic by the overland route, but the joy of
the event was clouded by the memory of the massacre of
the day before, which he had been unable to prevent.
Matonabbee had been deaf to all his pleadings and had
refused to stay the hands of his savage followers and
Hearne, horrified and sick at heart had turned from
the scene sobbing like a child. Matonabbee, like his
warriors, was overjoyed with the loot secured.

Perhaps the indians feared the vengeance of the Eski-
mo for they retreated rapidly southward to the Atha-
basca region, where they spent the ensuing winter.
Hearne did not get back to Fort Prince of Wales until
in June, 1772. Within a year the savage old governor,
Norton, was dead, and Hearne succeeded him to the
command of the fort. In contrast to the stormy, cruel
and licentious rule of Norton was the ten years of peace
and justice while Hearne had charge of the place; then
one morning in August, 1782, three ships flying the
colors of France drew up before the place, landed
troops and prepared to storm the fort. Hearne saw the
folly of resistance and surrendered to the French com-
mander La Perouse. Again, and for the last time, did
France triumph on Hudson's Bay, and again her law-
makers gave back to England what the valor of her

THE FUR-TRADE

soldiers had won. P s wr the red banner of the com-
panv hack upon die walls of the fort. It has fl
there unm; : ever since.

-

The Northwest Fur Company

After the temporary excitement of La Perouse's in-
vasion had subsided, the ancient and honorable Hud-
son's Bay Company again folded its arms and settled
down for another nap. Staunchly supported by the Brit-
ish government and tolerably free from rivals, there
seemed to be no reason why the traders should waste
energy and money in reaching out into the interior when
the indian, if you only waited, would be sure to bring
his furs to the posts beside the bay. Reasoning thus, no
efforts were made after Hearne's several expeditions to
further extend geographical knowledge by those in
charge of the affairs of the great company.

So far, few great names had been connected with the
history of the company, and its history as a whole is
uninteresting enough for a long period of years. True
such notables as Prince Rupert, the Duke of York and
the Duke of Marlborough had occupied the position of
governor of the company, but they had remained in
England, and their fame was won on the battlefields
and in the courts of Europe, and not as fur-traders in
the wilderness of America.

In the fur country both resident governor and subor-
dinate trader lived easy, slothful lives, piling up for-
tunes and ruling like monarchs over the barren wastes
of snow and ice which comprised their realm, but they

120 THE FUR-TRADE

did precious little to advance English interests or geo-
graphical knowledge. In the beginning the two French
adventurers in their employ, Radisson and Groseilliers,
had shown much energy, but their exploits, together
with the travels of Hearne in the Arctic regions, consti-
tuted about all that was done along the line of exploring
or pathfinding. From time to time the Hudson's Bay
men were roused up for a brief spell by the activity of
rivals; Iberville raid, the Verendrye operations in the
west and La Perouse's campaign each gave them a tem-
porary stirring up, but now they were to be awakened
in earnest.

Scotch and English traders not in the employ of the
great company held a meeting and organized a rival
company. As Canada was full of French voyageurs,
whom the English conquest and the failure of French
trading companies had thrown out of employment, the
new company made friends of these hardy woodsmen
and took many of them into their employ. These reck-
less, freedom-loving woods-rangers had never taken
kindly to the bluff, exacting and reserved manner of the
English factors, they remembered the indulgence and
familiarity of their old French commanders in the days
gone by, and as this new company seemed to offer the
better chance they turned to it eagerly. Thus was born
the famous Northwest Company.

The new firm soon consisted of twenty-three share-
holders, or partners, and employed no fewer than two
thousand persons or clerks, guides, interpreters, voy-
ageurs, etc. Their trading posts sprang up like mush-
rooms all along the interior lakes and rivers, with Mon-
treal as the storehouse. From Montreal all supplies and
trade goods were conveyed to the interior posts by

THE NORTHWEST FUR COMPANY 121

means of batteaux and canoes. The revenue of the Hud-
son's Bay Company from the tribes of the far west was
quickly shut off.

The Northwest Company was very particular as to
whom they admitted into partnership, and that coveted
position could be obtained only by a long and faithful
service. This system brought forth the most efficient
and most loyal men, and proved a powerful factor in
the prosecution of the business.

Great names are associated with this famous trading
company, among which the McTavishes, McGillivroys,
McKenzies, Frobrishers, Henrys and Thompson are
most prominent. Every year a great concourse of part-
ners, traders and voyageurs was held at Fort William
at the grand portage on Lake Superior, and to this
rendezvous partners from Montreal proceeded in ca-
noes by way of the Saint Lawrence, Ottawa and port-
ages to Lake Huron, then onward through the straits
and across the great expanse of Lake Superior. They
traveled with all the pomp and fanfare of an eastern
potentate or a feudal lord. The indians and the poor
white trappers must have looked upon these gorgeously
attired and equipped worthies with something akin to
awe.

Fort William was the scene of much revelry and re-
joicing at this time. Old acquaintances were renewed
and new ones made, while friendships were pledged
and repledged over the flowing bowl. There was drink-
ing and feasting and dancing and love making galore.
The table groaned under delicacies brought up from
Montreal, then there was a plentiful supply of wilder-
ness food, fish from the lakes, venison, buffalo, buffalo
tongues, beaver tails and so forth, in unlimited quan-

122 THE FUR-TRADE

tities. Scotchman, Englishman, Frenchman, indian and
half breed were there, decked out in all their finery.
Partners from Montreal arrayed in the very best that
could be purchased in Montreal, or Canada, elbowed
about among paint-bedaubed savages from the most re-
mote regions. It was a great social occasion, but not all
the time was spent in revelry; council meetings were
held in solemn state and with order and dignity; there
was much solemn deliberation and hard reasoning, and
every detail of the coming year's campaign was looked
into carefully and thoroughly.

The policy of the nor'westers, as they were called, of
going direct to the savages for their furs, instead of
waiting for the latter to come to them, led to extensive
exploring enterprises, and led to a most thorough
knowledge of the country, a knowledge, however, which
they carefully guarded and kept to themselves for many
years. The names of David Thompson, Alexander
Henry, the younger, Simon Frazer, Hugh Monroe and
Alexander Mackenzie have become famous for their
thorough exploration of the northwest and north.

David Thompson was an educated Englishman who
had come to America and entered into the employe of
the Hudson's Bay Company. He was a skilled astron-
omer and mathematician, and his services were soon re-
quired in the Athabasca region, but following out its
custom the old company carried on this work no farther
than was required by present needs, and Thompson's
work was soon stopped. Visiting a meeting of nor'wes-
ters at Fort William he made known his qualifications,
and was appointed to the position of astronomer and
surveyor of the corporation. He made many valuable
observations along the south shore of Lake Superior,
along the upper Mississippi and Lake Winnipeg. He

THE NORTHWEST FUR COMPANY 123

also pushed up the Saskatchewan as far as Lake Win-
nipegoosis, thence up Swan river, and subsequently to
the Assiniboine. In later years Thompson made a num-
ber of valuable explorations in the Rockies, and al-
though the Americans had already explored the lower
reaches of the Columbia he was the first man to explore
the upper river, and in 1807 built Kootenai house, the
first fur-trading post in the region.

Alexander Henry, was called the "younger" to dis-
tinguish him from that other Alexander Henry, a fur-
trader of an earlier day and likewise celebrated as a
trail-breaker. The chief interest attached to the young-
er Henry lies in his wonderful journal, which for the
period of 1799 to 18 14, contains what is perhaps the
best account of the fur-trade and the daily life of the
trader ever written. Henry was truthful, even brutally
frank, in recording the evils arising from the liquor
trade, the swindling devices used in trading with the
ignorant savages, and the drunken orgies indulged in
by both indians and traders. He frankly relates his own
part in these doings, making no effort to excuse or varn-
ish over matters. This adds to the value of the journal.

Henry's travels extended over much territory which
is now known as Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota,
Idaho, Washington, Oregon, Ontario, Manitoba, Sas-
katchewan, Alberta, Keewatin and British Columbia.
His first expedition into the west after furs netted him
a profit of seven hundred pounds and the next year
(1800) found him back in the country with a large
stock of trade goods, among the items being ninety
gallons of rum. He established a post on the Red river
of the north and carried on a brisk trade, which amount-
ed to nearly two thousand pounds Halifax currency.

Henry remarks upon the use of horses among the

124 THE FUR-TRADE

indians of the northwest along about 1803, and deplores
their appearance in the country as tending to make his
own employees more independent and less industrious.
Curiously enough he also preaches long sermons on
intemperance and the evil effects of liquor upon the
indians, yet he seems not to have ever practiced the
virtues of which he preached.

The liquor trade with the drunkenness, degredation,
fighting and even murder which followed in its wake,
was long a crying evil of the fur business and a source
of constant irritation to the authorities. As far back as
1663 in the days of the French regime we find the
Jesuit, Father Carheil, complaining of the ruinous re-
sults of the brandy trade upon the mission indians at
Michillimackinac and other stations, and he says that
the soldiers have turned their fort into a place which
he is "ashamed to call by its right name," where liber-
ally supplied with liquor and indian girls, both officers
and men vie with each other in wild excesses. He crit-
icises the traders and coureurs de bois equally as severe-
ly as he does the soldiers.

We can well imagine what a dangerous animal the
drunken indian armed with deadly weapons could, and
did, become. Henry's journal frequently records mur-
ders committed during drinking bouts, and how some-
times the whole camp, even including women and chil-
dren, were dead drunk. Knowing as we do the demor-
alizing effects liquor has among civilized people we
shudder to contemplate what its effects must have been
upon poor, simple-minded savages. Efforts had been
made from time to time by the French authorities un-
der the old regime to prohibit or at least limit the
traffic, but there always arose the argument that "the
indian demands the brandy and will have it at any cost.

THE NORTHWEST FUR COMPANY 125

Down in New York the Dutch and English traders are
willing and anxious to let him have it. If we don't
furnish him these rival traders will, and they will also
get his furs." This argument always proved effective.
Henry says that officers of the Northwest and the Hud-
son's Bay companies made efforts to abolish the evils of
the traffic but without success. If an indian possessed a
beaver skin he was always sure of being able to get a
drink of liquor for it, even if the liquor was considera-
bly diluted with water.

During the war between the Americans and the Brit-
ish and their indian allies in 1812-1815, Henry went
with a company of nor'westers to capture Astor's trad-
ing post on the Columbia. A season of disgraceful de-
bauchery followed the English occupation; one of the
last entries in Henry's diary says that "the gentlemen
and the crew (were) all drunk." Following one of
these sprees Henry and six others were capsized with
their boat in the Columbia and all drowned.

Hugh Monroe, "Rising Wolf" as the Blackfeet
called him, was another famous trader and traveler of
those days, while Simon Fraser explored the great
river now named for him and floating on down to the
Pacific, an accomplishment in which he was only pre-
ceded by his compatriot, Alexander Mackenzie, and
the Americans, Lewis and Clark. We will tell of Alex-
ander Mackenzie and the first crossing of the continent
in our next chapter.

By their energy and perseverence the nor'westers
had become famous as explorers, and dangerous as
trade rivals to the Hudson's Bay Company. Bitter ri-
valry and even open warfare was to ensue ere the two
rivals were to come together by compromise and union,
which they eventually did in 1821.

Chapter XII
The First Crossing of the Continent

The First Crossing of the Continent

Perhaps the greatest of all the northwestern explor-
ers, Alexander Mackenzie, ranks head and shoulders
above them all. Born in Scotland in 1755, he came to
Canada at an early age and entered the fur-trade, and
served for some time in the counting house at Montreal.
His first trading excursion was to Michigan, and we
next hear of him in the wilderness to the west of the
Great Lakes, where he acquitted himself so satisfactor-
ily that the partners sent him to the Athabasca country,
six weeks' travel from the nearest post. When he
emerged from this sub-arctic exile he had made him-
self famous as an explorer.

Buried away from civilization, amid the snowy for-
ests and icy lakes and rivers of the Athabasca country,
lay Fort Chippewau. Its trapper and trader occupants
had no communication with the outside world for
sometimes as much as two years at a stretch. It was a
place that required strong men and hardy, men, not
afraid to do and to dare. Mackenzie had all these qual-
ities, and in addition he had ambition. To the north-
ward of him he had seen a mighty river rolling its flood
of waters toward the Arctic. Other men had followed
the phantom of a northwest water-route to Asia. Now
Mackenzie, too, caught the fever. Might not this river
lead to the long sought waterway? He would see for
himself, and perhaps also win the £20,000 which the

i3o THE FUR-TRADE

British government had offered for its discovery. The
love of adventure and the prospect of wealth and fame
all appealed to the hardy Scot with a force which he
could not resist.

In June, 1789, when the season's trading was over,
the furs sorted and shipped in flotillas of keel boats
down to Fort William on Lake Superior where the
company maintained a warehouse, Mackenzie turned
the command of his post over to a subordinate and em-
barked with four voyageurs, their wives and a German,
in a large birch-bark canoe, and paddled toward the
unknown. With them in other canoes went a number of
indian hunters and interpreters, as well as one of the
clerks, LeRoux, who had charge of the trade goods,
for even on an exploring expedition an eye was kept
ever open for trade.

Nothing of interest occurred until they reached Slave
lake. Here they were held up by the ice. They went
into camp and spent the time of their enforced delay
in fishing, gathering berries, and, as wild fowl were
nesting, they collected dozens of their eggs. The clerk,
LeRoux, also secured eight packs of beaver and marten
skins from the indians met at the place.

With the breaking up of the ice Mackenzie moved
out of the lake and into the river, making good progress
down stream. So far all had gone well, but Mackenzie's
indians now began to give trouble. The indians they
met painted a most dismal picture of the dangers be-
yond, and the whites had much difficulty in preventing
the superstitious guides from deserting. Game was plen-
tiful and the travelers fared sumptuously. But for the
fears of the indians it would have been a pleasant
journey.

URRiRy

Diversity

0f 'U//v0/S

THE FIRST CROSSING OF THE CONTINENT 133

All along the river they found indian villages and en-
campments, and at each Mackenzie and his men were
regaled with stories of rapids and falls and river mon-
sters ahead which terrified the indians all the more, and
it was with difficulty that the white men could prevail
upon their allies to proceed further. Game was no
longer plentiful, and Mackenzie to quiet his men had
to promise he would turn back if the sea was not
reached in seven days.

One night the men arose at twelve o'clock to embark,
thinking it was morning. Mackenzie rejoiced to think
that he must now be very near the sea, now that he was
in the land of the midnight sun. Next day an Eskimo
hut was discovered, and at this the men were eager to
go on. Coming to a large lake they encamped upon a
small island. Climbing the highest point on this island
Mackenzie was surprised to see before him a sea of ice.
That night rising waters compelled them to move their
baggage, and when this occurred regularly for a few
nights they awoke to the fact that this sea of ice was
nothing less than the Arctic, the frozen ocean of the
north, but not the long sought for water route to the
Orient.

The homeward journey against the current of the
river was far more laborious than the down trip had
been. Men had to go ashore with ropes to pull the boats
against the strong current, and this work was wearisome
and unpleasant in the extreme. By September they were
back again at Fort Chippewau, after an absence of one
hundred and two days.

Having followed the great river now named for him
to its emptying place in the Arctic, Mackenzie began
laying plans for the ascent of another river - the

134 THE FUR-TRADE

Peace - which came rolling down from the western
mountains. He wanted to follow this river to its source,
then cross over the mountains and find the Pacific.
Verendrye had tried to push overland to the western
ocean years before but had been halted by the Rockies.
Mackenzie resolved to conquer this mountain barrier
if possible.

Spanish, English and Russian traders and explorers
had coasted the American shore of the Pacific and
these voyages had been the subject of much comment
in England and America, but Mackenzie's trip to the
Arctic was scarcely noticed, but undaunted and undis-
couraged he asked and obtained leave to attempt the
linking up of his Canadian explorations with those of
Cook and others on the Pacific. Before starting out he
spent the winter in England studying surveying and
astronomy.

October 10, 1792, Mackenzie set out on his western
journey. October 19, he was at what was known as Old
Establishment, an old trading post which had been
occupied by a party the night before and by them care-
lessly set on fire. But for the timely arrival of the ex-
plorers the fort would have burned down. Next day
they reached the encampment which had been prepared
by a party which Mackenzie had sent in advance for the
purpose. Here they wintered, and when spring came
they sent the furs they had collected back to Fort Chip-
pewau, while Mackenzie, his clerk, Alexander Mackay,
six Canadian voyageurs and two indian hunters,
stepped into their birch canoes and pushed on up the
river; the date of their starting being May 9, 1793.

The party thoroughly enjoyed the balmy spring
weather and the beautiful scenery as they progressed

THE FIRST CROSSING OF THE CONTINENT 135

onward, in spite of the fact that the river was swift and
progress against it laborious and slow. Rapids were
finally reached, and the voyageurs expressed their be-
lief that they could proceed no further, but Mackenzie
would not even consider the possibility of a retreat. He
overcame some of the rapids by drawing the boats over
them by means of ropes ; others he portaged around, but
always he got forward in some way or other.

On June 9, the party encountered some indians who
brandished weapons and otherwise threatened them.
Mackenzie stepped boldly ashore, and after making
them a few presents succeeded in mollifying them to
the extent that they changed their warlike attitude for
one of peace at once. These indians told the travelers
that they were near the continental divide, and hurry-
ing forward Mackenzie was gratified to learn that this
was true.

From the head of Peace river there was a short port-
age over the divide to the head of another stream which
led off in a southerly direction; this stream was the be-
ginning of the Frazer, and down it Mackenzie and
party proceeded amid rocks and foaming rapids until
his boats came to grief. No lives were lost but much of
the ammunition was in the wreck of their canoes, and it
was decided that another route, could one be found,
would be more feasible.

More indians were met who at first made a show of
hostility, but were won over by presents. These indians
informed Mackenzie that the river he was on emptied
into the "stinking lake" (Pacific Ocean), but that its
mouth was many, many miles away, and that the way
was beset by many dangerous rapids, but that if he
wished to go to the ocean he could soon reach it by

136 THE FUR-TRADE

marching overland through the mountains. Mackenzie
resolved to make the trial, and so he set out through the
gloomy forests and the jumble of rock-ribbed, chasm-
seamed, cloud-capped mountains toward the setting sun.
The going was extremely rough, but the men seemed
to have imbibed some of the courage of their leader
and followed him cheerfully. Finally the last mountain
rampart was surmounted, and on July 20, the Pacific
was reached.

The sight of the great foam-capped surges rolling in
upon the land, with troops of seals tumbling about on
the slippery, wave-drenched rocks, and flocks of gulls
and other water birds skimming about the surface in
quest of food, was a most welcome one to our heroes.
The prize which Verendrye and others had vainly
sought had been won by an unknown fur-trader, from
an unknown post in an unknown land. Away back yon-
der in 1513, the Spaniard, Balboa, had crossed the nar-
row Isthmus of Panama and :

"Stared at the Pacific - and all his men
Looked at each other with a wild surmise -
Silent upon a peak in Darien."

The knightly old sea pirate, Sir Francis Drake, had
repeated the exploit of Balboa, but all this had taken
place far, far to the southward, and no one had crossed
the main continent until Mackenzie's successful dash in
1793. On the face of a great rock he painted in large
letters :

"Alexander Mackenzie, from Canada, by land, the
twenty-second of July, one thousand seven hundred and
ninety three."

The return journey was full of accident and peril,

THE FIRST CROSSING OF THE CONTINENT 137

but the men were headed toward home, and this made
all the difference in the world. Indians were at times
hostile, but peace was always secured without the need
of shedding blood. The little fort on the Peace river
was reached August 4. With flags flying and songs and
cheers awakening echoes among the forests and moun-
tains, the voyageurs swept down upon the fort, and joy-
ful indeed was the meeting with friends there.

Life at such isolated places as Fort Chippewau was
lonely and monotonous in the extreme. Especially did
it seem tame and dreary to Mackenzie after his wild
experiences amid the Rockies and in the ice fields of
the Arctic. We find him complaining bitterly of the
hard lot in his journals. He soon went back to the old
world, never again to see the wide spreading plains, the
magnificent forests or the lofty, snow-crowned peaks of
the land where he had won both fame and fortune. In
1 801 he published his book, Voyages from Montreal on
the River Saint Lawrence, through the Continent of
North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in
the years Ij8g and 1 793. In 1802 Mackenzie was
knighted. He died in his native Scotland March 12,
1820.

Chapter XIII

Trade and Exploration on the
Pacific Coast

Trade and Exploration on the
Pacific Coast

While various companies were struggling for control
of the fur-trade of Canada and the great interior val-
leys of the continent, pushing their enterprises to the
very foot of the Rockies, other adventurers equally as
daring and hardy were beating up and down the long
coasts of the Pacific, with the object of acquiring the
wealth of those regions. The first of these sea rovers to
visit our western coasts were the Spaniards from Mex-
ico and wild Russian bandits from Siberia, brave but
unskilled in navigation, recklessly risking their lives in
crazy makeshift vessels which foundered and sank
whenever overtaken by anything resembling a heavy
sea.

Russian fur-traders had gradually worked eastward
over Siberia toward the Pacific, just as Frenchman,
Englishman, Spaniard and American trappers and
traders had moved westward, fleeing from the civiliza-
tion of the Atlantic seaboard, but the Russians were a
wilder, rougher crowd than were the traders of the
other nationalities. On pretense of collecting the one-
tenth tribute due the czar, cossack soldiery robbed and
pillaged indiscriminately.

When at last the Pacific was reached the Russians
launched their clumsy, hastily-built and ill-manned

i42 THE FUR-TRADE

craft and braved the seas in pursuit of the sea otter,
whose skin was greatly in demand at that time.
Glimpses were occasionally obtained through the fogs
and mists which shrouded the northern seas, of long,
dark masses to the eastward, which they took to be land.

Finally, in 1741, the czar sent Vitus Bering, a Dan-
ish sailor in Russian pay, to learn whether or not there
was land so near to the northern coasts of Asia. Bering
settled the question in the affirmative, but left his bones
in the land he discovered.

Lawless traders followed in Bering's wake. Forts and
trading posts were erected at various points, and ere
long seventy-seven private concerns were in the fur bus-
iness in Alaska, the trail of the traders being every-
where marked by the most cruel and atrocious treat-
ment of the natives imaginable. Finally one of these
traders succeeded in bringing a number of these reckless
free traders into a sort of union, and out of this arrange-
ment grew the future Russian-American Company.

The sea otter was to Russian traders what the beaver
was to the French and English traders of Canada. For-
tunes were made in single voyages, but the slaughter of
the animals was so ruthless that the supply was soon
greatly diminished. Today strenuous efforts are being
made to save the remnant that survives from total ex-
termination.

English and American traders soon heard of the gold-
en harvest awaiting them in the trade of those fur coasts,
and ere long ships of those adventurous nations were
thick upon the western coast of the continent, competing
with the Russians for the trade.

The first Englishman to visit those northwest shores
of America was the famous navigator, Captain Cook,

TRADE AND EXPLORATION ON PACIFIC COAST 143

who, after discovering Nootka Inlet, explored the coast
for some distance before he turned westward over the
vast expanse of the Pacific where he discovered the
Hawaiian islands, where later he was to lose his life in a
skirmish with natives.

A countryman of Cook's, Captain Meares, has the
distinction of building the first ship on the northwest
coast of America. By 1792, there were twenty-one ves-
sels under various flags trading along the western coasts,
the majority being American traders from Boston. All
up and down the long, lonely coast went these stout lit-
tle ships with their adventurous crews, trafficking with
the indians until they had secured a valuable cargo of
fur, when they would sail over to the great fur market
at Canton. Here they would sell their peltries, reload
their vessels and then start back on the long voyage to
Boston.

Of these adventurous merchants none are so well
known to us today as Robert Gray, and even his ex-
ploits have been pretty generally overlooked.

Gray was a Rhode Islander by birth and had served
in the Revolutionary navy. In 1787, a party of Boston
merchants decided to send him to the Pacific in charge
of the sloop, Lady Washington. At the same time they
resolved to send another vessel, a full rigged two-deck-
er, the Columbia, in charge of Captain John Kendrick.
Gray was the abler seaman of the two, although of
course the merchants did not know this at the time.

The success of Cook's sailors in trading with the na-
tives fired the Boston men to seek to emulate their do-
ings and secure for America a share of the fur harvest.
The two ships set forth with the brightest of anticipa-
tions. The two commanders had orders to proceed to the

i44 THE FUR-TRADE

western coast of North America by the long way around
the Horn, where, after collecting a cargo of furs, they
were to sail over to China, exchange their furs for tea
and then return to Boston. The holds of the vessels were
crammed with knives, kettles, blankets, tobacco and
articles of finery calculated to catch the eye of the sav-
ages.

Slow progress was made by the vessels in their voy-
age around the Horn; furious gales pitched and tossed
the ships about like cockle shells, scurvy raged on board
the Columbia and Kendrick put in to Juan Fernandez
because of it, while Gray battled on to the more pleasant
regions farther to the north.

He first struck the American coast in the region of
Mendocino and later thought he discovered the mouth
of a large river, but as he was desperately in need of
fresh water he forbade to examine his supposed find.
Water being obtained somewhere at Fillamook bay,
though not without having a sharp fight with hostile
natives, Gray finally came to safe anchorage at Nootka.
Here he met Captain Meares, and was surprised to see
the extensive nature of the trading establishment. Two
ships lay at anchor before a cannon-defended fort and a
third vessel, a schooner of thirty tons, called the North-
west American, had just been built and was ready for
launching. This was the first vessel other than an indian
canoe or an Eskimo kiack to be launched on our western
coasts.

Friendly relations were maintained between Gray
and Meares, but the latter sought to frighten the Amer-
icans with tales of poor profits, indian hostility, and the
like, all of which of course had not the slightest effect
upon the Yankee tars. Kendrick now came up with the

TRADE AND EXPLORATION ON PACIFIC COAST 145

Columbia and a sick crew. There was much feasting
and rejoicing at the reunion with their comrades. The
English vessels soon sailed for the Hawaiian islands,
and while they were absent the Americans did a thriv-
ing business with the indians.

In April, 1789, Gray penetrated far up the straits of
Fuca, which Juan de Fuca had discovered as far back
as 1592, but which Cook had declared did not exist.
When Gray got back to Nootka again he found a Span-
ish expedition under Martinez had arrived to oust
Meares from his fort and take possession for Spain.

Gray and Kendrick now exchanged vessels, the form-
er in the larger ship sailing for China, taking with him
the crew of the captured Northwest American. Ex-
changing his cargo of furs for one of tea, Gray sailed
for Boston by way of Cape of Good Hope. Gray and
the Columbia was the first American captain and the
first American ship to circumnavigate the globe.

Gray arrived in Boston in August, 1790. In Septem-
ber of the same year he again sailed for the Pacific
coast, which he reached without mishap. At Fort Defi-
ance, some distance south of Nootka, he established
himself, gave the Columbia a good overhauling and
made her seaworthy again. Here too he built a small
vessel, the Adventure, which was the second vessel con-
structed upon the Pacific coast.

Kendrick sailed for China in the Lady Washington,
the Adventure headed north to trade in furs, while
Gray turned the Columbia's prow southward to search
for that river whose mouth he had seen on the former
voyage and which the Spaniard, Hecla, had also ob-
served in 1775. A sick crew had prevented Hecla from
examining it, and lack of water had kept Gray from

i46 THE FUR-TRADE

making any effort in that direction on his former trip,
but this time he entered the river and sailed up it some
twenty or thirty miles until he was sure that it really
was a river. Naming the great waterway the Columbia,
after his vessel, Gray took possession of it in the name
of the United States of America. His was a most valu-
able discovery, and one upon which American claims to
the region were later based, but his countrymen paid
little enough attention to the man or his discovery at
the time.

In the spring of 1 79 1 , Captain George Vancouver
was sent to the Pacific coast with two vessels to receive
back from Spain the fort at Nootka and all other Eng-
lish property seized by the Spaniards in those regions.
He was also instructed to thoroughly explore all the
coast lying between New Spain and Russian America,
and particularly was he to seek that mysterious, and as
it proved mythical waterway between the Atlantic and
Pacific of which explorers, geographers and statesmen
had been dreaming through the centuries. Bering, Cook
and others had disproved the existence of this waterway,
but it had been dreamed of and talked about for so long
that men would not be convinced, and now Vancouver
was to settle the question once and for all. Vancouver
was off the mouth of the Columbia two weeks before
Gray but did not deem it worth while to investigate,
and so missed his chance.

At Nootka the English and Spanish sailors met in a
most friendly manner, and with a great show of pomp
and circumstance the representative of Spain trans-
ferred the sovereignty of the region over to the English.
Vancouver made many valuable discoveries in the re-
gion and settled forever the question of the northwest

TRADE AND EXPLORATION ON PACIFIC COAST 147

passage. He also found that the land on which Nootka
was situated was a very large island. This island now
bears the name of the bold navigator.

Meeting up with Captain Gray, Vancouver was both
vexed and disappointed to learn that the American had
found the Columbia after he himself had thrown away
the chance of discovery. Steering at once for the mouth
of the river he learned that Gray had told him the truth.
One of his officers, Lieutenant Broughton, examined the
river for miles, and with a cheerful disregard for what
Gray had done, he landed and proclaimed the country
British territory.

While English, Spanish and American traders were
thus engaged in exploring the coast, building forts and
setting up claims for their respective governments, the
Russians were not idle, but they were a lawless set and
spent quite as much energy in righting private enemies
as they did in extending Russian authority. In 1790,
however, there sailed for America a man, who was
fully able to protect all Russia's rights. This man was
Alexander Baranoff, a hard drinking, unscruplous
despot, but a master mind in the fur business as well.

Baranoff's bravery, good judgment and business abil-
ity rapidly brought him forward as the foremost figure
in all Russia America. Following the example of Greg-
ory Shelikoff, who had made the first steps in the direc-
tion of uniting the various trading companies years be-
fore, Baranoff consolidated the various companies, cul-
tivated friendly relations with the hitherto badly abused
natives, encouraged American traders to trade at his
establishments, scattered his sea otter hunters all down
the coast as far as California, and in other ways
strengthened his hold on the country and the people.

i48 THE FUR-TRADE

Although a strict disciplinarian with his men, he
himself indulged in the wildest of dissipation with
guests at headquarters, and at such times was tyrannical
beyond all reason. From his headquarters at Sitka he
ruled all Alaska with an iron hand, and the Czar never
had a more efficient or loyal representative in the coun-
try, but enemies were busy and caused his recall from
office in 1818. He took his disgrace so sorely to heart
that he died broken-hearted on the journey homeward.

With an opportunity for boundless graft, so dear to
Russian officialdom, BaranofTs books were found in
faultless condition, and the grizzled old trader, who
had every chance to amass a fortune, died a poor man.

Chapter XIV

American Independence - Trans-mississippi
Explorations

American Independence- Trans-mississippi
Explorations

When at the peace of 1763, France surrendered Can-
ada to England, along with all the rest of her posses-
sions east of the Mississippi, she also turned over to
Spain all her vast territory reaching from the great
river westward to the distant Rockies, and the white
banner of the Bourbons disappeared forever from the
North American mainland. It was a sorrowful day for
the French populations of the Saint Lawrence valley,
the Great Lake regions and the scattered settlements
along the Illinois, the Mississippi and the Missouri,
when they beheld the flags of their hated rivals flung to
the breeze. The savages, too, did not look kindly upon
the change. They liked the French but they hated the
overbearing English army officers, who came to take
charge of the surrendered posts. The Pontiac war with
its bloody succession of murders and massacres fol-
lowed.

Scarcely had the Pontiac war been brought to a close
when the first rumblings of the coming storm of the
Revolution began to be heard along the Atlantic sea-
board. French officials in Paris chuckled to themselves
when the colonies arose against English rule and later
on substantial aid was given the Americans in the strug-
gle for independence, in vain hopes, perhaps, of again

152 THE FUR-TRADE

winning back Canada and the Mississippi valley for
France. America secured her freedom, but English vic-
tories at sea shattered French dreams of reconquest, and
peace found her still excluded from the continent.

The French revolution and its aftermath, the Na-
poleonic wars, revived French dreams of dominion in
America. Napoleon forced Spain to restore Louisiana
to France, but he was compelled to part with the colony
almost immediately to prevent it from falling into Eng-
lish hands. America was seeking to acquire the port of
New Orleans in order to secure an outlet for the pro-
duce of her western settlements. Napoleon offered to
sell her not only New Orleans but the whole of Louis-
iana. Jefferson and his advisors were almost staggered
by the offer, but, to their everlasting credit, they closed
the bargain with the emperor at once. Again there was
a change of flags in Louisiana, this time for good.

What was comprised within the limits of what was
then known as Louisiana, few Americans besides Jeffer-
son knew or cared to know. Fur-traders had wandered
far and wide over the limitless plains and one of them,
Verendrye, had even reached the Rockies. Little trad-
ing posts were scattered here and there along the
courses of the great rivers and their tributaries, while
far to the northward, on British territory, the enter-
prising and adventurous trader, Alexander Mackenzie,
had succeeded in reaching the Pacific, but as yet no one
had accomplished this much on American territory.

Carver, the Englishman, and later Michaux, the
Frenchman, had planned a systematic exploration of
the western country, but the plans of both fell through.
Jefferson revived the scheme and chose two army cap-
tains, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, to con-

TRANS-MISSISSIPPI EXPLORATIONS 153

duct operations. A better choice of men would have
been hard to make, both were of good old Virginia
stock, and both were peculiarly fitted for the work at
hand. Jefferson's plans were for the party to ascend
the Missouri, cross over the continental divide to Pa-
cific waters, making a thorough study of the country
and its possibilities as they went. The captains were
given a force consisting of forty-five efficient men, well
equipped for the struggle with the wilderness. For the
transportation of their supplies they were furnished
with three boats : one a keel-boat fifty-five feet long,
drawing three feet of water and fitted with twenty-two
oars and a sail; the other two were pirogues, one of six
and the other of seven oars. Two horses were led along
the bank for the use of the hunters in pursuing and
bringing in game.

The start was made May 14, 1804, and slow progress
was made against the strong, turbid current of the Mis-
souri. The progress was made still slower by the fact
that they landed at every indian village to hold council
and cultivate friendships with all the tribes, this being
a part of their instructions. The scene of one of these
meetings has been perpetuated in the name Council
Bluffs, by the city now occupying the site. On August
1 1, Sergeant Charles Floyd died and was buried on the
banks of the great river, being the only serious misfor-
tune attending the progress of the expedition up the
Missouri.

From time to time they passed small trading estab-
lishments of Frenchmen, and once they met two French
traders who had been robbed by indians of the up coun-
try and were now retracing their weary way back to the
settlements. In the Mandan villages they met a Mr.

154 THE FUR-TRADE

McCracken of the Northwest Fur Company. Other
trappers and traders were met from time to time.

At the Mandan villages Lewis and Clark proposed to
go into winter quarters. They at once set about erecting
a fort and laying in a supply of buffalo meat. The win-
ter was a severe one, but the men feasted royally, and
just as soon as the weather moderated sufficiently they
were again on the move up the river.

A party had been sent back to Saint Louis from the
Mandan village to carry specimens of animal and
vegetable life to the authorities there, who in turn were
to forward same to Washington. With the rest of the
party the captains pushed forward to the mouth of the
Yellowstone, near which they killed their first grizzly
bear. Reaching the rough, broken country at the foot of
the mountains they were obliged to "cordell" their
boats, a number of the men walking along the banks of
the river pulling on a tow line, while those on board
fended the boats off rocks and away from the banks
with poles.

At the mouth of the Marias the travelers were much
puzzled which stream was the main one. With four
men Lewis started out to investigate. Taking the stream
to their left they soon came to Great Falls, and decided
that they had chosen rightly and were on the main river.
Soon after, they were obliged to abandon their boat, as
only the canoes could be navigated further. On July
15, they passed through the canon known as the gate of
the mountains, and the three forks of the Missouri were
soon reached. They named these three branches of the
great river Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin, in honor of
the president, the secretary of state and the secretary of
the treasury.

TRANS-MISSISSIPPI EXPLORATIONS 155

Choosing the Jefferson fork the explorers pushed
forward laboriously, the stream becoming more and
more shallow as they advanced, compelling the men to
pull and haul and push almost constantly in order to
get the canoes along at all.

Sacajawea, (the bird woman), the indian wife of the
interpreter, as a child had lived in the region they were
now traversing, but had been stolen from her people by
another tribe and carried away into captivity. She had
never returned to her native country, but on her mind
the topography of the region had been indelibly im-
pressed. She now came forward as guide, and proved
an invaluable assistant.

Abandoning the river at last the travelers took the
old indian trail by way of Lemhi pass to a tributary of
the Columbia. This portion of their journey was ex-
tremely difficult and vexatious; game became scarce,
the great herds of buffalo had been left behind, and
hunger was only kept away by slaughtering and eating
horses and dogs, which they purchased from the in-
dians.

As soon as possible they again took to the water, pro-
curing some wooden dugouts from the natives and float-
ing in them down to the Pacific, which they reached on
November 7. On the coast they saw much evidence of
former visits by white men, one woman being observed
who had the name J. Bowman tatooed upon her arm,
the artist no doubt being some English or American
trader who had visited the locality.

All the way up the Missouri, Lewis and Clark had
met wandering traders and trappers, and now, too, on
the western coasts among wigwams of the indians evi-
dence of former visits by this adventurous gentry were

156 THE FUR-TRADE

found, another proof that the fur-trade produced the
first real pathfinders.

All this does not detract from the fame of Lewis's
and Clark's achievements; they are entitled to all the
glory and praise that has been accorded them, but how
about those nameless wanderers who, on their own in-
centive, with no thought of glory and with no govern-
ment backing, penetrated these wilds and in most cases
paved the way for the future explorer. Is he not entitled
to an equal share of the credit?

Erecting a rude fort, which they named Clatsop,
after an indian tribe of the region, the explorers passed
the winter of 1805- 1806. The return journey was begun
March 23, and was attended by quite as important in-
vestigations as was the westward march. Excursions
were made to each side of the main route, the Marias
and the Yellowstone both receiving attention.

One of the men, John Colter, was so fascinated with
life in the wilds that he obtained permission to leave the
command and attach himself to a party of trappers
which they met coming up the Missouri.

The final stages of the journey were made with rapid-
ity, and Saint Louis was reached on September 23, 1806,
where the explorers were again reunited with relatives
and friends after their long sojourn in the wilds of the
far west.

With the exception of Lewis and Clark and Pike,
none of the first American explorers were scientific men,
being for the most part rude, sometimes unlettered,
trappers and traders. No notice was taken of their trav-
els. Those who kept journals or, like Colter, Bridger or
Beckwourth, brought in tales of important discoveries,
were met with incredulity, and not infrequently brand-

TRANS-MISSISSIPPI EXPLORATIONS 157

ed as impudent liars. That some of them were noted
for their ability to twist the truth out of all proportion
cannot be denied. Bridger and Beckwourth were both
considered proficient in the art of prevarication, yet this
does not change facts.

Rival traders began operations along the Missouri,
and as the old monopolies of the French and Spaniard
no longer held good, the wealth of the fur country was
for him who could capture and hold the trade. Two
rivals came into especial notice, one party headed by the
Chouteau brothers and the other by the Spaniard, Man-
uel Lisa. As Lewis and Clark were the first to make a
systematic exploration of the upper Missouri and its
tributaries, so Lisa was the first to systematize the fur-
trade in those regions. The wandering French traders
who had visited the up country had gone among the
indians for their furs, and had had no especial place of
rendezvous or no fixed method of trading, excepting on
the lower reaches of the river. Lisa's plan was to estab-
lish trading posts at suitable places clear to the Rockies.

In 1807, he ascended the Missouri and the Yellow-
stone to the mouth of the Big Horn, where he built a
fort and spent the ensuing winter. From this point he
sent out emissaries to all the surrounding tribes in an
endeavor to establish trade and peaceful relations with
them. It was while on one of these missions to the Crows
in behalf of Lisa that Colter discovered the wonderful
geyser regions of the Yellowstone, but his report was
received with incredulity, and the region he described
came to be derisively known as "Colter's Hell" in con-
sequence. Chouteau also sent an expedition up the Mis-
souri in 1807, but this party was turned back by the
Arikara and compelled to retrace their steps.

158 THE FUR-TRADE

Lisa and the Chouteaus now joined forces and or-
ganized the Missouri Fur Company. Forts were built
along the Gros Ventres and at the three forks of the
Missouri, in the very heart of the Blackfoot country.
The Blackfeet had given Lewis and Clark some trouble
during their return journey, and Lewis had been com-
pelled to kill one of their number. This act of Lewis's
kindled in the tribe a deadly enmity against the whites,
and now when Lisa came and began building a fort,
and apparently with the intention of taking possession
of the country, their anger was kindled anew, and they
began so deadly a warfare that Lisa was compelled to
abandon the fort.

In spite of this hostility, however, a company of Mis-
souri men, under Andrew Henry, crossed over the con-
tinental divide and built a fort, the first American trad-
ing post on the Pacific side of the Rockies.

Chapter XV
Explorations in the Southwest

UBP&RY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

Explorations in the Southwest

While Lewis and Clark and Lisa and the Chouteaus
were exploring the upper Missouri and the regions of
the Rockies and of the far Columbia, other adventurous
soldiers and traders were equally busy, but with eyes
turned toward Mexico and the southwest. Years before
the American occupation of Louisiana, Spanish troops
had extended their journeyings as far to the northward
and eastward as the plains of Kansas, searching for the
fabled golden city of Quivira. Frenchmen from the set-
tlements along the Mississippi had also penetrated far
into the country for furs and for the purpose of estab-
lishing a trade route to Mexico, one party headed by the
Mallet brothers had even succeeded in pushing on to
Santa Fe in 1739, but nothing had come of their jour-
ney. The Spaniards feared, and with good reason, to
establish communications with either the French or
their American successors.

The first American to attempt to trade in that uncer-
tain and unfriendly region was a merchant of Kas-
kaskia, named Morrison. In 1804, he sent a French
Creole, LaLande, to Santa Fe to attempt the establish-
ment of trade relations. LaLande fell in love with the
quaint old town, its easy, careless life and its charming,
dark-eyed senoritas, and resolved to stay there. Inci-
dentally he forgot to make any returns to his employer

162 THE FUR-TRADE

for the goods entrusted to him, and lived in comfort
on the proceeds of his ill-gotten gains.

Another American, James Pursley, in 1805, also
drifted into this mysterious and fascinating region and,
like LaLande, he liked the place and settled down there
to live. Other American adventurers came dropping in
from time to time. Some were keen traders and made a
good profit on their goods, returning to the States with
a good sum of money; others fell into the hands of ban-
dits and were robbed of all their effects; still others,
scarcely more fortunate, were seized by Mexican offi-
cials, their goods confiscated and themselves thrown
into prison.

From the very first Americans were interested in the
Mexican territories to the southwestward and traders,
filibusters and soldiers of fortune turned greedy eyes
toward the region. Already were the borderers dream-
ing of "the day" when that land would come under the
dominion of the stars and stripes.

In 1806, Captain Zebulon Pike, a meritorious officer
of the regular army, was sent to investigate this south-
western country. He had just returned from a scientific
expedition to the headwaters of the Mississippi, and
had acquitted himself so well that he was chosen to lead
the proposed expedition to the southwest. There has al-
ways been some question as to what the real objects of
this expedition were. We know that the army chief,
General Wilkinson, was hand and glove with Aaron
Burr in a conspiracy against Spanish sovereignty in
Mexico and possibly our own southwestern settlements
as well, and it was thought that in all probability this
excursion of Pike's was a part of the plot, but as subse-
quent investigations have utterly failed to connect Pike
with any dishonorable alignment with the Burr con-

EXPLORATIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST 163

spiracy, his name comes down to us unsullied. If he ever
did entertain any treasonable designs against the gov-
ernment, his heroic death while leading his troops
against the British at York (Toronto) a few years later
fully atones for it all.

Pike left Saint Louis July 15, 1806, with a force of
twenty-three men - a ridiculously small force if he had
any designs against the Mexicans - and went up the
Missouri. He had with him a number of indians who
had been redeemed from captivity among other tribes
and which he wished to restore to their own people. He
quickly accomplished this part of his business and,
while he afterward occasionally had some slight trouble
with the savages, the action of the Americans in restor-
ing their friends and relatives gained for the govern-
ment the gratitude of many of the tribes, while it won-
derfully increased its prestige.

Just as Lewis and Clark had met with trappers and
traders far in the wilderness regions, so also Pike found
that white men had preceded him everywhere. Trap-
pers were met from time to time, and in the Pawnee
villages they found a well-beaten trail leading to the
Mexican settlements, showing that Spanish soldiers had
frequented the region. In one of the Pawnee villages
Pike found the Spanish flag flying. This he promptly
hauled down and replaced it with the American ensign.

Reaching the upper waters of the Arkansas, Pike dis-
patched a party of soldiers under Lieutenant Wilkinson
(son of the commanding general) down that stream in
skin canoes to report the progress of the expedition
thus far, while with the main party he moved on up the
river. On November 15, Pike discovered the dim out-
lines of the peak that perpetuates his fame.

Winter coming on apace, Pike and his men suffered

164 THE FUR-TRADE

severely from the cold. A part of his orders were to find
the Red river, and with this object in view he marched
his men back and forth across the country in spite of
cold and snow and nakedness and hunger. At length
they came upon a large river which they took to be the
one for which they were in search, but which in reality
was the Rio Grande and well within Spanish territory.
Here they built a rude fort and sent their surgeon on to
Santa Fe to learn what he could of the place and the
opportunity to trade there. News of the Burr-Wilkinson
conspiracy had reached Santa Fe, and now that one of
Wilkinson's officers was found with a company of
troops on Spanish soil naturally awakened suspicion
and alarm.

A force of Spanish soldiers was at once sent to the
Rio Grande to "invite" Pike to come to Santa Fe and
explain. There was nothing else for the Americans to
do but comply. Knowing the fighting reputation that
Pike later on acquired, we hardly think he would have
allowed himself and men to have been taken so easily
had his intentions been hostile in the beginning.

It was in July, 1807, before Pike was again back on
American soil. His work in the southwest had been of
much importance to the United States government, and
prompt promotion followed.

In 1807 the trapper, Ezekial Williams, started out on
a trapping tour of the far west. Williams had with him
a noted Mandan chief, Big White, whom Lewis and
Clark had induced to pay a visit to the national capital
and whose safe return to his people had been guaran-
teed. As the Mandans and Sioux were now at war it
behooved the whites to send a strong force to escort
the chief back to his country. This Williams agreed
to do.

EXPLORATIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST 165

Williams's party consisted of twenty men, well
equipped for a two year campaign in the wilds. In
addition to fire-arms and ammunition, each man car-
ried six traps, for it was their intention once they had
seen Big White safely home, to trap and explore in the
wild region beyond the Missouri.

Hitherto the fur-traders had confined themselves to
the great waterways of the country, traveling in birch-
bark canoes, dugouts and keel-boats, portaging around
rapids and falls and carrying the lighter craft on their
shoulders from the head of one waterway to another.
In the far north when the rivers were frozen over they
had traveled on snow-shoes or dog-sled. The French
trappers became especially expert in the use of the
canoe, and this method has always been the principal
mode of conveyance in the northern fur countries.

Horses began to appear among the indians during
the latter years of the seventeenth century, and the trap-
pers in many sections also availed themselves of their
use.

The pack-train first came in use in Mexico, and
from them our own trappers and borderers borrowed
the art of packing. The equipment of one of these trains
consisted of first putting a sheep-skin over the horse's or
mule's back, then a blanket was placed on top of this,
after which the huge pack-saddle was adjusted and
loaded and lashed fast by means of a rope drawn so
tightly that it seemed as if the poor animal would be cut
in two. This seeming cruelty prevented the load from
shifting and with the sheepskin and blankets prevented
chafing. The number of pack-horses depended upon the
size of the party and the quantity of luggage to be trans-
ported. Some parties required the use of several hun-
dred horses. When making camp these packs were

1 66 THE FUR-TRADE

placed upon the ground in careful order and covered
over to protect them from dew or possible rain. These
packs also offered splendid breastworks in case of a
sudden attack by indians. Wagons came into use in a
later day and to some extent superseded the pack-train.

Williams was a brave and experienced leader, but
his men seem to have been unaccustomed to the life into
which they were entering. They set out traps but forgot
to fasten them, and of course when an animal was
caught he made off with the trap ; they lost themselves
on the prairie and experienced all the hardships that
went with the old plains life, but they were brave fel-
lows and none thought of turning back. Little by little
they learned by the hard school of experience, and al-
ways they moved ever onward toward the west. Hostile
indians beset their path, and in a final disastrous en-
counter with them somewhere near the head of the
Arkansas all save Williams and two others were killed ;
these three separated and each struck out for himself.

Williams made a skin canoe and started down the
Arkansas, traveling at night and hiding in the willows
along shore in the day time. It was not the most pleasant
manner in which to travel, but Williams was far from
being panic-stricken, and seems to have been in no
especial hurry to leave the country. Trapper like, he
kept his eyes ever open for beaver sign, and when he
found them he set out his traps and remained there until
he had caught the animals, when he would embark
down stream again. In this manner he secured a most
valuable cargo of furs, and when he at last unfortu-
nately fell in with a band of Kansas indians he had one
hundred and twenty-five beaver skins, in addition to
many otter and other valuable furs. The Kansas indians

EXPLORATIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST 167

received him in a friendly manner and carried him
with them on a war excursion against the Pawnees.
Williams took an active part in the fighting and the
Pawnees were severely defeated. The Kansas chief,
much pleased with the white man's aid, allowed him
to depart in peace, forgetting, however, to restore him
the furs.

One of Williams's men, Edward Rose by name, had
left the party some time before the disastrous fight at
the head of the Arkansas and had gone off with a party
of friendly Crows. The charms of a pretty girl had
proved too much for the trapper, and so he abandoned
his white companions to follow the dusky beauty. He
married the girl, indian fashion, and eventually became
a valued member of the tribe, in time becoming one of
their chiefs. He had a very dark record behind him,
and it is said he had belonged to a band of Mississippi
river pirates shortly before joining Williams's party,
although this was unknown at the time. In the company
of savages he no doubt felt much more at ease than he
did among honest trappers of his own color. Frequent
mention is made of this man in old books and journals
of the time.

Recent research has convinced many historians that
the records of the Williams's expedition are inaccurate
and that the date, 1807, assigned the expedition is sev-
eral years earlier than it should be.

In 181 1, Captain Becknell led a trading expedition
into the country of the Comanches, and was so pleased
with the results that the next year he went on to New
Mexico and made a splendid profit on his goods.

Later on Auguste Chouteau established himself on an
island in the Arkansas, on the border of the United

1 68 THE FUR-TRADE

States and the Spanish possessions in Mexico. This was
the start of a brisk trade with Santa Fe, which contin-
ued to grow and prosper until the Santa Fe trail became
a well known and much traveled highway. It proved,
as the Spaniards feared it would, an entering wedge of
the Americans which in time was to split off a portion
of their territory.

Besides such large parties as those led by Williams,
Becknell, Chouteau and others, there were individual
trappers who singly and alone traversed the most lonely
plains and inaccessible mountains in search of valuable
furs. They were driven ever insensibly onward and on-
ward, in spite of indian hostility or the varied dangers
of the untamed wilderness, with that wanderlust with
which the very veins of Americans were charged in
those days.

After becoming thoroughly acquainted with the vast
regions lying between the Missouri and the Rockies, we
will see these hardy men pushing on through the moun-
tain passes into the regions beyond, whither a tardy
government was to send its "pathfinders" almost a quar-
ter of a century later.

It is safe to say that, save for Lewis and Clark, no
government expedition ever explored anything in the
west that had not previously been discovered by some
one of these early knights of the fur-trade. These
grizzled men always led the way; it remained for the
government to measure and map the country.

Chapter XVI
John Jacob Astor and the Fur-trade

John Jacob Astor and the Fur-trade

The success of the old Hudson's Bay Company and
its rival, the Northwest Company, stimulated the organ-
ization of other companies along the same lines. One,
the X. Y. Company, after a brief existence, was incor-
porated with the Northwest Company; another, the
Mackinaw Company, with headquarters at Michilli-
mackinac, carried on a thriving business with the In-
dians of the upper Mississippi and Great Lakes region.
All these organizations were operated by British sub-
jects. In the United States there was as yet no organ-
ized trade.

In 1784, John Jacob Astor, a native of Walldorf,
Germany, arrived at Baltimore. On the way over this
enterprising emigrant made the acquaintance of a fur
dealer and by him was induced to invest his small for-
tune in furs. Carrying these furs over to London, Astor
received such handsome returns that he came back to
America, resolved to devote his life to the fur-trade.

Astor's first purchases were made from the Northwest
Company at Montreal, and these he resold in the Unit-
ed States or shipped to Europe, receiving such hand-
some remuneration that he resolved to cut loose from
the old company and enter the field independently. In
1809, he founded the American Fur Company, with a
capital of one million dollars, and privilege of increas-
ing same to two millions.

172 THE FUR-TRADE

Two years later he bought out the Mackinaw Com-
pany and presented a plan for the capture of all the
trade in American territories. His idea was to establish
a line of posts all along the Missouri, the Columbia and
their principal tributaries, with headquarters at the
mouth of the Columbia. Ships were to be sent out an-
nually from New York, where Astor was to remain
looking after the financial end of the enterprise, with
supplies for the Pacific posts. Here they were to take on
the cargo of fur and carry it over to the great fur mart
at Canton, China, there to dispose of them and reload
with tea and other oriental products, and then sail for
New York. Arrangements were also made to carry sup-
plies to the Russians in Alaska, and cultivate further
friendly relations with them. Astor wished to avoid
friction with the Northwest Company, whose territory
bounded his own, but feeling secure in their own posi-
tion they scorned all his proffered offers of cooperation.

Astor chose able men for his associates in this Pacific
venture. One of them, Alexander Mackay, had been
with Mackenzie in his famous trip to the Arctic and
across the continent to the Pacific; he was of invaluable
assistance to Astor in arranging details. Another valu-
able man was Wilson Price Hunt, of New Jersey. Other
noteworthy men were David Stuart, his nephew, Robert
Stuart, Duncan McDougal and Donald McKenzie.

Two expeditions were hurriedly fitted out. One was
to go by sea from New York, by the long, dreary way
around Cape Horn and thence up the Pacific coast to
the Columbia ; the other was to go by land up the valley
of the Missouri and across the mountains to the desig-
nated meeting place on the Columbia.

The sea expedition was the first to get away. In Sep-

Of THE
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

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JOHN JACOB ASTOR AND THE FUR-TRADE 175

tember, 18 10, the good ship, Tonquin, in command of
Captain Thorn, sailed, with the supplies and a part of
the traders on board. It proved anything but a harmoni-
ous voyage. The traders were under orders of Duncan
McDougal, a fussy little Scotchman, who had long
served the Northwest Company but who, disappointed
in promotion, or lack of promotion, had quit the Cana-
dian Company to take service with Astor. McDougal
and Thorn soon clashed, and there was bad blood be-
tween them ever after.

Cape Horn was doubled on Christmas day and Ha-
waii was reached in February, where thirty islanders
were engaged for service with the company. Late in
March, 181 1, the Tonquin entered the Columbia. Eight
lives were lost in attempting to run small boats against
the tide. A war of words ensued between Thorn and
McDougal, and ended only when the former landed
cargo and passengers and sailed away up the coast on a
trading voyage.

The place chosen for their fort and the future head-
quarters of the company was on the south bank of the
river, some distance up from its mouth. In honor of the
founder of the enterprise they named the place Astoria.

Woods and mountains were wrapped in all the beauty
and glory of spring-time as the traders and their assist-
ants began work on their fort. Rejoicing to find terra
firma beneath their feet once more and free from what
they considered the tyranny of Captain Thorn, all
hands worked with a will, and the echo of ax and ham-
mer resounded through the hitherto silent aisles of the
forests.

But, in spite of all this promising beginning, clouds
hovered on the horizon, war between America and

176 THE FUR-TRADE

England was imminent, and any day might bring word
that hostilities had begun. The nor'westers, too, were to
be feared, for, whether the nations were at war or not,
these not over-scrupulous traders might any day sweep
down and break up the establishment. Suspicions were
also felt by some in regard to McDougal. Having quit
the Canadians and come over to Mr. Astor, might he
not again experience a change of heart and mind and
turn traitor to him also?

The fears of the traders in regard to McDougal re-
ceived speedy confirmation. A small party of nor'west-
ers, under David Thompson, suddenly appeared. Mc-
Dougal received them with open arms, and his conduct
from this time on was such that many have accused him
of striking a bargain with Thompson for the ruin of
Astoria. Thompson remained long enough to see all he
wished to see, and then returned up the Columbia to a
post he had established on its upper reaches. The Amer-
icans had anticipated him in planting a post at the
mouth of the great river.

Dreadful news came from the north in regard to the
Tonquin and her crew, which plunged Astoria into the
deepest gloom. Thorn, the Tonquin's commander, had
been a most efficient naval officer, but his knowledge of
men did not include the indian. He also was a poor
trader and moreover, not inclined to either seek or ac-
cept advice from those who did possess the necessary
knowledge. From the very first he had not gotten along
with the partners, while he held the naked savages in
supreme contempt. Contrary to all advice he allowed
the indians to swarm over the deck in large numbers,
giving them every opportunity to effect a surprise, an
opportunity they were not slow to take advantage of.

JOHN JACOB ASTOR AND THE FUR-TRADE 177

One morning they crowded upon deck in larger num-
bers than usual, were much easier to deal with, but con-
fined their purchases mainly to knives and other wea-
pons. The sharp eyes of the experienced old nor'wester,
Mackay, rapidly took in the situation, and he at once
made known his fears to the captain, requesting that the
deck be cleared at once, but the stubborn Thorn refused
to see anything amiss and ignored the trader's request.
Nevertheless, even his dull eyes were at last opened, and
he gave orders to clear the ship, but too late. A wild
whoop resounded over the deck, and at the signal, for
signal it was, the deadly work of knife and tomahawk
was begun. Thorn and Mackay were soon cut down and
pitched overboard, where they were finished up by the
squaws who remained in the canoes alongside. The
clerk, Lewis, was desperately wounded and fell head-
long down the companion way. The crew, though taken
by surprise, seized whatever came handy to them and
defended themselves as best they could, but they stood
no show against the overwhelming numbers of well-
armed savages that surrounded them. Four men finally
reached the cabin and barricaded themselves, opening
such a hot fire upon the indians from their sheltered
position that the latter scrambled into their boats pell
mell and put for the shore, their flight being further
hastened by discharges from the deck cannon, which
the survivors turned upon them with telling results.

That night the four men, being too few in number to
handle the ship, attempted to escape in a small boat, but
they were delayed by head winds and finally compelled
to go ashore, where they fell into the hands of the sav-
ages and were put to death with all the fiendish cruelty
their minds could invent. Lewis, the clerk, was too

178 THE FUR-TRADE

badly wounded to attempt flight with his comrades, and
remained to take a terrible vengeance upon the savages.

Appearing alone upon the deserted deck, he beck-
oned the indians to come aboard, and when the deck
was well crowded he fired the magazine. There was a
terrific explosion. The savages on shore saw the air
suddenly filled with pieces of the ship, arms, legs and
bodies of the warriors who had crowded aboard. Lewis,
of course, had himself perished in the explosion, as he
had designed doing, but he had exacted a high price
for his life, over two hundred savages having perished,
besides many more badly maimed and crippled.

The visit of the nor'westers and the loss of the Ton-
quin alarmed the Astorians as to their own situation.
McDougal secured the friendship of the neighboring
tribes by means of the famous threat of letting loose the
smallpox, which he told them he kept corked up in a
bottle, in case they gave the traders any trouble. Know-
ing that the smallpox was a disease which always fol-
lowed in the wake of the white man, and frightened at
the terrible ravages the dread disease had worked
among various tribes, the indians readily promised to
keep the peace. To further strengthen their position,
McDougal wooed and wed the daughter of the chief,
Comcomly. The defenses of the fort were strengthened,
the men drilled for war, and other posts established
further up the Columbia.

The arrival of Hunt with the overland expedition
greatly augmented the forces at Astoria and greatly
lessened the gloom that had settled over the place. Hunt
had experienced much difficulty in securing men for his
proposed expedition. In Canada the powerful North-
west Company threw every obstacle in his way, and at

JOHN JACOB ASTOR AND THE FUR-TRADE 179

Saint Louis the opposition of Manuel Lisa was encoun-
tered; the nor'westers wanted no traders save their own
in the Columbia country, while Lisa was aiming at a
monopoly of the upper Missouri trade. Hunt had to
content himself with hiring inferior men for the most
part, but with this motley crew he finally got away in
the spring of 181 1.

When Hunt found himself ready to start he found
that his rival, Lisa, was also to head an expedition up
river. Lisa claimed the object of his journey was the
rescue of the party of trappers headed by Andrew
Henry who, while trapping in the Blackfoot country,
had been attacked by those indians and driven over the
moutains into the Snake river region, but Hunt thought
the Spaniard only wanted to get ahead of him to supply
the indians with weapons and ammunition, and then
incite the latter to attack him. Whatever Lisa's reasons
were, the result was a race between the two rivals. Hunt
had the start but Lisa finally overtook him, and a
stormy interview followed which would no doubt have
ended in bloodshed had it not been for the friendly in-
tervention of two Englishmen who were traveling in
company with Lisa. After this the two parties traveled
along together in harmony.

Hunt's party numbered some sixty men, among
which were three men who had formerly served under
Andrew Henry, and who had partially explored the
country drained by the Yellowstone and the Big Horn.
The names of these three trappers were Rezner, Hoback
and Robinson; they and the squaw man Edward Rose,
who had come into the Crow country with Williams in
1807(F) and who now engaged himself to Hunt as in-
terpreter, were of much value to the party until this

180 THE FUR-TRADE

section of country was left behind, while from thence
onward for long stretches of country they were on en-
tirely new territory.

On September 16, they crossed the continental divide
somewhere in the vicinity of Union pass, and ten days
later they were on Snake river. Here seven men were
left to trap in the region, while with the rest Hunt float-
ed down the Snake in canoes.

Meeting with disaster at Calderon Linn, the party
split into three detachments and set out by different
routes: one under the veteran nor'wester McKenzie
followed the Clearwater, the Snake and the Columbia,
arriving at Astoria a month in advance of Hunt, who
followed the main stream (the Snake), while the third
party under Ramsay Crooks came in at a still later
date. This expedition of Hunt's had extended the
knowledge of the upper waters of the Columbia and its
tributaries.

The sending out of trading and trapping parties and
the establishment of outlying posts weakened the gar-
rison at Astoria. When Mr. Astor's supply ship, the
Beaver, arrived, Mr. Hunt sailed in her to Alaska to
strengthen relations with the Russian traders there and
arrange a plan of cooperation, but in so doing the
strength of the place was further reduced. Hunt's mis-
sion to the Russians was entirely successful, but as it
turned out his presence in Astoria at the time would
have been far more valuable.

War had broken out between America and England,
and the nor'westers already had two expeditions sent
out against Astoria. One expedition went by sea in, the
Isaac Todd, and was commanded by Donald McTavish ;
a sloop of war, the Raccoon, also was added to this sea

JOHN JACOB ASTOR AND THE FUR-TRADE 181

force later on. The other expedition went by land and
was led by John George McTavish and the celebrated
trader Alexander Henry, the younger. They came by
way of the Saskatchewan, crossed the Rockies at Yel-
lowhead pass, and striking the upper waters of the Co-
lumbia descended it in boats to Astoria.

The Americans were for fighting for their rights and
old Comcomly rallied his warriors to defend the in-
terests of his white son-in-law, but McDougal received
the nor'westers as friends and even forbade the raising
of the American colors, although the English were not
so careful of American feelings as to forbear showing
their own flag. It appears that McDougal had acted
queerly ever since Thompson's visit, and there are those
who accuse him of making a bargain with the nor'west-
ers at that time. That he was received back into the
company and even given command of one of their posts
seems to give color to the accusation.

The Raccoon, now put in her appearance and Astoria
was handed over to the enemy. Old Comcomly was in-
dignant at the tame ending of the affair, and said his
daughter had made a mistake and had married a squaw.
When, the Isaac Todd, came with the new governor,
McTavish, a wild scene of debauchery and drunkenness
followed. Astoria was renamed Fort George, and the
British ensign replaced the American on the flagstaff.
Drinking and carousing was the order of the day under
Governor McTavish, but an end came to all this when
the governor and Alexander Henry the younger were
drowned in the Columbia. Their boat upset when re-
turning from one of their wild carousels.

It is a pity that Hunt was absent when the nor'westers
arrived. He undoubtedly would not have given in to

182 THE FUR-TRADE

them without a fight; certainly he would not have bar-
gained away his furs for one-tenth their real value as
did McDougal.

The fall of Astoria ended Mr. Astor's efforts on the
Pacific coast, and although the peace of 1814 restored
the place to America, the nor'westers were allowed a
free hand in the region for many years to come.

Chapter XVII

Return of the Astorians-the American
Fur Company

Return of the Astorians-the American
Fur Company

In June, 1812, some months before Astoria was sur-
rendered to the nor'westers, Robert Stuart with six
other men was sent overland with dispatches for Mr.
Astor. They proceeded up the Columbia and the Snake
to near Calderon Linn, where they met the trappers
who had been left to operate in that region by Mr.
Hunt. They reported that they had gone south to a
river which emptied into the ocean and had trapped
there. This river was no doubt the Bear, which empties
into Great Salt lake. One of these trappers, a Mr. Mil-
ler, undertook to act as guide for the party, but he seems
to have proved a rather poor one, and led them aim-
lessly about for some time.

Crossing over the Teton range Stuart's party again
did some aimless wandering, striking Green river and
finally a large indian trail leading to the southward,
but they soon abandoned this trail and again struck off
on their own accord, finally coming to the Sweetwater.
It is thought that Stuart crossed the divide at the
famous South pass, but others maintain that they
crossed near by, but not through the pass itself, and,
that Fitzpatrick with a band of mountain trappers were
the first actual users of the pass some years later (in
1824). Still others have it that Etienne Provot used the

1 86 THE FUR-TRADE

pass in 1823, thus being one year in advance of Fitz-
patrick. Like many another controversy, this question
will probably never be settled conclusively. One fact
remains unquestioned - the region was first explored
by fur-traders and trappers and not by John C. Fremont
who, at the head of a United States government expedi-
tion "explored" it almost a quarter of a century later.

Stuart's party was now forced to go into camp on the
eastern side of the mountains, as an attempt to cross the
open plains in the face of the severe weather which had
now set in, would have invited certain disaster. By
skillful and persistent hunting they succeeded in laying
up a bountiful supply of meat for the winter. They
were overjoyed with the prospect of wintering in a snug
camp, feasting and resting securely after their hard
summer's campaigning in the wilderness.

These happy dreams were rudely dispelled one day
when a party of hungry indians made their appearance
and demanded food. Knowing that it would be folly to
refuse the travelers made a virtue of necessity and in-
vited the savages to help themselves, which they did
with such good will that when they finally withdrew
the white men were left nearly destitute.

Fearing a return of these unwelcome guests they
moved on to another section and established new winter
quarters. Fortunately they found game still plentiful,
and again restocked their depleted larder.

When spring weather came to the plains the party
again broke camp and proceeded on to Saint Louis,
reaching the place after ten months of hardship and
adventure.

After the break up of Astor's establishment on the
Columbia, many of his Canadian employees took ser-

THE AMERICAN FUR COMPANY 187

vice under their old masters, the nor'westers, but the
Americans were scattered far and near. Some of them
accompanied the returning nor'westers on their eastern
journey by way of the Columbia and across the con-
tinental divide to the headwaters of the Saskatchewan,
on past Lake Winnipeg to the Northwest Company's
headquarters at Fort William on Lake Superior. They
suffered much discomfort from cold and hunger during
the journey, at one time being obliged to subsist on horse
meat, but this was a common experience of all early
travelers, and they made little account of such trifles.

At Fort William a flotilla of fifty canoes, accompa-
nied by a guard of three hundred men, was organized to
carry the accumulated furs down to Montreal. This
cargo contained over one million dollars worth of furs,
including the spoils taken at Astoria. The brigade of-
fered a most tempting prize for any American force it
might meet.

Overtaking a couple of boats containing the crew of
an English ship that had been captured by two Ameri-
can schooners which were at that moment hovering
about the Sault looking for prizes, the brigade halted
and an officer hurried on to Mackinac to obtain help.

The English traders succeeded in surprising one of
the American vessels at the Sault, boarded her and
pinned the crew to the deck with their bayonets. Then
in the captured vessel they bore down upon its consort
and captured it also.

From time to time the Americans witnessed with
sorrow evidences of the cruelty of the war waged along
the border, when England's savage allies were met re-
turning to Canada with scalps and plunder. Neither
England nor America can feel a great amount of pride

i88 THE FUR-TRADE

in the way land operations were conducted in the war of
1812-1815, for while there were some brilliant feats of
arms, yet the general character of the operations was
of a blundering nature and reflected scant credit upon
either of the combatants. England's worst crime was
the employment of indians against the unprotected
frontiers.

The peace of Ghent restored all captured places, and
Captain Biddle was sent around the Horn in the sloop
of war Ontario to repossess the Oregon country, but the
nor'westers had taken possession of all the American
fur-posts and the indians had massacred all the scat-
tered bands of American trappers, so that the reaffirm-
ing of our rights made but little change in the situation.

The feeble Madison administration had dreadfully
mismanaged the war, and its blunderings did not cease
with hostilities, for no support was given Mr. Astor in
reestablishing himself on the Columbia, and knowing
as he did that without such aid he could make no head-
way against rivals so strongly entrenched, he gave up all
idea of trade beyond the Rockies and confined himself
to the regions east of those mountains.

"I have no idea of remaining quiet or idle," Mr. As-
tor wrote a friend, and, immediately he set about to
secure the whole trade of the United States proper. It
will be remembered that the Oregon country had been
taken possession of by Gray and likewise by Vancouver,
and America and England each had in consequence
claimed possession - a claim that was only settled by
compromise a great many years later.

In 1 815, a law was passed by congress forbidding
British traders from operating on American territory,
but this law of course was not applicable to Oregon

THE AMERICAN FUR COMPANY 189

because of undetermined boundaries. All British posts
east of the Rockies, however, passed into American
hands, and in this case into Mr. Astor's hands. Astor
had already bought out the American half of the Mack-
inaw Company, and it was not long before he was
supreme in his chosen field, save for the small bands of
free traders who held their own against all comers.

Ramsay Crooks, Robert Stuart and others of the As-
torians who had remained loyal to their leader, con-
tinued in his employ, and the memory of the injustice
and hardships they had suffered from British rivals
made them bitter partisans indeed. Rival traders need
expect slight consideration at their hands.

The abandonment of the British posts also threw out
of employment many able traders, who now came over
to Mr. Astor and added to his strength. The American
Fur Company was in a position to give the nor'westers
a hard fight.

One of those Northwest Company men who came
over to Astor was Kenneth McKenzie, and to him was
assigned the duty of capturing the trade of the upper
Missouri. At his headquarters at Fort Union, at the
mouth of the Yellowstone, he ruled over the surround-
ing country like a monarch, living in such luxurious
and regal style that he came to be known far and wide
as the "King of the Missouri."

McKenzie crushed all opposition of the nearby free-
traders by paying the indians twice as much as his
furs were worth, and of course all small traders who
sought to compete with him were ruined. He catered
to the indian's love of pomp and show by meeting
them at the gate of the fort decked out in gay and gaudy
apparel and escorting them in to the music of fife and

i go THE FUR-TRADE

drum. The free-traders were bitter toward him because
of his shutting out methods, and they actually had the
nerve to build a rival post near Fort Union and make
a bid for the indian trade, but this was mere folly on
their part, as they could not hope to compete success-
fully with the shrewdness of McKenzie and the money
of Mr. Astor. The post was soon abandoned by the
traders and later taken possession of by a band of
French desperadoes from Canada, who made them-
selves so troublesome that the men of Fort Union, whose
patience probably was not hard to exhaust, stormed the
place and shot them down like dogs.

As far back as 1796, the government had been fos-
tering a system of government controlled trade with
the indians, with an idea of supplying the latter with
needful articles at fair prices, but it nullified whatever
good it might have accomplished by issuing licenses to
individuals permitting them to trade with the savages.
This foolish system, of course, proved costly and un-
profitable to both indian and government, and was fin-
ally abandoned. It is said that Mr. Astor was instru-
mental in persuading congress to abolish government
participation in trade. Thus step by step did the shrewd
trader and financier strengthen his position.

Chapter XVIII

British and American traders in Oregon
and the Rockies

British and American traders in Oregon
and the Rockies

After the ousting of the Americans from the Oregon
country and the renaming of Astoria after their own
king, the Northwest Fur Company set about to make
themselves secure in the country. All the old American
establishments they took over and new posts were built
at favorable points until at last they had thirteen forti-
fied trading posts south of 490, besides others just north
of that line. These places were named Vancouver,
Boise, Disappointment, George, Oakanagan, Kootenai,
Flathead, Cowlitz, Nisqualli, Coleville, Walla Walla
and Umpqua. Fort Vancouver, built in 1824, supplant-
ed Fort George (Astoria) as headquarters.

The Columbia and its main tributaries had by this
time been pretty well explored. Gray and Vancouver
had first seen its lower courses; Lewis and Clark, An-
drew Henry and the Astorians had explored the south-
ern or Lewis branch of the great river, while David
Thompson had done the same for the north branch. The
Snake and all the main rivers tributary to the Columbia
were by this time pretty well known, and it only re-
mained for the newcomers to fill in the details.

In 1 8 16, the nor'westers decided to extend land oper-
ations on the south and west toward California and the
mountains, embracing a new and unexplored tract of

194 THE FUR-TRADE

country. To accomplish this work and obviate the neces-
sity of numerous trading posts they adopted the plan,
always a favorite one with American traders and trap-
pers, of fitting out strong parties under the most capa-
ble leaders to range the country for furs, buying from
the natives and trapping on their own account, deliver-
ing their furs at the end of the season at headquarters
on the Columbia. The Northwest Company, as well as
the Hudson's Bay Company, had always depended up-
on the canoe brigades to carry supplies into the indian
country and the furs out of it, the splendid network of
Canadian rivers making this the most practical way of
handling the business, but in the American west trad-
ers, trappers and indians depended more upon horses
as a means of conveyance and transportation. The nor'-
westers now adopted the same plan in Oregon. The
men chosen to lead these trading excursions were Don-
ald McKenzie, Alexander Ross, John Work and Peter
Skene Ogden, the first two having already served in the
country in Mr. Astor's employ.

In 1818, the first of these expeditions was sent out
with McKenzie in command. They went up the Co-
lumbia until a good beaver country was reached, but
the indians proved hostile and so they skirted the moun-
tains until Snake river was reached. Here McKenzie
found himself on ground with which he had become
acquainted while serving with the Astorians. The next
year he pushed on south of the Snake into new territory,
intending to explore the country and cultivate friendly
relations with whatever indian tribes he might meet.
We cannot be sure of the exact route of this expedition,
but it is surmised that it reached Bear river in southern
Idaho.

TRADERS IN OREGON AND THE ROCKIES 195

In 1 82 1, the amalgamation of the Northwest and
Hudson's Bay companies was consummated, and under
the new management the posts in Oregon became known
as Hudson's Bay posts, the united company assuming
the old company's name, but retaining the employes of
the nor'westers. The events leading up to and compell-
ing this union will be treated in another chapter.

In February, 1824, Alexander Ross left Flathead
House and proceeded to the southeast toward the dan-
gerous Blackfoot country at the head of the Missouri,
where so many American trappers had lost their lives.
Striking the trail of Lewis and Clark in the Bitter Root
valley he followed it as far as Lemhi river in Idaho,
from which place he proceeded to the Salmon, where
he began operations. A party of Iroquois trappers had
previously been sent to the region of the Three Tetons
to trap, and Ross sent a party of his men to search for
these trappers. The Blackfeet turned this party back.
The Iroquois soon made their appearance, however,
robbed of all that they possessed. With the Iroquois was
a party of American trappers, among whom was Jede-
diah Smith, who is described by Ross as being "a lead-
ing person." The united party, English, American and
Indian, now returned to Flathead House.

Peter Ogden now took charge of the work of explor-
ation. He made a number of combined trapping, trad-
ing and exploring expeditions between the years 1824
and 1828, but there is much uncertainty as to his route
much of the time. Only a portion of Ogden's journals
have come to light, and accordingly some of the most
important discoveries attributed to him can not be
proven. It is claimed that he reached the Great Salt lake
in 1824, but he states in his journal of 1828, that he

Dr. John McLoughlin

From a miniature painted on ivory in 1838 or 1839

UMIVtHditf Ur iLLinUld

TRADERS IN OREGON AND THE ROCKIES 199

of southern Oregon, and in succeeding seasons he ex-
plored much of the country to the north and west of
Great Salt lake, and even penetrated into California.
Another Hudson's Bay trader, Donald McKay, also
conducted some valuable explorations in northern Cali-
fornia and Nevada at this time.

Mr. H. C. Dale, in a most praiseworthy and carefully
prepared book on the fur-trade and early western dis-
covery says : "One of the most noteworthy features of all
the discovery and exploration crowded into this first
third of the century is the simultaneity of it. Wherever
an Englishman penetrated there an American was sure
to be a few months before or a few months after him.
This, of course, was more true of the region north of the
forty-second parallel than south of it. In the Columbia
drainage area, the American trappers had free reign
though their rewards were less."

The most noted personage that appeared during the
Hudson's Bay occupancy of Oregon was Dr. John Mc-
Loughlin, who for a time was chief factor on the Pacific
coast. He was a keen trader and served his employers
faithfully, but he would not put in force some of the
harsh decrees issued from London for the suppression
of American competition and, contrary to orders, he
succored stranded and starving rivals on several occa-
sions, and even sent expeditions against the indians to
recover property stolen from Americans. He treated
the missionaries, Whitman and Lee, with great kind-
ness, even though he himself was of the Catholic faith.
Absolute justice was meted out to those subject to his
authority, and he treated all rivals as he himself would
desire to be treated. His policy did not suit those over

2oo THE FUR-TRADE

him, and he was criticised so severely that he resigned
his position.

Though Astor's plans for the establishment of Amer-
ican fur-trade in Oregon and the colonization of the
country had failed because of the disasters resulting
from war with Britain and the apathy of the American
government at the close of hostilities, yet daring Amer-
ican traders came again into the region and their fur
brigades continued to sweep up the valleys in the beaver
filled streams of the Rockies. It is said that in 1822,
there were more than a thousand men, chiefly from
Saint Louis, employed in the fur-trade of the upper
Missouri and five hundred on the upper Mississippi.

Manuel Lisa had founded the Missouri Fur Com-
pany early in the century, and for many years he con-
tinued to be the leading factor in the great fur-trade
game. His plans were to establish forts and trading posts
at strategic places, but in later years this plan was
changed to a considerable extent, and white men were
hired to do the trapping and less dependence placed
upon the warlike and fickle natives for furs. These trap-
pers would form into small bands and scatter out over
the trapping grounds, meeting once a year at an ap-
pointed place of rendezvous, where supplies were col-
lected and the accumulated furs sorted, baled and trans-
ported down to Saint Louis, which city was to the
Americans what Montreal was to the Canadians, the
chief center of the fur-trade.

Andrew Henry had been the first American to en-
gage in the Rocky mountain trade, while associated
with Lisa, and had suffered discouraging reverses at the
hands of the Blackfeet, but, now again, a full decade
later, he once more led a party into the fur country.

TRADERS IN OREGON AND THE ROCKIES 201

This time he was associated with William Ashley, who
now for the first time appears in the fur-trade.

Andrew Henry's party left Saint Louis in March,
1822, and proceeded up the Missouri to the mouth of
the Yellowstone, where they established headquarters.
In an accident on the river they had lost goods valued
at $10,000, but such trifles had never turned back a true
fur-trader, and so Henry had gone on. Hostility with
the Blackfeet followed, and a number of trappers were
killed. Coming up the river with additional men Ashley
was attacked at the Arikara villages and defeated with
heavy loss.

The defeat of Ashley and the massacre of a party of
trappers, under Immell and Jones, on the Yellowstone,
caused the American commander at Fort Atkinson,
Colonel Leavenworth, to lead a force of two hundred
and fifty troops against the hostiles. Leavenworth was
joined by sixty Missouri Fur Company men under
Joshua Pilcher and later by Ashley's party and men
hurriedly sent down the river by Andrew Henry.

The Sioux, seeing such a large force marching to
attack their enemies, the Arikara, joined forces with
Leavenworth. We can imagine what a Custer or a Miles
would have done had they been in command of so
formidable a force, but Leavenworth was of a different
stamp, and instead of striking swiftly and terribly he
attacked feebly, then entered into a parley, and retired
after the savages had returned the plunder they had
taken from Ashley. The trappers were exasperated and
the Sioux disgusted at the tame results of the expedition,
while the hostiles who had not been very seriously im-
pressed with the prowess of American arms, were soon
robbing and murdering the same as before.

202 THE FUR-TRADE

Henry led his trappers back to the Yellowstone and
sent out bands in all directions to trap. These small
parties met with many adventures and disasters. Fights
with indians and with grizzly bears were of common
occurrence, but the country was thoroughly explored on
all sides. It was at this time that Fitzpatrick discovered
South pass and Bridger the Great Salt lake, although,
as we have already noted, both these achievements have
been claimed for other parties.

Associated with Henry and Ashley in their trading
and trapping enterprises were many men of prominence
in Rocky mountain history, Jedediah Smith, Jim
Bridger, Jim Beckwourth, David Jackson, William
Sublette, Louis Vasquez, Edward Rose, Hugh Glass
and Thomas Fitzpatrick - "the most significant group
of continental explorers ever brought together."

All of Andrew Henry's operations in the Rockies had
been attended with disaster and financial loss and he
now gave up the business for good, his place being taken
by Jedediah Smith. Smith traveled and traded exten-
sively in the Snake river country, and is accused by the
English of having secured a valuable lot of furs from
some of their trappers in a questionable manner. He
traveled frequently in company with Ross and Ogden
and made a most thorough study of the region, linking
up the explorations of the American traders and ex-
plorers that had preceded him. He and his companions
were well able to compete with such great monopolies
as the American and Hudson's Bay companies, and
sometimes did not scruple to obtain the furs rightfully
belonging to those corporations.

When Ashley finally quit the fur business he had a
fortune of $80,000 to show for his labors. Ashley had

TRADERS IN OREGON AND THE ROCKIES 203

conducted a series of valuable explorations in the re-
gions about the Great Salt lake; Smith later took up
the work where Ashley left off and continued it on up
the Spanish settlements on the Pacific, thus doing for
the central part of the continent what Lewis, Clark and
Mackenzie had done to the northward.

Chapter XIX

Union of the Northwest and Hudson's
Bay companies

Union of the Northwest and Hudson's
Bay companies

While the nor'westers were ridding themselves of
rivals on the Pacific coast, taking over their forts and
garrisoning them with their own men and dreaming
of the monopolizing of the fur-trade of the entire west,
Mr. Astor was not sleeping, neither was the ancient and
honorable gentleman of the Hudson's Bay asleep.
Awakened at last from her long lethargy the old com-
pany was girding her loins for a death struggle with her
upstart rival. The nor'westers were not slow to take
up the gauntlet thrown them. They had beaten the
Americans at Astoria and would give this new foe a
warm reception.

When Mr. Astor was in Montreal banqueting with
the northwestern men and becoming fascinated by the
possibilities of the trade, another man was sharing the
hospitality of the traders and likewise fascinated by
what he saw and heard. This man was none other than
Lord Selkirk, who had just recently established a set-
tlement on Prince Edward island and was now eager to
gain a footing in the far west. He returned to London
and purchased enough stock in the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany to give him full control. In 1812, he established
a colony of Scotchmen and Irishmen on the Red river
of the north which was to serve as protection against

2o8 THE FUR-TRADE

the nor'westers. These newcomers the latter discour-
aged and paid to leave the country. Hostilities soon
followed.

From their post at Fort Garry, now Winnipeg, the
Hudson's Bay men glared sullenly in the direction of
their rivals at Fort Gibraltar and the nor'westers glared
back. It only required a spark to fire off deadly train
that was being laid. This spark was supplied when
Miles McDonell, commander at Fort Douglass, issued
a proclamation ordering all nor'westers out of the coun-
try and forbidding indians to trade with them. Cuth-
bert Grant, with a force of turbulent halfbreeds,
marched to Fort Douglass and opened fire upon the
place. McDonell surrendered and was promptly sent
out of the country by the nor'westers.

Duncan Cameron, commander of Fort Gibraltar,
had winked at the lawless acts of Grant, but he was now
to suffer in turn, for falling into the hands of his rivals
soon after he was severely flogged. A little later a party
of Hudson's Bay men surprised Fort Gibraltar, plund-
ered the place and burned it to the ground. Mr. Cam-
eron was shipped out of the country in revenge for the
expulsion of McDonell.

These events ushered in the war of the fur-traders.
Murder and robbery became the order of the day, while
the indians, always ready for bloodshed and plunder,
thus encouraged by the lawless acts of their white asso-
ciates, took a hand in the game.

The loss of Gibraltar was a serious loss to the nor'-
westers, as it was an important outfitting point, and
fearing that the expected supply brigade, which was
known to be on its way to the fort, might also fall into
the enemy's hands and thus seriously cripple them, by

NORTHWEST AND HUDSON'S BAY COMPANIES 209

depriving them of needed supplies, Cuthburt Grant was
sent to rescue the brigade at all hazards. Governor
Semple thought Grant's army was on its way to attack
the Selkirk settlements so he raised such a force as he
could and hurried to intercept Grant. The two forces
met on the evening of June 19, 1816, at a place called
Seven Oaks. Grant could not control his savage follow-
ers, and an indiscriminate massacre followed. Governor
Semple was brutally murdered as he lay desperately
wounded, and when the last shots of the conflict had
died away the beautiful green of the prairie was red-
dened with the blood of Hudson's Bay men. Made
fiendish at the sight of the carnage they had wrought,
the indians and scarce less savage half-breeds ran from
body to body, horribly mutilating the bodies of the slain
and eagerly quaffing of the blood in true savage fashion.

Seven Oaks was a frightful affair, but it was the
crisis. Lord Selkirk was strong with the government
and the government, as usual, was partial to the Hud-
son's Bay Company. A force of British red-coats well
equipped with supplies and war material was furn-
ished Selkirk, and with these he appeared before the
nor'westers famous old stronghold at Fort William.
Trenches were dug, cannon planted, and every prepa-
ration made for the storming of the place. To oppose
the uniformed troops of the British government was
more than the nor'westers were prepared to do, despite
their reckless courage and lack of regard for law, so
they surrendered the place with the best grace possible.

Fort Douglass was surprised by the soldiers one
stormy night some six months later, and other places
followed. The nor'westers realized that the game was
up and were ready for peace. Likewise the Hudson's

2io THE FUR-TRADE

Bay men were guilty of offenses which they did not
wish investigated, and so the officials of the rival com-
panies did the only sensible thing there was to do and
joined forces, each agreeing to forget the past. The
union was effected in March, 1821, the name of Hud-
son's Bay Company being retained.

Triumphant in Canada and expelled from American
territory by a United States law, the Hudson's Bay
Company's history from this time on offers little of
interest, except that it has continued to exist down to
today, in spite of the increasing settlements and advance
of civilization in its territories.

In 1870, arrangements were made by which the great
company surrendered its exclusive jurisdiction over the
immense territory reaching from the United States
boundaries to the frozen Arctic, and all westward from
Lake Superior, to the Canadian government. Small
tracts of land about the fur-posts were reserved, how-
ever, and here the old company continues to hold forth
with something of its old time grandeur. The trade of
the company is still large, and it is the only one of the
many fur companies that has continued down to our
day.

Take a map of Canada today and you will notice that
over much of its northern territory, the only place
names you will see is the well known H. B. C, which
marks one of the many posts of that far-flung trade
empire. Up yonder under the light of the north star,
and of the midnight sun, the fur-trader and his em-
ployees are the only human inhabitants, save for a few
scattering indians and Eskimo, who today are totally
dependent upon the posts for their existence. Railways
thread the more southern portions of the fur-trade

NORTHWEST AND HUDSON'S BAY COMPANIES 211

realm of the long ago, but ox carts, those ponderous,
screeching contrivances that were so common in the
Red river settlements in the old days, still bring in the
furs to the posts along the Mackenzie, while brigades
of canoes are still not uncommon in the more remote
regions. In winter, when the rivers are blocked with ice
and canoe travel impossible, the husky dog still draws
loaded sleds from one post to another. The swish of the
sled runner on the snow, the tinkle of the bells on the
huskies' harness, and the crack of the driver's whip still
awaken the echoes of the long northern nights.

The isolated posts get their mail more frequently
than in the days of long ago, but the coming of the mail
pack is just as eagerly looked forward to, and all items
of news from the outside and more favored portions of
the earth are eagerly scanned.

In the early days the Hudson's Bay, the Northwest
and the various American trading companies sold
liquor to the indians, but seeing the demoralizing and
degrading effects it was having upon them the Hudson's
Bay Company stopped the practice. It must be said that
the great company, with all its faults, always looked to
the welfare of the indian. A sober, honest or industrious
indian in their employ was never allowed to come to
want.

Before starting out on his annual trapping expedi-
tion, the indian and his squaw were taken into the fort,
and with the advice of the chief factor an outfit was
selected. The trader's aim was to help the indian to
secure what would likely prove most needful to him
and to eliminate unnecessaries with which the savage
might otherwise encumber himself and perhaps be
unable to pay for with the proceeds of the season's

2i2 THE FUR-TRADE

catch. The outfit was then charged against him, to be
deducted from his pay when the season's work was over.

The reckless, wasteful methods of the American
trader and trapper in taking fur in any manner possible,
regardless of the future supply, has been avoided by the
Hudson's Bay Company. Absolute masters of the terri-
tory they occupied, they enacted laws protecting fur
bearers at certain seasons, and when any fur bearing
animal was threatened with extermination they pro-
hibited his being taken for a number of years until in-
crease of the animal made further protection unneces-
sary.

The most noted of the later day Hudson's Bay men
is Donald Smith, who for long, long years traded in the
frozen, wind swept and otherwise desolate wastes of
the Labrador, suffering all the discomforts and dangers
of the long trails and cold, cheerless winter encamp-
ments, without a murmur and with but one object in
view, and that to please his superiors. This patience,
loyalty, devotion and suffering was rewarded at last
when he was made governor of the company with the
title of Lord Strathcona.

Chapter XX
Jedediah Smith's California Expeditions

Jedediah Smith's California Expeditions

The first man to cross the North American continent
was the trader Alexander Mackenzie, late in the eigh-
teenth century. Lewis and Clark, in 1804- 1805, repeated
the exploit farther to the southward, but the great cen-
tral regions lying between Oregon and Mexico re-
mained for many years unpenetrated and unexplored.
It remained for another fur-trader to break through the
intervening barriers of mountain and desert and open
up a central route to the Pacific.

Many expeditions had surged up to the eastern slopes
of the Rockies, but, as waves break upon their impact
with the ocean beach, so these expeditions halted at the
mountain wall and ebbed back again.

A few isolated cases of mountain trappers penetrating
beyond the first rocky ridges were recorded at a very
early date, but until the arrival of the Henry-Ashley
party very little was known concerning the region. Ash-
ley did quite a bit of exploring in the eastern portions
of the great interior basin but beyond the Great Salt
lake stretched deserts, unknown and unvisited by white
man, and beyond these arose the high Sierras of Cali-
fornia, forming another formidable barrier to be
crossed should one wish to reach the Pacific by this
untried route.

Spaniards from Mexico and California had been

216 THE FUR-TRADE

halted on their eastern journeyings by the deserts. The
task of exploring this region of mystery and opening
up a central route to the Pacific was performed by
Jedediah Smith, who had already done quite a bit of
exploring work in the Oregon regions. Just why Smith's
exploits and even his very name have been allowed to
sink almost into oblivion is hard to understand, while
lesser men such as Bonneville and Fremont have be-
come famous by merely following in his footsteps. Per-
haps had Smith been less modest and had he possessed
the ready pen of a Fremont, or had a writer of inter-
national fame, such as Bonneville found in Washing-
ton Irving, written his biography, he might have fared
better and today might be accorded his rightful place
in history as a pathfinder, instead of being largely un-
known and unhonored by his countrymen. Smith, al-
though a far better man than either, might well be
placed alongside of Radisson and Groseilliers in the
list of unremembered heroes.

Jedediah Smith was born at Bainbridge, New York,
June 24, 1798. He came of good pioneer stock, the fam-
ily being continually on the move to new territory;
always with faces turned toward the setting sun, a char-
acteristic that father imparted to son.

Jedediah had thirteen brothers and sisters and, as his
parents were poor, they were unable to give their chil-
dren any considerable education, yet our young man
succeeded in obtaining a smattering of knowledge, and
what was of more value, he was deeply imbued with the
tenets of the Christian faith, which he maintained un-
waveringly throughout his life, although his compan-
ionship and environment in later years were of the wild-
est and roughest character.

JEDEDIAH SMITH'S CALIFORNIA EXPEDITIONS 217

Leaving home to seek his fortune, he was first em-
ployed on one of the freight boats of the Great Lakes,
where he met with trappers and traders passing between
Montreal and the western posts. Fascinated by the life
of a fur-trader, he resolved to enter the profession him-
self, and we soon find him at Saint Louis, headquarters
of the American traders, looking for a job. It was here
Ashley found him and engaged him in the Henry-Ash-
ley expedition of 1823.

Smith served these gentlemen faithfully until their
retirement from the business. He took over Ashley's in-
terests in 1826, and from thence on the firm consisted
of Smith, David Jackson and William Sublette. The
partners divided their labors. Smith was the explorer.
It was his duty to seek new trapping grounds, and learn
the general character of the new territories and of the
indian tribes that inhabited them; Jackson was to re-
main constantly in the mountains attending to the trad-
ing and trapping; Sublette was to see to the transport-
ing of the furs to Saint Louis and attend to their dis-
posal.

It seems that Ashley had entertained the idea of car-
rying out Mr. Astor's plans for the establishment of a
post on the Pacific, from which the furs of the far west
might be shipped by sea to the fur markets, and prob-
ably that is why Smith, while in his employ, had spent
so much time among the British traders in Oregon. We
know that Alexander Ross had looked upon him as a
sort of spy, rather than as a trapper, and if he got any
information from those sources it must have been of a
most discouraging nature, but nothing prevented him
from making a try at reaching California.

Beginning in the Salt lake country where the Ashley

218 THE FUR-TRADE

explorations left off, Smith, in August, 1826, started out
with a party of fifteen men and traveled in a southwest-
erly direction, passing Utah lake and spending some
time in studying and observing the indian tribes of the
region.

Traveling on to the southwest they came to the Vir-
gin river and followed it to its junction with the Colo-
rado, which the indians informed him fell into the Gulf
of California. The Mohave desert barred his way to
the Spanish settlements like an evil spectre, but he
struggled through it and on to San Diego, there to
arouse the suspicions of the Spanish officials. Through
the intercession of an American sea captain, however,
he was permitted to purchase what provisions he need-
ed, provided he returned by way he had come.

Smith seems to have possessed the usual Anglo-amer-
ican contempt for Spanish authority, for instead of
complying with orders he marched northward some
three hundred miles instead and wintered on the San
Joaquin and Merced rivers, finding the region a profit-
able trapping ground.

The party made an attempt to cross the Sierra Neva-
das but were turned back by the deep snows. May 20,
1827, Smith renewed the attempt, taking but two men
and seven horses and two mules. After an eight day
struggle, in which two horses and one mule were lost
in the passage over snow barrages from four to eight
feet deep, they reached the eastern side of the moun-
tains.

Now came a twenty days' march over a barren, sun-
scorched region to the Great Salt lake, in which they
suffered all the horrors of heat, thirst and hunger. They
ate their horses one after another as they gave out under
the strain, and when they were at the end of their jour-

JEDEDIAH SMITH'S CALIFORNIA EXPEDITIONS 219

ney they had only one horse and one mule remaining.
Smith uses just one hundred and thirty words to record
this terrible journey in his journal. He was a man of
action, not of words. In fact, his whole journal is so
brief that one cannot follow his trail with certainty,
but it is presumed that he crossed the Sierra at, or near,
Sonora pass.

In July, 1827, Smith set out to return to California
at the head of nineteen men and two indian women. The
Spaniards seem to have expected his return, for they
sent a band of indians to head him off. These indians
attacked the party on the Colorado river, killed ten of
the men and carried off the two indian women as pris-
oners. This unfortunate affair occurred in August, and
the survivors were obliged to hurry on to the Spanish
settlements for relief, although they could scarcely
count on a very hearty greeting.

Smith was allowed to proceed northward to join his
companions on the San Joaquin and Merced. Finding
them in a very needy condition he resolved to trust once
more to Spanish generosity, but this time they clapped
him into jail at San Jose, later transferring him to
Monterey. He was soon released through the persistent
intercession of certain Americans of the place, but was
obliged to sign an agreement to leave the country. This
he did, though not in the way or by the trail that the
Spaniards expected him to take.

Having blazed a trail from the Great Salt lake to
southwestern California, and then eastward over the
Sierras from central California back to his starting
point, he now proposed to link up these southern and
central routes with the work already done by the British
and American traders in Oregon.

Leading his party northward some three hundred

220 THE FUR-TRADE

miles he wintered on a stream, which from the circum-
stance, is now known as the American Fork. Beaver
were plentiful, and the trappers collected a small for-
tune as they moved along. They continued to trap and
explore the country in a northwesterly direction until
they had almost reached the Pacific, when they altered
their course and headed due north for Oregon.

July 24, 1828, while encamped near the Umpqua
river, the party was attacked by indians, and fifteen or
eighteen men of the company were slain, two only es-
caping into the woods. Smith was absent from camp at
the time of the massacre and was horrified upon his
return to find his comrades cold in death, scalped and
mutilated in the usual manner. Horses, furs and sup-
plies were likewise gone. One of the men joined Smith,
and the two shouldered their rifles and made for the
British posts on the Columbia.

Living on the game that they killed, and calling into
play all the skill, perseverence and woodcraft which
they had acquired during their experiences in wilder-
ness life, the two men finally won through and reached
Fort Vancouver in safety. The other survivor lived on
roots and berries for a while, and finally fell in with a
party of friendly indians who conducted him to Oregon.

Doctor McLoughlin received Smith and his com-
panions with open arms, sent out a party to recover
their furs from the indians, and when this was accom-
plished paid the American $20,000 for the lot. This
transaction offers a pleasing contrast to some of the
previous affairs between British and American traders,
but was quite in accord with the gentlemanly character
of the great McLoughlin.

One of Smith's men took service with the English
traders and returned to the very country where he had

JEDEDIAH SMITH'S CALIFORNIA EXPEDITIONS 221

had such a narrow escape. Smith and the remaining
man left Vancouver in March, 1829, and traveled up
the Columbia to Fort Caldwell and Flathead House
and on to the rendezvous of his partners, Jackson and
Sublette, which he found without difficulty. Emerson
Hough has well said: "Readers would not receive the
plain story of Jedediah Smith as fit for fiction. It would
be too impossible."

During Smith's absence Jackson and Sublette kept
about one hundred men busy scouring the country for
furs; they competed with Ogden's men for the fur of
Oregon, they penetrated the dangerous country of the
Blackfeet, they visited Yellowstone park, and added
much to the general knowledge of the country. Hostile
indians picked off a man from time to time, but they
repaid the savages with interest when opportunity of-
fered and kept on with their work.

In 1830, the three partners sold out the business to a
new firm of which Milton Sublette, Jim Bridger and
Thomas Fitzpatrick were leading members. The palmy
days of the fur-trade were over, and a few years later it
was no longer profitable to trap the beaver. Perhaps
the three veterans hoped to pass their remaining days
in the peace and quietude of a civilized community,
but in Saint Louis Smith met several of his brothers
who were in severe financial straits, and with character-
istic generosity he offered to fit them out for the Santa
Fe trade, which was then a splendidly paying proposi-
tion. Once more the old traders heard the call of the
wild, and in the spring of 1831, we find the three
friends, Smith, Jackson and Sublette on their way to
Santa Fe at the head of a wagon train, eager to try their
hand at the Mexican trade.

In the desert country near the head of the Cimarron

222 THE FUR-TRADE

they ran out of water and Smith pushed on ahead to
seek for the precious fluid. Finding it at last he re-
freshed himself and started to carry the welcome news
back to his comrades, when he was fired upon by
ambushed Comanches and seriously wounded. If the
savages were looking for an easy scalp they chose the
wrong man, for desperately wounded as he was he was
still full of fight, and three of the Comanches bit the
dust before they succeeded in despatching him with
their spears.

Thus perished one of the greatest, although the least
known, of all the great characters of the American west.
A tireless explorer, a skillful trader and a fearless ad-
venturer, Smith was also in addition to all this, a pol-
ished gentleman and an humble and devout Christian.

Chapter XXI
Travels of Bonneville and Walker

Travels of Bonneville and Walker

In 1832, Captain Benjamin Bonneville, an officer of
the regular army, obtained leave of absence to conduct
a trading and trapping expedition into the mountains of
the west. Bonneville has found an able chronicler in
Washington Irving, and because of this book the cap-
tain obtained a fame all out of proportion to the actual
value of his achievements. In fact, Bonneville discov-
ered nothing that the fur-traders had not already been
perfectly familiar with for a decade or more, but his
able lieutenant, Mr. Walker, made a remarkable trip
overland to California by the central route, being sec-
ond only to Jedediah Smith in accomplishing this feat.

Bonneville is wrongfully credited with taking the
first wheeled vehicle across the plains and into the
mountains. We have seen how the birch-bark canoe and
the dug out of the first fur-traders of Canada were suc-
ceeded largely by the keel-boat on the larger streams,
and that after the first excursions up river the Amer-
icans largely abandoned water travel and substituted
the pack-horse for the boat, and still later the pack-
horse gave way to the covered wagon. The overland
route, too, was changed from the valley of the Mis-
souri to that of the Platte. Bonneville's party transport-
ed their goods by wagon and he was the first to take
wagons through the South pass, this being about all the

226 THE FUR-TRADE

credit that the captain is rightfully entitled to. Wagons
had been used on the Santa Fe trail as early as 1822, and
Smith, Jackson and Sublette had used wagons in the
Wind river country two years before Bonneville started
west, while Ashley had taken a wheeled cannon through
South pass in 1826. Marcus Whitman, the missionary,
has the honor of being the first man to take a wagon
clear through to the Pacific, but we should not be sur-
prised to learn at any time that some trader or trapper
should turn up and claim even this distinction.

Bonneville's force consisted of one hundred and ten
men, chief among whom was I. R. Walker and M. S.
Cerre, both veterans of the Santa Fe trade and both
well fitted to cope with the dangers and difficulties of
such an expedition. The party moved up the valley of
the Platte early in the spring, when the grass was fresh
and green and flowers were blooming everywhere.
Their desire was to get across the broad reaches of the
plains before the scorching heats of summer set in. At
one stream where quicksand prevented the crossing of
the wagons they took off the bodies, caulked them with
a mixture of tallow and ashes, and in these improvised
boats floated their goods across in safety.

Bonneville was much impressed with the wild scen-
ery of the Black Hills, and still more when he sighted
the Rockies. Crossing through South pass they reached
Green river, scene of so many of Smith's, Jackson's,
Sublette's and Ashley's adventures. Here they came in
contact with a party of American Fur Company men
under a Mr. Fontenelle. Here Bonneville was to get a
taste of rivalry as it existed between the traders, for in
spite of the hearty reception extended him by Fonte-
nelle, the latter tampered with his men and succeeded

TRAVELS OF BONNEVILLE AND WALKER 227

in enticing some of them to come over to his outfit.
Later on the captain evened up matters by coaxing some
of Fontenelle's men to take service with him.

From Green river, Bonneville proceeded to the Sal-
mon branch of the Columbia, where he had heard
beaver were plentiful. He got along splendidly with the
Crows and Nez Perces with whom he met, and he was
overjoyed with the wild, free life he was experiencing,
after the dull routine of post duty, insperarable from
army life in time of peace. Christmas, 1832, was cele-
brated with much feasting and hilarity. After the cele-
bration he started out to find a band of his trappers for
whose safety he had begun to grow anxious. The search-
ers suffered much from cold and hunger, as the weather
was bad and the game scarce, but at last the missing
men were found.

Bonneville marched and countermarched through
the trapping grounds, seeking the best sections for fur,
and all the while having great sport with the game.
Falling in with a party of trappers under Milton Sub-
lette, there ensued considerable rivalry between the two
parties as to which would secure the most fur, but
friendly relations were maintained. He also came in
contact with a Hudson's Bay trader on Snake river.
This trader was out of goods but daily expecting sup-
plies from his post on the Columbia. Quite a number
of indians were there awaiting the arrival of these
goods and Bonneville, thinking to anticipate the Eng-
lishman's trade, attempted to open negotiations with
them, but the Englishman was too sharp for him, and
not only succeeded in inducing the indians to wait for
his goods, but even shook the fidelity of some of Bonne-
ville's men by offers of free liquor.

228 THE FUR-TRADE

Seeing himself outwitted and beaten by the English
trader and fearing the loss of some of his own men, the
captain beat a retreat and went to Green river and went
into camp in close proximity to a similar rendezvous of
the Rocky mountain men and still another band of
trappers in the employ of the American Fur Company.

In these trapping operations the men were keen com-
petitors, and rivalries often ensued which at times ap-
proached open hostility, but in their summer camp all
rivalry was forgotten and a carnival of feasting, drink-
ing and gaming was indulged in. Friendly Shoshone
indians also resorted to these gatherings to share in the
revelry, especially the young squaws who were on the
lookout for white husbands. Many of these wild moun-
tain trappers had their hearts pierced with cupid's
sharp darts at these meetings, took squaws to wife and
brought up a progeny of half-breed children. Kit Car-
son, the Bent brothers, and the mulatto, Jim Beck-
wourth, were among those who married indian women.
The dusky damsel stalked about camp, arrayed in all
the savage finery of paint, beads and gaudy dress and
moccasins, winning admiring stares from the bearded,
bronzed faced, buckskin-clad borderer, who, well sup-
plied with money after the annual settlement, was quite
willing to lavish it liberally on some favorite beauty
could he but win her smiles. The trapper indulged in
his little fling after the trapping season was over just
as the sailor celebrates his arrival at the home port after
a long cruise.

Hearing much concerning the Great Salt lake, Bon-
neville resolved that after he had broken camp at Green
river, he would send an expedition under Walker to
explore the lake and trap for beaver along its shores

TRAVELS OF BONNEVILLE AND WALKER 229

and tributary streams. This expedition set out the 24th
of July, 1833, and was soon struggling through the
parched and sandy wastes surrounding the great lake.
It was quite in contrast with the land of plenty they
had just left. Game was scarce, water more so, and as
they struggled on they suffered the horrors of heat and
thirst, until from sheer necessity they were compelled
to turn northward to more promising regions where
water could be obtained.

On the shore of Ogden river they found beaver and at
once set out traps. One after another of these traps were
stolen by prowling indians in a most exasperating man-
ner. Perhaps this may account for, though it does not
excuse, the cruel treatment inflicted upon the natives on
every occasion. It seems this band of trappers were
either of a rather bloodthirsty disposition, or else their
leader was of a different character than was Bonneville,
for while the captain got along amazingly well with the
indians, Walker and his men had scarcely gotten free
from their commander when they began to shoot down
the indians like dogs, twenty or more being massacred
at one time on the Ogden river for no apparent reason
whatever.

Pushing farther into the deserts, Walker crossed the
Humboldt, to which he gave the appropriate name of
Barren river. In October he crossed the Sierra Nevadas
and emerged upon the western slope, where pure water
and forests of gigantic trees were a most welcome sight
after the hideous deserts they had just crossed. It is
thought that Walker discovered the Yosemite valley
during this journey, but the facts are not clear. He did
not encounter hostile indians as Smith did on his last
trip, nor was the crossing of the mountains made under

230 THE FUR-TRADE

the same trying conditions as that memorable crossing
of Smith's had been attended with.

At Monterey they were hospitably received by the
Spanish and here they held high carnival, selling their
furs and spending the proceeds with a liberality char-
acteristic of trappers. Perhaps their liberality had some-
thing to do with the hospitality they enjoyed, for we
know that Smith was thrust in jail and even threatened
with being sent to Mexico for trial when he visited the
region a few years before.

Recrossing the Sierras, Walker headed northward
along the eastern edge of the range for some distance,
and then turned eastward across the deserts toward the
Humboldt, then turning northward again to the Snake
and from there to Bear river, where he rejoined Bonne-
ville.

The return journey had been marked by the same
barbarous treatment of the indians that had signalized
their western march. A couple of Mexicans had joined
Walker in California and they, no less bloodthirsty
than their American companions, varied the sport of
shooting down indians by chasing them on horseback
over the deserts, lassoing them and dragging them to
death. Bonneville was much grieved when he learned
of these excesses, but he could do nothing about it.

While Walker was absent on the Salt lake and Cali-
fornia expedition, Bonneville had moved about from
place to place, sometimes in company with men of the
Rocky Mountain Fur Company, and sometimes with
his own party alone. He had wished to continue his
journey along the Columbia as far as the Willamette
in Oregon, but as the Hudson's Bay Company con-
trolled all the posts in that region he knew all those

TRAVELS OF BONNEVILLE AND WALKER 231

store houses would be closed to him and that his expedi-
tion might end in starvation, so he gave up the project.

After three years of absence Bonneville returned to
civilization only to find that the government, by failing
to hear from him had given him up as lost and had
caused his name to be removed from the army rolls.
The publication of Irving's book on the adventures of
Bonneville turned so much attention toward the gay
captain that it led to his reinstatement in the army and
gained for him a reputation as an explorer far exceed-
ing that justified by the facts.

Chapter XXII
Wyeth's Enterprise -a Fur-trade

Rendezvous

Wyeth's Enterprise -a Fur-trade
Rendezvous

Another interesting personage made his appearance
in the Rocky mountain region about the time Bonne-
ville was making his debut as a traveler and trader. It
was none other than Nathaniel J. Wyeth, a New Eng-
land yankee, in whose fertile brain was conceived a
magnificent plan for the capture of the fur-trade, and
the establishment of a factory on the Columbia for the
canning of salmon. Although, like Bonneville, Wyeth
was a "tenderfoot" in the western life, he proved to be
made of the same sterling stuff that is supposed to be
characteristic of the people of the rugged region from
which he came, and although he failed in realizing the
objects of his journey, he played no inconsiderable part
in the history of the region for several years.

In 1832, Wyeth, at the head of a party of New Eng-
enders, each as ignorant and inexperienced in prairie
or mountain life as their leader, left Saint Louis and
started on their long journey toward the Columbia. At
Independence, Missouri, they fell in with a brigade of
Rocky mountain traders under William Sublette and
Robert Campbell on their way with supplies to the an-
nual rendezvous at Pierre's Hole on Green river.
Wyeth was glad to join this party of experienced men
and traveled with them by way of the Sweetwater and

236 THE FUR-TRADE

South pass, a route that a few years later was to become
the famous Oregon trail, the highway over which the
missionaries, Whitman and Spalding, with their wives,
the first white women to cross the continent, traveled,
taking with them also the first wagon to be carried from
the Mississippi to the Columbia - an event that was to
have much political weight later on.

At Pierre's Hole, Wyeth met with many mountain
men, and here he had his first real taste of indian fight-
ing in the celebrated battle with the Blackfeet, of which
we will have more to say presently. From this place he
proceeded to the British post at Fort Vancouver, where
he was well received, but learned to his chagrin that
most of his goods were worthless for the indian trade.
To complete his misfortunes, his tender-foot comrades
here deserted him, having had quite enough already
of the wild life of the plains and mountains. In short,
Wyeth lost everything except his grit and perseverance,
but armed with these he started for far away Boston to
make a fresh start.

Wyeth went with Milton Sublette to the Big Horn
river, and there the two men constructed a bull-boat
and with four indians for companions started down the
river on their long voyage to the eastern settlements,
going in advance of the main party who were to trans-
port the cargo of furs down to market. It required all
the skill the crew possessed to steer the crazy craft clear
of mud-bars, rocks and submerged snags, as well as to
keep an eye always alert for hostile indians. All went
well until they fell in with a party of friendly Crows,
who, in spite of their friendliness stole, or begged for,
everything in sight.

Reaching Fort Cass, on the Yellowstone, one of the

A FUR-TRADE RENDEZVOUS 237

posts of the American Fur Company, they sold a por-
tion of their beaver skins and buffalo robes and then
pushed on down the river, dodging war parties of
Blackfeet who were alert and anxious to annex the scalp
of any unlucky trapper or trader who might be caught
off guard or overpowered by numbers. In spite of their
dangerous surroundings and enforced vigilance the
voyageurs enjoyed the trip. The swift current carried
them rapidly along, and they further increased their
speed by hoisting an improvised sail on an equally im-
provised mast.

Buffalo, deer, and other game thronged the banks and
furnished an abundance of fresh meat. The weather was
delightful and all things, except the Blackfeet, seemed
to conspire in making their trip an easy and pleasant
one, but the men never relaxed their vigilance. They
camped on islands in midstream, when there were any;
they landed early and cooked their meals, then leaving
their fire burning would re-embark and drop down the
river for miles and encamp without a fire at some shel-
tered place.

Reaching Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellow-
stone, they landed and partook of generous hospitality,
which the commandant, McKenzie, the famous "King
of the Missouri," was wont to extend to travelers. At
Fort Union they met the upbound keel-boat of William
Sublette bringing supplies for the Rocky mountain men
who were in competition with the American Fur Com-
pany. Here Milton Sublette joined his brother and
Wyeth went on down the Missouri in a wooden canoe
which he had substituted for the bull-boat.

Wyeth had several indian scares and several close
shaves from shipwreck on the treacherous river, but he

238 THE FUR-TRADE

at length reached the settlements in safety. This voyage,
along with the voyage down the Arkansas of Ezekial
Williams years before, show what risks these early
fur-traders were obliged to take in traveling through
the untamed, indian infested wilderness in those early
days.

Wyeth was soon back in the Rockies again at the head
of a new organization. He brought with him the natur-
alist Nuttall and he also brought a store of whisky for
the indian trade, but upon his arrival on the Columbia
he found that Doctor McLoughlin had forbade the sale
of liquor to the indians at the posts under his jurisdic-
tion and Wyeth, to his credit be it said, readily agreed
to discontinue the sale also.

Wyeth built Fort Hall in 1834, one of the first Amer-
ican forts west of the Rockies, and a noted place in later
days of travel along the Oregon trail. Wyeth, with all
his pluck and yankee ingenuity, found it impossible to
compete with the wealth and power of the British trad-
ers, and all his enterprises ended in failure.

We have already mentioned the famous trapper's
rendezvous at Pierre's Hole, where an annual gather-
ing of traders, trappers and indians was held. Perhaps
a few words regarding this famous rendezvous will not
be out of place here.

The free-traders did not depend upon established
posts at commercial strategic points at which to do their
trading, as was the custom of the larger and older or-
ganizations; also, they depended far less upon the in-
dian to supply the fur than did the Canadian traders.
Anything the indian had to sell they, of course, took,
but they did not want to be dependent upon the fickle
and unreliable savages any more than necessary.

A FUR-TRADE RENDEZVOUS 239

An annual gathering place was appointed, and here
the scattered bands of trappers assembled at the ap-
pointed time to receive pay for the season's work and
purchase supplies for the ensuing year. Here plans for
the coming year were studied out, and arrangements
for any contemplated enterprise were completed. These
annual meetings were held at various places, but
Pierre's Hole has become the best known of them all.

At these wild gatherings the men who were the real
explorers of the interior of the continent met and laid
plans for expeditions into the most remote places,
known to be swarming with hostile indians both ready
and anxious to raise their scalps. We doubt if many of
these trapper-explorers realized that they were doing
anything out of the ordinary in thus opening up new re-
gions and new routes of travel for their race - routes
over which the later settlers flocked into the country,
giving but little or no thought to the grizzled men who
had blazed the way. The objects of the travels of these
trapper-explorers was not discovery for the mere sake
of discovery, but beaver was primarily the object of
their quest. The average trapper was just as loathe to
see the country settled by home-makers of his race as
was the indian himself, and so we cannot attach any
philanthropic motives to his explorations in these un-
known wastes.

It was at Pierre's Hole that the famous battle between
the trappers and Blackfeet occurred in 1832. Captain
Sublette was in charge of the rendezvous at this time,
and Nathaniel J. Wyeth's party of New England ten-
der-feet were also encamped there at the time. In addi-
tion there was an independent party of trappers under
command of a man named Sinclair.

240 THE FUR-TRADE

On July 17, Milton Sublette, brother of the captain,
set out from the rendezvous with a party of fourteen
men and went into camp farther on down the valley.
Sinclair's party of fifteen men and Wyeth's eleven New
Englanders accompanied Sublette and went into camp
with him. On the following morning a crowd of people
were observed approaching camp. At first they took
them to be a band of American Fur Company men who,
under the leadership of Fontenelle, were operating in
the country, but Wyeth's spyglass soon showed that the
approaching party were Blackfeet.

Just what the intentions of these indians were will
never be known for a certainty, but they halted and one
of their chiefs approached, holding up a peace pipe. A
halfbreed trapper and a Flathead indian who were
with Sublette's party rode out to meet the chief. Both
of these men had scores to settle with the Blackfeet, and
here was an opportunity for revenge. Watching their
chance they shot down the chief, snatched off his scarlet
robe and galloped back to their friends amid a shower
of balls from the Blackfeet. This act of treachery pre-
cipitated the battle.

Hastily taking possession of a swamp the indians be-
gan to throw up breastworks. Word was carried back to
William Sublette's camp, and in a short time the valley
was full of men galloping to the scene of the disturb-
ance. Large parties of Nez Perces and Flatheads were
encamped at Pierre's Hole at this time, and they eager-
ly joined the white men in their quarrel with the com-
mon enemy. William Sublette ordered an immediate
charge upon the Blackfoot fort, but no one seemed to be
eager to enter the swamp until Sublette, Campbell and
Sinclair set the example, after which, of course, the men

A FUR-TRADE RENDEZVOUS 241

fell in line. A hot battle followed. Sinclair was killed
and Sublette badly wounded, but the trappers and their
indian allies pressed on forward.

At this juncture it was rumored that another band of
Blackfeet were attacking the rendezvous. This brought
things to a halt. The attacking party was divided, one
party remaining to watch the Blackfoot fort and the
other hurrying back to defend their own camp. Their
fears proved groundless, and night coming on it was
decided to attack the fort again next morning with the
full force, but the Blackfeet had had enough fighting
for the time and stole away in the darkness.

Another tragedy had its beginning at Pierre's Hole.
The American Fur Company, wishing to find the rich
trapping grounds of the Rockies from which their
free-trade rivals drew their bountiful supply of
pelts, sent two veteran traders to dog the footsteps
of the free-trappers and spy out the country. Fitz-
patrick and Bridger were at the head of the band whose
footsteps Vanderburgh and Drips, the American Fur
Company men, were sent to follow. In the splendid
beaver country between the Big Horn mountains and
the Black Hills the free-trappers discovered that they
were being followed and spied upon. Not wishing to
share their trapping grounds with rivals, Bridger and
Fitzpatrick silently packed up, and crossing over the
difficult, snowy passes of the Wind river mountains to
the Snake river valley, some three hundred miles to the
westward, where they fancied themselves free from
their rivals, but whichever way they went Vanderburgh
and Drips were sure to find them out sooner or later.
Tiring at last of this game of hide and seek the Rocky
mountain men deliberately led their rivals into the

242 THE FUR-TRADE

dangerous country of the Blackfeet, and here the pur-
suers fell into an ambush and Vanderburgh was killed.
Such were the desperate means by which traders
sometimes ridded themselves of rivals.

Chapter XXIII
Free Traders and Trappers

Free Traders and Trappers

Canada was the home of organized trade. In Amer-
ica the free-trader flourished. In the days of French
rule monopolies were granted to a few favored indi-
viduals, but all others were prohibited from entering
into the trade. We have seen how Radisson and Gro-
seilliers fared by violating this prohibition. Others were
equally as unfortunate unless they condescended to pay
bribes to the officials. The Hudson's Bay Company,
backed when necessary by British bayonets, crushed
rivals with a ruthless hand. South of the Canadian
boundary John Jacob Astor succeeded in monopolizing
much of the trade, but always the free-trader and the
free-trapper flourished and would not be downed.

There is something distinctively American in the
free-traders' direct methods of dealing, this cutting
loose from organizations and going it on one's own
initiative. The idea of a few favored folks profiting at
the expense of the many was repellant to early Ameri-
cans, and much of our wonderful success as a people
and as a nation can be traced to individual initiative,
rather than to organized or governmental action.

We have seen how free-traders and free-trappers be-
came the real discoverers and trail-blazers of the in-
terior of the continent south of the international bound-
ary, although most of our historians give all the credit

246 THE FUR-TRADE

to Fremont and other so-called pathfinders of later
days.

In some ways, however, the organized methods of
the Canadian traders had an advantage over the free
system. The organized trader had a greater opportunity
to be beneficial to those who traded with him than did
the free-trader; likewise he was able to protect the fur-
bearers to a considerable extent, something which the
free-trader, of course, could not do. The liquor traffic
which worked such fearful havoc among both indians
and whites along the border, was discouraged and dis-
approved of by the Hudson's Bay Company when its
evil effects were noted, but whisky became a chief arti-
cle of barter with the free-trader who, while himself
depreciating its evil effects, was compelled by the ruth-
less methods of rivals to enter into the whisky business
also. Of course he charged scandalous prices for the
stuff and watered it copiously, but in spite of all this the
indian craved it and would have it at any sacrifice.

The frontier trading posts became the centers of the
wildest of orgies. How many murders and wars, how
much degradation and sickness and misery can be
charged to the free-trader and his vile whisky Heaven
alone knows. The government in later years made many
efforts to stop the traffic, but while some of the offenders
were caught and punished, others took their places and
the evil work went on unabated.

Some of the first trans-Allegheny pioneers were free-
traders. Moving from place to place and from tribe to
tribe, with their small stock of goods tied to the backs
of a few pack-horses or stowed snugly away in a big
canoe, these fearless men plied that hazardous trade
quite unnoticed by the world at large. It is possible
that some of the English or colonial traders may have

FREE TRADERS AND TRAPPERS 247

been on the Ohio or its upper tributaries even in ad-
vance of LaSalle. As long hidden journals and manu-
scripts are continually coming to light, perhaps new
and valuable information may finally turn up on this
subject. English traders were keen competitors with the
French on the Ohio and streams farther south before
the French and Indian war, and little independent
trading posts were scattered all along the Mississippi
and its tributaries. Saint Louis became the center of
American trade, and early in the last century Andrew
Henry built a trading post beyond the first barriers of
the Rockies. Later General Ashley and his associates
abandoned the idea of fixed trading posts and substi-
tuted the rendezvous plan instead.

The men who were known as free-traders or free-
trappers, to designate them from the paid employees of
the great organized companies, were generally of pure
American stock, there being a predominance of Ken-
tucky and Virginia blood in their veins. Also there were
men of Spanish or French descent, especially of the lat-
ter. One of the most noted of all, old Jim Beckwourth,
[or Beckwith as it is sometimes spelled] was a mulatto.

The free-trappers constituted a class to themselves;
they recognized no law or authority except those that
they voluntarily subscribed to, but each man depended
upon his skill in the chase, his dexterity in the use of
firearms, his knowledge of woodcraft, and, above all,
in his own reckless bravery to pull him through. They
banded together at times for mutual protection and
chose leaders, but they did not obey those leaders with
the servile docility of the Canadian trapper but con-
sidered him merely as an equal with themselves, tem-
porarily vested with authority.

With some tribes of indians the trapper waged per-

248 THE FUR-TRADE

petual war, with others he lived in peace, adopted their
manners and even married their women. Many of their
half-breed descendants still linger in the west.

Some of these free-trappers, notably Rose and Beck-
wourth, arose to the position of chief of their adopted
tribes. A few of these men were educated and refined
but the majority were un-lettered, scorning the re-
finements and learning of well-ordered civilization.
Their dress was typical of their trade, a fur cap,
fringed deer-skin hunting shirt and leggins, with
moccasins of the same material completed their cos-
tume. The unerring rifle and keen, long-bladed hunt-
ing knife were inseparable, indispensable companions,
and of his prowess with these weapons the most miracu-
lous tales are told. When the weather permitted the
trapper's roof was the starry heavens; a skin tepee or a
rude log hut answered his purposes at other times.

Many of these men, like the savages among whom
they lived, were unspeakably filthy in dress and habits;
others, like the dandies of the indian villages, delighted
in fringed and beaded hunting shirts and mocassins, and
if he chanced to be a "squaw man" he delighted to see
his better half decked out in all the paint, beads and
other savage finery so dear to the heart of the indian.
Like the indian also, the trapper valued a good horse
above all other possessions, for his very life often de-
pended upon the speed and endurance of his mount.

With the end of the fur-trade most of these wild
blades entered the service of the government as guides,
scouts and packers, while a few settled down to try their
hand at farming or stock raising- in which tame occu-
pation, most of them cut sorry figures. Many amassed
fortunes in the fur-trade, but because of their wild

FREE TRADERS AND TRAPPERS 249

habits and free and easy manners most of their wealth
got away from them once they reached the nearest trad-
ing post or settlement. Very few retired wealthy and
fewer still even retired at all, but ended their days, as
they had lived their youth, in some secluded valley, far
from the comforts of civilization, dreaming, always
dreaming of the eventful past.

Among the earliest free-traders was a member of the
Irish nobility, John Johnson, whom the love of adven-
ture had lured away from his Irish estates to enter the
life of an indian trader at the Soo. Johnson soon became
a famous personage in the Great Lakes region, and was
extremely popular with the indians. A chief by the
name of Wabogish had a beautiful daughter who was
the center of attraction of all aspiring wooers of the
tribe. Johnson's heart was won also by this dusky beauty,
and forgetting his honorable connections in Europe,
as so many wilderness wanderers before and since have
done, he asked the chief for the girl's hand. The shrewd
old red-skin bade him prove his devotion as well as
the honesty of his purpose by returning to Ireland and
disposing of his estates. Johnson hastened to comply
with the requirements of the chief and thus won the
indian beauty and, we presume, he lived happily with
her ever after. During the war with England in 1812,
Johnson's establishment was burned, and he and his
wife had experiences which neither of them would soon
forget.

The fearlessness and heroism of these men are almost
beyond comprehension. We have seen how Ezekial
Williams, when all his men had been massacred and he
alone left to carry the news of his disasters to the settle-
ments, tarried along the upper Arkansas to trap the

250 THE FUR-TRADE

beaver which he found plentiful. John Colter, with a
single companion, Potts, had gone on a trapping expe-
dition into the Blackfoot country, although he knew
these indians were among the most cruel and blood-
thirsty in the west and that their hostility had been re-
cently increased by the killing of one of their number
by Captain Lewis during his memorable expedition in
company with Captain Clark.

Dearly did Colter and Potts pay for their reckless-
ness. After dodging the Blackfeet for some time they
were finally surprised by these human wolves and Potts,
who offered resistance, was killed while Colter, seeing
his helplessness, quietly surrendered. The Blackfeet
turned all the vials of their pent up wrath upon the
helpless Colter. Stripping him naked they bade him
run for his life, little doubting that their fleet braves
would have no trouble in overtaking the white man. It
was to be a race for the swift, and the prize was to be
Colter's life. Spurred on by the hope of escape Colter
did his best and gradually drew ahead of his pursuers,
save for one fleet fellow who seemed to be gaining some-
what, and who held a spear ready to transfix the white
man the moment he succeeded in getting close enough
to hurl the weapon. Seeing the hopelessness of outdis-
tancing his savage pursuer Colter suddenly turned and
faced the indian, the blood streaming from his nose
and mouth as a result of his exertions. This so startled
and confused the Blackfoot that he tripped and fell,
breaking his spear as he did so. Like a flash Colter
sprang forward, seized the broken spear and pinned
his enemy to the earth, then, turning, he sped on with
increased hope and finally eluded his fierce pursuers.

Naked and unarmed, his feet and body torn and

FREE TRADERS AND TRAPPERS 251

bleeding from contact with thorns, briars and cactus,
with no food except the roots he could find and dig up
with his hands, Colter kept on and finally reached a
trading-post on the Missouri.

One would think such an experience would have
cured Colter of all desire for the wilderness, yet we find
him going again and again into the indian country,
lured on by the quest of beaver and the love of adven-
ture, but, finally, some one came along who was able to
do what the Blackfeet could not. This someone had en-
ticing eyes, wore skirts, and wielded such an influence
over our adventurer that he quit the wilderness and its
terrors and settled down to live with his fair seducer
amid the peace and quietude of the settlements. Colter
had fallen in love.

There were acts of cowardice also as well as those of
heroism. A party of trappers coming down the Platte in
canoes were unfortunate in having their boats upset and
supplies and powder lost. In terror the party hurried to
the settlements, abandoning a man named Scott who
was sick and could not keep pace with his terrified com-
panions. Meeting with another party the trappers had
their wants relieved, but thinking that their deserted
comrade was perhaps dead by this time they said noth-
ing about their leaving him to his fate. A year later
Scott's body was found near some high bluffs, many
miles from the place where he had been deserted. Be-
cause of this incident the place became known as Scott's
bluffs, and is further commemorated today in the name
of a nearby city.

Another conspicuous case of cowardice on the part
of one party and heroism on the part of another was the
desertion of Hugh Glass, one of Andrew Henry's men,

252 THE FUR-TRADE

while in the perilous Blackfeet country. Glass had been
terribly injured in a scrimmage with a grizzly bear,
and his life was despaired of. Henry left Glass in the
charge of two men, one a mere boy, which some aver
was none other than the later famous Jim Bridger.
Frightened at being left alone, with an almost helpless
man, in the midst of bloodthirsty and cruel savages and
believing that Glass could only live a few days more at
best, they deserted him, taking along his rifle and re-
porting that he had died. Glass, contrary to expecta-
tions, did not die, but succeeded in dragging his weary,
lacerated body a full hundred miles to Fort Kiowa on
the Missouri, living enroute upon berries and the flesh
of a buffalo calf, from whose carcass he had chased
away a pack of wolves.

Chapter XXIV
Some Famous Free Trappers

Some Famous Free Trappers

To give an adequate history of the American free-
trappers would require volumes rather than a few brief
pages, but we cannot turn from them without a fleet-
ing glance at a few of the most outstanding figures. We
have noticed some of the adventures of Colter, one of
the first of the free-trappers in the Rocky mountain
region, and have mentioned such others as Rezner,
Hoback and Robinson who were with Andrew Henry
during the first efforts to establish trade beyond the
western mountains. Were we to select any one man,
however, as typical of the class, we would choose old
Jim Bridger as a fair representative of all.

James Bridger, or "Old Jim Bridger" as he is best
known, first saw the light of day in the district of Co-
lumbia in 1807, a year of important happenings in the
early fur-trade of the far west, and while still a young
lad he drifted westward, following that magnetic im-
pulse which has ever drawn youth toward the setting
sun. At Saint Louis he enrolled himself in the company
being raised by General Ashley, and thus made his
debut into the fur-trade of the Rockies.

Bridger is described as being brave, kind and gen-
erous to a fault. Ignorant alike of book learning and the
conventionalities of polite society, he fitted nicely into
the rude surroundings in which he found himself, and

256 THE FUR-TRADE

he was far more at ease in the skin tepees of his indian
associates than he would have been in the civilized sur-
roundings of a settler's cabin. Like all of his kind he
was superstitious, rough in his speech and somewhat
unscrupulous in his treatment of rivals. It goes with-
out saying that he was fond of whiskey. We would not
have chosen him as typical of his class if he had not.

Bridger married a squaw and by her had half-breed
descendants. After the days of the fur-trade he served
as scout and guide to various government expeditions
and as guide for several expeditions, notably one head-
ed by Sir George Gore, which spent two years in the
western wilds.

An amusing anecdote is related of Bridger when
listening to Sir George read of some of the adventures
of Baron Munchausen and, of course, not being ac-
quainted with literary characters he knew nothing of
the Baron's reputation for veracity, and when Sir
George had finished reading the trapper remarked that
he "be doggoned if he swallered everything" that
Munchausen said, and expressed his belief that the
Baron was a "darned liar," but, he added that perhaps
some of his own exploits would sound just as unreason-
able. Bridger in fact had a reputation for his disregard
for the truth but little behind that of the Baron him-
self, but most of his lies were so utterly unreasonable
that we suspect the old fellow did not expect to be be-
lieved.

Bridger's travels took him into many new regions,
and he was the first to find his way over the pass now
named for him. Another of his exploits was his descent
of Bear river to Great Salt lake in a canoe during the
summer of 1824, thus being the first white man perhaps

SOME FAMOUS FREE TRAPPERS 257

to look upon the waters of that great salten sea, al-
though this claim is questioned by some authorities.

Bridger saw and described the wonders of the Yel-
lowstone park region, but his story was only set down
as "another of Bridger's lies," and so as little attention
was paid to him as had been paid to Colter, who had
seen and likewise described the same region years be-
fore. Bridger finally settled down on a farm near West-
port and lived to a ripe old age, his last years being
embittered by approaching blindness. Only recently has
Bridger's grave been rescued from oblivion and a
suitable marker erected over the last resting place of the
man who made more real discoveries than all the so-
called pathfinders of the later days put together.

Jim Baker was another noted character of the old
west, being one of the few mountain men of those days
who was not a southerner. He was an able scout, trap-
per, and guide, and possessed all the rude characteris-
tics of the rough men of those days.

Uncle John Smith was another youth to whom the
call of the "wild and woolly west" was so strong that
in 1826, while yet a lad, he ran away from home and
went to live with the Blackfeet. Transferring his al-
legiance to the Sioux he lived with that tribe until his
heart, being won by a dark beauty of the Cheyenne
maidens, he went over to the Cheyennes and married the
girl. Smith early entered the fur-trade, and soon won the
respect of the savages by his just and honorable deal-
ings. He became a powerful personage among the Chey-
ennes, and compelled all Mexican traders to pay tribute
to him. One party who refused were stripped of all their
goods and sent back to the settlements. For these high-
handed proceedings the governor of New Mexico of-

258 THE FUR-TRADE

fered a reward for Smith, dead or alive, but no one
could be found who wished to take the chances to be
incurred in enforcing the order.

Another famous trapper was Bill Williams, whose
name is perpetuated in the chain of mountains said to
have been discovered by him. He had been a Metho-
dist minister in early life, but had drifted into the fur-
trade, moving from tribe to tribe and thoroughly affil-
iating himself with the savages and their mode of life.
He had a faculty for acquiring languages, and proved
of much benefit to the early missionaries in helping
them to translate the Bible into the indian tongue. In
spite of his early training and sacred calling, however,
Williams's conduct was in strange contrast to his pro-
fessions, for he gloried in the wild orgies that so often
marked the gatherings of trappers and borderers. He
was finally killed by the indians, a fate all too common
in those days.

Kit Carson was by far the greatest of all the Rocky
mountain men. Not only did he possess all the bravery,
skill and daring of Jim Bridger, but he was far more
cultured, intelligent and humane than any of his con-
temporaries - excepting perhaps the veteran explorer,
Jedediah S. Smith, of whose career we are already
familiar.

Carson was born in Kentucky, December 24, 1809.
His parents sought to start him in the saddler's trade at
the age of fifteen, but so irksome was the task that after
two years he deserted the saddler's bench and joined a
party of traders bound for far away Santa Fe. The
truthfulness, sobriety and pure moral character of the
boy was soon noted, and although his entire subsequent
life was spent among the rough characters and wild

SOME FAMOUS FREE TRAPPERS 259

scenes of the savage west, he ever maintained his in-
comparable reputation.

Carson's grit was soon to be subjected to the test. One
of the traders had his arm accidentally shattered by a
rifle ball and, gangrene setting in, it was soon plain
that the man's life could only be saved by amputation
of the injured member. No one else volunteering to at-
tempt the surgical job, young Kit stepped forward, and
with butcher knife and saw promptly cut off the arm
and seared over the severed end with a king bolt which
he took from one of the wagons and heated in the camp-
fire for the purpose. The man recovered and Kit Car-
son was a hero.

Kit found New Mexico very much to his liking and
several times, when he had actually started back to his
people, he faced about and returned to that alluring
country. For some years he was employed as a teamster
and traveled over much of the southwest and even down
into old Mexico for long distances. In 1829, he joined
a party of mountain trappers and made his first venture
into the fur-trade. To follow him in all of his wander-
ings would be to visit every portion of the west. Per-
haps no trapper has covered so much territory as he.
With eighteen other trappers he crossed over the deserts
of the great basin to California and thence northward
for some distance, after which they returned to Santa
Fe, selling the furs that they had collected for $24,000,
not a small sum for so small a party to earn in one sea-
son's work.

Carson kept continually on the move. We hear of
him on Green river, the Platte, the Salmon, the Arkan-
sas, the Yellowstone and the Missouri. He was equally
at home on the great plains, the Arizona and Califor-

260 THE FUR-TRADE

nia deserts, and amid the wild fastnesses of the Rockies,
the Big Horns, the Black Hills and the Sierra Nevadas.
Many were the close shaves and hair breadth escapes
he experienced with grizzly bears and wounded buf-
falo, with indians and Mexicans, and with such small
things as thirst, starvation, heat, cold and fatigue thrown
in for good measure.

Although in nearly every expedition Carson held
some subordinate position, he nearly always distin-
guished himself in some way and came back with a
greater reputation than the leader. He understood in-
dian warfare as well as did the savages themselves, and
the punitive expeditions he led against them were al-
ways successful.

When the trapping of the beaver was no longer a
paying occupation, Carson took service with the Bent
brothers at their fort on the Arkansas, as a hunter for
the establishment. In 1842, he entered the service of
Fremont in the same capacity. This was the famous
South pass expedition which brought Fremont into
prominence, and led to his being further entrusted with
the business of "exploring" the west. Carson accom-
panied Fremont in all of his long journeys, traveling
over ground already familiar to him through his many
trapping excursions, and proving himself an invalua-
ble aid to the officers in many ways.

Fremont has come down to us as the great "pathfind-
er" and Rocky mountain explorer, but he followed the
guidance of Carson, and Carson was but following in
the footsteps of Ashley and Smith and Bridger and
Walker and Ogden, and a host of other trapper-explor-
ers to whom the west had long been an open book.

Fremont and Carson played a conspicuous part in

SOME FAMOUS FREE TRAPPERS 261

the winning of California for Uncle Sam during the
war with Mexico, and at the close of that conflict Car-
son was employed by the government to pacify the in-
dians of the southwest. Whenever he could deal with
the savages peacefully he did, but when compelled to
fight he struck swiftly and terribly.

During the Civil war he joined the federal forces and
was brevetted brigadier-general.

Carson was twice married, first to an indian woman
and lastly to a Mexican. He was ever a loving husband
and a kind father. His death occurred at Fort Lyon in
1869.

Jim Beckwourth was of mixed French and negro
blood. He came west with Ashley in 1825, and soon rose
to prominence as a hunter, trapper, trader, scout and
indian fighter. Like many others of his class he married
a squaw and eventually arose to the position of chief of
the tribe. His daring and bravery are proverbial. Like
Bridger he seems to have had scant regard for the truth,
and his published biography is a mass of fiction. The
historian, Parkman, brands Beckwourth as "a ruffian of
the worst class; bloody and treacherous, without honor
or honesty." Carson, Lucian Maxwell, the Bent broth-
ers and others who were his companions and associates
do not agree with Parkman's harsh assertions, and testi-
fy to the honesty of the man.

In 1842, Beckwourth erected a trading post on the
upper Arkansas, where the city of Pueblo now stands,
and there did a thriving business, being a good mixer
and a natural born trader.

Chapter XXV
French Voyageurs or Coureurs de bois

French Voyageurs or Coureurs de bois

As the free-trader and free-trapper were peculiar to
the fur-trade within the limits of the United States, so
also another distinct class originated in Canada and
conducted operations throughout all the vast forests
and along the network of rivers and lakes which char-
acterizes that north country. This class of men were
known as voyageurs or coureurs de bois - hardy wood
rangers, skilled in the arts of hunting, trapping and
wilderness life, being on a par with the red indian him-
self in woodcraft and wilderness lore. These men were
mostly of mixed French and indian blood, and in them
the best, as well as the worst, traits of both races found
expression - their boisterous gaiety, love of song and of
fine apparel gave evidence of their Gallic ancestry,
while their indian blood was responsible for their fond-
ness for the chase, the war path and the lonely forests
and prairies.

With a canoe load of goods one of these men would
push out into the current of the great river at Montreal
and disappear amid the maze of forests and waters to
the westward, to spy out the best fur country and make
friends with the indian tribes enroute, perchance to
marry one of their women and settle down for life
among the savages, whose customs and manner of life
he was most adept in adopting as his own.

266 THE FUR-TRADE

For months, perhaps years, these wood rangers would
be absent from civilization - even the rude civilization
of the fur posts - but finally his feather-like canoe
would be observed drifting down the river to Montreal,
or some other headquarters of the fur-trade, piled high
with valuable pelts, the proceeds of which would be
spent in a brief season of wild revelry. On these rare
occasions there would be feasting, drinking, singing,
dancing, gambling, and the wildest excesses. A writer
of the times thus describes these revelries :

"You would be amazed if you saw how lewd these
peddlars are when they return; how they feast and
game, and how prodigal they are, not only in their
clothes, but upon their sweethearts. Such of them as are
married have the wisdom to retire to their own houses,
but the bachelors act just as an east indiaman and
pirates are wont to do; for they lavish, eat, drink and
play away as long as the goods hold out; and when these
are gone, they even sell their embroidery, their lace, and
their clothes. This done they are forced upon a new
voyage for subsistence."

The wild excesses and slight regard for law and
authority entertained by the voyageurs alarmed and dis-
gusted the French king and the authorities of Canada
to such an extent that stringent laws were enacted for
their restriction. Death was made the penalty for trad-
ing in the interior without a license, but they might just
as well have tried to stop the waters from flowing over
the rapids at Lachine as to pass laws prohibiting these
wild fellows from taking to the woods. Life in the
Canadian colony offered so little in the way of induce-
ment to the husbandman, the pay for all work was so
meager and one was subjected to all the rigors of the

FRENCH VOYAGEURS OR COUREURS DE BOIS 267

rule of tyrannical civil officers, as well as of the grasp-
ing, jealous minions of the church. With nothing to lose
and everything to gain the energetic and ambitious took
to the woods and making friends of the savages married
their women and settled down in the wilds, laughing
at all the mandates of church and state. Allegiance to
both king and pope sat very lightly with them, indeed.
Occasionally one of them would seek out a priest, ob-
tain absolution for the past and then go back to his
forest wigwam, his squaw and his half-breed children
and begin the wild life all over again, but many of them
dispensed with the services of the priests altogether.

The missionaries detested the voyageurs because they
introduced so much of the evils of civilization among
the indians and so little of its benefits.

Especially did the fathers deplore the trade in brandy
which so demoralized the natives and undid so much
of the work of the church. One of the priests writes:
"Our missions are reduced to such extremity that we
can no longer maintain them against the infinity of
disorder, brutality, violence, injustice, impiety, impur-
ity, insolence, scorn and insult which the deplorable
and infamous traffic in brandy has spread universally
among the indians of these parts." Yet the Jesuits never
entirely withheld their services from the offending voy-
ageurs, for fear that they would break all connection
with the church and prevent the indians from being
christianized.

French officialdom, too, always with an eye open for
bribes or tribute money, were never over-anxious to put
the king's decrees into effect, and many of them are sup-
posed to have been financially interested in the oper-
ations of the voyageurs. Certain it is that they were

268 THE FUR-TRADE

never repressed and never interfered with to a great
extent.

Every class of men is sure to produce leaders, and
the voyageurs were no exception to the rule. Among
these self-made men none were braver, more enterpris-
ing or more successful than Daniel Greysolon DuLuth.
This daring leader is claimed, on pretty good authority,
to have been in league with Frontenac, the governor at
Quebec, to defraud the crown in illicit trade with the
indians. However unlawful DuLuth's business trans-
actions may have been, he certainly did New France
great service in exploring the regions about Lake Su-
perior and the upper Mississippi, and in establishing
posts at various points of vantage - notably one at the
point where Fort William was later built and another
on the Detroit river in 1686.

In 1687, DuLuth, with Tonti and Durantaye, both
skilled leaders of the wild banditry of the forests, led a
party of indians from the upper lakes to aid Denonville
in his campaign against the Iroquois. Later on he was
in command at Fort Frontenac and performed excellent
services in the troubles with the hostile savages.

Tonti, the able lieutenant of LaSalle in later years,
began life in the wilderness as a voyageur, and Nicolas
Perrot also varied his services to king and colony with
bits of bush ranging and voyaging on his own account.

The intermarrying of the voyageurs with the indians
brought forth a crop of half-breed children, who in
later years became the paid employees of the Hudson's
Bay and Northwest Fur companies; they also formed
no inconsiderable part of the armies with which the
French faced the English in the last years of French
rule in Canada.

FRENCH VOYAGEURS OR COUREURS DE BOIS 269

Many of them crossed over into American territory
and became free-traders and trappers, French names
became common in the west, and everywhere on the
map one comes across rivers, lakes and mountains which
were either named by or for these wandering free
lances. Many of their little trading posts were the gen-
esis of a thrifty settlement, and some of our cities have
sprung up upon the sites of their rude stockades.

In later years in the valleys of the Saskatchewan and
the Red river of the north, the French half-breeds
formed large settlements, and became so powerful that
they set the laws of Canada at defiance, and British
troops had to be sent against them. A writer who has
traveled much in the northwest and has written much
concerning its history, describes the Red river half-
breeds as being "friendly and kindly in their nature,
usually on good terms with white travelers and indians
alike, though to be sure occasional attempts at horse
stealing by the indians resulted in a collision with those
people, but this was unusual."

True to their breeding these people were unsettled in
habit, impetuous in act and quick to resent interference
by the government. They depended largely upon the
buffalo for food and clothing, and followed in the wake
of the great herds much as their indian predecessors
had done in the years gone by. When buffalo were plen-
tiful they feasted royally and the camp was gay with
song and dance and revelry. When the buffalo failed
them, they starved.

The few luxuries and necessities their simple natures
craved were obtained from the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany's posts in exchange for dried buffalo meat and
robes. Their mode of travel while on the hunting trail

27o THE FUR-TRADE

was the same as had been followed by the indians be-
fore them, save for the large two-wheeled carts, known
as "Red river carts," made entirely of wood and raw-
hide and with no iron or other metal in their construc-
tion. The wheels, which were sawed from the ends of
logs, turned upon an ungreased wooden axle with a
complaining screech which could be heard for miles.

While the bulk of these people were of French and
indian descent, there was a sprinkling of English and
Scotch blood among them, and later on American trap-
pers were captivated by the dark-eyed daughters of
this nomadic people, married them and settled down
to become useful citizens.

The last stand made by these peculiar people against
the encroachments of civilization was in 1879, when
the Hudson's Bay Company ceded its exclusive terri-
torial rights over to the Canadian government. The
country was thrown open to white settlers, and seeing
that they were sure to be overwhelmed by the inrush
of English settlers the Gallic-indian blood of the Red
river people flamed up in revolt. Louis Riel headed this
hopeless revolt, and when it collapsed he fled over the
border into Montana.

Encouraged by the clemency shown the insurgents
and knowing he had the sympathy of the French pop-
ulation in general, Riel returned in 1885, and with the
aid of a half-breed trader named Dumont, raised a
band of rebels and succeeded in beating a Canadian
force at Duck lake. A rebellion of the Cree indians
followed, and the authorities at Ottawa realized the
necessity of promptly quelling the insurrection at all
hazards. An army of four thousand volunteers under
Major-general Middleton marched to the scene of re-

FRENCH VOYAGEURS OR COUREURS DE BOIS 271

bellion and soon restored order. Riel and several of his
accomplices were hanged, and his forces were scattered
never to unite again.

The extermination of the buffalo soon after, further
tended to break up the half-breed settlements.

The Canadian voyageur or coureur de bois as they
were called in the days of the old French regime, no
longer form a distinct class in Canada. Like the Amer-
ican freertrapper, they have played their little part in
the drama of the conquest of the American wilderness
and have stepped off the stage forever. Whatever may
have been their faults and however great their follies,
they had a peculiar niche to fill in the great drama of
history, and they played that part well.

Chapter XXVI
Forts of the Fur-trade

Forts of the Fur-trade

Look at any map of Canada or of the early American
west and you will notice it dotted with the forts and
trading posts of the fur-traders. The trader and trapper
was the pioneer of settlement as well as of discovery.
Even today in the far north the only sign of the white
man or of British authority is a small circle and the
magical letters H. B. C, indicating one of the posts of
that fur-trade empire which still reigns well nigh su-
preme over those desolate Arctic wastes.

Everywhere in our own land, especially the far west,
the advance of settlement followed in the wake of the
fur-trader, and the first rude cabins of the settlers were
invariably clustered about the walls of some fur-trade
post. Many of our great cities have begun their exist-
ence as trading posts. A history of these early trading
establishments would comprise the greater portion of
our pioneer annals.

The first fort builders in Canada were French and
English fur-traders. One of the most famous of these
early establishments was Fort Prince of Wales. It was
situated on a sand point which extended out into the
bay at the mouth of Churchill river. It was square in
shape, each of the four walls being three hundred yards
long. In three of the four bastions supplies were stored
and wells of water for convenience in case of a close

276 THE FUR-TRADE

siege, while in the fourth was a powder magazine. The
walls were of stone and were massive, being thirty feet
wide at the bottom and twenty feet at the top, and were
mounted with forty large cannon. In the center of the
court stood the strong stone house of the governor. The
warehouses and barracks for the men were ranked
along the inner walls. The garrison consisted of thirty-
nine men, and in addition were the officers and the
clerk, which made a total of over forty men in all. The
place was taken and destroyed by the French in 1782,
but was reoccupied and rebuilt soon after.

Within the walls of Fort Prince of Wales was en-
acted the cruel and tyrannical acts of old Governor
Norton. Outside its walls the old monster's gentle and
beautiful daughter perished from starvation and hard-
ships when she fled from the French conquerors, her
fear of the foreign soldiery being such that she chose
death rather than the possibility of dishonor at their
hands.

This fort was also the starting point for Hearne's
exploring expeditions, and it was one of the ironies of
fate that it was this good man, rather than the villian
Norton, who was compelled to lower his flag to the
French conquerors.

The first white visitors to the upper waters of the
Mississippi and its tributaries were French trappers
and traders, and their posts were the first sign of white
occupancy in that land. The rude stockades of LaSalle
and Tonti in Illinois and of Radisson at the farther-
most end of Lake Superior were followed by others of
like character. In 1772, Fort Orleans was built by the
French on the Missouri, on an island five miles below
the mouth of Grand river. There is a vague story of a

FORTS OF THE FUR-TRADE 277

desperate battle with savages and of the massacre of the
garrison, but nothing positive is known.

Three French forts were at one time established on
the Osage but little is known of their history. Fort
Osage, or Fort Clark, was built near the mouth of the
Kansas, and was in use for trading or garrison purposes
until 1827.

The Chouteaus had forts at several places in the
Missouri valley, and Joseph Robidoux had an estab-
lishment at what is now Saint Joseph. Council Bluffs
and vicinity was a favorite site for trading posts, no
less than twenty being located here in the fifty years
following Lewis and Clark's great council with the
indians, which had given the place its name. The first
of these was called Bellevue and was built in 1805 ; the
most important was Fort Lisa, built in 181 2. Trudeau
had a trading post on the Missouri as early as 1796, and
on up the winding, muddy course of the great river
post after post sprang up and flourished, as did Fort
Pierre in Dakota, or else vanished after a brief and
unprofitable occupancy, leaving nothing but crumbling
ruins to mark their passing.

Lewis and Clark built the first American fort on the
Missouri, at the Mandan towns in 1804. Manuel Lisa
and his associate traders had a post in the Rockies early
in the last century. In later years Fort Benton was a
noted post on the upper waters of the Missouri but the
most famous of all was Fort Union, built by the Amer-
ican Fur Company in 1829.

All through the Oregon country the British traders
scattered their forts and trading posts after ousting the
Americans from Astoria. The most important of the
British posts was Fort Vancouver.

278 THE FUR-TRADE

In the valley of the Arkansas were many fur-trading
posts and forts. Portguese House, Fort William, or
Laramie, Fort Platte, Fort Lupton, Fort Saint Vrain
and others had a more or less prosperous existence dur-
ing the period beginning as far back as 1763 and ex-
tending on down to the Mexican war, and later. In
1 82 1, an attempt was made to establish a post at what
is now the city of Pueblo, but this was not successfully
accomplished until Beckwourth built his fort there in
1842. French and Mexican traders had forts within a
few miles of where later, in 1829, the Bent brothers
erected their famous fort, but, like many of these out-
posts of trade and of civilization, their history has been
forgotten.

Volumes might be written concerning the Bent broth-
ers-Charles, William, George, and Robert -of their
fort and its half-civilized, half-savage retinue, of the
many interesting events that occurred inside its walls
and in the region surrounding it. The Bents were the
first permanent white settlers in what is now Colorado,
coming into the country in the early '20's. All the
brothers married indian or Mexican women, and until
their deaths were respected as the most influential and
respectable citizens of the territory.

William Bent was the leading spirit in this family
of traders, and his name is associated with the affairs of
the fort to a much greater extent than was any of the
others. Charles Bent was appointed governor of New
Mexico by General Kearny after the latter's conquest
of the country. He governed wisely and well, but fell a
victim of assassination during the indian and Mexican
revolt which followed the army's departure for Cali-
fornia. All the Bents were noted for their upright char-

Of IH£
UNIVtRbili OF ILLINOIS

FORTS OF THE FUR-TRADE 281

acters and their scrupulous honesty in dealing with
indians.

Bent's fort was long the most important American
post in the southwest. The author of "Doniphan's Ex-
pedition," printed in 1848, describes it as follows:

"Fort Bent is situated on the north bank of the Ar-
kansas, six hundred and fifty miles west of Fort Leaven-
worth, in latitude 380 2' north, and longitude 1030 3'
west from Greenwich. The exterior walls of this fort,
whose figure is that of an oblong square, are fifteen feet
high and four feet thick. It is one hundred and eighty
feet long and one hundred and thirty-five feet wide, and
is divided into various compartments, the whole built
of adobes or sun dried bricks." On the top of this wall
cactus were thickly planted, and this effectually pre-
cluded the possibility of any one scaling the walls.

In addition to Bent's fort, the brothers and their part-
ner, Saint Vrain, built a fort, which they named Saint
Vrain, on the South Platte for the trade with the Sioux
and Northern Cheyennes, and Fort Adobe, on the
Canadian, to cater to the wants of the Kiowa, Co-
manches and Apaches. The more southern tribes did
their trading at Fort Bent.

Next to Fort Bent on the Arkansas, perhaps most
has been written concerning Fort Union on the upper
Missouri. Fort Union is said to have been the best built
fort in the entire west, being two hundred and forty by
two hundred and twenty feet in dimension, and sur-
rounded by a palisade or square of hewed timber about
a foot thick and twenty feet high. There were bastions
on the southwest and northeast corners well provided
with cannon. There was a double gate to insure safety
in case of any sudden surprise on the part of the savages

282 THE FUR-TRADE

and inside the enclosure were the barracks, magazines,
warehouses, workshops, etc.

It is said that a distillery was also in operation within
the walls of the fort. Work on the fort was begun by
Kenneth McKenzie in 1829 but not finally completed
until 1833. Supplies were brought up the Missouri
from Saint Louis, first in Mackinaw boats, fifty feet
long, ten feet wide on the bottom, and holding about
fourteen tons of merchandise, being towed the whole
weary way by a crew of men walking along shore and
pulling on ropes. In later years steamboats took the
place of Mackinaw boats.

Tributary posts were scattered about at advanta-
geous points, but Fort Union was always the great center
station for the American Fur Company, and here Mc-
Kenzie reigned like a feudal lord. He could almost say
with truth :

I am monarch of all I survey,
My will there is none to dispute.

Many noted personages visited the fort in the days of
McKenzie's glory. Pallisser the hunter, Catlin the art-
ist, Audubon the naturalist, Bodmer the painter and
Prince Maximilian of Weid, who has left a most valu-
able account of the place and what he saw there. To
this fort and its tributary posts came Sioux, Blackfeet,
Mandan and Gros Ventres, with their beaver, otter, fox,
marten and other valuable furs, which they exchanged
for tobacco, cloth, knives, blankets, axes, ornaments, and
other articles dear to the savage heart, not forgetting
alcoholic liquors which, until the government inter-
fered in 1834, was the chief article of barter. The strict-
est guard was kept at all times against surprise while

FORTS OF THE FUR-TRADE 283

dealing with tribes known to be hostile or untrust-
worthy.

Fort Laramie, another famous post, was first a log
stockade and was built in 1833, by Robert Campbell,
and first named Fort William in honor of William
Sublette. Later on it was renamed Fort John and still
later, being sold to the American Fur Company, it was
rebuilt of adobe bricks and the name changed to Fort
Laramie. It was a trading point for Sioux and Chey-
ennes, and the center of frequent hostilities. In 1849, the
California argonauts made it one of their stopping
places. The United States government stationed troops
at the place after the fur-trade days were over. Park-
man visited the fort in 1846, and has left us a very in-
teresting account of his stay there.

Still another famous post of the early fur-trade days
was Fort Garry, around which has grown the great city
of Winnipeg. How many of the thriving city's popula-
tion know the history of Fort Garry? Like the present
inhabitants of New York, Albany and Montreal, whose
inception was the fur-trade and whose founders were
bronzed, bearded, voyageurs, traders and trappers. Fort
Garry was two hundred and eighty by two hundred and
forty feet in dimension, built of stone and well equipped
for defense. Several other forts were built near Winni-
peg, and there was some fighting in this region between
the Hudson's Bay men and their rivals of the North-
west Company.

We might go on indefinitely to tell of these early
posts and forts and their trader occupants, but a halt
must be called somewhere. Before taking a final fare-
well to these outposts of empire, we will glance briefly
at some of the aspects of life as experienced by those
who made their homes within their sheltering walls.

Chapter XXVII
Life at the Fur Posts

Life at the Fur Posts

Life at the fur-posts was at times almost unbearably
lonesome and monotonous. For months no new faces
were to be seen, the same scenes, the same ceaseless,
changeless round of duty stared one in the face day
after day without variation or change. No wonder the
arrival of a stranger was hailed with so much pleasure;
no wonder the men indulged in such wild excesses at
times. At such times the neighborhood of the forts
would be lively enough - sometimes uncomfortably so.

As most of the trappers and wilderness wanderers
were rude and unlettered they were denied the pleasure
of reading, the solitary man's consolation, even if read-
ing matter were to be had, but, here and there, were to
be found men of culture and refinement who were ac-
quainted with the best of literature, and some even had
accumulated a library. Some were interested in natural
history, ornithology, geology, ethnology and kindred
subjects, and for them the forests, plains and mountains,
the wild animals, the birds and the native indian tribes
offered never ending subjects of interest and study.

Amusements were few, dancing and card playing
being the principal pastimes indulged in. There was a
billiard table at Bent's fort which had been brought all
the long way from Saint Louis. When "flush," the
trapper was an inveterate gambler, and frequently
spent the proceeds of a whole year's work in one night's

288 THE FUR-TRADE

revelry. The indian, too, was addicted to the baleful
influence of games of chance, and it was not uncommon
for them to lose all their possessions, including their
favorite horses, and even their wives.

Few white women found their way into the remote
regions, and in consequence English, Scotch and Amer-
ican traders followed the example of their French
predecessors and sought wives and sweethearts in the
indian villages where they traded. In the far southwest
they succumbed to the graces and wiles of the dark-eyed
senoritas of the Mexican settlements and, in conse-
quence of these promiscuous marriages, the early native
born westerners were of very mixed blood.

The food served at the fur-posts consisted largely of
flesh, buffalo meat and venison, and in the far north
rabbit, beaver and sometimes musquash. Of course a
large quantity of bacon and biscuits were consumed,
while many of the forts had gardens where, in season,
fresh vegetables were produced, but, meat was at all
times the staple diet. A favorite article of food to be
carried on long journeys was pemmican, the pounded
marrow and flesh of the buffalo, mixed with wild ber-
ries and dried in skin bags weighing something like
sixty pounds per bag. This pemmican was considered
the most wholesome food obtainable, having the addi-
tional virtue of keeping well and taking up so little
room in one's pack. On the Canadian frontier dried
fish often took the place of dried buffalo meat.

As was the case with the indians, so also the trapper's
fare was usually either a "feast or a famine;" in times
of plenty he feasted royally, and no one was more hos-
pitable or liberal than he; in the lean times he starved
uncomplainingly.

LIFE AT THE FUR POSTS 289

Whisky was an ever desirable article of trade, being
dearly loved by indian and trapper alike. Heavy drink-
ing was the rule with most of the border men, and a
"teetotaler" was the exception.

The wildest revelries attended the ingatherings of the
trappers at the close of the season's work. Dancing, sing-
ing and gambling were the order of the day; lewd
squaws reaped a golden harvest; quarrels were fre-
quent, often ending fatally for one, perhaps both of the
parties concerned. Outside the walls bloody duels were
fought with rifle and bowie knife. Even the peace lov-
ing and quiet Carson was once obliged to fight a duel
with a braggart Frenchman and we may be assured he
acquitted himself well, so well, in fact, that the wound-
ed braggart was humbled and acknowledged himself in
the wrong.

The liquor traffic had caused much evil among the
indians of the Saint Lawrence and the Great Lakes
regions, and had given the Jesuits much concern. The
Hudson's Bay Company had sought to curb its use, for
the factors realized that a drunken indian was a poor
hunter, but among the American free-traders it was
ever the chief stock of trade, and while the American
law of 1834, caused the American Fur Company to
restrict its sale, the independent traders laughed at the
law and continued the trade. The following descrip-
tion of one of the drunken orgies indulged in by the
indians and trappers of those days is from an account
of an eye witness to the scenes described :

"The night of our arrival at Fort Platte was the
signal for a grand jollification by all hands, with two or
three exceptions, who soon got most gloriously drunk,
and such an illustration of the beauties of harmony as

29Q THE FUR-TRADE

was then presented would have rivalled Bedlam itself,
or even the famous council chamber beyond the Styx.

"Yelling, screeching, firing, fighting, swearing,
drinking, and such like interesting performances were
kept up without intermission. . .

"The scene was prolonged 'till sundown the next
day, and several made their egress from this beastly
carousal minus shirts and coats, with swollen eyes,
bloody noses, and empty pockets - the latter circum-
stances will be understood upon the mere mention of
the fact that liquor was sold at four dollars a pint!"

A more interesting and a more satisfying account is
given by Parkman of the domestic affairs at Fort Lara-
mie, but even this milder portrayal would hardly tempt
a woman of education and refinement to become a per-
manent inmate of a western fur-post. Parkman has left
us a rather cheerless account of his visit to the Pueblo
Fort in 1846:

"A few squaws and Spanish women, and a few Mex-
icans, as mean and miserable as the place itself, were
lazily sauntering about. Richard conducted us to the
state apartment of the Pueblo. A small mud room, very
neatly furnished, considering the material, and garn-
ished with a crucifix, a looking glass, a picture of the
Virgin, and a rusty horse pistol. There were no chairs,
but instead of them a number of chests and boxes
ranged about the room. There was another room be-
yond, less sumptuously decorated, and here three or
four Spanish girls, one of them very pretty, were bak-
ing cakes at a mud fireplace in the corner. They brought
out a poncho, which they spread upon the floor by way
of table cloth. A supper which seemed to us luxurious
was soon laid out upon it, and folded buffalo robes were

LIFE AT THE FUR POSTS 291

placed around it to receive the guests. Two or three
Americans besides ourselves were present."

At Bent's fort liquor was sold at first, but was discon-
tinued when its evil effects became apparent, and in
consequence no such wild scenes were enacted as at
some of the other posts. The Bents were gentlemen, and
the place was conducted in a more systematic and or-
derly manner than was often the case elsewhere.

The commanders of some of the larger forts some-
time lived in regal style. In Canada they often traveled
in state with a retinue of gaily appareled servants. At
Fort Prince of Wales Governor Moses Norton reigned
like an Oriental despot. He was of indian blood, and
his nine years' course of study in England had embod-
ied in him all the vices, but few, if any of the virtues of
either the red or the white races. He dressed like an
indian but attempted to imitate the rule of an Euro-
pean prince. Frightful crimes are laid to his door.
Poison was his chief method of ridding himself of
indians who had incurred his displeasure, while he
vented his spleen against his white subordinates with
branding iron and whipping post. He maintained a
large harem of beautiful indian girls, of whom he was
insanely jealous. Attacked at last by a serious illness he
had his wives assembled for a last farewell. One of the
women began to sob bitterly and an officer present
sought to comfort her in her grief. The dying tyrant
was furious in an instant and threatened to burn the
officer at the stake. He died a few moments later, curs-
ing and fuming to the last.

Kenneth McKenzie also figures in a little affair of
jealousy. A free-trapper had drifted into Fort Union
with a canoe load of beaver pelts, which he sold and

292 THE FUR-TRADE

at once proceeded to deck himself out in all the finery
procurable at the post. No doubt he was a good looking
fellow and as he swaggered about, spending money with
lavish hand, he came under the observation of McKen-
zie's young indian wife. Both parties were very favor-
ably impressed with each other and the affair seems to
have gone beyond the stage of silent admiration, for the
trapper was finally seen running toward the gate at full
speed, with the irate commander at his heels flourishing
a club. The trapper was not disposed to forgive the
commander for his rude expulsion and he loitered
about with his rifle, seeking an opportunity to shoot
McKenzie, and the latter was obliged to have one of
his men shoot the fellow in order to save his own life.
The trapper was wounded, carried into the fort and
treated kindly until his wound was healed, after which
he was bundled out of the country.

Marriage ceremonies in those days were of the most
simple nature. If the bride were an indian the trapper
would present the bride's father with a few horses or
other articles of value to the indian, and that was about
all there was to the ceremony. In the southwest the
Mexican girls were more particular and required the
services of a catholic priest. Funeral services were of an
equally simple nature.

As the country began to settle up most of the trap-
pers and traders sought to do the right thing for their
children and sent them away to school, but they them-
selves continued to retreat before the advancing civili-
zation and ended their days in some remote mountain
valley, unnoticed and unremembered.

The fur-posts were one by one abandoned and fell
rapidly into decay. Many were taken over and garri-

LIFE AT THE FUR POSTS 293

soned by the United States army and thus took on a
new lease of life. An effort should be made, before it is
too late, to suitably mark the sites of those old land-
marks - those early outposts of our civilization. The
memory of these old posts and of the brave men who
built and lived in them is just as worthy of remem-
brance as are our battlefields which we are so careful
to mark and set aside as national parks. The tattered
buckskin of those conquerors of the wilderness is every
bit as honorable a uniform as is the gold braid, epau-
lets, and other trappings of our organized soldiers of
later days.

Chapter XXVIII
Later Days

Later Days

The fur-trade saw its best days before the middle of
the thirties. As one author says: "After 1834 it was no
longer profitable to trap the beaver." From that date
onward the fur-trade continued to decline in magni-
tude and importance. By the time of the war against
Mexico, the west was also an explored country, and all
that was required afterward was the working out of the
details.

The fur-trade and the exploration of America went
hand in hand; the trapper and the trader were the dis-
coverers and explorers of all our vast country back
from the narrow fringe of sea coast on both sides of the
continent. A few seekers after golden cities or mines of
precious stones, like Narvaez, DeVaca, Coronado and
DeSoto, a few government equipped expeditions such
as led by Lewis and Clark, and Pike, and Long, being
the exception to the general rule.

Fremont, one of the best known of the later so-called
pathfinders, traveled over country, every mile of which
had already been traveled over by some wandering free
lance of the fur-trade. It was Radisson, Groseilliers,
Brule, DuLuth, and others of their stamp who made
known the secrets of the Great Lakes, the upper Mis-
sissippi and the plains of the northwest; it was Veren-
drye, the trader, whose eyes first beheld the Rockies;

298 THE FUR-TRADE

it was Mackenzie, Fraser, Hearne, Henry, Ogden,
Smith, Ashley, Bridger, Walker, Thompson and others
like them that first traversed and made known the
secrets of the interior regions of the vast continent.
Even Lewis and Clark, those incomparable explorers,
traveled in the wake of the fur hunter until beyond the
rocky defiles of the "Shining Stonies." It was Samuel
Hearne who first crossed overland to Arctic shores; it
was Alexander Mackenzie who first pierced the moun-
tain barriers which had turned Verendrye back and
passed on to the blue waters of the Pacific. It was the
fur-trader, Jedediah S. Smith, who first crossed the
central part of the continent and on to the western
ocean by way of Great Salt lake, the Nevada deserts
and the Sierra Nevadas. Fremont did much valuable
work in making the public familiar with the great
west, but it was his able and ready pen which accom-
plished this, his actual travels being all over known
territory.

It was the fur-trade that established Montreal far
up the Saint Lawrence, and our own great metropolis
of Gotham was first a trading post, the site of which
was purchased for a few strings of cheap beads. Al-
bany, Detroit, Saint Louis all had their inception in the
fur-trade, and the same may be said of many other
cities of less importance. Radisson's post near the head
of Lake Superior and Verendrye's stations on the Sas-
katchewan and elsewhere were the first establishments
of the white man in the far northwest. Andrew Henry's
tragic experiences at fort building in the Rocky moun-
tain region was the first American enterprise of that
character in the far west. Bent's fort on the Arkansas
was the first white settlement of what is now Colorado.

LATER DAYS 299

Garces and other Spaniards had explored the desert
regions of the far southwest and Franciscan mission-
aries had been the first to settle California but the fur-
trader Gray had first found the Columbia, while As-
tor's fur-traders had followed and flung the "Stars and
Stripes" to the breeze in the land "where rolls the
Oregon" before any rival had penetrated into that
region. Farther northward, at Nootka, the English-
man, Meares, had raised the British flag over his rude
trading post, and still farther northward Russian trad-
ers and sea otter hunters had won Alaska for the czar.

American historians have never seemed to fully real-
ize the tremendous importance the fur-trade has had on
the early history of the country, nor the debt America
and Canada owes those bold, rugged adventurers who
paved the way for the westward march of civilization.

To attempt to give in figures the extent and value of
all this early trade would be impossible, as only a small
part of the figures are obtainable, but the totals would
be enormous.

After the beaver had been pretty well thinned out
and it became no longer profitable to trap for them, the
fur-trade began to languish in the American west, al-
though it still continued in the frozen, snow bound for-
ests of northern Canada. The old trappers turned to
other occupations, such as guiding military forces and
emigrant trains, hunting for army posts, etc. When the
demand came for buffalo robes there was a fearful ex-
termination of those animals, first for their hides and
then for their bones. For unknown centuries the indian
had looked to the buffalo for all the necessities of life;
their flesh was nourishing and there was a never failing
supply of meat at all times; the rude weapons of the

3oo THE FUR-TRADE

plains indians, their bows, arrows and spears, enabled
them to make great killings, and at times they adopted
the expedient of driving the herds over precipices or
into pounds and pitfalls where great numbers were
slaughtered.

With the coming of the white man, with swift horses
and accurate shooting firearms, the slaughter of the
buffalo was greatly augmented, and when a goodly
price was offered for the animals' hide and bones the
grassy prairies became a shambles. The buffalo were
killed in numbers which surpassed all records of
slaughter. Colonel Inman and others who were in the
west in the period preceding and following the great
slaughter have collected data which staggers the imag-
ination. The slaughter was greatest during the late
seventies and by 1883 the buffalo were practically ex-
terminated. Inman estimates that in Kansas alone
31,000,000 buffalo carcasses were purchased by various
manufacturing concerns in Saint Louis and elsewhere,
and that the price paid for same amounted to $2,500,-
000. Estimates have placed the value of the beef and
hides during the period of active slaughter at from
$15,000,000 to $20,000,000.

The only consolation we can get out of the story of
this ruthless destruction of the buffalo is in the fact that
it was a death blow to the hard-riding, hard-fighting
Sioux, Cheyennes and other buffalo eating tribes. Their
meat supply, cut off, at one fell swoop as it were, they
were forced to give up their roving habits and become
reservation indians. There were yet to be occasional out-
breaks and bloody fighting, but the long protracted
indian wars were a thing of the past.

With the passing of the buffalo the wild indian went

LATER DAYS 301

also, and his place was taken by prosaic farmers and
stock raisers of another race. Farms and ranches now
flourish in the river valleys once dotted with the herd
of game and the skin tepees of the savages; cities occupy
the sites of the old trading posts; the trapper as a class
has now disappeared and henceforth will be only a
memory; "the wild and woolly west" is of the past
tense.

Only in the cold forests and barren grounds of north-
ern Canada does the fur-trade continue as an organized
business. The Hudson's Bay Company still lingers in
wild and isolated sections of the great empire over
which it once ruled supreme, and life within the walls
of its scattered stations is now prosaic enough. The glor-
ious epic of the American fur-trade has passed into his-
tory, leaving a continent explored, settled and civilized
in its wake.

Index

Index

Abanel, Charles: on Hudson's Bay,

9i
Acadia: named, 20, 109
Adirondack mountains: 28
Adventure, The: built, 145
Agriculture: 22, English promote, 40
Alaska: fur-trade in, 142; ruled by

Baranoff, 148; 172; Hunt sails to,

180
Albany (N. Y.) : important fur-trade

station, 39 ; 298
Algonquin indians: seek protection

of Quebec, 24; ally with French,

32; battle with Iroquois, 50
Allegheny river: 60
Allen [Ethan] : 61
Allouez, Father [Claude Jean] : 67
American Fur Company: founded by

Astor, 171, 189; competes with

Rocky Mountain Company, 237,

241, 282
Andastes indians: 33
Anticosti: 17

Appalachian mountains: 59
Arikara indians: 201
Arikara river: 157
Arizona: 259
Arkansas river: 58, 61, 78, 83, 166,

238
Arnold, Benedict: 61
Ashley, William: 196; with Henry,

201 ; explorations, 215; rendezvous

plan, 247; 298
Assiniboine river: fur-post on, 103;

104, 123
Astor, John Jacob: 171-182, 185, 188;

instrumental in abolishing govern-
ment trade, 190; 194, 207; monoply

of trade, 245

Audubon [John James] : naturalist,
282

Baffin land: explored by Button, 89

Baird, — : Jesuit priest, 23

Baker, Jim: scout, 257

Balboa [Vasco Nunez de] : mention-
ed, 136

Baranoff, Alexander: 147; death, 148

Bayley, Charles: governor of Hud-
son's Bay Co., 91

Bear river: 185, 194

Beaujeu, Capt. — : French naval
force under, 81, no

Beaver skins; burned to create scar-
city 47 ; value, 112

Beaver, The: Astor's supply ships,
180

Becknell, Capt. — : 167

Beckwourth, Jim: 156, 157; married
indian woman, 228; noted free-
trappers, 247, 261

Bent brothers: 228, first settlers in
Colorado, 278

Bering, Vitus: mentioned, 142

Biddle, Capt. — : sent to repossess
Oregon country, 188

Big game: buffalo, 58, 82; LaSalle
feasts on, 70; elk and sheep, 105;
caribou, 114; grizzly bear, 154;
abundant on Yellowstone, 237;
value of buffalo, 300

Big Horn river: Lisa builds fort at,
157, 236

Big White: Mandan chief, 164

Blackfeet indians: hostile to whites,
158; 195, 200, 236, 240; cruelty, 250

Black Hills (S. Dak.): 105, 226, 260

Block, Adrien: Dutch navigator, 39

306

THE FUR-TRADE

Blue Earth river: ioo
Bodmer [Karl]: painter, 282
Bonneville, Capt. Benjamin: 216;

travels, 225-231
Boone, Daniel: mentioned, 59
Bourbon, — : 89
Bourgmont, — : builds fort on Grand

river, 101
Bow indians: 105
Bowman, J : 155
Bridger, Jim: 156, 157; on Great

Salt lake, 196; with Henry, 202;

with Sublette and Fitzpatrick, 221,

241 ; described, 255-257, 298
Broughton, Lieut. — : 147
Brule, Etienne: tortured by Iroquois,

33; 42, 59, 297
Buffalo: see Big Game
Burgoyne [John] : mentioned, 61
Burnt river: 196
Burr, Aaron: conspiracy, 162-163
Button, Thomas: explorer, 89

California: 104, 147, 193; McKay
in, 199; Smith's expeditions, 215-
222, 230, 259, 261, 299

Calumet river: 60

Cameron, Duncan: 208

Campbell, Robert: mentioned, 235

Canada: 13, 17, 23-24; protestants
denied, 34; catholics permitted to
enter, 34 ; mistaken policy of
France, 40; many crooked officials,
42; La Salle, 65; 69, 75, 77, 78;
colonization hampered by French,
no; 120; surrendered to England,
151 ; 210, 245

Canceau: Pontgrave captures fur-
traders, 20

Carheil, Father [Etienne de]: de-
nounces liquor, 124

Carson, Kit: married indian woman,
228; described, 258-259

Cartier [Jacques]: 18

Cartwright, Sir George: trading post
on Hudson's Bay, 90

Carver [John]: 152

Catholics: permitted to enter Canada,
34; no

Catlin [George] : 282

Cerre, M. S: 226

Champlain, Samuel de: 19; under
De Monts, 20; winter quarters, 21 ;
at Quebec, 23-24; seeks relief for
Quebec, 27; 28, 29; fur-trade posi-
tion, 30; and N. Vignau, 31; wel-
comes religious men, 32; retreat
before Iroquois, 33; retires 34; 37,
39, 59, 60

Chanderie river: 61

Chautauqua river: 60

Chauvin, Capt. — : at Tadoussac, 19

Chicago river: 59

Chickasaw Bluffs: LaSalle builds
fort at, 78

China (Canton) ; fur market, 143

Chinese: indians mistaken for, 42

Chouteau, Auguste: 167

Chouteau brothers: 157; organize
Missouri Fur Company, 158; 277

Churchill river: mouth discovered by
Munck, 89 ; 275

Clark, Captain William: 125, 152;
with Lewis on exploring tour, 153-
158; 193, 215, 250, 297

Colorado river: 219, 298

Colter John: leaves command of
Lewis and Clark, 156; discovers
geyser regions of Yellowstone, 157;
experience with Blackfeet, 250-251 ;

255
Columbia river: Thompson first to

explore upper, 123; found and

named, 146; 155, 172, 175, 185, 193
Columbia, The: 143; first American

ship to circumnavigate globe, 145
Columbus, Christopher: mentioned, 99
Comanche indians: 222
Comcomly, Chief: McDougal weds
daughter of, 178; 181
Company of the North: organized, 91
Connecticut river: 39

INDEX

307

Cook [James]: mentioned, 134; dis-
covers Hawaiian islands, 142-143

Coppermine river: expedition to find,
112

Coronado [Francisco Vasques de] :
mentioned, 99 ; 297

Corstianesen, Hendrick: Dutch navi-
gator, 39

Cortez [Hernando]: mentioned, 99

Council Bluffs (Iowa) : 153, 277

Coureurs de bois: described, 41; 43;
homes along St. Lawrence, 59 ;
no; criticized, 124; 265-271

Cree indians: in starving condition,
89 ; 270

Crooks, Ramsay: 180, 189

Crow indians: 157, 227

Custer [George A.] : mentioned, 201

Cuyahoga river: 60

Dale, H. C: 199

Dead river: 61

DeChaste, — : 19; Champlain learns

of death of, 20
DeLeon, — : mentioned, 99
Denonville [Jacques Rene de Bre-

say] : 268
Deschutes river: 196
DeSoto [Hernando] : 49, 67, 99, 297
Des Plaines river: 60
Detroit river: 66, 70, 75, 268
DeVaca [Cabeza] : mentioned, 297
Diskeau, — : 61

Dogs: used to transport furs, 211
Dolbeau, — : missionary to Montag-

nais, 32
Dollard, Adam: Heroic battle to save

Montreal, 50-51
Drake, Sir Francis: mentioned, 136
Drips [Andrew] : of American Fur

Company, 241
DuLuth, Daniel Greysolon: 78, 99,

268, 297
Durantaye, — : 268
Dutch West India Company: form-
ed, 39

Du Tisne, — : mentioned, 101

Elk: see Big Game
Erie river: 60

Eskimo: village massacred by
Hearne's indians, 115

Fitzpatrick, Thomas: first user of
South pass, 185; associated with
Henry, 202 ; in business with Sub-
lette and Bridger, 221, 241

Florida: 101

Floyd, Sergt. Charles: death, 153

Fontenelle, Mr. — : rivalry between
and Bonneville, 226, 227

Fort Adobe: 281

Fort Albany: 91 ; besieged by Can-
adians, 92

Fort Astoria: 175; renamed Fort
George, 181; fall of, 181, 182, 185

Fort Atkinson: 201

Fort Bellevue: 277

Fort Bent: described, 281

Fort Benton: 277

Fort Boise: established, 193

Fort Bourbon: established, 103

Fort Caldwell: 221

Fort Cass: 236

Fort Chippewau: 129, 133, 134; life
at, 137

Fort Clatsop : erected by Lewis and
Clark, 156

Fort Coleville: established, 193

Fort Cowlitz: established, 193

Fort Crevecoeur: LaSalle builds, 71;
burned, 76; 77

Fort Dauphin: established, 103

Fort Disappointment: established, 193

Fort Douglass: 208; taken, 209

Fort Flathead: established, 193

Fort Frontenac: built by LaSalle, 67;
described, 68; 76; seized, 80

Fort Garry [Winnipeg] : 208 ; de-
scribed, 283

Fort George: 193; see also Fort As-
toria

308

THE FUR-TRADE

Fort Gibraltar: burned, 208

Fort Hall: Wyeth builds, 238

Fort Hayes: 91; captured by Can-
adians, 92

Fort Kiowa: 252

Fort Kootenai: established, 193

Fort LaReine: established, 103; 104,
105

Fort Lisa: 277

Fort Lupton: 278

Fort Maurepas: established, 103

Fort Nelson [York Factory] : 91 ;
principal English post, 96

Fort Nisqualli: established, 193

Fort Oakanagan: established, 193

Fort Orleans: 276

Fort Osage [Clark] : 277

Fort Pierre: 277

Fort Platte: 278

Fort Prud'homme: built, 78

Fort Prince of Whales: 96, 112, 114,
115; described, 275-276; 291

Fort Rupert: 91; captured by Can-
adians, 92

Fort Saint Charles: established, 103

Fort Saint Louis: built, 80

Fort Saint Pierre: erected by Veren-
drye, 103

Fort Saint Vrain: 278

Fort Ticonderoga: 28

Fort Umpqua: established, 193

Fort Union: headquarters of K. Mc-
Kenzie, 189, 190, 237, 277; de-
scribed, 281-282; 291

Fort Vancouver: established, 193;
220, 236, 277

Fort Walla Walla: established, 193

Fort William [Laramie, John]: 60;
center of social activity, 121 ; 122,
130; Northwest company's head-
quarters, 187; surrender of, 209;
268, 278; described, 283

Fox [Luke]: mentioned, 89

Fox river: 58, 59

Fraser, Simon: mentioned, 122; to
Pacific ocean, 125 ; 298

Frazer river: 135

Fremont, John C: 186, 216; path-
finder, 297

French revolution: 152

French river: 59

Frobrishers: associated with North-
west Company, 121

Frontenac, Count [Louis de Buade
de] : French governor, 58, 65 ; en-
courages LaSalle, 67, 69, 80, 268

Fuca, Juan de: mentioned, 145

Fund ay, Bay of: 20

Fur-trade: 13; beginnings of, 17-24;
Montreal, early site of, 30; rival-
ry °f» 37"43 I France, as early lead-
er in, 37; no records of, kept, 38;
growth of English, 47; 50; Radis-
son and Groseilliers open new re-
gion to, 51 ; daily routine at posts
of, 53 ; Canada's source of wealth,
69; 87; supremacy of, 109; on
Pacific coast, 141-148; perpetuates
Santa Fe trail, 168; John Jacob
Astor and, 171-182 ; in Oregon, 193-
203 ; War, 208-209 ! later days of,
297-301

Gates [Horatio] : mentioned, 61

Ghent: terms of peace of, 188

Gillem, Zachariah: sea captain offers
ship for Hudson's Bay voyage, 90

Glass, Hugh: with Henry and Ash-
ley, 202; desertion of, 251

Gore, Sir George: mentioned, 256

Grand river: 101, 276

Grant, Cuthbert: 208, 209

Gray, Robert: 143; meets Meares at
Nootka, 144 ; first American to cir-
cumnavigate globe, 145 ; 193, 299

Great Salt Lake: 195, 196, 202, 203,
215, 218, 228, 256

Green Bay (Wis.): 42; Radisson
and Groseilliers winter at, 48; 77

Greenbriar river: 61

Green mountains: 28

Green river: 185, 226, 235

INDEX

309

Griffin, The: first vessel built on up-
per lakes, 69, 70; 71, 75 ; wrecked,

75
Grinnell, Geo. Bird: mentioned, 14
Groseilliers, Medard Chouart: 47-53;
disobeys civil and religious au-
thority, 52; 57, 66, 87; starts with
Radisson for Hudson's Bay, 88;
imprisoned, 89; deserts to English,
90; establishes trading posts on
Hudson's Bay, 91 ; retires from
fur trade, 92; 120, 216, 245, 297
Gros Ventres river: forts built along,
158

Harding, A.R: 14

Hawaiian islands: discovered, 143;

145

Hearne, Samuel: 109-116; sets out
to find Coppermine river, 112; first
white man to reach Artie over-
land, 115; succeeds Norton as gov-
ernor, 115; surrenders to La
Perouse, 115; 119, 120, 298

Hecla, — : 145

Hennepin, Father — : joins LaSalle,
69; LaSalle sends, to explore Illi-
nois river, 77; publishes inaccurate
account of his exploits, 78 ; 99

Henry, Alexander the younger: 122;
journal of, 123; 181; drowned, 181

Henry, Andrew: builds first Amer-
ican trading post west of Rockies,
x58; 179, 193; first to engage in
Rocky mountain trade, 200, 201,
202, 298

Henry iv, of Navarre: victor of Ivry,
19; assassinated, 29

Henrys, — : associated with North-
west Company, 121

Hoback [John]: trapper, 179; 255

Hochelaga (Canada) : early indian
town, 19

Holland: interest of, in fur-trade, 39

Horse indians: 105

Horses: significance of use of, 124;

appearance of among indians, 165 ;
traders subsist on meat of, 187; as
means of fur transportation, 194
Hough, Emerson: work cited, 221
Howe [Gen. Wm.] : mentioned, 61
Hudson, Henry: 29, 38, 87, 99
Hudson river: 39, 40, 61
Hudson's Bay: no overland route to,
87; questioned arrival of Radisson
and Groseilliers at, 89; explorers
of, 89; 90; supremacy in fur-trade
of, 109; last triumph of French on,

"5

Hudson's Bay Company: 37, 87-96;
organized, 91 ; masters of fur
trade, in; 119; efforts to abolish
liquor, 125; 171, 194; unites with
Northwest Company, 195; 207-212;
massacre of men of, 209 ; 245 ;
cedes territorial rights to Canada,
270, 301

Humboldt river: 229

Hunt, Wilson Price: associated with
Astor, 172; 179, 185

Huron indians: 32, Champlain visits,
33'» 50 > destruction of causes fur-
trade loss, 87

Iberville, Pierre Ie Moyne d': 92;
attacks and defeats English on
Hudson's Bay, 95-96; 100, 120

Iberville, Serigny d': 95

Idaho: 123, 185, 194, 195

Illinois indians: 77

Illinois river: 59, 66, 71, 75, 79, 83

Immell [Michael]: 201

Independence (Mo.) : 235

Indiana: 60

Indians: trade with, 17; cruelty of
the traders to, 23 ; seek protection,
24; word of, not reliable, 28; in-
termarriage of early adventurers
with, 31; at trading post fair, 42;
first to locate portage paths, 59 ;
rout Spanish invaders, 101 ; steal
survey instruments, 114; effect of

3io

THE FUR-TRADE

liquor on, 124-125 ; Mackenzie
makes peace with, 135; attack The
Tonquin and crew, 177-178; see
various tribes.

Inman, Col. [Henry] : estimates on
buffalo trade, 300

Iroquois indians: hostility of, 24, 27;
defeated by Champlain's allies, 28,
30; surprise Radisson and Groseil-
liers, 48; battle Algonquins, 50; 60,

68, 77, *95
Irving, Washington: 216, 225
Isaac Todd, The: 180

Jackson, David: associated with
Henry and Ashley, 202; partner of
Smith and Sublette, 217; sells out
business, 221, 226

James [Thomas]: 89

James river: 61

Jamestown (Va.) : 27, 34; first Eng-
lish settlement, 37; 38

Jefferson, Thomas: 152

Jesuits: 23; 29, 59; busy building
missions, 67; oppose LaSalle, 68;
mission at Mackinaw, 70; start for
Hudson's Bay, 88 ; missionaries
timely assistance to traders, 100;
no

John Day river: 196

Johnson [ Wm.] : mentioned, 61

Johnson, John: 249

Joliet [Louis]: 49; 57-62; refused
trade permission in regions explor-
ed, 58; meets LaSalle, 66

Jones [Robert] : fur trader, 201

July, The: French naval vessel, 80

Juniata river: 61

Kanawha river: 61
Kankakee river: 60
Kansas: 161
Kansas indians: 166
Kendrick, Captain John: 143
Kennebec river: 21, 61
Kentucky: 59, 66

Kirk [David]: 34
Kirk, Mary: marries Radisson, 90
Kootenai house: first fur-post on Col-
umbia river, 123
Kootenai indians: 62

Lachine rapids: 20, 30, 266

Lady Washington, The: 143; Kend-
rick sails for China in, 145

La Harpe [Benard de] : mentioned,
101

Lake Champlain: 28, 61

Lake Erie: 60, 66; LaSalle on, 70; 75

Lake George ; 61

Lake Huron: 32, 33; portage between
and French river, 59; 60, 66, 71,
121

Lake Manitoba: fur-post on, 103

Lake Michigan: 42 ; Marquette buried
on shores of, 58; 59, 66, 71, 75, 78

Lake Nipigon: 102

Lake Nipissing: 33; portage between
and Ottawa river, 59

Lake of the Woods: 60; fur-post on,
103

Lake Ontario: 24, 60, 65; LaSalle
builds fort on, 67; 76

Lake Pepin: Perrot on, 100

Lake Simcoe: 33, 60

Lake Superior: 60, 66, 78, 88, 99,
102, 103, 112, 121, 122, 187

Lake Winnipeg: 103, 112, 122, 187

Lake Winnipegoosis: 123

La Lande, — : 161

La Perouse [Jean Franqois de
Galaup] : Hearne surrenders to,
115 ; 119, 120

La Roche, — : granted fur-trade mon-
opoly, 18

LaSalle, Rene Rob't. cavalier de: 50;
granted trade permission refused
Joliet, 59 ; 65-71 ; birth, 65 ; meets
Joliet, 66 ; builds first vessel on
upper lakes, 69; 75-83; learns of
loss of Griffin, 75 ; ill at Prud'
homme, 79 ; relieved of duty on

INDEX

3ii

Illinois river, 80; quarrels with

Beaujeu, 81; murdered, 82-83; 99,

106, 247
Leavenworth, Col. [Henry] : weak

attack on Arikara indians, 201
Le Caron [Joseph] : missionary to

Hurons, 32; at Lake Huron, 32;

33
Lemhi river: 195
Le Roux, — : 130
Lescarbot [Marc] : takes charge of

Fort Royal, 21 ; creates Ordre de

bon temps, 22
Le Sueur [Pierre Charles] : mention-
ed, 99 ; excursion of, into Sioux

country, 100
Lewis [Meriweather] : 125, 152; with

Clark on exploring tour, 153-158;

193, 215, 250, 297
Liquor Trade: evil of, 124; 246, 289
Lisa, Manuel: systematizes Missouri

Fur Company, 158; altercation

with Hunt, 179; leading factor in

fur-trade, 200
Long [Stephen H.] : mentioned, 297
Longfellow, H. W: Evangeline, 20
Louis xiv : French king, approves La-

Salle's plans, 68, 69; Louisiana

named for, 79 ; 80, 95, 102 ; loses

American possessions, no
Louisbourg (Nova Scotia) : returned

to France, 109
Louisiana: named, 79; 92, 100;

bought by U. S., 152; 161
Louisville (Ky.) : 66

McCracken, Mr. — : 154

McDonell, Miles: surrenders Fort
Douglass, 208

McDougal, Duncan: associated with
Astor, 172; unfriendly to Thorn,
x75; loyalty questioned, 176;
threatened indians with smallpox,
178; turns Astoria over to enemies,
181

McGillivroys: associated with North-
west Company, 121

Mackay, Alexander: Mackenzie's
clerk, 134; associated with Astor,
172; killed, 177

McKay, Donald: 199

Mackenzie, Alexander: 122, 125; en-
ters fur-trade, 129; completes
journey to Arctic ocean, 133;
reaches Pacific, 136; Voyages from
Montreal to Frozen and Pacific
Oceans, 137; death, 137; 152, 215,
298

McKenzie, Donald: associated with
Astor, 172; 194

McKenzie, Kenneth: in Astor's em-
ploy, 189; 282, 291-292

Mackenzie river: 211

McKenzies: associated with North-
west Company, 121

Mackinaw Company: 171; bought by
Astor, 172, 189

Mackinaw (Mich.): Jesuit mission
at, 70

McLoughlin, Dr. John: policy of,
199, 220; forbids sale of liquor, 238

McTavish, Donald: commands The
Isaac Todd, 180

McTavish, John George: 181

McTavishes: associated with North-
west Company, 121

Maine, 21

Mallet brothers: 161

Malplaquet (France) : 102

Mandan indians: 50, 104, 105

Manhattan island (N. Y.) : 38

Marias river: 154

Marlborough, Duke of: 119

Marquette [Jacques] : unjustly cred-
ited with discovery of Mississippi
river, 49; 57-62; death of, 58; 67

Marriage ceremonies: 292

Martinez [Francisco] : 145

Massachusetts Bay: 21

Massi [Ennemond] : Jesuit priest, 23

Matagorda Bay: 81

312

THE FUR-TRADE

Matanzas river: 17

Matonabbee: indian chief with

Hearne, 114
Maumee river: 60
Maximilian, Prince of Weid: 282
Maxwell, Lucian: 261
Meares, Captain: builds first ship on

northwest coast, 143
Merced river: 218, 219
Menendez, Pedro: 17
Mexico: LaSalle proposes to conquer

northern, 80; 161; pack-train orig-
inated in, 165 ; 215
Mey, Cornelius: Dutch navigator, 39
Michaux [Andre]: mentioned, 152
Michigan: 66, 70, 129
Michillimackinac: 41; LaSalle's furs

seized at, 76; rejoins Tonti at, 79;

124; headquarters of Mackinaw

Company, 171
Middleton, Maj.-gen — : 270
Miles [Nelson A.] : mentioned, 201
Miller, Mr. — : 185
Minnesota: 123
Mississippi river: first seen in north,

49; Marquette and Joliet on, 58;

60, 66, 67, 68, 71, 78; LaSalle

reaches mouth of, 79; 81, 83, 87,

100, 102, 161, 162
Missouri: 235
Missouri Fur Company: organized,

158
Missouri river: 50, 58; used by first

American trappers, 61, 78, 100, 104,

105, 157, 172
Mohave desert: 218
Mohawk river: 28, 39, 60, 67
Monongahela river: 61
Monroe, Hugh: 122, 125
Montagnais indians: 32
Montcalm [Louis Joseph]: 61; killed

no
Monterey (Calif.): 219; Walker at,

230
Montgomery [Richard] : 61
Montreal (Canada) : early site of

fur-trade, 30; permanent fur-trade
station, 33; 42; Radisson and
Groseilliers raise company of in-
dians at, 48; 50, 66, 76, 87;
Verendrye starts overland for the
Pacific from, 102; 103; as store-
house of Northwest Company, 120;
122, 187

Monts, Sieur de: given fur-trade
monopoly, 20; begins operations in
Acadia, 20; in winter quarters,
21 ; monopoly of, rescinded, 23 ;
defies royal power, 29

Moose Factory: 95

Morrison, — : first American to at-
tempt trade in southwest, 161

Mount Royal: 19, 20

Munchausen, Baron — : mentioned,
256

Muskingum river: 60

Mutiny: Champlain quells, 24; at
Fort Crevecoeur, 76 ; 82

Napoleon: Sells Louisiana, 152
Narvaez [Panfilo de] : mentioned,

297
Natchez indians: 79
Natchitoches (La.) : LaHarpe starts

from, ioi
Nelson river: 89
Nevada: 199

New Amsterdam (N. Y.) : 38, 40
New Mexico: 101, 259
New York: 33; New Amsterdam

founded, 38; 60
Nez Perce indians: 227
Niagara Falls: 60, 67
Nicolet, Jean: 41; deluded, 42; 52,

58

Nonsuch, The: Groseilliers sails for
Hudson's Bay in, 90

North Dakota: 123

Northwest American, The: first ves-
sel launched on western coasts,

144
Northwest Company: 60, 119-125;

INDEX

313

organized, 120; system of business,
121 ; efforts to abolish liquor, 125 ;
154, 171, 187, 193, 194; united with
Hudson's Bay Company, 195, 207-
212

Norton, Moses: Hudson's Bay gov-
ernor, 112; death, 115; 276, 291

Nuttall, Thomas: naturalist, 238

Ogden, Peter Skene: 194; explora-
tions, 195-196, 298

Ogden river: 229

Ohio: 60

Ohio river: 58, 60; LaSalle interest-
ed to find, 65, 68, 78

Ohio valley: claimed by France, 109

Old Establishment: Mackenzie's time-
ly arrival at, 134

Onondaga indians: 66

Ordre de bon temps: creation of, 22

Oregon: 123, 188, 193-203, 215, 220,
221, 277

Oregon trail: 236, 238

Ottawa river: 30, 31; portage be-
tween and Lake Nipissing, 59 ; 87,
92

Pack-train: described, 165-166
Palliser [John]: hunter, 282
Parkman [Francis]: 51
Pawnee indians: defeated by Kansas

tribe, 167
Peace river: 134, 135
Penobscot river: 21
Perrot [Nicolas]: mentioned, 99;

established on Lake Pepin, 100
Pierre's Hole: 235, 236; described,

238-239
Pike, Capt. Zebulon: 156; sent to

investigate southwest, 162, 163;

discovers Pike's Peak, 163; 297
Pizarro [Francisco] : mentioned, 99
Plains of Abraham: famous battle of,

no
Platte river: 61, 226
Plymouth (Mass.) : 27, settled, 38

Plymouth Bay: 21

Point Pelee: 75

Pontgrave [Francois] : at Tadoussac,
19; takes service under DeMonts,
20; left in charge of Port Royal,
21; 22, 27; wounded by free-
traders, 29

Pontiac War: 151

Portage paths: 57-62

Portguese House: fur-post, 278

Port Royal: Poutrincourt names, 21;
description of, 22 ; abandoned, 23 ;
27, 90

Potomac river: 61

Pottawattomie indians: Tonti takes
refuge among, 77

Potts, — : with Colter, 250

Poutrincourt, Baron de: receives
grant of land, 20-21 ; returns to
Port Royal, 23

Prince Edward island: Lord Selkirk
on, 207

Protestants: government refuses emi-
gration of, to Canada, 34; no

Provot, Etienne: 185, 196

Pursley, James: 162

Quebec (Canada) : established, 23-
24; first winter at, 27; LeCaron
arrives at, 32; permanent fur-trade
station, 33; Radisson and Groseil-
liers at, 51; 61, 65, 69; enemies of
LaSalle at, 70; 71, 80, 87, 91;
returned to France, 109; no

Racoon, The: 180

Radisson, Pierre Esprit: 47-53; an
extreme liberal, 49; disobeys civil
and religious authority, 52 ; 57, 66,
87; refused permission for Hud-
son's Bay exploration, 88; travels
extensively in Sioux country, 89;
deserts to English, 90; marries, 91;
establishes trading posts on Hud-
son's Bay, 91; 99, 120, 216, 245,
297

314

THE FUR-TRADE

Railways: 210

Rainy lake: 60; fur-post on, 103

Recollet friars: 32

Red river: 101 ; Henry establishes

post on, 123 ; Pike ordered to find,

164; 269
Rezner [Jacob]: trapper, 179; 255
Ribaut [Jean] : 17
Richelieu river: 30; see also Saint

Johns river
Riel, Louis: 270, 271
Rio Grande river: Pike builds fort

on, 164
Riviere des Irquois: see Saint Johns

river
Roberval [Jean Francois]: 18
Robidoux, Joseph: 277
Robinson [Edward]: trapper, 179,

255
Rochelle: French expedition sails

from, 81
Rocky Mountain Fur Company: 230
Rocky mountains: 50, 102; northern
part first seen by white man, 106 ;
Thompson explores, 123 ; 235, 297
Rose, Edward: 167, 179, 202
Ross, Alexander: 194, 195, 217
Rupert, Prince: interested in fur-
trade, 90; first governor of Hud-
son's Bay Company, 91; 119
Russian — American Company: 142

Sacajawea (bird woman) : guide of

Lewis and Clark, 155
Saguenay river: 19, 87, 88
Saint Anthony falls: discovered by

Hennepin, 77
Saint Augustine (Fla.) : 22
Saint Croix river: 78
Saint Dennis, Juchereau de: 101
Saint Domingo: 81
Saint Francis river: 61
Saint Johns [Sorel, Richelieu] river:

17, 28
Saint Joseph (Mo.) : 277
Saint Joseph river: 60; LaSalle

builds fort on, 71; fort destroyed,

76; 77
Saint Lawrence river: 17, 23, 24, 29,

30, 31, 51, 67; Griffin wrecked at

mouth of, 75 ; 83, 87, 88
Saint Louis (Mo.) : 154, 179, 186,

200, 247
Saint Louis River: 60
Saint Maurice river: 87
Saint Peter river: 100
Salmon: Wyeth's plan for canning

of, 235
Sandusky river: 60
San Joaquin river: 218, 219
San Jose (Calif.): Smith in jail at,

219
Santa Fe (N. Mex.) : 161, 164
Santa Fe trail: 168; wagons on, 226
Saskatchewan river: 123, 187, 269
Sault Sainte Marie strait: 41
Schuyler [Philip]: 61
Scioto river: 60

Scott, — : Scotts Bluffs named for, 251
Scurvy: curse of early explorers, 21;

raged on The Columbia, 144
Sea otter: skins in demand, 142
Selkirk, Lord : in control of Hudson's

Bay Company, 207; Fort William

surrenders to, 209
Semple, Governor: murdered, 209
Seneca indians: LaSalle visits coun-
try of, 65
Seven Oaks: massacre, 209
Shapleigh, — : 89
Sheep: see Big Game
Shelikoff, Gregory: mentioned, 147
Shoshone indians: 228
Sinclair, — : 239, 240
Sioux indians: fur-traders' treaty

with, 89 ; ally with traders against

Arikaras, 201
Slave lake: Mackenzie on, 130
Smith, Donald: 212
Smith, Jedediah: American trapper,

195 ; associated with Henry and

INDEX

3i5

Ashley, 202; California expedi-
tions, 215-222, 226, 298

Smith, Capt. John: 37

Smith, Uncle John: fur-trader, 257

Snake indians: 104, 106

Snake river: 180, 185, 193

Sorel river: See Saint Ju/ins river

South pass: question of first users of,
185; 202; Bonneville through, 226

Spaulding, — : 236

Starved Rock: Fort Saint Louis built
on, 79-80

Stuart, David: asociated with Astor,
172

Stuart, Robert: associated with Astor,
172; 185; in winter quarters, 186;
189

Sublette, Milton: 227; Wyeth with,
236; 240

Sublette, William: associated with
Henry and Ashley, 202 ; in business
with Smith and Jackson, 217; sells
business, 221, 226; Wyeth joins,
235, 240

Susquehanna river: 61

Swan river: 123

Sweetwater river: 185

Tadoussac (Canada): 19, 29; rival
traders at, 30; permanent fur-trade
station, 33

Thames river: 40

Thompson, David: associated with
Northwest Company, 121 ; 122, 176,
193, 298

Thorn, Capt. — : in command of The
Tonquin, 175; not schooled in In-
dian treachery, 176; killed, 177

Three Rivers: permanent fur-trade
station, 33 ; 41, 48, 88

Tobacco: 144

Tonquin, The: 175

Tonti, Henri de: aids LaSalle, 69;
70; La Salle gives command to,
75; 76; reunited with LaSalle, 77;
79, 80, 83, 268

Trading-posts: early, 17; life at, 22;
permanent, 33; on the Hudson
river, 39 ; annual fair at, 42 ;
daily routine at, 53; established
on Hudson's Bay, 91 ; significance
of French, 102 ; established by
Verendrye, 103 ; of Northwest
Company, 120; in Alaska, 142;
established by Astor, 172; estab-
lished by Northwest Company, 193 ;
275-283 ; life at, 287-293 ; see also
Port Royal, Port Nelson, and vari-
ous forts

Trent river: 33, 60

Troyes, Chevalier de: Canada sends
to Hudson's Bay, 92; 95

Umpqua river: Smith's camp mas-
sacred on, 220

Vancouver, Captain George: sent to
Pacific, 146; 193

Vanderburgh [Henry]: of American
Fur Company, 241

Vasquez, Louis: 202

Verendrye, Chevalier: 105

Verendrye, Jean: killed by Sioux, 103

Verendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varen-
nes de la; 59, 99-106; interested in
overland road to Pacific, 102; 112,
120, 134, 136, 152, 297

Verendrye, Pierre, Jr: 104; first
white man to see northern Rockies,
106

Vignau, Nicolas: incident of impos-
ture of, 31-32 ; 33

Vincennes (Ind.) : 60

Virginia: 27, 34; first English settle-
ment at Jamestown, 37

Wabash river: 60
Wabogish, Chief — : 249
Walker, I. R: travels of, 225-231, 298
Washington (state) : 123
Washington, George: no

3i6

THE FUR-TRADE

Wayne, Gen. [Anthony]: fortifies

portages, 60
White mountains; 21
Whitman, Marcus: 226, 236
Wilkinson: mentioned, 162
Williams, Bill: fur-trader, 258
Williams, Ezekial: 164; hardships

encountered, 166; 238, 249
Wisconsin: 42, 49; lake region of,

58; 123
Wisconsin river: 59
Wolfe [James]: killed, no

Work, John: 194

Wyeth, Nathaniel J: 235-242

X. Y. Company: incorporated with
Northwest Company, 171

Yellowstone river: 156, 157; Fort
Union at mouth of, 189; 202; Fort
Cass on, 236

York Factory: 95; see also Fort Nel-
son

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA

917 8V287F C001

THE FUR-TRADE AND EARLY WESTERN EXPLORAT

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