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C.-1DIXOJV  — 


THE 


GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 


OF  TUli 


BRITISH   ISLANDS. 


SHEFFIELD  : 

PRINTED    BY    MKSSKS.  PAW8ON    AND    BUAILSFOHD,  Hir.H    SIUKI'.'I     AND    M  l'I.l:l '.  1:1! V    STBJ 


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The  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl 


The  British  Islands. 


By  CHARLES  DIXON, 

AUTHOK    OF 

RURAL   BIRD-LIFE,"   "EVOLUTION    WITHOUT    NATURAL,    SELECTION,"   "OUR    RARER    BIRDS,' 

"ANNALS    OF    BIRD-LIFE,"    "STRAY    FEATHERS    FROM    MANY    BIRDS," 

;  IDLE  HOURS  WITH  NATURE,"  "  THE  BIRDS  OF  OUR  RAMBLES,"  "  THE  MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS,' 
"  THE    NESTS    AND    EGGS    OF    BRITISH    BIRDS,"    ETC.,    ETC.  ; 
PART  AUTHOR  OF  "  A  HISTORY  OF  BRITISH  BIRDS." 


Second  Edition,   enlari/etl,    improved    and    thoroughly   revised   by    the    Author. 


COLOURED  PLATES,  representing  S6  COLOURED  ILLUSTRATIONS  drawn  specially 

for  this  Edition 

By     CHARLES     WHYMPER. 


SHEFFIELD : 

PAWSON  &  BRAILSFORD,  PUBLISHERS,  HIGH  STREET  AND  MULBERRY  STREET. 

1900. 


s. 

35 


Preface  to  the  Second  Edition. 


SINCE  the  first  edition  of  the  present  work  was  published,  our  knowledge  of 
various  species  contained  therein  has  been  considerably  increased.  Not 
only  have  several  new  species  been  added  to  the  British  list  (abnormal  migrants), 
but  much  information  has  been  obtained  relating  to  their  geographical  distribu- 
tion and  their  affinities.  The  completion  of  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  of 
Birds,  and  the  publication  of  many  important  books  and  memoirs  bearing  upon 
the  present  subject,  have  also  enabled  me  to  give  a  more  complete  account  of 
British  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl  than  had  hitherto  been  possible. 

The  present  edition  has  to  a  very  large  extent  been  rewritten :  the 
necessary  information  has  been  added  to  bring  the  book  fairly  up  to  date.  The 
classification  remains  practically  the  same ;  but  many  generic  changes  have  been 
made,  and  a  more  or  less  exhaustive  account  of  the  various  orders  and  families  has 
been  added.  The  treatment  of  each  species  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  first  edition, 
but  a  short  synonomy  has  been  appended  to  each,  which  may  prove  of  service  to 
the  student  anxious  to  consult  the  literature  of  the  subject.  Since  the  first 
edition  was  published  I  have  devoted  much  time  and  study  to  the  Migration  and 
Distribution  of  Birds,  with  the  result  that  many  previously  held  opinions  have 
been  discarded,  and  the  geographical  distribution  and  migration  of  the  various 
species  have  been  dealt  with  in  accordance  with  a  suggested  new  law  of  dispersal. 
A  short  introductory  chapter  on  Distribution  and  Migration  has  been  inserted. 
The  old  set  of  drawings  has  been  entirely  replaced  by  a  series  of  coloured 
plates,  the  original  designs  for  which  have  been  specially  prepared  by  my 
friend,  Mr.  Charles  Whymper ;  whilst  it  is  equally  satisfactory  to  be  able  to 
state  that  the  lithography  and  letterpress  printing,  together  with  every  detail 
connected  with  the  issue  of  this  new  edition,  are  the  work  of  the  celebrated 
Yorkshire  firm  whose  imprint  the  present  volume  bears. 

My  thanks  are  specially  due  (among  many  other  friends)  to  Mr.  H.  L.  Popham, 
the  fortunate  finder  of  the  nest  and  eggs  of  the  Curlew  Sandpiper,  who  most 
obligingly  furnished  me  with  particulars  of  his  discovery ;  also  to  Mr.  F.  H. 
Waterhouse,  who  has  rendered  me  much  bibliographical  assistance  whilst  the  book 
has  been  passing  through  the  press. 

CHARLES  DIXON. 

I'aujnton,  S.  Devon,  February,  1900. 


811986 


Preface  to  the  First  Edition, 


T71  VERY  naturalist  may  not  be  a  sportsman,  but  there  are  certainly  very  few 
JLj  sportsmen  that  are  not,  or  do  not  eventually  become,  ardent  naturalists. 
The  habits  and  economy  of  birds  are  specially  the  naturalist's  own  province  ;  but 
then,  on  the  other  hand,  no  sportsman  worthy  of  the  name  is  indifferent  to  the 
life-history  of  the  birds  and  beasts  that  are  the  object  of  his  chase.  A  man 
who  would  be  a  successful  sportsman  must  be  familiar  with  the  ways  of  the 
creatures  that  furnish  his  sport ;  not  only  so,  the  constant  chase  of  bird  and  beast, 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  creates  a  desire  for  knowledge,  and  a  wish  to  know 
something  more  of  their  economy. 

The  present  volume  has  been  written  with  the  object  of  furnishing  the 
naturalist  and  sportsman  with  concise  yet  fairly  complete,  and  I  hope  accurate, 
information  respecting  the  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl  of  the  British  Islands, 
and  their  allied  races  and  species  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  I  have  sought  to 
bring  this  information  up  to  date,  not  only  by  including  several  species  new  to 
our  avi-fauna,  but  by  dealing  with  these  birds  from  an  evolutionary  point  of  view, 
and  according  to  modern  ideas  on  and  recent  discoveries  in  that  particular  branch 
of  natural  knowledge  which  is  embraced  by  Darwinian  Ornithology.  Hence  it 
has  been  my  constant  care  to  discard  insular  and  narrow  study,  which  only  too 
often  leads  to  pedantry  and  error,  and  to  treat  the  birds  incorporated  in  the 
following  pages  on  broad,  evolutionary  lines,  and  from  a  more  cosmopolitan  point 
of  view.  The  inevitable  result  of  such  treatment  has  been  the  recognition  of 
local  races,  subspecies,  or  climatic  varieties,  into  which  many  of  our  British  Game 
Birds  and  Wild  Fowl  have  been  separated  by  the  endless  segregating  process  of 
Evolution,  working  as  surely  at  the  present  day  as  it  has  undoubtedly  worked  in 
past  ages,  and  will  continue  to  work  in  ages  yet  to  come. 

Of  course,  in  a  work  of  the  present  nature,  I  have  had  to  rely  much  upon  the 
labours  of  other  naturalists  ;  but  in  every  case  where  such  has  been  necessary  I 
have  sought  the  highest,  the  latest,  and  the  most  trustworthy  authorities  for  the 
information  required  ;  whilst  my  own  more  than  twenty  years'  experience  in  the 
study  of  Ornithology,  both  from  the  scientist's  and  the  field  naturalist's  point  of 
view,  has  been  of  incalculable  service  in  assisting  me  to  separate  the  sound  wheat 
of  reliable  knowledge  from  the  unstable  chaff  of  ignorance  and  error.  The  last 
twenty  years  have  been  eventful  ones  for  Ornithology,  fraught  with  discoveries 


PBEFACE   TO   THE   FIEST  EDITION.  vii 

and  pregnant  with  importance,  not  only  respecting  the  economy  of  British 
species,  but  with  the  past  history  of  all  birds,  much  light  having  been  thrown  on 
their  affinities  and  origin.  The  classification  of  birds  is  still  in  a  most  unsatis- 
factory state,  although  the  great  and  ever-increasing  attention  that  the  subject  is 
receiving  must  ultimately  result  in  some  uniformity  of  opinion.  At  present  no 
two  recognised  authorities  agree  in  their  estimation  of  the  taxonomic  value  of 
respective  characters.  Among  the  latest  systems  elaborated  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  Dr.  Sclater,  Professor  Newton,  the  late  Mr.  Forbes,  the  late  Professor 
Garrod,  Dr.  Keichenow,  Professor  Coues,  Dr.  Stejneger,  Mr.  Seebohm,  and  last, 
and  perhaps  most  important  of  all,  the  great  work  of  Professor  Fiirbinger. 
I  have  had  an  opportunity  of  studying  each  of  these  important  avian  classifica- 
tions, and  it  is  quite  needless  to  remark  the  wide,  nay  almost  hopeless  and 
bewildering  divergence  of  opinion  expressed  by  their  talented  authors  and 
compilers.  Until  some  sort  of  uniformity  of  opinion  is  arrived  at,  the  arrange- 
ment of  species  in  a  work  like  the  present  appears  to  me  to  be  a  matter  of  little 
importance  ;  for  the  classification  of  yesterday  that  you  may  adopt  to-day  is  out  of 
date  and  antiquated  to-morrow.  The  whole  subject  of  classification,  at  present, 
is  in  a  violent  state  of  eruption;  one  would  think  that  scientists  had  "  lost  their 
heads."  Fortunately  the  scope  of  the  present  volume  calls  for  no  elaborate 
classification,  and  the  species  dealt  with  are  units  of  fairly  well-defined  groups, 
about  which,  as  groups,  systematists  are  on  the  whole  pretty  well  agreed. 

The  number  of  species  and  races  of  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl  which  may 
fairly  claim  to  be  included  in  the  British  avi-fauna  is  127.  The  majority  of  these  do 
not  breed  within  our  limits,  but  are  either  regular  winter  visitors,  or  accidental 
stragglers  on  migration,  of  varying  degrees  of  rarity,  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  British  and  foreign  geographical  area  of  each  of  these  has  been  traced,  and 
the  various  allied  forms  noted,  with  their  distribution  and  distinguishing  charac- 
teristics. The  habits,  notes,  food,  nest,  and  eggs  have  been  described  as  fully  as 
space  allowed,  or  as  completely  as  our  knowledge  extends ;  whilst  the  diagnostic 
characters  of  each  will  enable  the  naturalist  or  sportsman  readily  to  identify  the 
various  British  species,  and  are  in  my  opinion  infinitely  preferable  to  long, 
tedious,  detailed  descriptions  of  plumage. 

Little  need  be  said  of  the  sport  that  our  British  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl 
yield,  or  of  the  healthy  invigorating  recreation  derived  from  the  pursuit,  of  that 
sport.  Field  and  covert  shooting  is  not  without  its  excitements  and  delights, 
even  in  these  degenerate  days  of  breech-loaders  and  battues  ;  but,  to  my  mind, 
the  cream  of  all  gun  sport  is  skimmed  by  the  wildfowler  and  the  shore-shooter. 
There  is  a  charm  about  the  chase  of  Wild  Fowl  which  no  covert-shooting 
can  excel  or  equal ;  for  the  incomparable  skill  demanded  in  punting  up  to  the 
flocks  of  wary  Ducks  and  Geese,  in  stalking  the  shy  Waders  on  the  muds  and 
marshes,  or  in  "  getting  on  "  to  the  fleeting  Fowl  with  deadly  effect  as  they 
pass  like  arrows  over  your  cold  and  lonely  ambush  during  flight  time,  is  very 


viii  PEEFACE   TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 

different  from  that  required  for  the  work  of  even  a  warm  corner  in  some  highly 
preserved  cover.  Then  there  is  the  charm  of  uncertain  expectancy  which  is  the 
shore-shooter's  and  wildfowler's  own — the  delicious  feeling  of  never  knowing 
what  the  next  shot  may  be,  as  fen  and  marsh  are  traversed.  Away  from  the 
mere  pleasure  of  killing,  which,  alas,  seems  inherent  in  male  human  nature,  there 
is  the  greater  pleasure  of  watching  the  ways  of  the  wary  Fowl,  of  studying  their 
habits  and  economy.  Sportsmen  have  it  in  their  power  to  render  incalculable 
service  to  Natural  History,  if  they  are  only  put  in  the  way  of  making  observations. 
No  better  proof  of  this  is  furnished  than  that  of  the  army  of  Indian  sportsmen, 
who,  encouraged  and  directed  by  that  great  ornithologist  and  sportsman,  Allan 
Hume,  have  done  so  much  for  the  Ornithology  of  our  Eastern  Empire,  and  set 
an  example  to  sportsmen  at  home  which  might  be  followed  with  inestimable 
profit  to  British  Ornithology.  By  their  aid  the  magnificent  and  unrivalled 
collection  of  Indian  birds  was  formed,  which  now,  thanks  to  the  noble  generosity 
of  Mr.  Hume,  forms  a  part  of  our  National  Collection  at  South  Kensington. 

Should  the  present  volume  be  the  means  of  creating  a  taste  for  observation 
among  those  sportsmen  who  have  hitherto  been  neglectful  of  the  scientific  side 
of  their  pursuit,  to  the  advantage  of  Natural  History,  or  prove  of  some  help  to  the 
naturalist  in  his  studies  of  this  important  and  interesting  group  of  birds,  the 
labour  involved  in  writing  it  will  ever  be  recalled  with  pleasure. 

I  desire  also  to  place  on  record  my  great  appreciation  of  the  work  of  my 
contemporaries,  and  my  sincere  thanks  for  the  profit  of  their  experience  ;  also  to 
acknowledge  my  gratitude  to  many  friends  for  valued  information.  My  thanks 
are  specially  due  to  my  old  friend  Mr.  F.  H.  Waterhouse,  the  courteous  Librarian 
to  the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  whose  bibliographical  assistance  from  time 
to  time  has  been  invaluable. 

CHARLES  DIXON. 
January,  1893. 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX. 


PAGE 

Order  COLUMBIFORMES.— THE  PIGEONS          ...  ...  ...  1 

Family  COLUMBID^E.— THE  TYPICAL  PIGEONS  ...  ...  2 

Genus  COLUMBA,  or  Grey  Pigeons        ...  ...  ...  2 

Columba  palumbus. — Ring  Dove   ...  ...  ...  3 

,,        aenas. — Stock  Dove          ...  ...  ...  6 

„        livia. — Eock  Dove            ...  ...  ...  9 

Genus  ECTOPISTES,  or  Passenger  Pigeons  ...  ...  12 

Ectopistes  migratorius. — Passenger  Pigeon...  ...  13 

Family  PEEISTEBID^.— THE  GKOUND  PIGEONS  ...  ...  17 

Subfamily  TURTURIN^:. — THE  TURTLE  DOVES  ...  ...  17 

Genus  TURTUR,  or  Turtle  Doves           ...  ...  ...  18 

Turtur  auritus. — Turtle  Dove         ...  ...  ...  19 

„       orientalis. — Eastern  Turtle  Dove  ...  ...  22 

Order  PEDIOPHILI.— THE  SAND-GEOUSE           ...  ...  ...  24 

Family  PTEBOCLID^E.— THE  SAND-GROUSE    ...  ...  ...  25 

Genus  SYRHHAPTES,  or  Three-toed  Sand-Grouse  ...  25 

Syrrhaptes  paradoxus. — Pallas's  Sand-Grouse  ...  26 

Order  QALLIFORMES.— THE  GAME  BIEDS        ...  ...  ...  30 

Family  TETBAONIDvE.— THE  GROUSE              ...  ...  ...  31 

Genus  LAGOPUS,  or  Moor  Grouse          ...  ...  ...  31 

Lagopus  mutus. — Ptarmigan          ...  ...  ...  32 

,,         scoticus. — Bed  Grouse     ...  ...  ...  35 

Genus  TETRAO,  or  Wood  Grouse           ...  ...  ...  39 

Tetrao  urogallus.— Capercaillie       ...  ...  ...  40 

„        tetrix. — Black  Grouse         ...  ...  ...  44 

Family  PHASIANIDJE.—  THE  TYPICAL  GAME  BIRDS  ...  ...  47 

Genus  PHASIANUS,  or  True  Pheasants  ...  ...  ...  47 

Phasianus  colchicus. — Pheasant     ...  ...  ...  48 

Genus  PERDIX,  or  True  Partridges  ...  ...  ...  53 

Perdix  ciiierea. — Partridge              ...  ...  ...  54 

Genus  CACCABIS,  or  Eock  Partridges  ...  ...  ...  57 

Caccabis  rufa. — Eed-legged  Partridge  ...  ...  58 

Genus  COTUHNIX,  or  Quails  ...  ...  ...  ...  61 

Coturnix  communis. — Quail            ...  ...  ...  62 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Order  RALL1FORMES.— THE  RAILS  AND  FINFOOTS        ...  ...  65 

Family  RALLIDjE.— THE  RAILS          ...             ...             ...  ...  66 

Subfamily  RALLIN.E. — THE  PLAIN-TOED  RAILS           ...  ...  66 

Genus  CBEX,  or  Crakes           ...             ...             ...  ...  66 

Crex  pratensis. — Corn  Crake           ...              ...  ...  67 

„     porzana. — Spotted  Crake        ...  ...  70 

„     Carolina. — Carolina  Crake      ...             ...  ...  72 

,,     bailloni. — Baillon's  Crake      ...             ...  ...  74 

„     parva. — Little  Crake               ...             ...  ...  76 

Genus  RALLUS,  or  Typical  Rails          ...            ...  ...  78 

Rallus  aquaticus. — Water  Rail       ...             ...  ...  79 

Genus  GALLINULA,  or  True  Water  Hens             ...  ...  82 

Gallinula  chloropus. — Water  Hen... 

Subfamily  FULICIN^;.— THE  LOBE-TOED  RAILS           ...  ...  86 

Genus  FULICA,  or  Coots          ...             ...             ...  ...  86 

Fulica  atra.— Common  Coot           ...  ...  87 

Order  GRU1FORMES.— THE  CRANES  AND  THEIR  ALLIES  ...  90 

Family  GRUID^E.— THE  CRANES         ...            ...            ...  ...  91 

Genus  GRUS,  or  Cranes           ...             ...             ...  ...  91 

Grus  cinerea. — Common  Crane 

„     virgo.  —Demoiselle  Crane      ...             ...  ...  95 

Order  CHARADRIIFORMES.— THE  BUSTARDS,  PLOVERS,  &c.   ...  98 

Family  OTIDID^E.— THE  BUSTARDS    ...             ...             ...  ...  99 

Genus  OTIS,  or  Typical  Bustards         ...             ...  ...  99 

Otis  tarda.— Great  Bustard  ...  ..100 

„     tetrax.— Little  Bustard           ...  ...  103 

Genus  HOUBAHA,  or  Ruffed  Bustards  ...             ...  ...  105 

Houbara  macqueeni  — Macqueen's  Bustard...  ...  106 

Family  (EDICNEMID^.— THE  STONE  CURLEWS            ...  ...  108 

Genus  (EDICNEMUS,  or  Typical  Stone  Curlews  ...  ...  108 

(Edicnemus  crepitans. — Stone  Curlew          ...  ...  109 

Family  CURSORIID.3D.— THE  COURSERS,  PRATINCOLES,  ETC.       ...  112 

Genus  CURSORIUS,  or  Typical  Coursers               ...  ...  112 

Cursorius  gallicus.— Cream-coloured  Courser  ...  113 

Genus  GLAREOLA,  or  Typical  Pratincoles            ...  ...  116 

Glareola  pratincola. — Common  Pratincole    ...  ...  117 

Family  CHARADRIID^}.— THE  PLOVERS,  SANDPIPERS,  AND  SNIPES  120 

Subfamily  H.EMATOPODIN.S:. — THE  OYSTER-CATCHERS  ...  121 

Genus  H^MATOPUS,  or  Oyster-catchers               ...  ...  121 

Hsematopus  ostralegus. — Common  Oyster-catcher     ...  122 

Subfamily  CHARADRIINJE. — THE  TYPICAL  PLOVERS     ...  ...  125 

Genus  JEaiALms,  or  Typical  Ringed  Plovers    ...  ...  125 

^Egialitis  minor. — Little  Ringed  Plover         ..  ...  126 

„         major. — Greater  Ringed  Plover    ...  ...  129 


SYSTEMATIC    INDEX.  xi 

PAGE 

Order  CHARADRIIFORMES.-BUSTAEUS,  PLOVEES,  &c.—Contd. 

.ZEgialitis  hiaticula. —  Einged  Plover               ...  ..  132 

,,         cantianus. — Kentish  Plover           ...  ...  134 

Genus  OXYECHUS,  or  Wedge-tailed  Einged  Plovers  ...  137 

Oxyechus  vociferus. — Killdeer  Plover  ...  ...  138 

Genus  OCHTHODBOMUS,  or  Eed-breasted  Einged  Plovers  . . .  140 

Ochthodromus  asiaticus. — Caspian  Plover  ...  ...  141 

Genus  EUDROMIAS,  or  Dotterels            ...             ...  ...  143 

Eudromias  morinellus. — Dotterel  ...  ...  ...  144 

Genus  CHABADKIUS,  or  Golden  Plovers               ...  ...  147 

Charadrius  pluvial! s. — Golden  Plover           ...  ...  148 

„            fulvus. — Asiatic  Golden  Plover...  ...  151 

,,            dominicus. — American  Golden  Plover  ...  154 

Genus  SQUATAKOLA,  or  Grey  Plovers   ...             ...  ...  157 

Squatarola  helvetica. — Grey  Plover               ...  ...  158 

Genus  VANELLUS,  or  Typical  Lapwings              ...  ...  161 

Vanellus  cristatus. — Lapwing         ...              ...  ...  162 

,,          gregarius. — Sociable  Lapwing        ...  ...  165 

Subfamily  HIMANTOPODIN^:. — THE  STILTS  AND  AVOCETS  ...  167 

Genus  HIMANTOPUS,  or  Stilts...             ...             ...  ...  167 

Himantopus  melanopterus — Common  Stilt...  ...  168 

Genus  EECUBVIEOSTEA,  or  Avocets        ...             ...  ...  171 

Eecurvirostra  avocetta. — Common  Avocet    ...  ...  172 

Subfamily  STBEPSILIN.E. — THE  TUBNSTONES                ...  ...  175 

Genus  STEEPSILAS,  or  Turnstones         ...             ...  ...  175 

Strepsilas  interpres — Turnstone      ...              ...  ...  176 

Subfamily  PHALAEOPIN.E. — THE  PHALAEOPES              ...  ...  179 

Genus  PHALABOPUS,  or  Phalaropes        ...             ...  ...  179 

Phalaropus  fulicarius  —  Grey  Pharalope        ...  ...  180 

„           hyperboreus. — Bed-necked  Phalarope  ...  184 

Subfamily    TOTANIN^;. — THE  SEMI-WEB-FOOTED  SANDPIPEES,  or 

TATLEES              ...            ...            ...            ...  ...  187 

Genus  NUMENIUS,  or  Curlews                ...             ...  ...  187 

Numenius  arquata. — Common  Curlew          ...  ...  188 

,,          phagopus. — Common  Whimbrel  ...  ...  192 

„          borealis. — Eskimo  Whimbrel       ...  ...  195 

Genus  LIMOSA,  or  Godwits     ...              ...              ...  ...  197 

Limosa  rufa. — Bar-tailed  Godwit  ...              ...  ...  198 

„        melanura. — Black-tailed  Godwit      ...  ...  202 

Genus  MACEOBHAMPHUS,  or  Snipe-billed  Sandpipers  ...  205 

Macrorhamphus  griseus. — Eed-breasted  Snipe  ...  206 

Genus  BAETRAMIA,  or  Long-tailed  Sandpipers    ...  ...  209 

Bartramia  longicauda — Bartram's  Sandpiper  ...  210 
Genus  MACHETES,  or  Buffs 

Machetes  pugnax.  -Buff  ...             ...  ...  213 


xii  SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Order  CHARADRIIFORMES.—  BUSTARDS,  PLOVERS,  &c.— Continued. 

Genus  HELODROMAS,  or  Green  Sandpipers          ...  ...  216 

Helodromas  ochropus. — Green  Sandpiper     ...  ...  217 

„            solitarius. — Solitary  Sandpiper   .  ...  219 

Genus  TOTANUS,  or  Hard-billed  Sandpipers        ...  ...  221 

Totanus  hypoleucus.— Common  Sandpiper  ...  ...  222 

macularius. — Spotted  Sandpiper     ...  ...  225 

glareola. — Wood  Sandpiper             ...  ...  228 

flavipes. — Yellow-legged  Sandpiper  ...  231 

calidris. — Common  Redshank          ...  ...  233 

fuscus. — Dusky  Redshank                ...  ...  236 

glottis. — Greenshank         ...             ...  ...  239 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACIN.E. — THE  CLEFT-FOOTED  SANDPIPEBS  AND 

SNIPES...             ...             ...             ...             ...  ...  242 

Genus  TKINGA,  or  Typical  Sandpipers...             ...  ..  242 

Tringa  canutus. — Knot    ...             ...             ...  ...  243 

,,        subarquata. — Curlew  Sandpiper        ..  ...  247 

,,        alpina. — Dunlin    ...             ...             ...  ...  250 

„        maritima. — Purple  Sandpiper            ...  ...  253 

,,        platyrhyncha. — Broad-billed  Sandpiper  ...  256 

Genus  HETEBOPYGIA,  or  Pectoral  Sandpipers      ...  ...  258 

Heteropygia  fuscicollis — Bonaparte's  Sandpiper  ...  259 

„              maculata. — American  Pectoral  Sandpiper  261 

,,              acuminata. — Siberian  Pectoral  Sandpiper  264 

Genus  LIMONITES,  or  Stints   ...             ...             ...  ...  266 

Limonites  minuta. — Little  Stint     ...             ...  ...  267 

„          minutilla. — American  Stint          ...  ...  271 

„          temmincki. — Temminck's  Stint  ...  ...  273 

Genus  TKINGITES,  or  Buff-breasted  Sandpipers  ...  ...  276 

Tringites  rufescens. — Buff-breasted  Sandpiper  ...  277 

Genus  CALIDBIS,  or  Sanderlings  ...  ...  ...  279 

Calidris  arenaria. — Sanderling         ...             ...  ...  280 

Genus  SCOLOPAX,  or  Woodcocks  ...  ...  ...  283 

Scolopax  rusticula. — Woodcock       ...             ...  ...  284 

Genus  GALLINAGO,  or  Snipes  ...  ...  ...  ...  289 

Gallinago  major. — Great  Snipe       ...             ...  ...  290 

,,  scolopacina. — Common  Snipe  ...  ...  293 

Genus  LIMNOCBYPTES,  or  Jack  Snipes   ...  ...  297 

Limnocryptes  gallinula. — Jack  Snipe             ...  ...  298 

Order  ANSERIFORMES.— THE  SCREAMERS,  FLAMINGOES,  SWANS, 

GEESE,  DUCKS,  AND  MERGANSERS      301 

Family  ANATID^E. — THE  SWANS,  GEESE,  DUCKS,  AND  MEBGANSEBS  303 

Subfamily  CYGNIN.S:. — THE  SWANS...             ...             ...  ...  303 

Genus  CYGNUS,  or  Swans         ...             ...             ...  ...  304 

Cygnus  musicus. — Whooper  Swan                 ...  ...  305 

„       bewicki. — Bewick's  Swan  ...             ...  ...  308 

,,       olor. — Mute  Swan  310 


SYSTEMATIC  INDEX.  xiii 

PAGE. 

Order  ANSERIFORMES— SCEEAMEES,  SWANS,  GEESE,  &o.—Contcl. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. — THE  GEESE              ...             ...  ...  313 

Genus  CHEN,  or  Snow  Geese    ...              ...              ...  .  .  313 

Chen  hyperboreus.— Lesser  Snow  Goose       ...  ...  314 

,,     nivalis. — Greater  Snow  Goose               ...  ...  455 

Genus  ANSEK,  or  Typical  Geese              ...              ...  ...  316 

Anser  segetum. — Bean  Goose          ...             ...  ...  317 

,,      brachyrhynchus. — Pink-footed  Goose  ...  ...  320 

,,     cinereus. — Grey  Lag  Goose  ...             ...  ...  322 

,,      albifrons. — White-fronted  Goose           ...  ...  325 

„      erythropus. — Lesser  White-fronted  Goose  ...  327 

Genus  BHANTA,  or  Brent  Geese              ...             ...  ...  329 

Branta  berniela. — Brent  Goose       ...             ...  ...  330 

,,      glaucogaster. — White-bellied  Brent  Goose  ...  333 

„      leucopsis — Bernacle  Goose                ...  ...  334 

„      ruficollis.— Eed-breasted  Goose          ...  ...  337 

Subfamily  ANATIN^E. — THE  SHELDRAKES  AND  NON-DIVING  DUCKS  339 

Genus  TADOBNA,  or  Sheldrakes  ...  ...  ...  340 

Tadorna  cornuta. — Common  Sheldrake         ...  ...  341 

Genus  CASAECA,  or  Ruddy  Sheldrakes  ...  ...  ...  344 

Casarca  rutila. — Buddy  Sheldrake  ...              ...  ...  345 

Genus  CHAULELASMUS,  or  Gadwalls  ...  ...  ...  349 

Chaulelasmus  streperus. — Gadwall                ...  ...  350 

Genus  DAFILA,  or  Pintails  ...  ...  ...  ...  353 

Dafila  acuta — Pintail  Duck              ...              ...  ...  354 

Genus  MARECA,  or  Wigeons  ...  ...  ...  ...  357 

Mareca  penelope — Wigeon               ...              ...  ...  358 

,,       americana — American  Wigeon          ...  ...  361 

Genus  NETTION,  or  Teals       ...             ...             ...  ...  363 

Nettion  crecca — Common  Teal      ...              ...  ...  364 

„        carolinense — American  Teal             ...  ...  367 

Genus  QUEEQUEDULA,  or  Garganeys    ...             ...  ...  369 

Querquedula  circia— Garganey       ...             ...  ...  370 

„            discors — Blue-winged  Garganey  ...  373 

Genus  SPATULA,  or  Shovelers               ...             ...  ...  375 

Spatula  clypeata — Shoveler  ...  ...  ...  376 

Genus  ANAS,  or  Typical  Ducks             ...              ...  ...  379 

Anas  boschas — Mallard    ...             ...             ...  ...  380 

Subfamily  PULIGULINJE. — THE  DIVING  DUCKS  AND  EIDERS  ...  383 

Genus  NETTA,  or  Eed-crested  Pochards             ...  ...  383 

Netta  rufina— Eed-crested  Pochard  ...  ...  384 

Genus  NYROCA,  or  Pochards  ...              ...              ...  ...  387 

Nyroca  africana — White-eyed  Pochard          ...  ...  388 

„       ferina— Pochard  ...              ...              ...  ...  391 

Genus  FULIGULA,  or  Scaups  and  Tufted  Ducks  ...  394 

Fuligula  marila — Scaup    ...             ...             ...  ...  395 

cristata— Tufted  Duck      ...             ...  ...  398 

,,         collaris — Eing-necked  Duck            ...  ...  401 


xiv  SYSTEMATIC  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Order  ANSERIFORMES.-SCEEAMERS,  SWANS,  GEESE,  &c.—  Coiitd. 

Genus  CHABITONETTA,  or  Buffel-headed  Ducks  ...  ...  404 

Charitonetta  albeola — BuS'el-headed  Duck  ...  ...  405 

Genus  CLANGULA,  or  Golden-eyes         ...  ...  ...  407 

.  Clangula  glaucion— Golden-eye      ...  ...  ...  408 

Genus  COSMONETTA,  or  Harlequin  Ducks  ...  ...  411 

Cosmonetta  histrionica — Harlequin  Duck    ...  ...  412 

Genus  HABELDA,  or  Long-tailed  Ducks  ...  ...  415 

Harelda  glacialis — Long-tailed  Duck  ...  ...  416 

Genus  CEDEMIA,  or  Scoters    ...  ...  ...  ...  419 

(Edemia  nigra — Common  Scoter   ...  ...  ...  420 

„         fusca — Velvet  Scoter 

,,         perspicillata— Surf  Scoter  ...  ...  426 

Genus  HENICONETTA,  or  Eufous-breasted  Eiders  ...  429 

Heniconetta,  stelleri — Steller's  Eider  ...  ...  430 

Genus  SOMATEBIA,  or  Eiders...  ...  ...  ...  432 

Sotnateria  mollissima—  Common  Eider         ...  ...  433 

„          spectabilis — King  Eider  ...  ...  437 

Subfamily  MEBGIN^E — THE  MEBGANSEBS      ...  ...  ...  440 

Genus  MEBGANSEB,  or  Typical  Mergansers        ...  ...  440 

Merganser  castor — Goosander        ...  ...  ...  441 

,,  serrator — Bed-breasted  Merganser  ...  444 

Genus  LOPHODYTES,  or  Hooded  Mergansers       ...  ...  447 

Lophodytes  cucullatus — Hooded  Merganser  ...  448 

Genus  MEBGUS,  or  Smews     ...  ...  ...  ...  450 

Mergus  albellus — Smew  ...  ...  ...  ...  451 


NOTE. — For  Alphabetical  Iiulex  see  page  458. 


List  of  Plates. 


PLATE  I. 
EING  DOVE. 

COLUMBA    PALUMBUS. 


PLATE  II. 
STOCK  DOVE. 

COLUMBA  .ENAS. 


PLATE  HA.  (see  Errata,  p.  457). 
EOCK  DOVE. 

COLDMBA   LIVIA. 


PLATE  III. 
TUETLE  DOVE. 

TUKTUB    AUBITUS. 


PLATE  IV. 
PALLAS'S    SAND-GEOUSE. 

SYRRHAPTES  PARADOXUS. 


PLATE  V. 
PTAEMIGAN. 

LAGOPUS  MDTUS. 


PLATE  VI. 
EED  GEOUSE. 

LAGOPUS  SCOTICUS. 


PLATE  VII. 
CAPEECAILLIE. 

TETRAO  UROGALLUS. 


PLATE  VIII. 
BLACK  GEOUSE. 

TETRAO  TETRIX. 


PLATE   IX.   (FRONTISPIECE.) 

PHEASANT. 
PHASIANUS  COLCHICUS. 


xvi  LIST  OF  PLATES. 

PLATE  X. 

JAPANESE  PHEASANT.  EING-NECKED  PHEASANT. 

PHASIANUS  VERSICOLOR.  PHASIANUS  TOHQUATUS. 

PLATE  XI. 

PAKTRIDGE. 
PERDIX  CINEREA. 

PLATE  XLv.  (see  Errata,  p.  457). 

RED-LEGGED   PARTRIDGE. 
CACCABIS  RUFA. 


PLATE  XII. 
CORN   CRAKE. 
CREX  PRATENSIS. 


PLATE  XIII. 
WATER  RAIL. 


PLATE  XIV. 
COMMON   CRANE. 

GRUB    CINEREA. 


PLATE  XV. 
GREAT   BUSTARD. 


RALLXIS  AQUATICUS.  OTIS  TARDA. 

PLATE  XVI. 
MACQUEEN'S  BUSTARD. 

HOUBARA   MACQUEENI. 

PLATE  XVII. 

COMMON  PRATINCOLE.  SOCIABLE   LAPWING. 

GLAEEOLA  PRATINCOLA.  VANELLUS  GREGARIUS. 

PLATE  XVIII. 
OYSTER-CATCHER. 

HiEMATOPUS    OSTRALEGUS. 

PLATE  XIX. 

LITTLE   RINGED  PLOVER.  KILLDEER  PLOVER. 

MINOR.  OXYECHUS  VOCIFERUS. 


LIST   OF    PLATES.  xvii 

PLATE  XX. 
CASPIAN   PLOVER. 

OCHTHODROMUS   ASIATICUS. 

PLATE  XXI. 
DOTTEREL. 

EUDROMIAS   MORINELLUS. 

PLATE  XXII. 
GOLDEN  PLOVER.  GREY  PLOVER, 

CHARADRIUS  PLUVIALIS.  SQUATAROLA  HELVETICA. 

PLATE  XXIII. 

LAPWING. 

VANELLUS  CRISTATUS. 

PLATE  XXIV. 
COMMON   STILT.  COMMON   AVOCET. 

HlMANTOPUS   MELANOPTERUS.  RECURVIROSTRA   AVOCETTA. 

PLATE  XXV. 
GREY   PHALAROPE.  RED-NECKED   PHALAROPE. 

PHALAROPUS  FULICARIUS.  PHALAROPUS  HYPERBOREUS. 

PLATE   XXVI. 
BAR-TAILED   GODWIT.  COMMON  REDSHANK. 

LlMOSA   RUFA.  TOTANUS   CALIDRIS. 

PLATE  XXVII. 
BARTRAM'S     SANDPIPER,  BUFF-BREASTED  SANDPIPER. 

BARTRAMIA  LONGICAUDA.  TBINGITES  RUFESCENS. 

PLATE  XXVIII. 

CURLEW  SANDPIPER.          SIBERIAN  PECTORAL  SANDPIPER. 

TRINGA  SUBARQUATA.  HETEROPYGIA  ACUMINATA. 


XVI 11 


LIST   OF   PLATES. 


PLATE  XXIX. 
WOODCOCK. 

SCOLOPAX  RUSTICULA. 


PLATE  XXX. 

GEE  AT  SNIPE. 

GALLINAGO  MAJOR. 


COMMON  SNIPE. 
GALLINAGO  SCOLOPACINA. 


PLATE  XXXI. 


JACK   SNIPE. 

LlMNOCRYPTES    GALLINULA. 


PLATE  XXXII. 


LESSEE  SNOW  GOOSE. 
CHEN  HYPERBOREUS. 


BEENT  GOOSE. 
BRANTA    BERNICLA. 


PLATE  XXXIII. 

EED-BEEASTED  GOOSE. 

BHANTA   RUFICOLLIS. 


PLATE  XXXIV. 

COMMON  SHELDEAKE. 

TADORNA  CORNUTA. 


PLATE  XXXV.  (see  Errata,  p.  457). 
PINTAIL  DUCK.  WIGEON. 

DAPILA  ACUTA.  MARECA  PENELOPE. 


PLATE  XXXVI. 
SHOVELEE. 

SPATULA  CLYPEATA. 


PLATE  XXXVII. 
MALLAED. 

ANAS  BOSCHAS. 


PLATE  XXXVIII. 


TUFTED  DUCK. 

FULIGULA   CRISTATA. 


EED-CEESTED  POCHAED. 

NETTA  RUFINA. 


COMMON    EIDEE. 

SOMATERIA  MOLLISSIMA. 


PLATE  XXXIX. 
KING  EIDEE. 

SOMATERIA  SPECTABILIS. 


STELLEE'S  EIDEE. 
HENICONETTA  STELLERI. 


PLATE  XL. 


GOOSANDEE. 
MERGANSER  CASTOR. 


HAEELEQUIN  DUCK. 

COSMONETTA   IIISTRIONICA. 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE   GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION   AND   MIGRATION  OF 
GAME   BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL. 


WE  intend  to  devote  the  opening  pages  of  the  present  volume  to  a  brief 
introductory  chapter  on  the  geographical  distribution  and  migration  of 
Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl.  In  our  opinion  the  science  of  avine  distribution, 
or  dispersal,  is  still  most  imperfectly  understood,  notwithstanding  che  vast 
progress  that  has  already  been  made  during  the  latter  half  of  the  present  century. 
The  geographical  distribution  of  Life,  if  we  mistake  not,  is  governed  by  law,  and 
therefore  subservient  to  certain  definite  influences,  and  is  not  the  fortuitous 
process  that  naturalists,  almost  without  exception,  believe  it  to  be.  We  have 
too  much  evidence  to  suggest,  if  we  come  to  study  the  phenomenon  in  a  critical 
manner,  that  the  dispersal  of  life  over  the  globe  is  not  without  a  plan.  The 
phenomenon  of  migration  (so  inseparably  associated  with  geographical  distri- 
bution) appears  also  to  be  as  little  understood,  and  we  fear  that  this  will  remain  so 
as  long  as  naturalists  decline  to  accept  this  apparently  unquestionable  conclusion. 
In  certain  directions  naturalists  have  much  to  congratulate  themselves  upon. 
With  the  dawn  of  the  Darwinian  epoch  the  importance  of  the  distribution  of 
living  forms  began  to  be  recognised  as  a  factor  throwing  unexpected  light  upon  the 
evolution  of  species.  With  the  stimulus  given  to  the  new  science  of  geographical 
dispersal  by  Dr.  Sclater,  who  sketched  out  the  world  into  six  great  faunal 
regions,  guided  largely  by  the  avine  facies  of  the  Continental  areas,  great  things 
have  been  accomplished.  Dr.  Sclater's  scheme  was  followed  a  few  years  later  by 
that  of  Huxley,  in  which  the  earth  was  separated  into  four  primary  regions,  the 
divisions  being  latitudinal  instead  of  longitudinal.  Eight  years  later  still  Wallace 
published  his  monumental  work  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  animals, 
perhaps  best  described  as  a  detailed  elaboration  of  Dr.  Sclater's  scheme.  It  is 
unnecessary  here  to  allude  to  the  labours  of  other  naturalists,  for  beyond  slight 
modifications  the  general  ideas  of  Dr.  Sclater  and  Huxley  have  been  adopted. 
Neither  can  more  be  said  for  that  branch  of  the  subject  concerning  the  means  of 
dispersal,  all  writers  hitherto  regarding  these  as  more  or  less  fortuitous,  and  in 
a  great  measure  dependent  upon  the  physical  mutations  of  the  earth's  surface. 
These  views  involve  the  acceptance  of  Polar  Dispersal,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
Life  has  gradually  spread  in  endless  forms  from  the  poles  to  the  equator, 
influenced  from  time  to  time  by  glacial  epochs.  It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  here 
to  add  anything  to  what  I  have  already  written  upon  the  subject  of  avine 


XX 


INTRODUCTION. 


dispersal  in  my  two  volumes  on  the  migration  of  birds.     An  introductory  chapter 
in  a  work  like  the  present  does  not  afford  the  necessary  facilities  for  the  discussion 
of  such  a  complicated  question,  but  I  hope  shortly  to  elaborate  my  views  in  a 
special  volume  devoted  to  the  geographical  history  of  avine  life.     It  is  sufficient 
here  to  say  that,  in  my  opinion,  all  the  available  evidence  tends  to  show  that 
Life  is  of  equatorial  origin,  and  that  from  such  a  vast  centre  living  forms  have 
drifted  in  strict  accordance  to  law  north  and  south  towards  the  poles.     That  law, 
briefly  stated,  is  that  species  spread  in  the  direction  of  the  poles  and  towards 
points  of  least  resistance  in  the  struggle  for  existence.     Following  Huxley  to 
some  extent,  I  have  divided  the  world  into  three  realms.     First,  an  Intertropical 
or  Primogaean   realm,  with  northern  and  southern  limits  marked  tentatively  by 
the  tropics ;    second,    an  Arctogsean  or  Northern  realm,  which   embraces   the 
entire  world  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer ;  third,   a  Notogaean  or  Southern 
realm,  which  in  like  manner  includes  the  entire  world  south  of  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn.     We  need  scarcely  have  alluded  to  this  law  of  dispersal  in  the  present 
volume,   but   the   reader   will   find    many   instances   of  its   application   in    the 
geographical  ranges  of  the  various  species  dealt  with  in  the  following  pages. 
This  is  more  especially  the  case  when  we  come  to  treat  with  the  various  species 
of  Waders — birds  with  extended  areas  of  distribution  in  both  the  northern  and 
southern  hemispheres.    The  reader  will  find  that  I  have  endeavoured  to  deal  with 
many  problems  of  distribution  in  a  manner  opposed  to  the  generally  accepted 
views  of  ornithologists.      In  many  of  these  cases  we  are  unfortunately  without 
sufficient  data  to  furnish  absolute  proof  of  our  contention,  but  we  wait  with  every 
confidence  the  exploration  of  the  Antarctic  and  high  Southern  regions,  and  the 
accumulation  of  additional  facts  relating  to  the  habits  and  movements  of  certain 
species  in  the  Southern  hemisphere,  to  support  the  views  we  hold  on   these 
important  questions.     We  will  now  proceed  to  glance  in  detail  at  the  general 
features  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  several  orders  dealt  with  in  the 
present  volume. 

Our  first  order  consists  of  the  Columbiformes  or  Pigeons.  The  Pigeons  are 
a  widely  distributed  group,  but  the  four  hundred  and  seventy  or  so  species  that 
compose  it  are  very  unequally  dispersed,  even  in  those  warmer  portions  of  the 
globe  that  they  chiefly  affect.  They  are  by  far  the  least  abundant  in  cold  northern 
latitudes,  and  perhaps  reach  their  highest  degree  of  development,  and  certainly 
their  preponderance  in  numbers,  in  the  Australian  region — an  area,  be  it 
remarked,  abounding  in  islands  and  offering  those  facilities  for  isolation  so 
favourable  to  the  establishment  of  new  species — the  number  of  known  species 
therein  nearly  equalling  those  in  all  other  parts  of  the  world  combined.  The 
Nearctic  and  Palaearctic  regions  are  the  poorest  in  species ;  the  Ethiopian  region 
comes  next ;  whilst  the  Oriental  and  Neotropical  regions,  next  to  the  Australian 
region,  are  nearly  equal  in  their  number  of  Columbine  forms  and  abundantly 
represented.  The  Pigeons  belonging  to  the  British  genera,  Columba  and  Turtur, 


. 

INTRODUCTION.  xxi 

are  the  most  widely  distributed  of  the  Columbiformes,  an  order  which  is  singularly 
remarkable  for  the  localness  of  its  genera. 

Following  the  Pigeons  we  have  now  to  glance  at  the  distribution  of  the  Pedio- 
phili  or  Sand-Grouse.  This  very  small  and  very  distinct  order  is  exclusively  con- 
fined to  the  Old  World,  becoming  most  abundantly  represented  in  the  arid  desert 
districts  of  the  Ethiopian  region  and  in  similar  areas  in  the  central  Palasarctic  region. 
They  are  most  sparsely  represented  in  the  Oriental  region  and  in  South  Europe. 
Next  in  the  order  of  our  sequence  come  the  Galliformes  or  Game  Birds.  There 
is  perhaps  no  other  group  of  birds  more  thoroughly  cosmopolitan  in  their  distri- 
bution, being  represented  amidst  the  snows  and  the  ice  of  the  Arctic  regions 
upon  the  lofty  mountains,  in  the  woodlands  and  plains  and  valleys  of  temperate 
latitudes,  to  the  jungles  and  forests  of  the  Tropic  zone,  and  southwards  beyond  to 
Temperate  regions  again.  The  Game  Birds  are  divisible  into  several  well-defined 
families,  which  to  a  great  extent  are  geographical.  Thus  the  Grouse  are  confined 
to  the  Northern  hemisphere,  the  Partridges  and  Quails  together  are  separable 
into  groups  which  are  both  of  them  representative  of  the  New  World  and  the 
Old  World  respectively,  the  Pheasants  are  chiefly  Asiatic,  the  Turkeys  are  as 
exclusively  American  as  the  Guinea  Fowls  are  African,  the  Hemipodes  are  confined 
to  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  the  Megapodes  are  almost  exclusively  peculiar  to  the 
Australian  region,1  and,  lastly,  the  Guans  and  Curassows  are  indigenous  to  the 
American  continents. 

Another  cosmopolitan  group  is  the  Ralliformes  or  Rails,  universally  distri- 
buted with  the  exception  of  the  Polar  regions,  and  some  of  the  species  remarkable 
for  their  enormous  areas  of  dispersal.  Here  again  we  have  a  group  singularly 
rich  in  island  species,  some  of  them  having  entirely  lost  the  power  of  flight. 
It  is  a  most  significant  fact  that  some  of  the  genera  or  families  are  indigenous  to 
the  tropic  zone  right  round  the  world — a  phenomenon  of  distribution  that  is 
utterly  opposed  to  any  theory  of  Polar  dispersal.  Following  these  in  the  arrange- 
ment adopted  in  the  present  volume  we  have  the  Gruiformes,  or  Cranes  and  allied 
birds.  The  various  families  that  form  this  somewhat  heterogenous  group  are  to 
a  great  extent  geographical.  The  true  Cranes  are  by  far  the  most  cosmopolitan, 
and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Neotropical  region,  are  found  distributed  over  all 
the  great  laud  masses  of  the  globe.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Guaraiinas  (Ararnidae) 
and  the  Trumpeters  (Psophiidae)  are  exclusively  Neotropical,  whilst  the  Kagu 
(Khinochetidae),  the  most  local  of  all,  is  confined  to  the  island  of  New  Caledonia. 

Our  next  order  is  the  Charadriiformes,  which  includes  all  the  remaining 
land  birds  dealt  with  in  the  following  pages.  This  order  we  have  divided 
into  nine  fairly  well-defined  families,  four  (which  has  inadvertently  been 
given  as  five  on  page  98)  of  which  are  represented  in  the  British  Islands. 

1  In  the  account  of  the  Order  Galliformes  (p.  30)  the  statement  that  Game  Birds  are  cosmopolitan  with 
the  exception  of  the  Australian  region  is  somewhat  ambiguous.  It  should  there  have  been 
explained  that  the  Order  is  represented  by  the  Megapodes  only. 


xxii  INTRODUCTION. 

First  of  these  come  the  Bustards  (Otididse) .  This  is  another  family  confined 
exclusively  to  the  Old  World.  Bustards  are  a  decidedly  Ethiopian  type, 
being  most  abundant  in  species  in  Africa.  The  typical  Bustards  range  over  the 
Palrearctic,  Oriental  and  Ethiopian  regions  ;  whilst  the  Buffed  Bustards,  in 
addition  to  these  areas,  penetrate  to  the  Australian  region.  The  Stone-Curlews 
(CEdicnemidae) ,  although  a  family  containing  few  species,  have  a  comparatively 
wide  area  of  distribution,  including  the  temperate  and  tropical  portions  of  the 
Old  World  and  the  Neotropical  portion  of  the  New  World.  The  Coursers, 
Pratincoles  and  allied  forms  associated  in  the  family  Cursoriidse  are  another  small 
and  exclusively  Old  World  group  distributed  over  the  southern  portions  of  the 
Palaearctic  region,  throughout  the  Ethiopian  region,  the  Oriental  region  and  the 
Australian  region.  The  Plovers,  Sandpipers,  and  Snipes  (Charadriidae)  form  a 
much  more  extensive  group,  and,  moreover,  a  cosmopolitan  one,  the  range 
extending  almost  from  one  pole  to  the  other.  Of  the  ten  subfamilies  into  which 
this  family  may  be  divided  no  fewer  than  seven  are  represented  in  the  British 
list.  The  geographical  distribution  of  this  family  furnishes  us  with  some  of  the 
most  significant  and  remarkable  facts  in  support  of  the  suggested  new  law  of 
equatorial  dispersal.  Many  of  these  facts  have  been  pointed  out  as  opportunity 
presented  when  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  various  species  has  been 
dealt  with.  These  we  need  not  stay  to  repeat.  It  will  be  sufficient  here  to 
allude  to  the  significant  distribution  of  the  Quail,  the  Avocet,  the  Common  Sand- 
piper, Bonaparte's  Sandpiper,  the  Turnstone,  some  of  the  Oyster-catchers,  the 
Yellowshank,  the  Hudsonian  Godwit  and  the  Sanderling,  to  mention  but  a  few 
instances  of  species  breeding  in  both  the  Northern  and  Southern  hemispheres, 
starting  from  and  returning  to  an  equatorial  base,  to  illustrate  the  strong 
confirmation  of  our  hypothesis  that  no  migratory  bird  normally  crosses  the  Tropics 
to  breed  or  to  winter  in  either  hemisphere.  Of  the  subfamilies  with  British 
representatives  we  have  first  the  Oyster-catchers  (Haematopodinae)  which  are 
practically  cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution.  Following  these  come  the  typical 
Plovers  (CharadriinaB),  another  cosmopolitan  assemblage  of  species  ranging  over 
the  entire  earth  almost  from  pole  to  pole.  Many  of  the  genera,  however,  are 
confined  to  certain  areas  ;  and  the  geographical  area  of  many  species  is  consider- 
ably more  restricted  during  the  breeding  season  than  in  winter.  The  third 
subfamily  in  our  order  of  sequence  is  composed  of  the  Stilts  and  Avocets 
(Himantopodinse) ,  a  group  of  small  extent,  yet  almost  cosmopolitan  in  distri- 
bution, with  the  exception  of  high  northern  and  southern  latitudes.  The  fourth 
subfamily  consists  of  the  Turnstones  (Strepsilinaa),  a  group  although  restricted 
to  a  couple  of  species  only  of  practically  cosmopolitan  distribution,  and  one  with 
an  Intertropical  or  Primogaean  focus.  Another  remarkably  small  subfamily,  and 
yet  a  very  distinct  one,  is  that  of  the  Phalaropes  (Phalaropinae).  Phalaropes  are 
decidedly  Northern  hemisphere  birds  confined  to  the  arctic  and  temperate  portions 
of  the  Nearctic  and  Palaoarctic  regions,  by  some  authorities  linked  together  under 


INTRODUCTION.  xxiii 

the  term  Holarctic  region,  and  conforming  somewhat  closely  to  our  own 
Arctogaean  realm  (supra).  Oar  next  subfamily  consists  of  the  Semi-web-footed 
Sandpipers  or  Tatlers  (Totaninse) ,  another  widely  dispersed  group,  but  most 
abundantly  distributed  over  the  Arctic  and  Temperate  portions  of  the  Northern 
hemisphere  especially  during  summer.  Some  of  the  genera  as  well  as  not  a  few 
species  appear  to  have  a  northern  and  southern  dispersal  from  an  equatorial 
focus,  notably  in  Totanus,  Actiturus  and  Limosa.  Some  of  the  genera  are 
strictly  geographical — Machetes  is  confined  to  the  Old  World,  Bartramia  as 
exclusively  to  the  New  World.  Our  last  subfamily  contains  the  Cleft-footed 
Sandpipers  and  Snipes  (Scolopacinae).  These  are  birds  of  almost  cosmopolitan 
distribution,  but,  as  in  the  preceding  subfamily,  they  are  to  a  great  extent 
dominant  in  the  Arctic  regions  during  summer.  We  also  find  some  of  the  genera 
with  a  Primogaean  focus  (as  for  instance  Tringa,  Calidris,  and  Scolopax).  Of  the 
British  genera,  Gallinago  and  Scolopax  are  the  two  most  thoroughly  cosmopolitan. 
The  last  order  with  which  we  have  to  deal  is  the  Anseriformes,  which 
includes  the  somewhat  heterogeneous  assemblage  of  Screamers,  Flamingoes, 
Swans,  Geese,  Ducks  and  Mergansers.  Of  the  three  suborders,  two  are  not 
represented  in  the  present  volume,  but  the  third,  the  Ducks  (Anseres),  is  rich  in 
British  species.  The  non-British  suborders  may  be  briefly  dismissed.  The 
Screamers  (Palamedeae)  are  exclusively  a  New  World  group,  confined  to  the 
Neotropical  region  ;  whilst  the  Flamingoes  (Phoenicopteri)  are  much  more  cosmo- 
politan, and  occupy  the  tropical  areas  of  Asia  (with  South  Europe),  Africa,  and 
America,  but  are  not  represented  in  Australia.  The  Anseres  are  all  contained  in 
a  single  family  (Anatidas),  divisible  into  some  eleven  subfamilies,  of  which  no  less 
than  five  find  British  representatives.  The  Ducks  and  their  allies  are  absolutely 
cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution — a  fact  which  may  be  largely  due  to  their 
exceptional  facilities  for  dispersal.  Reviewing  the  British  subfamilies  in  their 
order  of  sequence,  we  have  first  to  consider  the  Swans  (Cygninae).  The  distribu- 
tion of  these  birds  is  somewhat  remarkable  owing  to  its  being  discontinuous. 
Swans  are  distributed  over  the  Arctic  and  Temperate  portion  of  the  Northern 
hemisphere  and  the  Temperate  portion  of  the  Southern  hemisphere — a  fact 
which  seems  to  suggest  a  dispersal  from  the  Primogaean  realm,  north  and 
south,  at  a  sufficiently  remote  era  to  have  produced  generic  differences  in 
Australia,  the  most  isolated  area.  Next  in  succession  we  have  the  Geese 
(Anserina3).  Of  these,  the  three  British  genera  are  exclusively  confined  to 
the  Northern  hemisphere,  Chen  and  Branta  being  chiefly  Arctic  in  distribution. 
The  typical  Geese  are  northern  birds,  no  species  being  found  south  of  the 
equator.  Our  next  subfamily  contains  the  Sheldrakes  and  Non-diving  Ducks 
(Anatinae).  These  may  fairly  be  described  as  cosmopolites,  but  many  of  the 
genera  are  significantly  geographical.  Thus  Dendrocygna  (non-British)  is 
Tropical,  and  is  found  right  round  the  world ;  Chenalopex  ranges  over  Africa 
and  South  America ;  Tadorna  and  Casarca  (Sheldrakes)  are  Old  World ; 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION. 

Chaulelasmus  is  confined  to  the  Northern  hemisphere  ;  Poecilonetta  is  com- 
mon to  South  America  and  Africa,  south  of  the  Great  Desert ;  Elasmonetta, 
peculiar  to  New  Zealand  ;  Nesonetta,  to  the  Auklands ;  Malecorhynchus,  to 
Australia  and  Tasmania ;  Heteronetta  to  the  Southern  portions  of  South 
America.  The  cosmopolitan  genera  are  Nettion,  Anas,  and  Spatula ;  whilst 
Querquedula  is  found  over  the  Northern  hemisphere  and  South  America,  and 
Dafila  is  a  cosmopolite  with  the  exception  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 
Following  these,  we  have  the  Diving  Ducks  and  Eiders  (Fuligulina?).  These 
Ducks  are  almost  exclusively  Northern  hemisphere  birds,  with  the  exception  of 
the  genus  Nyroca  which  is  cosmopolitan ;  Metopiana  (one  species)  which  is 
confined  to  South  America,  one  of  the  five  species  of  Fuligula  which  inhabits 
New  Zealand,  the  Aukland  and  Chatham  Islands,  and  Tachyeres  (one  species) 
inhabiting  the  Strait  of  Magellan  and  the  Falklands.  Many  of  the  species  are 
arctic  or  sub-arctic  in  distribution  during  summer,  as  details  of  their  geographical 
area  in  the  present  volume  will  show.  Our  last  British  subfamily  contains  the 
Mergansers  and  Smews  (Merginae).  Of  the  three  genera  that  compose  it, 
Lophodytes  (one  species)  is  confined  to  North  America,  Mergus  (one  species)  is 
exclusively  Palsearctic,  whilst  Merganser  (seven  species)  is  of  wide  distribution, 
ranging  over  the  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions,  and  portions  of  the  Neotropical 
and  Oriental  regions,  together  with  the  Aukland  Islands  in  the  South  Pacific. 
Some  of  the  other  subfamilies  are  remarkable  for  their  geographical  distribution, 
such  as  the  Merganettinse  with  representatives  in  New  Zealand  and  the  Andes. 

Now  as  regards  the  migrations  of  the  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl.  Taking 
the  various  groups  of  birds  dealt  with  in  the  present  volume  in  their  sequence, 
we  have  first  to  consider  the  migrations  of  the  Pigeons.  So  far  as  concerns  the 
few  British  species  we  have  little  of  exceptional  interest  to  record,  although  the 
annual  movements  of  some  birds  of  the  Pigeon  tribe  in  other  parts  of  the  world 
are  upon  such  a  scale  that  elevate  them  to  the  highest  class  of  migrational 
phenomena.  To  illustrate  this  we  have  only  to  allude  to  the  marvellous  migra- 
tions of  the  Passenger  Pigeon  of  the  New  World.  Unfortunately  the  progress  of 
civilization  in  North  America  has  been  synchronous  with  the  almost  complete 
extermination  of  this  interesting  bird,  which  now  only  manages  to  survive  in  the 
least  populated  areas,  and  even  there  in  numbers  that  can  only  be  described  as 
remnants.  This  species  is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  British  area,  and  we  have 
already  dwelt  at  some  length  upon  its  migrational  movements.  The  typical 
Pigeons  can  scarcely  be  classed  as  birds  of  strong  migrational  movement,  season- 
flight  perhaps  reaching  its  greatest  development  in  the  Turtle  Dove  and  allied 
forms.  Migration  becomes  much  more  pronounced  amongst  the  Sand-Grouse, 
and  in  these  birds  it  is  often  of  a  strongly  marked  nomadic  or  irruptic  character. 
Two  of  the  species  are  known  as  cold  season  visitors  to  India,  and  one  or  two  of 
the  South  African  Sand  Grouse  appear  to  have  well-defined  migrations. 

There  is  more  regular  migration  among  the  Game  Birds  than  is  perhaps 


INTRODUCTION.  xxv 

generally  supposed.  Much  of  this  migration  is  of  a  nomadic  chiiracter,  or  is 
displayed  in  the  form  of  vertical  migration  in  so  many  mountain  species.  Many 
of  these  movements  are  at  present  little  understood,  and  the  data  concerning 
them  is  of  the  most  meagre  character.  The  migrations  of  some  of  the  Grouse 
are  exceptionally  interesting.  Thus  the  Prairie  Hen  (Tympanuchus  americanus) 
is  said  by  competent  observers  to  migrate  as  regularly  as  the  Canada  Goose.  In 
November  and  December  large  flocks  of  this  Grouse  come  from  Northern  Iowa 
and  Southern  Minnesota  to  winter  in  Northern  Missouri  and  Southern  Iowa. 
The  return  migration  is  performed  in  March  and  April.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that 
the  migratory  individuals  are  said  to  be  females  only,  but  this  is  possibly  not 
universal,  and  may  be  similar  to  the  movements  of  the  Chaffinch.  The  most 
typical  migrant  amongst  the  Game  Birds  is  the  Quail.  Its  seasonal  movements 
are  not  only  regular,  but  take  place  over  wide  areas  of  country,  often  in  vast 
numbers.  In  the  next  group,  the  Eails,  we  have  species  of  much  more  pro- 
nounced and  regular  migration  (our  own  Corn  Crake  furnishes  a  capital  example). 
Even  more  strongly  of  migratory  habits  are  the  Cranes,  although  it  may  be 
remarked  that  the  allied  Trumpeters  and  the  Kagu  are  eminently  sedentary. 

We  now  come  to  the  most  thoroughly  typical  migrants  of  all  the  land  birds 
treated  in  the  present  volume,  the  great  cosmopolitan  order  of  the  Charadrii- 
formes.  It  is  true  that  many  of  the  species  that  compose  it  are  of  sedentary 
habits,  but  the  majority  of  them  are  birds  of  passage.  Every  kind  of  migrational 
movement  finds  its  representative  in  this  order,  from  the  nomadic  or  vertical 
migrant  to  the  feathered  pilgrim  that  crosses  half  the  world  in  its  annual 
passage.  The  Coursers,  Pratincoles  and  Phalaropes  may  be  classed  among  the 
most  sedentary  species,  as  the  Sandpipers,  Turnstones  and  Plovers  rank  as  the 
greatest  migrants.  Little  less  famous  as  migrants  are  the  Ducks  and  their  allied 
forms,  the  annual  movements  of  so  many  of  these  birds  being  too  familiar  to 
require  description  in  detail  here.  We  may  remark,  however,  that  if  the 
migrations  of  birds  of  the  Duck  tribe  are  regular  and  pronounced,  they  are  not 
so  extended  as  in  the  preceding  order  ;  whilst  there  can  be  little  or  no  doubt  that 
a  much  greater  percentage  of  the  species  are  sedentary,  especially  in  the  tropics 
and  the  Southern  hemisphere. 

We  now  propose  to  bring  the  present  chapter  to  a  conclusion  by  a  brief 
description  of  the  spring  and  autumn  aspects  of  the  migrations  of  the  British 
species  of  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl  as  they  are  presented  in  our  area.  So  far 
as  our  Islands  are  concerned,  migration  is  very  sparsely  demonstrated  by  Game 
Birds  and  Pigeons.  Some  of  our  Grouse  are  certainly  subject  to  marked  if 
slight  vertical  migration,  and  there  appears  to  be  some  amount  of  nomadic 
movement  during  winter.  The  Quail  is  the  sole  strictly  migratory  species.  Our 
Pigeons  are  all  sedentary  in  the  sense  of  not  crossing  the  seas,  but  large  numbers 
of  Eing  Doves  and  smaller  numbers  of  Stock  Doves  visit  us  in  autumn  and 
winter  from  Continental  areas.  The  Turtle  Dove  is  the  only  migratory  species, 


XXVI 


INTRODUCTION. 


and  will  be  again  alluded  to  when  we  deal  with  the  months  of  its  arrival  and 
departure.  It  will,  perhaps,  be  most  convenient  to  deal  with  the  migrational 
phenomena  as  they  occur  from  month  to  month.  During  the  depth  of  winter 
true  migration  may  be  at  perfect  rest,  but  at  this  season  there  is  an  immense 
amount  of  movement  in  progress  amongst  Wild  Fowl.  This  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  prevailing  state  of  the  weather  and  the  vicissitudes  of  food  supply.  In 
February  migration  may  be  justly  said  to  commence  among  Wild  Fowl.  During 
that  month  we  have  evidence  of  movement  among  Geese,  Swans,  and  Ducks, 
especially  of  the  more  boreal  species,  the  first  signs  of  their  spring  migration 
northwards  from  our  waters.  Migration  among  wading  birds  is  not,  however,  so 
pronounced  at  this  period,  although  Golden  Plovers,  Lapwings,  Grey  Phalaropes, 
Woodcock,  Common  and  Jack  Snipes,  Redshanks,  and  Curlews  show  unmistak- 
able signs  of  moving  north,  north-east,  or  east.  With  the  advent  of  March 
migration  reaches  a  much  stronger  phase.  Ring  Doves  and  Stock  Doves  are 
migrating  back  to  Continental  districts  ;  almost  without  exception  every  species 
of  British  Duck,  Goose,  or  Swan  is  now  passing  from  our  islands  or  coasting 
over  them  towards  the  breeding  grounds,  a  state  of  things  that  will  continue 
with  increasing  frequency  for  weeks.  The  Smew  closes  its  passage  this  month. 
Greater  migrational  activity  also  prevails  among  Waders.  Golden  Plovers  and 
Lapwings  continue  to  migrate  out  of  our  area ;  Grey  Plovers  begin  their 
northern  movement,  and  numbers  of  this  latter  species  also  pass  along  our 
coasts  ;  perhaps  the  greater  number  of  our  Snipes  migrate  north  during  March. 
Curlews  and  Redshanks  are  still  leaving  us,  and  this  month  the  Dunlin  begins  to 
move  out  of  the  country  as  well  as  to  pass  along  the  coasts  ;  the  Purple  Sand- 
piper also  initiates  its  passage.  Towards  the  end  of  March  the  Garganey 
appears.  The  migration  north  of  Ducks  continues  throughout  April,  as  also  does 
the  departure  of  the  Ring  Dove  and  Stock  Dove.  During  this  month  we  remark 
the  first  appearance  of  those  Waders  that  have  wintered  south  of  our  area.  Now 
the  Stone  Curlew  arrives,  the  first  of  the  Kentish  Plovers,  and  Dotterels, 
the  Red-necked  Phalarope,  the  Ruff,  the  Common  Sandpiper,  the  Wood  and 
Green  Sandpipers,  the  Greenshank,  the  Whimbrel,  and  the  Black-tailed  Godwit. 
Ringed  Plovers  are  passing  north  along  our  coast,  Avocets  are  seen,  and  Bar- 
tailed  Godwits  are  coasting  us.  Now  also  appear  the  first  of  the  Little  and 
Temminck's  Stints,  the  Curlew  Sandpiper,  and  the  Knot :  Sanderlings  are  now 
in  strong  movement.  Towards  the  end  of  April,  Quails,  Corn  Crakes,  and  Spotted 
Crakes  arrive  in  our  Islands  to  breed,  and  the  Turtle  Dove  in  small  numbers 
makes  its  appearance.  These  four  latter  species  are,  however,  better  classed  as 
May  migrants.  By  the  end  of  April  the  migrations  of  the  Bean  and  Pink- 
footed  Geese  are  practically  over,  but  all  the  other  British  species  of  Geese, 
together  with  the  Swans,  prolong  their  movements  into  early  May,  mostly 
coasting  migrants.  Among  the  Ducks,  Gadwall,  Pochard,  Tufted  Duck,  Long- 
tailed  Duck,  and  Golden-eye  complete  their  passage  practically  in  April,  but  the 


INTRODUCTION.  xxvii 

other  species  prolong  theirs  into  May.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  coasting  migration 
over  the  British  Islands  during  May  amongst  Wild  Fowl  of  most  species,  and  in 
not  a  few  instances  this  is  continued  into  June,  especially  with  hirds  that  breed 
in  the  far  north,  such  as  Knots,  Grey  Plovers,  Turnstones,  Curlew  Sandpipers, 
Sanderlings,  Whimbrels,  and  Bar-tailed  Godwits.  Among  the  Ducks,  Brent 
Geese,  Teal,  and  Wigeon  may  be  instanced  as  prolonging  their  passage  into 
June.  This  month,  however,  brings  to  a  close  the  spring  migration  northwards 
of  our  British  Wild  Fowl.  Vertical  migration  commences  fairly  early,  as  soon 
as  the  uplands  are  sufficiently  open  to  furnish  food,  with  the  passage  of  Lapwings 
in  February,  the  Golden  Plover,  the  Curlew,  and  the  Dunlin,  for  instance,  in 
March.  In  our  islands  this  vertical  migration  ceases  in  May. 

We  have  scarcely  remarked  the  last  departing  fowl  northwards  in  spring  and 
early  summer  before  signs  of  the  returning  birds  begin  to  be  apparent.  Among 
the  Ducks  we  occasionally  have  indications  of  a  southern  migration  in  July,  with 
such  species  as  Brent  Geese,  Mallards,  and  Common  Scoters ;  among  Wading 
birds  with  such  species  as  Grey  Plovers,  Golden  Plovers,  Lapwings,  Turnstones, 
Eedshanks,  Curlews,  Bar-tailed  Godwits,  Knots,  and  Sanderlings.  In  August, 
the  migration  of  birds  of  the  Duck  tribe  becomes  slightly  more  apparent  by  the 
earliest  arrivals  of  Bernacle  Geese,  Whoopers,  Teals,  Wigeons,  Scaups,  and  Velvet 
Scoters.  These  individuals,  however,  are  but  pioneers  of  the  hosts  that  are  to 
arrive  during  the  few  succeeding  months.  During  August,  a  few  Corn  Crakes, 
Spotted  Crakes,  and  Stone  Curlews,  leave  their  British  breeding  grounds  and 
draw  south  ;  the  Turtle  Dove  is  also  in  movement  this  month  ;  whilst  the 
numbers  of  Grey  Plovers,  Golden  Plovers,  Lapwings,  Turnstones,  Eedshanks, 
Curlews,  Knots,  and  Sanderlings,  perceptibly  increase.  Migration  is  also  com- 
menced by  the  Grey  Phalarope,  the  Woodcock,  the  Common  Snipe,  the  Buff,  and 
the  Dunlin,  in  August ;  whilst  Whimbrels,  Black-tailed  Godwits,  Greenshanks, 
Wood  and  Green  Sandpipers,  are  also  leaving  us,  or  in  movement  coasting  south. 
In  September,  migration  rapidly  increases  in  intensity.  To  the  list  of  arrivals 
must  now  be  added  (in  small  numbers)  the  Pink-footed  Goose,  the  Pintail,  the 
Pochard,  the  Tufted  Duck,  and  the  Golden-eye.  Among  Waders,  we  may 
mention  that  the  Jack  Snipe  and  the  Purple  Sandpiper  begin  to  return  to  their 
British  winter  haunts.  Among  the  departures  of  our  summer  migrants  may  be 
instanced  the  Garganey,  the  Turtle  Dove,  and  the  Quail,  the  passage  of  all  three 
species  being  prolonged  into  the  following  month.  The  Corn  Crake,  the  Spotted 
Crake,  and  the  Stone  Curlew  are  also  migrating  strongly  now.  Coasting  migrants 
perceptibly  increase  in  numbers,  especially  Plovers,  Sandpipers,  Whimbrels, 
Godwits,  and  the  first  of  the  Stints.  The  Eed-necked  Phalarope  now  begins  to 
leave  its  summer  quarters,  and  the  Avocet,  and  the  Green  and  Wood  Sandpipers, 
complete  their  autumn  passage. 

So  far  as  the  Duck  tribe  is  concerned,  October  inaugurates  migration  on  the 
grandest  scale.  The  migration  of  every  species  is  strongly  marked,  birds  pouring 


xxviii  INTRODUCTION. 

into  our  area  from  the  north  and  east.  This  month  brings  the  first  of  the  White- 
fronted  and  Bean  Geese,  Bewick's  Swans,  and  Mute  Swans,  Gadwalls,  Long- 
tailed  Ducks,  Goosanders,  and  Smews.  The  migration  of  the  Spotted  Crake 
draws  to  a  close  this  month,  also  that  of  the  Garganey.  Not  only  are  the  various 
species  of  wild  fowl  coming  into  our  Islands  and  seas  in  vast  numbers,  but  similar 
multitudes  are  coasting  south.  The  Dotterel  completes  its  migration  in  October, 
as  also  do  the  Eed-necked  Phalarope,  the  Common  Sandpiper  (except  in  a  few 
isolated  instances),  the  Greenshank,  the  Whimbrel,  and  the  Black-tailed  Godwit. 
November  brings  the  normal  autumn  migration  of  Wild  Fowl  to  a  close.  Geese, 
Swans,  and  Ducks  continue  to  arrive  in  our  area  or  to  pass  our  Islands  to  still 
more  southern  haunts.  Ring  Doves  and  Stock  Doves  are  still  migrating  into  this 
country,  a  few  Corn  Crakes,  Stone  Curlews,  and  Kentish  Plovers  are  still  moving 
out  of  it ;  whilst  many  Plovers  and  Sandpipers,  Bar-tailed  Godwits,  Purple  Sand- 
pipers, Knots,  and  Sanderlings,  still  coast  us  on  their  way  south.  Vertical  migra- 
tion commences  in  July  and  August  among  such  species  as  Lapwings,  Golden 
Plovers,  Curlews,  Dunlins,  Eedshanks,  and  Mallards,  and  is  continued  until 
October,  when  the  uplands  are  practically  cleared  of  their  wading  birds  of  passage. 
We  have  not  space  here  to  describe  in  detail  the  actual  movements  of  these 
various  species  of  Wild  Fowl.  There  is  something  intensely  interesting,  and  at 
times  most  impressive,  about  their  seasonal  movements,  more  often  than  not 
performed  under  the  cover  of  darkness.  Their  wild  expressive  cries  when  on 
passage  across  the  night  sky,  the  rush  of  their  rapidly  moving  wings  in  the  dark- 
ness overhead,  their  visits  to  the  light-houses  when  lost  and  bewildered  by  adverse 
atmospheric  conditions,  are  all  of  exceptional  interest,  and  combine  in  forming  a 
demonstration  of  avine  migration  of  a  most  impressive  kind.  The  reader  who 
might  care  to  pursue  this  fascinating  subject  further,  may  be  referred  to  our  two 
volumes  on  migration,  as  well  as  to  Gatke's  monumental  work  on  the  Birds  of 
Heligoland. 


The  Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl 


OF 


The  British  Islands. 


ORDER    COLUMBIFORMES.— THE     PIGEONS. 


THE  Pigeons  form  a  homogeneous,  well-defined,  and  important  group  of 
birds,  closely  allied  to  the  Game  Birds  (GALLIFOBMES) — through  the 
Sand-Grouse  (PEDIOPEIL1) — and  to  the  Plovers  (CHARADRIIFORMES).  Their 
sternum,  which  varies  in  shape,  generally  contains  two  notches  on  each  side  of  the 
posterior  margin,  the  interior  pair  being  small,  the  exterior  pair  wide  and  deep. 
In  the  modification  of  their  cranial  bones  they  are  schizognathous,  whilst  their 
nostrils  are  schizorhinal.  In  their  pterylosis,  myology,  and  digestive  organs  they 
show  considerable  affinity  with  the  Plovers  and  the  Game  Birds. 

The  external  characteristics  of  the  Pigeons  are  their  somewhat  Plover-like 
bill,  enlarged  at  the  tip  and  covered  at  the  base  with  soft  skin,  in  which  are 
placed  the  nostrils,  partly  concealed  by  an  incumbent  valve ;  their  small  hind  toe ; 
and  their  dense,  compact  plumage.  The  oil  gland  is  nude  or  absent.  The  contour 
feathers  are  without  an  aftershaft,  or  only  possess  a  rudimentary  one.  The  primary 
quills  are  eleven  in  number,  the  fifth  secondary  is  absent ;  but  the  rectrices  are 
variable  in  this  respect  (from  twelve  to  twenty).  The  Pigeons  are,  so  far  as  is 
known,  double-moulted;  the  young  are  hatched  blind,  but  clothed  with  thin, 
yellowish  down. 

About  470  species  of  Pigeons  are  known.  Count  Salvadori,  the  most  recent 
monographer  of  the  Columbiformes,  has  divided  the  existing  species  of  Pigeons 
into  five  families,  of  which  two  only  are  represented  in  the  British  Islands.  The 
Pigeons  are  cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution  with  the  exception  of  the  Polar 
regions,  but  are  probably  most  abundant  in  the  Australian  region. 
I, 


THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 


Family   COLUMBID/E.—  The  Typical    Pigeons. 


The  birds  comprising  this  division  of  the  order  may  be  distinguished  by  their 
somewhat  short  metatarsus — in  most  cases  less  than  the  middle  toe  in  length— and 
by  the  number  of  their  tail  feathers,  which  is  twelve.  In  this  group  the  soles  of  the 
feet  are  of  moderate  breadth,  and  the  skin  on  the  side  of  the  hind  toe  only  is 
exceptionally  expanded.  Count  Salvadori,  somewhat  needlessly,  we  consider,  has 
divided  the  present  family  into  no  less  than  three  subfamilies,  one  of  them 
containing  but  a  single  species,  the  Passenger  Pigeon. 


Genus  COLUMBA,    or   Grey   Pigeons. 

Type,  COLUMBA  MNA.S. 


Coltimba,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  prevailing  slate-grey  plumage,  glossed  chiefly  on  the  head, 
neck,  and  breast  with  metallic  hues.  The  wings  are  long,  broad,  and  rather 
pointed,  the  first  primary  considerably  longer  than  the  sixth  ;  the  tail,  which  is 
shorter  (or  not  longer)  than  the  wing,  is  composed  of  twelve  feathers,  nearly  even. 
The  metatarsus  is  short,  scutellated  in  front,  reticulated  behind,  and  feathered 
on  the  upper  portion,  but  never  more  than  for  half  its  length.  The  bill  is 
moderately  stout,  straight  at  the  base,  and  compressed.  There  are  three  toes 
in  front,  cleft  to  the  base ;  one  toe  behind. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  sixty  more  or  less  denned  species,  which  are 
inhabitants  of  the  Palaearctic,  Ethiopian,  Oriental,  Nearctic  and  Neotropical 
regions.  Three  species  are  resident  in  the  British  Islands. 

The  Grey  Pigeons  are  dwellers  on  rock-bound  coasts,  inland  precipices,  groves, 
and  forests.  They  are  birds  of  sustained  and  rapid  flight,  and  progress  on  the 
ground  by  running  and  walking.  Their  notes  are  full  and  soft,  but  possess  little 
sweetness  or  variety.  They  subsist  chiefly  upon  grain  and  vegetable  substances. 
Their  nests  are  slight  platforms  of  twigs,  placed  on  rocks  or  trees  ;  and  their  eggs, 
never  more  than  two,  are  white  or  creamy- white,  and  oval.  These  birds  pair  for 
life,  and  are  remarkably  prolific.  Their  flesh  is  highly  and  justly  esteemed  for 
the  table. 


PI; 


J#* 


JU& 


RING    £>OVE. 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  3 

Family  COLUMBIDjE.  Genus  COLUMBA. 


RING     DOVE. 

COLUMBA   PALUMBUS.— -Linnceus. 
PLATE  I. 

Columba  palumbus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  282  (1766) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  259 
(1837)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  3,  pi.  456  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.,  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  1 
(1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii,  p  396  (1884) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 
xxi.  p.  299  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  344  (1893) ;  Lilford,  Col. 
Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxii.  (1896) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  157,  pi.  47 
(1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  242  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Eing  Dove  is  a  resident 
throughout  the  wooded  districts  of  the  British  Islands  ;  most  abundant  in  well- 
cultivated  localities.  To  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  to  St.  Kilda  it  is  only  known  as 
an  occasional  visitor.  Its  range  is  steadily  increasing  with  the  planting  of  trees. 
Foreign :  Western  Palaoarctic  region.  It  ranges  from  Scandinavia  east  to  the 
Ural  Mountains  and  the  Caucasus.  It  is  a  resident  except  in  the  extreme  north, 
where  it  breeds  as  high  as  lat.  65J°  in  the  west  and  lat.  60°  in  the  extreme  east. 
It  breeds  locally  throughout  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  is  here  best 
known  as  a  migrant  during  winter.  To  the  Azores  and  Faroes  it  is  an  abnormal 
migrant  only. 

Allied  forms. — Columba  casiotis,  an  inhabitant  of  Persia,  Turkestan, 
and  Afghanistan  as  far  east  as  Gilgit,  on  the  frontiers  of  Cashmere.  Differs  from 
the  Eing  Dove  in  having  the  light  patches  on  the  neck  buff  instead  of  white. 

Habits. — The  Eing  Dove  is  certainly  the  best  known  of  its  tribe  in  our 
islands,  and  a  bird  that  is  almost  everywhere  on  the  increase.  It  is  a  resident, 
and  frequents  the  woodland  districts,  parks  and  shrubberies,  as  well  as  the  open 
fields.  It  is  more  or  less  gregarious  throughout  the  year,  and  though  one  of  the 
shyest  of  birds,  soon  becomes  trustful  and  tame  in  districts  where  it  is  not 
molested,  as  witness  the  extraordinary  confidence  of  the  Eing  Doves  that  of  late 
years  especially  have  taken  to  frequenting  some  of  the  London  parks.  The  flight  of 
the  Eing  Dove  is  rapid  and  powerful,  and  the  white  patches  on  the  wings  and  on  the 
neck  are  very  conspicuous  as  the  bird  hurries  along.  The  Eing  Dove  is  a  silent 
bird  during  winter,  but  early  in  spring  it  regains  its  note,  which  is  continued  more 
or  less  freely  into  the  following  September,  and  less  frequently  into  October.  This 


4  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

note  is  a  loud,  full  coo-roo-coo,  most  frequently  repeated  when  the  bird  is  in  the 
act  of  paying  court  to  its  mate.  In  autumn  vast  flights  of  this  bird  congregate  in 
chosen  localities,  migrants  from  Scandinavia,  which  fraternise  with  our  indigenous 
birds,  and  frequent  the  open  fields  during  the  day,  seeking  the  fir  plantations  at 
dusk  to  roost,  where  their  homeward  flight  oft  affords  good  sport  to  the  gunner. 
The  King  Dove  drinks  frequently,  and  is  very  fond  of  repairing  to  salt  water.  It 
is  a  most  voracious  feeder,  and  in  some  districts  commits  great  havoc  on  the  crops  of 
beans  and  grain  and  the  tender  shoots  of  clover.  During  spring  and  summer  it 
feeds  largely  on  shoots  of  herbage,  mollusks,  and  seeds,  and,  as  the  autumn 
advances,  grain  of  all  kinds,  peas,  acorns,  beech-mast,  fruits,  berries,  and  even  nuts 
are  devoured.  In  winter  it  has  been  known  to  feed  on  the  tender  shoots  of  turnips, 
and  even  on  pieces  of  the  turnips  themselves.  At  this  season  it  will  frequent 
those  places  in  the  game  coverts  where  maize  is  spread  for  the  pheasants ;  and 
here  good  sport  may  often  be  obtained  by  lying  in  wait  for  the  gluttonous  pilferer. 
This  species  does  not  frequent  the  coast  anything  nearly  so  much  as  the  Stock  Dove. 
Vast  numbers  of  Eing  Doves  occasionally  visit  the  British  Islands  in  Jate  autumn 
from  continental  Europe ;  although  it  is  interesting  to  remark  that  at  Heligoland 
the  bird  is  seldom  seen  in  large  flights,  but  is  observed  in  straggling  parties  and 
singly  both  in  spring  and  autumn. 

Nidification. — From  what  I  have  observed  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the 
Bing  Dove  pairs  for  life,  and  yearly  nests  in  the  same  locality  if  not  disturbed. 
This  species  is  an  early  and  a  prolonged  breeder,  commencing  in  March  or 
April  and  continuing  to  rear  brood  after  brood  until  the  autumn.  The  nest  is 
placed  in  a  great  variety  of  situations,  both  in  evergreen  and  in  deciduous  trees 
(the  latter  often  before  they  are  in  leaf),  and  in  bushes  and  amongst  ivy  on  cliffs 
or  tree-trunks.  Woods,  plantations,  odd  trees  in  the  hedgerows  or  trees  in  the 
open  fields,  are  selected  without  choice  of  situation,  and  the  nest  is  placed  at 
varying  heights.  Mr.  Witherby  has  recorded  (Zoologist,  1895,  p.  232)  a  very 
interesting  and  remarkable  instance  of  this  bird  nesting  on  the  ground  amongst 
heather  on  a  small  island  in  Lough  Cong,  co.  Galway,  although  suitable  trees 
were  available.  Two  nests  were  discovered  in  such  a  situation  ;  and  this  fact 
seems  forcibly  to  illustrate  how  a  species  may  initiate  a  change  in  its  nesting 
habits.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  these  curious  nests  were  on  islands,  safe  from 
predatory  animals  ;  and  the  habit,  therefore,  has  every  chance  of  becoming  a  more 
general  and  permanent  one.  Mr.  J.  J.  Armistead  (op.  cit.  p.  275)  records  nests 
"  not  a  foot  from  the  ground,"  in  blackthorns,  in  the  south  of  Scotland.  The  nest  of 
the  Ring  Dove  is  merely  a  few  dead  twigs  arranged  basket-like  in  a  flat  and  almost 
a  shapeless  mass.  The  eggs  are  normally  two,  but  exceptionally  one  or  three  in 
number,  oval  in  form,  and  pure  and  spotless  white.  They  are  on  an  average  1'6 
inch  in  length  by  1'25  in  breadth.  They  are  sometimes  laid  one  on  each  successive 
day,  but  often  a  day  is  missed  between  each.  Incubation  lasts  from  seventeen  to 


OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  5 

twenty  days.  Both  parents  assist  in  the  task,  and  in  ministering  to  the  wants  of 
the  young.  It  should  be  remarked  that  in  all  the  species  of  this  family  the 
excreta  of  the  young  are  never  removed,  and,  caking  together,  soon  form  a  firm 
platform  with  the  twigs,  on  which  the  heavy  nestlings  rest  secure.  The  young 
are  brought  to  maturity  by  being  fed  with  half-digested  food  regurgitated  from 
the  crop  of  the  old  birds.  The  Eing  Dove  has  been  known  to  breed  in  confine- 
ment, and  also  to  hybridise  with  the  domestic  Pigeon. 

Diagnostic  characters. —  [Adult]  Columba,  with  a  conspicuous  white 
bar  on  the  wings,  and  white  patches  on  the  sides  of  the  neck ;  [Young]  with  a 
white  wing  bar,  neck  patches  absent.  Length,  16  to  17  inches.  It  might  here 
be  remarked  that  the  irides  of  this  bird,  as  is  the  case  with  many  other  species, 
change  in  colour  with  age.  Thus  in  the  young  bird  they  are  very  dark,  nearly 
black,  whilst  in  the  adult  they  are  brilliant  yellow. 


6  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  COLUMBINE.  Genus  COLUMBA. 


STOCK    DOVE. 

COLUMBA    M8A&.—Linnasus. 
PLATE  II.,  Pig.  1. 

Columba  asnas,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  279  (1766) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  287  (1837) ; 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  23,  pi.  458  (1876) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  8  (1883) ; 
Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  401  (1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xx.  (1891) ; 
Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxi.  p.  261  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B. 
p.  346  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  158,  pi.  47  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Hanb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  244  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British :  The  Stock  Dove  is  a  resident 
throughout  England  and  Wales  both  inland  and  near  the  coast,  but  more  locally 
distributed  than  the  Eing  Dove.  It  is  very  rare  and  local  in  Ireland  and  Scotland, 
but  its  range  is  steadily  increasing.  Foreign  :  West  Palsearctic  region.  It 
ranges  from  Scandinavia  east  to  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  Caucasus,  Asia  Minor, 
Turkestan  and  Afghanistan.  It  is  a  summer  visitor  only  to  the  northern  portions 
of  its  range,  which  extends  in  the  west  up  to  lat.  62°  and  in  the  east  up  to 
lat.  57°.  It  breeds  throughout  Central  and  Southern  Europe  and  North-west 
Africa.  It  is  rare  in  Palestine,  and  doubtfully  recorded  from  Egypt. 

Allied  forms. — Columba  eversmanni,  an  inhabitant  of  Central  Asia. 
Differs  from  the  Stock  Dove  in  having  a  pale  rump,  a  vinous  crown,  and  a  black 
base  to  the  bill,  and  is  slightly  smaller.  The  Stock  Dove  is  represented  on  the 
North  Atlantic  African  islands  by  several  allied  but  quite  distinct  species. 

Habits. — Although  so  common  and  widely  distributed  throughout  the  year, 
the  Stock  Dove  is  much  less  known  to  sportsmen  and  naturalists  than  is  the 
preceding  species.  It  is  also  often  confused  with  the  Kock  Dove,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  two  species  are  very  different  in  appearance.  Although  this  species 
may  be  met  with  frequently  on  the  coast  (in  Tor  Bay  it  is  the  only  Pigeon  of  the 
cliffs,  but  practically  deserts  these  places  during  winter),  and  even  in  quarries  and 
on  moors  and  downs,  yet  it  is  most  abundant  in  wooded  districts,  especially  where 
the  timber  is  aged  and  hollow.  To  many  sportsmen  it  is  known  by  the  name  of 
"  Kockier."  It  is  a  shy  and  wary  bird,  and  rarely  allows  a  near  approach  unless 
it  considers  itself  unseen  ;  and  will  then  often  remain  in  trees  or  on  the  cliffs  until 
it  is  well  within  gun-shot.  The  Stock  Dove  flies  rapidly  and  impetuously,  having 


fO 


C- 

cO 


CO 

QJ 

E 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  7 

wonderful  command  over  itself  in  the  air,  and  is  able  to  dart  and  twist  in  and  out 
of  the  branches,  defying  all  but  the  quickest  shots  to  bring  it  down.  Like  the  Eing 
Dove  it  frequents  the  fields  and  more  open  country  to  feed  and  to  dust  itself  ; 
but  when  alarmed  it  hurries  to  the  nearest  cover,  and  always  repairs  to  its 
accustomed  roosting-place  in  thick  plantations  or  011  the  ivy-clad  cliffs  at  the 
approach  of  dusk.  It  may  frequently  be  seen  running  along  the  horizontal  limbs 
of  trees,  especially  during  the  pairing  season.  The  note  of  this  bird,  persistently 
kept  up  all  the  spring  and  summer,  if;  much  harsher  than  that  of  the  Eing  Dove, 
and  may  be  aptly  expressed  as  a  grunting  coo-oo-up.  At  all  times  of  the  year  the 
Stock  Dove  is  socially  inclined,  and  in  autumn  becomes  gregarious,  the  flocks  then 
assuming  large  size.  Many  of  these  birds  are  migrants  from  Scandinavia.  All 
through  the  autumn  and  winter  the  flocks  frequent  the  stubbles  and  fields  of 
newly-sown  grain,  flying  at  nightfall  to  the  woods  and  coppices,  where  they  roost. 
Eing  Doves  very  often  mingle  with  them.  The  food  of  this  species  largely 
consists  of  grain  during  the  time  that  fare  is  available ;  but  seeds  of  weeds,  clover, 
and  grasses  are  often  eaten.  This  bird  is  also  partial  to  acorns  and  "  mast,"  and 
even  consumes  blackberries.  Peas  and  beans  are  favourite  fare,  and  in  severe 
weather,  when  snow  is  about,  it  will  eat  shoots  of  grain  and  clover  and  the  leaves 
and  sprouts  of  turnips.  Although  it  frequents  the  ocean  cliffs  it  is  rarely  seen  on 
the  beach  below,  except  to  drink  the  salt  water,  of  which  it  is  particularly  fond ; 
but  searches  for  its  sustenance  on  the  fields  near  by,  or  often  flies  to  some  distance 
where  favourite  fare  chances  to  be  plentiful.  This  bird  in  some  districts  is  looked 
upon  as  a  pest  by  agriculturists,  owing  to  its  depredations  among  the  grain  and 
green  crops,  yet  its  good  offices  in  ridding  the  fields  of  weeds  is  some  recompense 
for  its  pilferings. 

Nidif  ication. — The  Stock  Dove  pairs  for  life,  and  returns  yearly  to  breed 
in  some  favourite  spot  even  in  spite  of  much  disturbance.  What  is  also  remark- 
able is  its  sociability,  even  gregariousness,  during  this  period,  numbers  of  nests 
often  being  placed  quite  close  together.  This  may  be  in  some  measure  because 
suitable  sites  are  rare  elsewhere.  Like  its  congeners  it  begins  to  breed  early,  and 
is  remarkably  prolific,  continuing  to  rear  brood  after  brood  from  March  or  April 
onwards  to  September  and  October.  I  have  in  November  shot  young  Stock 
Doves  not  many  days  out  of  the  nest,  with  filaments  of  down  clinging  to  the  head. 
The  nest  is  placed  in  a  variety  of  situations,  yet  always  well  concealed.  A 
covered  site  of  some  kind  is  always  preferred.  Holes  in  trees,  the  deserted  nests 
of  Magpies  and  Crows,  the  old  dreys  of  squirrels,  amongst  ivy  on  trees  and 
cliffs,  even  in  holes  of  the  latter,  and  in  church  steeples — these  are  all  favourite 
places  ;  whilst  in  more  exposed  districts  rabbits'  burrows  are  often  chosen  for  the 
like  purpose.  I  have  known  this  bird  nest  several  yards  up  a  fissure  in  the  ironstone 
cliffs  of  a  quarry.  The  nest  is  slight,  and  in  many  instances  dispensed  with 
altogether.  A  few  twigs  or  roots  carelessly  interlaced,  or  a  handful  of  straw,  are 


8  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

the  sole  provision  ever  made.  The  two  eggs  (three  have  been  said  to  have 
been  found,  but  never  in  my  own  experience)  are  creamy-white  in  colour,  oval  in 
form,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'4  inch  by  1'2  inch.  Incubation  lasts  from 
seventeen  to  eighteen  days,  and  both  birds  assist  in  the  task,  as  they  also  do  in 
rearing  the  young.  These  are  brought  to  maturity  in  a  similar  manner  to  those 
of  the  preceding  species,  and  are  deserted  as  soon  as  they  can  leave  the  nest. 

Diagnostic  Characters.  —  Columba,  with  a  rudimentary  wing  bar,  no 
white  patches  on  the  sides  of  the  neck,  the  rump  uniform  in  colour  with  the 
back,  and  the  axillaries  and  under  wing  coverts  grey.  Length,  13  inches. 


OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  9 

Family  COLUMBINE.  Genus  COLUMBA. 


ROCK     DOVE. 

COLUMBA    LIVIA.— Bonnat. 
PLATE  II.,  Fig.  2. 

Columba  livia,  Bonnat.  Tabl.  Bncycl.  Method,  i.  p.  227  (1790  ex  Brisson) ;  Macgill. 
Brit.  B.  i.  p.  268  (1837) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  11,  pi.  457  (1879) ;  Yarrell,  Brit. 
B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  13  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  405  (1884) ;  Salvadori, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxi.  p.  252  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  348  (1893) ; 
Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxx.  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  158, 
pi.  47  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  247  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.— British .  The  Eock  Dove  is  found 
throughout  the  rocky  coasts  of  the  British  Islands,  extending  to  St.  Kilda. 
Colonies  of  white-rumped  Doves  occur  in  many  inland  districts  on  rocks  and  the 
sides  of  quarries,  and  are  unquestionably  composed  of  tame  or  domestic  Doves 
which  have  become  feral.  Foreiyn :  Palaearctic  region.  Wild  birds  are 
apparently  confined  to  the  coasts  ;  inland  colonies  are  descendants  of  tame  birds. 
The  Eock  Dove  is  a  resident  on  the  Faroes,  but  only  one  breeding-place  is  known  in 
Scandinavia,  in  the  Stavanger  Fjord.  It  breeds  in  the  Pyrenees  and  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  as  well  as  on  all  the  Atlantic  Islands,  including  St.  Helena.  It  is 
a  resident  on  the  rock-bound  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  Black  and  Eed  Seas, 
and  on  the  mountain  chains  adjacent.  Feral  Eock  Doves,  intricately  intermingled 
with  tame  birds,  are  found  from  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia,  through  Asia 
Minor  and  Persia,  Beloochistan,  Cashmere,  and  the  Altai,  across  South  Siberia 
to  North  China  and  Japan,  examples  from  the  latter  country  being  very  dark 
in  colour  (Seebohm). 

Allied  forms. — Columba  intermedia,  an  inhabitant  of  India  and  Ceylon. 
Differs  from  the  Eock  Dove  in  having  the  rump  dark.  G.  rupestris,  an 
inhabitant  of  the  Eastern  Palaearctic  region,  from  Turkestan  to  North  China, 
and  from  the  Altai  to  the  Himalayas.  Differs  from  the  Eock  Dove  in  having  a 
broad  subterminal  white  band  across  the  tail.  All  these  Doves  interbreed 
wherever  their  range  impinges. 

Habits. — The  Eock  Dove,  the  original  stock  from  which  the  endless 
varieties  of  the  domestic  Pigeon  have  descended,  is  a  resident  in  the  British  Islands; 
and  there  is  much  evidence  to  prove  that  its  numbers  are  increased  in  autumn 


10  THE  GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

by  migrants.  Indeed,  our  information  is  decidedly  negative  in  this  respect,  for  the 
Eock  Doves  in  the  Faroes  and  in  Scandinavia  are  said  to  be  resident,  and  their 
appearance  at  Heligoland  is  decidedly  irregular  and  abnormal.  The  Eock  Dove 
is  closely  associated  with  the  sea,  and  dwells  on  the  ocean  cliffs  and  in  the  country 
in  their  immediate  vicinity  all  through  the  year.  There  are  many  inland  colonies 
of  Eock  Doves — Doves  with  the  rump  white  and  the  wings  barred,  but  these 
unquestionably  are  descendants  of  tame  Pigeons  which  have  become  feral.  The 
true  wild  Eock  Dove  is  found  only  on  the  coast  and  the  country  near  at  hand.  This 
pretty  species  is  readily  identified  by  its  white  rump,  as  it  dashes  from  the  cliffs. 
It  is  ever  shy  and  alert,  although  unwilling  to  take  wing  so  long  as  it  thinks 
itself  unseen.  Its  flight  is  rapid  and  powerful,  performed  by  quick  beats  of  the 
wings,  the  bird  often  going  long  distances  to  feed.  By  the  inhabitants  of  St.  Kilda 
it  is  generally  believed  that  Eock  Doves  breeding  on  those  rock-bound  isles 
visited  the  Hebrides,  some  seventy  miles  away,  daily,  for  food.  The  Wild  Pigeon 
of  North  America,  better  known  to  English  readers  as  the  Passenger  Pigeon,  is 
said  in  some  cases  to  fly  a  hundred  miles  each  day  for  food.  All  through  the 
year  the  Eock  Dove  is  gregarious,  and  during  autumn  especially  gathers  into 
flocks  at  the  feeding  grounds.  I  have  often  seen  very  large  flocks  of  this  species 
in  the  fields  near  Flarnborough  and  on  the  farms  at  North  Berwick.  This  bird 
has  a  great  antipathy  to  trees,  never  alights  in  them,  and  when  disturbed  from  the 
pastures  and  stubbles  either  hurries  off  to  the  cliffs  at  once,  or  takes  a  more  or 
less  extended  flight  to  another  part  of  the  fields.  Upon  the  ground  it  runs  about 
in  true  Pigeon  style,  with  quick,  short  steps  and  bobbing  motion  of  the  head.  It 
is  ever  on  the  alert,  and  stops  from  time  to  time  to  scan  the  surrounding  ground, 
rarely  admitting  of  a  close  approach.  These  birds  often  fly  in  a  very  regular 
manner  to  and  from  the  caves  where  they  roost,  and  good  sport  may  be  obtained 
by  waiting  their  return,  or  by  visiting  (usually  in  a  boat)  the  cliffs  they  frequent. 
It  requires  all  a  man's  resource,  as  he  rolls  about  in  a  dancing  boat,  to  bring  down 
a  Eock  Dove  going  at  full  speed  from  the  caves.  The  note  of  the  Eock  Dove 
is  a  soft  and  full  coo-roo-coo,  variously  modulated  when  the  bird  is  under  sexual 
excitement.  This  note  commences  very  early  in  spring,  a  week  or  so  before  the 
actual  nesting  season,  and  is  continued  into  the  autumn.  The  food  of  this 
species  consists  largely  of  grain  ;  but  seeds  of  many  kinds  of  weeds,  the  buds  and 
shoots  of  herbage,  and  the  roots  of  the  couch-grass  are  also  eaten.  The  bird  is 
said  also  to  eat  great  quantities  of  small  land  shells.  It  drinks  freely  and  often, 
and  is  fond  of  sea  water.  It  has  been  said  even  to  alight  on  the  surface  of  a 
river  to  drink,  but  I,  for  one,  doubt  the  statement. 

Nidification. — Like  its  two  congeners  the  Eock  Dove  is  an  early  breeder, 
a  few  pairs  commencing  to  lay  in  March,  but  nesting  does  not  become  general 
before  April  and  May.  It  is  also  wonderfully  prolific,  and  goes  on  rearing  brood 
after  brood  until  the  following  October.  The  nest  is  always  placed  on  the  rocks, 


OP  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  11 

either  in  clefts  and  fissures  of  the  cliffs  or  in  caves,  those  being  preferred  which 
are  always  inaccessible  to  man  save  by  the  use  of  a  boat.  In  the  latter  situations 
the  nest  is  placed  in  the  clefts  and  crannies  of  the  rugged  roof,  or  on  ledges  and 
prominences  of  the  walls.  Numbers  of  birds  breed  in  company,  the  size  of  the 
colony  depending  to  a  great  extent  on  the  suitability  and  resources  of  the  site 
chosen.  The  nest  is  slight  enough — a  few  bits  of  grass  or  seaweed,  a  few  roots  or 
twigs,  or  dry  stems  of  weeds  ;  whilst  even  green  grass  has  been  known  to  be  used. 
The  eggs  are  two  in  number,  oval  in  form,  and  pure  white  in  colour.  They 
measure  on  an  average  1'4  inch  in  length,  and  1'2  inch  in  breadth.  These  birds 
pair  for  life,  use  the  same  nesting-places  year  after  year,  and  both  parents  assist 
in  the  duties  of  incubation — which  lasts  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  days — and  in  the 
care  of  the  young.  These  are  brought  to  maturity  in  a  similar  manner  to  their 
congeners,  and  are  deserted  as  soon  as  they  leave  the  nest. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Columba,  with  two  well-defined  black  wing 
bars,  a  pure  white  rump,  and  white  axillaries  and  under  wing  coverts.  Length, 
11  to  12  inches. 


12  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 


Genus   ECTOPISTES,  or   Passenger   Pigeons. 

Type,   ECTOPISTES   MIGEATOEIUS. 


Ectopistes,  of  Swainson  (1827).  —  The  Passenger  Pigeon  presents 
characteristics  so  widely  differing  from,  other  members  of  the  Columbidae  that 
Count  Salvadori  elevates  it  to  sub-family  rank  in  that  group.  Generic  distinction, 
however,  is  all  that  we  feel  disposed  to  accord  to  it.  The  birds  in  the  present 
genus  are  characterised  by  having  the  tail  longer  than  the  wing,  the  feathers 
being  narrow  and  acuminated. 

But  one  species  of  Passenger  Pigeon  is  known,  and  this  is  confined  to  the 
Nearctic  Region  from  Hudson's  Bay  south  and  west  to  the  Great  Plains.  Details 
of  its  distribution  and  habits  are  given  in  the  account  of  the  species. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  13 

Family  COLUMBID.3L  Genus  ECTOPISTES. 


PASSENGER    PIGEON. 

ECTOPISTES    MIGEATOEIUS    (Linnanu). 

Columba  migratoria.  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  285  (1766)  ;  Fleming,  Hist.  Brit.  An.  p.  145 
(1828) ;  Eyton,  Hist,  rarer  Brit.  B.  p.  30  (1836). 

Ectopistes  migratorius  (Linn.),  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  28  (1883);  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  414  (1884) ;  Salvador! ,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxi.  p.  369  (1893) ; 
Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  360  (1894)  ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  160,  pi.  47  (1896)  ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  250  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.— British  :  No  less  than  five  examples  of 
the  Passenger  Pigeon  are  known  to  have  been  shot  within  the  British  area,  but 
it  is  impossible  to  say  how  many — if  indeed  any — of  these  had  escaped  from 
confinement,  or  reached  us  on  abnormal  flight.  The  bird  formerly  used  to  be 
kept  commonly  in  captivity,  whilst  we  know  that  individuals  have  actually  been 
imported  and  turned  loose  in  our  islands.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  nothing 
exceptionally  remarkable  in  such  a  bird  of  powerful  flight  reaching  our  shores 
unaided ;  and  when  we  also  bear  in  mind  the  extraordinary  wanderings  of  this 
Pigeon  in  its  native  country  we  seem  fully  justified  in  giving  it  the  benefit  of  the 
doubt,  and  admitting  it  into  the  British  list.  To  say  the  least,  there  are  several 
other  species  retained  therein  without  question,  possessing  less  claim  to  the 
distinction.  The  British  occurrences  are  as  follows : — Scotland :  Fifeshire 
(December),  Berwickshire  (October)  ;  England:  Yorkshire  (October),  Cambridge- 
shire (July) ;  Ireland :  Co.  Kerry.  Foreign :  Eastern  Nearctic  region.  This 
Pigeon  is  now  very  locally  distributed  through  the  deciduous  forest  regions  of 
eastern  North  America,  from  northern  Maine  west  to  northern  Minnesota,  and 
in  the  Dakotas  and  the  eastern  and  middle  portions  of  Canada  northwards  to 
Hudson  Bay.  According  to  the  late  Captain  Bendire  this  species  still  breeds  in 
scattered  pairs  in  the  New  England  States,  northern  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  and  in  a  few  other  localities  further  south.  Winter 
area,  south  of  lat.  36°. 

Allied  forms. — As  previously  remarked  the  present  species  is  the  sole 
surviving  member  of  the  genus,  and  has  no  allies  sufficiently  close  to  demand 
notice  here. 


14  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Habits.- — A  melancholy  interest  attaches  to  the  present  species,  for  it  is 
threatened  with  speedy  extinction.  Years  ago,  when  North  America  was  in  the 
sole  occupation  of  the  red  man,  the  Passenger  Pigeon  (known  familiarly  in  the 
States  as  the  Wild  Pigeon)  must  have  been  one  of  the  most  numerous  of  known 
birds  ;  and  many  early  writers  on  America,  naturalists  and  others,  have  testified 
to  its  vast  abundance.  Wilson  estimated  a  flock  seen  by  him  to  consist  of 
upwards  of  2,230  millions !  One  of  the  latest  writers  on  this  species,  the  late 
Captain  Bendire,  now  informs  us  that  "  the  extermination  of  the  Passenger 
Pigeon  has  progressed  so  rapidly  during  the  past  twenty  years,  that  it  looks  now 
as  if  their  total  extermination  might  be  accomplished  within  the  present  century." 
The  vast  colonies  of  this  species  that  formerly  bred  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  and  which  have  been  so  graphically  described  by  Wilson  and  others, 
have  all  disappeared,  and  scattered  pairs  are  now  all  that  remain.  This  dispersal 
maybe  the  means  of  saving  the  species  from  extirpation,  provided  legal  protection 
be  accorded  in  time  to  these  survivors. 

Although  the  Passenger  Pigeon  is  addicted  to  much  wandering,  apparently  in 
an  aimless  manner,  like  the  Waxwing  and  the  Hose-coloured  Pastor,  its  migrations 
are  normal  and  regular.  Its  passage  north  in  spring  commences  about  the 
middle  of  March  and  is  continued  until  the  third  week  in  May.  The  return 
migration  begins  about  the  middle  of  September  and  lasts  until  the  first  week  of 
October.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  formerly  this  Pigeon  was  one  of  the  most 
gregarious  of  birds,  but  its  numbers  have  now  so  greatly  decreased  that  this 
characteristic  appears  almost  to  have  vanished.  The  few  scattered  pairs  unite  into 
flocks  in  autumn,  and  possibly  remain  gregarious  until  the  following  spring,  but 
the  vast  hordes  that  once  used  to  roam  over  the  land  are  things  of  the  past. 
The  favourite  haunts  of  the  Passenger  Pigeon  are  open  woodlands  and  districts 
that  are  well  studded  with  groves  surrounded  by  more  open  country,  as  well  as 
well-timbered  valleys.  Except  when  actually  breeding  this  species  seems  ever  to  be 
wandering  about  the  country  (of  course  within  certain  well-defined  limits  which 
constitute  its  normal  area  of  dispersal)  in  quest  of  food ;  and,  it  is  said,  districts  that 
abound  with  birds  one  season  may  be  quite  deserted  the  next.  Audubon's 
graphic  account  of  his  meeting  with  this  Pigeon  in  countless  hordes,  as  he  was 
crossing  the  barrens  between  Henderson  and  Louisville,  has  been  questioned  for 
its  accuracy,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  of  its  truth.  He  tells  us  (it  was  in  the 
year  1813)  how  he  observed  them  flying  south-west  in  larger  numbers  than  he 
had  ever  observed  before  ;  how  he  attempted  to  count  them  as  they  passed  in 
successive  flocks,  but  was  obliged  to  give  up  the  task  as  impossible  ;  and  how  the 
light  of  noonday  became  dimmed  as  in  an  eclipse  as  the  hordes  of  flying  Pigeons 
obscured  the  sky.  Then  he  goes  on  to  describe  the  aerial  evolutions  of  the  vast 
flocks,  especially  when  pressed  by  a  Hawk  in  quest  of  prey  ;  how  the  flocks  sped 
on  with  a  roar  suggestive  of  thunder  from  the  rapid  beats  of  innumerable  wings, 
darting  forward  or  swooping  to  the  earth  with  marvellous  velocity,  and  rising 


OP  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  15 

again  almost  perpendicularly  in  huge  columns,  wheeling  and  gyrating  in  the  air 
like  the  coils  of  a  vast  serpent.  These  aerial  movements  were  particularly 
fine  as  the  flocks  were  about  to  settle  upon  ground  where  food  was  abundant, 
the  birds  passing  in  circles  lower  and  lower  over  the  woods,  and  at  length 
alighting,  only  to  rise  again  immediately  as  if  suddenly  alarmed  or  fearful  of 
some  hidden  danger.  Dr.  Brewer  writes  that  "  when  at  last  settled  upon  the 
ground,  they  industriously  search  among  the  fallen  leaves  for  the  acorns  and 
beech  mast,  the  rear  flocks  continually  rising,  passing  over  the  main  body,  and 
re-alighting.  These  changes  are  so  frequent  that  at  times  the  whole  collection 
appears  to  be  in  motion.  A  large  extent  of  ground  is  thus  cleared  in  a  surprisingly 
short  space  of  time,  and  cleared  with  a  completeness  that  is  described  as  incredible. 
They  are  usually  satiated  by  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  ascend  to  the  trees  to 
rest  and  digest  their  food.  On  these  occasions  the  Pigeons  are  destroyed  in 
immense  numbers,  and  their  abundance  in  large  extents  of  the  country  has  been 
very  sensibly  reduced."  The  food  of  the  Passenger  Pigeon  consists  of  grain, 
berries  of  various  kinds,  wild  fruits,  beech  mast  and  acorns,  as  well  as  angle 
worms  and  hairless  caterpillars.  The  birds'  devastations  amongst  crops  used 
formerly  to  be  very  serious.  The  note  of  this  Pigeon  during  the  breeding  season 
is  described  as  a  short  coo-coo  ;  and  its  ordinary  call  note  as  a  treble  kee-kee-kee, 
the  first  louder,  and  the  last  softer  than  the  middle  one. 

Nidification. — The  Passenger  Pigeon  has  been  known  to  commence 
nesting  in  Wisconsin  and  Iowa  as  early  as  the  first  week  of  April,  and  in  Connec- 
ticut and  Minnesota  as  late  as  the  first  half  of  June.  This  species  used  formerly 
to  breed  in  vast  colonies,  but  of  late  years  these  enormous  gatherings  have  ceased, 
owing  to  the  wholesale  slaughter  of  the  nesting  birds.  Passenger  Pigeons  used 
formerly  to  arrive  from  the  south  in  certain  districts — the  choice  often  varying 
from  year  to  year — and  to  settle  down  to  the  business  of  reproduction.  Some  of 
these  colonies  were  of  enormous  dimensions.  Mr.  W.  Brewster,  who  has  devoted 
much  attention  to  this  species,  was  informed  by  Mr.  Stevens,  a  veteran  Pigeon 
netter,  that  the  largest  "  nesting"  of  this  Pigeon  that  he  ever  visited  was  in 
1876  or  1877,  in  Michigan.  He  informed  him  that  the  Pigeons  arrived  in  two 
separate  flocks,  one  coming  directly  from  the  south  over  land,  the  other  following 
the  east  coast  of  Wisconsin,  and  crossing  Lake  Michigan  by  way  of  Manitou 
Island.  He  watched  the  latter  flock  come  in  from  across  the  lake  about  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon — a  vast  compact  mass  of  Pigeons  at  least  five  miles  long 
and  one  mile  wide  !  The  birds  began  to  build  whilst  the  snow  was  still  twelve 
inches  deep  in  the  woods,  and  the  vast  colony  spread  rapidly  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Petosky  in  a  north-easterly  direction  for  twenty-eight  miles,  and  on  an 
average  four  or  five  miles  in  width.  It  is  said  that  nesting  usually  begins  in 
deciduous  woods,  but  the  colony  rapidly  spreads  as  the  birds  begin  building  in  rapid 
succession,  and  no  choice  of  tree  is  shown.  In  this  particular  "nesting"  the  first 


16  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

eight  miles  was  in  hard-wood  timber,  then  it  crossed  a  river  bottom  clothed  with 
arbor-vitae  trees,  and  for  the  next  twenty  miles  extended  through  woods  of  white 
pine.  Over  the  whole  of  this  vast  tract  of  wooded  country  every  tree  of  any  size 
contained  nests  in  varying  numbers,  and  many  trees  were  filled  with  them.  It  is 
said,  however,  that  none  were  placed  less  than  fifteen  feet  from  the  ground.  The 
Passenger  Pigeon  is  described  as  being  very  noisy  whilst  building,  the  sound  of 
such  a  multitude  of  voices  resembling  the  croaking  of  wood  frogs.  The  nest 
is  merely  a  slight  platform  of  twigs.  Two  eggs  are  frequently  laid,  but  it 
is  said  that  one  is  by  far  the  most  common  number.  They  are  elliptical  oval  in 
shape,  glossy  in  texture,  and  pure  white,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'2  inch  in 
length  by  '9  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation  is  performed  by  both  sexes,  the  males 
usually  in  the  fore  part  of  the  day,  the  females  during  the  latter  part  and  at 
night.  The  sitting  bird  does  not  quit  the  nest  until  the  bill  of  its  incoming  mate 
nearly  touches  its  tail,  the  eggs  thus  being  constantly  covered.  Several  broods 
are  reared  in  the  season,  but  a  different  nesting  ground  is  chosen  for  each,  the  old 
birds  moving  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  miles  for  the  purpose.  It  is  said  that 
five  weeks  are  occupied  by  each  "nesting,"  when  the  young  are  driven  from  the 
nests  by  the  parents  often  several  days  before  they  can  actually  fly.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  many  pairs  of  this  Pigeon  breed  solitarily  in  the  woods,  not 
joining  the  vast  colonies  for  the  purpose. 

Diagnostic    characters — Ectopistes,  with    the  tail    longer  than   the 
wing,  and  wedge-shaped.     Length,  14  to  16  inches. 


OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  17 


Family    PERI5TERID/E.— The  Ground   Pigeons. 


The  birds  in  the  present  family  are  characterised  by  having  the  tarsus  equal 
to  or  longer  than  the  middle  toe.  The  number  of  tail-feathers  varies  from  twelve 
to  twenty.  As  in  the  typical  Pigeons,  the  bill  is  not  hooked,  and  the  nostrils  are 
linear  and  parallel  to  the  tomia  of  the  upper  mandible.  Count  Salvadori  divides 
the  present  family  into  no  less  than  seven  subfamilies ;  but  it  seems  to  be 
doubtful  whether  the  characters  relied  upon  for  their  separation  are,  in  some 
cases  at  any  rate,  of  more  than  generic  value. 


Subfamily   TURTURIN/E.-The   Turtle   Doves. 


The  Turtle  Doves  may  be  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  present 
family  by  the  absence  of  hackles  from  the  neck,  as  well  as  by  the  more  or  less 
metallic  black  spot  below  the  ear  coverts,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  ZenaidinsB 
alone.  They  are  further  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  metallic  spots  from  the 
wings.  The  tail,  which  is  rather  broad,  consists  of  twelve  feathers  ;  the  metatarsus 
is  naked  on  the  upper  portion ;  and  the  neck  is  decorated  with  a  more  or  less 
distinct  dark  collar  of  scale-like  feather  patches  on  either  side.  This  subfamily 
contains  but  one  genus,  although  it  has  been  subdivided  by  Count  Salvadori  into 
five  tolerably  well-marked  subgenera. 


18  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 


Genus   TURTUR,  or  Turtle  Doves. 

Type,  TUBTUK   AUEITUS. 


Turtur,  of  Selby  (1835). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  prevailing  brown  and  non-metallic  plumage,  by  their  more 
or  less  conspicuous  black  collar,  comparatively  small  size,  and  slender,  graceful 
form.  The  wings  are  long  and  rather  pointed;  the  tail  is  composed  of  twelve 
feathers,  and  is  graduated.  The  metatarsus  is  shorter  than  the  middle  toe,  naked 
on  the  upper  portion,  and  scutellated  in  front.  The  bill  is  slender;  nostrils  basal, 
and  covered  with  two  soft,  tumid,  bare  substances.  Three  toes  in  front,  cleft  to 
the  base,  one  behind. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  twenty-eight  species,  which  are  confined  to 
the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  the  southern  Palsearctic,  Ethiopian, 
and  Oriental  regions,  and  the  Austro-Malayan  division  of  the  Australian  region. 
Two  species  are  British  :  one  a  regular  summer  migrant ;  the  other  an  abnormal 
migrant. 

The  Turtle  Doves  are  dwellers  in  woodland  districts.  They  are  birds  of 
sustained  and  powerful  flight,  and  progress  on  the  ground  by  walking  or  running. 
Their  notes  are  full  and  soft,  but  with  little  pretension  to  variety  or  sweetness. 
They  subsist  chiefly  on  grain  and  vegetable  substances.  Their  nests  are  slight 
platforms  of  twigs,  placed  in  trees  and  bushes,  and  their  eggs,  never  more  than 
two  in  number,  are  white  or  creamy-white,  and  oval.  These  birds  pair  for  life. 


Game  Birds  £^Wiid  Fowl  of  the  British  Islands. 


Plate  III. 


TURTLE  DOVE 

Turtur  auritus. 


OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  19 

Family  PEEISTEEID^.  Genus  TTJRTUR. 

Subfamily  TuRTURlNJE. 


TURTLE    DOVE. 

TUETUE  AUEITUS.— Gray. 
PLATE  III. 

Columba  turtur,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  284  (1766);  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p  291  (1837). 
Turtur   vulgaris,  Eyton;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  39,  pi.  462  (1876). 

Turtur  communis,  Selby;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  21  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit. 
B.  pt.  xxviii.  (1894). 

Turtur  auritus,  Gray  ;   Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  411  (1884)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  350  (1893);  Seebobm,  Col.  Eig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  159,  pi.  47  (1896). 

Turtur  turtur  (Linn.),  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxi.  p.  396  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Handb. 
B.  Gr.  Brit.  iv.  p.  254  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Turtle  Dove  is  generally 
distributed  during  summer  throughout  England  and  Wales,  but  becomes  rarer  in 
Wales,  in  the  extreme  south-west  of  England,  and  north  of  the  Humber.  It 
occurs  only  as  a  straggler  on  migration  in  Scotland,  although  it  passes  the 
Shetlands  regularly  on  passage.  It  has  not  been  observed  in  the  Outer  Hebrides, 
and  only  breeds  locally  in  Ireland.  Foreign:  West  Palaearctic  region  during 
summer.  It  is  found  throughout  suitable  districts  in  Scandinavia  and  Eussia 
south  of  lat.  60°,  eastwards  to  Turkestan,  the  Altai  and  Northern  Cashmere, 
southwards  through  Afganistan,  Persia,  and  Asia  Minor,  westwards  to  Central 
and  Southern  Europe.  It  passes  through  Palestine  and  North  Africa  on 
migration,  many  remaining  behind  in  spring  to  breed.  To  the  Canaries  it  is  a 
common  summer  visitor,  but  it  is  rare  in  Madeira.  Its  winter  quarters  are  in 
Central  Africa. 

Allied  forms. — Turtur  isabellinus,  a  summer  migrant  to  North-east  Africa. 
Differs  from  the  Turtle  Dove  in  having  the  head  buffish-brown  instead  of  grey, 
and  in  being  slightly  smaller  (length  of  wing  6  inches,  instead  of  7  as  in  the  Turtle 
Dove).  T.  f err  ago,  inhabiting  South-western  Turkestan  and  India.  Differs 
from  the  Turtle  Dove  in  having  the  light  patches  on  the  neck  bluish-grey  instead 
of  white,  and  the  breast  not  so  pink.  It  is  also  a  larger  bird.  T.  orientalis, 
inhabiting  India,  South-east  Siberia,  China,  and  Japan.  Differs  from  the  Turtle 
Dove  in  having  the  under  tail  coverts  and  the  light  tips  of  the  tail  feathers  slate- 
grey  instead  of  white.  These  two  latter  birds  appear  only  to  be  subspecifically 


20  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

distinct,  intermediate  forms  occurring  in  India,  where  the  geographical  area  of 
each  impinges.  T.ferrago  is  not  known,  however,  to  cross  with  the  Turtle  Dove 
in  Turkestan,  where  the  range  of  the  two  species  meets.  Pale  eastern  examples 
of  the  common  Turtle  Dove  have  been  described  as  Turtur  arenicola. 

Habits. — The  Turtle  Dove  is  a  summer  migrant.  The  usual  date  of  its 
appearance  is  the  first  week  in  May,  a  period  which  marks  its  entry  into  Europe 
at  Gibraltar  in  greatest  abundance;  but  individuals  are  occasionally  seen  during 
the  latter  part  of  April.  Its  return  journey  is  taken  in  September,  although  odd 
birds  are  met  with  from  time  to  time  at  much  later  dates.  The  haunts  of  this  species 
are  woods  and  plantations,  as  well  as  parks  and  fields  which  are  well  timbered, 
or  in  the  vicinity  of  trees.  It  is  a  shy  and  retiring  bird,  far  more  often  heard 
than  seen ;  although  when  I  was  in  Algeria,  on  the  borders  of  the  Great  Desert, 
in  the  oasis  of  Biskra,  I  found  it  a  most  tame  and  confiding  species.  Here  they 
frequented  the  tops  of  the  date  palms,  hiding  amongst  the  foliage,  where  they 
roosted  at  night.  I  also  observed  that  they  were  very  regular  in  visiting  the  Oued 
to  drink,  going  in  the  early  morning  to  quench  their  thirst  and  to  bathe.  Whilst 
perched  in  a  tree  the  Turtle  Dove  will  often  allow  a  near  approach ,  but  it  keeps 
so  quiet  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  detect  its  whereabouts  until  it  dashes  out 
with  almost  a  whirr,  and  in  erratic  flight  dodges  between  the  branches  and  trunks, 
and  soon  conceals  itself  again  amongst  the  foliage.  As  may  readily  be  inferred, 
a  bird  of  such  extended  migrations  is  a  good  flyer,  and  passes  rapidly  through  the 
air.  It  is  often  seen  on  the  ground,  in  the  open  fields,  where  it  goes  to  feed  ;  and 
here  it  runs  to  and  fro  with  Pigeon-like  gait,  yet  always  alert  and  ready  to  dash 
off  to  the  trees  the  moment  danger  threatens.  The  arrival  of  this  bird  in  our 
English  woods  is  soon  persistently  proclaimed  by  its  note.  This  is  a  gentle,  soft, 
and  rich  coo-r-r-coo-r-r-r,  each  coo  more  or  less  gutturally  prolonged,  as  if  the  bird 
laboured  under  quite  an  effort  to  produce  it.  The  male  bird,  as  usual,  calls  the 
most,  and  is  particularly  noisy  during  the  season  of  courtship.  This  note  is 
maintained  all  through  the  summer,  but  begins  to  wane  in  August,  and  by  the 
time  of  the  bird's  departure  for  the  south  is  practically  suspended.  The  food  of 
the  Turtle  Dove  is  composed  of  grain  of  all  kinds,  the  seeds  of  a  great  variety  of 
weeds,  tender  shoots  of  herbage,  fruit,  and  even  snails  and  insects.  In  autumn 
it  becomes  more  or  less  gregarious  again,  and  in  flocks  frequents  the  stubbles, 
clover-fields,  and  turnips.  It  frequently  goes  long  distances  to  feed  on  favourite 
pastures,  and  is  much  attached  to  its  roosting-place. 

Nidification.— I  am  of  opinion  that  the  Turtle  Dove  pairs  for  life;  and 
even  in  Algeria,  before  the  northern  flight  was  taken,  I  saw  them  sitting  in  pairs 
on  the  palm-tops.  Soon  after  its  arrival  in  England  the  nesting  season  begins, 
and  the  first  eggs  are  generally  laid  late  in  May,  in  more  backward  seasons  the 
first  week  in  June.  The  nest  is  as  a  rule  made  much  nearer  the  ground  than  that 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  21 

of  the  King  Dove;  and  trees  are  not  so  often  used  as  tall  bushes.  Sometimes  a 
thick  hedge  is  selected;  whilst  white-thorns,  hollies,  and  laurels  are  often  chosen. 
It  is  a  flat,  basket-like  structure  made  of  a  few  slender  dead  twigs,  through  which 
the  eggs  are  often  visible  from  below.  The  eggs  are  two  in  number,  oval,  and 
creamy-white  in  colour.  They  are  on  an  average  1'2  inch  in  length  and  '91  inch 
in  breadth.  Incubation  lasts  about  sixteen  days,  and  both  parents  assist  in  the 
task  as  well  as  in  tending  the  young.  Sometimes  two  broods  are  reared  in  the 
summer,  but  this  is  exceptional;  and  the  existence  of  late  broods  of  this  species 
may  often  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  first  nest  has  been  robbed.  I  have 
not  observed  much  social  tendency  during  the  breeding  season  in  this  species. 

Diagnostic  characters — Turtur,  with  black  tipped  with  pale  lavender 
(nearly  white)  patches  on  the  side  of  the  neck,  and  with  the  under  tail  coverts 
and  tips  of  the  rectrices  white.  In  young  birds  the  neck  patch  is  absent,  and  the 
feathers  are  edged  with  brown.  Length,  11  to  12  inches. 


22  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  PEEISTEEID^S.  Genus  TURTUR. 

Subfamily 


EASTERN    TURTLE    DOVE. 

TUETUE   OEIENTALIS.— (Latham). 

Columba  orientalis,  Latham,  Ind.  Orn.  ii.  606  (1790). 

Turtur  orientalis  (Lath.),  Salvad.  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxi.p.  403  (1893);  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  331  (1894);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p. 
159  (1896);  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gr.  Brit.  iv.  p.  256  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  A  single  example  of  the  Eastern 
Turtle  Dove  has  been  obtained  in  the  British  Islands  in  Yorkshire.  On  the  23rd 
of  October,  1889,  an  example  in  the  plumage  of  the  first  autumn  (without  the 
pied  patches  on  the  neck)  was  shot  at  a  small  stream  running  from  Oliver's  Mount, 
near  Scarborough.  The  specimen  was  exhibited  at  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London.  Conf.  Proc.  Zool.Soc.  1890,  p.  361.  Foreign:  The  Eastern 
Turtle  Dove  is  almost  as  great  a  stranger  in  Continental  Europe,  but  it  has  been 
twice  recorded  (in  immature  plumage)  from  Northern  Scandinavia.  It  inhabits 
India,  from  the  central  provinces  northwards  to  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Hyrnalayas 
(4000  to  6000  feet),  from  Afghanistan  to  Sikhim.  It  is  also  found  in  South-east 
Siberia,  and  occasionally  in  Mongolia  and  Thibet;  whilst  it  ranges  through  Burma 
and  China,  to  the  Loo-Choo  Islands,  Japan,  and  the  Kuriles.  Stejneger  has 
separated  examples  from  the  Loo-Choo  group  under  the  name  of  Turtur  stimpsoni, 
but  the  darker  colour,  upon  which  the  distinction  is  based,  does  not  appear  to  be  a 
reliable  character. 

Allied    forms. — See  remarks  on  the  allied  forms  of  the  Turtle  Dove. 

Habits. — In  its  habits  the  Eastern  Turtle  Dove  does  not  differ  much 
from  its  West  Palsearctic  representative 

Nidification. — Of  the  breeding  habits  of  this  species,  I  have  written  in  my 
work  on  the  nests  and  eggs  of  non-indigenous  British  birds,  as  follows  :  In  most 
parts  of  its  northern  area  of  dispersal  the  Eastern  Turtle  Dove  is  migratory,  and 
even  in  the  south  is  subject  apparently  to  much  local  movement  during  the  non- 
breeding  season.  Capt.  Hutton  states  that  it  arrived  in  its  summer  quarters  at 
Mussoorie  in  April,  leaving  again  in  October.  In  its  habits  it  is  not  known  to 
differ  in  any  important  respect  from  the  nearly  allied  European  Turtle  Dove. 


OP  THE   BBITISH   ISLANDS.  23 

It  probably  pairs  for  life,  but  makes  a  new  nest  for  each  brood.  It  cannot  be 
regarded  as  gregarious  during  the  breeding  season,  but  numbers  of  pairs  nest 
within  comparatively  small  areas  of  suitable  country,  and  as  soon  as  the  young 
are  reared  the  birds  begin  to  flock.  Its  favourite  haunts  are  wooded  mountain 
sides,  pine  forests,  groves  and  clusters  of  trees.  The  note  in  the  breeding  season 
is  described  as  a  thrice-repeated  gutteral  coo,  and  unlike  that  of  other  Doves. 
The  nest  is  generally  placed  not  far  from  the  extremity  of  a  horizontal  branch, 
and  is  a  circular,  flat,  mat-like  structure  of  neatly  arranged  twigs,  the  cavity  in 
the  centre  being  somewhat  deep.  Plume  states  that  the  nest  is  rather  more 
substantial  than  that  of  many  other  Turtle  Doves.  Of  the  actions  of  the  birds 
at  the  nest  I  find  nothing  of  special  interest  recorded.  The  eggs  of  the  Eastern 
Turtle  Dove  are  two  in  number,  oval  in  form,  glossy,  and  pure  white.  They  are 
on  an  average  1'2  inch  in  length,  by  "92  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation  is  performed 
by  both  sexes,  and  lasts  about  sixteen  days." 

Diagnostic  characters — Turtur,  with  the  under  tail  coverts  and  the 
pale  tips  to  the  rectrices  slate-grey.     Length,  12  inches. 


24  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 


ORDER    PEDIOPHILJ.—  THE    SAND-GROUSE. 


I   HAVE   adopted  Bonaparte's  term  PEDIOPHILI  for  the  present   order    in 
preference  to   that   of  PTEHOCLETES  suggested   by  Dr.  Sclater,  not  only 
because,  as  Professor  Newton  points  out,  the  latter  is  based  on  a  grammatical 
misconception,  but  because  the  former  possesses  the  additional  claim  of  priority. 

The  Sand-Grouse  form  a  remarkably  isolated  group  of  birds,  showing  affinities 
(especially  in  the  digestive  organs)  with  the  Game  Birds,  and  (in  their  osteological 
characteristics)  with  the  Pigeons;  being,  as  was  pointed  out  by  Huxley  thirty 
years  ago,  so  completely  intermediate  between  these  groups  that  they  cannot  be 
included  within  either  of  them  without  destroying  its  definition,  although  perfectly 
definable  themselves.  Some  systematists,  as  for  instance  Sclater  and  Stejneger, 
elevate  them  to  the  rank  of  a  separate  order ;  and  all  things  considered  this  seerns 
to  be  the  wisest  course:  others,  as  Reichenow  and  Fiirbringer,  regard  their 
characters  of  only  sufficient  importance  to  rank  as  a  sub-order.  Some  naturalists 
include  them  in  the  great  natural  order  of  the  COLUMBIFORMES;  others,  with 
equal  authority,  include  them  in  the  equally  distinctive  group  of  GALLIFORMES. 
The  Sand-Grouse  are  one  of  the  few  ancient  surviving  links  in  the  now  broken 
chain  of  avine  descent;  and  it  seems  impossible,  iii  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge,  to  say  to  which  existing  group  of  birds  they  are  most  closely  allied. 
Their  double-spotted  egg  (having  underlying  as  well  as  surface  markings)  and 
precocious  nestling,  gives  the  casting  vote  in  favour  of  placing  them  in  closest 
proximity  to  the  GALLIFORMES,  although  on  the  other  hand  their  pterylosis  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  COL  UMBIFOBMES. 

In  the  Sand-Grouse  the  sternum  contains  two  notches  on  each  side  of  the 
posterior  margin,  the  inner  one  in  some  instances  being  reduced  to  an  aperture  or 
foramen.  In  the  modification  of  their  cranial  bones  the  Sand-Grouse  are 
schizognathous,  whilst  their  nostrils  are  schizorhinal ;  although  this  latter  is  a 
variable  character  and  thus  apparently  of  comparatively'small  taxonomic  value. 
Amongst  their  external  characters  may  be  mentioned  the  following:  oil-gland 
nude;  hallux,  small,  rudimentary,  and  sometimes  absent;  body  feathers  with 
well-marked  after-shafts;  fifth  secondary  absent.  So  far  as  is  known  the  Sand- 
Grouse  moult  only  in  autumn ;  the  young  are  hatched  covered  with  down,  and 
able  to  run  almost  as  soon  as  they  break  from  the  shell. 

Sixteen  species  of  Sand-Grouse  are  at  present  known  to  science,  and  these  are 
all  contained  in  a  single  family.  These  birds  are  all  confined  to  the  Old  World. 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  25 


Family  PTEROCLID/E.— The   Sand-Grouse. 


As  this  order  contains  but  a  single  family,  the  characters  that  distinguish  the 
latter  will  be  the  same  as  those  already  given  for  the  former.  As  supplementary 
characters,  however,  may  be  mentioned  the  bill  of  the  Sand-Grouse,  which 
resembles  that  of  the  Game  Birds ;  the  long  and  pointed  wings ;  and  the  feet,  which 
are  more  or  less  covered  with  dense  short  plumes.  The  family  is  divisible  into 
two,  if  not  three,  fairly-marked  genera,  only  one  of  which  is  represented  in  the 
British  avifauna,  and  that  by  a  single  species  as  an  abnormal  visitor. 


Genus  SYRRHAPTES,   or  Three-toed   Sand-Grouse. 

Type,   SYEEHAPTES  PAEADOXUS. 


Syrrhaptes,  of  Illiger  (1811). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  hind  toe.  The  wings  are  very  long  and 
pointed,  the  outermost  primary  having  the  shaft  terminating  in  an  attenuated 
filament ;  the  tail  is  cuneate,  and  the  two  central  rectrices  are  much  longer  than 
the  rest.  The  metatarsus  is  very  short,  and  clothed  with  feathers  to  the  toes. 
The  bill  is  small  and  short,  decurved  from  the  base  to  the  tip ;  the  nostrils  basal  and 
almost  hidden  by  feathers.  Three  toes  in  front  and  covered  with  feathers;  soles 
of  feet  rugose. 

This  genus  contains  but  two  species,  which  are  confined  to  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  the  plains  and  deserts  of  Asia.  One  of  these 
species  is  an  abnormal  and  irruptic  migrant  to  Europe  and  the  British  Isles. 

These  Sand-Grouse  are  dwellers  on  salt  plains  and  deserts.  They  are  birds 
of  sustained  and  powerful  flight,  and  progress  on  the  ground  by  running  and 
walking  with  short  quick  steps.  They  are  given  to  much  wandering  within  their 
normal  areas  of  dispersal.  Their  notes  are  said  to  be  rather  melodious.  They 
subsist  chiefly  on  grain,  seeds,  and  vegetable  substances.  Their  nests  are  mere 
depressions  in  the  ground,  and  their  eggs,  usually  three  in  number,  are  double 
spotted  and  oval  in  form.  Pairing  habits  unknown. 


26  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  PTEEOCLID^E.  Genus  SYRRHAPTES. 


PALLAS'S    SAND-GROUSE. 

SYEEHAPTES  PAEADOXUS— (Pallas). 
PLATE  IV. 

Tetrao  paradoxa,  Pall.  Eeis.  Russ.  Eeichs.  ii.  p.  712,  pi.  F.  (1773). 

Syrrhaptes  paradoxus  (Pall.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  75,  pi.  468  (1876);  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  31  (1883);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  419  (1884);  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xvii.  (1891) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  351  (1893) ; 
Grant,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxii.  p.  2  (1893);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p. 
160,  pi.  47  (1896);  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  260  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  Pallas's  Sand-Grouse,  like  the 
Waxwing  and  other  species  of  irregular  migrations,  appears  in  our  islands  at  long 
and  uncertain  intervals  and  in  varying  numbers.  It  was  first  noticed  as  a  British 
bird  in  1859,  one  example  each  being  obtained  in  Norfolk,  Kent,  and  North  Wales. 
In  1863  it  again  occurred,  when  numbers  found  their  way  to  almost  every  county 
of  Great  Britain,  and  to  the  north-west  of  Ireland,  to  the  Scilly  Islands,  the 
Shetlands,  and  even  to  the  Faroes.  A  further  visitation  was  remarked  in  1872, 
a  flock  visiting  Northumberland,  and  a  smaller  party  the  south  of  Scotland 
(Ayrshire) ;  whilst  in  1876  the  birds  were  observed  at  Winterton,  in  Norfolk,  in 
May,  and  in  county  Wicklow  in  October.  In  1888  there  was  an  invasion  of 
extraordinary  proportions,  the  numbers  visiting  the  British  Islands  being  so  great 
that  no  exact  estimate  could  be  formed.  So  far  as  is  known  the  first  pioneer  of 
this  irruption  of  Sand-Grouse  was  remarked  on  one  of  the  Fame  Islands,  on  the 
6th  of  May,  and  within  a  few  days  almost  every  part  of  our  area  had  been  invaded. 
Parties  of  half  a  dozen,  and  flocks  of  thirty  or  more  individuals,  were  remarked  in 
districts  most  suited  to  their  requirements.  Nearly  all  these  birds  had  apparently 
paired,  and  in  some  cases  attempts  were  made  to  nest.  Two  nests  with  eggs 
were  obtained  in  Yorkshire,  and  two  young  birds  were  caught  on  the  Culbin  Sands, 
in  Moray,  one  in  1888  and  another  the  following  year.  Although  some  efforts 
were  made  to  protect  these  interesting  visitors,  all  finally  disappeared.  In  the 
autumn  of  1888  flocks  of  Sand-Grouse  were  still  in  existence,  but  by  the  following 
spring  most  of  the  birds  had  been  killed,  although  there  is  evidence  to  suggest 
that  survivors  still  existed  in  our  islands  until  1892.  Foreign:  Pallas's  Sand- 
Grouse  is  just  as  irregular  and  uncertain  in  its  visits  to  continental  Europe  as  to 
our  islands.  The  first  recorded  occurrence  in  Europe  was  in  the  winter  of  1848, 
when  an  example  was  obtained  at  Sarepta.  In  1859  half  a  dozen  birds  were 


JS 

Q. 


L. 
CO 


b) 


91 

O    15 
E    Q- 


0 
,0 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  27 

secured  in  Europe,  of  which  three  were  shot  in  the  British  Islands.  In  1860 
another  example  was  procured  at  Sarepta,  and  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year 
an  invasion  of  the  plains  of  China  is  recorded;  whilst  in  1863  a  large  band 
invaded  the  west,  and  birds  were  obtained  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  from 
Scandinavia  in  the  north  to  Italy  in  the  south.  The  normal  breeding  area  of 
this  Sand-Grouse  is  in  Central  Asia,  on  the  vast  steppes  and  salt  plains  of  North- 
east Turkestan,  Mongolia,  and  Dauria;  whilst  in  winter  it  includes  West 
Turkestan,  the  Kirghiz  Steppes,  and  North  China. 

Allied  forms. — None  very  closely  related,  with  the  exception  of  Syrrhaptes 
tibetanus,  an  inhabitant  of  the  tablelands  of  Thibet,  a  much  larger  species  (the 
largest  of  the  order),  with  no  black  patch  on  the  abdomen. 

Habits. — We  may  appropriately  preface  our  account  of  the  habits  of  this 
species  by  quoting  what  we  have  already  written  respecting  its  irruptic  movements, 
in  our  volume  on  the  migration  of  birds.*  These  irruptic  movements  of  birds 
cannot  be  classed  either  as  normal  migration  or  as  nomadic  migration,  although 
many  naturalists  appear  to  think  that  they  are  nothing  but  variations  of  one  or 
other  of  these  habits.  Irruptic  movements  are  entirely  abnormal  movements  and 
only  occur  at  irregular  intervals:  waves  of  avine  life  that  burst  from  certain 
centres,  eventually  exhausting  themselves,  and  ultimately  ending  in  dissolution 
and  death.  Gatke  classes  these  irruptic  movements  as  phenomena  of  migration, 
and  attributes  them  to  meteorological  influences,  probably  of  an  exceptional 
character ;  but  I  should  be  disposed  to  attribute  them  to  an  excess  of  population 
flowing  from  an  overcrowded  area,  taking  of  course  the  direction  of  the  normal 
migration  at  whichever  season  the  movement  may  be  initiated.  As  an  example 
of  this  irruptic  movement  we  have  the  intensely  interesting  wanderings  of  Pallas's 
Sand-Grouse,  from  Central  Asia,  that  have  from  time  to  time  extended  to 
Western  Europe  with  startling  suddenness.  This  species  for  the  past  fifty  years 
or  so  has  evidently  been  in  a  highly  restless  and  disturbed  state,  and  from  time  to 
time  great  waves  of  individuals  have  been  thrown  out,  apparently  to  relieve  a 
congested  area  of  distribution.  Pallas's  Sand-Grouse  normally  is  an  inhabitant 
of  the  vast  plains  or  steppes  that  stretch  continuously  from  North-east  Turkestan 
and  South  Siberia  to  Mongolia.  In  the  north  it  is  a  migratory  bird,  and  the 
winter  range  base  extends  into  North  China  in  the  east,  and  the  Kirghiz  Steppes 
north  of  the  Aral  Sea  in  the  west.  Until  1859  this  species  was  practically 
unknown  to  western  ornithologists,  although  Russian  naturalists  had  met  with  it 
from  time  to  time  in  its  far  eastern  habitat.  In  that  year,  however,  the  first  signs 
of  the  coming  irruptions  broke  into  Europe,  and  examples  of  the  Sand-Grouse 
were  obtained  in  Poland,  Jutland,  Holland,  and  in  the  British  Islands.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  evident  direction  of  this  avine  wave  followed  a  north- 
westerly course  from  the  Kirghiz  Steppes,  almost  exactly  corresponding  with  the 
*  The  Migration  of  Birds,  pp.  257-260  (Amended  Edition). 


28  THE   GAME  BIRDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

normal  north-easterly  route.  Four  years  later  (in  1863)  a  much  more  important 
irruption  took  place,  this  time  consisting  probably  of  thousands  of  individuals, 
and  very  much  the  same  route  was  followed;  although,  as  might  be  expected  in 
such  a  great  rush  of  birds,  the  wave  spread  wider  and  further,  extending  to  Italy 
and  the  Pyrenees  in  the  south,  to  Scandinavia  and  Archangel  in  the  north,  and 
throughout  the  British  Islands  to  the  Faroes.  Many  birds  endeavoured  to  breed 
in  places  that  were  best  adapted  to  their  requirements.  In  1888  another  and  even 
more  important  wave  of  Sand-Grouse  spread  westward  over  Europe,  the  par- 
ticulars of  which  will  be  still  fresh  in  the  mind  of  the  reader.  This  invasion  was 
undoubtedly  the  most  successful  of  all;  and  so  well  did  the  birds  appear  to  be 
established,  that  in  our  islands  a  special  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  (in  1888, 
but  not  becoming  law  until  early  in  the  following  year)  for  their  protection. 
Gatke  has  recorded  a  vast  irruptic  wave  of  Jays  (Garrulus  glandarius)  that 
swept  over  and  past  Heligoland  during  three  successive  days  in  October,  1882. 
This  irruption  was  estimated  to  number  millions,  and  curiously  enough  since  that 
year  down  to  the  present  one  solitary  Jay  only  has  been  seen  at  the  island.  As 
the  Jay  does  not  range  further  east  than  the  Urals  and  the  Volga,  where  all  these 
birds  came  from  is  a  question  which  appears  to  defy  solution.  Gatke  also  records 
a  similar  irruptic  wave  of  Mealy  liedpoles  (Linota  linaria),  which,  during  the 
4th  and  5th  of  November,  1847,  had  attained  such  proportions  "that  the  whole 
island  was  literally  covered  with  them."  Similar  irruptic  waves  of  Goldcrests 
(Eegulus  cristatus)  are  occasionally  remarked.  Now  nothing  can  more  clearly 
indicate  the  abnormal  character  of  these  irruptic  movements  than  the  fact  that 
they  are  utterly  abortive,  either  as  a  means  of  preserving  the  individuals  under- 
taking them  (for  in  no  case  is  a  corresponding  permanent  increase  of  the  species 
remarked  in  the  areas  invaded)  or  as  a  means  of  colonising  new  districts  with  the 
surplus  population  from  old  ones.  To  class  them  either  with  normal  migration 
or  with  range  expansion  is  therefore  erroneous.  We  must  bear  in  mind  the 
fact  that  these  waves  of  avine  life  are  drifting  into  districts  already  tenanted  with 
a  bird  population  as  large  as  conditions  of  life  will  allow,  or  into  areas  where  the 
conditions  of  existence  are  quite  different  from  those  they  have  proceeded  from. 
It  is  a  sadly  significant  fact  that  these  vast  bird  waves  never  show  any  sign  of 
a  return  ebb.  Like  leaves  scattered  by  the  autumn  wind,  the  birds  composing 
them  perish,  for  Nature's  edicts  are  inexorable  :  her  delicate  balance  cannot  be 
disregarded  with  impunity. 

This  Sand-Grouse  appears  to  be  more  or  less  a  migratory  species,  a  nomadic 
migrant,  but  one  whose  wanderings  normally  take  place  within  the  usual  area  of 
dispersal.  They  are  apparently  early  birds  of  passage,  for  Eadde  states  that  they 
arrived  at  their  breeding  grounds  before  the  end  of  March,  during  very  cold 
weather,  the  thermometer  falling  nearly  thirty  degrees  below  zero  at  night.  A 
month  later  they  were  nesting.  All  through  the  year  this  bird  appears  to  be  more 
or  less  gregarious,  and  to  breed  in  colonies  which  are  scattered  here  and  there 


OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  29 

over  the  vast  plains.  In  summer  they  appear  to  be  very  fond  of  basking  in  the 
sun  in  cavities  scratched  out  of  the  sand,  where  they  lie  on  their  side  and  dust 
themselves.  Their  flight  is  described  as  exceedingly  rapid,  their  quickly-beating 
long  wings,  which  move  very  regularly  and  in  a  Plover-like  manner,  making  a 
whirring  sound  as  they  go.  Upon  rising  they  utter  what  is  described  as  a 
melodious  chuckle  ;  but  this  note  is  often  heard  as  they  stand  upon  the  ground. 
Their  short  legs  make  them  walk  and  run  somewhat  clumsily,  with  little  steps, 
the  body  swaying  from  side  to  side.  The  food  of  this  bird  is  composed  of 
seeds  and  the  tender  shoots  of  plants  growing  on  the  steppes.  After  feeding  they 
repair  very  regularly  to  certain  chosen  spots  to  drink,  salt-lakes  or  wells  ;  but  fresh 
water  is  said  to  be  taken  by  preference.  They  are  remarkably  wary,  and  when  once 
flushed,  never  appear  to  alight  again  until  they  have  carefully  scrutinised  the 
selected  spot  by  describing  a  circle  over  it.  They  are  said  to  drink  quickly,  and  to 
fly  for  very  long  distances  to  the  water,  especially  in  the  morning.  In  autumn 
this  bird  appears  to  become  even  more  gregarious,  and  it  then  forms  into  vast 
flocks,  which  lead  a  more  or  less  nomadic  kind  of  life  until  the  following  spring, 
apparently  going  but  short  distances  from  their  summer  quarters  unless  driven 
away  by  snowstorms.  During  winter  flocks  of  Sand-Grouse  occasionally  reach 
Northern  China  ;  and  here,  according  to  Swinhoe,  the  natives  take  them  in  clap 
nets  baited  with  small  beans. 

Nidification. — Whether  this  bird  pairs  for  life  or  not  is  difficult  to  say, 
but  being  so  very  Pigeon-like  in  its  affinities  it  may  probably  do  so.  It  is  an  early 
breeder,  and  the  eggs  are  said  by  Eadde  to  be  laid  in  April :  that  naturalist,  in 
fact,  took  nests  in  April  and  saw  the  chicks  by  the  middle  of  May.  The  nest  is 
nothing  but  a  little  hollow  in  the  sand,  with  a  few  bits  of  grass  or  weed  arranged 
round  the  margin.  Even  this  slight  addition  is  often  dispensed  with.  The  eggs 
are  usually  three,  but  sometimes  four  in  number,  very  oval  and  Pigeon-like  in 
shape,  but  olive  or  brownish-buff  in  ground-colour,  profusely  spotted  with  dark 
brown  and  underlying  markings  of  grey.  They  are,  on  an  average,  1'7  inch  in 
length  by  I'l  inch  in  breadth.  The  female  sits  lightly,  and  soon  flies  from  her 
nest  if  threatened  by  danger,  leaving  the  eggs  to  the  concealment  afforded  by 
their  protective  colour.  The  hot  sun  also  assists  largely  in  incubation,  and  as 
soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  high  above  the  horizon  to  dispense  its  genial  warmth 
the  nests  are  said  to  be  left,  and  the  parent  birds  to  go  off  in  pairs  to  feed  and 
drink.  Incubation  lasts  a  month,  and  the  young,  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched, 
are  able  to  run  and  forage  a  good  deal  for  themselves.  Two  broods  are  supposed 
to  be  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. —  Syrrhaptes,  with  the  legs  and  toes  feathered 
to  the  claws,  with  no  hind  toe,  with  the  first  primary  and  the  two  central  rectrices 
finely  pointed,  and  with  a  large  black  patch  on  the  abdomen.  The  latter 
characters  are  not  so  pronounced  in  the  female  or  young.  Length,  15  to  20  inches. 


30  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 


ORDER    QALLIFORMES.— THE    GAME    BIRDS. 


THE  Birds  comprising  the  present  order,  and  popularly  known  as  "Game 
Birds,"  constitute  a  large  and  important  group,  but  somewhat  ill-defined 
on  what  may  be  termed  the  boundaries.  The  most  simple  way  of  showing  their 
possible  affinities  is  to  place  them  in  the  centre  of  a  circle,  round  which  must  be 
grouped  in  varying  proximity  the  Pigeons,  the  Sand-Grouse,  the  Plovers,  Cuckoos, 
Bustards,  Rails,  Cranes,  Hemipodes,  Touracous,  and  the  Hoactzin.  Their  sternum 
contains  two  very  deep  notches  on  each  side  of  the  posterior  margin:  the 
episternal  process  is  perforated  to  receive  the  base  of  the  coracoids.  In  the 
modification  of  their  cranial  bones  they  are  schizognathous,  whilst  their  nostrils 
are  holorhinal.  Amongst  their  external  characters  may  be  mentioned  the 
following.  The  oil-gland  is  generally  tufted  (although  nude  in  the  Megapodes, 
and  absent  in  Argus) ;  the  hallux  or  hind-toe  is  always  present,  varying,  however, 
in  size  and  position ;  the  body  feathers  have  well-marked  after-shafts.  The  bill 
is  always  comparatively  short  and  stout,  curved  and  wide  at  the  base,  the  upper 
mandible  overhanging  the  lower  one.  The  primaries  are  ten  in  number;  the 
wings  rounded;  rectrices  variable  in  number.  The  young  are  hatched  covered 
with  down,  and  able  to  run  and  feed  almost  directly  they  break  from  the  shell. 
They  begin  to  develop  quills  soon  after  they  are  hatched,  and  are  able  to  fly  in 
the  juvenile  stage  of  their  existence,  their  wing  feathers  being  changed  repeatedly, 
so  that  by  the  time  they  are  fully  grown  they  have  had  three,  four,  or  even  five 
sets  of  quills.  The  Game  Birds  have  one  complete  moult  in  autumn.  Some 
species  have  a  partial  moult  in  spring;  others  change  their  feathers  more  or  less 
completely  several  times  during  the  year,  and  in  some  cases  a  change  takes  place 
in  the  colour  or  pattern  of  the  feather  without  a  moult  at  all.  Perhaps  in  no 
other  group  is  the  change  of  plumage  more  complicated.  In  no  other  order  do 
birds  exhibit  more  diversity  in  their  external  characters.  The  great  variety  and 
brilliancy  of  the  wattles,  combs,  and  excrescences  that  adorn  the  head;  the 
development  of  spur,  the  magnificent  colour  of  the  plumage,  and  the  wonderful 
modification  of  the  tail  feathers  and  coverts,  all  being  of  exceptional  interest. 
Mr.  Ogilvie  Grant,  a  high  authority  on  the  present  order,  includes  therein  about 
four  hundred  species  and  subspecies  of  Game  Birds.  The  Galliformes  are 
divisible  into  at  least  four  fairly  well-defined  families,  and  these  again  into  three 
subfamilies.  Two  of  these  families  are  represented  in  the  British  Islands.  The 
Game  Birds  are  cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Australian  region. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  31 


Family  TETRAONID/E.— The  Grouse. 


The  birds  in  the  present  family  are  characterised  by  having  the  hallux  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  front  toes;  the  nostrils  entirely  and  the  feet  partially  or 
wholly  concealed  by  feathers ;  the  toes  are  either  plumed  or  naked  and  pectinate ; 
spurs  absent. 


Genus    LAGOPUS,    or  Moor  Grouse. 

Type,    LAGOPUS    ALBUS. 


LagOpUS,  of  Brisson  (1760). • — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterized  by  their  densely  feathered  metatarsi  and  toes.  The  wings  are 
remarkably  rounded  and  short ;  the  tail  is  composed  of  sixteen  feathers,  generally 
nearly  even.  The  bill  is  very  short;  nostrils  basal,  shielded  by  an  arched 
membrane,  and  concealed  by  feathers.  Space  above  the  eye  naked.  Three  toes  in 
front,  one  behind  very  short,  and  only  just  reaching  the  ground. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  half-a-dozen  species,  which  are  confined  to 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  the  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions. 
Two  species  are  resident  in  the  British  Islands. 

The  Moor  Grouse  are  dwellers  on  moors,  tundras,  and  mountains.  They  are 
birds  of  rapid  flight,  which,  however,  is  seldom  long  sustained,  and  on  the  ground 
they  progress  by  running  and  walking.  Their  notes  are  loud  and  unmusical. 
They  subsist  chiefly  on  fruits,  berries,  seeds,  grains,  shoots  of  herbage,  and 
insects.  Their  nests  are  rudely  made,  placed  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are 
numerous  and  single-spotted.  These  birds  pair  annually.  Their  flesh  is  highly 
esteemed  for  the  table. 


32  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  TETEAONLIXE.  Genus  LAGOPUS. 


PTARMIGAN. 

LAGOPUS   MUTUS.— Montin. 
PLATE  V. 

Tetrao  mutus,  Montin,  Phys.  Salsk.  Hand.  i.  p.  155  (1776-86);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit. 
B.  ii.  p.  424  (1884);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  271,  pi.  59  (1896). 

Lagopus  cinereus,  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  187  (1837). 

Lagopus  mutus  (Montin),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  157,  pis.  477,  478  (1874) ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  83  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  iii.  (1888);  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs,  Brit.  B.  p.  364  (1893);  Grant,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxii.  p.  44  (1893); 
Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  271  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Ptarmigan  is  an  inhabitant 
of  Scotland,  principally  the  Highlands,  extending  to  the  Outer  Hebrides,  and 
the  mountains  as  far  south  as  Arran,  but  is  absent  from  the  Orkney  and  Shetland 
Islands.  Foreign:  Circumpolar.  The  Ptarmigan,  in  one  of  its  several  forms, 
inhabits  the  moors  and  tundras  above  the  limit  of  forest  growth  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America,  and  is  found  in  certain  localities  further  south  at  high  elevations 
where  a  similar  climate  and  conditions  prevail.  It  frequents  the  Dovre-fjeld,  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  Urals,  the  mountains  of  South  Siberia,  Japan,  and  the 
Kurile  Islands.  It  also  inhabits  Iceland,  Spitzbergen,  and  Nova  Zembla.  On  the 
American  Continent  it  frequents  the  Eocky  Mountains  south  to  lat.  55°. 

Allied  forms. — Lagopus  leucurus,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Eocky  Mountains 
and  their  western  spurs  in  British  Columbia  and  Washington  territory.  Differs 
from  the  Ptarmigan  in  having  the  tail  white  at  all  seasons.  L.  mutus  var. 
hyperboreus,  an  inhabitant  of  Spitzbergen,  is  perhaps  subspecifically  distinct, 
owing  to  its  larger  size  (length  of  wing,  8'9  to  8'6  inches,  against  7'9  to  7'2  inches 
in  the  typical  form)  and  greater  amount  of  white  on  the  basal  portion  of  the  tail 
feathers.  The  Ptarmigan  inhabiting  Iceland  and  the  regions  north  of  the  Arctic 
circle  in  both  hemispheres  have  been  called  L. mutus,  var.  rupestris,  in  consequence 
of  their  wanting  the  dark  breast  which  characterises  examples  from  more  southern 
latitudes.  Professor  D.  G.  Elliot  has  described  a  new  species  of  Ptarmigan  from 
Attu  Island,  one  of  the  Aleutian  Chain,  under  the  name  of  Lagopus  eversmanni, 
"  distinguished  from  all  the  Ptarmigans  of  the  western  hemisphere  by  its  entire 
white  and  black  plumage."  He  has  also  described  a  new  subspecies  from  Kyska 


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OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  33 

and  Adak  Islands  from  the  Aleutian  archipelago.  It  is  more  than  probable  that 
all  these  races  of  Ptarmigan  are  nothing  more  than  representative  forms  or 
climatic  varieties  of  one  polymorphic  species. 

Habits. — Of  all  our  Game  Birds  the  Ptarmigan  is  the  wildest.  It  is  a 
resident  in  our  islands,  confined  to  the  summits  of  the  mountains,  wandering 
nomadically  a  little  lower  during  the  non-breeding  season.  Its  haunts  are  barren 
and  wild  in  the  extreme;  rough,  broken,  wind-swept  summits,  where  the  surface 
is  either  bare  and  stony,  or  covered  sparsely  with  ling  and  heath  and  ground  fruits, 
strewn  with  boulders,  and  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  picked  out  with  spotless 
snow.  Here  the  plumage  of  the  Ptarmigan  is  so  eminently  protective,  and  the  bird 
itself  so  skulking  in  its  habits,  that  the  observer  often  wanders  all  unconsciously 
through  a  pack  of  birds,  never  dreaming  of  their  proximity  until  they  rise 
here,  there,  and  everywhere  around  him  from  the  ground  which  often  seems  too 
bare  to  conceal  a  mouse.  Ptarmigan  afford  one  of  the  best  known  instances 
of  protective  colouration.  With  each  recurring  season  a  different  dress  is  assumed 
to  meet  the  changing  hues  of  their  surroundings.  In  spring  these  birds  are 
clothed  in  a  dress  of  dark  brown,  mottled  with  yellowish  brown,  to  assimilate  in 
colour  with  the  mosses  and  lichens.  In  autumn  they  change  this  dress  for  one  of 
pale  grey,  vermiculated  with  black — or  rather  they  are  slowly  changing  colour  all 
the  summer  through  with  the  changing  aspect  of  their  haunts,  the  latter  tints 
being  emphasized  at  a  time  when  the  mosses  and  lichens  are  burnt  up  and 
beginning  to  fade.  Then  in  winter,  when  the  mountain-tops  are  wreathed  in 
snow,  the  browns  and  greys  are  doffed  and  plumage  of  spotless  white  assumed  in 
their  stead.  The  Ptarmigan  is  a  thorough  ground  bird,  and  never  uses  its  wings 
unless  compelled  by  various  circumstances  to  seek  the  air.  Then,  however,  it  can 
fly  fast  and  far,  and  often  goes  from  one  mountain-top  to  another  on  rapid-beating 
wings,  or  skims  over  brows  and  shoulders  of  the  hill-tops  with  pinions  held  arched 
and  stiff.  It  is  very  fond  of  sitting  on  rocks  and  boulders,  apparently  basking  in 
the  sun ;  whilst  on  the  ground  it  walks  and  runs  about  in  true  Game  Bird  style, 
and  is  very  fond  of  lying  on  its  side  and  taking  a  dust  bath.  Many  of  its  resorts 
and  movements  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Red  Grouse,  but  the  note  is  very 
different.  It  is  nothing  near  so  loud  or  distinct,  and  may  be  best  described  as  a 
low  croak  or  grunt.  The  food  of  this  species  is  principally  composed  of  the 
tender  green  tops  of  ling  and  heath,  but  buds,  seeds,  and  shoots  of  various 
mountain  plants  are  eaten ;  and  in  autumn,  ground  fruits,  such  as  bilberries  and 
cloud-berries.  A  small  quantity  of  grit  is  invariably  contained  in  the  stomach  to 
assist  digestion ;  and  according  to  Macgillivray,  the  bird  eats  its  fill  of  food  and 
then  goes  off  to  some  quiet  nook  to  digest  it.  Early  in  autumn,  sometimes  at  the 
end  of  July  or  the  beginning  of  August,  Ptarmigan  begin  to  pack,  especially 
if  the  season  be  stormy  and  unsettled,  but  during  very  mild  and  genial  weather 
this  operation  is  somewhat  delayed.  These  flocks  keep  to  the  lower  summits,  and 

3 


34  THE  GAME   BIRDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

during  winter,  birds  are  scarcer  on  the  highest  tops  and  said  to  be  smaller  in  size. 
Although  subject  to  the  same  disease  as  the  Red  Grouse,  this  is  never  so  virulent, 
the  sterner  conditions  of  existence  probably  doing  much  to  stamp  out  its  tendency 
to  spread  and  recur. 

Nldification. — The  Ptarmigan  is  monogamous  and  pairs  early  in  the  year, 
although  the  eggs  are  not  laid  before  the  beginning  or  even  the  end  of  May, 
according  to  the  state  of  the  season.  The  nest  is  little  more  than  a  hollow  in 
the  ground,  sometimes  beneath  the  shelter  of  a  bush  or  beside  a  rock  boulder, 
sparsely  lined  with  twigs  of  heather,  and  perhaps  a  little  dead  mountain  grass 
and  a  few  bilberry  leaves.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to  twelve  in  number,  buffish- 
white  or  buff  in  ground-colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  rich  liver-brown. 
They  are,  on  an  average,  1*7  inch  in  length  by  I'l  inch  in  breadth.  The  hen-bird 
sits  closely,  often  allowing  herself  to  be  nearly  trodden  upon  before  rising.  The 
young  chicks  run  soon  after  they  are  hatched,  and  are  very  well  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves,  scattering  and  hiding  amongst  the  stones  and  vegetation  the 
moment  danger  threatens  or  when  the  watchful  mother  sounds  the  note  of 
warning.  The  hen  alone  appears  to  incubate  the  eggs,  sitting  about  three  weeks 
for  the  purpose.  One  brood  only  is  reared  each  season. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Lagopus,  with  the  primaries  white  with  dark 
shafts,  and  the  wing  less  than  8  inches  in  length.  Length,  15  inches. 


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OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  35 

Family  TETEAONHLE.  Genus  LAGOPUS. 


RED    GROUSE. 

LAGOPUS   SCOTICUS— (Latham). 
PLATE  VI. 

Tetrao  scoticus,  Lath.  Gen.  Syn.  Suppl.  i.  p.  290  (1787  ex  Brissori) ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  428  (1884) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  272,  pi.  59  (1896). 

Lagopus  scoticus  (Lath.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  169  (1837) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii. 
p.  165,  pi.  479  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  73  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xviii.  (1891)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  362  (1893) ;  Grant, 
Cat.  B  Brit.  Mus.  xxii.  p.  35  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  263 
(1897). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Ked  Grouse  is  confined 
to  the  British  Islands,  where  it  inhabits  the  wild  moorland  districts  throughout 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  except  those  counties  of  England  that  lie  south  and 
east  of  a  line  drawn  from  Bristol  to  Hull.  Although  inhabiting  the  Hebrides  and 
the  Orkneys,  it  is  absent  from  the  Shetlands.  Foreign :  No  extra-British 
distribution. 

Allied  forms. — Lagopus  albus,  the  continental  representative  of  the  Eed 
Grouse,  an  inhabitant  of  the  tundras  above  the  pine  region  in  the  willow  and 
birch  zones  of  Arctic  Europe,  Asia  and  America.  Differs  from  the  Eed  Grouse 
in  having  a  white  winter  dress,  and  in  having  the  primaries  and  secondaries  white 
at  all  seasons. 

Habits. — British  sportsmen  may  well  pride  themselves  upon  the  exclusive 
possession  of  such  a  thorough  Game  Bird  and  true  sport-furnishing  species  as  the 
Eed  Grouse  or  Moor  Fowl.  It  is  one  of  the  most  sedentary  of  Game  Birds,  and 
never  wanders  from  its  native  heath  except  under  very  exceptional  circumstances. 
The  great  haunts  of  the  Eed  Grouse  are  the  vast  expanses  of  heath-clothed  waste 
that  stretch  in  almost  one  unbroken  line  from  Wales  to  the  Orkneys  and  Shet- 
lands. This  district  is  wild  and  romantic  enough,  and  the  great  diversity  of  its 
physical  aspect  counteracts  the  impression  of  monotony  that  the  sameness  of 
the  vegetation  which  clothes  them  is  apt  to  inspire.  Hills  and  dales,  vast  plateaux, 
swamps,  lakes,  and  streams,  ridges  and  peaks  break  the  surface  of  the  moors,  and 
patches  of  coarse  grass,  dense  fields  of  rushes  and  sedges,  of  bracken  and  gorse, 
and  clumps  of  broom  and  mountain  ground  fruits  relieve  the  monotony  of  the 
otherwise  interminable  stretches  of  heath  and  ling.  Here,  all  the  year  round,  the 


36  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Bed  Grouse  is  the  one  dominant  bird,  cherished  and  protected  everywhere  with 
the  greatest  solicitude  for  the  unrivalled  sport  it  yields.  The  Eed  Grouse  is  a 
thorough  ground  bird,  although  it  may  occasionally  be  seen  sitting  in  the  stunted 
willow,  birch,  and  thorn  trees,  and  is  fond  of  perching  on  boulders  or  on  the 
rough,  "  dry  "  walls  that  divide  the  moors  from  the  highways  and  upland  pastures. 
In  spite  of  the  bird's  abundance  it  does  not  make  itself  very  conspicuous,  and  the 
inexperienced  observer  may  wander  over  miles  of  moor  without  seeing  many 
Grouse.  They  skulk  in  the  heather,  and  generally  prefer  to  run  out  of  harm's 
way  instead  of  taking  wing.  They  are  wary  enough,  too,  and  are  ever  on  the 
outlook  for  approaching  danger,  craning  their  heads  high  above  the  cover,  and 
looking  warily  about  in  all  directions.  When  flushed,  however,  they  will  be  found 
to  fly  well  and  with  great  speed,  although  seldom  rising  very  high.  Like  the 
Ptarmigan,  they  often  skim  on  stiff  arched  wings  for  a  long  distance  over  a  ridge 
or  bank,  and  if  much  disturbed  will  prolong  their  flight  across  a  wide  valley,  or 
along  the  hillsides  for  a  mile  or  more.  At  all  times  of  the  year  the  Eed  Grouse 
is  socially  inclined,  and  in  autumn  becomes  to  a  great  extent  gregarious, 
"  packing  "  towards  the  end  of  August,  when  it  becomes  more  wary  and  wild. 
Previous  to  stormy  weather  these  packs  are  found  on  the  highest  ground,  but 
when  the  change  arrives  they  seek  the  sheltered  hillsides.  During  severe  snow- 
storms the  Eed  Grouse  will  burrow  into  the  snowdrifts  for  shelter.  The  note  of 
the  Eed  Grouse  is  very  loud  and  highly  characteristic,  most  frequently  heard  as  the 
bird  rises  startled  from  the  heather.  It  may  best  be  expressed  as  a  loud,  clear, 
go-bac  go-bac  bac-bac-bac.  Its  crow,  heard  during  the  pairing  season,  and 
especially  in  the  early  morning,  is  slightly  modified  into  a  loud  and  clear  cok-ok-ok. 
The  cry  of  the  female  is  little  more  than  a  low  croak.  The  food  of  the  Eed  Grouse 
is  chiefly  composed  of  the  green,  tender  tops  of  the  ling  (Callund)  and  the  heather 
(Erica);  but  various  ground  fruits  are  eagerly  devoured  in  autumn  (the  birds' 
droppings  at  this  season  staining  the  rocks  dark  purple)  as  well  as  the  seeds  of 
weeds;  whilst  during  harvest  and  severe  weather  the  birds  will  visit  oat  stubbles 
and  even  stack-yards  at  some  distance  from  their  usual  haunts.  I  have  known 
Eed  Grouse  to  be  taken  in  the  streets  of  Sheffield  during  severe  winters,  and 
great  numbers  to  be  shot  on  farms  and  near  dwelling-houses  several  miles  from 
the  moorlands.  As  some  misapprehension  may  arise  respecting  this  apparent 
"  retreat "  of  species  from  adverse  conditions,  I  may  here  repeat  what  I  have  said 
concerning  it  in  the  volume  dealing  with  the  migration  of  British  birds.  Scores 
of  similar  instances  might  be  given ;  and  in  some  continental  districts,  where  the 
weather  has  been  far  more  severe  than  with  us,  still  more  extraordinary  cases 
have  occurred  of  wild  birds  visiting  civilized  places  to  seek  for  food.  Now,  in 
the  first  place,  it  may  be  remarked  that  however  unusual  the  locality  may  be  in 
which  such  species  may  appear  under  these  exceptional  circumstances,  it  is  always 
within  the  normal  area  occupied  by  that  species.  A  Nutcracker  will  never  come 
to  an  English  cottage  door  for  food,  any  more  than  a  Eobin  will  ever  appear  at  the 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  37 

threshold  of  a  Canadian  settler.  In  the  second  place,  the  straying  of  a  species 
from  its  accustomed  haunts  is  purely  abnormal — a  struggle  for  life,  in  fact,  of  an 
individual,  and  such  an  action  in  the  majority  of  cases  would  not  save  the  species 
from  extermination  if  it  succeeded  in  saving  that  individual.  The  conditions  for 
successful  reproduction,  found  only  in  the  normal  haunts  of  the  species,  would  he 
wanting,  and  the  inevitable  result  would  be  a  more  or  less  rapid  extinction 
throughout  the  area  affected.  Little  need  be  said  concerning  Grouse-shooting. 
The  sport  yielded  by  driven  Grouse  is  certainly  not  equalled  by  any  other  winged 
game ;  and  the  man  who  can  satisfactorily  account  for  his  cartridges  after  shooting 
for  an  hour  or  so  from  the  "butts,"  at  birds  that  thunder  by  like  sky-rockets, 
need  not  be  afraid  to  boast  of  his  prowess.  Very  large  bags  are  sometimes  made 
both  over  dogs  and  at  the  butts.  The  Bed  Grouse  is  singularly  subject  to  what 
may  well  be  termed  a  mysterious  disease,  seeing  that  its  causes  and  nature  are 
but  imperfectly  understood.  This  disease  (which  is  said  to  have  been  traced  to 
a  parasitic  worm,  Strongylus  pergracilis,  breeding  in  the  throat  and  rapidly 
spreading  to  the  other  organs),  appears  specially  to  attack  the  liver  and  the 
intestines ;  but  whether  the  worm  is  the  primary  cause  of  the  disorder  seems  by 
no  means  certain,  for  parasites  of  this  character,  if  not  of  the  same  species,  are 
often  common  in  healthy  birds.  Space  forbids  discussion  of  this  disease  here; 
but  I  might  remark  that  in  the  opinion  of  an  old  gamekeeper  friend  of  mine, 
it  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  moulting  of  the  birds.  I  offer  this  merely 
as  a  hint  to  investigators.  On  the  other  hand,  over-stocking  of  moors,  both  with 
birds  and  with  sheep,  causes  a  short  food  supply,  and  brings  the  Grouse  low 
in  condition,  and  makes  them  less  likely  to  withstand  incipient  disease.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  introduce  the  Red  Grouse  in  some  of  the  eastern  and  southern 
counties — at  Sandringham,  Holt,  and  other  places.  It  is  said  that  of  fourteen 
brace  turned  out  at  Sandringham  in  1878,  enough  remained  to  produce  three 
broods  in  1881.  The  small  extent  of  moorland  in  these  places  seems  fatal  to  the 
success  of  the  efforts. 

Nidification. — The  Eed  Grouse  is  monogamous,  and  pairs  early  in  the 
spring.  At  this  period  the  cock-birds  stand  on  some  bit  of  rising  ground  and 
crow  defiance  to  their  rivals  and  invitation  to  the  hens,  sometimes  accompanying 
this  call  by  jumping  into  the  air  or  flapping  their  wings.  Once  paired,  however, 
there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  cock  ever  mates  with  more  than  one  hen. 
The  nest  is  slight  enough,  always  on  the  ground,  either  among  the  ling  and  heath, 
under  the  shelter  of  a  boulder,  or  even  amongst  grass  and  rushes.  Sometimes 
it  is  made  in  frequented  places,  a  yard  or  so  from  the  highway  or  footpath; 
whilst  favourite  nesting-grounds  are  near  the  patches  of  burnt  heather — burnt 
for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  a  supply  of  young  shoots  for  the  Grouse — where 
doubtless  the  abundance  of  food  influences  the  choice.  The  nest  is  merely  a  hollow 
scratched  out  in  the  peaty  soil  and  strewn  with  a  few  bits  of  withered  ling,  heath, 


38  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

dry  grass,  or  dead  leaves.  The  Eed  Grouse  is  a  rather  early  breeder,  birds  on 
sheltered  low  ground  going  to  nest  early  in  April,  but  those  inhabiting  higher  and 
more  exposed  districts  are  several  weeks  later.  The  state  of  the  season  also 
considerably  affects  the  time  of  laying;  and  sometimes  a  late  fall  of  snow  will 
overtake  the  brooding  or  laying  birds  and  cause  great  mischief.  The  eggs,  too, 
vary  considerably  in  number  in  different  years.  If  wet  and  cold,  the  clutches  vary 
from  five  to  nine  eggs;  if  warm  and  dry,  twelve  or  fifteen  are  frequently  found. 
They  are  creamy-white  in  ground-colour,  very  thickly  spotted  and  blotched  with 
rich  reddish-brown,  in  some  cases  almost  crimson-brown.  The  colouring  matter 
is  easily  rubbed  from  newly-laid  eggs,  and  during  wet  weather  the  feet  of  the 
sitting  bird  spoil  much  of  their  beauty.  They  are,  on  an  average,  1'8  inch  in 
length  by  1'25  inch  in  breadth.  The  Eed  Grouse  is  a  close  sitter,  and  will  remain 
brooding  until  almost  trodden  upon.  The  female  performs  the  entire  duties  of 
incubation,  which  lasts  twenty-four  days ;  but  when  the  young  are  hatched  both 
parents  assist  in  tending  them.  The  young  broods  are  generally  led  by  their 
parents  to  the  wettest  parts  of  the  moors,  doubtless  for  the  sake  of  some  particular 
kind  of  food.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  season,  but  if  the  first  clutch  of 
eggs  be  destroyed  it  is  usually  replaced  by  another  of  smaller  number. 

Diagnostic  Characters. — Lagoptis,  with  the  primaries  uniform  dark 
brown.  Length,  14  to  16  inches.  Hybrids  are  occasionally  found  between  this 
Grouse  and  the  Black  Cock,  and  sometimes,  it  is  said,  the  Ptarmigan;  whilst 
Mr.  J.  G.  Millais  has  recorded  and  figured  (Game  Birds  pp.  43-62)  a  hybrid 
between  the  Eed  Grouse  and  a  Bantam  Fowl.  More  or  less  perfect  albino  Eed 
Grouse  have  been  recorded.  For  one  of  the  most  remarkable,  conf.  Zoologist, 
1898,  p.  126. 


NOTE.— The  Red  Grouse  is  a  species  subject  to  considerable  variation  in  the  colour  of  its 
plumage.  Mr.  Ogilvie  Grant,  who  has  made  a  very  exhaustive  study  of  the  question,  states  that 
the  male  Grouse  present  three  distinct  types  of  plumage— a  red  form,  a  black  form,  and  a  white 
spotted  form.  The  first  of  these  is  principally  confined  to  the  low  grounds  of  Ireland,  the  West 
Coast  of  Scotland,  and  the  Outer  Hebrides.  The  second  form  appears  to  have  no  special  locality; 
whilst  the  third  form  is  found  most  emphasised  on  the  high  grounds  of  the  North  of  Scotland. 
In  the  female  no  less  than  five  types  are  definable— the  red,  black,  white-spotted,  buff-spotted,  and 
buff-barred.  Of  these  Mr.  Grant  states  that  the  first  two  are  the  rarest;  the  white-spotted  occurs 
as  in  the  male ;  the  fourth  is  the  commonest  and  most  usually  met  with ;  whilst  the  fifth  is  found 
in  the  South  of  Ireland.  Another  interesting  peculiarity  of  this  species  is  that  both  male  and 
female  have  two  distinct  moults  in  the  year,  but  in  the  male  they  take  place  in  autumn  and  winter, 
and  in  the  female  in  summer  and  autumn.  The  males  have  no  distinct  summer,  and  the  females  no 
distinct  winter,  plumage,  These  changes  of  plumage  have  been  exhaustively  worked  out  by  Mr. 
Grant.  (Conf.  Annah  of  Scottish  Nat.  Hist.  1894,  pp.  129-140,  pis.  v.,  vi.). 


OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  39 


Genus   TETRAO,    or  Wood   Grouse. 

Type,  TETEAO  UROGALLUS. 


Tetrao,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  feathered  metatarsi  and  bare  toes.  The  wings  are  rounded 
and  short ;  the  tail  is  composed  of  eighteen  feathers,  and  varies  considerably  in 
shape.*  The  bill  is  short  and  stout,  and  arched  from  the  base  to  the  tip ;  nostrils 
basal,  shielded  by  an  arched  membrane,  and  almost  concealed  by  feathers. 
Space  above  the  eye  naked.  Three  toes  in  front,  one  behind,  the  latter  short ; 
edges  pectinated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  half-a-dozen  species,  which  are  confined  to 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  the  Palaearctic  region.  Two 
species  are  resident  in  the  British  Islands. 

The  Wood  Grouse  are  dwellers  in  forests  and  on  the  broken  ground  near 
them.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  if  somewhat  laboured  flight,  and  on  the  ground 
they  progress  by  running  and  walking.  Their  notes  are  loud,  and,  in  the  males, 
considerably  varied.  They  subsist  chiefly  on  the  buds  and  leaves  of  conifers, 
also  on  fruit,  berries,  grain,  seeds,  and  insects.  Their  nests  are  rudely  made,  placed 
on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous  and  single-spotted.  These  birds 
are  polygamous,  and  the  female  takes  sole  charge  of  the  eggs  and  young.  Their 
flesh  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 


'Mr.  Grant  separates  the  Black  Grouse  under  the  generic  title  of  Lyrurus,  the  chief  character 
being  the  curved  outermost  tail  feathers,  but  as  this  distinction  applies  only  to  male  birds  we  fail 
to  recognise  its  generic  importance. 


40  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  TETRAONID^E.  Genus  TETBAO. 

CAPERCAILLIE. 

TETEAO   UEOGALLUS.— Linnceus. 
PLATE  VII. 

Tetrao  urogallus,  Linn,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  273  (176G) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  138  (1837) ; 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  223,  pi.  490  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  45  (1883) ; 
Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  440  (1884) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  359 
(1893) ;  Grant,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxii.  p.  60  (1893) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B. 
pt.  xxviii.  (1894);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  274,  pi.  59  (1896);  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  276  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution — British :  Bones  of  the  Capercaillie  testify 
to  its  former  residence  in  the  north  of  England,  such  having  been  found  in  the 
caves  of  Teesdale  and  amongst  the  Roman  remains  at  Settle,  in  West  Yorkshire. 
During  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century  it  was  exterminated  from  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  Pennant  stating  that  a  few  were  to  be  found  about  Thomastown,  in 
Tipperary,  about  the  year  1760,  and  mentions  an  example  obtained  north  of 
Inverness ;  so  that  it  would  seem  that  the  bird  became  extinct  in  Scotland  and 
Ireland  simultaneously.  Its  successful  introduction  into  Scotland  from  Sweden 
commenced  in  1837-38  by  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton,  although  an  attempt  had 
been  made  some  ten  years  previously  at  Mar  Lodge.  From  Taymouth,  in  Perth- 
shire, the  centre  of  its  restoration,  it  has  spread  during  the  past  fifty  years  over 
the  greater  part  of  this  county  and  Forfarshire,  as  well  as  into  Stirlingshire.  The 
extension  of  its  range  appears  now  only  to  be  a  matter  of  time.  Foreign :  Western 
Palsearctic  region.  It  inhabits  the  pine  forests  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  in  Scandinavia 
as  far  north  as  lat.  70°;  in  Eussia  and  Siberia  as  far  north  as  lat.  67°.  Its  eastern 
limit  appears  to  be  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei  up  to  Lake  Baikal.  Retaining  west- 
wards it  is  found  in  South  Siberia,  in  the  Altai  Mountains,  and  in  North-eastern 
Turkestan  up  to  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet.  It  appears  not  to  inhabit  the 
Caucasus  and  Southern  Eussia,  but  is  a  dweller  in  the  pine  forests  of  the 
Carpathians,  on  the  Italian  slopes  of  the  Alps,  the  Spanish  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees, 
and  throughout  the  Cantabrian  ranges.  It  is  still  found,  but  in  apparently 
decreasing  numbers,  in  Poland  and  in  Northern  and  Central  Germany. 

Allied  forms. — A  pale  subspecies  of  the  Capercaillie  has  been  described 
from  the  Urals  under  the  name  of  Tetrao  uralensis  by  Professor  Nazarov.  Tetrao 
parvirostris,  an  inhabitant  of  East  Siberia,  ranging  from  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei, 
through  Mantchooria,  southward  into  Northern  China.  Differs  from  the  Caper- 


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OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  41 

caillie  in  having  the  head  and  neck  metallic  purple  and  green,  more  white  on  the 
wing-  and  upper  tail-coverts,  but  with  no  white  on  the  tail  itself,  and  in  having 
a  longer  and  more  graduated  tail.  The  Capercaillie  from  Kamtschatka,  T. 
kamtschaticus,  is  said  to  be  intermediate  in  size,  and  to  have  the  shoulder  feathers 
so  boldly  tipped  with  white  as  to  form  a  conspicuous  band  along  each  side  of  the 
back. 

Habits. — This  magnificent  Grouse  is  one  of  the  rarest  and  most  local  of 
those  birds  which  are  classed  under  the  head  of  Game.  Its  haunts  are  chiefly  in 
the  forests  of  spruce  fir  and  larch,  although  it  frequently  wanders  from  these 
localities  into  birch  and  oak  woods,  and  on  to  the  bare  expanses  of  moor,  or  the  open 
parts  of  the  forest  where  the  broken  ground  is  strewed  with  bracken  and  with 
various  kinds  of  ground  fruit.  It  is  most  partial  to  the  large  pine  woods,  more 
especially  those  that  are  broken  up  into  swampy  ground  in  places,  and  where 
small  lakes  occur.  In  these  wild  districts  where  the  Capercaillie  is  present  it  is 
often  very  conspicuous,  as  the  massive  creature  sits  poised  on  some  topmost 
point  of  a  pine  tree,  his  huge  form  showing  out  clearly  against  the  sky.  Here 
it  is  very  wary,  and  seldom  allows  a  near  approach,  although  when  sitting 
amongst  the  lower  branches,  where  it  considers  itself  well  concealed,  the  observer 
is  often  allowed  to  walk  quite  closely  past  it.  The  Capercaillie  is  far  more  of  a 
tree  bird  during  winter  than  in  summer  ;  but  it  always  prefers  to  roost  in  a  tree, 
and  to  retire  to  a  tree  to  sit  and  digest  its  meal.  It  is  everywhere  a  resident, 
although  it  is  given  much  to  wandering  up  and  down  the  country  side  in  an  aim- 
less sort  of  way ;  females  and  young  males  especially  so.  The  flight  of  the 
Capercaillie  is  very  powerful,  yet  the  bird  seldom  flies  far,  unless  it  be  to  cross 
over  a  valley  from  one  wood  to  another  ;  nor  is  it  very  loud  and  whirring,  except 
when  he  rises  almost  at  your  feet,  or  dashes  unexpectedly  from  the  branches 
where  he  has  been  watching  you  intently.  The  food  of  the  Capercaillie  in 
summer  consists  of  the  leaves  and  buds  of  various  plants  and  trees,  such  as  the 
alder,  birch,  and  hazel,  the  leaves  of  the  fir  and  larch,  and  less  frequently  of  the 
spruce.  To  this  fare  is  added  all  the  various  ground  fruits  that  flourish  in  or  near 
the  haunts  of  the  bird,  as  well  as  acorns :  insects,  especially  ants  and  their  eggs, 
and  beetles,  are  also  sought  for,  as  are  also  worms.  In  winter  the  needles  of  the 
pine-trees  are  almost  the  exclusive  food.  At  all  times  of  the  year  the  male  feeds 
more  on  these  spines  or  needles  than  the  female,  who  spends  more  of  her  time 
on  the  ground.  Consequently  the  flesh  of  the  latter  is  more  palatable  than  that 
of  the  male,  whose  carcase  is  frequently  too  strongly  flavoured  with  turpentine 
or  resin  to  be  pleasant  to  the  taste.  Grain  is  never  eaten  in  great  quantities. 
It  is  said  that  during  severe  weather  this  bird  will  bury  itself  in  a  snowdrift  for 
shelter.  The  statements  that  the  Capercaillie  is  detrimental  to  the  presence  of 
Black  Game  and  Pheasants  by  its  pugnacity  and  habit  of  appropriating  their 
nests,  do  not  appear  to  be  borne  out  by  evidence  carefully  collected  for  the  purpose 


42  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

of  ascertaining  their  truth.  That  it  may  do  considerable  damage  to  small  forests 
where  it  may  chance  to  be  abundant  is  by  no  means  improbable  ;  the  crop  of  one 
bird  shot  in  November  containing  the  extraordinary  number  of  two  hundred  and 
sixty-six  shoots  and  buds,  besides  a  large  handful  of  leaves,  of  the  Scotch  fir! 
For  furthur  information  on  this  important  subject,  as  well  as  for  full  particulars 
concerning  the  introduction  of  this  species  into  Scotland,  I  must  refer  my 
readers  to  Mr.  J.  A.  Harvie-Brown's  exhaustive  treatise  entitled  The  Capercaillie 
in  Scotland,  a  book  that  should  be  on  the  shelves  of  every  sportsman  and  naturalist. 

Nidification. — The  Capercaillie  becomes  most  interesting,  perhaps,  to  the 
naturalist  in  the  breeding  season.  It  is  a  polygamous  species,  and  like  most  of 
such  birds,  indulges  in  various  grotesque  and  interesting  habits  during  that  period. 
This  portion  of  their  economy  has  been  most  carefully  studied  and  described  by 
Lloyd,  and  from  his  important  work  on  Scandinavian  Game  Birds  the  following 
particulars  have  been  obtained.  Pairing  commences  in  April  and  continues  through 
May.  The  male  chooses  some  point  of  vantage  in  his  haunts,  generally  a  pine 
tree  in  the  more  open  part  of  the  forest,  or  a  huge  piece  of  rock  with  a  level 
surface.  Here  he  takes  his  stand  in  the  morning  just  before  sunrise,  and  again 
in  the  evening  directly  after  sunset,  and  from  his  perch  on  a  bare  or  dead  branch 
of  the  tree,  or  the  summit  of  the  rock,  he  puffs  out  his  plumage,  and  with  extended 
neck,  drooping  wings,  and  erected  tail  spread  out  to  the  fullest  extent,  he  begins 
to  utter  his  "spel,"  or  love  music.  This  consists  of  three  very  distinct  notes, 
pellep,  klickop,  and  hede,  the  first  and  last  several  times  repeated.  These  antics 
and  notes  occupy  a  period  of  several  minutes,  and  are  often  repeated  at  once, 
during  which  time  the  bird  works  himself  up  to  such  a  pitch  of  amorous  excite- 
ment as  to  be  utterly  oblivious  of  impending  danger.  The  natives  take  advantage 
of  this,  and  by  advancing  during  each  "  spel "  or  ecstasy,  creep  up  within  gunshot. 
The  females  respond  to  this  curious  exhibition  by  uttering  a  harsh  croak,  advancing 
to  attract  his  attention,  until  he  finally  descends  from  his  perch  and  pairs  with 
each  in  turn.  These  "laking  places"  are  frequented  every  spring  with  great 
regularity  by  numerous  cocks  and  still  more  numerous  hens,  and  are  usually  all 
in  the  same  neighbourhood  of  their  haunts.  Much  fighting  takes  place,  the 
young  and  weaker  birds  being  driven  out,  and  not  allowed  to  "spel"  or  "play." 
The  love  notes  are  often  uttered  so  loudly  as  to  cause  the  tree  on  which  the  bird 
is  sitting  sensibly  to  vibrate  to  the  touch,  and  may  be  heard  for  a  long  distance 
through  the  silent  forest.  A  second  "spel"  is  said  to  take  place  towards  the  end 
of  September  or  early  in  October.  The  female  takes  all  charge  of  the  eggs  and 
young.  She  makes  a  scanty  nest  amongst  the  bilberry  wires  and  heather  in  a 
clearing  of  the  forest,  merely  a  hollow  scraped  out,  and  lined  with  a  few  dry  leaves 
or  scraps  of  grass.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to  twelve  in  number,  the  smaller 
clutches  being  the  produce  of  the  younger  hens.  They  are  brownish-buff  in 
ground-colour,  thickly  spotted  with  reddish-brown,  and  a  few  larger  markings  of 


OP   THE   BBITISH   ISLANDS.  43 

the  same  colour.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'2  inches  in  length  by  1'6  inch 
in  breadth.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  incubation  lasts  from 
twenty-six  to  twenty-eight  days. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Tetrao,  with  the  tail  nearly  square,  and  the 
wing  more  than  12  inches  in  length.  Length,  35  inches  (male) ;  25  inches 
(female) .  Hybrids  are  pretty  frequent  in  a  wild  state  between  the  Black  Cock 
and  the  female  Capercaillie,  the  latter  being  much  given  to  wandering  from  their 
usual  haunts  and  pairing  with  Black  Game  during  these  peregrinations.  Hybrids 
have  also  been  known  between  the  female  Capercaillie  and  the  male  Willow 
Grouse,  and  the  species  is  said  occasionally  to  cross  with  the  Pheasant. 


44  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  TETRAONIME.  Genus  TETRAO. 


BLACK   GROUSE. 

TETEAO    TETEIX.—  Linnaeus. 
PLATE  VIII. 

Tetrao  tetrix,  Linn,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  274  (1766) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  145  (1837) ; 
Dresser,  B.  Eur  vii.  p.  205,  pi.  487  (1873) ;  Yarroll,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  60 
(1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  435  (1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  vii. 
(1888) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  360  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  273,  pi.  59  (1896). 

Lyrurus  tetrix  (Linn),  Grant,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxii.  p.  53  (1393) ;  Sharpe,  Handb. 
B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  273  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Black  Grouse  was  formerly 
widely  distributed  throughout  Great  Britain,  but  it  has  been  exterminated  in 
many  localities,  in  some  of  which,  however,  it  has  been  introduced.  It  is  resident 
locally  in  all  counties  south  of  the  Thames,  perhaps  with  the  exception  of  Kent. 
It  is  locally  distributed  in  Wales,  the  Midlands,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Sandring- 
ham,  in  Norfolk ;  thence  in  every  county  north  of  Nottingham  up  to  the  Border. 
It  is  more  widely  and  generally  distributed  throughout  Scotland,  including 
some  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  but  has  not  succeeded  in  establishing  itself  on 
the  Orkneys  or  Shetlands.  It  is  not  indigenous  to  Ireland.  Foreign  :  Palaearctic 
region.  It  inhabits  the  pine  and  birch  forests  of  Europe  and  Asia  ;  in  Scandi- 
navia as  far  north  as  lat.  69£° ;  in  Russia  and  Siberia  as  far  east  as  the  Yenisei, 
as  far  north  as  lat.  68°,  but  in  the  valley  of  the  Lena  not  beyond  lat.  63°.  East 
of  the  latter  valley  in  North  Siberia  it  has  been  found  as  far  as  the  Kolima  river, 
and  in  the  south  of  that  country  it  ranges  eastwards  into  the  Amoor  Valley  to  the 
Ussuri  and  Mantchooria.  Returning  westwards  we  find  it  to  be  an  inhabitant  of 
South  Siberia  and  North-eastern  Turkestan,  onwards  throughout  Central  Europe 
as  far  south  as  the  Alps  and  the  Northern  Apennines.  It  is  said  to  occur  in  the 
Eastern  Pyrenees. 

Allied  forms. — Tetrao  mlokosiewiczi,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Caucasus. 
Differs  from  the  Black  Grouse  in  having  no  white  in  the  plumage,  in  being  some- 
what smaller,  and  in  having  a  very  differently-shaped  tail.  The  female  of  this  species 
is  greyer  than  the  female  Black  Grouse,  and  the  vermiculations  on  the  plumage 
are  less  coarse. 


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OF  THE  BKITISH  ISLANDS.  45 

Habits. — The  Black  Grouse  is  a  bird  of  the  trees,  but  not  quite  as  much  of 
a  forest  species  as  the  Capercaillie.  It  loves  wild,  broken  country  on  the  border 
of  the  moors,  in  birch  and  fir  plantations,  and  the  romantic  hollows  below  the  level 
plateaux  of  heath  and  ling,  where  the  ground  is  clothed  with  bracken  and  bramble, 
strewn  with  rocks,  and  traversed  by  dancing  streams  which  sometimes  widen  out 
into  expanses  of  rush-grown  bog  and  cotton-grass.  In  our  southern  counties 
favourite  haunts  of  this  bird  are  the  wild  commons  and  small  isolated  tracts  of 
moorland,  where  pine  woods  are  in  close  proximity,  and  plenty  of  underwood  and 
trees  are  to  be  found.  The  Black  Grouse  is  extremely  partial  to  districts  where 
water  abounds,  either  swampy  ground  or  pools  and  streams.  It  is  a  skulking, 
shy,  and  wary  bird,  seldom  being  seen  until  it  is  flushed,  either  from  the  ground 
or  the  trees ;  and  even  when  feeding  on  the  bare  hillsides,  which  it  often  does, 
some  distance  from  the  plantations,  it  is  ever  on  the  alert,  and  runs  and  conceals 
itself  the  moment  it  is  alarmed.  I  have  seen  Black  Cocks  take  refuge  in  clumps 
of  rushes  growing  on  the  hillside,  running  from  one  tuft  to  another  until  the 
plantation  was  reached.  The  flight  of  the  Black  Grouse  is  powerful  and  rapid, 
but  the  bulk  of  the  bird  seems  to  lend  it  a  laboured  character.  The  Black  Cock, 
except  during  the  moulting  season,  in  July  and  August,  spends  much  of  his  time 
in  the  trees,  and  always  prefers  to  roost  in  a  tree  ;  but  the  Grey  Hen  is  more  of  a 
ground  bird.  I  have  often  remarked  the  partiality  of  this  species  for  tall  bracken 
in  autumn ;  and  at  that  season  it  also  wanders  from  the  covers  to  the  stubbles. 
During  long-continued  snowstorms  it  sometimes  burrows  into  the  drifts  for  shelter. 
The  food  of  the  adult  Black  Grouse  is  almost  exclusively  of  a  vegetable  nature. 
In  summer  the  seeds  of  rushes  and  the  tender  tops  and  leaves  of  ling  and  heath 
and  other  plants  are  the  birds'  favourite  fare  ;  in  autumn,  grain  and  wild  fruits  and 
berries  are  partaken  of ;  whilst  in  winter,  willow  twigs,  birch  catkins,  alder  buds, 
and  leaves  of  the  ling  and  heath  are  eaten.  Black  Game,  like  Eed  Grouse,  always 
seem  bewildered  and  stupid  during  misty  weather,  and  then  often  allow  a  much 
nearer  approach  as  they  sit  on  the  half-leafless  trees.  I  might  also  remark  for  the 
benefit  of  any  sportsman  unaware  of  the  circumstance,  that  while  Eed  Grouse 
always  endeavour  to  fly  down  wind,  Black  Game  seek  to  fly  up  wind.  The 
formation  of  the  tail  may  have  some  influence  on  this.  When  much  shot  at, 
Black  Game  generally  mount  up  high  into  the  air,  and  fly  right  away  to  some 
distant  cover.  This  species  also  appears  to  have  an  antipathy  to  flying  up- 
hill, and  when  flushed  on  a  slope  they  usually  pass  to  a  lower  level. 

Nidification. — In  the  matter  of  its  reproduction  the  Black  Grouse  very 
closely  resembles  the  Capercaillie.  It  is  polygamous,  and  the  Black  Cocks  perform 
much  the  same  peculiar  antics  during  the  pairing  season  to  charm  the  Grey  Hens 
as  we  have  already  described  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Certain  meeting  or  "laking" 
places  are  chosen  in  their  haunts,  to  which  numbers  of  males  resort  early  in  April ; 
and  here  battles  are  of  frequent  occurrence  for  the  females,  which  are  attracted  by 


46  THE  GAME  BIRDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

the  love  notes,  or  "spel,"  and  charmed  by  the  grotesque  attitudes  assumed  by  the 
cocks.  The  "spel"  or  song  consists  of  two  very  distinct  notes,  one  a  kind  of  coo, 
the  other  a  hiss,  both  so  loudly  uttered  that  they  may  be  heard  for  a  mile  or  more 
across  the  silent  wilderness.  During  the  progress  of  the  "lek  "  the  females  creep 
up  to  the  place  with  drooping  wings,  uttering  a  low  note  and  apparently  watching 
the  proceedings  with  great  interest,  waiting  to  pair  with  the  most  successful  males. 
A  second  "spel"  is  said  to  take  place  in  autumn,  and  during  this  period  the  cocks 
keep  in  companies  by  themselves.  The  female  takes  all  charge  of  the  domestic 
arrangements.  About  the  first  week  in  May  the  Grey  Hen  goes  to  nest.  This  is 
always  placed  on  the  ground,  under  a  clump  of  dead  bracken  or  matted  bramble 
and  fern,  or  amongst  heather  or  ling,  rushes,  or  bilberry  wires.  It  is  merely  a 
hollow  into  which  is  scraped  a  few  bits  of  dry  grass,  broken  fern-fronds,  or  dead 
leaves  of  the  bilberry,  and  fallen  pine-needles.  The  eggs,  from  six  to  ten  in 
number,  are  brownish-buff,  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown  of  various 
shades  of  intensity.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'0  inches  in  length,  by  1'4  inch 
in  breadth.  Occasionally  a  single  nest  will  contain  as  many  as  sixteen  eggs,  the 
produce  of  two  hens  which  sit  together  amicably  enough  and  bring  up  the 
numerous  progeny  in  company.  This  usually  occurs  in  localities  where  the  Black 
Grouse  are  thick  upon  the  ground.  The  Grey  Hen  is  a  close  sitter,  and  her 
plumage  is  remarkably  inconspicuous  amongst  the  dead  fern  and  undergrowth. 
Incubation  lasts  about  twenty-six  days.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  season. 
The  young  are  reared  with  difficulty,  wet  seasons  being  especially  fatal  to  them  ; 
and  many  nests  are  washed  away  by  being  made  too  near  the  bank  of  some 
mountain  stream,  which  rapidly  becomes  a  torrent  and  overflows  its  banks  during 
long-continued  rain. 

Diagnostic  characters — Tetrao,  with  the  tail  lyre  shaped  (male),  and 
the  wing  11  inches  in  length  or  less.  Length,  22  inches  (male),  15  inches  (female). 
The  Black  Cock  hybridises  with  the  female  Ecd  Grouse  occasionally,  and  has  been 
known  to  interbreed  with  Willow  Grouse,  Hazel  Grouse,  the  hen  Capercaillie, 
and  the  Pheasant.  Mr.  J.  G.  Millais  figures  an  interesting  example  of  a  Black 
Cock  which  has  assumed  the  dress  of  the  Grey  Hen.  (Game  Birds  and  Shooting 
Sketches.) 


OP  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  47 


Family   PHASIANID^E.— The   Typical  Game   Birds. 


The  birds  in  the  present  family  are  characterised  by  having  the  nostrils  bare, 
never  concealed  by  feathers ;  the  metatarsi  partially  or  entirely  naked,  and  in 
many  cases  armed  with  spurs ;  the  toes  bare  and  never  pectinate.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  divide  this  large  group  into  several  subfamilies,  but  with  very 
unsatisfactory  results,  the  characters  relied  upon  being  artificial  and  inconstant. 
Further  research  may  show  how  to  subdivide  the  group  in  a  natural  manner, 
but  up  to  the  present  time  no  characters  of  any  scientific  value  have  been 
discovered  by  which  we  may  so  class  the  270  or  so  species  and  subspecies  of 
which  it  is  composed. 


Genus   PHASIANUS,    or  True   Pheasant. 

Type,  PHASIANUS  COLCHICUS. 


Phasianus,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  any  occipital  crest,  and  by  their  long  wedge- 
shaped  and  graduated  tail.  The  wings  are  short  and  rounded,  the  first  primary 
about  equal  to  the  eighth  and  much  longer  than  the  tenth  ;  the  tail  is  long  and 
wedge-shaped  and  composed  of  eighteen  feathers.  The  metatarsus  is  moderately 
long,  and  armed  in  the  male  with  a  conical,  sharp  spur.  The  bill  is  of  medium 
length,  the  upper  mandible  convex,  the  tip  bent  downwards ;  nostrils  basal,  and 
shielded  by  a  membrane.  Three  toes  in  front,  one  behind  ;  hind  toe  articulated 
upon  the  metatarsus. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  eighteen  species  and  several  subspecies, 
which  are  confined  to  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  the  south- 
eastern portions  of  the  Palsearctic  region  and  the  northern  portions  of  the  Oriental 
region.  One  species  is  resident  in  the  British  Islands. 

The  true  Pheasants  are  dwellers  in  woodland  districts,  where  plenty  of 
cover  affords  them  shelter.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  flight,  and  progress  on  the 
ground  by  running  and  walking.  Their  notes  are  harsh  and  discordant.  They 
subsist  chiefly  on  grain,  seeds,  fruits,  berries,  tender  shoots,  insects,  larvae,  and 
worms.  Their  nests  are  slight,  and  made  upon  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are 
numerous,  unspotted  brown  or  green.  They  are  polygamous.  Their  flesh  is 
highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 


48  THE  GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  PHASIANID.E.  Genus  PHASIANUS. 


PHEASANT. 

PHASIANUS  COLCHICUS— Linnaus. 
PLATES  IX.  (Frontispiece)  and  X. 

Phasianus  colchicus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  271  (1766);  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  114 
(1837) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  85,  pi.  469  (1879) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  91 
(1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  445  (1884) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  p.  357  (1893) ;  Grant,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxii.  p.  320  (1893) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  part  xxxiii.  (1896);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  275,  pi.  59  (1896); 
Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  291  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Pheasant  was  probably 
introduced  into  the  British  Islands  by  the  Eomans.  It  is  a  resident  throughout 
all  parts  of  the  country  where  it  is  preserved,  even  in  some  of  the  wildest  districts 
of  the  Outer  Hebrides,  the  presence  of  cover  being  all  that  is  required  in 
addition  to  artificial  feeding  during  severe  weather.  Foreign :  Although  intro- 
duced into  most  parts  of  Europe  (with  the  exception  of  Spain  and  Portugal),  and 
of  recent  years  into  North  America,  the  true  habitat  of  this  species  is  in  Western 
Asia,  in  the  western  parts  of  the  basin  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  southern 
and  eastern  portions  of  the  basin  of  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  a  resident  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Caucasus  up  to  3,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  inhabits  the  country 
along  the  Caspian,  from  the  Volga  in  the  north  to  Asterabad  on  the  southern 
shore ;  it  is  found  in  the  northern  districts  of  Asia  Minor,  south  to  Ephesus, 
and  is  a  resident  on  the  island  of  Corsica. 

Allied  forms. — The  various  species  and  races  which  are  most  closely 
allied  to  the  Pheasant  of  Western  Asia  and  Europe  (the  typical  English  species) 
are  by  no  means  clearly  defined,  and  it  is  probable  that  further  research  may  prove 
that  several  of  these  forms  are  merely  the  result  of  interbreeding.  A  table  showing 
their  geographical  distribution  and  points  of  distinction  is  inserted  at  the  end  of 
the  present  chapter. 

Habits. — The  almost  uninterrupted  interbreeding  which  has  been  going 
on  between  the  Ring-necked  Pheasant  from  China  and  the  typical  Pheasant 
from  Colchis  for  the  past  ninety  years  has  so  far  contaminated  the  original 
stock  that  few,  if  any,  pure-bred  birds  are  to  be  found  in  the  British  Islands. 
Again,  in  more  recent  years,  another  species  (figured  with  the  Eing-necked 
Pheasant  on  Plate  X.)  has  been  introduced  into  our  islands  and  has  crossed 
with  these  two  species,  viz.,  the  Japanese  or  Green  Pheasant,  Phasianus 


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OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  49 

versicolor  (Conf.  Table,  p.  52),  tho  hybrid,  which  is  perfectly  fertile,  being  not 
only  a  singularly  handsome  bird  but  considerably  larger.  It  is  said  that  these 
crosses  with  P.  versicolor  are  specially  adapted  for  stocking  covers,  as  they  not 
only  show  a  disinclination  to  wander  from  home — a  very  excellent  trait — but 
are  less  addicted  to  running ;  whilst  their  power  of  wing  is  stronger,  which  is  a 
most  important  consideration  from  the  sportsman's  point  of  view.  In  very  few 
localities  in  this  country  does  the  Pheasant  exist  in  anything  approaching  a 
thoroughly  wild  state.  Wherever  it  is  fostered  and  protected  by  man,  suitable 
cover  being  provided,  its  natural  enemies  kept  in  check,  and  a  certain  amount  of 
food  being  supplied  during  severe  weather,  there  the  Pheasant  flourishes  and 
multiplies  apace.  The  habits,  therefore,  of  such  a  semi-domesticated  bird  need 
not  be  dwelt  upon  at  any  great  length.  As  previously  remarked,  cover  is  one  of 
the  Pheasant's  chief  requirements.  The  Pheasant  is  not  only  a  ground  bird  but 
a  shy  one,  and  is  seldom  seen  far  from  cover  of  some  kind.  It  thrives  best  in 
places  where  the  woods  contain  plenty  of  undergrowth,  and  where  there  is 
feeding  accommodation  in  the  shape  of  fields  near  by.  It  is  ever  shy  and  wary, 
and  although  often  seen  in  the  open,  hurries  off  to  tho  nearest  cover  the  moment 
danger  threatens,  or  crouches  close  to  the  ground  amongst  the  friendly  herbage 
until  the  cause  of  its  alarm  has  passed.  It  is  capable  of  running  with  marvellous 
speed  amongst  the  herbage  and  undergrowth,  and  when  flushed  rises  with  a 
startling  whirr,  and  with  rapidly-beating  wings  mounts  above  the  underwood  and 
threads  its  way  among  the  trees  to  safer  quarters.  As  a  rule  the  flight  of  the 
Pheasant  is  not  very  prolonged,  but  sometimes  the  bird  will  go  for  several  miles 
before  alighting.  Like  other  Game  Birds,  it  is  fond  of  dusting  its  plumage,  and 
not  only  drinks  often  but  is  fond  of  bathing,  so  that  water  is  one  of  the  essentials 
of  a  good  pheasantry.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  bird  spends  most  of  its  time  on 
the  ground,  it  prefers  to  roost  in  trees,  except  occasionally  in  summer,  when  it 
sleeps  on  the  ground ;  evergreens  being  favourite  situations,  especially  in  winter. 
It  is  most  active  early  in  the  morning  and  towards  sunset,  when  it  leaves  the 
covers  and  wanders  out  into  the  open  in  quest  of  food.  This  consists  of  a 
great  variety  of  substances.  Grain  of  all  kinds  perhaps  forms  its  staple  support, 
but  to  this  must  be  added  many  kinds  of  seeds  and  berries,  acorns,  beech-mast, 
and  tender  shoots  of  various  kinds.  It  also  feeds  largely  on  worms  and  insects, 
especially  ants  and  their  larvae,  and  consumes  great  numbers  of  grubs  and  wire- 
worms.  In  most  preserves  a  great  deal  of  maize  and  other  food  is  scattered  in 
the  woods,  either  on  the  bare  ground  under  certain  trees,  or  upon  the  drives,  or 
placed  upon  platforms  of  branches  raised  several  feet  from  the  earth  in  the  woods. 
Patches  of  buckwheat  and  beans  are  also  sown  close  to  the  covers  in  many  places 
for  the  sole  benefit  of  the  Pheasants,  the  thick  growth  affording  concealment  as 
well  as  food.  The  note  of  the  male  Pheasant  is  a  short,  harsh  crow,  sounding 
something  like  cor-r-k.  The  bird  becomes  most  noisy  at  nightfall  just  before 
retiring  to  roost,  and  each  successive  crow  is  followed  by  a  flapping  of  the  wings. 
4 


50  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Nidification. — Semi-domestication  appears  to  have  caused  the  Pheasant 
to  become  monogamous,  like  domesticated  descendants  of  the  Wild  Duck.  In  its 
native  wilds  the  Pheasant  is  strictly  monogamous,  but  in  this  country  the  male  bird 
generally  associates  himself  with  several  females,  as  many  as  his  prowess  or  his 
charms  can  keep  or  attract,  and  upon  them  devolves  all  care  of  the  eggs  and 
young.  Instances,  however,  are  on  record  where  cock  Pheasants  in  our  islands 
have  been  known  to  assist,  not  only  in  the  duties  of  incubation  but  in  attending 
to  the  brood.  The  Pheasant  does  not  appear  to  have  been  polygamous  long 
enough  to  have  certain  recognised  pairing  stations  or  "laking"  places,  but  towards 
the  end  of  March  the  cock-birds  begin  to  crow  and  fight  for  the  hens,  each 
collecting  and  maintaining  as  many  as  he  can.  The  hens  go  to  nest  in  April 
and  May.  The  inherent  timidity  or  shyness  of  this  species  causes  it  to 
breed  in  seclusion,  and  the  great  nesting  grounds  are  well  in  the  cover 
of  plantations  and  woods,  although  many  odd  birds  nest  wide  amongst  growing 
crops,  or  in  the  hedge  bottoms.  Sometimes  the  nest  is  placed,  by  strange  caprice, 
in  an  old  squirrel's  drey,  or  on  the  top  of  a  stack;  and  I  have  known  it  in  the 
centre  of  a  tuft  of  rushes  within  a  couple  of  yards  of  a  much-frequented  footpath. 
Each  female  makes  a  scanty  nest,  under  the  arched  shelter  of  brambles  or  dead 
bracken,  and  often  beneath  heaps  of  cut  brushwood  which  has  been  left  upon 
the  ground  all  winter.  It  is  little  more  than  a  hollow,  in  which  a  few  bits  of 
dry  bracken  or  dead  leaves  and  scraps  of  grass  are  collected.  The  eggs  are  usually 
from  eight  to  twelve  in  number ;  sometimes  as  many  as  twenty  are  found ;  and  I 
have  known  of  an  instance  in  which  a  single  hen  has  brought  off  twenty-six 
chicks  from  as  many  eggs !  They  vary  from  brown  through  olive-brown  to  bluish- 
green  in  colour,  and  are  unspotted.  Some  years  ago,  in  Northumberland,  accom- 
panied by  the  late  Mr.  Seebohm,  jun.,  I  took  a  clutch  of  the  normal  colour,  amongst 
which  was  one  of  a  delicate  greenish-blue.  They  measure  on  an  average  l-8  inch 
in  length  by  1'4  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation  lasts,  on  an  average,  twenty-four 
days.  The  Pheasant  rears  only  one  brood  in  a  year;  but  if  the  first  clutch  is 
unfortunate,  others  are  laid,  as  hens  have  been  known  to  sit  as  late  as  September. 
When  leaving  her  nest  for  a  short  time  to  feed,  the  hen  carefully  covers  her  eggs 
with  leaves,  and  flies  from  her  home  when  she  quits  it  voluntarily,  returning 
in  the  same  manner.  The  young  are  seldom  fully  grown  before  the  end  of 
July. 

Diagnostic  characters — Phasianus,  with  no  white  collar,  and  with 
reddish-brown  wing  coverts,  and  purplish-red  rump  (typical  colchicus) .  Length : 
male,  30  to  37  inches,  including  tail;  female,  about  24  inches,  including  tail. 
The  two  central  rectrices  of  the  cock  Pheasant  vary  considerably  in  length, 
according  to  the  age  of  the  bird,  old  ones  being  often  met  with  in  which 
these  feathers  measure  upwards  of  24  inches.  The  Pheasant  has  been  known  to 
hybridise  not  only  with  several  of  its  allies,  but  with  the  Black  Grouse,  and  the 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS. 


51 


Guinea  Fowl,  with  the  Domestic  Fowl  and  the  Capercaillie.  Old  females  some- 
times assume  the  plumage  of  the  male,  whilst  in  extremely  rare  instances  the 
male  has  been  known  to  assume  that  of  the  female.  (Conf.  Ibis,  1897,  p.  438). 
Males  subject  to  considerable  variation  in  colour,  ranging  from  pure  white  through 
every  intermediate  stage  to  the  normal  colour.  Males  moult  in  June  and  July ; 
females  in  July  and  August. 


Phasianus   colchicus   and   Allies. 


SPECIES  ou  BACK. 


Phasianus  colchicus  .. 


Phasianus  colchicus  tal- 
ischensis 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AREA. 


Basin  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and 
southern  and  eastern  por- 
tions of  basin  of  Black  Sea  : 
Corsica 


Talisch,  Mazanderan,  southern 
coast  of  Caspian     ... 


Phasianus  persicus    ...      North-east  Persia 


Phasianus  principalis.. 


Phasianus    zerafshani- 
cus    . 


Phasianus  shawi 


Phasianus  tarimensis. . . 


Phasianus  chrysomelas 


North-west   Afghanistan    and 
North-east  Persia. 


Valley  of  the  Zarafshan,  Turk- 
estan 


Chinese  Turkestan 


Tarim  Valley,  Eastern  Turk- 
estan 


Oxus  Valley    . . . 


POINTS  OP  DISTINCTION 

(MALES). 


Wing  coverts  reddish-brown; 
rump  and  upper  tail  coverts 
purplish-red ;  middle  of 
breast  and  flanks  dark  pur- 
plish-green. 

Middle  of  breast  and  flanks 
purplish-carmine ;  breast 
feathers  with  purple  margins 

Lesser  and  median  wing  cov- 
erts white  ;  middle  of  breast 
and  flanks  as  in  preceding. 

Wing  coverts  white  ;  rump 
bronze-red ;  breast  feathers 
broadly  tipped  with  purplish- 
bronze. 

No  dark  greenish-purple  mar- 
gins to  the  scapulars  ;  mar- 
gins to  breast  feathers 
narrow. 

Lesser  and  median  wing  cov- 
erts white  or  pale  buff; 
breast  feathers  margined 
with  dark  green  ;  centre  of 
breast  and  the  flanks  dark 
green. 

Lesser  and  median  wing  cov- 
erts yellowish-brown;  breast 
feathers  without  marginal 
bands. 

Mantle  having  triangular  spots 
of  dark  green  at  the  point  of 
each  feather ;  those  of  the 
breast  and  flanks  widely 
tipped  with  the  same  colour. 


52 


THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 
Phasianus  colchicus  and   Allies. — continued. 


SPECIES  OK  EACE. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AREA. 


POINTS  OP  DISTINCTION 

(MALES). 


Phasianus   mongolicus 


Phasianus    mongolicus 
semitorquatus 


Phasianus  torquatus  . . . 


Phasianus      torquatus 
satscheunensis 


Phasianus       torquatus 
formosanus . . . 


Phasianus  decollatus... 


Phasianus  strauchi    ... 
Phasianus  vlangalii    . . . 

Phasianus  versicolor . . . 
Phasianun  elegans 


Basins  of  Lakes  Saisan,  Balk- 
ash  and  Issik  Kul,  Central 
Asia  ... 

Irenkhabirga  Mountain  district 
Central  Asia 


Valley  of  Lower  Amoor,  Mant- 
chooria,  China,  south  to 
Canton,  Corea,  Tsu-sima, 
Eastern  Mongolia  ... 

Sa-tschen,  north  of  Nan-shan 
Mountains  .. 


Formosa  Island 


Western  China 


North-western  Kansu 


Tsaidam  north  to  Koko-nor . . . 


Peculiar  to  Japan,  with 
exception  of  Yezo. 

South-western  China. . . 


the 


Similar  to  P.  persicus  but  with 
a  broad  white  neck  ring, 
broken  in  front. 

Metallic  portions  of  plumage 
glossed  with  dull  green 
instead  of  purple-carmine 
as  in  preceding  race. 

Lower  back,  rump,  and  upper 
tail  coverts,  greenish-slate 
colour ;  white  ring  round 
the  neck. 

Pale  form  of  preceding,  scap- 
ulars margined  with  sandy- 
brown  instead  of  brownish- 
red. 

Similar  to  P.  torquatus,  but 
with  the  ground-colour  of 
the  mantle  and  flanks  pale 
yellow,  instead  of  orange- 
buff. 

Similar  to  P.  torquatus,  but 
with  no  white  ring  or  only 
traces  of  one  (probably  the 
result  of  inter-breeding); 
margins  to  breast  feathers 
dark  green  instead  of  purple. 

Feathers  of  chest  and  sides  of 
breast  glowing  orange-red 
margined  with  purplish- 
green  ;  no  white  ring. 

Mantle  and  scapulars  sandy- 
red  ;  flanks  golden-buff ; 
chest  dark  green  ;  no  white 
ring. 

Uiider-parts  unspotted  metal- 
lic green. 

Similar  to  preceding,  but  has 
the  flanks  golden-brown 
barred  with  black. 


NOTE.— In  compiling  the  above  Table  I  have  to  a  great  extent  followed  Mr.  Grant's  admirable 
arrangement  of  the  group  in  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  of  Birds,  in  which  the  Pheasants  have 
been  most  recently  monographed. 


OP  THE  BEITISH   ISLANDS.  53 


Genus   PERDIX,    or  True   Partridges. 

Type,  PEEDIX   CINEEEA. 


Perdix,  of  Brisson  (1760). — -The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  bare  metatarsi,  scutellated  in  front,  reticulated  behind,  by 
their  short  rectrices  (sixteen  or  eighteen  in  number),  and  rounded  wings,  the  first 
primary  being  intermediate  in  length  between  the  seventh  and  eighth,  and  the 
fourth  the  longest.  The  bill  is  short  and  stout,  the  upper  mandible  curved  from 
the  base  to  the  tip ;  nostrils  basal,  shielded  by  an  arched  membrane  or  scale,  and 
bare  of  feathers.  Three  toes  (long)  in  front,  one  behind,  small  and  elevated ; 
spurs  absent. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  half-a-dozen  species  and  varieties,  which  are 
confined  to  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  the  Palsearctic  region. 
One  species  is  resident  in  the  British  Islands. 

The  True  Partridges  are  dwellers  in  open  country,  cultivated  districts,  grain 
lands  and  prairies.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  but  seldom  long-sustained  flight,  and 
sedentary  in  their  habits.  Their  notes  are  shrill  and  unmusical.  They  subsist 
on  grain,  seeds,  fruits,  shoots  of  herbage,  insects  and  larvae.  Their  nests  are 
rudely  made,  placed  upon  the  ground,  often  under  the  shelter  of  bushes,  and 
their  eggs  are  numerous,  whitish  or  buffish-olive  in  colour,  unspotted  in  all  known 
instances.  These  birds,  so  far  as  is  known,  are  monogamous.  Their  flesh  is 
highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 


64  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  PHASIANID^.  Genus  PEKDIX. 

PARTRIDGE. 

PERDIX   CINEREA.—  Latham. 
PLATE  XL,  Fig   1. 

Tetrao  perdix,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  276  (1766). 

Perdix  cinerea,  Lath.  Gen.  Syn.  Suppl.  i.  p.  290  (1787) ;   Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  218 

(1837) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  131,  pi.  475  (1878) ;   Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  cd.  4,  iii. 

p.  105  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  452  (1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B. 

pt.  ix.  (1888) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  355  (1893) ;   Seebohm,  Col.  Fig. 

Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  276,  pi.  59  (1896). 

Perdix   perdix  (Linn.),  Grant,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxii.  p.  185  (1893) ;   Sharpc,  Haudb. 
B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  282  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  .  The  Partridge  is  a  resident 
throughout  the  agricultural  districts  of  the  British  Islands  wherever  it  is  preserved. 
It  is  absent  from  the  Outer  Hebrides,  but  has  been  introduced  into  the  Orkneys. 
Foreign:  West  Palasarctic  region.  It  is  local  in  Scandinavia  up  to  lat.  GG°;  West 
Russia,  north  to  lat.  60°;  East  Russia,  north  to  lat.  58°;  West  Siberia,  north  to 
lat.  57°,  in  which  locality  it  is  a  migrant,  wintering  in  North  Turkestan.  South- 
wards its  range  extends  into  Central  Asia,  North  Persia,  and  the  Caucasus :  whilst 
westwards  into  Europe  it  includes  North  Turkey  and  Austria,  the  lowlands  of 
Italy,  North  Spain,  France,  Germany,  Holland,  and  Denmark. 

Allied  forms. — Perdix  cinerea,  var.  robusta,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Altai 
Mountains.  Differs  from  the  Common  Partridge  in  being  greyer  in  colour,  and 
larger.  P.  daurica,  an  inhabitant  of  East  Russian  Turkestan,  South-east  Siberia, 
East  Mongolia,  North-east  Thibet,  and  North  China.  Differs  from  the  Common 
Partridge  in  having  the  horseshoe-shaped  mark  on  the  breast  black  instead  of 
chestnut,  and  the  feathers  on  the  throat  elongated ;  it  is  also  a  smaller  and  paler 
bird.  Two  more  distantly  allied  species,  possessing  eighteen  instead  of  sixteen 
tail  feathers,  are  Perdix  hodgsonice  from  Southern  Thibet  and  the  extreme  north  of 
India,  and  Perdix  sifanica  from  Kansu.  Perdix  damascena,  from  the  mountains 
of  Central  Europe,  does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  even  subspecifically  distinct  from 
the  Common  Partridge ;  further  investigation  is  necessary.  A  peculiar  chestnut 
variety  (obtained  alike  in  England,  Scotland,  and  on  the  continent)  has  been 
described  by  Brisson  as  distinct  under  the  name  of  Perdix  niontana.  Another 
local  small  form  has  been  described  from  Galicia  by  Dr.  Seoane  under  the  name 
of  Perdix  cinerea  charrela,  and  by  Dr.  Reichenow  as  Perdix  hispaniensis,  but 
whether  the  variations  arc  sufficiently  important  to  warrant  such  a  separation  seems 
doubtful.  Possibly  they  are  of  subspecific  value  only.  (Conf .  Ibis.  1894,  pp.  575-577) . 


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OF  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  55 

Habits. — The  great  strongholds  of  the  Partridge  are  the  well-cultivated 
districts  where  the  fields  are  not  too  large,  the  hedges  dense  and  affording  cover 
during  the  breeding  season,  and  where  grain  is  grown  in  abundance.  It  may  be 
aptly  described  as  a  bird  of  the  farm-lands,  although  it  is  by  no  means  rare  in 
many  moorland  districts,  and  in  some  counties  is  fairly  plentiful  on  commons  and 
rougher  ground.  It  shows  no  partiality  for  wooded  districts,  and  is  so  thoroughly 
a  ground  bird  that  the  known  instances  of  its  perching  in  trees  are  remarkably 
few.  The  Partridge  lives  upon  the  ground,  and  at  all  times  shows  more  or  less 
reluctance  to  fly.  Should  danger  threaten,  it  prefers  to  squat  close  to  the  earth 
or  to  run  with  great  quickness  to  the  shelter  of  standing  crops  or  thick  hedges, 
where  its  movements  are  so  rapid  as  to  enable  it  to  elude  pursuit  with  ease. 
When  flushed,  however,  it  not  only  rises  quickly  and  suddenly  but  flies  well  and 
with  no  small  speed,  its  rounded  wings  as  they  rapidly  beat  the  air  making  a  loud 
whirring  noise.  Sometimes  the  bird  holds  its  wings  stiff  and  arched  and  skims 
along  for  a  short  distance  before  alighting.  The  Partridge  obtains  its  food  on  the 
ground,  and  is  most  active  in  search  of  it  during  morning  and  early  evening. 
In  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  it  is  fond  of  lying  close  in  cover,  and  frequently 
resorts  to  some  bare  spot  in  the  fields  to  dust  its  plumage  and  to  bask  in  the  sun. 
Its  food  consists  of  shoots  and  leaves  of  herbage,  insects  and  their  larvae,  snails, 
grain  and  seeds,  and  various  wild  fruits.  From  the  time  the  broods  are  grown 
until  they  are  thinned  down  by  the  sportsman,  the  Partridge  lives  in  coveys  of 
varying  size,  which  feed  and  sleep  in  company.  At  night  each  covey  has  a 
particular  resort  to  which  the  birds  retire  to  rest,  usually  sleeping  in  a  circle  on 
the  ground,  each  with  its  head  turned  outwards  so  that  approaching  danger  is 
readily  observed.  The  note  of  the  Partridge,  which  is  uttered  by  both  sexes,  is  a 
peculiarly  shrill  kir-r-rrrick,  most  frequently  uttered  towards  evening  and  in  the 
pairing  season.  In  districts  where  the  birds  are  not  persistently  chased  by 
the  sportsman  the  Partridge  shows  gregarious  tendencies  during  autumn  and 
winter,  several  coveys  joining  into  a  flock.  During  severe  weather  the  Partridge 
will  visit  the  rick-yards,  and  is  occasionally  met  with  in  very  unusual  localities, 
tempted  thither  by  food.  When  fired  at  this  bird  has  been  known  to  fly  out  to 
sea  for  a  considerable  distance,  returning  to  land  in  a  very  exhausted  condition. 
Before  the  introduction  of  the  modern  reaping  machine  and  turnip  drill,  when 
the  weedy  stubbles  were  left  long  by  the  sickle,  and  turnips  were  sown  broadcast, 
Partridges  were  shot  over  pointers  and  setters ;  but  now,  when  the  straw 
is  shaved  off  almost  flush  with  the  ground,  and  the  stubble  ploughed  as  soon  as 
the  crop  is  harvested  (unless  sown  down  with  clover),  and  root  crops  are  grown 
in  rows  or  "  ridges,"  dogs  are  of  little  service,  and  driving  has  been  resorted  to. 
This  is  regretted  by  some  sportsmen  of  the  old  school  chiefly,  but  certainly 
preferred  by  the  more  modern  gunner  ;  especially  so  as  this  method  of  Partridge 
shooting  serves  to  prolong  the  season  of  sport  and  to  furnish  birds  in  prime 
condition. 


56  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Nidification. — The  Partridge  is  one  of  the  earliest  birds  to  separate  into 
pairs,  but  although  it  often  does  so  in  February,  its  nest  is  seldom  found  until  a 
couple  of  mouths  later.  It  is  a  monogamous  species,  and  may  even  probably 
pair  for  life,  although  the  old  cocks  are  often  very  pugnacious  and  fight  freely 
with  the  younger  birds.  The  Partridge  goes  to  nest  in  England  about  the 
beginning  of  May,  but  in  Scotland  it  is  nearly  a  month  later.  The  female  makes  a 
scanty  nest  in  a  dry  hedge  bottom  or  a  ditch,  amongst  growing  corn  or  clover,  or 
dense  herbage  on  rougher  ground,  often  in  places  most  exposed,  and  in  some 
instances  in  unlikely  situations.  For  instance,  I  have  known  it  bring  off  a 
brood  from  the  top  of  a  bean-stack.  The  nest  is  simply  a  hollow,  scratched  out 
in  the  ground  and  lined  with  a  few  bits  of  withered  herbage.'  The  eggs  vary, 
according  to  the  age  of  the  hen,  from  ten  to  fifteen  or  twenty  in  number,  although 
occasionally  much  larger  clutches  are  found,  which  may  be  the  produce  of  several 
females.  A  nest  containing  thirty-three  eggs  is  on  record,  twenty-three  of  which 
hatched  safely,  and  the  chicks  got  away  with  their  parents.  The  eggs  are  uniform 
pale  olive-brown,  exactly  similar  to  those  of  the  Pheasant.  White  and  pale  green 
varieties  are  sometimes  met  with.  They  measure  on  an  average  1 '4  inch  in  length  by 
1']  5  inch  in  breadth.  Although  the  male  Partridge  keeps  close  and  constant  watch 
over  his  mate  and  nest,  the  female  incubates  the  eggs,  which  usually  take  from 
twenty-one  to  twenty-four  days  to  hatch.  As  soon  as  the  brood  are  out  both 
parents  tend  them,  and  are  solicitous  for  their  safety,  and  boldy  defend  them 
from  predaceous  creatures.  The  female  is  a  close  sitter,  and  covers  her  eggs 
when  leaving  her  nest  voluntarily.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  I 
am  of  opinion  that  if  the  first  clutch  of  eggs  be  destroyed  no  others  are  laid  that 
season.  If  the  birds  continue  to  call  into  June  and  July  it  is  a  bad  omen,  and  a 
sure  sign  that  the  nests  have  been  unfortunate. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Perdix,  with  the  horse-shoe  mark  on  the 
belly  dark  chestnut,  and  with  the  wing  averaging  6  inches  in  length;  tail  with 
eighteen  feathers.  Length,  12  to  13  inches.  Has  been  known  to  hybridise  with 
the  Bed-legged  Partridge.  Subject  to  considerable  local  variation  (especially  in 
the  young),  and  it  is  said  that  in  some  districts  (notably  in  Yorkshire  and  Oxford- 
shire), the  tendency  to  develop  a  white  instead  of  a  chestnut  horse-shoe  on  the 
belly  is  increasing.  Mr.  Ogilvie  Grant,  who  has  made  several  most  interesting 
discoveries  relating  to  the  plumages  of  Game  Birds,  points  out  that  an  unfailing 
distinction  in  the  plumage  of  the  sexes  of  the  Common  Partridge  is  to  be  found 
on  the  lesser  and  median  wing  coverts.  These  in  the  male  are  sandy-brown, 
blotched  on  the  inner  web  with  chestnut,  and  with  only  buff  shaft  streaks ;  in 
the  female  they  are  brownish-black,  with  conspicuous  buff  cross  bars.  (Conf. 
Field,  21  Nov.,  1891,  and  9  April,  1892). 


OP  THE   BKITISH   ISLANDS.  57 


Genus  CACCABIS,    or   Rock   Partridges. 

Type,  CACCABIS   SAXATILIS. 


Caccabis,  of  Kaup  (1829).— The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  nearly  uniform  upper  plumage,  conspicuous  gorget,  and 
barred  flanks.  The  wings  are  rounded  and  short,  the  first  primary  nearly  equal 
to  the  sixth,  the  third  slightly  the  longest ;  the  tail  is  short,  and  composed  of 
fourteen  feathers.  The  metatarsus  is  scutellated  in  front,  reticulated  behind, 
and  armed  in  the  male  with  tubercles  or  spurs.  The  bill  is  short  and  stout,  the 
upper  mandible  arched  from  the  base  to  the  tip ;  nostrils  basal,  shielded  with  an 
oblong  horny  scale,  but  bare  of  feathers.  Three  toes  in  front ;  one  behind,  small 
and  elevated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  half-a-dozen  species  and  varieties,  which  are 
confined  to  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  the  Southern  Palaearctic 
region  and  extreme  northern  portions  of  the  Oriental  region.  One  species  has 
been  introduced  into  the  British  Islands,  where  it  is  a  local  resident. 

The  Eock  Partridges  are  dwellers  in  bare  and  mountainous  country,  scrub- 
covered  hillsides  and  thickets.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  but  never  long-sustained 
flight,  and  on  the  ground  run  and  walk  with  great  ease.  Their  notes  are  loud 
and  harsh.  They  subsist  chiefly  on  grain,  seeds,  fruit,  berries,  shoots  of  herbage, 
and  insects.  Their  nests  are  rude,  and  made  on  the  ground ;  their  eggs  are 
numerous,  and  more  or  less  spotted.  Their  flesh  is  of  comparatively  inferior 
quality. 


58  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND    WILD   FOWL 

Family  PHASIANID.E.  Genus  CACCABIS. 


RED=LEQQED     PARTRIDGE. 

«a*as 
CACCABIS   EUFA— (Linnaus). 

PLATE  XI.,  Fig.  2. 

Tetrao  rufa,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  276  (1766). 

Perdix  rubra,  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  215  (1837  ex  Brissori). 

Caccabis  rufa  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  103,  pi.  471,  fig.  1  (1875);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.   Brit.    B.  pt.   viii  (1888);    Dixon,  Nests   and  Eggs   Brit.  B.  p.  354  (1893); 

Grant,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxii.  p.  118  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p. 

280  (1897). 
Perdix  rufa  (Linn.),  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  od.  4  iii.  p.  115  (1883);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B. 

ii.  p.  457  (1884);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  276,  pi.  59  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Bed-legged  Partridge  was 
introduced  into  England  in  1770  by  the  then  Marquis  of  Hertford  and  Lord 
Bendleshain,  who  turned  out  chicks  in  Suffolk.  It  is  chiefly  distributed  over  the 
eastern  counties  of  England:  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,  Kent,  and  Sussex;  only 
occasionally  elsewhere,  owing  to  its  partiality  for  dry,  sandy  soils;  but  there  is 
evidence  of  it  increasing  its  area  over  the  Midlands,  Lincolnshire,  and  the  higher 
grounds  north  of  the  Thames  Valley.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce 
this  bird  into  Scotland  and  Ireland,  but  with  small  success,  climatic  conditions 
probably  being  the  principal  cause  of  failure.  Foreign:  South-west  Europe.  It 
is  most  commonly  distributed  in  South  and  Central  France,  Portugal,  Spain,  the 
Balearic  Islands,  Corsica,  Elba,  North  and  Central  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Savoy. 
It  becomes  much  more  local  and  rare  in  Northern  France,  Belgium,  and  the 
districts  lying  round  its  usual  habitat.  It  has  been  introduced  into  Madeira  and 
the  Azores,  and  is  found  in  Gran  Canaria. 

Allied  forms.  —Caccabis  petrosa,  an  inhabitant  of  North-west  Africa,  the 
Canaries,  Gibraltar,  and  Sardinia.  Differs  from  the  Bed-legged  Partridge  in 
having  the  nape  and  collar  brown.  C.  saxatilis,  with  vars.  cliukar  and  magna, 
range  from  the  Alps  to  North  China.  Differs  from  the  Eed-legged  Partridge  in 
being  larger  and  paler,  and  in  having  the  throat  and  lores  buff  (cliukar} ;  neck-band 
double;  throat  buff,  but  lores  black  (magna).  A  darker  and  more  richly  coloured 
form  of  the  Bed-legged  Partridge,  occurring  in  Spain,  has  been  separated  under 
the  name  of  Caccabis  rufa  hispanica. 


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OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  59 

Habits. — In  many  of  its  habits  this  handsome  Partridge  differs  considerably 
from  the  preceding  species.  It  is  much  more  arboreal  in  its  tastes,  and  shows  a 
decided  preference  for  rougher  ground,  such  as  commons,  the  open,  treeless  parts 
of  woods,  and  strips  of  heathy  land  covered  with  gorse  and  rush  and  bramble. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  met  with  quite  commonly  on  the  fields  in  haunts  affected  by 
its  British  ally,  but  is  always  even  more  skulking,  and  ever  tries  to  run  and 
hide  amongst  the  cover  rather  than  use  its  wings.  Another  pecularity  sure  to  be 
impressed  upon  the  observer  is  the  bird's  habit  of  frequently  perching  in  trees,  on 
corn-stacks,  or  on  hedges  and  fences ;  whilst  during  snowstorms  it  often  quits  the 
open  fields  entirely,  and  seeks  shelter  amongst  bushes  and  brushwood.  It  is  a 
shy  and  wary  bird,  ever  on  the  watch  for  danger,  craning  out  its  neck  and 
peering  in  all  directions  at  the  least  alarm,  and  continuing  to  do  so  as  it  runs 
quickly  towards  the  cover.  It  flies  well  and  strongly,  with  rapidly  beating  wings 
which  make  a  loud,  whirring  noise,  whilst  on  the  ground  it  is  capable  of  running 
with  amazing  speed.  The  note  of  the  Eed-legged  Partridge  is  a  shrill  treble 
crik-ik-ik,  which  is  said  to  be  common  to  both  sexes.  Its  food  is  not  known  to 
differ  in  any  important  respect  from  that  of  the  Common  Partridge,  and  its  habits 
from  the  time  the  broods  are  reared,  onwards  through  the  autumn,  are  very 
similar.  It  lives  in  coveys,  which  sometimes  join  into  flocks,  but  which  soon 
scatter  when  alarmed,  each  bird  making  off  to  some  refuge.  In  consequence  of 
this  peculiarity,  the  Bed-legged  Partridge  affords  poor  sport.  It  will  not  lie  close 
in  the  cover  until  flushed  by  the  gunner,  but  is  ever  on  the  run,  so  that  driving 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  obtain  a  decent  bag. 

Nidification. — The  Ked-legged  Partridge  pairs  early  in  April,  sometimes 
towards  the  end  of  March,  and  during  this  period  it  becomes  rather  pugnacious, 
and  combats  are  of  frequent  occurrence  between  the  cock-birds.  The  female  goes 
to  nest  rather  earlier  than  the  Common  Partridge,  the  eggs  usually  being  laid 
towards  the  end  of  April  or  early  in  May.  The  nest  is  slovenly  and  slight,  placed 
amongst  the  dense  herbage  of  a  hedge  bottom  or  a  dry  ditch,  or  amongst  growing 
grain,  clover,  or  mowing  grass.  Sometimes  it  is  placed  amongst  the  thatch  of  a 
stack,  or  even  in  the  side,  and  not  unfrequently  in  a  very  exposed  situation  by 
the  side  of  a  footpath  or  highway.  It  is  merely  a  hollow  into  which  a  few  bits  of 
dry  herbage  and  leaves  are  scraped.  Here  the  hen  lays  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
eggs,  pale  brownish-yellow  in  ground-colour,  spotted  and  speckled  with  dark 
brown.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'G  inch  in  length  by  1*2  inch  in  breadth. 
Very  often  the  hen  lays  at  irregular  intervals.  Incubation,  which  is  performed 
by  the  female,  lasts  about  twenty-four  days.  As  soon  as  the  brood  is  hatched 
the  male  assists  his  mate  in  bringing  up  the  chicks.  Eggs  of  the  Pheasant  and 
the  Common  Partridge  are  occasionally  found  in  the  nest  of  this  species.  I  have 
known  instances  where  the  Ked-legged  Partridge  has  destroyed  an  entire  brood  of 
the  Common  Partridge ;  and,  in  spite  of  oft-repeated  statements  to  the  contrary, 


60  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

I  ain  firmly  of  opinion  that  the  two  birds  are  better  apart.  I  would  not  advise 
the  introduction  or  the  encouragement  of  the  Bed-legged  Partridge  in  any  district 
where  the  Common  Partridge  is  already  flourishing.  There  may  be,  however, 
many  wild  districts  unsuitable  to  the  latter  species  where  the  former  might  be 
established  with  advantage.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Caccabis,  with  the  gorget  and  lores  black,  the 
throat  white,  and  the  feathers  of  the  upper  breast  brown,  spotted  with  black. 
Length,  13  to  14  inches.  Hybrids  between  this  species  and  the  Bock  Partridge, 
C.  saxatilis,  have  been  recorded. 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  61 


Genus    COTURNIX,    or    Quails. 

Type,    COTUENIX    COMMUNIS. 


Coturnix,  of  Bonnaterre  (1790). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  their  long-pointed  wings,  the  first  primary  being  about  equal 
to  the  third,  and  the  second  generally  a  trifle  the  longest ;  axillaries  long  and 
white.  Eectrices  extremely  short,  less  than  half  the  length  of  the  wing,  and 
ten  or  twelve  in  number.  All  the  species  are  birds  of  small  size.  The  meta- 
tarsus is  scutellated  in  front,  reticulated  posteriorly,  and  spurless.  The  bill  is 
short  and  stout,  the  upper  mandible  curved  from  base  to  tip  ;  nostrils  basal,  and 
semi-closed  by  a  horny  membrane.  Three  toes  in  front ;  one  behind,  short  and 
elevated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  six  species  and  doubtful  races,  which  are 
confined  to  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  all  the  great  zoological 
regions  with  the  exception  of  Arctic  latitudes.  One  species  is  a  partial  resident 
in  the  British  Islands. 

The  Quails  are  ground  birds,  and  dwellers  in  open  country,  cultivated  districts, 
grain  lands,  and  plains.  They  are  birds  of  prolonged  and  rapid  flight,  and 
progress  on  the  ground  by  running  and  walking.  Their  notes  are  shrill  and  not 
quite  unmusical.  They  subsist  on  grain,  seeds,  shoots  of  herbage,  and  insects. 
Their  nests  are  rude  structures  placed  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are 
numerous  and  spotted.  They  are  both  polygamous  and  monogamous.  Their 
flesh  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 


62  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  PHASIANID.E.  Genus  COTURNIX. 


QUAIL. 

COTUKNIX   COMMUNIS.— Bonnaterre. 

Tetrao  coturnix,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  278  (1766). 

Coturnix  dactylisonans,  Meyer ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  i.  p.  233  (1837). 

Coturnix  communis,  Bonnat. ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  143,  pi.  476  (1878) ;  Yarrell 
Brit.  B.  cd.  4   iii.  p.  123  (1883);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  462  (1884);  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.p.  352  (1893);  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxviii.  (1893) 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  277,  pi.  59  (1896). 

Coturnix   coturnix  (Linn.),  Grant,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.   xxii.  p.  231   (1893);    Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  287  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Quail  is  a  summer  visitor 
to  most  parts  of  the  British  Islands,  extending  to  the  Outer  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys, 
and  Shetlands,  but  appears  to  be  nowhere  common.  A  few  winter  in  the  south  of 
England  and  in  Ireland :  in  the  latter  country  the  bird  is  said  to  be  slowly  becoming 
extinct.  Foreign:  Palsearctic  region,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The  Quail 
is  a  summer  visitor  to  Europe  south  of  lat.  64°.  It  occurs  throughout  North 
Africa,  Palestine,  and  Asia  Minor,  but  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  is 
chiefly  known  on  passage,  although  a  few  remain  to  breed  and  a  few  remain  to 
winter  in  that  district,  whilst  in  the  Azores  and  the  Canaries  it  is  a  resident. 
The  majority  of  the  West  Palsearctic  birds  winter  in  the  African  portion  of  the 
Intertropical  realm.  Eastwards  the  Quail  visits  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Turkestan 
(where  a  few  remain  to  winter),  Siberia,  and  the  north  island  of  Japan  in  summer, 
wintering  in  Arabia,  throughout  India,  Burma,  and  China,  south  to  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer.  It  has  also  been  recorded  from  Mayotte  and  the  Grand  Comoro  Islands 
in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Allied  forms. — The  Common  Quail  is  another  species  presenting  con- 
siderable variation,  but  whether  these  differences  are  sufficiently  constant 
geographically  to  warrant  specific  or  even  subspecific  distinction  is  by  no  means 
clear.  Beginning  in  the  West  Palsearctic  region,  Mr.  Meade  Waldo  states  (Ibis, 
1889,  p.  517)  that  in  the  Canary  Islands  there  are  two  races  of  Quail,  one  coming 
to  the  islands  to  breed,  the  other  wintering  there.  This  latter,  he  says,  is  smaller, 
darker,  and  more  brightly  coloured  than  the  migrants,  with  brilliant  yellow  legs, 
those  of  the  former  being  flesh-coloured.  The  Quails  of  SouthAfrica  have  been 
described  as  distinct  under  the  name  of  Coturnix  capensis,  being  somewhat 
smaller  in  size,  and  having  the  sides  of  the  head,  the  chin,  and  the  throat,  bright 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  63 

chestnut.  This  latter  form  is  said  to  occur  in  the  Canaries,  Madeira  and  Azores, 
whilst  the  typical  form  certainly  inhabits  South  Africa ;  a  fact,  bearing  in  mind 
the  suggested  new  law  of  geographical  distribution  propounded  by  us,  which  goes 
far  to  prove  that  these  differences  are  of  no  specific  value' whatever.  As  we 
suggested  in  The  Migration  of  Birds  (amended  edition),  the  Quail  is  an  equatorial 
species,  one  set  of  individuals  of  this  species  moving  north  to  breed  in  the 
Palttarctic  region ;  another  set  moving  south  to  breed  in  South  Africa  ;  both  sets 
returning  to  winter  in  the  Intertropical  realm.  Returning  north  again  we  find 
that  the  east  Palsearctic  Quails  have  also  been  described  as  distinct  species  of 
climatic  races,  under  the  somewhat  misleading  name  of  Coturnix  japonica, 
seeing  that  they  are  found  in  Eastern  Siberia  and  North  China,  as  well  as  in 
Japan.  These  individuals  have  no  trace  of  black  on  the  throat,  which  is  uniform 
dull  brick-red.  As  this  form  is  said  also  to  occur  in  South  Europe,  it  seems 
probable  that  the  differences  are  not  even  of  subspecific  value,  but  due  to  age, 
sex  or  season.  The  Quail  question  is  by  no  means  yet  finally  cleared  up. 

Habits. — The  Quail  is  a  late  bird  of  passage  to  the  British  Islands,  arriving 
in  May  amongst  the  last  of  our  summer  visitors.  The  passage  of  this  species 
from  Africa  across  the  Mediterranean  into  Europe  is  most  interesting,  and  tens  of 
thousands  are  caught  each  migration  period  for  food.  The  return  migration  is 
undertaken  during  September  and  October.  In  some  localities-  this  species  is 
said  to  migrate  by  night  during  spring,  but  by  day  during  autumn  :  whether  this 
is  the  general  order  of  passage  remains  to  be  seen.  During  its  sojourn  with  us 
the  Quail  is  one  of  our  most  skulking  birds,  far  more  often  heard  than  seen,  but 
it  is  a  persistent  caller,  and  its  characteristic  note  of  clik-a-lik  soon  proclaims 
its  whereabouts.  It  is  much  attached  to  certain  haunts,  and  appears  to  return 
to  them  each  season.  Its  favourite  resorts  in  this  country  are  the  grain 
and  grass  fields,  and  rough,  hummocky  pasture  lands.  Here  it  keeps  close 
amongst  the  growing  herbage,  rarely  using  its  wings,  spending  most  of  its 
time  in  the  cover,  and  running  with  great  quickness  out  of  the  way  of  impending 
danger.  When  flushed  it  flies  quickly,  but  at  no  great  height,  with  rapidly  beat- 
ing wings,  and  always  seems  intent  on  dropping  into  the  herbage  at  the  first 
favourable  spot.  Sometimes  it  may  be  seen  to  skim  on  motionless  wings  for  a 
considerable  distance  over  a  hedge  or  a  bare  bit  of  ground,  just  before  alighting. 
It  is  nevertheless  fond  of  frequenting  bare  spots  in  the  fields,  where  it  can  dust 
its  plumage  and  bask  in  the  sun.  During  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  it  does  not 
move  much,  being  most  active  in  early  morning  and  towards  evening.  The  food  of 
the  Quail  consists  largely  of  grain  and  such  small  seeds  as  those  of  the  plantain  and 
chickweed.  Insects  and  small  snails  are  also  eaten  by  the  bird  in  some  abundance, 
The  Quail  is  for  the  most  part  solitary  in  its  habits  until  the  time  of  migration 
arrives,  although  the  broods  and  their  parents  keep  close  company.  The  birds  that 
are  stationary  in  our  islands  never  seem  to  pack,  or  to  fraternise  with  other  species. 


64  THE  GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

Quail  shooting  is  a  favourite  sport  in  many  districts.  Tickell,  referring  to  their 
abundance  in  India,  says  that  under  certain  circumstances  shooting  them  is  mere 
slaughter.  He  writes:  "Where  birds  get  up  at  every  step,  dogs  or  beaters  are 
worse  than  useless,  and  where  the  game  is  so  plentiful,  search  after  a  wounded 
bird  is  seldom  thought  worth  the  trouble.  It  is  usual  to  be  provided  with  two  or 
three  guns  (this  was  in  the  pre-breech-loader  days),  to  be  loaded,  as  fast  as  emptied, 
by  a  servant.  With  one  gun  only  it  would  be  necessary  to  wash  out  the  barrels  two 
or  three  times  in  the  course  of  an  afternoon,  or  at  all  events  to  wait  every  now 
and  then  for  them  to  cool.  A  tolerably  good  shot  will  bag  fifty  to  sixty  brace  in 
about  three  hours,  and  knock  down  many  others  that  are  not  found.  I  remember 
one  day  getting  into  a  deyra,  or  island  formed  by  alluvial  deposit,  in  the  Ganges, 
between  Patna  (Bankipore)  and  Sonepore,  which  was  sown  almost  entirely  over 
with  grain  (chunna),  and  which  literally  swarmed  with  Quail.  I  do  not  exaggerate 
when  I  say  they  were  like  locusts  in  number.  Every  step  that  brushed  the  covert 
sent  off  a  number  of  them,  so  that  I  had  to  stand  every  now  and  then  like  a 
statue  and  employ  my  arms  only,  and  that  in  a  stealthy  manner,  for  the  purpose 
of  loading  and  firing.  A  furtive  scratch  of  the  head,  or  a  wipe  of  the  heated 
brow,  dismissed  a  whole  bevy  into  the  next  field;  and  in  fact,  the  embarras  de 
richesse  was  nearly  as  bad  as  if  there  had  been  no  birds  at  all." 

Nidification. — In  localities  where  there  is  an  excess  of  hens  the  Quail  is 
decidedly  polygamous,  but  in  others  where  the  sexes  are  about  equally  dispersed, 
the  male  pairs  with  one  female  only,  and  assists  her  in  bringing  up  the  brood. 
During  the  pairing  season  the  Quail  is  most  pugnacious,  each  cock  beating  off  all 
intruders  from  his  own  particular  haunt;  and  about  this  period  the  merry  note  of 
the  male  sounds  incessantly  and  defiantly  from  the  cover.  The  female  is  late  in 
going  to  nest,  the  eggs  seldom  being  laid  before  June.  The  nest  is  scanty,  a  mere 
hollow  amongst  the  corn  or  clover,  or  the  rough  grass  of  the  weedy  pastures,  into 
which  a  few  bits  of  dry  grass  and  leaves  are  scraped.  In  districts  where  the  cocks 
run  with  several  hens,  the  nests  are  often  placed  not  many  yards  apart.  The  eggs 
vary  a  good  deal  in  number.  I  have  known  nests  contain  twenty  eggs,  but  from 
eight  to  twelve  is  the  usual  clutch.  They  are  buffish-white  or  yellowish-olive  in 
ground-colour,  boldly  blotched  and  spotted  with  various  shades  of  brown,  ranging 
from  very  pale  olive  to  nearly  black.  They  measure  on  an  average  11  inch  in  length 
by  '91  inch  in  breadth.  The  hen  bird  alone  incubates  the  eggs,  which  are  hatched  in 
about  twenty-one  days.  The  young  are  soon  able  to  run  with  their  parents  and  to 
forage  largely  for  themselves.  It  is  said  that  the  Quail  sometimes  rears  two  broods 
or  bevies  in  the  season,  but  this  must  be  under  very  exceptional  circumstances ;  my 
experience  is  that  if  the  first  nests  be  taken  no  other  attempts  are  made. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Coturnix,  with  the  outer  webs  of  the  primaries 
irregularly  barred  with  buff,  with  the  general  colour  of  the  plumage  buff,  and  the 
chin  and  throat  nearly  black  in  the  male  and  buff  in  the  female.  Length,  7  inches. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  65 


ORDER  RALLIFORMES.— THE   RAILS  AND   FINFOOTS. 


THE  Rails  and  their  allies  form  a  comparatively  well-defined  and  somewhat 
isolated  group,  the  affinities  of  which  are  by  no  means  clearly  determined. 
They  have  been  more  or  less  closely  associated  with  other  groups,  such  as  the 
Bustards,  the  Cranes,  the  Game  Birds,  the  Sand-Grouse,  the  Grebes,  and  so  on, 
according  to  the  importance  attached  to  certain  characters  by  various  system- 
atists.  Their  sternum  contains  one  notch  only  on  each  side  of  the  posterior 
margin ;  but,  unlike  the  Galliformes,  the  opisternal  process  is  not  perforated  to 
receive  the  base  of  the  coracoids.  In  the  modification  of  their  cranial  bones 
they  are  schizognathous,  whilst  their  nostrils  are  holorhinal.  The  dorsal 
vertebrae  are  heterocoolous.  Amongst  their  external  characters  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following : — The  oil-gland  is  tufted  ;  the  af  tershaft  is  in  most 
cases  present ;  the  toes  are  long  and  slender,  sometimes  furnished  with 
webs  and  scallops,  the  hallux  slightly  elevated ;  the  metatarsus  is  rather 
short.  The  bill  varies  considerably  in  size  and  shape.  The  primaries  are  ten 
in  number ;  the  rectrices  vary  from  twelve  to  eighteen  in  number.  So  far  as 
is  known  the  young  are  hatched  covered  with  down,  and  able  to  run  and  swim 
shortly  after  leaving  the  shell ;  although  in  the  Finfoots  (Heliornithidae)  the 
young  are  reputed  to  be  hatched  naked.  Nothing  definite,  however,  appears  to 
be  known  relating  to  this  portion  of  their  economy.  Moult  variable — in  some 
species  once  in  autumn  only ;  in  others  in  spring  and  autumn.  In  the  single- 
moulted  species  the  nuptial  plumage  is  assumed  by  abrasion  and  increased 
brilliancy. 

The  birds  in  the  present  order  number  upwards  of  two  hundred  species  and 
subspecies.  These  have  been  divided  into  two  well-marked  families  by  Dr.  Sharpe, 
the  most  recent  monographer  of  the  group  :  one  of  these  is  well  represented  in 
the  British  Islands.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that  the  Mesitidae  (containing 
but  one  species)  of  Madagascar  will  have  to  be  included  in  the  present  order. 
These  birds  are  cosmopolitan  with  the  exception  of  the  Polar  regions. 
5 


THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 


Family  RALLID/E.— The   Rails. 


The  birds  comprising  this,  by  far  the  largest  division  of  the  order,  may  be 
distinguished,  in  addition  to  the  characters  already  given,  by  their  having  au  after- 
shaft  to  the  body  feathers  and  twelve  rectrices.  The  present  family  is  divisible 
into  two  fairly  well-defined  subfamilies,  both  of  which  are  represented  in  our  area. 


Subfamily  RALLIN^E.— The   Plain=toed   Rails. 


The  Plain-toed  Bails  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the  present 
family  by  the  absence  of  lobe-like  processes  from  the  toes.  It  includes  by  far 
the  greater  number  of  species,  and  has  been  subdivided  by  a  recent  monographer 
into  what  we  consider  to  be  an  unwarrantable  number  of  genera. 


Genus  CREX,   or  Crakes. 

Type,  CEEX    PRATENSIS. 


Crex,  of  Bechstein  (1803). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  short,  thick  bill,  shorter  than  the  head,  and  by  having  the 
forehead  covered  with  feathers  to  the  base  of  the  culmeu.  The  wings  are 
moderately  long  but  rather  rounded ;  the  tail  is  short.  The  metatarsus  is  compara- 
tively short,  the  lower  part  of  the  tibia  devoid  of  feathers.  The  bill  is  short  and 
compressed ;  nostrils  linear  and  oblong.  Three  toes  in  front,  one  behind,  the 
former  long  and  slender  ;  claws  curved  and  sharp. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  twenty  species,  which  are  confined  to  the 
Eastern  hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  all  the  great  zoological  regions  with 
the  exception  of  Arctic  latitudes.  Four  species  are  either  resident  in  or  visitors 
to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Crakes  are  dwellers  amongst  the  dense  and  humid  vegetation  of  swamps 
and  marshes,  but  some  species  are  more  terrestrial  than  others.  They  are  birds 
of  somewhat  slow  and  laboured  flight,  and  on  the  ground  progress  by  running 
and  walking.  Their  notes  are  shrill  and  harsh.  They  subsist  chiefly  on  insects, 
seeds,  and  tender  shoots.  Their  nests  are  large,  and  made  of  aquatic  vegetation, 
and  their  eggs  are  numerous  and  double-spotted.  They  are  monogamous.  The 
flesh  of  some  species  is  highly  esteemed. 


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OF  THE   BEITISII   ISLANDS.  67 

Family  EALLID^E.  Genus  CBEX. 

Subfamily  RALLINJE. 


CORN   CRAKE. 

CEEX   PEATENSIS.— BccJistein. 
PLATE  XII. 

Rallus  crex,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  261  (1766). 

Crex  pratensis,  Bechst.,  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  vi.  p,  527  (1852) ;   Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii. 

p.  291,  pi.  499  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  157  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 

Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  535  (1884)  ;  Lilforcl,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  14  (1890) ;  Dixon,  Nests 

and  Eggs  British  B.  p.  334  (1893 ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  83,  pi.  22 

(1896). 
Crex  crex  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  82  (1894) ;    Sharpe,  Handb.  B. 

Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  220  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Corn  Crake  is  generally 
distributed  during  summer  throughout  the  British  Islands,  extending  even  to  the 
Outer  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  and  the  Channel  Islands.  It  is  an 
occasional  visitor  to  St.  Kilda.  Its  numbers  locally  vary  considerably.  Foreign  : 
West  Palaearctic  region,  summer ;  Ethiopian  region,  winter.  It  is  an  occasional 
summer  visitor  to  the  Faroes.  It  breeds  in  Scandinavia  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic 
circle,  and  has  been  obtained  even  three  degrees  higher.  In  West  Eussia  it  does 
not  appear  to  range  north  of  Archangel  (lat.  64°  32'  N.) ;  in  East  Eussia  not 
beyond  lat.  60°.  Eastwards  it  is  common  in  the  Altai  Mountains,  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Yenisei  ranges  as  far  north  as  lat.  59^°.  Its  eastern  limit  appears  to 
be  the  valley  of  the  Lena.  Although  of  only  accidental  occurrence  in  North-west 
India,  it  is  common  in  Afghanistan,  and  has  been  found  in  North  Persia.  It  is  a 
common  visitor  to  Eussiaii  Turkestan  and  the  Caucasus ;  is  said  to  be  resident  in 
Palestine  and  Asia  Minor;  but  is  only  known  on  passage  in  Egypt,  and  is  resident 
in  Algeria.  It  also  breeds  throughout  Central  Europe  and  Southern  Europe,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  Southern  Italy,  and  Greece,  where  it  is 
known  on  passage  only.  It  winters  in  Africa  in  the  Intertropical  realm,  and  is 
occasionally  found  at  that  season  in  the  Transvaal  and  the  Cape  Colony  as  an 
abnormal  migrant.  The  Corn  Crake  is  a  great  wanderer,  and  is  an  accidental 
visitor  to  the  Canaries,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores,  and  even  to  the  Bermudas,  the 
east  coast  of  the  United  States,  Greenland,  Australia  (Records,  Aiist.  Afw.s.  ii. 
p.  82)  and,  it  is  said,  New  Zealand. 

Allied  forms — None  very  closely  related. 


68  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Habits.— The  migrations  of  the  Land  Kail,  or  Corn  Crake,  both  in  spring 
and  autumn,  extend  over  a  remarkable  length  of  time.  The  bird  begins  its  entry 
into  Europe  as  early  as  February,  and  continues  to  arrive  through  March  and  April 
until  nearly  the  end  of  May.  It  arrives  in  the  south  of  our  islands  towards  the 
end  of  April,  but  in  the  northern  districts  it  is  a  week  or  so  later.  Odd  birds  have 
been  known  to  spend  the  winter  in  our  area.  Its  return  migration  in  autumn 
begins  in  August  and  September,  and  lasts  over  October.  The  haunts  of  the 
Corn  Crake  are  hay  meadows  and  grain  fields,  both  dry  and  swampy  localities 
being  frequented,  the  bird  showing  little  or  no  partiality  in  this  respect.  I  have, 
in  Devonshire,  remarked  its  partiality  for  osier-beds,  especially  such  as  are  clothed 
with  a  rank  undergrowth  of  grass  and  weeds.  Soon  after  its  arrival  it  wanders 
about  a  good  deal,  and  then  frequently  visits  less  suitable  places,  or  remains  in 
them  from  necessity  until  the  cover  in  its  more  usual  haunts  is  sufficiently  dense. 
No  bird  is  more  skulking  in  its  habits  or  more  loth  to  take  wing.  It  always  prefers 
to  hide  in  the  dense  cover  and  remain  motionless  until  the  danger  has  passed,  or 
to  run  with  wonderful  speed  to  a  safe  nook.  The  arrival  of  the  Corn  Crake  is 
very  soon  proclaimed  by  the  bird's  rasping  cry,  which  sounds  from  the  meadows 
most  persistently,  especially  during  night.  This  loud,  harsh  note,  which  I  con- 
sider is  confined  to  the  male,  may  be  easily  imitated  by  drawing  a  knife-blade 
smartly  across  the  teeth  of  a  stout  comb.  It  is  usually  uttered  twice,  one  after 
the  other,  then  a  pause,  and  then  repeated.  It  has  also  been  known  to  call  as 
it  flew  from  one  field  to  another,  evidently  under  sexual  excitement,  and  eager 
either  to  meet  a  female  or  a  rival.  The  note  ceases  in  August,  and  for  the 
remainder  of  its  stay  the  Corn  Crake  is  a  silent  bird.  Soon  after  arrival  this 
Crake  wanders  about  from  farm  to  farm,  especially  at  night,  and  seems  to  be 
exploring  all  the  country-side  in  quest  of  a  suitable  haunt.  When  this  choice  is 
made,  however,  the  bird  rarely  wanders  more  than  a  field  or  so  from  home  until 
it  departs  southward  in  autumn.  The  Corn  Crake  lives  upon  the  ground,  keeping 
close  to  the  herbage,  and  only  venturing  into  the  open  when  all  is  quiet.  It  is 
flushed  with  the  greatest  difficulty,  rarely  indeed  a  second  time,  and  flies  in  a  slow, 
laboured  manner,  with  legs  held  drooping  down.  This  bird,  when  lured  by  a 
call,  occasionally  flies  from  the  grass  and  perches  for  a  few  moments  on  the  top  of 
a  hedge.  In  the  late  summer,  when  the  grass  is  cut  for  hay  and  the  clover  crops 
have  been  cleared  off,  the  Corn  Crake  frequently  hides  itself  amongst  the  standing 
corn  or  in  the  turnip-fields.  It  may  then  often  be  watched  upon  the  bare  pastures, 
where  it  strays  to  feed,  running  from  the  cover  through  the  hedge  on  to  the  grass. 
Here  it  walks  about  in  true  Bail  style,  ever  and  anon  raising  its  head  and  looking 
warily  around.  At  the  least  alarm  it  runs  back  into  the  hedge,  where  it  skulks 
until  all  is  quiet  again,  and  then  comes  out  once  more,  and  has  been  known 
to  feign  death  in  an  astonishingly  realistic  manner.  The  food  of  this  species  is 
composed  of  worms,  snails,  and  insects,  especially  small  beetles,  the  tender  shoots 
and  ends  of  herbage,  and  various  small  seeds.  It  feeds  the  most  in  the  early 


OP  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  69 

morning,  or  at  dusk,  and  during  the  night — a  period,  by  the  way,  which  is  also 
selected  for  its  migrations. 

Nidification — The  Corn  Crake  pairs  soon  after  its  arrival.  Until  this 
event  takes  place  it  is  a  remarkably  restless  species,  but  as  soon  as  mating  has 
taken  place  it  becomes  much  more  sedentary.  The  eggs  are  laid  according  to 
latitude  and  the  state  of  the  season,  either  at  the  end  of  May  or  during  the  first  half 
of  June.  The  somewhat  elaborate  and  neatly-formed  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground, 
usually  amongst  the  mowing  grass,  less  frequently  in  growing  corn.  It  is  made 
externally  of  dry  grass  and  withered  leaves,  and  neatly  lined  with  fine  grass,  often 
much  of  it  nearly  green.  Although  this  species,  so  far  as  is  known,  is  strictly 
monogamous,  and  not  at  all  gregarious,  I  have  known  a  couple  of  nests  within  a 
few  yards  of  each  other;  whilst  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  several  nests  in 
the  same  field.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to  twelve  in  number,  and  range  from 
pale  buff  through  cream-white  to  very  pale  blue  in  ground-colour,  sparingly 
spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown  and  violet-grey.  A  pale  blue  egg  is  not 
unfrequently  found  in  a  clutch  of  the  usual  colour.  They  measure  on  an  average 
1'4  inch  in  length  by  I'l  inch  in  breadth.  The  first  egg  is  often  sat  upon  as  soon 
as  laid,  and  incubation  lasts  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-four  days.  This  species 
has  been  known  to  remove  its  eggs  when  the  nest  has  been  left  exposed  by  the 
mowers.  The  hen  sits  closely,  and  slips  quietly  off  her  nest.  The  young  (covered  with 
black  down)  are  ready  to  follow  their  parents  soon  after  they  are  hatched.  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  are  grown  they  appear 
to  be  deserted  by  the  old  birds ;  for  during  all  the  period  of  its  stay  in  our  islands 
the  Corn  Crake  is  a  solitary  and  unsociable  bird. 

Diagnostic  characters — Crex,  with  the  general  colour  brownish-buff, 
spotted  with  black  on  the  upper  parts,  and  with  the  axillaries  chestnut.  Length 
between  10  and  11  inches. 


70  THE  GAME  BiEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  RALLIDJE.  Genus  ('HEX. 

Subfamily  BALLING. 


SPOTTED    CRAKE. 

CEEX  POKZANA— (Linnaus). 

K'allu.s  porzana,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  262  (17CC). 

Crex  porzana  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  535  (1852);  Secbohm,  Hist.  Brit.  K  ii. 
p.  540  (1884);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.,  pt.  xvii.  (1891);  Dixon,  Nests  and 
Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  335  (1893);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  84,  pi.  22  (1896). 

Porzana  maruetta  (Leach);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  267,  pi.  496  (1878);  Yarrell,  Brit. 
B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  143  (1884). 

Porzana  porzana  (Linn.),  Sharpo,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  93  (1894);  Sharpc, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  226  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Spotted  Crake  is  fairly 
distributed  in  suitable  districts  in  Great  Britain,  but  owing  to  land  reclamation  and 
improvement  it  has  sadly  decreased.  It  is  found  principally  in  the  eastern 
counties  of  England,  between  the  Humber  and  the  Thames,  but  it  becomes  more 
local  in  the  southern  counties  and  in  Wales.  It  is,  however,  known  to  breed  in 
Durham,  Northumberland  and  Cumberland.  On  the  east  of  Scotland  it  breeds 
as  far  north  as  Elgin,  but  on  the  west  not  north  of  Dumfriesshire.  In  Ireland 
it  is  principally  known  on  autumn  passage,  but  it  has  been  found  breeding  in 
Koscommon  and  Kerry,  and  has  occurred  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands.  Foreign : 
Western  Palaearctic  region.  It  breeds  in  Scandinavia  as  far  north  as  lat.  65°;  in 
West  Russia  up  to  lat.  64°.  In  the  Ural  Mountains  its  range  does  not  extend 
beyond  lat.  58°,  whilst  in  West  Siberia  it  falls  still  lower  to  lat.  55°.  South  of 
these  limits  it  is  found  in  summer  in  Turkestan,  as  far  east  as  Yarkand,  and  as  far 
north  as  Gilgit  on  the  frontiers  of  Cashmere.  It  is  said  to  be  a  partial  resident 
in  Persia,  but  to  the  Caucasus  and  South  Eussia  it  is  only  a  summer  migrant. 
It  is  a  resident  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  a  summer  visitor  only  to 
Central  and  Northern  Europe.  In  winter  it  is  found  throughout  Northern  Africa, 
as  far  south  as  Abyssinia,  and  may  possibly  breed  iu  Egypt.  During  winter  it  is 
found  throughout  India,  occasionally  wandering  into  Burmah.  Stray  birds  have 
been  obtained  in  Greenland,  and  it  is  said  to  be  a  fairly  frequent  winter  visitor  to 
the  Canaries. 

Allied  forms.— Crex  Carolina,  an  American  species,  which,  as  it  has 
visited  the  British  Islands,  is  described  in  the  following  chapter.  Crexfluminea  an 
inhabitant  of  Australia,  distinguished  by  having  the  axillaries  barred  with  white, 
and  the  vent  black 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  71 

Habits. — The  Spotted  Crake  is  another  late  migrant  to  our  islands,  appa- 
rently delaying  its  arrival  until  the  cover  it  frequents  is  sufficiently  dense  to 
afford  it  ample  concealment.  It  usually  arrives  in  May  and  leaves  us  again  in 
October,  but  it  would  appear  that  odd  individuals  occasionally  remain  behind  and 
spend  the  winter  with  us.  The  haunts  of  the  Spotted  Crake  are  feus,  marshes, 
and  bogs — places  where  there  is  plenty  of  cover,  in  the  shape  of  reeds,  rushes, 
flags,  and  other  aquatic  vegetation,  and  sufficient  water  in  stagnant  pools.  Here, 
like  all  its  kindred,  the  Spotted  Crake  skulks  close  amongst  the  cover,  only 
venturing  out  on  to  the  more  open  spaces  when  all  is  still,  especially  at  night, 
and  hurrying  back  to  its  marshy  fastnesses  the  moment  it  is  threatened  by 
danger.  Although  excessively  loth  to  take  wing,  it  is  occasionally  compelled  to 
do  so,  and  will  then  be  observed  to  fly  in  a  slow  and  laboured  manner  close  to 
the  ground,  with  legs  hanging  down,  and  ready  to  drop  into  the  first  likely  spot 
which  affords  concealment.  When  hard  pressed,  either  by  man  or  dog,  it  will 
sometimes  take  refuge  in  a  hedge,  or  amongst  briars,  just  like  the  Corn  Crake 
will  do.  In  spite  of  its  abundance  in  some  localities,  it  is  very  rarely  seen.  It 
sometimes  leaves  its  reedy  haunts  at  dusk,  and  may  then  be  seen  swimming 
across  the  open  pools  of  calm  water  from  one  thicket  to  another,  or  threading  its 
way,  shadow-like,  through  the  herbage.  It  is  a  very  unsociable  species.  The 
call-note  of  the  Spotted  Crake  is  a  rather  liquid  whit.  Its  food  consists  of  worms, 
small  snails,  and  insects,  especially  beetles,  the  tender  buds  and  shoots  of  herbage, 
and  small  seeds. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Spotted  Crake  commences  in 
May,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  towards  the  end  of  that  month  or  during  the  first 
half  of  June.  The  nest  is  rather  bulky,  and  placed  in  the  recesses  of  the  reed- 
beds  or  in  a  tuft  of  rushes,  often  entirely  surrounded  by  shallow  water.  The 
materials  consist  of  bits  of  reed,  rush,  and  other  plants,  all  in  a  more  or  less 
rotten  state,  the  cup  containing  the  eggs  being  lined  with  drier  and  finer  matter. 
The  eggs  vary  from  eight  to  twelve  in  number,  and  range  from  buff  to  very  pale 
green  in  ground-colour,  spotted  and  speckled  with  pale  and  dark  brown,  and 
underlying  markings  of  grey.  The  markings  are  bold,  large,  and  distinctly 
defined,  a  character  which,  in  conjunction  with  their  green-tinged  interior  when 
held  up  to  the  light,  is  sufficient  to  distinguish  them  from  the  eggs  of  any  other 
British  species.  They  measure  on  an  average  T35  inch  in  length,  by  '9  inch 
in  breadth.  Incubation,  performed  principally  by  the  female,  lasts  twenty-one 
days.  The  young  follow  their  parents  and  take  to  the  water  shortly  after  they 
are  hatched  :  one  brood  only  appears  to  be  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — Crex,  with  the  general  colour  of  the  upper 
parts  olive-brown  streaked  with  darker  brown,  and  spotted  with  white ;  with  the 
flanks  barred  white  and  brown  ;  the  centre  of  the  throat  grey.  Length,  9  inches. 


72  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  RALLID.E.  Genus  CBEX. 

Subfamily 


CAROLINA    CRAKE. 

CEEX   CAEOLINA.— (Linntnus). 

Rallus  Carolina,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  363  (1766). 

Crex  Carolina  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  541    (1884);  Dixon,  Nests  and 

Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  359  (1894). 
Porzana  Carolina  (Linn.),    Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  97  (1894);    Sharpe, 

Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  230  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  Naturalists,  for  some  inscrutable 
reason,  decline  to  admit  the  Carolina  Crake  to  be  an  established  British  species; 
but  the  known  wandering  habits  of  birds  of  this  family,  in  addition  to  the  fact  of 
its  occurrence  in  Greenland,  seems  strong  evidence  in  favour  of  its  having 
reached  our  islands  voluntarily.  An  example  of  this  Crake  was  shot  near  Newbury, 
in  Berkshire,  on  the  river  Kennet,  and  was  exhibited  at  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological 
Society,  on  the  14th  of  February,  1865,  by  Professor  Newton  (Conf.  Proc.  Zool. 
Soc.,  1865,  p.  196).  Foreign:  Nearctic  and  Northern  Neotropical  regions.  The 
Carolina  Crake  is  a  summer  migrant  to  the  Northern  United  States  and  to  Canada, 
up  to  lat.  62°;  it  winters  in  the  Southern  States,  in  Mexico,  Central  America,  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  northern  parts  of  South  America. 

Allied  forms. — None  more  closely  allied  than  Crex  porzana  and  Crex 
fluminea,  already  mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Habits. — The  spring  migrations  of  this  Crake  appear  to  last  about  a  month 
or  six  weeks,  commencing  early  in  April  and  ending  about  the  third  week  in  May. 
Professor  Cooke,  in  his  interesting,  systematic  report  of  bird  migration  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  during  the  years  1884  and  1885,  has  recorded  in  connection 
with  the  passage  of  this  Crake  that  it  formerly  passed  unobserved  over  the  town 
of  Winona,  until  in  the  former  year  an  electric  light  was  erected.  The  result  was 
most  marked.  On  the  night  of  the  21st  of  May  they  were  the  most  numerous  of 
the  many  birds  that  were  killed  or  wounded  by  striking  the  light  tower,  and 
were  counted  in  hundreds  fluttering  round  the  brilliant  lamp.  The  fall  migration 
begins  during  the  first  half  of  August  and  is  continued  until  the  beginning 
of  October.  As  in  so  many  other  species,  its  numbers  are  most  marked  in 
autumn.  The  Carolina  Crake  is  just  as  secretive  in  its  habits  as  its  British 
ally,  and  spends  most  of  its  time  skulking  in  reed  beds  and  swamps,  rarely 
presenting  itself  to  view,  save  when  flushed,  or  when  crossing  some  more  open 


OF  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  73 

part  of  its  haunt,  or  when  wandering  from  the  cover  for  a  little  way  in  quest  of 
food.  The  general  habits,  actions  in  the  water  and  on  the  land,  and  flight,  are 
all  very  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  species.  Its  food  consists  of  worms, 
insects,  mollusks,  the  buds,  shoots  and  seeds  of  marine  plants,  and  especially 
wild  rice,  and  when  specially  feeding  upon  the  latter  this  Crake  becomes  remark- 
ably fat,  its  flesh  acquiring  a  delicious  flavour,  much  prized  by  epicures.  Of 
its  habits  Dr.  Brewer  thus  writes : — "  Early  in  August,  when  the  reeds  have 
attained  their  full  growth,  the  Sora  Bail  resorts  to  them  in  great  numbers  to  feed 
on  the  seeds,  of  which  it  is  very  fond.  This  reed  (the  Zizania  clavulosa  of 
Michaux)  grows  up  from  the  soft,  muddy  shores  of  the  tide  water,  where  the 
surface  is  alternately  bare  and  covered  with  four  or  five  feet  of  water,  and  attains 
a  height  of  ten  feet,  covering  tracts  of  many  acres  in  extent,  the  stalks  growing 
so  closely  together  that  a  boat,  except  at  high  water,  can  hardly  make  its  way 
through  them.  The  seed  of  this  plant  is  long  and  slender,  white  in  colour,  sweet 
to  the  taste  and  very  nutritious.  When  the  reeds  are  in  fruit  the  Rails  in  great 
numbers  take  possession  of  them.  At  this  season  a  person  walking  along  the 
banks  of  the  river  may  hear  their  cries  in  every  direction.  If  a  stone  is  thrown 
among  the  reeds,  there  is  a  general  outcry,  and  a  reiterated  kuk-kuk-kuk,  like  the 
scream  of  a  Guinea  Fowl.  Any  sudden  noise  produces  the  same  effect.  None 
of  the  birds,  however,  can  be  seen  except  at  high  water.  When  the  tide  is 
low  they  keep  secreted,  and  a  man  may  walk  where  there  are  hundreds  of  them 
without  seeing  a  single  one."  Rail-shooting  in  the  fall  is  a  sport  much  sought 
by  American  gunners.  This  sport  is  followed  in  a  narrow  boat,  and  appears  to  be 
sufficiently  exciting  from  one  cause  or  another  to  attract  a  large  number  of  guns. 
The  marshes  are  entered  while  the  tide  admits,  and  considerable  skill  is  required 
not  only  in  navigating  the  dense  forests  of  reeds,  but  in  balancing  the  narrow, 
lurching  boat.  This  feeling  of  insecurity  giving  rise  to  the  expression  that  "  you 
must  part  your  hair  in  the  middle"  to  avoid  an  upset.  The  best  sport  is  obtained 
on  the  first  day  of  the  shooting,  before  the  birds  have  been  disturbed  and  scattered. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Carolina  Crake  is  in  May  and 
June.  The  nest,  a  somewhat  bulky  structure  made  amongst  the  reeds  and  often 
surrounded  by  water,  is  a  mere  heap  of  decaying  aquatic  vegetation,  lined  with 
bits  of  dry  reed,  rush  and  coarse  grass.  The  eggs  are  from  seven  to  twelve 
(occasionally  it  is  said  fourteen)  in  number,  pale  buff  in  ground-colour,  spotted 
and  speckled  with  pale  and  dark  brown,  and  with  underlying  markings  of  grey. 
They  measure  on  an  average  1'25  inch  in  length  by  "9  inch  in  breadth.  Incuba- 
tion lasts  about  three  weeks.  But  one  brood  appears  to  be  reared  in  the  season. 

Diagnostic  characters — Crcx,  with  the  general  colour  of  the  upper 
part  olive-brown,  streaked  with  darker  brown  and  spotted  with  white ;  with 
the  flanks  barred  white  and  brown ;  and  with  the  centre  of  the  throat,  fore 
cheeks  and  lores  black.  Length,  8  inches. 


74  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  KALLID^E.  Genus  CREX. 

Subfamily 


BAILLON'S    CRAKE. 

CREX  BAILLONI-  ( 


Rallus  bailloni,  Vieill.  N.  Diet.  d'Hist.  Nat.  xxviii.  p.  548  (1819). 

Crex  bailloni  (Vieill.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  539  (1852);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p. 
543  (1884)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit  B.  pt.  xx.  (1891)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  p.  337  (1893),  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  84,  pi.  22  (1896). 

Porzana  bailloni  (Vieill.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  275,  pi.  497(1878);  Yarrell,  Brit. 

B.  cd.  4  iii.  p.  154  (1883). 
Porzana  intermedia    (Hermann)  ;    Sharpe,  Cat.   B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  103  (1894)  ; 

Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  232  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution  —  British:  Baillon's  Crake  is  an  irregular 
visitor  to  our  islands,  chiefly  on  spring  and  autumn  migration,  most  frequently 
observed  in  the  south.  The  evidence  of  its  breeding  in  England  appears  to  rest 
upon  two  reputed  nests  and  eggs  obtained  in  Cambridgeshire  during  June  and 
August,  1858,  and  two  more  taken  near  Hickling,  in  Norfolk,  during  June  and 
July,  1866.  It  has  been  most  frequently  observed  in  Norfolk,  but  has  occurred  in 
Suffolk,  Derbyshire,  Yorkshire,  the  Isle  of  Man,  Somerset,  and  Cornwall. 
Scotland  boasts  two  instances  —  one  in  Sutherlandshire  in  1841,  and  another  in 
Dumfriesshire  in  1842.  Ireland  can  also  claim  but  two  cases  of  its  occurrence. 
Foreign:  Southern  Palaearctic  region,  and  Ethiopian  region.  It  is  a  summer 
visitor  to  Central  Europe,  but  does  not  extend  beyond  the  Baltic;  in  East  Russia 
it  is  found  breeding  as  far  north  as  lat.  56°.  It  breeds  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula, 
the  marshes  of  France,  in  Northern  Italy,  Hungary,  and  the  Black  Sea  basin.  In 
Asia  it  appears  to  range  as  far  east  as  Lake  Baikal,  but  its  limits  in  this  direction 
are  imperfectly  known.  It  is  a  resident  throughout  Africa  and  Madagascar, 
and  is  a  winter  visitor  to  the  Canaries  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Allied  forms.  —  Crex  affinis,  an  inhabitant  of  New  Zealand  and  the 
Chatham  Islands,  differing  only  in  being  paler  in  colour,  and  in  having  a  longer  bill  ; 
Crex  pusilla,  the  eastern  representative  of  Baillon's  Crake,  an  inhabitant  of  East 
Siberia  and  Japan,  China,  India,  Burma,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  Borneo, 
distinguished  by  having  a  reddish-brown  streak  along  the  upper  margin  of  the  ear 
coverts;  Crex  palustris,  an  inhabitant  of  Australia,  very  similar  to  Baillon's  Crake, 
but  decidedly  paler  in  colour,  and  with  the  lower  throat  and  abdomen  white. 


OF  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  75 

Habits. — Baillou's  Crake  differs  but  little  from  its  allies  in  its  habits  and 
economy  and  in  the  localities  it  frequents.  It  haunts  the  dense  aquatic  vegetation  on 
the  banks  of  pools,  and  is  a  dweller  in  marshes  and  fens.  Like  all  its  kindred,  it  is 
remarkably  shy  and  retiring  in  its  habits,  keeping  well  concealed  amongst  the  vege- 
tation during  most  of  the  day-time,  venturing  out  a  short  distance  from  cover  during 
the  hours  of  dusk  and  darkness.  It  swims  to  and  fro  in  the  secluded  reed-fringed 
pools,  now  in  and  out  amongst  the  rushes  and  water-flags,  then  out  into  the  more 
open  water,  where,  if  it  be  surprised,  it  dives  with  remarkable  swiftness,  and  under 
water  hurries  to  the  shelter  of  the  reeds.  It  is  only  flushed  with  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty, and  then  flies  in  a  slow,  laboured  manner  with  legs  drooping,  and  drops 
into  the  nearest  cover  as  soon  as  possible.  Even  when  hard  pressed  by  enemies  on 
land  it  always  seeks  to  evade  them  by  running  only,  using  its  wings  as  a  last  resource. 
The  call-note  of  Baillon's  Crake  is  a  shrill  but  not  very  loud  kik-ik-ik.  The  food 
of  this  species  consists  principally  of  insects  and  their  larvae,  small  snails,  and  scraps 
of  vegetable  substances.  It  is  said  that  this  Crake  frequently  catches  insects  as 
they  flit  by  whilst  it  floats  upon  the  water,  but  whether  it  ever  dives  for  food  is  not 
known.  Baillon's  Crake  sometimes  flies  round  and  round  above  its  haunt  at  night, 
from  time  to  time  uttering  its  shrill  note,  just  as  the  Water  Hen  is  wont  to  do. 

Nidif  ication — There  can  be  little  doubt  that  some  nests  of  Baillon's  Crake 
have  been  overlooked  in  the  British  Islands,  where  it  is  more  than  probable 
it  still  continues  to  breed.  When  we  bear  in  mind  its  remarkable  skulking 
habits,  the  nature  of  the  haunts  it  frequents,  and  its  small  size,  we  cease  to 
wonder  how  much  it  is  overlooked.  In  Europe  the  breeding  season  of  Baillon's 
Crake  appears  to  begin  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  towards 
the  end  of  that  month  or  early  in  June.  In  India,  however,  it  breeds  much  later, 
laying  in  June  and  July  in  Cashmere,  and  in  July  and  August  on  the  plains  of 
Upper  India.  In  Europe  its  nest  is  placed  amongst  the  reeds  and  sedges,  often  a 
floating  structure  like  the  Coot's ;  but  in  India  the  rice  swamps  are  its  favourite 
breeding  places.  The  nest  is  made  of  bits  of  aquatic  vegetation,  loosely  yet  strongly 
put  together,  and  rather  large  for  the  size  of  the  bird.  Hume  states  that  in  India 
the  nests  are  made  of  rush  and  weed,  and  are  placed  amongst  rushes  and  water- 
grass  very  little  above  the  level  of  the  water.  The  eggs  are  from  five  to  eight 
in  number,  pale  olive  or  rich  buff  in  ground-colour,  indistinctly  mottled,  blotched, 
and  freckled  with  olive-brown  and  grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  I'l  inch  in 
length  by  '8  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation  lasts  about  three  weeks.  The  female 
is  a  close  sitter,  and  leaves  her  nest  quietly  when  disturbed. 

Diagnostic  characters — Crex,  with  the  secondaries  shorter  than  the 
primaries  by  not  as  much  as  the  length  of  the  inner  toe  and  claw,  with  no  white 
spots  on  the  sides  of  the  throat  and  the  breast,  with  the  ear  coverts  bluish-grey 
or  ashy-grey,  with  the  under  tail  coverts  and  flanks  black  barred  with  white,  and 
with  a  white  margin  to  the  outer  web  of  the  first  primary.  Length,  7  inches. 


76  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  RALLLDJ3.  Genus  CBEX. 

Subfamily  RALLINJE. 


LITTLE    CRAKE. 

CEEX   PAEVA.— (Scopoli). 

Rallus  parvus,  Scop.  Ann.  I.  Hist.  Nat.  p.  108  (1769). 

Crex  pusilla,  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  541  (1852  we  Pallas) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B. 
pts.  xx.,  xxvii.  (1891,  1893). 

Porzana  parva  (Scop.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  283,  pi.  498  (1878);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 
cd.  4  iii.  p.  148  (1883). 

Crex  parva  (Scop.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  457  (1884);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs 
Non-indig.  Brit.B.  p.  330  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  85,  pi. 22  (1896). 

Zapornia  parva  (Scop.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  89  (1894) ;  Sharpe,  Handb. 
B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  223  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.— British :  The  Little  Crake  is  a  rare 
visitor  to  the  British  Islands  on  spring  and  autumn  passage.  There  is  no 
evidence  of  its  having  nested  in  this  country,  although  odd  pairs  may  remain 
behind  in  spring  to  breed,  and  stray  individuals  may  occasionally  stay  through 
the  winter.  It  has  been  most  frequently  observed  in  Norfolk,  and  recorded  from 
Suffolk,  Cambridge,  Lincolnshire,  Yorkshire,  Cumberland,  Lancashire,  Oxfordshire, 
Middlesex,  Sussex,  Hants,  Dorset,  Somerset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall.  Scotland 
claims  one;  Banff,  March,  1852:  Ireland  another;  Balbriggan,  March,  1854. 
Foreign:  Western  Palsearctic  region.  It  breeds  in  Europe  as  far  north  as 
Holstein,  and  along  the  southern  coast  of  the  Baltic  to  Livonia ;  thence  across 
Bussia  to  Astrakhan  and  the  Caucasus,  and  eastwards  through  Persia  and 
Afghanistan  to  Bussian  Turkestan.  Many  Asiatic  examples  pass  down  the  Indus 
Valley  to  winter  in  Western  Scinde  and  North-east  Africa.  Westwards,  it 
appears  to  be  a  resident  in  Algeria,  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  Canaries,  to  pass 
through  Denmark,  Spain  and  Greece  on  migration,  and  to  breed  in  Italy  and 
Sicily,  Savoy,  the  valley  of  the  Bhone,  Central  France,  Southern  Germany, 
Poland,  and  Austro-Hungary.  It  is  said  to  have  nested  in  South  Sweden. 

Allied  forms. — None  more  closely  related  than  Baillon's  Crake  and  its 
allies  already  described  in  the  previous  chapter. 

Habits. — The  Little  Crake,  in  many  of  its  habits  and  in  the  localities  it 
frequents,  somewhat  closely  resembles  the  preceding  species.  It  is,  however,  not 
quite  so  shy  or  skulking,  and  may  be  far  more  frequently  observed  in  the  open. 
It  frequents  marshes,  swamps  and  reed-beds,  and  pools  of  stagnant  water ;  and, 


OP  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  77 

though  fond  of  swimming,  is  often  seen  on  land.  It  has  the  same  reluctance  to 
take  wing,  and  always  tries  to  escape  danger  by  running  to  the  nearest  cover  or  by 
diving.  When  in  Algeria  I  met  with  the  Little  Crake  in  the  beautiful  oasis  of 
Biskra,  on  the  northern  limits  of  the  Great  Desert.  It  had  its  haunts  among 
the  short  reeds  that  fringed  the  margin  of  a  small  pool.  I  first  of  all  saw  a 
female  floating  amongst  the  reeds  a  few  yards  from  shore,  but  as  I  approached 
it  swam  gently  towards  the  vegetation  and  hid  itself  in  the  cover.  It  floated 
buoyantly,  for  such  a  tiny  bird,  and  every  now  and  then  seemed  to  pick  an  insect 
from  the  stems,  and  anon  buried  its  head  amongst  the  grass-like  weed  floating 
on  the  surface.  As  I  approached  nearer,  and  walked  round  the  wet  mud  at  the 
edge  of  the  pool,  a  cock-bird  rose  from  the  reeds  in  a  slow,  fluttering  manner, 
with  legs  hanging  down,  and  flew  towards  the  other  side  of  the  pool.  As  he  rose 
he  uttered  the  usual  clicking  note  of  this  species,  a  shrill  kik-ik-ik,  and  I  shot 
him  as  he  went.  When  I  dissected  this  specimen,  which  an  Arab  up  to  his 
breast  in  mud  and  water  had  fetched  from  the  pool,  I  found  the  remains  of 
beetles  in  its  stomach,  and  a  few  bits  of  gravel.  Hume  states  that  he  found  this 
Crake  very  common  on  the  "dhunds"  in  Scinde.  He  never  flushed  them  from 
the  sedge  or  reed,  but  found  them  everywhere,  either  running  about  the  water- 
lily  or  lotus-leaves,  or  swimming  from  leaf  to  leaf,  jerking  their  tails  and  nodding 
their  heads  like  Water  Hens.  The  same  observant  naturalist  remarked  that 
this  species  is  more  insectivorous  than  Baillon's  Crake.  The  food  of  the 
Little  Crake  consists  principally  of  insects  and  their  larvae,  especially  beetles. 
The  bird  also  eats  small  seeds  and  scraps  of  vegetable  substances. 

Nidification.— The  Little  Crake  begins  nest-building  about  the  middle  of 
May,  and  its  eggs  are  laid  at  the  end  of  the  month.  The  nest  is  artfully  con- 
cealed amongst  the  aquatic  vegetation,  and  is  sometimes  placed  a  foot  or  more 
above  the  surface  of  the  water,  occasionally  under  the  shelter  of  a  tuft  of  sedge. 
Like  that  of  all  the  Crakes,  the  nest  is  large  for  the  size  of  the  bird,  and  made  of 
reed  and  flag,  dry  grass,  and  other  aquatic  herbage.  The  eggs  are  seven  or 
eight  in  number,  yellowish-brown  in  ground-colour,  marbled  and  blotched  with 
olive-brown,  and  occasionally  specked  with  very  dark  brown.  They  measure  on 
an  average  1'2  inch  in  length  by  '85  inch  in  breadth.  One  brood  only  is  reared 
in  the  year,  and  incubation  is  said  to  last  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-four  days. 
At  the  nest  the  actions  of  this  species  are  very  similar  to  those  of  allied  species. 
The  young  chicks,  clothed  in  glossy  greenish-black  down,  are  able  to  swim  and 
follow  their  parents  shortly  after  they  are  hatched. 

Diagnostic  characters — Crex,  with  the  secondaries  shorter  than  the 
primaries  by  as  much  as  the  length  of  the  inner  toe  and  claw,  the  white 
spots  on  the  upper  parts  confined  to  the  centre  of  the  back,  the  flanks  slate- 
grey,  the  under  tail  coverts  black  tipped  with  white,  and  no  white  margin  to  the 
outer  web  of  the  first  primary.  Length,  7  inches. 


78  THE  GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 


Genus  RALLUS,  or  Typical  Rails. 

Type,  EALLUS  AQUATICUS. 


Rail  US,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  long,  slender  bill,  longer  than  the  head  or  the  middle  toe 
and  claw,  and  by  having  the  forehead  covered  with  feathers  to  the  base  of  the 
culmen.  The  wings  are  moderately  long,  but  rather  rounded ;  the  tail  is  short. 
The  legs  are  rather  long,  the  lower  part  of  the  tibia  devoid  of  feathers,  the 
metatarsus  shorter  than  the  middle  toe  and  claw.  The  bill  is  long,  and  slightly 
decurved ;  nostrils  longitudinal,  placed  in  a  long  groove,  and  partly  shielded  by  a 
membrane.  Three  toes  in  front,  long,  cleft  to  the  base ;  hind  toe  small  and 
articulated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  ten  species  and  nearly  twice  as  many  sub- 
species, which  are  nearly  cosmopolitan,  being  inhabitants  of  all  the  great  zoological 
regions,  with  the  exception  of  the  Australian  region  and  Polar  latitudes.  One 
species  is  a  partial  resident  in  the  British  Islands. 

The  Bails  differ  very  little  from  the  Crakes  in  their  habits  and  economy,  and 
in  the  localities  they  affect.  They  are  birds  of  the  swamps  and  marshes,  of  slow 
and  laboured  flight,  making  bulky  nests  of  aquatic  vegetation  amongst  the  herbage 
of  their  haunts,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous  and  double-spotted.  Their  notes  are 
shrill  and  unmusical.  They  are  monogamous.  Their  food  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  Crakes. 


KJ 


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OF  THE   BKITISII  ISLANDS.  79 

Family  RALLID^L  Genus  EALLUS. 

Subfamily 


WATER    RAIL. 

RALLUS    AQUATICUS.— Linnceus. 
PLATE   XIII. 

Rallus  aquaticus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  262  (1766);  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  521  (1852); 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  257,  pi.  495  (1878);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  159 
(1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  552  (1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xx 
(1891) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs,  Brit.  B.  p.  338  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 
xxiii.  p.  20  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  86,  pi.  22  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  216  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Water  Rail  is  a  partial 
migrant  in  our  islands,  although  it  may  be  found  at  all  seasons  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  suitable  localities,  extending  even  to  the  Outer  Hebrides,  the 
Orkneys,  and  the  Shetlands.  It  is  perhaps  most  abundant  in  the  Norfolk  Broads. 
In  some  districts  it  is  most  abundant  in  summer ;  in  others,  during  winter. 
Foreign :  West  Palsearctic  region.  It  is  a  resident  in  Iceland,  and  occurs  on 
autumn  passage  on  the  Faroes ;  whilst  a  single  example  has  been  obtained  on 
the  island  of  Jan  Mayeii  (lat  71°),  the  most  northern  limit  of  its  recorded  range. 
It  is  a  summer  migrant  to  Scandinavia  up  to  lat  63°,  and  is  said  to  be  resident  near 
Bergen  in  Norway  and  to  be  occasionally  observed  during  winter  in  the  extreme 
south-west  of  Sweden.  It  breeds  in  West  Russia  up  to  Riga,  and  accidentally 
strays  to  St.  Petersburg ;  in  East  Russia  its  limits  are  about  the  same.  Although 
apparently  absent  from  West  Siberia,  it  breeds  in  Russian  and  Chinese  Turkestan 
as  far  east  as  Yarkand.  It  passes  Cashmere  on  migration,  and  winters  in  North- 
west India.  Returning  westwards,  it  is  chiefly  known  in  Afghanistan,  Persia, 
Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  Greece,  and  Egypt  south  to  Abyssinia  as  a  winter  visitor, 
but  a  few  remain  to  breed  in  many  localities.  It  is  a  resident  in  Central  and 
Southern  Europe,  and  also  in  Tripoli,  Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Morocco,  but  is  most 
abundant  in  winter  in  the  south  and  east,  and  in  summer  in  the  north  and  west. 

Allied  forms. — Rallus  indicus,  an  inhabitant,  in  summer,  of  the  Lake 
Baikal  district  in  South-east  Siberia,  the  valley  of  the  Amoor,  Japan,  and  Northern 
China;  and  of  Southern  China,  Burma,  East  and  South  India,  and  Ceylon,  in 
winter.  Differs  from  the  Water  Rail  (from  which  it  is  probably  only  subspeci- 
fically  distinct)  in  having  the  slate-grey  of  the  underparts  more  or  less  suffused 


80  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

with  brown,  black  lores,  a  brown  streak  below  and  behind  the  eye,  and  the  under 
tail  coverts  more  barred  with  black.  It  is  also  slightly  larger  than  its  western 
representative. 

Habits. — The  Water  Bail  is  another  of  those  shy  and  skulking  birds  which  arc 
apt  to  be  looked  upon  as  rarer  than  they  really  are,  owing  to  its  disinclination  to 
be  observed.  There  are  few  marshes  where  the  cover  is  dense  that  do  not  conceal 
Water  Rails  in  summer  ;  but  in  winter,  when  much  of  the  aquatic  vegetation  dies 
down,  its  haunts  are  certainly  more  restricted.  The  Water  Rail  is  par  excellence 
a  bird  of  the  reed-beds,  amongst  which  it  spends  most  of  the  hours  of  daylight, 
shrinking  from  the  view  of  man  and  other  enemies.  It  becomes  most  active 
towards  dusk,  and  may  then  be  watched  timidly  straying  from  the  reeds  on  to  the 
more  exposed  ground,  or  swimming  out  from  the  aquatic  cover  into  the  open 
water.  If  surprised  in  these  places  it  will  always  try  to  escape  by  running  on 
land  with  marvellous  adroitness  through  the  tangled  vegetation,  or  diving  with  an 
audible  flop  under  the  water,  and  thence  swimming  below  the  surface  to  a  place 
of  concealment.  Its  flight  is  heavy  and  laboured,  and  the  legs  are  allowed  to 
hang  down  as  if  broken.  It  is  unsociable  and  solitary  in  its  habits,  and  save 
during  the  breeding  season  almost  invariably  keeps  to  itself.  The  Water  Rail 
also  indulges  in  the  singular  habit  of  flying  about  the  air  at  night,  often  in  circles, 
occasionally  uttering  its  shrill,  harsh  note,  which  Naumann  describes  as  a  melodious 
kreek.  The  call-note  during  the  breeding  season  is  a  shrill  wliit,  but  likened  by 
other  observers  to  a  groaning  cry,  locally  known  as  "sharming,"  most  frequently 
uttered  at  night.  The  food  of  the  Water  Rail  consists  of  insects  and  their  larvae, 
snails,  worms,  the  buds  and  shoots  of  aquatic  vegetation,  and  small  seeds.  Like 
the  Corn  Crake,  this  species  has  been  known  to  alight  in  the  branches  of  trees. 

Nidif  ication — It  is  not  improbable  that  the  Water  Rail  mates  for  life,  and 
each  pair  of  birds  appear  to  keep  to  a  certain  spot,  from  which  they  wander  little 
during  the  entire  breeding  season.  This  begins  early,  eggs  having  been  known  in 
the  first  week  of  April,  although  the  more  usual  period  is  about  a  month  later. 
The  nest  is  made  amongst  the  aquatic  vegetation,  on  the  bank  of  the  pool  or  under 
the  arching  shelter  of  a  tuft  of  rushes  and  reeds.  It  is  a  difficult  nest  to 
find,  and  is  far  more  often  stumbled  upon  by  accident  than  found  by  design.  It 
is  almost  invariably  well  concealed,  and  is  made  of  the  stems  and  flat  leaves  of 
reeds,  and  lined  with  bits  of  dry  rush,  and  perhaps  a  few  dead  leaves.  The  usual 
number  of  eggs  is  from  five  to  seven,  although  clutches  of  nine  and  eleven  have 
been  found.  They  are  pale  buff  or  creamy-white  in  ground-colour,  somewhat 
sparsely  spotted  and  speckled  with  reddish-brown  and  violet-grey.  They  measure 
on  an  average  1'4  inch  in  length  by  I'O  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation  lasts  about 
three  weeks.  The  bird  sits  very  closely ;  but,  notwithstanding,  she  is  rarely  flushed 
from  the  eggs,  slipping  quietly  off  them  as  soon  as  danger  threatens,  gliding 


OP  THE  BEITISH   ISLANDS.  81 

through  the  surrounding  herbage,  where  she  remains  until  all  is  safe  again.  The 
young  chicks,  clothed  in  jet-black  down,  take  to  the  water  immediately,  and  are 
accompanied  by  both  parents.  They  may  sometimes  be  seen  running  over  the 
broad,  floating  leaves  of  the  water-lily  and  the  "candock."  It  is  probable  that 
this  species  rears  two  broods  in  the  year,  as  fresh  eggs  are  not  unfrequently  found 
in  July,  although,  of  course,  these  may  be  the  produce  of  birds  where  the  earlier 
clutch  has  been  destroyed. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Ballus,  with  the  wing  coverts  brown  and  the 
breast  uniform  grey,  with  no  black  streak  through  the  eye,  with  the  upper  parts 
olive-brown  streaked  with  darker  brown,  the  under  parts  slate-grey,  shading  into 
black  on  the  abdomen,  flanks  and  axillaries,  all  of  which  are  barred  with  white. 
Length,  11  inches. 


82  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 


Genus  GALUNULA,  or  True  Water  Hens. 

Type,  GALLINULA   CHLOROPUS. 


Gallinula  of  Brisson  (1760). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  long,  slender  toes,  which  are  free  from  lobes,  but  bordered 
by  a  very  narrow  membrane,  and  by  their  small,  red  frontal  shield.  The  wings 
are  nearly  four  times  the  length  of  the  metatarsus  (the  secondaries  shorter  than  the 
primaries)  and  armed  with  a  small  recumbent  spine.  The  tail  is  short,  and  com- 
posed of  twelve  feathers.  The  legs  are  long,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  tibia 
devoid  of  feathers.  The  bill  is  short,  stout,  compressed,  slightly  swelling  towards 
the  tip  ;  the  culmen  extended,  and  expanding  into  an  oblong  frontal  plate ; 
nostrils  oval,  situated  in  a  groove,  pierced  in  a  membrane.  Three  toes  in  front, 
long  and  slender,  cleft  to  the  base  ;  hind  toe  moderately  long ;  claws  sharp. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  nine  species  and  subspecies,  which  are 
distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  world  except  the  Polar  latitudes.  One  species  is 
resident  in  the  British  Islands. 

The  True  or  typical  Water  Hens  are  dwellers  on  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers, 
frequenting  the  reeds  and  coarse  vegetation  by  the  water  side.  They  are  shy 
birds,  of  slow  and  laboured  flight,  making  bulky  nests  amongst  the  aquatic 
vegetation,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous  and  double-spotted.  Their  notes  are  shrill 
and  unmusical.  They  run  and  walk  with  a  peculiar  jerking  movement  of  the  tail. 
Their  food  consists  of  worms,  insects,  seeds,  herbage,  grain,  and  fruits.  They  are 
monogamous. 


OF  THE  BRITISH   ISLANDS.  83 

Family  EALLID^B.  Genus  GALLINULA. 

Subfamily  BALLING. 


WATER     HEN. 

GALLINULA   CHLOEOPUS— (Linnaeus). 

Fulica  chloropus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  258  (1766). 

Gallinula  chloropus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  547  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii. 
p.  313,  pi  503  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  164  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  557  (1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xix.  (1891) ;  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  340  (1893);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  171  (1894)  ; 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  87,  pi.  22  (1896);  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt. 
Brit.  p.  234  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Water  Hen  is  commonly 
distributed  over  all  suitable  localities  throughout  the  British  Islands,  extending  to 
the  Outer  Hebrides  and  the  Orkneys,  but  only  accidentally  to  the  Shetlands.  It 
visits  the  Channel  Islands  on  migration,  a  few,  perhaps,  remaining  to  breed. 
Foreign  :  Including  allied  forms,  almost  cosmopolitan.  It  occurs  accidentally  on 
the  Faroes,  and  breeds  in  suitable  localities  throughout  Europe,  in  Scandinavia 
up  to  lat.  63°,  in  West  Eussia  up  to  lat.  58°,  and  in  East  Eussia  up  to  lat.  56°, 
becoming  more  sparingly  dispersed  towards  these  northern  limits.  At  present  it 
remains  unrecorded  from  West  Siberia,  but  breeds'  in  Turkestan  and  the  Baikal 
district.  It  is  also  a  summer  visitor  to  Northern  China,  the  north  island  of 
Japan,  but  a  resident  in  the  main  island  of  Japan  and  in  Southern  China.  It  is 
also  a  resident  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  Celebes,  Borneo,  Java,  Sumatra,  the 
Burmese  Peninsula,  and  throughout  India,  but  only  of  accidental  occurrence  in 
Ceylon ;  whilst  it  has  been  recorded  from  the  Seychelles.  It  also  inhabits  all 
suitable  parts  of  South-western  Asia,  and  Africa,  including  Madagascar,  Bourbon, 
the  Seychelles,  the  Atlantic  Islands,  and  the  Azores.  In  America  it  is  found 
breeding  from  the  Southern  States  in  the  north  to  South  Brazil  in  the  south. 

Allied  forms. —  Gallinula  tenebrosa,  an  inhabitant  of  Australia,  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Water  Hen  by  having  no  white  stripes  on  the  flanks,  and 
being  somewhat  larger.  The  Water  Hen  varies  considerably  in  length  of  wing 
and  size  of  the  frontal  plate.  Typical  western  Palsearctic  examples  range  from 
7  to  6J  inches  in  length  of  wing,  and  the  frontal  plate  barely  extends  as  far  back 
as  the  eye.  In  all  the  other  forms  this  frontal  shield  frequently  extends  beyond 
the  eye.  Indian  and  western  South  African  examples  are  smaller,  ranging  in 


84  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

length  of  wing  from  6J  to  5^  inches ;  American  examples  (G.  galatea)  are  larger, 
ranging  in  length  of  wing  from  7|  to  6£  inches.  It  is  said  that  the  Water  Hen 
of  Madagascar  (G.  pyrrhorrhoa)  is  a  fairly  separable  form. 

Habits. — This  common  and  well-known  species  is  a  resident  on  all  lakes  and 
slow  running  streams,  where  the  hanks  or  shallows  are  covered  with  sufficient 
vegetation  to  afford  it  concealment.  In  a  great  many  localities  this  species  lives 
in  an  almost  domesticated  state,  so  tame  as  to  pay  little  attention  to  the  presence 
of  man,  and  coming  to  his  threshold  for  food  during  severe  weather  when  its 
haunts  are  sealed  by  frosts.  I  have  known  this  species  to  frequent  a  small  stream 
by  the  wayside  not  four  feet  across,  and  repeatedly  to  wander  on  the  highway  in 
quest  of  food.  The  Water  Hen  is  just  as  much  at  home  on  land  as  in  water,  and 
walks  about  the  grass  lands  and  the  banks  of  the  pool  in  a  singularly  graceful 
manner,  flicking  its  tail  up  and  down  every  few  moments.  It  swims  with  equal 
grace,  with  a  peculiar  nodding  motion  of  the  head,  and  is  equally  expert  at  diving 
and  progressing  under  water  for  considerable  distances.  Although  by  no  means 
shy,  it  is  wary  and  alert  enough,  often  diving  at  the  flash  of  a  gun  and  hurrying 
away  under  water  to  the  shelter  of  the  reeds  or  flags,  where,  with  its  body  sub- 
merged and  only  its  bill  protruding,  it  waits  until  all  is  safe  again  before  allowing 
its  body  to  be  uncovered.  It  is  equally  at  home  in  a  tree  or  a  hedge,  and  I  have 
known  it  repeatedly  to  roost  amongst  evergreens  during  long  continued  frosts. 
Its  flight  is  not  very  strong,  being  slow  and  laboured,  and  the  long  legs  are 
allowed  to  dangle  down  as  if  broken  and  useless.  Nevertheless,  it  often  mounts 
into  the  air  at  night  and  flies  about  for  an  hour  or  more,  uttering  its  shrill  cry  at 
intervals.  At  all  times  this  species  seems  pugnaciously  inclined,  and  not  only 
fights  with  its  own  kind  but  with  other  water  fowl  that  may  chance  to  intrude 
too  closely  upon  its  haunt.  The  note  of  the  Water  Hen  is  a  singularly  shrill  and 
piercing  kik-ik-ik  often  modulated  into  ker-r-r-r-k,  and  is  most  frequently  uttered 
at  dusk  or  even  during  the  night.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  worms, 
snails,  insects  and  their  larvae,  buds,  shoots  and  seeds  of  water  plants,  grass,  grain, 
and  even  berries,  especially  of  the  wild  rose  and  the  hawthorn,  to  obtain  which 
the  bird  frequently  alights  in  trees  and  thickets.  When  in  a  semi-domesticated 
state  it  will  eat  almost  anything  that  may  be  thrown  down  for  water  fowl ;  and 
it  has  been  known  to  kill  and  eat  ducklings  and  pheasant  chicks.  I  have  known 
it  try  to  eat  dead  mice  and  rats,  and  to  pick  a  bone.  Although  at  all  times  more 
or  less  sociably  inclined,  it  is  never  so  gregarious  as  the  Coot,  and  even  in  the 
severest  weather  seldom  visits  salt  water.  When  hard  pressed  for  food  it  will 
often  wander  considerable  distances  from  the  frozen  lakes  and  ponds,  even 
visiting  farmyards  and  gardens. 

Nidification. — The  Water  Hen,  especially  when  living  under  semi- 
domestic  conditions,  is  one  of  the  earliest  birds  to  breed.  I  have  known  it  to 
commence  nest  building  in  such  cases  by  the  beginning  of  March,  long  before 


OP  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  85 

the  flags  were  high  enough  to  conceal  the  nest.  The  nest,  however,  is  not 
generally  ready  for  eggs  before  the  middle  of  April,  and  in  cold,  backward 
seasons,  it  is  often  a  fortnight  later.  The  nest  is  placed  in  a  great  variety  of 
situations,  and,  as  I  believe  this  bird  pairs  for  life,  certain  spots  are  chosen  year 
after  year.  It  is  most  frequently  placed  among  the  rushes,  reeds,  and  flags 
growing  near  the  side  of  the  water,  and  is  often  a  floating  structure  made  many 
yards  from  shore.  Sometimes  it  is  built  amongst  the  exposed  roots  of  trees  grow- 
ing on  the  bank,  or  even  on  a  flat  drooping  branch  above  the  water.  Branches  of  fir 
trees  are  frequently  selected,  sometimes  as  much  as  twenty  feet  from  the  ground. 
In  such  situations  the  chicks  must  be  carried  down  in  the  parents'  claws.  The 
nest  is  a  large  bulky  structure  of  rotten  aquatic  vegetation,  loosely  put  together 
but  trampled  down  into  a  rather  firm  mass.  The  cavity  containing  the  eggs  is 
rather  flat  and  shallow,  and  is  lined  with  finer  and  drier  material.  Some  nests 
are  much  higher  than  others,  and  many  are  increased  in  bulk  as  incubation  pro- 
gresses. I  have  known  nests  added  to  daily  to  repair  damage  caused  by  the 
incessant  lap  of  the  waves.  The  eggs  are  from  six  to  ten  in  number,  sometimes 
as  many  as  twelve.  They  are  bufifish-white  or  pale  reddish-buff  in  ground-colour, 
spotted  and  speckled  with  reddish-brown  and  grey.  Some  eggs  are  much  more 
handsomely  marked  than  others.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'7  inch  in  length 
by  l-2  inch  in  breadth.  The  hen  sits  closely,  attended  by  the  cock,  the  latter 
taking  the  smaller  share  of  incubation,  which  lasts  from  about  twenty  to  twenty- 
four  days.  When  the  sitting  bird  leaves  the  nest,  it  covers  the  eggs  with  bits  of 
vegetation.  This  statement  has  recently  been  questioned  (Zoologist,  December, 
1898).  It  is,  however,  confirmed  by  such  careful  field  naturalists  and  authorities 
as  Bewick,  Waterton,  Naumann,  Stevenson,  Seebohm  and  Stanley — the  latter 
giving  a  most  interesting  instance  in  his  well-known  History  of  Birds,  p.  299. 
There  may,  of  course,  be  exceptions  to  the  rule  ;  but  even  in  these  cases  the  bird 
was  possibly  surprised  and  driven  from  the  nest  before  the  eggs  could  be 
covered.  Although  the  bird  sometimes  flies  to  and  from  the  nest,  it  usually  slips 
quietly  off  into  the  water.  Several  broods  are  reared  in  the  year  ;  young  chicks 
have  been  found  as  late  as  the  end  of  August.  The  young,  clothed  in  jet-black 
down,  take  to  the  water  at  once  with  their  parents,  which  often  lead  them  to 
running  streams  near.  They  are  well  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  in  the 
moment  of  danger,  and  hide  in  holes  and  corners  directly  harm  threatens  them. 

Diagnostic  characters.  —  Gallinula,  with  the  general  colour  above 
olive-brown,  below  slate-grey,  shading  into  brown  on  the  flanks,  which  are 
broadly  striped  with  white.  Frontal  plate  rounded  at  the  top,  scarlet ;  in  young, 
greenish-brown.  Base  of  under  mandible,  scarlet.  Length,  nearly  13  inches. 

NOTE.— Three  species  of  exotic  Gallinule  have  been  recorded  as  British,  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  whatever  that  in  each  case  the  examples  obtained  were  escaped  birds.  All  three  are  strictly 
sedentary  species.  They  are  the  Purple  Gallinule,  Porphyrio  cceruhus,  found  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  North- 
west Africa;  the  Green-backed  Gallinule,  Porphyrio  smaragdonotus,  found  throughout  Africa,  with  the 
exception  of  the  north-west,  where  it  is  replaced  by  the  preceding  species  ;  and  the  Martinique  Gallinule, 
Porphyrio  martinicus,  found  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical  America.  They  require  no  further  notice  in  a 
work  on  British  birds. 


86  THE  GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 


Subfamily    FULICIN/E.— The   Lobe=toed   Rails. 


The  Lobe-toed  Bails  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the  present 
family  by  the  scalloped  lobe-like  membranes  on  the  toes.  It  does  not  contain 
probably  more  than  a  dozen  species  and  subspecies,  all  of  which  are  included 
in  a  single  genus. 


Genus   FULICA,   or  Coots. 

Type,  FULICA  ATEA. 


Fulica,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  toes  united  at  the  base,  and  furnished  with  lateral 
extensions  of  the  membranes  which  form  lobes,  or  scalloped  processes.  The 
wings  are  moderately  long ;  the  tail  is  short,  rounded,  and  composed  of  twelve 
feathers.  The  legs  are  long,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the  tibia  is  devoid  of 
feathers.  The  bill  is  short,  stout  and  compressed,  the  culrnen  extending  and 
expanding  into  a  broad  frontal  plate ;  nostrils  longitudinal,  situated  in  a 
groove.  Three  toes  in  front,  one  behind  ;  claws  sharp. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  twelve  species,  which  are  distributed  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  except  the  Polar  latitudes.  One  species  is  a  resident  in  the 
British  Islands. 

The  Coots  closely  resemble  the  typical  Water  Hens  in  their  habits  and  in  the 
localities  they  frequent.  They  are,  however,  more  partial  to  salt  water.  They 
swim  and  dive  with  great  ease,  and  walk  and  run  with  equal  facility.  Their 
flight  is  rather  slow  and  laboured.  They  are  more  or  less  gregarious.  They  make 
bulky  nests  amongst  the  aquatic  vegetation,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous  and 
spotted.  Their  notes  are  loud  and  discordant.  Their  food  consists  of  insects, 
worms,  mollusks,  buds,  and  shoots  of  plants  and  seeds.  They  are  monogamous. 
Their  flesh  is  of  indifferent  quality. 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  87 

Family  EALLID^E.  Genus  FULICA. 

Subfamily 


COMMON    COOT. 

FULICA  A.THK.—Linrueus. 

Fulica  atra,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  257  (1766) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  560  (1852) ; 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  327,  pi.  504  fig.  2  (1879) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4.  iii.  p.  171 
(1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  564  (1884) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B. 
p.  342  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxxi.  p.  211  (1894) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxi.  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  87,  pi.  22  (1896) ; 
Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iv.  p.  238  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Coot  is  less  common  and 
more  locally  distributed  than  the  Water  Hen,  but  numerous  enough  in  all 
suitable  localities  throughout  the  British  Islands,  extending  to  the  Outer 
Hebrides  and  the  Orkneys.  To  the  Shetlands  and  the  Channel  Islands  it  is 
an  accidental  visitor  only.  Drainage  and  reclamation  of  waste,  marshy  grounds 
have  caused  its  numbers  to  decrease  in  some  districts,  especially  in  the 
eastern  counties ;  although  there  is  considerable  evidence  of  its  increase  in 
others.  Foreign :  Including  allied  forms,  almost  cosmopolitan.  It  is  generally 
distributed  throughout  Europe,  breeding  in  the  west  as  far  north  as  lat.  60°  in 
Scandinavia  and  West  Eussia,  but  in  the  Ural  Mountains  up  to  lat.  57°  only  ; 
whilst  in  West  Siberia  it  reaches  lat.  55°  only.  It  is  a  summer  migrant  to  East 
Siberia,  the  Baikal  country,  the  valley  of  the  Amoor,  East  Mongolia,  Northern 
China,  and  the  north  island  of  Japan ;  but  is  a  resident  in  the  main  island  of 
Japan,  South  China,  Formosa,  Java,  and  the  Philippines.  It  is  a  resident 
throughout  the  Burmese  Peninsula,  India,  and  Persia ;  but  only  a  summer 
migrant  to  Eussian  Turkestan,  and  passes  Afghanistan  on  migration.  Tracing 
its  distribution  westwards,  we  find  it  to  be  a  resident  in  Asia  Minor,  Palestine, 
North  Africa,  and  the  Azores.  It  is  known  on  the  Canaries  and  Madeira  on 
migration,  and  during  winter  is  found  on  the  African  continent  as  far  south  as 
Senegambia  in  the  west,  and  the  Blue  Nile  in  the  east.  It  is  also  a  bird  of 
regular  passage  over  the  Faroes,  occurs  accidentally  in  Iceland,  and  has  been 
known  once  to  stray  to  Greenland.  In  the  southern  portions  of  its  range  it  is 
more  abundant  in  winter  than  in  summer,  owing  to  the  influx  of  birds  from  the 
northern  limits.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  in  India. 


88  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

Allied  forms. — Fulica  cristata,  an  inhabitant  of  the  whole  of  Africa 
and  the  south  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  Differs  from  the  Common  Coot  in 
having  no  white  on  the  wing,  and  two  crimson  caruncles  on  the  frontal  shield. 
F.  americana,  an  inhabitant  of  North  America.  Differs  from  the  Common  Coot 
in  having  a  large  amount  of  white  on  the  under  tail  coverts.  F.  australis, 
an  inhabitant  of  Australia  and  Tasmania.  Distinguished  by  the  absence  of  white 
tips  to  the  outer  secondaries  and  by  the  smooth  frontal  shield. 

Habits. — In  many  of  its  habits  the  Coot  somewhat  closely  resembles  the 
Water  Hen,  although  it  is  much  more  partial  to  salt  water,  and  rarely  frequents 
such  small  streams  and  pools  as  so  often  content  that  species.  It  shows  a  decided 
preference  for  broad  open  waters  and  the  slow  running  reaches  of  the  larger 
rivers.  Like  its  ally,  the  Water  Hen,  it  lives  in  many  places  in  a  semi- 
domesticated  condition,  and  is  then  nothing  near  so  wary  as  in  a  wilder  state. 
It  is  then  one  of  the  wariest  of  birds,  and  by  its  excessive  watchfulness  repeatedly 
gives  the  alarm  to  other  wild  fowl.  As  it  feeds  principally  in  the  daytime,  it 
is  on  the  alert  when  such  species  as  Geese  and  Ducks  are  sleeping  ;  consequently 
these  birds  often  seek  the  company  of  the  Coot  during  the  day,  as  if  conscious 
that  they  could  rest  in  safety  in  its  vicinity.  Although  the  Coot  is  graceful 
enough  on  land,  and  can  perch  in  trees  with  ease,  even  roosting  in  them 
at  night,  it  is  far  more  at  home  in  the  water.  It  swims  well,  and  dives  with 
wonderful  skill,  disappearing  below  the  surface  almost  with  the  rapidity  of 
thought.  In  swimming  it  has  the  same  bobbing  motion  of  the  head  as  the 
Water  Hen,  and,  like  that  bird,  frequently  dives  and  progresses  under  water  to  a 
safe  retreat  when  menaced  by  danger.  Although  it  is  flushed  with  difficulty,  it 
flies  well  and  quickly,  yet  in  an  apparently  somewhat  laboured  manner.  Just  as 
it  rises,  the  legs  are  allowed  to  hang  down  as  if  broken,  but  if  the  flight  be 
at  all  protracted  they  are  drawn  up  and  stretched  out  behind.  At  night  it 
frequently  rises  into  the  air  and  flies  round  and  round  above  its  haunts,  uttering 
its  loud  note  at  intervals.  This  note  is  a  clear,  far-sounding  ko.  At  all  seasons 
the  Coot  is  a  remarkably  sociable  bird,  and  in  autumn  and  winter  frequently 
gathers  into  enormous  flocks.  These  congregations  of  Coots  are  by  far  the  largest 
on  salt  water,  and  then  consist  of  many  birds  that  have  been  driven  from  inland 
waters  by  long-continued  frosts.  It  is  said  that  great  numbers  of  Coots  also  visit 
our  islands  from  more  northern  and  eastern  lands,  and  swell  the  ranks  of  the 
flocks  gathered  on  our  low-lying  coasts,  taking  their  departure  in  March ; 
although  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  bird  is  very  rarely  observed  at  Heligo- 
land, and  Gatke  did  not  know  of  more  than  eight  examples  during  the  whole 
course  of  his  wonderful  experience.  Coots  afford  considerable  sport,  and  vast 
numbers  are  occasionally  shot  during  some  grand  battue.  I  have  known  cart- 
loads of  Coots  shot  in  such  a  manner  on  the  renowned  Slapton  Ley,  in  South 
Devonshire — one  of  the  greatest  haunts  of  this  species  in  our  islands.  The  food 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  89 

of  the  Coot  consists  of  meadow  grass,  buds,  shoots,  leaves,  and  seeds  of  various 
aquatic  plants,  grain,  insects,  snails,  worms,  and  small  fish.  Much  of  its  food 
is  obtained  whilst  diving.  During  severe  weather  it  sometimes  wanders  from  the 
water  to  farmyards  and  shrubberies,  and  it  will  then  make  a  meal  of  hawthorn 
berries,  and  the  hips  of  the  wild  rose.  The  flesh  of  this  species  is  by  no  means 
unpalatable,  if  obtained  for  the  table  from  fresh  water  and  during  the  time  food 
is  plentiful. 

Nidification. — The  Coot  breeds  much  later  than  the  Water  Hen,  its  eggs 
seldom  being  laid  before  the  beginning  of  May.  The  nest  is  a  large  bulky 
structure,  sometimes  placed  among  reeds,  rushes,  and  flags  some  distance  from 
the  shore,  where  it  floats,  moored  to  the  vegetation  ;  at  others  it  is  built  amongst 
the  aquatic  herbage  growing  on  the  banks  of  the  pool  or  stream.  Most  of  the 
nest  is  little  more  than  a  heap  of  wet,  rotten  aquatic  vegetation,  which  often 
rises  some  eight  or  ten  inches  above  the  level  of  the  water.  At  the  top  of  this  a 
shallow  cavity,  lined  with  drier  and  finer  materials,  is  formed  for  the  eggs. 
These  are  from  six  to  twelve  in  number — seven  or  eight  being  an  average  clutch — 
bumsh-white  in  ground-colour,  sprinkled,  speckled,  and  dusted  over  most  of  the 
surface  with  blackish-brown.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'1  inches  in  length 
by  1'3  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation  lasts  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-three  days. 
Both  parents  assist  in  this  duty,  and  the  young  are  soon  able  to  leave  the  nest 
and  take  to  the  water  with  the  old  birds.  They  dive  well,  and  seek  to  elude 
enemies  by  hiding  in  any  nook  or  cranny  when  pursued.  According  to  Stevenson 
and  other  observers,  odd  eggs  of  the  Water  Hen  are  sometimes  found  in  the  nest 
of  this  species.  Two  broods  are  reared  in  the  season. 

Diagnostic  characters — Fulica,  with  the  general  colour  slate-black, 
a  white  wing  bar  caused  by  pale  tips  to  the  outer  secondaries,  and  with  a  broad 
white  frontal  shield.  Length,  16  inches. 


90  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 


ORDER  GRUIFORMES.—  THE    CRANES    AND   THEIR 

ALLIES. 


THE  Cranes  and  their  allies  constitute  a  somewhat  isolated  and  heterogeneous 
group,  more  or  less  distantly  allied  to  the  RALLIFOHMES,  variously  asso- 
ciated by  different  systematists  with  the  Herons,  the  Plovers,  the  Bustards,  and  so 
on.  Their  sternum  contains  no  notch  on  the  posterior  margin.  In  the  modification 
of  their  cranial  bones  they  are  schizognathous,  whilst  their  nostrils  are  schizorhiiial 
(except  in  a  single  family,  the  Psophiidse,  in  which  the  nostrils  are  holorhinal). 
The  dorsal  vertebrae  are  heterocoelous.  Their  external  characters  vary  con- 
siderably in  the  various  families,  with  one  of  which  only  we  are  concerned  in  the 
present  volume,  and  which  will  be  described  in  detail  below.  So  far  as  is  known 
the  young  are  hatched  covered  with  down,  and  able  to  run  soon  after  breaking 
from  the  shell.  As  the  method  of  nidification  is  yet  unknown  in  some  of  the 
families,  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  this  is  general  or  not.  The  birds 
contained  in  the  family  represented  in  our  avifauna  are  double-moulted,  but 
whether  this  is  universal  in  the  order  is  not  yet  known. 

The  birds  in  the  present  order  number  about  twenty-seven  species.  These 
may  be  subdivided  into  four  families,  viz.,  the  Gruidse,  the  Aramidae,  the 
lihinochetidas,  and  the  Psophiidae.  But  one  of  these  is  represented  in  the  British 
Islands.  The  birds  in  this  order  are  almost  cosmopolitan  continentally ;  but  the 
Khinochetidae  (with  a  single  species)  is  restricted  to  New  Caledonia. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  91 


Family    QRUID^E.— The  Cranes. 


The  Cranes  form  by  far  the  largest  and  most  widely  dispersed  family  in  the 
present  order.  They  are  characterised  by  having  the  sternum  perforated  anteriorly 
to  receive  the  convolutions  of  the  trachea.  The  rectrices  are  twelve  in  number, 
the  wings  are  long  and  ample,  the  inner  secondaries  (which  are  rather  longer 
than  the  primaries)  generally  composed  of  drooping  plumes  which  partially 
conceal  the  tail.  The  legs  are  long,  the  hallux  short,  and  considerably  elevated 
above  the  plane  of  the  rest  of  the  toes.  The  bill  is  stout,  about  as  long  as  the 
head ;  the  nostrils  are  enclosed  by  a  membrane  behind,  and  the  nasal  groove 
extends  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  upper  mandible.  Dr.  Sharpe  (Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Mus.)  has  divided  the  nineteen  known  species  of  Cranes  into  no  less 
than  nine  genera  :  a  most  arbitrary  and  needless  course,  when  we  find  that  six 
of  these  contain  but  a  single  species,  and  two  others  three  each  ! 


Genus    GRUS,    or    Cranes. 

Type,  GRUS   CINEEEA. 


Grus,  of  Pallas  (1707). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus — and  the 
only  one  in  the  family — are  separated  by  the  same  characteristics  as  those  that 
define  the  GRUIDJE  from  surrounding  groups.  It  is  true  this  small  and  compact 
family  has  been  subdivided  into  numerous  genera,  but  the  characters  upon  which 
they  are  based  do  not  appear  to  me  to  be  of  sufficient  importance  and  value.  By 
placing  all  the  known  species  therefore  in  one  genus,  the  number  of  species 
is  the  same  as  that  already  given  in  the  remarks  on  the  family.  Cosmo- 
politan continentally,  with  the  exception  of  the  Neotropical  region.  Two  species 
are  accidental  visitors  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Cranes  are  dwellers  on  large  plains  and  in  swamps,  and  are  remarkable 
for  their  extended  migrations.  Their  flight  is  powerful  and  sustained.  Their 
notes  are  loud  and  trumpet-like.  They  make  their  nests  on  the  ground  in 
swamps,  and  their  eggs  are  usually  two,  but  sometimes  three  in  number,  and 
handsomely  spotted.  Their  food  consists  of  grain,  seeds,  shoots  of  herbage, 
lizards,  snakes  and  small  animals.  They  are  monogamous. 


92  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  GEUID^E.  Genus  GBUS. 

COMMON    CRANE. 

GEUS   CINEEEA.— Meyer  and  Wolf. 
PLATE  XIV. 

Ardea  grus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  234  (1766). 

Qrus  cinerea,  Meyer  and  Wolf,  Taschenb.  ii.  p.  350  (1810) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p,  20 

(1852);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  570  (1884)  ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit. 

B.  p.  155,  pi.  46  (1896). 
Qrus  communis,  Bechstein,  Naturg.  Deutsch.  iii.  p.  60  (1793);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii. 

p.  337,  pi.  505  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4.  iii.  p.  178  (1883)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Brit.  B.  pt.  xii.  (1890) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  212  (1893). 
Qrus  grus  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  250  (1894)  ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt. 

Brit.  iii.  p.  Ill  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  For  more  than  three  hundred 
years  the  Crane  has  ceased  to  breed  in  our  islands,  and  for  little  less  a  period  has 
ceased  to  visit  them  in  winter  with  its  wonted  regularity.  Its  only  stronghold  in 
England  appeared  to  be  the  swamps  and  fens  of  the  eastern  counties.  It  is  now 
only  a  rare  and  accidental  wanderer  on  migration  to  England,  of  less  frequent 
appearance  on  the  mainland  of  Scotland,  and  of  still  less  in  Ireland.  It  is  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  Orkneys,  and  still  more  in  the  Shetlands.  The  year 
1869  was  remarkable  for  the  visits  of  this  bird  to  our  islands.  As  regards  recent 
Irish  appearances,  a  male  was  shot  in  County  Down  in  May,  1882,  and  two  were 
seen  (one  of  which  was  shot)  in  County  Mayo  in  January,  1884.  During  the 
twelfth  and  fourteenth  centuries  it  is  said  to  have  bred  commonly  in  the  bogs  of 
the  Emerald  Isle.  Foreign:  Palaearctic  region ;  parts  of  the  Oriental  region  in 
winter.  It  breeds  in  localities  suited  to  its  requirements  throughout  Europe  and 
Northern  Asia.  It  is  occasionally  seen  at  the  Faroes  on  passage.  In  Scandinavia 
and  Eussia  it  breeds  locally  up  to  lat.  68° ;  in  West  Siberia  no  higher  than  the 
Arctic  circle ;  whilst  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
met  with  beyond  lat.  60°.  Although  not  met  with  hitherto  in  Eastern  Siberia,  it 
is  recorded  from  Kamtschatka  by  Pallas,  and  breeds  in  Eussian  Turkestan,  the 
Baikal  country,  and  the  Amoor  valley.  On  passage  it  occurs  in  Mongolia  and 
North  China,  but  doubtfully  in  Japan,  and  is  a  winter  visitor  to  South  China 
and  Northern  India.  Once  more  returning  to  the  west  we  find  it  wintering  in 
Persia  and  Palestine,  in  various  parts  of  South  Europe,  in  Abyssinia,  Egypt,  Nubia, 
and  Algeria.  South  of  the  limits  already  traced  in  Europe  it  breeds  in  Eussia, 
Turkey,  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  Austro-Hungary,  Italy,  Andalusia,  North 
Germany,  Poland,  and  the  Baltic  Provinces. 


Game  Birds  6-Wild  Fowl  of  th«  British  Islands 


Plate  XIV. 


'"'"' 


COMMON  CRAME 

Grus   cinerea 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  93 

Allied  forms. — None  with  which  it  is  likely  to  be  confused.  Eastern 
examples  of  the  Crane  have  been  described  as  a  distinct  species  under  the  name 
of  Grus  lilfordl,  because  of  their  alleged  paler  colouration.  Whether,  however, 
they  are  entitled  to  subspecific  rank  even  appears  very  doubtful,  and  for  the 
present,  at  any  rate,  it  seems  the  wisest  course  to  keep  them  united. 

Habits. — It  is  the  British  ornithologist's  misfortune  that  the  habits  of  this 
magnificent  bird  can  be  studied  no  longer  in  these  islands,  which  were  once  its 
home.  The  haunts  of  the  Crane  are  in  extensive  swamps,  where  lakes,  and 
bogs,  and  rough  ground,  clothed  with  scrub,  and  heath,  and  rushes  abound.  Some 
of  these  haunts  are  surrounded  by  forests,  but  the  Crane  shows  no  partiality  for 
trees,  and  never  appears  to  alight  in  them.  In  my  opinion  its  affinity  to  the 
Bustards  is  manifested  in  this  singular  habit.  At  all  times  it  is  an  excessively 
shy  bird,  detecting  danger  from  afar  as  it  stands  in  its  treeless,  open  wilderness, 
and  unfolding  its  broad  wings  and  soaring  away  long  before  harm  can  reach  it. 
At  all  times  of  the  year  it  is  more  or  less  gregarious,  but  becomes  most  so  during 
winter.  To  Northern  Europe  the  Crane  is  a  bird  of  regular  passage,  and 
performs  its  migrations  in  companies,  which  fly  at  an  enormous  height,  usually 
in  the  shape  of  a  V  or  W.  These  flocks  appear  to  migrate  by  day.  Cranes  are 
birds  of  somewhat  early  passage,  those  that  have  wintered  in  Africa  beginning  to 
return  in  February  and  March,  reaching  their  breeding  grounds  in  Central 
Europe  towards  the  end  of  that  month  or  early  in  April,  but  not  arriving  in  the 
Arctic  regions  before  May.  The  return  journey  is  undertaken  during  October. 
The  flight  of  this  species  is  powerful  and  rapid,  with  slow  and  regular  beat  of 
wing,  the  long  neck  extended  and  the  legs  held  out  behind.  It  walks  about  the 
ground  in  a  very  graceful  manner,  and  wades  in  the  stagnant  waters  in  quest  of 
its  food.  This  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  substances,  but  mostly  of  a 
vegetable  character ;  grain  of  all  kinds,  grass,  the  buds  and  shoots  of  aquatic 
plants,  acorns,  insects,  lizards,  frogs,  and,  according  to  Hume,  small  fish.  The 
same  authority  states  that  in  India  its  favourite  food  is  the  young  pods  and 
yellow  pea-like  flowers  of  an  arborescent  pulse  (Cajanus  indicus) ,  and  that  it  is 
addicted  to  water  melons,  boring  into  these  fruits  not  only  to  obtain  the  pulp  and 
seeds,  but  also  to  quench  its  thirst.  When  feeding,  Cranes  are  very  wary  birds, 
and  usually  post  sentinels  to  give  timely  warning  of  the  approach  of  danger.  In 
India,  where  this  bird  is  very  common  during  the  cold  season,  and  swarms  in  the 
rice  fields,  Hume  states  that  they  feed  principally  in  the  early  morning,  but  often 
pay  other  yet  shorter  visits  to  the  grounds  during  the  day  and  night.  On 
returning  from  their  meal  they  fly  round  and  round  above  their  usual  resting- 
place  as  if  surveying  the  ground  before  alighting,  all  the  time  calling  loudly,  and 
then  generally  descend  in  graceful  sweeps,  with  their  long  legs  hanging  down 
some  little  time  before  they  reach  the  earth.  The  Crane  sleeps  standing  on  one 
leg,  with  the  head  and  neck  buried  amongst  the  dorsal  plumes.  Here,  towards 


94  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

the  afternoon,  they  often  congregate  in  vast  flocks.  They  usually  spend  the  night 
on  a  sandbank  surrounded  by  water,  where  they  are  comparatively  safe  from 
harm.  The  note  of  the  Crane  is  a  loud  trumpet-like  cry,  which  may  be  heard 
for  an  immense  distance  under  favourable  conditions.  This  note  is  variously 
modulated  during  the  breeding  season.  The  flesh  of  the  Crane  is  by  no  means 
unpalatable,  when  the  bird  is  killed  under  favourable  conditions  for  the  table. 

Nidificatiotl. — The  Crane  begins  to  breed  rather  early  in  the  year, 
although  the  actual  time  varies  a  good  deal  with  the  latitude  of  the  nesting 
grounds.  Thus  in  Central  Europe  its  eggs  are  laid  about  the  end  of  April  or  the 
beginning  of  May,  but  in  Lapland  they  are  about  a  month  later.  The  nest  is  usually 
built  in  the  fastnesses  of  a  swamp,  and  is  sometimes  a  huge  bulky  structure  from 
two  to  five  feet  across.  It  is  most  probable  that  the  Crane  pairs  for  life ;  indeed, 
there  is  direct  evidence  that  the  same  nest  is  used  annually  in  many  cases.  It  is 
made  of  sedges,  rushes,  branches  of  heath,  and  twigs,  and  lined  with  grass. 
Some  nests  tower  high  above  the  shallow  water  or  swampy  ground,  others  are 
almost  level  with  the  surrounding  surface.  If  the  nest  is  small  -  as  it  usually  is 
when  made  on  a  dry  hummock  in  the  swamps — it  is  little  more  than  a  trampled 
hollow,  lined  with  bits  of  dry  vegetation.  The  eggs  are  generally  two  in  number, 
but  instances  are  on  record  where  three  have  been  found.  They  vary  from 
brownish-buff  to  greenish-buff  in  ground-colour,  blotched  and  spotted  with  rich 
reddish-brown,  pale  brown,  and  violet-grey.  The  shell  is  rather  rough  and  pitted. 
They  measure  on  an  average  3'9  inches  in  length  by  2'5  inches  in  breadth. 
Incubation  is  said  to  last  a  month,  and  appears  to  be  performed  by  the  female. 
She  is  very  wary  in  leaving  and  returning  to  her  nest,  and  the  male  keeps 
sentinel  over  the  place  ready  to  give  the  alarm  at  the  approach  of  danger,  and  to 
defend  his  home  against  intruders  weaker  than  himself.  One  brood  only  is 
reared  in  the  year,  and  the  young,  clothed  in  brown  down,  are  soon  able  to  follow 
their  parents.  They  appear  to  keep  together  until  the  migration  period  arrives, 
when  more  gregarious  instincts  are  developed,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the 
autumn  and  winter  live  in  flocks  of  varying  size. 

Diagnostic  Characters.  -  Grus,  with  the  general  colour  of  the  plumage 
slate-grey,  including  the  inner  secondaries  ;  the  throat  slate-grey  like  the  cheeks  ; 
the  sides  of  the  neck  white,  and  the  tertials  black,  developed  into  elongated, 
curly,  bushy  plumes.  Occipital  region  bare  of  feathers  and  covered  with  scarlet 
warty  skin  (adult).  Length,  about  43  inches. 


OF   THE    BEITISH  ISLANDS.  95 

Family  GRUID.E.  Genus  GBUS. 


DEMOISELLE  CRANE. 

GEUS  VIRGO— (Linnceus). 

Ardea  virgo,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  234  (1766). 

Urus  virgo  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  353,  pi.  506  (1879) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4 

iii.  p.  192  (1883) ;    Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  275  (1884)  ;   Lilford,   Col.   Pig. 

Brit.  B.  pt.  xii.  (1890) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  214  (1893) ; 

Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  156,  pi.  46  (1896). 
Anthropoides  virgo  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  269  (1894) ;    Sharpe, 

Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  114  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Demoiselle  Crane  is  a 
very  rare  visitor  on  migration  to  the  British  Islands.  Its  claim  to  this  distinction 
rests  on  one  solitary  recorded  occurrence.  On  the  14th  of  May,  1863,  a  pair  were 
observed,  one  of  which,  a  male,  was  shot  at  Deerness,  East  Mainland,  Orkney. 
Foreign:  Palasarctic  region,  summer;  parts  of  the  Oriental  and  Ethiopian  regions, 
winter.  The  only  known  European  breeding  places  are  in  Southern  Spain,  on  the 
western  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  steppes  of  South  Eussia  between  lat  50° 
and  the  Caucasus.  In  Asia  it  breeds  in  Turkestan  and  South-west  Siberia  as  far 
north  as  lat.  53°,  in  Dauria,  the  Baikal  country,  Eastern  Mongolia,  and  the  north- 
west of  China.  Its  winter  quarters  are  on  the  plains  of  India ;  it  also  passes  up 
the  Nile  valley  to  winter  in  Sennar,  south  to  lat.  12°.  During  its  migrations  it 
has  accidentally  wandered  into  Scandinavia,  Germany  (including  Heligoland), 
Spain,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia  Minor. 

Allied    forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 

Habits. — The  Demoiselle  Crane  is  just  as  regular  in  its  migrations  to  and 
from  its  breeding  grounds  as  the  preceding  species.  Like  that  bird  it  journeys  in 
large  flocks  which  usually  assume  an  angular  formation  like  the  letter  V  or  W. 
They  fly  at  enormous  altitudes,  sometimes  beyond  the  range  of  human  vision. 
In  Europe  the  Demoiselle  Crane  arrives  at  its  breeding  grounds  during  March 
and  April,  whilst  further  east,  where  the  season  is  later,  it  appears  at  about  the 
same  time.  It  leaves  its  summer  quarters  during  September  and  October.  Its 
flight  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Common  Crane,  rapid,  but  performed  with 
slow  and  regular  beats  of  the  mighty  wings,  and  the  neck  and  legs  are  out- 
stretched. The  note  of  this  species  is  a  harsh  kurr-kurr-fairr,  and  is  not  at  all 


96  THE  GAME   BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

trumpet-like.  The  Demoiselle  Crane  is  a  dweller  in  sandy  districts,  steppe 
country,  and  on  vast  plains,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  frequent  swamps  during 
the  breeding  season.  It  is  always  wary  and  watchful,  seldom  allowing  any  one  to 
approach  it  closely  unless  by  stratagem  or  under  cover  of  some  kind.  It  walks 
about  the  plains  and  round  the  edge  of  the  pools  in  a  very  graceful  manner,  and 
often  wades  into  the  water  and  stands  motionless  with  head  to  wind.  The  food 
of  this  species  is  composed  principally  of  vegetable  substances,  grain  and  seeds, 
buds  and  shoots  of  herbage,  insects,  worms,  lizards,  and  snakes,  but  not  apparently 
any  fish.  In  some  parts  of  India  its  favourite  food  appears  to  be  the  safHower  oil 
seed  (Garthamus  tinctorius).  Whilst  in  its  winter  quarters  in  this  country  it  is 
described  as  "by  far  the  most  suspicious  and  un-get-overable  bird  in  existence." 
Their  chief  feeding  time  is  in  the  morning  and  evening,  and  when  satiated  with 
food  they  repair  to  some  large  sandbank  in  a  river,  or  the  shallow  margin  of  tanks 
and  pools,  where,  in  a  dense  flock,  they  rest  and  preen  their  plumage.  They 
drink  regularly,  and  usually  sleep  on  a  bare  open  plain  ranged  in  a  long  single 
line,  over  which  ever-watchful  sentinels  keep  jealous  guard.  The  flocks  of  this 
bird  vary  considerably  in  size,  almost  from  day  to  day.  Thus  at  the  roosting 
places  the  numbers  are  often  large,  but  at  daybreak  they  separate  into  smaller 
parties  to  feed.  Hume  states  that  the  flocks  of  Demoiselle  Cranes  are  constantly 
splitting  up  into  smaller  ones  and  reuniting,  and  that  they  are  somewhat 
capricious  in  the  choice  of  a  haunt,  and  rarely  remain  in  a  district  for  many 
weeks  together.  When  wounded,  this  Crane  will  seek  to  escape  by  trying  to 
swim,  and  when  brought  to  bay  will  fight  fiercely,  although  with  nothing  near 
the  power  of  the  Common  Crane.  They  are  very  noisy  birds,  and  the  confused 
uproar  that  begins  when  an  enormous  flock  of  several  thousands  of  birds  has  been 
surprised  and  fired  at,  is  indescribable ;  the  din  of  throbbing  wings  and  screaming 
birds  being  so  loud  that  it  may  be  heard  a  couple  of  miles  away  !  In  some  parts 
of  Southern  India  this  Crane  is  held  sacred  by  the  Brahmins,  and  small  patches 
of  grain  are  left  in  the  fields  for  it  to  feed  upon  after  its  arrival  in  autumn. 
This  bird  is  said  by  Taczanowski  to  be  found  near  Biskra  in  the  Northern  Sahara, 
but  I  failed  to  find  it  there. 

Nidification. — Although  so  gregarious  during  the  cold  season,  at  the 
approach  of  spring  the  large  flocks  begin  to  disperse  at  the  breeding  grounds  into 
pairs.  The  gregarious  instincts,  however,  do  not  appear  to  be  entirely  suspended, 
for  all  the  summer  through  it  shows  social  tendencies,  and  small  parties  often  feed 
in  company.  During  the  pairing  season  this  species  indulges  in  various  grotesque 
antics,  which  have  been  described  by  some  observers  as  "  dancing."  These 
dances  take  place  just  before  nest-building  commences,  and  are  thus  aptly 
described  by  Nordmann.  The  Demoiselle  Cranes  "dance  and  jump  towards 
each  other,  bowing  themselves  in  a  most  burlesque  manner,  bending  their  necks 
forward,  extending  the  plumes  on  the  neck,  and  depressing  their  wings ;  others. 


OF   THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  97 

again,  in  the  meanwhile,  run  races,  and  on  arrival  at  the  goal,  return  striding 
along  gravely  and  quietly,  whilst  the  rest  of  the  assembly  greet  them  with 
reiterated  cries,  inclinations  of  the  head,  and  other  demonstrations."  Curious  as 
these  antics  undoubtedly  are,  however,  we  may  fairly  presume  that  the  worthy 
professor  has  allowed  his  imagination  to  assist  him  not  a  little  in  penning  the 
above  notes.  The  nest  of  this  Crane  is  always  made  on  the  ground,  either 
amongst  grain  or  grass,  or,  according  to  Dybowski,  on  the  rocky  banks  of  a 
river.  It  is  only  a  slight  affair,  a  mere  hollow  trodden  in  the  ground,  and  lined 
with  a  few  bits  of  herbage.  The  latter  naturalist  states  that  the  nest  is  made 
of  small  stones  fitting  close  to  each  other,  the  surface  of  the  nest  being  flat, 
and  deepening  towards  the  centre.  The  two  eggs  are  laid  about  the  end  of  April, 
or  the  first  half  of  May,  although  Dybowski  states  that  he  has  seen  them  in  June 
and  until  the  middle  of  July.  They  are  pale  buff  or  olive-brown  in  ground- 
colour, spotted  and  blotched  with  umber-brown  and  grey.  The  shell  is  rather 
coarse,  and  full  of  small  pores.  They  measure  on  an  average  3'5  inches  in  length 
by  2'0  inches  in  breadth.  Both  male  and  female  are  said  to  assist  in  the  duty  of 
incubation,  which  lasts  about  a  month.  The  bird  which  chances  to  be  off  the 
eggs  is  usually  placed  sentinel-like  close  by  the  nest,  ready  to  give  the  alarm  and 
to  take  part  in  driving  off  predaceous  birds  or  animals.  The  Demoiselle  Crane 
appears  to  rear  one  brood  only  in  the  year,  and  the  young  chicks  are  soon  able  to 
leave  the  nest  and  follow  their  parents. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Grus,  with  the  general  colour  of  the 
plumage  pale  slate-grey,  the  feathers  of  the  throat  elongated,  the  tertials  long  and 
pointed,  but  not  curled,  and  a  tuft  of  long  white  feathers  on  each  side  of  the  head, 
which  is  neither  crested  nor  bare  of  feathers.  Length,  31  to  36  inches. 


NOTE. — An  example  of  the  Soudan  Crane,  Grus  pavonia,  has  been  obtained  in  the  British  Islands 
(Ayrshire,  iyth  September,  1871),  but  as  it  is  said  to  be  a  sedentary  species,  and  one  often  kept  in 
confinement,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  individual  in  question  had  escaped  from  captivity.  The 
date  of  capture  and  the  area  inhabited  by  the  species  (Central  and  West  Africa)  preclude  any  possibility 
of  a  normal  visit  to  us. 


98  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 


ORDER  CHARADRIIFORMES.— THE  BUSTARDS, 

PLOVERS,  &c. 


THIS  somewhat  extensive  group  of  birds  contains  not  only  the  typical 
Bustards  (which  form  a  link  with  the  BALLIFORMES  on  one  hand,  and 
through  the  Stone  Curlews  with  the  typical  Plovers  on  the  other),  Plovers, 
Sandpipers,  and  Jacanas  (PARRIDJE),  but  such  evidently  generalized  and 
ancient  forms  as  the  Crab-Plover  (DBOMADID^:),  the  Sheathbills  (CmoNiDWJE), 
and  the  somewhat  Sand-Grouse-like  birds  (TmNOCORYTHlD^)— numbering  few 
species,  some  of  them  highly  localised,  and  probably  indicating  the  last  surviving 
relics  of  what  were  once  dominant  and  widely  distributed  groups.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  most  nearly  surviving  relations  of  the  majority  of  the  birds 
included  in  the  present  order  are  the  Gulls,  which  are  associated  with  them  by 
some  systematists.  In  the  CHARADRIIFORMES  the  sternum  usually  contains  two 
notches  on  each  side  of  the  posterior  margin,  but  in  a  few  species  one  notch  only 
is  found.  In  the  modification  of  their  cranial  bones  they  are  schizognathous ; 
whilst  their  nostrils  are  almost  universally  schizorhinal  (in  the  families 
THINOCORYTHID&,  (EDICNEMID^E,  and  OTIDID&,  and  the  genus  Pluvianus, 
the  nostrils  are  holorhinal) .  Some  of  the  other  characters  are  not  common  to 
the  order,  and  these  will  be  alluded  to  in  the  account  of  the  several  families 
which  are  represented  in  the  British  avifauna.  The  primaries  are  eleven  in 
number  ;  the  fifth  secondary  absent ;  rectrices  variable  in  number.  The  oil  gland 
when  present  is  tufted  ;  the  body  feathers  have  an  af tershaft.  The  toes  are  either 
partially  webbed,  or  have  the  webs  entirely  absent ;  the  hallux  is  absent  in  most 
species,  present  in  some,  and,  if  present,  always  connected  with  the  flexor  longus 
hallucis.  The  young  are  hatched  covered  with  down,  and  able  to  run  almost  as 
soon  as  they  break  from  the  shell. 

The  birds  in  the  present  order  number  nearly  three  hundred  species  and  sub- 
species. These  may  be  divided  into  nine  fairly  well-marked  families  (some, 
however,  of  very  small  extent),  of  which  five  are  represented  in  the  British  islands. 
The  birds  in  this  order  are  practically  cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  99 


Family  OTIDID^E.— The    Bustards. 


The  birds  in  the  present  family  are  characterised  by  having  the  nostrils 
holorhinal,  and  the  dorsal  vertebrae  heteroccelous.  The  episternal  process  is  not 
perforated,  and  the  oil-gland  is  absent.  There  is  an  aftershaft  to  the  contour 
feathers.  In  their  pterylosis,  myology,  and  digestive  organs  the  Bustards  show 
close  affinity  with  the  Eails  and  Cranes.  Amongst  their  external  characters  may 
be  mentioned  the  short,  stout,  and  somewhat  flattened  bill,  the  ovate  and  pervious 
nostrils,  the  feathers  of  the  forehead  reaching  to  their  posterior  margin ;  the 
moderately  long,  stout  legs,  the  metatarsus  longer  than  the  middle  toe  and  claw, 
and  reticulated,  and  the  absence  of  the  hallux.  The  wings  are  long  and  ample,  the 
primaries  ten  in  number  and  very  little  longer  than  the  secondaries  ;  the  tail  is 
short,  the  rectrices  varying  from  sixteen  to  twenty  in  number.  Moult  complete 
in  autumn,  partial  in  spring.  Young  hatched  covered  with  down,  and  soon  able 
to  run  and  to  feed.  There  are  about  thirty  species  in  the  present  family,  all 
confined  to  the  Old  World,  and  most  abundant  in  the  Ethiopian  region.  The 
present  family  has  been  subdivided  by  Dr.  Sharpe,  in  our  opinion  quite  need- 
lessly, into  no  less  than  twelve  genera,  three  of  which  contain  but  a  single  species, 
and  four  others  but  two  each  !  In  the  present  volume  two  genera  only  will  be 
recognized,  each  with  a  British  representative. 


Genus   OTIS,  or   Typical    Bustards. 

Type,  OTIS   TAEDA. 


Otis,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
distinguished  by  the  various  characters  that  have  already  been  specified  in  the 
account  of  the  family  ;  and,  in  addition,  they  may  be  separated  from  the  members 
of  the  following  genus  (Houbara)  by  the  absence  of  any  ruff  or  feather  shield 
on  the  lower  throat  and  foreneck  overhanging  the  crop. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  some  twenty-three  species  (and,  according  to  some 
authorities,  two  subspecies),  which  are  inhabitants  of  the  Palaearctic,  Oriental, 
and  Ethiopian  regions,  and  most  abundantly  represented  in  the  latter. 

The  Bustards  are  dwellers  on  the  open  plains  and  steppes.  They  are  birds  of 
powerful  and  rapid  flight,  but  are  most  addicted  to  the  ground,  where  they  walk 
and  run  with  ease.  Their  notes  are  neither  very  loud  nor  very  musical.  They 
make  slight  nests  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  from  two  to  four  or  five  in 
number,  and  spotted.  Their  food  consists  of  grain,  seeds,  buds  and  leaves  of 
plants,  and  insects.  The  flesh  of  some  is  highly  esteemed. 


100  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  OTIDID^.  Genus  OTIS. 

GREAT   BUSTARD. 

OTIS    TAEDA.—  Linneeus. 
PLATE  XV. 

Otis  tarda,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  264  (1766) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  30  (1852) ;  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  369,  pi.  508  (1872) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  193  (1884) ;  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  581  (1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit,  B.  pt.  xxi.  (1892) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  216  (1894) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii. 
p.  284  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  88,  pi.  23  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb. 
B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  116  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution British  :  The  Great  Bustard  was  for- 
merly a  local  resident  in  Great  Britain  confined  to  the  steppe  or  down  districts : 
the  Merse  of  Berwickshire,  the  wolds  of  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire,  the  warrens 
and  heaths  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Cambridgeshire,  and  the  downs  of  Dorset, 
Wilts,  Hants,  and  Sussex.  For  half  a  century  or  more  it  has  ceased  to  breed  in 
this  country,  and  can  now  only  be  classed  as  an  irregular  winter  visitor.  It  is 
not  known  to  have  visited  Ireland.  This  magnificent  bird,  although  for  years 
gradually  dwindling  in  numbers,  managed  to  retain  its  place  as  an  indigenous 
species  to  the  British  Islands  until  the  earlier  portion  of  the  present  century, 
disappearing  at  varying  times  from  certain  haunts  :  thus,  from  Wiltshire,  about 
1810;  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire,  about  1826;  Suffolk,  1832;  Norfolk,  about 
1838.  Their  extinction  must  be  attributed  to  a  variety  of  causes.  Of  these, 
probably  one  of  the  most  important,  was  the  rapid  increase  of  plantations,  which 
covered  the  birds'  steppe-like  haunts  with  a  series  of  ambuscades ;  and  another, 
the  introduction  of  improved  machinery  in  farming,  especially  for  tilling  the  open 
corn  lands  on  which  the  birds  delighted  to  nest,  and  the  use  of  which  led  to  the 
wholesale  destruction  of  its  eggs.  This  species  is  now  but  an  abnormal  migrant 
to  our  shores,  although  we  believe  there  has  lately  been  some  steps  taken  to 
introduce  the  bird  on  the  Yorkshire  moors — an  experiment  scarcely  likely  to 
succeed.  As  previously  stated  the  Great  Bustard  is  an  irregular  visitor  to 
our  islands,  occurring  at  intervals  in  unusual  numbers.  Such  invasions  were 
remarked  in  the  winters  of  1870-71,  in  1879-80,  and  again  in  1890-91.  During 
the  latter  winter  no  less  than  seven  of  these  birds — all  females — were  recorded 
from  various  parts  of  the  South  of  England.  (Conf.  Field,  28th  February,  1891.) 
Foreign :  South  Palsearctic  region  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  It  breeds  in 
suitable  districts  in  Denmark,  Russia  (south  of  lat.  55°),  Germany,  Italy,  Spain, 
the  steppes  of  the  Danube,  and  Turkey.  It  is  now  very  rare  in  France,  Greece, 


Game  Birds  6-Wild  Fowl  of  lU  British  Islands 


Plate  XV. 


i 

1 


, 


GREAT  BUSTARD 
Otis  tarda 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  101 

and  North-west  Africa,  and  completely  exterminated  in  Scandinavia.     It  is  also 
known  as  an  accidental  visitor  to  Asia  Minor  and  North  Persia,  and  as  a  straggler 
to  North-west  India.      Eastwards  its  range  includes  Turkestan  and  Northern' 
Afghanistan,  but  the  precise  limits  are  at  present  undetermined. 

Allied  forms. — In  East  Siberia  (south  of  Omsk  and  the  Ainoor),  Mant- 
churia,  Corea,  and  Japan,  south  to  the  Yangtze  Kiang  basin  (where  Mr.  Styan 
records  it  as  common  in  winter),  the  Great  Bustard  is  replaced  by  Otis  dybowskii, 
a  very  nearly  allied  species,  which  differs  in  being  smaller  in  size  (total 
length,  34  inches),  with  a  smaller  and  more  slender  bill,  paler  head  and  hind 
neck,  and  grey  lesser  wing  coverts.  The  Great  Bustard  has  no  other  very  close 
allies ;  and  whether  this  eastern  bird  deserves  specific  rank  seems  somewhat 
questionable. 

Habits. — The  haunts  of  the  Great  Bustard  are  the  vast  plains  and  steppes 
which  stretch  across  Europe  and  Asia,  the  great  grain  lands  which  extend  in 
some  parts  of  Asia  for  thousands  of  miles,  treeless  and  bare,  where  the  noble 
bird  can  scan  a  wide  horizon  and  note  the  approach  of  enemies.  The  Great 
Bustard  is  a  thorough  ground  bird,  and  is  rarely  or  never  seen  near  trees.  It  is 
a  shy  and  wary  creature,  ever  careful  not  to  allow  a  close  approach,  is  capable  of 
running  quickly,  and  flies  in  a  somewhat  heavy,  laboured  manner,  with  slow  and 
regular  beats  of  its  ample  wings.  At  all  seasons  the  Great  Bustard  is  a  social 
bird,  but  in  winter  it  becomes  more  or  less  gregarious,  and  joins  into  flocks  which 
wander  about  the  plains  in  quest  of  food.  It  is  said  that  during  the  winter  the 
sexes  separate,  and  that  the  males  live  in  flocks  by  themselves.  Even  during 
the  breeding  season  several  pairs  of  birds  will  feed  in  company,  and  all  the 
summer  the  immature  and  non-breeding  birds  remain  gregarious.  It  is  an  early 
migrant,  in  such  districts  where  it  is  a  bird  of  regular  passage,  reaching  its 
summer  haunts  in  March  or  April.  The  food  of  the  Great  Bustard  is  almost 
entirely  composed  of  vegetable  substances,  grain,  seeds,  and  the  leaves  and 
shoots  of  herbage ;  the  bird,  however,  also  eats  insects,  mice,  lizards,  and  frogs. 
The  note  of  the  male  is  likened  by  Mr.  Seebohm  to  the  syllable  prunt ;  and  he 
also  states  that,  when  alarmed,  both  sexes  make  a  kind  of  hiss,  although  at  other 
times  the  female  appears  to  be  a  remarkably  silent  bird. 

Nidification — Although  the  Great  Bustard  has  been  said  to  be  poly- 
gamous, there  appears  to  be  no  direct  evidence  in  confirmation  of  the  statement ; 
and  Naumann,  the  great  German  ornithologist,  who  had  ample  opportunities  of 
observing  this  species,  avers  that  it  pairs  early  in  spring.  The  male,  when  under 
sexual  excitement,  elevates  and  draws  the  tail  forward  over  his  back,  the  head 
and  neck  at  the  same  time  being  retracted  along  the  back,  the  wings  are  drooped, 
all  the  smaller  feathers  being  erected  until  the  tail,  head,  and  neck  are  almost 
entirely  concealed  by  the  bristling  plumage — almost  every  feather  on  end — and 


102  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

the  swollen  breast.  Some  males,  but  not  all,  of  this  species  have  an  inflatable 
gular  pouch,  which  appears  to  be  used  either  for  the  utterance  of  a  singular  note 
•  •  .or  for  increasing  the  size  of  the  throat  and  rendering  the  covering  of  feathers 
more  imposing.  This  display  is  accompanied  by  various  movements.  The 
nesting  season  begins  in  May,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  towards  the  end  of  that 
month.  The  nest  is  sometimes  made  in  a  bare  situation  on  the  open  steppe,  or 
in  a  field  of  growing  corn.  It  is  little  more  than  a  slight  hollow  trampled  by  the 
female,  which  in  some  cases  is  lined  with  a  few  scraps  of  dry  herbage,  and  is 
about  eighteen  inches  across.  The  eggs  are  generally  two  in  number,  but  some- 
times three,  and  vary  from  olive-green  to  olive-brown  and  pale  buff  in  ground- 
colour, spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown  and  grey.  On  some  specimens 
a  few  blackish-brown  streaks  occur.  Like  the  eggs  of  the  Crane,  they  are  rather 
coarse  in  texture,  and  the  shell  is  full  of  minute  pores.  They  measure  on  an 
average  3'0  inches  in  length  by  2'2  inches  in  breadth.  The  female  alone  appears 
to  incubate  the  eggs,  the  time  taken  ranging  from  three  weeks  to  a  month.  At 
the  approach  of  danger  she  slips  very  quietly  off  the  nest,  and  hurries  away  for  a 
little  distance  on  foot,  especially  when  the  cover  is  dense,  but  sometimes  she 
rises  from  it  into  the  air  and  flies  slowly  away.  During  the  breeding  season, 
especially  about  the  pairing  period,  the  males  are  very  pugnacious.  One  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  the  young  are  soon  able  to  quit  the  nest  and 
follow  their  parents.  Several  instances  of  the  Great  Bustard  breeding  in  cap- 
tivity have  been  recorded.  Details  of  one  of  these  instances  are  given  in  the 
Zoologist  for  1880  (p.  254),  and  were  originally  published  in  the  Bull.  Soc.  Imp. 
Acclitn.  Paris,  1861  (p.  318).  A  second  instance  occurred  in  the  Gardens  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London,  in  June,  1893.  In  the  former  case  three  eggs 
were  laid,  the  hen  incubated,  and  one  young  bird  was  hatched  ;  in  the  latter  two 
eggs  were  laid,  and  the  cock  bird  was  not  observed  to  take  any  share  in  the  task 
of  incubation  (Ibis,  1893,  p.  476).  A  female  again  laid  in  the  Zoological  Gardens 
in  the  season  of  1895.  The  flesh  of  the  Great  Bustard  is  by  no  means  unpalat- 
able, especially  that  of  the  female  and  the  young.  An  old  male  will  often  weigh 
over  thirty  pounds. 

Diagnostic  Characters — Otis,  with  the  head  grey,  and  a  tuft  of  white 
bristly  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  the  upper  parts  chestnut-buff  barred  with 
black,  the  wings  white,  except  the  primaries,  which  are  blackish-brown,  the 
breast  banded  with  chestnut  and  grey,  the  belly  white.  Length,  about  45  inches 
(male).  In  the  female  the  bristles  and  chest  bands  are  absent.  Length,  about 
33  inches.  According  to  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  this  bird  is  incapable  of  flight 
when  moulting  its  quills. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  103 

Family  OTIDID^E.  Genus  OTIS. 

LITTLE  BUSTARD. 

OTIS   TETEAX— Linrueus. 

Otis  tetrax,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  264  (1766) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  35  (1852) ;  Dresser, 
B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  382,  pi.  509  (1872) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  216  (1883) ;  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  587  (1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxiv.  (1893) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  218  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  p.  89,  pi.  23  (1896). 

Tetrax  tetrax  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p.  289  (1894) ;  Sharpe,  Handb. 
B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  120  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Little  Bustard  is  an  acci- 
dental visitor  to  the  British  Islands  chiefly  in  autumn  and  winter,  rarely  in 
breeding  plumage,  and  at  no  period  known  to  have  bred  within  them.  It  has 
most  frequently  been  captured  in  the  eastern  and  southern  counties,  especially 
in  Yorkshire,  Norfolk,  and  Cornwall.  Four  examples  have  been  obtained  on  the 
east  coast  of  Scotland,  and  three  in  Ireland.  This  species  was  exceptionally 
numerous  in  our  Islands  during  the  winter  of  1874-75.  Foreign  :  West  Palae- 
arctic  region.  To  Germany,  Denmark,  and  South  Scandinavia,  and  the  country 
north  of  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  the  Little  Bustard  is  an  accidental  straggler 
only.  It  breeds  in  suitable  districts  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France,  and  is 
common  on  the  steppes  of  the  Danube,  Turkey,  and  Southern  Eussia.  It  passes 
through  Italy  and  Greece  on  migration,  but  is  resident  in  Sardinia  and  Sicily. 
It  breeds  in  North-west  Africa,  and  winters  in  the  Sahara.  It  also  breeds  in 
Eussia,  and  West  Siberia  as  far  north  as  lat.  55°,  and  eastwards  as  far  as  Lake 
Saisan.  It  is  a  winter  visitor  to  Egypt,  occurs  in  Palestine  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  is  a  summer  resident  in  North  Persia  and  Eussian  Turkestan,  wintering  in 
the  valley  of  the  Indus. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  merit  allusion. 

Habits. — Many  Little  Bustards  winter  in  the  Mediterranean  district,  but 
the  greater  number  retire  to  Africa  for  the  cold  season.  Vast  flocks  of  these  birds 
return  north  to  their  breeding  grounds  in  Europe  during  April,  the  southern 
flight  being  made  in  October.  In  autumn  the  flocks  are  much  larger  than  in 
spring,  and  in  South-eastern  Europe  they  are  said  to  cross  the  steppes  lying 
south  of  the  Caucasus  literally  in  millions.  In  its  choice  of  a  haunt  the  Little 
Bustard  resembles  its  allies,  being  only  found  on  wide  treeless  plains  and  steppes. 
It  is  perhaps  more  easy  to  approach  than  the  Great  Bustard,  often  remaining 


104  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

skulking  in  the  cover  until  it  is  flushed  within  easy  gunshot.  Its  flight  is 
straightforward  and  rapid,  and  the  wings  are  moved  so  quickly  that  a  whirring 
sound  is  audible  as  the  bird  hurries  away,  often  soaring  to  a  vast  height.  In 
this  respect  it  is  very  different  from  the  Great  Bustard,  as  its  flight  is  not  so 
deliberate,  and  more  like  that  of  a  Game  Bird.  Its  movements  on  the  ground 
partake  more  of  those  of  birds  of  that  order,  and  it  runs  quickly,  the  females 
being  the  most  difficult  to  flush.  The  presence  of  the  Little  Bustard  is  often 
betrayed  by  the  utterance  of  its  curious  note,  which  resembles  the  syllable  spurrtz 
or  prut.  The  food  of  this  species  is  mostly  of  a  vegetable  nature,  such  as  grain, 
seeds,  and  the  tender  buds  and  shoots  of  herbage,  but  the  bird  also  devours 
insects,  snails,  frogs,  and,  it  is  said,  even  field  mice.  Although  so  gregarious  just 
upon  its  arrival  at  its  breeding  grounds,  the  flocks  soon  disperse,  and  as  soon  as 
pairing  is  over  there  appears  to  be  not  even  a  social  tendency  until  after  the 
young  are  reared.  As  this  species  breeds  in  its  first  spring,  no  flocks  of  immature 
non-nesting  birds  are  ever  noticed  in  the  summer  haunts,  as  is  almost  always  the 
case  with  the  Great  Bustard. 

Nidif  ication. — Although  many  of  the  actions  of  the  Little  Bustard  during 
the  pairing  season  would  seem  to  prove  that  this  species  is  polygamous,  such  is 
not  the  case.  In  the  pairing  season  numbers  of  birds  congregate  at  certain  spots, 
and  the  males  appear  to  go  through  a  sort  of  "lek,"  like  many  Game  Birds, 
showing  off  their  charms  in  various  ways  to  the  apparently  admiring  females,  for 
which  conflicts  take  place  between  the  rivals.  Once  paired,  however,  these 
gatherings  disperse,  and  each  male  goes  off  with  his  mate  to  assist  in  the  cares  of 
bringing  up  the  brood.  About  the  middle  of  May  the  female  makes  a  rude  nest 
on  the  ground  amongst  the  herbage ;  it  is  little  more  than  a  hollow,  lined  with  a 
few  bits  of  dry  grass  and  weed,  and  measures  seven  or  eight  inches  across.  The 
eggs  are  usually  four,  sometimes  three,  and,  more  rarely,  five  in  number,  and 
vary  in  ground-colour  from  olive-brown  to  olive-green,  indistinctly  mottled  with 
pale  reddish-brown.  The  shell  is  glossy  and  smooth,  the  pores  being  very  slightly 
defined.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'0  inches  in  length  by  T5  inch  in 
breadth.  The  female  appears  to  incubate  the  eggs,  but  the  male  is  in  close  and 
constant  attendance  upon  his  mate.  In  some  cases  it  would  appear  that  two 
broods  are  reared  in  the  year,  a  second  clutch  being  laid  about  the  end  of  July, 
although  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  these  late  nests  are  not  the  produce 
of  birds  whose  earlier  efforts  may  have  been  unfortunate. 

Diagnostic  characters — Otis,  with  the  general  colour  above  buffish- 
brown,  vermiculated  with  black  in  the  male  in  summer,  blotched  with  black  in  the 
female  at  both  seasons,  and  in  the  male  in  winter,  with  two  black  and  two  white 
gorgets  in  the  male  in  summer.  Length,  17  inches. 


OF   THE    BRITISH    ISLANDS.  105 


Genus  HOUBARA,  or  Ruffed  Bustards. 

Type,  HOUBAEA  UNDULATA. 


Houbara,  of  Bonaparte  (1831). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  distinguished  by  the  various  characters  that  have  already  been  specified  in 
the  account  of  the  family ;  and,  in  addition,  they  may  be  separated  from  the 
members  of  the  preceding  genus  (Otis)  by  having  a  ruff  or  feather  shield  on 
the  lower  throat  and  fore  neck  overhanging  the  crop. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  seven  species,  which  are  inhabitants  of  the  Palse- 
arctic,  Ethiopian,  Oriental,  and  Australian  regions. 

The  Buffed  Bustards  very  closely  resemble  the  typical  Bustards,  both  in  their 
general  habits  and  the  country  they  inhabit. 


106  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  OTIDID^E.  Genus  HOUBARA. 

MACQUEEN'S    BUSTARD. 

HOUBAEA   MACQUEENI— (Gray  and  Hardw). 

PLATE  XVI. 

Otis  macqueenii,  Gray  and  Hardw.  Illustr.  Ind.  Orn.  ii.  pi.  47  (1834) ;  Dresser  B. 
Eur.  vii.  p.  395,  pi.  511  (1876) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.,  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  221  (1884) ;  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  ii.  p.  591  (1884) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  219 
(1894) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxv.  (1894)  ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  p.  30  pi.  23  (1896). 

Houbara  macqueenii  (Gray  and  Hardw.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiii.  p  318 
(1894) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  123  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  Four  examples  of  this  Eastern 
Bustard  have  been  obtained  on  our  Islands.  The  fact  of  their  visits  being  made 
in  autumn — all  four  occurred  in  October — and  that  the  northern  range  of  this 
species  in  Asia  is  sufficient  to  bring  the  birds  within  the  influence  of  the  western 
stream  of  migration,  which  sets  in  at  that  time  into  Europe  (where  Macqueen's 
Bustard  has  from  time  to  time  been  captured,  is  strong  presumptive  evidence  of 
their  legitimate  occurrence  in  a  wild  state  in  this  country.  The  first  example 
was  shot  at  Kirton-in-Lindsey,  in  Lincolnshire,  on  the  7th  of  October,  1847.  It 
is  now  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  Philosophical  Society  at  York.  The 
second  was  shot  near  Marske,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  5th  of 
October,  1892.  It  was  apparently  an  adult  male  in  beautiful  plumage,  and  is 
now  preserved  in  the  museum  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  The  third  example,  a 
young  male,  was  shot  at  Easington,  near  Spurn,  on  the  Yorkshire  coast,  on  the 
17th  of  October,  1896.  The  fourth,  a  female,  was  shot  in  Aberdeenshire,  on  the 
24th  of  October,  1898.  Foreign:  South-west  Asia.  It  breeds  in  Turkestan,  South- 
west Siberia,  east  to  Lake  Saisan,  southwards  into  Afghanistan,  Persia,  and  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  winters  in  South  Persia,  Baluchistan,  the 
Punjaub,  and  Scinde.  It  has  occurred  accidentally  in  Germany,  Holland, 
Schleswig,  Sweden  (Oeland),  Poland,  Silesia,  Finland,  Livonia,  and  Italy. 

Allied  forms. — Houbara  undulata,  an  inhabitant  of  Armenia,  Palestine, 
and  North  Africa,  westward  to  the  Canaries.  Differs  from  Macqueen's  Bustard 
in  having  the  crest  feathers  and  the  elongated  feathers  of  the  throat  pure  white, 
the  long  feathers  of  the  lower  throat  grey  instead  of  white,  the  upper  parts  more 
rufous,  and  the  vermiculations  coarser.  A  form  of  this  Bustard,  apparently 
peculiar  to  Fuerteventura — an  island  of  the  Canary  group — has  recently  been 
described  as  distinct  under  the  name  of  H.  fuerteventurce. 


Game  Birds  6-Wild  fowl  of  tK«  British  Islands. 


PlateXVI. 


MACQUEEMS  BUSTARD 

Houbara     macqueeni 


-    ,    ,  r  ft   »    •        r    I 

f    '  '    f    ••   •  ; .   • 

'    ,     '         '  .    -         -      .  e      -     .         ' 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  107 

Habits. — The  present  species  is  another  bird  of  the  wide,  vast  plains,  and 
resembles  in  its  habits  the  preceding  species.  But  little  is  known  of  the  economy 
of  Macqueen's  Bustard  during  its  residence  in  Turkestan  and  Siberia,  whither  it 
retires  in  summer  to  breed,  but  its  habits  have  been  carefully  studied  during  its 
sojourn  in  India,  where  it  is  a  common  bird  during  the  cold  season,  arriving  in 
September  and  leaving  in  March  or  April.  Here  it  frequents  by  preference  the 
slightly  undulating  sandy  and  semi-desert  plains,  which  are  studded  with  patches 
of  scrub,  amongst  which  salsolas,  lemon  grass,  and  acacia  bushes  are  conspicuous. 
On  these  vast  plains  this  Bustard  may  be  observed  running  about  in  the  morning 
and  evening,  resting  under  the  shelter  of  a  bush  during  the  hottest  part  of  the 
day.  It  always  prefers  to  run  rather  than  to  fly,  and  is  capable  of  threading  its 
way  through  the  tangled  scrub  with  great  speed.  Where  the  cover  is  short  it 
runs  with  head  and  neck  held  low,  but  when  it  reaches  the  higher  bushes  it  stops 
and  stretches  out  its  neck  to  look  round  at  its  pursuers.  Sometimes  the  bird  will 
then  squat  close  to  the  ground  and  remain  motionless,  where  its  brown  plumage 
so  effectually  conceals  it  from  detection  that  it  allows  the  observer  to  pass  and 
repass  within  a  very  few  paces  without  making  a  movement.  Macqueen's  Bustard 
is  often  stalked  with  the  aid  of  a  camel,  that  animal  being  so  familiar  to  the  bird 
that  it  takes  but  little  notice  of  its  approach.  By  riding  round  the  Bustards  in 
ever  narrowing  circles,  the  hunter  is  enabled  to  get  within  shot.  Sometimes  the 
birds  squat  to  the  ground,  and  remain  so  until  the  camel  walks  almost  over  them, 
when  they  rise  in  a  slow,  heavy  manner,  and  afford  an  easy  shot.  Sometimes  a 
Bustard,  instead  of  squatting,  will  hide  behind  a  bush  and  walk  round  and  round 
as  the  hunter  does,  always  contriving  to  keep  the  bush  between  itself  and  the 
enemy.  Macqueen's  Bustard  is  said  to  be  a  very  silent  species ;  and  Hume 
never  heard  it  utter  a  sound  under  any  circumstances  whatever.  The  food  of 
this  species  is  almost  entirely  of  a  vegetable  character,  and  Hume  states  that  of 
hundreds  he  examined,  lizards  or  snakes  were  never  found  in  its  stomach.  In 
India  it  feeds  largely  on  the  fruit  of  the  her,  the  berries  of  the  grewia,  and  the 
tender  shoots  of  the  lemon  grass  and  other  herbs,  varying  this  fare  with  insects 
and  small  snails. 

Nidification.  —  Of  the  habits  of  Macqueen's  Bustard  during  the  breeding 
season  little  or  nothing  is  known,  and  the  nest  has  never  been  described.  Eggs 
obtained  by  collectors  employed  by  Herr  Tancre  on  the  Altai  Mountains  are 
huffish  or  olive-brown  in  ground-colour,  blotched  and  spotted  with  rich  dark 
brown,  pale  brown,  and  dull  grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'55  inches  in 
length  by  T75  inch  in  breadth. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Houbara,  with  the  upper  parts  buff,  finely  ver- 
miculated  with  black,  tail  crossed  with  three  dark  bars,  the  head  crested  and  the 
neck  ruffed.  Length,  28  inches. 


108  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 


Family  QEDICNEMID/E.— The  Stone  Curlews. 


The  birds  in  the  present  family  are  characterised  by  having  the  nostrils 
holorhinal,  as  in  the  Bustards,  but  the  dorsal  vertebrae  are  opisthocaelous,  and  the 
basipterygoid  processes  are  absent.  The  toes  are  not  webbed ;  the  hallux  is 
wanting ;  and  the  metatarsus  is  reticulated  both  before  and  behind.  The  bill  is 
moderately  long,  in  all  the  species  the  genys  is  very  pronounced,  and  with  two 
exceptions  the  dertrum  is  well  marked.  The  legs  are  rather  long,  but  the  toes 
are  short  and  Bustard-like.  Moult  single,  in  autumn.  This  family  contains,  at 
present,  eleven  species  and  races  distributed  over  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Palas- 
arctic  region,  throughout  the  Ethiopian  region,  the  Oriental  region,  parts  of  the 
Australian  region,  and  the  northern  portions  of  the  Neotropical  region.  The 
present  family  has  been  subdivided  into  no  less  than  four  genera  by  Dr.  Sharpe, 
three  of  them  containing  but  a  single  species  each.  Possibly  two  may  be 
admitted,  one  of  which  contains  a  British  representative. 


Genus  (EDICNEMUS,  or  Typical  Stone  Curlews. 

Type,   (EDICNEMUS   CEEPITANS. 


CEdicnemus,  of  Temminck  (1815). — The  birds  comprising  the  present 
genus  are  characterised  by  having  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head,  and  the  angle 
of  the  genys  rising  gradually.  The  outer  rectrices  are  an  inch  or  more  shorter 
than  the  central  ones.  The  black  tips  to  all  but  the  central  rectrices  and  the 
white  pattern  on  the  webs  of  the  first  three  primaries  are  also  characteristic  of 
this  group.  The  wings  are  moderately  long,  and  the  tail  of  twelve  feathers  is 
much  graduated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  nine  species  and  races,  which  are  distributed  over 
various  parts  of  Temperate  and  Southern  Europe,  Australia,  and  Temperate  and 
Tropical  Asia  and  Africa,  and  Tropical  America.  One  species  is  a  summer  visitor 
to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Stone  Curlews  are  dwellers  in  similar  country  to  that  frequented  by  the 
Bustards,  which  birds  they  resemble  in  their  habits.  They  are  more  or  less 
nocturnal.  Their  flight  is  rapid  and  well  sustained.  Their  notes  are  loud  and 
harsh.  They  subsist  chiefly  on  worms,  frogs,  small  animals,  and  insects,  They 
make  no  nest,  laying  their  eggs  (two  or  three  in  number,  and  double-spotted)  on 
the  bare  ground.  They  are  monogamous. 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  109 

Family  (EDICNEMIDJE.  Genus  (EDICNEMUS. 


STONE  CURLEW. 

CEDICNEMUS   CREPITANS.— Temminck. 

Charadrius  cedicnemus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  255  (1766). 

(Edicnemus  crepitans,  Temm.  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  77  (1852) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit. 
B.ii.  p.  596  (1884) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  251  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col. 
Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  90,  pi.  23  (1896). 

(Edicnemus  scolopax  (S.  G.  Gmel.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  401,  pi.  512  (1876) ; 
Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  225  (1884) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxi.  (1895). 

(Edicnemus  cedicnemus  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  4  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  127  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  Stone  Curlew  is  a  summer 
visitor  to  the  heaths  and  wolds  of  Yorkshire,  Lincolnshire,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and 
Cambridgeshire,  southwards  through  Bedfordshire,  Hertfordshire,  Bucks,  Oxford- 
shire, Berks,  Wilts,  Dorset,  Hants,  Sussex,  and  Kent.  Elsewhere  it  can  only  be 
regarded  as  an  accidental  visitor  chiefly  on  migration,  although  it  has  been  known 
to  breed  in  Worcestershire,  Rutland,  and  Notts,  and  a  few  are  known  to  winter 
in  Somerset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall.  It  has  once  occurred  in  Scotland,  and  once 
or  twice  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  during  winter,  whilst  six  or  eight  examples 
have  been  detected  in  Ireland  chiefly  at  that  season.  Foreign :  Western  Palse- 
arctic  region.  It  breeds  south  of  the  Baltic  in  the  west  of  Europe,  and  of  lat. 
50°  in  the  east.  It  is  a  resident  throughout  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Canary  Islands,  and  Madeira,  but  is  only  a  summer  visitor  to  France,  Holland, 
Belgium,  Germany  (but  according  to  Hartert  it  does  not  breed  in  East  Prussia), 
and  South  Russia.  It  is  also  a  resident  throughout  North  Africa,  but  much  more 
numerous  in  winter  than  in  summer.  It  is  a  summer  migrant  to  Russian  Tur- 
kestan and  West  Siberia  as  far  north  as  lat.  48°,  but  a  resident  in  Palestine, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Persia,  and  a  winter  visitor  to  the  Red  Sea  basin  and  India. 

Allied  forms. — (Edicnemus  crepitans  indicus,  a  resident  race  inhabiting 
Beloochistan,  India,  Ceylon,  and  Burma.  Its  specific  distinctness  is  barred  by 
the  presence,  according  to  Seebohm,  of  intermediate  forms  in  Persia,  Asia  Minor, 
and  throughout  North  Africa.  Differs  from  the  Common  Stone  Curlew  in  having 
a  shorter  wing  (8  inches  to  9  inches,  against  9  inches  to  10  inches  in  the  European 
race),  in  having  white  patches  almost  invariably  on  the  third  primary,  and  in 


110  THE  GAME  BIKDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

having  the  white  on  the  outer  web  of  the  seventh  much  more  developed.  These 
characters,  so  far  as  colour  is  concerned,  do  not  appear  to  be  absolutely  constant, 
but  the  separation  of  the  two  forms  certainly  seems  warranted.  (E.  senegalensis, 
a  species  which  ranges  across  Africa,  south  of  the  Great  Desert  from  Senegambia 
in  the  west,  across  the  Soudan  to  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia  in  the  east. 
Differs  from  the  Common  Stone  Curlew  in  having  the  medium  wing  coverts 
uniform  grey  with  dark  shaft  lines,  and  in  having  one  bar  only  (the  lower)  across 
the  wing. 

Habits. — In  many  of  its  habits  the  Stone  Curlew  resembles  the  Bustards, 
although  it  is  somewhat  intermediate  in  this  respect  between  those  birds  and  the 
Plovers.  It  is  a  summer  visitor,  as  previously  remarked,  to  our  islands,  arriving 
in  its  old  haunts  about  the  middle  of  April,  retiring  south  again  in  October.  Its 
haunts  in  our  islands  are  heaths  and  commons,  rough  untilled  country,  downs  and 
warrens.  Although  in  no  sense  an  arboreal  species,  many  of  its  favourite 
haunts  are  surrounded  by  trees.  However,  like  the  Bustards,  it  is  a  bird  of  the 
open,  and  never  found  on  wooded  ground.  It  runs  with  great  speed,  and  flies 
quickly,  often  at  some  height  in  the  air  above  its  haunts,  especially  at  night. 
The  Stone  Curlew  is  a  decidedly  nocturnal  bird,  and  at  the  approach  of  dusk 
becomes  particularly  lively  and  noisy  as  it  seeks  its  favourite  feeding  grounds. 
This  may  be  especially  remarked  during  bright  moonlight  nights.  Its  note  is  a 
loud,  clear,  but  somewhat  plaintive  cry.  The  food  of  the  Stone  Curlew  is  chiefly 
of  an  animal  nature,  such  as  snails,  worms,  and  insects,  especially  nocturnal 
beetles,  frogs,  lizards,  and  mice.  This  bird  has  been  accused  of  devouring  the 
chicks  of  Game  Birds,  but  I  am  not  aware  that  there  is  any  positive  evidence  to 
confirm  the  assertion.  During  the  night  the  Stone  Curlew  frequently  leaves  its 
native  heath  and  seeks  the  turnip  fields  and  pastures  adjoining  to  search  for  food. 
During  the  summer  it  appears  not  to  be  even  social,  but  towards  autumn,  when 
the  broods  are  strong  upon  the  wing,  it  becomes  gregarious,  and  probably  migrates 
in  flocks.  Much  of  its  time  is  spent  upon  the  ground,  where,  at  the  approach  of 
danger,  it  often  crouches  low  and  motionless,  trusting  to  the  protective  colour  of 
its  plumage  to  shield  it  from  observation. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Stone  Curlew  begins  in  May, 
and  the  eggs  are  laid  from  about  the  middle  of  that  month  onwards  to  the  end, 
according  to  the  state  of  the  season.  This  species  appears  never  to  make  any 
nest  beyond  a  mere  hollow  in  some  part  of  the  heath  where  the  ground  is  bare  of 
vegetation,  and  often  strewn  with  stones.  Hume,  however,  states  that  in  India 
the  hollow  is  sometimes  lined  with  a  few  scraps  of  grass.  The  eggs  are  two  in 
number  in  this  country,  although  in  India  three  are  sometimes  found.  They  are 
various  shades  of  pale  buffish-brown  in  ground-colour,  blotched  and  spotted 
or  streaked  with  light  and  dark  brown,  and  violet-grey.  Some  eggs  are  finely 


OF  THE   BBITISH   ISLANDS.  Ill 

blotched,  others  have  the  colouring  matter  displayed  in  nearly  black  streaks  and 
scratches.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'1  inches  in  length  by  1'5  inch  in 
breadth.  The  male  assists  the  female  in  the  duty  of  incubation,  especially  during 
the  day.  This,  according  to  Naumann,  lasts  about  seventeen  days ;  but  other 
writers  state  a  month.  When  the  nest  is  approached,  the  sitting  bird  quits  the 
eggs  at  the  first  alarm,  and  leaves  them  to  the  safety  their  eminently  protective 
colours  ensure,  gererally  running  for  several  yards  before  taking  wing.  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  season,  but  if  the  first  clutch  of  eggs  comes  to  grief, 
another  clutch  is  usually  laid.  The  young  chicks  are  able  to  run  almost  directly 
they  are  hatched,  and  soon  follow  their  parents  in  quest  of  food. 

Diagnostic  characters.  —  (Edicnemus,  with  no  vermiculations  on  the 
upper  parts,  with  the  breast  conspicuously  streaked,  a  pale  and  a  dark  wing  bar 
across  the  smaller  wing  covert,  and  with  the  greater  wing  coverts  tipped  with 
white.  Length,  16  to  17  inches. 


112  THE  GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 


Family   CURSORIID/E.— The   Coursers,   Pratincoles,  &c. 


The  birds  in  the  present  family  are  characterised  by  having  schizorhinal 
nostrils  (with  the  sole  exception  of  the  genus  Pluvianus,  containing  a  single 
species,  in  which  they  are  holorhinal,  as  in  the  Stone  Curlews )  ;  the  basipterygoid 
processes  are  also  absent,  as  in  the  latter  birds.  The  hallux  is  wanting  in  the 
Coursers,  but  present  in  the  Pratincoles  and  Crab  Plover ;  whilst  the  metatarsus 
is  scutellated  in  all.  The  bill  is  somewhat  short  and  curved,  the  genys  and 
dertrum  not  being  especially  prominent.  In  the  Coursers  the  legs  are  long,  but 
in  the  Pratincoles  they  are  generally  comparatively  much  shorter.  Moult, 
apparently  single,  in  autumn.  This  family  contains,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known, 
twenty-six  species  and  races,  distributed  over  the  southern  portions  of  the 
Palsearctic  region,  throughout  the  Ethiopian  region,  the  Oriental  region,  and  the 
Australian  region.  Dr.  Sharpe,  the  most  recent  monographer  of  the  GHARADRII- 
FORMES,  subdivides  the  present  family  into  eight  genera,  three  of  which  contain 
but  a  single  species.  The  validity  of  some  of  these  genera  seems  open  to  question. 
The  Coursers  and  the  Pratincoles  are  both  represented  in  the  British  list. 


Genus   CURSOR1US,  or   Typical   Coursers. 

Type,   CUESOKIUS   GALLICUS. 


Cursorius,  of  Latham  (1790). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  no  nasal  groove,  the  nostril  being  situated  in  a 
depression  no  more  elongated  than  the  opening.  They  are  further  characterised 
by  having  the  tail  unforked,  and  no  hind  toe.  The  wings  are  rather  long  and 
pointed,  the  primaries  reaching  to  the  end  of  the  tail ;  the  tail  is  rounded.  The 
tarsus  is  long,  the  lower  portion  of  the  tibia  devoid  of  feathers,  the  claw  on  the 
middle  toe  is  pectinated  along  the  inner  margin.  The  bill  is  a  little  shorter  than 
the  head,  nearly  straight  to  the  nasal  orifice,  then  both  mandibles  arched  to  the  tip. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  six  species  and  subspecies,  confined  to  the  Eastern 
hemisphere,  being  inhabitants  of  the  Ethiopian,  Southern  Palaearctic,  and 
Oriental  regions.  One  species  is  a  rare  straggler  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Coursers  are  dwellers  on  sandy  plains  and  deserts.  Their  flight  is  rapid 
and  well-sustained,  but  they  are  birds  of  skulking  habit,  and  live  principally  on 
the  ground,  where  they  walk  and  run  with  ease.  Their  notes  are  harsh.  They 
subsist  principally  on  insects  and  their  larvae.  They  make  no  nest,  but  deposit 
their  two  or  three  rotund  eggs  in  a  depression  in  the  ground  ;  these  are  spotted. 
They  are  monogamous,  and  more  or  less  social  all  through  the  year. 


OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  113 

Family  CUBSOBIID.E.  Genus  CXJBSOBIUS. 


CREAM=COLOURED    COURSER. 

CUBSOBIUS   GALLICUS— (Gmelin). 

Charadrius  gallicus,  Gmel.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  692  (1788). 

Cursorius  europeeus,  Latham  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  42  (1852) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed. 
4,  iii.  p.  238  (1883). 

Cursorius  gallicus  (Gmel.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  425,  pi.  544  (1875) ;  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  63  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  221 
(1894)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxviii.  (1894) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit. 
iii.  p.  131  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  34  (1896)  ;  Seebohm,  Col. 
Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  128  pi.  36  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Cream-coloured  Courser 
is  a  rare  straggler  on  autumn  migration  to  England  and  Wales.  Only  one  instance 
of  its  occurrence  in  Scotland  (in  Lanarkshire) ;  none  in  Ireland.  About  a  score 
examples  have  been  met  with  up  to  the  present  time,  in  the  following  counties  : 
Northumberland,  Cumberland,  Yorkshire,  Lincolnshire,  Leicestershire,  Norfolk, 
Suffolk,  Middlesex,  Kent,  Hants,  Wilts  (one  example  as  recently  as  October,  1896), 
Dorset,  Somerset,  Devon,  Cornwall,  Cardigan,  and  in  "  North  Wales."  Foreign  : 
Southern  and  Western  Palaearctic,  and  the  extreme  north-eastern  portion  of  the 
Ethiopian  regions.  Of  accidental  occurrence  only  in  Europe  :  Holland,  Germany, 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  South-east  Bussia.  It  breeds  from  the  Canary  Islands 
and  possibly  the  Cape  Verd  in  the  west,  right  across  the  sand  plains  and  plateaux 
of  Northern  Africa,  southward  on  to  the  Sahara,  and  in  Kordofan,  and  possibly 
Abyssinia,  in  the  east.  Thence  northwards  it  probably  breeds  throughout  Arabia, 
the  Trans-Caucasian  steppes,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan,  the  Punjaub, 
Scinde  and  Bajputana. 

Allied  forms. —  Cursorius  gallicus  bogohibovi,  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Murgab  district  on  the  Persian  frontiers  of  Bussian  Turkestan.  Of  doubtful 
distinctness,  but  said  to  be  larger  than  the  ordinary  form,  and  to  have  the  under 
wing  coverts  of  a  different  colour.  C.  somalensis,  known  only  from  a  single 
specimen  obtained  on  Somali  Land,  the  eastern  horn  of  Africa.  Differs  from  the 
Cream-coloured  Courser  in  being  much  smaller  (length  of  wing  5'3  inches  instead 
of  6'0  to  6'3  inches).  Other  important  characters  are  the  axillaries  and  inner- 
most under  wing  coverts,  which  are  greyish-buff  instead  of  nearly  black,  and  the 


114  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

sub-terminal  black  bands  on  the  tail  are  nearly  twice  as  broad.  C.  riifus,  an 
inhabitant  of  South  Africa,  below  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  May  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Cream-coloured  Courser,  when  adult,  by  the  black  on  the 
belly,  and  at  all  ages  by  the  grey  hinder  head  and  the  colour  of  the  middle 
secondary,  which  is  white,  except  the  basal  two-thirds  of  the  outer  and  the  basal 
third  of  the  inner  webs,  which  are  brown. 

Habits. — Although  I  have  spent  some  time  in  the  country  districts  where 
Canon  Tristram  informed  me  he  had  met  with  this  species,  I  never  had  the  good 
fortune  to  obtain  even  a  glimpse  of  the  Cream-coloured  Courser.  It  is  one  of  the 
thoroughly  characteristic  birds  of  the  desert,  frequenting  the  sand-hills  and  ridges 
where  scarcely  a  blade  of  vegetation  struggles  for  life  in  the  bitter,  ungenerous 
soil.  I  was  informed  that  its  favourite  haunts  were  amongst  the  sand-dunes,  and 
on  the  wide,  sun-scorched  arid  plains,  and  that  it  rarely  or  never  frequented 
scrub,  but  dwelt  in  the  open.  It  is  said  to  be  usually  met  with  in  pairs ;  but 
after  the  breeding  season  is  over,  broods  and  their  parents  keep  company,  and  in 
winter  they  become  more  gregarious,  roaming  about  the  desert  in  flocks  of  vary- 
ing size.  It  is  a  thorough  ground  bird,  apparantly  with  a  great  disinclination  to 
take  wing,  always  seeking  to  evade  pursuit  by  running  with  great  speed  and 
squatting  close  to  the  ground,  or  concealing  itself  in  the  shelter  of  a  bush 
or  a  stone.  Here  its  buff-coloured  plumage  harmonises  so  closely  with  the  colour 
of  the  ground,  and  it  remains  so  still,  that  discovery  is  almost  impossible.  No 
one  who  has  not  witnessed  the  truly  marvellous  way  in  which  desert  birds  can 
conceal  themselves  on  sand  almost  as  level  as  a  billiard  table  can  have  any  idea 
how  closely  these  creatures  assimilate  with  surrounding  objects.  The  Cream- 
coloured  Courser  is  said  usually  to  run  for  a  little  way  before  taking  wing,  and 
seldom  to  fly  very  high  above  the  ground,  often  skimming  with  extended  motion- 
less wings,  or  twisting  and  turning  in  an  erratic  manner.  When  in  flocks  the 
birds  cover  a  wide  area  of  ground,  scattering  themselves  over  the  desert  in  their 
quest  for  food.  They  are  then  very  wild,  and  very  Lapwing-like  in  their  general 
movements.  The  note  of  this  bird,  at  least  when  in  confinement,  is  said  by 
Favier  to  resemble  the  syllables  rererer ;  and  the  same  authority  states  that  its 
alarm  note  is  similiar  to  that  of  a  Plover,  which,  all  things  considered,  is  a  very 
safe  if  a  very  unsatisfactory  remark.  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Whitaker  describes 
the  note  of  the  wild  bird,  uttered  on  the  ground,  as  a  short  sharp  weet,  also  as 
weet-guoi ;  whilst  Mr.  Meade-Waldo  says  that  the  cry,  when  the  birds  are  with 
their  young,  is  a  low  qua-qua.  The  food  of  this  species,  so  far  as  is  known, 
consists  of  insects  and  snails ;  in  confinement  birds  have  been  fed,  and  apparently 
have  thriven,  on  grasshoppers  and  the  larvae  of  beetles. 

Nidification. — The  pairing  habits  of  the  Cream-coloured  Courser  almost 
exactly  resemble  those  of  the  Great  Bustard.  It  is  a  monogamous  species, 
pairing  every  season,  but  as  soon  as  the  eggs  are  laid  the  males  apparently  flock 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  115 

by  themselves  until  the  young  are  hatched,  when  they  rejoin  their  mates  and 
assist  in  rearing  the  offspring.  The  date  of  laying  varies  considerably.  In  the 
Canary  Islands  (where  in  the  spring  of  1891  Mr.  Meade-Waldo  states  that  about 
a  thousand  eggs  were  taken)  young  birds  are  said  to  have  been  obtained  towards 
the  end  of  March ;  in  Algeria  the  breeding  season  is  given  by  authorities  as  May 
and  June  ;  in  Egypt,  Von  Heuglin  says  that  it  is  in  March  and  April ;  and  Hume 
informs  us  that  in  the  Punjaub  district  the  bird  lays  principally  in  July ;  but, 
varying  with  the  state  of  the  rains,  eggs  may  be  obtained  from  March  to  August. 
The  first  authentic  eggs  of  this  bird  were  obtained  by  Canon  Tristram,  on  the 
Sahara.  In  Africa  the  nest  is  said  to  be  merely  a  hollow  in  the  sand,  which  is 
either  selected  ready  made  or  scratched  out  by  the  parent  bird  ;  but  in  India  it  is 
sometimes  made  amongst  stubble,  under  a  bush,  or  amongst  jungle,  and  is  a  small 
hollow,  about  five  inches  across  and  two  inches  deep,  sometimes  lined  with  a 
little  dry  grass.  The  nests  are  extremely  difficult  to  find,  the  birds  slipping  off  at 
the  first  alarm  and  going  right  away,  leaving  the  eggs  to  the  safety  which  their 
decided  protective  colours  ensure.  The  eggs  are  two  or  three  in  number, 
according  to  Hume  the  former  number  being  the  regular  clutch.  They  are  pale 
buff  in  ground-colour,  spotted,  blotched,  and  freckled  with  huffish-brown  and 
marbled  with  underlying  markings  of  grey.  Those  from  the  Punjaub  are 
much  smaller  and  darker  than  those  from  the  deserts  of  North  Africa.  They 
measure  on  an  average  1'2  inch  in  length  by  TO  inch  in  breadth.  The  period  of 
incubation  and  the  number  of  broods  are  unknown. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Cursorius,  with  no  black  patch  on  the  belly, 
with  the  axillaries  and  under-wing  coverts  nearly  black,  and  the  outer  web  of  the 
secondaries  buff.  Length,  9  to  10  inches. 


116  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 


Genus  GLAREOLA,   or  Typical  Pratincoles. 

Type,   GLAEEOLA   PEATINGOLA. 


Glareola,  of  Brisson  (1760). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  no  nasal  groove,  the  nostril  being  situated  in  a  depression 
no  more  elongated  than  the  opening.  They  are  further  characterised  by  having 
a  more  or  less  forked  tail  and  a  hind  toe.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed, 
reaching  the  tip  of  the  tail  or  even  beyond  it.  The  tail  is  deeply  forked,  and  is 
composed  of  twelve  feathers.  The  legs  are  moderately  long  and  slender,  the 
lower  part  of  the  tibia  devoid  of  feathers ;  the  claw  on  the  middle  toe  is 
pectinated  on  the  inner  margin.  The  bill  is  short  and  curved,  compressed 
towards  the  point. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  three  species,  confined  to  the  Eastern  hemisphere, 
being  inhabitants  of  the  Ethiopian,  southern  Palaearctic,  Oriental,  and  eastern 
Australian  regions.  One  species  is  an  accidental  visitor  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Pratincoles  are  dwellers  on  sandy  plains,  marshes,  the  banks  of  rivers, 
and  the  shores  of  lakes  and  lagoons.  They  are  birds  of  remarkably  powerful 
and  long-sustained  flight,  and  on  the  ground  they  progress  by  running  and 
walking.  Their  notes  are  shrill  and  unmusical.  They  subsist  chiefly  on  insects. 
which  they  capture  whilst  flying  up  and  down  in  a  Swallow-like  manner.  No 
nest  is  made,  and  they  lay  their  two  or  three  rotund  eggs,  which  are  richly 
spotted,  in  a  slight  depression.  These  birds  are  monogamous,  and  gregarious 
throughout  the  year. 


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OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  117 

Family  CURSOBIID.E.  Genus  GLABBOLA. 


COMMON    PRATINCOLE, 

GLABEOLA  PBATINCOLA—  (Linnceus). 
PLATE  XVII. 

Hirundo  pratincola,  Linn.  Syst,  Nat.  i.  p.  345  (1766). 

Qlareola  pratincola  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  49  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii. 
p.  411,  pi.  513,  fig.  1  (1874);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  231  (1883);  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  69  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  223 
(1894) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxviii.  (1894) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit. 
iii.  p.  133  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  53  (1896) ;  Seebohm,  Col. 
Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  128,  pi.  36  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Common  Pratincole  is  a 
rare  visitor  in  spring  and  autumn — individuals,  doubtless,  that  have  overshot  the 
mark  in  spring  whilst  on  their  way  to  their  breeding  grounds  in  Spain  or  the 
Balearic  Islands,  or  in  autumn  that  have  wandered  westwards  with  the 
tide  of  migrants  from  the  east.  It  was  first  noticed  by  ornithologists  in  1807, 
when  examples  were  obtained  almost  simultaneously  in  Lancashire  and  Cumber- 
land. Since  this  date  it  has  been  captured  in  the  following  counties:  Yorkshire 
(three  examples),  Lincolnshire,  Cambridgeshire,  Norfolk  (four  examples),  Wilts, 
Hants,  Surrey,  Dorset,  Somerset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall.  A  Pratincole  was 
observed,  but  not  obtained,  in  Breconshire ;  another  was  shot,  but  not  preserved, 
half  a  century  ago,  in  Co.  Cork,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the  bird 
was  rightly  identified.  A  solitary  example  hails  from  Scotland,  killed  on  Unst, 
one  of  the  Shetland  group.  Foreign:  Southern  and  western  Palsearctic  region 
in  summer;  Ethiopian  region,  summer  and  winter ;  and  accidentally  in  parts  of 
Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in 
Spain  and  France,  as  also  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Danube.  North  of  these 
limits,  in  the  extreme  north  of  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  Denmark,  and 
Germany,  it  is  as  accidental  as  in  the  British  Islands.  Eastwards  it  is  a 
summer  visitor  to  the  basins  of  the  Black,  Caspian,  and  Aral  Seas,  the  salt  lakes 
of  Bussian  Turkestan  as  far  as  Ala-Kul,  on  the  frontiers  of  Mongolia,  and, 
southwards,  to  Persia  and  Palestine.  The  birds  that  breed  in  Europe  and  North 
Africa  winter  in  the  Intertropical  portion  of  the  Ethiopian  region,  and  there  is 
evidence  to  suggest  that  other  individuals  of  this  species  migrate  from  this  area 
south  to  breed  in  Cape  Colony,  Natal  and  elsewhere.  We  have  elsewhere  sug- 


118  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

gested  that  this  species,  as  well  as  all  other  migrants,  never  normally  crosses  the 
Tropics  either  to  breed  or  to  winter.  Those  breeding  further  east  winter  in 
Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  whilst  abnormal  migrants  even  penetrate  (probably 
stragglers  from  the  birds  breeding  in  the  Thian-Shan  range)  to  Scinde  and 
Northern  India. 

Allied  forms. — Glareola  melanoptera,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of  South- 
eastern Europe,  especially  the  Kirghiz  steppes,  north  to  lat.  55°  in  West  Siberia, 
and  east  to  Ala-Kul.  Passes  through  Persia,  Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  Turkey, 
Egypt,  and  Nubia  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  Intertropical  portion  of 
Africa.  We  shall  most  probably  find  that  in  this  case  again  a  second  set  of 
individuals  migrate  south  from  the  equator  to  breed  in  South  Africa.  It  is  easily 
distinguished  from  the  Common  Pratincole  by  its  black  axillaries  and  deeply 
forked  tail.  G.  orientalis,  an  inhabitant  of  India  and  Ceylon,  the  Burmese 
Peninsula,  East  Mongolia,  Dauria,  China,  Sumatra,  Java,  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
the  Philippines,  and  North  Australia.  Has  been  recorded  from  Japan.  Eesident 
in  the  south,  migratory  in  the  north.  Distinguished  from  the  Common  Pratin- 
cole by  its  combining  the  following  characters  :  chestnut  axillaries,  white  basal 
half  of  outer  web  of  tail  feathers,  absence  of  white  tips  to  the  secondaries,  and 
only  slightly  forked  tail. 

Habits. — The  Pratincole  is  a  bird  of  somewhat  early  passage,  arriving  at 
its  breeding  grounds  in  North  Africa  and  South  Europe  in  April,  and  its  haunts  are 
in  marshes,  on  bare  plateaux  and  sandy  plains,  sometimes  in  cultivated  districts, 
lagoons,  and  low,  flat  islands.  Unlike  other  Plovers,  it  is  much  more  of  an  aerial 
bird  than  a  ground  one,  although  it  is  capable  of  running  with  great  speed, 
and  not  unfrequently  wades  in  the  shallow  waters  of  its  haunts.  The  most 
characteristic  feature  of  the  Pratincole's  economy  is  the  bird's  curious  and  pro- 
longed flight.  It  spends  much  of  its  time  in  the  air,  flying  to  and  fro  in  quest  of 
food,  skimming  along  just  above  the  ground  or  water,  turning  and  twisting  here 
and  there  in  its  busy  quest.  This  singular  habit  probably  had  great  influence 
with  Linnaeus  when  he  placed  the  Pratincole  in  his  genus  Hirundo,  and  may 
well  serve  as  an  excuse  for  the  great  naturalist's  curious  error.  The  food  of  the 
Pratincole,  which  is  principally  secured  whilst  the  bird  is  on  the  wing,  consists  of 
insects,  especially  beetles,  grasshoppers,  and  locusts  ;  and  the  bird  is  said  to  be 
most  assiduous  in  obtaining  it  towards  evening,  a  time  when  such  creatures  are 
abroad  in  greatest  abundance.  The  note  of  this  species  is  described  as  a  rattling 
kr  or  Jcia,  rapidly  and  persistently  repeated.  When  on  the  ground  the  Pratin- 
cole often  elevates  its  wings  and  runs  a  little  distance  both  before  and  after  flight. 
It  returns  to  its  African  winter  haunts  in  autumn,  when  the  young  are  all  safely 
reared,  and  then  becomes  more  gregarious,  although  at  all  times  it  is  more  or  less 
sociable,  and  usually  breeds  in  scattered  colonies. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  119 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Pratincole  commences  in  May, 
and  fresh  eggs  may  be  found  almost  throughout  that  month.  An  island  seems 
to  be  preferred  to  the  mainland,  where  choice  is  possible,  and  the  bare,  dry  mud 
is  selected  rather  than  ground  covered  with  herbage.  Colonies  of  these  birds, 
visited  by  Seebohm  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  were  established  on  low  islets 
in  the  lagoons,  and  the  eggs  were  deposited  on  the  dry  mud,  amongst  no  other 
herbage  but  straggling  plants  of  Salsola.  Nest  there  is  none,  the  eggs  being  laid 
generally  on  the  bare  ground,  without  even  a  hollow  to  hold  them.  They  are 
two  or  three  in  number,  in  rare  instances  as  many  as  four,  very  fragile,  and  oval 
in  shape.  They  vary  from  buff  to  grey  in  ground-colour,  spotted,  blotched,  and 
streaked  over  most  of  the  surface  with  blackish-brown,  and  marbled  with  under- 
lying markings  of  greyish-brown.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'2  inch  in 
length  by  '9  inch  in  breadth.  The  period  of  incubation  is  unknown,  but  one 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  When  their  breeding  grounds  are  invaded  by 
man  the  Pratincoles  become  very  restless  and  noisy,  and  often  indulge  in  various 
antics,  even  shamming  death,  or  broken  limbs,  to  lure  intruders  away.  Even 
before  the  eggs  are  laid  the  Pratincole  is  addicted  to  these  strange  antics. 
Many  nests  may  be  found  within  a  comparatively  small  area,  although  the  birds 
can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  universally  gregarious  at  the  breeding  grounds.  In 
some  localities  they  nest  in  solitary  pairs,  but  in  others  in  large  colonies. 

Diagnostic  characters — Glareola,  with  the  axillaries  chestnut,  the 
secondaries  broadly  tipped  with  white,  and  the  tail  deeply  forked.  Length,  9  to 
10  inches. 


120  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND    WILD    FOWL 


Family  CHARADRI1D/E.— The   Plovers,  Sandpipers 

and  Snipes. 


The  birds  in  the  present  family  are  characterised  by  having  the  nostrils 
schizorhinal,  the  basipterygoid  processes  present,  and  the  dorsal  vertebrae  opis- 
thocoelous.  In  their  pterylosis  they  show  much  affinity  with  the  LARIFORUES. 
The  chief  external  characteristics  of  the  Plovers  and  their  allied  forms  are  the 
almost  universally  prevailing  long  pointed  wings  adapted  in  most  cases  for 
prolonged  migrations,  comparatively  short  tail  and  long  legs  ;  their  webbed,  or 
semi-webbed,  or  lobed  feet ;  the  hind  toe  is  small,  in  some  cases  wanting,  and 
elevated  above  the  plane  of  the  rest.  Primaries  ten  in  number ;  rectrices  very 
variable  in  this  respect.  Moult  double  in  most  (if  not  in  all)  species.  The 
autumn  or  winter  plumage  in  a  great  many  species  is  much  less  gaudy  than  that 
of  summer,  whilst  differences  in  sexual  colour  are  as  a  rule  not  very  marked. 
The  young  in  first  plumage  more  or  less  closely  resemble  adults  in  summer 
plumage.  These  young  birds,  however,  do  not  retain  the  bright  colours  of  their 
first  plumage  long,  but  proceed  to  change  at  the  beginning  of  autumn  into  a  dress 
which  closely  resembles  the  winter  plumage  of  their  parents — not  by  a  moult,  but 
by  an  actual  change  in  the  hue  of  the  feather,  the  most  worn,  abraded,  or  "  dead  " 
feathers  only  being  replaced.  During  the  following  spring  these  immature 
birds  moult  into  summer  plumage,  resembling  that  of  adults,  only  the  wing 
coverts  retain  their  rich  summer  hue  all  the  winter  until  the  next  autumn  moult, 
when  they  are  changed  for  the  greyer  ones  of  winter.  The  wing  coverts  of  adults 
seem  only  to  be  moulted  once,  in  autumn,  and  this  portion  of  their  plumage  is 
always  the  same  colour  after  the  bird  reaches  the  adult  stage  of  its  existence. 
Young  hatched  covered  with  down,  and  able  to  run  shortly  after  they  leave  the 
shell.  There  are  about  two  hundred  species  and  races  in  the  present  family, 
which  is  practically  a  cosmopolitan  one.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  the 
CHARADRIIDM  may  be  subdivided  into  ten  subfamilies,  no  less  than  seven  of 
which  have  representatives  in  the  British  list. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  121 


Subfamily    H/EMATOPODIN/E.-The   Oyster-catchers. 


The  Oyster-catchers  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the 
CHARADEIIDM  by  the  peculiarities  of  the  bill,  which  exhibits  no  dertrum  or 
swelling  near  the  tips  of  the  mandibles,  and  the  genys  or  angle  of  the  lower 
mandible  is  situated  near  the  base.  The  bill  in  this  subfamily  is  further 
characterised  by  being  greatly  compressed,  and  the  nasal  groove,  as  in  all  the 
typical  Plovers,  does  not  extend  beyond  half  the  length  of  the  culmen.  A 
further  character  is  the  reticulated  metatarsus.  This  subfamily  contains  but  a 
single  genus. 


Genus    H/EMATOPUS,   or  Oyster=catchers. 

Type,   ELEMATOPUS   OSTEALBGUS. 


HasmatopUS,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  their  combining  a  finely  reticulated  metatarsus  with  a  nearly 
straight  bill,  which  is  longer  than  it.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  tail  is 
nearly  square.  The  metatarsus  is  rather  short,  and  the  lower  portion  of  the 
tibia  is  devoid  of  feathers.  Three  toes  in  front,  all  directed  forward;  hind  toe 
absent.  The  bill  is  straight,  strong,  and  compressed  at  the  point,  forming  a 
wedge  ;  truncate  at  the  tip,  clumsy,  and  very  variable  in  outline ;  nostrils  basal, 
linear,  and  situated  in  a  groove. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  twelve  species  and  subspecies,  which  are  distributed 
throughout  the  world.  One  species  is  a  common  resident  in  the  British  Islands. 

The  Oyster-catchers  are  dwellers  on  the  coasts  of  seas  and  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
and  lakes.  Their  flight  is  rapid  and  well-sustained  ;  they  are  able  to  swim  ;  and 
run  and  walk  with  ease.  Their  notes  are  loud  and  piercing,  and  they  subsist  on 
mollusks,  marine  worms,  and  insects,  small  fish,  and  littoral  plants.  Mere 
hollows  in  the  sand  or  shingle  serve  for  nests,  and  their  eggs,  three  or  four  in 
number,  are  double-spotted.  They  are  monogamous,  are  more  or  less  social 
throughout  the  year,  but  always  excessively  wary  and  shy. 


122  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHARADRIIDJE.  Genus  H.EMATOPUS. 

Subfamily  HJKMATOPODINM. 


COMMON   OYSTER=CATCHER. 

ILEMATOPUS    OSTEALEGUS.— Linnceus. 
PLATE  XVIII. 

Haematopus  ostralegus,  Linu.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  257  (1766) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  152 
(1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  567,  pi.  533  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  294 
(1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  4  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xii. 
(1890);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  262  (1893);  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit, 
iii.  p.  181  (1896) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  119,  pi.  38  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  107  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Oyster-catcher  breeds  on 
the  Scilly  Islands  and  in  all  suitable  localities  north  of  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire, 
round  the  entire  coast-line  of  Scotland  and  the  adjacent  islands,  even  extending 
to  St.  Kilda,  where  I  have  taken  its  eggs.  It  is  equally  widely  dispersed  round  the 
Irish  coasts,  as  well  as  on  some  of  the  inland  loughs,  and  it  also  breeds  on  the  shores 
of  the  inland  lochs  and  on  the  banks  of  large  rivers  in  Scotland.  During  winter 
it  is  widely  dispersed  on  all  our  coasts,  except  in  the  extreme  northern  districts, 
where  it  is  only  a  bird  of  summer.  Foreign :  West  Palsearctic  region.  Chiefly 
a  coast  bird  in  the  west,  but  east  of  E.  long.  40°  it  breeds  only  on  the  shores  of 
lakes  and  the  banks  of  rivers.  It  breeds  on  the  coasts  of  North-western  Europe, 
round  to  the  White  Sea ;  thence  it  becomes  an  inland  species,  frequenting  the 
rivers  Volga,  Kama,  Petchora,  and  Obb.  To  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  it  is  a 
summer  visitor  only,  but  a  resident  on  the  coasts  of  Germany  and  France.  In 
East  Prussia,  however,  it  is  very  rare  on  passage.  On  migration  it  passes  the 
Mediterranean  basin,  but  some  remain  to  breed,  and  a  few  remain  to  winter  in  the 
Rhone  delta  and  along  the  Adriatic  coast.  It  is  a  resident  in  the  Caucasus,  but 
only  a  summer  visitor  to  the  Don,  the  Volga,  the  waters  of  West  Siberia  and 
Turkestan,  and  it  winters  in  Southern  Arabia,  on  the  Mekran  coast,  the  west  coast 
of  India,  south  to  Ceylon,  and  on  both  coasts  of  Africa,  to  the  Intertropical  realm. 

Allied  forms. — Hamatopus  osculans,  an  inhabitant  of  the  coasts  of  North 
China,  Japan,  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor,  and  thence  round  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  to  Kamtschatka  in  summer ;  in  winter,  of  the  coasts  of  South  China, 
accidentally  wandering  across  country  to  Burma.  Of  doubtful  specific  rank ;  but 
appears  constantly  to  differ  from  the  Common  Oyster-catcher  in  having  much 
less  white  on  the  quills,  the  white  on  the  outer  web  of  the  primaries  beginning 


o 

O 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  123 

on  the  sixth  feather  instead  of  on  the  third,  and  on  the  inner  web  commencing 
on  the  second  feather  instead  of  on  the  first ;  more  variable  characters  are, 
in  adults,  the  upper  tail  coverts  tipped  with  black,  and  slightly  longer  bill.  The 
young  of  the  Common  Oyster-catcher  have  the  longest  upper  tail  coverts  tipped 
with  black  and  buff.  This  race  should  be  looked  for,  especially  in  autumn,  on 
the  British  coasts.  H.  longirostris,  an  inhabitant  of  the  coasts  of  New  Zealand, 
Tasmania,  Australia,  and  the  southern  shores  of  New  Guinea.  Distinguished  by 
its  white  rump  and  absence  of  white  from  the  primaries. 

Habits. — Although  the  Oyster-catcher  is  met  with  on  the  banks  of  inland 
waters,  and  even  breeds  in  such  localities,  its  true  home  is  the  sea-shore. 
Here  it  prefers  a  rocky  coast,  which  is  varied  here  and  there  with  long  reaches 
of  sand  and  shingle,  and  broken  with  quiet  bays  and  creeks  and  lochs  where 
a  considerable  amount  of  beach  is  uncovered  at  low  water.  It  is  also  partial 
to  low,  rocky  islands  and  headlands  where  there  is  a  beach.  It  is  one  of  the 
wariest  birds  of  the  shore,  seldom  allowing  a  near  approach,  unless  stalked  with 
scrupulous  care  and  patience.  As  it  is  regular  in  its  nights  to  certain  feeding 
grounds,  which  are  visited  as  soon  as  the  rocks  and  beach  begin  to  be  exposed  by 
the  receding  tide,  it  may  be  waited  for  with  advantage  by  the  gunner  stationed  in 
a  suitable  spot.  During  high  water,  especially  in  localities  where  there  is  little 
beach,  it  spends  the  time  between  the  tides  on  small  islands,  and  even  on  rocks  sur- 
rounded by  the  sea.  Even  during  summer  the  Oyster-catcher  is  somewhat 
sociably  inclined ;  but  in  winter,  when  many  of  the  birds  draw  southwards,  it 
often  forms  into  flocks,  which  roam  the  coasts  for  miles  in  quest  of  food.  In 
autumn  its  numbers  are  increased  by  migrants  from  Continental  Europe,  and  it 
is  often  caught  in  the  flight  nets  on  the  Wash  during  October.  The  Oyster- 
catcher  may  be  watched  running  and  walking  very  daintily  about  the  sands  and 
over  the  seaweed-covered  rocks,  sometimes  wading  through  the  shallows,  but  it 
never  appears  to  swim  unless  wounded.  The  long,  chisel-shaped  beak  is  thrust 
into  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  or  probed  into  the  sand  in  quest  of  prey,  and  the 
limpets,  tightly  as  they  cling  to  the  rocks,  are  wrenched  off  with  ease.  The 
Oyster-catcher  is  much  attached  to  its  mate,  and  I  have  seen  it  fly  round  and 
round  above  a  fallen  companion  in  a  touching  manner.  The  flight  of  this 
bird  is  rapid  and  powerful,  full  of  impetuous  dash,  performed  by  quick  and 
regular  strokes  of  the  long  wings,  but  sometimes  before  alighting  the  bird 
skims  along  for  a  few  yards  on  stiff  and  motionless  pinions.  Its  actions  in  the 
air  are  often  erratic,  the  flight  being  full  of  sudden  turns  and  twists.  The 
note  of  the  Oyster-catcher  is  characteristic,  and  cannot  readily  be  confused 
with  that  of  any  other  species  on  the  coast.  It  is  a  loud,  shrill  heep-heep  keep, 
usually  uttered  by  the  bird  during  flight,  often  as  it  rises  in  haste  from  the  beach, 
and  alarming  all  other  fowl  within  hearing.  I  have  often  had  a  long,  patient 
stalk  after  Curlew,  spoiled,  just  when  success  seemed  certain,  by  the  warning  pipe 


124  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

of  the  Oyster-catcher.  The  food  of  this  bird  is  principally  mussels,  whelks, 
limpets,  annelids,  crustaceans,  and  small  fish,  but  the  tender  buds  and  shoots 
of  various  marine  plants  are  also  eaten.  Its  flesh,  as  I  can  testify,  is  not  at  all 
unpalatable,  especially  to  a  hungry  sportsman  amidst  the  wilds  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides. 

Nidification. — The  flocks  of  Oyster-catchers  begin  to  disband  in  March, 
early  in  April  the  birds  are  paired,  and  by  the  beginning  of  May  eggs  may  be 
found,  although  laying  does  not  become  general  until  towards  the  end  of  that 
month  or  early  in  June.  Its  breeding  places  are  shingly  beaches,  low  islands, 
and  rock-stacks.  The  nest,  when  on  the  beach,  is  just  above  high-water  mark, 
often  in  the  line  of  drifted  rubbish  cast  up  by  unusually  high  tides.  Several 
nests  are  often  made  by  the  bird  before  it  is  satisfied.  I  have  seen  as  many  as 
half  a  dozen  of  these  mock  nests  within  a  few  yards  of  the  one  that  contained 
the  eggs.  The  nest  scarcely  deserves  the  name,  as  it  is  only  a  little  hollow  in  the 
shingle,  in  which  small  pebbles  and  bits  of  broken  shells  are  smoothed  into  a 
bed  for  the  eggs.  Sometimes  the  eggs  are  found  deposited  on  a  heap  of  drifted,  dry 
sea-weed.  Various  curious  sites,  however,  have  been  recorded,  they  having  been 
found  in  a  deserted  nest  of  a  Herring  Gull,  in  a  meadow  far  from  the  sea,  and  in  a 
cavity  at  the  top  of  a  felled  pine  tree.  I  have  seen  them  at  the  top  of  rock-stacks 
fifty  feet  above  the  water,  also  amongst  boulders  in  a  little  bay,  and  in  the  cliffs  which 
could  only  be  reached  with  a  boat.  The  eggs  are  usually  three  in  number,  some- 
times four,  and  exceptionally  only  two.  They  are  pale  buff  in  ground-colour, 
blotched,  spotted,  and  streaked  with  blackish-brown,  and  underlying  markings  of 
grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'2  inches  in  length  by  1'5  inch  in  breadth. 
Both  parents  attend  the  young,  but  the  female  incubates  the  eggs,  the  period 
being  from  twenty-three  to  twenty-four  days.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the 
season,  but  if  the  first  eggs  are  taken  another  clutch  will  be  laid.  The  male  gives 
warning  to  the  female  of  the  approach  of  danger,  and  she  leaves  her  eggs  at  once 
to  the  safety  ensured  by  their  protective  colour.  The  old  birds  become  noisy 
when  their  breeding  grounds  are  invaded,  especially  if  the  young  are  hatched, 
and  no  one  who  has  not  heard  a  dozen  or  more  Oyster-catchers  screaming 
together  overhead  can  imagine  the  din  these  birds  can  make.  The  broods  and 
their  parents  seem  to  keep  much  together  through  the  autumn  and  winter. 

Diagnostic  Characters — Hamatopus,  with  the  lower  back,  rump,  and 
upper  tail  coverts  white,  and  the  white  pattern  on  the  primaries  well  developed  on 
the  outer  webs  of  the  fourth  and  fifth.  Length,  16  to  17  inches. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  125 


Subfamily  CHARADRIIN^E.-The  Typical  Plovers. 


The  Typical  Plovers  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the 
CHARADBIIDM  by  their  combining  a  well-marked  dertrum  to  the  bill  with  a 
reticulated  metatarsus.  The  nasal  groove  does  not  extend  beyond  half  the  length 
of  the  culmen.  Dr.  Sharpe,  the  most  recent  monographer  of  the  present  order, 
divides  the  present  subfamily  into  no  less  than  twenty-four  genera — a  multipliation 
of  names  which  assuredly  the  majority  of  ornithologists  must  regret,  especially 
as  they  are  founded  in  many  cases  upon  characters  of  a  very  trivial  nature. 


Genus  /EGIALITLS,  or  Typical   Ringed  Plovers. 

Type,   ^GIALITIS   HIATICULA. 


/Egialitis,  of  F.  Boie  (1822). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  the  absence  of  a  hind  toe.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the 
first  primary  the  longest;  the  tail  is  somewhat  rounded  and  short,  not  exceedinghalf 
the  length  of  the  wing,  and  consists  of  twelve  feathers.  The  metatarsus  (longer 
than  the  middle  toe  and  claw)  is  reticulated,  the  lower  portion  of  the  tibia  devoid 
of  feathers.  The  bill  is  much  shorter  than  the  head,  and  less  than  the  middle 
toe  and  claw,  slender,  and  nearly  straight  to  the  end  of  the  nasal  groove,  then 
slightly  raised  and  arched  to  the  tip ;  nostrils  small  and  linear.  Toes  three  in 
number,  pointed  forward,  the  outer  and  middle  toe  with  little  or  no  web  at  the  base. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  twenty  species  and  subspecies,  which  are 
nearly  cosmopolitan.  Four  species  and  one  subspecies  are  included  as  British. 

The  Typical  Einged  Plovers  are  dwellers  principally  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and 
lakes,  although  some  species  also  affect  the  coast.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  and 
sustained  flight,  and  progress  on  the  ground  by  running  and  walking  with  great 
facility.  Their  notes  are  shrill  and  monotonous.  They  subsist  on  insects, 
crustaceans,  worms,  etc.  They  make  no  nest,  but  deposit  their  pyriform  eggs  in 
a  cavity  in  the  bare  ground.  These  are  four  in  number,  and  spotted.  They  are 
monogamous  and  gregarious,  especially  in  autumn  and  winter. 


126  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHABADBIID^E.  Genus 

Subfamily 


LITTLE    RINGED    PLOVER. 

^EGIALITIS   MINOE—  (Wolf  and  Meyer). 

PLATE   XIX. 
Charadrius  dubius,  Scop.  Del.  Flor.  et  Faun.  Insubr.  ii.  p.  93  (1786). 

Charadrius  minor  (Wolf  and  Meyer),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  128  (1850)  ;  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  16  (1885)  ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  120,  pi.  40  (1896). 


curonicus  (Gmel.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  491,  pi.  524  (1876)  ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  262  (1883);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxx.  (1895). 

/Egialitis  minor  (Wolf  and  Meyer),  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  229 
(1894). 

/Egialitis  dubia  (Scop.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gr.  Brit.  iii.  p.  162  (1896);  Sharpe,  Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  263  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  Little  Binged  Plover  is  an 
accidental  wanderer  to  England  ;  not  known  to  have  visited  Scotland  or  Ireland. 
It  has  been  obtained  in  Sussex  (two  examples),  Middlesex  (two  examples),  Hants 
(one  example)  ,  and  Scilly  Isles  (one  example)  .  Foreign  :  Palaearctic  region  from 
Atlantic  to  Pacific.  It  breeds  throughout  Europe  and  Palaearctic  Asia  south  of 
lat.  60°.  It  is  a  resident  throughout  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  as  far 
south  as  the  Great  Desert,  but  a  migrant  north  of  that  basin  and  throughout  its 
breeding  area  in  Asia,  wintering  south  of  the  Sahara  in  Africa  in  the  Intertropical 
realm,  and  in  Asia  in  most  parts  of  the  Oriental  region  ;  Asia  south  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  as  far  east  as  Borneo.  In  the  Australian 
region  it  has  occurred  in  Celebes  and  New  Guinea,  and  it  is  also  an  abnormal 
migrant  to  North  America.  North  of  lat.  60°,  up  to  the  Arctic  circle,  it  is  an 
accidental  visitor  only. 

Allied  forms.  —  Mgialitis  minor  jerdoni,  an  inhabitant  of  Ceylon,  India, 
Burma,  and  Cochin  China.  Differs  from  the  Little  Binged  Plover  in  having  the 
basal  half  of  the  lower  mandibJe  yellow  and  the  orbits  corrugated.  It  is  also  a 
smaller  bird.  M.  placidus,  an  inhabitant  of  Mantchooria,  Corea,  Japan,  the  valley 


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OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  127 

of  the  Yangtse  and  Nepal.  Differs  from  the  Little  Einged  Plover  in  being  much 
larger  (length  of  wing  5£  inches) ,  and  in  having  a  more  graduated  tail  (outer  tail 
feather  '5  inch  instead  of  less  than  '25  inch  shorter  than  the  middle  ones). 

Habits. — The  Little  Einged  Plover  is  not  nearly  as  much  a  marine  species 
as  the  Einged  Plover,  and  its  haunts  are  chiefly  the  banks  of  rivers  and  inland 
lakes  and  pools.  It  often  wanders  up  rivers  great  distances  inland,  and  shows 
a  special  preference  for  those  in  which  numerous  sandbanks  occur  and  where  the 
shores  are  pebble-strewn.  Water,  however,  does  not  always  seem  essential  to 
this  species  :  it  is  sometimes  met  with  on  dry  fallows  and  desert  plains  some 
distance  from  that  element.  It  is  a  thorough  ground  bird,  and  spends  most  of  its 
time  running  about  the  gravel  and  the  sand  in  quest  of  food.  From  time  to  time 
it  indulges  in  short  flights,  just  above  the  ground  or  water,  which  are  moderately 
quick,  and  performed  by  rapid  and  regular  beats  of  the  long  and  somewhat  arched 
wings.  It  is  said  to  be  more  shy  than  its  larger  congener,  but  certainly  this  is 
not  my  experience.  I  met  with  these  charming  little  birds  in  the  rapidly  drying- 
up  Oued,  at  Biskra,  on  the  confines  of  the  Great  Desert.  It  was  in  May,  and  all 
were  in  pairs,  apparently  for  the  breeding  season.  They  frequented  the  pebble- 
strewn  dry  bed  of  the  river  as  well  as  the  strips  of  sand  in  mid-stream,  and  I 
repeatedly  saw  them  soaring  above  scrub-clothed  ground  at  some  little  distance 
from  the  actual  bed  of  the  stream.  The  note  of  the  Little  Einged  Plover  is  a 
loud,  clear,  and  somewhat  plaintive  pee,  rendered  by  Naumann  as  ded,  rapidly 
repeated  when  the  bird  is  alarmed.  In  spring,  during  the  pairing  season,  the 
male  also  utters  a  by  no  means  unmusical  trill  as  it  soars  up  like  a  Lark,  and 
gradually  descends  again.  The  males  I  noticed  at  Biskra  kept  the  air  for  some 
little  time,  careering  about  after  they  reached  the  zenith  of  their  flight  just  as  the 
Sky  Lark  so  frequently  does.  The  food  of  this  species  is  composed  largely  of 
insects,  especially  beetles,  grubs,  and  worms.  Even  during  winter  this  bird  is 
never  as  gregarious  as  the  Einged  Plover,  and  as  often  as  not  is  met  with  alone, 
although  others  are  usually  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood. 

Nidification. — The  Little  Einged  Plover  arrives  at  its  European  breeding 
grounds  in  April,  but  the  eggs  are  seldom  laid  before  the  middle  or  end  of  May, 
and  sometimes  not  until  the  beginning  of  June.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  little 
hollow  in  the  sand  or  shingle,  which  the  parent  bird  scratches  out  for  their 
reception,  and  no  lining  ever  appears  to  be  inserted.  Mr.  Abel  Chapman  states 
that  he  frequently  found  the  eggs  deposited  in  a  slight  hollow,  scraped  in  dry 
cattle-droppings.  They  are  four  in  number,  very  pyriform,  buff  in  ground-colour, 
speckled  and  streaked  with  various  shades  of  brown  and  ink-grey,  most  numerous 
on  the  larger  end  of  the  egg.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'15  inch  in  length 
by  "85  inch  in  breadth.  As  the  watchful,  wary  parent  bird  is  careful  to  leave 
them  when  danger  approaches  the  eggs  are  difficult  to  find,  bearing,  as  they  do, 


128  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

such  a  close  resemblance  to  the  ground  on  which  they  rest.  The  young  soon 
after  they  are  hatched  follow  their  parents  in  quest  of  food.  If  the  chicks  are 
menaced  by  danger  the  old  birds  often  become  very  demonstrative,  and  keep  up 
an  incessant  chorus  of  shrill  notes  as  they  fly  about  the  air  above  the  head  of  the 
intruder  until  he  leaves  them  in  peace.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and 
the  young  and  their  parents  keep  together  for  some  time  after  the  former  can  fly. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Mgialitis,  with  the  outer  tail  feather  less 
than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  shorter  than  the  central  ones,  the  scapulars  the  same 
colour  as  the  back,  and  the  shaft  only  of  the  first  primary  white.  Length, 
6'5  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  129 

Family  CHAKADEIID^.  Genus 

Subfamily 


GREATER  RINGED  PLOVER. 

^GIALITIS   MAJOE— (Tristram). 

Charadrius  hiaticula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  253  (1766  partim.)  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv. 
p.  116  (1850  partim). 

Charadrius  major,  Tristram,  fide  Gray,  Hand-1.  B.  iii.  p.  15  (1871);  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  20  (1885). 

/Egialitis  hiaticula  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  p.  467,  pi.  525  (1876  partim) ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  257  (1883  partim) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xx.  (IQQlpartim). 

/Egialitis  hiaticula  major  (Tristram),  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  260  (1894) ; 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  121,  pi.  40  (1896). 

/Egialitis  hiaticola  (Linn.),  Sharpe,   Handb.  B.  Gt.   Brit.  iii.  p.  158  (1896  partim) ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  256  (1896  partim). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Greater  Einged  Plover  is 
widely  distributed  and  resident  throughout  the  British  Islands,  in  many  inland 
districts  as  well  as  on  the  sandy  portions  of  the  coast.  It  extends  to  the  Outer 
Hebrides  (but  not  to  St.  Kilda,  as  no  part  of  the  coast  there  is  suited  to  its  needs), 
the  Orkneys,  Shetlands,  and  the  Channel  Islands.  Foreign :  The  extra-British 
range  of  this  form  of  Einged  Plover  appears  to  be  very  restricted  so  far  as  can  at 
present  be  determined,  the  bird  being  confined  to  the  adjoining  coasts  of  France 
and  Holland.  Further  research  may  probably  show  it  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  all 
the  coasts  of  the  North  Sea. 

Allied  forms. — JEgialitis  hiaticula,  the  small  race,  which  will  be  treated 
of  in  the  following  chapter.  The  Greater  Einged  Plover  is,  in  its  typical  form,  a 
much  more  robust  bird,  and  has  the  upper  parts  paler  in  colour.  The  wings  on 
an  average  are  longer  (5'5  to  5'0  inches  instead  of  5'2  to  4'8  inches).  As  may  be 
remarked  from  these  figures,  the  two  races  completely  intergrade.  Mgialeus 
semipalmatus,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of  Arctic  and  Subarctic  America,  from 
Greenland  to  Alaska,  and  the  north-eastern  coasts  of  Asia,  and  in  winter  of 
tropical  America.  As  this  bird  is  found  at  least  as  far  south  as  Patagonia,  it  may 
prove  another  example  of  a  species  with  an  equatorial  winter  base  migrating  north 
and  south  to  breed  in  the  temperate  and  polar  regions  of  the  Northern  and 
Southern  hemispheres.  Although  the  bird  is  generically  distinct  from  both  races 
of  the  Einged  Plover  because  of  the  web  between  the  outer  and  middle  toes 

extending  to  the  second  joint,  its  great  resemblance  in  every  other  external 
9 


130  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

aspect  to  its  old-world  allies  should  make  examination  of  the  feet  of  all  Ringed 
Plovers  killed  on  our  coasts  imperative,  as  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the 
Semipalmated  Plover  occasionally  visits  the  British  Islands,  especially  in  autumn. 

Habits.— The  most  usual  haunts  of  the  Greater  Einged  Plover  are  the 
sandy  coasts,  although  exceptionally  it  frequents,  especially  during  the  breeding 
season,  the  shores  of  some  inland  lakes,  as  well  as  warrens  and  dunes  at  some 
considerable  distance  from  the  sea.  It  is,  however,  a  bird  of  the  sand  and 
a  bird  of  the  coast.  It  is  especially  attached  to  the  low  coasts,  not  the  mud- 
flats, but  the  long  broad  reaches  of  sand  and  shingle,  and  to  these  haunts  it  keeps 
throughout  the  year.  This  active  little  bird  is  incessantly  in  motion,  but,  pro- 
vided due  care  be  exercised,  will  admit  of  a  sufficiently  close  approach  to  observe 
its  every  action  with  ease.  It  runs  with  great  speed  across  the  wet  sands  just 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  waves,  picking  here  and  picking  there,  now  pausing  a 
moment,  then  darting  forward  to  probe  into  the  soft  brown  sand  in  quest  of  prey. 
It  follows  the  retreating  waves,  and  searches  the  wet  foam-flecked  sand,  and 
again  runs  shorewards  as  each  succeeding  wave  breaks  upon  the  beach.  It 
is  most  attached  to  its  feeding  grounds ;  and  in  autumn  and  winter,  when  the 
birds  have  taken  up  their  residence  on  some  particular  stretch  of  sand,  they 
may  be  fired  at  repeatedly,  always  flying  out  to  sea  for  a  little  way,  and 
returning  inshore  to  another  part  of  the  sand.  As  they  fly  in  a  more  or  less 
compact  bunch  a  chorus  of  double  notes  is  uttered,  and  the  moment  they  alight 
they  begin  searching  for  food  as  if  they  had  never  been  disturbed.  Sometimes 
in  inland  localities  this  bird  may  be  seen  running  along  the  tops  of  walls,  or  even 
on  weirs  and  sluices.  The  flight  of  this  Plover  is  rapid,  and  performed  by  quick 
and  regular  beats  of  the  wings.  It  usually  flies  along  at  no  great  distance  from 
the  ground  or  water,  but  when  seriously  alarmed  often  mounts  up  to  a  good 
height.  Sometimes  a  flock  will  perform  various  graceful  evolutions  in  the  air, 
turning  and  twisting  with  as  much  precision  as  though  moved  by  a  common 
impulse.  When  just  about  to  alight,  the  wings  are  frequently  held  stiff  and 
arched,  the  bird  skims  along  for  a  little  way,  and  often  the  pinions  are  held 
open  for  a  short  time  after  it  has  alighted.  I  have  often  marked  the  reluctance 
of  this  bird  to  take  wing,  as  it  ran  before  me  until  absolutely  compelled  to  rise. 
The  alarm  note  of  the  Einged  Plover  is  a  loud  shrill  too-it,  quickly  repeated,  but 
the  call-note  is  a  rather  harsh  turr.  During  the  pairing  season  this  double  note 
as  the  bird  rises  and  falls  in  the  air  is  often  repeated  so  quickly  as  to  become  a 
not  unmusical  trill.  This  bird  feeds  principally  upon  small  sand-worms,  shrimps, 
sand-hoppers,  and  the  inhabitants  of  tiny  shells.  It  also  eats  many  insects,  and 
I  have  taken  the  remains  of  vegetable  substances  from  its  stomach.  Throughout 
the  year  the  Einged  Plover  is  decidedly  social,  and  in  autumn  and  winter  congregates 
into  flocks  of  varying  size.  It  frequently  associates  during  the  latter  periods  with 
Sanderlings  and  Dunlins,  and  I  have  also  remarked  that  during  high  water  the  flock 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  131 

often    visits  the  higher  banks  of  shingle,  and  remains  almost  stationary   until 
the  tide  begins  to  ebb.     Young  and  old  flock  together  during  autumn  and  winter. 

Nidification. — Early  in  April  the  flocks  of  Einged  Plovers  begin  to 
disband  and  disperse  over  the  breeding  grounds,  although  the  eggs  are  not  laid 
until  May  or  early  June.  Many  pairs  may  often  be  found  breeding  in  one 
locality.  The  majority  of  the  birds  stick  to  the  sandy  stretches  of  coast  during 
the  summer,  but  others  retire  to  the  banks  of  inland  waters,  and  sometimes  the 
nest  is  made  at  a  considerable  distance  away  from  water.  The  nest  is  nothing  but  a 
little  hollow  in  the  sand,  and  very  often  even  that  slight  provision  is  dispensed 
with,  and  the  eggs  rest  upon  the  flat  surface.  They  are  always  laid  well  above 
high  water  mark,  and,  as  a  rule,  on  the  fine  sand  rather  than  on  the  coarser 
shingle.  Several  nests  may  be  found  quite  close  to  each  other.  The  eggs 
are  four  in  number,  pale  buff  in  ground-colour,  spotted  with  blackish-brown  and 
ink-grey.  The  markings  are  generally  very  small  and  evenly  distributed,  although 
sometimes  most  numerous  and  largest  on  the  big  end  of  the  egg.  They  measure 
on  an  average  1'4  inch  in  length  by  I'O  inch  in  breadth,  and  are  pyriform  in  shape 
and  smooth  in  texture.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  but  if  the  first  clutch 
be  removed  others  will  be  laid.  I  have  taken  the  eggs  of  this  species  towards 
the  end  of  June :  other  naturalists  have  found  them  as  late  as  the  beginning 
of  August.  The  bird  sits  little  during  the  day,  especially  if  the  sun  be  shining 
brightly ;  and  when  the  breeding  grounds  are  invaded  by  man  the  parent  Plovers 
manifest  little  concern,  as  if  fully  conscious  that  the  highly  protective  colours  of 
the  eggs  will  shield  them  from  harm.  Incubation  lasts  from  twenty-one  to 
twenty-three  or  even  twenty-four  days.  When  the  young  are  hatched,  however, 
the  old  birds  become  much  more  anxious,  and  strive  by  various  artifices  to  Jure 
an  intruder  away  from  their  helpless  offspring.  The  broods  frequent  the  shingle 
more  than  the  sand,  and  are  adept  at  hiding  themselves  when  threatened  by 
danger.  We  may  here  call  attention  to  a  statement  made  in  some  recent  works 
on  ornithology  claiming  the  authority  of  personal  observation,  to  the  effect  that 
Plovers  of  various  species  frequently  indulge  in  alluring  actions  to  draw  a  human 
intruder  from  the  vicinity  of  their  eggs.  So  far  as  our  experience  extends  they 
rarely,  if  ever,  do  this,  but  leave  their  eggs  to  that  protection  which  their  harmony 
of  colour  with  surrounding  objects  affords,  and  reserve  their  feigned  lameness 
and  other  wiles  to  divert  attention  from  their  helpless  young.  Certain  Sandpipers, 
however,  unquestionably  seek  to  lure  an  intruder  from  their  eggs  by  these 
artifices. 

Diagnostic  characters — Mgialitis,  with  the  underparts  white,  except 
the  lores,  and  a  dark  breast  band  (black  in  adult  male,  brown  in  female  and 
young),  with  the  central  half  of  the  outer  webs  of  the  innermost  primaries  white, 
and  the  base  of  both  mandibles  orange  yellow.  Length  of  wing,  5'7  to  5'0 
inches.  Total  length,  8  inches. 


132  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHARADRIIDyE.  Genus  JEGIALITIS. 

Subfamily 


RINGED    PLOVER. 

HIATICULA—  (Linneeus). 


Charadrius  hiaticula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  253  (1766  partim)  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv. 
p.  116  (1850  partim);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  20  (1885). 

/Egialitis  hiaticula  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  p.  467,  pi.  525  (1876  partim);  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  257  (1883  partim)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xx  (1891 
partim)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  227  (1894). 

/Egialitis  hiaticola  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  158  (1896  partim)  ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  256  (1896  partim). 

Geographical  distribution  —  British:  The  small,  dark  race  of  the 
Ringed  Plover  appears  only  to  pass  the  British  Islands  on  migration,  although 
there  is  some  confirmatory  evidence  that  a  few  pairs  remain  to  breed  on  the 
coasts  of  Kent  and  Sussex.  During  passage  in  spring  (May  and  June)  and 
autumn  (August,  September,  and  October)  it  frequents  most  parts  of  the  British 
coasts  suited  to  its  requirements,  and  often  follows  the  course  of  rivers  for  con- 
siderable distances  inland,  and  visits  sheets  of  water  far  from  the  coast.  Foreign  : 
Western  Palsearctic  region  and  North-eastern  portion  of  Nearctic  region.  It 
breeds  in  Cumberland  Bay,  on  the  American  coast  of  Davis  Strait  ;  on  the  coasts 
of  Greenland  up  to  lat.  79°  ;  in  Iceland,  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla,  and  probably 
Franz  Joseph  Land.  In  summer  it  is  found  in  suitable  districts  throughout 
Europe  north  of  the  Alps,  and  breeds  in  Madeira,  the  Canaries  (although  Mr. 
Meade  Waldo  records  it  as  passing  on  migration  only),  and  North  Africa  ;  whilst  in 
winter  it  is  found  almost  everywhere  in  the  latter  continent  :  although  in  the  south 
of  that  continent  the  explanation  of  this  may  be  that  a  second  set  of  individuals 
migrate  south  from  the  tropics  to  breed,  and  are  not  northern  individuals  at  all.  In 
Asia  it  is  found  in  summer  as  far  east  as  the  Taimur  Peninsula*  in  the  north, 
and  Lake  Baikal  in  the  south,  and  breeds  in  Turkestan  and  Western  Siberia. 
The  Asiatic  birds  pass  south-west,  by  routes  hitherto  undiscovered,  to  the  basin  of 

*  By  some  authorities  this  species  is  said  to  range  east  to  Behring  Straits,  but  the  evidence  is  not 
satisfactory,  jEgialeus  semipalmatiis  probably  being  mistaken  for  it.  There  can  also  be  little  doubt  that 
the  Ringed  Plover  breeding  in  the  extreme  south  of  Greenland  is  JEgialeus  semifalmatus.  The  Nearctic 
breeding  range  of  the  Ringed  Plover  requires  much  more  careful  definition.  Possibly  the  bird  may  be  a 
Circumpolar  one  during  summer,  and  confined  to  the  Old  World  during  winter. 


OP  THE    BEITISH   ISLANDS.  133 

the  Mediterranean  and  Africa  to  winter.  Von  Heuglin  is  of  opinion  that  the 
Ringed  Plover  breeds  on  the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  Gould  says  that  he  received 
an  example  from  Australia  ;  and  some  writers  have  asserted  that  the  bird  occasion- 
ally visits  Northern  India.  All  these  statements  require  confirmation. 

Allied  forms. — Mgialitis  major,  and  Mgialeus  semipalmatus.  For  par- 
ticulars of  which  see  preceding  chapter. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  small  race  of  the  Einged  Plover  are  not  known 
to  differ  in  any  important  respect  from  those  of  its  larger  ally.  It  is  a  rather  late 
migrant,  probably  because  it  spends  the  summer  in  the  Arctic  regions,  where  the 
season  is  later  than  in  more  southern  latitudes.  It  is  said  to  leave  its  winter 
quarters  in  Africa  during  April  and  May,  and  to  pass  along  our  coasts  during  May 
and  the  beginning  of  June.  Many  birds  cross  Continental  Europe  and  Western 
Asia,  following  the  great  river  valleys  to  and  from  the  Arctic  haunts.  In 
the  valley  of  the  Petchora  Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie-Brown  noted  the  arrival 
of  the  Ringed  Plover  at  Ust  Zylma  on  the  26th  of  May,  about  a  week  after 
the  ice  on  the  great  river  began  to  break  up  and  midsummer  had  suddenly 
displaced  midwinter.  Further  east,  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei,  the  bird  appears 
to  be  a  little  later,  and  Mr.  Seebohm  did  not  observe  it  until  the  8th  of  June. 
Nearly  ten  degrees  further  north  it  is  probably  later  still  in  its  arrival.  This  race 
is  said  to  migrate  in  flocks  which  do  not  mix  with  the  larger  form.  It  frequents 
the  banks  of  rivers,  sandbanks,  and  the  margins  of  lakes,  as  well  as  the  flat,  sandy 
coasts.  It  is  not  known  to  differ  from  the  larger  race  in  the  manner  of  its  flight, 
its  food,  or  its  notes.  The  southern  migration  commences  at  the  end  of  August, 
and  lasts  until  October. 

Nidification. — The  small  race  of  Ringed  Plover  is  not  known  to  differ  in 
any  respect  from  its  larger  ally  in  the  matter  of  its  nesting  arrangements.  Of 
course,  this  may  be  owing  to  the  neglect  of  observers,  who,  having  the  means  of 
studying  this  portion  of  its  economy,  have  confused  the  two  races.  It  is  a  rather 
remarkable  fact  that  Colonel  Feilden  found  a  nest  of  this  race  lined  with  the  green, 
fleshy  leaves  and  stems  of  Atriplex  littoralis,  a  fact  which  suggests,  if  it  does  not 
actually  prove,  a  difference  of  habit.  It  may  be  that  in  the  high  north  some  sort 
of  lining  is  added  to  the  sandy  nest  for  the  purposes  of  warmth.  The  eggs  of  this 
race  are  four  in  number,  and  although  they  do  not  differ  in  colour  they  are 
constantly  and  very  perceptibly  smaller.  One  brood  only,  it  appears,  is  reared  in 
the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  can  fly  the  short,  hot  Arctic  summer  is  well- 
nigh  waning,  and  the  southern  migration  begins. 

Diagnostic  characters.  —  jEgialitis,v/ith  the  upper  parts  slightly  darker 
than  those  of  the  preceding  race,  otherwise  the  characters  (excepting  the  following) 
are  the  same : — length  of  wing,  5'2  to  4'8  inches  ;  total  length,  7  inches. 


134  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHAEADEIID^l.  Genus 

Subfamily  GHARADRIIN&. 


KENTISH    PLOVER. 

^GIALITIS   CANTIANUS— (Latham). 

?  Charadrius   alexandrinus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  258  (1766). 

Charadrius  cantianus  (Latham),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  125  (1852) ;  Seebohin,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  25  (1885);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  122,  pi.  40  (1896). 

/Egialitis  cantianus  (Latham),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  483,  pi.  523  (1876) ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  267  (3883) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  259  (1893) ; 
Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxx.  (1895). 

/Ggialitis  alexandrina  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  166  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  275  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  Kentish  Plover  is  one  of  the 
most  local  of  British  birds,  its  only  known  breeding  places  being  upon  the  sandy 
portions  of  the  coasts  of  Kent  and  Sussex.  Even  here  the  greed  of  collectors  is 
rapidly  exterminating  it  as  a  nesting  species.  It  is  a  summer  visitor  to  the 
British  Islands,  and  has  occurred  accidentally  only  in  all  districts  except  the  two 
above  mentioned.  It  has  been  observed  on  the  east  coast  of  England  as  far 
north  as  Flamborough,  and  on  the  south  coast  as  far  west  as  Cornwall.  It  is 
unknown  in  Scotland,  and  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  Ireland.  It  breeds  freely 
upon  the  Channel  Islands.  Foreign :  The  Kentish  Plover  breeds  only  upon  the 
coasts  and  salt  lakes  of  the  Palsearctic  region ;  Ethiopian  and  parts  of  the 
Oriental  regions  in  winter.  It  is  a  summer  visitor  to  the  coasts  of  Western 
Europe  from  the  south  of  Sweden  to  France,  but  rare  on  the  Baltic  coasts.  It  is 
a  resident  on  the  coasts  and  lagoons  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  the  Azores, 
Canaries,  Madeira,  and  both  the  north  and  south  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean. 
Eastwards  it  visits  in  summer  the  salt  marshes  of  South  Kussia,  the  shores  of 
the  Black,  Caspian,  and  Aral  Seas,  the  salt  lakes  of  Turkestan,  South  Dauria, 
and  Mongolia.  The  migratory  European  individuals  winter  on  the  coasts  of 
Africa,  south  to  the  Iiitertropical  realm  ;  whilst  the  migratory  Asiatic  individuals 
winter  on  the  Mekran  coast,  in  India,  Ceylon,  Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
China,  and  Japan. 

Allied  forms. — Mgialitis  minutus,  an  inhabitant,  so  far  as  is  at  present 
known,  of  the  southern  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Ceylon.  Differs  from 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  135 

the  Kentish  Plover  in  being  smaller,  and  in  having  paler  legs.  Length  of 
wing  4'2  to  3'7  inches,  instead  of  4'5  to  4'1  inches.  M.  dealbatus,  a  resident 
on  the  coast  of  South  China,  Hainan,  and  Formosa.  Differs  from  the  Kentish 
Plover  in  being  a  little  larger,  and  in  having  pale  instead  of  black  legs,  although 
the  latter  is  said  not  to  be  a  constant  character.  Both  these  races  more  or  less 
iiitergrade,  and  can  only  be  regarded  as  subspecifically  distinct  from  the  Kentish 
Plover.  M.  nivosus,  resident  on  the  shores  of  Great  Salt  Lake  and  the  adjoining 
coast  of  California  (from  about  lat.  40°),  southwards  along  the  Pacific  coasts  to 
Chili.  Differs  from  the  Kentish  Plover  in  having  pale  legs  and  white  lores.  It 
is  also  on  an  average  a  smaller  bird  (wing  4-4  to  4-0  inches). 

Habits. — The  Kentish  Plover  is  even  more  attached  to  the  sand  than  the 
Kinged  Plover,  and  is  rarely,  if  ever,  found  far  from  salt  water,  either  on  the  shores 
of  the  sea  or  estuaries,  or  on  the  banks  of  salt  lakes  at  considerable  distance 
inland.  The  few  birds  of  this  species  that  breed  on  our  islands  arrive  in  their 
accustomed  haunts  towards  the  end  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  and  although 
odd  birds  have  been  picked  up  during  winter,  the  main  number  begin  to  retire 
again  south  in  August,  the  migration  lasting  into  the  first  half  of  September. 
Its  haunts  in  our  islands  are  certain  favoured  sandy  beaches,  where  the  fine  sand 
is  varied  with  patches  of  coarser  shingle  and  strewn  with  pebbles.  In  its  habits 
it  does  not  differ  in  any  remarkable  manner  from  the  Ringed  Plover,  and  searches 
for  its  food  on  the  margin  of  the  waves,  running  quickly  about  the  wet  sands, 
and  occasionally  wading  for  a  little  way  into  the  receding  waves  in  chase  of  a 
crustacean  or  sand-hopper.  Even  during  the  summer  it  is  by  no  means  unsociable, 
and  gathers  into  small  parties  to  feed.  It  is  also  by  no  means  a  shy  bird  during 
the  breeding  season,  and  permits  a  close  approach,  especially  when  its  eggs  are 
laid.  Its  flight  is  rapid,  and  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Einged  Plover.  It  also 
possesses  the  same  habit  of  gliding  along  before  alighting,  with  wings  held  arched 
and  rigid,  and,  like  that  species,  frequently  elevates  its  wings  as  it  runs,  both 
before  and  after  flight.  Its  alarm  note  is  a  shrill,  harsh  ptirr ;  but  the  usual  call- 
note  is  a  sharp,  clear  whit,  which  during  the  pairing  season  is  uttered  by  the 
male  so  quickly  as  to  form  a  trill  as  the  bird  soars  and  flies  round  and  round  above 
his  mate.  The  food  of  the  Kentish  Plover  consists  of  sand-worms,  crustaceans, 
mollusks,  and  insects.  Much  of  this  is  sought  amongst  the  drift  near  high-water 
mark  as  well  as  near  the  ebbing  or  flowing  tide. 

Nidification. — Soon  after  its  arrival  at  its  breeding  grounds  the  Kentish 
Plover  begins  nesting,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  by  the  end  of  May,  or,  at  latest,  the 
beginning  of  June.  This  species  makes  no  nest  beyond  merely  scraping  a  little 
hollow  in  the  sand  or  shingle,  although  it  is  said  the  eggs  are  sometimes  laid  on 
dry,  drifted  seaweed,  above  the  usual  high-water  mark.  Numbers  of  nests  may 
be  found  quite  close  together,  especially  in  places  where  the  bird  is  common. 


136-  THE  GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

The  eggs  are  usually  three,  but  in  some  cases  four,  in  number,  various  shades  of 
buff  in  ground-colour,  spottedj  scratched,  and  blotched  with  blackish-brown  and 
slate-grey.  The  scratchy  character  of  the  markings  on  the  eggs  of  this  species  is 
noteworthy.  The  eggs  measure  on  an  average  1'2  inch  in  length  by  "9  inch  in 
breadth.  The  sitting  bird  usually  receives  timely  notice  of  the  advance  of  an 
enemy,  and  slips  quietly  off  the  nest,  leaving  the  eggs  to  the  protection  their 
colours  ensure,  for  they  resemble  most  closely  the  ground  on  which  they  rest. 
When  the  young  are  hatched  the  parents  become  more  demonstrative,  and 
seek  by  various  antics  to  lure  an  intruder  away.  It  is  said  that  the  eggs  are 
sometimes  nearly  buried  in  the  sand,  but  whether  for  warmth  or  concealment  it 
is  difficult  to  say.  Dr.  Sharpe,  who  has  had  an  enviable  experience  of  this  rare 
bird,  thus  writes  respecting  the  young : — "  I  have,  however,  captured  several 
nestlings  by  resting  my  head  on  the  shingle,  when  the  little  creatures  become 
distinctly  visible  against  the  sky-line  as  they  run  along  with  wonderful  swiftness 
for  such  tiny  objects.  I  could  never  bring  myself  to  kill  any  of  these  fluffy  little 
balls  of  down,  with  their  great  dark  eyes  and  abnormally  long  legs  ;  and,  later  in 
the  autumn,  I  have  been  rewarded  by  seeing  flocks  of  Kentish  Sand  Plovers 
feeding  on  the  green  herbage  which  skirts  the  harbours  after  the  tide  has  receded. 
I  once  saw,  from  behind  my  shelter  of  a  mud-bank,  more  than  forty  of  these 
pretty  birds  feeding  on  the  green  moss  near  Eomney  Hoy,  and  a  more  interesting 
sight  can  scarcely  be  imagined."  As  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  particulars, 
the  Kentish  Plover  becomes  gregarious  in  autumn,  as  so  many  other  kindred 
species  do.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  young  and  old  keep  in 
company  until  the  time  of  departure  south. 

Diagnostic  characters — Mgialitis,  with  the  nuchal  collar  white,  a 
dark  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  breast,  but  not  extending  round  the  neck,  and  with 
a  white  patch  on  the  central  portion  of  the  shaft  of  the  third  primary.  Legs 
black.  Length,  6  to  7  inches. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  137 


Genus  OXYECHUS,  or  Wedge=tailed    Ringed    Plovers. 

Type,  OXYECHUS  VOCIFEKUS. 


Oxyechus,  of  Eeichenbach  (1852). — The  birds  comprising  the  present 
genus  are  characterised  by  having  two  dark  bands  separated  by  a  white  one  across 
the  breast,  an  exceptionally  long  and  wedge-shaped  tail,  more  than  half  the 
length  of  the  wing — and  the  inner  web  of  the  two  outermost  tail  feathers  crossed 
with  one  or  more  dark  bands.  The  hind  toe  is  absent ;  the  metatarsus  is  moderate 
in  length,  never  exceeding  twice  the  length  of  the  culmen.  The  wings  are 
long  and  pointed. 

This  genus  contains  four  species,  confined  to  the  Ethiopian  region  and  the 
Nearctic  and  Neotropical  regions.  Three  of  these  are  residents  in  the  former, 
and  one  other  is  distributed  over  the  two  latter.  The  New  World  species  is  a 
very  rare  abnormal  migrant  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Wedge-tailed  Ringed  Plovers  are  dwellers  on  the  banks  of  inland  rivers 
and  lakes,  salt  swamps,  and  inland  tidal  flats,  rather  than  on  coasts,  although 
they  appear  on  the  latter  to  some  extent.  They  resemble  the  Ringed  Plovers  in 
their  habits,  food,  flight  and  general  movements,  and  are  in  fact  very  closely 
allied  to  those  birds.  Three  of  the  species  are  sedentary,  but  the  fourth — the 
New  World  representative  of  the  genus — is  migratory.  Their  nests  are  little  more 
than  hollows  in  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  double-spotted.  So  far  as  is 
known  they  are  monogamous  and  gregarious,  especially  during  the  non-breeding 
season. 


138  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHARADRIID^E.  Genus  OXYECHUS. 

Subfamily  GHABADRIINM. 


KILLDEER    PLOVER. 

OXYECHUS  VOCIFERUS—  (Linnaus) . 
PLATE   XIX. 

Charadrius  vociferus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  253  (1766) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  13.  iii. 
p.  28  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  123,  pi.  39  (1896). 

/Egialitis  vocifera  (Linn.),  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  266  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xxv  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  226  (1894). 

Oxyechus  vociferus  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  155  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  242  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  Two  instances  of  the  occur- 
rence of  the  Kildeer  Plover  have  been  recorded,  one  of  which  must  be  viewed 
with  the  greatest  doubt.  This  latter  concerns  an  example  which  was  said 
to  have  been  killed  in  April,  1857,  near  Christchurch,  in  Hampshire  (Sclater, 
Ibis,  1862,  p.  275).  A  second  example  appears  to  be  genuinely  British.  It  was 
shot  by  Mr.  Jenkinson  on  the  15th  of  January,  1885,  at  Tresco,  in  the 
Scilly  Islands,  and  was  identified  by  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  (Zoologist,  1885, 
p.  113.)  Incidentally  we  may  remark  that  on  the  7th  of  September,  1898, 
we  flushed  an  example  of  the  Killdeer  Plover  on  Paignton  Sands.  The 
bird  rose  at  our  very  feet,  and  we  had  ample  opportunity  of  fully  identifying 
this  characteristically  marked  species.  It  was  not  obtained,  and  its  record, 
of  course,  is  worthless  from  a  strictly  scientific  point  of  view.  Foreign  : 
Nearctic  region,  and  parts  of  the  Neotropical  region  in  winter.  It  breeds 
throughout  the  United  States,  north  to  South  Canada,  and  on  the  plains 
of  the  Saskatchewan.  It  is  a  resident  in  the  Southern  States  and  California,  but 
migratory  in  the  north,  passing  the  Bermudas  on  abnormal  migration,  and  win- 
tering in  the  West  Indies,  Mexico  (where  a  few  remain  to  breed),  Central  America, 
and  South  America,  as  far  south  as  the  Intertropical  realm  (Colombia  and  Peru). 

Allied  forms.  — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  require  notice,  the 
three  other  species  all  being  inhabitants  of  Africa. 

Habits. — In  many  parts  of  its  range  the  Killdeer  Plover  is  sedentary,  but 
in  the  colder  portions  it  is  more  or  less  migratory,  although  it  often  lingers  even 
in  them  until  late  in  the  autumn,  and  appears  again  very  early  in  the  following 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  139 

spring.  It  differs  very  considerably,  however,  from  the  Einged  Plover  in  the 
choice  of  a  haunt,  shunning  the  sea  coasts  almost  entirely,  and,  like  the 
Dotterel,  living  in  inland  districts,  on  the  banks  of  lakes,  pools,  and  rivers,  and  in 
swamps.  It  may  be  sometimes  met  with  near  brackish  back-waters  and  lagoons; 
but  the  open  sandy  coasts  appear  to  have  no  attraction.  The  flight  of  this  species 
is  rapid,  performed  by  regular  and  quick  beats  of  the  wings  ;  but  sometimes  the 
bird  holds  its  pinions  arched  and  stiff  and  skims  for  some  distance.  It  also 
frequently  keeps  them  elevated  for  a  second  or  so  after  it  has  alighted,  and  some- 
times unfolds  them  when  in  the  act  of  running.  It  is  said  to  frequent  fallows 
and  grass  lands  in. search  of  food,  and  not  unfrequently  to  wade  into  the  water 
for  a  little  distance  when  running  quickly  round  the  margin  with  bobbing  head 
and  flicking  tail.  The  food  of  the  Killdeer  Plover  consists  of  insects,  worms,  and 
crustaceans,  and  the  bird  may  sometimes  be  noticed  following  the  plough  and 
searching  the  newly-turned  earth  for  these  creatures.  Its  note  is  a  loud,  clear, 
whistling  tilt-tilt-tilt,  which  probably  becomes  a  trill  during  the  pairing  season, 
and  is  drawn  out  into  too-it,  something  like  that  of  our  Hinged  Plover,  when  the 
bird  is  alarmed.  This  latter  has  been  likened  to  the  syllables  kill-dee  (the  dee 
often  repeated  singly  several  times  in  succession),  whence  the  English  name  of 
the  bird  has  been  derived  by  American  sportsmen,  who  are  apt  to  dislike  the 
Killdeer  because  its  shrill  note  often  disturbs  more  important  game.  It  is  said  to 
be  a  very  noisy  bird,  especially  if  much  disturbed  or  threatened  by  danger.  In 
autumn  the  Killdeer  Plover  becomes  more  gregarious,  migrates  in  companies,  it 
is  said  generally  at  night  and  often  at  a  great  altitude,  and  spends  the  winter  in 
flocks  of  varying  size,  just  as  our  own  Einged  Plovers  do. 

Nidif ication. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Killdeer  Plover  varies  a  good 
deal,  according  to  the  latitude  of  the  nesting  grounds.  In  southern  haunts  the 
beginning  of  April  appears  to  be  the  time ;  in  the  central  portion  of  its  distribu- 
tion not  until  May ;  whilst  at  the  northern  limits  of  its  summer  range  breeding 
does  not  commence  until  June.  The  nest  is  merely  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  lined 
with  a  few  bits  of  dry  grass  or  other  herbage,  but  in  many  cases  even  this  slight 
provision  is  omitted.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  pale  buff  in  ground-colour, 
blotched  and  spotted  with  blackish-brown,  and  underlying  markings  of  brownish- 
grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'6  inch  in  length  by  I'l  inch  in  breadth. 
Both  parents  assist  in  hatching  the  eggs,  and  become  demonstrative  when 
the  young  are  hatched,  feigning  lameness,  and  trying  to  lure  the  intruder  away  by 
cunning  devices.  One  brood  only  appears  to  be  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Oxyechus,  with  the  lower  back,  rump,  and 
upper  tail  coverts  chestnut-buff.  Length,  9  to  10  inches. 


140  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 


Genus  OCHTHODROMUS,  or  Red=breasted   Ringed   Plovers. 

Type,  OCHTHODKOMUS  WILSONI. 


Ochthodromus,  of  Eeichenbach  (1852). — The  birds  comprising  the  present 
genus  are  characterised  by  having  a  chestnut  band  across  the  breast,  mixed  with 
black  in  0.  wilsoni,  and  the  culmen  about  equal  in  length  to  the  middle  toe  and 
claw.  The  hind  toe  is  absent.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed.  The  birds 
forming  this  genus  are  obviously  closely  allied  to  the  typical  Einged  Plovers,  but 
they  are  all  larger,  and  have  a  much  stouter  bill. 

This  genus  contains  eight  species  and  races,  distributed  over  most  parts  of  the 
world  with  the  exception  of  Western  Europe,  Western  Africa,  the  southern  limits 
of  South  America,  and  the  Pacific  Islands.  One  species  is  a  very  rare  abnormal 
migrant  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Bed-breasted  Einged  Plovers  are  dwellers  on  sandy  plains,  grassy  uplands, 
the  banks  of  rivers,  salt  lakes  and  inland  seas,  and  the  coasts  of  oceans.  They 
are  birds  of  rapid  and  sustained  flight,  and  run  and  walk  with  ease.  Their 
notes  are  shrill  and  monotonous,  and  they  subsist  upon  insects,  crustaceans,  sand- 
worms,  &c.  Their  nests  are  slight,  mere  depressions  in  the  ground,  and  the  eggs, 
pyriform  in  shape  and  three  or  four  in  number,  are  double  spotted.  They 
are  monogamous  and  gregarious,  especially  during  the  non-breeding  season. 


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OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  141 

Family  CHARADRIID^.  Genus  OCHTHODBOMDS. 

Subfamily  CHARADRIIN&,. 


CASPIAN    PLOVER. 

OCHTHODROMUS    ASIATICUS— 
PLATE   XX. 

Charadrius  asiaticus,  Pallas,  Eeis.  Euss.  Eeichs.  ii.  p.  715  (1773). ;  Seebohm,  Col. 
Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  122  (1896). 

/Egialitis  asiatica  (Pall.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  479,  pis.  520,  fig.  1,  522  (1878)  ; 
Butler,  Ibis,  1890,  p.  463  ;  Southwell,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1890,  p.  461 ;  Lilford,  Col. 
Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxi.  (1892). 

/4Egialophilus   asiaticus  (Pall.),  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.   B.  p.  231 

(1894). 

Ochthodromus  asiaticus  (Pall.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  150  (1896) ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  230  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  At  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological 
Society  on  June  17th,  1890,  the  secretary,  Dr.  P.  L.  Sclater,  exhibited  on  behalf 
of  Mr.  T.  Southwell  a  mounted  specimen  of  the  Caspian  Plover,  the  first  and 
only  example  known  to  have  been  killed  in  the  British  Islands.  Mr.  Southwell's 
communication  was  as  follows  :— "  On  the  evening  of  the  23rd  May  I  received 
from  Mr.  Lowne,  of  Yarmouth,  the  fresh  skin  of  a  handsome  full-plumaged  male 
of  MgiaUtii  asiatica,  sent  me  for  identification.  Subsequently  I  learned  the 
following  particulars  with  regard  to  this  interesting  occurrence.  During  the 
morning  of  the  23rd  of  May  two  strange  birds  were  seen  in  a  large  market 
garden  bordering  on  the  North  Denes,  at  Yarmouth,  which  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  occupier  of  the  gardens,  but  he  had  no  opportunity  of  a  shot  till 
about  5.30  p.m.,  when  they  were  on  the  golf  ground  which  forms  a  portion  of 
the  Denes.  He  tried  to  get  both  birds  in  a  line  for  a  double  shot ;  that  being 
unsuccessful  he  selected  the  brighter  of  the  two,  its  companion  being  at  the  time 
about  six  yards  distant  from  it.  When  he  fired,  the  paler  bird,  presumably  the 
female,  flew  off  in  a  westerly  direction  and  was  no  more  seen.  Very  shortly 
after  the  bird  was  purchased  of  the  shooter  by  Mr.  H.  C.  Knights,  by  whom  it 
was  taken  the  next  morning  to  Mr.  Lowne  for  preservation,  who,  .as  before 
stated,  forwarded  the  skin  to  me  for  identification.  The  weather  at  the  time  was 
very  warm,  and  Mr.  Lowne,  seeing  that  it  was  a  valuable  bird,  would  not  risk 
sending  it  to  me  in  the  flesh  ;  hence  it  was  that  I  saw  only  the  skin,  but  I  may 
mention  that  it  had  all  the  appearance  of  having  been  very  recently  removed,  and 


142  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

that  there  were  still  many  living  parasites  remaining  on  the  feathers.  The 
sternum  Mr.  Lowne  sent  to  Professor  Newton.  The  total  length  of  the  bird  in 
the  flesh  was  8  inches  and  its  weight  2£  oz.  Mr.  Knights  was  good  enough  to 
give  me  the  first  offer  of  the  bird,  and  through  the  liberality  of  some  friends  of 
the  Norwich  Museum  I  was  enabled  to  purchase  this  latest  addition  to  the  many 
local  rarities  for  that  institution."  (Sclater,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1890,  p.  461.)  Foreign  : 
South  central  Palaearctic  region  ;  Ethiopian  region  in  winter.  The  range  of  this 
Plover  is  remarkably  restricted,  the  bird  in  the  breeding  season  being  apparently 
confined  to  the  basins  of  the  Caspian  and  Aral  Seas.  It  passes  Arabia  and  the 
Upper  Nile  Valley  on  migration,  and  winters  in  Africa  in  the  Intertropical  realm. 
There  can  be  'little  doubt  that  this  is  another  species  which  migrates  north  and 
south  from  an  equatorial  base.  That  it  breeds  in  South  Africa  seems  to  be  sug- 
gested by  the  fact  that  examples  in  full  breeding  dress — dated  from  November  to 
February — have  been  obtained  there,  and  are  now  in  the  National  Collection.  It 
is  also  a  rare  visitor  to  Western  India,  and  is  also  a  straggler  to  Heligoland  and 
Italy ;  whilst  an  immature  bird  was  taken  six  hundred  miles  from  land  in  the 
Indian  Ocean. 

Allied  forms. — None  with  which  it  is  likely  to  be  confused. 

Habits. — But  little  is  known  of  the  habits  of  this  Plover ;  and  from  the 
few  fragments  recorded  in  the  Ibis  and  elsewhere  I  do  not  find  anything  of  special 
interest. 

Nidification. — A  reputed  egg  of  this  species  taken  on  the  Kirghiz  Steppes 
is  described  by  Mr.  Dresser  (B.  of  Europe)  as  oval  and  tapering,  warm  buff,  with 
a  faint  tinge  of  green  in  ground-colour,  and  the  spots  nearly  black.  This  descrip- 
tion appears  to  be  a  doubtful  one.  Von  Middendorff  figures  an  egg  of  this  bird 
in  his  Beise  in  Nord.  und  Ost.  Sibiriens,  ii.,  pi.  xix.,  fig.  4.  It  measures  1'25  inch 
in  length  by  1-07  inch  in  breadth. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Ochthodromus,  with  no  black  markings  on 
the  head  and  neck,  with  the  lores  white,  and  the  legs  and  feet  pale  brown. 
Length,  7'5  inches. 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  143 


Genus   EUDROMIAS,    or   Dotterels. 

Type,  EUDEOMIAS  MOBINELLUS. 


Elldromias,  of  Brehm  (1831).  — Although  very  closely  allied  to  the  birds  in 
the  preceding  genus,  the  Dotterel  presents  certain  characteristics  which  to  some 
extent  warrant  its  generic  exclusion.  The  single  species  in  the  present  genus  is 
characterised  by  having  the  tibia  almost  entirely  feathered,  and  the  culmen  less 
than  the  combined  length  of  the  middle  toe  and  claw.  The  hind  toe  is  wanting 
and  the  wings  are  long  and  pointed. 

This  genus  contains  but  a  single  species  which  is  confined  to  the  Palsearctic 
region  in  summer,  and  in  winter  is  found  also  in  the  Ethiopian  portion  of  the 
Intertropical  realm.  It  is  a  summer  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  and  passes 
them  on  spring  and  autumn  migration. 

The  Dotterel  is  an  inland  species  rather  than  a  dweller  on  the  coasts,  and  in 
its  habits  and  economy  closely  resembles  its  allies.  Full  particulars  will  be  given 
in  the  following  chapter. 


144  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHAKADKIID^E.  Genus  EUDROMIAS. 

Subfamily  CHARADRllNM. 


DOTTEREL. 

EUDEOMIAS    MOKINELLUS— (Linnceus) . 
PLATE   XXI. 

Charadrius  morinellus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  254  (1766) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii. 

p.  30  (1885)  ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  123,  pi.  39  (1896). 
Pluvialis  morinellus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  104  (1850). 

Eudromias  morinellus  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  507,  pi.  526  (1875)  ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  246  (1883)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  257  (1893) ; 
Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  152  (1896)  ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv. 
p.  234  (1896) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxiv.  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  In  England  the  Dotterel  is 
chiefly  met  with  on  spring  and  autumn  passage,  more  frequently  in  the  eastern 
counties  than  in  the  western.  A  few  perhaps  may  still  breed  in  the  Lake  District 
and  on  the  Cheviot  Hills.  Probably  it  may  have  formerly  bred  on  some  of  the 
chalk  ranges  in  the  south,  but  if  so  it  has  long  ceased  to  do  so.  It  is  of  very  rare 
occurrence  in  Wales,  but  this  may  probably  be  owing  in  a  great  measure  to 
insufficient  observation.  It  is  rarer  in  Ireland  than  in  England,  and  is  not  known 
to  have  nested  there.  Scotland  is  its  headquarters  in  the  British  Islands,  and 
there  it  is  said  to  breed  on  the  hills  of  Dumfriesshire,  on  the  Grampians  in 
North  Perthshire,  on  the  borders  of  Inverness-shire  and  in  Koss  and  Banffshire. 
It  has  been  found  nesting  on  the  Orkneys,  but  only  passes  the  Shetlands  on 
migration.  In  the  west  of  Scotland  it  is  rare,  and  has  not  hitherto  been  noticed 
in  any  of  the  Outer  Hebrides.  Foreign  :  Palaearctic  region  during  the  breeding 
season  ;  western  Palsearctic  region  and  Ethiopian  region  in  winter  only.  It 
breeds  on  the  tundras  above  forest  growth  across  Europe  (including  Nova  Zembla) 
and  Asia ;  passes  Central  Europe  (where  a  few  remain  to  breed  on  the  Alps,  in 
Bohemia,  in  Transylvania,  and  further  north  on  the  mountains  of  Scandinavia), 
West  Siberia,  Turkestan,  and  Persia  on  migration,  and  winters  in  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  North-west  Africa,  although  a  few  remain  during  that  season  on  the 
northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  an  occasional  visitor  to  the  Canaries, 
and  has  been  recorded  from  Japan. 

Allied  forms. — Ochihodromus  veredus,  a  somewhat  distantly  related  and 
genetically  distinct  species,  which  breeds  in  Mongolia,  and  winters  from  Java  to 


X 
X 


— 
Q_ 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  145 

Australia.  Differs  from  the  Dotterel,  amongst  other  characters,  in  having  a 
white  belly  in  summer  plumage,  and  in  its  small  foot  (middle  toe  without  claw 
shorter  than  bill,  and  less  than  half  the  tarsus.— Scebohm.) 

Habits. — The  migrations  of  the  Dotterel  are  by  no  means  the  least 
interesting  portion  of  the  bird's  economy.  The  story  of  its  journeying  from  North 
Africa  to  Arctic  Europe  in  the  space  of  a  single  night  is  unquestionably  the 
wildest  of  romance.  This  extraordinary  story  seems  to  receive  confirmation  by 
the  fact  that  during  spring,  of  the  tens  of  thousands  of  Dotterels  that  leave 
Africa  for  the  Arctic  tundras,  comparatively  few  birds  are  seen  in  the  intervening 
country,  in  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  but  this  is  unquestionably  because 
Dotterels  (as  well  as  most,  if  not  all  other  migrants)  are  far  less  prone  to  alight 
en  route  in  spring,  travel  quicker,  and  often  at  a  much  greater  altitude  than  they 
do  in  autumn.*  The  Dotterel  is  a  late  migrant,  not  reaching  our  islands  until 
the  end  of  April  or  beginning  of  May,  and  the  Arctic  regions  a  month  or 
more  later.  The  passage  south  in  autumn  is  undertaken  much  more  slowly, 
beginning  in  September  and  lasting  in  the  extreme  south  of  Europe  through 
October  into  November ;  indeed,  an  example  has  been  shot  in  the  British  Islands 
as  late  as  the  23rd  of  the  latter  month.  The  Dotterel  is  in  no  sense  a  coast  bird, 
but  loves  to  haunt  the  upland  fallows,  and  the  bare  downs  and  mountains,  and 
rough,  barren  pastures.  In  the  Arctic  region  it  frequents  the  tundra  — a  district 
very  similar  to  our  own  moorlands,  treeless,  but  covered  with  a  great  variety  of 
herbs  and  heaths,  shrubs  and  flowers.  All  through  the  summer  the  Dotterel  is 
more  or  less  gregarious,  and  in  autumn  and  winter  becomes  especially  so.  Upon 
its  arrival  it  is  one  of  the  tamest  of  birds,  and  admits  of  a  very  close  approach, 
but  persecution  soon  teaches  it  wariness  Its  remarkable  trustfulness  has  gained 
for  it  the  name  of  "  foolish"  Dotterel — the  latter  word  in  olden  times  being  the 
equivalent  for  a  "  foolish,  dull  person."  The  Dotterel  spends  most  of  its  time  on 
the  ground,  running  hither  and  thither  about  the  rough,  hummocky  wastes,  or 
over  the  newly-ploughed  fields  and  bare  downs.  Its  rather  short  neck  and  plump 
body  is  apt  to  lend  it  the  appearance  of  sluggishness,  but  when  flushed  it  flies 
rapidly  enough,  in  true  Plover  style,  with  quick,  regular  beats  of  the  long  wings. 
Its  call-note  is  a  prolonged  and  plaintive  diit,  varied  sometimes  into  drr,  the  two 
occasionally  being  uttered  together  as  drr-dilt.  This  note  in  the  pairing  season 
becomes  a  trill,  but  whether  uttered  by  the  male  or  female,  or  by  both,  remains  to 
be  ascertained.  The  food  of  the  Dotterel  consists  of  insects,  worms,  and  grubs,  and 
the  tender  buds  and  shoots  of  plants.  In  Palestine,  Canon  Tristram  observed 
this  species  feeding  on  various  species  of  small  white  snails.  During  winter 
the  Dotterel  often  congregates  into  very  large  flocks,  which  frequent  the  various 
southern  steppes  and  plains,  and  here  they  are  described  as  being  just  as  tame  as 
in  the  breeding-places. 

*  (Conf.  The  Migration  of  Birds  and  The  Migration  of  British  Birds.) 


146  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Nidification. — From  the  nature  of  the  country  it  frequents  the  Dotterel  is 
a  rather  late  breeder,  and  even  in  our  islands  the  eggs  are  seldom  laid  before  the 
end  of  May  or  the  first  week  in  June.  In  higher  latitudes  they  are,  of  course, 
later  still.  There  is  much  of  interest  attached  to  the  nesting  of  the  Dotterel. 
In  the  first  place  the  hen  is  larger  and  more  handsomely  coloured  than  the  cock,* 
and,  as  is  usual  in  such  very  exceptional  cases,  the  male  bird  not  only  performs  the 
greater  part  of  the  duty  of  incubation,  but  takes  the  largest  share  in  the  task 
of  bringing  up  the  young.  The  nest  is  merely  a  slight  hollow  amongst  the 
moss  and  lichen  or  grass  near  the  mountain-tops,  or  on  the  open  tundra.  The 
eggs  are  invariably  three  in  number,  and  very  handsome  objects,  varying  from 
yellowish-olive  to  pale  buff  in  ground-colour,  richly  blotched  and  spotted  with 
dark  brown,  and,  much  more  sparingly,  with  slate-grey.  They  measure  on  an 
average  1'6  inch  in  length  by  I'l  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation  lasts  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-one  days.  At  the  nest  the  old  birds  are  very  wary,  if  some- 
what tame,  and  run  about  or  fly  from  place  to  place,  tiring  all  but  the  most 
patient  watcher,  and  only  returning  to  the  eggs  when  the  intruder  is  considered 
by  the  watchful  owners  to  be  at  a  sufficiently  safe  distance.  When  the  young  are 
discovered  the  parent  oftens  feigns  lameness,  and  seeks  to  lure  an  intruder  away 
by  various  cunning  artifices.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  Fresh  eggs 
of  this  species  have  been  found  on  the  Cumberland  hills  as  late  as  July,  probably 
the  produce  of  birds  that  had  lost  their  first  clutch. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Eudromias,  with  the  axillaries  grey,  and  the 
bill  shorter  than  the  middle  toe  without  the  claw.  In  breeding  plumage  this 
species  is  easily  recognised  by  its  rich  chestnut  breast  and  flanks  and  black  belly. 
Length,  9  inches. 


*  This  has  recently  been  denied  by  Dr.  Sharpe,  who  states  that  the  series  of  skins  in  the  British 
Museum  does  not  confirm  the  suggestion.     Equally  good  authorities,  however,  maintain  the  contrary. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  147 


Genus    CHARADRIUS,   or  Golden   Plovers. 

Type,  CHAKADEIUS  PLUVIALIS. 


Chnraclrius,  of  Linnseus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  the  innermost  secondaries  very  long  and  pointed,  and 
the  under  parts  black  in  breeding  plumage.  The  upper  parts  are  spotted  with 
golden  yellow  at  all  seasons.  The  hind  toe  is  absent.  The  bill  is  shorter  than 
the  head,  and  rather  slender ;  the  nostrils  are  sub-basal  and  linear.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  tibia  is  naked. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  three  species,  and  is  almost  cosmopolitan,  but  the 
species  are  most  abundant  in  the  high  north  in  summer.  One  species  is  a  common 
resident  in  the  British  Islands,  whilst  the  remaining  two  are  abnormal  migrants 
to  them. 

The  Golden  Plovers  are  dwellers  on  mountains,  tundras,  and  plains,  as  well 
as  on  the  sea  coast.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  and  prolonged  flight,  and  progress 
on  the  ground  by  walking  and  running.  Their  notes  are  loud,  and  not  unmusical. 
They  subsist  on  insects,  worms,  mollusks,  small  seeds,  mountain  fruits,  and 
shoots  of  herbage.  Slight  nests  are  made  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs,  pyriform 
in  shape  and  four  in  number,  are  richly  spotted.  They  are  monogamous ;  social 
in  summer,  gregarious  in  winter. 


148  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHARADEIID^l.  Genus  CHAKADRIUS. 

Subfamily  CHARADRIIN&. 


GOLDEN    PLOVER. 

CHABADKIUS   PLUVIALIS.— Linnatus. 
PLATE  XXII. 

Charadrius  pluvialis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  254  (1766) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  435, 
pi.  515,  fig.  1  (1871);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  271  (1883);  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  35  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xiii.  (1891) ;  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  255  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  143  (1896) ; 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  124,  pi.  39  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.  xxiv.  p.  191  (1896.) 

Pluvialis  aurea  (P.  L.  S.  Miiller),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  94  (1852). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Golden  Plover  breeds 
locally  in  England  south  of  Derbyshire,  and  in  Wales,  in  fact  it  follows  the  moun- 
tains. A  few  breed  in  Devon  and  Somerset ;  and  on  the  heights  of  Breconshire, 
amongst  other  localities,  in  the  Welsh  area.  From  the  moors  of  North  Derby- 
shire and  South  Yorkshire  it  becomes  more  plentiful,  and  from  thence  is  pretty 
generally  distributed  in  all  suitable  localities  northwards  throughout  Scotland, 
including  the  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys,  and  Shetlands.  It  occasionally  visits 
St.  Kilda.  During  the  winter  it  is  widely  dispersed  along  most  of  our  coast-line 
and  in  many  inland  districts.  In  Ireland  it  is  widely  distributed,  breeding  on 
the  moors,  and  frequenting  the  coasts  in  winter.  Foreign :  It  breeds  on  the 
Faroes  and  in  Iceland,  and  has  occurred  on  Jan  Mayen  and  Nova  Zembla,  but  is 
erroneously  recorded  as  from  Greenland.  The  principal  breeding  grounds  are  the 
Norwegian  fells,  and  the  tundras  of  Northern  Russia  and  Siberia,  as  far  east  as 
the  valley  of  the  Lena ;  and  it  breeds  in  smaller  numbers  on  the  moors  of  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  Germany,  but  to  the  rest  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe  it  is 
known  on  passage  only,  a  few  remaining  in  these  districts  to  winter.  The  birds 
that  breed  on  the  Siberian  tundras  pass  through  Turkestan  and  Baluchistan  on 
migration,  a  few  remaining  to  winter  in  the  latter  country,  but  the  majority 
passing  on  to  spend  that  season  in  Africa  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
grand  winter  home  of  this  species.  It  is  a  regular  winter  visitor  to  the  Canaries, 
a  straggler  to  Madeira,  and  occasionally  wanders  in  Africa  as  far  south  as  Cape 
Colony  and  Natal. 


X 

X 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  149 

Allied  forms. — None  more  closely  allied  than  Charadrius  fulvus,  and  its 
American  representative,  C.  dominions,  treated  fully  in  the  two  following  chapters. 

Habits.  —  The  Golden  Plover,  like  many  other  birds,  is  a  species  that 
changes  its  haunts  according  to  season.  In  summer  it  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
moors  and  mountain  heaths,  the  rough  upland  pastures  and  the  tundras ;  in 
winter  it  quits  these  places  and  takes  up  its  residence  on  the  lowland  marshes, 
the  pastures  and  rough  saltings  near  the  sea,  and  the  low  flat  coasts  and  mud 
banks.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  year  it  is  a  social  bird  :  even  in  the  breeding 
season  I  have  seen  parties  of  half-a-dozen  or  so  :  but  towards  autumn  it  becomes 
much  more  gregarious,  and  lives  in  flocks  of  varying  size  throughout  the  winter. 
The  flight  of  this  species  is  rapid  and  steady,  especially  during  migration,  or 
when  the  bird  is  passing  from  place  to  place,  performed  by  regular  and  quick  beats 
of  the  wings.  This  Plover  also  frequently  indulges  in  various  serial  evolutions, 
and  flocks  often  assume  the  shape  of  a  V  or  a  W  during  flight.  Most  of  its  food  is 
obtained  during  winter  on  the  mud-flats  and  saltings,  and  it  very  often  retires  to 
some  inland  spot  between  the  tides  to  sleep,  or  to  rest  and  wait  until  the  muds 
are  exposed  again.  Vast  flights  of  Golden  Plover — the  Plover  of  the  coast — 
make  their  appearance  on  our  low-lying  coasts  in  autumn,  many  of  which  con- 
tinue along  our  shores  and  cross  the  sea  again  to  winter  further  south,  but 
others  remain  with  us  for  that  season.  In  no  part  of  the  British  Islands  can  the 
migration  of  this  species  be  better  remarked  than  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Wash.  For  days  and  nights,  about  the  end  of  October  and  early  in  November, 
this  Plover  has  been  known  to  fly  over  from  continental  Europe  in  almost  one 
incessant  stream,  the  flocks  succeeding  each  other  so  quickly  as  to  form  a  nearly 
unbroken  throng.  This  Plover  may  frequently  be  noticed  in  company  with 
Dunlins,  Lapwings,  and  Curlews,  and  occasionally  a  few  Grey  Plovers  mix  with 
them.  As  its  flesh  is  very  palatable  great  numbers  are  shot  in  the  autumn  and 
winter.  It  has  been  repeatedly  noticed  that  just  before  stormy  weather  the  Golden 
Plover  becomes  restless  and  unsettled,  and  often  leaves  a  district  entirely  before 
the  change  arrives.  Much  of  its  food  is  obtained  during  the  night,  especially  if 
there  be  a  moon,  but  I  do  not  think  it  moves  much  on  very  dark  nights.  The 
food  of  the  Golden  Plover  varies  a  good  deal  according  to  season.  In  winter  it 
consists  of  beetles,  small  mollusks,  sand-worms,  hoppers,  and,  occasionally,  small 
seeds ;  but  in  summer,  insects  and  grubs,  as  well  as  earth-worms,  and  towards 
autumn  various  kinds  of  ground  fruits.  In  summer  this  species  has  been  known 
to  feed  upon  the  maggots  (presumably  the  larvae  of  the  common  blue-bottle) 
infesting  a  dead  sheep.  Various  vegetable  fragments  and  gravel  are  also  found  in 
its  stomach.  The  alarm  note  of  the  Golden  Plover  is  a  plaintive  ko,  but  the  call- 
note  is  double,  and  sounds  something  like  klee-wee,  sometimes  prolonged  into 
three  syllables,  klee-ee-wee.  These  notes  are  uttered  both  on  the  ground  and 
whilst  the  bird  is  in  the  air.  During  the  pairing  season  the  male  utters  a  rather 


150  THE  GAME  BIBDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

musical  trill,  a  variation  of  the  double  or  treble  call-note.  The  whistle  of  this 
Plover  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  sounds  of  the  mud-flats  or  the  moors, 
and  on  a  calm  still  day  may  be  heard  for  a  very  long  distance. 

Nidification. — The  Golden  Plovers  begin  to  retire  to  their  inland  breeding 
grounds  early  in  April,  and  by  the  end  of  that  mouth  or  early  in  May  the  eggs 
are  deposited.  Although  the  vast  flocks  soon  break  up,  either  before  the  moors 
are  reached  or  shortly  after  arrival,  the  bird  continues  more  or  less  sociable,  and 
many  nests  may  be  found  within  a  comparatively  small  area  on  suitable  ground. 
This  species  is  very  conspicuous  on  the  bare  moors,  and  is  remarkably  fond  of 
proclaiming  its  presence  either  by  standing  perched  on  the  top  of  a  little  hillock, 
or  rising  into  the  air,  uttering  its  piping  note  the  moment  its  solitudes  are  invaded 
by  man.  It  is  in  Spring  much  more  tame  than  in  winter,  and  often  flies  up  to 
the  observer  and  wheels  above  his  head,  or  stands  quietly  watching  his  approach. 
Before  the  flocks  finally  disperse,  however,  this  bird  is  almost  as  wary  as  when 
on  the  coast.  The  well-known  note  sounds  near  and  far,  as  it  is  uttered  by 
answering  birds  all  over  the  wilderness,  and  here,  there,  and  everywhere  the 
showy  Plovers  in  their  brazen  spotted  upper  plumage  and  black  underparts  rise 
and  fall  in  airy  grace.  The  Golden  Plover  appears  to  pair  annually,  and  the  nest 
is  very  slight,  a  mere  hollow,  scantily  lined  with  a  few  bits  of  withered  herbage 
peculiar  to  the  moor.  It  is  generally  made  on  a  tuft  of  herbage,  or  beneath  the 
shelter  of  a  clump  of  cotton-grass,  more  rarely  in  barer  situations,  amongst 
short  wiry  grass  and  heath.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  pyriform,  buff  of 
various  shades  in  ground-colour,  boldly  and  richly  spotted  and  blotched  with 
purplish-brown  and  brownish-black,  and  more  sparingly  with  grey.  Most  of  the 
colouring  is  generally  distributed  on  the  larger  end  of  the  egg.  They  measure  on 
an  average  2'0  inches  in  length  by  1*4  inch  in  breadth.  Both  parents  assist  in 
the  duty  of  incubation,  which  lasts  sixteen  to  twenty  days.  The  birds  are 
remarkably  watchful  at  the  breeding  grounds,  and  the  sentinel  bird  quickly 
conveys  the  signal  of  alarm  to  its  mate,  which  slips  quietly  off  the  eggs,  and  often 
both  rise  into  the  air  and  wheel  round  and  round  above  them.  Sometimes  they 
run  anxiously  to  and  fro  about  the  moor,  occasionally  uttering  a  mournful  note  ; 
and  as  soon  as  the  nearly  hatched  eggs  are  discovered  they  commence  a  series  of 
antics  to  draw  all  attention  upon  themselves.  When  the  young  are  hatched  these 
actions  are  even  more  demonstrative.  The  young  chicks,  clothed  in  yellow  down, 
spotted  and  blotched  with  black,  are  quick  to  conceal  themselves  at  the  ap- 
proach of  danger,  and  remain  crouching  to  the  ground,  which  so  closely  resembles 
their  own  protective  dress,  until  all  is  still  and  safe  again.  One  brood  only  is 
reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  Characters.—  Charadrius,  with  all  the  rectrices  barred  and 
the  axillaries  white.     Length,  10  to  11  inches. 


OP  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  151 

Family  CHABADBIID^E.  Genus  CHABADRIUS. 

Subfamily  CHARADRIINJE. 


ASIATIC    GOLDEN    PLOVER. 

CHARADBIUS   PULVUS.— Gmelin. 

Charadrius  fulvus,  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p  687  (1788) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  443, 
pis.  516,  517,  figs  2,  3  (1871) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  276  (1883) ;  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  40  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  234 
(1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  125,  pi.  39  (1896). 

Charadrius  dominicus,  (P.  L.  S.  Miiller),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  147 
(1896  partim) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  195  (1896  par  tim). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  At  least  two  examples  of  the 
typical  Asiatic  Golden  Plover  have  been  known  to  occur  in  the  British  Islands, 
but  one  of  these  is  doubtful  from  the  fact  of  having  been  obtained  in  Leadenhall 
Market,  a  centre  to  which  many  Continental  examples  of  waders  find  their  way 
during  the  season.  This— the  first  reputed  British  example — was  said  to  have 
been  sent  with  a  number  of  Golden  Plovers  from  Norfolk  in  December,  1874 
(Dresser,  Ibis,  1875,  p.  513).  However  probable  this  may  be,  it  was  always  open 
to  the  doubt  of  having  been  sent  from  the  Continent,  and  accidentally  mixed  with 
the  Norfolk  batch  of  Plovers.  It  sufficed,  however,  to  put  British  naturalists  on 
the  look-out,  and  thirteen  years  later  (November  26th,  1887)  an  example  was 
obtained  at  Stennis,  in  Orkney,  round  which  no  doubt  of  any  kind  appears  to 
dwell  (J.  G.  Millais,  Field,  1887).  Foreign  :  Eastern  Palsearctic  region  and  North- 
western Nearctic  region  in  summer,  Oriental  and  Australian  regions  in  winter. 
Of  accidental  occurrence  only  in  Europe  and  South-west  Asia  :  on  Heligoland 
and  Malta,  in  Malaga,  Poland,  and  on  the  Mekran  coast.  It  breeds  on  the  tundras 
of  East  Siberia  from  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei  to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  in  Alaska, 
where  Dr.  Stejneger  says  it  occupies  the  whole  shore  line  of  Behring  Sea.  It 
passes  through  South  Siberia,  Mongolia,  Behring  Island,  and  Japan,  on  migra- 
tion, to  winter  in  India,  Burma  Peninsula,  China,  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,*  and  the  Polynesia,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  individuals  visiting  the  temperate  latitudes  of  the  southern  hemisphere  do  so 
to  breed,  or  are  abnormal  migrants  far  south  of  their  usual  limits.! 

'  The  Asiatic  Golden  Plover  was  discovered  breeding  on  Portland  Island,  off  New  Zealand,  by  Mr. 
Robson,  in  January,  1883.  This  is  a  most  interesting  and  important  fact,  supporting  our  suggested  new 
Law  of  dispersal. 

t  Conf.  Migration  of  Birds,  p.  218. 


152  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Allied  forms. — Charadrius  pluvialis  and  C.  dominions,  treated  in  the 
preceding  and  following  chapters. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  Asiatic  Golden  Plover  are  not  known  to  differ 
much  from  those  of  its  European  ally.  During  summer  it  is  a  bird  of  the 
tundras,  the  vast  expanses  of  Arctic  moors  above  the  limits  of  forest  growth  ; 
but  in  winter  it  migrates  for  thousands  of  miles  to  the  south,  and  spends  that 
season  principally  on  the  flat,  mud-bound  coasts  and  rough  lands  near  the  sea.  In 
China,  however,  Swinhoe  observed  it  frequenting  the  dry  rice  fields  and  sweet 
potato  gardens  as  well  as  the  sea  shore  ;  whilst  at  its  winter  quarters  in  Borneo  it 
is  said  to  haunt  the  places  where  buffalos  wallow,  probably  for  the  purpose  of 
catching  insects  and  worms.  It  is  equally  gregarious  and  sociable,  especially 
during  winter,  and  then  consorts  with  other  wading  birds ;  and  in  Ceylon  is 
said  to  be  generally  in  the  company  of  the  Mongolian  Ked-breasted  Einged  Plover. 
Many  of  its  gatherings  during  winter  are  of  very  large  dimensions,  which 
frequent  the  muds,  whilst  smaller  parties  are  said  to  haunt  the  bare  fields. 
Captain  Legge  states  that  in  Ceylon,  where  it  is  very  common  during  winter,  it 
has  a  habit  of  running  a  little  distance  when  approached,  then  pausing  for  a 
moment,  with  its  body  turned  away  from  the  observer  and  its  head  twisted  on 
one  side.  If  it  be  still  pursued  it  spreads  its  wings  and  runs  for  a  little  way, 
then  takes  flight.  A  flock  when  disturbed  will  frequently  fly  swiftly  towards  the 
ground,  then  rise  again.  It  walks  and  runs  about  the  ground,  and  flies  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  Golden  Plover.  The  note  of  the  Asiatic  Golden  Plover  is 
described  by  Seebohrn  as  a  plaintive  Tco ;  the  double  note  is  a  whistling  kl-ee, 
which  is  sometimes  prolonged  into  three  syllables,  Ttl-ee-Tco.  The  food  of  this 
species  consists  of  various  small  marine  animals,  such  as  mollusks,  crustaceans, 
and  the  like,  worms,  snails  and  insects,  and  probably  various  ground  fruits  of  the 
tundra. 

Nidif  ication.— By  far  the  best  account  of  the  breeding  habits  of  the  Asiatic 
Golden  Plover  is  that  given  by  Seebohm,  who  met  with  this  species  and  obtained 
its  eggs  and  downy  young  on  the  Siberian  tundras  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei. 
These  eggs  and  nestlings  are  perhaps  the  only  authentic  ones  known  to  science, 
with  the  exception  of  the  eggs  obtained  by  Mr.  H.  L.  Popham  in  the  same 
area.  The  earliest  examples  of  this  species  arrived  in  the  Arctic  regions  during 
the  first  week  in  June,  in  lat.  66£°,  and  it  was  observed  on  the  Koorayika 
during  its  passage  north  to  the  tundras.  It  was  not  again  observed  until  the  open 
tundra  was  reached  in  lat.  69}°,  just  beyond  the  limits  of  the  growth  of  trees. 
Here  the  pine  trees  had  disappeared,  and  the  birch  trees  had  become  nothing 
more  than  stunted  bushes  about  a  foot  high ;  but  the  alders  and  the  willows  still 
grew  luxuriantly  on  the  banks  of  the  great  river.  The  tundra  here  was  hilly,  full 
of  lakes  and  swamps,  covered  with  mosses  and  lichens,  here  and  there  varied  witli 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  153 

bare  patches  of  pebble-strewn  ground,  and  little  plains  where  gay  flowers  and  the 
various  fruits  of  the  tundra  nourished.  A  pair  of  Plovers  soon  made  their  appear- 
ance during  an  excursion  on  the  14th  of  July,  and  after  much  fruitless  watching 
one  of  them,  the  male,  was  shot.  The  nest  was  found  shortly  afterwards 
amongst  the  moss  and  lichen,  containing  the  full  complement  of  eggs.  At  Gol- 
cheeka  this  Plover  is  very  common,  but  unfortunately  Seebohm  was  too  late 
for  eggs  (20th  of  July),  and  here  obtained  a  nestling  only.  The  nest  was  merely 
a  slight  depression  lined  with  broken  stalks  of  reindeer  moss.  The  eggs  are 
almost  precisely  similar  to  those  of  the  European  Golden  Plover,  but  are  slightly 
smaller  and  paler  in  ground-colour.  Those  obtained  by  Seebohm  varied  from 
1'92  to  1'85  inch  in  length  by  1'32  to  1'27  inch  in  breadth.  In  the  same  valley 
Mr.  H.  L.  Popham  found  this  species  more  numerous  than  the  Golden  Plover, 
and  remarked  the  difference  in  the  note  of  the  two  birds,  which  rendered  their 
identification  an  easy  task.  The  eggs  obtained  by  Mr.  Popham  varied  in  length 
from  2~04  to  1'96  inch,  and  were  1'33  inch  in  breadth.  One  brood  only  is  reared 
in  the  year,  and  both  parents  appear  to  assist  in  domestic  duties. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Charadrius,  with  the  rectrices  barred,  and 
the  axillaries  smoke-grey.  Length  of  wing,  6'0  to  6'7  inches.  Total  length, 
9  inches. 


154  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHAEADEIID^.  Genus  CHABADBIUS. 

Subfamily  GHAUADRIINM. 


AMERICAN    GOLDEN    PLOVER. 

CHAHADEIUS    DOMINICUS.— P.  L.  S.  Mutter. 

Charadrius  dominicus,  P.  L.  S.  Miiller,  Syst.  Nat.  Anhang,  p.  116  (1776) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  147  (1896  partim) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv. 
p.  195  (1896  partim). 

Charadrius  virginicus  (Licht.j,  Gurney,  Ibis,  1883,  p.  198;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii. 
p.  41  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  125,  pi.  39  (1896). 

Charadrius  fulvus  americanus  (Schlegel),  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit. 
B.  p.  236  (1894). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  Two  examples  of  the  American 
Golden  Plover  have  been  obtained  in  the  British  Islands,  although,  unfortunately, 
the  same  remarks  apply  to  one  of  them  as  to  one  of  the  examples  of  the  Asiatic 
species,  viz.,  that  it  was  obtained  in  Leadenhall  Market  (10th  of  November,  1882) ; 
whence  actually  obtained,  a  mystery  (Gurney,  Ibis,  1883,  p.  198).  Fortunately  a 
second  example  is  much  more  satisfactory,  Mr.  J.  G.  Millais  recording  (Zoologist, 
1886,  p.  26)  a  specimen  obtained  in  Perthshire  on  the  3rd  of  August,  1883. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  eventually  others  will  be  obtained,  now  that  the 
attention  of  naturalists  and  sportsmen  is  specially  drawn  to  the  subject.  Foreign : 
Northern  Nearctic  region  and  SouthernNeo tropical  region  in  summer ;  Intertropical 
realm  in  winter.  Of  accidental  occurrence  only  in  Europe  ;  Heligoland  (Seebohm, 
Ibis,  1877,  p.  165).  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  North  America,  above  the 
limits  of  forest  growth  on  the  tundras  from  Alaska  to  Greenland  ;  passes  Canada, 
the  States,  Bermudas  (abnormally),  West  Indies,  and,  in  smaller  numbers,  Cali- 
fornia, on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  Neotropical  portion  of  the  Intertropical 
realm.  The  breeding  area  of  this  species  in  temperate  South  America  is  not  yet 
determined,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  bird  migrates  southward  to  nest.* 

Allied  forms.  —  Charadrius  pluvialis,  and  C.  fulvus,  already  treated  of 
in  the  two  preceding  chapters. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  American  Golden  Plover  somewhat  closely 
resemble  those  of  its  Asiatic  ally.  Mr.  E.  W.  Nelson  writes  as  follows  respecting 
the  present  species  during  its  summer  sojourn  in  Alaska :  "  The  males  are 
conspicuous  objects  as  they  stand  like  silhouettes,  their  black  and  white  breasts 
and  sides  of  neck  presenting  a  sharp,  clear-cut  outline  on  the  brown  and  grey 

•  Conf.  The  Migration  oj  Birds,  p.  218. 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  155 

background.  At  intervals,  their  clear,  mellow,  and  melancholly  note  rises  for  a 
moment,  and  then  the  bird  apparently  sinks  into  a  day-dream,  and  remains 
motionless  for  some  time,  until  he  is  prompted  to  assure  his  partner  of  his  presence 
by  another  call.  The  male  at  this  season  has  a  brighter  plumage  than  the 
female,  and  in  places  little  frequented  by  man  he  becomes  very  unsuspicious  : 
near  villages,  however,  he  is  always  on  the  look-out,  and  is  difficult  to  approach 
even  when  he  is  found  by  his  nest.  Towards  the  end  of  May  and  during  the 
first  weeks  of  June  the  males  utter  a  clear,  rich  song,  which  is  frequently  heard 
during  the  twilight  of  the  short  Arctic  nights.  When  I  was  camping  at  the 
Yukon  mouth  during  the  last  of  May  and  the  first  part  of  June,  1879,  these  birds 
were  scattered  all  about  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tent,  and  frequently  during  the 
middle  of  the  night  the  song  was  heard  close  by,  and  was  exceedingly  sweet  and 
musical.  One  night  in  particular  I  remember  lying  awake,  listening  to  the  usual 
continuous  faint  clicking  among  the  disintegrating  ice  in  the  river,  which  seemed 
to  make  the  silence  still  more  marked,  when,  suddenly,  just  at  the  back  of  the 
tent,  arose  the  clear,  plaintive  note  of  the  Golden  Plover,  which  may  be 
represented  by  the  syllables  too-lee-e.  Soon  after,  in  the  same  sweet,  musical 
tone,  was  uttered  a  marvellously  harmonious  succession  of  notes,  which  I  wrote 
down  at  the  time,  listening  to  the  song  as  it  was  repeated  again  and  again,  and 
ascertaining  the  exact  number  of  syllables.  These,  I  find,  are  only  imperfectly 
represented  as  follows  :  TEE-lee-lEo,  tu-lee-lee,  wit,  wit,  wit,  wee-u  wit,  che  lee-u 
too  lee-e.  The  last  three  syllables  are  the  ones  most  commonly  uttered,  serving 
as  a  call-note ;  but  the  song  in  full  is  only  repeated  on  special  occasions,  as 
before  remarked,  being  oftener  heard  during  the  still  hours  of  the  night  than 
during  the  day,  if,  indeed,  it  can  be  called  night  when  the  sun  disappears  below 
the  horizon  for  little  over  an  hour."  The  American  Golden  Plover  occurs  on 
migration  throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  Manitoba  as  well  as  along  the 
coasts,  on  its  way  to  and  from  its  breeding  grounds  in  the  Arctic  regions.  Its 
northward  migration  appears  to  begin  in  March,  and  to  be  continued  until 
the  first  week  in  May.  The  southward  migration  commences  as  early  as  the 
middle  of  July  in  some  years  and  lasts  until  the  close  of  October  or  early  in 
November.  Further  south,  Colonel  Feilden  records  some  very  interesting  par- 
ticulars relating  to  the  migrations  of  the  American  Golden  Plover  on  the  island 
of  Barbadoes.  He  writes,*  "  Stragglers  arrive  as  early  as  July  and  the  beginning 
of  August,  but  the  main  flights  come  with  the  first  heavy  weather  after  the  27th 
of  August,  and  long  experience  and  observation  proves  that  this  date  is  kept  year 
after  year  with  wonderful  accuracy.  The  course  of  all  the  migratory  Charadriidae 
across  Barbadoes  in  the  autumn  is  from  the  north-west  to  south-east,  and  if  the 
wind  blows  from  south-east  the  birds  are  brought  down  to  the  island,  for  it 
appears  to  be  a  well-established  observation  that  birds  prefer  migrating  with  a 
'  beam  '  wind.  A  shift  of  wind  from  the  north-east,  with  squally  weather  to  the 

*  Ibis,  1889,  pp.  490,  491. 


156  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND    WILD   FOWL 

south-east,  is  ardently  longed  for  by  the  Barbadoes  sportsmen  towards  the  end  of 
August,  as  this  forces  the  migratory  hosts  to  alight  instead  of  passing  over  at  a 
great  height,  as  they  are  seen  to  do  when  the  wind  is  from  the  north-east.  The 
first  arrivals  of  this  species  are  invariably  black-breasted  birds,  showing  that  the 
old  birds  precede  the  young,  and  the  first  comers  are  nearly  all  males.  The 
young  birds  without  black  on  the  breast  appear  about  the  12th  of  September,  and 
continue  to  pass  till  the  end  of  October ;  sometimes  stragglers  are  as  late  as 
November."  It  is  not  known  that  the  food  of  this  species  differs  in  any 
important  respect  from  that  of  the  preceding  species ;  whilst  the  localities  it 
frequents  are  similar,  and  are  inland  as  well  as  maritime. 

Nidification. — The  American  Golden  Plover  reaches  its  nesting  places  on 
the  "barren  grounds"  of  Arctic  America  at  the  end  of  May  or  early  in 
June.  Its  nesting  habits  very  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Asiatic  species. 
MacFarlane  describes  the  nest  as  a  mere  hollow  in  the  moss  or  lichen-clothed 
ground,  carelessly  lined  with  a  few  scraps  of  herbage ;  whilst  Mr.  Nelson  says  it 
is  a  slight  structure  lined  with  dry  grass  and  dead  leaves  of  the  dwarf  willow. 
The  eggs  are  four  in  number ;  although  MacFarlane  has  recorded  an  instance  in 
which  five  were  found.  They  so  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Asiatic  species 
that  a  detailed  description  of  them  is  unnecessary.  MacFarlane  writes  of  the 
breeding  habits  of  this  Plover  as  follows*  : — "  This  beautiful  species  is  very 
numerous  in  the  barren  grounds,  from  the  outskirts  of  the  forest  to  the  shores 
of  the  Polar  Sea.  The  nests  were  precisely  similar  to  those  of  C.  squatarola. 
They  were  also  as  difficult  to  detect,  and  for  the  same  reason,  a  harmonizing 
resemblance  of  the  egg  markings  to  the  surrounding  soil  and  a  timeous  departure 
of  the  female  bird  from  her  nest.  In  a  very  few  instances  where  she  happened 
to  be  surprised  by  a  close  approach,  she  would  pretend  lameness,  and  nutter 
away  from  our  very  feet.  On  one  occasion  our  party  spent  half  an  hour  in  a 
close  but  fruitless  search,  during  which  the  female  resorted  to  various  manoeuvres 
to  hide  the  nest ;  but  on  our  withdrawal  to  a  short  distance  she  at  last  revealed 
it  by  settling  down  upon  her  eggs.  I  find  one  hundred  and  seventy  nests 
recorded  among  my  notes.  Except  when  there  was  reason  to  believe  that  the 
full  number  had  not  been  deposited,  four  eggs  were  always  met  with.  In  one 
instance,  however,  there  was  as  many  as  five,  and  in  another  but  one,  the 
contents  of  which  were  found  in  a  well-developed  condition.  Foxes  also  destroy 
many  eggs  and  young  of  this  and  other  species  during  the  season  of  nidification. 
The  frequently  varying  but  sweetly  clear  and  melodious  notes  of  this  Plover  are 
almost  constantly  heard  whilst  traversing  their  usual  breeding  grounds."  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Charadrius,  with  the  rectrices  barred  and  the 
axillaries  smoke-grey.  Length  of  wing,  6'8  to  7'5  inches.  Total  length,  9  to  10 

inches.  *  Proceedings  U.  S.  Nat.  Museum,  xiv.,  pp.  429,  430  (1891). 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  157 


Genus  SQUATAROLA,  or  Grey  Plovers. 

Type,  SQUATAEOLA   HELVETICA. 


Sqtiatarola,  of  Leach  (1816). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  the  innermost  secondaries  very  long  and  pointed,  and 
the  under  parts  black  in  breeding  plumage.  The  upper  parts  are  spotted  with 
black  and  white  at  the  same  season.  The  most  characteristic  feature  is  the 
presence  of  a  hind  toe.  The  bill  is  shorter  than  the  head  and  rather  slender ; 
the  nostrils  are  sub-basal  and  linear.  The  lower  portion  of  the  tibia  is  naked. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  a  single  species,  the  range  of  which  is  almost 
cosmopolitan,  from  the  Intertropical  realm  northwards  to  the  Arctic  regions. 
It  is  a  well  known  visitor  on  spring  and  autumn  migration  to  the  British 
Islands,  and  some  numbers  remain  to  winter. 

The  Grey  Plovers  are  dwellers  on  the  open  moors,  tundras,  and  barren  grounds 
of  the  high  north  during  summer ;  frequenters  of  the  sea  coast  during  winter.  They 
are  birds  of  rapid  and  prolonged  flight ;  upon  the  ground  they  progress  by 
walking  and  running.  Their  notes  are  loud  and  musical.  Their  food  consists  of 
insects,  worms,  mollusks,  small  seeds,  mountain  fruits,  and  shoots  of  herbage. 
Slight  nests  are  made  upon  the  ground,  and  their  richly-marked,  double-spotted 
eggs  are  four  in  number.  They  are  monogamous ;  sociable  in  summer,  gregarious 
in  winter. 


158  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHAEADEIID^E.  Genus  SQUATAROBA. 

Subfamily  CiiARADRHNM. 


GREY    PLOVER. 

SQUATAEOLA  HELVETICA.— (Linnaus) . 
PLATE  XXII. 

Tringa  helvetica,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  250  (1766). 

Pluvialis  squatarola  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  86  (1852). 

Squatarola  helvetica  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  455,  pis.  515,  fig  2,  517,  fig.  2, 

518,  fig.  2  (1871) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  278  (1883) ;  Sharpe,   Handb.  B. 

Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  138  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  182  (1896). 

Charadrius  helveticus  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  44  (1885)  ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Non.-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  232  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  126,  pi.  39  (1896). 

Squatarola  cinerea  Fleming ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xviii.  (1891). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Grey  Plover  is  most  abun- 
dant on  autumn  passage  along  the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands,  but  numbers 
remain  to  winter ;  and  in  spring  a  considerable  stream  of  migrants,  returning 
north  to  breed,  pass  over  our  shores.  It  is  most  abundant  on  our  eastern 
coasts,  but  small  numbers  regularly  visit  the  west  of  Scotland.  In  Ireland 
it  is  less  numerous  than  in  England,  and  becomes  rare  on  the  Outer  Hebrides. 
Foreign  :  Circumpolar  in  summer ;  Palaearctic,  Nearctic  (?),  Neotropical,  Oriental, 
and  Australian  regions  in  winter.  The  only  known  breeding  grounds  of  the  Grey 
Plover  are  situated  on  Kolguev  Island,  in  the  lower  valleys  of  the  Petchora  and 
Yenisei,  on  the  Taimur  Peninsula,  and  the  delta  of  the  Lena,  in  Alaska,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Anderson  Eiver,  and  on  Melville  Peninsula,  all  districts  of  the 
tundra  above  the  limits  of  forest  growth.  It  passes  Central  and  Southern 
Europe,  the  Canaries,  South  Siberia,  Turkestan,  Mongolia,  Behring  Island,  and 
Japan  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Arabia, 
Africa,  India,  South  China,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  Australia,  New  Guinea,  and 
the  Solomon  group  and  adjacent  isles.  In  theNew  World  it  passes  the  Bermudas  on 
abnormal  migration,  and  winters  in  the  West  Indies  and  in  South  America  as 
far  south  as  Peru  and  Brazil.  It  has  been  recorded  from  Aruba  Island,  off  the 
north  coast  of  Venezuela  as  late  as  the  24th  of  June  ;  whilst  in  the  Old  World 
it  is  recorded  from  Eeunion,  Mauritius,  and  the  Seychelles.  There  is  no 
evidence  to  suggest  that  this  species  normally  extends  in  winter  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Intertropical  realm  in  either  hemisphere.  I  note  that  odd  individuals 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  159 

are  observed  practically  resident  in  Tasmania  ;  but  the  reader  may  consult  what 
I  have  already  written  on  the  subject  of  "  lost  birds"  (The  Migration  of  Birds, 
pp.  184,  185). 

Allied  forms. — None  more  nearly  related  than  Charadrius  pluvialis 
and  C.  fulvus,  with  allied  races  (generically  distinct),  all  of  which  have  been 
treated  of  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

Habits. — The  Grey  Plover  is  a  well-known  bird  on  the  British  coasts 
between  the  months  of  October  and  May,  and  although  many  of  the  individuals 
that  arrive  in  autumn  pass  on  to  more  southern  lands,  a  great  number  remain 
with  us  for  the  winter.  The  young  birds  mostly  are  the  first  to  make  their 
appearance,  sometimes  arriving  on  our  coasts  with  bits  of  down  still  adhering  to 
their  plumage.  In  August  they  begin  to  arrive,  and  continue  to  do  so  into  Sep- 
tember, only  a  few  old  birds  in  their  company.  During  October  and  November 
it  is  said  the  great  bulk  of  the  old  birds  arrive.  The  return  migration  begins  in 
May,  and  by  the  end  of  that  month  the  majority  have  passed  north,  although  a 
few  linger  into  June,  and  odd  immature  non-breeding  birds  are  sometimes  met 
with  in  July.  During  its  sojourn  in  our  islands  the  Grey  Plover  is  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  the  low-lying  coasts  and  salt  marshes.  It  is  especially 
fond  of  the  wide  expanses  of  mud  at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  During  winter  it  does 
not  appear  to  gather  into  such  large  flocks  as  the  Golden  Plover,  and  may  often 
be  met  with  in  odd  pairs,  or  in  small  parties,  whilst  now  and  then  stray  individuals 
attach  themselves  to  flocks  of  Dunlins,  Knots,  or  other  Waders.  In  its  actions 
and  flight  it  very  closely  resembles  its  congeners.  It  feeds  much  at  night, 
especially  during  moonlight.  The  food  varies  according  to  season,  and  consists  of 
various  marine  animals  found  on  the  shore,  and  worms,  insects,  and  grubs,  and 
probably  ground  fruits  during  summer  on  the  tundras.  Seebohm  describes  the 
usual  alarm  note  of  the  Grey  Plover  as  a  long-drawn,  plaintive,  whistling  kop  ; 
the  call-note,  common  to  both  sexes,  is  a  Jcl-ee  or  bleep.  The  bird  has  also  a  treble 
note  which  appears  to  be  a  combination  of  the  call  and  alarm  note,  sounding  like 
kl-ee-kop. 

Nidification.— Previous  to  1875  the  breeding  habits  of  the  Grey  Plover 
were  but  little  known,  and  the  bird's  eggs  were  very  rare  in  collections.  The  first 
authentic  eggs  of  this  species  were  obtained  by  the  Eussian  naturalist  and  traveller, 
Von  Middendorff,  in  1843,  on  the  Taimur  Peninsula.  In  1864  MacFarlane  obtained 
eggs  on  the  tundras  near  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  North  America ;  whilst  in  1875 
Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie-Brown  discovered  the  breeding  grounds  of  this 
bird  in  Europe  on  the  tundras  above  the  limit  of  forest  growth,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Petchora  in  North-east  Russia.  Between  June  the  22nd  and  July  the  12th 
these  two  naturalists  took  no  less  than  ten  nests  of  the  Grey  Plover,  and  carefully 
identified  the  parents  of  each.  The  nest  of  the  Grey  Plover  is  merely  a  slight 


160  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

hollow  in  the  moss  or  lichen-covered  ground,  into  which  is  placed  by  way  of 
lining  a  few  twigs,  scraps  of  reindeer  moss,  and  other  vegetable  refuse.  The 
hollow  of  the  nest  is  described  as  perfectly  round  and  rather  deep.  The  eggs 
are  four  in  number,  and  intermediate  in  colour  between  those  of  the  Golden 
Plover  and  the  Lapwing,  being  neither  quite  as  olive  as  the  latter  nor  as  buff  as 
the  former  in  ground-colour,  but  the  markings  are  similar  in  every  respect. 
They  measure  on  an  average  2'0  inches  in  length  by  T4  in.  in  breadth.  For  nesting 
duties  the  part  of  the  tundra  most  favoured  by  the  Grey  Plover  is  the  flat  bog, 
intersected  with  tussocky  ridges.  The  birds  were  observed  to  indulge  in  rather 
curious  flights  as  they  rose  from  their  nests,  tossing  their  wings  in  the  air  somewhat 
like  the  action  of  a  Tumbler  Pigeon.  After  being  driven  from  their  home  the  female 
was  generally  the  first  to  return,  but  she  invariably  came  less  conspicuously  than 
the  male.  She  generally  made  her  appearance  on  a  distant  ridge  of  the  tundra, 
then,  after  looking  round  her  for  a  short  time,  she  would  run  quickly  to  the  next 
ridge,  and  again  look  round,  calling  at  intervals  to  her  mate  with  a  single  note. 
To  this,  however,  the  male  was  observed  seldom  to  reply,  but  when  he  did  so  it 
was  with  a  double  note.  After  the  female  had  run  about  thus  for  some  time  the 
male  began  to  move,  but  he  generally  joined  his  mate  by  boldly  flying  up  to  her. 
On  the  other  hand  the  female  rarely  took  to  her  wings.  She  was  very  cautious, 
and  passed  and  repassed  her  nest  several  times,  until  she  finally  settled  upon  it. 
All  the  time  that  the  nest  was  being  watched  the  female  was  restless  and  ran 
about  a  good  deal,  but  the  male  generally  remained  stationary  on  a  hillock  or 
a  ridge,  apparently  watching  the  movements  of  his  mate.  When  the  young  are 
hatched  the  old  birds  perform  various  alluring  antics  to  try  and  draw  an 
intruder  away.  Seebohm  gives  a  very  remarkable  instance  of  a  female  Grey  Plover 
dropping  as  if  dead  after  being  fired  at,  but  when  he  was  about  to  pick  her  up  she 
flew  away,  apparently  uninjured.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  season.  Since 
1875  the  eggs  of  the  Grey  Plover  have  been  taken  on  the  island  of  Kolguev,  in 
1895,  by  the  Messrs.  Pearson,  who  obtained  seven  clutches.  They  remarked 
that  the  birds  did  not  nest  in  close  company,  each  pair  appearing  to  take  possession 
of  about  a  mile  of  country.  During  the  same  summer  Mr.  H.  L.  Popham 
made  the  very  interesting  discovery  that  the  Grey  Plover  bred  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yenisei,  and  he  obtained  four  nests  near  Golchika. 

Diagnostic  characters — Sguatarola,  with  the  axillaries  black,  and  a 
small  hind  toe.     Length,  11  to  12  inches. 


OF   THE    BRITISH   ISLANDS.  161 


Genus  VANELLUS,  or  Typical  Lapwings. 

Type,  VANELLUS   CEISTATUS. 


VanellllS,  of  Brisson  (1760). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  innermost  secondaries  broad  and  rounded  at  the 
tips,  and  the  rectrices  with  broad  white  bases  succeeded  by  a  black  subterminal 
band,  broken  on  the  outermost  feathers.  The  hind  toe  is  present.  The  tail  is 
moderately  long  and  nearly  square.  The  bill  is  typical  in  shape  ;  nostrils  placed 
in  a  deep  groove. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  two  species,  confined  to  the  Palaearctic  and  Oriental 
regions,  and  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the  Ethiopian  region.  Both  species  are 
British,  one  a  common  resident  in  and  the  other  a  very  rare  straggler  to  our 
Islands. 

The  Lapwings  are  dwellers  on  the  open  plains,  birds  of  the  moors  and 
commons,  fields  and  downs,  but  are  more  maritime  during  winter.  They  are 
birds  of  somewhat  slow  and  irregular  flight,  and  progress  on  the  ground  by 
running  or  walking.  They  are  somewhat  nocturnal  in  their  habits.  Their  notes 
are  shrill  and  plaintive.  They  subsist  on  worms,  mollusks,  insects,  larvae,  &c. 
They  make  scanty  nests  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs,  pyriform  in  shape  and 
four  in  number,  are  richly  spotted.  They  are  monogamous ;  and  more  or  less 
gregarious,  and  sociable  always. 


11 


162  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHAEADEIID^E.  Genus  VANELLUS. 

Subfamily  CHARADRIINM. 


LAPWING. 

VANELLUS   CEISTATUS.— Wolf  and  Meyer. 
PLATE  XXIII. 

Tringa  vanellus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  248  (1766). 

Vanellus  cristatus    Wolf  and  Meyer,  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  133  (1852) ;    Seebohm, 

Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  57  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs   Brit.  B.  p.  253  (1893) ; 

Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  126  pi.  40  (1896). 
Vanellus  vulgaris  Bechstein,  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  545,  pi.  531  (1875) ;    Yarrell, 

Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  283  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xix.  (1891). 
Vanellus  vanellus  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.   Brit.  iii.  p.  170    (1896);    Sharp, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  166  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Lapwing  is  widely  and 
generally  distributed  throughout  the  British  Islands,  in  all  suitable  districts 
including  the  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys,  and  the  Shetlands.  It  is  commonest  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  more  widely  spread  in  winter  than  in  summer,  during 
the  former  season  visiting  the  Channel  Islands.  Foreign  :  Palaearctic  region, 
encroaching  on  the  Nearctic  region  in  the  extreme  west  and  east ;  parts  of  the 
Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  is  an  accidental  visitor  to  Greenland  and  Jan  Mayen, 
a  summer  visitor  to  Iceland  and  the  Faroes.  It  breeds  in  localities  suited  to  its 
requirements  throughout  Europe,  south  of  the  Arctic  circle,  and  in  small  numbers 
in  North  Africa  as  far  south  as  Egypt.  It  is  a  resident  in  Europe  south  of 
the  Baltic;  but  the  birds  that  breed  further  north  are  migratory,  and  winter  in 
Asia  Minor,  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  (including  Africa  north  of  the  Great 
Desert),  the  Canaries,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores,  whilst  it  has  been  known  to 
stray  as  far  as  Barbadoes  (fide  Col.  Feilden).  In  Asia  it  does  not  appear  to 
range  further  north  than  lat.  55°  (although,  according  to  Bogdanow,  it  reaches 
ten  degrees  further  north :  a  circumstance  which  seems  probable,  as  it  is  an 
occasional  wanderer  to  Alaska),  but  it  is  a  common  summer  migrant  to  South 
Siberia,  Turkestan,  Mongolia  (including  the  Thian-Shan  range  up  to  11,000  feet), 
and  may  probably  breed  in  the  north  island  of  Japan.  The  Asiatic  birds  winter 
in  Persia,  North  India  (south  to  25°  N.  lat.),  China,  and  Japan. 


X 

X 


L. 

OQ 


T3 

T 
a5 


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a  = 

1  " 

i— -4  (B 


OP  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  163 

Allied    forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  require  notice. 

Habits. — The  Lapwing  is  by  far  the  best  known  and  most  widely  distributed 
of  the  Plovers  frequenting  the  British  Islands.  It  is  a  resident,  but  changes  its 
ground  a  good  deal  with  the  season,  and  in  autumn  its  numbers  are  largely 
increased  by  the  arrival  of  migrants  from  Continental  Europe.  The  haunts  of  the 
Lapwing  are  rough,  unenclosed  lands,  moors,  pastures  and  fallows,  commons  and 
heaths,  marshes,  broads,  and  saltings.  At  all  seasons  it  is  a  shy,  wary  species, 
but  becomes  much  tamer  than  usual  during  the  nesting  season,  when  its  great 
solicitude  for  its  young  causes  it  to  suspend  its  habitual  caution.  The  most 
characteristic  feature  of  the  Lapwing  is  its  singularly  erratic  and  prolonged 
flight.  The  wings  are  broad  and  rounded,  and  move  in  a  slow,  deliberate,  and 
regular  manner.  I  cannot  express  this  bird's  movements  more  aptly  now  than  I 
did  eighteen  years  ago  in  my  Rural  Bird  Life.  The  moment  an  intruder  appears 
in  their  haunts  the  watchful  Lapwings  rise  one  by  one,  and  with  ever  flapping 
pinions  begin  to  sail  about  high  overhead.  Now  the  birds  soar  seemingly 
without  effort,  then  on  napping  wings  they  wheel  round  and  round.  Anon  they 
dart  rapidly  down,  as  if  hurling  themselves  to  the  ground,  and  then,  mounting 
the  air  again  with  easy  grace,  they  fly  in  ever-changing  course,  darting,  wheeling, 
tumbling,  and  reeling,  as  though  beating  time  with  their  pinions  to  their  wailing 
and  expressive  cries.  As  the  cause  of  their  alarm  retreats  the  birds  soon  settle 
again,  each  bird  generally  keeping  its  long  wings  expanded  and  elevated  for  a 
moment  before  gracefully  folding  them.  The  Lapwing  both  runs  and  walks 
well,  but  it  rarely  wades.  All  through  the  year  the  Lapwing  is  to  a  certain 
extent  gregarious,  and  usually  breeds  in  more  or  less  scattered  colonies.  In 
winter,  however,  its  gatherings  are  the  largest,  and  during  this  season  immense 
flocks  may  often  be  seen  retreating  before  a  coming  storm,  or  shifting  their 
ground  from  one  district  to  another  from  a  variety  of  causes.  This  bird  is  also 
very  nocturnal,  even  in  summer,  and  all  night  long  its  peculiar  notes  may  be 
heard  in  its  haunts.  It  often  becomes  particularly  noisy  and  active  just  after 
dusk.  Flocks  of  flying  Lapwings  usually  pass  through  the  air  in  a  scattered 
throng,  but  as  a  rule  the  advance  guard  present  a  very  even  line.  The  note  of 
this  Plover  is  a  peculiar  mewing  or  nasal  pee-weet,  variously  modulated  into 
weet-a-weet  pee-weet-weet ;  whilst  during  the  pairing  season  the  male  still  further 
modulates  this  note  into  several  distinct  cries.  In  autumn  the  Lapwing  becomes 
more  gregarious,  and  most  of  the  summer  stations  on  high  exposed  ground  are 
deserted  for  the  winter.  The  bird  then  often  becomes  remarkably  numerous  in 
littoral  districts,  on  the  wild  saltings  and  rough  marshes  where  an  abundant 
supply  of  food  can  be  obtained  in  almost  all  weathers.  Great  numbers  of  these 
Plovers  are  killed  at  this  season  for  the  table,  but  they  do  not  command  either 
the  higher  price  or  the  ready  sale  of  the  Golden  Plover,  and  their  flesh  is  not  only 
dark  but  often  accompanied  by  an  unpleasant  taste.  Shot  during  early  autumn, 


164  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

however,  they  are  far  from  unpalatable.  The  food  of  the  Lapwing  consists  of 
worms,  snails,  grubs,  insects,  seeds,  and  tender  shoots  and  various  ground  fruits 
growing  in  the  bird's  more  upland  haunts. 

Nidification. — The  Lapwing  is  an  early  breeder.  As  a  rule,  if  the  season 
be  fairly  forward,  the  first  eggs  are  laid  at  the  end  of  March,  but  fresh  eggs  may 
be  found  in  greatest  abundance  throughout  April,  less  frequently  in  May,  and 
occasionally  in  the  beginning  of  June.  Birds  breeding  in  warm,  sheltered 
southern  localities  are  of  course  much  earlier  than  those  living  in  more  exposed 
and  northern  districts.  The  nest  is  either  made  on  the  moors,  near  the  shelter 
or  even  in  the  centre  of  a  tuft  of  rushes,  on  the  top  of  a  mole-hill,  on  the  bare 
ploughed  land,  or  on  the  grass.  It  is  merely  a  hollow,  into  which  a  few  scraps 
of  dry  herbage  are  collected,  and  in  many  cases  no  provision  whatever  is  made. 
The  eggs  are  normally  four  in  number,  but  I  have  been  reliably  informed  of  a 
clutch  of  five.  At  least  two  other  similar  instances  have  been  recorded.  They 
vary  from  buff  to  olive  in  ground-colour  (in  rare  instances  very  pale  blue), 
blotched  and  spotted  with  blackish-brown  and  grey.  They  measure  on  an 
average  1'9  inch  in  length  by  1'3  inch  in  breadth.  Both  parents  assist  in  the 
task  of  incubation,  which  lasts  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-six  days.  The  hens  will 
continue  laying  from  time  to  time  after  their  eggs  are  taken,  but  one  brood  only 
is  reared  in  the  year.  The  eggs  of  this  Plover  are  a  highly-prized  table  delicacy, 
and  are  much  sought  after  for  the  markets,  the  earliest  of  the  season  often 
commanding  as  much  as  twelve  shillings  a  dozen  retail.  Numbers  are  sent  to 
this  country  from  the  continent,  and  the  eggs  of  other  species  are  not  unfrequently 
passed  off  for  them  by  unscrupulous  dealers.  The  Lapwing  as  a  rule  does  not 
manifest  much  concern  for  the  safety  of  its  eggs,  apparently  well  aware  that 
their  protective  colour  will  shield  them  from  discovery ;  but  when  the  young  are 
hatched  the  old  birds  often  become  very  demonstrative,  and  will  reel  and  tumble 
along  the  ground,  or  sweep  round  an  intruder's  head,  all  the  time  uttering  wailing 
notes  of  alarm. 

Diagnostic  characters — -Vanellus,  with  a  long  crest,  the  upper  plumage 
loricated  with  metallic  tints,  with  no  white  on  the  wing  coverts,  and  with  the 
upper  and  under  tail  coverts  chestnut.  Length,  13  inches. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  165 

Family  CHABADBIID./E.  Genus  VANELLUS. 

Subfamily  CtTARADBllNJE. 


SOCIABLE    LAPWING. 

VANELLUS    GEEGAEIUS— (Pallas). 
PLATE  XVII. 

Charadrius  gregarius,  Pall.  Reis.  Buss.  Eeichs.  i.  p.  456  (1771). 
Chettusia  gregaria  (Pall.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  527,  pi.  528  (1875). 

Vanellus  gregarius  (Pall.),  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  225  (1894) ; 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  127  (1896). 

Chastusia  gregaria   (Pall.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  173  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  174  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  One  example  only  of  the 
Sociable  Lapwing  has  been  recorded  as  British,  which,  through  an  error  of 
identification,  was  overlooked  for  nearly  thirty  years.  It  appears  to  have  been 
shot  from  a  flock  of  Lapwings  near  St.  Michael's-on-Wyre,  in  Lancashire,  in 
the  autumn  of  1860,  where  it  remained  in  a  case  with  other  birds  as  a  Cream- 
coloured  Courser, even  being  recorded  as  such  (Yarr.  Brit.  B.,  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  241).  It 
subsequently  changed  owners,  and  eventually  was  correctly  identified,  and  ex- 
hibited at  a  meeting  of  the  Zoological  Society  by  Seebohm  on  November  20th, 
1888.  Foreign  :  South-central  Palaearctic  region.  It  is  of  accidental  occurrence 
only  in  Western  Europe ;  in  Italy  (four  examples),  Spain  (one,  probably),  Poland 
(two,  seen  and  identified  by  Professor  Taczanowski).  It  breeds  on  the  steppes 
of  South-eastern  Bussia,  from  the  Crimea,  north  to  Sarepta  (Seebolim),  and  to 
lat.  53°  (Bogdanow),  and  south  to  Astrakhan  and  the  Caucasus  ;  on  the  plains  of 
South-west  Siberia  and  Turkestan,  as  far  east  as  the  Lake  Saisan  basin  in  the 
province  of  Semipolatinsk,  and  Western  Mongolia.  It  winters  in  Arabia,  Egypt, 
Nubia,  and  Abyssinia,  and  on  the  plains  of  India,  abnormally  wandering  south  to 
Ceylon. 

Allied  forms. — Euhyas  leucura,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of  the  steppes 
of  Western  Turkestan,  and  in  winter  of  North-east  Africa  and  North  India. 
Accidental  in  Europe  :  South-east  Bussia,  Malta,  south  of  France.  Differs  from  the 
Sociable  Lapwing  not  only  generically,  but  amongst  other  important  characters, 
in  having  a  white  tail. 


166  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  Sociable  Lapwing  during  its  summer  sojourn 
on  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia  are  imperfectly  known ;  but  of  the  bird's  life- 
history  during  its  winter  residence  in  India  we  are  fortunately  much  better 
acquainted,  thanks  to  the  observations  of  Hume,  Butler,  Irby  and  others.  It  is 
said  to  be  a  dweller  on  the  sand  plains,  especially  common  in  Oudh  and  Kuniaon, 
and  is  always  observed  in  parties  or  large  flocks.  Hume  states  that  in  Scinde  its 
favourite  haunts  are  waste  uplands  near  to  cultivated  districts,  and  that  it  keeps 
together  in  flocks  of  from  twenty  to  a  hundred.  It  is  by  no  means  a  shy  bird, 
but  very  fearless  until  repeatedly  fired  at.  On  the  ground,  Irby  remarks  that  it 
looks  very  similar  to  a  Golden  Plover,  but  on  the  wing  it  resembles  more  closely 
allied  birds,  and  flies  near  to  the  ground,  unlike  the  typical  Plovers.  Colonel 
E.  A.  Butler  says  that  it  frequents  open  sandy  and  grass  maidans  and  bare  or 
uncultivated  ground.  Its  food  is  said  to  be  of  an  insectivorous  nature — grass- 
hoppers, locusts,  spiders,  beetles  and  larvae.  Its  note  is  described  as  a  peculiar 
cry,  which  is  not  uttered  frequently. 

Nidification. — Of  the  habits  of  the  Sociable  Lapwing  during  the  nesting 
season  nothing  whatever  is  known.  It  is  said  to  frequent  the  steppes  and  plains 
for  breeding  purposes,  but  its  nest  has  never  been  described.  All  that  is  known 
respecting  its  eggs  is  contained  in  Dresser's  Birds  of  Europe.  That  naturalist 
writes : — "  A  single  egg  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Moschler,  who  informs  me  that  it  was 
obtained  by  his  Sarepta  collector,  with  the  birds,  closely  resembles  eggs  of  the 
Common  Lapwing  (Vanellus  cristatus),  but  is,  if  anything,  rather  paler  in  ground- 
colour, and  a  trifle  more  sparingly  marked  with  spots  and  blotches." 

Diagnostic  characters — Vanellus,  with  no  crest,  with  the  greater  wing 
coverts  white,  with  brown  bases,  and  with  the  tail  coverts  white.  Length,  12 
inches. 


OP  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  167 


Subfamily   HIMANTOPODIN^E.—  The    Stilts  and  Avocets. 


The  Stilts  and  Avocets  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the 
GHARADRIID&  by  the  absence  of  a  dertrum  from  the  bill,  which  is  long,  slender, 
and  either  straight  or  curved  upwards.  The  bill  is  further  peculiar  in  having  the 
nasal  orifice  situated  in  the  basal  fourth,  as  measured  from  the  frontal  feathers. 
The  metatarsus  is  finely  reticulated,  and  never  less  in  length  than  twice  that  of 
the  middle  toe.  This  subfamily  contains  three  well-marked  genera. 


Genus   HIMANTOPUS,    or  Stilts. 

Type,  HIMANTOPUS   MELANOPTEBUS. 


Himantopus,  of  Brisson  (1760). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  a  long,  slender,  nearly  straight  bill,  only  slightly  webbed 
feet,  and  no  hind  toe.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  first  primary  being 
the  longest ;  the  tail  is  rounded.  The  metatarsus  is  long,  more  than  twice  that  of 
the  middle  toe  and  claw  ;  a  great  portion  of  the  tibia  is  devoid  of  feathers.  The 
bill  is  long,  slightly  recurved  at  the  point ;  nostrils  lateral,  linear,  and  elongated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  seven  species,  one  of  which  (H.  Picatus)  appears  to 
be  of  doubtful  distinctness,  locally  distributed  in  the  Australian,  Neotropical, 
Ethiopian,  southern  Palasarctic  and  Nearctic,  and  Oriental  regions.  One  species 
is  an  accidental  visitor  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Stilts  are  dwellers  in  salt  marshes,  on  low-lying  coasts,  and  on  the  banks 
of  lakes.  Their  flight  is  rapid,  graceful  and  sustained,  and  on  the  ground  they 
walk  and  run  with  elegant  ease.  Their  notes  are  clear  and  loud.  They  subsist 
principally  on  insects  and  small  univalves.  They  make  scanty  nests  near  the 
water  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  usually  four  in  number,  and  spotted. 
They  are  monogamous,  and  at  all  times  of  the  year  are  more  or  less  gregarious, 
usually  breeding  in  colonies. 


168  THE  GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD    FOWL 

Family  CHAKADEIID^.  Genus  HIMANTOPUS. 

Subfamily  HIMANTOFODIN&. 


COMMON   STILT. 

HIMANTOPUS   MELANOPTEEUS.—  Meyer. 
PLATE  XXIV. 

Charadrius  himantopus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  255  (1766). 

Himantopus  melanopterus  Meyer;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  312  (1852);  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  79  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xiii.  (1890) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  237  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  p.  129,  pi.  38  (1896). 

Himantopus  candidus  Bonn.;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  587,  pis.  535,  536  (1877); 
Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  305  (1883). 

Himantopus  himantopus  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  188  (1896) ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  310  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.— British :  The  Common  Stilt  is  an 
occasional  straggler  on  migration  to  the  British  Islands,  chiefly  individuals  that 
have  overshot  the  mark  on  their  way  to  their  European  breeding  grounds  in 
spring,  but  occasionally  stray  birds  that  have  joined  the  western  stream  of 
migration  in  autumn.  It  has  been  known  as  an  accidental  visitor  to  our  shores 
for  upwards  of  two  hundred  years.  It  is  most  frequently  observed  on  the  south  and 
east  coasts  of  England,  especially  in  Norfolk  (twelve  examples) ;  but  occasionally 
met  with  inland,  in  Notts,  Oxford,  Somerset,  etc.  It  is  very  rare  in  Scotland,  where, 
however,  it  has  been  met  with  as  far  north  as  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands. 
In  Ireland  about  half-a-dozen  examples  are  on  record.  Foreign:  Southern  and 
Western  Palaearctic  region,  Oriental  and  Ethiopian  regions.  It  is  a  summer  visitor 
to  the  marshes  of  Southern  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  delta  of  the  Rhone,  Sicily,  the 
Danube  valley  (Neusiedler  See,  near  Vienna),  and  the  lagoons  of  the  Black  Sea. 
Elsewhere  in  Europe  it  is  only  an  accidental  straggler  on  migration,  visiting 
Northern  France,  Holland,  Denmark,  and  Germany.  It  is  a  resident  in  many 
parts  of  Africa,  where  it  has  been  found  breeding  as  far  south  as  the  Berg  river, 
and  is  said  to  do  so  on  the  coasts  of  Madagascar.  It  is  most  abundant  in  the 
Ethiopian  region  during  winter,  its  numbers  being  then  increased  by  migrants 
from  the  northern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  :  but  it  is  said  to  be  a  resident  in 
Algeria,  and  is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  Canaries.  Eastwards  it  is  a  summer 
visitor  to  the  Kirghiz  and  Kalmuk  Steppes,  Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  North  Persia, 
Turkestan,  and  Afghanistan,  the  birds  breeding  in  this  area  wintering  in  Africa, 


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OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  169 

India,  and  Burmah  ;  whilst  stragglers  at  that  season  have  been  known  to  wander 
into  North  China,  Cochin  China,  Timor,  the  Philippines,  Borneo,  and  New 
Zealand.  The  most  extensive  breeding  grounds  appear  to  be  in  India  and  Ceylon, 
where  the  bird  is  a  resident,  although,  as  previously  stated,  its  numbers  are 
increased  during  the  cold  season. 

Allied  forms. — Himantopus  leucocephalus,  breeding  in  Australia  and 
wintering  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  Borneo,  New  Guinea,  etc.  Differs  from  the 
Common  Stilt  in  having  the  entire  head  white  and  the  back  of  the  neck  black, 
separated  from  the  black  of  the  back  by  a  white  collar.  The  New  Zealand  Pied 
Stilt  has  been  separated  from  the  foregoing  under  the  name  of  H.  picatus,  and 
is  apparently  an  intermediate  form,  the  result  of  interbreeding  between  H.  leuco- 
cephalus and  H.  melas,  the  Black  Stilt  of  New  Zealand.  The  representative  species 
in  the  Nearctic  and  Neotropical  regions  are :  H.  mexicanus,  breeding  in  the  southern 
half  of  South  America,  wintering  in  the  northern  half  of  that  continent ;  resident  in 
the  central  districts.  Distinguished  by  having  the  black  on  the  back  of  the  neck  ex- 
tending over  the  crown  and  joining  the  black  on  the  mantle.  H.  brasiliensis,  breed- 
ing in  the  Chilian  subregion,  many  wintering  in  Southern  Brazil.  Distinguished 
by  having  the  black  on  the  back  of  the  neck  separated  from  that  of  the  mantle  by 
a  white  collar,  and  extending  underneath  the  eye,  but  not  on  to  the  crown. 

Habits. — The  passage  of  the  Common  Stilt  into  Europe  begins  at  the  end 
of  March  and  lasts  till  the  middle  of  April.  It  migrates  in  small  flocks,  probably 
the  birds  of  a  breeding  colony  journeying  in  company.  Its  stay  in  Europe  is 
seldom  prolonged  after  the  middle  of  November.  The  colonies  of  these  birds 
which  breed  in  India  are  much  more  extensive  than  those  in  Europe.  Its 
principal  haunts  are  salt  marshes,  especially  lagoons,  and  low,  muddy  islands. 
There  are  few  such  graceful  birds  as  the  Common  Stilt :  its  every  movement, 
either  on  land  or  in  air,  is  easy  and  elegant  in  the  extreme.  It  may  often  be 
watched  walking  about  the  mud-banks  or  standing  in  the  shallow  water,  tripping 
lightly  over  the  slimy,  treacherous  ooze,  or  sitting  with  long  legs  folded  beneath 
it  on  some  dry  spot,  as  if  basking  in  the  hot  sunshine.  They  are  by  no  means 
shy  birds,  yet  if  too  closely  pursued  they  soon  take  to  the  air,  often  running  a 
little  way  with  wings  open  before  rising.  Their  flight  is  slow  and  straight,  the 
neck  outstretched,  and  the  long  legs  pressed  close  to  the  body  under  the  tail, 
beyond  which  they  project  for  some  distance.  The  wings  are  beaten  with  slow 
and  regular  motion,  and  during  flight  the  bird  from  time  to  time  droops  its  legs 
as  if  about  to  alight,  although  high  above  the  ground.  They  are  said  to  be  tame 
and  rather  quiet  birds,  but  when  their  breeding  places  are  invaded  they  soon 
become  noisy  in  their  anxiety  for  their  eggs  and  young.  The  usual  call- 
note  is  a  clear  kee-kee-kee,  and  the  alarm  notes  may  be  syllabled  as  kit-kit-kit  and 
a  rattling peur-r-ree.  The  food  of  the  Common  Stilt  consists  of  mollusks,  and 
such  aquatic  insects  as  beetles,  gnats,  dragon-flies,  etc. 


170  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Nidification. — The  date  of  the  breeding  season  of  the  Common  Stilt 
varies  a  good  deal  according  to  locality.  In  Spain,  Stilts  commence  laying  by  the 
end  of  April  or  first  few  days  of  May.  In  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  near  the 
Black  Sea,  they  are  more  than  a  month  later  ;  whilst  in  India  the  greater  number 
of  eggs  are  laid  in  June,  but  the  birds  begin  to  lay  about  the  same  time  as  those 
that  breed  in  Spain.  This  bird  breeds  in  colonies  of  varying  size,  some  consisting 
of  a  few  pairs  only,  others  of  several  hundreds.  The  nest  is  made  in  a  great 
variety  of  situations,  and  varies  considerably  in  size  and  materials.  If  the  ground 
be  wet  the  nest  is  more  bulky  than  when  made  in  drier  situations.  Some  nests 
are  quite  in  the  water,  amidst  heaps  of  dead  reeds  and  other  aquatic  vegetation, 
rising  from  two  to  three  inches  above  the  water-level :  others  are  made  on  the 
mud,  and  are  smaller.  A  great  breeding  station  of  this  bird  is  situated  at  some 
salt  works  near  Delhi,  in  Upper  India.  These  works  consist  of  many  acres 
of  shallow  pools  lined  with  lime,  and  divided  from  each  other  by  strips  of  ground 
from  one  to  six  feet  in  breadth.  On  these  narrow  strips,  and  in  the  shallowest  of 
the  pools,  the  birds  make  their  nests.  These  are  remarkably  curious  structures — 
little  platforms  made  of  pieces  of  lime,  raised  about  three  inches  high  and  from 
seven  to  twelve  inches  across,  on  which  is  strewn  a  small  quantity  of  dry  grass  as 
a  bed  for  the  eggs.  Many  nests  are  made  close  together,  and  the  birds  are 
remarkably  tame,  allowing  the  workmen  to  pass  them  closely  as  they  sit  on  their 
eggs.  When  disturbed  at  the  colony  the  birds  rise  from  their  eggs,  or  run  from 
them  with  elevated  wings  before  taking  flight.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number, 
pyriform,  and  pale  huffish-brown  in  ground-colour,  streaked,  spotted,  and  blotched 
with  blackish-brown,  and  with  underlying  markings  of  grey.  They  measure  on 
an  average  1'7  inch  in  length  by  T2  inch  in  breadth.  But  one  brood  is  reared  in 
the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Himantopus,  with  the  head  and  neck  white 
(adult).  Immature  birds  have  the  back  of  the  neck  and  the  crown  black.  In 
first  plumage  the  dark  parts  are  brown,  mottled  with  buff.  Length,  13  to  14 
inches. 


OP   THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  171 


Genus  RECURVI ROSTRA,   or  Avocets. 

Type,  EECUEVIEOSTEA  AVOCETTA. 


Recurvirostra,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present 
genus  are  characterised  by  combining  a  long,  slender,  deeply  recurved  bill  with 
webbed  feet  and  a  hind  toe.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  first  primary 
being  the  longest ;  the  tail  is  rounded.  The  metatarsus  is  long,  but  not  more  than 
twice  that  of  the  middle  toe  and  claw  ;  a  great  portion  of  the  tibia  is  devoid  of 
feathers.  The  bill  is  long,  weak,  and  flexible,  and  recurved  for  its  entire  length  ; 
nostrils  linear  and  elongated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  four  species,  which  are  locally  distributed  in  the 
Australian,  southern  Nearctic,  Palaearctic,  Ethiopian,  and  Neotropical  regions; 
Oriental  region  in  winter.  One  species  formerly  bred  in,  but  is  now  a  rare 
straggler  to,  the  British  Islands. 

The  Avocets  are  dwellers  on  flat,  sandy  coasts,  marshes,  lagoons,  and  mud- 
banks.  Their  flight  is  airy,  graceful,  and  well-sustained,  and  on  the  ground  they 
walk  and  run  with  elegant  ease.  They  swim  and  wade.  Their  notes  are  shrill 
and  monotonous.  They  subsist  principally  on  worms,  crustaceans,  and  aquatic 
insects.  They  make  scanty  nests  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs,  three  or  four 
in  number,  are  spotted.  They  are  monogamous,  sociable,  and  gregarious. 


172  THE  GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHARADEIID^}.  Genus  KECURVIKOSTBA. 

Subfamily  HIMANTOPODINJE. 


COMMON    AVOCET. 

EECURVIKOSTEA  AVOCETTA.—  Linnaus. 
PLATE  XXIV. 

Recurvirostra  avocetta,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  256  (1766) ;  MacgiU.  Brit.  B.  iv,  p.  306 
(1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  577,  pi.  534  (1875) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  hi.  p. 
299  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xiii.  (1890)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs 
Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  239  (1894)  ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  185  (1896); 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  326  (1896). 

Himantopus  avocetta  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  74  (1885) ;  Seebohm, 
Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  129,  pi.  38  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.— British:  The  Avocet  is  now  an  irregular 
straggler  on  migration  to  England,  still  more  accidental  elsewhere.  A  melancholy 
interest  attaches  to  the  Avocet,  inasmuch  that  this  curious  bird  once  bred 
regularly  in  the  British  Islands,  but  has  long  been  exterminated  as  a  nesting 
species  by  the  destruction  of  its  favourite  haunts  and  the  persecution  of  man. 
For  nearly  seventy  years  the  Avocet  has  ceased  to  breed  in  this  country.  It 
formerly  bred  in  the  marshes  and  on  those  parts  of  the  coast  suited  to  its 
requirements,  in  Lincolnshire,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Kent,  and  Sussex ;  and  it  is  to 
these  old  haunts  the  occasional  visitors  seem  most  attracted,  usually  making 
their  appearance  in  spring,  as  was  once  their  regular  practice ;  less  frequently  in 
autumn.  Still  earlier  records  show  that  it  frequented  the  Severn  district  and 
Staffordshire.  The  last  colony  of  Avocets  of  which  we  have  any  evidence  was 
near  Salthouse,  in  the  fens  (1822—25).  This  was  destroyed  by  the  taking  of  the 
eggs  for  puddings,  and  the  birds  for  their  plumage  to  make  artificial  flies  for 
fishermen  !  The  bird  appears  to  have  been  an  accidental  visitor  only  elsewhere, 
especially  in  the  north  and  west.  About  half-a-dozen  examples  only  have  been 
recorded  from  Scotland,  where  it  has  been  met  with,  however,  as  far  north  as  the 
Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  and  even  in  the  Outer  Hebrides.  It  is  of  only  accidental 
occurrence  in  Ireland,  chiefly  in  the  south,  though  once  recorded  from  the  estuary 
of  the  Moy  in  the  north-west.  Foreign :  Southern  Patearctic  and  Ethiopian 
regions,  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  Europe  on  some  of  the  islands 
off  the  Dutch  and  Danish  coasts,  on  the  marshes  at  the  delta  of  the  lihone,  in  the 
marisuias  of  Southern  Spain,  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  notably,  it  is  said,  in  the 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  173 

Neusiedler  See,  near  Vienna,  and  in  the  lagoons  of  the  Black  Sea.  To  the  remain- 
der of  the  continent,  as  far  north  as  Southern  Scandinavia,  it  is  only  an  abnormal 
visitor  on  migration.  South  of  the  Mediterranean  it  is  supposed  to  breed  in  suit- 
able localities  throughout  the  African  continent,  and  in  Madagascar,  where  it 
probably  may  do  so.  Eastwards  it  is  a  bird  of  passage  across  Asia  Minor,  a  few 
remaining  to  winter,  and  a  resident  in  Palestine  and  Persia,  but  a  summer 
visitor  only  to  Northern  Turkestan,  South-west  Siberia,  South-east  Mongolia,  and 
South  Dauria,  wintering  in  India  (sometimes  in  Ceylon)  and  China,  including 
the  islands  of  Formosa  and  Hainan.  Blakiston  and  Pryer  include  the  Avocet 
in  their  list  of  the  birds  of  Japan,  whilst  Temminck  and  Schlegel  had  long 
previously  included  it  in  their  list  in  the  Fauna  Japonica,  but  until  an  example 
has  been  obtained  and  identified  by  competent  authorities  it  seems  probable  that 
the  American  Avocet  may  be  the  species  that  occasionally  visits  these  islands. 

Allied  forms. — Recurvirostra  americana,  an  inhabitant  of  North  America, 
from  Great  Slave  Lake  in  the  north  to  Texas  in  the  south,  the  more  northern 
birds  wintering  in  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America.  Differs  from  the 
Common  Avocet  in  having  the  secondaries  white,  the  major  part  of  the  outer  web 
brown  ;  and  in  breeding  plumage  in  having  the  head  and  neck  dull  chestnut. 
R.  rubricollis  (R.  nova  hottandice,  of  many  authors)  an  inhabitant  of  Australia, 
occasionally  occurring  in  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Norfolk  Island,  and  New  Guinea. 
Differs  from  the  Common  Avocet  in  having  a  chestnut  head  and  neck  during  the 
breeding  season,  and  in  having  the  combination  of  the  secondaries  white  on  both 
webs,  much  white  on  the  scapulars,  but  none  on  the  tertials. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  Avocet  resemble  very  closely  those  of  the 
Common  Stilt.  Like  that  species  it  is  a  migratory  bird,  arriving  at  its  European 
breeding  places  in  April  and  May,  and  leaving  them  again  in  September.  Its 
haunts  are  low,  sandy  coasts,  salt  marshes,  lagoons,  and  muddy  islands.  In 
these  places  it  frequents  the  waterside,  and  not  only  wades  in  the  shallows  but 
swims  well  and  lightly  whenever  it  has  occasion  to  do  so.  It  runs  quickly  over 
the  treacherous  muds,  and  walks  with  graceful  steps  hither  and  thither  in  quest 
of  food.  Although  conspicuous  enough  on  the  bare  muds  and  sands,  or  on  the 
short  turf  of  the  salt  marshes,  it  is  said  not  to  be  very  shy,  but  it  is  careful  to 
keep  well  out  of  harm's  way  notwithstanding.  Its  flight  is  similar  to  that  of 
of  the  Stilt,  the  neck  and  legs  being  outstretched,  and  in  the  air  the  bird's  strongly 
contrasted  black  and  white  plumage  gives  it  a  very  singular  appearance.  Like  the 
Stilt  it  is  also  more  or  less  gregarious,  especially  in  winter,  when  the  flocks  are 
sometimes  very  large  ;  and  it  also  possesses  the  habit  of  running  for  a  little  way 
either  just  before  or  after  flight.  This  species  frequently  alights  upon  the  sea, 
but  although  it  swims  well  it  is  not  known  to  dive.  The  food  of  the  Avocet  is 
composed  of  small  worms,  crustaceans,  and  various  kinds  of  aquatic  insects  and 


174  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

their  larvae.  Much  of  this  food  is  obtained  as  the  bird  scoops  or  draws  its  long, 
slender,  upturned  bill  from  side  to  side  across  the  surface  of  the  soft  mud  or 
sand.  The  bill  is  never  probed  into  the  surface.  Occasionally  an  insect  is 
caught  as  it  sits  upon  the  water  or  flits  slowly  by.  The  Avocet  often  feeds 
whilst  wading  in  the  shallows,  and  sometimes  its  head  is  actually  pushed  under 
the  surface.  When  food  is  captured  the  bird  generally  swallows  it  by  tossing  up 
the  head.  The  note  of  this  bird  is  a  somewhat  low  yet  clear  til-it,  til-it,  most 
persistently  uttered  when  its  breeding  grounds  are  invaded. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Avocet  commences  early  in 
May  in  Jutland ;  but  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  where  all  birds  for  some 
unknown  reason  (possibly  influenced  by  the  annual  inundations  of  the  great 
river)  nest  later,  the  eggs  are  not  laid  until  the  beginning  of  June.  This  bird 
breeds  in  colonies  of  varying  size,  and  all  through  the  nesting  season  is  most 
sociable.  The  nests  are  either  placed  on  the  bare  sand  or  mud  or  on  the  short 
herbage  of  the  marshes,  and  are  little  more  than  hollows  into  which  a  few 
scraps  of  withered  herbage  are  collected.  The  eggs  are  generally  three  or  four  in 
number,  but  in  rare  cases  five  are  said  to  have  been  found.  They  are  pyriform 
in  shape,  and  pale  buff  in  ground-colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  blackish-brown, 
and  with  underlying  markings  of  grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'95  inch 
in  length  by  1'4  inch  in  breadth.  Both  parents  assist  in  the  duty  of  incubation, 
which  according  to  Naumann  lasts  from  seventeen  to  eighteen  days.  One  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year,  after  which  event  the  birds  become  even  more 
gregarious.  The  exact  manner  in  which  the  old  birds,  with  their  long,  recurved 
beaks,  convey  food  to  the  young  is  still  undetermined.  Even  in  the  nestling  stage 
of  its  existence  the  bill  of  the  Avocet  is  distinctly  recurved. 

Diagnostic  characters — Becurvirostra,  with  the  forehead,  crown,  and 
hind  neck  black,  and  the  innermost  secondaries  white  (adult)  ;  brown  in  young  in 
first  plumage,  the  secondaries  barred  with  white.  Length,  18  inches. 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  175 


Subfamily  STREPSILIN/E.— The  Turnstones. 


The  Turnstones  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the  CHARA- 
by  the  absence  of  a  dertrum  from  the  bill,  and  by  having  the  nasal  orifice 
extending  beyond  the  basal  fourth  of  the  bill.  The  metatarsus  is  scutellated  in 
front  on  the  lower  half  ;  the  remainder  reticulated  both  before  and  behind.  The 
toes  are  cleft  to  the  base.  In  some  respects  the  Turnstones  form  a  connecting 
link  between  the  Plovers  and  the  Sandpipers.  This  subfamily  contains  but  a 
single  genus. 


Genus  STREPSILAS,  or  Turnstones. 

Type,    STREPSILAS   INTEEPEES. 


Strepsilas,  of  Illiger  (1811). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  toes  cleft  to  the  base,  and  the  nasal  orifice  reaching 
beyond  the  basal  fourth  of  the  bill.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  first 
primary  the  longest ;  tail  rather  short  and  nearly  even,  composed  of  twelve 
feathers.  The  metatarsus  is  scutellated  in  front,  reticulated  behind  ;  the  tibia  just 
above  the  tarsal  joint  devoid  of  feathers.  The  bill  is  short,  thick  at  the  base, 
tapering  to  the  point,  somewhat  conical ;  nostrils  basal,  lateral,  partially  shielded 
by  a  membrane.  Toes,  three  in  front,  one  behind  short  and  elevated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  two  species,  and  is  practically  cosmopolitan.  One 
species  is  a  common  visitor  to  the  British  Islands  on  passage,  rarer  during  winter. 

The  Turnstones  are  dwellers  on  the  sea-coast,  rocky  coasts  by  preference.  They 
are  birds  of  powerful  and  sustained  flight,  performing  extended  migrations ;  and 
they  walk  and  run  with  equal  facility.  Their  notes  are  clear  and  shrill,  some  not 
unmusical.  They  subsist  principally  on  small  crustaceans,  sand- worms,  the 
animals  in  small  shells,  etc.  They  make  scanty  nests  on  the  ground,  and  the 
four  pyriform  eggs  are  spotted.  They  are  monogamous,  and  more  or  less 
gregarious  and  sociable,  even  during  the  breeding  season. 


176  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHABADBIID^E.  Genus  STREPSILAS. 

Subfamily  STREPSILIN&. 


TURNSTONE. 

STEEPSILAS    INTEEPEES— (Linnaus) . 

Tringa  interpres,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  248  (1766). 

Strepsilas  interpres  (Linn.),  Maegill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  143  (1852)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii. 
p.  555,  pi.  532  (1875) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  289  (1883)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xiv.  (1890);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  259 
(1894). 

Charadrius  interpres  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  12  (1885) ;  Seebohm, 
Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  119,  pi.  38  (1896). 

Arenaria  interpres  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  176  (1896);  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  92  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Turnstone  is  most  abun- 
dant on  the  British  coasts  during  spring  and  autumn  passage,  a  few  only  remaining 
to  winter.  It  is  commonest  on  the  Scotch  and  Irish  coasts,  and  probably  breeds 
on  the  Hebrides  and  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  groups.  Foreign :  Circumpolar 
region,  and  widely  dispersed,  breeding  as  far  north  as  land  extends,  but  in 
the  Northern  hemisphere,  apparently  in  Europe,not  south  of  the  Baltic,  although 
there  is  some  evidence  to  suggest  that  it  may  do  so  in  the  Canaries  and  the 
Azores ;  and  Heuglin  seems  to  have  discovered  it  breeding  on  the  shores  of  the 
Bed  Sea.  In  winter  it  is  practically  cosmopolitan  south  of  the  Arctic  circle,  and  a 
visitor  to  the  coasts  of  both  hemispheres  down  to  the  Intertropical  realm.  The 
Turnstone  is  another  species  with  an  equatorial  base,  migrating  north  and  south 
to  breed,  although  its  nesting  places  are  fewer  and  much  less  known  in  the 
Southern  than  in  the  Northern  hemisphere.  It  has  been  met  with  inland, 
amongst  other  places  on  the  highlands  of  Yarkand  in  Central  Asia,  and  on  the 
shores  of  Lake  Nyassa  in  Central  Africa. 

Allied  forms. — Strepsilas  melanocephalus,  an  inhabitant  of  the  coasts 
of  Western  America  from  Alaska  to  Mexico.  Differs  from  the  Common  Turnstone 
in  having  the  chestnut  replaced  by  black,  and  in  the  absence  of  white  on  the 
head  and  neck. 


OP   THE    BRITISH    ISLANDS.  177 

Habits. — Although  occasionally  met  with  inland  on  migration  the  Turn- 
stone is  eminently  a  coast  bird,  and  at  all  times  of  the  year  lives  either  on  the 
shore  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea.  It  is  best  known  on  passage  in  our 
Islands,  although  a  few  odd  birds  occasionally  remain  with  us  during  the  winter, 
and  it  would  appear  that  immature  non-breeding  individuals  occasionally  stay 
behind  in  the  winter  quarters  during  summer,  or  at  a  considerable  distance  south 
of  the  nesting  grounds,  although  we  are  convinced  that  in  many  cases  this  is  by 
no  means  the  correct  explanation  of  the  phenomenon.  Young  Turnstones  begin 
to  make  their  appearance  on  our  coasts  at  the  end  of  July,  and  the  migration 
continues  through  August  and  September,  by  which  latter  date  most  of  the  birds 
have  passed  south.  They  arrive  on  their  northern  passage  in  our  Islands  at  the 
end  of  April,  and  the  spring  flight  lasts  about  a  month ;  even  in  the  high  north 
they  appear  early  in  June.  The  Turnstone  prefers  a  rocky  or  shingly  beach  to  a 
mud  one,  and  during  autumn  and  winter  usually  lives  in  flocks  of  varying  size. 
Many  odd  birds,  however,  may  be  met  with  at  these  seasons,  sometimes  consorting 
with  other  Waders.  Most  of  its  time  is  spent  upon  the  beach  in  restless  quest  of 
food.  It  is  ever  running  about  amongst  the  pebbles  and  drifted  rubbish  on  the 
shore.  It  indulges  in  the  peculiar  habit  of  turning  over  shells,  pebbles,  or  other 
small  objects  on  the  beach — hence  its  trivial  name — in  search  of  the  small  marine 
animals  that  often  lurk  under  them  ;  and  it  is  said  occasionally  to  use  its  breast 
as  well  as  its  singularly  shaped  beak  for  the  purpose.  It  not  only  runs  about  the 
dry  shore,  but  frequently  wades,  and  Hume  states  that  he  has  seen  it  swimming 
on  the  sea  just  outside  the  breakers,  rising  from  time  to  time  and  flying  a  little 
way,  then  settling  on  the  water  again.  Its  flight  is  not  particularly  rapid,  and  as 
it  generally  flies  straight  and  not  very  far  from  the  ground  it  is  a  somewhat  easy 
bird  to  shoot.  It  is  also  fond  of  sitting  on  an  elevated  spot,  and  Swinhoe  states 
that  in  China  he  has  seen  numbers  of  this  bird  perched  on  stakes  and  on  the  ropes 
suspended  between  them.  The  note  of  the  Turnstone  is  a  shrill  whistle,  resem- 
bling the  syllable  keet ;  the  bird  also  utters  a  double  note,  which  some  authorities 
syllable  as  hitter,  and  sometimes  the  two  are  uttered  in  succession,  making  a 
treble  note.  During  the  love  season  these  notes  are  uttered  so  quickly  by  the 
male  as  to  form  a  somewhat  musical  trill.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of 
sand-worms,  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  other  small  marine  animals.  An  example 
I  dissected  during  the  autumn  of  1893  had  its  stomach  crammed  with  dozens  of 
minute  shells.  It  is  said  that  this  bird  is  easily  tamed,  and  according  to 
Dr.  Finch  is  kept  in  confinement  on  Pleasant  Island  (one  of  the  Gilbert  group) 
for  fighting  purposes. 

Nidification. — The  Turnstone  breeds  in  June;    and  although  not  gre- 
garious during  the  nesting  season,  several  pairs  not  unfrequently  hatch  their  eggs 
in  the  same  immediate  neighbourhood.     Its  breeding  grounds  are  close  to  the  sea, 
often  on  low  rocky  islands.      The  nest  is  usually  placed  amongst  the  scanty 
12 


178  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

herbage  of  the  coast,  amongst  tufts  of  grass  or  bushes,  and  is  simply  a  hollow, 
often  under  the  shelter  of  a  plant  or  bush,  lined  with  a  few  scraps  of  vegetable 
refuse.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  glossy  in  texture,  and  vary  from  pale  olive- 
green  to  pale  buff  in  ground-colour,  boldly  blotched,  spotted,  and  clouded  with 
olive-brown  and  dark  reddish-brown  and  with  underlying  markings  of  violet-grey. 
They  are  rather  pyriform,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'6  inch  in  length  by 
I'l  inch  in  breadth.  Both  parents  assist  in  the  duty  of  incubation  and  one  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year.  As  soon  as  the  chicks  are  hatched  the  broods  and 
their  parents  repair  to  the  shore,  and  very  soon  afterwards  the  migration  south 
begins.  In  the  high  north  the  entire  breeding  season  lasts  about  a  couple  of 
months  only. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Strepsilas,  with  the  chin  and  throat  white. 
The  mottled  black,  white  and  chestnut  plumage  of  this  species  is  very  charac- 
teristic. Length,  9  inches. 


OF   THE    BEITISH   ISLANDS.  179 


Subfamily  PHALAROPIN/E.— The  Phalaropes. 


The  Phalaropes  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the  CHARA- 
by  having  the  toes  furnished  with  scalloped  webs  or  lateral  lobes,  and 
the  planta  tarsi  serrated,  as  in  the  Grebes,  a  peculiarity,  we  believe,  first  pointed 
out  by  Dr.  Sharpe.  The  toes  are  united  by  a  web  at  the  base ;  whilst  the  meta- 
tarsus is  scutellated  before  and  behind.  The  nasal  groove  extends  along  the  greater 
part  of  the  upper  mandible.  This  subfamily  contains  but  a  single  genus,  although 
some  recent  authorities  have  sought  needlessly  to  split  up  the  three  known  species 
into  as  many  genera. 


Genus   PHALAROPUS,    or   Phalaropes. 

Type,  PHALABOPUS  FULICAKIUS. 


PhalaropUS,  of  Brisson  (1760). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  lateral  lobes  to  the  toes,  and  laterally  compressed 
metatarsi.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  first  quill  the  longest ;  the 
tail  is  short  and  somewhat  rounded.  The  metatarsus  is  scutellated  posteriorly  and 
anteriorly ;  the  tibia  just  above  the  tarsal  joint  devoid  of  feathers.  The  bill  is 
moderately  long  and  straight,  depressed  and  weak.  Nostrils  basal,  oval  with  an 
elevated  border.  Toes  three  in  front,  one  behind  articulated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  three  species  confined  to  the  northern  and  tem- 
perate portions  of  the  Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  regions.  Two  species  are  British, 
one  of  which  is  a  local  summer  visitor,  and  the  other  a  nomadic  migrant  to  the 
British  Islands. 

The  Phalaropes  are  dwellers  on  the  sea  coasts  and  more  inland  lakes  and 
tarns.  They  are  the  most  aquatic  of  the  CHARA.DRIIDVE,  and  swim  well  and 
lightly,  often  going  hundreds  of  miles  out  to  sea.  They  are  birds  of  powerful 
and  well-sustained  flight,  and  walk  and  run  with  equal  facility.  Their  notes  are 
shrill  and  piercing.  They  subsist  principally  on  insects,  crustaceans,  and  worms. 
They  make  scanty  nests  on  the  ground,  and  their  pyriform  eggs  are  four  in  num- 
ber and  double-spotted.  They  are  monogamous ;  but  the  males  perform  the 
duties  of  incubation.  They  are  more  or  less  gregarious  and  social,  and  often 
build  in  scattered  colonies. 


180  THE    GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHAEADEIID^.  Genus  PHALAROPUS. 

Subfamily 


GREY  PHALAROPE. 

PHALAEOPUS  FULICABIUS— 
PLATE  XXV. 

Tringa  fulicaria,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  249  (1766). 

Phalaropus  lobatus  (nee  Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  284  (1852). 

Phalaropus  fulicarius  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.   Eur.  vii.  p.  606,  pi.  538  (1874) ;  Yarrell, 

Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  310  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  85  (1885) ;  Dixon, 

Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  243   (1894) ;   Lilford,  Col.    Fig.  Brit.  B. 

pt.  xxx.  (1895);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  130,  pi.  38  (1896). 
Crymophilus  fulicarius  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  193  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  693  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Grey  Phalarope  is  a  rare 
and  irregular  visitor,  chiefly  in  autumn  and  winter,  and  is  generally  met  with 
sparingly  almost  every  year,  occasionally  appearing  in  great  "  rushes,"  or  "visita- 
tions," after  the  manner  of  the  nomadic  migrants,  in  which  class  it  must  he 
placed.  It  has  been  most  frequently  observed  on  the  southern  coasts  of_  Eng- 
land ;  on  the  eastern  coasts  least  frequently  north  of  the  Wash.  In  Scotland  it 
appears  to  have  been  met  with  from  Berwick  to  the  Orkneys,  and  has  been 
obtained  in  the  Outer  Hebrides.  It  has  occurred  in  Wales,  but  is  altogether 
rarer  on  our  western  coast-line ;  whilst  in  Ireland  it  is  of  very  infrequent  appear- 
ance, although  several  were  captured  in  the  south  during  the  exceptional  visitation 
of  1886.  The  last  exceptional  visitation  appears  to  have  been  in  1891.  By  far 
the  most  extensive  visitation  took  place  in  the  autumn  of  1866,  when  it  has  been 
estimated  that  upwards  of  five  hundred  birds  were  taken,  nearly  half  of  this  vast 
number  in  Sussex !  Twenty  years  previously,  in  the  autumn  of  1846,  another 
irruption  took  place,  which  curiously  enough  again  favoured  Sussex  in  a  remark- 
able degree.  By  a  noteworthy  coincidence,  twenty  years  later  than  the  great 
visitation,  namely,  in  the  autumn  of  1886,  another  and  smaller  one  occurred ; 
whilst  in  1869  it  is  said  an  irruption  took  place  of  some  importance,  both  of  which 
were  almost  confined  to  the  south.  Many  of  these  visitors  wandered  from  the 
coast  to  inland  districts.  Foreign  :  Circumpolar  region,  but  not  known  to  breed 
on  any  part  of  Continental  Europe.  Like  the  Knot,  the  Curlew  Sandpiper,  and 
some  few  other  Arctic  birds,  it  appears  to  be  very  local  during  the  breeding 


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OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  181 

season,  and  may  possibly,  like  the  Waxwing  and  Eose-coloured  Pastor,  change 
its  breeding  places  periodically.  There  are  certain  spots  favoured  by  this  species 
on  the  islands  as  well  as  on  the  mainland  of  the  coasts  of  Arctic  Asia  and 
America,  extending  to  at  least  as  far  north  as  lat.  82|-0,  and  probably  to  all  existing 
land  suited  to  its  requirements  in  the  Polar  basin.  Among  these  may  be  instanced 
Greenland,  Iceland,  Spitzbergen,  Golcheeka  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei,  the 
Taimur  Peninsula,  the  delta  of  the  Lena,  the  Tchuski  Land  north  of  Kamts- 
chatka,* Alaska,  the  Parry  Islands,  and  Grinnell  Land.  To  the  mainland  of 
Europe  it  is  an  accidental  straggler  only,  and  is  of  still  less  frequent  occurrence 
in  North  Africa.  Although  its  normal  routes  across  Asia  are  yet  un traced,  it 
appears  to  cross  that  continent  on  migration,  many,  perhaps,  by  way  of  the 
Pamir,  where  Severtzow,  the  Russian  ornithologist,  says  it  is  a  rare  visitor,  and 
to  winter  on  the  Mekran  coast  and  in  Scinde.  A  straggler  has  been  met  with 
even  as  far  to  the  south-east  as  Calcutta.  In  the  far  east,  Kamtschatka  and  the 
Kurile  Islands  appear  to  be  winter  resorts  of  this  species.  It  has  been  obtained 
in  Japan  (Owari  Hondu),  as  recorded  by  Dr.  Stejneger;  whilst  it  has  been  known 
to  wander  as  far  as  New  Zealand.  In  the  New  World  its  wanderings  are  much 
the  same  as  in  the  Old  World,  and  it  has  been  met  with  on  both  the  eastern  and 
western  coasts  of  America  as  far  south  as  lat.  40°  ;  and  inland,  Audubon  speaks  of 
a  flock  of  about  a  hundred  birds  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  in  lat.  38°  ;  whilst  more 
recently  the  late  Mr.  Salvin  and  Dr.  Sclater  have  each  recorded  it  from  Chili ! 

Allied  forms. — Phalaropus  hyperboreus,  also  a  British  species,  and  fully 
treated  of  in  the  following  chapter.  P.  wilsoni,  an  inhabitant  of  America :  in  the 
Nearctic  region,  breeding  on  the  shores  of  the  lakes  as  far  north  as  Winnipeg,  and 
south  to  Great  Salt  Lake  and  Lake  Michigan ;  in  the  Neotropical  region,  ranging 
from  Mexico  in  the  north  to  Patagonia  in  the  south,  although  its  nesting  area  is 
not  yet  traced.  Eeadily  identified  from  the  only  two  other  Phalaropes  known  by 
the  long,  slender  bill,  which  is  more  than  an  inch  in  length.  This  latter  species 
has  been  recorded  as  British  from  Leicestershire,  but  the  evidence  is  not  suffi- 
ciently conclusive  to  merit  its  inclusion  in  the  British  avifauna. — See  Proc.  Zool. 
Soc.  1886,  p.  297. 

Habits. — The  migrations  of  the  Grey  Phalarope  are,  as  a  rule,  neither  very 
extended  nor  very  regular.  When  the  birds'  northern  haunts  are  disturbed  by 
unusually  severe  tempests,  or  long-continued  frosts,  it  draws  southwards,  often 
in  considerable  numbers,  but  such  movements  are  not  made  every  year,  and  the 
Grey  Phalarope  must  be  classed  as  a  bird  that  winters  as  far  north  as  it  possibly 
can  with  safety.  Except  during  the  breeding  season,  this  bird  is  not  seen 
much  on  land,  but  spends  the  greater  part  of  its  time  on  the  sea,  where  it  is 

*  Dr  Stejneger  met  with  a  flock  of  Phalaropes,  wkich  he  identified  as  the  present  species,  several 
miles  at  sea  near  Behring  Island,  off  the  coast  of  Kamtschatka,  on  the  2ist  of  August,  1882.  No  examples, 
however,  were  obtained. 


182  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

frequently  met  with  hundreds  of  miles  from  shore,  even  following  in  the  wake  of 
whales  for  the  sake  of  catching  the  various  marine  animals  that  are  disturbed 
each  time  those  mighty  creatures  "  blow."    This  singular  habit  has  acquired  for 
the  Grey  Phalarope  the  name  of  "  Whale  Bird."     Sabine  states  that  he  has  seen 
this  species  swimming  about  amongst  icebergs,  miles  from  shore.     It  is  most 
expert  at  swimming,  floating  very  lightly  on  the  water,  with  a  peculiar  bobbing 
motion  of  the  head,  but  it  is  not  known  to  dive.    At  all  times  it  appears  to  prefer 
to  swim  out  of  danger  rather  than  to  fly.    It  is  also  remarkably  social,  and  during 
winter  gathers  into  flocks,  sometimes  of  very  large  size.     Mr.  Nelson,  writing  of 
this  species  in  Alaska,  in  June,  before  the  flocks  had  dispersed  to  the  breeding 
places,  says  : — "  A  little  later  in  the  day,  as  their  hunger  became  satisfied,  they 
began  to  unite  into  parties,  until  fifteen  or  twenty  birds  would  rise  and  pursue 
an  erratic  course  over  the  flat.     As  they  passed  swiftly  along,  stray  individuals 
and  pairs  might  be  seen  to  spring  up  and  join  the  flock.     Other  flocks  would  rise 
and  the  smaller  coalesce  with  the  larger  until  from  two  hundred  to  three  or  even 
four  hundred  birds  were  gathered  in  a  single  flock.     As  the  size  of  the  flock 
increased,  its  movements  became  more  and  more  irregular.     At  one  moment 
they  would  glide  straight  along  the  ground,  then  change  to  a  wayward  flight, 
back  and  forth,  twisting  about  with  such  rapidity  that  it  was  difficult  to  follow 
them  with  the  eye.     Suddenly  their  course  would  change,  and  the  compact  flock, 
as  if  animated  by  a  single  impulse,  would  rise  high  over  head,  and  after  a  series 
of  graceful  and  swift  evolutions,  come  sweeping  down  with  a  loud  rushing  sound 
to  resume  their  playful  course  near  the  ground.     During  all  their  motions  the 
entire  flock  moved  in  such  unison  that  the  alternate  flashing  of  the  under  side  of 
their  wings  and  the  dark  colour  of  their  back,  like  the  play  of  light  and  shade, 
made  a  beautiful  spectacle.    When  wearied  of  their  sport  the  flock  disbanded  and 
the  birds  again  resumed  their  feeding."     The  call-note  of  the  Grey  Phalarope  is 
a  shrill  weet,  and  the  alarm  note,  uttered  chiefly  during  flight,  has  been  described 
as  a  rapidly  repeated  bick-a  bick-a.     The  Grey  Phalaropes  that  have  from  time 
to  time  visited  our  Islands  were  very  tame  and  confiding,  doubtless  because  they 
had  had  little  experience  of  man ;  but  Hume  states  that  in  Scinde  they  were 
wary  enough,  and  the  flocks  rose  simultaneously  as  soon  as  a  boat  approached 
them.     The  food  of  this  species  consists  principally  of  insects,  but  crustaceans, 
small  worms,  and  scraps  of  vegetable  substances  are  also  eaten. 

Nidification. — The  Grey  Phalarope  is  a  late  breeder.  It  resorts  to  the 
breeding  grounds  in  May,  pairs  towards  the  end  of  that  month,  and  the  eggs  are 
usually  laid  during  the  first  half  of  June.  They  make  their  nests  on  the  swampy 
margins  of  the  Arctic  pools  and  lakes,  in  much  the  same  sort  of  places  as  those 
selected  by  the  Eed-necked  Phalarope.  The  nest  is  merely  a  hollow  in  the 
moss  or  lichen-covered  ground,  but  sometimes  a  few  dry  leaves  are  added  as  a 
lining.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  pale  buff  with  an  olive  tinge  in  ground- 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  183 

colour,  heavily  blotched  and  spotted  with  rich  dark  brown,  and  a  few  underlying 
markings  of  pale  brown.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'25  inch  in  length  by  '87 
inch  in  breadth.  In  this  species  the  female  bird  is  the  more  brilliant  in  colour, 
and  she  not  only  conducts  the  courtship,  but  leaves  the  male  to  incubate  the 
eggs.  The  young  are  hatched  early  in  July,  and  about  a  month  or  six  weeks 
after  this  event  the  breeding  places  are  deserted,  and  the  birds  repair  to  the  open 
sea,  forming  into  flocks  for  the  winter. 

Diagnostic  characters Phalaropus,  with  the  bill  short  and  wide  (the 

culmen  equal  to  the  metatarsus  in  length),  and  the  central  rectrices  more  than 
half  an  inch  longer  than  the  outermost  ones.  In  breeding  plumage  the  entire 
underparts  are  rich  chestnut.  Length,  8  inches. 


184  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHAKADRinXE.  Genus  PHALABOPUS. 

Subfamily  PHALA.HOP1NA). 


RED-NECKED    PHALAROPE. 

PHALAEOPUS   HYPEKBOKEUS— (Linnaius) . 
PLATE   XXV. 

Tringa  hyperborea,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  249  (176G). 

Lobipes  hyperboreus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  291  (1852). 

Phalaropus  hyperboreus  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  597,  pis.  537,  539,  fig.  2 
(1874) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  315  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  89 
(1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  276  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  131,  pi.  38  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  197  (1896)  ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  698  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Red-necked  Phalarope  is 
now  only  known  to  breed  in  a  few  favoured  spots  in  the  Shetlaiids,  the  Orkneys, 
and  the  Outer  Hebrides  (North  and  South  Uist,  Benbecula,  etc.)  It  formerly 
bred  in  Sutherlandshire,  Inverness-shire,  and  Perthshire.  To  the  mainland  of 
Scotland  and  England,  and  other  island  localities,  it  is  now  only  known  as 
a  rare  visitor  on  migration,  chiefly  in  autumn.  It  is  rare  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Scotland,  and  perhaps  most  frequent  in  Norfolk.  It  has  been  observed  once  in 
Ireland — in  November,  1891.  Foreign :  Circumpolar  region  above  the  limits  of 
forest  growth  ;  Oriental  and  Southern  Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  regions  in  winter. 
It  is  a  summer  visitor  to  Southern  Greenland,  the  Faroes,  Iceland,  Northern 
Scandinavia,  and  to  the  tundras  of  the  Dovrefjeld  in  lat.  62°,  Nova  Zembla,  and 
eastwards  across  Siberia  as  far  north  as  land  extends,  but  rarely  south  of  the 
Arctic  circle,  except  in  the  far  east,  where  Middendorff  observed  it  breeding  on 
the  west  coast  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  as  far  south  as  lat.  55° ;  whilst  Stejneger 
records  it  as  one  of  the  commonest  breeding  summer  birds  on  Behring  Island,  off 
the  east  coast  of  Kamtschatka.  South  of  these  limits  in  the  Old  World  it  is 
a  winter  visitor  to  the  coasts  of  Europe,  becoming  rare  in  the  Mediterranean 
basin ;  being  absent  altogether,  apparently,  from  North-east  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  and 
Palestine.  It  passes  across  Asia  on  most  of  the  known  internal  routes  of  migra- 
tion, and  winters  in  Persia,  on  the  Mekran  coast,  and,  perhaps,  less  frequently 
in  Northern  India.  It  is  also  known  on  the  Japanese  coasts  on  migration,  and 
winters  in  China  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  southwards  to  New  Guinea.  The 
New  World  individuals  pass  south  to  winter  in  the  United  States,  Mexico,  and 
Central  America,  and  occasionally  wander  as  far  to  the  east  as  the  Bermudas. 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  185 

Allied  forms. — Phalaropuefulicarittt,  already  treated  of  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  and  P.  wilsoni  also  mentioned  in  the  allies  of  that  species  (see  p.  181). 

Habits. — Although  the  migrations  of  the  Red-necked  Phalarope  are  not 
very  extended  in  the  western  Palaearctic  region,  they  are  much  more  so  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  remarks  on  the  geographical 
distribution  of  this  bird.  It  is  a  bird  of  the  sea,  and  though  it  does  not  appear  to 
wander  so  far  from  shore  as  the  Grey  Phalarope,  it  does  not  visit  the  land  much 
except  during  the  breeding  season.  It  is  a  tame  and  confiding  little  bird,  as 
I  have  often  remarked,  especially  when  on  the  pools  and  lakes  where  it  nests ; 
and  at  all  times  it  is  extremely  social.  Parties  of  Red-necked  Phalaropes  may 
be  seen  all  the  summer  through  swimming  in  company.  This  bird  swims 
remarkably  well  and  buoyantly,  scarcely  raising  a  ripple,  nodding  its  head  as 
it  progresses,  usually  in  a  zigzag  direction,  across  the  pool,  and  picking  insects 
from  the  water,  or  snapping  at  them  as  they  flit  by  as  it  goes.  It  also  runs 
daintily  about  the  swampy  margins  of  the  water,  and  I  have  seen  it  walk  lightly 
over  floating  masses  of  weed.  The  Red-necked  Phalarope  spends  most  of  its 
time  on  the  water,  rarely  taking  wing,  although  it  can  fly  both  rapidly  and  well. 
The  note  of  this  species  is  a  rather  low  but  shrill  weet.  Its  food  consists  largely 
of  insects  and  their  larvae  ;  but  worms,  crustaceans,  and  other  small  marine 
animals  are  also  eaten. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  this  species  commences  in  May 
in  Scotland,  but  in  more  Arctic  latitudes  it  is  several  weeks  later.  Its  breeding 
grounds  are  returned  to  each  season.  These  are  usually  situated  on  marshy 
moors,  generally  in  the  neighbourhood  of  pools  and  not  far  from  the  sea.  In 
the  valley  of  the  Petchora,  Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie-Brown  found  the  nest 
amongst  long  grass  in  the  centre  of  a  thick  tuft  a  foot  or  more  from  the  ground ; 
but  in  Scotland  it  is  usually  made  on  the  ground.  This  nest  is  sometimes  very 
slight — merely  a  hollow  lined  with  a  few  bits  of  dry  grass  and  rush ;  but  at  other 
times  more  substantial  and  neatly  made.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  buff  of 
various  shades  or  pale  olive  in  ground-colour,  blotched  and  spotted  with  umber- 
brown,  blackish-brown  and  pale  brown,  and  underlying  markings  of  grey.  They 
measure  on  an  average  1'linch  in  length  by  -82inch  in  breadth.  The  male,  as 
in  the  preceding  species,  performs  the  duties  of  incubation,  and  takes  the  greatest 
share  in  bringing  up  the  brood  :  the  female  (the  most  brilliantly-coloured)  taking 
the  initiative  in  the  courtship,  and,  as  Mr.  Nelson  remarks,  possessing  "all  the 
rights  demanded  by  the  most  radical  reformers."  Messrs.  Pearson  and  Bidwell 
have  recorded  (Ibis,  1894,  p.  234)  some  remarkable  facts  respecting  the  breeding 
habits  of  this  Phalarope.  They  say:  "In  most  instances  where  we  saw  this 
species  there  were  three  birds — two  males  and  one  female.  Twice  we  saw  parties 
of  three  birds  each  on  the  sea,  feeding  just  behind  the  breakers ;  repeatedly  we 


186  THE   GAME   BIKDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

noticed  three  birds  together  on  the  wing ;  and,  nearly  every  time  we  came  upon 
them  in  the  small  lakes  of  the  tundra,  the  party  consisted  of  two  males  and  one 
female.  Can  this  species  be  polyandrous  ?  "  When  the  breeding  place  is  invaded 
the  birds  leave  their  nests  and  settle  on  the  adjoining  pools,  displaying  little 
concern  for  their  safety.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  reared  the  birds  of  a  colony 
(for  many  nests  are  often  made  within  a  small  area)  betake  themselves  to  the 
sea,  and  as  autumn  advances  the  southern  movements  are  commenced.  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  season. 

Diagnostic    characters. — Phalaropus,  with  the  bill  tapering  from  the 
base  to  the  tip  and  less  than  one  inch  in  length.     Length,  7  inches. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  187 


Subfamily    TOTANIN/E.— The   Semi= web -footed 
Sandpipers,  or  Tatlers. 


The  Semi-web-footed  Sandpipers  may  be  distinguished  from  other  members 
of  the  CHABADBIID^E  by  having  the  middle  and  outermost  toes  connected  by  a 
web  at  the  base,  and  a  similar  but  smaller  web  connecting  the  inner  and  middle 
toes.  The  nasal  groove  extends  along  the  greater  part  of  the  upper  mandible, 
but  the  nasal  orifice  is  situated  within  the  basal  fourth  of  it.  The  metatarsus 
is  scutellated  in  front,  and  in  the  majority  of  species  behind  as  well.  This 
subfamily  has  been  recently  subdivided  into  no  less  than  seventeen  genera  by 
Dr.  Sharpe,  but  probably  not  more  than  a  third  of  these  are  worthy  of  distinction. 


Genus  NUMENIUS,  or  Curlews, 

Type,   NUMENIUS   AEQUATUS. 


IN  u  men  ills,  of  Brisson  (1760). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  the  metatarsus  scutellated  in  front  and  reticulated 
behind,  and  the  bill  sufficiently  arched  for  the  point  to  be  considerably  lower 
than  the  plane  of  the  gape.*  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed ;  tail  nearly 
square.  The  metatarsus  is  rather  long  and  slender,  the  lower  portion  of  the  tibia 
devoid  of  feathers.  The  bill  is  long,  slender,  and  decurved  ;  nostrils  lateral, 
linear,  and  situated  within  the  basal  fourth  part  of  the  bill. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  ten  species  and  subspecies  confined  to  the 
Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions  during  summer,  but  more  cosmopolitan  during 
winter.  Three  species  are  included  as  British,  one  a  very  rare  abnormal  migrant, 
one  a  common  resident,  and  one  best  known  on  passage  and  in  winter. 

The  Curlews  are  dwellers  on  moors,  marshes,  and  upland  wastes  in  summer, 
of  sea  coasts  during  winter.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  and  well  sustained  flight, 
and  walk  and  run  with  ease.  Their  notes  are  clear,  loud,  and  not  unmusical. 
They  subsist  on  worms,  mollusks,  insects,  and  fruit.  They  make  slight  nests  on 
the  ground,  and  their  pyriform  eggs  are  four  in  number  and  double-spotted. 
They  are  monogamous ;  during  winter  they  are  gregarious,  and  even  in  summer 
somewhat  sociable.  They  are  shy  and  wary,  and  their  flesh  is  not  unpalatable. 

*  Not  having  had  access  to  a  very  large  series  of  specimens  of  Numenius,  I  cannot  speak  with 
absolute  certainty,  but  probably  the  plane  of  the  gape  does  not  extend  beyond  the  basal  half  of  the 
upper  mandible. 


188  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHARADRIID^E.  Genus  NUMENIUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN&. 


COMMON    CURLEW. 

NUMENIUS   AEQUATA.— (Linnteus). 

Scolopax  arquata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  242  (1766). 

Numenius  arquatus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  243  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 
viii.  p.  243,  pi.  578  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  499  (1883) ;  Beebohiu, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  94  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xix.  (1891) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  272  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  317 
(1896;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  132,  pi.  45  (1896);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  341  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Curlew  breeds  on  most 
of  the  moors  and  mountains  of  the  British  Islands,  and  on  some  of  the  heaths 
and  wild  lands  in  less  romantic  districts,  as  for  instance  in  Wilts,  Hants,  Lincoln- 
shire, and  the  Isle  of  Man.  Its  breeding  grounds  extend  from  the  highlands  of 
Cornwall  to  the  "moors"  of  Devon,  and  the  hills  of  Somerset  and  Dorset;  thence 
northwards  over  the  Welsh  mountains  and  adjoining  uplands,  through  the  Peak 
and  the  entire  Pennine  chain  to  the  Cheviots.  North  of  the  Border  suitable 
districts  increase,  and  it  becomes  even  more  widely  distributed,  extending  to  the 
Outer  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys,  and  the  Shetlands.  The  same  remarks  apply  to 
Ireland,  where  it  is  equally  generally  dispersed.  In  winter  it  seeks  the  coasts, 
and  is  then  widely  distributed  on  all  parts  of  the  sea-board  suited  to  its  needs, 
including  the  Channel  Islands.  Foreign :  Western  Palaearctic  region,  Ethiopian 
region  in  winter.  It  is  an  accidental  visitor  to  Iceland  and  the  Faroes  ;  a  sum- 
mer resident  in  Scandinavia,  and  breeds  in  Eussia  as  far  north  as  Riga  in  the 
west,  and  the  Volga  basin  in  the  east.  Southwards  it  breeds  in  Poland,  North 
Germany,  Denmark,  and  Holland,  and  is  said  to  do  so  in  Flanders  and  Brittany ; 
whilst  in  the  east  it  does  so  on  the  Kirghiz  and  Caucasian  Steppes.  It  passes 
Europe  south  of  these  limits,  Asia  Minor,  and  Persia  on  migration,  and  winters 
in  Arabia  and  Africa.  If  this  species  visits  temperate  South  Africa  normally, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  breeds  there,  migrating  from  a  winter  base 
in  the  Ethiopian  portion  of  the  Intertropical  or  Priinogaean  realm.  It  is  an 
occasional  wanderer  to  the  Azores,  and  the  Canaries  :  and  has  been  recorded 
from  the  Seychelles  and  Aldabra  Island,  as  well  as  from  Reunion,  Rodriguez, 
Ainirantes,  and  Providence  Bank. 


OP   THE   BRITISH  ISLANDS.  189 

Allied  Forms. — Numenius  arquatus  lineatus,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of 
Siberia,  in  the  west  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  circle  ;  but  in  the  east  only  as  far 
as  Dauria  and  the  southern  valleys  of  the  Amoor,  passing  through  Turkestan  on 
migration  and  wintering  in  India,  Ceylon,  Burmah,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
abnormally  wandering  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa.  It  is  the  eastern  form 
of  the  Common  Curlew,  only  subspecifically  distinct ;  none  of  the  diagnostic 
characters  being  constant,  and  with  intermediate  forms  very  frequent.  Typical 
examples  differ  from  the  Common  Curlew  in  having  the  lower  back  uniform 
white  without  spots,  the  axillaries  uniform  white,  the  margins  of  the  scapulars 
white,  and  the  bill  seven  to  eight  inches  in  length.  N.  cyanopus,  an  inhabitant 
in  summer  of  East  Siberia,  passing  the  Amoor  Valley  and  the  coasts  of  China  and 
Japan  on  migration,  and  wintering  in  Australia.  Another  set  of  individuals  of 
this  species  appear  to  migrate  south  from  a  base  in  the  Intertropical  realm,  to 
breed  in  South  Australia  and  Tasmania,  although  the  nest  has  not  yet  been 
discovered  in  these  latter  areas.  N.  longirostris,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of 
temperate  North  America  ;  and  of  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies 
in  winter,  though  resident  in  some  of  the  central  districts.  Both  these  Curlews 
differ  from  the  Common  Curlew  in  having  the  rump  uniform  in  colour  with  the 
rest  of  the  upper  parts.  The  former  bird  in  addition  is  characterised  by  its 
nearly  white  axillaries,  barred  and  streaked  with  brown.  The  latter  in  addition 
is  characterised  by  its  uniform  rich  buff  axillaries,  and  nearly  uniform  buff 
underparts. 

Habits. — The  haunts  of  the  Curlew  vary  considerably  with  the  change  of 
season.  This  species  is  a  resident  in  our  Islands,  although  its  numbers  are 
increased  during  the  colder  periods  of  the  year  by  migrants  from  more  northern 
latitudes.  In  summer,  however,  it  frequents  inland  moors  and  wild,  rough 
uplands  ;  in  winter  it  descends  to  the  coast,  and  is  then  widely  distributed  on  all 
parts  of  the  shore  where  sand,  mud,  and  broken  rocks  are  to  be  found  at  low 
water.  During  high  water  in  many  localities  the  birds  retire  inland  to  moors 
and  pastures,  returning  with  remarkable  punctuality  as  soon  as  the  tide  begins 
to  ebb.  In  other  districts  they  visit  shingle-banks  and  low  islands  to  pass  the 
time  between  the  tides.  All  the  year  round  many  parts  of  the  coast  are  never 
deserted  altogether  by  Curlews,  the  young  non-breeding  birds  it  is  said  not 
visiting  the  breeding  grounds,  but  remaining  behind  in  the  usual  winter  haunts. 
Curlews  are  the  very  essence  of  wariness,  the  shyest  and  the  easiest  alarmed 
birds  upon  the  coast,  and  perhaps  the  most  difficult  to  stalk.  On  bare  ground  it 
is  simply  impossible  to  get  near  them,  and  the  only  way  to  make  a  successful 
shot  is  to  station  oneself  on  their  usual  line  of  flight,  and  take  one's  chance  as 
they  fly  over  on  their  way  to  and  from  their  feeding  grounds.  Sometimes  odd 
birds  may  be  successfully  stalked  whilst  feeding  amongst  the  rocks  at  low  water, 
but  the  process  is  a  rough  and  tedious  one,  and  the  gunner  may  well  be  proud  of 


190  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

his  bird  if  he  be  fortunate  or  skilful  enough  to  creep  up  and  make  a  lucky  shot. 
When  feeding,  the  birds  are  seldom  still,  but  run  and  walk  about  searching  for 
their  food  in  the  sand  and  rocks  close  to  the  waves,  and  all  the  time  sentinels  seem 
ever  on  the  watch  to  sound  the  warning  note,  which  sends  the  big  speckled  birds 
hurrying  away  to  safer  haunts.  If  fired  at,  the  flock  often  rises  to  a  good  height 
and  flies  about  in  a  restless  manner,  the  birds  calling  to  each  other  all  the  time. 
When  on  regular  flight,  a  flock  of  these  birds  usually  assumes  the  shape  of  the 
letter  V,  and  as  they  pass  along  at  great  speed  the  leading  bird  from  time  to  time 
drops  out  of  position,  and  its  place  is  taken  by  another  in  turn.  During  moon- 
light nights  when  the  state  of  the  tide  admits,  the  Curlew  is  as  active  as  by  day, 
and  feeds  on  the  flats  and  saltings ;  and  even  during  summer  on  the  inland 
moors  their  wild,  mournful  notes  may  be  heard  through  every  hour  of  darkness. 
The  flight  of  this  bird  is  rapid  and  strong,  the  neck  is  outstretched,  and  the  long 
legs  are  pressed  close  to  the  body  and  extend  beyond  the  tail.  The  long  wings 
are  beaten  with  great  speed  and  regularity,  but  very  often  just  before  the  bird 
alights  they  are  held  stiff  and  expanded.  I  have  often  noticed  that  this  species 
runs  a  little  way  with  wings  half  open  before  rising  into  the  air.  It  is  frequently 
seen  to  wade  in  the  shallows,  but  never,  I  think,  swims  unless  wounded,  whilst 
it  has  been  known  to  perch  in  trees.  The  usual  note  of  the  Curlew  is  very 
characteristic — a  shrill,  far-sounding  curlee,  curlee ;  and  during  the  breeding 
season  the  bird  also  utters  a  very  peculiar  rippling  note,  almost  like  bubbling 
water,  which  may  he  expressed  as  wiw-i-wiw-i-wiw,  rapidly  repeated.  For  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  the  Curlew  is  more  or  less  gregarious,  and  also  associates 
with  many  other  shore  birds ;  but  during  the  breeding  season,  although  many 
pairs  often  nest  on  the  same  moor  or  upland  waste,  they  are  not  very  social. 
The  food  of  the  Curlew  varies  a  good  deal  according  to  season.  In  summer, 
worms,  insects  and  their  larvae,  and  various  ground  fruits  and  berries  are  eaten  ; 
in  winter,  sandwonns,  crustaceans,  and  mollusks  are  the  principal  fare,  and 
various  vegetable  fragments  have  been  found  in  the  birds'  stomach  during  the 
latter  period.  Although  a  resident  with  us,  the  Curlew  is  a  regular  bird  of  passage 
in  many  Continental  districts,  coming  to  its  summer  quarters  in  April  and  May, 
and  returning  during  September  and  October. 

Nidification. — In  March  the  Curlew  begins  to  return  to  its  inland  breed- 
ing places,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  during  April  and  May.  Its  great  breeding 
grounds  are  the  wild,  swampy  moors  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  sea-level ; 
but  many  birds  nest  on  the  rough  fallows  near  the  moors,  an:1  I  have  known 
their  eggs  to  be  broken  during  spring  tilling.  The  nest  is  generally  made  on 
some  dry  patch  of  the  moor,  often  under  the  shelter  of  a  little  bush  or  tuft  of 
cotton-grass  or  rush,  or  yet  again  on  the  bare  earth  of  the  fallows,  sometimes  in 
a  footprint  of  a  horse  or  cow.  This  nest  is  very  slight,  merely  a  hollow  about 
ten  inches  in  diameter  and  two  inches  in  depth,  sparingly  lined  with  a  few  scraps 


OF  THE   BRITISH  ISLANDS.  191 

of  dead  herbage  or  dry  leaves ;  in  some  cases  no  nest  whatever  is  made.  The 
eggs  are  four  in  number,  pyriform  in  shape,  and  various  shades  of  olive-green  or 
buff  in  ground-colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  olive-brown  and  pale  grey. 
Sometimes  a  few  streaky  scratches  of  blackish-brown  occur.  They  measure  on 
an  average  2'7  inches  in  length  by  T85  inch  in  breadth.  Both  parents  assist  in 
the  task  of  incubation,  which  lasts  about  a  month.  When  its  breeding  grounds 
are  invaded  by  man,  the  Curlew  becomes  very  noisy,  usually  flying  into  the  air 
long  before  the  spot  where  the  nest  is  situated  is  reached.  One  bird  is  usually 
on  the  look-out  and  conveys  the  warning  to  its  mate ;  the  cry  is  taken  up  by 
other  birds,  and  soon  the  whole  moor  is  in  a  state  of  commotion.  One  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Numenius,  with  no  pale  mesial  line,  with 
the  lower  back  and  rump  white,  and  with  the  metatarsus  more  than  three 
inches  in  length.  Length,  21  to  26  inches. 


192  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHAKADRIIME.  Genus  NUMENITJS. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN&, 


COMMON  WHIMBREL. 

NUMENIUS    PHJEOPUS  —  (Linnerus). 

Scolopax  phoeopus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  243  (1766). 

Numenius  phceopus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  253  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii. 
p.  227,  pi.  576  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  Hi.  p.  507  (1883)  ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  100  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  274  (1893)  ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  322  (1896) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  133,  pi.  45 
(1896)  ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  355  (1896) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B. 
pt.  xxxii.  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.— British:  The  Common  Whimbrel  is 
known  only  to  breed  on  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  most  numerous  on  the  latter, 
and  on  North  Eonay  in  the  Hebrides.  Elsewhere  in  the  British  Islands  it 
occurs  on  migration,  and  during  the  spring  and  autumn  flights  is  pretty  generally 
distributed  along  the  coasts.  Comparatively  few  remain  with  us  through  the 
winter,  whilst  immature  and  non-breeding  birds  may  be  seen  in  still  smaller 
numbers  during  the  summer.  I  have  met  with  them  on  St.  Kilda  during  June. 
Foreign  :  Northern  and  western  Palaearctic  region  in  summer  ;  Ethiopian  region 
in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  Faroes  and  Iceland,  and  occurs  accidentally  in 
Greenland.  It  is  a  summer  visitor  to  Scandinavia,  breeding  on  the  fells  and 
moors  above  forest  growth ;  thence  it  appears  to  be  locally  distributed  at  this 
season  through  Lapland  and  the  remainder  of  North  Russia,  and  is  said  by 
Sabanaeff  to  be  common  on  the  Ural  Steppes.  It  passes  along  the  entire  coast- 
line of  Europe  during  migration,  as  well  as  by  some  of  the  inland  routes,  and 
also  occurs  on  passage  in  Northern  Africa,  wintering  in  Arabia,  the  Azores, 
Canaries  (where  it  is  observed  all  the  year  round),  Madeira,  and  on  the  coasts  of 
tropical  Africa,  as  well  as  in  some  few  interior  districts.  It  is  said  that  a  few 
young  non-breeding  birds  are  found  in  their  African  winter  quarters  during  the 
northern  summer,  but  the  southern  limits  of  the  Whimbrel  are  by  no  means 
accurately  determined,  and  possibly  the  bird  visits  these  remote  antipodean  areas 
to  breed  from  a  winter  base  in  the  Primogaean  realm. 

Allied  forms. — Numenius  phceopus  variegatus  :  Eastern  Palsearctic  region 
in  summer ;  Oriental  and  Australian  regions  in  winter.  Breeding  range  not  very 
definitely  known,  but  probably  extends  from  the  valleys  of  the  Obb  and  the 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  193 

Yenisei  in  Western  Siberia,  eastwards  to  Kamtschatka,  whilst  the  bird  has  been 
known  to  occur  on  Behring  Island,  east  of  the  latter  country.  This  Whimbrel 
probably  passes  through  Turkestan  on  migration,  although  it  appears  not  to  have 
yet  been  observed  there,  for  it  is  known  to  winter  in  India  and  Ceylon.  Birds 
breeding  further  east  pass  through  Dauria,  China,  and  Japan  on  migration,  and 
winter  in  Burmah,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  Australia.  It  is  probably  examples 
of  this  race  that  have  been  recorded  from  various  islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
Amirante,  Aldabra,  Madagascar,  Reunion,  Mauritius,  Eodriguez,  Seychelles,  Pro- 
vidence Bank,  Gloriosa,  Assumption,  and  Grand  Comoro).  It  is  the  eastern 
form  of  the  Common  Whimbrel,  only  subspecifically  distinct,  a  complete  inter- 
gradation  existing  between  eastern  and  western  examples  of  each  race.  Typical 
examples  differ  from  the  Common  Whimbrel  in  having  the  rump  streaked  with 
dark  brown,  a  peculiarity  only  observed,  and  even  then  not  to  such  a  marked 
extent,  in  the  young  of  the  latter.  N.  hudsonicus,  the  American  representative, 
breeding  in  the  Arctic  portion  of  the  Nearctic  region  and  in  undiscovered  areas  in 
the  far  south  of  the  Neotropical  region  (Patagonia,  and  possibly  still  further  south), 
wintering  in  the  American  portion  of  the  Intertropical  or  Primogaean  realm.  It 
differs  from  the  Common  Whimbrel  in  having  the  axillaries  and  under  wing 
coverts  pale  chestnut,  and  the  rump  uniform  in  colour  with  the  back.  N. 
taliitiensis  (most  closely  allied  to  the  preceding),  an  inhabitant  of  Alaska  during 
the  breeding  season,  wintering  in  the  Pacific  Islands,  on  some  of  which  it  is  sup- 
posed to  breed.  It  differs  from  the  Common  Whimbrel  in  having  the  rump 
uniform  in  colour  with  the  back,  the  axillaries  and  under  wing  coverts  pale 
chestnut,  and  in  having  hair-like  plumes  extending  beyond  the  feathers  on  the 
thighs. 

Habits. — Although  the  Whimbrel  is  a  much  more  northern  bird,  and  is 
best  known  in  our  Islands  on  passage,  its  habits  very  closely  resemble  those  of  the 
Curlew.  Owing  to  the  remarkable  regularity  of  appearance  of  this  species  in 
spring  it  is  known  in  many  districts  of  England  as  the  "  May  bird,"  usually 
arriving  on  our  coasts  during  the  last  days  of  April  and  the  beginning  of  May. 
It  is  observed  crossing  the  Mediterranean  from  its  winter  quarters  in  Africa 
during  April.  The  return  migration  begins  at  the  end  of  July  in  our  Islands  and 
the  flight  is  continued  through  August  and  September,  the  Mediterranean  again 
being  crossed  during  September  and  October.  In  autumn,  however,  the  birds  fly 
much  higher  past  our  coasts  and  do  not  alight  in  such  numbers  as  in  spring. 
The  migrations  of  the  Whimbrel  are  one  of  the  most  impressive  known  to  me, 
the  birds  being  not  only  remarkably  regular,  but  very  noisy  as  they  hurry  across 
the  night  sky.  A  few  birds,  it  should  be  stated,  remain  on  our  coasts  all  the 
summer,  non-breeding  individuals  that  stop  short  of  the  breeding  grounds,  whilst 
others  lag  behind  the  rest  in  autumn  and  spend  the  winter  with  us.  The 
Whimbrel  migrates  in  flocks,  and  these  generally  pass  our  coasts  at  night,  often 
13 


194  THE  GAME-  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

at  an  immense  altitude,  only  their  faintly-sounding  call-notes  informing  us  of 
their  presence  overhead.  During  their  stay  with  us  they  frequent  much  the  same 
localities  as  the  Curlew,  mud-banks,  salt  marshes,  and  flat,  low-lying  coasts.  At 
first  they  are  by  no  means  shy,  as  is  usual  with  birds  breeding  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  where  they  are  seldom  or  never  molested  by  man,  but  the  gunners  of  the 
coast  soon  teach  them  wariness.  Their  actions  on  the  coast  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  their  larger  congener.  Their  flight  is  equally  rapid  and  well-sustained, 
and  they  possess  the  same  habit  of  flying  about  the  air,  uttering  repeated  cries 
when  alarmed.  Perhaps  they  do  not  feed  so  much  on  the  actual  beach  as  the 
Curlew,  being  more  partial  to  the  swampy  salt  marshes,  full  of  streams  and  pools 
left  by  the  tide.  They  wade  repeatedly,  and  are  said  even  to  swim  occasionally ; 
and  they  have  been  observed  to  be  very  fond  of  bathing,  throwing  the  water  over 
themselves  as  they  stood  breast-deep  in  the  sea.  In  autumn  and  winter  the  Whim- 
brel  appears  to  be  just  as  gregarious  as  the  Curlew,  but  does  not  associate  with 
other  wild  fowl  to  the  same  extent.  The  notes  of  this  bird  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  Curlew.  The  bird  also  possesses  the  same  rippling  or  bubbling  cry — 
a  shrill  tet-ty  tet-ty  tet-ty  tet,  which  is  heard  repeatedly  in  the  air,  and  has  gained 
for  the  Whimbrel  the  local  name  of  "  Titteral."  During  summer  the  Whimbrel 
occasionally  perches  in  trees.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  insects,  worms, 
snails,  various  ground  fruits,  and  berries  in  summer,  and  of  crustaceans,  sand- 
worms,  and  other  small  marine  animals  during  winter. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Whimbrel  begins  about  the 
middle  of  May,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  from  the  end  of  that  month  until  the  end  of 
June.  Its  breeding  grounds  are  the  elevated  moorlands  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea. 
The  nest  is  merely  a  hollow  in  the  ground  amongst  heath  or  other  rough  herbage, 
usually  in  a  dry  part  of  the  moor,  lined  with  a  few  bits  of  dead  grass  and  dry 
leaves.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  olive-green  of  various  shades  or  pale  buff  in 
ground-colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  olive-brown  and  reddish-brown,  and 
with  underlying  markings  of  pale  grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'3  inches 
in  length  by  1'6  inch  in  breadth.  At  its  breeding  grounds  the  Whimbrel  is  both 
courageous  and  pugnacious,  and  drives  off  such  intruding  birds  as  Gulls  and  Skuas 
with  a  chorus  of  angry  cries.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Numenius,  with  a  pale  stripe  down  the 
centre  of  the  dark  crown,  and  with  the  lower  back  much  paler  than  the  mantle 
(white  in  adult  birds,  streaked  with  brown  in  immature  examples).  Length, 
16  to  18  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  195 

Family  CHARADRIID^.  Genus  NUMENIUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN&. 


ESKIMO    WHIMBREL. 

NUMENIUS   BOREALIS— (J.  R.  Forster). 

Scolopax  borealis,  Forst.  Phil.  Trans.  Ixii.  pp.  411,  431  (1772). 

Numenius  borealis  (Forst.),  Lath.  Ind.  Orn.  ii.  p.  712  (1790);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii. 
p.  221,  pi.  575  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  512  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  104  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxi.  (1892) ;  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  241  (1894) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  326 
(1896) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  133,  pi.  45  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  368  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British :  The  Eskimo  Whimbrel  is  a  very 
rare  straggler  to  the  British  Islands,  on  autumn  migration.  The  following  occur- 
rences are  on  record  : — England  :  Suffolk  (two  examples),  November,  1852 ;  Scilly 
Isles  (one  example),  September,  1887.  Scotland  :  Kincardineshire  (two  examples), 
September,  1855  and  1880 ;  Aberdeenshire  (one  example) ,  September,  1879.  Ireland : 
Sligo  (one  example),  October,  1870.  Foreign:  Northern  Nearctic  and  Southern 
Neotropical  region  in  summer ;  American  portion  of  the  Primogaean  realm  in 
winter.  It  breeds  on  the  tundras,  above  the  limits  of  forest  growth,  from  Alaska  to 
the  shores  of  Hudson  Bay  and  Davis  Strait.  On  the  west  it  is  said  occasionally 
to  wander  across  Behring  Strait  to  the  north-eastern  coast  of  Asia,  whilst  in 
the  east  it  appears  accidentally  to  stray  to  Greenland.  Its  remote  southern 
breeding  grounds  in  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland  Islands  are  not  yet  discovered ; 
but  there  can  be  no  doubt,  if  the  species  visits  the  southern  temperate  latitudes 
normally,  that  it  nests  in  them.  It  crosses  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Eockies, 
on  migration  ;  visits  the  Bermudas  abnormally,  and  winters  in  South  America. 

Allied  forms. — Mesoscolopax  minutus,  an  inhabitant  during  summer  of 
Eastern  Siberia,  passing  through  Dauria,  Japan,  and  China  on  migration,  and 
wintering  in  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  Australia ;  but  how  far  south  normally 
remains  to  be  determined.  It  closely  resembles  the  Eskimo  Whimbrel  in  general 
appearance,  but  is  generically  distinct,  having  the  back  of  the  metatarsus  scutellated 
like  the  front — covered  before  and  behind  with  narrow  transverse  plates  instead 
of  hexagonal  scales. 

Habits. — Like  its  congener,  the  Common  Whimbrel,  the  present  species  is 
a  migratory  bird  and  a  northern  one.  Its  migrations  are  also  performed  about 


196  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

the  same  time.  It  passes  across  the  United  States  in  flocks  with  great  regularity 
during  May,  appearing  at  the  beginning  of  that  month  sometimes  before  the 
snow  has  all  melted,  and  frequenting  the  inland  plains  as  well  as  the  salt  marshes 
and  mud-flats  on  the  coast.  A  few  birds  begin  to  return  about  the  end  of  July, 
and  the  autumn  migration  extends  from  that  date  to  the  end  of  October.  It  has 
been  remarked  by  observers  that  this  Whimbrel  shows  more  preference  for  the 
sea  coasts  than  inland  districts  in  autumn  and  winter,  probably  because  the 
supply  of  food  is  more  regular  and  constant.  Like  its  allies  it  is  a  shy,  wary  bird, 
and  seldom  admits  of  a  close  approach  unless  carefully  stalked.  In  autumn  and 
winter,  up  to  the  arrival  on  the  breeding  grounds  in  the  following  spring,  the 
Eskimo  Whimbrel  is  gregarious,  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  it  is  any 
more  social  than  its  allies  during  the  nesting  season.  The  flight  of  this  bird  is 
rapid,  and  during  migration  especially  is  made  at  a  considerable  altitude.  The 
bird  also  possesses  the  characteristic  habit  of  gliding  on  motionless  pinions  before 
alighting,  and  elevating  them  for  a  moment  before  they  are  folded  close  to  the 
body.  Its  note  is  described  by  Dr.  Coues  as  a  soft,  mellow  whistle,  oft  repeated ; 
as  a  chattering  cry  when  on  flight ;  and,  when  wounded,  as  a  harsh  scream.  The 
Eskimo  Whimbrel  is  much  attached  to  certain  haunts  where  its  favourite  food 
chances  to  be  abundant,  often  continuing  to  frequent  the  place  after  being 
repeatedly  shot  at.  Its  food  in  summer  consists  of  insects,  worms,  and  various 
kinds  of  berries  and  ground  fruits,  whilst  on  the  coast  it  is  chiefly  composed  of 
small  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  other  marine  creatures. 

Nidif  ication.— The  breeding  grounds  of  the  Eskimo  Whimbrel  are  situated 
on  the  barren  grounds  or  tundras  of  the  Arctic  regions  beyond  the  limits  of  forest 
growth.  Like  all  other  Arctic  Waders  it  breeds  late,  not  being  able  to  do  so  until 
the  ground  is  free  from  snow  towards  the  end  of  June.  The  nest  is  placed  on 
the  ground  of  the  tundra,  and  is  a  mere  hollow  lined  with  a  few  scraps  of  dry 
herbage  and  withered  leaves.  The  eggs  are  normally  four  in  number.  They 
range  from  brownish  or  greyish-buff  to  greenish-olive  in  ground-colour,  blotched 
and  spotted  with  brown  of  various  shades,  and  with  pale  underlying  markings  of 
greyish-brown.  They  are  pyriform,  and  measure  on  an  average  2'0  inches  in 
length  by  T4  inch  in  breadth.  Although  MacFarlane,  Eichardson,  and  others 
have  had  ample  opportunity  of  observing  the  breeding  habits  of  the  Eskimo 
Whimbrel,  there  are  many  points  still  unknown.  How  long  the  period  of  incu- 
bation lasts,  whether  both  sexes  sit,  or  male  or  female  alone,  whether  more  than 
one  brood  is  reared,  all  remain  to  be  determined.  MacFarlane  states  that  the 
hen  bird,  as  a  rule,  glided  from  the  nest  whilst  he  was  still  at  some  distance,  so 
that  the  eggs  were  discovered  with  great  difficulty,  as  they  closely  resemble 
surrounding  objects  in  colour. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Numenius,  with  a  pale  mesial  stripe,  and  with 
the  primaries  unbarred.  Length,  14  inches. 


OF   THE    BEITISH  ISLANDS.  197 


Genus  LIMOSA,  or  Qodwits. 

Type,   LIMOSA   MELANUEA. 


Limosa,  of  Brisson  (1760). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
closely  allied  to  the  typical  Totani,  but  appear  to  differ  in  the  formation  of  the 
sternum.  In  the  Godwits  the  apex  of  the  profile  of  the  keel  retreats  from  the 
furculum,  whilst  in  the  Totani,  as  in  the  Snipes,  it  advances  towards  it.  They  are 
further  characterised  by  having  the  metatarsus  scutellated  in  front,  the  bill  long, 
exceeding  the  tail  in  length,  slightly  recurved,  expanded  and  hard  and  smooth  at 
the  tip  ;  and  the  frontal  feathers  not  extending  beyond  the  gape.  The  wings  are 
long  and  pointed,  the  first  quill  the  longest ;  the  tail  is  short  and  nearly  even,  and 
composed  of  twelve  feathers.  The  metatarsus  is  long  and  slender,  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  tibia  devoid  of  feathers.  Toes,  three  in  front,  one  behind  articulated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  six  species  and  subspecies.  In  the  Northern  hemi- 
sphere they  are  distributed  over  the  Arctic  and  temperate  portions  of  the  Palaearctic 
and  Nearctic  regions  during  summer,  but  more  cosmopolitan  in  winter ;  in  the 
Southern  hemisphere  the  distribution  of  the  genus  is  not  only  misunderstood  but 
comparatively  little  known.  That  certain  species  migrate  south  from  the 
Intertropical  realm  to  breed  seems  to  be  unquestionable.  Two  species  are 
visitors  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Godwits  are  dwellers  on  the  moors  and  tundras  and  marshes  during 
summer,  the  sea-coasts  during  migration  time  and  winter.  They  are  birds  of 
powerful  and  rapid  flight,  run  and  walk  with  ease,  and  habitually  wade.  Their 
notes  are  loud  and  expressive.  They  subsist  on  worms,  insects,  mollusks,  etc. 
Their  nests  are  slight  and  made  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  four  in  number 
and  double-spotted.  They  are  monogamous,  and  more  or  less  sociable  and  gre- 
garious during  winter. 


198  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHARADKinXE.  Genus  LIMOSA. 

Subfamily 


BAR=TA1LED   QODWIT. 

LIMOSA  KUFA—  (Linnaus). 
PLATE  XXVI. 

Scolopax  lapponica,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  246  (1766). 

Limosa  rufa,  Briss ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  260  (1852) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non- 

indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  256  (1894). 
Limosa  lapponica  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  203,  pi.  573,  fig.  1  pi.  574,  fig.  2 

(1872) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  494  (1883) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxii. 

(1892) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  309  (1896)  ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 

xxiv.  p.  373  (1896). 
Totanus  rufus  (Briss.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  156  (1885) ;  Seebohrn,  Col.  Fig. 

Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  142,  pi.  42  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.  — British :  The  Bar-tailed  Godwit  is  a  well- 
kiiown  visitor  on  spring  and  autumn  migration,  most  numerous  during  the  vernal 
flights  on  the  coasts  of  the  eastern  counties  of  England  south  of  the  Humber.  It 
is  most  abundant  and  widely  distributed  in  autumn,  and  commonest  on  the 
eastern  coast  line.  It  passes  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  the  Outer  Hebrides, 
and  the  Channel  Islands  on  migration ;  but  is  commonest  in  Ireland  during 
autumn  and  winter,  especially  on  the  west  coast.  By  far  the  greater  number  of 
birds  that  visit  us  in  autumn  pass  south,  but  a  few  remain  to  winter  on  our  coasts, 
especially  in  the  east  of  England  ;  upon  the  sole  authority  of  Mr.  Abel  Chapman 
they  are  said  to  occur  in  thousands  even  during  the  hardest  winters  on  the  coasts 
of  Northumberland,  which  is  contrary  to  my  own  experience  on  the  Lincolnshire 
coast,  as  well  as  to  that  of  most  other  competent  observers.  Perhaps  some  other 
species  has  been  mistaken  for  them.  Foreign:  Northern  and  western  Paloearctic 
region  in  summer;  small  part  of  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  on  the 
tundras  above  the  limits  of  forest  growth  from  Lapland  in  the  west  across 
Northern  Europe  and  Siberia,  probably  as  far  east  as  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei. 
It  is  an  accidental  wanderer  to  the  Faroes,  and  passes  the  western  coasts  of 
Europe  on  migration  to  winter  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  principally  in 
Northern  Africa,  and  occasionally  straying  to  the  Canaries.  Gambia  on  the  west, 
and  the  Somali  Country  on  the  east  appear  to  be  the  southern  limits.  The  birds 
breeding  in  West  Siberia  appear  to  migrate  down  the  valleys  of  the  Tobol  and 


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OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  199 

the  Ural  into  the  Caspian  basin,  thence  across  country  to  the  Mekran  coast 
to  North-east  Africa,  and  occasionally  to  the  extreme  north-west  of  India,  the 
great  mountain  chains  of  Central  Asia  apparently  turning  the  tide  of  migrants 
westwards  from  the  Yenisei  Valley  into  this  area. 

Allied  forms. — Limosa  rufa  uropygialis,  northern  and  eastern  Palsearctic 
region  in  summer ;  Australian  region  during  antipodean  summer.  It  breeds  on  the 
tundras  of  Northern  Siberia  above  forest  growth,  probably  from  the  Tairnur 
Peninsula  eastwards  to  the  sea  of  Okhotsk  and  across  Behring  Strait  into  Alaska. 
It  passes  Japan,  Mantchooria,  and  China  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  islands 
of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  Australia.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge 
it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  this  race  of  Godwit  furnishes  another  instance  of 
a  species  breeding  in  the  Northern  and  Southern  hemispheres  and  having  an 
Intertropical  base.  This  Godwit  is  known  to  visit  Norfolk  Island,  New  Zealand, 
parts  of  Southern  Australia  and  Tasmania  during  summer  in  those  regions ;  but, 
possibly,  its  appearance  may  be  abnormal.  On  the  other  hand,  future  research 
may  show  that  the  bird  breeds  in  those  latitudes.  This  is  the  eastern  form  of 
the  Bar-tailed  Godwit,  only  subspecifically  distinct,  and  completely  intergrading 
with  its  western  representative.  Typical  examples  differ  from  the  Bar-tailed 
Godwit  in  having  the  prevailing  colour  of  the  rump  browner,  caused  by  the  dark 
centres  of  the  feathers  being  larger  and  more  numerous.  This  form  should  be 
looked  for  on  the  British  coasts,  especially  during  the  autumn  nights.  L.  fedoa, 
the  America  representative  of  the  Bar-tailed  Godwit,  breeding  as  far  north  as 
Lake  Winnipeg,  and  wintering  as  far  south  as  the  coast  of  Peru.  Distinguished 
from  the  Bar-tailed  Godwit  by  having  the  axillaries  and  under  wing  coverts 
chestnut. 

Habits. — The  Bar-tailed  Godwit  begins  to  leave  its  winter  quarters  in 
North  Africa  in  February,  and  the  stream  of  migrants  slowly  percolates  into 
Europe  from  that  date  until  the  end  of  April.  This  stream  of  migrating  Godwits 
breaks  upon  our  coasts  towards  the  end  of  April  and  during  the  first  half  of  May, 
but  does  not  appear  to  extend  north  of  Spurn  Point,  whence  the  German  Ocean 
is  crossed,  and  the  Arctic  breeding  grounds  are  reached  towards  the  end  of 
that  month  or  early  in  June.  Birds  on  the  return  journey — mostly  young — are 
observed  on  the  British  coasts  at  the  end  of  August,  and  the  autumn  flight 
continues  from  that  date  to  the  end  of  October  or  the  first  week  in  November. 
Hume  states  that  in  India  the  earliest  occurrence  of  this  species  known  to  him 
in  autumn  was  the  29th  of  September,  and  the  latest  in  spring  on  the  23rd  of 
March.  The  birds  that  pass  our  coasts  in  spring  are  mostly  adults  on  their  way 
north  to  breed,  and  excessively  wary ;  but  in  autumn  the  flocks  are  largely  com- 
posed of  young  birds  which  are  just  as  remarkably  tame.  I  have  often  been 
allowed  to  approach  within  a  few  feet  of  single  birds  on  the  mud-flats  of  the 


200  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Wash,  without  their  showing  the  least  alarm — only  greeting  me  with  what 
I  should  say  were  expressions  of  astonishment.  Probably  I  was  the  first  human 
being  they  had  ever  seen.  During  their  sojourn  on  our  coasts  these  birds  confine 
themselves  principally  to  low  coasts,  where  a  considerable  area  of  mud  is  exposed 
at  low  tide.  They  are  very  fond  of  frequenting  the  little  creeks  and  dykes  that 
intersect  salt  marshes,  and  during  high  water  often  repair  short  distances  inland 
to  wait  for  the  ebb.  The  Bar-tailed  Godwit  during  autumn  and  winter  is 
generally  a  gregarious  species,  and  sometimes  unites  into  very  large  flocks  at  the 
feeding  grounds ;  but  these  gatherings  are  easily  dispersed,  and  the  birds  divide 
into  parties  and  often  fly  off  in  various  directions.  Hume  records  similar  habits 
in  the  winter  quarters  of  this  species  in  Kurrachee  Harbour.  This  Godwit 
usually  walks  about  the  soft  muds  and  marshes,  but  can,  when  occasion  requires, 
run  with  considerable  swiftness.  Its  flight  is  rapid  and  often  rather  unsteady  at 
first,  and,  like  most  Waders,  the  bird  frequently  skims  for  a  short  distance  before 
it  alights.  When  reposing  on  some  mud-bank  the  long  neck  is  usually  drawn  in 
close  to  the  body,  and  one  leg  is  often  held  up.  It  moves  about  a  good  deal  at 
night,  and  is  often  taken  in  the  flight  nets  of  the  Wash  at  that  time.  It  wades 
frequently ;  but  never  attempts  to  swim  or  dive  unless  wounded.  The  food  of 
the  Bar-tailed  Godwit  during  autumn  and  winter  consists  of  insects,  crustaceans, 
snails,  and  sand-worms.  Hume  remarks  that  birds  shot  in  India  which  he 
dissected  had  been  feeding  on  what  appeared  to  be  minute  acephalce  or  jellyfish. 
In  summer  the  bird  subsists  largely  on  insects  and  their  larvae,  worms,  and 
possibly  ground  fruits  and  berries.  The  flesh  of  this  species  is  not  very  palatable, 
especially  when  the  birds  are  shot  in  winter,  or  after  long  residence  on  the  coast. 
A  young  bird,  shot  soon  after  its  arrival  in  our  islands  in  autumn,  is  in  the 
best  condition  for  the  table.  The  note  of  this  Godwit  resembles  the  syllables 
kyd-kyd-kyd,  often  very  persistently  uttered  as  the  birds  fly  up  and  down  the 
mud-flats.  During  the  pairing  season  the  male  utters  a  trill. 

Nidification. — No  thoroughly  trustworthy  observations  of  the  breeding 
habits  of  the  Bar-tailed  Godwit  have  been  recorded  until  Mr.  H.  L.  Popham 
published  his  Yenisei  experiences  of  this  species  in  the  Ibis  last  year  (1897).  Its 
breeding  grounds  are  on  the  swampy  moors  of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  apparently 
very  local.  Eggs  of  this  bird  were  obtained  by  Wolley  in  Finland  on  the  29th  of 
May,  and  he  states  that  it  breeds  in  marshes,  and  that  the  nests  are  hard  to  find. 
Mr.  Popham  met  with  this  Godwit  in  fair  numbers  between  lat.  69°  and  72° 
in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei.  He  states  that  never  more  than  one  pair  occupies 
the  same  district  when  nesting.  Like  Wolley  he  experienced  great  difficulty  in 
finding  the  nests,  which  he  describes  as  a  slight  hollow  on  the  high-lying  tundra. 
These  were  met  with  on  the  27th  of  June  and  the  3rd  of  July,  in  each  case  being 
in  the  vicinity  of  a  nest  belonging  to  Buffon's  Skua.  Both  birds  take  part  in  the 
incubation  of  the  eggs.  The  one  upon  the  nest  keeps  very  close,  seldom  leaving 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  201 

it  until  almost  touched  by  the  hand,  whilst  its  mate  flies  out  to  meet  an  intruder 
at  least  a  mile  from  the  spot,  screaming  all  the  time,  both  in  the  air  and  upon 
the  ground,  and  never  leaving  him  until  he  is  clear  of  the  sacred  neighbourhood. 
The  call-note  of  this  Godwit  at  the  nest  is  described  by  Mr.  Popham  as  koo-ivak. 
The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  olive-green  of  various  shades  in  ground-colour, 
spotted  and  blotched  with  darker  brown,  and  with  underlying  markings  of  grey. 
They  measure  on  an  average  2'1  inches  in  length  by  T45  inch  in  breadth.  It  is 
impossible  to  distinguish  them  from  eggs  of  the  Black-tailed  Godwit.  Probably 
this  species  rears  one  brood  only  in  the  season. 

Diagnostic  characters — Limosa,  with  the  lower  back,  rump,  under 
wing  coverts,  and  axillaries  white,  obscurely  marked  with  brown,  the  tail  barred 
with  black  and  white.  Length,  15  to  16  inches. 


202  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHAKADKIIDJE.  Genus  LIMOSA. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN&. 


BLACK-TAILED   QODWIT. 

LIMOSA  MELANUBA-Leisfer. 

Scolopax  limosa,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat  i.  p.  246  (1766). 

Limosa  regocephala  (Linn.),  apud :  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p,  269  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  viii.  p.  211,  pi.  574  (1872) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  488  (1883) ;  Lilford, 

Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxviii.  (1893). 
Totanus  melanurus  (Leisler) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  162  (1885) ;  Scebohm, 

Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  143,  pi.  42  (1896). 

Limosa  melanura,  Leisler;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  254  (1894). 
Limosa  limosa  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  313  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  381  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  Although  the  Black-tailed  God- 
wit  formerly  bred  in  the  eastern  counties  of  England,  it  is  now  much  rarer  than 
the  preceding  species.  It  is  half  a  century  ago  since  the  last  eggs  were  taken  in 
Norfolk.  It  occurs  sparingly,  but  fairly  regularly,  on  spring  and  autumn  passage, 
on  the  low-lying  coasts  of  the  east  of  England,  south  of  the  Humber ;  much  less 
frequently  elsewhere,  although  it  is  said  to  visit  the  coast  of  Lancashire  every 
autumn.  It  is  very  much  rarer  in  Scotland,  even  on  the  eastern  coasts  ;  but  it 
has  been  observed  as  far  north  as  the  Shetlands  ;  on  the  west  coast  it  is  only 
accidental.  It  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  Ireland,  chiefly  in  autumn.  It  occasionally 
strays  inland  to  large  sheets  of  water,  and  a  few  laggards  are  sometimes  met  with 
in  winter.  Foreign  :  Western  Palaearctic  region ;  Oriental  region  occasionally  in 
winter.  It  breeds  in  Iceland  and  the  Faroes.  On  Continental  Europe  it  breeds 
in  Belgium,  Holland,  Denmark,  Scandinavia  (occasionally  up  to  the  Arctic  circle), 
Poland,  North  Germany,  and  Central  and  Southern  Bussia.  In  Asia  it  breeds  in 
Western  Turkestan  and  South-western  Siberia  up  to  lat.  60°,  and  as  far  east  as 
the  western  tributaries  of  the  Obb.  It  passes  Western  Europe  both  by  way  of 
the  coasts  and  across  inland  districts  on  migration,  and  winters  on  the  Spanish 
littoral  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  occasionally  wandering  to  the 
Canaries  and  Madeira,  and  down  the  Bed  Sea  to  Abyssinia.  The  birds  breeding 
in  the  east  appear  to  pass  West  Turkestan  on  migration  to  winter  in  the  basin 
of  the  Caspian,  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  in  India  and  Ceylon,  those  visiting  the 
latter  country  crossing  the  Himalayas  on  passage. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  203 

Allied  forms. — Limosa  melamira  melanuroides,  an  inhabitant  of  the 
eastern  Palaearctic  region  ;  Oriental  and  northern  Australian  regions  in  winter. 
It  breeds  from  the  eastern  tributaries  of  the  Yenisei,  through  the  Altai  Mountains 
and  the  Baikal  basin  to  the  valley  of  the  Amoor,  apparently  not  occurring  north 
of  lat.  55°  in  East  Siberia.  It  passes  Mongolia  and  Japan  on  migration,  and 
winters  in  China,  Burniah,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  Northern  Australia,  and  many 
of  the  Pacific  Islands.  This  is  the  eastern  form  of  the  Black-tailed  Godwit,  only 
subspecifically  distinct.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  area  of  distribution  during 
the  breeding  season  appears  to  be  discontinuous,  the  eastern  and  westerm  forms 
completely  intergrade,  a  fact  owing  probably  to  the  winter  quarters  of  each 
impinging.  As  may  be  seen,  this  is  exactly  reversed  in  the  Bar-tailed  Godwit,  in 
which  the  breeding  area  of  the  two  forms  overlaps,  but  the  winter  area  is  discon- 
tinuous. Typical  examples  differ  from  the  Black-tailed  Godwit  only  in  size, 
measuring  in  length  of  wing  from  7'0  to  8'0  inches,  instead  of  from  8'0  to 
940  inches  as  in  the  western  race,  and  in  length  of  tarsus  from  2'25  to  3'0  inches, 
instead  of  from  3'0  to  3'75  inches.  This  form  should  be  looked  for  on  the  British 
coasts,  especially  in  autumn.  L.  hudsonica,  the  American  representative  of  the 
Black-tailed  Godwit,  breeding  on  the  tundras  of  Arctic  America  from  Alaska  to 
Baffin  Bay,  and  probably  in  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland  Islands,  wintering  in  the 
American  portion  of  the  Intertropical  realm.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  Black- 
tailed  Godwit  by  having  the  axillaries  and  under  wing  coverts  dark  brown  instead 
of  white. 

Habits. — Flocks  of  Black-tailed  Godwits  begin  to  leave  their  winter  quarters 
south  of  the  Mediterranean  in  February,  and  continue  to  do  so  until  the  middle 
of  March.  These  birds  do  not  appear  to  be  in  any  great  hurry  to  reach  their 
breeding  grounds,  as  they  pass  slowly  up  the  coasts  of  Western  Europe,  not 
reaching  our  Islands  before  April  and  May,  which  is  also  the  date  of  their  arrival 
in  Denmark.  The  return  migration  begins  in  Denmark  and  the  British  Islands 
in  August,  and  lasts  into  September;  in  France  it  begins  in  September  and 
continues  into  October.  In  Upper  India  this  species  does  not  arrive  in  any  great 
numbers  before  the  end  of  October,  and  most  of  the  birds  have  departed  again  by 
the  end  of  March  ;  but  Hodgson  states  that  in  Nepal  it  arrives  in  September, 
stays  a  month  before  passing  south,  and  returns  in  March  and  April.  This  bird 
not  only  frequents  the  mud-flats  and  saltings,  but  more  inland  marshes  and  the 
wet,  boggy  parts  of  moors.  At  its  winter  quarters  in  India  it  is  found  inland  near 
broads  and  swamps,  usually  in  the  vicinity  of  rice  fields  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
larger  rivers  ;  but  in  more  littoral  districts  it  affects  the  mud-flats  of  estuaries  by 
preference.  This  Godwit  usually  walks  with  rather  slow,  deliberate  steps,  but  it 
is  capable  of  running  very  quickly,  and  often  wades  in  the  shallows.  Sometimes 
it  sleeps  while  standing  in  water  up  to  the  breast,  with  the  long  neck  and  bill 
nestled  in  the  dorsal  plumage.  In  India  they  are  said  to  be  much  more  easily 


204  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

approached  when  in  flocks  than  when  in  pairs  or  alone ;  but  curiously  enough 
the  reverse  is  often  the  case  on  our  coasts.  It  may  frequently  be  seen  in  marshy 
meadows,  and  occasionally  frequents  long  grass  almost  as  tall  as  itself.  This 
Godwit,  whilst  on  passage,  is  remarkably  restless,  and  shifts  its  ground  a  good 
deal,  but  when  once  fairly  settled  in  its  winter  quarters  it  continues  to  visit 
certain  feeding  grounds  for  many  weeks  in  succession.  Hume  states  that  in 
India  although  they  have  certain  spots,  especially  rice  stubbles  and  fields  and 
patches  of  wild  rice,  to  which  they  resort  for  several  hours  during  the  day  to  feed, 
they  also  feed  at  other  times  in  places  to  which  they  resort  for  the  remainder  of 
the  day.  The  food  of  the  Black-tailed  Godwit  consists  of  worms,  insects  and 
their  larvae,  crustaceans,  sand-worms,  and  snails.  In  summer  this  food  is  varied 
with  shoots  and  roots  of  aquatic  plants ;  and  in  winter,  according  to  Hume,  rice, 
whenever  available,  both  cultivated  and  wild,  is  this  Godwit's  favourite  food,  in 
additon  to  which  it  eats  great  quantities  of  millet  seed,  and  the  seeds  of  grass  and 
sedges.  Its  kind  of  food,  this  writer  informs  us,  depends  a  good  deal  on  what 
may  chance  to  be  to  hand,  and  its  gizzard  is  usually  crammed  with  one  variety 
alone.  The  call-note  of  the  Black-tailed  Godwit  resembles  the  syllables  tyii-it, 
but  its  alarm  note  is  a  loud  and  clear  tyii,  tyii,  most  persistently  uttered  when  the 
breeding  grounds  are  invaded  by  man. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Black-tailed  Godwit  commences 
at  the  end  of  April  or  in  May,  in  Poland  and  Jutland,  a  little  later  in  higher 
latitudes,  and  the  young  may  be  seen  fully  fledged  towards  the  end  of  June. 
Although  not  strictly  gregarious  during  this  period,  numbers  of  nests  may  be 
found  within  a  small  area  of  the  marshes  and  swauipy  meadows  on  which  this 
species  breeds.  The  nest,  found  with  difficulty,  is  usually  well  concealed  amongst 
the  herbage,  and  is  often  placed  in  a  tussock  of  sedgy  grass,  the  wettest  ground 
generally  being  preferred.  It  is  merely  a  hollow  about  three  inches  deep,  some- 
times but  not  always  rather  neatly  lined  with  dry  grass  and  other  vegetable 
refuse.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  various  shades  of  olive-brown  in  ground- 
colour, spotted  and  blotched  with  darker  olive-brown,  and  with  underlying 
markings  of  pale  brown  and  grey.  They  are  pyriform,  and  measure  on  an  average 
2'15  inches  in  length  by  1*5  inch  in  breadth.  As  soon  as  the  breeding  haunts  are 
invaded  the  Godwits  rise  and  fly  to  and  fro  with  noisy  clamour,  rarely  if  ever 
remaining  on  their  nests  until  approached ;  and  when  the  young  are  hatched  they 
become  more  bold,  and  venture  within  a  few  feet  of  the  intruder's  head.  They 
are  said  to  be  very  pugnacious  at  this  period,  and  will  even  attack  cattle  that 
chance  to  stray  on  to  their  haunts,  and  pursue  with  great  fierceness  any  wan- 
dering Crow  or  Hawk  that  invades  their  quarters.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in 
the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  can  fly  the  move  southwards  begins. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Limosa,  with  the  retrices  black  with  white 
bases,  and  the  axillaries  white,  sometimes  obscurely  barred  with  brown.  Length, 
16  inches. 


OF   THE    BEITISH   ISLANDS.  205 


Genus  MACRORHAMPHUS,  or  Snipe=billed  Sandpipers. 

Type,  MACROEHAMPHUS  GEISEUS. 


Macrorhamphus,  of  Leach  (1816).— The  birds  comprising  the  present 
genus  are  characterised  by  having  a  long  Snipe-like  bill,  nearly  straight,  expanded 
near  the  tip  which  is  covered  by  a  soft  pore-studded  skin  ;  whilst  the  groove  on 
the  lower  mandible  reaches  nearly  to  the  tip,  whereas  in  the  Godwits  it  does  not 
extend  beyond  half  the  length.  They  form  a  somewhat  isolated  group,  presenting 
characters  similar  to  those  of  the  Cleft-footed  Sandpipers  and  Snipes  (in  the  bill) 
and  to  the  Totani  in  the  structure  of  the  foot,  which  is  partially  webbed  at  the 
base  of  the  toes.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed.  The  metatarsus  is  long;  the 
tibia  for  some  considerable  distance  bare  of  feathers.  The  nostrils  are  lateral 
and  basal ;  the  toes,  three  in  front,  one  behind  somewhat  elevated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  three  species  and  races  distributed  over  the  Eastern 
Palsearctic  and  the  Nearctic  regions  in  summer  and  the  Neotropical  and  Oriental 
regions  in  winter.  One  species  is  a  rare  straggler  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Snipe-billed  Sandpipers  do  not  differ  in  their  general  habits  and  the 
localities  they  frequent  from  their  near  allies.  Their  eggs  and  mode  of  nidification 
are  also  normal  Totaninae. 


206  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHAEADBIID^E.  Genus  MACRORHAMPHUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN&. 


RED-BREASTED    SNIPE. 

MACEOEHAMPHUS   GEISEUS—  (Gmelin). 

Scolopax  grisea,  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  658  (1788). 

Macrorhamphus  griseus  (Gmel.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  275  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B. 

Eur.  viii.  p.  187,  pi.  571  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed  4,  iii.  p.  357  (1883) ;  Lilford, 

Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxviii.  (1894) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  306  (1896) ; 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  394  (1896). 
Ereunetes  griseus  (Gmel.),   Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  168  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests 

and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.   p.  257  (1894) :  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B. 

p.  143,  pi.  41  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  recorded  occurrences  on 
which  the  claim  of  the  Eed-breasted  Snipe  to  rank  as  "British  "  is  based  are  as 
follows: — England:  Devonshire  (three  examples),  October,  1801,  1837,  and 
"previous  to  1857";  Cumberland  (one  example),  September,  1835;  Norfolk 
(three  examples),  October,  1836,  October,  1840,  October,  1845  ;  Middlesex  (two 
examples),  one  "  previous  to  1866  "  ;  Scilly  Isles  (one  example),  October,  1857  ; 
Lincolnshire  (one  example),  August,  1882;  Lancashire  (one  example).  Scotland  : 
Fifeshire  (one  example),  September,  1867  ;  Lanarkshire  (one  example),  "previous 
to  1870."  Ireland :  Queen's  Co.  (one  example),  November,  1893  ;  Tipperary  (one 
example),  November,  1893.  It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  some  of  these 
examples  may  belong  to  the  nearly  allied  Asiatic  species  about  to  be  mentioned  ; 
it  is  also  impossible  to  say,  without  examining  each  specimen,  whether  all  or 
part  belong  to  the  eastern  or  western  form  of  the  American  species.  It  is 
said,  however,  that  the  two  Irish  examples  did  actually  belong  to  the  western 
race.  Foreign :  Nearctic  region  except  extreme  north-west ;  Northern  Neotropical 
region  in  winter.  It  occurs  accidentally  in  Greenland  and  in  Continental  Europe. 
It  breeds  throughout  the  Arctic  regions  of  North  America  from  the  Eockies  in  the 
west  to  Baffin  Bay  in  the  east,  and  south  to  Hudson  Bay,  and  probably  the 
Great  Lakes  in  about  lat.  44°.  It  passes  by  inland  routes,  as  well  as  along  the 
Atlantic  coasts,  and  abnormally  over  the  Bermudas  on  migration,  and  winters  in 
the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  South  America,  as  far  south  as  Bahia  in 
Brazil. 


OF  THE    BEITISH    ISLANDS.  207 

Allied  forms.  —  Macrorhamphns  griseus  scolopaceus,  an  inhabitant  of  the 
North-western  Nearctic  region ;  Northern  Neotropical  region  in  winter.  Probably 
breeds  from  the  valley  of  the  Saskatchewan,  northwards  through  the  lake  region 
and  the  Mackenzie  Valley  to  Banks  Land,  and  westwards  to  Alaska  and  the 
extreme  north-east  of  Asia,  in  the  Tchuski  Land  and  Kamtschatka.  It  passes 
down  the  Pacific  coasts,  and  inland  almost  in  a  line  with  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  winters  in  Central  America.  It  occasionally  wanders  to  the  Atlantic  coasts  ; 
has  been  recorded  inland  in  Asia  as  far  east  as  the  valley  of  the  Lena ;  and  occurs 
accidentally  in  Japan.  This  is  the  western  form  of  the  Red-breasted  Snipe, 
°nly  subspecifically  distinct,  and  completely  intergrading  with  its  more  eastern 
representative.  Typical  examples  differ  from  the  Red-breasted  Snipe  in  being 
less  spotted  on  the  underparts  in  breeding  plumage,  and  in  having  the  lower*  back 
less  spotted  in  summer  and  winter  alike.  It  is  also  said  to  be  on  an  average  a 
slightly  larger  bird.  M.  taczanowskii,  an  inhabitant,  probably,  of  the  valley  of 
the  Lena  in  Siberia  during  summer,  passing  through  Dauria  and  Mongolia  on 
migration,  and  wintering  in  China,  Borneo,  Burmah,  and  India.  It  differs  from 
both  forms  of  the  Red-breasted  Snipe  in  having  the  middle  toe  united  at  the 
base  by  a  web  to  both  the  adjoining  toes,  and  the  bill  more  than  three  inches 
in  length. 

Habits. — The  Red-breasted  Snipe  is  a  rather  late  migrant,  passing  the 
northern  United  States  from  the  latter  half  of  April  to  about  the  middle  of  May, 
and  arriving  at  its  Arctic  breeding  grounds  towards  the  end  of  that  month.  As  is 
the  case  with  most  Waders  in  which  the  young  birds  do  not  breed  in  their  first 
spring,  many  individuals  pass  the  summer  considerably  south  of  the  breeding 
grounds,  or  even  do  not  migrate  north  at  all  in  spring,  but  remain  during  the 
summer  in  their  winter  quarters.  The  return  migration  commences  to  a  great 
extent  with  the  young  birds  that  leave  their  birth-place  almost  as  soon  as  they 
can  fly.  These  reach  even  such  southern  localities  as  the  West  Indies  by  the 
end  of  July.  During  August  and  September  the  great  bulk  of  birds  pass  south, 
and  then  this  species  literally  swarms  in  districts  suited  to  its  requirements.  As 
is  usual,  the  autumn  passage  is  made  much  more  leisurely  than  the  spring  one, 
and  the  migrating  parties  of  a  dozen  or  more  individuals  often  remain  for  several 
weeks  in  a  district  where  food  is  abundant  before  passing  on  again.  They  are 
said  to  be  very  tame  birds  whilst  on  passage,  probably  because  most  of  them  are 
young  and  ignorant  of  man's  persecutions.  During  autumn  and  winter  the  Red- 
breasted  Snipe  principally  frequents  the  low,  flat,  muddy  coasts,  where  abundant 
food  can  be  obtained,  but  less  frequently  it  is  found  near  inland  swamps  and 
marshes.  On  the  muds  it  runs  about  in  the  usual  Sandpiper  style,  occasionally 
wading  through  the  shallows,  and  even  swimming  when  it  chances  to  get  out  of 
its  depth.  When  alarmed,  the  flock  rises  en  masse,  and  settles  again  in  the  same 
manner.  The  flight  of  this  bird  is  quick  and  well-sustained,  but  is  not  characterised 


208  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 

by  the  unsteady,  wavering  movements  that  are  so  remarkable  a  feature  in  that  of 
the  true  Snipes.  The  usual  note  of  the  Bed- breasted  Snipe  is  said  to  be  a  whistle, 
easily  imitated  by  the  sportsman,  who  often  thus  lures  the  bird  to  its  doom.  The 
alarm  note  is  described  by  Coues  as  a  soft  weet,  uttered  as  the  bird  is  about  to 
take  flight ;  whilst  in  the  love  season  the  male  utters  a  musical  trill,  usually 
whilst  hovering  above  his  mate  on  quivering  wings.  The  food  of  this  bird  con- 
sists principally  of  worms  and  insects,  but  seeds  and  various  ground  fruits  are 
eaten.  On  the  shore  it  obtains  crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  other  small  marine 
animals. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Eed-breasted  Snipe  begins  in 
June,  and  fresh  eggs  may  be  obtained  throughout  that  month.  The  nesting 
grounds  of  this  species  are  situated  on  the  Arctic  tundras,  the  marshy  portions  of 
these  interminable  northern  moors,  or  "barren  grounds,"  as  the  Americans  term 
them,  where  pools  are  frequent.  Sometimes  its  breeding  grounds  are  close  to  the 
sea,  at  others  considerable  distances  inland.  The  nest  is  made  upon  the  ground, 
often  in  a  tuft  of  marsh  grass,  or  amongst  the  short  vegetation  on  the  shores  of 
the  moorland  lakes.  It  is  merely  a  hollow,  scantily  lined  with  a  few  dead  leaves 
or  bits  of  withered  herbage.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  vary  in  ground- 
colour from  pale  greenish-brown  to  pale  buffish-brown,  blotched  and  spotted  with 
dark  reddish-brown,  and  with  underlying  markings  of  pale  greyish-brown.  Some- 
times a  few  very  dark  streaks  occur.  They  are  pyriform,  and  measure  on  an 
average  1'7  inch  in  length  by  1*15  inch  in  breadth.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in 
the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  can  fly  they  begin  to  draw  southwards  with 
their  parents  on  their  way  to  their  winter  quarters. 

Diagnostic  characters — Macrorhamphus,  with  no  web  between  the 
middle  and  inner  toes,  and  with  the  lower  back  much  whiter  than  the  mantle. 
Length,  10  to  11  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH    ISLANDS.  209 


Genus   BARTRAMIA,    or   Long=tailed   Sandpipers. 

Type,   BARTRAMIA   LONGICAUDA. 


Bartramia,  of  Lesson  (1831). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  the  tail  much  graduated,  the  outermost  feathers  less 
than  the  central  ones  by  as  much  as  the  length  of  the  hind  toe  and  claw.  The 
metatarsus  is  very  long,  being  twice  the  length  of  the  innermost  toe  and  claw. 
The  bill  is  short,  and  slightly  swollen  near  the  tip.  The  tibia  is  bare  of  feathers 
for  a  considerable  distance.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed ;  toes,  three  in 
front,  and  one  behind  somewhat  elevated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  a  single  species,  which  is  distributed  over  the 
Nearctic  and  Neotropical  regions,  and  is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  British 
Islands. 

Unlike  so  many  of  the  Totani,  the  Long-tailed  Sandpiper  is  a  dweller  on  plains 
and  uplands,  and  appears  rarely  to  be  seen  near  water,  and  to  pass  the  coasts  on 
migration  only.  Its  food,  habits,  mode  of  nesting,  migrations,  etc.,  are  described 
in  the  account  of  this  species. 


14 


210  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHARADBirOE.  Genus  BARTRAMIA. 

Subfamily,  TOTANIN&. 


BARTRAM'S   SANDPIPER. 

BABTEAMIA   LONGIC AUDA— (Beehst) . 

PLATE  XXVII. 

Tringa  longicauda,  Bechstein,  Kurze  Uebersicht.  p.  453  (1811). 

Bartramia  longicauda  (Beehst.),  Yarrell,  Brit,  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  440  (1884) ;  Lilforcl, 
Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxix.  (1894) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  267  (1896); 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  509  (1896). 

Totanus  bartrami  (Wilson),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  110  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  245  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p. 
134,  pi.  44  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  Bartram's  Sandpiper  is  a  very 
rare  straggler  to  the  British  Islands  on  autumn  migration.  The  following 
occurrences  are  on  record: — England:  Warwickshire  (one  example),  October, 
1851 ;  Cambridgeshire  (one  example),  December,  1855  ;  Somerset  (one  example), 
no  date  recorded,  some  forty-five  years  ago  ;  Cornwall  (two  examples),  November, 
1865,  October,  1883  ;  Northumberland  (one  example),  November,  1879  ;  Lincoln- 
shire (one  example),  October,  1880.  Ireland  (one  doubtful  occurrence),  autumn, 
1855.  Foreign  :  Central  Nearctic  region,  Neotropical  region.  In  North  America 
Bartram's  Sandpiper  breeds  in  Alaska,  Euperts  Land,  and  the  northern  United 
States,  from  Pennsylvania  westwards  to  the  foot  of  the  Eockies,  but  appears  to 
be  very  rare  on  the  Pacific  coast.  It  passes  along  the  inland  routes  of  migration 
as  well  as  down  the  Atlantic  coasts,  and  abnormally  over  the  Bermudas,  and 
winters  in  the  Southern  States,  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and  throughout  the 
South  American  portion  of  the  Intertropical  realm.  In  the  Southern  hemisphere 
the  breeding  grounds  of  this  Sandpiper  are  not  yet  defined.  It  is  found  in  summer 
— from  September  to  May — in  the  Argentine,  and  appears  undoubtedly  to  breed 
on  the  plains  of  that  region,  and  possibly  further  south  in  Patagonia.  It  has 
been  known  to  wander  to  Australia,  and  there  are  several  instances  on  record  of 
its  occurrence  in  Europe  outside  of  the  British  Islands  :  Italy,  Malta,  Holland, 
Germany. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  need  mention. 

Habits. — Bartram's  Sandpiper  is  a  well-known  and  very  regular  bird  of 
passage  across  the  eastern  United  States.  The  "Prairie  Pigeon,"  as  this  species 
is  locally  named,  crosses  the  boundless  prairies  which  extend  from  the  Mississippi 


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OP   THE    BRITISH   ISLANDS.  211 

to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  countless  hosts,  on  its  way  north  to  breed,  returning 
in  greater  numbers  to  its  winter  quarters  when  the  duties  of  reproduction  are 
over.  Great  numbers  also  pass  along  the  coast.  The  migration  north  commences 
in  April  and  lasts  into  May,  by  the  end  of  the  latter  month  all  the  birds  breeding 
in  higher  latitudes  having  sped  away,  only  those  remaining  that  breed  on  the 
more  northern  prairies  of  the  States.  The  return  migration  commences  in 
August,  and  by  the  end  of  September  the  most  northerly  breeding  grounds  are 
deserted.  When  on  actual  passage  this  species  is  said  to  migrate  by  night.  It  is 
a  bird  of  rapid,  powerful  flight,  and  during  the  breeding  season  alights  on  trees 
and  posts,  where,  with  wings  elevated,  it  utters  a  prolonged  note,  like  the 
whistling  or  sighing  of  the  wind.  The  usual  note  of  Bartram's  Sandpiper  is 
described  as  a  mellow  whistle ;  and,  when  disturbed  from  the  nest,  the  sitting  bird 
utters  an  oft-repeated  harsh  scream.  The  prolonged  whistling  note  is  said  often 
to  be  heard  at  night.  Bartram's  Sandpiper,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  is 
a  very  gregarious  bird ;  and,  even  in  the  breeding  season,  numbers  of  pairs  nest 
close  together.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  principally  of  insects,  such  as 
grasshoppers  and  beetles  ;  but  worms  and  snails  are  also  eaten.  In  summer  and 
autumn  the  bird  also  eats  various  kinds  of  ground  fruits  and  berries,  seeds,  and 
the  buds  and  shoots  of  certain  plants  growing  on  the  prairies.  Its  flesh  is  highly 
esteemed  for  the  table,  especially  in  early  autumn,  when  it  is  very  fat  and  in 
good  condition. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  Bartram's  Sandpiper  begins 
towards  the  end  of  May  or  early  in  June,  and,  even  in  northern  localities,  the 
eggs  are  usually  laid  by  the  middle  of  that  month.  The  nest  is  made  upon  the 
ground,  amongst  the  grass  of  the  prairies  and  uplands,  sometimes  near  the 
margin  of  a  small  pool,  or  in  an  open  swampy  spot  near  a  wood.  It  is  merely 
a  hollow,  into  which  a  few  bits  of  dry  grass  or  dead  leaves  are  collected 
as  a  lining.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  varying  from  pale  greyish-buff  to  pale 
huffish-brown  in  ground-colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown,  paler 
brown,  and  underlying  markings  of  grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  rSinch 
in  length  by  l'3inch  in  breadth.  Several  nests  may  often  be  found  quite  close 
to  each  other,  so  that  as  soon  as  the  birds  belonging  to  one  are  disturbed  the 
others  breeding  in  the  vicinity  become  alarmed,  and  general  confusion  prevails. 
The  female  incubates  the  eggs ;  but  the  period  taken  up  by  this  is  still  unrecorded 
by  American  naturalists.  She  sits  closely,  and  is  said  to  indulge  in  various 
alluring  antics  when  scared  from  the  nest.  As  soon  as  the  broods  are  grown, 
Bartram's  Sandpiper  again  begins  to  join  into  large  flocks,  which  roam  about  the 
uplands  in  quest  of  suitable  feeding  places,  until  the  period  of  departure  for  the 
south  or  (in  the  Southern  hemisphere)  north.  But  one  brood  is  reared  in  the  season. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Bartramia,  with  the  inner  webs  of  the 
primaries  conspicuously  barred,  and  the  tail  wedge-shaped.  Length,  12  inches. 


212  THE  GAME   BIRDS  AND    WILD    FOWL 


Genus   MACHETES,   or   Ruffs. 

Type,   MACHETES   PUGNAX. 


Machetes,  of  Cuvier  (1817). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  tail  much  graduated.  The  metatarsus  is  very  long, 
exceeding  the  bill  in  length,  and  the  bare  part  of  the  tibia  is  about  equal  to  the 
metatarsus  in  length.  The  bill  is  short ;  the  wings  long  and  pointed ;  toes  three 
in  front,  one  behind,  elevated.  The  sternum  contains  one  notch  only  on  the 
posterior  margin.  In  the  male,  during  the  breeding  season,  the  face  is  bare  of 
feathers  and  warty,  and  the  body  is  decorated  with  a  large  breast  shield  and  ruff. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  a  single  species,  which  is  distributed  over  the 
Palsearctic  region  in  summer  and  the  Ethiopian  and  Oriental  regions  in  winter. 
It  is  a  rare  visitor  to  the  British  Islands  in  summer,  but  fairly  common  during 
the  two  seasons  of  passage. 

The  Huff  does  not  differ  in  its  general  habits  or  in  the  localities  it  frequents 
from  allied  birds.  Its  eggs  and  mode  of  nidification  are  also  normal  Totaninae ; 
but  there  are  several  features  connected  with  its  reproduction  of  exceptional 
interest,  and  which  will  be  described  in  the  account  of  the  species. 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  213 

Family  CHARADRIID.E.  Genus  MACHETES. 

Subfamily  TOTANINJS. 


RUFF. 

MACHETES  PUGNAX— (Linnceus) . 

Tringa  pugnax,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  247  (1766). 

Machetes  pugnax  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  171  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Bur.  viii. 
p.  87,  pis.  557,  558  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  426  (1883);  Lilford,  Col. 
Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xvii.  (1891). 

Totanus  pugnax  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  113  (1885);  Dixon,  Nests  and 
Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  264  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  135,  pi.  42  (1896). 

Pavoncella  pugnax  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  270  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  500  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  Ruff  formerly  bred  in 
many  of  the  English  marshes ;  a  few  pairs  still  continue  to  do  so  in  Norfolk  and 
Lincolnshire,  although  Professor  Newton  says  that  there  is  but  one  locality  left. 
It  is  most  abundant  on  spring  and  autumn  passage,  but  of  less  frequent  occurrence 
on  the  west  coasts  than  on  the  east.  It  occurs  on  the  Orkneys,  and  Shetlands, 
and  the  Outer  Hebrides.  It  is  of  regular  appearance  in  Ireland  on  migration. 
Foreign :  Northern  Paleearctic  region,  Ethiopian  and  Oriental  regions  in  winter. 
It  breeds  from  the  highest  known  land  across  Europe  and  Asia  as  far  east  as  the 
Taimur  Peninsula,  south  to  Belgium,  Germany,  and  the  valley  of  the  Danube 
in  Europe ;  and  south  to  the  Kirghiz  Steppes,  Western  Dauria,  and  perhaps  the 
valley  of  the  Amoor  in  Asia.  It  passes  through  the  basins  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Black,  Caspian,  and  Aral  seas  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  African  portion 
of  the  Intertropical  realm,  in  Northern  India,  and  in  Burmah.  Whether  the  Ruff 
breeds  in  South  Africa  is  not  yet  known,  but  it  is  significant  that  Captain  Shelley 
records  a  male  and  female  from  Nyasaland  in  August.  Abnormal  migrants  of  this 
species  have  occurred  in  Ceylon,  Borneo,  Japan,  Kamtschatka,  Behring  Island, 
Canada,  the  Eastern  United  States,  Spanish  Guiana,  the  Faroes,  and  Iceland. 

Allied    forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  need  mention. 

Habits. — The  Ruff  is  rather  a  late  bird  of  passage.  According  to  Irby  the 
migration  of  this  species  at  Gibraltar  commences  in  January,  and  continues  until 
the  end  of  May  ;  but  as  the  bird  does  not  arrive  in  Germany  or  Holland  until  the 
beginning  of  May  it  must  progress  very  slowly.  It  does  not  reach  its  breeding 


214  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

grounds  in  the  Arctic  regions  before  the  end  of  May,  or  the  first  week  or  ten  days 
of  June.  The  return  migration  begins  in  August,  and  continues  through  September 
into  October.  A  few  linger  on  the  British  coasts  throughout  the  winter.  Both 
on  migration  and  in  its  winter  quarters  the  Buff  is  decidedly  gregarious,  and  not 
only  frequents  the  mud-flats  and  salt  marshes  on  and  near  the  coast,  but  many 
inland  haunts.  The  flight  of  this  bird  is  rapid  and  well-sustained.  It  both  runs 
and  walks  during  its  search  for  food,  occasionally  wading  in  the  shallows.  During 
its  short  sojourn  on  the  British  coasts  it  seems  to  prefer  mud-flats,  and  is 
especially  numerous  in  many  of  the  marshy  districts  of  East  Anglia— once  a 
favourite  breeding  place  of  this  species.  The  Buff  is  a  remarkably  silent  bird, 
even  at  the  breeding  grounds,  but  it  is  said  to  utter  a  low  whit  whilst  on 
migration.  This  I  have  never  heard,  although  I  have  had  many  Buffs  under  my 
observation  in  autumn,  both  on  the  south  coast  and  the  low-lying  eastern  counties. 
The  food  of  the  Buff  consists  of  insects  and  their  larvae,  worms,  snails,  small 
seeds,  rice,  and  various  vegetable  substances. 

Nidif  ication. — By  far  the  most  interesting  portion  of  the  Buff's  economy 
is  that  relating  to  its  reproduction.     It  is  a  polygamous  bird,  probably  because 
for  some  unknown  reason  the  females  are  greatly  in  excess  of  the  males,  estimated 
by  several  competent  authorities  to  preponderate  in  the  ratio  of  three  to  one. 
Like  most  polygamous  birds  the  male  Buffs  are  very  pugnacious,  and  during  the 
"  hilling  "  or  mating  season  congregate  at  certain  chosen  spots  to  engage  in 
combat  for  the  favours  of  the  females.     The   "  hills,"  or  fighting  places,  are 
generally  small  patches  of  open  elevated  land,  where  the  herbage  is  short  and  five 
or  six  feet  across.     These  "  hills  "  are  resorted  to  yearly,  and  have  been  known 
to  continue  in  use  for  fifty  years  !     Here  the  rival  males  engage  in  what  seem  to 
be  furious  and  deadly  conflicts,  although  little  harm  seldom  happens   to   the 
combatants.     The  excitement  is  intense  enough,  and  the  weaker  birds  are  driven 
from  the  "  hills,"  the  birds  rushing  at  each  other  with  their  ruffs  expanded, 
jumping  into  the  air  and  giving  thrust  after  thrust  with  their  bills,  which  are 
frequently  held  pointing   downwards   for   some   moments   while   the   collar   is 
displayed.      Several  duels  often  take  place  at  the  same  time  on  one  "  hill,"  and 
the  meets  generally  take  place  in  the  early  morning.     These  combats  are  of 
more  or  less  frequent  occurrence  until  the  females  begin  to  sit,  a  period  of  nearly 
six  weeks'  incessant  warfare,  and  which  lasts  until  the  ruffs  or  collars  (assumed 
about  April)  are  either  worn  away  or  begin  to  fall  off.     Each  male  pairs  with 
several  females,  but  takes  no  share  in  the  duties  of  incubation  or  in  bringing  up 
the  brood.     The  breeding  grounds  are  the  swainpy  moors  and  feus  covered  with 
long  grass,  either  close  to  the  sea  or  some  distance  inland.     Here  the  birds  are  by 
no  means  gregarious  as  soon  as  the  "  hilling  "  season  is  over,  although  they  are 
conspicuous  enough  in  their  gay,  varied  plumage.    The  Beeve  makes  a  slight  nest 
on  the  ground  in  the  swamps,  usually  in  the  centre  of  a  tuft  of  sedge  or  coarse 


OP   THE    BRITISH    ISLANDS.  215 

grass,  where  its  discovery  is  very  difficult.  It  is  a  slight  affair,  a  hollow  lined 
with  a  few  bits  of  dry  withered  herbage.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  greenish- 
grey  in  ground-colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown,  and  with  under- 
lying markings  of  greyish-brown.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'7  inch  in  length 
by  1'2  inch  in  breadth.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  Incubation, 
according  to  Tiedemann,  lasts  sixteen  days.  The  Eeeve  is  a  close  sitter;  perhaps 
because  she  has  no  watchful  mate  near  by  to  warn  her  of  coming  danger. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Machetes,  with  the  axillaries  white,  but  with 
no  white  on  the  quills  or  central  upper  tail  coverts.  Adult  males  subject  to 
considerable  amount  of  variation,  especially  in  the  colour  of  the  ruff  or  collar. 
Length,  12  inches  male ;  10  inches  female. 


216  THE   GAME   BIBDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 


Genus  HELODROMAS,  or  Green  Sandpipers. 

Type,  HELODEOMAS  OCHKOPUS. 


Helodromas,  of  Kaup  (1829). — The  Green  Sandpipers  are  very  closely 
allied  to  the  Hard-billed  Sandpipers  but  present  several  characteristics  which 
seem  to  warrant  their  generic  separation.  Possibly  the  most  important  of  these 
is  an  osteological  one.  The  Green  Sandpipers  are  remarkable  for  possessing  two 
notches  only  in  the  posterior  margin  of  the  sternum.  They  are  further  charac- 
terised by  having  the  tarsus  but  slightly  longer  than  the  middle  toe. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  two  species,  one  of  which  is  distributed  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  Palsearctic  region  during  summer,  and  parts  of  the  Ethiopian 
and  Oriental  regions  during  winter ;  the  other  breeding  in  the  extreme  northern 
and  southern  portions  of  the  Nearctic  and  Neotropical  regions  and  wintering  in 
the  American  portion  of  the  Inter  tropical  realm.  One  species  is  a  not  unfrequent 
visitor  on  passage  to  the  British  Islands,  the  other  is  a  rare  abnormal  migrant 
to  them. 

The  Green  Sandpipers  very  closely  resemble  the  Hard-billed  Sandpipers  in 
their  general  habits,  but  in  the  manner  of  their  nesting  differ  in  certain  important 
particulars,  noticed  fully  in  the  chapters  dealing  with  them. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  217 

Family  CHAEADEIID^E.  Genus  HELODROMAS. 

Subfamily  TOTANINJI. 


GREEN  SANDPIPER. 

HELODEOMAS   OCHEOPUS— (Linnatus) . 

Tringa  ochropus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  250  (1766). 

Totanus  ochropus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  342  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Bur.  viii. 
p.  135,  pi.  564  (1875) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4.  iii.  p.  457  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  126  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxvi.  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  248  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B. 
p.  137,  pi.  42  (1896). 

Helodromas  ochropus  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  290  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  437  (1896). 

Geographical    distribution — British:   The  Green  Sandpiper  occurs 
not  unfrequently  on  spring  and  autumn  migration  in  our  islands,  a  few  remaining 
over  the  summer,  and  a  few  lagging  behind  the  rest  in  winter.     It  becomes  rarer 
in  the  nothern  and  western  parts  of  Scotland,  whilst  in  the  west  of  Ireland  it  is 
even  rarer  still.     It  is  not  yet  recorded  from  the  Hebrides  nor  from  the  Orkneys 
and  Shetlands.     It  may  possibly  breed  in  Norfolk,  Yorkshire,  Sussex,  and  else- 
where, but  hitherto  it  has  not  absolutely  been  detected  doing  so.     On  the  other 
hand,  the  birds  lingering  behind  in  spring  may  be  immature  and  non-breeding 
ones.     Foreign :  Palaaarctic  region  ;  Ethiopian  and  Oriental  regions  in  winter. 
It  breeds  in  the  forest  swamps  from  about  the  latitude  of  the  Arctic  circle  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.    It  passes  Central  Europe  on  migration,  but  numbers 
find  a  suitable  climate  at  high  elevations  in  which  to  breed,  on  the  Pyrenees,  the 
Alps,  the  Carpathians,  and  the  Caucasus.    Eastwards  its  southern  breeding  range 
is  Turkestan,  and  the  South  Siberian  mountains.     Dr.  Abbott  obtained  it  at  the 
end  of  July  in  Eastern  Turkestan  at  an  elevation  of  13,000  feet.     The  European 
birds  winter  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the  African  portion  of  the 
Intertropical  realm  ;  whilst  those  breeding  in  Northern  Asia  pass  that  season  in 
Arabia  (where  it  occurs  in  immense  flocks),  Persia,  India,  Ceylon,  Burmah,  China, 
and  Japan.     There  can  be  little  doubt,  if  this  bird  visits  South  Africa  normally, 
that  it  actually  breeds  there,  its  unusual  mode  of  nesting  contributing  to  the  fact 
being  undetected. 


218  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Allied  forms. — Totanus  solitarius,  the  American  representative  of  the 
Green  Sandpiper,  which  as  it  has  occurred  in  the  British  Islands  will  be  dealt 
with  fully  in  the  following  chapter. 

Habits. — The  Green  Sandpiper  arrives  at  its  breeding  grounds  in  Pome- 
rania  at  the  beginning  of  April,  but  in  the  Arctic  regions  it  is  nearly  two  months 
later.  The  return  journey  commences  in  August,  and  is  undertaken  rather 
slowly,  and  continues  through  September  into  October.  The  haunts  of  this 
species  are  swamps  and  marshes  in  forests,  the  banks  of  wooded  streams,  and 
lowland  dykes.  It  is  not  much  of  a  coast  bird,  even  in  winter.  It  is  a  solitary 
species,  seldom  seen  even  in  small  parties  except  during  early  autumn  before  the 
broods  have  got  separated,  nor  does  it  appear  to  associate  with  other  Waders. 
Its  flight  is  rapid  and  well-sustained ;  and  wherever  there  is  any  cover  it  is  by 
no  means  a  shy  bird.  Its  food  is  principally  composed  of  insects,  but  small 
worms  and  snails  are  also  eaten.  The  note  of  the  Green  Sandpiper  is  a  rather 
low  and  musical  tye-tye-tye,  modulated  under  alarm  or  excitement  into  tyiik- 
tyiik-tyiik.  "Whether  the  bird  has  any  trill  during  the  pairing  season  has  not 
been  recorded. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  habits  of  the  Green  Sandpiper  are  remark- 
ably interesting,  inasmuch  as  the  bird,  instead  of  making  a  nest  on  the  ground, 
lays  its  eggs  in  trees,  usually  at  the  deserted  homes  of  other  species.  In  some 
localities  the  eggs  are  laid  as  early  as  the  middle  of  April,  but  they  are  of  course 
produced  much  later  in  higher  latitudes.  During  the  breeding  season  the  Green 
Sandpiper  is  as  often  to  be  seen  in  the  trees  and  bushes  as  on  the  ground.  A 
deserted  nest  of  a  Blackbird  or  Thrush,  a  Jay,  or  a  King  Dove,  or  even  a  Crow, 
is  often  selected  by  the  female  in  which  to  deposit  her  eggs.  As  a  rule  old  nests 
are  selected  from  three  to  twelve  feet  from  the  ground,  but  the  eggs  have  been 
taken  from  an  old  drey  of  a  squirrel  as  many  as  thirty  feet  from  it,  whilst  others 
have  been  found  in  a  hole  in  a  fallen  tree,  and  on  the  stump  of  a  tree  which  had 
either  been  felled  or  blown  down.  The  eggs  are  sometimes  laid  in  a  broad  fork 
on  a  lodgment  of  drifted  leaves  and  lichen.  Almost  invariably  the  nests  or  sites 
selected  are  close  to  waters  of  some  kind,  and  often  in  marshes.  The  eggs  are 
four  in  number  (seven  are  on  record,  doubtless  the  produce  of  two  pairs  of  birds) , 
and  vary  from  creamy- white  sometimes  tinged  with  olive,  to  pale  buff  in  ground- 
colour, spotted  with  dark  reddish-brown,  and  underlying  spots  of  pale  greyish- 
brown.  They  measure  on  an  average  T55  inch  in  length  by  11  inch  in  breadth. 
When  the  young  are  hatched  the  parents  become  very  anxious,  and  flit  about  the 
trees  and  bushes  in  a  remarkable  and  excited  manner. 

Diagnostic  Characters.—  Helodromas,  with  the  rump  and  upper  tail 
coverts  white,  and  the  axillaries  brown,  narrowly  barred  with  white.  Length, 
9J  inches. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  219 

Family   CHABADKQDrE.  Genus  HELODROMAS. 

Subfamily  TOTANINM. 


SOLITARY    SANDPIPER. 

HELODKOMAS   SOLITAKIUS— ( Wilson] . 

Tringa  solitaria,  Wilson,  Amer.  Orn.  vii.  p.  53,  pi.  58,  fig.  3  (1813). 

Totanus  solitarius  (Wilson),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  130  (1885)  ;  Lilford,  Col. 
Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxvi.  (1893)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  app.  1, 
p.  336  (1894)  ;  Seebohm.  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  138  (1896). 

Helodromas  solitarius  (Wilson),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  292  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  444  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  Three  recorded  occurrences 
establish  the  claim  of  the  Solitary  Sandpiper  to  rank  as  "British."  They  are  as 
follows:  Lanarkshire  (one  example),  some  years  previous  to  1870;  Scilly  Isles 
(one  example) ,  September,  1882 ;  Cornwall  (one  example) ,  October,  1884.  Foreign  : 
Nearctic  region ;  Neotropical  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  northern  United 
States  from  about  lat.  44°  up  to  the  limits  of  forest  growth  near  the  Arctic  circle. 
Passes  the  United  States,  the  Bermudas  (abnormally),  Mexico,  Central  America, 
and  the  West  Indies  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  American  portion  of  the 
Intertropical  or  Primogsean  realm.  If  this  Sandpiper  normally  visits  the  tem- 
perate portions  of  South  America,  it  most  probably  breeds  there,  and  is  another 
of  those  species  which  migrate  north  and  south  to  breed  from  an  Equatorial  base. 

Allied  forms. — Helodromas  ochropus,  the  Old  World  representative  of 
the  Solitary  Sandpiper,  a  British  species,  and  dealt  with  fully  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  Some  nine  years  ago,  Brewster  described  a  form  of  this  Sandpiper  from 
the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America,  under  the  name  of  Totanus  solitarius 
cinnamomeiis.  It  is  said  to  differ  in  being  larger,  the  wings  greyer,  and  the  pale 
spots  on  the  upper  parts  brownish-cinnamon  instead  of  buffish-white.  These 
characters,  however,  do  not  appear  to  be  constant. 

Habits. — The  Solitary  Sandpiper  arrives  at  its  summer  quarters  in  the 
northern  United  States  in  May ;  a  little  later  in  higher  latitudes.  The  return 
journey  commences  as  early  as  the  end  of  July,  and  in  the  extreme  south  lasts 
into  October.  In  its  habits  the  Solitary  Sandpiper  very  closely  resembles  its  Old 
World  ally  the  Green  Sandpiper.  It  is  of  an  equally  solitary  disposition,  only 


THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

being  noticed  in  small  parties  shortly  after  the  broods  are  reared.  It  is  not 
specially  a  coast  bird,  but  prefers  to  run  about  the  margins  of  pools  and  streams, 
occasionally  wading  through  the  shallows,  and  frequenting  tidal  creeks  and  salt 
marshes.  Its  food  is  not  known  to  differ  from  that  of  the  Green  Sandpiper,  and 
its  note  is  described  as  a  shrill  whistle. 

Nidification. — It  is  a  most  extraordinary  fact  that  the  nesting  habits 
and  the  eggs  of  the  Solitary  Sandpiper  are  absolutely  unknown,  for  the  nest 
discovered  by  Mr.  Richardson,  made  upon  the  ground,  does  not  seem  to  us  suffi- 
ciently authenticated.  Its  breeding  grounds  are  neither  unknown  nor  inaccessible, 
nevertheless  its  eggs  remain  undiscovered.  This  is  most  probably  because 
American  naturalists  have  not  searched  for  them  in  trees.  There  can  be  no 
possible  doubt  that  the  Solitary  Sandpiper  breeds  in  a  similar  way  to  its  Old 
World  representative,  and  lays  its  eggs  in  the  deserted  nests  of  other  birds. 
During  the  breeding  season  it  frequents  similar  localities,  forest  swamps,  and 
pools.  Its  eggs,  probably,  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Green  Sandpiper. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Helodromas,  with  the  axillaries  brown 
narrowly  barred  with  white,  and  the  rump  and  central  upper  tail  coverts  dark, 
the  same  colour  as  the  back  and  rump ;  primaries  unbarred.  Length,  9  inches. 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  221 


Genus  TOTANUS,  or  Hard-billed  Sandpipers. 

Type,   TOTANUS   CALIDEIS. 


TotantlS,  of  Bechstein  (1803). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  the  frontal  feathers  extending  beyond  the  line  of  the 
gape,  and  the  bill  so  nearly  straight  that  it  is  practically  on  the  same  plane  as  the 
gape.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  the  first  quill  the  longest ;  tail  variable  in 
shape  and,  to  some  extent,  in  the  number  of  rectrices,  even  in  closely  allied  species. 
The  metatarsus  is  scutellated  anteriorly  and  posteriorly ;  the  tibia  above  the  meta- 
tarsal  joint  devoid  of  feathers.  The  bill  is  moderately  long  and  nearly  straight, 
hard  at  the  point ;  nostrils  lateral,  linear.  Toes,  three  in  front,  one  behind,  small 
and  elevated.  The  difference  between  summer  and  winter  plumage  is  generally 
trifling,  differing  considerably  in  this  respect  from  the  Typical  Sandpipers. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  eleven  species,  distributed  over  the  Palsearctic,  and 
Nearctic  regions  ;  more  cosmopolitan  in  winter.  Ten  species  are  British  ;  some 
accidental  wanderers,  some  resident,  some  winter  visitors. 

The  Hard-billed  Sandpipers  are  dwellers  on  moors,  tundras  and  marshes  in 
summer,  on  sea  coasts  in  winter.  They  are  birds  of  powerful,  well-sustained  flight, 
and  perform  extended  migrations.  On  the  ground  they  run  and  walk  with  ease, 
and  frequently  wade.  Their  notes  are  shrill  and  some  not  unmusical.  They 
subsist  on  insects,  mollusks,  fruit,  &c.  They  make  scanty  nests,  generally  placed 
on  the  ground,  and  their  pyriform  eggs  are  four  in  number  and  double-spotted. 
They  are  monogamous,  and  more  or  less  gregarious  and  social,  especially  during 
winter. 


222  THE   GAME   BIKDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHABADBIIDJE.  Genus  TOTANUS. 

Subfamily 


COMMON    SANDPIPER. 

TOTANUS   HYPOLEUCUS— (Linnaus). 

Tringa  hypoleucus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  250  (17GG). 

Actitis  hypoleucus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  351  (1852). 

Totanus  hypoleucus  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.Eur.  viii.  p.  127,  pi.  563  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit. 

B.ed.  4,  iii.  p.  446  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.iii.  p.  117  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests 

and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  266  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  136,  pi.  43 

(1896). 
Tringoides  hypoleucus  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  283  (1896)  ;  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  456  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Common  Sandpiper  passes 
the  Channel  Islands  on  spring  and  autumn  migration.  It  breeds  in  the  moor- 
land districts  of  Cornwall,  Devon,  and  Somerset,  and  northwards  through  Wales 
to  the  Peak.  Thence  it  becomes  widely  distributed  in  the  upland  districts, 
throughout  the  north  of  England,  and  Scotland  up  to  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands, 
and  west  to  the  Outer  Hebrides.  From  the  wild  nature  of  the  country  and  its 
suitability  to  the  requirements  of  this  species,  the  bird  is  widely  distributed  in 
Ireland.  Elsewhere  in  England  it  is  chiefly  known  on  spring  and  autumn 
passage,  but  a  few  occasionally  remain  on  our  southern  coasts  all  the  winter,  as 
I  have  recently  proved.  Foreign :  Palaearctic  region.  It  breeds  throughout 
Scandinavia,  and  across  Europe  and  Asia  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  circle.  In 
Europe  it  breeds  as  far  south  as  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps,  the  Carpathians,  the 
Balkans,  the  hills  of  Greece,  and  the  Caucasus  ;  whilst  in  Asia  its  summer  range 
extends  to  Turkestan,  Cashmere,  China,  (where  it  is  a  common  resident  in  the 
Lower  Yangtse  basin)  and  Japan.  The  European  birds  winter  in  the  African 
portion  of  the  Intertropical  realm,  but  a  few  are  said  to  be  found  all  the  year 
round  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  whilst  others,  probably  immature  or 
abnormal  migrants  from  South  Africa,  have  been  noticed  to  remain  during 
summer  in  Teneriffe  and  North-east  Africa.  The  Asiatic  birds  winter  in  Arabia, 
India  (although  it  appears  to  breed  in  the  Calcutta  district) ,  Ceylon,  Burmah,  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  New  Guinea,  the  Solomon  Islands,  and  the  northern  half  of 
Australia.  Whether  this  species  is  a  normal  migrant  to  the  southern  half  of 


OP  THE   BBITISH   ISLANDS.  223 

Australia  and  to  Tasmania,  for  breeding  purposes  is  yet  unknown.  There  can, 
however,  be  no  doubt  that  the  Common  Sandpiper  breeds  in  South  Africa,  and  is 
another  of  those  species  with  a  northern  and  southern  migration  from  an 
equatorial  base.  This  Sandpiper  has  been  recorded  from  Aldabra  Island, 
Reunion,  Mauritius,  the  Seychelles,  and  Anjuan. 

Allied  forms. — Totanus  macularius,  the  American  representative  of  the 
Common  Sandpiper,  an  abnormal  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  and  dealt  with 
fully  in  the  following  chapter. 

Habits. — During  summer  the  Common  Sandpiper  is  the  best  known  and 
most  widely  distributed  species  in  the  present  genus.  It  is  a  common  bird  on 
the  banks  of  inland  lakes  and  pools,  rivers  and  lochs,  especially  those  where  the 
banks  are  at  all  muddy  and  stretches  of  gravel  are  frequent.  It  is,  however,  a  bird 
of  the  wilder  districts,  and  does  not  haunt  the  waters  of  the  low-lying  counties. 
It  arrives  at  its  breeding  grounds  in  England  about  the  middle  of  April,  passing 
Gibraltar  in  its  northern  flight  during  March  and  April,  but  it  seldom  arrives  in 
Scotland  before  the  end  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May.  In  the  high  north  it 
does  not  arrive  until  June.  The  return  migration  commences  in  England  as 
early  as  the  end  of  July,  and  continues  through  August  to  the  end  of  September. 
At  Gibraltar  the  autumn  flight  commences  in  August  and  lasts  till  October.  The 
Common  Sandpiper  is  an  active  little  bird,  fond  of  tripping  round  the  waterside 
over  the  mud  and  sand,  and  occasionally  wading  into  the  shallows.  It  is  not  a 
shy  bird,  and  may  be  closely  approached  and  watched  as  it  runs  about  the  shore. 
It  often  runs  with  surprising  quickness,  and  whenever  it  stops  for  a  moment 
the  tail  is  beaten  rapidly  up  and  down  several  times.  It  flies  well  and  quickly, 
usually  close  to  the  water,  its  wings  often  striking  the  surface ;  and  during  flight 
it  often  glides  for  a  little  distance,  and  elevates  its  wings  for  a  moment  just  after 
it  drops  on  to  the  ground.  Yearly  it  returns  to  the  same  haunts,  and  will  make 
its  nest  in  one  particular  spot  in  spite  of  continual  disturbance.  Like  many  other 
Waders  it  may  often  be  seen  running  on  walls  or  palings  during  the  season  of 
courtship,  and  has  been  known  to  perch  in  trees.  The  male  bird  also  soars  at 
this  period,  and  utters  a  short  but  not  unmusical  trill.  The  usual  note  is  a  shrill 
but  not  very  loud  weet,  rapidly  repeated  when  the  bird  is  excited  or  alarmed,  and 
almost  invariably  uttered  as  it  rises  from  the  ground.  The  food  of  this  species  is 
composed  of  insects  and  their  larvae,  worms,  various  ground  fruits,  and  in  autumn 
and  winter  of  crustaceans  and  other  small  marine  animals.  Parties  of  Common 
Sandpipers  may  be  met  with  on  the  sea-coast  at  the  end  of  July,  and  during  the 
period  of  the  autumn  passage  they  are  fairly  numerous  on  the  rocks  at  low  water, 
but  never  occur  in  very  large  flocks.  Here  they  are  just  as  active  and  lively  as  at 
their  inland  mountain  haunts,  and  are  by  no  means  shy  or  difficult  to  approach. 
They  prefer  the  rocky  beach  either  to  mud-flats,  sands,  or  shingle,  and  are  very 


224  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

fond  of  frequenting  patches  of  seaweed  as  soon  as  the  tide  has  ebbed.  It  is  said 
that  the  Common  Sandpiper  swims  well,  but  I  am  of  opinion  that  it  only  does  so 
when  wounded.  I  have  known  a  bird  of  this  species  when  winged  take  to  the 
sea,  and  dive  with  remarkable  skill,  flying  under  water  and  remaining  below  the 
surface  for  more  than  a  minute  at  a  time. 

Nidification.— In  our  Islands  the  breeding  season  of  the  Common  Sand- 
piper begins  in  the  middle  of  May,  and  fresh  eggs  may  be  obtained  from  that  date 
in  southern  localities  to  the  middle  of  June  in  the  more  northerly  ones.  I  am  of 
opinion  this  bird  pairs  for  life.  It  arrives  in  pairs  in  spring,  and  may  be  seen  in 
pairs  with  the  brood  on  the  sea-coast  in  autumn  just  previous  to  its  departure  for 
the  south.  For  many  years  in  succession  I  have  also  taken  its  eggs  from  one  or 
two  strips  of  ground  which  were  used  alternately.  The  nest  is  generally  not  far 
from  the  water-side,  on  a  strip  of  scrubby  ground  where  tufts  of  wiry  grass  and 
little  heather  bushes  occur ;  but  sometimes  it  is  on  the  banks  of  one  of  the 
streams  which  fall  into  the  lake ;  whilst  more  rarely  it  is  some  considerable 
distance  from  any  water  at  all.  The  nest  is  merely  a  little  hollow,  usually  under 
the  shelter  of  a  bush  or  tuft  of  grass,  lined  with  scraps  of  dead  heath,  withered 
bents,  leaves,  and  sometimes  pine  needles.  The  eggs  are  always  four  in  number, 
laid  with  their  pointed  ends  together,  and  very  pyriform  in  shape.  They  are  pale 
creamy-buff  or  yellowish-white  in  ground-colour,  richly  blotched  and  spotted 
with  pale  and  dark  reddish-brown  and  with  underlying  markings  of  violet-grey. 
They  measure  on  an  average  1'5  inch  in  length  by  I'l  inch  in  breadth.  Both 
parents  assist  in  the  task  of  incubation,  but  the  female  sits  most  frequently. 
The  period  of  incubation  is  about  three  weeks.  The  parent  bird  is  a  rather  close 
sitter,  and  often  remains  brooding  on  the  nest  until  almost  trodden  upon.  It 
then  rises  in  a  hurried  manner  and  commences  to  reel  and  tumble  along  the 
ground  as  if  wounded,  seeking  to  decoy  the  intruder  from  its  home.  The  eggs  are 
very  difficult  to  see,  being  coloured  so  much  like  surrounding  objects.  Very  often 
I  have  noticed  the  sitting  bird  run  for  several  yards  after  leaving  the  nest  and 
then  commence  its  antics.  The  young  are  said  to  remain  in  the  nest  for  several 
hours  after  they  are  hatched.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Totanus,  with  the  axillaries  white,  patches 
of  white  on  most  of  the  primaries  and  on  all  of  the  secondaries,  but  with  no  white 
on  the  rump  or  upper  tail  coverts.  Eighth  and  ninth  secondaries  mottled  with 
brown,  not  barred ;  lower  throat  and  upper  breast  streaked.  Length,  7J  to 
8  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  225 

Family  CHARADKIID.ZE.  Genus  TOTANUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANINJE. 


SPOTTED    SANDPIPER. 

TOTANUS    MACULAEIUS— (Lmnanu). 

Tringa  macularia,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  249  (1766). 

Actitis  macularia  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  356  (1852). 

Totanus  macularius  (Linn.),  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  452  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  122  (1885);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  246  (1894); 
Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  136,  pi.  43  (1896). 

Tringoides  macularia  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  287  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  468  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  In  working  out  the  geogra- 
phical distribution  of  the  Spotted  Sandpiper  for  A  History  of  British  Birds, 
Seebohm  and  myself  came  to  the  conclusion  that  of  some  twenty  recorded 
occurrences  in  the  British  Islands  seven  were  apparently  genuine  ;  an  eighth 
has  now  to  be  added.  They  are  as  follows  :  Yorkshire  (one  example),  March, 
1849;  Lancashire  (two  examples),  May,  1863;  Sussex  (two  examples),  Octo- 
ber, I860;  Aberdeenshire  (two  examples),  August,  1867;  Co.  Longford  (one 
example),  February,  1899.  It  is  most  important  to  point  out"  the  fact  that  all 
these  wanderers  with  the  exception  of  the  Irish  example  appear  to  be  adult, 
and  in  breeding  plumage  with  the  underparts  spotted.  Without  wishing  to 
call  in  question  the  bond  fides  of  these  seven  examples,  I  desire  to  point  out 
the  extreme  improbability  of  so  many  adult  Spotted  Sandpipers  reaching  this 
country  in  autumn,  at  any  rate,  in  breeding  dress.  Not  only  so,  but  because 
the  Spotted  Sandpiper  is  so  different  in  appearance  from  the  Common  Sand- 
piper, its  Old  World  ally,  in  breeding  plumage,  and  so  very  similar  in  winter 
plumage,  it  is  perfectly  obvious  that  in  the  case  of  attempted  fraud  on  the 
part  of  unscrupulous  dealers  to  palm  off  American  examples  as  British-killed, 
the  greatest  chance  of  success  would  be  to  select  adult  birds  in  spotted  breeding 
plumage  for  the  purpose.  It  is  the  young  and  inexperienced  birds — the  birds 
that  have  never  migrated  before — that  are  the  most  likely  to  lose  their  way,  and 
wander  from  their  usual  habitat.  Old  birds,  comparatively  speaking,  know  the 
route  too  well  to  wander  from  it ;  and  of  the  great  number  of  birds  that  stray 
every  spring  and  autumn,  during  the  latter  season  especially,  the  great  majority 
15 


226  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

(probably  ninety  per  cent.)  are  birds  of  the  year,  and  new  to  the  road.  That  the 
Spotted  Sandpiper  has  visited  the  British  Islands  there  can  be  no  doubt.  I  will 
go  further,  and  say  that  is  is  probable  the  bird  comes  here  much  more  frequently 
than  is  supposed;  but  it  reaches  us  in  first  winter  plumage,  with  white  unspotted 
underparts,  when  it  bears  so  close  a  resemblance  to  the  Common  Sandpiper  of  the 
Old  World  that  ninety-nine  men  out  of  a  hundred  upon  shooting  one  would 
declare  it  to  be  of  the  British  species,  and  not  worth  preserving.  Until  the 
autumn  of  1891,  I  was  under  the  impression  that  the  Spotted  Sandpiper  could 
be  readily  distinguished  from  its  Old  World  ally  by  having  all  the  secondaries 
uniformly  barred.  During  the  month  of  August  I  shot  an  example  of  a  Sand- 
piper in  Tor  Bay,  which  appeared  to  comply  with  these  conditions,  and  I  thought 
we  had  got  a  genuine  Spotted  Sandpiper  at  last.  I  sent  the  bird  to  Seebohm, 
and  he  very  kindly  compared  it  with  a  large  series  of  both  species ;  but  he 
informed  me,  after  careful  examination,  that  he  felt  convinced  this  example  was 
a  Common  Sandpiper  only.  The  character  of  the  barred  secondaries  appears, 
therefore,  to  be  unreliable ;  and,  failing  this,  I  know  of  no  other  by  which  Spotted 
Sandpipers  can  be  distinguished  from  Common  Sandpipers  in  winter  plumage,  or 
in  that  of  birds  of  the  year.  The  character  of  pale  legs  and  feet  (in  the  flesh), 
I  think,  is  common  to  both,  and  I  do  not  attach  much  importance  to  the  streaked 
or  unstreaked  lower  throat  and  breast,  although  I  have  given  it  as  a  diagnostic 
character — drowning  men  will  clutch  at  straws!  and  bewildered  ornithologists 
are  often  very  glad  to  seize  even  the  most  shady  character,  rather  than  be  left 
with  none.  I  am,  however,  still  disposed  to  regard  my  example  as  belonging  to 
the  American  species.  It  appears  that  Seebohm  succeeded  in  finding  out  of 
a  large  series  one  other  specimen  only,  similar  to  mine,  shot  at  Brighton,  and 
which  I  am  inclined  to  refer  also  to  T.  macularius,  which  will  then  avert  the 
difficulty  of  the  secondaries  not  being  a  constant  character.  This  seems  to  me 
the  most  logical  treatment  of  the  case,  at  least  until  more  information  is  obtained 
on  the  subject  of  specific  distinction.  (Conf.  Ibis,  1892,  p.  97.)  I  may  add  that 
the  Tor  Bay  example  is  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Torquay  Natural  History 
Society.  The  Irish  example  above  mentioned  has  certainly  no  better  claim  to  be 
regarded  as  a  genuine  Spotted  Sandpiper,  seeing  that  it  was  obtained  in  winter, 
than  the  Tor  Bay  specimen,  although  it  has  been  recorded  by  Howard  Saunders 
in  the  new  edition  of  his  Manual  of  British  Birds.  Indeed  this  specimen  has 
induced  him  to  devote  to  the  species  a  separate  article,  whilst  the  Tor  Bay  example 
is  completely  ignored.  Foreign :  Nearctic  region  ;  Northern  Neotropical  region  in 
winter.  It  breeds  throughout  the  United  States  and  British  North  America  up 
to  about  lat.  60° ;  passes  the  Bermudas  on  migration ;  winters  in  Mexico,  the 
West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  the  northern  portions  of  South  America. 

Allied  forms. — Totanus  hypoleucus,  the  Old  World  representative,  a  British 
species,  and  treated  fully  in  the  preceding  chapter. 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  227 

Habits. — It  is  not  known  that  the  habits  of  the  Spotted  Sandpiper  differ  in 
any  important  respect  from  those  of  its  Old  World  ally.  The  bird  frequents  similar 
haunts,  the  banks  of  rivers  and  the  margins  of  lakes.  In  autumn  it  gathers  into 
little  parties,  probably  the  broods  and  their  parents,  and  these  appear  to  migrate 
in  company.  Its  call-note  is  very  similar,  and  most  persistently  uttered  as  the 
bird  rises  alarmed  from  the  ground.  It  possesses  the  same  habit  of  beating  the 
tail  up  and  down  and  nodding  the  head.  It  feeds  on  similar  substances,  and,  like 
the  Common  Sandpiper,  appears  never  to  be  very  gregarious  and  often  seen 
solitary. 

Nidif  ication. — In  its  habits  during  the  breeding  season,  and  in  the  choice 
of  a  locality  for  its  nest,  it  also  resembles  the  Common  Sandpiper.  Audubon, 
however,  states  that  in  Labrador  it  made  a  somewhat  elaborate  nest  of  moss, 
grasses  and  feathers,  built  under  the  ledges  of  the  rocks  ;  but,  like  a  good  many 
more  of  this  naturalist's  statements,  this  one  is  open  to  the  gravest  doubt.  The  eggs 
of  the  Spotted  Sandpiper  are  four  in  number  and  pale  buff  in  ground-colour,  spot- 
ted, and  more  rarely  blotched  with  very  dark  reddish-brown,  and  with  underlying 
markings  of  pale  grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  1'3  inch  in  length  by 
TO  inch  in  breadth.  The  eggs  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Common  Sandpiper, 
and  the  markings  are  smaller,  darker,  and  more  clearly  denned.  It  is  not  known 
that  more  than  one  brood  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — The  same  diagnosis  as  that  given  for  the 
preceding  species,  but  with  all  the  secondaries  uniformly  barred.  It  should  be 
remarked,  however,  that  the  adult  in  summer  plumage  is  spotted  with  black  on 
the  underparts.  Length,  7£  to  8  inches. 


228  THE  GAME  BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHABADKIID.E.  Genus  TOTANUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANINM. 


WOOD  SANDPIPER. 

TOTANUS  GLAREOLA— -  (Linnceus). 

Tringa  glareola,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  250  (1766). 

Totanus  glareola  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  346  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii. 

p.  143,  pi.  565  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  463  (1883)  ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 

Brit.B.iii.  p.  133  (1885);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.B.pt.xxvi.  (1893);  Dixon,  Nests  and 

Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  267  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  138,  pi.  42  (1890). 
Rhyacophilus  glareola  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  275  (1896);  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  491  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Wood  Sandpiper  is  an 
irregular  straggler  on  spring  and  autumn  passage,  most  frequent  in  the  east  and 
south  ;  occasionally  met  with  inland.  It  has  been  several  times  obtained  in  Ireland  : 
(Co.  Wicklow  (one  example),  August,  1885  ;  two  more  examples,  August,  1896; 
Co.  Mayo  (one  example),  September,  1898.  It  has  with  certainty  been  known  to 
breed  in  the  now  drained  Prestwick  Car  in  Northumberland,  and  doubtless  con- 
tinues to  do  so  occasionally  in  Norfolk  and  other  suitable  districts  without  attracting 
notice.  Its  eggs  are  said  to  have  been  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Elgin, 
but  throughout  Scotland  it  is  of  much  rarer  occurrence  than  in  England,  but  few 
examples  only  being  recorded  from  the  west — the  Clyde  and  Loch  Lomond. 
Foreign :  Palsearctic  region  ;  Ethiopian  and  Oriental  regions  in  winter.  It  breeds 
throughout  Europe  in  suitable  localities  from  the  valley  of  the  Danube  north- 
wards, but  is  a  straggler  only  to  the  Faroes.  Eastwards  it  breeds  in  Siberia, 
probably  as  far  north  as  land  extends,  and  southwards  in  Turkestan,  Mongolia,  the 
north  of  China,  and  Kamtschatka.  The  European  birds  are  well  known  on  pas- 
sage south  of  the  Danube,  and  winter  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
throughout  the  African  portion  of  the  Intertropical  realm.  If  this  species  visits 
South  Africa  normally  we  should  infer  that  it  breeds  there.  An  example  has 
been  obtained  on  Aldabra  Island  ;  whilst  Captain  Shelley  records  a  female  from 
Karonga,  North  Nyasaland,  shot  in  June.  The  Asiatic  birds  winter  in  Persia, 
Beloochistan,  India,  Ceylon,  the  Burmah  Peninsula,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
but  are  known  in  Japan  and  South  China  on  passage  only. 

Allied  forms. — Totanus  flavipes,  the  American  representative  of  the 
Wood  Sandpiper,  which  as-  it  has  occurred  in  the  British  Islands  will  be  dealt 
with  fully  in  the  following  chapter. 


OF  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  229 

Habits. — The  Wood  Sandpiper  has  comparatively  small  right  to  its  trivial 
name,  the  true  "  Wood  "  Sandpiper  being  the  Green  Sandpiper,  the  present  species 
frequenting  moorlands  and  tundras  where  thickets  of  willows  fringe  the  pools 
and  swamps.  The  Wood  Sandpiper  is  a  rather  late  bird  of  passage,  passing 
Gibraltar  from  about  the  middle  of  March  to  the  beginning  of  May,  and  arriving 
in  Germany  from  the  beginning  of  April  to  the  early  part  of  June  (which  is  about 
the  date  of  its  appearance  on  the  British  coasts),  birds  coming  at  the  latter  date 
being  on  their  way  to  the  Arctic  regions.  This  species  was  first  observed  in  the 
valley  of  the  Petchora  near  the  Arctic  circle  by  Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie- 
Brown  on  the  26th  of  May ;  but  in  the  same  latitude  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yenisei,  it  did  not  arrive  until  the  6th  of  June.  As  with  most  late  migrants  in 
spring  the  return  journey  commences  early  in  autumn,  beginning  with  August 
and  lasting  through  September  into  October.  The  Wood  Sandpiper  whilst  on 
passage  is  said  to  be  very  tame,  and  was  observed  by  Messrs.  Seebohm  and 
Harvie-Brown  actually  near  the  pools  of  snow  water  in  the  streets  of  Ust  Zylma. 
A  week  later  the  birds  were  again  met  with  thirty  miles  to  the  north  at  Habariki, 
where  they  were  feeding  by  the  edges  of  the  marshes  and  forest  streams,  and 
occasionally  perching  on  the  topmost  branches  of  the  larch-trees.  The  Wood 
Sandpiper  at  its  winter  quarters  is  said  not  to  frequent  the  coast,  but  confines 
itself  to  the  marshes  and  inland  streams  and  pools.  It  is  not  gregarious,  is 
usually  met  with  in  pairs  or  alone,  and  is  seldom  seen  even  in  parties.  In  Ceylon 
it  frequents  the  rice  fields,  even  whilst  they  are  being  tilled,  running  about  in 
quest  of  food  with  little  show  of  fear  for  man.  Its  food  consists  principally  of 
insects  and  their  larvae,  small  worms,  and  snails.  The  alarm  note  of  the  Wood 
Sandpiper  is  a  softly-uttered  tyu-tyil.  During  the  mating  season  the  male  utters 
a  somewhat  musical  but  monotonous  trill  as  he  descends  on  elevated  wings  after 
soaring,  which  begins  in  a  soft  and  slow  strain,  but  becomes  quicker  and  louder  as 
he  reaches  a  perching  place  on  a  tree  or  a  fence,  or  on  the  ground,  and  when  his 
quivering  pinions  almost  touch  above  his  head.  This  trilling  note  sounds  some- 
thing like  til-il-il. 

Nidification. — Towards  the  southern  limits  of  its  breeding  area  the  Wood 
Sandpiper  begins  to  nest  early  in  May,  and  fresh  eggs  may  be  obtained  from  about 
the  middle  to  the  end  of  that  month.  Further  north  the  eggs  are  laid  much  later. 
The  nest  is  generally  made  on  a  patch  of  dry  ground  close  to  the  swamps,  amongst 
heath,  sedge,  and  coarse  rank  grass,  and  often  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  a  small  willow  thicket,  in  which  the  parent  birds  from  time  to  time  alight.  It 
is  only  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  carelessly  lined  with  a  few  scraps  of  withered 
herbage.  In  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei,  Mr.  H.  L.  Popham  found  the  Wood 
Sandpiper  breeding  in  the  deserted  nests  of  other  birds,  and  actually  shot  a 
sitting  bird  from  its  eggs  in  the  old  nest  of  a  Fieldfare.  He  also  remarked  that 
all  the  birds  shot  from  their  nests  were  males.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number, 


230  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

creamy-white,  pale  buff,  or  very  pale  olive  in  ground-colour,  boldly  blotched  and 
spotted  with  rich  reddish-brown,  and  with  a  few  underlying  markings  of  pale 
brown.  They  measure  on  an  average  T45  inch  in  length  by  TO  inch  in  breadth. 
The  bird  sits  closely,  usually  remaining  on  its  eggs  until  the  last  moment.  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  both  parents  tend  the  chicks  with  equal 
solicitude. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Totunus,  with  the  lower  back  nearly  the  same 
colour  as  the  mantle,  and  the  prevailing  colour  of  the  upper  tail  coverts,  axillaries, 
and  under  wing  coverts,  white.  Length  of  wing,  4'5  to  5'1  inches.  Length, 
8£  inches. 


OP  THE  BEITISH   ISLANDS.  231 

Family  CHABADBIID^E.  Genus  TOTANUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN^E. 


YELLOW=LEGGED  SANDPIPER. 

TOTANUS   FLAVIPES— (Ginelin). 

Scolopax  flavipes,  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  659  (1788). 

Totanus  flavipes  (Gmel.),  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.,  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  480  (1883);  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  136  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  250  (1894) ; 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  139,  pi.  44  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt. 
Brit.  iii.  p.  303  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  431  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  One  doubtful  and  two  well- 
authenticated  occurrences  establish  the  claim  of  the  Yellow-legged  Sandpiper  to 
rank  as  "British."  They  are  as  follows: — Nottinghamshire  (one  example),  no 
exact  date  ;  Yorkshire  (one  very  doubtful  example),  October,  1858 ;  Cornwall 
(one  example),  September,  1871.  Foreign:  Nearctic  and  Neotropical  regions.  It 
breeds  across  the  North  American  continent,  from  the  Yukon  Valley,  in  Alaska 
in  the  west,  to  the  Hudson  Bay  territory  and  Greenland  in  the  east.  Its 
southern  breeding  range  appears  to  extend  to  about  lat.  44°.  It  passes  through 
the  United  States,  the  Bahamas,  West  Indies,  and  Trinidad  on  migration,  a  few 
remaining  to  winter  in  the  Southern  States,  but  the  majority  passing  on  to  the 
American  portion  of  the  Intertropical  realm.  We  may,  however,  remark  that 
Mr.  Ambrose  A.  Lane  (Ibis  1897  p.  311)  states  that  this  species  breeds  in  Northern 
Chili  (Tarapaca)  about  December  !  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  Sandpiper 
has  a  northern  and  southern  migration  from  an  equatorial  base  and  that  it  breeds 
in  the  temperate  portion  of  South  America,  from  the  Argentine  to  Patagonia. 

Allied  forms. — Totanus  glareola,  the  Old  World  representative  of  the 
Yellow-legged  Sandpiper,  a  British  species,  and  dealt  with  fully  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  T.  melanoleucus,  an  inhabitant  of  nearly  the  same  range  as  the  Yellow- 
legged  Sandpiper.  Differs  from  both  these  allied  forms  in  being  larger  (wing  8'0 
to  7'3  inches,  instead  of  (i'7  to  6'1  inches  in  T.  flavipes,  and  5'1  to  4'5  inches  in 
T.  glareola). 

Habits. — Like  all  its  allies,  the  Yellow-legged  Sandpiper  is  a  migratory 
bird.  It  arrives  at  its  more  southerly  breeding  grounds  in  North  America  in 
May,  but  is  nearly  if  not  quite  a  month  later  in  the  extreme  northern  limits  of 


232  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

its  distribution.  Its  habits  do  not  differ  in  any  important  respect  from  those  of 
its  allies.  It  frequents  inoors  and  tundras  during  summer,  and  in  autumn  and 
winter  muddy  creeks,  streams,  and  the  shores  of  lakes  and  pools,  and  frequently 
wades  in  the  shallows.  The  note  of  this  species  is  described  as  an  oft-repeated 
shrill  cry,  which  is  imitated  by  the  sportsman,  who  thus  lures  the  bird  within 
shot  whilst  on  its  spring  or  autumn  nights.  The  food  of  the  Yellow-legged  Sand- 
piper consists  of  insects  and  their  larvae,  worms,  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and,  it  is 
said,  small  fish.  In  the  north  the  return  migration  begins  in  July  and  lasts 
through  August  and  September. 

Nidification. — The  nest  of  the  Yellow-legged  Sandpiper  is  placed  upon 
the  ground,  either  on  the  borders  of  a  marsh  or  near  the  margin  of  a  pool  in  the 
open  treeless  country.  Very  often  it  is  under  the  shelter  of  a  bush.  It  is  simply 
a  little  hollow,  sometimes,  but  not  always,  lined  with  a  few  dead  leaves  and  twigs. 
MacFarlane  found  nests  as  early  as  the  2nd  of  June,  even  in  the  Arctic  regions, 
and  in  some  instances  the  eggs  were  hatched  by  the  19th  of  June.  The  eggs  are 
four  in  number :  creamy-white  or  pale  greyish-brown  in  ground-colour,  spotted 
and  blotched  with  dark  reddish-brown,  and  with  large  and  conspicious  underlying 
markings  of  grey  and  greyish-brown.  They  measure,  on  an  average,  1'65  inch  in 
length  by  11  inch  in  breadth.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  hatched  the  old  birds 
become  very  anxious  for  their  safety  when  approached  by  man.  MacFarlane 
observed  the  male  bird  perch  in  a  tree  near  the  'nest,  and  both  parents  flew  from 
tree  to  tree  for  a  considerable  distance,  as  if  enticing  him  from  the  vicinity 
of  their  treasures. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Totanus,  with  the  lower  back  nearly  the  same 
colour  as  the  mantle,  with  the  prevailing  colour  of  the  upper  tail  coverts  white, 
and  the  axillaries  and  under  wing  coverts  white  sparsely  marked  with  brown. 
Length  of  wing,  61  to  6'7  inches.  Length,  10f  inches. 


OF  THE  BEITISH   ISLANDS.  233 

Family  CHAEADEIID^.  Genus  TOTANUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN&. 


COMMON    REDSHANK. 

TOTANUS    CALIDEIS— (Linnaus). 
PLATE   XXVI. 

Scolopax  calidris,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  248  (1766). 

Totanus  calidris  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  333  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  157, 
pi.  568,  fig.  1,  pi.  569,  fig.  2  (1875);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  469  (1883); 
Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  140  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xviii.  (1891) ; 
Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  269  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p. 
299  (1896);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  140,  pi.  44  (1896);  Sharpe,  Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  414  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Eedshank  is  generally 
though  locally  distributed  over  the  marshes  of  the  British  Islands  during  summer, 
becoming  more  common  in  the  eastern  counties  of  England,  and  throughout 
Scotland,  where  it  extends  to  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands  as  well  as  to  the  Outer 
Hebrides.  It  is  fairly  distributed  over  suitable  localities  in  Ireland  during  summer. 
It  becomes  more  numerous  during  autumn,  as  great  numbers  then  resort  to  the 
coasts  on  passage,  and  many  remain  to  winter  on  them.  Foreign :  Southern 
Palaearctic  region ;  Ethiopian  and  Oriental  regions  in  winter.  It  breeds  through- 
out Europe,  including  Iceland  and  the  Faroes,  with  the  exception  that  east  of 
long.  40°  its  range  gradually  becomes  more  southerly,  until  in  the  Urals  the 
limits  do  not  extend  beyond  lat.  58°.  It  is  a  resident  throughout  the  basin  of.  the 
Mediterranean,  breeding  in  North  Africa ;  but  to  the  African  portion  of  the  Inter- 
tropical  realm,  and  to  the  Canaries  it  is  a  winter  visitor  only.  If  the  Kedshank 
be  a  normal  migrant  to  South  Africa,  we  should  infer  that  it  breeds  there. 
Notwithstanding  Seebohm' s  statement  that  this  species  is  a  winter  visitor  to  the 
"entire  south  coast  of  the  continent,"  we  may  remark  that  the  British  Museum 
collection  does  not  contain  a  single  example  from  that  vast  district.  East- 
wards it  breeds  in  Siberia  as  far  north  as  lat.  55°,  and  on  the  mountain  ranges  of 
the  south  of  that  country  as  well  as  in  Turkestan,  and  possibly  on  the  highlands 
of  Persia.  It  passes  through  Mongolia  on  migration,  and  winters  in  Arabia, 
India,  Ceylon,  Burinah,  China,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  has  been  recorded 
from  Japan. 


234  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Allied    forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  require  notice. 

Habits. — The  Redshank  is  another  of  those  wading  birds  that  changes  its 
haunt  according  to  season,  frequenting  littoral  districts  during  autumn  and 
winter,  but  retiring  more  or  less  inland  to  breed.  Directly  after  the  breeding 
season  is  over  the  nesting  grounds  are  deserted,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the 
year  the  Redshank  haunts  the  coast.  In  autumn  the  resident  birds  are  largely 
increased  in  numbers  by  individuals  from  higher  and  colder  latitudes,  and  in 
places  suited  to  their  requirements  they  are  the  commonest  species  of  Wader  on 
the  coast.  Great  numbers  of  these  Redshanks  do  not  remain  over  the  winter, 
but  only  pass  along  our  coasts  on  their  way  to  more  southern  haunts  ;  and  during 
passage  in  October  a  great  many  are  caught  in  the  flight  nets  of  the  Wash.  At 
all  times  of  the  year  the  Redshank  is  a  remarkably  social  bird,  and  is  more  or 
less  gregarious  in  autumn  and  winter,  frequently  consorting  with  other  small 
birds  of  the  shore.  Their  favourite  haunts  are  the  flat  muddy  coasts  and  salt 
marshes,  but  odd  birds  are  often  flushed  from  the  weed-covered  rocks  at  low 
water.  They  are  active,  lively  birds,  almost  constantly  in  motion  when  011  the 
feed,  wary  and  watchful,  and  amongst  the  very  first  to  take  wing  as  danger 
approaches.  During  residence  on  the  coast  the  Redshank  feeds  on  crustaceans, 
sand-worms,  mollusks,  and  other  small  marine  creatures  ;  but  in  summer  it  eats 
worms,  insects  and  their  larvae,  small  snails,  and  various  kinds  of  ground  fruits 
and  berries.  It  wades  a  good  deal  when  feeding,  and  has  been  observed  to  swim 
across  the  shallows  between  the  mud-banks,  and  when  wounded  it  will  seek  to 
escape  by  diving.  Its  flight  is  rapid  and  most  unsteady,  especially  just  as  the 
bird  rises  frightened  from  the  shore  ;  the  long  wings  are  beaten  quickly,  and  the 
white  bar  across  them  is  very  conspicuous  when  they  are  outspread.  The  usual 
note  of  the  Redshank  is  a  loud  shrill  tyii-tyii,  most  persistently  repeated  when 
the -bird  is  excited  or  alarmed,  when  it  sounds  more  like  the  syllables  tijik-tyik. 
During  the  breeding  season  the  male  utters  a  musical  trill,  not  only  when  in  the 
air,  but  as  he  runs  about  the  ground,  or  along  a  fence  or  even  perches  in  a  tree. 

Nidification. — The  Redshank  is  one  of  the  first  birds  to  leave  the  coast  in 
spring  and  to  retire  to  its  breeding  grounds.  The  first  individuals  to  leave  are 
those  that  nest  on  the  broads  and  fens  and  swampy  moors  close  to  the  sea, 
retiring  to  these  places  even  in  February  ;  those  that  breed  further  inland  delay 
their  departure  until  March  or  early  April.  It  is  most  attached  to  certain  haunts, 
visiting  them  yearly,  and  in  some  instances  is  known  to  return  and  breed  in 
favourite  spots  even  after  the  marshes  have  been  reclaimed  and  turned  into 
fields.  The  usual  summer  haunts  of  the  Redshank  are  broads  and  fens,  swampy 
moors,  and  the  wet  ground  surrounding  mountain  lochs  and  streams.  It  is  just 
as  wary  here  as  on  the  coast,  and  the  moment  its  haunts  are  invaded  by  man  it 
rises  into  the  air,  uttering  its  shrill  notes  of  alarm  ;  here  and  there  a  few  more 


OF   THE    BRITISH   ISLANDS.  235 

venturesome  birds  than  the  rest  remain  standing  daintily  poised  on  some  little 
hillock,  or  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  often  swaying  their  elegant  bodies  up  and 
down  as  if  full  of  nervous  excitement  and  undecided  as  to  which  course  to  follow, 
to  remain  on  the  ground  or  join  the  noisy  birds  careering  about  high  in  air  above 
them.  In  southern  districts  the  Redshank  begins  to  lay  early  in  April,  but  in 
the  north  of  Scotland  it  is  more  than  a  month  later,  whilst  in  the  Arctic  regions 
fresh  eggs  may  be  found  up  to  the  end  of  June.  Numbers  of  pairs  nest  in  close 
proximity,  and  all  through  the  breeding  period  parties  of  birds  may  be  observed 
feeding  and  flying  together.  The  nest  is  well  concealed,  often  placed  beneath  an 
arched  tuft  of  herbage,  or  in  the  centre  of  a  hummock  of  grass,  or  under  the 
shelter  of  a  bush  or  large  weed.  But  little,  if  any,  nest  is  made  ;  the  site  selected 
is  trampled  into  a  little  hollow,  which  may  or  may  not  be  lined  with  a  few  scraps 
of  dry  vegetable  refuse.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  ranging  from  pale  to  dark 
buff  in  ground-colour,  handsomely  spotted  and  blotched  with  rich  dark  brown,  and 
underlying  markings  of  paler  brown  and  grey.  Occasionally  a  few  streaks  occur. 
They  are  pyriform  in  shape,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'75  inch  in  length  by 
1'2  inch  in  breadth.  Many  eggs  of  this  bird  are  gathered  for  the  table  during  the 
season.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  Incubation  is  said  by  Naumann 
to  last  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  days,  but  experiments  have  elicited  the  fact  that 
the  eggs  of  this  bird  placed  in  an  incubator  did  not  hatch  until  the  twenty-third 
day.  The  parent  birds  adopt  the  usual  alluring  antics  when  their  young  are 
threatened.  As  soon  as  the  latter  are  safely  reared  a  movement  to  the  coasts  is 
made. 

Diagnostic  characters — Totanus,  with  the  lower  back  and  rump 
white,  and  the  secondaries  white,  marbled  with  brown  at  the  very  base.  Length, 
10  to  11  inches. 


236  THE  GAME  BIRDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHAKADKIHXE.  Genus  TOTANUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN&. 


DUSKY   REDSHANK. 

TOTANUS  FUSCUS— (Linnaus). 

Scolopax  fusca,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  243  (1766). 

Totanus  fuscus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  328  (1852)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  165, 

pis.  568,  569  (1875);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  474  (1883);  Seebohm,  Hist. 

Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  145  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  252  (1894) ; 

Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  295  (1896) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B. 

p.  141,  pi.  44  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Gat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  409  (1896)  ;  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxiv.  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  Dusky  Eedshank  is  a  rare 
straggler  on  spring  and  autumn  migration,  most  frequently  the  latter,  to  the  east 
coasts  of  England,  south  of  the  Humber.  It  becomes  much  rarer  in  the  south, 
and  of  still  less  frequency  in  the  west.  It  has  occurred  inland  as  far  as  Notts,  as 
well  as  several  times  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  but  not  in  the  west  if  we 
except  Mr.  Services'  record  from  the  Scotch  shores  of  the  Solway,  or  in  the 
Hebrides,  although  it  has  been  recorded  from  the  Orkneys.  Several  examples 
have  been  killed  in  Ireland,  one  near  Belfast  and  others  in  the  Moy  estuary,  during 
autumn  and  winter,  and  several  on  the  coast  of  Co.  Dublin.  Foreign :  Northern 
Palaearctic  region ;  Ethiopian  and  Oriental  regions  in  winter.  It  breeds  on  the 
tundras  of  Europe  and  Asia,  above  the  limit  of  forest  growth,  but  nowhere 
apparently  south  of  the  Arctic  circle  (unless  it  be  at  high  elevations  on  the 
mountains  of  Turkestan,  where  similar  climatic  conditions  prevail),  from  Lapland 
in  the  west  to  the  Tchuski  Land  in  the  east.  It  passes  the  European  and  Pacific 
coasts,  including  Japan,  as  well  as  across  country  on  migration,  and  winters  in 
the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  Africa  north  of  the  equator  (a  few  wandering 
abnormally  as  far  south  as  the  Cape  Colony*),  in  India,  Burmah,  and  China.  It 
has  also  been  said  to  wander  to  Ceylon  and  to  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  occasionally 
winters  in  such  temperate  latitudes  as  Holland. 

Allied  forms — Perhaps  most  nearly  allied  to  Totanus  glottis  and  T.  calidris, 
both  of  which  are  well-known  British  species. 

*  A  single  example  was  obtained  by  Layard  in  the  Cape  Colony. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  237 

Habits. — Except  during  the  period  of  its  migration  the  Dusky  Eedshank  is 
rarely  seen  on  the  coast,  and  it  is  only  on  passage  that  the  bird  congregates  into 
flocks  of  any  considerable  size.  It  is  rather  a  late  bird  of  passage,  probably 
because  its  breeding  grounds  are  situated  in  the  high  north  above  the  latitude  of 
the  Arctic  circle.  It  begins  to  cross  the  Mediterranean  in  March,  and  continues 
to  do  so  until  the  middle  of  May,  which  latter  month  and  the  end  of  April  are  the 
dates  of  its  appearance  on  our  coasts.  The  young  with  a  few  old  birds  begin  to 
arrive  from  the  north  in  August,  and  the  return  migration  lasts  through  September 
and  October.  Throughout  that  period  it  may  be  observed  irregularly  on  the 
British  coasts.  The  principal  haunts  of  the  Dusky  Eedshank  are  inland  marshes 
and  swamps  and  the  banks  and  partially  dry  beds  of  rivers,  but  in  the  breeding 
season  it  affects  more  wooded  localities,  bogs  and  open  parts  of  the  northern 
forests,  sometimes  at  considerable  distances  from  water.  In  its  habits  it  does  not 
differ  very  much  from  its  allies.  It  both  runs  and  flies  quickly,  often  wades,  and 
is  said  to  swim  readily  with  a  bobbing  motion  of  the  head.  It  is  equally  as  shy  as 
the  Common  Redshank,  just  as  noisy,  but  nothing  near  so  social  or  gregarious  at 
any  time.  The  note  of  the  Dusky  Eedshank  is  described  by  Naumann  as  tyuit, 
and  by  Wolley  as  tjeuty.  This  note  is  most  persistently  uttered  when  the  haunts 
of  the  bird  are  intruded,  and  it  is  said  the  Finnish  hunters  have  a  great  antipathy 
to  this  species  because  its  noisy  cry  disturbs  the  game  they  are  stalking.  The  food 
of  this  Eedshank  is  composed  of  worms,  insects  and  their  larvae,  crustaceans, 
snails,  the  ova  of  fish  and  frogs,  and  various  ground  fruits  and  berries. 

Nidification. — The  only  British  naturalist  who  has  ever  compiled  an 
account  of  the  nidification  of  the  Dusky  Eedshank  from  his  own  observations  is 
John  Wolley.  This  great  field  naturalist  was  the  first  to  bring  the  eggs  of  the 
Dusky  Eedshank  before  British  ornithologists,  and  an  account  of  his  important 
discoveries,  with  accurate  figures  of  the  eggs  he  obtained,  were  published  in 
Hewitson's  charming  work  on  the  Eggs  of  British  Birds.  He  found  that  this 
species  arrived  at  its  summer  quarters  as  soon  as  the  ground  was  free  from  snow, 
and  that  it  began  to  breed  almost  at  once.  He  remarked  that  its  favourite  nesting 
places  were  in  the  open  parts  of  the  forest,  not  necessarily  near  water,  and 
especially  in  places  where  the  trees  had  been  burnt  and  the  vegetation  was  scanty. 
Even  here  the  Dusky  Eedshank  was  by  no  means  a  common  bird,  being  so  thinly 
scattered  up  and  down  the  country  that  a  few  pairs  only  could  be  met  with  during 
the  course  of  the  day.  He  found  the  nests  generally  on  rising  ground,  near  the 
tops  of  hills,  in  open  clearings  amongst  the  pines  where  the  ground  was  clothed 
with  heath  and  reindeer  moss.  They  were  mere  hollows  in  the  ground,  lined 
with  a  few  dead  "needles  "  of  the  Scotch  fir.  In  these  slight  nests  four  eggs  are 
laid  at  the  end  of  May,  or  in  higher  latitudes  than  Lapland  towards  the  middle 
of  June.  They  vary  from  pale  brown  to  pale  green  in  ground-colour,  handsomely 
and  heavily  blotched  and  spotted  with  rich  dark  brown,  and  with  underlying 


238  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

markings  of  pale  brown  and  ink-grey.  They  are  pyriform  in  shape  and  measure 
on  an  average  1'85  inch  in  length  by  1'3  inch  in  breadth.  Wolley  remarked  that 
the  parent  bird  sat  closely,  although  its  white  rump  was  very  conspicuous  as  it 
brooded  over  the  eggs  with  its  long  neck  drawn  in.  When  flushed  it  either  ran 
for  a  little  way  before  taking  wing  or  flew  into  the  air  at  once,  and  wheeled  round 
and  round,  uttering  its  note  at  intervals ;  but  sometimes  it  perched  on  the  top  of 
a  tree  near  by.  As  soon  as  the  young  were  hatched  he  found  that  the  old  bird 
became  even  more  demonstrative,  sometimes  standing  close  to  him,  snapping  its 
bill  and  nodding  its  head.  Although  it  sits  so  closely  it  is  said  to  be  very  wary 
in  returning  to  its  nest.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  season,  and  as  soon  as 
the  young  are  hatched  they  are  conducted  to  the  neighbouring  marshes  by  their 
parents. 

Diagnostic  Characters.—  Totanus,  with  the  secondaries  white,  barred 
on  both  webs  with  grey.  In  breeding  plumage  the  head,  neck,  and  underparts 
are  very  dark  slate-grey.  Length,  12  to  13  inches. 


OF   THE   BEITISH    ISLANDS.  239 

Family  CHARADEIID^E.  Genus  TOTANUS. 

Subfamily  TOTANIN^E. 


QREENSHANK. 

TOTANUS   GLOTTIS— (Linnams). 

Scolopax  glottis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  245  (1766). 

Glottis   chloropus  (Meyer);  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  319  (1852). 

Totanus  canescens  (Gmel.) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  173,  pi.  570  (1871) ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  483  (1883). 

Totanus  glottis  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  149  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xviii.  (1891) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  271  (1893) ;  Seebohm, 
Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  141,  pi.  41  (1896). 

Glottis  nebularius  (Gunner);  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  280  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  481  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Greenshank  is  a  regular 
visitor  on  spring  and  autumn  migration  to  our  islands,  both  inland  and  on  the 
coast,  most  numerous  on  the  eastern  seaboard  in  England,  and  in  Ireland  a  few 
remaining  over  the  winter,  although  it  is  not  known  to  breed  in  that  country. 
Most  of  the  birds  that  visit  us  are  on  their  way  to  or  from  their  breeding  grounds 
in  Northern  Europe,  but  a  few  spread  over  parts  of  the  north  and  west  of  Scotland 
to  spend  the  summer.  Here  it  breeds  sparingly  in  the  Hebrides,  and  in  greater 
abundance  over  Inverness,  Argyle,  Perthshire,  Ross,  Sutherland,  and  Caithness, 
but  not  apparently  in  the  Orkneys  or  Shetlands,  which  is  a  matter  for  surprise. 
Foreign :  Northern  Palaearctic  region  ;  Ethiopian,  Oriental,  and  Australian 
regions  in  winter.  It  breeds  on  the  tundras  of  Scandinavia  and  Lapland,  in 
Northern  Russia  and  Siberia  up  to  lat.  66°,  and  as  far  south  as  lat.  60°,  eastwards 
to  the  Stanavoi  Mountains,  north  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  Kamtschatka,  and  the 
Kurile  Islands.  It  passes  the  European  and  Pacific  coasts,  including  those  of 
Japan,  as  well  as  along  internal  routes  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  basin  of 
the  Mediterranean,  on  the  coasts  and  central  lakes  of  Africa,  in  India,  Ceylon, 
Burmah,  China,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  Australia.  The  presence  of  the 
Greenshank,  during  our  winter,  in  such  temperate  regions  of  the  southern 
hemisphere  as  Cape  Colony,  South  Australia,  and  Tasmania  suggests  that  the 
bird  breeds  in  them  although  direct  proof  of  the  fact  is  yet  wanting.  As  is  the 
case  with  so  many  birds  belonging  to  this  family,  it  is  a  great  wanderer  during 
winter,  and  stragglers  have  occurred  at  that  season  on  Norfolk  Island  and 
Mauritius,  Aldabra  Island,  Gloriosa,  Ann'rantes,  and  the  Seychelles,  in  Florida, 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  Chili. 


240  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Allied  forms. —  Totanus  fuscu/t,  treated  of  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
T.  stagnatttis*  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of  the  southern  Palaearctic  region,  from 
the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  in  the  west  to  the  Amoor  Valley  in  the  east ; 
wintering  in  South  Africa,  India,  and  South  China.  Differs  principally  from  the 
Greenshank  in  being  much  smaller  (length  of  wing,  5'5  inches  instead  of  7'5 
inches.)  T.  guttiferus,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of  the  Amoor,  Kamtschatka 
and  Behring  Island,  and  in  winter  of  Burmah  and  India.  Distinguished  from 
all  other  members  of  the  genus  by  its  combining  a  white  lower  back  and  axillaries, 
and  having  the  middle  toe  united  by  a  well-developed  web  to  the  other  toes. 

Habits. — It  is  during  its  passage  to  and  from  its  northern  breeding  grounds  in 
spring  and  autumn  that  the  Greenshank  is  best  known  in  our  Islands,  and  during 
those  periods  it  may  be  met  with,  not  only  on  the  coast,  but  in  the  vicinity  of 
many  inland  waters.  It  is  a  bird  of  very  regular  passage,  beginning  to  leave  its 
winter  quarters  early  in  spring,  often  the  first  week  in  March.  It  arrives  on  our 
coasts  from  the  end  of  April  to  the  first  week  or  so  in  May,  and  reaches  Norway 
during  the  latter  half  of  May.  The  return  journey  begins  in  August  in  Holland,  in 
September  in  our  Islands,  and  lasts  through  October.  During  migration  it  may 
sometimes  be  observed  in  small  flocks,  especially  in  Autumn,  when  the  broods 
and  their  parents  appear  to  journey  in  company,  but  it  is  most  frequently  seen  in 
pairs  or  even  alone,  and  with  other  Waders.  Its  actions  on  the  coast  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  other  Totani.  It  runs  about  the  muds  and  amongst  the 
weed-draped  rocks  at  low  water,  and  often  wades  into  the  shallows,  being  always 
very  wary  and  suspicious,  taking  wing  long  before  it  is  within  gunshot.  Its  flight 
is  quick  and  wavering,  and  the  bird  has  a  habit  of  dropping  suddenly,  running  a  few 
paces  with  wings  half  open,  and  then,  after  closing  them,  shaking  its  body  in  a 
peculiar  manner.  It  frequently  perches  in  trees  at  its  breeding  grounds.  The 
food  of  the  Greenshank  consists  of  insects  and  their  larvae,  especially  beetles, 
for  which  the  bird  sometimes  searches  amongst  the  droppings  of  cattle  in  the 
wet  meadows.  The  bird  is  also  said  to  eat  small  frogs  and  tadpoles,  and  the  ova 
of  fish.  On  the  shore  it  eats  crustaceans,  and  other  small  marine  creatures ;  and  in 
inland  districts  worms  and  snails  are  sought.  The  late  Mr.  Swaysland  on  one 
occasion  showed  me  half-a-dozen  small  minnows,  which  he  had  just  taken  from 

*  The  only  claim  of  the  Marsh  Sandpiper  (Totanus  stagnatilis—'Bechstein)  to  rank  as  "  British  " 
rests  upon  a  single  example  reputed  to  have  been  shot  by  Mr.  Rothschild  near  the  Tring  reservoirs,  in 
Hertfordshire,  in  October,  1887.  I  am  informed  by  the  Hon.  Walter  Rothschild  that  the  reputed 
example  obtained  at  Tring  reservoir  has  been  lost  or  destroyed.  I  see  no  reason  why  stray  individuals 
of  this  Sandpiper  should  not  reach  our  area,  but  for  the  present  it  is  perhaps  the  wisest  course  to  exclude 
the  species  from  the  British  list.  It  is  distributed  over  the  Southern  Palaearctic,  Ethiopian,  Oriental, 
and  Australian  regions  in  winter.  It  breeds  from  the  delta  of  the  Rhone  eastwards  through  the  valley  of 
the  Danube,  South  Russia,  North  Persia  (where  it  is  said  to  be  a  resident),  Turkestan,  and  South 
Siberia.  North  of  these  limits  it  is  an  accidental  wanderer  only,  but  an  example  has  been  obtained  on 
Heligoland.  It  is  found  on  the  coasts  of  China  during  migration,  and  in  winter  is  an  inhabitant  of  Africa, 
India,  Ceylon,  Burmah,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago.  To  South  Africa  and  Australia  it  can  only  be 
regarded  as  an  abnormal  migrant. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  241 

a  dead  Greenshank.  Probably  at  its  breeding  grounds  various  ground  fruits  are 
eaten.  The  note  of  this  bird,  uttered  most  persistently  during  flight,  I  should 
describe  as  a  shrill  cliee-weet  oft  repeated,  but  other  observers  attempt  to  express 
it  as  tyii,  tyii. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Greenshank  varies  a  little 
according  to  latitude.  In  Scotland,  as  I  know  from  personal  experience,  the  birds 
return  in  pairs  to  their  accustomed  haunts  early  in  May,  and  the  eggs  are  laid 
towards  the  end  of  that  month.  In  the  Arctic  regions  they  are  from  a  fortnight 
to  three  weeks  later.  It  is  not  at  all  a  social  bird,  and  the  pairs  are  scattered  up 
and  down  over  a  wide  range  of  country.  Its  breeding  grounds  in  our  islands  are 
on  the  marshy  moors,  sometimes  quite  close  to  the  sea,  and  a  district  where  lochs 
and  little  pools  abound  is  chosen  by  preference.  In  other  countries  it  is  said  to 
breed  in  marshy  clearings  of  the  pine  forests.  The  nest,  which  is  not  found 
without  much  search,  unless  stumbled  upon  purely  by  accident,  is  made  on  the 
ground  amongst  the  heath  and  other  herbage,  either  close  to  the  water's  edge  or 
in  a  dry  tuft  of  grass  in  the  swamp.  It  is  merely  a  hollow  lined  with  a  few  bits 
of  dry  vegetable  refuse.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  vary  from  buff  to  very 
pale  buff  in  ground-colour,  handsomely  blotched  and  spotted  with  rich  dark 
brown,  and  underlying  markings  (many  of  them  large)  of  pinkish-brown  and 
grey.  They  are  pyriform,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'9  inch  in  length  by  1.35 
inch  in  breadth.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  The  parent  birds  become 
excessively  anxious  and  clamorous  when  their  solitudes  are  invaded,  especially 
after  the  young  are  hatched,  but  as  a  rule  they  keep  at  a  safe  distance,  and  often 
run  about  the  moor  bewailing  the  intrusion  of  their  haunt.  As  soon  as  the  young 
are  reared  a  movement  is  made  to  the  nearest  coasts  suited  to  their  requirements, 
and  the  passage  south  shortly  after  begins,  the  birds  travelling  much  more 
leisurely  than  in  spring. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Totanus,  with  the  bill  upturned,  the  lower 
back  white,  and  the  secondaries  nearly  uniform  grey ;  with  the  wing  about  seven 
inches  long,  and  the  tarsus  over  two  inches  long.  Length,  13  to  14  inches. 


16 


242  THE  GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 


Subfamily  SCOLOPACIN/E.—  The  Cleft-footed  Sandpipers 

and   Snipes. 


The  Cleft-footed  Sandpipers  and  Snipes  may  be  distinguished  from  other 
members  of  the  CHABADRIID.E  by  having  the  toes  cleft  to  the  base,  without  any 
webbing  between  them.  The  nasal  groove,  as  in  the  preceding  subfamily,  extends 
along  the  greater  part  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  metatarsus  is  scutellated  in 
front  and  behind.  Dr.  Sharpe  recognises  no  less  than  nineteen  genera,  eleven  of 
which  contain  one  species  only ;  whilst  Seebohm  admitted  but  four  genera,  if  we 
exclude  the  Turnstones.  Certainly  not  more  than  a  dozen  appear  to  be  necessary 
for  all  that  systematists  actually  require. 


Genus  TRINQA,  or  Typical  Sandpipers. 

Type,  TKINGA  CANUTUS. 


Tringa,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  culmen  longer  than  the  tarsus  and  the  eye  situated 
well  in  front  of  the  auricular  orifice.  The  metatarsus  is  rather  short,  the  tibia 
just  above  the  joint  devoid  of  feathers.  The  bill  is  sometimes  decurved,  narrow, 
slightly  compressed  and  rugose  towards  the  tip.  The  nostrils  are  lateral  and 
situated  in  a  groove.  Toes,  three  in  front ;  one  behind,  small  and  elevated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  eight  species  and  subspecies,  confined  during  the 
breeding  season  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  regions,  but 
at  other  times  distributed  more  widely  and  then  reaching  the  Intertropical  or 
Primogaean  zone.  Five  species  are  British,  but  one  only  breeds  within  our  area. 

The  typical  Sandpipers  are  dwellers  on  tundras,  marshes,  the  banks  of  streams, 
and  in  winter  on  the  sea-coasts.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  flight  and  extended 
migration,  run  and  walk  with  ease,  and  frequently  wade.  Their  notes  are  clear 
and  shrill,  some  of  them  not  unmusical.  They  subsist  on  insects,  worms, 
crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  ground  fruits,  etc.  They  make  scanty  nests  on  the 
ground,  and  the  four  eggs  are  pyriform  in  shape  and  spotted.  They  are  mono- 
gamous, gregarious  in  winter,  more  or  less  social  during  the  breeding  season. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  243 

Family  CHAEADKIID^.  Genus  TBINGA. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACIN&. 


KNOT. 

TKINGA   CANUTUS— Linnceus. 

Tringa  canutus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  251  (1766)  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  185  (1852) ; 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  77,  pis.  555,  556  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  413 
(1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  174  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xii. 
(1890);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  app.  i.  p.  337  (1894);  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  232  (1896) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  144, 
pi.  43  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  593  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Knot  is  a  common  winter 
visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  most  abundant  on  the  low-lying  coast  of  the  eastern 
counties  of  England  south  of  the  Humber,  and  only  less  so  in  suitable  districts  on 
the  south  coast.  It  becomes  rarer  on  the  more  rocky  western  coasts,  but  is 
abundant  on  many  parts  of  the  low  shores  of  Lancashire  and  Cumberland.  In 
Scotland  it  is  much  rarer  on  the  west  coast  than  on  the  east ;  but  is  commonly 
distributed  round  the  Irish  coasts  during  winter.  Many  birds  only  pass  along  the 
British  coasts  bound  further  south  in  autumn,  or  on  their  way  north  in  spring, 
whilst  in  severe  winters  our  northern  coasts  are  almost  deserted.  Foreign  : 
Circumpolar  region ;  Ethiopian,  Australian,  Nearctic,  and  Neotropical  regions  in 
winter.  The  breeding  grounds  of  the  Knot  are  very  restricted,  and  probably  lie 
north  of  lat.  75°  in  the  Western  hemisphere,  and  north  of  lat.  80°  in  the  Eastern 
hemisphere.  No  great  amount  of  land  is  known  north  of  these  limits,  and  what 
little  has  been  explored  has  failed  to  reveal  the  grand  summer  home  of  the  tens 
of  thousands  of  Knots  that  pour  southwards  from  the  "  night!  ess  north  "  in  early 
autumn.  The  few  scattered  localities  where  the  Knot  has  been  met  with  breeding, 
almost  invariably  in  small  numbers,  are  as  follows  : — New  World :  Melville  Is- 
land, lat.  80°  by  Sabine  in  1820 ;  (?)  Melville  Peninsula,  lat.  67°,  Grinnell  Land, 
lat.  82P  and  lat.  81  J°,  by  Feilden  and  Hart  (young  in  down  secured).  Old  World  : 
Not  a  single  known  breeding  place  ;  although,  judging  from  the  birds'  vast  abun- 
dance in  Europe  during  winter,  at  least  one,  if  not  the  only,  grand  breeding  place 
is  on  undiscovered  land  north  of  Franz  Joseph  Land  and  the  Liakoff  Islands,  or 
New  Siberia,  if  not  actually  upon  the  latter  archipelago.  The  Knot  has  been  obser- 
ved in  summer  on  many  points  much  further  south  on  Continental  Asia,  but  there 
is  not  the  slightest  evidence  forthcoming  that  these  odd  birds  were  breeding.  It 
has  been  obtained  in  Alaska  and  Greenland.  It  was  observed  in  the  Dwina  delta, 


244  THE  GAME  BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

near  Archangel,  by  Hencke  ;  Middendorff  saw  an  odd  bird  or  so  on  the  Taimur 
Peninsula  in  May,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Uda,  in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  in  July  ; 
Schrenck  obtained  examples  in  autumn  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amoor,  and  it  has 
been  obtained  at  that  season  near  Lake  Baikal,  and  on  migration  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Obb  and  the  Kama.  It  passes  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  the  Faroes  on 
migration,  and  occurs  on  passage  on  the  entire  coast  line  of  Western  Europe,  and 
winters  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  as  far  south  as  the  Ethiopian  limits  of  the 
Primogaean  realm.  It  is  rare  in  the  Mediterranean  during  winter,  but  common 
on  spring  and  autumn  passage.  It  is  of  accidental  occurrence  only  in  India,  but 
passes,  although  in  comparatively  small  numbers,  the  west  coast  of  the  Pacific, 
China,  and  Japan,  on  migration,  and  occurs  probably  only  abnormally  in  Australia 
and  New  Zealand.  It  does  not  appear  to  pass  the  Pacific  coast  of  America,  but 
migrates  commonly  down  the  Atlantic  coasts  as  well  as  along  some  of  the  internal 
routes,  and  winters  in  the  southern  States,  probably  Mexico,  and  some  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  has  been  known  to  wander  as  far  south  as  Brazil. 

Allied  forms. — Tringa  crassirostris,  which  possibly  breeds  in  North- 
eastern Siberia,  although  the  precise  locality  still  remains  unknown,  and  passes 
down  the  Ussuri  valley,  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan  (where,  however,  it 
has  been  observed  in  summer)  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago  and  North  Australia.  It  has  visited  the  Andaman  Isles,  and,  more 
remarkable  still,  the  coast  of  Scinde,  the  latter  in  considerable  numbers.  It  is 
distinguished  from  the  Common  Knot  by  its  white  upper  tail  coverts  and  by  its 
black  breast  and  flanks,  and  absence  of  all  chestnut  from  the  underparts  in  breed- 
ing plumage.  It  is  also  a  slightly  larger  bird  (length  of  wing,  7  to  7£  inches, 
instead  of  from  6f  to  6J  inches). 

Habits. — Although  great  numbers  of  the  Knots  that  visit  our  coasts  in 
autumn  pass  on  in  a  few  weeks  to  more  southern  haunts,  a  by  no  means  small 
proportion  remain  behind  and  winter  on  the  various  coasts  of  the  British  Islands. 
The  migrations  of  the  Knot  are  very  marked  and  regular.  Small  numbers, 
principally  young  birds,  begin  to  arrive  in  our  Islands  early  in  August,  and  from 
that  date  onwards  to  the  end  of  October  a  slowly  increasing  stream  of  birds 
is  almost  constantly  reaching  the  British  coasts,  attaining  its  highest  tide  in 
September.  As  previously  stated,  many  of  these  individuals  do  not  remain  long 
with  us,  but  spend  their  winter  on  the  mud-flats  of  Western  Africa.  These  begin 
to  pass  north  again  in  April  and  May,  by  the  end  of  which  latter  month  most 
have  quitted  the  British  coasts  and  retired  to  the  unknown  breeding  grounds  in 
the  North  Polar  basin.  The  migrating  Knots  appear  chiefly  to  follow  the  coast 
line,  although  small  numbers  occasionally  cross  inland ;  and  in  spring,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  Bar-tailed  Godwit,  the  flight  across  the  North  Sea  is  taken  about 
the  neighbourhood  of  Spurn  Point,  probably  following  an  ancient  coast  line,  as 


OF  THE   BBITISH   ISLANDS.  245 

Mr.  Cordeaux  suggests.  A  few  odd  birds  remain  in  the  south  all  the  summer,  as 
is  usual  with  many  species  of  Waders.  The  great  haunts  of  the  Knot  during  its 
stay  in  our  Islands  are  the  low-lying  shores  of  the  east  coast  of  England,  the  vast 
mud-flats  and  estuaries,  salt  marshes  and  sandy  reaches  which  afford  the  bird  an 
ample  and  constant  supply  of  food.  Great  numbers  are  caught  in  the  flight  nets 
of  the  Wash  during  October,  as  they  fly  low  across  the  shallow  sea ;  many 
others  visit  the  lighthouses  during  migration.  Upon  their  arrival  they  are 
often  absurdly  tame,  especially  the  odd  birds  that  have  got  separated  from 
the  flocks,  and  I  have  actually  caught  them  with  the  hand  in  the  narrow 
dykes  that  spread  like  nets  over  the  muds  and  marshes.  They  are  very  gre- 
garious and  social  birds,  and  often  mingle  with  Dunlins.  The  Knots  keep  well 
together  whilst  feeding,  with  heads  all  turned  in  the  same  direction,  and  cover  a 
good  stretch  of  shore  in  a  very  short  time,  as  they  are  always  on  the  move.  If 
the  flock  be  very  large,  some  of  the  birds  are  almost  constantly  in  the  air,  flying 
over  the  heads  of  their  companions,  as  if  eager  to  get  the  first  look  over  the 
ground.  They  seldom  admit  of  a  very  close  approach,  and  when  alarmed  rise 
almost  simultaneously,  and  often  wheel  about,  or  go  out  to  sea  for  a  little  way 
before  alighting  again.  The  Knot  more  frequently  runs  with  short  quick  steps 
than  walks,  and  flies  rapidly  and  well.  When  their  appetite  is  satisfied,  the  entire 
flock  often  stand  for  a  long  time  on  a  certain  spot  and  preen  their  plumage,  but 
even  then  they  are  restless,  and  it  is  very  rarely  that  all  the  birds  are  still  at  once. 
They  feed  as  much  by  night  as  by  day,  especially  when  there  is  a  bright  moon, 
and  shift  their  ground  a  good  deal  according  to  the  state  of  the  tide.  They  are 
remarkably  silent  birds,  although  the  note  at  the  breeding  quarters  is  described 
by  Captain  Feilden  as  a  wild  Curlew-like  cry.  The  food  of  the  Knot  is  composed 
of  crustaceans,  sand  worms,  insects,  mollusks,  and  other  small  marine  animals. 
In  summer  it  chiefly  consists  of  insects  and  their  larvae,  buds  of  the  saxifrage,  bits 
of  algae,  and  probably  ground  fruits.  The  flesh  of  the  Knot  is  very  palatable,  as  I 
know  from  oft-repeated  experience,  and  in  autumn  the  bird  is  often  surprisingly  fat. 

Nidification. — The  eggs  of  the  Knot  are  unknown  to  science;  but  the 
downy  young  were  obtained  by  Mr.  Hart,  the  naturalist  attached  to  the  Discovery, 
during  the  last  British  Polar  Expedition.  The  Knot  evidently  arrives  at  its 
nesting  grounds  in  flocks,  for  a  party  of  fourteen  were  noticed  by  Captain  Feilden 
near  Knot  Harbour,  in  Grinnell  Land,  on  June  5th.  They  are  described  as  being 
always  wild  and  difficult  to  approach.  Pairing  began  immediately  after  their 
arrival,  and  two  males  were  occasionally  seen  in  chase  of  a  female.  During  this 
period  they  indulged  in  flights  something  like  those  of  the  Common  Snipe,  and 
when  descending  elevated  their  wings  and  beat  them  together,  making  a  whirring 
sound,  and  occasionally  uttering  a  flute-like  whistle.  The  birds  were  observed  at 
some  distance  from  the  coast,  feeding  near  the  swamps  and  pools  of  this  desolate 
land.  The  young  chicks  were  hatched  by  July  llth  ;  and  when  menaced  by 


246  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

danger  the  old  birds  feigned  lameness,  and  sought  by  various  antics  to  draw  all 
attention  to  themselves.  One  nest  is  described  as  being  placed  under  a  flat 
stone  which  was  resting  on  two  other  stones,  and  consisted  of  a  few  leaves  and 
bits  of  dry  grass  loosely  arranged ;  two  others  were  on  the  banks  of  a  stream 
several  miles  from  the  sea.  Eichardson,  who  derived  his  information  from  Surgeon 
Hutchins,  describes  the  egg  of  the  Knot  as  "  dun-colour,  fully  marked  with  reddish 
spots,"  but  no  credence  can  be  put  on  the  statement.  It  always  seems  to  the 
present  writer  a  most  unpardonable  and  incredible  piece  of  neglect  on  the  part  of 
the  naturalist  attached  to  the  latest  British  Polar  Expedition  to  have  missed  the 
eggs  of  the  Knot.  The  bird  was  observed  to  arrive  at  its  breeding  places,  to  pair, 
and  then  actually  to  be  lost  sight  of  until  the  eggs  were  hatched !  Several 
reputed  eggs  of  the  Knot  are  in  collections,  but  none  of  them  are  authenticated. 
The  reputed  egg  obtained  by  the  Greely  Expedition  near  Fort  Conger  is 
unidentified,  and  apparently  too  small  (I'l  inch  in  length  by  I'D  inch  in  breadth). 
The  egg  which  was  in  the  possession  of  the  late  Mr.  Seebohm  (which  I  have 
examined),  although  unauthenticated,  is  more  likely  to  be  genuine  so  far  as  size 
is  concerned,  being  similar  to  that  of  the  Common  Snipe,  but  paler  in  ground- 
colour. This  egg  was  obtained  at  Disco,  in  Greenland  ;  in  my  opinion  a  locality 
much  too  far  south.  This,  however,  is  not  the  most  southerly  locality  at  which 
reputed  eggs  of  the  Knot  have  been  obtained.  Mr.  Kaine,  in  his  Bird-nesting  in 
North-west  Canada,  figures  and  describes  what  he  asserts  to  be  two  eggs  of  this 
bird,  taken  on  the  20th  of  June,  1889,  at  Esedodavmsi,  in  Iceland  !  The  account 
is  circumstantial  enough,  but,  unfortunately,  the  parent  birds  appear  not  to  have 
been  obtained  or  even  identified.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  Mr.  Kaine's  eggs 
agree  apparently  in  colour  with  that  obtained  by  Lieutenant  Greely,  but  are  larger 
in  size  and,  certainly,  judging  from  the  illustrations,  very  abnormal  in  appearance. 
The  nest  is  described  as  a  depression  lined  with  bits  of  drift  weed,  the  eggs  as 
having  the  ground-colour  pale  pea-green,  finely  speckled  with  ashy-brown ;  size, 
1-5  inch  in  length  by  TO  inch  in  breadth  (op.  cit.  p.  188,  PI.  II.,  Figs.  1  and  2). 
Mr.  Eaine's  collectors  seem  to  have  been  fully  aware  of  the  importance  of  their 
discovery,  and  were  too  anxious  to  wait,  after  finding  the  nest  with  two  eggs,  for 
the  full  complement  to  be  laid.  I  can  only  repeat  that  without  authentication 
the  eggs  must  be  rejected  by  scientific  naturalists  as  valueless.  I  might  also 
remark  that  the  Grey  Phalarope  breeds  in  Iceland,  and  that  in  nuptial  plumage 
it  bears  a  somewhat  close  resemblance  to  the  Knot  in  breeding  dress,  both 
species  having  the  under-parts  rich  chestnut  during  summer.  The  Knot  rears 
one  brood  only  in  the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  can  fly  they  and  their 
parents  migrate  south. 

Diagnostic  characters — Tringa,  with  the  ground-colour  of  the  upper 
tail  coverts  white,  the  wing  from  6'8  to  G'2  inches  in  length,  and  the  bill  from 
1'5  to  I'l  inch  in  length.  Length,  10  inches. 


a 
u 
a. 


1 


5  3 

Z     m 

<    c 


a 


K 

UJ  , 

a.  5 

a  5 

2  F 

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OQ 

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o 


OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  247 

Family  CHARADRIIDyE.  Genus  TKINGA. 

Subfamily  SGOLOPACINM. 


CURLEW    SANDPIPER. 

TEINGA    SUBAEQUATA—  (Giildenstadt) . 
PLATE  XXVIII. 

Scolopax  subarquata,  Guldenst.,  Nov.  Comm.  Petrop.  xix.  p.  471  (1775). 

Tringa  subarquata  (Guldenst.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  215  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Bur. 
viii.  p.  59,  pi.  553  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iii.  p.  403  (1883) ;  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  180  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxv.  (1893) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  non-indig.  Brit.  B.  Appendix  i.  p.  337  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig. 
Eggs,  Brit.  B.  p.  144  (1896). 

Ancylochilus  subarcuatus  (Guldenst.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  240  (1896); 
(spdt  subarquatm),  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  586  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Curlew  Sandpiper  is  a 
fairly  common  visitor  on  spring  and  autumn  migration  to  our  islands,  most 
frequent  during  the  latter  season,  and  commonest  at  all  times  on  the  lower-lying 
coasts,  notably  those  of  the  eastern  counties  of  England  south  of  the  Humber, 
and  westwards  to  Devon  and  Cornwall.  It  is  rarer  on  the  western  coast  line  of 
Great  Britain  than  the  eastern,  and  accidental  only  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetland. 
It  is  occasionally  met  with  inland.  In  Ireland  it  is  of  regular  occurrence  in 
autumn,  a  few  remaining  on  the  southern  coasts  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
winter.  Foreign:  Eastern  half  of  the  Circumpolar  region  in  summer;  Ethiopian, 
Oriental,  and  Australian  regions  in  winter ;  Palaearctic  region  principally  on 
migration.  The  breeding  grounds  of  the  Curlew  Sandpiper  are  almost  entirely 
unknown,  and  are  probably  chiefly  situated  on  undiscovered  land  north  of  Franz 
Joseph  Land  and  the  Liakoff  Islands.  Indeed,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
bird  may  breed  on  these  islands,  as  it  was  observed  very  late  in  summer  by 
Seebohm  both  in  the  valleys  of  the  Petchora  and  the  Yenisei,  in  which  latter 
valley  its  only  known  nesting  places  occur;  whilst  it  has  been  obtained  in 
summer  at  Archangel  and  on  the  Taimur  Peninsula,  and  has  been  observed  on 
migration  in  the  Lena  delta,  near  Behring  Strait  by  the  Vega  Expedition,  and 
at  Point  Barrow,  in  Alaska.  It  passes  along  the  coasts  of  Europe,  and  crosses 
the  interior  of  the  continents  of  Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as  the  coasts  of  China 
and  Japan  on  migration.  Those  which  migrate  across  Europe  winter  in  Africa, 


248  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

both  inland  and  on  the  coast ;  and  a  few  appear  to  do  so  in  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Those  which  migrate  across  Asia  winter  on  the  Mekran  coast, 
in  India,  Ceylon,  the  Andaman  Islands,  Burmah,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  the 
Australian  portion  of  the  Intertropical  or  Primogaean  realm.  It  can  only  be 
regarded  as  an  abnormal  migrant  to  South  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  South 
Africa.  An  example  in  fullest  breeding  plumage  was  obtained  in  the  Phillipine 
Islands  on  the  18th  of  May.  A  small  flock  was  met  with  on  Aldabra  Island, 
north-west  of  Madagascar ;  whilst  it  has  also  been  recorded  from  Mauritius  and 
Anjuan  Island  in  the  Indian  Ocean  and  abnormally  elsewhere. 

Allied  forms. — T.  canutus  with  its  ally  T.  crassirostris,  and  Heteropygia 
fuscicollis  with  allied  species  appear  to  be  the  most  nearly  allied,  most  of  which 
will  be  treated  of  elsewhere  (see  pp.  244,  259). 

Habits. — The  Curlew  Sandpiper  is  a  late  migrant,  probably  because  it  breeds 
in  the  high  north  only.  Great  numbers  of  this  species  cross  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar,  and  pass  along  other  recognised  routes  in  the  Mediterranean  district 
about  the  end  of  April,  travelling  in  small  parties,  sometimes  in  the  company 
of  Knots  and  Dunlins,  and  these  northern  flights  continue  almost  unceasingly 
until  the  end  of  May.  A  few  reach  the  British  coasts  in  March  or  April,  but  the 
majority  pass  in  May,  scattered  individuals  lingering  behind  the  rest  until 
early  June.  The  southern  flight,  begins  in  August  and  continues  through 
September  into  October,  by  the  end  of  which  month  most  have  continued  their 
journey  south  to  Africa  again.  Whilst  with  us  the  Curlew  Sandpiper  chiefly 
frequents  the  coast,  although  it  sometimes  visits  inland  pools  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood,  as  well  as  the  marshes  some  distance  from  the  sea.  It  loves  the 
mud-banks  and  wide  open  salt  marshes,  and  is  almost  equally  fond  of  estuaries, 
but  less  so  of  sand-banks.  Its  habits  differ  little  from  those  of  the  Dunlin ;  its 
flight  is  similar,  and  like  that  species  it  feeds  both  by  day  and  by  night,  especially 
during  the  period  of  a  full  moon.  During  high  water,  like  many  other  Waders, 
it  frequently  retires  to  some  inland  meadow  or  field  or  swamp,  and  there  waits 
for  the  ebb.  The  note  is  said  to  be  louder  than  that  of  the  Dunlin,  and  is 
described  by  Legge  as  being  like  that  of  the  Little  Stint,  but  louder.  Its  food 
consists  of  crustaceans,  small  worms,  insects,  mollusks,  the  roots  of  marsh  plants, 
and  probably  during  summer  of  various  ground  fruits. 

Nidification.— Much  less  is  known  of  the  habits  of  the  Curlew  Sandpiper 
during  the  breeding  season  than  even  of  the  Knot.  Legge  observed  a  pair  of 
these  birds  performing  acts  of  courtship  even  in  their  winter  quarters  in  Ceylon, 
so  that  it  is  not  improbable  many  individuals  mate  before  they  migrate.  Its 
great  breeding  grounds,  I  am  inclined  to  think,  are  in  the  North  Polar  basin,  in 
undiscovered  land  north  of  Continental  Asia — some  El  Dorado  where  the  Knots 


OF   THE   BEITISH    ISLANDS.  249 

also  retire  in  countless  numbers  to  rear  their  offspring.  Odd  birds  have  been 
shot  on  the  Siberian  tundras  during  summer.  Some  of  these  were  evidently 
non-breeding  individuals  that  had  lingered  south  of  the  nesting  grounds  ;  but  the 
bird  obtained  by  Middendorff  on  the  Taimur  Peninsula,  with  a  partially  shelled 
egg  in  the  oviduct,  most  probably,  in  the  light  of  recent  evidence,  was  actually 
breeding  there.  The  few  examples,  however,  seen  on  the  Siberian  tundras  are 
utterly  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  vast  numbers  that  are  known  to  pass 
north  each  spring.  It  is  with  great  pleasure  we  have  now  to  record  the  discovery 
of  the  eggs  of  the  Curlew  Sandpiper  during  the  summer  of  1897  in  the  valley  of 
the  Yenisei  by  that  fortunate  and  most  persevering  naturalist  Mr.  H.  L.  Popham. 
Mr.  Popham  has  most  obligingly  communicated  to  me  for  the  purposes  of  the 
present  work  the  following  note  on  his  grand  discovery  :  "I  found  the  nest  on 
one  of  the  islands  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei  river  on  the  3rd  of  July,  1897. 
The  birds  were  very  scarce  there,  and  this  was  the  only  nest  discovered  ;  so  that 
I  suppose  I  was  on  the  extreme  western  fringe  of  their  breeding  grounds.  As 
you  may  imagine  we  spent  several  days  in  the  unsuccessful  hunt  for  another 
nest.  The  nest  was  a  rather  deep  hollow  in  an  open  space  among  the  coarse 
grass  and  reindeer  moss  on  a  slight  ridge  somewhat  dryer  than  the  surrounding 
swampy  ground.  The  eggs,  four  in  number,  are  like  those  of  the  Common  Snipe 
but  smaller  [average  measurements,  1'45  by  1  inch]  ;  and  also  resemble  some 
eggs  of  the  Purple  Sandpiper.  They  have  been  figured  for  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Zoological  Society  [1897,  p.  490,  pi.  li.,  figs.  1—41.  The  bird  at  the  nest 
behaved  somewhat  like  a  Dunlin,  with  the  exception  that,  as  far  as  I  could 
ascertain,  it  was  silent.  The  female  was  sitting  on  the  eggs,  which  were  found  by 
watching  the  bird  until  it  returned  to  them." 

Diagnostic  characters — Tringa,  with  the  bill  decurved,  and  the  upper 
tail  coverts  white.     Length,  7  to  8  inches. 


250  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHABADBIID^.  Genus  TIUNGA. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACIN&. 


DUNLIN. 

TEINGA  ALPINA.— Linnaus. 

Tringa  alpina,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  249  (1766) ;  Dresser,  13.  Eur.  viii.  p.  21,  pi.  548 
(1876) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4.  iii.  p.  377  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  184 
(1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxiv.  (1893)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  278  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  144,  pi.  43  (1896). 

Tringa  cinclus,  Linn. ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  203  (1852). 

Pelidna  alpina  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  228  (1896);  Sharpe,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  602  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Dunlin  is  a  fairly  common 
resident  on  the  British  Islands,  but  greatly  increases  in  numbers  during  spring 
and  autumn,  and  is  more  numerous  on  the  coasts  in  winter  than  in  summer,  at 
which  season  the  adult  resident  birds  retire  inland  to  breed,  leaving  the  immature 
examples  behind  in  the  usual  winter  haunts.  It  breeds  sparingly  in  Cornwall, 
Devon,  Somerset,  the  marshes  of  the  Dee,  Lancashire,  Yorkshire,  Cumberland, 
Northumberland,  and  throughout  the  west  of  Scotland,  including  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  north  to  Sutherlandshire,  the  Orkneys,  and  Shetland.  In  Ireland  it 
breeds  in  a  few  suitable  places  in  the  Midlands  and  the  wild  north-west.  Although 
its  eggs  have  been  taken  in  Lincolnshire,  it  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  more  than 
an  accidental  breeder  in  that  county ;  whilst  in  Wales  it  may  probably  breed 
regularly,  but  its  nest  does  not  appear  yet  to  have  been  found.  Foreign :  Cir- 
cumpolar,  Palaearctic,  and  Nearctic  regions ;  Oriental  and  extreme  north  of 
Neotropical  regions  in  winter.  It  breeds  throughout  the  Arctic  regions  of  both 
the  Old  and  New  Worlds  almost  as  far  north  as  land  extends.  Southwards  in 
Europe,  it  breeds  in  Denmark,  Finland,  and  the  Baltic  Provinces,  and  instances 
are  on  record  of  its  having  done  so  in  Southern  Spain  and  Northern  Italy.  Further 
eastwards  its  breeding  range  does  not  appear  to  extend  quite  so  far  south,  as 
Seebohm  did  not  meet  with  it  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei  below  lat.  69° ;  nor 
does  it  appear  to  frequent  the  Baikal  district  or  the  Amoor  Valley,  except  near  the 
coast.  Its  southern  breeding  range  on  the  American  continent  appears  not  to  be 
accurately  determined.  It  passes  the  coasts  of  Europe,  down  the  valley  of 
the  Volga,  across  Turkestan,  along  the  eastern  coasts  of  Siberia,  North  China, 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  251 

Japan,  and  both  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  coasts  of  North  America  on  migration  ; 
and  winters  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  North  Africa  (to  the  Canaries  in 
the  west  and  Zanzibar  in  the  east),  the  basin  of  the  Caspian,  Arabia,  the  Mekran 
coast,  occasionally  Northern  India,  South  China,  Formosa,  Borneo,  Java,  the 
Southern  States  of  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

Allied  forms. — American  ornithologists  have  separated  sub-specifically 
the  Dunlins  of  that  continent  from  those  of  the  Old  World  under  the  name  of 
Tringa  alpina  paciftca,  on  the  ground  of  their  being  larger  and  more  rufous  in 
breeding  plumage ;  but  as  the  differences  are  so  trivial  and  so  completely  inter- 
grade,  it  seems  wisest,  at  any  rate  for  the  purposes  of  the  present  work,  to  treat 
the  two  races  as  one.*  The  Dunlin  has  probably  no  other  ally  closer  than  the 
Purple  Sandpiper,  a  British  species  dealt  with  elsewhere. 

Habits. — Of  all  our  small  Waders  the  Dunlin  is  the  most  widely  distributed, 
the  most  numerous,  and  the  best  known.  It  is  more  or  less  gregarious  at  all  times, 
some  of  the  nocks  in  autumn  and  winter  being  composed  of  thousands  of  birds, 
whilst  even  in  the  breeding  season  parties  of  varying  size  regularly  congregate 
at  the  feeding  places.  It  is  also  a  social  species,  and  not  only  joins  flocks  of 
other  small  Sandpipers,  but  allows  many  other  odd  birds  to  live  in  flocks  of  its 
own  kind.  Its  haunts  vary  a  good  deal  with  the  season  ;  in  autumn  and  winter 
the  bird  principally  frequents  mud-flats,  estuaries,  and  salt  marshes,  not  showing 
much  propensity  for  sands  unless  mud-banks  are  near  them ;  whilst  in  summer 
the  old  birds  retire  more  or  less  inland  to  swampy  moors  and  marshes  for  the 
purpose  of  rearing  their  young.  A  great  many  Dunlins  simply  pass  along  our 
coasts  in  autumn  and  spring  (in  September  and  May)  from  and  to  their  Arctic 
haunts,  but  vast  numbers  also  stay  upon  them  throughout  the  winter.  The  Dunlin 
chiefly  migrates  down  coast  lines,  but  a  few  parties  cross  by  internal  routes 
down  great  river  valleys.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  individuals  breeding  on 
the  Siberian  tundras ;  although  in  America,  coast  lines  are  chiefly  followed,  as 
in  the  Western  Palaearctic  region.  On  our  coast  the  Dunlin  is  not  particularly 
a  shy  bird,  except  when  congregated  in  large  flocks,  which  are  usually  approached 
with  difficulty.  Odd  birds  may  often  be  watched  feeding  amongst  the  dykes  on 
salt  marshes  at  a  distance  of  a  few  feet.  The  Dunlin  is  an  active  little  creature, 
almost  incessantly  in  motion,  running  about  the  muddy  shore  at  the  margin  of 
the  water,  and  often  wading  through  the  shallow  tide-pools,  or  amongst  the 
broken  receding  waves.  Its  flight  is  rapid,  but  does  not  differ  in  any  important 
respect  from  that  of  other  small  Waders.  Flocks  of  Dunlins  often  indulge  in 
various  graceful  aerial  evolutions,  spreading  out  like  a  net,  closing  up  again, 

*  Some  naturalists  assert  that  two  races  of  Dunlins  frequent  the  British  Islands,  one  small  and 
bright-coloured,  the  other  large  and  not  so  vivid  ;  but  nothing  satisfactory  seems  yet  to  have  been 
determined. 


252  THE  GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

wheeling  and  advancing  with  a  common  impulse,  just  like  the  autumn  nights 
of  Starlings.  The  food  of  the  Dunlin  consists  of  crustaceans,  sand-worms, 
mollusks,  etc.,  on  the  shore  ;  but  insects  and  their  larvae,  small  worms,  ground 
fruits,  and  various  vegetable  fragments  are  eaten  in  summer.  Its  note  is  a  rather 
harsh  purr — hence  one  of  its  trivial  names — but  at  the  breeding  grounds  it  utters 
a  long-drawn  peezh,  something  like  the  well-known  cry  of  the  Greenfinch.  The 
male  trills  repeatedly  during  the  pairing  season,  like  most  other  Sandpipers. 

Nidification. — The  Dunlin  begins  to  arrive  at  its  breeding  grounds  towards 
the  end  of  April,  and  in  southern  haunts  its  eggs  are  laid  during  May,  but  in  the 
Arctic  regions  they  are  about  a  month  later.  The  nest  is  always  well  concealed, 
often  by  the  side  of  a  little  moorland  pool  amongst  the  rush  tussocks,  or  beneath 
a  bush  of  bilberry  or  heather,  and  even  more  frequently  in  a  tuft  of  cotton  grass 
or  other  coarse  herbage.  It  is  simply  a  hollow  with  a  scanty  lining  of  dry  leaves 
and  grass,  and  perhaps  a  few  twigs  round  the  margin.  The  eggs  are  four  in 
number,  and  vary  in  ground-colour  from  pale  olive  to  pale  brown  and  buff,  blotched 
and  spotted  with  rich  reddish  and  blackish-brown,  and  with  a  few  obscure  under- 
lying markings  of  grey.  They  are  pyriform  in  shape,  and  measure  on  an  average 
1'3  inch  in  length  by  '95  inch  in  breadth.  The  parent  bird  sits  lightly,  leaving 
the  nest  at  the  least  alarm.  Incubation,  performed  by  the  female,  lasts  from 
twenty-one  to  twenty-two  days.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and 
as  soon  as  the  young  can  fly  a  movement  is  made  to  the  adjoining  coasts. 

Diagnostic  characters — Tringa,  with  a  great  deal  of  white  on  the 
innermost  secondaries,  but  little  or  none  on  the  upper  tail  coverts,  and  with  black 
legs  and  feet.  Length,  8  inches. 


OP   THE    BEITISH   ISLANDS.  253 

Family  CHAEADEIID^l.  Genus  TBINGA. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACINJE. 


PURPLE    SANDPIPER. 

TEINGA  MAEITIMA— Gmelin. 

Tringa  maritima,  Gmel.  Syst.  Nat.  i.p.  678  (1788;;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  197(1852); 

Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  192  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig. 

Brit.  B.  p.  262  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  146,  pi.  43  (1896). 
Trinjra  striata  (nee  Linn.) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  69,  pi.  554  (1877);  Yarrell,  Brit. 

B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  408  (1883) ;  Lilford.  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxiv.  (1893). 

Arquatella  maritima  (Gmel.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  237  (1896)  ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  578  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Purple  Sandpiper  is  a  fairly 
common  winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  locally  distributed  on  all  parts  of 
the  coast  suited  to  its  requirements,  including  the  Hebrides,  the  Orkneys,  and 
the  Shetlands,  and  equally  as  well  known  in  Ireland  as  in  the  rest  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  Many  birds  may  probably  pass  our  coasts  in  spring  and  autumn ; 
some  few  remain  in  the  British  Islands  through  the  summer — a  fact  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  belief  that  this  species  occasionally  nests  with  us  ;  but  no 
authentic  instance  has  yet  been  recorded.  It  is  not  improbable  that  an  odd  pair 
may  do  so  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  or  in  the  Outer  Hebrides.  Young  birds, 
scarcely  fledged,  have,  it  is  said,  been  obtained  on  the  Fame  Islands  ;  but  this 
proves  nothing,  for  young  Knots,  with  flakes  of  down  still  adhering  to  their 
plumage,  have  been  observed  on  the  British  coasts.  The  Purple  Sandpiper  is 
much  rarer  some  years  than  others,  especially  during  mild  northern  winters  ; 
and  at  no  time  are  the  migrations  of  this  species  very  extended.  Foreign :  Cir- 
cumpolar  region.  It  breeds  in  Iceland,  the  Faroes,  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zernbla, 
on  the  Taimur  Peninsula,  on  the  coast  of  Behring  Strait,  and  across  Arctic 
America  to  Greenland.  In  the  extreme  north  of  its  range  it  appears  to  be 
migratory,  but  in  the  southern  limits,  as,  for  instance,  in  South  Greenland,  Iceland, 
the  Faroes  and  the  coast  of  Norway,  it  is  resident.  It  winters  on  the  southern 
coasts  of  the  North  Sea,  and  in  small  numbers  on  the  northern  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  on  the  Kurile  Islands,  south  of  Kamtschatka.  The  American 
birds  appear  to  winter  round  the  Great  Lakes  and  on  the  shores  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, occasionally  wandering  to  the  Bermudas  and  the  Azores;  whilst  one 
example  has  been  obtained  in  South  Africa. 


254  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Allied  forms. — Tringa  maritima  couesi,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  and  T.  maritima  ptilocnemis,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Prybilof  Islands,  in 
Behring  Sea,  during  summer,  wandering  in  winter  to  the  Kurilc  Islands  and  the 
coast  of  Alaska.  So  utterly  slight  are  the  characters  upon  which  these  subspecies 
of  the  Purple  Sandpiper  are  based,  that  I  feel  small  hesitation  in  ignoring  them, 
and  consider  it  much  the  wiser  to  treat  the  three  forms  as  one  until  more 
reliable  and  substantial  characters  are  discovered.  The  Purple  Sandpiper  is 
probably  most  closely  allied  to  the  Dunlin,  a  British  species  dealt  with  elsewhere. 

Habits.— A  few  Purple  Sandpipers  make  their  appearance  on  our  coasts 
early  in  September,  but  the  great  majority  of  birds  arrive  towards  the  end  of  that 
month  and  during  October.  Many  are  taken  in  the  flight  nets  of  the  Wash,  or 
used  to  be  twenty  years  ago,  in  the  first  week  of  November.  They  remain  with 
us  for  the  most  part,  comparatively  few  prolonging  their  flight  to  the  south,  until 
the  following  May,  when  the  return  migration  north  is  undertaken.  Although 
this  species  is  decidedly  partial  to  a  rocky  coast,  a  shore  where  huge  boulders 
shelve  down  into  the  water  and  are  left  bare  at  low  tide,  it  is  by  no  means  un- 
commonly observed  on  mud-flats  and  salt  marshes.  A  favourite  haunt  of  this 
kind  is  in  the  Wash,  and  there  I  have  repeatedly  shot  this  bird  from  flocks  of 
Dunlins  and  Knots,  and  observed  it  very  frequently  running  over  the  bare  mud 
round  the  margins  of  the  big  tide-pools  at  low  water.  At  other  times  it  frequents 
the  rock-bound  coast,  and  seeks  its  food  upon  the  wet  weed-draped  boulders  as 
the  waves  break  over  them  and  spread  them  with  the  food  it  loves.  I  have  seen 
it  running  over  the  rocks  almost  before  the  big  waves  have  spent  their  force  and 
broken  into  seething  drifts  upon  them ;  and  so  venturesome  is  the  little  bird  that 
it  runs  along  the  very  edge  of  the  waves,  where  each  one  that  breaks  upon  the 
shore  seems  certain  to  sweep  it  away.  It  is  by  no  means  a  shy  bird,  especially 
when  by  itself,  and  always  seems  to  prefer  to  run  along  just  out  of  harm's  way 
rather  than  to  take  wing.  It  swims  well  and  frequently,  and  occasionally  alights 
on  the  sea  after  it  has  been  flushed.  The  food  of  the  Purple  Sandpiper  consists 
of  crustaceans,  mollusks,  sand-worms,  insects,  and  the  seeds  of  various  marine 
plants.  Most  of  this  food  is  obtained  as  the  tide  is  dashing  over  the  rocks  in  its 
ebb  or  flow,  and  during  the  period  of  high  water  the  bird  not  unfrequently  retires 
inland  a  little  way,  or  to  a  rocky  islet  or  point  to  await  the  turn.  The  flight  of 
this  bird  is  rapid  and  straightforward,  but  except  during  migration  it  is  seldom 
taken  very  high,  and  even  then  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  bird,  as  a  rule, 
journeys  close  to  the  water.  The  note  of  this  Sandpiper  is  a  shrill  and  quickly 
uttered  tee-wit. 

Nidification. — In  its  more  southerly  breeding  stations,  as  for  instance  at 
the  Faroes,  where  the  influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream  causes  a  comparatively  early 
spring,  the  Purple  Sandpiper  commences  to  breed  in  the  second  week  of  May ; 


OF  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  255 

further  north  and  east  it  is  at  least  a  month  later.  Its  breeding  grounds  are  rarely 
far  from  the  sea,  either  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  beach  amongst 
broken  ground  covered  with  scanty  herbage,  or  in  marshy  districts  at  the  summit 
of  adjoining  hills.  In  the  Faroes  both  Wolley  and  Captain  Feilden  found  it 
nesting  on  the  fells,  the  latter  observer  taking  its  eggs  before  the  snow  had 
melted  from  the  sheltered  hollows  and  the  tops  of  the  hills.  The  Purple  Sand- 
piper, if  it  does  not  actually  pair  for  life,  seems  much  attached  to  its  nesting 
place,  and  appears  yearly  to  frequent  the  same  spot.  Wolley  had  the  eggs  for 
two  successive  years  from  a  nest  made  on  the  same  piece  of  ground  on  which  a 
colony  of  Skuas  were  breeding.  The  nest  of  the  Purple  Sandpiper,  like  that  of  most 
Waders,  is  merely  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  lined  with  a  few  dry  bits  of  vegetable 
refuse,  such  as  moss  and  grass.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  vary  in 
ground-colour  from  pale  olive  to  huffish-brown,  very  handsomely  spotted  and 
blotched,  mottled  and  streaked  with  dark  blackish-brown,  reddish-brown,  and 
with  numerous  and  well-defined  underlying  markings  of  pale  brown  and  violet- 
grey.  They  are  pyriform,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'5  inch  in  length  by 
1'05  inch  in  breadth.  Both  parents  assist  in  the  duties  of  incubation,  and  one 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  Sometimes  the  sitting  bird  remains  brooding 
on  the  eggs  when  just  about  to  hatch  until  nearly  trodden  upon,  and  then 
hurriedly  rises  and  begins  to  feign  lameness  to  allure  the  intruder  away.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  this  species  often  breeds  at  some  distance  from  the  sea,  the  birds 
appear  always  to  come  to  the  coast  to  feed. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Tringa,  with  the  rump  and  upper  tail  coverts 
nearly  black,  and  the  seventh  to  the  ninth  secondaries  nearly  white.  Length, 
8  inches. 


256  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHAEADRIID^.  Genus  TRINGA. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACINJE. 


BROAD-BILLED    SANDPIPER. 

TRINGA  PL  ATYKHYNCHA.  —  Temminck. 

Tringa  platyrhyncha,   Temminck,  Man.  d'Orn.  p.  398  (1815)*  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv. 

p.  224  (1852) ;  Seebohrn,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  197  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs 

Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  264  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  147,  pi.  40 

(1896). 
Limicola  platyrhyncha  (Temm.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  3,  pi.  545  (1876) ;  Yarrell, 

Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.   362  (1883)  ;  Lilford,  Col.   Fig.   Brit.   B.  pt.   xxiv.  (1893)  ; 

Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  223  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv. 

p.  612  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.— British:  The  Broad-billed  Sandpiper 
is  a  rare  straggler  to  our  Islands  on  spring  and  autumn  passage.  The  claim  of 
this  species  to  rank  as  "  British  "  rests  on  the  following  recorded  instances  of 
its  occurrence.  England:  Norfolk  (five  examples),  May,  1836,  May,  1856, 
April,  1858,  September,  1891,  August,  1895  :  Sussex  (four  examples),  October, 
1845,  August,  1887,  Autumn,  1895,  Autumn,  1896 ;  Yorkshire  (one  example), 
April,  1863.  Scotland:  No  instance  of  its  occurrence  on  record.  Ireland: 
(one  example),  Belfast  Bay,  October,  1844.  Foreign:  Palacarctic  region; 
Oriental  region  in  winter.  This  Sandpiper  is  very  locally  distributed  during 
summer  ;  and  although  found  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  its  breeding  area 
is  comparatively  unknown.  It  breeds  commonly  on  the  Scandinavian  fells  as 
far  south  as  lat.  60°,  and  in  Finland.  These  are  apparently  the  only  known 
breeding  grounds  of  this  species,  but  it  has  been  met  with  near  Lake  Baikal  and 
on  the  southern  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  It  occasionally  occurs  on  the  coasts 
of  Europe  and  Japan  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean, 
North  Africa  (extending  to  Egypt,  and  occasionally  to  Madagascar,  although  we 
may  remark  that  it  is  not  included  in  Mr.  Sibree's  list  of  birds  of  that  island), 
the  Mekran  coast,  and  Northern  India  (accidentally  to  Ceylon  and  the  Andaman 
Islands).  It  also  visits  during  the  cold  season,  Burmah,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
Java,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Formosa,  and  China.  Perhaps  a  more  unsatisfac- 
tory bit  of  geographical  distribution  cannot  be  found  throughout  the  class  Aves  ! 

Allied    forms.— None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 
•  Spell  platyrincha  in  the  work  here  referred  to. 


OF  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  257 

Habits. —Of  the  habits  of  the  Broad-billed  Sandpiper  during  winter  but 
little  has  been  recorded.  It  is  found  during  that  season  either  in  flocks  of 
varying  size,  roaming  about  alone,  or  mingling  with  Dunlins  and  other  small 
Sandpipers.  It  frequents  the  coasts,  preferring  those  that  are  muddy,  but  some- 
times haunts  the  sands.  It  runs  about  in  the  usual  quick,  restless  manner  of  its 
kind,  and  in  its  flight  is  said  to  resemble  the  Dunlin.  Its  note  in  winter  is 
apparently  undescribed,  but  during  the  breeding  season  the  late  Eichard  Dann  re- 
marked that  its  cry  when  disturbed  was  a  rapid  too-woo,  uttered  whilst  the  bird  rose 
and  fell  in  the  air  like  a  Snipe.  The  food  of  the  Broad-billed  Sandpiper  is  composed 
of  crustaceans,  small  worms,  insects  and  their  larvae,  and  probably  ground  fruits. 

Nidif  ication. — Admirable  descriptions  of  the  breeding  habits  of  the  Broad- 
billed  Sandpiper  were  furnished  by  Eichard  Dann  to  Yarrell,  and  by  John  Wolley 
to  Hewitson,  by  whom  they  were  publised.  The  former  naturalist  met  with  this 
bird  breeding  in  small  colonies  in  the  grassy  morasses  and  swamps  at  the  head  of 
the  Bothnian  Gulf,  and  in  the  swamps  of  the  Dovrefjeld,  three  thousand  feet 
above  sea-level.  It  arrived  at  its  breeding  stations  about  the  end  of  May,  being 
very  wild  and  wary  just  after  its  return,  and  feeding  on  the  banks  of  the  pools 
and  lakes.  Later  in  the  season  it  became  more  skulking  in  its  habits,  creeping 
through  the  long  grass,  and  when  flushed  dropping  again  almost  at  once.  It 
began  laying  about  the  24th  of  June,  and  the  young  were  still  unable  to  fly  a 
month  later.  The  nest  resembled  that  of  a  Snipe,  and  was  made  in  a  tuft  of 
grass.  Wolley  remarked  that  its  favourite  nesting  places  were  soft  open  spots  in 
the  marshes,  where  the  ground  was  clothed  with  bogmoss  and  sedge,  and  the 
nests  were  often  placed  on  grass  tufts  just  above  the  water.  He  found  that  the 
eggs  were  laid  about  the  third  week  in  June  ;  and  that  the  nests  were  rounded 
hollows  lined  with  a  little  dry  grass.  The  sitting  bird  was  observed  not  only  to 
run  from  the  eggs  but  to  fly  from  her  nest,  and  when  incubation  was  far  advanced 
she  became  very  tame  and  confiding.  Other  nests,  observed  by  Mr.  Mitchell  on 
the  Dovrefjeld,  contained  eggs  during  the  latter  half  of  May.  These  nests  were 
in  open  parts  of  the  marshes,  and  were  made  more  elaborately  than  is  usual 
amongst  this  order  of  birds,  the  hollow  being  deeper  and  more  carefully  lined. 
He  also  remarked  that  the  lining  in  each  nest  resembled  the  colour  of  the  eggs  it 
contained,  the  darker  varieties  being  laid  on  withered  leaves  of  the  willow,  the  paler 
ones  on  dry  grass.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  huffish-white  in  ground-colour, 
densely  mottled  and  spotted  with  rich  chocolate-brown  and  paler  brown,  and  with 
underlying  markings  of  grey.  They  are  pyriform  in  shape,  and  measure  on  an 
average  1'3  inch  in  length  by  '9  inch  in  breadth.  Both  birds  assist  in  the  task  of 
incubation,  and  one  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  As  soon  as  the  young  are 
reared  the  broods  and  their  parents  form  into  small  flocks. 

Diagnostic  characters — Tringa,  with  the  bill  very  flat  and  wide,  and 
more  than  a  fourth  of  the  length  of  the  wing,  and  with  little  or  no  white  on 
the  secondaries  and  upper  tail  coverts.     Length,  6£  inches. 
17 


258  THE  GAME  BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 


Genus   HETEROPYQIA,   or   Pectoral   Sandpipers. 

Type,  HETEKOPYGIA  FUSCICOLLIS. 


Heteropygia,  of  Coues  (1861). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  the  culmen  and  metatarsus  equal  in  length,  but  the 
latter  longer  than  the  middle  toe  and  claw  combined,  and  also  by  having  a  hind 
toe.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed.  The  nostrils  are  lateral,  and  situated  in 
a  groove.  The  tibia  just  above  the  metatarsal  joint  is  devoid  of  feathers. 

This  genus  (omitting  H.  Cooperi,  a  doubtful  species)  is  composed  of  four 
species,  three  of  which  are  confined  to  the  Nearctic  and  Neotropical  regions,  two 
of  them  migrating  north  and  south  from  a  range  base  in  the  Primogaean  realm  ; 
and  one  distributed  over  the  eastern  Palaearctic,  Oriental  and  Australian  regions, 
according  to  season.  Three  species  are  abnormal  migrants  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Pectoral  Sandpipers  closely  resemble  allied  species  in  their  habits,  migra- 
tions and  nidification.  In  summer  they  frequent  tundras  to  breed,  often  at  no  great 
distance  from  the  sea ;  on  passage,  and  during  winter  they  are  dwellers  on  coasts. 
They  are  social  and  gregarious,  especially  during  the  non-breeding  season.  They 
feed  upon  insects,  worms,  crustaceans,  mollusks,  ground  fruits,  etc.  They  are 
monogamous,  making  a  slight  nest  upon  the  ground,  and  their  double-spotted  eggs 
are  four  in  number. 


OF   THE    BRITISH   ISLANDS.  259 

Family  CHARADRIIDyE.  Genus  HETEBOPYGIA. 

Subfamily  ScOLOPAClN^E. 


BONAPARTE'S    SANDPIPER. 

HETEEOPYGIA  FUSCICOLLIS— 


Tringa  fuscicollis,  Vicill.  N.  Diet.  d'Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  p.  461  (1819)  ;  Dresser,  B. 
Eur.  viii.  p.  15,  pi.  547  (1873)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  261 
(1894)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxiv.  (1897). 

Tringa  schinzii,  Bonaparte  (nee  Brehm)  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  222  (1852)  ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  373  (1883). 

Tringa  bonaparti,  Schlegel  ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  189  (1885)  ;  Seebohm,  Col. 
Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  145,  pi.  43  (1896). 

Heteropygia  fuscicollis  (Vieill.),  Sharpe,  Hanb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  242  (1896)  ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  574  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  Bonaparte's  Sandpiper  is  an 
accidental  straggler  to  our  area  on  autumn  migration,  having  occurred  chiefly 
in  October  and  November.  Its  claim  to  rank  as  British  rests  on  the  following 
recorded  instances.  England:  Shropshire  (one  example),  Sussex  (two  examples), 
Middlesex  (one  example),  Devonshire  (four  examples),  Cornwall  (three  examples), 
Scilly  Isles  (two  examples).  Scotland  :  Not  been  obtained.  Ireland  :  One  example 
said  to  have  been  shot  near  Belfast,  and  now  preserved  in  the  museum  of  that 
town.  Foreign  :  Nearctic  and  Neotropical  regions.  In  the  Northern  hemisphere 
Bonaparte's  Sandpiper  breeds  throughout  Arctic  America  from  Greenland  in  the 
east  to  the  Mackenzie  River  in  the  west.  It  is  of  only  accidental  occurrence  west 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  two  examples  having  been  obtained  at  Point  Barrow, 
the  most  northerly  land  in  Alaska  ;  whilst  another  has  been  recently  recorded 
from  Franz  Josef  Land.  It  passes  the  United  States,  inland  as  well  as  along 
the  coast,  and  the  Bermudas  (abnormally)  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the 
West  Indies,  Central  America,  and  throughout  the  South  American  portion  of  the 
Intertropical  realm.  There  can  be  little  or  no  doubt  that  in  Bonaparte's  Sandpiper 
we  have  another  instance  of  a  species  migrating  north  and  south  from  an 
equatorial  base.  In  the  Southern  hemisphere  this  Sandpiper  appears  unquestion- 
ably to  breed  in  the  Argentine,  in  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland  Islands>  although 
the  nest  has  not  yet  been  actually  discovered,  and  statements  made  by  Durnford 
and  Abbott  respecting  its  breeding  in  these  localities  have  been  derided. 


260  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

Allied  forms — Tringa  subarguata,  already  dealt  with,  and  the  species 
in  the  present  genus  described  in  the  following  chapters. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  Bonaparte's  Sandpiper  very  closely  resemble  those 
of  the  Dunlin,  although  during  the  breeding  season  the  bird  is  rather  more  of  an 
Arctic  one.  Its  migrations  are  regular,  and  not  only  taken  along  the  coast,  but 
inland  down  the  great  river  valleys.  It  is  equally  as  gregarious  as  the  Dunlin, 
indeed  often  flocks  with  that  species  as  well  as  with  other  small  Sandpipers.  It 
is  described  by  American  naturalists  as  being  remarkably  tame  and  trustful,  and 
runs  about  the  rocky  beaches  in  the  presence  of  an  observer  with  little  show  of 
fear.  Bonaparte's  Sandpiper  is  a  rather  late  bird  of  passage,  even  for  an  Arctic 
species,  passing  along  the  coasts  of  the  United  States  and  up  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  during  May,  and  reaching  its  breeding  grounds  towards  the  end  of 
that  month  or  early  in  June.  Odd  birds  make  their  appearance  in  the  Northern 
States  near  the  end  of  July,  but  the  majority  pass  southwards  during  September 
and  October.  Its  actions  on  the  shore  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Dunlin. 
The  bird  runs  about  the  wet  sands  and  muds,  and  over  the  weed-grown  rocks  in  the 
usual  restless  manner.  Its  flight  is  rapid,  yet  rather  wavering,  and  it  often  wades 
breast-deep  into  the  water  in  its  eager  quest  for  food.  The  flocks  often  wheel 
and  gyrate  in  the  air  when  disturbed.  The  note  of  Bonaparte's  Sandpiper  is  said 
by  Coues  to  be  a  low,  soft  weet,  unlike  that  of  any  of  the  bird's  congeners.  Its 
food  is  said  to  consist  of  insects,  worms,  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  other  small 
marine  animals,  and  during  summer  various  ground  fruits  are  eaten. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  grounds  of  Bonaparte's  Sandpiper  are  the 
Arctic  tundras  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  sea.  But  little  has  been 
recorded  of  its  habits  during  the  nesting  season.  A  nest  discovered  by  Mac- 
Farlane  was  merely  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  lined  with  a  few  dead  leaves.  The 
eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  vary  in  ground-colour  from  olive  to  greyish-buff, 
blotched  and  spotted  with  dark  reddish-brown  and  pale  brown,  and  with  under- 
lying markings  of  grey.  They  are  pyriform  in  shape,  and  measure  on  an  average 
1'25  inch  in  length  by  '9  in  breadth.  It  is  said  that  one  brood  only  is  reared  in 
the  year,  and,  like  the  Dunlin,  as  soon  as  the  young  are  fledged  they  with 
their  parents  begin  to  migrate  slowly  south. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Heteropygia,  with  the  upper  tail  coverts  white, 
more  or  less  streaked  with  brown,  and  the  bill  under  one  inch  in  length.  Length, 
7£  inches. 


OP  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  261 

Family  CHAEADEIID^.  Genus  HETEBOPYGIA. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACIN&. 


AMERICAN    PECTORAL    SANDPIPER. 

HETEEOPYGIA  MACULATA—  (Vieillot). 

Tringa  maculata,  Vieill.  N.  Diet.  d'Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  p.  465  (1819) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 

viii.  p.  11,  pi.  546  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  368  (1883)  ;  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xiv.  (1890). 
Tringa  pectoralis  (Say) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  190  (1852) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B. 

iii.  p.  201  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  148,  pi.  43  (1896). 

Tringa  accuminata  pectoralis  (Say),  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B. 

p.  266  (1894). 
Meteropygia  maculata  (Vieill.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit,  iii  p.  247  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  562  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  American  Pectoral  Sand- 
piper is  a  rare  straggler  on  migration  to  our  Islands,  chiefly  in  autumn.  The 
claim  of  this  species  to  rank  as  "British"  rests  upon  the  following  recorded 
occurrences.  England :  Scilly  Isles  (four  examples,  one  in  May),  Cornwall 
(one  example),  Devonshire  (two  examples),  Sussex  (one  example),  Kent  (one 
example),  Suffolk  (four  examples),  Norfolk  (eight  examples),  Lincolnshire  (one 
example),  Yorkshire  (five  examples),  Durham  (two  examples),  Cumberland  (one 
example),  Northumberland  (two  examples,  one  in  June).  Scotland:  Dumbar- 
tonshire (one  example),  Aberdeenshire  (one  example),  Orkneys  (one  example). 
Ireland  :  Co.  Galway  (one  example).  With  the  two  solitary  exceptions  noticed, 
these  occurrences  have  all  been  in  autumn,  during  August,  September,  October 
and  November.  Foreign  :  Nearctic  and  Neotropical  regions.  In  the  Northern 
hemisphere  it  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  America  above  the  limits  of 
forest  growth,  from  Alaska  in  the  west  to  Davis  Strait  in  the  east,  and  has 
wandered  as  far  as  Greenland.  It  passes  the  United  States,  the  Bermudas 
(abnormally)  and  the  Bahamas  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  West  Indies, 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  the  South  American  portion  of  the  Intertropical 
realm.  In  the  Southern  hemisphere  it  unquestionably  breeds  in  Patagonia, 
and  possibly  the  Argentine,  although  the  nest  has  not  yet  been  actually  discovered. 


262  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Allied  forms. — Heteropygia  acumiiiata,  which  since  the  first  edition  of  the 
present  work  was  published  has  become  a  "  British  "  species,  and  will  be  dealt  with 
fully  in  the  following  chapter.  H.  bairdi,  an  inhabitant  of  Alaska,  and  the  valley 
of  the  Mackenzie,  passing  through  the  Western  United  States  on  migration,  and 
wintering  in  the  South  American  portion  of  the  Primogaean  realm,  occasion- 
ally straying  even  as  far  as  South  Africa.  Distinguished  from  the  Pectoral 
Sandpiper  by  its  black  legs  and  feet  (those  of  the  Pectoral  Sandpiper  are  buff), 
and  by  having  the  central  tail  feathers  no  longer  than  the  outer  ones. 

Habits. — During  its  migrations  this  Pectoral  Sandpiper  passes  along  the 
coasts  as  well  as  by  inland  routes  up  the  river  valleys  of  the  United  States 
during  April  and  May.  It  begins  to  return  from  its  Arctic  breeding  grounds  in 
August,  and  the  autumn  flight  continues  through  the  two  following  months.  It 
frequents  by  preference  low  sandy  or  muddy  coasts,  swampy  meadows  and  salt 
marshes,  running  about  in  a  restless,  active  manner,  tame  and  trustful.  Like  the 
Dunlin,  it  is  sometimes  observed  in  large  flocks  and  parties,  and  is  often  met  with 
solitary  or  in  the  company  of  other  Waders.  Its  flight  is  rapid,  sometimes  rather 
wavering,  and  when  in  flocks  the  birds  often  perform  graceful  evolutions  after 
they  are  flushed.  The  birds  of  a  flock  scatter  about  a  good  deal  whilst  feeding, 
but  when  alarmed  they  soon  form  into  a  compact  body  in  the  air,  and  often  rise 
to  a  considerable  height  after  being  fired  at.  It  is  much  attached  to  its  feeding 
grounds,  resembling  the  Kinged  Plover  in  this  respect,  and  continues  to  haunt 
certain  spots  in  spite  of  much  disturbance.  The  food  of  the  Pectoral  Sandpiper 
consists  of  small  mollusks,  crustaceans,  insects  of  various  kinds,  notably  beetles, 
scraps  of  algaa,  and  seeds.  In  summer  the  bird  doubtless  eats  ground  fruits.  The 
call-note  of  this  species  is  a  single  tweet,  only  repeated  under  exceptional  cases 
when  the  bird  is  alarmed  or  excited  ;  but  at  the  breeding  grounds  the  male  often 
indulges  in  short  flights  with  the  wings  elevated  and  beaten  rapidly  together,  the 
throat  expanded  to  the  utmost,  uttering  meanwhile  a  guttural  note  which  has  been 
syllabled  as  hoo-hoo-Jwo.  Before  uttering  these  notes  the  bird  fills  the  sesophagus 
with  air,  thus  distending  the  throat  and  breast  like  a  Pouter-Pigeon.  Adams  was 
the  first  observer  to  record  this  peculiarity  forty  years  ago  ;  whilst  much  more 
recently  (in  1879)  Mr.  Nelson  remarked  the  same  thing  of  this  species  in  Alaska. 
The  latter  naturalist  states  that  the  skin  of  the  throat  and  breast  become  flabby 
and  loose  during  the  pairing  season,  the  aesophagus  soft  and  distensible.  The 
male  may  frequently  be  seen  running  along  close  to  the  female  with  this  enor- 
mous air-sac  inflated,  the  head  drawn  back  and  the  bill  pointed  forward  ;  or  flitting 
just  above  the  ground  with  head  upraised  and  tail  depressed,  uttering  the  singular 
hollow  booming  notes. 

Nidification.— Nothing  appears  to  have  been  known  respecting  the  breed- 
ing habits  of  the  Pectoral  Sandpiper  until  its  eggs  were  obtained  by  Lieutenant 


OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLANDS.  263 

Eay's  expedition  to  Point  Barrow  in  Alaska  in  1882 — 83.  The  birds  were 
observed  to  arrive  at  their  nesting  places  on  the  Arctic  tundras  or  barren  grounds 
at  the  end  of  May,  and  early  in  June  they  began  to  pair.  The  nest  is  stated  to 
be  always  placed  amongst  the  grass  in  a  dry  part  of  the  tundra.  The  nest  has 
not  been  described  minutely,  but  the  eggs  are  four  in  number.  These  vary  in 
ground-colour  from  pale  olive-brown  to  pale  buff,  blotched  and  spotted  with  rich 
reddish-brown,  and  with  underlying  markings  of  grey.  They  are  pyriform  in 
shape,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'5  inch  in  length  by  I'l  inch  in  breadth.  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  are  fledged  they  begin 
to  congregrate  into  parties  for  migration,  but  some  of  the  old  birds  linger  and 
skulk  until  they  have  completed  their  moult,  before  starting  south. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Heteropygia,  with  the  rump  and  upper  tail 
coverts  blackish ;  with  little  or  no  white  on  the  secondaries,  and  with  the  central 
rectrices  "25  inch  longer  than  the  next ;  by  the  greater  amount  of  brown  on  the 
throat  and  chest,  streaked  with  dark  brown.  Length,  8|  inches. 


264  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHARADEIID^.  Genus  HETEROPYGIA. 

Subfamily    SCOLOPACIN&. 


SIBERIAN    PECTORAL  SANDPIPER. 

HETEKOPYGIA  ACUMINATA— (Horsf.) 
PLATE  XXVIII. 

Totanus  acuminatus,  Horsfield,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  xiii.  p.  192  (1820). 

Tringa  acuminata  (Horsf.),  Ground,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1892,  p.  581  ;  Southwell,  Zoolo- 
gist, 1892,  pp.  356,  405 ;  Seebohm,  Ibis,  1893,  pp.  181—185,  pi.  5 ;  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  Appendix  i.  p.  336  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  146  (1896). 

Heteropygia  acuminata  (Horsf.) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  244  (1896) ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  566  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  suggestion  we  made  in  the 
first  edition  of  the  present  work  that  possibly  some  of  the  examples  of  H.  maculata 
recorded  as  British  might  prove  to  belong  to  the  present  species,  has  been  justified 
by  the  discovery  that  at  least  one  specimen  has  been  so  confused  with  the  American 
Pectoral  Sandpiper.  This  example  is  said  to  have  been  obtained  near  Yarmouth, 
in  September,  1848,  remaining  for  nearly  half-a-century  unidentified  in  the 
Norwich  museum.  Curiously  enough,  with  that  strange  coincidence  of  occurrence 
remarkable  in  not  a  few  of  the  rare  birds  obtained  in  our  Islands,  a  second 
example  of  this  species  was  shot  near  the  same  locality  on  the  29th  of  August, 
1892,  by  Mr.  T.  Ground.  Both  these  examples  are  in  adult  plumage.  They  were 
recorded  by  Seebohm  (Ibis,  1893,  p.  181,  pi.  5),  who  gives  (in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  Sclater)  an  exhaustive  account  of  the  species.  Mr.  Ground's  specimen  (the 
example  figured  in  the  Ibis)  when  shot  was  in  the  company  of  several  Dunlins  and 
a  Kinged  Plover.  Foreign :  Eastern  Palaearctic  region ;  Oriental  and  Australian 
regions  in  winter.  Although  the  exact  breeding  grounds  of  this  Sandpiper  remain 
to  be  discovered,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they  are  located  in  North-eastern 
Siberia,  in  Dauria,  the  Tchuski  Land,  and  Kamtschatka.  It  is,  however,  worthy 
of  remark  that  Dr.  Stejneger,  during  his  visit  to  the  latter  country,  only  obtained 
young  examples  during  autumn  migration  on  Behring  Island.  It  passes  the 
coasts  of  China  and  Japan  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
and  in  the  Australian  portion  of  the  Intertropical  or  Primogaean  realm.  It  is  a 
species  of  wide  abnormal  migration,  and  has  been  met  with  in  Alaska  (where  it 
possibly  breeds),  at  Gilgit,  in  the  Indus  Valley,  in  South  Australia,  the  Friendly 
Islands  and  New  Zealand. 


OP  THE  BRITISH   ISLANDS.  265 

Allied  forms. — Heteropygia  macidata,  the  American  representative  of 
the  Pectoral  Sandpiper — also  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  British  Islands,  and 
the  other  species  in  the  present  genus  already  dealt  with  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

Habits. — But  little  of  interest  has  been  recorded  concerning  the  habits  of 
the  Siberian  Pectoral  Sandpiper,  and  doubtless  its  economy  very  closely  resembles 
that  of  allied  and  better  known  species.  Like  most  birds  breeding  in  the  high 
north,  this  Sandpiper  migrates  late  in  spring  and  retires  south  early  in  autumn, 
probably  as  soon  as  the  young  can  fly.  Swinhoe  found  it  abundant  on  the  Chinese 
coasts  in  August,  whilst  Mr.  Styan  records  it  as  passing  through  Shanghai  in 
fair  numbers  in  April  and  May.  The  autumn  migration,  however,  must  be  some- 
what prolonged,  because  Dr.  Stejneger  states  that  these  birds  were  observed  on 
Behring  Island  from  the  middle  of  September  onwards  for  three  weeks.  He  met 
with  them  both  on  the  tundra  near  the  lake  and  on  the  rocky  beach.  He  speaks 
of  them  as  being  very  shy,  occurring  singly  or  in  small  parties,  never  in  large 
flocks.  Mr.  Nelson  met  with  this  Sandpiper  near  North  Cape,  on  the  north  shore 
of  Siberia,  scattered  about  the  wet  grass  flats  near  the  coast  as  early  as  the  first  of 
August.  The  birds  were  seeking  for  food  amongst  the  reindeer  tracks  with  which 
the  ground  was  covered.  Curiously  enough  these  individuals  were  the  reverse 
of  shy,  and  allowed  Mr.  Nelson  and  his  companions  a  close  observation  as  they 
circled  round  about  his  party.  This  naturalist  states  that  the  birds  usually  make 
their  first  appearance  on  the  shores  of  Norton  Sound  at  the  end  of  August,  and  soon 
become  very  common.  Sometimes  they  remained  in  this  locality  up  to  the  12th  of 
October ;  and  Mr.  Nelson  informs  us  that  he  has  seen  them  searching  for  food 
along  the  tide-line  when  the  ground  was  covered  with  a  couple  of  inches  of  snow. 
Their  tameness  was  remarkable,  and  if  a  flock  was  fired  at  the  birds  returned 
again  and  again  to  the  same  spot.  I  find  little  or  nothing  recorded  respecting  the 
flight,  notes,  or  general  habits  of  this  interesting  bird  ;  but  Dr.  Stejneger  states 
that  its  food  partly,  at  all  events,  consists  of  gammarids. 

Nidification. — The  nest  and  eggs  of  the  Siberian  Pectoral  Sandpiper  are 
at  present  unknown  to  science. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Heteropygia,  with  the  central  rectrices  "1  inch 
longer  than  the  next,  with  squamate  markings  on  the  belly  and  flanks  (adult  in 
summer) ;  and  by  the  lesser  amount  of  brown  on  the  throat  and  chest,  spotted 
with  dark  brown. 


266  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 


Genus  LIMONITES,  or  Stints. 

Type,  LIMONITES   MINUTA. 


Limonites,  of  Kaup  (1829). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  culmen  and  metatarsus  equal  in  length,  but  the 
latter  is  no  more  than  about  equal  to  the  middle  toe  and  claw  combined,  and  also 
by  having  a  hind  toe.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed.  The  nostrils  are  lateral 
and  situated  in  a  groove.  The  tibia  just  above  the  metatarsal  joint  is  devoid  of 
feathers. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  five  species,  distributed  over  the  northern  portions 
of  the  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions  (Arctogaean  realm)  in  summer,  and  the 
Neotropical,  Ethiopian,  Oriental,  and  Australian  regions  (Primogaean  realm)  in 
winter.  Three  species  are  visitors  to  the  British  Islands,  two  on  spring  and 
autumn  passage,  and  one  on  abnormal  migration. 

The  Stints  resemble  allied  species  in  their  habits  and  general  economy.  In 
summer  they  frequent  tundras  and  open  grounds  ;  in  autumn  and  winter,  sea 
coasts.  They  are  social  and  gregarious,  especially  during  the  non-breeding  season. 
They  feed  on  insects,  larvae,  worms,  crustaceans,  mollusks,  ground  fruits,  etc. 
They  are  monogamous,  making  a  slight  nest  upon  the  ground,  and  their  eggs, 
four  in  number,  are  richly  marked  with  a  double  class  of  spots. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  267 

Family  CHAEADEIID.E.  Genus  LIMONITES. 

Subfamily 


LITTLE    STINT. 

LIMONITES  MINUTA— (Lewfer) . 

Tringa  minuta,  Leisler,  Nachtr.  Bechst.  Naturg.  Deutsch).  i.  p.  74  (1812;  Macgill. 
Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  227  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  29,  pi.  549,  fig.  i  (1871) ; 
Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  386  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  204  (1885) ; 
Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xix.  (1891J  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig. 
Brit.  B.  p  267  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  148,  pi.  44  (1896). 

Limonites  minuta  (Leisler),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  250  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  538  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.— British .  The  Little  Stint  is  a  fairly 
common  visitor  011  spring  and  autumn  migration,  most  abundant  during  the  latter 
period.  It  is  principally  found  on  the  eastern  coast  of  England,  more  rarely  on  the 
south  coast,  and  still  less  frequently  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland  as  far  north  as 
the  Shetlands.  It  is  practically  unknown  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  is 
rare  on  the  west  coast  of  England,  chiefly  affecting  Lancashire  and  the  Solway  dis- 
trict. It  visits  Ireland  sparingly  every  autumn,  most  frequently  on  the  north-east 
and  eastern  coast,  and  passes  the  Channel  Islands  on  migration.  Foreign  :  Western 
Palaearctic  region ;  Ethiopian  region,  and  Indian  subregion  of  Oriental  region  in 
winter.  This  Stint  breeds  locally  on  the  Arctic  tundras  of  Europe  and  Asia  from 
the  North  Cape  in  the  west  to  the  Taimur  peninsula  in  the  east,  including 
Kolguev,  Nova  Zembla  and  Waigatz  Island.  It  has  been  found  breeding  at 
Kistrand  in  Northern  Norway,  on  the  Kola  peninsula  in  Lapland,  in  the  delta  of 
the  Petchora  in  Eussia,  on  the  Yalmal  peninsula,  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei, 
and  on  the  Taimur  peninsula  in  the  Siberian  province  of  Yeniseisk.  It  passes 
the  coasts  of  Europe,  the  valleys  of  the  Kama  and  the  Volga,  Western  Siberia  and 
Turkestan  on  migration,  and  winters  sparingly  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean, 
tropical  Africa,*  (including  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and  the  Central  Lakes) ,  Arabia, 

*  We  cannot  admit  that  this  Stint  is  a  normal  migrant  to  South  Africa,  nor  that  it  anywhere  crosses 
the  tropics  to  winter. 


268  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Persia,  India,  Ceylon  and  Burrnah.     The  Little  Stint  has  also  been  recorded 
from  the  Seychelles  and  Providence  Bank,  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Allied  forms. — Limonites  ruftcollis,  an  inhabitant  of  Eastern  Siberia, 
from  the  valley  of  the  Lena  to  the  Tchuski  Land  and  the  Commander  Islands 
passing  the  Baikal  region,  China,  and  Japan  on  migration,  and  wintering  in  the 
Malay  Archipelago  and  Australia.  Possibly  this  bird  may  breed  in  the  Southern 
hemisphere.  Gould  records  it  as  doing  so  in  Australia  in  the  Houtmans  Abrolhos 
in  December.  It  also  visits  Tasmania  and  the  smaller  islands.  We  may  rest 
assured  that  if  this  Stint  normally  crosses  the  tropics  it  breeds  in  south  temperate 
or  even  antarctic  latitudes.  The  eastern  representative  of  the  Little  Stint, 
possibly  distinct  although  completely  intergrading  with  its  western  representative. 
Typical  examples  in  breeding  plumage  differ  from  the  Little  Stint  in  having  the 
underparts,  from  the  chin  to  the  breast  inclusive,  unspotted  chestnut,  and  the 
two  central  tail  feathers  uniform  brownish-black.  In  the  Little  Stint  the  chin 
and  throat  are  white,  and  the  breast  is  streaked  with  chestnut.  The  two 
forms  are,  however,  almost  if  not  quite  indistinguishable  in  winter  plumage. 
L.  minutilla  and  L.  damacensis  treated  of  in  the  next  chapter. 

Habits. — British  naturalists  and  sportsmen  only  have  the  opportunity  of 
meeting  with  the  Little  Stint  during  the  period  of  its  autumn  and  spring  migrations 
along  our  coasts.  In  autumn  it  begins  to  arrive  in  August,  but  the  majority 
appear  in  September  and  remain  until  October  before  passing  on  still  further  to 
the  south.  It  is  a  late  bird  of  passage  in  spring  with  us,  not  arriving  before  May 
in  any  numbers,  lingering  with  us  often  until  the  middle  of  June,  then  starting 
north  for  the  Arctic  tundras  where  it  breeds.  During  its  sojourn  on  the  British 
coasts  it  chiefly  frequents  the  low  shores  where  mud-flats  abound,  and  broad 
reaches  of  sand  supply  it  with  haunts  where  food  is  ever  plentiful.  It  also 
frequents  salt  marshes,  and  is  partial  to  the  wide  estuaries  of  East  Anglia.  Here 
it  is  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  the  company  of  Dunlins  and  other  little  birds  of 
the  shore.  It  usually  migrates  in  flocks  of  varying  size  which,  when  alarmed, 
perform  various  graceful  evolutions  in  the  air  before  settling  again.  Even  during 
the  breeding  season  the  Little  Stint  is  a  remarkably  social  bird,  and  small 
parties  collect  round  the  shores  of  the  moorland  pools  to  feed.  The  immature 
non-breeding  birds  appear  to  keep  in  large  flocks  in  the  summer  quarters 
throughout  their  stay ;  and  whilst  the  brooding  birds  are  busy  incubating,  their 
mates  often  form  into  considerable  bands.  Its  habits  when  on  the  coasts  of  our 
Islands  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Dunlin.  Like  that  bird  it  is  almost 
constantly  in  motion,  running  hither  and  thither  about  the  mud  and  sand  in  a 
restless  manner,  and  even  wading  through  the  shallows,  but  it  appears  never  to 
swim  nor  dive.  The  food  of  this  Stint  consists  of  insects  and  their  larvae, 
crustaceans,  worms,  and  various  small  marine  creatures ;  whilst  in  the  Arctic 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  269 

regions  the  bird  may  also  eat  ground  fruits  and  small  seeds.  Its  note  at  the 
nesting  place  is  a  rather  shrill  whit,  but  in  autumn  and  winter  it  utters  a  chirping 
cry.  This  species  probably  has  a  trill  during  the  pairing  season;  but  as  Messrs. 
Seebohm  and  Harvie -Brown  did  not  reach  the  breeding  grounds  of  the  Little 
Stint  until  after  this  event  was  over,  they  probably  did  not  hear  it. 

Nidification. — Von  Middendorff  was  the  first  naturalist  to  discover  the 
breeding  grounds  of  the  Little  Stint.  Nearly  fifty  years  ago  he  met  with  it 
nesting  on  the  Taimur  peninsula,  at  the  eastern  limit  of  its  known  range.  In 
1875  Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie-Brown  discovered  nesting  places  of  this  Stint 
at  the  delta  of  the  Petchora,  and  their  interesting  accounts  of  the  breeding  of  this 
bird  in  Europe  were  the  first  made  known  to  British  ornithologists.  Since  their 
discoveries,  other  breeding  places  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of  Arctic 
Europe,  extending  as  far  west  as  the  Porsanger  fjord  and  the  North  Cape  in 
Northern  Norway.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Petchora  the  breeding  grounds  of  the 
Little  Stint  were  situated  on  a  comparatively  dry  and  gently  sloping  part  of  the 
tundra  close  to  the  inland  sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the  great  river.  Here  the  tundra 
was  thickly  studded  with  tussocks  of  grass,  and  the  swampy  ground  was  almost 
concealed  by  cotton-grass.  These  grass  tufts  were  covered  with  green  moss  and 
smaller  patches  of  reindeer  moss,  the  whole  almost  hidden  with  a  thick  growth 
of  cloud-berry  and  carices,  dwarf  shrubs,  and  sundry  Arctic  flowers.  Several 
of  the  nests  discovered  were  quite  close  together.  Other  nests  were  found  where 
the  ground  was  more  sandy  and  full  of  small  pools,  and  covered  with  short  grass 
and  plants.  The  nest  of  the  Little  Stint  is  merely  a  slight  hollow  in  the  ground, 
lined  with  a  few  dead  leaves  of  the  cloud-berry  and  other  scraps  of  vegetable 
refuse.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  vary  in  ground-colour  from  pale 
greenish-grey  to  pale  brown,  spotted  and  blotched  with  rich  reddish-brown,  and 
with  underlying  markings  of  paler  brown  and  grey.  Most  of  the  spots  and 
blotches  are  on  the  larger  end  of  the  egg,  as  is  usual  with  those  of  all  Waders. 
They  are  pyriform,  and  measure  on  an  average  I'l  inch  in  length  by  '8  inch  in 
breadth.  They  are  laid  towards  the  end  of  June,  or  early  in  July.  Incubation 
appears  to  be  performed  by  both  sexes,  and  one  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 
In  some  cases  the  female  alone  appears  to  frequent  the  nest,  and  when  this  is 
approached  she  makes  little  demonstration  and  is  remarkably  quiet.  It  should 
be  remarked,  however,  that  Mr.  Pearson  found  the  male  bird  at  the  nests  he 
discovered.  Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie-Brown  state  that  the  tameness  of 
the  hen  bird  was  sometimes  most  extraordinary.  The  former  gentleman  states 
that  at  one  nest  the  female  approached  within  eighteen  inches  of  his  hand  as 
he  sat  beside  the  eggs,  and  when  his  hand  was  stretched  towards  her  she  quietly 
retreated  a  couple  of  feet ;  but  the  moment  he  left  the  vicinity  of  her  home  she 
changed  her  tactics  at  once,  and  began  fluttering  along  the  ground  with  quivering 
wings  and  outspread  tail  as  if  dying.  After  having  a  glove  thrown  at  her  and 


270  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

being  fired  at,  she  concluded  that  men  were  not  to  be  trusted,  and  she  finally 
flew  away.  It  is  sad  to  read  that  after  all  she  returned,  faithful  to  her  beloved 
eggs,  and  fell  a  martyr  to  science !  In  the  summer  of  1895  Mr.  C.  E.  Pearson 
succeeded  in  obtaining  fifteen  sets  of  eggs  of  the  Little  Stint  on  the  island  of 
Kolguev,  between  the  6th  and  the  15th  of  July.  All  were  placed  at  no  great 
distance  from  tidal  water. 

Diagnostic    characters. — Limonites,  with  the  wing  under  4  inches  in 
length,  the  bill  broadest  at  the  base,  and  the  legs  and  feet  black.    Length,  6  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  271 

Family  CHARADRIIDyE.  Genus  LIMONITES. 

Subfamily 


AMERICAN  STINT. 

LIMONITES  MINUTILLA—  (Vieillot). 

Tringa  minutilla,  Vieill.  N.  Diet.  d'Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  p.  452  (1819) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 
viii.  p.  51,  pi.  552,  figs.  2,  3  (1871) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  396  (1883) ; 
Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  213  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  149, 
pi.  44  (1896) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt  xxxv.  (1897). 

Tringa  subminuta  minutilla,  Vieill.,  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non.-indig.  Brit.  B. 
p.  270  (1894). 

Limonites  minutilla  (Vieill.) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  255  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  548  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  American  Stint  is  a  very 
rare  straggler  on  autumn  migration  to  our  area,  but  is  one  that  is  doubtless  fre- 
quently overlooked.  The  claim  of  this  species  to  rank  as  "  British  "  rests  upon  the 
following  occurrences  :—  England  :  Cornwall  (one  example),  October,  1853  ;  Devon- 
shire (two  examples),  September,  1869,  and  August,  1892.  Foreign:  Northern 
Nearctic  region ;  Neotropical  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions 
of  America  from  Alaska  to  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  south  to  Nova  Scotia. 
It  passes  the  United  States,  from  California  in  the  west  to  the  Atlantic  coast  in 
the  east,  on  migration,  occurring  abnormally  on  the  Bermudas,  a  few  wintering 
in  the  Southern  States,  but  the  majority  in  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  Central 
America,  the  Galapagos  (doubtless  abnormally),  and  the  northern  portions  of 
South  America. 

Allied  forms. — Limonites  damacensis,  an  inhabitant  of  Eastern  Siberia, 
south  of  the  Arctic  circle,  from  the  valley  of  the  Lena  to  the  coasts  of  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk,  Behring  Island,  and  the  islands  off  Alaska.  It  passes  through  the  Baikal 
region,  the  valley  of  the  Amoor,  and  along  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan  on  migra- 
tion, and  winters  in  the  Malay  Archipelago,  North  Australia,  India,  Ceylon,  and 
Burmah.  The  Old  World  representative  of  the  American  Stint  only  sub- 
specifically  distinct,  and  completely  intergrading  with  its  New  World  repre- 
sentative. Typical  examples  differ  from  the  American  Stint  in  having  a  larger 
foot  (length  of  middle  toe  and  claw  '85  to  '95  inch,  instead  of  '8  to  '85  inch). 
L,  minuta  and  L.  ruficollis  treated  of  in  the  preceding  chapter. 


272  THE  GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Habits — The  American  Stint  is  as  well  known  and  abundant  in  the  United 
States  during  its  seasons  of  migration  as  the  Little  Stint  is  in  Western  Europe. 
Unlike  that  bird,  however,  it  appears  to  migrate  across  inland  districts  as  well  as 
along  the  coast  line.  They  begin  to  arrive  in  the  Southern  States  in  April, 
slowly  travel  on  to  New  England  early  in  May,  reach  North  Carolina  towards  the 
end  of  the  latter  month,  but  do  not  appear  on  the  Arctic  tundras  where  they 
breed  until  early  June,  when  the  snow  is  melted,  and  the  "  barren  "  grounds  no 
longer  deserve  the  name  but  teem  with  life.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  many 
follow  an  inland  course,  the  favourite  haunts,  both  on  passage  and  in  winter,  are 
the  mud-flats  of  the  low-lying  coasts.  Here  in  the  wide  marshes  behind  the 
actual  beach,  amongst  the  creeks  and  mud-fringed  streams,  the  American  Stint 
may  be  watched  in  flocks  of  varying  size  tripping  about  the  slimy  soil,  picking 
here  and  probing  there  in  quest  of  its  food.  The  return  migration  commences 
with  the  immature  and  non-breeding  birds  towards  the  middle  of  July  ;  in  August 
many  of  the  young  appear,  but  the  great  flights  arrive  during  September.  When 
in  flocks  the  American  Stint  is  rather  a  silent  bird,  but  when  flushed  solitary  or 
in  little  parties,  it  usually  utters  a  sharp  whit  as  it  hurries  away.  It  is  very  tame 
when  on  the  coast.  Flocks  of  this  bird  when  flushed  often  perform  various 
graceful  evolutions  in  concert  before  alighting  again.  Like  all  its  congeners  it  is 
a  restless,  active  little  bird,  ever  tripping  about  in  quest  of  food,  and  very 
frequently  associates  with  other  small  Waders.  The  food  of  the  American  Stint 
consists  of  insects  and  their  larvse,  small  worms,  crustaceans  and  mollusks, 
seeds,  and  various  ground  fruits.  Some  of  this  food  is  sought  on  the  weed- 
covered  rocks  at  low  water,  or  even  on  masses  of  drifting  seaweed. 

Nidification. — Eggs  of  the  American  Stint  may  be  found  towards  the 
end  of  June  or  early  in  July.  Its  breeding  grounds  are  on  the  Arctic  tundras, 
sometimes  near  the  coast,  more  frequently  a  short  distance  inland  on  the  margins 
of  the  lakes  and  pools.  The  nest  is  merely  a  slight  hollow  in  the  ground,  lined 
with  a  little  withered  grass  and  dead  leaves,  and  is  often  made  under  the  shelter 
of  a  bush  or  a  stone.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  pale  buff  in  ground-colour, 
spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown,  and  with  underlying  markings  of  paler 
brown  and  grey.  They  very  closely  resemble  those  of  the  preceding  species. 
They  are  pyriform  in  shape,  and  measure  on  an  average  TO  inch  in  length  by 
•8  inch  in  breadth.  The  female  is  very  tame  and  trustful  at  the  nest,  but 
sometimes  seeks  to  lure  an  intruder  away  by  feigning  lameness.  One  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  can  fly  they  and  their 
parents  begin  to  draw  southwards. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Tringa,  with  the  outer  rectrices  grey,  the 
legs  and  feet  pale  brown,  and  the  wing  less  than  4  inches  long.  Length, 
5£  to  6  inches. 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  273 

Family  CHAKADBIID^.  Genus  LIMONITES. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACIN&. 


TEMMINCK'S   STINT. 

LIMONITES    TEMMINCKI—  (Leisler). 

Tringa  temminckii,  Leisler,  Nachtr.  Bechst.  Naturg.  Deutschl.  ii.  p.  78  (1812)  ; 
Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  230  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii.  p.  45,  pi.  549,  fig.  1 ; 
pi.  555,  fig.  2  (1871) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  398  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  217  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  272 
(1894) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxi.  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  p.  149,  pi.  44  (1896). 

Limonites  temmincki  (Leisler),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  257  (1896) ; 
Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  555  (1896;. 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  Temminck's  Stint  is  a  rare 
but  regular  visitor  to  our  Islands  on  spring  and  autumn  migration  ;  most  frequent 
on  the  east  and  south  coasts  of  England  from  the  Humber  to  the  Scilly  Isles, 
and  especially  so  in  Norfolk.  North  of  the  Humber  it  is  rare,  and  has  once  only  or 
twice  been  recorded  from  Scotland.  It  is  very  rare  on  the  west  coast  of  England  ; 
whilst  one  example  only  has  been  recorded  from  Ireland,  and  this  in  January,  the 
sole  known  instance  of  this  species  being  found  in  our  Islands  during  winter. 
It  occasionally  wanders  inland — Middlesex,  Cambridgeshire,  Notts,  and  Lanca- 
shire. Foreign :  Northern  Palaearctic  region  ;  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It 
breeds  on  the  tundras  above  the  limits  of  forest  growth,  from  Scandinavia  in 
North-western  Europe  to  the  Tchuski  Land  in  North-eastern  Asia,  and  in  suit- 
able localities  on  river  banks  as  far  south  as  lat.  65°  on  the  White  Sea  and 
Bothnian  Gulf,  and  lat.  55°  on  the  coasts  of  the  Okhotsk  Sea.  It  has  been  said 
to  breed  on  the  lofty  Siberian  Mountains,  but  the  evidence  is  unsatisfactory, 
although  the  record  of  a  male  bird  obtained  on  the  26th  of  May  from  Tagdum- 
bash  Pamir,  at  an  elevation  of  14,000  feet,  is  very  suggestive.  It  passes  the 
European  coasts,  and  along  internal  routes  both  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the 
coasts  of  China  (accidentally  in  Japan),  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  basin  of 
the  Mediterranean,  in  Northern  Africa,  and  on  both  eastern  and  western  coasts 
as  far  south  as  lat.  10°,  India,  Ceylon,  Burmah,  South  China,  and  the  Malay 
Archipelago. 

Allied  forms. — None  nearer  than  the  Stints  already  dealt  with,  and  to 
which  it  is  only  distantly  related. 
18 


274  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Habits. — The  British  Islands  are  evidently  situated  on  the  extreme  outer 
fringe  of  the  spring  and  autumn  migration  of  Temminck's  Stint.  This  is  probably 
because  the  bird's  line  of  flight  is  more  inland,  not  so  maritime  as  that  of  the 
Little  Stint,  and  taken  down  the  great  river  valleys  which  extend  almost  due 
north  and  south  between  the  tundras  where  it  breeds  and  the  countries  where  it 
winters.  The  few  individuals  that  do  stray  so  far  to  the  westward  as  our  coasts 
usually  make  their  appearance  in  May  and  September,  and  the  great  majority  of 
the  birds  reach  their  Arctic  haunts  during  the  last  week  of  May  in  Europe  and 
the  first  week  of  June  in  Siberia.  It  is  much  more  addicted  to  inland  lakes  and 
rivers  than  to  the  coast,  and  always  prefers  a  muddy  shore  to  a  sandy  one. 
During  passage  and  in  its  winter  quarters  Temminck's  Stint  is  generally  met  with 
in  flocks,  but  occasionally  in  scattered  pairs  or  alone,  and  odd  birds  are  frequently 
met  with  in  the  gatherings  of  other  Waders.  Its  habits  and  movements  on  the 
mud-flats  do  not  differ  in  any  important  respect  from  those  of  its  congeners.  Its 
flight  is  rapid  and  the  small  bunches  of  birds  frequently  gyrate  in  the  air  after 
being  disturbed  from  their  feeding  places,  each  movement  being  performed  with 
such  precision  that  a  common  impulse  seems  to  control  the  entire  number  of 
individuals.  The  food  of  Temminck's  Stint  is  composed  principally  of  insects 
and  their  larvae,  worms,  and  various  small  marine  animals  ;  particles  of  vegetable 
matter  have  been  noticed  in  the  stomach  of  this  bird.  Its  call-note  is  a  shrill 
ptirr,  very  different  from  the  whit  of  the  Little  Stint. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  Temminck's  Stint  is  in  June. 
Wolley  was  the  first  naturalist  to  furnish  detailed  information  of  the  nest  and 
eggs  of  this  species.  He  found  it  breeding  sparingly  in  the  marshes  to  the  north 
of  the  Bothnian  Gulf.  Although  several  nests  may  be  found  quite  close  together, 
it  is  said  that  Temminck's  Stint  is  not  gregarious  at  the  breeding  grounds,  keep- 
ing in  pairs  during  that  period.  During  the  pairing  season  this  Stint  frequently 
perches  on  the  small  trees  in  its  haunts,  or  stands  on  a  post  or  fence,  vibrating  its 
wings  and  trilling  lustily.  This  musical  trill,  however,  is  generally  uttered  whilst 
Temminck's  Stint  is  wheeling  round  and  round  or  hovering  and  floating  in  the  air, 
although  it  is  sometimes  heard  as  the  bird  runs  along  the  ground  with  uplifted 
wings.  The  nest  is  usually  made  near  to  water,  often  on  low  islands  which  are 
clothed  with  willows  and  long  grass  at  the  delta  of  a  river.  It  is  merely  a  hollow 
amongst  the  sedge,  rushes,  or  grass,  scantily  lined  with  dry  grass  and  withered 
leaves.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  ranging  from  pale  buff  to  pale  olive  in 
ground-colour,  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish-brown  and  dark  brown,  and 
with  underlying  markings  of  paler  brown  and  grey.  On  some  eggs  a  few  dark, 
nearly  black,  streaks  occur.  They  are  pyriform  in  shape,  and  measure  on  an 
average  I'l  inch  in  length  by  '85  inch  in  breadth.  When  its  breeding  grounds 
are  invaded  Temminck's  Stint  becomes  exceedingly  demonstrative  and  noisy,  and 
often  betrays  the  whereabouts  of  its  nest  by  careering  wildly  about  above  it. 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  275 

When  the  nest  is  actually  discovered  the  bird  becomes  much  quieter,  and  its 
actions  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Little  Stint  under  similar  conditions. 
Incubation  seems  in  many  cases  to  be  performed  by  the  male  (although  instances 
are  on  record  where  the  female  has  been  shot  from  the  nest),  and  it  is  usually  he 
that  is  so  excited  and  alarmed  when  the  nest  is  threatened  by  danger.  One  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  are  able  to  fly  the  breeding 
grounds  begin  to  be  deserted. 

Diagnostic  characters — Limonites,  with  the  outer  rectrices  pure  white. 
Length,  6  inches. 


276  THE  GAME   BIBDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 


Genus  TRINGITES,  or  Buff=breasted  Sandpipers. 

Type,  TEINGITES   EUFESCENS. 


Tringites,  of  Cabanis  (1856). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  metatarsus  longer  than  the  culmen,  and  the  central 
retrices  extending  beyond  the  others.  The  bill  is  short,  the  culmen  less  than  the 
metatarsus  in  length.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed,  and  the  black  mottling 
on  the  inner  webs  of  the  primaries  and  secondaries  is  very  noteworthy  and 
peculiar  to  the  genus.  The  nostrils  are  lateral  and  situated  in  a  groove.  The 
tibia  just  above  the  metatarsal  joint  is  devoid  of  feathers  :  the  hind  toe  is 
present. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  a  single  species  only,  distributed  over  the  American 
Continent  from  the  Arctic  regions  south  to  the  Primogsean  realm.  It  is  an 
abnormal  migrant  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  habits,  food,  migrations,  nidification,  notes,  etc.,  of  this  single  species 
are  described  in  the  following  chapter. 


OF   THE   BRITISH  ISLANDS.  277 

Family  CHAEADEIIDyB.  Genus  TRINGITES. 

Subfamily 


BUFF=BREASTED   SANDPIPER. 

TEINGITES  RUFESCENS— (Vieillot). 
PLATE  XXVII. 

Tringa  rufescens,  Vieill.  N.  Diet.  d'Hist.  Nat.  xxxiv.  p.  470  (1819) ;  Macgill.  Brit. 

B.  iv.  p.  194  (1852) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xix.  (1891) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and 

Eggs  Non-indig  Brit.  B.  p.  276  (1894). 
Tringites  rufescens  (Vieill.),  Dresser,  B  Eur.  viii.  p.  Ill  pi.  561  (1876);  Yarrell,  Brit. 

B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  435  (1883). 
Tryngites   rufescens  (Vieill ),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  226  (1885) ;  Seebohm, 

Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  151,  pi.  43  (1896). 
Tringites  sub-ruficollis  (Vieill.);   Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  264  (1896); 

Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  521  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Buff-breasted  Sandpiper 
is  a  rare  straggler  to  the  British  Islands,  chiefly  on  autumn  migration,  as  is 
usually  the  case  with  abnormal  migrants  from  the  New  World .  The  claim  of 
this  species  to  rank  as  "  British  "  rests  on  the  following  recorded  occurrences  : — 
England:  Cambridgeshire  (one  example),  Norfolk  (four  examples),  Sussex  (one 
example),  Cornwall  and  Scilly  Isles  (four  examples),  Lundy  Isle  (one  example), 
Lancashire  (one  example),  May,  1829;  Cumberland  (one  example).  Scotland: 
Caithness  (one  very  doubtful  example).  Ireland  :  Co.  Dublin  (one  example), 
Antrim  (two  examples).  All  have  occurred  in  autumn  with  the  exception  of  the 
Lancashire  example,  the  date  of  which  is  open  to  some  doubt.  Foreign : 
Northern  Nearctic  region,  and  probably  extreme  north-east  of  Palsearctic  region  ; 
Northern  Neotropical  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  of 
America,  from  Alaska  probably  to  Baffin  Bay,  although  it  is  unrecorded  from 
Greenland.  Westwards  it  appears  to  range  to  the  Siberian  coasts  of  Behring 
Strait,  and  has  been  obtained  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Okhotsk  Sea.  It  passes 
the  United  States  and  the  Bermudas  (abnormally)  on  migration,  and  winters  in 
Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  northern  portion  of  South  America.  A  single 
example  has  been  obtained  on  Heligoland  in  May,  a  date,  by  the  way,  which 
tends  to  confirm  that  of  the  Lancashire  example,  whilst  it  has  been  recorded  from 
Japan. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  require  notice. 

Habits — The  Buff-breasted  Sandpiper  is  a  Sandpiper  that  eschews  the 
sands.  It  is  not  a  coast  bird,  and  prefers  the  prairies  to  the  mud-flats,  and  the 


278  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

wide  grassy  wastes  to  the  shore.  Its  migrations  to  and  from  its  breeding  grounds 
are  consequently  chiefly  taken  across  inland  districts,  but  small  parties  occasion- 
ally frequent  the  shore.  It  passes  across  the  prairies  of  the  United  States  in 
spring,  and  arrives  at  its  Arctic  breeding  grounds  during  the  first  week  in  June, 
and  the  return  migration  commences  in  August  and  lasts  through  the  autumn. 
In  many  of  its  habits  it  resembles  Bartram's  Sandpiper,  and  like  that  species  it 
is  fond  of  frequenting  the  wagon  tracks  and  bare  spots  on  the  plains,  where  it 
runs  about  in  quest  of  food.  It  is  said  to  be  a  very  tame  bird,  seldom  flying  far 
after  being  fired  at.  Its  flight  is  rapid  and  straightforward.  The  note  of  the 
Buff-breasted  Sandpiper  is  described  by  Dr.  Heermaim  as  a  low,  oft-repeated 
tweet.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  principally  of  insects,  especially  cole- 
optera,  for  which  the  bird  searches  amongst  the  droppings  of  animals  and  the 
herbage  of  its  haunts.  Worms,  and  when  on  the  shore,  crustaceans  and 
mollusks,  are  also  eaten,  and  during  summer  various  ground  fruits  and  berries. 
During  migration  the  Buff-breasted  Sandpiper  is  more  or  less  gregarious,  but 
whether  these  flocks  continue  through  the  winter  appears  to  be  unknown. 

Nidification.— But  little  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  the  Buff- 
breasted  Sandpiper  during  the  breeding  season.  Mr.  Elliot  states  that  the  males 
go  through  various  antics  during  the  pairing  season,  sometimes  sparring  with 
each  other  like  game  cocks  and  then  soaring  into  the  air.  MacFarlane  found 
this  bird  breeding  in  abundance  in  the  Anderson  Eiver  district  in  the  north-west 
of  America,  and  obtained  a  remarkably  fine  series  of  eggs ;  but  unfortunately  he 
neglected  his  splendid  opportunities  of  observing  and  recording  details  of  the 
nesting  habits  of  this  and  many  other  Waders,  and  the  few  facts  he  has  furnished 
only  bring  out  in  stronger  contrast  his  unpardonable  neglect.  He  informs  us  that 
the  nest  is  always  on  the  ground,  and  scarcely  distinguishable  from  that  of  the 
Golden  Plover  (Charadrius  fulvus).  His  series  of  eggs  was  obtained  between 
the  26th  of  June  and  the  9th  of  July.  The  Buff-breasted  Sandpiper  was  also 
met  with  breeding  at  Point  Barrow,  in  Alaska  by  Mr.  Murdoch.  He  states  that 
it  frequented  the  dry  portions  of  the  tundra,  and  that  the  nest  was  a  shallow 
depression  lined  with  a  little  moss.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  vary  in 
ground-colour  from  pale  to  rich  buff,  sometimes  tinged  with  olive,  handsomely 
blotched  and  spotted  with  rich  reddish-brown  and  blackish-brown,  and  with 
numerous  underlying  markings  of  ink-grey.  They  measure  on  an  average  1/45  inch 
in  length  by  I'D  inch  in  breadth.  The  parent  birds  are  said  to  be  very  tame  at 
the  nest,  only  flying  away  for  a  little  distance  when  flushed  from  the  eggs.  But 
one  brood  is  reared  in  the  season,  and  the  southern  flight  commences  shortly 
after  the  young  can  fly. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Tringites,  with  the  under  surface  of  the  wings 
buff,  mottled  with  black  and  white,  and  the  tail  graduated.  Length,  7  to  8  inches. 


OP  THE  BEITISH   ISLANDS.  279 


Genus  CALIDRIS,  or  Sanderlings. 

Type,   CALIDEIS   AKENABIA. 


Calidris,  of  Illiger  (1811). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  metatarsus  and  culmen  about  equal  in  length,  com- 
bined with  the  absence  of  a  hallux  or  hind  toe.  The  bill  is  short  and  stout,  the 
culmen  about  equal  to  the  metatarsus  in  length.  The  wings  are  long  and  pointed. 
The  nostrils  are  lateral,  and  situated  in  a  groove.  The  tibia,  just  above  the 
inetatarsal  joint,  is  devoid  of  feathers. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  a  single  species  only,  which  has  a  range  base  in 
the  Primogaean  realm,  migrating  north  to  breed,  apparently  as  far  as  land  extends 
in  the  Northern  hemisphere  (Arctogsean  realm),  and  south  to  unknown  limits, 
possibly  for  a  similar  purpose,  although  its  breeding  grounds  in  the  Southern 
hemisphere  (Notogasan  realm)  are  stiJl  undiscovered.  It  is  a  common  visitor  to 
the  British  Islands  on  migration,  and  a  few  remain  to  winter  within  our  limits. 

The  habits,  food,  migrations,  nidification,  notes,  &c.,  of  this  single  species  are 
described  in  the  following  chapter. 


280  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHABADKIID.E.  Genus  CALIDRIS. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACIN&. 


SANDERLINQ. 

CALIDKIS  ABENAEIA—  (Linnaus). 

Tringa  arenaria,  Linn.    Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  251  (1766) ;    Dixon,    Nests   and  Eggs  Non- 

indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  274  (1896). 
Calidris  arenaria  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  237  (1852);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  viii. 

p.  101,  pis.  559,  560  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  420  (1883) ;  Seebohm, 

Hist.   Brit.   B.  iii.  p.    221  (1885) ;    Lilford,  Col.    Fig.   Brit.  B.  pt.  xxi.  (1892)  ; 

Seebohm,   Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.    B.  p.   150,  pi.  41  (1896) ;    Sharpe,  Handb.   B. 

Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  260  (1896) ;   Sharpe,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  526  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Sanderling  is  a  common 
visitor  to  our  area  on  spring  and  autumn  migration,  most  abundant  during  the 
latter,  a  few  remaining  behind  in  the  fall  to  winter,  especially  in  the  mild  climate 
of  the  south.  It  visits  all  the  islands  as  well  as  the  mainland  coasts,  including 
the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  the  Hebrides  and  the  Channel  Islands ;  and  occa- 
sionally occurs  some  distance  inland,  especially  near  to  large  sheets  of  water. 
Foreign:  Circumpolar  region  in  summer,  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions  chiefly 
on  passage  ;  Ethiopian,  Oriental,  and  Neotropical  regions  in  winter.  It  probably 
breeds  in  suitable  localities  on  all  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  although  its 
known  breeding  grounds  are  remarkably  few.  In  the  Old  World  its  eggs  appear 
only  to  have  been  taken  in  Iceland  (lat.  65°),  although  it  is  to  be  met  with 
during  summer  on  Spitzbergen,  as  was  recently  ascertained  by  Mr.  Pike,  on  the 
Golaievskai  Islands  in  the  Petchora  Gulf,  the  Waigats,  Nova  Zembla,  the  delta 
of  the  Yenesei,  the  Taimur  peninsula,  and  the  Laikov  Islands.  In  the  New 
World  portion  of  the  Circumpolar  region  its  eggs  have  been  taken  on  the 
Anderson  Eiver  (lat.  68°),  on  the  Parry  Isles  (lat.  78°),  in  Grinnell  Land  (lat. 
82£°),  and  in  Greenland  on  the  west  coast  near  Smith  Sound  (lat.  79°),  and 
Godthaab  (nestlings)  (lat.  63°),  on  the  east  coast,  Sabine  Island  (lat.  74^°).  It  is 
also  a  common  bird  during  summer  in  Alaska.  It  passes  the  coasts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America,  as  well  as  along  many  internal  routes,  on  migration,  and 
winters  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  coasts  of  Africa,  Arabia,  and 
the  Mekran  coast,  but  becomes  rare  in  India,  Ceylon  and  Burmah.  Dr.  Abbott 
states  that  this  species  is  "  common  "  on  Aldabra  Island,  north-west  of  Mada- 
gascar, whilst  four  examples  are  recorded  from  it  by  Eidgway.  Further  east  it 


OF   THE   BEITISH    ISLANDS.  281 

is  a  winter  visitor  to  China,  Japan,  and  the  Malay  Archipelago  (Java,  Borneo), 
and  has  been  recorded  from  Australia.  During  that  season  it  visits  all  the  coasts 
of  South  America  within  the  tropics,  the  Galapagos,  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
Bermudas.  In  the  New  World  the  Sanderling  is  found  as  far  south  as  Terra  del 
Fuego  ;  in  the  Old  World  down  to  Cape  Colony.  If  these  visits  are  normal,  then 
the  species  breeds  in  southern  latitudes. 

Allied   forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  demand  notice. 

Habits. — A  few  Sanderlings,  probably  individuals  that  have  not  been 
breeding,  appear  on  the  British  coasts  at  the  end  of  July,  but  the  majority  of 
birds  arrive  during  August  and  the  early  days  of  September.  By  the  middle  of 
the  latter  month  many  have  passed  on  towards  the  south  ;  by  the  end  of  October 
comparatively  few  are  left,  and  some  of  these  linger  with  us  throughout  the 
winter.  The  return  migration  of  the  Sanderling  commences  on  our  coasts  in 
April,  and  lasts  into  May  and  early  June.  It  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  first 
migrants  to  arrive  in  the  Arctic  regions,  even  reaching  such  high  latitudes  as  the 
extreme  north  of  Siberia  by  the  4th  of  June,  and  Grinnell  Land,  upwards  of  eight 
degrees  further  north,  one  day  later.  That  the  Sanderling  migrates  by  night 
there  can  be  little  doubt,  for  I  have  repeatedly  become  aware  of  its  arrival  in  the 
Wash  in  autumn  by  taking  as  many  as  half-a-dozen  birds  from  a  single  flight  net 
as  soon  as  the  tide  had  ebbed,  and  before  sunrise.  I  do  not  think  they  fly  very 
high  whilst  on  passage,  for  these  birds  must  have  struck  the  net  at  the  half-ebb, 
when  only  a  part  of  it  was  exposed  above  water.  The  Sanderling  is  a  gentle,  trust- 
ful little  creature,  not  only  fond  of  the  sandy  reaches,  but  the  mud-flats  and  shores 
of  the  creeks  and  streams  in  salt  marshes  and  in  the  estuaries  of  rivers.  Whilst 
on  passage  and  in  its  winter  quarters  the  Sanderling  gathers  into  flocks  of  varying 
size,  but  many  pairs  frequent  the  coast  by  themselves,  or  attach  themselves  to 
parties  of  other  small  Waders.  I  have  especially  remarked  the  partiality  of  this 
little  bird  for  the  company  of  Kinged  Plovers.  Here  in  Devonshire  most  large 
bunches  of  that  Plover  contain  a  few  Sanderlings  during  the  period  of  the  latter 
bird's  migrations.  Its  actions  on  the  sand  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Kinged 
Plover.  It  does  not  appear  to  run  in  such  fits  and  starts,  but  steadily  searches 
the  ground  after  the  manner  of  a  Dunlin  or  a  Stint.  In  many  localities  I  have 
repeatedly  observed  that  during  high  water  the  Sanderling  skulks  on  the  higher 
shingle,  returning  to  the  actual  beach  as  soon  as  the  sands  begin  to  be  exposed. 
Here  it  follows  the  receding  tide,  running  about  the  edge  of  the  waves  as  they 
break  on  shore,  and  occasionally  wading  through  the  shallow  water.  The  white 
breast  of  the  Sanderling  makes  it  a  very  conspicuous  bird  on  the  dark  sands,  and 
the  effect  produced  of  a  scattered  flock  all  standing  head  towards  the  observer  is 
very  pretty.  It  is  a  remarkably  tame  little  creature  upon  its  first  arrival,  but 
becomes  more  wary  later.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  crustaceans,  sand- 


THE   GAME   BIBDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

worms,  and  various  insects,  as  well  as  of  great  quantities  of  minute  shells.  In 
summer  the  Sanderling  is  much  more  insectivorous,  and  also  feeds  on  the  buds 
of  the  Arctic  saxifrages.  The  note  of  this  Wader  is  a  sharp,  shrill  whit ;  whether 
it  utters  a  trill  or  any  other  cry  at  the  breeding  grounds  observers  who  have  had 
ample  opportunities  of  noticing  omit  to  inform  us. 

Nidificatioil. — Only  meagre  details  concerning  the  breeding  habits  of  the 
Sanderling  are  on  record.  MacFarlane  appears  to  have  been  the  first  naturalist 
to  take  the  nest  of  this  bird,  he  killing  a  female  from  her  eggs  on  the  tundras 
near  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  North-west  America,  on  the  20th  of  June,  1863.  This 
nest  was  merely  a  hollow  scantily  lined  with  dry  grass  and  leaves.  Thirteen 
years  afterwards,  almost  to  the  very  day  (24th  June),  Captain  Feilden  found  a 
nest  of  the  Sanderling,  close  to  Cape  Union  in  Grinnell  Land,  on  the  shores  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  at  the  very  northern  limit  of  known  animal  life.  This  nest  was 
made  on  a  ridge  of  gravel  several  hundred  feet  above  sea-level,  and  was  merely  a 
slight  hollow  in  the  centre  of  a  bent-down  willow  plant,  lined  with  a  few  dead 
leaves  and  withered  catkins.  By  the  8th  of  August  he  observed  the  young  able 
to  fly,  yet  still  in  company  with  their  parents.  The  eggs  of  the  Sanderling  are 
four  in  number,  buflish-olive  in  ground-colour,  densely  mottled  and  spotted  with 
pale  olive-brown,  and  with  underlying  markings  of  ink-grey.  They  measure  on 
an  average  T4  inch  in  length  by  TO  inch  in  breadth.  Both  parents  assist  in  the 
task  of  incubation,  and  one  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  season.  It  is  rather  an 
unusual  circumstance  in  this  group  of  birds  for  the  adults  to  migrate  south 
before  completing  their  autumn  moult ;  but  this  the  Sanderling  does,  and  I  have 
repeatedly  shot  adults  in  breeding  dress  in  the  first  week  in  August. 

Diagnostic  Characters — Calidris,  with  no  hind  toe,  and  the  legs 
and  feet  black.  Length,  8  inches. 


OF   THE    BEITISH   ISLANDS.  283 


Genus   SCOLOPAX,    or   Woodcocks. 

Type,   SCOLOPAX  EUSTICULA. 


Scolopax,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  hy  having  the  culmen  longer  than  the  tarsus  (twice  its  length), 
and  the  prominent  eye  situated  so  far  back  in  the  head  as  to  be  only  just  in  front 
of  the  auricular  orifice.  The  metatarsus  is  somewhat  short,  and  the  tibia  is 
feathered  in  three  species,  bare  just  above  the  metatarsal  joint  in  one  other.  The 
bill  is  long  and  straight,  swollen  laterally,  and  softened  towards  the  tip,  which  is 
rugose  or  pitted.  The  nostrils  are  lateral,  basal,  and  covered  with  a  membrane. 
The  wings  are  more  rounded  than  in  the  Sandpipers,  the  long  innermost 
secondaries  not  so  long  as  the  primaries,  the  black  markings  on  the  head  are 
transversely  situated,  the  tail  is  tipped  with  silvery  white  spots  on  the  under 
surface ;  and  the  summer  and  winter  plumage  are  similar  in  colour.  Sternum 
so  far  as  is  known  abnormal,  with  two  notches  only  in  the  posterior  margin. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  four  species,  one  of  which  is  peculiar  to  the 
Moluccas ;  two  others  distributed  over  the  Palsearctic  and  Oriental  regions  ;  and 
a  fourth  confined  to  the  Nearctic  region.  One  species  is  common  in  the  British 
Islands. 

The  Woodcocks  are  dwellers  in  woodland  swamps.  They  are  birds  of  rapid 
and  powerful,  if  somewhat  erratic,  flight,  displayed  to  a  remarkable  degree  during 
courtship.  They  run  and  walk  with  ease ;  are  shy  and  retiring,  skulking  close 
amongst  the.  cover,  from  which  they  rarely  wander  far.  Their  food  consists  of 
worms,  insects,  and  larvae.  Their  nests  are  made  upon  the  ground  amongst 
herbage,  and  their  double-spotted  eggs  are,  so  far  as  is  known,  less  pyriform  in 
shape,  paler,  and  less  richly  marked  than  the  Snipes,  and  four  in  number.  They 
are  monogamous,  and  for  the  most  part  solitary  in  their  habits,  except  perhaps 
during  migration  and  in  the  pairing  season. 


284  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHABADBIIDyE.  Genus  SCOLOPAX. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACIN&. 


WOODCOCK. 

SCOLOPAX  EUSTICULA— Linnaus. 
PLATE   XXIX. 

Scolopax  rusticula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  243  (1766) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  615, 
pi.  540  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  320  (1883) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B. 
iii.  p.  231  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pts.  viii.  (1888),  xiv.  (1890) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  280  (1893) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  205 
(1896) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  152,  pi.  41  (1896)  ;  Sharpe,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mua.  xxiv.  p.  671  (1896). 

Rusticola  sylvestris  (Brehm) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  386  (1852). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  In  the  British  Islands  the 
Woodcock  is  a  local  resident,  but  most  abundant  during  winter  and  on  spring  and 
autumn  migration,  especially  the  latter.  It  breeds  sparingly  throughout  the 
British  Islands  (including  the  Shetlands),  except  perhaps  on  the  Orkneys  and 
Hebrides.  It  has,  however,  been  recorded  as  having  bred  on  the  Long  Island 
and  other  similar  districts  where  suitable  cover  is  wanting.  Foreign  :  Palaearctic 
region ;  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  forest  districts  of  Scandinavia 
as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  circle,  in  West  Eussia  up  to  about  lat.  65°,  and  in  East 
Kussia  and  Siberia  not  much  beyond  lat.  60°.  Southwards  it  breeds  as  low  as 
the  Azores,  the  Canaries,  and  Madeira,  and  at  considerable  elevations  in  the 
Alps,  the  Carpathians,  the  Balkans,  and  the  Caucasus.  Its  southern  breeding 
range  in  Asia  reaches  the  Himalayas  at  an  elevation  of  ten  thousand  feet,  the 
mountains  of  the  Baikal  district,  Mongolia,  and  the  mountains  of  Japan.  In  the 
southern  portion  of  its  breeding  area  it  is  probably  a  resident,  but  the  birds 
breeding  in  the  north  pass  southwards  to  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  Persia, 
India  (occasionally  straying  to  Ceylon),  Burmah,  and  China  for  the  cold  season; 
breeding,  however,  in  the  latter  country  in  Western  Szechuen  at  an  altitude  of 
from  ten  thousand  to  twelve  thousand  feet.  It  has  occurred  on  the  Faroes,  and 
is  an  accidental  wanderer  to  the  Azores,  Newfoundland,  New  Jersey,  and 
Virginia. 

Allied  forms. — Scolopax  minor,  an  inhabitant  of  North  America  from 
about  lat.  50°  in  the  north  to  Texas  in  the  south,  and  as  far  west  as  the  Bocky 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  285 

Mountains.  It  is  a  resident  in  the  south,  but  migratory  in  the  north  of  this  area. 
This  species  is  distinguished  by  its  attenuated  first  three  primaries,  and  nearly 
uniform  buff  underparts.  S.  rochusseni,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Moluccas,  distin- 
guished by  its  unbarred  breast,  and  primaries  marked  with  rudimentary  bars  ; 
and  S.  saturata,  an  inhabitant,  so  far  as  is  known,  of  Java  and  New  Guinea, 
much  smaller  than  the  Common  Woodcock  and  with  the  primaries  barred  on  the 
outer  webs  only.  These  are  all  the  true  Woodcocks  at  present  known  to  science. 

Habits. — Speaking  from  a  naturalist's  point  of  view,  and  with  a  full  know- 
ledge of  the  habits  of  birds  during  the  moulting  season,  I  should  say  emphatically 
that  the  Woodcocks  breeding  in  the  British  Islands  are  stationary,  that  is,  in  the 
sense  of  not  crossing  the  seas.  I  am  glad  to  say  that  this  opinion  is  confirmed 
by  several  intelligent  gamekeepers,  on  whose  grounds  the  bird  breeds  in  fair 
numbers  every  season.  After  the  breeding  season  is  over  the  Woodcock  is  a 
most  skulking  bird  until  its  moult  is  completed  ;  in  this  respect  it  resembles  the 
Snipe.  Not  only  so,  but  many  of  these  resident  Woodcocks  are  actually  breeding 
even  before  the  return  migration  of  this  species  in  spring,  when  the  birds  that 
breed  further  north  pass  our  Islands  on  their  way  thither.  The  migrations  of  the 
Woodcock  are  both  marked  and  regular.  The  bird  may  be  traced  leaving  its 
winter  quarters  in  the  Mediterranean  basin  at  Gibraltar  in  the  west  during  the 
latter  half  of  February,  and  in  Asia  Minor  in  the  east  during  the  first  half  of 
March.  We  find  it  in  the  British  Islands  on  its  way  north  in  March,  and  it 
reaches  Scandinavia  by  the  end  of  that  month  or  early  in  April.  The  return 
migration  in  autumn,  which  is  much  more  pronounced  and  noticeable  than  the 
vernal  one,  begins  early  in  October,  and  continues  with  varying  intensity  through 
the  month  into  the  first  half  of  November.  Asia  Minor  is  reached  towards  the 
end  of  October,  but  in  the  west  of  the  Mediterranean  the  birds  are  about  a  fort- 
night later.  The  Woodcock  almost  invariably  migrates  by  night,  up  wind,  and 
at  a  considerable  elevation.  This  species  is  seldom  or  never  caught  in  the  flight 
nets,  because  it  continues  its  lofty  course  until  over  dry  land,  and  then  drops 
down  almost  perpendicularly  into  the  cover  below.  I  have  met  with  great 
numbers  of  tired-out  Woodcocks  in  the  early  morning  before  actual  sunrise  on 
the  shores  of  the  Wash,  skulking  in  the  hedge-bottoms  amongst  the  drifts  of 
autumn  leaves,  or  on  the  sea  banks  amongst  the  long  dry  grass.  Here  they 
generally  remain,  if  not  much  disturbed,  until  the  evening,  and  then,  under  the 
cover  of  darkness,  continue  their  flight  inland  to  their  favourite  and  more  suitable 
winter  haunts.  Many  migrating  Woodcocks  come  to  grief  at  the  lighthouses, 
attracted  by  the  glare  of  the  lanterns.  The  Woodcock  very  often  arrives  on  our 
coasts,  especially  in  autumn,  in  considerable  numbers,  or  "  rushes,"  but  the  bird, 
notwithstanding,  is  eminently  a  solitary  one,  even  on  passage,  and  these  unusual 
arrivals  are  caused  by  a  prolonged  spell  of  unfavourable  weather  detaining  them 
on  Continental  Europe  and  causing  them  to  accumulate  whilst  waiting  for  a 


286  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

favourable  passage.     As  soon  as  this  is  presented  all  start  off,  eager  to  get  to 
their  journey's  end,  and  consequently  arrive  simultaneously  on  our  coasts,  but  as 
soon  as  they  reach  land  they  separate  and  each  bird,  or  at  most  a  pair,  retire  to 
their  own  particular  haunts.     Even  in  districts  where  the  Woodcock  is  common 
during  winter  no  gregarious  tendencies  are  ever  observed,  and  the  birds  are  flushed 
with  rare  exceptions  one  after  the  other  from  certain  favoured  spots.     Its  habits 
are  quite  as  solitary  as  those  of  the  Snipes,  and  like  those  birds  it  is  ever  changing 
its  ground,  sometimes  for  no  apparent  cause.    Woodcock-shooting  is  a  sport  that 
should  never  be  put  off  till  to-morrow  ;  if  plenty  of  birds  chance  to  be  in  the 
covers  they  should  be  looked  after  at  once,  for  very  often  if  a  night  is  allowed 
them  they  have  taken  their  departure.     The  favourite  haunts  of  the  Woodcock 
are  plantations  of  young  trees  and  spinneys  with  plenty  of  long  grass  and  under- 
growth, and  the  borders  of  woods  where  similar  cover  abounds,  especially  hollies, 
under  which  the  bird  loves  to  skulk  during  the  day.     Its  feeding  grounds  are 
marshes,  swamps,  and  the  boggy  banks  of  streams,  even  turnip  fields,  and  these 
are  often  some  considerable  distance  from  the  haunts  it  frequents  during  the  day- 
time.    The  Woodcock  feeds  principally  at  night,  and  it  retires  to  its  favourite 
pastures  with  great  regularity  about  dusk,  following  a  certain  track  to  and  from 
them ;  when  its  feeding  places  are  close  by  it  always  prefers  to  walk  down  to 
them.     Even  whilst  feeding  it  is  ever  a  shy  and  cautious  bird,  and  I  have  heard 
dozens  of  men  whose  daily  lives  have  been  spent  in  the  woods  and  other  haunts 
of  this  species  remark,  when  questioned  on  the  subject,  that  they  had  never  seen 
a  Woodcock   feeding  or  running  about  in  a  purely  voluntary  manner.     The 
occasions  on  which  I  have  seen  Woodcocks  stirring  of  their  own  free  will  could 
easily  be  counted  on  the  fingers  of  one  hand.      I  have  seen  odd  birds  during  a 
bright   moonlight  night  whilst  sitting  near  the  swamps,  certainly  not   watch- 
ing  for  them,  wandering  about  probing  the  mud  with  their  long  beaks,  and 
looking  very  big  and  round  and  plump  in  the  uncertain  light,  and  disappearing 
like  phantoms,  as  it  were,  into  the  very  ground  the  moment  they  were  alarmed. 
I  remember  one  of  these  occasions  was  in  the  depth  of  winter  and  all  the  country- 
side was  deep  in  snow,  except  the  little  swamp  in  question.     The  food  of  the 
Woodcock  consists  principally  of  earth-worms  and  grubs,  but  beetles  and  other 
insects  are  eaten,  and  vegetable  fragments  have  been  found  in  the  bird's  stomach. 
It  has  also  been  known  to  eat  shellfish.      Its  flight  is  quick,  but  somewhat 
laboured,  the  bird  carrying  its  long  bill  depressed.     Sometimes  when  flushed  the 
Woodcock  hurries  off  at  first  in  a  very  eractic  manner,  dipping  and  gliding  or 
turning  and  twisting  from  side  to  side,  and  it  is  surprising  how  deftly  the  bird 
will  thread  its  way  between  the  tree-trunks  and  network  of  branches.     It  makes 
a  very  distinct  whirr  with  its  wings  as  it  rises  and  at  the  same  time  occasionally 
utters  a  croaking  sound,  which  I  will  not  attempt  to  syllable,  although  some 
naturalists  have  done  so  with  that  of  skaych.     The  Woodcock  has  been  known 
to  perch  in  trees. 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  287 

Nidif  ication. — As  previously  inferred,  the  breeding  season  of  the  Woodcock 
is  an  early  one.  Even  in  the  north  of  Scotland  its  eggs  have  been  taken  on  the 
9th  of  March  ;  a  week  earlier  still  in  the  north  of  England.  The  majority  of  the 
eggs  are  laid  during  April.  The  Snipes  are  birds  remarkable  for  their  peculiar 
flight  and  for  the  singular  sounds  they  produce  during  the  love  or  pairing  season. 
The  Woodcock,  although  somewhat  aberrant,  is  not  wanting  in  this  curious 
performance.  With  the  approach  of  the  pairing  season  the  habits  of  the  male 
undergo  considerable  change.  From  being  one  of  the  shyest  and  most  skulking 
of  birds  he  suddenly  changes,  for  a  certain  time  each  day,  into  a  bold  and 
obtrusive  one.  For  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  the  early  morning  and  again  at  night 
the  male  birds  fly  slowly  to  and  fro  along  certain  routes,  usually  a  "  drive  "  or  an 
open  glade  in  the  woods  or  along  the  borders  of  the  plantations  and  spinneys, 
uttering  two  peculiar  notes,  sometimes  in  succession,  at  others  only  one  of  them. 
One  of  these  notes  is  a  harsh,  guttural  r-r-r-r-Jc,  the  other  a  cry  between  a  whistle 
and  a  hiss,  impossible  to  express  on  paper.  Whilst  "  roding,"  as  it  is  termed, 
should  rival  males  meet  each  other  a  chase  and  a  combat  very  often  occur,  incited 
more  probably  by  invasion  of  haunt  rather  than  the  favour  of  the  female.  The 
nest  is  made  in  a  dry  secluded  corner  of  the  wood  or  spinney,  where  plenty  of 
cover  is  to  be  found  in  the  form  of  last  year's  withered  bracken,  tall  dry  grass, 
brambles,  and  drifts  of  fallen  leaves.  It  is  merely  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  rather 
thickly  lined  with  dry  grass  and  withered  leaves,  and  is  usually  sheltered  more  or 
less  with  surrounding  vegetation,  but  sometimes  in  a  bare  spot  at  the  foot  of  a 
tree.  The  lining  materials  are  occasionally  increased  whilst  incubation  is  in 
progress.  The  eggs  of  the  Woodcock  are  four  in  number,  and  vary  in  ground- 
colour from  very  pale  yellowish-brown  to  bufnsh-brown,  rather  sparingly  spotted 
and  blotched  with  reddish-brown,  and  with  underlying  markings  of  grey.  They 
measure  on  an  average  1'7  inch  in  length  by  T35  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation 
lasts  about  three  weeks.  The  Woodcock  is  a  close  sitter  and  usually  remains 
upon  the  eggs  until  the  last  moment ;  rarely,  if  ever,  are  both  parents  seen  near 
the  nest  together.  Whether  the  eggs  are  ever  covered  when  they  are  left 
voluntarily  I  cannot  say,  but  I  strongly  suspect  that  such  will  prove  to  be  the 
case.  Although  this  species  is  solitary  enough  during  the  breeding  season,  as  at 
most  other  times,  several  nests  may  frequently  be  found  within  a  small  area, 
especially  in  districts  where  suitable  sites  are  not  very  common.  One  brood  only 
is  usually  reared  in  the  year,  but  instances  are  on  record  where  fresh  eggs  have 
been  found  in  July  and  August.  St.  John  states  that  this  species  is  double- 
brooded  in  Scotland,  and  this  is  also  the  experience  of  Hume  in  India.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  the  female  Woodcock  very  often  removes  her  brood  from  place 
to  place,  carrying  the  chicks  one  at  a  time  between  her  legs  and  pressed  close  to 
the  body  with  her  bill.  It  has  even  been  stated  that  where  the  favourite  feedin^ 

o 

grounds  are  some  distance  from  the  nesting  place  the  chicks  are  carried  to  them 


288  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

at  night  and  brought  back  to  the  woods  at  dawn.     The  flesh  of  the  Woodcock  is 
not  excelled  by  that  of  any  other  bird. 

Diagnostic  Characters. — Scolopax,  with  silvery  tips  to  the  under 
surface  of  the  rectrices,  with  the  breast  barred  and  with  the  primaries  marked 
with  rudimentary  bars  on  both  webs.  Length,  13  to'  14  inches.  The  Woodcock 
is  subject  to  considerable  variation  in  size,  weight,  and  plumage.  Average 
weight,  11  to  12  oz.  ;  more  rarely  14  to  16  oz.  ;  an  example  is  on  record  weighing 
27  oz.  Indian  individuals  are  said  by  Hume  to  be  constantly  smaller  and  lighter 
than  British  ones.  Birds  with  the  ground-colour  of  the  plumage  white  or 
yellow  are  not  very  uncommon. 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  289 


Genus  GALLINAGO,   or  Snipes. 

Type,  GALLINAGO   MAJOE. 


GallinagO,  of  Leach  (1816). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  culmen  longer  than  the  metatarsus  (twice  its  length) 
and  the  long  innermost  secondaries  equal  in  length  to  the  primaries.  The  bill  is 
long  and  straight,  swollen  laterally,  and  softened  towards  the  tip,  which  is  rugose 
or  pitted.  The  nostrils  are  lateral,  basal,  and  covered  with  a  membrane.  The 
black  or  dark  markings  on  the  head  are  longitudinal,  not  transverse  as  in  the 
birds  in  the  preceding  genus.  The  number  of  rectrices  varies  to  an  enormous 
extent — from  fourteen  in  the  common  British  species  to  twenty-six  in  Gallinago 
stenura  !  The  summer  and  winter  plumage  are  similar  in  colour.  Sternum,  as 
far  as  is  known,  abnormal,  with  two  notches  only  in  the  posterior  margin. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  twenty-two  species  and  subspecies,  and  may  be 
described  as  almost  cosmopolitan  in  distribution.  Two  species  are  British,  one 
of  which  breeds  within  our  Islands,  and  the  other  is  a  somewhat  rare  visitor, 
chiefly  in  autumn. 

The  Snipes  are  dwellers  in  marshes  and  woodland  swamps.  They  are  birds 
of  rapid,  powerful,  and  well-sustained  if  somewhat  erratic  flight,  and  run  and 
walk  with  ease.  They  are  more  or  less  nocturnal  in  their  habits.  Their  notes 
are  loud,  some  of  them  not  unmusical.  They  subsist  on  worms,  insects  and 
larvae,  etc.  They  make  slight  nests  on  the  ground  and  their  pyriform  eggs  are 
four  in  number  and  double-spotted.  They  are  monogamous.  They  are  almost 
solitary,  never  gregarious,  save  perhaps  during  migration  or  courtship.  Their 
flesh  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 


19 


290  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  CHAEADEIIDJE.  Genus  GALLINAGO. 

Subfamily 


OREAT  SNIPE. 

GALLINAGO   MAJOE 
PLATE  XXX. 

Scolopax  major,  Gmel.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  661  (1788;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  364  (1852); 
Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  237  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig. 
Brit.  B.  p  278  (1894) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxviii.  (1894) ;  Seebohm, 
Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  152,  pi.  41  (1896). 

Qallinago  major  (Gmel.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  631,  pi.  541  (1876);  Yarrell,  Brit. 
B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  336  (1883) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  211  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  626  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Great  Snipe  is  a  rare 
straggler,  chiefly  on  autumn  migration,  to  our  Islands,  and  most  frequently 
observed  in  the  eastern  and  southern  counties.  It  is  very  rare  in  Scotland, 
perhaps  not  more  than  a  dozen  authentic  instances  of  its  occurrence  being 
known,  two  of  which  were  in  May — a  fact  which  more  likely  proves  the  bird 
occasionally  to  winter  with  us  than  to  wander  here  in  spring.  In  Ireland  it  is  of 
even  rarer  occurrence  still,  probably  not  more  than  four  examples  having  been 
recorded.  Foreign  :  Western  Palsearctic  region ;  Ethiopian  region  in  winter. 
It  breeds  more  or  less  frequently  in  Holland,  Denmark,  North  Germany,  Poland, 
throughout  Scandinavia,  and  Eussia  south  to  about  lat.  50°,  and  north  to  the 
coast.  In  West  Siberia  it  is  found  as  far  north  as  lat.  67£°  in  the  valley  of  the 
Obb,  but  only  to  lat.  66^°  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei,  which  appears  to  be  the 
eastern  limit  of  its  range.  It  passes  the  remainder  of  Europe  (east  of  the  Ehone 
valley),  the  Caucasus,  and  Persia  on  migration,  a  few  wintering  in  the  basin  of 
the  Mediterranean,  but  the  majority  passing  on  to  the  Ethiopian  portion  of  the 
Intertropical  realm  for  the  cold  season.  It  is  said  that  the  Great  Snipe  crosses 
the  tropics  to  winter  in  South  Africa,  but  possibly  the  present  species  has  been 
confused  with  Gallinago  teguatorialis  ;  if  found  there  it  is  either  as  an  abnormal 
migrant  or  as  a  summer  visitor  for  breeding  purposes. 

Allied  forms. — Gallinago  megala,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of  South-east 
Siberia  and  the  north  island  of  Japan,  passing  China  on  migration,  and  wintering 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  Great  Snipe  by  having 
twenty  tail  feathers  instead  of  sixteen,  the  outermost  being  narrow  and  banded 
with  brown,  instead  of  being  broad  and  pure  white  for  at  least  the  terminal  half. 


I 


a.    o 

If 

s.r 

a  -^ 

O  o 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  291 

G.  austraUs,  an  inhabitant  of  Japan  in  summer,  passing  the  coast  of  China  and 
the  Philippine  Islands  on  migration,  and  wintering  in  the  Australian  portion  of 
the  Intertropical  realm.  The  individuals  of  this  species  visiting  South  Australia 
and  Tasmania  most  likely  breed  there,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  classed  as 
abnormal  migrants.  Distinguished  from  the  Great  Snipe  by  having  eighteen  tail 
feathers,  the  two  outermost  only  being  narrow,  and  by  having  the  wing  six  inches 
or  over  in  length.  G.  cequatorialis,  an  inhabitant  of  Africa  south  of  the  Great 
Desert.  Distinguished  from  all  other  birds  of  this  genus  by  its  having  the  ground- 
colour of  the  four  outer  tail  feathers  on  each  side  white,  and  the  medium  wing 
coverts  narrowly  tipped  with  buff. 

Habits. — Although  the  Great  Snipe  is  but  accidental  in  its  visits  to  our 
islands,  its  migrations  (undertaken  at  night)  in  Continental  Europe  and  in  Asia 
are  very  marked  and  regular.  It  crosses  the  Mediterranean  during  March  and 
April — a  month  earlier  in  the  east  than  the  west  (which  is  an  exceptional  passage) 
— and  arrives  at  its  breeding  grounds  in  Norway  and  Sweden  from  the  middle  to 
the  end  of  May.  Seebohm  found  that  it  was  one  of  the  latest  birds  to  arrive 
in  the  latitude  of  the  Arctic  circle,  not  doing  so  in  the  Petchora  Valley  until 
the  3rd  of  June,  and  eight  days  later  still  in  the  Yenisei  Valley  in  Siberia.  The 
haunts  of  the  Great  Snipe  are  in  swamps,  especially  those  where  patches  of 
bare  mud  or  sand  occur ;  and  the  marshy  margins  of  rivers  and  lakes,  where  tall 
rank  grass,  sedges,  and  other  aquatic  vegetation  furnish  plenty  of  cover.  Its 
habits  are  very  similar  to  those  of  its  congeners.  It  delights  to  skulk  amongst 
the  herbage,  remaining  buried  under  the  grass  and  sedge  until  almost  trodden 
upon  before  it  rises.  Its  flight,  however,  is  neither  so  erratic  nor  so  rapid  as 
that  of  the  Common  Snipe,  and  the  tail  is  much  more  expanded ;  the  bird  makes 
a  considerable  whirr  as  it  rises.  Like  that  bird,  however,  it  feeds  principally  at 
dusk  or  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  then  wandering  from  its  favourite  cover  on  to 
the  more  open  parts  of  its  haunts,  where  it  struts  about  in  a  timorous  kind  of 
way  in  search  of  food,  at  the  least  alarm  hiding  amongst  or  behind  the  nearest 
tuft  of  vegetation.  Its  food  consists  principally  of  worms,  but  insects  and  their 
larvae,  as  well  as  slugs,  are  also  eaten.  Whilst  in  quest  of  food  the  Great  Snipe 
often  wanders  into  districts  which  it  does  not  usually  frequent — turnip  fields, 
and  grass  lands,  and  dry  commons.  Seldom  more  than  a  pair  of  these  birds  are 
flushed  in  one  particular  spot  during  autumn  and  winter,  but  on  migration  and 
in  the  pairing  season  much  more  gregarious  tendencies  are  developed. 

Nidification. — In  the  pairing  season  parties  of  male  birds  appear  often  to 
collect  and  go  through  various  strange  antics  on  the  ground  and  in  the  air. 
Seebohm,  who  has  had  exceptional  opportunities  of  observing  this  species  at 
its  nesting  grounds,  relates  how  he  has  often  watched  them  at  a  distance  of 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  yards,  whilst  concealed  among  willow  bushes,  "  stretch 


292  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

out  their  necks,  throw  back  the  head  almost  upside  down,  and  open  and  shut 
their  beaks  rapidly,  uttering  a  curious  noise  like  that  produced  by  running  the 
finger  along  the  edge  of  a  comb."  Sometimes  these  notes  were  uttered  just 
after  the  bird  had  taken  a  short  flight,  or  spread  its  wings  and  tail.  As  many  as 
six  birds  were  counted  in  the  air  together,  during  this  singular  tournament,  in 
another  locality.  The  nest  of  the  Great  Snipe  is  either  made  amongst  the  long 
coarse  grass  which  the  bird  frequents,  or  in  the  centre  of  a  tussock  of  rush  or 
sedge.  It  is  merely  a  shallow  depression  lined  with  dry  grass  and  sometimes  a 
little  moss.  The  eggs  are  four  in  number,  and  vary  in  ground-colour  from  olive 
and  greyish-buff  to  brownish-buff,  handsomely  and  heavily  spotted  and  blotched 
with  rich  dark  brown  and  pale  brown,  and  with  numerous  and  large  underlying 
markings  of  violet-brown  and  grey.  Most  of  the  blotches  are  obliquely  dis- 
tributed, and  on  some  eggs  many  streaks  are  to  be  seen.  They  are  pyriform, 
and  measure  on  an  average  1'8  inch  in  length  by  T25  inch  in  breadth.  The 
eggs  are  laid  at  the  end  of  May  in  some  localities,  nearly  a  month  later  (the 
middle  to  the  end  of  June)  in  others.  Incubation  lasts  from  seventeen  to  eighteen 
days.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Gallinago,  with  the  major  portion  of  the  four 
outer  rectrices  on  each  side  white,  and  with  broad  white  tips  to  the  median  wing 
coverts.  Length,  10^  to  11^  inches. 


X 
X 
X 


1O 

-a 


U    c 


cQ 

v 

a 
O 


OP   THE   BBITISH   ISLANDS.  293 

Family  CHAKADBIIDvE.  Genus  GALLINAGO. 

Subfamily  SCOLOPACINJE. 


COMMON   SNIPE. 

GALLINAGO   SCOLOPACINA.— Bonaparte. 
PLATE  XXXI. 

Scolopax  gallinago,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  244  (1766) ;  Maegill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  368 
(1852) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  241  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B. 
p.  282  (1893) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxi.  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig. 
Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  153,  pi.  40  (1896). 

Qallinago  caelestis  (Prenzel) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  641,  pis.  542,  543,  fig.  1  (1880) ; 
Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  342  (1883). 

Gallinago  gallinago  (Linn.) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  215  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  633  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British .  The  Common  Snipe  is  a 
common  resident  in  our  islands,  breeding  wherever  suitable  localities  occur ;  most 
numerous  in  Scotland,  and  especially  so  in  Ireland.  It  is  more  abundant  in 
winter  than  in  summer,  its  numbers  being  largely  increased  during  the  cold 
season  by  arrivals  from  higher  latitudes.  Foreign  :  Paltearctic  region  ;  Oriental 
region  and  northern  confines  of  Ethiopian  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  throughout 
Northern  and  Central  Europe  (including  Iceland  and  the  Faroes)  north  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  south  to  the  Alps  and  South  Kussia.  Eastwards  it  breeds 
throughout  Siberia,  south  of  lat.  70°;  southwards  to  the  lofty  heights  of  Turkestan 
and  South-east  Mongolia.  The  northern  birds  pass  the  intermediate  country  on 
migration,  and  winter  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  and  North  Africa  (south 
to  about  lat.  10°  on  both  east  and  west,  and  including  the  Azores,  Madeira,  and 
the  Canaries) ;  in  Persia,  India,  Ceylon,  Burmah,  China,  Formosa,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands.  It  has  once  been  recorded  from  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  is 
said  to  have  visited  South  Greenland. 

Allied  forms. —  Gallinago  wilsoni,  northern  Nearctic  region  in  summer; 
southern  Nearctic  and  extreme  north  of  Neotropical  regions  in  winter.  Breeds 
throughout  North  America  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  as  far  north  as  the 
Arctic  circle,  and  as  far  south  as  the  northern  United  States  to  about  lat.  40°. 
It  winters  in  Mexico,  Central  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  northern  limits 
of  South  America,  and  is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  Bermudas.  The  New 


294  THE  GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

World  representative  of  the  Common  Snipe.  Typical  examples  are  distinguished 
from  the  Common  Snipe  by  having  sixteen  tail  feathers  instead  of  fourteen,  by 
having  the  axillaries  barred  with  brown  instead  of  pure  white,  and  the  breast 
marked  with  transverse  bars  instead  of  longitudinal  streaks.  The  outer  tail 
feathers  are  crossed  by  five  dark  bars  instead  of  three,  and  the  bill  is  appreciably 
shorter,  varying  from  2'3  to  2'7  inches  instead  of  from  2'5  to  3'0  inches.  Inter- 
mediate forms  are  said  to  be  common  in  India,  and  birds  possessing  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  American  Snipe  are  often  met  with  in  England  and 
elsewhere,  but  hitherto  no  Snipe  combining  all  the  characters  of  the  New  World 
race  has  been  detected  in  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  The  G.  sabinii  of  Vigors, 
practically  confined  to  the  British  Islands,  is  now  universally  admitted  to  be 
nothing  but  a  melanistic  variety  of  the  Common  Snipe,  with  no  specific  value. 

Habits. — Like  many  other  birds  that  may  be  found  in  the  British  Islands 
throughout  the  year,  the  Common  Snipe  is  migratory  elsewhere,  even  in  such 
countries  as  Denmark  and  Germany.  It  is,  however,  an  early  migrant,  reaching 
its  summer  quarters  in  Central  Europe  by  the  middle  or  towards  the  end  of 
March.  Finland  is  reached  by  the  end  of  April ;  Lapland  not  until  the  end  of 
May ;  whilst  further  north  and  east  it  is  at  least  a  week  later  still.  Hume  states 
that  in  India  this  species  leaves  the  plains  towards  the  end  of  March,  but  in  the 
north  it  lingers  a  month  or  six  weeks  longer,  which  is  a  fair  corresponding  date 
for  its  arrival  in  Siberia.  The  return  journey  commences  in  Europe  about  the 
middle  of  August,  and  continues  for  at  least  two  months.  In  India  it  is  later,  the 
earliest  arriving  at  the  end  of  August,  but  the  greater  number  in  September,  and 
in  the  south  in  October.  Gates  states  that  in  Burmah  it  does  not  arrive  until 
December.  In  our  islands  the  Common  Snipe  is  certainly  a  solitary  bird,  but  in 
India  Hume  distinctly  states  that  it  is  eminently  gregarious,  and  arrives  and 
departs  en  masse.  By  this,  however,  he  does  not  appear  to  infer  that  the 
birds  when  flushed  rise  in  flocks,  although  three  or  four  will  rise  from  the  same 
spot  where  they  had  evidently  been  feeding  in  company.  In  our  Islands  no 
matter  how  thick  Snipe  may  be  on  the  ground,  they  are  almost  invariably  put  up 
a  yard  or  so  apart ;  and  this  is  Hume's  experience  in  India,  where  it  should  be 
remarked  the  Common  Snipe  is  probably  more  abundant  in  winter  than  in  any 
other  known  locality.  The  Snipe  is  nocturnal  in  many  of  its  habits ;  it  migrates 
at  night ;  becomes  most  active  at  dusk,  and  obtains  the  greater  part  of  its  food 
between  sunset  and  sunrise.  In  its  skulking  habits  it  does  not  differ  from  its 
congeners.  No  birds  are  more  retiring,  or  more  persistently  hide  themselves 
away,  and  unless  flushed  they  are  rarely  seen  on  the  wing  except  in  the  breeding 
season.  The  usual  haunt  of  the  Snipe  is  never  far  away  from  marshy  ground, 
either  in  a  swamp  or  a  bog,  but  never  on  the  mud-flats  or  bare  sands.  Cover  is 
imperative ;  rough  herbage  such  as  sedges,  rushes,  and  coarse  grass,  being  the 
usual  vegetation  amongst  which  the  bird  delights  to  hide.  From  this  cover  it 


OF   THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  295 

strays  to  the  bare  spots  in  the  marshes,  to  the  banks  of  the  sluggish  streams, 
and  the  margins  of  the  pools  where  the  ground  is  soft,  to  feed.  Hume  states 
that  in  India  during  winter,  the  Common  Snipe  may  be  found  in  every  swamp 
and  marsh,  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  ponds,  and  lakes,  wherever  the  foreshore  is 
mud,  protected  by  short  grass,  rushes,  or  reeds.  Here  their  favourite  vegetation, 
and  amongst  which  they  are  sure  to  be  found  if  in  the  locality  at  all,  is  the  round- 
stemmed  rush  (Scirpus  carinatus).  Snipe  never  rest  much  in  swamps  covered 
with  water ;  they  may  and  do  feed  in  such  localities,  but  rarely  or  never  squat 
in  them ;  they  invariably  skulk  in  a  comparatively  dry  spot  where  their  under 
plumage  is  free  from  contact  with  water.  Hume  remarks  that  many  Snipe  often 
rest  at  midday  on  large  floating  masses  of  water  weed,  the  birds  keeping  close 
until  the  boat  pushes  against  the  patch  of  vegetation,  which  may  be  as  much  as 
half  a  mile  from  land.  The  flight  of  the  Common  Snipe,  just  after  the  bird 
rises,  is  very  rapid  and  uncertain,  full  of  sudden  unexpected  twists  and  turns 
which  baffle  the  best  of  shots,  but  it  soon  becomes  steadier,  and  is  rarely  far 
prolonged.  The  Common  Snipe  occasionally  perches  in  a  tree,  and  has  been 
known  to  utter  its  peculiar  pairing  notes  whilst  sitting  on  the  topmost  spike  of  a 
bare  larch  seventy  feet  from  the  ground.  The  Common  Snipe,  except  during 
the  breeding  season,  is  a  very  silent  bird,  but  sometimes  as  it  rises  it  utters  a 
long-drawn  guttural  note  as  impossible  to  express  on  paper  as  that  of  the  Wood- 
cock. The  pairing  notes  will  be  described  later.  The  food  of  the  Common 
Snipe  consists  of  worms,  grubs,  aquatic  insects  and  their  larvae,  and  small  water- 
snails.  Much  of  this  food  is  obtained  whilst  the  bird  probes  the  soft  mud  with 
its  extremely  sensitive  bill,  which  is  full  of  small  thread-like  nerves  connected 
with  the  brain.  This  complicated  nervous  plexus  renders  the  bill  of  the  Common 
Snipe  so  sensitive  that  the  bird  is  enabled  to  feel  its  prey  when  buried  deep  and 
out  of  sight  in  the  soft  mud.  Much  difference  of  opinion  has  been  expressed 
respecting  the  best  method  of  shooting  Snipe,  some  sportsmen  preferring  to  work 
their  ground  "  off  the  wind  "  or  down  wind;  whilst  others  are  equally  attached  to 
working  against  the  wind.  Both  methods  are  to  be  recommended  according  to 
circumstances,  but  light  charges  and  a  gun  held  straight  rarely  fail  to  answer  for 
Snipe,  however  worked.  A  hundred  couple  a  day  have  been  known  to  fall  to  a 
single  gun  in  India. 

Nidification.  — In  the  British  Islands  the  breeding  season  of  the  Snipe 
commences  towards  the  end  of  March,  and  fresh  eggs  may  be  obtained  through 
April  and  May.  In  more  northern  latitudes  the  eggs,  of  course,  are  laid  much 
later.  During  the  pairing  season  especially,  and  less  frequently  even  up  to  the 
time  the  young  are  hatched,  the  male  Snipe  spends  a  good  deal  of  his  time  in  the 
air.  All  the  old  love  of  skulking  in  the  marshes  seems  relinquished  for  the  time 
being,  and  high  in  the  air  the  bird  careers  about,  uttering  his  love  notes  and 
making  the  sound  popularly  known  as  "drumming"  or  "  bleating."  These  flights 


296  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

may  be  witnessed  at  all  hours  of  the  day,  but  are  most  persistently  and  frequently 
indulged  in  towards  evening.  The  bird  rises  to  a  considerable  height,  often 
uttering  his  note  of  tchik-tchak,  tchik-tchak,  or  tyik-tyuk,  tyik-tyuk,  as  he  goes. 
Then  when  at  the  zenith  of  his  course,  which  may  be  almost  if  not  quite  beyond 
the  limits  of  human  vision,  he  suddenly  descends  with  great  velocity  on  vibrating 
wings  and  outspread  tail,  making  the  drumming  noise.  Sometimes  this  descent 
is  continued  until  the  ground  is  reached,  but  more  often  the  bird  stays  its  course 
at  varying  heights,  the  drumming  ceases,  and  he  flies  off  in  another  direction 
uttering  his  monotonous  tchik-tchak  as  he  goes.  Much  difference  of  opinion  has 
been  expressed  concerning  the  "  drumming"  of  the  Snipe.  Some  writers  assert 
that  the  sound  is  a  vocal  one,  others  maintain  that  the  vibration  of  the  wings  is 
responsible  for  its  production ;  whilst  others  yet  again  hold  that  it  is  caused  by 
the  rush  of  air  through  the  outspread  tail.  Stejneger  maintains  that  the  sound 
originates  from  the  throat,  a  view  of  the  question  which  was  suggested  to  him  by 
the  actions  and  voice  of  the  Aleutian  Sandpiper,  which  he  observed  sitting  upon 
a  tussock  with  puffed  plumage  and  pendant  wings  and  producing  a  loud  bleating 
sound  like  that  of  the  Common  Snipe.  The  vocal  organs  must  be  dismissed, 
because  the  Snipe  has  been  heard  to  utter  its  love  notes  whilst  drumming, 
although  this  is  exceptional.  I  am  inclined  to  adopt  Colonel  Legge's  explanation, 
based  as  it  was  on  much  careful  observation  and  experiment,  which  he  minutely 
described  to  me  some  years  ago,  and  that  is  the  drumming  is  produced  by  the 
combined  action  of  the  wings  and  tail.  He  informed  me  (as  he  also  published  in 
his  magnificent  work  on  the  Birds  of  Ceylon)  that  the  vibrations  of  sound  were 
exactly  coincident  with  the  beats  of  the  wings,  and  that  the  air-waves  are  driven 
by  the  powerful  wing-beats  through  the  expanded  and  rigid  tail  feathers.  The 
nest  of  the  Common  Snipe  is  usually  placed  in  the  centre  or  under  the  side  of  a 
tuft  or  tussock  of  coarse  grass  and  rush  in  the  swamps.  It  is  merely  a  slight 
depression  lined  with  dry  grass  and  bits  of  dead  aquatic  herbage.  The  eggs  are 
four  in  number,  and  vary  from  buff  of  different  shades  to  olive  of  different  shades 
in  ground-colour,  heavily  and  handsomely  blotched  and  spotted  with  rich  dark 
brown,  occasionally  streaked  with  blackish-brown  and  with  numerous  large 
underlying  markings  of  pale  brown  and  grey.  They  are  pyriform  and  measure 
on  an  average  T6  inch  in  length  by  I'l  inch  in  breadth.  Incubation,  principally 
performed  by  the  female,  lasts  from  sixteen  to  twenty  days.  But  one  brood  is 
reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — Gallinago,  with  fourteen  rectrices,  with  dark 
streaks  (not  bars)  on  the  breast,  and  with  the  axillaries  white,  more  or  less  marked 
with  dark  grey.  Length,  10£  inches.  Albinos  and  fawn-coloured  varieties  are 
not  uncommonly  met  with,  especially  in  India. 


OF  THE   BRITISH    ISLANDS.  297 


Genus   LIMNOCRYPTES,   or  Jack   Snipes. 

Type,  LIMNOCRYPTES   GALLINULA. 


Limnocryptes,  of  Kaup  (1829). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  the  culmen  longer  than  the  metatarsus  (twice  its 
length),  and  the  long  innermost  secondaries  equal  in  length  to  the  primaries. 
The  most  important  distinction  between  the  Jack  Snipes  and  the  Snipes  is  an 
osteological  one,  the  latter  birds  having  two  notches  only  in  the  posterior  margin 
of  the  sternum,  whilst  the  former  have  four  notches,  the  normal  number  in  the 
present  family.  The  Jack  Snipes  further  differ  from  the  Snipes  in  having  twelve 
tail  feathers  only,  instead  of  fourteen  and  upwards.  In  most,  if  not  all,  other 
respects  the  Jack  Snipes  resemble  the  birds  in  the  preceding  genus. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  a  single  species  only,  which  is  distributed  over  the 
northern  portions  of  the  Palasarctic  region  in  summer,  drawing  southwards  in 
autumn  and  winter,  when  it  visits  the  Oriental  region.  It  is  a  common  winter 
migrant  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Jack  Snipe  closely  resembles  the  Snipes  in  its  habits  and  economy, 
which  will  be  fully  dealt  with  in  the  following  chapter. 


298  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  CHAKADRIID.E.  Genus  LIMNOCRYPTES. 

Subfamily 


JACK    SNIPE. 

LIMNOCKYPTES   GALLINULA— (Lmntciis) . 
PLATE   XXXI. 

Scolopax  gallinula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  244  (1766)  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  380 
(1852) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  247  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non- 
indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  280  (1894) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxx.  (1895) ;  Seebohm, 
Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  154,  pi.  41  (1896). 

Gallinago  gallinula  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vii.  p.  653,  pi.  544  (1877) ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iii.  p.  351  (1883). 

Limnocryptes  gallinula  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  220  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxiv.  p.  665  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Jack  Snipe  is  a  common 
winter  visitor  locally  distributed  throughout  the  British  Islands,  including  the 
Orkneys,  the  Shetlands,  and  the  Hebrides.  Owing  to  the  fact  of  odd  birds  having 
been  met  with  in  early  summer,  it  has  been  surmised  that  the  Jack  Snipe  may 
occasionally  breed  within  our  limits,  but  there  is  no  decided  evidence  whatever 
that  such  is  ever  the  case.  Foreign :  Northern  Palaearctic  region  ;  southern 
Palsearctic  region  and  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  locally  above  the 
limits  of  forest  growth,  on  the  Dovrefjeld  and  the  tundras  of  Lapland,  and  in 
Western  Kussia  as  far  north  as  St.  Petersburg.  In  Asia  it  appears  to  breed  as 
far  north  as  lat.  70°,  and  about  as  far  south  as  lat.  60°  ;  eastwards  possibly  to  the 
Pacific.  It  passes  Europe,  south  of  the  above  limits,  on  migration,  and  winters 
in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  North  Africa  as  far  south  as  the  Great 
Desert,  and  is  said  to  penetrate  dow^n  the  Nile  Valley  to  Abyssinia.  The  birds 
breeding  in  Asia  are  known  to  pass  South-west  Siberia,  Turkestan,  and  less 
frequently  China  and  Japan  on  migration  ;  and  probably  cross  other  central 
districts,  though  as  yet  undetected,  and  winter  in  Persia,  Afghanistan,  India, 
Ceylon,  and  Burmah. 

Allied    forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 

Habits. — A  few  Jack  Snipes  make  their  appearance  in  our  Islands  during 
the  latter  half  of  September,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  birds  arrive  in  October 
and  the  beginning  of  November.  The  return  migration  begins  in  March  and 


OF  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  299 

continues  into  April.  Birds  which  breed  in  the  highest  Arctic  limits  of  the 
European  range  of  this  species  do  not  appear  to  pass  our  Islands  at  all ;  those 
that  winter  with  us  breed  in  Scandinavia  most  probably ;  those  that  pass  later 
in  spring  through  Central  Europe  nest  in  Northern  Eussia.  Jack  Snipes  arrive 
in  India  as  a  rule  at  the  end  of  September  or  early  in  October,  and  leave  later 
than  the  Common  Snipe,  in  April  and  May.  Middendorff  noted  their  arrival  in 
North  Siberia  on  the  8th  of  June.  The  Jack  Snipe  frequents  almost  precisely 
the  same  kind  of  haunts  as  its  larger  ally,  but  it  is  frequently  found  in  much 
smaller  bogs.  A  few  square  yards  of  marshy  ground,  provided  there  is  cover 
and  a  snug  corner  in  which  to  nestle,  will  content  a  Jack  Snipe ;  and  haunts 
that  are  tenanted  one  year  are  invariably  filled  the  next,  either  by  the  same  bird, 
if  it  is  fortunate  enough  to  escape  the  sportsman,  or  by  another  individual  that 
in  some  strange  manner  only  known  to  themselves  becomes  aware  that  the 
eligible  haunt  is  vacant.  Jack  Snipes  migrate  at  night,  obtain  much  of  their 
food  by  night,  and  change  their  ground — say  when  frozen  out  during  continued 
frosts — at  the  same  time.  It  is  always  a  mystery  to  me  how  these  birds  can 
spot  a  tiny  bog  in  the  darkness  when  newly  arrived  in  this  country ;  the  sense 
that  guides  them  must  be  one  totally  unknown  to  man.  The  Jack  Snipe  at  all 
times  is  a  very  solitary  species,  but  whether  it  migrates  in  company  is  entirely 
unknown  to  me.  If  the  birds  do  journey  together  (and  Hume  seems  to  infer  that 
they  do)  they  must  separate  at  once  ;  and  though  many  may  be  flushed  from  one 
bog,  each  seems  concerned  with  its  own  affairs.  It  is  a  skulking  bird  enough, 
and  usually  remains  squatting  close  in  the  herbage,  often  behind  a  tuft,  until 
nearly  trodden  under  foot.  When  put  up  it  flies  at  first  in  a  very  unsteady 
manner,  but  after  going  some  distance  the  flight  becomes  steadier,  and  the  bird 
pitches  again  almost  directly.  It  may  be  flushed  time  after  time  in  this  manner, 
as  it  is  one  of  the  easiest  birds  to  mark  down.  Much  has  been  said  about  the 
difficulty  of  shooting  Jack  Snipe ;  but  if  the  gunner  can  only  control  himself, 
and  wait  until  the  critical  moment,  when  the  zig-zag  flight  is  changed  into  a 
steadier  course,  and  which  usually  happens  when  the  bird  is  just  a  nice  distance 
from  the  gun,  a  moderate  marksman  should  rarely  miss.  The  Jack  Snipe  whilst 
with  us  is  remarkably  silent,  and  never,  so  far  as  my  experience  goes,  utters  a 
sound  as  it  rises,  nor  is  the  whirr  of  its  wings  very  perceptible.  As  Hume  very 
aptly  remarks,  the  favourite  haunt  of  a  Jack  Snipe  is  a  corner ;  the  bird  loves  a 
cosy  nook  in  which  to  nestle,  a  sheltered  secluded  spot  where  the  cover  is  ample 
and  where  there  is  just  enough  bog  to  ensure  a  comfortable  living.  In  such  a 
retreat  a  Jack  Snipe  will  remain  the  entire  winter  through — unless  it  is  shot,  of 
course.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  worms,  insects  and  their  larvae, 
rnollusks  and  crustaceans,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  vegetable  substances, 
such  as  small  seeds,  bits  of  green  weed,  club-moss,  and  grass.  In  the  manner  of 
its  search  for  food  the  Jack  Snipe  resembles  its  congeners.  During  the  heat  of 
the  day  this  Snipe  keeps  very  close  and  sleeps ;  but  it  has  been  shot,  in  the 


300  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

absolute  act  of  feeding,  rather  late  in  the  morning  and  long  hefore  sunset.  The 
flesh  of  the  Jack  Snipe  is  excellent,  and  even  in  very  severe  weather,  when 
Common  Snipe  have  been  woefully  out  of  condition,  I  have  remarked  that  Jack 
Snipe  continue  to  remain  as  plump  and  fat  as  ever. 

Nidification. — It  is  rather  remarkable  that  so  little  has  been  recorded  of 
the  breeding  habits  of  the  Jack  Snipe.  Every  writer  has  to  depend  upon  the 
information  gathered  by  Wolley,  and  this  in  a  great  measure  is  meagre  and 
vague.  It  would  be  interesting  to  hear  the  accounts  of  other  naturalists.  The 
Jack  Snipe  begins  to  breed  towards  the  end  of  June.  Wolley  found  the  first 
nest  on  the  17th  of  that  month,  and  four  others  on  the  18th.  From  his  account 
we  are  left  in  ignorance  as  to  whether  the  male  bird  drums  like  the  Common 
Snipe  during  the  nesting  season ;  indeed,  the  facts  appear  to  be  against  it.  He 
describes  the  bird  careering  about  the  air  over  the  marshes  of  Muonioniska, 
uttering  a  sound  like  the  distant  canter  of  a  horse  over  a  hard  road.  This 
evidently  refers  to  the  note,  which  is  compared  by  Naumann  to  the  clicking  of 
the  death-watch  beetle,  and  undoubtedly  not  to  drumming  or  bleating.  He 
found  the  nests  placed  in  dry  spots  amongst  the  sedge  and  grass  close  to  the 
borders  of  the  more  open  swamps.  They  were  mere  hollows  lined  with  a  little 
dry  grass,  equisetum,  and  dead  withered  leaves  of  the  dwarf  birch.  The  eggs  are 
four  in  number,  ranging  from  buff  to  olive  in  ground-colour,  blotched  and  spotted, 
and  sometimes  streaked  with  rich  blackish-brown,  and  with  underlying  markings 
of  pale  brown  and  grey.  They  are  pyriform,  very  large  for  the  size  of  the  bird 
(a  clutch  weighs  nearly  as  much  as  the  hen  herself),  and  measure  on  an  average 
l-5  inch  in  length  by  I'O  inch  in  breadth.  The  female  is  a  close  sitter,  and 
remains  brooding  over  her  eggs  until  the  last  moment ;  Wolley  was  allowed  to 
approach  one  nest  within  six  inches  before  the  parent  rose.  One  brood  only  is 
reared  in  the  year,  so  far  as  is  known. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Limnocryptes,  with  the  mantle  glossed  with 
purple,  and  the  inner  webs  of  the  scapulars  with  metallic  green  ;  rectrices  twelve 
in  number.  Length,  7J-  inches. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  301 


ORDER    ANSERIFORMES.— 

THE  SCREAMERS,    FLAMINGOES,   SWANS,  GEESE, 
DUCKS,  AND   MERGANSERS. 


THE  birds  comprising  the  present  order  constitute  a  fairly  well-defined  group, 
possibly  most  nearly  related  to  the  Storks  by  way  of  the  Flamingoes,  and 
to  the  Kails  by  way  of  the  Screamers.  They  are  perhaps  also  more  remotely 
allied  to  the  Eaptores  and  the  Pelicans.  They  form  the  order  to  which  the  name 
of  CHENOMORPELE  was  applied  by  Huxley ;  and  Count  Salvadori,  the  most 
recent  monographer  of  the  group,  recognises  what  are  certainly  three  very 
natural  suborders,  viz.,  the  PALAMEDE/E,  or  Screamers  ;  the  PH^BNICOPTERI,  or 
Flamingoes ;  and  the  ANSERES,  or  Ducks  and  allied  forms.  The  birds  in  these 
three  groups  have  the  palate  desmognathous,  and  the  spinal  feather  tract  not 
defined  upon  the  neck  :  the  young  are  also  hatched  covered  with  down,  and  able 
to  forage  for  themselves  soon  after  breaking  the  shell.  Other  characters  common 
to  the  order  (as  shown  by  Count  Salvadori)  are  the  long  neck,  the  tufted  oil 
gland,  the  incomplete  internasal  septum  (nares  pervioe),  the  coalescing  of  the 
maxillo-palatines  across  the  middle  line,  the  presence  of  the  ambiens  muscle  and 
the  leading  of  the  flexor  perforans  digitorum  to  all  three  anterior  digits  but  not 
to  the  hallux.  With  the  Flamingoes  and  the  Screamers  we  are  not  concerned  in 
the  present  work.  So  far  as  the  Ducks  and  their  allies  are  concerned  the  regular 
moult  is  a  single  one  in  autumn.  In  the  Ducks  the  males  moult  their  small 
feathers  twice  during  twelve  months  ;  the  Geese,  Swans,  and  possibly  all  the 
Sheldrakes  have  one  moult  only.  The  quills  are  moulted  so  rapidly  as  to 
incapacitate  the  bird  for  flight.  The  progress  of  the  young  to  maturity  seems  to 
be  as  follows  :  In  the  Geese  the  young  do  not  differ  very  remarkably  from  their 
parents  in  colour,  except  in  those  species  where  the  adults  are  characterised  by 
violent  contrasts  of  colour ;  in  the  Ducks  the  young  in  first  plumage  very  closely 
resemble  the  old  female,  and  acquire  (males)  nearly  adult  plumage  after  their  first 


302  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

autumn  moult;  in  the  Swans  in  first  plumage  the  colour  is  greyish-brown,  a 
plumage  which  they  appear  to  lose  in  their  first  autumn,  when  the  adult  attire  is 
almost  completely  assumed.  So  far  as  concerns  the  white  species  a  few  brown 
markings  occur  on  the  scapulars.  Males  appear  to  assume  the  white  dress  sooner 
than  females ;  whilst  the  young  of  both  sexes,  even  when  a  year  old,  are  very 
perceptibly  smaller. 

The  birds  in  the  present  order  number  upwards  of  two  hundred  species  and 
subspecies.  Of  these  but  nine  are  included  amongst  the  Flamingoes  and 
Screamers ;  the  remainder  (the  Ducks)  forming  one  large  family,  which  is 
practically  cosmopolitan  in  its  distribution  and  well  represented  in  the  British 
Islands. 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  303 


Family  ANATID/E.— The  Swans,  Geese,  Ducks, 
and  Mergansers. 


The  birds  comprising  this  by  far  the  largest  division  of  the  order  may  be 
distinguished  by  their  peculiar  laminated  bill,  short  legs,  and  webbed  feet.  They 
are  characterised  by  having  the  basipterygoid  processes  placed  as  far  forward  as 
possible  and  by  the  metatarsus  being  about  equal  in  length  to  the  fermur, 
reticulated  behind  and  generally  in  front.  Their  sternum  contains  one  notch 
only  on  each  side  of  the  posterior  margin.  The  tongue  is  large  and  fleshy,  the 
edges  serrated.  The  bill  is  generally  broad  and  flat,  and  has  a  nail  at  the  tip  of 
the  upper  mandible.  Count  Salvadori  (whose  arrangement  as  elaborated  in  the 
Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the  National  Collection  we  propose  chiefly  to  follow)  divides 
the  present  family  into  eleven  fairly  well-defined  subfamilies,  five  of  which  are 
represented  in  our  area. 


Subfamily  CYQN1N/E,  or  Swans. 


The  birds  included  in  the  present  subfamily  are  distinguished  from  their  allies 
by  having  the  lores  (space  between  the  eye  and  the  bill)  bare  of  feathers.  Their 
reticulated  metatarsus  further  distinguishes  them  from  the  Ducks,  whilst  the 
shortness  of  that  member  (not  so  long  as  the  middle  toe)  is  a  point  of  distinction 
from  the  Geese.  The  hind  toe  is  not  lobed ;  the  neck  is  extremely  long.  The 
sexes  are  nearly  alike  in  colour.  One  moult  in  autumn. 

This  subfamily  is  composed  of  seven  species,  referable  to  three  genera. 


304  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 


Genus   CYQNUS,   or  Swans. 

Type,   CYGNUS   MUSICUS. 


Cygnus,  of  Bechstein  (1803). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  lores  devoid  of  feathers,  the  metatarsi  reticulated,  and 
shorter  than  the  middle  toe.  The  wings  are  long,  but  rather  rounded,  secondaries 
long  and  broad,  the  first  four  primaries  being  of  nearly  equal  length,  the  tertials 
and  scapulars  normally  smooth  ;  the  tail  is  short  and  rounded.  The  predominant 
colour  of  the  plumage  is  white.  The  bill  is  moderately  long  and  of  equal  breadth, 
higher  than  wide  at  the  base,  depressed  at  the  tip ;  nostrils  oblong,  lateral  and 
central.  The  neck  is  long  and  slender.  Three  toes  in  front  webbed,  hind  toe 
small. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  six  species,  which  are  confined  to  the  Palaearctic, 
Nearctic,  and  Neotropical  regions ;  more  widely  distributed  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  Three  species  are  British,  but  one  only  is  resident,  and  breeds  in  our 
Islands  in  a  semi-domesticated  state. 

The  Swans  are  dwellers  on  lakes  and  inland  waters  in  summer ;  more  mari- 
time in  winter.  They  are  birds  of  very  powerful  and  sustained  flight,  and  swim 
and  walk  with  ease.  Their  notes  are  loud  and  trumpet-like.  They  subsist 
chiefly  on  vegetable  substances,  insects,  and  mollusks.  They  make  large  and 
bulky  nests  on  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  oval,  three  to  twelve  in  number,  dull 
white  and  unspotted.  They  are  monogamous,  and  probably  pair  for  life.  More 
or  less  social  and  gregarious,  especially  in  winter.  Their  flesh  was  formerly  held 
in  high  repute  for  the  table. 


OF  THE    BRITISH   ISLANDS.  305 

Family  ANATID.E.  Genus  CYGNUS. 

Subfamily 


WHOOPER   SWAN. 

CYGNUS   MUSICUS-Bec/wtom. 

Anas  cygnus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  194  (1766  partim). 

Cygnus  musicus,  Bechstein ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  659  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi. 
p.  433,  pi.  419,  fig.  4  (1880) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  308  (1885) ;  Seebohm, 
Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  480  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxv.  (1893) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs,  Non-indig.  Brit.  B  p.  144  (1894) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 
xxvii.  p.  26  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  29,  pi.  7  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  247  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Whooper  Swan,  upon  the 
authority  of  Low,  is  said  to  have  bred  in  the  Orkneys  upwards  of  a  hundred  years 
ago.  It  is  now  a  winter  visitor  only,  passing  the  Shetlands  on  migration,  and  is 
found  more  or  less  commonly  round  the  Scotch  coasts,  including  St.  Kilda,  the 
Orkneys,  and  the  Hebrides.  To  England  it  is  not  so  common  a  visitor,  but  it 
occurs  in  most  suitable  districts  from  Northumberland  to  Devonshire,  inland  as 
well  as  on  and  off  the  coasts,  Slapton  Ley,  in  South  Devon,  being  one  of  its 
many  favourite  resorts.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  Ireland,  although  this 
species  is  never  seen  in  such  enormous  quantities  as  its  smaller  ally,  Bewick's 
Swan.  Foreign  :  Northern  Palaearctic  region  ;  southern  Palaearctic  region  in 
winter.  It  is  an  accidental  straggler  to  Greenland,  visits  the  Faroes  on  migration, 
and  breeds  commonly  in  Iceland.  It  breeds  throughout  Arctic  Europe  and  Asia, 
in  the  former  not  below  the  Arctic  circle  in  Norway,  but  four  degrees  further 
south  in  Sweden,  Finland,  and  North  Russia.  In  Asia  it  does  not  appear  to  nest 
commonly  below  the  Arctic  circle,  and  ranges  above  that  limit  eastwards  to 
Behring  Strait.  In  Europe  it  wanders  south  during  winter  to  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean,  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  as  far  as  the  lakes  of  Algeria,  Lower 
Egypt,  and  Palestine.  The  Asiatic  birds  pass  South  Siberia  and  Mongolia  on 
migration,  and  spend  the  cold  season  in  Japan  and  on  the  coasts  of  China  as  far 
south  as  Shanghai.  It  is  said  to  have  wandered  abnormally  to  Nepal. 

Allied    forms. — None   nearer   than    Cyynus   bewicki,   a    British   species 
treated  fully  in  the  following  chapter, 
20 


306  THE  GAME   BIEDS   AND    WILD    FOWL 

Habits. — The  Whooper  migrates  to  and  from  its  Arctic  haunts  in  flocks  of 
varying  size,  and  sometimes  in  pairs,  not  only  at  night  but  during  the  day,  as  may 
easily  be  learned  from  its  loud  notes  uttered  during  flight.     It  begins  to  leave  its 
winter  quarters  in  the  south  in  spring,  and  reaches  the  Arctic  regions  about  the 
middle  of  May,  just  as  the  ice  in  the  great  rivers  is  about  to  break  up  and  the 
snow  to  melt  from  the  grounds  where  it  breeds.     At  first  only  a  few  pairs  make 
their  appearance,  but  soon  the  migration  is  in  full  swing,  and  continues  until  the 
early  days  of  June.     The  migration  south  in  autumn  commences  soon  after  the 
moult  is  completed ;  in  fact,  whilst  it  is  in  progress  the  birds  begin  to  wander 
down  the  great  rivers  towards  their  winter  quarters,  which  are  reached  in  October 
and  November.     Migrating  flocks  of  this  species  usually  assume  the  form  of  a 
wedge,  and  fly  at  an  immense  elevation.     The  flight  is  rapid  enough  when  the 
bird  gets  fairly  under  weigh,  and  the  swish,  swish  of  the  long  wings  beating 
regularly  can  be  heard  for  long  distances ;  the  head  and  neck  are  stretched  out  in 
a  straight  line.     The  Whooper  spends  much  of  its  time  on  the  water,  searching 
round  the  banks  and  in  the  shallows  for  food.     It  is  nothing  near  so  graceful  in 
its  movements  as  the  Mute  Swan,  and  the  neck  is  never  so  beautifully  curved, 
being  almost  always  held  up  straight  except  when  the  bird  is  feeding.      Like 
most  big  birds  it  is  excessively  wary  and  shy,  and  during  its  sojourn  in  our  Islands 
is  very  careful  to  keep  well  in  the  centre  of  the  pool  or  lake,  or  at  some  distance 
from  shore,  when  not  actually  feeding.     When  disturbed  from  the  water  it  rises 
with  apparent  difficulty,  and  the  long  wings  beat  the  surface  for  some  distance  as 
the  bird  attempts  to  reach  the  air.     The  Whooper  feeds  a  good  deal  whilst  on  dry 
land,  and  is  very  fond  of  swimming  round  the  banks  of  a  deep  pool,  from  time  to 
time  plunging  the  head  and  neck  under  water  to  explore  the  mud  and  the  roots 
of  the  herbage  growing  at  the  bottom.     The  food  of  this  species  is  principally  of 
a  vegetable  nature — herbs,  grasses,  weeds,  flowers  and  seeds,  roots,  stems,  buds, 
and  leaves — but  water  insects  and  mollusks  are  also  eaten.      The  note  of  the 
Whooper  once  heard  can  never  be  forgotten  or  confused  with  that  of  any  other 
British  species.     It  is  a  short,  loud,  clear,  far-sounding  trumpet-blast,  uttered 
several  times  in  succession,  and  when  mellowed  by  distance  sounds  far  from 
unpleasant,  but  at  close  quarters  is  ear-splitting  and  discordant.    Nothing  in  bird 
life  to  my  mind  sounds  so  inspiring  as  the  distant  yet  clear  calls  of  migrating 
Swans,  one  to  the  other,  as  they  cross  the  night  sky. 

Nidification. — The  chief  breeding  grounds  of  the  Whooper  are  beyond  the 
Arctic  circle  on  the  islands  in  the  deltas  of  the  great  rivers  that  flow  into  the 
northern  seas,  or  near  the  big  lakes  of  the  tundras,  or  the  creeks  that  run  some 
distance  inland  from  the  parent  stream.  The  birds  pair  for  life.  The  nest  is 
usually  placed  on  an  island  well  covered  with  willow-trees  and  other  dense  scrub, 
or  at  others  amongst  the  tall  rank  grass  and  reeds  that  fringe  the  pool.  It  is  a 
huge  pile  of  coarse  grass,  sedge,  and  other  herbage  built  upon  the  ground,  and 


OP  THE   BKITISH   ISLANDS.  307 

probably  carried  to  such  a  height  in  anticipation  of  any  sudden  rise  in  the  water 
near  by.  As  incubation  proceeds  it  often  increases  in  bulk,  the  birds  adding 
materials  from  time  to  time.  In  Northern  Russia  from  two  to  four  eggs  form  a 
clutch ;  in  Iceland  five  are  frequently  found ;  and  old  females  are  said  occasionally 
to  lay  as  many  as  seven.  The  eggs  are  laid  towards  the  end  of  May  in  some 
districts,  a  fortnight  later  in  others.  They  are  creamy-white  in  colour,  rough  in 
texture,  and  nearly  oval  in  shape.  They  measure  on  an  average  4'5  inches  in 
length  by  2'8  inches  in  breadth.  Incubation  lasts  from  five  to  six  weeks,  and 
according  to  Dr.  Palmen  the  young  mature  slowly.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in 
the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Cygnus,  with  the  tail  short  and  rounded,  and 
with  the  lores  and  the  basal  portion  of  the  bill  extending  below  the  nostrils 
yellow,  remainder  black.  Length,  60  inches. 


308  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID^.  Genus  CYGNUS. 

Subfamily,  CYGNINJE. 


BEWICK'S    SWAN. 
CYGNUS  BE  WICKI- 


Cygnus  bewickii,  Yarrell,  Trans.  Linn.  Soc.  xvi.  p.  445  (1833)  ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv. 
p.  669  (1852)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  441,  pi.  419,  fig.  3  (1880)  ;  Seebohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  484  (1885)  ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  315  (1885)  ;  Lilford,  Col. 
Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxv.  (1893)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  145 
(1894)  ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  29  (1895)  ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  29,  pi.  8  (1896)  ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  252  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.  —British  :  Bewick's  Swan  is  a  winter 
visitor  to  the  coasts  and  many  inland  waters  of  the  British  Islands.  It  is  most 
abundant  on  the  wild  broken  coast  of  the  west  of  Scotland  and  the  lakes  and 
western  coasts  of  Ireland.  It  is,  however,  fairly  well  known  as  a  frequent  winter 
visitor  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland  and  the  coasts  of  England.  Foreign  :  Northern 
and  Eastern  Palaearctic  region  ;  southern  Palaearctic  region  in  winter.  But  little 
is  known  of  the  breeding  grounds  of  this  species,  and  until  the  visit  of  Messrs. 
Seebohm  and  Harvie-Brown  to  the  valley  of  the  Petchora  in  the  summer  of  1875 
the  eggs  were  absolutely  unknown  to  science.  It  breeds  on  the  tundras  above 
the  limit  of  forest  growth,  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  White  Sea,  on  the  islands 
of  Kolguev  and  Nova  Zembla,  and  in  the  deltas  of  the  Petchora,  Obb,  Yenisei, 
and  Lena;  on  the  Liakov  Islands  and  the  tundras  of  North-Eastern  Siberia, 
possibly  to  Behring  Strait.  It  is  only  an  accidental  visitor  to  Norway  and  Fin- 
land, and  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic,  Denmark,  Holland,  and  France  ;  one  example 
is  recorded  from  Nepal.  It  passes  the  great  river  valleys  from  the  Kama  and  the 
Volga  eastwards,  down  those  of  the  Obb,  the  Yenisei  and  the  Lena,  and  crosses 
Turkestan  and  Mongolia  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  basin  of  the  Caspian, 
and  on  the  coasts  of  Japan  and  China  as  far  south  as  Shanghai.  Mr.  Styan 
records  them  in  flocks  of  at  least  a  thousand  at  the  head  of  the  Poyang  Lake, 
whilst  he  states  that  large  flocks  frequent  the  low  islands  and  mudflats  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Yangtse. 

Allied  forms.  —  None  nearer  than  Cygnus  musicus,  a  British  species, 
treated  fully  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Habits.  —  Bewick's  Swan  resembles  the  Whooper  very  closely  in  its  habits. 
It  is  a  bird  of  regular  passage  to  and  from  the  Arctic  regions,  arriving  at  its 


OF  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  309 

breeding  grounds  just  as  winter  is  about  to  give  way  to  the  short,  hot  northern 
summer,  and  the  ice  on  the  great  rivers  is  breaking  up,  towards  the  end  of  May. 
It  is  a  gregarious  bird  on  passage,  and  journeys  in  herds  of  varying  size,  which 
usually  assume  a  wedge-shaped  formation  as  they  fly.  It  migrates  by  day  as 
well  as  by  night,  and  like  its  larger  ally  is  a  very  noisy  bird  on  passage,  the 
individuals  of  the  party  calling  to  each  other  at  intervals.  This  note  is  neither 
so  loud  nor  so  harsh  as  that  of  the  Whooper,  and  is  aptly  described  by  Sir  Kalph 
Payne-Gall wey  as  long,  short  but  musical.  Both  at  its  summer  quarters  and 
whilst  in  our  Islands  during  winter  Bewick's  Swan  is  a  remarkably  shy  and 
cautious  bird,  difficult  to  approach  either  on  the  sea  or  on  an  inland  lake.  During 
winter  it  is  a  very  gregarious  species,  sometimes  congregating  on  certain  favoured 
waters  in  flocks,  hundreds  or  even  thousands  strong.  Its  food  is  obtained  in  a 
very  similar  manner  to  the  Whooper,  and  consists  of  the  roots,  stems,  buds,  flowers, 
seeds,  and  leaves  of  herbs  and  aquatic  plants,  and  of  grass,  insects  and  their 
larvae,  and  worms.  The  bird,  perhaps,  feeds  more  whilst  on  land  than  the 
Whooper,  and  is  more  partial  to  enclosed  waters  than  the  open  sea.  Its  flight  is 
just  as  rapid  and  powerful,  the  long  wings  beat  regularly  with  a  loud  noise,  and 
the  bird's  neck  is  outstretched. 

Nidif  ication.  —Very  little  is  known  of  the  breeding  habits  of  Bewick's  Swan, 
and  although  its  eggs  have  been  obtained,  few  naturalists  have  yet  been  fortunate 
enough  to  see  them  in  situ,  or  to  examine  the  nest.  Messrs.  Seebohm  and 
Harvie-Brown,  when  in  the  valley  of  the  Petchora  in  1875,  had  eggs  of  this  bird 
brought  to  them  by  a  Russian  fisherman,  which  were  obtained  on  the  island  of 
Pyonin  in  the  delta  of  that  river.  Other  eggs  were  brought  to  the  former  gentle- 
man during  his  visit  to  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei  two  years  afterwards,  which  had 
been  obtained  from  an  island,  and  on  the  mainland  of  the  delta  of  that  river. 
Mr.  Trevor  Battye  discovered  the  nest  of  this  Swan  on  the  island  of  Kolguev— a 
huge  pyramid  of  moss,  with  a  cup  at  the  apex  for  the  eggs,  whilst  the  young  in 
down  were  obtained  there  more  recently  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Pearson's  expedition.  The 
nest  resembles  that  of  the  Whooper,  and  is  built  in  a  similar  situation.  The 
number  of  eggs  in  a  clutch  is  not  known  with  certainty,  but  more  than  three 
have  not  yet  been  found  in  one  nest.  They  are  smaller  than  those  of  the 
Whooper,  whiter  on  an  average,  and  not  so  glossy.  They  measure  on  an  average 
4'0  inches  in  length  by  2-6  inches  in  breadth. 

Diagnostic  characters — Cygnus,  with  the  tail  short  and  rounded,  and 
with  the  lores  and  the  basal  portion  of  the  bill  (but  not  extending  below  the 
nostrils)  yellow,  remainder  black.  Length,  50  inches. 


310  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID^l.  Genus  CYGNUS. 

Subfamily  CYGNIN&. 


MUTE    SWAN. 
CYGNUS   OLOR— (Gmelin). 

Anas  olor,  Gmelin,  Syst.  Nat  i.  p.  501  (1788). 

Cygnus  olor  (Gmel.),  Vieillot,  N.  Diet.  d'Hist.  Nat.  ix.  p.  37  (1817) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 

vi.  p.  419,  pi.  418  (1880) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  324  (1885) ;  Seebohm, 

Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  476  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  222  (1893) ; 

Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  38  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B. 

p.  28,  pi.  7  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  254  (1896) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxv.  (1897). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  Whether  the  Mute  Swan  was 
introduced  into  the  British  Islands  (as  some  writers  affirm  it  was  by  Eichard  I. 
from  Cyprus)  or  not  is  a  question  somewhat  difficult  to  decide.  It  is  rather 
remarkable  that  such  an  explanation  should  ever  have  been  put  forward,  for  there 
is  nothing  extraordinary  in  a  bird  which,  in  a  wild  state,  is  a  regular  summer 
visitor  to  Denmark  and  North  Germany,  extending  its  migrations  to  our  Islands. 
Its  exceeding  beauty  and  gracefulness  probably  led  very  early  in  the  history  of 
our  civilisation  to  its  domestication,  which  has  finally  brought  it  to  its  present 
condition  of  a  semi-wild  resident  species.  It  is  to  be  met  with  more  or  less 
abundantly  throughout  the  United  Kingdom,  wherever  man  affords  it  protection, 
some  of  the  Swanneries  being  very  ancient  and  extensive.  Foreign :  Western 
Palsearctic  region  ;  occasionally  in  the  extreme  north-west  of  the  Oriental  region 
during  winter.  It  breeds  in  South  Sweden  (but  is  an  accidental  visitor  only  to 
Norway),  Denmark,  Germany  west  of  the  Rhine,  Central  and  South  Russia,  the 
valley  of  the  Danube,  Transylvania  and  Greece,  Turkestan  and  Mongolia.  It 
occasionally  wanders  into  Dauria  and  to  North-west  India  during  the  cold  season. 
In  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  throughout  most  of  Europe  south  of  the 
above  limits,  it  is  best  known  as  a  winter  visitor,  and  during  that  season  it  is  also 
found  in  the  southern  districts  of  the  Caspian. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  demand  notice.  In  1838 
Yarrell  described  a  Swan  under  the  name  of  Cygnus  immutabilis  (Proc.  Zool. 
Soc.  1838,  p.  19).  It  was  said  to  differ  from  the  Mute  Swan  in  having  the 
tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible  smaller,  the  legs  lead  colour  instead 
of  black.  A  further  specific  distinction  was  that  the  young  birds  had  a  paler 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  311 

bill,  and  the  plumage  of  the  upper  parts  pure,  unsullied  white.  Although  this 
bird  received  the  trivial  name  of  "  Polish"  Swan,  it  appears  to  have  been  confined 
to  the  British  Islands  with  the  exception  of  a  single  example  captured  on  the 
Haarlem  Lake,  in  Holland,  during  December,  1840.  The  alleged  characters  of 
the  '"adult"  appear  only  to  depend  on  age — the  older  the  bird  the  larger  the 
frontal  tubercle,  and  the  darker  the  legs.  As  regards  the  white  plumage  of  the 
young,  it  appears  to  be  nothing  but  an  exceptional  albinism,  the  result  probably 
of  semi-domestication,  and  from  a  similar  cause  as  that  which  has  originated 
white  Ducks  and  poultry. 

Habits. — The  Mute  Swan  is  too  well  known  in  a  domesticated  state  to  re- 
quire any  lengthy  description  of  its  habits  in  our  Islands.   There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  a  few  really  wild  birds  visit  the  British  Islands  from  time  to  time  in  winter, 
but  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  identify  them,  as  domesticated  birds  often  wander 
about  a  good  deal  from  one  sheet  of  water  to  another  where  they  are  allowed  to 
live  unpinioned.     In  the  northern  portions  of  its  range  the  Mute  Swan  is  a 
regular  bird  of  passage,  appearing  in  its  summer  quarters  in  March,  and  leaving 
them  with  its  brood  in  October.      Like  its  congeners,  it  migrates  in  flocks  of 
varying  size  by  day  and  by  night,  in  the  same  wedge-shaped  formations.     Its 
haunts  in  summer  are  large  lakes,  especially  those  that  contain  islands  with 
plenty  of  low  cover,  amongst  which  it  can  make  its  nest  safe  from  enemies. 
During  winter  wild  Mute  Swans  frequent  the  coast  as  much  as  their  congeners 
do ;  and  in  India  they  haunt  the  tanks  and  lakes,  but  are  rare  visitors.     The 
flight  of  this  bird  is  powerful  and  rapid,  and  the  noise  of  the  mighty  wings  may 
be  heard  a  long  distance,  especially  across  water  on  a  calm,  still  day.     Although 
tame  and  confiding  enough  with  us  in  a  semi-domesticated  state,  when  wild  it  is 
excessively  shy  and  wary,  rarely  admitting  of  a  close  approach.     When  fired  at, 
however,  instances  are  on  record  where  the  flock  has  returned  again  and  again, 
flying  over  their  fallen  companions,  and  showing  the  greatest  reluctance  to  quit 
the  place.    The  Mute  Swan  is  a  much  more  graceful  bird  in  the  water  than  either 
of  its  two  preceding  congeners,  and  its  neck  is  often  curved  into  beautiful  lines. 
It  feeds,  however,  in  much  the  same  manner,  both  whilst  on  land  and  swimming 
in  the  water.     This  food  consists  of  aquatic  plants  and  grass,  insects  and  their 
larvae,  mollusks,  and  frogs.     The  bird  is  also  said  to  eat  fish  spawn,  and  I  have 
known  it  to  devour  small  fish.     In  a  state  of  domestication  the  Mute  Swan,  as  its 
name  implies,  is  a  very  silent  bird,  only  making  a  low,  hissing  noise,  especially 
when  excited  or  angry ;  but  wild  individuals  are  said  to  utter  a  loud,  trumpet- 
like  cry,  similar  to  the  note  of  the  Whooper. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  wild  Mute  Swans  commences  in 
April  or  May.  Both  tame  and  wild  birds  appear  to  pair  for  life,  and  to  return 
each  season  to  a  favourite  nesting  place,  although  they  usually  make  a  new  nest 


312  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

every  year,  but  in  some  cases  repair  the  old  one.  This  is  usually  made  on  the 
ground  on  an  island  in  a  dense  thicket,  or  amongst  tall  grass  and  other  aquatic 
vegetation,  and  consists  of  a  huge  pile  of  dead  grass,  rushes,  reeds,  and  any  other 
rubbish  the  birds  can  collect  in  the  neighbourhood.  As  incubation  advances  the 
nest  is  increased  in  bulk,  especially  when  in  a  district  subject  to  sudden  inundation. 
Many  nests  are  said  to  be  built  together  in  some  localities.  The  eggs  are  from 
five  to  eight  in  number,  old  birds  laying  from  eight  to  twelve.  They  are  greenish- 
white  or  very  pale  green,  rough  in  texture,  and  with  little  or  no  gloss.  They 
measure  on  an  average  4'5  inches  in  length  by  3'0  inches  in  breadth.  Incuba- 
tion, performed  by  the  female,  lasts  from  five  to  six  weeks.  One  brood  only  is 
reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — Cygnus,  with  the  tail  wedge-shaped  and  long, 
and  with  the  lores  and  frontal  tubercle  black.     Length,  (50  inches. 


OP   THE    BRITISH    ISLANDS.  313 


Subfamily    ANSERIN/E,   or  Geese. 


The  birds  included  in  the  present  subfamily  are  distinguished  from  their  allies 
by  the  absence  of  a  cere,  having  the  lores  covered  with  feathers  and  the  metatarsus 
reticulated  all  round.  They  are  further  distinguished  from  the  Swans  by  their 
longer  metatarsus  (longer  than  the  middle  toe)  and  much  shorter  neck ;  whilst 
from  the  Ducks,  their  short,  robust,  sub-conical  (and  in  many  cases  higher  than 
broad  at  the  base)  bill  is  an  additional  distinction.  The  sexes  are  nearly  alike  in 
colour. 

This  subfamily  is  divisable  into  about  half-a-dozen  genera. 


Genus  CHEN,   or  Snow  Geese. 

Type,   CHEN   HYPEKBOBEUS. 


Chen,  of  Boie  (1829). — The  birds  in  the  present  genus  are  characterised, 
according  to  Count  Salvadori,  by  having  the  serrations  on  the  cutting  edge  of 
the  upper  mandible  visible  externally  for  the  greater  part  of  the  toinium.  The 
bill  is  exceptionally  stout,  the  height  through  the  base  being  equal  to  considerably 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  cuhnen.  The  species  are  further  characterised 
by  their  white  or  bluish  body  plumage  and  their  black  wings. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  four  species  and  races,  which  are  confined  to  the 
Arctic  regions.  One  of  these  is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Snow  Geese  are  inhabitants  of  the  Arctic  seas  and  the  open  tundras  or 
barren  grounds  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  Their  habits  are  but  little  known. 
They  feed  on  both  vegetable  and  animal  substances.  Their  nests  are  mere 
hollows  in  the  ground  lined  with  down.  Their  eggs  are  white. 


314  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID.E.  Genus  CHEN. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. 


LESSER  SNOW  GOOSE. 

CHEN   HYPEKBOBEUS— (Pallas). 
PLATE  XXXII. 

Anser  hyperboreus,  Pallas,  Spicil.  Zool.  vi.  p.  25  (1769) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii. 
p.  490  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  30,  pi.  11  (1896). 

Anser  albatus,  Cassin. ;  Saunders,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1871  p.  519. 
Chen  albatus  (Cassin),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  iv.  p.  409,  pi.  417,  fig.  2  (1873). 

Chen  hyperboreus  (Pallas),  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  275  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xxvi.  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  147  (1894) ; 
Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  84  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii. 
p.  225  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Lesser  Snow  Goose  is  a 
very  rare  straggler  to  Ireland  on  autumn  migration,  and  has  been  observed  in 
England.  The  claim  of  this  species  to  rank  as  "  British  "  rests  on  the  following 
occurrences  : — Ireland  :  Lake  Tacumshane,  south  coast  of  County  Wexford  (two 
immature  examples  purchased  in  Leadenhall  Market,  one  example  shot  at  the 
same  time  and  place  but  not  preserved),  November,  1871 ;  Termoncarra,  Co.  Mayo 
(flock  of  seven  seen,  one  of  which  was  shot  and  another  trapped),  October,  1877. 
The  two  examples  said  to  have  been  captured  in  Ireland,  and  afterwards  placed 
in  Lord  Derby's  menagerie  at  Knowsley,  and  which  subsequently  were  sold  by 
auction  to  Castang,  the  bird  and  animal  dealer  of  London,  have  too  dubious  a 
pedigree  to  share  the  honour  of  positive  evidence.  England  :  Coast  of  Cumber- 
land (one  adult  example,  "identified  but  not  obtained"),  August,  1884;  others 
noticed  in  Yorkshire  (1891),  Northumberland  and  elsewhere,  but  no  examples 
obtained.  Foreign :  Northern  Nearctic  region ;  more  southerly  in  winter.  It 
breeds,  as  far  as  is  known,  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  North-west  America  ;  probably 
also  breeds  in  the  extreme  north-east  of  the  Palaearctic  region,  and  winters  as  far 
south  as  California  in  the  west  and  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  in  the  east,  and 
visits  Japan  at  that  season,  a  fact  which  strongly  confirms  the  suggestion  that  it 
breeds  in  Asia.  Owing  to  the  two  races  of  this  species  being  confused,  it  is 
difficult  to  trace  the  geographical  area  of  the  smaller  form  in  any  more  detail 
with  accuracy. 

Allied  forms. — Chen  nivalis,  only  known  to  breed  in  Hudson  Bay  terri- 
tory, but  is  probably  circumpolar,  as  it  has  occurred  on  migration  in  various 


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OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  315 

localities  throughout  the  Palsearctic  region,  especially  in  Japan  and  China.  It 
winters  in  the  United  States  south  to  Texas,  and  is  an  occasional  visitor  to 
Greenland  and  the  Bermudas.  The  large  form  of  the  Snow  Goose,  and  possibly 
only  superficially  distinct.  Typical  examples  measure  from  17  to  18'5  inches  in 
length  of  wing,  instead  of  from  15  to  17'5  inches,  and  in  length  of  bill  from  2'38 
to  2'65  inches,  instead  of  from  l-95  to  2'28  inches. 

Habits. — But  little  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  the  Lesser  Snow 
Goose.  It  is  a  migratory  bird,  breeding  on  the  tundras  or  barren  grounds  above 
the  limit  of  forest  growth,  reaching  its  summer  quarters  towards  the  end  of  May 
and  returning  to  its  winter  haunts  in  September  and  October.  During  winter 
the  Lesser  Snow  Goose  appears  seldom  to  stray  far  from  large  sheets  of  water, 
but  visits  inland  localities  as  well  as  the  coast.  The  food  of  this  species  consists 
largely  of  grass  and  rushes,  but  ground  fruits  and  berries  are  also  eaten,  as  well 
as  insects  and  small  niollusks.  During  winter  the  Snow  Goose  becomes  gre- 
garious, and  not  only  flocks  with  the  larger  race  but  with  other  kindred  species. 
The  note  of  this  species  is  nowhere  clearly  described  to  my  knowledge. 

Nidification. — The  Lesser  Snow  Goose  breeds  on  the  tundras  on  the 
banks  of  the  northern  lakes,  or  on  small  islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  not  far  from 
the  mainland.  Again  MacFarlane,  with  his  splendid  opportunities,  only  records 
the  barest  details  of  the  nesting  habits  of  this  interesting  bird.  He  says  that  the 
nests  were  mere  hollows  in  the  sandy  ground,  warmly  lined  with  down.  The 
eggs  are  generally  five  in  number,  dull  white  in  colour.  They  measure  on  an 
average  3'4  inches  in  length  by  2'2  inches  in  breadth.  The  young  can  fly  by  the 
middle  of  August,  and  about  a  month  later  begin  their  southern  journey.  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Chen,  with  the  primaries  black  and  the 
remainder  of  the  plumage  white,  with  the  wing  17  inches  or  less  in  length. 
Length,  23  inches. 


316  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 


Genus  ANSER,  or  Typical  Geese. 

Type,   ANSEE   CINEKEUS. 


Anser,  of  Bechstein  (1803). — As  Bechstein  was  the  first  naturalist  properly 
to  define  the  Geese,  he  has  far  more  claim  to  the  genus  than  Brisson,  whose 
Anser  is  a  confused  and  bewildered  mass  of  distantly  related  species.  The  birds 
comprising  the  present  genus  are  characterised  by  the  absence  of  a  cere,  having 
the  lores  feathered  and  the  metatarsus  reticulated.  The  wings  are  long  and 
ample,  but  not  acutely  pointed ;  the  tail  is  short  and  rounded,  and  said  to  contain 
sixteen  feathers.  The  bill  is  nearly  as  long  as,  not  longer  than,  the  head,  and  has 
a  strongly  defined  unguis  or  nail  at  the  tip ;  the  inner  edge  of  the  mandibles  is 
crooked  and  the  lamellae  are  conspicuous;  nostrils  lateral.  The  neck  is  much 
shorter  than  in  Cygnus.  Three  toes  in  front  webbed,  one  behind  small  and 
elevated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  ten  species,  which  are  distributed  throughout 
the  colder  and  temperate  regions  of  the  Northern  hemisphere ;  more  cosmopolitan 
in  winter  than  in  summer.  Six  species  and  subspecies  are  British,  but  one  only 
of  these  breeds  within  our  Islands. 

The  typical  Geese  are  dwellers  on  moors  and  marshes  and  more  or  less 
cultivated  plains,  but  in  winter  they  become  more  maritime.  They  are  birds  of 
rapid  if  somewhat  laboured  flight,  swim  well,  and  walk  with  equal  facility.  Their 
notes  are  loud  and  unmusical.  They  subsist  chiefly  on  vegetable  substances. 
They  make  bulky  nests  upon  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous  and 
creamy-white  in  colour.  They  are  monogamous,  and  probably  pair  for  life,  the 
male  assisting  the  female  in  family  duties.  They  are  gregarious  in  winter,  and 
more  or  less  social  even  in  the  breeding  season.  Their  flesh  is  palatable. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  317 

Family  ANATIDJE.  Genus  ANSEB. 

Subfamily  A  NSERIN&. 


BEAN  GOOSE. 

ANSEE   SEGETUM— (Gmelin). 

Anas  fabalis,  Latham,  Gen.  Syn.  Suppl.  i.  p.  297  (1787). 
Anas  segetum,  Gmel.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  512  (1788). 

Anser  segetum  (Gmel.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  595(1852);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 
363,  pi.  412  (1879) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  265  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B. 
iii.  p.  493  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxvi.  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and 
Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  148  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  30, 
pi.  8  (1896). 

Anser  fabalis  (Lath.),  Salvador!,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  99  (1895) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  232  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Bean  Goose  is  a  common 
visitor  on  spring  and  autumn  migration,  most  abundant  during  the  latter,  but 
great  numbers  remain  to  winter  in  our  Islands.  It  is  not  known  to  breed  in  any 
part  of  the  British  area,  although  widely  dispersed  on  the  mainland  of  Scotland 
and  some  of  the  adjoining  islands,  but  only  a  straggler  to  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Islands,  and  on  the  Outer  Hebrides  it  appears  to  be  quite  unknown.  In 
England  it  is  most  frequent  on  the  southern  and  western  coasts  south  of  Lanca- 
shire, becoming  rarer  on  the  east ;  whilst  in  Ireland  it  appears  to  be  generally 
distributed  and  abundant,  but  less  common  on  the  southern  coast  than  the 
White-fronted  Goose.  Foreign :  Northern  and,  at  high  elevations,  central 
Palsearctic  region  ;  southern  Palsearctic  region  in  winter.  Accidental  in  Iceland. 
It  breeds  in  Scandinavia  north  of  lat.  64°,  in  North  Eussia  as  low  as  Archangel,  in 
the  delta  of  the  Petchora,  on  Kolguev,  Waigats,  and  Nova  Zembla,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Yenisei  above  forest  growth,  and  southwards  on  the  mountains  of  the  Baikal 
district,  eastwards  to  the  Stanavoi  Mountains,  and  the  Arctic  tundras  of  Eastern 
Siberia  northwards  to  the  coast.  It  passes  Europe  south  of  the  limits  already 
given  to  winter  on  both  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  (with  the  exception  of 
North-east  Africa) ;  but  in  mild  winters  many  remain  on  the  coasts  of  Denmark 
and  France,  and  more  rarely  those  of  Spain,  whilst  it  has  been  known  accidentally 
to  wander  as  far  south  as  Madeira.  Vast  numbers  also  winter  in  the  south  of 
Eussia  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Caspian.  Further  east  it  passes  South-west 


318  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Siberia,  Mongolia,  and  the  valley  of  the  Amoor  on  migration,  and  winters  in 
North-east  Turkestan,  China,  and  Japan. 

Allied  forms. — Anser  serrirostris,  the  eastern  form  of  the  Bean  Goose ; 
only  apparently  subspecifically  distinct,  the  two  races  intergrading.  As  we  have 
already  noticed,  in  treating  of  the  entire  range  of  both  forms,  it  is  an  inhabitant 
of  Eastern  Siberia  from  the  Baikal  district  to  the  Pacific.  Typical  examples 
differ  from  the  Bean  Goose  in  being  larger,  especially  the  bill  and  feet  (length  of 
bill  from  frontal  feathers  to  tip  3'4  to  2'4  inches,  instead  of  from  2'5  inches  to 
1'7  inch).  The  head  and  neck  are  huffish-brown  instead  of  brownish-grey.  A. 
branhyrhynchus,  a  fairly  distinct  island  race,  a  British  species,  and  A .  neglectus, 
both  dealt  with  in  the  following  chapter. 

Habits. — Great  numbers  of  Bean  Geese  simply  pass  along  our  coasts  in 
autumn  for  more  southern  haunts,  and  repass  them  on  their  way  north  again  in 
spring ;  still  many  remain  with  us  throughout  the  winter.  This  species,  like  most 
of  its  congeners,  begins  to  arrive  in  its  northern  haunts  with  the  first  signs  of 
departing  winter.  Small  parties  reach  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Arctic  circle,  both 
in  Europe  and  Asia,  during  the  second  half  of  May,  but  these  are  often  compelled 
to  retire  some  distance  south  again  owing  to  a  late  frost.  When  once  the  great 
rivers  break  through  their  bonds  of  ice,  and  the  south  wind  brings  summer  to  the 
Arctic  regions,  the  Bean  Geese  arrive  in  full  force,  flock  after  flock  pouring  in 
from  the  south,  following  in  the  wake  of  the  open  water.  As  soon  as  the  young 
are  half-grown,  and  the  short  summer  begins  to  wane,  these  Geese  again  unite 
into  flocks  to  complete  their  moult,  and  then  in  early  autumn  the  grand  flight 
south  commences.  In  our  Islands  the  Bean  Goose  lives  in  flocks  of  varying  size, 
which  wander  about  a  good  deal,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather  and  the 
supply  of  food.  Some  of  these  gatherings  are  very  large,  and  at  all  times  difficult 
to  approach,  although  the  birds  are  certainly  less  wary  at  night.  The  Bean 
Goose  usually  frequents  the  sea  and  the  coast  during  the  night,  coming  inland  to 
stubbles  and  fields  of  newly-sown  grain  in  the  day  to  feed.  During  long-continued 
frost  they  keep  more  to  the  coast,  but  in  rough,  stormy  weather  they  are  more 
partial  to  remaining  in  inland  districts,  from  which,  however,  they  soon  depart 
at  the  first  sign  of  recurring  frost.  The  flight  of  this  Goose  is  rapid  and  strong, 
and  the  birds  when  passing  from  place  to  place  usually  assume  a  wedge-shaped 
fonnation.  Its  note  whilst  staying  in  our  Islands  is  the  familar  gag-gag  variously 
modulated.  Bean  Geese  when  feeding  on  the  inland  fields  usually  post  sentinels 
here  and  there  to  give  timely  warning  of  the  approach  of  danger.  Upon  the 
water  the  Bean  Goose  swims  well  and  buoyantly,  but  it  rises  with  apparent 
labour  with  a  great  flapping  of  wings  until  well  into  the  air.  The  food  of  this 
species  consists  of  grass,  the  tender  shoots  of  grain,  and  the  roots  of  various 
plants.  In  autumn  the  bird  picks  up  a  great  quantity  of  grain  of  all  kinds  from 


OF  THE  BRITISH   ISLANDS.  319 

the  stubbles,  and  also  frequents  the  newly-sown  fields  at  that  season  and  in 
spring  to  dig  up  the  seed-corn  as  well  as  beans.  Much  of  this  food  is  sought 
at  dawn. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  grounds  of  this  bird  are  situated  on  the 
northern  tundras  beyond  or  near  the  limits  of  forest  growth,  in  the  vicinity  of 
lakes  and  pools.  The  nest  is  made  early  in  June,  and  is  usually  placed  amongst 
the  tall  rank  grass  and  sedge  of  an  islet  in  the  lake  or  on  a  hillock  on  the  bank. 
It  is  merely  a  slight  hollow  lined  with  dry  grass  and  other  vegetable  refuse,  with 
down  from  the  old  bird's  body.  The  eggs  are  three  or  four  in  number,  creamy- 
white  in  colour,  and  rather  rough  in  texture.  They  measure  on  an  average  3'2 
inches  in  length  by  2'15  inches  in  breadth.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — Anser,  with  the  central  portion  of  the  bill 
orange-yellow,  black  at  the  base  and  on  the  nail,  and  with  the  legs  and  feet 
orange-yellow.  Length,  34  inches. 


320  THE    GAME    BIRDS   AND    WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATLD^.  Genus  ANSER. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. 


PINK-FOOTED  GOOSE. 

ANSEE  BKACHYEHYNCHUS— Baillon. 

Anser  brachyrhynchus,  Baillon,  M6m.  de  la  Soc.  roy.  d'6m.  d'Abbev.  1833.  p.  74; 
Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  602  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  369,  pi.  413  (1878) ; 
Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  270  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  498  (1885) ; 
Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxv.  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig. 
Brit.  B.  p.  150  (1894);  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  103  (1895) ;  Seebohm, 
Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  31,  pi.  10  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  234 
(1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  Pink-footed  Goose  is  a 
common  winter  visitor,  found  most  abundantly  on  the  east  coast  of  England  and 
Scotland,  more  sparingly  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  locally  in  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  and  on  the  south  coast  of  England.  Singularly  enough  this  species 
has  but  once  been  obtained  in  Ireland,  nor  has  it  been  observed  in  the  Shetland 
Islands.  Foreign  :  Extreme  north-western  Palaearctic  region  ;  accidental  in  the 
Oriental  region  during  winter.  The  only  known  breeding  places  of  this  very 
doubtfully  distinct  species  are  on  the  islands  of  Spitzbergen,  probably  on  Iceland, 
and  possibly  on  Nova  Zembla  and  Franz-Josef  Land.  It  is  found  on  the  coasts 
of  Scandinavia,  Denmark,  and  Holland  during  the  autumn  and  spring  migrations, 
and  during  winter  has  been  observed  on  the  coasts  of  Belgium  and  France.  So 
far  as  is  known,  the  British  Islands  are  the  grand  headquarters  of  this  Goose 
during  winter.  It  has  been  obtained  in  Northern  India.  Among  other  occur- 
rences may  be  mentioned  a  pair  shot  in  the  Jumna  by  Hume  during  January, 
1864. 

Allied  forms. — Anser  segetum,  probably  the  parent  form,  a  British  species, 
and  treated  fully  in  the  preceding  chapter.  Whether  the  Anser  neglectus,  recently 
described  by  Sushkin  from  the  government  of  Ufa,  be  distinct  from  the  Pink- 
footed  Goose  and  the  Bean  Goose  we  are  not  as  yet  prepared  to  admit.  It  is 
said  to  be  larger  than,  and  to  differ  somewhat  in  colour  from,  the  former.  (Couf. 
Ibis  1897,  pp.  5—8. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  Pink-footed  Goose  are  not  know  to  differ  in  any 
very  important  particular  from  those  of  the  closely  allied  Bean  Goose ;  indeed, 


OP    THE    BRITISH    ISLANDS.  321 

further  investigation  may  yet  prove  that  the  two  birds  are  only  subspecifically 
distinct.  The  note  of  the  Pink-footed  Goose,  however,  is  said  to  he  sharper  and 
more  quickly  repeated.  The  flocks  of  this  Goose  that  visit  our  Islands  every 
autumn  frequent  the  stubbles,  fields,  and  marshes  inland  during  the  day  and  on 
moonlight  nights  to  feed,  and  retire  to  the  coast  at  the  approach  of  darkness  to 
sleep,  generally  frequenting  some  low  island  or  sandbank  for  the  purpose.  The 
flight  of  this  Goose  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Bean  Goose,  and  the  bird  also 
subsists  on  precisely  similar  fare.  Eeferring  to  the  peculiar  habit  of  the  Bean 
Goose  of  squatting  close  to  the  ground  in  the  same  manner  as  a  Norfolk  Plover 
when  alarmed,  Mr.  Trevor-Battye  remarks :  "  The  Pink-footed  Geese  of  Spitz- 
bergen  behave  in  the  same  way  if  they  have  their  young  with  them.  Provided 
the  ground  is  not  too  steep,  they  run  for  long  distances,  sometimes  even  along  the 
edge  of  the  water  without  entering  it.  Pink-footed  Geese  are  remarkably  quick 
upon  their  legs,  and  the  young  birds  when  half-grown  can  run  as  fast  as  the  old 
ones ;  the  latter,  if  hurried,  run  with  outstretched  wings,  which  hinder  them 
against  the  wind,  but  if  too  closely  pressed  the  goose  which  leads  (the  gander 
brings  up  the  rear)  will  suddenly  drop,  and  the  whole  party  follow  her  example. 
You  can  then  walk  up  and  look  at  them  lying  there,  all  in  precisely  the  same 
attitude,  with  bodies  flattened  down  and  necks  outstretched  on  the  ground,  so 
that  you  must  stir  them  up  in  order  to  start  them  off  again." 

Nidification. — But  little  is  known  of  the  breeding  habits  of  the  Pink- 
footed  Goose.  Early  in  the  summer  it  frequents  its  breeding  grounds  in  small 
flocks,  but  these  eventually  separate  into  pairs.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  June,  and 
the  young  are  hatched  about  the  middle  or  towards  the  end  of  the  following 
month.  They  are  said  to  make  their  nests  on  low  rocks  near  the  sea,  or  in 
higher  cliffs  either  in  the  fiords  or  at  some  distance  inland,  but  Mr.  Trevor-Battye 
remarks  that  in  Spitzbergen  it  seldom  nests  by  the  sea,  but  retires  inland,  choosing 
as  a  site  some  elevated  point  overlooking  a  stream  or  lake,  but  occasionally  it 
selects  a  small  island.  The  nest  is  not  known  to  differ  from  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding species.  The  eggs  are  four  or  five  in  number,  white  or  creamy-white  in 
colour,  and  somewhat  smooth  in  texture.  They  measure  on  an  average  8'15 
inches  in  length  by  2'15  inches  in  breadth.  Incubation,  performed  by  the  female, 
lasts  twenty-eight  days.  The  male  keeps  constant  watch  close  to  the  nest,  to 
warn  or  defend  his  mate.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.— A nser,  with  the  central  portion  of  the  bill 
usually  pink,  but  sometimes  orange-yellow,  black  at  the  base  and  on  the  nail,  and 
with  the  legs  and  feet  flesh-colour.  Length,  28  inches. 


21 


322  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID^.  Genus  ANSER. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. 


GREY    LAG    GOOSE. 

ANSER   CINEEEUS— Meyer. 

Anas  anser,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  197  (1766). 

Anser  ferus,  Schaeff. ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  589  (1852);  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 

xxvii.  p.  89  (1895). 
Anser  cinereus,  Meyer ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  355,  pi.  411  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 

ed.  4,  iv.  p.  253  (1885);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  500  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxvi.   (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.   224  (1893) ; 

Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  32,  pi.  8  (1896). 
Anser  anser  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  227  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Grey  Lag  Goose  is  most 
probably  the  original  form  from  which  the  domestic  Goose  was  derived.  It 
formerly  bred  in  the  fens  and  marshes  of  East  Anglia,  but  for  nearly  a  hundred 
years  now  has  ceased  to  do  so,  the  reclamation  of  so  much  of  the  swampy  wastes 
in  this  district  causing  it  to  forsake  its  ancient  strongholds.  Its  only  breeding 
places  now  are  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  especially  in  the  Outer  Hebrides,  as  I 
know  from  personal  experience,  in  Boss,  Sutherland,  and  Caithness.  In  Ireland 
a  colony  of  birds  in  a  half-domestic  state  have  their  breeding  place  on  the  lake  at 
Castle  Coole,  the  seat  of  Lord  Belmore,  in  Co.  Monaghan.  It  is  a  winter  visitor 
to  the  British  Islands,  accidental  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  rare  on  the  east 
coast  of  Scotland,  more  abundant  on  the  east  coast  of  England,  but  rare  on  the 
south.  It  is  rare  on  the  west  coasts  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  very  local  in 
Ireland,  mostly  in  the  central  counties  and  the  sea  lough  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Shannon.  Foreign:  Palaearctic  region;  northern  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It 
breeds  throughout  Scandinavia  and  Denmark,  and  Russia  below  the  Arctic  circle 
in  all  suitable  localities  south  to  the  Caucasus.  It  also  breeds  sparingly  in  North 
Germany,  and  still  more  rarely  in  Holland  and  South-western  Spain ;  and  is 
known  to  do  so  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube.  Eastwards  it  may  probably  breed 
in  Central  Persia  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Obb  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  circle, 
but  in  the  remainder  of  Siberia  it  does  not  appear  to  extend  north  of  Lake  Baikal. 
It  breeds  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Amoor,  in  Mongolia,  and  Turkestan.  On 
migration  it  occurs  in  the  Faroes,  and  is  said  to  breed  in  Iceland.  It  visits 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  France  on  passage,  sometimes  remaining  to  winter 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  323 

daring  mild  seasons,  and  is  also  known  on  migration  in  Central  Europe,  and  is  a 
winter  visitor  to  both  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Spanish  Peninsula. 
The  Asiatic  birds  winter  in  China  south  to  Shanghai  and  in  Northern  India. 

Allied  forms.  —Anser  rubrirostris.  Eastern  examples  of  the  Grey  Lag 
Goose  are  said  to  be  rather  larger  than  those  from  western  localities,  and  to  have 
more  black  on  the  underparts  and  less  grey  on  the  wing  coverts,  but  whether 
these  differences  are  of  sufficient  constancy  and  importance  to  merit  subspecific 
rank  is  still  an  open  question.  A.  albifrons  and  A.  erythropus,  British  species, 
dealt  with  fully  in  the  following  chapters. 

Habits. — The  Grey  Lag  Goose  does  not  go  so  far  north  to  breed  as  the 
preceding  species,  and  consequently  its  migrations  are  performed  earlier  in  spring, 
and  in  some  localities  the  return  south  is  also  much  sooner  than  is  usually  the 
case  with  birds  that  seek  their  summer  quarters  early.  The  return  migration 
begins  early  in  March,  both  in  Europe  and  in  Asia.  Naumann  states  that  they 
arrive  in  Germany  at  the  end  of  February  or  early  the  following  month.  Hume 
says  that  they  begin  to  leave  India  early  in  March,  and  continue  to  do  so 
throughout  that  month ;  whilst  Scully  observed  them  at  Yarkand,  in  Turkestan, 
flying  due  north  at  a  corresponding  date.  The  return  migration  is  said  by 
Naumann  to  begin  in  Germany  towards  the  end  of  July,  and  a  month  later  most 
of  the  birds  have  gone  ;  but  in  Upper  India  this  Goose  is  not  observed  until  the 
end  of  October,  and  in  the  south  a  week  or  so  later  still.  In  its  winter  quarters 
it  is  a  very  gregarious  bird,  and  often  congregates  into  large  flocks  of  many 
hundreds,  which,  when  passing  from  one  distant  place  to  another,  or  during 
migration,  fly  high  either  in  a  single  line  or  in  the  shape  of  a  V  or  W,  but  when 
simply  changing  their  feeding  grounds  progress  in  scattered  order.  Although  so 
gregarious,  it  is  rather  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  Grey  Lag  Goose  seldom  consorts 
with  other  Wild  Geese,  yet  it  is  ready  enough  to  fraternise  with  its  domesticated 
descendants.  Normally  this  Goose  is  a  day  feeder,  but  in  districts  where  it  is 
much  persecuted  it  changes  its  habits  and  searches  for  its  food  at  night.  In 
India,  where  the  days  are  very  hot,  it  does  not  feed  much  after  nine  in  the 
morning  until  about  four  in  the  afternoon,  spending  the  interval  in  sleep  in  some 
safe  and  convenient  spot.  In  our  Islands  many  Grey  Lag  Geese  repair  to  the 
coast  towards  evening  and  sleep  on  some  sandbank  or  low  island  ;  others  resort 
to  wild  marshes  and  uplands  to  spend  the  hours  of  repose.  This  Goose  does  not 
frequent  the  water  much  unless  alarmed  or  during  the  helpless  period  of  its 
moult ;  then  the  flocks  often  go  for  some  distance  out  to  sea  to  rest.  It  swims 
well  and  buoyantly,  and  when  wounded  is  even  known  to  dive,  although  it  cannot 
remain  under  water  long.  Hume  remarks  that  in  India  it  always  prefers  rivers, 
and  is  rarely  seen  on  lakes  and  pools.  Although  a  wary  bird  it  is  by  no  means  a 
shy  one,  and  if  proper  means  are  adopted  can  often  be  approached  with  little 


324  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

difficulty.  The  stalker,  instead  of  advancing  directly  towards  the  flock,  should 
approach  in  a  sidelong  manner  as  if  about  to  pass  them.  The  flight  of  the  Grey 
Lag  Goose  is  rapid  and  powerful,  and  often  very  graceful,  especially  as  a  big 
flock  of  birds  survey  the  ground  previous  to  alighting.  When  satisfied  that  all 
is  safe  the  birds  often  descend  with  great  velocity,  circling  and  turning,  and 
alighting  on  the  earth  almost  directly  below  them.  The  call-note  of  this  Goose 
is  a  loud,  far-sounding  gag-gag,  which  is  uttered  not  only  when  the  birds  are 
migrating,  but  when  they  are  congregated  on  the  ground,  or  just  after  they  are 
disturbed.  The  din  of  gag-ing  sounds,  and  the  rattle  of  wings  as  a  big  flock 
struggle  into  the  air  after  being  fired  at,  is  almost  deafening.  This  note  is 
variously  modulated  during  sexual  excitement  or  surprise.  The  food  of  the  Grey 
Lag  Goose  consists  largely  of  grass  and  the  tender  shoots  of  growing  corn. 
Grain  of  all  kinds  is  also  eaten,  both  on  the  stubbles  and  the  newly-sown  fields, 
whilst  buds  and  leaves  and  roots  of  various  aquatic  plants  are  sought. 

Nidification. — The  Grey  Lag  Goose  is  an  early  breeder;  in  southern 
localities  the  eggs  are  laid  late  in  March  or  early  in  April,  but  further  north  they 
are  from  three  to  five  weeks  later.  This  Goose  pairs  for  life,  as  probably  all 
other  of  its  congeners  do,  and  during  the  breeding  season  is  more  or  less  gregarious, 
numbers  of  nests  often  being  made  in  a  comparatively  small  area.  The  breeding 
grounds  of  this  bird  are  wild  moors  and  swamps.  The  nest  is  made  on  the 
ground,  amongst  tall  heather  or  the  rank,  coarse  vegetation  of  the  swamps,  and 
is  a  huge  structure  sometimes  more  than  a  foot  in  height  and  three  feet  in 
diameter.  The  materials  of  which  it  is  composed  vary  a  good  deal  according  to 
locality — branches  of  dead  heath,  rushes,  reeds,  dry  grass,  bracken,  leaves  and 
turf,  lined,  as  incubation  progresses,  more  and  more  thickly  with  down  and 
feathers  plucked  from  the  breast  of  the  female.  The  eggs  are  six  or  eight  in 
number,  but  in  rare  instances  it  is  said  twelve  or  fourteen  have  been  found. 
They  are  creamy-white,  and  exhibit  little  or  no  gloss.  They  are  oval  in  form, 
and  measure  on  an  average  3'45  inches  in  length  by  2'35  inches  in  breadth. 
Incubation  is  performed  by  the  female,  and  lasts  twenty-eight  days.  The  male 
keeps  close  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  nest,  ready  to  warn  his  mate  or  to  fight 
fiercely  if  the  eggs  are  threatened  by  any  marauding  bird  or  beast.  One  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  are  sufficiently  fledged  a 
move  to  the  sea  is  usually  made.  The  young  are  said  to  return  at  night  and 
sleep  in  the  nest  for  some  time,  covered  by  the  wings  of  the  female.  Flocks  of 
immature,  non-breeding  birds  may  often  be  observed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
breeding  grounds,  waiting  until  the  young  are  reared,  when  they  flock  with  the 
rest  for  the  winter. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Anser,  with  the  rump  and  wing  coverts  slate- 
grey,  with  the  bill  flesh-coloured,  the  nail  white,  and  with  the  legs  and  feet  flesh- 
coloured.  Length,  35  inches  (male)  ;  30  inches  (female). 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  325 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  ANSER. 

Subfamily  AN  SERIN JE. 


WHITE=FRONTED  GOOSE. 

AN  SEE    ALBIFEONS— (Scopoli). 

Branta  albifrons,  Scop.  Ann.  I.  Hist.  Nat.  p.  69  (1769). 

Anser  albifrons  (Scop.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  609  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 
375,  pi.  414  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  261  (1885)  ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit. 
B.  iii.  p.  505  (1885);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  x.  (1889);  Dixon,  Nests  and 
Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  151  (1894) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  92 
(1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  32,  pi.  10  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B. 
Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  230  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  White-fronted  Goose  is  a 
winter  visitor,  local  in  distribution,  and  much  more  abundant  some  seasons  than 
others.  It  is  found  in  small  numbers  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  but  is  for  the 
most  part  very  rare  in  the  Shetlands,  and  is  even  more  local  on  the  west,  where  its 
chief  strongholds  are  the  Outer  Hebrides,  notably  Islay.  It  is  rare  on  the  east  coast 
of  England  and  in  Wales,  but  much  more  common — in  some  seasons  remarkably 
abundant — on  the  south  and  south-west.  It  is  commonest  in  Ireland,  its  principal 
haunts  being  in  the  north-west,  west,  and  south.  Foreign :  Palaearctic  region  ; 
some  parts  of  the  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  is  an  accidental  visitor  to  the 
Faroes  and  Iceland,  but  breeds  regularly  in  Arctic  Eussia  and  across  Siberia  to 
Behring  Strait.  It  passes  the  coasts  of  West  Europe,  the  river  valleys  of  Eussia 
and  Siberia,  and  Turkestan  on  migration.  It  winters  off  the  coast  of  France,  and 
occasionally  wanders  as  far  south  as  Gibraltar,  Italy,  and  Transylvania.  Other 
parties  of  migrants  crossing  inland  routes  winter  in  Greece,  South  Eussia,  Asia 
Minor,  North-east  Africa,  the  Persian  coasts  of  the  Caspian,  and  North-west 
India.  In  the  far  east  the  migrants  follow  the  coast  as  in  the  west,  and  winter 
in  Japan  and  China  as  far  south  as  Shanghai. 

Allied  forms. — Anser  erythropus.  The  small  form  of  the  White-fronted 
Goose,  a  "British"  species,  and  dealt  with  fully  in  the  following  chapter.  A. 
gambeli,  an  inhabitant  of  Arctic  America  as  far  north  as  lat.  72°,  ranging  from 
Alaska  to  Greenland,  wintering  in  the  United  States  as  far  south  as  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  Nearctic  form  of  the  White-fronted  Goose,  perhaps  only 


326  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

subspecifically  distinct.  Typical  examples  are  distinguished  by  their  large  size 
(total  length,  29  inches),  much  darker  wing  coverts,  and  greater  amount  of  black 
on  the  underparts.  A.  cinereus,  a  British  species,  to  which  the  present  Goose 
and  its  several  forms  are  most  nearly  related. 

Habits. — Kemarkably  little  of  any  value  has  been  recorded  concerning  the 
economy  of  the  White-fronted  Goose.  It  is  by  no  means  common  in  our  Islands, 
but  here  its  habits  are  certainly  very  similar  to  those  of  the  allied  Geese.  Unfor- 
tunately it  is  a  rare  bird  in  India,  and  Hume  has  little  to  tell  us  of  its  habits  there 
in  winter.  Captain  Shelley,  however,  remarked  its  abundance  in  Egypt  during 
the  cold  season,  where  it  remains  until  March,  usually  in  flocks.  They  visit  their 
feeding  grounds  with  great  regularity,  taking  one  particular  line  of  flight  each 
day  and  frequenting  particular  places,  but  if  shot  at  soon  quit  the  neighbourhood 
altogether.  The  birds  that  Hume  obtained  in  India  had  been  feeding  on  wild  rice 
and  tender  shoots  of  grass  or  corn.  The  note  of  this  Goose  is  said  to  be  rather 
more  harsh  and  cackling  than  that  of  the  preceding  species,  hence  the  bird's 
name  in  India  and  other  districts  of  "  Laughing  "  Goose. 

Nidification. — Von  Middendorff  met  with  this  Goose  breeding  in  great 
numbers  on  the  tundras  of  the  Taimur  Peninsula,  the  most  northerly  land  of 
Continental  Asia,  and  states  that  the  nest  was  built  on  a  grass-covered  mound. 
It  was  simply  a  hollow  on  the  top  of  a  mound,  lined  with  plenty  of  down  from  the 
body  of  the  female.  Dall,  in  Alaska,  describes  nests  he  found  on  the  banks  of 
the  Yukon  as  depressions  in  the  sand,  but  this  was  probably  before  the  full  clutch 
of  eggs  was  laid  and  no  down  had  been  added ;  for  MacFarlane  discovered  nests  on 
the  Anderson  Eiver  wannly  made  of  dry  grass  and  well  lined  with  down  and 
feathers.  The  eggs  are  from  five  to  seven  in  number,  but  ten  have  been  found, 
creamy-white  in  colour,  and  measure  on  an  average  3'0  inches  in  length  by  2'0 
inches  in  breadth.  The  period  of  incubation  is  unknown,  and  doubtless  one  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Anser,  with  the  bill  orange-yellow  and  the 
nail  white,  with  the  legs  and  feet  orange-yellow,  and  with  a  variable  amount  of 
white  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible,  but  not  reaching  a  line  between 
the  eyes.  Adults  much  mottled  with  brownish-black  on  the  breast.  Length. 
27  inches. 


OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  327 

Family  ANATID.E.  Genus  ANSER. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. 


LESSER  WHITE-FRONTED  GOOSE. 

ANSBE  ERYTHBOPUS.— (Linnaus). 

Anas  erythropus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  197  (1766). 

Anser  erythropus  (Linn.),  Newton,  Proc.  Zool.  Soe.  1860,  p.  341 ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur. 
vi.  p.  383  (1879);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  263  (1885);  Salvador!,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  97  (1895). 

Anser  albifrons  minutus,  Naumann ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  505  (1885) : 
Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  153  (1894);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig. 
Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  33,  pi.  12  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  There  can  be  DO  possible  doubt 
that  the  Lesser  White-fronted  Goose — the  small  race  of  the  White-fronted 
Goose — is  a  regular  visitor  to  the  British  Islands  during  winter,  although  never 
apparently  so  numerous  as  its  larger  relation.  Be  this  as  it  may,  there  is  an  old 
saying  by  an  ornithologist  now  passed  away,  "What  is  hit  is  history,  and  what 
is  missed  is  mystery,"  which  applies  not  only  to  this  species  but  to  all  other  rare 
birds  that  pay  us  their  uncertain  and  irregular  visits,  and  the  only  claim  of  this 
small  Goose  to  rank  as  "  British  "  rests,  so  far  as  I  ani  aware,  upon  one  recorded 
occurrence.  England  :  Northumberland,  Holy  Island  (one  example),  September, 
1886.  Foreign :  Northern  Palsearctic  region  ;  more  southerly  in  winter.  It  breeds 
in  the  northern  districts  of  Scandinavia,  and  thence  across  Arctic  Russia  and 
Siberia  at  least  as  far  as  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei.  The  range  of  this  species, 
however,  both  in  summer  and  winter  and  during  migration,  is  very  imperfectly 
known,  but,  so  far  as  it  can  be  traced,  it  appears  to  be  almost  identical  with  that 
of  the  large  form  of  this  Goose. 

Allied  forms. — Anser  albifrons,  the  large  race  of  the  White-fronted 
Goose,  a  British  species,  and  dealt  with  fully  in  the  preceding  chapter.  A. 
gambeli,  the  Nearctic  representative  race,  previously  alluded  to  (Conf.  p.  325). 

Habits. — Owing  to  the  confusion  of  the  two  races,  the  information  con- 
cerning the  habits  of  the  Lesser  White-fronted  Goose  is  even  more  scanty  than 
that  respecting  the  economy  of  the  preceding  race.  Hume  states  that  in  India, 


328  THE   GAME  BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

where  it  is  a  rare  straggler,  it  is  not  so  shy  as  the  other  Geese,  probably  because 
it  is  so  much  smaller.  Its  flight  is  said  to  be  much  quicker,  and  the  bird  has 
more  command  over  itself  in  the  air,  owing  to  the  wings  being  proportionately 
longer  and  more  pointed.  It  is  also  less  noisy  than  the  other  Geese,  and  is  fond 
of  the  society  of  other  species,  but  neither  feeds  nor  flies  in  their  immediate 
company.  It  is  said  also  to  be  more  aquatic  in  its  habits,  but  its  food  is  not 
known  to  differ  from  that  of  its  congeners. 

Nidification. — Little  or  nothing  is  known  of  the  breeding  habits  of  this 
species.  The  nest  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  the  other  allied  Geese  and  to  be 
placed  in  a  similar  position.  The  eggs  are  from  five  to  seven  in  number,  creamy- 
white  in  colour,  and  measure  on  an  average  2'9  inches  in  length  by  2'0  inches  in 
breadth. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Anser,  with  the  bill  very  small,  orange-yellow 
in  colour,  white  on  the  nail ;  with  the  legs  and  feet  orange-yellow,  and  with  a 
considerable  amount  of  white  plumage  on  the  forehead  extending  backwards  on 
to  the  crown.  Adults  as  in  preceding  race,  but  dark  markings  more  clearly 
defined.  Length,  20  to  24  inches. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  329 


Genus   BRANTA,   or   Brent  Geese. 

Type,  BKANTA  BEENICLA. 


Branta,  of  Scopoli  (17(39). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  short  subconical  bills,  much  shorter  than  the  head.  The 
inner  edge  of  the  mandibles  is  nearly  straight,  and  the  lamellte  are  concealed. 
The  strongly  contrasted  colours  of  the  plumage  are  also  very  characteristic.  The 
wings  are  long  and  ample  and  more  pointed  than  in  Anser  ;  the  tail  is  short  and 
rounded.  The  bill  is  higher  than  broad  at  the  base,  the  unguis  ovate ;  nostrils 
oval  and  nearly  central.  Three  toes  in  front  webbed,  the  webs  not  deeply 
excised ;  hind  toe  small,  elevated. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  about  eight  species  and  subspecies  confined  to  the 
northern  portions  of  the  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions,  slightly  more  widely 
dispersed  during  winter.  Four  species  and  subspecies  are  visitors  to  the  British 
Islands,  but  none  breed  within  our  area. 

The  Brent  Geese  are  maritime  in  their  haunts  during  winter,  but  in  summer 
little  is  known  concerning  them.  They  are  birds  of  sustained  and  rapid  flight, 
and  swim  and  walk  with  ease.  Their  notes  are  loud  and  sonorous.  They  subsist 
chiefly  on  vegetable  substances.  They  are  said  to  make  bulky  nests  on  the 
ground,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous,  and  creamy-white  in  colour.  They  are 
monogamous,  and  probably  pair  for  life.  During  winter  they  are  remarkably 
gregarious.  Their  flesh  is  not  unpalatable. 


330  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  BRANTA. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. 


BRENT    GOOSE. 

BEANTA  BEBNICLA— (Linn.) 
PLATE  XXXII. 

Anas  bernicla,  a,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  198  (1766). 

Anser  brenta,  Pallas,  Zoogr.  Eosso-As.  ii.  p.  229  (1811) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii. 
p.  508  (1885) ;  Seebohrn.  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  33,  pi.  10  (1896). 

Bernicla  brenta  (Pall.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  629,  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur  vi.  p.  389, 
pi.  415,  fig.  2  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  290  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xxiv.  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  154  (1894). 

Branta  bernicla  (Linn.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  119  (1895) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  239  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Brent  Goose  is  a  common 
winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  perhaps  the  most  abundant  species  of  Goose 
upon  our  coasts  during  the  cold  season,  universally  distributed,  especially  on  the 
east  and  south,  becoming  rarer,  however,  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  the 
Hebrides,  and  along  the  entire  western  shores  of  Scotland.  In  Ireland  it  is 
equally  abundant  and  widely  distributed.  Foreign :  North-west  Palaoarctic 
region  ;  more  southerly  in  winter.  The  typical  form  of  the  Brent  Goose  breeds 
on  Spitzbergen,  Franz-Josef  Land,  and  Nova  Zembla,  but  how  far  to  the  east 
is  unknown,  possibly  to  the  Taimur  Peninsula.  It  was  not  found  by  Mr.  Popham 
in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei  south  of  lat.  72°  N.,  where  young  in  down  were 
obtained.  It  passes  the  Faroes,  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia,  and  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic  on  migration,  and  winters  on  the  coasts  of  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium, 
North  Germany,  and  France.  During  the  cold  season  it  occasionally  visits  the 
Mediterranean  basin,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Nile  delta.  It  has  been  shot  as 
far  south  as  Mogador,  in  Morocco,  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Payton.  Of  the  breeding  of  this 
species  in  Iceland  there  is  not  a  shred  of  positive  evidence. 

Allied  forms. — Branta  glaucogaster,  an  inhabitant  of  the  northern 
Nearctic  region,  breeding  from  the  Arctic  Archipelago  in  the  east  to  the  west 
coast  of  Greenland  in  the  west,  and  as  far  north  as  land  is  known  to  exist.  It 
winters  on  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  North  America  as  far  south  as  Texas.  The 
American  form  of  the  Brent  Goose,  only  subspecifically  distinct,  a  "  British  " 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  331 

species  more  or  less  intergrading  with  its  Old  World  ally,  and  dealt  with  fully  in 
the  following  chapter.  B.  nigricans,  an  inhabitant  of  Siberia  as  far  east  as  the 
Lena  and  North-west  America,  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  distinguished 
from  the  Brent  Goose  by  having  the  white  of  the  neck  meeting  in  front  and 
forming  a  nearly  uninterrupted  collar,  and  the  black  of  the  breast  reaching  to 
the  belly. 

Habits. — Brent  Geese  are  seldom  very  common  in  our  Islands  before 
October,  but  from  that  date  onwards,  through  the  winter  up  to  the  end  of  March, 
they  are  far  and  away  the  most  numerous  species  of  the  present  subfamily  to  be 
found  on  the  British  coasts.  Vast  flocks  accumulate  in  certain  favoured  districts, 
among  which  I  may  specially  mention  the  Wash,  where  I  have  seen  gatherings 
of  these  birds  covering  many  acres  of  mud-flat,  and  whose  noisy  clamour  in  the 
still  hours  of  early  morning  could  be  heard  for  a  mile  or  more  across  the  salt 
marshes.  The  Brent  Goose  whilst  with  us  is  decidedly  a  coast  bird,  rarely  seen 
inland,  but  spending  its  time  either  on  the  sea  or  the  great  mud-banks  adjoining. 
It  is  a  very  gregarious  bird,  and  the  young  and  adults  flock  together ;  but  it  has 
frequently  been  remarked  that  in  some  winters  few,  if  any,  young  birds  made 
their  appearance,  a  fact  which  apparently  suggests  a  great  misfortune  at  the 
breeding  grounds.  It  is  a  remarkably  wary  bird,  seldom  allowing  a  near  approach 
on  shore,  and  requiring  the  most  skilful  management  on  the  part  of  the  sports- 
man to  creep  up  within  range  on  the  sea.  The  principal  food  of  the  Brent  Goose 
consists  of  the  grass- wrack  (Zostera  marina)  and  laver  (Ulva  latissima) ,  which 
grow  plentifully  on  certain  mud-banks,  and  to  these  banks  the  Geese  resort  as 
soon  as  the  tide  recedes  sufficiently  for  them  to  reach  the  plants,  which  are  torn 
up  and  eaten.  If  approached  at  these  times  the  adult  birds  usually  fly  off  to  sea 
well  out  of  harm's  way,  but  the  young  birds  are  more  trustful,  and  simply  rise 
and  settle  again,  as  if  loth  to  leave  the  feast,  and  this  greediness  or  inexperience 
costs  the  lives  of  a  good  many  every  year.  During  the  period  of  high  water  the 
Brent  Goose  usually  retires  some  distance  out  to  sea,  but  I  have  known  great 
flocks  settle  on  low  islands,  and  pass  the  time  between  the  tides  in  sleeping  or 
preening  their  plumage.  The  Brent  Goose  feeds  principally  during  the  day,  but 
often  visits  the  banks  at  low  water  for  that  purpose  during  a  bright  moonlight 
night.  In  addition  to  the  food  already  mentioned,  Feilden  records  that  at  their 
breeding  grounds  Brent  Geese  feed  on  the  buds  of  a  saxifrage,  a  substance  which 
is  only  taken  whilst  the  birds  are  ashore  rearing  their  young.  Grass  and  possibly 
animal  food  may  also  be  eaten  then.  The  flight  of  this  bird  is  rather  laboured 
but  regular.  Its  note  is  a  loud  and  oft-repeated  hank,  or  honk,  which  is  uttered 
not  only  011  the  ground,  but  when  the  birds  are  flying. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  habits  of  the  Brent  Goose  have  been  carefully 
observed  by  Colonel  Feilden  during  the  Nares  Arctic  expedition.  This  informa- 


332  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND    WILD   FOWL 

tion,  strictly  speaking,  applies  to  the  White-bellied  Brent  Goose,  but  possibly  does 
not  differ  to  any  important  extent  in  the  two  races.  He  noticed  its  arrival  at  the 
breeding  grounds  near  Knot  Harbour  in  lat.  82J°  N.  on  the  9th  of  June,  and  eggs 
were  laid  by  the  21st  of  that  month.  Shortly  after  its  arrival  the  male  and 
female  were  observed  rising  in  spiral  flight  to  a  great  elevation,  toying  and 
playing  with  each  other  meanwhile.  Some  of  the  nests  were  made  on  the  hill 
sides  between  the  snow-line  and  the  sea,  others  were  placed  on  an  island,  beyond 
the  line  of  open  water,  and  separated  from  the  mainland  by  rough  hummocks  of 
snow  and  ice.  The  nests  were  made  in  hollows  in  the  ground,  and  were  com- 
posed of  grass,  moss,  and  saxifrages,  and  warmly  lined  with  down.  The  eggs  are 
four  or  five  in  number,  creamy-white  in  colour,  and  rather  smooth  and  glossy. 
They  measure  on  an  average  2'75  inches  in  length  by  T85  inch  in  breadth.  As 
with  other  species,  the  male  keeps  watch  near  the  nest  whilst  the  female  is 
incubating,  ready  to  warn  her  or  assist  in  defending  the  eggs.  One  brood  only 
is  reared  in  the  year,  and  by  the  end  of  July  most  of  the  Brent  Geese  were 
moulting  their  quills  so  quickly  as  to  be  incapable  of  flight.  When  alarmed, 
however,  they  ran  quickly  to  the  nearest  water  for  safety. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Branta,  with  the  head  and  neck  black,  and 
a  small  white  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  latter.     Length,  22  to  24  inches. 


OF   THE   BBITISH   ISLANDS.  333 

Family  ANATimE.  Genus  BBANTA. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. 


WHITE-BELLIED   BRENT   GOOSE. 

BKANTA   GLAUCOGASTEE—  (Brehm). 

Bernicla  glaucogaster,  Brehm,  Vog.  Deutschl.  p.  849  (1831). 

Anser   brenta  glaucogaster  (Brehm),   Seebohm,   Hist.  Brit.   B.   iii.   p.  508   (1885) ; 

Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  33,  pi.  10  (1896). 
Bernicla  brenta  glaucogaster  (Brehm),  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B. 

p.  156  (1894). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  White-bellied  Brent  Goose, 
which  with  some  hesitation  we  have  separated  specifically  from  the  Brent  Goose, 
is  a  winter  visitor  to  the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands,  where  its  distribution  is 
not  known  to  differ  from  that  of  the  typical  Brent  Goose,  although  the  bird  is  a  much 
rarer  one.  Intermediate  forms  between  the  two  races  occur  on  our  coasts,  and 
are  perhaps  more  numerous  than  the  thorough-bred  white-bellied  race.  Foreign  : 
Northern  Nearctic  region  ;  more  southerly  in  winter.  It  breeds  on  the  coasts  and 
islands  north  of  lat.  72°,  from  the  Arctic  archipelago  to  the  east  coasts  of  Baffin 
Bay  and  north  to  the  limits  of  known  land.  It  has  recently  been  observed  on 
Nova  Zembla  and  Kolguev,  so  that  its  normal  geographical  area  may  prove 
to  be  circumpolar.  Captain  Feilden,  during  the  Nares  Arctic  expedition,  found 
this  Goose  breeding  in  lat.  82^°,  near  Knot  Harbour.  It  winters  on  the  Atlan- 
tic seaboard  of  North  America  as  far  south  as  Texas,  the  birds  appearing  on  our 
coasts  in  winter,  reaching  our  shores  by  way  of  Spitzbergen  and  Franz- Josef  Land. 

Allied  forms. — Branta  bernicla,  the  typical  race  of  Brent  Goose,  a  British 
species  already  dealt  with  in  the  preceding  chapter.  B.  nigricans,  the  American 
representative  of  that  species,  and  previously  alluded  to  (Conf.  p.  331). 

Habits — It  is  not  known  that  the  habits  of  the  White-bellied  Brent  Goose 
differ  in  any  important  respect  from  those  of  the  typical  form.  It  is  just  as 
northerly  in  its  distribution  during  summer,  and  comes  south  in  winter  to  the 
coasts  of  temperate  America.  It  is  equally  gregarious,  and  often  mingles  in 
small  numbers  with  flocks  of  the  preceding  race. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  habits,  the  nest,  and  the  eggs  of  the  White- 
bellied  Brent  Goose  have  been  already  described  in  the  previous  chapter. 

Diagnostic  characters — Branta,  with  the  underparts  below  the  breast 
nearly  white,  and  with  the  head  and  neck  black,  with  a  small  white  patch  on  the 
sides  of  the  latter.  Length,  22  to  24  inches.  Intermediate  forms  between  the 
two  extreme  races  are  frequently  met  with  in  the  British  Islands. 


334  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND   WILD    FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  BEANTA. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. 


BERNACLE   GOOSE. 

BEANTA  LEUCOPSIS— (BeeJutein) . 

Anas  leucopsis,  Bechstein,  Orn.  Taschenb.  ii.  p.  424  (1803). 

Bernicla  leucopsis  (Becbst.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  622  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi. 

p.  397,  pi.  415,  fig.  1  (1878) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  286  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests 

and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  157  (1894). 
Anser  leucopsis  (Bechst.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  512  (1885);  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xi.  (1889)  ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  34,  pi.  10  (1896). 

Branta  leucopsis  (Bechst,),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  117  (1895) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  236  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  ;  The  Bernacle  Goose  is  a  winter 
visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  most  abundant  during  severe  seasons.  It  is  least 
common  on  the  eastern  coast  line  of  Scotland  and  England,  rare  on  the  south 
coast,  but  becoming  much  more  frequent  on  the  west,  from  Cornwall  northwards. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  Solway  district  and  on  the  coasts  of  Lancashire,  and  com- 
monly distributed  throughout  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  including  the  Hebrides. 
It  passes  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands  on  migration.  It  is  locally  distributed 
in  Ireland,  where  it  is  most  abundant  on  the  north  and  north-west  coasts, 
and,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  in  one  or  two  favoured  districts  on  the 
east.  This  Goose  frequently  wanders  inland,  and  winters  on  large  sheets  of 
water,  especially  where  it  is  afforded  protection.  Foreign :  North-west  Palae- 
arctic  region ;  more  southerly  in  winter.  Although  the  Bernacle  Goose  has 
been  well  known  for  the  past  three  hundred  years  and  more,  its  breeding  grounds 
remain  undiscovered,  and  authentic  eggs  laid  by  the  bird  in  a  wild  state 
are  unknown.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  it  has  been  met  with  during  the 
breeding  season  in  Greenland,  Iceland,  Spitzbergen,  Kolguev,  and  Nova  Zembla. 
Collett  states  that  this  bird  breeds  on  the  Loffoden  Islands,  off  the  coast  of 
Norway,  in  lat.  68%° ;  but  inasmuch  as  the  evidence  is  second-hand,  only  the 
eggs  being  sent,  with  a  meagre  description  of  the  parents  (by  the  proprietor  of 
the  island),  it  is  unwise  to  accept  it.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  these 
"  Black  Geese  "  are  birds  of  the  high  north,  and  seem  to  require  far  different 
climatic  conditions  for  their  reproduction  than  those  prevailing  in  these  compara- 
tively low  and  Gulf  Stream-encircled  islands.  It  occurs  sparingly  in  the  White 


OF   THE    BRITISH   ISLANDS.  335 

Sea,  and  regularly  along  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia,  on  passage,  and  winters  in 
the  Baltic  and  on  the  coasts  of  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  North  France, 
accidentally  straying  as  far  south  as  the  Spanish  Peninsula  and  Foggia,  in  the 
Italian  province  of  Capitanata.  A  pair  were  seen  some  ten  years  ago  by  Mr.  C.  A. 
Payton,  near  Mogador,  in  Morocco,  in  company  with  Buddy  Sheldrakes.  It 
occurs  as  a  straggler  in  the  Shetlands  and  the  Faroes,  and  has  been  known  to 
wander  as  far  as  the  extreme  southern  shore  of  Hudson  Bay. 

Allied  forms. — Branta  canadensis  and  its  allied  forms,  all  inhabitants  of 
the  New  World,  from  which  the  Bernacle  Goose  is  readily  distinguished  by  its 
white  instead  of  black  forehead,  and  black  instead  of  white  upper  breast. 

Habits. — Probably  owing  to  its  much  more  shy  disposition,  the  Bernacle 
Goose  frequents  wilder  haunts  than  the  Brent  Goose,  nor  is  it  so  much  addicted 
to  the  low  shore  or  mud-banks.  It  is  by  far  the  most  abundant,  perhaps,  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Solway  northwards,  along  the  wild,  secluded  coasts  of 
the  Hebrides  and  the  Scotch  mainland.  The  Bernacle  Goose  is  just  as  gregarious 
as  the  Brent  Goose  during  its  sojourn  in  the  British  Islands,  but,  unlike  that 
species,  it  sometimes  frequents  inland  waters,  returning  to  them  regularly  every 
year.  Owing  to  the  different  nature  of  its  food,  the  Bernacle  Goose  is  much 
more  of  a  land  bird  than  the  Brent  Goose,  whilst,  instead  of  feeding  by  day,  it  is 
decidedly  a  night  feeder.  I  am  of  opinion  that  this  nocturnal  habit  is  ancestral  but 
intensified  through  the  bird's  habitual  shyness  impelling  it  to  select  the  time  when 
it  is  least  likely  to  attract  observation  during  its  visits  to  land,  especially  in 
civilised  countries.  Even  when  much  disturbed  at  night,  it  is  ready  enough 
to  come  ashore  during  the  day.  The  Bernacle  Goose  frequents  the  mud-flats  to 
sleep  and  rest,  but  it  does  not  feed  much  whilst  there.  Its  food  consists 
principally  of  marsh  grass,  to  obtain  which  the  bird  comes  up  from  the  sea  to 
the  littoral  saltings,  and  the  banks  of  lakes  and  tidal  rivers.  The  flight  of  this 
Goose  is  quick  and  powerful,  and  the  bird  not  only  swims  well,  but  is  capable 
of  running  very  fast  when  wounded  or  during  the  helpless  period  of  its  moult. 
The  note  of  this  species  is  a  short,  loud,  and  trumpet-like  clang,  variously 
modulated.  A  flock  of  Bernacle  Geese,  whilst  feeding,  will  keep  up  a  constant 
chatter  among  themselves,  and  it  should  be  stated  that  sentinels  are  stationed  to 
keep  watch,  and  to  give  the  alarm  in  case  of  danger  approaching. 

Nidification. — It  is  rather  remarkable  that  nothing  absolutely  is  known  of 
the  breeding  habits  of  this  Goose.  The  nesting  grounds  of  the  great  flocks  that 
come  south  in  winter  are  still  undiscovered.  It  has,  however,  repeatedly  been 
induced  to  breed  in  captivity,  and  by  this  means  its  eggs  are  known.  They  are 
creamy-white,  rather  rough  in  texture,  and  without  gloss.  They  are  rather 
larger  than  those  of  the  Brent  Goose,  and  measure  on  an  average  2'85  inches  in 


336  THE  GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

length  by  T95  inch  in  breadth.  It  may  safely  be  inferred  that  the  Bernacle 
Goose  rears  one  brood  only  in  the  year,  and  the  eggs  are  probably  laid  early  in 
June,  seeing  that  the  birds  have  been  discovered  in  full  moult  and  incapable  of 
flight  on  the  22nd  of  July  in  Spitzbergen. 

Diagnostic  characters.— Branta,  with  the  hind  half  of  the  head  and 
the  neck  black,  and  with  the  fore  half  of  the  head  white,  except  the  lores  and  the 
feathers  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible,  which  are  black.  Length,  25  inches. 


X 
X 


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c 


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hi 

V) 

O 

O  .2 


g3 
a!   <o 

o   <- 


Q 

UJ 


oQ 

V 

E 

1! 

O 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  337 

Family  ANATIDJE.  Genus  BBANTA. 

Subfamily  AtiSERiNM. 


RED=BREASTED   GOOSE. 

BRANTA  EUFICOLLIS— (Pallas). 
PLATE   XXXIII. 

Anser  ruficollis,  Pall.  Spicil.  Zool.  vi.  p.  21,  pi.  v.  (1769) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii., 
p.  515  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  35,  pi.  11  (1896). 

Bernicla  ruficollis  (Pall.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  iv.  p.  634  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi. 
p.  403,  pi.  416  (1876) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  281  (1885)  ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xxi.  (1892) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  158  (1894) ; 
Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  243  (1896). 

Branta  ruficollis  (Pall.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  124  (1895). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Red-breasted  Goose  is  an 
accidental  straggler  during  autumn  and  winter  to  our  area.  Among  many  more 
than  doubtful  records,  the  following  instances  are  apparently  thoroughly  trust- 
worthy: — England:  Near  London  (one  example),  1776.  Quite  an  historical 
interest  attaches  to  this  specimen.  It  was  recorded  by  Tunstall,  formed  the 
subject  of  one  of  Bewick's  plates,  and  is  still  preserved  in  the  Newcastle  Museum. 
Yorkshire  (one  example),  probably  got  about  the  same  time  as  Tunstall's 
specimen ;  Caithness  (one  example) ;  Northumberland  (one  example),  1818 ; 
Devonshire  (two  examples),  1828,  1837;  Essex  (one  example),  January,  1871. 
Foreign :  Extreme  north-central  Palsearctic  region ;  more  southerly  in  winter. 
It  is  only  known  to  breed  above  the  limits  of  forest  growth  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Obb,  the  Yenisei,  and  the  Boganida.  Middendorff  obtained  the  first  authenti- 
cated eggs  of  this  Goose  on  the  Boganida,  and  was  assured  that  the  bird  was 
still  more  numerous  at  the  mouth  of  the  Piasina,  some  miles  further  west. 
An  egg  with  the  parent  bird  which  had  been  obtained  from  an  island  in  the  delta 
of  the  Yenisei  was  brought  to  Seebohm ;  whilst  Finsch  found  it  fairly  numerous 
in  the  valley  of  the  Obb.  More  recently  (1896)  Mr.  H.  L.  Popham  found  four 
nests  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei.  The  migration  of  this  species  appear  to  be 
across  the  plains  of  the  Tax,  between  the  Yenisei  and  the  Obb,  and  down  the 
valley  of  that  river  into  the  Irtish  valley,  thence  into  that  of  the  Tobol  and  the 
Ural,  onwards  to  the  Caspian.  This  route  takes  the  bird  through  South-western 
Siberia  and  Northern  Turkestan  to  its  winter  quarters  in  the  basin  of  the 
Caspian.  Eastwards  this  species  has  wandered  as  far  as  Lake  Baikal,  whilst 
westwards  it  has  occurred  in  every  country  of  Europe,  except  the  Spanish 
Peninsula.  The  only  evidence  of  this  bird  extending  its  wanderings  southwards 
22 


338  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

to  Africa  is  that  it  is  figured  with  unmistakable  accuracy  on  some  of  the  ancient 
Egyptian  papyri,  and  on  the  tombs  of  her  kings  ;  whilst  coming  to  modern  times 
an  example  of  the  Ked-breasted  Goose,  labelled  "Alexandria,"  is  in  the  Lilford 
collection,  whilst  Mr.  Saunders  records  skins  on  sale  in  1884  said  to  have  come 
from  Algeria. 

Allied    forms.— None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 

Habits.— Although  the  habits  of  this  beautiful  Goose  are  but  little  known, 
they  appear  to  resemble  very  closely  those  of  allied  species.  The  Russian 
naturalist  Eadde  states  that  it  winters  in  great  numbers  on  the  southern  coasts 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  that  during  this  season  and  whilst  on  migration  it  con- 
gregates into  large  flocks.  It  is  shy  and  very  difficult  to  approach.  The  Red- 
breasted  Goose  is  a  day  feeder  like  the  Brent  Goose,  but  comes  inland  to  do  so 
like  the  Bernacle  Goose.  Radde  states  that  the  flocks  visit  the  inland  pastures 
during  the  day,  but  at  the  approach  of  night  return  to  the  sea,  and  pass  that 
period  at  some  considerable  distance  from  land.  During  heavy  falls  of  snow 
which  cover  its  feeding  grounds,  great  numbers  of  this  Goose  are  caught  in  nets 
spread  on  places  where  the  snow  has  been  cleared  away  for  the  purpose.  Many 
birds  are  also  shot  during  their  migration  as  the  thousands  of  flocks  pass  along 
certain  routes  towards  the  Arctic  regions  where  they  rear  their  young.  The  food 
of  this  Goose  consists  principally  of  grass,  and  the  leaves  and  shoots  of  other 
herbage.  The  flight  note  is  described  by  Pallas  and  other  naturalists  as  resem- 
bling the  syllables  shak-voy,  but  when  feeding  a  short  trumpet-like  cry  is  uttered 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Brent  Goose. 

Nidification. — Von  Middendorff  obtained  the  first  authentic  eggs  of  the 
Red-breasted  Goose  on  the  banks  of  the  Boganida,  in  Northern  Siberia,  on  the  6th 
of  July.  In  more  recent  times  another  nest  was  discovered  on  July  1st,  on  an  island 
in  the  delta  of  the  Yenisei,  containing  two  eggs,  one  of  which  was  broken,  as  the 
female  was  shot  upon  them,  and  the  other  was  brought  to  Seebohm,  then  on  his 
visit  to  the  valley  of  that  river.  The  nest  was  described  as  being  like  that  of  the 
Bean  Goose,  only  not  so  large.  A  month  later  that  gentleman  observed  broods  of 
Red-breasted  Geese  and  their  parents  on  the  banks  of  the  river  a  few  miles  to  the 
south  of  the  locality  where  the  nest  had  been  discovered.  The  nests  found  by 
Mr.  Popham  were  placed  at  the  foot  of  a  cliff,  occupied  by  either  a  Peregrine  or  a 
Rough-legged  Buzzard,  and  were  well  supplied  with  down  of  a  creamy-white 
colour.  The  eggs,  from  seven  to  nine  in  number,  are  creamy-white  in  colour, 
somewhat  smooth  in  texture,  very  fragile,  and  measure  on  an  average  2'75  inches 
in  length  by  1'8  inch  in  breadth.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  species 
rears  one  brood  only  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — Branta,  with  the  forehead  black,  the  lores 
white,  and  the  throat  and  breast  rich  chestnut.  Length,  22  inches, 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  339 


Subfamily  ANATIN/E,  or  Sheldrakes  and 
Non=diving   Ducks. 


The  birds  included  in  the  present  subfamily  are  distinguished  from  their  allies 
by  having  the  metatarsus  scutellated  in  front,  and  only  a  narrow  membrane  attached 
to  the  hind  toe.  The  bill  is  rather  flat  and  broad.  None  of  the  species  contained 
in  this  group  ever  dive  for  their  food,  which  they  search  for  on  land  or  in  shallow 
water,  only  submerging  the  fore  half  of  the  body  whilst  probing  and  sifting  the  mud 
and  weeds  for  sustenance.  In  the  Sheldrakes  the  sexes  are  nearly  alike  in  colour, 
but  in  the  Ducks  there  is  usually  considerable  sexual  difference  in  this  respect. 
The  Sheldrakes  moult  once  in  autumn,  but  the  Non-diving  Ducks  have  one  com- 
plete moult  in  autumn,  and  the  males  of  many  species  moult  their  small  feathers 
twice — once  in  early  summer  and  once  in  autumn. 

This  subfamily  is  composed  of  upwards  of  seventy  species,  divisible  into  about 
a  score  fairly  well-defined  genera. 


340  THE   GAME  BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 


Genus  TADORNA,  or  Sheldrakes. 

Type,  TADOENA  COENUTA. 


Tadorna,  of  Fleming  (1822). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  their  white  carpal  region  of  the  wing,  which  is  also  swollen  into 
a  hard  feathered  protuberance ;  by  their  rather  long  metatarsus  (nearly  as  long  as 
the  middle  toe  and  claw),  and  by  their  prevailing  and  usually  strongly  contrasted 
colours  of  black,  white,  and  chestnut.  The  wings  are  long  and  ample,  the  second 
primary  the  longest.  The  bill  is  broader  towards  the  tip  than  at  the  base,  the 
lamellffi  equally  developed  along  the  inner  edge  of  the  upper  mandible,  those  on 
the  lower  mandible  not  projecting  outwardly ;  the  unguis  decurved  and  hooked  ; 
nostrils  oval,  sub-basal.  Three  toes  in  front  webbed  ;  hind  toe  small.  Sexes 
similar  in  colour. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  two  species,  breeding  in  the  temperate  portions  of 
the  Palaearctic  region,  and  in  the  Australian  region  ;  Oriental  region  chiefly  in 
winter.  One  species  is  British,  a  common  resident  in  our  Islands. 

The  Sheldrakes  are  dwellers  on  sea-coasts,  and  on  salt  lakes  and  marshes. 
They  are  birds  of  rather  slow  and  laboured  flight,  progressing  by  slow,  regular 
beats  of  the  wings,  like  Swans.  They  also  swim  and  walk  with  ease.  Their 
notes  are  harsh  and  unmusical.  They  subsist  on  both  animal  and  vegetable 
substances.  They  breed  in  holes  of  trees,  in  rocks,  or  in  the  ground,  and  their 
eggs  are  numerous  and  creamy- white.  They  are  monogamous,  pair  probably  for 
life,  and  the  male  bird  shares  the  duty  of  tending  the  eggs  and  young.  They  are 
more  or  less  gregarious  and  sociable,  especially  during  winter. 


X 
X 
X 


CO 


UJ     O 

I    u 


Z    E 

O    ,0 


o 
O 


n 

"E 


O 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  341 

Family  ANATID.E.  Genus  TADOBNA. 

Subfamily  ANATINJS. 


COMMON    SHELDRAKE. 

TADOENA   CORNUTA— (S.  G.  Gmelin). 
PLATE   XXXIV. 

Anas  tadorna,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  195  (1766). 

Tadorna  vulpanser,  Fleming ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  22  (1852). 

Tadorna  cornuta  (S.  G.  Gmelin),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  451,  pi.  420  (1878);  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  352  (1885);  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  520  (1885) ;  Lilford, 
Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxvii.  (1893) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  225  (1893) ; 
Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  171  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  p.  36,  pi.  16  (1896). 

Tadorna  Tadorna  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  258  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Common  Sheldrake  is  a 
resident  in  and  widely  dispersed  throughout  the  British  Islands.  It  breeds  in 
all  suitable  places  on  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  England,  but  is  very  much  more 
local  in  the  south  during  the  breeding  season.  It  breeds  in  many  localities  on 
the  east  of  Scotland,  notably  in  the  Forth,  and  the  same  remarks  apply  to  the 
west,  including  the  Hebrides.  It  also  breeds  sparingly  and  locally  round  the 
Irish  coasts,  but  is  most  abundant  during  winter,  as  it  also  is  on  the  eastern  coast 
line  of  Great  Britain.  Foreign :  North-western  and  southern  Palsearctic  region  ; 
northern  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  throughout  Europe  in  all  suitable 
localities,  but  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  nests  sparingly  on  both 
shores,  it  is  best  known  as  a  winter  visitor,  whilst  in  the  north  it  does  not 
extend  beyond  lat.  69°  in  Norway,  lat.  60°  in  the  Baltic,  and  lat.  56°  in  the  Urals. 
In  Asia  it  does  not  appear  to  breed  north  of  lat.  52°  in  the  west,  and  the  valley 
of  the  Amoor  in  the  east.  The  birds  breeding  in  the  northern  portions  of  this 
range,  including  Turkestan  and  Mongolia,  are  migratory,  but  in  the  basin  of  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas  they  are  resident,  as  they  also  appear  to  be  in  Japan. 
To  the  coasts  of  China  and  to  India,  as  far  south  as  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  it  is  a 
winter  visitor.  A  single  example  has  been  recorded  from  the  Faroes. 

Allied  forms. — Tadorna  radjah,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Moluccas,  Papuan 
Islands,  and  Australia.  It  differs  from  the  Common  Sheldrake  in  having  no  knob 
at  the  base  of  the  bill  and  in  having  the  head  and  neck  white,  the  tail  black. 


342  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Habits. — The  Sheldrake  is  a  thorough  bird  of  the  coast,  and  only  under 
exceptional  circumstances  frequents  inland  waters,  and  even  then  when  they  are 
salt.  Although  it  is  a  resident  with  us  in  all  the  colder  portions  of  its  range,  it 
is  a  bird  of  passage,  drawing  south  in  October  and  retiring  north  again  in  March. 
Its  numbers  are  consequently'increased  in  our  Islands  during  winter.  In  India 
it  arrives  later  in  autumn,  during  the  latter  half  of  November,  and  appears  to 
linger  longer  in  spring,  till  nearly  the  middle  of  April,  probably  because  at  its 
breeding  grounds  in  Mongolia  and  South  Siberia  the  summer  is  much  later  than 
in  Europe.  The  Sheldrake  prefers  sandy  coasts  to  mud-flats,  and  low  beaches 
and  dunes  are  its  favourite  resorts.  It  is  ever  a  shy  and  wary  bird,  difficult  to 
approach,  and  usually  takes  alarm  before  any  other  wild  fowl  that  may  by 
chance  be  in  its  vicinity.  At  all  times  the  Sheldrake  is  a  rather  sociable  bird,  but 
never  appears  to  congregate  into  very  large  flocks,  being  usually  met  with  in 
small  parties  or  scattered  pairs.  It  changes  its  ground  a  good  deal  according  to 
season,  and  in  winter  visits  many  parts  of  the  coast  where  it  is  entirely  absent 
in  the  breeding  season.  The  flight  of  the  Sheldrake  is  regular  and  straight- 
forward, not  performed  with  rapid  beats  like  that  of  the  typical  Ducks,  but  with 
slow  and  measured  strokes,  which  lend  the  bird's  movements  a  laboured  appear- 
ance, more  apparent  than  real.  The  flight  is  seldom  taken  very  high,  usually 
close  to  the  water,  and  is  often  considerably  prolonged  ;  but  when  on  migration, 
the  bird  rises  much  higher.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  grass,  and  the 
stems  and  leaves  of  various  plants  growing  in  or  near  the  water ;  of  insects, 
crustaceans,  worms,  mollusks,  and  small  fish.  The  young,  in  their  downy  stage 
of  existence,  feed  almost  exclusively  on  sand-hoppers,  which  they  are  very  expert 
at  catching,  even  shortly  after  they  are  hatched.  None  of  this  food  is  obtained 
by  diving,  but  whilst  the  bird  is  wandering  about  the  shore,  paddling  in  the 
shallows,  or  swimming  in  water  just  deep  enough  to  allow  it  to  reach  the  bottom 
when  the  fore  part  of  the  body  is  submerged,  and  the  hind  quarters  are  held 
almost  perpendicular.  The  Sheldrake  swims  well  and  lightly,  and  on  land  walks 
more  elegantly  than  the  typical  Ducks.  It  seldom  wanders  far  from  the  water, 
but:  occasionally  visits  the  pastures  close  to  its  haunts,  and  wanders  to  the  turf 
amongst  the  dunes.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  reared  the  broods  and  their  parents 
frequently  go  out  to  sea,  only  coming  on  shore  to  feed,  but  not  always  to  sleep. 
The  call-note  of  the  Sheldrake  is  a  harsh  quack ;  in  the  pairing  season  an  oft- 
repeated,  tremulous  whistling  or  chirping  note  is  uttered,  and  when  the  young 
are  abroad  a  hoarse  korr  or  kurr  is  heard.  Hume  states  that,  when  surprised, 
both  sexes  utter  a  whistle  of  alarm. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  grounds  of  the  Sheldrake  are  near  the  sea, 
either  on  the  sandy  coasts  of  the  mainland  or  on  low  islands.  In  our  Islands  the 
birds  gather  at  their  breeding  places  in  March,  but  the  eggs  are  usually  laid 
during  May;  in  other  localities  they  are  a  little  earlier  or  later  according  to 


OP  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  343 

circumstances.  The  Sheldrake  pairs  for  life ;  at  all  seasons  the  duck  and  drake 
may  be  observed  in  company,  and  in  many  cases  the  old  nesting  site  is  tenanted 
yearly.  This  Duck  cannot  be  termed  gregarious  in  the  breeding  season,  and 
although  many  pairs  may  nest  within  a  small  reach  of  the  coast,  each  appears  to 
keep  apart  from  the  rest.  The  nest  is  usually  placed  at  the  end  of  a  burrow, 
especially  a  rabbit  hole  ;  sometimes  it  is  under  rocks,  and  has  been  known  in  a 
very  dense  furze  thicket.  The  Sheldrake  may  occasionally  dig  its  own  burrow, 
and  this  is  then  said  to  be  nearly  circular,  but  I  do  not  think  that  such  is  often  the 
case,  at  least  in  our  Islands.  The  nest  is  a  simple  one,  and  consists  of  a  little  dry 
grass  and  an  abundant  lining  of  down  from  the  bird.  The  eggs  are  from  six  to 
twelve  in  number,  but  larger  clutches  are  on  record,  and  in  cases  where  they  have 
been  judiciously  removed  as  many  as  thirty  have  been  taken  from  a  single  nest. 
They  are  creamy-white  in  colour,  smooth  in  texture,  very  brittle,  and  possess 
considerable  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  2' 7  inches  in  length  by  1'9  inch 
in  breadth.  The  down  is  lavender-grey.  Incubation  is  performed  by  both  male 
and  female  (but  the  latter  sits  the  most),  and  lasts  about  a  month.  The  nest  is 
very  difficult  to  find  unless  the  birds  are  watched  at  morning  and  evening  when 
the  sitting  bird  is  relieved  by  its  mate.  The  male  is  seldom  seen  near  the  nest, 
and  both  birds  are  remarkably  cautious  when  leaving  or  approaching  it.  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  as  soon  as  the  young  are  hatched  they  are 
taken  by  their  parents  to  the  beach. 

Diagnostic  Characters — Tadoma,  with  the  head  and  neck  green  (brown 
in  young  or  first  plumage),  below  which  is  a  broad  white  collar.  Length,  25 
inches. 


344  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 


Genus  CASARCA,    or   Ruddy  Sheldrakes. 

Type,   CASAKCA   EUTILA. 


Casarca,  of  Bonaparte  (1838).— Count  Salvador!,  whose  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  ANSEBIFOEMES  we  intend  to  follow  in  the  present  work,  characterises 
the  birds  in  the  present  genus  by  their  having  more  or  less  prominent  lamellae  to 
the  edges  of  the  bill,  which  is  not  broader  towards  the  tip  than  at  the  base. 
The  culmen  is  almost  straight  and  the  lamellae  are  equally  developed  along  the 
inner  edge  of  the  upper  mandible  ;  the  lamellae  on  the  lower  mandible  projecting 
outwardly.  In  this  genus  the  sexes  are,  to  a  more  or  less  extent,  dissimilar  in 
colour. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  four  species,  distributed  over  the  Southern  Palae- 
arctic,  Ethiopian,  Oriental,  and  Australian  regions.  One  species  is  an  abnormal 
migrant  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  Buddy  Sheldrakes  are,  strictly  speaking,  more  fresh-water  than  maritime 
in  their  haunts,  and  to  a  large  extent  frequenters  of  the  land.  They  are  gregarious 
during  the  non-breeding  season,  but  appear  to  nest  in  pairs  only.  Some  of  the 
species,  at  least,  often  nest  far  from  water.  They  breed  in  holes  of  cliffs  or  trees, 
as  well  as  in  the  ground,  choosing  covered  sites  for  their  nests.  Their  eggs  are 
numerous  and  creamy-white.  Their  food  consists  partly  of  vegetable  and  partly 
of  animal  substances.  Their  notes  are  harsh.  Their  flight  is  stately  and 
deliberate. 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  345 

Family  ANATID.E.  Genus  CASABCA. 

Subfamily  ANATINJE. 


RUDDY    SHELDRAKE. 

CAS  AEG  A    RUTILA—  (Pallas). 

Anas  casarca,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  iii.  p.  224  (1768). 

Anas  rutila,  Pallas,  Nov.  Comm.  Petrop.  xiv.  1,  p.  579,  tab.  22,  fig.  1  (1770). 

Tadorna  casarca  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  19  (1852);  Dresser,  B.  Bur.  vi.  p.  461, 

pi.  421,  (1875) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iv.  p.  347  (1885);  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B. 

pt.  xx.  (1891) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  160  (1894). 

Tadorna  rutila  (Pallas),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  524  (1885);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig. 
Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  36,  pi.  16  (1896). 

Casarca  rutila  (Pallas),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  177  (1895). 
Casarca  casarca  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  263  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Buddy  Sheldrake  is  a  very 
rare  straggler  to  us  on  autumn  migration  and  in  winter ;  but  many  of  the  records 
of  the  occurrence  of  this  species  in  the  United  Kingdom  unquestionably  relate  to 
birds  escaped  from  the  semi-captivity  in  which  the  bird  is  commonly  found  in  our 
Islands.  As  such  I  should  feel  disposed  to  class  all  the  occurrences  in  summer. 
Among  the  most  trustworthy  instances  may  be  mentioned  the  following : — 
England  :  Dorset  (one  example),  winter,  1776  ;  Suffolk  (one  example),  January, 
1834;  Kent  (one  example,  shot  from  a  party  of  four),  September,  1884.  Scot- 
land :  Orkneys  (one  example),  October,  1831.  Ireland  :  Co.  Kerry  (one  example), 
August,  1869  ;  Shannon  River  (two  examples),  summer,  1886.  Others  are 
reported  to  have  been  either  seen  or  taken  in  Suffolk,  Yorkshire,  the  "  south  of 
England,"  Caithness,  Forfarshire,  Waterford,  and  Wicklow.  The  year  1892  was 
remarkable  for  a  large  immigration  of  Ruddy  Sheldrakes  to  the  British  Islands. 
Flocks  of  from  ten  to  twenty  birds  were  observed,  between  the  middle  of  June 
and  the  middle  of  September,  and  many  examples  were  obtained.  (Conf. 
Zoologist,  1892,  pp.  392 — 398.)  Foreign :  Southern  Palsearctic  region  ;  Oriental 
region  in  winter.  It  is  a  resident  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black 
Seas,  but  not  known  to  breed  in  Europe  north  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  the  valley 
of  the  Danube,  and  South  Eussia ;  whilst  to  the  lakes  and  waters  of  North  Africa 
it  is  principally  a  winter  visitor.  To  Greenland,  Iceland,  Sweden,  the  Baltic,  West 
Eussia,  Germany,  Denmark,  and  France  it  is,  as  to  our  Islands,  an  accidental  visitor 
only.  In  Europe  the  Buddy  Sheldrake  is  mostly  a  resident  species,  but  in  Asia  it 


346  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

is  migratory,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  accidental  wanderers  to  the 
extreme  west  of  Europe  are  from  this  district.  In  Asia  it  breeds  throughout 
Persia,  Turkestan,  and  South  Siberia,  as  far  north  as  Lake  Baikal  and  the  valley 
of  the  Amoor.  It  possibly  breeds  in  Japan,  and  is  a  regular  summer  visitor  to 
Mongolia,  but  to  China,  Burrnah,  and  India  it  is  known  as  a  migrant  in  autumn 
and  winter  only. 

Allied  forms. — Casarca  cana,  an  inhabitant  of  South  Africa  as  far  north 
as  what  is  to  be  hoped  will  soon  be  the  British  Colonies  of  the  Transvaal,  and 
the  Orange  Free  State.  It  differs  from  the  Buddy  Sheldrake  in  having  the  head 
and  neck  ash  grey.  More  distantly  allied  species  are  C.  tadornoides,  of  Western 
and  Southern  Australia,  including  Tasmania,  and  C.  variegata,  of  New  Zealand. 

Habits. — The  range  of  the  Ruddy  Sheldrake  in  Europe  does  not  extend 
sufficiently  far  north  to  render  the  bird  a  migratory  one,  but  in  Asia,  where  the 
climate  is  much  colder  in  winter,  and  where  the  limits  of  its  distribution  extend 
slightly  higher,  this  Duck  is  a  bird  of  regular  passage.  Hume  states  that  it 
winters  in  India  in  countless  myriads.  It  begins  to  arrive  in  Cashmere  and  on 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas  at  the  end  of  September,  which  agrees  with 
the  date  of  its  departure  from  South  Siberia  about  the  middle  of  September.  By 
the  end  of  October  it  is  generally  dispersed  over  Northern  India,  and  during 
November  it  reaches  the  southern  districts.  It  leaves  the  south  towards  the  end 
of  March,  the  north  a  little  later,  and  reaches  its  breeding  grounds  in  Siberia 
again  towards  the  end  of  April.  The  Buddy  Sheldrake  migrates  in  enormous 
flocks,  but  these  soon  separate,  and  distribute  themselves  in  scattered  pairs 
throughout  the  country.  In  spring  it  again  unites  into  flocks,  and  is  then  more 
frequently  seen  on  lakes  than  at  any  other  time  of  its  stay  in  India.  These 
gatherings  disperse  at  the  breeding  grounds.  The  Buddy  Sheldrake  is  a  fresh- 
water Duck,  and  a  shore  bird  rather  than  a  water  one,  spending  most  of  its  time 
on  or  near  the  bank.  In  India  its  favourite  haunts  are  the  broad  rivers  where 
sandbanks  break  the  stream  into  numerous  channels,  but  the  bird  occasionally 
visits  fields  and  flooded  grounds  at  some  distance  from  its  usual  retreats.  It  not 
only  swims  well,  but  often  dives  when  wounded,  and  on  the  ground  walks  with  a 
rather  graceful,  sedate  step  in  a  very  erect  manner.  The  flight  of  this  species  is 
easy  and  quick  when  once  the  bird  is  fairly  on  the  wing,  but  it  rises  in  a  laboured 
manner  and  with  apparent  difficulty.  The  wings  are  flapped  slowly  rather  than 
beaten  rapidly.  The  food  of  the  Buddy  Sheldrake  consists  of  both  animal  and 
vegetable  substances,  the  former,  according  to  Hume,  predominating.  Of  the 
vegetable  element  may  be  mentioned  grass  and  sprouting  corn,  especially  when 
growing  near  the  edge  of  the  water,  water  weeds  of  various  kinds,  and  seeds  ;  of 
animal  substances,  insects,  the  fry  of  fish,  shrimps,  small  frogs,  and  all  kinds  of 
land  and  fresh-water  snails.  It  has  been  said  that  this  Sheldrake  occasionally 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  347 

feeds  on  carrion  in  India,  and  consorts  with  Vultures ;  the  evidence  is  certainly 
very  conclusive.  The  usual  note  is  a  rather  loud  and  monotonous  hark ;  but  the 
alarm  note  is  described  by  Pallas  as  resembling  the  syllables  a-oung,  rendered  by 
the  Turks  as  au-gout.  According  to  Jerdon  there  is  a  superstition  in  India  among 
the  natives  that  "  the  souls  of  erring  lovers,  who  have  loved  not  wisely  but  too 
well,  pass  into  the  forms  of  these  Ducks,  condemned  thenceforth  to  pass  the 
night,  the  season  of  their  transgressions,  apart,  on  opposite  banks  of  some  stream, 
each  ever  praying  the  other  for  permission  to  rejoin  them,  and  each  ever  com- 
pelled sternly  to  refuse.  '  Chakwa,  shall  I  come? '  '  No,  Chakwi !  '  '  Chakwi, 
shall  I  come?'  'No,  Chakwa  !'  '  "This  story,"  Hume  continues,  "however,  I 
fear  belongs  to  a  more  poetical  age  than  the  present,  and  I  myself  have  never 
met  with  a  native  in  Upper  India  who  knew  of  it  except  from  Europeans. 
Perhaps,  too,  the  world  is  more  virtuous,  or  celestial  vigilance  less  keen,  for 
certain  it  is  that  in  these  degenerate  days,  except  in  the  case  of  very  narrow 
rivers  like  the  Hindon  in  Meerut,  alike  by  day  and  night,  Chakwa  and  Chakwi 
are  to  be  found  both  on  the  same  side  of  the  water."  In  India  the  Euddy 
Sheldrake,  or  Brahminy  Duck,  as  it  is  otherwise  called,  is  nowhere  held  in 
reverence ;  but  in  Burmah  it  is  the  sacred  and  national  bird  of  the  natives  ;  the 
Llamas  of  Mongolia  also  regard  it  as  an  object  of  religious  respect.  The  Kuddy 
Sheldrake  is  a  remarkably  wary  bird,  rarely  allowing  any  one  to  approach  it 
within  gunshot,  and,  owing  to  its  restless,  noisy  habits,  it  is  much  disliked  by  the 
sportsman.  Hume  writes:  "Not  only  do  they  carefully  provide  for  their  own 
safety,  but  they  seem  positively  to  take  a  malicious  pleasure  in  spoiling  all  sport. 
You  are  working  down  on  a  lump  of  fowl— a  few  minutes  more  and  you  will  be 
within  range.  Suddenly  the  loud  call  of  the  Brahminy  sounds,  and  rising  out  of 
a  hollow  in  the  sand  where  they  have  been  squatting,  you  see  a  pair  waddling  to 
the  water's  edge.  Again  and  again  the  pair  call  and  answer  (side  by  side  as  they 
are,  one  would  think  that  save  out  of  sheer  spite  they  need  not  shout  at  each  other 
thus),  then  with  a  rapid  chuckle  off  they  go,  their  wings  clattering  as  they  rise 
like  a  train  on  an  iron  culvert,  and  with  them  of  course  go  all  the  Fowl.  Further 
on  are  a  lot  of  Geese ;  you  work  towards  them ;  vain  hope !  The  ruddy  wide- 
awakes have  alighted  near  these  now,  and  duly  put  them  up  before  you  are 
within  a  hundred  yards,  and  sometimes  a  pair  will  thus  persecute  you  for  a 
couple  of  miles  before  they  finally  turn  up-stream  to  return  to  their  proper  beat." 
The  flesh  of  this  Duck  is  hard  and  dry,  with  a  rank  and  fishy  flavour,  but  is 
rendered  palatable  if  the  bird  be  skinned  before  it  is  cooked. 

Nidification. — The  Buddy  Sheldrake,  like  the  preceding  species,  pairs  for 
life,  and  the  male  and  female  are  said  to  be  tenderly  attached  to  each  other,  and 
rarely  stray  far  apart  even  during  winter.  At  the  breeding  grounds  in  Mongolia, 
however,  Prjevalsky  states  that  the  males  often  fight,  not  only  with  themselves 
but  with  other  species.  This  Sheldrake  is  an  early  breeder,  beginning  to  lay  in 


348  THE  GAME  BIKDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Persia  early  in  May  and  in  Dauria  by  the  middle  of  that  month.  In  Europe  it  is 
earlier  still,  and  begins  laying  towards  the  end  of  April.  The  nest  is  made  in 
various  situations,  but  almost  always  in  a  covered  site.  Sometimes  it  is  made  in 
holes  in  cliffs,  at  others  in  holes  and  clefts  in  the  ground,  even  in  the  middle  of  a 
corn-field ;  whilst  holes  in  trees  and  logs,  and  the  deserted  nests  of  birds  of  prey, 
are  also  selected.  Prjevalsky  states  that  it  is  sometimes  made  in  the  fireplaces  of 
houses  in  deserted  Mongol  villages ;  whilst  it  has  been  found  amongst  a  colony 
of  Griffon  Vultures  and  near  to  nests  of  the  Eaven,  the  Black  Kite,  the  Egyptian 
Vulture,  and  other  cliff-haunting  birds.  It  is  often  made  at  considerable  distances 
from  water,  but  more  frequently  in  rocks  that  overhang  a  stream  or  lake.  But 
little  nest  is  made,  although  the  eggs  usually  rest  amongst  a  soft  bed  of  down 
plucked  from  the  parent's  body.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to  sixteen  in  number, 
more  frequently  the  former  than  the  latter.  They  are  creamy-white  in  colour, 
smooth  in  texture,  and  very  fragile.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'7  inches  in 
length  by  1'8  inch  in  breadth.  The  colour  of  the  down  is  undescribed.  It  is  said 
that  the  male  takes  no  part  in  incubating  the  eggs,  but  we  doubt  this.  In  the 
case  of  the  young  he  is  just  as  assiduous  as  the  female.  Incubation  in  this 
species  lasts  thirty  days.  The  young  are  carried  from  the  nest  to  the  nearest 
water  by  their  parents,  but  in  what  manner  is  apparently  unknown,  some  writers 
asserting  in  the  beak,  others  on  the  back,  others  yet  again  in  the  feet.  One  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Tadorna,  with  the  general  body-colour  rufous- 
buff,  and  the  wing  coverts  white.  Length,  25  inches.  Males  in  breeding 
plumage  have  a  narrow  black  ring  round  the  neck. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  349 


Genus    CHAULELASMUS,    or  Qadwalls. 

Type,   CHAULELASMUS   STEEPEEUS. 


ChaulelasmUS,  of  Bonaparte  (1838). — The  birds  comprising  the  present 
genus  are  characterised  by  the  bill,  which  is  shorter  than  the  head,  not  very 
broad,  and  somewhat  compressed,  whilst  there  is  no  fringe  of  soft  membrane  near 
the  tip  of  the  apical  portion.  The  lamellae  of  the  upper  mandible  are  prominent. 
The  central  rectrices  scarcely  extend  beyond  the  rest ;  and  the  speculum  is  black 
outwardly  and  white  inwardly. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  two  species,  one  of  which  is  distributed  over  the 
temperate  and  tropical  portions  of  the  Northern  hemisphere,  whilst  the  other  is 
confined  to  the  Fanning  group  of  islands. 

The  Gadwalls  are  frequenters  of  fresh  waters  rather  than  coasts  and  seas. 
One  species  is  migratory,  the  other,  so  far  as  is  known,  sedentary.  They  are 
birds  of  rapid  and  sustained  flight.  Their  notes  are  harsh  and  discordant. 
Their  food  is  partly  vegetable  and  partly  animal  substances.  They  are  gregarious, 
especially  during  the  winter,  and  to  some  extent  social,  fraternising  with  other 
Ducks.  Their  nests  are  rude  and  made  upon  the  ground,  warmly  lined  with 
down,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous  and  buffish-white. 


350  THE   GAME  BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 


Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  CHAULELASMUS. 

Subfamily  ANATINM. 


QADWALL. 

CHAULELASMUS   STREPEKUS—  (Linnte-us). 

Anas  strepera,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  200  (1766) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed  4,  iv.  p.  370  (1885) ; 

Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  530  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xv.  (1890) ; 

Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  227  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B. 

p.  37,  pi.  14  (1896). 
Querquedula  strepera  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  59  (1852). 

Chaulelasmus  streperus  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  487,  pi.  424  (1873) ;  Salvador!, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  221  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Hand-b.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  273 
(1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  Gadwall  is  a  comparatively 
rare  and  local  winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  although  many  apparently 
pass  our  coasts  on  migration,  especially  in  spring.  It  is  found  in  small  numbers 
in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  thence  down  both  the  east  and  west  coasts  of 
Scotland  including  many  of  the  Hebrides,  becoming  less  common  in  England, 
where  it  occurs  most  frequently  in  the  east.  It  is  a  fairly  frequent  visitor  to 
Ireland,  where  it  appears  to  be  much  overlooked.  It  breeds  locally  in  Norfolk, 
originally  a  pair  of  pinioned  birds  only,  but  now  their  descendants  together  with 
apparently  thoroughly  wild  birds  which  have  been  tempted  to  lag  behind  their 
companions  in  spring.  The  Gadwall  is  a  fresh-water  species,  frequenting  inland 
pools  as  well  as  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea.  Foreign :  Circumpolar, 
Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  regions ;  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  locally  in 
Iceland.  It  is  not  known  to  breed  in  Norway,  but  does  so  in  the  south  of  Sweden, 
and  more  sparingly  in  North  Germany,  Eastern  Prussia,  and  the  Baltic  provinces. 
Eastwards  it  ranges  across  Eussia  and  Siberia  to  the  Stanavoi  Mountains,  south 
of  about  lat.  60°,  from  east  to  west.  In  Europe  it  certainly  breeds  as  far  south 
as  Spain,  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  the  Crimea,  and  the  Volga  and  Ural  deltas 
in  South  Bussia  ;  whilst  eastwards  it  breeds  in  Northern  Turkestan,  South-west 
Siberia,  the  Baikal  district,  and  probably  the  valley  of  the  Amoor.  A  few  European 
birds  winter  in  Holland,  Belgium,  France,  and  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  but  the 
majority  do  so  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  extending  into  the  African 
Continent  as  far  south  as  the  Great  Dessert,  and  down  the  Nile  Valley  to  Nubia.  In 
Asia  it  is  known  to  pass  Mongolia  on  migration,  and  to  winter  throughout  India, 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  351 

which  appears  to  be  its  grand  head-quarters  in  that  continent  during  the  cold  season, 
although  it  then  visits  Northern  Burmah,  China  and  Japan,  but  in  smaller 
numbers.  In  the  Nearctic  region  it  breeds  in  the  Northern  United  States,  and 
beyond  as  far  north  as  about  lat.  50°  to  Vancouver  Island  in  the  west,  to  Win- 
nipeg in  the  central  portion,  and  to  Nova  Scotia  (lat.  45°)  in  the  east.  It  winters 
in  the  Southern  United  States,  the  West  Indies,  and  Mexico. 

Allied  forms. — Although  the  geographical  area  of  the  Gadwall  appears 
to  be  discontinuous,  it  is  not  known  that  New  World  examples  differ  in  any  way 
from  those  of  the  Old  World,  which  is  a  most  interesting  and  remarkable  fact. 
Ghaulelasmus  couesi,  an  inhabitant  of  Washington  Island  and  New  York  Island 
(Fanning  Group)  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  said  to  be  the  nearest  allied  form  to  the 
Gadwall.  It  is  distinguished  by  being  much  smaller  in  size  (length  of  wing 
8  inches,  instead  of  11  inches  in  C.  streperus). 

Habits. — In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Gadwall  nowhere  breeds  in  the 
Arctic  regions  proper,  it  is  a  migratory  bird.  In  Europe  its  periods  of  passage 
are  about  the  same  as  in  India.  It  arrives  at  its  breeding  grounds  early  in  April, 
and  departs  in  September  and  October  for  its  winter  quarters.  Its  migrations 
are  undertaken  at  night,  and  during  flight  the  birds  keep  calling  to  each  other, 
probably  to  keep  their  ranks  together.  The  Gadwall  is  not  a  coast  nor  a  salt-water 
Duck,  but  prefers  inland  fresh  waters.  When  once  these  are  assured,  locality 
and  extent  seem  pf  only  minor  importance,  for  mighty  rivers  are  frequented  just 
the  same  as  small  brooks,  huge  lakes  equally  as  small  pools  and  ponds,  whilst 
tangled  swamps  with  little  open  water  in  them  are  resorted  to.  As  a  rule  the 
the  larger  and  more  open  the  sheet  of  water  the  bigger  the  flock  of  birds,  only 
small  parties  frequenting  the  smaller  lakes  and  streams.  For  the  most  part  the 
Gadwall  is  a  night  feeder,  dozing  during  the  day  and  retiring  inland  to  feed  at 
dusk.  If  much  harassed  the  flocks  seldom  rest  close  inshore,  but  take  up  their 
position  in  the  centre  of  the  lake  well  out  of  harm's  way ;  but  sometimes  the 
birds  are  fond  of  skulking  close  amongst  the  dense  vegetation.  Occasionally  the 
Gadwall  may  be  seen  feeding  during  the  day,  paddling  about  in  the  shallows  and 
searching  the  bottom  of  the  water,  with  the  fore  part  of  the  body  entirely  under 
the  surface  and  the  hind  quarters  bolt  upright.  It  swims  well  and  buoyantly, 
and  rises  from  the  water  with  a  single  bound  at  a  rather  acute  angle,  continuing 
for  several  yards  before  hurrying  away  on  a  horizontal  course.  Its  flight  is  rapid 
and  straightforward,  and  the  long,  pointed  wings  make  a  peculiar  whistling  sound 
as  they  are  beaten  rapidly  through  the  air.  The  note  of  the  Gadwall  very  closely 
resembles  the  well-known  quack  of  the  Mallard,  but  is  uttered  oftener  and  is 
weaker  and  sharper  in  tone.  It  is  a  much  more  noisy  bird  than  the  Mallard,  and 
whilst  feeding  in  localities  where  it  is  not  disturbed  keeps  up  a  shrill,  feeble,  and 
perpetual  chatter.  The  present  species  is  very  sociable,  and  fraternises  with  all 


352  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

kinds  of  Water  Fowl,  even  with  Geese.  It  swims  well  and  lightly,  .and  walks  on 
land  in  a  rather  graceful  manner,  sometimes  running  ahout  the  marshy  ground  in 
quest  of  insects.  It  dives  easily  when  wounded,  but  never  does  so  whilst  feeding. 
The  food  of  the  Gadwall  consists  of  the  seeds,  leaves,  and  buds  of  rushes  and  other 
aquatic  plants,  wild  and  cultivated  rice,  insects  and  their  larvae,  worms,  frogs, 
and  small  fish.  Hume  states  that  small  butterflies  and  moths  are  caught  by 
this  Duck.  The  flesh  of  this  Duck  as  a  rule  is  very  good,  especially  in  India  as 
long  as  the  rice  lasts,  but  it  is  of  poor  flavour  if  the  bird  has  been  feeding  much 
upon  an  animal  diet. 

Nidification. — The  Gadwall  usually  begins  to  breed  in  May,  and  the  eggs 
are  laid  towards  the  end  of  that  month  or  early  in  June,  both  in  the  Old  World 
and  the  New  World.  The  nest  is  usually  well  concealed  amongst  the  vegetation 
on  the  banks  of  the  water,  but  occasionally  it  has  been  met  with  some  distance 
from  the  pool  or  stream.  It  is  merely  a  hollow  in  the  ground  strewn  with  dry 
grass  and  bits  of  dead  vegetation,  and  warmly  lined  with  down  from  the  body  of 
the  female.  The  eggs  are  from  six  to  thirteen  in  number,  ten  being  an  average 
clutch.  They  are  huffish-white  or  cream-colour  with  a  faint  greenish  tinge,  very 
smooth  in  texture  and  somewhat  glossy,  and  measure  on  an  average  2'1  inches 
in  length  by  1'5  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  is  neutral  grey,  with  scarcely  per- 
ceptible white  tips.  Incubation,  performed  by  the  female,  lasts,  according  to 
Naumann,  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-two  days.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in 
the  year,  and  the  ducklings  are  conveyed  to  the  water  soon  after  they  are  hatched. 

Diagnostic  characters. — (Nuptial  Plumage),  Chaulelasmus,  with  the 
alar  speculum  white,  and  the  wing  11  inches  in  length.  Length,  20  to  21  inches. 


OF   THE   BEITISH    ISLANDS.  353 


Genus  DAFILA,  or  Pintails. 

Type,  DAFILA  ACUTA. 


Dafila,  of  Stephens  (1824). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  the  long  tail,  the  central  rectrices  being  pointed  and  considerably 
extended  beyond  the  rest.  The  culmen  is  nearly  straight.  The  speculum  is 
broader  than  the  light  band  at  the  tip  of  the  secondaries. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  three  species,  and  may  almost  be  regarded  as  a 
cosmopolitan  one  with  the  exception  of  the  Australian  region.  One  species  is 
best  known  as  a  common  winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  although  it  breeds 
locally  within  our  limits. 

The  Pintails  frequent  both  maritime  and  fresh  water  areas.  Some  of  the 
species  are  migratory.  They  are  gregarious,  especially  during  winter.  Their 
flight  is  rapid  and  well  sustained.  Their  notes  are  harsh  and  unmusical.  Their 
food  consists  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances.  They  swim  well,  but  do  not 
dive.  They  are  gregarious  and  social,  especially  during  the  non-breeding  season. 
Their  nests  are  rude,  and  placed  upon  the  ground,  lined  warmly  with  down. 
Their  eggs  are  numerous,  and  greenish-grey. 


23 


354  THE  GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  DAFILA. 

Subfamily 


PINTAIL  DUCK. 

DAFILA  ACUTA—  (Linnceus). 
PLATE  XXXV. 

Anas  acuta,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  202  (1766) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  534  (1885); 

Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  229  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B  p. 

38,  pi.  13  (1896). 

Querquedula  acuta  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  65  (1852). 
Dafila  acuta  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  531,  pis.  430,  431  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit. 

B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  380  (1885);  Lilford.  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xiii.  (1890) ;  Salvadori, 

Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  270  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  287  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Pintail  Duck  is  a  fairly 
common  winter  visitor  to  our  area,  but  breeds  sparingly  in  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
It  passes  the  Shetlands  on  migration,  but  winters  in  the  Orkneys,  and  has  occurred 
in  every  county  of  Scotland,  although  it  becomes  rarer  in  the  west,  especially  in 
the  Hebrides.  It  is  also  far  from  uncommon  on  the  west  coast  of  England,  but 
becomes  more  plentiful  on  the  east  and  especially  the  south  coasts.  It  is  rare  in 
the  north  of  Ireland,  but  from  Galway  and  Meath  southwards  it  is  a  regular 
winter  visitor.  Eggs  of  this  species  have  been  obtained  by  Mr.  Harvie-Brown 
on  Hysgeir,  off  the  south  coast  of  Skye,  and  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
bird  breeds  sparingly  in  the  Firth  of  Forth.  More  recently  (1898)  nests  have  been 
found  on  Loch  Leven  by  Mr.  W.  Evans.  Hancock  states  that  it  formerly  bred 
in  the  now  drained  Prestwick  Car,  in  Northumberland.  In  Ireland,  according  to 
Sir  E.  Payne-Gallwey,  several  pairs  breed  at  the  duck  preserves  at  Abbeyleix,  in 
Queen's  County,  and  he  has  observed  females  with  their  broods  on  Loughs  Mask 
and  Corrib,  in  Co.  Galway.  It  may  also  breed  in  some  parts  of  Coimemara. 
The  Pintail  is  a  fresh-water  species,  and  often  frequents  inland  pools  as  well  as 
the  coast.  Foreign :  Circumpolar,  Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  regions  ;  Oriental  and 
extreme  north  of  Neotropical  regions  in  winter.  It  breeds  throughout  the  Arctic 
regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  at  least  up  to  lat.  70°,  for  in  the  valley 
of  the  Yenisei  Mr.  Pophani  met  with  it  up  to  lat.  72°.  In  Europe  it  breeds 
much  less  abundantly  south  of  lat.  60°,  although  it  does  so  sparingly  in  North 
Germany,  and  Eussia  as  far  south  as  the  Caucasus  in  the  east,  and  the  Carmargue 
in  the  west ;  whilst  in  Siberia  it  is  said  to  breed  as  low  as  lat.  50°,  which  is 
practically  the  whole  of  that  country  south  of  lat.  72°.  It  passes  down  the  coast  of 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  355 

Europe  and  along  the  great  river  valleys  to  winter  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Black,  and  Caspian  Seas.  It  also  passes  Turkestan  and  Mongolia  on 
migration,  and  winters  in  Persia,  India,  Ceylon,  Bunnah,  China,  Borneo,  and 
Japan.  In  the  New  World  it  winters  in  all  the  Southern  States,  and  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America  as  far  south  as  Panama. 

Allied  forms. — Dafila  eatoni,  an  inhabitant  of  Kerguelen  and  probably 
the  Crozette  Islands.  It  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  its  smaller  size  and  by 
the  colour  of  the  sides  of  the  neck,  the  breast,  and  the  abdomen,  which  in  the 
present  species  is  grey  ;  in  the  Pintail  these  parts  are  white. 

Habits. — The  Pintail  Duck  appears  everywhere  to  be  a  migratory  bird.  It 
arrives  at  its  summer  quarters  early  in  spring,  as  soon  as  it  can  be  sure  of  finding 
open  water,  and  in  like  manner  lingers  in  them  late  in  autumn.  It  arrives 
in  its  more  southern  breeding  area  about  the  middle  of  March,  and  leaves  in 
October  and  November,  but  in  the  Arctic  regions  it  makes  its  appearance  towards 
the  end  of  May,  when  the  ice  on  the  great  northern  rivers  is  just  breaking  up. 
Vast  quantities  of  this  Duck  were  observed  in  the  valley  of  the  Petchora  by 
Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie-Brown,  hundreds  of  thousands  crowding  the  narrow 
belt  of  open  water  011  each  side  of  the  ice  in  the  river,  and  filling  the  air  like 
swarms  of  bees.  The  Pintail  is  equally  gregarious  at  its  winter  quarters,  congre- 
gating in  thousands  in  favourite  localities,  and  it  has  been  remarked  that  in  India 
some  of  these  large  gatherings  are  composed  entirely  of  males.  Although  this 
Duck  breeds  near  fresh  water,  in  winter  and  on  passage  it  frequents  the  sea-coast 
a  good  deal,  as  well  as  large  inland  sheets  of  water.  Hume  states  that  in  India 
its  favourite  haunts  are  sheets  of  comparatively  open  water  studded  here  and 
there  with  patches  of  a  long-leaved  water  plant  (Sagittaria),  which  grows  to  a 
height  of  several  inches  above  the  surface,  amongst  which  the  bird  can  hide  and 
sleep  in  safety.  The  flight  of  the  Pintail  is  very  rapid,  and  the  wings  make  a 
peculiar  swishing  sound  as  they  beat  the  air.  It  is  always  a  shy  and  wary  bird, 
and  almost  invariably  flies  right  away  to  other  haunts  after  being  fired  at  once  or 
twice.  As  they  usually  sit  close  when  on  the  water,  a  punt  gun  often  thins  their 
ranks  considerably,  even  at  long  range.  The  Pintail  swims  well  and  looks 
remarkably  graceful  in  the  water,  but  it  is  not  known  to  dive  much  when 
wounded ;  on  the  ground  it  walks  freely,  usually  with  long  neck  outstretched  and 
tail  raised.  Pintail  feed  at  night  principally,  and  towards  sunset  may  be  observed 
in  the  shallows,  with  the  fore  half  of  their  bodies  entirely  submerged  and  their 
long  tails  bent  downwards  parallel  to  the  water.  One  or  two  birds  of  the  flock 
are  generally  on  the  look-out  for  approaching  danger  whilst  their  comrades  are  so 
searching  for  food.  Sometimes  stubbles  and  grass  fields  are  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  feeding,  and  mud-flats,  as  soon  as  they  are  left  bare,  or  nearly  so,  are 
frequented.  The  food  of  the  Pintail  consists  of  grass  and  the  leaves  and  shoots 


356  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

of  aquatic  plants,  insects  of  all  kinds,  worms,  and  land  and  water  shells,  especially 
the  small  and  fragile  species ;  grain  and  wild  rice  are  also  eaten  in  great  quantities. 
Hume  states  that  next  to  the  Mallard  the  Pintail  is  the  best  Duck  for  the  table 
in  India,  but  the  same  remarks  do  not  always  apply  to  its  flesh  when  killed  in 
this  country.  The  Pintail  is  not  a  very  noisy  bird,  and  during  the  day  rarely 
utters  a  sound,  except  a  very  low  chattering,  which  may  be  heard  amongst  a  flock 
whilst  feeding.  When  alarmed  they  utter  a  soft  quack,  much  less  strident  than 
that  of  the  Mallard,  but  audible  for  a  long  distance.  The  call-note  is  described 
by  Naumann  as  a  low  kali,  and  during  the  love  season  the  drake  utters  a  deep 
cliiTc,  preceded  by  a  hiss  and  followed  by  a  low  grating  note. 

Nidification. — According  to  latitude,  and  consequent  state  of  the  season, 
the  eggs  of  the  Pintail  are  laid  early  in  May  or  early  in  June.  The  favourite  breed- 
ing grounds  of  this  species  are  situated  on  the  Arctic  tundras  near  water  of  some 
description,  or,  in  lower  latitudes,  on  the  margin  of  lakes  and  ponds,  or  in  swamps 
and  marshes.  The  nest  is  usually  made  on  a  dry  bit  of  ground  amongst  shrubs 
or  coarse  vegetation,  and  is  made  of  dead  grass,  withered  sedges  and  rushes,  and 
dry  leaves,  lined  warmly  with  down  mingled  with  a  few  curly  feathers  from  the 
breast  of  the  female  bird.  The  eggs  are  from  six  to  ten  in  number,  pale  buffish- 
green  in  colour,  smooth  in  texture,  but  with  little  gloss.  They  measure  on  an 
average  2'15  inches  in  length  by  1'5  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  is  sooty-brown 
distinctly  tipped  with  white,  but  not  so  conspicuously  as  that  of  the  Wigeon. 
One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  Incubation  lasts  from  twenty-three  to 
twenty-seven  days. 

Diagnostic  Characters — (Nuptial  plumage)  Dafila,  with  the  central 
tail  feathers  black,  a  narrow  cinnamon  band  across  the  wing  coverts,  and  the 
culmen  more  than  1'8  inch  in  length  (male) ;  with  the  tail  feathers  brown 
obliquely  barred  with  white,  and  the  culmen  more  than  1'8  inch  in  length  (female). 
Length,  24  to  28  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  357 


Genus  MARECA,   or  Wigeons. 

Type,  MAKECA  PENELOPE. 


Mareca,  of  Stephens  (1824). — The  birds  in  the  present  genus  are  charac- 
terised by  having  the  bill  small,  not  very  broad,  and  shorter  than  the  head, 
gradually  tapering  towards  the  tip,  whilst  there  is  no  fringe  of  soft  membrane 
near  the  tip  of  the  apical  portion ;  the  lamellae  of  the  upper  mandible  are  not 
prominent.  The  central  rectrices  are  acuminate,  and  extend  slightly  beyond  the 
outer  ones.  We  may  also  mention  that  the  general  style  of  plumage  is  very 
characteristic,  furnishing  almost  a  sufficient  generic  character. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  three  species,  one  of  which  is  confined  to  the 
Palsearctic  region,  and  the  other  two  are  dwellers  in  the  Nearctic  and  Neotropical 
regions  respectively.  Two  species  are  British,  one  of  them  indigenous  to  our 
Islands,  the  other  an  abnormal  migrant  to  them. 

The  Wigeons  are  found  in  both  inland  and  maritime  localities — on  fresh 
water  and  salt  water.  They  are  of  migratory  habits.  They  are  birds  of  rapid 
and  sustained  flight.  Their  notes  are  harsh  and  characteristic.  They  subsist 
partly  on  animal  and  partly  on  vegetable  substances.  They  are  social  and 
gregarious,  especially  during  migration  and  at  their  winter  quarters.  They  are 
monogamous  ;  their  nests  being  made  upon  the  ground,  rude  in  structure,  yet 
warmly  lined  with  down.  Their  eggs  are  numerous  and  huffish-white. 


358  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATIDJJ}.  Genus  MARECA. 

Subfamily  ANATIN&. 


WIQEON. 

MAKECA  PENELOPE— (Linnccus). 
PLATE   XXXV. 

Anas  penelope,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  202  (1766)  ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  539 

(1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  230  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs 

Brit.  B.  p.  38,  pi.  13  (1896). 
Mareca  penelope  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  83  (1852)  ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  541, 

pis.  432,  433  (1876) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  397  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 

Brit.  B.  pt.  xv.  (1890) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  227  (1895)  ;  Sharpe, 

Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  277  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Wigeon  is  a  common 
winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  frequenting  inland  swamps  and  waters  as 
well  as  the  coast.  Many  pass  our  coast  lines  on  passage  to  still  more  southern 
haunts,  and  return  along  them  in  spring,  so  that  the  bird  is  generally  most  abun- 
dant in  autumn.  It  frequents  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  suited  to  its 
requirements.  A  few  remain  behind  to  breed  in  Scotland,  and  frequent  for  this 
purpose  Boss,  Sutherland,  Caithness,  Cromarty,  Perthshire,  and  Selkirkshire,  and 
the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands.  The  nest  does  not  yet  appear  to  have  been  met  with 
in  the  Hebrides.  In  Ireland  it  is  said  to  have  nested  in  Antrim,  Armagh,  Tyrone, 
and  Mayo  counties,  but  recent  information  is  wanting.  Although  supposed  to  have 
bred  in  Norfolk,  there  is  no  actual  proof  of  the  fact,  and  the  birds  that  recently 
bred  in  Yorkshire  (near  Scarborough)  cannot  be  regarded  as  strictly  wild.  Foreign  : 
Palaearctic  region,  more  southerly  in  winter  ;  Oriental  region,  and  extreme  western 
and  eastern  confines  of  Nearctic  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  throughout  Arctic 
Europe  and  Asia  from  about  lat.  70°  southwards.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  its 
southern  breeding  range  is  lat.  60°  ;  south  of  which  it  is  only  known  to  nest  in 
exceptional  conditions.  These  conditions  appear  to  exist  in  France,  Germany, 
Denmark,  Bohemia,  and  the  valley  of  the  Danube  in  Europe,  and  in  the  Baikal 
basin  in  Asia,  in  all  of  which  localities  it  is  known  to  breed.  It  is  said  to  breed  in 
the  Faroes,  and  certainly  does  so  in  Iceland ;  and  is  an  accidental  visitor  to 
Greenland,  and  to  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  North  America ;  whilst  on  the  eastern 
limits  of  its  range  it  occasionally  wanders  across  Behring  Strait,  where  it  has 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  359 

from  time  to  time  been  found  as  an  abnormal  migrant  on  the  Pacific  coast  from 
Alaska  to  California.  It  passes  through  Central  Europe  on  migration,  and 
winters  on  the  coasts  of  Holland,  Belgium,  France  and  Spain,  and  throughout 
the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  Black,  and  Caspian  Seas,  ranging  as  far  south  as 
Abyssinia  in  the  east  and  Madeira  and  the  Canaries  in  the  west  of  the  African 
Continent.  The  Asiatic  birds  pass  through  Turkestan  and  Mongolia  on  migration, 
and  winter  in  India,  Burmah,  Borneo,  China,  and  Japan. 

Allied  forms. — Mareca  americana,  the  New  World  representative  of  the 
Wigeon,  a  "  British  "  species,  and  dealt  with  fully  in  the  following  chapter. 

Habits. — The  autumn  migration  of  the  Wigeon  commences  in  the  British 
Islands  towards  the  end  of  September,  and  birds  continue  to  arrive  upon  our 
coasts  through  October  and  the  first  half  of  November.  The  return  migration 
begins  in  March,  and  lasts  until  the  end  of  April.  The  Wigeon  arrives  at  its  Arctic 
haunts  just  as  the  ice  is  breaking  up  and  winter  is  making  way  for  summer.  In  the 
valley  of  the  Petchora  Seebohm  remarked  that  this  Duck  arrived  simultaneously 
with  the  break-up  of  the  ice,  on  the  19th  of  May,  but  further  east  in  the  valley  of 
the  Yenisei  it  was  much  later,  not  appearing  until  the  6th  of  June,  at  which  date  the 
general  summer  thaw  had  commenced.  Hume  states  that  the  Wigeon  seldom 
arrives  in  India  before  the  end  of  October,  and  leaves  again  in  March  and  April. 
Whilst  on  migration,  and  in  its  winter  quarters,  the  Wigeon  is  a  very  gregarious 
bird,  and  even  in  the  breeding  season  is  remarkably  social,  and  consorts  with  various 
other  Ducks  that  frequent  the  same  districts  for  nesting  purposes.  Whilst  in  the 
British  Islands  the  Wigeon  is  principally  a  coast  bird,  frequenting  bays,  lochs 
and  estuaries,  and  occasionally  visiting  large  sheets  of  fresh  water  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  sea.  In  India,  however,  this  Duck  is  found  on  inland  waters,  but  even 
here  is  most  abundant  on  the  coast,  choosing  by  preference  estuaries  and  creeks 
where  the  water  is  brackish.  It  is  also  very  erratic  in  its  choice  of  a  haunt, 
being  absent  from  some  districts  and  present  in  others  during  different  years. 
The  flight  of  the  Wigeon  is  swift  and  powerful,  but  not  very  loud,  and  often  the 
bird  will  glide  down  from  a  considerable  height  to  the  water  on  arched  and 
motionless  wings,  beating  them  rapidly  just  as  it  drops  on  the  surface,  as  if  to 
break  the  force  of  the  contact.  It  also  swims  well,  and  is  very  adept  at  diving 
when  pursued  if  wounded.  This  species  is  also  seen  a  great  deal  on  land,  walking 
about  the  turfy  banks  of  the  water.  They  are  rather  shy  and  wary  birds,  evidently 
gifted  with  great  powers  of  scent  and  hearing,  and  approached  the  most  success- 
fully up  wind.  The  note  of  the  Wigeon  is  very  characteristic,  and  not  easily 
confused  with  that  of  any  other  British  Duck.  I  describe  it  as  a  wild  and  loud 
mee-ow  or  uee-oiv  ;  others  writers  as  mee-yoo  or  whee-yoii.  My  experience  is 
certainly  different  from  that  of  Naumann,  who  states  that  this  species  utters  a 
cry  like  that  of  the  Shoveller  as  it  rises.  A  note  sounding  like  kr-r  is  said  also 


360  THE    GAME   BIEDS   AND    WILD    FOWL 

to  be  occasionally  uttered.  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  grass,  buds, 
leaves,  and  shoots  of  various  aquatic  plants,  grass  wrack,  insects,  shrimps,  and 
mollusks.  The  bird  feeds  by  day  in  some  districts,  by  night  in  others,  and  both 
by  night  and  day  in  localities  where  it  is  much  harassed.  Hume  states  that  in 
India  the  Wigeon  is  more  of  a  grass-eater  than  any  other  Duck.  The  flesh  of  this 
bird  varies  a  great  deal  in  quality,  according  to  the  food  which  has  been  lately 
eaten.  British  individuals  are  considered  to  be  more  palatable  than  those  shot  in 
India. 

Nidification. — The  principal  breeding  grounds  of  the  Wigeon  are  the 
wild  districts,  partly  scrubby  forest,  partly  swamp,  studded  with  lakes  and  pools 
and  intersected  with  rivers  and  streams — the  border  land,  in  fact,  between  the 
bare  tundra  and  the  limit  of  the  growth  of  trees.  The  nests  are  made  in  May 
and  June,  according  to  locality,  and  are  usually  well  concealed  near  the  water- 
side, but  sometimes  a  considerable  distance  from  it,  either  among  the  long  coarse 
grass  and  other  vegetation  or  beneath  the  shelter  of  a  bush.  They  are  placed  on 
the  ground  and  made  of  dry  grass  and  dead  aquatic  vegetation,  rather  deep,  and 
warmly  lined  with  down  and  a  few  feathers.  The  eggs  are  from  six  to  ten  or 
even,  in  rare  instances,  twelve  in  number,  and  are  creamy-white  in  colour,  some- 
times huffish-white.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'2  inches  in  length  by  1'5 
inch  in  breadth.  The  down  is  sooty-brown  with  distinct  white  tips.  According 
to  Naumann,  incubation  lasts  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-five  days.  When 
leaving  the  nest  the  female  carefully  covers  the  eggs  with  down.  One  brood  only 
is  reared  in  the  year,  and  the  young  are  deserted  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  fly. 

Diagnostic  characters,— (Nuptial  plumage)  Mareca,  with  the  upper 
tail  coverts  grey,  the  under  tail  coverts  black,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  buff 
(male)  ;  with  the  head  chestnut  spotted  with  black  (female).  Length,  18  to  20 
inches. 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  361 

Family  ANATID^].  Gsnus  MARECA. 

Subfamily 


AMERICAN    WIQEON. 

MABECA  AMEBICANA.-(GmeZw). 

Anas  americana,  Gmel.,  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  526  (1788)  ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p. 
543  (1885);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  161  (1894);  Seebohm, 
Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  39  (1896). 

Mareca  americana  (Gmel.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  90  (1852  ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.,  ed.  4, 
iv.  p.  403  (1885) ;  Salvador!,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  233  (1895) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  281  (1896);  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxiii.  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  American  Wigeon  is  a  very 
rare  and  accidental  visitor  to  our  Islands ;  its  claim  to  rank  as  a  "  British  " 
species  being  supported  by  most  unsatisfactory  evidence.  It  is  with  much 
hesitation  that  I  have  included  this  species  in  the  present  work,  and  my  chief 
reason  for  doing  so  is  to  stimulate  the  interest  of  British  sportsmen,  and 
to  put  them  on  the  qui  vine  in  case  examples  chance  to  visit  our  Islands. 
That  this  bird  does  so  from  time  to  time  is  far  from  improbable  ;  but  until  we 
have  more  positive  proof  than  that  forthcoming,  every  careful  student  must  feel 
dubious  of  its  claim  to  rank  as  an  accidental  wanderer  to  our  shores.  The 
evidence  is  as  follows  :  Leadenhall  Market  (one  example,  which  may  have  been 
captured  on  the  Continent  and  consigned  with  other  fowl  to  London),  winter  of 
1837-38 ;  coast  of  Essex  (one  example,  not  confirmed  by  any  recognised  authority), 
January,  1864 ;  Devonshire  (one  example,  not  confirmed  by  any  recognised 
authority),  April,  1870;  Yorkshire,  one  example,  obtained  at  a  game  dealers  in 
Leed,  February,  1895 ;  Scotland  :  Banffshire  (one  example,  not  preserved,  and 
entirely  unauthenticated),  January,  1841.  Ireland:  Strangford  Lough,  Co. 
Down  (one  example,  not  preserved,  and  recorded  by  Thompson  on  hearsay 
evidence),  February,  1844  (Conf.  Thompson,  B.  of  Ireland,  iii.  p.  112).  One 
example  is  said  to  have  occurred  in  France  ;  and  Mr.  Howard  Saunders  records 
a  specimen  as  being  in  a  collection  of  birds  at  St.  Michael's,  in  the  Azores.  This 
together  with  the  fact  that  the  bird  wanders  to  the  Bermudas  and  is  rarely  or 
never  kept  in  captivity  in  our  Islands,  is  confirmatory  evidence  of  its  accidental 
occurrence  in  them.  Foreign ;  Nearctic  region,  more  southerly  in  winter ; 
northern  limits  of  Neotropical  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions 
of  America  from  Alaska  to  the  Hudson  Bay  basin,  as  far  north  as  lat.  70°,  and 


362  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

probably  as  far  south  as  Winnipeg.  It  has  also  been  recorded  by  Dr.  Stejneger 
from  Bering  Island.  It  passes  the  Northern  States,  both  inland  and  along  the 
coast,  on  migration,  and  winters  in  the  Southern  States,  Mexico,  the  West  Indies, 
and  Central  America. 

Allied  forms. — Mareca  penelope,  the  Old  World  representative  of  the 
American  Wigeon,  a  British  species,  and  dealt  with  fully  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Habits.— The  habits  of  the  American  Wigeon  are  not  known  to  differ  in 
any  very  important  particular  from  those  of  its  Palsearctic  congener.  In  the 
Southern  United  States,  where  it  is  extremely  common  during  winter,  it  is  known 
to  sportsmen  by  the  name  of  "  Bald-Pate."  Like  its  Old  World  ally,  it  is  said 
to  frequent  inland  localities  as  well  as  the  coast,  and  to  visit  rice-fields  and  rivers. 
Its  note  is  described  as  a  low  whistle,  but  probably  it  has  others  which  resemble 
those  of  the  Common  Wigeon.  Its  food  is  composed  of  vegetable  and  animal 
substances,  notably  the  succulent  weed  vallisneria  and  rice.  The  flesh  of  this 
bird  is  said  to  be  excellent. 

Nidification. — The  nest  of  the  American  Wigeon  is  placed  on  the  earth 
amongst  trees  and  bushes  in  swampy  districts,  but  always  on  a  dry  bit  of  ground, 
and  is  made  of  dead  grass,  leaves,  and  other  vegetable  refuse,  and  lined  with  plenty 
of  down  and  a  few  feathers  plucked  from  the  breast  or  flanks  of  the  female.  The 
eggs  are  from  six  to  twelve  in  number,  creamy-white  in  colour,  and  measure  on 
an  average  2'2  inches  in  length  by  1/5  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  is  apparently 
the  same  in  colour  as  that  of  the  Common  Wigeon.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in 
the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. — (Nuptial  plumage)  Mareca,  with  the  upper 
tail  coverts  grey,  the  under  tail  coverts  black,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  whitish, 
sides  of  head  and  upper  neck  whitish,  spotted  with  black  (male) ;  with  the  head 
and  upper  neck  whitish  spotted  with  black  (female).  Length,  19  to  20  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  363 


Genus   NETTION,    or  Teals. 

Type,   NETTION   CEECCA. 


Nettion,  of  Kaup  (1829). — The  birds  in  the  present  genus  are  characterised 
by  having  the  bill  moderate  in  size,  not  very  broad  and  shorter  than  the  head, 
but  not  gradually  tapering  towards  the  tip,  whilst  there  is  no  fringe  of  soft 
membrane  near  the  tip  of  the  apical  portion  ;  the  lamellae  of  the  upper  mandible 
are  not  prominent.  The  central  rectrices  are  acuminate,  and  extend  slightly 
beyond  the  outer  ones,  whilst  the  scapulars  and  tertials  are  longer  and  narrower 
than  in  the  Wigeons. 

Fifteen  species  of  Teals  are  recognised  by  Count  Salvadori,  the  most  recent 
monographer  of  the  ANATID.S.  The  present  genus  may  be  regarded  as  practically 
a  cosmopolitan  one.  Two  species  are  British,  one  being  indigenous  to  our 
Islands  and  the  other  an  abnormal  migrant  to  them  from  the  Nearctic  region. 

The  Teals  show  a  decided  preference  for  fresh  waters,  and  often  frequent  very 
small  pools  and  streams.  During  winter  they  visit  estuaries  and  other  marine 
localities.  Their  flight  is  rapid  and  powerful.  Their  notes  are  shrill  and 
unmusical.  They  subsist  partly  on  animal  and  partly  on  vegetable  substances, 
and  are  both  day  and  night  feeders.  They  are  social  and  gregarious.  They  are 
monogamous,  making  their  nests  upon  the  ground,  warmly  lining  these  structures 
with  down,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous,  and  buff  of  varying  shades  in  colour. 


364  THE  GAME   BIRDS   AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  NETTION. 

Subfamily  ANATIN&. 


COMMON    TEAL. 

NETTION   CEECCA—  (Linnaeus). 

Anas  crecca,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  204  (1766)  ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  545 
(1885);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  232  (1893);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  40,  pi.  16  (1896). 

Querquedula  crecca  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  48  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 
507,  pi.  426  (1871) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iv.  p.  387  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  viii.  (1888). 

Nettion  crecca  (Linn.),  Salvador!  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  243  (1895) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  283  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Teal  is  a  common  resident 
in,  and  breeds  in  all  suitable  localities  throughout  the  British  Islands,  but  becomes 
more  abundant  in  the  northern  districts.  The  residents  are  largely  increased  in 
numbers  during  autumn,  not  only  by  birds  passing  our  Islands  on  migration,  but  by 
individuals  that  remain  all  the  winter.  It  frequents  the  coasts  during  winter  as 
well  as  inland  swamps  and  waters.  Foreign :  Palaearctic  region,  more  southerly 
in  winter ;  Oriental  region  in  winter.  The  Teal  is  a  summer  visitor  to  and 
breeds  in  Iceland.  It  breeds  throughout  Arctic  Europe  and  Asia  as  far  north  as 
lat.  70°,  but  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle  (lat.  66J°)  it  becomes  more  local  and  rare. 
South  of  that  limit,  however,  it  breeds  in  the  Azores  and  Madeira,  very  sparingly 
in  South  Europe,  but  more  freely  in  Holland,  Denmark,  Germany,  and  Southern 
Scandinavia.  During  winter  it  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the  more 
temperate  and  southern  portions  of  Europe,  and  in  Northern  Africa,  as  far  south 
as  the  Canaries  in  the  west,  and  Abyssinia  in  the  east.  It  also  winters  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  the  basin  of  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  The  Asiatic 
birds  pass  through  Turkestan,  Mongolia,  and  the  Amoor  Valley  on  migration  (a 
few  remaining  to  breed),  and  winter  in  Arabia,  Persia,  India,  Ceylon,  Burmah, 
China,  and  Japan.  This  Teal  has  been  known  to  stray  across  Behring  Strait  into 
Alaska,  where  it  has  been  captured  in  June ;  whilst  on  the  east  of  America  it 
occasionally  visits  Greenland,  and  the  eastern  coasts  between  Labrador  and  North 
Carolina. 

Allied  forms. — Nettion  carolinense,  the  Nearctic  representative  of  the 
Common  Teal,  a  "  British  "  species,  and  dealt  with  fully  in  the  following  chapter. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  365 

Habits. — Although  a  great  many  Teal  are  practically  resident  in  the  British 
Islands,  this  Duck  is  hy  far  the  most  common  and  widely  dispersed  in  winter, 
when  its  numbers  are  increased  by  migratory  individuals  from  more  northern  and 
colder  latitudes.  With  us  this  Duck  begins  to  arrive  in  September,  and  continues 
to  do  so  through  the  following  month.  In  India,  where  it  is  one  of  the  com- 
monest Ducks  during  the  cold  season,  they  begin  to  appear  in  September  in  the 
north,  but  the  heaviest  nights  arrive  during  October,  whilst  further  south  they 
are  not  observed  until  the  north-east  monsoon  in  November.  They  leave  most 
parts  of  India  about  the  end  of  April ,  although  a  few  are  seen  even  in  May.  In 
the  valley  of  the  Petchora,  Teal  arrived  on  the  18th  of  June  with  the  general 
smash-up  of  the  ice  on  the  river  and  the  melting  of  the  snow  ;  in  the  Yenisei 
district  its  arrival  was  also  coincident  with  the  thaw.  The  Teal  is  much  more 
partial  to  reed-fringed  pools  and  small  lakes  than  to  the  mud-banks  and  estuaries 
of  the  coast.  In  India,  Hume  remarks  they  may  be  met  with  anywhere,  on 
fresh  water  of  course,  either  on  the  village  pond,  in  the  marshy  corner  of  a  broad, 
on  large  lakes,  or  on  sluggish  rivers  and  dancing  upland  streams.  The  Teal  is  by 
no  means  a  shy  bird,  yet  it  is  very  fond  of  skulking  amongst  the  tall  aquatic 
vegetation,  remaining  close  until  flushed  by  dogs  or  men.  It  is  a  gregarious  bird, 
especially  just  previous  to  and  on  migration.  In  India  bunches  of  from  ten  to 
thirty  are  most  frequent,  but  much  larger  gatherings  are  on  record,  especially 
during  Flight.  As  a  rule  the  smaller  the  pond  or  lake,  the  fewer  in  number  the 
birds  will  be.  The  flight  of  the  Teal  is  rapid,  and  the  bird  has  considerable  com- 
mand over  itself  in  the  air,  often  escaping  the  swoop  of  a  Falcon  with  a  sudden 
dip  or  twist.  This  Duck  has  also  a  way  of  dropping  suddenly  into  cover  again 
soon  after  being  flushed.  It  swims  well  and  lightly,  but  never  dives  unless  wounded, 
and  even  then  makes  but  poor  attempts  to  do  so.  The  Teal  is  most  frequently 
seen  on  the  water,  but  occasionally  it  walks  about  the  banks  with  a  waddling 
gait,  and  may  be  often  observed  standing  on  one  leg  with  its  head  drawn  in,  or 
even  buried  beneath  the  scapulars.  The  Teal  is  both  a  day  and  night  feeder 
where  left  unmolested,  but  in  districts  where  it  is  much  disturbed  it  varies  its 
time,  and  obtains  most  of  its  sustenance  at  night.  Under  these  circumstances, 
especially  if  the  flock  be  fairly  large,  the  birds  spend  the  day  on  some  large  sheet 
of  water,  and  retire  at  night  to  the  marshes  and  small  ponds  to  feed.  They 
usually  change  their  quarters  towards  sunset,  and  as  they  follow  certain  routes 
backwards  and  forwards,  afford  fairly  good  sport  on  flight.  The  Teal  obtains 
most  of  its  food  either  whilst  floating  in  the  shallows,  from  time  to  time  turning 
upside  down  in  true  orthodox  Duck  fashion,  or  when  paddling  round  the  weedy 
margin  of  the  water.  This  food  consists  of  grass  and  seeds,  shoots,  roots,  and 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants ;  grain,  rice,  insects  and  their  larvae,  small  mollusks,  and 
worms.  The  usual  alarm  note  of  the  Teal  is  a  rather  weak  but  shrill  quack,  but 
the  call-note,  which  may  be  heard  incessantly  as  the  pair  of  birds  swim  to  and 
fro,  is  a  harsh  Rail-like  crrick.  The  flesh  of  the  Teal  is  excellent  for  the  table. 


366  THE  GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

In  India  great  numbers  of  these  birds  are  kept  in  confinement  and  fattened  for 
food,  especially  by  tbe  Anglo-Indians,  whom  a  hard  fate  condemns  to  residence 
on  the  sultry  plains  during  the  hot  season. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Teal  in  the  British  Islands 
commences  early  in  May,  but  is  a  month  or  more  later  in  higher  latitudes.  In 
the  Arctic  regions  this  Duck  makes  its  nest  in  similar  localities  to  those  selected  by 
the  Wigeon  ;  but  with  us  it  is  usually  placed  amongst  the  dense  vegetation,  bram- 
bles, sedge,  heather,  or  coarse  grass  growing  by  the  waterside,  but  occasionally 
some  distance  from  it.  It  is  made  on  the  ground,  of  dry  grass,  leaves,  broken 
sedge  and  reeds,  and  warmly  lined  with  down  from  the  female.  The  eggs  are 
from  eight  to  ten  in  number,  in  rare  instances  up  to  fifteen,  and  vary  from 
creamy-white  to  huffish-white,  sometimes  with  a  faint  greenish  cast.  They 
measure  on  an  average  1'7  inch  in  length  by  1'3  inch  in  breadth  The  down  is 
small  and  uniform  dark  brown  without  any  white  tips.  Incubation,  performed 
by  the  female,  lasts  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-two  days.  One  brood  only 
is  reared  in  the  year,  but  if  the  first  clutch  of  eggs  be  taken  others  will  be 
laid.  The  old  Teals  are  much  attached  to  each  other,  and  we  should  say 
undoubtedly  pair  for  life.  The  male  Teal  assumes  a  brown  moulting  dress  like 
allied  species. 

Diagnostic  characters — Nettion,  with  the  head  partly  metallic  green, 
with  the  top  of  the  head  chestnut  like  the  cheeks,  with  no  white  crescent  on  the 
sides  of  the  breast  and  with  the  lower  scapulars  white,  edged  with  black  on  the 
outer  web  (male)  ;  with  the  alar  speculum  black,  and  the  wing  under  seven  inches 
long  (female).  Length,  13  to  16  inches. 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  367 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  NETTION. 

Subfamily    ANATINJE. 


AMERICAN   TEAL. 

NETTION   CAEOLINENSE.— Gmelin. 

Anas  carolinensis,  Gmel.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  533  (1788) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p. 

549  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  163  (1894) ;  Seebohm, 

Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  40  (1896). 
Nettion  carolinense  (Gmel.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  250  (1895)  ;  Sharpe, 

Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  286  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  American  Teal  is  a  very 
rare  accidental  visitor  to  the  British  Islands.  The  claim  of  this  species  to  rank  as 
"  British  "  rests  upon  the  following  recorded  occurrences.  England  :  Hampshire 
(one  example  of  doubtful  authenticity),  about  1838;  Yorkshire  (one  example), 
November,  1851 ;  Devonshire  (one  example,  the  most  satisfactory  of  the  three), 
November,  1879.  Foreign  :  Nearctic  region,  more  southerly  in  winter;  extreme 
northern  limit  of  Neotropical  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions 
of  America,  from  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  Alaska  in  the  west  to  Greenland  in 
the  east.  It  passes  the  Northern  States  and  Southern  Canada  on  spring  and 
autumn  migration,  but  in  these  localities  a  few  remain  to  breed  and  a  few  remain 
to  winter ;  it  also  visits  the  Bermudas  abnormally  in  autumn.  It  winters  in  the 
Southern  States,  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and  Central  America. 

Allied  forms. — Nettion  crecca,  the  Palaearctic  representative  of  the 
American  Teal,  a  British  species,  dealt  with  fully  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Habits. — The  American  Teal  is  not  known  to  differ  in  its  habits  in  any  im- 
portant respect  from  the  Common  Teal.  It  is  migratory  in  the  higher  and  colder 
latitudes,  sedentary  in  warmer  districts,  as  the  Old  World  Teal  is  with  us.  The 
haunts  it  frequents  are  very  similar,  both  in  summer  and  winter.  Its  flesh  is 
highly  esteemed  for  the  table. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  habits  of  the  American  Teal— the  situation 
and  materials  of  the  nest,  the  period  of  incubation,  the  number  of  eggs — are  all 
similar  in  every  important  respect  to  those  of  the  Palaearctic  species.  The  eggs 


368  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

are  the  same  creamy-white  colour,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'8  inch  in  length 
by  1-3  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  is  undescribed,  but  is  probably  precisely 
similar  to  that  of  the  Common  Teal,  seeing  that  the  females  of  the  two  species 
are  entirely  alike  in  colour. 

Diagnostic  characters — Nettion,  with  the  head  partly  metallic  green, 
with  the  top  of  the  head  chestnut  like  the  cheeks,  and  with  a  broad  crescentic 
band  of  white  on  each  side  of  the  breast,  and  with  no  white  on  the  scapulars 
(male)  ;  similar  in  every  external  character  to  the  female  of  the  Common  Teal 
(female).  Length,  14  to  15  inches. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  369 


Oenus  QUERQUEDULA,  or  Garganeys. 

Type,  QUERQUEDULA  CIRCIA. 


Querquedula,  of  Stephens  (1824).- -The  birds  in  the  present  genus, 
although  closely  allied  to  the  Teals,  are  readily  characterised  by  having  the 
upper  wing  blue,  in  this  respect  showing  considerable  affinity  with  the  Shovelers. 

Five  species  of  Garganeys  are  at  present  recognised  by  ornithologists,  four  of 
which  are  distributed  over  the  American  Continents  (two  being  Nearctic  and  two 
being  exclusively  Neotropical),  and  one  is  confined  to  the  Palsearctic  region  in 
the  Old  World  during  the  breeding  season  becoming  more  southerly  in  its 
dispersal  during  winter.  Two  species  are  British,  one  being  indigenous  to  our 
Islands,  the  other  an  abnormal  migrant  to  them. 

The  Garganeys  closely  resemble  the  Teals  in  their  habits  and  economy. 
They  are  partial  to  fresh  water  during  the  breeding  season,  but  become  more 
maritime  in  their  tastes  during  migration  and  in  winter.  Their  flight  is  power- 
ful and  comparatively  silent.  Their  notes  are  harsh  and  unmusical.  Their 
food,  obtained  mostly  at  night,  is  chiefly  composed  of  vegetable  substances,  but  an 
animal  diet  is  sometimes  resorted  to.  They  are  social  and  gregarious,  especially 
during  the  non-breeding  season.  They  swim  well,  but  never  dive  except  when 
wounded.  They  are  monogamous,  and  make  their  nests  upon  the  ground,  often 
amongst  herbage  far  from  water,  lining  them  with  down.  Their  eggs  are 
numerous,  and  various  shades  of  buff  in  colour. 


24 


370  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family    ANATID^.  Genus  QUERQUEDULA. 

Subfamily  ANATINM. 


QARQANEY. 

QUERQUEDULA   CIECIA—  (Lmnaus). 

Anas  circia,   Linn.   Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  203  (1766) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  551 

(1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xiii.  (1890) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B. 

p.  234  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  41,  pi.  16  (1896). 
Querquedula  circia  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  55  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 

513,  pi.  427  (1871);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  393  (1885);  Salvador!,  Cat.  B. 

Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  293  (1895). 
Querquedula  querquedula  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  291  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Garganey  is  a  rare  and 
exceedingly  local  visitor  to  our  area  on  spring  and  autumn  migration,  a  few 
remaining  behind  in  spring  to  breed  in  suitable  localities.  It  becomes  rarer  in 
Scotland  than  in  England,  of  only  accidental  occurrence  in  the  Orkneys  and 
Shetlands,  and  entirely  unknown  in  the  Outer  Hebrides.  It  breeds  regularly, 
and  it  is  said  in  increasing  numbers,  in  Norfolk,  less  commonly  in  Suffolk,  and 
perhaps  in  a  few  of  the  southern  English  counties.  It  used  formerly  to  breed  in 
Cambridgeshire  and  Huntingdonshire,  and  in  Prestwick  Car  in  Northumberland, 
but  the  reclamation  of  its  favourite  haunts  has  driven  ib  to  seek  nesting  places 
elsewhere.  It  is  said  by  Sir  R.  Payne-Gallwey  to  be  the  rarest  of  the  ordinary 
Ducks  in  Ireland,  and  practically  confined  to  the  southern  portion  of  the  country 
where  it  has  been  met  with  very  early  in  spring  and  even  in  winter.  Foreign  : 
Southern  Palaearctic  region  ;  Oriental  region  in  winter.  It  is  a  rare  visitor  to 
the  Faroes  and  Iceland,  and  only  known  to  have  occurred  twice  in  Norway.  It 
breeds  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  the  Baltic  Provinces,  Finland,  and  North-western 
Russia  as  far  as  Archangel.  It  also  breeds  throughout  Central  and  Southern 
Europe  (although  rare  in  Portugal),  the  Caucasus,  and  eastwards  through  Tur- 
kestan and  the  extreme  south  of  Siberia  (Mr.  Popham  records  it  from  as  far  north 
as  Yeneseisk  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei),  probably  to  the  valley  of  the  Amoor. 
It  winters  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  extending 
southwards  as  far  as  Egypt  and  Arabia.  The  Asiatic  birds  appear  to  winter  in 
India,  Burmah  and  China  (a  few  lingering  to  breed  in  these  countries),  in  many 
parts  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and  in  Japan. 


OF   THE   BEITISII   ISLANDS.  371 

Allied  forms. — Querquedula  discors,  one  of  the  two  representative 
American  species,  which  have  occurred  in  our  Islands,  forms  the  subject  of  the 
following  chapter.  Q.  cyanoptera,  the  second  representative  species  of  the  New 
World.  An  inhabitant  of  Western  America  from  the  Columbia  Eiver  to  Chili, 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  Falkland  Islands ;  of  only  accidental  occurrence  in  the 
Eastern  States.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  Garganey  by  having  the  under  tail 
coverts  black,  and  by  the  uniform  chestnut  head  and  neck. 

Habits. — The  aversion  of  the  Garganey  to  cold  is  displayed  very  decidedly 
in  several  ways.  In  the  first  place  the  birds'  geographical  area  nowhere  extends 
into  an  Arctic  climate  ;  and,  secondly,  its  migrations  are  performed  much  earlier 
in  autumn  and  later  in  spring  than  those  of  most  if  not  all  other  Palaearctic  Ducks. 
These  remarks  apply  as  much  to  the  individuals  breeding  in  Europe  as  to 
those  breeding  in  Asia,  where  the  climate  is  much  more  severe  than  with  us. 
The  Garganey  leaves  the  northern  limits  of  its  range  in  Europe  long  before 
winter,  and  in  India  it  is  the  earliest  duck  to  arrive  in  autumn,  large  flights 
appearing  towards  the  end  of  August,  slowly  reaching  the  southern  districts  in 
October  and  November.  It  lingers  in  India  until  the  end  of  April  or  early  May, 
beginning  to  leave  the  southern  portions  of  that  country  in  March.  The  Gar- 
ganey is  decidedly  a  fresh-water  species  with  us,  but  in  its  winter  quarters  in 
India  and  other  places  it  is  more  maritime,  frequenting  creeks  and  estuaries  as 
well  as  inland  waters.  Whilst  on  passage,  and  in  its  winter  haunts,  the  Garganey 
is  gregarious,  forming  into  flocks  of  from  a  dozen  to  a  hundred  individuals,  which 
as  they  invariably  keep  well  together,  afford  most  effective  shots  for  the  swivel 
gun.  In  India  the  Garganey  affects  by  choice  the  rather  large  broads  and 
swamps  where  plenty  of  aquatic  herbage  grows,  shunning  bare  lakes,  rivers,  and 
small  ponds.  It  is  neither  a  very  wild  nor  a  very  wary  species,  and  approached  more 
easily  in  a  punt  than  most  other  Ducks.  It  rises  quickly  from  the  water  and  its 
flight  is  rapid  and  strong,  but  almost  silent,  although  when  large  flocks  of  birds 
pass  directly  overhead  a  very  distinct  swishing  sound  is  produced.  When  flushed 
from  dry  ground,  however,  its  first  movements  are  rather  clumsy  and  laboured. 
It  not  only  swims  well  and  lightly,  sitting  well  out  of  the  water,  but  dives  readily 
when  wounded.  The  food  of  the  Garganey  is  chiefly  of  a  vegetable  nature  inland, 
but  on  the  coast  an  animal  diet  is  more  usual.  It  consists  of  the  buds,  leaves, 
shoots,  seeds,  and  roots  of  various  aquatic  plants,  and  in  India  of  rice,  both  wild 
and  cultivated ;  insects  and  their  larvae,  frogs,  worms,  mollusks,  and  crustaceans. 
The  Garganey  is  for  the  most  part  a  night  feeder,  and  at  such  times  it  has  been 
known  to  visit  rice-fields  in  such  numbers  as  to  destroy  acres  of  the  crop  in  a  few 
hours.  The  call-note  of  the  Garganey  is  a  harsh  quack,  and  is  common  to  both  sexes ; 
but  during  the  breeding  season  the  drake  makes  a  harsh  Rail-like  crrick.  It  is  not 
a  garrulous  bird  when  in  flocks.  The  flesh  of  this  Duck  is  not  very  palatable,  even 
when  the  bird  has  been  obtained  under  the  most  favourable  conditions  as  to  diet. 


372  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Nidification. — The  Garganey  is  a  rather  late  breeder  for  a  southern 
species,  and  its  eggs  are  seldom  laid  before  the  end  of  April  or  the  first  half  of 
May.  The  nest  is  placed  in  a  great  variety  of  situations,  very  often  in  places 
similar  to  those  selected  by  the  Teal.  It  is  as  often  as  not  some  distance  from 
water,  and  has  been  found  in  open  forests  and  amongst  growing  corn.  Usually 
it  is  built  on  the  ground  amongst  tall,  thick  grass  or  sedge,  or  amongst  low  heath. 
The  nest  is  made  of  dry  grass,  dead  rushes,  leaves,  and  other  vegetable  refuse, 
warmly  lined  with  down.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to  fourteen  in  number,  and 
vary  from  cream-white  to  huffish-white  in  colour.  They  measure  on  an  average 
1*8  inch  in  length  by  1'35  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  small  and  brown 
with  long  white  tips.  Incubation,  performed  by  the  female,  is  said  by  Naumann 
to  last  from  twenty-one  to  twenty-two  days.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the 
year,  and  of  this  the  female  apparently  takes  the  entire  charge. 

Diagnostic  Characters.— (Nuptial  plumage),  Querguedula,  with  the 
mantle  unvermiculated,  with  the  wing  coverts  pale  blue,  and  with  the  under  tail 
coverts  white  spotted  with  dark  brown  (adult  male)  ;  with  no  metallic  alar 
speculum,  and  the  wing  about  7  inches  long  (adult  female).  Length,  15  to  10 
inches. 


OP  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  373 

Family  ANATID^].  Genus  QUERQUEDULA. 

Subfamily 


BLUE-WINGED  QARQANEY. 

QUEEQUEDULA  DISCOES—  (Linnceus). 

Anas  discors,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  205  (1766) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  551 
(1885)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  164  (1894)  ;  Seebohm,  Col 
Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  42  (1896). 

Querquedula  discors  (Linn.),  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  392  (1885) ;  Salvadori,  Cat. 
B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  300  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  294  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Blue-winged  Garganey 
is  another  dubious  "British"  species  which  we  include  in  this  volume  with 
considerable  hesitation.  Its  claim  to  rank  as  "British"  rests  on  a  single 
occurrence,  and  even  about  this  there  has  been  considerable  confusion.  The 
late  Mr.  Gray,  in  his  Birds  of  the  West  of  Scotland,  states  that  the  example 
in  question  was  killed  in  January,  1863 ;  but  Mr.  Gibson,  in  recording  the 
same  specimen  in  the  Naturalist  for  1858,  avers  that  it  was  obtained  "a  few 
weeks  ago  "  in  that  year.  The  latter  date  appears  to  be  the  correct  one.  This 
example,  a  male,  was  obtained  in  Dumfriesshire  by  a  Mr.  Shaw.  It  passed  through 
the  hands  of  a  local  bird-stuffer  into  the  collection  of  Sir  William  Jardine,  and 
is  now  in  the  Edinburgh  Museum.  Other  alleged  occurrences  have  been 
recorded,  but  in  every  case  identification  has  been  found  to  be  wrong.  It  has 
once  been  recorded  from  Continental  Europe — an  adult  male  shot  in  Denmark  in 
April,  1886.  Foreign:  Central  and  southern  Nearctic  region,  more  southerly  in 
winter  ;  extreme  northern  limits  of  Neotropical  region  in  winter.  It  breeds  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  south  of  lat.  60°,  but  becomes  more  local  west  of  the 
Eocky  Mountains.  Southwards  its  breeding  range  extends  to  Florida  and 
Mexico  as  far  as  the  northern  tropic.  The  northern  birds  pass  south  in  autumn, 
abnormally  visiting  the  Bermudas,  and  winter  in  Mexico,  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  northern  portions  of  Central  America. 

Allied  forms. — Querquedula  circia,  a  British  species,  and  dealt  with  fully 
in  the  preceding  chapter.  Q.  cyanoptera,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Nearctic  region. 
Distinguished  from  the  Blue-winged  Garganey  by  its  uniform  chestnut  head 
and  neck. 


374  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  Blue-winged  Garganey  are  not  known  to 
differ  in  any  important  respect  from  those  of  allied  species  already  described. 

Nidification. — In  its  nidification  the  Blue-winged  Garganey  resembles 
its  congeners ;  the  nest,  site,  number  of  eggs,  are  all  similar  in  every  respect. 
The  eggs  are  creamy- white  in  colour,  and  measure  on  an  average  1'9  inch 
in  length  by  1'3  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  is  apparently  undescribed. 

Diagnostic  Characters.  — (Nuptial  plumage),  Querquedula,  with  the 
under  tail  coverts  black,  with  a  white  crescent  between  the  eye  and  the  bill,  and 
with  the  shoulders  or  wing  coverts  bright  blue  (male) ;  with  a  green  speculum, 
and  dull  blue  shoulders  (female).  Length,  16  inches. 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  375 


Genus   SPATULA,    or  Shovelers. 

Type,   SPATULA   CLYPBATA. 


Spatula,  of  Boie  (1822). — The  birds  in  the  present  genus  are  characterised 
by  having  a  spatulate  bill,  combined  with  the  absence  of  a  soft  membrane  at  the 
sides  of  it  near  the  tip,  and  the  presence  of  blue  wing  coverts. 

Four  species  of  typical  Shoveler  are  at  present  known  to  ornithologists,  and 
a  fifth  and  somewhat  aberrant  species  (confined  to  Australia  and  Tasmania)  is 
generically  separated  under  the  term  Malacorhynchus,  remarkable  for  having 
the  bill  furnished  with  a  soft  membrane  at  the  sides  near  the  tip.  The 
Shovelers  are  practically  cosmopolitan  in  their  distribution,  although  but  one 
species  is  British. 

The  Shovelers  show  a  decided  preference  for  fresh  water,  being  especially 
partial  to  lakes,  pools,  and  rivers  with  shallow  muddy  banks.  Their  flight  is 
rapid  and  powerful  when  once  fairly  commenced.  They  walk  with  the  usual 
waddling  gait  peculiar  to  most  Ducks,  but  swim  with  ease  although  they  never 
normally  dive.  They  are  social  but  not  so  gregarious  as  some  other  species  in 
the  present  subfamily.  Their  notes  are  harsh,  becoming  gutteral  during  flight. 
They  are  almost  omnivorous  in  their  diet,  feeding  by  night  as  well  as  by  day. 
They  are  monogamous,  making  their  rude  nests,  ultimately  lined  with  down, 
upon  the  ground,  and  their  numerous  eggs  are  buffish  or  olive-white  in  colour. 


376  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  SPATULA. 

Subfamily  ANATIN&. 


SHOVELER. 

SPATULA  CLYPEATA—  (Linneeus). 
PLATE  XXXVI. 

Anas  clypeata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  200  (1766) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  554 

(1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  x.  (1889) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B. 

p. 235  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  Ii.  p.  42,  pi.  13  (1896). 
Rhynchaspis  clypeata  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  74  (1852). 
Spatula  clypeata  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  497,  pi.  425  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 

ed.  4.  iv.  p.  375  (1885) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  306  (1895) ;  Sharpe, 

Handb.  B.  Gt  Brit.  ii.  p.  265  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.  —  British:  The  Shoveler  is  a  fairly 
common  winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  but  practically  resident  in  many 
localities,  and  is  found  both  inland  and  on  the  coast.  It  becomes  rarer  in 
Wales,  the  southern  and  western  districts  of  England,  and  the  west  of  Scot- 
land, being  very  rare  in  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  on  the  Orkneys,  and  appears 
never  to  have  visited  the  Shetlands.  Its  recorded  breeding  places  are  as 
follows.  England:  Shires  of  Dorset,  Kent,  Hertford,  Cambridge,  Norfolk,  Lin- 
coln, Nottingham,  Huntingdon,  Stafford,  York,  Durham,  Northumberland,  and 
Cumberland.  Wales  :  no  reliable  data.  Scotland  :  Kircudbright,  East  Lothian, 
Dumbarton,  Argyle,  Elgin,  Koss,  Sutherland  and  the  Orkneys,  and  the  island  of 
Tiree,  one  of  the  Hebrides.  Ireland  :  Queen's  County,  Galway  (Lough  Derg  on 
the  Shannon), Cos.  Dublin,  Antrim,  Donegal,  Fermanagh, Westmeath,  Louth,  Eos- 
common,  Mayo,  Sligo,  and  possibly  in  King's  County  and  Kerry.  During  winter 
also  the  Shoveler  is  much  more  frequent  in  the  south  of  Ireland  than  the  north. 
Foreign  :  Circumpolar,  northern  Nearctic  and  Palsearctic  regions,  more  southerly 
in  winter ;  Oriental  and  extreme  northern  limits  of  Neotropical  regions  in  winter. 
It  breeds  throughout  the  Subarctic  regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  from 
about  the  latitude  of  the  Arctic  Circle  south  to  lat.  50°.  Below  this  latitude  it 
becomes  more  local,  and  not  so  abundant  during  the  breeding  season,  although  it 
nests  in  small  numbers  in  the  west  Palaearctic  region  as  far  as  the  African  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the  east  Palaearctic  region  as  far  south  as  Turkestan 
and  Mongolia ;  whilst  in  the  Nearctic  region  it  breeds  very  sparingly  in  the  north 
of  the  United  States.  Its  winter  quarters  in  Europe  are  the  basin  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  North  Africa  as  far  south  as  the  Great  Dessert  and  Abyssinia.  Those 


X 
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OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  377 

in  Asia  are  Persia,  India,  Ceylon,  China  and  Japan.  Those  in  America  are  the 
Southern  States,  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  America,  south  to  Panama. 
A  specimen  has  been  obtained  at  Cape  Town,  another  in  the  Canaries,  whilst  we 
find  it  also  recorded  from  Borneo  and  Australia. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  special  notice. 
Bepresentative  species  occur  as  follows :  Spatula  platalea,  Neotropical  region ; 
S.  capensis,  Ethiopian  region ;  S.  rhynchotis,  Australian  region. 

Habits. — The  migration  of  the  Shoveler  to  our  islands  from  more  Arctic 
latitudes  commences  in  September  and  continues  through  October  to  November. 
The  return  journey  commences  in  April  and  lasts  well  into  May,  and  in  some 
countries  continues  right  through  the  latter  month  into  June.  It  was  first  noticed 
in  the  valley  of  the  Petchora,  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  by  Messrs.  Harvie-Brown 
and  Seebohm  on  the  19th  of  June ;  and  by  the  latter  gentleman  one  day  earlier 
in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei,  in  the  same  latitude.  These  dates  are  late  even  for 
the  Arctic  regions,  and  the  species  was  probably  overlooked  upon  its  first  arrival. 
It  arrives  at  its  winter  quarters  in  India  towards  the  end  of  October  and  the 
beginning  of  November,  and  leaves  during  April  and  May.  Its  migrations  are 
almost  invariably  performed  during  night,  and  the  bird  does  not  appear  to  con- 
gregate in  very  large  parties  for  the  purpose.  Although  the  Shoveler  occasionally 
visits  the  low-lying  coasts,  it  is  a  thorough  fresh-water  species,  and  loves  to 
frequent  lakes  and  large  sheets  of  water,  ponds  and  slow-running  rivers.  In  our 
islands  it  is  certainly  a  shy,  suspicious  bird,  keeping  well  out  in  the  centre  of  the 
water  if  human  intruders  be  lurking  about ;  but  in  India  it  is  one  of  the  tamest 
of  Ducks.  Hume  states  that  in  the  North-west  Provinces  it  may  be  met  with 
in  pairs  on  almost  every  village  pond,  even  those  of  the  filthiest  description,  little 
more  than  cesspools,  being  frequented  until  scarcely  a  drop  of  liquid  filth  remains 
as  the  hot  season  approaches.  Here  on  these  ponds  it  is  often  as  tame  as  the 
domestic  Ducks,  and  when  approached  merely  waddles  into  the  water  and  swims 
out  from  shore,  seldom  rising  until  fired  at,  and  then  usually  returning  after  a 
circle  or  two  in  the  air.  The  Shoveler  is  not  very  gregarious,  and  even  when  a 
flock  is  congregated  on  some  certain  favoured  pool  the  birds  are  usually  scattered 
about  in  pairs  or  in  very  small  groups.  This  Duck  almost  constantly  keeps  to 
shallow  water  close  inshore,  only  swimming  farther  out  when  alarmed,  and  may 
usually  be  seen  dabbling  about  in  the  mud,  or  with  head  and  neck  under  the 
surface  seeking  for  food.  The  peculiar  habit  of  a  pair  of  birds  feeding  whilst  swim- 
ming round  in  circles  with  their  heads  in  the  centre  is  graphically  described  from 
personal  observation  by  Professor  Newton.  Sometimes  they  may  be  seen  standing 
on  the  bank  preening  their  plumage,  or  dozing  with  their  head  twisted  round  and 
nearly  buried  in  the  dorsal  plumage.  This  species  walks  in  the  usual  waddling 
manner,  but  the  body  is  carried  somewhat  erect,  and  sometimes  the  bird  runs  rather 


378  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

quickly.  It  swims  fairly  well,  but  rarely  dives,  and  only  when  wounded.  From  the 
nature  of  the  locality  in  which  most  of  its  food  is  obtained,  the  very  shallow  water, 
the  Shoveler  rarely  turns  upside  down  to  feed ;  it  has  no  need  to  do  so.  The  Shoveler 
very  often  associates  with  other  Ducks,  but  owing  to  its  partiality  for  small  muddy 
pools  it  is  most  frequently  seen  by  itself.  The  flight  of  this  species  when  once 
the  bird  is  fairly  launched  is  rapid  and  powerful,  but  it  rises  heavily  and  slowly 
from  the  water.  The  food  of  the  Shoveler  consists  of  grass,  grain,  shoots,  buds, 
leaves,  and  roots  of  aquatic  herbage,  insects  of  all  kinds  and  their  larvae,  mollusks, 
frogs,  small  fish,  in  fact  anything  and  everything  edible.  As  Hume  justly 
remarks,  in  some  localities  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  what  this  bird  will  not  eat. 
Much  of  its  food  is  obtained  in  the  shallow  water  as  it  moves  its  broad  spatulated 
bill  from  side  to  side,  sifting  every  likely  and  unlikely  bit  of  mud.  It  is  both  a 
day  and  night  feeder,  but  obtains  most  of  its  food  after  dusk,  leaving  in  many 
cases  the  haunts  it  has  frequented  during  the  day  and  flying  for  some  considerable 
distance  to  places  where  its  staple  fare  is  abundant.  The  call-note  of  the  Shoveler 
is  a  harsh  quack ;  a  lower  guttural  note  is  uttered  during  flight.  It  is  a  remark- 
ably silent  bird,  always  apparently  too  intent  on  feeding  to  talk.  Its  flesh  is  of 
very  variable  quality,  depending  a  good  deal  upon  the  diet  of  the  bird. 

Nidification. — The  Shoveler  is  a  rather  late  breeder,  and  even  in  our 
Islands  its  eggs  are  not  laid  until  the  middle  of  May  or  later,  whilst  in  more 
northern  latitudes  they  are  not  laid  before  June  or  even  early  in  July.  The 
breeding  grounds  of  the  Shoveler  are  situated  amongst  lakes  and  swamps  where 
plenty  of  aquatic  vegetation  grows  on  the  banks,  and  where  shallow  water  or 
sluggish  streams  choked  with  weed  furnish  plenty  of  feeding  places.  The  nest  is 
generally  made  on  a  bit  of  dry  ground  amongst  the  tall  grass  and  sedge  or  heath, 
and  is  simply  a  hollow  into  which  a  little  dead  grass,  sedge,  and  a  few  dead  leaves 
are  collected,  and  warmly  lined  with  down  and  feathers  plucked  from  the  female. 
The  eggs  are  from  seven  to  fourteen  in  number,  nine  or  ten  being  an  average 
clutch.  They  vary  from  pale  huffish-white  to  very  pale  olive-green,  fine  in 
texture,  and  with  some  little  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'0  inches  in 
length  by  1'5  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  moderate  in  size,  neutral  dark 
grey  with  large  pale  centres  and  very  conspicuous  white  tips.  Incubation,  almost 
invariably  performed  by  the  female,  lasts,  according  to  Naumann,  twenty-one  to 
twenty- three  days,  but  Tiedemann  gives  twenty-eight  days  as  the  period.  The 
male  Shoveler  has  been  found  sitting  on  the  eggs  in  at  least  one  well-authenticated 
instance.  The  young  are  usually  able  to  fly  a  month  after  they  are  hatched,  but 
until  then  they  are  assiduously  tended  by  the  female.  One  brood  only  is  reared 
in  the  year,  but,  as  is  often  the  case,  if  the  first  eggs  be  taken  others  are  laid. 

Diagnostic  characters. — Spatula,,  with  the  head  and  upper  portion  of 
the  neck  rich  glossy  green.  Length,  20  inches. 


OF   THE    BEITISH   ISLANDS.  379 


Genus   ANAS,  or  Typical   Ducks. 

Type,  ANAS  BOSCHAS. 


Anas,  of  Brisson  (1760). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  tarsus  scutellated  in  front,  the  tail  feathers  graduated 
and  pointed  at  the  tips,  and  the  carpal  region  dull  grey.  The  wings  are  long  and 
pointed.  The  bill  is  broad,  but  not  spatulate,  and  about  the  same  length  as  the 
head.  Three  toes  in  front  webbed  ;  hind  toe  small  and  unlobed.  Sexes  different 
in  colour. 

This  genus  contains  about  eighteen  species  and  subspecies,  and  is  almost 
cosmopolitan.  One  species  is  British,  breeding  in  our  Islands. 

The  Non-diving  Ducks  are  dwellers  near  inland  waters  and  in  feus  and  marshes 
in  summer,  but  during  their  seasons  of  passage  and  in  winter  they  are  more 
maritime.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  if  somewhat  laboured  flight,  swim  well,  rarely 
if  ever  dive,  and  walk  awkwardly  with  a  waddling  gait.  Their  notes  are  loud  and 
unmusical.  They  subsist  on  both  vegetable  and  animal  substances,  being  practi- 
cally omnivorous.  They  make  somewhat  bulky  nests,  lined  with  down,  upon  the 
ground,  or  in  holes  of  trees.  Their  eggs  are  numerous,  and  range  from  buff  to 
pale  greenish  in  colour,  unspotted  and  smooth.  They  are  monogamous,  and 
probably  pair  for  life  ;  the  male  taking  no  part  in  the  rearing  of  the  young.  They 
are  more  or  less  gregarious,  except  in  the  breeding  season.  Their  flesh  is  esteemed 
for  the  table. 


380  THE  GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Family  ANATID.E.  Genus  ANAS. 

Subfamily 


MALLARD. 

ANAS  BOSCHAS— (Linnmis). 
PLATE  XXXVII. 

Anas  boschas,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  205  (1766) ;    Macgill,  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  31  (1852) ; 

Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  469,  pi.  422  (1873) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  559 

(1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  viii.  (1888) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B. 

p.  237  (1893). 
Anas  boscas  (Forst.  ex  Linn.),  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4.  iv.  p.  358  (1885) ;  Salvadori,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  189  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  269  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British ;  The  Mallard,  or  Wild  Duck,  is 
the  commonest  species  of  fresh-water  Duck  in  our  area,  and  generally  distributed 
throughout  the  British  Islands,  breeding  in  every  part  suited  to  its  needs,  including 
the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  the  Hebrides  and  Ireland.  It  is  much  rarer  in  the 
extreme  north  of  Scotland  during  winter ;  otherwise  it  is  even  more  widely  dis- 
persed at  that  season,  then  extending  to  the  Channel  Islands,  whilst  its  numbers 
are  largely  increased  by  migrants  from  more  northern  regions.  It  frequents  the 
coasts  as  well  as  inland  swamps  and  waters.  Foreign :  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic 
regions;  Oriental  and  Neotropical  regions  in  winter.  It  breeds  throughout 
Europe  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  only  sparingly  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  and  throughout  Asia,  south  of  that  limit  (but  only  locally  and  in  small 
numbers)  to  Cashmere  and  probably  Mongolia.  In  the  Nearctic  region  it  breeds 
from  the  Arctic  Circle  southwards  to  the  United  States.  Its  winter  range  in 
Europe  extends  to  North  Africa,  as  far  south  as  Madeira,  the  Canaries,  and  the 
Azores  (where  a  few  pairs  are  said  to  breed)  in  the  west,  and  to  Nubia  in  the  east. 
In  Asia  it  is  found  during  that  season  in  Persia,  Northern  India,  China,  and 
Japan ;  and  in  America,  in  the  Southern  States,  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and 
the  extreme  northern  portion  of  South  America. 

Allied  forms. — Anas  wyvilliana,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
with  a  greenish  blue  speculum  and  the  black  under  tail  coverts  (in  the  adult  male) 
mottled  with  chestnut.  A.  laysanensis,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Laysan  Islands, 
distinguished  by  the  ring  of  white  feathers  round  the  eyes.  Both  these  species, 
together  with  the  Mallard  have  the  central  tail  feathers  curled  upwards. 


X 
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OP   THE   BEITISH    ISLANDS.  381 

Habits. — The  Mallard  is  the  commonest  species  of  Duck  in  the  British 
Islands,  and  may  be  met  with  almost  everywhere  according  to  season.  Its  usual 
haunts  are  secluded  ponds,  lakes,  reservoirs,  brooks,  slow-running  rivers,  marshy 
moors  and  commons,  and  broads,  mud-flats,  salt  marshes,  drains  and  sluices. 
Except  in  the  extreme  northern  and  colder  portions  of  its  range,  the  Mallard  is  a 
resident,  but  its  numbers  are  largely  increased  in  our  islands  during  winter, 
arriving  in  October  and  November.  The  same  may  be  said  of  India,  where, 
although  enormous  numbers  breed  in  Cashmere,  it  is  a  winter  visitor  to  the  rest 
of  the  country,  arriving  at  the  end  of  October  and  leaving  by  the  end  of  March  or 
early  in  April.  Although  not  very  gregarious  in  India,  where  it  is  usually  met 
with  in  parties  of  from  three  to  ten,  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  as  for  instance  in 
our  islands,  it  may  frequently  be  observed  in  very  large  flocks,  composed  principally 
of  migratory  individuals  and  often  accompanied  by  Wigeons  and  Pintails.  The 
Mallard  does  not  frequent  deep  water  much,  unless  when  alarmed.  It  is  fond  of 
the  shallows,  where  it  can  feed  whilst  paddling  round  the  margin,  and  where  the 
water  is  not  too  deep  for  it  to  reach  the  muddy  bottom  with  its  bill  as  it  turns 
upside  down,  keeping  its  hind  quarters  erect  by  incessant  motion  of  the  feet  as  if 
in  the  act  of  swimming.  Few  birds  fly  more  rapidly  than  this  species ;  Macgillivray 
computed  its  flight  to  be  probably  a  hundred  miles  per  hour.  The  wings  are 
beaten  rapidly  and  make  a  whistling  sound.  As  the  bird  rises  from  the  water 
it  flies  in  an  oblique  direction  for  some  distance,  but  the  angle  with  the  level  of 
the  water  is  seldom  very  acute,  either  as  the  bird  leaves  or  regains  it.  The 
Mallard  swims  well  and  lightly,  but  it  never  dives  in  quest  of  food,  only  when 
wounded  or  in  playful  chase  of  its  mate  or  companions.  For  the  most  part  this 
species  is  a  night  feeder,  and  that  is  the  time  selected  not  only  for  its  migrations, 
but  for  its  many  wanderings  across  country  in  quest  of  fresh  haunts.  It  may, 
however,  often  be  seen  feeding  during  the  day.  The  Mallard  is  almost  omnivorous ; 
to  mention  the  various  substances  on  which  it  has  been  proved  to  feed  would  be 
to  catalogue  almost  everything  that  a  bird  can  eat.  In  its  greedy  quest  this  Duck 
often  wanders  far  from  the  water,  visiting  stubbles,  the  open  parts  of  forests, 
meadows,  and  even  gardens.  Its  vegetable  diet  may  be  said  to  range  from  grain 
and  grass  to  acorns  ;  its  animal  diet  from  insects  to  fish.  The  note  of  the  Mallard 
is  the  all-familiar  quack ;  but  in  the  pairing  season  both  sexes  utter  sounds 
impossible  to  express  on  paper.  This  Duck  is  remarkably  wary  and  well  able  to 
take  care  of  itself  in  the  British  Island ;  but  in  India  it  is  said  to  be  less  wary  and 
suspicious,  allowing  a  near  approach.  Many  Mallards  and  other  Ducks  are 
caught  by  the  natives  of  India  in  a  very  ingenious  manner.  The  fowler  enters 
the  pool  and  covers  his  head  with  a  gourd  or  basket,  then  carefully  walks  under 
water  towards  the  unsuspecting  birds,  the  gourd  apparently  floating  along  the 
surface.  As  soon  as  he  reaches  the  Ducks  they  are  adroitly  pulled  under  one  by 
one,  killed  at  once  by  a  sharp  twist  of  the  neck,  and  slung  into  a  cord  worn  round 


382  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

the  waist.      A  skilful  man  will  sometimes  capture  as  many  as  twenty  Ducks 
during  one  trip.     Sometimes  the  skin  of  a  Pelican  is  used  instead  of  a  gourd. 

Nidification. — The  Mallard  is  an  early  breeder,  in  England  commencing 
to  lay  in  March  or  early  April,  but  a  month  or  six  weeks  later  in  Scotland.  Far- 
ther north,  of  course,  the  bird  is  later,  not  beginning  to  lay  until  June  in  Finland, 
for  instance  ;  but  in  Cashmere  it  is  also  late,  laying  in  May  and  the  first  half  of 
June.  We  are  of  opinion  that  this  species  pairs  for  life,  and  the  duck  and  drake  are 
considerably  attached  to  each  other  even  in  winter.  The  nest  is  built  in  a  variety 
of  situations,  and  not  by  any  means  always  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water.  I 
have  seen  the  nests  in  open  parts  of  the  forest  on  ground  covered  with  bracken 
and  studded  with  clumps  of  thorn-trees,  and  also  on  the  barest  ground  under 
heather  on  small  islands  in  the  Highland  lochs.  Occasionally  it  is  built  in  the 
deserted  nest  of  a  Crow  or  Hook,  under  the  shelter  of  a  wall  of  peat,  in  a  boat- 
house,  amongst  ivy,  in  a  hollow  tree-trunk,  or  on  the  top  of  a  pollard ;  more 
frequently  in  a  field  of  corn  or  a  hedge  bottom.  Very  often  it  is  made  amongst 
long  coarse  grass  and  sedge  by  the  waterside.  The  nest  is  usually  made  in  a 
hollow  scraped  in  the  ground  and  filled  with  dry  grass,  bracken,  leaves,  or  any 
vegetable  refuse  easily  obtainable,  and  warmly  lined  with  down  and  a  few  small 
feathers  from  the  breast  and  flanks  of  the  female.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to 
sixteen  in  number,  twelve  being  an  average  clutch.  They  vary  in  colour  from 
pale  buffish  green  to  greenish  buff,  are  fine  and  smooth  in  texture,  and  with  a  faint 
gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  2-3  inches  in  length  by  l-6  inch  in  breadth. 
The  down  tufts  are  large  and  neutral  grey  with  very  faint  white  tips.  The  female 
covers  her  eggs  carefully  whenever  she  leaves  them  ;  and  if  flushed  usually  flies 
close  to  the  ground  for  some  distance,  hiding  herself  as  soon  as  possible.  She 
alone  performs  the  task  of  incubation,  which  lasts  from  twenty-six  to  twenty-eight 
days.  The  drake  takes  no  share  whatever  in  bringing  up  the  brood,  one  only 
being  reared  in  the  season,  and  is  never  seen  in  the  nest.  When  surprised  with 
her  ducklings  the  female  sometimes  feigns  lameness,  and  devotedly  remains  by 
her  brood  even  in  the  presence  of  dogs.  Numbers  of  nests  of  this  Duck  may  be 
found  close  together ;  we  have  seen  three  within  as  many  yards  on  one  small  islet. 
We  have  never  observed  any  polygamous  tendency  in  this  species. 

Diagnostic  Characters. — Anas,  with  the  predominating  colour  of  the 
alar  speculum  purple ;  the  central  tail  feathers  curled  up,  and  with  no  white  ring 
round  the  eyes.  Length,  21  to  24  inches.  The  Mallard  is  the  original  species 
from  which  the  domestic  Duck  has  sprung. 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  383 


Subfamily  FULIQULIN^E,  or  Diving  Ducks  and  Eiders. 


The  birds  included  in  the  present  subfamily  are  distinguished  from  their 
allies  by  having  a  pendant  lobe  or  membrane  attached  to  the  hind  toe,  and  the 
tarsus  scutellated  anteriorly.  The  bill  is  more  or  less  depressed,  and  the  tail 
feathers  are  not  abnormally  stiffened  as  in  the  Ems  MATURING.  All  the  species 
contained  in  this  group  habitually  dive  for  their  food,  and  are  marvellously  adept 
under  water.  The  sexes  are  generally  different  in  colour.  The  moult  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  Non-diving  Ducks,  single  in  females,  partially  double  in  males. 

This  subfamily  is  composed  of  nearly  forty  species,  divisible  by  Count  Salvadori 
(whose  arrangement  we  have  followed)  into  some  thirteen  genera. 


Genus  NETTA,  or  Red -crested  Pochards. 

Type,  NETTA  EUFINA. 


Netta,  of  Kaup  (1829). — The  single  species  of  Eed-crested  Pochard  possesses 
sufficiently  well-marked  generic  characteristics  to  warrant  its  separation  from 
nearly  allied  birds  in  the  present  subfamily.  As  in  the  Pochards  (Nyroca)  and 
the  Scaups  (Fuligula)  the  primaries  are  not  uniform  brown  but  marked  or  mirrored 
with  grey;  whilst  in  addition  to  this  character  the  indentations  of  the  upper 
mandible  are  prominent :  the  head  is  also  finely  crested,  and  the  number  of  tail 
feathers  is  sixteen,  against  fourteen  in  Fuligula. 

As  previously  remarked  but  one  species  of  Eed-crested  Pochard  is  known.  It 
is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  British  Islands,  and  its  distribution,  habits,  and 
general  characteristics  will  be  dealt  with  fully  in  the  following  chapter. 


384  THE    GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  ANATHXE.  Genus  NETTA. 

Subfamily 


RED=CRESTED    POCHARD. 

NETTA  EUFINA— (Pallas). 
PLATE   XXXVIII. 

Anas  rufina,  Pallas,  Eeise,  ii.  app.  p.  713  (1773). 
Aythya  rufina  (Pall.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  109  (1852). 

Fuligula  rufina  (Pall.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi,  p.  559,  pi.  435  (1873) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 
ed.  4,  iv.  p.  403  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  567  (1885)  ;  Lilford,  Col. 
Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  x.  (1889) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  166  (1894) ; 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  43,  pi.  14  (1896). 

Netta  rufina  (Pall.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  328  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb. 
B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  2  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.— British  :  The  Bed-crested  Pochard  is  a 
rare  winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  chiefly  to  England.  Perhaps  fifty 
examples  have  been  either  obtained  or  seen  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  of  these  no 
less  than  eighteen  were  observed  in  a  single  flock  on  the  Thames,  near  Erith. 
It  is  most  frequently  observed  in  the  district  lying  between  the  Thames  and  the 
Humber,  especially  in  Norfolk,  which  has  contributed  some  eight  or  nine  examples. 
Odd  birds  have  been  obtained  as  far  west  as  Devon,  Cornwall,  and  Pembroke, 
and  as  far  north  as  Northumberland  and  Westmoreland.  One  example  is  recorded 
from  Scotland  (Argyllshire,  January,  1862),  and  one  from  Ireland  (Co.  Kerry, 
January,  1881).  Foreign:  South-western  Pa] ae arctic  region  ;  Oriental  region  in 
winter.  The  Eed-crested  Pochard  is  of  accidental  occurrence  only  in  the  Baltic 
Provinces,  Pomerania,  Poland,  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  France,  and  Switzer- 
land. It  breeds  locally  in  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  chiefly  in  the  east,  in  the 
Balearic  Islands,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  Italy,  Central  and  Southern  Germany,  the 
valley  of  the  Danube,  and  Southern  Russia.  South  of  the  Mediterranean  it 
breeds  on  the  lakes  of  Northern  Africa,  but  becomes  very  rare  in  the  east.  In 
Asia  it  breeds  in  Turkestan,  Kashmir,  and  North  Persia.  It  is  a  rare  winter 
visitor  to  the  extreme  east  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  birds  breeding  in  Turkestan 
and  Persia  pass  through  Afghanistan  on  migration,  and  winter  in  India.  It  has 
once  been  recorded  from  North  America  (New  York  Market,  February,  1872). 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 


OP   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  385 

Habits. — In  the  warm  districts  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  the  Red-crested 
Pochard  is  a  resident,  hut  farther  east,  in  the  much  more  rigorous  climate  of 
Russian  Turkestan,  it  is  a  migrant,  and  in  autumn  retires  southwards  to  India  to 
spend  the  winter.  These  two  countries  are  its  great  head-quarters ;  nowhere 
else  is  it  so  abundant.  Its  migrations  into  India  begin  towards  the  end  of  October, 
and  gradually  the  bird  spreads  south  through  November,  not  reaching  the  extreme 
limits  until  early  in  December.  It  leaves  the  most  southerly  districts  towards  the 
end  of  March,  and  the  northern  provinces  during  the  first  half  of  April.  The  Red- 
crested  Pochard  is  a  thorough  fresh-water  Duck,  and  haunts  by  preference  still 
deep  broads  and  lakes  where  the  bottom  is  full  of  weed  and  the  shore  covered  with 
coarse  grass,  sedge,  and  rushes.  It  also  frequents  the  wide  slow-running  reaches 
of  rivers  where  plenty  of  submerged  weeds  grow  near  the  shore.  Hume  states 
that  it  sometimes  pays  fleeting  visits  to  any  streamlet  pool  whilst  on  passage.  At 
its  winter  quarters  it  is  decidedly  gregarious,  usually  forming  into  flocks  of  from 
ten  to  thirty  birds,  but  sometimes  they  congregate  thousands  strong  on  very  large 
sheets  of  water.  This  Duck  is  remarkably  shy  and  wary,  taking  wing  the  moment 
danger  threatens,  and  is  considered  by  those  sportsmen  who  have  had  much 
experience  with  it  to  be  the  most  troublesome  fowl  to  work.  Very  rarely  flocks 
composed  entirely  of  males  have  been  seen,  but  as  a  rule  the  sexes  congregate 
indiscriminately.  The  flight  of  this  Pochard  is  strong  and  rapid,  but  the  bird  is 
slow  to  get  under  weigh,  and  flies  rather  heavily.  The  rustle  made  by  the  rapid 
beats  of  its  short  wing  is  a  very  characteristic  rushing  sound,  enabling  the 
experienced  sportsman  to  identify  the  bird  as  it  passes  overhead  in  the  darkness. 
The  Red-crested  Pochard  is  perhaps  most  at  home  in  the  deep  water  where  it 
dives  for  its  food,  disappearing  from  time  to  time  with  remarkable  speed,  and  with 
a  pertinacity  unsurpassed.  It  obtains  most  of  its  food  by  diving,  and  rarely 
visits  land  to  feed,  although  Hume  remarks  that  he  has  sometimes  met  with  it 
walking  about  the  banks  a  few  yards  from  the  water's  edge,  searching  for  insects 
and  grazing.  Although  it  may  be  constantly  seen  feeding  by  day,  much  of  its 
food  is  obtained  at  night,  and  many  birds  start  off  at  dusk  to  visit  localities  where 
food  is  more  plentiful  than  in  the  haunts  they  affect  in  the  daytime.  It  is  at  night, 
too,  that  it  chiefly  moves  from  place  to  place,  as  is  proved  by  the  frequency  that 
it  is  killed  by  the  flight  shooter.  The  food  of  this  beautiful  Duck  is  principally 
composed  of  the  roots,  stems,  leaves,  and  juicy  rhizomes  of  aquatic  plants,  arrow- 
grass,  sagittarias  and  horn-worts ;  but  insects  and  their  larvae,  worms,  mollusks, 
frogs,  fish  spawn,  and  occasionally  small  fish  are  eaten.  The  Red-crested  Pochard 
is  most  active  in  search  of  food  early  in  the  morning,  but  during  the  great  heat  of 
the  Indian  day  it  frequently  floats  out  into  the  centre  of  the  water  to  sleep,  and 
here  it  is  usually  very  quiet.  The  call-note  of  this  species  is  a  deep  grating 
kurr ;  but  the  male  in  addition  now  and  then  utters  a  whistling  cry,  both  on  the 
water  and  during  flight.  The  flesh  of  this  Duck  varies  considerably  in  quality  for 
table  purposes,  probably  a  good  deal  owing  to  diet, 
25 


386  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Red-crested  Pochard  com- 
mences late  in  April  or  early  in  May  in  some  localities,  not  before  June  in  others. 
The  nest  is  rarely  made  far  from  the  water,  and  an  island  covered  with  flags  and 
other  aquatic  vegetation  is  selected  where  possible.  It  is  made  amongst  the 
herbage  on  the  ground,  of  dead  rushes,  leaves,  and  other  vegetable  refuse,  and 
lined  with  a  warm  bed  of  down  from  the  female's  breast.  Nests  found  by  Canon 
Tristram  in  Algeria,  are  described  as  being  like  that  of  the  Coot,  but  not  so  large. 
The  eggs  are  from  seven  to  ten  in  number,  and  described  by  Salvin  as  "  a  most 
brilliant  fresh  green  colour  when  unblown  ;  the  contents  were  no  sooner  expelled, 
and  the  egg  dry,  than  the  delicate  tints  were  gone,  and  their  beauty  sadly 
diminished."  They  are  greyish-olive  after  being  in  collections  for  some  time, 
and  measure  on  an  average  2'3  inches  in  length  by  T6  inch  in  breadth.  The 
down  tufts  are  apparently  undescribed.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters. — (Nuptial  plumage),  Netta,  with  the  head 
and  upper  neck  chestnut,  and  the  bill  vermilion  (adult  male) ;  with  the  axillaries 
white,  with  no  white  alar  speculum,  and  with  the  head  and  neck  yellowish-white 
speckled  with  black  (adult  female).  Length,  20  to  22  inches. 


OP  THE   BRITISH  ISLANDS.  387 


Genus  NYROCA,  or  Pochards. 

Type,  NYROCA  AFEICANA. 


Nyroca,  of  Fleming  (1822). — The  birds  in  the  present  genus  are  charac- 
terised by  having  the  primaries  marked  with  grey,  the  indentations  of  the  upper 
mandible  prominent,  the  bill  smooth  at  the  base,  and  not  widening  out  towards 
the  tip. 

Ten  species  are  included  in  the  present  genus,  two  of  which,  however,  are  at 
present  of  doubtful  rank.  The  Pochards  are  practically  cosmopolitan  in  their 
distribution.  Two  species  are  included  as  British,  one  indigenous  to  our  Islands, 
and  the  other  an  abnormal  migrant  to  them. 

The  Pochards  are  found  upon  fresh  water  and  in  maritime  localities,  showing 
a  decided  preference  for  pools  and  lakes  containing  plenty  of  cover.  Their 
movements  on  the  land  are  awkward,  but  in  the  water  these  birds  swim  and  dive 
with  ease.  They  are  social  and  gregarious,  especially  during  the  non-breeding 
season.  Their  flight  is  rapid  and  strong,  if  somewhat  laboured  at  its  commence- 
ment. They  feed  both  by  day  and  night  on  animal  and  vegetable  substances, 
the  diet  varying  a  good  deal  in  the  several  species.  Their  notes  are  harsh  and 
unmusical.  They  are  monogamous.  Their  rude,  down-lined  nests  are  made 
amongst  the  herbage  or  float  some  distance  from  shore  amidst  reeds  and  rushes. 
Their  eggs  are  numerous,  and  various  shades  of  grey  or  buff  in  colour. 


388  THE   GAME  BIRDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  NYROCA. 

Subfamily  FULIGULIN&. 


WHITE-EYED   POCHARD. 

NYEOCA  AFEICANA    (Gmelin). 

Anas  nyroca,  Giild.  Nov.  Comm.  Petrop.  xiv.  p.  403  (1769). 

Fuligula  nyroca  (Giild.),  Maegill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  113  (1852) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B. 

iii.  p.  571  (1885) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  418  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit. 

B.  pt.  xiv.  (1890) ;  Dixon,   Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.   p.  167  (1894) ; 

Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  44,  pi.  14  (1896). 
Nyroca  ferruginea  (Gmel.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  581,  pi.  438  (1872). 
Nyroca  africana  (Gmel.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  345  (1895). 
Nyroca  nyroca  (Giild.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  9  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  White-eyed  Pochard  is 
a  rare  and  irregular  straggler  to  our  area  on  spring  and  autumn  migration,  most 
frequently  met  with  in  the  eastern  counties  of  England.  Norfolk  heads  the  list 
with  about  a  score  examples  ;  others  have  been  obtained  in  Suffolk,  Cambridge- 
shire, Nottinghamshire,  and  Yorkshire.  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  Lan- 
cashire and  Dorset  can  each  claim  an  example  ;  Devon  can  now  claim  two 
examples  ;  Eadnorshire  another ;  and  Oxfordshire  no  less  than  four.  There  are 
three  occurrences  on  record  for  Scotland,  and  six  for  Ireland,  Foreign : 
Southern  Palaearctic  region ;  parts  of  Oriental  region  in  winter.  This  Pochard  is 
of  only  accidental  occurrence  in  the  Canaries,  Denmark,  and  the  Baltic  Provinces. 
It  breeds  throughout  Europe  in  suitable  localities  as  far  north  as  Holland, 
Germany,  and  in  Eussia  up  to  Moscow,  Kazan,  and  Ekaterinburg.  It  is  found  in 
summer  only  in  the  northern  portions  of  this  area,  but  is  a  resident  in  the  basin 
of  the  Mediterranean  (although  it  is  not  known  to  breed  in  Egypt),  Black  and 
Caspian  Seas,  its  numbers  being  increased  in  winter.  In  Asia,  Finsch  is  the 
only  authority  for  the  occurrence  of  this  species  in  Siberia,  where  he  states 
positively  that  he  saw  it  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Obb.  It  breeds,  however,  throughout  Turkestan  and  Cashmere,  and  most 
probably  in  Mongolia.  Many  of  these  Asiatic  birds  pass  through  Afghanistan  on 
migration  and  winter  in  India  and  Northern  Burmah. 

Allied  forms. — Nyroca  baeri  an  inhabitant  of  Eastern  Asia  from  the 
valley  of  the  Obb  to  Kamtschatka,  southwards  to  China  and  Japan.  The  Eastern 
representative  of  the  White-eyed  Pochard  having  the  head  and  upper  neck  black 
shot  with  green.  Eleven  examples  of  this  Eastern  Pochard  were  recently  obtained 
(February,  1897)  in  the  Calcutta  Bazaar. 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  389 

Habits. — The  movements  of  the  White-eyed  Pochard  are  almost  exactly 
similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  species.     Like  that  bird,  the  present  Duck  is 
sedentary  in  the  warm  climate  of  the  Mediterranean  basin,  but  migratory  further 
east  in  the  colder  regions  of  Turkestan.     In  Cashmere  it  is  chiefly  a  resident,  but 
to  the  remainder  of  India  it  is  a  well-known  and  abundant  winter  visitor,  arriving 
towards  the  end  of  October  and  leaving  in  March  and  April.     Its  haunts  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  Eed-crested  Pochard,  moderately  deep  broads  and  lakes 
where  weeds  abound,  and  occasionally  rivers  and  ponds.     Hume  states  that  in 
India  it  is  very  seldom  seen  in  open  water,  clinging  to  the  cover  of  the  reeds 
and  rushes,  but  certainly  in  other  parts  of  the  world  it  may  as  often  as  not  be 
observed  far  out  from  shore  in  the  exposed  portions  of  its  haunt.     It  is  also  loth 
to  rise  from  its  retreats,   skulking  close  among  the   aquatic  vegetation  until 
compelled  by  the  advancing  boat  to  rise.     Its  flight  is  moderately  quick,  the  bird 
rising  with  considerable  effort,  invariably  against  the  wind,  and  very  often  after 
flying  in  a  straight  course  for  a  little  way  dropping  suddenly  into  cover  again. 
This  Duck  is  not  seen  much  on  land,  and  its  waddling  gait  is  said  to  be  even 
more  clumsy  than  that  of  its  congeners.     The  water  is  the  home  of  the  White- 
eyed  Pochard,  and  there  it  swims  well  and  quickly,  and  dives,  according  to 
Hume,  with  Satanic  speed.     "Indeed,"  he  writes,  "what  becomes  of  them  is 
often  a  puzzle ;  the  instant  that,  wounded,  they  touch  the  water,  they  disappear, 
and  not  unfrequently  that  is  the  last  you  see  of  them ;  at  most  they  only  rise 
once  or  twice,  and  then  disappear  for  good.     It  is  a  waste  of  time  to  pursue 
them  ;  if  they  do  rise,  give  them  instantly  a  second  barrel."    In  India  this  Duck 
is  not  very  gregarious,  the  flocks,  even  when  large,  being  scattered  about  here 
and  there  among  the  cover,  never  rising  en  masse,  but  individually  or  in  twos  and 
threes  as  the  birds  may  chance  to  be  flushed.     In  Egypt,  however,  the  very 
reverse  is  the  case.     There  Captain  Shelley  observed  them  in   vast  compact 
flocks,  keeping  to  the  centre  of  the  lake,  and  the  noise  made  by  their  beating 
wings  and  pattering  feet  striking  the  water  as  they  rose,  was  audible  for  a 
distance  of  two  miles  !     The  White-eyed  Pochard  obtains  most  of  its  food  by 
diving  and  bringing  up  the  weeds  to  the  surface,  where  they  are  eaten.     Some- 
times it  remains  under  the  surface  for  nearly  two  minutes,  but  when  feeding  half 
that  time  is  the  usual  period.     Occasionally  it  feeds  on  the  surface,  picking  at 
the  floating  weed  or  the  insects  and  shells  clinging  to  the  leaves.     It  is  for 
the  most  part  a  day  feeder,  and  where  plenty  of  food  is  available  seldom  wanders 
from  its  haunts ;  in  districts,  however,  where  the  water  is  not  very  well  stocked, 
it  starts  off  at  dusk  to  better  quarters,  but  this  appears  to  be  quite  exceptional. 
The  food  of  this  Duck  is  composed  principally  of  vegetable  substances,  aquatic 
plants,  seeds  of  grass,  rushes,  and  sedge ;    but  insects   and  their  larvae,  small 
mollusks,  shrimps,  worms,  grubs,  and  even  tiny  fish  are  eaten.     The  note  of  this 
Pochard  is  described  as  a  harsh  kirr  kere  kirr,  invariably  uttered  as  the  bird 
rises  startled  from  the  cover.     The  flesh  of  the  White-eyed  Pochard  is  said  by 


390  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Hume  to  be  very  inferior ;  but  Irby,  on  the  other  hand,  informs  us  that  it  is 
excellent.  Either  this  is  purely  a  matter  of  taste,  or  due  to  a  difference  in 
the  food  of  the  bird. 

Nidif  ication. — The  White-eyed  Pochard  is  a  late  breeder  in  the  extreme 
eastern  and  southern  portions  of  its  range,  not  laying  before  June  ;  but  in  Spain 
and  Central  Europe  it  is  at  least  a  month  or  five  weeks  earlier.  The  nest  is 
usually  made  among  the  reeds  and  rushes  at  the  margin  of  the  pool,  either 
on  land,  or  more  or  less  floating  on  masses  of  rotten  fallen  vegetation  or  drifting 
weed.  Occasionally,  however,  it  is  built  on  a  tuft  of  sedge  or  rush  ;  and  it  has 
been  found  carefully  concealed  in  a  bush  several  feet  from  the  ground.  It  is 
made  of  dry  rushes,  sedge,  and  other  vegetable  refuse,  the  finer  materials  being 
used  for  the  interior,  which  is  again  lined  with  down  and  a  few  feathers  from 
the  body  of  the  female.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to  fourteen  in  number,  ten 
being  an  average  clutch,  and  are  pale  creamy-brown,  a  delicate  cafe  au  lait  hue, 
faintly  tinged  with  green.  They  are  smooth  and  fine  in  texture,  but  show  little 
gloss,  and  measure  on  an  average  2'1  inches  in  length  by  T49  inch  in  breadth. 
The  down  tufts  are  rather  small  and  very  dark  brown  ;  but  the  late  Lord  Lilford,  I 
notice,  describes  the  down  as  "  brownish-white  "  in  a  nest  from  which  the  female 
was  shot  in  Southern  Spain.  Incubation,  performed  by  the  female,  is  said  by 
Favier  to  last  thirty  days ;  Naumann  affirms  twenty-two  to  twenty-three  days. 
It  is  not  known  that  more  than  one  brood  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.— (Nuptial  Plumage),  Nyroca,  with  the  head, 
neck,  and  upper  breast  rich  chestnut,  with  a  white  spot  on  the  chin,  with  a 
white  alar  speculum,  and  with  the  bill  dark  lead-blue  or  bluish-black  (adult 
male) ;  with  a  white  alar  speculum,  with  the  head  and  neck  pale  chestnut, 
and  with  the  under  tail  coverts  and  axillaries  white  (adult  female).  Length, 
16  inches. 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  391 

Family  ANATID^.  Genus  NYBOCA. 

Subfamily 


POCHARD. 

NYROCA  FEEINA—  (Linnasus). 

Anas  ferina,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  230  (1766). 

Aythya  ferina  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  103  (1852). 

Fuligula  ferina  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Bur.  vi.  p.  551,  pi.  434  (1878) ;  Sccbohm,  Hist. 
Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  575  (1885) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  413  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col. 
Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xiii.  (1890);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  239  (1893); 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  45,  pi.  14  (1896). 

Nyroca  ferina  (Linn.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  335  (1895);  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  5  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.— British:  The  Pochard  is  a  common 
winter  visitor  to  the  United  Kingdom,  but  many  remain  in  spring  to  breed  in  our 
Islands.  It  is  abundant  in  Scotland,  including  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  but 
rarer  in  the  Outer  Hebrides.  It  breeds  very  locally  in  South  Perthshire  and  in  Fife- 
shire,  in  Moray,  Eoss  and  Eoxburghshire  ;  as  well  as  in  Hoy  (Orkney),  as  recorded 
by  Messrs.  Evans  and  Buckley.  It  is  equally  common  in  Ireland  in  winter,  and  has 
been  said  to  breed  in  the  counties  of  Sligo,  Antrim,  Tipperary,  Galway,  Eoscom- 
mon,  Westmeath,  and  Meath.  It  is  commonly  distributed  in  England  between 
autumn  and  spring,  and  breeds  in  Lancashire,  the  East  Eiding  of  Yorkshire,  Norfolk, 
some  of  the  midland  counties,  and  Dorset.  Foreign :  West-central  Palasarctic 
region  ;  parts  of  Oriental  region  in  winter.  This  Pochard  is  an  accidental  visitor  to 
the  Faroes,  Iceland,  and  Scandinavia.  It  breeds  across  Europe  and  Asia  from  the 
British  Islands  in  the  west  to  Lake  Baikal  in  the  east,  as  far  north  as  Lake  Ladoga, 
and  as  far  south  as  the  Caucasus  in  Europe ;  but  in  Asia  not  further  north  than 
Lake  Baikal,  southwards  to  North-western  Mongolia  and  the  lakes  and  swamps  of 
South-western  Siberia.  Great  numbers  of  the  European  birds  winter  in  the 
basin  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  it  is  said  that  a  few  used  to  breed  in  Spain  and 
Algeria.  The  Asiatic  birds  pass  Turkestan  on  migration,  and  winter  in  Asia 
Minor,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  India,  and  China.  It  was  observed  by  Prjevalsky 
on  migration  in  South-eastern  Mongolia,  and  occurs  during  winter  in  Japan. 


392  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

Allied  forms. — -Nyroca  americana,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Nearctic  region, 
considered  by  some  authorities  to  be  of  doubtful  distinctness,  but  by  others  to  be 
worthy  of  specific  rank.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  Pochard  by  having  the  back 
greyer  in  colour,  by  its  unvermiculated  white  belly,  and  reddish-purple  gloss  on 
the  neck,  and  by  having  no  black  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  The  famous  Canvass- 
back  (N.  vallisneria)  of  North  America  is  somewhat  closely  allied  to  the  Pochard. 

Habits.  —  The  Pochard  is  best  known  as  a  winter  visitor  to  the  British 
Islands,  arriving  in  October  and  leaving  in  March  and  April.  These  dates  also 
correspond  very  well  with  the  bird's  arrival  in  and  departure  from  India,  although 
it  is  a  few  weeks  later  in  the  extreme  southern  limits  of  its  distribution  there. 
Although  met  with  commonly  enough  in  our  Islands  on  the  coast  in  winter,  in 
other  localities  it  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  fresh  water  during  that  season. 
In  India  it  prefers  reedy  meres  and  broads  of  moderate  depth,  where  there  is  a 
considerable  breadth  of  open  water.  Here  it  congregates  in  vast  flocks,  often 
covering  acres  of  water  in  extent.  Like  its  congeners,  the  Pochard  is  a  thorough 
water  bird,  spending  most  of  its  time  swimming  and  diving.  It  is  comparatively 
rarely  seen  on  land,  where  it  walks  in  an  awkward,  waddling  manner,  but  in  the 
water  it  is  the  embodiment  of  easy  grace,  swimming  rapidly,  if  rather  low,  diving 
with  as  much  skill  as  a  Grebe  or  an  Auk,  or  chasing  its  companions  in  sportive 
mood  under  and  above  the  surface.  When  once  the  bird  gets  fairly  under  weigh 
its  flight  is  rather  quick,  but  at  first  its  movements  are  rather  slow  and  laboured, 
and  it  rises  with  some  apparent  difficulty,  against  wind  if  possible,  the  wings 
making  a  very  characteristic  rustle  as  they  rapidly  beat  the  air.  The  Pochard 
feeds  both  by  day  and  by  night,  but  perhaps  the  most  regularly  and  persistently 
during  the  latter.  As  is  usual  with  many  other  species  of  Duck,  a  considerable 
flight  is  often  undertaken  at  dusk  by  birds  frequenting  waters  where  food  is  not 
very  plentiful  to  waters  better  stocked.  This  Pochard  obtains  the  greater  part  of 
its  food  by  diving  and  bringing  up  masses  of  weeds,  which  are  eaten  after  they 
are  brought  to  the  surface.  It  is  principally  a  vegetable  feeder,  and  water  weeds 
and  marine  plants  are  its  favourite  fare.  It  also  eats  considerable  numbers  of 
insects,  worms,  small  fresh-water  shells,  and  young  frogs  ;  and  when  frequenting 
the  coast,  crustaceans  and  mollusks.  Shot  from  fresh  water  the  Pochard  is 
excellent  for  the  table,  but  birds  killed  on  the  coast  are  rarely  palatable,  owing 
to  the  stronger  nature  of  their  food.  The  note  of  this  Pochard  is  a  rather 
loud  and  harsh  kurr. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Pochard  in  our  Islands  is  in 
May,  and  fresh  eggs  may  be  obtained  all  through  that  month  and  the  first  half 
of  June ;  farther  south  they  are  nearly  a  month  earlier  still.  The  nest  is  always 
near  to  fresh  water,  amongst  the  coarse  grass  and  sedge  and  flags  growing  round 
the  margins  of  pools  and  lakes,  and  in  many  instances  is  a  floating  structure, 


OP  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  393 

built  on  a  mass  of  fallen  vegetation  many  yards  from  shore,  in  moderately  deep 
water,  or  in  a  tuft  of  sedge  surrounded  by  shallow  water.  The  nest  is  made  of 
dry  grass,  sedge,  broken  rushes  and  flags,  or  any  other  aquatic  vegetable  refuse 
that  may  chance  to  be  readily  available,  warmly  lined  with  down  and  a  few 
feathers  from  the  body  of  the  female.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to  twelve,  or 
even  fourteen  in  number,  ten  being  an  average  clutch,  and  are  greenish-grey  in 
colour.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'4  inches  in  length  by  1'7  inch  in  breadth. 
The  down  tufts  are  large,  greyish-brown  in  colour,  with  dull  white  centres. 
When  the  female  leaves  the  nest  she  carefully  covers  the  eggs  ;  and  to  her  alone 
is  left  all  care  of  the  brood. 

Diagnostic  characters.— (Nuptial  plumage),  Nyroca,  with  the  head 
and  neck  chestnut,  and  the  lower  back  and  scapulars  white  vermiculated  with 
black  (adult  male)  ;  with  the  axillaries  white,  with  a  varying  amount  of  white 
vermiculations  on  the  upper  parts,  and  with  no  white  alar  speculum  (adult 
female).  Length,  17  to  19  inches. 


394  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 


Genus   FULIGULA,   or  Scaups  and  Tufted  Ducks. 

Type,   FULIGULA   CEISTATA. 


Fuligula,  of  Stephens  (1824). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  the  bill  smooth  at  the  base  and  flat,  somewhat  wider 
near  the  end  than  at  the  base,  rather  broad  and  short  and  much  rounded  at  the 
tip,  furnished  with  lamellae,  not  with  saw-like  teeth,  with  the  rectrices  soft  and 
pliable ;  and  with  no  patches  of  emerald  green  on  the  head,  which  in  adult  males 
is  glossy-black.  The  former  characters  separate  them  from  the  Mergansers  and 
the  Spine-tailed  Ducks  (non-British),  whilst  the  latter  character  diagnoses  them 
from  the  Eiders.  The  wings  are  rather  short  but  pointed  ;  tail  somewhat 
variable  in  shape  and  in  number  of  feathers.  Three  toes  in  front  webbed  ;  hind 
toe  moderate  and  lobed. 

This  genus  is  composed  of  five  species,  which  are  mostly  distributed  in  the 
Nearctic  and  Palaearctic  regions,  but  one  inhabits  New  Zealand.  Three  species 
are  British. 

The  Scaups  and  Tufted  Ducks  frequent  maritime  as  well  as  more  inland  waters, 
but  are  most  commonly  distributed  on  salt  water  during  winter,  though  some 
frequent  fresh  water  always.  They  are  birds  of  rapid  yet  somewhat  laboured 
flight ;  swim  and  dive  with  marvellous  skill,  but  walk  clumsily.  They  make  their 
nests,  lined  with  down,  either  in  the  ground  or  in  holes  in  trees,  and  their  numerous 
eggs  range  from  buff  to  olive-brown  and  green  in  colour.  They  are  monogamous ; 
more  or  less  gregarious  in  winter. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  395 

Family  ANATID^.  Genus  FULIGULA. 

Subfamily 


SCAUP. 

FULIGULA   MAEILA—  (Linnasus). 

Anas  marila,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  196  (1766). 

Fuligula  marila  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  116  (1852);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 
565,  pi.  436  (1878) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  579  (1885)  ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 
ed.  4,  iv.  p.  423  (1885);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xv.  (1890);  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  169  (1894) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii. 
p.  356  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  46,  pi.  14  (1896) ;  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  16  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Scaup  is  a  common 
winter  visitor  to  our  Islands,  confined  to  the  coasts  and  estuaries,  where  it  is 
widely  distributed.  It  is  least  common  in  the  Hebrides,  and  rare  on  the  south 
coasts  of  Ireland.  It  is  occasionally  seen  in  summer  in  the  Shetlands  and  other 
parts  of  Scotland.  The  very  circumstantial  account  of  this  species  breeding  on 
Loch  Leven,  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Stark,  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Physical  Society  of  Edinburgh  (vii.  p.  203),  and  quoted  by  Mr.  Saunders  in  his 
Manual  of  British  Birds  (although  afterwards  corrected  in  his  appendix),  turns 
out  to  be  a  myth,  there  being  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  Tufted  Duck  had  been 
confused  with  and  mistaken  for  it !  Foreign :  Northern  Palasarctic  and  Nearctic 
regions,  more  southerly  in  winter ;  parts  of  Oriental  region  in  winter.  The 
Scaup  breeds  in  the  Faroes,  and  still  more  commonly  in  Iceland.  It  also  does 
so  throughout  the  Arctic  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  as  far  north  as  lat.  70°,  and  at  high  elevations  on  the  mountains  of  South 
Scandinavia.  In  America  it  breeds  as  far  north  as  70°  from  east  to  west,  but  not 
lower  than  the  Hudson  Bay  Territory.  The  European  birds  winter  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Baltic,  and  those  of  the  southern  German  Ocean  not  so  commonly  on  the 
Spanish  coasts  and  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  becoming  more  frequent 
in  the  Black  Sea  and  on  the  south  coasts  of  the  Caspian.  In  North-east  Africa 
it  has  been  met  with  as  low  as  Abbyssinia.  The  Asiatic  birds  appear  to  winter 
in  Persia,  North-western  India,  the  Lake  Baikal  district,  China,  Formosa,  and 
Japan.  The  American  birds  winter  on  the  great  lakes  and  rivers  of  the  interior 
as  well  as  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  the  United  States,  down  to 
Mexico  and  Central  America. 


396  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Allied  forms. — Fuligula  affinis,  a  small  race  confined  to  the  Nearctic 
region  (measuring  1^  inches  less  in  length  of  wing  than  large  European  birds, 
and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  less  than  small  ones)  and  the  head  glossed  with 
purple  instead  of  green ;  of  very  doubtful  distinctness.  As  the  two  forms  inter- 
grade,  and  as  their  geographical  area  on  the  American  continent  is  the  same,  the 
most  that  can  be  claimed  for  them  is  a  subspecific  distinction.  According  to  Dr. 
Stejneger,  the  typical  Scaup  F.  marila  is  confined  to  the  Palsearctic  region.  In 
the  far  east  of  this  area,  "  Pacific  coast  of  Asia  from  Japan  southward,"  another 
subspecies  is  distinguished  under  the  name  of  F.  affinis  mariloides  (Vigors),  a 
representative  race  of  the  Nearctic  F.  affinis ;  whilst  the  second  American  form, 
the  most  nearly  allied  representative  of  F.  marila,  is  separated  under  the  name 
of  F.  marila  nearctica.  Count  Salvadori,  however,  is  unable  fully  to  support 
these  conclusions.  (Conf.  Bulletin,  U.S.  Nat.  Mus.  No.  29,  p.  161,  1885.) 

Habits. — The  Scaup  begins  to  arrive  on  the  most  northerly  coasts  of  the 
British  Islands  in  September,  but  is  nearly  a  month  later  in  the  south.  The 
return  migration  begins  in  March  and  lasts  through  April  into  May,  the  Scaup 
being  among  the  last  of  the  migratory  Ducks  to  leave  our  coasts.  In  the  Arctic 
regions  it  arrives  with  the  break  up  of  the  ice  towards  the  end  of  May,  or  early  in 
June,  The  Scaup  during  winter  is  for  the  most  part  a  dweller  on  or  near  the  sea, 
resorting  to  quiet  bays  and  estuaries,  especially  where  a  considerable  amount  of 
mud  is  exposed  at  low  tide.  It  may,  however,  be  frequently  met  with  on  fresh 
inland  waters  at  that  season,  and  in  summer  is  fond  of  lakes  and  wild,  swampy 
districts.  During  winter  this  Duck  often  congregates  into  large  flocks,  and 
associates  with  various  other  species,  notably  with  Wigeon  and  Pintail ;  whilst  in 
summer  it  still  remains  very  sociable  and  gathers  into  parties  to  feed.  Like  all 
its  allies  it  is  an  accomplished  diver,  and  spends  most  of  its  time  on  the  water, 
where  it  swims  well  and  rather  high,  but  if  alarmed  it  slowly  sinks  much  lower. 
As  a  rule  it  prefers  to  dive  rather  than  to  fly  in  avoiding  pursuit.  When  flushed 
it  rises  slowly  and  with  considerable  splashing  effort,  but  when  once  well  up  it 
progresses  with  considerable  speed,  its  short,  quickly-beating  wings  making  a 
whistling  or  rustling  sound.  The  call-note  of  this  Duck  is  a  most  harsh  and 
discordant  scaup,  but  an  equally  hoarse  and  grating  Jcurr  is  uttered,  especially 
during  flight  or  under  sexual  excitement.  The  food  of  the  Scaup,  which  is 
mostly  obtained  by  diving,  consists  of  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  great  quantities 
of  marine  weeds  growing  in  the  haunts  of  the  bird.  Probably  in  summer 
it  is  more  of  a  vegetable  than  an  animal  nature.  Sometimes  when  diving  for 
food  the  Scaup  will  remain  under  the  surface  for  quite  a  minute.  The  Scaup 
feeds  a  good  deal  at  night,  and,  like  most  other  Ducks  that  habitually  do  so,  it 
passes  regularly  from  its  usual  haunts  to  its  feeding  grounds. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Scaup  commences  in  May  in 
some  localities  where  the  climate  is  open,  but  a  month  later  in  the  colder  regions 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  397 

of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  most  probable  that  this  Duck  pairs  for  life, 
as  all  the  winter  it  may  be  noticed  swimming  in  pairs,  and  even  the  large  flocks 
are  made  up  of  about  equal  numbers  of  ducks  and  drakes.  The  nest  is  made  by 
the  waterside  among  willows  and  junipers,  or  on  a  bank  where  the  ground  is 
clothed  with  sedge  tufts  and  various  species  of  the  order  Ericaceae,  or  bilberries, 
cranberries,  and  the  like.  In  Iceland  Proctor  found  it  among  large  stones  near 
the  water's  edge.  The  nest  is  made  in  a  hollow  in  the  ground  of  dry  grass,  bits 
of  sedge,  and  withered  leaves,  warmly  lined  with  down  as  the  eggs  are  deposited. 
The  usual  number  of  eggs  is  eight  or  nine ;  but  where  several  females  lay  in  the 
same  nest,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  Dr.  Kruper  found  as  many  as  twenty-two. 
They  are  pale  greenish-grey,  and  measure  on  an  average  2'6  inches  in  length  by 
T7  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  large,  dark  brown  in  colour,  with  pale 
centres.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  the  female  taking  all  charge. 

Diagnostic  characters — (Nuptial  plumage),  Fuligula,  with  the  crown 
and  neck  metallic-green  and  purple,  and  the  lower  back  and  scapulars  white 
vermiculated  with  black  (adult  male) ;  with  a  white  alar  speculum  and  axillaries, 
and  with  a  varying  amount  of  white  vermiculations  on  the  upper  parts  (adult 
female).  Length,  18  inches. 


398  THE   GAME  BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID.E.  Genus  FULIGULA. 

Subfamily  FuLlQULINsE. 


TUFTED    DUCK. 

FULIGULA    CBISTATA—  (Leach). 

PLATE  XXXVIII. 

Anas  fuligula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  207  (1766). 

Fuligula  cristata  (Leach  nee  Gmel.),  Macgill.Brit.  B.  v.p.  121  (1852) ;  Dresser, B.  Eur.  vi. 
p.  573,  pi.  437  (1879);  Seebohm.Hist.  Brit.B.  iii.  p.  583  (1885) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.4, 
iv.  p.  430  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xiij.  (1890) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  240  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  47,  pi.  13  (1896). 
Fuligula  fuligula  (Linn.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  363  (1895);  Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  12  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British:  The  Tufted  Duck  is  a  fairly 
common  winter  visitor  to  most  of  the  low-lying  coasts  as  well  as  to  many  of  the 
inland  waters  of  the  British  area.  It  breeds  locally  throughout  the  British 
Islands,  and  in  numbers  which  are  steadily  increasing  in  many  districts.  British 
breeding  area  : — England  :  Nottinghamshire  (Newstead,  Clumber,  Eainworth, 
Welbeck,  and  Bufford),  Norfolk,  Sussex,  Dorset,  Devonshire,  Hertfordshire, 
Shropshire,  Yorkshire,  Lancashire,  and  Northumberland.  Scotland  :  Boxburgh- 
shire,  Perthshire,  Kinross-shire,  and  Aberdeen  shire.  Ireland :  Loughs  Neagh 
and  Beg  and  in  some  parts  of  Co.  Monaghan ;  also,  according  to  Mr.  Ussher,  in 
Fermanagh,  Boscommon,  and  Sligo,  and  probably  on  the  lakes  in  Longford  and 
Westmeath.  Foreign  :  Palsearctic  region ;  parts  of  Oriental  region  in  winter. 
It  is  said  to  breed  sparingly  in  the  Faroes  and  to  have  occurred  in  Greenland. 
In  Europe  the  regular  breeding  area  of  this  species  reaches  little  if  any  above  the 
Arctic  circle,  although  the  bird  has  been  obtained  in  Scandinavia  up  to  lat.  70°. 
Southwards  it  breeds  in  all  suitable  localities  to  about  lat.  50°.  Eastwards  its 
regular  breeding  area  scarcely  reaches  the  Arctic  circle  in  the  west,  although  the 
bird  has  been  obtained  in  the  valley  of  the  Yenisei  up  to  lat.  68° ;  whilst  on 
the  Pacific  coast  it  drops  down  to  lat.  62°.  It  breeds  throughout  Southern 
Siberia  ;  the  Asiatic  birds  winter  in  Japan,  China,  and  India,  abnormal  migrants 
even  reaching  Malaysia  and  Polynesia.  The  European  birds  winter  in  South 
Europe  and  Northern  Africa  as  low  as  Abyssinia. 

Allied  forms.  —  Fuligula  collaris,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Nearctic  region  and 
the  New  World  representative  of  the  Tufted  Duck.  A  "  British  "  species  and 
dealt  with  fully  in  the  following  chapter.  Distinguished  from  the  Tufted  Duck  by 
its  much  shorter  crest,  chestnut  collar,  and  pale  grey  instead  of  white  speculum. 


J2 

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OF  THE  BRITISH   ISLANDS.  399 

Habits. — During  its  sojourn  in  our  Islands  the  Tufted  Duck  is  for  the  most 
part  a  coast  bird,  those  that  frequent  inland  waters  being  the  resident  individuals 
that  breed  with  us  or  birds  that  have  been  enticed  by  them.  The  Tufted  Duck 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  British  Islands  towards  the  end  of  October  or  early 
in  November,  and  remains  until  the  following  March  or  April.  They  arrive  at 
their  Arctic  haunts  with  the  thaw  and  leave  in  September  or  October.  Their 
arrival  in  and  departure  from  India  is  about  at  the  same  time  as  in  England. 
The  principal  haunts  of  this  Duck  with  us  are  the  low-lying  coasts,  especially  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  mud-banks  and  estuaries.  In  India  it  prefers  large  sheets 
of  water  with  plenty  of  weed  at  the  bottom  and  plenty  of  reeds  and  rushes  round 
the  margin.  Odd  pairs  and  small  parties  also  frequent  the  smaller  ponds  where 
food  and  cover  are  suitable ;  but  the  large  flocks  of  this  bird  that  congregate  in 
that  country  in  the  cold  season,  sometimes  ten  thousand  strong,  are  invariably 
found  on  the  extensive  sheets  of  water.  The  Tufted  Duck  migrates  at  night, 
generally  in  large  flocks,  and  on  passage  will  often  pay  a  fleeting  visit  to  some 
lake  or  pool  en  route.  It  is  also  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  seeking  most  of  its  food 
at  night,  in  this  country,  but,  curiously  enough,  Hume  remarks  that  they  are 
day  feeders  in  India.  The  flight  of  this  Pochard  is  rapid  and  well  sustained, 
smooth  and  easy,  but  the  rapidly-beaten  wings  make  a  characteristic  rustling 
sound.  In  rising  the  bird  strikes  the  water  with  its  feet  something  like  a  Coot, 
so  that  when  a  large  flock  takes  wing  together  the  splashing  can  be  heard  for  a 
long  distance.  It  swims  well  and  rapidly,  sitting  rather  low  in  ^the  water,  and, 
of  course,  dives  with  marvellous  speed  and  skill,  sometimes  remaining  below  for 
a  minute  or  more.  During  the  day  the  Tufted  Duck  usually  keeps  well  out  from 
shore,  often  sleeping  and  preening  its  plumage  whilst  in  the  centre  of  the  lake. 
It  rarely  visits  land,  and  always  tries  to  evade  pursuit  by  diving  if  possible ;  and 
Hume  states  that  after  a  gun  has  been  fired  he  has  seen  a  large  flock  of  several 
hundred  birds  dive  simultaneously  as  if  moved  by  a  common  impulse  !  The 
Tufted  Duck  is  not  a  very  noisy  bird,  especially  during  winter,  but  occasionally 
utters  a  harsh  kurr-Jcurr  as  it  rises  alarmed  from  the  water.  The  food  of  this 
species  consists  of  aquatic  insects,  worms,  grubs,  lizards,  frogs,  spawn,  and  small 
fish  ;  whilst  the  roots,  stems,  leaves,  and  buds  of  water  plants  are  also  eaten. 
After  having  fed  inland  chiefly  on  vegetable  diet  the  flesh  of  this  Duck  is  by  no 
means  unpalatable,  but  birds  shot  on  the  coast  are  rank  and  fishy  in  flavour. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Tufted  Duck  commences  about 
the  middle  of  May  in  some  localities,  the  end  of  May  or  early  in  June  in  others. 
Its  favourite  breeding  grounds  are  on  tbe  banks  of  meres  and  lakes,  and  in 
marshy  districts  full  of  small  ponds.  This  Duck  may  probably  pair  for  life,  as  in 
districts  where  the  fact  can  be  observed  the  duck  and  drake  swim  and  fly  in 
company  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  The  nest  is  either  built  amongst  the 
rushes,  in  the  centre  of  tufts  of  sedge,  in  long,  coarse  grass,  or  under  a  stunted 


400  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

bush,  always,  however,  near  to  the  water.  It  is  merely  a  hollow  in  which  is 
arranged  a  little  dry  grass  or  other  vegetable  refuse  and  lined  with  plenty  of 
down  from  the  female.  The  eggs  are  usually  eight  or  ten  in  number,  sometimes 
several  more  are  found.  They  are  greenish-buff,  smooth  in  texture,  and  rather 
polished,  and  measure  on  an  average  2'3  inches  in  length  by  1'6  inch  in  breadth. 
The  down  tufts  are  small,  dark  greyish-black  with  obscure  pale  centres.  But  one 
brood  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  the  female  takes  sole  charge  of  the  young. 
Incubation  lasts  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-eight  days. 

Diagnostic  characters — (Nuptial  plumage)  Fuligula,  with  the  crown 
and  neck  metallic  green  and  purple,  with  a  conspicuous  crest,  and  with  only  diist- 
like  traces  of  vermiculations  on  the  upper  parts  (adult  male)  ;  with  white  axillaries 
and  alar  speculum,  and  with  dark  brown  unvermiculated  head,  neck,  and  upper 
parts  (adult  female).  Length,  16  to  17  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  401 

Family  ANATID^l.  Genus  FULIGULA. 

Subfamily  FuLlQULlNJK. 


RINQ=NECKED     DUCK. 

FULIGULA   COLLAEIS—  (Donovan}. 

Anas  collaris,  Donovan,  Brit.  B.  vi.  pi.  cxlvii.  (1809). 

Anas  fuligula  (nee  Linn.),  Wilson,  Am.  Orn.  viii.  p.  66,  pi.  67,  fig.  5  (1814). 

Fuligula  collaris  (Donovan),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  pp.  584,  610  (1885) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  355  (1894) ;  Salvador!,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus. 
xxvii.  p.  370  (1895). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  King-necked  Duck,  like 
the  American  Bittern,  was  first  made  known  to  science  from  an  example 
obtained  in  England.  In  connection  with  this  matter  we  are  not  disposed  to  rob 
Donovan  of  the  honour  of  his  discovery  by  transferring  it  to  Lewis  and  Clarke, 
by  whom  Dr.  Coues  endeavours  to  prove  the  bird  had  been  previously  obtained 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  Eiver.  For  just  upon  a  century  ornithologists 
appear  to  have  ignored  the  claim  of  this  species  to  a  place  in  the  British  list, 
whilst  many  other  birds  have  been  admitted  upon  much  less  slender  evidence. 
We  are  at  a  loss  to  account  for  this,  and  shall  here  take  the  opportunity  of 
reinstating  the  King-necked  Duck  to  our  list  of  abnormal  migrants  to  the  British 
Islands.  It  has  certainly  an  equal,  if  not  a  better,  right  to  be  so  included  than 
such  species  as  the  Griffon  Vulture  and  the  Black-browed  Albatross,  both  of 
which  can  only  claim  a  similar  single  record.  This  solitary  example  of  the 
Ring-necked  Duck  was  obtained  in  Leadenhall  Market  in  London  some  time  in 
January,  1801.  Foreign:  Nearctic  region;  extreme  north  of  the  Neotropical 
region  during  winter.  The  Ring-necked  Duck  breeds  sparingly,  at  least,  as  far 
south  as  Minneapolis  in  Minnesota,  and  at  Clear  Lake  in  Iowa ;  thence  north- 
wards, in  larger  numbers,  across  Canada  to  the  Arctic  regions  of  America.  Its 
principal  breeding  grounds  are  probably  in  the  high  north,  although  it  is  some- 
what remarkable  that  Macfarlane  failed  to  meet  with  the  nest  of  this  Duck.  It 
passes  southwards  over  the  United  States  to  winter,  extending,  at  that  season, 
to  Guatemala  and  the  West  Indies.  It  is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  Bermudas. 

Allied    forms. — -None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice.     It  is 
probably  most  nearly  allied  to  the  Tufted  Duck  (Fuligula  cristata)  of  the  Old 
World,  although  very  distinct  from  it. 
26 


402  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD  FOWL 

Habits.— The  migrations  of  the  King-necked  Duck  are  by  no  means  the 
least  interesting  portion  of  the  bird's  life  history.  In  northern  Minnesota  this 
species  is  widely  known  as  the  "Fall  Duck,"  doubtless,  because  it  is  so  abundant 
in  that  area  during  the  fall  or  autumn  migration.  Its  passage  up  the  Mississippi 
Valley  in  spring  takes  place  during  March  and  April :  the  return  migration  is 
performed  during  October  and  November.  According  to  Wilson  this  Duck  shows 
more  preference  for  inland  waters  than  the  open  sea.  Most  meagre  details  of 
the  habits  of  the  Eing-necked  Duck  have  been  recorded,  but  they  doubtless  do 
not  differ  much  from  those  of  allied  species.  The  favourite  haunts  of  the  Eing- 
necked  Duck  seem  to  be  streams  and  lakes  rather  than  the  open  coast.  It  does 
not  appear  to  be  anything  like  so  gregarious  during  winter  as  its  Old  World 
representative  the  Tufted  Duck,  the  flocks  consisting  of  a  dozen  or  twenty 
individuals — perhaps  a  brood  and  its  parents.  To  the  wild  fowlers  of  Long 
Island  this  Duck  is  widely  known  as  the  "  Bastard  Broad-bill,"  a  term  indicating 
the  popular  belief  that  the  bird  is  a  hybrid.  Like  kindred  species,  the  Eing- 
necked  Duck  obtains  most  of  its  food  by  diving  in  deep  water  ;  but  it  also  seeks 
for  sustenance  by  dabbling  amongst  the  roots  of  grasses  and  other  vegetation  on 
the  banks.  Its  food  consists  of  aquatic  insects,  snails,  worms,  small  fishes,  frogs 
and  the  buds,  seeds  and  leaves  of  various  plants.  It  swims  well  and  buoyantly, 
and,  like  the  Scaup,  is  said  to  keep  raising  its  head,  erecting  the  bushy  plumage 
of  the  occiput  and  uttering  a  note  similar  to  the  "  sound  produced  by  a  person 
blowing  through  a  tube."  It  rises  from  the  water  or  the  land  with  little  effort, 
and  its  flight  is  rapid  and  often  lofty,  the  individuals  of  a  flock  frequently 
scattering  when  disturbed.  During  winter  small  parties  of  Eing-necked  Ducks 
frequently  associate  with  allied  species,  and  these  may  often  be  seen  flying  quite 
close  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  flesh  of  this  Duck  is  described  as  being 
of  excellent  quality,  according  to  Audubon,  tender  and  juicy,  and  without  that 
fishy  flavour  that  generally  renders  most  "Black  Ducks"  almost  uneatable, 
especially  when  shot  off  salt  water. 

Nidification. — I  find  but  little  recorded  of  the  nesting  habits  of  the  Eing- 
necked  Duck.  Its  favourite  breeding-grounds  appear  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of 
lakes  and  rivers.  The  bird  is  decidedly  sociable  during  summer,  and  more  than 
one  observer  has  remarked  several  pairs  breeding  in  company.  The  nesting 
season  begins  in  May,  the  more  northern  breeding  individuals  being  of  course 
the  latest.  The  nest,  usually  well  concealed,  is  generally  placed  amongst  reeds, 
dense  grass  and  other  vegetation  on  the  margin  of  the  water,  sometimes  in  a 
bog,  and  is  made  of  dry  grass  and  leaves,  to  which  down  and  feathers  are  added 
as  the  period  of  incubation  advances.  The  eggs,  ten  or  twelve  in  number,  are 
described  in  Messrs.  Baird,  Brewer  and  Eidgway's  standard  work  on  the  birds  of 
North  America,  to  which  I  am  largely  indebted  for  my  account  of  this  species, 
as  greyish  ivory-white,  sometimes  the  greyish  tinge  being  replaced  by  buff.  They 


OF   THE    BBITISH   ISLANDS.  403 

measure  011  an  average  2'1  inches  in  length,  by  1'65  inch  in  breadth.  One  brood 
only  appears  to  be  reared  in  the  season,  but  whether  the  male  takes  any  share  in 
the  duty,  observers  fail  to  inform  us.  Doubtless  the  female  alone  takes  sole 
charge  of  eggs  and  brood.  The  period  of  incubation,  so  far  as  I  can  ascertain, 
has  not  been  recorded.  Hybrids  between  this  species  and  Nyroca  americana 
have  been  recorded  by  Professor  Newton  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.,  1860,  pi.  clxvii.),  and 
by  Leverte  (Journ.  Orn.  1890,  p.  '224). 

Diagnostic  characters.—  Fuligula,  with  the  speculum  bluish-grey; 
and  in  males  in  breeding  dress  with  a  varyingly  distinct  chestnut  ring  round  the 
neck.  Length,  17  inches. 


404  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 


Genus  CHARITONETTA,  or  Buffel  =  headed   Ducks. 

Type,  CHAEITONETTA  ALBEOLA. 


Charitonetta,  of  Stejneger  (1885). — -Although  perhaps  the  majority  of 
ornithologists  include  the  Buffel-Head  with  the  Golden-eyes,  under  the  generic 
term  of  Clangula,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  species  is  quite  as  worthy  of 
generic  distinction  as  certain  other  members  of  the  present  subfamily.  Among 
the  more  important  characters  of  this  genus  pointed  out  by  Stejneger  as  dis- 
tinctive from  Clangula,  may  be  mentioned  the  nostrils,  which  are  situated  in  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  posterior  half  of  the  bill  instead  of  the  reverse  ;  they  are 
also  rather  narrow  and  the  tubercle  is  visible.  The  outer  toe  without  the  claw 
is  decidedly  longer  than  the  middle  one ;  and  lastly  the  tail  is  rather  long,  more 
than  twice  the  length  of  the  metatarsus. 

But  one  species  of  Buffel-headed  Duck  is  known.  It  is  an  abnormal  migrant 
to  the  British  Islands,  and  its  distribution,  habits,  and  general  characteristics 
will  be  fully  described  in  the  following  chapter. 


OF  THE   BEITISH  ISLANDS.  405 

Family  ANATIDvE.  Genus  CHABITONETTA. 

Subfamily  FuLWULlNM. 


BUFFEL-HEADED  DUCK. 

CHAEITONBTTA  ALBEOLA— (Linnaus). 

Anas  albeola,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  199  (1766). 

Clangula  albeola  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  185  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 
589,  pi.  439  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  442  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and 
Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  178  (1894) ;  Salvador!,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  385 
(1895) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxx  (1895). 

Fuliffula  albeola  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  588  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xi.  (1889) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  48  (1896). 

Charitonetta  albeola  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  24  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Buffel-headed  Duck  is  a 
very  rare  straggler  to  our  Islands.  Its  claim  to  rank  as  "  British  "  rests  on  the 
following  evidence  : — England:  Norfolk  (one  example) ,  winter,  1830  ;  Yorkshire 
(one  example),  winter,  1864-65.  Scotland  :  Aberdeenshire  (one  example),  January, 
1865  ;  Loch  Strathbeg  (one  example),  no  date.  Ireland  :  Although  there  is  some 
evidence  that  this  species  has  visited  Ireland,  nothing  can  be  stated  positively 
until  an  example  be  secured.  Foreign :  Northern  Nearctic  region ;  more  southerly 
in  winter.  It  breeds  throughout  Arctic  America  up  to  the  limit  of  forest  growth, 
and  as  far  south  as  Maine  and  Wisconsin.  It  winters  in  the  United  States, 
California,  the  West  Indies,  and  Mexico,  and  occasionally  visits  the  Bermudas  on 
abnormal  passage,  whilst  it  has  occurred  in  Greenland  on  the  east  and  Behring 
Island  on  the  west. 

Allied  forms. —  None  nearer  than  Clangula  glaucion  and  allied  races,  the 
former  a  British  species,  and  dealt  with  fully  in  the  following  chapter. 

Habits. —  So  far  as  they  are  known  the  habits  of  the  Buffel-headed  Duck 
resemble  very  closely  those  of  its  near  ally,  the  Golden-eye.  Like  that  species  it 
is  much  attached  to  inland  waters,  and  only  appears  to  seek  the  sea  when  its 
other  retreats  are  sealed  by  ice.  It  flies  well  and  strongly,  swims  quickly,  and 
dives  with  such  astounding  speed  that  in  some  localities  it  is  known  by  the  name 
of  "  Spirit  Duck."  Its  note  is  a  somewhat  grating  and  feeble  Tturr.  The  food  of 


406  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND  WILD   FOWL 

this  species  consists  of  the  buds,  roots,  steins,  and  leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  worms, 
niollusks,  crustaceans,  etc.  Most  of  this  is  obtained  by  diving.  During  winter 
this  Duck  usually  consorts  in  small  flocks,  but  sometimes  gathers  into  greater 
numbers  during  severe  weather  when  its  feeding  grounds  are  more  restricted. 

Nidification. — According  to  latitude  and  climate  the  breeding  season  of 
the  Buffel-headed  Duck  begins  in  May  or  June.  Like  the  Golden-Eye  it  breeds 
in  hollow  trees,  sometimes  as  much  as  twenty  feet  from  the  ground.  No  particular 
species  of  tree  seems  selected ;  all  that  is  desired  is  a  suitable  hole.  No  nest  is 
made,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  decayed  powdered  wood  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hole,  which  is,  however,  eventually  lined  with  down,  plucked  from  the  body  of  the 
female.  They  are  from  six  to  ten  in  number,  and  pale  greenish-grey  in  colour. 
They  measure  on  an  average  2'0  inches  in  length  by  T45  inch  in  breadth. 
Although  several  observers  have  been  very  careful  to  inform  us  that  the  nest  hole 
contained  a  quantity  of  down,  none  of  them  have  deemed  it  sufficiently  important 
to  describe  it ;  it  probably  resembles  that  of  the  Golden-eye.  Whether  the  male 
takes  any  share  in  domestic  duties  is  unknown,  as  is  also  the  period  of 
incubation. 

Diagnostic  characters — (Nuptial  plumage)  Charitonetta,  with  the 
axillaries  brown  and  with  a  large  white  patch  on  the  side  of  the  head,  commencing 
behind  the  eye  (both  sexes).  Length,  14  to  15  inches. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  407 


Genus  CLANQULA,  or  Golden-eyes. 

Type,    CLANGULA  GLAUCION. 


Clangllla,  of  Leach  (1819). — The  birds  in  the  present  genus  are  charac- 
terised by  having  the  primaries  uniform  brown  or  unmirrored  with  grey.  The 
head  is  well  crested ;  the  bill  strong ;  the  edges  of  the  upper  mandible  not  bent 
inwardly ;  the  nostrils  situated  in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  anterior  half, 
rather  broad,  and  the  tubercle  invisible.  The  outer  and  middle  toes  are  of  equal 
length  ;  the  tail  is  rather  short,  less  than  twice  the  length  of  the  metatarsus. 

This  genus  contains  but  two  species  distributed  over  the  northern  portions  of 
the  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions.  One  of  these  is  a  well-known  British 
species,  and  the  other  has  been  included  in  our  list  but  on  unreliable  evidence. 

The  Golden-eyes  are  inhabitants  of  both  fresh  water  and  marine  localities. 
They  are  more  or  less  migratory.  They  swim  and  dive  with  marvellous  skill, 
but  their  movements  on  the  land  are  clumsy  and  their  gait  waddling.  The  are 
to  some  extent  gregarious  during  winter  and  on  passage.  Their  flight  is  power- 
ful, and  accompanied  by  a  peculiar  rushing  or  whistling  noise.  Their  notes  are 
harsh  and  unmusical.  Their  food  is  chiefly  of  an  animal  character,  but  vegetable 
substances  are  also  eaten.  They  are  monogamous.  They  nest  in  holes  of  trees, 
and  their  numerous  eggs  are  greyish-green  in  colour. 


408  THE   GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID.E.  Genus  CLANGULA. 

Subfamily  FULIGULIN&. 


QOLDEN  =  EYE. 

CLANGULA  GLAUCION— (Linnceus). 

Anas  clangula,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  201  (1766). 

Anas  glaucion,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  201  (1766). 

Clangula  chrysophthalma,  Stephens;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  174  (1852). 

Clangula  glaucion  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  595,  pi.  440  (1875) ;  Yarrell,  Brit. 

B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  435  (1885) ;    Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  179 

(1894) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.   xxvii.  p.  376  (1895). 
Fuligula  clangula  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  590  (1885) ;    Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xi.  (1889) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  48,  pi.  13  (1896). 
Clangula  clangula  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  20  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Golden-eye  is  a  common 
winter  visitor  to  the  coasts  and  inland  waters  of  the  British  Islands,  including 
the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  but  in  the  Outer  Hebrides  it  is  perhaps  less  numerous. 
It  is  equally  common  in  Ireland,  both  inland  and  on  the  coast.  The  statement 
that  this  bird  has  bred  in  a  hollow  tree  in  Sutherlandshire  is  still  unconfirmed, 
as  is  also  Saxby's  opinion  that  it  bred  in  the  Shetlands.  Foreign  :  Northern 
Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  regions,  more  southerly  in  winter  ;  small  portion  of  the 
Oiiental  region  in  winter.  The  Golden-eye  is  rare  in  the  Faroes,  and  has  been  only 
recently  proved  to  inhabit  Iceland.  It  breeds  throughout  the  Arctic  and  Subarctic 
regions  of  Europe  and  Asia  as  far  north  as  the  limit  of  forest  growth.  In  Europe 
it  breeds  as  far  south  as  Northern  Germany,  Pomerania,  and  the  Caucasus ;  in 
Asia  it  does  so  throughout  Siberia,  south  of  the  limits  already  given.  During 
winter  it  visits  the  coasts  of  Western  Europe  and  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean, 
but  is  very  rare  on  the  southern  shores.  The  basins  of  the  Black  and  Caspian 
Seas  are  also  winter  quarters  of  this  species.  The  birds  breeding  in  Siberia 
pass  Mongolia  on  migration  (although  those  inhabiting  the  Baikal  basin  arc 
said  to  be  resident,  and  many  remain  to  winter  in  Mongolia),  and  spend  the 
cold  season  in  Turkestan,  Upper  India,  China  and  Japan.  In  the  Nearctic 
region  it  breeds  in  British  North  America  and  Alaska,  up  to  the  limit  of  forest 
growth  and  winters  in  the  Southern  States,  Mexico,  and  parts  of  the  West 
Indies. 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  409 

Allied  forms. — The  Nearctic  Golden-eyes  have  been  separated  from  the 
Palaearctic  individuals  by  American  ornithologists  under  the  name  of  Clangula 
glaucion  americana,  because  they  are  said  to  be  a  trifle  larger.  Whether 
this  race  is  worthy  of  subspecific  rank  is  yet  by  no  means  proved,  Count 
Salvadori  asserting  that  he  is  unable  to  distinguish  the  two  races  specifically. 
C.  islandica,  an  inhabitant  of  much  the  same  area  in  the  Nearctic  region  as 
C.  glaucion,  but  extending  to  Greenland  and  Iceland.  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  Golden-eye  by  having  the  white  on  the  sides  of  the  head  extending  in  the  form 
of  a  crescent  in  front  of  the  eye  :  females  and  young  birds  are  indistinguish- 
able from  those  of  the  Old  World  species.  This  species  has  been  included 
in  the  British  list  on  the  faith  of  a  female  example,  said  to  have  been  shot 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Derwent !  There  is  no  evidence  whatever  to  confirm  this. 

Habits. — The  Golden-eye  is  certainly  more  addicted  to  fresh  water  than 
the  sea,  and  so  long  as  its  inland  haunts  remain  open  it  remains  upon  them ; 
continued  frost  sends  it  to  the  coast,  where  it  is  most  partial  to  low-lying 
muds  and  estuaries.  This  Duck  arrives  on  the  British  coasts  and  inland 
waters  about  the  middle  of  October  and  remains  with  us  until  the  following 
April,  although  immature  birds  have  been  noticed  as  late  as  the  end  of  May. 
Prjevalsky  found  small  numbers  of  these  birds  wintering  on  Lake  Hanka,  on 
the  open  part  of  the  river  Sungatch  in  Mongolia  (,N.  lat.  44°) ;  but  late  in 
March  and  early  in  April  they  become  very  plentiful.  At  the  large  lake  of 
Koko-Nor  (N.  lat.  37°),  situated  at  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet,  they  arrived  on 
the  4th  of  March  and  became  numerous  towards  the  middle  of  the  month  ; 
whilst  at  Dalai-Nor  (in  N.  lat.  43°)  they  arrived  at  the  end  of  March  and  early 
in  April,  congregating  on  those  parts  of  the  lake  that  were  free  from  ice.  The 
migration  south  in  autumn  takes  place  in  September  and  October.  Stoliczka 
observed  numbers  at  Lake  Sirikul,  on  the  Pamir,  at  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet, 
in  May,  when  most  of  the  water  was  covered  with  ice.  From  these  facts  it  will 
be  gathered  that  the  Golden-eye  is  a  hardy  species,  apt  to  linger  in  its  favourite 
haunts  until  the  frosts  seal  them  and  stop  its  food  supplies,  and  returning  as 
soon  as  open  water  is  to  be  found.  The  Golden-eye  is  not  a  very  gregarious 
bird,  and  its  flocks  are  generally  small,  but  in  restricted  feeding  areas  it  is  apt  to 
congregate  in  larger  numbers.  Like  all  its  congeners  it  dives  with  wonderful 
skill,  swims  well  and  lightly,  but  is  apt  to  sink  its  body  when  alarmed.  Its  flight 
is  strong  and  rapid,  and  the  bird  usually  strikes  its  feet  in  the  water  several 
times  until  fairly  off,  especially  when  there  is  no  wind ;  then,  however,  it  is  seen 
to  get  up  with  little  effort.  The  wings  as  they  rapidly  beat  the  air  make 
a  peculiar  rushing  whistling  sound,  hence  the  bird's  Latin  name  of  clangula. 
This  Duck  almost  invariably  seeks  to  escape  sudden  danger  by  diving  and 
appearing  again  at  a  much  safer  distance.  It  is  ever  a  vigilant  bird,  and  even 
when  a  small  flock  is  busy  feeding  they  never  all  dive  together,  one  or  two 


410  THE   GAME  BIEDS    AND  WILD   FOWL 

remaining  on  the  surface  to  watch  over  the  rest.  The  Golden-eye  does  not 
visit  the  land  much,  and  there  its  waddling  gait  is  clumsy  and  awkward  enough  ; 
it  spends  most  of  its  time  on  the  water.  At  its  breeding  grounds,  however,  it 
frequently  perches  on  trees,  probably  because  it  makes  its  nest  in  holes  in  their 
limbs  and  trunks.  The  note  of  the  Golden-eye  is  a  low,  croaking  kurr,  uttered 
during  flight  as  well  as  when  at  rest.  The  food  of  this  species,  which  is  mostly 
obtained  by  diving,  consists  of  small  fish,  crustaceans,  testaceous  mollusks, 
insects,  and  various  aquatic  weeds  and  plants.  Its  flesh  is  not  only  dark  in 
colour  but  unpalatable. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Golden-eye  begins  soon  after 
the  ice  breaks  up  in  its  Arctic  and  subarctic  haunts  towards  the  end  of  May,  and 
the  eggs  are  laid  from  that  date  onwards  until  near  the  end  of  June.  It  is  very 
probable  that  this  Duck  pairs  for  life  and  uses  the  same  nesting  site  annually. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  holes  of  trees,  often  as  much  as  twenty-five  feet  from  the 
ground,  although  Naumann  asserts  (probably  where  suitable  holes  cannot  be 
found)  that  this  Duck  frequently  makes  its  nest  amongst  rushes  and  other 
aquatic  vegetation,  and  on  the  top  of  a  pollard,  either  near  to  the  water  or  at  some 
considerable  distance  from  it.  When  in  a  hole,  no  nest  is  made  beyond  a  warm 
and  plentiful  lining  of  down  and  a  few  feathers  plucked  from  the  body  of  the 
parent.  It  should  be  remarked  that  the  Golden-eye  never  attempts  to  bore 
a  hole  for  itself,  but  selects  one  ready  for  the  purpose,  often  the  deserted  nest 
of  a  Black  Woodpecker.  The  Lapp  and  Finnish  peasants  are  in  the  habit  of 
placing  boxes  and  hollow  trunks  for  this  bird  to  breed  in,  and  from  which  they 
regularly  and  judiciously  remove  the  eggs.  The  partiality  of  this  bird  for 
a  nesting  site  near  a  waterfall  or  quick-flowing  stream  has  been  noticed  by 
several  observers.  The  eggs  are  usually  from  ten  to  thirteen  in  number,  but 
exceptionally  as  many  as  nineteen  have  been  found.  They  are  bright  greyish- 
green,  smooth  in  texture,  and  somewhat  glossy,  and  measure  on  an  average 
2'3  inches  in  length  by  1'6  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  moderate  in 
size  and  pale  lavender-grey  in  colour,  with  paler  and  obscure  centres.  The 
young  are  conveyed  to  the  water  one  by  one,  pressed  between  the  female's  bill 
and  her  breast.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — (Nuptial  plumage),  Clangula,  with  the  head 
and  upper  neck  metallic  green,  with  a  white  patch  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  not 
extending  above  the  eye,  and  with  the  scapulary  region  striped  with  white  (adult 
male) ;  with  the  axillaries  brown,  with  a  white  alar  speculum,  and  with  the 
under  tail  coverts  white  (adult  female).  Length,  16  to  19  inches. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  411 


Genus  COSMONETTA,  or  Harlequin   Ducks. 

Type,   COSMONETTA  HISTEIONICA. 


Cosmonetta,  of  Kaup  (1829).— The  Harlequin  Ducks  are  distinguished 
by  having  the  primaries  uniform  brown.  The  head  is  uncrested ;  the  bill  is 
conical,  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible  overlapping  the  tomium,  and  the  base  of 
lower  mandible  for  some  distance  being  covered  with  a  soft  naked  membrane. 
The  peculiar  colour-pattern  of  the  plumage  is  another  generic  distinction  of  con- 
siderable importance. 

But  one  species  of  Harlequin  Duck  is  known,  and  as  this  is  a  rare  abnormal 
migrant  to  the  British  Islands  its  distribution,  habits  and  characteristics  will  be 
fully  described  in  the  following  chapter. 


412  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  COSMONETTA. 

Subfamily  FULIGULIN&. 


HARLEQUIN   DUCK. 

COSMONETTA  HISTEIONIC A— (Linnaus) . 
PLATE  XL. 

Anas  histrionica,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  204  (1766). 

Clangula  histrionica  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  169  (1852). 

Cosmonetta  histrionica  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  609,  pis.  600,  613  (1877) ; 

Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  452  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxx.  (1895) ; 

Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  395  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii. 

p.  31  (1896). 

Histrionicus  minutus  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  613  (1877). 
Fuligula  histrionica  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  594  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests 

and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  171  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p. 

49,  pi.  15  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Harlequin  Duck  is  a  very 
rare  and  accidental  straggler  to  the  British  Islands.  Out  of  a  score  or  more 
examples  recorded  as  "  British,"  about  half-a-dozen  only  have  withstood  the  test 
of  a  searching  inquiry  into  their  antecedents.  (Conf.  Prof.  Newton,  Ibis,  1859, 
p.  162,  and  J.  H.  Gurney,  Bumbles  of  a  Naturalist,  p.  263).  The  claim  of  this 
species  to  rank  as  "  British  "  rests  on  the  following  evidence,  which  appears  to  be 
thoroughly  reliable  : — Scotland :  Lewis  (?)  (two  examples,  recorded  by  Montagu 
in  1802  and  presented  to  Mr.  Sowerby,  by  whom  they  were  figured  in  his  British 
Miscellany  in  1806)  ;  Aberdeenshire  (one  example),  1858,  a  male  in  full  adult 
plumage.  England  :  Yorkshire,  one  trustworthy  example,  found  dead  in  the 
autumn  of  1862;  Northumberland,  off  the  Fame  Islands  (three  seen,  two 
secured,  both  young  males),  December,  1886.  There  is  a  male  example  of  this 
Duck  in  the  Torquay  Museum,  which  may  have  been  obtained  in  Tor  Bay 
(Conf.  Bird-Life  in  a  Southern  County,  p.  290).  Foreign:  Eastern  Palaearctic 
and  Nearctic  regions.  Probably  a  Nearctic  species  that  has  only  comparatively 
recently  extended  its  range  into  the  Old  World.  It  is  a  resident  in  Iceland 
and  breeds  in  Greenland,  south  of  the  Arctic  circle.  It  breeds  across  the  North 
American  Continent  from  about  the  Arctic  circle  south  to  lat.  45°.  Thence  it  is  a 
resident  in  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  probably  breeds  in  Kamtschatka,  the 
Stanavoi  Mountains,  the  valley  of  the  Amoor,  and  the  Baikal  district.  The 


OP   THE    BEITISH   ISLANDS.  413 

evidence  of  the  occurrence  of  this  species  further  west  is  extremely  meagre  and 
unsatisfactory.  Sabanaeff  states  that  it  breeds  in  the  Ural  and  Yaroslav  ;  Evers- 
mann  records  it  also  from  the  Ural,  and  Nordmann  from  Finland.  It  is  said 
by  Hencke  to  be  rare  in  summer  near  Archangel,  and  a  single  example  has  been 
obtained  off  the  coast  of  Sweden.  The  birds  breeding  in  Eastern  Siberia  draw 
south  in  winter  to  the  Kurile  Islands  and  Northern  Japan ;  those  breeding  in 
America  visit  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Middle  States  during  that  season. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 

Habits. — The  migrations  of  the  Harlequin  Duck  are  not  very  regular  or 
extended,  and  the  bird  appears  to  winter  as  far  north  as  it  can  find  open  water. 
During  summer  it  is  for  the  most  part  an  inland  species  attached  to  fresh  water, 
but  at  the  approach  of  winter  it  wanders  seawards,  and  is  then  principally 
observed  in  the  sheltered  bays  and  inlets  of  rocky  coasts.  In  summer  this  Duck 
lives  in  scattered  pairs,  but  in  winter  it  congregates  on  the  sea  in  considerable 
flocks.  It  swims  well  and  is  a  most  accomplished  diver,  some  of  its  aquatic 
gambols  being  remarkably  beautiful,  as  it  swims  amongst  the  surf  like  the  Eider 
or  darts  through  the  waterfalls  in  sportive  play  or  in  quest  of  food.  As  is  usual 
with  these  diving  Ducks  the  present  species  always  tries  to  evade  pursuit  by 
darting  under  the  surface,  and,  when  alarmed,  sometimes  sinks  its  body  so  low 
that  little  more  than  the  head  is  exposed  to  view.  Notwithstanding  it  flies  well 
and  rapidly,  with  wings  beating  the  air  so  quickly  as  to  make  a  characteristic 
whistling  sound.  The  note  of  this  Duck  appears  to  be  undescribed,  except  on 
hearsay  evidence ;  but  most  reliable  authorities  agree  that  the  bird  is  remarkably 
silent  at  all  times.  It  is  said  to  be  a  rather  tame  and  confiding  species,  numbers 
being  easily  killed.  The  food  of  the  Harlequin  Duck  consists  of  insects,  both 
marine  and  fresh  water,  crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  small  fish.  This  Duck  does 
not  appear  to  be  much  of  a  vegetable  feeder,  although  some  naturalists  assert 
that  it  eats  various  aquatic  plants  and  weeds.  Its  flesh  by  some  authorities  is 
said  to  be  excellent,  by  others  the  reverse,  doubtless  owing  to  the  nature  of  the 
food  on  which  it  has  been  living  just  previous  to  being  killed. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  season  of  the  Harlequin  Duck  commences 
towards  the  end  of  May  or  early  in  June,  at  the  beginning  really  of  the  short 
Arctic  summer.  Its  breeding  haunts  are  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  the  nest  is 
placed  on  the  ground  close  to  the  water.  Messrs.  Pearson  have  recorded  some 
very  interesting  particulars  relating  to  the  nesting  habits  of  this  Duck  in  Iceland. 
They  write : — "  Generally  speaking  the  nest  is  placed  within  six  feet  of  the 
water,  a  rapid  stream  being  preferred.  On  the  llth  of  July  one  of  us  visited 
some  islands  on  a  river,  the  remains  of  an  ancient  flow  of  lava.  The  lava  had 
formed  a  dam  across  the  river,  which  had  afterwards  broken  through,  forming 
four  channels,  and  down  these  the  waters  ran  like  a  mill-race,  so  that  it  was 


414  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND    WILD    FOWL 

difficult  to  find  a  place  where  even  Iceland  ponies  could  cross.  On  these  islands 
were  six  nests  with  eggs,  three  of  them  only  two  feet  from  the  water,  and  placed 
under  the  leaves  of  wild  angelica,  the  others  in  holes  in  the  banks  close  to  the 
water,  and  protected  by  a  screen  of  trailing  plants.  Many  of  the  nests  con- 
tained but  little  down,  though  several  of  the  eggs  were  much  incubated.  The 
down  of  this  Duck  is  much  larger  than  that  of  most  other  species  we  have  taken, 
individual  pieces  having  sometimes  a  diameter  of  about  If  inch.  There  were 
many  old  nests  in  these  holes,  showing  the  islands  to  have  been  a  favourite 
breeding-place  for  years.  The  dog  put  the  duck  off  a  nest  of  seven  eggs  on  the 
9th.  This  was  placed  about  ten  yards  from  the  water,  under  a  birch  bush,  but 
we  are  sure  that  this  is  a  very  unusual  distance  from  water."  The  eggs  are 
from  eight  to  ten  in  number;  they  are  creamy- white  in  colour,  smooth,  and 
rather  glossy.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'2  inches  in  length  by  T7  inch  in 
breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  large,  light  greyish  brown  with  white  centres  and 
white  tips.  The  broods  and  their  parents  in  some  cases  apparently  keep  together 
all  the  winter ;  but  it  is  not  known  whether  the  drake  takes  any  share  in 
bringing  the  young  to  maturity,  and  Messrs.  Pearson  observed  flocks  of  more 
than  thirty  males  on  several  occasions  during  the  summer. 

Diagnostic  characters. — (Nuptial  plumage)  Cosmonetta,  with  a  metallic 
purple  alar  speculum  and  the  scapulary  region  striped  with  white,  and  with  broad 
white  crescentic  bands  across  the  lower  neck  and  breast  (adult  male) ;  with  the 
axillaries  grey,  with  the  under  tail  coverts  dark  brown,  with  a  white  spot  on  the 
forehead  and  another  behind  the  eye,  and  with  the  bill  less  than  1'5  inch  in  length 
(adult  female).  Length,  14  to  17  inches. 


Or   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  415 


Genus   HARELDA,   or   Long=tailed    Ducks. 

Type,  HAEELDA   GLACIALIS. 


Harelda,  of  Stephens  (1824). — The  Long-tailed  Ducks  are  distinguished 
by  their  uniform  brown  primaries.  The  head  is  fully  crested  ;  the  bill  is  strong 
and  conical,  but  with  no  overhanging  membrane  at  the  base;  the  edges  of  the 
upper  mandible  bent  inwards  to  some  extent.  The  long-pointed  central  tail 
feather  of  the  male  is  another  well-marked  characteristic  of  the  genus. 

But  one  species  of  Long-tailed  Duck  is  known,  a  British  species,  the  dis- 
tribution, habits  and  characteristics  of  which  will  be  fully  described  in  the 
following  chapter. 


416  THE    GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID^.  Genus  HARELDA. 

Subfamily  FULIGULINM. 


LONG-TA1LED    DUCK. 

HARELDA  GLACIALIS— (Linneeus). 

Anas  glacialis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  303  (1766). 

Harelda  glacialis  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  192  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p. 

617,  pis.  443,  444  (1875) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  446  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col. 

Fig.  Brit    B.  pt.  xxx.  (1895);  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  389  (1895); 

Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  26  (1896). 

Fuligula  glacialis  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  598  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  173  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p. 
50  pi.  15  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  Long-tailed  Duck  is 
a  fairly  common  winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands.  It  is  only  sparingly 
distributed  round  the  English  coasts,  especially  on  the  west  and  south  ;  and  in 
Ireland  it  is  equally  uncommon,  being  rare  in  the  south  and  of  irregular 
appearance  in  the  west  and  north.  It  becomes  most  numerous  in  Scotland, 
both  on  the  east  and  west,  and  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  examples  having 
been  met  with  in  summer  in  the  latter  locality.  Throughout  the  Hebrides  it 
is  a  well-known  and  at  times  even  abundant  species.  It  sometimes  visits  us  in 
unusual  numbers,  during  exceptionally  severe  weather  in  the  North  Sea  basin, 
as,  for  instance,  during  the  winter  of  1887-88.  Foreign  :  Northern  Palsearctic 
and  Nearctic  regions,  more  southerly  in  winter.  It  breeds  throughout  the  Arctic 
zone  above  the  limits  of  forest  growth,  and  in  a  similar  climate  at  high  elevations 
in  Scandinavia,  in  Iceland,  and  perhaps  the  Faroes.  Its  northern  range  appears 
to  extend  as  high  as  land  is  known,  and  may  possibly  reach  the  North  Pole.  The 
winter  migrations  of  this  species  are  not  very  extended,  but  at  that  season  it 
visits  the  Faroes,  the  Baltic,  the  North  Sea  basin,  and  much  more  rarely  that 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  where  it  has  occurred  on  the  Italian  lakes  and  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Adriatic.  Eastwards  it  visits,  during  winter,  the  Caspian  Sea,  Lake 
Baikal,  North  China,  and  Japan  ;  whilst  on  the  American  Continent  it  is  found  at 
that  season  as  far  south  as  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Northern  United  States. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  417 

Habits. — Of  all  the  Arctic  Ducks  none  are  more  thoroughly  Arctic  than 
the  present  handsome  species.  It  is  late  to  arrive  in  British  waters,  and  is 
seldom  seen  off  even  our  northern  coasts  before  November,  later  still  in  the 
south.  It  leaves  us  in  April  and  reaches  its  Arctic  haunts  with  the  opening 
of  the  northern  waters.  Like  most  of  its  congeners  it  is  gregarious  in  winter, 
but  the  flocks  that  frequent  our  seas  are  seldom  very  large ;  even  in  summer  it  is 
to  a  certain  extent  sociable,  and  numbers  of  nests  may  be  found  within  a  small 
area  of  suitable  ground.  Whilst  with  us  it  keeps  principally  to  the  sea,  often 
wandering  long  distances  from  land,  only  approaching  the  shore  during  stormy 
weather,  when  it  shows  a  decided  preference  for  creeks  and  inlets  on  a  wild, 
rocky  coast.  It  is  rarely  or  never  seen  on  inland  fresh  water  during  winter, 
although  in  summer  its  favourite  retreats  are  the  northern  lakes,  often  at  some 
considerable  distance  from  the  sea.  The  flight  of  this  Duck  is  remarkably  quick 
and  graceful,  the  long  tail  making  the  bird  look  very  elegant  as  it  careers  along 
with  wings  beating  the  air  so  rapidly  as  to  be  almost  invisible.  It  dives  with 
even  greater  speed,  so  quickly  as  often  to  dodge  the  shot  from  a  modern 
breech-loader,  and  under  water  it  darts  about  and  goes  for  long  distances  like 
a  Grebe  or  an  Auk,  appearing  far  out  of  danger.  The  note  of  the  Long-tailed 
Duck  cannot  easily  be  confused  with  that  of  any  other  species.  It  is  a  loud, 
clear  cry  of  several  syllables,  the  middle  one  being  the  longest  and  the  loudest, 
rendered  by  some  authorities  as  cow-cow-w-ie,  col-goh'-y,  or  cal-loo-oo ;  whilst  in 
some  parts  of  Scotland  the  sportsman  has  made  a  free  translation  of  it  into 
"  coal-an-can'le-licht."  The  food  of  this  species  consists  of  small  mollusks, 
crustaceans,  insects,  minute  marine  animals,  and  the  buds,  roots  and  leaves 
of  various  water  plants  and  weeds.  Most  of  this  is  obtained  whilst  the  bird  is 
diving. 

Nidification. — The  great  breeding  grounds  of  the  Long-tailed  Duck  are 
on  the  Arctic  tundras  of  the  Old  World  and  the  barren  grounds  which  extend 
from  beyond  the  limit  of  forest  growth  to  the  frozen  ocean  in  the  New  World. 
Here  its  haunts  are  the  pools  and  lakes,  often  those  studded  with  islands.  Odd 
pairs  are  scattered  up  and  down  the  small  pools,  whilst  the  larger  sheets  of 
water  are  the  haunts  of  perhaps  a  dozen  or  twenty  pairs.  The  breeding  season 
commences  at  the  end  of  May  or  early  in  June,  and  fresh  eggs  may  be  obtained 
throughout  the  latter  month  and  the  first  half  of  July.  The  nest  is  usually 
placed  in  some  sheltered  nook,  often  among  willow  and  birch  scrub  in  the 
drifted  rubbish  left  by  the  floods  when  the  big  northern  rivers  break  up  in  spring, 
or  among  long  grass.  An  island  is  usually  selected  when  available  in  the  lake  or 
pool.  The  nest  is  merely  a  hollow  among  the  herbage,  plentifully  lined  with 
down  and  a  few  feathers  from  the  breast  of  the  female.  The  eggs  are  from 
seven  to  twelve  in  number,  eight  or  nine  being  an  average  clutch.  They  are 
pale  huffish-green  or  greenish-buff  in  colour,  smooth,  and  with  some  gloss,  and 
27 


418  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

measure  on  an  average  2'1  inches  in  length  by  1'5  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts 
are  small  in  size,  warm  brown  in  colour,  and  without  any  white  tips.  The  period  of 
incubation  is  unknown.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  drake  of  this  species 
assists  the  duck  in  bringing  up  the  young,  moulting  much  earlier  than  is  usual  in 
this  group  into  his  post-nuptial  plumage,  and  remaining  in  this  garb  until  the 
brood  can  fly.  During  the  breeding  season  this  Back  is  very  tame  and  most 
unwilling  to  take  wing,  generally  swimming  out  into  the  centre  of  the  large  lakes 
for  security.  When  the  brood  of  ducklings  is  menaced,  the  female  tries  to  get 
her  offspring  to  follow  her  out  into  the  open  water,  and  is  said  to  display  great 
anxiety  for  their  safety.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  Characters — (Nuptial  plumage),  Harelda,  with  the  pre- 
vailing colour  of  the  head  and  neck  white  (but  with  an  oval  patch  of  brown  on 
each  side  of  the  latter),  with  the  tail  (of  14  feathers)  white,  except  the  two 
central  feathers,  which  are  black  and  about  five  inches  longer  than  the  rest,  and 
with  the  scapulary  region  striped  with  white  (adult  male) ;  with  the  axillaries 
brown,  with  the  sides  of  the  head  white,  and  the  sides  of  the  neck  brown  (adult 
female).  Length,  22  to  26  inches  inclusive  of  the  tail  in  the  male. 


OF   THE    BEITISH    ISLANDS.  419 


Genus  (EDEMIA,  or  Scoters. 

Type,  (EDEMIA   NIGEA. 


CEdemia,  of  Fleming*  (1822). — The  Scoters  are  distinguished  by  their 
uniformly  coloured  primaries,  and  by  the  uniform  black  plumage  in  the  males 
and  brown  unbarred  plumage  in  the  females.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these 
birds  are  as  fully  entitled  to  generic  distinction  as  any  other  group  in  the  present 
family,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  colour  is  always  a  more  or  less  unsatisfactory 
character  and  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 

There  are  at  present  six  species  of  Scoters  recognised  by  ornithologists. 
These  are  distributed  over  the  northern  portions  of  the  Palaearctic  and  Nearctic 
regions,  their  range  becoming  more  southerly  in  winter.  Three  species  are 
British,  two  of  them  being  indigenous,  and  a  third  an  abnormal  migrant  to  our 
Islands. 

The  Scoters  are  thoroughly  marine  in  their  habits.  Their  flight  is  noisy  and 
powerful.  They  keep  well  out  to  sea,  rarely  visiting  the  land  except  to  breed. 
They  are  all  more  or  less  migratory,  and  exceptionally  gregarious  during  passage 
and  in  winter.  Their  notes  are  harsh  and  unmusical.  Their  food,  obtained  by 
diving,  is  chiefly  of  an  animal  character,  crustaceans,  mollusks,  fry,  and  insects. 
They  are  monogamous,  making  their  rude  but  down-lined  nests  on  the  ground. 
Their  eggs  are  numerous,  and  various  shades  of  greyish-buff  in  colour. 


*  Spelt  Oidemia. 


420  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  ANATHXE.  Genus  (EDEMIA. 

Subfamily  FULIGULINJS. 


COMMON    SCOTER. 

(EDEMIA  NIGEA—  (Linnenut). 

Anas  nigra,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  196  (1766). 

Oidemia  nigra   (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  140  (1852). 

CEdemia  nigra  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  663,  pi.  449  (1877);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 

ed.  4,  iv.  p.  472  (1885);  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xii.  (1892) ;  Salvadori,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  401  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  43  (1896). 
Fuligula  nigra  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  602  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests    and 

Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  242  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  51,  pi.  14  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.  —British :  This  Scoter  is  a  common 
winter  visitor  to  our  area,  especially  on  the  eastern  coasts,  from  the  Shetlands 
and  Orkneys  to  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  in  all  suitable  districts,  and  thence 
round  the  southern  coast  of  England,  although  not  in  such  vast  numbers. 
Comparatively  speaking  it  is  much  less  common  on  our  western  coast  line,  the 
flat  shores  of  Lancashire  and  the  Solway  district  being  its  chief  head-quarters. 
It  is  most  abundant  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  becoming  more  sparingly  distributed 
in  the  west  and  south.  Small  numbers  of  immature  non-breeding  birds  frequent 
the  British  coasts  during  the  summer,  and  a  few  pairs  of  adults  are  known  to 
breed  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  in  Caithness,  Sutherland,  and  Eoss-shire.  It 
is  also  recorded  as  having  bred  in  1897  on  the  island  of  Tiree.  This  Duck 
is  recorded  (Science  Gossip,  1891,  p.  256)  as  having  bred  on  Earnley  Marshes, 
near  Chichester,  but  further  confirmation  of  the  fact  is  much  to  be  desired. 
Foreign  :  Northern  and  western  Palsearctic  region,  more  southerly  in  winter. 
It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  Europe  and  Western  Siberia,  from  Iceland 
to  the  Taimur  Peninsula,  as  far  north  as  lat.  74,°  and  as  far  south  as  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  in  a  few  localities  at  high  elevations  below  it  where  similar 
climatic  conditions  prevail.  It  is  found  during  winter  in  the  Baltic  and  the 
basin  of  the  North  Sea,  exceptionally  as  far  south  as  the  Azores,  and  only  very 
sparingly  in  the  Western  Mediterranean  as  far  as  Italy.  It  was  said  by  Pallas 
to  visit  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  reputed  to  be  common  in  the  Caspian  Sea,  whilst 
it  has  been  obtained  on  the  coasts  of  Palestine  during  winter. 


OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  421 

Allied  forms. — (Edemia  americana,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of  Kamts- 
chatka,  the  Kurile  Islands  and  Arctic  America  eastwards  to  Hudson  Bay,  and  in 
winter  of  Japan,  the  Pacific  coast  of  America  to  Southern  California,  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  the  Atlantic  coast  as  far  south  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  American 
representative  of  the  Common  Scoter.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the  Common 
Scoter  by  having  the  tubercle  at  the  base  of  the  bill  orange-yellow  instead  of 
black.  This  form  should  be  looked  out  for  on  the  British  coasts,  especially 
in  autumn. 

Habits. — The  Common  Scoter  is  one  of  the  best  known,  and  one  of  the 
most  common  Ducks  to  be  found  on  and  off  the  British  coasts  during  winter. 
In  some  parts  its  vast  flocks  literally  blacken  the  water,  and  may  be  observed  far 
away  from  land  during  moderately  calm  weather.  No  Duck  is  more  gregarious 
or  more  exclusively  marine  in  its  habits.  The  great  autumn  migration  of  this 
species  begins  in  September  and  lasts  through  October  in  our  Islands,  but  many 
old  birds  are  said  to  arrive  in  the  Baltic  during  August.  The  return  flight 
commences  in  April  and  lasts  well  into  May.  The  line  of  migration  is  taken 
across  country  as  well  as  along  the  coast,  and  though  this  Duck  certainly 
migrates  in  flocks,  these  appear  to  break  up  into  pairs  as  soon  as  the  breeding 
grounds  are  reached.  This,  however,  only  applies  to  adults,  for  the  immature 
birds  do  not  appear  to  breed  during  their  first  spring,  but  to  continue  all  the 
summer  in  the  vast  flocks  they  journeyed  in  from  the  south.  These  keep  for 
the  most  part  to  the  sea,  hanging  about  the  Arctic  islands  and  the  deltas  of  the 
great  northern  rivers.  An  immense  flock,  estimated  at  ten  thousand  strong, 
was  observed  by  Messrs.  Seebohm  and  Harvie-Brown  in  the  middle  of  July, 
circling  over  the  Golievsky  Islands  in  the  delta  of  the  Petchora.  Flocks  of 
non-breeding  Scoters  also  frequent  our  coasts  all  the  summer  as  previously 
remarked.  The  Scoter  is  rather  a  late  bird  of  passage  in  spring,  and  was 
not  observed  in  the  valley  of  the  Petchora  until  the  1st  of  June.  This  Duck  is 
just  as  proficient  a  diver  as  its  congeners,  and  swims  with  equal  power  ;  on  the 
land  it  is  rather  clumsy,  waddling  with  an  awkward  gait,  but  in  the  air  it  is 
more  at  home,  and  flies  with  great  speed.  The  note  of  this  Scoter  is  a  harsh 
kurr,  but  in  the  pairing  season  the  drake  is  said  to  modulate  it  into  a  more 
musical  cry,  syllabled  by  Faber  as  an  oft-repeated  tu,  that  of  the  female  at  this 
season,  according  to  the  same  authority,  being  a  grating  re-re-re.  The  food  of 
this  species  consists  of  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  insects,  and  in  summer  the 
leaves,  roots,  and  buds  of  weeds  and  aquatic  plants.  Its  flesh  is  fishy  in  flavour 
and  unpalatable. 

Nidification. — The  Common  Scoter  is  a  late  breeder,  even  in  the  com- 
paratively temperate  climate  of  Iceland,  not  beginning  to  lay  before  the  middle 
of  June,  and  in  Arctic  Eussia  not  until  the  end  of  that  month  or  early  in  July. 


422  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

The  favourite  breeding  grounds  of  this  Duck  are  the  hikes  on  the  northern 
tundras  and  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  sea,  especially 
in  localities  where  dwarf  willow  and  birch  scrub  is  abundant.  An  island  in  the 
lake  or  river  is  selected  where  choice  of  such  a  situation  admits.  The  nest  is 
merely  a  hollow,  in  which  is  placed  a  little  dry  grass,  sprigs  of  heath,  withered 
leaves,  or  other  such-like  refuse,  and  warmly  lined  with  down  from  the  body  of 
the  female.  The  eggs  are  eight  or  nine  in  number  and  pale  greyish-buff  in 
colour,  smooth,  and  with  little  gloss  They  measure  on  an  average  2'5  inches 
in  length  by  1'8  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  large,  brownish-grey  in 
colour,  with  pale  centres.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  season,  of  which  the 
female  apparently  takes  the  entire  charge. 

Diagnostic  characters.  -  (Nuptial  plumage),  (Edemia,  with  the  bill 
black  with  a  yellow  mark  on  the  culmen  in  front  of  the  basal  knob,  with  the  entire 
plumage  bright  black  (adult  male)  ;  with  the  axillaries  brown,  with  the  under 
tail  coverts  dark  brown,  with  the  culmen  1'5  inch  or  more  in  length,  and  with 
no  alar  speculum  (adult  female).  Length,  20  to  21  inches. 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  423 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  (EDEMIA. 

Subfamily  FULIGULIN&. 


VELVET  SCOTER. 

(EDEMIA  FUSCA.— (Linnaus). 

Anas  fusca,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  196  (1766). 

Oidemia  fusca  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  134  (1852). 

(Edemia  fusca  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  657,  pi.  448  (1877) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 

ed.  4,  iv.  p.  476  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxii.  (1892) ;  Salvadori,  Cat. 

B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  406  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  46  (1896). 
Fuligula  fusca  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  605  (1885);  Dixon,  Nests  and 

Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  175  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  52, 

pi.  15  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British  :  The  Velvet  Scoter  is  a  regular 
winter  visitor  to  our  islands,  but  much  less  common  than  the  preceding  species. 
It  occurs  sparingly  on  the  south  and  east  coasts  of  England,  chiefly  in  those 
localities  frequented  by  the  Common  Scoter,  becomes  more  frequent  on  the  east 
coast  of  Scotland,  but  is  decidedly  rare  in  the  Shetlands.  It  is  much  less 
common  round  the  western  coasts  of  Scotland,  and  is  said  to  be  rare  in  the 
Outer  Hebrides.  It  is  rare  and  local  in  the  west  of  England  and  chiefly  mixed 
with  the  common  species.  It  is  also  rare  in  Ireland,  chiefly  met  with  at  sea 
off  the  east  and  south  coasts.  According  to  Booth  a  few  pairs  may  possibly  breed 
in  the  north  of  Scotland,  but  no  direct  evidence  is  yet  forthcoming.  Foreign  : 
Northern  Palaearctic  region,  more  southerly  in  winter.  This  Scoter  breeds  in 
the  Arctic  and  Subarctic  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia  from  the  Atlantic  eastwards 
at  least  to  the  Yenisei,  as  far  north  as  lat.  72°,  and  as  far  south  as  the  Baltic 
Provinces  in  the  west  and  lat.  55°  in  the  east.  It  winters  in  the  basin  of  the  North 
Sea,  occasionally  wandering  as  far  south  as  Spain  and  the  Mediterranean  and 
Black  Seas.  To  Turkestan  it  is  a  visitor  on  passage,  and  in  winter  it  is  found 
in  the  basin  of  the  Caspian.  It  has  once  been  obtained  in  Alaska,  once  in  Green- 
land, and  is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  Faroes. 


424  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Allied  forms. — The  Velvet  Scoter  of  Eastern  Asia  has  heen  specifically 
separated  from  the  Western  bird  under  the  name  of  (Edemia  carbo.  It  possibly 
breeds  throughout  Eastern  Siberia,  and  winters  off  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan, 
occurring  apparently  as  an  abnormal  migrant  in  Alaska.  (E.  deglandi,  an  inhabi- 
tant in  summer  of  Arctic  America  from  west  to  east,  and  in  winter  of  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic,  and  Pacific  coasts  as  far  south  as  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  Lower  California.  This  Scoter  also  visits  the  Pacific  coasts 
of  the  Old  World,  and  may  be  traced  from  Alaska,  across  the  Aleutian  Islands 
to  Kamtschatka,  the  Kuriles,  Japan  and  China.  This  race  should  be  looked 
out  for  on  the  British  coasts,  especially  in  autumn.  The  Velvet  Scoter  and 
these  two  allied  species  belong  (as  pointed  out  by  Count  Salvadori)  to  that 
division  of  the  genus  (Edemia  in  which  the  length  of  the  commissure  is 
much  more  than  the  length  of  the  inner  toe  without  the  claw,  and  the 
feathering  of  the  head  advances  farther  forward  on  the  lores  than  on  the 
forehead ;  the  wing  has  also  a  white  speculum.  (E.  carbo  and  CE.  deglandi 
are  distinguished  from  (E.  fusca  by  having  the  loral  feathering  separated 
from  the  nostrils  by  a  space  much  narrower  than  the  length  of  the  nostril. 
In  (E.  carbo  the  lateral  outlines  of  the  bill  are  nearly  parrallel,  and  the 
knob  on  the  bill  of  the  male  is  very  high,  with  the  anterior  outline  concave,  and 
the  upper  one  horizontal.  In  (E.  deglandi  the  lateral  outlines  on  the  bill  are 
convex,  and  the  knob  on  the  bill  of  the  male  with  the  anterior  outline  sloping 
backward.  The  female  of  (E.  carbo  is  distinguished  from  that  of  (E.  deglandi, 
by  having  the  frontal  feathering  almost  transverse,  as  in  the  female  of  (E.  fusca, 
from  which  it  is  readily  separated  by  the  peculiarity  of  the  loral  feathering 
already  alluded  to. 

Habits. — The  habits  of  the  Velvet  Scoter  do  not  differ  in  many  important 
respects  from  those  of  the  allied  Common  Scoter.  It  is,  however,  a  bird  more 
addicted  to  inland  waters,  and  even  during  winter,  although  commonly  met  with 
at  sea,  often  far  from  land,  wanders  up  rivers  and  estuaries  and  visits  lakes.  Its 
breeding  grounds  also  are  as  a  rule  situated  at  greater  distances  from  the  sea, 
and  the  nest  is  not  unfrequently  made  a  long  way  from  any  water  at  all.  The 
flight  of  this  Scoter  is  rapid  and  well-sustained,  but  except  on  migration  the  bird 
is  Joth  to  take  wing,  and  almost  invariably  seeks  to  elude  danger  by  diving.  In 
the  water  it  is  extremely  active,  not  only  swimming  well,  but  diving  with 
amazing  speed,  and  going  not  only  to  a  considerable  depth  in  quest  of  food,  but 
for  a  long  distance  to  escape  an  enemy,  appearing  again  well  out  of  harm's  way. 
It  is  seldom  seen  on  land,  and  there  its  gait  is  waddling  and  clumsy,  even  for  a 
Duck.  In  more  favoured  winter  quarters  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Velvet 
Scoter  congregates  in  large  flocks,  but  in  our  seas  it  is  rare  to  see  more  than  a 
small  company  together,  and  is  usually  met  with  in  odd  birds  or  scattered  pairs 
among  flocks  of  the  much  more  abundant  Common  Scoter.  It  appears  in 


OF   THE   BEITISH    ISLANDS.  425 

British  waters  and  takes  its  departure  about  the  same  time  as  the  preceding 
species,  although  odd  (and  probably  immature)  birds  sometimes  linger  with  us 
throughout  the  summer.  The  food  of  the  Velvet  Scoter  consists  principally  of 
mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  small  fish  in  winter,  but  in  summer  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  vegetable  substances,  such  as  aquatic  weeds,  are  eaten.  Its  note  is 
said  not  to  differ  very  much  from  that  of  the  preceding  species,  and  is  a  grating 
kurr. 

Nidification.— The  Velvet  Scoter  is  a  late  breeder,  even  for  an  Arctic 
species,  and  its  eggs  are  not  laid  until  the  very  end  of  June  or  early  in  July.  It 
appears  to  separate  into  pairs  as  soon  as  the  breeding  grounds  are  reached,  and 
the  duck  and  drake  keep  close  company  until  the  eggs  are  laid,  after  which  the 
latter  leaves  his  mate  to  incubate  them  and  take  all  care  of  the  brood.  The  nest 
is  made  amongst  scrub  or  coarse  tundra  vegetation,  either  near  a  lake  or  river, 
or  some  dry  part  of  the  moor  away  from  either.  The  nest  is  merely  a  hollow, 
often  under  some  small  stunted  bush,  into  which  a  little  dry  grass,  dead  leaves, 
or  other  vegetable  refuse  is  placed,  and  finally  lined  with  down  and  a  few 
feathers  from  the  breast  of  the  female.  The  eggs  are  eight  or  nine  in  number 
and  pale  greyish-buff  in  colour,  smooth,  and  with  little  gloss.  They  measure  on 
an  average  2'8  inches  in  length  by  1'9  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are 
larger  than  those  of  the  Common  Scoter,  brown,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  grey 
and  with  indistinct  pale  centres.  One  brood  only  appears  to  be  reared  in 
the  season. 

Diagnostic  characters.— (Nuptial  plumage),  (Edemia,  with  the  loral 
feathers  separated  from  the  nostrils  by  a  space  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  nostrils,  with  the  lower  part  of  the  swollen  basal  portion  of  the  upper  man- 
dible on  sides  unfeathered,  with  the  basal  portion  of  the  culmen  elevated,  but  not 
forming  an  abrupt  knob  (adult  male) ;  with  the  plumage  greyish-brown  and  with 
no  white  on  the  head  (adult  female).  Length,  21  to  22  inches. 


426  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  (EDEMIA. 

Subfamily 


SURF    SCOTER. 

(EDEMIA  PEKSPICILLATA— (Linnceus). 

Anas  perspicillata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  201  (1766). 

Oidemia  perspicillata  (Linn.),  Macgill,  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  129  (1852). 

GEdemia  perspicillata  (Linn.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  669,  pi.  450  (1877)  ;  Yarrell, 
Brit.  B.  ed  4,  iv.  p.  481  (1885)  ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  412  (1895) ; 
Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxi.  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  48 
(1896). 

Fuligula  perspicillata  (Linn.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  607  (1885);  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  176  (1894);  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs 
Brit.  B.  p.  52,  pi.  15  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.  —British  :  The  Surf  Scoter  is  a  rare 
straggler  in  winter  to  the  British  Islands,  and  known  to  be  such  for  upwards  of 
sixty  years.  It  was  first  recorded  by  Blyth  in  1838,  from  a  somewhat  doubt- 
ful example  sent  in  the  flesh  to  Bartlett,  which  may  or  may  not  have  been 
captured  in  this  country  in  a  wild  state.  The  other  evidence  of  this  bird's  claim 
to  rank  as  "British"  is  as  follows — England:  Cumberland  (one  example), 
August,  1856;  Yorkshire  (one  example),  October,  1860;  Lancashire  (one 
example),  December,  1882  ;  Dorset  (two  examples),  winter,  1851,  December, 
1853 ;  South  Devon  (three  examples) ;  Cornwall  (one  example) ,  no  exact  date  ; 
Scilly  Isles  (two  examples) ,  September,  1865,  October,  1867.  Ireland:  Belfast 
Lough  (two  examples,  one  shot),  September,  1846;  Co.  Dublin  (one  example), 
October,  1880;  Co.  Cork  (one  example),  November,  1888;  Achill  Island  (one 
example)  Moy  estuary  (two  examples.  Scotland:  Edinburgh  Co.  (one  example), 
spring,  1852;  Stornoway,  Outer  Hebrides  (one  example),  winter,  1865;  North 
Shetland  (one  example,  said  to  have  been  seen  by  Mr.  Dunn),  June,  1847;  The 
Orkneys  are  apparently  the  most  favoured  locality  of  this  species  in  its  erratic 
visits  (six  examples  secured,  many  others  seen  and  identified),  March,  1866, 
February,  1872,  1876,  October,  1880.  Foreign:  Northern  Nearctic  region,  more 
southerly  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  and  Subarctic  regions  of  America 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  as  far  north  as  lat.  70°,  and  as  far  south  as  lat. 
50°.  In  winter  it  strays  down  the  Pacific  coasts  as  far  as  Lower  California  ; 
inland  it  is  found  at  that  season  on  the  Great  Lakes  ;  whilst  on  the  Atlantic 
coasts  it  extends  as  far  as  Florida,  and  occasionally  visits  the  Bermudas  and 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  427 

Jamaica.  It  is  a  rare  straggler  to  Greenland  and  the  Faroes,  and  has  occurred 
on  the  coasts  of  Heligoland,  Scandinavia,  Germany  and  France,  and  inland  as 
far  as  Switzerland. 

Allied    forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 

Habits. — The  migrations  and  habits  of  this  Nearctic  Scoter  very  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  preceding  species.  Its  grand  summer  quarters  are  in  the 
Arctic  and  Subarctic  regions  of  British  North  America.  From  the  most  northerly 
of  these  it  begins  to  retire  early  in  September,  and  as  the  autumn  and  winter 
advance  it  slowly  works  south,  not  only  along  the  coast,  but  across  country  by 
way  of  the  great  lakes  and  river  valleys,  as  it  appears  to  be  as  much  at  home 
on  inland  waters,  so  long  as  they  are  open,  as  the  sea.  In  April  it  begins  to 
migrate  north  again,  and  reaches  its  highest  Arctic  haunts  as  the  ice  is  breaking 
up,  and  summer  is  bursting  with  startling  suddenness  over  the  wild,  lone  land. 
It  is  just  as  gregarious  as  its  allies,  not  only  on  migration  and  in  winter,  but  in 
summer  also  ;  for  as  soon  as  the  females  have  scattered  up  and  down  the 
breeding  grounds  and  gone  to  nest,  the  males  flock  once  more,  and  apparently 
keep  gregarious  until  the  following  spring.  The  flight  of  the  Surf  Scoter  is 
strong  and  rapid,  but  the  bird  is  said  to  rise  with  difficulty  from  the  water.  It 
is  an  expert  and  rapid  diver,  keeps  principally  to  the  water,  where  it  swims 
equally  well,  and  ever  seeks  to  evade  pursuit  by  diving  out  of  reach  of  its 
enemies.  It  is  not  much  of  a  land  bird,  and  walks  in  a  clumsy,  waddling 
manner.  The  note  of  this  bird  is  not  known  to  differ  from  that  of  its  allies,  and 
the  female  is  said  to  utter  a  hoarse  cry  as  she  rises  startled  from  the  nest,  As  is 
the  case  with  both  the  other  British  Scoters,  but  more  especially  with  the 
Common  Scoter,  many  immature  and  non-breeding  birds  stay  behind  in  their 
winter  quarters,  where  they  keep  in  large  flocks.  The  food  of  the  Surf  Scoter, 
obtained  almost  entirely  by  diving,  consists  of  mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  small 
fish.  It  is  not  known  whether  this  bird  is  a  vegetable  feeder  in  summer;  but 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  to  a  certain  extent  this  is  the  case.  Great  flocks 
of  this  bird  almost  blacken  the  sea,  and  look  like  mud-banks  in  the  distance, 
congregating  in  certain  favoured  haunts  during  winter,  often  in  company  with 
other  Ducks,  but  as  its  flesh  is  fishy  and  unpalatable  it  is  not  much  sought  after 
by  American  sportsmen,  by  whom  it  is  known  in  some  districts  as  "  Surf  Coot," 
"  Spectacled  Coot,"  or  "  Skunk-headed  Coot." 

Nidification.  —  The  favourite  breeding  grounds  of  the  Surf  Scoter  are  the 
lake-studded  northern  tundras,  and  the  banks  of  the  winding  rivers  that  join 
them  into  a  more  or  less  swampy  paradise  for  aquatic  birds.  It  is  a  late 
breeder,  like  its  allies,  laying  towards  the  end  of  June  or  early  in  July.  The 
nest  is  made  near  the  water,  in  many  cases  amongst  scrub  and  coarse  vegetation  ; 
but  MacFarlane  found  one  concealed  under  the  drooping  lower  branches  of  a 


428  THE   GAME  BIRDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

stunted  pine-tree,  and  others  have  been  observed  in  similar  situations.  It  is 
merely  a  hollow  in  the  ground,  lined  with  any  vegetable  refuse  that  may  chance 
to  be  near,  and  with  an  abundance  of  down  from  the  body  of  the  female.  The 
eggs  are  from  five  to  eight  in  number,  pale  greyish-buff  in  colour,  smooth,  and 
with  little  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'3  inches  in  length  by  1'65  inch 
in  breadth  The  down  tufts,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  are  still  undescribed.  One 
brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — (Nuptial  plumage),  (Edemia,  with  the 
feathering  of  the  head  advancing  much  farther  forward  on  the  forehead  than  on 
the  lores,  with  the  entire  plumage  glossy-black,  except  a  broad  patch  of  white  on 
the  forehead  and  another  on  the  nape  (adult  male)  ;  with  bare  swellings  at  the 
base  of  the  sides  of  the  bill,  with  the  frontal  feathers  extending  about  an  inch 
beyond  those  at  the  sides  of  the  bill,  and  with  the  white  nape  patch  indistinctly 
defined  (adult  female).  Length,  21  inches. 


OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  429 


Genus   HENICONETTA,   or   Rufous= breasted    Eiders. 

Type,  HENICONETTA  STELLEEI. 


Heniconetta,  of  Gray  (1840)*.— By  many  authorities  Steller's  Eider,  the 
sole  member  of  the  present  genus,  is  associated  with  the  typical  Eiders,  but  the 
species  possesses  several  characters  which  perfectly  justify  its  removal  from 
Somateria.  Steller's  Eider  belongs  to  that  division  in  which  the  primaries  are 
uniform  in  colour.  The  bill  is  very  peculiar.  The  edges  of  the  upper  mandible 
are  bent  inwardly ;  the  lower  mandible  has  the  apical  portion  almost  spatulated. 
"Especially  characteristic,"  writes  Stejneger,  "are  the  soft  lobes  formed  by  the 
tomia  of  the  upper  mandible  in  the  anterior  half.  When  dried  they  roll  up  so 
as  to  enclose  the  lower  mandible,  and  become  hard,  the  lateral  outline  thereby 
being  considerably  changed,  becoming  unduly  narrowed  towards  the  tip."  Both 
sexes  exhibit  a  metallic  alar  speculum  ;  the  tertials  are  more  or  less  falcate,  and 
on  the  head  of  the  males  are  patches  of  stiff  feathers. 

This  genus  contains  but  a  single  species,  a  rare  abnormal  migrant  to  the 
British  Islands,  the  distribution,  habits,  and  characteristics  of  which  will  be 
fully  described  in  the  following  chapter. 


*  Spelt  Eniconetla. 


430  THE    GAME   BIEDS   AND    WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  HENICONETTA. 

Subfamily  FULIQULIN&. 


STELLER'S   EIDER. 

HENICONETTA   STELLERI— (Pallas). 

Anas  stelleri,  Pallas,  Spic.  Zool.  vi.  p.  35,  tab.  v.  (1769). 
Stellaria  dispar  (Sparrm.),  Macgill,  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  164  (1852). 

Somateria  stelleri  (Pall.),  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  649,  pi.  447  (1871)  ;  Yarrell,  Brit. 
B.  ed  4,  iv.  p.  468  (1885) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  613  (1885) ;  Dixon, 
Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  181  (1894) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit. 
B.  p.  63,  pi.  9  (1896). 

Heniconetta  stelleri  (Pall.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  419  (1895) ; 
Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  34  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  Steller's  Eider  is  a  very  rare 
straggler  to  the  British  Islands  in  autumn  and  winter.  The  very  slender  claim 
of  this  species  to  rank  as  "British  "  is  based  upon  the  following  occurrences — 
England  :  Norfolk  (one  example),  February,  1830.  Shot  at  Caistor,  near 
Yarmouth,  a  nearly  adult  male,  formed  the  subject  of  the  illustration  in  Yarrell's 
British  Birds  and  is  now  preserved  in  the  Norwich  Museum  ;  Yorkshire  (one 
example),  August,  1845.  It  was  shot  on  the  sea  off  Filey  Brigg,  a  male  assum- 
ing nuptial  plumage,  and  is  now  in  the  collection  of  Lord  Scarsdale.  Foreign  : 
North-eastern  Palaearctic  region,  and  possibly  the  extreme  north-west  of  the 
Nearctic  region,  more  southerly  and  westerly  in  winter.  The  exact  breeding 
range  of  this  species  is  very  imperfectly  known.  It  has  been  found  breeding  in 
Kamtschatka,  on  the  islands  round  about  Behring  Strait,  the  Aleutian  Islands 
(although  the  fact  is  doubted  by  Stejneger),  the  delta  of  the  Lena,  the  Taimur 
Peninsula,  the  coast  of  Kussian  Finmark,  and  in  the  Varanger  Fjord.  Mr.  Nelson 
states  that  it  breeds  in  tens  of  thousands  along  the  north  coast  of  Siberia.  In 
winter  it  is  found  in  Northern  Norway,  in  the  Baltic,  in  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk, 
and  off  the  coasts  of  the  Kurile  Islands.  During  this  season  it  has  been  observed 
in  Denmark,  Heligoland,  North  Germany,  and  France. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 

Habits.— But  little  has  been  recorded  of  the  habits  of  Steller's  Eider.  The 
bird  appears,  however,  very  closely  to  resemble  its  congeners  in  its  economy,  being 
eminently  a  sea  Duck  and  almost  sedentary,  only  wandering  in  winter  from  its 


OF  THE  BEITISH  ISLANDS.  431 

usual  haunts  to  the  nearest  open  water.  The  adults  probably  live  in  pairs 
through  the  summer,  but  immature  individuals  remain  in  parties  at  that 
period ;  whilst  in  autumn  both  old  and  young  become  more  or  less  gregarious. 
Dr.  Stejneger  found  this  Duck  very  common  during  winter  on  Behring  Island. 
They  made  their  appearance  in  large  flocks  about  the  first  of  November,  remain- 
ing about  the  rockiest  parts  of  the  coast  where  the  breakers  were  most  violent. 
In  spring,  especially  during  April,  the  number  of  Steller's  Eider  greatly  increased, 
and  immense  flocks  covering  many  acres  were  watched  floating  on  the  sea  within 
half-a-mile  of  the  shore.  Towards  the  end  of  April  their  numbers  perceptibly 
decreased  ;  by  the  end  of  the  month  but  few  remained,  and  none  were  remarked 
after  about  the  25th  of  May.  During  its  winter  sojourn  here  Dr.  Stejneger  found 
it  to  be,  next  to  the  Golden-eye,  the  shyest  of  all  the  Duck  tribe.  The  adult 
males  generally  keep  apart  from  the  adult  females  and  young  males,  and,  as  is 
usual  they  did  not  as  a  rule,  come  so  near  to  the  land.  It  is  interesting  to  remark 
that  Dr.  Stejneger  found  the  females  of  this  Duck  in  full  moult  at  the  end  of 
April  while  the  males  were  not  in  such  condition,  and  at  that  date  not  a  single 
young  male  among  many  thousands  observed  showed  even  a  trace  of  new  white 
plumage.  The  food  of  this  Eider  is  not  known  to  differ  from  that  of  allied  species, 
and  is  obtained  in  a  similar  manner.  Its  note  is  undescribed,  but  Von  Middendorff 
states  that  the  female  when  flying  from  the  nest  uttered  a  rattling  cry. 

Nidification. — The  only  particulars  concerning  the  breeding  habits  of 
Steller's  Eider,  obtained  from  personal  observation,  appear  to  be  those  published 
by  Von  Middendorff,  who  met  with  this  Duck  breeding  in  some  numbers  on  the 
Taimur  Peninsula,  the  most  northerly  continental  land  on  the  entire  globe.  The 
eggs  are  apparently  laid  early  in  July,  or  at  the  very  end  of  June.  The  nests 
were  made  on  the  tundra,  and  were  merely  deep  hollows  in  the  moss-clothed 
ground,  lined  with  quantities  of  down  plucked  from  the  breast  of  the  females. 
The  eggs  range  from  seven  to  nine  in  number,  and  are  pale  huffish-green  in 
colour,  smooth,  but  with  little  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'35  inches 
in  length  by  1'55  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  apparently  undescribed. 
But  one  brood  is  reared  in  the  year.  The  females  are  said  to  sit  closely,  and,  as 
is  usual  with  the  Eiders,  the  drakes  swim  about  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
nests,  and  probably  join  their  mates  when  they  leave  the  eggs  and  retire  to  the 
water  to  feed. 

Diagnostic  characters.  — (Nuptial  plumage),  Heniconetta,  with  the 
back  black  and  the  falcated  scapulars  white  on  the  inner  and  bluish-black  on  the 
outer  webs  (adult  male) ;  with  the  alar  speculum  purplish-blue,  enclosed  between 
two  white  bars  (adult  female).  Length,  18  to  20  inches. 


432  THE   GAME  BIRDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 


Genus  SOMATERIA,   or   Eiders. 

Type  SOMATEEIA  MOLLISSIMA. 


Somateria,  of  F.  Boie  (1822).  The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  best  characterised  by  having  the  scapulars  long  and  falcated,  and  the  head 
marked  with  emerald  green.  Unfortunately  these  distinctions  apply  to  males 
only,  and  the  following  character  must  also  be  added  to  distinguish  the  females  : 
feathers  on  the  forehead  and  on  the  sides  of  the  bill  projecting  in  triangular 
patches  nearly  or  quite  as  far  as  the  nostrils.  The  wings  are  moderately  long ; 
the  tail  is  short  and  consists  of  fourteen  feathers.  The  bill  is  swollen  and 
elevated  at  the  base,  extending  on  to  the  forehead,  and  the  edges  of  the  upper 
mandible  are  not  bent  inwardly ;  nostrils  small  and  oval.  Three  toes  in  front 
webbed ;  hind  toe  moderate  and  lobed. 

This  genus  contains  four  species  and  subspecies  which  are  confined  to  the 
northern  portions  of  the  Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions.  Two  species  are 
British,  one  of  which  is  a  common  resident  in,  and  the  other  is  an  accidental 
visitor  to,  our  Islands. 

The  Eiders  are  dwellers  exclusively  on  rocky  coasts.  They  are  birds  of 
somewhat  slow  and  laboured  yet  powerful  flight ;  they  swim  and  dive  well,  but 
walk  clumsily.  They  subsist  on  crustaceans,  marine  insects,  and  shell-fish. 
Their  notes  are  harsh  and  grating.  They  make  slovenly  nests,  which  are  lined 
with  down,  upon  the  ground,  and  their  eggs  are  numerous  and  green  of  various 
shades,  unspotted.  They  are  monogamous,  but  the  male  takes  no  share  in 
family  duties.  They  are  more  or  less  gregarious  and  social  at  all  seasons. 


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OP   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  433 

Family  ANATIDyE.  Genus  SOMATKRIA. 

Subfamily 


COMMON    EIDER. 

SOMATEEIA   MOLLISSIMA-  (Linnaeus) . 
PLATE  XXXIX. 

Anas  mollissima,  Lynn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  198  (176G). 

Somateria  mollissima  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  147  (1852);  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi. 
p.  629,  pi.  445  (1871) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  616  (1885) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 
ed.  4,  iv.  p.  457  (1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxii.  (1892) ;  Dixon,  Nests 
and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  244  (1893) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  425  (1895) ; 
Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  54,  pi.  9  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit, 
iii.  p.  37  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British  :  The  Common  Eider  is  a  rare 
straggler  in  winter  to  the  southern  portions  of  the  British  Islands,  including  the 
west,  east,  and  south  coasts  of  England,  and  all  the  coasts  of  Ireland.  It  breeds 
from  the  Fame  Islands  locally  northwards  to  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  and 
along  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  including  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  St.  Kilda,  as 
far  south  on  the  mainland  as  Inverness-shire.  Foreign :  Northern  and  western 
confines  of  Palsearctic  region,  and  northern  and  eastern  confines  of  Nearctic 
region,  more  southerly  in  winter.  It  breeds  on  the  shores  of  the  Kara  Sea, 
Franz-Josef  Land,  Spitzbergen,  Jan  Mayen,  the  coasts  of  Norway  and  Denmark, 
the  Faroes,  Iceland,  and  Greenland  up  to  lat.  81^°,  thence  across  Baffin  Bay  and 
Davis  Strait,  along  the  coast  of  the  mainland  and  on  the  islands  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean  as  far  east  as  Banks  Land  and  the  Coppermine  River.  AVherever  the 
winters  are  sufficiently  severe  to  seal  the  water  it  draws  southwards,  and  is  then 
found  in  the  Baltic,  the  basin  of  the  North  Sea,  and  the  English  Channel,  and 
in  the  New  World  as  far  south  as  the  coast  of  Maine.  It  is  said  very  exception- 
ally to  wander  as  far  south  as  the  Mediterranean,  and  has  been  recorded  on 
doubtful  authority  from  the  Swiss  lakes. 

Allied    forms — Somateria  dresseri,  an  inhabitant  in  summer  of  Labrador 

and  Newfoundland,  drawing  south  in  winter  as  far  as  the  coast  of  Maine.     A 

mere  local  race  said  to  differ  from  the  Common  Eider  in  having  the  feathers  on 

the  forehead  prolonged  in  a  narrow  line  only  half  as  far  as  those  on  the  side 

28 


434  THE   GAME   BIEDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 

of  the  bill,  instead  of  almost  as  far.  8.  v-nigrum,  an  inhabitant  of  the  coasts  of 
East  Siberia,  the  islands  of  Behring  Sea,  and  the  coast  of  Alaska.  The  Pacific 
representative  of  the  Common  Eider,  closely  allied  but  apparently  specifically 
distinct.  It  differs  from  the  Common  Eider  in  being  a  larger  bird,  and  in  having 
a  very  distinct  V-shaped  mark  on  the  throat,  in  this  particular  showing  a  close 
affinity  with  the  King  Eider.  The  Nearctic  Eider  Ducks  have  been  separated 
from  the  typical  Old  World  form  under  the  name  of  S.  borealis,  but  the  slight 
differences,  if  constant,  do  not  appear  to  warrant  specific  distinction. 

Habits. — This  beautiful  Duck  is  probably  the  most  maritime  of  its  family, 
and,  except  in  the  breeding  season,  spends  nearly  all  its  time  on  the  sea.  So 
closely  is  it  attached  to  the  sea,  so  thoroughly  "  sea-faring  "  in  its  habits,  that  it 
rarely  flies  overland  at  all  except  to  its  nest,  and  prefers  to  follow  a  winding  coast 
line  rather  than  to  cross  even  the  narrowest  of  promontories.  The  Eider  is 
practically  a  sedentary  species,  only  wandering  south  a  little  way  from  its 
summer  haunts  either  in  quest  of  food  or  in  prolonged  severe  and  stormy  weather. 
It  loves  the  wild,  rock-bound  coasts,  especially  where  plenty  of  precipitous 
islands  occur  and  the  shore  line  is  broken  up  into  sheltered  bays  and  fiords. 
Sometimes  it  may  be  seen  standing  on  the  rocks  close  to  the  water's  edge,  but 
usually  it  keeps  well  out  to  sea,  and  even  sleeps  on  the  water.  At  all  times 
it  is  more  or  less  gregarious,  although  never  congregating  into  the  vast  flocks 
that  many  other  sea  Ducks  do.  It  is  generally  observed  in  parties,  in  summer 
and  winter  alike,  for  the  drakes  swim  in  company  whilst  the  ducks  are  incubating 
on  shore,  and  when  the  latter  come  to  the  sea  to  feed  all  join  into  a  scattered 
company.  In  summer  the  female  Eiders  are  remarkably  tame  and  confiding,  but 
in  winter  they  are  wary  enough,  and  at  all  times  of  the  year  the  males  are 
difficult  birds  to  approach.  The  food  of  the  Eider  consists  of  minute  marine 
insects,  crustaceans,  and  shell-fish,  especially  mussels  and  small  crabs.  Most  of 
this  food  is  obtained  by  diving,  the  bird  being  remarkably  expert  at  this, 
descending  to  considerable  depths  and  remaining  a  long  time  under  the  surface. 
The  Eider  loves  to  draw  shorewards  with  the  flowing  tide,  and  to  swim  just 
outside  the  breakers.  It  is  most  interesting  to  watch  this  bird  swim  clean 
through  each  mighty  wave  just  before  it  turns  over  and  breaks  upon  the  beach. 
It  may  be  watched  gradually  swimming  towards  the  laud  in  some  sheltered  bay, 
feeding  as  it  comes,  until  the  very  edge  of  the  breakers  is  reached.  If  alarmed, 
instead  of  diving  it  usually  swims  quickly  out  from  shore,  and  when  still  further 
pursued  or  fired  at,  instantly  takes  wing,  rising  from  the  water  at  once  and  with 
little  splash  or  fuss.  So  far  as  my  experience  extends  the  Eider  is  a  day  feeder, 
and  during  the  breeding  season  at  any  rate  passes  the  night  on  land.  I  never 
met  with  this  bird  at  sea  during  the  night  amongst  the  coasts  where  it  was 
breeding  in  considerable  numbers,  although  Auks  were  common  enough  ;  still  it 
is  abroad  and  feeding  by  dawn.  The  flight  of  this  Duck  is,  as  a  rule,  not  very 


OF   THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  435 

quick,  the  wings  being  beaten  very  regularly  ;  but  on  occasion  the  bird  can  fly 
with  astounding  speed,  as  I  have  on  many  occasions  learnt  to  my  own  humilia- 
tion. The  Eider  is  a  remarkably  silent  bird,  its  usual  note  being  a  not  very  loud 
kurr,  but  in  the  breeding  season  the  drake  makes  a  cooing  noise  when  paying 
court  to  his  mate,  accompanying  it  with  a  bobbing  motion  of  the  head,  usually  as 
he  swims  round  and  round  her,  guarding  her  from  the  attentions  of  rivals.  The 
Eider  is  not  very  social,  and  seldom  mingles  with  other  fowl.  Its  flesh,  as  I  can 
testify  from  experience,  is  not  unpalatable  when  prepared  by  a  skilful  cook. 

Nidification.  — In  our  Islands  the  small  flocks  of  Eiders  begin  to  break  up 
more  distinctly  into  pairs  towards  the  latter  end  of  March,  but  the  eggs  are 
seldom  laid  until  the  middle  or  end  of  May,  and  in  the  Arctic  regions  not  before 
the  end  of  June.  The  nest,  wherever  possible,  is  built  on  a  small  uninhabited 
island,  a  rocky  one  by  preference,  moderately  level,  but  covered  with  plenty  of 
marine  vegetation.  In  some  places  it  is  made  among  ruins,  where  the  fallen 
masonry  offers  snug  sites ;  at  others  it  is  on  the  top  of  the  cliffs,  or  among  the 
long  heather  of  the  hillsides  that  slope  to  the  sea.  I  have  seen  it  at  the  very  top 
of  cliffs  several  hundred  feet  in  height  on  the  Island  of  Doon,  in  the  St.  Kilda 
group.  Usually  it  is  not  very  far  from  the  water,  but  reliable  instances  are  on 
record  where  it  has  been  discovered  several  miles  from  the  sea,  and  at  an  elevation 
of  one  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  nest  is  generally  made  amongst 
sea  campion  or  coarse  grass,  but  often  in  a  crevice  of  low  rocks,  or  on  a  ledge  of 
the  same.  It  is  usually  a  bulky,  well-made  structure,  composed  of  dry  grass  and 
bits  of  other  marine  herbage,  sometimes  twigs  of  heather,  and  is  well  and 
warmly  lined  with  down  plucked  from  the  body  of  the  female,  gradually  accumu- 
lated as  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  eggs  are  six  or  seven  in  number,  sometimes  eight, 
and  vary  in  colour  from  cream-grey  to  greyish -green,  smooth  and  wax-like  in 
texture,  but  with  little  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  3'1  inches  in  length 
by  2'0  inches  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  moderate  in  size,  and  vary 
from  brownish-grey  to  greyish-brown  with  obscure  pale  centres.  This  down  is 
the  highly. prized  article  of  commerce,  used  for  stuffing  quilts  and  other  purposes, 
and  valued,  when  cleaned,  at  about  twenty  shillings  per  pound.  Each  Duck 
produces  about  four  ounces  of  down  in  the  season.  In  Greenland.  Iceland,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Norway  the  birds  are  regularly  farmed  for  this  product. 
(Further  particulars  of  this  industry  may  be  obtained  in  our  work  entitled, 
Stray  Feathers  from  many  Birds,  p.  21.)  Incubation,  performed  entirely  by  the 
female,  lasts  twenty-eight  days.  When  suddenly  flushed  from  the  eggs,  the 
female  Eider  almost  invariably  discharges  excreta  over  them  and  the  nest  as 
she  hurries  away.  Mr.  Trevor-Battye  remarked  the  same  peculiarity  amongst 
the  Eiders  (as  well  as  the  Long-tailed  Duck)  breeding  on  Spitzbergen. 
(Conf.  Ibis  1897,  p.  585.)  When  the  young  are  hatched  the  mother  soon 
conveys  her  brood  to  the  sea,  carrying  them  in  many  cases  one  by  one  in  her  bill. 


436  THE   GAME  BIEDS   AND   WILD  FOWL 

Here  the  old  bird  will  often  take  one  or  more  of  her  ducklings  on  her  back  to  rest 
and  sleep,  sinking  her  body  low  in  the  water  to  allow  the  little  creature  more 
easily  to  mount.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  The  male  does  not 
desert  the  female  after  the  eggs  are  laid.  He  never  comes  near  the  nest,  but  is 
usually  not  far  away  on  the  sea  close  by,  and  when  his  mate  leaves  the  eggs  to 
feed  he  invariably  joins  her.  I  should  remark  that  the  Eider  is  gregarious  during 
this  period,  and  numbers  of  nests  may  be  seen  almost  side  by  side,  in  some  cases 
two  females  sharing  the  same  nest.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  reared  the  birds 
quit  the  land,  and  undergo  their  annual  change  of  plumage  for  the  most  part  out 
at  sea. 

Diagnostic  characters.—  (Nuptial  plumage),  Somateria,  with  the  upper 
back,  mantle,  and  falcated  scapulars  white  (adult  male) ;  with  the  feathers  on  the 
forehead  only  extending  about  half  as  far  as  those  on  the  side  of  the  upper 
mandible  (adult  female).  Length,  25  inches. 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  437 

Family  ANATID^E.  Genus  SOMATERIA. 

Subfamily 


KING   EIDER. 

SOMATEEIA  SPECTABILIS— (Linnaus). 
PLATE    XXXIX. 

Anas  spectabilis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  195  (1766). 

Somateria  spectabilis  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  158  (1852) ;  Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi. 
p.  643,  pi.  446  (1877) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  621  (1885)  ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B. 
ed  4,  iv.  p.  463  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  183  (1894) ; 
Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxx.  (1895) ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.'  p. 
432  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Pig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  54,  pi.  9  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb. 
B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  41  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution. — British  :  The  King  Eider  is  an  acci- 
dental straggler  to  the  British  Islands,  and  so  frequently  observed  during 
summer  as  to  suggest  the  possibility  of  its  breeding  within  our  limits.  It  has 
been  seen  and  obtained  in  various  localities  from  Plymouth  to  the  Orkneys  and 
Shetlands,  although  it  is  much  rarer  in  Ireland,  where  only  four  instances  of  its 
occurrence  are  on  record.  It  has  been  observed  at  the  Fame  Islands  in  summer ; 
and  we  met  with  two  pairs  during  June  at  St.  Kilda.  Foreign  Extreme  northern 
Palsearctic  and  Nearctic  regions,  more  southerly  in  winter.  It  breeds  on  the 
islands  off  the  coast  of  Northern  Siberia,  Nova  Zembla,  Franz-Josef  Land, 
probably  Spitzbergen,  Greenland,  and  the  islands  and  coasts  of  Arctic  America, 
perhaps  as  far  north  as  land  extends.  It  is  a  more  or  less  accidental  visitor  in 
winter  to  the  coasts  of  Norway,  the  Baltic,  Denmark,  Holland,  and  France,  to 
the  Faroes,  Iceland,  Labrador,  New  Jersey,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  California. 

Allied  forms. — None  more  closely  allied  than  the  Eider  Duck  and  its 
representative  forms  treated  of  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Habits.  —The  King  Eider,  although  it  resembles  the  Common  Eider  very 
closely  in  its  general  habits,  is  not  quite  such  an  exclusively  marine  species,  and 
is  occasionally  found  on  fresh  water,  yet  only,  so  far  as  I  can  determine,  on  such 
vast  expanses  as  the  Great  Lakes  in  North  America.  It  is  almost  if  not  quite  as 
sedentary  as  the  Common  Eider,  and  does  not  wander  far  beyond  the  limits  of 
open  water  during  winter.  Most  of  those  that  do  straggle  south  at  that  season 


438  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

are  immature  birds.  It  is  just  as  gregarious,  perhaps  more  so,  inasmuch  as  Koss 
often  met  with  large  flocks  of  adult  males  and  others  of  adult  females  with  their 
young  in  the  open  Atlantic.  In  its  food,  note,  and  mode  of  progression  in  the 
air  and  the  water  it  does  not  differ  in  any  important -respect  from  the  Common 
Eider.  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  meet  with  the  King  Eider  during  my  pro- 
longed visit  to  St.  Kilda  in  the  summer  of  1884,  and  made  the  following  note 
respecting  its  habits,  which  I  transcribe  verbatim  from  my  paper  on  the  birds  of 
these  Islands  contributed  to  the  Ibis  :  "  Ornithologists  will  read  with  pleasure 
that  the  King  Eider  frequents  St.  Kilda.  I  first  became  aware  of  this  interesting 
fact  when  trying  to  stalk  the  Common  Eiders  in  the  bay.  For  two  hours  I  lay 
concealed  behind  a  huge  boulder,  watching  the  little  party  of  Ducks  that  were 
swimming  just  outside  the  breakers.  Two  of  the  pairs  were  King  Eiders.  In 
spite  of  all  my  efforts,  both  on  this  and  subsequent  occasions,  I  failed  to  secure 
an  example.  They  were  not  more  than  seventy  yards  away  from  me  several 
times,  so  that  I  had  every  opportunity  of  observing  them ;  and  on  more  than  one 
occasion  I  carefully  scanned  them  through  a  powerful  glass.  They  mingled 
freely  with  the  Common  Eiders,  and  did  not  differ  in  any  perceptible  degree  in 
their  habits.  It  was  a  pretty  sight  to  watch  these  rare  and  charming  birds 
sporting  in  the  heaving  waves,  the  males  and  females  swimming  side  by  side. 
As  the  mighty  rollers  broke  upon  the  shore  the  birds  dived  through  the  bright 
green  wave  just  before  it  turned  over.  They  were  busy  feeding  on  the  small 
animals  which  were  disturbed  by  the  breaking  waves.  They  floated  light  as 
corks  on  the  heaving  sea,  now  high  up  exposed  to  view,  then  deep  down  in 
the  trough  of  the  waves.  As  soon  as  they  caught  a  glimpse  of  me  they  quickly 
swam  farther  from  shore.  Every  day  they  might  be  observed  in  one  particular 
part  of  the  bay ;  and  I  have  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  they  were  nesting  on 
the  precipitous  island  of  Doon.  Of  course  the  natives  did  not  distinguish  them 
from  the  Common  Eider;  and  they  take  but  little  interest  in  them,  for  they  tell 
me  the  male  Eider  is  the  only  bird  of  St.  Kilda  that  they  are  unable  to  snare." 
I  am  pleased  to  be  able  to  record  that  my  opinion  respecting  the  breeding  of  the 
King  Eider  in  these  islands  is  shared  by  others  of  much  wider  experience  of  the 
ornithology  of  this  district  than  myself.  Mr.  John  A.  Harvie-Brown,  the 
gentleman  so  frequently  alluded  to  in  these  pages  relative  to  the  habits  of  some 
of  the  least  known  of  the  species,  says  in  epistola;  "I  shall  be  glad  if  you 
succeed  in  getting  undoubted  King  Eiders.  Personally,  I  believe  they  breed  on 
the  Dun  [Doon]  every  year." 

Nidification — The  King  Eider  breeds  even  later  than  the  Common 
Eider,  probably  because  its  summer  range  nowhere  reaches  quite  so  far  to  the 
south,  and  extends  more  to  the  north.  Its  eggs  are  laid  during  the  first  half  of 
July.  It  appears  to  arrive  at  its  most  northerly  breeding  stations  in  flocks 
towards  the  end  of  June.  The  nests  are  made  on  islands  as  well  as  on  the 


OF   THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  439 

coasts  of  the  mainland,  and  are  placed  in  similar  situations  to  those  of  the 
Common  Eider.  The  nest  is  merely  a  depression  in  the  ground,  which  may  or 
may  not  contain  a  little  vegetable  refuse,  but  is  always  warmly  lined  with  down 
from  the  body  of  the  female  by  the  time  the  full  number  of  eggs  is  deposited 
The  eggs,  so  far  as  is  known,  are  six  in  number  and  pale  greenish-grey  in  colour, 
smooth  in  texture,  and  with  little  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'6  inches 
in  length  by  T75  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  similar  in  every  respect 
to  those  of  the  preceding  species.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year.  The 
habits  of  this  Eider  during  the  nesting  period  and  after  the  young  are  reared  do 
not  differ  from  those  of  allied  species. 

Diagnostic  characters. — (Nuptial  Plumage),  Somateria,  with  the 
upper  back  white  and  the  falcated  scapulars  black,  and  with  a  black  stripe  on 
each  side  of  the  throat  meeting  on  the  chin,  forming  a  V-shaped  mark  (adult 
male)  ;  with  the  feathers  on  the  forehead  extending  beyond  those  on  the  side  of 
the  bill  (adult  female).  Length,  24  inches. 


THE   GAME  BIRDS   AND    WILD    FOWL 


Subfamily  MERGIN/E.— The   Mergansers. 


The  Mergansers  resemble  the  Diving  Ducks  and  Eiders  in  having  the  hind 
toe  broadly  lobed;  but  the  bill  is  compressed,  the  lower  mandible  without 
lamellae,  but  with  the  edges  of  both  mandibles  furnished  with  a  series  of  very 
prominent  tooth-like  serrations.  The  moult  is  similar  to  that  of  the  non-diving 
Ducks. 

This  subfamily  is  composed  of  nine  species,  divisible  into  three  fairly  well 
denned  genera. 


Genus  MERGANSER,  or  Typical   Mergansers. 

Type,    MEKGANSEE    CASTOE. 


Merganser,  of  Brisson  (1760).— The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus 
are  characterised  by  having  the  culmen  longer  than  the  metatarsus,  and  the 
tooth-like  serrations  on  both  mandibles  very  prominent  and  inclined  backwards 
at  the  tips.  The  wings  are  moderately  long.  The  nostrils  are  lateral  and 
central.  Three  toes  in  front  connected  with  webs  ;  hind  toe  moderate  and  lobed. 

This  genus  contains  seven  species,  distributed  over  the  Palsearctic  and 
Nearctic  regions,  Northern  India,  South-eastern  Brazil,  and  the  Auckland 
Islands  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean.  Two  species  are  British. 

The  typical  Mergansers  frequent  both  inland  waters  and  maritime  districts. 
They  are  birds  of  rapid  flight,  and  swim  and  dive  with  exceptional  skill.  Their 
notes  are  harsh  and  unmusical.  They  subsist  largely  on  fish,  crustaceans, 
mollusks,  etc.  They  make  rude  nests,  either  on  the  ground  or  in  holes  of  trees 
and  rocks.  Their  eggs  are  numerous  and  creamy-buff  or  olive-grey,  unspotted. 
They  probably  pair  for  life,  and  are  more  or  less  gregarious  and  social. 


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OF  THE   BRITISH    ISLANDS.  441 

Family  ANATIDZE.  Genus  MERGANSER. 

Subfamily  MERGING. 


GOOSANDER. 

MBEGANSEE  CASTOK—  (Linnaeus). 
PLATE  XL. 

Mergus  merganser,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  208  (1766) ;  Dresser  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  685, 
pi.  452  (1875) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  625  (1885) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4  iv. 
p.  488  (1885);  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  245  (18931;  Lilford,  Col.  Pig. 
Brit.  B.  pt.  xxiii  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  55,  pi.  15  (1896). 

Merganser  castor  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  207  (1852^;  Salvador!,  Cat.  B.  Brit. 
Mus.  xxvii.  p.  472  (1895). 

Merganser  merganser  (Linn.),  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  58  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British:  The  Goosander  is  a  fairly 
common  winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  both  inland  and  on  the  coast.  It 
is  rare  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  but  more  frequent  on  the  east  and  west 
coasts  of  Scotland,  especially  the  latter  ;  tolerably  common  on  the  eastern  shores 
of  England,  but  rarer  on  the  south  and  west.  It  is  rare  in  Ireland,  although  in  the 
severe  weather  of  1880-81  an  unusual  visitation  took  place,  and  examples  were 
obtained  in  all  parts  of  the  Island.  It  breeds  sparingly  in  Scotland,  in  Suther- 
landshire,  Argyllshire,  North  Perthshire,  and  a  few  other  localities  in  the  High- 
lands. Foreign :  Palsearctic  region ;  northern  limits  of  Oriental  region  in  winter. 
It  breeds  in  Iceland  and  Denmark,  and  throughout  Scandinavia,  but  does  not 
winter  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  said  to  breed  in  Switzerland,  and  has 
been  recorded  from  Nova  Zembla.  Eastwards  it  is  found  during  summer  in 
Pomerania,  and  Eussia  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  as  far  south  as  lat. 
50°  in  the  Ural  and  Volga  districts.  In  Asia  it  breeds  throughout  Siberia  south 
of  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  in  a  similar  climate  at  high  elevations  in  Turkestan, 
and  the  Himalayas  up  to  10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  winters  on 
the  coasts  and  inland  waters  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe,  but  rarely  crosses 
to  the  African  side  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  also  found  at  this  season  in  the 
Black  Sea,  on  the  lower  lands  of  Turkestan,  in  Northern  India,  Mongolia,  China 
and  Japan. 

Allied  forms.  —Merganser  americanus,  an  inhabitant  of  the  Nearctic 
region,  breeding  from  about  lat.  42°  as  -far  north  as  the  limit  of  trees,  and  in  winter 


442  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

of  the  United  States,  and  occasionally  the  Bermudas.  The  American  representative 
of  the  Goosander,  and  perhaps  only  superficially  distinct.  Typical  examples  may 
be  distinguished  from  the  Goosander  by  having  a  narrow  black  bar  across  the 
greater  wing  coverts.  M.  comatus,  an  inhabitant  of  Central  Asia,  including  the 
Himalayas.  Distinguished  by  being  smaller  in  size,  and  in  having  the  crest 
feathers  fewer,  narrower,  and  longer,  the  bill  shorter,  and  (in  the  male)  the  black 
margins  of  the  tertials  broader,  the  lower  back  and  rump  paler  grey,  and  much 
freckled  with  white.  M.  squamatus,  from  China  (?),  a  doubtful  species,  described 
from  an  immature  bird  by  Gould,  possibly  a  hybrid  between  the  Goosander  and 
the  Bed-breasted  Merganser. 

Habits. — During  winter  the  Goosander  with  us  is  for  the  most  part  a  coast 
bird,  showing  a  preference  for  sea  lochs  and  the  quiet  bays  of  a  rocky  shore,  such 
as  are  so  common  on  the  west  of  Scotland,  but  it  may  be  met  with  in  estuaries,  as 
well  as  on  broads  and  inland  lakes.  In  Lower  India,  however,  it  is  almost 
exclusively  confined  during  the  cold  season  to  rivers,  and  those  where  the  bed  is 
rocky  or  sandy  are  preferred  to  others  which  flow  over  clay  or  alluvial  soil.  It  is 
a  hardy  bird,  and  lingers  in  its  summer  haunts  until  the  waters  are  frozen,  not 
leaving  the  pools  and  streams  of  the  Himalayas  until  December,  and  quitting  its 
southern  retreats  again  in  March.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  individuals 
breeding  at  elevations  of  from  8,000  to  11,000  feet  in  Central  Asia  ;  they  linger 
until  driven  down  by  the  ice  sealing  their  favourite  haunts.  The  Goosander  is  a 
remarkably  agile  bird  in  the  water,  swimming  and  diving  with  wonderful  skill. 
When  going  down  stream  it  sits  high  on  the  water,  but  when  swimming  against 
the  current  its  body  is  kept  low,  so  that  the  oar-like  feet  may  work  to  the  best 
advantage.  It  is  capable  of  diving  a  great  depth,  and  remains  under  water  for  as 
much  as  two  minutes  at  a  stretch.  It  flies  well  and  with  great  speed,  but  rises 
from  the  surface  with  difficulty,  flapping  along  for  several  yards  before  it  gets  clear 
into  the  air.  The  Goosander  does  not  spend  much  of  its  time  on  shore,  but  when 
gorged  with  food  it  will  often  sit  and  bask,  like  a  Cormorant,  on  some  rock 
rising  out  of  deep  water,  resting  with  its  body  upright  and  with  its  wings  half 
expanded.  It  seldom  rests  far  from  the  water's  edge,  and  when  disturbed  wriggles 
forward  with  its  breast  almost  touching  the  ground,  in  a  very  Diver-like  manner. 
It  is  a  wary  bird,  much  more  so  than  the  Red-breasted  Merganser.  The  note  of 
this  species  is  a  harsh  karr,  but  on  the  whole  it  is  a  remarkably  silent  bird.  The 
Goosander  feeds  almost  exclusively  on  fish  ranging  from  two  to  six  inches  in 
length,  but  aquatic  insects,  mollusks,  and  shell-fish  are  eaten,  and  the  remains  of 
vegetable  substances  have  been  found  in  its  stomach.  Most  of  these  creatures 
are  obtained  by  diving,  and  sometimes  when  feeding  in  flocks  the  entire  party  of 
birds  will  dive  simultaneously,  although  it  is  more  usual  to  see  several  individuals 
on  the  surface,  as  if  acting  as  sentinels  for  the  rest.  The  flesh  of  this  Duck  is 
said  to  be  rank  and  fishy,  and  most  unpalatable. 


OP  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  443 

Nidification. — The  favourite  breeding  grounds  of  the  Goosander  are  open 
swampy  forests,  in  which  there  are  plenty  of  lakes  and  rock-bound  streams  and 
rivers.  It  is  a  somewhat  early  breeder,  laying  towards  the  end  of  April  in  the 
British  Islands  and  in  Denmark,  and  a  month  or  six  weeks  later  in  Finland. 
Dybowsky  states  that  it  arrives  at  its  breeding  grounds  near  Lake  Baikal  by  the 
middle  of  April,  which  is  early  for  that  cold  region,  and  remains  until  December. 
The  Goosander,  wherever  it  can  obtain  one,  prefers  a  hole  in  a  tree,  but  in 
sparsely-wooded  districts  a  cleft  or  hole  in  a  rock  or  cliff  not  far  from  the  water 
is  used  instead.  It  has  been  known  to  breed  in  an  old  nest  of  a  Crow,  or  in  the 
top  of  a  pollard.  According  to  Selby,  Dresser,  Dybowsky,  and  others,  the^nest  is 
sometimes  made  on  the  ground  amongst  grass,  but  this  must  be  highly  excep- 
tional if  the  observers  named  were  not  actually  in  error  in  identifying  the  species. 
In  Finland  the  Goosander  readily  avails  itself  of  boxes  or  hollow  logs  placed  in 
the  trees  by  the  peasants,  and  submits  very  patiently  to  the  daily  removal  of  its 
eggs  to  the  number  sometimes  of  a  score.  The  nest  of  this  bird  is  slight,  little 
more  than  the  dust  and  refuse  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  selected,  but  warmly 
lined  with  plenty  of  down  before  the  eggs  are  incubated.  The  eggs  are  from 
eight  to  twelve  in  number,  creamy-white  in  colour,  smooth  in  texture,  and  with  a 
satin-like  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'7  inches  in  length  by  1'8  inch  in 
breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  large  and  uniform  greyish-white.  Incubation  lasts 
twenty-eight  days.  The  young  are  carried  to  the  nearest  water  one  by  one  in  the 
bill  of  the  parent,  and  until  they  are  considerably  advanced  towards  maturity  do 
not  stray  far  from  the  shallow  water.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — (Nuptial  plumage),  Merganser,  with  the  head 
(crested)  and  upper  neck  black,  shot  with  green  and  purple,  and  with  the  lower 
neck  and  the  whole  of  the  underparts  pure  white,  with  a  rosy  tinge  on  the  breast 
and  belly  (adult  male)  ;  with  the  head  (crested)  and  upper  neck  chestnut,  and 
with  the  wing  varying  from  9'5  to  10'25  inches  in  length  (adult  female).  Length, 
25  to  28  inches  (male) ;  22  to  25  inches  (female). 


444  THE   GAME   BIEDS  AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATIDJE.  Genus  MERGANSER. 

Subfamily  MERGING. 


RED-BREASTED  MERGANSER. 

MEEGANSEE  SEEEATOK— (Linnaus) . 

Mergus  serrator,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  208  (1766) ;  Dresser.  B.  Bur.  vi.  p.  693,  pi.  453 
(1874) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  629  (1885);  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed  4,  iv.  p.  494 
(1885) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxi.  (1892) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Brit.  B. 
p.  247  (1893) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  56  pi.  16  (1896). 

Merganser  serrator  (Linn.),  Macgill,  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  216  (1852)  ;  Salvadori,  Cat.  B. 
Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  479  (1895) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  61  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.— British  :  The  Eed-breasted  Merganser 
is  a  common  resident  in  the  north,  but  only  a  winter  visitor  in  the  south  of  our 
Islands.  It  is  generally  distributed  along  the  English  coasts  and,  in  smaller 
numbers,  on  the  inland  waters,  during  winter,  and  breeds  throughout  Scotland 
in  all  suitable  districts,  both  inland  and  on  the  coasts,  north  to  the  Orkneys  and 
Shetlands,  and  west  to  the  Outer  Hebrides  and  St.  Kilda.  It  is  generally  dis- 
tributed in  Ireland,  both  inland  and  on  the  coast,  and  breeds  most  abundantly 
on  the  wild,  broken  coast  of  the  west.  Foreign :  Northern  Palsearctic  and 
Nearctic  regions,  more  southerly  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  Greenland,  Iceland,  the 
Faroes,  and  throughout  Scandinavia  ;  thence  across  the  basin  of  the  Baltic  and 
Eussia,  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  south  to  the  Volga  and  Ural  districts 
in  lat.  50°.  Eastwards  it  ranges  across  Siberia  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle  to  the 
Pacific,  but  is  not  known  to  breed  in  Turkestan  or  the  Himalayas.  Its  summer 
range  in  America  extends  a  little  lower,  and  during  that  season  it  ranges  from 
about  lat.  45°  north  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic. 
During  winter  it  is  found  on  the  inland  waters  and  coasts  of  Central  and 
Southern  Europe  as  far  south  as  the  Mediterranean,  but  only  accidentally  on  the 
African  coast.  It  is  also  common  at  this  season  in  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas, 
in  Turkestan,  China,  and  Japan ;  whilst  on  the  American  Continent  it  ranges 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  occasionally  visits  the  Bermudas. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 

Habits. — Our  resident  Eed-breasted  Mergansers  are  considerably  increased 
in  numbers  in  autumn  by  migratory  individuals  from  higher  latitudes,  which 
return  again  in  spring.  A  considerable  southern  movement  also  takes  place 


OF   THE   BEIT1SH   ISLANDS.  445 

among  the  birds  breeding  in  Scotland  and  the  north-west  of  Ireland,  many  of  the 
former  straying  to  English  waters.  Although  common  enough  in  many  com- 
paratively inland  districts,  I  should  say  that  the  favourite  haunts  of  this  species 
are  on  the  coast,  and  that  it  is  far  more  partial  to  marine  localities  than  the 
preceding  species.  It  loves  a  wild,  rocky  coast  full  of  secluded  bays  and  lochs 
and  fiords,  and  studded  with  islands,  and  may  frequently  be  observed  where 
streams  and  rivers  flow  into  the  sea  or  loch.  During  winter  it  is  gregarious, 
and  flocks  of  varying  size  may  then  be  met  with  at  sea,  or  during  rough  weather, 
congregated  in  the  sheltered  bays  and  fiords.  A  long-continued  spell  of  rough 
weather  on  the  coast  often  drives  this  bird  to  inland  waters  and  exceptional 
haunts.  By  the  end  of  March  most  of  these  flocks  are  dispersed  and  the  birds 
are  in  pairs  at  their  usual  breeding  places.  It  is  a  shy  and  wary  species,  but 
owing  to  the  rough  nature  of  the  banks  of  its  favourite  waters  it  may  be  easily 
stalked  and  watched.  I  know  of  few  prettier  sights  than  a  pair  of  these 
Mergansers  swimming  all  unsuspecting  of  danger  in  some  quiet  sea-loch.  They 
swim  side  by  side  in  the  deep  water  close  in  shore,  and  from  time  to  time  dive 
and  reappear  some  distance  farther  on.  Then,  perchance,  they  paddle  in  the 
shallows,  or  stand  upon  a  rock  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface  and  preen  their 
plumage,  standing  very  upright,  like  a  Cormorant  or  a  Diver.  In  the  pairing 
season  I  have  often  witnessed  the  aquatic  gambols  of  these  birds,  the  drake 
chasing  the  duck  through  the  water  or  diving  after  her  and  churning  the  calm 
sea  into  bubbles  and  foam  for  a  considerable  area.  The  Merganser  feeds  prin- 
cipally by  day,  and  will  fly  with  great  regularity  to  certain  spots,  timing  its 
arrival  to  a  nicety  just  when  the  rocks  are  beginning  to  be  exposed  by  the 
ebbing  tide,  and  remaining  as  long  as  the  deep  pools,  in  which  many  fish  are 
stranded,  remain  isolated.  It  flies  almost  invariably  in  spring  and  early 
summer  in  pairs,  sometimes  one  bird  several  yards  behind  the  other,  but  always 
in  company.  The  flight  of  this  species  is  rapid  and  straightforward,  the  wings, 
which  are  beaten  very  quickly,  making  a  whistling  sound.  It  rises  from  the 
water  in  a  rather  laboured  manner,  often  flapping  along  the  surface  for  several 
yards  before  getting  well  on  the  wing ;  but  during  a  high  wind  I  have  noticed  it 
start  up  from  the  sea  almost  at  once.  It  swims  well,  but  sits  low  in  the  water, 
and  dives  head  first  like  a  Cormorant,  descending  to  considerable  depths,  and 
often  remaining  under  the  surface  for  a  minute  or  more.  The  note  of  this  bird 
is  aptly  described  by  Naumann  as  a  guttural  kurr,  uttered  most  frequently  during 
flight.  The  food  of  the  Red-breasted  Merganser  consists  largely  of  fish,  but 
crustaceans  and  small  crabs  are  also  eaten  ;  and  I  have  known  this  bird  feed  on 
limpets  and  whelks  which  the  Oystercatchers  had  only  partly  devoured.  This 
food  is  mostly  obtained  by  diving,  and  it  will  be  remarked  that  each  capture  is 
almost  invariably  brought  to  the  surface  to  be  eaten,  the  bird  drinking  and  often 
rising  three  parts  out  of  the  water  and  flapping  its  wings  after  doing  so.  The 
flesh  of  this  bird  is  fishy  in  taste  and  unpalatable.  Be  this  as  it  may,  I  knew  an 


446  THE  GAME  BIEDS  AND  WILD  FOWL 

old  Highlander  who  used  to  swear  by  a  fat  Merganser,  which  he  partly  boiled 
first  and  then  baked  or  roasted  !  This  bird  always  tries  to  elude  pursuit  by 
diving — at  least,  such  is  ray  experience — both  when  in  pairs  and  in  flocks,  only 
taking  wing  when  the  chase  has  evidently  become  too  hot. 

Nidification. — In  the  British  Islands  the  breeding  season  of  the  Red- 
breasted  Merganser  begins  in  May,  and  the  eggs  are  laid  during  the  latter  half 
of  that  month  and  the  first  half  of  June  ;  but  in  more  northern  latitudes  they 
are  about  a  month  later.  This  bird  can  scarcely  be  called  gregarious  during  the 
breeding  season,  although  many  pairs  may  nest  within  a  comparatively  small 
area,  especially  in  places  where  suitable  sites  are  scarce.  I  should  say  they  are 
distributed  in  more  or  less  scattered  pairs,  each  keeping  much  to  itself.  An 
island  is  preferred  for  a  nesting-place,  but  where  such  is  not  available  a  quiet 
part  of  the  mainland  is  chosen.  All  the  nests  that  I  have  seen,  and  I  have  seen 
a  good  round  number,  were  situated  on  rocky  islets,  except  one,  and  that  was  on 
a  portion  of  the'  shore  which  became  an  island  at  high  water.  The  nest  is 
usually  made  under  a  rock  or  bank ;  but  rabbit  burrows  and  crevices  in  walls 
are  sometimes  selected,  and  it  is  even  placed  among  heather,  bracken,  and  furze, 
at  no  great  distance  from  the  water  in  our  Islands,  but  often  some  distance  from 
the  sea  in  wooded  localities  in  other  countries.  The  nest  is  scanty  and  in  many 
cases  is  dispensed  with  altogether,  the  eggs  lying  on  the  ground  until  sufficient 
down  accumulates  to  protect  them.  When  a  nest  is  made,  it  is  merely  a  hollow 
into  which  a  little  dry  grass  and  dried  leaves  are  placed,  finished  off  with  a  warm 
lining  of  down  from  the  body  of  the  female.  The  eggs  are  from  eight  to  twelve 
in  number  and  olive-grey  of  various  shades  in  colour,  smooth  in  texture,  and 
with  some  little  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average  2'6  inches  in  length  by  1'7 
inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  large,  pale  brownish-grey  in  colour,  with 
obscure  pale  centres  and  tips.  Incubation,  performed  entirely  by  the  female, 
lasts  twenty-eight  days.  Sometimes  she  sits  very  closely,  but  generally  slips  off 
at  the  first  sign  of  danger  and  goes  right  away  at  once.  The  male  is  never  seen 
at  the  nest,  but  he  is  generally  stationed  on  the  sea  close  by,  and  joins  his  mate 
when  she  leaves  her  eggs  to  come  and  feed ;  whilst  as  soon  as  the  young  brood 
are  abroad  he  retires  to  moult.  The  young  soon  take  to  the  sea  with  their 
mother,  and  are  remarkably  active  both  in  swimming  and  diving.  One  brood 
only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters.— (Nuptial  plumage),  Merganser,  with  the  head 
(crested)  and  upper  neck  black,  shot  with  green  and  purple,  with  the  lower  neck 
and  upper  breast  buff  streaked  with  black,  with  black  margins  to  the  white 
feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  breast,  and  with  the  flanks  strongly  vermiculated 
with  greyish-black  (adult  male) ;  with  the  head  (crested)  and  upper  neck  pale 
chestnut,  and  with  the  wing  varying  from  8'25  to  9  inches  in  length  (adult 
female).  Length,  24  to  26  inches  (male) ;  22  to  23  inches  (female). 


OF   THE   BRITISH    ISLANDS.  447 


Genus   LOPHODYTES,   or   Hooded  Mergansers. 

Type,  LOPHODYTES  CUCULLATUS. 


Lophodytes,  of  Keichenbach  (1852.)* — The  birds  comprising  the  present 
genus  are  characterised  by  having  the  culmen  longer  than  the  metatarsus,  and 
the  tooth-like  serrations  on  both  mandibles  are  short  and  blunt,  and  not  distinctly 
inclined  backwards  at  the  tips.  The  nostrils  are  lateral  and  central.  The  wings 
are  moderately  long.  Three  toes  in  front  connected  with  webs ;  hind  toe  moderate 
and  lobed. 

This  genus  contains  a  single  species  only,  confined  to  the  New  World.  It  is 
an  inhabitant  of  North  America  generally,  from  Alaska  to  Mexico  and  Cuba.  It 
is  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  British  Islands. 

The  habits  of  the  single  species  in  the  genus  are  fully  described  in  the 
following  chapter. 


*  ?  1850. 


448  THE   GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD   FOWL 

Family  ANATIDJE.  Genus  LOPHODYTES. 

Subfamily  MERGING. 


HOODED  MERGANSER. 

LOPHODYTES   CUCULLATUS—  (Linnteus) . 

Mergus  cucullatus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  207  (1766) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii. 
p.  663  (1885) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  509  (1885) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs 
Non-indig,  Brit.  B.  p.  185  (1894) ;  Lilford,  Col.  Fig.  Brit.  B.  pt.  xxxi.  1895  ; 
Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  57,  pi.  16  (1896). 

Merganser  cucullatus  (Linn.),  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  225  (1852). 

Lophodytes  cucullatus  (Linn.),  Salvadori,  Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  468  (1895) ; 
Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  56  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  The  Hooded  Merganser  is  a 
rare  and  irregular  straggler  to  the  British  Islands  in  winter.  Several  of  the 
alleged  occurrences  of  this  species  are  unworthy  of  credence,  but  the  reliable 
evidence  on  which  its  claim  to  be  regarded  as  "  British"  is  founded  may  be  briefly 
summarised  as  follows — England:  Norfolk  (two  examples),  winter  of  1829,  and 
winter  of  1837-38.  Wales:  Menai  Straits  (one  example),  winter  of  1830-31. 
Ireland:  Co.  Kerry,  Dingle  Bay  (one  example),  about  the  year  1840  ;  Co.  Meath 
(one  example),  no  data;  Co.  Cork,  Cork  Harbour  (two  examples),  December, 
1878;  Co.  Kerry  (one  example),  January,  1881;  Co.  Sligo  (one  doubtful  example, 
not  preserved),  winter  1880-81.  Foreign:  Northern  Nearctic  region,  more 
southerly  in  winter.  It  breeds  in  Arctic  and  North  Temperate  America  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  as  far  south  as  about 
lat.  45°.  During  winter  it  visits  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  extending  its 
winter  area  to  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies.  It  occasionally  visits  the  Bermudas, 
but  is  not  known  to  occur  in  Greenland,  Iceland,  or  any  part  of  Continental  Europe. 

Allied  forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 

Habits. — The  Hooded  Merganser  does  not  differ  in  its  habits  and  economy 
from  its  congeners  in  any  known  important  particular.  It  is  perhaps  more  of  an 
inland  species  than  the  preceding  bird,  attached  to  fresh  water  during  summer 
like  the  Goosander,  but  resorting  to  the  coasts  in  winter,  where  it  prefers  a 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  449 

deeply  indented  rocky  shore  to  the  more  open  sea.  It  is  gregarious  during  the 
latter  season,  although  the  flocks  are  never  very  large,  and  not  only  frequents 
the  sea,  but  visits  inland  waters,  especially  flooded  tracts  of  country.  Like  its 
allies  it  is  an  accomplished  diver,  obtaining  most  of  its  food  under  the  surface. 
It  also  flies  with  great  speed,  but  is  clumsy  enough  on  land,  shuffling  along  in 
an  awkward  manner  with  its  breast  touching  the  ground  or  nearly  so.  The  food 
of  this  Merganser  is  composed  almost  exclusively  of  fish,  but  crustaceans  and 
various  kinds  of  aquatic  insects  are  also  sought.  It  is  said  to  be  a  shy,  wary  bird, 
preferring  to  elude  pursuit  by  diving  rather  than  flying,  and  so  expert  at  this  as 
to  disappear  very  often  at  the  flash  of  the  gun,  and  rising  again  uninjured  far  out 
of  range.  The  note  of  this  species  does  not  differ  from  that  of  allied  birds. 
During  winter  the  Hooded  Merganser  sometimes  associates  with  other  Ducks, 
and  in  our  Islands  has  been  observed  to  do  so  with  its  ally,  the  Ked-breasted 
Merganser. 

Nidification. — The  breeding  grounds  of  the  Hooded  Merganser  are  lake 
and  river  districts  where  plenty  of  trees  occur ;  in  this  respect  it  exactly  resembles 
its  two  allies,  the  Smew  and  the  Goosander.  The  nest  is  made  in  a  hole  of  a 
tree  or  in  a  hollow  fallen  log.  The  eggs  are  at  first  laid  on  the  powdered  wood, 
but  gradually  a  thick  warm  bed  of  down  accumulates,  plucked  from  the  body  of 
the  female.  The  eggs  are  from  five  to  eight  in  number,  pure  white  in  colour, 
smooth  in  texture,  and  remarkably  rotund  ;  the  latter  shape,  it  may  be  remarked, 
is  very  prevalent  among  birds  nesting  in  holes  where  space  is  limited.  They 
measure  on  an  average  2'1  inches  in  length  by  1'7  inch  in  breadth.  The  down 
tufts  are  moderate  in  size,  and  very  pale  grey  in  colour.  The  female  performs 
the  task  of  incubation,  which  is  said  to  last  thirty-one  days.  She  then  conveys 
her  chicks  to  the  water  in  her  bill  one  by  one,  where  they  are  remarkably  active, 
swimming  and  diving  with  ease.  It  is  not  known  that  more  than  one  brood  is 
reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — (Nuptial  plumage),  Lophodytes,  with  the  head 
and  upper  neck  black,  ornamented  with  a  very  conspicuous  crest,  white  margined 
with  black,  and  with  two  black  crescentic  marks  on  each  side  of  the  breast  (adult 
male) ;  with  the  head  (crested)  and  upper  neck  uniform  brown,  and  the  under- 
parts  below  the  neck  uniform  white  (adult  female).  Length,  17  to  19  inches. 


29 


450  THE    GAME   BIRDS   AND   WILD    FOWL 


Genus   MERQUS,  or  Smews. 

Type,  MEEGUS   ALBELLUS. 


MergUS,  of  Linnaeus  (1766). — The  birds  comprising  the  present  genus  are 
characterised  by  having  a  straight,  slender,  narrow  bill  shorter  than  the  meta- 
tarsus, furnished  on  both  upper  and  lower  mandible  with  saw-like  lamellae.  The 
wings  are  moderately  long.  The  nostrils  are  lateral  and  central.  The  metatarsus 
is  short ;  three  toes  in  front,  webbed ;  hind  toe  moderate  and  lobed. 

This  genus  contains  but  a  single  specie  which  is  distributed  over  the  northern 
portions  of  the  Palaearctic  region,  and  is  a  winter  visitor  to  our  area. 

The  Smews  frequent  both  inland  waters  as  well  as  maritime  districts. 
They  are  birds  of  rapid,  if  laboured  flight,  and  swim  and  dive  with  wonderful 
skill,  but  on  the  land  they  walk  clumsily.  Their  notes  are  loud  and  unmusical. 
They  subsist  on  fish,  crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  shell-fish.  They  make  rude 
nests,  which  are  lined  with  down,  in  holes  of  trees.  Their  eggs  are  numerous, 
and  cream-white  in  colour.  They  are  monogamous  and  probably  pair  for  life. 
They  are  more  or  less  gregarious,  except  in  the  breeding  season,  although  social 
tendencies  are  even  then  observable. 


OP  THE   BRITISH   ISLANDS.  451:. 

Family  ANATID^).  Genus  MEBGUS. 

Subfamily  MERGING. 


SMEW. 

MEEGUS  ALBELLUS— Linnasus.' 

Mergus  albellus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  i.  p.  209  (1766) ;  Macgill.  Brit.  B.  v.  p.  233  (1852) ; 
Dresser,  B.  Eur.  vi.  p.  699,  pis.  454,  455  (1874) ;  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p. 
636  (1885) ;  Yarrell,  Brit.  B.  ed.  4,  iv.  p.  449  (1885);  Lilford,  Col.  Pig.  Brit.  B.  pt. 
xiv.  (1891) ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  186  (1894) ;  Salvadori, 
Cat.  B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  464  (1895) ;  Seebohm,  Col.  Fig.  Eggs  Brit.  B.  p.  58, 
pi.  15  (1896) ;  Sharpe,  Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  iii.  p.  52  (1896). 

Geographical  distribution — British :  The  Smew  is  a  rare  and 
irregular  winter  visitor  to  the  British  Islands,  where,  as  one  might  naturally 
expect  from  the  peculiarities  of  its  normal  geographical  area,  it  is  most 
frequently  observed  on  our  eastern  seaboard.  Adult  males  are  nothing  near  so 
frequently  observed  as  young  males  and  females,  and  these  are  pretty  generally 
dispersed  along  the  south  and  east  coasts  of  England  and  the  east  coast  of 
Scotland.  On  the  west  of  England  and  Scotland,  including  the  Hebrides,  it  is 
much  rarer.  In  Ireland  it  is  also  of  rare  and  irregular  appearance,  principally  in 
the  north  and  central  districts.  Foreign :  Northern  Palsearctic  region,  more 
southerly  in  winter;  extreme  north  of  Oriental  region  in  winter.  The  Smew 
breeds  in  Eussia  as  far  west  as  Finnish  Lapland,  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  as  far  south  as  the  Gulf  of  Finland  in  the  west,  and  the  valleys 
of  the  Kama  and  Lower  Volga  in  the  east.  Thence  it  may  be  traced  across 
Northern  Siberia  south  of  the  Arctic  Circle  (some  authorities  say  the  limit  of 
forest  growth)  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific.  During  migration  or  in  winter  it  is 
an  accidental  wanderer  to  the  Scandinavian  coasts  (both  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Baltic),  but  it  is  not  known  to  visit  the  Faroes  and  Iceland.  It  is  also  found  at 
this  season  along  the  coasts  and  on  the  inland  waters  of  Central,  Western,  and 
Southern  Europe,  as  far  south  as  Morocco  and  the  Mediterranean.  It  also  visits 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  at  this  season.  On  migration  it  crosses  Turkestan, 
Southern  Siberia,  and  Mongolia,  and  winters  in  Northern  India,  China,  and 
Japan. 

Allied   forms. — None  of  sufficient  propinquity  to  call  for  notice. 


452  THE   GAME   BIRDS  AND   WILD    FOWL 

Habits. — The  Smew  is  certainly  the  least  maritime  of  the  Mergansers, 
although  it  is  most  frequently  met  with  on  the  coasts,  and  not  inland,  during  its 
winter  visits  to  the  British  Islands.  Here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  southern  limits 
of  its  winter  area,  young  birds  are  apparently  most  frequent,  possibly  because  the 
old  birds  keep  more  out  to  sea.  The  Smew  remains  in  its  usual  haunts  as  long  as 
the  water  remains  free  from  ice,  and  even  in  the  exceptionally  severe  climate  of 
Asia  it  is  a  bird  of  late  passage.  Hume  states  that  even  in  Upper  India  it  does 
not  arrive  until  November,  and  that  it  leaves  equally  early  in  spring,  most  having 
left  the  country  by  the  end  of  March.  Not  only  so,  but  its  appearances  are  rare 
and  irregular,  and  mostly  confined  to  immature  individuals.  Like  all  its  allies  it 
is  a  very  gregarious  bird  during  winter,  and  lives  in  flocks  of  varying  size  up  to 
thirty  or  forty  individuals.  Its  favourite  haunts  in  India  are  large  rivers  and 
lakes,  but  it  occasionally  frequents  smaller  sheets  of  water.  Where  its  haunts 
are  extensive  it  usually  remains  the  entire  winter  sedentary,  but  in  the  more 
restricted  waters  it  is  more  restless,  and  generally  deserts  them  altogether  if  much 
sought  by  the  gunner.  It  is  a  wary  bird,  keeping  well  out  from  shore  in  the  open 
water,  and  even  when  diving  a  few  individuals  remain  on  the  surface  to  watch 
for  danger.  This  it  usually  seeks  to  evade  by  swimming  quickly  away,  its  body 
low  in  the  water,  and  when  fired  at  dives  at  once,  and  reappears  well  out  of 
range.  The  flock  after  having  dived  en  masse,  come  up  in  scattered  order,  but 
each  bird  swims  to  a  converging  point,  and  all  are  soon  bunched  together  again. 
If  hard  pressed  the  birds  rise  and  circle  in  the  air,  again  dropping  perhaps  several 
miles  away.  The  Smew  is  said  to  be  ever  a  restless,  active  bird,  swimming  to 
and  fro  and  diving  at  intervals.  It  rarely  visits  land,  and  even  sleeps  upon  the 
water.  Its  flight  is  quick  but  almost  silent,  and  the  bird  rises  out  of  the  water 
with  little  effort  or  splash.  The  Smew  is  a  most  accomplished  diver,  and 
according  to  Hume  its  movements  under  water  are  even  more  rapid  than  those 
of  the  Cormorants  or  Grebes.  The  wings  are  used  in  diving,  and  the  birds 
frequently  go  to  a  great  depth,  and  remain  under  water  for  a  minute  at  a  time. 
The  food  of  this  Duck  is  composed  principally  of  small  fish,  but  frogs,  aquatic 
insects,  and  crustaceans  are  also  eaten.  The  bird  is  not  known  to  eat  anything 
of  a  vegetable  nature.  The  note  of  the  Smew  is  described  as  a  harsh  kurr,  but 
it  is  a  remarkably  silent  bird  in  its  winter  quarters.  Jerdon  states  that  it 
utters  an  oft-repeated  bell-like  call,  probably  at  its  breeding  grounds,  because  this 
peculiar  note  has  won  for  it  the  name  of  Bell  Duck  in  Northern  Asia.  The  flesh 
of  this  species  is  rank  and  unpalatable. 

Nidification.— The  breeding  grounds  of  the  Smew  are  situated  in  the 
swampy  forest  districts  of  the  Arctic  regions  where  lakes  and  streams  abound, 
where  big  swamps,  studded  with  pools  connected  by  streams,  and  surrounded  by 
trees  form  a  pleasant  relief  to  the  monotony  of  the  northern  forests.  It  is  a 
rather  late  breeder,  not  laying  until  July  or  the  very  end  of  June.  The  nest  is 


OF  THE   BEITISH   ISLANDS.  453 

placed  either  in  a  hollow  fallen  log,  or  in  a  hole  in  the  trunk  of  a  tree  or  broken 
stump.  The  first  eggs  are  laid  on  the  powdered  wood  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole, 
but  as  the  clutch  is  completed  a  plentiful  lining  of  down  is  added,  plucked  from 
the  body  of  the  female.  The  eggs  are  seven  or  eight  in  number,  creamy-white  in 
colour,  smooth  in  texture,  and  with  some  gloss.  They  measure  on  an  average 
2'0  inches  in  length  by  1'47  inch  in  breadth.  The  down  tufts  are  moderate  in 
size  and  very  pale  greyish-white.  The  female  usually  conveys  her  chicks  to  the 
nearest  water  in  her  bill.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year,  and  it  would 
appear  that  the  duck  and  her  young,  or  at  least  the  young,  keep  company  during 
the  winter. 

Diagnostic  characters.— (Nuptial  plumage),  Mergus,  with  the  head 
(crested)  and  neck  white,  except  a  large  spot  between  the  eye  and  the  bill,  and 
another  on  each  side  of  the  nape,  where  they  meet,  which  are  black  shot  with 
green  (adult  male) ;  with  the  feathers  of  the  forehead,  crown,  and  nape  (the 
latter  elongated  into  a  crest)  chestnut,  and  with  a  large  black  patch  between 
the  eye  and  the  bill  (adult  female).  Length,  17  to  18  inches  (male)  ;  15  to  17 
inches  (female). 


'454 


APPENDIX. 


OWING  to  the  length  of  time  which  the  present  edition  has  necessarily  taken  in 
passing  through  the  press,  I  find  it  necessary,  in  order  to  bring  the  information  as 
nearly  up  to  date  as  possible,  to  add  the  following  records  of  abnormal  migrants  to  the 
species  named  below  : — 

Page     74 — Baillon's  Crake  (Grex  bailloni) :   Add  one,  Renfrewshire,  May, 
1893  ;  one  near  Thurso,  September,  1898. 

,,  92  —Crane  (Grus  cincrea) :  Has  been  obtained  in  Ireland  as  recently  as 
1896. 

„  95 — Demoiselle  Crane  (Grus  virgo) :  Add  one,  Norfolk  Coast,  July, 
1899  (?  an  escaped  bird). 

,,     103 — Little  Bustard  (Otis  tctrax)  :  Ireland  can  now  claim  six  examples. 

„  117 — Common  Pratincole  (Glarcola  pratincola) :  Add  a  second  Scotch 
example,  Eocksands,  Montrose,  November,  1899. 

„  154 — American  Golden  Plover  (Charadrius  dominions)  :  Add  one,  Co. 
Mayo,  September,  1894. 

„  165 — Sociable  Lapwing  (Vanellus  gregarius)  :  Add  one  (5),  Co.  Meath, 
August,  1899. 

„  210 — Bartram's  Sandpiper  (Bartramia  longicanda) :  Add  one  Irish 
specimen,  Co.  Cork,  September,  1894. 

,,  277 — Buff-breasted  Sandpiper  (Tritu/itcs  rufescens) :  Add  one  (6"), 
Norfolk,  September,  1899. 

,,  315— Greater  Snow  Goose  (Chen  nivalis):  Now  a  British  species,  of 
which  an  account  is  given  on  the  two  following  pages 
(pp.  455,  456). 

,,  398 — Tufted  Duck  (Fuligula  cristata) :  Add  to  British  breeding  area, 
South-west  Derbyshire. 


APPENDIX.  455 

Family  ANATID^.  Genus  CHEN. 

Subfamily  ANSERINE. 


GREATER  SNOW  GOOSE. 

CHEN   NIVALIS—  ( 


Anas  nivalis,  Forster,  Phil.  Trans.  Ixii.  p.  413  (1772). 

Chen  hyperboreus  (Pall.),  Coues,  Birds  N.-West,  p.  548  (1874  par  tint)  ;  Newton,  Diet. 
Birds,  p.  374  (1893  pariim). 

Chen  hyperboreus  nivalis  (Forst.),  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Eidg.,  Water-B.  N.  Amer.  ii. 
p.  440  (1884)  ;  Dixon,  Nests  and  Eggs  Non-indig.  Brit.  B.  p.  148  (1894). 

Anser  hyperboreus  nivalis  (Forst.),  Seebohm,  Hist.  Brit.  B.  iii.  p.  490  (1885). 

Chen    nivalis   (Forst.),   Salvador!,    Cat.   B.  Brit.  Mus.  xxvii.  p.  86  (1895);    Sharpe, 
Handb.  B.  Gt.  Brit.  ii.  p.  227  (1896);  Sharpe,  Bull.  Brit.  Orn.  Club,  Nov.  (1899). 

Geographical  distribution.—  British:  Providing  the  identification  be 
correct,  and  of  this  there  seems  to  be  little  or  no  doubt,  so  far  as  I  am  able  at 
present  to  judge,  the  Greater  Snow  Goose  (as  recorded  in  Knowledge  for 
February,  1900),  must  now  be  included  as  a  rare  abnormal  migrant  to  the 
British  Islands.  Its  claim  to  rank  as  "British"  rests  upon  a  single  occur- 
rence, though  possibly  some  of  the  "Snow  Geese"  seen  but  not  obtained 
both  in  England  and  Ireland  may  have  belonged  to  the  larger  of  the  two 
races  into  which  most  scientific  ornithologists  agree  in  dividing  them.  It  is  a 
somewhat  remarkable  coincidence,  and  one  which  has  frequently  been  noticed  in 
the  repeated  appearance  of  abnormal  migrants  in  certain  areas,  that  Co.  Mayo 
can  claim  the  first  record  of  the  Greater  Snow  Goose.  This  example  appears  to 
have  been  shot  near  Belmullet  in  November,  1899.  It  was  exhibited  on  behalf 
of  Mr.  K.  J.  Ussher  (a  gentleman  long  known  in  connection  with  Irish  orni- 
thology) by  Dr.  Sharpe,  at  a  meeting  of  the  British  Ornithologists'  Club,  held 
on  the  22nd  of  November  of  that  year.  Foreign  :  Northern  portions  of  the 
Arctogffian  realm  ;  more  southerly  in  winter.  The  large  race  of  the  Snow  Goose 
is  only  known  to  breed  in  the  Hudson  Bay  territory,  but  its  appearance  in 
North-eastern  Asia,  especially  in  Japan  and  China,  and  its  visits  to  Greenland, 
seems  to  suggest  that  its  summer  range  is  vastly  more  extended.  If  we  cannot 
at  present  exactly  define  the  breeding  area  of  this  Goose,  its  wide  extent  is 
certainly  indicated  by  the  flocks  of  this  species  that  visit  during  winter  various 
localities  in  the  Old  World  from  Russia  to  Japan,  and  in  the  New  World  the 


456  APPENDIX. 

United  States  as  far  south  as  Texas.  This  Goose  must  also  be  included  in  the  list  of 
abnormal  migrants  to  the  Bermudas.  Macfarlane  states  (Proc.  U.  S.  Nat,  Mus. 
xiv.  p.  423)  that  breeding  grounds  of  this  species  are  situated  on  the  shores 
and  islands  of  Esquimaux  Lake  and  Liverpool  Bay. 

Allied  forms. — Chen  hyperboreus,  an  abnormal  migrant  to  the  British 
Islands,  and  dealt  with  on  pages  314  and  315.  The  small  form  of  the  Snow 
Goose,  and  possibly  only  subspecifically  distinct.  C.  rossi,  an  inhabitant  of 
Arctic  America  during  summer,  migrating  south  as  far  as  California  and  Montana 
in  winter.  It  differs  from  the  two  preceding  species  in  being  much  smaller  in 
size,  and  in  having,  as  pointed  out  by  Count  Salvadori,  the  bill  comparatively 
weak,  and  the  feathering  at  the  base  of  the  upper  mandible,  along  each  side, 
forming  a  nearly  straight  oblique  line  instead  of  a  very  convex  line,  as  in  the 
other  three  species  of  Snow  Geese.  It  forms  the  type  of  Elliot's  genus 
Exanthemops.  C.  ccerulescens,  an  inhabitant  of  the  interior  of  Arctic  America 
east  of  the  Kocky  Mountains,  drawing  south  in  winter.  It  is  distinguished  by  its 
greyish-brown  plumage,  becoming  bluish-grey  on  the  wing  coverts  and  rump. 

Habits. — It  is  not  known  that  the  habits  of  the  Greater  Snow  Goose  differ 
in  any  important  respect  from  those  of  the  smaller  race.  MacfarJane  states  the 
belief  that  the  Greater  Snow  Goose  was  some  days  later  in  arriving  at  its  arctic 
haunts  in  spring.  These  appear  to  be  reached  in  May  and  left  again  in 
September  and  October.  It  is  chiefly  found  during  winter  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
not  entering  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  such  numbers  as  its  smaller  ally.  This 
Goose  during  winter  frequents  inland  localities  as  well  as  maritime  ones.  Its 
food  is  largely  of  a  vegetable  character,  grass,  roots,  ground  fruits  and  berries, 
varied  with  insects  and  mollusks.  It  is  gregarious  during  winter,  and  consorts 
with  the  smaller  race  as  well  as  with  other  allied  species.  The  note,  so  far  as  I 
can  ascertain,  has  never  been  described. 

Nidification. — The  information  relating  to  the  nidification  of  this  Goose 
is  of  a  most  meagre  description,  but  doubtless  the  nesting  habits  differ  little 
from  those  of  the  smaller  race.  The  eggs  are  similar  in  colour,  and  I  know  of 
no  character  by  which  they  may  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the  preceding 
form.  One  brood  only  is  reared  in  the  year. 

Diagnostic  characters — Chen,  with  the  primaries  black  and  the 
remainder  of  the  plumage  white,  with  the  wing  17£  inches  or  more  in  length. 
Length,  30  to  38  inches. 


457 


ERRATA. 


Page       6— Line  4,  for  Plate  II.,  fig.  1,  read  Plate  II. 
9— Line  4,  for  Plate  II.,  fig.  2,  read  Plate  HA. 
,,       50 — Line  2,  for  monogamous,  read  polygamous. 
54— Line  4,  for  Plate  XI.,  fig.  1,  read  Plate  XI. 
,,       58-Line  4,  for  Plate  XL,  fig.  2,  read  Plate  X!A. 

98— Line  29,  for  five  families,  read  four. 
,,     181 — Line  39,  for  wkich,  read  which. 
,,     218 — Line  1,  for  Totanus  solitarius,  read  Helodromas  solitarius. 

„  247— Plate  XXVIII.— Mr.  Whymper  has  unfortunately  omitted  the 
squamate  or  arrow-shaped  markings  from  the  flanks  that  are 
such  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  Siberian  Pectoral 
Sandpiper  (Heteropygia  acuminata). 

,,  261 — Line  10,  for  Tringa  accuminata  pectoralis,  read  Tringa  acuminata 
pectoralis. 

,,     315 — Line  4,  for  superficially,  read  subspecifically. 

,,     341 — Line  13,  for  Tadorna  Tadorna,  read  Tadorna  tadorna. 

Pages  354,  358,  Plate  XXXV.— It  has  been  thought  advisable  to  omit  this 
Plate,  and  to  replace  it  by  Plates  HA  and  XLv.  The  decision 
was  made  too  late  to  delete  the  Plate  number  under  the 
Pintail  Duck  and  the  Wigeon,  or  to  make  the  necessary 
alterations  in  the  numbering  of  the  succeeding  plates. 

Page     430— Add  below  line  4,  "  Plate  XXXIX." 


458 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


NOTE. — The  names  in  black  type  are  used  for  tlie  British  species  in  tlie  present  work. 


Actitis  hypoleucus  ... 

Actitis  macularia    ... 

Actiturus 

.iEgialeus  semipalmatus     ... 

^gialitis      

.iEgialitis  alexandrina 
.53gialitis  asiatica    ... 
ASgialitis  cantianus 
.ZEgialitis  curonicus 
.SSgialitis  dealbatus 

.33gialitis  dubia 

^Egialitis  hiaticola 
jEgialitis  hiaticula 
./Egialitis  hiaticula  major  ... 

jEgialitis  major 

^Egi ali tis  minor 

.ZEgialitis  minor  jerdoni 

^Igialitis  minutus  ... 

.3<!gialitis  nivosus    ... 

.flSgialitis  placidus ... 

^Egialitis  vocifera   ... 

^Egialophilus  asiaticus 

American  Pectoral  Sandpiper 

American  Stint 

American  Teal 

American  Wigeon  ... 

Anas 

Anas  acuta  ... 

Anas  albeola 

Anas  americana 

Anas  anser  ... 

Anas  bernicla          ... 

Anas  boscas... 

Anas  boschas       

Anas  carolinensis    ... 
Anas  casarca 
Anas  circia  .. 


...  222 

...  225 

. . .  xxiii 
129,  132 

...  125 

...  134 

...  141 

...  134 

...  126 

...  135 

...  126 
129,  132 

129,  132 

...  129 

...  129 

...  126 

.  .  126 

...  134 

...  135 

...  126 

...  138 

...  141 

...  261 

..  271 

...  367 

...  361 

xxiv,  379 

...  354 

...  405 

...  361 

...  322 

...  330 

...  380 

..  380 

...  367 

...  345 
370 


Anas  clangula 

Anas  clypeata 

Anas  collaris 

Anas  crecca... 

Anas  cygnus 

Anas  discors 

Anas  erythropus 

Anas  fabalis 

Anas  ferina  ... 

Anas  fuligula 

Anas  fuligula  (nee  Linn.) 

Anas  fusca  ... 

Anas  glacialis 

Anas  glaucion 

Anas  histrionica 

Anas  laysanensis    ... 

Anas  leucopsis 

Anas  mania 

Anas  mollissima 

Anas  nigra  ... 

Anas  nivalis 

Anas  nyroca 

Anas  olor 

Anas  penelope 

Anas  perspicillata  ... 

Anas  rufina  ... 

Anas  rutila  ... 

Anas  segetum 

Anas  spectabilis 

Anas  stelleri 

Anas  strepera 

Anas  tadorna 

Anas  wyvilliana 

Anatidffi 

Anatinau 

Ancylochilus  subarcuatus . 

Anser 


xxm, 
xxiii 


408 
376 
401 
364 
305 
373 
327 
317 
391 
398 
401 
423 
416 
408 
412 
380 
334 
395 
433 
420 
455 
388 
310 
358 
426 
384 
345 
317 
437 
430 
350 
341 
380 
303 
339 
247 
316 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


459 


Anser  anser... 
Anser  albatus 
Anser  albifrons  ... 

Anser  albifrons  minutus    . 
Anser  brachyrhynchus  . 

Anser  brenta 
Anser  cinereus     ... 
Anser  erythropus 

Anser  fabalis 

Anser  ferus... 

Anser  gambeli 

Anser  hyperboreus  .. 

Anser  hyperboreus  nivalis 

Anser  leucopsis 

Anser  neglectus 

Anser  rubrirostris   ... 

Anser  ruficollis 

Anser  segetum 

Anser  serrirostris    ... 

Anseres 

Anseriformes 

Anserinee 

Anthropoides  virgo... 

April,  migration  in 

Aramidaa 

Ardea  grns 

Ardea  virgo  ... 
Arenaria  interpres  ... 
Arquatella  maritima 
August,  migration  in 
Avocet,  Common    ... 
Avocets 

Avocets,  Stilts  and... 
Aythya  ferina 
Aythya  rufina          ... 


B 

Bartramia    ... 
Bartramia  longicauda 

Bean  Goose... 
Bernacle  Goose 


322 

314 

.323,  325,  327 

327 

318,  320 

...     330 

322,  326 

323,  325,  327 

317 

...  322 
325,  327 
...  314 
...  455 
...  334 
318,  320 
...  323 

337 

317,  320 

...     318 

xxiii,  301 

xxiii,  301 

xxiii,  313 

95 

...    xx  vi 
xxi 

...  92 
...  95 
...  176 
...  253 
...  xxvii 
...  172 
...  171 
...  167 
...  391 
384 


xxiii,  209 

210,  454 

...     317 

334 


B 

Bernicla  brenta       ...         ...         ...     330 

Bernicla  brenta  glaucogaster         . . ..     333 

Bernicla  glaucogaster         ...          ...     333 

Bernicla  leucopsis  ...         ...         ...     334 

Bernicla  ruficollis    ...         ...         ...     337 

Bewick's  Swan        ...         ...         ...     305 

Blue-winged  Garganey      ...         ...     373 

Bonaparte's  Sandpiper       ...          ...     259 

Branta         xxiii,  329 

Branta  albifrons      ...          ...          ...     325 

Branta  bernicla 330,  333 

Branta  canadensis  ...          ...          ...     335 

Branta  glaucogaster      ...        330,  333 

Branta  leucopsis 334 

Branta  nigricans     ...          ...         331,  333 

Branta  ruficollis...          337 

Brent  Geese  329 

Brent  Goose  ,          ...     330 

Brent  Goose,  White-bellied          ...     333 
Broad-billed  Sandpiper      ...          ...     256 

Buff-breasted  Sandpiper   ...          ...     277 

Buff- breasted  Sandpipers  ...         ...     276 

Buffel-headed  Duck  405 

Buffel-headed  Ducks          404 

Bustard,  Great       ... 100 

Bustard,  Little        ...         ...        103,454 

Bustard,  Macqueen's         ...         ...     106 

Bustards      99 

Bustards,  Buffed     :.:         ...         ...     105 

Bustards,  Typical .99 


Gaccabis       ..:         ...         ...  ...  57 

Caccabis  petrosa     ...'         ...  ...  58 

Caccabis  rufa      ...         ...  ...  58 

Caccabis  rufa  hispanica     ...  ...  58 

Caccabis  saxatilis   ...         ...  ...  58 

Caccabis  saxatilis  var  chukar  ...  58 

Caccabis  saxatilis  Var  magna  ...  58 

Calidris        ...         .V.          ...  xxiii,  279 

Calidris  arenaria ...        ...  ...  280 

Capercaillie             ...         ...  ...  40 


460 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Casarca 

Casarca  cana 

Casarca  casarca 

Casarca  rutila      

Casarca  tadornoides 
Casarca  variegata    ... 
Chsetusia  gregaria  ... 
Charadriidae 
Charadriiformes 
Charadriiformes,  migrations  of 


xxiii,  344 
...  346 
...  345 
...  345 
...  346 
...  346 
...  165 
xxii,  120 
xxi,  98 

XXV 

xxii,  125 
..     147 
...     134 
...     141 
134 


Charadriinse  ...         ...         : 

Charadrius  ... 
?  Charadrius  alexandrinus 
Charadrius  asiaticus 
Charadrius  cantianus 

Charadrius  dominions 

149,  151,  152,  184,  454 

Charadrius  dubius  ...         ...         ...     126 

Charadrius  fulvus 

149,  151,  152,  154,  158 

Charadrius  fulvus  americanus       ...     154 

Charadrius  gallicus...  ...         ...     113 

Charadrius  gregarius  ...         ...     165 

Charadrius  helveticus        158 

Charadrius  hiaticula  ...        129,132 

Charadrius  himantopus  ...         ...     168 

Charadrius  interpres  ...         ...     176 

Charadrius  major    ...  ...         ...     129 

Charadrius  minor   ...  ...         ...     126 

Charadrius  morinellus  ...         ...     144 

Charadrius  cedicnemus  ...         ...     109 

Charadrius  pluvialis  148,152,154,158 


Charadrius  virginicus 
Charadrius  vociferus 
Charitonetta 
Charitonetta  albeola 
Chaulelasmus 
Chaulelasmus  couesi 
Chaulelasmus  streperus 

Chen  

Chen  albatus 

Chen  cserulescens  ... 

Chen  hyperboreus 


...  154 
...  138 
...  404 
...  405 

xxiv,  349 
...  351 
350,  351 

xxiii,  313 

...     314 

...     456 

314,  455,  456 


Chen  hyperboreus  nivalis 

Chen  nivalis          

Chen  rossi 

Chenalopex 

Chenomorphae 

Chettusia  gregaria  ... 

Chionididae  ... 

Clangula 

Clangula  albeola 

Clangula  chrysophthalma... 

Clangula  clangula  ... 

Clangula  glaucion  405, 

Clangula  glaucion  americana 

Clangula  histrionica 

Clangula  islandica  ... 

Columba 

Columba  aenas      ... 

Columba  casiotis     ... 

Columba  eversmanni 

Columba  intermedia 

Columba  livia      

Columba  migratoria 
Columba  orientalis... 
Columba  palumbus 
Columba  turtur 
Columbidse  ... 
Columbiformes 
Coot,  Common 
Cosmonetta ... 
Cosmonetta  histrionica  . . 
Coturnix 

Coturnix  capensis  ... 
Coturnix  communis 
Coturnix  coturnix  ... 
Coturnix  dactylisonans 
Coturnix  japonica   ... 
Courser,  Cream-coloured  ... 
Coursers,  Pratincoles,  &c. ... 
Coursers,  Typical    ... 
Crab  Plover ... 
Crake,  Baillon's 
Crake,  Carolina 


...     315A 

314,  455 

...     456 

. . .    xxiii 

..     301 

...     165 

...       98 

...     407 

...     405 

...     408 

...     408 

408,  409 

...     409 

...     412 

...     409 

xx,    2 

6 

3 

6 

9 

9 

...       13 

...       22 

3 

19 
2 

...  xx,  1 
...  87 
...  411 
...  412 
...  61 
...  62 
...  62 
...  62 
...  62 
...  63 
...  113 
...  112 
...  112 
...  98 
...  74 
72 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


Crake,  Corn... 

Crake,  Little 

Crake,  Spotted 

Crakes 

Crane,  Common 

Crane,  Demoiselle  ... 

Cranes 

Cranes  and  their  allies 

Cranes,  migrations  of 

Crex  ... 

Crex  affinis  ... 

Crex  bailloni        

Crex  Carolina        

Crex  crex 
Crex  fluminea 
Crex  palustris 

Crex  parva  

Crex  porzana        

Crex  pratensis     

Crex  pusilla... 

Crex  pusilla  (nee  Pallas)   . . . 

Crymophilus  fulicarius 

Curlew,  Common     .. 

Curlews 

Curlew  Sandpiper  ... 

Cursoriidss  ... 

Cursorius 

Cursorius  europasus 

Cursorius  gallicus 

Cursorius  gallicus  bogolubovi 

Cursorius  rufus 

Cursorius  somalensis 

Cygninas 

Cygnus         

Cygnus  bewicki     

Cygnus  immutabilis 

Cygnus  musicus    

Cygnus  olor          


...  67 

...  76 

...  70 

...  66 

92,  454 

95,  454 

...  91 

...  90 

. . .       XXV 

...  66 
...  74 
74,  454 

70,72 
...  67 

70,  72 
...  74 
...  76 

70,  72 
...  67 
...  74 
...  76 
...  180 
...  188 
..  187 
...  247 
xxii,  112 
...  112 
...  113 
...  113 
...  113 
...  114 
...  113 
xxiii,  303 
...  304 
305,  308 
...  310 
303,  308 
310 


D 


Dafila 


xxiv,  353 


D 

Dafila  acuta 

Dafila  eatoni 
Dendrocygna 
Diving  Ducks  and  Eiders 

Dotterel       

Dotterels 

Dove,  Eastern  Turtle 
Dove,  Eing  ... 
Dove,  Bock  ... 
Dove,  Stock... 
Doves,  Turtle 
DromadidiB  ... 
Duck,  Long-tailed  ... 
Duck,  Pintail 
Duck,  Bing-necked... 
Duck,  Tufted 
Ducks,  Buffel-headed 
Ducks,  Harlequin    ... 
Ducks,  Long-tailed... 
Ducks,  migrations  of 
Ducks,  Spine-tailed 
Ducks,  Typical 
Dunlin 
Dusky  Eedshank     ... 


...     354 

...     355 

...  xxiii. 

...     383 

...     144 

...     143 

...       22 

3 

9 

6 

17,  18 
...  98 
...  416 
...  354 
...  401 
398,  454 
...  404 
...  411 
...  415 
...  xxv 
...  394 
...  379 
...  250 
236 


Ectopistes    ... 
Ectopistes  migratorius  . 

Eider,  Common 
Eider,  King... 

Eiders  

Eiders,  Diving  Ducks  and 
Eiders,  Rufous-breasted     . 
Eider,  Steller's 
Elasmonetta 
Eniconetta   ... 
Ereunetes  griseus   ... 
Eudromias   ... 
Eudromias  morinellus    . 
Euhyas  leucura 
Exanthemops 


12 
13 
433 
437 
432 
383 
429 
430 
xxiv 
429 
206 
143 
144 
165 
456 


462 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 


February,  migration  in 
Pinfoots,  Bails  and... 
Fulica 

Fulica  americana    ... 
Fulica  atra 
Pulica  australis 
Fulica  chloropus     . . . 
Fulica  cristata 
Pulicinse 

Fuligula       

Fuligula  affinis 
Fuligula  affinis  mariloides 
Fuligula  albeola 
Fuligula  clangula   ... 
Fuligula  collar  is  ... 
Fuligula  cristata... 
Fuligula  ferina 
Fuligula  fuligula     . . . 
Fuligula  fusca 
Fuligula  glacialis    . . . 
Fuligula  histrionica 
Fuligula  marila    ... 
Fuligula  marila  nearctica  . 
Fuligula  nigra         .::• 
Fuligula  nyroca 
Fuligula  perspicillata 
Fuligula  rufina 
Fuligulinse 

Q 


xxiv, 


xxvi 
65 
86 
88 
87 
88 
83 
88 
86 
394 
...  396 
...  396 
...  405 
...  408 
398,  401 
398,  401,  454 
...  391 
...  398 

423 

...     416 

412 

395,  396 
...     396 

420 

388 

...     426 

...     384 

xxiv,  383 


Gadwall 
Gadwalls 
Galliformes  ... 

Gallinago     

Gallinago  aequatorialis 
Gallinago  australis  ... 
Gallinago  cselestis  ... 
Gallinago  gallinula... 
Gallinago  gallinago  .. 
Gallinago  major  ... 
Gallinago  megala     .. 
Gallinago  sabinii 
Gallinago  soolopaoina 


...     350 

...     349 

xxi,  30 

xxiii,  289 

290,  291 

...     291 

...     293 

...     298 

...     293 

...     290 

...     290 

...     294 

293 


Q 


Gallinago  wilsoni 293 

Gallinula  chloropus        83 

Gallinula  galatea    ...         ...         ...  84 

Gallinula  pyrrhorrhoa        ...          ...  84 

Gallinula  tenebrosa            ...         ...  83 

Game  Birds  and  Wild  Fowl,  Geo- 
graphical distribution  and  migra- 
tion of  ...  ...  ...  ...  xix 

Game  Birds,  The  Typical 47 

Garganey      ...         ...         ...         ...  370 

Garganey,  Blue-winged     373 

Garganeys    ...         ...                     ...  369 

Garrulus  glaudarius                         ...  28 

Geese            ...         •••         •••         •••  313 

Geese,  Brent            329 

Geese,  Snow            ...         ...         ...  313 

Geese,  Typical        ...                     ....  316 

Glareola       •  ••  116 

Glareola  orientalis  ...                     ...  118 

Glareola  melanoptera                     ...  118 

Glareola  pratincola                   117,  454 

Glottis  chloropus    ...                     •••  239 

Glottis  nebularius   ...                     ...  239 

Godwit,  Bar-tailed 198 

Godwit,  Black-tailed           ... '        ...  202 

Godwits       .-  197 

Golden-eye •••  408 

Golden-eyes ...  407 

Golden  Plover,  Asiatic       ...         ...  151 

Golden  Plovers       ...  147 

Goosander    . . . 

Goose,  Bean             ...         ...         •••  317 

Goose,  Bernacle 

Goose,  Brent            ...                     •••  330 

Goose,  Grey  Lag    ... 

Goose,  Greater  Snow                     . . .  455 

Goose,  Lesser  Snow 

Goose,  Eed-breasted                      ...  337 

Goose,  White-fronted         ...  325 

Great  Snipe 290 

Green  Sandpiper     ...                     ...  217 

Green  Sandpiper     ...                     ...  216 

Greenshank ...         ...                     •••  239 

Grey  Lag  Goose      322 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


463 


Q 


H 


Grey  Plovers 

...     157 

Himantopus... 

...     167 

Grouse 

31 

Hirnantopus  avocetta 

172 

Grouse,  Black 
Grouse,  migrations  of 
Grouse,  Moor 
Grouse,  Bed... 

44 

.  .  .       XXV 

...       31 

35 

Himantopus  brasiliensis    .  .  . 
Himantopus  candidus 
Himantopus  himantopus   ... 
Himantopus  leucocephalus 

...     169 
...     168 
...     168 
169 

Grouse,  Eed,  variations  of 
Grouse,  Wood         ...       •  ... 
GruidsB 

...       38 
...       39 
91 

Himantopus  melanopterus 
Himantopus  melas  ... 
Himantopus  mexicanus 

...     168 
...     169 
169 

Gruiformes  ... 
Grus  .  .          ...          ...          ... 

xxi,  90 
91 

Himantopus  picatus 
Hirundo  pratincola 

...     169 
117 

Grus  cinerea         
Grus  communis 
Grus  grus 

92,  454 

...       92 
92 

Histrionicus  minutus 
Hooded  Merganser... 
Hooded  Mergansers 

...     412 
...     448 
447 

Grus  lilfordi... 

93 

Houbara       ... 

105 

Grus  pavonia 
Grusvirgo... 

H 

Hscmetopodinae 
Hasmatopus... 

...       97 
95,  454 

xxii,  121 
...     121 

Houbara  fuerteventura 
Houbara  macqueeni 

Houbara  undulata  ... 

J 

...     106 
...     106 
...     106 

Heematopus  longirostris     ... 
Hsematopus  ostralegus   ... 

...     123 
...     122 

Jacanas 
Jack  Snipe    . 
Jack  Snipes  ... 

...       98 
...     298 
297 

Hmmatopus  osculans 
Hard-  billed  Sandpipers 
Harelda 

...     122 
...     221 
...     415 

July,  migration  in  ... 
June,  migration  in  ... 

...  xxvii 
...  xxvii 

Harelda  glacialis  
Harlequin  Duck 
Harlequin  Ducks    ... 
HeliornithidsB 

...     416 
...     412 
...     411 
...       65 

K 

King  Eider    . 

...     437 

Helodromas... 

...     216 

Knot 

040 

Helodromas  ochropus    ... 
Helodromas  solitarius    ... 

Heniconetta... 

217,  219 
...     219 
429 

Heniconetta  stelleri 
Heteronetta  ...         

...     430 
xxiv 

L 

Lagopus 

31 

Heteropygia... 

258 

Lagopus  albus 

31    35 

Heteropygia  acuminata  ... 

Heteropygia  bairdi  ... 
Heteropygia  fuscicollis  ... 
Heteropygia  maculata   ... 

Himantopodinae 

264,  262 
...     262 
248,  259 
261,  265 

xxii.  167 

Lagopus  cinereus    .:.-• 
Lagopus  eversmanni 
Lagopus  leucurus    ... 
Lagopus  mutus     
Lagopus  mutus  var  hyperboreus 

...       32 
...       32 
...       32 
...       32 
...      32 

464 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


M 


Lagopus  mutus  var  rupestris 

32 

Malecorhynchus 

xxiv,  205 

Lagopus  scoticus  .. 

35 

Mallard 

380 

Lapwing 

162 

March,  migration  in, 

...    xxvi 

Lapwing,  Sociable  ...         ...         165, 

454 

Mareca 

357 

Lapwings,  Typical... 

161         Mareca  americana 

359,  361 

Lariforrnes    ..         ...         ...         ••• 

120 

Mareca  penelope  ... 

358,  362 

Lesser  White-fronted  Goose 

327 

May,  migration  in  ... 

...  xxvii 

Limicola  platyrhyncha 

256 

Merganettinae 

...    xxiv 

Limnocryptes 

297 

Merganser    ... 

xxiv,   440 

Limnocryptes  gallinula  .. 

298 

Merganser  americanus 

441 

Limonites     ... 

266 

Merganser  castor  .  .  . 

441 

Limonites  damacensis        ...        268, 

271 

Merganser  comatus 

442 

Limonites  minuta           .          267, 

271 

Merganser  cucullatus 

...     448 

Limonites  minutill  a        ...        268, 

271 

Merganser,  Hooded 

448 

Limonites  ruficollis            ...        268, 

271 

Merganser,  Bed-breasted 

...     444 

Limonites  temmincki     ... 

273 

Merganser  serrator 

444 

Limosa          ...          ...          ...       xxiii, 

197 

Merganser  squamatus 

442 

Limosa  segocephala 

202 

Mergansers  ... 

440 

Limosa  fedoa 

199 

Mergansers,  Hooded 

447 

Limosa  hudsonica  ... 

203 

Mergansers,  Typical 

...     440 

Limosa  lapponica  .  . 

198 

Merginee 

xxiv,  440 

Limosa  limosa 

202 

Mergus 

xxiv,  450 

Limosa  melanura  

202 

Mergus  al  bell  us    ... 

451 

Limosa  melanura  melanuroides   ... 

203 

Mergus  cucullatus  .  .  . 

448 

Limosa  rufa 

198 

Mergus  merganser  ... 

441 

Limosa  ruf  a  europygialis  

199 

Mergus  serrator 

...     444 

Linota  linaria 

28 

Mesitidse 

65 

Little  Stint 

267 

Mesoscolopax  minutus 

...     195 

Lobipes  hyperboreus 

184 

Metopiana 

...    xxiv 

Long-tailed  Duck    ... 

416 

Migrations  of  Game  Birds 

and  Wild 

Long-  tailed  Ducks  ... 

415 

Fowl          

...    xxiv 

Lophodytes              ...         •••       xxiv, 

447 

...     310 

Lophodytes  cucullatus    

447 

39 

Lyrurus  tetrix 

44 

N 

Nesonetta 

...    xxiv 

K/l 

Netta 

383 

Machetes      xxiii,  212 

Machetes  pugnax 213 

Macrorhamphus  griseus 206 

Macrorhamphus  griseus  scolopaceus  207 

Macrorhamphus  taczanowskii       ...  207 


Netta  ruflna 

Nettion         xxiv,  363 

Nettion  carolinense        ...       364,  367 

Nettion  crecca      364, 367 

Non-diving  Ducks,  Sheldrakes  and       339 
November,  migration  in    ...  xxviii 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


465 


N 


O 


Numenius     ... 
Numenius  arquata 

Numenius  arquatus  lineatus 
Numenius  borealis 
Numenius  cyanopus 
Numenius  hudsonicus 
Numenius  longirostris 
Numenius  phaeopus 
Numenius  phtcopus  variegatus 
Numenius  tahitiensis 
Nyroca 

Nyroca  africana 

Nyroca  americana  ... 
Nyroca  baeri 

Nyroca  ferina        

Nyroca  ferruginea  ... 
Nyroca  nyroca 
Nyroca  vallisneria  ... 


O 

Ochthodromus 
Ochthodromus  asiaticus... 

Ochthodromus  veredus 

October,  migration  in 

(Edemia 

(Edemia  americana 

(Edemia  carbo 

QEdeinia  deglandi    ... 

(Edemia  fusca      

(Edemia  nigra 
(Edemia  perspicillata    ... 
(Edicnemidffi 
(Edicnemus  ... 
(Edicnemus  crepitans     ... 
CEdicnemus  crepitans  indicus 
(Edicnemus  oodicnemus 
CEdicnemus  scolopax 
(Edicnemus  senegalensis   ... 
Oidemia  fusca 
Oidemia  nigra 
Oidomia  perspicillala 
Otididas 
30 


XXIV. 


187 
188 
189 
195 
189 
193 
189 
192 
192 
193 
387 
388 
392 
388 
391 
388 
388 
392 


...  140 
...  141 
...  144 
...  xxvii 
419,  424 
...  421 
...  424 
...  424 
423,  424 
...  420 
...  426 
xxii,  108 
...  108 
...  109 
...  109 
...  109 
...  109 
...  110 
...  423 
...  420 
...  426 
xxii,  99 


Otis  

Otis  dybowskii 
Otis  macqueeni 

Otis  tarda 

Otis  tetrax 

Oxyechus 

Oxyechus  vociferus 
Oyster-catchers 
Oyster-catcher,  Common 


Palamedece  ... 

Parridse 

Partridge 

Partridges    ... 

Partridge,  Eed-legged 

Partridges,  Eock     ... 

Pectoral  Sandpipers 

Pediophili     ... 

Pelidna  alpina 

Perdix 

Perdix  cinerea      ...        :. 

Perdix  cinerea  charrela 

Perdix  cinerea  var  robusta 

Perdix  damascena  ... 

Perdix  daurica 

Perdix  hispaniensis... 

Perdix  hodgsonise    ... 

Perdix  montana 

Perdix  perdix 

Perdix  ru  bra 

Perdix  rufa  ... 

Perdix  sifanica 

Peristeridae  ... 

Phoonicopteri 

Phalarope,  Grey 

Phalarope,  Eed-necked 

Phalaropes   ... 

Phalaropinse 

Phalaropus  ... 

Phalaropus  fulicarius 

Phalaropus  hyperboreus. 

Phalaropus  lobatus... 


...  99 
...  101 
...  106 
...  100 
103,  454 
...  137 
...  138 
...  121 
122 


xxiii,  301 
...  98 
....  54 
...  53 
...  58 
...  57 
...  258 
xxi,  24 
...  250 
...  53 
...  54 
...  54 
...  54 
...  54 
...  54 
...  54 
...  54 
...  54 
...  54 
...  58 
...  58 
...  54 
...  17 

xxiii,  301 

...  180 

...  184 

...  179 

xxii,  179 

...  179 

180, 185 

181,  184 

180 


466 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


Phalaropus  wilsoni... 
Phasianidse  ... 
Phasianus    ... 
Phasianus  chrysomelas 
Phasianus  colchicus 


181,  185 
...  47 
...  47 
...  51 
48,51 


Phasianus  colchicus  talischensis  ...  51 

Phasianus  decollates          ...         ...  52 

Phasianus  elegans  ...         ...         ...  52 

Phasianus  mongolicus        ...          ...  52 

Phasianus  mongolicus  semitorquatus  52 

Phasianus  persicus...         ...         ...  51 

Phasianus  principal! s         ...         ...  51 

Phasianus  shawi     ...         ...         ...  51 

Phasianus  strauchi...         ...         ...  52 

Phasianus  tarimensis         ...         ...  51 

Phasianus  torquatus           ...         ...  52 

Phasianus  torquatus  formosanus  ...  52 

Phasianus  torquatus  satscheunensis  52 
Phasianus  versicolor      ...           48,52 

Phasianus  vlangalii             ...         ...  52 

Phasianus  zerafshanicus    ...         ...  51 

Pheasant      ...         ...         ...         ...  48 

Pigeons,  Grey         ...         ...         ...  2 

Pigeons,  Ground     ...         ...         ...  17 

Pigeon,  Passenger  ...         ...         ...  13 

Pigeons,  Passenger            ...         ...  12 

Pintail  Duck            354 

Pintails        353 

Plover,  American  Golden  ...         ...  154 

Plover,  Asiatic  Golden       ...         ...  151 

Plover,  Caspian       ...         ...         ...  141 

Plover,  Golden        148 

Plover,  Greater  Einged      ...         ...  129 

Plover,  Grey            158 

Plover,  Kentish       134 

Plover,  Killdeer       138 

Plover,  Little  Einged         126 

Plover  Einged         132 

Plovers,  Sandpipers  and  Snipes    ...  120 

Plovers,  Typical      ...         ...         ...  125 

Pluvialis  aurea        ...         ...         ...  148 

Pluvialis  morinellus            ...         ...  144 

Pluvialis  squatarola            ...         ...  158 


Pluvianus     ...          ...           ..          ...  98 

Pochard        391 

Pochard,  White-eyed         388 

Pochards      ...  387 

Pochards,  Eed-crested        383 

Pcecilonetta  ...         ...         ...          ...  xxiv 

Polish  Swan 311 

Porphyrio  caeruleus           ...         ..  85 

Porphyrio  martinicus         ...          ...  85 

Porphyrio  smaragdonotus ...          ...  85 

Porzana  bailloni      ...          ...          ...  74 

Pozana  Carolina      ...         ...         ...  72 

Porzana  intermedia            ...         ...  74 

Porzana  parva         ...          ...          ...  76 

Pratincole,  Common  ...        117,  454 

Pratincoles,  etc.,  The  Coursers     ...  112 

Pratincoles,  Typical           ...         ...  116 

Psophiidas    ...         ...         ...          xxi,  90 

Ptarmigan    ...          ...          ...          ...  32 

Pteroclidae    ...         ...         ...         ...  25 

Purple  Sandpiper    ...         ...         .  .  253 


Quail... 
Quails 

Querquedula 
Querquedula  acuta ... 
Querquedula  circia 
Querquedula  cyanoptera    ... 
Querquedula  crecca 
Querquedula  discors 
Querquedula  querquedula  . . . 
Querquedula  strepera 


...       62 

...       61 

xxiv,  369 

...     354 

370,  373 

371,  373 
...     364 

373 
370 
350 


371, 


Bails 

Eails  and  Pinfoots  .. 
Bails,  Lobe-toed 
Eails,  migrations  of 
Eails,  Plain-toed     .. 
Bails,  Typical 
Ballidse 


66 
65 

86 

XXV 

66 
78 
66 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


467 


Ralliformes  ... 
RallinfE 

Bail,  Water 

Rallus  

Rallus  aquaticus 

Eallus  bailloni 
Rallus  Carolina 
Rallus  crex  ... 
Rallus  indicus 
Rallus  parvus 
Recurvirostra 

Recurvirostra  americana    . . . 
Recurvirostra  avocetta  . . . 
Recurvirostra  novae-hollandiffi 
Recurvirostra  rubricollis    ... 
Red-breasted  Goose 
Red-breasted  Merganser    ... 
Red-crested  Pochard 
Red-crested  Pochards 
Redshank,  Common 
Redshank,  Dusky   ... 
Regulus  cristatus    ... 
Rhinochetidac 
Rhyacophilus  glareola 
Rhynchaspis  clypeata 
Ring-necked  Duck  ... 
Ringed  Plovers,  Red-breasted 
Ringed  Plovers,  Typical     . . . 
Ringed  Plovers,  Wedge-tailed 
Ruddy  Sheldrake    ... 
Ruddy  Sheldrakes  ... 

Ruff 

Ruffs 

Rufous-breasted  Eiders 
Rusticola  sylvestris 


xxi,  65 

...  66 

...  79 

...  78 

...  79 

...  74 

...  72 

...  67 

...  79 

...  76 

...  171 

...  173 

...  172 

...  173 

...  173 

...  337 

...  444 

...  384 

...  383 

...  233 

...  236 

...  28 
xxi 

...  228 

...  376 

...  401 

...  140 

...  125 

...  137 

...  345 

...  344 

...  213 

...  212 

...  429 
284 


Sanderling    ... 
Sanderlings  ... 
Sand-Grouse 
Sand-Grouse,  Pallas's 
Sand-Grouse,  Three-toed  ... 
Sandpiper,  American  Pectoral 


280 

279 

25 

26 

25 

261 


277, 


Sandpiper,  Bartram's 

Sandpiper,  Bonaparte's 

Sandpiper,  Broad- billed 

Sandpiper,  Buff-breasted 

Sandpiper,  Common 

Sandpiper,  Curlew  ... 

Sandpiper,  Purple  ... 

Sandpiper,  Siberian  Pectoral 

Sandpiper,  Solitary 

Sandpiper,  Spotted 

Sandpiper,  Wood   ... 

Sandpiper,  Yellow-legged ... 

Sandpipers,  Bartram's 

Sandpipers,  Buff-breasted... 

Sandpipers,  Cleft-footed,  and  Snipes 

Sandpipers,  Green... 

Sandpipers,  Hard-billed    ... 

Sandpipers,  Long- tailed    ... 

Sandpipers,  Pectoral 

Sandpipers,  Semi- web-footed 

Sandpipers,  Snipe-billed    ... 

Sandpipers,  Typical 

Scaup 

Scaups  and  Tufted  Ducks ... 

Scolopacinae 

Scolopax 

Scolopax  arquata    ... 

Scolopax  borealis  ... 

Scolopax  calidris    ... 

Scolopax  flavipes    ... 

Scolopax  fusca 

Scolopax  gallinago... 

Scolopax  gallinula... 

Scolopax  glottis 

Scolopax  grisea 

Scolopax  lapponica... 

Scolopax  limosa 

Scolopax  major 

Scolopax  minor 

Scolopax  phaeopus  ... 

Scolopax  rochusseni 

Scolopax  rusticula 

Scolopax  saturata    ... 


210,  454 
...  259 
...  256 
454 
222 
247 
253 
264 
219 
225 
228 
231 
210 
276 
242 
216 
221 
209 
258 
187 
205 
242 
395 
394 
242 
283 
188 
195 
233 
231 
236 
293 
298 
239 
206 
198 
202 
290 
284 
192 
285 
284 
285 


xxm 
xxiii 


468 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Scolopax  subarquata          ...         ...  247 

Scoter,  Common     ...         ...         ...  420 

Scoter,  Surf 426 

Scoter,  Velvet         423 

Scoters         419 

Screamers,  Flamingoes,  Swans,  Geese, 

Ducks,  and  Mergansers 301 

September,  migration  in    ...         ...  xxvii 

Sheathbills 98 

Sheldrake,  Common           341 

Sheldrakes   ..          .. 340 

Sheldrakes  and  Non-diving  Ducks  339 

Sheldrake,  Euddy 345 

Sheldrakes,  Buddy ...  344 

Shoveler       376 

Shovelers  375 


Smew 

Smews 

Snipe-billed  Sandpipers 

Snipe,  Common 

Snipe,  Great  

Snipe,  Jack  ... 

Snipe,  Eed-breasted  

Snipes. 
Snipes,  Jack 

Snipes,  The  Cleft-footed  Sandpipers 
and  


451 
450 
205 
293 
290 
298 
206 
289 
297 

242 

Snow  Geese 313 

Snow  Goose,  Greater         455 

Snow  Goose,  Lesser           ...         ...  314 

Somateria     ...         ...         ...         ...  432 

Somateria  borealis  ...         ...         ...  434 

Somateria  dresseri  ...         ...         ...  433 

Somateria  mollissima     433 

Somateria  spectabilis     437 

Somateria  stelleri           430 

Somateria  v-nigrum            ...         ...  434 

Spatula        ...         ...         ...      xxiv,  375 

Spatula  capensis     ...         ...         ...  377 

Spatula  clypeata 376 

Spatula  platalea      ...         ...         ...  377 

Spatula  rhynchotis...         ...         ...  377 

Squatarola 157 


Squatarola  cinerca  ... 
Squatarola  helvetica 

Stilts 

Stilt,  Common 
Stilts  and  Avocets  ... 
Stint,  American 

Stint,  Little 

Stint,  Temminck's  ... 

Stints  

Stellaria  dispar   .    ... 

Steller's  Eider         

Stone  Curlew 

Stone  Curlews 

Stone  Curlews,  Typical 

Strepsilas 

Strepsilas  interpres 

Strepsilas  melanocephalus 

StrepsilinaB  ... 

Surf  Scoter  ... 

Swan,  Bewick's 

Swan,  Mute... 

Swan,  Polish  

Swan,  Whooper 

Swans  ... 

Swans,    Geese,    Ducks,    and 

gansers 
Syrrhaptes   ... 
Syrrhaptes  paradoxus    . . . 
Syrrhaptes  tibetanus 


...  158 

...  158 

...  167 

...  168 

...  167 

...  271 

...  267 

...  273 

...  266 

...  430 

...  430 

...  109 

...  108 

...  108 

...  175 

...  176 

...  176 

xxii,  175 

...  426 

...  305 

..  310 

...  311 

...  305 
303,  304 
Mer- 

...  303 

...  25 

...  26 
27 


Tachyeres, 

Tadorna, 
Tadorna  casarca 
Tadorna  cornuta  . . . 

Tadorna  radjah 
Tadorna  rutila 
Tadorna  tadorna 
Tadorna  vulpanser  ... 

Tatlers         

Teals  

Teal,  American 


. . .  xxiv 
xxiii,  340 
...  345 
...  341 
...  341 
...  345 
...  341 
...  341 
...  187 
...  363 
367 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


469 


Teal,  Common 
Temminck's  S 
Tetraonidae  ... 
Tetrao 

Tetrao  cotumix 
Tetrao  kamtsi 
Tetrao  mloko; 
Tetrao  mutus 
Tetrao  paradoxa 
Tetrao  parvir 
Tetrao  perdix 
Tetrao  rufa 
Tetrao  scoticus 
Tetrao  tetrix 
Tetrao  uralensis 
Tetrao  uroga 
Tetrax  tetrax 
Thinocorythidac 
Totaninae 
Totanus 
Totanus  a 
Totanus  b 
Totanus  < 
Totanus  c 
Totanus  : 
Totanus  fuscus 
Totanus  glareoi 
Totanus  glottis 
Totanus  guttif 
Totanus  hyp( 
Totanus  mac 
Totanus  melai 
Totanus  melai 
Totanus  ochro 
Totanus  rufus 
Totanus 
Totanus 
Totanus 
Tringa 
Tringa 
Triuga  a 
Tringa  alpina 


ion        364 

Tringa  arenaria 

...     280 

,  Stint   273 

Tringa  bonaparti 

...     259 

31 

Tringa  canutus     

243,  248 

39 

Tringa  cinclus 

...     250 

mix       ...         ...         ...       62 

Tringa  crassirostris... 

244,  248 

tschaticus        ...         ...       41 

Tringa  fulicaria 

...     180 

;osiewiczi          ...          ...       44 

Tringa  fuscicollis     ... 

...     259 

as          32 

Tringa  glareola        

...     228 

doxa      ...         ...         ...       26 

Tringa  helvetica 

...     158 

'irostris  ...          40 

Tringa  hyperborea  ... 

...     184 

ix          ...         ..'.         ...       54 

Tringa  hypoleucus  ... 

...     222 

58 

Tringa  interpres 

...     176 

cus        ...         ...         ...       35 

Tringa  longicauda  ... 

...     210 

•ix          44 

Tringa  macularia    ... 

...     225 

msis      ...         ...         ...       40 

Tringa  maculata 

...     261 

gallus   40 

Tringa  maritima  

...     253 

ix         103 

Tringa  maritima  couesi 

...     254 

lidaj      98 

Tringa  maritima  ptilocnemis 

...     254 

xxiii,  187 

Tringa  minuta 

...     267 

xxiii,  221 

Tringa  minutilla 

...     271 

iminatus           ...          ...     264 

Tringa  oehropus 

...     217 

trami  210 

Tringa  pectoralis     ... 

...     261 

lidris  233,  236 

Tringa  platyrhyncha 

...     256 

lescens...         ...         ...     239 

Tringa  rufescens 

...     277 

,vipes  228,  231 

Tringa  schinzii 

...     259 

sous      236,  240 

Tringa  striata 

...     253 

ireola  228,  231 

Tringa  subarquata 

247,  260 

)ttis     236,239 

Tringa  subminuta  minutilla 

...     271 

tiferus  240 

Tringa  temminckii  ... 

...     273 

poleucus        ...        222,  226 

Tringa  vanellus 

...     162 

icularius         ...        223,  225 

Tringites 

276 

anoleucus        ...          ...     231 

Tringites  rufesceus 

277,  454 

anurus...          ...          ...     202 

Tringites  sub-ruficollis 

...     277 

ropus   ...         ...         ...     217 

Tringoides  hypoleucus 

...     222 

us          198 

Tringoides  macularia 

...     225 

tarius    218,  219 

Tryngites  rufescens 

...     277 

tarius  cinnamomeus  ...     219 

Tufted  Duck            

...     398 

gnatilis...          ...         ...     240 

Tufted  Ducks,  Scaups  and 

...     394 

xxiii,  242 

Turnstone 

176 

linata   ...         ...         ...     2G4 

Turnstones  ... 

175 

linata  pecfcoralis          ...     261 

Turturinae    ... 

17 

na       250 

Turtur           

xx,  18 

ia  pacifica        ...         ...     251 

Turtur  arenicola 

...       20 

470 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


w 


Turtur  auritus    

...       19 

Whimbrel,  Common 

...     192 

Turtur  communis  ... 

...       19 

Whimbrel,  Eskimo 

...     195 

Turtur  ferrago 

...19,20 

White-bellied  Brent  Goose 

...     333 

Turtur  isabellinus  ... 

...       19 

White-eyed  Pochard 

...     388 

Turtur  orientalis  

...19,22 

White-fronted  Goose 

...     325 

Turtur  stimpsoni    ... 

...       22 

White-fronted  Goose,  Lesser 

...     327 

Turtur  turtur 

...       19 

Whooper  Swan 

...     305 

Turtur  vulgaris       ... 

19 

Wigeon 

358 

Tympanuchus  americanus 

...       XXV 

Wigeon,  American  ... 

...     361 

Wigeons 

357 

Woodcock    ... 

284 

Woodcocks  ... 

.  .     283 

161 

Wood  Sandpiper 

...     228 

Vanellus  cristatus 

...     162 

Vanellus  gregarius 

165,  454 

Vanellus  vanellus  ... 

..      162 

Y 

Vanellus  vulgaris   ... 

...     162 

Velvet  Scoter 

...     423 

Yellow-legged  Sandpiper  ... 

...     231 

W 

z 

Water  Hen  

83 

Water  Hens... 

82 

Zanornia  nai'va 

67 

PRINTED   BY  MESSRS.  PAWSON  AND  BRAILSFOHD,  MULBERRY  STREET,  SHEFFIELD. 


471 


LIST  OF  SUBSCRIBERS. 

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472 


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LIST   OF   SUBSCRIBEES. 


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Lea  Miss  A.  M. 
Lewis  Fred.  W. 
Lister-Kaye  Cecil 
Lloyd  F.  G. 
Lloyd  G.  W. 
Lloyd  E.  S. 
Locke  E.  G.  Edwal 
Lockley  James  H. 
Logan  Will. 
Long  Loftus  S. 
Longden  G.  A. 
Longman  Charles  James 
Low  William 
Lowe  Percy  T. 
Lowther  J.  E. 
Loyd  Mrs. 

Lubbock  Sir  John,  BAKT. 
Lucas  Thomas  H. 
Luckock  E.  H.  M. 
Luke  Eobert 

Macdonald  James 
Macgregor  Lady  Helen,  of 

Macgregor 
Mackenzie  Sir  Kenneth  J., 

BAKT. 

Mackenzie  W.  Dalziel 
Macnabb  Sir  Donald  C. 


Magee  Thomas 

Mander  S.  Theo 

Mar  and  Kellie  Earl  of 

Marc  Alexander 

Martin  F.  J.,  w.s.,  P.B.S.E. 

Martin  Herbert  J. 

Mason  Thomas 

Massey  Herbert 

Matcham  — 

Matthews  Egbert  Owen 

McKenna  Leopold 

Mellowes  Joseph 

Melrose  James 

Merttens  Fredk. 

Milne  Clifford  D. 

Mitchell  Library,  Glasgow 

—per  F.  T.  Barrett 
Moore  Charles  W.  B. 
Mount-Cashell  Earl  of 
Mudford  A.  J. 
Murdoch  Archibald  Burn 
Mushet  Henry 

Nash  Frederick  Wm. 
Needham  George  A. 
Nettlefold  Oswald 
Nevitt-BennettEowland,  J.P. 
Nicholls  H.  W. 
Nichols  Walter  B. 
Norcliffe  Thomas 
Norman  J.  Hurley 

Oakley  Fred  J.  W. 
Ogilvie  G.  Stuart 
Olivier    Lieut. -Colonel 

H.  D.,  E.E. 
Ormerod  G.  F. 
Ormerod  Wm.,  J.P. 
Osmond  Alfred  Thomas 

Paine  W. 

Parke  Herbert  T. 

Parr  Captain  A.  A.  C.,  K.N. 

Pawson  Charles 

Pawson  Henry  W. 

Payne  A.  L. 


474 


LIST   OF   SUBSCRIBERS. 


Pearce  Sir  William  G.,BAKT. 

Pease  John  W. 

Peele     Lieut.-Colonel     E. 

Cresswell 
Pehrson  A.  P. 
'  Pickin  J.  R. 

Pilkington  Sir  George,  M.P. 
Potts  J.  L. 
Pownall  J. 

Poyser  Edwin  J.,  F.Z.S. 
Proctor  John  Henry 

Reading   Public  Library— 
per  W.  H.  Greenhough 
Rees  W.  G. 
Rickards  A.  W. 
Rickman  S. 

Riddell  The  Lady  Evelyn 
Rider  W.  H. 
Ritson  U.  A. 
Roberts  Norman  B. 
Ronaldson  Thos.  P. 
Roscoe  William  M. 
Ross  Rev.  James  C.,  M.A. 
Rowe  George  D. 
Rowland  Harry 
Rumley  J.  G.  Mair 
Ruskin  Museum 

Sampson-Way    Major- 
GeneralNowellF.  U.,C.B. 

Sandford-Thompson  W.  J. 

Satterthwaite  Miss  Violet  A. 

Scarlett  Harry 

Schmettau-Ernest 

Schmettau  George  E. 

Selby  Dr.  Prideaux 

Sheffield  Public  Libraries — 
per  Samuel  Smith 

Sheffield  School  Board— 
per  J.  W.  Iliffe 

Shorter  J. 

Singer  G. 

Slater  William 

Smart  Mrs.  F.  G. 

Smelt  Sydney 


Smith  Gerard 

Smith  Commander  Hamil- 
ton, E.N. 

Smith  Herbert  Le  Blanc 
Smith  Joshua,  J.P. 
Smith-Barry    Right    Hon. 

A.H.,  M.P. 
St.  Aubyn  Edward 
St.  Aubyn  The  Hon.  Piers 
St.  Martin's  Public  Library 

• — -per  Thomas  Mason 
Stansfeld  Raywood  M. 
Steel  Matthew,  J.P. 
Stewart  H.  G.  Murray 
Stokes  Dr.  John 
Stuart  W.  D. 
Swan  C.  A. 
Swithinbank  Harold 

Talbot  Major-General  The 

Hon.  R. 

Tasker  R.  Charles 
Tatton  Thos.  E. 
Thomas  Dr.  G.  Danford 
Thomas  William 
Thomlinson  Wm. 
Thompson  J.  Stanley 
Thompson  Richard 
Thompson  R.  Heywood 
Tipler  Wm.  Francis 
Tite  C. 

Toll  Walter  V. 
Tower  Christopher  J.  H. 
Toynbee  Walter  T. 

Trail  John  Arbuthnott,  M.A., 
LL.B.,  w.s. 

Trechmann  Charles  O.,j. p., 

PH.D.,  F.G.8. 

Trevor  Mrs. 
Turnbull  Herbert  M. 
Turner  Benjamin,  M.I. A. 
Turner  Lieut.-Colonel  H. 

Underbill  Chas.  F. 

Van-Kempen  Chas. 
Vaux  Edwin 


Venables  Rowland  George 
Vereker  Captain  J.  W. 

Waddingham  John 

Wade  E.  S. 

Wake  Miss 

Wakeman  Sir  Offley,  BAKT. 

Walker  James 

Wallace  Edward  I.,  M.D.,  J.P. 

Wallis  W.  L.,  J.P. 

Walter  Godfrey 

Ward  S.  H. 

Watson  Innes 

Watson  Lieut.-Colonel 
J.  Stanley 

Wayne  R.  S. 
Welby  Edwd.  M.  E. 
Welch  James  Kemp 
Wheeley  J.  S. 
White  Edward 
White  William 
Whitton  R. 
Wiggin  Henry  A. 
Wightman  A. 
Wilkins  T.  B. 
Wilkinson  C.  J. 
Williams  M.  Scott 
Williamson  G.  H. 
Wilmot-Sitwell  E.  S. 
Wilson  Rev.  Herbert 
Wilson  James 
Wilson  John  George,  M.A. 
Wintle  Dr.  Henry 
Wiseman  Edmund 
Wood  E.  T. 
Wood  J.  B. 
Wood  W.  H. 
Woodiwiss  T.  W. 
Woods  Herbert 

Worsfold  T.  Cato,  F.K.  HIST. 
s.,  &o. 

Wragg  Joseph 

Young  Harold  E. 
Young  Henry 
Young  Henry  S. 


LIST   OF  SUBSCRIBERS. 


475 


IN    ADDITION    TO    THE    PREVIOUS    LISTS    THEKE    AEE 


TRADE   SUBSCRIBERS, 


MANY     OF     WHOM     TAKE     A     LARGE     NUMBER     OF     COPIES. 


THE    FOLLOWING    ARE    THE    PRINCIPAL  I  — 


Annandale  R.  C.,  9,  Queen  street,  Hull. 
Army    and    Navy    (Jo-operative    Society 
Limited,  London. 

Bagguley  G.  T.,  Newcasfcle-under-Lyme. 
Bain  James,  1,  Haymarket,  London,  W. 
Boardman  A.,  Bishop's  Stortford. 
Brown    William,    26,    Princes    Street, 

Edinburgh. 
Bumpus    J.    &   E.    Limited,    350    New 

Oxford  Street,  London. 
Brown    A.    &   Co.,    83,     Union    Street, 

Aberdeen. 

Coates  E.  W.,  Huddersfield. 

Commin    James  G.,  230,  High    Street, 

Exeter. 
Cornish  Bros. ,37,  New  Street,  Birmingham. 

Denny  A.  &  P.,  304,  Strand,  London,  W.C. 
Dodgson  Joseph,  68,  Albion  Street,  Leeds. 
Douglas  &  Foulis,  9,  Castle  Street, 

Edinburgh. 
Dulau  &  Co.,  Soho  Square,  London,  W. 

Eland  Henry  S.,  High  Street,  Exeter. 
Elliot    Andrew,     17,    Princes     Street, 
Edinburgh. 


Ellis  &  Elvey,    29,   New   Bond   Street, 
London 

Forrester  Robert,    1,    Royal    Exchange 
Square,  Glasgow. 

Goddard  &  Son,  Hull. 

Goulden  &  Curry,  Tunbridge  Wells. 

Grant  Bros  ,  Kingussie. 

Harrison  &  Sons,  59,  Pall  Mall,  London, 

W.C. 

Harwood  James,  Tenant  Street,  Derby. 
Hatchards,  Piccadilly,  London,  W. 

Jackson  Richard,  16  and  17,  Commercial 

Street,  Leeds. 
Johnston  George  P.,  33,  George  Street, 

Edinburgh. 
Jones  &  Evans,  77,  Queen  Street,  London, 

B.C. 
Joyce  Charles,  52,  High  Street,  Newport, 

Mon. 

Lebegue  &  Co.,  Bruxelles. 
Low    Sampson,    Marston   &  Co.   Limited, 
St.  Dunstan's  House,  London,  E.G. 

Marsden  H.  W.,  Clifton,  Bristol. 


476 


LIST   OF   SUBSCRIBERS. 


Maurice  A.  &  Co.,  Bedford  Street,  Strand, 

London. 
Mutton  Fredk.,  Derngate,  Northampton. 

Porter  R.  H.,  7,  Princes  Street,  London.W. 
Quaritch  B.,  15,  Piccadilly,  London. 

Ramage   John    &   Co.,   4,   Creed   Lane, 

London,  E.G. 
Rhodes  W.  M.,  113,  Cannon  Street, 

London,  E.G. 
Robson  &  Co.,  23,  Coventry  Street, 

Piccadilly,  London. 

Sherratt   &   Hughes,    St.    Ann's  Street, 

Manchester. 

Simpkin,  Marshall  &  Co.  Limited,  London. 
Smith    William   J.,    41,   North    Street, 

Brighton . 

Sotheran  H.  &  Co.,  37,  Piccadilly,  London. 
Spineaux  &  Co.,  Bruxelles. 
Stanford  E.,  26  and  27,  Cockspur  Street, 

London,  E.G. 
Suckling  &  Co.  Garrick  Street,  London, 

W.C. 


Sugdon  W.  H.,  Wednesday  Market, 
Beverley. 

Thomas  Clifford,  202,  High  Street,  Lincoln. 

Ward  Rowland,  Limited,  166,  Piccadilly, 

London,  W. 
Watkins  &  Doncaster,  36,  Strand,  London, 

W.C. 
Wheldon  John  &  Co.,  38,  Great  Queen 

Street,  London,  W.C. 
Whittaker  James   W.,    67,    Wellington 

Street,  Accrington. 

Wigley  J.  M.,  67,  Market  Street,  Lancaster. 
Williams  &  Norgate,  Edinburgh. 
Williams  &  Norgate,  London. 
Winterburn  George,  65,  Deansgate,  Bolton. 
Woodall   Charles,    14,    Nevill    Street, 

Southport. 

Young  Henry  &  Sons,  12,  South  Castle 

Street,  Liverpool. 
Young's  Library,  36,  Kensington  High 

Street,  London. 


OVERDUE. 


21-100m-8,'34 


811986 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY