Full text of "FWS/0BS"

See other formats

Fws/oe>s - sz>/is'

Vol. X

FWS/OBS-83/15
August 1983

Escambia Santa Rosa Okaloosa Walton

FLORIDA COASTAL

ECOLOGICAL

CHARACTERIZATION:

A Socioeconomic Study of the
Northwestern Region

VOLUME I
TEXT

Fish and Wildlife Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Who/
DOCUMENT

COLLECI/OM

FWS/OBS-83/15
August 1983

FLORIDA COASTAL ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION: A
SOCIOECONOMIC STUDY OF THE NORTHWESTERN REGION

Volume I
TEXT

Edited by

Carolyn 0. French, Project Officer

and

John W. Parsons

National Coastal Ecosystems Team

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

1010 Gause Boulevard

Slidell, LA 70458

Robert M. Rogers
Contracting Officer's Authorized Representative
Minerals Management Service
P.O. Box 7944
Metairie, LA 70010

This study was co-sponsored by the Minerals Management Service
U.S. Department of the Interior

and the

Division of Biological Services

Fish and Wildlife Service

U.S. Department of the Interior

Washington, DC 20240

PREFACE

The purpose of this socioeconomic characterization study is to compile and
synthesize information from existing sources about the social and economic
characteristics of the northwestern coastal region of Florida, which is made up
of Escambia, Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, Walton, Bay, Gulf, and Franklin Counties.
This report and the data appendix should prove useful for coastal planning and
management; it is one in a series of characterizations of coastal socioeconomic
systems produced by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The series describes
the components and interrelationships among complex processes that include
population and demographic characteristics, mineral production, multiple-use
conflicts, recreation and tourism, agricultural production, sport and commercial
fishing, transportation, industrial and residential development, and environ-
mental issues and regulations.

This study originally was under contract with the NANEX Systems Corporation,
Crestview, Florida. The corporation is responsible for the compilations and
accuracy of the Data Appendices and their lists of references, flost of the
first drafts of the various chapters were prepared in 1980. Only a few of the
sections of some of the reports have since been updated.

This project was conducted under Contract FWS 14-16-0009-074. Funding was
provided by the Minerals Management Service and the Fish and Wildlife Service,
U.S. Department of the Interior. Questions or requests for this publication
should be directed to:

Information Transfer Specialist
National Coastal Ecosystems Team
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
NASA-SI idell Computer Complex
1010 Gause Boulevard
SI idell , Louisiana 70458

This report should be cited:

French, Carolyn 0., and John W. Parsons (editors). 1983. Florida coastal
ecological characterization: a socioeconomic study of the northwestern
region. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Biological Services,
Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-83/15.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPICS

Page

Population and demographic characteristics 1

Transportation 32

Residential and industrial development 55

Socioeconomic trends in agriculture 101

Mineral and oil resources 133

Recreation and tourism 163

Commercial and sport fisheries 195

Multiple-use conflicts 221

Environmental issues and regulations 243

Energetics models of socioeconomic systems 278

FIGURES

Number Page
Population and Demographic Characteristics

1 Florida population projections 7

Transportation

1 Ports and waterways in Florida 33

2 Passenger and freight railroads 43

3 Florida highways 45

4 Pipelines in Florida 53

Residential and Industrial Development

1 Building permits in the Northwest Florida region 58

2 Selected land uses in Escambia County 60

3 Selected land uses in Okaloosa County 61

4 Selected land uses in Bay County 62

5 Major public land holdings and wetlands 70

6 Privately owned utilities 88

7 Rural electric cooperatives 89

Mineral and Oil Resources

1 Florida mineral resources 135

2 Florida mineral industries 136

3 Producing and plugged oil and gas fields 138

4 Status of OCS lease areas off the Florida Gulf Coast 142

5 Oil and gas production for the Gulf of Mexico 144

FIGURES

Number Page

Recreation and Tourism

1 Mean annual rainfall and temperature 166

2 State preserves, forests, and parks 167

3 State aquatic preserves 168

4 State wildlife management areas 169

5 National seashores, memorials, monuments, historic sites,
marine sanctuaries, estuarine sanctuaries, wilderness areas,
forests, parks, wildlife refuges, and preserves 172

Environmental Issues and Regulations

1 Water quality index versus watershed characteristics index

for 42 permanent network station watersheds 253

2 Environmentally endangered lands 259

3 Contamination of the groundwater system by

waste disposal practices 261

4 Underground injection control program classification of wells . . 262

Energetics Models of Socioeconomic Systems

1 Energy circuit diagramming symbols 280

2 Energy flow model of wood and coal as fuel sources for a foundry . 282

3 Energetics model of a farm illustrating

the interaction of energy and money 283

4 Coal equivalent calories per dollar of

gross national product per year 285

5 Basic Hillsborough County model 287

6 Simplified subsysten model of Hillsborough

County national production system 289

7 An evaluated model of the Hillsborough County natural system . . . 290

8 Energetics model of Hillsborough County natural system
illustrating the translation of the model into

differential equation form 292

9 Detailed energy model of Hillsborough County 294

10 Simulation result of Hillsborough County
model with constantly increasing relative

imported fuel price and a price jump 299

11 Simulation result of Hillsborough County model with
constantly increasing relative fuel prices and a price

jump and with increasing fuel surcharge beginning in 1973 .... 300

12 Simulation result of Hillsborough County
model with technical innovation such as

energy conservation implemented in 1983 301

13 Energy ratios 303

14 Yield ratios of coal-fired and oil-fired electric power plants . . 304

TABLES

Number Page

Population and Demographic Characteristics

1 The population and percent increase in the counties of

Northwest Florida from 1950 to 1980 3

2 The population and changes in the counties of

Northwest Florida from 1950 to 1960 ^

3 The population and changes in the counties of

Northwest Florida from 1960 to 1970 5

4 The population and changes in the counties of

Northwest Florida from 1970 to 1980 6

5 Population projection for different levels of growth 8

6 Number of Whites and non-Whites

by sex in 1950 9

7 Number of Whites and non-Whites

by sex in 1960 10

8 Number of Whites and non-Whites

by sex in 1970 11

9 Number of Whites and non-Whites

by sex in 1978 • • • 12

10 The population and percentage of ethnic/minority

groups in the counties of Northwest Florida 13

11 The percentage composition of 16- to 24-year old

Whites, Blacks, and their races combined 15

12 Median family income in the counties of Northwest Florida .... 16

13 Per capita personal income 17

14 Percentage of families with incomes

less than $3,968 and percentage exceeding $15,000 18

15 Education data for the number of public K-12 schools,
students, full-time staff, high school graduates,
value of property, expenditures, number of non-public

schools, and non-public school students in FY 1978-79 19

16 Adult basic education enrollment by race

and age 65 and over for FY 1978-79 20

17 Percentage of different sexes and age groups

in the labor force and rate of unemployment 21

18 Percentage of the available work

force working in different occupations 22

19 The number of employees in the counties of Northwest Florida ... 23

20 The number of licensed health

professionals in Northwest Florida 25

21 The number of licensed general hospitals 26

22 The number of employees in the health services 27

Transportation

1 Average annual throughput capacity

in tons for the Port of Pensacola 34

TABLES

Number

2
3
4

7
8

9
10

Port of Pensacola annual freight tonnage

Port of Pensacola general cargo forecasts in tons

Average annual throughput capacity

in short tons for Panama City

Port of Panama City annual freight

tonnage in 1960-78

Port of Panama City general cargo

tonnage forecast for different years in 1980-2000

Port of St. Joe annual freight tonnage in 1960-78

Port of St. Joe general cargo

forecasts for 1980, 1985, 1990, and 2000

Airports in Northwest Florida

Number of past and predicted air carrier enplanements

for commercial airports in Northwest Florida

The number of aircraft operations in 1972 and 1979,
and projected for 1981 and 1991 in Northwest Florida . . . .
Highway characteristics and volume of average daily traffic
Average daily traffic volume at Department of
Transportation pemianent traffic recording stations . . . ,
Traffic growth factors at five year intervals

Residential and Industrial Development

3
4
5
6

7
8
9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

The number of housing units in

Northwest Florida in 1950 to 1980

The number of housing units in

each county in 1950-80

The number of detached singl e- family building permits
The number of mobile homes in Northwest Florida . .
The number of residential building permits issued .
The number and percentage of year-round

housing units without adequate plumbing

Median value of housing units for sale

Rental units as a percentage of all housing units .
The number of vacant units in the

counties of Northwest Florida

Vacancies for rent and sale

Projected number of housing units

Numbers of non-agricultural employees

non-agricultural employees

non-agricul tural

issued

Numbers
Numbers
Numbers
Numbers
Numbers
Numbers
Numbers

of
of
of
of
of
of
of

n
in

n
n
in

Bay County . . .
Escambia County
Frankl in County
Gul f County . .
Okaloosa County
Santa Rose County
Wal ton County

employees
employees and percentage changes in manufacturing
The percentage of employment and income
in manufacturing contributed by each county

Page

35
35

37
38

38
39

42
48

50
51

57
63
64
64

65
66
66

67
68
69
72
73
75
75
76
77
78
79

TABLES

Number " Page

21 Number of manufacturing establishments in each county 80

22 Projected number of employees

in major manufacturing industries 84

23 Electrical generation by fuel types

by privately owned utilities 90

24 Utility and electrical sales 91

25 History and forecast of net energy for load-GWH 92

26 The quantity of fuel used by fuel

type and the percentage contribution 92

27 Telephone companies serving Northwest Florida 94

28 The 1980-2000 average annual population growth rate 97

Socioeconomic Trends in Agriculture

1 Cash receipts and national ranking 102

2 Agriculture, livestock, and forest product classification .... 102

3 Retail value of Florida agriculture and forest products 103

4 United States and Florida agricultural

exports in millions of current dollars 104

5 Percentage change of agricultural commodity production 105

6 The number of farms and the area of farm lands and use 106

7 The number of farms in the seven counties of Northwest Florida . . 110

8 Farm area in the seven counties of Northwest Florida Ill

9 Number of farms and percent of farm

sales in different income categories Ill

10 Index number of prices paid by fanners for production

items, interest, taxes, and wages rates in the United States . . 112

11 Florida farm income for intermittent years from 1954 to 1978 . . . 114

12 Price and income elasticities of major food groups 115

13 Northwest Florida's five major agricultural

commodities and major producing counties 118

14 Agricultural output multipliers 127

15 The contribution of agriculture to the Florida economy 128

Minerals and Oil Resources

1 Number of mineral producing establishments by county 139

2 Lease sales of tracts in Florida 143

3 Lease sales offered and leased 143

4 Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and gas reserves 145

5 Factors affecting the number and

locations of onshore support facilities 148

6 Types and quantities of minerals transported

annually offshore to exploratory rigs 149

7 Requirements for onshore support facilities

for OCS oil and gas development 150

8 Potential pollutants and the economic

base for onshore support facilities 151

TABLES

Number Page

9 Siting requirements for berthing facilities, oil refineries,
platform fabrication yards, and processing facilities for

onshore support for OCS oil and gas development 156

10 Impact considerations for berthing facilities, oil refineries,
platform fabrication yards, and processing facilities for
onshore support for OCS oil and gas development 157

Recreation and Tourism

1 Per capita expenditures in the

United States for fishing and hunting 170

2 Per capita participation in outdoor recreation 173

3 Types of outdoor recreation and available

daily supply for participating individuals 175

4 Gross expenditures and user values

of the saltwater sport fishery 177

5 Gross expenditures and user values

of the freshwater sport fishery 178

6 State parks and recreation areas 182

7 Marinas for saltwater sport fishing boats 186

8 Onshore facilities and number of jobs
required to support a highfind oil

and gas in the Outer Continental Shelf 190

9 Estimated outdoor recreation needs by 2,110 employees

hired in relation to OCS oil and gas development 191

Multiple-use Conflicts

1 Population of the counties of Northwest Florida 221

2 Miles of beach erosion 227

3 Oyster landings for Florida and Franklin County 233

4 Major industries located near water bodies in Escambia County . . . 237

Environmental Issues and Regulations

1 National and Florida ambient air quality standards 247

2 Needs and costs of sewage plants through year 2000 255

Energetics Models of Socioeconomic Systems

1 Energy quality factors for various fuels 281

2 Primary productivity estimates

for Hillsborough County natural system 291

3 Synthesis of 1975 socioeconomic and natural

systan energy storage data for Hillsborough County 296

4 Synthesis of 1975 socioeconomic and natural

system energy flow data for Hillsborough County 297

POPULATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

N. Alan Sheppard
Associate Professor of Education
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
Falls Church, VA 22042

INTRODUCTION

This report is a review of the population and demographic characteristics
of Northwest Florida (Escambia, Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, Walton, Bay, Gulf and
Franklin Counties). It explicates and synthesizes information on population,
income, labor, health, education, and human services.

Because much of this report was written before the 1980 census data
became available, projected population statistics for Northwest Florida in
1980 and after are based on trends from 1960 to 1970. The projections, based
primarily on births, deaths, and migration, were prepared by the Population
Division, Bureau of Economic and Business Research at the University of Flor-
ida.

STATE OF FLORIDA

From 1950 to 1960, Florida's population increased more (79%) than any
other state. In 1960-70, the percentage increase was second only to Nevada
and the increase in numbers was topped only by California.

From 1970 to 1980, Florida's population increased by 2.9 million (6.8 to
9.7 million, about 43%) according to the 1980 Census of Population and Hous-
ing, U.S. Department of Commerce (1981). Florida's population is now the
eighth largest in the Nation.

Annual growth rates have varied considerably. The rate of growth was
about 5% in the early 1950' s, 8% in the late 1950' s, 3% in the late 1960's, 5%
in early 1970' s, less than 2% in the mid 1970' s, and 3% in 1979 (Florida
Chamber of Commerce 1979). Florida's growth has brought about a steady
increase in employment in the tourist trade, service, and manufacturing
industries.

Florida's growth has been explosive. In 1950-80, its population increased
from 2.7 million to 9.74 million (an increase of more than 250%), whereas the
United States increase was only 45%. More than 90% of Florida's increase in
population was caused by immigration from other states.

Florida currently has the largest population of persons 65 years and over
of any of the 50 states. Most immigrants came to Florida for employment or to
retire. In 1960-80, the number of retirees, age 65 or over, rose from 11.2%
of the population of Florida in 1960 to 14.5% in 1970, and to 17.7% in 1980
(Florida Chamber of Commerce 1979). The average was about 10% nationally.
Percentages in other age groups in 1978 were 21% (0-14 years), 39% (15-44
years), and 22% (45-64 years) .

NORTHWEST FLORIDA

Population Change

The population of Northwest Florida was 537,061 in 1980 (Table 1). Since
1950, its population has grown more slowly than the State average. For
example, Florida's population grew 78.7% in 1950-60, 37.2% in 1960-70, and
43.4% in 1970-80. The population growth of Northwest Florida was 58.5% in
1950-60, 20.1% in 1960-70, and 22.0% in 1970-80. Of the seven counties in
1950-80, the population of Escambia County was the largest, Okaloosa County
grew the fastest, and Franklin County grew the slowest (Table 1).

Northwest Florida's population growth (natural increase and net migra-
tion) in 1950-80 is shown in Tables 2, 3, and 4. A natural increase is calcu-
lated as the number of deaths subtracted from the number of births over a
given period of time. In 1950-80, most of the population growth in Northwest
Florida was a natural increase rather than from immigration (Tables 3 and 4).
For example, in Northwest Florida in 1970-80, net migration increased 48.8%,
whereas migration for the State as a whole was 91.1% (Table 4).

Population Projections

Population growth in Northwest Florida is expected to be relatively light
in 1982-2000 and then remain constant until 2020 (Figure 1 and Table 5).

Sex, Age, and White/Non-White Characteristics

The methodology used to compute estimates of the population and changes
in this report assumes that the net effect of migration on the age, race, and
sex components of a county's population in 1970-80 was similar to that of
1960-70. Lewis (1980) rationalizes this approach rather than using current
symptomatic data.

Males outnumbered females in the 1950 census of the seven Northwest Flor-
ida counties (Table 6). White males outnumbered White females, and non-White
females slightly outnumbered non-White males. The sex composition in 1960 and
1970 was similar (Tables 7 and 8). In 1978, females outnumbered both White
and non-White males (Table 9).

In Northwest Florida, people younger than 18 years made up about 40% of
the population in 1960, 36% in 1970, and 33% in 1978 (U.S. Department of Com-
merce, Bureau of Census 1963, 1973; Florida Statistical Abstract 1979). The
elderly (65+ years) made up 5% of the population in 1960 and 8% in 1979, and
those between ages 18 and 64 made up 55% and 59% of the population in 1960 and
1978. For all age groups. Whites made up 84% of the Northwest Florida popula-
tion in 1960 and 85% in 1970.

•M

«4-

+->

(/)

1/1 JO

•a:

J-

■•->

•f—

■!->

*»~

(/)

<^-

+->

-!->

I— t

-o

■M

• n

t— 1
00

U-

crv

I— 1

+->

1/5

<Ti

l-H

■z.

<*- <T>

O i-H

««

<>o

•^

•♦->

<T>

I— 1

0)
4->

E
E

*4-

■M

••->

4->

J-

•

Q-OO

S-

•r-

4->

■o

<T5

+->

Q. (O

o-o

a. (o

^*^

£ o

1— 00

(T>

I— 1

•

■t-^ .

> — ,

^—

o o

LP CO

(T3 0> O^

<X)

o
r-
en

CTi

IT)

O
00

o
Ln

CTl

o
o

l£>

0-)

csj

•

cri

I— 1

C\J
C^vi

^1-

«*

cvi

CO
CO

CM
CM

CTl
ID

00
ID

<y>

I— <

I— 1

<£>

IX)

•»

•t

»t

•%

1-^

.— 1

T—<

T— 1

IT)

ix>

1 — 1

.— 1

r~-

«t

««

«t

1 —

O
CM

f-H

r-H

,— 1

r~.

r--

i~^

.— 1

I— 1

•»

«t

<X)

l-C

<x>

«3

CNJ

1 — 1

1X3
O

«d-

«:r

#»

r--

.— 1

r—*

(/)

• r—

•r—

0£.

r—

j«:

14-

•!->

-(->

r—

^—

Ll-

lr>

<X)

p~.

CO
LO

en
en

CO
CO

CO
en

CM
CM

■»-> CO

</) XJ

(U -r-

^ o

en
en

I— I

v£>

Ln
<n

Ln
o

1*^

■o

Ol
+J

a.
<o
■o

S-

+-> c

OJ -f-
CD

c ^-

c &«

•1—

■— 1

C\J

«:J-

<£>

•

to <u

I— t

CTi

<7i

LT)

s- -»->

CVI

C^vJ

Lf)

CD ro

•1- S_

LT)

«D

f— I

«*

C^J

Lfi

•r-

r--

LT)

+-> +->

«t

O) (O

CTl

1— 1

r~^

z s-

r— 1

1 — 1

LT)

.— 1

-C

4->

<T3

■t-J

■(->

S-

o
o

to
O) .

C CM

-C CTi
O .— I

-o »

C CO

ro LO
cr»

c ,-1

•I- OJ

+-> o

(O i-

P
O o

Q-O
O) M-

-c: o

■t->

S-

•^-

S-

+->

(T3

Q-

r-l

1/1

•r-

+->

(T3

C_)

Lf5

t— 1

1/1

r-~.

«*

"S-

r-H

CJ^

•»

«t

»t

•»

I— 1

I—t

t— I

<X>

CJ^

<y\

CT^

•*

«*

<JD

1—1

«;!■

.— 1

r~.

l£>

1 —

«d-

«i

t— 1

r—l

r-l

• (U

CM E

4->

>— (O

-Q a.
to o)

I— Q

t— t

•

IS)

.—1

CM
1 — 1

r-~

T— (

•«*

I— 1

«*

<X)

1 — r

<X)

.— 1

T— 1

C3^

r~-

r--

«*

r-H

<T\

r-l

«t

f— 1

<J3

.— 1

CM
O

CO
ID

•el-

LD
LD
CO
«t
1^
CTl

00
LD

O
CM

'd-

I— 1

t~^

««

«t

r-~

■^

«^

.—1

I— 1

•r—

•r-

.2i^

M-

r—

-t->

+-)

r—

^—

l/l

<13

U-

CO
LO
CO

CM
CM

c
o

•r—
CD
O)

LD
r>
CO
LO
LD

O
LO
CM

LD
CO

CM
LD
t^

I— I

LD
CM

o
00

LT)
CD

LD
O
CO

-o

c
o

a.
o

■M
O)

S-

10
O

T3
<V

+->
Q-
IT3

-o

o
to

(Ti

■o

S-

l/l

o
o

c
o

(O +->
cn S-

o
+-> +j

Z S-

<u -1-

(/)

•

^-^

r-~

(T>

.— 1

•o

#»

<J2

<Tv

I— 1

•r—
4->

•

-!->

, —

t—

+->

(T3

03
(U
O

D-

LD
I

qJz
o

Q-

O
CD

d^O

to
to

c
o

•

o->

I— 1

»— 1

<T>

r~~

«;f

1— 1

«*

vc-

If)

r~.

«t

T— 1

.— 1
1

o
I— 1

O-i

•^

V£>

I— 1

<JD

«*

•«

.— 1

.—1

<£i

r~-

.— 1

I— 1

r-l

r-~

r~.

r-~

1—1

<~D

1—4

T— 1

r-~

l£>

"^j-

<£>

1—1

*»

•1

«t

1—1

.— 1

«*

1—1

<X5

•

r-~

1—1

^
^

C\J

f— 1

o^ en CM ^ 1— <
00 in i—< en 1—1
^ 1— I o 1— ' in

I— 1

r--

<X)

«=r

Cvl

1— t

»>

•»

«t

•>

p~~

<X)

1— t

1 — 1

I— I

r--

r~^

1—1

•>

«s

•»

«t

•*

1 — 1

.— 1

t/l

U-

1/1

4->

+->

r—

in
I— 1
in

O
O

CM
CM

en
en

CO
CO

c
o

•r—
CD
O)

VO
CM
CO

in
in

in
<n

CO
00

en
00

o
in

in
en

■o

c
o

a.
o
Q.

o
in
en

a;
+->

(V
CD
(O
+->

(U
CL

l/l
03

s-
cr>

i-
«•-

■o

•M

■o

■M
I

S-

c en
<u c

s- ^
oi u

C71

I.
0)

CTi

CVJ

CT^

CM ^

^ O

CO CM

O
<*
CO

CM Tt CTl

in 00 CTi

00 O CJ^

«« #1 «t

O 00 CM

(

■M

S-

-C

■■"

S-

■M

•f-

1/1

•

^-^

f— 1

IT3

-C

CTl

f— 1

■o

•N

» — 1

•^

4->

r—

CLO

(1) I

c
OI s-

<— ITS

XI ca.
I— Q

■t->

S-

C71
C

c
o

•r—
4->

n3
O.

o
o.

CM
CM

CTl

CO
CM

CM
.—I

'd- 00 r>^ CO
in u") CO t-i
00 >i) CM r^

r^ o

1^ CM CM

CM CTl CO

OC >^ I— t

CM ^

•

cr.

t— 1

•r- O

<0 CO

CTI I

■(-> r^
O) CTl

3
CI.
O
CI.

O 3
CO 1/1

cr> c:
(.J

r-. o lo
in ID <n
^ «^ in

CM
CM

00
CM

<;r

.—1

.— 1

•I

•^

.— 1

«;f

•s

CO
CM

.— 1

o
t— 1

o
o

ID r^ 1— I r^
00
O

«:1-

1 — 1

O 10

•t

«t

««

«*

r^ c

en o)

r— 1

.-1 o

ID
O

en
en

CO
«5f

in
I— t

in
00

en
en

<T3

</l

•^

•r-

r—

.i^

M-

1—

■(->

■!->

r—

^—

Ll-

<J3

I/O

CTI

n3
■o

</l

c
o

IT3

Ci.

c
<u
o

s-
<u

-o
eu

<T3

Minority Group Composition

Blacks are the predominant minority group in Northwest Florida (Table
10). In 1980, Blacks, American Indians, Eskimos, Aleuts, Asians, and Pacific
Islanders made up 16% of the population in Northwest Florida; the same as for
the State.

The 1980 totals for the "White" and "other" categories are not comparable
to the 1970 census. The explanation stems primarily from the way Hispanics
reported their race in the 1980 census. Nationwide, a larger portion (40%) of
people of Spanish origin did not report that they belonged to a specific race
so they were included in the "other" category. Another 56% said they were
White (U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1981). Similar

20.000 —I

16,000 —

12.000

10,000 _

<
3

8,000

6.000

2.000 —

Soumwes. FloridaBegloMhlfl^

Northwest Florida Region (high)

1 T

s
s

Figure 1. Florida population projections for 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2020
(Florida Statistical Abstract 1980).

Table 5. Population projections (thousands) for different levels of growth in
1982, 1985, 1990, 2000, and 2020 (Florida Statistical Abstract 1980).

Level
growth

Popi

jlation projections

County of

1982

1985

1990

2000

2020

Bay

low

med
high

101.2
102.7
104.2

104.8
109.4
112.3

109.9
119.6
125.0

119.3
135.0
147.8

140.3
166.0
190.7

Escambia

low
med

high

237.9
239.7
241.7

242.4
248.1
251.9

248.8
260.9
267.9

265.9
287.8
307.3

312.7
353.8
396.5

Franklin

low

med
high

8.7
8.7
8.9

9.0
9.0
9.5

9.3

9.6

10.3

10.0
10.7
12.0

11.7
13.2
15.5

Gulf

low

med
high

11.4
11.4
11.4

11.7
11.7
11.7

11.9
12.2
12.3

12.7
13.4
14.0

14.9
16.4
18.0

Okaloosa

low
med

high

116.8
118.5
120.2

120.7
126.0
129.2

126.4
137.3
143.3

137.2
154.7
169.0

161.4
190.2
218.0

Santa Rosa

low

med

high

53.1
54.0
54.9

55.2
57.9
59.7

58.2
64.0
67.3

63.5
72.7
80.2

74.6

89.5

103.4

Wal ton

low

med
high

20.2
20.4
20.6

20.8
21.6
21.8

21.6
23.2
23.8

23.3
25.9
27.8

27.4
31.8
35.9

Northwest Florida

low

med

high

549.3
555.4
561.9

564.6
583.7
596.1

586.1
626.5
649.9

631.9
700.2
758.1

743.0
860.9
978.0

Florida

low

med
high

9,755.3
10,039.4
10,213.6

10
10
11

,167.2
,810.8
,133.1

10
11
12

,751.2
,978.1
,591.5

11
13
15

,751.3
,624.1
,033.3

13
16
19

,817.8
,754.0
,397.9

«
-t->

(U
Q-

n3
T3

1/)

-C

•

4->

,- — s

1—1

*4^

1/1

•^

■»->

>+-

-C

+->

•M

S-

E
0)

•t->

00 >— ' I — «;j- un t~-- r~~-

O OJ CM LO O CTi o

1^ ^ OC' o cri r-~ CD

CO CO 1— I >— '

r^ CM 0> CO n r^ I— I

LO CD VD LO O 00 ID
^ r-- ^O <Ti C\J I — ^ CTi

ro
00

o
I— I
ro

CM »-^

.— 1 ^

00 r-.

•» •

««

cn o

•!d-

t— 1- —

CM o i^~ 1^ ^ Ln ^

O OO 00 r-~ CM .— I CM
r-H 00 <— < UD CM O ^

r-. CM CM CM

00 VO

CTI^-

LD ^

^ CO

« •

«t

O CO

cn~ —

cr,

CM CO f— ' VD T— < Ln CO
CM in CO r- >— ' in "^
«^ r-~ .— I r^ .— I CT> CO

xa- CM CM

^ 00 l£5

I— 1 . — .

CT> &e

<;J- in

•a-

** •

•t

r^ CO

cr.^^

1/1 ZD
0)

■^ e

^■^

O O)

C +J

C T3

+-> •>-
• r- (/I

<4- =

O OJ

, ro
^ Q.

• O

lO +J

O) 0)

I— 4->

J3 ro

ro -t->

H- I/O

■!->

• r—

r—

Li-

■o

^—

■!->

O •— t "^ >— " CT> CM >— <

t— I in >— ' CO CM T— I CO

CO CM O l~~- f-" 00 ^i-
O ID CO CO CM CO r--

CM in •— '

o^ in o .— I ^ CM "*
r-~ in O CO O «d- CTi
00 «:1- 00 r-~ xd- l~-~ CM

.— I LD CM CO un <n 1^
CM in >— •

00 •'-^ 00
r^ ^ CO

.-HO CO

CM «d-

ro -—^

r-^

O &«

.— 1

CO CM

f •

r-~ «=i-

r-^

r-H

I— 1

+->

cr> vi3 "* o CO ':j- in
00 o •— ' <>o CO in CM
in I""- 00 «d" in in r~

CM CM in r- r- 00 ^

^f r-l CM t— t <— I

OS ^

«:!■ CM

cn CO
CM

in
o

l/l

rO O

• r—

• r-

to a:

O ro

r— +->

+->

>-, O

^—

ro C

r—

ro i/l

S-

^ ro

CO UJ

O W)

■»-> ro
5 S-

+->

IT)

■o

O •>-

s_
o

s-
o

0)
■'->

X5
3
(/)

i/>

c
o

ro
4->

o
(_>

en
(C
+->

S-
O)
Q-

c
o

O ro ro vo I— < r^ I— I
^ CO ^ CM oc vo 00
CO o r^ OJ o O o

LD CTl

r— I CM I— I 1— I

O O
CO - — -

t— ' .— I CO r-l Lf) to ^

T— I CO LO VO .— I <7^ CO

r-. CO vo I— I ,— t O o

MA M M M ««

^ t — I— I CM I— I 1— I

LD ^

I— 1 VO

• •

»— 1

00 o

«i

CM -^

«d-

<£5COOCOCOCOOJ ID - — ■

CMCn^CMCMO^ ID>«

iDiDvor^cocnr-- <;fO

t^00CMCOr~.C\JVD CTlCO

CM VO CM r-< «;J-

CO
00
CM

^ C^J O r-~ VD VD CTi
LD CO ^ CM LD 1^ .— t

LD CO LD cx) VO ^j- r^
cri 00 CM CO cri ^ VO

CM VD CM I— I

«* — -

o *«

cri

VO .-H

#> •

LD CO

LD ^—

i—t

to
ai
■*->

c
o

■o

l/l
<D
4->

VO VO CO CTi ^ LD CO
VD r-l 00 ^ O 1^ CM

00 VO CO (Ti «^ cri 00

M «> ^ A «t «« «^
CM t-- CO «* en CO t^
CO CO CM .— (

LD CO CO 00 ■— < CM CO

VO <— I cn CO r^ 1^ LD

CM CM I— I CTv 1^ LD t^

A M A M (^ A ^

«:f VO CO rj- .— I LD r^
CO CX3 CO i-H

VO '—

.-H ^

O VO

*^ •

««

O CO

«*

00-^

1 — 1

t— 1

LO '-~'

LO S^

r-^ r^

•» •

CO CO

00^^

1 — 1

«:1-

•— I en VO r-~ ID t^ VO

CO CM 1-^ CO 1^ ^ 1^
"3 i-hOOlDCTi<-hlDlD

#1 #« A M A A ««

o r-~covoCT>.— (CnLO

VO r~^ VO CM >— <

r^ CO

CO r^
VO " —
CO

VD
LD

re)

1/5

<n c

(O o

•f— •*—

(/) q:

J3 ,—

o c

e ^

O n3 o

(tj c

M-

1 — +-> ■!-)

>> U (O

r-~

1T3 C r—

rC to S-

-^ 03 fO

CO UJ Ll_

O tr) 3

CD
(T3
■t-J

C
O)

s_
<x>

crv

Li-

.— ^

+->

<U <T>

I— <

+->

<_>

1/1

OJ <4-

•r-

■•->

+->

•r-

•

t/1

•

M-

(/)

■(->

■s

•r—

+->

•o

•r—

(/>

■•->

■M

J-

(1)

O U> CM C\J CVJ LD cri

r~^ o ■— ' o ld ^i" I —

ro csj r-~ oj m <— I CTi

f\ ^ « #» #»

in CM i-H ro I— I

O ^ CO «^ vo ^ CO
I— I ,-H CM «;f r-l o ^
r-^ .— I 1X5 <— < UD I— I 00

^ o

r-l CO t— (

CTl LP

^ o

CO-

•—I LT)

** •

CM O

CO^--

LT)
LT)

cri

T— (

l~~.

c» ^ o ^

. — •

CT>

r--

CM CM CO

1 — 1

(£)

CT>

CTi CO .-•

CNJ

.— 1

«t «^ #<

»s

•»

•

CVJ

CM CO <T>

r-.

1 —

•*

V£)

r— 1

00
1 — 1

* — ^

i-D IX) "^ o '-'^ o Ln

00 -—

o CO o CO 00 00 i~-

r-H ^

CM CM CO CTl O CM CT>

LT) 00

«««»«»«•«««««%

•» •

#«

CM CM CM CO CM 00 <X>

CO CM

CO 00 ^ <— <

.—1

IX)

.— i

-o

l/l
0)

4->

O)
(13

<o
o

c
a>

C71

-t->

•

+->

4->

ITS

rtJ

I—

r- ^ (X) CM ^£) 1^ en
vD 00 CO CM CO Ln vo

CO en IT) o "d- CO CM

«l ^ #k «S «» A A

00 CM CO Ln CM CO CO
CO o ^ •— '

VO CD en ^ >— ' "=!■ 00
I— 1 Ln CM I — o CO ■— <
en CO «a- o r^ CO 00

1X5 CM CO Ln Ln en r^
CO o ^ ■— '

I— 1 '—'

CM &«

.— t CM

«t •

en CO

.— 1 —

I— t

CM '—'

I— 1

r-^ ^

<JD CO

IT)

^ •

#»

O CO

CM—-

r~.

ro "^ Ln LO f^ •— ' 1^^
CO CO LO en CO ^ CO

CM CO O O .— I p^ o

«t M « A A ** M
in Ln p^ o CO I-- LO
I — o .— I 00 CO •— '

co^^
en *«
I — in

#1 •
en LO

CO —

o
o

<o c

J2 t—

E -:»:

(O C M-
>, O (O r—
n3 LO 1- 3

to
<a o
t/1 q;
o c
o <t3 o

C I—

cQ llj u- e^ o oo

c
o

O)
O)

to
■o

s-
o

i.
i-

3
lO

C
O

•r-
4J
(O

o
o

c
<u
u
j-
<u
a.

cTi Ln CO oj o .— I r^

CTl CM «* CO ^ ^ ^
00 LO I — ^ CM 00 CM CTl

IT) <d-
CM

I— I ^ r-(

(/■

•

. — s

x: CTi

+J r^

s- en

T— 1

•»-»

<4-

S-

■M

1/1

•r—

•M<C

^—

«J

•r-

•4->

«/)

•f-

■4-»

*r—

t/0

-a

• ^

>~> J-

^—

It Ll.

■M

•^

-C

M-

-o

■M

■o

(TJ

<tJ

^ "

•M

•r-

•^

(/)

-C

+->

<+-

S-

-M

•

CTl

+->

P—

■»->

1—

tr)

CO vo r-- o 00 "ij- t^
r-~ <— I o in ^ ^D t^
CTi vo vo >— I UD o I —

AM n «t #t

^ «— I 1— I ^ i-H

CTi <£> in r-l CM CTi 1^

«;r CM CM .— I CM 00 <£>

LO <X) VD <tj- CO T— 1 o

*» A #» •» A A •»

OO C\J CO «;1- CTi «^ CTi
«* CJ^ «3- CM

^ VO 00 00 ^O O CO
O U5 O 00 CTi CTi <£>
t— I CO ^ CM CM 1^ CM

A A «« A «« A #«

CM CM CO ^1- ,—1 CO CO
^ CTl LD CM

CM y~-
CO ^

•el- in

•» •
CTi O
CO

in --^
CO ^s
00 Tj-

*> •
^ o

CO '

00 *«
•» •

to CM

CM '

CM a^

in in

•* •

in CM

CM —
CM

00
CO
U3

CO
CO

in
o

■M

•r-

r—

U-

-a

-M

1 —

00 f-H CO CO CM o «^

«* in r-~ ^ in CO <— I
«:f i-H CO in t— ( ^ o

<Ti r--~ «d-

in ^ in o
in CM t— I

+->
O

o
o

i~^ CM in CX5 '^ «^ in
r-^ CO »— I CO «^ in ^
o CTi o ^ <yi CO o

M A M A «« «« ^

r~- CO "^ in in "=:}- cri
'd- I— I in CM

CM &«
CM o

•» •

in CO
in - —

in - — -
in >s

CO CTl
O CM

in —

o
o

00
CO

incocaDf— iio<*cri in -—^

CMcocoooocx3in r^a^

in.— icoot— <CMO LncT^

m>— too.— (OocTi iDin

CT> CO t— I .— t in •— I CM —

CM .—I in

in
en

in
in
en

OJ c

(B O

•r- 'r—

to q;

-Q r—

o C

E -^

O 03 O

03 C

.— -!-> +->

*r-

>1 U 03

^—

03 C .—

CT)

03 I/) S-

-i.: fO 03

CQ LU U-

O 00 3

■o

3
O

I— <

(Tl

1/)

I— 1

o> c

>,o

•r—

■4->

•^-

•^

S-

• r-

■M

»*-

o o

0) M-

■t->

4->

-(->

-o

,->

Q.14-

CLT3

4->

(—

■o

•

^ — ^

1 — 1

<V CTl

1 —

.— I

CO 1— > Ol

(U s-

•1- (O

I — 1^ O l^~ 1 — ^ C\J CO

CO-^

00-^

S- . CL

CO 00 1^- «d- r~- lo r~-

^ *-'3

CT. ^

0^-~ E

LT^ 00 » — t LT) r^ » — '

■-< r^

00 00

CTI^ O

i/> C

#» »» #s

«« •

*t •

<D CD U

•r— 'r-

^H CO CM

<?^ ^

r-- 00

*i^ ^

C Ol
03 •>-

^"^

in-^-'

03 O

O- s-
OO O

•r-

T-.^

g-c

c\j o 00 cvj CO CO o

CO'--

UT—

r-- O .— 1 >— 1 c^J LO

p~~ *«

in ^

•1— o

I^ CO ^ C\J

£ CO .|—
03 +J

1— 1 >— <

CO o

CO I— 1

0) 3

*_^

^ ^

-C (U J3

t-H

+-> S_ -r-

03 J-

S_ +J

O CO </>

M- 0) •--

4->-0

(_)

lO 03 _

-^^Jg

M- (/)

•1- l-

+j +-> -f:

O O)

O l/l ••->

(T3 "O

4-> QJ <0

O- C

LO Vn 00 CO >— ' O r-l

^^-~

CO— ^

^— ^ r—

~-^ fO

vo CO oj >— 1 c^J r~~

CO *s

in s«

QJ 5

C t—

O O LO LD

CM CM

i^ ^

ji 0) S-

n3 t/i

#* * #»

#> •

*• •

■•-> ■•-> °

•r- »— )

.—1 CO <— "

CD I— 1

CO CD

,j_ Q-

</1

in-—'

c -c .

.^3_co

<L)
■O 1/5 +J

1/1

l/l to

QJ «2

n3 3

^ 00 tyO

■»->

•1- 0)

enume)
msel ve
f the

T3 1 —

CO IX) r-~ 00 CD <^ CO

00'^

CO'—

c <:

CM r~- T-H CM CvJ 1^ 1— 1

in *«

T-H ^

»— ^

«;}■ 00 «;!- CM CM

CM CO

CO CM

C </1

.—1

•* •

CO O

«* o

CO o
O) CO

.—1 —

nd are
i fy the
8.8% 0

E ljj

I— 1 un 00 CTi CO I— 1 >— 1

00 *«

CO ^ <Tv CO 00 O iri

a\ <7^

race a
class
tuted
:gion.

in CTi o I— t «d- LD o

00 •

^ —

«« A •« A «t A «H

«ro

"S^

.— 1 ID >— 1 CM CT^ CM CM

>* .-1
r~~ - — -

CM 'S-
CO

•1- O)

I— 1

5 CTI C 4J

'O -r- O CO

CTI I-- O U3 CO 00 O

CO - — ■

s_ o (U

. >*- O 5

cn CO CO un cr> <JD r-H

CTv ^

1^ CO LD «e- o ^ cr>

00 CD

CO — -

M #1 «S «« «S •« M

A •

•^

P ^ •>- ■{-'

CO ■— ' CO CO r-~ CM 00

00 CO

00 ^

h 3t!l^ en i-

00 00 CTi CO >— '

>^ 00

r--. 00

4- -O .1. .,— O

t— 1

•^--^

1—1 — '

oj c '- ^

«t

^ >, 03 O „,

o 03 a. a;

^ Ec/,^5
CO ■'-'

O -^l- r-i 00 O 00 o

1—1

iject

igin

pani

for

^ ^ CO LO CM 00 o

CJ^

r-~ P-~ CO CD CT^ <Tv CO

CT.

«t «t «««««« «^ #>

«t

-" S- 00 oo ^„

(O ■!->

r^ CO r~-. o cri in r-i

r~-

,^ O £= *f

+-> (O

CTl CO I— 1 O LO CM

00 o ^_ "^

O r—
1— 3

CM <— •

CTl

C 'l' OJ

O
Q.

abulatio

of Spani

most pi

persons

ximately

■U (O

+-> « « o

ns c (O O

CO -O

00 S- >> S_

•r- -r- CO Q;

0) •,-

>, c a; s- Q.

J3 r- O C

3 S-

-o

4-> O > 03 Q.

e j^ o <« o

^ O

•r—

C 1/1 CU E (O

(O C M- ,— 4-> -M

■»-> 1—

3 s- 3 E

>, U ITS 1— (O C ,—

S- U-

O 0) O 3 O

03 CO S_ 3 -i^ « n3

o Q. 3: 1/1 +->

03 LlJ U_ C3 O OO 3

■z.

Ll_

03 ^

changes are reflected in the reporting by people of Spanish origin in the
categories of "White" and "other" in Florida and Northwest Florida. In all,
people of Spanish origin made up about 2% of the population in Northwest Flor-
ida, and 8.8% for the State as a whole. These population counts probably miss
a large portion of the illegal alien residents in Florida.

The percentage of young persons (16-24 years of age) in the population of
the United States will continue to increase primarily because of the rapidly
expanding minority population (Table 11). The percentage of non-Whites in
this age group in the United States is expected to rise from 13.5% in 1970 to
20.1% in 1995. Similar or even stronger trends are predicted for Florida, and
possibly for Northwest Florida, despite a relatively high emigration of minor-
ities from there in the 1970' s.

INCOME CHARACTERISTICS

INCOME LEVELS

Because of the income sharing arrangements commonly found among families
living together or as units, family income data probably reveal a better
picture of the economic status of residents in Northwest Florida than per
capita income.

The median family income for Northwest Florida was $2,054 in 1950 and
$4,392 in 1960, an increase of 113.8% (Table 12). From 1960 to 1969 median
family income increased to $7,130 (62%) and in 1979 it increased to $13,792, a
93.4% increase.

The median family income in Northwest Florida was less than that for the
State. For example, in 1950-79 family income increased from $2,054 to $13,792
(571.5%) in Northwest Florida, and from $2,400 to $17,558 (an increase of
631.6%) statewide.

Of the counties in Northwest Florida in 1979, Franklin County had the
lowest median family income, about $5,000 below most of the other counties and
much less than the median for the State ($17,558). Franklin County also had
the lowest percentage increase in median family income in 1950-79 (434%);
Santa Rosa had the largest increase (795%).

Per capita income also is a useful measure of an area's economic status.
From 1950 to 1980, growth of personal income in Northwest Florida lagged
behind that of the State. It was $382 below that for the State in 1950; $556
below in 1960; $738 below in 1970; and $1,800 below in 1978 (Table 13).

INCIDENCE OF POVERTY

The percentage of people with low incomes was higher in Northwest Florida
than in other areas of the State (Table 14). In 1970, 20% of the families had
incomes at the poverty level ($3,968 or less for a family of four) and only
10.4% (about 17% for the State) of the families had incomes exceeding $15,000.
Less than 9% of the families in Franklin, Gulf, and Walton Counties earned

Table 11. The percentage composition of 16- to 24-year old Whites, Blacks,
and their races combined, in the United States in 1970 and 1977, and projected
to 1995 (adapted from Lewis and Russell 1980).

Race

All
Year White Black Other non-Whites

1970 86.5 12.3 1.2 13.5

1977 84.7 13.6 1.7 15.3

1995 79.9 16.2 3.9 20.1

more that $15,000 in 1970. About one-third of the families in Franklin County
lived at the poverty level. Family income was highest in Okaloosa County;
only 12% were below the poverty level and about 15% had incomes of $15,000 or
more.

The number of persons receiving Aid to Families with Dependent Children
(AFDC) and food stamps is another index of poverty in Northwest Florida.
Approximately 18% of families receiving AFDC funds and food stamps in the
State were located in Northwest Florida in 1978 (Florida Department of Public
Welfare 1978).

EDUCATION

The median school years completed by residents in Northwest Florida in
1950-70 was 10.0, somewhat lower than the State median of 10.7. These compu-
tations were made from data supplied in Tables POP 11-22 in the Data Appendix
of this report. Other data on the characteristics of the school system,
enrollment, and educational attainment also are located in the Data Appendix.

The differences between the State and Northwest Florida median educa-
tional level were not tested for statistical significance, but it appears that
residents in Northwest Florida tend to be somewhat less educated than those
for the State as a whole. Of all the residents within Northwest Florida,
residents of Franklin County were least educated.

Educational data for number of public K-12 schools, students, full-time
staff, high school graduates, value of property, expenditures, number of non-
public schools, and non-public school students are given in Table 15. School
facilities, teachers, and school property value can be described, at best, as
adequate in meeting the educational needs of the citizenry in Northwest Flor-
ida.

LT)

■M

c o

- — «r-H

S- "
<0 CO
r— VO

1— cn

O '-H

■o

eo]
o ■-<
o
c O)

•I- u

S-

cri
O

+->

1/5

<t)

S-

•r-

en
en

+-> (/)

<u (U

o s-

s- o

<u c

+->

1T3

S-

o
<^
en

^ o^ en CO .— I csj r-^
• ••••••

«* o CO r~-. en Lo evj
■5J- LO CO LD Lo en CO

^ ^ ^ LT) Lfi t^ r^

Lf)

o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o
<X> lO e\j LT) eo (X> eo

«^ A «t «t •« #1 «i

CO «;1- CO CO rj- «* O

e\j

ir>

<^ r^ 00 cvj vo r~~ 00
•— I evj CO c\j 1^ o CM
«* O CO CO 00 r^ 00

A M A M #t A 0i

1^ 00 «;f t^ r-~ [^ LO

LT)

CO IJD

1—1 en

CO ^ CTi 00 >— < CM 00

1— I c^ en LT) o en CO
^ <— I <JD 00 cn >x) .— I

«t •« A «t A M #,

«;f LD CM «;3- ^ «^ CO

00 CD VO «d- UO ■— I CO

cn LD CO ID >— I CO r~-

^ US LD O CM UD CM
A #1 A «t «« ^ «\

t— I CM <— I CM CM rH T— (

Ln
o

O
O

-a

•n~

Li_

•M

<v c

(0 o

1/1

•r- 'r-

lO oc

X> .—

E ^

o (O

(T3 C <+-

1 — -l->

>l O (O .—

rO C

rej CO i_ 3

.i<: IT3

<T3

CQ LU la. CJ3 O eo 3

IT)

■o

4->

S-

+->

n—

CT>

.— (

CTi

1 — t

•r—

1 — 1

S-

+->

03 «a:

■M

• r—

^—

<t3

• r—

+->

S-

1/)

• ^■

■l->

<T3

■!->

I/O

•

I— 1

-o

•f—

r—

U-

+->

D-

•^

■!-> to

C 03

i- o

<u c

+-> to

C 03

Ol <v

u s_

S- u

0) c

CTv

<£>

CVJ
CT>

«:fO<T^r--'-ir- ICM 00

CTiLDI^rOOOl^OO I —

Ln<X)roiX)<.DLn"d- ld

LT)

CTi

00
00

c
o

CO 1^ CTl rO CO LD CM

CO «^ r~- cn CO ^ c^

CO ■— < <JD VO O <— I .— I

o
o
o

CMCOt— ICMCOCOCM CO CO

CO I— I

r-.criooo'~-~Lr)0 cm 00

CMOOOtOOO':!- CO 00

LOCTlOCTlOOCriCO «;!■ O^

r~-ooo>^ooooo CM ^

«*r— li— ICO"— 'CO' — CO «— '

OCMr^--— ii— ir~-Lr> CTi co

•a

•r—

r—

Ll.

(/)

4->

03 C

fo o

•f— -r—

(/I q:

J3 1 —

E ^

O 03

03 C M-

1 — +->

4->

>~> O 03 .—

la c

f—

S-

03 t/) S- 3

^ 03

r-~

CD UJ U_ t3

o OO

U-

-C +J
■M rtJ

^ TO

3 0)

o -«=
o ■t-'

^ ai
o t=

03 •>-
O) "O

E
O

*'~

+->

• r-

•r-

+->

Q-

S-

-»->

r—

•r—

"q-

+->

S-
Q.

-o

■M

■t->

•r—

-M
03

C7)

•

CT>

CD
C7>
03

S-

+->

"io

+->

•(->

-C

+->

■t-J

4-
O

c:
0

en
<u

•r-

'f—

S-

4->

-(->

Ci.

o.^

PO'

i/erty 1 evel

ess

than $3,968)

18.0

15.3

31.1

20.0

12.1

16,4

26.4

19.9

12.7

$3,968 to

$15,000

$14,999

or more

69.5

12.5

72.5

12.2

62.0

6.9

73.1

6,9

73.4

14,5

71.7

11.9

65.5

8.1

69.7

10.4

70.5

16.8

Table 14. Percentage of families with incomes less than $3,968 and percent-
ages exceeding $15,000 in the counties of Northwest Florida in 1970 (U.S.
Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1972).

County

Bay

Escambia
Frankl in
Gulf

Okaloosa
Santa Rosa
Wal ton

Northwest
Florida

Florida

Education at higher levels is upgrading the citizenry. Adult basic edu-
cation programs and post-secondary facilities, such as the University of West
Florida and Pensacola Junior College, have the potential to increase local
occupational skills and have a stabilizing influence on the economy in the
region (Table 16).

LABOR FORCE CHARACTERISTICS

The two major factors that will influence the labor market between 1980
and 2020 are the potential rate of recruitment into the labor force, and the
age composition of the labor force. Since the baby-boom group (those born
between 1945-63) already is absorbed into the labor market, natural recruit-
ment into the labor force should decline.

The characteristics of the labor force in Northwest Florida in 1970 were
considerably different from those for the State, The percentage of males 18-
24 years of age in the labor force and those over 65 is greater in Northwest
Florida, but the percentage of females 15 years and older and married women
was slightly less (Table 17).

The percentage of employed persons in manufacturing and government jobs
was greater in Northwest Florida than for the State; but the percentage
employed in clerical or white collar jobs was less than the State as a whole
(Table 18).

Table 15. Education data for number of public K-12 schools, students, full-
time staff, high school graduates, value of property, expenditures, number of
non-public schools and non-public school students in FY 1978-79 (Florida

Dpnartmpnt nf Frliiratinn 1 Qftflfl ^ .

Department of Education 1980a).

Number of

public Kgl2
schools

students

full-time

high school

County

K-12

staff

graduates

Bay

18,180

2,190

1,340

Escambia

38,822

4,426

2,607

Frankl in

1,670

194

Gulf

2,211

289

155

Okaloosa

22,579

2,729

1,874

Santa Rosa

11,058

1,354

931

Walton

3,406

429

255

Northwest

Florida

191

97,926

11,611

7,269

Florida

2,256

1,367,298

147,939

88,519

Assessed

Total

Number of

value of

expenditures

non-publ ic

County

property

all funds

schools

students

Bay

1,064,278,

818

36,979,

,365

1,131

Escambia

1,892,604,

427

77,354,

,266

5,644

Frankl in

109,340,

822

5,685,

,463

Gulf

113,886,

220

4,900,

,979

Okaloosa

896,201,

061

45,108,

,363

416

Santa Rosa

929,540,

786

22,753,

,939

422

Walton

254,448,

391

6,374,

.706

Northwest

Florida

5,260,300,

525

199,157,

,081

7,770

Florida

117,592,872,

456

2,962,686,

,564

871

176,601

Includes adult schools,
,Fall, 1978.
'Grades 1-12.

Table 16. Adult basic education enrollment by race and age 65 and over for FY
1978-79 (Florida Department of Education, Division of Community Colleges
1980b).

White

ack

Hispanic

Non-

Hispanic

Non-H

ispa

male

femal e

County

male

female

male

female

Bay

393

535

132

Escambia

325

116

406

Frankl in

Gulf

Okaloosa

Santa Rosa

315

382

Wal ton

—

Northwest

Florida

903

1,472

304

699

Florida

96,818

147,131

34,506

,621

25,806

38,817

The percentage of unemployed in the civilian labor force was 4.2% in
Northwest Florida and 3.8% for Florida (Table 17). The percentage of unem-
ployed remained considerably above the State level of unemployment through the
1970's and into the 1980's. In April 1982, the unemployment rate was 9.6% for
Northwest Florida and 7.1% for the State. Unemployment in 1982 was highest
(12.8%) in Gulf county and lowest (6.9%) in Santa Rosa County. The unemploy-
ment picture is not expected to improve in the immediate future. Two major
reasons for this prediction are limited employment opportunities (especially
opportunities for work in business and industry) and severe seasonal fluctua-
tions in employment in Northwest Florida. The number of people employed in the
counties of Northwest Florida in 1971-78 is given in Table 19.

The number of women in the labor market increased in the 1970's and will

probably continue to increase in the 1980' s. In recent years, many women have

taken jobs to supplement the family income, to offset inflation, or support
themselves and their children.

PUBLIC HEALTH

Northwest Florida has less than 1% of the dentists, 4% of the medical
doctors, 5% of the phanmacists, 3% of the chiropractors, 7% of licensed prac-
tical nurses, 5% of registered nurses, 1% of the osteopaths, 1% of the podia-
trists, and 4% of the veterinarians in the State. Unemployment is especially
acute for some counties because over three-fourths of the licensed health

4->

C
0)

•M

■o

•

^— ^

O CM

<4-

cr>

S-

I— <

<T3

t—

1/1

••-

+->

CO (4-

Q. O

O) OJ

en CO

■o

<v o

(4-

-l->

■4->

S-

(4-

+->

>r-

■o

<4-

O Q

•

CDOO

•

+->

^.^-■

r-~

0) (n

I— 1

•

•r-

t~-

.— 1

(T3

f~~

t_3

«4-

r—

-!->

r—

•r—

•f—

ro CM r^ CM LD CTi ro
• ••••••

^ to CO CO to ro CO

LO 00 «* CM r-^ U3 to

• ••••••

CM 00 en >— < cx) ^ Lo

CM I— I f-H CM <— I CM <— '

ai o)
E 00
O Ol

CU T3
■r- C
S_ ro
S- XJ
(O to
S 3

rtJ

OJ S-
>, <U

-a
to ■—

.-H O
to "O

OJ c

I— (O

E
O)

«*0^i— <T3-tDtO CsJ

• •••••• •

CMtounoocn^s- ■— <

oooor^oocriootD oo

to ro 00 cy> CX3 ^ CTi
• ••••••

r^ tn to t— I «d- «:f t— I
oo CO «:l- CO CO CO ro

o <— I CM r^ t— I to IT)
• ••••••

o CO en CM 00 tn cTi

«* CO CO CO CO CO CM

to
fO C n3 o

•■-•.- to ce:

-Q .— O C

E -i^ O n3 o

ro C 4- I — ■!-> 4->

>> O ro 1 — fO C I—

ro to S_ 3 .i<: ro (O

03 UJ U_ t3 O CO 3

i.
o

■M

to
<u

CTi
CO

-a

c
o

4->

o
o

oj vc ro 1— I Lr> LO «D

U3 C CM OC I— I CO 1^
I— I I— I fO i-H

■o

••"

•

•r—

*— ^

csj

O CT^

.— 1

14-

S-

S -1-^

<D 4-

«3

•1—

«t

-(-)

>+-

0)
Q-

+->

•4-)

•

<1)

I— 1

p—

•

(O =>

-4->

C ;/)

O) C

E O

c •■-

s- +->

<u •.-

> (/)

o o

O Q.

S-

<T3

r—

^—

•1 —

-!->

•r-

• ^

S-

00 cs-i ^o «d- CO C I —

oo ^1- r~- 00 oo (£1 00

CM CVI .— I •— I CO CVJ CM

CVI

O »— I UD CO O I^ CO

00 00 O VD WD VO t^
^ ^ CO CO Lf) ^ CO

^ I— 1 LO 1^ CM 00 CTl

CM I^ Cr> VO CTi CO LD
I-H I— I I-H OO CM <— I

CM .— t

«rt

■M 03

to T3

•1—

•^

1/1

Dc:

<U -n-

^—

S 5-

-i^

to O

-C O

M-

r—

+-> +->

4-> 1 —

>^ o

r—

c .—

S- Ll_

(O CO

IT3 IT3

oa llj

U-

t3 O

1/1 3

U-

i.
9)

O
O

c
a>

i-
<a
o.

I.
o

r*.

t— 1

•

t— 1

CTl

t— 1

• r—

-»->

■l->

LL. <:

•r-

j;:

+->

• ^

+->

14_ OO
O

j_> o

8™

•■- CTl
to CTl

<D —I

>»-!->

o c
.— a;

Q.
O

i4_ a>
o >

^ s

I— 1

*^-

l/l

^—

•^

•1—

(— Q

00
CTl

LT)

CTl

CM
CTl

1^
cn

c
o

00 CJD tn o •-< 1^ CNJ
o o o cr^ v£) ^ c;
CM oo r-~ O CD "^ vo

t— 1

o
o
o

«t A «« *> «t fl« A

««

^d- CO .— 1 ro I— 1 OC <JD

OO CO CO .— I

CD to <^ en CM CO CT

VO r^ CO CM CM ^O V£)

00 cn vc LT) ^ .-1 o

#t » #t M M #t ^

.— 1 r^ I— 1 CM CTl r-~ U3

CO t^ CM ■— t

^£>

I— 1

c~ir~~coocMOCT O

oooOi— i<x)t-^tn o

.— lOI — ^LDi— IVD l~^

CDCOt— icotTii^t^ Ln

CO 1^ CM I— I to

o
o
o

CO
t— I

tn CM CM tn CO to ■— '

«^

to CM 00 tn CO CM o

tn 1^ to tn CTl CTl CO

«t ««•«#> «K «t #t

•1

00 to rH CM r- tn tn

CM t>- CM .—I

t— 1

«^ 1^ CM CM CO CTl >— <

^^ to o tn "d- to CM

o CO 00 CTl o "^ en

#1 A •« M M A ««

en lo >— 1 cvj cri Lo Lo

CTl

CM 1^ CM I— 1

<Ti

f— I

O CTl 00 CTl "d- I CO
O CO to CM CO I ^

r-~ to .— < t— I CTl o

LO to CM CO CO
CM 00 CM

.— 1

«t

•*

r-~

■«^

I— 1

t— I cn 00 CO O I <;a-

o <n 00 CO "^ I cn

to «a- o CO CO ^

•> ^ «i ^ #1 rt

^ .— < CM CM CO to
CM 00 CM

to
o

CM to o to to I to

I— I LO ^ o en I r^

to to .—I ,—1 CM CM

«t #t M A «t 91

to CO CM «;r >— ' to

CM r^ CM

cn
to

o
o
o

#t
to

o
o

(O c

fO o

•^- 'r—

00 Qi

-Q ,—

O c:

-a

E ^

O TJ o

•r—

CO C

<+-

.— +-> -i-J

>, O rO

r—

to c ,—

cr>

n3 to S_

-i^ <0 n3

r-^

CQ UJ Ll_

O OO 3

o
o

(T3
O

-o

3
tJ

ITJ
O

professionals in Northwest Florida are in Bay, Escambia, and Okaloosa Counties
(Table 20).

About 5% of the hospitals and beds in the State are in Northwest Florida.
In 1979-80, it had 4.0 beds per 1,000 population compared to 5.5 for the State
(Table 21). The number of licensed professionals and medical facilities is
likely to remain constant in the 1980's. Although the number of employees in
health services has increased steadily since 1956, the percentage increase is
less than that for the State (Table 22).

WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE

Florida had the largest population increase and more retail sales from
1950 to 1980 than any other State in the southeast United States. In 1979,
Florida's retail sales of $40.5 billion were seventh among all states.

The number of wholesale and retail establishments and sales volume in
Northwest Florida in 1960-80 lagged considerably behind the State (U.S.
Department of Commerce 1962, 1967, 1973; Florida Statistical Abstract 1980).
This deficiency is not surprising given the slow growth in the economy and the
high degree of unemployment in Northwest Florida. Tables EMP28 to EMP 38 in
the Data Appendix describe the retail and wholesale establishments in North-
west Florida. The wholesale and retail trade sector provides goods and serv-
ices for local consumption. With the exception of goods and services sold to
tourists, the wholesale and trade sector generates little income for the gulf
coast economy. Wholesale and retail trade is dependent upon income- producing
sectors for its existence.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In general terms. Northwest Florida is rather sparsely populated, decid-
edly more rural than urban and relatively slow growing compared to the State
as a whole. Recent population increases are due to natural increases rather
than to immigration.

Blacks are the largest and Hispanics are the second largest non-White
groups in Northwest Florida. Females, both Black and White, outnumber males.
Whites outnumber non-Whites by a substantial margin. Future population pro-
jections are that there will be minimal growth in the next 40 years.

The Northwest Florida region is weaker economically than most other areas
of Florida. In 1970, about 20% of families were at the poverty level and only
about lOX earned $15,000 or more. Most poor people receive food stamps and
aid for families with dependent children (AFDC) funds.

Median school years completed in Northwest Florida are lower than for the
State and non-Whites tend to have less education than Whites.

Unemployment in Northwest Florida is higher than the State average.
Although males are far more abundant in the labor market than females, female
employment had increased considerably since 1950.

IT3
■»->

i.
<u
o.

•r-

■C
4->

■o

c '

(13

^—

(tJ

• r-

+->

■o

00
cri

IW ,—

n3 o)
■^ or

c >—

•r- (O

ro O

T3 •>-

• r- </»

S- </1

o <^

,_ 4-

Ll_ O

0} ^^

to Q

<a (o

§:^

</> o

to , —

<U Ll_

S- ,_
^^ ns
+->
-C O
+J +->

(O O)
O) ■!->

-t-j

to O)
c -c
<u -t-"
o

•r- O

I — +->

u_ to

o <^
</>

O)
5- +->
-Q QJ

E s-

C Q.

c
o

.— +->
<o o

I— o

+-)

4->

•^

C71

•^

+->

(t3

S-

to
to

S-

o
+->
o

fO
S-
Q.
O

tj>

o o CO p^ <Ti to en

.— I CM <— ' ^

i-H ^1- I— I

I— I
1^

LT)
r— I
00

c^j ro O •— I c^j CM <— <

to
00
00

to <Ti O <— I tn 00 •— '

CM to CM CO to CTl LT)

tn to to CO

I-t

•

If)

+->

•r—

-o

CO "^ r^ 00 CM CTi to
■— I to '-' C\J LO to CM
CO CO CM CM

% ^

+->

CT>

•^•

•»

r-H

r-~ CM •— < CM r-- to CO

.— 1

CO o rj- >— <

r— I

CTi

CO CD O CT^ CM CO

00
CM

•^^

^—

+->

fO c

(O o

to q;

(T3

^ r^

■o

= -i^

O (O

-C

•r—

fO c: 4-

.— ■!->

+->

J-

>> O fO 1—

fO c

(O to S_ 3

^ 03

rtJ

^—

CQ UJ Ll_ C3

O tyO

Ll_

•r-

■•->

o
cu

to
O

c
o

C_)

o 00 >— ' o CO ^

>— I CM 1—1

CM CO O CD ■— < O O

to •— I

CTi cyi to «a- o o
to LO to «d-

r~. LO .— I O '— t O O

CTi

-o

■!->

« c

l/l

^ r^

E ^

03 O

• ^

(O c

■!-> +J

•!->

>, O 03

C 1—

03 IJO 1-

03 (t3

1 —

CO llj u_ CD o t/> :

1- 1 —

o <o

M- +->

C 4->

•r- <V

4-) +->

(o <a

1— +J

3 tn

o ai

Q.^

o o

O ■!->

I— 1

S- •!-

O) (/5

Q. <U

1/1 -i-j

T3 C

0) <U

^ S-

4- CL

S_ -r-

Xi c

E o

3 •!-

C 4->

0) X3

x: -r-

■M S_

+->

■o c

c o

<o o

•> s-

tO •!-

-O 0)

(U x:

XJ -M

«4- T3

O C

IT3

S-

Ol (O

-Q-O

E-r-

3 J.

£= O

"U.

00 ^

2 1

t/1 1.

•

5 o

cri

I— t

"iw =

•«

s- ••-

<T>

l~^

c o

<T>

0) 00

f— 1

en 1

CTl

«s

T3 "^

O) CTi

r-^

(/) •— '

<Tv

I— 1

QJ >-

O Ll.

-!->

' — T3

M- (T3

■!->

o; 1

X3 00

^■~

E 1^

CtJ

3 a>

C <-l

(V >-

^ u-

t—

•*

+-)

• 1 —

•—1 1

oj r-

-a

r~.

O) cn

r— •"•

r'—

lO >-

LL.

cn
I

c
o

lO •!-

TD 4->

x: I—

■t- cx
o o

s_
<u o

X5 O
E O
3 •>

O)
Q.

(/)

•a
(1)

r--

■i->
a.

c
o

CO +J
T3 (O

3
Q.

4- O
O CL

5- O
OJ O

XI O
E -

T3
CO

^ ro o U3 •— " CO oj

<n CT1 I— ' O i-H O VD

• ••••••

rO LT) CO ^ ^ «d- CM

^ O <X> LO Ov! LO O

CO r^ c\J ^*- lo O Ln
ro CO ^ CO

1^
<n

I— I
Ln

cvi

&«
^

C\J

CM LD r-H I— < ^ C\J >— '

CM ^ O r~~ CO o CO

o cn CM o CM I— t (X>

• ••••••

«d- Ln CO «a- ^ ^ CM

c
o

to rtJ
-a r—

O) 3

X3 CL

4- Q.

o
s- o

Q) O
XJ •>
E ^

«rl- ^ CD Ln CM LT) CD

CO CO CM «d- Ln o cn

CO CO «d- CM

I— 1

•»

'&S

CJ)

CM Ln

r-4 ■— 1

CM
CO

r-H

CO
I— 1

-s

S-

o
u_
■t->

•r-

<T3

-o

■r-

C M-

-!->

>, o

fO .—

(T3

r~—

"3 cn

S- 3

^—

CO UJ

Li_ C3

O c/0

in
-a

a.
cn

^ t^ cn «;!• t-H CO O

cn CO ^ o CM o CO
• ••••••

CO ID CO ^ «a- ^ CM

*3- o cn Ln 1— I Ln o
00 r~ CM «d- ^^ o Ln

CO CO ^J- CM

Ln
Ln

&«

o
Ln

CM tn •— I •— < ^ CM t— <

■o

*r~

^—

U-

•!->

(T3 O

l/l

to Od

(1>

-o

Ji^

O fO

•r—

C 4-

1 — 4->

4->

S-

>> <->

re r—

(O c

r—

(O cn

S- 3

^ fO

r—

CO UJ

Ll. c3

o to

Ll_

CJ
•r—

4->

to
XI

■!->

3
O

■t->
to

r—

in
0)
■O

Table 22. Number of employees in the health services of Northwest Florida and
their percent increase in parentheses for 1956, 1959, 1965, 19^70, 1975, and
1978 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1958, 1961, 1966, 1971, 1980).^

County

1956

1959

1965

1970

1975

1978

Bay

157

191

227

417

775

1.289

Escambia

330

1,238

1,600

2,533

4,105

5,491

Okaloosa

154

871

1,073

Santa Rosa

N.D.

135

254

Wal ton

N.D.

Northwest

550

1,485

2,017

3,255

5,886

8,163

Florida

(170%)

(61.4%)

(80.8%)

(38.7%)

Florida

12,418

29,128

48,698

83,939

142,801

174,054

(134.6%)

(67.2%)

(72.4%)

(70.1%)

(21.9%)

No data are available for Franklin and Gulf Counties or for some years for
Santa Rosa and Walton Counties.

Northwest Florida lacks licensed professionals and adequate medical
facilities considering its area and population. For example, it has less than
1% of the dentists, 4% of the medical doctors, and only 5% of the registered
nurses of the State of Florida's total licensed medical professionals.

DATA GAPS AND INCONSISTENCIES

This report is out-of-date in several areas (e.g., current number of
employed persons, percentage of families at or below the poverty level, net
migration of minorities in Northwest Florida) because it was prepared just
before the 1980 population census by the Bureau of the Census. Another report
such as this should be undertaken based on the 1980 census data.

No data were available from the Bureau of Census in 1950 to 1959 on the
number of non-Whites if there were fewer than 5,000 non-Whites in a particular
county.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based upon the many perspectives gained from writing this report on the
population and demographic characteristics of Northwest Florida, the following
recommendations are offered:

1. Since parts of this report are not based on 1980 census data,
another report such as this should be undertaken using the 1980 cen-
sus data.

2. State and regional planning agencies should fill data gaps and avoid
deficiencies in census data. To accomplish this, a more credible
and comprehensive data collection and monitoring network must be
established within the State. In general, the social and demo-
graphic data necessary for a study of this type are available.
These data should be collected, compiled, and reported periodically
so that policy-makers and planners can better develop goals, poli-
cies and strategies.

3. Improved methodology should be employed to validate ways of measur-
ing rates of changes within specific time frames (e.g. change from
1960-69 to 1970-79) in relation to changes in the age, race, and sex
computations of the people in Florida. If possible, methods of
establishing quantitative errors for these estimates and changes
need to be determined.

REFERENCES

Bowles, G.K. (Economic Research Division, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, DC); Tarver, J.D. (Department of Sociology, Oklahoma State
University, Tulsa, OK). Net migration of the population, 1950-1960, by
age, sex, and color. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office;
1965; 164 p.

Bureau of Economic and Business Research. Per capita personal incomes in the
United States, Florida, and Florida Counties, selected years, 1959-1978.
Fla. Econ. Indicators 12(2):2; 1980.

Bureau of Economic and Business Research. The Florida economy in 1980: good
or bad? Fla. Econ. Indicators 13(3) :3; 1981.

Florida Chamber of Commerce. Economic profile of Florida counties. Talla-
hassee, FL; 1979.

Florida Department of Commerce, Division of Economic Development, Bureau of
Economic Analysis. Bay County economic data. Tallahassee, FL; January
1979a.

Florida Department of Commerce, Division of Economic Development, Bureau of
Economic Analysis. Escambia County economic data. Tallahassee, FL;
January 1979b.

Florida Department of Commerce, Division of Economic Development, Bureau of
Economic Analysis. Franklin County economic data. Tallahassee, FL;
January 1979c.

Florida Department of Commerce, Division of Economic Development, Bureau of
Economic Analysis. Gulf County economic data. Tallahassee, FL; January
1979d.

Florida Department of Commerce, Division of Economic Development, Bureau of
Economic Analysis. Okaloosa County economic data. Tallahassee, FL;
January 1979e.

Florida Department of Commerce, Division of Economic Development, Bureau of
Economic Analysis. Santa Rosa County economic data. Tallahassee, FL;
January 1979f.

Florida Department of Commerce, Division of Economic Development, Bureau of
Economic Analysis. Walton County economic data. Tallahassee, FL;
January 1979g.

Florida Department of Education. Profiles of Florida school districts: pro-
file 9. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Education; 1980a; 200 p.

Florida Department of Education, Division of Community Colleges, Bureau of
Research and Information Systems. Tallahassee, FL ; 1980. Unpublished
enrollment data.

Florida Department of Public Welfare, State Welfare Board. Annual Report.
1 July 1977 - 30 June 1978. Tallahassee, FL; 1978.

Florida Statistical Abstract 1962. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida,
Bureau of Economic and Business Research; 1962; 175 p.

Florida Statistical Abstract 1977. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida,
Bureau of Economic and Business Research; 1977; 652 p.

Florida Statistical Abstract 1978. Gainesville, FL; University of Florida,
Bureau of Economic and Business Research; 1978; 646 p.

Florida Statistical Abstract 1979. Gainesville, FL; University of Florida,
Bureau of Economic and Business Research; 1979; 653 p.

Florida Statistical Abstract 1980. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida,
Bureau of Economic and Business Research; 1980; 695 p.

Lewis, B. Age, race and sex components of Florida's population. Tallahassee,
FL: Population Studies, Bureau of Economic and Business Research, Popu-
lation Division, University of Florida, Bulletin No. 52; 1980.

Lewis, M. v.; Russell, J. F. Trends, events, and issues likely to influence
vocational education. Columbus, OH: National Center for Research in
Vocational Education, The Ohio State University; 1980; 207 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Census of the population:
1950. Vol. 2, Part 10. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office; 1953; 607 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. County business patterns
1956: Part 6. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1958;
432 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. County business patterns
1959: Part 6B. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1961;
284 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current population
reports. Series P-25, No. 7. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office; November 1962. 90 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of the population:
1960. Vol. 1, Part 11. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office; 1963; 1,112 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. County business patterns
1965: Florida. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1966;
105 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of the population:
1960. Supplementary Report, P.C. CS-D-63. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office; 1970.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current population report.
Series P-25, No. 461. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office;
June 1971; 75 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of housing; 1970.
Vol. 1, Part 2. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1972.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of the population:
1970. Vol. 1, Part 11. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office; 1973; 2,698 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Current population
reports. Series P-25, No. 657. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office; May 1977; 16 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of the population:
1979. Supplementary Report, P8C-80-S-1-1. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office; 1980.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of the population
and housing: 1980. PHC80-V-11. Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census;
1981; 19 p.

U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Map of the State of
Florida. Tallahassee, FL: U.S. Geological Survey; 1967.

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment and unem-
ployment in State and local areas; 1982. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-
ment Printing Office; 1982.

TRANSPORTATION

William 01 sen, Ph.D.
2517 Limerick Drive
Tallahassee, FL 32308

INTRODUCTION

This report is a -review of the transportation systems in Bay, Escambia,
Franklin, Gulf, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, and Walton Counties of Northwest Flor-
ida. The systems reviewed are seaports, airports, railroads, highways, bus,
air, and pipelines.

Reasonably detailed information was available on all but railroad and
pipeline systems. A synthesis of the data findings on modes of transportation
is given in the following sections. Short tons (2,000 lb) are used in this
report and sometimes are referred to as volume.

SEAPORTS

PORT LOCATIONS

The location of the three major seaports in Northwest Florida (Pensacola,
Panama City, and Port St. Joe) are shown in Figure 1. The harbors and ship-
ping channels of the three ports exceed the depth requirements (8 m or 27 ft)
for most merchant ships and ocean barges (Florida Department of Transportation
1978a).

The smaller ports at Apalachicola and Carabelle (Figure 1) have neither
the channel depth nor the facilities to engage in commercial cargo, but they
serve as bases for fishing fleets and pleasure boats.

PORT CHARACTERISTICS

This section concerns the physical characteristics and the past and pro-
jected cargo volume (tonnage) of the three major ports in Northwest Florida.
Data on historical volumes of cargo are taken from the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Waterborne Commerce of the United States (1960, 1965, 1970, 1975,
and 1978). Physical characteristics of the ports, capacities, and projections
are taken from the Florida Waterport Systems Study (Florida Department of
Transportation 1978a).

Florida West

Freeport

Pensacola

Panama City
St. Joe

Blountstown

<j St. Marks

Carrabelle
Apalachlcola

Citrus Co.

St. Johns :
River ..•■

Barge Port

Fernandina Beach
Jacksonville

o\\ St. Augustine

Ponce de Leon
^ New Smyrna
"o
Sanford i_\ ^„„-,,^._i

Canaveral

Tarpon Springs lo \

I ^ Tannpa \
St. Petersburg \^/f \

Manatee V integrated water system

i Fort Pierce

Boca Grande mr( ^-— — ■"""

\ Palm
•jj Beach

•IJEverglades

9 Major ports

0 Medium ports

O Small ports

-^ intracoastal Waterway

Cross Florida Barge Canal

/.Miami

Zi^

Figure 1. Ports and waterways in Florida (Florida Department of Transportation
1978b).

Pensacola

The Port of Pensacola is located on a 33.2-ha (82-acre) site situated
on the north shore of Pensacola Bay in Escambia County. The channel to the
gulf is 35 ft deep and 800 ft wide. Other means of access to the port are the
Intracoastal Waterway, the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway, the Louisville and
Nashville Railroad, an Interstate Highway (I-IO), and the Pensacola Regional
Airport.

3
The covered cargo storage capacity in 1976 was about 357,100 ft . Ship

berthing facilities included 2,930 ft of public deepwater wharves maintained

at a 33-ft depth, and 3,000 ft of public shallow-water wharves. Privately

operated wharves added an additional 4,495 ft of berthing space.

Estimates of the throughput cargo handling capacity (normal daily cargo
volume based on a 40 hr work week) for the Ports of Pensacola and Panama City
were made by the Florida Waterport Systems Study (Florida Department of
Transportation 1978a). These estimates utilized port labor and equipment
productivity relationships provided by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Federal
Maritime Administration, and assumed a normal work week of 5 days and a rate
of berth occupancy of 50%.

Estimates are made in break bulk, dry bulk, liquid bulk, and general
cargo categories of shipment. Break bulk refers to cargo in a vessel that can
be counted by unit (e.g., tractors). Dry bulk and liquid bulk refer to bulk
cargo carried in specially designed ships, and general cargo refers to any
commodity shipped in boxes, crates, or other packaging (Olsen 1981). Esti-
mated throughput capacities for Port Pensacola are shown in Table 1. The
limiting capacity for break bulk cargo at Pensacola was due to the rail stor-
age transfer limitation of 463,000 tons per year.

Table 1. Average annual throughput capacity in tons for the Port of Pensacola
in 1960-78 (Florida Department of Transportation 1978a).

Cargo Capacity

Break bulk cargo

ship/apron transfer 902,000

rail /storage transfer 463,000

covered storage 609,000

Liquid bulk

petroleum, sulphur 1,000,000

Dry bulk

various 150,000

Examination of the Port of Pensacola' s overall freight tonnage in 1960-
1978 indicates that it is a growing port with substantial increases in ship-
ping volume (Table 2). In 1975, Pensacola' s volume of waterborne commerce was
2,262,000 short tons, about 2.8% of the tonnage handled by all Florida ports.

To assess the characteristics of port activities over a period of time,
the volumes of freight tonnage were examined by commodity for the years shown
in Table 2. In 1960-78, the major cargo •'' i ■:-..■: j i-.-ti- j,-*-,-^. ...^u ,.

gasoline, fuel oil, crude petroleum, and
also has maintained a diversified mix of
of its operation is liquid bulk. In 1960,
gasoline. In 1978, the gasoline tonnage
(5.3%) and liquid sulphur tonnage

was liquid bulk commodities such as

liquid sulphur. Although the port

general cargo, the most stable base

for example, 32% of the tonnage was

increased from 253,000 to 387,000

increased to 606,000 tons. Total liquid

bulk commodities in 1978 was 2,446,333 tons, 80% of the port's total volume.

Table 2. Port of Pensacola annual freight tonnage in 1960-78 (Adapted from
Florida Department of Transportation 1978a).

Year

Tons

Percent
change in 1960-78

1960
1965
1970
1975
1978

792,000

651,000

1,002,000

2,262,000

3,064,000

-18

+26

+186

+287

Forecasts of general cargo and crude oil imports for the Port of Pensa-
cola were made by the Florida Department of Transportation (1978a). In
general, these forecasts are based upon the port's share of Florida waterborne
commerce, annual growth rates of cargo volumes, Florida, U.S., and world
economic trends, and assessments of competition between Florida and other U.S.
ports. The general cargo forecasts for Pensacola are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Port of Pensacola general cargo forecast in tons (Florida Department
of Transportation 1978a).

Category

1980

1985

1990

2000

Foreign

Imports
Exports

45,000

0
61,000

0
79,000

108,000

Domestic

Imports
Exports

10,000
0

12,000
1,000

13,000
1,000

16,000
1,000

Total

55,000

74,000

93,000

125,000

AIR TRANSPORTATION

TYPES OF AIRPORTS

The seven county region contains three commercial and nine smaller public
airports. These public airport facilities are listed by type and county in

Table 9. Inventories of facilities in the following sections were taken from
Florida airports (Florida Department of Transportation 1981). The history and
projections of annual air carrier passenger enplanements for commercial air-
ports is given in the next section on airport activity. No heliport or
sealane facilities are available among the airports.

Table 9. Airports in Northwest Florida (Florida Department of Transportation
1981).

County

Name

Type

Bay

Panama City-Bay County

Commercial

Escambia

Pensacola Regional

Coastal

Ferguson

Commercial

General

Frankl in

Apalachicola Municipal
Carrabelle Flight Strip

General
General

Gulf

No facilities

Okaloosa

Eglin Air Force Base

Bob Sikes

Destin, Fort Walton Beach

Joint commercial

and military
General
General

Santa Rosa

Fort Walton Beach
Miltion "T" Field

General
General

Walton

DeFuniak Springs

General

Panama City-Bay

County

This airport is 4 mi northwest of Panama City and is the major commercial
facility serving the Bay County area. In 1980, the airport had paved runways
of 6,004 ft and 4,824 ft). In 1980, the field served six daily commercial
airline flights.

Pensacola - Escambia Coastal

This airport is located 12 miles northwest of Pensacola in Escambia
County. In 1980, the runway was 2,500 ft long and turf surfaced, and served
daily commercial airline flights.

Ferguson

This general aviation airport is 5 miles southwest of Pensacola in
Escambia County. In 1980, the turf runway was 2,600 ft long.

Pensacola Regional

This airport, located 3 miles northeast of Pensacola, is the major com-
mercial facility serving the Escambia County area. In 1980, the airport had
paved runways of 7,000 ft and 6,000 ft and was served by 14 daily commercial
airline flights.

Apalachicola Municipal

The Apalachicola Municipal Airport is located 2 miles west of Apalachi-
cola in Franklin County. In 1980, this general aviation facility had three
paved runways, each 5,200 ft long.

Carrabelle Flight Strip

The Carrabelle Flight Strip, also serving Franklin County, is located 2
miles west of Carrabelle. Few services are provided at this airport, but it
does have a 400-ft paved runway.

Bob Sikes

The Bob Sikes Airport is located 3 miles northeast of Crestview in Oka-
loosa County. This general aviation facility has 8,000 ft of paved runway.

Destin-Fort Walton Beach

This airport, 1 mile east of Destin in Okaloosa County, has a paved run-
way of 5,000 ft. The Destin-Fort Walton Beach airport is the busiest general
aviation facility in Northwest Florida. About 60 private aircraft are based
there.

Eglin Air Force Base

Eglin Air Force Base includes a public terminal operated by the Okaloosa
Board of County Commissioners. The airport is 1 mile southwest of Valparaiso
and has paved runways of 10,000 ft and 12,000 ft. In 1979, there were 13
daily commercial airline flights. Prior arrangement must be made for permis-
sion for private planes to land at this field. Approval is unlikely unless a
need is established and special insurance requirements are met.

Fort Walton Beach

The Fort Walton Beach airport is a small general aviation facility
located 2 miles east of Navarre in Santa Rosa County. A turf runway of 2,300
ft is maintained.

Miltion "T" Field

This airport
County. The field
3,700 ft long.

is the busiest general aviation facility in Santa Rosa
is located 2 miles east of Milton and has a paved runway of

DeFuniak Springs

DeFuniak Springs Airport is located 2 miles west of the city on U.S. Rt.
90. It is the only general airport in Walton County and has a paved runway of
3,200 ft.

AIRPORT OPERATIONS

To establish the level of activity among the airports in Northwest Flor-
ida, Standard FAA workload measures were employed. The basic measure for
commercial airports is the number of enplaning passengers per year. Past and
projected passenger enplanements for the commercial airports are shown in
Table 10.

Commercial airline forecasts were made by the Florida Department of
Transportation as part of the Florida Aviation system Plan (Florida Department
of Transportation 1975). The forecasting employed (1) correlation analysis
(population history with enplanement history), (2) share of the marked
regional enplanement history with U.S. enplanement history, and (3) linear
fit (regional enplanements with regional population). The variables used were
population, payroll, and tourist accommodations. These forecasts, shown in
Table 10 predict that the Pensacola Regional Airport will be the dominant and
fastest growing airport in Northwest Florida from 1980 to 1990. Growth is
based on the number of takeoffs and landings per year (aircraft operations).

Table 10. Number of past (1960, 1965, 1970, and 1974) and predicted (1980,
1985, 1990) air carrier enplanements for commercial airports in Northwest
Florida (adapted from Florida Department of Transportation 1975).

Year

Panama City-

Pensacola

Eglin A.F.B.

Bay County

Regional

Commercial

1960

13,369

47,263

11,798

1965

29,489

86,671

26,102

1970

47,760

165,580

69,700

1974

74,046

187,239

96,616

1980

137,100

400,000

172,700

1985

205,100

650,000

261,600

1990

288,200

1,000,000

372,300

Historical and predicted annual aircraft operations for the general avia-
tion airports for Northwest Florida are shown in Table 11. Future operation
levels are taken from Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Aviation Forecasts
(U.S. Department of Transportation 1979). The procedure used was to apply the
FAA forecasted growth percentage (42%) for general aviation aircraft opera-
tions from 1979 to 1991 for Northwest Florida and then allocate this growth
based on each airport's market share of operations reported for 1979. Only
Ferguson and Destin-Fort Walton Beach are expected to exceed 50,000 operations

per year. The reductions of number of operations reported at many of the
airports between 1972 and 1979 are believed by the Florida Department of
Transportation (DOT) to be caused by increasing fuel costs.

Table 11. The number of aircraft operations in 1972 and 1979, and projected
to 1981 and 1991 among general airports in Northwest Florida (adapted from
Florida Department of Transportation 1981).

Airport

1972

1979

1981

1991

Coastal

16,650

9,000

9,800

12,700

Ferguson

80,000

55,000

60,300

78,100

Apalachicola Municipal

20,000

2,100

2,700

Carrabelle Flight Strip

1,800

2,000

2,100

2,700

Bob Sikes

20,405

30,000

33,000

42,700

Destin-Fort Walton Beach

100,000

75,000

82,300

106,500

Fort Walton Beach

2,000

7,000

7,700

10,000

Milton "T" Field

32,500

24,000

26,400

34,200

DeFuniak Springs

16,900

9,000

9,800

12,700

Total

290,255

213,100

233,700

302,600

RAIL TRANSPORTATION

RAIL SYSTEMS

The railroads serving Northwest Florida are freight lines. Two are Class
1 (net annual operation revenues of $10,000,000 or more: the Louisville and
Nashville Railroad Co., and the St. Louis-San Francisco Railroad Co.), and two
are Class II (Apalachicola Northern Railroad Co. and Atlanta and St. Andrews
Bay Railroad Co.). Class II includes terminal companies, switching companies,
and the short lines (see Figure 2). Few details are available for analysis of
railroad operations in Northwest Florida and no projections have been made for
the future. Descriptions of the four railroads are given in the following
subsections.

CLASS I RAILROADS

The Louisville and Nashville Railroad, part of the Family Lines System,
is headquartered in Jacksonville. It is the major railroad in Northwest Flor-
ida and serves the Port of Pensacola. The railroad has 3,100 route miles in
Florida and connects with all other lines operating in the State. In 1979,
approximately 400,000 rail freight cars were moved by the Louisville and
Nashville Railroad on Pensacola trackage. Of these, about 21,000 were inter-
changed with the St. Louis-San Francisco Railroad which also serves the Port
of Pensacola. The remainder of the traffic (approximately 350,000 cars
annually) were through the line's Jacksonville to New Orleans link. Total

Jacksonville

Pensacola

lllllllth PASSENGER SERVICE
CLASS

Ga Southern & Fla, Railway Co.

. _ Louisville & Nashville Railroad Co.

St LouisSan Francisco Railway Co.

^______ Seaboard Coast Line Railroad Co.

Fla EasI Coast Railway Co.

CLASS II

1 Apaiachlcola Northern Railroad Co

2 Atlanta & St Andrews Bay Railway Co

3 Live OaK. Perry & Gull Railroad Co.

(Southern Railway)

4 The Marianna & Blountstown Railroad Co.

S The South Ga Railway Co (Southern Railway)

Miami

jot^S"'

Figure 2. Passenger and freight railroads in Florida (Florida Department of
Transportation 1978a).

freight tonnage carried by the Louisville and Nashville in 1976 was about
6,996,465. The Florida State Rail Plan shows that the Louisville and Nash-
ville Railroad had 1,006 locomotives, 66,667 freight cars, and 6,267 piggyback
truck tractor trailers at their disposal (Florida Department of Transportation
1981b). The Louisville and Nashville Railroad reported operating revenues of
$14,257,000 and operating expenses of $11,036,000 for its Florida operations
in 1975.

St. Louis-San Francisco Railroad Co.

The St. Louis-San Francisco Railroad Co., with general offices in St.
Louis, MO, serves Pensacola with a line entering the State near Atmore, AL.
The line operates only 45 miles of route in Florida as part of its 4,800-mile
system but is the only railroad in the State offering single line service to
Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. A trailer-on-flatcars ramp
provides piggyback service in Pensacola. The St. Louis and San Francisco
Railroad Company along with the Seaboard Coast Line, Union Pacific, and
Burlington Northern is probably the longest railway runthrough (Miami to
Seattle) in the country. The railroad reported revenues of $1,124,000 and
operating expenses of $879,000 for its Florida operations in 1975.

CLASS II RAILROADS

Apalachicola Northern Railroad

This carrier has its principal terminal at Port St. Joe and joins the
Seaboard Coast Line and Louisville and National Railway Co. at Chattahoochee
in Gadsden County, Alabama. The principle inbound commodity (up to 80 car-
loads per day) is pulpwood for the paper industry in Port St. Joe. Outbound
shipments are primarily paper products. The 96-mile line to Chattahoochee is
operated by the Port St. Joe Paper Co, In 1975, the railroad reported operat-
ing revenues of $3,203,000 and operating expenses of $1,511,000.

Atlanta and St. Andrews Bay Railway Company

This company, headquarterd in Dothan, Alabama, operates 81 miles of track
between Panama City and Dothan, entering Florida near Cambelton. The railroad
serves the Port of Panama City and connects with the Family Lines System at
Cottondale and Graceville, Florida, as well as at Dothan. The Atlanta and St.
Andrews Bay Railroad Company is controlled by the International Paper Co., and
its Florida operation in 1975 brought revenues of $5,496, 000 and incurred
operating expenses of $3,513,000.

HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION

MAJOR NETWORKS

The locations of Interstate Highways in Florida are shown in Figure 3.
Within the northwest Florida region, I-IO is the major east-west highway
facility. This four-lane highway connects Northwest Florida with Jacksonville
to the east and Mobile and New Orleans to the west. Because of its proximity

1-95

ino
Pensacola

Jacksonville

Completed

Under Construction

West
i\ Palm
Beach

.,„ 1195

Miami 0m ,.395

Figure 3. Florida highways (Florida Department of Transportation 1978b)

to I-IO, Pensacola is better served by highways than any other port city in
the region. Descriptions of the highway systems in each county are given in
the following subsections.

Escambia County

In addition to I-IO, Escambia County is served by east-west highway U.S.
90 and U.S. 98. Outside of the Pensacola urban area, these highways have
two-lane sections which restrict their capacity at level of service C (Highway
Capacity Manual 1965), which is under 10,000 vehicles per day. For compari-
son, the capacity of I-IO at level of service C is just under 30,000 vehicles
per day. Level of service C is defined as a traffic volume to capacity situa-
tion wherein traffic flow is restricted, causing a reduction in travel speed.
The major north-south highway serving the county is U.S. 29, which connects
Pensacola with Montgomery, AL.

Santa Rosa County

Santa Rosa County and Escambia County have the same major east-west
arterials. Along the gulf coast, U.S. 98 is heavily used by tourists and
generally avoided by through truck traffic. Since the completion of I-IO in
the 1970' s, both truck and auto traffic have been diverted from U.S. 90, which
used to be the major truck route. The north-south highways in the county are
all two lane and lightly traveled.

Okaloosa County

This county has essentially the same highway network characteristics as
Santa Rosa County. Except for a multilane section of SR-85 linking Crestview,
I-IO, and Fort Walton Beach, north-south travel is generally light on circui-
tous two-lane roads.

Walton County

In addition to I-IO, US-90, and US-98, Walton County is served by SR-20,
which links Valparaiso and Niceville with Tallahassee. US-331 is the major
north-south route linking DeFuniak Springs with Montgomery, Alabama.

Bay County

Major east-west arterials in Bay County are SR-20 to the north and US-98
along the gulf coast. The major north-south route is US-231, which links
Panama City with I-IO and US-90 near Mariconna, and continues north to Dothan,
Alabama.

Gulf County

Port St. Joe is linked to I-IO and US-90 at Marianna by SR-71. Along the
gulf coast, US-98 is the westbound link to Panama City and the eastbound link
to Apalachicola.

Frank! in County

Franklin County is linked to Tallahassee by US-98 and US-319. Other
north-south travel in the county is extremely light and limited by narrow,
circuitous roads.

ROADWAY CHARACTERISTICS

In developing a highway inventory, the descriptive variables selected
were roadway width, average daily traffic volume, and capacity at level of
service C. The problems with such an inventory is that these characteristics
are generally changing along a given route according to localized variations
in travel demand and intersecting traffic flows. The inventory of roadway
characteristics in Table 12, therefore, is only descriptive of selected route
locations in each county.

The roadway widths shown in Table 12 represent the minimum found for each
route in each county. Generally, these minimum widths are encountered in
rural sections of the counties. These narrow roadway sections are bottlenecks
for inter-county travel.

To indicate the relative use of the roadways in each county, a traffic
volume range was produced. The low volumes generally correspond to the aver-
age daily traffic reported by the Florida Department of Transportation (DOT)
on the narrow rural sections of roadway described above. The high volumes are
encountered in towns or at major intersections. In these cases, the roadway
widths are generally greater than those shown in the table.

Capacity computations were based upon procedures documented in the
Highway Capacity Manual (Transportation Research Board 1965). The basic
parameters applied to minimum roadway width in determining roadway capacities
were level of service C, 10% trucks, level terrain, peak hour traffic equal-
ling 12% of average daily traffic, and a 60%/40% directional split.

The 1977 low traffic volumes and capacities in Table 12 show that US-98
in Bay County is by far the most congested highway in Northwest Florida. In
Escambia, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, and Walton Counties, the reductions of traffic
volume on US-90 demonstrate the diversion of traffic to I-IO.

Historical changes in traffic volumes at spot locations in the State are
documented by permanent traffic recording stations maintained by the Florida
DOT. The average daily traffic volumes reported at the nine permanent record-
ing stations are shown in Table 13. The effect of highway improvements in the
area is reflected by numerous reductions in traffic volume observed between
1975 and 1980.

TRAFFIC VOLUME FORECASTS

The Florida DOT has studied traffic volume changes in each of the coun-
ties in Florida since 1929. These observed changes were correlated with
county population and motor vehicle registrations. The result of this analy-
sis was a set of growth factors, specific to each county, used to estimate
future traffic.

r>.

t»^

l-H

-a

<X)

•

1 — 1

(/I

■o

S-

•^

•^"

<4-

U-

■o

rtJ

j:r

(/)

•^

r—

•r-

(T3

«t

S-

•^

1/1
■•->

•M

+->

•r—

<L)

. a.
O) to
•— c

O (O

••- s.

-s^

> <+-
•— ' o

O) c
E O

3 •!-
I— CO

o •■-

> >

in .,-

<-> 4-)

•"" (O

4-> 4J

to S-

T °
0) on
+-> c

w o
^^

Q.
0)

'"' -o
•— o

JQ I—
(O Ll-

1^
c^

IT)

o o o o c
c o o o o
^ ^ ^ 00 cv

o o o o o
o o o o o

t— I "^ "^ I— I CM

o o e o
o o c o
I— 1 1— I >— I ^

o o o o
o o o o

r— I CO I— I ^

o o o o
o o c o

.-< >^ .-H ^

CTi <T> CTi CO <Ti

o o o o o
o o o o o

t^ T— I O CO I— I

M ^ «« «t *l

CM O CM O CM

r-H CM l-H

o o o o o
+J +J +J +J +J

o o o o o
o o o o o
tn ro CO <X> CM

00 CTi CTi 00 CTi
CM

O CD o o o
o c o o o

CO CTi LO CTl CM
«s #\ #1 n A

CO r-- CM 00 ro

CO r-l CM t— t

o o o o o
+J +J +J> +J +J

o o o o o
o o o o o

CO 1^ 00 CM CM

1^ r^ 00 CTi

O O o o
O O o o
Lo un t— I I —

cocor^en oc<Tir^o>

o o o o
o o o o

CO O LO .— I

o o o o
o o o o

00 O CO o

o o

o
■(->

1 1 O 1
1 1 O 1
1 1 CO 1

o o
o o

CO <XJ

1 o
1 o

1 CO

1 o
1 o

1 CM

1 o
1 o

1 CO

(JO o

o o o o o

1 o o o

1 o o

o o o o

o o o o o

1 O O O

1 o o

o o o o

CO O i-H CO o

1 ix> r-^ <— 1

1 t^ "^

r-~ CO CO o

LO O CM LT)

#t A cs «t n

«s

A «S «(

«t #t ft

A «« A

•-H <* t-H O ^

O OJ CO

I-H

r—lT—l IX)

«d- CM VD

T— 1

CM l-H

E '4-
3

•f- .c
c +->

•r- -O

5 -Q

-c E
en 3

•I- c

o o o o

o o o

+J 4-) +J +J

-M

+J +-> +->

+-> +J +->

+J +-> +J

o o o o

O 1

o o o

1 1 O 1

o o o

o o o o

O 1

o o o

1 1 O 1

O LD O

o o o

vo r^ o IT)

LO 1

CM ^ CTl

1 1 O 1

LT)

CO CTl

Ln cri I-H

M M ««

« «s

«t •!

^— ■,

«-H CM <-H

f-H

U-) CM

1 — 1

T-H

I-H •*

T3
0)

3
C
•^
■M

C
O

^ ^ CM CO

o «d-

^ O 00

CO 00 o ^

CM CO «*

ta- CO «a-

OvJ CM CM ^

CM OvJ

CM CM ^

I-H I-H CM CM

CM I-H CM

CO 00

00 oo

; UJ Lu uj

; 00

: oo t/)

o t~^ en CO CO
CM I — t^ en CM
I I I I I
cji cii or oo oo
oo 00 oo r3 r3

1^ en o 00
en CM en en o

I I I I I-H

q; OO 00 OO I

00 ^ ZD ^3 l-H

(T3

en
LD r-- <x) I-H
uo u3 en CO
I I I I
QC q: e/) 00
oo oo o =)

OO I-H 00 CO

CM p-~ CO en

I I I I

q: q: Qi oo

oo oo oo ^5

un
uo CO o

^ CO CM Ol

I I I I

Qi en Qi oo
00 OO 00 =3

03
I/)
O
O

o
to

>-,

■MO

•r-

r—

1 —

+->

o
o

C 4J
•I- T3

■o

J-

-c B

oo oooooo
oo oooooo

^CM .-I.— I.— l^^CVJOJ

oooooooo
oooooooo

I— I.— 1^.— I^t3-^C\J

00 00 00 cyi en CTi

CM C\J

o
o

O
O

o o o o o
o o o o o
r^ o o cTi CM

«t «\ #t #1 «t

1—1
CM

VJD

I-H

^o CO <Ti 00 ro

I— 4 CM I— I

o o o o o
+J +J +J +J +J

i-H

o
o

o o o o o
o o o o o
Ln .— 1 CO o CM

OOOOCT^OOCTlCT^CTvCri
CM

CDOOOOOOO

oooooooo

«d-r--00<— ti— Ir-t^r-H

9t #1 «« CV «s *t

1—1 LO CM LD CO lO

oooooooo

4->4->4->4->4->-t->-t->-l->
CDOOOOOOO

oooooooo
LOcovDLDi^r^i— ii— I

CT> LD

r-l CM CO U-> >.0

O 1

o o o o o

O 1

o o o o o

t— 1 1

00 <Tl CTv 00 r^

•t

9* rt « A

1-1 LD 1—1 CM

1—1

1—1 1—1

o o o o o

•u

+j ^_) 4-> ■!-> +->

O 1

o o o o o

O 1

o o o o o

O 1

LD CTi r^ O r^

1—1 CO 1—1 CO

O O O O O O O I

CD O O O O O O I

CM •* Ln cyi »ci- r-^ I— I i

ti n ^ rt 0t

«^ 1— I »d- CM CM

o o o o o o o

+J +J +J 4_> +J +J +J

O O O O O CD O I
O O O O O O O I
1— I O CO CO O CM O I

«a- CO

^ CO
CM •*

O O O ^ CO CO
CM CM CM CM ^ ^

oo^o^^^co

CMCMCMCMCMCMCM^

I/) oo

L/0 00

CTl O

I 1—1
00 I

r^ CTl O 00

^ 00 CO cy> <Ti o

I I I I I 1—1

q: q: ci: 00 00 i

oo oo oo r3 rs >— '

O <-• CO O 00 CO
CMCMOOCOCTlCT^COO

I I I I I I I 1—1

q: q: Qi a; oo oo oo i

OOoOOOC/1=3=DZDi— '

•(->

r—

-t-J

-iC

O T3
•I- <U
M- ^
4- l/l
(O ••-
S- r-
+J ^
3
+J Q.
C C
<U 3

n3 •
E CD

s- c

<D .,-

Q- c
to

•^ CO

1°

Q."
O

i/l

c
o

O) Q.

' — (/)
o c

•^£

> 4-)

S-
O (O
•r- Q.

M- Q

>> z

r~ o

OJ lO

o> C

« O

oi +3 .

> 03^

•=t +J o

1/1 00

CTv

• OI-— I

•— ' -r— LO

O) 1- S-

.— O O

J3 O O

(T3 O) (U

<Ti

I— I

(1> I

oiLn
c 1^
ro CTi

+->

c
(1)
o

(U
00

CTi

C
3

o
o

c
o

ITJ

o
o

CO CO UD

1— I CTl ^ LO

1^ WD O I CM CO CO LD
I— I I— t CM t— < CO

I I II

oooLDLnLn^voOin
.— it^vorooocMCJ^^f

VO00t^CM00l^i-HO^I~~

ro«— ii— tir>>-Hcrivooi^

ID LD LT)

(X) <— < r-~
CO vo r-

Ln LT) o o
I 1^ 00 O CM

I CO vo ^ r--.

^,—11—1 I— I CO LO 00

oooLoooocM
C0CJ^O^^<X)COCML^) i

•SJ-I^^I^fOLOCOCO I
CO"— tt— ICOi— I^VOLO

o in

ir>

CO cn LO

«d-

^ 1 1 1 1

<£>

1— 1 1—1

#1 ««

O 1 1 1 1

CM LO

fO C fO fO f^ fO

•I— -r- T- to •>— •!—

J3 C r- JD O JD J3

E O ^ E O E E
(O +-> c n3 1 — <o (O

>,Of— >,lT30<OOtJ
(OlOrt3(OS-t0.i^tO;/l
CQLjJ30QLi_LiJOI-iJLlJ

«/l

• r-

r-H

+->

CO LO

cri

s- oo

1 00

OO 1

> J^

■=> OL

»— 1

•1- 1T3

<4-

a: -r-

"*- o

4- O

O <T> <+-

O Ol

O 3

•

1 o

•r-

"O u-

• t/)

3 OO

•1- <u

OO ra 3

r—

-O Q

•

•^

•r-

• <4- •

•r- M-

0) >4-

•r- O •>-

E o

O-

Q. O

E E

IT) •

■t->

+-> •

LO Z CvJ

• Z

(O z

I— 1

#t »i *»

I— 1

O ro

CO CT^ O

CTl 00

CT> CM CTi O CTi

1 1

1 1 1

.— t 1

00 q:

(/I

OO 00 00

1 OO

rs I/)

:z)

r3 rD =)

•— ■=>

t— <00i— «COOCMCM<£>CTl
CM^LOLOlXJCOCMLOLO

Growth factors are used by the Florida DOT to estimate future traffic on
roads located outside of areas having an ongoing Urbanized Area Transportation
Study (UATS). For example, to determine the estimated 1997 traffic volume on
SR-20 in Bay County, the 1977 values should be multiplied by 4.204 (Table 14).
In Northwest Florida, the only UATS is in Pensacola. Documentation of UATS
data collection, modeling, and network assignment procedures and results is
maintained by the Florida DOT and the Pensacola Metropolitan Planning Organi-
zation.

Table 14. Traffic growth factors at five year intervals (Florida Department
of Transportation, unpublished data, 1981).

County

5-year

Traffic growth factors

10-year

15-year

20-year

Bay

Escambia

Frankl in

Gulf

Okaloosa

Santa Rosa

Walton

1.524

2.324

1.436

2.061

1.252

1.568

1.456

2.119

1.436

2.061

1.497

2.240

1.396

1.949

BUS SYSTEMS

3.264
2.780
1.912
2.886
2.780
3.108
2.578

4.204
3.499
2.257
3.653
3.499
3.976
3.207

The seven counties in Northwest Florida are served by Greyhound and
Trail ways intercity bus routes. One local public transit system also serves
Escambia County. No information on the intercity lines was available other
than fares and schedules readily available anywhere.

Local (in city) transit services in Northwest Florida are difficult to
justify and maintain due to high operating costs and low demand. Transit
services in Fort Walton Beach, Okaloosa County, and Panama City during the
1970's are now out of business.

In 1979, the Escambia County Transit System operated 29 motor buses and
carried 1,475,376 passengers. There were 951,860 revenue miles of service and
52,728 vehicle hours of operation. Base fare for Escambia Transit was
$0.30, with a half fare discount for elderly and handicapped persons. In
1980, the system carried 1,578,814 passengers, and traveled 927,292 vehicle
miles for 63,802 vehicle hours of operation. The fare schedule remained
unchanged (Florida Department of Transportation 1980).

A recent modification in Federal funding leaves the future of public
transit uncertain. Under the modification, the operating cost subsidy cur-
rently funded through the Urban Mass Transportation Administration on half of
the local revenue-cost deficit will be phased out during the next three years.
Local government options to this funding change are (1) local revenues from
other sources will be used to subsidize transit costs, (2) an increase in

fares, (3) cancellation of nonprofitable routes or other reductions, or (4)
total abandonment of service. No reliable transit estimates for future opera-
tions can be made at this time.

PIPELINE TRANSPORT

PIPELINE NETWORKS

The major pipelines in Northwest Florida are privately owned and serve
primarily to transport natural gas. In Santa Rosa County, however, one 625-cm
(10-in) Jay to Mobile pipeline operated by EXXON currently serves as a crude
oil collection line for the Hay oilfield. Locations of the major pipelines in
Florida are shown in Figure 4. The pipeline mileage, flows, and capacities in
Northwest Florida are unknown, but the State as a whole is served by 4,750 km
(2,952 mi) of transmission lines and 14,207 km (8,839 mi) of distribution
lines. In 1975, the Florida consumption of natural gas was 307.3 billion ft^
mostly provided by pipelines linking the State with natural gas supplies in
Texas and Louisiana.

PIPELINE OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

Three major interstate pipeline companies supply natural gas to Florida.
Statistics of the Federal Power Commission and Department of Energy do not
give details on gas supply network characteristics or quantities for indi-
vidual States. Total company operating statistics, each spanning at least
three States, are shown in Table TRANS 48, Data Appendix. Since no details at
the State or county level are available, the extent of natural gas pipeline
system operations in Northwest Florida is obscure. Forecasts of pipeline
shipments were not made due to the lack of baseline data.

Jacksonville

Titusville

MAJOR NATURAL GAS PIPELINES

Florida Gas Transmission Co

— South Georgia Natural Gas Co.

United Gas Pipe Line Co

PETROLEUM PRODUCTS LINES

1 Tampa Pipeline Corp

2 Central Florida Pipeline Corp,

3 Everglades Pipe Line Co

4 National Transmission Corp

./f.*'"'*

Figure 4. Pipelines in Florida (Florida Department of Transportation 1980b),

REFERENCES

Florida Department of Energy. Florida coastal policy study: impact of off-
shore oil development. Tallahassee, FL; 1975.

Florida Department of Energy. Statistics of interstate natural gas pipeline
companies, 1972-75. Tallahassee, FL; 1979a.

Florida Department of Energy. Statistics of interstate natural gas pipeline
companies, 1976-79. Tallahassee, FL; 1979b.

Florida Department of Transportation, Florida Aviation System Plan. Tallahas-
see, FL; 1975.

Florida Department of Transportation, Florida Waterport Systems Study,
Vol. IV, Port profiles; Volume V, Throughport capacity; Volume VI, Water-
borne commerce forecasts; Tallahassee, FL; 1978a.

Florida Department of Transportation, Florida State Rail Plan. Tallahassee,
FL; 1978b.

Florida Department of Transportation, Division of Transportation Planning.
Florida public transit annual report. Tallahassee, FL; 1979-80.

Florida Department of Transportation, Bureau of Aviation, Florida airports.
Tallahassee, FL; February 1981.

Florida Department of Transportation, Public transit annual report 1979, 1980.
Tallahassee, FL; 1980.

Federal Power Commission. Statistics of interstate natural gas pipeline com-
panies 1972-79. Tallahassee, FL; 1979.

Florida Department of Transportation. Highway capacity manual, special
report. Tallahassee, FL: Transportation Research Board; 1965.

U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers. Waterborne commerce of the United States.
Washington, DC: 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980. Available from: Super-
intendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, FAA Avia-
tion Forecasts 1980-1991, Washington, DC: September 1979. Available
from: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Printing Office, Washington, DC.

RESIDENTIAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Richard RuBino
P.O. Box 2555
Tallahassee, FL 32308

INTRODUCTION

The coastal resources of Florida are one of its most valuable assets.
Most of the urban centers and a large share of its recreational resources are
along the coast. Florida has a valuable saltwater fish and shellfish indus-
try, an intracoastal waterway that provides protected routes for waterborne
transport of goods and supplies for industry and commerce, and a large elec-
trical generating capacity. Although coastal Florida is where most of the
State's economy is centralized, it also is Florida's most vulnerable
environment, and is where much of the expanding residential, industrial, and
recreational development is taking place.

The competition between economic development and the natural environment
is heavy and the natural environment generally is the loser. The public
sector has attempted to save natural environments, but environmental losses
continue to mount.

Because of the continuing population growth, new economic diversity and
expansion necessarily must develop. If Florida's future is to be secure,
growth and change must accommodate the natural environment.

The high rate of population growth once was largely in south and central
Florida, but now Northwest Florida and other parts of north Florida also are
growing rapidly. The seven counties in Northwest Florida are Bay, Escambia,
Franklin, Gulf, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, and Walton. Rapid development is taking
place along the coast of these counties.

This report describes the characteristics of residential development in
Northwest Florida, especially in urban areas, and the recreation-vacation
oriented residential development along the coast. It also describes the char-
acteristics of industrial development and its relationships with residential
development and to problems of the natural environment. In addition, the
report reviews public utilities, e.g., electrical power generating and distri-
buting systems that support both residential and industrial growth, and which
in some ways may be a threat to the natural environment. Domestic sewage
treatment capacities in the various counties are described. These areas of
concern are reviewed with particular emphasis on their capacity to support

potential Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas recovery and its potential
effects on residential and industrial development in Northwest Florida.

RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT

Between 1970 and 1980 the percentage growth in housing units in Northwest
Florida far exceeded the percentage growth in population. Even so, its resi-
dent population increased from 439,793 to 530,429 -- a substantial rise of
20.5%. In these same years, the population growth was about 40% for Florida
and about 11% for the Nation. The number of housing units increased 48% in
Northwest Florida, 73% in Florida as a whole, and 29% nationally. Because of
housing demands, it is important to understand the characteristics of residen-
tial development in Northwest Florida, and to determine how housing demands
might be affected by onshore demands of OCS oil and gas recovery.

GENERAL NUMERICAL TRENDS

The increase in housing units in Northwest Florida in 1970-80 doubled
that of 1960-70 (Table 1), but because of even faster growth in the State as a
whole, the percentage of Northwest Florida's units in the State total was 6.8%
in 1950 and only 5.8% in 1980.

Table 1. The numbers of housing units in Northwest Florida and in Florida and
their increase at 10-year intervals from 1950 to 1980 with Northwest Florida's
percentage contribution to the State total given in parentheses (U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce 1951, 1961, 1971, 1981a).

Number

1,000)

Nume

rical increase
(x 1,000)

1950

1960

1970

1980

1950-60

1960-70

1970-80

Northwest
Florida

Florida

64.7
(6.8)

952.1

112.9
(6.4)

1,770.0

145.4
(5.7)

,527.6

215.2
(5.8)

4,374.8

48.2
(5.8)

817.9

32.5
(4.3)

757.6

69.8
(3.8)

1,847.2

Escambia County has long had the greatest number of housing units in
Northwest Florida. In 1950, it had almost half of the units, but in 1980, its
share dropped to 41%. The greatest increase in housing was in Okaloosa
County, which contributed 10% of the housing units in the region in 1950 and
20% in 1980. Bay County had 20% of the housing in 1980, about the same as 30
years ago.

In 1970-80, Escambia, Okaloosa, and Bay Counties supported about 80% of
the housing units in Northwest Florda. These three counties now account for
over 174,000 of the over 215,000 housing units. The large share of housing in
these counties is further verified by the number of building permits issued in
1975-79 (Figure 1). Apparent is the steady increase in the number of permits
issued.

In 1970-80, the numerical increase in housing units was greatest in
Escambia County, but its percentage of the Northwest Florida total declined.
In 1980, Santa Rosa County had about 20,000 housing units, nearly 10% of the
Northwest Florida total. If its share of new units continues to increase for
another decade or two, it will become one of the major residential develop-
ments in Northwest Florida. Franklin, Gulf, and Walton Counties have shown
a slow but steady increase in housing units (Table 2). Except for Cape San
Bias in Gulf County, St. George Island and Dog Island in Franklin County, and
along the immediate shoreline, other residential development is unlikely in
these two counties in the near future.

Table 2. The number of housing units (x 1,000) in each county in Northwest
Florida at 10-year intervals in 1950-80, and the percentage increase for each
decade (U.S. Department of Commerce 1951, 1961, 1971, 1981a).

Number

Percentage

County

1950

1960

1970

1980

1950-60

1960-70

1970-80

Bay

13.6

21.7

27.0

42.9

16.8

16.4

22.9

Escambia

31.3

52.3

55.1

77.6

43.6

39.6

33.8

Frankl in

2.3

3.1

3.4

4.5

1.6

0.9

1.6

Gulf

2.3

3.6

3.8

4.7

2.7

0.6

1.3

Okaloosa

6.4

17.9

27.3

43.1

23.9

29.1

22.8

Santa Rosa

4.6

8.7

12.2

20.4

8.5

10.8

11.7

Walton

4.2

5.6

6.6

10.9

2.9

3.1

6.2

Northwest

Florida

64.7

112.9

135.4

204.1

— ~~

— •■■

■• — ~

DISTRIBUTION

Of the seven counties in Northwest Florida, only Escambia, Bay, and
Okaloosa are classified as urban. Since 1950, the population growth has been
centered in or near major urban centers. In 1980, the population of Pensacola
in Escambia County was 57,130; for Panama City in Bay County it was 33,100;
and for Fort Walton Beach in Okaloosa County it was 20,811. Adjacent military
bases contribute to the population and economy of each of these urban centers.
The Pensacola Naval Air Station employs 18,000 people; Tyndall Air Force Base,
located near Panama City, employs 5,700 people; and Elgin Air Force Base, just
north of Fort Walton Beach has a work force of 14,000. The Elgin Air Force
Base may be the largest (720 mi^) military base in the world (Miller 1981).
Each of the three cities now is exhibiting urban sprawl.

CTl

L±

_L_L

J ^ I

NUMBER OF BUILDING PERMITS ISSUED

1979

•r-
4J

1978

•r-

1977

1976

4->

1975

1979

•1—

1978

r—

1977

U-,

1976

<f>

1975

1979

1978

<-(

1977

1976

«f-

1975

c
o

•r-

1979

1978

J-

1977

1976

1975

1979

4->

1978

c
"2.

1977

1976

+->

s-
o

1975

1979

1978

■O

1977

1976

1975

-p

1979

1978

1977

•«»

•r*

1976

1975

Buil

i2 0)
F £

5 S

• 00

a- T3

T— 1 en

o
o

" %

I— t

& ?!

3 00

a>r^

•.- oi

Panama City, Pensacola, and Fort Walton Beach are located along the coast
where there is a potential for OCS oil and gas development. Initial phases of
oil and gas exploration may be more dependent on harbor depth and facilities
than on the size of the population. Shallow harbor depths and facilities may
limit the location of land-based OCS oil and gas activities to Pensacola,
Panama City, Port St. Joe in Gulf County, and perhaps Carabelle in Franklin
County.

Before 1970, residential areas spread northward from Pensacola in Escam-
bia County into much of the rest of the county and have extended far enough to
almost join Milton in Santa Rosa County (Figure 2). Other residential expan-
sion is evident in the northern part of Escambia County. Data for years after
1970 are not available.

Other residential development was (and still is) either clustered around
Fort Walton Beach (Figure 3), Panama City (Figure 4), along the coastline, and
along corridors parallel to U.S. Routes 20 and 90.

Many of the residential units along the coast were developed primarily to
serve the vacation-home market. In most parts of Florida it is unlikely that
vacation units would be available to meet other demands, such as might be
associated with the housing needs of OCS development-related workers. But in
Northwest Florida, vacation units in winter could be rented to people from the
oil companies and suppliers.

TRENDS FOR SPECIFIC TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT

Unlike south and central Florida where there are relatively heavy concen-
trations of apartments, condominiums, cooperatives and time-sharing (interval)
units, Northwest Florida is primarily an area of single family homes. Apart-
ments, condominiums, and other multi-family dwellings there are generally
found only in the larger cities or along the beaches. This section on resi-
dential development discusses the general characteristics of major types of
residences.

Detached Single-family Dwellings

The difference between the percentages of single-family and multi-family
dwelling units in Northwest Florida and other areas of Florida may be made by
comparing Northwest Florida with Southwest Florida (from Pasco County in the
north to Monroe County in the south). In 1975-79, the seven Northwest Florida
counties issued 18,476 building permits of which 80% were detached single-
family dwellings, whereas in Southwest Florida, 174,304 permits (66% single
family) were issued. The rate of residential building in Northwest Florida,
heavily skewed toward single-family units, is only about one-tenth that of
Southwest Florida.

Insofar as Northwest Florida is concerned. Bay and Escambia Counties,
which are the most urbanized counties, had the lowest percentage (about 77%)
of building permits issued for detached single-family dwelling units
(Table 3). In 1975-79 in Okaloosa County, 87% of the building permits issued
were for single-family units. The percentage of permits issued for single-
family units in the remaining four counties ranged from 84% in Franklin
County to 100% in Gulf County. The average for Northwest Florida was 80%.

Bustness and
Commercial

ESCAMBIA COUNTY, 1970

LAND USE CATEGORIES
Residential

Industrial and
power generation

Figure 2. Selected land uses in Escambia County (Florida Coastal Coordinating
Council 1970).

o
en

o
o

2
O

o
<

o
o

_J
<

rO
C
•r-

-o

s-
o
o
o

O
O

n)
-o

&-
O

3
O

o
n3
o

O
CO

<U
CO

-a

■M
U

;/0

■LAND USE CATEGORIES
Residential

Industrial and
power generation

Business and
Commercial

mites 0

BAY COUNTY. 1970

Figure 4. Selected land uses in Bay County (Florida Coastal Coordinating
Council 1970).

Table 3. The number of detached single-family building permits issued in 1975-
79 (Thompson et al . 1977, 1978, 1979).

Number of building Percentage of

County permits issued single-family units

Bay 4,636 76

Escambia 8,706 77

Franklin 480 84

Gulf 105 100

Okaloosa 3,290 87

Santa Rosa 1,002 90

Walton 257 99

Northwest Florida 18,476 80

Mobile Homes

Mobile homes are a single- family home, and have become increasingly abun-
dant in Northwest Florida and the State. In 1950, the 624 mobile homes in
Northwest Florida contributed only 1% of the housing units. In 1960, the
number increased to 4,597 (4% of the housing units) and by 1970 the number
reached 11,555 (8%). The percentage contributed by mobile homes to the State
total increased from 2% in 1950 to 6% in 1970. The percentage increase of
mobile homes among residences increased more than in the State as a whole.

Because of the presence of the Elgin Air Force Base, Okaloosa County in
1970 had the greatest number of mobile homes (Table 4). Escambia County had
almost as many mobile homes because it has a naval base and a naval air sta-
tion as well as the largest urban center (Pensacola) in the region.

No reliable statistics are available for mobile homes after 1970. Since
the availability of mobile homes may be important during the early construc-
tion phases of OCS oil and gas development, it is important that 1980 census
data on mobile homes be incorporated into this study as soon as it becomes
avilable. Until then, it is assumed that the number of mobile homes in the
1970' s and early 1980' s will continued to increase.

Multi -family Dwellings

In recent years, multi-family dwelling units have become more numerous in
Northwest Florida. The number of permits issued in 1979 were 1,991 in Escam-
bia County, 1,116 in Bay County, and 426 in Okaloosa County. Only a few were
issued in the other counties. A relatively large percentage of all permits
issued in 1975-79 in Escambia and Bay Counties have been for multi-family
units.

Table 4. The number of mobile homes in Northwest Florida in 1950, 1960, and
1970 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1961, 1971).

County

1950

1960

1970

Percentage of
the county
total

Bay

Escambia
Frankl in
Gulf
Okaloosa
Santa Rosa
Wal ton

168

238

164

987

1,672

1,375

343

2,577

3,466

199

151

3,531

1,166

465

19.6
5.8
5.8
4.0

13.0
9.6
7.0

Northwest Florida

624

4,597

11,555

14.1

Table 5. The number of residential building pemiits issued in 1975-79 in
Northwest Florida and the percentage contribution to the total number of
permits issued (Adapted from Thompson et al . 1976, 1978, 1980).

County

Number

Percentage

Bay

Escambia
Frankl in
Gulf
Okaloosa
Santa Rosa
Wal ton

4,636

8,706

480

105

3,290

1,002

257

24
23
16
1
13
10
*1

Northwest Florida

18,476

Most of the 76 multi-family units for which permits were issued in Franklin
County in 1975-79 were issued in 1979, and most of those were for St. George
Island. Less than 1% of the permits issued in Walton and Gulf Counties were
for multi-family units.

Because it is likely that residential development will continue to in-
crease in the urban areas and along the beaches of Northwest Florida where
there are suitable locations, the percentage of multi-family dwelling units
may grow correspondingly, especially in Escambia, Bay, and Okaloosa Counties
(Table 5).

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT

Several other considerations important to understanding the character-
istics of residental development in Northwest Florida are included in the
following subsections.

Quality of Housing

In the past, the U.S. Census determined the quality of housing by the
number of homes with and without plumbing. In 1970, the three most rural
counties had the least adequate plumbing (Table 6). The seven county average
of 7.4% is high compared to other areas of Florida (e.g., only 3.5% of the
housing units in Southwest Florida lacked adequate plumbing).

Table 6. The number and percentage of year-round housing units without ade-
quate plumbing in Northwest Florida in 1970 (U.S. Department of Commerce
1971).

County

Number lacki

Number

plumbing

Percentage

26,978

1,694

4.4

65,141

4,617

7.1

3,409

567

16.6

3,795

588

15.5

27,296

1,137

4.2

12,515

1,099

9.0

6,597

1,073

16.3

Bay

Escambia

Frankl in

Gulf

Okaloosa

Santa Rosa

Walton

Northwest Florida 145,731 10,775 7.4

Price Range of Units for Sale

A review of the price range of housing units for sale gives incoming
residents a general idea of what proportion of their income must be allocated
to housing. The median value of housing units for sale in Northwest Florida
has generally been below that for the State as a whole (Table 7). The excep-
tion is Okaloosa County in 1970. Although housing values for the region will
likely remain lower than the State average, values could rise sharply in the
event of OCS related oil and gas development.

Rental Units

In 1970, about one-third of the housing in Florida and in Northwest
Florida was rental units (Table 8). Of the seven counties in Northwest
Florida, Okaloosa had the highest percentage (40%), largely attributable to
the proximity of Eglin Air Force Base. The percentage of units in the two
most urbanized counties (i.e., Escambia and Bay) was near the State average.

Table 7. Median value ($) of housing units for sale in Northwest Florida in
1950, 1960, and 1970 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1961, 1971).

County 1950 1960 1970

Bay — 10,600 9,300

Escambia 7,450 12,400 12,100

Franklin — — —
Gulf

Okaloosa — - 12,400 16,600

Santa Rosa — -— 10,500

Walton — — - 7,800

Florida 7,996 13,300 14,400

Table 8. Rental units as a percentage of all housing units in Northwest
Florida in 1970 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1971).

County Percentage

Bay 32

Escambia 31

Franklin 21

Gulf 24

Okaloosa 40

Santa Rosa 28

Walton 20

Northwest Florida 32

Florida 31

Although the average percentage of rentals in Northwest Florida is about
the same as in the State as a whole, there are some differences in the type
and distribution of the units. In Northwest Florida counties, a greater pro-
portion of the rental units are along the beaches rather than in urban centers
and smaller communities. If this is correct, a potentially conflicting demand
between vacationers and temporary OCS oil and gas related workers for rental
housing could be expected.

Rental Rates

According to the Florida Statistical Abstract (Thompson et al. 1980),
rental rates in 1970 in most Northwest Florida counties were below the State

average. The exception was Okaloosa County because of the air force base and
the increasing number of recreation-oriented units along the shoreline.
Rental rates in 1950-80 in Escambia County have been either at, or just below
the State rate. Rental rates for Santa Rosa and Bay Counties increased pro-
bably because of more residential development along the coast. Some of the
increase, of course, is due to inflation. Rental rates in Franklin, Gulf, and
Walton Counties have been low, but only about 6% of their housing is in rental
units. If OCS oil and gas related development were to occur anywhere within
the region it is likely the demand for rental units would far exceed the
immediate supply, and rental rates would soar.

Abundance of Vacancies

Because of insufficient data, it is difficult to properly interpret the
percentage of housing vacancies in Florida and to differentiate between vacant
seasonal and year-round units. Due to the seasonal variation in tourism, the
percentage of vacancies reported may vary considerably depending on the time
of year that the housing survey was conducted.

Although Northwest Florida's percentage of housing units in the State has
slipped from 6.8% in 1950 to 5.8% in 1970, the percentage increase was greater
than the percentage increase in population. This may help explain why the
region's share of the State's vacant units increased from 4.1% in 1950 to 6.8%
in 1970. Although the number of vacancies in the State decreased in 1960-70,
vacancies in Northwest Florida continued to increase, but at a slower rate
(Table 9).

The sharp rise in vacancies was apparent in almost every county in 1950-
60, and in all counties except Escambia and Gulf in 1960-70 (Table 9). The
general increase in vacancy rates may be caused by greater out-migration from
the more rural counties or by increased construction of vacation units.

Table 9. The number of vacant units in the counties of Northwest Florida and
their percentage contribution (in parentheses) to the total in 1950, 1960, and
1970 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1951, 1961, 1971).

County

1950

1960

1970

Bay

Escambia

Frankl in

Gulf

Okaloosa

Santa Rosa

Walton

Northwest Florida

580

(4.2)

948

(3.0)

(3.8)

(3.7)

191

(3.0)

(2.0)

(0.6)

1.217

(5.6)

2,873

(5.5)

102

(3.3)

332

(9.3)

884

(4.9)

326

(3.8)

(1.1

2,008 (3.1)

5,793 (5.1)

1,417

(5.3)

3,037

(4.7)

204

(6.0)

204

(5.4)

1,559

(5.7)

683

(5.6)

261

(4.0)

7,365

(5.1)

There are two major differences in trends between vacancies for rent and
those for sale. The trends in rental vacancies are a particularly important
consideration for workers who would be employed during the construction stage
of any potential OCS oil and gas development, whereas the number of housing
units for sale gives an indication of capacity to assimilate sudden growth.

In 1950-70, vacancies for rent increased more than vacancies for sale
(Table 10). Rental vacancies increased from 1,814 to 5,555, and vacancies for
sale increased from 194 to 1,810. Escambia and Okaloosa Counties accounted
for more than two-thirds of the increase from 1950 to 1970. In vacancies for
sale, all but Walton and Escambia Counties showed sizeable gains.

Table 10. Vacancies for rent and sale in Northwest Florida
and 1970 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1951, 1961, 1971).

in 1950, 1960,

Vacai

ncies For

Rent

Vacan

cies for

sale

County

1950

1960

1970

1950

1960

1970

Bay

552

958

1,104

259

313

Escambia

825

2,014

2,322

123

859

715

Frankl in

100

104

Gulf

319

164

Okaloosa

164

668

1,209

216

350

Santa Rosa

203

433

123

250

Walton

223

Northwest Fl

orida

1,814

4,257

5,555

194

1,536

1,810

PROJECTED TRENDS

The projected number of housing units by county in Northwest Florida
1980-2000 were prepared in two steps. First, the 1978 base-year population
projections developed by the Bureau of Economic Research at the University of
Florida were adjusted to conform to the 1980 population census figures. For
example. Bay County had an estimated population of 96,225 in 1978, 124,000 in
1990 and 144,300 in 2000. Since the actual 1980 census figure for Bay county
was 97,740, the difference gave an adjusted population projection of 125,700
and 146,100. Secondly, in the projections it was assumed that the average
number of persons per housing unit would remain substantially the same as in
1980. For Bay County, there were 2.3 persons per housing unit. This figure
was then applied to the projections determined in step one; therefore, the
amended projection of the number of housing units for Bay County is 54,700 in
1990 and 63,500 in 2000 (Table 11).

DATA GAPS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The most glaring gap in the data on residential development was the lack
of detailed information on housing from the 1980 census; this information may

Table 11. Projected number of housing units for 1990 and 2000

rsons

per

County

hoi

using

unit

1980

1990

2000

Bay

2.3

42,900

54,700

63,500

Escambia

2.6

88,661

107,600

125,000

Franklin

1.7

4,497

5,600

6,500

Gulf

2.2

4,741

5,700

6,600

Okaloosa

2.6

43,099

53,600

62,300

Santa Rosa

2.8

20,356

26,200

30,500

Walton

2.0

10,918

13,200

15,300

Northwest Florida

2.5

215,172

226,600

309,700

Projections were derived by taking the number of persons per housing unit (U.S.
Department of Commerce) and extrapolating on the basis of population projec-
tions in County Economic Data (Florida Department of Commerce 1979).

not become available for months, or even years. The problems are the failure
to be able to adequately identify the trends that occurred in 1970-1980, and
that accurate projections (except for those of total population and total
housing units) cannot be made.

A difficulty regarding residential development analysis is differentiat-
ing between housing units for permanent residents and for recreation. Many
vacationers rent single-family homes and units in multi-family dwellings by
the week, month, or season. Many surveys combine these as housing units
without making a distinction.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

Northwest Florida is not heavily industrialized. Most industry is
located in or near the coastal cities of Pensacola, Panama City, and Fort
Walton Beach. The amount of land suitable for development near urbanized
areas is limited because of extensive wetlands, large public land holdings
(e.g., Eglin Air Force Base), and because of the hazards of hurricane surge or
riverine flooding. Major wetlands and public land holdings are shown in
Figure 5. Pensacola has land to the north and west in which to expand, Panama
City can grow only eastward because it is surrounded on three sides by bay
waters, and Fort Walton Beach can grow little because of Choctawhatchee Bay
and Eglin Air Force Base.

Most of the current industrial developments in Panama City and Pensacola
are located adjacent to open water or along a river, and are subject to hurri-
cane surge, tidal flooding, and riverine floods. Wastes from industrial,
residential, municipal, and recreational developments already have contributed

pollutants that have contaminated oyster beds and caused a closure of shell
fishing. Areas affected have been Blackwater Bay, East Bay River, Escambia
Bay, and Pensacola Bay in Santa Rosa County; Rocky Bayou in Okaloosa County;
Pensacola Bay, Perdido Bay, and Escambia Bay in Escambia County; East Bay,
North Bay, St. Andrew Bay, and West Bay in Bay County; and St. Joseph Bay in
Gulf County. In addition, the threat of saltwater intrusion because of aqui-
fer drawdowns has become a serious problem in some places, such as Fort Walton
Beach (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1978).

New development and growth in Northwest Florida will continue to add
stress to an already damaged natural environment unless effective land and
water management practices are adopted and practiced. Residential and indus-
trial expansion will be difficult to contend with, but if large scale offshore
oil and gas recovery becomes a reality, early and adequate planning will be
required to safeguard the environment.

The following section describes industrial development from a historical
perspective, general site characteristics, projected trends, and potential
onshore development of OCS-related facilities.

Major public land holdings

Figure 5. Major public land holdings
Corps of Engineers 1978).

and wetlands in Northwest Florida (U.S. Army

TRENDS IN GROWTH

Residential development and non-agricultural employment in Northwest
Florida increased about 32% in 1972-78, yet according to the Florida Statis-
tical Abstract (Thompson et al. 1978), it has not kept pace with the State's
40% increase. Almost every category of non-agricultural employment has de-
creased in its share of the State total since the 1950' s (e.g., manufacturing
decreased from 10% of the State total in 1956 to 5% in 1978). Among the few
exceptions was the employment category of employees in hotels and other
lodging places; employment there rose from 2.6% of the State total in 1956 to
3.5% in 1978. Employment in contract construction and in eating and drinking
places ranged from 4% to 5% of the State total from 1956 to 1978 (Thompson
et al. 1978).

Bay County

The Panama City urban area is the second largest industrial area in
Northwest Florida. In some Standard Industrial Code (SIC) categories of
services (finances, insurance, real estate, communication, retail trade, and
manufacturing) employment is increasing at a higher rate than for the State as
a whole. Non-agricultural employment has increased most rapidly, but growth
in manufacturing was considerably below the State's 64% increase between 1965
and 1978.

In 1978, the greatest number of workers was employed in retail trade
(Table 12). A third of these worked in eating and drinking places, and their
increase has been about twice that of the State. The difference may be a
reflection of the increasing popularity of recreation in Bay County. Further
support of this assumption is indicated by the growth in employment in motels,
hotels, and other lodging places. This growth is probably linked to growth in
tourism, which could be a point of possible conflict between tourist-based
interests and the development of any onshore facilities that might be required
to support OCS oil and gas activities.

A relatively large number of people are employed by the government in Bay
County. In 1979, almost one of every four employed persons worked for the
government, mostly at the Tyndall Air Force Base.

Employment in manufacturing has increased gradually in Bay County since
1965. The two major areas of employment in 1978 in manufacturing were paper
and allied products (range of 500 to 999 employees) and chemical and allied
products (range of 250 to 500 employees). Expansion and the construction of
new plants in the county in 1979 and 1980 will probably increase employment.

Escambia County

Although the Pensacola area of Escambia County is the most industrialized
area in Northwest Florida, employment in manufacturing decreased in 1965-1978
(Table 13). Although employment in other categories has increased since 1965,
the rate of increase is slowing.

The SIC category that showed the greatest number of workers in 1978 was
that of retail trade (15,670 employees). Employment in services, which was

Table 12. Numbers of non-agricultural employees in Bay, County in 1956,
1965, and 1978 (Thompson et al . 1980).

Type of

Employment

Percent change

employment

1956

1965

1978

1965-78

Construction

893

1,539

2,194

Manufacturing paper and
allied products

3,563

2,562

3,187^
b

Chemicals and allied
products

___c

Transportation and public

utilities

822

931

1,556

Communication

—

250

641

156

Wholesale trade

670

759

1,259

Retail trade

Eating and drinking
places

2,635
(455)

3,178
(557)

7,530
(2,456)

137
(341)

Finance, insurance and
real estate

508

624

1,635

162

Services ^
Hotels/motels j
Health services

1,355
(541)
(157)

1,698
(476)
(227)

4,924
1,338
1,289

190
(181)
(468)

Missing data withheld to avoid disclosure of employment data for some indi-
Lvidual establishments.
°500 to 999 employees.
^250 to 499 employees.

Numbers in parentheses are subcategories.

Table 13. Number of non-agricultural employees in Escambia County in 1956,
1965, and 1978 (Thompson et al . 1980).

Type of

Employment'

Percent change

employment

1956

1965

1978

1965-78

Mining

—

373

—

Construction

2,660

4,579

5,830

Manufacturing
Paper and all
Chemicals and
products

led
all

products
ied

9,916
(2,997)

4,914

12,372
(2,494)

11,63^
___d

-6

Transportation i
utilities

and

public

2,227

2,604

3,609

Communication

505

726

N.D.

—

Wholesale trade

2,208

2,120

3,336

Retail trade
Eating and dr
places

inki

ing

6,299
(1.154)

8,252
(1.589)

15,670
(4,207)

90
165

Finance, insurance
real estate

and

1,270

1,954

3,687

Services .
Health services

2,809
(330)

5,322
(1,600)

14,783
(5.491)

17
243

Missing data withheld to avoid disclosure of employment data for some indi'
.vidual establishments.

Numbers in parentheses are subcategories.
^1,000 to 2,499 employees.

5,000 to 9,999 employees.

the second highest category, increased from 2,809 persons in 1956 to 14,783 in
1978. Half of this growth was in the subcategory of health services, which
had 37% of the workers in the category of services. Third in employment among
the major employment categories was manufacturing. It was dominated by the
subcategory of chemicals and allied products, which employed between 5,000
and 9,999 workers in 1978 (one-half or more of the total employees in manufac-
turing), and paper and allied products, which accounted for between 1,000 and
2,499 employees.

Escambia County has a large number of government workers, mostly em-
ployees of the U.S. Navy.

Franklin County

This county has the smallest number of employed persons in Northwest
Florida most of which are employed to process oysters and shrimp in Apalachi-
cola and, to a lesser extent, in East Point and Carabelle. In 1978, 211
people were employed in manufacturing (Table 14). About 80% worked with food
and kindred products. The other principal employment categories were retail
trade and wholesale trade.

Gulf County

Although data are not available to demonstrate it, industrial employment
in Gulf County is greatest in the manufacture of paper and allied products.
Port St. Joe and Wewahitchka are centers of the paper and allied products
industry. In 1978, the county had between 500 and 999 workers employed in
this subcategory of manufacturing (Table 15), but the number of workers em-
ployed in manufacturing has steadily decreased since 1956. The number of
employees in construction, transportation, and wholesale trade also declined
from 1956 to 1978. Services, finance, insurance, and real estate showed
increases.

Okaloosa County

Although Fort Walton Beach, Valparaiso, and Niceville are popular tourist
centers, they also are heavily influenced by military employment at the Eglin
Air Force Base. In 1978, about one-third of all persons engaged in non-
agricultural employment worked for the government. The influence of military
employment has affected other employment categories as well. For example,
employment in the retail trade subcategory increased about fivefold from 1956
to 1978 (Table 16).

In addition to the air force base, the county has extensive recreation-
oriented development around Destin. This development has further increased
employment in eating and drinking places, hotels, and other lodging places.
Consequently, in 1965-78, employment in construction rose at a rate greater
than the State average.

Despite a limited area for new development, the economy and population of
the coastal area of Okaloosa County is growing rapidly. Growth inland, such
as in Crestview, is much slower.

Table 14. Numbers of non-agricultural employees in Franklin County in 1956,
1965, and 1978 (Thompson et al . 1980).

Employment

Type of employment

1956

1965

1978

Construction

—

Manufacturing food and kindred
products

136
106

211
173

Transportation and public utilities

N.D.

Wholesale trade

260

288

225

Retail trade

181

204

251

Finance, insurance, and real estate

—

Services

^Missing data withheld to avoid disclosure of employment data for some indi-
vidual establishments.

Table 15. Numbers of non-agricultural employees in Gulf County in 1956,
1965, and 1978 (Thompson et al . 1980).

Employment

Type of employment

1956

1965

1978

Construction

116

Manufacturing paper and allied
products

1,443

1,113

—

Transportation and public utilities

226

164

126

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

283

331

—

Finance, insurance, and real estate

Services

119

153

a.,.

Missing data withheld to avoid disclosure of employment data for some indi-
vidual establishments.

Table 16. Numbers of non-agricultural employees in Okaloosa County in 1956,
1965, and 1978 (Thompson et al . 1980).

Employment

Percent
1965

change

Type of employment

1956

1965

1978

-78

Construction

463

1,156

2,115

Manufacturing

446

671

2.385

255

Transportation and
utilities

publ

226

581

1,137

120

Communication — — — —

Wholesale trade 152 294 553 88

Retail trade eating places

1,335

2,714

6,804

151

Drinking places

279

548

1,966

259

Finance, insurance, and

real estate

216

395

1,693

329

Services

581

2,327

4,486

Hotels and other

lodging places

131

361

1,017

182

Health services

1,073

1,341

^Missing data withheld to avoid disclosure of employment data for some indivi-
dual establishments.

Santa Rosa County

Although Santa Rosa County is located between Okaloosa and Escambia
Counties, its employment pattern is different than either of the other two.
It does receive some employment spillover from these two counties, primarily
in Milton and Pace.

Santa Rosa County does not have a major military base or large number of
government employees, and little of its land fronts the sea. Most of Santa
Rosa Island, a barrier island, is part of the Gulf Islands National Seashore.

A major portion of the recreational development in the county is located
along the coastal area near Navarre, whereas most of the manufacturing is
around Milton at the headwaters of Blackwater Bay. Employment in manufac-
turing probably increased in 1965-78, although precise data for 1978 are not
available. Employment in other major categories increased sharply (Table 17).
In 1956-65, the greatest increases in number of employees were in construc-
tion, manufacturing, and retail trade.

Table 17. Numbers of non-agricuUural employees in Santa Rosa County in 1956,
1965 and 1978 (Thompson et al . 1980).

Employment

Type of employment

1956

1965

1978

Mining

—

375

Construction

199

526

1,036

Manufacturing

316

1,818

Transportation and public utilities

173

283

Communication

—

Wholesale trade

120

—

Retail trade

Eating and drinking places

364
(65)

697
(117)

1,774
(370)

Finance, insurance, and real estate

174

335

Services

Hotels and other loading places

122

230
(30)

890
(72)

^Missing data withheld to avoid disclosure of employment data for some indi-
vidual establishments.

Mining, primarily oil and gas extraction, employed 375 persons in 1978.
Most, if not all of these workers were probably employed in the Jay oil fields
in the northwestern portion of the county.

Walton County

In 1978, manufacturing and retail trade were the major forms of employ-
ment in Walton County (Table 18). Most of the people employed in manufactur-
ing worked in food and kindred industries, and almost 20% were employed in
lumber and wood product activities. At a minimum, these two subcategories of
employment probably made up at least three-quarters of the work force.

Because most of the shoreline of the county is still relatively unde-
veloped, most of the county's employment probably is centered around urban
areas.

In summary, most of the employment in the more populated counties of
Northwest Florida has been in manufacturing, recreation, and the military. In
the rural counties, non-agricultural employment is in either paper and allied
products industries, or the seafood industry.

Table 18. Numbers of non-agricultural employees in Walton County in 1956,
1965, and 1978 (Thompson et al . 1980).

Type of employment

Employment'

1956

1965

1978

154

178

172

165

312

778

107

—

145

137

142

520

486

684

190

• • «

285

Construction

Manufacturing

Food and kindred products
Lumber and wood products

Transportation and public utilities

Wholesale trade

Retail trade

Finance, insurance, and real estate

Services

Missing data withheld to avoid disclosure of employment data for some indi-
vidual establishments.

TRENDS IN EMPLOYMENT IN MANUFACTURING

Florida was considerably below
the seven counties, only Bay,
employment in manufacturing.

1970-78, the 1% increase in employment in manufacturing in Northwest

the State's growth rate of 31% (Table 19). Of
Okaloosa, and Walton showed sizeable gains in
The greatest gain was by Okaloosa County
(1,710 employees), and Escambia County (1,407 employees). The gains in Bay
County (790) and Walton County (353) were less primarily because of the
smaller number of total employees in manufacturing there.

Although Escambia and Bay Counties have the largest number of employees
in manufacturing, employment in manufacturing as a percentage of the total
employment is at least as high if not higher than the State average of 11% for
four of the seven counties (Table 20). Gulf County, for instance, has a
particularly large percentage of its employees engaged in manufacturing. In
addition, in five of the counties, personal income generated by manufacturing
as a percentage of total personal income is equal to or higher than the State
average of 13.6%. Gulf County shows the highest percentage among the counties
because of the dominance of the paper and pulp industry in Port St. Joe.

Between 1970 and 1978, the number of manufacturing establishments in
Northwest Florida increased from 313 to 363 (Table 21). Almost half of this
increase was in Okaloosa County. The only other sizeable increase was in
Escambia County, whereas the number in Gulf and Walton Counties declined.

Table 19. Number of employees
Northwest Florida and Florida in
Bureau of the Census 1981a).

and percentage changes in manufacturing in
1970 and 1978 (U.S. Department of Commerce,

Percent change

County

1970

1978

1970-78

Bay

2,896

3,686

Escambia

12,712

11,305

-11

Franklin

242

182

-25

Gulf

1,287

1,265

- 2

Okaloosa

1,640

3,350

104

Santa Rosa

1,695

1,814

Walton

335

688

105

Northwest Florida

20,807

22,290

Florida

320,565

419,561

Table 20. The percentage of employment and income in manufacturing contributed
by each county to the Northwest Florida total (Florida Department of Commerce
1980).

County

Percent of

total

rcent of total

employment

income

9.1

13.6

11.2

17.1

8.5

7.8

29.3

41.2

7.0

8.7

12.1

19.9

12.9

13.7

Bay

Escambia

Frankl in

Gulf

Okaloosa

Santa Rosa

Walton

Northwest Florida
total )

[% of the

11.0

13.6

Table 21. Number of manufacturing establishments in each county in 1970 and
1978 (Florida Department of Commerce 1980).

Number of establishments Numerical change

County 1970 1978 1970-78

Bay 82 85 3

Escambia 129 145 16

Franklin 19 25 6

Gulf 16 11 -5

Okaloosa 38 61 23

Santa Rosa 14 22 8

Walton 15 14 -1

Northwest Florida 313 363 50

Type of Manufacturing Plants

An inventory of the types of products manufactured in Northwest Florida
is basic for determining which establishments may have the greatest potential
for supporting OCS oil and gas recovery. The types of products produced in
each county by the manufacturing industries and of employment are discussed in
the following subsections.

Bay County. In 1979, only one industrial firm in Bay County employed
over 500 persons; that was a firm producing linderboard and pulp. The next
largest employers were four firms which produced building materials, conden-
sors and packaged boilers, hair barrets and rollers, and oil, fatty acids,
rosin, and terpenes.

Several new industries have located and expanded in Bay County in 1977-
80. They include manufacturing firms producing products such as industrial
cranes and earth-moving equipment, fabricated steel, custom textile products,
executive furniture, steel pipe, and other items. With the exception of the
new coal conveyor components plant, which located in Lynn Haven in 1978, all
new industries are in Panama City.

Escambia County. Major employment in Escambia County is in the manufac-
ture of wood products and chemicals. The nine largest manufacturing firms, in
regard to number of employees in 1979, produced fiber ceiling systems, nuclear
power reactor parts, nylon yarn and industrial organic chemicals, paper bags
and roll print, wrapping, paperboard, paper, chemical materials, newspaper,
steel and wood doors, and naval stores, pine oil, and rosin.

In 1977-80 two new manufacturing plants were constructed in Escambia
County, and three plants were expanded, all in Pensacola. One of these was an
expansion of a paper products company and another was a new chemical plant.

Franklin County. All 14 of the manufacturing firms in Franklin County
listeci in the Directory of Florida Industries 1980 (Florida Chamber of Com-
merce 1980) employed fewer than 50 workers. Almost two-thirds of the em-
ployees in manufacturing were engaged in food and kindred products industries
(e.g., oyster and shrimp processing and packing). There were no new plants or
expansions listed for Franklin County in the period from 1977 to 1980 (Indus-
trial Development Research Council 1977-80).

Gulf County. Four of the eight manufacturing firms in Gulf County employ
over 100 workers. In 1979, the largest was the St. Joe Paper Company Paper
Mill Division, which had 821 employees. The St. Joe Paper Company also oper-
ates a container division in the county. Two of the other major employers
produce chemicals and rosin, vegetable oil, and fatty acids. Seventy-five
percent of all workers engaged in manufacturing work in industries that are
associated with the production of paper and allied products. Most of these
industries are located in Port St. Joe. The only new manufacturing plant to
locate in Gulf County since 1977 manufactures plywood (Industrial Development
Research Council 1977-80).

Okaloosa County. Many of the manufacturing firms in Okaloosa County pro-
duce military equipment such as radar, data systems, and security systems,
aircraft parts, electronic components, and cargo handling and timing systems.
Another relatively large employer (i.e., employing over 250 workers) manufac-
tures lingerie.

Four new manufacturing plants have located in Okaloosa County since 1977:
three of these plants are in Fort Walton Beach and the other in Crestview.
Three of these four plants manufacture items that are used for recreation.

Santa Rosa County. There are two major manufacturing firms in Santa Rosa
County; one produces acrylic fiber and the other lingerie and lounge wear. A
third (fairly sizeable) employer produces chemical products. Only one new
manufacturing plant located in Santa Rosa County since 1977 (Industrial
Development Research Council 1977-80). It produces ceramic-lined pipes.

Walton County. In Walton County, most people are employed in the manu-
facture of apparel, lumber and wood products, and food and kindred products.
DeFuniak Springs is the home of three of the largest employers; a fourth
relatively large employer is located in Paxton. Both of these communities are
inland.

Two new manufacturing firms have located in Walton County since 1977. A
factory producing men's shirts opened in Ponce de Leon and a winery began
operations in DeFuniak Springs in 1980 (Industrial Development Research
Council 1977-80).

PROBLEMS OF INDUSTRIAL SITING

Future industrial growth in Northwest Florida will depend largely on the
availability or capacity of fresh water, sanitary sewers, sewage treatment
facilities, electrical power, natural gas, and telephone service, some of
which are discussed in the next section. Although raw materials, transporta-
tion, market, manpower, and public policy are other factors of industrial
development, they will not be discussed in this report.

The criteria proposed by Lochmoeller et al . (1975) that are often used in
setting up new industries or expanding old industries are as follows:

Select only major metropolitan areas which have the expecta-
tion of substantial population and economic growth. Be cer-
tain that the site is served by either an existing expressway
system or one slated for construction. Assess the direction
and type of industrial growth near such areas as highway,
airports or seaports. Ascertain both community attitudes
toward industry and economic pressures in a given area. De-
termine type of industries which are expanding or which might
move into the region. When selecting a specific site it is
further important to estimate the amount of land required
through a study of local absorption rates. Seek sites which
are immediately accessible to major highway routes or have
highway frontage; are adjacent to the main line of a rail-
road; or near an airport or, if appropriate, near a harbor.
Watch topography; acquire land with minimum of ledge rock,
water, and peat or soft ground. Ascertain that water, gas,
electricity, telephone and, if possible, sewers should serve
the site, at competitive rates with appropriate capacity.

Based on these criteria, much of the future industrial development pro-
bably will locate in or near Pensacola in Escambia County, Panama City in Bay
County, and Fort Walton Beach in Okaloosa County. It is unlikely that other
cities will have much industrial development, except Milton in Santa Rosa
County, which may be affected by development in nearby Pensacola.

One of the problems of industrial development is locating potential sites
in floodplains. "Historically, industrial development followed the course of
railroads along the river valleys. Because most of these rail lines are being
used, and interest in the availability of multi-modal transportation is in-
creasing, flood plains are attractive to industrial development" (Lochmoeller
et al . 1975). The problem in Northwest Florida is the double threat of hurri-
cane surge and riverine flooding. Although riverine flooding in Northwest
Florida is not considered a major problem except in the Apalachicola River
Basin, hurricane surge or tidal flooding (caused by hurricanes and storms)
frequently causes severe damage to coastal flood plains. Hurricane surge
heights have reached about 4.2 meters (14 feet) in Northwest Florida. Pensa-
cola, Panama City, Fort Walton Beach, and Milton have suffered severe damage
from windblown tidal surges. Because of the present trend of development in
and around floodplains, there is an acute need for systematic floodplain
management programs (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1980a).

Another problem concerns the location of industrial development. Coastal
Florida is a mixture of beaches, dunes, wetlands, and higher ground. Much of
the land that is best suited for development is low and subject to tidal
surges; therefore land uses should be carefully planned. Competition for
suitable land for industrial and other types of land use is acute, which some-
times leads to improper land use, e.g., the development of cheaper lowlands
that are more vulnerable to winds and water surges.

other factors also affect the selection of industrial sites. For ex-
ample, the growth of Fort Walton Beach and southeastern Walton County may be
limited by the scarcity of fresh water. The Corps of Engineers has reported
that cones of depression in the aquifer have formed "as a result of extensive
pumping for public supply and irrigation" (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
1980a). Continued pumping, and particularly increased pumping to keep pace
with new development, potentially could result in "the eventual appearance of
saline water in the centers of the cones of depression" (U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers 1980a). So far this has not happened and is not likely to happen in
the foreseeable future.

PROJECTED INDUSTRIAL TRENDS

A report. Industrial, Irrigation and Other Water Needs, prepared for the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers by the U.S. Geological Survey (1979), contains
projections of employment at the two digit level of the Standard Industrial
Code (SIC) through the year 2030. The projections were prepared for the U.S.
Geological Survey' by the Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Com-
merce, and are included as an attachment to the above named report. These
projections are shown in Table 22.

The base year used in the projections was 1976; however, in the case of
some of the counties in Northwest Florida, some of the projections may have to
be revised because employment in manufacturing already appears to be higher
than expected. This can be seen by comparing the projections with the 1978
employment data for manufacturing shown in Tables 12-18. Escambia County
(Table 13) is a case in point. In 1978, 11,636 were employed in manufacturing
whereas the projection indicated that that number would not be reached until
the year 2000; consequently the projection for Escambia County must be revised
upward. Much the same applies to Okaloosa and Franklin Counties. The popula-
tion projections for Bay County were overestimated, but the projections for
the remaining counties appear to be reasonably accurate.

ONSHORE IMPACTS OF POTENTIAL OIL AND GAS ACTIVITIES

A major development of oil and gas production on the Outer Continental
Shelf (OCS) near Northwest Florida would have a major effect on onshore indus-
trial development. Phosphate mining in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico also
may have some potential. During the beginning stages of extensive OCS oil and
gas development, if it were to occur, there would be competition for existing
residential construction to meet the housing needs of OCS-related workers. In
addition, it is likely that some of the manufacturing industries that exist in
the area would redirect their production to meet the needs of offshore and
onshore activities, and that new industries would develop. These new develop-
ments would cause considerable strain on community infrastructures and other
public services. It is also likely that there would be major impacts on the
natural environment. A report on development, issued by the Governor's Office
of Planning and Budgeting, has recognized "that potential environmental
hazards of onshore development are greater than those of offshore development"
and former Florida Attorney General Robert Shevin once recommended that
"before offshore oil drilling was approved, tough restrictions be placed of
onshore development" (Hoedecker 1980).

Table 22. Projected numbers of employees in major manufacturing industries
based on 1976 data for 1990, 2000, and 2030 (U.S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Economic Analysis 1979).

County and product/industry

1575"

Employees'

1990

2000

2030

Bay

Food products

Clothing

Lumber and wood products

Paper products

Printing industry

Chemical products

Rubber and plastic

products

Stone, clay and gl

ass products

Fabricated metals

industries

Machinery, excl. e

lectrical

Miscellaneous

All others

Total

Escambia

3,748

Food products
Lumber and wood products
Paper products
Printing industry
Chemical products
Stone, clay and glass products
Fabricated metals industries
Machinery, excl. electrical
All others

150

125

300

550

575

1,025

950

225

250

300

350

400

525

175

200

225

350

300

225

250

275

600

675

750

300

325

350

150

175

4,400

4,650

4,850

675

650

550

1,775

1,700

1,600

700

775

900

5,775

5,875

6,200

900

875

825

650

625

600

175

200

225

350

Total

11,214

11,550

11,625 11,900

Frank! in

Food products
All others

Total
Okaloosa

Apparel manufactures
Lumber and wood products

175
50

200
50

159

225

250

400
200

450
200

(continued)

Table 22. (Concluded).

County and product/industry

T^TT

Employees'^

1990

2000

2030

Okaloosa (continued)

Printing industry
Stone, clay and glass products
Machinery excl . electrical
Electrical machinery
Transportation equipment
All Others

Total others

1,673

150

175

225

100

125

700

750

825

225

250

175

200

2,000

2,150

2,325

Santa Rosa

Food products
Apparel manufacturers
Paper products
Chemical products
Stone, clay and glass products
All others

Total

1,658

725

800

825

875

150

175

200

100

1,825

1,950

2,025

Numbers rounded to nearest 25.

Not all areas of the seven counties of Northwest Florida would be subject
to OCS onshore related impacts. Inland communities probably would be little
affected. In addition, coastal communities without harbor channel depths of
about 5.4 to 7.5 meters (18 to 25 feet) and without adequate dock space would
probably be of little service to the OCS oil and gas industry (Calder 1978).
The only ports with adequate channel depths are Pensacola Harbor, Panama City
Harbor, Port St. Joe, and Carrabelle Harbor. Pensacola and Panama City are
the most probable sites. Neither Carrabelle or Franklin County has the resi-
dential or manufacturing base needed to support OCS oil and gas onshore needs.
Port St. Joe and Gulf County, despite having relatively adequate port facil-
ities and a somewhat greater population and manufacturing base, probably do
not have adequate housing, types of supporting industries, and community
infrastructure to meet the immediate onshore needs of extensive offshore
development.

In general, "offshore pfetroleum and natural gas production can be ab-
stracted into four of five phases" (Calder 1978). These phases are prelimi-
nary geophysical and geological surveys, exploratory drilling, systems devel-
opment, production, and ultimately, decline (Calder 1978).

During the first phase, onshore support facilities are usually already
adequate or are not needed, and there is little impact. It is during the
exploratory drilling phase that dock space and harbor depth become issues.
The important impacts on a community during this second phase are economic,
e.g., suppliers of drilling-related equipment will locate in the area and
subsidiary businesses will spring up. OCS oil and gas companies sometimes
choose to locate onshore facilities in smaller communities (such as Port St.
Joe) because of excessive land values and other negative factors character-
istic of urban areas (Calder 1978).

The development of production rigs and pipelines (phase 3) on a large
scale in the Northwest Florida area would create new economic and social
stresses. This extraordinary labor intensive period would place housing in
great demand. Sudden population growth, with its associated industries,
causes excessive stress on land use, transportation, and infrastructure and
services (e.g., schools and hospitals). In addition, environmental damage
could be serious (Calder 1978).

Once the development phase is completed and the production phase begins,
construction workers usually begin to leave the area. From a local government
perspective, this is a period of post-construction readjustment. This final
phase is not as labor intensive as the development phase; therefore, during
the development phase, infrastructure and public service expenditures must not
be over-committed because they may eventually have to be supported by a re-
duced population (Calder 1978). To mitigate this, a community could utilize
planning procedures to minimize the negative socioeconomic-environmental
impacts in much the same manner as the following procedures that were sug-
gested by Myhra (1980) for nuclear power plant construction site communities:

Recognize that socioeconomic problems may occur and be willing
to do whatever it takes to hold them to a minimum. Create an
impact mitigation task force, group or team. Develop an impact
management plan. Inventory existing socioeconomic conditions at
the site area. Determine the estimated influx of new workers
and their dependents. Forecast the likely socioeconomic changes
on the community. Translate those adverse impacts into net
fiscal deficits. Provide appropriate funding and finance to
mitigate the impacts. Monitor how well the impact management
program is working out. Redirect the allocation of impact
assistance where needed the most. Continue readjustment activ-
ities as long as necessary after construction is complete.

Implementing a procedure such as the one described above would enable a
community to strengthen what is considered "one of the weakest links in the
energy facility construction chain" (Calder 1978). This would allow a com-
munity to mitigate many of the negative characteristics of "boom-town" devel-
opment and take full advantage of the positive features that such growth can
bring.

DATA GAPS

The greatest data gap in this study of industrial development in North-
west Florida is 1980 data that are needed to provide a relatively up-to-date
picture of non-agricultural employment characteristics, especially for places
like Bay County, which has added a number of new manufacturing plants since
1978 (the year of the most recent available data). When the 1980 data are
available, the study should be updated to verify the interpretation of trends
and to make comparisons with other 1980 census information. A new set of pro-
jected trends for the counties will have to be developed after the 1980 data
become available.

PUBLIC UTILITIES

Population growth and industrial development are partially dependent on
the availability and capacity of public utilities. Because OCS oil and gas
recovery would place additional demands on public utilities, it is particu-
larly important to understand the type, distribution, and magnitude of ser-
vices available in Northwest Florida.

INVENTORY OF UTILITIES

This section briefly reviews the status of electrical power, gas, and
telephone services.

Electrical Power

Electricity is provided to users in Florida from a variety of sources
through a complex interchangeable grid of distribution. The different sources
and ownerships are shown in Figure 6. The service areas of the two privately
owned utility companies serving the seven county region are also shown. The
Gulf Power Company serves Bay, Escambia, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, and Walton
Counties, plus a few counties outside of the region. This private utility is
headquartered in Pensacola. It operates a hydroelectric steam generation
plant and an internal combustion or gas turbine plant in Bay County.

Franklin and Gulf Counties are served by the Florida Power Corporation.
This power company serves a large area of northwest and central Florida,
stretching from Franklin County to Highlands County (in south-central
Florida). Company headquarters are in St. Petersburg. It operates many
plants within its service area, but the only one in Northwest Florida is an
internal combusion or gas turbine plant in Franklin County.

There are no publicly owned power companies in the seven county region,
but there are five rural electric cooperatives (Figure 7). One is the Alabama
Electric Cooperative, Inc., Andalusia, AL, that serves only a small portion of
northwestern Okaloosa County. A second is the Escambia River Electric Cooper-
ative, Inc., located in Wewahitcha. Its service area extends over Bay County,
part of Gulf County, and parts of a few other counties outside the region.
Talquin Electric Cooperative, Inc., which is headquartered in Quincy (near
Tallahassee), serves part of Gulf County, all of Franklin County, and four
other counties outside the region. All of these cooperatives are nongen-
erating.

1 Crist

2 Lansing Smith

3 Scholtz

FLORIDA POWER AND LIGHT

1 Cape Canaveral

2 Cutler

3 Ft Lauderdale

4 Ft Myers

5 Manatee

6 Martin

7 Miami

8 Palatka

9 Port Everglades

10 Rivera

11 Santord

12 St Lucie

13 Turkey Point

FLORIDA POWER CORPORATION

1 Anclole

2 Avon Park

3 Bartow

4 Bayboro

5 Crystal River

6 Higgins

7 Intercession City

8 Inglis

9 Port St Joe

10 Rio PInar

11 Suwannee River

12 Turner

TAMPA ELECTRIC COMPANY

1 Big Bend

2 Gannon

3 Hookers Point

E. FLORIDA PUBLIC UTILITIES

1 Fernandlna

F. REEDY CREEK

STEAM GENERATION

# Operating

O Under Construction

NUCLEAR GENERATION

▲ Operating

A Under Construction

INTERNAL COMBUSTION OR

GAS TURBINE

■ Operating

O Under Construction
♦ lOU HEADQUARTERS

«•

rf>0«C

Figure 6. Privately owned utilities (Florida Public Service Commission 1980)

1 Alabama Electric Cooperative, Inc. -Andalusia, Ala.

2 Central Florida Electric Cooperative-Chiefland

3 Choctawhatchee Electric Cooperatlve-Defuniak Springs

4 Clay Electric Cooperative-Keystone Heights

5 Escambia River Electric Cooperative, tnc ■Jacksonville

6 Florida Keys Electric CooperativeTavemier

7 Glades Electric Cooperative. Inc Moore Haven

8 GuU Coast Electric Cooperative. Inc -Wewahitcha

9 Lee County Electric Cooperative-North Fort Myers

10 Okefenokee Rural Electric Membership Cooperative-Nahunta. Ga

11 Peace River Electric Cooperatlve-Wauchula

12 Sumter Electric Cooperative. Inc Sumtervllle

13 Suwannee Valley Electric Cooperative, Inc -Live Oak

14 Talquin Electric Cooperative, Inc Ouincy

15 TriCounty Electric Cooperative. Inc -Madison

16 West Florida Electric Cooperative. Inc -Gracevllle

17 Withlacoochee River Electric Cooperative. Inc Dade City

O Non-Generating # Generating

xfP^

Figure 7.
1979).

Rural electric cooperatives (Florida Publ ic Service Commissi

Of the two privately owned utilities serving the seven county region, the
Florida Power Corporation is the largest. In 1979, it generated 18.5% of the
total megawatt hours (MWh) produced in Florida, wheras the Gulf Power Corpora-
tion produced only 7.0%. The Gulf Power Corporation is 90.4% dependent on
coal as its source for generating power, but the Florida Power Corporation
uses a much broader range of fuel types for power generation (Table 23). Much
(42.8%) of its production is generated from residual fuel, 21.9% from coal,
21.7% from nuclear fuels, and lesser amounts from natural gas and distillate
fuel. For Florida as a whole, 47.9% is based on fuel oil, 19.5 on coal,
16.4% on nuclear fuel, 16.1% on natural gas, and 0.3% for hydroelectric power
(Florida Public Service Commission 1980). The Gulf Power Corporation is
highly dependent on the delivery of coal from out-of-state sources.

Table 23. Electrical generation (megawatt hours) by fuel types (percentage
composition in parentheses) by privately owned utilities serving Northwest
Florida, 1979 (Florida Public Service Commission 1981).

Fuel type Florida Power Corp. Gulf Power Corp.

Coal 3,811,782 (21.9) 6,000,522 (90.4)

Natural gas 1,373,976 ( 7.9) 627,562 ( 9.4)

Residual 7,443,897 (42.9) 1,651 ( 0.1)

Distillate 976,945 ( 5.6) 2,717 ( 0.1)

Nuclear 3,775,837 (21.7) 0 ( 0)

Total 17,382,437 (100.0) 6,632,452 (100.0)

% of State total 18.5 7.0

The net generation of power for Florida in 1979 was about three times
greater than it was in 1965. In addition, the percentage fuel types have
changed considerably. The principal factor in this change has been the gen-
eration of power from nuclear fuel. There was no generation of power from
this fuel source prior to 1972, but it has already climbed to 16.4% of the
State's total generated power. Fuel oil is the major fuel type used for gen-
eration, but its percentage share of the total generated in the State slipped
from 56.2% in 1965 to 45.0% in 1979. Coal has increased slightly over the
past year or two and is likely to take an even greater share of the State
total in the 1980's. More than twice as much power is generated by gas than
it was 15 years ago, but its proportion of the State total has slipped from
25.0% to 16.1%. Hydro power is now an insignificant source of energy in
Florida. (Florida Public Service Commission 1980.)

The private utility companies serving Northwest Florida have a different
distribution by class of service than do the electric cooperatives serving the
area (Table 24). This is to be expected because the cooperatives primarily
serve rural areas. Most of the service provided by the cooperatives is resi-
dential use. Talquin Electric, probably because it serves the relatively

46,279

,215,932

734,861

,524,411

69,357

,552,364

14,396

,061,143

6,027

4,574

6,353

75,923

6,872

5,200

1,009

70,551

15,816

32,570

13,048

284,485

Table 24. Utility and electrical sales in 1979 to several types of customers
in Northwest Florida by class of service in megawatt hours (MWh) in 1979
(Florida Public Service Commission 1981).

Customers

Utility Residential Commercial Industrial Other Total

Florida Power

Corporation 6,927,339 3,646,279

Gulf Power

Corporation 2,225,026 1,269,357

Escambia River

Corporation 58,969

Gulf Coast

Cooperative 57,470

Talquin

Cooperative 223,051

densely populated area around Tallahassee (which is not in Northwest Florida)
provides the greatest percentage of service among the cooperatives to indus-
trial customers. Although the Gulf Power Corporation has a larger percentage
of industrial customers (30%) than does the Florida Power Corporation (22.1%),
most of the percentages of electricity sales to ultimate customers by class of
service are similar. The Florida Power Corporation provides over twice the
number of megawatt hours (MWh) to industries because of its greater overall
sales volume. Among the cooperatives, Talquin Electric has the greatest
volume of sales.

The 1980 Ten-Year Plan for Florida states that 22 new major generating
units are planned to begin commercial operation in 1980-89. Of these, two are
oil-fired, one nuclear, and 19 are coal-fired; four of these are located out-
of-state (Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group 1980). None of these
units is specifically designated for location in Northwest Florida, but since
a number of these units are to be operated by the Florida Power Corporation,
which is the major provider of electrical power to Northwest Florida, ample
electric power should be available to most of the region. The history and
forecast of net energy in terms of megawatt hours (one MWh = one million kWh)
for the Florida Power Corporation and the Gulf Power Corporation is given in
Table 25.

Despite expectations that coal-fueled energy in Florida will increase
from 19.3% in to 1980 to 46.7% by 1989 (Table 26), residual oil will remain an
important source of energy generation. Although its overall percentage of
input to net system generation will drop from 49.9% to 35.3%, the quantity of

Table 25. History {1970-79)gand forecast (1980-89) of net energy for load-GWH
(millions of MWh) in 1970-89 (Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group 1980).

Year Florida Power Corp. Gulf Power Corp.

1970 9,855 3,764

1971 10,961 4,072

1972 12,678 4,604

1973 14,817 4,978

1974 14,402 4,983

1975 15,237 5,148

1976 16,032 5,475

1977 17,134 5,823

1978 18,133 6,044

1979 18,812. 6,030

1980 18,142 6,140

1981 19,266 6,433

1982 20,468 6,634

1983 21,666 6,880

1984 22,867 7,131

1985 23,945 7,398

1986 25,021 7,671

1987 26,007 7,954

1988 26,970 8,265

1989 27,886 8,553

^The 1970-79 annual growth rate was 7.4% for the Florida Power Co. and 5.4% for
the Gulf Power Corporation. Corresponding percentages in 1980-89 were 4.9 and

Excludes Seminole energy.

Table 26. The quantity of fuel used by fuel type and the percentage contri-
bution (in parentheses) in 1980 and projected to 1989 (Florida Electric Power
Coordinating Group 1980).

Type 1980 1989

Oil 78,312 thousand bbl (49.4) 83,324 thousand bbl (35.3)

Coal 9,260 thousand tons (19.3) 30,030 thousand tons (46.7)

Gas 132,409 thousand ilCF (13.1) 15,011 thousand KCF ( 1.0)

Nuclear 196,000 billion BTU (18.2) 269,000 billion BTU (16.8)

Other 0 ( 0.0) 2.5 billion BTU ( 0.2)

residual oil will increase from 78 million bbl to 83 million bbl. The average
annual growth rate for electrical energy demand is anticipated to be about
4.5% for the next ten years (Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group 1980).

Gas

According to Moody's Public Utility Manual, natural gas is distributed in
Northwest Florida to Panama City, Fort Walton Beach, and Pensacola. Panama
City in Bay County is served by Gulf Natural Gas Corporation, Inc. This cor-
poration, with its main office in Panama City, also supplies gas to customers
in Tampa for propane carburation for motor vehicles. It is a subsidiary of
the West Florida Natural Gas Company. The other two communities. Fort Walton
Beach and Pensacola, are served by municipally operated utilities. St. Joe
Natural Gas Company, Inc. services residences in some parts of the region
(Florida Public Service Commission 1981).

The Getty Oil Company applied to the State of Florida to construct a
shell foundation and to drill one natural gas exploratory well in East Bay
in Santa Rosa County. The hearing officer for the State recommended that the
application be approved in early 1981, but despite this, the Governor and
Cabinet, meeting as the Board of trustees of the Internal Improvement Trust
Fund, denied the application. The issue is currently in litigation. The case
does not directly pertain to potential OCS oil and gas activities because the
site is in Florida waters. If the permit is ever granted and recoverable
deposits of gas and/or oil are discovered, the onshore impacts of this devel-
opment might indicate similar types of impacts from OCS oil and gas recovery.

Telephone

Six telephone companies provide service to the counties in Northwest
Florida. The General Telephone Company of Florida accounts for about 60% of
the total telephone service in the State, and has 11 exchanges in parts of
Bay, Escambia, and Santa Rosa Counties. The other five companies are consid-
erably smaller, each providing less than 3% of the total service in the State
(Florida Public Service Commission 1981).

The largest of these other companies, the Central Telephone Company of
Florida (headquartered in Tallahassee), has nine exchanges in parts of
Okaloosa and Walton Counties. The St. Joseph Telephone and Telegraph Company,
which has nine exchanges in the region, serves parts of Bay, Franklin, and
Gulf Counties, in Port St. Joe (Franklin County).

The remaining three companies each operate only two exchanges in the
region. One of these companies is a Florida utility, but the other two are
based in Alabama. The Continental Telephone Company of South's main office is
in the Panhandle community of Bonifay, but in Northwest Florida serves only
parts of Walton County. As for the two Alabama companies, the Florida Tele-
phone company serves parts of Okaloosa and Walton Counties, and the Southland
Telephone Company services only a small area of Escambia County.

A list of these six telephone companies, the location of their headquar-
ters, the counties they serve in the region, and the location of their ex-
changes within these counties are given in Table 27.

Table 27. Telephone companies serving Northwest Florida, by county and location
of services in 1980 (Florida Public Service Commission 1981).

Telephone Company
counties served Location of service

Central Telephone Company in Florida (Tallahassee)

Okaloosa County Baker, Crestview, Destin, Fort Walton Beach,

Shalimar, Valparaiso
Walton County DeFuniak Springs, Freeport, Glendale

Continental Telephone Company of the South (Bonifay)

Walton County Santa Rosa Beach, Seagrove Beach

Floral a Telephone Company (Floral a, Alabama)

Okaloosa County Laurel Hill

Walton County Paxton

St. Joseph Telephone and Telegraph Company (Port St. Joe)

Bay County The Beaches, Tyndall, A.F.B.

Franklin County Alligator Point, Apalachicola, Carrabelle,

Eastpoint
Gulf Port St. Joe, Wewahitcka

Southern Bell Telephone and Telegraph Company (Miami)

Bay County Lynn Haven, Panama City, Panama City Beach,

Youngs town -Fountain
Escambia County Cantonment, Pensacola

Santa Rosa County Gulf Breeze, Jay, Milton, Munson, Pace

Southland Telephone Company (Atmore, Alabama)

Escambia County Molino, Walnut Hill

DOMESTIC SEWAGE TREATMENT

Although treatment of domestic and industrial wastes is a concern common
to all of Florida, the problem of pollution is not as acute in Northwest
Florida as it is in some other parts of the State. The population growth in
the urban centers and along the coast will increase the potential for more
pollution. According to the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation
the amount of domestic wastewater to be treated is directly related to the
population of the area served. Each person uses approximately 100 gal/d for

eating, drinking, bathing, and toilet, and as the population increases, so
must wastewater and its treatment (Florida Department oiF Environmental Regula-
tion 1981).

COUNTY INVENTORY

In 1979, there were 3,704 domestic sewage treatment plants in Florida,
but only 140 were in the seven counties of Northwest Florida (Florida Depart-
ment of Environmental Regulation 1981). About 60% of the domestic sewage dis-
chargers were located in Bay and Escambia Counties.

This section of the report discusses the status of sewage discharge for
each county and treatment capacity needs through the year 2000. The informa-
tion in the following county by county analysis was obtained from a computer
print out provided by the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation for
October 1979.

Bay County

The municipalities of Panama City and Panama City Beach have the largest
capacities for treating domestic sewage in Bay County. The Panama City facil-
ity has a design flow of 2.00 million gallons per day (mgal/d) and an average
daily flow of 1.92 mgal/d. Panama City Beach also has a design flow of 2.00
mgal/d, but it has an average daily flow of only 0.84 mgal/d. The municipal-
ity of Lynn Haven has design flow of 0.70 mgal/d and, like Panama City, has an
average daily flow very close to its design opacity (0.71 mgal/d). The re-
mainder of the domestic sources have considerably smaller design capacities
and consist mostly of subdivisions, mobile home parks, and schools. There are
45 domestic sources of sewage listed in Bay County, and most of the sewage
from these systems flow into North Bay and then into St. Andrews Bay.

Escambia County

The domestic sewage system with the greatest design flow in the entire
region is that operated by the City of Penscola at its main sewage treatment
plant. It has a design flow of 9.00 mgal/d; however, its average daily flow
of 9.92 mgal/d, is clearly overloading. Only two other systems in the county
have an average daily flow greater than their design flow. (One of these is
operated by the City of Century and the other is a private development called
Avondale.) Of the 40 domestic systems in the county, 6 are municipal systems,
13 are county, 19 are private, and 2 are State systems. The six largest
domestic wastewater systems are all municipal or county systems, except for
the State system at the University of West Florida. Because of the size of
the main Pensacola treatment plant, the greatest drainage in the county is
outfall from this plant into Pensacola Bay.

Franklin County

Franklin County has nine domestic sewage systems. Four are municipally
operated, four are private, and one is at the St. George Island State Park.
The largest system, run by the City of Apalachicola, has an average daily flow
of 0.05 mgal/d, which is far short of its design capacity of 0.40 mgal/d. The

only source discharging a greater volume (0.14 mgal/d) than its designed flow
(0.10 gal/d) is the system operated by the City of Carrabelle. It discharges
into St. George Sound.

Gulf County

In 1979, Werwahatchka was the only domestic sewage system listed in Gulf
County. It has a design flow of 0.20 mgal/d. This system discharges into the
Chipola River. There is no information about a domestic wastewater system for
Port St. Joe.

Okaloosa County

The Okaloosa County water and sewerage system has the largest design flow
of the 21 domestic wastewater sources in the county. It is designed to handle
3.0 mgal/d, but its average daily flow is only 2.22 mgal/d. The following
three treatment plants have an average daily flow that is greater than design
flow: Fort Walton Beach's two sewage treatment plants (2.31 mgal/d as opposed
to a design flow of 1.70 mgal/d, and 0.25 mgal/d compared to 0.12 mgal/d),
and the City of Niceville's system (0.53 mgal/d compared to 0.12 mgal/d).
Most of the discharge is into Santa Rosa Sound.

Walton County

All eight of the domestic sewage systems in Walton County are relatively
small. The largest system in the county (operated by the municipality of
DeFuniak Springs) has a design flow of only 0.48 mgal/d. All the systems are
operating below their design flow.

PROJECTED TREATMENT CAPACITY NEEDS

In the near future, Pensacola, Fort Walton Beach, and Panama City are
likely to need greater domestic sewage treatment facilities.

In Escamb-ia County, the growth in design capacity for domestic sewage
treatment systems is expected to be 9.41 mgal/d in the year 2000 (Table 28).
By projecting the historical mean, about 20 new treatment facilities are
needed. In Okaloosa County, growth in design capacity is projected to in-
crease by 5.55 mgal/d and 11 new treatment facilities will be needed. The
growth in design capacity for Bay County is projected to be 3.99 mgal/d, and
up to 28 new facilities will be needed. The number of new facilities is
relatively large because, historically. Bay County has operated a considerable
number of small systems and unless there is an abrupt change in local poli-
cies, this trend is expected to continue.

The other four counties (Franklin, Gulf, Santa Rosa, and Walton) are
projected to have relatively little increase in design capacity and few new
facilities. Of the four counties, Santa Rosa County will likely have the
greatest increased need, and Gulf County the least (Florida Department of
Environmental Regulation 1981).

Table 28. The 1980-2000 average annual population growth rate, given as a per-
centage, and the sewage treatment capcity (mgal/d) needs by county in 2000
(Florida Department of Environmental Regulation 1981).

Population

growth rate
(percentage)

Increase

desi

Number of new"

County

capacity mg<

il/d

faci

lities needed

Bay

2.5

4.0

Escambia

2.1

9.4

Frankl in

2.5

0.6

Gulf

2.5

0.1

Okaloosa

2.1

5.6

Santa Rosa

2.1

1.5

Walton

2.5

0.6

^University of Florida, Bureau of Economic and Business Research, Population
and Division forecast.

Assumes historical mean for each county.

REFERENCES

Calder, F. Offshore oil and natural gas: a gift from the sea or community
burden? Florida environmental and urban issues. Vol. V, No. 6. Ft.
Lauderdale, FL: FAU - FIU Joint Center for Environmental and Urban Prob-
lems; August 1978.

Calonius, E. The Florida economy: eighty-one. Florida trend economic year-
book 1981: the benefit and burden of Florida's population growth, St.
Petersburg, FL: Florida Trend, Inc.; April 1981.

Crew, D. Promoting rental housing: the Collier County experience (Florida
environmental and urban issues, volume VII, numbers); Fort Lauderdale,
FL: Florida Atlantic University & Florida International University Joint
Center for Environmental and Urban Issues; August 1978.

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Office of Electrical Power Regulation.
Power pooling in the southeast region. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office; August 1981.

Florida Chamber of Commerce. Directory of Florida industries, 1980. Talla-
hassee, FL: Florida Department of Commerce; 1980.

Florida Coastal Coordinating Council. Florida coastal zone: land use and
ownership. Tallahassee, FL: Prepared by seven participating Florida
universities and the Martin-Marietta Corporation; 1970.

Florida Department of Commerce, Division of Economic Development. Florida
county comparisons/1980. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Com-
merce; 1980.

Florida Department of Environmental Regulation. Florida surface impoundment
assessment, final report. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Envi-
ronmental Regulation; January 1980.

Florida Department of Environmental Regulation. Computer printout of data on
status of wastewater discharge for each county in the State and treatment
capacity needs through the year 2000. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Depart-
ment of Environmental Regulation; 1981.

Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group. 1980 ten-year plan. State of Flor-
ida: electrical generating facilities, demand and energy, fuels. Talla-
hassee, FL: Florida Electric Power Coordinating Group; September 1980.

Florida Public Service Commission. Statistics of the Florida electric utility
companies. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Public Service Commission; 1980.

Florida Public Service Commission. Comparative cost statistics, regulated
industries: electric-gas-telephone-rail-water-sewer. Tallahassee, FL:
Florida Public Service Commission; January 1981.

Hager, K. & RuBino, R. Mobile home locations and trends in Calhoun County,
Florida. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University; 1978.

Hoedecker, Elizabeth A. The development of the State of Florida's outer con-
tinental shelf policy. Tallahassee, FL: State of Florida, Office of the
Governor; November 1980.

Industrial Development Research Council. Industrial development reports.
Atlanta, GA: Conway Publications; bi-monthly reports from 1977 through
mid-1980.

Levin, Deron. Southwest region: Florida Trend economic yearbook 1981: the
benefit and burden of Florida's population growth. St. Petersburg, FL:
Florida Trend, Inc.; April 1981.

Lochmoeller, D.C., et al . Industrial development handbook. Washington, DC:
Urban Land Institute; 1975.

Miller, A. Florida trend economic yearbook 1981: the benefit and burden of
Florida's population growth. St. Petersburg, FL: Florida Trend, Inc.;
April 1981.

Myhra, D. Energy plant sites: community planning for large projects. At-
lanta, GA: Conway Publications, Inc.; 1980.

Thompson, R.G. , et al . (eds.). Florida statistical abstract. Gainesville,
FL: University of Florida; 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Water resources study; northwest Florida
region. Mobile, AL: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; July 1978.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Northwest Florida Urban Study: summary report.
Mobile, AL: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; May 1980a.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Water resources study: Escambia-Yellow River
Basins. Mobile, AL: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; May 1980b.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of housing: 1950,
Vol. I, Part 2. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1951.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1960 census of population,
housing characteristics for states, cities, and counties. Vol. 1,
Part 11, Florida. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office;
1961.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1970 census of population
housing characteristics for states, cities, and counties. Vol. 1,
Part 11, Florida. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office;
1971.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1980 census of population
and housing: Florida — final population and housing unit counts. Wash-
ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1981a.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. County business patterns,
1979: Florida. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; March
1981b.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis. Northwest Florida
industrial water supply requirements. Mobile, AL: U.S. Corps of Engi-
neers; 1979.

U.S. Geological Survey. Industrial, irrigation, and other water needs.
Mobile, AL: U.S. Corps of Engineers; 1979.

100

SOCIOECONOMIC TRENDS IN AGRICULTURE

Dr. Frederick W. Bel 1

Professor of Economics

and

Matthew W. Addison

Research Associate

Department of Economics

Florida State University

Tallahassee, FL 32306

AGRICULTURE IN FLORIDA - AN OVERVIEW

Agriculture in Florida has traditionally been a major source of income
and employment. Employment in forest and agricultural production and agricul-
tural support services, such as machinery sales and service, has risen from
about 91,646 employees in 1963 to 127,589 in 1978. From 1954 to 1978, real
agricultural income (1967 dollars) rose 145% ($769.0 million to $1.9 billion).
Farm income includes cash receipts, government payments, non-money income, and
other farm income.

The warm climate and abundant rainfall has given Florida farmers an ad-
vantage over many other states. The area of Florida is about 37.5 million
acres of which 3.1 million acres are rivers, lakes, and other water areas.
The land area available for farm, industrial, and urban use is about 34.4 mil-
lion acres. In 1978, there were 13.4 million acres of farm land and 15.5
million acres of forests. The two together make up about 84% of Florida's
land area.

PRODUCTION TRENDS

In 1978 Florida ranked 11th (Table 1) in the Nation in terms of cash
receipts ($3.2 billion) from agricultural products (Greene et al . 1980). Cash
receipts is income from the sale of agricultural products by the farmer to
wholesalers and retailers. Excluding livestock production, Florida in 1978
ranked fifth nationally with total cash receipts of $2.4 billion (Greene et
al . 1980). Prior to 1976, Florida's six major agricultural products were
(1) oranges, (2) cattle and calves, (3) dairy products, (4) tomatoes,
(5) grapefruit, and (6) forest products. After 1975, sugarcane surpassed
grapefruit in value of cash receipts. A more precise classification of agri-
cultural products is given in Table 2. Average each farm receipts for major
farm products for Florida are available from the Florida Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Farm products are composed of
field crops (vegetables, fruits, and nuts), greenhouse and nursery products,
and livestock and forest products. Unless otherwise stated, the term agricul-
ture or forest products does not include commercial forestry.

Cash receipts from farm products grown in Florida have increased substan-
tially since the mid-1950' s. Receipts in 1979 were about $3.9 billion in
current (1978) dollars or $1.8 billion in real dollars (1967 = 100). The
retail value of all agricultural and forest products was about $10.9 billion

101

in 1979 according to the University of Florida (Economic data for Florida
Agriculture 1975-80). Crops are by far the most important farm income, com-
prising 50.4% ($5.5 billion) of the total retail value. Forest products con-
tributed 27.5% ($3.0 billion) of the total retail value of farm products,
livestock products contributed 14.1%, and farm products (e.g., turf, alliga-
tors, catfish) contributed 8%. This pattern of product composition has
remained relatively unchanged over the last two decades. The retail value of
the major farm products are given in Table 3.

Prior to 1970, a large percentage of Florida products such as livestock,
grains, and milk has gone to local consumption and Florida has been a net im-
porter of many types of produce. Citrus has long been an export crop for
Florida, but in 1975-79 the State began exporting other agricultural products,
which have grown steadily and will continue to be an important part of Flor-
ida's economic base. Total agricultural exports to foreign countries exclud-
ing forest products at the wholesale level were approximately $529 million in
current dollars in 1979, up $245.4 million since 1975. Fruit and related
products have been the major export product constituting 52.8% ($279.4 mil-
lion) of 1979 total foreign exports. Citrus and processed citrus products.

Table 1. Cash receipts (millions of dollars) and national ranking in paren-
theses of Florida's major agricultural products in 1978 (Institute for Food
and Agricultural Sciences 1980).

Cattle and Greenhouse Dairy Florida

Field crops Oranges calves products products Tomatoes Total

3,239 (11) 2,383 (5) 358 (25) 271 (2) 247 (12) 189 (2) 3,239 (11)

Table 2. Agricultural, livestock, and forest product classification for
Florida (Addison 1981).

Vegetables Field crops Fruits and nuts Greenhouse Livestock Forest

Tomatoes

Sugar cane

Oranges

Chrysanthe-
mums

Sweetcorn

Corn

Grapefruit

Gladiolus

Potatoes

Soybeans

Temples

Gypsophil ia

Peppers

Peanuts

Limes

Statice

Watermelons

Tobacco

Tangerines

Orchids

Cabbage

Cotton

Avocados

Snap beans

Pecans

Cattle and
calves
Dairy
Swine

Eggs

Poultry

Honey

Horses

Pulp
wood
Sawlogs
Veneer

102

Table 3. Retail value of Florida agricultural and forest products (in thou-
sands of current dollars) in 1975 (Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences 1980).

Product 1975

Crops

Fruits and nuts 1,985,248

Vegetables 1,327,684

Field crops 1,265,881

Nursery 556,350

Total crops 5,135,163

Livestock

Meat animals 388,955

Dairy 395,947

Poultry and eggs 270,278

Other 126,198

Total livestock 1,181,378

Other agriculture^ 851,070

Forest products 1,714,285

Total retail value 8,881,896

Includes government payments, horses, game birds, alligators, catfish, and
others.

predominantly frozen orange juice concentrate (FOJC), make up the bulk of
interstate and foreign fruit exports. In order of sales, the other foreign
farm exports are vegetables ($67.8 million), soybeans and related products
($39.3 million), tobacco ($17.6 million), and feed grains ($16.4 mill ion). A
comparison of foreign agricultural exports for Florida and the United States
for 1975 and 1979 are given in Table 5. Florida alone accounts for 26.8% of
U.S. fruit exports. In 1975-79 the real value of Florida's foreign exports
grew 38.1%, whereas U.S. exports grew only 14.0%. Florida is currently ex-
porting about 13.6% of the value of it's total agricultural products to
foreign markets, and the amount is steadily growing. Agriculture exports
account for 11.8% of Florida's foreign exports.

In 1954-78, production of Florida agricultural products increased sub-
stantially. For example, tomato production increased 237%; oranges, 91%;
milk, 144%; and cattle and calves, 35%. The percentage changes of the State's
major agricultural commodities in 1954-78 are given in Table 5.

103

Florida's crops and livestock are produced by 35,100 farms and ranches
plus a large network of support industries such as transportation, marketing,
processing, and supply. Farms and ranches range from traditional small family
or individually-owned operations to a few large-scale multimillion dollar cor-
porate farms. According to the 1978 Census of Agriculture, individual or
family farms made up 83% of total farms as opposed to 6.3% for corporate
farms. This pattern has remained relatively stable over the last decade.
Wilcox et al . (1974) concluded that large corporate farms are not displacing
the private individual or family farms. They contend that many of the corpor-
ate farms are owned and operated by families and individuals and still exhibit
the characteristics of family farms.

The "real" cash value of Florida's agriculture refers to trends which
have been adjusted for overall inflation in the economy. Production has ex-
panded (Table 6), real prices have fallen, and the real value of production
has increased. Although the increase in farm prices did not keep pace with

Table 4. United States and Florida agricultural exports in millions of cur-
rent dollars for fiscal years 1975 and 1979 (Greene et al . 1980).

1975

1979

Commodity

U.S.

Florida

U.S.

Florida

Livestock products

Meat animals

381.9

3.2

844.1

9.5

Dairy products

143.0

0.6

116.1

0.4

Poultry and eggs

112.0

2.6

368.1

9.9

Hides and skins

393.3

3.9

1,302.7

14.0

Lard and tallow

400.6

5.2

704.8

9.9

Crops

Wheat

,236.8

0.7

4,862.0

0.3

Feedgrains

,858.3

14.6

7,026.1

16.4

Cotton

,054.5

0.4

1,900.0

0.7

Cottonseed oil

213.5

0.1

197.5

0.1

Tobacco

897.3

20.3

1,292.2

17.6

Soybeans and products

,376.0

21.0

7,515.0

39.3

Peanuts and oil

166.2

7.2

284.8

13.2

Vegetables and preparations

533.9

34.8

756.2

67.8

Fruits and preparations

674.6

141.3

1,042.4

279.4

Nuts and preparations

151.6

0.4

327.0

0.9

Other agriculture and fisheries

Greenhouse and nursery

16.6

1.2

^•^a

14. o'

Fishery products

319.8

5.0

520.5

Other

,632.9

21.1

2,550.6

35.1

Total agriculture and fisheries

,562.8

283.6

31,619.3

529.4

Figures for 1978.

104

Table 5. Percentage change of agricultural commodity production from 1954 to
1978 (Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Annual field and crop
summaries 1967-78, and Vegetable summaries, 1954, 1960-80).

Percentage

Commodity

decrease

Commodity

increase

Potatoes

Soybeans

2,658

Celery

Sugarcane

650

Hogs

Peanuts

260

Oats

Tomatoes

237

Tobacco

Corn (grain and feed)

227

Snap beans

Milk

144

Cotton

Sweetcorn

141

Green peppers

109

Oranges

inflation, the expansion in production offset the declining real prices
resulting in a rise in the real value of agricultural production. The strong
demand for Florida's agricultural products coupled with rising productivity
has increased employment in Florida. Although production has increased, the
number of farms and farmland has declined. A detailed analysis of this change
is reported later in this report. The number of farms from 1954 to 1979 de-
creased from 57,543 to 35,100 (39%), and the land area in farms declined from
18.1 million acres to 13.4 million acres (26%). These acreages include crop-
land, pasture, woodland, and other noncultivated land. In 1954-78, the area
of cropland increased 32.9%, whereas the area of pasture and woodlands fell
69.4% (Table 7). Acreage in crops has fallen for corn, cotton, eggplant,
oats, peanuts, strawberries, tobacco, tomatoes and others, and has increased
for celery, sweetcorn, escarole, green peppers, and lettuce. The decline in
agricultural land area in Florida can best be explained by considering other
factors of production such as capital, labor, fertilizer, and energy. The
increased demand for land was brought about primarily by the great increase in
population and its attendant needs, which has raised the opportunity cost of
holding land. Opportunity cost is value of the best potential rent or revenue
foregone by not renting or selling farmland. Because the price of land has
risen faster than wages and the cost of capital, farms used less land and more
labor and capital. For example, in 1975-79 land and building prices rose
53.6%, machinery prices rose 46.6%, and wages rose 38% (for the trend in these
prices see Table 11) .

The introduction of new machinery has made the cultivation of large farms
more efficient and less costly per acre than smaller farms. Consequently, many
small farms are absorbed as the demand for large-scale operations increases.
This trend explains why the average acreage per farm steadily increased in
1954-78. Many of the innovations that have contributed to the phenomenal
growth in farm production and farming methods have aroused public concern; the
increase in the application of chemicals, fertilizers, and pesticides have

10b

Table 6. The number of farms and the area (thousands of acres)^ of farm
lands and use in intermittent years, 1954-78 (U.S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Census, Census of Agriculture Annual summaries for 1954-79; Florida
Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Annual field and crop summary 1979).

Number

Area

Land

Pasture and

Other

Year

of farms

in farms

Cropland

woodland

land use

1954

57,543

18,162

3,398

9,853

4,910

1959

45,100

15,237

3,401

7,672

4,164

1964

40,542

15,412

3,581

7,257

4,573

1969

35,586

14,032

3,774

4,817

5,441

1974

32,466.
35,100

13,199

3,722

4,019

5.459

1978

13,435

4,519

3,015

5,901

Not fully comparable for all years because of differences in definition of a
.farm and of cropland used for pasture.
Data for 1979.

caused water pollution in some areas of Florida. This topic will be discussed
in detail later in this report.

The increase in farming technology in recent years in the United States
has caused a decline in farm employment (Greene et al . 1980). Florida is an
exception. Employment in agriculture has increased because many of Florida's
crops can not yet be cultivated or cropped mechanically. Any increase in
demand for farm products, such as oranges and grapefruit, creates an increase
in the demand for labor and other nonmechanical inputs. The exceptions are
the animal industries and some field crops that use mechanization as a substi-
tute for labor.

MAJOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

Citrus and Other Fruits

Citrus fruits, the State's main agricultural product, accounts for over
30 percent of all farm cash receipts (Greene et al . 1980). Florida is the
Nation's largest supplier of oranges and is among the world's largest fruit
producers. Other fruits are grapefruit, lemons, limes, avocados, mangos,
peaches, and berries. When compared to citrus fruits, other fruit crops are
relatively small and few are exported. Most citrus fruit is not marketed
fresh as are other fruits, but is processed into frozen concentrate. In
1954-78 the cash receipts of citrus crops increased sharply, but total acreage
fell. Loss of citrus fruit acreage was due primarily to the conversion of
land to phosphate mining and urbanization.

106

Vegetables

Florida excel Is in other agricultural products and between October and
June is the Nation's leading supplier of many fresh vegetables. Their abun-
dance in order of importance are tomatoes, sweetcorn, celery, potatoes, and
peppers. The State is ranked second in the Nation in the production of toma-
toes. Florida's unique climate permits the growth of both cool weather and
warm weather vegetables at the same time.

The percentage growth in vegetable production has matched the growth in
the State's population until recently. This was due largely to the conversion
of farm acreage to urbanization and a decline in yield per acre. The implica-
tion of this trend is that a greater share of vegetable production is consumed
locally and less is exported.

Nursery Products

The newest and fastest growing of Florida's agricultural sectors are
nursery and ornamental horticulture products such as gladiolus and foliage.
In this regard, Florida ranks second in the Nation. In 1978 estimated cash
receipts were about $271.1 million in real dollars (1967 = 100), up nearly 18%
since 1974. Florida is the world's leading producer of foliage plants,
accounting for over 75% of the U.S. production. Much of Florida's cut foliage
is exported to florists in Europe and Canada. Florida is second in production
among the states for flowering plants, gladiolus, chrysanthemums, sypeophila,
poinsettas, orchids, and other similar plants. Florida is the Nation's sole
supplier of some of the 300 varieties of plants in this industry (Greene
et al. 1980).

Animal Husbandry

Animal husbandry is another major sector of agriculture. Excluding
forestry, it is the most land intensive sector and is the fastest changing
agricultural industry. Rising land values have spurred research to increase
productivity by using new feeds, nutrients, and animal breeds. The value
($358 million) of Florida's cattle and calf production in 1978 was second only
to oranges in the State and was ranked 25th in the Nation. The egg and poul-
try industry's cash receipts were $184.2 million, and dairy products were
$247.3 million. According to the Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting Serv-
ice, annual dairy summaries (1970-80); poultry summaries (1960-80); livestock
summaries (1960-80), Florida imports beef, lamb, pork, milk, and poultry to
meet it's needs, but exports eggs.

Forestry

Forests, the major land use in the State, occupy 15.5 million acres, or
45% of the State's land. In 1978, real cash receipts of forest products were
about $61.4 million. Real income increased 18% in 1975-78. Over 50% of Flor-
ida's forest land is controlled by non-industrial users (noncorporate owners).
The bulk of commercial forests and wood processing and manufacturing plants is
located in north and west Florida. Forest products have the largest retail
markup of any agricultural products, i.e., 2,500% from the tree to the con-
sumer. Sawlogs and pulpwood are the major products from the State's timber
industry.

107

Although this study is concerned largely with the socioeconomic aspects
of agriculture, there are other considerations. Many other jobs, businesses,
and other sources of income stem from agriculture. Examples are the feed,
fertilizer, and machinery industries that support farming and processing in-
dustries, transportation, papermills, services and industries, and others that
derive their existence from Florida ranchers and farmers. These subjects are
discussed in the following section.

AGRICULTURE IN NORTHWEST FLORIDA

The northwest Florida coastal region (referred to as Northwest Florida in
this report) consists of seven counties. It has a land area of 5,542 mi ,
which is about 10.2% of the State total. According to the Florida Crop and
Livestock Reporting Service (FCLR), Northwest Florida is a major producer of
field crops. The FCLR reports data only for counties that are major pro-
ducers. Data for no more than four northwest coastal region counties were
reported for any one crop. Northwest Florida is a major producer of field
corn, soybeans, wheat, peanuts, cotton, poultry, and forest products. For-
estry accounts for the major share of the land and income, and forestry and
agriculture are among the major industries in this area of the State.

In 1978, the farm land area of Northwest Florida was 442,291 acres, only
3.3% of the State total. Data from Franklin County were excluded because of
the virtual absence of farming there.

The land of Northwest Florida is gently sloping or flat. The climate,
soil, and topography is best for growing field crops. The weather is general-
ly moderate and and air temperatures range from a high of 90°-95°F in June to
August to a low of 20°-30°F in January through March (Florida Statistical Ab-
stract 1980). The annual average temperature of the region in 1979 was
66.9°F. The average annual precipitation was 60 inches and the precipitation
among the counties ranged from a low of 1 to 2 inches in March and June to 7
to 20 inches in the rainy season (July - September). The combination of pre-
cipitation and air temperatures combined with aquodo soil keeps the soil moist
and favorable for pasture, range, woodland, and field crops.

Based on 1979 statistics, farm acreage in Northwest Florida is less than
50% of the potential (Florida House of Representatives Committee on Agricul-
ture 1981b). According to the Soil Conservation Service, Florida had 1.4
million acres in prime farmlands. Prime land is the best suited for crop
farming. It is generally flat or gently sloping land with good drainage, and
subject to little or no erosion. According to the National Agricultural Lands
Study, prime farmland is highly productive, yet requires the least amount of
energy, fertilizer, and labor to cultivate. Four of the seven Northwest Flor-
ida counties have prime farm acreage. These counties, in order of acreage and
cash farm receipts in 1979, are Santa Rosa (116,335 acres), Escambia (106,170
acres), Walton (69,113 acres), Okaloosa (30,962 acres), and Gulf (1,777
acres). Combined, they makeup 342,357 acres of prime land. Franklin County
contributed a minor portion of prime farmland and farm receipts.

108

FARM NUMBERS, SIZE, AND VALUE

The trend in agriculture is towards fewer and larger farms. There were
about 5,011 farms and ranches in Northwest Florida in 1954, (about 8.7% of the
State's agricultural area). Their combined area was 442,491, acres about 3.3%
of the total agricultural acreage in Northwest Florida. Forested lands and
farmland combined total 3,257,382 acres or 47.8% of Northwest Florida's land
area. The number of farms decreased from 5,011 to 1,952 in 1954-74, but in-
creased to 2,026 in 1978 (Table 7). The decline in farms from 1954-78 was
59%. From 1954 to 1978, the area of forested lands declined less then 3%.

The number of farms and farm area (Table 9) declined faster in Northwest
Florida than in the State. Northwest Florida accounted for 8.7% of the farms
and 3.6% of the farm land in Florida in 1954, but only 5.4% in 1978. All
counties reported a decrease in the number of farms and all but Gulf County
showed a decrease in farm acreage. The declines can be attributed to a change
in the definition of a farm for reporting, economic factors and the loss of
prominence of cotton and tobacco, major area crops. Since 1974 the Bureau of
the Census has defined a farm as any place with sales of at least $1,000 in
agricultural products in the previous year. Prior to 1974, a farm was defined
as any place of less than 10 acres or more with sales of at least $50 the
previous year, or any place of less than 10 acres with at least $250 sales in
the previous year. This change in definition undoubtably causes problems of
interpretation of differences, yet the trends seem to be reasonably clear.

The average farm in Northwest Florida is and has been smaller than the
average Florida farm (Table 8). Region farms primarily are small family oper-
ations which have been handed down for generations. In 1954, the average farm
was 132 acres in Northwest Florida and 316 for the State. By 1978, the aver-
age acreage in Northwest Florida declined 66% to 218 acres, the State average
dropped to 304 acres (3.6%).

For socioeconomic purposes, the composition of annual farm sales or sale
receipts is highly useful (Table 9). Although the acreage between the regions
and States is widely different, the percentage of farms in the same income
categories are remarkably similar.

In the 1954-78, the value of farms (land and buildings) also increased.
In current dollars the 1978 value of the Northwest Florida farms was $326.6
million, 21% of the State total. The real value of farms in Northwest Florida
(1967 =100) rose about 76% from about 95.0 million in 1969 to 167.3 million in
1978. The value of land is determined, as in most other commodities, by
supply and demand. Since the supply of farmland is relatively fixed, the
demand for land for urbanization, recreation, phosphate mining, industrializa-
tion, and farming are the major contributing factors to land value.

Land to the farmer is a capital asset and a source of annual income. It
draws its value from the prospect of cultivation and future sale. The value
of a farm is equal to the NPV (net present value) of the future earnings from
cultivation. To the nonfarm user, land value is drawn from the development
potential, natural beauty, proximity to retail, commercial or service points,
and mineral deposits. The value to these users is the net present value of
the future earnings from farm and mineral products.

109

re>

-o

Z <c

^—

J-

-M

r—

•^

+->

J-

o«a:

•z.

«4-

it-

(/)

•^

+->

«_>

0) ^

4-'

■u

M-

•r-

^-^

</)

■M

• *>

S-

Q-E

•■-

<U <4-

CT> O

<fl

■M

S-

<T3

■M

ex.

(1) o

•

Sw^

(O 00

<<- r^

CT>

<4- rH

■o

s- c

<U (O

*— ^

E "

r-~

3 -^

c r^

"d-

<U ,-1

<Ti

r->

t— "

■^

<x>

• <n

r~. .— 1

QJ ••

.— en

• r—

ja un

S-

ro en

(T5

Lf)

#^*^^-*^

CD ^— ^^— ^^— ^

,^-~*

^^N

CM VO

kJ- t-H P^ VO

•> o CTv in

i-H CM »-l CM

f— 1

— « —

^«

- —

' —

CO un

en CM

1 CM r>~ i-H CO
1 «d- CO en CO
1 n »3- -sj-

CM
O

IT)
I— 1

«*
**

CM cM^-^en in 1-t t>^
^ 00 in «.-H 00 00

CM •— t ^ 1-H CM I— 1 t-H

in "e}- to t-i r^ r^ CM

r^ en CO o evj i-H

«;!■ ^ in «3-

in
en

I— 1

CM
CO

CM en CO CM r-~ CO CT»
*i- CO CTi 00 en ex3 r^

CM t-H ^ CM »-•.—( CM

en p-- c» o in r^ vo

00 r- in CO CO CM

in CO in in

t— 1

CSJ

•t

r^ r^ CM CO t-t o ID

CO cr> "CM 0^ lO VD
CM 1— 1 .— 1 i-H f-l r-H •— 1

CO
CO

—

' — '

<n CM in CO r^ «a- r-H

CO ^ I— 1 VO ^ CM "*
5— 1 lO ^ ID 1^

I-H

O «d- O in CM •-• ID

r«- r-^ ^ ^ CO CO ID

•— I .— I ID ^ >— I I-H •— '

o CM r~. 00 00 <x> in
e» CO CM ID en «;r in
I-H r^ in CO r^

r^ 00 CM 00 o I-H r^

ID I-H in ^ CM O CO

f-H I-H ID ^ I-H I-H I-H

«* «3- ID 00 CO CM ^
ID CO CO en ID O 1-H
CM CO 00 CM CM

I-H

•

I-H

rtj

■a

I/)

re C IT) o

•I- •!- (/) q;

.£3 1— to c

E -^ O n3 o

to C H- r— 4-> 4->

>-) O (Or— re C r-

ro 00 S- 3 -^ <a (O

CO UJ U. tD O «/1 3

r-H

I-H

«i-

■o

"1—

^—

+->

•r-

■4->

■»->

-(->

<_>

I/)

to
c
<u
o

p~.

110

T3
C •

^ I
en tn

CT^ s-

vo o

CTi .—
.— 1 iC

»• C
^ C
LO <C

t-H O)

S-
C 3

<T3 3

-a o

•r- T-

o en
I— <

+-> o
I/)

0) to

.c to

+J c

S- QJ

o o

<4- to

O 3
to

I/) C

O) (U

•r- t_3

3 O

IT3

I/)

(U O)
-c: o
■t-> s-

c E

••- e
o
<_)

1/1 M-
<L) o
S_

o +->
03 C

E
fO +->
QJ S-
S- (O
(t> Q.
0)
E Q

<o •

CTl

r^ ,— I to cri n un
csj <Ti • to o >— < 00
I — i~^ Q ro CTl I — ^ CJ^

(Ti to
I— I i^

: to r~- to ^

^ r-- CTv CM

CO
CO

LO «:1- O t^ CM CT^ t— <

tn «d- I — to CM ^ «d-

.—I 00 CM CO ^ CM CM

00 CTl

T-H CO

o~i 1^ LO CO

LO CO CT> >— '

CTl

to
en

(Ti
LO
CTl

CM CTl OO LO r-H <Ti O
O 00 ^ O 00 CTl ^
LO C J CT^ I— • CTl to <Ti

I— I c» CO «5f LO r^ to
CM o i-H r^ o ^

CM 1^ CM O LO r- LO

CO o T-H to LO ^a- to
CTl r^ <— I 1""^ ^ ■— ' <Ti

#\ tfS »l * •» •* •*

CM to 00 "—I LO CTl CM
CO CM .—I <X3 CTl CM

CTl

■el-

CO
O
00

^1-

CTi
LO

CO
CTl

00
CTl

to r^ ^ CTl CM CM CM

CO CM I — r^ to 00 CTl
to o CM CM r~

O to I^ C3 00 O
CO CO •— I CO I — >— '

•t

I— 1

>»

<u •

+->

r- CO

^ r~-

03 cn

1— r-<

<_>

CM O ^ 00 ta- CM "IT

00 o CO CM o 00 LO
T— I cn ^ cn 00 cn LO

^ to CO CO CO O to
^ LO CM 'i- CD CM to

03 C 03 O

•r- -1- t/5 Qi

^ .— O C

E -i^ O 03 O

03 =<<-.— ■»->■•->

>, O 03 r— 03 C I—

03 (/) S- 3 -^ OS (O

CQ LU U_ tS O OO 3

CO
00

o
o

1/5

o
o

cn
to

■o

s-
o

o
o

•r—

■o

«3

E
o

CD
03
O)
S-
CJ
OJ

C
03

■•->

3
CT
T3
03

S- •
« <D
M- S-

^- +->

o ,—

c o

o •'-

•I- s-

■M cn

03 <C

O >4-

1— o
>, to

-•-> 3

c to

3 C
O O)

o o

C 00

o r-.

"O •-"

to >>

IB S-
J3 O)

c
to •>-

03 I—

03 S_
Q Q-
03 -Q

•^

1 ^

•'"

■»->

•r-

^—

•

03-

M-

t— 1

t(-

.— 1

,~.

(/I

t/1

+->

S-

■l->

•^

v^^

4->

S-

Q-

•

-o

•

r-^

M-

•r—

■o

'r—

r—

■z.

U-

■t->

•

-C

+->

o
o
o

CD
CM

cn
<n
cn

.—I

o
o
o

CO
CM

I —

^- o
<n »— <

r- CO

00 CO

I— I t^

cn
en
cn

LO
I

o
o
o

cn
cn
cn

O
O

LO
CM

to
s_ e

QJ ^
XJ 03

E 4-

CM CM

cn CO

CM ^

CM
CO

CM to

CO LO

to cn

.-H

««

03
QJ

S-

c
o

to
QJ

■o

3
•(->

3
O

QJ
C_5

1-
Q.
03

111

If for any reason the costs are lowered or demand for the product in-
creases, then the net present value increases. Population increases raise the
demand for land for both farm and nonfarm use; however, on urban fringes the
demand for nonfarm use of the land usually is greater. The farmer would sell
his land if the revenue from the sale exceeds the net present value of further
cultivation.

The generalized farm production function is Q = f (L, K, T, C, E) where
the quantity of output (Q) is a function of the inputs labor (L), capital (K),
land (T), chemical and fertilizers (C) and energy (E). There are many combi-
nations of inputs which yield a given level of output. The farmer usually
will use the least-cost combination of inputs that yields a given level of
output. The farmer also will adjust the combination of inputs as their costs
change or as the productivity (technological change) of outputs changes (e.g.,
more efficient capital).

Relative prices, expressed as index numbers (Table 10) paid by farmers
for selected inputs in 1975-79 demonstrates that real land values have in-
creased 53.6% whereas machinery prices have only increased 46.6%, wages have
increased 38%, and the cost of fertilizers and chemicals have declined. Total
input costs (excluding land value) rose only 37.2% (Greene et al . 1980). This
relative increase in the price of land over other inputs accounts for the sub-
stitution of these inputs such as labor and machinery for land. These results
are consistent with the hypothesis that Florida farmers have substituted
labor, capital, and fertilizers for land as the price of land has risen rela-
tive to the other input prices. The practice has increased the unit produc-
tivity of land.

Table 10. Index number of prices paid by farmers for production items, inter-
est, taxes, and wage rates in the United States for 1075-79 (Green et al .
1980).

Production items

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

Feed

187

191

186

183

204

Feeder livestock

134

154

158

221

293

Seed

245

241

261

273

286

Fertil izer

217

285

181

180

196

Agricultural chemicals

174

157

147

150

Fuels and energy

177

187

202

211

276

Farm and motor supplies

168

164

165

171

189

Autos and trucks

191

212

234

248

273

Tractors and self-propelled

machinery

195

217

238

259

289

Other machinery

197

225

246

266

293

Building and fences

206

215

229

248

272

Farm services and cash rent

199

218

235

245

265

Interest

265

303

331

396

501

Taxes

162

176

195

207

221

Farm wage rates

192

210

226

242

265

112

The growth of income generated by farming compared to the growth in farm
land value is another consideration. Many farms are transfered by older fam-
ily members to young members. The income from production is used to pay off
the older family members control of the farm. If the earning power of a farm
does not keep pace with the growth of the farm's value over time, it becomes
exceedingly more difficult to purchase the farm on a payback basis from farm
income. In 1954, the ratio percentage of cash receipts for agricultural pro-
ducts to value of land and buildings was 19.6% in Northwest Florida and 18.0%
for all of Florida. In 1978, the percentage of cash receipts was 14.2% and
19.8 respectively.

Agricultural land is disappearing nationwide, in Florida, and the North-
west Florida. It is anticipated that this pattern will continue and the rate
of change in land use may even be accelerated as population growth increases
the demand for more land.

FARM INCOME, EXPENSES, AND CONSUMER DEMAND

This section explains many of the concepts that are important for analyz-
ing the value of agriculture and forestry in Florida and how they relate to
Northwest Florida. Historically farmers have earned less than the average
worker, but this breach is being rapidly closed. For example, farm income per
person once was 25% less than nonfarm income (Wilcox et al . 1974). Florida's
farm income rose steadily in 1954-79 to $4.1 billion. Since 1954, Florida's
total personal real income grew 454%, real farm income grew 145%, per capita
income grew 145%, but the cost of living increased 170%.

Historically, farmers have, as an economic group, generally earned less
than the average American worker, but this breach is rapidly being closed.
For example, in 1970, farm income per person was 25% less than nonfarm income
(Wilcox et al. 1974). Farm income is based on cash receipts, government pay-
ment, nonmoney income, land rental, and farm services.

The American farmer is finding it more and more difficult to make a living
at farming. Some are seeking second jobs or receive income from land rental
and farm services provided to others. Income from land rental and farm serv-
ices has helped soften erosion of farm income.

Gross farm income depends on the quantity of output, and farm prices.
Farm output has risen, but real prices at the farm level, as opposed to the
retail level, have continued to fall, reflecting greater production and pro-
fits per acre. Yet any large increase in production brought about by new
technology helps lower prices. Farm prices are less stable than farm produc-
tion costs, and this tends to make net farm income fluctuate greater than
gross farm income. The trends in gross and real farm income in 1954-78 are
shown in Table 11.

Information on total farm income for Southwest Florida is unavailable.
Because cash receipts from marketing farm products contribute a majority of
total income, they are, therefore, used as a proxy. In 1974-77, cash receipts
from farm products were about $471 million in current dollars in 1978, up
nearly 65% since 1974. The real dollar value of the cash receipts has not

113

risen as rapidly. In 1974-78, real cash receipts have fallen as inflation
outpaced earnings. Farmers are better off now than before, but this came
about only because the real prices of many farm products have steadily
dec! ined.

Government support payments, another component of farm income, steadily
increased from a low of 3.2 million current dollars in 1954 to a high of 20.8
million current dollars in 1977. The real value of government payments peaked
in 1964 and have steadily declined since. The original intent of these sup-
port payments was to stabilize farm income by providing relief from widely
fluctuating commodity prices. Although providing a temporary solution, sup-
port payments have, in some cases, aggravated the problem in the long run.
For some of the State and regional products, support payments are compensation
whenever the farmer sells below a standard price. In essence, an artificial
price above the natural market price is maintained which induces area farmers
and ranchers to increase production, further lowering the market price, and
widening the gap between the natural and artificial price. These payments
appear to encourage low unit production.

Table 11. Florida farm income (millions of dollars adjusted to 1967 = 100)
for intermittent years from 1954 to 1978 (Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting
Service. Annual summaries for 1955, 1959, 1960, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1976, 1977,
1978).

Year

Gross farm
income

Florida

Real gross
farm income

Real .
farm income'^

1954

618.6

1960

853.7

1965

1,064.2

1970

1,387.9

1975

2,628.0

1976

2,637.8

1977

2,785.5

1978

3,401.0

Perce

ntage

increase

768.4
762.5
1,124.9
1,201.9
1,663.8
1,547.1
1,543.7
1,741.4

303.1
362.9
380.6
344.4
600.0
506.9
436.3
677.0

1954-78

449.7

123.3

Net income is gross income, minus production, processing, and distribution
costs.

114

Another problem is that the aggregate demand for farm products is highly
inelastic (i.e., the percentage change in the quantity demanded is always less
than the percentage change in price), yet the demand curve confronting the
individual farmer is almost perfectly elastic (i.e., the individual farmer can
sell all he wants at a given price). The farmer has little control over the
price at which he sells, but may sell all he likes at the market price. This
encourages the farmer to increase production because it is the only way income
may increase when productions costs are high and prices are low. As each
farmer strives to increase profits, market supply of farm products increases
and prices fall. Given an inelastic aggregate demand for food, a decline in
prices lowers total revenue. In the long run, the fanner is caught in a
rather vicious circle. The cobweb theorem states that farmers react dif-
ferently in the short run than in the long run. During lower prices, farmers
tend to plant less acres in the year following price cuts. Some producers
take even more drastic steps such as slaughtering livestock and destroying
crops to reduce supply and increase prices.

In recent years, the real income of Florida farmers has steadily
declined, but retail food prices have increased. The price index of food
items prepared by the Survey of Current Business rose 86% in 1959-74, but con-
sumer prices rose only about 70%. Much of the inflation in consumer prices
can be attributed to rising U.S. retail food prices. Since 1974, rising
energy costs have replaced high food prices as the major contributor to infla-
tion. The real prices of peanuts and corn have remained relatively stable
despite rising current prices. Both current and real beef prices rose during
this period. In the case of beef, it means that region farmers are receiving
more income per acre. Whereas real retail food prices have soared. In short,
while the amount of the consumers' income spent on food has risen, the amount
received by the farmer has declined.

In view of the price dilemma, farmers should know how consumers react to
a change in the price of a commodity or to a change in their income. Price
elasticity indicates the percentage change in the quantity demanded by con-
sumers when prices change as little as 1% (Table 12).

Table 12. Price and income elasticities (percentage change) of major food
groups (U.S. Department of Agriculture 1981).

Food group Price Income

Meat 0.6196 0.1212

Vegetables 0.0933 0.1816

Poultry, fish 0.6591 0.1682

Fruits 0.4134 0.2613

Eggs 0.0679 0.0625

115

Elasticities are for the demand at the retail level. If the price of
these commodities increases 1%, the price elasticities of these products indi-
cate that the quantity consumer demand would fall by 0.6196% for beef, 0.0933%
for vegetables, 0.6591% for poultry and fish, 0.4134% for fruits, and 0.0679%
for eggs (Table 13).

Should the consumer's real per capita income rise by 1%, then the demand
should increase by 0.1212% for meat, 0.1816% for vegetables, 0.1682% for poul-
try and fish, 0.2613% for fruits, and 0.0625% for eggs. These elasticities,
of course, have important implications for retail revenue and pricing
strategy.

The effects of income, the trend in real farm product prices, production,
and their implication to Southwest Florida and the State are more fully dis-
cussed in the following sections. First, they will be discussed as they apply
to individual commodities and later as they affect the entire agricultural
sector.

Agricultural resource scarcity is tied directly to trends in the real
prices of agricultural products. Scarcity can be measured by the trend in
real prices of resources according to Barnett and Morse (1963). This trend in
real prices measures the interaction of supply and demand.

Agricultural resource scarcity would mean rising real prices at the
wholesale level causing a diminishing return from the land. The ultimate
burden will be on the consumer if the standard of living declines.

FARM EXPENSES

Real farm expenses currently are growing faster than real farm income.
Real total expenses in 1978 for Florida farmers were $1,049 million and are
growing at an annual rate of 3.9%, but real farm income is growing 3.2%. The
difference is caused by the general decline in real farm prices and the in-
creasing real costs of production.

A decline in prices is preceded by the sale of an additional unit of
output (marginal revenue), yet most real costs have been rising. Interest
prices rose 89% in 1975-79 followed by increases in energy prices (55%), farm
machinery (46.5%), and farm wages (38%). Fertilizers and agricultural chemi-
cal costs have fallen 9.6% and 6.2%, respectively.

Pesticides, Fertilizers and Agricultural Chemicals

The costs of agricultural chemicals, fertilizers, and pesticides gener-
ally declined in 1975 to 1979, but since then costs have begun to rise. Only
the price of limestone has remained stable. In 1978 in Northwest Florida,
farmers spent $12 million real dollars on fertilizer, an increase of 30% since
1954, whereas the State reported an increase of 41%. In 1978, fanners also
spent $8.4 million in real dollars on other agricultural chemicals.

116

Vehicles, Machinery and Energy

In 1975-79, the real cost of vehicles, trucks, cars, tractors, and farm
implements increased. Even though the real price of tractors rose about 50%,
farmers have increased their use of tractors and other implements. The number
of tractors increased by 46% and trucks by 26%. Farmers have increased the
use of these inputs because they have substituted them for labor or land. As
machinery has become more efficient, it has allowed the farmer to lower his
use of land and labor, and because it is more productive, its cost per unit of
output is declining.

Real fuel and energy prices also have increased substantially. The cur-
rent price paid for diesel fuel rose from 10.2 cents per liter in 1975 to 25.3
cents per litter in 1979. In real prices, this was an increase from 6.9 cents
to 8.6 cents per liter. Gasoline price increases were similar to that for
diesel fuel.

Wages

The wages of farm labor in 1975-79 increased about 38%. When this is
broken down into categories, "piece rate" workers received the largest in-
crease (45%). Farmers have not decreased the use of labor overall because the
high value of land has lead them to substitute labor and capital for land in
the production of agricultural products.

To increase profits, most farmers will continue to adjust their use of
inputs as their relative prices change up to the point of technical feasibil-
ity. Farmers also will continue to increase input until the cost of an addi-
tional unit of input equals the revenue from the sale of an additional unit of
output. Most farmers will increase the use of fertilizers as long as the cost
is less than the additional revenue.

AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES

Northwest Florida accounts for little more than 2% of the State's total
cash receipts from farm products, but it accounts for a substantial portion
(14.6%) of the State's timber sales. Crops (i.e., vegetables, fruits and
field crops) accounted for 49.5% of Northwest Florida's total agricultural and
forest sales in 1978 and 1.4% of the State's total crop sales. Livestock and
poultry products accounted for 35.4% of the region's total agricultural and
forest sales, and 2.6% of the State's livestock sales. Timber accounted for
13.9% of the region's sales and 14.6%of the State's timber sales. Northwest
Florida is a major producer of soybeans, poultry and field crops such as
peanuts, wheat, corn, and cotton. Santa Rosa County alone produced 84% (3,197
bales) of the State's cotton crop. The counties ranked in order of the value
of production are Walton, Santa Rosa, Escambia, Okaloosa, Gulf, and Bay.
There are no data for Franlkin County. The value of the primary agriculture
and forestry products for the region are given in Table 13. The following
section is a detailed discussion of Northwest Florida farm commodities.

117

^— ^

eT^ 00 1

r-H

r-~

r-(

•f—

«/)

• r—

•r-

S-

4->

</^

o
o

•r—

cyi+J 1

J-

•r-

•o oc 1

s- jx:

D- O

J-

4->

•r-

-o

•t->

•r-

•o

•^

1"""

, —

• «t

en
I— <

•1—

••->-l-> 1

*t-

•r-

3
(0

l4-

««

•f—

S-

r—

4->

<+-

•s

■t->

•t->

■z.

•M

S-

t— 1

•

r—

I/O

•

rt3

C >,

J_ •■- -4->

O O C

•>T> 3 3

rO T3 O

2: O O

4->
00

O (O

+-> o
u

Q-

n3
■o

O 1— o

U_ -r-

■t-> +->

O) to 3

o O) -a

s- 5 O

<U x: (-

a. +-> Q.

s.
o

1 —

r—

J=.

•r—

<T3

o*^

-a
o

<o <o

to tn

o re o

o; to Qi

<T3 O (O 1

-I-*

+j 1— +j 1

>,.—

C rt3 C 1

rO <T3

(O ^ <o

t/)

CD 3

I/O O 00

to cvj to 00 un

o •* CO «;i- .-H •d-

o
to

CTi en tn CM CO 00 cr>

oj CO o CTi 00 CO tn

CO i-H 1— I <— 1

o
o

o en r^ en r^ r-~ <n
■— ' CO "^ tn tn Lo (n

S-

<o s-

-MC

(U O)

^—

3 S-

r—

J3 J2

• r-

C 4-

C (U

>» E

S- OJ

IT3 ^

-M

O -r-

O <U

eu -i->

00 1—

O CO

d. o

1—

4->

o
o
o

(O
O

03
O

to
CD
O

t/)
en

C7>

O
o

O)
T3

118

SOYBEANS

Soybeans were the major cash farm product in 1978. Production was 108.9
million lb, 251% greater than in 1961. This increase came about primarily
because of increased acreage rather than increased productivity. The soybean
acreage increased 225% (33,200 acres to 1.1 million acres) from 1961 to 1978.
Production per acre in 1961-78 ranged from a high of 28 bu in 1967 to a low of
21 bu in 1972. Major increases in productivity are likely only if strains of
disease resistant soybeans are developed and more productive varieties are
used. The major soybean producing counties are Santa Rosa, Escambia, and Oka-
loosa. The soybean crop is used primarily for animal feed and soybean oil and
is marketed locally and throughout the State.

The current dollar income rose from $2.63 a bushel in 1954 to $6.80 a
bushel in 1978, an increased of 158%. The real price was relatively constant
in 1954-78. Farmers could keep up with inflation only by selling more pro-
ducts as the real price of their crop was falling. Changes in consumer income
only indirectly affect the demand for soybeans. For the farmer, elastic
demands for soybeans increase total revenue as the real price falls. If the
percentage change in the quantity demanded is greater than the percentage
change in price, total revenue will increase. Most farm commodities face an
inelastic demand, but the versatility of soybeans (i.e., the numerous food and
non-food uses) creates an eleastic demand.

The demand for soybeans has increased sharply as evidence by a sharp in-
crease in the number of acres planted. A major reason for this demand has
been the development of a wide variety of new uses for soybeans. Soybeans are
made into synthetic meats, cheese, vegetable oils, and commercial animal food.
The use of soybeans also has expanded because the real price of soybeans has
remained constant whereas the real price of competitive products has in-
creased.

Timber

Northwest Florida accounted for 14.6% of the State timber harvested in
1979 and 9.7% of its value. In 1969-79, the total volume of forest saw timber
for Northwest Florida increased 85.9% (4.5 billion to 6.3 billion board ft).
During this period, total commercial forest land (2.9 million acres) in the
region decreased about 3%. The real cash value of the timber harvest in 1978
was $4.6 million. The largest producer was Bay County, which contributed
23.6% of the production.

Northwest Florida supports a multitude of forest product and marine
industries such as the large pulp and paper industries (St. Joe Paper Co. in
Gulf County and Southwest Forest Industries in Bay County) and numerous log-
gers, cabinet makers, lumber stores, and saw mills. In 1978, the real income
of forest products was $206 million, about 18.5% of the State's forest pro-
ducts income. These industries use timber for paper, pulp, lumber, chemicals,
and a host of other wood products. Increased income has come about by using
bark and wood shavings as a fuel.

Competition for other land uses has led to a reduction in commercial
forest land. In 1969-79, the area of commercial forests in Northwest Florida

119

decreased by 3%, which was less than that for the State. The smaller loss was
because of private ownership composition. About 41% of the forest land is
owned by private forest industries, and their holdings were relatively stable
in 1969-79. The area of Municipal, State, and Federal forested lands have in-
creased about 3.3%, but it is farm woodlots that has decreased in area
(357,000 acres in 1969 to 135,000 acres in 1979). Farmers have tended to hold
forest land as a reserve against unforseen cash needs, but have sold off these
lands to raise income when inflation outpaced farmers earnings or, when
feasible, they converted forest lands to pasture or cropland. In a 1973 pub-
lication the Florida Division of Forestry reported that about 45% of the
farmers in Northwest Florida were willing to sell forested lands. Owners
further south are less willing to sell.

Because the real price of timber in Northwest Florida has been rising, an
apparent scarcity exists (Barnett and Morse 1963).

Poultry

Based on cash receipts, poultry (principally broilers) rank first in
importance among animal products in Northwest Florida and third as an agricul-
tural commodity. The 1979 dollar value of broilers in 1978 was $6,741,000
($3.5 million in real dollars). Of the seven counties in Northwest Florida,
Okaloosa, Santa Rosa, and Walton are major poultry producers. Although Santa
Rosa County is a major producer, data were not made available to avoid dis-
closure of individual operations. In 1978, Okaloosa and Walton Counties sold
5.3 million broilers; 8.2% of the State's broiler sales. Broiler sales in
Northwest Florida increased 72% in 1974-78, but State sales increased only
36%. Broilers in the cash receipts for Okaloosa, and Walton counties was $8.4
million 1978.

The real price of broilers received by farmers decreased from 30 cents a
pound in 1954 to 14 cents a pound in 1978. Given that the price elasticity of
poultry at the retail level is 0.5910 (U.S.D.A. unpublished data), and the
real price of poultry has risen at the retail level, retailers have increased
total revenue. When the price of poultry rises by 1% at the retail level,
consumer demand will fall 0.591%. Since total revenue equals price times
quantity, the retailers total revenue will rise. The implications for the
farmer are quite the reverse. As the real price of poultry falls at the farm
gate by 1%, wholesalers and retailers will increase the quantity demand by
less than 1%. This means that total revenue should fall. This, of cou.'se,
has not been the case because of growing consumer income, population growth,
and the rise in other meat prices have greatly increased the demand for poul-
try. The income elasticity of poultry is 0.2103 (U.S.D.A. unpublished data).

Poultry are not scarce according to Barnett and Morse (1963), because the
real price of poultry at the farm gate has been declining, and the supply is
growing faster than demand.

Corn

Corn is grown on more acreage in the State than any other crop. The two
basic types of corn grown in Florida are sweetcorn for human consumption,
grown primarily in central and south Florida, and field corn for animal feed,
grown primarily in west and north Florida. The bulk of the corn is now sold

120

at harvest time to livestock and poultry producers. Previously, field corn
was produced largely for consumption on the farm. Corn has recently become a
valuable cash crop in Northwest Florida. Cash receipts were $5.9 million in
1978 or $3.0 million in real dollars (1967 = 100), an increase of about 115%
from 1960 to 1978. According to the Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting
Service, Field and Crop Summary (1978), Northwest Florida produced about 98.6
million bu of field corn in 1978, about 14.6% of the State's production. Corn
production among counties in order of volume are Santa Rosa, Escambia, Oka-
loosa, Walton, and Bay. Northwest Florida farmers increased production by
138% in 1960-78 yet the total land planted increased only 16%. Increased pro-
ductivity was caused largely by better fertilizer practices, irrigation, new
earlier maturing hybirds, and the use of insecticides.

The real cost of producing an acre of corn in Northwest Florida declined
2.8% in 1975-78. Although real costs for equipment, insecticides, and herbi-
cides rose sharply (up to 176%), the real cost of seeds and fertilizers
declined. Considering that the real price of corn has not fallen and real
costs have, farmers now are better off than before. This advantage is even
further amplified considering that the cost of producing an acre of corn has
fallen, but the yield per acre has risen. The average yield per acre in
Northwest Florida was 2,000 lb whereas the State average was 1,577 lb.

The real price of corn remained fairly stable from 1954 to 1978 because
the demand for corn was partly derived from the demand of other products that
use corn as part of the input. Field corn is largely used as livestock and
poultry feed. The demand for corn is not only a function of its price but
also the price of other feeds, and the demand for beef, poultry, and pork.
Like most other feed grains and agricultural products, the demand for corn is
inelastic with respect to price. If the price of corn falls by 1% the demand
for corn will increase by less than 1%. The real price of corn has remained
stable indicating that demand and supply are growing at about the same rate.
The increase in demand for corn is attributed to a rise in consumer income
(inducing consumers to purchase more beef) and a rise in population. This
stable price indicates an abundance of corn according to the assumptions of
the Barnett-Morse scarcity hypothesis.

Cattle and Calves

In cash value, the cattle industry in Florida in 1978 ranked second to
oranges and fifth among the counties of Northwest Florida ($5.7 million in
1978, or 2.9 million in real dollars; 1967 = 100). The 1978 regional count
was 17,805 beef cattle, about 1.5% of the State total. This count is conser-
vative because Bay and Gulf County figures were excluded to avoid disclosure
of individual forms. Northwest Florida probably produces about 1.75% of the
State's beef cattle. Okaloosa County currently is the major producer of beef
cattle. Annual production increased slightly in 1954-78, but began to decline
recently because land values were rising.

The real value of cattle and calves received by farmers rose in 1954-79
from $6.00 a lb in 1955 to $10 a lb in 1978, which suggests a scarcity of
supply. The total revenue has increased because the percentage change in
demand is less than the percentage change in price. Real prices at the retail
level increased less than 1% annually in 1954-78. This rise in prices was
caused by a demand that grew faster than supply. The growth in demand

121

relative to supply caused the upward trend in real prices. At the retail level,
the price elasticity of beef is 0.679% (U.S.D.A. unpublished data).

The income elasticity of beef is 0.2655 (U.S.D.A. unpublished data) so
that a 1% increase in real consumer income results in an increase in consumer
demand by 0.2655%. This increase in demand coupled with the rise in popula-
tion has offset the effects of price elasticity on demand and total demand has
risen.

Other Agricultural Products

Northwest Florida is a major producer of many of the State's other field
crops and in one instance, practically the sole source. In 1978, peanuts
ranked sixth in cash value and had a current dollar sales of about $5,640,000
($2,887,864 in real dollars; 1967 = 100). Total production in 1978 was about
264,000 lb, or 14.5% of the State's production, Santa Rosa County is the
major producer in Northwest Florida and the State's second largest producer.
Production has increased primarily because of an increase in productivity.
For example, the increase in yield per acre rose from about 1,300 lb in 1961
to 3,400 lb in 1978. In 1954-78, the real price of peanuts has remained rela-
tively stable because of a sufficient supply of peanuts.

Wheat is another important crop in Northwest Florida. Sales of $1.1 mil-
lion in current 1978 dollars were about 54% of the State's total production.
Output declined 18.5% in 1961-78, and acreage declined 26%, which indicates
that the yield per acre has been increasing. The real price of wheat has been
relatively constant since 1954; apparently there is no scarcity of supply.
The decline in acres of wheat and cotton is attributed to an increased in the
value of soybeans as a cash crop.

Cotton is produced primarily in Santa Rosa County. In 1978 Santa Rosa's
production of 3,197 bales of cotton accounted for 84% of the State's produc-
tion. Since 1961, total acreage has declined 55% and production fell 70%.

Other agricultural commodities include milk, oats, hogs, and hay.
Detailed information on these crops is not available because they are rela-
tively unimportant.

AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS AND POLICIES

Major problems in Northwest Florida are conflicts among land use, water
use, environmental protection, rising energy demands and costs, and competi-
tion for markets.

LAND USE

Most apparent to Florida's farmers is the "disappearance" of agricultural
lands. The Florida House of Representative's Committee on Agriculture has
prepared a report on this issue entitled "Agricultural Lands in Florida"
(1981a). That report begins with the observation that Florida's agricultural
(1981b) lands are slowly being converted to other land uses. Agricultural

122

land is used for new homes, schools, shopping centers, airports, industrial
parks, recreational areas, and other uses associated with a growing urban
population and phosphate mining. The report contends that Florida, as one of
the fastest growing states, will continue to put an inordinate demand for
"new" lands. Some of the loss of prime and unique farmlands is irreplaceable,
a focal point of the Committee's argument for the retention of agricultural
land. To combat this loss, the Committee recommended more comprehensive land
use plans, extensive soil surveys and mapping, elimination of any State pro-
jects that might have a serious adverse impact on farm lands, and the monitor-
ing of local land use alteration or development.

The Committee's report does not identify the economic reasons why the
trend in agricultural land loss is necessarily unwanted, unproductive, or
socially unacceptable. Recently there has been much discussion and concern
over the disappearance of farm land because of its impact on future genera-
tions, and the capacity of the remaining land to sustain the population.

The change of agricultural lands to other uses is the natural response
of any freely functioning market. So far, agricultural production is rising
faster than the land is disappearing. In 1954-78, the area of agricultural
lands in Florida declined 26% whereas agricultural production increased 146%.

When the market system is functioning normally, the price operates as a
signal. The rise in land values signals the farmers to lower their costs by
using less expensive capital and labor. This shift allows resources to be
utilized by those who value them the most and permit a more efficient alloca-
tion of resources. Efficiency increases because it forces the farmers to use
least-cost methods of production and become more productive with the resources
at hand.

There is yet another viewpoint on the changing pattern of land use.
Perhaps it is not the demand of nonfarm land users that is responsible for the
loss of agricultural lands. Improved technology has increased productivity
per acre and decreased the agricultural sector's need for land. Farmers find
that they can produce more with less land, and cut expenses and raise revenue
by selling land. In short, the farmer is releasing land for other uses.
Generally, urban populations cannot increase without the use of additional
land.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICTS

Florida is no longer a frontier land where the conflict among industry,
agriculture, cities, and citizens were not major environmental issues. Only a
few decades ago pollution was at low levels and chemicals were natural, bio-
degradable, and deteriorated in a short time or turned to sediment. Land,
timber, water, and other resources were abundant. After intensive land devel-
opment, these land uses often are in serious conflict. Examples are the
emissions from a fossil -fueled power plant that may indirectly damage forests,
crops, lakes, and even buildings because of acid rain. Chemicals and pesti-
cides often are used without much restriction. These are often made of syn-
thetic compounds which take many years to break down and complicate nature's
capacity to assimilate them. Further conflicts are given in the following
sections.

123

Pesticides and Chemical Fertilizers

To quote Seneca and Tausig (1979):

In the long-run perspective of history, the development and
extensive use of effective pesticides have made a major contribution
to human welfare. Pesticides are responsible for enormous increases
in agricultural yields and for the control of once widespread and
debilitating diseases. Pesticide research findings again reveal the
recurring theme of environmental problems, a difficult, benefit-cost
type of decision whether, and to what degree, to continue pesticide
use and gain protection of crop yields and lower incidences of some
human diseases at the cost of considerable long-run damages to envi-
ronmental conditions and increased risks to human health.

Insecticides not only destroy insects and a wide range of other land
animals, but some of the chemicals are carried by runoff into lakes and
rivers. Some waters may be so badly polluted that fish and other aquatic
organisms may die. Long-term effects are contamination of drinking water and
chemical accumulation in the food chain.

Nutrients in runoff from farm lands that are enriched by chemical ferti-
lizers may cause accelerated eutrophication in the receiving waters. The
results may be noxious algal growth, excessive aquatic plant growth, and in
some cases, oxygen depletion and fish kills. Water hyacinth in Florida is a
particularly difficult problem. These floating plants clog waterways and
lakes, tie up nutrients, and obliterate underwater photosynthesis. Practical
control of these plants is unknown.

Eventually the use of pesticides and chemicals may be reduced without
decreasing the yield and quality of farm products. The use of strong, more
resistant plant strains, sterile males, insects that feed on pests, enforced
diseases, and the use of radiation are means of combating pests and parasites
without chemicals or pesticides. Currently, experiments are underway, but new
methods of control are not working. The rising price of petrochemicals that
produce many of these pesticides and chemicals may make other means of pest
control much more attractive in the future.

Animal and Human Wastes

Animal wastes (from feed lots for example) are another major pollution
problem confronting farmers. These wastes enter ponds, lakes, and rivers pri-
marily through runoff. Rainfall is abundant in Northwest Florida, and runoff
from manure is a major concern in some areas. The solution may be that both
animal wastes and urban sewage will be used for feed and fertilizers.

Energy

Energy is a problem, not because there is an energy crisis, but because
of the burden imposed on the farmers by the rising cost of fuel. In Northwest
Florida, farmers rely on petroleum and petroleum products in all phases of
production and marketing. Use of chemicals, pesticides, machinery, tractors,
and transportation services will expand as farmers are called upon to increase
output. Despite the importance of oil and electricity in farm operations,

124

consumption by this sector accounts for only 3% of U.S. energy consumption and
less than S% of Florida's energy consumption. In 1978, petroleum made up 75%
of all energy used in agriculture. Use of petroleum for energy on Florida's
farms increased 35.7% in 1974-78. The energy expended on production, food
processing, transportation, wholesale and retail trade, and home storage and
processing is only about 12% of the total U.S. energy use (Smerdon 1975).

The challenge of the next decade will be for farmers to increase produc-
tion as the population increases and to apply even more energy efficient farm-
ing methods. Research is underway on solar methods for drying agricultural
products, and studies are being conducted on new methods of irrigation which
will reduce both water and energy use and even help protect crops from the
cold. Such methods would lower the use of outdoor heaters that are now pro-
tecting citrus and vegetable crops from winter freezes in Florida. The devel-
opment of new disease resistant and high yield crops will help lessen energy
use. These methods and many others are now being studied to help conserve
energy.

Labor

In Florida, labor in the past has been unskilled, relatively cheap, and
seasonal. As the trend in increasing farm size and mechanization continues,
unemployment patterns also will change. Increased skills and training of farm
laborers are now needed for the operation, and maintenance of farm machinery
and new cultivation practices (Covey 1975). The need for this skilled labor
will bring farmers into direct competition with industry, thereby forcing
farmers to raise wages to retain or attract new workers. In addition to rais-
ing wages, farmers must increase productivity if they are to maintain profits.

Air Pollution

Agricultural damage from air pollution is difficult to assess. The major
effluents responsible for damage to crops and livestock are sulfur dioxide,
ozone, and fluorides. In Northwest Florida, the major source of these pollu-
tants is industrial and utility plants.

Sulfur dioxide from smoke stacks and other methods of emission entering
the atmosphere are absorbed by plants through the respiratory process and if
in excess it may become toxic to plants (Seneca and Tausig 1979). While in
the upper atmosphere, sulfur dioxide combines with moisture and falls to earth
as acid rain. Acid rain bleaches the soil, rendering many of its minerals
inert and incapable of supplying needed nutrients to plants. The result is
decreased productivity and increased cost to the farmer. Acid rain also
damages leaves and roots. A comprehensive study of acid rain and its impact
on the environment was begun in 1978 by the Florida Department of Environ-
mental Regulation (DER).

In the 1950' s and the 1960's, fluorides and ozone caused considerable
damage to crops and beef cattle in South Florida where substantial amounts of
fluoride were released from phosphate mining. Fluorides and ozone enter the
leaf system and interfere with photosynthesis and plant food production. When
plants laden with fluorides are eaten by livestock, the animals contract
fluorosis. Fluorosis symptoms are loss of weight, reduction of growth, lack
of mobility, and sometimes death. Ozone damages the leaves and plant cells

125

and destroys plant life. Ozone pollution is most evident in heavily industri-
al ized areas.

Water Use

Water use is a seasonal concern, not only to farmers in Northwest Flor-
ida, but to all inhabitants. The combination of droughts, irrigation, phos-
phate mining, industrial use, and urban use have periodically created water
shortages. In the the future, greater competition between agricultural and
non-agricultural water use may cause local short-term water shortages. Water
resources are valuable to Northwest Florida, and future use and allocation
will probably be determined by government action. Seasonal shortages of water
may pose a serious challenge to area farmers. To overcome this threat, farmers
are likely to seek new methods of irrigation, water retention, and and water
management.

AGRICULTURE'S IMPACT ON THE ECONOMY

Economic indicators that measure the performance or impact of agriculture
and other sectors range from aggregate indicators to multipliers. Aggregate
indicators such as employment and income are measures of economic activity.
Multipliers are used to predict economic change as the sector grows or
declines.

In a recent study (Loehman and Hsiao 1979), the value of income, output,

employment, and import multipliers was calculated for Florida to express

economic change per dollar of final demand. Final demand consists of the
demand (purchase) of goods at the retail level.

OUTPUT AND OTHER MULTIPLIERS

Output multipliers give an estimate of the change in total output (dollar
value) per change in final demand. In 1970, the agriculture and forest pro-
ducts processing sector in Florida had four of the top five ranked multipliers
(ranked by size of multiplier). These subsectors included frozen package
foods, paper products and processing, meat and milk processing, and fish pro-
cessing. Primary production multipliers are listed in Table 14.

For each dollar increase in final demand (in and out of Florida), the
dollar value of output related to farm production (i.e., support servies, pro-
cessing, etc.) will increase 47.7% for livestock, 40.0% for field crops, 37.9%
for vegetables and sugar, 36.8% for fruits and nuts, and 26.7% for forest and
nursery products. The dollar value of agricultural output will increase
53.8%.

Income Mul tipliers

The fruits and nuts industry has the highest income multiplier. When
demand and output increase by one dollar, the region's income should increase
by a multiplier of 1.397 for fruits and nuts, 1.380 for vegetables and sugar,
1.370 for field crops, 1.329 for livestock products, 1.292 for forest and nur-

126

sery products, and 1.329 for agricultural services. If the output increases
by $1,000 dollars in the fruits and nuts industry, then direct and indirect
income will rise to $1,397.

Employment Multipliers

These multipliers are obtained by dividing the total employment in all
sectors of the economy by direct employment per dollar of output. Field crops
have the largest employment multiplier. When demand for agricultural commodi-
ties increases by one dollar, the impact on employment is a multiplier of
1.749 for field crops, 1.353 for fruits and nuts, 1.308 for livestock pro-
ducts, 1.253 for vegetables and sugar, 1.220 for forest and nursery products,
and 1.242 for agricultural services.

Export Multipliers

An increase in employment in basic industry will have a secondary impact
on nonbasic industries. This secondary impact is known as the export multi-
plier. The rate of growth is determined by its function as an "exporter" out-
side the region. Export of products from Northwest Florida channel outside
dollars into the region and trigger chain reactions of additional economic
activity. The process of each dollar being re-spent and causing new impacts
is not infinite. At each round of the spending process, some dollars leak out
of the economy in the form of savings, taxes, profits to stockholders outside
the region, and as payments for imported goods and services. The process as-
sociated with each additional dollar of sales is called the "multiplier"
effect. Multipliers are useful to predict economic expansion due to growth in
sectors of the economy.

According to Loehman and Hsiao (1979), there are various economic indi-
cators which can be used to analyze the role of economic sectors in the
economy. The various aggregate indicators and multipliers relate to different
aspects of economic welfare. A sector with low output multipliers may be
important to the economy because of large numbers of people employed. On the
other hand, a sector with low employment may have high multipliers and hence
be important in an expansionary sense.

Table 14. Agriculture output multipliers (Loehman and Hsiao 1979).

Commodity Output multipl ier

Agricultural services 1.538

Livestock products 1.477

Field crops 1.470

Vegetables and sugar 1.379

Fruits and nuts 1.368

Forest and nursery 1.267

127

Table 15. The contribution of agriculture to the Florida economy in 1970
based on employment, personal income, and values that relate to basic agricul-
ture (Loehman and Hsiao 1979) percentage contributions to the State total are
given in parentheses.

Employment

Personal

income

Value ($)

relati

($) rela

ting

added relating

to basic

agriculture

Sector

(x 1,000)

Basic agriculture

Agricultural services

12,527

53,760

85,606

Livestock products

29,080

166,219

126,429

Field crops, tobacco

4,551

57,648

61,484

Fruits and nuts

28,414

136,914

177,843

Vegetables and sugar

22,191

79,266

102,877

Forest, greenhouse and

nursery

9,435

40,354

62,192

Fishery products and

forestry

1,566

7,104

8,099

Subtotal

107,764

(5.6)

541,267

(4.8)

624,530 (3.3)

Employment related to agriculture

Mining

262

(0.0)

1,896

(0.0)

7,442 (0.0)

Construction

1,480

(0.1)

10,544

(0.1)

16,529 (0.1)

Food and wood processing

86,787

(4.5)

539,656

(4.8)

1,090,927 (5.7)

Other manufacturing

10,335

(0.5)

72,994

(0.7)

107,055 (0.6)

Utility and transportation

7,432

(0.4)

56,941

(0.5)

147,463 (0.8)

Trade

18,393

(1.0)

119,662

(1.1)

118,201 (0.6)

Finance, insurance, real

estate

3,391

(0.7)

21,731

(0.2)

75,433 (0.4)

Services

12,614

(0.7)

74,335

(0.7)

71,921 (0.4)

Government and ordinance

368

(0.0)

3,620

(0.0)

1,875 (0.0)

Subtotal

141,062

901,379

1,636,846

TOTAL

248,826

1,445,646

2,261,376

Ratio of total to basic

2.61

2.96

4.20

128

Loehman and Hsiao (1979) have further pursued the subject of agricul-
ture's impact on the Florida economy. Multiplier analysis often understates a
sector's full impact because it measures only changes dealing with final
demand. Tables were constructed showing the breakdown of basic agricultural
sales to processing and final demand for 1963 and 1970. Fishing and forest
products have a low output multiplier (1.239), but this is because over 90% of
sales are to processers and very little to final demand. When the related
processing sectors are examined, they have high multipliers and large exports.
All but three of the food and wood processing sectors rely solely on agricul-
ture. In 1970, total employment attributable to agriculture comprised 16.7% of
the State's total work force, whereas basic agricultural employment was only
7.7%. Personal income related to agriculture was 21.1% of total income,
although personal income derived from basic agriculture was only 13.5% of the
State's total personal income. The findings of Loehman and Hsiao on Florida's
agricultural sectors' impact on the economy are reported in Table 15. In all
sectors the writers believe that the impact of agriculture on other sectors is
much less in Northwest Florida than in other areas of the State. This is be-
cause the region is not a major producer of many of the State's farm products
and also because of its lack of a well developed and sophisticated industrial
and commercial base.

AGRICULTURE AND OCS OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

Although currently there are few interactions between the agricultural
sector of Northwest Florida and OCS oil and gas exploration and development,
two potential threats should be considered. The start of intensive offshore
drilling could exact new demands on the labor market. The relatively higher
wages of oil workers, approximately $12 per hour (Charter Oil Co. August 1982)
as compared to farm hands, $3.34 per hour in 1980 (Greene et al . 1980) would
attract farm workers and possibly cause a temporary labor shortage.

Long term and potentially the most costly conflict between agriculture
and OCS oil and gas production is the prospect of increased air pollution from
refineries built locally (see reports in this volume about minerals and oil
production, and environmental issues and regulations). Sulfur dioxide is one
of the main pollutants emitted during oil refining and heavy concentrations
kill plants. Sulfur dioxide in gaseous form combines with moisture in the
atmosphere and forms acid rain. Acid rain can seriously acidify natural,
unbuffered fresh waters or leach the soil and damage roots and leaves (Florida
Sulphur Oxides Study Inc. 1978).

Other than these two potential problems the writer can see no other
possible conflicts between OCS oil and gas development and the agricultural
sector. The short run labor conflict is the product of an efficiently operat-
ing market. The conflict involving air pollution is the result of an exter-
nality, where the market does not operate efficiently. It is beyond the scope
of this paper to estimate the potential damage from pollution to farmers. In
short, it is anticipated that OCS leasing, if it has these impacts, will raise
costs for both the farmer and the consumer and may lower yields and output
thus raising consumer prices even higher.

129

REFERENCES

Addison, M. Florida State University, unpublished data, 1981. Available from
Florida State University, Department of Economics, Tallahassee, FL.

Bell, F. Florida State University, unpublished data, 1981. Available from
Florida State University, Department of Economics, Tallahassee, FL.

Bell, F.; Addison, M. Determinants of farm land uses and tenure, an empirical
analysis of Florida. Tallahassee, FL: 1981 (unpublished).

Barnett, H.J.; Morse, C. Scarcity and growth. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
Press; 1963. 359 p.

Covery, C. Farm labor in the decade ahead. Selected speeches from agricul-
tural growth in an urban age conference. Gainesville, FL: University of
Florida Press; 1975. 82 p.

Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Annual dairy summaries 1970 to
1980. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida; 1971-81.

Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Annual poultry summaries 1960
to 1980. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida; 1961-81.

Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Annual livestock summaries 1960
to 1980. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida; 1961-81.

Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Annual citrus summaries 1960 to
1980. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida; 1961-81.

Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Annual vegetable summaries
1954, and 1960 to 1980. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida; 1961-
81.

Florida Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. Annual field and crop summaries
1967, 1970, 1973, 1976, 1978, 1979. Gainesville, FL: University of
Florida; 1961-81.

Florida House of Representatives, Committee on Agriculture. The small farm, a
holistic policy perspective: State policy options vis-a-vis the small
farm (as a component of agriculture structure); Tallahassee, FL: April
1981a. 23 p.

Florida House of Representatives, Committee on Agriculture. Agricultural
lands in Florida. Tallahassee, FL: March 1981b. 10 p.

130

Florida Sulfur Oxides Study, Inc. Florida sulfur oxides study. Tallahassee,
FL: Department of Environmental Regulation; 1978; 252 p.

Florida Statistical Abstract. Bureau of Economic and Business Research.
Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press; 1975, 1976, 1978, 1979,
1980.

Greene, E. ; Mathis, K. ; Polopolus, L.; Holt, J. Economic data for Florida
agriculture, 1975-1980. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press;
1980. 152 p.

Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Agricultural growth in an urban
age. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press; 1980; 230 p.

Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (editors). Agriculture in an
urban age. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press; 1975; 115 p;
1980; 211 p.

Irland, L.C. Is timber scarce? The economics of a renewable resource. Bulle-
tin 83; New Haven, CN: Yale University Press; 1981; 47 p.

Loehman, E.; Hsiao, K. An input output analysis of the Florida economy and
the role of agriculture, 1963 and 1970. Gainesville, FL: University of
Florida; January 1979. 236 p. Thesis.

Miernyk, W. The elements of input-output analysis. New York: Random House;
1966. 125 p.

Salathe, L. Household expenditure patterns in the United States; Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture; April 1979. 23 p.

Seneca, J.; Tausig, M. Environmental economics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall Publishers; 1979. 379 p.

Smallwood, D.; Balylock, J. Importance of household size and income on food
spending patterns. Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of Agriculture;
February 1975. 18 p.

Smerdon, E.T. Energy for agriculture; selected speeches from agricultural
growth in an urban age conference. Gainesville, FL: University of
Florida Press; 1975. 82 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service Resource Bulletin. Washing-
ton, DC: 1969. 23 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Forest Service Resource Bulletin. Washing-
ton, DC: 1979. 31 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Census of agriculture. Wash-
ington, D.C: U.S. Government Printing Office; Annual summaries 1954-81.

Ward, R. The economics of Florida's FCOJ imports and exports: an econometric
study. Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics; Tallahassee, FL:
156 p.; 1979.

131

Ward, R. ; Tilley, D. Time varying parameters with random components: the
orange juice industry. Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics;
Chapel Hill, NC: 1979. 9 p.

Water Resources Management Council. OBERS, 1972 pages 53, 54. Water Resources
Management 1969 and 1979 (forestry).

Wilcox, W. ; Cochrane, W. Herdt, R. Economics of American agriculture. Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1974; 504 p.

132

MINERAL AND OIL RESOURCES

Dr. Andrew A. Dzurik
Associate Professor
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
University of Florida
Tallahassee, PL 32036

INTRODUCTION

Minerals produced in quantity in Florida are phosphate, petroleum lime-
stone, titanium, ziron, earth concentrates, and cement. The State is one of
the world's leading producers and exporters of phosphate. The major import is
refined petroleum products. The import and export of minerals contribute sub-
stantially to the economy of the State.

This paper focuses on the mineral production in Bay, Escambia, Franklin,
Gulf, Okaloosa, Santa' Rosa, and Walton Counties of Northwest Florida. A his-
torical and geological perspective is provided together with current and
projected production of minerals. In addition to information on mineral pro-
duction, related issues are discussed such as employment, value of shipments,
and potential impacts of mineral production. This information should be use-
ful for environmental planning. Emphasis is placed on onshore facilities
potentially needed for Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas production.
Although there have been no offshore discoveries, potential discoveries war-
rant the planning for possible onshore impacts. Therefore, much of this
chapter provides generic information on OCS oil and gas operations and their
potential impacts.

Nonfuel mineral production in Florida contributes significantly to its
gross product and has increased sharply since 1940. The value of mineral pro-
duction increased from about $15 million in 1940 to about $109 million in
1955, an increase of 730%, and to about $1.6 billion in 1977, an increase of
1380% over 1955. By 1978, Florida was the sixth largest nonfuel mineral pro-
ducer in the United States, and it ranked ahead of the traditional mining
states of Arizona, Colorado, and Utah. In 1978, mineral production (excluding
fuels) was valued at over $1.0 billion. Phosphate rock was the leading min-
eral commodity followed by petroleum, cement, and stone (crushed limestone,
dolomite, and shell-rock).

In 1978, Florida not only ranked first in the Nation in the production of
phosphate rock, it also ranked first in titanium concentrates and zircon,
second in fullers earth and rare-earth concentrates, and sixth in stone.
Phosphate rock contributed over half (over $600 million) of the State's total

133

nonfuel mineral value, followed by cement ($110 million), and stone ($118 mil-
lion). The total value of crude oil, natural gas liquids, and natural gas was
$709,053,000, about 39% of the value of all minerals mined. In terms of the
State's economy, the principal mineral products in order of value are phos-
phate rock, crude petroleum, and limestone.

Northwest Florida, located on the northeastern edge of the Gulf of Mexico
coastal oil reserves, has several oil wells in production in Santa Rosa County
and northern Escambia County. Although offshore exploration in the Destin
Dome (approximately 40 miles southwest of Panama City) has not yielded any
important finds, the potential still exists for substantial offshore produc-
tion.

The seven-county area of Northwest Florida has produced few minerals
(mostly sand, gravel, titanium ores, and magnesia) until the relatively recent
inland oil and gas find in Santa Rosa and Escambia Counties. There have been
no important OCS oil and gas discoveries; consequently, much of the data and
observation on OCS oil and gas exploration and development in this chapter is
generic and relevant to western Florida as a whole.

REGIONAL GEOLOGY

INLAND

Florida has a land area of over 151,800 km^ (58,600 mi^), and is the
second largest state in the Southeast. It lies entirely within the coastal
plain province, a major physiographic division of the United States. It is
underlain by sedimentary rock with a thickness of more than 1,200 m (4,000
ft). The surface mantle over much of the State is composed of oils and sands
up to 61 m (200 ft) deep (Calver 1957). The location and variety of mineral
deposits and industries in Florida are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

The counties in Northwest Florida are underlain by a thick sequence of
sedimentary formations. The oldest formation is the Hatchetigbee Formation
(Wilcox Group, early Eocene) consisting primarily of clay, with some shale,
siltstone, and shaly limestone. The formation averages 96 m (315 ft) and
slopes from a depth of over 820 m (2,700 ft) at the Alabama/Florida State
line, to less than 305 m (1,000 ft) in the eastern part of the region (Marsh
1966).

The physiography of Northwest Florida is divided into coastal lowlands
and uplands. The uplands portion is comprised primarily of gently rolling
areas called "sand hills" because of their marine origin (The Planning Design
Group et al . 1977). The basic geology of the region consists of relatively
young sedimentary formations and most of the coastal lowlands are covered by
unconsolidated marine and estuarine terrace deposits of the Pleistocene.

Oil and gas reservoirs in Northwest Florida may be attributed to the
Smackover Formation of Jurassic age. The depth of this formation is about
4,633 m (15,200 to 15,300 ft). There are three producing fields and one
plugged field in Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties. The largest of these is
the Jay-Little Escambia Creek field.

134

MINERAL RESOURCES

□

^ Limestone

Sand shell "coquina",
sometimes mixed with
marl or clay

Phosphatic sands and
clays, limestones, and
(ullers earth

Dolomite

11 1

Phosphate

Sand clay
and limestone

Sand with clay
and kaolin

»;». *

Figure 1. Florida mineral resources (Wood and Fernald 1974)

135

A Sand and Gravel Pit

B Peat Producer

C Limestone Quarry

D Dolomite Quarry

E Clay Mine

F Kaolin Mine

G Fullers Earlti Mine

H Petroleum Field

I Phosphate. Land Pebble Mine

J Phosphate. Sod Rock Mine

K Heavy Mineral Sand Mine

L Portland Cement Plant

M Lime Kiln

.'•i-.-

Figure 2. Florida mineral industries (Wood and Fernald 1974),

136

Mt. Carmel field is in the upthrown side of the Foskee Fault and is about
305 m (1,000 ft) higher than the Jay field. Sweetwater and Black Jack Creek
fields to the southwest of Jay also lie in the downthrown side of the Foskee
Fault, an anticlinal trap. According to a 1978 article:

There is reason for expectation of further development in these
fields: The presence of Jurassic salt limestone, and marine
shales warrants a continued exploration effort in this embay-
ment. Gravity work and the wells drilled to date, indicate
both stratigraphic and structural traps may be present. Fur-
ther exploration effort, concentrated in those areas which have
a thick Smackover section may eventually lead to a commercial
oil discovery (Applegate 1978).

Sweetwater Creek Field was plugged and abandoned in December 1980 (Fig-
ure 3). Production at the Jay Field and other Northwest Florida fields is
expected to decline steadily (Klein 1982). It remains to be seen whether fur-
ther exploration will take place (Curry and Tootle 1980).

OFFSHORE

Hydrocarbon-bearing formations in the Gulf of Mexico are generally asso-
ciated with sub-seabed vertical salt movements that form salt domes. Under
the weight of the overlying beds, salt is squeezed upwards piercing sedimen-
tary beds and arching those that are closer to the seabed surface into domes.
The domes are typically topped by caprock. Oil and gas accumulates along the
flanks of these salt domes (U.S. Department of the Interior 1980a).

The West Florida Shelf and Slope extends from the DeSoto Canyon in the
Gulf of Mexico eastward to The Straits of Florida in the Atlantic. Geologi-
cally, it is considered the submerged extension of peninsular Florida. Most
of the oil industry's interest in this area has been in the Destin Dome area,
where salt domes and anticlines were the principal exploratory drilling tar-
gets. Although wells drilled in the Destin Dome area were dry, a number of
piercement domes (diapirs) lie at the head of the DeSoto Canygon. These domes
probably will be the center of future exploratory drilling near Northwest
Florida.

MINERAL COMMODITIES AND PRODUCTION

The most significant resource in the region, aside from oil, is sand and
gravel. The region's largest production comes from Escambia County, most of
which is used for construction purposes.

Titanium ores are recovered from sand deposits (most abundant in Escambia
County) that contain titanium rich minerals such as ilmenite and rutile. The
minerals are concentrated by removing the quartz sand and then separated and
purified by electrostatic and magnetic processes (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
1978). Coastal sands and terrace deposits contain from 3% to 7% heavy min-
erals. One of two major processing regions of Florida is along the coastal
area from Panama City to the Alabama border (Tebeau et al . 1965).

137

ALA I AMA

GEORGIA

Jay
BlacKlack Creek

Ml. Carmel

Sweetwater Creek (D & a 1980)

Lake Tralford

Sunnlland

Bear Islano

Baxter Island (p & a 1979)

.,^^& "'

Figure 3. Producing and plugged oil and gas fields in Florida (Curry and
Tootle 1980).

138

A mineral of minor significance is magnesia (MgO), which is recovered
from sea water. The basic magnesia plant, located in Port St. Joe in Gulf
County, is the only producer of MgO in the region (Florida Department of Pollution
Control 1972).

The market value of minerals in Northwest Florida was of little conse-
quence until 1976 when petroleum production in Santa Rosa and Escambia
Counties increased sharply. In 1965, Northwest Florida contributed $357,000
( 1%) to the State mineral production, and in 1976, it contributed $537
million, 33% of the State total (U.S. Department of Interior 1965, 1979).

In 1967-72 in the State of Florida, the number of businesses in mineral
production increased from 210 to 277. Average annual employment increased
from 8,100 to 9,000, and wages jumped from $36 million to $53 million. Capi-
tal expenditures by the mineral industries in the State (excluding land and
mineral rights) were $45 million in 1972 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1973).

Mineral production statistics are incomplete because it is proprietary
information not usually made available to the public. No comparable data are
available except • for Escambia County where the value of mineral production
increased from $356,812 in 1960 to $759,000 in 1976. In Bay and Walton Coun-
ties, the value of production in 1975 was $474,000 and $290,000, respectively.
The number of mineral business establishments in 1972 are given by county in
Table 1. Useful information by county is limited because of disclosure rules.

Table 1. Number of mineral producing establishments by county in 1972 (U.S.
Department of Commerce 1973).

Establishments

Oil and gas

Nonmetallic

Number of

County

extraction

minerals Total

employees

Bay

1 5

0-19

Escambia

2 16

20-99

Gulf

0 2

0-19

Okaloosa

2 4

0-19

Santa Rosa

0 26

20-99

Walton

0 4

0-19

Northwest

ori

5 57

0-19

Florida

- -

277

OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION

HISTORY OF OIL PROSPECTING

Oil prospecting in
sporadically until the
made in Collier County

Florida began at the turn of the century and continued
early 1940's when the State's first oil discovery was
(Florida Geological Survey 1953). The well drilled at

139

Sunniland by Humble Oil and Refining Co. began producing on 26 September 1943,
but was abandoned on 10 May 1946. A small oil field has been developed at
Sunniland since then and continues to produce (Gunter 1952, Vernon et al .
1961).

Offshore oil exploration in Florida was recorded as early as 1947 when
the first offshore well was drilled from an artificially created island about
48 km (30 mi) east of Key West. In 1947-53, offshore oil exploration contin-
ued in Federal and State waters under nominal Federal and State regulations.
In 1953, Congress enacted the OCS Lands Act (67 Stat. 462; 43 USC 1331-
1343 ca. 1981) affirming that Federal submerged lands on the OCS seaward of
State boundaries would be subject to Federal Government control. On the west
coast of Florida, State jurisdiction extends three marine leagues (approxi-
mately 17 km or 10.4 mi) from the coastline. The act governs the leasing of
offshore tracts for exploration, development, and production of subsea mineral
resources. The act provided that the Secretary of the Interior "... is
authorized to grant to the highest responsible bidder by competitive bidding
under regulations promulgated in advance, oil and gas leases on submerged
lands of the Outer Continental Shelf."

In 1959, the first Federal lease sale (L.S. #5) in Florida encompassed
the Marqueses areas in the Straits of Florida between the Dry Tortugas and Key
West. The sale offered 80 tracts, consisting of 185,425 ha (458,000 acres) of
which 23 tracts were leased. Drilling was discontinued in 1963 because of the
scarcity of oil.

INLAND PETROLEUM PRODUCTION

More than 50 test wells were drilled in Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties
in the 1960's before oil was discovered (Marsh 1966). On 15 June 1970, Exxon,
formerly known as Humble Oil and Refining Company, started a 5-hour production
test in a well that flowed naturally at a rate of 1,712 barrels of oil and
2.15 million ft^ of gas per day. This well marked the discovery of the Jay
Field. Within four years, the productive surface area of 5,625 ha (13,900
acres) was fully delineated and peak production of 93,500 barrels per day was
achieved. The rapid development was the result of cooperation by four major
corporations: EXXON, Sun Oil, Amarada Hess, and Louisiana Land and Explora-
tion. The field was the largest inland petroleum find in the contiguous 48
states in twenty years, and it is expected to produce some 345 million barrels
of oil during its life (Florida Energy Office 1975).

In 1978, crude oil in Northwest Florida contributed 42,497,000 barrels
(89.4%) of the State total of 47,536,000 barrels (Curry 1978). Cumulative oil
production in 1970-78 from the Jay field alone was 208.4 million barrels,
which is just over one-half the estimated recoverable oil from the Jay field
using existing production methods (Florida Energy Office 1975). In addition
to crude oil, about 41.8 billion ft^ of marketable casinghead gas was produced
from the four fields in 1978 (Curry 1978). In 1979, oil and gas production
declined somewhat. About 42,262,951 barrels of oil and 49,812,460 million ft^
of gas were produced.

140

OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS

Interest in oil and gas resources off the Northwest Florida coast began
when the Jay field in Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties was discovered in 1970.
At that time, the Federal Government was opening frontier areas for explora-
tion in response to the national policy to accelerate oil and gas production
in the United States. One such frontier area in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico
adjacent to the States of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida (MAFLA) was
created. Following the lengthy leasing process, 62 tracts consisting of
196,516 ha (485,396 acres) were sold on 23 December 1973. Most of the tracts
in the so-called MAFLA area were adjacent to Florida (U.S. Department of the
Interior 1980b). Bids received exceeded $1 billion, the largest sum ever
gained from a lease sale. Drilling permits were issued for 43 of the 62
tracts, but only 14 were drilled and they were dry (U.S. Department of the
Interior 1980b).

The area known as Destin Dome, approximately 48-160 km (30-100 mi) south-
west of Panama City, is where 32 of the 62 tracts were sold. This area is
northeast of the sloping carbonate platform which delineates the OCS and is
therefore in relatively shallow water (less than 100 m deep). Although salt
structures are associated with oil and gas production throughout most of the
gulf coast basin, they are not the dominant exploration sites in the West
Florida carbonate platform. In the Destin Dome area, salt anticlines and
domes were the exploration targets. Here, porosity traps formed by buried
biotherms, reef complexes, and other bodies of detrital carbonates are the
principal hopes for oil and gas discovery (U.S. Department of the Interior
1980b).

A second MAFLA sale was made on 18 February 1976. The 34 of the 132
tracts offered that were sold, consisted of 65,297 ha (161,285 acres). Four
tracts leased adjacent to Florida were purchased by a consortium of oil com-
panies, but in April 1981, only one drilling permit had been issued and
apparently no discoveries were made.

The third MAFLA sale (L.S. #65) on 31 October 1978 leased 35 tracts con-
sisting of 81,495 ha (201,294 acres). It was the first lease sale adjacent to
Florida in the Gulf of Mexico subject to the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
Amendments of 1978 (43 U.S.C. 1351). By April 1981, ten Environmental Impact
Reports and Exploration Plans had been filed with the Federal Government of
which eight have been approved for drilling. No discoveries yet have been
made on the four tracts under exploration.

Other lease sales in the MAFLA area offered tracts adjacent to other
states as well as to Florida (Figure 4). Florida's share (40%) of lease
sales, in comparison with that for the entire MAFLA area, is given in Tables 2
and 3.

East Bay

Interest in offshore oil and gas development in Northwest Florida has not
been limited to the Outer Continental Shelf. Drilling on submerged State-
owned lands from floating or fixed platforms dates back to 1947 when the first
offshore oil well was drilled near Key West in Monroe County. Since 1947,
various oil companies have entered into lease agreements with the State for
mineral extraction privileges, primarily oil and gas, within State waters.

141

Figure 4. Status of OCS lease areas off the Florida Gulf Coast (U.S. Depart-
ment of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management 1980a).

142

The Getty Oil Company's recent interest in East Bay, within Santa Rosa
County, may be attributed to the fields discovered at Jay. The drilling site
was selected because of its direct proximity to an anticline located in the
Smackover and Norphlet geologic substructure of East Bay.

The Getty Oil Company proposes to drill a 5,427-m (17,800-ft) exploratory
well near the center of East Bay to determine whether a marketable quantity of
oil or gas is present. If proven economically productive, up to eight addi-
tional wells will be drilled. According to the oil company, there is a
greater likelihood that natural gas, rather than oil, will be discovered and
that such a find will have a minimum of 15-year producing period. During that
period, Getty Oil estimates expeditures to total $91 million (1979 dollars)
for development and production and $43 million in revenues to State and local
governments.

Table 2. Lease sales in 1959, 1973, 1976, and 1978 of
in Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida combined (MAFLA)
Department of the Interior (1980b).

tracts in Florida and
as reported by the

Lease sale

Tracts
for

offered
lease

Tracts leased

Percent of offered
tracts leased

number

Date

Flori

MAFLA

Flori

MAFLA

Florida

MAFLA

05^

02/26/59

„

12/20/73

147

02/18/76

132

10/28/78

Total

296

368

117

156

L.S. #5 is not considered part of MAFLA,
cent to Florida.

but all leasing activity was adja-

Table 3. Lease sales (in acres) offered and leased in 1959, 1973, 1976, and
1978 for Florida and for Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida combined (MAFLA) as
reported by the U.S. Department of the Interior (1980b).

Lease sale

Acres offered

Acres leased

Percent
acres

offered
leased

number

Date

Florida

MAFLA

Florida

MAFLA

Florida

MAFLA

05^

02/26/59

458,000

„

32,480

„

12/20/73

489,600

817,297

357,120

485,396

02/18/76

350,292

687,603

23,040

161,285

10/28/78

408,334

551.709

161,280

201,294

L.S. #5 is not
cent to Florida.

considered part of MAFLA, but all leasing activity was adja-

Currently (1982), the Getty Oil Company is seeking a ruling from the
courts to allow drilling after being turned down by the Florida Governor and
Cabinet.

OCS OIL AND GAS PROJECTIONS

Long-term forecasts by USGS for oil and gas production from the Gulf of
Mexico call for a gradual decline in production with ultimate depletion
sometime after 2000 (Figure 5). Production levels are not independent of
technolgoical innovation, economics, and market forces. For example, in old,
nearly depleted wells, oil could be forced out by steam injections and
increase the recoverable reserves in existing fields. Breakthroughs in oil
platform design enabled small, currently uneconomical fields to become profit-
able. As the complex relationships of technology, economics, and market
forces change, estimates of recoverable resources also change.

The Resource Appraisal Group (RAG) of USGS assessed the undiscovered
recoverable oil and gas resources and developed the production predictions
shown in Figure 5. The RAG and the Office of Resource Analysis (also in USGS)
employ occurrence modeling, search modeling, and production modeling to esti-
mate field size distributions and supply curves. Data obtained from this
research are being used to develop a sophisticated model of the dynamics of

700

600

500

200

100

-•

•••

Gas production
••, curve

^^*"^*«.

• ••..

' --...^

oil production
curve

' ••.

••».,

1975

1985

2000

Figure 5. Oil and gas production for the Gulf of Mexico from 1975 to 2000
(U.S. Department of Interior 1980a, 1980b).

144

petroleum reserves. The Clark-Drew Model is capable of determining (1) the
field size distribution of total resources, (2) field size distribution of
deposits discoverable at different levels of cost and technology, and (3)
production curves over time using various socioeconomic assumptions (U.S.
Department of the Interior 1980a).

The Clark-Drew Model indicates that there are over
reservoirs yet to be discovered in the Gulf of Mexico,
likely be small, each perhaps containing less than one
recoverable oil .

1,000 fields and/or
Half of them would
million barrels of

Under suitable market conditions and technological innovations, these
fields could be profitably brought into production. The oil and gas produced
would not cause any great increase in oil and gas production, but the date of
ultimate depletion could be extended. There are no published estimates of oil
and gas reserves in the eastern Gulf of Mexico.

Resource and Reserve Estimates

The USGS is responsible for estimating oil and gas reserves on the Outer
Continental Shelf. For this purpose, USGS conducts geophysical studies and
reviews data gathered by oil and gas companies under prelease exploratory
permits, or as a result of exploration and development conducted on leases
obtained from the government.

The most recent estimates of oil and gas reserves were made by USGS.
Their estimates are based on undiscovered recoverable oil and gas in October
1980, and known remaining recoverable reserves in January 1979 (Table 4).

Table 4. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and gas
(U.S. Department of the Interior 1980b).

reserves (mean estimates) in 1979

Gulf area

Oil , Gas ^
(billion bbl)^ (trillion ft"^)

Mean estimates of undiscovered
recoverable reserves

Western Gulf of Mexico
(Main pass area and west)
0-2,500 m water depth

Eastern Gulf of Mexico
(East of Main pass area)
0-2,500 m water depth

5.2

1.3

69.0

2.9

Known reserves

2.8

37.2

bbl = barrel = 42 U.S. gallons

145

Original recoverable reserves represent the amount of oil and gas before
exploration, development, and production. They equal the total production
that could be expected from a field. The original recoverable reserves in the
Gulf of Mexico are estimated by USGS to have been 7.52 billion barrels of oil
and 76.2 trillion ft^ of gas. More than three decades of production yielded
4.76 billion barrels of oil and 39 trillion ft^ of gas (U.S. Department of the
Interior 1980b).

The most recent undiscovered recoverable reserve estimates for the Gulf
of Mexico are 6.5 billion barrels of oil and 71.9 trillion ft^ of gas.

OCS OIL AND GAS EXTRACTION FACILITIES

INTRODUCTION

The exploration, development, and production of oil and gas resources on
the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) involves a variety of unique onshore facil-
ities. Generally, in frontier areas like the eastern gulf, OCS-related
activities are performed by an imported specialized industrial group. Firms
specializing and experienced in OCS oil and gas activities usually establish
operations in a coastal area adjacent to offshore exploration and production
areas if the scale of offshore activities provides the necessary economic
incentive. The economic requirements for certain types of OCS onshore facil-
ities (refineries, processing plants, and fabrication yards) are such that in
many cases, a high level of onshore facilities and services are necessary to
support oil and gas recovery. If the production of offshore OCS oil and gas
is so small that new onshore facilities are not justifiable, then the offshore
operations probably will be serviced by existing onshore facilities in Texas
or Louisiana.

Even if OCS oil and gas exploration and production are low, some small
onshore facilities such as service bases, heliports, and inspection and test-
ing companies probably will locate along the Florida coast. Most of these
specialized firms are involved in OCS operations worldwide, but there may be
limited economic opportunities for local industries, such as machine shops,
labor contractors, and trucking companies. Industries serving port areas also
are likely to benefit.

PHASES OF OCS OIL AND GAS ACTIVITIES

The six phases of OCS activities are: (1) tract selection, (2) leasing,
(3) exploration, (4) development, (5) production, and (6) shut down. Although
completion of these phases may take 15 to 40 years, there is considerable
overlay among the phases. With the exception of geophysical and geological
exploration there is little need for onshore facilities or services during the
leasing phase.

The exploration phase usually lasts from 1 to 7 years (New England River
Basin Commission 1976a). Temporary service bases are established, generally
in existing ports, to service and support exploratory drilling. Only small

146

onshore support is required during exploration, most of which would be tempo-
rary. Exploration requries service bases and suppliers of tubular goods and
drilling supplies such as muds and cement.

The development phase lasts from 4 to 9 years after oil and gas are found
in commercial quantity (New England River Basin Commission 1976a; 1976b).
Development drilling is usually performed from fixed platforms floated to the
site and positioned on the ocean floor. Onshore activities peak during the
development phase. Permanent service bases are established and oil /gas trans-
poration systems are implemented. Tool and equipment companies, catering
services, repair and maintenance yeards, diving companies, and specialized
drilling equipment companies would be located onshore.

As well drilling is completed, the production phase begins. This phase
lasts 10 to 25 years or more. During this phase, the drilling rig is dis-
assembled and production equipment installed. Oil may be pumped ashore by
pipeline or stored offshore until it is transferred to tankers. Market condi-
tions in adjacent coastal areas will dictate whether the crude oil will be
refined in Florida or trans-shipped out of the State. Gas must be piped to
shore for processing and transport. If applicable, a gas processing plant may
be constructed inland between the OCS pipeline landfall and the existing gas
infrastructure.

There are virtually no new onshore activities generated during the shut-
down phase. Facilities identified above are closed or shifted to other uses
or areas.

LOCATION FACTORS FOR ONSHORE FACILITIES

Proximity to offshore OCS oil and gas activities is generally the most
important factor in determining the location of onshore facilities. Another
important consideration is the tendency for OCS support activities to aggre-
gate, or locate in a central geographical area, usually in a port area. The
tendency to cluster near other related industries is necessary for adequate
cooperation and interaction among the support activities. Economic efficiency
may be achieved by minimizing the duplication of facilities and equipment.

A number and diverse assortment of onshore support facilities are
required to support offshore OCS operations. Some of the major factors
affecting the number and location of these facilities are listed in Table 5.

FACILITY REQUIREMENTS

The following section describes typical onshore OCS facilities, siting
considerations, and environmental impacts.

Service Bases

Service bases are used for fabricating, servicing, and storing drilling
equipment, platforms and pipes, and supplying personnel and transportation to
and from oil and gas rigs and platforms.

147

Table 5. Factors affecting the number and locations of onshore support facil'
ities (New England River Basins Commission 1976a; 1976b).

Location of oil and gas field

Size of oil and gas field

Topography of oil and gas field

Depth of water

Whether both oil and gas are found

Availability of coastal frontage (land)

Availability of additional (back-up) land

Proximity of existing refineries and processing plants

Proximity to diverse urban areas and markets

Public services and facilities (schools, hospitals)

Labor markets (areas without strong labor unions are preferred)

Public opinion

Availability of entertainment

Proximity to airport or landing strip

Service bases require at least two berths, each about 122 m (400 ft) long
per rig. Fewer vessels and helicopters may be required if several rigs are
serviced from the same service base. Depending on the distance to the rig and
the nature of offshore DCS operations, at least two vessel trips and one heli-
copter trip per rig are required daily. The typical types and quantities of
materials transported offshore to a drilling rig in one year are shown in
Table 6.

Temporary service bases are established as soon as exploration and early
development begin. Temporary bases may be expanded into permanent service
bases, but only if a significant discovery of oil or gas has been made.
Pipeline installation service bases locate during the latter part of the
development phase; preferred locations are pipeline landfall sites and pipe
casting yards. Preferred locations for platform installation service bases
are sites within close proximity to where platform installation will occur.

Transportation Facilities

Pipelines are the preferred method of transporting oil from offshore to
onshore locations although tankers sometimes are used. Gas is always trans-
ported by pipeline. The locations of pipelines usually depend upon decisions
based on distance from shore (the shorter the better), and environmental con-
siderations, e.g., ocean bottoms, and landfall beaches. The location, costs
and suitability of pipeline easements also are important considerations. Usu-
ally the production threshold that must be met to justify the construction of
a pipeline is 70,000 bbl per day for oil and 500 million ft^ per day for gas.

148

Table 6. Types and quantities of materials transported annually offshore to
an exploration rig (New England River Basins Commission 1976b).

Materials

Type Quantity

Fuel 10,000-15,000 bbl

Drilling mud 2,000-5,000 tons

Cement 1,000-3,000 tons

Fresh water 5,000,000-7,500,000 gal
Tubular goods 2,000-3,000 tons

Pipeline construction and operations require a number of onshore support
facilities including pipe coating yards, service bases, testing and inspection
services, diving companies, and survey teams. Pumping stations are sometimes
required, and, depending on the final destination of the oil or gas, a
refinery, processing plant, marine terminal, or storage facilities may be
necessary. Siting considerations and requirements of facilities directly
associated with pipelines are listed in Table 7. Impact considerations
are given for onshore support facilities for OCS oil and gas development
(Table 8).

Marine Terminal Facilities

Marine terminals in Florida will most likely receive crude oil from off-
shore pipelines during a major portion of the production phase. During the
earlier stages of production, small tankers (15,000 to 25,000 deadweight tons)
may be used. Until quantities of gas are found to be large enough for produc-
tion, gas is either flared or reinjected into the well.

Terminal facilities vary depending on their particular needs and the
availability of waterfront. Berthing facilities may include offshore moor-
ings, fixed island piers, fixed shoreside piers, floating T-piers or other
methods. Site considerations and impacts associated with onshore development
are given in Tables 9-10.

Processing Facilities

Crude oil produced at the wellhead requires processing to separate oil,
natural gas, brine, water, and suspended and dissolved solids. The processing
takes place at the well site, onshore, or both. The nature and location of
facilities that will be used to separate the ingredients from the well stream
depend on the characteristics of the ingredients and transportation.

The first step is to remove impurities and separate gas and, in some
cases, water from the wellstream. Gas found in a free state with little or no
oil present is termed non-associated gas. Non-associated gas may be rein-
jected or piped inland for sale. Associated gas (which is found in solution

149

Table 7. Requirements for onshore support facilities for OCS oil and gas
development (adapted from New England River Basin Commission 1976b).

Facility

Requirements

Service bases

Land

Temporary base
Permanent base

Berthage
Transportation

Economic base

Pipe! ines

Land

Pipeline easement (on shore)

Pipecoating yard

Pumping station (if required)

Waterfront

Water

Berthing facilities

Land
Terminal
Tank farm

Berthage
Water

Oil and gas processing

Land
Water

2-6 ha (5-15 acres)
10-40 ha (25-200 acres)

61-183 m (200-600 ft) water frontage
5-6 m (15-20 ft) water depth

Air-heliport very close proximity
Water-excellent vessel accessibility
Rail-desirable
Road-adequate accessibility

Cost of land

Proximity to related industries

15-30 m (50-100 ft)
20-61 ha (50-150 acres)
16 ha (40 acres)

15-30 m (50-100 ft) for landfall
229 m (750 ft) for pipecoating yard
(water depth at least 3 m or 10 ft)

11,350-56,775 liters
(3,000-15,000 gal/d)

20-30 ha (50-75 acres)
8-30 ha (20-75 acres)

Approximately 304 m (1,000 ft)
for pier

Potable water
Purging

20-30 ha (50-75 acres)
200,000-750,000 gal/d

(continued)
150

Table 7. (Concluded).

Facility

Requirements

Refineries

Land
Water

Platform fabrication

Land

Berthage

Water

202-809 ha (500-2,000 acres)
5-10 million gal/d

10-324 ha (25-800 acres)

61-122 m (200-400 ft)
5-15 m (15-50 ft) depth

40,000-100,000 gal/d

Table 8. Potential pollutants and the economic base for onshore support
facilities, OCS oil and gas development (adapted from the New England River
Basins Commissions 1976b).

Facility

Pollutants/economic requirements

Service bases
Type of pollution
Air emission

Wastewater contaminants

Solid wastes

Noise
Economic base
Labor

Wages

Capital investment

Hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen oxides

Hydrocarbons
Heavy metals

Up to 6 tons per day during drilling
Hazardous wastes, contaminated oil

Up to 85 dBA^ on a 24-hour basis

50-60 jobs/platform during drilling
20-30 jobs/platform during production

$750,000-$l,000,000/year

Temporary base - $200,000-$300,000
Permanent base - $2 million-$5 million

(continued)
151

Table 8. (Continued),

Facility

Pollutants/economic requirements

Pi pel ines
Type of pollution
Air emission

Wastewater contaminants

Sol id wastes

Noise
Economic base
Labor

Wages

Capital investment

Berthing facilities
Type of pollution
Air emissions

Wastewater contaminants

Hydrocarbons
Sul fur oxides
Nitrogen oxides
Particulates
Carbon monoxide

Al kal ine substances
Hydrocarbons
Particulates
Metal fragments

Concrete

Contaminated debris
Packaging materials
Metal scraps

Up to 100 dBA^ on a 24-hour basis

250-300 jobs/pipeline during

construction
100-200 jobs at pipecoating yard during

construction

$5 million-$6 million/year for pipeline

construction
$1.5 million-$3 million for pipecoating

yard during construction

$8 mill ion-$10 mill ion for pipecoating
yard

Hydrocarbons
Carbon monoxide

Oil and grease

High BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

High COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)

(continued)
152

x^^-«*

Table 8. (Continued).

Facility

Pol 1 utants/requi rements

Berthing facilities (continued)
Economic base
Labor
Wages

Capital investment
Oil and gas processing
Type of pollutants
Air emissions

Wastewater contaminants

Noise

Sol id wastes

Economic base
Labor
Wages
Capital investment

25-75 jobs

$500,000-$!, 000, 000/year

$15 million-$20 million

Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Hydrogen sulfides
Nitrogen oxides
Particulates
Sulfur oxides

Oil and grease

Heavy metals

Phenols

Halogens

Chromium

Sulfuric acid

Phosphates

Chlorine

Zinc

Up to 100 dBA^ on a 24-hour basis

Scale and sludge
Oil absorbants
Spent desiccants

50-60 jobs

$750,000-$l,000,000/year
$50 million-$100 million
(continued)

153

Table 8. (Concluded),

Facility

Pollutants/economic requirements

Refineries
Type of pollution
Air emissions

Wastewater contaminants

Economic base

Labor

Wages

Capital investment
Platform fabrication
Type of pollution

Air emissions

Wastewater contaminants

Noise

Ammoni a
Al dehydes
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Particulates
Sulfer oxides

Acids and caustics
Floating and dissolved oil
Dissolved solids
Dissolved organics
Cyanide
Chroma te

200-600 jobs

$6 million-$10 million/year

$5 million-$25 million

Sand and metal dust
Concrete and cement dust
Nitrogen oxide
Sulfur oxide
Hydrocarbons
Organic compounds

Heavy metals

Chemicals

Particulates

Up to 100 dBA^ on a 24-hour basis

Measure of the intensity of sound.

154

with oil), if found in large enough quantities to justify the construction of
a pipeline, is transported ashore for further processing and to recover
liquifiable hydrocarbons.

In some cases the entire well stream is piped ashore. There is a tradeoff
here, however, between using the larger pipe size needed to carry the in-
creased volume (because of free water) versus the use of valuable platform
space for water separators. Emulsified water is usually separated out of the
wellstream onshore because equipment necessary for this process is relatively
complex. Both free and emulsified water must be treated before discharge.
The siting considerations and impacts of onshore oil and gas processing and
treatment facilities are shown in Tables 9 and 10.

Refineries

A modern oil refinery physically or chemically alters all or part of
crude oil to produce a number of petroleum products. The three major types of
refineries are market refineries built to serve a particular market, resource
refineries built on or near major oil fields, and swing refineries built to
balance supply and demand. The market refinery is the preferred type of
refinery because shipping bulk crude oil is less costly than shipping several
refined products. Refineries are not usually constructed to accommodate OCS
production area unless a relatively large demand is located nearby.

Refineries usually are parts of complexes that also include storage
tanks, administration and maintenance facilities, water treatment facilities,
and laboratories. The entire complex is usually surrounded by a buffer zone.
Transportation systems including rail, road, pipelines, and marine terminals
also are required. Siting considerations and impacts associated with refin-
eries are given in Tables 9-10.

Platform Fabrication Yards

Offshore OCS oil and gas drilling and production are conducted from plat-
forms that are constructed of steel or concrete. The main body, or jacket,
supporting the platforms is constructed almost entirely of tubular steel that
is fabricated onshore at a waterfront location, placed in the water and towed
to the installation site, and set in place on the ocean floor. Decks, drill-
ing rigs, living quarters, and other rig components also are constructed
onshore and towed to the offshore site. Several types of platforms are
constructed depending upon depth, sea bottom type, weather trends, the mix and
type of oil and gas in the find, and other factors.

Platform fabrication yards are large marine facilities usually consisting
of fabrication shops, welding racks, pipe mills, concrete mixing plants, and
cement storage silos (if concrete platforms are used), and administrative
facilities (Tables 9-10).

155

Table 9. Siting requirements for berthing facilities, oil refineries, plat-
form fabrication yards, and processing facilities for onshore support for OCS
oil and gas development in Northwest Florida (adapted from New England River
Basins Commission 1975b).

Facility

Requirement

Berthing facilities

Land

Terminal
Tank farm

Berthage

Water

Oil refineries

Land

Water
Platform fabrication yards

Land

Berthage

Water
Oil and gas processing facilities

Land

Water

20-30 ha (50-75 acres)
8-30 ha (20-75 acres)

About 304 m (1,000 ft) for pier

Potable water
Purging

202-809 ha (500-2,000 acres)
5-10 million gal/d

10-324 ha (25-800 acres)
61-122 m (200-400 ft)
40,000-100,000 gal/d

20-30 ha (50-75 acres)
200,000-750,000 gal/d

156

Table 10. Impact considerations for berthing facilities, oil refineries,
platform fabrication yards, and processing facilities for onshore support for
OCS oil and gas development in Northwest Florida (adapted from New England
River Basin Commission 1976b).

Facility

Pollution/economic requirements

Berthing facility
Type of pollution
Air emissions

Wastewater

Economic base

Labor

Wages

Capital investment
Oil refineries
Type of pollution

Air emissions

Wastewater

Economic base
Labor
Wages
Capital investment

Hydrocarbon
Carbon monoxide

Oil and grease

High biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

High chemical oxygen demand (COD)

25-75 jobs

$500,000-$l,000,000/year
$15 million-$50 million

Ammonia, aldehydes, carbon monoxide,

hydrocarbon, particulates, sulfur oxides

Acids and caustics, floating and dissolved
oil, dissolved solids, dissolved organics,
cyanide, chonnate

200-600 jobs

$6 million-$10 million/year

$5 million-$250 million

(continued)

157

Table 10. (Concluded).

Facility

Pollutants/economic requirements

Platfonn fabrication yards
Environmental
Air emissions

Wastewater
Noise
Oil and gas processing facilities
Environmental
Air emissions

Wastewater

Noise

Sol id wastes

Economic base
Labor
Wages
Capital investment

Sand and metal dust, concrete and cement
dust, nitrogen oxide, sulfur oxide, hydro-
carbons, organic compounds

Heavy metals, chemicals, particulates

Up to 100 dBA^ on a 24-hour basis

Carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, hydrogen
sulfide, nitrogen oxides, particulates,
sul fur oxide

Oil and grease, heavy metals, phenols,
halogens, chromium, sulfuric acid, phos-
phates, chlorine, zinc

Up to 100 dBA^ on a 24-hour basis

Scale and sludge, oil absorbants, spent
desiccants

50-60 jobs

$750,000-$l,000,000/year
$50 million-$100 million

Measure of the intensity of sound.

158

SUMMARY

The mineral production of Northwest Florida recently has increased sub-
stantially during the past few years because of the oil fields near Jay. Oil
and gas produce much greater revenue in the region than all other minerals
combined, and they now account for about one-third of the value of all mineral
production in the State. Hopes were high in the mid-1970' s that offshore oil
and gas would be found in the Destin Dome southwest of Panama City, but no
significant amount was discovered. Nearshore, there is expectation of a gas
find in East Bay, but exploration may not begin for years.

Nonfuel mineral production is low. Sand and gravel are most valuable,
and Escambia County has the largest production. Ilmenite and rutile are pro-
duced from coastal sands west of Panama City, and magnesia is extracted from
sea water at Port St. Joe.

OCS oil and gas exploration off the Gulf coast of Florida is nearly at a
standstill, but further explorations are expected. If significant offshore
production takes place, the onshore requirements for facilities such as refin-
eries, processing plants and fabrication yards may be extensive. It is impor-
tant for State and local governments that may be affected to anticipate and
plan for such developments.

DATA GAPS

Northwest Florida is not a major mineral producer. Nonfuel minerals are
usually produced by only one firm in a county. Nondisclosure rules cause dif-
ficulties in obtaining production statistics for several counties and several
minerals.

Information on employment is provided in broad categories by the Bureau
of Census. Employment in mineral industries in Northwest Florida is grouped
in ranges of 0-19 to 20-99 employees and such data are of little use when
evaluating the economic significance of the mineral industry. The infromation
required above cannot be obtained from the Bureau of Census because of nondis-
closure rules. If such information is needed, it will have to be obtained in
a way that alleviates disclosure problems, if possible.

159

REFERENCES

Applegate; Pontigo; Rooke. Jurassic smackover oil prospects in the Apalachi-
cola embayment. Oil Gas J. 23 Jan. 1978.

Babcock, C. Summary of Florida petroleum production and exploration in 1963.
Information Circular No. 45. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Geological Sur-
vey; 1964.

Calver, J. Mining and mineral resources. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Geologi-
cal Survey, Geological Bulletin No. 39; 1957.

Canterbury, E., et al . Florida Resources and Analyses Center. Economic
impact of the phosphate rock industry on selected Florida counties.
Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines; September 1978.

Curry, D.; Tootle, C. Activities report to the Interstate Oil Commission.
Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of
Geology; 1980.

Davis, J. The peat deposits of Florida. Geological Bulletin No. 30. Talla-
hassee, FL: Florida Geological Survey; 1946.

DuBar, J. Neogene biostratigraphy of the Charlotte harbor area in South-
western Florida. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Geological Survey; Bulletin
No. 43; 1962.

Florida Department of Administration, Division of State Planning. Charlotte
Harbor: a Florida resource. Tallahassee, FL: Bureau of Land and Water
Management; 1978.

Florida Department of Pollution Control. State of Florida air implementation
plan. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Pollution Control; Jan.
1972; 41 vol.

Florida Energy Office. Florida coastal policy study: the impact of offshore
oil development. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Administration;
December 1975.

Florida Geological Survey. Florida mineral industry production and producers
during 1950 and 1951. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Geological Survey,
Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Geology, 1953.

Gunter, H. Exploration for oil and gas in Florida. Supplement to Information
Circular No. 1. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Geological Survey, Department
of Natural Resources, Bureau of Geology; 1 Jan. 1952.

160

Hoppe, R. Phosphates and Florida mines are vital to agriculture for one-third
of the world. Engineering Mining Journal, Vol. 177, No. 5; 1976.

New England River Basins Commission, U.S. Department of the Interior, RALI
Program. Estimates for New England - onshore facilities related to off-
shore oil and gas development. Boston, MA: New England River Basin
Commission; 1976a.

Klein, K. State oil flow dwindling. Tallahassee Democrat, Tallahassee, FL;
6 May 1982.

Marsh, 0. Geology of Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties, western Florida pan-
handle. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Geological Survey, Department of
Natural Resources, Bureau of Geology, 1966; Bulletin no. 46.

New England River Basins Commission; U.S. Department of the Interior, RALI
Program. Estimates for New England - onshore facilities related to off-
shore oil and gas development. Boston, MA: New England River Basin
Commission, 1976a.

New England River Basins Commission; U.S. Department of the Interior, RALI
Program. Fact book onshore facilities related to offshore oil and gas
development. Boston, MA: New England River Basins Commission, 1976b.

Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council, Agenda item number 7. Unpub-
lished; Fort Myers, FL: 1981.

Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council. Land use policy stand. Fort
Myers, FL: 1978.

Tallahassee Democrat. Scientists say gulf may be phosphate rich. Talla-
hassee, FL: Associated Press; March 1981.

The Planning Design Group; Collins, Evans and Jacobs, Inc. Northwest Florida
regional profile. Mobile, AL: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; Feb. 1977.

Tebeau, C. ; Leach, R., editors. Florida from Indian trail to space age. Vol.
1. Del ray Beach, FL: Southern Publishing Co.; 1965.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District. Environmental inventory.
Mobile, AL: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; July 1978.

U.S. Army corps of Engineers, Mobile District. Environmental inventory.
Mobile, AL: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; July 1978.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of minerals indus-
tries 1972. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1973.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Census of minerals indus-
tries 1972. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1973.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines. The mineral industry of
Florida. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1960, 1965,
1970, 1975, 1978.

161

U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey. Outer Continental Shelf

oil and gas activities in the South Atlantic (U.S.) and their onshore

impacts: a summary report. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office; July 1980a; Report No. 80-626.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Conservation Division.
OCS statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1980a;
Open file report 80-864.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, Conservation Division.
OCS statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1980b;
Open file report 79-1347.

U.S. Enviromental Protection Agency. Final environmental impact statement,
central Florida phosphate industry. Atlanta, GA: 1978.

Vernon, R.O.; Henry, C.W., Jr. Exploration for oil and gas in Florida.
Tallahassee, FL: Florida Geological Survey; 1 March 1961; 1960 supple-
ment to information Circrcular No. 1.

White, W. The geomorphology of the Florida peninsula. Geological Bulletin
No. 51. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Bureau of Geology; 1970.

Wilbur Smith and Associates. An unpublished report on transportation and
shipments in Florida; 1980.

Wood R. ; Fernald, A. The new Florida atlas. Trend Publishers; Tampa, FL:
1974.

162

RECREATION AND TOURISM

Harry McGlnnis, Ph.D.

Department of Public Administration

Florida State University

Tallahassee, FL

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this report is to synthesize data on tourism and and out-
door recreation in Escambia, Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, Walton, Bay, Gulf, and
Franklin Counties in Northwest Florida. The data and analyses will be used to
help assess the potential impacts of OCS oil and gas development on tourism
and outdoor recreation. The sections on the State of Florida overview and the
potential impacts of oil and gas exploration and development in this report,
and its companion report for Southwest Florida, are similar and are intended
to be so.

Recreation is a major use characteristic of coastal Florida. According
to the Natural Resources Defense Council (1976), coastal recreation per capita
is 10 days annually. Sport fishing attracts millions of resident and out-of-
state (tourist) saltwater anglers, and is a multimillion dollar a year
business. Hunting, surfing, boating, skin diving, beach recreation, and
nature studies are popular coastal activities. In recent decades the demand
for recreation has been increasing, but opportunities have been declining.
Only a small fraction of Florida's coastline is now available for public rec-
reation and some of the finest and more accessible areas are being developed
for other uses.

The rapid population growth, urbanization, urban sprawl, the automobile,
and new highways have reduced the amount of land available for recreation.
Each year it becomes more expensive and more difficult to obtain new areas for
playgrounds, parks, forests, wildlife management areas, scenic routes, and
fish and wildlife preserves.

Water resources are in need of a comprehensive program of restoration and
expansion. The problems caused by water pollution, sedimentation and dredge
and fill operations, have reduced the value of coastal waters as recreation
areas. As Floridians and tourists increase their mobility, disposable income,
and leisure time, their demands for recreation and tourism also increase. The
consequences are that many different interest groups are likely to compete for
the use of a limited supply of resources.

Perhaps the most visible problem created by a rapidly shrinking natural
coastline is that of public access to fishing grounds (Hinman 1978). Sewage
disposal and silt-laden runoff from dredge and fill navigation projects usual-
ly increase turbidity and lead to deleterious effects on estuarine and near-
shore fisheries. Most fisherman must venture farther offshore to less
polluted water, which leads to a greater expenditure of time and money. Bell
(1978) states that increasing population, higher real per capita incomes,
shorter work weeks, and longer vacations mean more leisure time and money for
outdoor recreation. The effect of increasing demand and dwindling supply will

163

most certainly raise the real value of sport fishing. The terms sport fishing
and recreational fishing are used interchangably in the literature; for conti-
nuity in this report, sport fishing, or sport fish, is used.

Since 1979, one of the major economic issues in Florida has been the
tourist industry. Although tourism has been confronted with inflation and
high energy costs, the industry is still strong and the natural resources that
provide recreation for tourists must be protected.

STATE OF FLORIDA OVERVIEW

Compared to the Nation as a whole, the population growth of Florida over
the past 30 years has been a dramatic one. The U.S. population grew 45% from
1950 to 1979, but Florida's population grew over 300% (2.7 million to 9.2 mil-
lion). Part of Florida's increase was caused by the influx of retirees. The
number of retirees in the population increased from 11% to 18% in 1960-79 (9%
to 11% nationwide-).

The population of Florida in 1980 was 9.7 million, a 43.7% increase since
1970. The average rate of increase was 3.7% per year (1980 U.S Census data
from Florida State University computer tape). In the 1970's, Florida was the
third fastest growing state in the country behind Nevada and Arizona. Despite
the 1980 recession, tourism in Florida did not decline as it did in the reces-
sion in 1974-75. In 1974, there was a decline in out-of-state cars, but the
number of tourist arrivals actually increased. As gasoline prices and the
cost of air travel increase, combined with the slow growth in real income,
tourism in Florida is likely to level off. The tourist predictions for 1981
are about 33.3 million, a 1.7% increase over 1980.

In 1989, Florida can expect over 48.4 million tourists. This is 15.3
million more visitors than in 1979. The annual projected tourist growth rate
in 1979-89 is 3.9% compared to 6.6% for the previous decade.

The impacts of recreation and tourism on Florida's economy are reflected
by the sales of nondurable goods. Sales of recreation- related nondurable
goods ($10 billion statewide) were 18% of total taxable sales in 1979. The
1989 forecast shows $30 billion or 18.72% of the State total. Recreation non-
durable taxable sales in Florida were $2.7 billion in 1968, $3.4 billion in
1970, $5.8 billion in 1975, and $8.6 billion in 1978.

Florida has become the mecca for outdoor recreation seekers throughout
the United States and it is rapidly becoming one of the most popular winter
vacation spots for Europeans and other foreigners as well (Florida Department
of Natural Resources 1981). Each year over 33 million tourists visit Florida
to take part in outdoor recreation and as Florida's population grows, there
will be a need for additional outdoor recreation services and facilities.
Although residents in urban areas engage in user-oriented recreation more than
resource-oriented recreation, urbanites are expected to make greater demand on
resource-based recreation in the future, which will require further public
purchase of the natural lands and waters.

164

Florida's climate is temperate in the northern part of the State to
subtropical or tropical in the south. Year-round temperatures are suitable
for outdoor recreation throughout the State (Figure 1). Florida has over
54,000 mi'^ of land area and 15,000 mi^ of territorial waters and estuaries.
Territorial waters make up 85% of the total and estuaries (bays, lagoons, and
marshes) make up the other 15%.

Florida has a wealth of natural resources that support outdoor recrea-
tion. The State has 22 major natural springs that discharge over 3 billion
gallons per day (Bgal/d) to form lakes and rivers. The combined flow of all
springs in Florida is about 5 Bgal/d. Florida's 7,700 lakes comprise over
3,200 mi2 of water area, and it has about 1,700 rivers and streams that total
nearly 12,000 miles in length.

Florida's coastline is about 11,000 miles long, much of which is compris-
ed of high energy beaches. Florida's barrier islands provide a wide range of
recreational opportunities including fishing, swimming, hunting, camping, and
nature study, located in areas such as parks, wildlife refuges, and national
seashores. Barrier islands have numerous motels, restaurants, gift shops,
amusement parks, marinas, golf courses, tennis courts, and swimming pools.
Florida has 13 registered historic places and 7 national natural landmarks
located on its barrier islands.

Florida has 173 (more or less, depending on how they are classified) rec-
reation sites. This includes 30 preserves, forests, and State parks (Figure
2), 35 State aquatic preserves (Figure 3), 48 State wildlife management areas
(Figure 4), and 32 special feature sites, 17 preserves, 7 museums, and 4 orna-
mental gardens (Florida Department of Natural Resources 1981).

The per capita expenditures of U.S. residents for hunting and fishing for
1955, 1960, and 1970 is shown in Table 1. These data will be used later in
this report to help estimate the magnitude and value of the fishing and hunt-
ing industries in Northwest Florida.

The Governor's office (1980) has developed a set of goals and priorities
for 1981-83. Those relating to outdoor recreation are as follows:

Goal : to improve outdoor recreation opportunities through
development and implementation of a new outdoor recreation
plan.

Pol icies: (1) The State shall continue acquisition and
development of State parks with emphasis on high quality
resources and public accessibility. (2) The State shall
provide recreation programs, sites, and facilities that best
meet public demand. (3) The State shall expand recreational
opportunities to include user-oriented recreation, particu-
larly in and around urban areas to provide convenient and
energy conservative outdoor recreation. (4) The State shall
emphasize inter-agency coordination and cooperation in pro-
viding improved and diversified outdoor recreation opportun-
ities.

165

.^■i"

•F = Degrees Fahrenheit
*C = Degrees Centigrade

Figure 1. Mean annual rainfall and temperature in Florida (Wood and Fernald
1974).

166

ALABAMA

GEORGIA

STATE PRESERVE
^ Paynes Prairie

STATE FORESTS
A Blackwaler
B Pine Log
C Cary
D WIthlacoochee

STATE PARKS

1 Fori Cooper

2 BlacKwater River

3 Caladesi Island

4 Colller-Seminole

5 St- George Island'

6 Faver-Dykes

7 Florida Caverns

8 Fort Clinch

9 Mike Roess Gold Head Branch

10 Highlands Hammock

11 Hillsborough River

12 Hontoon Island

13 Ichelucknee Springs

14 John Pennekamp Coral Reef

15 Jonathan Dickinson

16 Lake Kissimmee

17 Lake Louisa

18 Little Talbot Island

19 Manatee Springs

20 Myakka River

21 Ochtockonee River

22 O'leno

23 Prairie Lakes"

24 T H Stone Memorial St. Joe Peninsul

25 St. Lucie Inlef

26 Suwannee River

27 Tomoka

28 Torreya

29 Wekiwa Springs

30 Blue Spring
■Not Open to Public

...^'A*

Figure 2.
1979).

State preserves, forests, and parks (Rorida Power and Light Co.

167

ALABAMA

GEOOGI A

AQUATIC PRESERVES

1 Fort PIcKens Stale Park

2 Yellow River Marsh

3 Rocky Bayou State Park

4 St. Andrews State Park

5 St. Joseph Bay

6 Apalachicola Bay

7 Alligator Harbor

8 SI, Martin's Marsh

9 Pinellas County

10 Boca Ciega

11 Lake Jackson

12 Cape Haze

13 Matlacha Pass

14 Pine Island Sound

15 Estero Bay

16 Rookery Bay

18 Coupon Bight

19 Ligumvitae Bay

20 Biscayne Bay

21 Loxahalchee River-Lake Worth Creek

22 North Fork, St Lucie

23 Jensen Beach to Jupiter Inlet

24 Indian River-Vero Beach to Ft. Pierce

25 Indian River-Malabar to Sebastian

26 Banana River

27 Mosquito Lagoon

28 Wekiva River

29 Tomoka Marsh

30 Pelllcer Creek

31 Nassau River-St. John's Marsh

32 Fort Clinch Slate Park

33 Cockroach Bay

34 Gasparilla Sound-Charlotte Harbor

35 Cape Florida

Figure 3. State aquatic preserves (Florida Power and Light Co. 1979)

168

aL A I AM A

GEORGIA

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREA

1 La Floresta Perdlda

2 St. Regis

3 Blackwaler

4 Eglin

5 Point Washington

6 Gastrin

7 G,U, Parker

8 Edward Ball

9 Apalachee

10 Robert Brent

11 Joe Budd

12 Octilockonee River

13 Talquin

14 Apalactiicola

15 Aucilla

16 Tide Swamp

17 Steinhatchee

18 Gulf Hammock

19 Fort McCoy

20 Citrus

21 Croom

22 RIchloam

23 Green Swamp

24 Hillstjorough

25 Cypress Creek

26 Osceola

27 Lake Butler

28 Railord Tract

29 Nassau

30 Camp Blanding

31 Guana River

32 Hudson

33 Lochloosa

34 Ocala

35 Relay Tract

36 Tomoka

37 Farmton

38 Bull Creek

39 Three Lakes

40 Avon Park

41 J.W. Corbett

42 Holey Land

43 Brown's Farm

44 Everglades

45 Cecil Webb

46 Lykes Brothers

47 Rotenberger

48 Big Cypress

.y^^^

Figure 4. State wildlife management areas (Florida Power and Light Co. 19/9;.

169

127.

•l^

178.

,10^

84.

,47

81.

,02

122.

,53

Table 1. Per capita expenditures (in dollars) in the United States for fish-
ing and hunting (Adapted from U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife
Service 1960, 1970).

Category 1955 1960 1970

Freshwater fishing 77 $ 95

Saltwater fishing 91 101

Waterfoul hunting 60 46

Small game hunting 50 60

Big game hunting 73 55

Gul f of Mexico .only.

STATE PROGRAMS

The Florida Department of Natural Resources (DNR), Division of Recreation
and Parks has the authority to acquire, develop, and operate State parks and
recreation areas. The Division is responsible for administering a comprehen-
sive recreation program. State funds from the Land and Water Conservation
Funds are matched by Federal funds to purchase parks and recreation sites.
The Division develops a State Outdoor Recreation Plan every 5 years and pro-
vides technical assistance on outdoor recreation to local governments through
the Florida Recreation Development Assistance Program. The Florida DNR spent
$483.85 million on parks and recreation in fiscal years 1971-72 through 1979-
80 and increased the number of employees in park and recreation programs from
424 to 767 (Governor's Office of Planning and Budgeting 1981). The DNR Divi-
sion of State Lands administers the Conservation and Recreation Lands (CARL)
program designed to purchase environmentally endangered lands and recreation
areas.

The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission (GFWFC), which manages
freshwater fish and wildlife spent $16.99 million on freshwater fish programs
and $13.63 million on wildlife programs in fiscal years 1976-77 to 1979-80.
The number of employees in the freshwater fishery program increased from 154
to 175, and in the wildlife program it increased from 71 to HI (Governor's
Office of Planning and Budgeting 1981).

The Florida Department of Commerce promotes tourism by advertising and by
surveying tourists. The Department of Commerce spent $1.68 million for tour-
ism programs in fiscal year 1972-73 to 1973-74 with plans to spend $5.5 mil-
lion in fiscal year 1980-81. The number of employees in this department that
worked in various tourism related programs increased from 66 to 112
(Governor's Office of Planning and Budgeting 1981).

170

FEDERAL PROGRAMS

The U.S. Department of Interior (DOI) is the agency with primary respon-
sibility for national parks and recreation related programs. Within the
Department, the National Park Service (NPS) uses Land and Water Conservation
Funds for purchasing parks and recreation sites. The NPS also evaluates and
designates natural historic and cultural sites that qualify for the National
Registry of Natural Landmarks and National Register of Historic Places. The
Service also manages an historic preservation fund that provides matching
funds to the states. Since 1965, the State has acquired 73,023 acres of rec-
reation areas from funds from the NPS, as well as the designation of six
national trails. The National Register of Historic Places in 1980 listed 347
sites. In addition, there were 19 NPS registered historic landmarks in Flor-
ida in 1980.

The National Park Service manages national parks and recreation areas,
national seashores, and other natural areas. It also designates national
environmental studies for these areas in cooperation with educational insti-
tutions. Ten of these areas, comprising over 1.6 million acres of land, are
in Florida. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service manages 24 national wildlife
refuges and wilderness areas in Florida that total over 451,000 acres. The
Bureau of Land Management (Minerals Management Services) manages national
lands including offshore bottoms beyond Florida's territorial waters. The
U.S. Forest Service manages four national forests in Florida that cover about
1.3 million acres of land and contain 59 developed public recreation sites
that total 1,313 acres. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, in conjunction with
flood control and water management projects, developed 13 recreation areas of
775 acres. The U.S. Department of Defense allows public hunting within wild-
life management areas on certain Air Force facilities in Florida. The U.S.
Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Interior jointly manage
11 designated wilderness areas consisting of 1,379,612 acres in Florida (Flor-
ida Department of Natural Resources 1981). The location of national parks and
recreation areas in Florida are shown in Figure 5.

OUTDOOR RECREATION IN FLORIDA

Most of the data and information in this report were gathered from na-
tional surveys of fishing and hunting, marine recreational surveys, and sur-
veys taken by the Florida DNR for their five-year outdoor recreation plan.

The statewide outdoor recreation demand per capita, including residents
and tourists for 1970, 1975, and 1980, is given in Table 2 and participation
in various outdoor forms of recreation in 1980 are given in Table 3.

According to data in Outdoor Recreation in Florida (1976), nearly 300
million man days of outdoor recreation (27% of the statewide total) were gen-
erated by Florida tourists in 1975. Bike riding and beach recreation account
for about 50% of the total man days of recreation. Nearly 50% of the State's
residents and 67% of the tourists participated at least once in beach rec-
reation.

171

a:
o

X
(0

o
s

fr
o

O I

—1

o ^

? £■

O E S 2
— — — o

P 5

2
O

as?

o u. o 2

a30ii-i!;aa.So

•- CM O

tD 0» O

+->

—I

i^^

«t

<
2
O

z
o

•r-

flj

S-

3 •

4-> -^

3
•r-

V5 r-H

172

•

•r-

■(->

(—

(/)

1— 1

«*

<T>

1-4

•

t— t

C7^

0)
I/)

•t->
1/1

(U
0£.

<- O
J- +->
3 3

o <:

I- i-

S_ T-

3 «!

O — -

LO \0

• •

t-H CM

C\J
C3

CM
O

CO
C3

o
I •

I CM

IT)

CM
O

ID
O

<4-

■D .—

r— 'r—
I/) .E
O) «_>

a: — '

, .

+->

■a

, —

(/)

■o

<u <:

•^

-!->

CTi
CM

CM
C3

<Ti

•

1 •

1 ^

t— 1

00
CD

CO
CD

T-H

o
ro

c
o
o

-a

crv

cyi

•

1— 1
•

CTl

•

T3 1—

-C

-c

•^

c re

(/)

•^

.— CL

re u

'»~

re E

•r-

V*-

c re

•r—

1— CD

S-

o u

re o

oro

s- ^—

O 1—

■»-> a>

QJ +->

4->

+j <D

•.- o

re c

•(-> re

4->

re 1 —

1. <D

S -r-

re o

-• — ^

O) o

o re

t/1

x: E

S ^

jc +->

S- -1-

■M

■(-> -C

(/I E

■t-) c

■!->

00 re

•^

.ii

u -c

to o

+->

QJ -t-

r- O

r~-

QJ o

•^*

(U Ol

•r- s-

S- 5

re c

i~ ^

1/1

q: >

1—

3: re

U- LO

1/1 - —

I/)

173

+->

4->

T3
<U

Lf)

o
en

."J

0)
T3
•^-
(/)
(U

to --^
I- o

3 3

4->

V) . — »
•I- S-

i~ •<-
3 <:
o — -

c ^--

•O I—

I— -r—
VI -C

a:> —

<u +->

■O r—
r- 3
(/) X>

a£ — -

c
o

CVJ

LT)
CO

LT)

•

1 <-<

r~\

IT)

t-^

•

1 • 1

•

1 O 1

I— I CM

O CD

I o

LT)

C7>'>- •<-)

cr>

CM r^ CM

•

• • «

•

«3- ■

o o o

CO
CM

•d- 00 CM r-i

o o o

ITJ

o cn
o ^

-a

3
+->
to

J- •.-
3 •«->

•r-

<u
o

(T3
CJ

o ,—

Q. O <U

E +->

fO to (T3

S- O) 2

cn >>+^ ••-' « VI

C I— 1— fO I— O)
•>- C (O o s-
g O V) -Q C 4-

•r- cn

to -t-

:■'=■•— e—

(O (U

I. •!-

ij^ in VI toa)to(02

<i)-t-<Ucncnaj E CJcno

■O'*--OCC-O'0T3 *4-

3 3->--r-3Cn3r— 5-

c— M-,— x:j:r— r— 1 — QJ
os-uv)toocno(a4->

C 3 C •■- -r- C -I- C E "O

>— it/ii— iu_u.i— loai— ii/)3
<wxi OT3 oiM- cnx: •>-••->

174

Table 3. Types of outdoor recreation and available daily supply for partici-
pating individuals in Florida in 1980 (Florida Department of Natural Resources
1981).

Type or area of recreation

Available supply

Freshwater and saltwater swimming

(nonpool )
Sal twater beach
Boat ramp: fishing, powerboating,

water skiing and sailing
Freshwater and -sal twater fishing

(nonboat)
Historical and
Hiking

Nature study
Bicycl ing
Hunting

archaeological sites

2.5 1 inear ft of beach

100 ft^ of beach

160 users per single land ramp/day

6 1 inear ft of docking

384 users per site/day
1 mi of trail per 125
1 mi of trail per 250
1 mi of trail per 161
21 acres

According to a study of outdoor recreation in Florida in 1981, over 400
million man days of recreation (64% of total demand) were generated by tour-
ists. Beach and outdoor swimming pool recreation accounted for about 40% of
the total demand for outdoor recreation, and nearly 75% of all residents and
80% of the tourists went to the beach at least once in 1980. The demand by
tourists was greater than that of residents for saltwater beaches, swimming
pools, camping, picnicking, visiting historical and archaeological sites,
freshwater swimming (nonpool), saltwater fishing (nonboat), hiking, nature
study, and golfing. Since 1970, bike riding and saltwater beach activities
characterized the recreation of residents, whereas tourists tended to engage
more in recreational vehicle camping, and freshwater pool swimming (Table 2).
Residents were least active in tent camping and canoeing whereas tourists were
least active in hunting.

SPORT FISHING

The 1970 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Survey of Fishing and
Hunting provides expenditure and participation data on sport fishing for the
Southeastern United States. The survey showed that in 1970 about 17% of the
population fished in fresh water and 11% fished in saltwater (including those
that fished in both). Most fishennen were in the $10,000 to $15,000 family
income bracket. The percentage of people in the Southeastern United States
that fished was about 20% in 1955, 21% in 1960, 24% in 1965, and 22% in 1970.

About 2.38 million people from 1.07 million households fished for salt-
water sport fish and shellfish in 1974 (U.S. Department of Commerce 1977).
About 2.1 million fishermen from 954,000 households sought sport fish and

175

989,000 sport fishermen from 419,000 households sought shellfish (includes
those who fished for both). In all there were 24.68 mill ion man days (trips)
of finfishing and 8.0 million days of shellfishing. The average sport fish-
erman fished about 12 days a year for finfish and 8 days for shellfish.

The 1975 National Survey of Hunting, Fishing and Wildlife and Associated
Recreation included statistics for Florida. In 1975 about 1.7 million sport
fishermen fished in marine and brackish waters and 693,000 fished in rivers
and freshwater lakes. In Florida in 1975, fishing expenditures were about
$770.8 mill ion. Major expenditures were as follows: $166.0 million for fish-
ing supplies and equipment, $171.7 million for food, drink, and refreshments,
$219.1 million for transportation, and $86.6 million for bait. Largemouth
bass and other basses were the favored freshwater fish. The 1975 fishing cost
for the 426,000 bass fishermen was about $41.8 mill ion. An estimated 377,000
big game fishermen in boats offshore (many chartered) spent $114.42 million,
whereas the 285,000 nearshore and estuarine fishermen in boats spent $46.22
million. The 1975 survey reports that the average fisherman spent $324.26 a
year to fish. Individual costs were $98.15 for bass fishing, $303.51 for off-
shore big game fishing, and $162.17 for boat fishing.

The Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976 expressed Congres-
sional concern for sport fishing. In the act, the definition of optimum sus-
tained yield (OSY) includes sport fishing. At a minimum, the following data
for any one year are needed for managing sport fisheries according to OSY
guidelines: number of fishermen, average annual number of fishing days per
fishermen, and the average catch per trip. Other helpful data that might be
collected are: distance traveled to fish, average cost per trip, the number
of trips, socioeconomic information on fishermen and their communities, and
population statistics. The major problem concerning sport fishing in the
Southeastern United States is the serious lack of data on catch and fishing
effort.

The rise in total real expenditures and the number of days fished an-
nually in recent decades probably is due primarily to the increased number of
fishermen (Bell 1978), which may have caused a decrease in catch per unit of
effort. According to Bell (1979), over $851 million in gross expenditures
were spent by residents and tourists in 1975 for saltwater sport fishing in
Florida (Table 4), which is about 15% of all taxable sales on recreation in
the State.

The saltwater sport fishery of Florida in 1976 supported about 44 million
fishing days annually (Table 4) at a cost of about $9.00 per fishemian. About
one-third of the fishermen were tourists, a statistic used for estimating that
there were 14.6 million tourist days of fishing in 1975. The expenditure per
man day of fishing probably is the same for tourists and residents alike. The
average daily expenditure for tourists was $31.47 in 1975 (Bell 1979). Using
Florida Department of Commerce information on tourist expenditures. Bell
estimated that the saltwater sport fishery for tourists in 1975 created
$111 million in wages and salaries in the export sector and added $464 million
to the nonbase sector. Based on National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
estimates of retail jobs associated with sport fishing, saltwater fishing gen-
erated 34,700 jobs. Furthermore, the multiplier effect of the $464 million
adds another 83,739 jobs. In all, the saltwater sport fishery supported over
118,000 job in Florida. The average saltwater sport fishennen spent about

176

$19.75 a day. When multiplied by the number of tourist and resident fishing
days, and applying a capitalization rate, the total value of saltwater sport
fishing in Florida in 1975 was $18.7 billion.

Table 4. Gross expenditures and user values (both in millions of dollars) of
the saltwater sport fishery in Florida in 1975 and the number of fishermen and
fishing days (both in millions) according to Bell (1979).

Number of
Type of Gross expenditure User fishing days Number of

fishermen by fishermen value (millions) fishermen

Resident $392^ $ 872*^ 44 1.64

Tourist $459 $ 288 15 0.54

Both $851 $1,160 59 2.18

u$408.39 X 0.96. (in-state participation).
Number of days fishing x individual expenditures of $19.75 per day.
Number of tourist fishing days x individual expenditure of $31.47 per day.

Bell (1978) also made the same calculation for freshwater sport fishing
(Table 5). He stated that:

0 $526 million, in gross expenditures, is spent annually by
residents and tourists on freshwater sports fishing or
about 9% of all taxable sales on recreation in the state.

0 Gross expenditures per day for freshwater fishing was
$4.78 or 54% of daily expenditures on saltwater fishing.

0 Tourist expenditures for freshwater fishing are estimated
at $278 million.

0 Freshwater recreational fishing by tourists creates
around $70 million in wages and salaries in the export
sector and an additional $293 million in the nonbase
sector.

0 All expenditures for freshwater recreational fishing
generate about 21,775 jobs and applying the multiplier
effect yields an overall total of 75,000 jobs generated
by freshwater fishing.

0 Capitalizing the user value of freshwater fishing yields
an overall user value of $8.4 billion. (User value per
day is $7.67).

177

51.9^

1.44

12.5^

0.35

64.4

1.79

Table 5. Gross expenditures and user values (both in million of dollars) of
the freshwater sport fishery in Florida in 1975 and the number of fishermen
and days of fishing (both in millions) accord to Bell (1979).

Number of
Type of Gross expenditure User fishing days Number of

fishermen by fishermen value (millions) fishermen

Resident $247.56^ $397.24^

Tourist $278.23 $ 96.13

Both $525.79 $493.37

u$272.135 million x 0.91 (in-state participation).
Number of days of fishing x median user value per day ($7.67).
Number of tourist fishing days x individual expenditure of $22.20 per day.

HUNTING

In 1970 about 3.5% of the population in the Southeastern United States
hunted big game, 7.4% hunted small game, and 1.3% hunted waterfowl. About 25%
of the hunters used public lands for hunting at one time or another. The per-
centage of the population in the Southeastern United States that hunted was
10.1% in 1955, 11.5% in 1960, 9.2% in 1965, and 8.1% in 1970 (U.S. Department
of Interior 1970).

In Florida in 1975 the 493,000 hunting licenses sold generated 10.53 mil-
lion man days of hunting. Of this total, 330,000 hunted big game (3.48 million
man days), 302,000 hunted for small game (4.0 million man days), 317,000
hunted for migratory birds (2.35 million man days), and 78,000 hunted for
other birds and animals (652,000 man days). Of the hunters, 321,000 hunted
deer (2.8 million man days) and 79,000 hunted wild turkey (454,000 man days).
The hunters spent $103.1 million for big game, $54.3 million for small game,
$30.4 million for waterfowl, and $1.9 million for other animals for a total of
$196.6 million. In 1975, each hunter in Florida spent about $398.84 for hunt-
ing. Most of the expenses were for equipment, supplies, and transportation.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in a press release in 1981, reported
that 253,619 people in Florida spend nearly $3.7 million for hunting licenses.

NORTHWEST FLORIDA OVERVIEW

FACTORS AFFECTING RECREATION AND TOURISM

CI imate

Climate is closely linked with recreation and tourism in Northwest
Florida. The average summer temperature is near 81°F and average winter

178

temperatures are in the low 50 's (°F). Rainfall is relatively heavy, ranging
from 58 inches to 66 inches among the counties. More detail on climate is
given in Table R/T 7 in the Data Appendix.

Living Resources

The abundance of living resources is the key to recreation and tourism in
Northwest Florida (Ketchum 1972). Recreation often includes fishing, hunting,
and nature study, all totally dependent on living resources. Good coastal
management will try to maintain an abundance of living forms. Pollution prob-
ably is the greatest threat to living resources.

Mammals, birds, and fish are the major living resources. The marine mam-
mals of the Gulf of Mexico consist largely of whales, dolphins, porpoises,
seals, sea lions, and manatees (described in a publication by the State Univ-
ersity System of Florida's Institute for Oceanography 1973). Manatees receive
the most interest, partly because they are often seen in shallow coastal
waters and partly because they are an endangered species. They are threatened
by habitat deterioration and power boats (mostly propeller injury). The hump-
back and sperm whales have been seen in the gulf waters of Southwest Florida.
Some of the major coastal birds are horned grebe, common loon, comiorant, the
Louisiana and great blue heron, common and snowy egret, various waterfowl
(such as the Canada goose and pintail) bald eagle, sandpipers, terns, and
gulls.

The major sport fishes in the Gulf are spotted seatrout, red drum, king
and Spanish mackerel, mullet, and bluefish. Major shellfishes are blue crabs,
scallops, clams, and oysters. Offshore favorites are marl in, swordfish,
albacore, bonito, tuna, and dolphin. A bait shrimp and bait fish industry is
a sizable offshoot of the sport fishery.

Barrier Islands

The barrier islands are one of the most important physical resources for
residents and tourists in Northwest Florida. According to the U.S. Department
of Interior (1979), the major islands of Northwest Florida and the percentage
of area developed for human use are St. Andrews (88%), Miramar (23%), Santa
Rosa Island (25%), and St. George (8%). The barrier islands that are protect-
ed by Federal, State, or local ownership are Cape San Bias, Crooked Island,
Shell Island, St. George Island, Little St. George Island, Dog Island, St.
Vincent Island, and Santa Rosa Island.

Population Characteristics

Some of the major characteristics and socioeconomic and natural factors
that affect recreation and tourism in Northwest Florida are discussed in the
following paragraphs. Major socioeconomic factors are population, population
distribution and density, income, and housing demand.

From 1960 to 1980 the population of Northwest Florida increased from
364,000 to 537,000 (47%). The greatest increases were in Santa Rosa and Oka-
loosa Counties. Since about 1950, the increase in leisure time and higher
standards of living have been largely responsible for the increase in the num-
ber of seasonal or second homes. In 1972, there were over 5,000 second homes
along the Florida gulf coast.

179

Age is a factor affecting preferred recreation. Young people prefer
canoeing, hiking, and camping, whereas older people tended to prefer more pas-
sive forms such as golf and nature study (e.g., bird watching). People with
higher incomes prefer beach recreation, often using recreational vehicles, but
people of low income are dependent upon low cost or free recreation such as
neighborhood playgrounds.

Natural constraints on the use of recreational areas are limitations in
space (overcrowding), access, and availability. Climate also is a factor
(Ketchum 1972). Beach recreation and swimming require warm safe waters.
Boaters are more affected by bad weather and the availability of marinas and
boat launching facilities. Availability and access are important factors
because people with low income do not usually travel far for recreation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TOURISM

Travel expenditures, population growth, and employment serve as indices
for evaluating the tourist industry. Examples are food service, employment,
lodging, and transportation- related jobs.

Tourism in Northwest Florida has increased sharply since the mid-1960 's.
The number of tourists in 1965-79 increased nearly 300% (1,110,000 to
4,409,000). Numbers increased as high as 510% in Okaloosa County and as low
as 244% in Escambia County. Since there are no county statistics for tourist
trade expenditures and length of stay, statewide statistics are used for esti-
mates of the value of tourism in Northwest Florida. In 1969 the average tour-
ist in Florida spent $159.00, which, if multiplied by the number of tourists
in Northwest Florida, gives a $176 million industry. By 1980, tourist expend-
itures in Northwest Florida increased to one billion dollars, a net gain of
$830 million (470%). Tourist expenditures vary somewhat. For example, money
spent per tourist was $159 in 1965, $346 in 1976, and $288 in 1980.

Indicators of the level of tourism are the number and capacity of restau-
rants, hotels, motels, motor courts, rooming houses, and apartments. Data
extracted from the annual statistical reporting units from the Florida Hotel
and Restaurant Commission show that in 1955-80, the number of restaurants in
Northwest Florida increased 38% (797 to 1,100) and seating capacity increased
109% (37,529 to 78,571). Although the number of lodging places increased 110%
(944 to 1,978), and the number of units increased 112% (15,527 to 32,987), the
number of lodging places and units in Gulf County decreased despite a 221%
increase in the number of tourists.

The percentage increase in the number of restaurants from 1955 to 1980
was 144% (102 to 249) in Okaloosa County and 62% (200 to 323) in Bay County.
The percentage increase in seating capacities was 168% (9,049 to 24,209) in
Bay County and 253% (5,067 to 17,869) in Okaloosa County. An increase of 303
restaurants and 44,222 seating units was reported for 1955 to 1980.

Okaloosa, Bay, and Santa Rosa Counties had the greatest increase in the
number of lodging sites, whereas Okaloosa and Escambia Counties had the great-
est increase in lodging units. For Northwest Florida the number of lodging
units per lodge remained constant in 1955 to 1980 (16.5-16.7). The number of

180

lodging sites and lodging units in Gulf County and Franklin County decreased.
Franklin County lost 50% (651 to 324) of its lodging units in 1955-80.

The other indicator of tourism is the number of employees in hotel /motel
and other lodging business establishments, and in eating and drinking places.
As determined from Tables EMP 13-16 in the Data Appendix, regional employment
in lodging businesses has increased nearly 209% (1,080 to 3,347) since 1956.
In Northwest Florida in 1978, there were 76 employees per 100,000 tourists in
hotel /motel and other lodging places. The highest was 98 employees per
100,000 tourists in Okaloosa County. The number of employees in eating and
drinking establishments in Okaloosa County increased 605% (279 to 1,966) and
nearly 470% (65 to 370) in Santa Rosa County.

According to unpublished data provided by Mr. Ed Stal vey of the Florida
Department of Revenue, the State of Florida collected over $83 million in
sales taxes from all counties in Northwest Florida in fiscal year 1978-79.

Those counties with the most taxes were Escambia, Bay, and Okaloosa Coun-
ties, which accounted for 90% of all sales tax collections among the seven
counties. The 1,893% increase ($4.16 million to $82.92 million from 1955/56
to 1978/79) in sales tax receipts among the counties is probably due to the
sharp increase in the resident population and tourists in those years. In
Northwest Florida, sales capita per resident was $22.99 in 1960 and $154.50 in
1979. If tourists were counted as residents, sales per capita would drop con-
siderably.

OUTDOOR RECREATION IN NORTHWEST FLORIDA

HIGHLIGHTS

Changes or stress in outdoor recreation will be in those that are
resource- based (e.g. hunting and fishing) rather than user-oriented (e.g. golf
and tennis). Resource-based recreation includes beach activities, boating,
camping, biking, fishing, hiking, hunting, horseback riding, nature study,
surfing, swimming, and water skiing. Beach activities include sunbathing,
beach combing, and shell collecting. Boating includes fishing, cruising,
sailing, and canoeing. Northwest Florida has an ample supply of marinas,
docks, boat ramps, and other facilities necessary for boating.

Good fishing is indicated by the many fish camps, bridges, marinas, party
and charter boat facilities, fishing guides, and catwalks. Hunting is the
most environmentally demanding of all outdoor recreation because it requires
much land, an abundance of game, and high quality environment. In the forest,
uplands, and wetlands, most hunting is done with a rifle, but bow and arrow
hunting is becoming popular. Game species are turkey, squirrel, deer, wild
boar, quail, dove, rabbits, and various waterfowl such as ducks, geese, and
coots.

Expenditures by State and local (primarily county) governments for recre-
ation are valuable indicators of supply and demand. Local government expendi-
tures for recreation were examined from the County Finances and County Fee Of-
ficer's Reports for the years 1950, 1955, 1960, 1965 and fran the Local

181

Government Financial Reports of the State Comptroller for fiscal years 1972/
73, 1975/76, and 1978/79. From 1955 to 1979 local government expenditures for
recreation in Northwest Florida increased about 1,195% ($5,732 million to $6.9
million). Greatest expenditures were in Escambia and Bay Counties. In 1978-
79, local governments spent $12.77 per person for recreation. The highest was
$18.92 for Santa Rosa County.

For all of Florida in 1971-80, the Department of Natural Resources spent
$283.85 mill ion on parks and recreation programs. The average annual increase
was $4 million. In the same years, the numbers employed in parks and recrea-
tion increased from 424 to 765. From 1976 to 1981, the Florida Game and
Freshwater Fish Commission spent nearly $17 million annually on freshwater
fishery programs and about $13.6 million on wildlife programs. Expenditures
for freshwater fisheries increased about $114,000 per year whereas wildlife
expenditures increased about $312,000 per year. Employment in these programs
also increased.

OUTDOOR RESOURCES

Florida is one of the most highly developed recreational areas in the
United States. Common are state parks, aquatic preserves, recreational areas,
parks, forests, wildlife refuges, historical and archaeological sites, game
preserves, and public beaches. A list of State parks and recreation areas in
Northwest Florida is given in Table 6. The State also manages scenic and wild
rivers, canoe trails, environmentally endangered lands, and fish management
areas.

Table 6. State parks and recreation areas in Northwest Florida (Florida De-
partment of Natural Resources, Division of Recreation and Parks 1981).

County

Recreation area

Bay

Escambia
Frankl in

Gulf

Okaloosa
Santa Rosa
Wal ton

Saint Andrews State Park
Big Lagoon, Fort Pickens
Fort Gadsden, Saint George Island, John Gorrie

Museum
Dead Lakes, Saint Joseph State Park, Constitution

Convention
Rocky Bayou
Bl ackwater River
Basin Bayou, Grayton Beach, Ponce DeLeon Springs,

Eden Gardens

The Bl ackwater River in Santa Rosa and Okaloosa Counties is under study
by the State for designation as a scenic and wild river. State designated
canoe trails are the Perdido River (Escambia County), Coldwater Creek (Santa
Rosa), Blackwater River (Okaloosa), Yellow River (Okaloosa), and Econifina

182

Creek (Bay). State environmentally endangered lands in the region are Perdido
Key in Escambia county, and Lower Apalachicol a. Little St. George Island, and
St. George Island State Park (Franklin County).

For fishing, the Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission manages Lake
Stone (Escambia County), Bear Lake (Santa Rosa), Hurricane Lake, Karich Lake
(Okaloosa), and Juniper Lake (Walton). St. Vincent Island and Shell Island
are national landmarks. The counties primarily supply a combination of
resource-based and user-oriented areas such as beaches, swimming areas, and
boat ramps. Typical city-owned recreational areas are playgrounds, swimming
pools, ball fields, golf courses, and tennis courts.

In 1980, public lands contributed more recreation areas (1.63 million
acres) than the private sector (8,745 acres) and more beach frontage (423,750
ft compared to 4,030ft). Okaloosa County contributed 43.1% of the public
recreation area and Escambia County contributed the most public beach frontage
(40.9% of 173,180 ft) followed by Franklin County (36.5%).

In 1980, privately owned recreational facilities in Northwest Florida
consisted of 9,187 acres of hunting area, 236 boat ramps, piers, and marinas,
and 4,030 ft of saltwater beach frontage (Table R/T 20 in the Data Appendix).
Santa Rosa County had the most (87%) private hunting areas and 90.6% of the
privately owned beach frontage. Escambia County had 32.4% (2,832 acres) of
all private recreational area.

Public recreation areas are owned or managed either by Federal, State,
county, or municipal agencies. The total Federal recreation area in Northwest
Florida was 522,287 acres including 4,267 acres of hunting area and 44 miles
of saltwater beach frontage. Okaloosa County had the greatest portion of all
Federal recreation areas. All hunting acreage was in Franklin and Okaloosa
Counties. Escambia County has 70% (31 miles) of the federally owned saltwater
beaches and the St. Vincent National Wildlife Refuge, which has 12,490 acres
of hunting land and 8.8 miles of beach.

State owned recreation areas in Northwest Florida total 1,105,256 acres
or 67.8% of all public recreation areas. About 21% (237,400 acres) is in Oka-
loosa County, The State also owns 629,631 acres (98.6%) of all public hunting
areas. Walton County contributes 25.7% of the State hunting areas and Franklin
County contributes 53.3% (30.1 miles) of all State owned saltwater beach
frontage.

County and municipal (local) resource-based outdoor recreation areas con-
sist of beach frontage, boat ramps, piers, and marinas. Local governments own
1,950 acres of the recreation lands. About 36% of it is in Escambia County
and 26% in Okaloosa County. Local governments also provide 80 boat ramps,
piers, and marinas of which 18 are in Bay County. Local governments own 5.0
miles of saltwater beach frontage. About 30% of it is in Escambia County and
24% is in Santa Rosa County.

Northwest Florida has 1,079 historical and archaeological sites. Most
(335) are in Franklin County and 225 are in Escambia County. Listed in North-
west Florida in 1975 were 172 historical and archaeological sites, 11,826
acres of wildlife refuges, and 667,811 acres of forestry and game management
areas.

183

OUTDOOR RECREATION DEMAND

Yearly summaries of the visitors to various State parks in Northwest
Florida were prepared by the Division of Recreation and Parks and its prede-
cessors. The number of visitors to State parks and recreation areas increased
20.1% from 1955 to 1980. From 1972 to 1976 the number of visitors to State
parks decreased 55.3% probably because of increased transportation costs. Of
the 858,036 visitors to State parks and recreation areas in 1980, about
550,000 were reported for St. Andrews State Park in Bay County.

The U.S. Department of Interior (1979) reported annual visits to national
seashores. The Gulf Islands National Seashore recorded 2,375,300 visitors in
1976, 2,925,500 in 1977, and 3,971,600 in 1978.

Sport Fishing

Data on freshwater and marine sport fishing and related economic impacts
were reported by Bell (1978). Freshwater fishing licenses are issued to tour-
ists for 14-day, 5-day, and yearly time periods (Tables R/T 32 37). The number
of freshwater fishing licenses issued to tourists from 1954-80 increased from
4,930 to 9,201 (86%). In those years, the county, number, and percentage in-
crease of licenses issued were Escambia, 199 to 932 (368%); Walton, 1,030 to
3,101 (201%); and Santa Rosa 127 to 341 (168%). The numbers in Gulf and
Franklin Counties declined.

Freshwater. Licenses issued to residents for fishing statewide increased 6.2%
(24,932 to 26,486) from 1954 to 1980. The largest increase was in Santa Rosa
County 1,292 to 2,539 (96%) and Bay County 5,369 to 8,912 (66%). Counties
showing a decrease were Gulf 5,878 to 2,398 (59%), Franklin 878 to 484 (45%),
and Escambia 7,198 to 5,742 (20%). For Northwest Rorida in 1960, nine
licenses were issued per 100 residents, but by 1980, only five were issued per
100 residents. Estimates of tourists and resident demand for freshwater sport
fishing are given in Tables R/T 8-16 in the Data Appendix. The demand for
freshwater fishing is expected to increase from 749,300 to 919,500 trips
(22.7%) from 1980 to 1990. The 1980 resident and tourist demand was 152 fish-
ing trips per 1,000 people.

Sal twater. U.S. Department of Commerce (1980) provided saltwater sport fish-
ing statistics for the gulf coast including Florida. Major saltwater sport
species are sea catfish, spotted seatrout, croaker, pinfish, mullet, sand sea
trout, and seabass. In the Florida gulf area, there were 9.53 million fishing
trips of which 7.28 million were by coastal residents, 27,000 by noncoastal
residents, and 2.23 million by tourists. The estimated number of saltwater
sport fishing trips in the Florida gulf area was 2.15 million of which 1.24
million were by coastal residents, 5,000 by noncoastal residents, and 898,000
by tourists. The average number of trips per year per person was 5.9 for
coastal residents, 5.4 for non-coastal residents, 2.45 for tourists, and 4.4
for all. The average fishing trip was 3.8 hours long. The average cost per
trip was $10.20 and the average one-way mileage was 27.9 miles. The average
angler in a year fished 16.9 hours, spent $45.29, and traveled 247.8 miles.

The Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (1981), for all Gulf
States, estimated that groupers, jacks, porgies, and snappers made up 93% of
the number of fish caught and 99% of the weight. Annual capital expenditures

184

among manufacturing, wholesale, and retail trades for tackle, boats, motors,
and trailers was $1.22 million in the eastern Gulf of Mexico.

Average daily catch for reef fisherman was about 26.5 lb of fish. Total
catch and catch per unit of effort by sport fishermen has declined recently
suggesting the possibility of overfishing in heavily fished areas. Sport
fishermen are largely restricted to inshore waters because of the limited ca-
pacity of their boats to travel great distances and withstand sea conditions,
and because of the long travel time. Spring, summer, and fall are the primary
seasons for fishing in the Florida Panhandle. The species of greatest impor-
tance to offshore charter boats during all seasons is king mackerel. Ground-
fish, snapper, and grouper, are of secondary importance to charter boats.

Tables R/T 8-16 in the Data Appendix provide projected demand for salt-
water sport fishing. About 2.1 million saltwater fishing trips were made in
Northwest Florida in 1980; about 2.2 million is expected in 1985 and 2.5 mil-
lion in 1990, an increase of 22.1% over the decade. Bay County will contrib-
ute the greatest portion of all demand for future saltwater fishing in the
region. From 1980 to 1990, those counties showing the greatest percentage in-
crease in saltwater fishing demand are expected to be Franklin and Walton
Counties. In 1980, the demand ratio for saltwater fishing was 42 fishing
trips per 100 people.

Cato and Prochaska (1976) provided an economic analysis of red snapper-
grouper party boat operations for the Northwest Florida gulf coast. In 1974,
an average of 6,714 sports fishermen fished on each boat with costs ranging
from $8.50 for half-a-day to $45 for a two-day trip. Average catch per person
was 7.5 lb for red snapper, 7.3 lb for grouper, and 5.2 lb for other species.
In 1974, the average annual catch per boat was 134,286 lb and the average
catch per fisherman was about 20 1b. Based upon the revenue per boat of
$142,529 and total costs of $111,972, the net return to the boat operator was
$30,557. In 1974, 48 party boats made 322,272 trips and landed 6.5 million lb
of fish. Fishermen spent over $6.7 million on party boats.

The structure and economics of fee fisheries of the Florida Gulf Coast
and the Keys from Pensacola to Key West were studied by Browder et al . (1978).
The study analyzed offshore charter boats, inshore/offshore charter boats for
bays, offshore guide boats for back country fishing, and head boats which
carry large numbers of passengers and operate on a per customer basis rather
than charter. The location of the marinas for these boats are given in
Table 7.

Northwest Florida has 138 offshore charter boats and 23 head boats; none
are inshore/offshore boats or guide boats. King mackerel, reef fishes (snap-
per and grouper), redfish, and flounder are most sought after by offshore
charter boats in the winter and billfish in the summer and fall. Grouper is
the leading species fished by head boats. The average number of fishermen per
charter boat in Northwest Florida was 7.9. The average age of the fisherman
was 38 years. About 82% were from out-of-state. Head boats averaged 62.1
persons per trip; about 90% of the fishermen were from out-of-state.

According to charter boat captains, of particular concern is the decline
in the abundance of fish, especially king mackerel, and the rapidly increasing
cost of the fishing operations.

185

Table 7. Marinas for saltwater sport fishing boats (Browder et al . 1978),

Type of boat

Marinas

Offshore charter

Inshore-offshore
Guide-boat centers

Head boats

Islamorada, Marathon, Key West, Clearwater,
Fort Myers Beach, Naples, Marco Island

Boca Grande, Naples, Marco Island, Key West

Sanibel-Captiva, Marco Island, Everglades
City, Key Largo, Islamorada, Marathon,
Big Pine Key

Key Largo, Islamorada, Marathon, Key West

Offshore charter boats had a net revenue of $7,954 per vessel . There
were 126 charter boats in 1960 and 138 in 1977. The number of head boats
decreased from 48 to 23 from 1960 to 1977. From 1960 to 1977, the catch per
unit of effort of red snapper and king mackerel declined. The profits by off-
shore charter boats is limited by the length of the fishing season. Most
fishing is during the tourist season (June to August).

The total value of saltwater sport fishing in Florida is $18.7 billion
based on 58.7 million angler days. The estimated annual expenditure per
angler day is $318.35. Since there are 2.1 million angler days per year in
Northwest Florida, the annual value of saltwater sport fishing was about $664
million. Based on 118,000 jobs related to the saltwater sport fishery in
Florida, the fishery supports two employees per 100 fishing days. In North-
west Florida, the saltwater fishing supports 4,172 jobs. At the current rate
of growth of the fishery, the saltwater sport fishery should be worth $704.51
million in 1985 and $810.84 million in 1990. The number of fishery related
jobs would increase from 4,425 in 1985 to 5,094 in 1990.

If these same data were applied to the freshwater sport fishery in Flor-
ida, each fishing day is worth $130.59, and each 10,000 fishing days contrib-
utes 12 jobs to the State (Bell 1978). As calculated from Tables R/T 8-16 in
the Data Appendix, the total demand for freshwater sport fishing in Northwest
Florida was 749,300 fishing trips in 1980 and is projected to 834,600 in 1985
and 919,500 in 1990. These demand figures yield a total value of $97.9 mil-
lion and 899 jobs in 1980, $109.0 million and 1,002 jobs in 1985, and $120.1
million and 1,103 jobs in 1990. The projections are conservative because as
demand increases and supply decreases, the cost of fishing will increase
accordingly.

Hunting Demand

The most comprehensive analysis of the impact of hunting on the State of
Florida, in terms of its recreational value and impact on the socioeconomic
structure is provided by Gibbs (1975). The major hunting categories are small
game, big game, and waterfowl. Gibbs estimated that the total value of all
hunting statewide is $294 million based on 6,030,400 hunter days. He further

186

estimated that $402 million was the actual value of hunting to the hunter,
based on the payment required to give up a day of hunting. The annual expend-
itures of hunting in Florida was estimated at $116.06 mill ion.

Although the number of nonresident hunting licenses issued in a county is
an indicator of tourist demand for hunting, the hunting may take place in sev-
eral counties. In 1954-55, only 277 hunting licenses were issued to tourists
in Northwest Florida, but by 1979-80, 1,592 licenses were issued, a five-fold
increase. In 1954-55, Okaloosa, Gulf, and Walton Counties issued the most
out-of-state hunting licenses, but in 1979-80 Bay, Escambia, and Okaloosa
Counties issued the most licenses. In 1965, two hunting licenses were issued
per 10,000 tourists, but in 1979-80 this ratio doubled. Based on the total
acres of hunting area in supply, as described earlier, the total hunting area
per tourist licensed for 1980 was 404 acres.

Resident statewide hunting licenses in Northwest Florida increased from
8,066 in 1954-55 to 18,968 in 1979-80, an increase of 135%. In 1954-55,
Escambia County (3,111) and Bay County (2,127) issued the most resident hunt-
ing licenses. This trend continued through 1979-80. In 1960, 30 hunting
licenses were issued per 1,000 residents and in 1980 this ratio increased to
35 per 1,000 residents. Based on the total area available for hunting, there
were 34 acres per resident licensed hunter in 1980. When tourist and resident
licenses are combined, the area of all hunters licensed in 1980 is 31 acres
per hunter.

The demand for hunting by all participants in Northwest Florida was
604,200 hunting days in 1980 and is projected to 673,500 in 1985 and 743,600
in 1990, a 23.1% increase. A substantial increase in hunting demand is
expected in Bay County (75,000 to 95,800 or 28%) and Okaloosa County (141,500
to 178,900 or 26%). Nearly 60% of the hunting is expected to occur in
Escambia and Walton Counties. In 1980, there were 12 hunting days per 100
residents.

Based on the expenditure of $47.43 per hunting day, the 1980 value of all
hunting was $28.66 million. Projections for 1985 and 1990 are $31.9 million
for 1985 and $35.27 mill ion for 1990.

Demand for Other Resource- based Outdoor Recreation

Tables R/T 8-16 in the Data Appendix provide estimates of tourist and
resident demand for various resource based outdoor recreation for 1980, 1985,
and 1990. The demand for recreation is projected for saltwater beaches,
freshwater swimming (nonpool), camping, nature study, canoeing, boating, hik-
ing, and bike riding.

The demand (user days) from 1980 to 1990 is expected to increase 10% for
saltwater beaches, 21% for recreational vehicle camping, 22% for nature study
and historical site visits, 26% for pleasure boat registration, 26% for canoe-
ing, 22% for hiking, and 23% for bike riding.

User-oriented Outdoor Recreation

From 1980 to 1990, the demand for golfing is projected to increase 24%,
the tennis participation is expected to increase 26%, and swimming (in pools)
is expected to increase 22%.

187

POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF OCS OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

In 1974, about 60% of the public that was polled favored offshore drill-
ing for oil in Florida in response to the energy crisis. In 1979 it was 69%.
Most (60%) Floridians want to promote tourism even if the tourists reduce
available supplies of gasoline. Only 25% of those polled oppose increased
tourism because of a drain on the State's energy supplies (Bell et al , 1980).

A report by Havran and Collins (1980) on OCS oil and gas activities in
the Gulf of Mexico and their onshore impacts is valuable for assessing poten-
tial environmental impacts on coastal Florida. Gulf of Mexico OCS production
platforms in Texas and Louisiana are linked to shore by an extensive network
of pipelines that transport oil and gas to nearby terminals. The production
of oil and gas sometimes led to the growth of massive onshore industrial com-
plexes that cause many environmental problems. The most severe onshore envi-
ronmental impacts are apparent in frontier areas where few of the needs for
onshore operations and facilities are available. Since port facilities along
the Florida coastline are not geared for OCS oil and gas development, any high
or moderate level oil and gas find along the Florida gulf coast could cause
local economic and community upheavel .

The potential for oil pollution is a major issue raised by offshore oil
drilling. Leaks from pipelines and platforms potentially could have some
damaging effects on sport and commercial fishing, saltwater beach recreation,
and boating. Pipeline construction may disrupt the bottom habitat and destroy
benthic organisms. Even buried pipelines may threaten beaches or residential
sites. In addition to terminal sites and channels, turning basins may need to
be dredged or maintained for deep draft tankers. Loss or alteration of
coastal lands and water would reduce recreational potentials.

A substantial work force may be required for the construction and opera-
tion of the necessary onshore facilities for OCS oil and gas development.
Tourists are not usually attracted to areas where onshore activities are
heaviest. Rapid industrial growth in some coastal areas could cause a decline
in tourism. Because the recreation required in a community is a function of
the size of the population and its demographic characteristics, population
change due to OCS oil and gas activities would alter recreational demand and
supply in the community.

Funds for recreation may be sharply increased by revenue collected from
offshore oil and gas extraction. The Land and Water Conservation Fund is the
major Federal grant program to the states for purchasing and developing out-
door recreation areas. This fund also has been used to purchase recreation
areas and endangered species lands in national forests, parks, wilderness
areas, wildlife refuges, and wild and scenic rivers. The U.S. Department of
the Interior, Bureau of Land Management (1981) reports that 65% of the revenue
for the fund are derived from bonuses, leases, and royalties stemming from
exploration and production of oil and natural gas from Federal OCS areas.

Oil spills from pipelines sometimes are caused by damage from dragging
platform anchors and bottom trawls. Blowout spillage is caused by producing
wells. A serious blowout in 1980 in the southern gulf area off the coast of
Mexico threatened one of the world's richest shrimping and fishing grounds.

188

Severe storms sometimes cause oil spills. In 1964, about 12,000 barrels of
oil were spilled from storage tanks in Louisiana during Hurricane Hilda.
Accidental oil spills from tankers and barges and oil discharged under normal
operating conditions are the major oil spill sources. A large spill can kill
birds and marine organisms, weaken key links in the food chain necessary to
support sport fisheries, and modify coastline habitats. In addition to bio-
logical impacts, oil spills can diminish aesthetic and socioeconomic values,
and foul fishing boats and gear.

Potentially, any one of four levels of OCS oil and gas activity could
threaten Northwest Florida (Hodecker 1981). Exploratory drilling likely would
not cause measurable onshore impacts. A low-find scenario near the gulf coast
of western Florida could require a small permanent supply base and repair and
maintenance yards, and other ancillary services. Pipelines would be needed to
carry the crude oil to marine terminals where the crude would be stored. Gas
processing and treatment plants would be located at each landfall site. A
medium-find scenario would require two permanent bases in Northwest Florida,
two pipelines, two marine terminal facilities, and two gas processing plants
if oil fields are located offshore.

For high- find oil and gas operations, at least two and possibly three
bases would locate in Northwest Florida. Ancillary facilities, two pipelines,
marine terminals, and gas processing plants would locate at each landfall
site. A refinery may be needed in Northwest Florida if discoveries of oil and
gas are high (Hodecker 1981).

Based on data provided by the New England River Basins Commission (1976),
Dzurik in his synthesis paper on "Minerals" provided tables of the general
impacts from siting various OCS onshore facilities. These impacts, in terms
of employment and land area needed for a high-find scenario, are given in
Table 8. Over 3,000 acres of coastal land and 3,000 linear ft of waterfront
would be needed for OCS onshore facilities. Some of this loss would be recre-
ational land. Using the demand factors for various types of recreation, esti-
mates of the number of recreation days required by the additional employment
related to OCS activities can be made (Table 9). Over 11,000 days of various
recreation activities would be demanded by those employed by OCS related
industry.

189

Table 8. Onshore facilities and number of jobs required to support a high-
find of oil and gas in the Outer Continental Shelf near Northwest Florida
(adapted from the New England River Basins Commision 1976).

Facil ity

Land measure

Number of jobs required

Service bases

100 acres/base, 600 ft
water frontage per
base

80 jobs per platform
during drill ing
and production

Pi pel ines

100 ft easement/pipeline 500

190 acres per pipecoating
yd and pumping station

850 1 ineal ft of water
frontage

Berthing
facil ities
(terminal and
tank form)

150 acres

1,000 lineal ft of
water frontage

Platform fabrica
tion yards

800 acres
450 lineal
frontage

ft water

Onshore process
ing and treat-
ment facil ities

75 acres

Ref i nery

2,000 acres

600

Total

3,315 acres

1,315

190

Table 9. Estimated outdoor recreation needs by 2,110 employees hired in rela-
tion to OCS oil and gas development based on conditions in 1980.

Average man-days

Type of outdoor of participation Estimated man-days

recreation per person (XlOO) of recreation

Freshwater sport fishery 14 299

Saltwater sport fishing 84 1,722

Hunting 4 84

Saltwater beach recreation 321 6,773

Freshwater swimming 13 274

Recreation vehicle camping 124 2,616

Tent camping 5 106

Historical and archaeological 65 1,372

Canoeing 2 42

Hiking 42 886

Bike riding 109 2,300

Golf 49 1,034

Tennis 28 591

Swimming pool use 165 3,482

Total 21,634

Average per person times 2,110.

191

REFERENCES

Bell, F.W. Food from the sea: the economics and politics of ocean fisheries.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press; 1978.

Bell, F.W. Recreational vs. commercial fishing in Florida: an economic im-
pact analysis. Tallahassee, FL: Policy Sciences Program, Florida State
University; 1979.

Bell, F.W. et al . Energy, economic development and the environment in Flor-
ida: a survey of these public policy issues and tradeoffs. Tallahassee,
FL: Policy Sciences Program, Florida State University; 1980.

Browder, J. et al . Study of the structure and economics of the recreational
paying-passenger fisheries of the Florida gulf coast and keys, from
Pensacola to Key West. Miami, FL: National Marine Fisheries Service;
September 1978.

Cato, J.; Prochaska, F. The Gulf of Mexico commercial and recreational red
snapper-grouper fishery: an economic analysis of production, marketing,
and prices. Gainesville, FL: State University System of Florida Sea
Grant Report 17; November 1976.

Florida Department of Natural Resources, Division of Recreation and Parks.
Outdoor recreation in Florida. Tallahassee, FL; August 1971.

Florida Department of Natural Resources, Division of Recreation and Parks.
Outdoor recreation in Florida. Tallahassee, FL; May 1976.

Florida Department of Natural Resources, Division of Recreation and Parks.
Outdoor recreation in Florida. Tallahassee, FL; April 1981.

Florida Department of Revenue. Information from computer listings of county
sales tax collections provided by Mr. Ed Stalvey; September 1981.

Florida Power and Light Co., Office of Environmental Affairs. Atlas of envi-
ronmental jurisdictions in Florida. Miami, FL; March 1979.

Gibbs, K. Economic impact of hunting in Florida. Gainesville, FL: Food and
Resource Economics Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sci-
ences; March 1975.

Governor's Office. Economic report of the Governor 1979-80. Tallahassee, FL;
March 1980. Available from: Office of Governor, Revenue and Economic
Analysis, Tallahassee, FL.

Governor's Office. Economic report of the Governor: 1981 economic forecast.
Tallahassee, FL; January 1981. Available from: Office of the Governor,
Tallahassee, FL.

Governor's Office of Planning and Budgeting. Florida's ten-year summary of
acquisition data 1971-72 through 1980-81, Volume 3. Tallahassee, FL;
September 1981.

192

Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council. EIS fishery management plan and
regulatory analysis for reef fish resources of the Gulf of Mexico. St.
Petersburg, FL: National Marine Fisheries Service; October 1981.

Gulf and South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. Fishery management plan:
EIS. St. Petersburg, FL: National Marine Fisheries Service; April 1981.

Havran, K.S.; Collins, K.M. Outer Continental Shelf oil and gas activities in
the Gulf of Mexico and their onshore impacts: a summary report. Wash-
ington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; September 1980.

Hinman, K. Recreational fishing program area assessment. _Iii record of the
first annual review conference on marine resources development. Charles-
ton, SC: Coastal Plains Regional Commission; 1978.

Hodecker, E. A Florida scenario of oil and gas development in the eastern
Gulf of Mexico. Tallahassee, FL: Executive Office of the Governor,
Office of Planning and Budgeting; July 1981.

Ketchum, B.H. ed. The water's edge: critical problems of the coastal zone.
Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institution of Technology; 1972.

Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. Who's minding the shore: Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, Office of Coastal Zone Manage-
ment; August 1976.

New England River Basins Commission. Onshore facilities related to offshore
oil and gas development: fact book. November 1976.

Prochaska, F. ; Cato, J. An economic profile of Florida commercial fishing
farms: fishermen, commercial activities, and financial considerations.
Gainesville, FL: State University System of Florida Sea Grant Report 19;
January 1977.

State University System of Florida, Institute of Oceanography. A summary of
knowledge of the eastern Gulf of Mexico. St. Petersburg, FL; 1973.

U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service. Parti-
cipation in marine recreational fishing in the Southeastern U.S., 1974.
Washington, DC; September 1977.

U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service. Marine
recreational fishery statistics survey, Atlantic and gulf coasts, 1979.
Washington, DC; December 1980.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. Final environ-
mental impact statement: proposed OCS oil and gas sales 67 and 69. New
Orleans, LA: New Orleans OCS Office; August 1981.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. National survey
of fishing and hunting. Washington, DC; 1960.

193

U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. National survey of
fishing and hunting. Washington, DC; 1970.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980 hunting and
fishing license revenues continue to increase. News release. Atlanta,
GA: USFWS, Region 4, 1981.

U.S. Department of Interior, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service.
Alternative policies for protecting barrier islands along the Atlantic
and Gulf Coasts of the United States and Draft EIS. Washington, DC;
December 1979.

Wood, R. ; Fernald, E. The new Florida atlas. Tallahassee, FL: Trend

publications; 1974. Available from: Florida Resources and Environmental
Analysis Center, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL.

194

COMMERCIAL AND SPORT FISHERIES

Edwin A. Joyce
Route 1, Box 1804
Tallahassee, FL 32312

INTRODUCTION

OVERVIEW

The State of Florida is known for its valuable coastal resources and
their potential. The State has 11,000 miles of tidal shoreline (second long-
est in the United States) and over 15 major estuarine systems. Climatic con-
ditions range from sub-temperate to tropical. The vegetation ranges from
tropical hammocks of the Keys to the massive mangrove stands in southwest
Florida, and to the juncus and spartina marshes of northwest Florida and the
panhandle. These habitat types are undergoing more and more stress. About
75% of Florida's more than nine million residents (1980 Census) live within a
few miles of the coastline and over 60% of the 36 million tourists who come to
Florida annually engage in fishing, swimming, sun bathing, boating, beach
combing, and other water-related forms of recreation. In combination, these
activities are depleting or threatening Florida's natural coastal resources.

This paper concerns the sport and commercial fishing industries, the
fishes and their biology, and fish production, value, and management. Much of
the catch data are from the National Marine Fisheries Service annual catch re-
ports. Much of the economic analysis is provided in publications by Cato
(1973), Prochaska (1976), Prochaska and Cato (1977), Prochaska and Morris
(1978), and Prochaska et al . (1981) at the University of Florida in Gaines-
ville. Much of the biological data are from Steidinger (1980).

Northwest Florida (Bay, Escambia, Franklin, Gulf, Okaloosa, Santa Rosa,
and Walton Counties) is not as heavily developed as other areas of Florida
largely because it is not as densely populated. It has some of the most
beautiful beaches in the State, and abundant, varied, and highly valued sport
and commercial marine fish species. Despite increasing growth, there is still
ample time to more effectively consider fish and wildlife resources and their
habitats in the planning of water and land use, and for protecting aquatic re-
sources. For example, planning could consider potential environmental damage
caused by dredging and filling, saltwater intrusion into groundwater supplies,
loss of fresh water to the estuaries, and the effects of pollution on estua-
rine waters. Many of the findings and much of the data in this report were
based upon or reported from Tables FSH-1 to FSH-51, in the Data Appendix.

195

COASTAL RESOURCES

Four large estuaries dominate Northwest Florida. The first is Pensacola
Bay (consisting of Escambia and East Bay and Santa Rosa Sound), formed by the
confluence of the White River, Blackwater Bay, and Yellow River. Of the estu-
aries in Northwest Florida, the Pensacola estuary is most severely polluted,
especially by industrial wastes. Heavy fish kills once were relatively common
but pollution control requirements and public protests have brought about some
improvement in pollution control in recent years, but fish kills have not yet
been completely eliminated.

The second is Choctawhatchee Bay, one of the largest single bay estuaries
in Florida. Numerous small creeks and rivers, such as Black Creek and Chocta-
whatchee River, contribute to it.

The third is St. Andrews Bay at Panama City consisting of West Bay, North
Bay, and East Bay; the fourth is Apalachicola Bay by far the largest and
most productive estuary. The bay is fed primarily by the Apalachicola River,
and is made up of Indian Lagoon, St. Vincent Sound, Apalachicola Bay proper.
East Bay, and St. George Sound. Further information on the characteristics of
the Bay and Apalachicola River are reported by Livingston (1975) and Living-
ston and Joyce (1977).

The offshore waters of these large estuarine nursery areas support exten-
sive sport and commercial fisheries. The locations of about forty sport and
commercial fishing concentrations have been identified by Moe (1963). He di-
vided Northwest Florida into the Upper West Coast (characterized by a gentle
gradient of the Continental Shelf within the 50- fathom contour almost 100
miles from the coastline) and the Northwest Coast (characterized by DeSota
Canyon, a deep basin of sea water close to shore). In both areas, sport and
commercial fishing is good near rock outcroppings, ledges, cliffs, gullies,
and other topographic features of the bottom that are good fish habitat.

COASTAL CURRENTS

Prevailing ocean currents of the Gulf of Mexico are complex and contrib-
ute to the characteristics of the biology of the Florida gulf coast. Drift
bottle data and current monitoring via satellite imagery are contributing to a
better understanding of the diverse factors that influence mass water trans-
port. A 28-month study by the Florida Department of Natural Resources on the
West Florida Shelf revealed that bottles released in the winter tended to
drift to the eastern Florida coast and Keys, and those released in spring and
summer tended to drift to the lower west coast (Tampa to Fort Myers) and to
the western Gulf of Mexico. Recent data from satellite imagery has confirmed
that these tendencies are extremely variable and depend strongly on the Loop
Current development (intrusion, spreading, eddy formation, and drift), which
itself is unpredictable and significantly affected by short term variation and
the influence of prevailing local winds (Williams et al . 1977). Although un-
predictable, the Loop Current, its eddies, wind effects, and other variables
closely link Florida's Western Shelf with other coastal waters of the State.
Transport of red tide by these currents also has been documented (Steidinger
1981). Such currents could also transport hazardous substances, such as oil
spills from the lower west Florida coast to the northwest or east coast if
conditions were suitable.

196

COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

Fishing along Northwest Florida began as a subsistance fishery centuries
ago. Extensive shell middens attest to the importance of fish and shellfish
in the Indian's diet. Although fishermen early in this century were adequate-
ly equipped with boats, equipment, and gear such as beach seines, gill nets,
and shrimp trawls, inadequate transportation and storage and preservation fa-
cilities prevented large scale production. A day's catch usually was limited
to the amount that could be sold the same or next day. Today's modern fishing
industry with its complex of vessels, electronic equipment, freezing and stor-
age facilities, transportation, and marketing systems bears little resemblance
to its predecessors. A major holdout is the oyster industry. Approximately
90% of Florida's oyster production is supplied by Franklin County (Apalachi-
cola Bay) where, by law, the major fishing method (hand-operated oyster tongs)
has not changed in three generations. But, even here, improved regulations
and industrial operations have brought about improvements in processing, stor-
age, and transportion.

Because of rapidly rising food prices, the fishing industry is broadening
its base by fishing for less acceptable and less expensive fish and by prepar-
ing new products. Examples are schooling fish (especially mullet, croaker,
trout, and redfish) caught by gill nets in estuaries and nearshore waters.

A recent survey conducted by the Bureau of Marketing and Extensive Ser-
vices of the Florida Department of Natural Resources gives data on the econo-
mics of the fishermen, the fishery, the markets, and other socioeconomic
trends. A survey of 142 wholesale and retail seafood markets in north Flor-
ida, south Georgia, and south Alabama documented the importance of low priced,
net-caught fish in ethnic diets, particularly for Blacks, but the public's
attitude toward net fishing is becoming increasingly negative. Fishing
restrictions prohibiting nets will disproportionately affect particular ethnic
groups.

FISHERY RESOURCES OF NORTHWEST FLORIDA

Although over one hundred species of finfishes and shellfish are caught
by commercial and sport fishermen in the Northwest Florida, information on
sport fish catches is scanty. The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
conducted interviews and telephone surveys to determine the magnitude of the
sport catch in the United States (Deuel and Clark 1965, Deuel 1970, U.S. De-
partment of Commerce 1975). A creel census by the Florida Department of Nat-
ural Resources measured the sport catch in Choctawhatchee Bay in Okaloosa and
Walton Counties. Attempts are now underway to establish continuing commercial
and sport catch statistics through State/Federal cooperative agreements.

In Florida as in most places, sport fishermen and commercial fishermen
seek the same species. The exceptions in Florida are sail fish (Istiophorus
pi atypterus) , tarpon (Meqalops atl anticus), snook (Centropomus undecimal isJT
and bonefish (Albula vul pes) which are illegal to sell. Sometimes, there is
strong competition between sport fishermen and commercial fishemen for the
same fish stocks and the same fishing grounds. For some species, sport
catches equal or exceed commercial landings. The catch and value of commer-

197

cial landings are relatively easy to get, but statistics on sport fishing and
its related industries (e.g. out-of-state fishermen, tackle, boats, motors,
oil and gas, food marinas, and hotel -motel accommodations) are difficult to
obtain despite the great economic value of the sport fishery.

Annual changes in commercial landings should be analyzed with consider-
able care. For example, several years of steadily declining catches do not
necessarily indicate that the species is overfished. The decline may be caus-
ed by natural fluctuations in abundance, or by a decline in commercial fishing
intensity or a number of other possible factors. Details on commercial fish-
ing operations, the need for facilities, and commercial fishing port develop-
ment are reported by Mathis et al . (1978a and 1978b).

FINFISH

Ordinarily, seafood is divided into finfish (referred to as fish here-
after in this report) and shellfish (e.g., oysters, shrimps, crabs). In addi-
tion to their commercial value, finfish support a highly valued sport fishery.

Snappers and Groupers

The red snapper, Lutjanus campechanus, is a long-lived (up to 20 years),
slow growing, continental shelf reef dweller that is essentially non-migratory
except for seasonal inshore-offshore movement. It is one of the most highly
valued marine fish in Florida. In 1980 it contributed about 2.2 million lb
valued at $3.9 million dockside to the commercial catch in Northwest Florida.
Red snapper also are highly prized by sport fishermen, particularly in head
and charter boats.

Commercial landings of the groupers, primarily red grouper (Epinephelus
morio) , gag grouper (Mycteroperca microlepis), and scamp (Mycteroperca phenax)
in Northwest Florida in 1980 were 1.3 million lb, valued at $1.2 million.
This catch is only about 10% to 15% of the total Florida catch and has varied
significantly in 1970-80, ranging from a high of 1.4 million lb in 1972 to a
low of 528,844 lb in 1977. Groupers also are important sport species, espe-
cially for head and charter boats.

Relatively little is known about the early life history of groupers and
snappers. The biology of only a few of the larvae are properly described and
specific spawning areas are unknown. Most of the observations on these spe-
cies in this report were from Beaumariage and Bullock (1977) and Futch and
Bruger (1977). Most groupers probably spawn in deeper coastal waters in
spring, summer, and fall. Pelagic larvae are transported by prevailing cur-
rents into bays and estuaries, which are used as nursery grounds. As juve-
niles, they move from shallow reef or grassy areas to deeper holes or hard
bottom outcroppings. Adults seldom stray far from protective hard rock out-
croppings, reefs, or corals. Of the groupers, biological data on the gag
probably are most extensive. This species in its second year of life is about
fourteen inches long and weighs between 2 and 3 lb. The largest groupers
landed commercially are five or six years old and average from 9.0 to 11.7 kg
(20 to 25 lb) each. Sexual maturity is reached in 2 to 4 years. A maximum
age of 30 years was reported. Most groupers are protogynous hermaphrodites
and begin life as females. Transformation begins at about age six, but not

198

all become males. Factors influencing sexual change are not well understood.
The transformation possibly prevents the loss of males from the highly terri-
torial populations found in the relatively isolated reef areas.

The increasing catch of snappers and groupers by commercial and sport
fishermen may be reducing their abundance. For example, in recent years over-
fishing in some areas is indicated by the declining average size of fish
caught.

The relatively great distance of fish populations offshore and rising
fuel prices may depress the sport fishery, yet commercial fishing for these
species in coastal waters may increase even further because Mexican fishing
grounds now prohibit U.S. fishermen.

The Mackerel s

The m&ckerel (Scomberomorus spp.) are a valuable sport and commercial
fish in the coastal waters of Northwest Florida. They are two of the most
popular sport species; estimates indicate that the sport catch is about three
times greater than the commercial catch. The fishery management plan for pe-
lagic coastal fishes in Florida currently under preparation by the Gulf of
Mexico and South Atlantic Regional Fishery Management Councils (Public Law
94-265) seeks to allocate 9 million lb annually to commercial fishemen
(approximately 5 million to nets and 4 million to hook and line) and 29 mil-
lion lb to sport fishennen. Competition between sport and commercial fisher-
men and between various groups of commercial fishermen is a serious problem.
Several legislative attempts to restrict specific types of fishing have been
made (e.g., making net fishing for mackerel illegal or banning commercial
fishing for the species altogether).

King mackerel . Although a valuable sport fish in Northwest Florida, com-
mercial production of this species ( Scomberomorus cavalla) is only a small
part of the State total. Florida landings averaged about 5.5 million lb an-
nually in 1970-80 and Northwest Florida's commercial landings fluctuated from
34,000 lb to 241,173 lb. The value of the catch from Northwest Florida in
1980 was $97,533 for the 182,970 lb landed. Monthly landings in 1965, 1970,
and 1975 for the Florida west coast are given in Table FSH-24 in the Data
Appendix.

King mackerel begin spawning when three years old (males) and four years
old (females). Spawning from May to September has been well documented in
offshore waters of Texas and Northwest Florida and from Florida to North Caro-
lina along the Atlantic coast. Relatively little is known about the juveniles
although some are occasionally taken nearshore in shrimp trawls. King mack-
erel may live 13 to 14 years, but most are less than seven years. Adult mor-
tality is estimated at about 50% per year.

Tagging studies have shown extensive migrations. Some of the king mack-
erel tagged in the winter along the southeast Florida coast migrated into the
Gulf of Mexico in the spring and migrated as far as eastern Texas and Mexico
in the summer. Most return to Florida waters in fall and winter. King mack-
erel also migrate along the Atlantic coast; fish tagged in southeast Florida
were caught from as far north as Virginia. Data so far indicate that there

199

are probably two populations of king mackerel but that there is some evidence
of mixing in the South Florida area.

Despite heavy exploitation of the king mackerel, biological evidence in-
dicated that the abundance of the species has remained relatively stable for
many years (Beaumariage, personal communication).

The availability of the fish stocks sometimes change sharply because of
their migratory habits and response to changing currents, climate, and other
conditions. Whatever the cause, sport and commercial fishermen tend to blame
each other when their catches are below their expectations.

Spanish mackerel . Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) also are
important to sport and commercial fishermen in Florida. Spanish mackerel are
smaller than king mackerel and usually do not live as long (maximum age is
about eight years). Age 2 and older fish spawn in waters over the Inner Con-
tinental Shelf (40-165 ft) from May through September (Powell 1975). Spawning
has been documented in coastal waters from Cape Sable to Mobile Bay and from
Georgia to the Chesapeake Bay. The biology of juveniles is not well document-
ed, but they grow rapidly and enter the fishery in their second year of life
when they are most abundant.

The commercial catch in Northwest Florida in 1980 was about 613,979 lb
(18% of the State total), valued at $170,494 dockside. The monthly landings
for 1965, 1970, 1975 for the west coast of Florida are given in Table FSH-25
of the Data Appendix.

Spotted Seatrout

The spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) is highly sought by sport and
commercial fishemien. Although there are no sport catch statistics, the sport
catch probably equals or exceeds commercial landings. Commercial catch data
are complicated by the large proportion of trout in the market that were
caught by sport fishemien and sold. Some fish markets in Florida are heavily
dependent upon sport catches to meet their demands.

Spotted sea trout in Northwest Florida is considered one of the most im-
portant estuarine sport fish. Commercial landings in 1980 were 192,072 lb
valued at $131,399 dockside (less than 10% of the statewide landings). The
1980 landings were the lowest in 1970-80 and the 1976 landings (432,657 lb)
were the highest.

The spotted seatrout is an estuarine dependent species that spends all or
most of its life in estuaries. Some populations are so distinct that they ex-
hibit different racial characteristics from those in adjacent bay systems.
This species spawns in the deeper waters of estuaries in the spring and sum-
mer, mostly in April to July. In southern Florida, some spawn year round.
Males first spawn when 1 to 2 years of age; female at 2 to 3 years of age.
Maximum age is generally 8 years. A literature review of the life history of
the spotted sea trout in the Gulf of Mexico was reported by Lassuy (1982).

Commercial landings of spotted seatrout in 1951-76 have declined in some
parts of Florida. Some loss may be due to overfishing, but most scientists
believe that degradation of habitat by dredge and fill operations, pollution,

200

decreased freshwater inflow to estuaries, and other water and land alterations
are the real cause. The monthly commercial landings for the west coast of
Florida in 1965, 1970, and 1975 are given in Table FSH-27 in the Data Appen-
dix.

Striped Mul let

The black or striped mullet (Mugil cephalus) is commercially the most im-
portant of five species of Mugil in Florida. With the exception of 1974,
striped mullet dominated the commercial landings in Northwest Florida in 1970-
80, but because of their relatively low dockside price, their dollar value was
less than that of the groupers and snappers. In 1980, commercial landings in
Northwest Florida were valued at $998,178, whereas State landings were 30.9
million lb valued at $6.1 million.

Striped mullet spawn in offshore waters from October to January. Larvae
have been collected from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean as far
north as Cape Cod, Massachusetts and near the surface in water up to 900 fath-
oms deep. When 20 to 30 mm long, the larvae move into the estuaries and,
except for spawning or seasonal movement to offshore waters, they live the re-
mainder of their lives there.

Adults first spawn when they are 2 to 3 years old; females typically grow
larger and live longer than males. Adult mullet sometimes inhabit fresh
waters and move long distances up rivers. Landlocked populations have been
reported in Florida, Texas, and Oklahoma. Maximum age is six to seven years
and maximum length is about 30 inches. Juvenile and adult striped mullet are
primary consumers, feeding largely on diatoms, algae, and benthic detritus.
They have a muscular gizzard that helps grind their food.

Despite high production, striped mullet is considered an underutilized
species. When fresh, it is ranked by some consumers to be one of Florida's
finest eating fish, but because it is a relatively oily fish subject to ran-
cidity, it has an extremely short shelf life. Mullet are taken commercially
primarily in the fall and early winter when they tend to school prior to mov-
ing offshore to overwinter and spawn. This strong seasonal availability is
troublesome because the markets usually become glutted and prices fall. Cur-
rently there is a strong market in Japan for mullet roe for caviar. This
relatively new product has helped the mullet fishing industry in Northwest
Florida.

Lady Fish

Lady fish (Flops saurus) is an important bait species in Northwest Flor-
ida because of its size schooling habits, and its availability to the purse
seine fishery. Lady fish are used largely for crab bait. In 1980, the dock-
side value was about 5 cents a pound. The 1.3 million lb taken that year were
worth $71,386 dockside. About 95% of the State landings were from Northwest
Florida.

The monthly commercial landings for lady fish for the west coast of Flor-
ida in 1965, 1970, and 1975 are given in Table FSH-35 in the Data Appendix.
Although this species is not usually sought by sport fishermen because of
their poor food quality and small size, some are taken when more desirable

201

species are not biting. Their fighting ability has earned them the reputation
as a "poor man's tarpon."

Lady fish are estuarine dependent but spawn offshore. Little is known of
their age composition and growth, but it is clear that they grow rapidly and
have a short life span.

Other Finfish

Tha catch of the fish species just described is only a small percentage
of the total catch of over 75 species. Other valuable species are used for
food, bait, and as a source of oil, fish meal, and pet food. Valuable sport
species such as tarpon and sail fish are prohibited from commercial trade.
These fish support annual fishing tournaments along the Florida coast and con-
tribute substantially to marine related industries, e.g. tourism, retail sales
of fuel, fishing equipment, boats, nets, ice, and storage.

SHELLFISH

By far the most valuable marine species produced for market in Florida
are shrimp, blue crabs, oysters, and scallops. These highly productive, estu-
arine dependent species are heavily fished throughout their range by commer-
cial fishermen. Sport fishing for these species is heavy in some areas, but
it does not contribute as much to the total catch as does sport fishing for
finfish. Shellfishes have a relatively short life span (from 1 to 5 yrs) and
high fecundity.

Shrimp

Shrimp is Florida's most valuable marine resource. In Northwest Florida,
four species (white, brown, pink, and rock) make up almost the entire catch.
In 1980, about 6.3 million lb of shrimp worth $8.4 million dollars dockside
were produced. The monthly commercial landings, and their value, of all
shrimps from the west coast of Florida in 1965, 1970, and 1975 are given in
Tables 41-42, in the Data Appendix.

Pink shrimp (Penaeus duorarum) spawn year-round, but largely in spring
and fall in water 12 to 26 fathoms (72 to 156 ft) deep. White shrimp (£.
setiferus) spawn from spring through fall in water 4 to 17 fathoms (24 to 102
It) deep. Brown shrimp (P^. aztecus) spawn from spring to early summer in
water 15 to 60 fathoms (90 to 360 ft) deep. Rock shrimp (Sicyonia
brevirostris) spawn from winter through spring in water 20 to 70 fathoms (120
to 420 ft) deep. About 500,000 fertilized eggs are released into the water
column by each female. Some females spawn several times in one season.

Larval development is 15 to 30 days long depending upon water tempera-
ture. Larvae remain in offshore waters until attaining the postlarval stage
when they utilize tidal currents and salinity gradients to enter the estua-
ries. The pink, white, and brown shrimp use various portions of bays and
tidal marshes for nursery areas, whereas rock shrimp use higher salinity bays
and nearshore areas out to depths of 10 fathoms (60 ft).

202

Juvenile growth in the estuary is rapid, requiring only 3 to 4 months to
maturity. As water temperatures cool in the fall and shrimp reach lengths of
3 to 4 inches, they emigrate from nursery areas, using tidal currents and sa-
linity gradients to move to overwintering and spawning grounds. Some of the
younger, smaller shrimp may overwinter in deeper portions of bays until spring
and then move offshore.

Major pink shrimp fishing grounds are along the southwest coast from Fort
Myers to Tortugas and from Apalachicola Bay to Panama City. White and brown
shrimp are most abundant near Apalachicola Bay and Jacksonville. Rock shrimp
are most abundant near Apalachicola Bay and from Cape Canaveral to Georgia.
They become sexually mature (3.5-4.0 inches TL) near the time they arrive at
their overwintering grounds. They are 6 to 8 months old and of legal size (47
whole shrimp per pound or 70 tails per pound). Growth slows as they move
deeper offshore. Maximum age is about 2 years; but few live longer than 12 to
14 months.

Shrimp larvae feed on algae and zooplankton. Post larvae, juveniles, and
adults are oninivores, feeding largely on detritus and microorganisms.

Blue Crabs

The blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) supports a major fishery in Northwest
Florida. In 1970-80, annual landings ranged from 1.2 to over 2.3 million lb.
The average price per pound dockside was 22 cents and the 1980 landings of 1.9
million lb had a dockside value of $401,685. Northwest Florida contributes
about 10% of the total Florida blue crab catch. The monthly landings of blue
crabs along the west coast of Florida in 1965, 1970, and 1975 are given in
Table FSH-36 in the Data Appendix.

Blue crabs mate and spawn year-round except in northern areas of Florida
when water temperatures drop below 60°F. Subsequent to mating in brackish
waters (8-18 ppt salinity), females migrate to nearshore high salinity waters
( 25 ppt) near mouths of estuaries to spawn. Alongshore migration on the west
coast towards Apalachicola Bay by some females suggests that the bay area may
be a primary spawning area. Females spawn at least twice, producing from
700,000 to 2,000,000 eggs per "sponge." Spawning peaks in April-June.

Blue crab larvae go through zoea stages lasting 31 to 49 days and one
megalopa stage lasting 6 to 20 days. Zoea are planktonic until molting into
the megalopa stage, which utilizes tidal currents to drift into estuarine
waters where they molt into the first crab stage (2-3 mm carapace width [CW]).

Small crabs ( 40 mm CW) live in a variety of shallow water habitats in
the estuary (e.g. grass beds, muck bottoms) and gradually move to deeper water
as they increase in size. Adult size ( 120 mm) is achieved after 18 to 20
molts in 12 to 14 months.

The size range of adults usually is 120 to 140 mm CW, most of which are
commercial size. After reaching adult size, crabs are known to live at least
one more year, and a few may live 3 to 4 years. Primarily a shallow water
species (up to 35 m deep), adult blue crabs live in a variety of habitats
ranging from gulf waters with 34 ppt salinity to inland freshwater rivers up
to 120 miles from the coast. Annual commercial landings in Florida in 1968-78
averaged 17 million lb.

203

Oysters

Over 90% of Florida's oyster production is from the Apalachicola River
estuary; the oyster industry is second only to shrimp in Northwest Florida.
Income from the landings is a major source of income in Franklin County. In
1980, landings of 6.6 million lb yielded a dockside value of $5.9 million.
Since 1977, the annual production of oysters has slowly increased. Some of
the increase may be attributed to opening June, July, and August for oyster
fishing. The potential for oyster production throughout the region is threat-
ened by further coastal development for marine transportation, and for resi-
dential, business, and industrial purposes.

The monthly landings of oysters on the west coast of Florida in 1965,
1970, and 1975 are given in Table FSH-39.

Oysters usually spawn April -October and individuals may spawn several
times in a season. Fertilization is external and requires simultaneous
release of sperm and eggs by animals in close proximity. Fertilized eggs sink
rapidly, and the trochophore larval stage is reached in 4 to 6 hours. This is
followed in 24 to 28 hours by the vel iger (larval) stage. These ciliated
pelagic forms drift for 2 to 3 weeks and distribute the oysters. When mature
larvae, known as spat, contact suitable hard substrate, they settle and attach
permanently.

Oysters grow rapidly after settling on suitable substrate. In Florida, a
marketable oyster is generally less than 18 months old. Besides suitable sub-
strate, oysters require adequate water flow, salinity, and temperature for
growth and survival. Good water circulation not only aids in their dispersal,
but assures transport of nutrients and removal of wastes. Wide salinity
fluxes tolerated by oysters may be beneficial in controlling the abundance of
predators that require high salinities. Permanent communities do best in a
salinity range of 10 to 20 ppt. Oysters also have a wide temperature toler-
ance, but best growth is near 75°F.

Bay and Callico Scallops

Landings of callico scallops (Argopecten irradians) in Northwest Florida
vary greatly from year to year, ranking from none early in the century to over
1.8 million lb in 1976.

Many marine species vary widely in abundance, but annual fluctuations for
scallops are even more extreme. Although scallops have only limited mobility,
it has been conjectured that mass movement of a population might possibly ex-
plain the disappearance of a large bed. Mass movements have not been scien-
tificially verified, and the periodic disappearances of a major portion of the
population may simply be a result of high natural mortality.

Bay scallops (Argopecten qibbus) spawn during fall and early winter in
bays, sounds, and other protected areas. Calico scallops spawn offshore in
spring and early summer; some spawn year-round. Scallops are hermaphroditic
(contain both male and female reproductive organs), but the release of eggs
and sperm at different times for the same individual during spawning prevents
self-fertil ization.

204

Larvae pass through two planktonic forms in one to two weeks prior to
becoming sessile attached postlarvae. Bay scallop postlarvae attach to sea-
grasses for several weeks before taking on the appearance and lifestyle of
adults. Postlarval calico scallops attach to large shells and hard substrate
prior to becoming mobile juveniles. Postlarval calico scallops are deposited
in "windrows" that follow local current patterns.

Postlarval bay scallops settle in grass beds in shallow water whereas
post larval calico scallops settle in water 10 to 40 fathoms deep offshore.
They move randomly within these general areas. Bay scallops grow from several
mm to about 60 mm from winter through summer and reach sexual maturity by
fall. Calico scallops show similar growth rates from summer through winter
and reach sexual maturity by early spring when about 60 mm.

Bay scallops live in most Florida estuaries, but the largest populations
are in St. Joe Bay, and near Anclote Key, north of Tampa Bay. Bay scallops
once were common in Pine Island Sound until the population was reduced by a
combination of red tides and habitat alterations (particularly dredge and fill
operations in the 1950' s and 1960's). Calico scallops live in most offshore
areas of Florida, but are most abundant near Apalachicola Bay and Cape Canav-
eral. Bay scallops generally live in the same bay system each year, whereas
the location of calico scallop beds may vary each year, depending upon where
the postlarvae are deposited. Maximum age is about two years. Nearly all die
after spawning. Scallops are filter feeders, consuming microscopic phyto-
plankton.

The monthly landings of scallops on the west coast of Florida in 1965,
1970, and 1975 are given in Table FSH-40 in the Data Appendix.

PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

THE STATUS OF RESEARCH

In the early 1900's very little was known about the biology of the major
sport and commercial saltwater and estuarine fishes of Florida. Following
World War II, interest in fishing as a vocation and an avocation began to
increase and with it the need to understand the natural history of the more
important species.

In the 1950' s and 1960's, many papers were written about a variety of ma-
rine resource topics. Collectively from these and other more recent reports,
major concepts began to emerge concerning the living marine resources. Most
significant among these was the estuarine dependency of over three- fourths of
the major commercial and sport species. Studies of these species indicated
that at least part of their life cycles depended upon the shallow estuarine
areas (nursery grounds) where food and protection for young fish or shellfish
abounded in a variety of forms. The biological richness and importance of
these nursery grounds were difficult to convey to the general public, and
thousands of acres were lost to indiscriminate dredging and filling before
protective legislation was finally passed.

20b

Research now is more advanced, better funded, and the evidence continues
to illustrate the importance of estuaries for sustaining fish and shellfish.

HABITAT ALTERATION

For the majority of species studied, the availability and capacity of
habitat is a major limiting factor of species abundance. The rate of loss of
habitat has been greatly reduced in Florida recently by protective regula-
tions. No longer can developers move freely into a marsh or estuary and in-
discriminately dredge and fill to create waterfront (canal) home sites such as
that done in Boca Ciega Bay near St. Petersburg. Although dredging determined
to be "in the public interest" continues, the massive projects of the 1950's
and 1960's now are a rarity. Habitat loss today is more subtle; an acre or
two, a small boat channel, a causeway, all of which have cumulative effects.
Not only is the area of wetlands being reduced, but the productivity of the
remaining wetlands is declining. The decline in habitat productivity is most
frequently caused by (1) loss or diversion of freshwater from estuarine sys-
tems and (2) sewage, chemical, industrial, and thermal pollution, and oil
spills.

With the increased demand for coastal fishes and the proven dependence of
these fishes on estuaries, the need for increased habitat protection in coast-
al wetlands is paramount. Some of the current water and land use changes and
developments or practices that are still damaging the estuaries and which
should be eliminated or at least regulated are: (1) diversion of freshwater
inflow from the estuaries, (2) diking or impounding estuarine marshlands for
mosquito control, (3) spraying of insecticides on watersheds, wetlands, and
shallow estuarine shorelines for mosquito control, (4) the construction of
causeways or other structures for highways, and (5) navigation channel mainte-
nance.

Some land management practices, which usually are several miles upstream
from an estuary, also may unfavorably alter habitats. Principal examples are:
(1) clear cutting of forests or woodlands, which alter surface runoff, stream
flow, and groundwater supplies, (2) excessive use of pesticides, herbicides,
and fertilizers in agricultural operations, and (3) damming or otherwise al-
tering river flow patterns.

In view of man's destruction and alteration of habitats, many possibil-
ities for restoration have been examined. For example, spoil islands or erod-
ing dunes can be vegetated to increase stability and maintenance of natural
habitat. Permits issued for land alteration (in the public interest) may re-
quire mitigation for habitat loss.

Under certain conditions, some natural habitats may become more produc-
tive by the addition or construction of new habitat features. For example,
the construction of artificial fishing reefs on flat or low relief bottoms
attracts and concentrates fish so that they are more available to sport fish-
ermen. The construction of shell reefs in appropriate waters may sharply
increase the area for attachment of oyster spats and increase oyster abun-
dance. Oyster beds or reefs constructed by the Florida Department of Natural
Resources in Apalachicola Bay since 1949 now account for a major share of pro-
fitable oyster beds. This and other forms of restoration of loss or damaged

206

habitat, and even the improvement of natural areas, have been made possible
through extensive research and should be a prime consideration in marine re-
source management.

SPORT FISHERIES

A clear definition of a sport and a commercial fisherman and their simi-
larities and differences sometimes are highly debatable. There are commercial
fishermen who fish for pleasure and sport fishermen who sell their catch.
Often they both seek the same species and fish the same spawning grounds.
Among the fishes that cannot be sold legally, no matter how they are caught,
are sail fish, tarpon, snook, and bonefish. Most mullet and shrimp are taken
commercially, but even these sometimes are caught by sport fishermen that use
small seines, gill nets, and cast nets. The sport catch of some of the most
favored fish species sometimes equals or exceeds the commercial catch. Com-
pared to most, states, the economic value of the sport fishery in Florida is
unusually high.

In Florida, there are more than 500,000 registered boats, many of which
are used by sport fishermen and 36 million annual tourists, many of whom go
sport fishing. Major sport fishes are king and Spanish mackerel, grouper, red
snapper, spotted seatrout, redfish, cobia, flounder, and whiting. Large num-
bers of other species also are caught.

A 12-month creel census in Choctawhatchee Bay revealed that although
speckled sea trout was one of the most popularly sought fish, fin fish were
most abundant in landings. Offshore catches were highest for king mackerel
and red snapper. In Choctawhatchee Bay, head and charter boat fishing
accounted for 50% of the fishermen and 75% of the sport catch, whereas sport
fishing from shore, piers, and private boats accounted for only 35% of the
sport fishermen and 16.4% of the catch. Tourists comprised 95% of the fisher-
men using party and charter boats. In recent years, more fishing has been
directed toward sail fish and the larger bill fish in the DeSota Canyon where
depths range from 40 to 100 fathoms (240 to 600 ft). Shark fishing also has
become more popular. Fishing tournaments and contests for sport fish are
common along the Florida coast.

BAIT INDUSTRY

The great increase in sport and commercial fishing since about 1958 has
created a high demand for natural bait. Almost any species can be cut up and
used for bait, but only a few enter the trade in large quantity. Favorite
baits are squid, shrimp, mullet, ballyhoo, halfbeaks, herring, cigar minnows,
lady fish, and goggle eyes. With the exception of shrimp, most of the bait is
sold dead, either fresh or frozen. Silver mullet, ballyhoo, and some of the
herrings are caught for bait in commercial gears. Some are sold whole, espe-
cially for sailfish, billfish, and king mackerel fishing. The majority are
sold to party and charter boat anglers and the success of the trip often
depends on the availability of the proper bait.

The most valuable and useful bait is live shrimp. In Florida, shrimping
for bait is conducted primarily in the nursery grounds and is permitted in lo-

207

cations and at times when shrimping for food is illegal. Part of the justifi-
cation for this leniency is the self-limiting nature of the shrimp bait fish-
ery. For shrimp to be kept alive, the vessel must be equipped with recircu-
lating water holding tanks and a small shrimp trawl that is towed for only
short periods of time. Short hauls with small trawls keep shrimp mortality at
low levels and reduces the catch of other fishes.

The size of the bait industry will continue to be closely tied to the
success of the sport fishery.

MARICULTURE

Mariculture is the commercial cultivation of marine fish or shellfish.
The high reproductive potential of most marine species and the increasing
value of most seafood has drawn much attention to the possibility of "farming
the sea." Most mariculture experiments in Florida used pompano (Trachinotus
carol inus), freshwater shrimp (Macrobrachium spp.) and brackish water shrimp
(Penaeus~spp. ).

Attempts have been made to cultivate saltwater shrimp. One company in-
vested several million dollars and produced several hundred thousand pounds of
shrimp a year, but there are many problems that are yet to be solved. Their
greatest success was in two 300-acre ponds into which the cultured postlarval
shrimp were stocked and fed until they were of harvestable size. In earlier
years, the company attempted to cultivate shrimp in 2,500 acres of fenced bay
Dottom, which required the first State "mariculture" lease. A continuing
series of problems ranging from hurricanes and high tides, to having the nets
sink from an accumulation of fouling organisms (e.g., barnacles) ultimately
forced them to abandon this method.

Despite a number of experiments, mariculture in Florida is still in the
developmental stage. Major problems have been the high cost of labor and
land, low winter water temperatures, and biological problems associated with
mass culture. The most successful mariculture prospects in Florida were moved
to Central or South America where these problems were much less troublesome.
One of the better potentials for mariculture is in saltwater aquaria. Some of
the brightly colored reef fishes may sell for over $50 each and their culture
could be extremely profitable as long as the market price remains stable.

RESOURCE CONCERNS AND ISSUES

FLUCTUATIONS IN CATCH

One of the long-established biological characteristics of marine fish is
their fluctuating abundance. Despite years of study, there is little direct
evidence that points to the causes. Although there is speculation that unusu-
al weather changes are partly responsible, unusually low water temperatures
many cause high natural mortalities among estuarine species. Low freshwater
inflow may cause excessively high salinity and poor reproduction. Low salini-
ties after major floods may produce the same results.

208

Information about the abundance of most species of fish is based on rela-
tive measures, e.g., changes in commercial catch. The only consistent annual
commercial catch statistics available are those collected by the National Ma-
rine Fisheries Service. Changes in commercial catches require careful analy-
sis. For example, production declines for several years do not necessarily
reflect an actual decline in the abundance of the species. Although a decline
in catch may simply be caused by a decline in fishing intensity, catastrophic
declines or long term trends usually become clearly apparent.

THE SHRIMP INDUSTRY

Characteristically, the abundance of shrimp in Florida varies widely
among the years. As with most estuarine-dependent species, the availability
and productivity of nursery grounds generally is the major limiting factor of
abundance; consequently, shrimp abundance is more accurately related to habi-
tat loss or alteration than to overfishing.

The high cost of fishing is the shrimp industry's major problem. Fuel
costs have risen rapidly over the last several years and the cost of each
pound of shrimp produced has increased several times. Imported shrimp from
Mexico are price competitive because fuel prices there are government con-
trolled at relatively low levels. Now the market price per pound of shrimp in
Florida greatly exceeds that of red meat and often even exceeds the price of
high quality cuts. High costs have reduced consumer sales; almost 80% of all
shrimp in the United States are sold to restaurants. These economic problems
are creating demand for additional controls on the industry, such as limited
entry (e.g., restrictions on the number of fishennen). By reducing the num-
ber of shrimp boats (which now exceed the numbers necessary to catch the
available shrimp), individual catches would increase and retail prices proba-
bly would drop. Limited entry would require major legislation and would have
far-reaching effects. In some states limited entry often creates as many
problems as it solves. Limited entry will be discussed further in a later
section.

Another major problem of the beleaguered shrimpers is the incidental
catch of threatened and endangered species of marine turtles. Turtles are
caught in shrimp trawls during normal operations and drown if held underwater
by the net long enough. Emotion over this problem is so high that some people
have suggested that the shrimping industry should be closed. The shrimp in-
dustry is taking steps to keep the mortality of turtles at a minimum. The
shrimpers have agreed that when trawling in an area where turtles are abun-
dant, trawling time will not exceed 90 minutes. Most turtles taken in that
time should still be alive and can be returned to the water unhanned. The
National Marine Fisheries Service is experimenting with net designs that usu-
ally will not catch turtles. Recent design advances in the excluder trawl
look '^ery promising and large scale testing is planned. These nets have other
advantages as well. By excluding large amounts of trash and other debris of
unwanted species (such as some types of jellyfish and undersized species of
sport and commercial species), they reduce drag, increase catch potential, and
perhaps save fuel .

209

In summary, the shrimp fishery is the most valuable fishery in Florida,
but it is confronted with serious economic problems that plague almost all in-
dustries. The shrimp industry is likely to undergo many changes, but the
demand for shrimp should remain high.

LEGISLATION AND COOPERATIVE ACTION

The most significant marine fishery regulation of this century is Public
Law 94-265, the Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976, which extend-
ed United States jurisdiction of marine fisheries out to 200 miles. To accom-
plish its purpose, eight Regional Fisheries Management Councils were formed
and these quasi Federal agencies have the responsibility of developing fishery
management plans for those fish species that live primarily in international
waters out 200 miles offshore (Fishery Conservation Zone, FCZ). The law gives
U.S. fishermen first rights over all fishing stocks in the FCZ. Foreign fish-
ing is permitted by the councils only when it is determine that a surplus
exists beyond that which U.S. fishennen can catch (almost all are low-valued
species). Although Florida is a member of two Councils (the South Atlantic
Fishery Management Council and the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council),
the Northwest Florida's FCZ is under the Gulf Council, which has enacted or is
working on fishery management plans for the following species: (1) stone
crabs, plan enacted September 1979; (2) shrimp (white, pink, brown, and relat-
ed species); (3) reef fish (snappers, groupers, and related species); (4) king
and Spanish mackerel (cooperative plan with South Atlantic Council); (5) spiny
lobster (another cooperative plan); (6) groundfish (primarily species taken
incidental to shrimp trawling); (7) sharks; (8) coral (another cooperative
plan); and (9) billfish (a four-way cooperative plan with South Atlantic, New
England, and Caribbean Councils).

Central to the development and approval of fishery management plans are
the Seven National Standards that the Act requires must be met. The plans are
as follows:

(1) Conservation and management measures shall prevent overfishing while
achieving, on a continuing basis, the optimum yield from each fishery.

(2) Conservation and management measures shall be based on the best sci-
entific information available.

(3) To the extent practicable, an individual stock of fish shall be man-
aged as a unit throughout its range, but closely interrelated stocks of
fish also may be managed as a unit.

(4) Conservation and management measures shall not discriminate between
residents of different states. If it becomes necessary to allocate or
assign fishing privileges among various U.S. fishermen, such allocation
shall be (A) fair and equitable to all such fishermen; (B) reasonably
calculated to promote conservation; and (C) carried out in such a manner
that no particular individual, cooperation, or other entity acquires an
excessive share of such privileges.

(5) Conservation and management measures shall, where practicable, pro-
mote efficiency in the utilization of fishery resources; except that no
such measure shall have economic allocation as its sole purpose.

210

(6) Conservation and management measures shall take into account and
allow for variations among, and contingencies in, fisheries, fishery re-
sources, and catches.

(7) Conservation and management measures shall, where practicable, mini-
mize costs and avoid unnecessary duplication (PL 94-265).

In addition to protecting and providing for proper utilization of fishes
beyond the territorial sea, this act may profoundly affect inshore fisheries
as well. As fishery management plans are approved and the results (both suc-
cesses and failures) are available for review, the individual states may enact
similar regulations that will better protect their own fisheries.

Success of the act will depend on how well the councils are able to deal
with particularly difficult issues such as limited entry, pre-emption of a
state's fishery regulations, and allocation of limited or diminishing
resources.

FEDERAL FUNDING

Federal support for fishery research and development, quality control,
inspection, low cost loans, and research in Florida has never been great. In
contrast to the Northwest Pacific Coast states, which favor salmon. Federal
aid in the Gulf of Mexico has never been in proportion to the region's fishery
production. Probably the most beneficial Federal aid has been provided
through Public Law 88-309, The Commercial Fisheries Research and Development
Act of 1964. The act has provided Federal research and marketing funds on a
matching basis through the Florida Department of Natural Resources. These
funds have been responsible for accelerated research and for the development
of the largest seafood marketing program in the southeastern United States.
In 1982, Florida's share of PL 83-309 was $240,000.

The Anadromous Fisheries Research and Development Act (PL 88-304) was en-
acted primarily to assist northern states with the development of anadromous
fisheries such as salmon. Benefits of this act to southern and Gulf states
were small because of the rarity of anadromous species or fisheries. Florida,
and in particular Northwest Florida, received some funds for studies on the
Alabama shad and sturgeon.

PL 94-265 (already discussed) also provides some funding potential. The
individual fishery councils of the Gulf may contract for needed research
through state or private organizations. Although council funds for such out-
side work are limited, they do not require matching funds.

The Coastal Plains Regional Development Commission, a Title V Commission,
already has contributed to fishery resource funding in the region. Although
Florida and Virginia were not members of the commission at the beginning, they
were included in 1976. Funding for all projects has averaged about one mil-
lion dollars annually. Most projects are not marine oriented. The seafood
port feasibility and study projects have stimulated great interest in the pan-
handle of Florida for establishing new and modern seafood ports. At least two
(one in Port St. Joe and one in Carabelle) currently are under further review.
Another project is the pilot oyster fattening project conducted in Franklin

211

County. The Department of Natural Resources developed an oyster- fattening
method that showed economic potential, but they were unable to carry the pro-
ject beyond the laboratory stage. The Coastal Plains Regional Development
Commission, working with a private contractor, used State developed informa-
tion about oysters and set up a pilot plant to determine the economic feasi-
bility of a commercial oyster fattening operation. Thin, spawned out, late
summer oysters were fattened in the laboratory for about two weeks. A quality
oyster was produced that equalled those caught in estuaries during the best
growing season. This operation was discontinued because funds for the Coastal
Plains Regional Commission and the Title V Commissions, were withdrawn and the
Commissions were closed on September 30, 1981.

Funds for marine resource development also are available from
Sal tonstall -Kennedy funds (SK) that are derived from an excise tax on imported
seafood products. In past years, these funds have been used sparingly, but
recently some funds were released to aid seafood marketing and other industry
oriented programs.

Another major Federal program affecting marine resources is the National
Sea Grant Program. In Florida, this program is based at the University of
Florida in Gainesville, but the funds and projects are a part of a consortium
of state and private universities, each applying for funds to do marine
research. The programs in Florida have been highly successful, particularly
in fishery economics. The Florida program also has established a statewide
network of marine extension agents designed to help fishermen, as county agri-
cultural agents help farming interests.

The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) of 1976 also is a potential source
of Federal funds that may be used in a variety of ways to benefit living
coastal resources. One example is the Apalachicola Bay Estuarine Sanctuary.
Funds were used there to purchase additional lands for protecting the natural
enviromient and to support a sanctuary headquarters for three years. These
lands, when purchased, will be added to several thousand acres already pur-
chased by the State for the same purpose.

In addition to the direct funds mentioned above, other Federal monies may
benefit the fishing industry, even though the benefits are secondary. These
include endangered species projects and studies on marine species or habitats.
Sometimes the National Science Foundation issues grants for fishery and coast-
al environmental studies.

REGULATORY PROBLEMS

Florida's marine fishery resources currently are regulated by the State
legislature. The Florida Department of Natural Resources (DNR) has rule-
making authority, but only to clarify the legislation and establish ways and
means of enforcing regulations not specifically outlined by law. The advan-
tage of a legislated regulatory authority is that any new law requires
approval by the House and Senate and the governor. This procedure relieves
political pressure on the DNR and helps it to avoid making long-term decisions
in the heat of a confrontation. The disadvantage is that it does not always
work that way. Far too many laws still are enacted in the heat of controversy
and many are controversial and ineffective.

212

In summary, resource laws should be based on the resource needs, not on
the votes of any special interest groups. This requires good biological
judgment and data and an ability to avoid the power of pressure politics.
Florida's law says that the marine resources are to be managed for the benefit
of all citizens. That should include sport fishermen, commercial fishermen,
and seafood consumers alike. When the resource is shown scientifically to be
in jeopardy, then all resource users should share the burden of restoring the
resource. The Seven National Standards quoted earlier represent the Federal
attempt to ensure these rights to all fishermen in the FCZ; perhaps Florida
needs a national "Standards" for State legislation as well.

Florida also has "local laws". These laws that govern fisheries may
apply only to one county or legislator's district and are not always consis-
tent with other laws, even those based on sound biological principles or evi-
dence. Partly in response to this problem, the Florida Legislature passed an
act in 1980 that established a Saltwater Study and Advisory Council to review
all fishery management needs and problems and to establish criteria and guide-
lines for such management. The work of the council is extremely important to
the citizens of Florida and the results of their months of work were completed
in 1982.

INDUSTRY CONCERNS

Some rather serious problems confront the fishing industry. The
cost of fuel is causing serious concern. The scarcity and high cost of fuel
is a continuing consideration among fishemien. Although expensive, current
supplies of fuel are fully adequate but an allocation system may be necessary
in the future. Currently, most fishermen feel they will be given preference
for fuel on the same basis as fanners; this has relieved some concern. Gaso-
line and sales tax exemptions and fuel allocation procedures, as a relief for
commercial fishermen, was reported by Cato (1973).

Direct Federal assistance to members of the fishing industry has been
small although general assistance such as the use of Sal tonstall-Kenndy (SK)
funds for marketing programs has proven to be helpful. The most recent
example of Federal assistance to the fishing industry was the aid made avail-
able to members of the oyster industry when Bahamian waters were closed to
U.S. fishermen.

Some Federal assistance is also available through the Small Business Ad-
ministration (SBA) and other similar agencies for low cost loans. These are
loans, however, and must be paid back with interest. The advantage of such
loans is their availability and lower interest rates.

The licensing of commercial fishermen currently is not required in Flor-
ida, despite six years of effort by commercial fishing organizations to pass
self-licensing regulations. Such a license system would better identify per-
manent and seasonal commercial fishermen, and would provide revenue that might
be directed toward the solution of fishing industry problems.

213

QUALITY CONTROL AND MARKETING

Quality control is a serious concern of the industry and increasingly
strict regulations designed to protect the public health add to the cost of
seafood products. Although quality control codes generally are enforced by
several state or Federal agencies, enforcement is often inadequate. Some of
the more progressive fishery companies employ their own quality control stan-
dards to assure safe and high quality products.

Although Florida boasts some of the largest and most modern seafood
plants in the southeastern United States, a large portion of the fishing
industry depends upon small fishing operations. To increase fish production
and to extend the markets for under-utilized species, an extensive marketing-
consumer promotion is required that is beyond the capacity of most members of
the industry. To meet this need, the State of Florida has established a sea-
food marketing-extension program supported by the industry. Federal matching
money, and State revenues. This program emphasizes under-utilized species.
The development of new species or products in the market may provide the fol-
lowing benefits: (1) the new fishery will tend to take the pressure off tra-
ditional fisheries, especially those that are heavily fished; (2) the fish
will sell at a lower price; and (3) more people will be hired in the fishing
industry. One of the best examples is rock shrimp. Prior to an extensive
marketing and educational program, rock shrimp in the catches usually were
discarded. Now rock shrimp support a multimillion dollar fishery.

Marketing successes in Florida led to the establishment of out-of-state
offices funded by the seafood marketing and extension program, and additional
funds or assistance from Coastal Plains Regional Commission, National Marine
Fisheries Service, and the Gulf and South Atlantic Fishery Development Founda-
tion. Their cooperative actions also have supported extensive seafood promo-
tion in the midwest. Most recently, international marketing of Florida and
southeastern U.S. seafood products have been highly successful and may pos-
sibly lead to the establishment of a cooperative European office under the
auspices of some state or Federal agency.

Limited Entry

The production of some fish and shellfish appears to he at or near maxi-
mum sustained yield and has been for many years, but rapidly rising prices
have stimulated increasing competition for fish and individual catches and
profits have declined. In most fisheries, there are more fishing vessels and
fishermen than are actually needed for optimum or maximum production. Because
of this excess, the idea of limited entry is receiving extensive discussion in
Florida and already has been initiated in some states.

Limited entry is defined as limiting the number of fishemien or fishing
boats in a fishery. The object is to conserve fish stocks, increase the in-
come of individual fishermen, and possibly reduce market prices. The only
limited entry in Florida is directed toward eventual elimination of the food
shrimp fishery in the St. Johns River. Food shrimp production is illegal
there without a permit, and only those holding permits can renew them. Since
permits are invalidated when the holder dies or discontinues fishing, the num-
ber of permits eventually will decline to zero. So far the number of permits
has declined from about 650 to about 130.

214

The lobster fishery is being considered for limited entry. The Rosenstiel
Institute of Marine and Atmospheric Science of the University of Miami in co-
operation with the Florida Department of Natural Resources, under a Ford Foun-
dation Grant, evaluated economic advantages and disadvantages of limited entry
for lobsters. The study did not recommend limited entry.

Limited entry sometimes can best be justified when the abundance of the
resource is diminished by excessive fishing. Limited entry for economic rea-
sons (i.e., to increase the profits of the fishermen) is not generally highly
regarded. Number 5 of the Seven National Standards under PL 94-265 for the
Fishery Management Plans in the Fishery Conservation Zone is a serious obsta-
cle to economic allocation. Reluctance is expressed by those who believe that
the free enterprise system will solve the problem because if the catch is di-
vided among more and more fishermen and their profits decline, some will even-
tually leave the industry (intentionally or thorugh bankruptcy). The best
fishermen will survive and profit. If this happens before the population is
seriously depleted, a "limited entry" will have been achieved without govern-
ment control. This condition is only a temporary advantage because as soon as
the fishery becomes profitable again, more vessels will start fishing and the
cycle is repeated. For example, recent studies by economists Cato and Pro-
chaska of the University of Florida, have shown that for every 10 cent
increase in the price of a pound of shrimp, approximately 200 more boats enter
the fishery.

Limited entry workshops were held in Denver, Colorado, in 1978 and Jack-
sonville, Florida, in June 1981. In general, those conferences concluded that
limited entry was but one tool for fisheries management and that although
there might be instances where its use would be appropriate and effective, it
is not a panacea and it would probably best serve as a last consideration.

Another concern of the fishing industry is the competition between sport
fishermen 'particularly those who sell their catch) and commercial fishennen
(particularly those with larger and more sophisticated equipment) for the same
stock of fish. For some species, the sport catch often equals or exceeds that
of the commercial fishermen (e.g., king mackerel and speckled trout). The
competition is greatest in bays and estuaries where small boats are seaworthy.
Because of the political influence of sport fishing interests, commercial
fishing has been eliminated or severely restricted in some areas. Some com-
mercial fishermen fear that if this trend continues, the effect could be to
slowly legislate commercial fishennen out of the business in nearshore coastal
waters and estuaries. To avoid this, the commercial fishing lobby is
strengthening its position on these matters.

The conflict between sport and commercial fishing is unfortunate because
they share common problems (lower catches) for the same reasons (loss of nat-
ural habitat and consequent reduction in abundance). A concerted effort by
Doth groups, directed at the real problems would be more effective.

DATA GAPS

Despite decades of scientific research on marine and estuarine-dependent
fishes, detailed information on the life history, abundance, and distribution

215

of many species is relatively scarce. Although there are many data gaps on
how fish species live and interact with each other and their environment, the
major data gap is the lack of reliable sport and commercial catch statistics.
Commercial landings statistics gathered by the National Marine Fisheries Ser-
vice are helpful, but the data generally are insufficient for the needs of
today's fishing management requirements. Reliable or useful data on sport fish
catches is virtually nonexistent. Nationwide sport fishing surveys by the
National Marine Fisheries Service provide about the only data available. Re-
liable and timely catch statistics for fishing mortality analysis must be
available before some of the more basic fishery management questions can be
answered.

Although Federal and some State funds have been provided for sport fish-
ing surveys (Florida in 1980 contributed $100,000 to the National Marine Fish-
eries Service to increase the number of Florida interviews in an effort to
achieve better accuracy), their continued funding is also in question because
of fiscal constraints. Some surveys such as mail questionnaires, are subject
to major, innate weaknesses, such as reliance upon information "remembered" by
fishermen. These mail surveys are complex and difficult because the total
population is sampled rather than only fishermen. A sport fisherman list is
possible only if the fishermen are licensed. The best technique may be to
count and interview during or just after fishing.

Because of the critical need for catch statistics and the scarcity of
funds for such surveys, licensing of sport and commercial fishing may be con-
sidered. Proponents say that a sport and commercial license would at least
identify all the fishermen (making surveys more efficient), and provide a ros-
ter that could be used in fishermen surveys. Opponents simply feel it is
another unnecessary tax. The commercial license has been strongly supported
in Florida by the commercial industry for several years, but it has been ex-
tremely controversial despite the three major national recreational fishery
organizations that are strongly in favor of it. A general feeling in the
State and Federal Governments is that the resource users should bear the brunt
of costs related to that resource. As governmental funds begin to decline,
the public attitudes toward a sport license may change as well. A proper
license would be inexpensive, yet it would provide funds and information long
needed for effective marine resource management.

Coastal habitat is necessary for producing marine resources, yet we know
little of how much there is, how much has been altered, and how much of that
remaining has been adversely affected by man's alterations or threatened by
it. This deficiency is a major data gap. Documentation of habitat loss will
be time consuming and expensive. Satellite imagery is a relatively new tool,
but one which can, by comparing old. and new aerial photographs, identify
habitat change. This infomiation will be beneficial in documenting not only
the importance of habitats in general, but also in evaluating any new or pro-
posed action that will result in habitat loss or alteration. It may identify
areas where restoration will be most beneficial.

216

REFERENCES

Adkins, G. A study of the blue crab fishery in Louisiana. La. Wildl. Fish.
Conm. Tech. Bull. 3: 1-57; 1972.

Allen, D. M. Biological aspects of the calico scallop, Arqopecten qibbus,
determined by spot monitoring. Nautilus 93(4): 207-119; 1979.

Berry, F. ; Iverson, E. Pompano: biology, fisheries, and farming potential.
Proc. Gulf Caribb. Fish. Inst. 19th annual session: 116-128; 1967.

Beaumariage, D.S. Age, growth, and reprduction of king mackerel, Scombero-
morus cavall a, in Florida. Florida Department of Natural Resources
Laboratory, Fla. Mar. Res. Publ . 1. Contrib. 226. 1973; 45 p.

Beaumariage, D.S.; Bullock, L.H. Biological research on snappers and groupers
are related to fishery management requirements. Bui lis, H.R., Jr.;
Jones, A.C. eds. Proceedings: colloquium on snapper-grouper fishery
resources of the western central Atlantic Ocean. Florida Sea Grant Col-
lege Program Rep. 17. Contrib. 270: 86-94; 1977.

Cato, J.C. Gasoline and sales tax exemptions and fuel allocation procedures
for Florida commercial fishennen. Gainesville: University of Florida
Cooperative Extension Service Marine Advisory Bulletin; December 1973; 9
p. SUSF-SG-73-001.

Deuel, D. 1970 salt-water angling survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Commerce; National Marine Fisheries Service; 1970; Unpubl . rep.

Deuel, D.; Clark, J. The 1965 salt-water angling survey. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service; 1965;
Unpubl . rep.

Eldredge, P.J.; Goldstein, S.A. The shrimp fishery of the South Atlantic
United States: a regional management plan. South Carolina Marine
Research Center: Tech. Rep. 8; 1975; 66 p.

Evink, G.L. Some aspects of the biology of the blue crab. Call inectes sapidus
Rathbun, on Florida's gulf coast. Gainesville: University of Florida;
1976. 67 p.

Farfante, I. P. Western Atlantic shrimps of the genus Penaeus. Fish. Bull.
67: 461-591; 1969.

Futch, R.B.; Bruger, G.E. Age, growth, and reproduction of red snapper in
Florida waters. Bull is, H.R., Jr.; Jones, A.C. eds. Proceedings: col-
loquium on snapper-grouper fishery resources of the western central

217

Atlantic Ocean. Florida Sea Grant College Program Rep. 17 (Contrib.
275): 165-184; 1977.

Galtsoff, P.S. The American oyster Crassostrea virqinica (Gmelin). U.S. Fish
Wildl. Serv. Fish. Bull. 64: 1-480; 1964.

Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils. Fishery
management plan, environmental impact statement, and regulatory impact
review for spring lobster in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic.
April 1981; Unpubl . rep.

Ingle, R.M. Spawning and setting of oysters in relation to seasonal and
environmental changes. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Caribb. 1(2): 111-135; 1951.

Joyce, E.A. , Jr. The commercial shrimps of the northeast coast of Florida.
Florida Board Conserv. Prof. Pap. Ser. 6; 1965; 224 p.

Joyce, E.A. , Jr. A partial bibliography of oysters, with annotations. Flor-
ida Department of Natural Resources Mar. Res. Lab. Spec. Sci. Rep. 34.
Contrib. 193; 1972. 846 p.

Kennedy, F.S.; Crane, J.J.; Schl ieder, R.A.; Barber, D.G. Studies of the rock
shrimp Sicyonia brevirositris Stimpson, 1871, a new fishery resource on
Florida's Atlantic shelf. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ . 27; 1977; 69 p.

Lassuy, D. Species profiles: life histories and environmental requirements
(Gulf of Mexico)--the spotted seatrout. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Division of Biological Services; FWS/OBS-82/11.4; 1982;
13 p.

Livingston, F.J.; Joyce, E.A., Jr., eds. Proceedings of the conference on the
Apalachicola River drainage system. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. 26. Contrib.
293; 1977; 177 p.

Livingston, R.L. Field and laboratory studies concerned with the effects of
various pollutants on estuarine and coastal organisms of the Apalachicola
Bay system (North Florida, U.S.A.). Report to Florida Sea Grant Program
Project R/EA-1; 1975; 551 p.

Mathis, K.; Cato, J.C.; Degner, R.L.; Landrum, P.O.; Prochaska, F.J. Commer-
cial fishing activity and facility needs in Florida: Okaloosa and Santa
Rosa Counties. Industry report 78-5. Gainesville: Florida Agricultural
Market Research Center, University of Florida; July 1978a; 24 p.

Mathis, K.; Cato, J.C.; Degner, R.L.; Landrum, P.D.; Prochaska, F.J. Commer-
cial fishing port development in North Florida. Industy report 78-6.
Gainesville: Florida Agricultural Market Research Center, University of
Florida; September 1978b; 169 p.

Miller, G.D.; Allen, D.M.; Costello, T.S.; Hudson, J.H. Maturation of the
calico scallop, Argopecton gibbus, determined by ovarian color changes.
Northeast Gulf Sci. 3(2): 95-103; 1979.

218

Moe, M. A survey of offshore fishing in Florida. St. Petersburg, FL: Flor-
ida State Board of Conservation Marine Laboratory; January 1963.

Nakamura, E.L; Bui lis, H.R. eds. Proceedings of mackerel colloquium. Gaines-
ville, FL: Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission; No. 4; March 1979.

Osterling, M.J. Reproduction, growth, and migration of blue crabs along Flor-
ida's gulf coast. Florida Sea Grant Publ . SUSF-SG-76-003; 1976; 19 p.

Perret, W., et al . Fishery profiles of red drum and spotted sea trout. Gulf
States Mar. Fish. Comm. Rep. 6; 1980; 66 p.

Perry, H.; Van Engle, W. eds. Blue crab colloquium. Ocean Springs, MS: Gulf
States Marine Fishery Commission; Publ. No. 7; 1982; 235 p.

Perry, H.M. The blue crab fishery in Mississippi. Gulf Res. Rep. 5(1):
39-57; 1975.

Powell, D. Age, growth, and reproduction in Florida stocks of Spanish macker-
el, Scombermorus maculatus. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ. 5, Contrib. 243; 1975;
21 p.

Prochaska, F.J. Seafood marketing research needs and opportunities: an eco-
nomic perspective, seafood marketing research needs: workshop proceed-
ings. Washington, DC: National Sea Grant Office; 28-41; March 1976.

Prochaska, F.J.; Cato, J.C. An economic profile of Florida commercial fishing
firms: fishermen, commercial activities, and financial considerations.
Gainesville: State University System of Florida Sea Grant Rep. 19;
February 1977; 24 p.

Prochaska, F.J.; Morris, R.A. Primary economic impact of the Florida commer-
cial fishing sector. Gainesville: State University System of Florida
Sea Grant Rep. 25. November 1978; 60 p.

Prochaska, F.J.; Cato, J.C; Keithly, W. An analysis of dockside prices in
the Florida blue crab industry. Perry, H.S.; Van Engel , W., eds. Pro-
ceedings: colloquium on the blue crab, Call inectes sapidus. Gulf States
Marine Fisheries Commission 7; 1981 (in press).

Quick, J. A.; Mackin, J.G. Oyster parasitism by Labyrinthomyxa marina in Flor-
ida. Florida Department of Natural Resources Mar. Res. Lab. Prof. Pap.
Ser. 13; 1971; 55 p.

Roe, R.B.; Cummins, R. , Jr.; Bui lis, H.R., Jr. Calico scallop distribution,
abundance, and yield off eastern Florida, 1967-68. Fish. Bull. 69:
399-409; 1971.

Sastry, A.N. Reproduction of the bay scallop, Aequipecten irradians Lamarck.
Influence of temperature on maturation and spawning. Biol. Bull. 125:
146-153; 1963.

Steidinger, K. (Reported by). Bioprofiles of selected Florida species. St.
Petersburg, FL: Florida Department of Natural Resources, Marine Research
Laboratory; 1980; Unpubl .

219

Steidinger, K.; Haddad, K. Biologic and hydrographic aspect of red tides.
BioScience 31(1): 814-898; 1981.

Sullivan, J.R. The stone crab, Menippe mercenaria, in the southwest Florida
fishery. Fla. Mar. Res. Publ . 36; 1979; 37 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce. 1979 marine recreational fishery statistics
survey, Atlantic and Gulf coasts current fisheries statistics 8063.
Washington, DC: National Marine Fisheries Service; 1979 (published
annually) .

U.S. Department of Commerce. The 1975 southeastern regional angler survey.
Washington, DC: National Marine Fisheries Service; 1975.

Van Engle, W.A. The blue crab and its fishery in Chesapeake Bay. Part 1,
Reproduction, early development, growth, and migration. Comm. Fish. Rev.
20(6): 6-17; 1958.

Williams, J.; Grey, W.F.; Murphy, E.B.; Crane, J.J. Memoirs of the Hourglass
Cruises: drift bottle analysis of eastern Gulf of Mexico surface circu-
lation. Florida Department of Natural Resources Mar. Res. Lab. Vol. IV,
Pt. Ill, Contrib. 300; 1977; 134 p.

Whitfield, W., Jr. Construction and rehabilitation of commercial oyster reefs
in Florida from 1949-71 with emphasis on economic impact in Franklin
County. Florida Department of Natural Resources Mar. Res. Lab. Spec.
Sci. Rep. 38; 1973; 42 p.

220

MULTIPLE-USE CONFLICTS

Dr. Andrew A. Dzurik

Associate Professor

Department of Urban and Regional Planning

Florida State University

Tallahassee, FL 32306

INTRODUCTION

Northwest Florida, consisting of seven coastal counties, is well known
for its beautiful sandy beaches, barrier islands, estuaries, and coastal wet-
lands. As the population continues to grow (Table 1), especially along the
coast, socioeconomic and environmental conflicts will become increasingly
troublesome because of the growing demands of urban, residential, industrial,
and recreational interests.

In view of these conflicts, Florida's natural coastal resources must be
managed and protected through long-term planning to help minimize serious
conflicts, alterations, or losses. It is a paradox that the '^ery people
attracted to the region, partly because of its natural resources and environ-
mental characteristics, impose demands on water resources that could cause
excessive pollution, displacement, and other environmental damage.

This paper focuses on conflicts that arise from competing uses for land
and water resources. It gives a brief history of land development in the State
and in Northwest Florida and discusses some of the current multiple-use con-
flicts. An overview of legal and institutional factors related to development
is given, and a major section is devoted to environmental and socioeconomic
conflicts on the Apalachicola River and Bay, Panama City Beaches, St. George
Island, and Escambia Bay. Also included is a discussion of potential con-
flicts related to offshore oil and gas development.

Table 1. Population of the counties of Northwest Florida from 1950 to 1980
(Florida Statistical Abstract 1980).

Popul ation

County

1950

1960

1970

1980

Bay

42,689

67,131

75,283

97,740

Escambia

112,706

173,829

205,334

233,794

Frankl in

5,814

6,576

7,065

7,661

Gulf

7,460

9,937

10,096

10,658

Okaloosa

27,533

61,175

88,187

109,920

Santa Rosa

18,554

29,547

37,741

55,988

Wal ton

14,725

15,576

16,087

21,300

Region

229,481

363,771

439,793

537,061

Florida

2,771,305

4,951,560

6,791,418

9,739,992

221

BASIS FOR CONFLICT

The following is a list of socieoconomic and environmental problems and
conflicts common to Northwest Florida. The list includes a variety of uses,
all of which can result in conflict.

0 Residential, commercial, and industrial developments compete for valuable
coastal lands and waters. The intensity of the demand and competition
among these uses, and the concerns of environmentalists, are the basis
for multiple-use conflicts in Northwest Florida.

0 New and expanding coastal residential and commercial development will
further compound the problem of rapidly diminishing coastal land and
water resources.

0 Coastal wetlands and estuaries are a vital link in Florida's vast commer-
cial and sport fishing industries, but they are often disregarded by
planners and developers.

0 Residential areas are frequently developed and constructed with little
regard for potential hurricanes and associated floods.

0 The economy of Northwest Florida is heavily dependent upon tourism and
the natural beauty of the water and beaches. Any threat to these
resources is a threat to the economy of Northwest Florida.

0 Excessive use of groundwater supplies for municipal use or by individuals
may cause saltwater intrusion as well as shortages of fresh water.

0 The construction of housing, roads, bridges, and jetties on barrier
islands is likely to destabl ize the beach and dune environments.

0 Sewage disposal in new residential areas may cause serious health and en-
vironmental problems. Faulty septic tank systems could cause seepage of
contaminated wastes into ground water and some coastal waters.

0 Potential Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas development could
alter priorities in development and threaten wetlands along the Northwest
Florida coast.

0 Expanded upland and nearshore oil and gas development could have signifi-
cant socioeconomic as well as environmental impacts.

0 Oil and gas pipelines and other related structures built on wetlands

would increase open water areas, destroy emergent vegetation, increase

sedimentation and turbidity, and cause serious concern for the disposi-
tion of the spoil .

0 Water may be polluted by dredge and fill practices, offshore construction
of platfomis, and discharges of clays and drilling liquids and wastes
during drilling.

222

Pollutants discharged by industry may endanger aquatic organisms and
human health.

Extensive new industrial developments may cause fiscal problems for local
governments. During early phases of construction and operation, local
tax deficits may occur because of increased population and demand for
public service prior to any increase in property tax revenue. In the
long run, economic gains from increased property tax revenues are likely
to more than compensate for any early financial deficits.

GENERAL RESOURCE CHARACTERISTICS

Although Northwest Florida is rich in natural resources and provides
numerous environmental, economic, and social benefits, its bays, estuaries,
wetlands, and beaches are subject to intense urban development and growth.
Good living and recreational benefits are dependent upon freshwater recharge
of the wetlands, maintenance of high water quality and biological productiv-
ity, storm protection, flood control, and mineral resources.

COASTAL ESTUARIES AND WETLANDS

Coastal freshwater rivers and levees serve as a reservoir to store water,
to recharge groundwater aquifers, and to provide a hydrostatic head that pro-
tects groundwater supplies from saltwater intrusion. Freshwater inflow regu-
lates the salinity balance in the productive coastal estuarine systems.

Brackish emergent wetlands function as natural water filters. They help
maintain water quality and reduce the adverse effects of urban and agricultur-
al runoff on coastal waters and they are particularly efficient in absorbing
and filtering out sediments, particulates, nutrients, and organic materials.
Filtering helps build and maintain highly productive estuarine systems —
systems that provide breeding and nursery grounds and food supplies for a vast
array of fish and wildlife. The majority of the income from Florida Gulf
fisheries is from estuarine dependent species; consequently, maintaining the
quality of wetlands, estuaries, and nearshore waters is of high priority.

Coastal wetlands provide a buffer against storm surge and flood waters by
dissipating wave energy and storing flood waters. Barrier islands also serve
as natural buffers, protecting mainland areas from the full force of storms.

RECREATION, TOURISM, AND INDUSTRY

The recreational value of Northwest Florida is of considerable economic
and social importance to the region and the State. Tourism is the leading
industry in Florida, and the coast of Northwest Florida is a major tourist
attraction in all but the coldest months. Tourism is important because it
supports considerable commercial and economic development.

223

Coastal waters and major tributaries provide routes for the waterborne
transportation of goods and supplies such as oil and agricultural products,
and provides sites for ports and harbors. The coast is the primary site for
large electrical generating facilities and in some areas supplies an abundance
of sand and gravel, shell, and oil and gas. It also is the locus of some
large manufacturing industries.

OCS OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

Offshore oil and gas development, deepwater ports, processing and ship-
ping of petroleum products, and other OCS-related activities potentially could
have major environmental, economic, and social impacts on Northwest Florida's
coastal wetlands, natural resources, and communities. A major environmental
threat is the .potential for oil spills during drilling for or transporting of
oil. A major oil spill could be devastating because of the coast's vulnerable
environment and its heavy reliance on its beaches for tourism. Intensive OCS
exploration and development generates considerable onshore activity which is
accompanied by environmental, economic, and social impacts that can be either
beneficial or detrimental. Some of the more significant impacts of OCS oil
and gas operations are given in the following subsections:

Environmental Implications

Oil released in coastal waters in any large quantity could seriously
damage wetlands and foul beaches, shellfish, and waterfowl. Coastal waters
could be polluted by dredge and fill operations and by offshore construction
of platforms, drilling wastes, and runoff and emissions from onshore facili-
ties. Onshore support facilities, transportation facilities, and pipeline
construction are threats to wetlands.

Economic Implications

The region's economy is heavily dependent on tourism and the beauty of
the water and beaches. Any OCS-related activity that threatens these resources
threatens the economy of the region.

In some areas, onshore OCS oil and gas related development could cause
fiscal problems for local governments. During onshore development, local gov-
ernments may be threatened by tax deficits created by the increased demand for
services before any increase in property tax revenue. Despite this problem,
long-term economic gains from increased property tax revenues are likely to
occur.

Major economic benefits may accrue from increased community growth and
employment, but if new industries supplant old ones, such as the tourist in-
dustry, there may be little or no net gain.

Social Impl ications

Large scale OCS oil and gas development can alter the social character-
istics of rural, retirement, or tourist oriented communities. Development may
change the economic base of a community and, in turn, alter its social struc-
ture. Because of the new industry and population increase, additional schools,
roads, and services will be required.

224

Social and economic problems are the heart of multiple-use conflicts.
Florida's past experience has shown that the allocation of land and water
resources often provides short-term economic benefits to a few, and long-term
losses to the public as a whole. In recent years, the State has recognized
that large, major water- related coastal projects often have major adverse en-
vironmental effects and it has developed several mechanisms to minimize these
effects (which will be discussed later in this chapter). The ongoing, rapid
development of the State, however, and the increasing urban, suburban, and
recreational development of Northwest Florida continue to create conflicts
among the many competing uses for its land and water resources.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND COMPETITION FOR LAND AND WATER

LAND AND WATER DEVELOPMENT

Historical Background

Florida, acquired by the United States Government from Spain in 1821, was
granted statehood in 1845 when its population was about 55,000. With state-
hood, Florida received title to very little land, only 202,340 ha (500,000
acres) for internal improvement purposes, and one section (259 ha or 640
acres) in every township for education purposes. The State did, however,
become owner and trustee of all navigable waters. It was not until 1850 that
the State gained title to 8.3 million ha (20.5 million acres) of swamp and
overflow land. The remaining land stayed in Federal ownership or was conveyed
directly to individuals by the Federal Government.

An early goal of the State and the Internal Improvement Board (created in
1851) was to encourage internal improvement. The primary tool for achieving
this goal was by disposing of land, its most plentiful commodity. In the late
1800's the railroads received approximately one-third of the State's land (11
million acres) in exchange for laying 1,100 miles of track, an average of
10,000 acres/mi of track (Landers 1975).

Swamp and overflow land also was similarly disposed of by the State. By
the end of the Civil War, several railroad companies that had built lines into
Florida were bankrupt or otherwise disbanded and their property reverted to
the State. The Internal Improvement Board suffered financial hardship as a
result and was forced into receivership. The State, in order to solve the
public lands crisis, sold four million acres of southwest Florida land to
Hamilton Disston, a Philadelphia sawmaker, for one million dollars (25 cents
per acre).

In the latter half of the 19th century. Florid
ed and out of the way of national development. Th
it also was swampy and poorly served by transporta
tion was about half a million, most of whom lived i

Shortly after the beginning of the 20th century, developers started fill-
ing submerged land, especially in the southern part of the State. The State
immediately began disposing of its submerged land and the rush of development
that began then shows no signs of subsiding today. In the past few years.

a remained largely untouch-
...e land was inexpensive, but
f.v.rtation. By 1900, the popula-
ved in the northern part.

225

Northwest Florida has begun to experience the type of coastal development so
common to south Florida.

Population Growth

The population of Florida grew from 55,000 in 1845 to almost 10 million
in 1980. It continued to increase statewide at an average rate of about 7,000
people per week. A major part of this growth can be attributed to migration
from other States. Because of this growth sand dunes have been leveled, bays
have been polluted, estuaries have been dredged and filled, rivers have been
channelized, and the State has increasingly had to cope with the multiple-use
problems of development. A recent feature article in Sports Illustrated (Jan-
uary 1981) has gained some notoriety in Tallahassee and the rest of the State.
The title of the article "There's Trouble in Paradise," gives an indication of
its tone. According to the authors "in no state is the environment being
wrecked faster and on a larger scale" (Boyle and Mechem 1981). Although the
article is largely an editorial statement and subject to dispute, it does em-
phasize the problems confronting Florida as a result of development and illus-
trates many types of multiple-use conflicts that are associated with develop-
ment, particularly those related to population growth.

Egl in Air Force Base

A number of major developments have taken place in Northwest Florida over
the past several decades. By far, the largest development was the Egl in Air
Force Base. The base was started in 1935 with the establishment of the Val-
paraiso Gunnery Range on 55 ha (137 acres) of land. Today, Egl in is one of
the world's largest military bases with 187,800 ha (725 mi2) of land spread
over Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, and Walton Counties. It employs about 7,000 De-
partment of Defense (DOD) personnel and about 3,300 non-DOD personnel. The
base is the single largest employer in the region (Dames and Moore, Inc.
1980).

Panama City

One of the most apparent coastal developments in Northwest Florida is the
growth of Panama City as a major tourist center. Numerous motels and hotels
have sprung up along the beach in recent years, together with condominiums,
restaurants, recreation facilities, and other tourist attractions. While
attempting to appeal to the tourist trade, the area has undergone substantial
beach erosion and is the site of a major beach nourishment project by the
Corps of Engineers.

Principal Concerns

Industry, especially in Escambia County, plays an important economic role
in the region, much of it in conflict with the environment. For example, many
industrial plants in the Escambia River and Bay are causing severe water qual-
ity problems (which are discussed later in this chapter). The St. Joe Paper
Company in Gulf County has been the source of considerable air and water pol-
lution.

In all, the greatest land development problems currently concern residen-
tial development in coastal areas such as on St. George Island and in the

226

vicinity of Fort Walton Beach in Okaloosa County. The continuing encroachment
of these developments on steadily diminishing coastal wetlands and beaches has
generated much controversy.

Water supply is gradually becoming an important concern in Northwest
Florida. Although water generally is still plentiful in the region, saltwater
intrusion is developing into a major threat. For example, cones of depression
have formed in the aquifer around Fort Walton Beach and in an area of south-
eastern Walton County as a result of heavy pumping for public water supply and
irrigation. Water supply sources and distribution in Escambia, Santa Rosa,
Okaloosa, and Walton Counties are the topic of a study currently being con-
ducted by the Northwest Florida Water Management District.

Beach erosion is a natural process that is affecting much of the gulf
coast. It causes economic loss because of severe physical damage to residen-
tial and commercial structures, roads, and recreational beaches. Although
beach and shoreline erosion is a natural process, it has been accelerated by
residential and urban development. Erosion problems in Northwest Florida are
summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Miles of beach erosion in Northwest Florida (Florida Department of
Environmental Regulation 1980).

Beach

Critical

Noncritical

County

length

erosion^

erosion^"

No erosion

Frankl in

54.6

18.3

30.3

6.0

Gulf

26.4

6.4

11.6

8.4

Bay

44.6

21.5

17.3

5.8

Wal ton

25.2

0.0

25.4

0.0

Okaloosa

24.5

0.0

14.2

10.3

Santa Rosa

3.1

0.0

3.1

0.0

Escambia

40.8

3.0

37.8

0.0

^Critical erosion applies to developed shoreline areas where buildings and
public facilities may be threatened by beach erosion.

Non- critical erosion applies to relatively undeveloped areas.

The brief overview of current issues in this section highlights the more
pressing concerns currently being encountered in the region. Among other
issues that are beginning to emerge is the potential for drilling for natural
gas in East Bay near Pensacola, and significant port development for coal
shipments at Port St. Joe. New issues will continue to emerge even as old
ones are being debated and resolved. In an attempt to cope with these issues,
an extensive legal and institutional framework has developed at all levels of
government.

227

LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS

This section is an overview of the State's coastal management programs.
They are the Environmental Land and Water Management Act, particularly the
sections on Developments of Regional Impact, and Areas of Critical State
Concern; industrial siting and environmental permit regulations that affect
industry, and the Coastal Construction Control Line Program. A more thorough
discussion of environmental legislation is in the chapter on "Environmental
Issues and Regulations."

COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (PL 92-583) was adopted by the
U.S. Congress as a means of protecting and enhancing the Nation's coasts by
providing assistance to the States to develop and implement programs for man-
aging their coastal areas. Florida has grants for developing its management
program and is now at the stage of finalizing its program (Florida Department
of Environmental Regulation 1980).

Florida's coastal zone management program dates back to 1970 when the
Coastal Coordinating Council was established. The council members and staff
worked with coastal planning until 1976 when the council was abolished by the
legislature and its duties and functions were transferred to the Department of
Natural Resources. Among the notable works by the council staff was the pre-
paration of a massive coastal atlas and the identification of coastal lands
suitable for either habitat preservation, fish and wildlife conservation, or
residential and urban development (Florida Coastal Coordinating Council 1974).

In 1977, the legislature transferred the powers and duties of coastal
management to the Department of Environmental Regulation. The legislature
acted to strengthen coastal management in 1978 with passage of the Florida
Coastal Management Act (ch. 380.19 F.S.). The enabling legislation states
that "... the environmental aspects of the coastal areas of this state have
attracted a high percentage of permanent population and visitors and that this
concentration of people and their requirements has had a serious impact on the
na tu ral su r rou nd i ng s . "

The Coastal Zone Management Program developed over the past two years
attempts to provide more guidance and predictability to the private sector and
emphasizes the strengthening of the enforcement of existing State laws. These
laws can be very effective in regulating coastal development. The program
also seeks to reduce unnecessary legal and administrative procedures and iden-
tify gaps in existing laws and regulations. The program also looks toward
obtaining increased control for the State over Federal actions by way of the
Federal consistency clause of the Coastal Zone Management Act.

The final environmental impact statement for the Florida Coastal Manage-
ment Program was completed in April 1981. The Program received final approval
by the Federal Office of Coastal Zone Management in June 1981.

Because the Florida legislature has directed that the Coastal Management
Program be based on existing laws and regulations, the entire State has been

228

designated as the coastal zone because most of the existing laws are of state-
wide applicability. Of particular interest regarding multiple-use conflicts
is the section of the program dealing with coastal development issues and the
appendices on energy facilities planning and coastal shorefront areas (Florida
Department of Environmental Regulation 1980).

DEVELOPMENTS OF REGIONAL IMPACT

The Florida Environmental Land and Management Act of 1972 includes pro-
visions to involve the State in controlling land development under the Act.
Developments of regional impact (DRI) are subject to a review process. A
"development of regional impact" is defined as:

Any development which, because of its character, magnitude, or
location, would have a substantial effect upon the health, safety,
or welfare of citizens of more than one county [380.06 (1, F.S.)].

Developments presumed to be of regional impact were adopted as Ch. 22f-2
of the Florida Administrative Code and includes twelve different types of
development. Determination of their classification as DRI's depends primarily
on the size of the development. Although the rule creates a presumption, pro-
jects not on the list or not meeting threshold criteria may still be deter-
mined to be DRI's if sufficient facts regarding the project support the statu-
tory definition.

Briefly, and in broad terms, a developer proposing a project that is de-
termined to be a DRI must file an application for development approval with
the local government having jurisdiction. The report must determine what
effect the development will have on the environment and natural resources of
the region and whether it will unduly burden water, sewer, solid waste, or
other needed public facilities, affect housing, or create additional demand
for energy [380.06(8) F.S.].

Clearly the requirements of the DRI process force local governments and
regional planning agencies to address multiple-use conflicts relating to a
proposed project. The process highlights conflicts between the DRI and natu-
ral systems and between the DRI and manmade systems. In most instances, the
conflicts can be minimized and the DRI encourages the reduction of negative
impacts. Occasionally a project will be rejected in the DRI process because
of major conflicts that cannot be resolved. No project has ever been rejected
by the DRI process in Northwest Florida to date, but projects have been modi-
fied by the process. The major limitation of the DRI process in regard to
multiple-use conflicts is that it is restricted to large projects having major
impacts.

AREAS OF CRITICAL STATE CONCERN

The second major provision of the Environmental Land and Water Management
Act relates to "Areas of Critical State Concern" (ACSC). The act authorizes
the designation of the following three types of areas as ACSC's:

229

(1) An area containing or having a significant impact upon environmental
or natural resources of regional or statewide importance, including,
but not limited to. State or Federal parks, forests, wildlife
refuges, wilderness areas, aquatic preserves, major rivers and estu-
aries. State environmentally endangered lands, outstanding Florida
waters and aquifer recharge areas, and the uncontrolled private or
public development of which could cause substantial deterioration of
such resources.

(2) An area containing, or having significant impact upon, historical or
archaeological resources, sites, or statutorily defined historic or
archaeological districts. The private or public development of
which could cause substantial deterioration or complete loss of such
resources, sites, or districts.

(3) An area having a significant impact upon, or being significantly
impacted by, an existing or proposed major public facility or other
area of major public investment including, but not limited to, high-
ways, ports, airports, energy facilities and water management
projects [380.05 (2)(a), (b) and (c), F.S.].

The procedure for designating an ACSC is detailed and lengthy and re-
quires substantial preliminary analysis. As part of designating an ACSC, a
set of development principles applicable to the area must be prepared. There-
after, any developments taking place within the critical area must be in
confomance with the development principles. The main thrust of the ACSC pro-
vision of the Act is to protect certain important resources of the State from
uncontrolled development. To date, the three ACSC's in Florida that have been
so designated by the legislation are the Big Cypress Swamp Area, the Green
Swamp Area, and the Florida Keys Area.

INDUSTRIAL PERMITS

Industrial development, including power plant siting, often conflicts
with other land and water uses such as housing, recreation, and conservation.
These conflicts are especially pronounced in coastal areas where competition
for land is intense. Industry is a necessary concomitant of economic develop-
ment, however, and provisions must be made to accommodate it at suitable
locations. The processes involved for industry to comply with Florida's
environmental and siting laws have been onerous and frequently in a state of
disarray, prompting the enactment in 1979 of a streamlined Industrial Siting
Act (ch. 288 F.S.). The act was passed in response to a desire to attract to
Florida new industry that is consistent with the protection of the State's
natural resources and environment.

A "Catalogue of Regulatory Procedures" was prepared by the State in
response to the confusion surrounding the State's multiple regulatory programs
(Florida Department of Administration 1979). Among the regulations covered in
the catalogue are those that deal with environmental issues and industry.

This process of meeting numerous regulations for the issuance of indus-
trial permits is commonly referred to as the "old method," with the "new
method" referring to Florida's newly enacted (1979) "Florida Industrial Siting

230

Act" (ch. 79-147, Laws of Florida). Neither process supersedes the other.
Instead, industries are given an option by the State to select which permit
method they choose to follow. The major difference between these two proce-
dures is the time and cost for obtaining a permit.

Of the 17 permit programs outlined in the catalogue, 12 apply to the pro-
cedural methods for setting industrial permits. They include permits for the
following: dredge and fill, water quality, solid waste disposal, air quality,
water well use and drilling, public and private water supplies, power plant
construction, coastal construction setback, mined lands reclamations, open
burning, and protection of historic sites and properties.

The new process is designed to take seven months from application to
final decision. Should any delays be requested, the hearing officer in charge
of that particular request will determine the validity of the request in
deciding whether to grant the delay. The Siting Act is also designed for the
applicant to submit all requests for permits to one central office, the
Department of Environmental Regulation (DER), which is the fastest way to
obtain the necessary permits. This causes the Siting Act to be commonly known
as "One-Stop Permitting."

These two elements reflecting the time schedule differ considerably with
the "old method." Although the old method denotes certain schedule completion
requirements, the overall process often took up to several years for an
industry to obtain all the desired permits. This was primarily due to the
requirement that applicants submit requests for permits to several different
State agencies and wait for each individual permit process to be completed.
Sometimes, one permit process had to be completed before another permit could
be requested.

Cost is another difference between these two optional processes. Minimal
fees are requested by the old method. Depending upon the number of permits
requested, the entire process would cost from $20 to approximately $200 or
more. "One-Stop Permitting," on the other hand, is more expensive. Fees for
this process range from $2,500 to $25,000. These fees are to be used to pay
for all costs incurred during review of the application. An expenditure and
balance statement is given to the applicant. These fees are determined during
a pre-appl ication process and vary according to the number of pennits that are
requested by a particular industry.

The siting of power plants with a generating capacity of 50 megawatts
(MW) or more is regulated by the Florida Electrical Power Plant Siting Act
(ch. 403 F.S.). The Act was originally passed in 1973 to deal with the many
environmental impacts of electrical generating facilities. Siting licenses
are issued by the governor and cabinet and are the only license required under
State law for the construction and operation of these facilities. The applica-
tion and approval process requires extensive information on design, location,
and potential impacts of a proposed power plant. Studies and reports are
required from several State agencies, and hearings are conducted prior to
issuance of the license.

231

COASTAL CONSTRUCTION CONTROL LINE

The Beach and Shore Preservation Act (ch. 161 F.S.) addresses the problem
of construction along Florida's coasts. The act establishes a coastal con-
struction setback line 50 ft landward of the mean high water line. It also
provides for a coastal construction control line that supersedes the 50-ft
setback line when it is established based on field studies using engineering
and environmental criteria for the sandy beaches of each coastal county.
Coastal construction control lines are established on an individual county
basis to define beach areas where special structural design considerations are
required to insure protection of the beach and dune system, upland structures,
and adjacent property [ch. 161.053(1) F.S.].

After establishment of the coastal line, permits are required for any
excavation and construction seaward of the line and vehicles are prohibited on
dunes located seaward of the line. Permits may be granted if the State's
Department of Natural Resources determines that engineering and topographical
data indicate a permit is justified, or if the structure forms a part of a
pre-existing line of structures seaward of the line and the pre-existing
structures have not suffered unduly from erosion, or if the construction is a
pier or pipeline that will not cause erosion (Florida Department of Environ-
mental Regulation 1980).

MAJOR CONFLICTS

Several notable cases of multiple-use conflicts are apparent in Northwest
Florida. As the region has grown, major development has led to conflicts
among various interest groups ranging from those who would preserve the exist-
ing coastal environmental to those who would have urban development to the
maximum extent possible.

Four major environmental conflicts in Northwest Florida over the past
quarter century are discussed in the following subsections. They are naviga-
tion in Apalachicola River and Bay, housing construction on barrier islands,
excessive erosion of beaches, and pollution of Escambia Bay. A brief summary
of potential conflicts from offshore oil exploration also is given.

APALACHICOLA RIVER AND BAY

Based upon volume flow, the Apalachicola River is Florida's largest
river. It forms near the northern boundary of Florida at the confluence of
the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers and Spring Creek at the southwestern corner
of Georgia, and it flows 172 km (107 mi) to Apalachicola Bay. The Bay is a
relatively unpolluted shallow coastal estuary bounded by barrier islands. It
abounds in oysters and provides about 90% of the State's total oyster produc-
tion (Table 3).

232

Table 3. Oyster landings (lb) for Florida and Franklin County at 5-year in-
tervals from 1950 to 1975 (U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers 1980).

Franklin County

Year

Florida

Frank! in Coui

ity

rcentage of Florida
production

1950

896,248

695,957

1955

649,581

542,874

1960

1,975,400

1,744,760

1965

2,954,745

2,377,530

1970

5,786,519

3,044,401

1975

2,213,065

2,032,065

The environmental conflict concerning the Apalachicola River is the
navigation channel. The Corps of Engineers is authorized by the Rivers and
Harbors Act of 1945, as amended, to maintain a river channel 100 ft wide by
9 ft deep, available 95% of the time on the Apalachicola River, on the
Chattahoochee River to Columbus, Georgia, and on the Flint River to
Bainbridge, Georgia. The Jim Woodruff Lock and Dam was completed in 1957 at
the juncture of the three rivers and several smaller dams on the upper rivers
were finished by 1965. Since that time, continuous dredging has been required
to maintain a 9-ft channel, and even this is functional only about 75% of the
time. In the early 1970's, plans were begun to build additional dams on the
Apalachicola River to increase the time of functioning of the 9-ft channel to
95% of the year. This was the start of a long-running conflict between Flor-
ida interests opposing the project and Georgia and Alabama interests favoring
the project.

In 1978, the Corps of Engineers proposed a dam near Blountstown, but
strong opposition in Florida caused the Corps to reconsider its proposal.
Currently, the Corps, together with the States of Florida, Alabama, and
Georgia, is initiating a study "to help alleviate multiple-use problems of the
river system so as not to have significant detrimental impacts on Apalachicola
Bay" (Apalachee Regional Planning Council 1980). The proposal to the U.S.
Water Resources Council is to study the inherent problems of multiple uses of
the tri-river system (Apalachicola, Flint, and Chattahoochee Rivers) such as
navigation, hydropower, recreation, flood control, and ecosystem maintenance,
and verify that the river system must be managed as a complete and unified
system (Apalachee Regional Planning Council 1980).

At one time, the Apalachicola River was proposed as an area of Critical
State Concern, but this action was dropped because the pace of land develop-
ment was slow, local governments were not prepared to deal with the necessary
ACSC procedures, and approximately 80% of the land would be exempt because it
was in agriculture or forestry. As an alternative means of control, the
Apalachicola River Resource Management Plan was formulated in 1977. A com-
mittee of local and State officials representing econoiiic and conservation
interests was formed to help promote the economic development of the area

233

consistent with the natural resources of the area. Recently, officials of
Florida, Alabama, and Georgia cooperated to obtain Federal funding for a com-
prehensive river basin study, but Federal budget cuts have reduced funds for
this study.

The most significant response to the conflicts over the Apalachicola
River was the designation of the river and bay as a National Estuarine Sanc-
tuary under Section 315 of the Coastal Zone Management Act. The sanctuary
encompasses 78,000 ha (192,750 acres) of which 54,900 ha (135,680 acres) is in
existing state-owned estuarine waters and submerged lands. The wetlands asso-
ciated with the river are among the most biologically productive in North
America, and this productivity is a direct link to the valuable fisheries in
Apalachicola Bay. The major goal of the estuarine sanctuary program is to
fund research to provide the necessary information to ensure rational manage-
ment of the system. Other important aspects are to enhance public awareness
of the functioning and value of the system and to ensure that the ecological
perspective is included in all development decisions pertaining to the river
and bay (Apalachee Regional Planning Council 1980).

The features of the estuarine sanctuary program are sport and commercial
fishing, hunting, nonintensive recreation, education, navigation including
maintenance dredging, continuation of existing permits and spoil disposal
practices until a comprehensive spoil disposal plan is developed, and contin-
uation of the existing shellfish rehabilitation program.

Prohibited activities are the incorporation of new public works projects
that require dredging or additional filling until completion and adoption of a
long-temi disposal plan, oil drilling, except slant drilling, from outside the
sanctuary boundary, and significant alteration of flow patterns (U.S. Depart-
ment of Commerce 1979).

Designation of the Apalachicola River and Bay as a National Estuarine
Sanctuary was a valuable format for reducing conflicts among competing uses.
There have been five sanctuaries designated in the country, two of which are
in Florida.

BARRIER ISLANDS

The barrier islands in Northwest Florida that are most important to the
coastal ecosystem are Santa Rosa Island, Shell Island, Crooked Island, St.
Vincent Island, St. George Island, and Dog Island. Although not islands,
Perdido Key and St. Joseph Spit function in much the same way. The islands
range in length from 6 mi (Shell Island) to 55 mi (Santa Rosa Island). All
except St. Vincent Island are no more than a half nile wide.

Barrier islands are so named because they provide a barrier for protect-
ing lagoons, marshes, estuaries, and the mainland from the direct forces of
storms and waves. The islands are constantly shifting and changing because of
wind, waves, and currents. Among the several valuable functions that barrier
islands perform in their natural state is their role as the first line of
defense against hurricanes and major winter storms. They absorb enormous
wave, wind, and tidal energy. Beaches and dunes may shift substantially as a
result of these forces, sometimes growing larger by deposition, and sometimes

234

receding through wind and wave erosion. Although barrier islands may seem
unstable for purposes of development, they are extremely stable ecologically
because of their dynamic nature (LaRoe 1980). When left in its natural state,
the coastal environment is not at all fragile, but is a resilient system able
to withstand constant change.

When residential, commercial, and other such development is imposed on a
barrier island, attempts are made to create a stable environment. Although
the islands withstand stress from natural processes, they are much less able
to absorb manmade stress. "In the long run, however, these systems will seek
a new equilibrium which is usually accompanied by great expense to man in the
form of property damage and possibly loss of life" (Apalachee Regional Plan-
ning Council 1980).

For development to take place in such a dynamic ecosystem, it is neces-
sary to understand the form and function of the entire coastal system. In
simple terms, the most rational action from an ecological perspective is to
halt development on barrier islands, for their very nature is unsuitable for
man's long-run objectives. The desire for residential, commercial, and recre-
ational activity along the coast, however, make barrier islands a prime choice
for development.

St. George Island, off the mouth of the Apalachicola River, is a classic
barrier island. It has high aesthetic and recreational values, including its
dunes, white sand beaches, and beautiful waters along its 30-mi length.
Because of its size, location, and unique ecological features, the island is
an important part of the Apalachicola Bay system.

Several actions have had and will continue to have profound effect on St.
George Island. The first major action was to cut a channel (Sike's Cut)
across the island to reduce travel time for shrimp boats in and out of the
Bay. This action by the Corps of Engineers in 1954 increased the salinity in
the bay, thereby reducing oyster productivity. The second action of conse-
quence was the construction of a causeway connecting the island to the main-
land, thereby opening the island to more intensive development and use. In
1977, Leisure Properties, Inc., which owns approximately 1,215 ha (3,000
acres) on the island, filed a DRI application for development approval to sub-
divide and develop the property for approximately 600 homesites. The firm
constructed 7 mi of road and installed 15 mi of water lines and underground
utilities. Over 2.5 million dollars worth of 5-acre lots were sold in 1976,
and a 300,000 gal water supply reservoir was constructed. Since 1978, over
500 one-acre lots have been for sale.

In an attempt to partially counteract development on the island, the
State acquired 930 ha (2,299 acres) under the Environmentally Endangered Land
program for use as a State Preserve. Limited roads and recreation facilities
have been built, but the main focus is to preserve the barrier island beach
and dune system in its natural state.

BEACH EROSION

Northwest Florida's beaches are one of its most important economic
resources. The beautiful sandy beaches attract many tourists and provide

235

erosion control, hurricane protection, and related purposes (U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers 1976). The report was submitted in 1976 recommending a project
for the 18.5-mi reach of the Panama City beaches. Although the study was
authorized and initiated in the early 1970's, Hurricane Eloise (23 September
1975), v;hich was extremely destructive in tenms of erosion and property dam-
age, reinforced the need for beach control and hurricane protection.

A beach and dune development plan was prepared as the most suitable plan
for implementation. Under the plan, an artificial dune system 15 ft high and
30 ft wide would be provided, together with a beach width of 110 ft. The dune
would be stabilized with vegetative cover, and the beach would need renourish-
ment every 10 years because of continuing erosion. The estimated total first
cost of the project is $19,550,000. The beneficiaries of the improvement were
viewed as the numerous property owners adjacent to the shorel ine and the thou-
sands of visitors who will use the enlarged beach. The project, together with
the existing beach area, "would assure continuation of beach recreation and
associated development and land use patterns. Continued development would
sustain high employment and good earnings along with projected increases in
local population" (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1976).

Construction of the beach and dune restoration project was completed in
1979 despite controversy concerning the cost, design, method of construction,
and potential environmental impacts of the project. Currently, the project
seems to be serving its intended purpose.

Although beaches are vital to the economy and environment of Northwest
Florida, substantial erosion is taking place. Some people wonder if erosion
is really a problem if development and construction are kept away from the
shoreline. The basic conflict seems to be between development along the beach
for tourism (i.e., motels, hotels, condominimums, and beach houses), and main-
taining beaches and dunes in their natural state. Because major investments
already have been made along the beaches, especially at Panama City, and
because these investments play an important role in the economy, it is reason-
ably safe to assume that economic interests will predominate over environ-
mental interests. The adoption and enforcement of the State's coastal
construction control line requirements under the "Beach and Shore Preservation
Act" (ch. 161 F.S.) should play a major role in lessening future conflicts
between beach erosion and development.

POLLUTION OF ESCAMBIA BAY

Pensacola Bay, collectively formed by gulf waters and the drainage of the
Escambia, Blackwater, Yellow, and East Bay River basins, lies to the east and
to the south of the City of Pensacola. Perdido Bay, likewise formed by the
gulf waters and the contributions from the Perdido and Styz River basins, lies
to the west and south of Pensacola.

Industrialization around Escambia Bay and along the Escambia River dates
back to 1951 with the establishment of a plant at Pensacola Bay by the Mon-
santo Chemical Company. The Escambia Chemical Company and American Cyanamid
Corporation also built plants on the bay (Carter 1974). As of 1980, there
were six major industrial plants on or near the Bay (Table 4),

236

Table 4. Major industries located near water bodies in Escambia County.

Name

Location

Monsanto Chemical Co.
American Cyanamid Corp.
Container Corporation of Anerica
Gul f Power Company
Air Products, Inc.
St. Regis Paper Co.

Escambia
Escambia
Escambia
Escambia
Escambia

River

Bay

River

Bay

El even Mil e Creek
Perdido Bay

off

Although Escambia Bay once supported a substantial oyster, scallop, and
shrimp industry, the bay scallops have virtually disappeared and the oyster
and shrimp production has been greatly reduced (Hopkins 1973). Urban and
industrial development of the land around the Escambia Bay area are held
responsible. Pollution has become so serious that numerous major fish kills
have been reported.

The first well -documented ecological research on the coastal waters was
undertaken in 1952 (Hopkins 1973). Since then, numerous inventories of eco-
logical conditions have been carried out by various government and private
research groups. Analysis of conditions over time reveal the trend of increas-
ing pollution.

In keeping with practices of the day, industry disposed of its pollutants
into Escambia Bay and Perdido Bay and their tributaries. Although the bays
could assimilate some wastes for awhile, the increasing pollution load started
to take its toll. The first incidence or complaint of pollution was in 1955
after the Chemstrand Plant (now Monsanto) started operations. These problems
were compounded by the location of the Escambia Chemical Company and American
Cyanamid Corporation plants on the east shore of upper Escambia Bay (Hopkins
1973). As examples for the area, there were 20 fish kills in 1969, and about
75 in 1970 and in 1971. A massive oyster kill was reported in 1971. The
drastic condition of Escambia Bay led to two Federal-State water quality
enforcement conferences in 1970 and 1971 by the U.S. Departnent of the
Interior.

Industrial pollution has caused a decline in fishing success, tourism,
recreation, and property values (Terrebonne 1973). There was a clear conflict
between the economic gain by the industries and the losses to tourism and
fishing.

Many of the industries that contributed to the above problems also
contributed to air pollution in the Pensacola area. The nature of air pollu-
tants ranged from particulates generated by wood and chemical industries, to
emissions from automobiles (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1978).

237

POTENTIAL OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

Development of offshore oil and gas fields near Northwest Florida could
have serious multiple-use conflicts onshore. Offshore oil and gas develop-
ment, whether on the outer continental shelf (OCS) or nearshore, could have
direct environmental impacts from the wells, particularly from a blowout, from
brine discharges, and from mud discharged during the drilling process. Even
more significant could be the socioeconomic and environmental impacts caused
by onshore support facilities. These conflicts are discussed more fully in
the chapter on "Minerals Production," but a review of exploration in Santa
Rosa County is given here.

In Santa Rosa Coutny, Getty Oil proposed to drill a 17,800-ft exploratory
well for gas near the center of East Bay. East Bay is an inland water arm of
the Pensacola Bay estuary system. The object of the well will be to test the
Jurassic Age Smackover-Norphlet formations which have produced hydrocarbons in
other areas of Northwest Florida, Alabama, and the gulf coast. Natural gas is
anticipated at this depth. Development of an East Bay gas field has the
potential of contributing more than $27 million to the local economy and $45
million to State and local governments (Florida Department of Environmental
Regulation working file).

An East Bay discovery of natural gas would provide a needed backyard
supply for domestic and commercial users in Pensacola and Milton. The well
would have been drilled from a self-contained bay-barge position over the
anticline near the center of East Bay. If the well were found productive, a
production platform with a series of high pressure valves would be installed.

Environmental damage is always a potential threat, but the "worst case"
accident scenario would require the following to occur simultaneously: hydro-
carbons must be present; the hydrocarbons must be in the form of crude oil
rather than natural gas; and the well must have a blowout. The odds of an
occurrence of just one factor, finding hydrocarbons, are about one chance in
twelve. The geologic rule for wells within the Jurassic Age is that sediments
of a depth greater than 17,000 ft are likely to produce natural gas rather
than crude oil. For all offshore wells drilled, there is one chance in 1,250
of a blowout occurring. The probability of a find and a blowout are virtually
nonexistent.

Getty Oil Company acquired leasehold rights from the State in 1968 for
approximately 47,932 acres of bay bottom in East Bay, Blackwater Bay, and the
portion of Escambia Bay that lies in Santa Rosa County. The first application
for drilling in 1971 was turned down by the Florida Department of Natural
Resources. Subsequent applications for drilling permits were alternatively
granted and rejected by various State officials, the Cabinet and the legisla-
ture. One agreement required Getty to use strict pollution controls and post
a $35 million bond to cover any adverse effects. The final disposition of the
Getty permit application will be determined by the courts.

238

SUMMARY

The roast?! waters and estuaries of Northwest Florida have been seriously
altered by industrial, residential, and commercial developments, partly
because of the lack of consideration for the integrity of the natural environ-
ment. The design of these developments has been imposed by an economic system
that largely invests in uses that promise high profits rather than protection
of the natural environment.

The development of institutional procedures for responding to the fail-
ures of the market system to consider environmental planning is indeed a
difficult task. Enforcing regulations to control or reduce environmental
damage may appear to be prohibitively expensive, but ultimately protection of
the natural environment is imperative.

The trade-offs between the economy and the environment will depend on
society's evaluation of the need for maintaining viable coastal and estuarine
ecosystems as opposed to further residential , commercial , and industrial
development. Local government zoning commissions may become instrumental in
developing balances among needs. This may be especially true if offshore oil
and gas finds are of such magnitude that they require onshore facilities and
services.

The topic of multiple-use conflicts is broad and does not lend itself to
clearly defined sets of data. Several issues addressed in this paper were
based upon a limited amount of information drawn from a variety of sources.
Most needed is accurate land use data that reflect the type and intensity of
development, value of land, and value of improvements. Assessments of the
impacts of development on the environment would be more accurate if there were
better information on industrial pollution and costs for pollution control.

The subjects selected for discussion in this chapter were chosen because
they were areas of special concern in Northwest Florida. The Apalachicola
River, St. George Island, Panama City Beaches, East Bay, and Escambia Bay
have felt the effects of various types of expanding onshore development. As a
result of environmental concerns and controversies, portions of the Apalachi-
cola River and Bay system have been designated a National Estuarine Sanctuary;
portions of it are State aquatic preserves; upland areas of the river have
been acquired by the State as environmentally endangered lands; and additional
areas have been named for protection under the Florida Conservation and
Recreation Lands program and the Save Our Rivers program. These actions were
possible because of the relatively high abundance of environmental data avail-
able about the areas concerned. Environmental research in all coastal waters
of Northwest Florida must be expanded to demonstrate environmental values in
multiple-use conflicts.

239

REFERENCES

Apalachee Regional Planning Council. Franklin County comprehensive plan.
Vol. 1. Blountstown, FL: Apalachee Regional Planning Council; 1980;
208 p.

Boyle, R.H.; Mechem, R.M. There's trouble in paradise. Sports Illustrated;
9 Feb. 1981; 82-96 p.

Carter, L. The Florida experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press; Resource for the Future, Inc.; 1974; 355 p.

Conservation Foundation. Coastal zone management 1980 - a context for debate.
Washington, DC: March 1980; 132 p.

Dames and Moore, Inc. Evaluation of effects of Florida coastal zone manage-
ment program on Eglin Air Force Base. Washington, DC: Dames and Moore
for the U.S. Air Force Civil Engineering Center, Tyndall Air Force Base,
FL: 1980; 24 p.

Florida Atlantic University - Florida International University Joint Center
for Environmental and Urban problems. Technical assistance manual: mea-
suring the onshore impacts of offshore oil and gas. Ft. Lauderdale, FL:
1980; 88 p.

Florida Coastal Coordinating Council. Coastal zone management in Florida.
Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of Environmental Regulation; 1974.

Florida Department of Administration, Division of State Planning. The Apalach-
icola River and Bay system: a Florida resource. Tallahassee, FL: April
1977; 52 p.

Florida Department of Administration, Division of State Planning. Beach and
inlet task force report. Tallahassee, FL: August 1978; 48 p.

Florida Department of Administration, Division of State Planning. A manual of
State regulatory and review procedures for land development in Florida.
Tallahassee, FL: 1979.

Florida Department of Environmental Regulation. The Florida coastal manage-
ment program, State hearing draft. Tallahassee, FL: August 1980; 445 p.

Florida Department of Natural Resources, Division of Resource Management.
Florida regional coastal zone environmental quality assessment. Talla-
hassee, FL: June 1976; 9 vols.

240

Florida Office of the Governor, Office of Planning and Budgeting. The devel-
opment of Florida's Outer Continental Shelf policy. Tallahassee, FL:
November 1980; 18 p.

Florida Statistical Abstract 1980. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida,
Bureau of Economic and Business Research; 1980; 695 p.

Hopkins, T.S. Marine ecology in Escarosa. Pensacola, FL: University of West
Florida and Coastal Coordinating Council, Department of Natural
Resources, Tallahassee, FL: September 1973; 100 p.

Landers, J.W. Address to Florida Defenders of the Environment, 4 May 1975;
36 p. Available from: Florida State University, Strozier Library,
Tallahassee, FL.

LaRoe, E.T. Barrier islands and their management as significant ecosystems.
Fore, P.L.; Peterson, R.D., editors. Proceedings of the Gulf of Mexico
Coastal Ecosystems Workshop; May 1980; University of Texas Marine Science
Institute, Port Aransas, TX. Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Office of Biological Services; FWS/OBS-80/30; 1980: 147-154.

New England Rivers Basins Commission. Methodologies for OCS related facil-
ities planning. NERBC-RALI Project. Boston, MA: March 1978; 151.

RMBR Planning/Design Group. Local coastal zone management; a handbook for the
Florida Coastal Coordinating Council. Tampa, FL: RMBR Planning/Design
Group; 1973; 68 p.

RMBR Planning/Design Group. Northwest Florida regional profile. Mobile, AL:
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Mobile District; February 1977; 214 p.

Terrebonne, R.P. The economic losses from water pollution in the Pensacola
Area. Florida Naturalist; October 1973; 21-26.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Panama City Beaches, Florida, feasibility
report for beach erosion control and hurricane protection. Mobile, AL:
March 1976; 85 p.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Northwest Florida region, environmental inven-
tory. Mobile, AL: 1978; 122 p.

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Northwest Florida water resources study.
Mobile, AL: May 1980; 6 vol.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of the population:
1950. Vol. 2, Part 10. Washington, DC: 1953; 607 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of the population:
1960. Vol. I, Part II. Washington, DC: 1963; 1,112 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Census of the population:
1070. Vol. I, Part II. Washington, DC: 1973; 2,698 p.

241

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;
Who's minding the shore? Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
Office; August 1976; 51 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Final environmental impact statement, Apalachicola River and Bay Estu-
arine Sanctuary. Washington, DC: 1979; 49 p.

U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Final environmental impact statement. The Florida Coastal Management Pro-
gram. Tallahassee, FL: August 1981; 617 p.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. An assessment of
estuarine and nearshore marine environments. Gloucester Point, VA:
Virginia Institute of Marine Science; March 1976; 132 p.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Biological
impacts of minor shoreline structures on the coastal environment: state
of the art review. Vol. 1. Portland, OR: Beak Consultants, Inc.; March
1980; 156 p.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Fore, P.; Peter-
son, R. , editors. Proceedings of the Gulf of Mexico Coastal Ecosystems
Workshop; May 1980; Washington, DC: FWS/0BS-80/30, 1980; 214 p.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. Final environ-
mental impact statement, OCS oil and gas proposed 1981 sales A66 and 66.
Washington, DC: December 1980; 227 p.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Region IV barrier islands policy state-
ment (draft). Washington, DC: 20 November 1980; 11 p.

Watts, B.M. The watery wilderness of Apalachee, Florida. Tallahassee,
FL: Apalachee Books; 1975; p. 64-68, p. 119-124.

242

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND REGULATIONS

Dr. Thomas A. Lynch

Chief Economist

Office of Economic Analysis

Florida Department of Environmental Regulations

2600 Blairstone Rd.

Tallahassee, FL 32301

INTRODUCTION

The economic and environmental impacts of man's alteration of natural
resources are the focus of this paper. All natural resources are finite and
competition for their use is universal. The tenet of economics therefore, is
the study of the distribution of resources among competing users. This tenet
includes the air and the seemingly boundless waters into which wastes are
discharged.

Some resources such as labor, raw material, and managerial expertise have
a market price associated with their use that is incorporated into the price
of the product. Resources such as air and water are used in the production
process and are assumed to be free. They are not, however. When wastes are
released into the air or water, they frequently result in secondary, often
unintended impacts or costs. Human health may be affected by sulfur oxide
discharged from coal -fired boilers, or by lead poisons from industrial waste
discharge. Some indirect costs (side effects) are the destruction of valuable
saltwater fisheries and contamination of oysters, and intrusion of saltwater
into groundwater aquifers.

Air and water pollution often causes excessive direct and indirect costs
to local economies. Proper knowledge about market demand and resource values
would avoid many of these external costs. In economic terms, indirect costs
are not usually counted in the pricing system. Pollution is an example. In-
direct costs that escape the pricing mechanism may include impaired health,
lower property value, altered ecological resources, and lost recreational
opportunities.

Many of the underlying economic problems related to environmental protec-
tion manifest costly side effects. For example, the "cost" of pollution to
society rarely carries a price tag and is not usually considered in cost/
benefit analysis.

Many indirect costs are caused by imperfections in the market system.
This imperfection arises, in part, because many natural resources, such as
air and water, are owned by the public rather than by private individuals.

243

Because they are available to society, there are few economic incentives
within the private sector to include public resources in their planning.

Expenditures to clean up contamination of our environment comprise major
costs that are currently receiving nationwide attention. Improper disposal of
hazardous substances is not new, yet these wastes are threatening the lives
and health of citizens throughout this county. Proper disposal through the
years would have required high initial capital outlay, but now cleanup to cor-
rect existing dangerous situations will cost much more. For example, in North
Carolina, expenditures between $2 million and $12 million might be necessary
to clean up PCB, a product used in manufacturing processes, that was illegally
dumped along roadsides at night as a cheap method of disposal. Proper dis-
posal of those wastes initially would have cost only about $100,000.

More visible is the Kepone Disaster at Hopewell, VA, which could have
been prevented with an initial investment of $100,000. Claims against the
company presently total $420 million and it is doubtful whether the government
investment of several billion dollars will suffice to clean up the James
River. Perhaps the best known hazardous waste disaster is the Love! Canal in
Niagra Falls, NY. Dioxin and other chemicals seeped into nearby creeks, con-
taminated water supplies and caused high incidence of illiness (Council on
Environmental Quality 1981). So far $36 million has been expended for cleanup
there. Had the proper environmental controls been in place, an investment of
approximately $2 million would have made that site secure (Roy 1979).

Pollutants entering the air and water sometimes seriously lower property
values. Results of a recent survey show that Los Angeles residents are will-
ing to pay $650 million per year, which averages about $350 per household, for
a 30% improvement in air quality (Roy 1979).

High quality air and water are major factors affecting human health and
comfort, and are prerequisites for tourists and retirees. Severe air pollu-
tion clearly alters the attractiveness of an area and adversely affects
property values.

Many sections of the United States depend heavily upon environmental
amenities (leisure and recreation) as an economic base for employment and
income. In 1980, tourists contributed over $17 billion to Florida's economy.
The climate and quality of Florida's unique natural environment are the prin-
cipal attractions for a majority of the visitors and retirees who emigrate to
Florida.

Florida's natural resources are the foundation of its economic base
(Lynch 1977). For example, saltwater sport and commercial fisheries contri-
bute substantially to the State's economy (Bell 1979). Commercial fishing
supports 36,262 jobs and generates $160 million per year in final sales. In
Florida, saltwater sport fisheries directly and indirectly provide 118,000
jobs and the freshwater fisheries provide 25,000 jobs. The annual user value
is $1.6 billion and $493 million, respectively (Bell 1979).

Oil spills along Florida's St. Marks River are costly (the annual loss is
about $329,000) because of property damage, clean-up costs and the decline in
sport fishing and tourism (Bell 1980). The damage from oil spill capitalized
at a 6.78% discount rate totals about $4.8 million annually.

244

Environmental issues must be considered in terms of social and economic
ramifications. Environmental decisions have wide-ranging economic impacts and
wrong decisions may cost millions of dollars to State and local economies. On
the other hand, economic decisions have wide-ranging environmental impacts and
the wrong decision may result in severe pollution and the alteration or loss
of extensive natural resources. The continuing need for a balance between
resource use (economics) and natural resource preservation requires informa-
tion on environmental values (e.g. fishing) and habitat alteration such as
air pollution (Lynch 1977).

PURPOSE

This synthesis paper provides a baseline assessment of the natural
resource in Northwest Florida; the regulatory standards governing its resource
quality, the level of resource quality, and the value of the resource as best
described by national or state-specific economic research. The key linkage
between the quality and the value of the resource should provide a base line
measurement against which to weigh other potential competing uses.

Because of the broad scope of major environmental issues, this paper
focuses largely on Northwest Florida's air and water quality problems and
compliances with Federal and State pollution standards. The papers on mineral
and oil production, agricultural production, and recreation and tourism relate
more with the economic aspects of environmental problems. The last section of
this report summarizes the major Federal and State legislation dealing with
environmental matters.

SCOPE AND FORMAT OF THE SYNTHESIS

The scope of this paper is limited to a general discussion of the major
environmental issues prominent in Northwest Florida and will be limited to a
brief discussion of (1) the general characteristics of the major natural
resources, (2) the appropriate Federal, State and local standards relevant to
those resources, (3) the historic and current levels of compliance including
specific circumstances regarding compliance, (4) the future forecast or trends
affecting the resource, and (5) estimates of the economic values of the
resources.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NORTHWEST FLORIDA

Climate

Northwest Florida is characterized by a Gulf of Mexico climate that is
generally humid and subtropical with warm summers and mild winters. Average
January temperatures are in the midfifties range (°F) and frost and light
freezes are infrequent and short in duration. Mean summer temperature is
about 81°F; maximums sometimes reach 100°F. Air temperatures usually are in
the high eighties (°F) along the coast and in the midnineties (°F) inland.

The region has a wet season in late winter and early spring because of
major fronts from the northwest, and in June through August, because of warm.

245

moist air moving in from the Gulf of Mexico. The range of mean annual rain-
fall among the seven counties of Northwest Florida is 57 to 67 inches.

Physiography

Northwest Florida is part of the coastal plain, divided between the West-
ern Highlands and the Coastal Lowlands. Their interface roughly parallels the
100-ft contour, but there are uplands ranging from 100 ft to more than 300 ft
above mean sea level. The highest elevation in Florida (345 ft) is located in
Walton County near the Florida-Alabama state line.

Soils

The soils of the region are about evenly divided between well-drained
soils in the north and poorly drained soils along the coast (Florida General
Soil Atlas).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE ISSUES

AIR QUALITY

Ambient Air Qual ity

The quality of the ambient air in Northwest Florida, considered to be
good, is attributed to a scarcity of heavy industry.

Federal, State and Local Standards

The ambient air quality and standards for Florida are given in Table 1.
Trend data described in this report are from the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (1980) summary statistics "Inventory by Pollutant 1970-79," taken from
the National Aerometric Data Bank Inventory and from the Department of Envi-
ronmental Regulation (DER), Bureau of Air Quality publications.

Because of the technical nature of the following discussion it will be
useful for the reader to consult Table 1 in conjunction with the text.

Historical Levels of Compliance

Particulates. A limited amount of monitoring of air particulates took
place in Northwest Florida in the 1970' s. Some of the results are given here.

In Apalachicola, Gulf County, in 1970-73, the annual arithmetic mean of par-
ticulates ranged between 58 to 45 ug/m^. In Gulf Breeze, Santa Rosa County,
the mean fell from 51 ug/m in 1973 to 40 ug/m ^ in 1979. In Panama City, Bay

County, the mean fell from 44 ug/m^ in 1975 to 41 ug/m^ in 1979. In Pensa-
cola, Escambia County, particulate air quality fluctuated. One site (Number
103540002) was close to or over Federal secondary and Florida primary stand-
ards. At this site in 1978, most particulates measured from 51 ug/m^ to 65
ug/m3, but maximum concentrations ranged from 107 to 198 ug/m^. Concentra-
tions measured at other stations in Pensacola were relatively low and showed
no trends. In Port St. Joe, Gulf County, the arithmetic mean of particulates

246

Table 1. National and Florida ambient air quality standards ; ug/m = micro-
gram per cubic meter (Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation,
Bureau of Air Quality Management April 1980).

Pollutant

Time frame

Pr i ma ry
standards

Secondary,
standards

Florida
standards

Particulate
matter

Sul fur oxides

-ic I 3c
75 ug/m^

260 ug/m

annual
(geometric mean )
24-hour

annual ^ SO ug/m"" ^

(arithmetic mean ) (0.03 ppm)^

24-hour 365 ug/m

b (0.14 ppm)
3-hour

Carbon monoxide

8- hour

1-hour

Ni trogen ^
dixoide

Photochemical
oxidants9

annual
(arithmetic mean)

1-hour

Hydrocarbons 3-hour

(nonmethane) (6 to 9 a.m.'

i
10 ug/m
(9 ppm)-
100 ug/m
(35 ppm)

100 ug/m

(0.05 ppm)
235 ug/m"^

160 ug/m
(0.24 ppm)

60 ug/m^
150 ug/m

150 ug/m-"
(.02 ppm)3
260 ug/m
(0.1 ppm)^
1300 ug/m

(same as
primary)

(same as
primary

(same as
primary)

(same as
primary

(same as
primary)

60 ug/m,
150 ug/m

3
150 ug/m

(0.02 ppm)

260 ug/m3

(0.1 ppm)^

1300 ug/m

(0. 5 ppm)

(same as
primary)

3
160 ug/m
(0.08 ppm)

(same as
primary)

^The air quality standards and a description of the Federal Reference Methods
(FRM) were published on April 30, 1971, in 42 CFR 410, recodified to 40 CFR
50 on November 25, 1972. The new FRM for nitrogen dioxide was published on
December 1, 1976, as 40 CFR 50.

Not to be exceeded more than once a year.

""Geometric mean is a measure of central tendency. It is the nth root of the
product of n individual data values recorded during the given period.

Arithmetic mean is the most common measure of the central tendency. It is
the sum of the data collected during the given period divided by the number
of observations in the same period.
Parts per mill ion.

Chemiluminescence has been established as the FRM and the sodium arsenite and
trienthanol amine guiacol sulfite (T6S) methods have been identified as equiv-
alent methods.

^The FRM measures 0. (ozone).

The hydrocarbon HC standard is a guide to devising State implementation plans
to achieve the oxidant standard. The HC standard does not have to be met if
the oxidant standard is met.

247

fell from 95 to 51 ug/m from 1974 to 1979. The maximum subsequently fell
from 277 to 123 ug/m^ In Santa Rosa County in 1979, the arithmetic means
ranged from 50 to 58 ug/m^, which was close to the Florida primary (National
secondary) maximum standard of 60 ug/m^.

Sulfur dioxide. The only Northwest Florida counties measured for sulfur
dioxide were Bay, Escambia, and Santa Rosa Counties. These measurements were
taken largely to monitor industrial sources and military installations. None
of the time-related readings (3-hour, 24-hour, and annual arithmetic mean
standards) was approached. The annual arithmetic mean in Panama City in Bay
County flucuated between 5 and 9 ug/m^ in 1975-77. In Escambia County, the
Ellyson Naval Air Station, Monsanto Chemical Co., and Montren areas were
monitored, as well as several other urban and remote sites. Average annual
concentrations were relatively low and no trends appeared in the 1970' s. The
annual average was 26 ug/m-^, well below the annual secondary standard
(60 ug/m^).

In Santa Rosa County, the maximum short-term concentration of sulfur
dioxide in the air was about 1,118 ug/m , which was near the 1,300 ug/m
3-hour standard. In Santa Rosa County, the monitoring included a site at the
Jay Oil Field Production and processing facility. Generally, concentrations
of sulfur dioxide for both short-and long-term standards are increasing in
Santa Rosa County. None, however, approach primary or secondary standards at
this time. Annual arithmetic means at most stations ranged from 5 to
19 ug/m^

Nitrogen dixode. Limited measurements of nitrogen dioxide in Northwest
Florida were taken at Panama City in Bay County, Pensacola in Escambia County,
and Gulf Breeze in Santa Rosa County. The highest ambient nitrogen dioxide
concentration was in Pensacola where the arithmetic mean was 16.8 ug/m^, well
below the Federal and State standard.

Future Forecasts

All indications suggest good air quality for Northwest Florida now and
into the near future (Discussions with staff. Bureau of Air Quality, Florida
State Department of Environmental Regulation, July 1980).

Evaluation of The Resource

Economic evaluation of side effects of air pollution. The nature and
approaches used in estimating indirect economic costs or secondary impacts
caused by air pollution are wide and varying. According to Waddel 1 (1974),
the costs of air pollution were about $5.5 billion for property damage, $4.3
billion for health, $1.1 billion for material damage. No estimates were made
for damage to vegetation.

In another report, the annual cost of air pollution in the United States
was estimated at $16.1 billion, or about $74 per person per year. These costs
obviously are far greater for the elderly, the young, and the poor because of
their weak socioeconomic status.

248

WATER QUALITY

General Characteristics of the Resource

Description of Florida's water quality classification system. Standards
for all the designated classes of water within the State of Florida are
Class I, drinking water with Class lA potable surface; Class IB, potable
groundwater supplies for drinking water; Class II, designated as shellfish
propagation waters; and Class III, fish and wildlife propagation and recrea-
tion surface water. Class III is largest and contains over 90% of the State's
surface waters. With certain parameters there is also a Class III marine
standard which is more appropriate for a saltwater environment. Class IV, an
agricultural designation, is largely for self contained agricultural related
irrigation and water retention systems. Class V is an industrial and naviga-
tional classification. Class VA is for surface waters of which there is only
one in Florida and Class VB is for industrial groundwater for such uses as
deepwell injection of industrial wastes.

Federal and State Standards

The specific parameters for each classification vary according to use,
and are more stringent ascending from the Class V Industrial to Class I Pot-
able sources of water. The Florida classification also includes a separate
subcategory for Class V (Groundwater) which is discussed in detail later.
Florida law requires each body of water to be classified according to its
"highest and best use." Few reclassification requests have been made or
adopted since development of the surface and groundwater standards. Most of
these standards are taken from the EPA document "Quality Criteria for Water"
developed by the Criteria Branch of the Criterian Standards Division within
the Office of Water Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (1976). Criteria are given for (1) domestic supply, (2) fresh waters
for aquatic life, (3) marine waters for aquatic life, and (4) water for irri-
gating crops.

Virtually all standards are based on tests of aquatic animals (including
humans) with a factor of safety for each standard. For example, the lethal
concentration for 50% of the given most sensitive aquatic population is termed
LC50. If the concentration is 2 mg/1, then a division factor of 10 is applied
and the EPA standard for an aquatic environment would therefore be 0.2 mg/1.
EPA states:

Water quality criteria are derived from scientific facts
obtained from experimental observations that depict organisms
responsible to define stimulus of material under identifiable
or regulated environmental conditions for a specified time
period. The criteria levels of domestic water supply incor-
porated available data for human health protection. In some
instances 1/100 of a concentration of the LC50 is employed
while others 1/20 or 1/10 of the LC50 level constitute a
safety factor (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1976).

249

These recommendations are based on scientific and professional judgment.
These standards protect the life of all Floridians and visitors and maintain
the propagation of aquatic and other life forms dependent upon aquatic envi-
ronments. These are, therefore, tied to the health, welfare, and well-being
of all citizens of the State.

Each classification has its particular level of compliance. For
Class III, freshwater standards dominate the majority of interior wetlands
including creeks, rivers, lakes, swamps and other interconnected aquatic
environments. Substantial differences can be expected among the wetlands in
Class III because of the diversity of climate, geology, habitat, and land use.
Although this classification covers a large surface area, the discussion is
limited to those areas where ongoing water quality analysis data are avail-
able. A description of the major water courses in Northwest Florida and the
significant water quality violations within each designated major Class III
system is given in the following paragraphs.

Major Rivers

The major river basins in Northwest Florida are the Apalachicola River,
the Choctawatchee River, the Pedro River which includes the Yellow River, the
Blackwater River, the Escambia River, and Perdido River. Most of the data in
this section are taken from the Florida State Department of Environmental
Regulation 1979a, 1979b.

Streams in Northwest Florida generally are characterized by high dis-
solved oxygen concentrations, low to medium concentrations of nutrients, high
coliform counts, low conductivity, high suspended solids, and medium
chlorophyll-a^ values. The waters at Permanent Network Stations (PNS) in
Northwest Florida have high levels of dissolved oxygen. Seven of the streams
rank in the top ten of the 50 Florida streams examined. Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) and nutrient concentrations are low and the BOD means rarely
exceed 1.5 mg/1. Total phosphorus concentrations also are low { 0.1 mg/1).

Coliform counts generally are high in most streams in Northwest Florida.
The upper Choctawhatchee River has the second highest fecal coliform concen-
trations in the State, averaging 1,115/100 ml, but most streams average about
125/100 ml. Average count in the upper Escambia River was about 5,200/100 ml.

All streams except the Blackwater and Perdido Rivers had pH values above
6.0. The Apalachicola, Perdido, and Chipola Rivers generally exhibited the
lowest coliform count and highest total organic carbon.

Turbidity and suspended solids are similar in most rivers and are highest
in the upper Escambia, middle Choctawhatchee and Apalachicola Rivers.
Chlorophyl 1-a^ concentrations average 3 to 6 ug/1 throughout the area. The
lower Apalachicola River had the highest concentrations.

With the exception of coliform concentrations, overall water quality in
the streams of Northwest Florida is good. The Perdido, Blackwater, Apalachi-
cola, Yellow, and Chipola Rivers exhibit the best water quality. If it were
not for the high coliform counts and high concentration of suspended solids,
these stream would be some of the State's cleanest. The high readings appar-
ently are natural and are not caused by municipal or industrial wastes.

250

Apalachicola River. This River is formed by the confluence of the Flint
and Choctawhatchee Rivers and flows into Apalachicola Bay. Recent data show
an increase in total phosphorus concentrations and a decrease in nitrate-
nitrite levels over the period of record. Historical data indicate a high
level of fecal coliform bacteria near the headwaters of the Apalachicola
River, but levels are lower toward the mouth of the river. The reverse is
evident in more recent fecal coliform counts which show low levels in the
upper reach of the river, and higher levels toward the bay. No overall tem-
poral trend in water quality is evident in the Apalachicola River. Available
data indicate good water quality south of the Florida-Georgia State line,
although decreased dissolved oxygen (DO) and increased fecal coliform counts
in recent years are of some concern. In 1977-79, violations of standards of
pH, several heavy metals, and DO were observed.

Choctawhatchee River. The Choctawhatchee River originates in northern
Alabama, enters Florida near Graceville, and flows about 89 mi into the Choc-
tawhatchee Bay. A comparison of historical and 1979 data indicate increasing
total phosphorus concentrations and decreasing nitrate-nitrite levels. Aver-
age DO concentrations have increased and mean pH levels have decreased in
recent years. No overall temporal trend in the water quality in the Chocta-
whatchee River Basin is discernible. Available data indicate generally good
water quality. Over the period of record to 1979 several violations were evi-
dent in pH, total alkalinity, DO, and several heavy metals; however, the
violations are infrequent and do not appear to be a serious concern.

Yellow River. The Yellow River in the Perdido/Escambia River Basin orig-
inates in Covington County, AL and flows southward for approximately 92 mi
emptying into the Blackwater Bay in Florida. A comparison of historical vs.
recent data shows a decrease in total phosporous (TP) and nitrate-nitrite
averages indicating an improvement in nutrient concentrations in the Yellow
River. Dissolved oxygen concentrations and pH have decreased in recent years
especially near Holly where substantial decreases have been observed.
Recently, fecal coliform have increased considerably over the period of record
particularly in the upper reaches. No overall change of water quality in the
Yellow River is noticeable. Water quality has been generally good despite
high fecal coliform bacteria counts at several localized areas.

Blackwater River. The Blackwater River is considered to be one of the
cleanest rivers in Florida. It originates north of Bradley, AL and travels
58 mi to Blackwater Bay. A comparison of available historic and recent data
indicates an apparent overall improvement in the water quality, especially in
phosphorus, nitrate-nitrite, and DO concentrations. Few violations are evi-
dent with the exception of pH and total alkalinity concentrations near Hwy-4
northwest of Baker in Okaloosa County.

Escambia River Basin. The Escambia River flows approximate 92 mi south
from the Florida-Alabama line into Escambia Bay forming the boundary between
Santa Rosa and Escambia Counties. A comparison of historical and recent data
indicates some improvement in water quality within the last two years. A
noticeable improvement in total phosphorus and nitrate-nitrite concentrations
throughout the river was observed. Improvements in macroinvertebrate diver-
sity also were reported. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the upper reaches
of the river have increased in recent years. No obvious trends in fecal coli-
form concentrations in the Escambia River were found. In general, the water

251

quality in Escambia River and in Escambia Bay is relatively high. The river
runs through the major Pensacola urban area and part of it adjoins the Pensa-
cola Naval Air Station. In 1977-79, several water quality violations were
reported for total alkalinity, cadmium, lead, pH, DO, and copper. The recent
trends show some improvement.

Perdido River Basin. The Perdido River flows south from the Alabama line
approximately 62 miles and empties into the Perdido Bay. Water quality in the
river is relatively good. A comparison of historic and recent water quality
data suggests a trend towards improvement in DO and nitrate-nitrite concentra-
tions. Total phosphorus also has decreased in the lower reaches of the
Perdido River. An apparent decrease in mean pH value throughout the river may
be related to hydrologic conditions within the last two years. In 1977-79,
several violations involving pH, DO, total alkalinity, and several metals were
reported. These violations do not appear to be frequent enough for serious
concern.

LIKELY FUTURE TRENDS

Section V of water quality assessment papers entitled "Statistical
analysis of water quality vs. point and nonpoint pollution sources" is an
exercise in multiple regression analysis where pollution point and nonpoint
sources are statistically regressed against specific water quality criteria
(Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation 1979a). Correlation
coefficients were calculated between pairs of water quality parameters and
pollution loading factors. The signs from the coefficients indicate whether
or not they are positively or negatively related and are instructive for both
current analysis of pollution loadings and levels, and future forecasts.
Correlation coefficients were reported for variable pairs with statistically
significant relationships at a 95% confidence level.

The analysis suggests that a better relationship exists between water
quality (WQI) and watershed characteristics than one would expect. A corre-
lation coefficient of 0.74 indicates that point source, nonpoint source, and
urban centers tend to be correlated with lower water quality. The PNS water-
shed, which has highly concentrated pollution sources, and a low watershed
index (WSI), has lower water quality, and lower WQI. The degree of scatter in
the plot indicates that not all of the WQI is explained by watershed charac-
teristics alone (Figure 1). This is reasonable given the multiple casual
relationships involved.

The report also develops a water quality index and a WSI that demon-
strates the relationships among changes in standard values of all examined
water quality parameters as a function of land use within the watershed area.
The WSI is a value reflecting the flow of point and nonpoint sources within
the watershed both in terms of chemical concentrations and volume flow. The
general relationship established between water quality and watershed pollution
sources was examined through a plot of WQI and WSI values (Figure 1). High
values of total phosphorus were associated with population centers and areas
of intense industrial activities such as strip-mining and industry. Forested
areas retain considerably more phosphorus than rangeland. PNS watersheds with
waters highly polluted with municipal wastes also show levels of phosphorus.

252

0,0

-0.5

15 L_l

A A A

▲

A A

A
A A

-1.5

0.0

1.0

Watershed index (Improving characteristics)

Figure 1. Water quality index versus watershed characteristics index for 42
permanent network station watersheds (correlation coefficient = 0.74) (Flor-
ida State Department of Environmental Regulation 1979b).

253

Concentrations of natural organic nitrogen (TKN and Org-n) were highest
in wetlands with water storage, and in rangelands. Sewage flow also was
highly correlated with nitrogen concentrations. High levels of organic nitro-
gen appear to be caused by agriculture and industry because of nitrogen
fertilizer used on agricultural lands.

Increases in biological oxygen demand (BOD) were directly related to
increases in sewage flow. Dissolved oxygen was negatively correlated with
wetlands and rangeland. This agrees with the BOD analysis. Runoff from
rangelands and washed out organics from wetlands could indirectly cause oxygen
depletion in the receiving waters. Increased sewage often decreases dissolved
oxygen concentrations because of an increase in BOD.

The best available forecast for sewage treatment plant flows for the
seven counties is given in Table 2. This forecast and relevant population
projections by the University of Florida suggest a moderate 2% to 2.5% annual
population growth. Without greater pollution control, water quality may
decline because of increased point source loadings from secondary treatment
facilities and industrial expansion.

Increased urbanization, industrialization, and water related development
suggest that in some areas water quality may decline within the next several
decades. The specific amount of decline is difficult to predict within any
degree of accuracy and, therefore, should only be identified in terms of
direction and probable magnitude.

Phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations may increase as agricultural
activity intensifies and expands. As urbanization expands in Northwest Flor-
ida, forest areas will be cleared and marsh wetlands drained. As a conse-
quence, BOD, DO, inorganic nitrogen, and phosphorus also will increase.
Adequate regulatory controls, including permits for point source and regula-
tory management of nonpoint sources, minimize violations of water quality
standards in Northwest Florida.

COASTAL RESOURCE ISSUES

Class II and III Salt and Brackish Water

Saltwater areas identified under the Class III designation are for propa-
gation of saltwater species of aquatic life and for recreation. A special
classification also is designated for shellfish. The Class II designation is
often far more restrictive because of the filter-feeder nature of the shell-
fish growing within the particular Class II designated areas. Shellfish often
absorb and biomagnify certain pollutants in the feeding process. They are not
able to relocate or avoid pollution as are more mobile species. The discus-
sion of Class II and Class III standards will be incorporated under the
general coastal resource designation. Where necessary, differentiation
between Class II and Class III will be made. The aquatic resources under con-
sideration here are Apalachicola Bay, Choctawhatchee Bay, East Bay, Escambia
Bay, Perdido Bay, St. Andrews Bay, and St. Joseph Bay.

In general, estuaries are characterized by a high level of dissolved
oxygen, medium chlorophyll-a_ and DO concentrations, and low to medium coliform

254

«4-

E
+J

(U
■!->

lO
4->

(/>
-a

•r—

s-
o

o
o
o

01
o

c CO
TO cn
1 — .— I

CO
-t-> -r-
C l/l
(U >,

E .—
+-> TCI
TCI C

<u ca:

+J o

0) i
01 o
to c

3 O

O) o

10 UJ

o o

to <u

+-> u

to •!—

o 14-

U 4-

C •>
TCJ C

-o ■»->

OJ r—

en
0)

• q:

CNJ

O) TCI

.— ■*->

JO c

ro Ol

■M

•r—

r—

-M

r—

TCJ

• r—

• r-

•1 —

C-t^

-(-J

* -

<-)

^^->

+->

*- — ^

(T3

1/1

l/l

r~—

0. 0

•r—

, —

f —

TC3

r—

4->

•1 —

• r—

Q.V*

•^-

TCJ

^*--'

t/1

•r-

• f—

• r—

+->

M-

Q.-0
TCJ

2
o

S-
T3

(O to
3 C <U

C O -1-' - — -

C -1- (O ^J

TCI +-> S- C

re Qj
cu .— -c o

CT> 3 +-> S-
fO Q. 3 O)
S- O O Q.
O) Q. S-

> CD

^ CTl <.D CTl ro

.— < 00 ^D "d- .-H

CO l£)

00 r-~

r-. r^ CM

>— I CM

o to

o
cr

o
O

T— 1 C7^ r^ r-^ CM

00 00

CNJ CM LD tn 00

« — ( to

• • • • •

• •

•

to .-H .— 1 0 r~.

ro r-H

I— 1

CJ1

to
o

(L>

S-

to
o

to to
■I- S-

> 03

o
-a

Q. C

O •.-

CD O O O CD

O O O O C

• • • • •

00 o >^ >— < •— I

CM CM t— 1

o o
o o

00 LO

o
o

cr.

o
o

•

to
Ol

-a

CTi 1— 4 LO ro to CTi •— '

en ^ to .— I LO «d- "X)

CO CTl O o to

•-I O

to
to

S-

Ol
to
OJ

to
to

•r~ •

t/1 •— C

3 *^

II
-a

c +->
re to

o
u • u
•-- >,i— J
E +->

O C Ol

c 3 >

o o s-

o o 3

UJ o

4- O to

o re 4->

O) to

O CD O CD O

LD •— I LO un ■— I

o o

CM CM CM CM CM CM CM

o
u

re c re

•r- -r- to

X3 .— O

E -^ O

re C 4- r-

>-) u re I — re

re to s_ 3 .:«;

CO UJ Ll_ C3 O

re
to
o

re o

-I-) 4->

C 1 —

re re

1/1 3

c:
o

_ o

CQ C

re ■!->

re O) o

-O E 3

•r- S_

S- .— +->

o re to

r- O C

U- -I- o

4- o

o +-> <:

to Q.

>,•■- UJ

•r- C

to to o

OJ E -O

> 3 O)

•I— to to

c to re

=3 «a: cfl
re X3 u

255

counts. Of all the Florida estuaries that were analyzed, the estuaries in
Northwest Florida generally had the highest concentrations of dissolved oxy-
gen. Nutrient concentrations were low at all stations in St. Joseph Bay.
Organic nitrogen and ammonia averaged below 0.45 mg/1 and 0.20 mg/1, respec-
tively. Fecal coliform concentrations ranged from 2/100 ml in St. Josephs Bay
to 205/ 100 ml in Perdido Bay, but most were below 100/100 ml. Counts aver-
aged less than 600/100 ml in all estuaries, except St. Andrews Bay. Turbidity
and suspended solid values were generally high, ranging from 2 to 22 JTU's and
from 9 to 32 mg/1, respectively. Apalachicola Bay exhibited the highest
values for both parameters and St. Josephs Bay exhibited the lowest. Diver-
sity varies widely ranging from 1.7 in Perdido to 3.9 in St. Josephs Bay.
Diversity depends on many factors including salinity. Among the bays, St.
Josephs Bay and St. Andrews Bay had the lowest freshwater inputs and the
highest diversity.

Overall,, water quality is excellent in most Northwest Florida estuaries.
St. Josephs and St. Andrews Bay have the best water quality in the State.
Perdido and Escambia Bay have the lowest water quality in Northwest Florida
but compared to other Florida estuaries, however, its water quality is rela-
tively good. In Northwest Florida a number of Class II fishing areas have
been closed due to high fecal coliform concentrations. This has especially
been a problem in the Apalachicola area where over a period of 18 months,
numerous closings of the oyster fisheries were required. The Department of
Natural Resources reported that these high total coliform counts were caused
by municipal pollution and, to a lesser extent, natural conditions.

Economic Evaluation of Florida's Fresh and Saltwater Resources

As a peninsular state, Florida has an abundance of high quality fresh,
brackish, and salt waters. Natural resources are abundant and the economy is
linked to and dependent upon the natural resources with special importance
attached to the quantity and quality of its freshwater supplies (Lynch 1977).

Florida's $17 billion tourist industry and the well-being of all its
residents are linked to the quality of the water supplies. Based on lost
fishing opportunities. Bell and Canterbury (1976) examined the cost of the
effects of water pollution nationally and for Florida. The economic impact of
pollution on marine resources in Florida due to sublethal effects of pollu-
tion, reduced bioproductivity and potential protein production; the closure of
shellfish fishing areas has caused a loss of over 8% of the recreational
potential of Florida. Researchers also examined potential benefits that would
result if pollution were reduced as set forth in the Clean Water Act. They
suggested that the potential increase in recreational days from 1974 to 1985
would nearly double (from 55 million to 105 million). This potential rise
would increase the nonmarket value of sport fisheries in Florida by $133 mil-
lion.

In a report released by the Department of Policy Sciences, Florida State
University (Bell 1979), the saltwater fishery in Florida supports a $2 billion
industry and and provides, directly and indirectly, over 118,000 jobs. The
freshwater sport fishery was valued at over $1 billion in 1975 and supported
directly and indirectly about 75,500 jobs. In 1980 dollars at a 6-7/8% dis-
count rate, the sport fisheries of Florida was valued at $4.75 billion. This
income is a major contribution to the recreation industry.

256

The shel 1 fisheries are valuable in Northwest Florida. In 1972 in Frank-
lin County, for example, about 5.9 million lb of fish were landed of which 85%
(5.0 million lb) were shellfish. Shellfish abundance is dependent upon the
quality and quantity of approved Class II shellfishing waters throughout Flor-
ida. Potential increases in the shellfish industry were examined by Bell and
Canterbury (1976). This study, sponsored by the National Commission on Clean
Water, forecasted that if the goals of the Clean Water Act were met in Flor-
ida, the annual shellfish production by species would increase as follows:
shrimp by 19.7 million lb, spiny lobster by 10.5 million lb, oysters by 15.2
million lb, crabs by 8.9 million lb, clams by 1.1 million lb, and scallops by
0.765 lb. Menhaden production also would increase yearly by nearly 14 million
lb if the goals of the Clean Water Act were attained.

The relative value of wetlands and Class II fisheries can be estimated
through contemporary environmental economic methodology. Edmunsten (1977)
surveyed the eight coastal counties from Escambia on the west to Wakulla on
the east. Fifteen estuarine systems were identified including the major Class
II productive resources of Northwest Florida. Bell (1977) used the Edmunston
data and calculated an estuarine value of $60.91 per acre. A study completed
by Gosselink et al. (1973) gives a value of $75.00 per acre for Florida's
estuaries. Bell estimated that $13.83 per acre may be lost within the Class
II estuarine areas of Santa Rosa County if the Navarre Pass is allowed to
open.

Other estimates of damage by pollution verify the high value of fisheries
in estuarine and coastal waters. Terbonne (1973) estimated that the annual
economic loss to the fishery from water pollution alone in the Pensacola area
in 1972 was over $3 million. This loss can be further magnified throughout
the economy by multiplier effects.

Ecological Stress Induced from Natural and Manmade Factors

Since about 1960, extensive areas of Florida's interior wetlands have
been dredged, diked, and drained, which has led to major alteration of North-
west Florida's coastal wetlands. Major coastal ecological alterations are
habitat stress, dune destruction, reduced flow of detritic food sources for
aquatic life, decreased dissolved oxygen, increased coliform counts, and
reduced runoff through natural systems. Natural eroding processes, such as
beach and river erosion, and man-induced destruction of natural vegetation and
habitat, have reduced wildlife potentials in the area.

Northwest Florida is an area of great hydrologic activity because of its
long and dynamic coastline, tidal influences, and extensive river networks
with high volume flows. Beach erosion is common on barrier islands and shore-
line spits that reach into the gulf. Franklin County, with seven beaches, has
the most serious beach erosion.

Almost every county in Northwest Florida has undergone relatively severe
habitat alteration. Most dominant is the destruction of natural vegetation by
clear-cutting, drainage, diking, and channelization, or monoculture of pine
and pasture lands. The value of tidal marshes has been estimated to be $5.91
per acre or a capitalized value of $69.10 per acre using a 10°/ discount rate
(Lynne 1978).

257

Solid waste problem areas are identified in Tables EIR 1 and EIR 2 (Data
Appendix). These sites have high nitrate concentrations, low DO, and exces-
sive aquatic plant growth.

Future Trends

The increasing population in Northwest Florida will cause further habitat
alteration. A case study in the multiple-use conflicts paper of this report
examines potential developments planned for the St. George Barrier Island in
Franklin County. Rapid growth and housing development along coastal wetlands
will likely increase stress on natural systems there. Franklin County has
recently closed extensive Class II fishing grounds due to high coliform
counts. These trends can be averted with adequate planning for pollution
abatement prior to large scale urban or industrial development. More inten-
sive agricultural and sil vicul tural practices in Northwest Florida will likely
lead to more monoculture and further draining of wetlands that help sustain
the coastal fisheries. The loss of major wetlands to pasture, crops, and
urbanization could endanger the thriving commercial and sport fisheries in the
area.

Other Significant Biological Resources

The endangered and threatened species (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphi-
bians, and plants) are listed in Tables EIR 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, and 52
(Data Appendix).

Public Ownership of Land

Extensive tracts of land, owned by both Federal and State Governments,
are used for various purposes. These include military reservations, such as
the Eglin Air Force Base in Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, and Walton Counties and the
vast holdings of the Apalachicola National Forest throughout the Franklin
County area. Numerous other tracts are used for the U.S. Navy, and Federal
and State public forests, such as the Osceola and Cary State Forests, and
other areas judged to be sensitive habitat, warrant purchase by the State
under its Environmentally Endangered Lands Program (Figure 2).

Environmentally Endangered Lands Program

In Northwest Florida the three environmentally endangered lands are
Perdido Island (Key), Little St. George Island and the Lower Apalachicola
River Basin. More similar purchases are being considered.

Aquatic Preserves

Northwest Florida has an abundance of highly productive and well-pro-
tected preserves including the Ft. Pickens State Park, the Yellow River Marsh,
Rocky Bayou State Park, St. Andrews Park, St. Josephs Bay, Apalachicola Bay,
and Alligator Harbor.

Aquatic preserves are administered by the Department of Natural Resources
as set forth in the Florida Aquatic Preserve Act of 1975. It states in part:

258

AL A B AM A

GEORGI A

iili

ENVIRONMENTALLY ENDANGERED LANDS

1 Big Cypress National Preserve

2 Weedon Island

3 Fakahatchee Strand

4 Volusia Water Recharge Area

5 River Rise

6 San Felasco Hammock

7 Three Lakes Ranch

8 Lower Apalachicola River Basin

9 Palm Beach County Everglades Tracts

10 Paynes Prairie State Preserve Addition

11 Lower Wekiva River Corridor

12 Cayo Costa-North Captiva Islands

13 Little St, George Island

14 Nassau Valley Marshes

15 Savannahs

16 Tosohatchee Game Preserve

17 Barefoot Beach

18 Cedar Key Scrub

19 Charlotte Harbor

20 Gablesbythe-Sea

21 Perdido Key

22 Withlacoochee Tract

Figure 2. Environmentally Endangered Lands (Florida Power and Light Co.
1979)

259

It is a legislative intent that the state-owned submerged
lands in the areas which have exceptional biological, aesthe-
tic and scientific value hereinafter described ... shall be
set aside forever as aquatic preserves or santuaries for the
benefit of future generations (Ch. 258, Florida Statutes).

Waste disposal, dredging, and filling are severely curtailed in aquatic
preserves. Seven such aquatic preserves are located in Northwest Florida.

Outstanding Florida Resource Waters

The Department of Environmental Regulation (DER) under its water quality
designation authority set aside certain bodies of water and segments of other
bodies for special protection and entitled this specific designation as an
"Outstanding Florida Resource Water." This designation is declared under the
provisions of Ch. 17-3, Florida Administrative Code (FAC). Under this desig-
nation, certain bodies of water, because of their unique ecological charac-
teristics and value, are to retain their essential pristine state in the
future. No significant further degradation of those bodies of water are
authorized. Within the region a large number of water bodies have received
this special classification. A complete list is available in Ch. 17-3, FAC.

Class I Drinking Water

Federal and State Standards. The Federal Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974
instructs the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish regula-
tions for safe water for human consumption (PL 93-523). The State of Florida
has taken the Federal guidelines and incorporated them into the Class I water
quality criteria. These standards set forth the minimum criteria required for
safe levels for both surface (Class lA) and ground (Class IB) sources of pot-
able water. Northwest Florida has an abundance of high quality potable water.
A Class IB underground source of drinking water is an aquifer or part of an
aquifer that supplies water suitable for drinking, and contains less than
10,000 mg/1 of total dissolved solids. Approximately 92% of the State resi-
dents depend upon Florida's aquifers for a source of potable water. In North-
west Florida citizens are largely dependent on the Floridian aquifer (the
State's largest) and shallow sand-and-gravel aquifers. Part C of the Federal
Safe Drinking Water (PL 93-523) establishes guidelines for State programs to
protect present and future sources. Florida's extensive aquifer network sup-
plies drinking water with 250 mg/1 or less total dissolved solids.

Several potential pollution sources could adversely affect Florida's pot-
able groundwater. These sources of contamination include municipal and indus-
trial discharges as well as surface water, impoundments, and solid waste dis-
posal sites (Figure 3).

To protect Florida's valuable groundwater resources, a series of regula-
tory programs has been enacted. The most significant is an underground injec-
tion control program. This program is designed to ensure that injected fluids
from Florida's 6,858 injection wells stay in the intended injection zone and
do not migrate into drinking water supplies (Figure 4).

260

c
o

o
<u
+J
o

•4-»

■M
O

s-
a.

o
a.
m
•^•
-a

10
(C

(U
+J

>.
W

s-
<u
+J
re

s-
a>

■r-

■(->

•r^

+->

•

^^ — .

r~~

•

r— 1

S-

oi cu

• 1 —

cr»

U_ <C

261

4-)

B
+->

s-
ra

Q.
Ol
Q

M-

•r-

•1 —

r—

S-

•

^-^

•r—

■o

.— 1

O CO

•<->

• r-

■D

•r—

r—

S-

■4->

•

"=d-

S-

•r-

•1—

262

Class II and III well permits are issued by the Department of Natural Re-
sources, Bureau of Geology. The other classes of permits are issued through
the DER, the most important of which are the industrial and municipal class
wells (Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation 1981).

Of the five largest industries in Florida discharging their wastes
through deep-well injection, two (Monsanto and American Cyanamide industries)
are in Northwest Florida. Both use deep-well injection for disposal of acidic
chemical wastes from the synthetic fiber plants. Monsanto discharges 3 Mgal/d,
whereas American Cyanamide discharges 0.7 Mgal/d into deep-well confined
areas. Monsanto, the largest industry in Northwest Florida (it employs 5,000
people), has been injecting through deep-wells since 1963, whereas American
Cyanamide has been using injections since 1975 (Department of Environmental
Regulation, Bureau of Groundwater Analysis, 1981: personal communication).

In Northwest Florida there are six Class I, 53 Class II, no Class III,
and 66 Class V injection wells. Escambia has one air conditioning well and
one cooling injection well, and Bay County has 5 air conditioning injection
wells. Santa Rosa, by contrast, has 47 Class II wells.

The State is using every technically feasible precaution to protect the
quality and quantity of groundwater. No reported groundwater contamination
violations have yet been noted from deep-well injection facilities (Conversa-
tion with Dr. Rodney DeHan, Department of Environmental Regulation, Section
Administrator, Groundwater Section, Tallahasee, FL, July 1981).

Water Quantity

Vast quantities of water from groundwater and surface water sources are
used for industrial, municipal, and agricultural purposes every year. For
self-supplied industries, Escambia County produces 47.3 Mgal/d, Okaloosa pro-
duces 5.4 Mgal/d, and Santa Rosa produces 19 Mgal/d. Escambia County also
produces 115 Mgal/d of saline groundwater for industrial use. Groundwater
there is largely used in processing pulp paper and chemical products. In
Santa Rosa County, chemical products industry is the major water user.
Although groundwater supplies in certain areas such as Fort Walton Beach are
seriously depleted. Northwest Florida generally is water rich in quantity and
qual ity.

Hazardous and Solid Waste

The disposal of hazardous and solid wastes is a problem in Northwest
Florida. Highly porous sandy soils and subsurface contamination have caused
serious problems for the disposal and treatment of hazardous wastes. Steps
must be taken to neutralize wastes prior to their discharge (Roy 1979). Var-
ious hazardous wastes have had wide reaching effects.

The potential loss of commercial fishes from oil spills along the St.
Marks River and port facility has been estimated to be about $328,000 annually
(Bell et al . 1982). In another analysis of surface and groundwater contamina-
tion near hazardous waste sites. Lynch (1981) estimated that a hazardous waste
facility discharging heavy metals and sulfuric acid from a battery reclamation
facility caused over $6 million in damage to the environment. Losses included
costs for restoration, and extensive damage to the freshwater fisheries in Dry

263

Creek and Chipola River, and other waters all the way into the Gulf County
Dead Lakes area. Furthermore, the effects of this heavy metal contamination
may have gone downstream as far as Apalachicola Bay, Although the cost of
groundwater pollution is yet unknown, it is certain to be relatively high.
Some wells in the drainage system contain heavy metal contamination above EPA
standards. These hazardous waste violations could have been avoided if
$300,000 were used for proper treatment and disposal of liquid wastes (Lynch
1981).

In another major hazardous waste accident in 1978 in Youngstown, Bay
County, a train derailment ruptured a railroad tank car carrying several thou-
sand gallons of liquid chloride. Eight deaths and more than 100 injuries were
reported and about 3,700 people were evacuated within a 10-mile radius of the
accident. In addition to the personal suffering from this tragedy, extensive
costs were incurred by local. State, and Federal agencies involved in the
rescue and treatment of injured persons.

A number of hazardous incidents were identified by the Department of
Environmental Regulation. They include hazardous waste discharges from indus-
trial sites where chemicals are discharged either by accident or as a last
resort, causing fish-kills and destruction. In another accident involving
train derailments, serious damage to aquatic life in the Yellow River was
caused by chlorine wastes. Northwest Florida does not have a full federally
authorized hazardous waste land fill disposal facility; the nearest one avail-
able is the Chemical Waste Disposal Facility in Livingston, AL, 200 mi away.

ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS AND REGULATIONS

Throughout this report specific references have been made to existing
State, Federal and local regulatory standards in appropriate natural resource
categories. A discussion of the Federal and State water quality standards
classification scheme was outlined under the water resource issues, and a sim-
ilar examination of State and Federal standards was undertaken in the air
quality segment of this report. These discussions, however, fail to provide a
sufficient broad-based review of the existing Federal, State and local regula-
tory framework within which reviewers and users of this report can be guided.
The following analysis is a brief review of major environmental acts and regu-
lations.

FEDERAL

Federal Aid and Wildlife Federation Act, 1937

The purpose of this act is to inaugurate a program of Federal aid to the
states for the restoration and management of wildlife. Through this Act,
about $350 million have been allotted to state fish and game department wild-
life restoration projects.

264

Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956

The purpose of this bill is to provide a framework in which the problems
of the commercial fishing industry can be resolved, and give recognition to
the importance of outdoor recreation. This Act established the United States
Fish and Wildlife Service in the Department of Interior.

Fish Restoration and Management Projects Act

This act is designed to provide Federal aid to the states for restoration
in the management of their fisheries resources, financed through a special
fund from a tax on fishing rods, reels, bait, flies, and other fishing related
expenditures.

Estuary Protection Act P.L. 90-454

This act authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to conduct an inventory
and study of the Nation's estuaries, working towards the goal of protecting,
saving, and restoring them.

Marine Sanctuaries Act of 1972

This act authorizes the Secretary of Commerce, with the approval of the
President, to designate as "Marine Sanctuaries" those areas of coastal waters,
as far out as the outer edge of the continental shelf, or of coastal waters
wherever the tide ebbs and flows, which he determined need Federal protection
in order to maintain their ecological and recreational values. In 1979, this
act was employed in southwest Florida for designation of the Apalachicola
Marine Sanctuary.

Endangered Species Act of 1973

This act provides mechanisms through the Secretary of Commerce for pro-
tection of endangered species of fish and wildlife by way of direct Federal
action and by encouraging states to establish conservation programs. Enforce-
ment include civil and criminal penalties.

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act as amended by the Federal
and Environmental Pesticide Control of 1972, P.L. 92-516

The purpose of the original legislation was to control the composition of
the pesticides through adequate labeling and instructions and tests on side
effects, and for registering aquatic poisons. The amendment initiated a sys-
tem to prevent indiscriminant application of pesticides to protect fish and
wild! ife.

Federal Water Pollution Control Act

The passage of this act was the Federal Government's first major intent
to take an active role in the fight against water pollution. The original
1948 Act emphasized state control, but was limited in scope to interstate
waters and tributaries.

Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 P.L. 92-500. The
1972 Amendments completely revised and restructured the 1948 Act. The major
goals of the act were to:

265

0 Eliminate the discharge of pollutants into navigable waters by 1985,
and maintain water quality suitable for fish and wildlife, and other
forms of recreation by 1983.

0 Prohibit the discharge of toxic pollutants.

0 Provide financial assistance to construct publicly-owned waste
treatment works.

0 Develop and implement area-wide waste treatment.

0 Develop the technology necessary to eliminate the discharge of pol-
lutants into navigable waters.

To attain these goals, the emphasis of legislation has been changed from
water quality standards to effluent limitations. The new approach uses efflu-
ent limitations as a basis to eliminate pollution by 1985. Water quality
standards also are established in the new act. States such as Florida may set
up their own water quality standards based on the Federal Class I through
Class V classification system.

The 1972 amendments require that all publicly owned sewage treatment
plants provide a minimum of secondary treatment by 1 July 1977 and advanced
waste treatment by 1 July 1978. The amendments also require that industrial
discharge should meet the best practical technology requirements by 1 July
1977 and the best available technology by 1 July 1983. EPA has extended the
deadlines to 1 July 1983 for compliance with requirements for publicly owned
sewage treatment works as described below:

Type pollutant Level of technology Legislative deadline

Conventional Best conventional 1 July 1984

pollution control
technology

Toxic Best available 1 July 1984 for

technology economi- existing toxic pollu-
cally achievable tants; 1 to 3 years

after determination of
new toxic pollutants

Nonconventional Best available technology 3 years after effluent

economically achievable. limits are established

but no later than
1 July 1984 and never
later than 1 July 1987.

Ocean Dumping Act

This act forms congressional policy to regulate the dumping of all types
of materials into those waters lying seaward of the base line from which the
territorial sea is measured. The act is particularly concerned with the

2G6

dumping of materials that would adersely affect human welfare and the marine
environment.

Clean Air Act of 1963

The Clean Air Act revises existing air pollution laws in an attempt to
strengthen basic authority as well as the role of the Department of Health and
Human Services regarding air pollution.

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970

This act is a reflection of the Federal Government's recognition of air
quality as a national problem and its implicit acceptance of primary responsi-
bility for air pollution control. These amendments provide for advanced air
pollution abatement timetables and significantly greater Federal involvement
including increased civil penalties. It is also the first attempt to control
auto emissions. The act further establishes procedures for EPA to promulgate
national ambient air standards based solely on factors relating to public
health and welfare without regard to technological and economic feasibilities.

In April 1971, EPA issued the first national contaminant standards for
sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide, particulates, photochemical oxidents, hydrocar-
bons, and nitrogen oxides. National ambient air quality standards for lead
have since been prepared. Primary standards are designed to protect public
health and secondary standards are designed to enhance the environment.

EPA also has set standards of performance for certain stationary sources
of pollution. Some of these emission standards apply to new and existing
point sources, whereas others apply specifically to new sources. Some pollu-
tants are so hazardous that the act requires direct Federal standards and
enforcement to protect the public health. National emission standards have
been set for asbestos, beryl ium, mercury, and vinyl chloride. Benzene has
also been designated a hazardous air pollutant in June 1977.

Section 220 of the act calls for development by each state of a plan for
the implementation, maintenance and enforcement of primary and secondary
standards of air pollution. These plans, called State Implementation Plans,
(SIP) must assure air quality consistent with the national standards.

Currently, amendments are being made to the Clean Air Act in Congress.
The provisions for changes to the Clean Air Act as recommended by the National
Commission on Air Quality were made to strengthen the existing Federal and
state programs. Proposals to do away with the Prevention of Significant
Degradation requirements and other administrative Federal mandates were sub-
mitted to Congress in the Spring of 1981.

Resource Recovery Act of 1970

This act was designed to provide Federal assistance to state and local
governments to assure proper disposal of solid wastes.

267

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976

This act sets out to broaden the national solid waste management program,
and conserve natural resources through waste reduction, and minerals and
energy recovery. EPA is authorized to:

0 Regulate the disposal of all hazardous wastes.

0 Establish state regulatory programs to close all open dumps and con-
trol all land disposal of solid wastes, including sludge.

0 Encourage the development of basic national resource conservation
and recovery policies.

Toxic Substances Control Act (P.L. 94-469)

The Toxic Substances Control Act authorizes EPA to obtain data from
industry on selected chemical substances and mixtures and to regulate the sub-
stances when needed. Chemicals used exclusively in pesticides, food, food
additives, drugs, nuclear materials, tobacco, firearms, and ammunition are
exempt from this act.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

This act requires the preparation of a detailed environmental impact
statement whenever there is a proposed major Federal action that would signif-
icantly affect the quality of the human environment. Environmental impact
statements must be prepared prior to any major Federal activity in the coastal
zone, including offshore energy development.

National Flood Insurance Act of 1968

This law provides limited indemnification to the victims of flood disas-
ters through flood insurance to residents of flood-prone areas, provided that
local jurisdictions require land-use control measures to guide safe use of
flood zones.

Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, and Amendments of 1975

The purpose of this act is to encourage the development of comprehensive
state management programs and to formulate a national coastal zone policy for
lands in the coastal zone area. It is implemented by the Office of Coastal
Zone Management, National Oceanographic Atmospheric Administration, Department
of Commerce, and provides assistance to coastal state governments for the
development and implementation of coastal zone management plans. These plans
are designed to assure the orderly and environmentally sound development of
the coastal zone. Recent amendments to the act provide additional financial
assistance to coastal states for new facilities and additional planning needed
to offset coastal energy development. In Florida the Coastal Zone Management
plan is in the final stages of development and approval.

268

Submerged Lands Act

This act is designed to promote the exploration and development of petro-
leum deposits by settling disputes between state and Federal governments over
rights to ownership of submerged lands. Its importance is in terms of manag-
ing, leasing, and developing offshore energy. It serves as the basis for
ownership disputes over state and Federal jurisdiction of the submerged lands
of the continental shelf seaward from state boundaries. In the Gulf of Mex-
ico, Florida and Texas state boundaries extend seaward approximately 9 mi;
other state boundaries extend seaward only 3 mi. The Secretary of the Inter-
ior designated the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) as the administrative
agency for leasing submerged Federal lands; the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(FWS) helps design environmental studies and acts in an advisory capacity
through much of the leasing process.

STATE OF FLORIDA

The State of Florida, since the late 1960's, has been very active in pro-
mulgating and enforcing environmental legislation. This section will identify
the major laws and briefly discuss the most significant environmental pro-
grams. A matrix of major environmental legislation and affected state agen-
cies and activities related to permitting in the coastal zone is given in
Figure 31, Part 2, Data Appendix. The most significant environmental laws
enacted in Florida are reidentified and listed in this matrix, as are the
major Federal and state agencies, in addition to a listing of the state legis-
lative mandates used to manage activities and uses of water and land within
the coastal zone. The most useful laws for environmentalists are given in the
following sections.

Pollution-spill Protection and Control, Florida Statutes,
Chapter 376- Section 376.021

This statute addresses the transfer of pollutants between vessels and/or
between terminal facilities. The potential discharge into the environment of
products being transferred poses a threat to the environment. These pollu-
tants include many grades of oil, pesticides, ammonia, chlorine, and their
derivatives. The statute requires a registration certificate for the opera-
tion of terminal facilities and gives authority to inspect the facilities to
determine if they comply with regulations.

This statute establishes the mechanism to help in clean-up and rehabili-
tation of the environment after a pollutant has been discharged. The Florida
Coastal Protection Trust Fund states that any owner or operator causing the
pollution shall be liable for all clean-ups and abatement costs. An excise
tax of 2 cents per barrel of the pollutants (mostly oil) has been assessed by
the State of Florida to clean-up chemical spills.

Energy Resources Part II, Regulation of Oil and Gas, Florida Statute 377
Section 377.242. This legislation states that no drilling permit shall be
granted within one mile inland from the coastline unless sufficient environ-
mental protection provisions have been taken to protect the state's estuaries,
beaches, and shorelines. Issuance or renewal of the permit requires a valid
deed, or lease, granting the rights to oil and gas exploration, and satisfac-
tory evidence that the applicants will clean-up any for which they are respon-

269

sible. The Department of Natural Resources has the responsibility for the
rules' administration.

Environmental Land and Water Management Act, Florida Statute 380

The purpose of this act is to develop management strategies and policies
to protect natural resources, the environment, and the water quality of the
State. This is accomplished through designation of "Areas of Critical State
Concern" by the Administration Commission if the areas are deemed to have sig-
nificant environmental, historical, or archaeological resources of statewide
importance. The three currently designated critical areas are the Green
Swamp, the Big Cypress Swamp and the Florida Keys.

The second component of this statute defines the Development of Regional
Impacts (DRI). A DRI is any development that because of its character, magni-
tude or location, would have a substantial effect on the health, safety, or
welfare of citizens of more than one county. A number of DRI's have dealt
with large-scale residential, commercial, and transportation related activi-
ties, and have required high levels of review and scrutiny from Regional Plan-
ning Councils and the Department of Community Affairs. DRI permits, which may
include energy facilities, industrial plants, mining operations, petroleum
storage facilities, or port facilities, involves integrated State and local
review of environmental and socioeconomic factors.

Beaches and Shores Prevention Act, Florida Statue 151 (1975)

This act provides for a 50-ft construction setback line from the mean
highwater line to be established on a county-by-county basis throughout the
coastal areas of Florida and prohibits construction seaward of that line with-
out a waiver or a variance. The statute requires permits for any coastal con-
struction or reconstruction. The Division of Marine Resources enforces and
coordinates provisions of this law.

Florida Statute 403.11 and 403.4152 (1975)

Legislation in Part I of Chapter 402 declares that the pollution of air
and water in the State constitutes a menace to public health and welfare and
is harmful to fish and othe aquatic life and detrimental to domestic, agricul-
tural, industrial, recreational, and other beneficial uses of air and water.
The public policy of the State is to conserve the air and waters of the State
and to protect the propagation of wildlife, fish, and other aquatic life.

Statute 403.062 states that the department has general control and
supervision of underground waters, lakes, rivers, streams, canals, ditches,
and coastal waters inasmuch as their pollution may affect public health or
interests. Section 403.088 states that permits are required for stationary
installations that are expected to be sources of air or water pollution. The
discharge of any waste into the waters of the State is proliibited without
authorization, and water quality standards will be enforced. Section 403.061
grants to the DNR the authority to enforce these provisions, and Section
403.085 states that permits are required for ocean outfalls. Secondary treat-
ment or other treatment may be required as necessary before the permit will be
granted.

270

State Parks and Preserves, Florida Statute 258

The three main developments in this statute are as follows:

0 Miscellaneous parks and preserves created (258.08-. 155). This sec-
tion establishes six separate parks and preserves around the State
and provides for their maintenance and administration. The aquatic
preserves of Boca Chega and Biscayne Bay are created. Further
development of bottomlands through dredge and fill is prohibited.

0 State Wilderness System Act of 1970 (258. 17-. 33). The general
intent of this act is to establish a permanent system of wildlife
preserves.

0 Florida's Aquatic Preserve Act of 1975 (258. 53-. 46) . This act is
intended to preserve forever state-owned submerged lands in areas
that have exceptional biological, aesthetic or scientific value. In
these areas, no further alienation by the State by dredging and
filling, bulkheading, mining or development will be permitted except
for specific exceptions. Section 258.3(c) prohibits drilling for
gas or oil within a preserve but permits drilling from outside the
preserved area. The DNR administers the Aquatic Preserves, State
Wilderness Areas, and State Parks and the Governor and Cabinet, sit-
ting as the board of Trustees of the Internal Improvement Trust
Fund, have final approval regarding these facilities and areas.

Game and Freshwater Fish, Florida Statutes 372

This law prohibits contamination of fresh waters of such magnitude that
it will damage freshwater aquatic life. This law is enforced by the Game and
Freshwater Fish Commission.

Water Resources Act 1972: Part I, the State Water Resource Plan,
Florida Statutes 373.013

The Florida Resources Act of 1972 covers all State waters unless exempt,
and provides for the comprehensive management of water and related land use
including development of dams, impoundments, reservoirs, and other works to
provide water storage and to prevent damage from flooding, soil erosion, and
excessive run off. Section 373.026 designates tiie responsibility to the DER
for the broad powers and authorities under the Act, and supervision of the
Water Management District.

Water Resource Management Act 1972: Part I I-Permitting of Consumptive Use of
Water, Florida Statute 373.203-.249

Section 373.219 requires a permit for the consumptive use of water and
imposes reasonable conditions to assure that the permitted use is consistent
with the overall objectives of the water district of the OER and not harmful
to the water resource of the area. The use to which water is put must be a
reasonably beneficial one; reasonable from the stand-point of other landowners
and the public. The water management districts are authorized by the DER to
be responsible for issuing consumptive use permits.

271

Local and Intergovernmental Programs, Florida Statute 163-.3191

This legislation enables counties and incorporated municipalities to plan
for future development and to prepare, adopt, and amend comprehensive plans to
guide future development. These comprehensive plans should include zoning and
subdivision regulations, policies for land and water use, and building and
electrical, gas, and sanitary codes. A coastal protection element shall be
included for those units of local government lying in part or in whole in the
coastal zone.

Local governments use their authority in relation to the environmental
problems of OCS development in several ways. Land is administered to ensure
environmental protection, and local governments have the authority to admin-
ister land- and water-use regulations. Local governments have the power of
eminent domain, which can be used as an enforcement mechanism to ensure
compliance with sewage and landscaping requirements, and environmental
requirements, and to acquire land for necessary facilities. A local infra-
structure already exists in some areas to regulate air and water pollution.

Each coastal community within the region has a coastal component of its
comprehensive land-use plan either developed or in the development phases,
such as the land-use provisions of the Sanibel Island Comprehensive Plan,
Chapter 5 entitled, "Conservation/Coastal Zone Protection." To protect these
basic resources, the objectives, policies, and implementation of the recommen-
dations of Franklin County's Comprehensive Plan are predicated upon the fol-
lowing goal:

To guide development in such a manner that the basic functions and

productivity of the County's natural land and water systems will

De conserved over time, and to reduce or avoid health, safety, and

economic problems for the present and future residents of Franklin
County.

This element provides a set of objectives and policies designed for the com-
prehensive plan to accomplish its goal.

Local government's jurisdictional authority can either hinder or aid OCS
and other energy-related facilities within its jurisdiction. Local governments
can take land through eminent domain for development of public industrial
parks, port facilities, utilities, or road easements. The same local govern-
ments can promulgate regulations on air, water, solids, and hazardous wastes
that are more stringent than Federal or State regulations. They can request
aid in funding certain activities that support OCS oil and gas related activ-
ities and may even be able to co-author municipal bonds for development of
infrastructures and facilities essential for on and offsite support for OCS
oil and gas production needs.

Chapter 253, F.S. enacted through Section 17-4.29, FAC

The jurisdictional authority of Chapter 253 is restricted to navigational
waters (natural or artificial), mean high water line for waters subject to
tidal action, and ordinary high water line on nontidal lakes. Focus is on
fish and wildlife habitats, navigation impacts (potential obstructions to nav-
igable waters), riparian rights, and water flow. If the proposed activity is

272

within an aquatic preserve, the additional requirements of Chapter 258, the
Aquatic Preserve Act, are considered in permitting decisions. It is the
Department's policy that any dredge and fill project over 10,000 yd is pro-
cessed by the central office of the DER in Tallahassee, Florida.

Water Quality Based Discharge Permits

Chapter 403.087. and .088, F.S. implemented through Chapter 17-4.03, FAC.
The provisions of these statutes direct the department to issue technology-
based standards (such as 905^ treatment required for sewage treatment facili-
ties within the State), and effluent-based water quality wasteload allocations
that limit the discharge for a particular facility up to the point of ambient
water quality standards.

Air Quality Permitting Activities, Legislative Authority Chapter 403.087

Implemented through the provisions of Chapter 17-2, FAC. Emission levels
are set through technology-based standards and ambient-based standards depend-
ing upon the nature of the source seeking the permit. The authority for all
air quality permitting activities is enacted through Chapter 17-2, FAC. These
restrictions include those for nonattainment areas, technology standards such
as new source performance standards and best available control technology, and
other State Implementation Plan authorities such as Best Available Control
Technology determination and prevention of significant degradation.

DATA GAPS

One of the major problems in any environmental assessment is the lack of
adequate and standarized infomation. Monitoring air, surface, and ground
water conditions is designed to identify existing or potential problems. Mon-
itoring of point sources pollution gives only a single view that is distorted
if generalized to a broader area or time frame. Conversely, poorly placed
monitors easily miss major environmental degradation and rate the quality too
high. The complexity of interacting forces and a lack of useful measurement
techniques may lead to bias in the final data.

Because of the lack of funding, monitoring equipment is frequently not
placed in non-problem areas. In many areas of the State meaningful baseline
air quality data are lacking. For example, air and water monitoring stations
are located outside of major urban or industrial sites. Florida's ground
water aquifer system has not been adequately monitored and the extent of
potential risk from hazardous waste sites is not well understood.

Summary of Federal and State Dredge and Fill
and Discharge Permit Requirements

The DER and the Army Corps of Engineers (COE) have a joint pennitting
agreement that authorizes an applicant to submit one basic application to both
agencies for dredge and fill proposals. This joint application will be sepa-
rately reviewed by the DER and COE to determine which agency has jurisdiction.
.The COE typically has broader authority in the headwaters of navigable
streams. The general authority for COE is issuance of dredge and fill permits

273

for discharge of clean fill into navigable waters and supporting the Clean
Water Act (Section 404), the Rivers and Harbors Act of 189<^, and the Marine
Protection Research and Sanctuary Act of 1972. The EPA additionally has the
authority for issuing effluent permits under the provisions of the Clean Water
Act and the Clean Air Act.

Florida Permitting Provisions establish the authority to administer and
enact rules as set forth in State statute. (Legislative authorization for the
DER's permitting activities are in Chapter 253, F.S. and Chapter 403 F.S.)
The DER may issue and deny permits and define and refine those areas of estab-
lished legislative authority consistent with the Florida Legislature. The
rules established by DER set forth the implementation of the intent delegated
through the statutes.

Within DER the two basic dredge and fill permit authorities are covered
by Chapter 403, F.S., implemented through Chapter 17-4.28. This authority
extends to certain listed waters of the State and to the landward extent to
natural and artificial water bodies connected to the designated, listed water
body. The definition of landward extent is established by the vegetative
index in Section 17-4.02(17). The permitting jurisdiction under Section 403
focuses on short and long pollution problems judged in light of water quality
parameters.

274

REFERENCES

Bell, F. An economic evaluation of the benefits and costs associated with
reopening Navarre Pass, Santa Rosa County, FL. Tallahassee, FL: Florida
State University, Department of Economics; September 1977.

Bell, F. Recreational versus commercial fishing in Florida. Tallahassee, FL:
Florida State University, Department of Economics; 1979.

Bell, F. Costs and benefits from oil spills from the St. Marks ^iver port

facilities 1980. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University; 1980.

Unpublished report to the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation;
46 p.

Bell, F.; Preliminary economic analysis of saltwater recreational fishing
tourists visiting Florida during August through September, 1980, prelimi-
nary report. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State University, Department of
Economics; January 1981.

Bell, F.; Canterbury, R. (Florida State University, Department of Economics).
Benefits from water pollution abatement - coastal waters. Vol. 1 and 2.
Washington, DC: National Commission on Water Quality; Aug. 1976. Micro-
fiche available from NTIS, Springfield, VA. Document PB252172-02.

Brezonik, P.L.; Edgerton, E.S.; Hendry, CD. Acid precipitation and sulfate
deposition in Florida. Science 208; 1980.

Council of Environmental Quality. 11th Annual Report of the Council of Envi-
ronmental Quality for 1980. Washington, DC; 1981; Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 335:801/7090.

Edmunsten, J. A survey of marine and estuarine resources of northwest Flor-
ida. Mobile, AL: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; March 1977.

Florida Agricultural University and Florida International University (Joint
Center for Environmental and Urban Problems). Florida environmental and
urban problems. Boca Raton and Miami, FL; April 1981.

Florida Power and Light Company Environmental Affairs. Atlas of environmental
jurisdiction in Florida. Miami, FL ; 1979.

Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation, Bureau of Coastal Zone
Planning. Statistical inventory of key biophysical elements in Florida's
coastal zone. Tallahassee, FL; March 1978.

Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation, Bureau of Coastal Zone
Planning. Water quality assessment (State Water Quality Management
Plan). CFR 131.11(b); Tallahassee, FL; May 1979a.

275

Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation, Bureau of Water Analysis
Water Quality Monitoring Section. Development of a water quality index.
Tallahassee, FL; October 1979b.

Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation, Bureau of Air Quality
Management. Florida 1979 air quality statistical report (DER BA2M 80-
006); Tallahassee, FL; April 1980a.

Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation. Hazardous waste manage-
ment program. Vol. I and II. Tallahassee, FL; 1980b.

Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation. Economic impact assess-
ment statement for the proposed revisions to Chapter 17-6, F.A.C. Talla-
hassee, FL; 1981.

Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation. Manual of state regula-
tory and review procedures for land development in Florida. Tallahassee,
FL; May 1981; 100 p.

Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation, Bureau of Groundwater
and Special Program. Proposed revisions to Chapter 17-3, 17-6, F.A.C.
Tallahassee, FL; August 1982.

Florida State Division of State Planning, Bureau of Comprehensive Planning.
The Florida general soil atlas (Regional Planning District 1 and 2),
Vol. 1, Coastal counties and cities. Tallahassee, FL; September 1977;
92 p.

Gossel ink, J.G.; Odum, E.P.; Pope, R.M. The value of the tidal marsh. Baton
Rouge, LA: Center for Wetlands Research, Louisiana State University;
1973.

Gregor, J.J. Intraurban mortality and air quality: an economic analysis of
the costs of pollution induced mortality. Report to USEPA 600/5-79-009;
Pennsylvania State University, PA: The Center for Environmental Policy;
July 1977.

Loehman, E.; Berg, S. Distributional analysis of regional benefits and costs
of air quality control. Gainesville, FL: J. Environ. Econ. Manage.;
1979.

Lynch, T. Economic impact assessment statement for the proposed revisions of
Chapters 17-3, 17-4, 17-6, F.A.C. Tallahassee, FL: Department of Envi-
ronmental Regulation; 1977.

Lynch, T. Environmental economic damage assessment for sapp battery (Jackson
County) waste violation case. Tallahassee, FL: Florida State Department
of Environmental Regulation; July 1981.

Lynne, G. ; Conroy, P. Economic value of the coastal zone, estimates for a
tidal marsh. Gainesville, FL: Institute of Food and Agricultural Sci-
ence; August 1978.

276

Milliman, J.; Sipe, N. Benefit measures of air quality regulations in Flor-
ida, a pilot study. Gainesville, FL; State grant 78-104; September 1979.

Milliman, J., Fishkin, H., Sipe, N. Charlotte Harbor fiscal impact model.
•Tallahassee, FL: University of Florida; Bureau of Economic and Business
Research, June 1981.

Roy, E. The dollars and sense of environmental protection. Tallahassee, FL:
Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation; 1979.

Seskin, E.; Lane, L. Air pollution and human health. Baltimore, MD: 1977.
Available from Resources of the Future, Johns Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore, MD.

Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council. Growth management of Southwest
Florida. Fort Myers, FL; Information Report Series; 1979.

Terbonne, P. The economic losses from freshwater pollution in the Pensacola
area. Fla. Nat. October 1973: 21-26.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office for Water Program Operations.
Cost effective comparison of land application and advanced wastewater
treatment. EPA-430/9-75-016; Washington, DC; November 1975.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Groundwater pollution problems in
the Southeastern United States. Ada, Oklahoma; EPA-600/13-77-012;
January 1977.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Inventory by pollutant 1970-79.
Washington, DC; 1980; 97 p.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Quality criteria for water.
Washington, DC; 1976.

Waddel , T. The economic damages of air pollution. Washington, DC: Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA); Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
series report EPA-600/5-74-012; 1974.

Wood, R. ; Fernald, E. The new Florida atlas. Tallahassee, FL: Trend Pub-
1 ication; 1974.

Zellars-Will iams. Inc. Evaluation of the phosphate deposits of Florida using
the minerals availability system: final report. Lakeland, FL; June
1978.

277

ENERGETICS MODELS OF SOCIOECONOMIC SYSTEMS

Dr. John F. Alexander, Jr.
Professor
Urban and Regional Planning Department
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL 32611

Marjorie J. Alexander, M.R.C.

1405 N.W. 39th Drive

Gainesville, FL 32605

Preston 0. Howard, M.A.

Col lege of Law

Florida State University

Tallahassee, FL 32301

INTRODUCTION

This synthesis paper discusses the use of energetics models as a tool for
studying socioeconomic and environmental systems. It provides a method for
integrating the processes and components of natural and socioeconomic produc-
tion. This paper also introduces the theoretical principles of energetics
modeling and its limitations, followed by a discussion of the general method-
ology used in the design and execution of an energetics model. The results of
an energetics model of Tampa and Hillsborough County in southwestern Florida
are discussed, along with several other models, to show the types of research
questions that can be answered using this method.

Different approaches have been proposed and tested for modeling natural
and human systems. This paper focuses on the use of energy as a common denom-
inator for all flows and storages within the systems under study. Energy cir-
cuit models are evaluated by measuring the quantity of energy flowing in a
particular pathway or stored in the system. Because all activities, interac-
tions, and even storages require energy, and in fact are energy, it is pos-
sible and practical to quantify a particular pathway by its energy value.

MODELING LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

The symbols used in the systems diagrams were established by Howard T.
Odum (1971) and are part of the energy circuit language. The language com-
bines several approaches that show energetics and provide insight into the
mathematical description of a system, and illustrates a holistic approach.
Energy circuit language contains a hierarchy of symbols that allow the dia-
gramming of several levels of compl exity' in one model.

278

Several of the more commonly used energetics language symbols are illus-
trated in Figure 1. The water-tank-shaped symbol (A) represents an energy
storage. The lines intersecting the storage symbolize energy flow pathways
with flow in the direction of the arrows. The circle (B) is the symbol for an
energy source which suppl ies power to the model from outside the systems
boundary. The heat sink (C) is used to illustrate how waste heat or degraded
energy is removed from the system.

The next three symbols (D, E, F) are group or subsystem symbols. These
symbols are used primarily to aid in model organization. The hexagonal symbol
(D) represents a self-maintaining consumer subsystem. A cow or city is an
example of a consumer system. Consumers require concentrated energy from pro-
ducers to operate, and feedback some energy to control the producer system.
The bullet-shaped symbol (E) represents a producer subsystem. Producers are
capable of upgrading dilute forms of natural energy such as sun, wind, and
rain into more concentrated forms of energy such as plant biomass. The use of
carbon from the atmosphere and nutrients from the soil by plants in the photo-
synthetic process is an example of a producer system. Producer and consumer
systems are coupled to process energy and cycle matter within energetics
models of systems of man and nature. The third group symbol (F) represents a
logic action. The logic symbol is used to diagram a process in which the out-
come has an off-on effect such as an electron.

The transformation process is represented by G. Relative dilute energy
interacts with concentrated energy in the process symbol to produce some
intermediate product. This symbol is commonly called a production function.
An example would be the interaction of a plant with natural energy to produce
plant sugar or the interaction of materials, fuels, capital, and labor in a
city to produce a product. The energy and money transaction is represented by
H. The solid line represents the energy flow and the dashed line represents
the flow of money. The small circle is used to label the price (ratio of
money to energy). This symbol is often used at the system boundary to control
imports based on money stored in the system and collect money from exported
products. The last symbol (I) is a flow sensor which is used to monitor flows
of energy.

PRINCIPLES OF ENERGETICS MODELING

All energetics models, when designed properly, are consistent with the
first and second laws of thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics
states that energy is neither created nor destroyed; all systems of man and
nature conserve energy. This principle of conservation of energy is incor-
porated into energetics models by requiring that the sum of all flows into a
system, minus the energy flowing out, equal the net changes in energy storages
within the system or any part of the system. In developing an energetics
model that is consistent with the first law requirements, it is important that
all energy flows be measured in their heat equivalent value.

The second law of thermodynamics pertains to the degradation of energy.
This principle states that in all useful processes some energy must be degrad-
ed and thus lose its ability to do further work. Energetics models incor-
porate the second law by requiring heat sinks, or energy degradation flows, on
all energy interaction and energy storages.

279

(A)

(B)

(E)

(F)

(G)

(I)

Figure 1. Energy circuit diagramming symbols: (A) energy storage;
(B) energy source; (C) heat sink; (D) self-maintaining consumer unit;
(E) self-maintaining production unit; (F) logic unit; (G) transforma-
tion or production function; (H) money energy transaction and
(I) energy flow sensor.

The maximum power principle states that systems which take advantage of
the maximum number of energy sources and use them most efficiently have the
best chance of survival and are more competitive than systems which cannot
sufficiently use the energy sources available (Lotka 1922). Charles Darwin's
theory of survival of the fittest is an example of the maximum power principle
when the system or subsystem under study is a living organism. An industrial
example would be competition between two factories producing the same product;
one only used wood as an energy source whereas the other used wood and coal .

ENERGY QUALITY

In assessing the capacity of energy to do work, more must be known than
the total amount of available heat equivalent energy. This requirement can be
illustrated by comparing wood and coal as fuels. Coal is a higher quality
(more concentrated) fuel than wood. For example, it is more desirable to fuel
a foundry with coal than wood because the more concentrated coal burns at a
higher temperature. The difference in the energy quality of wood and coal is

280

a result of their composition. Coal is basically wood and other organic
matter which, over periods of geologic time, has been compressed, heated, and
eventually carbonized and has a higher energy quality factor (Table 1). The
use of energy circuit modeling to diagram the flows of wood and coal into a
foundry process is illustrated in Figure 2. Note the geologic upgrading of
wood to coal in the model. The plants are diagrammed as a producer and the
foundry as a consumer unit.

Table 1. Energy quality factors for various fuels (Odum and Odum 1976; Alex-
ander et al . 1980b.)

Power Energy Quality Factor

Source (solar cal /cal )

Sun 1

Wood 1,000

Coal 2,000

Oil 3,400

Gas 3,400

Electric Power 8,000

The wood, coal, and oil and gas factors represent estimates of the dif-
ferent quantities of solar energy required to produce these fuels and also
give an indication of how much of each will be required in a specific indus-
trial process. The higher the quality factor of a given energy source, the
better able it is to do useful work. Consequently, the energy quality factor,
compared to solar energy, is the best indicator of the inherent worth of a
given energy type. Quality factors provide a way of estimating the value of
the natural energies and of comparing than to other types of energy such as
those associated with animals, human culture, materials, and information (Odum
and Odum 1976). Information in this context refers to the flow of concentrat-
ed energy between a sender and receiver as in a radio broadcast or human
speech. The flow of information is an example of a very highly concentrated
energy flow, i.e., it takes large quantities of solar energy to power systems
which in turn produce information flows in a control action.

ENERGY AND MONEY

The interaction of energy and money of a farm is illustrated in Figure 3.
In this simplified energy circuit model of a farm, renewable natural energy

281

products

Figure 2. Energy flow model of wood and coal as fuel sources for a foundry.

such as sun, rain, and wind are used to power the crop growing process. The
farm production consumer system contains equipment which is used to cultivate
the soil and harvest the crop. The harvested crop exported from the farm sys-
tem produces a flow of money into the farm in a direction opposite to the flow
of exported energy. The money derived from the sale of produce is stored in
the money storage tank. The stored money consequently is used to purchase
fuels, goods, and services necessary to operate the fanm.

For any nation, the ratio of dollar flow to energy flow, for a particular
year, may be calculated by dividing the sum of all natural and fossil fuel
energies entering the nation by the nation's gross national product. For
example, in 1975 24.56 x 1015 calories of energy were consumed in the United
States, whereas the gross national product was 1,526.8 x 10^2 dollars. This
calculation produces an energy to dollar ratio of 16,100 calories per dollar
(Figure 4) and shows the ratio of embodied energy flow to gross national

282

SYSTEM BOUNDARY

purchased fuels
goods and services

Figure 3.
and money.

Energetics model of a farm illustrating the interaction of energy

product for 1947-78 according to Odum et al . (1980). Energy to dollar ratios
are useful when evaluating urban energy flows because the dollar value of a
specific flow such as human labor often is the only data available. The
dollar to energy ratio gives an estimate of the quantity of fossil fuel and
natural energy required for the United States society to provide a specific
function. Note the drop in energy per dollar of the United States gross
national product.

One final point to be made concerning the relationship between money and
energy is that the quantity of money flowing per unit of energy is constantly
changing, as plotted in Figure 4. Non-renewable energy, such as oil, is
recovered and processed for further use by human consumers. The consumers pay
the energy processors for providing the service. As the more easily recovered
fuels are expended, more energy must be used to recover the less accessible
fuels. The result is that the same expenditure of energy, measured in terms
of money, produces less usable energy, which causes inflation. Government
policies which expand the national money supply also contribute to the declin-
ing energy to dollar ratio. When using money flows to estimate energy flows,
the money-to-energy ratio will be dependent on the year that the data were

283

considerable recreational benefits to local residents. The problem is that

many of the beaches have been badly eroded by either natural or manmade

causes. The situation could be worse if there is no restoration or stabiliza-
tion.

Erosion is one of the dynamic natural processes associated with beaches,
but the imposition of manmade structures can cause critical economic losses.
Urban development often aggravates beach erosion. In recognition of the beach
erosion problem, the Coastal Construction Setback Line Law of 1970 (ch. 161
F.S.) was enacted. The legislature made the following pronouncements in con-
junction with that law (Florida Department of Administration 1978).

The attraction of Florida 'a beautiful beaches and shores accounts
for a substantial portion of the State's annual tourist trade.

Beach and shore erosion is a serious menace to the economy and
general welfare of the people of this State.

Unguided development of these beaches and shores coupled with
uncontrolled erosive forces is destroying or substantially damag-
ing many miles of our valuable beaches each year.

If construction or excavation is allowed to encroach upon the line
of mean high water too closely, erosive processes are initiated or
accelerated both at the site involved and on neighboring beach and
shore properties as well.

The greater public interests compel that certain enforceable
restrictions be placed upon the location of coastal contruction
and excavation even though such construction or excavation is
located on private lands.

Beach erosion is a pressing problem along much of the gulf coast of
Northwest Florida. Hurricanes, of course, have the most devastating effect
upon the shoreline. Since 1711, more than 70 hurricanes have crossed the
Northwest Florida coast or passed close enough to cause damage. The Panama
City area is central to the region and has been substantially affected by 12
hurricanes since 1856 (U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers 1980). In addition to
hurricanes, strong winter storms frequently produce serious erosion. On the
average, 15 to 20 such stonns occur each winter.

According to a study by the U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers there are
44.6 mi of gulf shoreline along Bay County, 21.5 mi are subject to critical
erosion, 17.3 mi to noncritical erosion, and only 5.8 mi are noneroding. Of
the 27.9 mi in private ownership, 16.6 mi are for private recreational use.
It is here that there is strong pressure for dealing with shoreline erosion.
Critical erosion is defined in the study as "...those areas where erosion pre-
sents a serious problem because the rate of erosion considered in conjunction
with economic, industrial, recreation, agricultural, navigational, demo-
graphic, ecological, or other relevant factors, (indicates) that action to
halt such erosion may be (imperative)."

Following adoption of a 1970 resolution by the U.S. Senate Committee on
Public Works, the Corps of Engineers prepared a report on the need for beach

284

60,000

I 50,000
o

i 40,000

rts

S 30,000

^ 20,000 .

^ 10,000
o

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980
TIME, yr

Figure 4. Coal equivalent calories per dollar of gross
national product per year.

collected, because the cost of energy has been increasing steadily in recent
years.

ENERGETICS MODELING METHODS

Step procedures for developing energetics models of socioeconomic and
environmental systems are described in this section.

STEP 1: ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS MAPPING

The important first step in the design of an energetics model is the
identification of all principal natural and man-made systems. Each vegetative

285

cover type must be located and identified with sufficient precision to permit
its area to be measured or reasonably estimated. Although areas of human
activity also should be recorded, the energy human systems consume will be
measured by using social and economic data as well as the area they occupy.

Land-use maps are a particularly good source of information but some ex-
hibit serious deficiencies. Although land-use maps provide minute detail on
human activities, the ecological systems that are not human-intensive are fre-
quently aggregated into categories which are not suitable for the development
of energetics models. For example, tidal marsh, mangroves, and other wetland
vegetation types are frequently shown as some catch-all category such as "wet"
land, or, worse, "idle" or "vacant" land.

This step produces a map of energy producers and users and the relative
areas occupied by each. From this information, the energy flows of the nat-
ural systems can be calculated for the region. Unlike natural systems, the
energy flows for areas of intensive human activity do not have their energy
flows calculated from their total area, but instead use other measures of eco-
nomic activity. Methods for calculating the respective energy flows are dis-
cussed in Step 3.

STEP 2: SYSTEMS BOUNDARIES

A systems boundary must be established by the researcher at the intial
stages of the development of an energetics model. The boundary of the system
is usually dictated by the purpose of the model. It is very helpful when the
flow of energy across a boundary is minimized because energy flow across any
boundary, as well as those within the system, must be carefully itemized. In
many situations, the information necessary for the energetics model can be
more easily collected and evaluated if significant natural systems are not
divided. For example, a study for the National Park Service of the Redwood
National Park (Alexander et al . 1980a) used county lines as system boundaries
after the redwood habitat was mapped and found to be generally located within
two adjacent counties. In other energetics modeling situations, counties or
other political boundaries that may form an appropriate boundary seldom occur.
Most frequently, the decision to use political boundaries, such as county
lines, increases the difficulty of measuring natural systems. In the example
given in this paper, a model of the City of Tampa would have many more sig-
nificant flows across the city limits than would be necessary for a model of
Hillsborough County, Florida, simply because a large portion of Tampa's labor
force lives in the urban area surrounding the city but are largely contained
in Hillsborough County.

STEP 3: IDENTIFICATION OF ENERGY FLOWS ACROSS THE SYSTEM BOUNDARY

Once the system boundary is defined, flows of energy into and out of the
system can be identified. Normally these flows include solar energy in the
form of sun, rain, and wind; fossil fuel energy in the fonri of electricity,
petroleum, goods and services, and information; combinations of solar and
fossil fuel energy in the form of people; and money.

286

Natural

Producer

System

7-^

Agricultural

Producer

System

Figure 5. Basic Hillsborough County model

This step in the modeling process is fulfilled by drawing a large rec-
tangle around the system. The flows of energy across the boundary are repre-
sented as energy sources (circles, Step 2). The more dilute energy sources
such as the sun, wind, and rain are customarily located in the lower left of
the rectangle, whereas the more concentrated sources such as fossil fuel,
petroleum, and infomation are shown on the top or right side of the rec-
tangle. The energy quality increases from left to right.

STEP 4: IDENTIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL SUBSYSTEMS WITHIN THE SYSTEM

In the example of Hillsborough County, both natural and agricultural sub-
systems are shown (Figure 5). If agriculture were relatively unimportant, it
might logically be included with the energy flows of the natural subsystem
component. -Examples of natural systems are estuaries, ponds, tropical
forests, or grass prairies. The distinction between natural and agricultural
systems is that natural systems are self-organizing and self-maintaining
whereas agricultural systems require maintenance and organization. The im-
portant balance is to include all necessary detail in the energetics simula-
tion without including detail of unnecessary subsystems. The identification
of the subsystems to be modeled is dependent on the goals of the research

287

project, because the questions to be answered by the simulation determine the
detail reflected in the systems components (Figure 5).

STEP 5: IDENTIFICATION OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SUBSYSTEMS AND SOURCES

In the Hillsborough County example (Figure 5), interactions between the
subsystems and sources are shown by energy IHow pathways. A matrix may be
helpful to systematically identify these flows. The energy sources with in-
ternal sources such as the output of the urban system followed by the external
sources in order of increasing energy concentration are listed on the vertical
axis. The internal eneray sinks followed by the external sinks are listed on
the horizontal axis. An agricultural production unit is an example of an
internal sink. Once the input/output matrix is completed an "X" may be used
to indicate a significant energy flow pathway. The completed matrix now foms
a guide to the necessary energy flow pathways to diagram the system, i.e., one
energy flow pathway on the model will be represented by one "X" in the input/
output matrix. If each energy flow in the input/output matrix was evaluated
and the corresponding energy flow quantity used to replace the "X" in the
matrix, an energy input/output model would result. For researchers familiar
with economic input/output models, this may be a familiar arrangement with
which to work.

STEP 6: ENERGY FLOWS WITHIN THE SUBSYSTEMS

A researcher can incorporate more detail into the model by further exam-
ining energy flows within individual system components. For example. Figure 6
shows the system detail for the production systems. Farms, salt marshes, and
forests are typical production systems. The "producer" system shown by the
bullet-shaped symbol contains a storage tank, which is an energy accumulator,
or "counting" device and a feedback loop.

Once all subsystem diagrams showing energy flows and storages are com-
pleted, the energetics model is complete. The actual flows in the model must
now be measured or calculated. To facilitate this, each flow pathway and
storage symbol is assigned a unique identifier. These identifiers for a nat-
ural subsystem model, such as a forest, are shown in Figure 6.

STEP 7: EVALUATION OF THE ENERGETICS MODEL

Each storage and flow of energy identified in the previously drawn ener-
getics diagram must now be quantified, or evaluated, as the quantification
process is also called. The evaluation of the model can be done at a broad
level, but it is much simpler to undertake this step at the subsystem level
because the interdisciplinary nature of systems tends to make model evaluation
difficult. Evaluation of energy flows and storages in the natural system can
be based on information found in ecological literature (Lieth and Whittaker
1975), just as infomiation on agricultural systems can be found in the agri-
cultural literature. All flows of energy must adhere to the laws of thermo-
dynamics. That is, energy may not be created or destroyed in any process, and

288

pphotosynthetic
work

degraded energy
{waste heot)

-absorbed
insolation

Figure 6,
system.

Simplified subsystem model of Hillsborough County natural production

some energy must be degraded in any real process. The first law states that
the sum of the flows into and out of any interaction must be equal, whereas
the second law or principle requires all interactions must have heat sinks for
losses of unusable degraded energy. A separate evaluation should be set up
for each of the subsystems being studied. It is necessary to include in this
table all storages and flows of energy identified on the systems diagram pre-
pared earlier. It is also necessary to document the calculations and relevant
references for each of the flows and storages.

Figure 7 is an example of the results of evaluating the natural produc-
tion system shown in Figure 6. The area of each natural ecosystan in the
county was obtained from a 1978 map of Hillsborough County, Florida (Hills-
borough County Environmental Protection Commision 1979). The solar insolation
of a natural system was calculated by multiplying the solar insolation for
Hillsborough County (1.5 x 10° cal/m^/yr) by the land area of the natural
system (1.23 x 10° m2) yielding a total solar insolation of 1.84 x 10l4
cal/yr. Eighty-six percent of the solar energy (1.6 x 10l4 cal /yr) is
absorbed leaving an albedo (reflection) of 14% (2.6 x 10^3 cal/yr).

Next the energy stored in the biomass of Hillsborough County's natural
system is calculated (see Table 2). The land area of each ecosystem is multi-

289

col /yr

cal/yr

Figure 7. An evaluated model of the Hillsborough County natural system (see
Figure 6 for energy flow pathway names).

plied by the mean weight of the particular ecosystem biomass. The energy
stored in the biomass is computed by multiplying the cal /g of biomass dry
weight by 4.25. The total energy stored in the biomass is computed by
the individual ecosystem energy storage values. Similarly, the gross
production of the boundaries area is computed and then summed. This
illustrated by Table 2. Our experience has shown that splitting gross
production equally between the work required for respiration and
synthesis is a good first estimate.

summing
primary
i s al so
primary
photo-

The energy
multiplying the

value of the harvest from the natural system was computed by
dollar value of the stumpage (total volume of wood harvested.

i.e., 8.7 X 105) from Hillsborough County's natural system by the 1978 energy
to dollar ratio from Figure 4 (1.6 x 10^ cal/$) yielding 1.4 xlOlO cal/yr.
The harvest is small when compared to the total energy stored in the natural
system.

STEP 8: TRANSLATION OF ENERGETICS DIAGRAMS TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

An energetics diagram is actually a differential equation in a pictorial
form. Figure 8 is an example of an energy circuit model with its correspond-
ing differential equation. The storage symbol in the diagram represents the
equation state variable. The rate of change of the storage of energy is cal-
culated by summing of all of the flows of energy into and out of the storage.
Energy flows leaving the storage are given a minus sign. The differential
equation for the natural system of Hillsborough County is given in Figure 8.

290

Table 2. Primary productivity estimates for Hillsborough County natural sys-
tems

Systems

Land

1 area^

Biomass

prima

Cal /m^

Gross
iry product i

Vyr Ca

vity'^

Kg/m^

Cal

il/yr

Pineland

1.8

10^

4.2

lo"

1 X

10^

2.8

xl0^2

Hammock

3.9

lo"

5.8

lo"

1.3

10^

5.1

xl0l2

Cypress

1.1

io8

1.6

ioi3

1.3

10^

1.4

X 10

Marsh and
Slough

5.6

lo'

3.6

loi^

2.4

10^

1.3

xl0>2

Mangroves

2.8

io8

1.2

ioi2

1.2

10^

3.4

xio'^

Lakes and
Ponds

5.6

10^

0.02

4.8

io9

3.2

10^

1.8

xio"

Scrub

5.6

_X_

lo'

1.6

3.8

lo"

4.8

10^

2.7

xlO»

12.3

108

1.2

lo"

1.4

xio'3

^Hillsborough County Environmental Protection Commission 1979.
Lieth and Whittaker 1975.

Similarly, the research would continue through the entire energetics diagram,
translating each storage into its appropriate mathematical analog. Each term
in the differential equation represents a specific energy flow in the model .
The initial value of the energy flows and storages are used to calculate the
pathway coefficients in the equation. For example, the flow of energy on
pathway k.N is 7 x 10^2 cal /yr (from Figure 7) thus:

7 x 10^^ = k^N
.*. k = 5.83 x 10^

291

Figure 8. Energetics model of Hillsborough County natural system illustrating
the translation of the model into differential equation form.

where

E =

N =

j =

J =

J =
J =

•J =

(ki-ko)J N-k-,N-k.N = differential equation for N
^ 1 2 r 3 4 ^

Energy source (solar, rain, and wind)

natural biomass

energy flow coefficients

inflow of energy (solar insolation)

energy not used (albedo)

energy absorbed by system (absorbed insolation)

J + J = conservation of energy
r 0

k J N
0 r

J + k NJ
r or

(k^M<2) jf^=k M_k N
1+k N ^ ^

292

STEP 9: SIMULATION OF THE ENERGETICS MODEL

With the revolution in computer technology, it became more feasible for
the average researcher to simulate simultaneous solution of complex sets of
nonlinear differential equations such as one encounters in energetics models.
The two most popular simulation methods are: (1) the development of analogous
electrical circuits through the use of computer, and (2) numerical approxi-
mation using a digital computer. Each of these two methods has advantages and
disadvantages, but because digital computers are more frequently available to
the researcher, numerical approximation is the method more commonly employed.
A more detailed discussion of the simulation process is incorporated into the
"Results" section in Step 10.

STEP 10: VALIDATION OF THE ENERGETICS MODEL

There i§ no specific test to establish the validity of any large-scale
simulation model. Correlation analysis and other statistical methods have
been used by some researchers to compare similarities between the behavior of
the model and the behavior of the system itself as it functions in reality;
however, the results of these methods of analysis are inconclusive.

Sensitivity analysis is helpful in validating large-scale simulation
models. Individual pathway coefficients are varied to test the system's sen-
sitivity of changes in the linkages. Sensitivity analysis is often helpful in
finding errors in the model design or construction when unexpected behavior
occurs.

Other attempts at validating energetics simulation results are: (1) to
use historical data in the mode, simulating a period from the initial time to
the present, allowing simulation results to be compared with currently avail-
able empirical data; (2) in cases where the system being simulated is rela-
tively well understood, comparing the simulation results to known system
behavior can assist in the validation of a given energetics model. For
example, the researcher might be interested in changes in the simulation
results as different variables are changed to reflect the impact of hypothe-
tical future actions and events.

RESULTS OF ENERGETICS MODELS

INTRODUCTION TO HILLSBOROUGH COUNTY MODEL

In illustrating the methodology for preparing an energetics simulation,
as was done previously in this report, a simple example was used. In this
section, a more complex model is considered, one that has been used to illus-
trate energy alternatives to public administrators.

The earlier model (Figure 5), and the one prepared for this section
jre 9), s
'human" si
panded model .

ine earner moaei ^i-igure b), ana tne one preparea to
(Figure 9), share the same structure incorporating "natural," "agricultural,"
and "human" subsystems. The results discussed in this section are of this ex-

293

Figure 9. Detailed energy model of Hillsborough County (Sipe et al . 1979)

The energy circuit model of Hillsborough County, used as an example in
this section, was developed as part of the Energy Basis of the Hillsborough
County Project at the Center for Wetlands, University of Florida, sponsored by
the Hillsborough County Environmental Protection Agency, John F. Alexander,

simulation model was devel-
report by Sipe, Swaney, and

Jr., and H. T. Odum, principal investigators. The
oped as part of the project by Dennis Swaney and
McGinty (1979).

Description of the Region

Hillsborough County, Florida, near the center of the west coast of Flor-
ida, is almost square in shape, about 36 miles along each side. The total
area of 1,235 mi2, is slightly larger than that of the State of Rhode Island.

The county is relatively flat, elevations range from sea level to a high
of 49 m (165 ft) in the eastern part of the county. The four principal nat-
ural regions of the county are sandhill highlands, inland flatwoods, coastal
lowlands, and river valleys. The county has a subtropical climate, mild win-
ters (average January temperature, 15°C or 59°F) and wami humid summers (aver-
age August temperature, 20°C or 82°F).

294

Overview of the Hillsborough County Model

In research situations, each energetics model must be tailored to the
particular application at hand; each energetics model incorporates its unique
features into the design. Although it is beyond the scope of this report to
examine in detail all facets of the Hillsborough County model, some of the
more salient features are summarized in the following paragraphs.

One such feature is the "Power Maximizing Land Exchange," shown as the
four-cornered logic module in the approximate center of the diagram. It re-
distributes land between the three subsystems. Hillsborough County, like many
Florida coastal counties, has a rapidly increasing population. This increase
has brought about a conversion of some of the natural and agricultural lands
to urban lands, as the City of Tampa and its surrounding communities have
grown. The model exchanges land between the three sectors according to the
relative value of the change in gross county energy flow, just as in actual
land changes between sectors as land becomes economically feasible to develop
(or preserve) within a subsystem. Land exchange is important because the nat-
ural energy flows into each subsystem are proportional to the total land area.

In addition to monitoring changes in land areas, the Hillsborough County
model also simulates changes in the marine environment and in phosphate
reserves. Both are important to the local economy and were included in the
model to show county administrators the effect of different scenarios on these
resources.

Another feature of this particular model is the fuel price monitor in the
upper right-hand corner of the diagram. (It is represented by the small cir-
cle and diamond.) As the price of fuel increases, the rate of fuel imported
per unit of exported goods and services declines. This allows the effects of
fuel increases to be simulated. "What if" scenarios, such as "What if the
price of fuel doubles?" can be examined using this feature and can be compared
with the results of alternative scenarios.

A summary of the synthesis of socioeconomic and natural system data
(Tables 3 and 4) was made by evaluating the energy flows and storages in the
Hillsborough County model (Figure 9).

Results of Energetics Simulations

The results of the Hillsborough County energetics simulation are shown in
Figure 10. Using 1948 data, the model simulated historical changes in the
land area of each subsystan and of population for the county. The values
obtained by the simulation closely paralleled the actual data available for
1978. (Although the oil embargo of 1972 did affect energy flows in each sub-
system of the county, the effects on land area and population were small in
comparison to changes in 1948.) Although the rate of conversion slowed when
the simulation was continued into the future, the historical trend of land in
the natural subsystem being converted into urban and agricultural land con-
tinued (Figure 10). This simulation was predicated on the assumption that
fossil fuel, such as oil, coal, and natural gas would continue to be available
through the end of the century, but it included a sudden price jump in 1973
for these fuels to reflect world events as they occurred.

295

Table 3. Synthesis of 1975 socioeconomic and natural system energy storage
data for Hillsborough County (Sipe et al . 1979).

Storage Description and value

LI Total land in natural systems of Hillsborough County = 7.781 x 10 m

(Hillsborough County Environmental Protection Commission 1979)

Ql Total biomass of natural systems of Hillsborough County = 1.94 x 10^ 3

Kg = 8 X 1013 cal (Lieth and Whittaker 1975)

Ph Total phosphate reserves currently estimated to exist in Hills-

borough County = 2 X 108 short tons = 1.81 x lOl 1 Kg

9 2
L2 Total land in fams for Hillsborough County = 1.445 x 10 m (Hills-

borough County Environmental Protection Commission 1979)

13
Q2 Embodied energy value of farm assets = 1.008 x 10 cal (Florida

Department of Revenue 1976)

L3 Total land area of human systems (e.g., urban, industrial, residen-

tial) = 5.558 X 108 m2 (Hillsborough County Environmental Protection
Commission 1979)

Q3 Embodied energy of total assessed value of land and buildings of

Hillsborough County 1974 (less agricultural assets) = 1.18 x lO^^cal
(U.S. Department of Agriculture 1977)

5
P Population of Hillsborough County in 1974 = 5.87 x 10 people

(Bureau of Economic and Business Research 1975)

F Energy value of Hillsborough County Fuel Stocks (1 year of storage =

3.87 x 10l3 Cal)

12
M Total primary productivity in local marine ecosystan = 4.1 x 10

cal (Lieth and Whittaker 1975)

Simulation of Alternative Futures for Hillsborough County

Energetics simulations not only provide information on the future impact
of current trends, but also permit alternative scenarios to be simulated. In
the case of the Hillsborough County simulation, several alternative scenarios
were investigated. One assumed that fossil fuel prices would be governed by
an increasing "surcharge" starting in 1973, not just a single price increase.
The results of this simulation, shown in Figure 11, show a decrease in urban
assets to levels of the 1950's. (The data shown in Figure 11, with the excep-
tion of population, are in coal equivalent calories.) The decline in urban
assets reflects a changing standard of living in Hillsborough County brought

296

Table 4. Synthesis of 1975 socioeconomic and natural system energy flow data
for Hillsborough County (all energy flows in 10 caloric coal equivalent per
year) (Sipe et al . 1979)

Flow Description

JNI Sum of climatic energies available to natural ecosystems (sun,
rain, wind) = 312.9 (Swaney 1978)

JN2 Sum of climatic energies available to agro-ecosystems (sun, rain,
wind) = 581.0 (Swaney 1978)

JN3 Sum of climatic energies available to urban systems (sun, rain,
wind) = 224.4 (Swaney 1978)

JFF Total fossil fuel input to county functions = 3,677.0 (U.S.
Department of Agriculture 1977)

JPRC Price function of fuel, which regulated fuel input to the county

JFA Fossil fuel input to agriculture = JFF-JFU-JFD = 3,671.0 (Florida
State Energy Office 1978a, 1978b; Tampa Electric Company 1976)

JFD Annual depreciation of fuel stocks = 77

J13 Feedback from natural sector stocks to natural sector production =
2,360. 20% of gross primary production (Lieth and Whittaker 1975)

J14 Usuable climatic energy to natural sector = JNI

J15 Input from natural to urban sector = 1.6 (Bureau of Economic and
Business Research 1977)

J 16 Input from phosphate to urban sector = 326 (Bureau of Economic and
Business Research 1977)

J17 Depreciation of natural sector (vertical heat loss) = 124.5
(Swaney 1978)

J18 Input from agriculture to urban sector = 250 (U.S. Department of
Agriculture 1977)

J19 Usable climatic energy to agricultural sector = JN2

J20 Depreciation to agricultural section (vertical heat loss) = 231
(Swaney 1978)

J21 Sum of inputs to marine system = 90.4 (Heath and Wimberly 1971)

(Continued)
297

Table 4. Concluded.

Flow Description

J22 Input from marine to urban system =4.1 (Bureau of Economic and
Business Research 1977)

J28 Embodied energy invested in tourism = 690 (Bureau of Economic and
Business Research 1977)

J29 Embodied energy of imported goods and services = 1,416

J30 Embodied energy of exported goods and services = 1,363

J31 Depreciation of urban sector (vertical heat loss) = 89

J32 Embodied energy subsidy from tourism = 690 (Bureau of Economic and
Business Research 1977)

J33 Population growth due to county assets (i.e., migration) =

20,500 people/yr (Bureau of Economic and Business Research 1977)

JPB Intrinsic county birth rate = 8,100 people/yr (Bureau of Economic and
Business Research 1977)

JPD Intrinsic county death rate = 4,000 people/yr (Bureau of Economic and
Business Research 1977)

JFN2 Feedback from urban stocks to urban production = 45

JU3 Usable climatic energy to urban sector = JN3 (Swaney 1978)

JUAB Feedback from agricultural stocks to agricultural production = 116
(U.S. Department of Agriculture 1977)

JFUB Feedback from urban sector to fuel system = 387

JPHB Feedback from urban sector to phosphate production = 65.2

JLUB Feedback from urban sector to natural sector = 0.16

JFUA Feedback from urban sector to agricultural sector = 199 (U.S.
Department of Agriculture 1977)

J50 Land exchange between natural and agricultural sectors

J51 Land exchange between natural and urban sectors

J52 Land exchange between agricultural and urban sectors

298

2000

t- 15

3
O

<
IT

<
Z

1500

1000

0*-

l-o 11.25

hH7.5
lij
(/)

z
<
m

500f-^375

0"-

i500r-

URBAN ASSETS (3) ^

1968

1978

1988

1998

Figure 10. Simulation result of Hillsborough County model with constantly
increasing relative imported fuel price and a price jump in 1973 (Sipe et al
1979).

on by the increased price
tually all other goods and
ing power of Hillsborough
the increased cost of law
"makes do" with less.

of fuel, which in turn increased the price of vir-

services. It not only included the reduced purchas-

County's exports, but also included, for example,

enforcement and other social services as the county

A final simulation considered the impact of a drop in fossil fuel prices
due to a hypothetical technological innovation simulated to occur in 1983
(Figure 12). The principal result of this scenario is an increase in the
standard of living for residents of Hillsborough County.

Although this particular scenario was assumed to result from a decreased
fossil fuel price, the same results would be expected to occur if, for
example, there were improvements in fuel efficiency and other energy conserva-
tion methods. In the actual study from which these simulations of Hills-
borough County were taken, recommendations were made as to which energy con-
servation techniques, from an energy flow standpoint, showed the greatest
promise and how those techniques might best be implemented. These recommenda-
tions addressed such subjects as land use, construction techniques, transpor-
tation, and others.

299

■5 2000r
o

I-

UJ
Ui

1500

a
u

tu
-o

3
O

1000

500

0"-

5r isoor

125

-:^ 7.5

<
m

h 3.75

0*-

UR8AN
--^ ASSETS (3)

AGRICULTURAL ->*-<;

_ASSETS (2) ^ — —y'' "^-~..

Figure 11. Simulation result of Hillsborough County model with constantly
increasing relative fuel prices and a price jump in 1973 with an increasing
fuel surcharge beginning in 1973. (Sipe et al . 1979).

USES OF ENERGETICS MODELS

SIMULATIONS

One of the principal uses of energetics models is the simulation of a
system from some historical time through the present and into the future. The
simulation results of the historical period permit the results of the simula-
tion to the present to be compared with available empirical data. Assuming
the simulation performs well in these "benchmark" tests, it is then continued
into the future. These simulated results -- telling the researcher of likely
trends, given the present and historical data -- are the most common
application of energetics models. It is important to know that the simulation
results can only be as good as the modeler's ability to comprehend the system
under study. Construction of models that reflect actual conditions is
diff icul t.

Frequently, the simulation is prepared to pennit the relative advantages
and disadvantages of alternative courses of action to be compared. For
example, energetics models have been used to examine alternative methods for
cooling a proposed nuclear power plant (Odun 1978). This study compared cool-
ing towers, a man-made reservoir, and a nearby lake as possible methods by
which the waste heat generated as a by-product of the power generation process
could best be returned to the natural environment.

300

-2000r
o

■1500

e
o

hS"-25

<
Z

500

0"-

I5r i500r-

CO
V)

21000

-01 7.5

- i75

- 2 iisoh

m
O

z
o

• t-

-•- 800-

a.
o
a.

- 450

0^ 100

/---./-

URBAN / /

ASSETS (3) ,.'^' /

AGRICULTURAL /

/
^- -y- —
/
/ /

\^ ASSETS {Z) ^/^ ____ —

/ /

^^><^_ NATURAL

/ /

/ -^-...^^ASSETS (1)

^■' ^

r /

.-^'POPULATION (P)

"" 1

.III

1948

1958

1968

1978

1988

1998

Figure 12.
innovation
1979).

Simulation result of Hillsborough County model with technical
such as energy conservation implemented in 1983. (Sipe et al .

In the Hillsborough County example, comparisons were made between dif-
ferent hypothetical future events that were generally outside the control of
the system under study such as changes in world oil prices. Depending upon
the likelihood of these hypothetical events, the researcher (or the decision-
maker) may identify other courses of action that minimize any adverse conse-
quences of the outside events. For example, one alternative scenario investi-
gated in the Hillsborough County study assumed that a future technological
breakthrough might cause energy prices to fall. Such a technological advance
would have numerous beneficial effects on society according to the simulation.
The Hillsborough County study also commented that the same simulation results
would be expected to occur if, for example, greater efficiency could be
attained in the use of presently available energy resources. In this case,
Hillsborough County governmental decisionmakers do have methods by which
energy conservation measures might be encouraged. And, to the degree these
methods improve the efficiency of the system's use of energy, the benefits --
basically, an improved standard of living and quality of life -- suggested by
the simulation should be expected to accrue in the system.

Whether or not energetics modeling is a useful research tool, even its
proponents admit that the development and simulation of a detailed energetics
model is an involved, complex process. There are alternatives to the complete
modeling process, however, and, under certain circumstances, these methods are
appropriate for comparing specific alternatives.

301

Basically, the investigation of energy ratios (Figure 13) involves the
same methodology but with only a carefully selected portion of one component
(or series of components) of an energetics mode. For example, in Figure 14,
yield ratios were calculated for electric power plants, by comparing a coal-
fired power plant with that of an oil-fired power plant (Alexander et al .
1980b). The output of each hypothetical power plant was held constant at
17.83 X 10 coal equivalent calories per year (CE Cal /yr) . The cost to
society to mine and transport the fuel, to build and maintain the physical
plant, and the operational costs of the plant are shown as the feedback from
the main economy. Comparing these feedbacks to the output of each power
plant, respectively, shows the yield ratio. The yield ratio of 12.2 for oil
and 5.5 for coal illustrates the economy of oil over coal.

LIMITATIONS OF ENERGETICS MODELS

Two limitations that frequently affect the use of energetics models are
the frequent lack of appropriate data with which to calibrate the simulation,
and the difficulty associated with validation of the results of a particular
energetics model .

Collecting the data necessary to estimate the magnitude of each energy
flow in the system being studied can be an involved and time-consuming pro-
cess. Data are seldom usable as found. Mapped data may not include suffici-
ent detail concerning ecological systems, as was mentioned in the methods sec-
tion. Data from some governmental agencies are often not always compatible
with other government agencies. In some cases, traditional methods used by a
particular discipline did not permit easy standardization with data expressed
in some other unit of measurement. In cases such as these, baseline research
must establish appropriate conversion methodologies. This is being done by
more and more users.

Closely related to the data-availability problems are the problems asso-
ciated with validation of the simulation results. If leaders in government
and business are to commit their resources to the solutions suggested by ener-
getics models, those leaders must know the degree to which the model is a
valid predictor of future systems behavior. Unfortunately, the validation of
the results of a particular energetics model applied to a particular problem
is difficul t.

In addition, theoretical research is producing verifiable data that can
in turn be used by any number of future users. The illustration of energy
ratios given in Figure 14 is one such example. In it, the researchers estab-
lished the relative energy quality of wood, numerous coal types, fossil fuels,
and other energy sources.

The trend toward a more complex and unified body of knowledge continues.
As the body of knowledge surrounding energetics models increases, it will
eventually provide a sufficient base allowing for more complex but efficient
model simulation.

302

Feedback (F)

Input (I)

ENERGY
SYSTEM

Output (0)

Net Energy = 0- F

Yield Ratio = -=•

Investment Ratio = y

Efficiency Ratio

Figure 13. Energy ratios (Odum and Odum 1976)

303

$ 198 million/yr.

3.23 CE

14.6 fhermal

2.58 X 10" tons/yr.

COAL

ELECTRIC

PLANT

5.27 thermal

17.83 CE

$ 98 million /yr

1.46 CE

12.0 thermal

7.94 X 10" bbl/yr.

OIL

ELECTRIC

PLANT

5.27 thermal

17.83 CE

z
o
a
u

Figure 14.
(Values are

IQJ

ratios of coal-fired and oil-fired electric power plants

Yield
^12 Cal/year unless noted otherwise) (Alexander et al . 1980b)

304

REFERENCES

Alexander, J.F., Jr.; Alexander, M,J.; Sipe, N.G. Energetics, a new tool for
decisionmaking; Christchurch, New Zealand: Paper presented to the New
Zealand Planning Institute; 1980a; 52 p.

Alexander, J.F., Jr.; Swaney, D.P.; Rognstad, R. ; Hutchinson, R. An ener-
getics analysis of coal quality. Green, A.E.S., edition. Coal burning
issues; Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press; 1980b: 49-70.

Alexander, J.F., Jr.; Henslick, J.; Lee, M.; Polauer, C; Rognstad, R.; Sipe,
N.; Swaney, D.; Wittnan, A. An energetics approach to assign national
park development plans; Gainesville, FL: Center for Wetlands, University
of Rorida; 1981; 178 p.

Bureau of Economic and Business Research. Florida statistical abstracts.
Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press; 1975; 621 p.

Bureau of Economic and Business Research. Florida statistical abstract.
Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press; 1977; 640 p.

Florida Department of Commerce. Hillsborough County economic data. Talla-
hassee, FL: Bureau of Economic Analysis; 1977; 32 p.

Florida Department of Revenue. Florida ad valorum valuation and tax data.
Tallahassee, FL: State of Florida; 1976; 26 p.

Florida Energy Committee. Florida's energy profile. Tallahassee, FL: State
of Florida; 1975; 210 p.

Florida State Energy Office. Monthly Florida motor gasoline consumption:
1969-1977. Tallahassee, FL: State of Florida; 1978a; 150 p.

Florida State Energy Office. Statistics of the Florida electric utility
industry 1960-76. Tallahassee, FL: State of Florida; 1978b; 150 p.

Heath, R.C.; Wimberly, T. Selected flow characteristics of Florida streams
and canals: Inform. Circ. 69; Tallahassee, FL: Florida Department of
Natural Resources; 1971.

Hillsborough County Environmental Protection Commission. Vegetation and
land-use for energetics subsystem classification, Hillsborough County
Florida, 1978. Sipe, N.; Swaney, D.; McGinty, M. Energy basis for
Hillsborough County. Gainesville, FL: Center for Wetlands, University
of Florida; 1979: 113.

305

Lieth, H.; Whittaker, R.L. Primary productivity of the biosphere. New York:
Springer-Verlag: 1975; 339 p.

Lotka, A.J. Contribution to the energetics of evaluation. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. 8:147-155; 1922.

Odum, H.T. Environment, power, and society. New York: John Wiley and Sons;
1971; 331 p.

Odum, H.T. Energy analysis, energy quality, and environment. M.W. Gilliland,
edition. Energy analysis, a new public policy tool. American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Selected Symposium no. 9. Boulder,
CO: Westview Press, Inc.; 1978: 53-87.

Odum, H.T.; Odum, E.C. Energy basis for man and nature. New York: McGraw-
Hill, Inc.; 1976; 297 p.

Odum, H.T.; Wang, P.; Alexander, J.; 1976; Gilliland, M. A manual for esti-
mating environmental and societal values according to embodied energies.
Gainesville, FL: Center for Wetlands; 1980; 215 p.

Regan, E.J. The natural energy basis for soils and urban growth in Florida.
Gainesville, FL: University of Florida; 1974; 176 p. Master's Thesis.

Sipe, N.G.; Swaney, D.P.; McGinty, M.J. Energy basis for Hillsborough County:
a past, present, and future analysis. Gainesville, FL: Center for Wet-
lands, University of Florida; 1979; 114 p.

Swaney, D.P. Energy analysis of climatic inputs to agriculture. Gainesville,
FL: University of Florida, 1978; 198 p. Master's Thesis.

Tampa Electric Company. Financial and operating statistics 1966-76. Tampa,
FL: Tampa Electric Co.; 1976; 52 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural statistics 1977. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1977; 450 p.

306

50272 -101

REPORT DOCUMENTATION i I^REPORT no 2 [ 3. Rec.p.ems Accessor, No

PAGE I FWS/OBS-83/15

4. Title snd Subtitle

Florida Coastal Ecological Characterization: A Socioeconomic

Study of the Northwestern Region je,

S. Report Date

August 1983

7. Author(s) | 8. Performing Organization Rept. No

Carolyn 0. French and John W. Parsons (eds.) i

9. Performing Organization Name and Address | 10. Proiect/Tasl'/Work Unit No.

National Coastal Ecosystems Team •

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 'ii7cootra^crorGrant(G-. nT"

1010 Gause Blvd. ,^

Slidell, LA 70458 I

I (G)

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address j 13. Type of Report & Period Covered

Mineral Management Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Servic
Washington, D.C. 20240 Washington, D.C. 20240

15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract (Limit: 200 words)

Data are compiled from existing sources on the social and economic characteristics of the
Northwestern coastal region of Florida, which is made up of Escambia, Santa Rosa, Okaloosa,
Walton, Bay, Gulf, and Franklin Counties. Described are the components and interrelation-
ships among complex processes that include population and demographics characteristics,
mineral production, multiple-use conflicts, recreation and tourism, agricultural production,
sport and commercial fishing, transportation, industrial and residential development, and
environmental issues and regulations. Energetics models of socioeconomic systems are also
presented.

The report consists of one volume of text and two volumes that contain the data appendix.

17. Document Analysis a Descriplc^s

Socioeconomic status, demography, land development, fisheries, transportation, models,
agriculture, mineral resources, recreation

b. Identifiers/OfenEnded Terms

Northwestern Florida

c COSATI Fiela/Groop

18. Availability Statement 19. Secunly Class (This Report; 21. No of Pages

Unlimited .__ Unci ass.lf led ^_i06^_ _309^_3 75_

20. Security Class (This Page) i 22. Price

Unclassified

(See ANSI-Z39 181 OPTIONAL FORM 272 /J-7?>

IForme'ly NT:;^3e.
DepartmerM of rommerce

"^U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1963-769-627

■^ Headquarters, Division ot Biologica
Services, Washington. DC

Eastern Energy and Land Use Team
Leetown. WV

National Coastal Ecosystenis Team
Slideli. LA

Western Energy and Land Use Team
Ft Collins, CO

♦ Locations of Regional Offices

Puerto Rico and
Virgin Islands

REGION 1

Regional Director

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Lloyd Five Hundred Building, Suite 1692

500 N.E. Multnomah Street

Portland, Oregon 97232

REGION 2

Regional Director

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

P.O.Box 1306

Albuquerque, New Mexico 87103

REGION 3

Regional Director
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Federal Building, Fort Snelling
Twin Cities, Minnesota 55111

REGION 4

Regional Director
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Richard B. Russell Building
75 Spring Street, S.W.
Atlanta, Georgia 30303

REGION 5

Regional Director

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

One Gateway Center

Newton Corner, Massachusetts 02158

REGION 6

Regional Director

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

P.O. Box 25486

Denver Federal Center

Denver, Colorado 80225

REGION 7

Regional Director
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1011 E.Tudor Road
Anchorage, Alaska 99503

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has respon-
sibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes
fostering the wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife,
preserving th»environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places,
and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department as-
sesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in
the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility for
American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under
U.S. administration.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "FWS/0BS"

See other formats