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GIFT  OF 
John  H,   Mee 


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A 


^nMthA  %"  (Ml   thui  u-i^ 


STUDENT'S    HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND 


WORKS 


SAMUEL  RAWSON  GARDINER,   D.C.L.  LL.D. 

HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND,  from  the  Accession  of  James  I. 

to  the  Outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,   1603-1642.     10  vols,  crown  8vo. 

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WHAT  GUNPOWDER   PLOT  WAS  :   a  Reply  to   Father 

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A  SCHOOL  ATLAS  OF  ENGLISH   HISTORY.      Edited 

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STUDENT'S 

HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND 

FROM   THE  EARLIEST  TIMES   TO    THE 
DEATH  OF  QUEEN   VICTORIA 


BY 

SAMUEL    R.  GARDINER,  D.C.L.,  LUD. 

LATE    FELLOW   OF    MERTON    COLLEGE,    OXFORD 
ETC. 


NEW  EDITION 


LONGMANS,     GREEN,     AND     CO. 

39     PATERNOSTER     ROW,     LONDON 

NEW    YORK,    AND    BOMBAY 

1902 

All    rights    reserved 


5  (^y 


GIFT  OF 


^hL  //"P/i^ 


PREFACE    TO    FIRST    EDITION 

The  present  Work  is  intended  for  such  students  as  have 
already  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  main  facts  of  English 
history,  and  aims  at  meeting  their  needs  by  the  use  of  plain 
language  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the  avoidance,  on  the 
other  hand,  of  that  multiplicity  of  details  which  is  apt  to 
overburden  the  memory. 

At  the  close  of  the  book  I  have  treated  the  last  eleven 
years,  1874  to  1885,  in  a  manner  which  precludes  all  expression 
of  my  own  views,  either  on  the  characters  of  the  actors  or  on 
the  value  of  the  work  performed  by  them  ;  and  something  of  the 
same  reticence  will  be  observed  in  the  pages  dealing  with  the 
years  immediately  preceding  1874.  We  have  not  the  material 
before  us  for  the  formation  of  a  final  judgment  on  many  points 
arising  in  the  course  of  the  narrative,  and  it  is  therefore  better 
to  abstain  from  the  expression  of  decided  opinion,  except  on 
matters  so  completely  before  the  public  as  to  leave  no  room 
for  hesitation.  Especially  is  this  rule  to  be  observed  in  a  book 
addressed  to  those  who  are  not  yet  at  an  age  when  independent 
investigation  is  possible. 

I  hope  it  will  be  understood  that  in  my  mention  of  various 
authors  I  have  bad  no  intention  of  writmg  a  history  of  litera- 
ture, however  brief.    My  object  has  been  throughout  to  exhibit 


79C412 


vi  PREFACE 

that  side  of  literature  which  connects  itself  with  the  general 
political  or  intellectual  movement  of  the  country,  and  to  leave 
unnoticed  the  purely  literary  or  scientific  qualities  of  the  writers 
mentioned.  This  will  explain,  for  instance,  the  total  omission 
of  the  name  of  Roger  Bacon,  and  the  brief  and,  if  regarded 
from  a  different  point  of  view,  the  very  unsatisfactory  treatment 
of  writers  like  Dickens  and  Thackeray. 

Those  of  my  readers  who  have  complained  that  no  maps 
were  to  be  found  in  the  book  may  now  be  referred  to  a 
*  School  Atlas  of  English  History,'  recently  edited  by  me  for 
Messrs.  Longmans  &  Co.  To  include  an  adequate  number  of 
maps  in  this  volume  would  have  increased  its  size  beyond  all 
fitting  limits. 

In  the  spelling  of  Indian  names  I  have  not  adopted  the 
modern  and  improved  system  of  transliteration.  Admirable  as 
it  is  when  used  by  those  who  are  able  to  give  the  right  sound 
to  each  letter,  it  only  leads  to  mispronunciation  in  the  mouths 
of  those  who  are,  as  most  of  the  readers  of  this  volume  will  be, 
entirely  in  the  dark  on  this  point.  The  old  rough  method  of 
our  fathers  at  least  ensures  a  fair  approximation  to  the  true 
pronunciation. 

My  warmest  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  George  Nutt,  of 
Rugby,  and  to  the  Rev.  W.  Hunt.  Mr.  Nutt  not  only  looked 
over  the  proof-sheets  up  to  the  death  of  Edward  I,  with  ex- 
cellent results,  but  gave  me  most  valuable  advice  as  to  the 
general  arrangement  of  the  book,  founded  on  his  own  long 
experience  of  scholastic  teaching.  The  Rev.  W.  Hunt  looked 
over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  remaining  proof-sheets,  and 
called  my  attention  to  several  errors  and  omissions  which  had 
escaped  my  eye. 

The  illustrations  have  been  selected  by  Mr.  W.  H.  St.  John 


PREFACE  vli 

Hope,  Assistant-Secretary  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  He 
wishes  to  acknowledge  much  valuable  assistance  given  to  him 
in  the  choice  of  portraits  by  George  Scharf,  Esq.,  C.B.,  F.SA., 
who  is  recognised  as  the  highest  authority  on  the  subject. 

I  am  indebted  to  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  for  permission 
to  engrave  two  of  the  portraits  appearing  in  the  following  pages 
— viz.,  those  of  Bishop  Fisher,  on  p.  393,  and  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  on  p.  410 — the  originals  in  both  cases  being  at 
Windsor  Castle. 

I  have  to  thank  Earl  Spencer  for  permission  to  engrave 
the  portrait  on  p.  362  ;  the  Earl  of  Essex  for  that  on  p.  476  ; 
the  Earl  of  Warwick  for  that  on  p.  403  ;  the  Earl  of  Carlisle 
for  that  on  p.  459  ;  the  Viscount  Dillon,  F.S.A.,  for  that  on 
p.  376  ;  the  Hon  Sir  Spencer  Ponsonby-Fane,  K.C.B.,  for 
that  on  p.  365  ;  Sir  John  Farnaby  Lennard,  Bart.,  for  that 
on  p.  463  ;  Dr.  Evans  for  those  on  pp.  2,  4,  6  ;  Edward  Huth, 
Esq.,  for  that  on  p.  387  ;  Mrs.  Dent,  of  Sudeley,  for  that  on 
p.  395  ;  H.  HucKS  GiBBS,  Esq.,  for  that  on  p.  419  ;  T.  A.  Hope, 
Esq.,  for  that  on  p.  487  ;  E.  B.  Nicholson,  Esq.,  for  the 
portrait  of  Lord  Burghley  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford, 
engraved  at  p.  479  ;  the  authorities  of  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge for  that  on  p.  477  ;  of  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  for  that 
on  p.  414  ;  and  of  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge,  for  that 
on  p.  567  ;  and  the  Treasurer  of  Christ's  Hospital,  London,  for 
the  portrait  of  Charles  H.  on  p.  579.  I  have  also  to  thank 
Mr.  John  Murray  for  permission  to  engrave  the  figures  on 
pp.  130,  150,  160,  166,  177, 188,  260  ;  Messrs.  Parker  &  Co., 
Oxford,  for  those  on  pp.  19,  51,  75,  91,  107,  128,  170,  192, 
197,  230,  245,  246,  247,  253,  409,  451  ;  Mr.  W.  Nives  for 
those  at  pp.  381,  409,  451  ;  Mr.  J.  G.  Waller  for  those  on 
pp.  219,  229,  292,  298,  515  ;  Mr.  Bruce  for  those  on  pp.  17, 
18,  21  ;  Messrs.  Poulton  &  Sons,  Lee,  for  those  on  pp.  7, 


vui  PREFACE 

132  ;  Mr.  G.  A.  Nichols,  Stamford,  for  those  on  pp.  311,  316  ; 
Mr.  G.  T.  Clarke,  for  that  on  p.  74  ;  Messrs.  Carl  Norman 
&  Co.,  Tunbridge  Wells,  for  that  on  p.  171  ;  Mr.  R.  Keene, 
Derby,  for  that  on  p.  318  ;  the  Rev.  H.  H.  Henson,  Vicar  of 
Barking,  Essex,  for  the  photograph  of  the  monument  of  Sir 
Charles  Montague  on  p.  507  ;  the  Science  and  Art  Department 
for  those  on  pp.  371,  440,  518,  612  ;  Mr.  W.  H.  Wheeler,  of 
Oxford,  for  those  on  pp.  319,  384  ;  Messrs.  Valentine  & 
Sons,  Dundee,  for  those  on  pp.  109,  206,  213,  238,  244,  276, 
355.  378,  485,  662,  666,  668,  683,  907,  919,  937,  942  ;  and  Mr. 
R.  Keene,  Derby,  for  those  on  pp.  466,  467,  469,  471. 


CONTENTS 

PART    I 

ENGLAND  BEFORE   THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST 


CHAPTER   I 

PREHISTORIC  AND   ROMAN   BRITAIN 


PAGE 

1.  Palaeolithic  Man  of  the  River-  19, 

Drift         ....  I 

2.  Cave-dwelling       Palaeolithic  20. 

Man          .         .         .         .  2       21. 

3.  Neolithic  Man       .         .         .  3       22. 

4.  Celts  and  Iberians        .         .  5       23. 

5.  The  Celts  in  Britain      .         .  6 

6.  Goidels  and  Britons      .         .  6       24. 

7.  Phoenicians  and  Greeks        .  7       25. 

8.  Gauls      and      Belgians    .  in 

Britain      .         .         .         .  8       26. 

9.  Culture  and  War  .         .         .  9    ; 

10.  Religion  of  the  Britons          .  10       27. 

11.  The  Romans  in  Gaul  B.C.  35  10       28. 

12.  Caesar's  First  Invasion.    B.C.  I 

55 II    i   29. 

13.  Caesar's     Second     Invasion. 

B.C.  54      .         .         .         .11       30. 

14.  South-eastern     Britain    after  31. 

Caesar's  Departure.  B.C.  54  32. 
-A.D.  43   .        .         .         .12    ,r33- 

15.  The  Roman  Empire     .         .  12   ,«i64. 

16.  The      Invasion     of      Aulus  35. 

Plautius.     A.D.  43    .         .  12       36. 

17.  The  Colony  of  Camulodunum  13 

18.  The   Conquests   of  Ostorius 

Scapula     .  -14 


Government    of     Suetonius 

Paullinus.     58  . 
Boadicea's  Insurrection.     61 
The  Vengeance  of  Suetonius 
Agricola  in  Britain.      78-84 
Agricola's   Conquests  in  the 

North 
The  Roman  Walls 
The  Roman  Province  of  Bri 

tain  .... 
Extinction  of  Tribal  Antago 

nism  ... 

Want  of  National  Feeling 
Carausius  and  Allectus.     28^ 

-296  .         .         .         , 

Constantius  and  Constantine 

296-337    • 
Christianity  in  Britain  . 
Weakness  of  the  Empire 
The  Picts  and  Scots      . 
The  Saxons  . 
Origin  of  the  Saxons   ,. 
The  Roman  Defence    . 
End  of  the  Roman  Govern' 

ment.     383-410 


17 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER   II 

THE   ENGLISH   SETTLEMENTS 


Britain  after  the   Departure 

of  the  Romans.    410-449  ?  26 

The  Groans  of  the  Britons    .  26 

The  Conquest  of  Kent.    449  ?  27 

The  South  Saxons.    477        .  27 
The  West  Saxon?   and   the 

East  Saxons      ...  28 

The  Anglian  Settlements       ,  28 

Nature  of  the  Conquest        .  28 

The  Cultivators  of  the  Soil    .  29 

Eorls,  Ceorls,  Gesiths  .         .  29 
The  Gesiths    and    the    Vil- 
lagers       .         .         .         -30 
II.  EngUsh  and  Welsh       .         .31 


^3- 
4- 

5- 

6. 

7- 
8. 

10. 


12.  The  Township  and  the  Hun- 

dred  31 

13.  Weregild      .         .         .         -32 

14.  Compurgation  and  Ordeal    .     32 

15.  Punishments         .         .         -32 

16.  The  Folk-moot     .         .         -33 

17.  The  Kingship       .         .         .33 

18.  The  Legend  of  Arthur  .         .     33 

19.  The  West  Saxon  Advance  .  34 
Repulse  of  the  West  Saxons  35 
The  Advance  of  the  Angles  .  36 
The  Kymry .  .  .  .36 
Britain   at   the   End   of   the 

Sixth  Century  .         .         .37 


20, 

21, 

22, 

-  23, 


CHAPTER    III 

THE   STRIFE   OF   THE   ENGLISH     KINGDOMS 


••2. 

*-3- 
4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 
-.8. 

9- 
10. 
•N.11. 
12. 
13- 

14. 
16. 


England  and  the  Continent  . 

vEthelberht's  Supremacy 

Gregory  and  the  English 

Augustine's  Mission.     597    . 

Monastic  Christianity  . 

The  Archbishopric  of  Can- 
terbury     .... 

Death  of  ^thelberht.     616  . 

The  Three  Kingdoms  op- 
posed to  the  Welsh  . 

^thelfriih  and  the  Kymry    . 

^thelfrith's  Victories   . 

The  Greatness  of  Eadwine    . 

Eadwine's  Supremacy 

Character  of  the  later  Con- 
quests      .... 

Political  Changes . 

Eadv^ine's  Conversion  and 
Fall  .         .         . 

Oswald's  Victory  at  Heaven- 
field 


46 


47 


38 

17- 
--18. 

39 

--19. 

39 

20. 

40 

21. 

41 

22. 

41 
41 

23- 

42 

-^24 

43 
44 

26 

—27 

44 

45 

28 

Oswald  and  Aidan 
Oswald's       Greatness      and 

Overthrow 
Penda's  Overthrow 
The    Three   Kingdoms   and 

the  Welsh 
The  English  Missionaries 
Dispute  between  Wilfrid  and 

Colman.     664  . 
Archbishop    Theodore    and 

the  Penitential  System 
Ealdhelm  and  Casdmon 
Bede.     673-735     . 
Church  Councils  . 
Struggle     between      Mercia 

and  Wessex 
Mohammedanism    and    the 

Carolingian  Empire  . 
Ecgberht's  Rule.    802-839    . 


49 

49 

50 
51 

52 
52 


CHAPTER    IV 

THE  ENGLISH    KINGSHIP   AND  THE   STRUGGLE   WITH 
THE    DANES 


-I.  The  West  Saxon  Supremacy     55 
2.  The   Coming  of  the  North- 
men  56 


3.  The    English    Coast    Plun- 
dered       .         .         .         -57 
,4.  The  Danes  in  the  North       .     57 


CONTENTS 


^.  Alfred's  Struggle  in  Wessex. 

871-878     ....  58 
— ^.  The  Treaty  of  Chippenham, 

and  its  Results.     878        ,  59 

*-  7.  .Alfred's  Military  Work        .  60 

,^8.  His  Laws  and  Scholarship    .  60 
9.  Eadward    the    Elder,     901- 

925 62 

10.  Eadward's  Conquests   .        .  62 


II. 

Eadward  and  the  Scots 

PAGE 

•     63 

'*«I2. 

^thelstan.     925-940 

•     63 

13- 

Eadmund      (940-946) 

and 

Eadred  (946-955) 

•     63 

14. 

Danes  and  English 

.     64 

IS- 

Eadwig.     955-959 

.     64 

^6. 

Dunstan 

•     65 

17- 

Archbishop  Oda  . 

.     65 

18. 

Eadwig's  Marriage 

.     67 

CHAPTER  V 

EADGAR'S  ENGLAND 


.1.  Eadgar  and  Dunstan.    959- 

975 67 

2.  The  Cession  of  Lothian        .     68 

3.  Changes  in  English   Institu- 

tions        .         .         .         .69 

4.  Growth  of  the  King's  Power    69 

5.  Conversion  of  the  Freemen 

into  Serfs .         .         .         .     69  4— 

6.  The  Hundred-moot  and  the 

Lord's  Court    .         .         .72 


7.  The  Towns  .         .         .  .72 

8.  The  Origin  of  the  Shires  .     tj, 

9.  The  Shire-moot    .         .  •     Ti 

10.  The     Ealdormen    and  the 
Witenagemot    .         .  -73 

11.  The  Land  .  .  .  .75 
>I2.  Domestic  Life  .  .  -75 
.13.  Food  and  Drink  .         .  -75 


CHAPTER   VI 

ENGLAND    AND    NORMANDY 


1.  Eadward  the  Martyr.     975- 

979 

2.  ^thelred's  Early  Years.    979 

-988  .... 

3.  The    Return  of  the    Danes. 

984. 

4.  The  Norman  Dukes.      912- 

1002  .... 

5.  Political    Contrast    between 

Normandy  and  England  . 
» 6.  Svend's     Conquest.       1002- 

1013  .... 

7.  iEthelred    Restored.      1014- 

1016 

••8.  Eadmund  Ironside.     1016    . 
9,  Cnut     and    the     Earldoms. 

1016-1035 
10.  Cnut's  Empire 
'II.  Cnut's  Government 
12.  The  Sons   of    Cnut.      1035- 

1042 


78 


79 


81    ..I 


81 


85 


14. 


17- 


82 

20. 

83 

^21. 

N-^2, 

83 

v-23. 

84 

84 

p*24. 

'25- 


Eadward  the  Confessor  and 

Earl  Godwine.  1042-1051  86 
The  Banishment  of  Godwine. 

1051  ....     87 

Visit  of  Duke  William.  105 1  88 
William    and    the    Norman 

Church  ....  88 
The    Return   and   Death   of 

Godwine.  1052-1053  .  89 
Harold's   Greatness.      1053- 

1066         ...  .89 

Harold  and  Eadward.     1057 

-1065  ....  90 
Death  of  Eadward.  ic66  .  90 
Harold  and  William.  1066.  91 
Stamford  Bridge  1066  .  93 
The    Landing    of    William. 

1066  .         .         .         .96 

The  Battle  of  Senlac.  1066.  96 
William's  Coronation.    1066.     98 


CONTENTS 


PART    II 
THE  NORMAN  AND  ANGEVIN  KINGS 


CHAPTER  VII 

WILLIAM   I.       1066— 1087 


1.  The    F*irst    Months    of    the 

Conquest.     1066-1067     . 

2.  The  Conquest  of  the  West 

and  North.    1067-1069  . 
>3.  The  Completion  of  the  Con- 
quest.    1070  .         .         .     103 

4.  Hereward's  Revolt  and  the 

Homage    of     Malcolm, 
1070- 1072 

5.  How  William    kept    down 

the  English     . 

6.  How  William    kept    down 

the  Normans  .         .         .     105 


l^M»»-II. 
«iLrtt2. 


103 


104 


--I5- 


Ecclesiastical  Organisation 
Pope  Gregory  VII. 
William  and  Gregory  VH. 
The   Rising  of   the   Earls 

1075 
The  New  Forest 
Domesday    Book.        1085- 

1086 
William's  Great  Councils 
The    Gemot    at    Salisbury 

1086 
William's  Death.     1087 


PAGE 

106 
107 
108 


no 
no 


III 
112 


113 
114 


CHAPTER    Vni 

WILLIAM    II.       1087 — IIOO 


I.  The  Accession  of  the  Red 

King.     1087   . 
'2.  The  Wickedness  of  the  Red 
King       .         . 

3.  Ranulf  Flambard 

4.  Feudal  Dues 

5.  Archbishop  Anselm     . 

6.  The  Council  of  Rockingham 


1095 
William   H. 
thers 


and  his   Bro- 


114 

"5 
116 
116 
117 

118 

118 


8.  WilUam      and      Scotland. 

1093-1094        .         .         .119 

9.  Mowbray's  Rebellion.   1095.     120 
to.  The  First  Crusade.     1095- 

1099  ....  120 
tfi.  Normandy  in  Pledge.  1096.  121 
12.  The  Last  Years  of  the  Red 

King  .  .  .  .121 
•13.  The  Death  of  the  Red  King. 

1100  .         .         .         .122 


CHAPTER    IX 

HENRY   I.    AND     STEPHEN 
HENRY    I  ,    IIOO— II35.       STEPHEN,    II3S— II54. 


■*»  I.  The  Accession  of  Henry  I 

IIOO 

^•2.  Invasion  of  Robert,     iioi 
■w3.  Revolt  of  Robert  of  BeMme 
1 102 


122 
124 


124 


-4.  The    Battle  of  Tinchebrai. 

1106  .         .         .         .124 

5.  Henry  and  Anselm.      iioo- 

1107  .         .         .         .125 

6.  Roger  of  Salisbury      .         .     126 


CONTENTS 


xiu 


PAGE 

Growth  of  Trade  .  .127 
The  Benedictines  .  .  128 
The  Cistercians  .  .  .129 
The  White  Ship .  .  .129 
The  Last  Years  of  Henry  I.  131 
Stephen's  Accession.  1135  131 
CivU  War  ....  133 
Stephen's  Quarrel  with  the 
Clergy.     1139  .         .     134 


15.  Anarchy.     1139  . 

16.  The  End  of  the  War.    1141- 
1148         .         .         .         . 

17.  Henry,  Duke  of  the   Nor- 
mans.    1 149   . 

4^18.  The  Last  Days  of  Stephen. 
1153-1154 


PAGE 
136 


137 


CHAPTER   X 

HENRY   II.      II54— 1189 


■NC. 

Henry's  Accession.     1154   . 

138 

IS- 

2. 

Pacification  of  England 

138  , 

*«6. 

3- 

Henry  and  Feudality  . 

140 

4- 

The  Great  Council  and  the 

-•17. 

Curia  Regis    . 

141 

»5- 

Scutage       .... 

141  i 

-«il8. 

6. 

Archbishop  Thomas.     1162 

142 

-f- 

Breach  between  Henry  and 

19- 

Thomas  .... 

143 

-.20. 

"■8. 

The  Constitutions  of  Claren  - 

■''  . 

*2I. 

don.     1164      . 

143 

9- 

The    Persecution   of  Arch- 

22. 

bishop  Thomas.     II 64    . 

145 

10. 

The  Assize  of    Clarendon. 

1x66         .... 

146 

^23. 

II. 

Recognitions 

147 

^24. 

12. 

The  Germ  of  the  Jury . 

147 

25- 

13- 

The  Itinerant  Justices  Re- 

vived      .... 

148 

.^26. 

14. 

The     Inquisition     of     the 

Sheriffs.     1170 

148 

27. 

The  Nobles  and  the  Church 
The   Coronation  of  Young 

Henry.     11 70. 
The  Return  of  Archbishop 

Thomas.     1170 
Murder      of      Archbishop 

Thomas.     11 70 
Popular  Indignation.     1171 
State  of  Ireland  . 
Partial  Conquest  of  Ireland. 

1166-1172 
Young  Henry's  Coronation 

and   the    Revolt    of    the 

Barons.     1172-1174 
The  Assize  of  Arms.    1181  . 
Henry  II.  and  his  Sons 
The  Fall  of  the  Kingdom  of 

Jerusalem.     1187    . 
The  Last  Years  of  Henry  II, 

1188-1189 
The  Work  of  Henry  II. 


149 

149 

149 

149 
151 
151 

152 


153 
154 
155 

156 

IS7 
157 


CHAPTER   XI 

RICHARD    I.       II89— II99 


1.  Richard  in  England.     11 89     159  j  ^7. 

2.  William    of    Longchamps.  [      8. 

1189-1191        .         .         .     159  I 

.3.  The  Third  Crusade.     1189- 

1192        ....     161 

►4.  The    Return     of    Richard. 

1192-1194       .         .         .     161 

5.  Heavy  Taxation .         .         .     162 

•3.  The  Administration  of  Hu- 
bert Walter,     1194-1198     163 


Death  of  Richard.     1199    . 
Church  and  State  under  the 

Angevin  Kings 
Growth  of  Learning    , 
The  University  of  Oxford 
Country  and  Town 
Condition  of  London  . 
Architectural  Changes 


165 

165 
167 
167 
168 
169 
170 


Loi.ci'caA., 


CONTENTS 


PART    III 

THE    GROWTH  OF   THE  PARLIAMENTARY 
CONSTITUTION.     1 199—1399 


^  A 

r/ 

CHAPTER 

JOHN.       TT99- 

XII 
-T2l6 

H 

PAGE 

PAGE 

€ 

/  '• 

The    Accession    of    John. 

- 10. 

John          Excommunicated. 

i 

1199        .... 

173 

1209        .... 

178 

ll 

2. 

John's      First    War     with 
Philip  II.     1 199-1200     . 

173 

^11. 

The   Pope   threatens    John 
with  Deposition.      1212- 

r 

♦^3- 

John's  Misconduct  in  Poitou 

1213        .... 

179 

f/ 

1200-1201 

174 

•«r2. 

John's  Submission.     1213  . 

180 

/ 

•.4. 

The    Loss    of    Normandy 

13- 

The     Resistance      of      the 

and  Anjou,    1202-1204    . 

174 

Barons  and  Clergy.    1213 

180 

5- 

Causes  of  Phihp's  Success  . 

176 

•^4- 

The    Battle    of    Bouvines. 

V6. 

The    Election    of    Stephen 
Langton    to    the    Arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury. 

15- 

1214        .... 

The  Struggle  between  John 

and  the  Barons.      1214- 

181 

1205        .... 

176 

121S        .... 

181 

•*7- 

Innocent  III.   and  Stephen 

^16. 

Magna  Carta.     1215  . 

182 

Langton.     1206 

177 

-•17. 

War  between  John  and  the 

8. 

John's    Quarrel    with    the 

Barons.     1215-1216 

184 

Church.     1206-1208 

178 

18. 

Conflict  between  Louis  and 

^9- 

England    under    an    Inter- 
dict.    1208 

178 

John.     1216    . 

184 

CHAPTER   XIII 

HENRY   HI.      1216— 1272 


T—  I. 

Henry    III.     and      Louis. 

1216-1217 

185 

2. 

The  Renewal  of  the  Great 

Charter.     1216-1217 

18s 

'-3- 

Administration    of    Hubert 

de  Burgh.     1219-1232     . 

186 

^4. 

Administration  of  Peter  des 

Roches.     1 232- 1 234 

188 

^. 

Francis  of  Assisi . 

190 

6. 

St.  Dominic 

190 

7- 

The  Coming  of  the  Friars. 

1220-1224 

191 

8. 

Monks  and  Friars 

191 

— .9- 

The  King's  Marriage.    1236 

192 

10.  The  Early  Career  of  Simon 

de  Montfort.     1231-1243     193 

11.  Papal     Exactions.        1237- 

1243        .         .         .         -194 

12.  A      Weak      Parliamentary 

Opposition.     1244  .         .     194 

13.  Growing  Discontent.     1244- 

1254        ....     195 
-14.  The  Knights  of  the   Shire 

in  Parliament.     1254      .     196 
15.  Fresh     Exactions.        1254- 

1257  .         .         .         .196 
-h:6.  The   Provisions  of  Oxford. 

1258  .         .         .         .198 


CONTENTS 


17,  The  Expulsion  of  the  For- 
eigners.     1258 

»i8.  Edward  and  the  Barons. 
1259        .         ,         .         . 

19.  The    Breach    amongst    the 

Barons.     1259-1261 

20.  Royalist  Reaction  and  Civil 

War.     1261     . 
^i.  The  Mise  of  Amiens.     1264 


PAGE 

^^2.  The  Battle  of  Lewes, 

199  ,^23.  Earl  Simon's  Government. 

I 264-1 265 

199    ^4.  The     Battle    of    Evesham. 

i  1265        .         .         .         . 

199  i   25.  The   Last  Years  of  Henry 
I  in.     1265-1272 

200  I   26.  General     Progress    of    the 
200    '  Country  .... 


PAGE 

1264      201 


203 


204 
206 


CHAPTER   XIV 

EDWARD    I.    AND    EDWARD   II. 


EDWARD   I,,    1272— 1307.       EDWARD   II.,    1307 — 1327 


*-    7 


The  First  Years  of  Edward 

I.     1 272-1 279 
Edward     L     and     Wales, 

I 276-1284 
Customs  Duties.     1275 
Edward's  Judicial  Reforms 

I 274-1 290 
Edward's  Legislation.    1279 

-1290 
Edward  as  a  National  and 

as  a  Feudal  Ruler   . 
The    Scottish     Succession 
1285-1290 
8.  Death  of  Eleanor  of  Castile, 
1290 
—  9.  The    Award    of    Norham 
I 291-1292 
10.  Disputes  with  Scotland  and 

France.     1293-1295 
i:c.  The  Model  Parliament.  1295 
_  12.  The     First     Conquest     of 
Scotland.     1296 

13.  The    Resistance    of    Arch- 

bishop Winchelsey.   1296 
-1297      .         .         .         . 

14.  The    '  Confirmatio     Carta- 

rum.'  1297  . 


208 


210 
210 


214  ,^1 


214 


215 


216 
218 


219 


*— 15.  Wallace's    Rising.       1297- 

1304        ....     221 

*-i6.  The    Second    Conquest    of 

Scotland.     1298-1304      .     221 

17.  The  Incorporation  of  Scot- 

land with  England.    1305    222 

18.  Character  of  Edward's  Deal- 

ings with  Scotland  .         .     222 
]~'I9.  Robert  Bruce.     1306  .         .     223 
I -20.   Edward's   Third    Conquest 
)  of  Scotland  and   Death. 

1306-1307        .         .         .     224 
Edward  II.  and  Piers  Gaves- 
!  ton.     1307-1312      .         .     224 

,**22.  Success  of   Robert    Bruce. 
i  1307-1314        .         .         .     226 

23.  Lancaster's       Government. 

1314-1322        .         .         .     228 
\   24.  A  Constitutional  Settlement. 

1322        ....     228 
1^25.  The  Rule  of  the  Despensers. 
i  1322-1326        .         .         .     228 

ii^26.  The  Deposition   and   Mur- 
;  der      of       Edward      II. 

I  1327        ....     229 


CHAPTER    XV 

FROM   THE  ACCESSION   OF    EDWARD    III.    TO   THE 

TREATY   OF   BRETIGNI.       1327— 1360 


1.  Mojrtimer's        Government. 

1327-1330 

2.  The      French     Succession. 

1328-1331 


f#i-3.  Troubles  in  Scotland.   1331- 

231  1336        .         .         .         .232 
—  4.  Dispute  with  France.   1336- 

232  1337        •         •        .        .      234 


xvi 


CONTENTS 


5.  Edward's     Allies.        1337- 

1338        .... 

6.  Chivalry  and  War 

7.  Commerce  and  War    . 

8.  Attacks   on  the    North    of 

France.     1 338-1 340 
"^  9.  Battle  of  Sluys.     1340 

10.  Attacks    on    the    West    of 

France.     1341-1345 

11.  The    Campaign  of    Crepy. 

1346        .... 

12.  The  Tactics  of  Crepy.    1346 

13.  The  Battle  of  Crepy.     Au- 

gust 26,  1346  . 
ji\.   Battle    of    Nevill's     Cross 

and  the  Siege  of  Calais, 

1346-1347 
15.  Constitutional        Progress 

1337-1347 


235 
235 
236 

237 
239 

240 

240 
241 

242 


242 


243 


16.  Edward's  Triumph.  1347. 
'  17.  The  Black  Death.  1348  . 
"  18,  The  Statute  of  Labourers. 

1349  ,  .  .  .  . 
19.  The    Statute  of   Treasons. 

1352  .  .  .  . 
-20.  The   Black    Prince    in    the 

South  of  France.  1355  . 
"21.  The     Battle     of     Poitiers. 

1356        .         .         .         . 

22.  The  Courtesy  of  the  Black 

Prince     .         .         .         . 

23.  Misery   of  France.      1356- 

1359  .  .  .  . 
"24.  Edward's     Last     Invasion. 

1359-1360 
-25.  The    Treaty    of    Bretigni. 

1360  .         .         .         . 


PAGE 
246 

248 
250 


252 


252 


253 


CHAPTER   XVI 

REIGN   OF   EDWARD   III.   AFTER   THE   TREATY  OF    BRETIGNI 


1360— 1377 


The  First  Years  of  Peace 

1360-1364 
The      Spanish      Troubles, 

1364-1368 
The  Taxation  of  Aquitaine 

1368-1369 
The  Renewed  War.     1369- 

1375 
Anti-Papal         Legislation 

1351-1366 
Predominance  of  the  Eng 

lish  Language 
Piers  the  Plowman.     1362 
Anti-Clerical     Party, 
371        ••         . 


7 

8.  The 


254 


rg.  The    Duke    of    Lancaster. 
1374-1376        .         .         .26c 

4i»io.  John    Wycliffe.     1366-1376     261 

254       II.  Lancaster    and    the    Black 

j  Prince.     1376.         .         .     261 

256       12.  The  Good  Parliament.  1376.     262 

"j— 13.  The   Last  Year  of  Edward 

256  '  in.     1 376-1 377      .         .     262 

14.  Ireland  from  the   Reign   of 

257  John  to  that  of  Edward 

II 264 

258  15.  The  Statute   of    Kilkenny. 

258  1367        .         .         .         .265 
16.  Weakness   of   the    English 

259  ;  Colony.      1367-1377       .     265 


CHAPTER   XVn 

RICHARD   II.   AND   THE   SOCIAL   REVOLUTION 
1377— 1381 


1.  The  First  Years  of  Richard 

II.     1377-1378        .        .     266 

2.  Wycliffe    and     the    Great 

Schism.     1378-1381         .     266 

3.  The     Poll    Taxes.       1379- 

1381        ....     267 

4.  The  Peasants'  Grievances    .     268 
.5.  The  Peasants'  Revolt.    1^81     268 


'-'  6.  The  Suppression  of  the  Re- 
volt        ....     269 

7.  Results    of    the     Peasants' 

Revolt     ....     269 

8.  Chaucer's  '  Canterbury 

Tales'      ....     270 

9.  The  Prologue  of  the  '  Can- 

terbury Tales '         .         .     270 


CONTENTS 


10.  Chaucer  and  the  Clergy 

11.  Roads  and  Bridges     . 

12.  Modes  of  Conveyance 

13.  Hospitality  and  Inns  . 


PAGE 

271 
272 

273 
274 


14.  Alehouses   . 

15.  Wanderers . 

16.  Robbers  and  Criminals 

17.  Justices  of  the  Peace  , 


PAGE 

274 

274 

275 
277 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

RICHARD   II.   AND   THE   POLITICAL   REVOLUTION 
1382  — 1399 


1.  Progress  of  the  War    with 

France.     1382-1386        .     278 

2.  Richard's  Growing  Unpopu- 

larity.    1385-1386  .     278 

3.  The  Impeachment  of  Suffolk 

and  the  Commission  of 
Regency.     1386      .         .     279 
>4.  The   Lords  Appellant  and 
the  Merciless  Parliament. 
I 387-1 388       .        .        .     279 

5.  Richard's     Restoration     to 

Power.     1389 .         .        .     280 

6.  Richard's        Constitutional 

Government.     1389-1396    280 

7.  Livery    and     Maintenance. 

1390        ....     281 

8.  Richard's  Domestic  Policy. 

1390-1391       .        .         .281 


1      ^- 

I  - 
'\~... 

1 
13- 

14! 
IS- 

16. 


Richard's  Foreign  Policy. 
I 389- I 396       .         .        .     282 

Richard's  Coup  d'Etat.  1397     282 

The  Parliament  of  Shrews- 
bury.    1398    .         .         .     283 

The  Banishment  of  Here- 
ford and  Norfolk.     1398 .     283 

Richard's  Despotism.  1398- 
1399        .        .        .        .283 

Henry  of  Lancaster  in  Eng- 
land.    1399    .        .         .     284 

The  Deposition  of  Richard 
and  the  Enthronement  of 
Henry  IV,     1399    .         .     285 

Nature  of  the  Claim  of 
Henry  IV.       .         .         .286 


PART    IV 

Lancaster,  york,  and  tudor,   1399-1509 


CHAPTER  XIX 

HENRY   IV.   AND   HENRY  V. 
HENRY  IV.,    1399— 1413.       HENRY  V.,    1413—1422 


1.  Henry's    First    Difficulties. 

1399-1400       .        .        .     289 

2.  Death  of  Richard  II.     1400    291 

3.  Henry  IV.  and  the  Church  .     291 
-4.  The  Statute  for  the  Burning 

of  Heretics.     1401  .         .     292 
-5.  Henry  IV,  and  Owen  Glen- 
dower.     1400-1402  ,     292 
-6.  The      Rebellion      of      the 

Percies,     1402-1404        .     293 
c 


7.  The     Commons     and    the 

Church,     1404        .         .     294 

8.  The  Capture  of  the  Scottish 

Prince,     1405,         ,         .     295 

9.  The    Execution    of   Arch- 

bishop Scrope,     1405      .     296 

10,  France,     Wales,     and    the 

North.     1405-1408  ,     296 

11,  Henrv,    Prince    of   Wales, 

1409-1410  .         .     297 


CONTENTS 


^^3 

—15 
^16 


-.17 


12.  The  Last  Years  of  Henry 

IV.     1411-1413 
Henry  V.  and  the  Lollards. 

1413-1414 
Henry's      Claim      to      the 

Throne  of  France.  1414 
The  Invasion  of  France.  1^15 
The   March    to  Agincourt. 

1415  .... 
The    Battle    of  Agincourt. 

October  25,  1415    . 


299 


300 
301 

302 

302 


18.  Henry's  Diplomacy.    1416- 

1417        •         •         •         -303 

19.  Henry's   Conquest  of  Nor- 

mandy.    1417-1419         .     303 
^^o.   The  Murder  of  the  Duke  of 

Burgundy  and  the  Treaty 
i  of  Troyes.     1419-1420    .     304 

I   2T.  The  Close  of  the  Reign  of 

Henry  V.     1420-1422     .     306 


CHAPTER   XX 


HENRY   VI.    AND  THE   LOSS   OF    FRANCE. 


!422~i45: 


J3- 


—  I.  Bedford    and     Gloucester. 

1422        ....     307 
2    Bedford' s  Success  in  France . 

1.I23-1424        .         .        -307 

3.  Gloucester's      Invasion     of 

Hainault.     1424      .         .     308 

4.  Gloucester    and     Beaufort. 

1425-1428        .         .         .     308 

5.  The     Siege     of     Orleans. 

1428-1429        .         .         .     309       14. 

6.  Jeanne  Dare  and  the  Relief 

of  Orleans.     1429   .         .     310  A^S 

7.  The  Coronation  of  Charles 

VII.  and  the  Capture  of  16. 

the  Maid.     1429-1430     .     311 

8.  The  Martyrdom  at  Rouen.  17. 

1431        .         .         .         .312 

9.  The  Last  Years  of  the  Duke 

of  Bedford.  1431-1435    .     312 


10.  The  Defection  of  Burgundy. 
1435        .... 

11.  The  Duke  of  York  in  France. 
1436-1437 

12.  The  English  Lose  Ground. 
1437-1443 

Continued        Rivalry       of 
Beaufort  and  Gloucester. 


1439-1441 
Beaufort      and      Somerset. 

1442-1443 
The      Angevin      Marriage 

Treaty.     1444-1445 
Deaths   of   Gloucester  and 

Beaufort.     1447 
The   Loss    of   the    French 

Provinces.     1448-1449    . 


313 
313 
313 

314 
317 
317 
318 
318 


CHAPTER   XXI 


THE   LATER   YEARS   OF   HENRY  VL       1450— 146] 


1.  The  Growth  of  Inclosures   .     320 

2.  Increasing    Power    of    the 

Nobility  ....     321 

3.  Case  of  Lord  Molynes  and 

John  Paston    .         .         .321 

4.  Suffolk's  Impeachment  and 

Murder.     1450        .         .     322 
Jack      Cade's      Rebellion. 

1450 322 

^.  Rivalry  of  York  and  Somer- 
set.    1450-1453       .         .     323 

7.  The   First   Protectorate    of 

the  Duke  of  York.     1453- 

1454        .         •         •         -323 

8.  The  First  Battle  of  St.  Al 

bans   and    the   Duke  of 


\ 


York's  Second  Protector- 
ate   324 

9.  Discomfiture  of  the  York- 
ists.    1456-1459      .         .     325 

10.  The  Battle  of  Northampton 
and  the  Duke  of  York's 
Claim  to  the  Throne. 
1460        ....     326 

ir.  The    Battle    of  Wakefield. 

1460        .         .         .         .327 

12.  The  Battle  of  Mortimers 
Cross  and  the  Second 
Battle  of  St.  Albans.  146 1  328 
3.  The  Battle  of  Towton  and 
the  Coronation  of  Edward 
IV.     1461        .  .328 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    XXII 
THE  YORKIST   KINGS.       1461  — 1485 


1,  Edward  IV.  and  the  House 

of  Commons.     1461 

2,  Lossof  the  Mediaeval  Ideals 

3,  Fresh  Efforts  of  the  Lancas- 

trians.    1462-1465 

4.  Edward's  Marriage.      1464. 

5.  Estrangement  of  Warwick, 
1465-1468 
r-6.  Warwick's     Alliance    with 
Clarence.     1469-1470 
7,  The  Restoration   of  Henry 
VI.     1470 
■■^.   Edward    IV.    recovers    the 
Throne.     147 1 
9.  Edward    IV.    prepares    for 
War  with  France.     1471- 

1474  .... 
10.  The    Invasion    of    France. 

1475  .... 


11.  Fall  and  Death  of  Clarence. 
1476-1478-      .        .        -336 

12.  The  Last  Years  of  Edward 
IV.     1478-1483      .        .     336 

■<3.  Edward  V.    and   the  Duke 

of  Gloucester.     1483        .     337 

14.  Fall  of  the  Queen's  Relations. 
1483        .         .        .         .338 

15.  Execution  of  Lord  Hastings    338 
■^6.  Deposition    of  Edward  V. 

1483        .         .         ,         .340 
333       17.   Buckingham's       Rebellion. 

1483        .         .         .         .341 
-«8.  Murder  of  the  Princes.   1483    342 
19.   Richard's  Government. 

1484- 1485        .         .         .342 
i*«o.   Richard  Defeated  and  Slain 

at  Bosworth.     1485         .     343 


329 
330 


331 
331 


332 


332 


334 


334 
336 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

HENRY    VII.      1485— 1509 


'*^.  The     First     Measures    of  14. 

Henry  VII.    1485-1486  .     343 

2.  Maintenance  and  Livery     .     345    .^^5. 

3.  Level's  Rising,     i486  .     346 

4.  Lancaster  and  York  in  Ire-  16. 

land.     1399-1485    .         .     346 

.^5.  Insurrection    of     Lambert  ^—17. 

Simnel.     1487  .         .     347 

6.  The  Court  of  Star  Chamber.  •«ft8. 

1487        .        .        .         .348 

7.  Henry  VII.  and    Brittany.  <^i9. 

1488-149 2        .         .         .     348 

8.  Cardinal     Morton's     Fork.  20. 

1491         .         .         .         .349       21. 

9.  The  Invasion  of  France.  1492    349       22. 
—.10.  Perkin     Warbeck.       1491-  ~^3- 

1494        .         .         .         .350 
n.  Poynings'  Acts.     1494         .     350       24. 

12.  Perkln's   First  Attempt  on 

England.     1495      •         -351       25. 

13.  The    Intercursus    Magnus. 

1496        .         .         .         .351 


Kildare  Restored  to  the 
Deputyship.     1496 , 

Perkin's  Overthrow.  1496- 
1497        .... 

European  Changes.  1494- 
1499        .... 

Execution  of  the  Earl  of 
Warwick.     1499 

Prince  Arthur's  Marriage 
and  Death.    1 501-1502   . 

The  Scottish  Marriage. 
1503        .... 

Maritime  Enterprise    . 

Growth  of  the  Royal  Power 

Empson  and  Dudley  , 

Henry  and  his  Daughter-in- 
law.     1502-1505 

The  Last  Years  of  Henry 
VII.     1505-1509     . 

Architectural  Changes  and 
the  Printing  Press  . 


352 

352 

352 

354 

354 

356 
356 
356 
357 

357 

357 

358 


CONTENTS 


PART    V 


THE  RENASCENCE  AND    THE  REFORMATION 
1509 — 1603 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

HENRY  VIII.   AND   WOLSEY.      1509— 1527 


■*•  I. 
2. 

3- 
^4- 


—  5- 


The  New  King.     1509 
Continental  Troubles, 

1508-1511 
The  Rise  of  Wolsey.      1512 
The     War    with     France 

1512-1513 
Peace  with  France.     15 14 


6.  Wolsey's   Policy  of  Peace 

1514-1518 

7.  Wolsey  and  the  Renascence 

8.  The    Renascence    in    Eng- 

land       .... 

9.  The  Oxford  Reformers 


361 

363 
363 

364 
364 

364 
366 

367 
367 


10.  'The  Utopia.'     1515-1516. 

11.  More  and  Henry  VIII, 
*-^2.  The  Contest  for  the  Empire. 

1519        .         .         .         . 
-^3.  The   Field  of  the  Cloth  of 
Gold.     1520    . 

14.  The  Execution  of  the  Duke 

of  Buckingham.     1521    . 

15.  Another       French       War. 

1522-1523 

16.  The  Amicable  Loan.     1525 

17.  Closing  Years  of  Wolsey's 

Greatness.     1 525-1527    . 


PAGE 

367 
368 

369 

369 

369 

369 
372 

372 


CHAPTER   XXV 

THE  BREACH   WITH   THE    PAPACY.       1 527— 1 534 


1.  The  Papacy  and  the  Rena- 

scence    .... 

2.  Wolsey  and  the  Papacy 

3.  Wolsey's  Legatine  Powers  . 

4.  Henry  VIII.  and  the  Clergy 

5.  German  Lutheranism . 

6.  Henry's    Controversy    with 

Luther    .... 
Queen  Catharine  and  Anne 
^  Boleyn    .... 

^&  Henry's    Demand      for     a 

Divorce.     1527-1528 
9.  The  Legatine  Court.   1529  . 
^10.  The  Fall  of  Wolsey.     1529- 

1530        .... 
IT.  The    House   of    Commons 

and  the  Clergy.     1529    . 

12.  The  Universities  Consulted. 

1530        .... 

13.  The   Clergy  under  a  Prae- 

munire.    1530-1531 


^ 


374 
375 
375 
377 
377 

379 

379 

382 
382 

383 
38s 
385 
385 


-^14.  The  King's  Supreme  Head- 
ship acknowledged  by  the 
Clergy.     1531 

15.  The     Submission    of     the 
Clergy.     1532. 

16.  Sir  Thomas  More  and  the 
Protestants.     1529-1532. 

17.  Resignation  of  Sir  Thomas 
More.     1532  . 

18.  The   First  Act  of  Annates. 
1532        .... 

19.  The   King's   Marriage  and 
the  Act  of  Appeals.    1 533 

20.  Archbishop    Cranmer    and 
the  Court   at  Dunstable. 


1533        .... 

21.  Frith  and  Latimer.     1533  . 

22.  Completion   of  the   Breach 

with  Rome.     i533-i534- 


386 
386 
386 
388 
388 
388 


389 
389 

390 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE    ROYAL  SUPREMACY.      1534—1547 


-J.  The    Act    of     Succession. 

1534        •         •         •         -392 
_2.  The  Acts   of  Treason  and 

Supremacy.     1534 .         .     392 
3.  The  Monks  of  the  Charter- 
house.    1534  .         .         .     393 
-.4.  Execution    of   Fisher    and 

More.     1535  .         .         -     394 

5.  The      Dissolution     of    the 

Smaller         Monasteries. 
1536        .         .        •        .394 

6.  The     Execution    of    Anne 

Boleyn.     1536  .         .     395 

7.  The  Ten  Articles.     1536     .     395 

8.  The      Translation    of    the 

Bible  authorised.   1536    .     396 
— ^.  The   Pilgrimage  of  Grace. 

1536-1537        •         •         .396 

10.  Birth  of  a  Prince.     1537     .     397 

11.  The   Beginning  of  the  At- 

tack   on      the      Greater 
Monasteries.      1537-1538    397 

12.  Destruction   of  Relics  and 

Images.     1538        .        .     398 

13.  The    Trial    of     Lambert. 

1538        .        .        .         -399 


14.  The  Marquis  of  Exeter  and 

the  Poles.     1538     .         .     399 

15.  The  Six  Articles.     1539      .     399 

16.  Completion  of  the  Suppres- 

sion of  the  Monasteries. 
1539-1540        •         •         .400 
J  7.  Anne    of    Cleves    and    the 
Fall  of  Cromwell.  1539- 
1540        .         .         .         .400 

18.  Catherine      Howard      and 

Catherine    Parr.      1540- 

1543        •        •        ■         -401 

19.  Ireland.     1534    .         .         .     401 

20.  The    Geraldine    Rebellion. 

1534-1535        •         •         .402 

21.  Lord  Leonard  Grey.    1536- 

1539        .        .        .        .402 

22.  Henry  VIII.    King  of  Ire- 

land.    1541     .         .  404 

Sol  way  Moss.  1542  .  .  404 
War     with    Scotland    and 

France,  1542-1546  .  405 
The  Litany  and  the  Primer. 

1544-1545  .  .  .409 
The  Last    Days    of  Henry 

VIII.     1545-1547   .         .     410 


^3- 
24. 

25- 
r^6. 


^r 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


EDWARD   VI.   AND   MARY 


EDWARD  VI.,    1547— 1553.      MARY,    1553— 1558. 


■ — 'I. 

Somerset    becomes   Protec- 

12. 

Warwick     and     Somerset 

tor.     1547 

412 

1550-1552 

417 

-^. 

The    Scotch    War.      1547- 

The  Second  Prayer  Book  0 

1548        .... 

412 

Edward  VI.     1552 . 

418 

3- 

Cranmer's  Position   in    the 

13- 

The     Forty-two      Articles 

Church      of       England. 

1553 

419 

1547        .... 

413 

-r4. 

Northumberland's    Conspi 

4- 

Ecclesiastical          Reforms. 

racy.     1553     . 

421 

1547-1548 

414 

*>5. 

Lady  Jane  Grey.     1553 

421 

5. 

The   First   Prayer  Book  of 

i6. 

Mary    restores    the    Mass 

Edward  VT.     1549 . 

415 

1553        •         •         • 

422 

6. 

The     Insurrection     in     the 

17- 

Mary's     First     Parliament 

West.     1549  . 

415 

1553 

422 

7- 

Ket's  Rebellion.     1549 

415 

--18. 

Wyatt's  Rebellion.     1554 

423 

^• 

The      Fall    of     Somerset. 

^19. 

The  Queen's  Marriage 

423 

1549        .... 

416 

20. 

The  Submission   to  Rome 

9- 

Warwick    and      the      Ad- 

1554       .         .         .         . 

424 

vanced  Reformers.     1549 

416 

21. 

The  Beginning  of  the  Per 

lo. 

Latimer's  Sermons.     1548- 

secution.     1555 

424 

1550        .... 

417    - 

^2. 

Death  of  Cranmer.     1556 

42s 

xxn 


CONTENTS 


PAGE  PAGE 

23.  Continuance  of  the  Persecu-           t-2S.  War  with   France  and  the 

tion.     1556-1558    .         .     426  Loss  of    Calais.      1557- 

,24.  The    Queen's     Disappoint-  1558        .         .         .         .427 

ment.     1555-1556  .         .     426    ^^6.  Death  of  Mary.     1558         .     427 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 

THE  ELIZABETHAN   SETTLEMENT  IN   CHURCH   AND    STATE 
1558-1570 

End  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.     1563  . 

The  Jesuits 

The  Danger  from  Scotland 
1561-1565 

The  Darnley  Marriage, 
1565 

The  Murder  of  Rizzio.  1566 

The  Murder  of  Darnley, 
1567 

The  Deposition  and  Flight 
of  Mary.     1567-1568 

Mary's  Case  before  English 
Commissioners.  1568- 
1569        .... 

The  Rising  in  the  North. 
1569        .... 

The  Papal  Excommunica- 
tion.    1570     . 


— I. 

Elizabeth's          Difficulties. 

12. 

1558        .... 

428 

2. 

The  Act  of  Uniformity  and 

13- 

Supremacy.     1559  . 

429 

14. 

3- 

The   new  Bishops  and  the 

Ceremonies.      1559-1564 

429 

W5. 

4- 

Calvinism   .... 

430 

5. 

Peace  with  France.     1559  . 

431 

16. 

—6. 

The  Reformation  in   Scot- 

-i7- 

land.     1559    . 

432 

-^ 

The  Claims  of  Mary  Stuart. 

^18. 

1559        .... 

432 

8. 

The  Treaty  of  Edinburgh. 

19. 

1560        .... 

433 

9- 

Scottish      Presbyterianism. 

1561         .... 

434 

20. 

i^O. 

Mary  and  Elizabeth.      1561 

435 

II. 

The    French    War.     1562- 

"•GI. 

1564        .... 

436 

436 
436 

437 

438 
438 

439 

439 


440 


44] 


441 


CHAPTER   XXIX 


ELIZABETH  AND  THE  EUROPEAN   CONFLICT. 
1570-1587 


I.  The    Continental    Powers. 
I 566-1 570 

2.  The  Anjou  Marriage  Treaty 

and     the     Ridolfi    Plot. 

1570-157 I 
•5.   Elizabeth  and  the  Puritans. 


4.  Elizabeth  and   Parliament. 

1566        .... 

5.  A  Puritan  Parliament.  1571 
.^.  The  Duke  of  Norfolk's  Plot 

and    Execution.       1571- 
1572        .... 

7.  The  Admonition  to  Parlia- 

ment.    1572   . 

8.  Mariners  and  Pirates  . 

9.  Westward  Ho  !  . 

•**-io.  Francis  Drake's  Voyage  to 
Panama.     1572 
Ti.  The    Seizure  of  Brill,    and 
the  Massacre  of  St,  Bar- 
tholomew,    1572 


12.  The  Growth   of  the  Dutch 

442  Republic.     1572-1578 

13.  Quiet   Times   in    England. 
1572-1577 

443  14.  Drake's      Voyage.       1577-- 

444  1580 
15.  Ireland  and  the  Reformation. 

444  1547 

445  16.   Ireland  under  Edward  VI. 
and  Mary.     1547-1558    , 

17,   Elizabeth      and       Ireland. 

445  1558-1578 
The  Landing  at  Smerwick, 

446  and  the  Desmond  Rising. 

446  1579-1583 

447  \'^9-  The    Jesuits    in    England. 
1580        .... 

448  *|-^o.  The  Recusancy  Laws.   158 1 
21.  Growing  Danger  of  Eliza- 
beth.    I 580-1584    . 

449 


449 


450 


450 


451 


451 


453 


452 

453 
454 

454 


CONTENTS 


■AGE 


22.  The      Association.       1584- 

1585        .... 

23,  Growth  of   Philip's   Power. 
1584-1585        .         .         .456 

Babington's   Plot,  and   the 

V 

CHAPTER   XXX 


PAGE 

Trial    of    Mary  Stuart. 

1586  .         .  .         .457 
^5.  Execution   of  Mary  Stuart. 

1587  •         •  •         -458 


ELIZABETH'S  YEARS  OF  TRIUMPH.      1587— 1603 


-5- 
-6. 

7- 
8. 

9- 
10. 
II, 
12. 

^3- 


The  Singeing  of  the  King 
of  Spain's  Beard.     1587.     458 

The  Approach  of  the  Ar- 
mada.    1588  .         .         .     458 

The  Equipment  of  the  Ar- 
mada.    1588  .         .         .     459 

The  Equipment  of  the 
English  Fleet.     1588       .     460 

The  Defeat  of  the  Armada. 
1588        .         .         .         .462 

The  Destruction  of  the  Ar- 
mada.    1588  .         .         .     462 

Philip     II.      and     France. 

1588-1593       .         .         .464 

Maritime  Enterprises.  1589- 
1596        .         .         .         .464 

Increasing  Prosperity.         .     464 

Buildings    ....     465 

Furniture    ....     465 

Growing  Strength  of  the 
House  (Si  Commons        .     468 

Archbishop    Whitgift    and 


the  Court  of  High  Com- 
mission.    1583 

14.  The    House    of    Commons 

and  Puritanism.     1584   . 

15.  The  Separatists  . 

16.  Whitgift  and  Hooker . 

17.  Spenser,      Shakspere,     and 

Bacon     .... 

18.  Condition   of  the  Catholics, 

I 588-1603 

19.  Irish     Difficulties.       1583- 

1594        .         .         .         . 

20.  O'Neill    and    the    Earl    of 

Essex.     1 595-1600 . 
dBi.   Essex's   Imprisonment  and 
Execution.     1599-1601 

22.  Mountjoy's  Conquest  of  Ire 

land.     1600-1603    . 

23.  Parliament  and  the  Mono 

polies.     1601  . 
k24.  The   Last   Days   of    Eliza 
beth,     1601-1603    . 


468 

470 
470 
472 

473 
475 
475 
475 
476 
478 
478 
479 


PART   VI 

THE  PURITAN  REVOLUTION.     1603— 1660 


CHAPTER   XXXI 

JAMES   I.      1603— 1625 


Spain 


of 


•^i.  The     Peace     with 

1603-1604 

>_2.   The  Hampton  Court  Con 

ference.     1604 

3.  James  and    the   House 

Commons 

Gunpowder  Plot.  1604-1605 

The  Post-nati.      1606-1607 

Irish     Difficulties.         1603- 

1610 


5. 
6, 


481 

481 

482 
483 
483 

483 


7.  Bate's  Case  and  the   New 

Impositions.    1606-1608.     484 

8.  The  Great  Contract.    1610- 

1611        .         .  -484 

—9.   Bacon  and  Somerset.  1612- 

1613  .         .         .         •     486 

10.  The     Addled      Parliament. 

1614  .         .         .         •     486 

11.  The       Spanish      AlHance. 

1614-1617        .         .         •     488 


5CX1V 


CONTENTS 


■ — *  12.  The   Rise  of  Buckingham. 
1615-1618 
13.  The  Voyage  and  Execution 
of  Raleigh.     1617-1618  . 

14.  Colonisation     of     Virginia 

and  New  England.  1607- 
1620        .... 

,^ 15.  The     Beginning      of     the 

Thirty  Years' War.  i6i8- 
1620        .... 
16.  The    Meeting    of    James's 
Third  Parliament.     162 1 
..**-i7.  The      Royal     Prerogative. 
1616-1621 
18.  Financial  Reform.     1619    . 
ig.  Favouritism     and    Corrup- 
tion        .... 


CHAPTER   XXXII 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT  OF   CHARLES   L 
1625  — 1634 


-^20. 

The       Monopolies       Con- 

488 

demned.     1621 

494 

■■-tai. 

The  Fall  of  Bacon.     1621   . 

495 

489 

22. 

Digby's  Mission,  and  the 
Dissolution     of      Parlia- 

ment.    1621    . 

496 

489 

23- 

The  Loss  of  the  Palatinate. 

1622        .... 

497 

-24. 

Charles's  Journey  to  Madrid. 

490 

1623        .... 

497 

25- 

The  Prince's  Return.     1623 

498 

490 

26. 

The    Last     Parliament    of 

James  L     1624 

500 

492    . 

-27. 

The  French  Alliance  . 

501 

492 

28. 

Mansfeld's  Expedition,  and 
the    Death   of  James   I. 

494 

1624-1625 

501 

Charles  L  and  Bucking- 
ham.    1625     . 

Charles's  First  Parliament. 
1625        .... 

The  Expedition  to  Cadiz. 
1625        .... 

Charles's  Second  Parlia- 
ment.    1626    . 

The  P'orced  Loan.     1626    . 

The  Expedition  to  R6. 
1627        .... 

The    Five    Knights'    Case, 

1627  .... 
8.  Wentvv^orth    and    Eliot    in 

the  Third  Parliament  of 
Charles  L     1628     . 
"^9.  The  Petition  of  Right.  1628 
^o.  Tonnage    and    Poundage. 

1628  .... 
-€i.  Buckingham's  Murder.  1628 

12.  The  Question  of  Sovereignty. 

1628        .         .         .         . 

13.  Protestantism  of  the  House 

of  Commons.    1625-1628 


--s- 


--  5- 
6. 


^7- 


14. 

Religious  Differences.  1625- 

502 

1628        .... 

... 

-15- 

The    King's      Declaration. 

502 

1628        .... 

16. 

The  Second  Session  of  the 

503 

Third  Parliament  of 
Charles  I.     1629     . 

503 

17- 

Breach   betvi^een  the  King 

505 

and  the  Commons.    1629 

18. 

The  Constitutional  Dispute. 

506 

1629        .         .         . 

19. 

The    Victory    of    Personal 

506 

Government.     1629-1632 

20. 

Star  Chamber  Sentences. 
1630-1633 

508 

21. 

Laud's  Intellectual  Position. 

508 

1629-1633 

*i*22. 

Laud  as  the   Upholder  of 

509 ' 

Uniformity     . 

510 

23- 

The  Beginning  of  Laud's 
Archbishopric.          1633- 

510 

1634        .         .         .         . 

24. 

Laud  and   Piynne.     1633- 

511 

1634        .... 

5" 
512 


512 
513 


513 


514 


514 

515 
516 


517 


519 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

THE  OVERTHROW  OF  THE  PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT 
OF  CHARLES  h   1 634— 1 64 1 

1.  The   Metropolitical   Visita-  3.  Financial   Pressure.     1635- 

tion.     1634-1637     .        .     520    I  1637        .        .         .        .521 

2.  Prynne,  Bastwick,  and  Bur-  L#*^  Ship-money.     1634-1637    .     523 

ton.     1637      .        .         .521  ^5.  Hampden's  Case.  1637-1638     523 


CONTENTS 


Scottish  Episcopacy.  1572- 

1612        .        .        .        . 
The   Scottish   Bishops  and 

Clergy.     1612-1637 
The  Riot  at  Edinburgh  and 

the  Covenant.    1637-1638 
The  Assembly  of  Glasgow, 

and    the    Abolition      of 

Episcopacy.     1638 . 
The   First    Bishops'    War 

1639 
Wentworth      in      Ireland 

1633-1639 


:   12.  The  Proposed  Plantation  of 

524  Connaught 

13.  The  Short  Parliament.  1640 

525  i  "14.  The  Second  Bishops'  War, 
\  1640 

525.4-*5.  The   Meeting  of  the  Long 
Parliament.     1640 . 
I   16.  The  Impeachment  of  Straf- 
ford.    1641     . 
Strafford's    Attainder    and 

Execution 
Constitutional        Reforms 
527  1641        .        . 


526^ 


528 
528 

529 

529 

530 

530 

531 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  FORMATION   OF   PARLIAMENTARY   PARTIES   AND  THE 
FIRST  YEARS  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR.      164I  — 1644 


1.  The  King's  Visit  to  Scot 

land,     1641     . 

2.  Parties  formed  on  Church 

Question?.     1641     . 

3.  Irish  Parties.     1641  ■  . 

4.  The      Irish      Insurrection 

1641  ... 

-^  The  Grand  Remonstrance, 

1641 
6.  The  King's  Return.     164 
__7.  The   Impeachment    of   the 

Bishops.     1 641 
-8.  The   Impeachment   of    the 

Five  Members.     1642 
9.  The  Attempt  on   the  Five 

Members.     1642 
10.  The  Commons  in  the  City 

1642  ... 

.11.  The  Struggle  for  the  Militia, 

1642 
•12.  Edgehill     and      Turnham 

Green.     1642  . 

13.  The  King's   Plan   of  Cam 

paign.     1643^. 

14.  Royalist  Successes.     1643 


15.  The    Siege   of    Gloucester, 
532    I  1643 

I   16.  The  First  Battle  of  Newbury 

532  I  1643 

533  r  ^A  The    Eastern    Association 
I  1643 

533    ^i^-  Oliver     Cromwell.       1642 

1643 
).  The  Assembly  of  Divines. 

1643 
).  The    Solemn    League  and 

535  i  Covenant.     1643     . 

21.  The  Irish  War.      1641-1643 

22.  Winceby      and      Arundel 
1643-1644 

23.  The    Committee    of    Both 
Kingdoms.     1644  . 

536  •^24.  The  Campaign  of  Marston 
Moor.     16^4  . 

5.  Presbyterians  and  Indepen 

dents.  1644  . 
5.  Essex's  Surrender  at  Lost 

withiel.  1644 
7.  The  Second  Battle  of  New 

bury.     1644    . 


538 

539 

539 

539 

540 

540 
541 

542 

542 

542 

543 

544 

544 


CHAPTER   XXXV 

THE  NEW   MODEL  ARMY,      1 644— 1 649 


1.  The  Self-denying  Ordinance 

and    the    New    Model. 
1645 

2.  Milton's         '  Areopagitica. 

1644 

3.  The    Execution    of    Laud 
^        1645 


545 
54^ 
546 


Montrose  and  Argyle.    1644    546 

Montrose  and  the  High- 
lands.    1644- 1645  .         .     547 

The  New  Model  Army  in 
the  Field.     1645      .         .     547 

The  Battle  of  Naseby. 
1645        .        .         .        .548 


CONTENTS 


8.  The     Results    of    Naseby. 

1645 _       .         .         . 

9.  Charles's  Wanderings.  1645 
10.  Glamorgan      in       Ireland. 

1645-1646 
The    King's    Flight  to  the 

Scots.     1646  , 
Charles  at  Newcastle.    1646 
The   Removal  of  the  King 

to  Holmby.     1647  . 
Dispute  between  the  Presby- 
terians   and    the    Army. 

1647        .... 
15.  Cromwell    and  the    Army. 

1647        .... 
16.  The  Abduction  of  the  King. 

1647        .... 


548 
549 


549  J-^. 


550 

551 


553 


553 


23- 


55^24. 


554 


The  Exclusion  of  the  Eleven 

Members.  1647  .  .  555 
The  Heads  of  the  Proposals. 

*647  •  •  .  .555 
The    Kings   Flight  to  the 

Isle  of  Wight.     1647       .     556 
The  Scottish  Engagement, 
and  the  Vote  of  No  Ad- 
dresses.    1647-1648        .     556 
The    Second    Civil     War. 

1648  ....  556 
Pride's  Purge.  1648  .  .  557 
The  High  Court  of  Justice. 

1649  •         •         •         -557 
The  King's  Trial  and  Exe- 
cution.    1649 .         .         .     559 

Results  of  Charles's  Execu- 
tion.    1649     .         .         .     560 


CHAPTER   XXXVI 

THE  COMMONWEALTH   AND   THE   PROTECTORATE.       1649 — 1660 


^^.  Establishment  of  the  Com-  15. 

monwealth.     1649  . 
2.  Parties   in    Ireland.     1647- 

1649  .... 
^3.  Cromwell  in  Ireland.    1649- 

1650  .         .         .         . 
^0^.  Montrose  and  Charles  II.  in 

Scotland.     1650 
^  5.  Dunbar     and      Worcester. 

1650-1651 
^>^.  The  Navigation  Act.      1651 

7.  The   Dutch    War.       1652- 
^  1653        .... 

8.  Unpopularity  of  the  Parlia 

ment.     1652-1653  . 

9.  Vane's  Reform  Bill.     1653  . 
g^o.  Dissolution    of    the    Long 

Parliament  by  Cromwell. 

1653  .... 
^xx.  The     so-called    Barebone's 

Parliament.     1653 . 

12.  The    Protectorate,  and  the 

Instrument    of     Govern- 
ment.    1653    . 

13.  Character  of  the  Instrument 

of  Government        .         .     568 

14.  Oliver's  Government.  1653- 

1654  .         .         .         .569 


562    17. 

562    18. 

563  '  19- 

563  ' 

564  1  20. 

565  \ 
566^22. 

^23. 

566   24. 

566  x'25 
26. 

568  '-f^- 

^». 


The  First  Protectorate 
Parliament.     1654-1655 . 

The  Major-Generals.     1655 

Oliver's  Foreign  Policy. 
1654-1655 

The  French  Alliance. 
1655        .... 

Oliver's  Second  Parliament, 
and  the  Humble  Petition 
and  Advice.     1656 . 

The  Dissolution  of  the  Se- 
cond Protectorate  Parlia- 
ment.    1658   . 

Victory  Abroad  and  Failure 
at  Home.     1657-1658 

Oliver's  Death.     1658. 

Richard    Cromwell.     1658- 

1659  .... 
The  Long   Parliament  Re- 
stored.    1659. 

Military  Government.  1659 
Monk  and  the  Rump.  1660 
End  of  the  Long  Parliament. 

1660  .... 
The  Declaration  of  Breda. 

1660    .... 


570 
570 


571 

572 


572 


573 


CONTENTS 

PART   VII 

THE  POLITICAL  REVOLUTION.     1660— 1689 


CHAPTER   XXXVII 

CHARLES  II.   AND  CLARENDON.      1660— 1667 


"'i.  Return  of  Charles  IL    1660 
■a.  King  and  Parliament.   1660 

3.  Formation  of  the   Govern 

ment     1660   . 

4.  The   Political   Ideas  of  the 

Convention     Parliament. 

1660  .... 
"5.  Execution  of  the    Political 

Articles  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Breda.     i66o 

6.  Ecclesiastical  Debates.  1660 

7.  Venner's  Plot  and  its  Results. 

1661  .... 

8.  The    Cavalier    Parliament, 

and  the  Corporation  Act. 
1661        .        .        . 

9.  The  Savoy  Conference,  and 

the  Act  of    Uniformity. 
1661-1662 

10.  The  Dis.senters.     1662 

11.  The  Parliamentary  Presby- 

terians.    1662. 

12.  Profligacy  of  the  Court.  1662 
»i3.  Marriage  of  Charles  II.  and 

Sale  of  Dunkirk.     1662  . 


578  ^ 

-54. 

579 

IS- 

580 

16. 

17- 

580 

/ 

\. 

581 

583 

19. 

584 

20. 

21. 

585 

22. 

-*3- 

585^ 

^^. 

586 

25- 

586 

26. 

587 

27. 

The  Question  of  Toleration 

Raised.      1662-1663 
The  Conventicle  Act.     1664 
The  Repeal  of  the  Triennial 

Act.     1664 
Growing  Hostility  between 

England  and  the  Dutch. 

1660-1664 
Outbreak  of  the  First  Dutch 

War  of  the  Restoration. 

1664-1665 
The  Plague.     1665     . 
The  Five  Mile  Act. '    1665  . 
Continued     Struggle     with 

the  Dutch.  1665- 1666  . 
The  Fire  of  London.  1666 
Designs    of    Louis     XIV. 

1665-1667 
The  Dutch  in  the  Med  way, 

and  the  Peace  of  Breda. 

1667  .... 
Clarendon    and  the  House 

of  Commons.     1667 
The  Fall  of  Clarendon.  1667 
Scotland  and  Ireland.    1660 


587 
588 

588 


589 


589 
590 
590 

590 
592 

592 


593 

593 
594 

595 


y 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII 

CHARLES   II.   AND  THE  CABAL.      1 667— 1 674 


Milton  and  Bunyan    . 
Butler  and  the  Dramatists 
Reason  and  Science    . 
Charles  II.  and  Toleration 

1667 
Buckingham  and  Arlington 

1667-1669 
The  Triple  Alliance.      1668 
Charles's  Negotiations  with 

France.     1669- 1670 
The  Treaty  of  Dover.    1670 
The  Cabal.     1670 
Ashley's  Policy   . 
Buckingham's  Sham  Treaty 

1671        ... 
The  Stop  of  the  Exchequer. 

1672 


596       13- 

596 

598  ^\- 

598       15- 


599 
599 


^ 


600 

600 

602       19. 

602 

>^20. 
603 


The  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence.    1672  .         .         .     604 

The  Second  Dutch  War  of 
the  Restoration.     1672   .     605 

'  Delenda  est  Carthago.' 
1673        ....     606 

Withdrawal  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Indulgence.    1673     606 

The  Test  Act.     1673  .         .     606 

Results  of  the  Test  Act. 
1673        ....     607 

Continuance  of  the  Dutch 
War.     1673    .         .         .     607 

The  Duke  of  York's  Mar- 
riage and  Shaftesbury's 
Dismissal.     1673    .         .     608 


603       21.  Peace  with  the  Dutch,  1674    608 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    XXXIX 

danby's  administration  and  the  three  short 
parliaments.    1 67  5— 1 68 1 


4- 

-I; 


1.  Growing  Influence  of  Danby. 

1675        .... 

2.  Parliamentary  Parties. 

1675        .... 

3.  Tlie    Non-Resistance    Bill. 

1675        .... 
Charles    a    Pensionary     of 

France.     1675-1676 

Two  Foreign  Policies.  1677 

The  Marriage  of  the  Prince 

of  Orange.     1677    . 

7.  Danby's  Position.     1677     . 

""S.  The  Peace  of  Nymwegen. 

1678        .        .        .        . 

"  9.  The  Popish  Plot.     1678      . 

10.  Growing  Excitement.    1678 

11.  Danby's  Impeachment  and 

the    Dissolution    of    the 
Cavalier  Parliament. 

1678-1679 


610 

610 

611 

611 
612 

613 
613 

614 
615 
615 


616 


12.  The   Meeting  of  the   First 
Short  Parliament.      1679    616 

13.  The  Exclusion  Bill  and  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Act.  1679    617 

14.  Shaftesbury  and  the  King. 
1679        ....     617 

J  5.  Shaftesbury    and    Halifax. 

1679        ....     618 
16.  The  Divine  Right  of  Kings. 

1679        .         .         .         .619 
I    17.  The  Highland  Host.    1677- 
i  1678        ....     619 

;    18.   Drumclog    and      Both  well 
I  Bridge.     1679  •         •     619 

Jji^n-   Petitioners  and  Abhorrers. 
I  1680        ....     620 

20.  The  Second   Short   Parlia- 
1  ment.     i68o-i68x  .         .     620 

I   21.  The    Third    Short    Parlia- 
i  ment.     1681    .         .        .     621 


9' 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  LAST  YEARS  OF  CHARLES   II.      1681  — 1685 


Tory  Reaction.     1681  .     622  «^i 

'Absolom  and  Achitophel.' 
1681        ....     623 

The  Scottish  Test  Act  and 
the  Duke  of  York's  Re- 
turn.    1681-1682    .         .     623 

The  City  Elections.     1682  .     623 

Flight  and  Death  of  Shaftes- 
bury.    1682-1683    .         .     624 

The  Attack  on    the    City. 

1682-1683       .         .         .     624 

The  Remodelling  of  the 
Corporations.    1683--1684     625 

The  Rye  House  Plot.     1683     625 

The    Whig     Combination. 
1683        ....     625 
10.  Trial  and  Execution  of  Lord 

Russell.     1683         .        .     625 


6. 


19. 
20. 
21. 


Execution      of      Algernon 

Sidney.      1683        .         .  626 

Parties  at  Court.     1684       .  626 

Death  of  Charles  II.      1685  627 
Constitutional        Progress. 

I 660-1 685  .  .  .  627 
Prosperity  of  the  Country  .  628 
The  Coffee  Houses  .  .  630 
The  Condition  of  London  .  631 
Painting  .  .  .  .631 
Architecture  .  .  .  631 
Science  ....  632 
Difliculties  of  Communica- 
tion ....  632 
The  Country  Gentry  and  the 

Country  Clergy       .         .  633 
Alliance  between  the  Gentry 

and  the  Church       .         .  633 


1.  The  Accession  of  James  II. 

1685        .         .        .        .634 

2.  A  Tory  Parliament.     1685 .     636 

3.  Argyle's  Landing.     1685    .     636 


CHAPTER   XLI 

JAMES    II.       1685— 1689 


J-^>px^ 


t^: 


Monmouth's  Landing.  1685    637 
The  Bloody  Assizes.      1685     637 
The  Violation  of  the  Test 
Act.     1685      .         ,         .638 


CONTENTS 


Breach  between  Parliament 
and  King.     1685    .        .     638 

The  Dispensing  Power.  1686    638 

The  Ecclesiastical  Commis- 
sion.    1686     .         .         .     639 

Scotland  and  Ireland.  1686- 
1687        .  .        .     639 

The"  Fall    of   the     Hydes. 

1686-1687       .         .         .     640* 

12.  The  Declaration   of  Indul- 

gence.    1687  .         .         .     640 

13.  The  Expulsion  of  the  Fel- 

lows of  Magdalen.     1687     641 
An  Attempt  to  pack  a  Par- 
liament.    1687        .         .    641 
A    Second   Declaration   of 
Indulgence.     1688 .        .     642 


II. 


^4 


19. 


-Q 


Resistance  of   the  Clergy. 

1688  .  .  .  .642 
The    Trial    of    the    Seven 

Bishops.  1688  .  .  643 
Invitation     to    William    of 

Orange.  1688  .  .  643 
Landing  of  William.  1688  644 
William's       March      upon 

London.  1688  .  .  645 
A    Convention    Parliament 

Summoned.  1688  .  .  646 
The       Throne        Declared 

Vacant.  1689  .  .  646 
William   and   Mary   to   be 

Joint  Sovereigns.  1689 .  647 
Character  of  the  Revolution.    647 


PART   VIII 
THE  RISE  OF  CABINET  GOVERNMENT.      1689- 1754 


CHAPTER   XLII 

WILLIAM   III.   AND   MARY   II. 
WILLIAM   in.    1689— 1702.      MARY   II.    1689-1694, 


The  new  Government  and 
the  Mutiny  Act.     1689    . 

The  Toleration  Act  and  the 
Nonjurors.     1689    . 

Locke's  Letters  on  Tolera- 
tion.    1689 

Establishment  of  Presbyte- 
rianism  in  Scotland. 
1689         .... 

Killiecrankie.     1689    . 

The  Pacification  of  the 
Highlands.     1691-1692  . 

The  Massacre  of  Glencoe. 
1692         .... 

The  Siege  of  Londonderry. 
1689  .... 
9.  The  Irish  Parliament.     1689 

10.  Schomberg  sent  to  Ireland. 

1689         .         .         .         . 

11.  The    Bill    of    Rights    and 

the  Dissolution  of  the 
Convention  Parliament. 
1689-1690 


8. 


649  1 

650  I 
652  1 


652  4-1^- 
652 


653 
654 


18. 
19. 


654 


65s 


651 


Settlement  of  the  Revenue. 

1690  ....  656 
The   Conquest   of   Ireland. 

1690-1691  .  .  .  656 
War  with    France.      1689- 

1690  .  .  .  .657 
Disgrace  of    Marlborough. 

1691-1692  .  .  .  657 
La   Hogue,  Steinkirk,   and 

Landen.  1692-1693  .  658 
Beginning  of  the  National 

Debt.  1692  .  .  .  658 
Disorder  in  the  Government. 

1693  .  .  .  .659 
The    Whig    Junto.      1693- 

1694 659 

The  Junto  the  Beginning  of 

the  Modern  Cabinet  .  660 
The  Bank  of  England.  1694  660 
The  Place  Bill.  1694 .  .  661 
The  Second  Triennial  Act. 

1694  ....  661 
Death  of  Mary.     1694        .     66x 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   XLIII 
WILLIAM  III.  {alone),     1694— 1702 


1.  The   Liberty  of  the  Press. 

1695         .... 

2.  The  Surrender  of  Namur. 

1695  .... 

3.  The  Restoration  of  the  Cur- 

rency   and    the  Treason 
Trials  Act.     1696    . 

4.  Ministerial  Corruption. 

I 695-1 696 

5.  The      Assassination     Plot. 

1696  .... 
,^().  The  Peace  of  Ryswick.  1697 

7.  Reduction     of    the    Army. 

1698-1699 
Signature    and    Failure    of 

the  First  Partition  Treaty. 

1698-1699 
Break-up  of  the  Whig  Junto. 

1699         .         .         .         . 
The   Irish  Grants  and   the 

Fall  of  Somers.     1700 


PAGE 
663^ 
663 


14. 

664  j 
667      16. 


664 


vasrs. 


10. 


667 

667 

669  ^  •  20. 
■21. 

670  1. 22 


The      Darien     Expedition. 

I 698-1 700 
The  Second  Partition  Treaty. 

1700  .... 
Deaths  of  the  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester and  of  the  K-ing  of 
Spain.     1700  . 

A    Tory     Ministry.      1700- 

1701  .... 
The  Act  of  Settlement  and 

the  Succession.     1701 
The  Act  of  Settlement  and 

the  Crown.     1701    . 
The  Act  of  Settlement  and 

the  Ministers.     1701 
The  Tory    Foreign   Policy. 

1701  .... 
The  Kentish  Petition.  1701 
The  Grand  Alliance.  1701 
Death  of  James  IL  1701  . 
Death  of  William.     1702    . 


671 
671 

671 
672 
672 
672 

674 

674 

675 
676 


1jla>-" 


CHAPTER   XLIV 

ANNE.       1702— 1 7 14 


Marlborough  and  the  Tories. 
1702        ....     676 

Louis  XIV.  and  Marl- 
borough.    1702       .         .     678 

Marlborough's  First  Cam- 
paign in  the  Netherlands. 
1702-1703        .         .         .     678 

The  Occasional  Conformity 

Bill.     1702-1703      .         .     680  i 

Progress  of  the  War  in  Italy,  j 

Spain,     and      Germany.  j 

1702-1703        .         .         .     680 

Ministerial  changes.  1703- 
1704         ....     680 

The  Campaign  of  Blenheim. 

1704  ....     682 
Operations  in  Spain.     1704- 

1705  ....     682 
A  Whig  Parliament.     1705- 

1706  ....     684 
The  Campaign  of  1706  in 

the   Netherlands  and  in 
Italy.     1706    .         .         .     684 
Campaign  of  1706  in  Spain. 
1706         ....     684 


12 


The  Union  with   Scotland. 

1702-1707  .  .  .  685 
The  Irish  Penal  Laws  .     686 

Irish  Commerce  Crushed     .     686 
Gradual     formation     of    a 
Whig   Ministry.       1705- 
1708         .         .         .         .687 
Progress  of  Cabinet  Govern- 
ment.    1708    .         .         .     687 

17.  Progress  of  the  War.    1707- 

1708         .         .         .         .689 

18.  The  Conference  at  the  Hague 

and  the  Battle  of  Malpla- 
quet.     1709     .         .         .     690 

19.  The  Sacheverell  Trial.     1710    690 

20.  The  Fall    of    the    Whigs. 

1710  ....  691 
A    Tory     Parliament    and 

Ministry.  1710  .  .  691 
Brihuega  and  Villa  Viciosa. 

1710 692 

Overtures  to  France,     1710- 

1711  ....     692 

24.  I. iterature and  Politics.  1710    692 

25.  Jonathan  Swift    .        .        .     693 


16 


21 


23 


26.  The  Imperial  Election.   1711 

27.  The  Occasional  Conformity 

Act  and  the  Creation  of 
Peers.     171 1   . 

28.  The    Armistice     and      the 

Treaty  of  Utrecht.    1712- 
1713       .... 

29.  Terms    of    the    Treaty    of 

Utrecht.     1713 

30.  Effect    of    the    Treaty    of 


zom 

-ENTS 

xxxi 

PAGE 

PAGB 

695 

Utrecht  on  International 

relations  .... 

697 

31,   England    as    a   sea-power. 

695 

1713         .... 
32.   Position  of  the  Tories.    171 1- 

697 

1713        .         .         .         . 

699 

696 

33.  The  Last  Days  and  Death 

of  Anne.    1714 

699 

696 

34.   Politics  and  Art  . 

701 

CHAPTER   XLV 

TOWNSHEND,    SUNDERLAND,   AND    WALPOLE.       1714 — 1737 


George  I.   and  the  Whigs, 

1714  .... 
The  Whigs  and  the  Nation, 

1714 
The  Whigs  and  Parliament 

1715 
Mar's   Rising.     1715-1716 
The  Septennial  Act.     1716 
England  and  France.     1716 
The  Whig  Schism.     1716- 

1717  .  .  .  . 
The    Quadruple    Alliance. 

1718-1720 
The  Relief  of  the  Dissenters, 

and  the  Peerage  Bill.  1719 
The  South  Sea  Bubble.  1720 
The  Bursting  of  the  Bubble. 

1720-172 I 
Wal pole  called  to  the  Rescue, 

1721-1722 
Corruption  under  Walpole  , 
Walpole  and  Corruption 


702 
704 

704 

705 
706 
707 

708 

709 

710 
711 


712  :  25 


712 

713 
714 


15.  '  Quieta  non  movere '  . 

16.  The  Prime  Ministership 

17.  Walpole  and  Carteret.    1723 

-1724       ... 

18.  Wood's  Halfpence.     1724 

19.  The  Last  Years  of  George  I 

1724-1727 

20.  George   II.    and    Walpole 

1727 

21.  Breach  between  Walpole  and 

Townshend.     1730  . 

22.  Bolingbroke  as  Organiser  of 

the    Opposition.       1726- 
1732         .         .         .         . 

23.  The  Excise  Bill,     1733 

24.  The  Defeat    of  the   Excise 
Bill.     1733       . 

Disruption   of  the   Opposi- 
tion,    1734-1735     • 

26,  The  Family  Compact.     1773 

27.  Dissensions    in    the    Royal 

Family,     1737 


716 
716 

718 
718 

718 

718 

720 


720 

722 


724 


724 
724 


725 


CHAPTER   XLVI 

WALPOLE,   CARTERET,   AND   THE   PELHAMS.       1737— » 754 

1.  The    Reign     of    Common 

Sense       ....     726 

2.  Smuggling     in     the     West 

Indies      ....  726 

3.  Walpole  and  Spain     .         .  728 

4.  William  Pitt.     1738     .         .  728 

5.  Impending     War.       1738- 

1739         .         .         .         .729 

6.  The  Spanish  War  and  the 

Resignation  of  Walpole. 
1739-1742         .         .         .730 

7.  The     New  Administration. 

1742         ....     730 


8.  Carteret  and  Newcastle.  1742   732 

9.  Beginning  of  the  War  of 
the  Austrian  Succession. 
1740-1742        .         .         .732 

10.  Carteret's  Diplomacy.  1742- 

1744         •         •         •         -735 

11.  Carteret  and  the  Family 
Compact.     1743-1744     .     737 

12.  Carteret's  Fall.     1744 .         .     738 

13.  The  Broad-bottomed  Ad- 
ministration.    1744  .     739 

14.  The  Young  Pretender  in 
Scotland.     1745       .         .     739 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 

15.  The  March  to  Derby.     1745    74° 

16.  Falkirk  and  Culloden.     1746    740 

17.  The  Pelhams  and  the  King. 

1745        .        .        .        •     743 


PAGE 

18.  End  of   the  War.      1746- 

1748         .         .         .         .743 

19,  End    of     Henry    Pelham's 

Ministry.     1748-1754      .     743 


PART   IX 

THE  FALL   OF  THE    WHIGS  AND   THE  RISE 
OF  THE  NEW  TORYISM.     1754-1789 


CHAPTER   XLVII 

NEWCASTLE  AND   PITT.      1754— 1760 


Butler,  Wesley,  and  White- 
field.     1736-1754    • 
Fielding  and  Hogarth 
Newcastle,    Pitt,   and  Fox. 


in    America. 


1754-1755 
The    French 

1754        .... 
Newcastle's        Blundering. 

1754-1756 
The  Loss  of  Minorca.     1756 
Beginning     of    the    Seven 

Years'  War.     1756  . 
Ministry  of  Devonshire  and 

Pitt.     1756-1757 
Pitt's  Dismissal.     1757 
Nature  of  Pitt's  Popularity 

1757        .        •        • 
Coalition  between  Pitt  and 

Newcastle.     1757    . 
Military  Disasters.     1757 
Pitt  and  Frederick  the  Great 

1757-1758 
Fighting     in    France     and 

America.     1757-1758 
The  Campaign  in  Canada, 

1759 


745 
746 

746 

747 

748 
749 

749 

749 
750 

750 

751 
752 

752 

753 

753 


16. 


19. 


23- 


27. 


The  Conquest  of  Canada. 

1759-1760  .  .  .755 
The  War  in  Europe  ;  Naval 

Successes.  1759  .  .  756 
Progress     of    the    War    in 

Germany.  1759  .  .  756 
The    East  India  Company. 

1600-1698  .  .  .  758 
Break-up  of  the  Empire  of 

the  Great  Mogul.     1658- 

1707  .  .  .  .758 
The  Mahratta  Confederacy. 

1707-1744  .  .  .759 
Le     Bourdonnais   and   Du- 

pleix.  1744-1750  .  .  760 
Dupleix    and  Clive.     1751- 

1754  •  •  •  -761 
The  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta. 

1756  .  .  .  .762 
The  Battle  of  Plassey.  1757  762 
The  Battle  of  Wandewash 

and  the  capture  of  Pondi- 

cherry.     1760-1761  .     764 

Death  of  George  IL    1760.     764 


CHAPTER   XLVHI 

THE  BREAK-UP   OF  THE  WHIG   PARTY. 


1760  — 1770 


T.  Character   of    George  HL 

1760  ....  765 
2.  The  Fall  of  Pitt.  1761  .  766 
2.  Resignation    of    Newcastle 


and  the   Peace  of  Paris. 
I 762- I 763        .        .        .     766 
4.  The  King  and  the  Tories. 

1762-1763        .         .         .     767 


C 

:oAr7 

-£N 

TS 

xxxiii 

PAGE 

PAGE 

5. 

The  King's  Friends     . 

767 

12, 

Pitt  and  Burke.     1766 

772 

6. 

The   Three   Whig    Parties. 

13- 

The      Chatham      Ministry 

1763         .... 

768 

1766-1767 

773 

7- 

Grenville  and  Wilkes.   1763- 

14. 

American    Import    Duties 

1764         .... 

769 

1767 

773 

8. 

George  III.  and   Grenville. 

15- 

The     Middlesex     Election 

17^3-1764 

770 

1768-1769 

774 

9- 

The  Stamp  Act.     1765 

770 

16. 

'  Wilkes        and       Liberty. 

lO. 

The   Rockingham   Ministry 

1769 

774 

1765         .... 

771 

17- 

Lord  North  Prime  Minister 

II. 

The   Rockingham   Ministry 
and    the    Repeal   of   the 
Stamp  Act.     1766   . 

771 

1770 

776 

CHAPTER   XLIX 

THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE.      1770— 1783 


8. 


13 


1.  North  and  the  Opposition. 

1770         .         .        .        .777 

2.  North   and  the  Tea  Duty. 

1770  .        .        .         .778 

3.  The  Freedom  of  Reporting. 

1771  .         .         .         .779 

4.  Continued      Resistance     in 

America.     1770-1772       .     780 

5.  The  Boston  Tea  Ships.   1773    780 

6.  Repressive  Measures.     1774    780 

7.  The  Congress  of  Philadelphia 

and  the  British  Parlia- 
ment.    1774    .         .         .     782 

Lexington     and      Bunker's 

Hill.     1775      .         .         :     782  I 

Conciliatory  Efforts.       1775     783 

George  Washington  in  Com- 
mand.   1775  •       •       •    783  ! 

Progress  of  the  War.    1775- 

1776  .         .         .         .     784  i 
The  Declaration  of  Indepen-  \ 

dence  and  the  Struggle  in  j 

New    Jersey.     1776-1777     784  I 
French  Assistance  toAmerica. 
1776-1777        .         .         .786 

14.  Brandywine  and  Saratoga. 

1777  •         .         .         .786 

15.  The    French  Alliance    with 

America  and  the  Death 
of  Chatham.     1778  .     786 

i6.  Valley    forge.      1777-1778    787 


17.  George  III.  and  Lord  North. 

1779         .         .         ,         . 

18.  The  French  in  the  Channel. 


19. 
1 9  A. 


23- 


1779  .... 
English  Successes  in  America 

1779-1780 
Economical  Reform.  1779- 

1780  .         .         . 

20.  Parliamentary  Reform  and 

the  Gordon  Riots    . 

21.  The  Gordon  Riots.     1780  . 

22.  The     Armed      Neutrality. 
1780        .... 

The  Capitulation  of  York- 
town.     1781    . 

American  Success.     178 1    . 

The  Last  Days  of  North's 
Ministry.     1781-1782 

The  Rockingham  Ministry. 

1782  .... 
Irish    Religion    and    Com- 
merce.    1778  . 

28.  The  Irish  Volunteers.   1778- 

1781  .        .        .         . 
Irish    Legislative    Indepen- 
dence.    1782  . 

The  Shelburne  Ministry  and 
the  Peace  of  Paris.    1782- 

1783  .... 
Terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris. 

1783         .... 


26 


27, 


29, 


30- 


31 


787 

788 

788 

.789 

789 
790 

792 

792 
794 

794 

795 

795 

796 

796 

796 
798 


1.  The  Younger   Pitt 

^  1783         •         .         .         .799 

2.  Resignation   of    Shelburne. 

1783  .         .         .     799 

C 


CHAPTER   L 

PITT  AND    FOX.       1 782 — 1 789 

1782- 


3.  The      Coalition      Ministry. 
1783         ....     800 

4.  The     English    in     Bengal. 

1757-1772        •         •         .801 
b 


CONTENTS 


13- 


PAGE 

Warren  Hastings,  Governor 

of  Bengal.  1772-177^  .  802 
The  Regulating  Act  and  its 

Results.  1773-1774  •  3o2 
Hastings    and    Nuncomar. 

1775  .  .  .  .803 
War  with  the  Mahrattas  and 

Hyder  Ali.  1777-1779  •  803 
Cheyt  Singh  and  the  Begums 

ofOude.  1781-1782  .  803 
Restoration  of  Peace.  1781- 

1782  ....  805 
Hastings  as  a    Statesman. 

1783  .         .         ,         .805 
The  India  Bill  of  the  Coali- 
tion,    1783      .         .         .     806 

The  Fall  of  the   Coalition. 

1783  .         .         .         .806 
Pitt's  Struggle  with  the  Co- 
alition.    1783-1784  .     807 

Pitt's  Budget  and  India  Bill. 

1784  .  .  .  .808 
Pitt's  Reform  Bill.  1785  .  808 
Failure  of  Pitt's  Scheme  for 

a  Commercial  Union  with 
Ireland.     1785         .        .810 


18.  French  Commercial  Treaty 

1786 

19.  Trial  of  Warren  Hastings, 

1786-1795 

20.  The    Regency    Bill.     1788 

1789 

21.  Thanksgiving  at  St.  Paul's, 

1789        . 

22.  Growth  of  Population.  1700- 

1801 

23.  Improveme«ts  in  Agriculture 

24.  Cattle-breeding  . 

25.  The      Bridgewater     Canal, 

1761 

26.  Cotton-spinning.     1738 

27.  Hargreaves'  Spinning-jenny 

1767 

28.  Arkwright    and  Crompton 

1769-1779 

29.  Cartwright's      Power-loom 

1785 

30.  Watt's  Steam-engine.     1785 

31.  General      Results     of     the 

Growth  of  Manufactures  . 


PAGE 

810 

811 

811 

812 

813 
813 
813 

813 
814 

815 

815 

816 
816 

817 


PART  X 
THE   CONFLICT   WITH  DEMOCRACY.     1789-1827 


CHAPTER   LI 

ENGLAND  AND  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.   1 789— 1 795 


1.  Prospects  of  Pitt's  Ministry. 

1789        .... 

2.  Material  Antecedents  of  the 

French  Revolution  . 

3.  Intellectual  Antecedents  of 

the  French  Revolution     . 

4.  Louis  XVI.     1772-1789 

5.  The     National    Assemblv. 

1789  .         .         .      '. 

6.  England  and  France.   1789- 

1790  .... 

7.  Fox,  Burke,  and  Pitt.   1789- 

1790        .         .         .         . 

8.  Clarkson    and     the     Slave 

Trade.     1783-1788 


819 

820 

820 
821 


821 


822 


822 


823 


13- 


14. 


16. 


Pitt   and   the  Slave  Trade. 

1788-1792  .  .  .  823 
Rise  of  a  Warlike  Feeling 

in  France,  1791-1792  .  824 
The       French        Republic, 

1792  ....  824 
Breakdown  of  Pitt's  Policy 

of  Peace.  1792-1793  ,  825 
French     Defeats    and     the 

Reign  of  Terror.  1793  .  826 
French  Successes,  1793  ,  826 
Progress  of    the   Reign    of 

Terror.  1793-1794  .  827 
Reaction  in  England,   1792- 

1793  •         •         •         -827 


CONTENTS 


17.  End  of  the  Reign  of  Terror. 

1794         ....     828 

18.  Coalition  between  Pitt  and 

the  majority  of  the  Whigs, 
1794         ....     828 


PAGE 

19.  The  Treaties  of  Basel.  1795    829 

20.  The   Establishment   of   the 

Directory  in  France.  1795     829 

21.  The  Treason  Act   and  the 

Sedition  Act.     1795         .     830 


CHAPTER  LII 

THE  UNION   WITH   IRELANt)  AND  THE   PEACE  OF   AMIENS. 
1795— 1804 


1.  The  Irish  Government  and 

Parliament.     1785-1791  . 

2.  The  United    Irishmen  and 

Parliamentary      Reform. 
1791-1794 

3.  The  Mission   of  Lord  Fitz- 

william.     1794-1795 

4.  Impending  Revolution. 

1795-1796 

5.  Bonaparte  in  Italy.     1796- 

1797         .... 

6.  Pitt's  First  Negotiation  with 

the  Directory.     1796 

7.  Suspension    of    Cash    Pay- 

ments.    1797  . 

8.  Battle  of  St.  Vincent,     1797 

9.  Mutiny  at  Spithead.    1797   . 

10.  Mutiny  at  the  Nore.   1797    . 

11.  Pitt's    second    Negotiation 

with  the  Directory.     1797' 

12.  Bonaparte's   Expedition    to 

Egypt.     1798  . 

13.  The  Battle  of  the  Nile.   1798 

14.  Bonaparte  in  Syria.      1799  . 


83^ 


15- 


16. 

832 

17- 

832 

18. 

833 

19. 

20. 

834 

21. 

22. 

834 

1 

836 

23- 

24. 

25- 

836 

26. 

837 
838 
838 

27. 

Foundation  of  the  Consulate. 

1799- 1800 
An  Overture  for  Peace.  1799 
The  Campaign  of  Marengo 

and  the  Peace  of  Lun^ville 

18C0-1801 
The  Irish  RebeUion.     1798 
An  Irish  Reign  of  Terror. 

1798-1799 
The  Irish  Union.     1800 
Pitt's  Resignation.     1801    . 
The    Addington    Ministry. 

1801  .... 
Malta  and  Egypt.  1800  . 
The  Northern  Confederacy 

and  the  Battle  of  Copen- 
hagen.    1801  . 
The    Treaty    of     Amiens, 

1802  .... 
Rupture  of   the   Treaty  of 

Amiens.     1803 
The  last  Months  of  the  Ad- 
dington Ministry.     1803- 
1804        .... 


838 
840 


840 
840 

841 
842 
842 

843 
843 


844 
846 
846 

848 


CHAPTER   LHI 

THE  ASCENDENCY   OF  NAPOLEON.      1804— 1807 


1.  The     Napoleonic    Empire 

1804        .         .         .         , 

2.  A     Threatened      Invasion 

1804-1805 

3.  The  Trafalgar    Campaign 

1805 

4.  The  Battle  of  Trafalgar.  1805 

5.  The  Campaign  of  Austerlitz! 

1805 

6.  Pitt's  Death.     1806     . 

7.  The    Ministry    of    All    the 

Talents.     1806 

8.  The  Overthrow  of  Prussia 

1806 


849 

851 

851 
854 

854 
854 

855 

856 


9.  The  End  of  the  Ministry  of 

All  the  Talents.     1807    .     857 

10.  The  Treaty  of  Tilsit.    1807.     858 

11.  The  Colonies.     1804-1807  .     858 

12.  The  Overthrow  of  the  Mah- 

rattas.     1802-1806  .     859 

13.  Wellesley's  Recall.     1805    .     859 

14.  The    Continental     System. 

1806-1807        .         .         .     859 

15.  Effects   of  the  Continental 

System.     1807         .         .     860 

16.  The  Bombardment  of  Co- 

penhagen.    1807     .         .     860 

b2 


CONTENTS 
CHAPTER   LIV 

THE  DOWNFALL  OF  NAPOLEON.      1807— 1814 


I. 

Napoleon  and  Spain.   1807- 

II. 

1808         .... 

862 

2. 

The       Dethronement       of 

12. 

Charles   IV.      1808 

863 

3- 

The  Capitulation  at  Baylen. 

13- 

1808 

863 

4- 

Battle  of  Vimeiro  and  Con- 

14. 

vention  of  Cintra.     1808. 

863 

15- 

5- 

Sir   John   Moore's   Expedi- 

tion   and    the    Battle  of 

16. 

Corunna.     1 808-1 809      . 

864 

6. 

Aspern  and  Wagram.   1809. 

86s 

17- 

7- 

Walcheren    and    Talavera. 

18. 

1809        .... 

865 

8. 

Torres  Vedras.    1810-1811  . 

867 

19. 

9- 

The  Regency  and  the  As- 

sassination  of    Perceval. 

20. 

1811-1812        . 

867 

21. 

0. 

Napoleon  at  the  Height  of 

22. 

Povi^er.     i8n . 

868 

Wellington's        Resources. 

1811  .  .  .  .868 
Wellington's  Advance.  1811 

-1812  .  .  .  .869 
The  Battle  of  Salamanca. 

1812  .         .         .         .869 
Napoleon  in  Russia.     1812.     870 
Napoleon  driven  out  of  Ger- 
many and  Spain.     1813  .     871 

The   Restoration  of    Louis 

XVin.     1814  .         .     871 

Position  of  England.  1814  872 
War  with  America.     1812- 

1814  ....  872 
The   Congress    of    Vienna. 

1814-1815  .  .  .  873 
The  Hundred  Days.  18 15.  874 
The  Waterloo  Campaign  .  874 
The  Second  Restoration  of 

Louis  XVIH.  .        .     875 


CHAPTER   LV 

ENGLAND  AFTER   WATERLOO.       1815— 1827 


1.  The  Corn-Law  and  the  Abo- 

lition of  the  Property  Tax. 
1815-1816       . 

2.  Manufacturing        Distress. 

1816        .... 

3.  The  Factory-System.    181  ic- 

1816         .         .         .      ". 

4.  The    Radicals.     1816-1817. 

5.  Suspension  of  the   Habeas 

Corpus  Act.    1817-1818  , 

6.  A  Time  of  Prosperity.  1818- 

1819        .... 

7.  Renewal  of  Distress.     1819. 

8.  The  '  Manchester  Massacre. ' 

1819        .... 

9.  The  Six  Acts.     1819   . 

10.  Death  of  George  IH.    and 

the   Cato-Street    Conspi- 
racy.    1820     . 

11.  Queen      Caroline.        1820- 

1821    .... 


87s 
876 

876 
877 

877 

879 
879 

879 
880 


880 


12.  The  Southern  Revolutions. 

1820-1823        .        .         .882 

13.  Castlereagh    and    Canning. 

1822-1826        .         .         .882 

14.  National        Uprising        in 

Greece.     1821-1826.        .     884 

15.  Peel    as    Home    Secretary. 

1821-1827        .         .         .884 

16.  Criminal       Law      Reform. 

1823        .         .         .         .885 
Huskisson  and  the  Combi- 
nation     Laws.         1824- 
1825         .         .         .         .885 
Robinson's  Budgets.     1823- 

1825  .  .  .  .886 
The  end   of  the  Liverpool 

Ministry.  1 826-1827  .  887 
Burns,  Byron,  and  Shelley  .  887 
Scott  and  Wordsworth  .  889 
Bentham     ....     890 


17 


18 


19. 


CONTENTS 

PART   XI 

THE   GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY 


CHAPTER   LVI 

CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION  AND  PARLIAMENTARY   REFORM 
1827— 1832 


Questions  at  Issue.     1827  . 
Canning    Prime    Minister. 

1827        .        .  "^     . 
The  Battle  of  Navarino  and 

the    Goderich    Ministry. 

1827  .... 
Formation  of  the  WelHng- 

ton  Ministry.     1828 
Lord  John  Russell  and  Par- 
liamentary Reform.  18 19- 

1828  .... 
Repeal  of  the  Test  and  Cor- 
poration Acts.     1828 

Resignation  of  the  Canning- 

ites.     1828 
The    Catholic   Association. 

1823-1828 
O'Connell's  Election.     i8a8 
Catholic         Emancipation. 

1829  .... 
Death  of  George  IV.    1830 


892 


892 
893 


89+ 
894 

895 

895 
896 

896 


William  IV,  and  the  Second 

French  Revolution.   1830 

The  End  of  the  Wellington 

Ministry.     1830 
Lord  Grey's  Ministry.    1830 
The  Reform  Bill.     1831       . 
The  Bill   Withdrawn.    1831 
The  Reform   Bill   Re-intro- 
duced.    1831  , 
Public  Agitation.     1831 
The   Reform   Bill   becomes 
Law.     1831-1832    . 

20.  Character    of    the    Reform 

Act.     1832 

21.  Roads  and  Coaches,    1802- 

1820        .... 

22.  Steam   Vessels    and    Loco- 
motives.    181 I- 1825 

The  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester Railway.  1825- 
1829        .... 


23 


900 
901 
902 
902 

903 
903 

905 

90s 

905 

906 


907 


CHAPTER   LVII 

THE  REFORMERS    IN   POWER.      1832— 184] 


1.  Liberals  and  Conservatives, 

1832 

2.  Irish  Tithes.     1831-1833 

3.  Abolition  of  Slavery.     1833     910 

4.  The     First     Factory    Act, 

1833  ,         .         .         .     911 

5.  The  New  Poor  Law.     1834    911 

6.  Break-up  of  the   Ministry. 

1834  .... 

7.  Foreign   Policy  of  the  Re- 

formers.    1830-1834 

8.  Peel's  First  Ministry.    1834- 

183s         .... 

9.  Beginning  of    Melbourne  s 

Second  Ministry,     1835- 
1837        .... 


909 
909 


912 


912 


13 


913 


Accession  of  Queen  Victoria. 

1837  .  .  .  .914 
Canada.  1837-1841  .  .  914 
Ireland.  1835-1841  .  .  916 
The  Bedchamber  Question. 

1839  ,  .  .  ,918 
Post  Office  Reform.  1839 .  918 
Education.  1833-1839  .  920 
The      Queen's     Marriage. 

1840  ....  920 
Palmerston      and      Spain. 

1833-1839  .  .  ,920 
Palmerston  and  the  Eastern 

Question.  1831-1839  ,  921 
Threatened     Breach     with 

France.     1839-1841  .  922 


CONTENTS 


20,  Condition    of     the     Poor. 

1837-1841  .         .     922 

21.  The       People's       Charter, 

1837-1840        .         .         .923 


22.  The  Anti-Corn-Law  League. 

I 838-1 840        .         ,         .     924 

23.  The  Fall  of  the  Melbourne 

Ministry.     1841       .         .     925 


CHAPTER   LVIII 

FREE  TRADE.       1 84 1  — 1 852 


14. 


Peel's  New  Ministry.      1841 
Peel's       First       Free-trade 

Budget.     1842 
Returning  Prosperity.   1843- 

1844  .... 
Mines  and  Factories.    1842- 

1847         .... 
Aberdeen's  Foreign  Policy. 

1841-1846 
Peel  and  O'Connell.        1843 
Peel's   Irish   Policy.     1843- 

1845  .... 
Peel's     Second    Free-trade 

Budget.     1845 

Peel  and  Disraeli.     1845     • 

Spread  of  the  Anti-Corn- 
Law  League.      1845 

The  Irish  Famine.     1845    . 

The  Abolition  of  the  Corn 
Law.     1845-1846   . 

The  Close  of  Peel's  Ministry. 

1846  .... 
The  Russell  Ministry.   1846- 

1847  .... 


926 
926 
926 


927 

927 
928 

928 

929 
929 

930 
931 

931 

931 

932 


15.  Irish  I'^migration.     1847      .     933 

16.  Landlord   and    Tenant    in 

Ireland.     1847         .         .     933 

17.  The    Encumbered    Estates 

Act.     1848      ,         .         .      933 

18.  European  Revolution.    1848     934 

19.  Renewed  Trouble  in  Ireland. 

1848  .         .         .         .935 

20.  The     Chartists     on      Ken- 

nington  Common.     1848     935 

21.  European  Reaction.     1848- 

1849  ....     936 

22.  The  Decline  of  the  Russell 

Ministry.     1848-1851       .     936 

23.  The       Great       Exhibition. 

1851  ....     937 

24.  The    End    of    the    Russell 

Ministry.     1851-1852       .     938 
2J.  The  First  Derby  Ministry. 

1852  .         .         .       '.     938 
26.  The   Burial   of    Protection. 

1852         .         .         .         .938 


CHAPTER   LIX 

THE   CRIMEAN   WAR   AND   THE   INDIAN   MUTINY.       1 852— 1 858 


I. 

Expectation  of  Peace.    1852 

939 

II. 

Resolution    of     the    Allies. 

2. 

Church  Movements.     1827- 

1854         .... 

944 

1853        .... 

940 

12. 

Alma  and  Sebastopol.    1854 

945 

3- 

Growth  of  Science.     1830- 

13- 

Balaclava    and     Inkerman. 

1859        .... 

940 

1854         .... 

946 

4- 

Dickens,     Thackeray,     and 

14. 

Winter  in  the  Crimea.  1854- 

Macaulay.     1837-1848    . 

940 

1855         .... 

946 

5- 

Grote,    Mill,   and    Carlyle. 

15- 

The    Hospital    at    Scutari. 

1833-1856 

941 

1855         .... 

947 

6. 

Tennyson.     1849 

943 

16. 

The   Palmerston    Ministry. 

7- 

Turner.     1775-185 1     . 

943 

1855        .... 

947 

8. 

The  Beginning  of  the  Aber- 
deen   Ministry.        1852- 

17- 

The  Fall  of  Sebastopol  and 
the    End     of    the    War. 

1854        .         . 

943 

1855-1856       . 

947 

9- 

The       Eastern      Question. 

18. 

India       after      Wellesley's 

1850-1853 

943 

Recall.     1806-1823 

948 

10. 

War   between    Russia    and 

19. 

The   North-Western   Fron- 

Turkey.    1853—1854      . 

944 

tier.     1806-1835 

948 

CONTENTS 


XXXIX 


20.  Russia    and     Afghanistan. 

1835-1838        .         .         .949 

21.  The  Invasion  of  Afghanistan. 

1839-1842        .         .         .949 

22.  The    Retreat    from   Cabul. 

1842         ....     950 

23.  Pollock's  March   to  Cabnl. 

1842         .         .         .         .950 

24.  Conquest  of  Sindh.     1842  .     950 

25.  The  First  Sikh  War.    1845- 

1846       ....     951 

26.  The     Second     Sikh    War. 

1848-1849        .         .         .     951 


27.  Lord  Dalhousie's  Adminis- 

tration.    1848-1856 

28.  The     Sepoy   Army.      18^6- 

1857         .         .         .    ^ 

29.  The  Outbreak  of  the  Mutiny 

1857         •         .         . 

30.  Cawnpore.     1857 

31.  The  Recovery  of  Delhi  and 

the   Relief  of  Lucknow 
1857        .         .         .         , 

32.  The   End    of  the    Mutiny, 

1857-1858 


951 


952 


953 
953 


953 
954 


CHAPTER   LX 

ANTECEDENTS  AND   RESULTS  OF  THE  SECOND   REFORM  ACT. 
1857-1874 


Fall  of  the  First  Palmerston 
Ministry.     1857-1858      . 

The  Second  Derby  Ministry 
and  the  Beginning  of  the 
Second  Palmerston  Minis- 
try.    1858-T859 

Italian  War  of  Liberation. 
1859        .         .         .         . 

The  Kingdom  of  Italy. 
T859-1861        .         .       '. 

The  Volunteers.    1859-1860 

The  Commercial  Treaty 
with  France,     i860 

The  Presidential  Election 
in  America,     i860  . 

England  and  the  American 
Civil  War.  1861-1862  . 
9.  1  he  '  Alabama. '     1862 

10.  The  Cotton  Famine.    1861- 

1864        .         .         .         . 

11.  End  of  the  American  Civil 

War.     1864    . 

12.  The  Last  Days  of  Lord  Pal- 

merston.    1865 

13.  The  Ministry  of  Earl  Rus- 

sell.    I 865-1 866      . 

14.  The  Third  Derby  Ministry 


3- 


8. 


955 


956 

956 

957 
957 

957 

958 

958 
959 

959 

960 

960 


!  27. 
960  j  28. 


and  the  Second  Reform 
Act.     1866-1868     .         .     961 
Irish  Troubles.     1867-         .     962 
The  Gladstone  Ministry  and 
the    Disestablishment   of 
the  Irish  Church.     1868- 
1869        ....     962 
The  Irish  Land  Act.   1870  .     962 
The  Education  Act.    1870  .     963 
The  War  between   Prussia 

and  Austria.     1866  .     963 

War  between   France   and 

Germany.  1870-1871  .  963 
Abolition  of  Army-Pur- 
chase. 1871  .  .  .  965 
The  Ballot  Act.  1872  .  965 
Foreign  Policy  of  the  Minis- 
try. 1871-1872  .  .  965 
Fall  of  the  First  Gladstone 

Ministry.     1873-1874      .     966 
Colonial  Expansion.    1815- 

1901        ....     966 
The  North-American  Con- 
nies.       .        .  .        .     967 
Australasia,         .         .         .     967 
South  Africa        .         .         .     968 


xl 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER    LXI 


THE 


LAST   YEARS   OF  THE   NINETEENTH    CENTURY. 
1874-190I 


The  Disraeli  (Beaconsfield) 
Ministry.     1874-1880        .     969 

The  Second  Gladstone  Minis- 
try.    1880-1885         .         .     970 

The  First  Salisbury  Ministry     972 

The  Third  Gladstone  Minis- 
try   W^ 

The  Second  Salisbury  Minis- 
try     973 


Fourth  Gladstone  Ministry  974 

Third  Salisbury  Ministry    .  974 
The     Reconquest     of     the 

Soudan   ....  975 
Venezuela  ....  975 
China         ....  976 
South  Africa  and  the  Trans- 
vaal War        .         .         .  976 


INDEX 


979 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG. 
I. 
2. 


Palagolithic  flint  scraper  from  Icklingham,  Suffolk    . 
Palaeolithic  flint  implement  from  Hoxne,  Suffolk 

{From  Evans's  'Ancient  Stone  Implements') 
Engraved  bone  from  Cresswell  Crags,  Derbyshire 

{From  the  original  in  the  British  Museum^ 
Neolithic  flint  arrow-head  from  Rudstone,  Yorks 
Neolithic  celt  or  cutting  instrument  from  Guernsey  . 
Neolithic  axe  from  Winterbourn  Steepleton,  Dorset 

{From  Evans's  '  Ancient  Stone  Implements  ') 
Example  of  early  British  pottery 
9.  Examples  of  early  British  pottery  . 

{From  Greenwelts  '  British  Barrows ') 
Bronze  celt  from  the  Isle  of  Harty,  Kent 
Bronze  lance-head  found  in  Ireland    . 
Bronze  caldron  found  in  Ireland 

{From  Evans's  '  Ancient  Bronze  Implements ') 
View  of  Stonehenge     ..... 

{From  a  photograph) 
Part  of  a  British  gold  corselet  found  at  Mold,  now  in  the  British 
Museum         ...... 

{From  the  '  Archaeolo^ia  ') 
Bust  of  Julius  Caesar   .  . 

{From  the  original  in  the  British  Museum) 
Commemorative  tablet   of  the  Second   Legion  found   at 

Chesters  on  the  Roman  Wall 
View  of  part  of  the  Roman  Wall 
Ruins  of  a  mile-castle  on  the  Roman  Wall     . 

{From  Bruce  s  '  Handbook  to  the  Roman  Wall,'  2nd  edition) 
Part  of  the  Roman  Wall  at  Leicester 

{From  Rickman's  '  Gothic  Architecture,'  6th  edition,  by  J.  H 
Pediment  of  a  Roman  Temple  found  at  Bath 

{Reduced  from  the  '  Archaeologia ') 
Roman  altar  from  Rutchester 

{From  Bruce' s  '  Handbook  to  the  Roman  Wall,'  2nd  edition) 
Plan  of  the  city  of  Old  Sarum 

{From  the  Ordnance  Survey  Plan) 


PAGE 

2 


Halton 


Parker) 


34 


xlii  ILL  US  TRA  TIONS 

FIG. 

23.  View  of  Old  Sarum      ...... 

{Reduced  frovt  Sir  R.    C.   Hoare's   '  History  of  Modern   Wiltshire 
Old  and  New  Sarum  ') 

24.  Saxon  church  at  Bradford-on-Avon,  Wilts    .... 

{From  Rickmans  '  Gothic  Architecture,'  6th  edition,  by  J.  H.  Parker) 

25.  Saxon  horsemen  ...... 

26.  Group  of  Saxon  warriors         ..... 

(From  Harl.  MS.  603) 

27.  Remains  of  a  viking  ship  from  Gokstad 

{From  a  photograph  of  the  original  at  Christiana) 

28.  Gold  ring  of  ^thelwulf  ..... 

29.  Gold  jewel  of  Alfred  found  at  Athelney 

{From  '  Archaeological  Journal ') 

30.  An  English  vessel         ...... 

31.  A  Saxon  house  ...... 

{From  Harl.  MS.  603) 

32.  A  monk  driven  out  of  the  King's  presence     . 

{From,  a  drawing  belonging  to  the  Society  of  A  ntiquaries) 

33.  Rural  life  in  the  eleventh  century.     January  to  June 

34.  Rural  life  in  the  eleventh  century.     July  to  December 

{Frotn  Cott.  MS.  Julius  A.  vi.) 

35.  Plan  and  section  of  a  burh  of  the  eleventh  c.ntury  at  Laughton-en 

le-Morthen,  Yorks      ...... 

{From  G.  T.  Clark's  '  Mediaival  Military  Architecture  ') 

37.  Glass  tumbler  ....... 

38.  Drinking-glass  ...... 

39.  Clomb  and  case  of  Scandinavian  type  found  at  York 

{From  the  originals  in  the  British  Miiseuni) 

40.  Martyrdom  of  St.  Edmund  by  the  Danes 

{From  a  drawing  belonging  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries) 

41.  First  Great  Seal  of  Eadward  the  Confessor  (obverse) 

{FroJii  an  original  impression) 

42.  Hunting.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry) 

{Reduced from  '  Vetusta  Monumenta,'  vol.  vi.) 

43.  Tower  in  the  earlier  style,  church  at  Earl's  Barton    , 

44.  Tower  in  the  earlier  style,  St.  Benet's  church,  Cambridge     . 

{From  Rickmans  '  Gothic  Architecture,'  6th  edition,  by  J.  H.  Parker) 

45.  Building  a  church  in  the  later  style     .... 

{From  a  drawing  belonging  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries) 

46.  Normans  feasting ;    with   Odo,   bishop  of  Bayeux,  saying  grace 

(From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry)  .... 

47.  Harold  swearing  upon  the  relics.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry) 

48.  A  Norman  ship.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry) 

49.  Norman  soldiers  mounted.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry)    . 

50.  Group  of  archers  on  foot.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry) 

51.  Men  fighting  with  axes.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry) 

52.  Death  of  Harold.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry) 

{Reduced from  '  Vetusta  Monumenta,'  vol.   vi.) 

53.  Coronation  of  a  king,  temp.  William  the  Conqueror 

{From  a  drawing  belonging  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries) 
"54.  Silver  penny  of  William  the  Conqueror,  struck  at  Romney  . 
{From  an  original  specimen) 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS  xliii 

FIG.  PAGE 

55.  East  end  of  Darenth  church,  Kent     .... 

{From  Ricktnans  'Gothic  Architecture,'  6th  edition,  by  J.  H.  Parker 

56.  Part  of  the  nave  of  St.  Alban's  abbey  church 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  &"  Sons,  Dundee) 

57.  Facsimile  of  a  part  of  Domesday  Book  relating  to  Berkshire 

{From  the  original  MS.  in  the  Public  Record  Office) 

58.  Henry  I.  and  his  queen  Matilda         .... 

{Frofu  Mollis  s  '  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

59.  Seal  of  Milo  of  Gloucester,  showing  mounted  armed  figure  in  the 

reign  of  Henry  I.       . 

{From  an  original  impression) 

60.  Monument  of  Roger,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  died  1139 

{From  Stothard's  '  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

61.  Porchester  church,  Hampshire,  built  about  1135 

{From  Rickmans  '  Gothic  Architecture,'  7th  edition,  by  J.  H.  Parker) 

62.  Part  of  the  nave  of  Durham  cathedral,  built  about  T130 

{From  Scott's  '  Mediaeval  Architecture,'  London,  J.  Murray) 

63.  Keep  of  Rochester  castle,  built  between  1126  and  1139 

{From  a  photograph  by  Potilton  ^r'  Sons,  Lee) 

64.  Keep  of  Castle  Rising,  built  about  1140-1150 

{From  a  photograph) 

65.  Tower  of  Castor  church,  Northamptonshire,  built  about  1145 

{From  Brittons  '  Architectural  Antiquities  ') 

66.  Effigies  of  Henry  H.  and  queen  Eleanor 

{From  Stothard's  '  Monumental  Effigies ') 

67.  Ecclesiastical  costume  in  the  twelfth  century 

{From  Cott.  MS.  Nero  C.  iv.  f.  37) 

68.  A  bishop  ordaining  a  priest     ..... 

69.  Small  ship  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century     . 

{From  '  Harley  Roll,'  Y.  6) 

70.  Part  of  the  choir  of  Canterbury  cathedral,  in  building  1 175-1184 

{From  Scott's  '  Mediaeval  Architecture,'  London,  J.  Murray) 

71.  Mitre  of  Archbishop  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  preserved  at  Sens 

{From  Shaiv's  '  Dresses  and  Decorations  ') 

72.  Military  and  civil  costume  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century 

{From  '  Harley  Roll,'  Y.  6) 

73.  Royal  arms  of  England  from  Richard  I.  to  Edward  HI. 

{From  the  wall  arcade,  south  aisle  of  nave,  \Vest7Jiinster  Abbey) 

74.  The  Galilee  or  Lady  chapel,   Durham  cathedral,  built  by  bishop 

Hugh  of  Puiset,  between  1 180  and  1197 

{From.  Scott's  '  Mediaeval  Architecture,'  London,  J.  Murray) 

75.  Effigy  of  a  knight  in  the  Temple  church,  London,  showing  armour 

of  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century       .... 
{From  Mollis' s  '  Monumental  Effigies') 

76.  Effigies  of  Richard  L  and  queen  Berengaria 

{From  Stothard's  *  Monumental  Effigies') 
7j.   Part  of  the  choir  of  Ripon  cathedral,  built  during  the  last  quarter  of 
the  twelfth  century     ...... 

{From  Scott's  '  Mediaeval  Architecture,'  London,  J.  Murray) 

78.  Lay  costumes  in  the  twelfth  century  .... 

79.  Costume  of  shepherds  in  the  twelfth  century 

{From  Cott.  MS.  Nero  C.  iv.  ff.  11  and  16) 

80.  Hall  of  Oakham  castle,  Rutland,  built  about  1185     . 

{From  Hudson  Turner's  '  Domestic  Architecture ') 


■xliv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

8i.  Norman  house  at  Lincoln,  called  the  Jews'  House    .  .  .171 

{From  a  photograph  by  Carl  Norman,  Tunbridge  Wells) 

82.  Effigies  of  king  John  and  queen  Isabella 

{From  Stothard's  '  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

83.  Effigy  of  bishop  Marshall  of  Exeter,  died  1206 

{From  Murray's  '  Handbook  to  the  Southern  Cathedrals ') 

84.  Parsonage  house  of  early  thirteenth-century  date  at  West  Dean, 

Sussex  ...... 

{From  Hudson  Turners  '  Domestic  Architecture  ') 

85.  Effigy  of  a  knight  in  the  Temple  church,  London,  showing  armour 

worn  between  1190  and  1225 

{From  Stothard's  '  Monumental  Effigies ') 

86.  Silver  penny  of  John,  struck  at  Dubhn 

{From  an  original  example) 

87.  Effigy  of  Henry  HI.     (From  his  tomb  at  Westminster) 

88.  Effigy  of  William  Longespde,  earl  of  SaHsbury,  died  1227,  from  his 

tomb  at  Salisbury,  showing  armour  worn  from  about  1225  to  1250 
{From  Stothard's  '  Monumental  Effigies ') 

89.  Effigy  of  Simon,  bishop  of  Exeter,  died  1223 

{From  Murray's  '  Handbook  to  the  Southern  Cathedrals ') 

90.  Beverley  Minster,  Yorkshire,  the  south  transept ;  built  about  1220- 

1230   .  .  .  .  . •  .  .       • 

{From  Britton's  'Architectural  Antiquities') 

91.  Longthorpe  manor-house,  Northamptonshire,  built  about  1235 

{From  Hudson  Turner's  '  Domestic  Architecture') 

92.  A  ship  in  the  reign  of  Henry  HL        .... 

93.  A  bed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  HI.         . 

{From  Cott.  MS.  Nero  D.  i.  flf.  21  and  22  b) 

94.  Barn  of  thirteenth-century  date  at  Raunds,  Northamptonshire 

{From  Hudson  Turner's  '  Domestic  Architecture ') 

95.  A  fight  between  armed  and  mounted  knights  of  the  time  of  Henry 

in 

{From  Cott.  MS.  Nero  D.  i.  f.  4) 

96.  Seal  of  Robert  Fitzwalter,  showing  a  mounted  knight  in  complete 

mail  armour ;  date  about  1265 
{From  an  original  impression) 

97.  Effigy  of  a  knight  at  Gosperton,  showing  armour  worn  from  about 

1250  to  1300 ;  date  about  1270 

{From  Stothards  '  Monumental  Effigies ') 

98.  Building  operations  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  with  the  king  giving 

directions  to  the  architect .  ... 

{From  Cott.  MS.  Nero  D.  i.  f  23  b) 

99.  East  end  of  Westminster  abbey  church ;  beg^n  by  Henry  III.  in 

1245   ....... 

{From  a  photograph) 
100.  Nave  of  SaUsbury  cathedral  church,  looking  west  ;  date,  between 
1240  and  1250  ..... 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  &^  Sons,  Dundee) 
loi.  A  king  and  labourers  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
{From  Cott.  MS.  Nero  D.  i.  f.  21  b) 

102.  Great  Seal  of  Edward  I.  (slightly  reduced)     . 

{From  an  original  impression) 

103.  Group  of  armed  knights  and  a  king  in  ordinary  dress ;  date,  temp 

Edward  I.      . 

{From  Arundel  MS.  83,  f.  132) 


ILLUSTRATIONS  '     xlv 

FIG.  PAGE 

104.  Nave  of  Lichfield  cathedral  church,  looking  east;  built  about  1280  .     213 

(J^rotn  a  photograph  by  Valentine  6^  Sons,  Dundee) 

105.  Effigy  of  Eleanor  of  Castile,  queen  of  Edward  I. ,  in  Westminster 

abbey  ........     215 

{From  StotharcCs  '  Monumental  Effigies ') 

106.  Cross  erected  near  Northampton  by  Edward  I.  in  memory  of  queen 

.  Eleanor  ........     217 

(From  a  photography 

107.  Sir  John  d'Abernoun,  died  1277,  from  his  brass  at  Stoke  Dabernon  ; 

showing  armour  worn  from  about  1250  to  1300       .  .  .     219 

{From  Wallers  '  Monumental  Brasses ') 

108.  Edward  II.  from  his  monument  in  Gloucester  cathedral       .  .     225 

{From  StotharcCs  *  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

109.  Lincoln  cathedral,  the  central  tower ;  built  about  1310  .  .     227 

{Fro7ti  Brittons  '  Architectural  Antiquities ') 
no.  Sir  John  de  Creke,  from  his  brass  at  Westley  Waterless,  Cambridge- 
shire ;    showing  armour  worn  between  1300  and  1335  or  1340 ; 
date,  about  1325        .......     229 

{From  Waller  s  '  Monumental  Brasses  ') 

111.  Howden  church.  Yorkshire,  the  west  front     ....     230 

{From  Rickman's  '  Gothic  Architecture,'  7th  edition,  by  J.  H.  Parker) 

112.  Effigies  of  Edward  III.  and  queen  Philippa,  from  their  tombs  in 

Westminster  abbey    .......     233 

{From  Blores  '  Monumental  Remains  ') 

113.  A  knight — Sir  Geoffi-ey  Luttrell,  who  died  1345 — receiving  his  helm 

and  pennon  from  his  wife  ;  another  lady  holds  his  shield  .  .     236 

{From  the  Luttrell  Psalter,  '  Vetusta  Monumenta ') 

114.  William  of  Hatfield,  second  son  of  Edward  III.,  from  his  tomb  in 

York  Minster  .......     237 

{From  StotharcCs  '  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

115.  York  Minster,  the  nave,  looking  west  .  .  .  .     238 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  «5r»  Sons,  Dundee) 

116.  Royal  arms  of  P'dward  III.,  from  his  tomb    ....     239 

{From  a  photograph) 

117.  Shooting  at  the  butts  with  the  long  bow        ....     241 

118.  Contemporary  view  of  a  fourteenth-century  walled  town       .  .     243 

{From  the  Luttrell  Psalter,  '  Vetusta  Monumenta  ') 

119.  Gloucester  cathedral  church,  the  choir,  looking  east  .  .     244 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  &*  Sons,  Dundee) 

120.  The  lord's  upper  chamber  or  solar  at  Sutt*  Courtenay  manor-house 

date,  about  1350        .......  245 

121.  Interior  of  the  hall  at  Penshurst,  Kent ;  built  about  1340     .  ,  246 

122.  A  small  house  or  cottage  at  Meare,  Somerset  ;  built  about  1350       ,  247 

123.  Norborough  Hall,  Northamptonshire ;  built  about  1350       .  .  247 

{From  Hudson  Turners  '  Domestic  Architecture ') 

124.  Ploughing         .  .  .  .  .  ,  .  •  .  248 

125.  Harrowing  ;  and  a  boy  slinging  stones  at  the  birds  .  .  248 

126.  Breaking  the  clods  with  mallets  .....  249 

127.  Cutting  weeds  ,  ...  .  .  .  -249 

128.  Reaping  ........  249 

129.  Stacking  corn  .  .  ...  .  .  •  250 

130.  Threshing  corn  with  a  flail      ......  250 

{From  the  Luttrell  Psalter^  '  Vetusta  Monumenta  ') 


xl vi  ILL  US  TRA  TIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

131.  West  front  of  Edington  church,  Wilts  ;  built  about  1360      .  .     253 

{From  Rickmans  'Gothic  Architecture,'  7th  edition,  by  J.  H.  Parker) 

132.  Gold  noble  of  Edward  III.       ......     255 

{Frojn  an  original  example) 

133.  Effigy  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince  ;  from  his  tomb  at  Canterbury  .     256 

{From  Stothards  '  Monumental  Effigies') 

134.  William  of  Wykeham,  bishop  of  Winchester,  1367-1404  ;   from  his 

tomb  at  Winchester  ......     260 

{From  Murray's  '  Handbook  to  the  Southern  Cathedrals ') 

135.  Tomb  of  Edward  III,  in  Westminster  abbey  .     263 

{From  Blares  '  Monumental  Remains ') 

136.  Figures  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  Lionel  duke  of  Clarence  ; 

from  the  tomb  of  Edward  III.  .  .  .  .  .     264 

{From  Mollis  s  '  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

137.  Richard  II.  and  his  first  queen,  Anne  of  Bohemia  ;  from  their  tomb 

in  Westminster  abbey  ......     267 

{From  Mollis  s  '  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

138.  Portrait  of  Geoffrey  Chaucer  .  .  .  .  .  .     270 

{From  Harl.  MS.  4866) 

139.  A  gentleman  riding  out  with  his  hawk  .  .  271 

140.  Carrying  corn,  a  cart  going  uphill  ....  272 

141.  State  carriage  of  the  fouiieenth  century  ....  273 

142.  Bear-baiting     .  .  .  ,  .  .  .  .  275 

{From,  the  Luttrell  Psalter,  'Vetusta  Monumenta') 

143.  West  end  of  the  nave  of  Winchester  cathedral  church  .  .     276 

{From  a  photograph  hy  Valentine  &=  Sons,  Dundee) 

144.  Meeting  of  Henry  of  Lancaster  and  Richard  II.  at  Flint       .  .     284 

145.  Henry  of  Lancaster  claiming  the  throne         ....     285 

{From  Harl.  MS.  1319) 

146.  Effigy  of  a  knight  at   Clehonger,  showing  development  of  plate 

armour ;  date  about  1400      ......     287 

{From  Mollis  s  '  Monumental  Effigies ') 

147.  Henry  IV.  and  his  queen  Joan  of  Navarre;  from  their  tomb  in 

Canterbury  cathedral  church  .  .  .  .  .     290 

{From  Stothards  '  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

148.  Royal  arms  as  borne  from  about  1408  to  1603  .  .  .     291 

{From  a  fifteenth-century  seal) 

149.  Thomas  Cranley,  archbishop  of  Dublin  ;   from  his  brass  at  New 

College,  Oxford,  showin^the  archiepiscopal  costume         ,  .  292 

{Fro7n  Wallers  '  Monunwhtal  Brasses ') 

150.  The  Battle  of  Shrewsbury        .  .  ,  .  .  .  294 

151.  Fight  in  the  hsts  with  poleaxes  .....  297 

{Frovi  Cott.  MS.  Julius  E.  iv.  ff.  4  and  7) 

152.  Costume  of  a  judge  about  1400  ;  from  a  brass  at  Deerhurst .  .     298 

{From  Waller  s  '  Monumental  Brasses ') 

153.  Henry  V .  .  .  .  .300 

{Frotn  an  original  portrait  belonging  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries) 
T54.  Effigy  of  William  Phelip,  lord  Bardolph  ;  from  his  tomb  at  Ben- 
nington, Suffolk  .......     304 

{From  Stothards  '  Monumental  Effigies  ') 

155.  Marriage  of  Henry  V.  and  Catherine  of  France         .  .  .     qoq 

{From  Cott.  MS.  Julius  E.  iv.  f.  22)      ■ 

156.  Henry  VI.         ........     308 

{From  an  original  picture  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 


ILL  US  TRA  TIONS .  xl  vn 

FIG.  PAGE 

157.  Fotheringay  church,  Northamptonshire  ;  begun  in  1434       .  -311 

{From  a  photograph  by  G.  A.  Nichols,  Staniford) 
158  and  159.  Front  and  back  views  of  the  gilt-latten  effigy  of  Richard 
Beauchamp,  earl  of  Warwick,  died  1439  ;  from  his  tomb  at  War- 
wick .......  314,  315 

{From  Stothards  '  Monumental  Effigies ') 

160.  Tattershall  castle,  Lincolnshire  ;  built  between  1433  and  1455  .     316 

{From  a  photograph  by  G.  A.  Nichols,  Stamforct) 

161.  Part  of  Winfield  manor-house,  Derbyshire  ;  built  about  1440  .     318 

{From  a  photograph  by  R.  Keene,  Derby) 

162.  The  Divinity  School,  Oxford  ;  built  between  1445  ^^id  1454  .     319 

{From  a  photograph  by  W.  H.  Wheeler,  Oxford) 

163.  A  sea-fight        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .325 

{From  Cott.  MS.  Julius  E.  iv.  f.  18  b) 

164.  Effigy  of  Sir  Robert  Harcourt,  K.G.,  showing  armour  worn  from 

about  1445  to  1480  ......     326 

{From  Stothards  '  Monumental  Effigies ') 

165.  Edward  IV.      ........     330 

{From  an  original  portrait  belonging  to  the  Society  0/  Antiquaries) 

166.  A  fifteenth-century  ship  ......     333 

{From  Harl.  MS.  2278,  f.  16) 

167.  Large  ship  and  boat  of  the  fifteenth  century  .  .  .     339 

{From  Cott.  MS.  Julius  E.  iv.  f.  5) 

168.  Richard  IIL      ........     341 

{From  an  original  portrait  belonging  to  the  Society  0/  Antiquaries) 

169.  Henry  VJI.       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     344 

170.  Elizabeth  of  York,  queen  of  Henry  VIL         ....     345 

{From  original  pictures  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

171.  Tudor  Rose  ;  from  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII.,  Westminster  .     346 

172.  Tower  of  St.  Mary's  church,  Taunton ;  built  about  1500       .  .     353 

{From  Brittons  '  Architectural  Antiquities ') 

173.  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge  ;  interior,  looking  east  .  .     355 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  ^^  Sons,  Dundee) 

174.  Henry  V.III.     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     362 

{From  a  painting  by  Holbein  about  1536,  belonging  to  Earl  Spencer) 

175.  Cardinal  Wolsey  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     365 

{From,  an  original  picture  belonging  to  the  Hon.  Sir  Spencer  Ponsonby- 
Fane,  K.C.B.) 

176.  The  embarkation  of  Henry  VIII.  from  Dover,  1520  .  .  .     370 

{From  the  Society  of  Ajitiquaries  engraving  of  the  original  picture 
at  Hampton  Court) 

177.  Silver-gilt  cup  and  cover,  made   at    London   in  1523  ;   at   Barber 

Surgeons'  Hall,  London        .  .  .  .  .  .     371 

{From  Cripps's  '  College  and  Corporation  Plate ') 

178.  Part  of  Hampton  Court  ;  built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey  ;  finished  in  1526    373 

{Frotn  a  photograph) 

179.  Portrait  of  William  Warham,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1503-1532, 

showing  the  ordinary  episcopal  dress,  with  the  mitre  and  archi- 
episcopal  cross  .  .  .  .  .      •      .  .     376 

{From  a  painting  by  Holbein,  belonging  to  Viscount  Dillon,  F.S.A., 
dated  1527) 

180.  Tower  of  Fountains  Abbev  church  ;  built  by  Abbot  Huby,  1494- 

1526^  .  .  .       ' 378 

{t  rom  a  photograph  by  Valentine  &^  Sons,  Dundee) 

181.  Catharine  of  Aragon     .......     380 

{F7-otu  a  painting  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 


xlviii  ILL  USTRA  TIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

182.  The  gatehouse  of  Coughton  Court,  Warwickshire  ;  built  about  1530    381 

{From  Nivens  '  Illustrations  of  Old  Warwickshire  Houses ') 

183.  Hall  of  Christchurch,  Oxford  ;  built  by  Cardinal  Wolsey  ;  finished 

in  1529  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     384 

{From  a  photograph  by  IV,  H.  Wheeler,  Oxford) 

184.  Sir  Thomas  More,  wearing  the  collar  of  SS.  ....     387 

{Frotn  an  original  portrait  painted  by  Holbein  in  1527,  belonging  to 
Edward  Huth,  Esq.) 

185.  John  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  1504-1535  .  .  -393 

{From  a  drawing  by  Holbein  in  the  Royal  Library,  Windsor  Castle) 

186.  Edward  Seymour,  Earl  of  Hertford,  brother  of  Jane  Seymour,  after- 

wards Duke  of  Somerset,  known  as  'the  Protector,'  at  the  age  of 

28,  1507-1552  .  .  .  ....     395 

{From  a  painting  at  Sudeley  Castle) 

187.  Henry  VIII.     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     403 

{Fi-om  a  painting  by  Holbein,  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Warwick) 

188.  Angel  of  Henry  VIII.,  1543     ......     405 

{Frotn  an  original  example) 

189.  Part   of  the   encampment   at    Marquison,   1544,   showing   military 

equipment  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  ....     406 

190.  191.   Part  of  the  siege  of  Boulogne  by  Henry  VIII.,  1544,  showing 

military  operations     ......  407,  408 

{From  the  Society  of  Antiquaries    engravings,  by  Verttie,  of  the  now 
dest7'oyed  paintings  formerly  at  Cowdray  House,  Sussex) 

192.  Armour  as  worn  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  ;  from  the  brass  of  John 

Lymsey,  1545,  in  Hackney  church    .  .  .  .  .     409 

193.  Margaret,  wife  of  John  Lymsey  ;  from  her  brass  in  Hackney  church, 

showing  the  costume  of  a  lady  circa  1545    ....     409 
{From  Haines's  '  Manual  of  Monumental  Brasses ') 

194.  Thomas  Howard,  third  Duke  of  Norfolk,  1473  (?)-i554        ,  .     410 

{From  a  painting  by  Holbein  at  Windsor  Castle) 

195.  Thomas  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1533-1556     .  .     414 

{From  a  painting  by  Holbein  dated  1547,  at  Jesiis  Col.'ege,  Cambridge) 

196.  Nicholas  Ridley,  Bishop  of  London,  1550-1553         .  .  .     417 

{From  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

197.  King  Edward  VI.         .......     419 

{From  a  picture  belonging  to  H.  H ticks  Gibbs,  Esq.) 

198.  Queen  Mary  Tudor      .......     422 

{Frotn  a  painting  by  Lucas  de  Heere,   dated  1554,  belottging  to  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries) 

199.  Hugh  Latimer,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  1535- 1539,  burnt  1555  .     425 

{From  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

200.  A  milled  half-sovereign  of  Elizabeth,  1562-1568         .  .  .     435 

{From  an  original  example) 

201.  Silver-gilt  standing  cup  made  in  London  in  1569-70,  and  given  to 

Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  by  Archbishop  Parker  .     440 

{From  Crippss  '  College  and  Corporation  Plate  ') 

202.  Sir  Francis  Drake  in  his  forty-third  year        ....     448 

{Frotn  the  engraving  by  Elstracke) 

203.  Armour  as  worn  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  ;  from  the  brass  of 

Francis  Clopton,  1577,  at  Long  Melford,  Suffolk    . 
{Frotti  Haines's  '  Manual  of  Monumental  Brasses ')  ^ 


451 
455 


204.  Hall  of  Burghley  House,  Northamptonshire,  built  about  1580 

{From  Drutntiionds  '  Histories  of  Noble  British  Families ') 

205.  Sir  Martin  Frobisher,  died  1594  .  .  .  .  ,     459 

{From  a  picture  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle) 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS  xlik 


206.  The  Spanish  Armada.     Fight  between   the   English  and  Spanish 

fleets  off  the  Isle  of  Wight,  July  25,  1588     .  .  .  .461 

{From  Pines  engravings  0/  the  tapestry  formerly  in  the  House  of 
Lords) 

207.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (1552-1618),  and  his  eldest  son  Walter  at  the 

age  of  eight    ........     463 

.{From  a  picture  dated  1602,  belonging  to  Sir  J.  F.  Lennard,  Bart.) 

208.  A  mounted  soldier  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  .  .     465 

{From  a  broadside  printed  in  1596,  in  the  Society  of  Antiquaries' 
collection) 

209.  WoUaton  Hall,  Nottinghamshire  ;  built  by  Thorpe  for  Sir  Francis 

Willoughby,  about  1580-1588  .  .  .  .  .     466 

{From  a  photograph  by  R.  Keene,  Derby) 

210.  Hardwick  Hall,  Derbyshire  ;  built  by  Elizabeth,  Countessof  Shrews- 

bury, about  1597        .......     467 

{From  a  photograph  by  R.  Keene,  Derby) 

211.  E-shaped  house  at  Beaudesert,  Staffordshire  ;  built  by  Thomas,  Lord 

Paget,  about  i6oi       .......     469 

{Fro>n  a  photograph  by  R.  Keene,  Derby) 

212.  Ingestre  Hall,  Staffordshire  ;  built  about  1601  .  .  .     471 

{From  a  photograph  by  R.  Keene,  Derby) 

213.  Coaches  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth        .....     473 

{From  '  Archaeologia,'  vol.  xx.  pi.  xviii.) 

214.  William  Shakspere       .......     474 

{Frotn  the  bust  on  his  totnb  at  S tratford-ou-Avon) 

215.  Robert  Devereux,  second  Earl  of  Essex.  K.G.,  1567-1601    .  .     476 

{From  apainting  by  Van  Somer,  dated  1 599,  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Essex) 

216.  Queen  Elizabeth,  1558-1603     ......     477 

{From  apainting  belonging  to  the  University  of  Cambridge) 

217.  William  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley,  K.G.,  1520-1591        .  .  .     479 

{Frotn  a  painting  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford) 

218.  Royal  arms  borne  by  James  I.  and  succeeding  Stuart  sovereigns      .     482 

{From  BouielVs  '  English  Heraldry  ') 

219.  North-west  view  of  Hatfield  House,  Herts  ;    built  for  Robert  Cecil, 

first  Earl  of  Salisbury,  between  1605  and  1611         .  .  .     485 

{From  a  photograph,  by  Valentine  &=  Sons,  Dundee) 
320.  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of  Suffolk        .....     487 
{From  a  painting  belonging  to  T.  A.  Hope,  Esq.) 

221.  King  James  L  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     491 

{From  a  painting  by  P.    Van   Somer,  dated  1621,   in    the  National 
Portrait  Gallery) 

222.  Civil  costume,  about  1620        .  .  .  .  .  .     492 

{From,  a  contemporary  broadside  in  the  collection  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries) 

223.  The  banqueting-hall  of  the  Palace  of  Whitehall  (from   the  north- 

east) ;  built  from  the  designs  of  Inigo  Jones,  1619-1621      .  .     493 

{From  a  photograpli) 

224.  Francis  Bacon,  Viscount  St.  Alban,  Lord  Chancellor  .  ,.     495 

{From  apainting  by  P.  Van  Somer  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

225.  Costume  of  a  lawyer     .  .  .  .  .  .  .     497 

{From  a  broadside   dated  1623,   in   the  collection  of  the  Society  of  ' 
Antiquaries) 

226.  The  Upper  House  of  Convocation      .             .  .  .            •     49^ 

227.  The  Lower  House  of  Convocation      .             .  .  .            •     499 

{From  a  broadside  dated  1623,  in  the  collection  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries) 
C.  C 


1  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGB 

228.   King  Charles  I.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .     504 

{From  a  painting  by  Van  Dyck) 
•22.<^.  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  wife  of  Charles  I.      .  .  .  .     505 

{From  a  painting  by  Van  Dyck) 

230.  Tents  and  military  equipment  in   the  early  part   of  the  reign  of 

Charles  I.        .......  .     507 

{From  the  fnonument  of  Sir  Charles  Montague  {died  in  1625),  in  the 
church  of  Barking,  Essex) 

231.  George  Villiers,  first  duke  of  Buckingham,  1592-1628  .  .     509 

{From  the  painting  by  Gerard  Honthorst  in   the  National  Portrait 
Gallery) 

232.  Sir  Edward  and  Lady  Filmer  ;  from  their  brass  at  East  Sutton, 

Kent,  showing  armour  and  dress  worn  about  1630.  .  .     515 

{From  Wallers  '  Monumental  Brasses ') 

233.  Archbishop  Laud  .......     517 

{From  a  copy  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery  by  Henry  Stone,  from 
the  Van  Dyck  at  LambetJt) 

234.  Silver-gilt  tankard  made  at  London  in  1634-5  ;  now  belonging  to 

the  Corporation  of  Bristol      .  .        «   .  .  .  .518 

{From  Crippss  '  College  and  Corporation  Plate ') 

235.  The  '  Sovereign  of  the  Seas,'  built  for  the  Royal  Navy  in  1637  .     522 

{From  a  contemporary  engraving  by  John  Payne) 

236.  Soldier  armed  with  a  pike        ......     527 

237.  Soldier  with  musket  and  crutch  .....     527 

{From  a  broadside  printed  about  1630,  in  the  collection  of  the  Society 
of  A  ntiquaries) 

238-243.  Ordinary  civil  costume,  temp.  Charles  L,  viz.  : — 

A  gentleman  and  a  gentlewoman        ....     550 
A  citizen  and  a  citizen's  wife  .  .  .  .  •     55^ 

A  countryman  and  a  countrywoman  ....     552 
{From  Speeds  map  of  '  The  Kingdom  of  England,'  1646) 

244.  View  of  the  west  side  of  the  Banqueting- House,  Whitehall,  dated 

1713,  showing  the  window  through  which  Charles  L  is  said  to  have 
passed  to  the  scaffold  ......     558 

{From  an  engraving  by  Terasson) 

245.  Execution  of  King  Charles  L ,  January  30,  1649        .  .  .     559 

{From  a  broadside  in  the  collection  of  the  late  Richard  F'isher    Esq., 
F.S.A.) 

246.  A  coach  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century       .  .  .     564 

{From  an  engraving  by  John  Dunstall) 

247.  Oliver  Cromwell  .......     567 

{From  the  painting  by  Samuel  Cooper,  at  Sidney  Sitssex  College,  Caju- 
bridge) 

248.  Charles  II.         .......  .     579 

{From  the  portrait  by  Sir  Peter  Lely  in  Christ's  Hospital,  London) 

249.  Edward  Hyde,  first  Earl  of  Clarendon,  1608-1674     .  .  .     581 

{From  an  engraving  by  Loggmn) 

250.  A  mounted  nobleman  and  his  squire  ....     582 

{From  Ogilbys  '  Coronation  Procession  of  Charles  II.') 

251.  Dress  of  the  Horseguards  at  the  Restoration  .....     583 

{From  Ogilbys  '  Coronation  Procession  of  Charles  II.  ) 

252.  Yeoman  of  the  Guard  .......     583 

{From  Ogilby's  '  Coronation  Procession  of  Charles  II.') 

253.  Shipping  in  the  Thames,  chra  1660  .  .  .  .  .     584 

{From  Prickes  '  South  Prospect  of  London  ') 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS 


254.  Old  St.  Paul's,  from  the  east,  showing  its  condition  just  before  the 

Great  Fire      ........     59A 

{From  an  engraving  by  Hollar) 

255.  John  Milton  in  1669     .......     597 

(^From  the  engraving  by  Faithorne) 

256.  Temple  Bar,  London,  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  1670  .     601 

.{From  a  photograph) 

257.  Anthony  Ashley-Cooper,  first  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  1621-1683  .     604 

{From  the  painting  by  John  Greenhillin  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

258.  Ordinary  dress  of  gentlemen  in  1675  .  .  .  .  .611 

{From  Loggans  '  Oxonia  Illustrata  ') 

259.  Cup  presented,  1676,  by  King  Charles  II.  to  the  Barber  Surgeons' 

Company        ........     612 

{From  Crippss  '  College  and  Corporation  Plate ' ) 

260.  Steeple  of  the    church  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow,  London,  built   by  Sir 

Christopher  Wren  between  167 1  and  1680  ....     614 
{From  a  photograph) 

261.  Dress  of  ladies  of  quality         ......     628 

{Prom  Sand/ord's  'Coronation  Procession  of  James  II.') 

262.  Ordinary  attire  of  women  of  the  lower  classes  .  .  .     628 

{From  Sand/ord's  '  Coronation  Procession  of  James  II.') 

263.  Coach  of  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century     .  .  .     629 

{From  Loggans  '  Oxonia  Illustrata  ') 

264.  Waggon  of  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  .  .     629 

{From  Loggans  '  Oxonia  Illustrata ') 

265.  Reaping  and  harvesting  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 

tury    .........     630 

{From  Loggans  '  Cantabrigia  Illustrata  ') 

266.  Costume  of  a  gentleman  ......     632 

{From  Sand/ord's  '  Coronation  Procession  of  James  II.') 

267.  James  II.  .......  .     635 

{From,  the  painting  by  Sir  God/rey  Kneller  in  1684-5  in  the  National 
Portrait  Gallery) 

268.  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  .......     636 

{From  Sand/ord's  'Coronation  Procession  of  James  II.') 

269.  Dress  of  a  bishop  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century        .     642 

{From  Sand/ords  '  Coronation  Procession  of  James  II.  ) 

270.  William  III.     ........     650 

271.  Mary  II.  .......  .     651 

{From  engravings  a/ter  portraits  by  J.  H.  Brandon) 

272.  Royal  arms  as  borne  by  William  III.  .  .  ,  .     652 

273.  I,  Bayonet  as  made  in  i686     ......     653 

2,  Bayonet  of  the  time  of  William  and  Mary  .  .  .     653 

{From  '  Archaeologia,'  vol.  xxxviii.) 

274.  Part  of  Greenwich  Hospital.     Built  after  the  design  of  Sir  Christo- 

pher Wren     ........     662 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  d^'  Sons,  Dundee) 

275.  Front  of  Hampton  Court  Palace  ;  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  for 

Wilham  III.  .......     665 

{From  a  photograph) 

276.  Part  of  Hampton  Court  ;  built  for  William  III.  by  Sir  Christopher 

Wren  ........     666 

{From,  a  photograph  by  Valentine  &*  Sons,  Dundee) 

277.  West  front  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  Church  ;  built  by  Sir  Christopher 

Wren  ........     668 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  &f  Sons,  Dundee) 


k. 


lii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

278.  Queen  Anne  ;  from  a  portrait  by  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller  .  .     677 

{^From  an  engraving  after  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller) 
zjg.  ThefirstEddystone  Lighthouse,  erected  in  1697;  destroyed  in  1703  .     679 

(From  an  engraving  by  Sturt) 

280.  Steeple  of  St.  Bride's,  Fleet  Street,  London  ;  built  by  Sir  Christopher 

Wren,  1701-1703       .......     681 

(From  an  original  engraving) 

281.  Part  of  Blenheim  ;  built  by  Vanbrugh  in  1704  .  .  .     683 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  Sr'  Sons,  Dundee) 

282.  Royal  arms,  as  borne  by  Anne  .....     685 

283.  Sarah,  Duchess  of  Marlborough  ;  from  a  portrait  by  Sir  G.  Kneller, 

belonging  to  Earl  Spencer,  K.G.      .  .  .  .  .     688 

284.  John  Churchill,  Duke  of  Marlborough  ;  from  a  portrait  belonging  to 

Earl  Spencer,  K.G.   .  .  .  .  .  .  .689 

{Both  frojn  Dibdin's  *  ^des  Althorpianae ') 

285.  Jonathan  Swift,  D.D,,  Dean  of  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin  .     694 

{Fro7n  a  painting  by  C.  Jerz'as  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

286.  Henry  St.  John,  Viscount  Bolingbroke ;  from  an  engraving  after  a 

picture  by  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller  .....     698 

{From  Lodges  '  British  Portraits ') 

287.  The  Choir  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  Church,  looking  west,  as  finished 

by  Sir  Christopher  Wren      ......    700 

{From  an  engraving  by  Trevit,  about  1710) 

288.  George  L  .......  .     703 

{From  an  engraving  by  Vertue) 

289.  A  coach  of  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  .  .  .     706 

{From  an  engraving  by  Kip) 

290.  An  early  form  of  steam-pump  for  mines         ....     708 

{From  an  engraving  dated  1717) 

291.  Group  showing  costumes  and  sedan-chair  about  1720  .  -711 

292.  View  of  the  Game  of  Pall-Mall  .....     712 

{Both  from  Kip's  '  Prospect  of  the  City  of  London,  Westminster,  and 
St.  James's  Park ') 

293.  The  interior  of  St.  Martin' s-in-the-Fields,  London  ;  built  by  James 

Gibbs,  1722-1726       .......  715 

{From  a  contemporary  engraving) 

294.  Ploughing  with  oxen  in  the  eighteenth  century  .  .  .  716 

295.  Mowing  grass  in  the  eighteenth  century         ....  717 

{Both  from  Hearne  s  '  Ectypa  Varia,'  1737) 

296.  Church  of  St.  Mary  Woolnoth,  London  ;  finished  in  1727  from  the 

designs  of  Nicholas  Hawksmoor      .....     719 
{From  a  photograph) 

297.  Sir  Robert  Walpole     .......     721 

{From  the  picture  by  Van  Loo  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

298.  Vessels  unloading  at  the  Custom  House,  at  the  beginning  of  the 

eighteenth  century     .  .  .  .  ,  ,  .     723 

{From  an  original  engraving) 

299.  George  H.        .......  .     727 

{From  the  portrait  by    Thomas  Hudson  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery) 

300.  Coach  built  for  William  Herrick,  of  Beaumanor,  in  1740      .  .     729 

{From  a  lithograph) 

301.  A  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  1741-42  .  .  .     731 

{From  an  engraving  by  Pine) 

302.  Election  Scenes — The  Canvass  .....     733 


ILLUSTRATIONS  liii 


303.  Election  Scenes — The  Poll       .... 

304.  Election  Scenes — The  Chairing  of  the  Member 

305.  Election  Scenes — The  Election  Dinner 

{Frojn  engravings  after  the  pictures  by  Hogarth) 

306.  Grenadier  of  the  First  Regiment  of  Footguards,  1745 

307.  Uniform  of  the  Footguards,  1745 

{^Both  from  Sir  S.  Scott's  '  History  of  the  British  Army ') 
308    The  March  to  Finchley,  1745 

{From  the  engraving  by  Luke  Sullivan  after  the  painting  by  Hogarth^ 

309.  The  Right  Hon.  William  Pitt,  Paymaster  of  the  Forces,  afterwards 

Earl  of  Chatham        .  .  •  . 

{From  the  mezzotint  by  Houston  after  a  painting  by  Hoare) 

310.  A  view  of  Cape  Diamond,  Plains  of  Abraham,  and  part  of  the  town 

of  Quebec  and   the  river  St.   Lawrence  ;    drawn   by  Lieutenant 
Fisher  ....... 

{From  an  engraving  in  the  British  Mttseum) 

311.  Wolfe    ........ 

{From  the  painting  by  Schaakin  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

312.  A  naval  engagement;  defeat  of  the  French  off  Cape  Lagos,  August 

1759 

{From  a  picture  by  R.  Pat  on) 

313.  Officer  with  fusil  and  gorget    ..... 

{From  Sir  S.  Scott's  '  History  of  the  British  Army ') 

314.  Uniform  of  Militia,  1759  ..... 

{From  Raikes's  '  First  Regiment  of  Militia') 

315.  Uniform  of  a  Light  Dragoon,  about  1760 

{From  Grose's  '  Military  Antiquities  ') 

316.  The  third  Eddystone  Lighthouse  ;  built  by  Smeaton  in  1759 

{From  '  European  Magazine,'  vol.  xix.) 

317.  Silver  coffee-pot  belonging  to  the  Salters'  Company,  1764    . 

{From  Cripps's  '  College  and  Corporation  Plate  ') 

318.  Edmund  Burke  ...... 

{From  a  painting  by  Reynolds  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

319.  George  IH.  in  1767      ...... 

{From  a  painting  by  Allan  Ramsay  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

320.  Lord  North       ....... 

{From  the  engraving  by  Burke  after  a  painting  by  Dance) 

321.  Distribution  of  His  Majesty's  Maundy 

{From  the  engraving  by  Basire,  1773) 

322.  Part  of  Somerset  House  ;  built  by  Sir  William  Chambers,  1776-80 

{From  a  photograph) 

323.  Charles  James  Fox  as  a  young  man    .... 

{Frovi  Watson's  mezzotint  after  a  painting  by  Reynolds) 

324.  The  Gordon  Riots,  1780  .... 

{Fro7n  an  engraving  by  Heath  after  the  picture  by  Wheatley) 

325.  Newgate  Prison  ;  rebuilt  in  1782  after  the  Gordon  Riot 

{From  a  photograph) 

326.  The  Siege  of  Gibraltar,  1781  . 

{From  'European  Magazine,'  vol.  ii.) 

327.  Costumes  of  persons  of  quality,  about  1783   . 

{From  '  European  Magazine,'  vol.  v.) 

328.  Costumes  of  gentlefolk,  about  1784     . 

{From  *  European  Magazine,'  vol.  v.) 

329.  Society  at  Vauxhall      .  . 

{From  an  aquatint  after  T.  Rowlandson,  1785) 


PAGE 

734 
735 
736 

738 
738 

741 
742 


754 
755 

757 
758 
759 
760 

763 
769 
772 
775 
778 
781 

785 
790 
791 
793 
797 
800 
807 
809 


liv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. 

330.  Regulation  musket,  1786,  popularly  known  as  Brown  Bess  . 

{From  Sir  S.  Scott's  '  History  of  the  British  Army ') 

331.  Pitt  speaking  in  the  House  of  Commons 

{From  Nickel's  pai^iting  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

332.  Lock  on  a  Canal  ...... 

{From  Elmes's  '  Metropolitan  Improvements,'  1827) 

333.  James  Brindley  .  ..... 

{From    the  portrait    by    Parsons   engraved   in    Taylor's  '  National 
Biography ') 

334.  Arkwright         ....... 

{From  a  painting   by  Wright  of  Derby  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery) 

335.  Crompton         ....... 

{From    a  painting   by   Allingham  engraved  in   Taylors  '  National 
Biography ') 

336.  Uniform  of  sailors  about  1790  .... 

{From  a  caricatzire  by  B owlandson,  and  a  broadside  of  1790) 

337.  Head-dress  of  a  lady  (Mrs.  Abington)  about  1778 

{From  *  European  Magazine,'  vol.  xxxiii.) 

338.  The  Union  Jack  in  use  since  1801       .... 

{From  BoutelVs  '  English  Heraldry ') 

339.  William  Pitt     ....... 

{From  the  bust  by  Nollekens  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

340.  Royal  arms  as  borne  from  1714  to  1801 

341.  Royal  arms  as  borne  from  1801  to  1816 

342.  Royal  arms  as  borne  from  1816  to  1837 

343.  Greathead's  lifeboat,  1803        .  .  . 

{From  '  European  Magazine,'  vol.  xliii.) 

344.  The  Old  East  India  House  in  1803     .... 

{From  '  European  Magazine,"  vol.  xliii.) 

345.  The  old  Houses  of  Parliament  and  Westminster  Abbey,  1803 

{From  a  contemporary  engraving) 

346.  The  King  in  the  House  of  Lords,  1804 

{From  '  Modern  London  ') 

347.  Napoleon's  medal  struck  to  commemorate  the  invasion  of  England 

{From  a  cast  in  the  British  Museum) 

348.  Hyde  Park  on  a  Sunday,  1804  .... 

{From  '  Modern  London ') 

349.  Lord  Nelson    ....... 

{From  the  picture  by  L.  F.  Abbott  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

350.  Fox        .  .  .  .  .  .  ... 

{From  his  bust  by  Nolleketis  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

351.  The  taking  of  Curasao  in  1807  .... 

{From  an  engraving  of  1809) 

352.  The  Court  of  King's  Bench  in  1810    .... 

{From  Pennant's  '  Some  Account  of  London ') 

353.  Grenadier  in  the  time  of  the  Peninsular  War 

{Frotn  Raikes's  '  First  Regiment  of  Militia ') 

354.  Waterloo  Bridge  ;  opened  June  18,  1817,  built  by  Rennie    . 

{From  Ehncs's  '  Metropolitan  Improvements ') 

355.  George  HL  in  old  age  ..... 

{From  C.  Ttirners  mezzotint) 

356.  George  IV.        ....... 

{Froiu  an  unfinished  portrait  by  Lawrence  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery) 


ILL  US  TRA  riONS  Iv 

FIG.  PAGE 

357.  Lord  Byron       ........     886 

{From  an  engraving  after  a  painting  by  Sanders') 

358.  Sir  Walter  Scott  .  .  .  .  .  ,  .888 

{From  a  photog7-aph  of  a  painting  by  Colvin  Smith  in  Scott  Metnorials) 

359.  Wordsworth  at  the  age  of  28  .  .  .  .  .  .     889 

{^From.  a  drawing  by  R.  Hancock  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

360.  Canning  ;  from  Stewardson's  portrait  ....     892 

{From  Taylors  '  National  Biography  ') 

361.  Apsley  House,  the  residence  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  in  1829      .     897 

{From  Elmess  '  Metropolitan  Improvements  ') 

362.  William  IV.  ;  from  a  portrait  by  Dawe  ....     899 

{From  Taylors  '  National  Portrait  Gallery  ') 

363.  The  Duke  of  Wellington         ......     <yx> 

{From  a  bust  by  J.  Ftancis  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

364.  Earl  Grey         ........  901 

365.  Viscount  Melbourne    .......  902 

366.  Lord  Palmerston          .......  904 

{All  from  Hayters  picture  of  '  The  Meeting  of  the  First  Reformed 
Parliament,  Feb.  5,  1833,'  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

367.  An  early  steamboat      .......     906 

{From  the  '  Instructor  '  of  1833) 

368.  Engine  employed  at  the  Killingworth  Colliery,  familiarly  known  as 

'  Puffing  Billy '.,.....     907 
{From  a  photograph  by  I  'alentine  S'  Sons,  Dundee)  . 

369.  No.  I  Engine  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Railv^ay         .  .     907 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  <5r*  Sons,  Dundee,  of  the  original  at 
Gateshead) 

370.  St.  Luke's,  Chelsea,  designed  by  Savage,  and  built  in  1824  .     908 

{From  Elmes's  '  Metropolitan  Improvements  ') 

371.  Banner  of  the  Royal  arms  as  borne  since  1837  .  .  .     914 

{From  Boitteirs  '  English  Heraldry ') 

372.  Queen  Victoria  :  after  a  portrait  by  Lane       ....     915 

{From  the  engraving  by  Thompson) 

373.  Lord  John  Russell        .......     917 

{Frofn  a  painting  by  Sir  F.  Grant) 

374.  The  New  Houses  of  Parliament  .....     919 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  ^^  Sons,  Dundee) 

375.  Sir  Robert  Peel  .  ......     932 

( From  the  bust  by  Noble  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery) 

376.  The  Britannia  Tubular  Railway  Bridge,  opened  in  1850       .  •     937 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  6^  Sons,  Dundee) 

377.  St.  George's  Hall,  Liverpool,  completed  in  1859       .  .  .     942 

{From  a  photograph  by  Valentine  &r>  Sons,  Dundee) 

378.  The  Victoria  Cross,  instituted  in  1856  ....     947 

{From  BoutelFs  '.English  Heraldry ') 


GENEALOGICAL   TABLES 


I 

ENGLISH  KINGS  FROM  ECGRERHT   TO  HENRY  L 

ECGBERHT 
802-839 

iETHELWULF 
839-858 


iETHELBALD 
858-860 


^THELBERHT 
860-866 


Eadward 

the  Elder 

901-924 


iExHELRED 
866-871 


Alfred 
871-901 


^thelflaed  =  .Ethelred, 

(the  Lady  of    Ealdorman 

the  of  the 

Mercians)       Mercians 


^THELSTAN 

924-940 


I 

Eadmund 

940-046 


I 

Eadred 

946-955 


Eadwig 

955-959 


-^thelflaed  =  Eadgar 
959-975 


^Ifthryth 


I 

Eadward 

the  Martyr 

975-979 


Richard  I, 
Duke  of 
Normandy 


Svend 


iElfled  =  iETHELRED  =  Emma  =  Cnut 


the 
Unready 
979-1016 


Eadmund 

Ironside 

1016 


1016-1035 


Harold      Harthacnut 
1036-1039        1039-1042 

God  wine 

I 


Eadmund 


Eadward 
the  ^thehng 


^Elfred 
the  yEtheling 


Eadward  =  Eadgyth 

the 
Confessor 
1042-1066 


Harold 
1066 


Eadgar  Margaret  =  Malcolm  Canmore 

the  ^theling  | 

Eadgyth  =  Henrv  I. 
(Matilda)     1100-1135 


Iviii 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


II 

GENEALOGY  OF  THE  NORMAN  DUKES  AND  OF  THE 
KINGS  OF  ENGLAND  FROM  THE  CONQUEST  TO 
HENRY   VII, 

Hrolf 

912  -927  (?) 


William  Longsword 
927  (?)-943 


Richard  I.,  the  Fearless 
943-996 


Richard  II., 

996 

the  Good 
-ioc6 

Emma= 

=(i)  iEthelred 
the  Unready 

ichard  III. 
1026-1028 

Robert 
1028-1035 

Ead\ 
the  Co 

VARD 

ifessor 

William  I. 

103S-1087 

King  of  England 

1066- 1087 

Robert 

Duke  of 

Normandy 

108 7- I 106 


William  II. 
1087-1100 


Henry  I. 
1100-1135 


Adela=  Stephen 
Count  of 
Blois 


Henry  V. 
Emperor 


Matilda = Geoffrey        Stephen 
Count  of       1 135-1154 
Anjou         \ 

Henry  II. 
[154-1189 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 
Henry  II.  [continued) 


Ik 


Henrj' 


Geoffrey 


I 
Richard  I 

"89-1199 


Edward  I. 
1272-1307 


John 
1199-1216 


Henry  III 
1216-1272 


Edward  the 
Black  Prince 


Richard  II. 
1377-1399 


Edward  II. 
1307-1327 


Edward  III. 
1327-1377 


Lionel 
Duke  of  Clarence 
I 
Philippa = Edmund 
Mortimer 
Earl  of 
March 

Roger,  Earl  of  March 


John  of  Gaunt 

Duke  of  Lancaster 

I 

Henry  IV. 

1399-1412 

Henry  V. 
1413-1422 

Henry  VI. 
1422-1461 


Edmund 
Duke  of  York 


Edmund  Anne = Richard 

Earl  of  March  I  Earl  of  Cambridge 

Richard,  Duke  of  York 


Edward  IV. 
1461-1483 


Richard  III. 

1483-1485 


Edward  V.  Elizabeth= Henry  VII. 

1483  1485-1509 

(Descended  from 
John  of  Gaunt  by 
Catherine  Swynford) 


Ix 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


III 

GENEALOGY  OF   THE  KINGS   OF  SCOTLAND  FROM 
DUNCAN  L    TO  JAMES   IV. 

Duncan  I. 
(died  1057) 


Margaret 

sister  of 

Edgar 

iEtheling 


I 

Malcolm   III.> 

Canmore 

1057-1093 


Edgar 
I 098-1 107 


I 
Alexander 
1107-1124 


I 
David  I. 
1124-1153 

Henry 


Duncan  II. 
1094-1095 


I 

Donald  Bane 

1093 -1094, 

restored 

1095-1098 


I  I 

Malcolm  IV.      William 
1153-1165  the  Lion 

1165-1214 

Alexander  II. 
1214-1249 

Alexander  III. 
I 249- I 285 

Margaret  =  Eric, 

I  King  of 
Norway 


David 
Earl  of  Huntingdon 


Margaret 
I 
Devorguilla=John  BalHol 

John  Balliol 
1292-1296 

Edward  Balliol 


Isabella 

I 

Robert  Bruce 

•I 
Robert  Bruce 

I 

Robert  Bruce 

1306-1329 


Margaret 

(the  Maid  of 

Norway) 


David  II. 
1329-1370 


Margaret  =  Walter 
I  Stewart 


Robert  II.,  Stewart  or  Stuart 
1370-1390 

Robert  III. 
1390-1406 

James  I. 
1406-1437 

James  II. 
1437-1460 

James  IIL 
1460-1488 

James  IV. 
1488-1513 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES  Ixi 


IV 

KINGS  AND  QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND  (AFTER  1541  OF  ENGLAND 
AND  IRELAND)  FROM  HENRY  VII.   TO  ELIZABETH. 

Henry  VII.  =  Elizabeth 
1485-1509     I    of  York 


I  .  I 

Arthur     =     Catharine  =  Henry  VIII.  =  (2)  Anne  Boleyn  =  (3)  Jane  Seymour 
Prince  of  ofAragon    I        1509- 1547        I  I 

Wales  I  I  1 

Mary  I.  Elizabeth  Edward  VI. 

1553-1559  1558-1603  1547-1553 


V 

KINGS  OF  SCOTLAND  FROM  JAMES   IV.    TO  JAMES    VL 


Henry  VII., 

king  of  I   England 

James  IV.  =  Margaret = Archibald,  Earl  ot 


king  of  Scotland 
1488-1513 


Angus 


James  V.  =  Mary  of  Guise       Margaret  Douglas=  Matthew  Stuart 
1513-1542   I  j   Earl  of  Lennox 


(i)  Francis  II.  =  Mary=(2)  Henry  Stuart 
king  of  France     1542-15671       (Lord  Darnley) 

James  VI. 

1567-1625 

king  of  Great  Britain 

as  James  I. 

I 603- I 625 


Ixii 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


VI 

KINGS  OF   GREAT  BRITAIN  AND   IRELAND 
FROM  JAMES  I.    TO   GEORGE   I. 

James  I. = Anne  of  Denmark 

1603-1625 


Henry  Charles  I.  =  Henrietta 

Prince  of  1625-1649        Maria  of 

Wales  France 


Charles  II  =  Catharine 
(nominally)  of 

1649-1660        Braganza 

(actually) 

1660-1685 


Elizabeth = Frederick  V. 
Elector 
Palatine 


Mary= 


William  II. 
Prince  of 
Orange 


(i)  Anne  Hyde= James  II. 
1685-1689 


William  III. 

Prince  of 

Orange, 

king  of  Great 

Britain  and 

Ireland 
1689-1702 


Mary  II. 
1689-1694 


(2)  Mary 

of 
Modena 


Anne 
[702-1714 


James  (The 
Old  Pre- 
tender) 


Charles 

Edward 

(The  Young 

Pretender) 


Charles  Lewis 
Elector  Palatine 


Prince  Rupert 


Sophia 

George  I. 
1714-1727 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


Ixiii 


VII 

KINGS  AND  QUEENS  OF   GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND 
FROM  GEORGE  I    TO  EDWARD    VII . 


George  I. 
1714-1727 


George  II. 
,727-1760 


Frederick 
Prince  of  Wales 


George  III. 
1760-1820 


William  Duke  of  Cumberland 


George  IV. 

1820-1830 


Princess  Charlotte 


Frederick 
Duke  of  York 


William  IV. 
1830-1837 


Edward 
Duke  of  Kent 


Victoria 
1837-1901 


Edward  VII. 
1901 


Ixiv 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


VIII 

GENEALOGY  OF   THE  KINGS   OF  FRANCE  FROM  HUGH 
CAPET   TO  LOUIS   XII. 


Louis  X. 
1314-1316 


Hugh  the  Great . 
(died  956) 

Hugh  Capet 
987-996 

I 
Robert 
996-1031 

I 
Henry  I. 
1031-1060 

Philip  I. 
1060-1108 

Louis  VL 
1108-1137 

Louis  VH. 

1137-1180 

I 
Philip  IL 

I 180-1223 

Louis  VIIL 
1223-1226 

(St.)  Louis  IX. 
1226-1270 

Philip  IIL 
1270-1285 


Philip  IV. 
1283-1314 


Philip  V. 
1316-1322 


Charles  IV. 
1322-1328 


Jeanne 


I  Two 

John       daughters 
(died  seven 
days  old) 


Isabella 
tn.  Edward  II. 

I 
Edward  III. 


Charles 
of  Valois 

Philip  VL 
1328-1350 


John 
1350-1364 


Charles  VI. 
1380-1422 

Charles  VII. 
1422-1461 

Louis  XI. 
1461-1483 

Charles  VIIL 
1483-1498 


Charles  V, 
1364-1380 


Louis 
Duke  of  Orleans 


Charles 
Duke  of  Orleans 


Louis  XIL 
1498-1519 


Dukes  of  Burgundy 
Philip 

John 
Philip 
Charles 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


Ixv 


IX. 

GENEALOGY  OF  THE  KINGS  OF  FRANCE  FROM  LOUIS  XII. 
TO  LOUIS  XIV.,  SHOWING  THEIR  DESCENT  FROM 
LOUIS   IX. 

(St.)  Louis  IX. 
1226-1270 


Philip  III. 
1270-1285 


Robert  of  Clermont 

J 

Louis  I.  Duke  of 

Bourbon 


Philip  IV. 
1283-1314 

I 

I 
(For  descen- 
dants of 
Philip  IV. 

Table  VIIL) 


Francis  II. 
1559-1560 


Charles 
of  Valois 


Philip  VI. 

1328-1350 


John 
1350-1364 


Charles  V. 
I 364- I 380 


Charles  VI. 
I 380-1422 


Charles  VII. 
1422-1461 


Louis  XI. 
1461-1483 


Charles  VIII. 
1483-1498 


Louis 
Duke  of  Orleans 

I 


Charles 
Duke  of  Orleans 


Louis  XII. 
1498-1515 


John 


Count  of  Angouleme 


Charles 

I 

I 

Francis  I. 

1515-1547 


Henry  II. 

I 547- I 559 


Charles  IX. 

1560-1574 


i  . 
Francis 
Duke  of 

Alen9on 


Henry  III. 

1574-1589 


Antony=Jeanne  d'Albret, 
I      queen  of 
Navarre 


Henry  IV. 

1589-1610 

Louis  XIII. 
1610-1643 

Louis  XIV. 
1643-1715 


Ixvi 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


X 

KINGS  OF  FRANCE  FROM  HENRY  IV.    TO  LOUIS  PHILIPPE 

Henky  IV. 

1589-1610 


Louis  XIII 
161&-1643 


Henrietta  =  Charles  I. 
Maria      |    king  of  England 


Louis  XIV. 
1643-171 5 

Louis 
the  Dauphin 

Louis  Duke  of 
Burgundy 

Louis  XV. 

I 715-1774 

I 

Louis 

the  Dauphin 


(2)  Elizabeth 

d.  of  Charles 

Lewis,  Elector 

Palatine 


Philip  =  (i)  Henrietta 

Duke  of 

Orleans 


Philip  Duke  of  Orleans, 
Regent 

Louis 
Duke  of  Orleans 

Louis  Philippe 
Duke  of  Orleans 

1 


Louis  XVI. 

1774-1792' 

Louis 

(imprisoned  till 

his  death  in 

1795  ;  called 

Louis  XVII.) 


Louis  XVIII. 
1814-1824 


Louis  Duke  of 
Angouleme 


Charles  X. 
1824-1830 

Charles  Duke  of 

Berri 

I 

Henry  Count  of 

Chambord 


Philip 

Duke  of  Orleans 

(Egalit^) 

Louis  Philippe 
king  of  the 

French 
1830-1848^ 

Louis  Philippe 
Count  of  Paris 


XI 

THE  BONAPARTE  FAMILY 


Charles  Buonaparte 


Joseph         (2)  Maria  = 
Bonaparte         Louisa 
king  of  Spain 

=  Napoleon  I.  =  (i)  Josephine 

Emperor          in.  (i)  General 

1804-1814-15        Beauharnais 

Lucien      Louis 
king  of 
Holland 

Jerome 
king  of 
West- 
phalia 

1 
Napoleon 
Duke  of  Reich  3ta 
(called  Napoleon  I 

Eugene 
dt                     Viceroy  of  Italy 

Hortense 
in.  Louis 
king  of 
Holland 

Napoleon  III. 
1852-1870 

Republic  1 792-1 799,  nominally  to  1S04. 


Republic  1848-1851,  nominally  to  1852, 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


Ixvii 


XII 

GENEALOGY  OF  THE  KINGS  OF  SPAIN  FROM  FERDINAND 
AND  ISABELLA    TO  CHARLES  //. 


Maximilian 
Emperor 


Philip  I.    : 

Archduke  of 

Austria, 

king  of  Castile 

1504-1506 


Ferdinand 

king  of  Aragon 

1479-1516 


Isabella 

queen  of 

Castile 

1474-1504 


Juana 


Catharine=(i)  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales 

(2)  Henry  VIII.  king  of  England 


Charles  I. 
(the  Emperor  Charles  V.) 
king  of  Castile,  1506-1556, 
king  of  Aragon,  1516-1556 


Philip  II. 
1556-1598 


Ferdinand  I. 
Emperor 


Philip  III. 
1598-1621 


Philip  IV. 
162 I- 1665 


Charles  II. 
1665-1700 


Ixviii 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


XIII 

KINGS  OF  SPAIN  FROM  PHILIP    V. 

Philip  V. 

1700-1724  (abdicates) 
(resumes  the  crown)  1725-1746 


Luis 
1724-1725 


Ferdinand  VI. 
1746-1759 


Charles  III. 
1759-1788 

Charles  IV. 
1788-1808 

Ferdinand  VII. 
1814-1833 

Isabella 
1833-1868' 

Alfonso  XII 
1874-1885 

Alfonso  XIII. 
1886- 


XIV 

GENEALOGY   OP    THE   GERMAN  BRANCH  OF    THE    HOUSE 

OF  AUSTRIA    FROM  FERDINAND   I.    TO  LEOPOLD  I 

(The  dates  given  are  those  during  which  an  archduke  was  emperor.) 

Ferdinand  I. 
1556-1564 


Rudolph  II. 
1576-1612 


Maximilian  II. 
1564-1576 


Matthias 
1612-1619 


CharJes 
Duke  of  Styria 


Ferdinand  II, 
1619-1635 

Ferdinand  III. 
1635-1658 

Leopold  I. 
1658-170S 


Provisional  Government .     1868 

Regency  of  Marshal  Serrano 1869 

King  Amadeo 1870-73 

Republic     .  .<        .        1873-74 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


Ixix 


XV 

THE  GERMAN  BRANCH  OF   THE  HOUSE   OF  AUSTRIA 
FROM  LEOPOLD  I. 

(The  dates  given  are  those  during  which  an  archduke  was  emperor.) 

Leopold  I. 
1658-1705 


(2)  Cunigunda  =  Max  Emanuel  =  (i)  Mary 


Sobieski 


Elector  of 
Bavaria 


Charles  VII.        Joseph  Ferdinand 
1742-1745  Electoral  Prince 

of  Bavaria 


Joseph  I. 
1705-1711 


Charles  VI. 
1711-1740 


Francis  I.  =  Maria  Theresa 
1745-1765  died  1780 


Joseph  II. 
I 765-1 790 


Leopold  II, 
1790-1792 


Marie  =  Louis  XVI. 
Antoine  tte         king 

of  France 


Francis  II. 

I 792- I 806 

(The  Empire  dissolved 

in  1806) 

Emperor  of  Austria 

1804-1835 


Ferdinand  T. 
Emperor  of  Austria 

1835- 1843 


Francis  Charles 


Francis  Joseph, 
Emperor  of  Austria, 
King  of  Hungary  &c. 

1848- 


Ixx  GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


XVI 

KINGS  OF  PRUSSIA   AND  GERMAN  EMPERORS 


Frederick  I. 

king  of  Prussia 

1700-1713 


Frederick  William  I. 

king  of  Prussia 

1713-1740 


Frederick  II,  Augustus  William 

king  of  Prussia  I 

I 740- I 786 

. Frederick  William  II. 

king  of  Prussia 

1786-1797 

Frederick  William  III. 

king  of  Prussia 

1797-1840 


I  I 

Frederick  William  IV.  William  I, 

king  of  Prussia  king  of  Prussia 

1840-1861  1861-1888 

German  Emperor 
1870-1888 


Frederick  III. 
king  of  Prussia 

and 
German  Emperor 

1888 

i 

William  II. 

king  of  Prussia 

and 

German  Emperor 


GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


Ixzi 


XVII 

KINGS  OF  ITALY 

Charles  Albert 

king  of  Sardinia 

1831-1849 

Victor  Emmanuel 

king  of  Sardinia 

1849-1861 

king  of  Italy 

1861-1878 

I 

Humbert 

king  of  Italy 

1878-1900 

Victor  Emmanuel  III. 

1900  X 

XVIII 

THE   TZARS  OR  EMPERORS  OF  RUSSIA   FROM  ALEXIS 

Alexis 
1645-1675 


Theodore        Ivan  V. 
1676-1682        1682-1689 


Catharine 

I 

Anne 


Ivan  VI. 
1740-1741 


Anne 
1730-1740 


Eudocia  =  Peter  I.  (The  Great)  =Catharine 
1689-1725  I      17^5-1727 


Alexis 


Peter  II. 
1725-1730 


Anne  Elizabeth 

I  1741-1762 

Peter  III.  =  Catharine  II. 
1762         I       1762-1796 

Paul 
I 796-1801 


Alexander 
1801-1826 


Constantine 


Nicholas 
1825-1855 

Alexander  IL 

1855-1881 


Alexander  III. 
1881-1894 


Nicholas  II. 
J894 


Ixxii  GENEALOGICAL    TABLES 


XIX 

GENEALOGY  OF  THE  PRINCES  OF  ORANGE  FROM  WILLIAM  I 
TO    WILLIAM  III.  ^ 

William  I. 
(The  Silent) 

1558-1584 


I  I  I 

Philip  William  Maurice  Frederick  Henry 

1584-1618  1618-1625  1625-1647 


William  II. 
1647-1650 


William  III. 
1650-1702 


SHORTER  AND  SOMETIMES  MORE  DETAILED  GENEALOGIES 

will  be  foimd  in  the  following  pages. 

PAGE 

Genealogy  of  the  principal  Northumbrian  kings         ...                 ...  41 

,,  ,,      English  kings  from  Ecgberht  to  Eadgar         .        .        .         .         .56 

,,            ,,       English  kings  from  Eadgar  to  Eadgar  the  jEtheling      .        .  78 

,,            ,,      Danish  kings 83 

Genealogical  connection  between  the  Houses  of  England  and  Normandy        .        .  84 

Genealogy  of  the  Mercian  Earls 85 

,,             ,,       family  of  Godwine 89 

,,             ,,       Conqueror's  sons  and  children 131 

,,             ,,       sons  and  grandchildren  of  Henry  II 156 

,,             ,,       John's  sons  and  grandsons 208 

,,             ,,       claimants  of  the  Scottish  throne 216 

,,            ,,      more  important  sons  of  Edward  III.        ......  265 

,,            ,,      claimants  of  the  throne  in  1399 286 

„            ,,      kings  of  Scotland  from  Robert  Bruce  to  James  1 295 

,,             ,,       Nevills 324 

,,            ,,       Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York 327 

„            ,,       Beauforts  and  Tudors 335 

,,             ,,       House  of  York. 337 

,,             ,,       Woodvilles  and  Greys      .........  338 

Abbreviated  genealogy  of  Henry  VII.  and  his  competitors 344 

Genealogy  of  the  Houses  of  Spain  and  Burgundy 349 

Poles          .        .        .        : 399 

children  of  Henry  VIII 411 

Greys 421 

last  Valois  kings  of  France 433 

Guises 435 

of  Mary  and  Darnley .        .        .  438 

of  the  descendarfi  of  Charles  I.         ...,,,..  609 

,,      claimants  ot  the  Spanish  monarchy 669 

,,       first  three  Hanoverian  kings 70a 

, .      family  of  Louis  XIV 707 

,,      principal  descendants  of  Queen  Victoria          ,        ,                 ,        .  925 


HISTORY    OF    ENGLAND 

PART    I 

ENGLAND  BEFORE   THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST 


CHAPTER   I 

PREHISTORIC  AND   ROMAN   BRITAIN 

LEADING     DATES 

Caesar's  first  invasion b.c.  55 

Invasion  of  Aulus  Plautius a.d.  43 

Recall  of  Agricola 84 

Severus  in  Britain 208 

End  of  the  Roman  Government 410 

^♦^Palaeolithic  Man  of  the  River-Drift. — Countless  ages  ago, 
there  was  a  period  of  time  to  which  geologists  have  given  the  name 
of  the  Pleistocene  Age.  The  part  of  the  earth's  surface  afterwards 
called  Britain  was  tl^n  attached  to  the  Continent,  so  that  animals 
could  pass  over  on  dryia^nd.  The  climate  was  much  colder  than  it 
is  now,  and  it  is  known  fronK^  bones  which  have  been  dug  up  that 
the  country  was  inhabited  byN^lves,  bears,  mammoths,  woolly 
rhinoceroses,  and  other  creatures  nbv^  extinct.  No  human  remains 
have  been  found  amongst  these  bones,  B^there  is  no  doubt  that  men 
existed  contemporaneously  with  their  depbs^t,  because,  in  the  river 
drift,  or  gravel  washed  down  by  rivers,  there  ^ba,ve  been  discovered 
flints  sharpened  by  chipping,  which  can  only  have  been  produced 
by  the  hand  of  man.  The  men  who  used  them  are  known  as 
Palaeolithic,  or  the  men  of  ancient  stone,  because  these  stone  im- 
plements are  rougher  and  therefore  older  than  others  which  have 

B 


PREHISTORIC  BRITAIN 


Palaeolithic  flint  scraper  from  Icklingbain, 
Suffolk.     (Evans.) 


been  discovered.     These  Palaeolithic  men  of  the  river  drift  were  a 
race  of  stunted'  savages  who   didsliot   cultivate  the  ground,  but 

live9^»«4he  animals  which  they 
killed,  andrrltt^have  had  great 
difficulty  in  proctl«ing  food,  as 
they  did  not  know  ho^^s^o  make 
handles  for  their  sharpenea"flints, 
and  must  therefore  have  had  to 
hold  them  in  their  hands, 

2.  Cave-dwelling  Palaeolithic 
Man. — This  race  was  succeeded 
by  another^^which  dwelt  in  caves. 
They,  as    >Vell  as   their  prede- 
cessors, are  fenownas  Palaeohthic 
men,    as    thqr    weapons    were, 
still    very    rude.     As,   however, 
they  had  learn  t\to  make  handles 
for  them,  they  (souid  construct 
arrows,     fi^arpoons,    and 
javelins.  Tl^ey  also  made 
awls  and  needles  of  stone  ; 
and,   what   is    more   re- 
markable, theV  possessed 
a  decided  artistic  power, 
which  enabled\  them  to 
indicate  by  a  few  vigorous 
scratches    the    i^rms    of 
horses,  mammotlls,  rein- 
deer, and  other  ai^imals. 
Vast    heaps    of   ri\bbish 
still  exist  in  various  'parts 
ot     Europe,    which  <  are 
found  to  consist  of  \the 
bones,  shells,  and  other 
refuse  thrown  out  by  th^se 
later     Palaeolithic    mqi, 
who  had  no  reverence  fqr 
the  dead,  casting  out  th'^ 
bodies  of  their  relation* 
to   decay   with    as    little 
thought    as    they   threw 
away     oyster-shells     or 


Palaeolithic  flint  implement  from  Hoxne,  Suffolk 


THE  STONE  AGE  3 

reindeer-boxes.  Traces  of  Palaeolithic  men  of  this  type  have  been 
found  as  far  noicth  as  Derbyshire.  Their  descendants  are  no  longer 
to  be  met  with  irKthese  islands.    The  Eskimos  of  the  extreme  north 


Engraved  bone  from  Cresswell  Crags,  D&»;byshire,  now  in  the  British  Museum 
(full  size) 

of  America,  however,  have  the  same  aHistic  faculty  and  the  same 
disregard  for  the  dead,  and  it  has  therefore  been  supposed  that 
the  cave-dwelling  men  were  of  the  race\to  which  the  modern 
Eskimos  belong. 

3.  Neolithic  Man. — Ages  passed  away  durin^iswhich  the  climate 
became  more  temperate,  and  the  earth's  surface\n  these  regions 
sank  to  a  lower  level.  The  seas  afterwards  known  as  ttie  North  Sea 
and  the  English  Channel  flowed  over  the  depression  ;  anHv^n  island 
was  thus  fornied  out  of  land  which  had  once  been  part  ofNhe  con- 
tinent. After  this  process  had  taken  place,  a  third  race  appeared, 
which  must  have  crossed  the  sea  in  rafts  or  canoes,  and  which 
took  the  place  of  the  Palaeolithic  men.     They  are  known  as  Neo- 


Neolithic  flint  arrow-head  from  Rud- 
stone,  Yorks.     (Evans.) 


Neolithic  celt  or  cutting  in- 
strument from  Guernsey. 
(Evans.) 


Hthic,  or  men  of  the  new  stone  age,  because  their  stone  implements 
were  of  a  newer  kind,  being  polished  and  more  efficient  than  those 
of  their  predecessors.     They  had,  therefore,  the  advantage  of  supe- 


PREHISTORIC  BRITAIN 


rior  weapons,  and    perhaps  of  superior  strength^  and  were  able 
to  overpower  those  whom  they  found  in  the  islari^.      With   their 

stone  axes  they  made 
clearings  in  the  woods 
in  which  to  place  their 
settlements.  They 
brought  ^ith  them  do- 
mestic anivnals,  sheep 
and  goats,|dbgs  and 
pigs.  They  spun 
thread  wit^  spindle 
and  distaff,  knd  wove 
it  into  clotli  upon  a 
loom.  They  grew  corn 
and  manufactured  a 
rude  kind  of  pottery.  Each  tribe  lived  in  a  state  of  war  with  its 
neighbours.  A  tribe  when  attacked  in  force  took  shelter  Ion  the 
hills  in  places  of  refuge,  which  were  surrounded  by  lofty  rAounds 
and  ditches.  Many  of  these  places  of  refuge  are  still  to  b^  seen, 
as,  for  instance,  the  one  which  bears  the  name  of  Maiden  Castle, - 
near  Dorchester.     On  the  open  hills,  too,  are  still  to  be  founfl  the 


Neolithic  axe  from  Winterbourn  Steepleton,  Dorset. 
(Evans.) 


Early  British  Pottery. 

long  barrows  which  the  Neolithic  men  raised  over  the  dead.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  these  men,  whose  way  of  life  was  so  superior  to 
that  of  their  Eskimo-like  predecessors,  were  of  the  race  now  known 


S   Wv>-      ^  CA      -^  ^l2>t>J^oAj^      ^  ^  '^    H^v.^*^-^    ^^ 


SUCCESSIVE   RACES 


1^. 


as  Iberian,  which  at 
one  time  inhabited  a 
great  part  of  Western 
Europe,  but  which  has 
since  mingled  with  other 
races.  The  Basques  of 
the  Pyrenees  are  the 
only  Iberians  who  still 
preserve  anything  like 
purity  of  descent, 
though  even  the 
Basques  have  in  them 
blood  the  origin  of 
which  is  not  Iberian. 

4.  Celts  and  Iberi- 
ans.—  The  Iberians 
were  followed  by  a 
swarm  of  new-comers 
called  Celts.  The 
Celts  belong  to  a  group 
of  races  sometimes 
known  as  the  Aryan 
group,  to  which  also 
belong  Teutons,  Slav- 
onians, Italians,  Greeks, 
and  the  chief  ancient 
races  of  Persia  and  In- 
dia. The  Celts  were 
the  first  to  arrive  in  the 
West,  where  they  seized 
upon  lands  in  Spain,  in 
Gaul,  and  in  Britain, 
which  the  Iberians  had 
occupied  before  them. 
They  did  not,  however, 
destroy  the  Iberians 
altogether.  However 
careful  a  conquering 
tribe  maybe  to  preserve 
the  purity  of  its  blood, 
it  rarely  succeeds  in 
doing    so.      The    con- 


Early  British  Pottery 


PREHISTORIC    BRITAIN 


querors  are  sure  to  preserve  some  of  the  men  of  the  conquered  race 

as  slaves,  and  a  still  larger  number  of  young  and  comely  women 

who  become  the  mothers  of  their  children.     In  time  the  slaves  and 

the  children  learn  to  speak  the  language  of  their  masters  or  fathers. 

Thus  every  European  population  is  derived  from  many  races. 
)\       5.  The  Celts  in  Britain. — The  Celts  were  fair-haired  and  taller 

than  the  Iberians,  whom  they  conquered  or  displaced.     They  had 

the  advantage  of  being  possessed  of  weapons 

of  bronze,  for  which  even  the   polished   stone 

weapons  of  the  Iberians  were  no  match.     They 

burned  instead  of  burying  their  dead,  and  raised 

over  the  ashes  those  round  barrows  which  are 

still   to  be   found   intermingled   with    the   long 

barrows  of  the  Iberians. 
^       6.  Goidels  and  Britons. — The  earliest  known 

name  given  to  this  island  was  Albion.     It  is  un- 
certain whether  the  word  is  of  Celtic  or  of  Iberian 

origin.     The  later  name  Britain  is  derived  from 

a   second   swarm  of  Celts   called   Brythons  or 

Britons,  who  after  a  long  interval  followed  the 

first  Celtic   immigration.      The   descendants  of 

these  first    immigrants    are  distinguished  from 

the  new-comers  by  the  name  of  Goidels,  and  it 

is  probable  that  they  were  at  one  time  settled  in 

Britain   as  well  as   in    Ireland,  and   that  they 

were  pushed  across  the  sea  into  Ireland  by  the 

stronger  and  more  civilised  Britons.     At  all  events,  when  history 

begins  Goidels  were  only  to  be  found   in   Ireland,  though    at  a 


Bronze  cell  from  the 
Isle  of  Harty, 
Kent  (i). 


Bronze  lance- 
head  found 
in  Ireland. 


Bronze  caldron  found  in  Ireland. 


SUCCESSIVE   RACES  7 

later  time  they  colonised  a  part  of  what  is  now  known  as  Scotland, 
and  sent  some  offshoots  into  Wales.  At  present  the  languages 
derived  from  that  of  the  Goidels  are  the  Gaelic  of  the  Highlands, 
the  Manx  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  the  Erse  of  Ireland.  The  only 
language  now  spoken  in  the  British  Isles  which  is  derived  from 
that  of  the  Britons  is  the  Welsh  ;  but  the  old  Cornish  language, 
which  was  spoken  nearly  up  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
came  from  the  same  stock.  It  is  therefore  likely  that  the  Britons 
pushed  the  Goidels  northward  and  westward,  as  the  Goidels  had 


View  of  Stonehenge.     (From  a  photograph.) 


formerly  pushed  the  Iberian-s  in  the  same  directions.  It  was  most 
likely  that  the  Britons  erected  the  huge  stone  circle  of  Stonehenge 
on  Salisbury  Plain,  though  it  is  not  possible  to  speak  with  cer- 
tainty. That  of  Avebury  is  of  an  earher  date  and  uncertain  origin. 
Both  were  probably  intended  to  serve  as  monuments  of  the  dead, 
though  it  is  sometimes  supposed  that  they  were  also  used  as 
temples. 
\K-  7.  Phoenicians  and  Greeks. — The  most  civilised  nations  of  the 
ancient  world  were  those  which  dwelt  round  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.     It  was  long  supposed  that  the  Phoenicians  came  to  Britain 


^ 


8  PREHISTORIC  BRITAIN  B.C.  330-55 

from  the  coast  of  Syria,  or  from  their  colonies  at  Carthage  and  in 
the  south  of  Spain,  for  the  tin  which  they  needed  for  the  manu- 
facture of  bronze.  The  peninsula  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  is  the 
only  part  of  the  island  which  produces  tin,  and  it  has  therefore 
been  thought  that  the  Cassiterides,  or  tin  islands,  which  the 
Phoenicians  visited,  were  to  be  found  in  that  region.  It  has,  how- 
ever, been  recently  shown  that  the  Cassiterides  were  most  probably 
off  the  coast  of  Galicia,  in  Spain,  and  the  belief  that  Phoenicians 
visited  Britain  for  tin  must  therefore  be  considered  to  be  very 
doubtful.  The  first  educated  visitor  who  reached  Britain  was 
Pytheas,  a  Greek,  who  was  sent  by  the  merchants  of  the  Greek 
colony  of  Massalia  {Marseilles)  about  330  B.C.  to  make  discoveries 
which  might  lead  to  the  opening  across  Gaul  of  a  trade-route 
between  Britain  and  their  city.  It  was  probably  in  consequence  of 
the  information  which  he  carried  to  Massalia  on  his  return  that 
there  sprang  up  a  trade  in  British  tin.  Another  Greek,  Posidonius, 
who  came  to  Britain  about  two  centuries  after  Pytheas,  found  this 
trade  in  full  working  order.  The  tin  was  brought  by  land  from  the 
present  Devon  or  Cornwall  to  an  island  called  Ictis,  which  was 
only  accessible  on  foot  after  the  tide  had  ebbed.  This  island  was 
probably  Thanet,  which  was  in  those  days  cut  off  from  the  mainland 
by  an  arm  of  the  sea  which  could  be  crossed  on  foot  at  low  water. 
From  Thanet  the  tin  was  carried  into  Gaul  across  the  straits,  and 
was  then  conveyed  in  waggons  to  the  Rhone  to  be  floated  down  to 
the  Mediterranean. 

8.  Gauls  and  Belgians  in  Britain. — During  the  time  when 
this  trade  was  being  carried  on,  tribes  of  Gauls  and  Belgians 
landed  in  Britain.  The  Gauls  were  certainly,  and  the  Belgians 
probably,  of  the  same  Celtic  race  as  that  which  already  occupied 
the  island.  The  Gauls  settled  on  the  east  coast  as  far  as  the  Fens 
and  the  Wash,  whilst  the  Belgians  occupied  the  south  coast,  and 
pushed  northwards  towards  the  Somerset  Avon.  Nothing  is  known 
of  the  relations  between  the  new-comers  and  the  older  Celtic 
inhabitants.  Most  likely  those  who  arrived  last  contented  them- 
selves with  mastering  those  whom  they  defeated,  without  attempt- 
ing to  exterminate  them.  At  all  events,  states  of  some  extent  were 
formed  by  the  conquerors.  Thus  the  Cantii  occupied  the  open 
ground  to  the  north  of  the  great  forest  which  then  filled  the 
valley  between  the  chalk  ranges  of  the  North  and  South  Downs  ; 
the  Trinobantes  dwelt  between  the  Lea  and  the  Essex  Stour  ; 
the  Iceni  occupied  the  peninsula  between  the  Fens  and  the 
sea  which   was  afterwards   known  as  East  Anglia  {Norfolk  and 


B.C.  55 


C^SAR   IN  GAUL   AND   BRITAIN 


Suffolk)  ;  and  the  Catuvellauni  dwelt  to  the  west  of  the  Trino. 
bantes,  spreading  over  the  modern  Hertfordshire  and  the  neigh- 
bouring districts. 
Ji  9.  Culture  and   War. — Though   there    were   other    states    in 

Britain,  the  tribes  which  have  been  named  had  the  advantage  of 
being  situated  on  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  island,  and  therefore 
of  being  in  commercial  communication  with  the  continental  Gauls 
of  their  own  race  and  language.  Trade  increased,  and  brought  with 
it  the  introduction  of  some  things  which  the  Britons  would  not  have 
invented  for  themselves.  For  instance,  the  inhabitants  of  the  south- 
east of  Britain  began  to  use  gold  coins  and  decorations  in  imita- 


Part  of  a  British  gold  corselet  found  at  Mold. 

tion  of  those  which  were  then  common  in  Gaul.  Yet,  in  spite 
of  these  improvements,  even  the  most  civilised  Britons  were  still 
in  a  rude  and  barbarous  condition.  They  had  no  towns,  but  dwelt 
in  scattered  huts.  When  they  were  hard  pressed  by  an  enemy 
they  took  refuge  in  an  open  space  cleared  in  the  woods,  and 
surrounded  by  a  high  earthwork  crowned  by  a  palisade  and 
guarded  by  felled  trees.  When  they  went  out  to  battle  they  dyed 
their  faces  in  order  to  terrify  their  enemies.  Their  warriors  made 
use  of  chariots,  dashing  in  them  along  the  front  of  the  enemy's 
line  till  they  espied  an  opening  in  his  ranks.  They  then  leapt 
down  and  charged  on  foot  into  the  gap.     Their  charioteers  in  the 


10 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


B.C.  55 


meanwhile  drove  off  the   horses  to  a  safe  distance,  so  as  to  be 
ready  to  take  up  their  comrades  if  the  battle  went  against  them. 
V/  lo.  Religion  of  the    Britons. — The    Celtic    races    worshipped 

many  gods.  In  Gaul,  the  Druids,  who  were  the  ministers  of  reli- 
gion, taught  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  and  even 
gave  moral  instruction  to  the  young.  In  Ireland,  and  perhaps 
in  Britain,  they  were  conjurers  and  wizards.  Both  in  Gaul  and 
Britain  they  kept  up  the  traditional  belief  which  had  once  been 
prevalent  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  that  the  gods  could  only  be 
appeased  by  human  sacrifices.  It  was  supposed  that  they  needed 
either  to  drink  human  blood  or  to  be  supplied  with  human  slaves, 
and  that  the  only  way  to  give  them  what  they  wanted  was  to  de- 
spatch as  many  human  beings  as  possible  into  the  other  world.  The 
favourite  way  of  doing  this  was  to  construct  a  huge  wicker  basket 

in  the  shape  of  a  man,  to 
cram  it  with  men  and 
women,  and  to  set  it  on 
fire.  At  other  times  a 
Druid  would  cut  open  a 
single  human  victim,  and 
would  imagine  that  he 
could  foretell  the  future  by 
inspecting  the  size  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  entrails. 

II.   The    Romans    in 
Gaul.     B.C.    55.— In    the 
year  55  B.C.  the  Celts  of 
south-eastern  Britain  first 
came   in   contact   with  a 
Roman  army.      The  Ro- 
mans   were     a     civilised 
people,  and  had  been  en- 
gaged for  some  centuries 
in  conquering  the  peoples 
living   round    the    Medi- 
terranean.      They     pos- 
sessed disciplined  armies, 
and  a  regular  government.    By  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  Roman 
general.  Gains  Julius  Caesar,  had  made  himself  master  of  Gaul. 
Then,  after   driving   back  with  enormous  slaughter  two  German 
tribes  which  had  invaded  Gaul,  he  crossed  the  Rhine,  not  because 
he  wished  to  conquer  Germany,  but  because  he  wished  to  strike 


^ 


Julius  Caesar.   (From  a  bust  in  the  British  Museum.) 


K 


\i^ 


B.C.  55-54  C^SAR  /N  BRITAIN  H 

terror  into  the  Germans  in  order  to  render  them  unwilling  to  renew 
their  attack.  This  march  into  Germany  seems  to  have  suggested 
to  Caesar  the  idea  of  invading  Britain.  It  is  most  unlikely  that  he 
thought  of  conquering  the  island,  as  he  had  quite  enough  to  do  in 
Gaul.  What  he  really  wanted  was  to  prevent  the  Britons  from 
coming  to  the  help  of  their  kindred  whom  he  had  just  subdued, 
and  he  would  accomplish  this  object  best  by  landing  on  their 
shores  and  showing  them  how  formidable  a  Roman  army  was. 

12.  Caesar's  First  Invasion.  B.C.  55. — Accordingly,  towards 
the  end  of  August,  Cassar  crossed  the  straits  with  about  10,000 
men.  There  is  some  uncertainty  about  the  place  of  his  landing, 
but  he  probably  first  appeared  off  the  spot  at  which  Dover  now 
stands,  and  then,  being  alarmed  at  the  number  of  the  Britons  who 
had  crowded  to  defend  the  coast,  made  his  way  by  sea  to  the  site 
of  the  modern  Deal.  There,  too,  his  landing  was  opposed,  but  he 
managed  to  reach  the  shore  with  his  army.  He  soon  found,  how- 
ever, that  the  season  was  too  advanced  to  enable  him  to  accom- 
plish anything.  A  storm  having  damaged  his  shipping  and  driven 
off  the  transports  on  which  was  embarked  his  cavalry,  he  returned 
to  Gaul. 

13.  Caesar's  Second  Invasion.  B.C.  54 — Caesar  had  hitherto 
failed  to  strike  terror  into  the  Britons.  In  the  following  year  he 
started  in  July,  so  as  to  have  many  weeks  of  fine  weather  before 
him,  taking  with  him  as  many  as  25,000  foot  and  2,000  horse. 
After  effecting  a  landing  he  pushed  inland  to  the  Kentish  Stour, 
where  he  defeated  the  natives  and  captured  one  of  their  stockades. 
Good  soldiers  as  the  Romans  were,  they  were  never  quite  at  home 
on  the  sea,  and  Caesar  was  recalled  to  the  coast  by  the  news  that 
the  waves  had  dashed  to  pieces  a  large  number  of  his  ships.  As 
soon  as  he  had  repaired  the  damage  he  resumed  his  march.  His 
principal  opponent  was  Cassivelaunus,  the  chief  of  the  tribe  of 
the  Catuvellauni,  who  ha^  subdued  many  of  the  neighbouring 
tribes,  and  whose  stronghold  was  a  stockade  near  the  modern 
St.  Albans.  This  chief  and  his  followers  harassed  the  march 
of  the  Rornanswith  the  rush  of  their  chariots.  If  Cassivelaunus 
could  have  counted  upon  the  continued  support  of  all  his  warriors, 
he  might  perhaps  have  succeeded  in  forcing  Caesar  to  retreat,  as  the 
country  was  covered  with  wood  and  difficult  to  penetrate.  Many 
of  the  tribes,  however,  which  now  served  under  him  longed  to  free 
themselves  from  his  rule.  First,  the  Trinobantes  and  then  four 
other  tribes  broke  away  from  him  and  sought  the  protection  of 
Caesar.      Caesar,   thus  encouraged,  dashed  at  his   stockade  and 


12  ROMAN  BRITAIN  B.C.  54— a.d.  43 

carried  it  by  storm.  Cassivelaunus  abandoned  the  struggle,  gave 
hostages  to  Caesar,  and  promised  to  pay  a  yearly  tribute.  On  this 
Caesar  returned  to  Gaul.  Though  the  tribute  was  never  paid, 
he  had  gained  his  object.  He  had  sufficiently  frightened  the  British 
tribes  to  make  it  unlikely  that  they  would  give  him  any  annoyance 
in  Gaul. 

"Sv.  14.  South-eastern  Britain  after  Caesar's  Departure,  k.c.  54 — 
A.D.  43. — For  nearly  a  century  after  Caesar's  departure  Britain 
was  left  to  itself.  The  Catuvellauni  recovered  the  predominance 
which  they  had  lost.  Their  chieftain,  Cunobelin,  the  original  of 
Shakspere's  Cymbeline,  is  thought  to  have  been  a  grandson  of 
Cassivelaunus.  He  established  his  power  over  the  Trinobantes 
as  well  as  over  his  own  people,  and  made  Camulodunum,  the 
modern  Colchester,  his  headquarters.  Other  tribes  submitted  to 
him  as  they  had  submitted  to  his  grandfather.  The  prosperity 
of  the  inhabitants  of  south-eastern  Britain  increased  more  rapidly 
than  the  prosperity  of  their  ancestors  had  increased  before  Caesar's 
invasion.  Traders  continued  to  flock  over  from  Gaul,  bringing 
with  them  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  refinements  of  civilised 
life,  and  those  arts  and  refinements  were  far  greater  now  that 
Gaul  was  under  Roman  rule  than  they  had  been  when  its  Celtic 
tribes  were  still  independent.  Yet,  in  spite  of  the  growth  of  trade, 
Britain  was  still  a  rude  and  barbarous  country.  Its  exports  were 
but  cattle  and  hides,  corn,  slaves,  and  hunting  dogs,  to|;;ether  with 
a  few  dusky  pearls.       1  »  ^slXx..*./^ 

/\  15.  The  Roman  Empire. — The  Roman  state  was  now  a  mon- 
archy. The  Emperor  was  the  head  of  the  army,  as  well  as  the 
head  of  the  state.  Though  he  was  often  a  cruel  oppressor  of  the 
wealthy  personages  who  lived  in  Rome  itself,  and  whose  rivalry  he 
feared,  he,  for  the  most  part,  sought  to  establish  his  power  by  giving 
justice  to  the  provinces  which  had  once  been  conquered  by  Rome, 
but  were  now  admitted  to  share  in  the  advantages  of  good  govern- 
ment which  the  Empire  had  to  give.  One  consequence  of  the  con- 
quest of  nations  by  Rome  was  that  there  was  now  an  end  to  cruel 
wars  between  hostile  tribes.  An  army  was  stationed  on  the  frontier 
of  the  Empire  to  defend  it  against  barbarian  attacks.  In  the  in- 
terior the  Roman  peace,  as  it  was  called,  prevailed,  and  there  was 
hardly  any  need  of  soldiers  to  keep  order  and  to  maintain  obedience. 
16.  The  Invasion  of  Auhis  Plautius.  a.d.  43. — One  question 
which  each  Emperor  had  to  asksliimself  was  whether  he  would  at- 
tempt to  enlarge  the  limits  of  the  Em^re  or  not.  Vox  a  time  each 
Emperor  had  resolved  to  be  content  wi^h>4;Jie  frontier  which  Caesar 


43*ii  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST  13 

had  leihs/There  had  consequently  for  many  years  been  no  thought  of 
again  inv^ing  Britain.  At  last  the  Emperor  Claudius  reversed  this 
policy.  Thesis  reason  to  suppose  that  some  of  the  British  chiefs  had 
made  an  attacKjipon  the  coasts  of  Gaul.  However  this  may  have 
been,  Claudius  iiS43  sent  Aulus  Plautius  against  Togidumnus  and 
Caratacus,  the  son&  of  Cunobelin,  who  were  now  ruling  in  their 
father's  stead.  Where^e  tribe  has  gained  supremacy  over  others,  it 
is  always  easy  for  a  civilited  power  to  gain  allies  amongst  the  tribes 
which  have  been  subdued.X^assar  had  overpowered  Cassivelaunus 
by  enlisting  on  his  side  tn^si  revolted  Trinobantes,  and  Aulus 
Plautius  now  enlisted  on  his  sid^the  Regni,  who  dwelt  in  the  pre- 
sent Sussex,  and  the  Iceni,  who  oV^elt  in  the  present  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk.  With  their  aid,  Aulus  Plautius,  at  the  head  of  40,000  men, 
defeated  the  sons  of  Cunobelin.  Togiduhmus  was  slain,  and  Cara- 
tacus driven  into  exile.  The  Romans  thenstook  possession  of  their 
lands,  and,  stepping  into  their  place,  established  over  the  tribes 
chieftains  who  were  now  dependent  on  the  Emperor  instead  of  on 
Togidumnus  and  Caratacus.  Claudius  himself\came  for  a  brief 
visit  to  receive  the  congratulations  of  the  army  on  ti\e  victory  which 
his  lieutenant  had  won.  Aulus  Plautius  remained  in^ritain  till  47. 
Before  he  left  it  the  whole  of  the  country  to  the  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  Wash  to  some  point  on  the  Severn  had  been  sub- 
jugated. The  mines  of  the  Mendips  and  of  the  western  peninsula 
were  too  tempting  to  be  left  unconquered,  and  it  is  probably  their 
attraction  which  explains  the  extension  of  Roman  power  at  so  early 
a  date  oyer  the  hilly  country  in  the  west. 

17.  Thd*-Colony  of  Camulodunum. — In  47  Aulus  Plautius  was 
succeeded  by  OStiiijrius  Scapula.  He  disarmed  the  tribes  dwelling 
to  the  west  of  th^\Trent,  whilst  he  attempted  to  establish  the 
Roman  authority  mor'bs^firmly  over  those  whose  territory  lay  to 
the  east  of  that  river.  ^S^ongst  these  later  were  the  Iceni, 
who  had  been  hitherto  allow^^d^^o  preserve  their  native  govern- 
ment in  dependence  on  the  Romsvi  power.  The  consequence 
was  that  they  rose  in  arms.  OstonHs  overpowered  them,  and 
then  sought  to  strengthen  his  hold  u^>Qn  the  south-east  of 
Britain  by  founding  (51}  a  Roman  colony  at  (S^mulodunum,  which 
had  formerly  been  the  headquarters  of  CurH^elin.  Roman 
settlers — for  the  most  part  discharged  soldiers^  estabHshed 
themselves  in  the  new  city,  bringing  with  them  ail  that  be- 
longed to  Roman  life  with  all  its  conveniences  anosluxuries. 
Roman  temples,  theatres,  and  baths  quickly  rose,  and  Ostorius 
might  fairly  expect  that  in  Britain,  as  in  Gaul,  the  native  chiefs 


14  ROMAN  BRITAIN  51-61 

would  learn  to  copy  the  easy  life  of  the  new  citizens,  and  would 
settle  their  quarrels  in  Roman  courts  of  law  instead  of  taking  arms 
on  their  own  behalf 

18.  The  Conquests  of  Ostorius  Scapula. — Ostorius,  however, 
was  soon  involved  in  fresh  troubles.  Nothing  is  more  difficult  for  a 
civilised  power  than  to  guard  a  frontier  against  barbarous  tribes. 
Such  tribes  are  accustomed  to  plunder  one  another,  and  they  are 
quick  to  perceive  that  the  order  and  peace  which  a  civilised  power 
establishes  offers  them  a  richer  booty  than  is  to  be  found  elsewhere. 
The  tribes  beyond  the  line  which  Ostorius  held  were  constantly 
breaking  through  to  plunder  the  Roman  territory,  and  he  soon 
found  that  he  must  either  allow  the  lands  of  Roman  subjects  to 
be  plundered,  or  must  carry  war  amongst  the  hostile  tribes.  He 
naturally  chose  the  latter  alternative,  and  the  last  years  of  his 
government  were  spent  in  wars  with  the  Ordo vices  of  Central 
Wales,  and  with  the  Silures  of  Southern  Wales.  The  Silures  were 
not  only  a  most  warlike  people,  but  they  were  led  by  Caratacus, 
who  had  taken  refuge  with  them  after  his  defeat  by  Aulus  Plautius 
in  the  east.  The  mountainous  region  which  these  two  tribes  de- 
fended made  it  difficult  to  subdue  them,  and  though  Caratacus 
was  defeated  (50),  and  ultimately  captured  and  sent  as  a  prisoner 
to  Rome,  Ostorius  did  not  succeed  in  effectually  mastering  his 
hardy  followers.  The  proof  of  his  comparative  failure  lies  in  the 
fact  that  he  established  strong  garrison  towns  along  the  frontier  of 
the  hilly  region,  which  he  would  not  have  done  unless  he  had 
considered  it  necessary  to  have  a  large  number  of  soldiers  ready  to 
check  any  possible  rising.  At  the  northern  end  of  the  line  was 
Deva  {Chester)^  at  the  southern  was  Isca  Silurum  {Caerleon  upon 
Usk\  and  in  each  of  which  was  placed  a  whole  legion,  about  5,000 
men.  Between  them  was  the  smaller  post  of  Uriconium,  or  more 
properly  Viriconium  ( Wroxeter)^  the  city  of  the  Wrekin. 
:->^i9.  Government  of  Suetonius  Paullinus.  58. — When  Suetonius 
Paullinus  arrived  to  take  up  the  government,  he  resolved  to  com- 
plete the  conquest  of  the  west  by  an  attack  on  Mona  {Anglesey). 
In  Mona  was  a  sacred  place  of  the  Druids,  who  gave  encourage- 
ment to  the  still  independent  Britons  by  their  murderous  sacrifices 
and  their  soothsayings.  When  Suetonius  attempted  to  land  (61),  a 
rabble  of  women,  waving  torches  and  shrieking  defiance,  rushed 
to  meet  him  on  the  shore.  Behind  them  the  Druids  stood  calling 
down  on  the  intruders  the  vengeance  of  the  gods.  At  first  the 
soldiers  were  terrified  and  shrunk  back.  Then  they  recovered 
courage,  and  put  to  the  sword  or  thrust  into  the  flames  the  priests 


^ 


6t  THE  ROMAN  CONQUEST  15 

and  their  female  rout.  The  Romans  were  tolerant  of  the  religion 
of  the  peoples  whom  they  subdued,  but  they  could  not  put  up  with 
the  continuance  of  a  cruel  superstition  whose  upholders  preached 
resistance  to  the  Roman  government. 

20.  Boadicea's  Insurrection.  61. — At  the  very  moment  of  success 
Suetonius  waTTecalled  hurriedly  to  the  east.  'Roman  officers  and 
traders  had  misused  the  power  which  had  been  given  them  by  the 
valour  of  Roman  soldiers.  Might  had  been  taken  for  right,  and 
the  natives  were  stripped  of  their  lands  and  property  at  the 
caprice  of  the  conquerors.  Those  of  the  natives  to  whom  anything 
was  left  were  called  upon  to  pay  a  taxation  far  too  heavy  for  their 
means.  When  money  was  not  to  be  found  to  satisfy  the  tax- 
gatherer,  a  Roman  usurer  was  always  at  hand  to  proffer  the 
required  sum  at  enormous  interest,  after  which  the  unhappy 
borrower  who  accepted  the  proposal  soon  found  himself  unable  to 
pay  the  debt,  and  was  stripped  of  all  that  he  possessed  to  satisfy 
the  cravings  of  the  lender.  Those  who  resisted  this  oppression 
were  treated  as  the  meanest  criminals.  Boadicea,  the  widow  of 
Prasutagus,  who  had  been  the  chief  of  the  Iceni,  was  publicly 
flogged,  and  her  two  daughters  were  subjected  to  the  vilest  out- 
rage. She  called  upon  the  whole  Celtic  population  of  the  east  and 
south  to  rise  against  the  foreign  tyrants.  Thousands  answered  to 
her  call,  and  the  angry  host  rushed  to  take  vengeance  upon  the 
colonists  of  Camulodunum.  The  colonists  had  neglected  to  fortify 
their  city,  and  the  insurgents,  bursting  in,  slew  by  the  sword  or  by 
torture  men  and  women  alike.  The  massacre  spread  wherever 
Romans  were  to  be  found.  A  Roman  legion  hastening  to  the 
rescue  was  routed,  and  the  small  force  of  cavalry  attached  to  it 
alone  succeeded  in  making  its  escape.  Every  one  of  the  foot 
soldiers  was  slaughtered  on  the  spot  It  is  said  that  70,000 
Romans  perished  in  the  course  of  a  few  days. 

21.  The  Veng^eance  of  Suetonius.- -Suetonius  was  no  mean 
general,  and  he  hastened  back  to  the  scene  of  destruction.  He 
called  on  the  commander  of  the  legion  at  I  sea  Silurum  to  come  to 
his  help.  Cowardice  was  rare  in  a  Roman  army,  but  this  officer 
was  so  unnerved  by  terror  that  he  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of 
his  general,  and  Suetonius  had  to  march  without  him.  He  won  a 
decisive  victory  at  some  unknown  spot,  probably  not  far  from 
Camulodunum,  and  80,000  Britons  are  reported  to  have  been  slain 
by  the  triumphant  soldiery.  Boadicea  committed  suicide  by  poison. 
The  commander  of  the  legion  at  I  sea  Silurum  also  put  an  end  to 
his  own  Hfe,  in  order  to  escape  the  punishment  which  he  deserved. 


i6  ROMAN  BRITAIN  61-84 

Suetonius  had  restored  the  Roman  authority  in  Britain,  but  it  was 
to  his  faikne  to  control  his  subordinates  that  the  insurrection  had 
been  due,  and  he  was  therefore  promptly  recalled  by  the  Emperor 
Nero.  From  that  time  no  more  is  heard  of  the  injustice  of  the 
Roman  government. 

22.  Agiw)la  in  Britain.  78—84. — Agricola,  who  arrived  as 
governor  in  78,  took  care  to  deal  fairly  with  all  sorts  of  men,  and 
to  make  the  ii^ives  thoroughly  satisfied  with  his  rule.  He  com- 
pleted the  conqueet  of  the  country  afterwards  known  as  Wales,  and 
thereby  pushed  thKwestern  frontier  of  Roman  Britain  to  the  sea. 
Yet  from  the  fact  that  he  found  it  necessary  still  to  leave  garrisons 
at  Deva  and  I  sea  Silunim,  it  may  be  gathered  that  the  tribes  occu- 
pying the  hill  country  wfcre  not  so  thoroughly  subdued  as  to  cease 
to  be  dangerous.  Althoi^h  the  idea  entertained  by  Ostorius  of 
making  a  frontier  on  land  towards  the  west  had  thus  been  aban- 
doned, it  was  still  necessary  fo  provide  a  frontier  towards  the  north. 
Even  before  Agricola  arrived\t  had  been  shown  to  be  impossible 
to  stop  at  the  line  between  the  Mersey  and  the  Humber.  Beyond 
that  line  was  the  territory  of  the  ^rigantes,  who  had  for  some  time 
occupied  the  position  which  in  the  nrst  years  of  the  Roman  conquest 
had  been  occupied  by  the  Iceni — thalis  to  say,  they  were  in  friendly 
dependence  upon  Rome,  without  beingSictually  controlled  by  Roman 
authority.  Before  Agricola's  coming  disWtes  had  arisen  with  them, 
and  Roman  soldiers  had  occupied  their  temtory.  Agricola  finished 
the  work  of  conquest.  He  now  governed  the  whole  of  the  country 
as  far  north  as  to  the  Solway  and  the  Tyne,  and  he  made  Ebora- 
cum,  the  name  of  which  changed  in  course  of  time  into  York,  the 
centre  of  Roman  power  in  the  northern  districts.  A  garrison  was 
established  there  to  watch  for  any  danger  which  might  come  from 
the  extreme  north,  as  the  garrisons  of  Deva  and  I  sea  Silurum 
watched  for  dangers  whbsh  might  come  from  the  west. 

23.  Agricola's  Conque^^n  the  North.— Agricola  thought  that 
there  would  be  no  real  peace  unless  the  whole  island  was  subdued. 
For  seven  years  he  carried  onWarfare  with  this  object  before 
him.  He  had  comparatively  littleN^fficulty  in  reducing  to  obedi- 
ence the  country  south  of  the  narrowHgthmus  which  separates  the 
estuary  of  the  Clyde  from  the  estuary  of  the  Forth.  Before  proceed- 
ing further  he  drew  a  line  of  forts  acrossSjliat  isthmus  to  guard 
the  conquered  country  from  attack  during  hiWl)sence.  He  then 
made  his  way  to  the  Tay,  but  he  had  not  maH^ed  far  up  the 
valley  of  that  river  before  he  reached  the  edge^^^f  the  High- 
lands.      The    Caledonians,    as    the    Romans    then    called    the 


84-119 


AG  R  J  CO  LA    AND   HADRIAN 


17 


inhabitants  of  those  northern  regions,  were  a  savage  race,  and 
the  mount^s  in  the  recesses  of  which  they  dwelt  were  rugged 
and  inaccessihk;,  offering  but  little  means  of  support  to  a  Roman 
army.  In  84  ihe  Caledonians,  who,  like  all  barbarians  when 
they  first  come  ir^contact  with  a  civilised  people,  were  ignorant 
of  the  strength  of  ^sdisciplined  army,  came  down  from  their  for- 
tresses in  the  mountairtsinto  the  lower  ground.  A  battle  was  fought 
near  the  Graupian  Hill,  v^iich  seems  to  have  been  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Isla  and  tHe  Tay.  Agricola  gained  a  complete 
victory,  but  he  was  unable  to  Psdlow  the  fugitives  into  their  narrow 
glens,  and  he  contented  himsen^with  sending  his  fleet  to  circum- 
navigate the  northern  shores  of  theNsisland,  so  as  to  mark  out  the 
limits  of  the  land  which  he  still  hopeoslo  conquer.  Before  the  fleet 
returned,  however,  he  was  recalled  by  the  Emperor  Domitian.  It 
has  often  been  said  that  Domitian  was  jeaRnis  of  his  success  ;  but  it 
is  possible  that  the  Emperor  really  thought  N;at  the  advantage  to 
be  gained  by  the  conquest  of  rugged  mountains  would  be  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  the  losses  which  would  certainly  be  incurred  in 
I  consequence  of  the  enormous  difficulty  of  the  task. 
Njf  24.  The  Roman  Walls. — Agricola,  in  addition    to   his  line  of 

/^  forts  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  had  erected  detached  forts 
at  the  mouth  of  the  valleys  which  issue  from  the  Highlands,  in  order 
to  hinder  the  Caledonians  from  plundering  the  lower  country.  In 
119  the  Emperor  Hadrian  visited  Britain.  He  was  more  disposed 
to  defend  the  Em- 
pire than  to  extend 
it,  and  though  he 
did  not  abandon 
Agricola's  forts,  he 
also  built  further 
south  a  continuous 
earth  work  between 
the  Solway  and  the 
Tyne.  This  wall, 
which  formed  a  far 
stronger  line  of  de- 
fence than  the  more 
northern  forts,  was 
intended  to  serve  as  a  second  barrier  to  keep  out  the  wild  Cale- 
donians if  they  succeeded  in  breaking  through  the  first.  At  a 
later  time  a  lieutenant  of  the  Emperor,  Antoninus  Pius,  who  after- 
wards became  Emperor  himself,  connected  Agricola's  forts  between 

c 


<l.STIi&£>:  OE.L 


Commemorative  tablet  of  the  Second  Legion  found  at 
Hal  ton  Chesters  on  the  Roman  Wall. 


i8 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


119 


View  of  part  of  the  Roman  Wall. 


Ruins  of  a  Turret  on  the    Roman  Wall. 


208-288 


THE  ROMAN  GOVERNMENT 


19 


the  Forth  aiM  Clyde  by  a  continuous  earthwork.  In  208  the 
Emperor  Severn*  arrived  in  Britain,  and  after  strengthening  still 
further  the  earthwtsjrk  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  and  adding 
a  stone  wall  to  the  mH(;e  southern  work  of  Hadrian,  attempted  to 
carry  out  the  plans  of  A^vkola  by  conquering  the  land  of  the  Cale- 
donians. Severus,  however^»<^led  as  completely  as  Agricola  had 
failed  before  him,  and  he  died^himi  after  his  return  to  Eboracum. 

25.  The  Roman  Province  of  Bi«^ain.— Very  little  is  known  of 
the  history  of  the  Roman  province  oN^ritain,  except  that  it  made 
considerable  progress  in  civilisation.  1^  Romans  were  great 
road-makers,  and   though  their   first  objeaN4:as  to  enable  their 


Part  of  the  Roman  Wall  at  Leicester. 


soldiers  to  march  easily  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another, 
they  therebys  encouraged  commercial  intercourse.  Forests  were 
to  some  exteiH,  cleared  away  by  the  sides  of  the  new  roads, 
and  fresh  ground Nsc^  thrown  open  to  tillage.  Mines  were  worked 
and  country  houses  otHk,  the  remains  of  which  are  in  some  places 
still  to  be  seen,  and  b^^r  testimony  to  the  increased  well-being 
of  a  population  which,  exchcting  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the 
island,  had  at  the  arrival  of  me  Romans  been  little  removed  from 
savagery.  Cities  sprang  up  irN^rreat  numbers.  Some  of  them 
were  at  first  garrison  towns,  like  EbolP^cum,  Deva,  and  I  sea  Silurum. 
Others,  like  Verulamium,  near  the  present  St.  Albans,  occupied  the 
sites  of  the  old  stockades  once  used  as  plab^  of  refuge  by  the  Celts, 

c  2 


20 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 


208-288 


or,  like  Lindum,  on  theSm)  of  the  hill  on  which  Lincoln  Cathedral 
now  stands,  were  placed  nS^trongly  defensible  positions.  Aquse 
Sulis,  the  modern  Bath,  owesSks  existence  to  its  warm  medicinal 
springs.  The  chief  port  of  commerce  was  Londinium,  the  modern 
London.  Attempts  which  have  been  made  to  explain  its  name  by 
the  Celtic  language  have  failed,  and  iNs  therefore  possible  that  an 
inhabited  post  existed  there  even  before  th^  Celts  arrived.  Its  im- 
portance was,  however,  owing  to  its  position,  and  that  importance 
was  not  of  a  kind  to  tell  before  a  settled  system  of  commercial  inter- 


Pedimetit  of  a  Roman  temple  found  at  Bath. 

course  sprang  up.  London  was  situated  on  the  hill  on  which  St. 
Paul's  now  stands.  Tlmt^rst,  after  the  Thames  narrowed  into  a 
river,  the  merchant  found  clo^estPthe  stream  hard  ground  on  which 
he  could  land  his  goods.  The  valTb^or  some  distance  above  and 
below  it  was  then  filled  with  a  wide  m^ns^  or  an  expanse  of  water. 
An  old  track  raised  above  the  marsh  cross^the  river  by  a  ford  at 
Lambeth,  but,  as  London  grew  in  importancfe^  ferry  was  esta- 
blished where  London  Bridge  now  stands,  and  the  Romans,  in 
course  of  time,  superseded  the  ferry  by  a  bridge.     It  is,  therefore, 


208-288 


THE  ^OMAN  GOVERNMENT 


21 


no  wonder  that  the  Roman  PQads  both  from  the  north  and  from  the 
south  converged  upon  LondoiK.  Just  as  Eboracum  was  a  fitting 
centre  for  miHtary  operations  direcbgd  to  the  defence  of  the  northern 
frontier,  London  was  the  fitting  centr^sof  a  trade  carried  on  with  the 
Continent,  and  the  place  would  increase^importance  in  proportion 
to  the  increase  of  that  trade.  \ 

26.  Extinction  of  Tribal  Antagonism.  —  The  improvement  of 
communications  and  the  growth  of  trade  and  industry  could  not 
fail  to  influence  the  mind  of  the  population.  Wars  between  tribes, 
which  befor^  the  coming  of  the  Romans  had  been  the  main  em- 
ployment of\  the  young  and  hardy,  were  now  things  of  the  past. 
The  mutual  Hatred  which  had  grown  out  of  them  had  died  away,  and 
even  the  ver^ names  of  Trinobantes  and  Brigantes  were  almost 
forgotten.  Mem  who  lived  in  the 
valley  of  the  Severn  came  to  look 
upon  themselves  as  belonging  to 
the  same  people  as  men  who  lived 
in  the  valleys  of  me  Trent  or  the 
Thames.  The  active  and  enter- 
prising young  mem  were  attracted 
to  the  cities,  at  firsAby  the  novelty 
of  the  luxurious  habits  in  which  they 
were  taught  to  indulVe,  but  after- 
wards because  they  were  allowed 
to  take  part  in  the  management  of 
local  business.  In  the  lime  of  the 
Emperor  Caracalla,  the^on  of  Se- 
verus,  every  freeman  b*rn  in  the 
Empire  was  declared  to  baa  Roman 
citizen,  and  long  before  thVt  a  large 
number  of  natives  had  oeen  ad- 
mitted to  citizenship.  In  e)^ch  dis- 
trict a  council  was  formed \  of  the 
wealthier  and  more  prominent  in- 
habitants, and  this  council  had  to 
provide  for  the  building  of  terrvples, 
the  holding  of  festivals,  the  erection 
of  fortifications,  and  the  laying^out 

of  streets.  Justice  was  done  between  man  and  man  according  to  the 
Roman  law,  which  was  the  best  law  that  the  world  had  seen,  and 
the  higher  Roman  officials,  who  were  appointed  by  the  Emperor, 
took  care  that  justice  was  done  between  city  and  city.     No  one 


Roman  altar  from  Rutchester. 


22  ROMAN  BRITAIN  288-325 

therefore,  wished  to  oppose  the  Roman  government  or  to  bring 
back  the  oM  times  of  barbarism. 

27.  WanKof  National  Feeling. -Great  as  was  the  progress 
made,  there  was  something  still  wanting.  A  people  is  never  at  its 
best  unless  thoseV^ho  compose  it  have  some  object  for  which  they 
can  sacrifice  thems^ves,  and  for  which,  if  necessary,  they  will  die. 
The  Briton  had  ceaseHjto  be  called  upon  to  die  for  his  tribe,  and  he 
was  not  expected  to  dieNfor  Britain.  Britain  had  become  a  more 
comfortable  country  to  liveSn,  but  it  was  not  the  business  of  its  own 
inhabitants  to  guard  it.  It  was\mere  part  of  the  vast  Roman  Empire, 
and  it  was  the  duty  of  the  EmperN;s  to  see  that  the  frontier  was  safely 
kept.  They  were  so  much  afraid  le^^any  particular  province  should 
wish  to  set  up  for  itself  and  to  breaK  away  from  the  Empire,  that 
they  took  care  not  to  employ  soldiers  Born  in  that  province  for  its 
protection.  They  sent  British  recruits  toVuard  the  Danube  or  the 
Euphrates,  and  Gauls,  Spaniards,  or  Africans  to  guard  the  wall 
between  the  Solway  and  the  Tyne,  and  the  eaitrenchment  between 
the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  Britons,  therefore,  looked  on  their  own 
defence  as  something  to  be  done  for  them  by  the  Emperors,  not 
as  something  to  be  done  by  themselves.  Thei^  lived  on  friendly 
terms  with  one  another,  but  they  had  nothing  ol[  what  we  now  call 
patriotism. 

28.  Carausius  and  Allectus.  288^-296.  — In  288  G^rausius,  with  the 
help  of  some  pirates,  seized  on  the  government  of  Britain  and  threw 
off  the  authority  of  the  Emperor.  He  was  succeeded  by  Allectus, 
yet  neither  Carausius  nor  Allectus  thought  of  makVig  himself  the 
head  of  a  British  nation.  They  called  themselves  Emperors  and 
i-uled  over  Britain  alone,  merely  because  they  could  no\get  more  to 
rule  over. 

29.  Constantius  and  Constantine.  296 — 337. — AUectik  was  over- 
thrown and  slain  by  Constantius,  who,  however,  did  not  riile,  as  Ca- 
rausius and  Allectus  had  done,  by  mere  right  of  military  superiority. 
The  Emperor  Diocletian  (285 — 305)  discovered  that  the  whole  Em- 
pire, stretching  from  the  Euphrates  to  the  Atlantic,  was  too  extensive 
for  one  man  to  govern,  and  he  therefore  decreed  that  there  Vhould 
in  future  be  four  governors,  two  principal  ones  named  Emberors 
{Angus ti\  and  two  subordinate  ones  named  Caesars.  Conetan- 
tius  was  first  a  Caesar  and  afterwards  an  Emperor.  He  was  sW  to 
govern  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain,  but  he  afterwards  became  Emp^ 
himself,  and  for  some  time  established  himself  at  Eboracum  (  Yorik). 
Upon  his  death  (306),  his  son  Constantine,  after  much  fighting 
made  himself  sole  Emperor  (325),  overthrowing  the  system  of  Dio-N 


3t4-3^3  DECLINE  OF  THE  EMPIRE  23 

cletian.  Yet  in  one  reject  he  kept  up  Diocletian's  dtrarlgementSi 
He  placed  Spain,  Gaul/^i^d  Britain  together  under  a  great  officer 
called  a  Vicar,  who  received  oK|ers  from  himself  and  who  gave  orders 
to  the  officers  who  governed  eabh  of  the  three  countries.  Under 
the  new  system,  as  under  the  old,  Bi^tain  was  not  treated  as  an  in- 
dependent country.  It  had  still  to  loolssfor  protection  to  an  officet 
who  lived  on  the  Continent,  and  was  tnfej;^fore  apt  to  be  more 
interested  in  Gaul  and  Spain  than  he  was  in 

30.  Christianity  in  Britain. — When  the  Romanl"ptrt^own  the 
Druids  and  their  bloody  sacrifices,  they  called  the  old  Celtic  go^ls 
by  Roman  names,  but  made  no  further  alteration  in  religious  usages. 
Gradually,  however,  Christianity  spread  amongst  the  Romans  on 
the  Continent,  and  merchants  or  soldiers  who  came  from  the  Con- 
tinent introduced  it  into  Britain.  Scarcely  anything  is  known  of 
its  progress  in  the  island.  Alban  is  said  to  have  been  martyred 
at  Verulamium,  and  Julius  and  Aaron  at  Isca  Silurum.  In  314 
three  British  bishops  attended  a  council  held  at  ^,4^^  in  Gaul. 
Little  more  than  these  few  facts  have  been  handed  down,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  there  was  a  settled  Church  established  in  the  island. 
The  Emperor  Constantine  acknowledged  Christianity  as  the  re- 
ligion of  the  whole  Empire.  The  remains  of  a  church  of  this  period 
have  recently  been  discovered  at  Silchester. 

31.  Weakness  of  the  Empire. — The  Roman  Empire  in  the 
time  of  Constantine  had  the  appearance  rather  than  the  reality  of 
strength.  Its  taxation  was  very  heavy,  and  there  was  no  national 
enthusiasm  to  lead  men  to  sacrifice  themselves  in  its  defence. 
Roman  citizens  became  more  and  more  unwilling  to  become  soldiers 
at  all,  and  the  Roman  armies  were  now  mostly  composed  of  bar- 
barians. At  the  same  time  the  barbarians  outside  the  Empire  were 
growing  stronger,  as  the  tribes  often  coalesced  into  wide  con- 
federacies for  the  purpose  of  attacking  the  Empire. 

32.  The  Picts  and  Scots. — The  assailants  of  Britain  on  the 
north  and  the  west  were  the  Picts  and  Scots.  The  Picts  were  the 
same  as  the  Caledonians  of  the  time  of  Agricola.  VVe  do  not  know 
why  they  had  ceased  to  be  called  Caledonians.  The  usual  deriva- 
tion of  their  name  from  the  Latin  Pictus,  said  to  have  been  given 
them  because  they  painted  their  bodies,  is  inaccurate.  Opinions 
differ  whether  they  were  Goidels  with  a  strong  Iberian  strain, 
or  Iberians  with  a  Goidelic  admixture.  They  were  probably 
Iberians,  and  at  all  events  they  were  more  savage  than 
the  Britons  had  been  before  they  were  influenced  by  Roman 
civilisation.      The    Scots,    who    afterwards    settled    in    what    is 


u 


\ 


24  ROMAN  BRITAIN  325-3^3 

now  known  as  Scotland,  at  that  time  dwelt  in  Ireland.  Whilst  the 
Picts,  therefore,  assailed  the  Roman  province  by  land,  and  strove, 
not  always  unsuccessfully,  to  break  through  the  walls  which  defended 
its  northern  frontier,  the  Scots  crossed  the  Irish  Sea  in  light  boats 
to  plunder  and  slay  before  armed  assistance  could  arrive. 

33.  The  Saxons.  —The  Saxons,  who  were  no  less  deadly  enemies 
of  the  Roman  government,  were  as  fierce  and  restless  as  the  Picts 
and  Scots,  and  were  better  equipped  and  better  armed.  At  a  later 
time  they  established  themselves  in  Britain  as  conquerors  and 
settlers,  and  became  the  founders  of  the  English  nation  ;  but  at 
first  they  were  only  known  as  cruel  and  merciless  pirates.  In  their 
long  flat-bottomed  vessels  they  swooped  down  upon  some  unde- 
fended part  of  the  coast  and  carried  off  not  only  the  property  of 
wealthy  Romans,  but  even  men  and  women  to  be  sold  in  the  slave- 
market.  The  provincials  who  escaped  related  with  peculiar  horror 
how  the  Saxons  were  accustomed  to  torture  to  death  one  out  of 
every  ten  of  their  captives  as  a  sacrifice  to  their  gods. 

34.  Origin  of  the  Saxons. — The  Saxons  were  the  more  dan- 
gerous because  it  was  impossible  for  the  Romans  to  reach  them 
in  their  homes.  They  were  men  of  Teutonic  race,  speaking  one 
of  the  languages,  afterwards  known  as  Low  German,  which  were 
once  spoken  in  the  whole  of  North  Germany.  The  Saxon  pirates 
were  probably  drawn  from  the  whole  of  the  sea  coast  stretching 
from  the  north  of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Ems,  and  if  so,  there  were  amongst  them  Jutes,  whose  homes 
were  in  Jutland  itself;  Angles,  who  inhabited  Schleswig  and 
Holstein  ;  and  Saxons,  properly  so  called,  who  dwelt  about  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe  and  further  to  the  west.  All  these  peoples 
afterwards  took  part  in  the  conquest  of  southern  Britain,  and 
it  is  not  unlikely  that  they  all  shared  in  the  original  piratical 
attacks.  Whether  this  was  the  case  or  not,  the  pirates  came 
from  creeks  and  inlets  outside  the  Roman  Empire,  whose  boundary 
was  the  Rhine,  and  they  could  therefore  only  be  successfully 
repressed  by  a  power  with  a  good  fleet,  able  to  seek  out  the 
aggressors  in  their  own  homes  and  to  stop  the  mischief  at  its 
source. 

35.  The  Roman  Defence^— The  Romans  had  always  been  weak 
at  sea,  and  they  were  weakerN^w  than  they  had  been  in  earlier 
days.  They  were  therefore  oblig^  to  content  themselves  with 
standing  on  the  defensive.  Since  thK^ime  of  Severus,  Britain  had 
been  divided,  for  purposes  of  defence^Sa:ito  Upper  and  Lower 
Britain.     Though  there  is  no  absolute  certainty  about  the  matter, 


383-410  BREAK-UP  OF   THE  EMPIRE  25 

it  is  probable  that  Upper  Britain  comprised  the  hill  country  of  the 
west  and  north,  2x\A  that  Lower  Britain  was  the  south-eastern  part 
of  the  island,  marlbed  off  by  a  line  drawn  irregularly  from  the 
Humber  to  the  SeverrK'  Lower  Britain  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Roman  conquest  had  behn  in  no  special  need  of  military  protection. 
In  the  fourth  century  it  ^s  exposed  more  than  the  rest  of  the 
island  to  the  attacks  of  the  S^on  pirates.  Fortresses  were  erected 
between  the  Wash  and  Beaci^v  Head  at  every  point  at  which 
an  inlet  of  the  sea  afforded  an  opting  to  an  invader.  The  whole 
of  this  part  of  the  coast  becameNknown  as  the  Saxon  Shore, 
because  it  was  subjected  to  attacks  frohi  the  Saxons,  and  a  special 
officer  known  as  the  Count  of  the  SaxonN^ore  was  appointed  to 
take  charge  of  it.  An  officer  known  as  theSDuke  of  the  Britains 
{Dux  Britanniaru7n)  commanded  the  armies  of  Upper  Britain  ; 
whilst  a  third,  who  was  a  civilian,  and  superior  in\;^ank  over  the 
other  two,  was  the  Count  of  Britain,  and  had  a  general  supervision 
of  the  whole  country. 

36.  End  of  the  Roman  Government.  383— -410.— In  383  Maxi- 
mus,  who  was  probably  the  Duke  of  the  Britains,  was  proclaimed 
Emperor  by  his  soldiers.  If  he  could  have  contented  himself  with 
defending  Britain,  it  would  have  mattered  little  whether  he  chose 
to  call  himself  an  Emperor  or  a  Duke.  Unhappily  for  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island,  not  only  did  every  successful  soldier  want  to 
be  an  Emperor,  but  every  Emperor  wanted  to  govern  the  whole 
Empire.  Maximus,  therefore,  instead  of  remaining  in  Britain, 
carried  a  great  part  of  his  army  across  the  sea  to  attempt  a  conquest 
of  Gaul  and  Spain.  Neither  he  nor  his  soldiers  ever  returned,  and 
in  consequence  the  Roman  garrison  in  the  island  was  deplorably 
weakened.  Early  in  the  fifth  century  an  irruption  of  barbarians 
gave  full  employment  to  the  army  which  defended  Gaul,  so  that  it 
was  impossible  to  replace  the  forces  which  had  followed  Maximus 
by  fresh  troops  from  the  Continent.  The  Roman  Empire  was  in 
fact  breaking  up.  The  defence  of  Britain  was  left  to  the  soldiers 
who  remained  in  the  island,  and  in  409  they  proclaimed  a  certain 
Constantine  Emperor.  Constantine,  like  Maximus,  carried  his 
soldiers  across  the  Channel  in  pursuit  of  a  wider  empire  than  he 
could  find  in  Britain.  He  was  himself  murdered,  and  his  soldiers^ 
like  those  of  Maximus,  did  not  return.  In  410  the  Britons  implored 
the  Emperor  Honorius  to  send  them  help.     Honorius  had  enough 

1  There  were  also  four  smaller  divisions,  ultimately  increased  to  five.  All 
that  is  known  about  their  position  is  that  they  were  not  where  they  are  placed 
in  our  atlases. 


^6 


THE  ENGLISH  SETTLEMENTS 


4to-449^ 


to  do  to  ward  off  the  attacks  of  barbarians  nearer  Rome,  and 
announced  to  the  Britons  that  they  must  provide  for  their  own 
defence.  From  this  time  Britain  ceased  to  form  part  of  the  Roman 
Empire. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   ENGLISH    SETTLEMENTS 


LEADING    DATES 

Landing  of  the  Jutes  in  Thanet 

The  West  Saxons  defeated  at  Mount  Badon 

The  West  Saxons  take  Sorbiodunum 

Battle  of  Deorham 

The  West  Saxons  defeated  at  Faddiley 


A.D.  449 
.     520 

•  552 

•  577 

•  584 


1.  Britain  after  the  Departure  of  the  Romans.  410 — 449  ? — After 
the  departure  of  the  Romans,  the  Picts  from  the  north  and  the 
Scots  from  Itei^d  continued  their  ravages,  but  though  they  caused 
terrible  misery  by^simightering  or  dragging  into  slavery  the  inhabi- 
tants of  many  parts  o^t^^^country,  they  did  not  succeed  in  making 
any  permanent  conquests/^'^^J^ie  Britons  were  not  without  a  govern- 
ment and  an  armed  force  ;  ano^tlj^ir  later  history  shows  that  they 
were  capable  of  carrying  on  war  foiN^lohg  time  against  enemies 
more  formidable  than  the  Picts  and  3«^s.  Their  rulers  were 
known  by  the  British  title  Gwledig,  and  prbl^bly  held  power  in 
different  parts  of  the  island  as  the  successors  oPtij^e  Roman  Duke 
of  the  Britains-  and  of  the  Roman  Count  of  the  a»axon  Shore. 
Their  power  of  resistance  to  the  Picts  and  the  Scots  was,  how- 
ever, weakened  by  the  impossibility  of  turning  their  undivided 
attention  to  these  marauders,  as  at  the  same  time  that  they  had  to 
defend  the  Roman  Wall  and  the  western  coast  against  the  Picts 
and  Scots,  they  were  exposed  on  the  eastern  coast  to  the  attacks 
of  the  Saxon  pirates. 

2.  The  Groans  of  the  Britons. — In  their  misery  the  thoughts 
of  the  Britons  turned  to  those  Roman  legions  who  had  defended 
their  fathers  so  well.  In  446  they  appealed  to  Aetius,  the  com- 
mander of  the  Roman  armies,  to  deliver  them  from  their  destroyers. 
"  The  groans  of  the  Britons  "  was  the  title  which  they  gave  to  their 
appeal  to  him.  "  The  barbarians,"  they  wrote,  "  drive  us  to  the  sea  ; 
the  sea  drives  us  back  to  the  barbarians  ;  between  them  we  are 


449  7-491  JUTES  AND  SAXONS  27 

exposed  to  two  sorts  of  death  :  we  are  either  slain  or  drowned." 
Aetius  had  no  men  to  spare,  and  he  sent  no  help  to  the  Britons. 
Before  long  the  whole  of  Western  Europe  was  overrun  by  barbarian 
tribes,  the  title  of  Emperor  being  retained  only  by  the  Roman 
Emperor  who  ruled  from  Constantinople  over  the  East,  his  autho- 
rity over  the  barbarians  of  the  West  being  no  more  than  nominal. 

3.  The  Conquest  of  Kent.  449.?— It  had  been  the  custom  of  the 
Roman  Empire  to  employ  barbarians  as  soldiers  in  their  armies, 
and  Vortigern,  the  British  ruler,  now  followed  that  bad  example. 
In  or  about  449  a  band  of  Jutish  sea-rovers  landed  at  Ebbsfleet, 
in  the  Isle  of  Thanet.  According  to  tradition  their  leaders  were 
Hengist  and  Horsa,  names  signifying  the  horse  and  the  mare, 
which  were  not  very  likely  to  have  been  borne  by  real  warriors. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  names  of  the  chiefs,  Vortigern  took 
them  into  his  service  against  the  Picts,  giving  them  the  Isle  of  Thanet 
as  a  dwelling-place  for  themselves.  With  their  help  he  defeated 
the  Picts,  but  afterwards  found  himself  unable  to  defend  himself 
against  his  fierce  auxiliaries.  Thanet  was  still  cut  off  from  the 
mainland  by  an  arm  of  the  sea,  and  the  Jutes  were  strong  enough 
to  hold  it  against  all  assailants.  Their  numbers  rapidly  increased 
as  shiploads  of  their  fellows  landed,  and  they  crossed  the  strait  to 
win  fresh  lands  from  the  Britons  on  the  mainland  of  Kent.  In 
several  battles  Vortigern  was  overpowered.  His  rival  and  suc- 
cessor, Ambrosius  Aurelianus,  whose  name  makes  it  probable 
that  he  was  an  upholder  of  the  old  Roman  discipline,  drove  back 
the  Jutes  in  turn.  He  did  not  long  keep  the  upper  hand,  and  in 
465  he  was  routed  utterly.  The  defeat  of  the  British  army  was 
followed  by  an  attack  upon  the  great  fortresses  which  had  been 
erected  along  the  Saxon  Shore  in  the  Roman  tirries.  The  Jutes 
had  no  means  of  carrying  them  by  assault,  but  they  starved  them 
out  one  by  one,  and  some  twenty-three  years  after  their  first 
landing,  the  whole  of  the  coast  of  Kent  was  in  their  hands. 

4.  The  South  Saxons.  477. — The  conquests  of  the  Jutes  stopped 
at  the  inkitof  the  sea  now  filled  by  Romney  Marsh.  To  the  south  and 
west  was  tlieiTTtp^^ietrable  Andred's  Wood,  which  covered  what  is 
now  known  as  the  WectW.,^t  its  eastern  extremity  stood  by  the  sea 
the  strong  fortified  town  ofA»4erida,  which  gave  its  name  to  the 
wood,  the  most  westerly  of  the  fortP€^ses  of  the  Saxon  Shore  still 
unconquered  by  the  Jutes.  It  was  at  la^K^dangered  by  a  fresh 
pirate  band— not  of  Jutes  but  of  Saxons — whic!iia;ided  near  Selsey, 
and  fought  its  way  eastwards,  conquering  the  SoiJtkDowns  and 
the  flat  land  between  the  South  Downs  and  the  sea,  tililtst^ched 


28  THE  ENGLISH  SETTLEMENTS  491-520 

Anderida.  Anderida  was  starved  out  after  a  long  blockade,  and 
the  Saxons,  bursting  in,  '  slew  all  that  dwelt  therein,  nor  was  there 
henceforth  one  Briton  left.'  To  this  day  the  Roman  walls  of 
Anderida  stand  round  the  site  of  the  desolated  city  near  the  modern 
Pevensey.  Its  Saxon  conquerors  came  to  be  known  as  the  South 
Saxons,  and  their  land  as  Sussex. 

5.  The  West  Saxons  and  the  East  Saxons. — Another  swarm 
also  of  Saxon^called  Gewissas,  landed  on  the  shore  of  Southamp- 
ton Water.  Af'^N;a  time  they  were  reinforced  by  a  body  of  Jutes, 
and  though  the  Jut^Ssformed  settlements  of  their  own  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight  and  on  the  mauH^d,  the  difference  of  race  and  language 
between  them  and  the  Gewi^^as  was  not  enough  to  prevent  the  two 
tribes  from  coalescing.  UltirH&tely  Gewissas  and  Jutes  became 
known  as  West  Saxons,  and  es^blished  themselves  in  a  dis- 
trict roughly  corresponding  with  trhsymodern  Hampshire.  Then, 
having  attempted  to  penetrate  furtHer  west,  they  were  de- 
feated at  Mount  Badon,  probably  Badbu^v  Rings  in  Dorsetshire. 
Their  overthrow  was  so  complete  as  to  checloheir  advance  for  more 
than  thirty  years.  Whilst  the  coast  line  from  '^le  inlet  of  the  sea 
now  filled  by  Romney  Marsh  to  the  western  ea^e  of  Hampshire 
had  thus  been  mastered  by  Saxons,  others  of  the  san^stock,  known 
as  East  Saxons,  seized  upon  the  low  coast  to  the  mjrth  of  the 
Thames.  From  them  the  land  was  called  Essex.  Neither  Saxons 
nor  Jutes,  however,  were  as  yet  able  to  penetrate  far  up  the  valley 
of  the  Thames,  as  the  Roman  settlement  of  London,  surrounded  by 
marshes,  still  blocl5^  the  way. 

6.  The  Anglian  Settlements. — The  coast-line  to  the  north  of  the 
East  Saxons  was  seizeoH^ome  unascertained  dates  by  different 
groups  of  Angles.  The  lan^S^etween  the  Stour  and  the  great  fen 
which  in  those  days  stretched  Tar  inland  from  the  Wash  was 
occupied  by  two  of  these  groups,  knowlf^as  the  North  folk  and  the 
South  folk.  They  gave  their  names  to  N>strfblk  and  Suffolk,  and 
at  some  later  time  combined  under  the  nambs^f  East  Anglians. 
North  of  the  Wash  were  the  Lindiswara — that  is  t«  say,  the  settlers 
about  the  Roman  Lindum,  the  modern  Lincoln,  anaN;;^yond  them, 
stretching  to  the  Humber,  were  the  Gainas,  from  whom-^s  derived 
the  name  of  the  modern  Gainsborough.  To  the  nortlb  of  the 
Humber  the  coast  was  fringed  by  Angle  settlements  which  had  not 
yet  coalesced  into  one. 

7.  Nature  of  the  Conquest. — The  three  peoples  who  effected 
this  conquest  were  afterwards  known  amongst  themselves  by  the 
common  name  of  English,  a  name  which  was  originally  equivalent 


449 --520  NATURE  OF    THE  CONQUEST  29 

to  Angle,  whilst  amongst  the  whole  of  the  remaining  Celtic  popula- 
tion they  were  only  known  as  Saxons.  The  mode  in  which  the 
English  treated  the  Britons  was  very  different  from  that  of  the 
Romans,  who  were  a  civilised  people  and  aimed  at  governing  a 
conquered  race.  The  new-comers  drove  out  the  Britons  in  order 
to  find  homes  for  themselves,  and  they  preferred  to  settle  in  the 
country  rather  than  in  a  town.  No  EngHshman  had  ever  lived  in  a 
town  in  his  German  home,  or  was  able  to  appreciate  the  advantages 
of  the  commerce  and  manufacture  by  which  towns  are  supported. 
Nor  were  they  inclined  to  allow  the  inhabitants  of  the  Roman 
towns  to  remain  unmolested  in  their  midst.  When  Anderida  was 
captured  not  a  Briton  escaped  aHve,  and  there  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that  many  of  the  other  towns  fared  no  better,  especially 
as  the  remains  of  some  of  them  still  show  marks  of  the  fire  by 
which  they  were  consumed.  What  took  place  in  the  country  can- 
not be  certainly  known.  Many  of  the  British  were  no  doubt  killed. 
Many  took  refuge  in  fens  or  woods,  or  fled  to  those  portions  of  the 
island  in  which  their  countrymen  were  still  independent.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  decide  to  what  extent  the  men  who  remained  behind  were 
spared,  but  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  that  a  considerable  number  of 
women  were  preserved  from  slaughter.  The  conquerors,  at  their 
landing,  must  have  been  for  the  most  part  young  men,  and  when 
they  wanted  wives,  it  would  be  far  easier  for  them  to  seize  the 
daughters  of  slain  Britons  than  to  fetch  women  from  the  banks 
of  the  Elbe. 

8.  The  Cultivators  of  the  Soil.— When  the  new-comers  planted 
themselves  on  British  soil,  each  group  of  families  united  by  kinship 
fixed  its  home  in  a  separate  village  or  township,  to-which  was  given 
the  name  of  the  kindred  followed  by  '  ham '  or  '  tun,'  the  first  word 
meaning  the  home  or  dwelling,  the  second  the  earthen  mound 
which  formed  the  defence  of  the  community.  Thus  Wokingham 
is  the  home  of  the  Wokings,  and  Wellington  the  '  tun  '  of  the  Wel- 
lings.  Each  man  had  a  homestead  of  his  own,  with  a  strip  or 
strips  of  arable  land  in  an  open  field.  Beyond  the  arable  land  was 
pasture  and  wood,  common  to  the  whole  township,  every  villager 
being  entitled  to  drive  his  cattle  or  pigs  into  them  according  to 
rules  laid  down  by  the  whole  township. 

9.  Eorls,  Ceorls,  Gesiths.~The  population  was  divided  into 
Eorls  and  Ceorls.  The  Eorl  was  hereditarily  distinguished  by 
birth,  and  the  Ceorl  was  a  simple  freeman  without  any  such  dis- 
tinction. How  the  difference  arose  we  do  not  know,  but  we  do 
know  that  the  Eorl  had  privileges  which  the  Ceorl  had  not.  Below 


30  THE  ENGLISH  SETTLEMENTS  449  ?- 5 20 

the  Ceorls  were  slaves  taken  in  war  or  condemned  to  slavery 
as  criminals.  There  were  also  men  known  as  Gesiths,  a  word 
which  means  '  followers,'  who  were  the  followers  of  the  chiefs  or 
Ealdormen  {Eldermen)  who  led  the  conquerors.  The  Gesiths 
formed  the  war-band  of  the  chief.  They  were  probably  all  of  them 
Eorls,  so  that  though  every  settler  was  either  an  Eorl  or  a  Ceorl, 
some  Eorls  were  also  Gesiths.  This  war-band  of  Gesiths  was 
composed  of  young  men  who  attached  themselves  to  the  chief  by 
a  tie  of  personal  devotion.  It  was  the  highest  glory  of  the  Gesith 
to  die  to  save  his  chief's  hfe.  Of  one  Gesith  it  is  told  that,  when 
he  saw  a  murderer  aiming  a  dagger  at  his  chief,  he,  not  having  time 
to  seize  the  assassin,  threw  his  body  between  the  blow  and  his  chief, 
and  perished  rather  than  allow  him  to  be  killed.  It  was  even  held 
to  be  disgraceful  for  a  Gesith  to  return  from  battle  alive  if  his  chief 
had  been  slain.  The  word  by  which  the  chief  was  known  was 
Hlaford  {Lord),  which  means  a  giver  of  bread,  because  the  Gesiths 
ate  his  bread.  They  not  only  ate  his  bread,  but  they  shared  in  the 
booty  which  he  brought  home.  They  slept  in  his  hall,  and  were 
clothed  in  the  garments  woven  by  his  wife  and  her  maidens.  A 
continental  writer  tells  how  a  body  of  Gesiths  once  approached 
their  lord  with  a  petition  that  he  should  <  take  a  wife,  because  as 
long  as  he  remained  unmarried  there  was  no  one  to  make  new 
clothes  for  tliem  or  to  mend  their  old  ones. 

10.  The  G^iths  and  the  Villagers. — At  the  time  of  the  English 
settlement,  the^fore,  there  were  two  sorts  of  warriors  amongst 
the  invaders.  TPfe  Ceorls,  having  been  accustomed  to  till  land 
at  home,  were  quite  r^dy  to  till  the  lands  which  they  had  newly 
acquired  in  Britain.  Th^  were,  however,  ready  to  defend  them- 
selves and  their  lands  if  th^yswere  attacked,  and  they  were  under 
the  obligation  of  appearing  in  alqns  when  needed  for  defence.  This 
general  army  of  the  villagers  was  B^led  the  Fyrd.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Gesiths  had  not  been  accust<mied  to  till  land  at  home, 
but  had  made  fighting  their  business.  W^in  short,  which  was  an 
unwelcome  accident  to  the  Ceorl,  was  theN;msiness  of  life  to  the 
Gesith.  The  exact  relationship  between  the  Ge^ths  and  the  Ceorls 
cannot  be  ascertained  with  certainty.  It  is  not  imj^obable  that  the 
Gesiths,  being  the  best  warriors  amongst  their  couikrymen,  some- 
times obtained  land  granted  them  by  their  chiefs,  and  A^re  expected 
in  consequence  to  be  specially  ready  to  serve  the  chief\4iom  they 
had  followed  from  their  home.  It  was  from  their  relation  to  their 
chief  that  they  were  called  Gesiths,  a  name  gradually  abandoned 
for  that  of  Thegns,  or  servants,  when  they-  as  was  soon  the  case— 


449? -523        SOCIAL   AND   POLITICAL   DIVISIONS  31 

ceased  to  live  w^h  their  chief  and  had  houses  and  lands  of  their 
own,  though  they  vv«j^e  still  bound  to  military  service.  How  these 
Thegns  cultivated  the^Nands  is  a  question  to  which  there  is  no 
certain  answer.  In  later  A*ys  they  made  use  of  a  class  of  men 
known  as  bondmen  or  villemN,^^  These  bondmen  were  not,  like 
slaves,  the  property  of  their  rnaH^s.  They  had  land  of  their 
own,  which  they  were  allowed  to  cultivate  for  themselves  on  con- 
dition of  spending  part  of  their  time  nKcultivating  the  land  of 
their  lords.  It  has  been  supposed  by  sbqie  writers  that  the 
Thegns  employed  bondmen  from  the  earliest  ti^V^of  the  conquest. 
If,  however,  this  was  the  case,  there  arises  a  ftK^er  question 
whether  the  bondmen  were  Englishmen  or  Britons.^Hie  whole 
subject  is  under  investigation,  and  the  evidence  which  "exists 
is  excessively  scanty.  It  is  at  least  certain  that  the  further  the 
conquest  piogressed  westwards,  the  greater  was  the  number  of 
Britons  preserved  alive. 

11.  English  and  Welsh. — The  bulk  of  the  population  on  the 
eastern  and  southern  coasts  was  undoubtedly  English.  English 
institutions  and  English  language  took  firm  root.  The  conquerors 
looked  on  the  Britons  with  the  utmost  contempt,  naming  them 
Welsh,  a  name  which  no  Briton  thought  of  giving  to  himself,  but 
which  Germans  had  been  in  the  habit  of  applying  somewhat  con- 
temptuously to  the  Celts  on  the  Continent.  So  far  as  British 
words  have  entered  into  the  English  language  at  all,  they  have 
been  words  such  as  gown  or  curd^  which  are  likely  to  have  been 
used  by  women,  or  words  such  as  cart  or  pony ^  which  are  likely  to 
have  been  used  by  agricultural  labourers,  and  the  evidence  of 
language  may  therefore  be  adduced  in  favour  of  the  view  that 
many  women  and  many  agricultural  labourers  were  spared  by  the 
conquerors. 

12.  The  Township  and  the  Hundred. — The  smallest  political 
community  of  the  new  settlers  was  the  village,  or,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called,  the  township,  which  is  still  represented  by  the  parish, 
the  parish  being  merely  a  township  in  which  ecclesiastical  institu- 
tions have  been  maintained  whilst  political  institutions  have  ceased 
to  exist.  The  freemen  of  the  township  met  to  settle  small  questions 
between  themselves,  under  the  presidency  of  their  reeve  or  head- 
man. More  important  cases  were  brought  before  the  hundred- 
moot,  or  meeting  of  the  hundred,  a  district  which  had  been  in- 
habited, or  was  supposed  to  have  been  inhabited,  either  by  a  hundred 
kindred  groups  of  the  original  settlers  or  by  the  families  of  a  hun- 
dred warriors.   This  hundred-moot  was  held  once  a  month,  and  was 


K 


i 


>^ 


32  THE  ENGLISH  SETTLEMENTS  449  ?-520 

attended  by  four  men  and  the  reeve  from  every  township,  and  also 
by  the  Eorls  and  Thegns  hving  in  the  hundred.  It  not  only  settled 
disputes  about  property,  but  gave  judgment  ia  criminal  cases  as  well. 

13.  Weregild. — In  early  days,  long  before  the  English  had 
left  their  lands  beyond  the  sea,  it  w^s  not  considered  to  be  the 
business  of  the  community  to  punish  crime.  If  any  one  was 
murdered,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  kinsmen  of  the  slain  man  to  put 
to  death  the  murderer.  In  course  of  time  men  got  tired  of  the 
continual  slaughter  produced  by  this  arrangement,  and  there  sprang 
up  a  system  according  to  which  the  murderer  might  offer  to  the 
kinsmen  a  sum  of  money  known  as  weregild,  or  the  value  of  a  man, 
and  if  this  money  was  accepted,  then  peace  was  made  and  all 
thought  of  vengeance  was  at  an  end.  At  a  later  time,  at  all  events 
after  the  arrival  of  the  English  in  this  country,  charges  of  murder 
were  brought  before  the  hundred-moot  whenever  the  alleged  mur- 
derer and  his  victim  lived  in  the  same  hundred.  If  the  accused 
person  did  not  dispute  the  fact  the  moot  sentenced  him  to  pay  a 
weregild,  the  amount  of  which  differed  in  proportion  to  the  rank  of 
the  slain  man,  not  in  proportion  to  the  heinousness  of  the  offence. 
As  there  was  a  weregild  for  murder,  so  there  was  also  a  graduated 
scale  of  payments  for  lesser  offences.  One  who  struck  off  a  hand 
or  a  foot  could  buy  off  vengeance  at  a  fixed  rate. 

14.  Compurgation  and  Ordeal. — A  new  difficulty  was  introduced 
when  a  person  who  was  charged  with  crime  denied  his  guilt.  As 
there  were  no  trained  lawyers  and  there  was  no  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  evidence,  the  accused  person  was  required  to  bring 
twelve  men  to  be  his  compurgators — that  is  to  say,  to  hear  him 
swear  to  his  own  innocence,  and  then  to  swear  in  turn  that  his 
oath  was  true.  If  he  could  not  find  men  willing  to  be  his  com- 
purgators he  could  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  the  gods,  which 
was  known  as  the  Ordeal.  If  he  could  walk  blindfold  over  red- 
hot  ploughshares,  or  plunge  his  arm  into  boiling  water,  and  show 
at  the  end  of  a  fixed  number  of  days  that  he  had  received  no  harm, 
it  was  thought  that  the  gods  bore  witness  to  his  innocency  and 
jhad  as  it  were  become  his  compurgators  when  men  had  failed  him. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  all  or  most  of  those  who  tried  the  ordeal 
failed,  but  as  nobody  would  try  the  ordeal  who  could  get  com- 
purgators, those  who  did  not  succeed  must  have  been  regarded  as 
persons  of  bad  character,  so  that  no  surprise  would  be  expressed 
at  their  failure. 

15.  Punishments. — When  a  man  had  failed  in  the  ordeal  there 
was  a  choice  of  punishments.     If  his  offence  wa^  a  slight  pjje.  a 


449?-520  POLITICAL  INSTITUTIONS  33 

fine  was  deemed  sufficient.  If  it  was  a  very  disgraceful  one,  such 
as  secret  ^urder,  he  was  put  to  death  or  was  degraded  to  slavery, 
in  most  cases  he  was  declared  to  be  a '  wolf  s-head  '—that  is  to  say, 
he  was  outlawed  and  driven  into  the  woods,  where,  as  the  protection 
of  the  community  was  withdrawn  from  him,  anyone  might  kill  him 
without  fear  of  punishment. 

16.  The  Folk-moot. — As  the  hundred-moot  did  justice  between 
those  who  lived  in  the  hundred,  so  the  folk-moot  did  justice  between 
those  who  lived  in  different  hundreds,  or  were  too  important  to  be 
judged  in  the  hundred-moot.  The  folk-moot  was  the  meeting  of  the 
whole  folk  or  tribe,  which  consisted  of  several  hundreds.  It  was  at- 
tended, like  the  hundred-moot,  by  four  men  and  the  reeve  from  each 
township,  and  it  met  twice  a  year,  and  was  presided  over  by  the 
chief  or  Ealdorman.  The  folk-moot  met  in  arms,  because  it  was  a 
muster  as  well  as  a  council  and  a  court.  The  vote  as  to  war  and 
peace  was  taken  in  it,  and  while  the  chief  alone  spoke,  the  warriors 
signified  their  assent  by  clashing  their  swords  against  their  shields. 

17.  The  Kingship.— -How  many  folks  or  tribes  settled  in  the 
island  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  many  of 
them  soon^Hyjibined.  The  resistance  of  the  Britons  was  desperate, 
and  it  was  only  by"*^<^ing  together  that  the  settlers  could  hope  to 
overcome  it.  The  cau^HS  which  produced  this  amalgamation  of 
the  folks  produced  the  kingSllwas  necessary  to  find  a  man  always 
ready  to  take  the  command  of  UtNomited  folks,  and  this  man  was 
called  King,  a  name  which  signifies  Ufes^ian  of  the  kinship  or  race 
at  the  head  of  which  he  stood.  His  aumbi^t>^  was  greater  than 
the  Ealdorman's,  and  his  warriors  were  more  rnhn^ous  than  those 
which  the  Ealdorman  had  led.  He  must  come  of  a>Q^l  family— 
that  is,  of  one  supposed  to  be  descended  from  the  g^kWoden. 
As  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  be  capable  of  leading  an 
it  was  impossible  that  a  child  could  be  king,  and  therefore  no  la^ 
of  hereditary  succession  prevailed.  On  the  death  of  a  king  the 
folk-moot  chose  his  successor  out  of  the  kingly  family.  If  his 
eldest  son  was  a  grown  man  of  repute,  the  choice  would  almost 
certainly  fall  upon  him.  If  he  was  a  child  or  an  invalid,  some  other 
kinsman  of  the  late  king  would  be  selected. 

18.  The  Legend  of  Arthur. —Thirty-two  years  passed  away 
after  the  defeat  of  the  West  Saxons  at  Mount  Badon  in  520  (see 
p.  28)  before  they  made  any  further  conquests.  Welsh  legends 
represent  this  period  as  that  of  the  reign  of  Arthur.  Some  modern 
inquirers  have  argued  that  Arthur's  kingdom  was  in  the  north, 
whilst  others   have  argued   that  it  was  in  the  sQuth.     It  is  quite 


34 


THE  ENGLISH  SETTLEMENTS 


520-552 


possible  that  the  name  was  given  by  legend  to  more  than  one 
champion  ;  at  all  events,  there  was  a  time  when  an  Ambrosius, 
probably  a  descendant  of  Ambrosius  Aurelianus  (see  p.  27),  pro- 
tected the  southern  Britons.  His  stronghold  was  at  Sorbiodunum, 
the  hill  fort  now  a  grassy  space  known  as  Old  Sarum,  and  his  great 
church  and  monastery,  where  Christian  priests  encouraged  the 
Christian  Britons  in  their  struggle  against  the  heathen  Saxons,  was 
at  the  neighbouring  Ambresbyrig  {the  fortress  of  Ambrosius)^  now^ 


ROMANjOAfi. 

fift^To  Winohcaier 


Scale  of  Feet 
o    100       300       500       700        900  rooo 


A.  Keep  or  Inner  Ward 

B.  Outer  Ward 

C.  Main  Gate 

D.  West  Gate 

E.  Cathedral  and  Cloisters. 


Walker  GrBoutaltsc. 
Plan  of  the  city  of  Old  Sarum,  the  ancient  Sorbiodumim.     The  Cathedral   is  of 
later  date. 

moQemised  into  Amesbury.  Thirty-two  years  after  the  battle  of 
Mount  K^on  the  kingdom  of  Ambrosius  had  been  divided  amongst 
his  successb<;s,  who  were  plunged  in  vice  and  were  quarrelling  with 
one  another. 

19.  The  WeH^^^Saxon  Advance. — In  552  Cynric,  the  West 
Saxon  king,  attacked^he  divided  Britons,  captured  Sorbiodunum, 
and  made  himself  ma^i^  of  Salisbury  Plain.  Step  by  step  he 
fought  his  way  to  the  valtev  of  the  Thames,  and  when  he  had 
reached  it,  he  turned  eastwardsHQ^  descend  the  river  to  its  mouth. 


552-584 


CONQUESTS  OF  THE  WEST  SAXONS 


35 


Here,  h<wveyer,  he  found  himself  anticipated  by  the  East  Saxons, 
who  had ^sapttK:^  London,  and  had  settled  a  branch  of  their  people 
under  the  name  o^tk^Iiddle  Saxons  in  Middlesex.  The  Jutes  of 
Kent  had  pushed  west^'tw^s  through  the  Surrey  hills,  but  in  568 
the  West  Saxons  defeated  theitl*>ami  drove  them  back.  After  this 
battle,  the  first  in  which  the  conquer^FS^rove  with  one  another,  the 
West  Saxons  turned  northwards,  defea^fed  the  Britons  in  571  at 
Bedford,  and  occupied  the  valleys  of  the  Thaihe  and  Cherwell  and 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Ouse.  They  are  next  heard-^pf  much  further 
west,  and  it  has  been  supposed  that  they  turned  in  that  direction 
because  they  found  the  lower  Ouse  already  held  by  Angle  tribes. 


Old  Sarum  from  an  engraving   published  in_i843,  showing  mound.     (It  is  now  obscured 
by  trees  from  this  point  of  view.) 

However  this  may  have  been,  they  crossed  the  Cotswoldsin  577  under 
two  brothers,  Ceawlin  and  Cutha,  and  at  Deorham  defeated  and  slew 
three  kings  wt^o  ruled  over  the  cities  of  Glevum  {Gloucester)^ 
Corinium  {CirenceSttr)y.,^6.  Aquae  Sulis  {Bath).  They  seized  on 
the  fertile  valley  of  the  Sevefn^-^^  during  the  next  few  years  they 
pressed  gradually  northwards.  In^^^-ili^y  destroyed  and  sacked 
the  old  Roman  station  of  Viriconium.  This"T^£^^s  their  last  victory 
for  many  a  year.  They  attempted  to  reach  Chest^iyJ^ut  were  de- 
feated at  Faddiley  by  the  Britons,  who  slew  Cutha  in  thebattle. 

20.  Repulse  of  the  West  Saxons. — After  the  defeat  at 
the  West  Saxons  split  up  into  two  peoples.     Those  of  them  who 


36  THE  ENGLISH  SETTLEMENTS  547-59'? 

settled  in  the  1o\v^«l  Severn  valley  took  the  name  of  Hwiccan,  and 
joined  the  Britons  agsinst  their  own  kindred.  This  alliance  could 
hardly  have  taken  placKif  the  Hwiccan,  in  settling  in  the  Severn 
valley,  had  destroyed  the  whole,  or  even  a  considerable  part,  of  the 
Celtic  population,  though  the^^can  be  little  doubt  that  there  was 
still  slaughter  when  a  battle  wasSfought  or  a  town  taken  by  storm  ; 
as  it  is  known  that  the  magnificem'^^oman  buildings  at  Bath  were 
standing  in  ruins  and  the  city  unte'hanted  many  years  after  the 
capture  of  the  city.  At  all  events,  the  Bintons,  now  allied  with  the 
Hwiccan,  defeated  Ceawlin  at  Wanborou^.  After  this  disaster, 
though  the  West  Saxon  kingdom  retained  its^ndependence,  it  was 
independent  within  smaller  limits  than  those  -vW^ich  Ceawlin  had 
wished  to  give  to  it.  If  he  had  seized  Chester  he  Wpuld  have  been 
on  the  way  to  gain  the  mastery  over  all  England,  but  he  had  tried 
to  do  too  much  in  a  short  time.  His  people  can  hardly  have  been 
numerous  enough  to  occupy  in  force  a  territory  reaching  from  South- 
ampton Water  to  Bedford  on  one  side  and  to  Chester  on  another. 

21.  The  Advance  of  the  Angles. — Whilst  the  West  Saxons 
were  enlarging  thei^r  boundaries  in  the  south,  the  Angles  were 
gradually  spreading  iXthe  centre  and  the  north.  The  East  Anglians 
were  stopped  on  their  A^y  to  the  west  by  the  great  fen,  but  either 
a  branch  of  the  LindisWra  or  some  new-comers  made  their 
way  up  the  Trent,  and  established  themselves  first  at  Nottingham 
and  then  at  Leicester,  and  ca%d  themselves  the  Middle  English. 
Another  body,  known  as  the  Mercians,  or  men  of  the  mark  or 
border-land,  seized  on  the  upper  valley  of  the  Trent.  North  of  the 
H umber  the  advance  was  still  slower.  In  547,  five  years  before 
the  West  Saxons  attacked  Sorbioduntim,  Ida,  a  chieftain  of  one  of 
the  scattered  settlements  on  the  coast;  was  accepted  as  king  by 
all  those  which  lay  between  the  Tees  and  the  Forth.  His  new 
kingdom  was  called  Bernicia,  and  his  principal  fortress  was  on  a 
rock  by  the  sea  at  Bamborough.  During  the  next  fifty  years 
he  and  his  successors  enlarged  their  borders  till  they  reached 
that  central  ridge  of  moorland  hill  which  is  sometimes  known 
as  the  Pennine  range.  The  Angles  between  the  Tees  and  the 
Humber  called  their  country  Deira,  but  though  they  also  united 
under  a  king,  their  progress  was  as  slow  as  that  of  the  Bernicians. 
Bernicia  and  Deira  together  were  known  as  North-humberland,  the 
land  north  of  the  Humber,  a  much  larger  territory  than  that  of  the 
modern  county  of  Northumberland.     -^ 

22.  The  Kymry. — It  is  probable  th^^the  cause  of  the  slow 
advance  of  the  northern  Angles  lay  in  the\existence  of  a  strong 


597  V  THE  KYMRV  37 

Celtic  state  in  front,  "^"^elsh  tradition  speaks  of  a  ruler  named 
Cunedda,  who  after  the  departure  of  the  Roman  legions  governed 
the  territory  from  the  ClydeHo  the  south  of  Wales,  which  formed 
the  greater  part  of  what  had  onfce  been  known  as  Upper  Britain. 
(See  p.  25.)  This  territory  was  inn^ited  by  a  mixed  population  of 
Britons  and  Goidels,  with  an  isolated  body  of  Picts  in  Galloway.  A 
common  danger  from  the  English  fused  tn^i  together,  and  as  a  sign 
of  the  wearing  out  of  old  distinctions,  they  tohk  the  name  of  Kymry, 
or  Comrades,  the  name  by  which  the  Welsh  a^known  amongst 
one  another  to  this  day,  and  which  is  also  preserve^Sm  the  name  of 
Cumberland,  though  the  Celtic  language  is  no  longer  s^iQken  there. 
23.  Britain  at  the  End  of  the  Sixth  Century. — DuringHhe  sixth 
century  the  Kymry  ceased  to  be  governed  by  one  ruler,  bh<the 
chieftains  of  the  various  territories  all  acknowledged  the  supremacy, 
of  a  descendant  of  Cunedda.  For  purposes  of  war  they  combined 
together,  and  as  the  country  which  they  occupied  was  hilly  and 
easily  defended,  the  northern  English  discovered  that  they  too 
must  unite  amongst  themselves  if  they  were  to  overpower  the 
united  resistance  of  the  Kymry.  ^ 


CHAPTER    III 

THE  STRIFE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS 

LEADING   DATES 

Augustine's  mission 597 

^thelfrith's  victory  at  Chester 613 

Penda  defeats  Eadwine  at  Heathfield 633 

Penda's  defeat  at  Winwaed         .......  655 

Theodore  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 668 

Offa  defeats  the  West  Saxons  at  Bensington         .        .        .  779 

Ecgberht  returns  to  England 800 

Death  of  Ecgberht 839 

I.  England  and  the  Continent. — Whatever  may  be  the  exact 
truth  about  the  numbers  of  Britons  saved  alive  by  the  English  con- 
querors, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  English  speech  and  English 
customs  prevailed  wherever  the  English  settled.  In  Gaul,  where 
the  German  Franks  made  themselves  masters  of  the  country,  a 
different  state  of  things  prevailed.  Roman  officials  continued  to 
govern  the  country  under  Frankish  kings,  Roman  bishops  con- 


i 


38         THE  STRIFE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS  584 

verted  the  conquerors  to  Christianity,  and  Roman  cities  main- 
tained, as  far  as  they  could,  the  old  standard  of  civilisation.  All 
commercial  intercourse  between  Gaul,  still  comparatively  rich  and 
prosperoiiv^nd  Britain  was  for  some  time  cut  off  by  the  irrup- 
tion of  the  Ei^g^ish,  who  were  at  first  too  rude  and  too  much  en- 
gaged in  fightingHo  need  the  products  of  a  more  advanced  race. 
Gradually,  however,  a&  the  English  settled  down  into  peaceful 
industry  along  the  south-extern  shores  of  the  island,  trade  again 
sprang  up,  as  it  had  sprung\m  in  the  wild  times  preceding  the 
landing  of  Caesar.  The  GaulisnSmerchants  who  crossed  the  straits 
found  themselves  in  Kent,  and  during  the  years  in  which  the  West 
Saxon  Ceawlin  was  struggling  withNdie  Britons  the  communica- 
tions between  Kent  and  the  Continent  had  become  so  friendly  that 
in  584,  or  a  little  later,  ^thelberht,  king  orKent,  took  to  wife  Bertha, 
the  daughter  of  a  Frankish  king,  Charibert.  "^ertha  was  a  Christian, 
and  brought  with  her  a  Christian  bishop.  'She  begged  of  her 
husband  a  forsaken  Roman  church  for  her  own  use.  This  church, 
now  known  as  St.  Martin's,  stood  outside  the  walls  of  the  deserted 
city  of  Durovernum,  the  buildings  of  which  were  in  ruins,  except 
where  a  group  of  rude  dwellings  rose  in  a  corner  of  the  old  fortifi- 
cations. In  these  dwellings  /Ethelberht  and  his  followers  lived, 
and  to  them  had  been  given  the  new  name  of  Cantwarabyrig  or 
Canterbury  {the  dwelling  of  the  men  of  Kent).  The  English  were 
heathen,  but  their  heathenism  was  not  intolerant. 

2.  iEthelberht's  Supremacy. — .-Ethelberht's  authority  reached 
far  beyond  his  native  Kent.  Within  a  few  years  after  his  marriage 
he  had  gained  a  supremacy  over  most  of  the  other  kings  to  the 
south  of  the  Humber.  There  is  no  tradition  of  any  war  between 
^thelberht  and  these  kings,  and  he  certainly  did  not  thrust  them 
out  from  the  leadership  of  their  own  peoples.  The  exact  nature  of 
his  supremacy  is,  however,  unknown  to  us,  though  it  is  possible 
that  they  were  bound  to  follow  him  if  he  went  to  war  with  peoples 
not  acknowledging  his  supremacy,  in  which  case  his  position 
towards  them  was  something  of  the  same  kind  as  that  of  a  lord 
to  his  gesiths. 

3.  Gregory  and  the  English. — ^thelberht's  position  as  the  over- 
lord of  so  many  kings  and  as  the  husband  of  a  Christian  wife  drew 
upon  him  the  attention  of  Gregory,  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  or  Pope. 
Many  years  before,  as  a  deacon,  he  had  been  attracted  by  the 
fair  faces  of  some  boys  from  Deira  exposed  for  sale  in  the  Roman 
slave-market.  He  was  told  that  the  children  were  Angles.  "  Not 
Angles,  but  angels,"  he  replied.      "Who,"   he  asked,  "is  their 


597  AUGUSTINE'S  LANDING  39 

king  ? "  Hearing  that  his  name  was  ^lla,  he  continued  to  play 
upon  the  words.  "  Alleluia,"  he  said,  "  shall  be  sung  in  the  land 
of  ^lla."  Busy  years  kept  him  from  seeking  to  fulfil  his  hopes, 
but  at  last  the  time  came  when  he  could  do  something  to  cany 
out  his  intentions,  not  in  the  land  of  ^lla,  but  in  the  land  of 
i^thelberht.  He  became  Pope.  In  those  days  the  Pope  had  far 
less  authority  over  the  Churches  of  Western  Europe  than  he  after- 
wards acquired,  but  he  offered  the  only  centre  round  which  they 
could  rally,  now  that  the  Empire  had  broken  up  into  many  states 
ruled  over  by  different  barbarian  kings.  The  general  habit  of  look- 
ing to  Rome  for  authority,  which  had  been  diffused  over  the  whole 
Empire  whilst  Rome  was  still  the  seat  of  the  Emperors,  made  men 
look  to  the  Roman  Bishop  for  advice  and  help  as  they  had  once 
looked  to  the  Roman  Emperor.  Gregory,  who  united  to  the  tender- 
heartedness of  the  Christian  the  strength  of  will  and  firmness  of 
purpose  which  had  marked  out  the  best  of  the  Emperors,  now  sent 
Augustine  to  England  as  the  leader  of  a  band  of  missionaries. 

4.  Augustine's  Mission.  597. — Augustine  with  his  companions 
landed  at  Ebbsfleet,  in  Thanet,  where  vEthelberht's  forefathers  had 
landed  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  before.  After  a  while  .^thelberht 
arrived.  Singing  a  litany,  and  bearing  aloft  a  painting  of  the 
Saviour,  the  missionaries  appeared  before  him.  He  had  already 
learned  from  his  Christian  wife  to  respect  Christians,  but  he  was 
not  prepared  to  forsake  his  own  religion.  He  welcomed  the  new- 
comers, and  told  them  that  they  were  free  to  convert  those  who 
would  willingly  accept  their  doctrine.  A  place  was  assigned  to 
them  in  Canterbury,  and  they  were  allowed  to  use  Bertha's  church. 
In  the  end  ^Ethelberht  himself,  together  with  thousands  of  the 
Kentish  men,  received  baptism.  It  was  more  by  their  example 
than  by  their  teaching  that  Augustine's  band  won  converts.  The 
missionaries  lived  '  after  the  model  of  the  primitive  Church,  giving 
themselves  to  frequent  prayers,  watchings,  and  fastings  ;  preaching 
to  all  who  were  within  their  reach,  disregarding  all  worldly  things 
as  matters  with  which  they  had  nothing  to  do,  accepting  from 
those  whom  they  taught  just  what  seemed  necessary  for  livelihood, 
living  themselves  altogether  in  accordance  with  what  they  taught, 
and  with  hearts  prepared  to  suffer  every  adversity,  or  even  to  die, 
for  that  truth  which  they  preached.' 

5.  Monastic  Christianity. — These  missionaries  were  monks  as 
well  as  preachers.  The  Christians  of  those  days  considered  the 
monastic  life  to  be  the  highest.  In  the  early  days  of  the  Church, 
when   the   world  was  full  of  vice  and  cruelty,  it  seemed  hardly 


40         THE  STRIFE  OF   THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS    597-616 

possible  to  live  in  the  world  without  being  dragged  down  to  its 
wickedness.  Men  and  women,  therefore,  who  wished  to  keep  them- 
selves pure,  withdrew  to  hermitages  or  monasteries,  where  they 
might  be  removed  from  temptation,  and  might  fit  themselves  for 
heaven  by  prayer  and  fasting.  In  the  fifth  century  Benedict  of 
Nursia  had  organised  in  Italy  a  system  of  life  for  the  monastery 
which  he  governed,  and  the  Benedictine  rule,  as  it  was  called,  was 
soon  accepted  in  almost  all  the  monasteries  of  Western  Europe. 
The  special  feature  of  this  rule  was  that  it  encouraged  labour  as 
well  as  prayer.  It  was  a  saying  of  Benedict  himself  that '  to  labour 
is  to  pray.'  He  did  not  mean  that  labour  was  good  in  itself,  but 
that  monks  who  worked  during  some  hours  of  the  day  would  guard 
their  minds  against  evil  thoughts  better  than  if  they  tried  to  pray 
all  day  long.  Augustine  and  his  companions  were  Benedictine 
monks,  and  their  quietness  and  contentedness  attracted  the  popu- 
lation amidst  which  they  had  settled.  The  religion  of  the  heathen 
English  was  a  religion  which  favoured  bravery  and  endurance, 
counting  the  warrior  who  slaughtered  most  enemies  as  most  highly 
favoured  by  the  gods.  The  religion  of  Augustine  was  one  of  peace 
and  self-denial.  Its  symbol  was  the  cross,  to  be  borne  in  the  heart 
of  the  believer.  The  message  brought  by  Augustine  was  very  hard 
to  learn.  If  Augustine  had  expected  the  whole  EngHsh  population 
to  forsake  entirely  its  evil  ways  and  to  walk  in  paths  of  peace,  he 
would  probably  have  been  rejected  at  once.  It  was  perhaps  be- 
cause he  was  a  monk  that  he  did  not  expect  so  much.  A  monk 
was  accustomed  to  judge  laymen  by  a  lower  standard  of  self-denial 
than  that  by  which  he  judged  himself.  He  would,  therefore,  not 
ask  too  much  of  the  new  converts.  They  must  forsake  the  heathen 
temples  and  sacrifices,  and  must  give  up  some  particularly  evil 
habits  The  rest  must  be  left  to  time  and  the  example  of  the  monks. 
6.  The  Archbishopric  of  Canterbury. — After  a  short  stay 
Augustine  reVisk^  Gaul  and  came  back  as  Archbishop  of  the 
English.  ^thelbenHvgave  to  him  a  ruined  church  at  Canterbury, 
and  that  poor  church  w^ls^amed  Christ  Church,  and  became  the 
mother  church  of  England.  NFrom  that  day  the  Archbishop's  See 
has  been  fixed  at  Canterbury.  TlSAugustine  in  his  character  of  monk 
led  men  by  example,  in  his  char^sJer  of  Archbishop  he  had  to 
organise  the  Church.  With  ^thelberSt^  help  he  set  up  a  bishopric 
at  Rochester  and  another  in  London.  D^don  was  now  again  an 
important  trading  city,  which,  though  nofSm  /Ethelberht's  own 
kingdom  of  Kent,  formed  part  of  the  kingdom  o^^ssex,  which  was 
dependent  on  Kent.     More  than  these  three  See's  Augustine  was 


588-59 J     THE  GREATNESS  OP  NORTH-HUMBERLaND      4I 

unaBTS^tr^-eslablish.  An  attempt  to  obtain  the  friendly  co-operation 
of  the  Welsh  bisKops.4iroke  down  because  Augustine  insisted  on 
their  adoption  of  Romancttstoms  ;  and  Lawrence,  who  succeeded 
to  the  archbishopric  after  Augusttneia^death,  could  do  no  more 
than  his  predecessor  had  done. 

7.  Death  of  iEthelberht.  616.— In  616  ^thelberht  died.  The 
over-lordship  of  the  kings  of  Kent  ended  with  him,  and  Augustine's 
church,  which  had  largely  depended  upon  his  influence,  very  nearly 
ended  as  well.  Essex  relapsed  into  heathenism,  and  it  was  only 
by  terrifying  ^thelberht's  son  with  the  vengeance  of  St.  Peter  that 
Lawrence  kept  him  from  relapsing  also.  On  the  other  hand, 
Rcedwald,  king  of  the  East  Anglians,  who  succeeded  to  much  of 
-(Ethelberht's  authority,  so  far  accepted  Christianity  as  to  worship 
Christ  amongst  his  other  gods. 

8.  The  Three  Kingdoms  opposed  to  the  Welsh. — Augustine's 
Church  was  weak,  because  it  depended  on  the  kings,  and  had  not 
had  time  to  root  itself  in  the  affections  of  the  people,  ^thelberht's 
supremacy  was  also  weak.  The  greater  part  of  the  small  states 
which  still  existed — Sussex,  Kent,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  and  most  of 
the  small  kingdoms  of  central  England — were  no  longer  bordered 
by  a  Celtic  population.  For  them  the  war  of  conquest  and  defence 
was  at  an  end.  If  any  one  of  the  kingdoms  was  to  rise  to  perma- 
nent supremacy  it  must  be  one  of  those  engaged  in  strenuous 
warfare,  and  as  yet  strenuous  warfare  was  only  carried  on  with 
the  Welsh.  The  kingdoms  which  had  the  Welsh  on  their  borders 
were  three — Wessex,  Mercia,  and  North-humberland,  and  neither 
Wessex  nor  Mercia  was  as  yet  very  strong.  Wessex  was  too 
distracted  by  conflicts  amongst  members  of  the  kingly  family,  and 
Mercia  was  as  yet  too  small  to  be  of  much  account.  North- 
humberland  was  therefore  the  first  of  the  three  to  rise  to  the  foremost 
place.  Till  the  death  of  ^lla,  the  king  of  Deira,  from  whose  land 
had  been  carried,  ofl*  the  slave-boys  whose  faces  had  charmed 
Gregory  at  Rome,  Deira  and  Bernicia  had  been  as  separate  as  Kent 
and  Essex.  Then  in  588  ^Ethelric  of  Bernicia  drove  out  Ella's 
son  and  seized  his  kingdom  of  Deira,  thus  joining  the  two  kingdoms 
of  Deira  and  Bernicia  (see  p.  36)  into  one,  under  the  new  name 
of  North-humberland.^ 

Q.  iEthelfrith  and  the  Kymry. — In  593,  four  years  before  the 
landing  of  „^^ustine,  ^thelric  was  succeeded  by  his  son  ..^thel- 
frith.      yrhrlfnTTT' I1  j^  III   n   frrnh   ntnifffij-lr  with    the  Welsh.     We 

'  Genealogy  of  the  principal  Northumbrian  kings  : — \_Noie. — The  names  of 
kings  are  in  capitals.     The  figures  denote  the  order  of  succession  of  those  who 


42         THE  STRIFE  OF   THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS    593-603 

know  littfev  of  the  internal  history  of  the  Welsh  population,  but 
what  we  do  know  shows  that  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
there  was  an  improvement  in  their  religious  and  political  existence. 
The  monasteriesVere  thronged,  especially  the  great  monastery  of 
Bangor-iscoed,  in\he  modern  Flintshire,  which  contained  2,000 
monks.  St.  David \nd  other  bishops  gave  examples  of  piety.  In 
fighting  against  ^thelfrith  the  warriors  of  the  Britons  were  fighting 
for  their  last  chance  o£  independence.  They  still  held  the  west 
from  the  Clyde  to  the  Cnannel.  Unhappily  for  them,  the  Severn, 
the  Dee,  and  the  Solway  Fikh  divided  their  land  into  four  portions, 
and  if  an  enemy  coming  ft^m  the  east  could  seize  upon  the 
heads  of  the  inlets  into  which\hose  rivers  flowed  he  could  prevent 
the  defenders  of  the  west  from  aiding  one  another.  Already  in  577, 
by  the  victory  of  Deorham  (see  pK35J)  the  West  Saxons  had  seized 
on  the  mouth  of  the  Severn,  and  ftad  split  oflf  the  West  Welsh  of 
the  south-western  peninsula.  yEthelfrkh  had  to  do  with  the  Kymry, 
whose  territories  stretched  from  the  Bristol  Channel  to  the  Clyde, 
and  who  held  an  outlying  wedge  of  land\hen  known  as  Loidis  and 
Elmet,  which  now  together  form  the  Wek  Riding  of  Yorkshire. 

10.  iEthelfrith's  Victories. — The  longVange  of  barren  hills 
which  separated  ^thelfrith's  kingdom  fronx  the  Kymry  made  it 
diffictilt  for  either  side  to  strike  a  serious  blbw  at  the  other.  In 
the  extreme  north,  where  a  low  valley  joins  the  B^irths  of  Clyde  and 
Forth,  it  was  easier  for  them  to  meet.  Here  ^e  Kymry  found 
an  ally  outside  their  own  borders.  Towards  the  X^^d  of  the  fifth 
century  a  colony  of  Irish  Scots  had  driven  out  tKe  Picts  from 
the  modern  Argyle.  In  603  their  king,  Aedan,  bringing  with 
him  a  vast  army,  in  which  Picts  and  the  Kymry  appear  to  have 
taken  part,  invaded  the  northern  part  of  yEthelfrith'^country. 
^-Ethelfrith    defeated    him    at    Degsastan,   which    was    probably 

ruled  over  the  whole  of  North-humberland,  Those  whose  names  are  followed 
by  a  B.  or  D.  ruled  only  over  Bernicia  or  Deira  respectively.] 

House  of  Bernicia  House  of  Deira 

Ida  B.  Iffa  D. 

I  I 


I.    JlTHELRlC  ^LLA  D.  ^Ifrlc 


II  II 

2,  /Ethelfrith  =  Acha  3.  Eadwine    Osric  D. 


4.  Oswald  5.  Oswiu  Oswini  D. 


603-625  y^THELFRITH  AND  E AD  WINE  43 

Dawstone,  near  Jedburgh.  '  From  that  time  no  king  of  the  Scots 
durst  corns,  into  Britain  to  make  war  upon  the  Enghsh.'  Having 
freed  himseW^rom  the  Scots  in  the  north,  ^thelfrith  turned 
upon  the  Kynn'W  After  a  succession  of  struggles  of  which  no 
record  remains,  he  K^rced  his  way  in  613  to  the  western  sea  near 
Chester.  The  Kymryfta^  brought  with  them  the  2,000  monks  of 
their  great  monastery  Bangb^iscoed,  to  pray  for  victory  whilst  their 
warriors  were  engaged  in  batuK.  ^thelfrith  bade  his  men  to  slay 
them  all.  *  Whether  they  bear  a^his  or  no,'  he  said,  '  they  fight 
against  us  when  they  cry  against  us  toHieir  God.'  The  monks  were 
slain  to  a  man.  Their  countrymen  were  rolHed,  and  Chester  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English.  The  capture  of  Cnfe^er  split  the  Kymric 
kingdom  in  two,  as  the  battle  of  Deorham  thirt^sfiye  years  before 
had  split  that  kingdom  off  from  the  West  WelsnSjf  the  south- 
western peninsula.  The  Southern  Kymry,  in  what  is  thmv  called 
Wales,  could  no  longer  give  help  to  the  Northern  Kymry  oh^ween 
the  Clyde  and  the  Ribble,  who  grouped  themselves  into  the  king- 
dom of  Strathclyde,  the  capital  of  which  was  Alcluyd,  the  modern 
Dumbarton.  Three  weak  Celtic  states,  unable  to  assist  one  another, 
would  not  long  be  able  to  resist  their  invaders. 

II.  The  Greatness  of  Eadwine. — Powerful  as  yEthelfrith  was, 
he  was  jealous  of  young  Eadwine,  a  son  of  his  father's  rival,  ^lla 
of  Deira.  For  some  years  Eadwine  had  been  in  hiding,  at  one  time 
with  Welsh  princes,  at  another  time  with  English  kings.  In  617 
he  took  refuge  with  Rasdwald,  the  king  of  the  East  Angles.  yEthel- 
frith  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  fugitive.  Raedwald  hesitated, 
but  at  last  refused,  ^thelfrith  atacked  him,  but  was  defeated  and 
slain  near  the  river  Idle,  at  some  point  near  Retford.  Eadwine  the 
Deiran  then  became  king  over  the  united  North-humberland  in  the 
place  of  yEthelfrith  the  Bernician,  whose  sons  fled  for  safety  to  the 
Picts  beyond  the  Forth.  Eadwine  completed  and  consolidated  the 
conquests  of  his  predecessors.  He  placed  a  fortress,  named  after 
himself  Eadwinesburh,  or  Edinburgh,  on  a  rocky  height  near  the 
Forth,  to  guard  his  land  against  a  fresh  irruption  of  Scots  and 
Picts,  such  as  that  which  had  been  turned  back  at  Degsastan.  He 
conquered  from  the  Kymry  Loidis  and  Elmet,  and  he  launched  a 
fleet  at  Chester  which  added  to  his  dominions  the  Isle  of  Man 
and  the  greater  island  which  was  henceforth  known  as  Anglesea, 
the  island  of  the  Angles.  Eadwine  assumed  unwonted  state. 
Wherever  he  went  a  standard  was  borne  before  him,  as  well  as  a 
spear  decorated  with  a  tuft  of  feathers,  the  ancient  sign  of  Roman 
authority.     It  has  been  thought  by  some  that  his  meaning  was  that 


"£ 


44         TJ/£  STRIPE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS    625-626 

he,  rather  than  any  Welshman,  was  the  true  Gwledig,  the  successor 
of  the  Duke  of  the  Britains  {^Dux  Britanniarum),  and  that  the 
name  of  Bretwalda,  or  ruler  of  the  Britons,  which  he  is  said  to 
have  borne,  was  only  a  translation  of  the  Welsh  Gwledig.  It  is 
true  that  the  title  of  Bretwalda  is  given  to  other  powerful  kings 
before  and  after  Eadwine,  some  of  whom  were  in  no  sense  rulers 
over  Britons  ;  but  it  is  possible  that  it  was  taken  to  signify  a  ruler 
over  a  large  part  of  Britain,  though  the  men  over  whom  he  ruled 
were  English,  and  not  Britons. 

12.  Eadwine's  Supremacy. — Eadwine's  immediate  kingship  did 
not  reach  further  south  than  the  Humber  and  the  Dee.  But  before 
625  he  had  brought  the  East  Angles  and  the  kingdoms  of  central 
England  to  submit  to  his  over-lordship,  and  he  hoped  to  make 
himself  over-lord  of  the  south  as  well,  and  thus  to  reduce  all 
England  to  dependence  on  himself.  In  625  he  planned  an  at- 
tack upon  the  West  Saxons,  and  with  the  object  of  winning  Kent 
to  his  side,  he  married  ^Ethelburh,  a  sister  of  the  Kentish  king. 
Kent  was  still  the  only  Christian  kingdom,  and  Eadwine  was 
obliged  to  promise  to  his  wife  protection  for  her  Christian  worship. 
He  was  now  free  to  attack  the  West  Saxons.  In  626,  before  he 
set  out,  ambassadors  arrived  from  their  king.  As  Eadwine  was 
listening  to  them,  one  of  their  number  rushed  forward  to  stab  him. 
His  life  was  saved  by  the  devotion  of  Lilla,  one  of  his  thegns,  who 
threw  his  body  in  the  way  of  the  assassin,  and  was  slain  by  the 
stroke  intended  for  his  lord.  After  this  Eadwine  marched  against 
the  West  Saxons.  He  defeated  them  in  battle  and  forced  them  to 
acknowledge  him  as  their  over-lord.  He  was  now  over-lord  of  all 
the  English  states  except  Kent,  and  Kent  had  become  his  ally  in 
consequence  of  his  marriage. 

13.  Character  of  the  later  Conquests. — Eadwine's  over-lordship 
had  been  gained  with  as  little  difficulty  as  .^thelberht's  had  been. 
The  ease  with  which  each  of  them  carried  out  their  purpose  can 
only  be  explained  by  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  English.  The  smaH-Jl^odies  of  conquerors  which  had 
landed  at  different  parts  of  the  coast^li^  been  interested  to  a  man 
in  the  defence  of  the  lands  which  they  haldsSeized.  Every  freeman 
had  been  ready  to  come  forward  to  defend  tl^e^  soil  which  his  tribe 
had  gained.  After  tribe  had  been  joined  to  tribe,'and  still  more  after 
kingdom  had  been  joined  to  kingdom,  there  were  -large  numbers 
who  ceased  to  have  any  interest  in  resisting  the  Welsh  on  what 
was,  as  far  as  they  were  concerned,  a  distant  frontier.  Thus, 
when  Ceawlin  was   fighting  to  extend  the  West  Saxon  frontiers 


626  CONQUEST  AND  KINGSHIP  4S 

in  the  valley  of  the  Severn,  it  mattered  little  to  a  man  whose 
own  allotted  land  lay  on  the  banks  of  the  Southampton  Water 
whether  or  nh^  his  English  kinsmen  won  lands  from  the  Welsh 
near  Bath  or  Gloucester.  The  first  result  of  this  change  was 
that  the  king's  vva^-band  formed  a  far  greater  proportion  of  his 
military  force  than  it  had  formed  originally.  There  was  still  the 
obligation  upon  the  ^^ole  -body  of  the  freemen  to  take  arms,  but  it 
was  an  obligation  wm(:h  had  become  more  difficult  to  fulfil,  and 
it  must  often  have  happened  that  very  few  freemen  took  part  in  a 
battle  except  the  local  levies  concerned  in  defending  their  own  im- 
mediate neighbourhood.  X  military  change  of  this  kind  would 
account  for  the  undoubted  f^t  that  the  further  the  Enghsh  con- 
quest penetrated  to  the  west  me  less  destructive  it  was  of  British 
life.  The  thegns,  or  warriors  p^sonally  attached  to  the  king,  did 
not  want  to  plough  and  reap  witftv  their  own  hands.  They  would 
be  far  better  pleased  to  spare  the^lives  of  the  conquered  and  to 
compel  them  to  labour.  Every  step  in  advance  was  marked  by 
a  proportionately  larger  Welsh  element  in  the  population. 

14.  Political  Changes. — The  character  of  the  kingship  was  as 
much  affected  by  the  change  as  the  character  of  the  population. 
The  old  folk-moots  still  remained  as  the  fbcal  courts  of  the  smaller 
kingdoms,  or  of  the  districts  out  of  which  the  larger  kingdoms 
were  composed,  and  continued  to  meet  unoer  the  presidency  of 
ealdormen  appointed  or  approved  by  the  kin\  Four  men  and  a 
reeve,  all  of  them  humble  cultivators,  could  Naot,  however,  be 
expected  to  walk  up  to  York  from  the  shores  o^the  Forth,  or 
even  from  the  banks  of  the  Tyne,  whenever  Ea)iwine  needed 
their  counsel.  Their  place  in  the  larger  kingdom^  was  there- 
fore taken  by  the  Witenagemot  ( The  moot  of  the  \^he  men\ 
composed  of  the  ealdormen  and  the  chief  thegns\  together 
with  the  priests  attached  to  the  king's  service  in  theXtime  of 
heathendom,  and,  in  the  time  of  Christianity,  the  bishop  or  cishops 
of  his  kingdom.  In  one  way  the  king  was  the  stronger  for  the 
change.  His  counsellors,  like  his  fighting  force,  were  more  ofepen- 
dent  on  himself  than  before.  He  was  able  to  plan  greater  desWns, 
and  to  carry  out  military  enterprises  at  a  greater  distance.  \  In 
another  way  he  was  the  weaker  for  the  change.  He  had  less  support 
from  the  bulk  of  his  people,  and  was  more  likely  to  undertake 
enterprises  in  which  they  had  no  interest.  The  over-lordships  of 
-^thelberht  and  Eadwine  appear  very  imposing,  but  no  real  tie 
united  the  men  of  the  centre  of  England  to  those  of  Kent  at  one 
time,  or  to  those  of  North-humberland  at  another.     Eadwine  was 


46         THE  STRIFE  OF   THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS    627-633 

supreme  over  the  other  kings  because  he  had  a  better  war-band 
than  they  had.  If  another  king  appeared  whose  war-band  was 
better  than  his,  his  supremacy  would  disappear. 

15.  Eadwine's  Conversion  and  Fall. — In  627  Eadwine,  moved 
by  his  wife's  entreaties  and  the  urgency  of  her  chaplain,  Paulinus, 
called  upon  his  Witan  to  accept  Christianity.  Coifi,  the  priest, 
declared  that  he  had  long  served  his  gods  for  naught,  and  would 
try  a  change  of  masters.  '  The  present  life  of  man,  O  king,'  said  a 
thegn,  '  seems  to  me  in  comparison  of  that  time  which  is  unknown 
to  us  like  to  the  swift  flight  of  a  sparrow  through  the  room  where- 
in you  sit  at  supper  in  winter,  with  your  ealdormen  and  thegns, 
and  a  good  fire  in  the  midst,  and  storms  of  rain  and  snow  without. 
...  So  this  life  of  man  appears  for  a  short  space,  but  of  what 
went  before  or  what  is  to  follow  we  are  utterly  ignorant.  If  there- 
fore this  new  doctrine  contains  something  more  certain,  it  seems 
justly  to  deserve  to  be  followed.'  On  this  recommendation  Christi- 
anity was  accepted.  Paulinus  was  acknowledged  as  Bishop  of 
York.  The  new  See,  which  had  been  originally  intended  by 
Pope  Gregory  to  be  an  archbishopric,  was  ultimately  acknow- 
ledged as  such,  but  as  yet  it  was  but  a  missionary  station. 
Paulinus  converted  thousands  in  Deira,  but  the  men  of  Bernicia 
were  unaffected  by  his  pleadings.  Christianity,  like  the  ex- 
tension of  all  better  teaching,  brought  at  first  not  peace  but 
the  sword.  The  new  religion  was  contemptible  in  the  eyes  of 
warriors.  The  supremacy  of  Eadwine  was  shaken.  The  men 
of  East  Anglia  slew  their  king,  who  had  followed  his  over-lord's 
example  by  accepting  Christianity.  The  worst  blow  came  from 
Mercia.  Hitherto  it  had  been  only  a  little  state  on  the  Welsh 
border.  Its  king,  Penda,  the  stoutest  warrior  of  his  day,  now 
gathered  under  him  all  the  central  states,  and  founded  a  new 
Mercia  which  stretched  from  the  Severn  to  the  Fens.  He  first 
turned  on  the  West  Saxons,  defeated  them  at  Cirencester,  and  in 
628  brought  the  territory  of  the  Hwiccas  under  Mercian  sway.  On 
the  other  hand.  East  Anglia  accepted  Eadwine's  supremacy  and 
Christianity.  Penda  called  to  his  aid  Caedwalla,  the  king  ot 
Gwynnedd,  the  Snowdonian  region  of  Wales.  That  he  should  have 
done  so  shows  how  completely  yEthelfrith's  victory  at  Chester,  by 
cutting  the  Kymric  realm  in  two,  had  put  an  end  to  all  fears  that 
the  Kymry  could  ever  make  head  against  England  as  a  whole. 
The  alliance  was  too  strong  for  Eadwine,  and  in  633,  at  the  battle 
of  Heathfield — the  modern  Hatfield,  in  Yorkshire — the  great  king 
was  slain  and  his  army  routed. 


•t 


35  7'ff£   COLUMBAN  MISSIONARIES  47 


16.  Oswald's  Victory  at  Heavenfield. — Penda  was  content  to 
split  up  Bernicia  and  Deira  into  separate  kingdoms,  and  to  join  East 
Anglia  to  his  subject  states.  Caedvvalla  had  all  the  wrongs  of  his 
race  to  avenge.  He  remained  in  North-huniberland  burning  and 
destroying  till  635,  when  Oswald,  who  was  a  son  of  ^thelfrith  and 
of  Eadwine's  sister,  and  therefore  united  the  claims  of  the  rival 
families,  gathered  the  men  of  Bernicia  round  him,  overthrew 
Caedwalla  at  Heavenfield,  near  the  Roman  Wall,  and  was  grate- 
fully accepted  as  king  by  the  whole  of  North-humberland. 

17.  Oswald  and  Aidan. — In  the  days  of  Eadwine,  Oswald,  as 
the  h^ir  of  the  rival  house  of  Bernicia,  had  passed  his  youth  in 
exile,  and  had  been  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  monastery  of 
Hii,  the  isiand  now  known  as  lona.  The  monastery  had  been 
founded  by  (Solumba,  an  Irish  Scot.  Christianity  had  been  intro- 
duced into  Ireland  by  Patrick  early  in  the  fifth  century.  Ireland 
was  a  land  of  constant  and  cruel  war  between  its  tribes,  and  all 
who  wished  to  be>Christians  in  more  than  name  withdrew  them- 
selves into  monasten^,  where  they  lived  an  even  stricter  and  more 
ascetic  life  than  the  mdnks  did  in  other  parts  of  Western  Europe. 
Bishops  were  retained  na  the  monasteries  to  ordain  priests,  but 
they  were  entirely  powerles^  Columba's  monastery  at  Hii  sent  its 
missionaries  abroad,  and  brought  Picts  as  well  as  Scots  under  the 
influence  of  Christianity.  OswMd  now  requested  its  abbot,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Columba,  to  send  a  mf^sionary  to  preach  the  faith  to  the 
men  of  North-humberland  in  theVlace  of  Paulinus,  who  had  fled 
when  Eadwine  was  slain.  The  first  who  was  sent  came  back 
reporting  that  the  people  were  too>6tubborn  to  be  converted. 
"  Was  it  their  stubbornness  or  your  hardiness  ? "  asked  the  monk 
Aidan.  "  Did  you  forget  to  give  them  thesrnilk  first  and  then  the 
meat  ? "  Aidan  was  chosen  to  take  the  pla*^  of  the  brother  who 
had  failed.  He  established  himself,  not  in  anSmland  town,  but  in 
Holy  Island.  His  life  was  spent  in  wandermg^mongst  the  men 
of  the  valleys  opposite,  winning  them  over  by  his\gentleness  and 
his  self-denying  energy.  Oswald,  warrior  as  he  Wiis,  had  almost 
all  the  gentleness  and  piety  of  Aidan.  'By  reason\of  his  con- 
stant habit  of  praying  or  giving  thanks  to  the  Lord  hK^as  wont 
whenever  he  sat  to  hold  his  hands  upturned  on  his  knees.NX)n  one 
occasion  when  he  sat  down  to  a  feast  with  Aidan  by  his  s^^,  he 
sent  both  the  dainties  before  him  and  the  silver  dish  on  which  fkey 
had  been  served  to  be  divided  amongst  the  poor.  "  May  this  hand," 
exclaimed  the  delighted  Aidan,  "  never  grow  old  !  " 

,/     18.  Oswald's  Greatness  and  Overthrow. — As  a  king  Oswald 
•  \ 


48         THE  STRIFE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS    635-659 

based  his  power  on  the  acknowledgment  of  his  over-lordship  by 
all  the  kingdoms  which  were  hostile  to  Penda.  In  635  Wessex 
accepted  Christianity,  and  the  acceptance  of  Christianity  brought 
with  it  the  acceptance  of  Oswald's  supremacy.  Penda  was  thus 
surrounded  by  enemies,  but  his  courage  did  not  fail  him,  and  in 
642  at  the  battle  of  Maserfield  he  defeated  Oswald.  Oswald  fell 
in  the  battle,  begging  with  his  last  words  for  God's  mercy  on  the 
^  souls  of  his  followers. 
y^  19.  Panda's  Overthrow.— After  Oswald's  fall  Bernicia  was  ruled 

by  his  brother  Oswiu.  Deira,  again  divided  from  it,  was  governed 
first  by  Eadwine's  cousin  Osric,  and  then  by  Osric's  son,  Oswini, 
who  acknowledged  Penda  as  his  over-lord.  Oswini  was  a  man 
after  Aidan's  own  heart.  Once  he  gave  a  horse  to  Aidan  to  carry 
him  on  his  mission  journeys.  Aidan  gave  it  away  to  the  first 
beggar  he  met.  "  Is  that  son  of  a  mare,"  answered  Aidan  to  the 
reproaches  of  the  king,  "  worth  more  in  your  eyes  than  that  son  of 
God?"  Oswini  fell  at  the  bishop's  feet  and  entreated  his  pardon. 
Aidan  wept.  "  I  am  sure,"  he  cried,  "  the  king  will  not  live  long.  I 
never  till  now  saw  a  king  humble."  Aidan  was  right.  In  651 
Oswini  was  slain  by  the  order  of  King  Oswiu  of  Bernicia,  who  had 
long  engaged  in  a  struggle  with  Penda.  Penda  had  for  some 
years  been  burning  and  slaughtering  in  Bernicia,  till  he  had  turned 
a  quarrel  between  himself  and  Oswiu  into  a  national  strife.  Oswiu 
rescued  Bernicia  from  destruction,  and  after  Oswini's  murder  joined 
once  more  the  two  kingdoms  together.  Oswini  was  the  last  heir  of 
Ella's  house,  and  from  that  time  there  was  but  one  North-humber- 
land.  In  655  Oswiu  and  Penda  met  to  fight,  as  it  seemed  for 
supremacy  over  the  whole  of  England,  by  the  river  Winwsed,  near 
the  present  Leeds.     The  heathen  Penda  was  defeated  and  slain. 

20.  The  Three  Kingdoms  and  the  Welsh.  — For  a  moment  it 
seemed "aS^-iCEngland  would  be  brought  together  under  the  rule  of 
Oswiu.  After^^^da's  death  Mercia  accepted  Christianity,  and 
the  newly  united  Mbma  was  split  up  into  its  original  parts  ruled 
by  several  kings.  The^\jpremacy  of  Oswiu  was,  however,  as  little 
to  be  borne  by  the  Mercian^^^  the  supremacy  of  Penda  had  been 
borne  by  the  men  of  North -nHmberland.  Under  Wulfhere  the 
Mercians  rose  in  659  against  OswrtK  All  hope  of  uniting  England 
was  for  the  present  at  an  end.  Fors^out  a  century  and  a  half 
longer  there  remained  three  larger  kingabms — North-humberland, 
Mercia,  and  Wessex,  whilst  four  smaller  oneb\-East  Anglia,  Essex, 
Kent,  and  Sussex — were  usually  attached  eithbi;  to  Mercia  or  to 
Wessex.     The  failure  of  North-humberland  to  maintain  the  power 


664  V  ENGLISH  CHRISTIANITV  4^ 

was,  no  doulXi  in  the  first  plac6  owing  to  the  absence  of  any  common 
danger,  the  fear  of  which  would  bind  together  its  populations  in 
self-defence.  Tne  northern  Kymry  of  Strathclyde  were  no  longer 
formidable,  and  the^^rew  less  formidable  as  years  passed  on.  The 
southern  Kymry  of  Wales  were  too  weak  to  threaten  Mercia,  and 
the  Welsh  of  the  southwestern  peninsula  were  too  weak  to  threaten 
Wessex.  It  was  most  unlikely  that  any  permanent  union  of  the 
English  states  would  be  bWight  about  till  some  enemy  arose  who 
was  more  terrible  to  them  than  the  Welsh  could  any  longer  be. 

21.  The  English  Missionaries.— Some  preparation  might,  how- 
ever, be  made  for  the  day  of  uiWi  by  the  steady  growth  of  the 
Church.  The  South  Saxons,  secludecNbetween  the  forest  and  the  sea, 
were  the  last  to  be  converted,  but  witSahem  English  heathenism 
came  to  an  end  as  an  avowed  religion,  thohg'h  it  still  continued  to  in- 
fluence the  multitude  in  the  form  of  a  belief  ita  fairies  and  witchcraft. 
Monasteries  and  nunneries  sprang  up  on  allS^des.  Missionaries 
spread  over  the  country.  In  their  mouths,\^d  still  more  in 
their  lives,  Christianity  taught  what  the  fierce  EngHsh  warrior  most 
wanted  to  learn,  the  duty  of  restraining  his  evil  passions,  and  above 
all  his  cruelty.  Nowhere  in  all  Europe  did  the  missiomu-ies  appeal 
so  exclusively  as  they  did  in  England  to  higher  and  puree  motives. 
Nowhere  but  in  England  were  to  be  found  kings  like  Oswald  and 
Oswini,  who  bowed  their  souls  to  the  lesson  of  the  Cross,  and 
learned  that  they  were  not  their  own,  but  were  placed  in  power 
that  they  might  use  their  strength  in  helping  the  poor  and  needy. 
X  22.  Dispute  between  Wilfrid  and  Colman.  664. — The  lesson 
was  all  the  better  taught  because  those  who  taught  it  were  monks. 
Monasticism  brought  with  it  an  extravagant  view  of  the  life  of  self- 
denial,  but  those  who  had  to  be  instructed  needed  to  have  the  lesson 
written  plainly  so  that  a  child  might  read  it.  The  rough  warrior  or 
the  rough  peasant  was  more  likely  to  abstain  from  drunkenness,  if 
he  had  learned  to  look  up  to  men  who  ate  and  drank  barely  enough 
to  enable  them  to  live  ;  and  he  was  more  likely  to  treat  women 
with  gentleness  and  honour,  if  he  had  learned  to  look  up  to  some 
women  who  separated  themselves  from  the  joys  of  married  life  that 
they  might  give  themselves  to  fasting  and  prayer.  Yet,  great  as 
the  influence  of  the  clergy  was,  it  was  in  danger  of  being  lessened 
through  internal  disputes  amongst  themselves.  A  very  large 
part  of  England  had  been  converted  by  the  Celtic  missionaries, 
and  the  Celtic  missionaries,  though  their  life  and  teaching  was 
in  the  main  the  same  as  that  of  the  Church  of  Canterbury  and  of 
the  Churches  of  the  Continent,  differed  from  them  in  the  shape  of 

E 


vY^Wi^ 


50  STRIFE   OF   THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS        664-668 

the  tonsure  and  in  the  time  at  which  they  kept  their  Easter.  These 
things^ere  themselves  unimportant,  but  it  was  of  great  importance 
that  the^Dung  EngHsh  Church  should  not  be  separated  from  the 
Churches  of  more  civilised  countries  which  had  preserved  much  of 
the  learning\nd  art  of  the  old  Roman  Empire.  One  of  those  who 
felt  strongly  tHe  evil  which  would  follow  on  such  a  separation  was 
Wilfrid.  He  w^  scornful  and  self-satisfied,  but  he  had  travelled 
to  Rome,  and  haX  been  impressed  with  the  ecclesiastical  memories 
of  the  great  city,  a^d  with  the  fervour  and  learning  of  its  clergy. 
He  came  back  resolved  to  bring  the  customs  of  England  into  con- 
formity with  those  oR  the  churches  of  the  Continent.  On  his 
arrival,  Oswiu,  in  664,  ^thered  an  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  the 
north  headed  by  Colman^Ai dan's  successor,  to  discuss  the  point. 
Learned  arguments  were  \oured  forth  on  either  side.  Oswiu 
listened  in  a  puzzled  way.  WiJfrid  boasted  that  his  mode  of  keep- 
ing Easter  was  derived  from  Pftler,  and  that  Christ  had  given  to 
Peter  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  oiSheaven.  Oswiu  at  once  decided 
to  follow  Peter,  lest  when  he  canVe  to  the  gate  of  that  kingdom 
Peter,  who  held  the  keys,  should  lock^him  out.  Wilfrid  triumphed, 
and  the  English  Church  was  in  all  outward  matters  regulated  in 
conformity  with  that  of  Rome. 

23.  Archbishop  Theodore  and  the  Penitential  System. — In  668, 
four  years  after  Oswiu's  decision  was  taken,  Theodore  of  Tarsus 
was'^6Qnsecrated  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  at  Rome  by  the  Pope 
himselfTxXVhen  he  arrived  in  England  the  time  had  come  for  the 
purely  missionary  stage  of  the  English  Church  to  come  to  an  end. 
Hitherto  the  bishops  had  been  few,  only  seven  in  all  England.  Their 
number  was  now^increased,  and  they  were  set  to  work  no  longer 
merely  to  convert  t6e,heathen,  but  to  see  that  the  clergy  did  their  duty 
amongst  those  who  had  been  already  converted.  Gradually,  under 
these  bishops,  a  parochial. clergy  came  into  existence.  Sometimes 
the  freemen  of  a  hamlet,  or  of  two  or  three  hamlets  together,  would 
demand  the  constant  residenceiK^f  a  priest.  Sometimes  a  lord  would 
settle  a  priest  to  teach  his  serfs.  X^e  parish  clergy  attacked  violence 
and  looseness  of  life  in  a  way  different  from  that  of  the  monks. 
The  monks  had  given  examples  of  e^reme  self-denial.  Theodore 
introduced  the  penitential  system  of  the  R<:^man  Church,  and  ordered 
that  those  who  had  committed  sin  should  iD'e  excluded  from  sharing 
in  the  rites  of  the  Church  until  they  had  donepenance.  They  were 
to  fast,  or  to  repeat  prayers,  sometimes  for  man^^^^ears,  before  they 
were  readmitted  to  communion.  Many  centuries  Afterwards  good 
men  objected  that  these  penances  were  only  bodily  actions,  and 


668 


THEODORE  AND   EALDHELM 


51 


did  not  necessarily  bring  with  them  any  real  repentance.  In  the 
seventh  ee«turv  the  greater  part  of  the  population  could  only  be 
reached  by  sucnT!>«^ly  actions.  They  had  never  had  any  thought 
that  a  murder,  for  in^*imce,  was  anything  more  than  a  dangerous 
action  which  might  bringckiwn  on  the  murderer  the  vengeance  of 
the  relations  of  the  murdere^Kman,  which  might  be  bought  off 
with  the  payment  of  a  weregild  orS,^w  shillings.  The  murderer 
who  was  required  by  the  Church  to  dbsj^nance  was  being  taught 
that  a  murder  was  a  sin  against  God  andN^inst  himself,  as  well 
as  an  offence  against  his  fellow-men.  Graduat!>^~very  gradually — 
men  would  learn  from  the  example  of  the  monk^s^d  from  the 
discipline  of  penance  that  they  were  to  live  for  somemiu^ higher 
than  the  gratification  of  their  own  passions. 


Saxon  church  at  Bradford-on-Avon,  Wilts. 


\ 


24.  Ealdhelm  and  Caedmon. — When  a  change  is  good  in  itself,  it 
usually  bears  fruit  in  unexpected  ways.  Theodore  was  a  scholar 
as  well  as  a  bishop.  Under  his  care  a  school  grew  up  at  Canterbury, 
full  of  all  the  learning  of  the  Roman  world.  That  which  distin- 
guished this  school  and  others  founded  in  imitation  of  it  was  that 
the  scholars  did  not  keep  their  learning  to  themselves,  but  strove 
to  make  it  helpful  to  the  ignorant  and  the  poor.  They  learnt  archi- 
tecture on  the  Continent  in  order  to  raise  churches  of  stone  in  the 
place  of  churches  of  wood.  One  of  these  churches  is  still  standing 
at  Bradford-on-Avon.  Its  builder  was  Ealdhelm,  the  abbot  of 
Malmesbury,  a  teacher  of  all  the  knowledge  of  the  time.  Ealdhelm, 
learned  as  he  was,  let  his  heart  go  forth  to  the  unlearned.  Finding 
that  his  neighbours  would  not  listen  to  his  sermons,  he  sang  to  them 


52  STRIFE   OF  THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS       673-735 

on  a  bridge  to  win  them  to  higher  things.  Like  all  people  who 
cannot  read,  the  English  of  those  days  loved  a  song.  In  the  north, 
Casdmon,  a  rude  herdsman  on  the  lands  of  the  abbey  which  in  later 
days  was  known  as  Whitby,  was  vexed  with  himself  because  he 
could  not  sing.  When  at  ale-drinkings  his  comrades  pressed  him 
to  sing  a  song,  he  would  leave  his  supper  unfinished  and  return 
home  ashamed.  One  night  in  a  dream  he  heard  a  voice  bidding 
him  sing  of  the  Creation.  In  his  sleep  the  words  came  to  him,  and 
they  remained  with  him  when  he  woke.  He  had  become  a  poet — a 
rude  poet,  it  is  true,  but  still  a  poet.  The  gift  which  Csedmon  had 
acquired  never  left  him.  He  sang  of  the  Creation  and  of  the  whole 
course  of  God's  providence.  To  the  end  he  was  unable  to  compose 
any  songs  which  were  not  religious. 

X^  25.  Bade.  673 — 735. — Of  all  the  English  scholars  of  the  time 
I3ceda,  usually  known  as  'the  venerable  Bede,'  was  the  most  remark- 
able. He  was  a  monk  of  Jarrow  on  the  Tyne.  From  his  youth  up 
he  was  a  writer  on  all  subjects  embraced  by  the  knowledge  of  his 
day.  One  subject  he  made  his  own.  He  was  the  first  English 
historian.  The  title  of  his  greatest  work  was  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  English  Nation.  He  told  how  that  nation  had  been 
converted,  and  of  the  fortunes  of  its  Church;  but  for  him  the  Church 
included  the  whole  nation,  and  he  told  of  the  doings  of  kings  and 
people,  as  well  as  of  priests  and  monks.  In  this  he  was  a  true 
interpreter  of  the  spirit  of  the  English  Church.  Its  clergy  did  not 
stand  aloof  from  the  rulers  of  the  state,  but  worked  with  them 
as  well  as  for  them.  The  bishops  stepped  into  the  place  of  the 
heathen  priests  in  the  Witenagemots  of  the  kings,  and  counselled 
them  in  matters  of  state  as  well  as  in  matters  of  religion. 

26.  Church  Councils. — Bede  recognised  in  the  title  of  his  book 
that  there  wasSs(±a  thing  as  an  English  nation  long  before  there 
was  any  political  urJtlyv^^^Whilst  kingdom  was  fighting  against 
kingdom,  Theodore  in  bT^Hi^sembled  the  first  English  Church 
council  at  Hertford.  From  thaitkQe  such  councils  of  the  bishops 
and  principal  clergy  of  all  EnglanoSi^et  whenever  any  ecclesi- 
astical question  required  them  to  delibSjijIe  in  common.  The 
clergy  at  least  did  not  meet  as  West  Saxons  or*5^Mercians.  They 
met  on  behalf  of  the  whole  English  Church,  and  m^ir  united  con- 
sultations must  have  done  much  to  spread  the  idea  that,  in  spite  of 
the  strife  between  the  kings,  the  English  nation  was  really  one. 
^  27.  Struggle  between  Mercia  and  Wessex. — Many  years 
passed  away  before  the  kingdoms  could  be  brought  under  one  king. 
North-humberland  stood  apart  from  southern  England,  and  during 


710-779 


MERCIANS  AND    WEST  SAXONS 


53 


Saxon  horsemen.     (Had.  MS.  603.) 


the  latter  half  of  the  seventh  century  Wessex  grew  in  power. 
Wessex  had  been  weak  because  it  was  seldom  thoroughly  united. 

Each  district  was  presided 
over  by  an  ^^theling,  or 
chief  ot  royal  blood,  and  it 
was  only  occasionally  that 
these  i^thelings,  submitted 
to  the  king.  From  time  to 
time  a  strong  king  com- 
pelled the  obedience  of  the 
^thelings  and  carried  on 
the  old  struggle  with  the 
western  Welsh.  It  was 
not  till  710  that  Ine  suc- 
ceeded in  driving  the 
Welsh  out  of  Somerset, 
and  about  the  same  time 
a  body  of  the  West  Saxons 
advancing  through  Dorset 

reached  Exeter.  They  took  possession  of  half  the  city  for  them- 
selves, and  left  the  remainder  to  the  Welsh.     Ine  was,  however, 

checked  by  fresh  outbreaks  of  the 

subordinate  vEthelings,  and  in  726 

he  gave  up  the  struggle  and  went 

on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,     .^thel- 

bald,  king  of  the  Mercians,  took  the 

opportunity  to  invade  Wessex,  and 

made  himself  master  of  the  country 

and  over-lord  of  all  the  other  king- 
doms south  of  the  Humber.    In  754 

the  West  Saxons  rose  against  him 

and  defeated  him  at  Burford.    After 

a  few  years  his  successor,  Offa,  once 

more  took  up  the  task  of  making 

the     Mercian     king    over-lord    of 

southern  England.      In  775,  after  a 

long  struggle,  he  brought  Kent  as 

well  as  Essex  under  his  sway.      In 

779  he  defeated  the  West  Saxons  at 

Bensington,  and  pushed  the  Mercian 

frontier  to  the  Thames.     Further  than  that  Offa  did  not  venture  to 

go,  and,  great  as  he  was,  the  West  Saxons  within  their  shrunken 


Group  of  Saxon  warriors. 
MS.  603.) 


(Harl. 


54  STRIFE   OF   THE  ENGLISH  KINGDOMS      711-802 

limits  continued  to  be  independent  of  him.  He  turned  his  arms 
upon  the  Welsh,  and  drove  them  back  from  the  Severn  to  the 
embankment  which  is  known  from  his  name  as  Ofifa's  Dyke.  The 
West  Saxons,  being  freed  from  attack  on  the  side  of  Mercia,  overran 
Devon.  Then  there  was  a  contest  for  the  West  Saxon  crown  between 
Beorhtric  and  Ecgberht.  Beorhtric  gained  the  upper  hand,  and 
entered  into  alliance  with  Offa  by  taking  his  daughter  to  wife. 
Ecgberht  fled  to  the  Continent. 
\A  28.  Mohammedanism  and  the  Carolingian  Empire. — A  great 
change  had  passed  over  Europe  since  the  days  when  a  Prankish 
princess,  by  her  marriage  with  the  Kentish  Ethelberht,  had  smoothed 
the  way  for  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  England.  In  the 
first  part  of  the  seventh  centur^^  Mohammed  had  preached  a  new 
religion  in  Arabia.  He  taught  that  there  was  one  God,  and  that 
Mohammed  was  his  prophet.  After  his  death  his  Arab  followers 
y  spread   as   conquerors   over  the  neighbouring   countries.     Before 

^  the  end  of  the  century  they  had  subdued  Persia,  Syria,  and  Egypt, 

^  and  were  pushing  westwards  along  the  north  coast  of  Africa.     In  711 

V  ^hey  crossed  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.     All  Spain,  with  the  exception 

-^NX        of  a  hilly  district  in  the  north,  soon  fell  into  their  hands,  and  in  717 
^  they  crossed  the  Pyrenees.     There  can  be  little  doubt  that,  if  they 

rhad  subdued  Gaul,  Mohammedanism  and  not  Christianity  would  for 
a  long  time  have  been  the  prevailing  religion  in  Europe.  From 
this  Europe  was  saved  by  a  great  Frankish  warrior,  Charles  Martel 
{the  Hammer)^  who  in  732  drove  the  invaders  back  at  a  great  battle 
*  between  Tours  and  Poitiers.     Charles's  son,  Pippin,  dethroned  the 

^  reigning  family  and  became  king  of  the  Franks.     Pippin's  son  was 

>S  Charles  the  Great,  who  before  he  died  ruled  over  the  whole  of  Gaul 

s^  and  Germany,  over  the  north  and  centre  of  Italy,  and  the  north-east 

\  of  Spain.     His  rule  was  favoured  both  by  the  Frankish  warriors 

and  by  the  clergy,  who  were  glad  to  see  so  strong  a  bulwark  erected 


:^ 


^  against  the  attacks  of  the  Mohammedans.   At  that  time  the  Roman 

<k  Empire,  which  had  never  ceased  to  exist  at  Constantinople,  fell 

^  into  the  hands  of  Irene,  the  murderess  of  her  son.    In  800  the  Pope, 

refusing  to  acknowledge  that  the  Empire  could  have  so  unworthy  a 

head,  placed  the  Imperial  crown  on  the  head  of  Charles  as  the 

successor  of  the  old  Roman  Emperors. 

^        29.  Ecgberht's  Rule.  802— 839.— Though  Charles  did  not  directly 

govern  England,  he  made  his  influence  felt  there.    Offa  had  claimed 

his  protection,  and  Ecgberht  took  refuge  at  his  court.     Ecgberht 

doubtless  learned  something  of  the  art  of  ruling  from  him,  and 

in  802  he  returned  to  England.     Beorhtric  was  by  this  time  dead, 


802-839  ENGLAND    UNDER   ECGBERHT  55 

and  Ecgberht  was  accepted  as  king  by  the  West  Saxons.  Before 
he  died,  in  839,  he  had  made  himself  the  over-lord  of  all  the  other 
kingdoms.  He  was  never,  indeed,  directly  king  of  all  England. 
Kent,  Sussex,  and  Essex  were  governed  by  rulers  of  his  own  family 
appointed  by  himself.  Mercia,  East  Anglia,  and  North-humberland 
retained  their  own  kings,  ruling  under  Ecgberht  as  their  over-lord. 
Towards  the  west  Ecgberht's  direct  government  did  not  reach  beyond 
the  Tamar,  though  the  Cornish  Celts  acknowledged  his  authority,  as 
did  the  Celts  of  Wales.  The  Celts  of  vStrathclyde  and  the  Picts  and 
Scots  remained  entirely  independent.        _3«?^ 


CHAPTER  IV 


V 


THE   ENGLISH    KINGSHIP   AND   THE   STRUGGLE   WITH 
THE   DANES 


LEADING   DATES 

First  landing  of  the  Danes 787 

Treaty  of  Wedmore .        .  878 

Dependent  alliance  of  the  Scots  with  Eadward  the  Elder  .  925 

Accession  of  Eadgar 959 


I.  The  West  Saxon  Supremacy.— It  was  quite  possible  that 
the  power  founded  by  Ecgberht  might  pass  away  as  completely 
as  did  the  power  which  had  been  founded  by  ^thelfrith  of  North- 
humberland  or  by  Penda  of  Mercia.  To  some  extent  the  danger 
was  averted  by  the  unusual  strength  of  character  which  for  six 
generations  showed  itself  in  the  family  of  Ecgberht.  For  nearly  a 
century  and  a  half  after  Ecgberht's  death  no  ruler  arose  from  his 
line  who  had  not  great  qualities  as  a  warrior  or  as  a  ruler.  It  was 
no  less  important  that  these  successive  kings,  with  scarcely  an 
exception,  kept  up  a  good  understanding  with  the  clergy,  and 
especially  with  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  so  that  the  whole  of 
the  influence  of  the  Church  was  thrown  in  favour  of  the  political 
unity  of  England  under  the  West  Saxon  line.  The  clergy  wished 
to  see  the  establishment  of  a  strong  national  government  for  the 
protection  of  the  national  Church.  Yet  it  was  difficult  to  establish 
such  a  government  unless  other  causes  than  the  goodwill  of  the 
clergy  had  contributed  to  its  maintenance.  Peoples  who  have  had 
httle  intercourse  except  by  fighting  with  one  another  rarely  unite 


56 


THE  STRUGGLE    WITH   THE  DANES 


1^1 


heartily  unless  they  have  some  common  enemy  to  ward  off,  and 
some  common  leader  to  look  up  to  in  the  conduct  of  their  defence.' 


Remains  of  a  Viking  ship,  from  a  cairn  at  Gokstad.  (Now  in  the  University  at  Christian 


2.  The  Coming  of  the  Northmen. — The  common  enemy  came 
from  the  north.     At  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  inhabitants 


V^ 


1  Genealogy  of  the  English  kings  from  Ecgberht  to  Eadgar  :— 

ECGBERHT 

802-839 

/                                                              ^THELWULF 
839-858 

^THELBALD              ^THELBERHT            ^THELRED                         ALFRED 
858-860                            860-866                         866-871                              871-901 

1 

1 

Eadward 

901-925 

^thelflaed-^thelred 
(the  Lady  of  the 
Mercia7is) 

1 

^THELSTAN 
925-940 

Eaumund          Eadred 
940-946             946-955 

1 

Eadwig 

955-959 

1 
Eadgar 

959-975 

y 


787-866  PIRACY  AND   PLUNDER  57 

of  Norway  and  Denmark  resembled  the  Angles  and  Saxons 
three  or  four  centuries  before.  They  swarmed  over  the  sea  as 
pirates  to  plunder  wherever  they  could  find  stored-up  wealth  along 
the  coasts  of  Western  Europe.  The  Northmen  were  heathen 
still,  and  their  religion  was  the  old  religion  of  force.  They  loved 
battle  even  more  than  they  loved  plunder.  They  held  that  the 
warrior  who  was  slain  in  fight  was  received  by  the  god  Odin  in 
Valhalla,  where  immortal  heroes  spent  their  days  in  cutting  one 
another  to  pieces,  and  were  healed  of  their  wounds  in  the  evening 
that  they  might  join  in  the  nightly  feast,  and  be  able  to  fight  again 
on  the  morrow.  He  that  died  in  bed  was  condemned  to  a  chilly 
and  dreary  existence  in  the  abode  of  the  goddess  Hela,  whose  name 
is  the  Norse  equivalent  of  Hell. 

3.  The  English  Coast  Plundered.— Since  Englishmen  had  settled 
in  England  they  had  lost  the  art  of  seamanship.  The  Northmen 
therefore  \vere  often  able  to  plunder  and  sail  away.  They  could 
only  be  attacked  on  land,  and  some  time  would  pass  before  the 
Ealdorman  who  ruled  the  district  could 
gather  together  not  only  his  own  war-band,  //^i3}( 

but  the  fyrd,  or  levy  of  all  men  of  fighting 
age.     When  at  last  he  arrived  at  the  spot  /i£=^f5?) 

on  the  coast  where  the  pirates  had  been  dJ^^^^w^w 

plundering,  he  often  found  that  they  were      M^m0l)\MI^ 
already  gone.     Yet,  as  time  went  on,  the  ' 

Northmen  took  courage,  and  pushed  far 
enough  into  the  interior  to  be  attacked 
before  they  could  regain  the  coast.  Their 
first  landing  had  been  in  787,  before  the  v^i^:.^;  uiiiiii!? 
time  of  Ecgberht.  In  Ecgberht's  reign 
their  attacks  upon  Wessex  were  so  persis-  Gold  ring  of  ^thelwuif. 
tent  that  Ecgberht  had  to  bring  his  own  war-band  to  the  succour 
of  his  Ealdormen.  His  son  and  successor,  yEthelwulf,  had  a  still 
harder  struggle.  The  pirates  spread  their  attacks  over  the  whole 
of  the  southern  and  the  eastern  coast,  and  ventured  to  remain 
long  enough  on  shore  to  fight  a  succession  of  battles.  In  851  they 
were  strong  enough  to  remain  during  the  whole  winter  in  Thanet 
The  crews  of  no  less  than  350  ships  landed  in  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames  sacked  Canterbury  and  London.  They  were  finally  de- 
feated by  .Ethelwulf  at  Aclea  {Ockley),  in  Surrey.  In  858  ^thel- 
wulf  died.  Four  of  his  sons  wore  the  crown  in  succession  ;  the  two 
,  eldest,  iEthelbald  and  ^thelberht,  ruling  only  a  short  time. 
\\        4.  The  Danes  in  the  North.— The  task  of  the  third  brother, 


58  THE  STRUGGLE    WITH  THE  DANES        866-S78 

i^thelred,  who  succeeded  in  866,  was  harder  than  his  father's. 
Hitherto  the  Northmen  had  come  for  plunder,  and  had  departed 
sooner  or  later.  A  fresh  swarm  of  Danes  now  arrived  from  Denmark 
to  settle  on  the  land  as  conquerors.  Though  they  did  not  themselves 
fight  on  horseback,  they  seized  horses  to  betake  themselves  rapidly 
from  one  part  of  England  to  the  other.  Their  first  attack  was  made 
on  the  north,  where  there  was  no  great  affection  for  the  West  Saxon 
kings.  They  overcame  the  greater  part  of  North-humberland. 
They  beat  down  the  resistance  of  East  Anglia,  and,  fastening  its 
king,  Eadmund,  to  a  tree,  shot  him  to  death  with  arrows.  His 
countrymen  counted  him  a  saint,  and  a  great  monastery  arose  at 
Bury  St.  Edmunds  in  his  honour.  Everywhere  the  Danes  plun- 
dered and  burnt  the  monasteries,  because  the  monks  were  weak, 
and  their  houses  were  rich  with  jewelled  service  books  and  golden 
plate.  They  next  turned  upon  Mercia,  and  forced  the  Mercian 
under-king  to  pay  tribute  to  them.  Only  Wessex,  to  which  the 
smaller  eastern  states  of  Kent  and  Sussex  had  by  this  time  been 
V  '     completely  annexed,  retained  its  independence. 

5.  iElfred's  Struggle  in  Wessex.  871— 878.— In  Wessex  ^thel- 
red  strove  hard  against  the  invaders.  He  won  a  great  victory  at 
^scesdun  {Ashdoum,  near  Reading),  on  the  northern  slope  of  the 
Berkshire  Downs.  After  a  succession  of  battles  he  was  slain  in  871. 
Though  he  left  sons  of  his  own,  he  was  succeeded  by  Alfred,  his 
youngest  brother.  It  was  not  the  English  custom  to  give  the  crown 
to  the  child  of  a  king  if  there  was  any  one  of  the  kingly  family  more 
fitted  to  wear  it.  Alfred  was  no  common  man.  In  his  childhood 
he  had  visited  Rome,  and  had  been  hallowed  as  king  by  Pope 
Leo  IV.,  though  the  ceremony  could  have  had  no  weight  in  Eng- 
land. He  had  early  shown  a  love  of  letters,  and  the  story  goes 
that  when  his  mother  offered  a  book  with  bright  illuminations  to 
the  one  of  her  children  who  could  first  learn  to  read  it,  the  prize 
was  won  by  Alfred.  During  ^thelred's  reign  he  had  little  time 
to  give  to  learning.  He  fought  nobly  by  his  brother's  side  in 
the  battles  of  the  day,  and  after  he  succeeded  him  he  fought  nobly 
as  king  at  the  head  of  his  people.  In  878  the  Danish  host,  under 
its  king,  Guthrum,  beat  down  all  resistance.  ^Elfred  was  no 
longer  able  to  keep  in  the  open  country,  and  took  refuge  with  a  few 
chosen  warriors  in  the  little  island  of  Athelney,  in  Somerset,  then 
surrounded  by  the  waters  of  the  fen  country  through  which  the 
Parret  flowed.  After  a  few  weeks  he  came  forth,  and  with  the 
levies  of  Somerset  and  Wilts  and  of  part  of  Hants  he  utterly  de- 
feated Guthrum  at  Ethandun  i^.Edington^  in  Wiltshire),  and  stormed 
his  camp. 


>  878-886  ALFRED'S  GREA  TNESS  59 

\  6.  The  Treaty  of  Chippenham,  and  its  Results.  878.— After 
this  defeat  Guthrum  and  the  Danes  swore  to  a  peace  with  Alfred  at 
Chippenham.  They  were  afterwards  baptised  in  a  body  at  Aller,  not 
far  from  Athelney.  Guthrum  with  a  few  of  his  companions  then 
visited  Alfred  at  Wedmore,  a  village  near  the  southern  foot  of  the 
Mendips,  from  which  is  taken  the  name  by  which  the  treaty  is  usually 
but  wrongly  known.  By  this  treaty  y^ilfred  retained  no  more  than 
Wessex,  with  its  dependencies,  Sussex  and  Kent,  and  the  western  half 
of  Mercia.     The  remainder  of  England  as  far  north  as  the  Tees  was 


Gold  jewel  of  if'.lfred  found  at  Athelney.     (Now  !n  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford.) 

surrendered  to  the  Danes,  and  became  known  as  the  Danelaw,  be- 
cause Danish  and  not  Saxon  law  prevailed  in  it.  Beyond  the  Tees 
Bernicia  maintained  its  independence  under  an  English  king. 
Though  the  English  people  never  again  had  to  struggle  for  its 
very  existence  as  a  political  body,  yet,  in  886,  after  a  successful  war, 
y^.lfred  wrung  from  Guthrum  a  fresh  treaty  by  which  the  Danes 
surrendered  London  and  the  surrounding  district.  Yet,  even  after 
this  second  treaty,  it  might  seem  as  if  vElfred,  who  only  ruled  over 


6o 


THE   STRUGGLE    WITH   THE   DANES        886-901 


y 


\i 


a  part  of  England,  was  worse  off  than  his  grandfather,  Ecgberht, 
who  had  ruled  over  the  whole.  In  reality  he  was  better  off.  In 
the  larger  kingdom  it  would  have  been  almost  impossible  to 
produce  the  national  spirit  which  alone  could  have  permanently 
kept  the  whole  together.  In  the  smaller  kingdom  it  was  possible, 
especially  as  there  was  a  strong  West  Saxon  element  in  the  south- 
west of  Mercia  in  consequence  of  its  original  settlement  by  a  West 
Saxon  king  after  the  battle  of  Deorham  (see  p.  35).  Moreover, 
yElfred,  taking  care  not  to  offend  the  old  feeling  of  local  indepen- 
dence which  still  existed  in  Mercia,  appointed  his  son-in-law,  ^Ethel- 
red,  who  was  a  Mercian,  to  govern  it  as  an  ealdorman  under  himself 
7.  iElfred's  Military  Work.— Alfred  would  hardly  have  been 
able  to  do  so  much  unless  his  own  character  had  been  singularly 
attractive.  Other  men  have  been  greater  warriors  or  legislators 
or  scholars  than  yElfred  was,  but  no  man  has  ever  combined  in  his 
own  person  so  much   excellence    in  war,    in    legislation,  and   in 

scholarship.  As  to  war,  he  was 
not  only  a  daring  and  resolute 
commander,  but  he  was  an  or- 
ganiser of  the  military  forces  of 
his  people.  One  chief  cause  of 
the  defeats  of  the  English  had 
been  the  difficulty  of  bringing 
together  in  a  short  time  the 
'  fyrd,'  or  general  levy  of  the  male 
population,  or  of  keeping  it  long  together  when  men  were  needed 
at  home  to  till  tlie  fields.  Alfred  did  his  best  to  overcome  this 
difficulty  by  ordering  that  half  the  men  of  each  shire  should  be 
always  ready  to  fight,  whilst  half  remained  at  home.  This  new 
half-army,  like  his  new  half-kingdom,  was  stronger  than  the  whole 
one  had  been  before.  To  an  improved  army  Alfred  added  a  navy, 
and  he  was  the  first  English  king  who  defeated  the  Danes  at  sea. 

8.  His  Laws  and  Scholarship. — yElfred  was  too  great  a  man  to 
want  to  make  every  one  conform  to  some  ideal  of  his  own  choosing. 
It  was  enough  for  him  to  take  men  as  they  were,  and  to  help  them 
to  become  better.  He  took  the  old  laws  and  customs,  and  then, 
suggesting  a  few  improvements,  submitted  them  to  the  approval  of 
his  Witenagemot,  the  assembly  of  his  bishops  and  warriors.  He 
knew  also  that  men's  conduct  is  influenced  more  by  what  they  think 
than  by  what  they  are  commanded  to  do.  His  whole  land  was 
steeped  in  ignorance.  The  monasteries  had  been  the  schools  of  learn- 
ing ;  and  many  of  them  had  been  sacked  by  the  Danes,  their  books 


An  English  vessel.     (Harl.  MS.  603.) 


886-901 


^.LFRED  AS  A    TEACHER 


6i 


burnt,  and  their  inmates  scattered,  whilst  others  were  deserted, 
ceasing  to  receive  new  inmates  because  the  first  duty  of  Enghsh- 
men  had  been  to  defend  their  homes  rather  than  to  devote  them- 
selves to  a  life  of  piety.  Latin  was  the  language  in  which  the 
services  of  the  Church  were  read,  and  in  which  books  like  Bede's 
Ecclesiastical  History  were  written.  Without  a  knowledge  of  Latin 
there  could  be  no  intercourse  with  the  learned  men  of  the  Conti- 
nent, who  used  that  language  still  amongst  themselves.  Yet  when 
the  Danes  departed  from  yElfred's  kingdom,  there  were  but  very 
few  priests  who  could  read  a  page  of  Latin.  ^EJfred  did  his  best 
to  remedy  the  evil.  He  called  learned  men  to  him  wherever  they 
could  be  found.  Some  of 
these  were  English ;  others, 
like  Asser,  who  wrote  yEl- 
fred's  life,  were  Welsh  ; 
others  again  were  Ger- 
mans from  beyond  the  sea. 
Yet  yElfred  was  not  con- 
tent. It  was  a  great  thing 
that  there  should  be  again 
schools  in  England  for 
those  who  could  write  and 
speak  Latin,  the  language 
of  the  learned,  but  his 
heart  yearned  for  those 
who  could  not  speak  any- 
thing but  their  own  native 
tongue.    He  set  himself  to 

be  the  teacher  of  these.  He  himself  translated  Latin  books  for 
them,  with  the  object  of  imparting  knowledge,  not  of  giving,  as  a 
modern  translator  would  do,  the  exact  sense  of  the  author.  When, 
therefore,  he  knew  anything  which  was  not  in  the  books,  but  which 
he  thought  it  good  for  Englishmen  to  read,  he  added  it  to  his 
translation.  Even  with  this  he  was  not  content.  The  books  of  Latin 
writers  which  he  translated  taught  men  about  the  history  and  geo- 
graphy of  the  Continent.  They  taught  nothing  about  the  history  of 
England  itself,  of  the  deeds  and  words  of  the  men  who  had  ruled 
the  English  nation.  That  these  things  might  not  be  forgotten,  he 
bade  his  learned  men  bring  together  all  that  was  known  of  the 
history  of  his  people  since  the  day  when  they  first  landed  as  pirates 
on  the  coast  of  Kent.  The  Chronicle,  as  it  is  called,  is  the  earliest 
history  which  any  European  nation  possesses  in  its  own  tongue. 


A  Saxon  house.    (Harl.  MS.  603.) 


62  THE  STRUGGLE    WITH  THE  DANES        901-925 

Yet,  after  all,  such  a  man  as  ^Elfred  is  greater  for  what  he  was  than 
for  what  he  did.  No  other  king  ever  showed  forth  so  well  in  his 
own  person  the  truth  of  the  saying,  '  He  that  would  be  first  among 
you,  let  him  be  the  servant  of  all.' 

9.  Eadward  the  Elder.  901— 925.— In  901  yElfred  died.  He 
had  already  fortified  London  as  an  outpost  against  the  Danes,  and 
he  left  to  his  son,  Eadward,  a  small  but  strong  and  consolidated 
kingdom.  The  Danes  on  the  other  side  of  the  frontier  were  not 
united.  Guthrum's  kingdom  stretched  over  the  old  Essex  and 
East  Anglia,  as  well  as  over  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  old 
Mercia.  The  land  from  the  Humber  to  the  Nen  was  under  the 
rule  of  Danes  settled  in  the  towns  known  to  the  English  as  the  Five 
boroughs  of  Derby,  Leicester,  Lincoln,  Stamford,  and  Notting- 
ham. In  the  old  Deira  or  modern  Yorkshire  was  a  separate  Danish 
kingdom.  Danes,  in  short,  settled  wherever  we  now  find  the  place- 
names,  such  as  Derby  and  Whitby,  ending  in  the  Danish  termina- 
tion 'by'  instead  of  in  the  English  terminations  'ton'  or  'ham,'  as 
in  Luton  and  Chippenham.  Yet  even  in  these  parts  the  bulk  of 
the  population  was  usually  English,  and  the  English  population 
would  everywhere  welcome  an  English  conqueror.  A  century 
earlier  a  Mercian  ora  North-humbrian  had  preferred  independence 
to  submission  to  a  West  Saxon  king.  They  now  preferred  a  West 
Saxon  king  to  a  Danish  master,  especially  as  the  old  royal  houses 
were  extinct,  and  there  was  no  one  but  the  West  Saxon  king  to  lead 
them  against  the  Danes. 

10.  Eadward's  Conquests. — Eadward  was  not,  like  his  father,  a 
legislator  or  a  scholar,  but  he  was  a  great  warrior.  In  a  series  of 
campaigns  he  subdued  the  Danish  parts  of  England  as  far  north 
as  the  Humber.  He  was  aided  by  his  brother-in-law,  ^thelred, 
and  after  ^thelred's  death  by  his  own  sister,  ^thelred's  widow, 
^thelflaed,  the  Lady  of  the  Mercians,  one  of  the  few  warrior- women 
of  the  world.  Step  by  step  the  brother  and  sister  won  their  way, 
not  contenting  themselves  with  victories  in  the  open  country,  but 
securing  each  district  as  they  advanced  by  the  erection  of  'burhs' 
or  fortifications.  Some  of  these  '  burhs '  were  placed  in  desolate 
Roman  strongholds,  such  as  Chester.  Others  were  raised,  like 
that  of  Warwick,  on  the  mounds  piled  up  in  past  times  by  a  still 
earlier  race.  Others  again,  like  that  of  Stafford,  were  placed  where 
no  fortress  had  been  before.  Towns,  small  at  first,  grew  up  in  and 
around  the  '  burhs,'  and  were  guarded  by  the  courage  of  the  towns- 
men themselves.  Eadward,  after  his  sister's  death,  took  into  his 
own  hands  the  government   of  Mercia,  and  from  that  time  all 


>\ 


K 


925-940  E AD  WARD   AND   HIS  SONS  63 

southern  and  central  England  was  united  under  him.     In  922  the 
Welsh  kings  acknowledged  his  supremacy. 

11.  Eadward  and  the  Scots. — Tradition  assigns  to  Eadward  a 
wider  rule  shortly  before  his  death.  In  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century  the  Picts  and  the  intruding  Scots  (see  p.  42)  had  been 
amalgamated  under  Keneth  MacAlpin,  the  king  of  the  Scots,  and 
the  new  kingdom  had  since  been  welded  together,  just  as  Mercia 
and  Wessex  were  being  welded  together  by  the  attacks  of  the 
Danes.  It  is  said  that  in  925  the  king  of  the  Scots,  together  with 
other  northern  rulers,  chose  Eadward  '  to  father  and  lord.'  Pro- 
bably this  statement  only  covers  some  act  of  alliance  formed  by  the 
English  king  with  the  king  of  Scots  and  other  lesser  rulers. 
Nothing  was  more  natural  than  that  the  Scottish  king,  Constan- 
tine,  should  wish  to  obtain  the  support  of  Eadward  against  his 
enemies  ;  and  it  was  also  natural  that  if  Eadward  agreed  to  support 
him,  he  would  require  some  acknowledgment  of  the  superiority  of 
the  English  king  ;  but  what  was  the  precise  form  of  the  acknow- 
ledgment must  remain  uncertain.     In  925  Eadward  died. 

12.  .^thelstan.  925 — 940. — Three  sons  of  Eadward  reigned  in 
succession.  The  eldest,  of  illegitimate  birth,  was  ^Ethelstan.  Sihtric, 
the  Danish  king  at  York,  owned  him  as  over-lord,  and  on  Sihtric's 
death  in  926,  /Ethelstan  took  Danish  North-humberland  under  his 
direct  rule.  The  Welsh  kings  were  reduced  to  make  a  fuller  acknow- 
ledgment of  his  supremacy  than  they  had  made  to  his  father.  He 
drove  the  Welsh  out  of  the  half  of  Exeter  which  had  been  left  to 
them,  and  confined  them  to  the  modern  Cornwall  beyond  the 
Tamar.  Great  rulers  on  the  Continent  sought  his  alliance.  The 
empire  of  Charles  the  Great  had  broken  up.  One  of  ^thelstan's 
sisters  was  given  to  Charles  the  Simple,  the  king  of  the  Western 
Franks  ;  another  to  Hugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  the  French  and  lord 
of  Paris,  who,  though  nominally  the  vassal  of  the  king,  was  equal 
in  power  to  his  lord,  and  whose  son  was  afterwards  the  first  king 
of  modern  France.  A  third  sister  was  given  to  Otto,  the  son  of 
Henry,  the  king  of  the  Eastern  Franks,  from  whom,  in  due  time, 
sprang  a  new  line  of  Emperors,  ^thelstan's  greatness  drew  upon 
him  the  jealousy  of  the  king  of  the  Scots  and  of  all  the  northern 
kings.  In  937  he  defeated  them  all  in  a  great  battle  at  Brunanburh, 
of  which  the  site  is  unknown.  His  victory  was  celebrated  in  a 
splendid  war-song. 

13.  Eadmund  (940 — 946)  and  Eadred  (946 — 955). — ^thelstan 
died  in  940.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  young  brother,  Eadmund, 
who  had  fought  bravely  at  Brunanburh.     Eadmund  had  to  meet  a 


64  THE   STRUGGLE    WITH   THE   DANES        940-955 

general  rising  of  the  Danes  of  Mercia  as  well  as  of  those  of  the 
north.  After  he  had  suppressed  the  rising  he  showed  himself  to  be 
a  great  statesman  as  well  as  a  great  warrior.  The  relations  between 
the  king  of  the  English  and  the  king  of  the  Scots  had  for  some 
time  been  very  uncertain.  Little  is  definitely  known  about  them, 
but  it  looks  as  if  they  joined  the  English  whenever  they  were  afraid 
of  the  Danes,  and  joined  the  Danes  whenever  they  were  afraid  of 
the  English.  Eadmund  took  an  opportunity  of  making  it  to  be  the 
interest  of  the  Scottish  king  permanently  to  join  the  English.  The 
southern  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Strathclyde  had  for  some  time 
been  under  the  English  kings.  In  945  Eadmund  overran  the 
remainder,  but  gave  it  to  Malcolm  on  condition  that  he  should  be 
his  fellow-worker  by  sea  and  land.  The  king  of  Scots  thus  entered 
into  a  position  of  dependent  alliance  towards  Eadmund.  A  great 
step  was  thus  taken  in  the  direction  in  which  the  inhabitants  of 
Britain  afterwards  walked.  The  dominant  powers  in  the  island 
were  to  be  English  and  Scots,  not  English  and  Danes.  Eadmund 
thought  it  worth  while  to  conciliate  the  Scottish  Celts  rather  than  to 
endeavour  to  conquer  them.  The  result  of  Eadmund's  statesmanship 
was  soon  made  manifest.  He  himself  did  not  live  to  gather  its  fruits. 
In  946  an  outlaw  who  had  taken  his  seat  at  a  feast  in  his  hall  slew  him 
as  he  was  attempting  to  drag  him  out  by  the  hair.  The  next^king, 
Eadred,  the  last  of  Eadward's  sons,  though  sickly,  had  all  the  spirit  of 
his  race.  He  had  another  sharp  struggle  with  the  Danes,  but  in  954 
he  made  himself  their  master.  North-humberland  was  now  tho- 
roughly amalgamated  with  the  English  kingdom,  and  was  to  be 
governed  by  an  Englishman,  Oswulf,  with  the  title  of  Earl,  an 
old  Danish  title  equivalent  to  the  English  Ealdorman,  having 
nothing  to  do,  except  philologically,  with  the  old  English  word 
Eorl. 

14.  Danes  and  English. — In  955  Eadred  died,  having  com- 
pleted the  work  which  Alfred  had  begun,  and  which  had  been 
carried  on  by  his  son  and  his  three  grandsons.  England,  from 
the  Forth  to  the  Channel,  was  under  one  ruler.'  Even  the  contrast 
between  Englishmen  and  Danes  was  soon,  for  the  most  part,  wiped 
out.  They  were  both  of  the  same  Teutonic  stock,  and  therefore 
their  languages  were  akin  to  one  another  and  their  institutions  very 
similar.  The  Danes  of  the  north  were  for  some  time  fiercer  and 
less  easily  controlled  than  the  English  of  the  south,  but  there  was 
little  national  distinction  between  them,  and  what  little  there  was 
gradually  passed  away. 

15.  Eadwig.  955— 959.— Eadred  was  succeeded  by  Eadwig,the 


X 


V 


955-959  DUNSTAN  AND   ODA  65 

eldest  son  of  his  brother  Eadmund.  Eadwig  was  hardly  more 
than  fifteen  years  old,  and  it  would  be  difficult  for  a  boy  to  keep 
order  amongst  the  great  ealdormen  and  earls.  At  his  coronation 
feast  he  gave  deep  offence  by  leaving  his  place  to  amuse  himself 
with  a  young  kinswoman,  ^Ifgifu,  in  her  mother's  room,  whence  he 
was  followed  and  dragged  back  by  two  ecclesiastics,  one  of  whom 
was  Dunstan,  Abbot  of  Glastonbury. 

16.  Dunstan.— Dunstan  in  his  boyhood  had  been  attached  to 
Eadmund's  court,  but  he  had  been  driven  off  by  the  rivalry  of  other 
youths.     He  was  in  no  way  fitted  to  be  a  warrior.     He  loved  art 
and  song,  and  preferred  a  book  to  a  sword.     For  such  youths  there 
was  no  place  amongst  the  fighting  laymen,  and  Dunstan  early 
found  the  peace   which  he   sought   as  a  monk  at   Glastonbury. 
Eadmund  made   him  abbot,  but  Dunstan  had  almost  to  create 
his  monastery  before  he   could  rule  it.     Monasteries  had  nearly 
vanished  from  England  in  the  time  of  the  Danish  plunderings,  and 
the  few  monks  who  remained  had  veiy  little  that  was  monastic      • 
about  them.     Dunstan   brought   the   old   monks  into   order,  and 
attracted  new  ones,  but  to  the  end  of  his  days  he  was  conspicuous  p 
rather  as  a  scholar  than  as  an  ascetic.    From  Glastonbury  he  carried  j  V\\Sj(j^ 
on  the  work  of  teaching  an  ignorant  generation,  just  as  ^Elfred  had 

done  in  an  earlier  time.  Alfred,  however,  was  a  warrior  and  a  ruler 
first,  and  then  a  teacher.  Dunstan  was  a  teacher  first,  and  then  a 
ruler.  Eadred  took  counsel  with  him,  and  Dunstan  became  thus 
the  first  example  of  a  class  of  men  which  afterwards  rose  to  power 
—that,  namely,  of  ecclesiastical  statesmen.  Up  to  that  time  all 
who  had  governed  had  been  warriors. 

17.  Archbishop  Oda. — Another  side  of  the  Church's  work,  the 
maintenance  of  a  high  standard  of  morality,  was,  in  the  time  of 
Eadred,  represented  by  Oda,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The 
accepted  standard  of  morality  differs  in  different  ages,  and,  for 
many  reasons,  it  was  held  by  the  purer  minds  in  the  tenth  century 
that  cehbacy  was  nobler  than  marriage.  If  our  opinion  is  changed 
now,  it  is  because  many  things  have  changed.  No  one  then  thought 
of  teaching  a  girl  anything,  except  to  sew  ard  to  look  after  the 
house,  and  an  ignorant  and  untrained  wife  cculd  only  be  a  burden 
to  a  man  who  was  intent  upon  the  growth  of  the  spiritual  or  intel- 
lectual Hfe  in  himself  and  in  others.  At  all  times  the  monks,  who 
were  often  called  the  regular  clergy,  because  they  lived  according 
to  a  certain  rule,  had  been  unmarried,  and  attempts  had  frequently 
been  made  by  councils  of  the  Church  to  compel  the  parish  priests, 
or  secular  clergy,  to  follow  their  example.     In  England,  however, 

F 


66 


THE  STRUGGLE    WITH   THE  DANES        955-959 


c<3 


sp  o  yy^:^ 


WK'tK^^K^K^^^^V^ 


A  .UO..K  driven  out  of  the  King's  presence.     (From  a  drawing  belonging  to  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries.) 


955-975  DUNSTAN  AND  E AD  WIG  67 

and  on  the  Continent  as  well,  these  orders  were  seldom  heeded,  and 
a  married  clergy  was  everywhere  to  be  found.  Of  late,  however, 
there  had  sprung  up  in  the  monastery  of  Cluny,  in  Burgundy,  a  zeal 
for  the  establishment  of  universal  clerical  celibacy,  and  this  zeal 
was  shared  by  Archbishop  Oda,  though  he  found  it  impossible  to 
overcome  the  stubborn  resistance  of  the  secular  clergy. 

18.  Eadwig's  Marriage. — In  its  eagerness  to  set  up  a  pure 
standard  of  morality,  the  Church  had  made  rules  against  the 
marriage  of  even  distant  relations.  Eadwig  offended  against  these 
rules  by  marrying  his  kinswoman,  ^Ifgifu.  A  quarrel  arose  on 
this  occount  between  Dunstan  and  the  young  king,  and  Dunstan 
was  driven  into  banishment.  Such  a  quarrel  was  sure  to  weaken 
the  king,  because  the  support  of  the  bishops  was  usually  given 
to  him,  for  the  sake  of  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  order.  The 
dispute  came  at  a  bad  time,  because  there  was  also  a  quarrel 
among  the  ealdormen  and  other  great  men.  At  last  the  ealdor- 
men  of  the  north  and  centre  of  England  revolted  and  set  up  the 
king's  brother,  Eadgar,  to  be  king  of  all  England  north  of  the 
Thames.  Upon  this,  Oda,  taking  courage,  declared  Eadwig  and 
his  young  wife  to  be  separated  as  too  near  of  kin,  and  even  seized 
her  and  had  her  carried  beyond  sea.  In  959  Eadwig  died,  and 
Eadgar  succeeded  to  the  whole  kingdom. 


CHAPTER  V 

EADGAR'S   ENGLAND 


I.  Eadgar  and  Dunstan.  959—975. — Eadgar  was  known  as  the' 
Peaceful  King.  He  had  the  advantage,  which  Eadwig  had  not,  of 
having  the  Church  on  his  side.  He  maintained  order,  with  the 
help  of  Dunstan  as  his  principal  adviser.  Not  long  after  his  ac- 
cession Dunstan  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  His  policy 
was  that  of  a  man  who  knows  that  he  cannot  do  everything  and  is 
content  to  do  what  Tie  can.  The  Danes  were  to  keep  their  own 
laws,  and  not  to  have  English  laws  forced  upon  them.  The  great 
ealdormen  were  to  be  conciliated,  not  to  be  repressed.  Everything 
was  to  be  done  to  raise  the  standard  of  morality  and  knowledge. 
Foreign  teachers  were  brought  in  to  set  up  schools.  More  than  thii 
Dunstan  did  not  attempt.     It  is  true  that  in  his  time  an  effort  was 

F3 


W 


68  EADGAR'S  ENGLAND  959-975 

made  to  found  monasteries,  which  should  be  filled  with  monks 
living  after  the  stricter  rule  of  which  the  example  had  been  set  at 
Cluny,  but  the  man  who  did  most  to  establish  monasteries  again  in 
England  was  not  Dunstan,  but  yEthelwold,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
^ilthelwold,  however,  was  not  content  with  founding  monasteries. 
He  also  drove  out  the  secular  canons  from  his  own  cathedral  ot 
Winchester  and  filled  their  places  with  monks.  His  example  was 
followed  by  Oswald,  Bishop  of  Worcester.  Dunstan  did  not 
introduce  monks  even  into  his  own  cathedrals  at  Worcester  and 
Canterbury.  As  far  as  it  is  now  possible  to  understand  the 
matter,  the  change,  though  it  provoked  great  hostility,  was  for  the 
better.  The  secular  canons  were  often  married,  connected  with 
the  laity  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  living  an  easy  life.  The  monks 
were  celibate,  living  according  to  a  strict  rule,  and  conforming  them- 
selves to  what,  according  to  the  standard  of  the  age,  was  the  highest 
ideal  of  religion.  By  a  life  of  complete  self-denial  they  were  able 
to  act  as  examples  to  a  generation  which  needed  teaching  by 
example  more  than  by  word.  How  completely  monasticism  was 
associated  with  learning  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  monks  now 
established  at  Worcester  took  up  the  work  of  continuing  the 
Chronicle  which  had  been  begun  under  yElfred  (see  p.  6i). 

2.  The  Cession  of  Lothian. — It  is  said  that  Eadgar  was 
oncbv rowed  by  six  kings  on  the  river  Dee.  The  story,  though 
probabt5^4;ntrue,  sets  forth  his  power  not  only  over  his  own  im- 
mediate subjfe€4^but  over  the  whole  island.  His  title  of  Peaceful 
shows  that  at  le^rst  he  lived  on  good  terms  with  his  neighbours. 
There  is  reason  to  b^iieve  that  he  was  able  to  do  this  because  he 
followed  out  the  policy  of  B^mund  in  singling  out  the  king  of  Scots 
as  the  ruler  whom  it  was  moHworth  his  while  to  conciliate.  Ead- 
mund  had  given  over  StrathcTj^Je  to  one  king  of  Scots.  Eadgar, 
it  is  said — and  probably  with  trutlW-gave  over  Lothian  to  another. 
Lothian  was  then  the  name  of  the  whole  of  the  northern  part  of 
Bernicia  stretching  from  the  Cheviots  to^tshe  Forth.  In  Eadred's  time 
the  Scots  had  occupied  Eadwinesburh  {Edinburgh),  the  northern 
border  fortress  of  Bernicia  (see  p.  43),  and  after  this  the  land  to  the 
south  of  that  fortress  must  have  been  difficult  toM^efend  against  them. 
It  is  therefore  likely  that  the  story  is  true  that  Eadgar  ceded  Lothian 
to  Kenneth,  who  was  then  king  of  the  Scots,  especially  as  it  would 
account  for  the  peaceful  character  of  his  reign.  Kennethjn  accepting 
the  gift  no  doubt  engaged  to  be  faithful  to  Eadgar,  though  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  what  was  the  exact  nature  of  his  obligation.  It  is  of 
more  importance  that  a  Celtic  king  ruled  thenceforward  over  an 


959-975  SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL    CHANGES  69 

English  people  as  well  as  over  his  own  Celtic  Scots,  and  that  ulti- 
mately his  descendants  became  more  English  than  Celtic  in 
character,  through  the  attraction  exercised  upon  them  by  their 
English  subjects. 

3.  Changes  in  English  Institutions.— The  long  struggle  with 
the  Dg-nt^  could  not  fail  to  leave  its  mark  upon  English  society. 
The  histoW  of  the  changes  which  took  place  is  difficult  to  trace  ; 
in  the  first  place  because  our  information  is  scanty,  in  the  second 
because  thing©  happened  in  one  part  of  the  country  which  did  not 
happen  in  another.  Yet  there  were  two  changes  which  were  widely 
felt  :  the  growth  dt  the  king's  authority,  and  the  acceleration  of  the 
process  which  was  r^ucing  to  bondage  the  ceorl,  or  simple  freeman. 

4.  Growth  of  the  Ring's  Power. — In  the  early  days  of  the 
English  conquest  the  kvtogs  and  other  great  men  had  around  them 
their  war-bands,  compos)^  of  gesiths  or  thegns,  personally  at- 
tached to  themselves,  and  r^dy,  if  need  were,  to  die  on  their  lord's 
behalf  Very  early  these  thetns  were  rewarded  by  grants  of  land 
on  condition  of  continuing  n^litary  service.  Every  extension  of 
the  king's  power  over  fresh  terri^ry  made  their  services  more  im- 
portant. It  had  always  been  dirficult  to  bring  together  the  fyrd, 
or  general  army  of  the  freemen,  even  of  a  small  district,  and  it 
was  quite  impossible  to  bring  together  the  fyrd  of  a  kingdom 
reaching  from  the  Channel  to  the  NFirth  of  Forth.  Alfred's 
division  of  the  fyrd  into  two  parts,  one  to  fight  and  the  other 
to  stay  at  home,  may  have  served  when>all  the  fighting  had  to 
be  done  in  the  western  part  of  Wessex.  ^helstan  or  Eadmund 
could  not  possibly  make  even  half  of  the\rien  of  Devonshire 
or  Essex  fight  in  his  battles  north  of  the  HuS^er.  The  kings 
therefore  had  to  rely  more  and  more  upon  the^>^egns,  who  in 
turn  had  thegns  of  their  own  whom  they  could  bring^ith  them  ; 
and  thus  was  formed  an  army  ready  for  military  service  m^any  part 
of  the  kingdom.  A  king  who  could  command  such  an  aVmy  was 
even  more  powerful  than  one  who  could  command  the  whole  of 
the  forces  of  a  smaller  territory. 

5.  Conversion  of  the  Freemen  into  Serfs. — It  is  impossible  to 
give  a  certain  account  of  the  changes  which  passed  over  the  English 
freemen,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  process  had  been  for 
some  time  going  on  which  converted  them  into  bondmen,  and  that 
this  process  was  greatly  accelerated  by  the  Danish  wars.  When 
a  district  was  being  plundered  the  peasant  holders  of  the  strips 
of  village  land  suffered  most,  and  needed  the  protection  of  the 
neighbouring  thegn,  who  was  better  skilled  in  war  than  themselves, 


EADGAR'S  ENGLAND 


959-975 


959-975 


RURAL   LIFE 


72  EADGAR'S  ENGLAND  959-975 

and  this  protection  they  could  only  obtain  on  condition  of  be- 
coming bondmen  themselves— that  is  to  say,  of  giving  certain  days 
in  the  week  to  work  on  the  special  estate  of  the  lord.  A  bondman 
differed  both  from  a  slave  and  from  a  modern  farmer.  Though  he 
was  bound  to  the  soil  and  could  not  go  away  if  he  wished  to  do  so, 
yet  he  could  not  be  sold  as  though  he  were  a  slave  ;  nor,  on  the 
other  hand,  could  he,  like  a  farmer,  be  turned  out  of  his  holding  so 
long  as  he  fulfilled  his  obligation  of  cultivating  his  lord's  demesne. 
The  lord  was  almost  invariably  a  thegn,  either  of  the  king  or  of 
some  superior  thegn,  and  there  thus  arose  in  England,  as  there 
arose  about  the  same  time  on  the  Continent,  a  chain  of  personal 
relationships.  The  king  w^as  no  longer  merely  the  head  of  the  whole 
people.  He  was  the  personal  lord  of  his  own  thegns,  and  they 
again  were  the  lords  of  other  thegns.  The  serfs  cultivated  their 
lands,  and  thereby  set  them  free  to  fight  for  the  king  on  behalf  of 
the  whole  nation.  It  seems  at  first  sight  as  if  the  English  people 
had  fallen  into  a  worse  condition.  An  organisation,  partly  military 
and  partly  servile,  was  substituted  for  an  organisation  of  free  men. 
Yet  only  in  this  way  could  the  whole  of  England  be  amalgamated. 
The  nation  gained  in  unity  what  it  lost  in  freedom. 

6.  The  Hundred-moot  and  the  Lord's  Court. — In  another  way 
the  condition  of  the  peasants  was  altered  for  the  worse  by  the 
growth  of  the  king's  power.  In  former  days  land  was  held  as 
'  folkland,'  grant^by  the  people  at  the  original  conquest,  passing  to 
the  kinsmen  of  the  h<;^der  if  he  died  without  children.  Afterwards 
the  clergy  introduced  a'system  by  which  the  owner  could  grant  the 
'  bookland,'  held  by  book  o>-^harter,  setting  at  nought  the  claim  of 
his  kinsmen,  and  in  order  tSs^ive  validity  to  the  arrangement, 
obtained  the  consent  of  the  king  ^-^d  his  Witenagemot  (see  p.  45). 
In  time,  the  king  and  the  Witenagernot  granted  charters  in  other 
cases,  and  the  new  '  bookland '  to  a  great-'^extent  superseded  the  old 
*  folkland,'  accompanied  by  a  grant  of  the  rtght  of  holding  special 
courts.  In  this  manner  the  old  hundred-moo^s  became  neglected, 
people  seeking  for  justice  in  the  courts  of  the  lords.  Yet  those  who 
lived  on  the  lord's  land  attended  his  court,  appeared  as  com- 
purgators, and  directed  the  ordeal  just  as  they  had  oii-ee  done  in 

U\^  the  hundred-moot. 

jK  7.  The  Towns. — ^The  towns  had  grown  up  in  various  ways. 
Some  were  of  old  Roman  foundation,  such  as  Lincoln  and  Glou- 
cester. Others,  like  Nottingham  and  Bristol,  had  come  into 
existence  since  the  English  settlement.  Others  again  gathered 
round  monasteries,  like  Bury  St.  Edmunds  and  Peterborough.    The 


959-975  LOCAL    ORGANISATION  73 

inhabitaiHs  met  to  consult  about  their  own  affairs,  sometimes  in 
dependence  on  a  lord.  Where  there  was  no  lord  they  held  a 
court  which  was  composed  in  the  same  way  as  the  hundred-moots 
outside.  The  townsmen  had  the  right  of  holding  a  market.  Every 
sale  had  to  take  place  in  the  presence  of  witnesses  who  could  prove, 
if  called  upon  to  do  so,  that  the  sale  had  really  taken  place,  and 
markets  were  therefore  usually  to  be  found  in  towns,  because  it  was 
there  that  witnesses  could  most  easily  be  found. 

8.  The  Origin  of  the  Shires. — Shires,  which  were  divisions 
larger  ^an  the  hundreds,  and  smaller  than  the  larger  kingdoms, 
originated  in  various  ways.  In  the  south,  and  on  the  east  coast  as 
far  north  aSjthe  Wash,  they  were  either  old  kingdoms  like  Kent  and 
Essex,  or  so^lements  forming  part  of  old  kingdoms,  as  Norfolk 
(the  north  folR^  formed  part  of  East  Anglia,  and  Dorset  or  Somer- 
set, the  lands  oNthe  Dorsaetan  or  the  Somerssetan,  formed  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  ^i^essex.  In  the  centre  and  north  they  were  of 
more  recent  origin/Sand  were  probably  formed  as  those  parts  of 
England  were  gradually  reconquered  from  the  Danes.  The  fact 
thart:  most  of  these  shi^  are  named  from  towns — as  Derbyshire 
from  Derby,  and  Warwickshire  from  Warwick — shows  that  they 
came  into  existence  after  toWs  had  become  of  importance. 

9.  The  Shire-moot. — Whhst  the  hundred-moot  decayed,  the 
folk-moot  continued  to  flourisnSyiinder  a  new  name,  as  the  shire- 
moot.  This  moot  was  still  attend^  by  the  freemen  of  the  shire 
though  the  thegns  were  more  numeisous  and  the  simple  freemen 
less  numerous  than  they  had  once  beeK  Still  the  continued  exist- 
ence of  the  shire-moot  kept  up  the  custoni  of  self-government  more 
than  anything  else  in  England.  The  oralis  were  witnessed,  the 
were-gild  inflicted,  and  rights  to  land  adjudge^not  by  an  officer  of 
the  king,  but  by  the  landowners  of  the  shire^ssembled  for  the 
purpose.  These  meetings  were  ordinarily  presiHed  over  by  the 
ealdorman,  who  appeared  as  the  military  comm^der  and  the 
official  head  of  the  shire,  and  by  the  bishop,  who  represented  the 
Church.  Another  most  important  personage  was  thesheriff,  or 
shire-reeve,  whose  business  it  was  to  see  that  the  king  haaSj^  his 
rights,  to  preside  over  the  shire-moot  when  it  sat  as  a  judicial  cottrt, 
and  to  take  care  that  its  sentences  were  put  in  execution. 

10.  The  Ealdormen  and  the  Witenagemot. — During  the  long 
fight  with  the  Danes  commanders  were  needed  who  could  lead 
the  forces  of  more  than  a  single  shire.  Before  the  end  of  Eadred's 
reign  there  were  ealdormen  who  ruled  over  many  shires.  One  of 
them   for  instance,  yEthelstan,  Ealdorman  of  East  Anglia,  and  of 


74 


EADGAR'S  ENGLAND 


959-975 


the  shires  immediately  to  the  west  of  East  Anglia,  was  so  powerful 
that  he  was  popularly  known  as  the  Half-King.  Such  earldormen 
had  great  influence  in  their  own  districts,  and  they  also  were  very 
powerful  about  the  king.  The  king  could  not  perform  any  im- 
portant act  without  the  consent  of  the  Witenagemot,  which  was 


SECTION     FROM    S.W.  TO    N.E. 


Walker  &•  Bontall  sc. 
Plan  and  section  of  a  burh  of  the  eleventh  century  at  Laughton-en-!e-Morthen,  Yorks. 


made  up  of  three  classes— the  Ealdormen,  the  Bishops,  and  the 
greater  Thegns.  When  a  king  died  the  Witenagemot  chose  his 
successor  out  of  the  kingly  family  ;  its  members  appeared  as  wit- 
nesses whenever  the  king  '  booked '  land  to  any  one  ;  and  it  even, 
on  rare  occasions,  deposed  a  king  who  was  unfit  for  his  post.     In 


959-975  RURAL   LIFE 


75 


A 


the  days  of  a  great  warrior  king  like  Eadward  or  Eadmund,  mem- 
bers of  the  Witenagemot  were  but  instruments  in  his  hands,  but  if 
a  weak  king  came  upon  the  throne,  each  member  usually  took  his 
own  way  and  pursued  his  own  interest  rather  than  that  of  the  king 
and  kingdom. 

11.  The  Land. — The  cultivated  land  was  surrounded  either 
by  wood  or  by  pasture  and  open  commons.  Every  cottager 
kept  his  hive  of  bees,  to  produce  the  honey  which  was  then  used  as 
we  now  use  sugar,  and  drove  his  swine  into  the  woods  to  fatten  on 
the  acorns  and  beech  nuts  which  strewed  the  ground  in  the  autumn. 
Sheep  and  cattle  were  fed  on  the  pastures,  and  horses  were  so 
abundant  that  when  the  Danish  pirates  landed  they  found  it  easy 
to  set  every  man  on  horseback.  Yet  neither  the  Danes  nor  the 
EngFish  ever  learnt  to  fight  on  horseback.  They  rode  to  battle, 
but  as  soon  as  they  approached  the  enemy  they  dismounted  to  fight 
on  foot. 

12.  Domestic  Life. — The  huts  of  the  villagers  clustered  round 
the  house  of  the  lord.  His  abode  was  built  in  a  yard  surrounded 
for  protection  by  a  mound  and  fence,  whilst  very  great  men  often 
established  themselves  in  burhs,  surrounded  by  earthworks, 
either  of  their  own  raising  or  the  work  of  earlier  times.  Its 
principal  feature  was  the  hall,  in  which  the  whole  family  with  the 
guests  and  the  thegns  of  the  lord  met  for  their  meals.  The  walls 
were  covered  with  curtains  worked  in  patterns  of  bright  colours. 
The  fire  was  lighted  on  the  hearth,  a  broad  stone  in  the  middle, 
over  which  was  a  hole  in  the  roof  through  which  the  smoke  of  the 
hall  escaped.  The  windows  were  narrow,  and  were  either  unclosed 
holes  in  the  wall,  or  covered  with  oiled  linen  which  would  admit  a 
certain  amount  of  light. 

13.  Food  and  Drink. — In  a  great  house  at  meal-time  boards 
were  brought  forward  and  placed  on  tressels.  Bread  was  to  be  had 
in  plenty,  and  salt  butter.  Meat  too,  in  winter,  was  always  salted, 
as  turnips  and  other  roots  upon  which  cattle  are  now  fed  in  winter 
were  wholly  unknown,  and  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  kill  large 
numbers  of  sheep  and  oxen  when  the  cold  weather  set  in.  There 
were  dishes,  but  neither  plates  nor  forks.  Each  man  took  the 
meat  in  his  fingers  and  either  bit  off  a  piece  or  cut  it  off  with  a 
knife.  The  master  of  the  house  sat  at  the  head  of  the  table,  and 
the  lady  handed  round  the  drink,  and  afterwards  sat  down  by  her 
husband's  side.  She,  however,  with  any  other  ladies  who  might 
be  present,  soon  departed  to  the  chamber  which  was  their  own 
apartment.     The   men   continued  drinking  long.      The   cups  or 


^6 


EADGAR'S   ENGLAND 


939-975 


glasses   which   they   used   were    often   made    with    the    bottoms 
rounded  so  as  to  force  the  guests  to  keep  them  in  their  hands  till 


Glass  tumbler.     (British  Museum.) 

they  were  empty.     The  usual  drink  was  mead,  that  is  to  say,  fer- 
mented honey,  or  ale  brewed  from  malt  alone,  as  hops  were  not 


Drinking  glass.    (British  Museum  ) 


introduced  till  many  centuries  later.     In  wealthy  houses  imported 
wine  was  to  be  had.     English  wine  was  not  unknown,  but  it  was 


959  973 


DOMESTIC  LIFE 


77 


so  sour  that  it  had  to  be  sweetened  with  honey.  It  was  held  to  be 
disgracetui  to  leave  the  company  as  long  as  the  drinking  lasted, 
and  drunkenness  and  quarrels  were  not  unfrequent.  Wandering 
minstrels  who  could  play  and  sing  or  tell  stories  were  always 
welcome,  especially  if  they  were  jugglers  as  well,  and  could  amuse 
the  company  by  throwing  knives  in  the  air  and  catching  them  as 
they  fell,  or  could  dance  on  their  hands  with  their  legs  in  the  air. 
When  the  feast  was  over,  the  guests  and  dependents  slept  on  the 


Comb  and  case  of  Scandinavian  type,  found  at  York.     (Now  in  the  British  Museum.) 


floor  on  rugs  or  straw,  each  man  taking  care  to  hang  his  weapons 
close  to  his  head  on  the  wall,  to  defend  himself  in  case  of  an  attack 
by  robbers  in  the  night.  The  lord  retired  to  his  chamber,  whilst 
the  unmarried  ladies  occupied  bowers,  or  small  rooms,  each  with  a 
separate  door  opening  on  to  the  yard.  Their  only  beds  were  bags 
of  straw.  Neither  men  nor  women  wore  night-dresses  of  any 
kind,  but  if  they  took  off  their  clothes  at  all,  wrapped  themselves 
in  rugs. 


w^^ 


78 


CHAPTER  VI 

ENGLAND  AND   NORMANDY 


^ 


LEADING    DATES 

Death  of  Eadgar 975 

Accession  of  ^thelred 979 

Accession  of  Cnut ioi6 

Accession  of  Eadward  the  Confessor 1035 

Banishment  of  Godwine 1051 

Accession  of  Harold  and  Battle  of  Senlac     ....  1066 


I.  Eadward  the  Martyr.  975— 979.— Eadgar  died  in  975,  leaving 
two  boys,  Eadward  and  yEthelred.'  On  his  death  a  quarrel  broke 
out  amongst  the  ealdormen,  some  declaring  for  the  succession  ot 
Eadward  and  others  for  the  succession  of  ^thelred.  The  political 
quarrel  was  complicated  by  an  ecclesiastical  quarrel.  The  sup- 
porters of  Eadward  were  the  friends  of  the  secular  clergy  ;  the 
supporters  of  yEthelred  were  the  friends  of  the  monks.  Dunstan, 
with  his  usual  moderation,  gave  his  voice  for  the  eldest  son,  and 
Eadward  was  chosen  king  and  crowned.  Not  only  had  he  a  strong 
party  opposed  to  him,  but  he  had  a  dissatisfied  step-mother  in 
^Ifthryth,  the  mother  of  yEthelred,  whilst  his  own  mother,  who  had 
probably  been  married  to  Eadgar  without  full  marriage  rites,  had 
been  long  since  dead.     After  reigning  for  four  years  Eadward  was 


'  Genealogy  of  the  English  kings  from  Eadgar  to  Eadgar  the  ^theling 

Eadgar 
959-975 


I 

Eadward 

the  Martyr 

975-979 


Eadmund 

Ironside 

1016 

I 

Eadward 

the  iEtheling 

Eadgar 
the  .^Bthehng 


I 

.^THELRED 

the  Unready 
979-1016 

I 


iiADWARD 

the  Confessor 
1042-1066 


^ 


979-994  ^  THE L RED   AND    THE  DANES  79 

murdered  near  Corfe  by  some  of  the  opposite  party,  and,  as  was 
commonly  supposed,  by  his  step-mother's  directions. 

2.  iEthelred's  Early  Years.  979 — 988.— ^thelred,  now  a  boy 
of  ten,  became  king  in  979.  The  epithet  the  Unready,  which  is 
usually  assigned  to  him,  is  a  mistranslation  of  a  word  which  properly 
means  the  Rede-less,  or  the  man  without  counsel.  He  was  entirely 
without  the  qualities  which  befit  a  king.  Eadmund  had  kept  the 
great  chieftains  in  subordination  to  himself  because  he  was  a  suc- 
cessful leader.  Eadgar  had  kept  them  in  subordination  because 
he  treated  them  with  respect,  ^thelred  could  neither  lead  nor 
show  respect.  He  was  always  picking  quarrels  when  he  ought  to 
have  been  making  peace,  and  always  making  peace  when  he  ought 
to  have  been  fighting.  What  he  tried  to  do  was  to  lessen  the  power 
of  the  great  ealdormen,  and  bring  the  whole  country  more  directly 
under  his  own  authority.  In  985  he  drove  out  ^Elfric,  the  Ealdorman 
of  the  Mercians.  In  988  Dunstan  died,  and  ^thelred  had  no 
longer  a  wise  adviser  by  his  side. 

3.  The  Return  of  the  Danes.  984. — It  would  have  been  difficult 
for  ^thelred  to  overpower  the  ealdormen  even  if  he  had  had  no 
other  enemies  to  deal  with.  Unluckily  for  him,  new  swarms  of 
Danes  and  Norwegians  had  already  appeared  in  England.  They 
began  by  plundering  the  country,  without  attempting  to  settle  in  it. 
In  991  Brihtnoth,  Ealdorman  of  the  East  Saxons,  was  defeated  and 
slain  by  them  at  Maldon.  ^thelred  could  think  of  no  better  counsel 
than  to  pay  them  io,cxx)/.,  a  sum  of  money  which  was  then  of  much 
greater  value  than  it  is  now,  to  abstain  from  plundering.  It  was 
not  necessarily  a  bad  thing  to  do.  One  of  the  greatest  of  the  kings 
of  the  Germans,  Henry  the  Fowler,  had  paid  money  for  a  truce  to 
barbarians  whom  he  was  not  strong  enough  to  fight.  But  when  the 
truce  had  been  bought  Henry  took  care  to  make  himself  strong 
enough  to  destroy  them  when  they  came  again,  ^thelred  was 
never  ready  to  fight  the  Danes  and  Norwegians  at  any  time.  In 
994  Olaf  Trygvasson,  who  had  been  driven  from  the  kingship  of 
Norway,  and  Svend,  who  had  been  driven  from  the  kingship  of 
Denmark,  joined  forces  to  attack  London.  The  London  citizens 
fought  better  than  the  English  king,  and  the  two  chieftains  failed 
to  take  the  town.  '  They  went  thence,  and  wrought  the  greatest 
evil  that  ever  any  army  could  do,  in  burning,  and  harrying,  and  in 
man-slaying,  as  in  Essex,  and  in  Kent,  and  in  Sussex,  and  in  Hamp- 
shire. And  at  last  they  took  their  horses  and  rode  as  far  as  they 
could,  and  did  unspeakable  evil.'  The  plunderers  were  now  known 
as  '  the  army,'  moving  about  where  they  would,    ^thelred  this  time 


So  ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY  ■  912-1002 

gave  them  16,000/.  He  got  rid  of  Olaf,  who  sailed  away  and  was 
slain  by  his  enemies,  but  he  could  not  permanently  get  rid  of  Svend. 
Svend,  about  the  year  1000,  recovered  his  kingship  in  Denmark, 
and  was  more  formidable  than  he  had  been  before.  Plunderings 
went  on  as  usual,  and  /Ethelred  had  no  resource  but  to  pay  money 
to  the  plunderers  to  buy  a  short  respite.  He  then  looked  across 
the  sea  for  an  ally,  and  hoped  to  find  one  by  connecting  himself 
with  the  Duke  of  the  Normans. 
is/  4.  The  Norman  Dukes.     912 — 1002, — The  country  which  Hes 

on  both  sides  of  the  lower  course  of  the  Seine  formed,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tenth  century,  part  of  the  dominions  of  Charles  the 
Simple,  king  of  the  West  Franks,  who  had  inherited  so  much  of 
the  dominions  of  Charles  the  Great  as  lay  west  of  a  line  roughly 
drawn  from  the  Scheldt  to  the  Mediterranean  through  the  lower 
course  of  the  Rhone.  Danes  and  Norwegians,  known  on  the  Conti- 
nent as  Normans,  plundered  Charles's  dominions  as  they  had  plun- 
dered England,  and  at  last  settled  in  them  as  they  had  settled  in 
parts  of  England.  In  912  Charles  the  Simple  ceded  to  their  leader, 
Hrolf,  a  territory  of  which  the  capital  was  Rouen,  and  which  became 
known  as  Normandy — the  land  of  the  Normans.  Hrolf  became 
the  first  Duke  of  the  Normans,  but  his  men  were  fierce  and  rugged, 
and  for  some  time  their  southern  neighbours  scornfully  called  him 
and  his  descendants  Dukes  of  the  Pirates.  In  process  of  time  a 
change  took  place  which  affected  both  Normandy  and  other 
countries  as  well.  The  West  Prankish  kings  were  descended  from 
Charles  the  Great  ;  but  they  had  failed  to  defend  their  subjects 
from  the  Normans,  and  they  thereby  lost  hold  upon  their  people. 
One  of  their  dependent  nobles,  the  Duke  of  the  French,  whose  chief 
city,  Paris,  formed  a  bulwark  against  the  Normans  advancing 
up  the  Seine,  grew  more  powerful  than  themselves.  At  the  same 
time  the  Normans  were  becoming  more  and  more  French  in 
their  speech  and  customs.  At  last  an  alliance  was  made  between 
Hugh  Capet,  the  son  of  Hugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  the  French 
(see  p.  63),  and  Richard  the  Fearless,  Duke  of  the  Normans. 
The  race  of  Charles  the  Great  was  dethroned,  and  Hugh  became 
king  of  the  French.  In  name  he  was  king  over  all  the  territory 
which  had  been  governed  by  Charles  the  Simple.  In  reality 
that  happened  in  France  which  ^thelred  had  been  trying  to 
prevent  in  England.  Hugh  ruled  directly  over  his  own  duchy  of 
France,  a  patch  of  land  of  which  Paris  was  the  capital.  The  great 
vassals  of  the* crown,  who  answered  to  the  English  ealdormen, 
only  obeyed  him  when  it  was  their  interest  to  do  so.     The  most 


I002-I0I2  DANEGELD  8i 

powerful  of  these  vassals  was  the  Duke  of  the  Normans.  In  i002 
the  duke  was  Richard  II.— the  Good — the  son  of  Richard  the 
Fearless.  In  that  year  ^thelred,  who  was  a  widower,  married 
Richard's  sister,  Emma.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a  connection 
with  Normandy  which  never  ceased  till  a  Norman  duke  made 
himself  by  conquest  king  of  the  English. 

5.  Political  Contrast  between  Normandy  and  England. — The 
causes  which  were  making  the  English  thegnhood  a  military 
aristocracy  acted  with  still  greater  force  in  Normandy.  The 
tillers  of  the  soil,  sprung  from  the  old  inhabitants  of  the  land, 
were  kept  by  their  Norman  lords  in  even  harsher  bondage  than  the 
English  serfs.  The  Norman  warriors  held  their  land  by  military 
service,  each  one  being  bound  to  fight  for  his  lord,  and  the  lord  in 
turn  being  bound,  together  with  his  dependents,  to  fight  for  a  higher 
lord,  and  all  at  last  for  the  Duke  himself  In  England,  though, 
in  theory,  the  relations  between  the  king  and  his  ealdormen  were 
not  very  different  from  those  existing  between  the  Norman  duke 
and  his  immediate  vassals,  the  connection  between  them  was  far 
looser.  The  kingdom  as  a  whole  had  no  general  unity.  The  king 
could  not  control  the  ealdormen,  and  the  ealdormen  could  not 
control  the  king.  Even  when  ealdormen,  bishops,  and  thegns 
met  in  the  Witenagemot  they  could  not  speak  in  the  name  of 
the  nation.  A  nation  in  any  true  sense  hardly  existed  at  all, 
and  they  were  not  chosen  as  representatives  of  any  part  of  it.  Each 
one  stood  for  himself,  and  it  was  only  natural  that  men  who  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  were  ruling  in  their  own  districts  like 
little  kings  should  think  more  of  keeping  up  their  own  almost 
independent  power  at  home  than  of  the  common  interests  of  all 
England,  which  they  had  to  consider  when  they  met — and  that  for 
a  few  days  only  at  a  time— in  the  Witenagemot.     ^thelred  at  least 

.        was  not  the  man  to  keep  them  united. 

^K_  6.  Svend's  Conquest.  1002— 1013.  — ^thelred,  having  failed  to 
buy  off  the  Danes,  tried  to  murder  them.  In  1002,  on  St.  Brice's 
Day,  there  was  a  general  massacre  of  all  the  Danes — not  of  the 
old  inhabitants  of  Danish  blood  who  had  settled  in  Alfred's  time — 
but  of  the  new-comers.  Svend  returned  to  avenge  his  countrymen, 
^thelred  had  in  an  earlier  part  of  his  reign  levied  a  land-tax  known 


/ 


as  the  Dapegeld  to  pay  off  the  Danes— the  first  instance  of  a   ^-^yi 
general  tax  in  England.     He  now  called  on  all  the  shires  to  furnish 
ships  for  a  fleet  ;  but  he  could  not  trust  his  ealdormen.    Some  of  the 
stories  told  of  these  times  may  be  exaggerated,  and  some  may  be 
merely  idle  tales,  but  we  know  enough  to  be  sure  that  England  was 

G 


82 


ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY 


[012-1014 


^ 


a  kingdom  divided  against  itself.  Svend,  ravaging  as  he  went,  beat 
down  resistance  everywhere.  In  1012  the  Danes  seized  ^Ifheah, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  offered  to  set  him  free  if  he  would 
pay  a  ransom  for  his  life.  He  refused  to  do  so,  lest  he  should  have 
to  wring  money  from  the  poor  in  order  to  pay  it.  The  drunken  Danes 
pelted  him  with  bones  till  one  of  the  number  clave  his  skull  with 

an  axe.  He  was 
soon  counted  as  a 
martyr.  Long  after- 
wards one  of  the 
most  famous  of  his 
successors,  the  Nor- 
man Lanfranc, 
doubted  whether  he 
was  really  a  martyr, 
as  he  had  not  died 
for  the  faith.  'He 
that  dies  for  right- 
eousness,' answered 
the  gentle  Anselm, 
'  dies  for  the  faith,' 
and  to  this  day  the 
name  of  ^Ifheah  is 
retained  as  St.  Al- 
phege  in  the  list  of 
English  saints.  In 
1013  Svend  ap- 
peared no  longer  as 
a  plunderer  but  as 
a  conqueror.  First 
the  old  Danish  districts  of  the  north  and  east,  and  then  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  realm  of  Alfred — Mercia  and  Wessex— submitted  to  him  to 
avoid  destruction.     In  1013  ^thelred  fled  to  Normandy. 

7.  iEthelred  Restored.  1014 — 1016. — In  1014  Svend  died  sud- 
denly as  he  was  riding  at  the  head  of  his  troops  to  the  attack  of 
the  monastery  of  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  A  legend  soon  arose  as  to  the 
manner  of  his  death.  St.  Edmund  himself,  the  East  Anglian  king 
Eadmund  who  had  once  been  martyred  by  Danes  (see  p.  58),  now 
appeared,  it  was  said,  to  protect  the  monastery  founded  in  his 
honour.  '  Help,  fellow  soldiers  ! '  cried  Svend,  as  he  caught  sight 
of  the  saint.  '  St.  Edmund  is  coming  to  slay  me.'  St.  Edmund, 
we  are  told,  ran  his  spear  through  the  body  of  the  aggressor,  and 


Martyrdom  of  St.    Edmund  by  the  Danes.     (From  a 
drawing  belonging  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.) 


IOI4-IOI6         THE   STRUGGLE   AGAINST  CNUT  83 

Svend  died  that  night  in  torments.  His  Danish  warriors  chose 
his  son  Cnut  king  of  England.^  The  English  Witenagemot  sent  for 
yEthelred  to  return.  At  last,  in  1016,  ^Ethelred  died  before  he  had 
conquered  Cnut  or  Cnut  conquered  him. 

8.  Eadmund  Ironside.  1016. — /Ethelred's  eldest  son— not  the 
son  of.  Emma — Eadmund  Ironside,  succeeded  him.  He  did  all 
that  could  be  done  to  restore  the  English  kingship  by  his  vigour. 
In  a  single  year  he  fought  six  battles  ;  but  the  treachery  of  the 
ealdormen  was  not  at  an  end,  and  at  Assandun  {1  Ashtngton),  in 
Essex,  he  was  completely  overthrown.  He  and  Cnut  agreed  to 
divide  the  kingdom,  but  before  the  end  of  the  year  the  heroic 
Eadmund  died,  and  Cnut  the  Dane  became  king  of  England  with- 
out a  rival. 

9.  Cnut  and  the  Earldoms.  1016— 1035. — Cnut  was  one  of 
those  rulers  who,  like  the  Emperor  Augustus,  shrink  from  no 
barbarity  in  gaining  power,  but  when  once  they  have  acquired  it 
exercise  their  authority  with  moderation  and  gentleness.  He  be- 
gan by  outlawing  or  putting  to  death  men  whom  he  considered 
dangerous,  but  when  this  had  once  been  done  he  ruled  as  a 
thoroughly  English  king  of  the  best  type.  The  Danes  who  had 
hitherto  fought  for  him  had  come  not  as  settlers,  but  as  an  army, 
and  soon  after  Eadmund's  death  he  sent  most  of  them  home,  re- 
taining a  force,  variously  stated  as  3,000  or  6,000,  warriors  known 
as  his  House-carls  {House-men),  who  formed  a  small  standing  army 
depending  entirely  on  himself  They  were  not  enough  to  keep 
down  a  general  rising  of  the  whole  of  England,  but  they  were  quite 
enough  to  prevent  any  single  great  man  from  rebelling  against  him. 
Cnut  therefore  was,  what  ^Ethelred  had  wished,  to  be,  really  master 
of  his  kingdom.  Under  him  ruled  the  ealdormen,  who  from  this 
time  were  known  as  Earls,  from  the  Danish  title  of  Jarl  (see  p.  64), 
and  of  these  Earls  the  principal  were  the  three  who  governed  Mercia, 
North-humberland,  and  Wessex,  the  last  named  now  including  the 
old  kingdoms  of  Kent  and  Sussex.  There  was  a  fourth  in  East 
Anglia,  but  the  limits  of  this  earldom  varied  from  time  to  time,  and 

^  Genealogy  of  the  Danish  kings  : — 

Svend 

I 
(i)  ^lfgifu-CNUT  =  (2)  Emma 
I  1016-1035  I 

Harold  Harthacnut 

Harefoot  1040-1042 

1035-1040 

G2 


^ 


v^ 


84  ENGLAND   AND   NORMANDY  1016-1035 

there  were  sometimes  other  earldoms  set  up  in  the  neighbouring 
shires,  whereas  the  first-named  three  remained  as  they  were  for 
some  time  after  Cnut's  death.  It  is  characteristic  of  Cnut  that  the 
one  of  the  Earls  to  whom  he  gave  his  greatest  confidence  was  God- 
wine,  an  Englishman,  who  was  Earl  of  the  West  Saxons.  Another 
Englishman,  Leofwine,  became  Earl  of  the  Mercians.  A  Dane 
obtained  the  earldom  of  the  North-humbrians,  but  the  land  was 
barbarous,  and  its  Earls  were  frequently  murdered.  Sometimes 
there  was  one  Earl  of  the  whole  territory,  sometimes  two.  It  was 
not  till  after  the  end  of  Cnut's  reign  that  Siward  became  Earl 
of  Deira,  and  at  a  later  time  of  all  North-humberland  as  far  as 
the  Tweed.  The  descendants  of  two  of  these  Earls,  Godwine 
and  Leofwine,  leave  their  mark  on  the  history  for  some  time  to 
come. 

10.  Cnut's  Empire. — Beyond  the  Tweed  Malcolm,  king  of  the 
Scots,  ruled.  He  defeated  the  North-humbrians  at  Carham,  and 
Cnut  ceded  Lothian  to  him,  either  doing  so  for  the  first  time  or 
repeating  the  act  of  Eadgar,  if  the  story  of  Eadgar's  cession  is 
true.  At  all  events  the  king  of  the  Scots  from  this  time  ruled  as 
far  south  as  the  Tweed,  and  acknowledged  Cnut's  superiority. 
Cnut  also  became  king  of  Denmark  by  his  brother's  death,  and 
king  of  Norway  by  conquest.  He  entered  into  friendly  relations 
with  Richard  II.,  Duke  of  the  Normans,  by  marrying  his  sister 
Emma,  the  widow  of  ^thelred.' 

1 1.  Cnut's  Government. — Cnut  had  thus  made  himself  master  of 
a  great  empire,  and  yet,  Dane  as  he  was,  though  he  treated  English- 
men and  Danes  as  equals,  he  gave  his  special  favour  to  Englishmen 
He  restored,  as  men  said,  the  laws  of  Eadgar — that  is  to  say,  he 
kept  peace   and   restored  order  as  in  the  days  of  Eadgar.      He 

1  Genealogical  connection  between  the  Houses  of  England  and  Nor- 
mandy : — 

Dukes  of  Normandy 

Richard  I. 

the  Fearless 

I 

Richard  II.                          (i)  ^THELRED  =  Emma  =  (2)  Cnut,  1016-1035 
the  Good                              the  Unready    I  r-   j    • 

I 979-ioi6l^| ^^r'"" 

I  1  II  !  "  I 

Richard  III.  Robert  Alfred    EADWARD==Eadgyth    Harold 

I  the  Confessor  1066 

William  1042-1066 

the  Conqueror 
1066-1087 


1016-1035        CNUTS   PILGRIMAGE   AND   DEATH  85 

reverenced  monks,  and  once  as  he  was  rowing  on  the  waters  of 
the  fens,  he  heard  the  monks  of  Ely  singing.  He  bade  the  boatmen 
row  him  to  the  shore  that  he  might  listen  to  the  song  of  praise  and 
prayer.  He  even  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  to  humble  himself 
in  that  city  which  contained  the  burial  places  of  the  Apostles  Peter 
and  Paul.  From  Rome  he  sent  a  letter  to  his  subjects.  '  I  have 
vowed  to  God,'  he  wrote,  '  to  live  a  right  life  in  all  things  ;  to  rule 
justly  and  piously  my  realms  and  subjects,  and  to  administer  just 
judgment  to  all.  If  heretofore  I  have  done  aught  beyond  what  is 
just,  through  headiness  or  negligence  of  youth,  I  am  ready^  with 
God's  help,  to  amend  it  utterly.'  With  Cnut  these  were  not  mere 
words.  It  is  not  likely  that  there  is  any  truth  in  the  story  how  his 
flattering  courtiers  told  him  to  sit  by  the  sea-shore  and  bade  the  in- 
flowing tide  refrain  from  wetting  his  feet,  and  how  when  the  waves 
rose  over  the  spot  on  which  his  chair  was  placed  he  refused  to  wear 
his  crown  again,  because  that  honour  belonged  to  God  alone,  the 
true  Ruler  of  the  world.  Yet  the  story  would  not  have  been 
invented  except  of  one  who  was  believed  to  have  been  clothed  with 
real  humility. 

12.  The  Sons  of  Cnut.  1035—1042. — Cnut  died  in  1035.  God- 
ine  and  the  West  Saxons  chose  Harthacnut,  the  son  of  Cnut  and 
Emma  to  take  his  father's  place,  whilst  the  north  and  centre, 
headed  by  Leofwine's  son,  Leofric,'  Earl  of  the  Mercians,  chose 
Harold,  the  son  of  Cnut  by  an  earlier  wife  or  concubine.  Godwine 
perhaps  hoped  that  Harthacnut  would  make  the  West  Saxon  earl- 
dom the  centre  of  the  empire  which  had  been  his  father's.  Cnut's 
empire  was,  however,  breaking  up.  The  Norwegians  chose 
Magnus,  a  king  of  their  own  race,  and  Harthacnut  remained  in 
Denmark  to  defend  it  against  the  attacks  of  Magnus.  In  Normandy 
there  were  two  English  Ethelings,  Alfred  and  Eadward,  the  sons 
of  ^thelred  by  Emma,  who  seem  to  have  thought  that  the  absence 
of  H  a  rthacnut  gave  them  a  chance  of  returning  to  England.  Alfred 
landed,  but  was  seized  by  Harold.      He  was  blinded  with  such 

1  Genealogy  of  the  Mercian  earls  : — 

Leofwine 

1 
Leofric 

I 
^Ifgar 


I  I 

Eadwine,  Morkere, 

Earl  of  Mercia  Earl  of  North-humberland 


86 


ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY 


1035-1042 


cruelty  that  he  died.  His  death  was,  truly  or  falsely,  attributed  to 
Godwine.  As  Harthacnut  still  remained  in  Denmark,  the  West 
Saxons  deposed  him  and  gave  themselves  to  Harold,  since  which 
time  England  has  never  been  divided.  In  1040  Harold  died,  and 
Harthacnut  came  at  last  to  England  to  claim  the  crown.  He  brought 
with  him  a  Danish  fleet,  and  with  his  sailors  and  his  house-carls  he 
ruled  England  as  a  conquered  land.  He  raised  a  Danegeld  to  satisfy 
his  men,  and  sent  his  house-carls  to  force  the  people  to  pay  the 
heavy  tax.     Two  of  them  were  killed  at  Worcester,  and  he  burnt 


First  Great  Seal  of  Eadward  the  Confessor  (obverse). 


>i:. 


Worcester  to  the  ground.     In   1042  he   died  '  as  he   stood  at  his 
drink '  at  a  bridal. 

13.  Eadward  the  Confessor  and  Earl  Godwine.  1042— 1051. — 
The  English  were  tired  of  foreign  rulers.  '  All  folk  chose  Eadward 
king.'  Eadward,  the  son  of  ^thelred  and  the  brother  of  the  mur- 
dered iElfred,  though  an  Englishman  on  his  father's  side,  was  also 
the  son  of  the  Norman  Emma,  and  had  been  brought  up  in  Nor- 
mandy from  his  childhood.  The  Normans  were  now  men  of  French 
speech,  and  they  were  more  polite  and  cultivated  than  English- 


1 042-105 1    GREATNESS  &=  BANISHMENT  OF  GOD  WINE     87 

men.  Eadward  filled  his  court  with  Normans.  He  disliked  the 
roughness  of  the  English,  but  instead  of  attempting  to  improve  them 
as  the  great  Alfred  had  formerly  done,  he  stood  entirely  aloof  from 
them.  The  name  of  the  Confessor  by  which  he  was  afterwards 
known  was  given  him  on  account  of  his  piety,  but  his  piety  was 
not  of  that  sort  which  is  associated  with  active  usefulness.  He 
was  fond  of  hunting,  but  was  not  active  in  any  other  way,  and  he 
left  others  to  govern  rather  than  himself  For  some  years  the 
real  governor  of  England  was  Earl  Godwine,  who  kept  his 
own  earldom  of  Wessex,  and  managed  to  procure  other  smaller 
earldoms  for  his  sons.  As  the  Mercia  over  which  Leofric  ruled 
was  only  the  north-western  part  of  the  old  kingdom,  and  as 
Si  ward  (see  p.  84)  had  enough  to  do  to  keep  the  fierce  men  of  North- 
humberland  in  order,  Godwine  had  as  yet  no  competitor  to  fear. 
In  1045  he  became  the  king's  father-in-law  by  the  marriage  of 
Eadward  with  his  daughter,  Eadgyth.  Eadward,  however,  did  his 
best  for  his  Norman  favourites,  and  appointed  one  of  them,  Robert 


Hunting.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.) 

of  Jumieges,  to  the  bishopric  of  London,  and  afterwards  raised  him 
to  the  Archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  Between  Godwine  and  the 
Normans  there  was  no  goodwill,  and  though  Godwine  was  himself 
of  fair  repute,  his  eldest  son,  Swegen,  a  young  man  of  brutal  nature, 
alienated  the  goodwill  of  his  countrymen  by  seducing  the  Abbess 
of  Leominster,  and  by  murdering  his  cousin  Beom.  Godwine, 
in  his  blind  family  affection,  clung  to  his  wicked  son  and  insisted 
on  his  being  allowed  to  retain  his  earldom. 
Q\  14.  The  Banishment  of  Godwine.  1051.— At  last,  in  1051,  the 
strife  between  the  king  and  the  Earl  broke  out  openly.  Eadward's 
brother-in-law,  Eustace,  Count  of  Boulogne,  visited  England.  On 
his  return  his  men  made  a  disturbance  at  Dover,  and  in  the  riot 
which  ensued  some  of  the  townsmen  as  well  as  some  of  his  own  men 
were  slain.  Eadward  called  on  Godwine,  in  whose  earldom  Dover 
was,  to  punish  the  townsmen.  Godwine  refused,  and  Eadward 
summoned  him  to  Gloucester  to  account  for  his  refusal.  He  came 
attended  by  an  armed  host,  but  Leofric  and  Si  ward,  who  were 
jealous  of  Godwine's  power,  came  with  their  armed  followers  to 
support  the  king.     Leofric  mediated,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the 


88  ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY  1051 

question  should  be  settled  at  a  Witenagemot  to  be  held  in  London. 
In   the  end   Godwine  was .  outlawed   and  banished  with   all   his 
family.     Swegen  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  and  died  on 
the  way  back. 
\/  15.  Visit    of    Duke    William.    1051. — In    Godwine's    absence 

Eadward  received  a  visit  from  the  Duke  of  the  Normans,  William, 
the  bastard  son  of  Duke  Robert  and  the  daughter  of  a  tanner  of 
Falaise.  Robert  was  a  son  of  Richard  II.,  and  William  was  thus 
the  grandson  of  the  brother  of  Eadward's  mother,  Emma.  Such  a 
relationship  gave  him  no  title  whatever  to  the  English  throne, 
as  Emma  was  not  descended  from  the  English  kings,  and  as, 
even  if  she  had  been,  no  one  could  be  lawfully  king  in  England 
who  was  not  chosen  by  the  Witenagemot.  Eadward,  however, 
had  no  children  or  brothers,  and  though  he  had  no  right  to 
give  away  the  crown,  he  now  promised  William  that  he  should 
succeed  him.  William,  indeed,  was  just  the  man  to  attract  one 
whose  character  was  as  weak  as  Eadward's.  Since  he  received  the 
dukedom  he  had  beaten  down  the  opposition  of  a  fierce  and  dis- 
contented nobility  at  Val-^s-dunes  (1047).  From  that  day  peace 
and  order  prevailed  in  Normandy.  Law  in  Normandy  did  not  come 
as  in  England  from  the  traditions  of  the  shire-moot  or  the  Witena- 
gemot, where  men  met  to  consult  together.  It  was  the  Duke's 
law,  and  if  the  Duke  was  a  strong  man  he  kept  peace  in  the  land. 
If  he  was  a  weak  man,  the  lords  fought  against  one  another  and 
plundered  and  oppressed  the  poor.  William  was  strong  and  wily, 
and  it  was  this  combination  of  strength  and  wiliness  which  enabled 
him  to  bear  down  all  opposition. 

16.  William  and  the  Norman  Church. — An  Englishman,  who 
saw  much  of  William  in  after-life,  declared  that,  severe  as  he  was, 
he  w^tSsmild  to  good  men  who  loved  God.  The  Church  was  in 
his  days  a^isimiing  a  new  place  in  Europe.  The  monastic  revival 
which  had  origirf^t^d  at  Cluny  (see  p.  67)  had  led  to  a  revival  of  the 
Papacy.  In  1049,  for^h^  first  time,  a  Pope,  Leo  IX.,  travelled 
through  Western  Europe,  holding  councils  and  inflicting  punishments 
upon  the  married  clergy  and  upbn  priests  who  took  arms  and  shed 
blood.  With  this  improvement  ihsdiscipline  came  a  voluntary 
turning  of  the  better  clergy  to  an  asceti^*ii^,  and  increased  devotion 
was  accompanied,  as  it  always  was  in  tnhsmiddle  ages,  with  an 
increase  of  learning.  William,  who  by  theStrength  of  his  will 
brought  peace  into  the  state,  also  brought  i^en  of  devotion 
and  learning  into  the  high  places  of  the  Church>-..His  chief 
confidant   was    Lanfranc,  an    Italian   who   had    taken    refuge    in 


0( 


K 


1 052- 1 05 7  EADWARD  AND   GOD  WINE  89 

the  abbey  of  Bee,  and,  having  become  its  prior,  had  made  it  the 
central  school  of  Normandy  and  the  parts  around.  With  the 
improvement  of  learning  came  the  improvement  of  art,  and  churches 
aroseiits^jormandy,  as  in  other  parts  of  Western  Europe,  which 
still  preservecHi^eold  round  arch  derived  from  the  Romans,  though 
both  the  arches  tn^^n^ves  and  the  columns  on  which  they  were 
borne  were  lighter  and  m^Jli«<^aceful  than  the  heavy  work  which  had 
hitherto  been  employed.  OT*^«41  this  Englishmen  as  yet  knew 
nothing.  They  went  on  in  their>>ld  ways,  cut  off  from  the 
European  influences  of  the  time.  It  wasi^bs^onder  that  Eadward 
yearned  after  the  splendour  and  the  culture  oT'tH^Jand  in  which 
he  had  been  brought  up,  or  even  that,  in  defiance  of  English  law, 
he  now  promised  to  Duke  William  the  succession  to  the  English 
crown. 

17.  The  Return  and  Death  of  Godwine.  1052 — 1053. — After 
William  had  departed  Englishmen  became  discontented  at  Ead- 
ward's  increasing  favour  to  the  Norman  strangers.  In  1052 
Godwine  and  his  sons — Swegen  only  excepted— returned  from 
exile.  They  sailed  up  the  Thames  and  landed  at  Southwark.  The 
foreigners  hastily  fled,  and  Eadward  was  unable  to  resist  the  popular 
feeling.  Godwine  was  restored  to  his  earldom,  and  an  Englishman, 
Stigand,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  the  place  of  Robert 
of  Jumieges,  who  escaped  to  the  Continent.  As  it  was  the  law  of  the 
Church  that  a  bishop  once  appointed  could  not  be  deposed  except 
by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  offence  was  in  this  way  given  to  the 
Pope.  Godwine  did  not  long  outlive  his  restoration.  He  was 
struck  down  by  apopfexy  at  the  king's  table  in  1053.  Harold, 
who,  after  Swegen's  death,  was  his  eldest  son,  succeeded  to  his 
earldom  of  Wessex,  and  practically  managed  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom  in  Eadward's  name.^ 

18.  Harold's  Greatness.  1053— 1066. — Harold  was  a  brave  and 
energetic  man,  but  Eadward  preferred  his  brother  Tostig,  and  on 
the  death  of  Siward  appointed  him  Earl  of  North-humberland. 
A  little  later  Gyrth,  another  brother  of  Harold,  became  Earl 
of  East  Anglia,  together  with  Bedfordshire  and  Oxfordshire,  and  a 

1  Genealogy  of  the  family  of  Godwine  : — 

Godwine 

I 

Swegen    Harold   Tostig    Leofwine    Gyrth    Wulfnoth    Eadgyth  =  Eadward 
1066  the 

Confessor 


90  ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY  1057-1065 

fourth  brother,  Leofwhie,  Earl  of  a  district  formed  of  the  eastern 
shires  on  either  side  of  the  Thames.  All  the  richest  and  most 
thickly  populated  part  of  England  was  governed  by  Harold  and 
his  brothers.  Mercia  was  the  only  large  earldom  not  under  their 
rule.     It  was  now  under  ^Ifgar,  the  son  of  Leofric,  who  had  lately 

Vdied. 

^  19.  Harold  and  Eadward.  1057 — ^0^5 — ^^  became  necessary 
to  arrange  for  the  succession  to  the  throne,  as  Eadward  was  child- 
less, and  as  Englishmen  were  not  likely  to  acquiesce  in  his  bequest 
to  William.  In  1057  the ^thelingEad ward,  a  son  of  Eadmund  Iron- 
side, was  fetched  back  from  Hungary,  where  he  had  long  lived  in 
exile,  and  was  accepted  as  the  heir.  Eadward,  however,  died  almost 
immediately  after  his  arrival.  He  left  but  one  son,  Eadgar the  vEthel- 
ing  (see  genealogy  at  p.  78),  who  was  far  too  young  to  be  accepted 
as  a  king  for  many  years  to  come.  Naturally  the  thought  arose  of 
looking  on  Harold  as  Eadward's  successor.  It  was  contrary  to  all 
custom  to  give  the  throne  to  any  one  not  of  the  royal  line,  but  the 
custom  had  been  necessarily  broken  in  favour  of  Cnut,  the  Danish 
conqueror,  and  it  might  be  better  to  break  it  in  favour  of  an  English 
earl  rather  than  to  place  a  child  on  the  throne,  when  danger  threatened 
from  Normandy.  During  the  remainder  of  Eadward's  reign  Harold 
showed  himself  a  warrior  worthy  of  the  crown.  In  1063  he  invaded 
Wales  and  reduced  it  to  submission.  About  the  same  time  ^Ifgar 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Eadwine,  in  the  earldom  of  the 
Mercians.  In  1065  the  men  of  North-humberland  revolted  against 
Tostig,  who  had  governed  them  harshly,  and  who  was  probably 
unpopular  as  a  West  Saxon  amongst  a  population  of  Danes  and 
Angles.  The  North-humbrians  chose  Eadwine's  brother,  Morkere, 
as  his  successor,  and  Harold  advised  Eadward  to  acquiesce  in 
what  they  had  done.  Northamptonshire  and  Huntingdonshire 
were  committed  to  Waltheof,  a  son  of  Siward  (see  p.  84),  and  the 
\j  modern  Northumberland  was  committed  to  a  native  ruler,  Oswulf. 

y^  20.  Death  of  Eadward.  1066. — England  was  therefore  ruled  by 
two  great  families.  Eadwine  and  Morkere,  the  grandsons  of 
Leofric,  governed  the  Midlands  and  almost  the  whole  of  North- 
humberland.  Harold  and  his  brothers,  the  sons  of  Godwine, 
governed  the  south  and  the  east.  The  two  houses  had  long  been 
rivals,  and  after  Eadward's  death  there  would  be  no  one  in  the 
country  to  whom  they  could  even  nominally  submit.  Eadward, 
whose  life  was  almost  at  an  end,  was  filled  with  gloomy  forebodings. 
His  thoughts,  however,  turned  aside  from  the  contemplation  of 
earthly  things,  and  he  was  only  anxious  that  the  great  abbey  church 


[065-66      FOUNDATION  OF  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 


91 


of  Westminster,  which  he  had  been  building  hard  by  his  own  new 
palace  on  what  was  then  a  lonely  place  outside  London,  should  be 
consecrated  before  his  death.  The  church,  afterwards  superseded 
by  the  structure  which  now  stands  there,  was  built  in  the  new  and 
lighter  form  of  round-arched  architecture  which  Eadward  had 
learned  to  admire  from  his  Norman  friends.  It  was  consecrated 
on  December  28,  1065,  but  the  king  was  too  ill  to  be  present,  and 


Tower  in  the  earlier  'tyle.   Church  at  Earl's 
Barton. 
(The  battlements  are  much  later.) 


Tower  in  the  earlier  style.    St 
Benet's  Church,  Cambridge. 


"k 


on  January  5,  1066,  he  died,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  which  he 
had  founded.  Harold  was  at  once  chosen  king,  and  crowned  at 
Westminster. 

21.  Harold  and  William.  1066.— William,  as  soon  as  he  heard 
of  his  rival's  coronation,  claimed  the  crown.  He  was  now  even 
mightier  than  he  had  been  when  he  visited  Eadward.  In  1063 
he  had  conquered  Maine,  and,  secure  on  his  southern  frontier, 
he  was  able  to  turn  his  undivided  attention  to  England.    Accord- 


92 


ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY 


1066 


ing  to  the  principles  accepted  in  England,  he  had  no  right  to 
it  whatever  ;  but  he  contrived  to  put  together  a  good  many  rea- 
sons which  seemed,  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  were  not  English- 
men, to  give  him  a  good  case.     In  the  first  place  he  had  been 


Building  a  church  in  the  later  style.     (From  a  drawing  belonging  to 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries.) 

selected  by  Eadward  as  his  heir.  In  the  second  place  the  depriva- 
tion of  Robert  of  Jumi^ges  was  an  offence  against  the  Church  law 
of  the  Continent,  and  William  was  therefore  able  to  obtain  from 
the  Pope  a  consecrated  banner,  and  to  speak  of  an  attack  upon 


io66 


WILLIAM  AND   HAROLD 


93 


England  as  an  attempt  to  uphold  the  righteous  laws  of  the  Church. 
In  the  third  place,  Harold  had  at  some  former  time  been  wrecked 
upon  the  French  coast,  and  had  been  delivered  up  to  William, 
who  had  refused  to  let  him  go  till  he  had  sworn  solemnly,  placing 
his  hand  on  a  chest  which  contained  the  relics  of  the  most  holy 
Norman  saints,  to  do  some  act,  the  nature  of  which  is  diversely 
related,  but  which  Harold  never  did.  Consequently  William  could 
speak  of  himself  as  going  to  take  vengeance  on  a  perjurer.  With 
some  difficulty  William  persuaded  the  Norman  barons  to  follow 
him,  and  he  attracted  a  mixed  multitude  of  adventurers  from  all 
the  neighbouring  nations  by  promising  them  the  plunder  of  Eng- 


ET-  hJC'EPISCOPVSCIBVCT 

POTA/ 


Normans  feasting  ;  with  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  saying  grace. 
(From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.) 

land,  an  argument  which  every  one  could  understand.  During  the 
whole  of  the  spring  and  the  summer  ships  for  the  invasion  of 
England  were  being  built  in  the  Norman  harbours. 

22.  Stamford  Bridge.  1066.  — All  through  the  summer  Harold 
was  watching  for  his  rival's  coming.  The  military  organisation 
of  England,  however,  was  inferior  to  that  of  Normandy.  The 
Norman  barons  and  their  vassals  were  always  ready  for  war,  and 
they  could  support  on  their  estates  the  foreign  adventurers  who 
were  placed  under  their  orders  till  the  time  of  battle  came.  Harold 
had  his  house-carls,  the  constant  guard  of  picked  troops  which  had 
been   instituted  by  Cnut,  and  his  thegns,  who,  like  the  Norman 


94 


ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY 


1066 


barons,  were  bound  to 
serve  their  lord  in  war. 
The  greater  part  of  his 
force,     however,     was 
composed  of  the  pea- 
sants of  the  fyrd,  and 
when  September  came 
they  must  needs  be  sent 
home  to  attend  to  their 
harvest,   which    seems 
to  have  been  late  this 
year.       Scarcely    were 
they  gone  when  Harold 
received  news  that  his 
brother  Tostig,   angry 
with    him    for    having 
consented  to  his  depo- 
sition from  the  North- 
humbrian  earldom,  had 
aUied  himself  to  Harold 
Hardrada,    the     fierce 
sea-rover,  who  was  king 
of  Norway,  and  that  the 
two,  with  a  mighty  host, 
after  wasting  the  York- 
shire coast,  had  sailed 
up  the  H  umber.     The 
two     Northern    Earls, 
Eadwine  and  Morkere, 
were      hard     pressed. 
Harold   had  not   long 
before     married     their 
sister,     and,    whatever 
might  be  the  risk,  he 
was  bound  as  the  king 
of  all  England  to  aid 
them.  Marching  swiftly 
northwards     with     his 
house-carls     and     the 
thegns  who  joined  him 
on  the  way,  he  hastened 
to   their  succour.     On 


io66 


STAMFORD  BRIDGE 


95 


the  way  worse  tidings  reached  him.  The  Earls  had  been  defeated? 
and  York  had  agreed  to  submit  to  the  Norsemen.  Harold  hurried 
on  the  faster,  and  came  upon  the  invaders  unawares  as  they  lay 


A  Norman  ship.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.) 

heedlessly  on  both  sides  of  the  Derwent  at  Stamford  Bridge.  Those 
on  the  western  side,  unprepared  as  they  were,  were  soon  over- 
powered.    One  brave  Norseman,  like  Horatius  and  his  comrades 


Norman  soldiers  mounted.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.) 

in  the  Roman  legend,  kept  the  narrow  bridge  against  the  army,  till 
an  Englishman  crept  under  it  and  stabbed  him  from  below  through 
a  gap  in  the  woodworl^.     The  battle  rolled  across  the  Derwent,  and 


96 


THE  BATTLE    OF  SENLAC 


1066 


^ 


when  evening  came  Harold  Hardrada,  and  Tostig  himsolf,  with  the 
bulk  of  the  invaders,  had  been  slain.  For  the  last  time  an  English 
king  overthrew  a  foreign  host  in  battle  on  English  soil. 

23.  The  Landing  of  William.  1066. — Harold  had  shown  what 
an  English  king  could  do,  who  fought  not  for  this  or  that  part  of  the 
country,  but  for  all  England.  It  was  the  lack  of  this  national  spirit 
in  Englishmen  which  caused  his  ruin.  As  Harold  was  feasting 
at  York  in  celebration  of  his  victory,  a  messenger  told  him  of 
the  landing  of  the  Norman  host  at  Pevensey.  He  had  saved 
Eadwine  and  Morkere  from  destruction,  but  Eadwine  and  Morkere 
gave  him  no  help  in  return.    He  had  to  hurry  back  to  defend  Sussex 

without  a  single  man 
from  the  north  or  the 
Midlands,  except  those 
whom  he  collected  on 
his  line  of  march.  The 
House  of  Leofric  bore 
no  goodwill  to  the 
House  of  Godwine. 
England  was  a  king- 
dom divided  against 
itself 

24.  The  Battle  of 
Senlac.  1066. — Harold, 
as  soon 'as  he  reached 
the  point  of  danger, 
drew  up  his  army  on 
the  long  hill  of  Senlac 
on  which  Battle  Abbey 
now  stands.  On  Octo- 
ber 14  William  marched  forth  to  attack  him.  The  military  equip- 
ment of  the  Normans  was  better  than  that  of  the  English.  Where  the 
weapons  on  either  side  are  unlike,  battles  are  decided  by  the  mo- 
mentum—that is  to  say,  by  the  combined  weight  and  speed  of  the 
weapons  employed.  The  English  fought  on  foot  mostly  with  two- 
handed  axes  ;  the  Normans  fought  not  only  on  horseback  with 
lances,  but  also  with  infantry,  some  of  them  being  archers.  A  horse, 
the  principal  weapon  of  a  horseman,  has  more  momentum  than  an 
armed  footman,  whilst  an  arrow  can  reach  the  object  at  which  it 
is  aimed  long  before  a  horse.  Harold;  however,  had  in  his  favour 
the  slope  of  the  hill  up  which  the  Normans  would  have  to  ride,  and 


Group  of  archers  on  foot.   (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.) 


io66 


THE  BATTLE   OF  SENT  AC 


97 


he  took  advantage  of  the  lie  of  the  ground  by  posting  his  men  with 
their  shields  before  them  on  the  edge  of  the  hill.  The  position  was 
a  strong  one  for  purposes  of  defence,  but  it  was  not  one  that  made 
it  easy  for  Harold  to  change  his  arrangements  as  the  fortunes 
of  the  day  might  need.  WilHam,  on  the  other  hand,  had  not  only 
a  better  armed  force,  but  a  more  flexible  one.  He  had  to  attack, 
and,  versed  as  he  was  in  all  the  operations  of  war,  he  could  move 
his  men  from  place  to  place  and  make  use  of  each  opportunity  as 
it  arrived.  The  English  were  brave  enough,  but  William  was  a 
more  intelligent  leader  than  Harold,  and  his  men  were  better 
under  control.  Twice  after  the  battle  had  begun  the  Norman 
horsemen  charged  up  the  hill  only  to  be  driven  back.  The  wily 
William,   finding    that    the  hill   was    not   to  be   stormed    by  a 


Men  fighting  with  axes.     (From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.) 


direct  attack,  met  the  difficulty  by  galling  the  English  with  a 
shower  of  arrows  and  ordering  his  left  wing  to  turn  and  fly. 
The  stratagem  was  successful.  Some  of  the  English  rushed  down 
the  hill  in  pursuit.  The  fugitives  faced  round  and  charged  the 
pursuers,  following  them  up  the  slope.  The  English  on  the  height 
were  thus  thrown  into  confusion  ;  but  they  held  out  stoutly,  and  as 
the  Norman  horsemen  now  in  occupation  of  one  end  of  the  hill 
charged  fiercely  along  its  crest,  they  locked  their  shields  together 
and  fought  desperately  for  life,  if  no  longer  for  victory.  Slowly  and 
steadily  the  Normans  pressed  on,  till  they  reached  the  spot  where 
Harold,  surrounded  by  his  house-carls,  fought  beneath  his  standard. 
There  all  their  attacks  were  in  vain,  till  William,  calling  for  his 
bowmen,  bade  them  shoot  their  arrows  into  the  air.  Down  came 
the  arrows  in  showers  upon  the  heads  of  the  English  warriors,  and 


98 


ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY 


1066 


Y 


one  of  them  pierced  Harold's  eye,  stretching  him  lifeless  on  the 
ground.  In  a  series  of  representations  in  worsted  work,  known  as 
the  Bayeux  Tapestry,  which  was  wrought  by  the  needle  of  some 
unknown  woman  and  is  now  exhibited  in  the  museum  of  that  city, 
the  scenes  of  the  battle  and  the  events  preceding  it  are  pictorially 
recorded. 

25.  William's  Coronation.  io66. — William  had  destroyed  both 
the  English  king  and  the  English  army.  It  is  possible  that 
England,  if  united,  might  still  have  resisted.  The  great  men  at 
London  chose  for  their  king  Eadgar  the  yEtheling,  the  grandson 
of  Eadmund  Ironside.  Eadwine  and  Morkere  were  present  at  the 
election,  but  left  London  as  soon  as  it  was  over.     They  would  look 


Death  of  Harold,  who  is  attempting  to  pull  the  arrow  from  his  eye. 
(From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.) 

after  their  own  earldoms  ;  they  would  not  join  others,  as  Harold  had 
done,  in  defending  England  as  a  whole.  Divided  England  would 
sooner  or  later  be  a  prey  to  William.  He  wanted,  however,  not 
merely  to  reign  as  a  conqueror,  but  to  be  lawfully  elected  as  king, 
that  he  might  have  on  his  side  law  as  well  as  force.  He  first 
struck  terror  into  Kent  and  Sussex  by  ravaging  the  lands  of  all 
who  held  out  against  him.  Then  he  marched  to  the  Thames  and 
burnt  Southwark.  He  did  not,  however,  try  to  force  his  way  into 
London,  as  he  w^anted  to  induce  the  citizens  to  submit  voluntarily 
to  him,  or  at  least  in  a  way  which  might  seem  voluntary.  He 
therefore  marched  westwards,  crossed  the  Thames  at  Wallingford, 
and  wheeled  round  to  Berkhampstead.     His  presence  there  made 


io66 


WILLIAM'S  CORONATION 


99 


Coronation  of  a  king,  tetnp.  William  the  Conqueror. 
(From  a  drawing  in  the  possession  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.) 


H  2 


lOO  ENGLAND  AND  NORMANDY  1066 

the  Londoners  feel  utterly  isolated.  Even  if  Eadwine  and  Morkere 
wished  to  do  anything  for  them,  they  could  not  come  from  the 
north  or  north-west  without  meeting  William's  victorious  army. 
The  great  men  and  citizens  alike  gave  up  all  thought  of  resistance, 
abandoned  Eadgar,  and  promised  to  take  William  for  their  king. 
On  Christmas  Day,  1066,  William  was  chosen  with  acclamation 
in  Eadward's  abbey  at  Westminster,  where  Harold  had  been 
chosen  less  than  a  year  before.  The  Normans  outside  mistook 
the  shouts  of  applause  for  a  tumult  against  their  Duke,  and  set 
fire  to  the  houses  around.  The  English  rushed  out  to  save  their 
property,  arid  William,  frightened  for  the  only  time  in  his  life, 
was  left  alone  with  the  priests.  Not  knowing  what  was  next  to 
follow,  he  was  crowned  king  of  the  English  by  Ealdred,  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  in  an  empty  church,  amidst  the  crackling  of  flames 
and  the  shouts  of  men  striving  for  the  mastery. 

Books  recommended  for  further  study  of  Part  I. 

Dawkins,  W.  Boyd.     Early  Man  in  Britain. 

Rhys,  J.     Early  Britain. 

Elton,  C.  J.     Origins  of  English  History. 

Guest,  E.     Origines  Celricae.     Vol.  ii.  pp.  121-408. 

Freeman.     History  of  the  Norman  Conquest.     Vols,  i.-iii. 

Green,  J.  R.     The  Making  of  England. 


The  Conquest  of  England.  / 

History  of  the  Enghsh  People.     Vol.  i.  pp.  1-114. 


Bright,  W.     Chapters  of  English  Church  History. 
Stubbs,  W.     The  Constitutional  History  of  England.     Chaps.  I. -IX. 
Cunningham,  W.     The  Growth  of  English   Industry  and  Commerce 
during  the  Early  and  Middle  Ages,  pp.  1-128. 


lOI 


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PART    11 

THE  NORMAN  AND  ANGEVlN  KINGS 

CHAPTER   VII 

WILLIAM    I.      1066— 1087 

LEADING   DATES 

William's  coronation io66 

Completion  of  the  Conquest .  1070 

The  rising  of  the  Earls 1075 

The  Gemot  at  Salisbury 1086 

Death  of  William  1 1087 


The  First  Months  of  the  Conquest.  1066-1067. — Though  at 
the  time  when  William  was  crowned  he  had  gained  actual  possession 
of  no  more  than  the  south-eastern  part  of  England,  he  claimed  a 
right  to  rule  the  whole  as  lawful  king  of  the  English,  not  merely 
by  Eadward's  bequest,  but  by  election  and  coronation.  In  reality, 
he  came  as  a  conqueror,  whilst  the  Normans  by  whose  aid  he 
gained  the  victory  at  Senlac  \Q  f,Aj4ikr-A 
left  their  homes  not  merely  * 
to  turn  their  Duke  into  a  king, 
but  also  to  acquire  lands  and 
wealth  for  themselves.  Wil- 
liam could  not  act  justly  and 
kindly  to   his    new  subjects 

^,r^^  \c  1,^  ,,,;r-V,^^       "vxn,^*-  i,^  A  silvex' penny  of  William  the  Conqueror, 

even  if  he  wished.    What  he  ^    ^t^^^k  at  Romney. 

did  was  to  clothe  real  vio- 
lence with  the  appearance  of  law.  He  gave  out  that  as  he  had  been 
the  lawful  king  of  the  English  ever  since  Eadward's  death,  Harold 
and  all  who  fought  under  him  at  Senlac  had  forfeited  their  lands  by 
their  treason  to  himself  as  their  lawful  king.  These  lands  he  distri- 
buted amongst  his  Normans.    The  English  indeed  were  not  entirely 


102  WILLIAM  I.  1066-1069 

dispossessed.  Sometimes  the  son  of  a  warrior  who  had  been  slain 
was  allowed  to  retain  a  small  portion  of  his  fathei-'s  land.  Some- 
times the  daughter  or  the  widow  of  one  of  Harold's  comrades  was 
compelled  to  marry  a  Norman  whom  William  wished  to  favour. 
Yet,  for  all  that,  a  vast  number  of  estates  in  the  southern  and 
eastern  counties  passed  from  English  into  Norman  hands.  The 
bulk  of  the  population,  the  serfs— or,  as  they  were  now  called  by  a 
Norman  name,  the  villeins — were  not  affected  by  the  change,  except 
so  far  as  they  found  a  foreign  lord  less  willing  than  a  native  one 
to  hearken  to  their  complaints.  The  changes  which  took  place 
were  limited  as  yet  to  a  small  part  of  England.  In  three  months 
after  his  coronation  William  was  still  without  authority  beyond  an 
irregular  line  running  from  the  Wash  to  the  western  border  of 
Hampshire,  except  that  he  held  some  outlying  posts  in  Hereford- 
shire. It  is  true  that  Eadwine  and  Morkere  had  acknowledged 
him  as  king,  but  they  were  still  practically  independent.  Even 
where  William  actually  ruled  he  allowed  all  Englishmen  who  had 
not  fought  on  Harold's  side  to  keep  their  lands,  though  he  made 
them  redeem  them  by  the  payment  of  a  fine,  on  the  principle  that 
all  lands  in  the  country,  except  those  of  the  Church,  were  the  king's 
lands,  and  that  it  was  right  to  fine  those  who  had  not  come  to 
Senlac  to  help  him  as  their  proper  lord. 

2.  The  Conquest  of  the  West  and  North.  1067— 1069. — In  March 
1067  William  returned  to  Normandy.  In  his  absence  the  Nor- 
mans left  behind  in  England  oppressed  the  English,  and  were  sup- 
ported in  their  oppression  by  the  two  regents  appointed  to  govern 
in  William's  name,  his  half-brother,  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux, 
whom  he  had  made  Earl  of  Kent,  and  William  Fitz-Osbern,  Earl  of 
Hereford.  In  some  parts  the  English  rose  in  rebellion.  In 
December  William  returned,  and  after  putting  down  resistance 
in  the  south-eastern  counties,  set  himself  to  conquer  the  rest  of 
England.  It  took  him  more  than  two  years  to  complete  his  task. 
Perhaps  he  would  have  failed  even  then  if  the  whole  of  the  uncon- 
quered  part  of  the  country  had  risen  against  him  at  the  same  time. 
Each  district,  however,  resisted  separately,  and  he  was  strong 
enough  to  beat  them  down  one  by  one.  In  the  spring  of  1068  he 
besieged  and  took  Exeter,  and  subdued  the  West  to  the  Land's  End. 
When  this  had  been  accomplished  he  turned  northwards  against 
Eadwine  and  Morkere,  who  had  declared  against  him.  William 
soon  frightened  them  into  submission,  and  seized  on  York  and  all  the 
country  to  the  south  of  York  on  the  eastern  side  of  England.  In 
1069  the  English  of  the  North  rose  once  more  and  summoned  to 


1069-10^2  END   OF   THk   CONQUEST  163 

their  aid  Svend,  king  of  Denmark,  a  nephew  of  the  great  Cnut. 
Svend  sent  a  Danish  fleet,  and  the  Danes  were  joined  by  Eadgar 
the  y^theling  and  by  other  Enghsh  chiefs.  They  burnt  and  plun- 
dered York,  but  could  do  no  more.  Their  great  host  melted 
away.  The  Danes  went  off  with  their  booty  to  their  ships,  and  the 
English  returned  to  their  homes.  William  found  no  amiy  to  oppose 
him,  and  he  not  only  regained  the  lands  which  he  had  occupied 
the  year  before,  but  added  to  them  the  whole  country  up  to  the 
Tweed. 

3.  The  Completion  of  the  Conquest.  1O70. — William  was  never 
£ruel  without  an  object,  but  there  was  no  cruelty  which  he  would 
not  commit  if  it  would  serve  his  purpose.  He  resolved  to  make 
all  further  resistance  impossible.  The  Vale  of  York,  a  long  and 
wide  stretch  of  fertile  ground  running  northwards  from  the  city  to 
the  Tees,  was  laid  waste  by  William's  orders.  The  men  who  had 
joined  in  the  revolt  were  slain.  The  stored-up  crops,  the  ploughs, 
the  carts,  the  oxen  and  sheep  were  destroyed  by  fire.  Men,  women, 
and  children  dropped  dead  of  starvation,  and  their  corpses  lay 
unburied  in  the  wasted  fields.  Some  prolonged  life  by  feeding  on 
the  flesh  of  horses,  or  even  of  men.  Others  sold  themselves  into 
slavery,  bowing  their  heads,  as  was  said,  in  the  evil  days  for  meat. 
"  Waste  !  waste  !  waste  ! "  was  the  account  given  long  afterwards 
of  field  after  field  in  what  had  once  been  one  of  the  most  fertile 
districts  in  England.  William's  work  of  conquest  was  almost  over. 
Early  in  1070  he  crossed  the  hills  amidst  frost  and  snow,  and 
descended  upon  Chester.  Chester  submitted,  and  with  it  the  shires 
on  the  Welsh  border.     The  whole  of  England  was  at  last  subdued. 

4.  Hereward's  Revolt  and  the  Homage  of  Malcolm.  1070 — 
1072. — Only  one  serious  attempt  to  revolt  was  afterwards  made, 
but  this  was  no  more  than  a  local  rising.  The  Isle  of  Ely  was  in 
those  days  a  real  island  in  the  midst  of  the  waters  of  the  fens. 
Hereward,  with  a  band  of  followers,  threw  himself  into  the  island, 
and  it  was  only  after  a  year's  attack  that  he  was  driven  out.  When 
the  revolt  was  at  its  height,  Eadwine  and  Morkere  fled  from 
William's  court  to  join  the  insurgents.  Eadwine  was  murdered  by 
his  own  attendants.  Morkere  reached  Ely,  and  when  resistance 
was  at  an  end  was  banished  to  Normandy.  No  man  ever  deserved 
less  pity  than  these  two  brothers.  They  had  never  sought  any 
one's  advantage  but  their  own,  and  they  had  been  faithless  to  every 
cause  which  they  had  pretended  to  adopt.  Before  Hereward  was 
overpowered,  Malcolm,  king  of  the  Scots,  ravaged  northern  England, 
carrying  off  with  him  droves  of  English  slaves.     In  1072  William, 


104  WILLIAM  I.  1072 

who  had  by  that  time  subdued  Here  ward,  marched  into  Scotland 
as  far  as  the  Tay.  Malcohn  submitted  to  him  at  Abernethy,  and 
acknowledged  him  to  be  his  lord.  Malcolm's  acknowledgment  was 
only  a  repetition  of  the  acknowledgment  made  by  his  predecessors, 
the  Scottish  kings,  to  Eadward  and  Cnut  (see  pp.  63,  84;  ;  but 
William  was  more  powerful  than  Eadward  or  Cnut  had  been,  and 
was  likely  to  construe  the  obligation  more  strictly. 

How  William  kept  down  the  English. — William,  having 
conquWed  England,  had  now  to  govern  it.  His  first  object  was  to 
keep  tn^ English  in  subjection. 

{a)  Tf{e  Confiscation  of  Land. — In  the  first  place  he  continued 
to  treat  alKwho  had  resisted  him  as  rebels,  confiscating  their  land 
and  giving  It  to  some  Norman  follower.  In  almost  every  district 
there  was  at\east  one  Norman  landowner,  who  was  on  the  watch 
against  any  attempt  of  his  English  neighbours  to  revolt,  and  who 
knew  that  he  wo^ild  lose  his  land  if  William  lost  his  crown. 

ip)  Building  \astles. — In  the  second  place  William  built  a 
castle  in  every  tov^  of  importance,  which  he  garrisoned  with  his 
own  men.  The  mos^  notable  example  of  these  castles  is  the  Tower 
of  London.  \ 

if)  The  Feudal  Anky. — In  the  third  place,  though  the  diffusion 
of  Norman  landowners  and  of  William's  castles  made  a  general 
revolt  of  the  English  difficult,  it  did  not  make  it  impossible,  and 
William  took  care  to  have  an'army  always  ready  to  put  down  a  revolt 
if  it  occurred.  No  king  in  thc^se  days  could  have  a  constantly  paid 
army,  such  as  exists  in  all  Eurdoean  countries  at  the  present  day, 
because  there  was  not  much  nroney  anywhere.  Some  men  had 
land  and  some  men  had  bodily  strength,  and  they  bartered  one  for 
the  other.  The  villein  gave  his  str^gth  to  plough  and  reap  for  his 
lord,  in  return  for  the  land  which  he  tield  from  him.  The  fighting 
man  gave  his  strength  to  his  lord,  to  s^rve  him  with  his  horse  and 
his  spear,  in  return  for  the  land  whictt'v  he  held  from  him.  This 
system,  which  is  known  as  feudal,  had  be^n  growing  up  in  England 
before  the  Conquest,  but  it  was  perfecte^  on  the  Continent,  and 
William  brought  it  with  him  in  its  perfect^  shape.  The  warrior 
who  served  on  horseback  was  called  a  knigf^.  and  when  a  knight 
received  land  from  a  lord  on  military  tenure— tn,at  is  to  say,  on  con- 
dition of  military  service — he  was  called  the  Vassal  of  his  lord. 
When  he  became  a  vassal  he  knelt,  and,  placing  hjs  hands  between 
those  of  his  lord,  swore  to  be  his  man.  This  act  Ws  called  doing 
homage.  The  land  which  he  received  as  sufificiant  to  maintain 
him  was  called  a  knight's  fee.     After  this  homageVhe  vassal  was 


1072 


Normans  and  English 


105 


"feound  to  serve  his  lord  in  arms,  this  service  being  the  rent  pay- 
abtfevsfor  his  land.  If  the  vassal  broke  his  oath  and  fought  against 
his  loM.  he  was  regarded  as  a  traitor,  or  a  betrayer  of  his  trust, 
and  coul^sbe  turned  out  of  his  land.  The  whole  land  of  Eng- 
land being N^arded  as  the  king's,  all  land  was  held  from  the 
king.  Sometimtss  the  knights  held  their  fees  directly  from  the  king 
and  did  homage  rta  him.  These  knights  were  known  as  tenants 
in  chief  {in  capite),  ha>^ver  small  their  estates  might  be.  Usually, 
however,  the  tenants  iirNdiief  were  large  landowners,  to  whom  the 
king  had  granted  vast  est^s  ;  and  these  when  they  did  homage 
engaged  not  merely  to  fight  >^r  him  in  person,  but  to  bring  some 
hundreds  of  knights  with  theniSsTo  enable  them  to  do  this  they 
had  to  give  out  portions  of  their  lanosto  sub-tenants,  each  engaging 
to  bring  himself  and  a  specified  numbeS<^  knights.  There  might 
thus  be  a  regular  chain  of  sub-tenants,  A  engaging  to  serve  under 
B,  B  under  C,  C  under  D,  and  so  on  till  theS^ant-in-chief  was 
reached,  who  engaged  to  bring  them  all  to  serve  tfltSsking.  Almost 
all  the  larger  tenants-in-chief  were  Normans,  thougli^S^glishmen 
were  still  to  be  found  amongst  the  sub-tenants,  and  evenSmiongst 
the  smaller  tenants-in-chief.  The  whole  body,  however,  waS^ore- 
ponderantly  Norman,  and  William  could  therefore  depend  upon  it 
tx3  serve  him  as  an  army  in  the  field  in  case  of  an  English  rising. 

6.  How  William  kept  down  the  Normans. — William  was  not 
afram\only  of  the  English.  He  had  cause  to  fear  lest  the  feudal 
army,  \vhich  was  to  keep  down  the  English,  might  be  strong  enough 
to  be  turn^  against  himself,  and  that  the  barons — as  the  greater 
tenants-in-chibf  were  usually  called — might  set  him  at  naught  as 
Eadwine  and  Mbjskere  had  set  Harold  at  naught,  and  as  the  Dukes 
of  Normandy  had  seK^  naught  the  kings  of  France.  To  prevent 
this  he  adopted  various  oaj^rivances. 

{a)  Abolition  of  the  grtat  Earldo7ns. — In  the  first  place  he 
abolished  the  great  earldoms.  Nri  most  counties  there  were  to  be 
no  earls  at  all,  and  no  one  was  to  O^arl  of  more  than  one  county. 
There  was  never  again  to  be  an  Earl  o^he  West  Saxons  like  God- 
wine,  or  an  Earl  of  the  Mercians  like  Leoft^ic. 

{b)  The  Estates  of  the  Barons  scattered.— ^\.  only  did  William 
diminish  the  official  authority  of  the  earls,  he  a^o  weakened  the 
territorial  authority  of  the  barons.  Even  when  he^anted  to  one 
man  estates  so  numerous  that  if  they  had  been  close  tbg^her  they 
would  have  extended  at  least  over  a  whole  county,  he  toofescare  to 
scatter  them  over  England,  allowing  only  a  few  to  be  helcN^  a 
single  owner  in  any  one  county.     If,  therefore,  a  great  baron  tobk 


io6  William  /.  107^ 

iKinto  his  head  to  levy  war  against  the  king,  he  would  have  to 
colleb<liis  vassals  from  the  most  distant  counties,  and  his  intentions 
would  thus  be  known  before  they  could  be  put  in  practice. 

{c)  Tn\Fyrd  kept  in  readiness.  — '^\\Vi  more  im.portant  was 
William's  resolution  to  be  the  real  head  of  the  English  nation.  He 
had  weakenedSit  enough  to  fear  it  no  longer,  but  he  kept  it  strong 
enough  to  use  i\  if  need  came,  against  the  Norman  barons.  He 
won  Englishmen\o  his  side  by  the  knowledge  that  he  was  ready 
to  do  them  justiofc  whenever  they  were  wronged,  and  he  could 
therefore  venture  to\ummon  the  fyrd  whenever  he  needed  support, 
without  having  cause\o  fear  that  it  would  turn  against  him. 

7.  Ecclesiastical  Or^nisation. — Before  the  Conquest  the  English 
Church  had  been  altogWher  national.  Its  bishops  had  sat  side 
by  side  with  the  ealdorm^fi  or  earls  in  the  shire-moots,  and  in  the 
Witenagemot  itself  The)\had  been  named,  like  the  ealdormen  or 
earls,  by  the  king  with  theXconsent  of  the  Witenagemot.  Eccle- 
siastical questions  had  beeiA  decided  and  ecclesiastical  offences 
punished  not  by  any  special  Ecclesiastical  court,  but  by  the  shire- 
moot  or  Witenagemot,  in  whicK  the  laity  and  the  clergy  were  both 
to  be  found.  William  resolvecB.to  change  all  this.  The  bishops 
and  abbots  whom  he  found  were  Englishmen,  and  he  replaced 
most  of  them  by  Normans.  The  n,ew  Norman  bishops  and  abbots 
were  dependent  on  the  king.  They  looked  on  the  English  as 
barbarians,  and  would  certainly  not  support  them  in  any  revolt,  as 
their  English  predecessors  might  haV^  done.  Thurstan,  indeed, 
the  Norman  Abbot  of  Glastonbury,  wa\  so  angry  with  his  English 
monks  because  they  refused  to  change  their  style  of  music  that  he 
called  in  Norman  archers  to  shoot  them  down  on  the  steps  of  the 
altar.  Such  brutality,  however,  was  exceptional,  and,  as  a  rule,  even 
Norman  bishops  and  abbots  were  well  disposed  towards  theit 
English  neighbours,  all  the  more  because' , they  were  not  very 
friendly  with  the  Norman  nobles,  who  often  attempted  to  encroach 
on  the  lands  of  the  Church.  Many  a  king  in  ,William's  position 
would  have  been  content  to  fill  the  sees  with  cre'^tures  of  his  own, 
who  would  have  done  what  they  were  bidden  and  '^have  thought  of 
no  one's  interest  but  his.  William  knew,  as  he  had  already  shown 
in  Normandy,  that  he  would  be  far  better  served  if  the  clergy  were 
not  only  dependent  on  himself  but  deserving  the  respect , of  others. 
He  made  his  old  friend  Lanfranc  (see  p.  Z'^)  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. Lanfranc  had,  like  William,  the  mind  of  a  ruler,  and 
under  him  bishops  and  abbots  were  appointed  Avho  enforced  dis- 
cipline.     The  monks   were  compelled  to  keep  the  rules  of  their 


I066-I073       THE   CHURCH  OF   THE   CONQUEST 


107 


oroer,  the  canons  of  cathedrals  were  forced  to  send  away  their 
wives,  and  though  the  married  clergy  in  the  country  were  allowed 
to  keep  theirs,  orders  were  given  that  in  future  no  priest  should 
marry\  Everywhere  the  Church  gave  signs  of  new  vigour.  The 
monasteries  became  again  the  seats  of  study  and  learning.  The 
sees  of  oishops  were  transferred  from  villages  to  populous  towns, 
as  whenXthe  Bishop  of  Dorchester,  in  Oxfordshire,  migrated  to 
Lincoln,  And  the  Bishop  of  Thetford  to  Norwich.  New  churches 
were  built  and  old  ones  restored  after  the  new  Continental  style, 
which  is  kftown  in  England  as  Norman,  and  which  Eadward  had 
introduced\n  his  abbey  of  Westminster.  The  Church,  though 
made  dependent  on  William,  was  independent,  so  far  as  its  spiritual 
rights  were  concerned,  of  the 
civil  courts.  \  Ecclesiastical 
matters  wereVdiscussed,  not 
in  the  WitenagVmot,  but  in  a 
Church  synod,  Vnd,  in  course 
of  time,  punishmmits  were  in- 
flicted by  ChurchX  courts  on 
ecclesiastical  offenders.  The 
power  of  William  wafe  strength- 
ened by  the  chang^.  That 
power  rested  on  threasupports 
— the  Norman  coAquerors, 
the  English  nation,  and  the 
Church,  and  each  one  Af  these 
three  had  reason  to  (kstrust 
the  other  two. 

8.  Pope  Gregory  wL- 
The  strength  which  William 
had  acquired  showed  itself  in 
his  bearing  towards  the  P^pe. 
In  1073  Archdeacon  HildelJ^-and,  who  for  some  years  had  been  more 
powerful  at  Rome  than  the  ^opes  themselves,  himself  became  Pope 
under  the  name  of  GregoryVVII.  Gregory'  was  as  stern  a  ruler 
of  the  Church  as  William  wSS  of  the  State.  He  was  an  uncom- 
promising champion  of  the  ^uniac  reforms  (see  p.  67).  His 
object  was  to  moderate  the  cruielty  and  sinfulness  of  the  feudal 
warriors  of  Europe  by  making  tne  Church  a  light  to  guide  the 
world  to  piety  and  self-denial.  AsViatters  stood  on  the  Continent, 
it  had  been  impossible  for  the  ChurcB^o  attain  to  so  high  a  standard. 
The   clergy  bought  their  places  an».  fought  and  killed  like  the 


East  end  of  Darenth  Church,  Kent. 
Built  about  1080. 


>^ 


lo8  WILLIAM  I.  1073 

la^en  around  them.  The  Cluniac  monks,  therefore,  thought  it  best 
to  sq^i-ate  the  clergy  entirely  from  the  world.  In  the  first  place 
they  wer*&^o  be  celibate,  that  they  might  not  be  entangled  in  the 
cares  of  life\In  the  second  place  they  were  to  refrain  from  simony, 
or  the  purchas\of  ecclesiastical  preferment,  that  they  might  not  be 
dependent  on  theSgreat  men  of  the  world.  A  third  demand  was 
added  later,  that  bi^ops  and  abbots  should  not  receive  from  lay- 
men the  ring  and  staftS^hich  were  the  signs  of  their  authority — the 
ring  as  the  symbol  of  mafHage  to  their  churches  ;  the  staff  or  crozier, 
in  the  shape  of  a  shepherd^  crook,  as  the  symbol  of  their  pastoral 
authority.  The  Church,  inVact,  was  to  be  governed  by  its  own 
laws  in  perfect  independence).,  that  it  might  become  more  pure 
itself,  and  thus  capable  of  settling  a  better  example  to  the  laity. 
As  might  have  been  expected,  thoi^gh  the  internal  condition  of  the 
Church  was  greatly  improved,  yet  wKen  Gregory  attempted  entirely 
to  free  ecclesiastics  from  the  influenceXand  authority  of  the  State, 
he  found  himself  involved  in  endless  qti^rrels.  Clergy  and  laity 
alike  resisted  him,  and  they  were  supported^^t)y  the  Emperor  Henry 
IV.,  whose  rule  extended  over  Germany  andx  the  greater  part  of 
Italy.  Gregory  next  claimed  the  right  of  excoR;imunicating  kings 
and  emperors,  and  of  deposing  them  if  they  did'xot  repent  after 
excommunication.  The  State,  he  declared,  was  as  ""ti^  moon,  re- 
ceiving light  from  the  Church,  which  shone  like  the  sunHn  heaven. 
The  whole  of  the  remainder  of  Gregory's  life  was  sp^t  in  a 
struggle  with  the  Emperor,  and  the  struggle  was  carried  60  by 
the  successors  of  both. 

9.  William  and  Gregory  VII. — It  is  remarkable  that  such  a 
Pope  as  Gregory  never  came  into  conflict  with  William.  William 
appointed  bishops  and  abbots  by  giving  them  investiture,  as  the 
presenting  of  the  ring  and  staff  was  called.  He  declared  that  no 
Pope  should  be  obeyed  in  England  who  was  not  acknowledged  by 
himself,  that  no  papal  bulls  or  letters  should  have  any  force  till  he 
had  allowed  them,  and  that  the  decrees  of  an  ecclesiastical  synod 
should  bind  no  one  till  he  had  confirmed  them.  When,  at  a  later 
time,  Gregory  required  William  to  do  homage  to  the  see  of  Rome, 
William  refused,  on  the  ground  that  homage  had  never  been  ren- 
dered by  his  predecessors.  To  all  this  Gregory  submitted.  No 
doubt  Gregory  was  prudent  in  not  provoking  William's  anger  ;  but 
that  he  should  have  refrained  from  even  finding  fault  with  William 
may  perhaps  be  set  down  to  the  credit  of  his  honesty.  He  claimed 
to  make  himself  the  master  of  kings  because  as  a  rule  they  did  not 
care  to  advance  the  purity  of  the  Church.     William  did  care  to 


I073 


GREGORY   VII. 


109 


Part  of  the  nave  of  St.  Alban's  Abbey  Church. 
1077  and  1093. 


Built  by  Abbot  Paul  between 


no  WILLIAM  L  1075 

advance  it.  He  chose  virtuous  and  learned  bishops,  and  defended 
the  clergy  against  aggression  from  without  and  corruption  within. 
Gregory  may  well  have  been  content  to  leave  power  over  the  Church 
in  the  hands  of  a  king  who  ruled  it  in  such  a  fashion. 

The  Rising  of  the  Earls.  1075. — Of  the  three  classes  of 
men\?v^which  William  ruled,  the  great  Norman  barons  imagined 
themselve^o  be  the  strongest,  and  were  most  inclined  to  throw  off 
his  yoke.  The  chief  feature  of  the  reigns  of  William  and  of  his 
successors  for  chree  generations  was  the  struggle  which  scarcely 
ever  ceased  between  the  Norman  barons  on  the  one  side,  and 
the  king  supported  by  the  English  and  the  clergy  on  the  other. 
It  was  to  the  advantage  of  the  king  that  he  had  not  to  contend 
against  the  whole  ofl^he  Normans.  Normans  with  small  estates 
clung  for  support,  lik^.  their  English  neighbours,  to  the  crown. 
The  first  of  many  risingss^of  the  barons  took  place  in  1075.  Roger, 
Earl  of  Hereford,  in  spite  of  William's  prohibition,  gave  his 
sister  in  marriage  to  Ralph  of  Wader,  Earl  of  Norfolk,  who, 
though  of  English  birth  on  Bi^s  father's  side,  had  fought  for  William 
at  Senlac,  and  may  practically^  be  counted  as  a  Norman.  As  the 
chronicler  expressed  it  :  \ 

There  was  th^  bride-ale 
To  many  menV-bale. 

The  two  earls  plotted  a  rising  againsb  William  and  the  revivals  of 
the  old  independent  earldoms.  They  took  arms  and  were  beaten. 
Ralph  fled  the  country,  and  Roger  was  fepndemned  to  perpetual 
imprisonment.  His  followers  were  blinded'.or  had  their  feet  cut 
off.  It  wg^  the  Norman  custom  not  to  puKcriminals  to  death. 
To  this  rule,  however,  William  made  one  exception.  Waltheof,  the 
last  earl  of  purely  English  race,  had  been  present  at  the  fatal 
bride-ale,  but  though  he  had  listened  to  the  plottihgs  of  the  con- 
spirators, he  had  revealed  all  that  he  knew  to  WilliaV-  His  wife, 
Judith,  a  niece  of  the  Conqueror,  accused  him  of  actual  treason,  and 
he  was  beheaded  at  Winchester.  By  the  English  he  was  regarded 
as  a  martyr,  and  it  was  probably  his  popularity  amongst  thent- which 
made  William  resolve  upon  his  death. 

II.  The  New  Forest. — Only  once  did  William  cause  misery 
amongst  his  subjects  for  the  sake  of  his  own  enjoyment.  Many 
kings  before  him  had  taken  pleasure  in  hunting,  but  William  was 
the  first  who  claimed  the  right  of  hunting  over  large  tracts  of 
country  exclusively  for  himself  He  made,  as  the  chronicler  says, 
'  mickle  deer-frith  ' — a  tract,  that  is  to  say,  in  which  the  deer  might 


1075-1085  DOMESDAY  BOOK  ill 

have  peace — '  and  laid  laws  therewith  that  he  who  slew  hart  or  hind 
that  man  should  blind  him.  ...  In  sooth  he  loved  the  high  deer  as 
though  he  were  their  father.'  He  forbade,  in  short,  all  men,  except 
those  to  whom  he  gave  permission,  to  hunt  within  the  limits  of  the 
royal  forests.  In  the  south-west  of  Hampshire,  near  his  favourite 
abode  at  Winchester,  he  enlarged  the  New  Forest.  The  soil  is  poor, 
and  it  can  never  have  been  covered  by  cultivated  fields,  but  here 
and  there,  by  the  sides  of  streams,  there  were  scattered  hamlets, 
and  these  were  destroyed  and  the  dwellers  in  them  driven  off  by 
William's  orders,  that  there  might  be  a  '  mickle  deer-frith.'  We 
may  be  sure  that  there  was  not  nearly  as  much  misery  caused  by 
the  making  of  the  New  Forest  as  was  caused  by  the  harrying  of  the 
Vale  of  York,  but  popular  tradition  rightly  held  in  more  abhorrence 
the  lesser  cruelty  for  the  sake  of  pleasure  than  the  greater  cruelty 
for  the  sake  of  policy.  It  told  how  the  New  Forest  was  accursed 
for  William's  family.  In  his  own  lifetime  a  son  and  a  grandson  of 
his  were  cut  off  within  it  by  unknown  hands,  probably  falling  before 
the  vengeance  of  some  who  had  lost  home  and  substance  through 
the  creation  of  the  Forest,  and  in  due  time  another  son,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  on  the  throne,  was  to  meet  with  a  similar  fate. 

12.  Domesday  Book.  1085— 1086. — It  was  to  William's  credit 
that  his  government  was  a  strong  one.  In  William's  days  life  and 
property  and  female  honour  were  under  the  protection  of  a  king 
who  knew  how  to  make  .himself  obeyed.  Strong  government, 
however,  is  always  expensive,  and  William  and  his  officers  were 
always  ready  with  an  excuse  for  getting  money.  "  The  king  and 
the  headmen  loved  much  and  overmuch  covetousness  on  gold  and 
on  silver,  and  they  recked  not  how  sinfully  it  was  gotten,  if  only  it 
came  to  them.  .  .  .  They  reared  up  unright  tolls,  and  many  other 
unright  things  they  did  that  are  hard  to  reckon."  Other  men,  in 
short,  must  observe  the  law ;  William's  government  was  a  law  to 
itself  It  was,  however,  a  law,  and  not  a  mere  scramble  for  money. 
Though  there  were  no  Danish  invaders  now,  William  continued 
to  levy  the  Danegeld,  and  he  had  rents  and  payments  due  to  him 
in  many  quarters  which  had  been  due  to  his  predecessors.  In  order 
to  make  his  exactions  more  complete  and  more  regular,  he  resolved 
to  have  set  down  the  amount  of  taxable  property  in  the  realm  that 
his  full  rights  might  be  known,  and  in  1085,  "He  sent  over  all  Eng- 
land into  ilk  shire  his  men,  and  let  them  find  out  how  many  hun- 
dred hides  were  in  the  shire,  or  what  the  king  himself  had  of  land 
or  cattle  in  the  land,  or  whilk  rights  he  ought  to  have.  .  .  .  Eke 
he  let  write  how  mickle  of  land  his  archbishops  had,  and  his  bishops, 


112  WILLIAM  I.  1085- 1086 

and  his  abbots  and  his  earls,  and  what  or  how  mickle  ilk  man  had 
that  landholder  was  in  England  in  land  and  in  cattle,  and  how 
mickle  fee  it  was  worth.  So  very  narrowly  he  let  speer  it  out  that 
there  was  not  a  single  hide  nor  a  yard  of  land,  nor  so  much  as 
— it  is  a  shame  to  tell,  though  he  thought  it  no  shame  to  do — 
an  ox  nor  a  cow  nor  a  swine  was  left  that  was  not  set  in  his  writ." 
The  chronicler  who  wrote  these  words  was  an  English  monk  of 
Peterborough.     Englishmen  were  shocked  by  the  new  regularity 

■fp..t.n\.  cscr'ln^iuo.e  unX^^/u^y  VTitt.liori'ctt.n. 


car-  tbt.tt.ferut.y  moUn'^c.^tf.rjtii'.  7iiit.  ^^. 
"f  {t'56(/- Wi*ig  »08,h\Bj^TenUtxr  Ji4CbctiptfeB6aife^r 
-fia. e^t  N  <ar^ J tt  futtr.  a.  rttiu  ^ g-tt.  t>oj3i''at.u . 

ittt. car  In  J>niu>.B^^u««it. 7«i. mttt  tium. cac.cxx.u c3o/ 

Reduced  facsimile  of  part  of  Domesday  Book. 

of  taxation.  They  could  hardly  be  expected  to  understand  the 
advantages  of  a  government  strong  enough  through  regular  taxa- 
tion to  put  down  the  resistance  of  rebellious  earls  at  home  and  to 
defy  invasion  from  abroad.  The  result  of  the  inquiries  of  the 
king's  commissioners  was  embodied  in  Domesday  Book,  so  called 
because  it  was  no  more  possible  to  appeal  from  it  than  from  the 
Last  Judgment. 

13.  William's  Great  Councils. — Though  WillJaiji  w^g  himself 


lo86  THE  GREAT  GEMOT  113 

the  true  ruler  of  England,  he  kept  up  the  practice  of  his  prede- 
cessors in  summoning  the  Witenagemot  from  time  to  time.  In  his 
^days,  however,  the  name  of  the  Witenagemot  was  changed  into 
that^of^he  Great  Council,  and,  to  a  slight  extent,  it  changed  iti; 
nature  wTtkits  name.  The  members  of  the  Witenagemot  had  at- 
tended becau^Osthey  were  officially  connected  with  the  king,  being 
ealdormen  or  bislx^s  or  thegns  serving  in  some  way  under  him. 
Members  of  the  Gr^a4.  Council  attended  because  they  held  land 
in  chief  from  the  king.  XHie  difference,  however,  was  greater  in 
appearance  than  in  reality.  \No  doubt  men  who  held  very  small 
estates  in  chief  might,  if  they  ple^s^,  come  to  the  Great  Council, 
and  if  they  had  done  so  the  Great  CbujKril  would  have  been  much 
more  numerously  attended  than  the  Witeitagemot  had  been.  The 
poorer  tenants-in-chief,  however,  found  that  iNwas  not  only  too 
troublesome  and  expensive  to  make  the  journey  aK^  time  when 
all  long  journeys  had  to  be  made  on  horseback,  but  tha^^hen  they 
arrived  their  wishes  were  disregarded.  They  therefore  stayed  at 
home,  so  that  the  Great  Council  was  regularly  attended  onlVby 
the  bishops,  the  abbots  of  the  larger  abbeys,  and  certain  gre^ 
landowners  who  were  known  as  barons.  In  this  way  the  Great 
Council  became  a  council  of  the  wealthy  landowners,  as  the 
Witenagemot  had  been,  though  the  two  assemblies  were  formed 
on  different  principles. 

14.  The  Gemot  at  Salisbury.  1086. — In  1086,  after  Domesday 
Book  had  been  finished,  William  summoned  an  unusually  numerous 
assembly,  known  as  the  Great  Gemot,  to  meet  at  Salisbury.  At  this 
not  only  the  tenants-in-chief  appeared,  but  also  all  those  who  held 
lands  from  them  as  sub-tenants.  "  There  came  to  him,"  wrote  the 
chronicler,  ".  .  .  all  the  landowning  men  there  were  over  all  England, 
whose  soever  men  they  were,  and  all  bowed  down  before  him  and 
became  his  men,  and  swore  oaths  of  fealty  to  him,  that  they  would 
be  faithful  to  him  against  all  other  men."  It  was  this  oath  which 
marked  the  difference  between  English  and  Continental  feudalism, 
though  they  were  now  in  other  respects  alike.  On  the  Continent 
each  tenant  swore  to  be  faithful  to  his  lord,  but  only  the  lords 
who  held  directly  from  the  crown  swore  to  be  faithful  to  the  king. 
The  consequence  was  that  when  a  lord  rebelled  against  the 
king,  his  tenants  followed  their  lord  and  not  the  king.  In 
England  the  tenants  swore  to  forsake  their  lord  and  to  serve 
the  king  against  him  if  he  forsook  his  duty  to  the  king.  Nor 
was  this  all.  Many  men  break  their  oaths.  William,  however, 
was  strong  enough  in  England  to  punish  those  who  broke  their 


114  WILLIAM  L  1087 

oaths  to  him,  whilst  the  king  of  France  was  seldom  strong  enough 
to  punish  those  who  broke  their  oaths  to  him. 
N^  15.  William's  Death.     1087. — The  oath  taken  at  Salisbury  was 

the  completion  of  William's  work  in  England.  To  contemporaries 
be  appeared  as  a  foreign  conqueror,  and  often  as  a  harsh  and 
despotic  ruler.  Later  generations  could  recognise  that  his  supreme 
merit  was  that  he  made  England  one.  He  did  not  die  in  England. 
In  1087  he  fought  with  his  lord,  the  king  of  France,  Philip  I.  In 
anger  at  a  jest  of  Philip's  he  set  fire  to  Mantes.  As  he  rode  amidst 
the  burning  houses  his  horse  shied  and  threw  him  forward  on  the 
pommel  of  his  saddle.  He  was  now  corpulent  and  the  injury 
proved  fatal.  On  September  9  he  died.  When  the  body  was 
carried  to  Caen  for  burial  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Stephen,  which 
William  himself  had  reared,  a  knight  stepped  forward  and  claimed 
as  his  own  the  ground  in  which  the  grave  had  been  dug.  It  had 
been  taken,  he  said,  by  WiUiam  from  his  father.  "  In  the  name  of 
God,"  he  cried,  "  I  forbid  that  the  body  of  the  robber  be  covered 
with  my  mould,  or  that  he  be  buried  within  the  bounds  of  my 
inheritance."  The  bystanders  acknowledged  the  truth  of  his 
accusation,  and  paid  the  price  demanded. 


\ 


CHAPTER   VIII 

WILLIAM    II.      1087 — IIOO 

LEADING     DATES 

Accession  of  William  II. 1087 

Norman  rebellion  against  William  II 1088 

Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury       .        .        .        .        ,  1093 

The  Council  of  Rockingham,  and  the  First  Crusade       .  1095 

Conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Crusaders     ....  logg 

Death  of  William  II iioo 


I.  The  Accession  of  the  Red  King.  1087.— In  Normandy  the 
Conqueror  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Robert.  Robert  was 
sluggish  and  incapable,  and  his  father  had  expressed  a  wish  that 
England,  newly  conquered  and  hard  to  control,  should  be  ruled 
by  his  more  energetic  second  son,  William.  To  the  third  son, 
Henry,  he  gave  a  sum  of  money.  There  was  as  yet  no  settled  rule  of 
succession  to  the  English  crown,  and  William  at  once  crossed  the 
sea  and  was  crowned  king  of  the  English  at  Westminster,  by  Lan- 


1087-1088  THE  RED  KING  115 

franc.  William  Rufus,  or  the  Red  King,  as  men  called  him,  feared 
not  God  nor  regarded  man.  Yet  the  English  rallied  round  him, 
because  they  knew  that  he  was  strong-willed,  and  because  they 
needed  a  king  who  would  keep  the  Norman  barons  from  oppressing 
them.  For  that  very  reason  the  more  turbulent  of  the  Norman  barons 
declared  for  Robert,  who  would  be  too  lazy  to  keep  them  in  order. 
In  the  spring  of  1088  they  broke  into  rebellion  in  his  name.  William 
called  the  English  people  to  his  help.  He  would  not,  he  said,  wring 
money  from  his  subjects  or  exercise  cruelty  in  defence  of  his  hunt- 
ing grounds.  On  this  the  English  rallied  round  him.  At  the  head 
of  a  great  army  he  marched  to  attack  the  rebels,  and  finally  laid 
siege  to  Rochester,  which  was  held  against  him  by  his  uncle  Odo, 
Bishop  of  Bayeux,  whom  he  had  released  from  the  imprisonment 
in  which  the  Conqueror  had  kept  him.  William  called  upon  yet 
greater  numbers  of  the  English  to  come  to  his  help.  Every  one, 
he  declared,  who  failed  him  now  should  be  known  for  ever  by  the 
shameful  name  of  Ntthing,  or  worthless.  The  English  came  in 
crowds.  When  at  last  Odo  surrendered,  the  English  pleaded  that 
no  mercy  should  be  shown  him.  "  Halters,  bring  halters  !  "  they 
cried  ;  "  hang  up  the  traitor  bishop  and  his  accomplices  on  the 
gibbet."  William,  however,  spared  him,  but  banished  him  for  ever 
.    from  England 

Jv^  2.  The  Wickedness  of  the  Red  King. — William  had  crushed 
the  Norman  rebels  with  English  aid.  When  the  victory  was  won 
he  turned  against  those  who  had  helped  him.  It  was  not  that  he 
oppressed  the  English  because  they  were  English,  but  that  he  op- 
pressed English  and  Normans  alike,  though  the  English,  being 
the  weaker,  felt  his  cruelty  most.  He  broke  all  his  promises.  He 
gathered  round  him  mercenary  soldiers  from  all  lands  to  enforce 
his  will.  He  hanged  murderers  and  robbers,  but  he  himself  was  the 
worst  of  robbers.  When  he  moved  about  the  country  with  the  ruffians 
who  attended  him,  the  inhabitants  fled  to  the  woods,  leaving  their 
houses  to  be  pillaged.  William  allowed  no  law  to  be  pleaded 
against  his  own  will.  His  life,  and  the  life  of  his  courtiers,  was 
passed  in  the  foulest  vice.  He  was  as  irreligious  as  he  was  vicious. 
It  was  in  especial  defiance  of  the  Christian  sentiment  of  the  time 
that  he  encouraged  the  Jews,  who  had  begun  to  come  into  England 
in  his  father's  days,  to  come  in  greater  numbers.  They  grew  rich 
as  money-lenders,  and  William  protected  them  against  their  debtors, 
exacting  a  high  price  for  his  protection.  Once,  it  is  said,  he  in- 
vited the  Jewish  rabbis  to  argue  in  his  presence  with  the  bishops  on 
the   merits  of  their  respective  creeds,  and  promised  to  become 

13 


K 


116  WILLIAM  rr.  1088 

a  Jew  if  the  rabbis  had  the  better  of  the  argument.  His  own 
mouth  was  filled  with  outrageous  blasphemies.  "  God,"  he  said, 
"  shall  never  see  me  a  good  man.  I  have  suffered  too  much  at  His 
hands." 

3.  Ranulf  Flambard.— The  chief  minister  of  the  Red  King  was 
Ranulf  Flambard,  whom  he  ultimately  made  Bishop  of  Durham. 
He  was  one  of  the  clerks  of  the  king's  chapel.  The  word  'clerk' 
properly  signified  a  member  of  the  clergy.  The  only  way  in  which 
men  could  work  with  their  brains  instead  of  with  their  hands  was 
by  becoming  clerks,  the  majority  of  whom,  however,  only  entered 
the  lower  orders,  without  any  intention  of  becoming  priests  or  even 
deacons.  Few,  except  clerks,  could  read  or  write,  and  whatever 
work  demanded  intelligence  naturally  fell  into  their  hands.  They 
acted  as  physicians  or  lawyers,  kept  accounts,  and  wrote  letters. 
The  clerks  of  the  king's  chapel  were  the  king's  secretaries  and 
men  of  business.  These  ready  writers  had  taken  a  leading  part 
in  the  compilation  of  Domesday  Book,  and  they  were  always 
active  in  bringing  in  money.  Under  the  Conqueror  they  were 
expected  to  observe  at  least  something  of  the  rules  of  justice. 
Under  the  Red  King  they  were  expected  to  disregard  them 
entirely.  Of  all  the  clerks  Ranulf  Flambard  was  the  most 
unscrupulous  ;  therefore  he  rose  into  the  greatest  favour.  The 
first  William  had  appointed  high  officers,  known  as  Justiciars, 
to  act  in  his  name  from  time  to  time  when  he  was  absent  from 
England,  or  was  from  any  cause  unable  to  be  present  when  im- 
portant business  was  transacted.  Flambard  was  appointed  Justiciar 
by  the  second  William,  and  in  his  hands  the  office  became  per- 
manent. The  Justiciar  was  now  the  king's  chief  minister,  acting  in 
his  name  whether  he  was  present  or  absent.  Flambard  used  his 
power  to  gather  wealth  for  the  king  on  every  side.  "He  drave 
the  king's  gemots,"  we  are  told,  "  over  all  England  ; "  that  is  to  say, 
he  forced  the  reluctant  courts  to  exact  the  money  which  he  claimed 
for  the  king. 

4.  F^ijdal  Dues. — It  was  Flambard  who  systematised,  if  he 
did  not  invfe«t,  the  doctrine  that  the  king  was  to  profit  by  his 
position  as  sup^sctie  landlord.  In  practice  this  meant  that  he 
exacted  to  the  full  th^""-<:^sequences  of  feudal  tenure.  If  a  man 
died  who  held  land  by  krtigl^t  service  from  the  crown,  leaving 
a  son  who  was  a  minor,  the  bo)Nl^came  the  ward  of  the  king, 
who  took  the  profits  of  his  lancts.  till  he  was  twenty-one, 
and  forced  him  to  pay  a  relief  or  finfesfor  taking  them  into 
his   own   hands  when   he   attained  his   majb^ity.      If    the    land 


1 089-1092  FLAMBARD  AND  ANSELM  117 

fs^l  to  an  heiress   the  king  claimed   the  right  of  marrying  her 
to  wlit)«*he  would,  or  of  requiring  of  her  a  sum  of  money  for 
permissionHo  take   a  husband  at   her  own   choice,   or,   as  was 
usually  the  casb^at  the  choice  of  her  relations.      Under  special 
circumstances  theNdng  exacted  aids  from  his  tenants-in-chief.     If 
he  were   taken  prisoner  they  had  to  pay  to   ransom  him  from 
captivity.     When  he  kitighted  his  eldest  son  or  married  his  eldest 
daughter  they  had  to  contribute  to  the  expense.     It  is  true  that 
this  was  in  accordance  with  the  principle  of  feudality.      Neither 
a  boy  nor  a  woman  could  reader  service  in  the  field,  and  it  was 
therefore  only  fair  that  the  kingr  should  hold  the  lands  at  times 
when  no  service  was  rendered  to  fhm  for  them  ;  and  it  was  also  fair 
that  the  dependents  should  come  f^  their  lord's  help  in  times  of 
special  need,  especially  as  all  that  tH\king  took  from  them  they 
in  turn  took  from  their  own  sub- tenants.\  Flam  bard,  however,  did 
not  content  himself  with  a  moderately  Rnrsh  exaction  of  these 
feudal  dues.  The  grievance  against  him  was  t^at  he  made  the  king 
'to  be  every  man's  heir,  whether  he  were  in  ordelte  or  a  layman.'  that 
is  to    say,  that  Fiambard  so    stripped   and    exhausted    the    land 
belonging   to   the  king's  wards  as  to  make  it  almost  worthless, 
and  then  demanded  reliefs  so  enormous  that  whenSdie  estate  had 
at  last  been  restored,  all  its  value  had  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  king.     When  a  bishop  or  an  abbot  died,  the  king,  appointed 
no  successor,  and  appropriated  the  revenues  of  the  vac^t  see  or 
monastery  till  some  one  chose  to  buy  the  office  from  him.     The 
king  alone  grew  rich,  whilst  his  vassals  were  impoverished. 
'^IjC^         5,  Archbishop  Anselm. — In  1089  Lanfranc  died,  and  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury  was  then  left  vacant  for  nearly  four  years. 
The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  was  more  than  the  first  of  English 
bishops.    He  was  not  only  the  maintainer  of  ecclesiastical  discipline, 
but  also  the  mouthpiece  of  the  English  people  when  they  had  com- 
plaints to  make  to  the  king.    Men  turned  their  thoughts  to  Anselm, 
the  Abbot  of  Bee.    Anselm  was  a  stranger  from  Aosta,  on  the  Italian 
side  of  the  Alps.     He  was  the  most  learned  man  of  the  age,  and 
had  striven  to  justify  the  theology  of  the  day  by  rational  arguments. 
He  was  as  righteous  as  he  was  learned,  and  as  gentle  as  he  was 
righteous.     Tender  to  man  and  woman,  he  had  what  was  in  those 
days  a  rare  tenderness  to  animals,  and  had  caused  astonishment 
by  saving  a  hunted  hare  from   its  pursuers.     In  1092  the  king's 
vassals  assembled  in  the  Great  Council  urged  William  to  choose  a 
successor  to  Lanfranc,  and  asked  him  to  allow  prayers  to  be  offered 
in  the  churches  that  God  might  move  his  heart  to  select  a  worthy 


^ 


Ii8  WILLIAM  II.  1093-1097 

chief  pastor.  "  Pray  as  you  will,"  said  the  king,  scornfully,  "  I 
shall  do  as  I  think  good  ;  no  man's  prayers  will  do  anything  to 
shake  my  will ! "  In  the  spring  of  1093  William  fell  sick.  Believing 
himself  to  be  a  dying  man,  he  promised  to  amend  his  Hfe,  and 
named  Anselm  archbishop.  On  his  refusal  to  accept  the  nomina- 
tion, Anselm  was  dragged  to  the  king's  bedside,  and  the  pastoral 
staff,  the  symbol  of  the  pastoral  office  of  a  bishop,  was  forced  into 
his  hands  by  the  bystanders. 

The  Council  of  Rockingham.  1095.—  To  this  well-meant 
violence  Anselm  submitted  unwillingly.  He  was,  he  said,  a  weak 
old  sheep  to  be  yoked  with  an  untamed  bull  to  draw  the  plough  of 
the  English  Church.  Yet,  gentle  as  he  was,  he  was  possessed  of 
indomitable  courage  in  resistance  to  evil.  William  recovered, 
and  returne^^to  his  blasphemy  and  his  tyranny.  In  vain  Anselm 
warned  himXagainst  his  sins.  A  fresh  object  of  dispute  soon 
arose  between\the  king  and  the  new  archbishop.  Two  Popes 
claimed  the  obet^ence  of  Christendom.  Urban  II.  was  the  Pope 
acknowledged  by\^e  greater  part  of  the  Church.  Clement  III. 
was  the  Pope  sup|)orted  by  the  Emperor.  Anselm  declared 
that  Urban  was  the  truH^Pope,  and  that  he  would  obey  none  other. 
William  asserted  that  hisvfather  had  laid  down  a  rule  that  no  Pope 
should  be  acknowledged  inNEngland  without  the  king's  assent,  and 
he  proposed  to  act  upon  it  bV  acknowledging  neither  Clement  nor 
Urban.  His  object  was,  perhaps^  prevent  the  enforcement  of  eccle- 
siastical discipline  by  temporarily^tting  rid  of  the  papal  authority. 
Anselm  wanted  the  authority  of  the  I\pe  to  check  vice  and  disorder. 
The  question  was  set  aside  for  a  time/^ut  in  1095  Anselm,  tired  of 
witnessing  William's  wicked  actions,  askhd  leave  to  go  to  Rome  to 
fetch  from  Urban  the  pallium,  a  kind  of  sfe^rf  given  by  the  Pope 
to  archbishops  in  recognition  of  their  oiike.  William  replied 
that  he  did  not  acknowledge  Urban  as  Popcv  A  Great  Council 
was  summoned  to  Rockingham  to  discuss  the  qWstion.  The  lay 
barons,  who  liked  to  see  the  king  resisted,  were  oh  Anselm's  side. 
The  bishops,  many  of  whom  were  creatures  of  William,  appointed 
from  amongst  his  clerks,  took  the  side  of  the  king.  Anselm  stated 
his  case  firmly  and  moderately,  and  then,  caring  nothing  for  the 
angry  king,  retired  into  the  chapel  and  went  quietly  to  sleeK  The 
king,  finding  that  the  barons  would  give  him  no  support,  was  unable 
to  punish  Anselm.  Two  years  later,  in  1097,  Anselm  betook  him- 
self to  Rome,  and  William  at  once  seized  on  his  estates. 

7.  William  II.  and   his   Brothers. — Normandy   under   Robert 
was  even  worse  off  than  England  under  William.    William  was 


I09I-I093  NORMANDY  AND  SCOTLAND  119 

himself  a  tyrant,  but  in  Normandy  there  were  at  least  a  hundred 
tyrants  because  Robert  was  too  easy-tempered  to  bring  any  one 
to  justice.  The  land  was  full  of  violence.  Each  baron  made 
war  on  his  neighbour,  and,  as  usual,  the  peasant  suffered  most. 
Robert's  own  life  was  vicious  and  wasteful,  and  he  was  soon  in 
debt.  He  sold  the  Cotentin  and  the  territory  of  Avranches  to  his 
youngest  brother,  Henry.  Henry  was  cool-headed  and  prudent, 
and  he  kept  order  in  his  new  possession  better  than  either  of  his 
elder  brothers  would  have  done.  The  brothers  coveted  the  well- 
ordered  land,  and  in  1091,  two  years  before  Anselm  became  arch- 
bishop, they  marched  together  against  Henry.  Henry  was  besieged 
on  St.  Michael's  Mount,  a  rocky  island  surrounded  by  the  sea  at 
high  water.  After  a  time  water  ran  short.  The  easy-tempered 
Robert  sent  in  a  supply.  "  Shall  we  let  our  brother  die  of  thirst  ?  " 
he  said  to  William.  Henry  was  in  the  end  forced  to  surrender,  and 
the  land  which  he  had  purchased  was  lost  to  him  for  a  time.  In 
1095  Henry  was  again  in  Normandy.  Robert  of  Belleme,  the  lord 
of  Domfront,  was  the  most  cruel  of  the  cruel  barons.  Once  he 
had  torn  out  with  his  own  hands  the  eyes  of  his  godson,  merely 
because  the  child's  father  had  displeased  him.  The  people  of 
Domfront  called  on  Henry  to  deliver  them  from  such  a  monster. 
Henry  seized  Domfront,  ruled  its  people  with  justice,  and  soon 
recovered  the  possessions  from  which  his  brothers  had  driven 
him. 

8.  William  and  Scotland.  1093— 1094.— William's  attention 
was  at  this  time  drawn  to  the  North.  Early  in  his  reign 
he  annexed  Cumberland,  and  had  secured  it  against  the  Scots  by 
fortifying  Carlisle,  which  had  been  desolate  since  the  Danish  inva- 
sion in  the  reign  of  yElfred.  Malcolm,  king  of  the  Scots,  was  a 
rude  warrior  who  had  been  tamed  into  an  outward  show  of  piety 
by  his  saintly  wife,  Margaret,  the  sister  of  Eadgar  the  ^theling. 
Though  he  could  not  read  her  books  of  devotion,  he  liked  to  look 
at  the  pictures  in  them  and  to  kiss  the  relics  which  she  honoured. 
Margaret  gathered  Englishmen  round  her,  and  spread  abroad 
something  of  southern  piety  and  civilisation  amongst  the  fierce 
Celtic  warriors  of  her  husband.  She  could  not  teach  them  to  change 
their  natures.  In  1093  Malcolm  burst  into  Northumberland,  plun- 
dering and  burning,  till  an  Englishman  slew  him  at  Alnwick.  Queen 
Margaret  died  broken-hearted  at  the  news,  and  was  before  long 
counted  as  a  saint.  For  the  moment  the  Scottish  Celts  were 
weary  of  the  English  queen  and  her  English  ways.  They  set 
up  Malcolm's  brother,  Donald  Bane,  as  their  king,  refusing  to  be 


^ 


120  WILLIAM  IL  1 094- 1096 

governed  by  any  of  Margaret's  sons.  Donald  at  once  '  drave  out 
all  the  English  that  before  were  with  King  Malcolm.'  In  1094 
Duncan,  Margaret's  step-son,  gained  the  crown  from  Donald  with 
the  aid  of  a  troop  of  English  and  Norman  followers.  The  Celts 
soon  drove  out  his  followers,  and  after  a  while  they  slew  him  and 
restored  Donald. 

9.  Mowbray's  Rebellion.  1095. — William  had  as  yet  too  much 
tqdo  at  home  to  interfere  further  in  Scotland.  The  Norman  barons 
hateHTrmv^nd  in  1095  Robert  of  Mowbray,  Earl  of  Northum- 
berland— the  na«ie  was  now  confined  to  the  land  between  the 
Tweed  and  the  Tyne^=:*a:efused  obedience.  William  at  once  marched 
against  him,  and  took  fromjiim  the  new  castle  which  he  had  built 
in  1080,  and  which  has  ever^si^ce  been  known  as  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne.  Robert  held  out  long  ""in  his  stronger  fortress  of  Bam- 
borough,  which  was  only  taken  at  lasbby  fraud.  He  was  condemned 
to  a  lifelong  imprisonment,  and  it  is  eve'n,  said  that  the  Pope,  seeing 
his  case  hopeless,  allowed  his  wife  to  marry  again  as  though  her 
husband  had  been  dead.  Mowbray's  rebellion,  like  the  conspiracy 
of  the  Earls  against  the  Conqueror,  shows  how  eagerly  the  Nor- 
man barons  longed  to  shake  off  the  yoke  of  the  king,  and  how 
readily  Englishmen  and  the  less  powerful  Normans  supported 
even  a  tyrannical  king  rather  than  allow  the  barons  to^-i^^ve 
their  way. 

10.  The  First  Crusade.     1095 — 1099 These  petty  wars  were 

interrupted  by  a  call  to  arms  from  the  Pope.  For  centuries  Chris- 
tians had  made  pilgrimages  to  Bethlehem  and  Jerusalem,  the  holy 
places  where  their  Lord  had  been  born  and  had  been  crucified. 
When  the  Arabs  conquered  the  Holy  Land,  Mohammedans  as  they 
were,  they  gave  protection  to  the  pilgrims  from  the  West.  The 
Turks,  who  were  also  Mohammedans,  had  lately  obtained  the 
mastery  over  the  Arabs,  and  had  secured  dominion  over  the  Holy 
Land.  They  were  fierce  warriors,  ignorant  and  cruel,  who  either 
put  the  pilgrims  to  death  or  subjected  them  to  torture  and  ill-usage. 
In  1095  Pope  Urban  II.  came  to  Clermont  to  appeal  to  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  West  to  set  out  on  a  Crusade — a  war  of  the  Cross — to 
deliver  the  Holy  City  from  the  infidel.  After  he  had  spoken  the 
multitude  burst  out  with  the  cry,  "  It  is  the  will  of  God  !  "  Men  of 
every  rank  placed  on  their  garments  a  cross,  as  the  sign  of  their 
devotion  to  the  service  of  Christ.  In  1096  a  huge  multitude  set  forth 
under  Peter  the  Hermit,  who  had  been  active  in  urging  men  to 
take  part  in  the  Crusade.  They  believed  it  to  be  unnecessary  to 
take  money  or  food,  trusting  that  God  would  supply  His  warrior§, 


1096-1099  THE  FIRST  CRUSADE  121 

All  these  perished  on  the  way,  A  better-equipped  body  of  knights 
and  nobles  set  out  later  under  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  They  fought 
their  way  through  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  to  Jerusalem,  and  in  1099 
the  Holy  City  was  taken*  by  storm.  Godfrey,  though  he  became 
its  first  Christian  king,  refused  to  be  crowned.  "  I  will  not,"  he 
said,- "wear  a  crown  of  gold  where  my  Saviour  wore  a  crown  of 
thorns."  The  piety  of  the  Christian  warriors  was  not  accompanied 
by  mercy  to  the  vanquished.  Holding  Mohammedans  to  be  the 
special  enemies  of  God,  they  treated  them  as  no  better  than  savage 
beasts.  There  was  a  terrible  butchery  when  Jerusalem  was  taken, 
and  Christian  men  fancied  that  they  did  God  service  by  dashing 
out  the  brains  of  Mohammedan  babes  against  the  walls. 

(^  II.  Normandy  in  Pledge.      1096. — Robert   was   amongst    the 

Crusaders.  To  raise  money  for  his  expedition  he  pledged  Normandy 
to  his  brother  William.  William  had  no  wish  to  take  part  in  a 
holy  war,  but  he  was  ready  to  make  profit  out  of  those  who  did. 
Normandy  was  the  better  for  the  change.  It  is  true  that  William 
oppressed  it  himself,  but  he  saved  the  people  from  the  worse 
oppression  of  the  barons. 

}\  12.  The  Last  Years  of  the  Red  King. — The  remaining  years 

of  William's  reign  were  years  of  varying  success.  An  English 
force  set  up  Eadgar,  the  son  of  Malcolm  and  Margaret,  as  king  of 
the  Scots,  and  Eadgar  consented  to  hold  his  crown  as  William's 
vassal.  William's  attempts  to  reduce  the  Welsh  to  submission 
ended  in  failure,  and  he  was  obliged  to  content  himself  with 
hemming  them  in  with  castles.  In  1098  the  wicked  Robert  of 
Belleme  succeeded  his  brother  as  earl  of  Shrewsbury.  Robert 
robbed  and  tortured  Englishmen  as  he  had  robbed  and  tortured 
Normans.  He  was  a  great  builder  of  castles,  and  at  Bridgenorth 
he  raised  a  fortress  as  the  centre  of  a  group  of  strong  places 
which  could  defy  the  Welsh  and  form  the  basis  of  his  operations 
against  them.  In  the  same  year  William  captured  Le  Mans,  the 
capital  of  Maine,  which  had  recovered  its  independence  from 
Robert,  which  was  held  against  him  by  Helie  de  la  Fleche,  one  of 
the  few  unselfish  men  of  the  day.  Unlike  his  father,  the  Red  King 
often  began  enterprises  which  he  did  not  finish.  In  1099  he  had 
all  his  work  to  do  over  again.  He  was  hunting  in  the  New  Forest 
when  he  heard  that  Helie  had  regained  Le  Mans.  He  rode 
hard  to  Southampton,  and,  leaping  on  board  a  vessel,  bade  the 
sailors  put  to  sea.  A  storm  was  raging,  and  the  sailors  prayed  him 
to  wait  till  the  wind  fell.  "  I  never  heard,"  he  answered,  "  of  a  king 
being  drowned."     The  next  morning  he  was  in  Normandy.     He 


122  WILLIAM  //. 

recovered  Le  Mans,  but  returned  to  England  without  conquering 
Maine, 
j/  13.  The  Death  of  the  Red  King,  iioo.— On  August  2,  iioo, 
the  Red  King  went  out  to  hunt  in  the  Nfew  Forest.  In  the  evening 
his  body  was  found  pierced  by  an  arrow.  Who  his  slayer  was  is 
unknown.  The  blow  may  have  been  accidental.  It  is  more  likely 
to  have  been  intentional.  In  every  part  of  England  were  men  who 
had  good  cause  to  hate  William,  and  nowhere  were  his  enemies  in 
greater  numbers  than  round  the  New  Forest.  Whoever  was  his 
slayer,  the  body  of  the  tyrant  was  borne  to  the  cathedral  of  Win- 
chester and  buried  as  the  corpse  of  a  wild  beast,  without  funeral 
rites  or  weeping  eyes.  When,  after  a  few  years  had  passed,  the 
tower  above  the  unhallowed  tomb  fell  in,  men  said  that  it  had  fallen 
because  so  foul  a  body  lay  beneath  it. 


CHAPTER    IX 

HENRY   I.   AND   STEPHEN 
HENRY   I,    IIOO— II35.      STEPHEN,   II35— II54 

LEADING   DATES 

The  Accession  of  Henry  I iioo 

Battle  of  Tinchebrai 1106 

Death  of  Henry  I.  and  Accession  of  Stephen       .  .  1135 

The  Civil  War 1x39 

Treaty  of  Wallingford 1153 

Death  of  Stephen  1154 

I.  The  Accession  of  Henry  I.  iioo. — When  the  news  spread 
that  the  Red  King  had  been  slain  in  the  New  Forest,  his  younger 
brother,  Henry,  hastened  to  Winchester,  where  he  was  chosen  king 
by  the  barons  who  happened  to  be  there.  At  his  coronation  at 
Westminster  he  swore  to  undo  all  the  evil  of  his  brother's  reign. 
The  name  by  which  he  came  to  be  known — the  Lion  of  Justice — 
shows  how  well  he  kept  his  promise.  He  maintained  order  as  his 
father  had  done,  and  his  brother  had  not  done.  Flambard,  the 
wicked  minister  of  the  Red  King,  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower, 
and  Anselm,  the  good  archbishop,  recalled  to  England.  Henry's 
chief  strength  lay  in  the  support  of  the  English.  To  please  them 
he  married  Eadgyth,  the  daughter  of  Malcolm  and  Margaret,  the 
descendant  through  her  mother  of  the  old  English  kings.    Through 


HENRY  I.    AND   THE  ENGLISH 


123 


Eadgyth  the  blood  of  Alfred  and  Ecgberht  was  transmitted  to  the 
later  kings.    It  was,  however,  necessary  that  she  should  take  another 


c 


Henry  I.  and  his  queen  Matilda.    (From  the  west  front  of  Rochester  Cathedral.) 


124  HENRY  I.  1101-1106 

name.  Every  one  at  Henry's  court  talked  French,  and  '  Eadgyth ' 
was  unpronounceable  in  French.  The  new  queen  was  therefore 
known  as  Matilda,  or  Maud.  The  English  called  her  the  good 
queen.     The  Normans  mocked  her  husband  and  herself  by  giving 

Kthem  the  English  nicknames  of  Godric  and  Godgifu. 
2.  Invasion  of  Robert.  iioi.~One  danger  at  least  Henry  had 
to  face.  The  Norman  barons  yearned  after  the  weak  rule  of 
Robert,  who  was  again  in  possession  of  Normandy.  Once,  we  are 
told,  he  had  to  stay  in  bed  till  noon,  because  his  favourites  had 
carried  off  his  clothes,  and  he  had  no  others  to  put  on.  ^  A  duke 
who  could  not  keep  his  own  clothes  was  not  likely  to  be  able  to 
rule  his  duchy,  and  Normandy  was  again  the  scene  of  fightings 
and  plunderings  which  he  made  no  effort  to  suppress.  Flambard, 
having  escaped  from  prison,  fled  to  Normandy,  and  urged  Robert  to 
claim  England  as  the  heritage  of  the  eldest  son  of  the  Conqueror. 
Robert  listened  to  the  tempter  and  sailed  for  England.  When  he 
landed  at  Porchester  he  found  that  the  Church  and  the  English  had 
rallied  to  Henry.  Robert's  position  was  hopeless,  and  he  made  a 
treaty  with  his  brother,  abandoning  all  claim  to  the  crown. 
1/  3.  Revolt  of  Robert  of  Bell^me.     1102. — Henry  knew  that  the 

great  barons  wished  well  to  Robert,  and  on  one  pretext  or  another 
he  stripped  most  of  them  of  power.  Robert  of  Belleme,  the 
strongest  and  wickedest  of  them  all,  rose  in  revolt.  After  cap- 
turing many  of  his  castles,  Henry  laid  siege  to  his  great  fortress  at 
Bridgenorth.  The  barons  who  served  under  Henry  urged  him  to 
spare  a  rebel  who  was  one  of  their  own  class.  The  Englishmen 
and  the  inferior  Norman  knights  thought  otherwise.  "  Lord  King 
Henry,"  they  cried,  "trust  not  those  traitors.  They  do  but  strive  to 
deceive  you,  and  to  take  away  from  you  the  strength  of  kingly 
justice.  .  .  .  Behold,  we  all  stand  by  you  faithfully ;  we  are  ready  to 
serve  and  help  you  in  all  things.  Attack  the  castle  vigorously ; 
shut  in  the  traitor  on  all  sides,  and  make  no  peace  with  him  till 
you  have  him  alive  or  dead  in  your  hands."  Bridgenorth  was  taken, 
and  Robert  of  Belleme,  having  been  stripped  of  his  English  land, 
was  sent  off  to  Normandy.  Henry  was  now,  in  very  truth,  king  of 
the  English.  "  Rejoice,  King  Henry,"  ran  a  popular  song,  "  and 
give  thanks  to  the  Lord  God,  because  thou  art  a  free  king  since 
thou  hast  overthrown  Robert  of  Belleme,  and  hast  driven  him  from 
the  borders  of  thy  kingdom."  Never  again  during  Henry's  reign 
did  the  great  Norman  lords  dare  to  lift  hand  against  him. 
I  4.  The    Battle  of  Tinchebrai.     1106. — ^It   was    impossible   for 

J — '       Henry  to  avoid  interference  in  Normandy.     Many  of  his  vassals  in 


io6-iio7 


CONQUEST  OF  NORMANDY 


125 


England  possessed  lands  in  Normandy  as  well,  where  they  were 
exposed  to  the  violence  of  Robert  of  Belleme  and  of  others  who  had 
been  expelled  from  England.  The  Duke  of  the  Normans  would  do 
nothing  to  keep  the  peace,  and  Henry  crossed  the  sea  to  protect  his 

own.  injured   subjects.  

Duke  Robert  naturally 
resisted  him,  and  at 
last,  in  1 106,  a  great 
battle  was  fought  at 
Tinchebrai,  in  which 
Robert  was  utterly  de- 
feated. Duke  Robert 
was  kept  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  a 
prisoner  in  Cardiff 
Castle,  where  he  died 
after  an  imprisonment 
of  twenty-eight  years. 
Henry  became  Duke 
of  the  Normans  as  well 
as  king  of  the  English, 
and  all  Normandy  was 
the  better  for  the 
change.  Robert  of  Belleme  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  the  cruel 
oppressor  thus  shared  the  fate  of  the  weak  ruler  whose  remissness 
had  made  his  oppressions  possible. 

^enry  and  Anselm.  iioo — H07. — Though  Anselm  had  done 
every thihc  in  his  power  to  support  Henry  against  Robert  ol 
Belleme,  he>«^  himself  engaged  in  a  dispute  with  the  king  which 
lasted  for  some  ytsQTs.  A  bishop  in  Anselm's  time  was  not  only  a 
great  Church  officeiy^vliose  duty  it  was  to  maintain  a  high  standard 
of  religion  and  morality'^H^ngst  the  clergy.  He  was  also  one  of 
the  king's  barons,  because  hfeswas  possessed  of  large  estates,  and 
was  therefore  bound  like  any  oth^ls^aron  to  send  knights  to  the  king 
when  they  were  needed.  Consequemly,  when  Anselm  became  arch- 
bishop he  had  not  only  received  inveNrture  from  William  H.  by 
accepting  from  him  the  ring  and  the  stafP'v^ich  were  the  signs  of 
ecclesiastical  authority,  but  also  did  homage^sdius  acknowledging 
himself  to  be  the  king's  man,  and  obliging  him^^,  not  indeed  to 
fight  for  him  in  person,  but  to  send  knights  to  ngfjit  under  his 
orders.  When,  however,  Henry  came  to  the  throne/^«4  asked 
Anselm  to  repeat  the  homage  which  he  had  done  to  William, 


Seal  of  Milo  of  Gloucester,  showing  mounted  armed 
figure  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 


126  HENRY  I.  1107 

\  Anselm  not  only  refused  himself  to  comply  with  the  king's  request, 
^   TQUt  also  refused  to  consecrate  newly-chosen  bishops  who  had  re- 
ceived investiture  from  Henry.  During  the  time  of  his  exile  Anselm 
had  taken  part  in  a  council  of  the  Church,  in  which  bishops  and  abbots 
had  been  forbidden  by  the  Pope  and  the  council  either  to  receive 
investiture  from  laymen  or  to  do  homage  to  them.     These  decrees 
had  not  been  issued  merely  to  serve  the  purpose  of  papal  ambition. 
At  that  time  all  zealous  ecclesiastics  thought  that  the  only  way  to 
stop  the  violence  of  kings  in  their  dealings  with  the  Church  was  to 
make  the  Church  entirely  independent.     Anselm's  experience  of 
the  Red  King's  wickedness  must  have  made  him  ready  to  concur 
with  this  new  view,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  from  the 
most  conscientious  motives  that -he  refused  to  do  homage  to  Henry. 
On  the  other  hand,  Henry,  wishing  to  rule  justly,  thought  it  very 
hard  that  the  archbishop  should  insist  upon  the  independence  of 
the  bishops,  especially  as  in  consequence  of  their  large  estates  they 
had  so  many  knights  to  send  into  the  field.     Though  the  dispute 
was  a  hot  one,  it  was  carried  on  without  any.of  the  violence  which 
had  characterised  the  dispute  between  Anseln\^and  the  Red  King, 
and  it  ended  in  a  compromise.      Henry  abanci^ned  all  claim  to 
give  the   ring  and  the  pastoral  staff  which  we^the  signs  of  a 
bishop's  or  an  abbot's  spiritual  jurisdiction,  whilst  Airtelm  consented 
to  allow  the  new  bishop  or  abbot  to  render  the  homag*^  which  was 
the  sign  of  his  readiness  to  employ  all  his  temporal  '^alth  and 
power  on  the  king's  behalf     The  bishop  was  to  be  chosekby  the 
chapter  of  his  cathedral,  the  abbot   by  the  monks  of  his  abbey, 
but  the   election  was  to  take   place  in  the  king's  presence, \tjus 
giving  him  influence  over  their  choice.     Whether  this  settlement 
fvould  work  in  favour  of  the  king  or  the  clergy  depended  on  the 
character   of  the  kings   and  the   clergy.      If  the   kings   were  as 
riotous  as  the  Red  King  and  the  clergy  as  self-denying  as  Anselm, 
the  clergy  would  grow  strong  in  spite  of  these  arrangements.     If 
the  kings  were  as  just  and  wise  as  Henry,  and  the  clergy  as  wicked 
as  Ralph  Flambard,  all  advantage  would  be  on  the  side  of  the  king. 
6.  Roger  of  Salisbury. — After  the  defeat  of  the  Norman  barons 
theGreat  Council  ceased  for  a  time  to  have  any  important  influence 
on  ttiesgpvernment.     Henry  was  practically  an  absolute  king,  and 
it  was  weltth^t  he  should  be  so,  as  the  country  wanted  order  more 
than  discussion,  ^^nry^however,  loved  to  exercise  absolute  power 
in  an  orderly  way,  and  he  clTdse-ligr  his  chief  minister  Roger,  whom 
he  made  Bishop  of  Salisbury.     Roggt4ia,d^ first  attracted  his  notice 
when  he  was  going  out  hunting,  by  saying'lftas^^in  a  shorter  time 


1107^1135 


ADMINISTRATIVE   ORDER 


127 


VI. 


than  atay  other  priest,  but  he  retained  his  favour  by  the  order  and 
system  Which  he  introduced  into  the  government.  A  special  body 
of  officials  and  councillors  was  selected  by  the  king — perhaps  a 
similar  body  had  been  selected  by  his  predecessor — to  sit  in  judg- 
ment, over  Vases  in  which  tenants-in-chief  were  concerned,  as  well 
as  over  oth(tr  cases  which  were,  for  one  reason  or  another,  trans- 
ferred to  it  frW  the  Baronial  Courts.  This  council  or  committee 
was  called  tWe  Curia  Regis  (the 
King's  Court).  The  members  of  this 
Curia  Regis  mettalso  in  the  Exche- 
quer, so  called  from  the  chequered 
cloth  which  coveVed  the  table  at 
which  they  sat.  ^hey  were  then 
known  as  Barons  ok  the  Exchequer, 
and  controlled  the  reiceipts  and  out- 
goings of  the  treasurA  The  Justiciar 
presided  in  both  \k\€\Curia  Regis 
and  the  Exchequer.  Amongst  those 
who  took  part  in  these  toroceedings 
was  the  Chancellor,  whA  was  then 
a  secretary  and  not  a  judge,  as  well 
as  other  superior  officers  of  the 
king.  A  regular  system  oK  finance 
was  introduced,  and  a  regiSar  sys- 
tem of  justice  accompanied  ut.  At 
last  the  king  determined  ta  send 
some  of  the  judges  of  his  coWt  to 
go  on  circuit  into  distant  parts  d^  the 
kingdom.  These  itinerant  Ju 
{Justiiiarii  errantes)  brought  Ithe 
royal  power  into  connection  with 
the  local  courts.  Their  businiss 
was  of  a  very  miscellaneous  charac- 
ter. They  not  only  heard  the  cases 
in  which  the  king  was  concernedj 
the  pleas  of  the  crown,  as  thfey 
were  called— but  they  made  assessments  for  purposes  of  taxation, 
listened  to  complaints,  and  coAveyed  the  king's  wishes  to  his 
people. 

7.  Growth  of  Trade.— Though  Henry's  severe  discipline  was 
not  liked,  yet  the  law  and  order  which  he  maintained  told  on  the 
prosperity  of  the  country,  and  the  trade  of  London  flourished  so 


Monument  of  Roger,  Bishop  of  Salis- 
bury (died  1 1 39),  in  his  cathedral 
church. 


128 


HENRY L 


107-1135 


much  as  to  attract  citizens  from  Normandy  to  settle  in  it.  Flemings 
too,  trained  in  habits  of  industry,  came  in  crowds,  and  with  the 
view  of  providing  a  bulwark  against  the  Welsh,  Henry  settled  a 
colony  of  them  in  South  Pembrokeshire,  which  has  since  been 
known  as '  Little  England  beyond  Wales.  The  foreigners  were 
not  popular,  but  the  Jews,  to  whom  Henry  continued  the  protection 
which  William  had  given  them,  were  more  unpopular  still. 


Porchester  Church,  Hampshire 


8.  The  Benedictines. — In  the  midst  of  this  busy  Hfe  the  Bene- 
dicfhie  monasteries  were  still  harbours  of  refuge  for  all  who  did 
not  care!t>fightor  trade.  They  were  now  indeed  wealthier  than 
they  had  once  beenp2ts«gifts,  usually  of  land,  had  been  made  to  the 
monks  by  those  who  reverenc^d>Uieir  piety.  Sometimes  these  gifts 
took  a  shape  which  afterwards  cau^dTlYe^ittle  evil.  Landowners 
who  had  churches  on  their  lands  often  gave>«^  monastery  the 
tithes  which  had  hitherto  been  paid  for  the  supporf^^Cthe  parish 
priest,  and  the  monastery  stepped  into  the  place  of  the  pansh-priest, 


1 107-1135  Monastic  orders  129 

sending  a  vicar  to  act  for  it  in  the  performance  of  its  new  duties. 
As  the\monks  themselves  grew  richer  they  grew  less  ascetic. 
Their  life^Siowever,  was  not  spent  in  idleness.  They  cared  for  the 
poor,  kept  a  sv;hool  for  the  children,  and  managed  their  own  property. 
Some  of  their  number  studied  and  wrote,  and  our  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  these  times  is  mainly  owing  to  monastic  writers.  When 
Henry  I.  came  to  tt\e  throne  the  Chronicle  was  still  being  written  in 
the  English  tongue  bythe  monks  of  Worcester,  and  for  some  years 
after  his  death  was  stHl  carried  on  at  Peterborough.  The  best 
historical  compositions  wete,  however,  in  Latin,  the  language  under- 
stood by  the  clergy  over  all  TVestern  Europe.  Amongst  the  authors 
of  these  Latin  works,  the  foremost  was  William  of  Malmesbury. 

9.  The  Cistercians. — Useful\^s  the  Benedictines  were,  there 
were  some  monks  who  complaineX.  that  the  extreme  self-denial 
of  their  founder,  St.  Benedict,  was  ma  longer  to  be  met  with,  and 
the  complainants  had  lately  originatea\a  new  order,  called  the 
Cistercian,  from  Citeaux,  in  Burgundy,  the^te  of  their  first  abbey. 
The  Cistercians  made  their  appearance  in  England  in  1128.  Their 
buildings  and  churches  were  simpler  than  tho^  of  the  Benedic- 
tines, and  their  life  more  austere.  They  refused  to  receive  gifts  of 
tithes  lest  they  should  impoverish  the  parish  clerg\  They  loved 
to  make  their  homes  in  solitary  places  far  from  the  haunts  of  men, 
and  some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  abbeys  which  remain  in  ruins 
— those,  for  instance,  of  Fountains  and  Tintern — were  Cistercian 
abbeys.  They  are  beautiful,  not  because  the  CisterciansXjoved 
pleasant  places,  but  because  they  loved  solitude,  whilst  the  Benedic- 
tines had  either  planted  themselves  in  towns  or  had  allowed  towns 
to  grow  up  round  their  monasteries. 

10.  The  White  Ship. — Henry,  in  consequence  of  the  possession 
of  Normandy,  had  been  frequently  involved  in  war  with  France. 
Robert's  son,  William  Clito,  claimed  Normandy,  and  his  claim  was 
supported  by  Louis  VL  the  Fat,  who  was  styled  king  of  France, 
though  the  territory  which  he  actually  ruled  was  no  larger  than 
Normandy.  In  these  wars  Henry  was  usually  successful,  and  at  last, 
in  1127,  V/illiam  was  killed,  and  Henry  freed  from  danger.  His  own 
son,  also  named  William,  had  already  been  drowned  on  the  voyage 
between  Normandy  and  England  in  1120.  The  ship  in  which  he 
sailed  ran  upon  a  rock,  and  the  young  man  was  placed  in  a  boat, 
and  might  have  escaped  if  he  had  not  returned  to  save  his  half- 
sister,  the  Countess  of  Perche,  who  was  still  on  board.  As  soon  as 
he  approached  the  sailors  and  passengers  crowded  into  the  boat 
and  swamped  it.     Only  one  man,  a  butcher,  was  saved,  by  clinging 

K 


130  HENRY  I.  1 1 20 

to  the  mast  of  the  ship  when  it  sank.  The  captain,  who  was  with 
him  on  the  mast,  threw  himself  off  as  soon  as  he  learned  that  the 
king's  son  had  been  drowned,  and  perished  in  the  water.    It  is  said 


Part  of  the  nave  of  Durham  Cathedral.     Built  about  1130. 


II20-II35  MATILDA   AND  STEPHEN  131 

that  no  man  dared  to  tell  Henry  that  his  son  was  drowned,  and 
that  at  last  a  little  child  was  sent  to  inform  him  of  his  misfortune. 
Vvs  II.  The  Last  Years  of  Henry  I. — Henry  had  many  illegitimate 
children,  but  after  William's  death  the  only  lawful  child  left  to  him 
was  Matilda.  She  had  been  married  as  a  child  to  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.,  but  her  husband  had  died  before  she  was  grown  up,  and 
she  then  returned  to  her  father,  as  the  Empress  Matilda.  There 
had  never  been  a  queen  in  England,  and  it  would  have  been  very 
hard  for  a  woman  to  rule  in  those  times  of  constant  war  and  blood- 
shed. Yet  Henry  persuaded  the  barons  to  swear  to  accept  her  as 
their  future  sovereign.  He  then  married  her  to  Geoffrey,  Count 
of  Anjou,  who  came  of  a  brave  and  active  race,  and  whose  lands, 
which  lay  to  the  south  of  Normandy,  would  enlarge  the  French 
possessions  of  Henry's  descendants.  In  1135  Henry  died.  The 
great  merit  of  his  English  government  was  that  he  forsook  his 
brother's  evil  ways  of  violence,  and  maintained  peace  by  erecting 
a  regular  administrative  system,  which  kept  down  the  outrages  of 
the  barons.  One  of  the  English  chroniclers  in  recording  his  death 
i  prayed  that  God  might  give  him  the  peace  that  he  loved. ^ 
jp^  12.  Stephen's  Accession,  1135. — Among  the  barons  who  had 
T  sworn  to  obey  Matilda  was  Stephen  of  Blois,  a  son  of  the 
»  Conqueror's  daughter  Adela,  and  a  nephew  of  Henry  I.  As  soon 
as  Henry's  death  was  known  Stephen  made  his  way  to  London, 
where  he  was  joyfully  received  as  king.  The  London  citizens  felt 
that  their  chief  interest  lay  in  the  maintenance  of  peace,  and  they 
thought  that  a  man  would  be  more  likely  than  a  woman  to  secure 
order.  The  barons  chose  Stephen  king  at  Winchester,  where  his 
brother,  Henry  of  Blois,  was  the  bishop.  Shortly  afterwards 
some  of  these  very  barons  rose  against  him,  but  their  insurrection 
was  soon  repressed.     More  formidable  was  the  hostility  of  David, 

J  Genealogy  of  the  Conqueror's  sons  and  grandchildren  : — 

William  I,  =  Matilda  of  Flanders 
T 066- I 087    I 

Robert,  Duke  of        William  II.         Henry  I.  Adela  =  Stephen  of  Blois 

Normandy  1087-1100  1100-1135  I 


j  j  "  Stephen 

William  Clito  William  ii35-"54 

(i)  The  Emperor  Henry  V.  =  Matilda  =  (2)  Geoffrey  Plantagenet 

Henry  II. 
1154-1189 


132 


STEPHEN 


1135-1138 


king  of  the  Scots.  David  was  closely  connected  with  the  family 
of  Henry  I.,  his  sister  having  been  Henry's  wife,  the  Empress 
Matilda  being  consequently  his  niece.  He  also  held  in  right  of 
his  own  wife  the  earldom  of  Huntingdon.  Under  the  pretext  of 
taking  up  Matilda's  cause  he  broke  into  the  north  of  England. 
Though  he  himself  carried  on  the  work  of  introducing  English 


Keep  of  Rochester  Castk 


civihsation  into  Scotland,  his  Celtic  followers  were  still  savage, 
and  massacred  women  and  infants.  In  1137  Stephen  drove  David 
back.  In  1138  David  reappeared,  and  this  time  the  aged  Thurstan, 
Archbishop  of  York,  sent  the  levies  of  the  North  against  him.  In 
the  midst  of  the  English  army  was  a  cart  bearing  a  standard,  at  the 
top  of  which  the  banners  of  the  three  great  churches  of  St.  Peter's 
of  York.  St.  John  of  Beverley,  and  St.  Wilfrid  of  Ripon,  waved  round 


1 138 


STEPHEN  AND    THE  BARONS 


133 


the  consecrated  Host.  The  battle  which  ensued,  near  Northallerton, 
has  consequently  been  known  as  the  battle  of  the  Standard.  The 
Scots  were  completely  defeated,  but  Stephen,  in  spite  of  the  victory 
gained  for  him,  found  himself  obliged  to  buy  peace  at  a  heavy  price. 
He  agreed  that  David's  son,  Henry,  should  hold  Northumberland, 
with  the  exception  of  the  fortresses  of  Bamborough  and  of  New- 
castle, as  a  fief  of  the  English  Crown.  David  himself  was  also 
allowed  to  keep  Cumberland  without  doing  homage. 


X 


Keep  of  Castle  Rising.     Built  about 


13.  Civil  War. — It  would  have  been  well  for  Stephen  if  he  had 
learnt  from  the  men  of  the  North  that  his  strength  lay  in  rallying 
the  English  people  round  him  against  the  great  barons,  as  the  Red 
King  and  Henry  I.  had  done  when  their  right  to  the  crown  had 
been  challenged  by  Robert.  Instead  of  this,  he  brought  over  mer- 
cenaries from  Flanders,  and  squandered  treasure  and  lands  upon 
his  favourites  so  as  to  have  little  left  for  the  hour  of  need.  He 
made  friends  easily,  but  he  made  enemies  no  less  easily.  One 
of  the  most  powerful  of  the  barons  was  Robert,  Earl'  of  Gloucester, 
an  illegitimate  son  of  Henry  I.,  who  held  the  strong  fortress  of 


^SL 


134  STEPHEN  1 1 38- 1 139 

Bristol,  and  whose  power  extended  over  both  sides  of  the  lower 
course  of  the  Severn.  In  1138  Stephen,  who  distrusted  him, 
ordered  his  castles  to  be  seized.  Robert  at  once  declared  his 
half-sister  Matilda  to  be  the  lawful  queen,  and  a  terrible  civil  war 
began,  Robert's  garrison  at  Bristol  was  a  terror  to  all  the  country 
round.  He,  too,  gathered  foreign  mercenaries,  who  knew  not  what 
pity  was.  Other  barons  imitated  Robert's  example,  fighting  only  for 
themselves  whether  they  nominally  took  the  part  of  Stephen  or  of 
Matilda,  and  the  southern  and  midland  counties  of  England  were 
preyed  upon  by  the  garrisons  of  their  castles. 

14.  Stephen's  Quarrel  with  the  Clergy.  1139. — Evil  as  were 
the  men  who  fought  on  either  side,  it  was  to  Stephen  and  not  to 
Matilda  and  Robert  that  men  as  yet  looked  to  restore  order.  The 
port  towns,\London,  Yarmouth,  and  Lynn,  clung  to  him  to  the 
last.  Unfortihiately  Stephen  did  not  know  how  to  make  good  use 
of  his  advantag^.  The  clergy,  like  the  traders,  had  always  been 
in  favour  of  order.\Some  of  them,  with  the  Justiciar,  Roger,  Bishop 
of  Salisbury,  at  their  hsad,  had  organised  the  Exchequer  of  Henry  I.," 
had  gathered  in  the  payh\ents  due  to  the  Crown,  or  had  acted  as 
judges.  Yet  with  all  their\eal  in  the  service  of  the  Crown,  they 
had  not  omitted  to  providevfor  their  own  interests.  Roger  in 
particular  had  been  insatiable  ik  the  pursuit  of  wealth  for  himself 
and  of  promotion  for  his  family.  On^  of  his  nephews,  Nigel,  Bishop 
of  Ely,  was  Treasul^er,  whilst  anotn^  Alexander,  was  Bishop  of 
Lincoln,  and  his  own  illegitimate  son,  K^ger,  was  Chancellor.  In 
1139  Stephen,  rightly  or  wrongly,  threw  him  into  prison  with  his 
son  and  Alexander  of  Lincoln.  The  other  hephew,  Nigel,  escaped 
to  his  uncle's  castle  at  Devizes,  in  which  wasSthe  younger  Roger's 
mother,  Matilda  of  Ramsbury.  Stephen  brouMit  her  son  before 
the  castle,  and  put  a  rope  round  his  neck  to  hang  him  unless  the 
castle  was  surrendered.  The  unhappy  mother  c%ild  not  bear 
the  sight,  and  opened  the  gates  to  Stephen.  It  migHi  have  been 
wise  to  deprive  a  too  ambitious  bishop  of  his  castle,  butHt  was  not 
wise  personally  to  maltreat  the  clergy.  Every  priest  in^ngland 
turned  against  Stephen.  His  own  brother,  Henry,  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, declared  against  him,  and  Stephen  was  obliged  h^  do 
penance  for  his  offence.  The  administration  of  the  Exchequer 
shattered,  and  though  it  was  not  altogether  destroyed,  and  money 
was  brought  to  it  for  the  king's  use  even  in  the  worst  times,  Stephen's 
financial  resources  were  from  henceforth  sadly  diminished. 

15.  Anarchy.     1139.— The  war  now  lapsed  into  sheer  anarchy. 
The  barons  on  either  side  broke  loose  from  all  restraint.     "  They 


^raAA.dU>v-n>  ^  q 


:iji!>mjuH\/. 


1139-1148  ANARCHY  135 

fought  amongst  themselves  with  deadly  hatred  ;  they  spoiled  the 
fairest  lands  with  fire  and  rapine  ;  in  what  had  been  the  most 
fertile  of  counties  they  destroyed  almost  all  the  provision  of 
bread."  All  goods  and  money  they  carried  off,  and  if  they  sus- 
pected any  man  to  have  concealed  treasure  they  tortured  him  to 
oblige  ■  him  to  confess  where  it  was.  "  They  hanged  up  men  by 
the  feet  and  smoked  them  with  foul  smoke  ;  some  were  hanged 
up  by  their  thumbs,  others  by  their  head,  and  coats  of  mail  were 
hung  on  to  their  feet.  They  put  knotted  strings  about  men's  heads, 
?ind  twisted  them  till  they  went  to  the  brain.  They  put  men  into 
prisons  where  adders  and  snakes  and  toads  were  crawling  ;  and 
so  they  tormented  them.  Some  they  put  into  a  chest,  short  and 
narrow  and  not  deep,  and  that  had  sharp  stones  within  ;  and  forced 
men  therein,  so  that  they  broke  all  their  limbs.  In  many  of  the 
castles  were  hateful  and  grim  things  called  neckties,  which  two  or 
three  men  had  enough  to  do  to  carry.  This  instrument  of  torture 
was  thus  made  :  it  was  fastened  to  a  beam,  and  had  a  sharp  iron 
to  go  about  a  man's  neck  and  throat,  so  that  he  might  no  way  sit 
or  lie  or  sleep,  but  he  bore  all  the  iron.  Many  thousands  they 
starved  with  hunger.  .  .  .  Men  said  openly  that  Christ  and  His 
saints  were  asleep." 

16.  The  End  of  the  War.  1141— 1 148.  — In  the  autumn  of 
1 139,  Matilda  appeared  in  England,  and  in  1141  there  was  a  battle 
at  Lincoln,  in  which  Stephen  was  taken  prisoner.  Henry  of  Win- 
chester (see  p.  131)  acknowledged  Matilda  as  queen,  and  all  England 
submitted  to  her,  London  giving  way  most  reluctantly.  Her  rule 
did  not  last  long.  She  was  as  much  too  harsh  as  Stephen  was  too 
good-natured.  She  seized  the  lands  of  the  Church,  and  ordered 
the  Londoners  to  pay  a  heavy  fine  for  having  supported  Stephen. 
On  this  the  Londoners  rang  their  bells,  and  the  citizens  Jn  arms 
swarmed  out  of  their  houses  '  like  bees  out  of  a  hive.'  Matilda  fled 
to  Winchester  before  them.  Bishop  Henry  then  turned  against 
her.  Robert  of  Gloucester  was  taken  prisoner,  and  after  a  while 
Matilda  was  obliged  to  set  free  King  Stephen  in  exchange  for  her 
brother.  Fighting  continued  for  some  time.  On  all  sides  men 
were  longing  for  peace.  The  fields  were  untilled  because  no  man 
could  tell  who  would  reap  the  harvest.  Thousands  perished  of 
starvation.  If  peace  there  was  to  be,  it  could  only  come  by 
Stephen's  victory.  It  was  now  known  that  Matilda  was  even  less 
fit  to  govern  than  Stephen.  Stephen  took  one  castle  after  another. 
In  ii47Earl  Robert  died,  and  in  1148  Matilda  gave  up  the  struggle 
and  left  England. 


^>. 


136 


STEPHEN 


1147-1149 


17.  Henry,  Duke  of  the  Normans.     1 149. —Whilst  Matilda  had 
been  losing  England  her  husband  had  been  conquering  Normandy, 


Tower  of  Castor  Church,  Northamptonshire.     Built  about  1 145. 
(The  parapet  and  spire  are  later.) 

and  for  a  little  while  it  seemed  possible  that  England  and  Normandy 
would  be  separated  ;   England  remaining  under  Stephen  and  his 


1I47-II54  STEPHEN  AND  HENRY  137 

heirs,  and  Normandy  united  with  Anjou  under  the  Angevin 
Geoffrey  and  his  descendants.  That  the  separation  did  not  yet 
take  place  was  partly  owing  to  the  different  character  of  the 
two  heirs.  Stephen's  son,  Eustace,  was  rough  and  overbearing. 
Geoffrey's  son,  Henry,  was  shrewd  and  prudent.  Henry  had  already 
been  in  England  when  he  was  still  quite  young,  and  had  learnt 
something  of  English  a^airs  from  his  uncle,  Robert  of  Gloucester. 
He  returned  to  his  father  in  1147,  and  in  1149  Geoffrey  gave 
up  to  him  the  duchy  of  Normandy.  He  was  then  sent  to  try  his 
fortune  in  England  in  his  mother's  stead,  but  he  was  only  a  boy 
of  sixteen,  and  too  young  to  cope  with  Stephen.  In  1150  he 
abandoned  the  struggle  for  a  time.  In  his  absence  Stephen  had 
still  rebels  to  put  down  and  castles  to  besiege,  but  he  had  the  greater 
part  of  the  kingdom  at  his  back,  and  if  Henry  had  continued  to 
leave  him  alone  he  would  probably  have  reduced  all  his  enemies  to 
submission. 
\y^  18.  The  Last  Days  of  Stephen.  1153— 1154.— In  1150  Geoffrey 
died,  and  Henry  became  Count  of  Anjou  as  well  as  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy. Before  long  he  acquired  a  much  wider  territory  than 
either  Anjou  or  Normandy.  Louis  VII.  of  France  had  to  wife 
Eleanor,  the  Duchess  of  Aquitaine,  and  through  her  had  added 
to  his  own  scanty  dominions  the  whole  of  the  lands  between  the 
Loire  and  the  Pyrenees.  Louis,  believing  that  she  was  unfaith- 
ful to  him,  had  divorced  her  on  the  pretext  that  she  was  too  near 
of  kin.  Henry  was  not  squeamish  about  the  character  of  so  great 
an  heiress,  and  in  1152  married  the  Duchess  of  Aquitaine  for  the 
sake  of  her  lands.  Thus  strengthened,  he  again  returned  to  England. 
He  was  now  a  young  man  of  nineteen  ;  his  vigour  was  as  great  as 
that  of  Stephen,  and  his  skill  greater.  He  won  fortress  after  fortress. 
Before  the  end  of  1153  Eustace  died,  and  Stephen  had  no  motive 
for  prolonging  the  strife  if  his  personal  interests  could  be  saved. 
It  was  arranged  by  the  treaty  of  Wallingford  that  Stephen  should 
retain  the  crown  for  life,  and  that  Henry  should  be  his  heir.  The 
castles  which  had  sprung  up  during  the  civil  war  without  the  licence 
of  the  king — the  'adulterine  castles,'  as  they  were  called— and  there 
were  no  less  than  365'  of  them— were  to  be  destroyed,  and  order 
and  good  government  were  to  return.  For  five  months  Henry 
remained  in  England.  The  robber  barons  could  not  hold  out  against 
the  two  rivals  now  united.  Many  of  the  castles  were  demolished,  and 
'  such  good  peace  as  never  was  here '  was  established.  In  1154 
Stephen  died,  and  young  Henry  ruled  England  in  his  own  name. 
I  The  number  usually  given,  •  1,115,'  is  probably  an  error. 


v: 


CHAPTER   X 

HENRY    II.      1154—1189 

LEADING    DATES 

Accession  of  Henry  II 1154 

Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury       ....  1162 

The  Constitutions  of  Clarendon 1164 

Murder  of  Archbishop  Thomas 1172 

The  Assize  of  Arms ji8i 

Fall  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem 1187 

Death  of  Henry  II. 1189 


V. 


1.  Henry's  Accession.  1154. — Henry  H.  was  but  twenty-one 
when  he  returned,  after  Stephen's  death,  to  govern  England.  He 
had  before  him  the  difficult  task  of  establishing  order  where  anarchy 
had  prevailed,  but  it  was  a  task  for  which  he  was  specially  suited. 
His  frame  was  strong  and  thick-set,  and  he  was  as  active  as  he  was 
strong.  His  restlessness  was  the  dismay  of  his  courtiers.  Eager 
to  see  everything  for  himself,  and  having  to  rule  a  territory  extend- 
ing from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Scottish  border,  he  was  always  on  the 
mov6.  His  followers  were  not  allowed  to  know  till  he  started  in 
the  morning  where  he  intended  to  sleep  at  night,  and  he  frequently 
changed  his  mind  even  after  he  had  set  out.  He  was  as  busy  with  his 
mind  as  he  was  with  his  body,  as  fond  of  a  book  as  of  a  horse,  and 
ready  to  chat  with  any  one  of  whatever  rank.  Even  when  he  was  at 
mass  he  either  drew  pictures  to  amuse  himself  or  conversed  in 
whispers  with  his  neighbours.  His  ceaseless  energy  was  combined 
with  a  strong  will,  a  clear  perception  of  the  limits  beyond  which 
action  would  be  unwise,  a  good  eye  for  ability  in  others,  and  a  power 
of  utilising  their  ability  in  his  own  service.  On  the  Continenthis  saga- 
city appeared  in  his  resolution  to  be  content  with  the  dominions 
which  he  had  acquired  without  making  further  conquests.  In  England 
his  main  object  was  the  same  as  that  of  his  predecessors,  to  establish 
the  king's  authority  over  the  great  barons.  What  especially  distin- 
guished him  was  his  clear  perception  of  the  truth  that  he  could  only 
succeed  by  securing,  not  merely  the  passive  goodwill,  but  the  active 
co-operationof  those  who,  whether  they  were  of  Norman  or  of  English 
descent,  were  inferior  in  wealth  and  position  to  the  great  barons. 

2.  Pacification  of  England. — Henry's  first  year  was  spent  in 
completing  the  work  which  he  had  begun  after  the  treaty  of 
Wallingford.     He  sent   Stephen's  mercenaries  over  the   sea  and 


HENRY  11. 


139 


Effigies  of  Henry  11.  and  Queen  Eleanor  at  Fontevrault, 


f 


140  HENKY  II.  1 1 54- 1 162 

completed  the  destruction  of  the  '  adulterine  castles.'  One  great 
rebel  after  another  was  forced  to  submit  and  have  his  strong  walls 
pulled  down.  There  were  to  be  no  more  dens  of  robbers  in 
England,  but  all  men  were  to  obey  the  king  and  the  law.  What 
castles  remained  were  the  king's,  and  as  long  as  they  were  his  re- 
bellions would  not  be  likely  to  be  successful.  Henry  even  regained 
from  Malcolm  IV.,  king  of  the  Scots,  Northumberland  and  Cumber- 
land, which  had  been  surrendered  by  Stephen  (see  p.  133).  In  his 
government  Henry  did  his  best  to  carry  out  the  plans  of  his  grand- 
father, Henry  I.  It  was  perhaps  because  he  was  afraid  that  one 
Justiciar  would  be  too  powerful,  that  he  appointed  two,  Richard  de 
Lucy  and  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  to  see  that  justice  was  executed  and 
the  government  maintained  whether  the  king  were  absent  or  present. 
The  old  Bishop  Nigel  of  Ely  was  reappointed  Treasurer,  and  pre- 
sided over  the  Exchequer  at  Westminster.  Thomas  of  London, 
known  in  later  times  by  the  name  of  Becket,^  an  active  and 
vigorous  man,  fifteen  years  older  than  the  king,  who  had  been 
ordained  a  deacon,  but  had  nothing  clerical  about  him  except  the 
name,  was  made  Chancellor.  Thomas  was  the  king's  chosen 
friend,  and  the  two  together  delighted  in  the  work  of  restoring 
order.  Thomas  liked  sumptuous  living,  and  the  magnificence 
cf  his  housekeeping  and  of  his  feasts  was  the  talk  of  the  whole 
country.  Yet  though  he  laughed  and  jested  in  the  midst  of  his 
grandeur,  he  kept  himself  from  every  kind  of  vice.  Henry  was  fond 
of  horseplay,  and  once  on  a  bitter  winter's  day,  when  he  was  riding 
with  Thomas,  he  snatched  at  a  fine  new  scarlet  mantle  from  the 
Chancellor's  neck  to  throw  to  a  beggar.  Thomas  struggled  hard, 
and  the  two  men  nearly  pulled  one  another  off  their  horses,  but  in 
the  end  the  beggar  got  the  mantle. 

3.  Henry  and  Feudality. — It  was  principally  with  Thomas  the 
Chancellor  that  Henry  consulted  as  to  the  best  means  of  esta- 
blishing his  authority.  He  resolved  not  only  to  renew  but  to  ex- 
tend the  administrative  system  of  Henry  I.  The  danger  which 
threatened  him  came  from  the  great  barons,  and  as  the  great 
barons  were  as  dangerous  to  the  lesser  ones  and  to  the  bulk  of  the 
people  as  they  were  to  the  king,  Henry  was  able  to  strengthen 
himself  by  winning  the  affections  of  the  people.  Feudality  in  itself 
was  only  a  method  of  owning  land  ;  but  it  was  always  threatening 
to  pass  into  a  method  of  government.     In  France  the  great  feudal 

1  His  father's  name  was  Becket,  but  at  that  time  hereditary  surnames  had 
not  come  into  use.  He  was  once  called  Thomas  Becket  in  his  lifetime  by  one 
of  his  murderers  as  an  insult. 


II54-II62  HENRY  AND    THE  BARONS  14 1 

lords  ruled  their  own  territories  with  very  little  regard  for  the  wishes 
of  the  king,  and  the  smaller  feudal  lords  had  their  own  courts  in 
which  they  hanged  and  imprisoned  their  villeins.  In  Stephen's 
time  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  introduce  this  system  into 
England,  with  evil  consequences  both  to  king  and  people.  Before 
the  Conquest  great  landowners  had  often  received  permission  from 
the  king  to  exercise  criminal  jurisdiction  in  the  Manor  Courts  on 
their  own  estates,  whilst  the  vast  extent  of  their  landed  property 
gave  them  a  preponderant  voice  in  the  proceedings  of  the  shire- 
moots,  now  known  by  the  Normans  as  County  Courts.  Henry 
resolved  to  attack  the  evil  at  both  ends  :  in  the  first  place  to  make 
the  barons  support  the  king's  government  instead  of  setting  up 
their  own  ;  in  the  second  place,  to  weaken  the  Manor  and  County 
Courts  and  to  strengthen  courts  directly  proceeding  from  himself. 

4.  The  Great  Council  and  the  Curia  Regis. — Henry  in  the  early 
years  of  his  reign  revived  the  importance  of  the  Great  Council, 
taking^race  that  it  should  be  attended  not  only  by  the  great  barons, 
but  by  vassabsholding  smaller  estates,  and  therefore  more  depen- 
dent on  himselfTxHe  summoned  the  Great  Council  oftener  than 
his  predecessors  ha^sdone.  In  this  way  even  the  greater  barons 
got  the  habit  of  sharing^'h^^he  government  of  England  as  a  whole, 
instead  of  seeking  to  split  Q^he  country,  as  France  was  split  up, 
into  different  districts,  each  of  wkkh  might  be  governed  by  one  of 
themselves.  It  was  in  consequence^»Qhe  increasing  habit  of  con- 
sulting with  the  king  that  the  Great  Cotnicil,  after  many  changes, 
ultimately  grew  into  the  modern  ParliamentNsJt  was  of  no  less  im- 
portance that  Henry  II.  strengthened  the  Curm^-^gis,  which  had 
been  established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  (see  p.  1 27)><o  collect  the 
king's  revenue,  to  give  him  political  advice,  and  to  judgfes^  many 
questions  as  it  could  possibly  get  hold  of.  It  was  especialivby 
doing  justice  that  the  Curia  Regis  was  likely  to  acquire  strength^- 
and  the  strength  of  the  Curia  Regis  was  in  reality  the  strength 
of  the  king. 
yi  5.  Scutage.  —  If  Henry  was  to  carry  out  justice  everywhere  it 
would  be  necessary  for  him  to  weaken  still  further  the  power  of  the 
barons.  He  reintroduced  a  plan  which  had  been  first  adopted  by 
his  grandfather,  which  had  the  double  merit  of  strengthening  the 
king  upon  the  Continent  and  of  weakening  the  barons  in  England. 
Henry  needed  an  army  to  defend  his  Continental  possessions 
against  the  king  of  France.  The  fyrd,  or  general  levy  of  English- 
men, was  not  bound  to  fight  except  at  home,  and  though  the 
feudal  vassals  were  liable  to  serve  abroad,   they  could  only  be 


142 


HENRY  II. 


1 1 54-1 162 


made  to  serve  for  forty  days  in  the  year,  which  was  too  short  a 
time  for  Henry's  purposes.  He  accordingly  came  to  an  agreement 
with  his  vassals.  The  owner  of  every  knight's  fee  was  to  pay  a 
sum  of  money  known  as  scutage  {shield-money)  in  lieu  of  service. 
Both  parties  gained  by  the  arrangement.  The  king  got  money 
with  which  he  paid  mercenaries  abroad,  who  would  fight  for  him 
all  the  year  round,  and  the  vassal  escaped  the  onerous  duty  of  fight- 
ing in  quarrels  in  which  he  took  no  interest.  Indirectly  the  change 
weakened  the  feudal  vassals,  because  they  had  now  less  opportunity 
than  before  of  acquiring  a  military  training  in  actual  war. 


X 


Ecclesiastical  costume  in  the  twelfth  century. 

6.  Archbishop  Thomas.  1162. — Henry,  who  meditated  great 
judicial  reforms,  foresaw  that  the  clergy  would  be  an  obstacle  in  his 
way.  He  was  eager  to  establish  one  law  for  his  whole  kingdom, 
and  the  clergy,  having  been  exempted  by  the  Conqueror  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary  law  courts  in  all  ecclesiastical  matters, 
had,  during  the  anarchy  of  Stephen's  reign,  encroached  on  the 
royal  authority,  and  claimed  to  be  responsible,  even  in  criminal 
cases,  only  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  which  were  unable  to 
inflict  the  penalty  of  death,  so  that  a  clerk  who  committed  a  murder 
could  not  be  hanged  like  other  murderers.  As  large  numbers  of 
clerks  were  only  in  the  lower  orders,  and  as  many  of  them  had  only 
taken  those  orders  to  escape  from  the  hardships  of  lay  life,  their 
morals  were  often  no  better  than  those  of  their  lay  neighbours.     A 


J> 


1162-1164  HENRY  AND    THOMAS  143 

vacancy  occurring  in  the  Archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  Henry,  who 
wished  to  make  these  clerks  punishable  by  his  own  courts,  thought 
that  the  arrangement  would  easily  be  eflfected  if  Thomas,  who  had 
hitherto  been  active  as  a  reformer  in  his  service,  were  Archbishop 
as  well  as  Chancellor.  It  was  in  vain  that  Thomas  remonstrated. 
"  I  warn  you,"  he  said  to  Henry,  "  that,  if  such  a  thing  should  be, 
our  friendship  would  soon  turn  to  bitter  hate."  Henry  persisted 
in  spite  of  the  warning,  and  Thomas  became  Archbishop. 

7.  Breach  between  Henry  and  Thomas. — The  first  act  of  the 
new  Archbishop  was  to  surrender  his  Chancellorship.  He  was 
unable,  he  said,  to  serve  two  masters.  It  is  not  difficult  to  under- 
stand his  motives.  The  Church,  as  the  best  men  of  the  twelfth 
century  believed,  was  divinely  instituted  for  the  guidance  of  the 
world.  It  was  but  a  short  step  for  the  nobler  spirits  amongst  the 
clergy  to  hold  it  necessary  that,  in  order  to  secure  the  due  per- 
formance of  such  exalted  duties,  the  clergy  should  be  exempted 
from  the  so-called  justice  of  laymen,  which  was  often  only  another 
name  for  tyranny,  even  if  the  exemption  led  to  the  infliction  upon 
wicked  clerks  of  lesser  punishments  than  were  meet.  In  this  way 
the  clergy  would  unconsciously  fall  into  the  frame  of  mind  which 
might  lead  them  to  imagine  it  more  to  the  honour  of  God  that  a 
wicked  clerk  should  be  insufficiently  punished  than  that  he  should 
be  punished  by  a  layman.  Of  all  men  Archbishop  Thomas  was  the 
most  likely  to  fall  into  this  mistake.  He  was,  as  Chancellor,  prone  to 
magnilfy  his  office,  and  to  think  more  of  being  the  originator  of  great 
reforms  than  of  the  great  reforms  themselves.  As  Archbishop  he 
would  also  be  sure  to  magnify  his  office,  and  to  think  less,  as  Anselm 
would  have  thought,  of  reconciling  the  true  interests  of  the  kingdom 
with  the  true  interests  of  the  Church,  than  of  making  the  Arch- 
bishop's authority  the  centre  of  stirring  movement,  and  of  raising 
the  Church,  of  which  he  was  the  highest  embodiment  in  England, 
to  a  position  above  the  power  of  the  king.  All  this  he  would  do 
with  a  great,  if  not  a  complete,  sincerity.  He  would  feel  that  he 
was  himself  the  greater  man  because  he  believed  that  he  was 
fighting  in  the  cause  of  God. 

8.  The  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  1164. — Between  a  king 
eager  to  assert  the  rights  of  the  crown  and  an  archbishop  eager  to 
asseH^he  rigfitS*"o^^ajiLei;g]^  quarrel  could  not  be  long  deferred. 
Thomas's  first  stand,  however,  waL5*tmJjghalf  of  the  whole  country. 
At  a  Great  Council  at  Woodstock  he  resiste9~The-4dlijg^sresolution 
to  levy  the  old  tax  of  Danegeld,  and  in  consequence  DanegrM  was 
never  levied  again.     Henry  had  for  some  time  been  displeased 


144 


HENRY  IT. 


164 


because,  without  consulting  him,  the  Archbishop  had  seized  on 
lan^s-^Aj^liich  he  claimed  as  the  property  of  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury, and^iad^'-excQaimumcated  one  of  the  king's  tenants.  Then  a 
clerk  who  had  committe3~a~Tape-aiida  murder  had  been  acquitted 
in  an  ecclesiastical  court.  On  this,  Heitry^alled  on  the  bishops  to 
promise  to  obey  the  customs  of  the  realm.  Thomas,  being  told 
that  the  king  merely  wanted  a  verbal  promise  to  save  his  dignity, 


A  bishop  ordaining  a  priest.     (From  a  MS.  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century.) 


with  some  reluctance  consented.  He  soon  found  that  he  had  been 
tricke4:][n  1164  Henry  summoned  a  Great  Council  to  meet  at 
Clarendmi^  and  dll'ecte^-SQjjieof  the  oldest  of  his  barons  to  set 
down  in  writing  the  customs  oBs^rcT44i^LiliseTandfather.  Their 
report  was  intended  to  settle  all  disputed  poirvtsBetw€en  the  king 
and  the  clergy,  and  was  drawn  up  under  sixteen  heads  known  as 
the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.     The  most  important  of  them  de- 


ii64      ^  CONSTITUTIONS  OF   CLARENDON  145 

clared  that  beneficed  clergy  should  not  leave  the  realm  without  the 
king's  leave  ;  that  no  tenant-in-chief  of  the  king  should  be  excom- 
municated without  the  king's  knowledge  ;  that  no  villein  should 

ordained  without  his  lord's  consent  ;  that  a  criminous  clerk 
shouM^be  sent  to  the  ecclesiastical  court  for  trial,  and  that  after 
he  had  befen^ere  convicted  or  had  pleaded  guilty  the  Church  should 
deprive  him  ah<^ave  him  to  the  lay  court  for  further  punishment. 
It  was  for  the  Cu?H^gls  to  determine  what  matters  were  pro- 
perly to  be  decided  byH>^cclesiastical  courts  5  and  no  appeal  to 
Rome  was  to  be  allowed  withotK^ts  permission.  To  all  this  Thomas 
was  violently  opposed,  maintainingtk^he  sentence  of  deprivation, 
which  was  all  that  an  ecclesiastical  court">a«;.empowered  to  inflict, 
was  so  terrible,  that  one  who  had  incurred  it  ou^i^not  to  be  sen- 
tenced to  any  further  penalty  by  a  lay  court.  After  six  days'  struggle 
he  left  the  Council,  refusing  to  assent  to  the  Constitutions. 

9.  The  Persecution  of  Archbishop  Thomas.  11 64.—  Unluckily 
for  himself,  Henry  could  not  be  content  firmly  and  quietly  to 
enforce  the  law  as  it  had  been  declared  at  Clarendon.  He  had 
in  his  character  much  of  the  orderly  spirit  of  his  grandfather, 
Henry  I.,  but  he  had  also  something  of  the  violence  of  his  great- 
uncle,  William  H.  A  certain  John  the  Marshal  had  a  suit  against 
tlie  archbishop,  and  when  the  archbishop  refused  to  plead  in  a 
lay  court,  the  king's  council  sentenced  him  to  a  fine  of  500/.  Then 
Henry  summoned  the  archbishop  to  his  castle  at  Northampton  to 
give  an  account  of  all  the  money  which,  when  he  was  Chancellor, 
he  had  received  from  the  king — a  claim  which  is  said  to  have 
amounted  to  30,000/.,  a  sum  equal  in  the  money  of  these  days  to  not 
much  less  than  400,000/.  now.  Thomas,  with  the  crucifix  in  his  hand, 
awaited  in  the  hall  the  decision  of  Henry,  who  with  the  council 
was  discussing  his  fate  in  an  upper  chamber.  When  the  Justiciar 
came  out  to  tell  him  that  he  had  been  declared  a  traitor  he  refused 
to  listen,  and  placed  himself  under  the  Pope's  protection.  Hot 
words  were  bandied  on  either  side  as  he  walked  out  of  the  hall. 
"  This  is  a  fearful  day,"  said  one  of  his  attendants.  "  The  Day  of 
Judgment,"  replied  Thomas,  "  will  be  more  fearful."  Thomas  made 
his  way  to  the  coast  and  fled  to  France.  Henry  in  his  wrath  banished 
no  less  than  four  hundred  of  the  archbishop's  kinsmen  and  friends. 
Thomas  found  less  help  in  France  than  he  had  expected.  There 
were  once  more  two  rival  Popes — Alexander  HI,,  who  was  acknow- 
ledged by  the  greater  part  of  the  clergy  and  by  the  kings  of 
England  and  France,  and  Calixtus  III.,  who  had  been  set  up  by 
the  Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa-  Alexander  was  too  much  afraid 

L 


146 


HENRY  II. 


[64-1166 


lest  Henry  should  take  the  part  of  CaHxtus  to  be  very  eager  in 
supporting  Thomas.  He  therefore  did  his  best  to  effect  a  recon- 
ciliation between  Henry  and  Thomas,  but  for  some  years  his  efforts 
were  of  no  avail. 

10.  The  Assize  oLClai^ndon.  1166. — Henry,  being  temporarily 
disembarrassed'of  Thomas's  rivalry7'Wa!&«aJ;^le  to  devote  his  time 
to  carrying  out  still  further  the  judicial  organisation  of  the  country. 


Small  ship  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

In  ii66he  held  a  Great  Council  at  Clarendon,  and  with  its  approval 
fesue4aset  of  decrees  known  as  the  Assize  of  Clarendon.  By  this 
assize  fu!ribreejii:ai,^ivei^  a  change  which  had  for  some  time 
been  growing  in  ■SieTuHTcM'-'system.  The  old  English  way  of 
dealing  with  criminals  had  been  bycattkigon  an  accused  person 
to  swear  to  his  own  innocence  and  to  bringcoTnpiirgators  to  swear 
that  his  oath  was  true.  If  the  accused  failed  to  find  compurgators 
he  was  sent  to  the  ordeal.     According  to  the  new  way  there  was  to 


^ 


1166  JUDICIAL   REFORMS  147 

be  in  each  county  juries  consisting  of  twelve  men  of  the  hundred 
and  oNbur  from  each  township  in  it  to  present  offences — felonies, 
murders,  and  robberies — and  to  accuse  persons  on  common  report. 
They  were  \worn  to  speak  the  truth,  so  that  their  charges  were 
known  as  verHicts  {vere  dicta).  No  compurgators  were  allowed, 
but  the  accused^vafter  his  offence  had  been  presented,  had  to  go  to 
the  ordeal,  and  evHn  if  he  succeeded  in  this  he  was,  if  his  character 
was  notoriously  back  to  abjure  the  realm — that  is  to  say,  to  be 
banished,  swearmg  ne\er  to  return.  If  he  came  back  he  was  held  to 
be  an  outlaw,  and  might  be  put  to  death  without  mercy  by  any  one. 

1 1.  Recognitions.— AWery  similar  system  to  that  which  was  thus 
adopted  in  criminal  cases  had  already  in  the  early  part  of  Henry's 
reign  been  widely  extended^  in  civil  cases.  When,  before  the 
Conquest,  disputes  occurred  amongst  the  English  as  to  the  posses- 
sion of  property,  each  party  swolte  to  the  justice  of  his  own  case, 
brought  compurgators,  and  summohed  witnesses  to  declare  in  his 
favour.  There  was,  however,  no  metHod  of  cross-examination,  and 
if  the  hundred  or  shire  court  was  still  ul 
the  ordeal.  The  Normans  introduced  th>t  system  of  trial  by  battle, 
under  the  belief  that  God  would  intervene  to  give  victory  to  the 
litigant  whose  cause  was  just.  This  latter\system,  however,  had 
never  been  popular  with  the  English,  and  Hebry  favoured  another 
which  had  been  in  existence  in  Normandy  before  the  Conquest,  and 
was  fairly  suited  to  English  habits.  This  was  thes^ystem  of  recog- 
nitions. Any  freeholder  who  had  been  disposses^d  of  his  land 
might  apply  to  the  Curia  Regis,  and  the  Curia  Regi^  ordered  the 
sheriff  of  the  county  in  which  was  the  land  in  dispute  tK  select  four 
knights  of  that  county,  by  whom  twelve  knights  were  chosen  to 
serve  as  Recognitors.  It  was  the  business  of  these  Reco^itors 
to  find  out  either  by  their  own  knowledge  or  by  private  inquir)Ndie 
truth  of  the  matter.  If  they  were  unanimous  their  verdict  was  abt 
cepted  as  final.  If  not,  other  knights  were  added  to  them,  and  when 
at  last  twelve  were  found  agreeing,  their  agreement  was  held  to 
settle  the  question. 

12.  The  Germ  of  the  Jury. — Thus,  whilst  in  criminal  cases 
the  local  knowledge  of  sworn  accusers  was  treated  as  satisfactory 
evidence  of  guilt,  in  civil  cases  a  system  was  growing  up  in  which 
is  to  be  traced  the  germ  of  the  modern  jury.  The  Recognitors 
did  not  indeed  hear  evidence  in  public  or  become  judges  of  the  fact, 
like  the  modern  jury  ;  they  were  rather  sworn  witnesses,  allowed 
to  form  an  opinion  not  merely,  like  modern  witnesses,  on  what  they 

L2 


148  HENRY  11.  1166-1170 

had  actually  seen  or  heard,  but  also  on  what  they  could  gather  by 
private  inquiry. 

13.  The  Itinerant  Justices  Revived. —  To  carry  out  this 
system  Henj^  renewed  his  grandfather's  experiment  of  sending 
members  of  tlfe-ssQ/r/<2  Regis  as  itinerant  justices  visiting  the 
counties.  They  helotvl^at  were  called  the  pleas  of  the  crown — that 
is  to  say,  trials  which  w^  brought  before  the  king's  judges 
instead  of  being  tried  eitherki  the  county  courts  or  the  manorial 
courts.  Both  these  judges  an^V^the  king  had  every  interest  in 
getting  as  much  business  before  theh^courts  as  possible.  Offenders 
were  fined  and  suitors  had  to  pay  fees,  and  the  best  chance  of  in- 
creasing these  profits  was  to  attract  suitors^by  administering  justice 
better  than  the  local  courts.  The  more  tnhmged  were  the  king's 
courts,  the  more  rich  and  powerful  he  becam^  The  consequent 
growth  of  the  influence  of  the  itinerant  justices  was  no  doubt 
offensive  to  the  lords  of  the  manorj  and  especially  to  the  greater 
landowners,  as  diminishing  their  importance,  and  calling  them  to 
account  whenever  they  attempted  to  encroach  on  their  less  powerful 
neighbours. 

14.  The  Inquisition  of  the  Sheriffs.  1170. — It  was  not  long 
before  Henry  discovered  another  way  of  diminishing  the  power  of 
the  bar(^.  In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  the  sheriffs  of  the 
counties  wfe«;;e  still  selected  from  the  great  landowners,  and  the 
sheriff  was  nbt  merely  the  collector  of  the  king's  revenue  in  his 
county,  but  had/^ce  the  Conquest,  assumed  a  new  importance  in 
the  county  court,  o\er  which  in  the  older  times  the  ealdorman 
or  earl  and  the  bislK»  had  presided.  Since  the  Conquest  the 
bishop,  having  a  court  ot  his  own  for  ecclesiastical  matters,  had 
ceased  to  take  part  in  its^roceedings,  and  the  earl's  authority, 
which  had  been  much  lessened  after  the  Conquest,  had  now  dis- 
appeared. The  sheriff,  therefore)«,was  left  alone  at  the  head  of  the 
county  court,  and  when  the  new  sy^m  of  trial  grew  up  he  as  well 
as  the  itinerant  justices  was  allowed  to^ceive  the  presentments  of 
juries.  When,  in  the  spring  of^iiyo,  thekmg  returned  to  England 
after  an  absence  of  four  years,  he  held  a  strict  inquiry  into  the 
conduct  of  them  all,  and  deposed  twenty  of  thehfL  In  many  cases, 
no  doubt,  the  sheriffs  had  done  things  to  displease  Tienry,  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  blow  thus  struck  at  the^eriffs  was, 
in  the  main,  aimed  at  the  great  nobility.  The  successors  of  those 
turned  out  were  of  lower  rank,  and  therefore  more  submissive. 
From  this  time  it  was  accepted  by  the  kings  of  England  as  a 
principle  of  government  that  no  great  noble  should  serve  as  sheriff. 


II70  RETURN  OF  ARCHBISHOP  THOMAS  '    149 

15.  The  Nobles  and  the  Church. — Henry  knew  well  that  the 
great  noBlB^ere  indignant,  and  that  it  was  possible  that  they  might 
rise  against  nh^,  as  at  one  time  or  another  they  had  risen  against 
every  king  sinceme  Conquest.  He  knew  too  that  his  predecessors 
had  found  their  stron^^  support  against  the  nobles  in  the  Church, 
and  that  the  Church  wash^longer  unanimously  on  his  side.  He 
could  indeed  count  upon  all  the  bishops  save  one.  Bishops  who 
were  or  had  been  his  officials/S;iishops  envious  of  Thomas  or 
afraid  of  himself,  were  all  at  his  dispbs^,  but  they  brought  him  nq 
popular  strength.  Thomas  alone  among^^hem  had  a  hold  on  the 
imagination  of  the  people  through  his  aust^^^ies  and  his  daring. 
Moreover,  as  the  champion  of  the  clergy,  he  wasS^arded  as  being 
also  the  champion  of  the  people,  from  whose  ranks  tha^lergy  were 

r  recruited. 
16.  The  Coronation  of  Young  Henry.  1170. — At  the  moment 
of  Henry's  return  to  England  he  had  special  need  of  the  Church. 
He  wished  the  kingdom  of  England  to  pass  at  his  death  to  his 
eldest  son,  Henry,  and  since  the  Conquest  no  eldest  son  had  ever 
succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne.  He  therefore  determined  to 
adopt  a  plan  which  had  succeeded  with  the  kings  of  France,  of 
having  the  young  Henry  chosen  and  crowned  in  his  own  lifetime,  so 
that  when  he  died  he  might  be  ready  to  step  into  his  father's  place. 
Young  Henry  was  chosen,  and  on  June  14,  1170,  he  was  crowned  by 
Roger,  Archbishop  of  York  ;  but  on  the  day  before  the  coronation 
Roger  received  from  Thomas  a  notice  of  his  excommunication  of  all 
bishops  taking  part  in  the  ceremony,  on  the  ground  that  it  belonged 
only  to  an  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  to  crown  a  king,  and  this 
excommunication  had  been  ratified  by  the  Pope.  It  was  therefore 
possible  that  the  whole  ceremony  might  go  for  nothing. 
^^  17.  The  Return  of  Archbishop  Thomas.  1170. — To  obviate  this 

danger  Henry  again  sought  to  make  peace  with  Thomas.  An 
agreement  was  come  to  on  the  vague  terms  that  the  past  should 
be  forgotten  on  both  sides.  Henry  perhaps  hoped  that  when 
Thomas  was  once  again  in  England  he  would  be  too  wise  to  rake 
up  the  question  of  his  claim  to  crown  the  king.  If  it  was  so  he 
was  soon  disappointed.  On  December  i,  1170,  Thomas  landed  at 
Sandwich  and  rode  to  Canterbury  amidst  the  shouts  of  the  people. 
He  refused  to  release  from  excommunication  the  bishops  who  had 
taken  part  in  young  Henry's  coronation  unless  they  would  first  give 
him  satisfaction  for  the  wrong  done  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  thus 
showing  that  he  had  forgotten  nothing. 
f       18.    Murder  of    Archbishop   Thomas.     1170. — The   aggrieved 


ISO 


HENRY  11. 


1170 


bishops  at  once  crossed  the  sea  to  lay  their  complaint  before  Henry. 
"  What  a  parcel  of  fools  and  dastards,"  cried  Henry  impatiently, 
"  have  I  nourished  in  my  house,  that  none  of  them  can  be  found  to 


Part  of  the  choir  of  Canterbury  Cathedral  (in  building  from  1175-1184). 


1170-1171  MURDER   OF   THE  ARCHBISHOP  151 

avenge  me  on  one  upstart  clerk !  "  Four  of  his  knights  took  him 
at  his  word,  and  started  in  all  haste  for  Canterbury.  The  Arch- 
bishop before  their  arrival  had  given  fresh  offence  in  a  cause  more 
righteous  than  that  of  his  quarrel  with  the  bishops.  Ranulf  de  Broc 
and  others  who  had  had  the  custody  of  his  lands  in  his  absence 
refused  to  surrender  them,  robbed  him  of  his  goods,  and  maltreated 
his  followers.  On  Christmas  Day  he  excommunicated  them  and 
repeated  the  excommunication  of  the  bishops.  On  December  29 
the  four  knights  sought  him  out.  They  do  not  seem  at  first  to  have 
intended  to  do  him  bodily  harm.  The  excommunication  of  the 
king's  servants  before  the  king  had  been  consulted  was  a  breach  of 
the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and  they  bade  him,  in  the  king's 
name,  to  leave  the  kingdom.  After  a  hot  altercation  the  knights 
retired  to  arm  themselves.  The  archbishop  was  persuaded  by 
his  followers  to  take  refuge  in  the  church.  In  rushed  the  knights 
crying,  "  Where  is  the  traitor?  Where  is  the  archbishop  ?"  "  Be- 
hold me,"  replied  Thomas,  "  no  traitor,  but  a  priest  of  God."  The 
assailants  strove  to  lay  hands  upon  him.  He  struggled  and  cast 
forth  angry  words  upon  them.  In  the  madness  of  their  wrath  they 
struck  him  to  the  ground  and  slew  him  as  he  lay. 

N^  19.  Popular  Indignation.  1 171. — Archbishop  Thomas  did  not  die 
as  a  martyr  for  any  high  or  sacred  cause.  He  was  not  a  martyr  for 
the  faith,  like  those  who  had  been  thrown  to  the  lions  by  the  Roman 
emperors.  He  was  not  a  martyr  for  righteousness,  like  Archbishop 
i^lfheah.  He  was  a  martyr  for  the  privileges  of  his  order  and  of  his 
see.  Yet  if  he  sank  below  the  level  of  the  great  martyrs,  he  did 
not  sink  to  that  lowest  stage  at  which  men  cry  out  for  the  preser- 
vation of  their  own  privileges,  after  those  privileges  have  ceased 
to  benefit  any  but  themselves.  The  sympathy  of  the  mass  of  the 
population  shows  the  persistence  of  a  widespread  belief  that  in 
maintaining  the  privileges  of  the  clergy  Thomas  was  maintaining 
the  rights  of  the  protectors  of  the  poor.  This  sentiment  was  only 
strengthened  by  his  murder.  All  through  Europe  the  news  was 
received  with  a  burst  of  indignation.  Of  that  indignation  the  Pope 
made  himself  the  mouthpiece.  In  the  summer  of  1171  two  Papal 
legates  appeared  in  Normandy  to  excommunicate  Henry  unless  he 
was  able  to  convince  them  that  he  was  guiltless  of  the  murder. 
Henry  was  too  cautious  to  abide  their  coming.  He  crossed  first  to 
England  and  then  to  Ireland,  resolved  to  have  something  to  offer 
the  Pope  which  might  put  him  in  a  better  humour. 

^7**^  20.  State  of  Ireland. — In  the  domain  of  art,  Ireland  was  inferior 
to  no  European  nation.     In  metal- work,  in  sculpture,  and  in  the 


152  HENRY  II.  1 1 54-1 172 

skilful  illumination  of  manuscripts  it  surpassed  them  all  It  had 
no  mean  school  of  music  and  song.  In  political  development 
it  lagged  far  behind.  Ireland  was  still  in  the  tribal  stage,  and 
had  never  been  welded  into  unity  by  foreign  conquerors,  as  Gaul 
had  been  welded  into  unity  by  the  Romans,  and  as  England  had 
been  welded  into  unity  by  the  Normans.  Tribe  warred  with  tribe 
and  chief  with  chief.  The  efforts  of  chiefs  to  attain  supremacy 
over  the  whole  island  had  always  ended  in  partial  or  complete 
failure.  The  Danes  had  made  settlements  in  Dublin,  Wexford, 
Waterford,  Cork,  and  Limerick,  but  though  the  native  Celtic  popu- 
lation was  not  strong  enough  to  expel  them,  neither  were  they 
strong  enough  to  conquer  the  Celts.  The  Church  was  as  dis- 
organised as  the  State,  and  there  was  little  discipline  exercised 
outside  the  monasteries.  For  some  time  the  Popes  and  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury  had  been  anxious  to  establish  a  better  regu- 
lated Church  system,  and  in  1 154  Adrian  IV. — the  only  Englishman 
who  was  ever  Pope— hoping  that  Henry  would  bring  the  Irish 
Church  under  Papal  order,  had  made  him  a  present  of  Ireland,  on 
the  ground  that  all  islands  belonged  to  the  Pope. 

21.  Partial  Conquest  of  Ireland.  1166— 1172. — Henry,  however, 
had  too  much  to  do  during  the  earlier  years  of  his  reign  to  think 
of  conquering  Ireland.  In  1166  Dermot,  king  or  chief  of  Leinster, 
having  been  driven  out  of  his  dominions,  appealed  to  Henry  for  aid. 
Henry  gave  him  leave  to  carry  over  to  Ireland  any  English  knights 
whom  he  could  persuade  to  help  him.  On  this  a  number  of  knights 
from  South  Wales,  of  whom  the  most  important  was  Richard  de 
Clare,  afterwards  known  as  Strongbow,  flocked  across  the  Irish  Sea 
(1169 — 1170).  They  fought  and  conquered,  and  Strongbow,  who 
married  Dermot's  daughter,  gave  himself  the  title  of  Earl  of  Leinster. 
The  rule  of  these  knights  was  a  rule  of  cruelty  and  violence,  and, 
what  was  more,  it  might  well  become  dangerous  to  Henry  himself 
If  feudal  nobles  established  themselves  in  Ireland,  they  might  soon 
be  holding  out  a  hand  to  help  the  feudal  nobles  who  were  Henry's 
worst  enemies  in  England.  When  Henry  landed  in  Ireland  in  1171 
he  set  himself  to  restore  order.  The  Irish  welcomed  him  because 
he  alone  could  bridle  the  invaders,  and  the  invaders  submitted  to 
him  because  they  dared  not  resist  him.  He  gathered  a  synod  of 
the  clergy  at  Cashel,  and  arranged  for  the  future  discipline  of  the 
Church.  Unhappily  he  could  not  remain  long  in  Ireland,  and  when 
he  left  it  the  old  anarchy  and  violence  blazed  up  again.  Though 
Henry  had  not  served  Ireland,  he  had  gained  his  own  personal 
ends.     He  had  frightened  Strongbow  and  his  followers,  and  had 


II72-II74        YOUNG  HENRY  AND    THE  BARONS 


153 


shown  the  Pope,  by  his  proceedings  at  Cashel,  that  his  friendship 
^^  was  worth  having. 
^^        22.  Young  Henry's  Coronation  and  the  Revolt  of  the  Barons. 

1172 — 1174. — In  the  spring  of  1172  Henry  was  back  in  Normandy. 

The  English  barons  were  longing  to 

take  advantage  of  his  quarrel  with  the 

Church,  and  his  only  chance  of  resist- 
ing them  was  to  propitiate  the  Church. 

He  met  the  Papal  legates  at  Avranches, 

swore  that   he  was    innocent    of  the 

death  of  Thomas,  and  renounced  the 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon.     He  then 

proceeded  to  pacify  Louis  VH.,  whose 

daughter  was  married  to  the  younger 

Henry,  Jpy  having  the  boy  recrowned  in 

due  form.     Young  Heniy  was  a  foolish 

lad,  and   took   it   into   his   head  that 

because   he   had    been    crowned    his 

father's  reign  was  at  an  end.     In  1173 

he  fled  for  support  to  his  father-in-law 

and   persuaded   him   to   take   up   his 

cause.      "  Your  master,"  said  Louis  to 

the  ambassadors  of  the  father,  "  is  king 

no  longer.     Here  stands  the  king  of 

the  English."     These  words  were  the 

signal  for  a  general  attack  on  the  elder 

king.  Headed  by  Louis,  his  neighbours 

and  discontented  subjects  took  arms 

against  him,  and  it  was  not  till  Sep- 
tember that  he  prevailed  over  them. 

In  July  the  great  English  barons  of 

the  north  and  centre   rose   in   insur- 
rection, and  William  the  Lion,  king  of 

the   Scots,  joined    them.      De   Lucy, 

the  Justiciar,  stood  up  for  Henry  ;  but, 

though  he  gained  ground,  the  war  was 

still  raging  in  the  following  year,  1174. 

the  rebels  were  gaining  the  upper  hand,  and  the  younger  Henry 

was  preparing  to  come  to  their  help.     In  July  the  elder  Henry 

landed  in  England.  For  the  first  and  only  time  in  his  life  he  brought 

to    England   the    mercenaries  who   were   paid  with   the    scutage 

money.     At  Canterbury'  he  visited  the  tomb  of  Thomas,  now  ac- 


iOUHiliU 

Mitre  of  Archbishop  Thomas 
of  Canterbury  preserved  at 
Sens. 

In  the  spring  of  that  year 


154 


HENRY  11. 


74-1181 


knowledged  as  a  martyr,  spent  the  whole  night  in  prayer  and 
tears,  and  on  the  next  morning  was,  at  his  own  request,  scourged 
by  the  monks  as  a  token  of  his  penitence.  That  night  he  was 
awakened  by  a  messenger  with  good  news.  Ranulf  de  Glan- 
vile  had  won  for  him  a  great  victory  at  Alnwick,  had  dispersed  the 
barons'  host,  and  had  taken  prisoner  the  Scottish  king.  About  the 
same  time  the  fleet  which  was  to  bring  his  son  over  was  dispersed 


Military  and  civil  costume  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 

by  a  storm.  Within  a  few  weeks  the  whole  rebellion  was  at  an  end. 
It  was  the  last  time  that  the  barons  ventured  to  strive  with  the 
king  till  the  time  came  when  they  had  the  people  and  the  Church 
on  their  side.  William  the  Lion  was  carried  to  Normandy,  where,^ 
by  the  treaty  of  Falaise,  he  acknowledged  himself  the  vassal  of  the 
king  of  England  for  the  whole  of  Scotland. 

23.  Ths-Assize  of  Arms.     1181. — In  September  1174  there  was 
a  general   peacel      in    ii^x..>Jienry  issued   the   Assize   of  Arms, 


1 1 72-1x8 1  MILITARY  ORGANISATION  155 

organising  the  old  fyrd  in  a  more  serviceable  way.  Every  English 
freeman^'w^  bound  by  it  to  find  arms  of  a  kind  suitable  to  his 
property,  thabt^e  might  be  ready  to  defend  the  realm  against  rebels 
or  invaders.  Tnfes^size  of  Arms  is  the  strongest  possible  evidence 
as  to  the  real  natureNjf  Henry's  government.  He  had  long  ago 
sent, back  to  the  ContinenNi^  mercenaries  whom  he  had  brought 
with  him  in  the  peril  of  1174,  and  he  now  entrusted  himself  not  to 
a  paid  standing  army,  but  to  theVl^ole  body  of  English  freemen. 
He  was,  in  truth,  king  of  the  Englislwl^merely  because  he  ruled 
over  them,  but  because  they  were  ready  to  rSkllv  round  him  in  arms 
against  those  barons  whose  ancestors  had  work^tis^ch  evil  in  the 
days  of  Stephen.  England  was  not  to  be  given  cJv^  either  to 
baronial  anarchy  or  to  military  despotism. 
^  24.  Henry  II.  and  his  Sons. — In  England  Henry  ruled  as  a 
national  king  over  a  nation  which,  at  least,  preferred  his  govern- 
ment to  that  of  the  barons.  The  old  division  between  English 
and  Norman  was  dying  out,  and  though  the  upper  classes,  for  the 
most  part,  still  spoke  French,  intermarriages  had  been  so  frequent 
that  there  were  few  amongst  them  who  had  not  some  English 
ancestress  and  who  did  not  understand  the  English  language. 
Henry  was  even  strong  enough  to  regain  much  that  he  had  sur- 
rendered when  he  abandoned  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  In 
his  Continental  possessions  there  was  no  such  unity.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  each  province  were  tenacious  of  their  own  laws  and  customs, 
and  this  was  especially  the  case  with  the  men  of  Aquitaine,  the 
country  south  of  the  Loire,  who  differed  in  habits,  and  even  in  lan- 
guage, from  the  Frenchmen  of  Normandy  and  Anjou.  They  there- 
fore found  it  difficult  to  give  a  share  of  the  allegiance  which  they 
owed  to  their  own  duchess,  Eleanor,  to  her  Angevin  husband,  the 
king  of  England.  Henry  in  1172  having  appointed  his  eldest  son, 
Henry,  as  the  future  ruler  of  Normandy  and  Anjou  as  well  as  of 
England,  thought  it  wise  to  recognise  this  feeling  by  giving  to  his 
second  son,  Richard,  the  immediate  possession  of  Eleanor's  duchy 
of  Aquitaine.  In  1181  he  provided  for  his  third  son,  Geoffi-ey,  by 
a  marriage  with  Constance,  the  heiress  of  Brittany,  over  which 
country  he  claimed  a  feudal  superiority  as  Duke  of  the  Normans. 
Yet,  though  he  gave  away  so  much  to  his  sons,  he  wished  to  keep 
the  actual  control  over  them  all.  The  arrangement  did  not  turn  out 
well.  He  had  set  no  good  example  of  domestic  peace.  His  sons 
knew  that  he  had  married  their  mother  for  the  sake  of  her  lands, 
that  he  had  subsequently  thrown  her  into  prison  and  had  been  faith- 
less to  her  with  a  succession  of  mistresses.    Besides  this,  they  were 


156 


HENRY  11. 


[73-1187 


^ 


torn  away  from  him  by  the  influence  of  the  men  whom  they  were 
set  to  rule.  Richard  was  dragged  away  from  his  father  by  the  inter- 
ests and  feehngs  of  the  men  of  Aquitaine,  Geoffrey  by  the  interests 
and  feelings  of  the  men  of  Brittany.  John,  the  fourth  son,  who  was 
named  Lackland  from  having  no  territory  assigned  to  him,  was, 
as  yet,  too  young  to  be  troublesome.^  Both  Richard  and  Geoffrey 
had  taken  part  with  their  brother  Henry  in  the  great  revolt  of 
1173.  In  1177  they  were  again  quarrelling  with  their  father  and  with 
each  other.  "  Dost  thou  not  know,"  was  the  message  which  Geoffrey 
sent  to  his  father,  "  that  it  is  our  proper  nature,  planted  in  us  by 
inheritance  from  our  ancestors,  that  none  of  us  should  love  the 
other,  but  that  ever  brother  should  strive  with  brother  and  son 
against  father  ?  I  would  not  that  thou  shouldst  deprive  us  of  our 
hereditary  right  nor  vainly  seek  to  rob  us  of  our  nature."  Henry 
loved  his  children,  and  could  never  bring  himself  to  make  war  very 
seriously  against  them.  Henry  died  young  in  1183,  and  Geoffrey 
in  1 185.  Richard  was  now  the  heir  of  all  his  father's  lands, 
from  the  Tweed  to  the  Pyrenees.  Henry  made  an  effort  to 
provide  for  John  in  Ireland,  and  in  1185  he  sent  the  youth — 
now  eighteen  years  old— to  Dublin  to  rule  as  king  of  Ireland. 
John  soon  showed  his  incompetence.  He  was  rude  to  the  English 
barons,  and  still  ruder  to  the  Irish  chiefs,  amusing  himself  by 
laughing  at  their  dress  and  pulling  the  hairs  out  of  their  beards. 
Before  the  end  of  the  year  his  father  was  obliged  to  recall  him. 

25.  The  Fall  of  the  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  1187.— The  divi- 
sions in  Henry's  family  were  stirred  up  afresh  by  the  new  king  of 
France,  Philip  II.,  who  had  succeeded  his  father,  Louis  VII.,  in  1179. 
Philip  was  resolved  to  enlarge  his  narrow  dominions  at  the  expense 
of  Henry.  He  was  Henry's  feudal  lord,  and  he  was  crafty  enough  to 
know  that  by  assisting  Henry's  sons  he  might  be  able  to  convert  his 
nominal  lordship  into  a  real  power.  News,  however,  arrived  in  the 
midst  of  the  strife  which  for  a  little  time  put  an  end  to  the  discords 

J  Genealogy  of  the  sons  and  grandchildren  of  Henry  II.  : — 

Henry  H. 
1154-1189 


It.'  I 

Henry  Richard  Geoffrey 

Margaret  of        1189-1199  m.  Constance  of 
France          /«,  Berengaria  of  Brittany 

Navarre  I 

Arthur 


John  =  (i)  Avice    of 
1199-1216J     Gloucester 
(2)  Isabella  of 
AngoulSme 

Henry  HI. 
1216-1272 


1 1 87-1 1 89  DEATH  OF  HENRY  II.  157 

of  men  and  peoples.  The  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  which  had 
been  estabhshed  after  the  first  crusade,  had  only  maintained  itself 
because  the  Mahommedan  rulers  of  Egypt  were  the  rivals  and 
enemies  of  the  Mahommedan  rulers  of  Syria.  Yet  even  with  the 
advantage  of  divisions  amongst  their  enemies,  the  Christians  had 
only  defended  themselves  with  difficulty.  A  second  crusade  which 
had  gone  out  to  relieve  them  in  Stephen's  reign,  under  the  Emperor 
Conrad  III.  and  Louis  VIL  of  France,  had  accomplished  nothing. 
Their  real  defenders  were  two  bodies  of  soldiers,  known  as  the 
Knights  Templars  and  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  who  were  bound,  like 
monks,  to  vows  of  celibacy,  so  that  they  might  always  be  free  to  de- 
fend Jerusalem.  At  last  a  great  Mahommedan  warrior,  Saladin, 
arose,  who  ruled  both  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  was  therefore  able 
to  bring  the  united  forces  of  the  two  countries  against  the  Christian 
colony.  In  1187  he  destroyed  the  Christian  army  at  Tiberias,  and 
in  the  same  year  took  Jerusalem  and  almost  every  city  still  held 
by  the  Christians  in  the  East.  Tyre  alone  held  out,  and  that,  too, 
would  be  lost  unless  help  came  speedily. 

^/\  26.  The  Last  Years  of  Henry  II.  1188  1189. — For  a  moment 
the  rulers  of  the  West  were  shocked  at  the  tidings  from  the  East. 
In  1188  Philip,  Henry,  and  Richard  had  taken  the  cross  as  the  sign 
of  their  resolution  to  recover  the  Holy  City  from  the  infidel.  To 
enable  him  to  meet  the  expenses  of  a  war  in  the  East,  Henry  im- 
posed upon  England  a  new  tax  of  a  tenth  part  of  all  movable 
property,  which  is  known  as  the  Saladin  tithe,  but  in  a  few  months 
those  who  were  pledged  to  go  on  the  crusade  were  fighting  with 
one  another— first  Henry  and  Richard  against  Philip,  and  then 
Philip  and  Richard  against  Henry.  At  last,  in  1189,  Henry, 
beaten  in  war,  was  forced  to  submit  to  Philip's  terms,  receiving 
in  return  a  list  of  those  of  his  own  barons  who  had  engaged  to 
support  Richard  against  his  father.  The  list  reached  him  when  he 
was  at  Chinon,  ill  and  worn  out.  The  first  name  on  it  was  that  of  his 
favourite  son  John.  The  old  man  turned  his  face  to  the  wall. 
"  Let  things  go  now  as  they  will,"  he  cried  bitterly.  "  I  care  no 
more  for  myself  or  for  the  world."  After  a  few  days  of  suffering 
he  died.  The  last  words  which  passed  his  Hps  were,  "Shame, 
shame  upon  a  conquered  king." 

(V  27.  The  Work  of  Henry  II.— The  wisest  and  most  powerful 

ruler  can  only  assist  the  forces  of  nature  ;  he  cannot  work  against 
theih.  Those  who  merely  glance  at  a  map  in  which  the  political 
divisions  of  France  are  marked  as  they  existed  in  Henry's  reign, 
cannot  but  wonder  that  Henry  did  not  make  himself  master  of  the 


158  HENRY  II.  1189 

small  territory  which  was  directly  governed,  in  turn,  by  Louis  VII. 
and  Philip  II.  A  careful  study  of  the  political  conditions  of  his 
reign  shows,  however,  that  he  was  not  really  strong  enough  to  do 
anything  of  the  kind.  His  own  power  on  the  Continent  was  purely 
feudal,  and  he  held  authority  over  his  vassals  there  because  they 
had  personally  done  homage  to  him.  Henry,  however,  had  also 
done  homage  to  the  king  of  France,  and  did  not  venture,  even  if  he 
made  war  upon  his  lord,  the  king  of  France,  to  push  matters  to 
extremities  against  him,  lest  his  sons  as  his  own  vassals  might 
push  matters  to  extremities  against  himself.  He  could  not,  in  short, 
expel  the  king  of  France  from  Paris,  lest  he  should  provoke  his  own 
vassals  to  follow  his  example  of  insubordination  and  expel  him  from 
Bordeaux  or  Rouen.  Moreover,  Henry  had  too  much  to  do  in 
England  to  give  himself  heart  and  soul  to  Continental  affairs, 
whilst  the  king  of  France,  on  the  contrary,  who  had  no  foreign 
possessions,  and  was  always  at  his  post,  would  be  the  first  to  profit 
by  a  national  French  feeling  whenever  such  a  feeling  arose.  Eng- 
land under  Henry  II.  was  already  growing  more  united  and  more 
national.  The  crown  which  Henry  derived  from  the  Conqueror  was 
national  as  well  as  feudal.  Henry,  like  his  predecessors,  had  two 
strings  to  his  bow.  On  the  one  hand  he  could  call  upon  his  vassals 
to  be  faithful  to  him  because  they  had  sworn  homage  to  him, 
whilst  he  himself,  as  far  as  England  was  concerned,  had  sworn 
homage  to  no  one.  On  the  other  hand,  he  could  rally  round  him 
the  natioilal  forces.  To  do  this  he  must  do  justice  and  gain 
the  goodwill  of  the  people  at  large.  It  was  this  that  he  had 
attempted  to  do,  by  sending  judges  round  the  country  and  by 
improving  the  law,  by  establishing  scutage  to  weaken  the  power 
of  the  barons,  and  by  strengthening  the  national  forces  by  the 
Assize  of  Arms.  No  doubt  he  had  little  thanks  for  his  pains. 
Men  could  feel  the  weight  of  his  arm  and  could  complain  of  the 
heavy  fines  exacted  in  his  courts  of  justice.  It  was  only  a  later 
generation,  which  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  his  hard  discipline,  which 
understood  how  much  England  owed  to  him. 


xXfvL^ 


159 


CHAPTER  XI 

RICHARD   I.      1189—1199 


(K 


LEADING    DATES 

Accession  of  Richard  1 1189 

Richard's  Return  to  England  from  the  Crusade          .        .  1194 

Death  of  Richard  1 1199 


K 


Richard  in  England.  1189. — Richard  was  accepted  without 
dispute  as  the  master  of  the  whole  of  the  Angevin  dominions.  He 
.was  a  warrior,  not  a  statesman.  Impulsive  in  his  generosity,  he  was 
also  impulsive  in  his  passions.  Having  determined  to  embark  on 
the  crusade,  he  came  to  England  eager  to  raise  money  for  its  ex- 
penses. With  this  object 
he  not  only  sold  offices  to 
those  who  wished  to  buy 
them,  and  the  right  of 
leaving  office  to  those' who 
wished  to  retire,  but  also, 
with  the  Pope's  consent, 
sold  leave  to  remain  at 
home  to  those  who  had 
taken  the  cross.  Regard- 
less of  the  distant  future, 
he  abandoned  for  money 
to  William  the  Lion  the 
treaty  of  Falaise,  in  which 
William  had  engaged  to 
do  homage  to  the  English 
king. 

2.  William  of  Long- 
champs.  1 189 — 1 191. — To 
secure  order  during  his 
absence  Richard  appoint- 
ed two  Justiciars — Hugh  of  Puiset,  Bishop  of  Durham,  and  William 
of  Longchamps,  Bishop  of  Ely.  At  the  same  time  he  attempted 
to  conciliate  all  who  were  likely  to  be  dangerous  by  making  them 
lavish  grants  of  land,  especially  giving  what  was  practically  royal 
authority  over  five  shires  to  his  brother  John.  Such  an  arrangement 


Royal  arms  of  England  from  Richard  I.  to 
Edward  III.  (From  the  wall  arcade, 
south  aisle  of  nave,  Westminster  Abbey.) 


i6o  RICHARD  I.  X189 

was  not  likely  to  last.  Before  the  end  of  1189  Richard  crossed  to 
the  Continent.  Scarcely  was  he  gone  when  the  populace  in  many 
towns  turned  savagely  on  the  Jews  and  massacred  them  in  crowds. 
The  Jews  lived  by  money-lending,  and  money-lenders  are  never 


The  Galilee  or  Lady  Chapel,  Durham  Cathedral.     Built  by  Bishop  Hugh 
of  Puiset  between  1180  and  1197. 

popular.  In  York  they  took  refuge  in  the  castle,  and  when  all  hope 
of  defending  themselves  failed,  slew  their  wives  and  children,  set 
fire  to  the  castle,  and  perished  in  the  flames.  The  Justiciars  were 
too  much  occupied  with  their  own  quarrels  to  heed  such  matters. 
Hugh  was  a  stately  and  magnificent  prelate.     William  was  laii\^ 


1 189-1192  ktCHARD  TN  THE  HOLY  LAND  161 

and  misshapen,  quick  of  wit  and  unscrupulous.  In  a  few  weeks  he 
had  deprived  his  rival  of  all  authority.  His  own  power  did  not  last 
long.  He  had  a  sharp  tongue,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  let  all  men, 
great  and  small,  know  how  meanly  he  thought  of  them.  Those 
whom  he  despised  found  a  leader  in  John,  who  was  anxious  to  suc- 
ceed his  brother,  and  thought  that  it  might  some  day  be  useful  to 
have  made  himself  popular  in  England.  In  the  autumn  of  1191 
William  of  Longchamps  was  driven  out  of  the  country. 
K^3.  The  Third  Crusade.  1189  — 1 192.  —  Richard  threw  his 
*^hole  heart — his  lion's  heart,  as  men  called  it — into  the  crusade. 
Alike  by  sea  and  by  land,  he  knew  better  than  any  other  leader 
of  his  age  how  to  direct  the  operations  of  war.  He  was  too  im- 
petuous to  guard  himself  against  the  intrigues  and  personal  rancour 
of  his  fellow- Crusaders.  At  Messina  he  quarrelled  with  the  wily 
Philip  II.  of  France,  while  he  gave  offence  to  all  Germans  by  up- 
holding the  claims  of  Tancred  to  the  crown  of  Sicily,  which  was  also 
claimed  by  the  German  king,  who  afterwards  became  the  Emperor 
Henry  VI.  In  the  spring  of  1191  Richard  sailed  from  Sicily  for  the 
Holy  Land,  conquering  Cyprus  on  the  way,  where  he  married  Beren- 
garia  of  Navarre.  Passing  on  to  the  coast  of  Syria,  he  found  the 
Crusaders  besieging  Acre,  and  his  own  vigour  greatly  contributed  to 
its  fall.  When  Acre  was  taken  Philip  slipped  home  to  plot  against 
Richard,  and  Richard  found  every  French  Crusader  and  every  Ger- 
man Crusader  banded  together  against  him.  When  he  advocated 
the  right  of  Guy  of  Lusignan  to  the  crown  of  Jerusalem,  they  advo- 
cated the  claim  of  Conrad  of  Montferrat.  Jerusalem  was  not  to  be 
had  for  either  of  them.  Twice  Richard  brought  the  Crusading  host 
within  eight  miles  of  the  Holy  City.  Each  time  he  was  driven  to 
retreat  by  the  failure  of  the  Crusaders  to  support  him.  The  last 
time  his  comrades  invited  him  at  least  to  reach  a  spot  from  which 
a  view  of  the  city  could  be  gained.  Richard  refused.  If  he  was 
not  worthy,  he  said,  to  regain  the  city,  he  was  not  worthy  to  look 
on  it. 
^N,  4.  The  Return  of  Richard.  1192 — 1194. — In  1192  there  was 
nothing  for  it  but  to  return  home.  Enemies  were  watching  for  him 
on  every  shore.  Landing  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  he  attempted 
to  make  his  way  in  disguise  through  Germany.  With  characteristic 
want  of  reflection,  he  roasted  his  meat  at  a  village  inn  near  Vienna 
with  a  jewelled  ring  on  his  finger.  Attention  was  aroused,  and  he 
was  arrested  and  delivered  up  to  Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  who  had 
been  his  bitter  antagonist  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  Leopold  de- 
livered him  up  to  his  own  feudal  superior,  the  Emperor,  Henry  VI. 


fc> 


162 


RICHARD  I. 


1192-1194 


Eifigy  of  a  knight  in  the  Temple  Church, 
London,  showing  armour  of  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century. 


The  imprisonment  of  Richard 
was  joyful  news  to  Philip  and 
John.  John  did  his  best  to  get 
into  his  hands  all  the  English 
and  Continental  dominions  of 
his  brother.  His  meanness 
was,  however,  by  this  time  well 
known,  and  he  was  repelled  on 
all  sides.  At  last  in  1193  the 
Emperor  consented  to  let  Rich- 
ard go  on  payment  of  what  was 
then  the  enormous  ransom  of 
150,000  marks,  or  100,000/. 
"  Beware,"  wrote  Philip  to  John 
when  he  heard  that  the  Em- 
peror's consent  had  been  given  ; 
"the  devil  is  loose  again." 
Philip  and  John  tried  to  bribe 
the  Emperor  to  keep  his  pri- 
soner,  but  in  February  1194 
Richard  was  liberated,  and  set 
out  for  England. 
tK  5'  Heavy  taxation.— Before 
Richard  reappeared  in  England 
each  tenant-in-chief  had  to  pay 
the  aid  which  was  due  to  deliver 
his  lord  from  prison  (see  p.  117), 
but  this  was  far  from  being 
enough.  Besides  all  kinds  of 
irregular  expedients  the  Dane- 
geld  had  been  practically  re- 
vived, and  to  it  was  now  given 
the  name  of  carucage,  a  tax  of 
two  shillings  on  every  plough- 
land.  Another  tax  of  a  fourth 
part  of  all  movable  goods  had 
also  been  imposed,  for  which 
a  precedent  had  been  set  by 
Henry  II.  when  he  levied  the 
Saladin  tithe  (see  p.  157}. 
Richard  had  now  to  gather  in 
what  was  left  unpaid  of  these 


1 194-1198  HUBERT   WALTER  163 

charges.  Yet  so  hated  was  John  that  Richard  was  welcomed  with 
every  appearance  of  joy,  and  Johii  thought  it  prudent  to  submit  to  his 
brother.  Philip,  however,  was  still  an  open  enemy,  and  as  soon  as 
Richard  had  gathered  m  all  the  money  that  he  could  raise  in  England 
he  left  the  country  never  to  return.  On  the  Continent  he  could 
best  defend  himself  against  Philip,  and,  besides  this,  Richard  was  at 
home  m  sunny  Aquitaine,  and  had  no  liking  for  his  English  realm. 
0.  <rhe  Administration  of  Hubert  Walter.  1194 — 1198. — For 
four  year^  the  administration  of  England  was  in  the  hands  of  a  new 
Justiciar,  Hie  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Hubert  Walter.  He  was 
a  statesmaii^^f  the  school  of  Henry  H.,  and  he  carried  the  jury 
system  yet  fanther  than  Henry  had  done.  The  immense  increase 
of  taxation  rendered  it  the  more  necessary  to  guard  against  unfair- 
ness, and  Hubert \VValter  placed  the  selection  of  the  juries  of 
presentment  (see  p.  n^)  in  the  hands  of  four  knights  in  every  shire, 
who,  as  is  probable,  wete  chosen  by  the  freeholders  in  the  County 
Court,  instead  of  being  named  by  the  sheriff.  This  was  a  further 
step  in  the  direction  of  allo\Hng  the  counties  to  manage  their  own 
affairs,  and  a  still  greater  one  w^s  taken  by  the  frequent  employ- 
ment of  juries  in  the  assessment  oPkhe  taxes  paid  within  the  county, 
so  as  to  enable  them  to  take  a  prornVoent  part  in  its  financial  as 
well  as  in  its  judicial  business.  In  irjS  there  was  taken  a  new 
survey  of  England  for  taxable  purposes,\nd  again  elected  juries 
were  employed  to  make  the  returns.  InXthis  year  Archbishop 
Hubert  retired  from  the  Justiciarship,  and.  was  succeeded  by 
Geoffrey  Fitz-Peter.  Archbishop  Hubert's  administration  marks  a 
great  advance  in  constitutional  progress,  though  it  is  probable  that 
his  motive  was  only  to  raise  money  more  readily.  NThe  main  con- 
stitutional problem  of  the  Norman  and  Angevin  reigns  was  how  to 
bring  the  national  organisation  of  the  king's  officials  inro  close  and 
constant  intercourse  with  the  local  organisation  of  theXcounties. 
Henry  I.  and  Henry  II.  had  attacked  the  problem  on  oneNside  by 
sending  the  judges  round  the  country  to  carry  the  king's  wishes  and 
commands  to  each  separate  county.  It  still  remained  to  devke  a 
scheme  by  which  the  wishes  and  complaints  of  the  counties  cmild 
be  brought  to  the  king.  Hubert  Walter  did  not  contrive  that  thl 
should  be  done,  but  he  made  it  easy  to  be  done  in  the  next  genera-^ 
tion,  because  before  he  left  office  he  had  increased  the  powers  of  the 
juries  in  each  county  and  had  accustomed  them  to  deal  indepen- 
dently with  all  the  local  matters  in  which  the  king  and  the  county 
were  both  interested.  It  only  remained  to  bring  these  juries  together 
in  one  place  where  they  might  join  in  making  the  king  aware  of  the 

Ma 


i64 


RICHARD  I 


[99 


Richard  I. 
From  his  tomb  at  Fontevrault. 


Berengaria. 
From  her  tomb  at  Espan. 


1 199  THE   ANGEVIN  KINGS  165 

wishes  and  complaints  of  all  counties  alike*      When  this  had  been 
accomplished  there  would,  for  the  first  time,  be  a  representative 
/v^  assembly  in  England. 

^s  7.  Death  of  Richard.  1199. — It  was  not  only  Richard's  love 
for  his  old  home  which  fixed  him  on  the  Continent.  He  knew  that 
the  weakest  part  of  his  dominions  was  there.  His  lands  beyond  sea 
had  no  natural  unity.  Normans  did  not  love  Angevins,  neither  did 
Angevins  love  the  men  of  Poitou  or  Guienne.  Philip  was  willingly 
obeyed  in  his  own  dominions,  and  he  had  all  the  advantage  which 
his  title  of  king  of  the  French  could  give  him.  Richard  fought 
desperately,  and  for  the  most  part  successfully,  against  the  French 
king,  and  formed  alliances  with  all  who  were  opposed  to  him. 
He  built  on  a  rock  overhanging  the  Seine  above  Les  Andelys 
a  mighty  fortress— the  Chateau  Gaillard,  or  Saucy  Castle,  as  he 
called  it  in  jest.  With  characteristic  haste  he  completed  the  build- 
ing in  a  few  months.  "  How  fair  a  child  is  mine  ! "  he  called  to  his 
followers,  "  this  child  but  a  twelvemonth  old."  Other  child  he  had 
none,  and  he  had  but  the  miserable  John  to  look  to  to  hold  his 
dominions  after  he  was  gone.  He  did  not  live  long  enough  to  see 
whether  his  new  castle  could  stand  a  siege.  A  peasant  dug  up  a 
treasure  on  the  land  of  the  lord  of  Chains  in  the  Limousin.  Richard 
claimed  it  as  his  right  because  he  was  the  over-lord.  On  the  refusal 
of  the  lord  to  surrender  it  he  laid  siege  to  Chains.  An  arrow  from 
the  castle  struck  him  on  the  shoulder.  The  wound  rankled,  and 
mortification  followed.  As  Richard  lay  dying  the  castle  sur- 
rendered, and  the  man  who  had  aimed  the  fatal  shot  was  brought 
before  him.  "  What  have  I  done  to  thee,"  asked  Richard,  "  that 
thou  shouldest  slay  me  ? "  "  Thou  hast  slain  my  father  and 
two  of  my  brothers  with  thy  own  hand,"  said  the  prisoner, 
"and  thou  wouldest  fain  have  killed  me  too.  Avenge  thyself 
upon  me  as  thou  wilt.  I  will  gladly  endure  the  greatest  torments 
thou  canst  devise,  since  I  have  seen  thee  on  thy  deathbed." 
Richard,  generous  to  the  last,  bade  his  attendants  set  the  prisoner 
free.     They  kept  him  till  Richard  was  dead,  and  then  tortured  him 

j^      to  death, 

U\  8.  Church  and  State  under  the  Angevin  Kings. — During  the 

.  forty-five  years  of  the  reigns  of  Richard  and  his  father  the  chief 
feature  of  English  history  is  the  growth  of  the  power  of  the  state. 
There  was  more  justice  and  order,  and  also  more  taxation,  at  the  end 
of  the  period  than  at  the  beginning.  During  the  same  period  the 
influence  of  the  Church  grew  less.  The  character  of  Thomas's 
resistance  to  the  king  was  lower  than  that  of  Anselm,  and  not  long 


i66 


THE  ANGEVIN  KINGS 


1 199 


after  Thomas's  murder  Henry  indirectly  regained  the  power  which 
he  had  lost,  and  filled  the  sees  with  officials  and  dependents  who 
cared  little  for  the  higher  aims  of  religion.     The  evil  consequences 


Part  of  the  choir  of  Ripon  Cathedral : 
built  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  twelfth  century. 


(X 


1 1 54- II 99         LITERATURE  AND   KNOWLEDGE  167 

of  making  the  Church  dependent  on  the  king  were  at  least  as  great 
as  those  of  freeing  the  poHtical  and  social  life  of  the  clergy  from  the 
control  of  the  State.  Even  monasticism  ceased  to  afford  a  strong 
example  of  self-denial.  The  very  Cistercians,  who  had  begun  so 
well,  had  fallen  from  their  original  purity.  They  were  now  owners 
of  immense  tracts  of  pasture-land,  and  their  keenness  in  money- 
making  had  become  notorious.  They  exercised  great  influence, 
but  it  was  the  influence  of  great  landlords,  not  the  influence  of 
ascetics. 

9.  Growth  of  Learning. — The  decay  of  asceticism  was  to  some 
cedent  brought  about  by  the  opening  of  new  careers  into  which 
enepg;etic  men  might  throw  themselves.  They  were  needed  as 
judgesjN^  administrators,  as  councillors.  A  vigorous  literature 
sprung  upSn  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  but  at  the  end  of  the  reign 
most  of  it  was  connected  with  the  court  rather  than  with  the 
monasteries.  H^H^y's  Justiciar,  Ranulf  de  Glanvile,  wrote  the  first 
English  law-book,  rijs  Treasurer,  Richard  Fitz-Nigel,  set  forth  in 
the  Dialogiis  de  ScaccaHn^^  methods  of  his  financial  administra- 
tion, and  also  produced  ''^e  Deeds  of  King  Henry  and  King 
Richard.'  William  of  Newbui^,  indeed,  the  best  historian  of  these 
reigns,  wrote  in  a  small  YorkshireS^onastery,  but  Roger  of  Hoveden 
and  Ralph  de  Diceto  pursued  tftisir  historical  work  under  the 
influence  of  the  court.  Still  more  smJmig  is  the  universality  of 
the  intellectual  inquisitiveness  of  Walter  M5k^  On  the  one  hand,  in 
his  De  Nugis  Curialium  he  chattered  over  th^sjnanners  of  his  con- 
temporaries, and  in  his  satirical  poems  scourged  tl^e  greed  and  vices 
of  the  clergy,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  he  took  a  principal  part  in 
spreading  a  knowledge  of  the  legend  of  the  high-souled  King 
Arthur  and  of  the  quest  of  the  Holy  Grail.  Giraldus  Cambrensis 
again,  or  Gerald  of  Wales,  wrote  on  all  sorts  of  subjects  with  shrewd 
humour  and  extensive  knowledge. 

10.  The  University  of  Oxford. — There  was  already  in  England 
a  place  ^where  learning  was  cherished  for  its  own  sake.  For  some 
time  there  had  been  growing  up  on  the  Continent  gatherings  for 
the  increase  of  learning,  which  ultimately  were  known  as  universi- 
ties, or  corporations  of  teachers  and  scholars.  One  at  Bologna  had 
devoted  itself  to  the  study  of  the  civil  or  Roman  law.  Another  at 
Paris  gave  itself  to  the  spread  of  all  the  knowledge  of  the  time.  In 
these  early  universities  there  were  no  colleges.  Lads,  very  poor 
for  the  most  part,  flocked  to  the  teachers  and  lodged  themselves  as 
best  they  could.  Such  a  university,  though  the  name  was  not  used 
till  later,  had  been  gradually  forming  at  Oxford.     Its  origin  and 


i68 


THE  ANGEVIN  KINGS 


1154-1199 


early  history  is  obscure,  but  in  1186  Giraldus,  wishing  to  find  a  cul- 
tivated audience  for  his  new  book  on  the  topography  of  Ireland,  read 
it  aloud  at  Oxford,  where,  as  he  tells  us,  '  the  clergy  in  England 
chiefly  flourished  and  excelled  in  clerkly  lore.'  It  appears  that 
there  were  already  separate  faculties  or  branches  of  study,  and  per- 
^^  sons  recognised  as  doctors  or  teachers  in  all  of  them. 
P\^        1 1.  Country  and  Town. — Intellectual  progress  was  accompanied 

by   material  progress. 
In  the  country  the  old 
system   of   cultivation 
by  the  labour  service 
of  villein-tenants    still 
prevailed,  but  in  many 
parts   the  service  had 
been  commuted,  either 
for  a  money  payment 
or  for  payments  in  kind, 
such  as  payments  of  a 
fixed  number  of  eggs 
or  fowls,  or  of  a  fixed 
quantity  of   honey  or 
straw.       Greater    pro- 
gress was  made  in  the 
towns.     At  the  time  of 
the     Conquest     there 
were      about      eighty 
towns     in      England, 
most  of  them  no  larger 
than    villages.        The 
largest     towns      after 
London  were  Winches- 
ter, Bristol,    Norwich, 
York,  and  Lincoln,  but 
even  these  had  not  a 
population  much  above 
7,000  apiece.      In  the 
smaller    towns     trade 
was    sufficiently    pro- 
vided for  by  the  establishment  of  a  market  to  which  country  people 
brought  their  grain  or  their  cattle,  and  where  they  provided  them- 
selves  in   turn   with   such   rude  household  necessaries    as    they 
required.     Even  before  the  Conquest  port  towns  had  grown  up  on 


Lay  costumes  In  the  twelfth  century. 


Costume  of  shepherds  in  the  twelfth  century. 


1 1 54-1 199  COMMERCE   AND    TOWNS  169 

the  coast,  but  foreign  trade  was  slight,  imports  being  almost  entirely 
confined  to  luxuries  for  the  rich.  The  order  introduced  by  the 
Normans  and  the  connection  between  England  and  the  king's 
Continental  possessions  was  followed  by  an  increase  of  trade,  and 
there  arose  in  each  of  the  larger  towns  a  corporation  which  was 
known  as  the  Merchant  Gild,  and  which  was,  in  some  instances  at 
least,  only  a  development  of  an  older  association  existing  in  the 
times  before  the  Conquest.  No  one  except  the  brothers  of  the 
Merchant  Gild  was  allowed  to  trade  in  any  article  except  food,  but 
any  one  living  in  the  town  might  become  a  brother  on  payment  of 
a  settled  fee.  The  first  Merchant  Gild  known  was  constituted  in 
1093.  A  little  later,  Henry  I.  granted  charters  to  some  of  the  towns, 
conferring  on  them  the  right  of  managing  their  own  affairs  ;  and 
his  example  was  followed,  in  far  greater  profusion,  by  Henry  II.  and 
Richard  I.  Though  the  organisation  of  the  Merchant  Gild  was 
originally  distinct  from  the  organisation  of  the  town,  and  the  two 
were  in  theory  kept  apart,  the  Merchant  Gild,  to  which  most  of 
the  townsmen  belonged,  usually  encroached  upon  the  authorities 
of  the  town,  regulated  trade  to  its  own  advantage,  and  practically 
controlled  the  choice  of  ofificers,  the  principal  officer  being  usually 
styled  an  Alderman,  with  power  to  keep  order  and  generally  to 
provide  for  the  well-being  of  the  place.  In  this  way  the  trades- 
men and  merchants  of  the  towns  prepared  themselves  uncon- 
sciously for  the  time  when  they  would  be  called  on  to  take  part 
in  managing  the  affairs  of  the  country.  Even  in  these  early 
times,  however,  the  artisans  in  some  pf  the  trades  attempted  to 
combine  together. 

12.  Condition  of  London. — Of  all  the  towns  London  had  been 
growing  most  rapidly  in  wealth  and  population,  and  during  the 
troubles  in  which  John  had  been  pitted  against  William  of  Long- 
champs  it  had  secured  the  right  of  being  governed  by  a  Mayor  and 
Aldermen  of  its  own,  instead  of  being  placed  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  King's  sheriff.  The  Mayor  and  Aldermen,  however,  did  not 
represent  all  the  townsmen.  In  London,  though  there  is  no  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  a  Merchant  Gild,  there  was  a  corporation  com- 
posed of  the  wealthier  traders,  by  which  the  city  was  governed. 
The  Mayor  and  Aldermen  were  chosen  out  of  this  corporation,  as 
were  the  juries  elected  to  assess  the  taxes.  Artisans  soon  came 
to  believe  that  these  juries  dealt  unfairly  with  the  poor.  One  of  the 
Aldermen,  William  Longbeard,  made  himself  the  mouthpiece  of  their 
complaints  and  stirred  them  up  against  the  rest.  Hubert  Walter 
sent  a  messenger  to  seize  him,  but  William  Longbeard  slew  the 


170 


THE  ANGEVIN  KINGS 


1154-1199 


messenger  and  fled  into  the  church  of  Mary-at-Bow.  Here,  accord- 
ing to  the  ideas  of  his  age,  he  should  have  been  safe,  ac  every 
church  was  considered  to  be  a  sanctuary  in  which  no  criminal 
could  be  arrested.  Hubert  Walter,  however,  came  in  person  to  seize 
him,  set  the  church  on  fire,  and  had  him  dragged  out.  William 
Longbeard  was  first  stabbed,  and  then  tried  and  hanged,  and  for  the 
time  the  rich  tradesmen  had  their  way  against  the  poorer  artisans. 
13.  Arehitectural  Changes. — Even  in  the  most  flourishing 
towns  the  houses"~"wej:€L.^ll  mostly  of  wood   or  rubble   covered 


Hall  of  Oakham  Castle,  Rutland  :  built  about  1185. 

with  thatch,  and  only  here  and  there  was  to  be  found  a  house  of 
stone;.^^^  So  slight,  indeed,  were  the  ordinary  buildings,  that  it  was 
providecTS^^i^he  Assize  of  Clarendon  that  the  houses  of  certain 
offenders  shomdr^-becarried  outside  the  town  and  burnt.  Here  and 
there,  however,  as  intIt&-6a.§eof  the  so-called  Jews'  house  at  Lincoln, 
stone  houses  were  erected.  iTtSlielarger  houses  the  arrangements 
were  much  as  they  had  been  befor^^Si^e  Conquest,  the  large  hall 
being  still  the  most  conspicuous  part/'^limigh  another  apart- 
ment, known  as  the  solar,  to  which  an  ascentVas  made  by  steps 
from  the  outside,  and  which  served  as  a  sitting-room  for  the  master 


II 54- I I 99 


ARCHITECTURE 


171 


of  the  house,  had  usually  been  added.  The  castles  reared  by  the 
king  or-the  barons  were  built  for  defence  alone,  and  it  was  in  the 
great  cathedr^kiand  churches  that  the  skill  of  the  architect  was 
shown.  An  enommus  number  of  parish  churches  of  stone  were 
raised  by  Norman  buiWets^ijsupersede  earlier  buildings  of  wood. 
For  some  time  the  round-arche^SsIigrman  architecture  which  had 
been  introduced  by  Eadward  the  Confesstnv;4:as  alone  followed,  such 


Norman  House  at  Lincoln,  called  the  Jews'  House.     Built  about  1140. 
The  square  windows  are  of  later  date. 


as  may  be  studied  in  the  Galilee  of  Durham  (see  p.  i6o)  the  nave  of 
St.  AlbaiTs>(see  p.  109)  and  the  tower  of  Castor  (see  p.  136).  Gradu- 
ally the  pointM^rch  of  Gothic  architecture  took  its  place,  and  after 
a  period  of  transitibn^f  which  the  nave  of  Durham,  and  the  choirs 
of  Canterbury  and  of  Ktpojiafford  examples  (see  pp.  130,  150,  166), 
the  graceful  style  now  knowr^:?fc«^Early  English  was  first  used  on  a 
large  scale  in  1192  in  the  choir  ofm^^cathedral  of  Lincoln. 


172  THE  ANGEVIN  KINGS  1154-1199 


Books  recommended  for  further  study  of  Part  II. 

Sturbs,  W.  (Bishop  of  Oxford).     Constitutional  History  of  England. 

Vol.  i.  chaps,  ix.-xiii. 
Freeman,  E.  A.     History  of  the  Norman  Conquest.    Vols.  iv.  and  v. 

: History  of  William  Rufus. 

Green,  J.  R.     History  of  the  English  People.     Vol.  i.  pp.  115-189. 
NORGATE,  Miss  K.      England  under  the  Angevin  Kings.      Vols.  i.  and 

ii.  pp.  T-388. 
Cunningham,  W.     Giowth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  during 

the  Early  and  Middle  Ages,  pp.  129-173. 
Wakeman.  H.  O.  ,  and  Hassali  ,  A.     Constitutional  Essays. 


^73 


PART    III 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  PARLIAMENTARY 
CONSTITUTION.     1199— 1399 


K 


K 


CHAPTER  XII 

JOHN.       1199—1216 

LEADING   DATES 

Accession  of  John iigg 

Loss  of  Normandy  1204 

England  under  an  Interdict 1208 

Magna  Carta 1215 

Death  of  John 1216 

1.  The  Accession  of  John.  1199. — After  Richard's  death  there 
were  Hving  but  two  descendants  of  Henry  II.  in  the  male  line — John, 
Richard's  only  surviving  brother,  and  Arthur,  the  young  son  of  John's 
elder  brother,  Geoffrey.  The  English  barons  had  to  make  their 
choice  between  uncle  and  nephew,  and,  as  had  been  done  in  the  days 
of  Alfred,  they  preferred  the  grown  man  to  the  child.  It  was  the 
last  time  when  that  principle  of  election  was  confessedly  acted  on. 
Archbishop  Hubert  in  announcing  the  result  used  words  which  seem 
strange  now  :  "  Forasmuch,"  he  declared  to  the  people  assembled  to 
witness  John's  coronation,  "as  we  see  him  to  be  prudent  and 
vigorous,  we  all,  after  invoking  the  Holy  Spirit's  grace,  for  his 
merits  no  less  than  his  royal  blood,  have  with  one  consent  chosen 
him  for  our  king."  In  reality,  John  was  of  all  men  most  unworthy. 
He  was  without  dispute  the  worst  of  the  English  kings.  Like 
William  II.  he  feared  not  God  nor  regarded  man.  Though  William 
indeed  was  more  vicious  in  his  private  life,  John's  violence  and 
tyranny  in  public  life  was  as  great  as  William's,  and  he  added  a 
meanness  and  frivolity  which  sank  him  far  below  him. 

2.  John's  First  War  with  Philip  II.     1199— 1200.— On  the  Con- 


^ 


K 


174  jotii^  1199-1203 

tinent  John  had  a  difficult  game  to  play.  Normandy  and  Aquitaine 
submitted  to  him,  but  Anjou  and  its  dependent  territories  declared 
for  Arthur,  who  was  Duke  of  Brittany  in  right  of  his  mother. 
Philip  II.,  who  had  long  been  the  rival  of  Richard,  now  took  the 
field  in  1199  ^s  the  rival  of  John  in  support  of  Arthur  ;  but  for  the 
moment  he  ruined  his  chance  of  success  by  keeping  in  his  own 
hands  the  castles  which  he  took  from  John  instead  of  making  them 
over  to  Arthur.  Arthur's  supporters  took  offence,  and  in  1200 
Philip  made  peace  with  John.  Philip  acknowledged  John  as 
Richard's  heir,  but  forced  him  in  return  to  pay  a  heavy  sum  of 
money,  and  to  make  other  concessions, 

3.  John's  Misconduct  in  Poitou.  1200— 1201. — John  did  not  know 
how  to  make  use  of  the  time  of  rest  which  he  had  gained.  Being 
tired  of  his  wife,  Avice  of  Gloucester,  he  persuaded  some  Aquitanian 
bishops  to  divorce  him  from  her,  though  he  took  care  to  keep  thf 
lands  which  he  had  received  from  her  at  her  marriage.  He  then 
married  Isabella  of  Angouleme,  though  she  was  betrothed  to  a 
Poitevin  noble,  Hugh  of  Lusignan.  Hugh  was  enraged,  and, 
together  with  many  of  his  neighbours,  took  arms  against  John.  In 
1201  John  charged  all  the  barons  of  Poitou  with  treason,  and  bade 
them  clear  their  character  by  selecting  champions  to  fight  with 
an  equal  number  of  English  and  Norman  knights. 

4.  The  Loss  of  Normandy  and  Anjou.  1202— 1204. — The  Poitevin 
barons,  instead  of  accepting  the  wager  of  battle,  appealed  to  Philip 
as  John's  over-lord,  and  in  1202  Philip  summoned  John  to  answer 
their  complaints  before  his  peers.  John  not  only  did  not  appear, 
but  made  no  excuse  for  his  absence  ;  and  Philip  afterwards  pre- 
tended that  the  peers  had  condemned  him  to  forfeit  his  lands. 
After  this  Philip,  in  alliance  with  Arthur,  invaded  Normandy. 
John's  aged  mother,  Eleanor,  who  was  far  more  able  and 
energetic  than  her  son,  took  up  his  cause  against  her  grandson 
Arthur.  She  was  besieged  by  Arthur  at  Mirebeau  when  John  came 
to  her  help,  and  not  only  raised  the  siege,  but  carried  off  Arthur 
as  a  prisoner.  Many  of  his  vassals  rose  against  him,  and  finding 
himself  unable  to  meet  them  in  the  field  he  wreaked  his  vengeance 
on  his  helpless  prisoner.  A  little  before  Easter  1203  Arthur  ceased 
to   live.     How  the   boy  died   has  never   been    known,  but  it  was 

generally  believed  that  he  was  drowned  in  the  Seine  near  Rouen 

some  said  by  his  uncle's  own  hands.  The  murderer  was  the  first 
to  suffer  from  the  crime.  Philip  at  once  invaded  Normandy 
The  Norman  barons  had  long  ceased  to  respect  John,  and  very  few 
of  them  would  do  anything  to  help  him.  Philip  took  castle  after 
castle.     John  was  indeed  capable  of  a  sudden  outbreak  of  violence. 


1203  JOHN  AND  HIS  SECOND    WIFE 


175 


Effigy  of  King  John 
his  monument  in  Worcester  Cathedral 


Isabella,  wife  of  King  John. 
From  her  monument  at 
Fontevrault. 


t^ 


176  JOHN  1 204- 1 205 

but  he  was  incapable  of  sustained  effort.  He  now  looked  sluggishly 
on,  feasting  and  amusing  himself  whilst  Philip  was  conquering  Nor- 
mandy. "  Let  him  alone,"  he  lazily  said ;  "  I  shall  some  day  win  back 
all  that  he  is  taking  from  me  now."  His  best  friends  dropped  off 
from  him.  The  only  fortress  which  made  a  long  resistance  was  that 
Chiteau  Gaillard  which  Richard  had  built  to  guard  the  Seine.  In 
1204  it  was  at  last  taken,  and  before  the  end  of  that  year  Normandy, 
Maine,  Anjou,  and  Touraine,  together  with  part  of  Poitou,  had 
^submitted  to  Philip. 
^/  5.  Causes  of  Philip's  Success. — It  was  not  owing  to  John's 
vigour  that  Aquitaine  was  not  lost  as  well  as  Normandy  and  Anjou, 
Philip  had  justified  his  attack  on  John  as  being  John's  feudal  lord, 
and  as  being  therefore  bound  to  take  the  part  of  John's  vassals 
whom  he  had  injured.  Hitherto  the  power  of  the  king  over  his  great 
vassals,  which  had  been  strong  in  England,  had  been  weak  in  France. 
Philip  made  it  strong  in  Normandy  and  Anjou  because  he  had  the 
support  there  of  the  vassals  of  John.  That  these  vassals  favoured 
him  was  owing  partly  to  John's  contemptible  character,  but  also  to 
the  growth  of  national  unity  between  the  inhabitants  of  Normandy 
and  Anjou  on  the  one  hand  and  those  of  Philip's  French  dominions 
on  the  other.  Normans  and  Angevins  both  spoke  the  same  language 
as  the  Frenchmen  of  Paris  and  its  neighbourhood.  Their  manners 
and  characters  were  very  much  the  same,  and  the  two  peoples 
very  soon  blended  with  one  another.  They  had  been  separated 
merely  because  their  feudal  organisation  had  been  distinct,  because 
the  lord  over  one  was  John  and  over  the  other  was  Philip.  In 
Aquitaine  it  was  otherwise.  The  language  and  manners  there, 
though  much  nearer  to  those  of  the  French  than  they  were  to  those 
of  the  English,  differed  considerably  from  the  language  and  manners 
of  the  Frenchmen,  Normans,  and  Angevins.  What  the  men  of 
Aquitaine  really  wanted  was  independence.  They  therefore  now 
clung  to  John  against  Philip  as  they  had  clung  to  Richard  against 
Henry  II.  They  resisted  Henry  II.  because  Henry  II.  ruled  in 
Anjou  and  Normandy,  and  they  wished  to  be  free  from  any  con- 
nection with  Anjou  and  Normandy.  They  resisted  Philip  because 
Philip  now  ruled  in  Anjou  and  Normandy.  They  were  not  afraid  of 
John  any  longer,  because  they  thought  that  now  that  England  alone 
was  left  to  him,  he  would  be  too  far  off  to  interfere  with  them. 

6.  The  Election  of  Stephen  Langton  to  the  Archbishopric  of 
Canterbury.  1205.— In  England  John  had  caused  much  discontent 
by  the  heavy  taxation  which  he  imposed,  not  with  the  regularity 
of  Henry  II.  and  Hubert  Walter,  but  with  unfair  inequality.     In 


1 205-1206    JOHN'S  QUARREL    WITH  THE  POPE 


177 


1205  Archbishop  Hubert  Walter  died.  The  right  of  choosing  a  new 
archbishop  lay  with  the  monks  of  the  monastery  of  Christchurch 
at  Canterbury,  of  which  every  archbishop,  as  the  successor  of  St. 
Augustine,  was  the  abbot.  This  right,  however,  had  long  been 
exercised  only  according  to  the  wish  of  the  king,  who  practically 
named  the  archbishop.  This  time  the  monks,  without  asking  John's 
leave,  hurriedly  chose  their  sub- 
prior  Reginald,  and  sent  him  off 
with  a  party  of  monks  to  Rofhe, 
to  obtain  the  sanction  of  the  Pope. 
Reginald  was  directed  to  say 
nothing  of  his  election  till  he 
reached  Rome  ;  but  he  was  a  vain 
man,  and  had  no  sooner  reached 
the  Continent  than  he  babbled 
about  his  own  dignity  as  an  arch- 
bishop. When  John  heard  this 
he  bade  the  monks  choose  the 
Bishop  of  Norwich,  John  de  Grey, 
the  king's  treasurer ;  and  the 
monks,  thoroughly  frightened, 
chose  him  as  if  they  had  not 
already  made  their  election.  John 
had,  however,  forgotten  to  consult 
the  bishops  of  the  province  of  Can- 
terbury, who  had  always  been  con- 
sulted by  his  father  and  brother, 
and  they  too  sent  messengers  to 
the  Pope  to  complain  of  the  king. 
^^  7.  Innocent  III.  and  Stephen 
Langton.  1206. — The  Pope  was 
Innocent  III.,  v/hoat  once  deter- 
mined that  John  must  not  name 
bishops  whose  only  merit  was  that 
they  were  good  state  officials. 
Being  an  able  man,  he  soon  dis- 
covered that  Reginald  was  a  fool.  He  therefore  in  1206  sent  for  a 
fresh  deputation  of  monks,  and,  as  soon  as  they  arrived  in  Rome, 
bade  them  make  a  new  choice  in  the  name  of  their  monastery.  At 
Innocent's  suggestion  they  chose  Stephen  Langton,  one  of  the  most 
pious  and  learned  men  of  the  day,  whose  greatness  of  character  was 
hardly  suspected  by  anyone  at  the  time. 

N 


Bishop  Marshall  of  Exeter,  died  1206  ; 
from  his  tomb  at  Exeter,  showing 
a  bishop  vested  for  mass. 


K 


^ 


178  JOHN  1206  1209 

^-^  8.  John's  Quarrel  with  the  Church.  1206— 1208.— The  choice  of 
an  archbishop  in  opposition  to  the  king  was  undoubtedly  something 
new.  The  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  was  a  great  national 
office,  and  a  king  as  skilful  as  Henry  II.  would  probably  have 
succeeded  in  refusing  to  allow  it  to  be  disposed  of  by  the  Pope  and 
a  small  party  of  monks.  John  was  unworthy  to  be  the  champion 
of  any  cause  whatever.  In  1207,  after  an  angry  correspondence 
with  Innocent,  he  drove  the. monks  of  Christchurch  out  of  the 
kingdom.  Innocent  in  reply  threatened  England  with  an  interdict, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1208  the  interdict  was  published. 

9.  England  undemn  Interdict.  1208. — An  interdict  carried  with 
it  the  suppression  of  all  the  sacraments  of  the  Church  except  those 
of  baptism  and  extreme  unction.  Even  these  were  only  to  be 
received  in  private.  No  words  of  solemn  import  were  pronounced 
at  the  burial  of  the  dead.  The  churches  were  all  closed,  and  to  the 
men  of  that  time  the  closing  of  the  church-doors  was  like  the  closing 
of  the  very  gate  of  heaven.  In  the  choice  of  the  punishment 
inflicted  there  was  some  sign  that  the  Papacy  was  hardly  as  strong 
in  the  thirteenth  as  it  had  been  in  the  eleventh  century.  Gregory 
VII.  had  smitten  down  kings  by  personal  excommunication; 
Innocent  III.  found  it  necessary  to  stir  up  resistance  against  the 
king  by  inflicting  sufferings  on  the  people.  Yet  there  is  no  evidence 
of  any  indignation  against  the  Pope.  /  The  clergy  rallied  almost  as 
one  man  round  Innocent,  and  songs  proceeded  from  the  monasteries 
which  mocked  the  few  official  bishops  who  took  John's  side  as 
money-makers  who  cared  more  for  marks  than  for  Majijcj  and  more 
for  lucre  than  for  Luke,  whilst  John  de  Grey  was  branded  with  the 
title  of  that  beast  of  Norwich.'/  John  taking  no  heed  of  the  popular 
feeling,  seized  the  property  of  the  clergy  who  obeyed  the  inte'rdict. 
Yet  he  was  not  without  fear  lest  the  barons  should  join  the  clergy 
against  him,  and  to  keep  them  in  obedience  he  compelled  them  to 
entrust  to  him  their  eldest  sons  as  hostages.  One  lady  to  whom 
this  order  came  replied  that  she  would  never  give  her  son  to  a  king 
who  had  murdered  his  nephew. 

10.  John  Excommunicated.  1209. — In  1209  Innocent  excommu- 
nicated John  himself.  John  cared  nothing  for  being  excluded  from 
the  services  of  the  Church,  but  he  knew  that  if  the  excommunication 
were  published  in  England  few  would  venture  to  sit  at  table  with 
him,  or  even  to  speak  with  him.  For  some  time  he  kept  it  out  of 
the  country,  but  it  became  known  that  it  had  been  pronounced  at 
Rome,  and  even  his  own  dependents  began  to  avoid  his  company. 
He  feared  lest  the  barons  whom  he  had  wearied  with  heavy  fines 


I209-I2I3         A   FREN^CH  ARMY  OF  INVASION 


179 


<. 


and  taxes  might  turn  against  him,  and  he  needed  large  sums  of 
money  to  defend  himself  against  them.  First  he  turned  on  the 
Jews,  threw  them  into  prison,  and  after  torturing  those  who  refused 
to  pay,  wrung  from  them  40,000/.  The  abbots  were  next  summoned 
before  him  and  forced  by  threats  to  pay  100,000/.  Besides  this 
the  wealthy  Cistercians  had  to  pay  an  additional  fine,  the  amount 
of  which  is  uncertain,  but  of  which  the  lowest  estimate  is  27,000/ 
In  121 1  some  of  the  barons  declared  against  John,  but  they  were 
driven  from  the  country,  and  those  who  remained  were  harshly 
treated.  Some  of  their  sons  who  had  been  taken  as  hostages  were 
hanged  or  starved  to  death. 

II.  The  Pope  threatens  John  with  Deposition.  1212 — 1213. — In 


Parsonage  house  of  early  thirteenth-century  date  at  West  Dean,  Sussex. 


1212  Innocent's  patience  came  to  an  end,  and  he  announced  that  he 
would  depose  John  if  he  still  refused  to  give  way,  and  would  tran^sfer 
his  crown,  to  his  old  enemy,  Philip  II.  The  EngHsh  clergy  and 
barons  were  not  likely  to  oppose  the  change.  Philip  gathered  a 
great  army  in  France  to  make  good  the  claim  which  he  expected 
Innocent  to  give  him.  John,  indeed,  was  not  entirely  without  re- 
source. The  Emperor  ^Otto^V.  was  John's  sister's  son,  and  as 
he  too  had  been  excommunicated  by  Innocent  he  made  common 
c^use  with  John  against  Philip.  Early  in  1213  John  gathered  an 
a,rmy  of  60,000  men  to  resist  Philip's  landing,  and  if  Otto  with  his 


K 


V. 


i8o  /ONJ\r  1213 

Germans  were  to  attack  France  from  the  east,  a  French  army  would 
hardly  venture  to  cross  into  England,  unless  indeed  it  had  no  serious 
resistance  to  fear.  John,  however,  knew  well  that  he  could  not  de- 
pend on  his  own  army.  Many  men  in  the  host  hated  him  bitterly, 
and  he  feared  deposition,  and  perhaps  death,  at  the  hands  of  those 
whom  he  had  summoned  to  his  help. 

12.  John's  Submission.  1213. — Under  these  circumstances 
John  preferred  submission  to  the  Pope  to  submission  to  PhiHp  or 
his  own  barons.  He  invited  Pandulf,  the  Pope's  representative, 
to  Dover.  He  swore  to  admit  Stephen  Langton  as  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  to  restore  to  their  rights  all  those  of  the  clergy  or  laity 
whom  he  had  banished,  and  to  give  back  the  money  which  he  had 
wrongfully  exacted.  Two  days  later  he  knelt  before  Pandulf 
and  did  homage  to  the  Pope  for  England  and  Ireland.  He  was 
no  longer  to  be  an  independent  king  but  the  Pope's  vassal.  In 
token  of  his  vassalage  he  agreed  that  he  and  his  successors 
should  pay  to  Innocent  and  his  successors  1,000  marks  a  year,  each 
mark  being  equal  to  1 3^-.  4^.,  or  two-thirds  of  a  pound.  Innocent  had 
reached  his  aim  as  far  as  John  was  concerned.  In  his  eyes  the 
Papacy  was  not  merely  the  guide  of  the  Church,  it  was  an  institution 
for  controlling  kings  and  forcing  them  to  act  in  accordance  with 
the  orders  of  the  Popes.  It  remained  to  be  seen  whether  the  Pope's 
orders  would  be  always  unselfish,  and  whether  the  English  barons 
and  clergy  would  submit  to  them  as  readily  as  did  this  most  miser- 
able of  English  kings. 

13.  The  Resistance  of  the  Barons  and  Clergy.  1213. — At  first 
John  seemed  to  have  gained  all  that  he  wanted  by  submission. 
Pandulf  bade  Philip  abandon  all  thought  of  invading  England, 
and  when  Philip  refused  to  obey,  John's  fleet  fell  upon  the  French 
fleet  off  the  coast  of  Flanders  and  destroyed  it.  John  even  pro- 
posed to  land  with  an  army  in  Poitou  and  to  reconquer  Normandy 
and  Anjou.  His  subjects  thought  that  he  ought  to  begin  by  ful- 
filling his  engagements  to  them.  John  having  received  absolu- 
tion, summoned  four  men  from  each  county  to  meet  at  St.  Albans 
to  assess  the  damages  of  the  clergy  which  he  had  bound  himself  to 
make  good.  The  meeting  thus  summoned  was  the  germ  of  the  future 
House  of  Commons.  It  was  not  a  national  political  assembly,  but 
it  was  a  national  jury  gathered  together  into  one  place.  The  exiled 
barons  were  recalled,  and  John  now  hoped  that  his  vassals  would 
follow  him  to  Poitou.  They  refused  to  do  so,  alleging  their  poverty 
and  the  fact  that  they  had  already  fulfilled  their  feudal  obligation 
of  forty  days'  service  by  attending  him  at  Dover.     They  had,  in 


!iJt3-t2i4  THE  ClfARTEk  OP  tiENkV  I.  181 

fact,  no  interest  m  regaining  Normandy  and  Anjou  for  John. 
Though  the  Enghsh  barons  still  spoke  French,  and  were  proud  of 
their  Norman  descent,  they  now  thought  of  themselves  as  English- 
men and  cared  for  England  alone.  John  turned  furiously  on  the 
barons,  and  was  only  hindered  from  attacking  them  by  the  new 
Archbishop,  who  threatened  to  excommunicate  everyone  who  took 
arms  against  them.  It  was  time  tor  all  Englishmen  who  loved 
order  and  law  to  resist  John.  Stephen  Langton  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  movement,  and  at  a  great  assembly  at  St.  Paul's  pro- 
duced a  charter  of  Henry  I.,  by  which  that  king  had  promised  to 
put  an  end  to  the  tyranny  of  the  Red  King,  and  declared  amidst 
general  applause  that  it  must  be  renewed  by  John.  It  was  a  memor- 
able scene.  Up  to  this  time  it  had  been  necessary  for  the  clergy 
and  the  people  to  support  the  king  against  the  tyranny  of  the  barons. 
Now  the  clergy  and  people  offered  their  support  to  the  barons 
against  the  tyranny  of  the  king.  John  had  merely  the  Pope  on  his 
side.  Innocent's  view  of  the  situation  was  very  simple.  John  was 
to  obey  the  Pope,  and  all  John's  subjects  were  to  obey  John.  A 
Papal  legate  arrived  in  England,  fixed  the  sum  which  John  was 
to  pay  to  the  clergy,  and  refused  to  listen  to  the  complaints  of  those 
who  thought  themselves  defrauded. 

14.  The  Battle  of  Bouvines.  1214.— In  1214  John  succeeded  in 
carrying  his  barons  and  their  vassals  across  the  sea.  With  one 
army  he  landed  at  Rochelle,  and  recovered  what  had  been  lost  to 
him  on  the  south  of  the  Loire,  but  failed  to  make  any  permanent 
conquests  to  the  north  of  that  river.  Another  army,  under  John's 
illegitimate  brother,  the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  joined  the  Emperor  Otto 
in  an  attack  on  Philip  from  the  north.  The  united  force  of  Germans 
and  English  was,  however,  routed  by  Philip  at  Bouvines,  in  Flanders. 
"  Since  I  have  been  reconciled  to  God,"  cried  John,  when  he  heard 
the  news,  "  and  submitted  to  the  Roman  Church,  nothing  has  gone 
well  with  me."  He  made  a  truce  with  Philip,  and  temporarily 
renounced  all  claims  to  the  lands  to  the  north  of  the  Loire. 

1 5.  The  Struggle  between  John  and  the  Barons.  1214 — 1215. 
When  John  returned  he  called  upon  all  his  vassals  who  had  re- 
mained at  home  to  pay  an  exorbitant  scutage.  In  reply  they  met 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds.  The  charter  of  Henry  I.,  which  had  been 
produced  at  St.  Paul's  the  year  before,  was  again  read,  and  all 
present  swore  to  force  John  to  accept  it  as  the  rule  of  his  own 
government.  John  asked  for  delay,  and  attempted  to  divide  his 
antagonists  by  offering  to  the  clergy  the  right  of  free  election  to 
bishoprics  and  abbacies.  Then  he  turned  against  the  barons.   Early 


lS2 


JOHN 


1215 


Efficy  of  a  knight  in  the  Temple  Church, 
Lo.idon,  showing  armour  worn  be- 
tween 1 190  and  1225. 


in  1215  he  brought  over  a  large  forc"4 
of  foreign  mercenaries,  and  per- 
suaded the  Pope  to  threaten  the 
barons  with  excommunication.  His 
attempt  was  defeated  by  the  con- 
stancy of  Stephen  Langton.  The 
demands  of  the  barons  were  placed 
m  writing  by  the  archbishop,  and, 
on  John's  refusal  to  accept  them,  an 
army  was  formed  to  force  them  on 
the  king.  The  army  of  God  and 
the  Holy  Church,  as  it  was  called, 
grew  rapidly.  London  admitted  it 
within  its  walls,  and  the  accession 
of  London  to  the  cause  of  the  barons 
was  a  sign  that  the  traders  of  Eng- 
land were  of  one  mind  with  the 
barons  and  the  clergy.  John  found 
that  their  force  was  superior  to  his 
own,  and  at  Runnimede  on  June  15^ 
1215,  confirmed  with  his  hand  and 
seal  the  articles  of  the  barons,  with 
the  full  intention  of  breaking  his 
engagement  as  soon  as  he  should 
be  strong  enough  to  do  so. 

16.  Magna  Carta.  1215. — Magna 
Carta,  or  the  Great  Charter,  as  the 
articles  were  called  after  John  con- 
firmed them,  was  won  by  a  combi- 
nation between  all  classes  of  free- 
men, and  it  gave  rights  to  them  all'. 

{a)  Its  Concessions. — The  Church 
was  to  be  free,  its  privileges  were 
to  be  respected,  and  its  right  to  free 
elections  which  John  had  granted 
earlier  in  the  year  was  not  to  be  in- 
fringed on.  As  for  the  laity,  the 
tenants-in-chief  were  to  pay  only 
fixed  reliefs  when  they  entered  on 
their  estates.  Heirs  under  age  were 
to  be  the  king's  wards,  but  the  king 
was  to  treat  them   fairly,  and  do 


^: 


1215  THE   GREAT  CHARTER  183 

nothing  to  injure  their  land  whilst  it  was  in  his  hands.  The  king 
might  continue  to  find  husbands  for  heiresses  and  wives  for  heirs, 
but  only  amongst  those  of  their  own  class.  The  tenants-in-chief 
again  were  bound  to  pay  aids  to  the  king  when  he  needed  ransom 
from  imprisonment,  or  money  to  enable  him  to  bear  the  expenses 
of  knighting  his  eldest  son  or  of  marrying  his  eldest  daughter.  For 
all  other  purposes  the  king  could  only  demand  supplies  from  his 
tenants-in-chief  with  the  consent  of  the  Common  Council  of  the 
realm.  As  only  the  tenants-in-chief  were  concerned,  this  Common 
Council  was  the  Great  Council  of  tenants-in-chief,  such  as  had  met 
under  the  Norman  and  Angevin  kings.  A  fresh  attempt,  however, 
was  made  to  induce  the  smaller  tenants-in-chief  to  attend,  in  addition 
to  the  bishops,  abbots,  and  barons,  by  a  direction  that  whilst  these 
were  to  be  summoned  personally,  the  sheriffs  should  in  each  county 
issue  a  general  summons  to  the  smaller  tenants-in-chief  Though 
the  sub-tenants  had  no  part  in  the  Common  Council  of  the  realm, 
they  were  relieved  by  a  direction  that  they  should  pay  no  more  aids 
to  their  lords  than  their  lords  paid  to  the  king,  and  by  a  general 
declaration  that  all  that  had  been  granted  to  their  lords  by  the  king 
should  be  allowed  by  their  lords  to  them.  The  Londoners  and 
other  townsmen  had  their  privileges  assured  to  them  ;  and  all  free- 
men were  secured  against  heavy  and  irregular  penalties  if  they 
committed  an  offence. 

{b)  Its  Securities. — Such  were  the  provisions  of  this  truly  national 
act,  which  Englishmen  were  for  ages  engaged  in  maintaining  and 
developing.  The  immediate  question  was  how  to  secure  what  had 
been  gained.  The  first  thing  necessary  for  this  purpose  was  to 
make  the  courts  of  law  the  arbitrators  between  the  king  and  his 
subjects.  In  a  series  of  articles  it  was  declared  that  the  sworn 
testimony  of  a  man's  peers  should  be  used  whenever  fines  or 
penalties  were  imposed,  and  this  insistence  on  the  employment  of 
the  juiy  system  as  it  then  existed  was  emphasised  by  the  strong 
words  to  which  John  placed  his  seal  :  "No  freeman  may  be  taken 
or  imprisoned,  or  disseised,  or  outlawed,  or  banished,  or  in  any 
way  destroyed,  nor  will  we  go  against  him,  or  send  against  him, 
except  by  the  lawful  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the 
land.  To  none  will  we  sell  or  deny  or  delay  right  or  justice."  It 
was  a  good  security  if  it  could  be  maintained,  but  it  would  avail 
nothing  against  a  king  who  was  willing  and  able  to  use  force  to  set 
up  the  old  tyranny  once  moreV'ln  the  first  place  John  must  dis- 
miss  all  his  foreign  mercenarie^^  So  little,  however,  was  John 
trusted  that  it  was  thought  necessary  in  the  second  place  to  esta- 


r 


yi 


C 


184  JOHN  1215-1216 

blish  a  body  of  twenty-five  — twenty-four  barons  and  the  Mayor  of 
London — which  was  to  guard  against  any  attempt  of  the  king  to 
break  his  word.  If  John  infringed  upon  any  of  the  articles  of  the 
Charter  the  twenty-five,  with  the  assistance  of  the  whole  community 
of  the  kingdom,  had  the  right  of  distraining  upon  the  king's  lands 
till  enough  was  obtained  to  make  up  the  loss  to  the  person  who 
had  suffered  wrong.  In  other  words,  there  was  to  be  a  permanent 
organisation  for  making  war  upon  the  king. 

17.  War  between  John  and  the  Barons.  1215 — 1216. — John 
waited  for  the  moment  of  vengeance.  Not  only  did  he  refuse  to 
send  his  mercenaries  away,  but  he  sent  to  the  Continent  for  large 
reinforcements.  Pope  Innocent  declared  the  barons  to  be  wicked 
rebels,  and  released  John  from  his  oath  to  the  Great  Charter.  War 
soon  broke  out.  John's  mercenaries  were  too  strong  for  the  barons, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  1216  almost  all  England  with  the  exception 
of  London  had  been  overrun  by  them.  Though  the  Pope  laid 
London  under  an  interdict,  neither  the  citizens  nor  the  barons 
paid  any  attention  to  it.  They  sent  to  Louis,  the  eldest  son  of 
Philip  of  France,  to  invite  him  to  come  and  be  their  king  in  John's 
stead.  Louis  was  married  to  John's  niece,  and  might  thus  be 
counted  as  a  member  of  the  English  royal  family.  The  time  had 
not  yet  come  when  a  man  who  spoke  French  was  regarded  as 
quite  a  foreigner  amongst  the  English  barons.  On  May  21,  1216, 
Louis  landed  with  an  army  in  the  Isle  of  Thanet. 

18.  Conflict  between  Louis  and  John.  1216.— John,  in  spite  of 
his  success,  found  himself  without  sufficient  money  to  pay  his  mer- 
cenaries, and  he  therefore  retreated  to  Winchester.  Louis  entered 
London  in  triumph,  and  afterwards  drove  John  out  of  Winchester, 
Innocent  indeed  excommunicated  Louis,  but  no  one  took  heed  of 
the  excommunication.     Yet  John  was  not  without  support.     The 


A  silver  penny  of  John^  struck  at  Dublin. 

trading  towns  of  the  East,  who  probably  regarded  Louis  as  a 
foreigner,  took  his  part,  and  many  of  his  old  officials,  to  whom  the 
victory  of  the  barons  seemed  hkely  to  bring  back  the  anarchy  of 


I2i6  A  BOY-KING  1^5 

Stephen's  time,  clung  to  him.  One  of  these,  a  high-spirited  and 
strong-willed  man,  Hubert  de  Burgh,  held  out  for  John  in  Dover 
Castle.  John  kept  the  field  and  even  won  some  successes.  As  he 
was  crossing  the  Wash  the  tide  rose  rapidly  and  swept  away  his 
baggage.  He  himself  escaped  with  difficulty.  Worn  out  in  mind 
and  body,  he  was  carried  on  a  litter  to  Newark,  where  on  October 
19.  1216,  he  died. 


CHAPTER   Xni 

HENRY   III.      1216  — 1272 
LEADING   DATES 


Accessioit  of  Henry  III .        .  1216 

The  Fall  of  Hubert  de  Burgh   , 1232 

The  Provisions  of  Oxford 1248 

Battle  of  Lewes 1264 

Battle  of  Evesham 1265 

-y  Death  of  Henry  III 1272 

1.  Henry  HI.  and  Louis.  1216— 1217. — Henry  III.,  the  eldest 
son  of  John,  was  but  nine  years  old  at  his  father's  death.  Never 
before  had  it  been  useful  for  England  that  the  king  should  be  a 
child.  As  Henry  had  oppressed  no  one  and  had  broken  no  oaths, 
those  who  dared  not  trust  the  father  could  rally  to  the  son.  The 
boy  had  two  guardians,  one  of  whom  was  Gualo,  the  legate  of  Pope 
Honorius  HI.,  a  man  gentler  and  less  ambitious  than  Innocent  HI., 
whom  he  had  just  succeeded  ;  the  other  was  William  the  Marshal, 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  who  had  been  constant  to  John,  not  because  he 
loved  his  evil  deeds,  but  because,  like  many  of  the  older  officials, 
he  feared  that  the  victory  of  the  barons  would  be  followed  by 
anarchy.  These  two  had  on  their  side  the  growing  feeling  on  behalf 
of  English  nationality  ;  whereas,  as  long  as  John  lived,  his  opponents 
had  argued  that  it  was  better  to  have  a  foreign  king  like  Louis 
than  to  have  a  king  like  John,  who  tyrannised  over  the  land  by  the 
help  of  foreign  mercenaries.  Henry's  followers  daily  increased,  and 
in  1217  Louis  was  defeated  by  the  Marshal  at  Lincoln.  Later  in 
the  year  Hubert  de  Burgh,  the  Justiciar,  sent  out  a  fleet  which 
defeated  a  French  fleet  off  Dover.  Louis  then  submitted  and  left 
the  kingdom. 

2.  The   Renewal   of   the    Great    Charter.     1216 -1217.— The 


X 


i86 


HENRY  I  IT, 


1216-I219 


Effigy  of  Henry  III.  ; 
from  his  tomb  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


principles  on  which  William  the 
Marshal  intended  to  govern  were 
signified  by  the  changes  made  in 
the  Great  Charter  when  it  was 
renewed  on  the  king's  accession 
in  1216,  and  again  on  Louis's  ex- 
pulsion in  1217.  Most  of  the 
clauses  binding  the  king  to  avoid 
oppression  were  allowed  to  stand  ; 
but  those  which  prohibited  the 
raising  of  new  taxation  without  the 
authority  of  the  Great  Council,  and 
the  stipulation  which  established  a 
body  of  twenty-five  to  distrain  on 
John's  property  in  case  of  the 
breach  of  the  Charter,  were  omit- 
ted. Probably  it  was  thought  that 
there  was  less  danger  from  Henry 
than  there  had  been  from  John  ; 
but  the  acceptance  of  the  compro- 
mise was  mainly  due  to  the  feeling 
that,  whilst  it  was  desirable  that 
the  king  should  govern  with  mode- 
ration, it  would  be  a  dangerous  ex- 
periment to  put  the  power  to  con- 
trol him  in  the  hands  of  the  barons, 
who  might  use  it  for  their  own  ad- 
vantage rather  than  for  the  advan- 
tage of  the  nation.  The  whole 
history  of  England  for  many  years 
was  to  turn  on  the  difficulty  of 
weakening  the  power  of  a  bad  king 
without  producing  anarchy. 
\}r-—  3.  Administration  of  Hubert 
de  Burgh.  1219 — 1232. — In  1219 
William  the  Marshal  died.  For 
some  years  the  government  was 
mainly  in  the  hands  of  Hubert  de 
Burgh,  who  strenuously  main- 
tained the  authority  of  the  king 
over  the  barons,  whilst  at  the  same 
time  he  set  himself  distinctly  at 


1219- 1232 


HUBERT  DE  BURGH 


[87 


the  head  of  the  growing  national 
feeling  against  the  admission  of 
foreigners  to  wealth  and  high 
position  in  England.  As  a  result 
of  the  disturbances  of  John's 
reign  many  of  the  barons  and  of 
the  leaders  of  the  mercenaries 
had  either  fortified  their  own 
castles  or  had  taken  possession 
of  those  which  belonged  to  the 
king.  In  1220  Hubert  demanded 
the  surrender  of  these  castles  as 
Henry  H.  had  done  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  reign.  In  1221  the 
Earl  of  Aumale  was  forced  to 
surrender  his  castles,  and  in  1224 
Faukes  de  Breaute,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  John's  mercenaries 
who  had  received  broad  lands 
in  England,  was  reduced  to  sub- 
mission and  was  banished  on 
his  refusal  to  give  up  his  great 
castle  at  Bedford.  As  long  as 
Hubert  ruled,  England  was  to 
belong  to  the  English.  His 
power  was  endangered  from  the 
very  quarter  from  which  it  ought 
to  have  received  most  support. 
In  1227  Henry  declared  himself 
of  age.  He  was  weak  and 
untrustworthy,  always  ready  to 
give  his  confidence  to  unworthy 
favourites.  His  present  favourite 
was  Peter  des  Roches,  Bishop  of 
Winchester.  The  bishop  was  a 
greedy  and  unscrupulous  Poite- 
vin,  who  regarded  the  king's 
favour  as  a  means  of  enriching 
himself  and  his  Poitevin  relatives 
and  friends.  Henry  was  always  Effigy  of  William  Longesp^e,  Earl  of  Salis- 
short  of  money,  and  was  per-         "^^V ^^^^^^ rT\  /'"'^  ^•''  '°'"'^  ^" 

■''  «^    "cfj    j-"-i  Salisbury    Cathedral:   showing    armour 

suaded    by    Peter   that    it   was  '      worn  from  about  1225  to  1250. 


H^NRY  III 


1232-1234 


K 


Hubert's  fault.    In  1232  Hubert  was  charged  with  a  whole  string  of 
crimes  and  dismissed  from  office. 

4.  Administration  of  Peter  des  Roches.  1232— 1234.  — Henry 
was  now  entirely  under  the  power  of  Peter  des  Roches.  In  1233  he 
ordered  Hubert  to  be  seized.  Though  Hubert  took  sanctuary  in  a 
chapel,  he  was  dragged  out,  and  a  smith  was  ordered  to  put  him 

in  fetters.  The  man  refused  to  obey. 
"  Is  not  this,"  he  said,  "  that  most 
faithful  and  high-souled  Hubert  who 
has  so  often  saved  England  from 
the  ravages  of  foreigners,  and  has 
given  England  back  to  the  Eng- 
lish ? "  Hubert  was  thrown  into 
the  Tower,  and  was  never  again 
employed  in  any  office  of  state.  As 
long  as  Peter  des  Roches  ruled  the 
king  it  would  be  hard  to  keep  Eng- 
land for  the  English.  Poitevins 
and  Bretons  flocked  over  from  the 
Continent,  and  were  appointed  to 
all  the  influential  posts  which  fell 
vacant.  The  barons  had  the  national 
feeling  behind  them  when  they 
raised  complaints  against  this 
policy.  Their  leader  was  Earl 
Richard  the  Marshal,  the  son  of  the 
Earl  William  who  had  governed 
England  after  the  death  of  John. 
Without  even  the  semblance  of  trial 
Henry  declared  Earl  Richard  and 
his  chief  supporters  guilty  of  trea- 
son. At  a  Great  Council  held  at 
Westminster  some  of  the  barons 
remonstrated-  Peter  des  Roches 
replied  saucily  that  there  were 
no  peers  in  England  as  in  France,  meaning  that  in  England  the 
barons  had  no  rights  against  the  king.  Both  Henry  and  Peter 
could,  however,  use  their  tongues  better  than  their  swords.  They 
failed  miserably  in  an  attempt  to  overcome  the  men  whom  they 
had  unjustly  accused,  till  in  1234  Peter  stirred  up  some  of  the 
English  lords  in  Ireland  to  seize  on  Earl  Richard's  possessions 
there.     The  Earl  hurried  over  to  defend  his  estates.     Amongrst 


Simon,  Bishop  of  Exeter  (died  1223)  ; 

from  his  tomb  at  Exeter,  showing  rich 

mass-vestments. 


1234 


EDMUND  RICH 


189 


his  followers  were  many  of  Peter's  confidants,  who,  treacherously 
deserting  him  in  the  first  battle,  left  him  to  be  slain  by  his  enemies. 
Peter  at  least  gained  nothing  by  his  villainy.  Edmund  Rich,  a  saintly 
man,  who  had  recently  become  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  protested 
against  his  misdeeds.     All  England  was  behind  the  Archbishop, 


Beverley  Minster,  Yorkshire— the  south  transept 


and  Henry  was  compelled  to  dismiss  Peter  and  then  to  welcome  back 
Peter's  enemies  and  to  restore  them  to  their  rights.  It  was  of  no 
slight  importance  that  a  man  so  devoted  and  unselfish  as  Edmund 
Rich  had  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  movement.  It  was  a  good 
thing,  no  doubt,  to  maintain  that  wealth  should  be  in  the  hands 


I90  HENRY  III.  1209 

rather  of  natives  than  of  foreigners  ;  but  after  all  every  contention 
for  material  wealth  alone  is  of  the  earth,  earthy.  No  object  which 
appeals  exclusively  to  the  selfish  instincts  can,  in  the  long  run,  be 
worth  contending  for.  Edmund  Rich's  accession  to  the  national 
cause  was  a  guarantee  that  the  claims  of  righteousness  and  mercy 
in  the  management  of  the  national  government  would  not  altogether 
be  forgotten,  and  fortunately  there  were  new  forces  actively  at  work 
in  the  same  direction.  The  friars,  the  followers  of  St.  Francis  and 
St.  Dominic,  had  made  good  their  footing  in  England. 

Francis  of  Assisi.— Francis,  the  son  of  a  merchant  in  the 
TuscaH.  town  of  Assisi,  threw  aside  the  vanities  of  youth  after  a 
serious  XJness.  He  was  wedded,  he  declared,  to  Poverty  as  his 
bride.  HKrlothed  himself  in  rags.  When  his  father  sent  him 
with  a  horseiKad  of  goods  to  a  neighbouring  market,  he  sold  both 
horse  and  goooSL  and  offered  the  money  to  build  a  church.  His 
father  was  enraged,  and  summoned  him  before  the  bishop  that  he 
might  be  deprivedN^  the  right  of  inheriting  that  which  he  knew 
n6t  how  to  use.  Fra\cis  stripped  himself  naked,  renouncing  even 
his  clothes  as  his  fathene  property.  "  I  have  now,"  he  said,  "  but 
one  Father,  He  that  is\n  heaven."  He  wandered  about  as  a 
beggar,  subsisting  on  alms\nd  devoting  himself  to  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  afflicted.  In  his  he^ism  of  self-denial  he  chose  out  the 
lepers,  covered  as  they  were  .with  foul  and  infectious  sores^  as  the 
main  objects  of  his  tending.  Before  long  he  gathered  together  a 
brotherhood  of  men  like-mindedWith  himself,  who  left  all,  to  give 
not  alms  but  themselves  to  the  he^  of  the  poor  and  sorrowful  of 
Christ's  flock.  In  1209  Innocent  1 1\  constituted  them  into  a  new 
order,  not  of  monks  but  of  Friars  ^^atres  or  brethren).  The 
special  title  of  the  new  order,  which  af^r  ages  have  known  by  the 
name  of  Franciscans,  was  that  of  yWrioxxi^^ratres  Minores\  or  the 
lesser  brethren,  because  Francis  in  his  huftaility  declared  thehi  to 
be  less  than  the  least  of  Christ's  servant^  Like  Francis,  they 
were  to  be  mendicants,  begging  their  food  from  day  to  day.  Hav- 
ing nothing  themselves,  they  would  be  the  bettet  able  to  touch  the 
hearts  of  those  who  had  nothing.  Yet  it  was  ftot  so  much  the 
humility  of  Francis  as  his  loving  heart  which  distinguished  him 
amongst  men.  Not  only  all  human  beings  but  all\reated  things 
were  dear  to  him.  Once  he  is  said  to  have  preacWed  to  birds. 
He  called  the  sun  and  the  wind  his  brethren,  the  mcfen  and  the 
water  his  sisters.  When  he  died  the  last  feeble  words  which  he 
breathed  were,  "  Welcome,  sister  Death  !  "  \ 

().  St.  Dominic. — Another  order  arose  about  the  same  time  in 


I220-I224 


THE  FRIARS 


191 


SpainSsPominic,  a  Spaniard,  was  appalled,  not  by  the  misery,  but 
by  the  igmJhig^ce  of  mankind.  The  order  which  he  instituted  was 
to  be  called  that**«Ohe  Friars  Preachers,  though  they  have  in  later 
times  usually  been  kJJsimi  as  Dominicans.  Like  the  Franciscans 
they  were  to  be  Friars,  o^^^others,  because  all  teaching  is  vain,  as 
much  as  all  charitable  actsSw^e  vain,  unless  brotherly  kindness 
be  at  the  root.  Like  the  Francis^ftgthey  were  to  be  mendicants, 
because  so  only  could  the  world  be  coiwi^ced  that  they  sought  not 
their  own  good,  but  to  win  souls  to  Christ. 

7.  The  Coming  of  the  Friars.  1220 — 1224. — In  1220  the  first 
Dominicans  arrived  in  England.  Four  years  later,  in  1224,  the 
first  Franciscans  followed  them.  Of  the  work  of  the  early  Domini- 
cansNm  England  little  is  known.  They  preached  and  taught, 
appealihg  to  those  whose  intelligence  was  keen  enough  to  appreciate 
the  valueN^  argument.  The  Franciscans  had  a  different  work 
before  them?\The  miser>^  of  the  dwellers  on  the  outskirts  of  Eng- 
lish towns  was  availing.  The  townsmen  had  made  provision  for 
keeping  good  ord^i:  amongst  all  who  shared  in  the  liberties,^  or, 
as  we  should  say,  inHhe  privileges  of  the  town  ;  but  they  made 
no  provision  for  good  om^  amongst  the  crowds  who  flocked  to  the 
town  to  pick  up  a  scanty  nVmg  as  best  they  might.  These  poor 
wretches  had  to  dwell  in  misenvble  hovels  outside  the  walls  by  the 
side  of  fetid  ditches  into  which  tke  filth  of  the  town  was  poured. 
Disease  and  starvation  thinned  theinmimbers.  No  man  cared  for 
their  bodies  or  their  souls.  The  priestsS^ho  served  in  the  churches 
within  the  town  passed  them  by,  nor  ha^slhey  any  place  in  the 
charities  with  which  the  brethren  of  the  gildsassuaged  the  misfor- 
tunes of  their  own  members.  It  was  amongst  these  that  the  Fran- 
ciscans lived  and  laboured,  sharing  in  their  misery  and  their 
diseases,  counting  their  lives  well  spent  if  they  could  bring  comfort 
to  a  single  human  soul. 

8.  Monks  and  Friars. — The  work  of  the  friars  was  a  new 
phase  in  the'iw^tory  of  the  Church.  The  monks  had  made  it  their 
object  to  save  thei^s^wn  souls  ;  the  friars  made  it  their  object  to 
save  the  bodies  and  sotJk^of  others.  The  friars,  like  the  monks, 
taught  by  the  example  of  selfrd^ial ;  but  the  friars  added  active 
well-doing  to  the  passive  virtue  oflts^^raint.  Such  examples  could 
not  fail  to  be  attended  with  consequencfes^of  which  those  who  set 

1  A  phrase  which  may  serve  to  keep  in  mind  the  medieval  meaning  of 
•  lihirtas '  is  to  be  found  in  the  statement  that  a  certain  monastery  kept  up  a 
pair  of  stocks  'pro  libertate  servanda' — that  is  to  say,  to  keep  up  its  franchise 
of  putting  offenders  isto  the  stocks. 


[92 


HENRY  II L 


1236 


^ 


them  never  dreamed,  all  the  more  because  the  two  new  orders 
worked  harmoniously  towards  a  common  end.  The  Dominicans 
quickened  the  brain  whilst  the  Franciscans  touched  the  heart,  and 
the  whole  nation  was  the  better  in  consequence. 

9.  The  King's  Marriage.  1236. —In  1236  Henry  married 
Eleanor,  the  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Provence.  The  immediate 
consequence  was  the  arrival  of  her  four  uncles  with  a  stream  of 
Provencals  in  their  train.  Amongst  these  uncles  William,  Bishop- 
elect  of  Valence,  took  the  lead.     Henry  submitted  his  weak  mind 


entirely  to  him,  ana  distributed  rank  and  wealth  to  the  Provencals 


Longthorpe  Manor  House,  Northampton  ; 
built  about  1235.    Some  of  the  larger  windows  are  later. 

with  as  much  profusion  as  he  had  distributed  them  to  the  Poitevins 
in  the  days  of  Peter  des  Roches.  The  barons,  led  now  by  the 
king's  brother,  Richard  of  Cornwall,  remonstrated  when  they  met 
in  the  Great  Council,  which  was  gradually  acquiring  the  right  of 
granting  fresh  taxes,  though  all  reference  to  that  right  was  dropped 
out  of  all  editions  of  the  Great  Charter  issued  in  the  reign  of 
Henry.  For  some  time  they  granted  the  money  which  Henry  con- 
tinually asked  for,  coupling,  however,  with  their  grant  the  demand 
that  Henry  should  confirm  the  Charter.  The  king  never  refused 
to  confirm  it.  He  had  no  difficulty  in  making  promises,  but  he 
never  troubled  himself  to  keep  those  which  he  had  made. 


ck' 


1231-1242  SIMON  DE   MONTFORT  193 


10.  The  Early  Career  of  Simon  de  Montfort.     1231— 1243.— 

Strangely  enough,  Simon  de  Montfort,  the  man  who  was  to  be  the 
chief  opponent  of  Henry  and  his  foreign  favourites,  was  himself  a 
foreigner.  He  was  sprung  from  a  family  established  in  Normandy, 
and  his  father,  the  elder  Simon  de  Montfort,  had  been  the  leader  of  a 
body  of  Crusaders  from  the  north  of  France,  who  had  poured  over 
the  south  to  crush  a  vast  body  of  heretics,  known  by  the  name  of 
Albigeois,  from  Albi,  a  town  in  which  they  swarmed.  The  elder 
Simon  had  been  strict  in  his  orthodoxy  and  unsparing  in  his  cruelty 
to  all  who  were  unorthodox.  From  him  the  younger  Simon  inherited 
his  unswerving  religious  zeal  and  his  constancy  of  purpose.  There 
was  the  same  stern  resolution  in  both,  but  in  the  younger  man  these 
quahties  were  coupled  witha  statesmanHke  instinct,  which  was  want- 


A  ship  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 

ing  to  the  father.  Norman  as  he  was,  he  had  a  claim  to  the  earl- 
dom of  Leicester  through  his  grandmother,  and  in  1231  this  claim 
was  acknowledged  by  Henry.  P^or  some  time  Simon  continued  to 
live  abroad,  but  in  1236  he  returned  to  England  to  be  present  at 
the  king's  marriage.  He  was  at  once  taken  into  favour,  and  in  1238 
married  the  king's  sister,  Eleanor.  His  marriage  was  received  by 
the  barons  and  the  people  with  a  burst  of  indignation.  It  was 
one  more  instance,  it  was  said,  of  Henry's  preference  for  foreigners 
over  his  own  countrymen.  In  1239  Henry  turned  upon  his  brother- 
in-law,  brought  heavy  charges  against  him,  and  drove  him  from  his 
court.  In  1240  Simon  was  outwardly  reconciled  to  Henry,  but  he 
v/as  never  again  able  to  repose  confidence  in  one  so  fickle.  In  . 
1242  Henry  resolved    to    undertake    an    expedition  to  France  to 

O 


194  HENRY  III.  1243- 1244 

recover  Poitou,  which  had  been  gradually  slipping  out  of  his 
hands.  At  a  Great  Council  held  before  he  sailed,  the  barons,  who 
had  no  sympathy  with  any  attempt  to  recover  lost  possessions  in 
France,  not  only  rated  him  soundly  for  his  folly,  but,  for  the  first 
time,  absolutely  refused  to  make  him  a  grant  of  money.  Simon 
told  him  to  his  face  that  the  Frenchman  was  no  lamb  to  be  easily 
subdued.  Simon's  words  proved  true.  Henry  sailed  for  France, 
but  in  1243  he  surrendered  all  claims  to  Poitou,  and  returned  dis- 
comfited. If  he  did  not  bring  home  victory  he  brought  with  him 
a  new  crowd  of  Poitevins,  who  were  connected  with  his  mother's 
second  husband.  All  of  them  expected  to  receive  advancement  in 
England,  and  they  seldom  expected  it  in  vain. 

ii.^apal  Exactions.  1237— 1243.— Disgusted  as  were  the 
English  I^downers  by  the  preference  shown  by  the  kmg  to 
foreigners,  thts:  English  clergy  were  no  less  disgusted  by  the  ex- 
actions of  the  Kope.  The  claim  of  Innocent  III.  to  regulate  the 
proceedings  of  kiWs  had  been  handed  down  to  his  successors 
and  made  them  jeh^us  of  any  ruler  too  powerful  to  be  con- 
trolled. The  EmperoK  Frederick  II.  had  not  only  succeeded 
to  the  government  of  cWnany,  and  to  some  influence  over  the 
north  of  Italy,  but  had  inherited  Naples  and  Sicily  from  his 
mother.  The  Pope  thus  found  himself,  as  it  were,  between  two 
fires.  There  was  constant  bkkering  between  Frederick  and 
Gregory  IX.,  a  fiery  old  man  wH^  became  Pope  in  1227,  and  in 
1238  Gregory  excommunicated  Frederick,  and  called  on  all  Europe 
to  assist  him  against  the  man  whoniShe  stigmatised  as  the  enemy 
of  God  and  the  Church.  As  the  kingy)f  England  was  his  vassal 
in  consequence  of  John's  surrender,  he  looked  to  him  for  aid  more 
than  to  others,  especially  as  England,  enjoying  internal  peace  more 
than  other  nations,  was  regarded  as  especially  wealthy.  In  1237, 
the  year  before  Frederick's  excommunication,  v^regory  sent  Cardinal 
Otho  as  his  legate  to  demand  money  from\he  English  clergy. 
The  clergy  found  a  leader  in  Robert  Grossetete,^ishop  of  Lincoln, 
a  wise  and  practical  reformer  of  clerical  disorders  ]\but  though  they 
grumbled,  they  could  get  no  protection  from  the  Vng,  and  were 
forced  to  pay.  Otho  left  England  in  1241,  carrying  immense  sums 
of  money  with  him,  and  the  promise  of  the  king  to  pl;^sent  three 
hundred  Italian  priests  to  English  benefices  before  he  presented  a 
single  Englishman.  In  1243  Gregory  IX.  was  succeeded  by 
Innocent  IV.,  who  was  even  more  grasping  than  his  predecessor. 

12.  A  Weak  Parliamentary  Opposition.  1244.— Against  these 
evils  the  Great  Council  strove  in  vain  to  make  head.     It  was  now 


-Tie 


1244-1254  THE\RISE   OF  PARLIAMENT  195 

beginning  to  be  known  as  Parliament,  though  no  alteration  was 
yet  made  in  its  composition^  In  1244  clergy  and  barons  joined  in 
remonstrating  with  the  king,\nd  some  of  them  even  talked  about 
restraining  his  power  by  the  Establishment  of  a  Justiciar  and 
Chancellor,  together  with  four  cou^illors,  all  six  to  be  elected  by 
the  whole  of  the  baronage.  Without,  the  consent  of  the  Chancellor 
thus  chosen  no  administrative  act  co^ld  be  done.  The  scheme 
was  a  distinct  advance  upon  that  of  the\arons  who,  in  1215,  forced 
the  Great  Charter  upon  John.  The  baroV^  had  then  proposed  to 
leave  the  appointment  of  executive  official  to  the  king,  and  to 
appoint  a  committee  of  twenty-five,  who  were  >d  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  government  of  the  country,  but  were  to  compel  the  king 
by  force  to  keep  the  promises  which  he  had  maoi^  In  1244  they 
proposed  to  appoint  the  executive  officials  themselves.  It  was  the 
beginning  of  a  series  of  changes  which  ultimately  leH.  to  that  with 
which  we  are  now  familiar,  the  appointment  of  ministersS^sponsible 
to  Parliament.  It  was  too  great  an  innovation  to  be  accepted  at 
once,  especially  as  it  was  demanded  by  the  barons  alone.  Th^lergy, 
who  were  still  afraid  of  the  disorders  which  might  ensue  if  \ower 
were  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the  barons,  refused  to  support  itV^d 
for  a  time  it  fell  to  the  ground.  At  the  same  time  Richardk  of 
Cornwall  abandoned  the  baronial  party.  He  had  lately  married  the 
queen's  sister,  which  may  have  drawn  him  over  to  the  king  ;  but  it 
is  also  probable  that  his  own  position  as  the  king's  brother  made 
him  unwilling  to  consent  to  a  scheme  which  would  practically 
transfer  the  government  from  the  king  to  the  barons.  On  the  other 
hand  Earl  Simon  was  found  on  the  side  of  the  barons.  He  held  his 
earldom  by  inheritance  from  his  English  grandmother,  and  the 
barons  were  willing  to  forgive  his  descent  from  a  foreign  grandfather 
when  they  found  him  prepared  to  share  their  policy. 

13.  Growing  Discontent.  1244— 1254.— The  clergy  had  to 
learn  by  bitter  experience  that  it  was  only  by  a  close  alliance  with 
the  barons  that  they  could  preserve  themselves  from  wrong.  In 
1244  a  new  envoy  from  the  Pope,  Master  Martin,  travelled  over 
England  wringing  money  from  the  clergy.  Though  he  was  driven 
out  of  the  country  in  1245,  the  Papal  exactions  did  not  cease.  The 
Pope,  moreover,  continued  to  present  his  own  nominees  to  English 
benefices,  and  in  1252  Grossetete  complained  that  these  nominees 
drew  three  times  as  much  income  from  England  as  flowed  into  the 
royal  exchequer.  For  a  time  even  Henry  made  complaints,  but 
in  1254  Innocent  IV.  won  him  over  to  his  side.  Frederick  II.  had 
died  in  1250,  and  his  illegitimate  son,  Manfred,  a  tried  warrior  and 

02 


t96 


HENRY  III. 


1254-1255 


^ 


an  able  ruler,  had  succeeded  him  as  king  of  Sicily  and  Naples. 
Innocent  could  not  bear  that  that  crown  should  be  worn  by  the  son 
of  the  man  whom  he  had  hated  bitterly,  and  offered  it  to  Edmund, 
the  second  son  of  Henry  III.  Henry  lept  at  the  offer,  hoping 
that  England  would  bear  the  expense  of  the  undertaking.  England 
was,  however,  in  no  mood  to  comply.  Henry  had  been  squandering 
money  for  years.  He  had  recently  employed  Earl  Simon  in  Gascony, 
where  Simon  had  put  down  the  resistance  of  the  nobles  with  a 
heavy  hand.  The  Gascons  complained  to  Henry,  and  Henry 
quarrelled  with  Simon  more  bitterly  than  before.  In  1254  Henry 
crossed  the  sea  to  restore  order  in  person.  To  meet  his  expenses 
he  borrowed  a  vast  sum  of  money,  and  this  loan,  which  he  expected 
England  to  meet,  was  the  only  result  of  the  expedition. 

14.  The  Knights  of  the  Shire  in  Parliament.     1254.— During 

the  king's  absence  the 
queen  and  Earl  Rich- 
ard, who  were  left  as  re- 
gents, and  who  had  to 
collect  money  as  best 
they  might,  gathered  a 
Great  Council,  to  which, 
for  the  first  time,  repre- 
sentative knights,  four 
from  each  shire,  were 
summoned.  They  were 
merely  called  on  to  re- 
port what  amount  of  aid 

their  constituents  were  willing  to  give,  and  the  regents  were  doubt- 
less little  aware  of  the  importance  of  the  step  which  they  were  taking. 
It  was  only,  to  all  appearances,  an  adaptation  of  the  summons  calling 
on  the  united  jury  to  meet  at  St.  Albans  to  assess  the  damages  of  the 
clergy  in  the  reign  of  John.  It  might  seem  as  if  the  regents  had 
only  summoned  a  united  jury  to  give  evidence  of  their  constituents' 
readiness  to  grant  certain  sums  of  money.  In  reality  the  new 
scheme  was  sure  to  take  root,  because  it  held  out  a  hope  of  getting 
rid  of  a  constitutional  difficulty  which  had  hitherto  proved  insoluble 
— the  difficulty,  that  is  to  say,  of  weakening  the  king's  power  to  do 
evil  without  establishing  baronial  anarchy  in  its  place.  It  was 
certain  that  the  representatives  of  the  free-holders  in  the  counties 
would  not  use  their  influence  for  the  destruction  of  order. 

1 5.  Fresh  Exactions.  1254 — 1257. — At  the  end  of  1254  Henry  re- 
turned to  England.     In  1255  a  new  Pope,  Alexander  IV.,  confirmed 


A  bed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 


1255 


THE  KING  AND    THE   POPE 


197 


his  predecessor's  grant  of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  to  Edmund,  on 
condition  that  Henry  should  give  a  large  sum  of  money  for  the 
expenses  of  a  war  against  Manfred.  To  make  it  easy  for  Henry  to 
find  the  money,  Alexander  gave  him  a  tenth  of  the  revenues  of  the 
Erglish  clergy,  on  the  plea  that  the  clergy  had  always  borne  their 
share  of  the  expenses  of  a  crusade,  and  that  to  fight  for  the  Pope 
against  Manfred  was  equivalent  to  a  crusade.  Immense  sums 
were  wrung  from  the  clergy,  who  were  powerless  to  resist  Pope  and 
king  combined.  Their  indignation  was  the  greater,  not  only 
because  they  knew  that  religion  was  not  at  stake  in  the  Pope's 
effort  to  secure  his  political  power  in  Italy,  but  also  because  the  Papal 


Bam  of  thirteenth-century  date  at  Raunds,  Northamptonshire. 


court  was  known  to  be  hopelessly  corrupt,  it  being  a  matter  of 
common  talk  that  all  things  were  for  sale  at  Rome.  The  clergy 
indeed  were  less  than  ever  in  a  condition  to  resist  the  king  without 
support.  Grossetete  was  dead,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
the  queen's  uncle,  Boniface  of  Savoy,  whose  duty  it  was  to  maintain 
the  rights  of  the  Church,  was  a  man  who  cared  nothing  for  England 
except  on  account  of  the  money  he  drew  from  it.  Other  bishoprics 
as  well  were  held  by  foreigners.  The  result  of  the  weakness  of  the 
clergy  was  that  they  were  now  ready  to  unite  with  the  barons,  whom 
they  had  deserted  in  1244  (seep.  195).  Henry's  misgovernment,  in 
fact,  had  roused  all  classes  against  him,  as  the  townsmen  and  the 
smaller  landowners  had  been  even  worse  treated  than  the  greater 


I>C 


198  HENRY  III.  1 257- 1 258 

barons.  In  1257  one  obstacle  to  reform  was  removed.  Richard  of 
Cornwall,  the  king's  brother,  who  was  formidable  through  his  wealth 
and  the  numbers  of  his  vassals,  had  for  some  time  taken  part  against 
them.  In  1257  he  was  chosen  king  of  the  Romans  by  the  German 
electors,  an  election  which  would  make  him  Emperor  as  soon  as  he 
had  been  crowned  by  the  Pope.  He  at  once  left  England  to  seek  his 
fortunes  in  Germany,  where  he  was  well  received  as  long  as  he  had 
money  to  reward  his  followers,  but  was  deserted  as  soon  as  his 
purse  was  empty. 

16.  The  Provisions  of  Oxford.  1258. — The  crisis  in  England 
came  in  1258,  whilst  Richard  was  still  abroad.  Though  thousands 
were  dying  of  starvation  in  consequence  of  a  bad  harvest,  Henry 
demanded  for  the  Pope  the  monstrous  sum  of  one-third  of  the  revenue 
of  all  England.  Then  the  storm  burst.  At  a  Parliament  at  West- 
minster the  barons  appeared  in  arms  and  demanded,  first,  the 
expulsion  of  all  foreigners,  and,  secondly,  the  appointment  of  a 
committee  of  twenty -four— twelve  from  the  king's  party  and  twelve 
from  that  of  the  barons — to  reform  the  realm.  The  king  unwil- 
lingly consented,  and  the  committee  was  appointed.  Later  in  the 
year  Parhament  met  again  at  Oxford  to  receive  the  report  of  the 
new  committee.  The  Mad  Parliament,  as  it  was  afterwards  called 
in  derision,  was  resolved  to  make  good  its  claims.  The  scheme  of 
reinforcing  Parliament  by  the  election  of  knights  of  the  shire  had  in- 
deed been  suffered  to  fall  into  disuse  since  its  introduction  in  1254,  yet 
every  tenant-in-chief  had  of  old  the  right  of  attending,  and  though 
the  lesser  tenants-in-chief  had  hitherto  seldom  or  never  exercised 
that  right,  they  now  trooped  in  arms  to  Oxford  to  support  the  barons. 
To  this  unwonted  gathering  the  committee  produced  a  set  of  pro- 
posals which  have  gone  by  the  name  of  the  Provisions  of  Oxford. 
There  was  to  be  a  council  of  fifteen,  without  the  advice  of  which 
the  king  could  do  no  act,  and  in  this  council  the  baronial  party  had 
a  majority.  The  offices  of  state  were  filled  in  accordance  with  the 
wishes  of  the  twenty-four,  and  the  barons  thus  entered  into  pos- 
session of  the  authority  which  had  hitherto  been  the  king's.  The 
danger  of  the  king's  tyranny  was  averted,  but  it  remained  to  be  seen 
whether  a  greater  tyranny  would  not  be  erected  in  its  stead.  One 
clause  of  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  was  not  reassuring.  The  old 
Parliaments,  which  every  tenant-in-chief  had  at  least  the  customary 
right  of  attending,  were  no  longer  to  exist.  Their  place  was  to  be 
taken  by  a  body  of  twelve,  to  be  chosen  by  the  barons,  which  was  to 
meet  three  times  a  year  to  discuss  public  affairs  with  the  council 
of  fifteen. 


k 


K 


K 


1 258- 1 259  THE  PROVISIONS   OF  OXFORD  199 

17.  The  Expulsion  of  the  Foreigners.  1258. — The  first  diffi- 
culty of  the  new  government  was  to  compel  the  foreigners  to  sur- 
render their  castles.  William  de  Valence,  the  king's  half-brother, 
headed  the  resistance  of  the  foreigners.  The  barons  swore  that  no 
danger  should  keep  them  back  till  they  had  cleared  the  land  of 
foreigners  and  had  obtained  the  good  laws  which  they  needed. 
Earl  Simon  set  the  example  by  surrendering  his  own  castles  at 
Kenilworth  and  Odiham.  The  national  feeling  was  with  Simon 
and  the  barons,  and  at  last  the  foreigners  were  driven  across  the 
sea.  For  a  time  all  went  well.  The  committee  of  twenty-four 
continued  its  work  and  produced  a  further  series  of  reforms.  All 
persons  in  authority  were  called  on  to  swear  to  be  faithful  to  the 
Provisions  of  Oxford,  and  the  king  and  his  eldest  son,  Edward, 
complied  with  the  demand. 

18.  Edward  and  the  Barons.  1259. — Early  in  1259  Richard 
came  back  to  England,  and  gave  satisfaction  by  swearing  to  the 
Provisions.  Before  long  signs  of  danger  appeared.  The  placing 
complete  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  barons  was  not  likely  to  be 
long  popular,  and  Earl  Simon  was  known  to  be  in  favour  of  a 
wider  and  more  popular  scheme.  Hugh  Bigod,  who  had  been 
named  Justiciar  by  the  barons,  gave  offence  by  the  way  in  which 
he  exercised  his  office.  Simon  was  hated  by  the  king,  and  he  knew 
that  many  of  the  barons  did  not  love  him.  The  sub-tenants — the 
Knights  Bachelors  of  England  as  they  called  themselves — doubting 
his  power  to  protect  them,  complained,  not  to  Simon,  but  to  Edward, 
the  eldest  son  of  the  King,  that  the  barons  had  obtained  the 
redress  of  their  own  grievances,  but  had  done  nothing  for  the  rest 
of  the  community.  Edward  was  now  a  young  man  of  twenty, 
hot-tempered  and  impatient  of  control,  but  keen-sighted  enough  to 
know,  what  his  father  had  never  known,  that  the  royal  power  would  be 
increased  if  it  could  establish  itself  in  the  affections  of  the  classes 
whose  interests  were  antagonistic  to  those  of  the  barons.  He 
therefore  declared  that  he  had  sworn  to  the  Provisions,  and  would 
keep  his  oath  ;  but  that  if  the  barons  did  not  fulfil  their  own  pro- 
mises, he  would  join  the  community  in  compelling  them  to  do  so. 
The  warning  was  effectual,  and  the  barons  issued  orders  for  the 
redress  of  the  grievances  of  those  who  had  found  so  high  a  patron. 

19.  The  Breach  amongst  the  Barons.  1259 — 1261.  —Simon 
had  no  wish  to  be  involved  in  a  purely  baronial  policy.  He 
had  already  fallen  out  with  Richard  de  Clare,  Earl  of  Gloucester, 
the  leader  of  the  barons  who  had  resisted  the  full  execution  of 
the  promises  made  at  Oxford  in  the  interest  of  the  people  at  large. 


A 


K 


200  HENRY  III.  1 26 1 -1 264 

"  With  such  fickle  and  faithless  men,"  said  Simon  to  him,  "  I  care 
not  to  have  ought  to  do.  The  things  we  are  treating  of  now  we 
have  sworn  to  carry  out.  And  thou,  Sir  Earl,  the  higher  thou 
art  the  more  art  thou  bound  to  keep  such  statutes  as  are  whole> 
some  for  the  land."  The  king  fomented  the  rising  quarrel,  and 
in  1261  announced  that  the  Pope  had  declared  the  Provisions  to 
be  null  and  void,  and  had  released  him  from  his  oath  to  observe 
them. 

20.  Royalist  Reaction  and  Civil  War.  1261. — Henry  now 
ruled  again  in  his  own  fashion.  Even  the  Earl  of  Gloucester 
discovered  that  if  the  king  was  to  be  resisted  it  must  be  by  an 
appeal  to  a  body  of  men  more  numerous  than  the  barons  alone. 
He  joined  Simon  in  inviting  a  Parliament  to  meet,  at  which  three 
knights  should  appear  for  each  county,  thus  throwing  over  the 
unfortunate  narrowing  of  Parliament  to  a  baronial  committee  of 
twelve,  which  had  been  the  worst  blot  on  the  Provisions  of  Oxford. 
In  the  summer  of  1262  the  Earl  of  Gloucester  died,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Earl  Gilbert,  one  of  Simon's  warmest  personal 
admirers.  In  1263  Simon,  now  the  acknowledged  head  of  the 
barons  and  of  the  nation,  finding  that  the  king  could  not  be 
brought  to  keep  the  Provisions,  took  arms  against  him.  He  was  a 
master  in  the  art  of  war,  and  gained  one  fortified  post  after  another. 
Henry,  being,  as  usual,  short  of  money,  called  on  the  Londoners 
for  a  loan.  On  their  refusal  Edward  seized  a  sum  of  money 
which  belonged  to  them,  and  so  exasperated  them  that,  on  the 
queen's  passing  under  London  Bridge,  the  citizens  reviled  hei  and 
pelted  her  with  stones.  The  war  was  carried  on  with  doubtful 
results,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  both  parties  agreed  to  submit 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  king  of  France. 

21.  The  Mise  of  Amiens.  1264. — The  king  of  France  Louis 
IX.,  afterwards  known  as  St.  Louis,  was  the  justest  and  most 
unselfish  of  men.  In  1259  he  had  surrendered  to  Henry  a  considera- 
ble amount  of  territory  in  France,  which  Henry  had  been  unable  to 
re-conquer  for  himself ;  and  was  well  satisfied  to  obtain  from  Henry 
in  return  a  formal  renunciation  of  the  remainder  of  the  lands 
which  Philip  II.  had  taken  from  John.  Yet,  well-intentioned  as 
Louis  was,  he  had  no  knowledge  of  England,  and  in  France,  where 
the  feudal  nobility  was  still  excessively  tyrannical,  justice  was  only 
to  be  obtained  by  the  maintenance  of  a  strong  royal  power.  He 
therefore  thought  that  what  was  good  for  France  was  also  good 
for  England,  and  in  the  beginning  of  1264  he  relieved  Henr)^  from 
bU  the  restrictions  which  his  subjects  had  sought  to  place  upon 


I 264- I 265 


THE   BARONS'    WARS 


201 


him.    The  decision  thus  taken  was  known  as  the  Mise,  or  settlement, 
of  Amiens,  from  the  place  at  which  it  was  issued. 

22.  The  Battle  of  Lewes.  1264. — The  Mise  of  Amiens  re- 
quired an  unconditional  surrender  of  England  to  the  king.  The 
Londoners  and  the  trading  towns  were  the  first  to  reject  it. 
Simon  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  united  army  of  barons  and 
citizens.  In  the  early  morning  of  May  14  he  caught  the  king's 
army  half  asleep  at  Lewes.  Edward  charged  at  the  Londoners, 
against  whom  he  bore  a  grudge  since  they  had  ill-treated  his 
mother,  and  cleared  them  off  the  field  with  enormous  slaughter. 
When  he  returned  the  battle  was  lost.  Henry  himself  was  captured, 
and  Richard,  king  of  the  Romans,  was  found  hiding  in  a  windmill. 
Edward,  in  spite  of  his  success,  had  to  give  himself  up  as  a  prisoner. 


\ 


A  fight  between  armed  and  mounted  knights  of  the  time  of  Henry  III. 

23.  Earl  Simon's  Government.  1264— 1265.— Simon  followed 
up  his  victory  by  an  agreement  called  the  Mise  of  Lewes,  according 
to  which  all  matters  of  dispute  were  again  to  be  referred  to 
arbitration.  In  the  meantime  there  were  to  be  three  Electors, 
Earl  Simon  himself,  the  Earl  of  Gloucester,  and  the  Bishop  of 
Chichester.  These  were  to  elect  nine  councillors,  who  were  to  name 
the  ministers  of  state.  To  keep  these  councillors  within  bounds 
a  Parliament  was  called,  in  which  with  the  barons,  bishops,  and 
abbots  there  sat  not  only  chosen  knights  for  each  shire,  but  also 
for  the  first  time  two  representatives  of  certain  towns.  This 
Parliament  met  in  1265.  It  was  not,  indeed,  a  full  parliament, 
,^s  only  Simon's  partisans  amongst  the  barons  were  ^summoned, 


202 


HENRY  HI. 


1265 


but  it  was  the  fullest  representation  of  England  as  a  whole  which 
had  yet  met,  and  not  a  merely  baronial  committee  like  that  pro- 
posed in  1258.  The  views  of  Simon  were  clearly  indicated  in  an 
argumentative  Latin  poem  written  after  the  battle  of  Lewes  by  one 
of  his  supporters.  In  this  poem  the  king's  claim  to  do  as  he  likes 
with  his  own  is  met  by  a  demand  that  he  shall  rule  according  to 
law.  Such  a  demand  was  made  by  others  than  the  poet.  "  The 
king,"  a  great  lawyer  of  the  day  had  said,  "  is  not  subject  to  any 
man,  but  to  God  and  the  law."     The  difficulty  still  remained  of 


Seal  of  Robert  Fitzwulter,  showing  a  mounted  knight  in  complete  mail  armour. 
Date,  about  1265. 


ascertaining  what  the  law  was.  The  poet  did  not,  indeed, 
anticipate  modem  theories,  and  hold  that  the  law  was  what  the 
representatives  of  the  people  made  it  to  be  ;  but  he  held  that  the 
law  consisted  in  the  old  customs,  and  that  the  people  themselves 
must  be  appealed  to  as  the  witnesses  of  what  those  old  customs 
were.  "  Therefore,"  he  wrote,  "  let  the  community  of  the  kingdom 
advise,  and  let  it  be  known  what  the  generality  thinks,  to  whom  their 
own  laws  are  best  known.  Nor  are  all  those  of  the  country  so  igno- 
rant that  they  do  not  know  better  than  strangers  the  customs  of 
their  own  kingdom  which  have  been  handed  down  to  them  by 


1265 


THE   OVERTHROW  OF  EARL   SIMON 


203 


K 


their  ancestors."  *  The  poet,  in 
short,  regarded  the  Parliament  as  a 
national  jury,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
give  evidence  on  the  laws  and  cus- 
toms of  the  nation,  in  the  same  way 
■that  a  local  jury  gave  evidence  on 
local  matters. 

24.  The  Battle  of  Evesham. 
1265. — Simon's  constitution  was 
premature.  Men  wanted  a  patriotic 
king  who  could  lead  the  nation  in- 
stead of  one  who,  like  Henry,  used 
it  for  his  own  ends.  The  new 
rulers  were  sure  to  quarrel  with  one 
another.  If  Simon  was  still  Simon 
the  Righteous,  his  sons  acted  tyran- 
nically. The  barons  began  again  to 
distrust  Simon  himself,  and  the 
young  Earl  of  Gloucester,  like  his 
father  before  him,  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  dissatisfied  barons,  and 
went  over  to  the  king.  Edward 
escaped  from  confinement,  by  urging 
his  keepers  to  ride  races  with  one 
another,  and  then  galloping  off  when 
their  horses  were  too  tired  to  follow 
him.  Edward  and  Gloucester  com- 
bined forces,  and,  falling  on  Earl 
Simon  at  Evesham,  defeated  him 
utterly.  Simon  was  slain  in  the 
fight  and  his  body  barbarously  mu- 
tilated ;  but  his  memory  was  trea- 
sured, and  he  was  counted  as  a  saint 
by  the  people  for  whom  he  had 
worked.  Verses  have  been  pre- 
served in  which  he  is  compared  to 

'  ' '  Igitur  communitas  regni  consulatur  ; 
Et  quid  universitas  sentiat,  sciatur, 
Cui  leges  propriae  maxime  sunt  notae. 
Nee  cuncti  provinciae  sic  sunt  idiotae, 
Quin  sciant  plus  caeteris  regni    sui 

mores, 
Quos  relinquunt  posteris  hii  qui  sunt 

priores." 


Effigy  of  a  knight  at  Gosperton,  showing 
armour  worn  from  about  1250  to  1300. 
Date,  about  1270 


204 


HENRY  III. 


2651272 


Archbishop  Thomas,  who  had  given  himself  as  a  sacrifice  for 
the  Church,  as  Simon  had  given  himself  as  a  sacrifice  for  the 
nation. 

25.  The  Last  Years  of  Henry  III.  1265-  1272. — The  storm 
which  had  been  raised  was  some  time  in  calming  down.  Some  of 
Earl  Simon's  followers  continued  to  hold  out  against  the  king. 
When  at  last  they  submitted,  they  were  treated  leniently,  and  in 
1267,  at  a  Parliament  at  Marlborough,  a  statute  was  enacted 
embodying  most  of  the  demands  for  the  redress  of  grievances  made 
by  the  earlier  reformers.     The  kingdom  settled  down  in  peace,  be- 


fWM^^^ 


Building  operations  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  with  the  king  giving  directions  to  the 
architect 


cause  Henry  now  allowed  Edward  to  be  the  real  head  of  the  govern- 
ment. Edward,  in  short,  carried  on  Earl  Simon's  work  in  ruling 
justly,  with  the  advantage  of  being  raised  above  jealousies  by  his 
position  as  heir  to  the  throne.  In  1270  England  was  so  peaceful 
that  Edward  could  embark  on  a  crusade.  At  Acre  he  very  nearly 
fell  a  victim  to  a  fanatic  belonging  to  a  body  which  counted  assassi- 
nation a  religious  duty.  His  wife,  Eleanor  of  Castile,  who  was 
tenderly  attached  to  him,  had  to  be  led  out  of  his  tent,  lest  her 
bitter  grief  should  distract  him  during  an  operation  which  the 
surgeons  held  to  be   necessary.     In  1272   Henry  J 1 1,   died,  and 


1273  LAST  DAYS  OF  HENRY  III  205 


East  end  of  Westminster  Abbey  Church  :  begun  by  Henry  III    in  1245. 


206 


HENRY  III. 


1272 


his  son,  though  in  a  distant  land,  was  quietly  accepted  as  his 
successor. 


^ 


Nave  of  Salisbury  Cathedial  Church,  looking  west.     Date,  between  1240  and  1250. 


26.  General  Progress  of  the  Country. — In  spite  of  the  turmoils 
of  Henry's  reign  the  country  made  progress  in  many  ways.  Men 
busied  themselves  with  replacing  the  old  round-arched  churches  by 


I2I6-I272  ARCHITECTURE  AND  LANGUAGE  207 

large  and  more  beautiful  ones,  in  that  Early  English  style  of 
which  Lincoln  Cathedral  was  the  first  example  on  a  large  scale. 
In  1220  it  was  followed  by  Beverley  Minster  (see  p.  189).  The  nave 
of  Salisbury  Cathedral  was  begun  in  1240  (see  p.  206),  and  a  new 
Westminster  Abbey  grew  piecemeal  under  Henry's  own  supervision 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  reign  (see  p.  205).  Mental  activity 
accompanied  material  activity.  At  Oxford  there  were  reckoned  15,000 
scholars.  Most  remarkable  was  the  new  departure  taken  by  Walter 
de  Merton,  Henry's  Chancellor.  Hitherto  each  scholar  had  shifted 
for  himself,  lived  where  he  could,  and  been  subjected  to  little  or  no 
discipline.  In  founding  Merton  College,  the  first  college  which 
existed   in   the  University,  Merton  proposed  not  only  to  erect  a 


A  king  and  labourers  in  tlie  reign  of  Henry  III. 

building  in  which  the  lads  who  studied  might  be  boarded  and 
placed  under  supervision,  but  to  train  them  with  a  view  to  learning 
for  its  own  sake,  and  not  to  prepare  them  for  the  priesthood.  The 
eagerness  to  learn  things  difficult  was  accompanied  by  a  desire  to 
increase  popular  knowledge.  For  the  first  time  since  the  Chronicle 
came  to  an  end,  which  was  soon  after  the  accession  of  Henry  II.,  a 
book — Layamon's  Brut — appeared  in  the  reign  of  John  in  the 
English  language,  and  one  at  least  of  the  songs  which  witness  to 
the  interest  of  the  people  in  the  great  struggle  with  Henry  III. 
was  also  written  in  the  same  language.  Yet  the  great  achievement 
of  the  fifty-six  years  of  Henry's  reign  was — to  use  the  language 
of  the  smith  who  refused  to  put  fetters  on  the  limbs  of  Hubert  de 
Burgh  (see  p.   188)— the  giving  of  England  back  to  the  Enghsh 


2o8  HENRY  III.  1216-1272 

In  1216  it  was  possible  for  Englishmen  to  prefer  a  French-born 
Louis  as  their  king  to  an  Angevin  John.  In  1272  England  was 
indeed  divided  by  class  prejudices  and  conflicting  interests,  but  it 
was  nationally  one.  The  greatest  grievance  suffered  from  Henry 
III.  was  his  preference  of  foreigners  over  his  own  countrymen.  In 
resistance  to  foreigners  Englishmen  had  been  welded  together  into 
a  nation,  and  in  their  new  king  Edward  they  found  a  leader  who 
would  not  only  prove  a  wise  and  thoughtful  ruler,  but  who  was 
every  inch  an  Englishman.  ^ 

Genealogy  of  Johns  Sons  and  Grandsons.  ^*' 

John,  1199-1216 


I  I  I 

Henry  III.  =  Eleanor  of  Richard,  Eleanor  =  Simon  de  Monl- 

1216-1272  I    Provence  Earl  of  Cornwall  fort 

and  King  of  the  Romans 

I 
Edmund,  titular  King  of  Sicily 


^ 
P 


CHAPTER   XIV 

EDWARD    I.    AND    EDWARD    II. 
DWARD   I.,    1272— 1307.      EDWARD   II.,    I307— 1327 


^  ^"^  LEADING   DATES 

Accession  of  Edward  I.      ,..,..        .  1272 

Death  of  Alexander  III 1285 

The  Award  of  Norham 1292 

The  Model  Parliament 1295 

The  First  Conquest  of  Scotland               1296 

Confirmatio  Cartarum 1297 

Completion  of  the  Second  Conquest  of  Scotland         .  1304 

The  Incorporation  of  Scotland  with  England     .        .        .  1305 

The  Third  Conquest  of  Scotland 1306 

Accession  of  Edw^ard  II.    ...                 .        ,        .        .  1307 

Execution  of  Gaveston 1312 

Battle  of  Bannockburn .        .  1314 

Execution  of  Lancaster 1322 

Deposition  of  Edward  II '.        .  1327 

■/\  I.  The  First  Years  of  Edward  I.  1272— 1279.— Edward  I.,  though 
he  inherited  the  crown  in  1272,  did  not  return  to  England  till  1274, 
being  able  to  move  in  a  leisurely  fashion  across  Europe  without  fear 
of  disturbances  at  home.    He  fully  accepted  those  articles  of  John's 


1274 


EDWARD  AS  A    LEGISLATOR 


209 


Great  Charter  which  had  been  set  aside  at  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  III.,  and  which  required  that  the  king  should  only- 
take  scutages  and  aids  with  the  consent  of  the  Great  Council 
or  Parliament.  The  further  requirement  of  the  barons  that  they 
should  name  the  ministers  of  the  crown,  was  allowed  to  fall 
asleep.  Edward  was  a  capable  ruler,  and  knew  how  to  appoint 
better  ministers  than  the  barons  were  likely  to  choose  for  him. 


Great  Seal  of  Edward 


It  was  Edward's  peculiar  merit  that  he  stood  forward  not  only 
as  a  ruler  but  as  a  legislator.  He  succeeded  in  passing  one 
law  after  another,  because  he  thoroughly  understood  that  useful 
legislation  is  only  possible  when  the  legislator  on  the  one  hand 
has  an  intelligent  perception  of  the  remedies  needed  to  meet 
existing  evils,  and  on  the  other  hand  is  willing  to  content  himself 
with  such  remedies  as  those  who  are  to  be  benefited  by  them  are 

P 


Vs 


210  EDWARD  I,  1276- 1284 

ready  to  accept.  The  first  condition  was  fulfilled  by  Edward's  own 
skill  as  a  lawyer,  and  by  the  skill  of  the  great  lawyers  whom  he 
employed.  The  second  condition  was  fulfilled  by  his  determination 
to  authorise  no  new  legislation  without  the  counsel  and  consent  of 
those  who  were  most  affected  by  it.  He  did -not,  indeed,  till  late  in 
his  reign  call  a  whole  Parliament  together,  as  Earl  Simon  had  done: 
But  he  calle  d  the  barons  together  in  any  matter  which  affected  the 
barons,  and  he  called  the  representatives  of  the  townsmen  together 
in  any  matter  which  affected  the  townsmen,  and  so  on  with  the 
other  classes. 

2.  Edward  I.  and  Wales.  1276  —  1284.  —  Outside  England 
Edward's  first  difficulty  was  with  the  Welsh,  who,  though  their 
Princes  had  long  been  regarded  by  the  English  Kings  as  vassals, 
had  practically  maintained  their  independence  in  the  mountainous 
region  of  North  Wales  of  which  Snowdon  is  the  centre.  Between 
them  and  the  English  Lords  Marchers,  who  had  been  established 
to  keep  order  in  the  marches,  or  border-land,  there  was  nothing  but 
hostility.  The  Welshmen  made  forays  and  plundered  the  English 
lands,  and  the  English  retorted  by  slaughtering  Welshmen  whenever 
they  could  come  up  with  them  amongst  the  hills.  Naturally  the 
Welsh  took  the  side  of  any  enemy  of  the  English  kings  with  whom 
it  was  possible  to  ally  themselves.  Llewglyn.  Prince  of  Wales,  had 
joined  Earl  Simon  against  Henry  HI.,  and  had  only  done  homage 
to  Henry  after  Simon  had  been  defeated.  After  Henry's  death  he 
refused  homage  to  Edward  till  1276.  In  1282  he  and  his  brother 
David  renewed. the  war,  and  Edward,  determined  to  put  an  end  to 
the  independence  of  such  troublesome  neighbours,  marched  against 
them.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  Llewelyn  was  slain,  and  David 
was  captured  in  1283,  and  executed  in  1284.  Wales  then  came 
fully  under  the  dominion  of  the  English  kings.  Edward's  second 
son,  afterwards  King  Edward  H.,  was  born  at  Carnarvon  in  1284, 
and  soon  afterwards,  having  become  heir  to  the  crown,  upon  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  was  presented  to  the  Welsh  as  Prince  of 
Wales,  a  title  from  that  day  usually  bestowed  upon  the  king's  eldest 
son.  At  the  same  time,  though  Edward  built  strong  castles  at 
Conway  and  Carnarvon  to  hold  the  Welsh  in  awe,  he  made  submis- 
sion easier  by  enacting  suitable  laws  for  them,  under  the  name  of 
the  Statute  of  Wales,  and  by  establishing  a  separate  body  of  local 
officials  to  govern  them,  as  well  as  by  confirming  them  in  the 
possession  of  their  lands  and  goods. 

3.  Customs  Duties.    1275. — Though  Edward  I.  wasbynomeans 
extravagant,  he  found  it  impossible  to  meet  the  expenses  of  govern- 


275 


THE  ENGLISH   WOOL    TRADE 


ment  witliout  an  increase  of  taxation.  In  1275  he  obtained  the 
consent  o "  Parliament  to  the  increase  of  the  duties  on  exports  and 
imports  vhich  had  hitherto  been  levied  without  Parliamentary 
sanction.  He  was  now  to  receive  by  a  Parliamentary  grant  a  fixed 
export  du  :y  of  65'.  M.  on  every  sack  of  wool  sent  out  of  the  country, 
and  of  a  corresponding  duty  on  wool-fells  and  leather.  Under 
ordinary  ( ircumstances  it  is  useless  for  any  government  to  attempt 
to  gain  a  revenue  by  export  duty,  because  such  a  duty  only  raises 
the  price  ;  broad  of  the  products  of  its  own  country,  and  foreigners 
will  therel  )re  prefer 
to  buy  thg  articles 
which  tlisy  need 
from  som(  country 
which  doe!  not  levy 
export  du  :ies,  and 
where,  thei  efore,  the 
articles  a  e  to  be 
had  more  cheaply. 
England,  however, 
was,  in  Edward's 
time,  and  for  many 
years  after  vards,  an 
exception  t )  the  rule. 
On  the  <  ;!ontinent 
men  could  not  pro- 
duce mucl  wool  or 
leather  for  sale,  be- 
cause prii  ate  wars 
were  cons  antly  oc- 
curring, land  the 
fighting  rrjen  were  in 
the  habit 
off  the  sh 
cattle.  I 
there  we 
and  cattl 
manufac 


Group  of  armed  knights,  and  a  king  in  ordinary  dress. 
Date,  temp.  Edward  I. 


f  driving 

p  and  the 

England 

no  private  wars,  and  under  the  king's  protection  sheep 
could  be  bred  in  safety.  There  were  now  growing  up 
res  of  cloth  in  the  fortified  towns  of  Flanders,  and  the 
manufadfurers  there  were  obliged  to  come  to  England  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  wool  which  they  used.  They  could  not  help 
paying  not  only  the  price  of  the  wool,  but  the  king's  export  duty  as 
well,  because  if  they  refused  they  could  not  get  sufficient  wool  in 
any  other  country. 


^J-" 


212  EDWARD   I.  1 279- 1 290 

4.  Edward's  Judicial  Reforms.  1274 — 1290. — Every  king  of 
England  since  the  Norman  Conquest  had  exercised  authority  in 
a  twofold  capacity.  On  one  hand  he  was  the  head  of  the  nation, 
on  the  other  hand  he  was  the  feudal  lord  of  his  vassals.  Edward  laid 
more  stn^s  than  any  former  king  upon  his  national  headship. 
Early  in  h\  reign  he  organised  the  courts  of  law,  completing  the 
division  of  tfte  Curia  Regis  into  the  three  courts  which  existed  till 
recent  times  \the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  to  deal  with  criminal 
offences  reserve^^for  the  king's  judgment,  and  with  suits  in  which 
he  was  himself  concerned  ;  the  Court  of  Exchequer,  to  deal  with  all 
matters  touching  tke  king's  revenue  ;  and  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  to  deal  with  suks  between  subject  and  subject.  Edward  took 
care  that  the  justice  administered  in  these  courts  should  as  far  as 
possible  be  real  justice,  and  in  1289  he  dismissed  two  Chief  Justices 
and  many  other  officials  ^  corruption.  In  1285  he  improved  the 
Assize  of  Arms  of  Henry  l\  (see  p.  154),  so  as  to  be  more  sure  of 
securing  a  national  support  fot,  his  government  in  timt  of  danger. 

5.  Edward's  Legislation.  1279 — 1290. — It  was  in  accordance 
with  the  national  feeling  that  Sdward,  in  1290,  banished  from 
England  the  Jews,  whose  presence  was  most  profitable  to  him- 
self, but  who  were  regarded  as  cr^el  tyrants  by  their  debtors. 
On  the  other  hand,  Edward  took  calie  to  assert  his  rights  as  a 
feudal  lord.  In  1279,  by  the  statuteVZ^.?  religiosis,  commonly 
known  as  the  Statute  of  Mortmain,  he  ijorbade  the  gift  of  land 
to  the  clergy,  because  in  their  hands  landVas  no  longer  liable  to 
the  feudal  dues.  In  1290,  by  another  statute.  Quia  onptores^  he 
forbade  all  new  sub-infeudation.  If  from  henceforth  a  vassal  wished 
to  part  with  his  land,  the  new  tenant  was  to  hoM  it,  not  under  the 
vassal  who  gave  it  up,  but  under  that  vassal's  JWd,  whether  the 
lord  was  the  king  or  anyone  else.  The  object  ofVhis  law  was  to 
increase  the  number  of  tenants-in-chief,  and  thus  toXbring  a  larger 
number  of  land-owners  into  direct  relations  with  the  king. 

6.  Edward  as  a  National  and  as  a  Feudal  Ruler. — In  his  govern- 
ment of  England  Edward  had  sought  chiefly  to  strengthen  his 
position  as  the  national  king  of  the  whole  people,  and  to  depress 
legally  and  without  violence  the  power  of  the  feudal  nobility.  He 
was,  however,  ambitious,  with  the  ambition  of  a  man  conscious  of 
great  and  beneficent  aims,  and  he  was  quite  ready  to  enforce  even 
unduly  his  personal  claims  to  feudal  obedience  whenever  it  served 
his  purpose  to  do  so.  His  favourite  motto,  '  Keep  troth  '  {Pactum 
serva),  revealed  his  sense  of  the  inviolability  of  a  personal  engage- 
ment given  or  received,  but  his   legal  mind   often  led  him  into 


1276-1290        NATIONALITY   AND   FEUDALITY' 


213 


construing  in  his  own  favour  engagements  in  which  only  the  letter 
of  the  law  was  on  his  side,  whilst  its  spirit  was  against  him.  It 
was  chiefly  in  his  relations  with  foreign  peoples  that  he  fell  into 


Nave  of  Lichfield  Cathedral,  looking  east.     Built  about  1280. 


DC 


214  EDWARD  I.  1285-1290 

this  error,  as  it  was  here  that  he  was  most  strongly  tempted  to  lay 
stress  upon  the  feudal  tie  which  made  for  him,  and  to  ignore 
the  importance  of  a  national  resistance  which  made  against  him. 
In  dealing  with  Wales,  for  instance,  he  sent  David  to  a  cruel  death, 
because  he  had  broken  the  feudal  tie  which  bound  him  to  the  king 
of  England,  feeling  no  sympathy  with  him  as  standing  up  for  the 
independence  of  his  own  people. 

7.  The  Scottish  Succession.  1285— 1290. — In  the  earlier  part 
of  Edward's  reign  Alexander  III.  was  king  of  Scotland.  Alex- 
ander's ancestors,  indeed,  had  done  homage  to  Edward's  ancestors, 
but  in  1 189  William  the  Lion  had  purchased  from  Richard  I.  the 
abandonment  of  all  the  claim  to  homage  for  the  crown  of  Scotland 
which  Henry  II.  had  acquired  by  the  treaty  of  Falaise  (see  pp. 
154,  159).  William's  successors,  however,  held  lands  in  England, 
and  had  done  homage  for  them  to  the  English  kings.  Edward 
would  gladly  have  restored  the  old  practice  of  homage  for  Scotland 
itself,  but  to  this  Alexander  had  never  given  way.  To  Edward 
there  was  something  alluring  in  the  prospect  of  being  lord  of  the 
whole  island,  as  it  would  not  only  strengthen  his  own  personal  posi- 
tion, but  would  bring  two  nations  into  peaceful  union.  Between  the 
southern  part  of  Scotland,  indeed,  and  the  northern  part  of  England 
there  was  no  great  dissimilarity.  On  both  sides  of  the  border  the 
bulk  of  the  population  was  of  the  same  Anglian  stock,  whilst,  in 
consequence  of  the  welcome  offered  by  the  Scottish  kings  to 
persons  of  Norman  descent,  the  nobility  was  as  completely  Norman 
in  Scotland  as  it  was  in  England,  many  of  the  nobles  indeed 
possessing  lands  on  both  sides  of  the  border.  A  prospect  of 
effecting  a  union  by  peaceful  means  offered  itself  to  Edward 
in  1285,  when  Alexander  III.  w^as  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse 
near  Kinghorn.  Alexander's  only  descendant  was  Margaret,  a 
child  of  his  daughter  and  of  King  Eric  of  Norway.  In  1290  it 
was  agreed  that  she  should  marry  the  Prince  of  Wales,  but  that  the 
two  kingdoms  should  remain  absolutely  independent  of  one  another. 
Unfortunately,  the  Maid  of  Norway,  as  the  child  was  called,  died 
on  her  way  to  Scotland,  and  this  plan  for  establishing  friendly 
relations  between  the  two  countries  came  to  naught.  If  it  had 
succeeded  three  centuries  of  war  and  misery  might  possibly  have 
been  avoided. 

8.  Death  of  Eleanor  of  Castile.  1290.  —Another  death,  which 
happened  in  the  same  year,  brought  sorrow  into  Edward's 
domestic  life.  His  wife  Eleanor  died  in  November.  The  corpse 
was  brought   for  burial  from    Lincoln    to  Westminster,  and  the 


[29t 


J  biSPVTED  ckoWN 


2tS 


K 


bereaved  husband  ordered  the 
erection  of  a  memorial  cross  at 
each  place  where  the  body 
rested. 

9.  The  Award  of  Ndrhani. 
1291 — 12^, — Edward,  sorrow- 
ing as  1^  was,  was  unable  to 
neglect  'the  affairs  of  State. 
On  the  death  of  the  Maid  of 
Norway  there  was  a  large  num- 
ber of  claimants  to  the  Scottish 
crown.  The  hereditary  prin- 
ciple, which  had  long  before 
been  adopted  in  regard  to  the 
successiori  to  landed  property, 
was  gradually  being  adopted 
in  most  kiiigdoms  in  regard  to 
the  succesi^ion  to  the  crown 
There  weie  still,  however, 
differences  I  of  opinion  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  heredi- 
tary succession  ought  to  be 
reckoned,  arid  there  were  now 
many  claimants,  of  whom  at 
least  three  could  make  out  a 
plausible  case.  David,  Earl  of 
Huntingdon,  a  brother  of  Wil- 
liam the  Lion,  had  left  three 
daughters.  The  grandson  of 
the  eldest  daughter  was  John 
Balliol  ;  the  son  of  the  second 
was  Robert  Bruce  ;  the  grand- 
son of  the  third  was  John  Hast- 
ings. Balliol  maintained  that 
he  ought  to  succeed  as  being 
descended  from  the  eldest : 
Bruce  urged  that  the  son  of  a 
younger  daughter  was  nearer 
to  the  common  ancestor,  David, 
than  the  grandson  of  the  elder : 
whilst  Hastings  asked  that 
Scotland    should    be    divided 


Effigy  of  Eleanor  of  Castile,  queen  of 
Edward  I.,  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


216 


EDWARD   L 


1291-1293 


U 


into  three  parts— according  to  a  custom  which  prevailed  in  feudal 
estates  in  which  the  holder  left  only  daughters— amongst  the  repre- 
sentatives of  David's  three  daughters.'  Every  one  of  these  three 
claimaints  was  an  English  baron,  and  Bruce  held  large  estates  in 
both  countries.  The  only  escape  from  a  desolating  civil  war  seemed 
to  be  to  appeal  to  Edward's  arbitration,  and  in  1291  Edward  sum- 
moned the  Scots  to  meet  him  at  Norham.  He  then  demanded  as 
the  price  of  his  arbitration  the  acknowledgment  of  his  position  as 
lord  paramount  of  Scotland,  in  virtue  of  which  the  Scottish  king, 
when  he  had  once  been  chosen,  was  to  do  homage  to  himself  as  king 
of  England.  Edward,  who  might  fairly  have  held  that,  in  spite 
of  the  abandonment  of  the  treaty  of  Falaise  by  Richard,  he  had  a 
right  to  the  old  vague  overlordship  of  earlier  kings,  appears  to  have 
thought  it  right  to  take  the  opportunity  of  Scotland's  weakness  to 
renew  the  stricter  relationship  of  homage  which  had  been  given  up 
by  Richard.  At  all  events,  the  Scottish  nobles  and  clergy  accepted 
his  demand,  though  the  commonalty  made  some  objection,  the 
nature  of  which  has  not  been  recorded.  Edward  then  investigated 
carefully  the  points  at  issue,  and  in  1292  decided  in  favour  of 
Balliol.  If  he  had  been  actuated  by  selfish  motives  he  would 
certainly  have  adopted  the  suggestion  of  Hastings  that  Scotland 
ought  to  be  divided  into  three  kingdoms. 

10.  Disputes  with  Scotland  and  France.  1293 — 1295. — The  new 
king  of  Scotland  did  homage  to  Edward  for  his  whole  kingdom.  If 
Edward  could  have  contented  himself  with  enforcing  the  ordinary 
obligations  of  feudal  superiority  all  might  have  gone  well.  Unfor- 
tunately for  all  parties,  he  attempted  to  stretch  them  by  insisting  in 
1293  that  appeals  from  the  courts  of  the  king  of  Scotland  should  lie 


Genealogy  of  the  claimants  of  the  Scottish  throne  :- 


Malcolm  IV. 
1153-116S 


William 

THE  I.ION 

1165-1214 

I 

Alexander  II. 

1214  1249 

Alexander  hi. 
1249-1285 

I 

Margaret 

tn.  Eric,  king 

of  Norway 

Margaret, 

The  Maid  of 

Norway 


David  I. 
1124  1153 

Henry 


Margaret 

m.  Alan,  Lord 

of  Galloway 

I 

Devorguilla 

m.  John  Balliol 


David,  Earl  of  Huntingdon 


Margaret 
m.  John,  the 
Black  Coinyn 

John,  the  Red 
Comyn 


JOHN  Balliol 

1292  1296 

I 

Edward  Balliol 


Isabella 
nt.  Robert  Bruce 


7n.  Henry 
Hastings 


Robert  Bruce 
the  Claimant 


Henry 

Hastings 

I 

Henry 
Hastings 

I  John 

Robert  Bruce  Hastings, 

1306  1329  the 

Claimant 


Robert  Bruce 


1291-1294 


/IN  ELEANOR   CROSS 


217 


Cross  erected  near  Northampton  by  Edward  I.  in  memory  of  Queen  Eleanor  ; 
built  between  1291  and  1294. 


2T8  ilDiVARb  /.  1^93-1295 

to  the  courts  of  the  king  of  England.  Suitors  found  that  their  rights 
could  not  be  ascertained  till  they  had  undertaken  a  long  and  costly 
journey  to  Westminster.  A  national  feeling  of  resistance  "was 
roused  amongst  the  Scots,  and  though  Edward  pressed  his  claims 
courteously,  he  continued  to  press  them.  A  temper  grew  up  in 
Scotland  which  might  be  dangerous  to  him  if  Scotland  could  find 
an  ally,  and  an  ally  was  not  long  in  presenting  himself.  Philip  IV. 
now  king  of  France,  was  as  wily  and  unscrupulous  as  Philip  II. 
had  been  in  the  days  of  John.  Edward  was  his  vassal  in  Guienne 
and  Gascony,  and  Philip  knew  how  to  turn  the  feudal  relation- 
ship to  account  in  France  as  well  as  Edward  knew  how  to  turn  it 
to  account  in  Scotland.  The  Cinque  Ports'  along  the  south-eastern 
shore  of  England  swarmed  with  hardy  and  practised  mariners, 
and  there  had  often  been  sea-fights  between  French  and  English 
sailors  quite  independently  of  the  two  kings.  In  1293  there 
was  a  great  battle  in  which  the  French  were  worsted.  Though 
Edward  was  ready  to  punish  the  offenders,  Philip  summoned  him 
to  appear  as  a  vassal  before  his  lord's  court  at  Paris.  In  1294, 
hov/ever,  an  agreement  was  made  between  the  two  kings. 
Edward  was  for  mere  form's  sake  to  surrender  his  French  fortresses 
to  Philip  in  token  of  submission,  and  Philip  was  then  to  return 
them.  Philip,  having  thus  got  the  fortresses  into  his  hands,  refused 
to  return  them.  In  1295  a  league  was  made  between  France  and 
Scotland,  which  lasted  for  more  than  three  hundred  years.  Its 
permanence  was  ov/ing  to  the  fact  that  it  was  a  league  between 
nations  n\Qre  than  a  league  between  kings. 

II.  The  JVki4el  Parliament.  1295. — Edward,  attacked  on  two 
sides,  threw  himseli^i^ support  on  the  English  nation.  Towards 
the  end  of  1295  he  sumrn^^^  a  Parliament  which  was  in  most  respects 
the  model  for  all  succeedingT^liaments.  It  was  attended  not  only 
by  bishops,  abbots,  earls,  and  bahons,  by  two  knights  from  every 
shire,  and  two  burgesses  from  every  berough,  but  also  by  representa- 
tives of  the  chapters  of  cathedrals  and  oRke  parochial  clergy.  It  can- 
not be  said  with  any  approach  to  certainty/Vhether  the  Parliament 
thus  collected  met  in  one  House  or  not.  As,  fKjwever,  the  barons 
and  knights  offered  an  eleventh  of  the  value  of  thei^-movable  goods, 
the  clergy  a  tenth,  and  the  burgesses  a  seventh,  it  is  "not  unlikely 
that  there  was  a  separation  into  what  in  modern  times  would  be 
called  three  Houses,  at  least  for  purposes  of  taxation.   At  all  events, 

^  Sandwich,  Dover,  Hythe,  Romney,  Hastings ;  to  which  were  added 
Winchelsea  and  Rye  as  'ancient  towns,'  besides  several  'limbs'  or  depen- 
dencies. 


[296 


JOHN  BALLIOL  DEPOSED 


2ig 


^ 


the  representatives  of  the  clergy 
subsequently  refused  to  sit  in 
Parliament,  preferring  to  vote 
money  to  the  Crown  in  their  own 
.convocations. 

12.  The  first  Conquest  of 
Scotland.  1296. — In  1296  Ed- 
ward turned  first  upon  Scotland, 
After  he  crossed  the  border 
Balliol  sent  to  him  renouncing 
his  homage.  "  Has  the  felon 
fool  done  such  folly  ?  "  said  Ed- 
ward. "  If  he  will  not  come  to 
us,  we  will  go  to  him."  He  won 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  Scots 
at  Dunbar.  Balliol  surrendered 
his  crown,  and  was  carried  off, 
never  to  reappear  in  Scotland. 
Edward  set  up  no  more  vassal 
kings.  He  declared  himself  to 
be  the  immediate  king  of  Scot- 
land, Balliol  having  forfeited  the 
crown  by  treason.  The  Scottish 
nobles  did  homage  to  him.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  left 
behind  him  the  Earl  of  Surrey 
and  Sir  Hugh  Cressingham  as 
guardians  of  the  kingdom,  and 
he  carried  off  from  Scone  the 
stone  of  destinv  on  which  the 
Scottish  kings  had  been  crowned, 
and  concerning  which  there  had 
been  an  old  prophecy  to  the 
effect  that  wherever  that  stone 
was  Scottish  kings  should  rule. 
The  stone  was  placed,  where  it 
still  remains,  under  the  coro^ 
nation-chair  of  the  English 
kings  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  there  were  those  long  after- 
wards who  deemed  the  prophecy 
fulfilled  when  the  Scottish  King 


Sir  John  d'Abernoun,  died  1277  :  from  his 
brass  at  Stoke  Dabernon  :  showing 
armour  worn  from  about  1250  to  1300. 


220  EDWARD  AND    THE   CLERGY  1296-1297 

James  VI.  came  to  take  his  seat  on  that  chair  as  James  I.  of 
England. 

13.  The   Resistance  of  Archbishop  Winchelsey.     1296— 1297. 

— The  aispute  with  France  and  the  conquest  of  Scotland  cost  much 
money,  anid  Edward,  finding  his  ordinary  revenue  insufficient,  had 
been  driven\to  increase  it  by  unusual  means.  He  gathered  as- 
semblies of  tnH.merchants,  and  persuaded  them  without  the  leave 
of  Parliament  tosmcrease  the  export  duties,  and  he  also  induced  the 
clergy  in  the  sameN^ay  to  grant  him  large  sums.  The  clergy  were 
the  first  to  resist.  Iirx296  Boniface  VIII.,  a  Pope  who  pushed  to  the 
extreme  the  Papal  claims  to  the  independence  of  the  Church,  issued 
the  Bull,  Clericis  laicos^\s\  which  he  declared  that  the  clergy  were 
not  to  pay  taxes  without\he  Pope's  consent ;  and  when  at  the 
end  of  the  year  Edward  calleakypn  his  Parliament  to  grant  him  fresh 
sums,  Winchelsey,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  refused,  on  the 
ground  of  this  Bull,  to  allow  a  petany  to  be  levied  from  the  clergy. 
Edward,  instead  of  arguing  with  hiiV  directed  the  chief  justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  to  announce  that,  as  rS£  cjergy  would  pay  no  taxes, 
they  would  no  longer  be  protected  b^he  kmg.  The  clergy  now 
found  themselves  in  evil  case.  Anyone  \^ho  pleased  could  rob  them 
or  beat  them,  and  no  lediess  was  to  be  h^^.  They  soon  therefore 
evaded  their  obligation  to  obey  the  Bull,  ana(j)aid  their  taxes,  under 
the  pretence  that  they  were  making  presents  t»  the  king,  on  which 
Edward  again  opened  his  courts  to  them.  In  tHp  days  of  Henry  I. 
or  Henry  II.  it  would  not  have  been  possible  to  C^eat  the  clergy  in 
this  fashion.    The  fact  was,  that  the  mass  of  the  people  now  looked 

fQ/  to  the  king  instead  of  to  the  Church  for  protection,  and  therefore 
respected  the  clergy  less  than  they  had  done  in  earlier  days. 
14.  The  *  Confirmatio  Cartarum.'  1297. — In  1297  Edward,  having 
subdued  the  Scots  in  the  preceding  year,  resolved  to  conduct 
one  army  to  Flanders,  and  to  send  another  to  Gascony  to  maintain 
^  his  rights  against  Philip  IV.  He  therefore  called  on  his  barons  to 
take  part  in  these  enterprises.  Amongst  those  ordered  to  go  to, 
Gascony  were  Roger  Bigod,  Earl  of  Norfolk,  and  Humfrey  Bohun, 
Earl  of  Hereford.  They  declared  that  they  were  only  bound  to 
follow  the  king  himself,  and  that  as  Edward  was  not  going  in  person 
to  Gascony  they  would  not  go.  "  By  God,  Sir  Earl,"  said  the  king 
to,  one  of  them,  "  you  shall  either  go  or  hang."  "  By  God,"  was 
the  reply,  "  I  will  neither  go  nor  hang."  The  two  earls  soon  found 
support.  The  barons  were  sore  because  Edward's  reforms  had 
diminished  their  authority.  The  clergy  were  sore  because  of  their 
recent  treatment.     The  merchants  were  sore  because  of  the  exac- 


t- 


-f 


1 297- 1 298  WILLIAM   WALLACE  221 

tions  to  which  they  had  been  subjected.  Archbishop  Winchelsey 
bound  the  malcontents  together  by  asking  Edward  to  confirm 
Magna  Carta  and  other  charters  granted  by  his  predecessors,  and 
by  adding  other  articles  now  proposed  for  the  first  time,  so  as  to 
preclude  him  from  demanding  taxes  not  granted  by  Parliament. 
Edward  found  that  the  new  articles  restricted  his  action  more  than 
it  had  been  restricted  by  the  older  charters.  He  was  deeply  vexed, 
as  he  thought  that  he  deserved  to  be  trusted,  and  that,  though  he 
had  exacted  illegal  payments,  he  had  only  done  so  out  of  necessity. 
He  saw,  however,  that  he  must  yield,  but  he  could  not  bring  himself 
to  yield  in  person,  and  he  therefore  crossed  the  sea  to  Flanders, 
leaving  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  make  the  required  concession.  On 
October  10,  1297,  the  Confirmatio  Cartarujn,  as  it  was  called,  was 
issued  in  the  king's  name.  It  differed  from  Magna  Carta  in  this, 
that  whereas  John  had  only  engaged  not  to  exact  feudal  revenue 
from  his  vassals  without  consent  of  Parliament,  Edward  I.  also 
engaged  not  to  exact  customs  duties  without  a  Parliamentary 
grant.  From  that  time  no  general  revenue  could  be  taken  from 
the  whole  realm  without  a  breach  of  the  law,  though  the  king  still 
continued  for  some  time  to  raise  tallages,  or  special  payments,  from 
the  tenants  of  his  own  demesne  lands. 

5.  Wallace's  Rising.  1297— 1304. — Whilst  Edward  was  con- 
tending with  his  own  people  his  officers  had  been  oppressing 
the  Scots.  They  had  treated  Scotland  as  a  conquered  land, 
not  as  a  country  joined  to  England  by  equal  union.  Resistance 
began  in  1297,  and  a  rising  was  headed  by  Wallace,  a  gentle- 
man of  moderate  fortune  in  the  western  lowlands.  Wallace's 
bold  and  vig9rous  attacks  gained  him  the  confidence  of  the  lesser 
gentry  and  the  people,  though  the  nobles,  mostly  of  Norman 
descent,  supported  the  English  government,  and  only  joined  Wal- 
lace when  it  was  dangerous  to  stand  aloof  In  the  autumn,  an 
English  army  advancing  into  Scotland  reached  the  south  bank 
of  the  Forth  near  Stirling.  Wallace,  who  showed  on  that  day  that 
he  was  skilful  as  well  as  brave,  drew  up  his  army  on  the  north  bank 
at  some  little  distance  from  the  narrow  bridge  over  which  the  English 
must  come  if  they  were  to  attack  him.  When  half  of  them  had 
crossed,  he  fell  upon  that  half  before  the  troops  in  the  rear  could 
advance  to  its  succour.  Wallace's  victory  was  complete,  and  he 
then  invaded  England,  ravaging  and  slaughtering  as  far  as  H  exham. 
16.  The  Second  Conquest  of  Scotland.  1298 — 1304. — In  1298 
Edward,  who  had  been  unsuccessful  on  the  Continent,  made  a  truce 
with  Philip.     Returning  to  England,  he  marched  against  Wallace, 


t^ 


222  EDWARD   I.  1 298-1 305 

and  came  up  with  him  at  Falkirk.  The  battle  which  ensued, 
like  William's  victory  at  Senlac  (see  p.  96),  was  a  triumph  of  inven- 
tive military  skill  over  valour  content  to  rest  upon  ancient  methods. 
The  Scots  were  hardy  footmen,  drawn  up  in  three  rings,  and  pro- 
vided with  long  spears.  Against  such  a  force  so  armed  the  cavalry 
of  the  feudal  array  would  dash  itself  in  vain.  Edward,  however, 
had  marked  in  his  Welsh  wars  the  superiority  of  the  long-bow 
drawn  to  the  ear — not,  as  in  the  case  of  the  shorter  bows  of  older 
times,  to  the  breast  of  the  archer — and  sending  its  cloth-yard  shaft 
with  a  strength  and  swiftness  hitherto  unknown.  He  now  brought 
with  him  a  large  force  of  bowmen  equipped  in  this  fashion.  At 
Falkirk  the  long-bow  was  tried  for  the  first  time  in  any  considerable 
battle.  The  efifect  was  overwhelming  :  a  shower  of  arrows  poured 
upon  a  single  point  in  the  ring  of  the  spearmen  soon  cleared  a  gap. 
Edward's  cavalry  dashed  in  before  the  enemy  had  time  to  close, 
and  the  victory  was  won.  Wallace  had  had  scarcely  one  of  the 
Scottish  nobles  with  him  either  at  Stirling  or  at  Falkirk,  and  unless 
all  Scotland  combined  he  could  hardly  be  expected  to  succeed  against 
such  a  warrior  as  Edward.  Wallace's  merit  was  that  he  did  not 
despair  of  his  country,  and  that  by  his  patriotic  vigour  he  prepared 
the  minds  of  Scotsmen  for  a  happier  day.  He  himself  fled  to  France, 
but  Scotland  struggled  on  without  him.  Some  of  the  nobles,  now 
that  Wallace  was  no  longer  present  to  give  them  cause  of  jealousy, 
took  part  in  the  resistance,  and  only  in  1304  did  Edward  after 
repeated  campaigns  complete  his  second  conquest  of  the  country. 

17.  The  Incorporation  of  Scotland  with  England.  1305. — In 
1305  Wallace,  who  had  returned  from  France,  but  had  taken  no 
great  part  in  the  late  resistance,  was  betrayed  to  the  English.  His 
barbarity  in  his  raid  on  Northumberland  "in  1297  (see  p.  221)  had 
marked  him  out  for  vengeance,  and  he  was  executed  at  Tyburn 
as  a  traitor  to  the  English  king  of  Scotland,  whose  right  he  had 
never  acknowledged.  Edward  then  proceeded  to  incorporate  Scot- 
land with  England.  Scotland  was  to  be  treated  very  much  as 
Wales  had  been  treated  before.  There  was  to  be  as  little  harsh- 
ness as  possible.  Nobles  who  had  resisted  Edward  were  to  keep 
their  estates  on  payment  of  fines,  the  Scottish  law  was  to  be 
observed,  and  Scots  were  to  be  chosen  to  represent  the  wishes  of 
their  fellow-countrymen  in  the  Parhament  at  Westminster.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Scottish  nobles  were  to  surrender  their  castles,  and 
the  country  was  to  be  governed  by  an  English  Lieutenant,  who, 
together  with  his  council,  had  power  to  amend  the  laws. 

18.  Character  of  Edward's  Dealings  with  Scotland.^^^^^ldbttuid's 


1305-1306  EDWARD  I.   AND   SCOTLAND.  223 

dealings  with  Scotland,  mistaken  as  they  were,  were  not  those 
of  a  self-willed  tyrant.  If  it  be  once  admitted  that  he  was  really 
the  lord  paramount  of  Scotland,  everything  that  he  did  may  be 
justifieX^upon  feudal  principles.  First,  Balliol  forfeited  his  vassal 
crown  bySiH-eaking  his  obligations  as  a  vassal.  Secondly,  Edward, 
through  theNiefault  of  his  vassal,  took  possession  of  the  fief  which 
Balliol  hadfortaed,  and  thus  became  the  immediate  lord  of  Balliol's 
vassals.  Thirdly^hose  vassals  rebelled — so  at  least  Edward  would 
have  said — against  iKpir  new  lord.  Fourthly,  they  thereby  forfeited 
their  estates  to  him,  a^d  he  was  therefore,  according  to  his  own 
view,  in  the  right  in  restoi^ng  their  estates  to  them— if  he  restored 
them  at  all — under  new  conditions.  Satisfactory  as  this  argument 
must  have  seemed  to  EdwarHw  it  was  weak  in  two  places.  The 
Scots  might  attack  it  at  its  basK  by  retorting  that  Edward  had 
never  truly  been  lord  paramount  oPS^cotland  at  all  ;  or  they  might 
assert  that  it  did  not  matter  whether  Hfe  was  so  or  not,  because  the 
Scottish  right  to  national  independence\as  superior  to  all  feudal 
claims.  It  is  this  latter  argument  which  hals^he  most  weight  at  the 
present  day,  and  it  seems  to  us  strange  that  Edward,  who  had 
done  so  much  to  encourage  the  national  growtlrof  England,  should 
have  entirely  ignored  the  national  growth  of  Scotlai^.  All  that  can 
be  said  to  palliate  Edward's  mistake  is  that  it  was,  at  first,  difficult 
to  perceive  that  there  was  a  Scottish  nationality  at  all\Changes  in 
the  political  aspect  of  affairs  grow  up  unobserved,  and  it\as  not  till 
after  his  death  that  all  classes  in  Scotland  were  completel^velded 
together  in  resistance  to  an  English  king.  At  all  events,  if  he  related 
the  claim  of  the  Scots  to  national  independence  with  contempt,  he 
at  least  strove,  according  to  his  own  notions,  to  benefit  Scots  and 
English  alike.  He  hoped  that  one  nation,  justly  ruled  under  one 
government,  would  grow  up  in  the  place  of  two  divided  peoples. 

19.  Robert  Bruce.  1306. — It  was  better  even  for  England  that 
Edward's  hopes  should  fail.  Scotland  would  have  been  of  little 
worth  to  its  more  powerful  neighbour  if  it  had  been  cowed  into 
subjection  ;  whereas  when,  after  struggling  and  suffering  for  her 
independence,  she  offered  herself  freely  as  the  companion  and  ally 
of  England  to  share  in  common  duties  and  common  efforts,  the 
gift  was  priceless.  That  Scotland  was  able  to  shake  off  the 
English  yoke  was  mainly  the  work  of  Robert  Bruce,  the  grandson 
of  the  Robert  Bruce  who  had  been  one  of  the  claimants  of  the 
Scottish  crown  at  Norham.  The  Bruces,  like  Balliol,  were  of 
Norman  descent,  and  as  Balliol's  rivals  they  had  attached  them- 
selves to  Edward,     The  time  was  now  come  when  all  chances  of 


T 


^ 


224  EDWARD  I.  1 306- 1 307 

Balliol's  restoration  were  at  an  end,  and  thoughts  of  gaining  the 
crown  stirred  in  the  mind  of  the  younger  Bruce.  After  Edward's 
last  settlement  of  Scotland  it  was  plain  that  there  was  no  longer 
room  for  a  Scottish  vassal  king,  and  Bruce  was  therefore  driven  to 
connect  his  own  aspirations  with  those  of  the  Scottish  nation.  He 
had,  however,  one  powerful  rival  amongst  the  nobles.  John  Comyn 
— the  Red  Comyn,  as  he  was  called — had  been  one  of  the  many 
claimants  of  the  throne  who  appeared  before  Edward  at  Norham, 
and  he  still  looked  with  a  jealous  eye  upon  all  who  disputed  his 
title.  He  was,  however,  persuaded  in  1306  to  meet  Bruce  in  the 
Grey  Friars  Church  at  Dumfries.  As  Bruce  pleaded  his  own  right 
to  the  crown,  Comyn  denounced  him  as  a  traitor  to  Edward.  Bruce 
answered  by  driving  his  dagger  into  him.  "  I  doubt,"  cried  Bruce, 
as  he  rushed  from  the  church,  "  that  I  have  slain  the  Red  Comyn." 
"  I  will  mak  sicker  "  {make  sure),  said  Kirkpatrick,  who  was  in  atten- 
dance upon  him,  and,  going  in,  completed  the  murder.  Bruce  made 
for  Scone  and  was  crowned  king  of  Scotland  in  the  presence  of  many 
of  the  chief  nobility. 

20.  Edward's  Third  Conquest  of  Scotland  and  Death.  1306 — 
1307. — Edward,  to  whom  Bruce  was  but  a  rebel  and  a  murderer, 
followed  hard  on  his  heels,  and  routed  his  forces  at  Methven. 
Scotland  was  for  a  third  time  conquered,  and  Bruce's  supporters 
were  carried  off  to  English  prisons,  and  their  lands  divided  amongst 
English  noblemen.  The  Countess  of  Bucnan,  who  had  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  Bruce's  coronation,  was  piaced  in  an  iron  cage, 
which  was  hung  high  up  on  the  outer  wall  of  the  castle  of  Berwick. 
Bruce  almost  alone  escaped.  He  knew  now  that  he  had  the  greater 
part  of  the  nobility  as  well  as  the  people  at  his  side,  and  even  in 
his  lonely  wanderings  and  hairbreadth  escapes  he  was,  what  neither 
Balliol  nor  Wallace  had  been,  the  true  head  of  the  Scottish  nation. 
Before  the  end  of  1306  he  reappeared  in  Carrick,  where  his  own 
possessions  lay,  and  where  the  whole  population  was  on  his  side. 
He  inflicted  heavy  losses  on  the  English  garrisons,  and  in  1307 
Edward  once  more  set  out  for  Scotland  ;  but  he  was  now  old 
and  worn  out,  and  he  died  at  Burgh  on  Sands,  a  few  miles  on  the 
English  side  of  the  border. 

21.  Edward  II.  and  Piers  Gaveston.  1307 — 1312. — The  new 
king,  Edward  II.,  was  as  different  as  possible  from  his  father.  He 
was  not  wicked,  like  William  II.  and  John,  but  he  detested  the 
trouble  of  public  business,  and  thought  that  the  only  advantage  of 
being  a  king  was  that  he  would  have  leisure  to  amuse  himself. 
During  his  father's  hfe  he  devoted  himself  to  Piers  (^av^gtOB,  a 


I307-I3IO 


PIERS  GAVESTON 


225 


Gascon,      who     encouraged 
him    in    his    pleasures    and 
taught   him   to  mistrust  his 
father,     Edward  I.  banished 
Gaveston  ;  Edward   II.,  im- 
mediately on  his   accession, 
not   only   recalled   him,   but 
made   him   regent  when   he 
himself  crossed  to  France  to 
be   married  to  Isabella,  the 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.     The 
barons,  who  were  already  in- 
clined to  win  back  some  of 
the  authority  of  which   Ed- 
ward I.  had  deprived  them, 
were  very  angry  at  the  place 
taken  over  their  heads  by  an 
upstart   favourite,  especially 
as     Gaveston     was     ill-bred 
enough  to  make  jests  at  their 
expense.     The  barons  found 
a  leader  in  Thomas,  Earl  of 
Lancaster,   the   son   of  that 
Edmund,  the  brother  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  who  had  received  the 
title  of  king  of  Sicily  from  the 
Pope  (see  p.   197).     Thomas 
of  Lancaster  had  very  large 
estates.   He  was  an  ambitious 
man,  who  tried  to  play  the 
part  which  had  been  played 
by  Earl  Simon  without  any 
of  Simon's  qualifications  for 
the    position.     In    1308    the 
king  yielded  to  the  barons  so 
far  as  to  send  Gaveston  out 
of  the  country  to  Ireland  as 
his  Lieutenant.     In  1309  he 
recalled   him.      The   barons 
were  exasperated,  and  in  the 
Parliament     of     1310     they 
brought  forward  a  plan  for 


Edward  II.  ;  from  his  monument  in 
Gloucester  Cathedral. 


f 


226  EDWARD  II.  1310-1314 

taking  the  king's  government  out  of  his  hands,  very  much  after  the 
fashion  of  the  Provisions  of  Oxford.  Twenty-one  barons  were  ap- 
pointed Lords  Ordainers,  to  draw  up  ordinances  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country.  In  131 1  they  produced  the  ordinances, 
Gaveston  was  to  be  banished  for  Hfe.  The  king  was  to  appoint 
officers  only  with  the  consent  of  the  barons,  without  which  he  was 
not  to  go  to  war  nor  leave  the  kingdom.  The  ordinances  may  have 
been  justified  in  so  far  as  they  restrained  the  authority  of  a  king  so 
incapable  as  Edward  II.  Constitutionally  their  acceptance  was  a 
retrograde  step,  as,  like  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  they  placed 
power  in  the  hands  of  the  barons,  passing  over  Parliament  as  a 
whole.  Edward  agreed  to  the  ordinances,  but  refused  to  surrender 
Gaveston.  The  barons  took  arms  to  enforce  their  will,  and  in  1312, 
having  captured  Gaveston,  they  beheaded  him  near  Warwick  with- 
out the  semblance  of  a  trial. 

22.  Success  of  Robert  Bruce.  1307 — 1314. — Whilst  Edward 
and  the  barons  were  disputing  Bruce  gained  ground  rapidly.  In 
1313  Stirling  was  the  only  fortress  of  importance  in  Scotland  still 
garrisoned  by  the  English,  and  the  English  garrison  bound  itself  to 
surrender  on  June  24,  1314,  if  it  had  not  been  previously  relieved. 
Even  Edward  II.  was  stirred  by  this  doleful  news,  and  in  1314  he  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  to  relieve  Stirling.  Lancaster,  how- 
ever, and  all  whom  he  could  influence  refused  to  follow  him,  on  the 
ground  that  the  king  had  not,  in  accordance  with  the  ordinances, 
received  permission  from  the  barons  to  go  to  war.  On  June  24 
Edward  reached  Bannockburn,  within  sight  of  Stirling.  Like  his 
father,  he  brought  with  him  English  archers  as  well  as  English 
horsemen,  but  he  foolishly  sent  his  archers  far  in  advance  of  his 
horsemen,  where  they  would  be  entirely  unprotected.  Bruce,  on  the 
other  hand,  not  only  had  a  small  body  of  horse,  which  rode  down  the 
archers,  but  he  strengthened  the  defensive  position  of  his  spearmen 
by  digging  pits  in  front  of  his  line  and  covering  them  with  turf  Into 
these  pits  the  foremost  horses  of  the  English  cavalry  plunged. 
Edward's  whole  array  was  soon  one  mass  of  confusion,  and  before 
it  could  recover  itself  a  body  of  gillies,  or  camp-followers,  appearing 
over  a  hill  was  taken  for  a  fresh  Scottish  army.  The  vast  English 
host  turned  and  fled.  Stirling  at  once  surrendered,  and  all  Scotland 
was  lost  to  Edward.  Materially,  both  England  and  Scotland 
suffered  grievously  from  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Bannockburn. 
English  invasions  of  southern  Scotland  and  Scottish  invasions  of 
northern  England  spread  desolation  far  and  wide,  stifling  the 
germs  of  nascent  civilisation.     Morally,  both  nations  were  in  the 


13H 


SCOTT/SI/  INDEPENDENCE 


22*J 


end  the  gainers.     The  hardihood  and  self-rehance  of  the  Scottish 
character  is  distinctly  to  be  traced  to  those  years  of  struggle  against 


Lincoln  Cathedral  -  the  central  tower  ;  built  about  1310. 

a  powerful  neighbour.  England,  too,  was  the  better  for  being 
balked  of  its  prey.  No  nation  can  suppress  the  liberty  of  another 
without  endangering  its  own. 

Q3 


^ 


4- 


228  EDWARD  n.  1 3 14-1323 

23.  Lancaster's  Government.  1314 — 1322. — Edward  was  thrown 
by  his  defeat  entirely  under  the  power  of  Lancaster,  who  took  the 
whole  authority  into  his  handj  and  placed  and  displaced  ministers 
at  his  pleasure.  Lancaster,  however,  was  a  selfish  and  incompetent 
ruler.  He  allowed  the  Scots  to  ravage  the  north  of  England  with- 
out venturing  to  oppose  them,  and  as  he  could  not  even  keep  order 
at  home,  private  wars  broke  out  amongst  the  barons.  In  1318  Bruce 
took  Berwick,  the  great  border  fortress  against  Scotland.  It  was 
rather  by  good  luck  than  by  good  management  that  Edward  was  at 
last  able  to  resist  Lancaster.  Edward  could  not  exist  without  a  per- 
sonal favourite,  and  he  found  one  in  Hugh  le  Despenser.  Despenser 
was  at  least  an  Englishman,  which  Gaveston  had  not  been,  and 
his  father,  Hugh  le  Despenser  the  elder,  did  his  best  to  raise  up  a 
party  to  support  the  king.  In  1321,  however.  Parliament,  under 
Lancaster's  influence,  declared-  against  them  and  sentenced  them 
to  exile.  Edward  took  arms  for  his  favourites,  and  in  1322  defeated 
Lancaster  at  Boroughbridge,  and  then  had  him  tried  and  beheaded 
at  Pontefract. 

24.  A  Constitutional  Settlement.  1322.— Favourites  as  they 
werej<he  Despensers  had  at  least  the  merit  of  seeing  that  the  king 
could  n^bsoverpower  the  barons  by  the  mere  assertion  of  his 
personal  aut!t8i;ity.  At  a  Parliament  held  at  York  in  1322,  the  king 
obtained  the  rev^t?^ion  of  the  ordinances,  and  a  declaration  that 
'  matters  to  be  established  for  the  estate  of  our  lord  the  king  and 
of  his  heirs,  and  for  tn^estate  of  the  realm  and  of  the  people, 
shall  be  treated,  accordedTSnd  established  in  Parliaments  by  our 
lord  the  king,  and  by  the  cons^^t  of  the  prelates,  earls  and  barons, 
and  commonalty  of  the  realm,  a^<x)rding  as  hath  been  hitherto 
accustomed.'  Edward  I.  had  in  1295 
eluding  the  commons.  But  there  was  'Ho  law  to  prevent  him  or 
his  successors  excluding  the  commons  oi^some  future  occasion. 
Edward  II.  by  this  declaration,  issued  with  omsent  of  Parliament, 
confirmed  his  father's  practice  by  a  legislative  act.  Unless  the  law 
were  broken  or  repealed,  no  future  statute  could  come  into  exist- 
ence without  the  consent  of  the  commons. 

25.  The  Rule  of  the  Despensers.  1322 — 1326. — For  some 
years  after  the  execution  of  Lancaster,  Edward,  or  rather  the 
Despensers,  retained  power,  but  it  was  power  which  did  not 
work  for  good.  In  1323  Edward  made  a  truce  with  Scotland,  but 
the  cessation  of  foreign  war  did  not  bring  with  it  a  cessation  of 
troubles  at  home.  Edward  was  entirely  unable  to  control  his 
favourites.     The  elder  Despenser  was  covetous  and  the  younger 


[325-1327 


DEPOSITION  OF  EDWARD  II. 


229 


Despenser  haughty,  and  they  both 
made  enemies  for  themselves  and  the 
king.  Queen  Isabella  was  alienated 
from  her  husband,  partly  by  his  exclu- 
sive devotion  to  the  Despensers  and 
partly  by  the  contempt  which  an  active 
woman  is  apt  to  feel  for  a  husband 
without  a  will  of  his  own.  In  1325  she 
went  to  France,  and  was  soon  followed 
by  her  eldest  son,  named  Edward  after 
his  father.  From  that  moment  she 
conspired  against  her  husband.  In 
1326  she  landed,  accompanied  by  her 
paramour,  Robert  Mortimer,  and 
bringing  with  her  foreign  troops.  The 
barons  rose  in  her  favour.  London 
joined'  them,  and  all  resistance  was 
speedily  beaten  down.  The  elder 
Despenser  was  hanged  by  the  queen 
at  Bristol.  The  younger  was  hanged, 
after  a  form  of  trial,  at  Hereford. 

26.  The  Deposition  and  Murder  of 
Edward  II.  1327.— Early  in  1327  a 
Parliament  met  at  Westminster.  It 
was  filled  with  the  king's  enemies, 
and  under  pressure  from  the  queen 
and  Mortimer  Edward  II.  was  com- 
pelled to  sign  a  declaration  of  his 
own  wrong-doing  and  incompetency, 
after  which  he  formally  resigned  the 
crown.  He  was  allowed  to  live  for  eight 
months,  at  the  end  of  which  he  was 
brutally  murdered  in  Berkeley  Castle. 
The  deposition  of  Edward  II.— for  his 
enforced  resignation  was  practically 
nothing  less  than  that— was  the  work 
of  a  faithless  wife  and  of  unscrupulous 
partisans,  but  at  least  they  clothed 
their  vengeance  in  the  forms  of  Parlia- 
mentary action.  It  was  by  the  action 
of  Parliament  in  loosing  the  feudal  ties 
by  which  vassals  were   bound  to  an 


Sir  John  de  Creke  ;  from  his  brass 
at  We^tley  Waterless,  Cam- 
bridgeshire :  showing  armour 
worn  between  1300  and  1335  or 
1340.     Date,  about  1325. 


23©  EDWARD   II.  1327 

unworthy  king,  that  it  rose  to  the  full  position  of  being  the  represen- 
tative of  the  nation,  and  at  the  same  time  virtually  proclaimed  that 


Howden  Church,  York^>hire  -  tlie  west  front  ;  buik  about  1310-1320. 
The  tower  was  built  between  isyo  and  1407. 

the  wants  of  the  nation  must  be  satisfied  at  the  expense  of  the 
feudal  claims  of  the  king.   The  national  headship  of  the  king  would 


1 327-1330  MORTIMER   AND   ISABELLA  231 

from  henceforward  be  the  distinguishing  feature  of  his  office,  whilst 
his  feudal  right  to  personal  service  would  grow  less  and  less 
important  every  year. 


CHAPTER   XV 


U^ 


FROM  THE  ACCESSION  OF   EDWARD   III.   TO   THE 
TREATY  OF   BRETIGNI 

1327— 1360 

LEADING    DATES 
Reign  of  Edward  III.,  1327— 1377 

Accession  of  Edward  III 1387 

Beginning  of  the  War  with  France 1337 

Battle  of  Cre9y 1346 

The  Black  Death 1348 

Battle  of  Poitiers 1356. 

Treaty  of  Bretigni 1360 

I.  Mortimer's  Government.  1327 — 1330. — Edward  III.  was 
only  fourteen  at  his  accession.  For  three  years  power  was  in  the 
hands  of  his  mother's  paramour,  Mortimer.  Robert  Bruce,  though 
old  and  smitten  with  leprosy,  was  still  anxious  to  wring  from  Eng- 
land an  acknowledgment  of  Scottish  independence,  and,  in  spite  of 
the  existing  truce,  sent  an  army  to  ravage  the  northern  counties  of 
England.  Edward  led  in  person  against  it  an  English  force  far 
superior  in  numbers  and  equipment ;  but  the  English  soldier  needed 
many  things,  whilst  the  Scot  contented  himself  with  a  little  oat- 
meal carried  on  the  back  of  his  hardy  pony.  If  he  grew  tired  of  that 
he  had  but  to  seize  an  English  sheep  or  cow  and  to  boil  the  flesh 
in  the  hide.  Such  an  army  was  difficult  to  come  up  with.  Fighting 
there  was  none,  except  once  when  the  Scots  broke  into  the  English 
camp  at  night  and  almost  succeeded  in  carrying  off  the  young  king. 
Mortimer  was  at  his  wits'  end,  and  in  1328  agreed  to  a  treaty 
acknowledging  the  complete  independence  of  Scotland.  It  was  a 
wise  thing  to  do,  but  no  nation  likes  to  acknowledge  failure,  and 
Mortimer  became  widely  unpopular.  He  succeeded  indeed  in 
breaking  up  a  conspiracy  against  himself,  and  in  1330  even  executed 
Edmund,  Earl  of  Kent,  a  brother  of  Edward  11.  The  discon- 
tented barons  found  another  leader  in  the  king,  who,  young  as  he 
was.  had  been  married  at  fifteen  to  Philippa  of  Hainault.     Though 


"-{iWci^ 


232  EDWARD  III.  1 328-1 332 

he  was  already  a  father,  he  was  still  treated  by  Mortimer  as  a  child, 
and  was  virtually  kept  a  prisoner.  At  Nottingham  he  introduced  a 
body  of  Mortimer's  enemies  into  the  castle  through  a  secret  passage 
in  the  rock  on  which  it  stood.  His  mother  pleaded  in  vain  for  her 
favourite  :  "  Fair  son,  have  pity  on  the  gentle  Mortimer."  Mor- 
timer was  hanged,  and  Queen  Isabella  was  never  again  allowed  to 
,U  take  part  in  public  affairs. 

^  2.  The  French  Succession.  1328— 1331. — Isabella's  three 
brothers,  Louis  X.,  Philip  V.,  and  Charles  IV.,  had  successively 
reigned  in  France.  Louis  X.  died  in  1316,  leaving  behind  him  a 
daughter  and  a  posthumous  son,  who  died  a  week  after  his  birth. 
Then  Philip  V.  seized  the  crown,  his  lawyers  asserting  that,  accord- 
ing to  the  Salic  law,  '  no  part  of  the  heritage  of  Salic  land  can  fall 
to  a  woman,'  and  that  therefore  no  woman  could  rule  in  France. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  this  was  a  mere  quibble  of  the  lawyers.  The 
Salic  law  had  been  the  law  of  the  Salian  Franks  in  the  fifth  century, 
and  had  to  do  with  the  inheritance  of  estates,  not  with  the  inheri- 
tance of  the  throne  of  France,  which  was  not  at  that  time  in  exist- 
ence. The  quibble,  however,  was  used  on  the  right  side.  What 
Frenchmen  wanted  was  that  France  should  remain  an  independent 
nation,  which  it  was  not  likely  to  do  under  a  queen  who  might 
marry  the  king  of  another  country.  The  rule  thus  laid  down  was 
permanently  adopted  in  France.  When  Philip  V,  died  in  1322  the 
throne  passed,  not  to  his  daughter,  but  to  his  brother,  Charles  IV., 
and  when  Charles  died  in  1328,  to  his  cousin,  Philip  of  Valois,  who 
reigned  as  Philip  VI.  At  that  time  England  was  still  under  the 
control  of  Mortimer  and  Isabella,  and  though  Isabella,  being  the 
sister  of  Charles  IV.,  thought  of  claiming  the  crown,  not  for  herself, 
but  for  her  son,  Mortimer  did  not  press  the  claim.  In  1329  he  sent 
Edward  to  do  homage  to  Philip  VI.  for  his  French  possessions,  but 
Edward  only  did  it  with  certain  reservations,  and  in  1330  prepara- 
tions for  war  were  made  in  England.  In  1331,  after  Mortimer's 
fall,  when  Edward  was  his  own  master,  he  again  visited  France, 
and  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  two  kings  in  which  he 
abandoned  the  reservations  on  his  homage. 

3.  Troubles  in  Scotland.  1329 — 1336.  — On  his  return,  Edward 
looked  in  another  direction.  In  1329  Robert  Bruce  died,  leaving 
his  crown  to  his  son,  David  II.,  a  child  five  years  old.  Certain 
English  noblemen  had  in  the  late  treaty  (seep.  231)  been  promised 
restoration  of  the  estates  of  their  ancestors  in  Scotland,  and  in  1332 
some  of  them,  finding  the  promise  unfulfilled,  offered  English  forces 
to  John  Balliol's  son,  Edward,  to  help  him  to  the  Scottish  crown. 


M32 


EDWARD   III.    AND   PHILIPPA 


233 


Effigies  of  Edward  III.  and  Queen  Philippa  ;  from  their  tombs  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


234  EDWARD  ITT.  1332- 1337 

Aided  by  his  English  allies,  Edward  Balliol  landed  in  Scotland, 
defeated  the  Scottish  army  at  Dupplin,  and  was  crowned  king. 
Before  the  end  of  the  year  he  was  surprised  at  Annan,  and  fled  to 
England  to  appeal  to  Edward  for  help.  Though  Edward  had  all 
the  love  of  enterprise  of  his  grandfather,  Edward  I.,  yet  there  was 
a  marked  contrast  between  the  deliberate  calculation  of  Edward  I. 
and  the  almost  accidental  way  in  which  Edward  III.  involved 
himself  in  an  attempt  to  regain  the  lordship  of  Scotland.  In  1333 
he  laid  siege  to  Berwick,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  Scots'  The 
Scots  advanced  into  England,  and  their  spearmen  crossed  a  marsh 
to  attack  the  English  array  of  knights  and  archers  posted  on  the 
slope  of  Halidon  Hill.  The  arrows  poured  like  rain  on  their 
struggling  columns.  The  Scots  were  thrown  into  confusion,  and 
their  whole  army  was  almost  destroyed.  Berwick  was  regained, 
and  Bannockburn,  it  seemed,  was  avenged.  Edward  not  only  set 
up  Balliol  as  his  vassal,  but  compelled  him  to  yield  all  Scotland 
south  of  the  Forth  to  be  annexed  to  England.  Such  a  settlement 
could  not  last.  Balliol  was  as  weak  as  his  father  had  been,  and 
the  Scots,  recovering  courage,  drove  him  out  in  1334.  Edward 
invaded  Scotland  again  and  again.  As  long  as  he  was  in  the 
country  he  was  strong  enough  to  keep  his  puppet  on  the  throne, 
but  whenever  he  returned  to  England  David  Bruce's  supporters 
regained  strength.  The  struggle  promised  to  be  lengthy  unless 
help  came  to  the  Scots. 

4.  Dispute  with  France.  1336—  1337. — Philip  VI.,  like 
Philip  IV.  in  the  days  of  Edward  I.  (see  p.  218),  had  his  own  reasons 
for  not  allowing  the  Scots  to  be  crushed.  He  pursued  the  settled 
policy  of  his  predecessors  in  attempting  to  bring  the  great  fiefs 
into  his  power,  and  especially  that  part  of  Aquitaine  which  was 
still  held  by  the  most  powerful  of  his  vassals,  the  king  of  England. 
Whilst  Edward  was  doing  his  best  to  bring  Scotland  into  subjec- 
tion by  open  war,  Philip  was  doing  his  best  to  disturb  Edward  in 
his  hold  upon  Aquitaine  by  secret  intrigues  and  legal  chicanery. 
Ill-feeling  increased  on  both  sides.  Philip  welcomed  David  Bruce 
and  gave  him  protection  in  France,  and  in  1336  French  sailors 
attacked  English  shipping  and  landed  plunderers  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  In  1337  Edward  determined  to  resist,  and  the  long  war 
roughly  known  as  the  Hundred  Years'  War  began.  It  was  in 
reality  waged  to  discover  by  an  appeal  to  arms  whether  the  whole 
of  Aquitaine  was  to  be  incorporated  with  France  and  whether 
Scotland  was  to  be  incorporated  with  England.  That  which  gave 
it  its   peculiar  bitterness  was,  however   not  so   much  the  claims 


t337-i338  EDWARD'S  DIPLOMACY  235 

of  the  kings,  as  the  passions  of  their  subjects.  The  national 
antagonism  aroused  by  the  plunderings  of  French  sea-rovers 
would  be  invigorated  by  the  plunderings  of  Englishmen  in  the 
fields  of  France. 

A(^  5.  Edward's  Allies.  1337 — 1338« — To  Edward  it  was  merely  a 
question  of  defending,  first  England,  and  then  Aquitaine,  against 
aggression.  He  won  over,  with  large  offers  of  money,  the  alliance 
of  the  princes  of  the  Empire  whose  lands  lay  round  the  French 
frontier  to  the  north  and  east,  and  even  gained  the  support  of  the 
Emperor  Lewis  the  Bavarian.  His  relations  with  Flanders  were 
even  more  important.  In  Flanders  there  had  sprung  up  great 
manufacturing  towns,  such  as  Ghent,  Bruges,  and  Ypres,  which 
worked  up  into  cloth  the  wool  which  was  the  produce  of  English 
sheep.  These  wealthy  towns  claimed  political  independence,  and 
thus  came  into  collision  with  their  feudal  lord,  the  Count  of  Flanders. 
Early  in  the  reign  of  Philip  VI.,  the  Count,  who  held  the  greater 
part  of  his  lands  from  the  king  of  France,  had  appealed  to  Philip 
for  support,  and  Philip,  who,  unlike  his  wiser  predecessors,  despised 
the  strength  which  he  might  gain  from  the  goodwill  of  citizens  in 
a  struggle  against  their  lords,  took  the  part  of  the  Count,  and  for 
a  time  crushed  the  citizens  at  the  battle  of  Cassel.  After  a  while 
the  cities  recovered  themselves,  and  formed  an  alliance  under  the 
leadership  of  Jacob  van  Arteveldt,  a  Flemish  nobleman,  who  had 
ingratiated  himself  with  them  by  enroUing  himself  amongst  the 
brewers  of  Ghent,  an4   who   was   now   successful  in   urging  his 

,\         countrymen  to  enter  into  friendship  with  Edward. 

TC  6.  Chivalry  and  War. — In  the  long  run  Edward's  cause  would 

be  found  a  losing  one,  but  there  were  circumstances  which  made  it 
prevail  for  a  time.  In  France  there  was  a  broad  distinction  be- 
tween gentlemen  on  the  one  side  and  citizens  and  peasants  on 
the  other.  The  gentlemen  despised  all  who  were  not  of  their  own 
class.  In  earlier  days  there  had  sprung  up  a  view  of  life  known 
as  chivalry,  which  taught  that  the  knight  was  bound  to  observe 
the  laws  of  honour,  to  fight  fairly,  to  treat  with  courtesy  a  de- 
feated enemy,  and  to  protect  women  and  all  who  were  unable 
to  help  themselves.  Ennobling  as  the  idea  was,  it  had  been 
narrowed  by  the  refusal  of  the  gentlemen  to  extend  the  rules  of 
chivalry  beyond  their  own  order,  and  they  were,  therefore,  ready 
to  exercise  cruelty  upon  those  who  were  not  gentlemen,  whilst 
proffering  the  most  high-flown  compliments  to  those  who  were. 
In  France,  too,  this  broad  distinction  of  ranks  told  upon  the  military 
strength  of  the  crown.     The  fighting  force  of  the  French  king  was 


236 


EDWARD  in. 


1338 


^' 


his  feudal  array  of  armour-protected  cavalry,  composed  entirely  of 
gentlemen,  and  aiming  at  deciding  battles  in  the  old  fashion  by  the 
rush  of  horsemen.  If  foot  soldiers  were  brought  at  all  into  the  field 
they  were,  for  the  most  part,  ill  armed  and  ill  trained  peasants,  ex- 
posed to  be  helplessly  slaughtered  by  the  horsemen. 

7.  Commerce  and  War.— In  England,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
various  orders  of  society  had  been  welded  together  into  a  united 
people.  The  king  and  his  vassals  indeed  still  talked  the  language 
of  chivalry,  but  they  were  wise  enough  to  seek  strength  elsewhere. 
War  had  become  in  England  the  affair  of  the  nation,  and  no  longer 


A  knight  — Sir  GeofTrey  Luttrell,  who  died  1345 -receiving  his  helm  and  pennon  from 
his  wife.     Another  lady  holds  his  shield. 

the  affair  of  a  class.  It  must  be  waged  with  efficient  archers  as 
well  as  with  efficient  horsemen,  the  archers  being  drawn  from  the 
class  of  yeomen  or  free  landed  proprietors  of  small  plots  of  land, 
which  was  entirely  wanting  in  France.  Such  an  army  needed 
pay,  and  the  large  sums  required  for  the  purpose  could  only  be 
extracted  from  a  nation  which,  like  the  English,  had  grown 
comparatively  rich  because  it  was  at  peace  within  its  own 
borders.  Edward  was  compelled,  if  he  wanted  to  fight,  to  encou- 
rage trade,  though  it  is  only  fair  to  remember  that  he  showed  him- 
self ready  to  encourage  trade  without  any  such  ulterior  object. 
He  brought  Flemish  weavers  into  England,  and  did  his  best  to 
improve  the  feeble  woollen  manufacture  of  ihe  Eastern  counties. 


1338 


TRADE  AND    WAR 


His  great  resource,  however,  for 
purposes  of  taxation,  was  the 
export  of  wool  to  the  Flemish 
manufacturing  towns.  Some- 
times he  persuaded  Parliament 
to.  raise  the  duties  upon  exported 
wool ;  sometimes  he  raised  them, 
by  an  evasion  of  the  law,  after 
making  a  private  compact  with 
the  merchants  without  consult- 
ing Parliament  at  all ;  sometimes 
he  turned  merchant  himself  and 
bought  wool  cheaply  in  England 
to  sell  it  dear  in  Flanders.  It 
was  said  of  a  great  minister  of 
later  times  that  he  made  trade 
flourish  by  means  of  war.'  It 
might  be  said  with  greater  truth 
of  Edward  III.  that  he  made  war 
flourish  by  means  of  trade, 

8.  Attacks  on  the  North  of 
France.  1338— 1340. — Great  as 
was  Edward's  advantage  in 
having-  a  united  nation  at  his 
back,  it  hardly  seemed  in  the 
first  years  of  the  war  as  though 
he  knew  how  to  use  it.  Though 
he  had  declared  war  against 
Philip  in  1337,  he  did  not  begin 
hostilities  till  the  following  year. 
In  1338,  after  landing  at  Ant- 
werp, he  obtained  from  the 
Emperor  Lewis  the  title  of  Im- 
perial Vicar,  which  gave  him  a 
'  right  to  the  military  services  of 
the  vassals  of  the  Empire. 
Crowds  of  German  and  Low 
Country  lords  pressed  into  his 
ranks,  but  they  all  wanted  high 

1  See  the  inscription  on  the  monu- 
ment to  the  elder  Pitt  in  the  Guild- 
hall, in  the  City  of  London. 


William  of  Hatfield,  second  son  of  Edward 
III,  ;  from  his  tomb  in  York  Minster  : 
showing  rich  costume  worn  by  the  youth 
of  the  upper  classes  about  1340.  The 
embroidery  on  the  tunic  has  been  partly 
worn  off  on  the  effigy. 


238 


EDWARD  III. 


'338 


York  Minster  :— The  nave,  looking  west,  built  during  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century.     The  west  window  was  completed  and  glazed  in  1338 


^339-1340 


THE  FRENCH  CROWN  CLAIMED 


239 


pay,  and  his  resources,  great  as  they  were,  were  soon  exhausted,  and 
he  had  to  pawn  his  crowns  to  satisfy  their  needs.  These  lords  proved 
as  useless  as  they  were  expensive.  In  1339  Edward  crossed  the 
French  frontier,  but  he  could  not  induce  Philip  to  fight,  and 
being  deserted  by  his  German  allies,  he  was  obliged  to  return  to 
England.  He  then  attempted  to  fall  back  on  the  support  of  the 
Flemings,  but  was  told  by  them  that  unless  he  formally  took  the  title 
of  king  of  France,  which  he  had  only  occasionally  done  before,  they 
could  not  fight  for  him,  as  the  king  of  France,  whoever  he  might 
be,  was  their  superior  lord, 
and  as  such  had  a  claim 
to  their  services.  After 
some  hesitation,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  1340,  Edward 
satisfied  their  scruples  by 
reviving  the  claim  which  he 
had  formerly  abandoned, 
declaring  himself  to  be,  in 
right  of  his  mother,  the  law- 
ful king  of  France  ;  and 
quartering  the  French  arms 
with  his  own.  A  third 
territorial  question  was 
thus  added  to  the  other 
two.  Practically  Edward's 
answer  to  Philip's  effort  to 
absorb  all  Aquitaine  in 
France  was  a  counter- 
demand  that  all  France 
should  be  absorbed  in 
England. 

9.  Battle  of  Sluys.  1340. — Edward  had  not  yet  learnt  to  place 
confidence  in  those  English  archers  who  had  served  him  so  well 
at  Halidon  Hill.  In  1340,  however,  he  found  himself  engaged  in 
a  conflict  which  should  have  taught  him  where  his  true  strength 
lay.  The  French  navy  held  the  Channel,  and  had  burnt  South- 
ampton. The  fleet  of  the  Cinque  Ports  was  no  longer  sufficient  to 
cope  with  the  enemy.  Edward  proudly  announced  that  he,  like 
his  progenitors,  was  the  lord  of  the  English  sea  on  every  side,  and 
called  out  every  vessel  upon  which  he  could  lay  hands.  The  result 
was  a  naval  victory  at  Sluys,  in  which  well-nigh  the  whole  French 
fleet  was  absolutely  destroyed.     It  was  by  the  English  archers  that 


Royal  arms  of  Edward  III.,  adopted  in  1340  and 

used  till  about  1405. 

From  the  tomb  of  Edward  III. 


1^0^^ 


24  o  EDWARD  in.  1 341- 1346 

the  day  was  won.     So  complete  was  the  victory  that  no  one  dared 

to  tell  the  ill  news  to  Philip,  till  his  jester   called  out   to   him, 

•^"What   cowards   those  English  are!"  "Because,"  he  explained, 

.    "  they  did  not  dare  to  leap  into  the  sea  as  our  brave  Frenchmen 

did." 

\/io.  Attacks  on  the  West  of  France.  1341— 1345, — If  Edward 
was  to  obtain  still  greater  success,  he  had  but  to  fight  with  a 
national  force  behind  him  on  land  as  he  had  fought  at  sea  ;  but 
he  was  slow  to  learn  the  lesson.  Personally  he  was  as  chivalrous 
as  Philip,  and  thought  that  far  more  could  be  done  by  the  charge 
of  knights  on  horseback  than  by  the  cloth-yard  shafts  of  the  English 
bowmen.  For  six  more  years  he  frittered  away  his  strength.  There 
was  a  disputed  succession  in  Brittany,  and  one  of  the  claimants, 
John  of  Montfort,  ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  the  English. 
There  was  fighting  in  Brittany  and  fighting  on  the  borders  of 
Edward's  lands  in  Aquitaine,  but  up  to  the  end  of  1345  there  was 
no  decisive  result  on  either  side.  In  Scotland,  too,  things  had 
been  going  so  badly  for  Edward  that  in  1341  David  Bruce  had  been 
able  to  return,  and  was  now  again  ruling  over  his  own  people. 

II.  The  Campaign  of  Cre9y.  1346.— Surprising  as  Edward's 
neglect  to  force  on  a  battle  in  France  appears  to  us,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  in  those  days  it  was  far  more  difficult  to  bring  on 
an  engagement  than  it  is  in  the  present  day.  Fortified  towns  and 
castles  were  then  almost  impregnable,  except  when  they  were 
starved  out  ;  and  it  was  therefore  seldom  necessary  for  a  com- 
mander—on other  grounds  unwilling  to  fight— to  risk  a  battle  in 
order  to  save  an  important  post  from  capture.  Edward,  however, 
does  not  appear  to  have  thought  that  there  was  anything  to  be 
gained  by  fighting.  In  1346  he  led  a  large  English  army  into  Nor- 
mandy, taking  with  him  his  eldest  son,  afterwards  known  as  the  Black 
Prince,  at  that  time  a  lad  of  sixteen.  It  had  been  from  Normandy 
and  Calais  that  the  fleets  had  put  out  by  which  the  coasts  of  England 
had  been  ravaged,  and  Edward  now  deliberately  ravaged  Nor- 
mandy. He  then  marched  on,  apparently  intending  to  take  refuge 
in  Flanders.  As  the  French  had  broken  the  bridges  over  the  Seine, 
he  was  driven  to  ascend  the  bank  of  the  river  almost  to  Paris  be- 
fore he  could  cross.  His  burnings  and  his  ravages  continued  till 
Philip,  stung  to  anger,  pursued  him  with  an  army  more  than  twice  as 
numerous  as  his  own.  Edward  had  the  Somme  to  cross  on  his  way, 
and  the  bridges  over  that  river  had  been  broken  by  the  French,  as 
those  over  the  Seme  had  b  en  broken  ;  and  but  for  the  opportune 
discovery  of  a  ford  at  Blanche  Tache  Edward  would  have  been 


1346 


CREqV 


241 


obliged  to  fight  with  an  impassable  river  at  his  back.  When  he 
was  once  over  the  Somme  he  refused — not  from  any  considerations 
of  generalship,  but  from  a  point  of  honour — to  continue  his  retreat 
further.  He  halted  on  a  gentle  slope  near  the  village  of  Cre^y 
facing  eastwards,  as  Philip's  force  had  swept  round  to  avoid  diffi- 
culties in  the  ground,  and  was  approaching  from  that  direction. 

12.  The  Tactics  of  Crecy.  1346. — Great  as  was  Edward's 
advantage  in  possessing  an  army  so  diverse  in  its  composition  as 
that  which  he  commanded,  it  would  have  availed  him  little  if  he 
had  not  known  how  to  order  that  army  for  battle.  At  once  it 
appeared  that  his  skill  as  a  tactician  was  as  great  as  his  weak- 
ness as  a  strategist.  His  experience  at  Halidon  Hill  (see  p.  234) 
had  taught  him  that  the  archers  could  turn  the  tide  of  battle  against 
any  direct  attack,  however  violent.  He  knew,  too,  from  the  tra- 
dition of  Bannockburn  (see  p.  226),  that  archers  could  readily  be 


e  @  i9  '£  •> 
»  e  e  «  e 
e  o  9  o  * 


Shooting  at  the  butts  with  the  long-bow. 


crushed  by  a  cavalry  charge  on  the  flank  ;  and  he  was  well  aware 
that  his  own  horsemen  were  in  too  small  numbers  to  hold  out 
against  the  vast  host  of  the  French  cavalry.  He  therefore  drew 
up  his  line  of  archers  between  the  two  villages  of  Cre^y  and 
Vadicourt,  though  his  force  was  not  large  enough  to  extend  from 
one  to  the  other.  He  then  ordered  the  bulk  of  his  horsemen 
to  dismount  and  to  place  themselves  with  levelled  spears  in 
bodies  at  intervals  in  the  hne  of  archers.  The  innovation  was 
thoroughly  reasonable,  as  spearmen  on  foot  would  be  able  to 
check  the  fiercest  charge  of  horse,  if  only  the  horse  could  be 
exposed  to  a  shower  of  arrows.  The  English  army  was  drawn  up 
in  three  corps,  two  of  them  in  the  front  line.  The  Black  Prince 
was  in  command  of  one  of  the  two  bodies  in  front,  whilst  the  king 
himself  took  charge  of  the  third  corps,  which  acted  as  a  reserve  in 
the  rear. 

R 


H^  MDtVARD  ///.  1346-1347 

13.  The  Battle  of  Cre9y.    August  26,  1346. — When  Philip  drew 
iA         nigh  in  the  evening  his  host  was  weary  and  hungry.    He  ordered  his 

knights  to  halt,  but  each  one  was  thinking,  not  of  obeying  orders, 
but  of  securing  a  place  in  the  front,  where  he  might  personally  dis- 
tinguish himself.  Those  in  the  rear  pushed  on,  and  in  a  few 
minutes  the  whole  of  the  French  cavalry  became  a  disorganised 
mob.  Then  Philip  ordered  1 5,000  Genoese  crossbowmen  to  advance 
against  the  enemy.  At  the  best  a  crossbow  was  inferior  to  the 
English  long-bow,  as  it  was  weaker  in  its  action  and  consumed 
more  time  between  each  shot.  To  make  matters  woi  se,  a  heavy 
shower  of  rain  had  wetted  the  strings  of  the  unlucky  Genoese, 
rendering  their  weapons  useless.  The  English  had  covers  for 
their  bows,  and  had  kept  them  dry.  The  thick  shower  of  their 
arrows  drove  the  Genoese  back.  Philip  took  their  retreat  for 
cowardice.  "  Kill  me  those  scoundrels  ! "  he  cried,  and  the 
French  knights  rode  in  amongst  them,  slaughtering  them  at 
every  stride.  Then  the  French  horsemen  charged  the  English 
lines.  Some  one  amongst  the  Black  Prince's  retinue  took  alarm, 
and  hurried  to  the  king  to  conjure  him  to  advance  to  the  son's  as- 
sistance. Edward  knew  better.  "  Is  he  dead  ? "  he  asked,  "  or  so 
.  wounded  that  he  cannot  help  himself?"  "  No,  sire,  please  God," 
was  the  reply,  "  but  he  is  in  a  hard  passage  of  arms,  and  he  much 
needs  your  help."  "  Return,"  answered  the  king,  "  to  those  that  sent 
you,  and  tell  them  not  to  send  to  me  again  so  long  as  my  son  lives  ; 
I  command  them  to  let  the  boy  win  his  spurs."  The  French  were 
driven  off  with  terrible  slaughter,  and  the  victoiy  was  won.  It  was 
a  victory  of  foot  soldiers  over  horse  soldiers — of  a  nation  in  which 
all  ranks  joined  heartily  together  over  one  in  which  all  ranks  except 
that  of  the  gentry  were  despised.  Edward  III.  had  contributed 
a  high  spirit  and  a  keen  sense  of  honour,  but  it  was  to  the  influence 
of  Edward  I. — to  his  wide  and  far-reaching  statesmanship,  and  his 
innovating  military  genius — that  the  victory  of  Cregy  was  really 
due. 

14.  Battle  of  Nevill's  Cross,  and  the  Siege  of  Calais.  1346— 1347. 
— Whilst  Edward  was  fighting  in  France,  the  Scots  invaded  Eng- 
land, but  they  were  defeated  at  Nevill's  Cross,  and  their  king,  David 
Bruce  (David  IL),  taken  prisoner.  Edward,  when  the  news  reached 
him,  had  laid  siege  to  Calais.  In  this  siege  cannon,^  which  had  been 
used  in  earlier  sieges  of  the  war,  were  employed,  but  they  were  too 
badly  made  and  loaded  with  too  little  gunpowder  to  do  much  damage. 

1  It  has  been  said  that  they  were  used  at  Cre9y,  but  this  is  uncertain. 


/ 


I337-I347 


SURRENDER   OF  CALAIS 


243 


In  1347  Calais  was 
starved  into  surrender, 
and  Edward,  who  re- 
garded the  town  as  a 
nest  of  pirates,  ordered 
six  of  the  principal  bur- 
gesses to  come  out  with 
ropes  round  their  necks, 
as  a  sign  that  they  were 
to  be  put  to  death.  It 
was  only  at  Queen  Phi- 
lippa's  intercession  that 
he  spared  their  lives, 
but  he  drove  every 
Frenchman  out  of 
Calais,  and  peopled  it 
with  his  own  subjects. 
A  truce  with  Philip  was 
agreed  on,  and  Edward 
returr^d  to  England. 

1 5.\  Constitutional 
Progr^s.  1337— 1347. 
-Ed\vkrd  III.  had  be- 
gun his  reign  as  a  con- 
stitutioAal  ruler,  and  on 
the  while  he  had  no 
reason  to  regret  it.  In 
his  wara  with  France 
and  Scotland  he  had 
the  popular  feeling  with 
him,  and  he  showed  his 
reliance  oA  it  when,  in 
1340,  he  c^sented  to 
the  abolitionpf  his  claim 
to  impose  tallage  on  his 
demesne  lands  (see 
p.  221) — the  Bole  frag- 
ment of  unparliamen- 
tary taxation  legally  re- 
tained by  the  king  after 
the  Cotifirjnatio  Carta- 
ruin.     In  1341  the  two 


244 


EDWARD  III. 


1341 


Houses  of  Parliament  finally  separated  from  one  another, and  when 
Edward  picked  a  quarrel  with  Archbishop  Stratford,  the  Lords  suc- 


Gloucester  Caihedral.     The  choir,  looking  east  :  built  between  1340  and  1350. 

cessfully  insisted  that  no  member  of  their  House  could  be  tried  ex- 
cepting by  his  peers.   The  Commons,  on  the  other  hand,  were  striving 


t34! 


THE   HOUSE   OF  COMMONS 


245 


— not  alway^s^ccessfully— to  maintain  their  hold  upon  taxation.  In 
1341  they  madeSMward  a  large  money  grant  on  condition  of  his 
yielding  to  their  dehi^ds,  and  Edward  (whose  constitutional  inten- 
tions were  seldom  proof'-^gainst  his  wish  to  retain  the  power  of  the 
purse)  shamelessly  broke  his^ftg;agement  after  receiving  the  money. 
On  other  occasions  the  Common^s^re  more  successful ;  yet,  after 
all,  the  composition  of  their  House  wa^  of  more  importance  than 


The  upper  chamber  or  solar  at  Sutton  Courtenay  manor-house. 
Date,  about  1350. 


any  special  victory  they  might  gain.  In  it  the  county  members— 
or  knights  of  the  shire — sat  side  by  side  with  the  burgesses  of  the 
towns.  In  no  other  cWntry  in  Europe  would  this  have  been  pos- 
sible. The  knights  o1\the  shire  were  gentlemen,  who  on  the 
Continent  were  reckoned^«^ongst  the  nobility,  and  despised 
townsmen  far  too  much  to  sl^^qthe  same  House  with  them.  In 
England  there  was  the  same  amalgamation  of  classes  in  Parliament 


246 


EDWARD  III. 


1347 


as  on  the  battle-field.  When  once  gentlemen  and  burgesses 
formed  part  of  the  same  assembly,  they  would  come  to  have 
common  interests;  and,  in  any  struggle  in  which  the  merchants 
were  engaged,  it  would  be  a  great  gain  to  them,  that  a  class  of 
men  trained  to  arms  would  be  inclined  to  take  their  part. 
.J^i6.  Edward's  Triumph.  1347. — Edward's  return  after  the  sur- 
render of  Calais  was  followed  by  an  outburst  of  luxury.  As  the 
sea-rovers  of  Normandy  and  Calais  had  formerly  plundered  Eng- 


Interior  of  the  Hall  at  Penshurst,  Kent :  showing  the  screen  with  minstrels'  gallery 
over  it,  and  the  brazier  for  fire  in  the  middle  :  built  about  1340. 

lishmen,  English  landsmen  now  plundered  Normandy  and  Calais. 
"  There  was  no  woman  who  had  not  gotten  garments,  furs,  feather- 
beds,  and  utensils  from  the  spoils."  Edward  surrounded  himself 
with  feasting  and  joUity.  About  this  time  he  instituted  the^Order 
ofthejGarter,  and  his  tournaments  were  thronged  with  gay  knights 
and  gayer  ladies  in  gorgeous  attires.  The  very  priests  caught  the 
example,  and  decked  themselves  in  unclerical  garments.  Even 
architecture  lent  itself  to  the  prevailing  taste  for  magnificence. 
The  beautiful  Decorated  style  which  had  come  into  use  towards  the 


1272-1360  DECORATED  AND  PERPENDICULAR  STYLES  247 

end  of  the  reign  of  Edward  I. — and  which  may  be  seen  ^  in  the  central 
tower  of  Lincoln  Cathedral  (see  p.  227),  in  the  west  front  of  Howden 
Church  (seep.  230),  and  in  the  nave  of  York  Minster  (see  p.  238) — 


A  small  house  or  cottage  at  Meare,  Somerset.     Built  about  1350. 


Norborough  Hall.  Northamptonshire.     A  manor-house  built  about  1350. 
The  dormer  windows  and  addition  to  the  left  are  of  much  later  date. 

was,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  superseded  by  the  Perpendicular 

style,  in  which  beauty  of  form  was  abandoned  for  the  sake  of  breadth, 

as  in  the  choir  of  Gloucester  and  the  nave  of  Winchester  (see  pp.  244, 

1  Lichfield  Cathedral  (p.  213)  is  transitional. 


248 


EDWARD   TIT. 


1348-1349 


D^ 


276).  Roofs  become  wide,  as  in  the  Hall  of  Penshurst  (see  p.  246), 
and  consequently  halls  were  larger  and  better  adapted  to  crowded 
gatherings  than  those  at  Meare  and  Norborough  (p.  247). 
O'^  17.  The  Black  Death.  1348. — In  the  midst  of  this  luxurious 
society  arrived,  in  1348,  a  terrible  plague  which  had  been  sweeping 
over  Asia  and  Europe,  and  which  in  modern  times  has  been  styled 
the  Black  Death.  No  plague  known  to  history  was  so  destruc- 
tive of  life.  Half  of  the  population  certainly  perished,  and  some 
think  that  the  number  of  those  who  died  must  be  reckoned  at 
two-thirds. 

18.  The  Statute  of  Labourers.     1349. — This  enormous  destruc- 
tion of  life  could  not  fail  to  have  important  results  on  the  economic 


Ploughing. 


condition  of  the  country.  The  process  of  substituting  money  rents 
for  labour  service,  which  had  begun  some  generations  before 
(see  p.  168),  had  become  very  general  at  the  accession  of  Edward 
HI.   so  that  the  demesne  land  which  the  lord  kept  in  his  own 


Harrowing.     A  boy  slinging  stones  at  the  birds. 

hands  was  on  most  estates  cultivated  by  hired  labour.  Now,  when 
at  least  half  of  the  labourers  had  disappeared,  those  who  remained, 
having  less  competition  to  fear,  demanded  higher  wages,  whilst  at 
the  same  time  the  price  of  the  produce  of  the  soil  was  the  same  or 
less  than  it  had  been  before.      The  question  affected  not  merely 


'349 


LABOUR   AND    WAGES 


249 


the  great  lords  but  the  smaller  gentry  as  well.  The  House  of 
Commons,  which  was  filled  with  the  smaller  gentry  and  the  well- 
to-do  townsmen — who  were  also  employers  of  labour — was  there- 
fore as  eager  as  the  House  of  Lords  to  keep  down  wages.     In  1349 


-^/"^"^.^^^S^^. 


Breaking  the  clods  with  mallets 


Cutting  weeds 


Reaping. 

the  Statute  of  Labourers  was  passed,  fixing  a  scale  ot  wages  at  the 
rates  which  had  been  paid  before  the  Black  Death,  and  ordering 
punishments  to  be  inflicted  on  those  who  demanded  more. 
It   is   not   necessary   to    suppose   that    the    legislators    had  any 


250 


EDWARD  II L 


[349-1352 


tyrannical  intentions.  For  ages  all  matters  relating  to  agricul- 
ture had  been  fixed  by  custom  ;  and  the  labourers  were  outrage- 
ously violating  custom.      Custom,  however,   here  found  itself  in 


4- 


Stacking  corn. 

opposition  to  the  forces  of  nature,  and  though  the  statute  was  often 
renewed,  with  increasing  penalties,  it  was  difficult  to  secure  obe- 
dience to  It  in  the  teeth  of  the  opposition  of  the  labourers.     The 


Threshing  corn  with  the  flail. 

chief  result  of  the  statute  was  that  it  introduced  an  element  of  discord 
between  two  classes  of  society. 

19.  The  Statute  of  Treasons.  1352. — In  1352  was  passed  the 
Statute  of  Treasons,  by  which  the  offences  amounting  to  treason 
were  defined,  the  chief  of  them  being  levying  war  against  the 


1350-1356  POITIERS  251 

king.  As  no  one  but  a  great  nobleman  was  strong  enough  even 
to  think  of  levying  war  against  the  king,  this  statute  may  be 
regarded  as  a  concession  to  the  wealthier  landowners  rather  than 
to  the  people  at  large. 

20.  The  Black  Prince  in  the  South  of  France.  1355. — In  1350 
Philip  VI.  of  France  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John.  The 
truce  (see  p.  243)  was  prolonged,  and  it  was  not  till  1355  that  war 
was  renewed.  Edward  himself  was  recalled  to  England  by  fresh 
troubles  in  Scotland,  but  the  Black  Prince  landed  at  Bordeaux 
and  marched  through  the  south  of  France,  plundering  as  he  went. 
Neither  father  nor  son  seems  to  have  had  any  idea  of  gaining  their 
ends  except  by  driving  the  French  by  ill-treatment  into  submission. 
"  You  must  know,"  wrote  a  contemporary  in  describing  the  con- 
dition of  southern  Languedoc,  "  that  this  was,  before,  one  of  the 
fat  countries  of  the  world,  the  .people  good  and  simple,  who  did  not 
know  what  war  was,  and  no  war  had  ever  been  waged  against  them 
before  the  Prince  of  Wales  came.  The  English  and  Gascons  found 
the  country  full  and  gay,  the  rooms  furnished  with  carpets  and 
draperies,  the  caskets  and  chests  full  of  beautiful  jewels  ;  but  no- 
thing was  safe  from  these  robbers."  The  Prince  returned  to  Bor- 
deaux laden  with  spoils. 

21.  The  Battle  of  Poitiers.  1356.— In  1356  the  Black  Prince 
swept  over  central  France  in  another  similar  plundering  expedition. 
He  was  on  his  way  back  with  his  plunder  to  Bordeaux  with  no 
more  than  8,000  men  to  guard  it  when  he  learnt  as  he  passed 
near  Poitiers  that  King  John  was  close  to  him  with  50,000.  He 
drew  up  his  little  force  on  a  rising  ground  amidst  thick  vineyards, 
with  a  hedge  in  front  of  him  behind  which  he  could  shelter  his 
archers.  As  at  Cregy,  the  greater  part  of  the  English  horsemen 
were  dismounted,  and  John,  thinking  that  therein  lay  their  secret 
of  success,  ordered  most  of  his  horsemen  to  dismount  as  well,  not 
having  discovered  that  though  spearmen  on  foot  could  present  a 
formidable  resistance  to  a  cavalry  charge,  they  were  entirely  useless 
in  attacking  a  strong  position  held  by  archers.  Then  he  sent 
forward  300  knights  who  retained  their  horses,  bidding  a  strong 
body  of  dismounted  horsemen  to  support  them.  The  horsemen, 
followed  by  the  footmen,  charged  at  a  gap  in  the  hedge,  but  the 
hedge  on  either  side  was  lined  with  English  bowmen,  and  men  and 
horses  were  struck  down.  Those 'who  survived  fled  and  scattered 
their  countrymen  behind.  Seeing  the  disorder,  the  Black  Prince 
ordered  the  few  knights  whom  he  had  kept  on  horseback  to  sweep 
round  and  to  fall  upon  the  confused  crowd  in  the  flank.     The 


K 


^ 


i 


252  EDWARD  III.  1 356-1 359 

archers  advanced  to  second  them,  and,  gallantly  as  the  French 
fought,  their  unhorsed  knights  could  accomplish  nothing  against 
the  combined  efforts  of  horse  and  foot.  King  John  was  taken 
prisoner  and  the  battle  was  at  an  end. 

22.  The  Courtesy  of  the  Black  Prince. — The  Black  Prince 
had  been  cruel  to  townsmen  and  peasants,  but  he  was  a  model  of 
chivalry,  and  knew  how  to  deal  with  a  captive  king:  At  supper 
he  stood  behind  John's  chair  and  waited  on  him,  praising  his 
bravery.  "  All  on  our  side,"  he  said,  "  who  have  seen  you  and 
your  knights,  are  agreed  about  this,  and  give  you  the  prize  and  the 
chaplet  if  you  will  wear  it."  After  the  astounding  victory  of  Poitiers, 
the  Black  Prince,  instead  of  marching  upon  Paris,  went  back  to 
Bordeaux.  In  1357  he  made  a  truce  for  two  years  and  returned  to 
England  with  his  royal  captive. 

23.  Misery  of  France.  1356 — 1359. —  In  1356,  the  year  in  which 
the  Black  Prince  fought  at  Poitiers,  his  father  ravaged  Scotland. 
Edward,  however,  gained  nothing  by  this  fresh  attempt  at  conquest. 
In  his  retreat  he  suffered  heavy  loss,  and  in  1357,  changing  his 
plan,  he  replaced  David  Bruce  (see  p.  242)  on  the  throne,  and  strove 
to  win  the  support  of  the  Scots  instead  of  exasperating  them  by 
violence.  In  the  meanwhile  the  two  years'  truce  brought  no  good 
to  France.  The  nobles  wrung  from  the  peasants  the  sums  needed 
to  redeem  their  relatives,  who  were  prisoners  in  England,  and  the 
disbanded  soldiers,  French  and  English,  formed  themselves  into 
free  companies  and  plundered  as  mercilessly  as  the  Black  Prince 
had  done  in  time  of  war.  Worn  down  with  oppression,  the  French 
peasants  broke  into  a  rebellion  known  as  the  Jacquerie,  from  the 
nickname  of  Jacques-Bonhomme,  which  the  gentry  gave  to  them. 
After  committing  unheard-of  cruelties  the  peasants  were  repressed 
and  slaughtered.  An  attempt  of  the  States-General — a  sort  of 
French  Parliament  which  occasionally  met — to  improve  the  govern- 
ment failed.  Peace  with  England  was  talked  of,  but  Edward's 
terms  were  too  hard  to  be  accepted,  and  in  1359  war  began 
again. 

24.  Edward's  Last  Invasion.  1359— 1360.— So  miserably  de- 
vastated was  France  that  Edward,  when  he  invaded  the  country 
in  1359,  had  to  take  with  him  not  only  men  and  munitions  of  war, 
but  large  stores  of  provisions.  He  met  no  enemy  in  the  field, 
but  the  land  had  been  so  wasted  that  his  men  suffered  much 
from  want  of  food,  in  spite  of  the  supplies  which  they  had  taken 
with  them.  "  I  could  not  believe,"  wrote  an  Italian  who  revisited 
France  after  an  absence  of  some  years,  "  that  this  was  the  same 


1360 


DESOLATION  OF  FRANCE 


253 


kingdom  which  I  had  once  seen  so  rich  and  flourishing.  Nothing 
presented  itself  to  my  eyes  but  a  fearful  sohtude,  an  extreme 
poverty,  land  uncultivated,  houses  in  ruins.  Even  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Paris  manifested  everywhere  marks  of  destruction  and 
conflagration.  The  streets  were  deserted  ;  the  roads  overgrown 
wrth  weeds  ;  the  whole  a  vast  solitude."  In  the  spring  of  1360 
Edward  moved  on  towards  the  banks  of  the  Loire,  hoping  to  find 
sustenance  there.  Near  Chartres  he  was  overtaken  by  a  terrible 
storm  of  hail  and  thunder,  and  in  the  roar  of  the  thunder  he  thought 


West  front  of  Edington  Church,  Wilts  :  built  about  1360. 
An  example  of  the  transition  from  the  Decorated  style  to  the  Perpendicular. 


that  he  heard  the  voice  of  God  reproving  him  for  the  misery  which 
he  had  caused.  He  abated  his  demands  and  signed  the  treaty  of 
Bretigni. 

25.  The  Treaty  of  Bretigni.  1360. — By  the  treaty  of  Bretigni 
John  was  to  be  ransomed  for  an  enormous  sum  ;  Edward  was  to 
surrender  his  claim  to  the  crown  of  France  and  to  the  provinces 
north  of  Aquitaine,  receiving  in  return  the  whole  of  the  duchy  of 
Aquitaine  together  with  the  districts  round  Calais  and  Ponthieu, 
all  of  them  to  be  held  in  full  sovereignty,  without  any  feudal  obliga- 


254  EDWARD  III.  1 360-1364 

tion  to  the  king  of  France.  Probably  it  cost  Edward  little  to 
abandon  his  claim  to  the  French  crown,  which  had  only  been  an 
after-thought  ;  and  it  was  a  clear  gain  to  get  rid  of  those  feudal 
entanglements  which  had  so  frequently  been  used  as  a  pretext  of 
aggression  against  the  English  kings.  It  was  hardly  likely,  how- 
ever, that  England  would  long  be  able  to  keep  a  country  like 
Aquitaine,  which  was  geographically  part  of  France  and  in  which 
French  sympathies  were  constantly  on  the  increase.  "  We  will 
obey  the  English  with  our  lips,"  said  the  men  of  Rochelle,  when 
their  town  was  surrendered,  "  but  our  hearts  shall  never  be  moved 
towards  them." 


:/ 


CHAPTER   XVI 

REIGN   OF   EDWARD   III.   AFTER  THE  TREATY   OF   BRETIGNI 
1360— 1377 

LEADING   DATES 
Reig:n  of  Edward  III.,  1327-1377. 

Battle  of  Navarrete 1367 

Renewal  of  war  with  France 1369 

Truce  with  France .  1375 

The  Good  Parliament 1376 

Death  of  Edward  III 1377 


I.  The  First  Years  of  Peace.  1360— 1364. —To  hold  his  new 
provinces  the  better,  Edward  sent  the  Black  Prince  to  govern 
them  in  1363  with  the  title  of  Duke  of  Aquitaine.  King  John  had 
been  liberated  soon  after  the  making  of  the  peace,  and  had  been 
allowed  to  return  to  France  on  payment  of  part  of  his  ransom,  and 
on  giving  hostages  for  the  payment  of  the  remainder.  In  1363  one 
of  the  hostages,  his  son,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  broke  his  parole  and 
fled,  on  which  John,  shocked  at  such  perfidy,  returned  to  England 
to  make  excuses  for  him,  and  died  there  in  1364.  If  honour,  he 
said,  were  not  to  be  found  elsewhere,  it  ought  to  be  found  in  the 

r      breasts  of  kings. 

^  2.  The  Spanish  Troubles.  1364— 1368.— John's  eldest  son  and 
successor,  Charles  V.,  known  as  the  Wise,  or  the  Prudent,  was  less 
chivalrous,  but  more  cautious  than  his  father,  and  soon  found  an 
opportunity  of  stirring  up  trouble  for  the  Black  Prince  without  ex- 
posing his  own  lands  to  danger.  Pedro  the  Cruel,  king  of  Castile, 
who  had  for  some  time  been  the  ally  of  England,  had  murdered 


1 364- 1 368         THE  BLACK  PRINCE  IN  SPAIN  255 

his  wife,  tyrannised  over  his  nobles,  and  contracted  an  alliance 
with  the  Mohammedans  of  Granada.  The  Pope  having  excom- 
municated him,  hig  own  illegitimate  brother,  Henry  of  Trastamara, 
claimed  the  crown,  and  sought  aid  of  the  king  of  France.  Charles 
V.  sent  Bertrand  du  Guesclin,  a  rising  young  commander,  to  his 
help.  Du  Guesclin's  army  was  made  up  of  men  of  the  Free  Com- 
panies (seep.  252),  which  still  continued  to  plunder  France  on  their 
own  account  after  the  Peace  of  Bretigni.  In  this  way  Charles  got 
rid  of  a  scourge  of  his  own  country  at  the  same  time  that  he  at- 
tacked an  ally  of  the  English.  In  1366  Du  Guesclin  entered  Spain. 
The  tyrannical  Pedro  took  refuge  at  Bayonne,  where  he  begged 
the  Black  Prince  to  help  him.  The  Gascon  nobles  pleaded  with 
the  Prince  to  reject  the  monster,  but  the  Prince  was  not  to  be  held 
back.     "  It  is  not  a  right  thing  or  reasonable,"  he  said,  when  they 


A  gold  noble  of  Edward  III.,  struck  between  a.u.  1360  and  1369. 

urged  him  to  keep  aloof  from  the  unjust  undertaking  to  which  he  m- 
vited  them,  "  that  a  bastard  should  hold  a  kingdom,  and  thrust  out 
of  it,  and  of  his  heritage,  a  brother  and  heir  of  the  land  by  legal 
marriage.  All  kings  and  sons  of  kings  should  never  agree  nor 
consent  to  it,  for  it  is  a  great  blow  at  the  royal  state."  In  1367  the 
Black  Prince  entered  Spain,  and  with  the  help  of  his  English  archers 
thoroughly  defeated  Henry  at  Navarrete.  Then  vengeance  overtook 
him  on  the  side  on  which  he  had  sinned.  Pedro  was  as  false  as  he 
was  cruel,  and  refused  to  pay  the  sums  which  he  had  engaged  to 
furnish  to  the  Prince's  troops.  Sickness  broke  out  in  the  English 
ranks,  and  the  Black  Prince  returned  to  Bordeaux  with  only  a 
fifth  part  of  his  army,  and  with  his  own  health  irretrievably 
shattered.  In  1368  Henry  made  his  way  back  to  Spain,  defeated 
and  slew  Pedro,  and  undid  the  whole  work  of  the  Black  Prince  to 
the  south  of  the  Pyrenees. 


EDWARD  III. 


I 368- I 369 


Effigy  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  from  his 
tomb  at  Canterbury  :  showing  the  type  of 
armour  worn  irom  1335  to  1400. 


3.  The  Taxation  of  Aqui- 
taine.  1368— 1369. — Worse 
than  this  was  in  store  for  the 
Black  Prince.  As  his  soldiers 
clamoured  for  their  wages, 
he  levied  a  hearth  tax  to 
supply  their  needs.  The 
Aquitanian  Parliament  de- 
clared against  the  tax,  and 
appealed  to  the  king  of  France 
to  do  them  right.  In  1369 
Charles,  who  knew  that  the 
men  of  Aquitaine  would  be 
on  his  side,  summoned  the 
Black  Prince  to  Paris  to  de- 
fend his  conduct,  on  the  pre- 
text that,  as  there  had  been 
some  informality  in  the  treaty 
of  Bretigni,  he  was  himself 
still  the  feudal  superior  of  the 
Duke  of  Aquitaine.  "  Wil- 
lingly," replied  the  Black 
Prince  when  he  received  the 
summons,  "  we  will  go  to  the 
court  of  Paris,  as  the  king  of 
France  orders  it ;  but  it  shall 
be  with  helmet  on  head  and 
sixty  thousand  men  with  us." 

4.  The  Renewed  War. 
1369 — 1375.— Edward,  by  the 
advice  of  Parliament,  re- 
sumed the  title  of  King  of 
France,  and  war  broke  out 
afresh  in  1369.  The  result  of 
the  first  war  had  been  owing 
to  the  blunders  of  the  French 
in  attacking  the  English 
archers  with  the  feudal 
cavalry.  Charles  V.  and  his 
commander,  Du  Guesclin, 
resolved  to  fight  no  battles. 
Their  troops  hung  about  the 


tx. 


1370-1375  MILITARY  FAILURES  257 

English  march,  cut  off  stragglers,  and  captured  exposed  towns.  The 
English  marched  hither  and  thither,  plundering  and  burning,  but 
their  armies,  powerful  as  they  were  when  attacked  in  a  defensive 
position,  could  not  succeed  in  forcing  a  battle,  and  were  worn  out 
without  accomplishing  anything  worthy  of  their  fame.  The  Black 
Prince,  soured  by  failure  and  ill-health,  having  succeeded  in  1370 
in  recapturing  Limoges,  ordered  his  men  to  spare  no  one  in  the 
town.  "It  was  great  pity,"  wrote  the  chronicler  P>oissart,  "  for  men, 
women,  and  children  threw  themselves  on  their  knees  before  the 
Prince,  crying  '  Mercy  !  mercy  !  gentle  Sire  ! '  "  The  Prince,  who 
had  waited  at  table  behind  a  captive  king,  hardened  his  heart. 
More  than  three  thousand — men,  women  and  children— were 
butchered  on  that  day.  Yet  the  spirit  of  chivalry  was  strong  within 
him,  and  he  spared  three  gentlemen  who  fought  bravely  merely 
in  order  to  sell  their  lives  dearly.  In  1371  the  Black  Prince  was 
back  in  England.  His  eldest  surviving  brother,  John  of  Gaunt — 
or  Ghent — Duke  of  Lancaster,  continued  the  war  in  France.  In 
1372  the  English  lost  town  after  town.  In  1373  John  of  Gaunt 
set  out  from  Calais.  He  could  plunder,  but  he  could  not  make 
the  enemy  fight.  "  Let  them  go,"  wrote  Charles  V.  to  his  com^ 
manders  ;  "  by  burning  they  will  not  become  masters  of  your 
heritage.  Though  storms  rage  over  a  land,  they  disperse  of  them- 
selves. So  will  it  be  with  these  English.'  When  the  English 
reached  the  hilly  centre  of  France  food  failed  them.  The  winter 
came,  and  horses  and  men  died  of  cold  and  want.  A  rabble  ol 
half-starved  fugitives  was  all  that  reached  Bordeaux  after  a  march 
of  six  hundred  miles.  Aquitaine,  where  the  inhabitants  were  for 
the  most  part  hostile  to  the  English,  and  did  everything  in  their 
power  to  assist  the  French,  was  before  long  all  but  wholly  lost,  and 
in  1375  a  truce  was  made  which  put  an  end  to  hostilities  for  a  time, 
leaving  only  Calais,  Cherbourg,  Brest,  Bayonne,  and  Bordeaux  in 
the  hands  of  the  English. 

5.  Anti-Papal  Legislation.  1351 — 1366.-  The  antagonism  be- 
tween England  and  France  necessarily  led  to  an  antagonism  between 
England  and  the  Papacy.  Since  1305  the  Popes  had  fixed  their 
abode  at  Avignon,  and  though  Avignon  w^s  not  yet  incorporated 
with  France,  it  was  near  enough  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  king 
of  France.  During  the  time  of  this  exile  from  Rome,  known  to  ardent 
churchmen  as  the  Babylonian  captivity  of  the  Church,  the  Popes 
were  regarded  in  England  as  the  tools  of  the  French  enemy.  The 
Papal  court,  too,  became  distinguished  for  luxury  and  vice,  and  its 
vast  expenditure  called  for  supplies  which  England  was  increasingly 

S 


2S8  EDWARD  III.  1353- 1362 

loth  to  furnish.  By  a  system  of  provisions,  as  they  were  called,  the 
Pope  provided— or  appointed  beforehand — his  nominees  to  English 
benefices,  and  expected  that  his  nominees  would  be  allowed  to  hold 
the  benefices  to  the  exclusion  of  those  of  the  patrons.  In  1351  the 
Statute  of  Provisors  ^  attempted  to  put  an  end  to  the  system,  but 
it  was  not  immediately  successful,  and  had  to  be  re-enacted  in  later 
years.  In  1353  a  Statute  of  Prcejnuttire'^  was  passed,  in  which, 
though  the  Pope's  name  was  not  mentioned,  an  attempt  was  made 
to  stop  suits  being  carried  before  foreign  courts — in  other  words, 
before  the  Papal  court  at  Avignon.  Another  claim  of  the  Popes  was 
to  the  1,000  marks  payable  annually  as  a  symbol  of  John's  vassal- 
age, a  claim  most  distasteful  to  Englishmen  as  a  sign  of  national 
humiliation.  Since  1333,  the  year  in  which  Edward  took  the 
government  into  his  own  hands,  the  payment  had  not  been  made, 
and  in  1366  Parliament  utterly  rejected  a  claim  made  by  the  Pope 
.for  its  revival. 
(^^  6.  Predominance  of  the  English  Language. — The  national  spirit 
which  revealed  itself  in  an  armed  struggle  with  the  French  and  in 
a  legal  struggle  with  the  Papacy  showed  itself  in  the  increasing 
predominance  of  the  English  language.  In  1362  it  supplanted 
French  in  the  law  courts,  and  in  the  same  year  Parliament  was 
opened  with  an  English  speech.  French  was  still  the  language  of 
the  court,  but  it  was  becoming  a  foreign  speech,  pronounced  very 
differently  from  the  '  French  of  Paris.' 

7.  Piers  the  Plowman.  1362.  —Cruel  as  had  been  the  direct 
results  c)rtj;ie  English  victories  in  France,  they  had  indirectly  con- 
tributed to  tbssOverthrow  of  that  feudalism  which  weighed  heavily 
upon  France  andsupon  all  Continental  Europe.  The  success  of 
the  English  had  beeh^the  success  of  a  nation  strong  in  the  union 
of  classes.  The  cessatiohsof  the  war  drove  the  thoughts  of  English- 
men back  upon  themselves^sThe  old  spiritual  channels  had  been, 
to  a  great  extent,  choked  up.  ^^shops  were  busy  with  the  king's 
affairs  ;  monks  had  long  ceased  toS^  specially  an  example  to  the 
world ;  and  even  the  friars  had  falleiKfrom  their  first  estate,  and 
had  found  out  that,  though  they  might  pb4;sonally  possess  nothing, 
their  order  might  be, wealthy.  The  menN^io  won  victories  in 
France  came  home  to  spend  their  booty  in  shoVand  luxury.  Yet, 
for  all  the  splendour  around,  there  was  a  general  feelihg  that  the  times 
were  out  of  joint,  and  this  feeling  was  strengthened  by  a  fresh  in- 

1  Provisors  are  the  persons  provided  or  appointed  to  a  benefice. 

2  So  called  from  the  first  words  of  the  writs  appointed  to  be  issued  under  it, 
frcBmunire facias  ;  the  first  of  these  two  words  being  a  corruption  of  Prcemoneri, 


1 362- 1 377  PIERS   THE  PLOWMAN  259 

road  of  the  Black  Death  in  1361.  To  the  prevalent  yearning  for  a 
better  life,  a  voice  was  given  by  William  Langland,  whose  Vision 
j>f  Piers  the  Plowman  appeared  in  its  first  shape  in  1362.  In  the 
s^pening  of  his  poem  he  shows  to  his  readers  the  supremacy  of  the 
dden  Meed — bribery — over  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men,  lay 
an<i\lerical.  Then  he  turns  to  the  purification  of  this  wicked  world. 
They  who  wish  to  eschew  evil  and  to  do  good  inquire  their  way 
to  Truth-^he  eternal  God — and  find  their  only  guide  in  '  Piers  the 
Plowman.'  \he  simple  men  of  the  plough,  who  do  honest  work 
and  live  upright  lives,  know  how  to  find  the  way  to  Truth.  That 
way  lies  not  throngh  the  inventions  of  the  official  Church,  the 
pardons  and  indulgences  set  up  for  sale.  "  They  who  have  done 
good  shall  go  into  eternal  life,  but  they  who  have  done  evil  into 
eternal  fire."  Langland' sN^aching,  in  short,  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  great  Italian  poet,  Daiite,  who,  earlier  in  the  century,  had 
cried  aloud  for  the  return  of  jus^ce  and  true  religion.  He  stands 
apart  from  Dante  and  from  all  osiers  of  his  time  in  looking  for 
help  to  the  despised  peasant.  NoNioubt  his  peasant  was  ideal- 
ised, as  no  one  knew  better  than  hiirt^lf ;  but  it  was  honesty  of 
work  in  the  place  of  dishonest  idlenesss^hich  he  venerated.  It 
was  the  glory  of  England  to  have  produced  such  a  thought  far  more 
than  to  have  produced  the  men  who,  heavy  wfth  the  plunder  of  un- 
happy peasants,  stood  boldly  to  their  arms  at  Oi;e9y  and  Poitiers. 
He  is  as  yet  hardly  prepared  to  say  what  is  the  rign^ousness  which 
leads  to  eternal  life.  It  is  not  till  he  issues  a  second\dition  in  1377 
that  he  can  answer.  To  do  well,  he  now  tells  us,  is  ro  act  right- 
eously to  all  in  the  fear  of  God.  To  do  better  is  to  \alk  in  the 
way  of  love  :  "  Behold  how  good  a  thing  it  is  for  brethren\to  dwell 
in  unity."  To  do  best  is  to  live  in  fellowship  with  Christ  and  the 
Church,  and  in  all  humility  to  bring  forth  the  fruits  of  the  Divine 
communion. 

8.  The  Anti-Clerical  Party.  1371.  — Langland  wished  to  improve, 
not  to  overthrow,  existing  institutions,  but  for  all  that  his  work  was 
profoundly  revolutionary.  They  who  call  on  those  who  have  left 
their  first  love  to  return  to  it  are  seldom  obeyed,  but  their  voice  is 
often  welcomed  by  the  corrupt  and  self-seeking  crowd  which  is  eager, 
after  the  fashion  of  birds  of  prey,  to  tear  the  carcase  from  which 
life  has  departed.  A  large  party  was  formed  in  England,  especially 
amongst  the  greater  barons,  which  was  anxious  to  strip  the  clergy 
of  their  wealth  and  power,  without  any  thought  for  the  better  fulfil- 
ment of  their  spiritual  functions.  In  the  Parliament  of  1371  bishops 
were  declared  unfit  to  hold  offices  of  state.     Amongst  others  who 

S3 


26o 


EDWARD  III. 


371-1374 


were  dismissed  was  William  of  Wykeham,  the  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester. He  was  a  great  architect  and  administrator,  and  having 
been  deprived  of  the  Chancellorship  used  his  wealth  to  found  at 
Winchester  the  first  great  pubhc  school  in  England,  By  this  time 
a  Chancellor  was  no  longer  what  he  had  been  in  earlier  days 
(see  p.  127),  a  secretary  to  the  king.     He  was  now  beginning  to 

exercise  equitable  jurisdiction — that  is 
to  say,  the  right  of  deciding  suits  ac- 
cording to  equity,  in  cases  in  which 
the  strict  artificial  rules  of  the  ordinary 
courts  stood  in  the  way  of  justice. 
V/  9.  The  Duke  of  Lancaster.  1374 
■  —1376. — In  1374,  as  soon  as  the  Duke 
of  Lancaster  returned  from  his  dis- 
astrous campaign  (see  p.  257),  he  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  baronial  and 
anti-clerical  party.  He  was  selfish  and 
unprincipled,  but  he  had  enormous 
wealth,  having  secured  the  vast  estates 
of  the  Lancaster  family  by  his  marriage 
with  Blanche,  the  granddaughter  of  the 
brother  of  Thomas  of  Lancaster,  the 
opponent  of  Edward  II.  Rich  as  he 
was  he  wished  to  be  richer,  and  he 
saw  his  opportunity  in  an  attack  upon 
the  higher  clergy,  which  might  end  in 
depriving  them  not  only  of  political 
power,  but  of  much  of  their  ecclesias- 
tical property  as  well.  His  accession 
to  the  baronial  party  was  of  the  greater 
importance  because  he  was  now  prac- 
tically the  first  man  in  the  state.  The 
king  was  suffering  from  softening  of 
the  brain,  and  had  fallen  under  the 
influence  of  a  greedy  and  unscrupu- 
lous mistress,  Alice  Ferrers,  whilst  the 
Black  Prince  was  disqualified  by  illness  from  taking  part  in  the 
management  of  affairs.  A  bargain  was  struck  between  the  Duke 
and  Alice  Ferrers,  who  was  able  to  obtain  the  consent  of  the  help- 
less king  to  anything  she  pleased.  She  even  sat  on  the  bench  with 
the  judges,  intimidating  them  into  deciding  in  favour  of  the  suitors 
who  had  bribed  her  most  highly.      It  seemed  as  if   Langland's 


William  of  Wykeham,  Bisho] 
Winchester,  1367-1404  :  f 
his  tomb  at  Winchester. 


p  of 
rem 


1366-1376  WVCLlPPk  AND  LAP^CASTPk  261 

Meed  (see  p.  259)  had  appeared  in  person.     The  king's  patronage 
was  shared  between  her  and  Lancaster. 

10.  John  Wycliffe.  1366 — 1376. — If  Lancaster's  character  had 
been  higher,  he  might  have  secured  a  widespread  popularity,  as 
the  feehng  of  the  age  was  adverse  to  the  continuance  of  a  wealthy 
clergy.  Even  as  things  were,  he  had  on  his  side  John  Wycliffe,  the 
most  able  reasoner  and  devoted  reformer  of  his  age,  who,  like 
others  before  and  after  him,  imagined  that  a  high  spiritual 
enterprise  could  be  achieved  ivith  the  help  of  low  and  worldly 
politicians.  Wycliffe  had  distinguished  himself  at  Oxford,  and  had 
attracted  Lancaster's  notice  by  the  ability  of  his  argument  against 
the  Pope's  claim  to  levy  John's  tribute  (see  p.  258).  In  1374  he  had 
been  sent  to  Bruges  to  argue  with  the  representatives  of  the  Pope 
on  the  question  of  the  provisions,  and  by  1376  had  either  issued,  or 
was  preparing  to  issue,  his  work  On  Civil  Lordships  in  which,  by  a 
curious  adaptation  of  feudal  ideas,  he  declared  that  all  men  held 
their  possessions  direct  from  God,  as  a  vassal  held  his  estate  from 
his  lord  ;  and  that  as  a  vassal  was  bound  to  pay  certain  military 
services,  failing  which  he  lost  his  estate,  so  everyone  who  fell  into 
mortal  sin  failed  to  pay  his  service  to  God,  and  forfeited  his  right 
to  his  worldly  possessions.  In  this  way  dominion,  as  he  said,  was 
founded  on  grace — that  is  to  say,  the  continuance  of  man's  right  to 
his  possessions  depended  on  his  remaining  in  a  rtate  of  grace.  It 
is  true  that  Wycliffe  qualified  his  argument  by  alleging  that  he  was 
only  announcing  theoretical  truth,  and  that  no  man  had  a  right  to 
rob  another  of  his  holding  because  he  believed  him  to  be  living  in 
sin.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  men  like  Lancaster  would  take  no 
heed  of  this  distinction,  and  would  welcome  Wycliffe  as  an  ally  in 
the  work  of  despoiling  the  clergy  for  their  own  purposes. 

11.  Lancaster  and  the  Black  Prince.  1376. — Ordinary  citizens, 
whoxargdnothing  for  theories  which  they  did  not  understand,  were 
roused  agan^stsLancaster  by  the  unblushing  baseness  of  his  rule. 
Nor  was  this  al!>->-jrhe  anti-clerical  party  was  also  a  baronial 
party,  and  ever  since  theKivights  Bachelors  of  England  had  turned 
to  the  future  Edward  I.  to  defetni^hem  against  the  barons  who 
made  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  (see  pr>9Q^the  country  gentry  and 
townsmen  had  learnt  the  lesson  that  they  wotri4be  the  first  to  suffer 
from  the  unchecked  rule  of  the  baronage.  They  nbx^ad  the  House 
of  Commons  to  represent  their  wishes,  but  as  yet  th«;House  of 
Commons  was  too  weak  to  stand  alone.  At  last  it  was  ruhiQured 
that  when  the  Black  Prince  died  his  young  son  Richard  was  to  be 
set  asidej  and  that  Lancaster  was  to  claim  the  inheritance  of  the 


^ 


262  EDWARD  Hi.  1376-137^ 

crown,  as  an  earlier  John  had  claimed  it  in  the  place  of  the  youthful 
Arthur.  The  Black  Prince  awoke  from  his  lethargy,  and  stood 
forward  as  the  leader  of  the  Commons. 

12.  The  Good  Parliament.  1376. — A  Parliament,  known  as  the 
Good  Parliament,  met  in  1376,  and,  strong  through  the  Black  Prince's 
support,  the  Commons  refused  to  grant  supply  till  an  account  of  the 
receipts  and  expenditure  had  been  laid  before  them.  "What," 
cried  Lancaster,  "  do  these  base  and  ignoble  knights  attempt  ?  Do 
they  think  they  be  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  land  ?  I  think  they 
know  not  what  power  I  am  of.  I  will  therefore,  early  in  the  morning, 
appear  unto  them  so  glorious,  and  will  show  such  power  among 
them,  and  with  such  vigour  I  will  terrify  them  that  neither  they 
nor  theirs  shall  dare  henceforth  to  provoke  me  to  wrath."  Lan- 
caster soon  found  that  his  brother  was  stronger  than  he.  The 
Commons  obtained  a  new  Council,  in  which  Wykeham  was 
included  and  from  which  Lancaster  was  shut  out.  They  then 
proceeded  to  accuse  before  the  House  of  Lords  Richard  Lyons 
and  Lord  Latimer  of  embezzling  the  king's  revenue.  Lyons,  ac- 
customed to  the  past  ways  of  the  court,  packed  1,000/.  in  a  barrel 
and  sent  it  to  the  Black  Prince.  The  Black  Prince  returned  the 
barrel  and  the  money,  and  the  Lords  condemned  Lyons  to  im- 
prisonmefit.  Latimer  was  also  sentenced  to  imprisonment,  but  he 
was  allowed  to  give  bail  and  regained  his  liberty.  These  two 
cases  are  the  first  instances  of  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  impeach- 
ment— that  is  to  say,  of  the  accusation  of  political  offenders  by  the 
Commons  before  the  Lords.  Alice  Perrers  was  next  driven  from 
court. 

13.  The  Last  Year  of  Edward  IIL  1376— 1377.— .Whilst  Par- 
liament was  still  sitting  the  Black  Prince,  worn  out  by  his  exertions, 
died.  His  son,  young  Richard,  was  at  once  recognised  as  heir  to 
the  throne.  Lancaster,  however,  regained  his  influence  over  his 
doting  father.  Alice  Perrers  and  Lord  Latimer  found  their  way 
back  to  court.  The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  was  thrown 
into  prison.  Frivolous  charges  were  brought  against  Wykeham, 
who  was  deprived  of  his  temporalities  and  banished  from  the 
court.  In  1377  a  new  Parliament,  elected  under  Lancaster's 
influence,  reversed  all  the  proceedings  of  the  Good  Parliament, 
and  showed  how  little  sympathy  the  baronial  party  had  with  the 
people  by  imposing  a  poll  tax  of  4^.  a  head  on  all  except  beggars, 
thus  making  the  payment  of  a  labourer  and  a  duke  equal.  The 
bishops,  unable  to  strike  at  Lancaster,  struck  at  Wycliffe,  as  his 
creature.     Wycliffe  was  summoned  to  appear  before  an  ecclesias- 


1377  WYCLIFFE  AT  ST.  PAUVS  263 

tical  court  at  St.  Paul's,  presided  over  by  Courtenay,  the  Bishop  of 
London.  He  came  supported  by  Lancaster  and  a  troop  of  Lan- 
caster's followers.     Hot  words  were  exchanged  between  them  and 


Tomb  of  Edward  III.  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

the  Bishop.     The  London  crowd  took  their  Bishop's  part  and  the 
Duke  was  compelled  to  flee  for  his  life.     In  the  summer  of  1377 


204 


EDWARD  III. 


1171-1315 


Edward  III.  died,  deserted  by  everyone,  Alice  Ferrers  making  off, 
after  robbing  him  of  his  finger-rings. 

14.  Ireland  from  the  Reign  of  John  to  that  of  Edward  II.— 
When  England  was  gradually  losing  its  hold  on  France,  what 
hold  it  hadhach^cLtreland  was  gradually  slipping  away.  Henry  IL 
had  been  quite  unable>»^gffect  in  Ireland  the  kind  of  conquest 
which  William  the  Conqueror^^"ha4  effected  in  England.  William 
had  succeeded  because  he  had  been"^ble  to  secure  order  by  placing 


himself  at  the  head  of  the  conquered  na 


In  Ireland,  in  the 
St  place,  the  king 
wa^X.perpetual  ab- 
sentee;  and,  in  the 
second  place,  there 
was  np  Irish  na- 
tional organisation 
at  the  head  of  which 
he  ckuld  have 
placed  mmself.  even 
if  he  had  from  time 
to  time  Wisited  the 
island.  iThere  were 
separate  tribes,  each 
one  attacflied  to  its 
own  chi(  f  and  to 
aws  and 
rheywere 
drive  out 
feildal  con- 
but  in  the 
parts  of 
the  couniry,  they 
were  able  ttp  absorb 
them,  just!  as  the 
English  in  tneir  own 
country  absorbed 
their  Nornian  con- 
querors. The  difference  was  that  in  England  the  conquerprs  were 
absorbed  into  a  nation  :  in  Ireland  they  were  absorbed  jSnto  the 
several  tribes.  The  few  who  retained  the  English  laws  arid  habits 
were,  for  the  most  part,  confined  to  the  part  of  Irelaiii  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Dublin,  which  was  specially  accessible  t©  English 
influences.     In  1315  Edward  Bruce,  the  brother  of  Robert  Bruce, 


Figures  of  Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  and  Lionel,  Duke  of 
Clarence,  from  the  tomb  of  Edward  III.;  illustrating 
the  ordinary  costume  of  gentlemen  at  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 


I3I5-1377 


ENGLAJ^D  AND  IRELAND 


265 


A 


invaded  Ireland,  andTthQUgh  he  was  ultimately  defeated  and  slain 
he  did  enough  to  shatter  tn^^-pQwer  of  the  English  nobility  ;  and  it 
was  mainly  in  consequence  of  his'psti^tial  success  that  the  authority 
of  the  English  government  was,  for  somNtmie  to  come,  limited  to 
a  certain  district  round  Dublin,  known  abou?Vc;entury  later  as  the 
English  Pale,  the  extent  of  which  varied  from  timfcstp  time. 

15.  The  Statute  of  Kilkenny.  1367. — As  long  as"*  the  French 
wars  lasted  the  attention  of  the  English  Government  was  diverted 
from  Ireland.  In  1361,  however,  the  year  after  the  Treaty  of 
Bretigni,  the  king's  son,  Lionel  Duke  of  Clarence,  was  sent  to  ex- 
tend English  rule.  In  1367  he  gathered  a  Parliament  of  the 
English  colonists.  This  Parliament  passed  the  Statute  of  Kil- 
kenny, by  which  the  relations  between  the  two  races  were  defined. 
Within  the  Pale  English  laws  and  customs  were  to  prevail,  and  even 
Irishmen  living  there  were  to  be  debarred  from  the  use  of  their  own 
language.  Beyond  the  Pale  the  Irish  were  to  be  left  to  themselves, 
communication  between  the  two  peoples  being  cut  off  as  much  as 
possible.  The  idea  of  conquering  Ireland  was  abandoned,  and  the 
idea  of  maintaining  a  colony  on  a  definite  part  of  Irish  soil  was 
substituted  for  it.  The  Statute  of  Kilkenny  was,  in  short,  a  counter- 
part of  the  Treaty  of  Bretigni.  In  both  cases  Edward  III.  pre- 
ferred the  full  maintenance  of  his  authority  over  a  part  of  a  country 
to  its  assertion  over  the  whole. 

16.  Weakness  of  the  English  Colony.     1367— 1377 It  takes 

two  to  make  a  bargain,  and  the  Irish  were  not  to  be  prevented 
from  encroaching  on  the  English  because  the  English  had  re- 
solved no  longer  to  encroach  upon  them.  The  renewal  of  the 
war  with  France  in  1369  made  it  impossible  to  send  help  from 
England,  and  during  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  the 
Irish  pillaged  freely  within  the  English  territoiy,  constantly  winning 
ground  from  their  antagonists 

Genealogy  of  the  more  importatit  Sous  of  Edward  III. 

Edward  III. 

d.  1377 

I 


I 

Edward, 

the  Black 

Prince, 

d.  1376 


Lionel, 
Duke  of 
Clarence, 
d.  1368 


I 

John  of  Gaunt, 

Duke  of 

Lancaster, 

d.  1399 


I 

Edmund, 

Duke  of 

York, 

d.  1402 


>6 


266 


CHAPTER   XVII 

RICHARD   II.    AND   THE   SOCIAL   REVOLUTION 

1377— 1381 

LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  Richard  II.,  1377-1399 

Accession  of  Richard  II 1377 

The  peasants'  revolt 1381 

1.  The  First  Years  of  Richard  II.     1377— 1378.— "Woe  to  the 

land,"  quoted  Langland  from  Ecclesiastes,  in  the  second  edition  of 
Piers  the  Plowman^  "  when  the  king  is  a  child."  Richard  was 
but  ten  years  of  age  when  he  was  raised  to  the  throne.  The 
French  plundered  the  coast,  and  the  Scots  plundered  the  Borders. 
In  the  presence  of  such  dangers  Lancaster  and  Wykeham  forgot 
their  differences,  and  as  Lancaster  was  too  generally  distrusted  to 
allow  of  his  acting  as  regent,  the  council  governed  in  the  name  of 
the  young  king.  Lancaster,  however,  took  the  lead,  and  renewed 
the  war  with  France  with  but  little  result  beyond  so  great  a  waste 
of  money  as  to  stir  up  Parliament  to  claim  a  control  over  the 
expenditure  of  the  Crown. 

2.  Wycliffe  and  the  Great  Schism.  1378— 1381.— In  1378  began 
the  Great  Schism.  For  nearly  half  a  century  from  that  date  there 
were  two  Popes,  one  at  Avignon  and  one  at  Rome.  Wycliffe  had 
been  gradually  losing  his  reverence  for  a  single  Pope,  and  he  had 
none  left  for  two.  He  was  now  busy  with  a  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  English,  and  sent  forth  a  band  of  "poor  priests,"  to  preach  the 
simple  gospel  which  he  found  in  it.  He  was  thus  brought  into 
collision  with  the  pretensions  of  the  priesthood,  and  was  thereby 
led  to  question  the  doctrines  on  which  their  authority  was  based. 
In  1381  he  declared  his  disbelief  in  the  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
tiation,  and  thereby  denied  to  priests  that  power  "  of  making  the 
body  of  Christ,"  which  was  held  to  mark  them  off  from  their  fellow- 
men.  In  any  case,  so  momentous  an  announcement  would  have 
cost  Wycliffe  the  hearts  of  large  numbers  of  his  supporters.  It 
was  the  more  fatal  to  his  influence  as  it  was  coincident  with  social 
disorders,  the  blame  for  which  was  certain,  rightly  or  wrongly,  to 
be  laid  at  his  door. 


i37^ 


J/^AVV  TAXATION 


267 


K 


3.  The    Poll-taxes.       1379 — 1381. — The    disastrous   war  with 
France  made  fresh  taxation  unavoidable.     In  1379  a  poll-tax  was 


imposed  by  Parliament  on  a  graduated  scale,  reaching  from  the 
6/.  \y.  4a'.  required  of  a  duke,  to  the  groat  or  4d.,  representing 


("^^^aAjw 


26S  RICHARD  //  1380-1381 

in  those  days  at  least  the  value  of  4^.  at  the  present  day,  required 
of  the  poorest  peasant.  A  second  poll-tax  in  1380  exacted  no  less 
than  three  groats  from  every  peasant,  and  from  every  one  of  his 
unmarried  children  above  the  age  of  fifteen.  In  1381  a  tiler  of 
Dartford  in  Kent  struck  dead  a  collector  who  attempted  to  in- 
vestigate his  daughter's  age  in  an  indecent  fashion.  His  neighbours 
took  arms  to  protect  him.  In  an  incredibly  short  time  the  peasants 
of  the  east  and  south  of  England  rose  in  insurrection. 

4.  The  Peasants'  Grievances. — The  peasants  had  other  griev- 
ances besides  the  weight  of  taxation  thrown  on  them  by  a  Parlia- 
ment in  which  tliey  had  no  representatives.  The  landlords,  finding 
it  impossible  to  compel  the  acceptance  of  the  low  wages  provided 
for  by  the  Statute  of  Labourers  (see  p.  248),  had  attempted  to  help 
themselves  in  another  way.  Before  the  Black  Death  the  bodily 
service  of  villeins  had  been  frequently  commuted  into  a  payment  of 
money  which  had  been  its  fair  equivalent,  but  which,  since  the 
rise  of  wages  consequent  upon  the  Black  Death,  could  not  com- 
mand anything  like  the  amount  of  labour  surrendered.  The  land- 
lords in  many  places  now  declared  the  bargain  to  have  been 
unfair,  and  compelled  the  villeins  to  render  once  more,  the  old 
bodily  service.  The  discontent  which  prevailed  everywhere  was 
fanned  not  merely  by  the  attacks  made  by  Wycliffe's  poor  priests 
upon  the  idle  and  inefficient  clergy,  but  by  itinerant  preachers 
unconnected  with  Wycliffe,  who  denounced  the  propertied  classes 
in  general.  One  of  these,  John  Ball,  a  notorious  assailant  of  the 
gentry,  had  been  thrown  into  prison.    His  favourite  question  was — 

When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span 
Who  was  then  a  gentleman  ? 

5.  The  Peasants'  Revolt.  1381. — From  one  end  of  England  to 
another  the  revolt  spread.  The  parks  of  the  gentry  were  broken 
into,  the  deer  killed,  the  fish-ponds  emptied.  The  court-rolls  which 
testified  to  the  villeins'  services  were  burnt,  and  lawyers  and  all 
others  connected  with  the  courts  were  put  to  death  without  mercy. 
From  Kent  and  Essex  100,000  enraged  peasants,  headed  by  Wat 
Tyler  and  Jack  Strav/,  released  John  Ball  from  gaol  and  poured 
along  the  roads  to  London.  They  hoped  to  place  the  young  Richard 
at  their  head  against  their  enemies  the  gentry.  The  boy  was  spirited 
enough,  and  in  spite  of  his  mother's  entreaties  insisted  on  leaving 
the  Tower,  and  being  rowed  across  the  Thames  to  meet  the  in* 
surgents  on  the  Surrey  shore.  Those  who  were  with  him,  how- 
ever, refused  to  allow  him  to  land.     The  peasants  had  sympathisers 


K 


1 38 1  THE   PEASANTS'   REVOLT  269 

in  London  itself,  who  allowed  them  to  break  into  the  city.  Lan- 
caster's palace  of  the  Savoy  and  the  houses  of  lawyers  and  officials 
were  sacked  and  burnt.  All  the  lawyers  who  could  be  found  were 
murdered,  and  others  who  were  not  lawyers  shared  their  fate.  The 
mob  broke  into  the  Tower,  and  beheaded  Simon  of  Sudbury,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  who  had,  as  Chancellor,  proposed  the  ob- 
noxious taxes  to  Parliament. 

6.  The  Suppression  of  the  Revolt— The  boy-king  met  the  mob 
at  Mile-End,  and  promised  to  abolish  villeinage  in  England. 
Charters  of  manumission  were  drawn  out  and  sealed,  and  a  great 
part  of  the  insurgents  returned  contentedly  home.  About  30,cxxd, 
however,  remained  behind.  When  Richard  came  amongst  them 
at  Smithfield,  Wat  Tyler  threatened  him,  and  Walworth,  the  Mayor 
of  London,  slew  Wat  Tyler  with  his  dagger.  A  shout  for  venge- 
ance was  raised.  With  astonishing  presence  of  mind  Richard  rode 
forward.  "  I  am  your  king,"  he  said ;  "  I  will  be  your  leader." 
His  boldness  inspired  the  insurgents  with  confidence,  and  caused 
them  to  desist  from  their  threats  and  to  return  to  their  homes.  In 
the  country  the  gentry,  encouraged  by  the  failure  of  the  insurgents 
in  London,  recovered  their  courage.  The  insurrection  was  every- 
where vigorously  suppressed.  Richard  ordered  the  payment  of  all 
services  due,  and  revoked  the  charters  he  had  granted.  The  judges 
on  their  circuits  hanged  the  ringleaders  without  mercy.  When 
Parliament  met  it  directed  that  the  charters  of  manumission  should 
be  cancelled.  Lords  and  Commons  alike  stood  up  for  the  rich 
against  the  poor,  and  the  boy-king  was  powerless  to  resist  them, 
and  it  is  possible  that  he  did  not  wish  to  do  so. 

7.  Results  of  the  Peasants'  Revolt. — The  revolt  of  the  pea- 
sants strengthened  the  conservative  spirit  in  the  country.  The 
villeinage  into  which  the  peasants  had  been  thrust  back  could 
not,  indeed,  endure  long,  because  service  unwillingly  rendered 
is  too  expensive  to  be  maintained.  Men  were,  however,  no 
longer  in  a  mood  to  listen  to  reformers.  Great  noblemen, 
whose  right  to  the  services  of  their  villeins  had  been  denied, 
now  made  common  cause  with  the  great  churchmen.  The 
propertied  classes,  lay  and  clerical,  instinctively  saw  that  they 
must  hang  together.  Wycliffe's  attack  on  transubstantiation  find- 
ing little  response,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  his  parsonage 
at  Lutterworth,  where  he  laboured  with  his  pen  till  his  death 
in  1384.     His   followers,    known   by  the   nickname   of  Lollards, ^ 

1  The  name  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  a  low  German  word,  lollen, 
to  sing,  from  their  habit  of  singing,  but  their  clerical  opponents  derived  it  from 


±yo 


RICHARD  11. 


1381-1399 


were,  however,  for  some  time  still  popular  amongst  the  poorer 
classes. 

8.  Chaucer's  *  Canterbury  Tales.' — A  combination  between  the 
great  nobles  and  the  higher -^ergy  might,  at  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  meet  with  temporary  success  ;  but  English  society 
was  too  diversified,  and  each  separate  portion  of  it  j^vas  too  closely 
linked  to  the  other  to  make  it  pos^ble  for  the  higher  classes  to 
tyrannise  over  the  others  for  any  long  time.     What  that  society 

was  i^ke  is  best  seen  in  Chaucer's 
Canthcbury  Tales.  Chaucer  was 
in  many  ways  the  exact  oppo- 
site of  Lkngland,  and  was  the 
precursor  ^f  modern  literature 
as  Wycliffe  Vas  the  precursor 
of  modern  religion.  He  was  an 
inimitable  story\teller,  with  an 
eye  which  nothin^ould  escape. 
He  was  ready  to  tak^e  men  as  he 
found  them,  having\po  yearn- 
ing for  the  purificatior^pf  a  sin- 
ful world.  Heroic  examples 
of  manly  constancy  and  of 
womanly  purity  and  dev(>^ion, 
are  mingled  in  his  pages  \\ith 
coarse  and  ribald  tales  ;  still, 
coarse  and  ribald  as  some  of 
his  narratives  are,  Chaucer 
never  attempts  to  make  vice 
attractive.  He  takes  it  rather 
as  a  matter  of  course,  calling, 
not  for  reproof,  but  for  laughter, 
whenever  those  who  are  doing 
evil  place  themselves  in  ridicu- 
lous situations. 

9.  The  Prologue  of  the^Canterbury  Tales.' — Whilst,  however, 
there  is  not  one  of  the  Canterbury  Tales  which  fails  to  bring 
vividly  before  the  reader  one  aspect  or  another  of  the  life  of  Chaucer's 
day,  it  is  in  the  prologue  that  is  especially  found  evidence  of  the 
close  connection  which  existed  between  different  ranks  of  society. 
Men  and  women  of  various  classes  are  there  represented  as  riding 

the  Latin  lolium  (tares),  as  if  they  were  the  tares  in  the  midst  of  the  wheat 
which  remained  constant  to  the  Church, 


Portrait  of  Geoffrey  Chaucer. 


I38I-I399 


THE   CANTERBURY  TALES 


27< 


together  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury, and  beguiling  the  way  by  telling  stories  to  one  another. 
No  baron,  indeed,  takes  part  in  the  pilgrimage,  and  the  villein 
class  is  represented  by  the  reeve,  who  was  himself  a  person  in 
authority,  the  mere  cultivator  of  the  soil  being  excluded.  Yet, 
wfthin  these  limits,  the  whole  circle  of  society  is  admirably  re- 
presented. The  knight,  just  re- 
turned from  deeds  of  chivalry, 
is  on  the  best  of  terms  with 
the  rough-spoken  miller  and 
the  reeve,  whilst  the  clerk  of 
Oxford,  who  would  gladly  learn 
and  gladly  teach,  and  who  fol- 
lowed in  his  own  life  those, pre- 
cepts which  he  commended  to 
his  parishioners,  has  no  irrecon- 
cilable quarrel  with  the  beggii^g 
friar  or  with  the  official  of  thi)^ 
ecclesiastical  courts,  whose  only' 
object  is  to  make  a  gain  of 
godliness. 

10.  Chaucer  and  the  Clergy. 
— In  his  representation  of  the  clergy,  Chaucer  shows  that,  like 
Langland,  he  had  no  reverence  for  tiie  merely  official  clergy.  His 
"poor  parson  of  a  town,"  indeed,  is  k  model  for  all  helpers  and 
teachers.  The  parson  is  regardless  of  his  own  comfort,  ever  ready 
to  toil  with  mind  and  body  for  his  parishioners,  and,  above  all,  re- 
solved to  set  them  an  example,  knowii^g 

That  if  gold  ruste,  what  sch\ilde  yren  doo? 
For  if  a  prest  be  foul,  on  whom  we  truste, 
No  wondur  is  a  lewid  man  to  ruste.  1 

The  final  character  given  to  him  is  :— 

A  bettre  preest  I  trowe  ther  nowher  non  is. 
He  waytud  after  no  pompe  ne  reverence, 
Ne  maked  him  a  spiced  conscience  ;  ^ 
But  Cristes  lore,  and  his  apostles  twelve. 
He  taught,  and  ferst  he  folwed^  it  himselve. 

The  majority  amongst  Chaucer's  clergy  are,  however,  of  a  very 
different  kind.     There  is  the  parish  clerk,  who,  when  he  is  waving 

^  i.e.,  if  a  priest,  who  is  like  gold,  allow  himself  to  rust,  or  fall  into  sloth  or 
sin,  how  can  he  expect  the  '  lewid  man  '  or  layman,  who  is  as  iron  to  him,  to  be 
free  from  these  faults  ? 

^  A  nice  conscience  ;  to  see  offence  where  there  is  none.        ^  Followed. 


A  gentleman  riding  out  with  his  hawk 
from  the  Luttrell  Psalter. 


272  RICHARD  IL  1381-1399 

the  censer  in  church  thinks  more  of  the  pretty  women  there  than  of 
his  duty ;  the  monk  who  loves  hunting,  and  hates  work  and 
reading  ;  the  friar  who  is  ready  to  grant  absolution  to  any  one 
who  will  give  money  to  the  friars  ;  who  has  a  word  and  a  jest  for 
every  man,  and  presents  of  knives  and  pins  for  the  women  ;  who 
takes  a  farthing  where  he  cannot  get  a  penny,  but  turns  aside 
from  those  who  have  not  even  a  farthing  to  give  ;  the  pardoner, 
who  has  for  sale  sham  relics— a  piece  of  the  sail  of  the  ship  which 
carried  St.  Peter  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  a  glass  of  pigs'  bones, 
which  he  was  ready  to  sell  as  bones  of  saints,  if  he  could  thereby 
extract  something  even  from  the  poorest  widow.  He  would  not, 
he  said,  work  with  his  hands  like  the  apostles.    He  wanted  to  have 


Carrying  corn —  a  cart  going  uphill :  from  the  Luttrell  Psalter. 

money,  wool,  cheese,  and  wheat  at  other  people's  expense.  Though 
Wycliffe  had  failed  to  reform  the  Church  there  was  evidently  much 
room  for  a  reformer. 
^NC  II-  Roads  and  Bridges. — Such  men  as  these  latter  did  not  go 
on  pilgrimages  through  pure  religious  zeal.  Villeins,  indeed,  were 
"bound  to  the  soil,"  and  lived  and  died  on  land  which  they 
tilled  ;  but  the  classes  above  them  moved  about  freely,  and  took 
pleasure  in  a  pilgrimage,  as  a  modern  Englishman  takes  pleasure 
in  a  railway  excursion.  It  was  considered  to  be  a  pious  work  to 
make  or  repair  roads  and  bridges,  and  the  existence  of  many 
bridges  especially  was  owing  to  the  clergy.  The  most  famous 
bridge  in  England,  London  Bridge,  had  been  begun  in  the  place 
of  an  old  wooden  one  in  1176— in  the  reign  of  Henry  H. — by  a 


1381-1399    BRIDGES,   HORSES,   AND   CARRIAGES 

priest,  Peter  Colechurch, 
who  obtained  gifts  for  the 
purpose  from  notable 
people  of  all  kinds.  It 
was  completed  in  1209, 
houses  being  built  upon 
it  in  order  that  their  rents 
might  pay  for  keeping  it 
in  good  condition.  Local 
taxes  were  sometimes 
levied  to  maintain  the 
roads  and  bridges,  and  in 
default  of  these,  it  was 
held  to  be  the  duty  of  the 
owners  of  land  to  keep  the 
communications  open. 

12.  Modes  of  Con- 
veyance.— In  spite  of 
these  precautions,  roads 
were  often  neglected,  so 
that  those  who  were  not 
obliged  to  go  on  foot 
travelled  almost  entirely 
on  horseback,  women 
almost  always  riding 
astride  hke  men.  It  was 
only  at  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century  that  a 
few  ladies  rode  sideways. 
Kings  and  queens  and 
exceedingly  great  people 
occasionally  used  lum- 
bering but  gorgeously 
ornamented  carriages  ; 
but  this  was  to  enable 
them  to  appear  in  splen- 
dour, as  this  way  of 
travelling  must,  at  least 
in  fine  weather,  have  been 
far  less  agreeable  than 
the  ordinary  ride.  The 
only  other  wheeled   ve- 


m 


K 


274  RICHARD  11.  1381-1399 

hides  in  existence  were  the  peasants'  carts  on  two  wheels,  roughly 
made  in  the  form  of  a  square  box  either  of  boards  or  of  a  lighter 
framework.  It  was  one  of  the  grievances  of  the  peasants  that  when 
the  king  moved  from  one  manor  to  another  his  purveyors  seized 
their  carts  to  carry  his  property,  and  that  though  the  purveyors  were 
bound  by  frequently  repeated  statutes  to  pay  for  their  hire,  these 
statutes  were  often  broken,  and  the  carts  sent  back  without  payment 
for  their  use.  The  same  purv^eyors  often  took  corn  and  other  agri- 
cultural produce,  for  which  they  paid  little  or  nothing. 

[3.  Hospitality  and  Inns.— When  the  king  arrived  in  the 
evening  at  a  town  his  numerous  attendants  were  billeted  upon 
the  townsmen,  without  asking  leave.  Monasteries  were  always 
ready  to  offer  hospitality  to  himself  or  to  any  great  person,  and 
even  to  provide  rougher  fare  for  the  poorest  stranger  in  a  special 
guest-house  provided  for  the  purpose.  In  castles,  the  owner  was 
usually  glad  to  see  a  stranger  of  his  own  rank.  The  halls  were 
still  furnished  with  movable  tables,  as  in  the  days  before  the 
Conquest  (see  p.  76),  and  at  night  mattresses  were  placed  for 
persons  of  inferior  rank  on  the  floor,  which  was  strewn  with 
rushes  ;  whilst  a  stranger  of  high  rank  had  usually  a  bed  in  the 
solar  (see  p.  245)  with  the  lord  of  the  castle.  Travellers  of  the 
middle  class  were  not  thought  good  enough  to  be  welcomed  in 
monasteries  and  castles,  and  were  not  poor  enough  to  be  received 
out  of  charity  ;  and  for  them  inns  were  provided.  These  inns  pro- 
vided beds,  of  which  there  were  several  in  each  room,  and  the 
guests  then  bought  their  provisions  and  fuel  from  the  host,  instead 
of  being  charged  for  their  meals  as  is  now  the  custom.  From  a 
manual  of  French  conversation,  written  at  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth century  for  the  use  of  Englishmen,  it  appears  that  clean- 
liness was  not  always  to  be  found  in  these  inns.  "  William," 
one  traveller  is  supposed  to  say  to  another,  "  undress  and  wash 
your  legs,  and  rub  them  well  for  the  love  of  the  fleas,  that  they 
may  not  leap  on  your  legs  ;  for  there  is  a  peck  of  them  lying  in 
the  dust  under  the  rushes.  .  .  Hi  !  the  fleas  bite  me  so,  and  dome 
N^|K     great  harm,  for  I  have  scratched  my  shoulders  till  the  blood  flows." 

14.  Alehouses. — By  the  roadside  were  alehouses  for  temporary 
refreshment,  known  by  a  bunch  of  twigs  at  the  end  of  a  pole, 
from  which  arose  the  saying  that  "  Good  wine  needs  no  bush." 
The  ale  of  the  day  was  made  without  hops,  which  were  still  un- 
known in  England,  and  ale  would  therefore  only  keep  good  for 
about  five  days, 

15.  Wanderers. — Besides   the   better  class   of   travellers   the 


13SI-1399 


POPULAR  AMUSEMENTS 


275 


roads  were  frequented  by  wanderers  of  all  kinds,  quack  doctors, 
minstrels,  jugglers,  beggars,  and  such  like.  Life  in  the  country 
was  dull,  and  even  great  lords  took  pleasure  in  amusements  which 
are  now  only  to  be  heard  of  at  country  fairs.  Any  one  who  could 
play  or  sing  was  always  welcome,  and  the  verses  sung  were  often 
exceedingly  coarse.  A  tumbler  who  could  stand  on  his  head  or 
balance  a  heavy  article  at  the  end  of  a  stick  balanced  on  his  chin, 
or  the  leader  of  a  performing  bear,  was  seldom  turned  away  from 
the  door,  whilst  the  pedlar  went  from  place  to  place,  supplying  the 
wants  which  are  now  satisfied  in  the  shop  of  the  village  or  the 
neighbouring  town. 


Bear-baiting  :  from  the  Luttrell  Psalter. 


16.  Robbers  and  Criminals. — The  roads,  indeed,  were  not 
always  safe.  Cubans  who  had  escaped  from  the  punishment  due 
to  their  crimes  took  f6(uge  in  the  broad  tracts  of  forest  land  which 
occupied  much  of  the^iil  which  has  since  been  cultivated,  shot 
the  king's  deer,  and  robbed-vmerchants  and  wealthy  travellers, 
leaving  the  poor  untouched,  likS-the  legendary  Robin  Hood  of  an 
earlier  date.  Such  robbers  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  poor,  as 
the  law  from  which  they  suffered  was  chw^lly  harsh,  hanging  being 
the  penalty  for  thefts  amounting  to  a  shiHipg.  Villeins  who  fled 
from  service  could  be  reclaimed  by  their  "rn^sters,  unless  they 
could  succeed  in  passing  a  year  in  a  town,  and  consequently  were 
often  found  amongst  vagabonds  who  had  to  live  as  best  they 
might,  often  enough  by  committing  fresh  crimes.  Prison^ in  which 
even  persons  guilty  of  no  more  than  harmless  vagabondage  were 

T  2 


276 


RICHARD  11. 


1381-1399 


West  end  of  the  nave  of  Winchester  Cathedral:  begun  hy  Bishop  Edington  (who 
built  the  great  window)  between  136D  and  1366:  carried  on  by  Bishop  William 
of  Wykeham  from  1394  to  1416,  and  finally  completed  after  his  death. 


1381-1399  CRIME  AND  PUNISHMENT  277 

confined,  reeked  with  disease,  and  those  who  were,  as  wanderers 
or  drunkards,  put  in  the  stocks,  had,  if  an  unpleasant,  at  least  a 
less  dangerous  experience  than  the  prisoner.  One  means  of 
escape,  indeed,  was  available  to  some,  at  least,  of  these  un- 
fortunates. They  could  take  refuge  in  the  sanctuaries  to  be  found 
in  churches,  from  which  no  officer  of  the  law  could  take  them,  and, 
though  the  Church  preserved  some  guilty  ones  from  just  punish- 
ment, she  also  saved  many  who  were  either  innocent  or  who  were 
,  exposed  to  punishments  far  too  severe  for  their  slight  offences. 

17.  Justices  of  the  Peace. — Even  harshness  is  less  dangerous 
than  anarchy,  and  from  time  to  time  measures  were  taken  to  pro- 
vide against  anarchy.  Before  the  Conquest  order  had  been  kept 
by  making  either  the  kindred  or  the  township  liable  to  produce 
offenders,  and  this  system  was  maintained  by  the  Norman  kings. 
In  the  time  of  Richard  I.  all  men  were  required  to  swear  to  keep 
the  peace,  to  avoid  crime,  and  to  join  in  the  hue  and  cry  in  pursuit 
of  criminals.  In  the  time  of  Henry  III.  persons  called  guardians 
of  the  peace  were  occasionally  appointed  to  see  that  order  was 
kept,  and  at  the  accession  of  Edward  III.  these  officials  were 
established  for  a  time  by  Act  of  Parliament  as  conservators  of  the 
peace.  In  1360,  the  year  of  the  Treaty  of  Bretigni,  they  were 
permanently  continued,  and  the  name  of  Justices  of  the  Peace  was 
given  to  them.  They  were  to  keep  the  peace  in  each  county,  and 
their  number  was  to  be  made  up  of  a  lord,  three  or  four  gentlemen, 
and  a  lawyer,  who  was  in  those  days  always  a  cleric.^  They  were  to 
seize  and  imprison,  and  even  to  try  persons  accused  of  crime.  The 
king  named  these  justices,  but  he  had  to  name  all  of  them  except 
the  lawyer  from  amongst  the  local  landowners.  In  every  way,  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  the  chief  local  landowners  were  becoming  pro- 
minent. The  kings  attempted  to  govern  with  their  help,  both  in 
Parliament  and  in  the  counties. 

1  Many  clerics  took  one  of  the  minor  orders  so  as  to  secure  the  immunities 
of  the  clergy,  without  any  intention  of  being  ordained  a  deacon  or  a  priest. 


X 


f 


278 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

RICHARD   II.    AND  THE   POLITICAL   REVOLUTION 
1382— 1399 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  Richard  II.,  1377— 1399 

The  impeachment  of  Suffolk 1385 

The  Merciless  Parliament 1388 

Richard  begins  his  constitutional  government    .        .        .  1389 

Richard's  coup-d'etat .        .        .  1397 

Deposition  of  Richard 1399 

1.  Progress   of  the  War  with  France.     1382 — 1386. — In  1382 

Richard  at  the  early  age  of  fifteen  was  married  to  Anne  of  Bohemia. 
Though  he  was  a  young  husband  he  was  at  all  events  old  enough 
to  be  accused  of  disasters  which  he  could  not  avoid.  Not  only 
was  the  war  with  France  not  prospering,  but  English  influence  was 
declining  in  Flanders.  In  1382  Philip  van  Arteveldt,  who  like  his 
father  Jacob  (see  p.  235)  headed  the  resistance  of  Ghent  against 
the  Count  of  Flanders,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Roosebeke  by 
Charles  VI.,  the  young  king  of  France.  In  1383  an  English 
expedition  led  by  Henry  Spencer,  Bishop  of  Norwich,  under  the 
pretext  of  a  crusade  against  the  French  as  the  followers  of  the 
Pope  of  Avignon,  ended  in  complete  failure,  and  Flanders,  the 
great  purchaser  of  English  wool,  fell  under  the  control  of  France. 
In  1385  Richard,  indeed,  invaded  Scotland,  ravaged  the  country 
and  burnt  Edinburgh,  though  without  producing  any  permanent 
result.  In  1386  a  French  fleet  and  army  was  gathered  at  Sluys, 
and  an  invasion  of  England  was  threatened. 

2.  Richard's  growing  Unpopularity.  1385— 1386. — When  the 
king  returned  from  Scotland  in  1385  he  made  a  large  creation  of. 
peers.  He  raised  his  two  younger  uncles  to  the  Dukedoms  of  York 
and  Gloucester  ;  his  Chancellor,  Michael  de  la  Pole,  to  the  earldom 
of  Suffolk,  and  his  favourite,  Robert  de  Vere,  Earl  of  Oxford,  to 
the  rnarquisate  of  Dublin,  making  him  not  long  afterwards  Duke  of" 
Ireland.  Sufl"olk  was  an  able  and  apparently  an  honest  adminis- 
trator, who  upheld  the  king's  prerogative  against  the  encroachments 
of  Parliament.      Oxford  was  a  gay  and  heedless  companion   of 


V 


1 386- 1 388  A   BARONIAL   GOVERNMENT  279 

Richard's  pleasures,  who  encouraged  him  in  unnecessary  expense, 
and  thereby  provoked  to  resistance  those  who  might  have  put  up 
with  an  extension  of  the  royal  authority.  That  resistance,  however, 
was  to  a  great  extent  due  to  causes  not  of  Richard's  own  making. 
Though  the  French  in  1386  abandoned  their  attempt  at  invasion, 
the  preparations  to  resist  them  had  been  costly,  and  Englishmen 
were  in  an  unreasonable  mood.  Things,  they  said,  had  not  gone 
so  in  the  days  of  Edward  III.  A  cry  for  reform  and  retrenchment, 
for  more  victories  and  less  expense,  was  loudly  raised. 
-^  3.  The  Impeachment  of  Suffolk  and  the  Commission  of 
Regency.  1386. — The  discontented  found  a  leader  in  Gloucester, 
the  youngest  of  the  king's  uncles.  Wealthy,  turbulent,  and  am- 
bitious, he  put  himself  at  the  head  of  all  who  had  a  grievance 
against  the  king.  Lancaster  had  just  sailed  for  Spain  to  prosecute 
a  claim  in  right  of  his  second  wife  to  the  throne  of  Castile,  and  as 
York  was  without  ambition,  Gloucester  had  it  all  his  own  way. 
Under  his  guidance  a  Parliament  demanded  the  dismissal  of 
Richard's  ministers,  and,  on  his  refusal,  impeached  Suffolk. 
Suffolk,  though  probably  innocent  of  the  charges  brought  against 
him,  was  condemned  and  driven  from  power,  and  Commissioners 
of  regency  were  appointed  for  a  year  to  regulate  the  realm  and 
the  king's  household,  as  the  Lords  Ordainers  had  done  in  the  days 
of  Edward  II.  (see  p.  226). 

4.  The  Lords  Appellant  and  the  Merciless  Parliament. 
1387 — 1388. — In  one  way  the  Commissioners  of  regency  satisfied 
the  desire  of  Englishmen.  In  1387  they  sent  the  Earl  of  Arundel 
to  sea,  and  Arundel  won  a  splendid  victory  over  a  combined  fleet 
of  French,  Flemings,  and  Spaniards.  Richard,  on  the  other  hand, 
fearing  that  they  would  prolong  their  power  when  their  year  of  office 
was  ended,  consulted  upon  the  legality  of  the  commission  with 
the  judges  in  the  presence  of  Suffolk  and  others  of  his  principal 
supporters,  amongst  whom  was  the  Duke  of  Ireland.  With  one 
voice  the  judges  declared  that  Parliament  might  not  put  the  king 
in  tutelage.  Richard  then  made  preparations  to  prevent  by  force 
the  renewal  of  the  commission,  and  to  punish  as  traitors  those 
who  had  originated  it.  His  intention  got  abroad,  and  five  lords, 
the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  the  Earls  of  Arundel,  Nottingham, 
Warwick,  and  Derby,  the  latter  being  the  son  of  the  absent 
Lancaster,  appeared  at  the  head  of  an  overwhelming  force  against 
him.  The  five  lords  appellant,  as  they  were  called,  appealed, 
or  accused  of  treason  five  of  Richard's  councillors  before  a 
ParHament  which  met  at  Westminster  in  1388,  by  flinging  down 


^ 


■V 


280  RICHARD  11.  1388-1390 

their  gloves  as  a  token  that  they  were  ready  to  prove  the  truth  of 
their  charge  in  single  combat.  The  Duke  of  Ireland,  attempting 
resistance,  was  defeated  by  Derby  at  Radcot  Bridge,  and  finally 
escaped  to  Ireland.  The  Parliament,  called  by  its  admirers  the 
Wonderful,  and  by  its  opponents  the  Merciless  Parliament,  was 
entirely  subservient  to  the  lords  appellant,  who,  instead  of 
meeting  their  antagonists  in  single  combat,  accused  them  befoie 
the  House  of  Lords.  The  Duke  of  Ireland,  Suffolk,  Chief  Justice 
Tresilian,  and  Brember,  who  had  been  Mayor  of  London,  were 
condemned  to  be  hanged.  The  two  first-named  had  escaped 
to  the  Continent,  but  the  others  were  put  to  death.  The  fifth 
councillor,  the  Archbishop  of  York,  escaped  with  virtual  de- 
privation by  the  Pope.  Four  other  knights,  amongst  them  Sir 
Simon  Burley,  a  veteran  soldier  and  trusted  companion  of  the 
Black  Prince,  were  also  put  to  death.  Richard  was  allowed 
nominally  to  retain  the  crown,  but  in  reality  he  was  subjected  to  a 
council  in  which  Gloucester  and  his  adherents  were  supreme. 

5.  Richard's  Restoration  to  Power.  1389. — Richard's  entire 
submission  turned  the  scale  in  his  favour.  England  had  been  dis- 
satisfied with  him,  but  it  had  never  loved  the  rule  of  the  great 
feudal  lords.  Gloucester's  council  was  no  more  popular  than  had 
been  the  Committees  named  in  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.,  or  the  Lords  Ordainers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  1 1.,  and 
it  fell  more  easily  than  any  government,  before  or  afterwards.  Sud- 
denly, on  May  3,  1389,  Richard  asked  his  uncle  in  full  council 
how  old  he  was.  "  Your  highness,"  replied  Gloucester,  "  is  in  your 
twenty-second  year."  "  Then,"  said  Richard,  "  I  must  be  old  enough 
to  manage  my  own  affairs,  as  eveiy  heir  is  at  liberty  to  do  when  he 
is  twenty-one."  No  attempt  having  been  made  to  confute  this  argu- 
ment, Richard  dismissed  the  council,  and  ruled  once  more  in  person. 

6.  Richard's  Constitutional  Government.  1389 — 1396. — This 
sudden  blow  was  followed  by  seven  years  of  constitutional  govern- 
ment. It  seemed  as  if  Richard  had  solved  the  problem  of  the 
relations  between  Crown  and  Parliament,  which  had  perplexed  so 
many  generations  of  Englishmen.  In  1389  he  appointed  ministers 
at  his  own  pleasure,  but  when  Parliament  met  in  1390  he  com- 
marded  them  to  lay  down  their  offices  in  order  that  no  one  should 
be  deterred  from  bringing  charges  against  them  ;  and  it  was  only 
upon  finding  that  no  one  had  any  complaint  to  bring  against  them 
that  he  restored  them  to  their  posts.  Nor  did  he  show  any 
signs  of  irritation  against  those  by  whom  he  had  been  outraged. 
Not  only  did  he  forbear  to  recall  Suffolk  and  his  other  exiled 


(k 


1390  GOVERNMENT  BY   THE  KING  281 

favourites,  but  after  a  little  time  he  admitted  Gloucester  and  his 
supporters  to  sit  in  council  alongside  of  his  own  adherents. 

7.  Livery  and  Maintenance.  1390. — During  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  iKiportance  of  the  House  of  Commons  had  been  steadily 
growing,  arid,  the  king  on  the  one  hand  and  the  great  nobles  on 
the  other  had  been  sorely  tempted  to  influence  the  elections  un- 
duly. The  means  of  doing  so  had  come  with  a  change  in  civil 
relationships,  the^atural  result  of  that  change  in  military  relation- 
ships which  had  git^en  a  new  character  to  the  wars  of  Edward  III. 
(see  p.  236).  Just  Xs  the  king  now  fought  with  paid  soldiers  of 
every  rank  instead  6t  fighting  with  vassals  bound  by  feudal 
tenure,  so  the  great  nobles  surrounded  themselves  with  retainers 
instead  of  vassals.  The  vassal  had  been  on  terms  of  social 
equality  with  his  lord,  and  w^  bound  to  follow  him  on  fixed  terms. 
The  retainer  was  an  inferior,  who  was  taken  into  service  and  pro- 
fessed himself  ready  to  fight  for  his  lord  at  all  times  and  in  all 
causes.  In  return  his  lord  kept  open  house  for  his  retainers, 
supplied  them  with  coats,  known  as  liveries,  marked  with  his  badge, 
and  undertook  to  maintain  them  against  all  men,  either  by  open 
force  or  by  supporting  them  in  their  quarrels  in  the  law  courts  ;  and 
this  m^ntenance,  as  it  was  called,  was  seld^om  limited  to  the  mere 
payment  of  expenses.  The  lord,  by  the  help  tjf  his  retainers,  could 
bully  witnesses  and  jurors,  and  wrest  justice  tp  the  profit  of  the 
wrongdoer.  As  yet,  indeed,  the  practice  had  no\  attained  the  pro- 
portions which  it  afterwards  assumed,  but  it  was  sufficiently  deve- 
loped to  draw  down  upon  it  in  1390  a  statute  prohibiting  mainte- 
nance and  the  granting  of  liveries.  Such  a  statute  w^s  not  merely 
issued  in  defence  of  private  persons  against  intimidation  ;  it  also 
helped  to  protect  the  Crown  against  the  violence  of  the  ^eat  lords. 
The  growth  of  the  power  of  the  House  of  Commons  was  a  good 
thing  as  long  as  the  House  of  Commons  represented  the  wishes  of 
the  community.  It  would  be  a  bad  thing  if  it  merely  represented 
knots  of  armed  retainers  who  either  voted  in  their  own  names 
according  to  the  orders  of  their  lords,  or  who  frightened  away  those 
who  came  to  vote  for  candidates  whom  their  lords  opposed. 

8.  Richard's  Domestic  Policy.  1390 — 1391. — It  was  therefore 
well  for  the  community  that  there  should  be  a  strong  and  wise  king 
capable  of  making  head  against  the  ambition  of  the  lords.  For 
some  years  Richard  showed  himself  wise.  Not  only  did  he  seek, 
by  opening  the  council  to  his  opponents,  to  win  over  the  lords  to 
take  part  in  the  peaceable  government  of  the  country  instead  of  dis- 
turbing it,  but  he  forwarded  legislation  which  carried  out  the  general 


282  RICHARD  II.  1 390-1 397 

wishes  of  the  country.  The  Statute  of  Provisors  (see  p.  258)  was 
re-enacted  and  strengthened  in  1390,  the  Statute  of  Mortmain  (see 
p.  212)  in  1391,  and  the  Statute  of  Praemunire  (see  p.  258)  in  1393. 

9.  Richard's  Foreign  Policy.     1389— 1396.— Richard's  foreign 
policy  waXbased  upon  a  French  alliance.    In  1389  he  made  a  truce 
with  Franckfor  three  years.     Negotiations  for  a  permanent  peace 
were  frustrated  because  the   French  would  make  no  peace  unless 
Calais  were  surrendered  to  them,  and  English  feeling  was  against 
the  surrender  ot  the  claims  sanctioned  by  the  Treaty  of  Bretigni. 
The  truce  was,  however,  prolonged  from  time  to  time,  and  in  1396, 
when  Richard,  wh6.  was  by  that  time  a  widower,  married  Isabella, 
the  daughter  of  Charjes  VI.,  a  child  of  eight,  it  was  prolonged  for 
twenty-eight  years,     \yise  as  this  policy  was,  it  was  distasteful  to 
Englishmen,  and  their  dissatisfaction  rose  when  they  learnt  that 
Richard  had  surrendered  Brest  and  Cherbourg  to  the  French.     It 
was  true  that  these  places  had  been  pledged  to  him  for  money, 
and  that  he  had  only  given  them  up  as  he  was  bound  to  do  when 
the  money  was  paid,  but  his  subjects  drew  no  fine  distinctions,  and 
fancied  that  he  was  equally  ready  to  surrender  Calais  and  Bordeaux. 
10.  Richard's  Coup  d'Etat.     1397. — Richard  knew  that  Glou- 
cester was  ready  to  avail  himself  of  any  widespread  dissatisfaction, 
and  that  he  had  recently  been  allying  himself  with  Lancaster  against 
him.   To  please  Lancaster,  who  had  married  his  mistress,  Catherine 
Swynford,  as  his  third  wife,  Richard  had  legitimatised  the  Beauforts, 
his  children  by  her,  for  all  purposes  exCept  the  succession  of  the 
crown,  thus  giving  personal  offence  to  G16ucester.     Lancaster's  son 
Derby,  and  Nottingham,  another  of  the  loi-ds  appellant  (see  p.  279), 
were  now  favourable  to  the  king,  and  when  rtimours  reached  Richard 
that  Gloucester  was  plotting  against  him,  he  resolved  to  anticipate 
the  blow.  He  arrested  the  three  of  the  lords  appellant  whom  he  still 
distrusted,  Gloucester,  Warwick,  and  Arundel^  and  charged  them 
before  Parliament,  not  with  recent  malpractices,  of  which  he  had 
probably  no  s^ifilicient  proof,  but  with  the  slaughter  of  his  ministers 
in  the  days  of  the  Merciless  Parliament.     Warwick  was  banished 
to  the  Isle  of  Man,  Arundel  was  executed,  and  Gloucester  imprisoned 
at  Calais,  where  he  was  secretly  murdered,  as  was  generally  believed 
by  the  order  of  the  king.      Archbishop  Arundel,  brother  of  the 
Earl  of  Arundel,  was  also  banished.    In  such  contradiction  was  this 
sudden  outburst  of  violence  to  the  prudence  of  Richard's  recent 
conduct,  that  it  has  sometimes  been  supposed  that,  he  had  been 
dissimulating  all  the  time.    It  is  more  probable  that,  without  being 
actually  insane,  his  mind  had  to  some  extent  given  way.     He  was 


1 397-1 399  RICHARD'S  ABSOLUTISM  283 

always  excitable,  and  in  his  better  days  his  alertness  of  mind  carried 
him  forward  to  swift  decisions,  as  when  he  met  the  mob  at  Smith- 
field,  and  when  he  vindicated  his  authority  from  the  restraint  of  his 
uncle.  Signs  had  not  been  wanting  that  his  native  energy  was  no 
longer  balanced  by  the  restraints  of  prudence.  In  1394  he  had 
actually  struck  Arundel  in  Westminster  Abbey.  In  1397  there  was 
much  to  goad  him  to  hasty  and  ill-considered  action.  The  year 
before  complaints  had  been  raised  against  the  extravagance  of 
his  household.  The  peace  which  he  had  given  to  his  country 
was  made  the  subject  of  bitter  reproach  against  him,  and  he  seems 
to  have  believed  that  Gloucester  was  plotting  to  bring  him  back 
into  the  servitude  to  which  he  had  been  subjected  by  the  Com- 
A    missioners  of  regency. 

II.  The  Parliament  of  Shrewsbury.  1398.— Whether  Richard 
was  mad  or  not,  he  at  all  events  acted  like  a  madman.  In  1398 
he  summoned  a  packed  Parliament  to  Shrewsbury,  which  declared 
all  the  acts  of  the  Merciless  Parliament  to  be  null  and  void,  and 
announced  that  no  restraint  could  legally  be  put  on  the  king.  It 
then  delegated  all  parliamentary  power  to  a  committee  of  twelve 
lords  and  six  commoners  chosen  from  the  king's  friends.  Richard 
was  thus  made  an  absolute  ruler  unbound  by  the  necessity  of. 
gathering  a  Parliament  again.  He  had  freed  himself  not  merely 
from  turbulent  lords  but  also  from  all  constitutional  restraints. 
^  12.  The  Banishment  of  Hereford  and  Norfolk.  1398. — Richard 
had  shown  favour  to  the  two  lords  appellant  who  had  taken  his 
side.  Derby  became  Duke  of  Hereford,  and  Nottingham  Duke  of 
Norfolk.  Before  long  Hereford  came  to  the  king  with  a  strange 
tale.  Norfolk,  he  said,  had  complained  to  him  that  the  king  still 
distrusted  them,  and  had  suggested  that  they  should  guard  them- 
selves against  him.  Norfolk  denied  the  truth  of  the  story,  and 
Richard  ordered  the  two  to  prove  their  truthfulness  by  a  single  com- 
bat at  Coventry.  When  the  pair  met  in  the  lists  in  full  armour  n 
Richard  stopped  the  fight,  and  to  preserve  peace,  as  he  said, 
banished  Norfolk  for  life  and  Hereford  for  ten  years,  a  term  which 
was  soon  reduced  to  six.  There  was  something  of  the  unwise 
cunning  of  a  madman  in  the  proceeding. 
\/  13.  Richard's  Despotism.  1398— 1399. — Richard,  freed  from 
all  control,  was  now,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  despotic.  He 
extorted  money  without  a  semblance  of  right,  and  even  compelled 
men  to  put  their  seals  to  blank  promises  to  pay,  which  he  could  fill 
up  with  any  sum  he  pleased.  He  too,  like  the  lords,  gathered 
round  him  a  vast  horde  of  retainers,  who  wore  his  badge  and  ill- 


\ 


284 


RICHARD  11. 


1399 


treated  his  subjects  at  their  pleasure.  He  threatened  the  Percies, 
the  Earl  of  Northumberland  and  his  son,  Harry  Hotspur,  with 
exile,  and  sent  them  off  discontented  to  their  vast  possessions  in 
the  North.  Early  in  1399  the  Duke  of  Lancaster  died.  His  son, 
the  banished  Hereford,  was  now  Duke  of  Lancaster.  Richard, 
however,  seized  the  lands  which  ought  to  have  descended  to  him 
from  his  father.  Every  man  who  had  property  to  lose  felt  that 
Lancaster's  cause  was  his  own.  Richard  at  this  inopportune 
moment  took  occasion  to  sail  to  Ireland.     He  had  been  there  once 


Meeting  of  Henry  of  Lancaster  and  Richard  II.  at  Flint :  from  Harl.  MS.  1319. 

before  in  1394  in  the  vain  hope  of  protecting  the  English  colonists 
(see  p.  265).  His  first  expedition  had  been  a  miserable  failure  : 
his  second  expedition  was  cut  short  by  bad  news  from  England. 
X^  14.  Henry  of  Lancaster  in  England.  1399.— Lancaster,  with 
a  small  force,  landed  at  Ravenspur,  in  Yorkshire,  a  harbour  which 
has  now  disappeared  in  the  sea.  At  first  he  gave  out  that  he  had 
come  merely  to  demand  his  own  inheritance.  Then  he  alleged  that 
he  had  come  to  redress  the  wrongs  of  the  realm.  Northumberland 
brought  the  Percies  to  his  help.     Armed  men  flocked  to  his  support 


1399 


RICHARD'S  ABDICATION 


285 


J 


in  crowds.  The  Duke  of  York,  who  had  been  left  behind  by 
Richard  as  regent,  accepted  this  statement  and  joined  him  with  all 
his  forces.  When  Richard  heard  what  had  happened,  he  sent  the 
Earl  of  Salisbury  from  Ireland  to  Wales  to  summon  the  Welshmen 
to  his  aid.  The  Welshmen  rallied  to  Salisbury,  but  the  king  was 
long  in  following,  and  when  Richard  landed  they  had  all  dispersed. 
Richard  found  himself  almost  alone  in  Conway  Castle,  whilst 
Lancaster  had  a  whole  kingdom  at  his  back. 

15.  The    Deposition   of    Richard    and    the    Enthronement    of 
Henry  IV.     1399.  —By  lying  promises  Lancaster  induced  Richard 


Henry  of  Lancaster  claiming  the  throne  :  from  Harl.  MS.  1319, 

to  place  himself  in  his  power  at  Flint.  "  My  lord,"  said  Lancaster 
to  him,  "  I  have  now  come  before  you  have  sent  for  me.  The  reason 
is  that  your  people  commonly  say  you  have  ruled  them  very 
rigorously  for  twenty  or  two  and  twenty  years  ;  but,  if  it  please 
God,  I  will  help  you  to  govern  better."  The  pretence  of  helping 
the  king  to  govern  was  soon  abandoned.  Richard  was  carried 
to  London  and  thrown  into  the  Tower.  He  consented,  probably 
not  till  after  he  had  been  threatened  with  the  fate  of  Edward  II., 
to  sign  his  abdication.  On  the  following  morning  the  act  ol 
abdication   was   read   in    Parliament.      The    throne   was   empty. 


286 


RICHARD  n. 


1399 


(x: 


Then  Lancaster  stepped  forward.  "In  the  name,"  he  said,  "of 
the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  I,  Henry  of  Lancaster,  challenge 
this  realm  of  England,  and  the  crown  with  all  its  members  and 
appurtenances,  as  I  am  descended  by  right  line  of  the  blood 
coming  from  the  good  lord  King  Henry  the  Third,'  and  through 
that  right  God  of  his  grace  hath  sent  me,  with  help  of  my  kin  and 
of  my  friends,  to  recover  it,  the  which  realm  was  in  point  to  be 
undone  for  default  of  governance  and  undoing  of  the  good  laws." 
The  assent  of  Parliament  was  given,  and  Lancaster  took  his  seat 
n  Richard's  throne  as  Kmg  Henry  IV. 

16.  Nature  of  the  Claim  of  Henry  IV. — The  claim  which  Henry 
put  forward  would  certainly  not  bear  investigation.  It  laid 
stress  on  right  of  descent,  and  it  has  since  been  thought  that  Henry 
intended  to  refer  to  a  popular  belief  that  his  ancestor  Edmund,  the 
second  son  of  Henry  III.,  was  in  reality  the  eldest  son,  but 
had  been  set  aside  in  favour  of  his  younger  brother,  Edward  I., 
on  account  of  a  supposed  physical  deformity  from  which  he  was 
known  as  Edmund  Crouchback.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  whole 
story  was  a  fable,  and  the  name  Crouchback  had  been  given  to 
Edmund  not  because  his  back  was  crooked,  but  because  he  had 
worn  a  cross  on  his  back  as  a  crusader  (see  p.  197).     That  Henry 


Genealogy  of  the  claimants  of  the  throne  in  1399 

Henry  III. 
1216-1272 


Edward  I. 
I 272- I 307 


I 
Edmund 


Edward  II. 
1307-1327 

Edward  III 
1327-1377 

I 


Thomas, 
Earl  of  Lancaster 


Henry, 
Earl  of  Lancaster 


Blanche  =  John  of  Gaunt, 
Duke  of 
Lancaster 


I  I  Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster 

Edward,  Lionel,  | 

the  Black  Prince  Duke  of  Clarence 
I  I 

Richard  II.  Phihppa=  Edmund  Mortimer 
1377-1399  Earl  of  March 

Roger  Mortimer,  Henry  IV. 

Earl  of  March  1399-1413 

Edmund  Mortimer, 
Earl  of  March 


1399 


A   PARLIAMENTARY  REVOLUTION 


287 


should  have  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  allude  to  this  story, 
if  such  was  really  his  meaning, 
shows  the  hold  which  the  idea 
of  hereditary  succession  had 
taken  on  the  minds  of  English- 
men. In  no  other  way  could 
he  claim  hereditary  right  as  a 
descendant  of  Henry  III. 
Richard  had  selected  as  his 
heir  Roger  Mortimer,  the  son 
ofthe  daughter  of  Lionel,  Duke 
of  Clarence,  the  next  son  of 
Edward  III.,  after  the  Black 
Prince,  who  lived  to  be  old 
enough  to  have  children. 
Roger  Mortimer,  indeed,  had 
recently  been  killed  in  Ireland, 
but  he  had  left  a  boy,  Edmund 
Mortimer,  who,  on  hereditary 
principles,  was  heir  to  the  king- 
dom, unless  the  doctrine  an- 
nounced by  Edward  III.  that 
a  claim  to  the  crown  descended 
through  females  was  to  be  set 
aside.  In  fact  the  real  import- 
ance of  the  change  of  kings 
lay  not  in  what  Henry  said,  but 
in  what  he  avoided  saying.  It 
was  a  reversion  to  the  old  right 
of  election,  and  to  the  prece- 
dent set  in  the  deposition  of 
Edward  II.  Henry  tacitly  an- 
nounced that  in  critical  times, 
when  the  wearer  of  the  crown 
was  hopelessly  incompetent, 
the  nation,  represented  by  Par- 
liament, might  step  in  and 
change  the  order  of  succession. 
The  question  at  issue  was  not 
merely  a  personal  one  between 
Richard  and  Henry.     It  was 


Effigy  of  a  knight  at  Clehonger,  showing 

development  of  plate  armour. 

Date,  about  1400. 


2SS  kICtlAkD  IT. 

a  question  between  hereditary  succession  leading  to  despotism 
on  the  one  side,  and  to  parliamentary  choice,  perhaps  to  anarchy, 
on  the  other.  That  there  were  dangers  attending  the  latter  solu- 
tion of  the  constitutional  problem  would  not  be  long  in  appearing. 


Books  recomjnended  for  further  study  of  Part  III. 

Green,  J.  R.     History  of  the  English  People.     Vol.  i.  pp.  189-520. 
Stubbs,  W.   (Bishop  of  Oxford):     Constitutional  History  of  England.    Vol.  i. 

chap.  xii.  sections  151-155  ;  vol.  ii.  chaps,  ix.  and  x. 

The  Early  Plantagenets,  129-276. 

NoRGATE,  Miss  K.     England  under  the  Angevin  Kings.     Vol.  ii.  p.  390. 
MiCHELET,  J.     History  of  France  (Middle  Ages).    Translated  by  G.  H.  Smith. 
Longman,  W.     The  History  of  the  Life  and  Times  of  Edward  HI. 
Gairdner,  James.     The  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York,  pp.  1-64. 
Rogers,  James  E.  Thorold.     A  History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices  in  England. 

Vols.  i.  and  ii, 
Cunningham,  W.     Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce  in  the  Early 

and  Middle  Ages,  pp.  172-365. 
Wakeman,  H.  O.  and  Hassall,  A.   (Editors).     Essays  Introductory  to  the 

Study  of  English  Constitutional  History. 
Ashley,  W.  J.     An  Introduction  to  English  Economic  History  and  Theory. 

Vol.  i. 
Jusserand,  J.  J.     English  Wayfaring  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages.     Translated 

by  Lucy  Toulmin  Smith  (Miss). 
Browne,  M.     Chaucer's  England. 

Jessopp,  a,.  Dr.     The  Coming  of  the  Friars,  and  other  Historic  Essays. 
Oman,  C.  W.  C.     The  Art  of  War  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


\' 


^jy^y^ 


289 


PART    IV 
LANCASTER,    YORK,  AND   TUDOR.     1399— 1509 


i 


CHAPTER   XIX 

HENRY   IV.   AND   HENRY  V. 
HENRY  IV.,  1399— 1413.      HENRY   V.,  I413  — 1422 

LEADING   DATES 

Accession  of  Henry  IV 1399 

Statute  for  the  burning  of  heretics 1401 

Battle  of  Shrewsbury 1403 

Fight  at  Bramham  Moor 1408 

Succession  of  Henry  V 1413 

Battle  of  Agincourt 1415 

Treaty  of  Troyes 1420 

Death  of  Henry  V 1422 


Henry's  First  Difficulties.  1399— 1400.— Henry  IV.  fully 
understood  that  his  only  chance  of  maintaining  himself  on  the  throne 
was  to  rule  with  due  consideration  for  the  wishes  of  Parliament. 
His  main  difficulty,  like  that  of  his  predecessor,  was  that  the  great 
lords  preferred  to  hold  their  own  against  him  individually  with  the 
help  of  their  armies  of  retainers,  instead  of  exercising  political  power 
in  Parliament.  In  his  first  Parliament  an  angry  brawl  arose.  The 
lords  who  in  the  last  reign  had  taken  the  side  of  Gloucester  flung 
their  gloves  on  the  floor  of  the  House  as  a  challenge  to  those  who 
had  supported  Richard  when  he  compassed  Gloucester's  death  ;  and 
though  Henry  succeeded  in  keeping  the  peace  for  the  time,  a  rebellion 
broke  out  early  in  1400  in  the  name  of  Richard.  Henry,  like  the 
kings  before  him,  found  his  support  against  the  turbulent  nobles  in 
the  townsmen  and  the  yeomen,  and  he  was  thus  able  to  suppress  the 
rebellion.  Some  of  the  noblemen  who  were  caught  by  the  excited  de- 
fenders of  the  throne  were  butchered  without  mercy  and  without  law. 

U 


ago 


HENRY  IV. 


1399-140C 


Henry  IV.  and  his  queen,  Joan  of  Navarre  :  from  their  tomb  in  Canterbury 
Cathedral, 


person 


1400  A    CON'SERVATIVE  ALLIANCE  291 

^  2.  Death  of  Richard  II.  1400.— A  few  weeks  after  the  sup- 
pression of  this  conspiracy  it  was  rumoured  that  Richard  had  died 
in  prison  at  Pontefract.  According  to  Henry's  account  of  the 
matter  he  had  voluntarily  starved  himself  to  death.  Few,  however, 
doubted  that  he  had  been  put  to  death  by  Henry's  orders.  To 
prove  the  untruth  of  this  story,  Henry  had  the  body  brought  to 
St.  Paul's,  where  he  showed  to  the  people  only  the  face  of  the 
corpse,  as  if  this  could  be  any  evidence  whatever.  After  Richard's 
death,  if  hereditary  succession  had  been  regarded,  the 
having  a  claim  to 
the  crown  in  prefer- 
ence to  Henry  was 
the  young  Edmund 
Mortimer,  Earl  of 
March,  the  descen- 
dant of  Lionel,  Duke 
of  Clarence  (see  p. 
287).  Henry  there- 
fore took  care  to 
keep  the  boy  under 
custody  during  the 
whole  of  his  reign. 

3.  Henry  IV.  and 
the  Church.— Be- 
sides seeking  the 
support  of  the  com- 
monaltv,  Henry 
sought  the  support 
of  the  Church.  Since 
the  rise  of  tnKfriars 
at  the  beginnin^f 
the  thirteenth  ceiv 
tury  (see  p.  191)  the  Cimrch  had  produced  no  new  orders  of  monks 
or  friars.  In  the  thirtfe^th  and  fourteenth  she  produced  the 
schoolmen,  a  succession  oKgreat  thinkers  who  systematised  her 
moral  and  religious  teachingXimagining  that  she  had  no  more 
to  learn,  she  now  attempted  to  sh;^gthen  herself  by  persecuting 
those  who  disbelieved  her  teaching,  antisafter  the  suppression  of  the 
revolt  of  the  peasants,  made  common  causfe  with  the  landlords,  who 
feared  pecuniary  loss  from  the  emancipation  of  the  villeins.  This 
conservative  alliance  against  social  and  religious  change  was  the 
more  easily  made  because  many  of  the  bishops  were  now  members  of 

u  2 


Royal  arms  as  borne  by  Henry  IV.  after  about  1408,  and 
by  successive  sovereigns  down  to  1603. 


292 


HgNRY  IV. 


1400-1401 


noble  families,  instead  of  springing,  as  had  usually  been  the  case 
in  the  better  days  of  the  mediaeval  ^tjurch,  from  poor  or  middle- 
class  parentage.  In  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.  a  Courtenay,  a  kinsman 
of  the  Earl  of  Devonshire,  had  become 
first  Bishop  of  London,  (see  p.  263), 
and  then  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
He  was  succeeded  in  his  arch- 
bishopric by  an  Arundel,  brother  of 
the  Earl  of  Arundel  who  had  been 
executed  by  Richard,  and  Archbishop 
Arundel  was  in  the  days  of  Henry  IV. 
the  spokesman  of  the  clergy. 

4.  The  Statute  for  the  Burning 
of  Heretics.  1401.— In  1401  the  clergy 
cried  aloud  for  new  powers.  The 
ecclesiastical  courts  could  condemn 
men  as  heretics,  but  had  no  power 
to  burn  them.  Bishops  and  abbots 
formed  the  majority  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  though  the  Commons  had 
not  lost  that  craving  for  the  wealth 
of  the  Church  which  had  distin- 
guished John  of  Gaunt's  party,  they 
had  no  sympathy  with  heresy.  Ac- 
cordingly the  statute  for  the  burning 
of  heretics  {De  tteeretico  comburendd)^ 
the  first  English  law  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  religious  opinion,  was  passed 
with  the  ready  consent  of  the  king 
and  both  Houses.  The  first  victim 
was  William  Sawtre,  a  priest  who 
held,  amongst  other  things,  "that  after 
the  words  of  consecration  in  the  Eu- 
charist the  bread  remains  bread,  and 
nothing  more."  He  was  burnt  by  a 
special  order  from  the  king  and 
council  even  before  the  new  law  had 
been  enacted. 

"^■^S.  Henry  IV.  and  Owen  Glen- 
dower.  1400 — 1402. — If  Henry  found  it  difficult  to  maintain  order  in 
England,  he  found  it  still  more  difficult  to  keep  the  peace  on  the 


rhomas  Cranley,  Archbishop  of 
Dublin,  1397. 1417  :  from  his 
brass  at  New  College,  Oxford. 
Showing  the  archiepiscopal 
mass-vestments  and  the  cross 
and  pall.    Date,  about  1400. 


F 


4400-1403     TkOUBLES  m  WALES  AMD   THE  NORTH    293 

borders  of  Wales.  In  1400  an  English  nobleman,  Lord  Grey  of 
Ruthyn,  seized  on  an  estate  belonging  to  Owen  Glendower,  a  power- 
ful Welsh  gentleman.  Owen  Glendower  called  the  Welsh  to  arms, 
ravaged  Lord  Grey's  lands,  and  proclaimed  himself  Prince  of  Wales. 
For  some  years  Wales  was  practically  independent.  English  towns- 
men and  yeomen  were  ready  to  support  Henry  against  any  sudden 
attempt  of  the  nobility  to  crush  him  with  their  retainers,  but  they 
were  unwilling  to  bear  the  burden  of  taxation  needed  for  the  steady 
perfonnance  of  a  national  task.  In  the  meanwhile  Henry  was  con- 
stantly exposed  to  secret  plots.  In  1401  he  found  an  iron  with 
fbur  spikes  in  his  bed.  In  the  autumn  of  1402  he  led  an  expedition 
into  Wales,  but  storms  of  rain  and  snow  forced  him  back.  His 
English  followers  attributed  the  disaster  to  the  evil  spirits  which,  as 
they  fully  believed,  were  at  the  command  of  the  wizard  Glendower. 
6.  The  Rebellion  of  the  Percies.  1402 — 1404.— The  Scots  were 
not  forgetful  of  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  divisions  of 
England.  They  had  amongst  them  some  one — whoever  he  may 
have  been — whom  they  gave  out  to  be  King  Richard,  and  when 
Henry  marched  against  Wales  in  1402  they  invaded  England.  They 
were  met  by  the  Percies  and  defeated  at  Homildon  Hill.  The 
Percies  had  still  something  of  the  enormous  power  of  the  feudal 
barons  of  the  eleventh  century.  Their  family  estates  stretched 
over  a  great  part  of  Northumberland,  and  as  they  were  expected  to 
shield  England  against  Scottish  invasions  they  were  obliged  to  keep 
up  a  military  retinue  which  might  be  employed  against  the  king  as 
well  as  in  his  service.  It  was  mainly  through  their  aid  that  Henry 
had  seated  himself  on  the  throne.  Their  chief,  the  Earl  of  Nor- 
thumberland, and  his  brother,  the  Earl  of  Worcester,  were  aged 
men,  but  Northumberland's  son,  Henr>'  Percy— Harry  Hotspur  as 
he  was  usually  called — was  of  a  fiery  temper,  and  disinclined  to 
submit  to  insult.  Hotspur's  wife  was  a  Mortimer,  and  her  brother, 
Sir  Edmund  Mortimer,  the  uncle  of  the  young  Earl  of  March,  had 
been  taken  prisoner  by  Glendower.  It  was  noticed  that  Henry, 
who  had  ransomed  other  prisoners,  took  no  steps  to  ransom  Mor- 
timer, and  it  was  believed  that  he  was  in  no  hurry  to  set  free  one 
whose  hereditary  claim  to  the  crown,  like  that  of  the  Earl  of 
March,  came  before  his  own.  Other  causes  contributed  to  irritate 
the  Percies,  and  in  1403,  bringing  with  them  as  allies  the  Scottish 
prisoners  whom  they  had  taken  at  Homildon  Hill,  they  marched 
southwards  against  Henry.  Southern  England  might  not  be  ready 
adequately  to  support  Henry  in  an  invasion  of  Wales,  but  it  was  in 
no  mood  to  allow  him  to  be  dethroned  by  the  Percies.    It  rallied  to 


294 


HENRY  IV. 


1404 


his  side,  and  enabled  him  signally  to  defeat  the  Percies  at  Shrews- 
bury. Hotspur  was  killed  in  the  fight,  and  his  uncle,  the  Earl  of 
Worcester,  being  captured,  was  beheaded  without  delay.    Northum- 


v^ 


The  battle  of  Shrewsbury  :  from  the  *  Life  of  Richard  Beauchamp,  Earl  of  Warwick  ;  * 
drawn  by  John  Rous  about  1485. 

berland,  who  was  not  present  at  the  battle,  was  committed  to  prison 
in  1404,  but  was  pardoned  on  promise  of  submission. 

7.  The  Commons  and  the  Church.  1404. — After  such  a 
deliverance  the  Commons  could  not  but  grant  some  supplies.  In 
the  autumn  of  1404,  however,  they  pleaded  for  the  confiscation  of 
the  revenues  of  the  higher  clergy,  which  were  sufficient,  as  they 
alleged,  to  support  15  earls,  1,500  knights,  6,200  esquires,  and  100 
hospitals  as  well.  The  king  refused  to  listen  to  the  proposal,  and 
money  was  voted  in  the  ordinary  way.  It  was  the  first  deliberate 
attempt  to  meet  the  growing  expenditure  of  the  Crown  by  the  con- 
fiscation of  ecclesiastical  revenue. 


1405  PRAKCE  AMD  SCOTLAND  ^95 

p^  8.  The  Capture  of  the  Scottish  Prince.  1405.  —Early  in  1405 
Henry  was  threatened  with  a  fresh  attack.  Charles  VI.  of  France 
was  now  a  confirmed  lunatic,  and  his  authority  had  mainly  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  his  brother  Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  a  profligate 
and  unscrupulous  man  who  was  regarded  by  the  feudal  nobility  of 
France  as  their  leader.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  refused  to  consider 
himself  bound  to  Henry  by  the  truce  which  had  been  made  with 
Richard,  and,  forming  an  alliance  with  Owen  Glendower,  prepared 
to  send  a  fleet  to  his  aid.  When  there  was  war  between  England 
and  France  the  Scots  seldom  remained  quiet,  but  this  time  Henry 
was  freed  from  that  danger  by  an  unexpected  occurrence.  The 
reigning  King  of  Scotland  was  Robert  HI.,  whose  father,  Robert 
H.,  had  been  the  first  king  of  the  House  of  Stuart,  and  had  as- 
cended the  throne  after  the  death  of  David  Bruce,  as  being  the  son 
of  his  sister  Margaret.'  Robert  HI.,  weakly  in  mind  and  body, 
had  committed  to  the  custody  of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Albany, 
his  eldest  son,  the  Duke  of  Rothesay,  who  had  gained  an  evil  name 
by  his  scandalous  debauchery.  Rothesay  died  in  the  prison  in 
which  his  uncle  had  confined  him,  and  popular  rumour  alleged  that 
Albany  had  murdered  him  to  clear  the  way  to  the  throne.  Robert 
now  sent  young  James,  his  only  surviving  son,  to  be  educated  in 
France  in  order  to  save  him  from  Albany's  machinations.  On  his 
way  the  prince  was  captured  by  an  English  ship,  and  delivered  to 
Henr>',  who  kept  him  under  guard  as  a  hostage  for  the  peaceful 
behaviour  of  his  countrymen.  The  prince,  he  said,  should  have 
been  sent  to  him  to  be  educated,  as  he  could  talk  French  as  well 
as  the  king  of  France.     When  Robert  died  soon  afterwards  the 

1  Genealogy  of  the  kings  of  Scotland  from  Robert  Bruce  to  James  I. : — 

Robert  L,  Bruce 
(1306-1329) 


I  I 

David  II.  Margaret  =  Walter  Stewart 

(1329-1370)  I 

Robert  II.,  Stewart  or  Stuart 
(1370- 1 390) 


I  ! 

Robert  III.  Robert,  Duke 

(1390-1406)  of  Albany 


I  I 

David,  James  I. 

Duke  of  Rothesay        (1406-1437) 


296  HENRY  IV.  1405-1408 

captive  became  King  James  I.  ;  but  he  was  not  allowed  to  return 
home,  and  Albany  ruled  Scotland  as  regent  in  his  name. 
^)v!^  9.  The  Execution  of  Archbishop  Scrope.  1405.—  The  capture 
of  such  a  hostage  as  James  was  the  more  valuable  to  Henry  as  at 
that  very  moment  there  was  a  fresh  rising  in  the  North,  in  which 
Scrope,  the  Archbishop  of  York,  took  a  leading  part.  The  in- 
surgents were  soon  dispersed,  and  both  Archbishop  Scrope  and 
Mowbray,  the  Earl  Marshal,  were  captured.  Henry  had  them  both 
beheaded,  though  neither  were  tried  by  their  peers,  and  ecclesiastics 
were  not  punishable  by  a  secular  court.  Knowing  that  the  insur- 
rection had  been  contrived  by  Northumberland,  Henry  gave  him- 
self no  rest  till  he  had  demolished  the  fortifications  of  his  castles 
of  Alnwick,  Warkworth,  and  Prudhoe.  Northumberland  himself 
Reaped  10  Scotland. 

10.  France,  Wales,  and  the  North.  1405 — 1408. — In  1405, 
whilst  Henry  was  in  the  North,  a  French  fleet  landed  a  force  in 
Wales  and  seized  Carmarthen.  In  1406  the  Duke  of  Orleans  at- 
tacked the  possessions  still  held  by  the  English  in  Guienne,  but 
though  he  plundered  the  countiy  he  could  do  no  more.  Once  again 
fortune  relieved  Henry  of  a  dangerous  enemy.  The  Duke  of 
Orleans  had  a  rival  in  his  cousin  John  the  Fearless,  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  who,  in  addition  to  his  own  duchy  and  county  of 
Burgundy,  was  ruler  of  Flanders  through  his  mother.  His  wise 
and  firm  government  attached  the  manufacturing  towns  of  Flanders 
to  him,  and  the  example  of  his  government  in  Flanders  won  him  favour 
in  Paris  and  other  French  towns,  especially  in  the  north  of  France. 
He  was,  however,  personally  brutal  and  unscrupulous,  and  having 
entered  into  a  competition  for  power  with  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  he 
had  him  murdered  in  1407  in  the  streets  of  Paris.  At  once  a  civil 
war  broke  out  between  the  Burgundian  party,  supported  by  the 
towns,  and  the  Orleans  party,  which  rested  on  the  feudal  nobility, 
and  was  now  termed  the  party  of  the  Armagnacs,  from  the  Count 
of  Armagnac,  its  chief  leader  after  the  murder  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans.  Henry  had  no  longer  to  fear  invasion  from  France.  In 
1408  he  was  freed  from  yet  another  enemy.  The  old  Earl  of  North- 
umberland, who  had  wandered  from  Scotland  to  Wales,  now 
wandered  north  again  to  try  his  fortunes  in  his  own  country.  As 
he  passed  through  Yorkshire  he  was  met  by  the  sheriff  of  the 
county,  and  defeated  and  slain  on  Bramham  Moor.  At  the  same 
time  South  Wales  fell  again  under  the  power  of  the  king,  and 
though  Owen  Glendower  still  continued  to  hold  out  in  the  moun- 
tainous region  round  Snowdon,  his  power  rapidly  declined. 


I409 


K 


OF  HENRY   V. 


297 


II.  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales.  1409— 1410.— No  one  had  been 
more  helpful  to  the  king  in  these  wars  than  his  son,  Henry,  Prince 
of  Wales.  He  had  fought  at  Shrewsbury  and  in  Wales,  and  had 
learnt  to  command  as  well  as  to  fight.     Young  as  he  was — in  1409 


ocrGc7o7xToTjTJoo"oo"o o o 0^200.00^0  o  o  o  o o o o ooaog;o( 


Fight  in  the  lists  with  poleaxes  between  Richard  Beauchamp,   Earl  of  Warwick,  and 
^^^^  Sir  PandolfMalatesta,  at  Verona,  temp.  Henry  IV.:  from  the  "  Life  of  R  chard, 
N^arl  of  Warwick;"  drawn  by  John  Rous  about  1485. 

he  was  but  twenty-two — he  was  already  seen  to  be  a  man  born  to 
have  the  mastery.  He  took  his  place  in  his  father's  council  as 
well  as  in  his  armies  in  the  field.  He  was  skilful,  resolute,  always 
knowing  his  own  m(nd,  prompt  to  act  as  each  occasion  arose.     He 


298 


HENRY  IV. 


1410-1413 


was,  moreover,  unfelgnedly  religious.  It  seemed  as  if  a  king  as 
great  as  Edward  I.  was  about  to  ascend  the  throne.  Yet  between 
the  character  of  Edward  I.  and  the  character  of  Prince  Henry  there 
was  a  great  difference.  Edward  I.  worked  for  the  future  as  well  as 
for  the  present.  His  constructive  legis- 
lation served  his  country  for  generations 
after  his  death.  Even  his  mistaken 
attempt  to  unite  England  and  Scotland 
was,  to  some  extent  at  least,  an  anticipa- 
tion of  that  which  was  done  by  the  Act 
of  Union  four  hundred  years  after  his 
death.  The  young  Henry  had  no  such 
power  of  building  for  the  future.  He 
worked  for  the  present  alone,  and  his 
work  crumbled  away  almost  as  soon 
as  he  was  in  his  grave.  His  ideas 
were  the  ordinary  ideas  of  his  age,  and 
he  never  originated  any  of  his  own.  In 
1410,  when  a  heretic,  Badby,  was  led  to 
be  burnt,  the  Prince  in  vain  urged  him 
to  recant.  As  the  flames  blazed  up,  the 
poor  wretch,  stung  by  the  torment,  cried 
for  mercy.  The  Prince  bade  the  exe- 
cutioners drag  away  the  blazing  faggots, 
and  offered  Badby  support  for  his  life- 
time if  he  would  abandon  his  heresy. 
Badby  refused,  and  the  Prince  sternly 
ordered  the  executioners  to  push  the 
faggots  back  and  to  finish  their  cruel 
work.  In  that  very  year  the  House  of 
Commons,  which  was  again  urging  the 
king  to  confiscate  the  revenues  of  the 
clergy,  even  urged  him  also  to  soften 
the  laws  against  the  Lollards.  The  king 
Costume  of  a  judge,  about  1400 :    refused,  and  he  had  no  opposition  to 

from  the  brass  of  Sir  John  . 

Cassy,  Chief  Baron  of  the    fear  from  the  Prmcc  of  Walcs. 

aouSriShi?! '''"'""'■  is  12.  The  Last  Years  of  Henry  IV. 
'141 1 — 1413. — It  was  not  long  before  a 
bitter  quarrel  broke  out  between  Henry  IV.  and  his  son,  which 
lasted  till  the  death  of  the  old  man.  In  later  times  stories  were 
told  how  Prince  Henry  gave  himself  up  to  the  society  of  low  and 
debauched  companions,  how  he  amused  himself  by  robbing  the 


141 3  A   NEW  KING  299^ 

receivers  of  his  own  rents,  and  how,  having  struck  Chief  Justice 
Gascoigne  for  sitting  in  judgment  on  one  of  his  unruly  followers, 
he  was  sent  to  prison  for  contempt  of  court.  There  is  no  real 
evidence  in  support  of  these  stories  ;  but  there  is  good  reason  to 
believe  that,  though  they  were  certainly  exaggerated,  they  were 
not  altogether  without  foundation.  Since  1410  the  Prince  kept 
house  in  the  heart  of  London,  and,  as  a  young  and  active  man  sud- 
denly called  from  service  in  the  field  to  live  in  the  midst  of  the 
temptations  of  a  city,  he  may  very  well  have  developed  a  taste  for 
boisterous  amusements,  even  if  he  did  not  fall  into  grosser  forms  of 
dissipation.  It  is  certain  that  during  this  period  of  his  life  he  ran 
deeply  into  debt,  and  was  no  longer  on  good  terms  with  his  father. 
Yet  even  the  story  about  the  Chief  Justice  goes  on  to  say  that  the 
Prince  took  his  punishment  meekly  and  offered  no  resistance,  and 
that  his  father  thanked  God  that  he  had  so  upright  a  judge  and  so 
obedient  a  son.  Political  disagreement  probably  widened  the  breach 
between  the  King  and  the  Prince.  Henry  IV.  had  grown  accustomed 
to  live  from  hand  to  mouth,  and  had  maintained  himself  on  the 
throne  rather  because  Englishmen  needed  a  king  than  because 
he  was  himself  a  great  ruler.  In  his  foreign  policy  he  was  swayed 
by  the  interests  of  the  moment.  In  1411  he  helped  the  Burgundians 
against  the  Armagnacs.  In  1412  he  helped  the  Armagnacs  against 
the  Burgundians.  Prince  Henry  already  aimed  at  a  steady  alli- 
ance with  the  Burgundians,  with  a  view  to  a  policy  more  thorough- 
going than  that  of  keeping  a  balance  between  the  French  parties. 
The  king,  too,  was  subject  to  epileptic  attacks,  and  to  a  cutaneous 
disorder  which  his  ill  willers  branded  by  the  name  of  leprosy. 
It  has  even  been  said  that  in  1-412  the  Prince  urged  his  father  to 
abdicate  in  his  favour.  If  so,  he  had  not  long  to  wait  for  the  crown. 
In  1413  Henry  IV.  died,  and  Henry  V.  sat  upon  his  throne. 

13.  Henry  V.  and  the  Lollards.  1413—1414. — Henry  V.  was 
steadied  by  the  duties  which  now  devolved  upon  him.  He  indeed 
dismissed  from  the  chancellorship  Archbishop  Arundel,  who  had 
supported  his  father  against  himself,  and  gave  it  to  his  half-uncle, 
Henry  Beaufort,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  one  of  the  legitimated  sons 
of  John  of  Gaunt  and  Catherine  Swynford  (see  p.  282),  but  he  allowed 
no  plans  of  vengeance  to  take  possession  of  his  mind.  His  first 
thought  was  to  show  that  he  had  confidence  in  his  own  title  to 
the  crown.  He  liberated  the  Earl  of  March,  and  transferred  the 
body  of  Richard  II.  to  a  splendid  tomb  at  Westminster,  as  if  he 
had  nothing  to  fear  from  any  competitor.  If  there  was  one  thing 
on  which,  as  far  as  England  was  concerned,  his  heart  was  set,  it 


300 


HENRY  V. 


1413-1414 


Y- 


was  on  strengthening  the  rehgion  of  his  ancestors.  He  founded 
three  friaries  and  he  set  himself  to  crush  the  Lollards.  Sir  John 
Oldcastle,  who  bore  the  title  of  Lord  Cobham  in  right  of  his  wife, 
was  looked  up  to  by  the  Lollards  as  their  chief  supporter.  Oldcastle 
was  brought  before  Archbishop  Arundel.  Both  judge  and  accused 
played  their  several  parts  with  dignity.  Arundel  without  angry 
reviling  asserted  the  necessity  of  accepting  the  teaching  of  the 
Church.  Oldcastle  with  modest  firmness  maintained  the  falsity  of 
many  of  its  doctrines.     In  the  end  he  was  excommunicated,  but 

before  any  further  action 
could  be  taken  he  es- 
caped, and  was  nowhere 
to  be  found.  His  fol- 
lowers were  so  exaspe- 
rated as  to  form  a  plot 
against  the  king's  life. 
Early  in  1414  Henry  fell 
upon  a  crowd  of  them  in 
St.  Giles's  Fields.  Most 
escaped,  but  of  those 
who  were  taken  the 
greater  part  were  hanged 
or  burnt.  The  result  was 
a  statute  giving  fresh 
powers  to  the  king  for 
the  punishment  of  the 
Lollards.  Every  book 
written  by  them  was  to 
be  confiscated.  Three 
years  later  (1417)  Old- 
castle was  seized  and 
burnt.  He  was  the  last 
of  the  Lollards  to  play  an  historical  part.  The  Lollards  continued 
to  exist  in  secret,  especially  in  the  towns,  but  there  was  never  again 
any  one  amongst  them  who  combined  refigious  fervour  with  culti- 
vated intelligence. 

14.  Henry's  Claim  to  the  Throne  of  France.  1414.— Henry  V. 
was  resolved  to  uphold  the  old  foreign  policy  of  the  days  of 
Edward  HL  as  well  as  the  old  religion.  In  1414,  whilst  he  amused 
the  French  court  by  offers  of  friendship,  he  was  in  reality  prepar- 
ing to  demand  the  crown  of  France  as  the  right  of  the  king  of 
England,  leaving  out  of  sight  the  consideration  that  if  the  claim  of 


Henry  V.  :  from  an  original  painting  belonging 
to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 


< 


1413-1415  BURGUNDIANS  AND  ARMAGNACS  30I 

Edward  III.  had  been  worth  anything  at  all,  it  would  have  de- 
scended to  the  Earl  of  March  and  not  to  himself.  Everything 
seemed  to  combine  to  make  easy  an  attack  on  France.  Burgun- 
dians  and  Armagnacs  were  engaged  in  a  death-struggle.  In  1413 
a  riotous  Burgundian  mob  had  made  itself  master  of  Paris  and  the 
Government.  Then  the  Armagnacs  had  got  the  upper  hand,  and 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  driven  back  to  his  own  dominions. 
Henry  now  made  an  alliance  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  against 
the  ruling  powers,  and  prepared  to  invade  the  distracted  land. 
Thus  far  he  proceeded  in  imitation  of  Edward  III.,  who  had 
attacked  Philip  VI.  in  alliance  with  the  Flemings.  With 
Edward  III.,  however,  the  claim  to  the  French  crown  had  always 
been  a  secondary  consideration.  He  went  to  war  because  French 
sailors  plundered  English  ports  and  the  French  king  assisted  the 
Scots.  Henry  had  no  such  reason  to  urge.  He  went  to  war  be- 
cause he  was  young  and  warlike,  because  the  enterprise  was  easy, 
and  because  foreign  conquest  would  unite  all  Englishmen  round 
his  throne.  When  once  the  war  was  begun  he  was  certain  to 
carry  it  on  in  a  different  spirit  from  that  of  Edward  III.  Edward 
had  gone  to  weaken  the  plunderers  by  plundering  in  return,  and  to 
fight  battles  only  when  they  happened  to  come  in  his  way.  Henry 
went  with  the  distinct  resolution  to  conquer  France  and  to  place 
the  French  crown  on  his  own  head.  Every  step  which  he  took 
was  calculated  with  skill  for  the  attainment  of  this  end.  Of  imme- 
diate, perhaps  of  lifelong,  success  Henry  was  as  nearly  certain  as 
it  was  possible  to  be.  Yet,  if  he  had  remembered  what  had  been 
the  end  of  campaigns  adorned  by  the  brilliant  victories  of  Cregy 
and  Poitiers,  he  might  have  known  that  all  that  he  could  do  would 
end  in  ultimate  failure,  and  that  the  day  must  come  when  divided 
France  would  unite  to  cast  out,  if  not  himself,  at  least  his  heirs. 
It  was  significant  that  when  his  Chancellor,  Beaufort,  announced 
to  Parliament  the  king's  intention,  he  took  for  his  text,  after  the 
manner  of  political  speakers  in  those  days,  '  Let  us  work  while  it  is 
called  to-day.'  Henry  was  not  inclined,  as  Edward  I.  had  been,  to 
take  thought  for  a  distant  morrow. 

15.  The  Invasion  of  France.  1415. — In  1415  Henry  openly 
lade  his  claim  and  gathered  his  army  at  Southampton.  He  there 
detected  a  conspiracy  to  place  the  Earl  of  March  on  the  throne, 
which  had  been  formed  by  Lord  Scrope  and  Sir  Thomas  Grey,  in 
combination  with  March's  brother-in-law,  tjie  Earl  of  Cambridge, 
a  son  of  the  Duke  of  York  (see  genealogy  at  p.  327),  the  son  of 
Edward  III.     All  three  were  executed,  and  then  Henry  sailed 


V 


f- 


302  HENRY    V.  1415 

for  France.  He  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine  and  besieged 
Harfleur.  Harfleur  fell  after  an  heroic  defence,  and  the  Seine 
valley  lay  open  to  Henry.^  Over  two-thirds  of  his  army,  however, 
had  perished  from  dysentery  and  fever,  and  with  no  more,  even  at 
the  highest  calculation,  than  15,000  men,  he  was  unable  to  take 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  march  upon  Paris.  His  brother 
the  Duke  of  Clarence,  urged  him  to  return  to  England,  but  Henry 
knew  that  if  he  went  back  with  baffled  hopes  his  throne  would 
hardly  stand  the  shock.  He  resolved  to  march  to  Calais.  It 
might  be  that  he  would  find  a  CreQy  on  the  way. 

16.  The  March  to  Agincourt.  1415. — Not  a  Frenchman  could 
be  found  who  would  take  seriously  Henry's  claim  to  be  the  true 
king  of  France.  When  he  reached  the  Somme  he  found  the  bridges 
over  the  river  broken,  and  he  was  only  able  to  cross  it  by  ascend- 
ing it  almost  to  its  source.  Then,  bending  to  the  left,  he  pushed  on 
towards  Calais.  His  own  army  was  by  this  time  scarcely  more  than 
10,000  strong,  and  he  soon  learnt  that  a  mighty  French  host  of  at 
least  50,000  men  blocked  the  way  at  Agincourt.  Though  his  little 
band  was  worn  with  hunger,  he  joyfully  prepared  for  battle.  He 
knew  that  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  had  kept  aloof,  and  that  the 
Armagnac  army  opposed  to  him  was  a  feudal  host  of  the  same 
character  as  that  which  had  been  defeated  at  Cregy.  There  were 
no  recognised  commanders,  no  subordination,  no  notion  of  the 
superior  military  power  of  the  English  archers. 

17.  The  Battle  of  Agincourt,  October  25,  1415. — In  the  early 
morning,  mass  was  said  in  the  English  army,  and  Henry's  scanty 
followers  prayed  earnestly  that  their  king's  right,  as  they  believed 
it  to  be,  might  be  shown  on  that  day.  Henry's  own  prayers  were 
long  and  fervid.  He  was  told  that  it  was  the  hour  of  prime,  the 
first  hour  of  prayer.  "  Now,"  he  said,  "  is  good  time,  for  all  England 
prayeth  for  us,  and,  therefore,  be  of  good  cheer."  He  then  went 
forth  to  marshal  his  army.  To  a  knight  who  wished  that  every 
brave  Englishman  now  at  home  were  there,  he  replied  that  he 
would  not  have  one  man  more.  Few  as  they  were,  they  were  in 
the  hands  of  God,  who  could  give  them  the  victory.  Henry's 
tactics  were  those  of  Cregy.  He  drew  up  his  archers  between  thick 
woods  which  defended  their  flanks,  and  with  sharp  stakes  planted 
in  the  ground  to  defend  them  in  front,  placing  his  dismounted 
horsemen  at  intervals  between  the  bodies  of  archers.  The  French, 
however,  showed  no  signs  of  attacking,  and  Henry,  knowing  that 
unless  he  cut  his  way  through   his   soldiers  would  starve,  threw 

1  Havre  de  Gr^ce  was  not  yet  in  existence. 


K 


^ 


1415-1417  AGINCOURT  303 

tactics  to  the  winds  and  ordered  his  archers  to  advance.  He  had 
judged  wisely.  The  French  horsemen  were  on  ploughed  ground 
soaked  with  rain,  and  when  at  last  they  charged,  the  legs  of  their 
horses  stuck  fast  in  the  clinging  mud.  The  Enghsh  arrows  played 
thickly  on  them.  Immovable  and  helpless,  they  were  slaughtered 
as  they  stood.  In  vain  their  dismounted  horsemen  pushed  forward 
in  three  columns  upon  the  English  knights.  Their  charge  was 
vigorously  resisted,  and  the  archers,  overlapping  each  column,  drew 
forth  the  heavy  leaden  mallets  which  each  man  carried,  and  fell 
upon  the  helpless  rout  with  blows  which  crashed  through  the  iron 
headpieces  of  the  Frenchmen.  Such  as  could  escape  fled  hastily 
to  the  rear,  throwing  into  wild  confusion  the  masses  of  their  country- 
men who  had  not  as  yet  been  engaged.  The  battle  was  won,  but 
unfortunately  the  victory  was  stained  by  a  cruel  deed.  Some  French 
plunderers  had  got  into  the  rear  to  seize  upon  the  baggage,  and 
Henry,  believing  that  a  fresh  enemy  was  upon  him,  gave  orders, 
which  were  promptly  carried  out,  to  slay  the  prisoners.  The  loss  of 
the  French  was  enormous,  and  fell  heavily  on  their  nobility,  always 
eager  to  be  foremost  in  fight.  Amongst  the  prisoners  who  were 
spared  was  the  young  Duke  of  Orleans. 

18.  Henry's  Diplomacy.  1416— 1417. — If  Henry  had  not  yet 
secured  the  crown  of  France,  he  had  at  least  made  sure  of  the  crown 
of  England.  When  he  landed  at  Dover  he  was  borne  to  land  on 
the  shoulders  of  the  multitude.  He  entered  London  amidst  wild 
enthusiasm.  There  was  no  fear  of  any  fresh  conspiracy  to  place 
the  Earl  of  March  on  the  throne.  In  1416  he  sent  his  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Bedford,  to  secure  Harfleur  against  a  French  attack, 
whilst  he  himself  was  diplomatically  active  in  an  attempt  to  win 
over  to  his  side  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  Sigismund,  King  of  the 
Romans,  who  actually  visited  him  in  England.  Sigismund  promised 
much,  but  had  little  power  to  fulfil  his  promises,  whilst  the  Duke 
shifted  backwards  and  forwards,  looking  out  for  his  own  advantage 
and  giving  no  real  help  to  either  side.  In  1417  the  quarrels  in 
France  reached  a  head.  The  Count  of  Armagnac,  getting  into 
his  possession  the  Dauphin  Charles,  a  boy  of  fourteen,  established 
a  reign  of  terror  in  Paris,  and  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  summoned 
by  the  frightened  citizens  to  their  help,  levied  war  against  the 
Armagnacs  and  marched  to  Paris. 

19.  Henry's  Conquest  of  Normandy.  1417  —  1419.  —  Henry 
seized  the  opportunity  and  landed  in  Normandy.  Caen  was  taken 
by  storm,  and  in  a  few  weeks  all  Normandy  except  Rouen  had 
submitted  to  Henry.     There  had  been  a  terrible  butchery  when 


304 


HENRY    V. 


1417-1419 


Effigy  of  William  Phelip,  Lord  Baraolf 
(died  1441),  with  the  Garter  and  Lan- 
castrian collar  of  SS.  :  from  his  tomb 
at  Dennington,  Suffolk.  The  type  of 
armour  here  shown  prevailed  from 
about  1415  to  1435 


Caen  was  stormed,  but  when 
once  submission  was  secured 
Henry  took  care  that  justice  and 
order  should  be  enforced,  and 
that  his  soldiers  should  abstain 
from  plunder  and  outrage.  In 
Paris  afifairs  were  growing  worse. 
The  citizens  rose  against  the  Ar- 
magnacs  and  imprisoned  all  of 
them  on  whom  they  could  lay 
hands.  Then  the  mob  burst  into 
the  prisons  and  massacred  the 
prisoners,  the  Count  of  Armagnac 
himself  being  one  of  the  number. 
Henry's  army  in  the  meanwhile 
closed  round  Rouen.  The  magis- 
tpates,  to  prolong  the  defence, 
thrust  out  the  poorer  inhabitants. 
Henry,  who  knew  not  pity  wh&n 
there  was  a  practical  object  to  be 
gained,  thrust  them  back.  During 
five  months  the  poor  wretches 
wandered  about  half  starved,  dy- 
ing off  day  by  day.  On  Christmas 
Day,  in  honour  of  Christ's  nativity, 
Henry  sent  some  food  to  the  few 
who  were  left.  Famine  did  its 
work  within  as  well  as  without 
the  walls,  and  on  January  19, 
1419,  Rouen,  the  old  ducal  capital 
of  the  Norman  kings,  surren- 
dered to  Henry. 

20.  The  Murder  of  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy  and  the  Treaty  of 
Troyes.  1419 — 1420.  —  In  the 
summer  of  1419  English  troops 
swept  the  country  even  up  to  the 
walls  of  Paris.  Henry,  however, 
gained  more  by  the  follies  and 
crimes  of  his  enemies  than  by  his 
own  skill.  Terrified  at  the  pro- 
spect of  losing  all,  Burgundians 


1419         MURDER   OF   THE  DUKE   OF  BUkGtJNDV 


30$ 


and  Armagnacs  seemed  for  a  moment  to  forget  their  quarrel  and  to 
be  ready  to  join  together  in  defence  of  their  common  country  ;  but 
the  hatred  in  their  hearts  could  not  be  rooted  out.  At  a  conference 
between  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  the  Dauphin  on  the  bridge  of 


Marriage  of  Henry  V.  and  Catherine  of  France  :  from  the  '  Life  of  Richard 
Beauchamp,  Earl  of  Warwick,'  drawn  by  John  Rous  about  1485. 


Montereau,  angry  words  sprang  easily  to  the  lips  of  both.  The 
Duke  put  his  hand  on  the  pommel  of  his  sword,  and  some  of  the 
Dauphin's  attendants,  believing  their  master's  life  in  danger,  fell 
on  the  Duke  and  slew  him.     After  this  an  agreement  between  the 

X 


K' 


306  HENRY   V.  1419-1422 

factions  was  no  longer  possible.  The  new  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
Philip  the  Good,  at  once  joined  the  English  against  the  Dauphin, 
whom  he  regarded  as  an  accomplice  of  his  father's  murderers. 
Even  Queen  Isabella,  the  mother  of  the  Dauphin,  shared  in  the 
outcry  against  her  own  son,  and  in  1420  was  signed  the  Treaty  of 
Troyes,  by  which  the  Dauphin  was  disinherited  in  favour  of  Henry, 
who  was  to  be  king  of  France  on  the  death  of  Charles  VI,  In 
accordance  with  its  terms,  Henry  married  Charles's  daughter 
Catherine,  and  ruled  France  as  regent  till  the  time  came  when  he 
was  to  rule  it  as  king. 

21.  The  Close  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  V.  1420  —  1422. — The 
Treaty  of  Troyes  was  very  similar  in  its  stipulations  to  that  which 
Henry  II.  had  made  with  Stephen  at  Wallingford  (see  p.  137). 
The  result  was,  as  might  have  been  expected,  totally  different. 
Henry  II.  had  the  English  nation  behind  his  back.  Henry  V. 
presumed  to  rule  over  a  foreign  nation,  the  leaders  of  which  had 
only  accepted  him  in  a  momentary  fit  of  passion.  He  never  got 
the  whole  of  France  into  his  power.  He  held  Paris  and  the  North, 
whilst  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  held  the  East.  South  of  the 
Loire  the  Armagnacs  were  strong,  and  that  part  of  France  stood 
by  the  Dauphin,  though  even  here  the  English  possessed  a  strip  of 
land  along  the  sea-coast  in  Guienne  and  Gascony,  and  at  one  time 
drew  over  some  of  the  lords  to  admit  Henry's  feudal  supremacy. 
In  1420  Henry  fancied  it  safe  for  him  to  return  to  England,  but,  in 
his  absence,  in  the  spring  of  1421  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence, 
was  defeated  and  slain  at  Bauge  by  a  force  of  Frenchmen  and  of 
Scottish  auxiliaries.  Clarence  had  forgotten  that  English  victories 
had  been. due  to  English  archery.  He  had  plunged  into  the  fight 
with  his  horsemen,  and  had  paid  the  penalty  for  his  rashness  with 
his  life.  Henry  hurried  to  the  rescue  of  his  followers,  and  drove 
the  French  over  the  Loire  ;  though  Orleans,  on  the  north  bank  of 
that  river,  remained  unconquered.  Instead  of  laying  siege  to  it 
Henry  turned  sharply  round  northwards  to  besiege  Meaux,  the 
garrison  of  which  was  plundering  the  country  round  Paris  in  the 
name  of  the  Dauphin,  and  seemed  likely  to  shake  the  fidelity  to 
Henry  even  of  Paris  itself  Meaux  held  out  for  many  months. 
When  at  last  it  fell,  in  1422,  Henry  was  already  suffering  from  a 
disease  which  carried  him  off  before  the  end  of  the  year  at  the  age 
of  thirty-five.  Henry  V,  had  given  his  life  to  the  restoration  of  the 
authority  of  the  Church  in  England,  and  to  the  establishment  of  his 
dynasty  at  home  by  means  of  the  glory  of  foreign  conquest.  What 
man  could  do  he  did,  but  he  could  not  achieve  the  impossible. 


^ 


307 


CHAPTER   XX 

HENRY   VI.   AND  THE  LOSS  OF   FRANCE.      I422— 1451 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  Heniy  VI.,  1422-1461     ^ 

The  accession  of  Henry  VI 1422 

The  relief  of  Orleans 1429 

End  of  the  alliance  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  .               .  1435 

Marriage  of  Henry  VI.  with  Margaret  of  Anjou .                .  1445 

Murder  of  the  Duke  of  Suffolk  and  Jack  Cade's  rebellion  .  1450 

Loss  of  the  last  French  possessions  except  Calais  1451 


tC 


1.  Bedford  and  Gloucester.  1422. — In  England  Henry  V.  was 
succeeded  in  1422  by  his  son,  Hemy  VI.,  a  child  of  nine  months. 
In  the  same  year,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  the 
infant  was  acknowledged  as  king  of  France  in  the  north  and  east 
of  that  country.  The  Dauphin,  holding  the  lands  south  of  the 
Loire,  and  some  territory  even  to  the  north  of  it,  claimed  to  reign 
over  the  whole  of  France  by  hereditary  right  as  Charles  VII. 
Henry  V.  had  appointed  his  eldest  surviving  brother,  John,  Duke 
of  Bedford,  regent  in  France,  and  his  youngest  brother,  Humphrey, 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  regent  in  England.  In  England  there  were 
no  longer  any  parties  banded  against  the  Crown,  and  the  title  of 
the  Earl  of  March  had  not  a  single  supporter  ;  but  both  the  Privy 
Council  and  the  Parliament  agreed  that  the  late  king  could  not 
dispose  of  the  regency  by  will.  Holding  that  Bedford  as  the  elder 
brother  had  the  better  claim,  they  nevertheless,  in  consequence  of 
his  absence  in  France,  appointed  Gloucester  Protector,  with  the 
proviso  that  he  should  give  up  his  authority  to  Bedford  if  the  latter 
were  to  return  to  England.  They  also  imposed  limitations  upon 
the  authority  of  the  Protector,  requiring  him  to  act  by  the  advice 
of  the  Council. 

2.  Bedford's  Success  in  France.  1423 — 1424. — The  English 
nation  was  bent  upon  maintaining  its  supremacy  in  France.  Bed- 
ford was  a  good  warrior  and  an  able  statesman.  In  1423  he  pru- 
dently married  the  sister  of  Philip  of  Burgundy,  hoping  thereby  to 
secure  permanently  the  all-important  fidelity  of  the  Duke.  His 
next  step  was  to  place  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  Scottish  auxil- 
iaries who  poured  into  France  to  the  help  of  Charles.  Through 
his  influence  the  captive  James  I.  (see  p.  295)  was  liberated  and 
sent  home  to  Scotland,  on  the  understanding  that  he  would  prevent 


3o8 


HENRY   VI. 


1424-1425 


V^ 


his  subjects  from  aiding  the  enemies  of  England.  Bedford  needed 
all  the  support  he  could  find,  as  the  French  had  lately  been  gaining 
ground.  In  1424,  however,  Bedford  defeated  them  at  Verneuil.  In 
England  it  was  believed  that  Verneuil  was  a  second  Agincourt,  and 
that  the  French  resistance  would  soon  be  at  an  end. 

3.  Gloucester's  Invasion  of  Hainault.  i424.^Bedford's  pro- 
gress in  France  was  checked  by  the  folly  of  his  brother  Gloucester, 
who  was  as  unwise  and  capricious  as  he  was  greedy  of  power. 
Gloucester  had  lately  married  Jacquehne,  the  heiress  of  Holland 

and  Hainault,  though  her 
husband,  the  Duke  of 
Brabant,  was  still  living, 
on  the  plea  that  her  first 
marriage  was  null  on  the 
ground  of  nearness  of 
kin.  In  1424  Gloucester 
overran  Hainault,  which 
was  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Duke  of 
Brabant,  thereby  giving 
offence  to  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  who  was  a 
cousin  and  ally  of  the 
Duke  of  Brabant,  and 
who  had  no  wish  to  see 
the  English  holding  a 
territory  so  near  to  his 
own  county  of  Flanders. 
The  Duke  of  Brabant  re- 
covered Hainault  and 
captured  Jacqueline,  who  had  already  been  abandoned  by  Glou- 
cester. A  coolness  arose  between  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  the 
English  which  was  never  completely  removed. 

4.  Gloucester  and  Beaufort.  1425— 1428. — In  England  as  well 
as  on  the  Continent  Gloucester's  self-willed  restlessness  roused 
enemies,  the  most  powerful  of  them  being  his  uncle,  the  Chancellor, 
Henry  Beaufort,  Bishop  of  Winchester  (see  pp.  301,  335),  a  wealthy 
and  ambitious  prelate  not  without  those  statesmanlike  qualities  which 
were  sadly  lacking  to  Gloucester.  If  Beaufort  ruled  the  Council, 
Gloucester  had  the  art  of  making  himself  popular  with  the  multi- 
tude, v/hose  sympathies  were  not  likely  to  be  given  to  a  bishop  of 
the  type  of  Beaufort,  v/ho  practised  no  austerities  and  who  had 


Henry  VI. :  from  an  original  picture  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 


1426- 1 429  GLOUCESTER  AND  BEAUFORT  309 

nothing  in  him  to  appeal  to  the  popular  imagination.  So  bitter 
was  the  feud  between  Gloucester  and  Beaufort  that  in  1426  Bedford 
was  obliged  to  visit  England  to  keep  the  peace  between  them. 
Before  he  returned  to  France  he  persuaded  Beaufort  to  surrender 
the  chancellorship  to  Kemp,  the  Bishop  of  London,  and  to  leave 
England  for  a  time.  Moreover,  in  1427  he  himself  swore  that  as  long 
as  the  king  was  under  age  the  Council  and  not  the  Protector  was 
to  govern.  When  Gloucester  was  asked  to  take  the  same  oath,  he 
signed  it,  but  refused  to  swear.  In  1428,  after  Bedford  had  returned 
to  France,  Beaufort  came  back,  bringing  with  him  from  Rome  the 
title  of  Cardinal,  and  authority  to  raise  soldiers  for  a  crusade 
against  heretics  in  Bohemia.  A  storm  was  at  once  raised  agaiiiSK^ 
him.  A  Cardinal,  it  was  said,  was  a  servant  of  the  Roman  See,  and 
as  no  man  could  serve  two  masters,  he  ought  not  to  hold  an  English 
bishopric  or  to  sit  in  the  English  Council,  far  less  to  send  to 
Bohemia  English  troops  which  were  needed  in  France.  Gloucester 
fancied  that  the  opportunity  of  overthrowing  his  rival  had  come. 
Beaufort,  however,  was  too  prudent  to  press  his  claims.  He  ab- 
sented himself  from  the  Council  and  allowed  the  men  whom  he  had 
raised  for  Bohemia  to  be  sent  to  France  instead.  Before  the  end 
of  the  year  the  outcry  against  him  died  away,  and.  Cardinal  as  he 
was,  he  resumed  his  old  place  in  the  Council. 

5.  The  Siege  of  Orleans.  1428— 1429. — The  time  had  arrived 
when  the  presence  of  every  English  soldier  was  needed  in  France. 
Bedford  had  made  himself  master  of  almost  the  whole  country 
north  of  the  Loire  except  Orleans.  If  he  could  gain  that  city  it 
would  be  easy  for  him  to  overpower  Charles,  who  kept  court  at 
Chinon.  In  1428,  therefore,  he  laid  siege  to  Orleans.  The  city, 
however,  defended  itself  gallantly,  though  all  that  the  French  outside 
could  hope  to  do  was  to  cut  off  the  supplies  of  the  besiegers. 
In  February  1429  they  attempted  to  intercept  a  convoy  of  herrings 
coming  from  Paris  for  the  English  troops,  but  were  beaten  off  in 
what  was  jocosely  styled  the  Battle  of  the  Herrings,  and  it  seemed 
as  though  Orleans,  and  with  it  France  itself,  were  doomed.  French- 
men were  indeed  weary  of  the  foreign  yoke  and  of  the  arrogant 
insolence  of  the  rough  island  soldiers.  Yet  in  France  all  military 
and  civil  organisation  had  hitherto  come  from  the  kings,  and  un- 
fortunately for  his  subjects  Charles  was  easy-tempered  and  entirely 
incapable  either  of  carrying  on  war  successfully  or  of  inspiring  that 
enthusiasm  without  which  the  most  careful  organisation  is  as  the 
twining  of  ropes  of  sand.  It  would  need  a  miracle  to  inspire 
Frenchmen  with  the  belief  that  it  was  possible  for  them  to  defeat 


3IO  HENRY   VI.  1429 

the  victors  of  Agincourt  and  Verneuil,  and  yet  without  such  a 
rniracle  irretrievable  ruin  was  at  hand. 
^^  6.  Jeanne  Dare  and  the  Rehef  of  Orleans.  1429.— The  miracle 
was  wrought  by  a  young  maiden  of  seventeen,  Jeanne  Dare,  the 
daughter  of  a  peasant  of  Domremi,  in  the  duchy  of  Bar.  Her 
home  was  at  a  distance  from  the  actual  scenes  of  war,  but  whilst 
she  was  still  little  more  than  a  child,  tales  of  horror,  reaching  her 
from  afar,  had  filled  her  with  '  pity  for  the  realm  of  France '  and  for 
its  young  king,  whom  she  idealised  into  the  pattern  of  every  virtue. 
As  she  brooded  over  the  thought  of  possible  deliverance,  her  warm 
imagination  summoned  up  before  her  bright  and  saintly  forms,  St. 
Michael,  St.  Catherine,  and  St.  Margaret,  who  bade  her,  the  chosen 
of  God,  to  go  forth  and  save  the  king,  and  conduct  him  to  Reims 
to  be  crowned  and  anointed  with  the  holy  oil  from  the  vessel  which, 
as  men  believed,  had  been  brought  down  from  heaven  in  days  of 
old.  At  last  in  1428  her  native  hamlet  was  burnt  down  by  a  Bur- 
gundian  band.  Then  the  voices  of  the  saints  bade  her  go  to 
Vaucouleurs,  where  she  would  find  a  knight,  Robert  de  Baudricourt, 
who  would  conduct  her  to  Charles.  Months  passed  before  Bau- 
dricourt would  do  aught  but  scorn  her  message,  and  it  was  not  till 
February  1429,  when  the  news  from  Orleans  was  most  depressing, 
that  he  consented  to  take  her  in  his  train.  She  found  Charles  at 
Chinon,  and,  as  the  story  goes,  convinced  him  of  her  Divine  mis- 
sion by  recognising  him  in  disguise  in  the  midst  of  his  courtiers. 
Soldiers  and  theologians  alike  distrusted  her,  but  her  native  good 
sense,  her  simple  and  earnest  faith,  and  above  all  her  purity  of  heart 
and  life  disarmed  all  opposition,  and  she  was  sent  forth  to  lead  an 
army  to  the  relief  of  Orleans.  She  rode  on  horseback  clothed  in 
armour  as  a  man,  with  a  sword  which  she  had  taken  from  behind  the 
altar  of  St.  Catherine  by  her  side,  and  a  consecrated  banner  in  her 
hand.  She  brought  with  her  hope  of  victory,  enthusiasm  built  on 
confidence  in  Divine  protection,  and  wide-reaching  patriotism.  '  Pity 
for  the  realm  of  France'  inspired  her,  and  even  the  rough  soldiers  who 
followed  her  forsook  for  a  time  their  debaucheries  that  they  might 
be  fit  to  follow  God's  holy  maid.  Such  an  army  was  invincible  ;  but 
whilst  to  the  French  the  maid  was  an  instrument  of  the  mercy  of 
God,  to  the  English  she  was  an  emissary  of  hell  and  the  forerunner 
of  defeat.  On  May  7  she  led  the  storm  of  one  of  the  English  fortified 
posts  by  which  the  town  was  hemmed  in.  After  a  sharp  attack  she 
planted  her  standard  on  the  wall.  The  English  garrison  was  slain  to 
a  man.  The  line  of  the  besiegers  was  broken  through,  and  Orleans 
was  saved.     On  the  12th  the  English  army  was  in  full  retreat. 


1^*: 


THE   MAID   OF  ORLEANS 


3" 


7.  The  Coronation  of  Charles  VII.  and  the  Capture  of  the 
Maid.  1429 — 1430. — The  Maid  followed  up  her  victory.  She  had 
at  her  side  brave  and  skilful  warriors,  such  as  La  Hire  and  the 
Bastard  of  Orleans,  the  illegitimate  son  of  the  murdered  Louis  of 
Orleans,  and  with  their  help  she  pressed  the  English  hard,  driving 
them  northwards  and  defeating  them  at  Patav^     She  insisted  on 


Fotheringhay  Church,  Northamptonshire.     The  contract  for  building  it,  between  Edward 
Dake  of  York,  and  William  Horwod,  freemason,  is  dated  September  24,  1434. 

conducting  Charles  to  Reims,  and  he,  indolently  resisting  at  first, 
was  carried  away  by  her  persistent  urgency.  Hostile  towns  opened 
their  gates  to  heron  the  way,  and  on  July  17  she  saw  with  chastened 
joy  the  man  whom  she  had  saved  from  destruction  crowned  in  the 
great  cathedral  of  Reims.  For  her  part,  she  was  eager  to  push 
on  the  war,  but  Charles  was  slothful,  and  in  a  hurry  to  be  back  to 


o( 


K 


312  HENRY  VI.  1430-1433 

the  pleasures  of  his  court.  When  she  led  the  troops  to  the  attack 
of  Paris,  she  was  ordered  back  by  the  king,  and  the  army  sent 
into  winter  quarters.  In  the  spring  of  1430  the  Maid  was  allowed 
again  to  attack  the  English,  but  she  had  no  longer  the  support 
which  she  had  once  had.  Many  of  the  French  soldiers  were  meanly 
jealous  of  her,  and  were  vexed  when  they  were  told  that  they  owed 
their  victories  to  a  woman.  On  the  other  side  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy was  frightened  by  the  French  successes  into  giving  real  aid 
to  Bedford,  and  on  May  23,  in  a  skirmish  before  Compiegne,  her 
countrymen  doing  nothing  to  save  or  to  rescue  her,  the  Maid  was 
taken  by  Burgundian  soldiers.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  her  captors 
sold  her  to  the  English,  who  firmly  believed  her  to  be  a  witch. 

8.  The  Martyrdom  at  Rouen.  1431. — The  English  had  no 
difficulty  in  finding  an  ecclesiastical  court  to  judge  their  prisoner. 
Even  the  French  clergy  detested  the  Maid  as  having  appealed  to 
supernatural  voices  which  had  not  been  r'jcognised  by  the  Church  ; 
and  in  spite  of  an  intelligent  and  noble  defence  she  was  condemned  to 
be  burnt.  At  the  stake  she  behaved  with  heroic  simplicity,  When 
the  flames  curled  round  her  she  called  upon  the  saints  who  had 
befriended  her.  Her  last  utterance  was  a  cry  of  "Jesus  ! "  An 
Englishman  who  had  come  to  triumph  hung  his  head  for  shame. 
"  We  are  lost,"  he  said  ;  "  we  have  burnt  a  saint ! " 

9.  The  Last  Years  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  1431 — 1435. — The 
English  gained  nothing  by  their  unworthy  vengeance.  Though 
the  personal  presence  of  the  Maid  was  no  longer  there  to  encourage 
her  countrymen,  they  had  learnt  from  her  to  cherish  that  '  pity  for 
the  realm  of  France'  which  had  glowed  so  brightly  in  her  own 
bosom.  It  was  in  vain  that  towards  the  end  of  1431  Bedford 
carried  the  young  Henry,  now  a  boy  of  ten  years,  who  had  already 
been  crowned  in  England  the  year  before,  to  be  crowned  at  Notre 
Dame,  the  cathedral  of  Paris.  The  Parisians  were  disgusted  by 
the  troop  of  foreigners  which  accompanied  him,  and  their  confi- 
dence was  shaken  when  Bedford  sent  the  king  back  to  England  as 
not  venturing  to  trust  him  amongst  his  French  subjects.  In  1432  the 
armies  of  Charles  VII.  stole  forwards  step  by  step,  and  Bedford,  who 
had.no  money  to  pay  his  troops,  could  do  nothing  to  resist  them. 
The  English  Parliament,  which  had  cheerfully  voted  supplies  as 
long  as  there  seemed  a  prospect  of  conquering  France,  hung  back 
from  granting  them  when  victories  were  no  longer  won.  In  1433 
Bedford  was  again  forced  to  return  to  England  to  oppose  the  in- 
trigues of  Gloucester,  who,  though  he  had  lost  the  title  of  Protector 
when  the  young  king  was  crowned,  had  thrown  the  government 


K 


)^. 


1434-1437  A   HOPELESS  STRUGGLE  313 

into  confusion  by  his  intrigues.  When  Bedford  went  back  to  France 
in  1434  he  found  the  tide  running  strongly  against  him.  Little  more 
than  Paris  and  Normandy  were  held  by  the  English,  and  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy  was  inclining  more  and  more  towards  the  French.  In 
1435  a  congress  was  held  at  Arras,  under  the  Uuke  of  Burgundy's 
presidency,  in  the  hope  that  peace  might  be  made.  The  congress, 
however,  failed  to  accomplish  anything,  and  soon  after  the  English 
ambassadors  were  withdrawn  Bedford  died  at  Rouen.  If  so  wise 
a  statesman  and  so  skilful  a  warrior  had  failed  to  hold  down  France, 
no  other  EngHshman  was  likely  to  achieve  the  task. 

10.  The  Defection  of  Burgundy.  1435.— After  Bedford's  death 
Fhe  Duke  of  Burgundy  renounced  his  alliance  with  the  English  and 
entered  into  a  league  with  Charles  VII.  In  1430,  by  the  death  of 
the  Duke  of  Brabant,  he  inherited  Brabant,  and  in  1436  he  inherited 
from  the  faithless  Jacqueline  Hainault,  Holland,  Zealand,  and 
Friesland  (see  p.  308).  He  thus,  being  already  Count  of  Flanders, 
became  ruler  over  well-nigh  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands  in 
addition  to  his  own  territories  in  Burgundy.  The  vassal  of  the 
king  of  France  was  now  a  European  potentate.  England  had 
therefore  to  count  on  the  enmity  of  a  ruler  whose  power  of  injuring 
her  was  indeed  serious. 

11.  The  Duke  of  York  in  France.  1436— 1437.— Bedford's  suc- 
cessor was  the  young  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  whose  father  was 
that  Earl  of  Cambridge  who  had  been  executed  at  Southampton 
(see  p.  301) ;  whilst  his  mother  was  Anne  Mortimer,  the  sister  of 
the  Earl  of  March.  As  the  Earl  of  March  had  died  in  1425,  the 
Duke  of  York  was  now,  through  his  mother,  the  heir  of  Lionel, 
Duke  of  Clarence,  and  thus,  if  hereditary  right  was  to  be  regarded, 
heir  to  the  throne.  That  a  man  with  such  claims  should  have 
been  entrusted  with  such  an  office  shows  how  firmly  the  victories 
of  Henry  V.  had  established  the  House  of  Lancaster  in  England. 
Disputes  in  the  English  Council,  however,  delayed  his  departure, 
and  in  April  1436,  before  he  could  arrive  in  France,  Paris  was 
lost,  whilst  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  besieged  Calais.  England, 
stung  by  the  defection  of  Burgundy,  made  an  unusual  effort.  One 
army  drove  the  Burgundians  away  from  before  Calais,  whilst 
another  under  the  Duke  of  York  himself  regained  several  fortresses 
in  Normandy,  and  in  1437  Lord  Talbot  drove  the  Burgundians 
behind  the  Somme. 

12.  The  English  Lose  Ground.  1437 — 1443.— Gallant  as  the 
Duke  of  York  was,  he  was  soon  recalled,  and  in  1437  was  succeeded 
by  Richard    Beauchamp,  Earl  of  Warwick.     Warwick,   however, 


314 


HENRY    VI. 


1438-1443 


Gilt-Iatten  effigy  (front  view)  of  Richard  Beanchamp, 
Earl  of  Warwick,  died  1439  :  from  his  tomb  at 
Warwick.  Made  by  William  Austen,  of  London, 
founder,  1453. 


failed  to  do  more  than 
to  hold  what  his  prede- 
cessor had  gained,  and 
he  died  in  1439.  Both  in 
England  and  France 
the  suffering  was  ter- 
rible, and  England 
would  find  neither  men 
nor  money  to  support  a 
falling  cause.  In  1439 
a  peace  conference  was 
held  at  Calais,  but  the 
English  continued  arro- 
gantly to  claim  the 
crown  of  France,  and 
peace  was  not  to  be  had. 
In  1440  York  was  sent 
back,  and  fighting  went 
on  till  1443,  in  which  the 
English  lost  ground 
both  in  Normandy  and 

\      in  Guienne. 

^  13.  Continued  Ri- 
Nvalry  of  Beaufort  and 
Gloucester.  1439—1441. 
— The  chief  advocate  in 
England  of  the  attempt 
to  make  peace  at  Calais 
m  1439  had  been  Car- 
dinal Beaufort,  whose 
immense  wealth  gave 
him  authority  over  a 
Council  which  was 
always  at  its  wits'  end 
for  money.  Beaufort 
was  wise  enough  to  see 
that  the  attempt  to  re- 
conquer the  lost  terri- 
tory, or  even  to  hold 
Normandy,  was  hope- 
less. Such  a  view,  how- 
ever, was  not  likely  to 


1439- I440 


POPULARITY  OF  GLOUCESTER 


315 


be  popular.  Nations, 
like  men,  often  refuse 
openly  to  acknowledge 
failure  long  after  they 
cease  to  take  adequate 
means  to  avert  it.  Of 
the  popular  feeling 
Gloucester  made  him- 
self the  mouthpiece, 
and  it  was  by  his  influ- 
ence that  exorbitant 
pretensions  had  been 
put  forward  at  Calais. 
In  1440  he  accused 
Beaufort  of  using  his 
authority  for  his  own 
private  interests,  and 
though  Beaufort  gave 
over  to  the  public  ser- 
vice a  large  sum  of 
money  which  he  re- 
ceived as  the  ransom 
of  the  Duke  of  Orleans 
from  a  captivity  which 
had  lasted  twenty-four 
years  (see  p.  303), 
Gloucester  virulently 
charged  him  with  an 
unpatriotic  concession 
to  the  enemy.  Glou- 
cester's domestic  rela- 
tions, on  the  other 
hand,  offered  an  easy 
object  of  attack.  When 
he  deserted  Jacqueline 
he  took  a  mistress, 
Eleanor  Cobham,  and 
subsequently  married 
her,  which  he  was  able 
to  do  without  difficulty, 
as  his  union  with  Jac- 
queline was,  in  the  eyes 


Gilt-latten  effigy  (back  view)  of  Richard  Beauchamp, 
Earl  ot  Warwick,  died  1439  :  from  his  tomb  at 
Warwick.  Made  by  William  Austen,  of  London, 
founder,  1453. 


3i6  HENRY  VI.  i44^ 

of  the  Chmch,  no  marriage  at  all.  The  new  Duchess  of  Gloucester 
being  aware  that  if  the  king  should  die  her  husband  would  be  next 
in  order  of  succession  to  the  throne,  was  anxious  to  hasten  that 
event.  It  was  a  superstitious  age,  and  the  Duchess  consulted  an 
astrologer  as  to  the  time  of  the  king's  death,  and  employed  a  re- 


Tattershall  Castle,  Lincolnshire : 
built  of  brick  by  Ralph,  Lord  Cromwell,  between  1433  and  1455. 

puted  witch  to  make  a  waxen  image  ot  the  king  under  the  belief 
that  as  the  wax  melted  before  the  fire  the  king's  life  would  waste 
away.  In  1441  these  proceedings  were  detected.  The  astrologer 
was  hanged,  the  witch  was  burnt,  whilst  the  Duchess  escaped  with 
doing  public  penance  and  with  imprisonment  for  life.     Gloucester 


1442-1445  MARGAk&T  OP  ANJOV  ^i? 

could  not  save  her,  but  he  did  not  lose  his  place  in  the  Council, 
where  he  continued  to  advocate  a  war   policy,  though  with  less 

t success  than  before, 
v.^  14.  Beaufort  and  Somerset.  1442—  1443. — In  1442  Henry  was 
in  his  twenty-first  year.  Unfeignedly  religious  and  anxious  to  be 
at  peace  with  all  men,  his  character  was  far  too  weak  and  gentle  to 
fit  him  for  governing  in  those  rough  times.  He  had  attached  him- 
self to  Beaufort  because  Beaufort's  policy  was  pacific,  and  because 
Gloucester's  life  was  scandalous.  Beaufort's  position  was  secured 
at  court,  but  the  situation  was  not  one  in  which  a  pacific  states- 
man could  hope  for  success.  The  French  would  not  consent  to 
make  peace  till  all  that  they  had  lost  had  been  recovered  ;  yet, 
hardly  bested  as  the  English  in  France  were,  it  was  impossible  in 
the  teeth  of  English  public  opinion  for  any  statesman,  however 
pacific,  to  abandon  lands  still  commanded  by  English  garrisons. 
Every  year,  however,  brought  the  problem  nearer  to  the  inevitable 
\  solution.  In  1442  the  French  attacked  the  strip  of  land  which  was 
all  that  the  English  now  held  m  Guienne  and  Gascony,  and  with 
/  the  exception  of  Bordeaux  and  Bayonne  captured  almost  every 
/     fortified  town.     The  command  in  France  was  given  to  Cardinal 

/  Beaufort's  nephew,  John  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Somerset.  Somerset, 
who  was  thoroughly  incompetent,  did  not  even  leave  England  till 
the  autumn  of  1443,  and  when  he  arrived  in  France  accomplished 

.       nothing  worthy  of  his  office. 

"L.  15.  The  Angevin  Marriage  Treaty.  1444 — 1445. — Henry  now 
fell  under  the  influence  of  William  de  la  Pole,  Earl  of  Suffolk,  a 
descendant  of  the  favourite  of  Richard  II.  Suffolk  had  fought 
bravely  in  France,  and  had  learnt  by  sad  experience  the  hopeless- 
ness of  the  English  cause.  In  1444,  with  the  consent  of  the  king 
and  the  Parliament,  he  negotiated  at  Tours  a  truce  for  ten  months. 
In  order  to  make  it  more  lasting  there  was  to  be  a  marriage 
between  Henry  and  Margaret  of  Anjou.  Her  father,  Rene,  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  was  titular  king  of  Jerusalem  and  Sicily,  in  neither 
of  which  did  he  possess  a  foot  of  ground,  whilst  his  duchy  of  Anjou 
was  almost  valueless  to  him  in  consequence  of  the  forays  of  the 
English,  who  still  held  posts  in  Maine.  Charles  had  the  more 
readily  consented  to  the  truce,  because  it  was  understood  that  the 
surrender  of  Maine  would  be  a  condition  of  the  marriage.  In  1445 
Suffolk  led  Margaret  to  England,  where  her  marriage  to  Henry  was 
solemnised.  A  French  queen  who  brought  with  her  no  portion 
except  a  truce  bought  by  the  surrender  of  territory  could  hardly 
fail  to  be  unpopular  in  England. 


3iS 
^'\  '  ren( 


HENRY   VI. 


1447 


16.  Deaths  of  Gloucester  and  Beaufort.  1447.— The  truce  was 
renewed  from  time  to  time,  and  Suffolk's  authority  seemed  firmly 
established.  In  1447  Gloucester  was  charged  with  high  treason 
in  a  Parliament  held  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  but  before  he  had  time 
to  answer  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed.  His  death  may,  with 
strong  probability,  be  ascribed  to  natural  causes,  but  it  was  widely 
believed  that  he  had  been  murdered  and   that    Suffolk  was  the 


^C 


ParlofWingfield  manor-house,  Derbyshire  .  built  by  Ralph,  Lord 
Cromwell,  about  1440. 

murderer,  A  few  weeks  later  Gloucester's  old  rival.  Cardinal 
Beaufort,  the  last  real  statesman  who  supported  the  throne  of 
Henry  VI.,  followed  him  to  the  grave,  and  Suffolk  was  left  alone  to 
bear  the  responsibility  of  government  and  the  disgrace  of  failure. 

17.  The  Loss  of  the  French  Provinces.  1448— 1449. -Suffolk 
had  undertaken  more  than  he  was  able  to  fulfil.  Somerset  had  died 
in  1444,  and  Suffolk  being  jealous  of  all  authority  but  his  own, 


144^ 


PREDOAIINANCE  OF  SUFFOLK 


319 


he  sent  York  to  govern  Ireland.     He  could  not  secure  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  conditions  which  he  had  made  with  the  king  of  France. 


The  EngUsh  commanders  refused  to  evacuate  Maine,  and  in  1448 
a  French  army  entered  the  province  and  drove  out  the  English- 


j^d  HENkV   Vl.  1449-145* 

Edmund,  the  new  Duke  of  Somerset,  was  sent  to  take  the  com- 
mand in  Normandy,  which  had  formerly  been  held  by  his  brother. 
In  1449  an  Aragonese  captain  in  the  English  service,  who  had  no 
pay  for  his  troops,  having  seized  Foug^res,  a  place  on  the  frontier 
of  Brittany,  for  the  sake  of  the  booty  to  be  gained,  Charles  made 
the  attack  an  excuse  for  the  renewal  of  the  war.  So  destitute  was 
the  condition  in  which  the  English  forces  were  left  that  neither 
Somerset  nor  the  warlike  Talbot  (see  p.  313),  who  had  recently  been 
created  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  was  able  to  resist  him.  Rouen  fell 
in  1450,  and  in  1450  the  whole  of  Normandy  was  lost.  In.  1451  the 
French  attacked  Bordeaux  and  Bayonne,  two  port-towns  which,  in 
consequence  of  their  close  commercial  intercourse  with  England, 
had  no  wish  to  transfer  their  allegiance  to  Charles.  England,  how- 
ever, sent  them  no  succour,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  they  were 
forced  to  capitulate.  The  relics  of  Guienne  and  Gascony  thus 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  French,  and  of  all  the  possessions 
which  the  kings  of  England  had  once  held  on  the  Continent 
Calais  alone  remained. 


^— Vj^m-/ 


CHAPTER   XXI 

THE  LATER  YEARS   OF   HENRY   VI.      I45O— 1461 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  Henry  VI.,  1422    1461 

/  Murder  of  the  Duke  of  Suffolk  and  Jack  Cade's  rebellion  .  1450 

First  Protectorate  of  the  Duke  of  York 1453 

First  Battle  of  St.  Albans  and  second  Protectorate  of  the 

Duke  of  York i455 

Battle  of  Blore  Heath  and  the  discomfiture  of  the  Yorkists  1459 
After  a  Yorkist  victory  at  Northampton  the  Duke  of  York 
is  declared  heir  to  the  crown,  but  is  defeated  and  slain 

at  Wakefield 1460 

Battles  of  Mortimer's  Cross,  St.  Albans,  and  Towton     .  1461 

Coronation  of  Edward  IV 1461 

I.  The  Growth  of  Inclosures. — Since  the  insurrection  of  the 
peasants  in  1381  (see  p.  268)  villeiT^ge  had  to  a  great  extent  been 
dying  out,  in  consequence  of  the  dim^sqlty  felt  by  the  lords  in  en- 
forcing their  claims.  Yet  the  conditionN^  the  classes  connected 
with  the  land  was  by  no  means  prosperous.  The  lords  of  manors 
indeed  abandoned  the  old  system  of  cultivating  their  own  lands 


I450  LIVERY  AND  MAINTENANCE  321 

by  the  labour  of  villeins,  or  by  labourers  hired  with  money  paid  by 
villeins  in  commutation  for  bodily  service.  They  began  to  let  out 
their  land  to  tenant  who  paid  rent  for  it ;  but  even  the  new  system 
did  not  bring  in  anything  like  the  old  profit.  The  soil  had  been 
exhausted  for  want  of  asoroper  system  of  manuring,  and  arable 
land  scarcely  repaid  the  exj^nses  of  its  cultivation.  For  this  evil 
a  remedy  was  found  in  the  infe^osure  of  lands  for  pasturage.  This 
change,  which  in  itself  was  benb^ial  by  increasing  the  produc 
tiveness  of  the  country,  and  by  givihg;^rest  to  the  exhausted  soil, 
became  oppressive  because  all  the  benefitwent  to  the  lords  of  the 
manors,  whilst  the  tenants  of  the  manors  w^se  left  to  struggle  on  as 
best  they  might.  Not  only  had  they  no  sharbs^in  the  increase  of 
wealth  which  was  brought  about  by  the  inclosiire  of  what  had 
formerly  been  the  common  land  of  the  manors,  but  the  poorer 
amongst  them  had  less  employment  than  before,  as  it  required  fewer 
men  to  look  after  sheep  than  to  grow  corn. 
^  2.  Increasing  Power  of  the  Nobility. — The  disproportionate 
mcrease  of  the  wealth  of  the  landowners  threw  into  their  hands  a 
disproportionate  amount  of  power.  The  great  landowner  especially 
was  able  to  gather  bands  of  retainers  and  to  spread  terror  around 
him.  The  evil  of  liveries  and  maintenance,  which  had  become 
prominent  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  (see  p.  281),  had  increased 
since  his  deposition.  It  was  an  evil  which  the  kings  were  power- 
less to  control.  Again  and  again  complaints  were  raised  of  '  want 
of  governance.'  Henry  V.  had  abated  the  mischief  for  a  time  by 
employing  the  unruly  elements  in  his  wars  in  France,  but  it  was  a 
remedy  which,  when  defeat  succeeded  victory,  only  increased  the 
disease  which  it  was  meant  to  cure.  When  France  was  lost  bands 
of  unruly  men  accustomed  to  deeds  of  violence  poured  back  into 
England,  where  they  became  retainers  of  the  great  landowners,  who 
with  their  help  set  king  and  laws  at  defiance. 

3.  Case  of  Lord  Molynes  and  John  Paston. — The  difficulty  of 
obtaining  justice  may  be  illustrated  by  a  case  which  occurred  in 
Norfolk.v  The  manor  of  Gresham  belonged  to  John  Paston,  a 
gentlemant>f4iioderate  fortune.  It  was  coveted  by  Lord  Molynes, 
who  had  no  legaT^'^^aim  to  it  whatever.  Lord  Molynes,  however, 
took  possession  of  it  in  i^43with  the  strong  hand.  If  such  a  thing 
had  happened  at  present  Pas^^iK^ould  have  gone  to  law  ;  but  to 
go  to  law  implies  the  submitting  ofa*"«a^  to  a  jury,  and  in  those 
days  a  jury  was  not  to  be  trusted  to  do  justise-  In  the  first  place 
it  was  selected  by  the  sherifif,  and  the  sheriff  toofe^-c^e  to  choose 
such  men  as  would  give  a  verdict  pleasing  to  the  great  "tnen  whom 

Y 


¥■ 


V 


322  HENRY   VI.  1450 

he  wished  to  serve,  and  in  the  second  place,  supposing  that  the 
sherinxjid  not  do  this,  a  juryman  who  offended  great  men  by  giving 
a  verdict  ^6<;ordmg  to  his  conscience,  but  contrary  to  their  desire, 
ran  the  risk  of  ^beixio^  knocked  on  the  head  before  he  reached  home. 
Paston  accordingly/instead  of  going  to  law,  begged  Lord  Molynes 
to  behave  more  reasonalDry.  „  Finding  his  entreaties  of  no  avail,  he 
took  possession  of  a  house  on  tfie  manor.  Lord  Molynes  merely 
waited  till  Paston  was  away  from  home,  and  then  sent  a  thousand 
men,  who  drove  out  Paston's  wife  and  pillaged  and  wrecked  the 
house.  Paston  ultimately  recovered  the  manor,  but  redress  for  the 
injury  done  him  was  not  to  be  had. 

4.  Suffolk's  Impeachment  and  Murder.  1450. —A  government 
which  was  too  weak  to  redress  injuries  was  certain  to  be  unpopular. 
The  loss  of  the  P^rench  possessions  made  it  still  more  unpopular. 
The  brunt  of  the  public  displeasure  fell  on  Suffolk,  who  had  just  been 
made  a  duke,  and  who,  through  the  queen's  favour,  was  all-powerful 
at  court.  It  was  believed  that  he  had  sold  himself  to  France,  and 
it  was  known  that  whilst  the  country  was  impoverished  large 
grants  had  been  made  to  court  favourites.  An  outcry  was  raised 
that  the  king  '  should  live  of  his  own/  and  ask  for  no  more  grants 
from,  his  people.  In  1450  Suffolk  was  impeached.  Though  the 
charge  brought  against  him  was  a  tissue  of  falsehoods,  Henry  did 
not  dare  to  shield  him  entirely,  and  ordered  him  into  banishment 
for  five  years.  Suffolk,  indeed,  embarked  for  the  Continent,  but  a 
large  ship  ranged  up  alongside  of  the  vessel  in  which  he  was. 
Having  been  dragged  on  board  amidst  cries  of  "Welcome,  traitor !" 
he  was,  two  days  afterwards,  transferred  to  a  boat,  where  his  head 
was  chopped  off  with  six  strokes  of  a  rusty  sword.  His  body  was 
flung  on  the  beach  at  Dover. 

5.  Jack  Cade's  Rebellion.  1450. — Suffolk's  supporters  re- 
mained in  office  after  his  death.  The  men  of  Kent  rose  against 
them,  and  found  a  leader  in  an  Irish  adventurer.  Jack  Cade,  who 
called  himself  Mortimer,  and  gave  out  that  he  was  an  illegitimate 
son  of  the  late  Earl  of  March.  He  established  himself  on  Black- 
heath  at  the  head  of  30,000  men,  asking  that  the  burdens  of  the 
people  should  be  diminished,  the  Crown  estates  recovered,  and  the 
Duke  of  York  recalled  from  Ireland  to  take  the  place  of  the  present 
councillors.  Jack  Cade's  rebellion,  in  short,  unlike  that  of  Wat 
Tyler,  was  a  political,  not  a  social  movement.  In  demanding  that 
the  government  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of  York, 
Jack  Cade  virtually  asked  that  the  Duke  should  step  into  the  place, 
not  of  the  Council,  but  of  the  King — that  is  to  say,  that  a  ruler  who 


1450-1453  YORK  AND   SOMERSET  323 

could  govern  should  be  substituted  for  one  who  could  not,  and  in 
whose  name  the  great  families  plundered  England.  It  was  this 
demand  which  opened  the  long  struggle  which  was  soon  to  devas- 
tate the  country.  At  first  it  seemed  as  if  Jack  Cade  would  carryall 
l^ipfore  him.  London,  which  had  the  most  to  gain  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  strong  government,  opened  its  gates  to  him.  When, 
however,  he  was  tested  by  success,  he  was  found  wanting.  Striking 
with  his  sword  the  old  Roman  milestone  known  as  London  Stone, 
he  cried  out,  "  Now  is  Mortimer  lord  of  this  city."  His  followers 
gave  themselves  up  to  wild  excesses.  They  beheaded  Lord  Say 
and  his  son-in-law,  the  Sheriff  of  Kent,  and  carried  about  their  heads 
on  pikes.  They  plundered  houses  and  shops.  The  citizens  who 
had  invited  them  to  enter  now  turned  against  them.  After  a  fight 
on  London  Bridge  the  insurgents  agreed  to  go  home  on  the  promise  Y^^\ 
of  a  pardon.  Jack  Cade  himself,  attempting  to  gather  fresh  forces,  V^ 
/  was  chased  jnto  Sussex  and  slain.  '"^^'jL^ 

A^       6.  Rivalry  of  York  and  Somerset.     1450 — 1453. — In  the  sum-    .  "^ 
mer  of  1450,  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  the  real  leader  of  the  opposi- 
tion, came  back  from  Ireland.    He  found  that  Somerset,  who  had  just 
returned  from  Normandy  after  the  final  loss  of  that  province  (see 
p.  320),  had  succeeded  Suffolk  in  the  king's  confidence.     Somerset, 
however,  was  not  merely  the  favourite  of  Henry  and  the  queen.    The 
bulk  of  the  nobility  was  on  his  side,  whilst  York  was  supported  by  the 
force  of  popular  discontent  and  by  such  of  the  nobility  as  cherished 
a  personal  grudge  against  Somerset  and  his  friends.     In  1451  the 
loss  of  Guienne  and  Gascony  increased  the  weight  of  Somerset's 
unpopularity.     In  1452  both  parties  took  arms  ;  but,  this  time,  civil 
war  was  averted  by  a  promise  from  the  king  that  York  should  be 
admitted  to  the  Council,  and  that  Somerset  should  be  placed  in 
confinement  till  he  answered  the  charges  against  him.    On  this  York 
dismissed  his  army.     Henry,  however,  was  not  allowed  to  keep  his 
promise,  and  Somerset  remained  in  power,  whilst  York  was  glad 
to  be  allowed  to  retire  unhurt.     Somerset  attempted  to  recover  his 
credit  by  fresh  victories  in  France,  and  sent  the  old  Earl  of  Shrews- 
bury to  Bordeaux  to  reconquer  Gascony.     Shrewsbury  was  suc- 
cessful   for  a  while,  but  in  1453  he  was    defeated   and    slain    at 
Castillon,  and  the  whole  enterprise  came  to  nothing. 
^C^        7.  The  First  Protectorate  of  the  Duke  of  York.    1453—1454.— 
Henry's  mind  had  never  been  strong,  and  in  1453  it  entirely  gave 
way.    His  insanity  was  probably  inherited  from  his  maternal  grand- 
father, Charles  VI.     The  queen  bore  him  a  son,  named  Edward, 
but  though  the  infant  was  brought  to  his  father,  Henry  gave  no  sign 


324 


HENRY   VI . 


1454-1456 


of  recognising  his  presence.  It  was  necessary  to  place  the  govern- 
ment in  other  hands,  and  in  1454  the  Duke  of  York  was  named 
Protector  by  the  House  of  Lords,  which,  as  the  majority  of  its 
members  were  at  that  time  ecclesiastics,  did  not  always  re-echo  the 
sentiments  of  the  great  families.  If  only  the  king  had  remained 
permanently  insane  York  might  have  established  an  orderly  govern- 
ment.    Henry,  however,  soon  recovered  as  much  sense  as  he  ever 

V  /    had,  and  York's  protectorate  came  to  an  end. 

\jK  8.  The  First  Battle  of  St.  Albans  and  the  Duke  of  York's 
Second  Protectorate. — The  restoration  of  Henry  was  in  reality  the 
restoration  of  Somerset.  In  1455  York,  fearing  destruction,  took 
arms  against  his  rival.  A  battle  was  fought  at  St.  Albans,  in  which 
Somerset  was  defeated  and  slain.  This  was  the  first  battle  in  the 
wars  known  as  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  because  a  red  rose  was  the 
badge  of  the  House  of  Lancaster,  to  which  Henry  belonged,  and 
a  white  rose  the  badge  of  the  House  of  York.  After  the  victory 
York  accompanied  the  king  to  London.  Though  the  bulk  of  the 
nobility  was  against  him,  he  had  on  his  side  the  powerful  family  of 
the  Nevills,  as  he  had  married  Cicely  Nevill,  the  sister  of  the  head 
of  that  family,  the  Earl  of  Salisbury.  Still  more  powerful  was 
Salisbury's  eldest  son,  who  had  married  the  heiress  of  the  Beau- 
champs,  Earls  of  Warwick,  and  who  held  the  earldom  of  Warwick 
in  right  of  his  wife.'  In  June  1455  the  king  was  again  insane,  and 
York  was  for  the  second  time  named  Protector.  This  Protectorate, 
however,  did  not  last  long,  as  early  in  1456  the  king  recovered  his 
senses,  and  York  had  to  resign  his  post. 


1  Genealogy  of  the  Nevills  : — 


Thomas  Montague, 
Earl  of  Salisbury 


John  of  Gaunt 

Ralph  Nevill,  =  Joan 
Earl  of 
Westmoreland 


Richard  Beauchamp, 
Earl  of  Warwick 


Alice: 


I 

■■  Richard, 

Earl  of 

Salisbury, 

beheaded  at 

Pontefract, 

1460 


Cicely: 


!  Richard, 

Duke  of 

York, 

killed  at 

Wakefield, 

1460 


Anne  =  Richard, 
Earl  of  Warwick, 
the  king-maker, 
killed  at  Barnet, 
1471 


John, 
Marquess  of 
Montague 


I 

George, 

Archbishop 

of  York 


1456-1458  IVAI^S   OF   THE   ROSES  325 

L/^     9.  Discomfiture  of  the  Yorkists.     1456— 1459.— For  two  years 

^    Henry  exercised  such  authority  as  he  was  capable  of  exercising. 

In  1458  he  tried  his  hand  at  effecting  a  reconciliation.     The  chiefs 


A  sea-fi^ht :  from  the  '  Life  of  Richard  Beauchamp,  Earl  of  Warwick :  ' 
drawn  by  John  Rous  about  1485. 


326 


HENRY  VI. 


1458-1460 


Effigy  of  Sir  Robert  Harcourt,  K.C". 
(died  1471) ;  from  his  tomb  ai 
Stanton  Harcourt,  Oxon  :  show  - 
ing  armour  worn  from  about  1445 
to  1480. 


of  the  two  parties  walked  hand  in 
hand  in  procession  to  St.  Paul's,  York 
himself  leading  the  queen.  The 
Yorkists  founded  masses  for  the  re- 
pose of  the  souls  of  their  enemies 
slain  at  St.  Albans,  and  paid  money 
to  their  widows.  It  seemed  as  if  the 
old  practice  of  the  weregild  (see  p.  32) 
had  been  unexpectedly  revived.  The 
spirit  which  had  made  weregild  pos- 
sible was,  however,  no  longer  to  be 
found.  Warwick  retired  to  Calais,  of 
which  he  was  governor,  and  sent  out 
vessels  to  plunder  the  merchant  ships 
of  all  nations.  When  he  was  sum- 
moned to  Westminster  to  give  ac- 
count of  his  actions,  a  quarrel  broke 
out  there  between  his  servants  and 
those  of  the  king.  Believing  his  own 
life  to  be  in  danger,  he  made  his  way 
back  to  Calais.  The  Yorkists  spent 
the  winter  in  preparing  for  war.  In 
the  summer  of  1459  Lord  Audley,  sent 
by  the  queen  to  seize  the  Earl  of 
Salisbury,  was  defeated  by  him  at 
Blore  Heath,  in  Staifordshire.  Later 
in  the  year  the  two  parties  with  their 
whole  forces  prepared  for  a  battle 
near  Ludlow,  but  the  Yorkists  found 
themselves  no  match  for  their  enemies, 
and,  without  fighting,  York,  with  his 
second  son,  the  Earl  of  Rutland,  took 
refuge  in  Ireland.  His  eldest  son 
Edward,  Earl  of  March,  with  Salis-, 
bury  and  Warwick,  made  his  way  to 
Calais. 

10.  The  Battle  of  Northampton 
and  the  D^is^f  York's  Claim  to  the 
Throne.  i46o>v^  1460  the  Yorkist 
Earls  of  Salisbury>^arwick,  and 
March  were  once  more  in  England. 
They   defeated    the    royal    army   at 


1460 


WARS   OF   THE   ROSES 


327 


Northampton  a^d  captured  the  king.  York  returned  from  Ireland, 
and,  as  soon  as  Parliainentmet,  took  an  unexpected  step.  If  heredi- 
tary descent  was  to  count  for^rtything,  his  claim  to  the  throne  was 
superior  to  that  of  Henry  himself,  asli&-wasdie  heir  of  Edward  III. 
through  his  mother  Anne,  the  sister  of  the  lasTEad^  March.^  The 
Duke  of  York  now  placed  his  hand  on  the  throne,  claimiirg^it^n  right 
of  birth.  The  Lords  decided  that  Henry,  to  whom  they  had  sWqrn 
oaths  of  fealty,  should  retain  the  crown,  but  that  York  should  succeed 
him,  to  the  exclusion  of  Henry's  son,  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales. 

II.  The  Battle  of  Wakefield.  1460.— The  struggle,  which  had 
at  first  been  one  between  two  unequal  sections  of  the  nobility,  each 
nominally  acknowledging  Henry  VI.  as  their  king,  thus  came  to  be 
one  between  the  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York.  The  queen,  savage 
at  the  wrong  done  to  her  son,  refused  to  accept  the  compromise. 
Withdrawing  to  the  North,  she  summoned  to  her  aid  the  Earl  of 
Northumberland  and  the  Lancastrian  lords.  The  North  was  always 
exposed  to  Scottish  invasions,  and  the  constant  danger  kept  the 
inhabitants  ready  for  war,  and  strengthened  the  authority  of  the 
great  lords  who  led  them.  For  the  same  reason  the  people  of 
the  North  were  ruder  and  less  civilised  than  their  fellow-country- 
men in  the  South.  Plunder  and  outrage  did  not  come  amiss 
to  men  who  were  frequently  subjected  to  plunder  and  out- 
rage.    An  army  composed  of  18,000  of  these  rough  warriors  placed 


Genealogy  o'  the  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York 

Edward  HI. 
(1307-1377) 


Edward, 

the  Black  Prince 

I 

Richard  II. 

(1377-1399) 


Lionel,  Duke  of 
Clarence 


Philippa  =  Edmund 
I  Mortimer, 
Earl  of 
March 


Roger  Mortimer, 

Earl  of  March 

I 


John  of  Gaunt        Edmund,  Duke  of 


Edmund  Mortimer. 
Earl  of  March 


1 

1 

Henry  IV 
(1399-1413) 

(i)  Henry  V. 
(1413-1422) 

Henry  VI. 
(1422-1461) 

(2)  John,  Duke  of 

Bedford 

(3)  Thomas,  Duke  of 

Clarence 

(4)  Humphrey, 
Duke  of  Gloucester 

I        I 

Anne  =  Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge 

Richard,  Duke  of  York 

I 
Edward,  Earl  of  March, 
afterwards  Edward  IY. 


D^ 


^' 


328  HENRY   VI.  1460- 1 46 1 

itself  at  the  queen's  disposal.  With  these  she  routed  her  enemies 
at  Wakefield.  York  himself  was^  slain.  His  son,  Rutland,  was 
stabbed  to  death  by  Lord  Clifford,  whose  father  had  been  slain 
at  St.  Albans.  Salisbury  was  subsequently  beheaded  by  the  popu- 
lace at  Pontefract.  By  command  of  Margaret,  York's  head  was  cut 
off,  and,  adorned  in  mockery  with  a  paper  crown,  was  fixed  with 
those  of  Salisbury  and  Rutland  above  one  of  the  gates  of  York. 

12.  The  Battle  of  Mortimer's  Cross  and  the  Second  Battle 
of  St.  Albans.  1461. — The  battle  of  Wakefield  differed  in  cha- 
racter from  the  earlier  battles  of  the  war.  They  had  been  but 
conflicts  between  bands  of  noblemen  and  their  armed  retainers,  in 
which  the  general  population  took  little  part,  whilst  the  ordinary 
business  of  the  country  went  on  much  as  usual.  At  Wakefield  not 
only  were  cruel  passions  developed,  but  a  new  danger  appeared. 
When  Margaret  attempted  to  gain  her  ends  with  the  help  of  her 
rude  northern  followers,  she  roused  against  her  the  fears  of  the 
wealthier  and  more  prosperous  South.  The  South  found  a  leader 
in  York's  son,  Edward.  Though  only  in  his  nineteenth  year, 
Edward  showed  that  he  had  the  qualities  of  a  commander.  Rapid 
in  his  movements,  he  fell  upon  some  Lancastrian  forces  and  de- 
feated them  on  February  2,  1461,  at  Mortimer's  Cross.  In  the 
meanwhile  Margaret  was  marching  with  her  northern  host  upon 
London,  plundering  and  destroying  as  she  went.  Warwick,  carry- 
ing the  king  with  him,  met  her  on  the  way,  but  in  the  second  battle 
of  St.  Albans — fought  on  February  17 — was  driven  back,  leaving 
the  king  behind  him. 

13.  The  Battle  of  Towton  and  the  Coronation  of  Edward  IV. 
1461. — With  a  civilised  army  at  her  back,  Margaret  might  have 
won  her  way  into  London,  and  established  her  authority,  at  least 
for  a  time.  Her  unbridled  supporters  celebrated  their  victory  by 
robbery  and  rape,  and  Margaret  was  unable  to  lead  them  forward. 
The  Londoners  steeled  their  hearts  against  her.  Edward  was 
marching  to  their  help,  and  on  February  25  he  entered  London. 
The  men  of  the  neighbouring  counties  fl,ocked  in  to  his  support. 
On  March  2  the  crown  was  offered  to  him  at  Clerkenwell  by  such 
lords  as  happened  to  be  in  London.  On  his  presenting  him- 
self to  the  multitude  in  Westminster  Hall,  he  was  greeted  with 
shouts  of  "  Long  live  the  king  ! "  Edward  IV.  represented  to 
peace-loving  England  the  order  which  had  to  be  upheld  against 
the  barbarous  host  which  Margaret  and  the  Lancastrian  lords  had 
called  to  their  aid.  He  had  yet  to  justify  the  choice.  The  northern 
host  had  retreated  to  its  own  country,  and  Edward  swiftly  followed 


146 1  WARS  OF  THE  ROSES  329 

it  up.  His  advanced  guard  was  surprised  and  driven  back  at  Ferry 
Bridge  ;  but  his  main  army  pressed  on,  and  on  March  29  gained 
a  decisive  victory  at  Towton.  The  slaughter  of  the  defeated  side 
was  enormous.  Margaret  escaped  with  Henry  to  Scotland,  and 
Edward,  returning  southwards,  was  crowned  at  Westminster  on 
June  29. 


CHAPTER  XXn 
THE  YORKIST  KINGS 


k 


EDWARD   IV.,   1461— 1483.      EDWARD   V.,    1483. 
RICHARD  III.,   1483— 1485. 

LEADING  DATES 

Coronation  of  Edward  IV 1461 

Restoration  of  Henry  VI.  .' 1470 

Edward  IV.  recovers  the  crown— Battles  of  Barnet  and 

Tewkesbury 1471 

Edward  V 1483 

Richard  III.  deposes  Edward  V 1483 

Richard  III.  killed  at  Bosworth 1485 


I.  Edward  IV.  and  the  House  of  Commons.  1461. — On  June  29, 
1461,  Edward  IV.  was  crowned,  and  created  his  two  brothers, 
George  and  Richard,  Dukes  of  Clarence  and  Gloucester.  His 
first  Parliament  declared  the  three  Lancastrian  kings  to  have  been 
usurpers,  and  Henry  VI.,  his  wife,  his  son,  and  his  chief  sup- 
porters, to  be  traitors.  At  the  end  of  the  session  Edward  thanked 
the  Commons  for  their  support,  and  assured  them  of  his  resolution 
to  protect  them  at  the  hazard  of  his  own  life.  It  was  the  first  time 
that  a  king  had  addressed  the  Commons,  and  his  doing  so  was  a 
sign  that  a  new  era  had  begun,  in  which  the  wishes  of  the  middle 
class  in  town  and  country  were  to  prevail  over  those  of  the  great 
nobles.  It  did  not  follow  that  the  House  of  Commons  would  take 
the  control  of  the  government  into  its  own  hands,  as  it  does  at  the 
present  day.  For  a  long  time  the  election  of  the  members  had 
been  carried  out  under  pressure  from  the  local  nobility.  If  the 
great  men  in  a  county  resolved  that  certain  persons  should  be  re- 
turned as  members,  those  who  came  to  the  place  of  election  in 
support  of  others  would  be  driven  off,  and  perhaps  beaten  or  wounded. 
Consequently  each  House  of  Commons  had  hitherto  represented  the 
dominant  party,  Lancastrian   or  Yorkist,  as  the  case  might  be. 


330 


EDWARD  IV. 


1461 


¥ 


Before  there  could  be  a  House  of  Commons  capable  of  governing, 
the  interference  of  the  nobles  with  elections  would  have  to  be 
brought  to  an  end,  and  it  was  only  by  a  strong  king  that  their 
power  could  be  overthrown.  The  strengthening  of  the  kingship 
was  the  only  road  to  future  constitutional  progress. 

2.  Loss  of  the  Mediaeval  Ideals. — Before  the  end  of  the  15th 
century  the  English  people  had  lost  all  the  ideals  of  the  middle 

ages.  The  attempt  of 
Henry  V.  to  revive  the 
old  ecclesiastical  feel- 
ing  had  broken  down 
through  the  race  for 
material  power  opened 
by  his  French  wars, 
and  through  the  sava- 
gery of  the  wars  of  the 
Roses.  The  new  reli- 
gious feeling  of  Wycliffe 
and  the  nobler  Lollards 
had  perished  with  Sir 
John  Oldcastle  from  the 
same  causes.  Neither 
the  Church  nor  the  op- 
ponents of  the  Church 
had  any  longer  a  sway 
over  men's  hearts.  The 
clergy  continued  to  per- 
form their  part  in  the 
services  of  the  Church 
not  indeed  without  be- 
lief, but  without  the 
spiritual  fervour  which 
influences  the  lives  of 
men.  The  chivalry  of 
the  middle  ages  was  as  dead  as  its  religion.  Men  spoke  of  women 
as  coarsely  as  they  spoke  of  their  cattle.  Human  nature  indeed  could 
not  be  entirely  crushed.  John  Paston's  wife  (see  p.  321),  for  in- 
stance, was  quaintly  affectionate.  "  I  would,"  she  once  wrote  to 
her  husband,  "  ye  were  at  home,  if  it  were  for  your  ease  .  .  .  now 
liever  than  a  gown,  though  it  were  of  scarlet."  But  the  system  of 
wardship  (see  p.  116)  made  marriages  a  matter  of  bargain  and  sale. 
"  For  very  need,"  wrote  a  certain  Stephen  Scrope,  "  I  was  fain  to 


Edward  IV.  :  from  an  original  painting  belonging 
to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 


1461-1464  MORAL  DETERIORATION  331 

sell  a  little  daughter  I  have  for  much  less  than  I  should."  When 
Scrope  was  old  he  wished  to  marry  Paston's  young  sister,  and  the 
girl  was  willing  to  take  him  if  she  were  sure  that  his  land  was  not 
burdened  with  debt.  She  would  be  glad  enough  to  escape  from 
home.  Her  mother  kept  her  in  close  confinement  and  beat  her  once 
or  twice  every  week,  and  sometimes  twice  a  day,  so  that  her  head 
was  broken  in  two  or  three  places.  This  low  and  material  view  of 
domestic  life  had  led  to  an  equally  low  and  material  view  of  political 
life,  and  the  cruelty  which  stained  the  wars  of  the  Roses  was  but  the 
outcome  of  a  state  of  society  in  which  no  man  cared  much  for  any- 
thing except  his  own  greatness  and  enjoyment.  The  ideal  which 
shaped  itself  in  the  minds  of  the  men  of  the  middle  class  was  a 
king  acting  as  a  kind  of  chief  constable,  who,  by  keeping  great 
men  in  order,  would  allow  their  inferiors  to  make  money  in  peace. 

3.  Fresh  Efforts  of  the  Lancastrians.  1462—1465. — Edward 
IV.  only  very  partially  responded  to  this  demand.  He  was  swift 
in  action  when  a  crisis  came,  and  was  cruel  in  his  revenge,  but  he 
was  lustful  and  indolent  when  the  crisis  was  passed,  and  he  had 
no  statesmanlike  abilities  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a  powerful 
government.  The  wars  were  not  ended  by  his  victory  at  Towton. 
In  1462  Queen  Margaret  reappeared  in  the  North,  and  it  was  not 
till  1464  that  Warwick's  brother.  Lord  Montague,  thoroughly 
defeated  her  forces  at  Hedgeley  Moor  and  Hexham  ;  for  which 
victories  he  was  rewarded  by  Edward  with  the  earldom  of  North- 
umberland, which  had  been  forfeited  by  the  Lancastrian  head  of  the 
House  of  Percy.  Montague's  victory  was  marked  by  the  usual 
butcheries  ;  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  a  son  of  the  duke  who  had 
been  slain  at  St.  Albans,  being  amongst  those  who  perished  on  the 
scaffold.  In  1465  Henry  himself  was  taken  prisoner  and  lodged  in 
the  Tower. 

4.  Edward's  Marriage.  1464. — Whilst  these  battles  were 
being  fought  Edward  was  lingering  in  the  South  courting  the  young 
widow  of  Sir  John  Grey,  usually  known  by  her  maiden  name  as 
Elizabeth  Woodville.  His  marriage  to  her  gave  offence  to  his 
noble  supporters,  who  disdained  to  acknowledge  a  queen  of  birth 
so  undistinguished  ;  and  their  ill-will  was  increased  when  they  found 
that  Edward  distributed  amongst  his  wife's  kindred  estates  and 
preferments  which  they  had  hoped  to  gain  for  themselves.  The 
queen's  father  became  Earl  Rivers  and  Lord  Constable,  and  her 
brothers  and  sisters  were  enriched  by  marriages  with  noble  wards 
of  the  Crown.  One  of  her  brothers,  a  youth  of  twenty,  was 
married  to  the  old  Duchess  of  Norfolk,  who  was  over  eighty. 


332  EDWARD  TV.  1465-1470 

^O  5.  Estrangement  of  Warwick.  1465— 1468.— No  doubt  there 
was  as  much  of  policy  as  of  affection  in  the  slight  shown  by  Edward 
to  the  Yorkist  nobility.  Warwick— the  King-maker,  as  he  was 
called — had  special  cause  for  ill-humour.  He  had  expected  to  be  a 
King-ruler  as  well  as  a  King-maker,  and  he  took  grave  offence  when 
he  found  Edward  slipping  away  from  his  control.  It  seemed  as  if 
Edward  had  the  settled  purpose  of  raising  up  a  new  nobility  to 
counterbalance  the  old.  In  1467  Warwick's  brother,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  was  deprived  of  the  chancellorship.  In  foreign 
politics,  too,  Edward  and  Warwick  disagreed.  Warwick  had 
taken  up  the  old  policy  of  the  Beauforts,  and  was  anxious  for  an 
alliance  with  Jhe  astute  Louis  XL,  who  had  in  1461  succeeded  his 
father,  Charles  VII.,  as  king  of  France.  Edward,  perhaps  with 
some  thought  passing  through  his  head  of  establishing  his  throne 
by  following  in  the  steps  of  Henry  V.,  declared  for  an  alliance  with 
Burgundy.  In  1467  Warwick  was  allowed  to  go  to  France  as  an 
ambassador,  whilst  Edward  was  entertaining  Burgundian  ambas- 
sadors in  England.  In  the  same  year  Charles  the  Rash  succeeded 
his  father,  Philip  the  Good  (see  p.  306),  as  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  in  1468  married  Edward's  sister,  Margaret.  The  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  the  rival  of  the  king  of  France,  was  the  lord  of  the 
seventeen  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  and  his  friendship  brought 
with  it  that  peaceful  intercourse  with  the  manufacturing  towns  of 
Flanders  which  it  was  always  the  object  of  English  policy  to 
/       secure. 

P^  6.  Warwick's  Alliance  with  Clarence.     1469— 1470. — Warwick, 

disgusted  with  Edward,  found  an  ally  in  Edward's  brother, 
Clarence,  who,  like  Warwick,  was  jealous  of  the  Woodvilles. 
Warwick  had  no  son,  and  his  two  daughters,  Isabel  and  Anne, 
would  one  day  share  his  vast  estates  between  them.  Warwick 
gave  Isabel  in  marriage  to  Clarence,  and  encouraged  him  to  think 
that  it  might  be  possible  to  seat  him — in  days  when  everything 
seemed  possible  to  the  strong— on  Edward's  throne.  Edward  had 
by  this  time  lost  much  of  his  popularity.  His  extravagant  and 
luxurious  life  made  men  doubt  whether  anything  had  been  gained 
by  substituting  him  for  Henry,  and  in  1469  and  1470  there  were 
risings  fomented  by  Warwick.  In  the  latter  year  Edward,  with 
the  help  of  his  cannon,  the  importance  of  which  in  battles  was 
now  great,  struck  such  a  panic  into  his  enemies  at  a  battle  near 
Stamford  that  the  place  of  action  came  to  be  known  as  Lose- 
coat  Field,  from  the  haste  with  which  the  fugitives  stripped  them- 
selves of  their  armour  to  make  their  flight  the  easier.      Warwick 


I470  WARWICK  AND   HENRY    VI.  333 

and  Clarence  fled  across  the  sea.  Warwick  was  governor  of  Calais, 
but  his  own  officer  there  refused  to  admit  him,  and  he  was  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  France. 

7.  The  Restoration  of  Henry  VI.  1470. — Warwick  knew  that 
he  had  no  chance  of  recovering  power  without  the  support  of  the 
Lancastrian  party,  and,  disagreeable  as  it  was  to  him,  he  allowed 
Louis  XL  to  reconcile  him  to  Queen  Margaret,  the  wife  of  that 
Henry  VL,  of  whom  he  had  been  the  bitterest  enemy.     Louis,  who 


A  fifteenth-century  ship  :  from  Harl.  MS.  2278. 

dreaded  Edward's  alliance  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  did  every- 
thing to  support  Edward's  foes,  and  sent  Warwick  off  to  England, 
where  he  was  subsequently  to  be  joined  by  the  queen.  Edward, 
who  was  in  his  most  careless  mood,  was  foolish  enough  to  trust 
Warwick's  brother,  Montague,  from  whom  he  had  taken  away, 
not  only  his  new  earldom  of  Northumberland  to  restore  it  to  the 
head  of  the  Percies  (see  p.  331),  but  all  the  lands  connected  with 
it,  and  had  thought  to  compensate  him  with  the  mere  marquisate 


334  EDWARD  IV.  147 1 

of  Montague,  unaccompanied  by  any  estate  wherewith  to  support 
the  dignity  of  his  rank.  Montague  turned  against  him,  and 
Edward,  fearing  for  his  life,  fled  to  Holland.  Warwick  became 
master  of  England,  and  this  time  the  King-maker  drew  Henry 
from  the  Tower  and  placed  him  once  more  on  the  throne,  imbecile 
as  he  now  was. 
(1/^  8.  Edward  IV.  recovers  the  Throne.  1471. — In  the  spring 
of  1471  Edward  was  back  in  England,  landing  at  Ravenspur, 
where  Henry  IV.  had  landed  in  1399.  Like  Henry  IV.,  he  lyingly 
declared  that  he  had  come  merely  to  claim  his  duchy  and  estates. 
Like  Henry  IV.,  too,  he  found  a  supporter  in  an  Earl  of 
Northumberland,  who  was  this  time  the  Percy  who,  Lancastrian 
as  he  was,  had  been  restored  by  Edward  to  his  earldom  at  the 
expense  of  Montague.  Clarence,  too — false,  fleeting,  perjured 
Clarence,  as  Shakspere  truly  calls  him — had  offered  to  betray 
Warwick.  Edward  gathered  a  sufficient  force  to  march  unassailed 
to  London,  where  he  was  enthusiastically  received.  Taking  with 
him  the  unfortunate  Henry  he  won  a  complete  victory  at  Barnet. 
The  battle  was  fought  in  a  dense  fog,  and  was  decided  by  a  panic 
caused  amongst  Warwick's  men  through  the  firing  of  one  of  their 
divisions  into  another.  Warwick  and  Montague  were  among  the 
slain.  By  this  time  Margaret  had  landed  with  a  fresh  army  at 
Weymouth.  Edward  caught  her  and  her  army  at  Tewkesbury, 
where  he  inflicted  on  her  a  crushing  defeat.  Her  son,  Edward 
Prince  of  Wales,  was  either  slain  in  the  battle,  or  more  probably 
murdered  after  the  fight  was  over  ;  and  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  the 
brother  of  the  duke  who  had  been  executed  after  the  battle 
of  Hexham  (see  p.  331),  the  last  male  heir  of  the  House  of 
Beaufort,  as  well  as  others,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  abbey,  were 
afterwards  put  to  death,  though  Edward  had  solemnly  promised 
them  their  lives.  On  the  night  after  Edward's  return  to  London 
Henry  VI.  ended  his  life  in  the  Tower.  There  can  be  no  reason- 
able doubt  that  he  was  murdered,  and  that,  too,  by  Edward's 
directions. 
>sC.  9.  Edward  IV.  prepares  for  War  with  France.  1471 — 1474. — 
Edward  IV.  was  now  all  powerful.  He  had  no  competitor  to  fear. 
No  descendant  of  Henry  IV.  remained  alive.  Of  the  Beauforts,  the 
descendants  of  John  of  Gaunt  by  Catherine  Swynford  (see  p.  282), 
the  male  line  had  perished,  and  the  only  representative  was  young 
Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  whose  mother,  the  Lady  Margaret, 
was  the  daughter  of  the  first  Duke  of  Somerset,  and  the  cousin  of 
the  two  dukes  who  had  been  executed  after  the  battles  of  Hexham 


I47I-I474 


BENEVOLENCES 


335 


and  Tewkesbury.'  His  father,  Edmund  Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond, 
who  died  before  his  birth,  was  the  son  of  a  Welsh  gentleman  of  no 
great  mark,  who  had  had  the  luck  to  marry  Catherine  of  France, 
the  widow  of  Henry  V.  The  young  Richmond  was,  however,  an 
exile,  and,  as  he  was  only  fourteen  years  of  age  when  Edward  was 
restored,  no  serious  danger  was  as  yet  to  be  apprehended  from  that 
side.  Moreover,  the  slaughter  amongst  both  the  Yorkist  and  the 
Lancastrian  nobility  had,  for  the  time,  put  an  end  to  all  danger  of 
a  rising.  Edward  was,  therefore,  at  liberty  to  carry  out  his  own 
foreign  policy.  He  obtained  grants  from  Parliament  to  enable 
him,  in  alliance  with  Charles  of  Burgundy,  to  make  war  against 
Louis  XL  The  grants  were  insufficient,  and  he  supplemented 
them  by  a  newly  invented  system  of  benevolences,  which  were 
nominally  free  gifts  made  to  him  by  the  well-to-do,  but  which 
were  in  reality  exactions,  because  those  from  whom  they  were  re- 
quired dared  not  refuse  to  pay.  The  system  raised  little  general  ill 
will,  partly  because  the  small  owners  of  property  who  were  relieved 
from  taxation  were  not  touched  by  the  benevolences,  and  partly 
because  the  end  which  Edward  had  put  to  the  civil  war  made  his 
government  welcome.  In  some  cases  his  personal  charm  counted 
for  something.     One  old  lady  whom    he  asked   for  ten  pounds 

^  Genealogy  of  the  Beauforts  and  the  Tudors  : — 


John  of  Gaunt  =  Catherine  Swynford 

Owen  Tudor  = 

Catherine, 
widow  of 

John  Beaufort, 
Earl  of  Somerset, 
legitimated  by  Act  of 
Parliament 
1 

Cardinal  Beaufort, 
legitimated  by  Act  of 
Parliament 

Henry  V. 

Jol 

in,  ist  Duke  of  Somerset 

1 

Edmund, 

2nd  Duke  of 

Somerset, 

killed  at 

St.  Albans, 

Tudor  =  Marg 
mond, 

Henry  VH. 
(1485-1509) 

1455 
1 

Edmund 
Earl  of  Rich 
d.  1456 

aret                  Henry, 

3rd  Duke  of 

Somerset, 

executed  after 

the  battle  of 

Hexham,  1464 

1 

Edmund, 

4  th  Duke  of 

Somerset, 

executed  after 

the  battle  of 

Tewkesbury,  1471 

336  EDWARD  IV.  1475-1478 

replied  that  for  the  sake  of  his  handsome  face  she  would  give 
him  twenty.  He  kissed  her  and  she  at  once  made  it  forty. 
"^Mo.  The  Invasion  of  France.  1475.— In  1475  Edward  invaded 
Francfe\  If  he  could  have  secured  the  steady  support  of  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy  he  might  have  accomplished  something,  but  the  Duke's 
dominions  were  too  scattered  to  enable  him  to  have  a  settled  policy. 
He  was  sometimes  led  to  attack  the  king  of  France,  because  he  had 
interests  as  a  French  vassal ;  whilst  at  other  times  he  threw  all  his 
strength  into  projects  for  encroachments  in  Germany,  because  he 
had  also  interests  as  a  vassal  of  the  Emperor.  When  Edward 
landed  Charles  was  anxious  to  carry  on  war  in  Germany,  and 
would  give  no  help  to  Edward  in  France.  Louis  XL,  who  pre- 
ferred a  victory  of  diplomacy  to  one  of  force,  wheedled  Edward 
into  a  seven  years'  truce  by  a  grant  of  7 5, coo  crowns,  together 
with  a  yearly  pension  of  50,000,  and  by  a  promise  to  marry  the. 
Dauphin  Charles  to  Elizabeth,  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  king  of 
England.  Louis  also  made  presents  to  Edward's  chief  followers, 
and  was  delighted  when  the  English  army  turned  its  back  on 
France.  In  consequence  of  this  understanding  Queen  Margaret 
recovered  her  liberty. 
VC  II.  Fall  and  Death  of  Clarence.     1476— 1478.— Soon  after  Ed- 

ward's return  he  became  suspicious  of  his  brother  Clarence,  who 
took  upon  himself  to  interfere  with  the  course  of  justice.  In  1477 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  Charles  the  Rash,  was  slain  at  Nancy  by 
the  Swiss,  leaving  only  a  daughter,  Mary.  Ducal  Burgundy  was 
at  once  seized  by  Louis,  as  forfeited  for  want  of  male  heirs,  but 
Franche  Comte,  or  the  county  of  Burgundy,  was  a  part  of  the 
Empire,  and  therefore  beyond  his  reach  ;  and  this  latter  district, 
together  with  the  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  formed  a  dower 
splendid  enough  to  attract  suitors  for  Mary's  hand.  Amongst 
these  was  Clarence,^  now  a  widower.  Edward,  who  had  no  wish 
to  see  his  brother  an  independent  sovereign,  forbade  him  to 
proceed  with  his  wooing.  Other  actions  of  Clarence  were  displeas- 
ing to  the  king,  and  when  Parliament  met,  1478,  Edward  with  his 
own  mouth  accused  his  brother  of  treason.  Clarence  was  condemned 
to  death,  and  perished  secretly  in  the  Tower,  being,  according  to 
rumour,  drowned  in  a  butt  of  malmsey. 

12.  The  Last  Years  of  Edward  IV.  1478 — 1483. — The  remainder 
of  Edward's  life  was  spent  in  quiet,  as  far  as  domestic  affairs  were 

1  Mary  was  the  child  of  an  earlier  wife  of  Charles  the  Bold  than  Margaret 
the  sister  of  Edward  IV.  and  Clarence,  and  the  latter  was  therefore  not  related 
to  her. 


I478-I483 


THE  DUKE   OF  GLOUCESTER 


337 


K 


concern^tiK.^  In  foreign  affairs  he  met  with  a  grave  disappointment. 
Mary  of  Bur^tHjdy  had  found  a  husband  in  Maximilian,  archduke 
of  Austria,  the  soii^ot  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  In  1482  she 
died,  leaving  two  children,  Philip  and  Margaret.  The  men  of 
Ghent  set  Maximilian  at  naught,  and,  combining  with  Louis,  forced 
Maximilian  in  the  treaty  of  Arras  to  promise  the  hand  of  Margaret 
to  the  Dauphin,  and  the  cession  of  some  Nethe4andish  territory 
to  France.  Edward  died  on  April  9,  1483,  and  itK^^v^en  said 
that  the  treaty  of  Arras,  which  extended  French  influenceSft^the 
Netherlands,  brought  about  his  death.  It  is  more  reasonable 
to  attribute  it  to  the  dissoluteness  of  his  life. 

13.  Edward  V.  and  the  Duke  of  Gloucester.  1483.— Edward  IV. 
left  two  sons.  The  elder,  a  boy  of  twelve,  was  now  Edward  V.,  and 
his  younger  brother,  Richard,  was  Duke  of  York.^  The  only  grown- 
up man  of  the  family  was  the  youngest  brother  of  Edward  IV., 
Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester.  Gloucester  had  shown  himself  during 
his  brother's  reign  to  be  possessed  of  the  qualities  which  fit  a  man 
to  fulfil  the  duties  of  a  high  position.  He  was  not  only  a  good 
soldier  and  an  able  commander,  but,  unlike  his  brother  Clarence, 
was  entirely  faithful  to  Edward,  though  he  showed  his  indepen- 
dence by  refusing  to  take  part  in  Edward's  treaty  with  Louis  of 
France.  He  had  a  rare  power  of  winning  popular  sympathy,  and 
was  most  hked  in  Yorkshire,  where  he  was  best  known.  He  had, 
however,  grown  up  in  a  cruel  and  unscrupulous  age,  and  had  no 
more  hesitation  in  clearing  his  way  by  slaughter  than  had  Edward 
IV.  or  Margaret  of  Anjou.  Though  absolute  proof  is  wanting,  there 
is  strong  reason  to  believe  that  he  took  part  in  cutting  down  Prince 
Edward  after  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury,  and  that  he  executed  his 


I  Genealogy  of  the  Yorkist  Kings  : — 


Richard,  Duke  of  York, 
killed  at  Wakefield,  1460 
I 


Elizabeth  ■■ 
Woodville 


Edward  IV.  Margaret  =  Charles, 
(1461-1483)  the  Rash, 

Duke  of 
Burgundy 


Elizabeth,  m. 
to  Henry  VII. 


Duke  of 
Clarence 
d.  1478 


Nevill 


Edward  V. , 
murdered  1483 


Richard, 
Duke  of  York, 
murdered  1483 


George  =  Isabel     Richard 
"  III., 

Duke  of 
Gloucester, 
afterwards 
king,  m.  to 
Anne  Nevill 
(1483-1485) 
Edward,  | 

Earl  of  Edward, 

Warwick,  d.  1484 

executed  1499 


338  EDWARD    V.  1483 

brother's  orders  in  providing  for  the  murder  of  Henry  VI.  in  the 
Tower.  He  made  no  remonstrance  against,  though  he  took  no  part 
in,  the  death  of  Clarence,  with  whom  he  was  on  bad  terms,  because 
Clarence  claimed  the  whole  of  the  estates  of  the  King- maker,  whose 
eldest  daughter  Isabel  he  had  married  ;  whereas  Gloucester,  having 
married  the  younger  daughter  Anne,  the  widow  of  the  slaughtered 
son  of  Henry  VI.  put  in  a  claim  to  half  Gloucester  was  now  to  be 
tried  as  he  had  never  been  tried  before,  his  brother  having  appointed 
him  by  will  to  be  the  guardian  of  his  young  nephew  and  of  the 
kingdom.  If  the  authority  thus  conferred  upon  him  met  with  general 
acceptance,  he  would  probably  make  an  excellent  ruler.  If  it  were 
questioned  he  would  strike  out,  and  show  no  mercy.  In  those 
hard  days  every  man  of  higli  position  must  be  either  ham- 
mer or  anvil,  and  Richard  was  resolved  that  he  would  not  be 
>sr  the  anvil. 
^^  14.  Fall  of  the  Queen's  Relations.  1483. — The  young  king  was 
at  Ludlow,  and  rode  up  towards  London,  guarded  by  Earl  Rivers, 
his  uncle  on  his  mother's  side,  and  by  his  half-brother,  Sir  Richard 
Grey.  Another  half-brother,  the  Marquis  of  Dorset,  was  lieutenant 
of  the  Tower. ^  Gloucester  had  strong  reasons  for  believing  that 
the  Greys  intended  to  keep  the  young  king  in  their  hands  and,  having 
him  crowned  at  once,  so  as  to  put  an  end  to  his  own  guardian- 
ship, to  make  themselves  masters  of  the  kingdom.  He  therefore 
struck  the  first  blow.  Accompanied  by  his  friend  and  supporter, 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  he  overtook  the  cavalcade,  and  sent 
Rivers  and  Grey  prisoners  to  Pontefract.  The  queen-mother  at 
once  took  refuge  in  the  sanctuary  at  Westminster,  whence  no 
one  could  remove  her  without  violating  the  privileges  of  the 
Church. 
^^Ci;'''^  15.  Execution  of  Lord  Hastings. — The  young  king  arrived  in 
London  on  May  4.  The  Council  acknowledged  Gloucester  as  Pro- 
tector, and  removed  Edward  to  the  Tower,  which  in  those  days 
was  a  place  of  safety  rather  than  a  prison.  Dorset,  however,  had 
equipped  a  fleet,  and  Gloucester  was  afraid  lest  a  fresh  attempt 

1  Genealogy  of  the  Woodvilles  and  Greys  : — 

Richard,  Earl  Rivers 
I 

Anthony       (i)  Sir  John  Grey  =  Elizabeth  Woodville  =  (2)  Edward  IV. 

Woodville,  I I 

Earl  Rivers,  j  1  1 

executed         Thomas  Grey,         Sir  Richard  Grey,         Edward  V., 
14^3         Marquis  of  Dorset        executed  1483  murdered  1483 


1483 


GLOUCESTER  AND  HASTINGS 


339 


might  be  made  by  the   queen's   party  to  overthrow  him.     His 
fears  were  increased  because  Lord  Hastings,  the  leading  member 


Large  ship  and  boat  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  mainsail  of  the  ship  hasthe  Beauchamp 
arms,  and  the  streamer  the  bear  and  ragged  staff.  From  the  '  Life  of  Richard  Beau- 
champ,  Earl  of  Warwick,'  by  John  Rous ;  drawn  about  1485. 


of  the   Council,  who  had  taken  his  part  against  the.  Woodvilles, 
now  turned  against   him  and  began  to  intrigue  with  the  queen's 


i- 


340  EDWARD    V.  1483 

supporters.  Coming  into  the  council  chamber  on  June  13, 
he  laid  bare  his  left  arm,  which  had  been  withered  from  his 
birth,  and  declared  that  the  mischief  was  the  effect  of  witchcraft, 
and  that  the  witches  were  the  queen  and  Jane  Shore,  who  had 
been  one  of  the  many  mistresses  of  Edward  IV.,  and  was  now 
the  mistress  of  Hastings.  Hastings  admitted  that  the  queen  and 
Jane  Shore  were  worthy  of  punishment  if  they  were  guilty. 
"  What !  "  cried  Gloucester,  "  dost  thou  serve  me  with  ifs  and  with 
ands  ?  I  tell  thee  they  have  done  it,  and  that  I  will  make  good  on 
thy  body,  traitor."  Gloucester  struck  his  fist  on  the  table.  Armed 
men  rushed  in,  dragged  Hastings  out,  and  cut  off  his  head  on  a 
log  of  wood.  J^ane  ^hnre  was  compelled  to  do  public  penance  in 
a  white  sheet.  Of  the  causes  of  Hastings'  desertion  of  Gloucester 
it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  certainty.  It  is  a  probable  conjecture 
that  he  had  discovered  that  Gloucester  entertained  the  thought  of 
making  himself  more  than  Protector.  Young  Edward's  coronation 
would  make  the  boy  capable,  formally  at  least,  of  exercising  royal 
power,  and  as  it  was  known  that  the  boy  loved  his  mother's  rela- 
tions, it  was  almost  certain  that  he  would  place  the  Woodvilles  in 
power.  Now  that  Gloucester  had  imprisoned  Rivers  and  Grey,  it 
was  certain  that  the  first  thing  done  by  the  Woodvilles,  if  they  got 
a  chance,  would  be  to  send  Gloucester  to  the  scaffold,  and  Glou- 
cester was  not  the  man  patiently  to  allow  himself  to  be  crushed. 
It  is  ridiculous  to  speak  of  Gloucester  as  an  accomplished  dis- 
sembler. The  story  of  witchcraft  served  its  purpose,  but  it  was  the 
stupid  lie  of  a  man  who  had  not  hitherto  been  accustomed  to 
lying. 

16.  Deposition  of  Edward  V.  1483. — The  execution  of  Hastings 
was  promptly  followed  by  the  execution  of  Rivers  and  Grey. 
Dorset  saved  himself  by  escaping  beyond  sea.  By  threats  Glou- 
cester got  the  Duke  of  York  into  his  hands,  and  lodged  him  with 
his  brother  in  the  Tower.  He  was  now  in  a  temper  which  would 
stop  at  no  atrocity.  He  put  up  a  Dr.  Shaw  to  preach  a  sermon 
against  Edward's  claim  to  the  throne.  In  those  days  if  a  man  and 
woman  made  a  contract  of  marriage  neither  of  the  contracting 
parties  could  marry  another,  though  no  actual  marriage  had 
taken  place.  Shaw  declared  that  Edward  IV.  had  promised 
marriage  to  one  of  his  mistresses  before  he  met  Elizabeth  Wood- 
ville,  and  that  therefore,  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth  being  invalid, 
all  his  children  by  her  were  illegitimate,  and  Gloucester  was  the 
true  heir  to  the  throne.  Further,  Shaw  declared  that  Gloucester 
was  the  only  legitimate  son  of  the  Duke  of  York,  both  Edward  IV. 


1483 


DEPOSITION  OF  EDWARD    V. 


341 


and  Clarence  being  the  sons  of  their  mother  by  some  other  man. 
That  Richard  should  have  authorised  so  base  an  attack  upon  his 
mother's  honour  shows  the  depth  of  infamy  to  which  he  had  now 
sunk.  At  first  it  seemed  as  if  he  had  lowered  himself  to  no  purpose. 
The  hearers  of  the  sermon,  instead  of  shouting,  "  God  save  King 
Richard  !  "  held  their  peace.  At  a  meeting  in  the  City  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham  told  the  same  story  as  had  been  told  by  Shaw,  and  there 
the  servants  of  the  two  dukes  shouted  for  '  King  Richard,'  and  their 
voice  was  taken  as  the  voice  of  the  City.  On  June  25  Parliament 
declared  Gloucester  to 
be  the  lawful  heir,  and 
on  July  6  he  was  crowned 
as  Richard  III.  The 
Woodvilles  were  not 
popular,  and  the  blood- 
shed with  which  Richard 
had  maintained  himself 
against  them  was  readily 
condoned. 

1 7.  Buckingham's 
Rebellion.  1483. — Rich- 
ard's enemies  were 
chiefly  to  be  found 
amongst  the  nobility. 
No  nobleman  could  feel 
his  life  secure  if  he 
crossed  Richard's  path. 
The  first  to  revolt  was 
Buckingham,  who  had 
played  the  part  of  a  king- 
maker, and  who  was  dis- 
appointed because  Rich- 
ard did  not  reward  him 
by  conceding  his  claim 
to  estates  so  vast  that  if 
he  possessed  them  he 
would  have  been  master  of  England.  Buckingham,  who  was  de- 
scended from  Edward  III.  through  his  youngest  son,  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  at  first  thought  of  challenging  a  right  to  the  throne  for 
himself,  but  afterwards  determined  to  support  the  claim  of  the 
Earl  of  Richmond,  the  Tudor  heir  of  the  House  of  Lancaster 
(see  p.  334).   He  was  skilfully  led  from  one  step  to  another  by  John 


Richard  III. :  from  an  original  painting  belonging 
to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 


^ 


342  RICHARD  HI.  1483 -1485 

Morton,  Bishop  of  Ely,  one  of  the  ablest  statesmen  of  the  day. 
Richmond  was  to  sail  from  Brittany,  where  he  was  in  exile,  and 
Buckingham  was  to  raise  forces  in  Wales,  where  the  Welsh 
Tudors  were  popular,  whilst  other  counties  were  to  rise  simulta- 
neously. The  rebellion  came  to  nothing.  Heavy  rains  caused  a 
flood  of  the  Severn,  and  Buckingham,  in  Shropshire,  was  cut  off 
from  his  army  in  Wales.  Buckingham  was  betrayed  to  Richard, 
and  on  November  2  was  beheaded  at  Salisbury. 

18.  Murder  of  the  Princes.  1483. — At  some  time  in  the 
summer  or  autumn  the  princes  in  the  Tower  ceased  to  live. 
There  had  been  movements  in  their  favour  in  some  counties,  and 
there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  Richard  had  them  secretly 
killed.  It  was  only  by  degrees  that  the  truth  leaked  out.  Wherever 
it  was  believed  it  roused  indignation.  Murders  there  had  been  in 
plenty,  but  the  murdered  as  yet  had  been  grown  men.  To  butcher 
children  was  reserved  for  Richard  alone. 

19.  Richard's  Government.  1484— 1485. — As  long  as  the  last 
tale  of  murder  was  still  regarded  as  doubtful,  Richard  retained  his 
popularity.  In  a  Parliament  which  met  in  January  1484  he  en- 
acted good  laws,  amongst  which  was  one  declaring  benevolences 
illegal.  In  the  summer  he  was  welcomed  as  he  moved  about,  yet 
he  knew  that  danger  threatened.  Richmond  was  preparing  inva- 
sion and  the  hollow  friendship  of  the  English  nobility  was  not  to 
be  trusted.  In  vain  Richard  scattered  gifts  in  profusion  amongst 
them.  They  took  the  gifts  and  hoped  for  deliverance.  The  popular 
good-will  grew  cooler,  and  in  the  winter  Richard,  needing  money, 
and  not  venturing  to  summon  another  Parliament,  raised  a  forced 
loan.  A  loan  not  being  a  gift,  he  did  not  technically  break  the 
statute  against  benevolences  though  practically  he  set  it  at  naught. 
Domestic  misfortunes  came  to'  add  to  Richard's  political  troubles. 
His  only  son,  Edward,  died  in  1484.  His  wife,  Anne,  died  in  1485. 
Richard  was  now  eager,  if  he  had  not  been  eager  before,  to 
marry  his  niece,  Elizabeth  of  York,  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV. 
This  monstrous  proposal  was  scouted  by  his  own  supporters,  and 
he  had  reluctantly  to  abandon  the  scheme.  If  there  could  be 
queens  in  England,  Elizabeth  was  on  hereditary  principles  the 
heiress  of  the  throne,  unless,  indeed,  Richard's  argument  against 
her  mother's  marriage  (see  p.  340)  was  to  be  accepted.  Rich- 
mond was  naturally  as  anxious  as  Richard  could  be  to  win  her 
hand,  and  his  promise  to  marry  her  was  the  condition  on  which 
he  obtained  the  support  of  those  Yorkists  who  were  Richard's 
enemies. 


f 


1485  BOS  WORTH  FIELD  343 

20.  Richard  Defeated  and  Slain  at  Bosworth.  1485. — In 
June  1485  Richmond  landed  at  Milford  Haven.  As  he  marched 
on  he  was  joined  by  considerable  numbers,  but  on  August  22  he 
found  Richard  waiting  for  him  near  Bosworth,  with  a  host  far 
larger  than  his  own.  Richard,  however,  could  not  count  on  the 
fidelity  of  his  own  commanders.  Lord  Stanley,  who  had  married 
Richmond's  widowed  mother,  the  Lady  Margaret  (see  p.  334),  to- 
gether with  his  brother,  Sir  William  Stanley,  were  secretly  in  accord 
with  Richmond,  though  they  had  placed  themselves  on  Richard's 
side.  When  the  battle  began  Stanley  openly  joined  Richmond, 
whilst  the  Earl  of  Northumberland  who  was  also  nominally  on 
Richard's  side  withdrew  his  forces  and  stood  aloof.  Knowing  that 
defeat  was  certain,  Richard,  with  the  crown  on  his  head,  rushed  into 
the  thick  of  the  fight  and  met  a  soldier's  death.  After  the  battle 
the  fallen  crown  was  discovered  on  a  bush,  and  placed  by  Stai^ley, 
amidst  shouts  of '  King  Henry  ! '  on  Richmond's  head. 


P^ 


CHAPTER  XXni 

HENRY  VII.      1485   1509 

LEADING   DATES 

Accession  of  Henry  VII .  1485 

The  Battle  of  Stoke 1487 

Poynings'  Acts 1494 

Capture  of  Perkin  Warbeck 1497 

Alliance  with  Scotland 1503 

Deathof  Henry  VII 1509 


I.  The  First  Measures  of  Henry  VIL    1485— 1486.— Henry  VH. 

owed  his  success  not  to  a  general  uprising  against  Richard,  but  to 
a  combination  of  the  nobles  who  had  hitherto  taken  opposite  sides. 
To  secure  this  combination  he  had  promised  to  marry  Elizabeth, 
the  heiress  of  the  Yorkist  family.  Lest  an  attempt  should  be  made 
to  challenge  her  title,  Henry  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  the  Earl  of 
Warwick,  the  son  of  Clarence,  who  might  possibly  maintain  that  a 
female  was  incapable  of  inheriting.  He  was  indeed  unwilling  to 
have  it  thought  that  he  derived  his  title  from  a  wife,  and  when 
Parliament  met  on  November^ 7  he  obtained  from  it  a  recognition  of 


344 


HENRY   Vn. 


1485 


his  own  right  to  the  throne,  though  it  would  have  puzzled  the  most 
acute  controversialist  to  discover  in  what  that  right  consisted. 
Parliament,   therefore,   contented   itself   with   declaring  that  the 


Henry  VII.  :  from  an  original  picture  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

inheritance  of  the  crown  was  to  '  be,  rest,  and  abide  in  King 
Henry  VII.  and  his  heirs,'  without  giving  any  reasons  why  it  was 
to  be  so.i     As  far  as  the  House  of  Lords  was  concerned  the  atten- 


1  Abbreviated  genealogy  of  Henry  VII.  and  his  competitors  :- 

Edward  III. 

I 


Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence 


John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster 


Edward  IV. 
Elizabeth 


George, 
Duke  of  Clarence 

I 

Edward, 

Earl  of  Warwick 


Henry  VII. 


i486        HENRY   VIL    AND    TH^  MIDDLE   CLASSES         345 

dance  when  this  declaration  was  made  was  scanty.  Only  twenty- 
nine  lay  peers  were  present,  not  because  many  of  the  great  houses 
had  become  extinct,  but  because  some  of  the  principal  Yorkist  peers 
had  been  attainted,  and  others  had  been  left  without  a  summons. 
In  the  quieter  times  which  followed  this  slur  upon  them  was  re- 
moved, and  the  House  of  Lords  was  again  filled.  On  January 
1 8,  i486,  Henry  married  Elizabeth.  This  marriage  and  the  blending 
of  the  white  and  red  rose  in  the  Tudor  badge  was  Henry's  way 
of  announcing  that  he  intended  to  be  the  king  of  both  parties. 


V. 


Elizabeth  of  York,  queen  of  Henry  VII.  :  from  an  original 
picture  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 


2.  Maintenance  and  Livery. — Henry  could  not  maintain  himself 
on  the  throne  merely  by  the  support  of  the  nobility.  The  middle 
classes,  as  in  the  days  of  Edward  IV.,  called  out  for  a  strong 
king,  and  were  ready  to  overlook  violence  and  cruelty  if  only  order 
could  be  secured.  Henry  was  shrewd  enough  to  know  that  their 
aid  was  indispensable,  and,  Lancastrian  as  he  was,  he  adopted  the 
policy  of  the  Yorkist  kings.  Economical  and  patient,  he  might 
succeed  where  Edward  IV.  had  partially  failed.  He  had  no  injuries 
to  avenge,  no  cruelties  to  repay.  He  clearly  saw  that  both  the 
throne  and  the  lives  and  properties  of  the  middle  classes  were 
rendered  insecure  by  maintenance  and  livery — the  support  given  by 


346 


HENRY   VIL 


I 399- I 486 


the  great  landowners  to  their  retainers,  and  the  granting  of  badges 
by  which  the  retainers  might  recognise  one  another,  and  thus 
become  as  it  were  a  uniformed  army  ready  to  serve  their  lords  in 
the  field.  Against  these  abuses  Richard  II.  had  directed  a  statute, 
(see  p.  2  8 1 )  and  that  statute  had  been  confirmed  by  Edward  I V.  These 
laws  had,  however,  been  inoperative  ;  and  Henry,  in  his  first  Parlia- 
ment, did  not  venture  to  do  more  than  to  make  the  peers  swear  to 
abandon  their  evil  courses. 

3.  Lovel's  Ri^ng.  i486. — In  i486  Lord  Lovel,  who  had  been 
one  of  Richard's  rh«iisters,  rose  in  arms  and  seized  Worcester. 
Henry  found  warm  supjjort  even  in  Yorkshire,  where  Richard 
had  been  more  popular  tK^n  elsewhere.  At  short  warning  a 
*  marvellous  great  number  of  estji^ires,  gentlemen,  and  yeomen ' 
gathered  round  him,  and  the  reb^H^n  was  easfl^  put  down. 
Lovel  escape^'-J;o  Flanders,  where  he 
found  a  proteobt^  in  Margaret,  the 
dowager  Duchess  of\Burgundy,  the 
sister  of  Edward  IV.  and  ^.ichard  III. 
Before  long  a  new  attack  updn, Henry 
was  developed.  For  the  first  time  an 
English  king  had  to  ward  off"  danger  from 
Ireland. 

4.  Lancaster  and  York  in  Ireland. 
1399 — 1485. — Since  the  expedition  of 
Richard  II.  no  king  had  visited  Ireland, 
and  the  English  colonists  were  left  to 
defend  themselves  against  the  Celtic 
tribes  as  best  they  might.  In  1449  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  who 
had  not  at  that  time  entered  on  his  rivalry  with  Henry  VI.,  was 
sent  to  Dublin  as  Lord  Lieutenant  (see  p.  319)  where  he  remained 
till  1450,  and  gained  friends  amongst  both  races  by  his  conciliatory 
firmness.  In  1459,  after  the  break-up  of  his  party  at  Ludlow  (see 
p.  326),  he  appeared  in  Ireland  in  the  character  of»^  fugitive  seeking 
for  allies.  Between  him  and  the  English  colon^a  bargain  was 
soon  struck.  They  gave  him  troops  which  fought  gallantly  for  him 
at  Wakefield,  and  he,  claiming  to  be  Lord  Lieutenant^  assented  to 
an  act  in  which  they  asserted  the  complete  legislative  independence 
of  the  Parliament  of  the  colony.  The  colony,  thereforifeL  became 
distinctly  Yorkist.  Its  leader  was  the  Earl  of  Kildare,  tH^e  chief 
of  the  eastern  Fitzgeralds  or  Geraldines,  the  Earl  of  DesmondM^eing 
the  chief  of  the  Geraldines  of  th'e  West.  Between  them  was'^^the 
Earl  of  Ormond,  the  chief  of  the  Butlers,  the  hereditary  foe  of  the 


Tudor  rose  (white  and  red) :  from 
the  gates  of  the  Chapel  of 
Henry  VII. 


^ 


1487  LAMBERT  SIMNEL  347 

G^i«al4ines,  who,  probably  merely  because  his  rivals  were  Yorkist, 
had  atta^ck^d  himself  to  the  Lancastrian  party.  All  three  were 
of  English  dest^^t^but  all  three  exercised  the  tribal  authority  of 
an  Irish  chief,  and  were^pra^t-ically  independent  of  English  control. 
Ormond  fought  at  Towton  on  the  ir^aQ^astrian  side,  and  was  exe- 
cuted after  the  battle.  Family  quarrels'^-feiilQke  out  amongst  his 
kindred,  and  for  the  time  Kildare  was  supreiTife--in  the  English 
Pale  (see  p.  265). 

5.  Insurrection  of  Lambert  Simnel.  1487. — Kildare  and  the 
colonists  had  every  reason  to  distrust  Henry,  but  to  oppose  him 
they  needed  a  pretender.  They  found  one  in  the  son  of  an  Oxford 
tradesman,  a  boy  of  ten,  named  Lambert  Simnel,  who  had  been 
persuaded  to  give  himself  out  as  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  who, 
as  it  was  said,  had  escaped  from  the  Tower.  In  1487  Simnel 
landed  in  Ireland,  where  he  was  soon  joined  by  Lord  Lovel  from 
Flanders,  and  by  the  Earl  of  Lincoln,  of  the  family  of  Pole  or  Dela 
Pole,^  whose  mother,  Elizabeth,  was  the  eldest  sister  of  Edward  IV., 
and  who  had  been  named  by  Richard  III.  as  his  heir  after  the  death 
of  his  son  (see  p.  342).  Lincoln  and  Lovel,  after  crowning  Simnel  at 
Dublin,  crossed  to  Lancashire,  taking  with  them  the  pretender, 
and  2,000  trained  German  soldiers  under  Martin  Schwarz  ;  as 
well  as  an  Irish  force  furnished  by  Kildare.  Scarcely  an  English- 
man would  join  them,  and  on  June  16  they  were  utterly  defeated 
by  Henry  at  Stoke,  a  village  between  Nottingham  and  Newark. 
Lincoln  and  Schwarz  were  slain.  Lovel  was  either  drowned  in 
the  Trent  or,  according  to  legend,  was  hidden  in  an  underground 
vault,  where  he  was  at  last  starved  to  death  through  the  neglect  of 
the  man  whose  duty  it  was  to   provide  him  with  food.     Simnel 

^  Genealogy  of  the  De  la  Poles  and  Poles  :  — 
Richard,  Duke  of  York 


Elizabeth = John  de  la  Pole,  George,  Duke 

I  Duke  of  Suffolk  of  Clarence, 


I  i                                         I                                  I 

John  de  la  Pole,  Edmund  de  Ja  Pole,    Sir  Richard  de  la  Pole,    Margaret,  =  Sir  Richard 

Earl  of  Lincoln,  Earl  of  Suffolk,           killed  at  Pavia,  1525       Countess 

killed  at  Stoke,  beheaded  1513                                                                 of 

1487  Salisbury- 


died  1477 

Sir 
Pole 


I  I 

Henry,  Lord  Montague,  Reginald  Pole, 

beheaded  1538  Cardinal  and  Archbishop 

of  Canterbury,  died  1558 


348  HENRY   VI L  1487- 1489 

was    pardoned,  and   employed  by    Henry   as   a   turnspit   in   his 

V^  kitchen. 
6.  The  Court  of  Star  Chamber.  1487.— Nothing  could  serve 
Henry  better  than  this  abortive  rising.  At  Bosworth  he  had  been 
the  leader  of  one  party  against  the  other.  At  Stoke  he  was  the 
leader  of  the  nation  against  Irishmen  and  Germans.  He  felt  him- 
self strong  enough  in  his  second  Parliament  to  secure  the  passing 
of  an  act  to  ensure  the  execution  of  the  engagements  to  which  the 
lords  had  sworn  two  years  before  (see  p.  345).  A  court  was  to  be 
erected,  consisting  of  certain  specified  members  of  the  Privy 
Council  and  of  two  judges,  empowered  to  punish  with  fine  and 
imprisonment  all  who  were  guilty  of  interfering  with  justice  by 
force  or  intrigue.  The  new  court,  reviving,  to  some  extent,  the 
disused  criminal  authority  of  the  king's  Council,  sat  in  the  Star 
Chamber  ^  at  Westminster.  The  results  of  its  establishment  were 
excellent.  Wealthy  landowners,  the  terror  of  their  neighbours, 
who  had  bribed  or  bullied  juries  at  their  pleasure,  and  had  sent 
their  retainers  to  inflict  punishment  on  those  who  had  displeased 
them,  were  brought  to  Westminster  to  be  tried  before  a  court  in 
which  neither  fear  nor  favour  could  avail  them.  It  was  the 
greatest  merit  of  the  new  court  that  it  was  not  dependent  on  a  jury, 
because  in  those  days  juries  were  unable  or  unwilling  to  give 
\/*,  verdicts  according  to  their  conscience. 
^  7.  Henry  VII.  and  Brittany.  1488 — 1492. — Henry  VII.  was  a 
lover  of  peace  by  calculation,  and  would  gladly  have  let  France 
alone  if  it  had  been  possible  to  do  so.  France,  however,  was  no 
longer  the  divided  power  which  it  had  been  in  the  days  of  Henry  V. 
When  Louis  XL  died  in  1483,  he  left  to  his  young  son,  Charles  VI 1 1., 
a  territory  the  whole  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  Brittany,  was 
directly  governed  by  the  king.  Charles's  sister,  Anne  of  Beaujeu, 
who  governed  in  his  name,  made  it  the  object  of  her  policy  to  secure 
Brittany.  She  waged  war  successfully  against  its  duke,  Francis  IL, 
and  after  he  died,  in  1488,  she  continued  to  wage  war  against  his 
daughter,  the  Duchess  Anne.  In  England  there  was  a  strong  feeling 
against  allowing  the  Duchess  to  be  overwhelmed.  At  the  beginning 
of  1489  Henry,  having  received  from  Parliament  large  supplies,  sent 
6,000  Englishmen  to  Anne's  assistance.  Maximilian — whose  hold 
on  the  Netherlands,  where  he  ruled  in  the  name  of  his  young  son, 
Philip  (see  p.  "iyj)^  was  always  slight — proposed  marriage  to  the 

1  So  called  either  because  the  roof  was  decorated  with  stars  or  because  it 
was  the  room  in  which  had  formerly  been  kept  Jewish  bonds  or  '  starres.' 


1490-1492  FOREIGN  ENTANGLEMENTS  .    349 

young  duchess,  and  in  1490  was  wedded  to  -her  by  proxy.  He 
was  a  restless  adventurer,  always  aiming  at  more  than  he  had  the 
means  of  accomplishing.  Though  he  could  not  find  time  to  go  at 
once  to  Brittany  to  made  good  his  claim,  yet  in  1491  he  called  on 
Henry  to  assist  him  in  asserting  it. 

S.  Cardinal  Morton's  Fork.  1491. — Henry,  who  knew  how  un- 
popular a  general  taxation  was,  fell  back  on  the  system  of  benevo- 
lences (see  p.  335),  excusing  his  conduct  on  the  plea  that  the 
statute  of  Richard  HI.  abolishing  benevolences  (see  p.  342)  was 
invalid,  because  Richard  himself  was  a  usurper.  In  gathering  the 
benevolence  the  Chancellor,  Cardinal  Morton,  who  had  been 
helpful  to  Henry  in  the  days  of  his  exile  (see  p.  341),  invented  a 
new  mode  of  putting  pressure  on  the  wealthy,  which  became 
known  as  Cardinal  Morton's  fork.  If  he  addressed  himself  to  one 
who  lived  in  good  style,  he  told  him  that  his  mode  of  living  showed 
that  he  could  afford  to  give  money  to  the  king.  If  he  had  to  do 
with  one  who  appeared  to  be  economical,  he  told  him  that  he  must 
have  saved  and  could  therefore  afford  to  give  money  to  the  king. 
Before  Henry  could  put  the  money  thus  gained  to  much  use,  Anne, 
pressed  hard  by  the  French,  repudiated  her  formal  marriage  with 
Maximilian,  who  had  never  taken  the  trouble  to  visit  her,  and 
gave  her  hand  to  Charles  VIII.,  who  on  his  part  refused  to 
carry  out  his  contract  to  marry  Maximilian's  daughter  Margaret 
(see  p.  337).  From  that  time  Brittany,  the  last  of  the  great  fiefs  to 
maintain  its  independence,  passed  under  the  power  of  the  king 
of  France.  Feudality  was  everywhere  breaking  down,  and  in 
France,  as  in  England,  a  strong  monarchy  was  being  erected  on 
its  ruins. 

9.  The  Invasion  of  France.  1492. — Maximilian's  alliance 
had  proved  but  a  broken  reed,  but  there  was  now  arising  a  formid- 
able power  in  the  south  of  Europe,  which  might  possibly  give  valu- 
able support  to  the  enemies  of  France.  The  peninsula  to  the  south 
of  the  Pyrenees  had  hitherto  been  divided  amongst  various  states, 
but  in  1469  a  marriage  between  Ferdinand,  king  of  Aragon,  and 
Isabella,  the  heiress  of  Castile,  united  the  greater  part  under  one 
dominion.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  were,  for  the  present,  fully 
occupied  with  the  conquest  of  Granada,  the  last  remnant  of  the 
possessions  of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  and  that  city  did  not  surrender 
till  early  in  1492.  In  the  meanwhile  all  England  was  indignant 
with  the  king  of  France  on  account  of  his  marriage  with  the  heiress 
of  Brittany.  Money  was  voted  and  men  were  raised,  and  on 
October  2,  1492,  Henry  crossed  to  Calais  to  invade  France.     He 


^. 


350  HENRY   VII.  1491-1494 

was,  however,  cool  enough  to  discover  that  both  Ferdinand  and 
Maximilian  wanted  to  play  their  own  game  at  his  expense,  and  as 
Anne  of  Beaujeu  was  ready  to  meet  him  half-way,  he  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  French  king  on  November  3  at  Etaples,  receiving 
large  sums  of  money  for  abandoning  a  war  in  which  he  had  nothing 
to  gain.  In  1493  the  Spaniards  followed  Henry's  example,  and 
made  a  peace  with  France  to  their  own  advantage.' 

10.  Perkin  Warbeck.  1491 — 1494. — Henry's  prudent  relin- 
quishment of  a  war  of  conquest  was  not  likely  to  bring  him  popu- 
larity in  England,  and  his  enemies  were  now  on  the  watch  for 
another  pretender  to  support  against  him.  Such  a  pretender  was 
found  in  Perkin  Warbeck,  a  Fleming  of  Tournay,  who  had  landed 
at  Cork  in  the  end  of  1491  or  the  beginning  of  1492,  and  who  had 
been  pressed  by  the  townsmen  to  give  himself  some  name  which 
would  attach  him  to  the  Yorkist  family.  He  allowed  them  to  call 
him  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  the  younger  of  the  princes  who  had 
been  murdered  in  the  Tower.  He  received  support  from  Desmond, 
and  probably  from  Kildare,  upon  which  Henry  deprived  Kildare 
of  the  office  of  Lord  Deputy.  Perkin  crossed  to  France,  and 
ultimately  made  his  way  to  Flanders,  where  he  was  supported 
by  Margaret  of  Burgundy.  In  1493  Henry  demanded  his  sur- 
render, and  on  receiving  a  refusal  broke  off  commercial  inter- 
course between  England  and  Flanders.  The  interruption  of  trade 
did  more  harm  to  England  than  to  Flanders,  and  gave  hopes  to  the 
Yorkist  party  that  it  might  give  rise  to  ill-will  between  the  nation 
and  the  king.  For  some  time,  however,  no  one  gave  assistance 
to  Perkin,  and  in  1494  Charles  VIII.  crossed  the  Alps  to  invade 
Italy,  and  drew  the  attention  of  the  Continental  powers  away  from 
the  affairs  of  England. 

11.  Poynings' Acts.     1494. — Henry  seized   the  opportunity  to 


1  Genealogy  of  the  Houses  of  Spain  and  Burgundy  :— 
Charles  the  Rash,  Duke  of  Burgundy         Frederick  III. ,  Emperor 

I  I 

Mary  =  Maximilian  I.      Ferdinand  V.  =  Isabella,  Queen 
I       Emperor      King  of  Aragon  I       of  Castile 


II!  I 

Margaret        Philip  =  Juana  Catharine-^ Henry  VIII.,  King 
I  I  of  England 


I  I  Mary, 

Charles  V. ,  Ferdinand  I. ,  Queen  of  England 

Emperor  Emperor    , 


^ 


1495-1496  PERKIN  WARBECK  351 

bring  into  obedience  the  English  colony  in  Ireland.  He  sent  over 
as  Lord  Deputy  Sir  Edward  Poynings,  a  resolute  and  able  man. 
At  a  Parliament  held  by  him  at  Drogheda  two  acts  were  passed. 
By  the  one  it  was  enacted  that  all  English  laws  in  force  at  that 
time  should  be  obeyed  in  Ireland  ;  by  the  other,  known  for  many 
generations  afterwards  as  Poynings'  Law,  no  bill  was  to  be  laid  be- 
fore the  Irish  Parliament  which  had  not  been  previously  approved 
by  the  king  and  his  Council  in  England.  At  the  same  time  the 
greater  part  of  the  Statute  of  Kilkenny  (see  p.  265)  was  re-enacted  ; 
and  restricted  the  authority  of  the  Government  at  Dublin  to  the 
English  Pale. 

12.  Perkin's  First  Attempt  on  England.  1495.— Henry's  firm 
government  in  England  had  given  offence  even  to  men  who  were 
not  Yorkists.  Early  in  1495  he  discovered  that  Sir  William  Stanley, 
who  had  helped  him  to  victory  at  Bosworth,  had  turned  against  him. 
Stanley,  who  was  probably  involved  in  a  design  for  sending  Perkin 
to  invade  England,  was  tried  and  executed.  In  the  summer  of  1495 
Perkin  actually  arrived  off  Deal.  Being  no  warrior,  he  sent  a  party 
of  his  followers  on  shore,  though  he  remained  himself  on  shipboard 
to  see  what  would  happen.  The  countrymen  fell  upon  the  invaders, 
who  were  all  slain  or  captured.  Then  Perkin  sailed  to  Ireland, 
was  repulsed  at  Waterford,  and  ultimately  took  refuge  in  Scotland, 
where  King  James  IV.,  anxious  to  distinguish  himself  in  a  war  with 
England,  acknowledged  him  as  the  Duke  of  York,  and  found  him 
a  wife  of  noble  birth.  Lady  Catherine  Gordon.  It  was  probably  in 
order  to  rally  even  the  most  timid  around  him,  in  face  of  such  a 
danger,  that  Henry  obtained  the  consent  of  Parliament  to  an  act 
declaring  that  no  one  supporting  a  king  in  actual  possession  of  the 
crown  could  be  subjected  to  the  penalty  of  treason  in  the  event  of 
that  king's  dethronement. 

13.  The  Intercursus  Magnus.  1496. — The  danger  of  a  Scot- 
tishSftSiasion  made  Henry  anxious  to  be  on  good  terms  with  his 
neighbours>-»^Iaximilian  had  become  Emperor  in  1493  upon  his 
fether's  death,  itr^-tlie  Netherlands,  however,  his  influence  had 
declined,  as  his  son,  th^">Qung  Archduke  Philip,  was  now  grow- 
ing up,  and  claimed  actually'^ta^le  the  country  which  he  had 
inherited  from  his  mother,  Mary  of^'-^urgundy  (see  p,  2>yj)^  his 
father  having  merely  the  right  of  admmb^ring  the  government 
of  it  till  he  himself  came  of  age.  It  was  tlifei^ore  with  Philip, 
and  not  with  Maximilian,  that  Henry  conclim^  in  1496,  a 
treaty  known  as  the  Intercursus  Magnus^  for  the^->«J3courage- 
ment  of    trade  between    England    and    the    Netherlands,   each 


352  HENRY   VII.  I496-I497 

party  engaging  at  the  same  time  to  give  no  shelter  to  each  other's 
rebels. 

14.  Kildare  Restored  to  the  Deputyship.  1496.— In  Ireland  also 
Henry  was  careful  to  avert  danger.  The  government  of  Poynings 
had  not  been  entirely  successful,  and  the  Geraldines  had  taken 
goed..^e  to  show  that  they  could  be  troublesome  in  spite  of  the 
establisKrtteijt  of  English  government.  The  Earl  of  Kildare  was 
at  the  time  inBi^gland,  ^.nd  a  story  is  told  of  some  one  who,  having 
brought  a  long  stnTftg  of  charges  against  him,  wound  up  by  saying 
that  all  Ireland  coul^"^i}Ot  govern  the  Earl,  whereupon  the  king 
replied  that  then  the  EarPslKJuld  govern  all  Ireland.  The  story  is 
untrue,  but  it  well  representsHl;ie  real  situation.  In  1496  Henry 
sent  Kildare  back  as  Lord  Deplat^  A  bargain  seems  to  have 
been  struck  between  them.  Henry^^^^andoned  his  attempt  to 
govern  Ireland  from  England,  and  Kildare" -wjas  allowed  to  use  the 
king's  name  in  any  enterprise  upon  which  his  heart  was  set,  pro- 
vided that  he  did  not  support  any  more  pretenders  to  the  English 
throne. 
V^  15-  Perkin's  Overthrow.  1496 — 1497.— In  the  autumn  of  1496 
James  IV.  made  an  attack  on  England  in  Perkin's  name,  but  it  was 
no  more  than  a  plundering  foray.  Henry,  however,  early  in  1497, 
obtained  from  Parliament  a  grant  of  money,  to  enable  him  to  resist 
any  attempt  to  repeat  it.  This  grant  had  unexpected  consequences. 
The  Cornishmen,  refusing  payment,  marched  up  to  Blackheath, 
where  on  June  18  they  were  overpowered  by  the  king's  troops. 
James  IV.,  thinking  it  time  to  be  quit  of  Perkm,  sent  him  off 
by  sea.  In  July  Perkin  arrived  at  Cork,  but  there  was  no  shelter 
for  him  there  now  that  Kildare  was  Lord  Deputy,  and  in  September 
|,  l^made  his  way  to  Cornwall.  Followed  by  6,000  Cornishmen  he 
^tt>reached  Taunton,  but  the  news  of  the  defeat  of  the  Cornish  at 
J.  ^Ay^  Blackheath  depressed  him,  and  the  poor  coward  ran  away  from 
>|^  his  army  and  took  sanctuary  in  Beaulieu  Abbey.     He  was  brought 

*N4  to  London,  where  he  publicly  acknowledged  himself  to  be  an  im- 

k  1^^      postor.     Henry  was  too  humane  to  do  more  than  place  him  in  con- 
_jL    ^n|fin"mrnt 

T\  ^  16.  European  Changes.  1494 — 1499. — In  1494  Charles  VIII. 
*  had  passed  through  Italy  as  a  conqueror  to  make  good  his  claims 
to  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  In  1495  he  had  returned  to  France, 
and  in  1496  the  French  army  left  behind  had  been  entirely  de- 
stroyed. Yet  the  danger  of  a  renewed  attack  from  France  made 
the  other  Continental  powers  anxious  to  unite,  and  in  1496  the 
Archduke  Philip  married  Juana,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Ferdinand 


Sn   MARY'S,    TAUNTON 


1500  ^7;    MAKYJii,     I A  UN  J  ON         _     ^ 


353 


I  A       '" " 


Towcr  of  St.  Mary's  Church,  Taunton  :  built  about  1500. 


A  A 


\f 


^ 


354  HENRY    VII.  1492-1502 

and  Isabella,  whilst  his  sister  was  sent  to  Spain  to  be  married  to 
their  only  son,  Juan.  In  1497  the  death  of  the  young  prince  led 
to  consequences  unexpected  when  the  two  marriages  were  arranged. 
Philip,  who  held  Franche  Comte  and  the  Netherlands,  and  who 
was  through  his  father  Maximilian  heir  to  the  German  dominions  of 
the  House  of  Austria,  would  now,  that  his  wife  had  become  the 
heiress  of  Spain,  be  able  to  transmit  to  his  descendants  the  whole  of 
the  Spanish  monarchy  as  well.  That  monarchy  was  no  longer  con- 
fined to  Europe.  Portugal  at  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century 
had  led  the  way  in  maritime  adventure,  and  Portuguese  navigators 
discovered  a  way  to  India  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Spain 
was  anxious  to  do  as  much,  and  in  1492  Columbus  had  dis- 
covered the  West  Indies,  and  the  kings  of  Spain  became  masters 
of  the  untold  wealth  produced  by  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  the 
New  World.  It  was  impossible  but  that  the  huge  power  thus 
brought  into  existence  would  one  day  arouse  the  jealousy  of 
Europe.  For  the  present,  however,  the  danger  was  less  than  it 
would  be  after  the  deaths  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  as  the  actual 
combination  of  their  territories  with  those  which  Philip  was  to  in- 
herit from  Maximilian  had  not  been  effected.  In  1499  France  gave  a 
fresh  shock  to  her  neighbours.  Charles  VIII.  had  died  the  year 
before,  and  his  successor,  Louis  XII.,  invaded  Italy  and  subdued 
the  duchy  of  Milan,  to  which  he  had  set  up  a  claim.  Naturally 
the  powers  jealous  of  France  sought  to  have  Henry  on  their  side. 
There  had  been  for  some  time  a  negotiation  for  a  marriage  between 
Henry's  eldest  son,  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  Catherine  of 
Aragon,  the  youngest  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  but 
hitherto  nothing  had  been  concluded. 

17.  Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  1499. — Perkin  had 
long  been  eager  to  free  himself  from  prison.  In  1498  he  was 
caught  attempting  to  escape,  but  Henry  contented  himself  with 
putting  him  in  the  stocks.  He  was  then  removed  to  the  Tower, 
where  he  persuaded  the  unhappy  Earl  of  Warwick  (see  p.  343)  to 
join  him  in  flight.  It  is  almost  certain  that  Warwick  was  guilty  of 
no  more,  but  Henry,  soured  by  the  repeated  attempts  to  dethrone 
him,  resolved  to  remove  him  from  his  path.  On  trumped-up 
evidence  Warwick  was  convicted  and  executed,  and  Perkin  shared 
his  fate. 

18.  Prince  Arthur's  Marriage  and  Death.  1501  — 1502.— 
Warwick's  death  was  the  one  judicial  murder  of  Henry's  reign. 
To  the  Spaniards  it  appeared  to  be  a  prudent  action  which  had 
cleared  away  the  last  of  Henry's  serious  competitors.     The  negotia- 


I441-I535  KING'S  COLLEGE,    CAMBRIDGE  355 


King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge  (looking  east).     Begun  by  Henry  VI.  in  1441  ; 
completed  by  Henry  V  II.     The  scT'^en  built  between  1531  and  1535. 


\^ 


t- 


V 


356  HENRY   VII.  1497-1503 

tions  for  the  Spanish  marriage  were  pushed  on,  and  in  1501 
Catherine,  a  bride  of  fifteen,  gave  her  hand  to  Arthur,  a  bride- 
groom of  fourteen.  In  1502  the  prince  died,  and  the  attempt  to 
bind  England  and  Spain  together  seemed  to  have  come  to  an 
end. 

19.  The  Scottish  Marriage.  1503. — Another  marriage  treaty* 
proved  ultimately  to  be  of  far  greater  importance.  Henry  was 
sufficiently  above  the  prejudices  of  his  time  to  be  anxious  to  be  on 
good  terms  with  Scotland.  For  some  time  a  negotiation  had  been 
in  progress  for  a  marriage  between  James  IV.  and  Henry's 
daughter,  Margaret.  The  marriage  took  place  in  1503.  To  the 
counsellors  who  urged  that  in  the  case  of  failure  of  Henry's  heirs 
in  the  male  line  England  would  become  subject  to  Scotland 
Henry  shrewdly  replied  that  there  was  no  fear  of  that,  as  '  the 
greater  would  draw  the  less.' 

20.  Maritime  Enterprise. — Henry's  chief  merit  was  that  he  had 
re-established  order.  Commercial  prosperity  followed,  though  the 
commerce  was  as  yet  on  a  small  scale.  It  is  probable  that  the 
population  of  England  was  no  more  than  2,500,000.  London  con- 
tained but  130,000  inhabitants,  whilst  Paris  contained  400,000, 
There  was  no  royal  navy,  as  there  was  no  royal  army,  but  merchant 
vessels  were  armed  to  protect  themselves.  The  company  of  Mer- 
chant Adventurers  made  voyages  to  the  Baltic,  and  the  men  of 
Bristol  sent  out  fleets  to  the  Iceland  fishery.  Henry  did  what  he 
could  to  encourage  maritime  enterprise.  He  had  offered  to  take 
Columbus  into  his  service  before  the  great  navigator  closed 
with  Spain,  and  in  1497  he  sent  the  Venetian,  John  Cabot,  and 
his  sons  across  the  Atlantic,  where  they  landed  in  Labrador 
before  any  Spaniards  had  set  foot  on  the  American  continent. 
England  however,  was  as  yet  too  poor  to  push  these  discoveries 
farther,  and  the  lands  beyond  the  sea  were  for  the  present  left  to 
Spain. 

21.  Growth  of  the  Royal  Power. — The  improvement  in  the 
general  well-being  of  the  country  had  been  rendered  possible  by 
the  extension  of  the  royal  power,  and  the  price  paid  for  order  was 
the  falling  into  abeyance  of  the  constitutional  authority  of  Parlia- 
ments. The  loss  indeed  was  greater  in  appearance  than  in  reality. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  the  election  of  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons  depended  more  upon  the  will  of  the  great  lords  than 
upon  the  political  sentiments  of  the  community.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century  they  depended  on  the  will  of  the  king.  The 
peculiarity  of  the  Tudor  rule  was  that  its  growing  despotism  was 


1502-1505  MATRIMONIAL  SCHEMES  .  357 

exercised  without  the  support  of  the  army.  It  rested  on  the  good- 
will of  the  middle  classes.  Treading  cautiously  in  the  steps  of 
Edward  IV.,  Henry  VII.  recognised  that  in  order  to  have  a  full 
treasury  it  was  less  dangerous  to  exact  payments  illegally  from  the 
few  than  to  exact  them  legally  from  the  many.  Hence  his  recourse 
in  times  of  trouble  to  benevolences.  Hence,  too,  the  eagerness  with 
which  he  gathered  in  fines.  The  Cornish  rebels  were  fined  indi- 
vidually. The  great  lords  who  persisted  in  keeping  retainers  were 
fined.  On  one  occasion  the  king  visited  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  and 
found,  when  he  went  away,  a  band  of  retainers  drawn  up  to  do  him 
honour.  "  My  lord,"  he  said,  "  I  thank  you  for  your  entertainment, 
but  my  attorney  must  speak  with  you."  If  there  was  a  man  in 
England  who  had  deserved  well  of  Henry  it  was  Oxford,  but 
Oxford  had  to  pay  15,000/.,  a  sum  worth  perhaps  180,000/.  at  the 
present  day,  to  atone  for  his  offence.  No  services  rendered  to 
Henry  were  to  excuse  from  obedience  to  the  law. 

22.  Empson  and  Dudley. — As  Henry  grew  older  the  gathering 
of  money  became  a  passion.  His  chief  instruments  were  Empson 
and  Dudley,  who  under  pretence  of  enforcing  the  law  established 
the  worst  of  tyrannies.  Even  false  charges  were  brought  for  the 
sake  of  extracting  money.  At  the  end  of  his  reign  Henry  had 
accumulated  a  hoard  of  1,800,000/.,  mainly  gathered  by  injustice 
and  oppression.  The  despotism  of  one  man  was  no  doubt  better 
than  the  despotism  of  many,  but  the  price  paid  for  the  change  was 
a  heavy  one. 

1.^  23.  Henry   and   his    Daughter-in-law.      1502 — 1505. — On   the 

death  of  Prince  Ar:;hur  in  1502,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  proposed 
that  their  daughter  Catharine  should  marry  her  brother-in-law, 
Henry,  the  only  surviving  son  of  the  king  of  England,  though  the 
boy  was  six  years  younger  than  herself.  They  had  already  paid 
half  their  daughter's  marriage  portion,  and  they  believed,  probably 
with  truth,  that  they  had  little  chance  of  recovering  it  from  Henry 
VII.,  and  that  it  would  therefore  be  more  economical  to  re-marry 
their  daughter  where  they  would  get  off  with  no  more  expense  than 
the  payment  of  the  other  half.  Henry  on  the  other  hand  feared 
lest  the  repayment  of  the  first  half  might  be  demanded  of  him, 
and  consequently  welcomed  the  proposal.  In  1503  a  dispensation 
for  the  marriage  was  obtained  from  Pope  Julius  II.,  but  in  1505, 
when  the  time  for  the  betrothal  arrived,  the  young  Henry  protested, 
no  doubt  at  his  father's  instigation,  that  he  would  proceed  no 
farther. 

Ki        24.  The   Last  Years   of   Henry  VII.     1505— 1509.— Circum- 


358  HENRY  VII.  1 504-1 509 

stances  were  changed  by  the  death  of  Isabella  in  1504,  when  her  son- 
in-law,  the  Archduke  Philip,  claimed  to  be  sovereign  of  Castile 
in  right  of  his  wife  Juana.  Philip,  sailing  from  the  Netherlands  to 
Spain  in  1506,  was  driven  into  Weymouth  by  a  storm,  and  Henry 
seized  the  opportunity  of  wringing  from  him  commercial  conces- 
sions as  well  as  the  surrender  of  Edmund  de  la  Pole,  a  brother  of 
the  Earl  of  Lincoln  who  perished  at  Stoke,  and  a  nephew  of  Edward 
IV.  Henry  was  himself  now  a  widower  on  the  look-out  for  a  rich 
wife,  and  Philip  promised  him  the  hand  of  his  sister,  Margaret,  who 
had  formerly  been  betrothed  to  Charles  VIII.  (see  p.  337).  Once 
more,  however,  the  conditions  of  the  game  changed.  Philip  died  a 
few  months  after  his  arrival  in  Spain,  leaving  a  mad  widow,  and 
as  Ferdinand  then  regained  his  authority  Catharine's  marriage  was 
again  discussed.  Other  schemes  were  also  proposed,  amongst  them 
one  for  marrying  Catharine,  not  to  the  young  prince,  but  to  her  old 
father-in-law,  the  king.  In  1509,  before  any  of  these  plans  could 
take  effect,  Henry  VII.  died.  He  deserves  to  be  reckoned  amongst 
the  kings  who  have  accomplished  much  for  England.  If  he  was 
not  chivalrous  or  imaginative,  neither  was  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
His  contemporaries  needed  a  chief  constable  to  keep  order,  and  he 
gave  them  what  they  needed. 

^^.  Architectural  Changes  and  the  Printing  Press. — Architecture, 
which  in  England,  as  upon  the  Continent,  had  been  the  one  great 
art  Df  the  Middle  Ages,  was  already,  though  still  instinct  with  beauty, 
giving  signs  in  its  over-elaboration  of  approaching  decadence.  To 
the  tower  of  Fotheringhay  Church  ^see  p.  311)  had  succeeded  the 
tower  of  St.  Mary's,  Taunton.  To  the  roof  of  the  nave  of  Win- 
chester Cathedral  (see  p.  276)  had  succeeded  the  roof  of  the 
Divinity  School  at  Oxford  (see  p.  319),  and  of  the  chapel  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge  (see  p.  355).  Art  in  this  direction  could  go 
no  farther.  The  new  conditions  in  whifch^  the  following  age  was 
to  move  were  indicated  by  the  discovery  of  NAmerica  and  the  in- 
vention of  printing.  New  objects  of  knowledge  presented  them- 
selves, and  a  new  mode  of  spreading  knowledge  was  at  hand.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  Caxton,  the  earliest  English  printer,  set 
up  his  press  at  Westminster,  and  the  king  and  his  nobles  came  to 
gaze  at  it  as  at  some  new  toy,  little  knowing  how  profoundly  it 
was  to  modify  their  methods  of  government.  Henry  VII.  had 
enough  to  do  without  troubling  himself  with  such  matters.  It 
was  his  part  to  close  an  epoch  of  English  history,  not  to  open  a 
fresh  one. 


BOOKS  RECOMMENDED  FOR  STUDY  359 


Books  recommended  for  further  study  of  Part  IV. 

Green,  J.  R.     History  of  the  English  People.   Vol.  i.  p.  52i-Vol.  ii.  p.  "jj. 
Stubbs,  W.  (Bishop  of  Oxford).      Constitutional  History  of  England, 

Vol.  ii.  from  p.  441,  and  Vol.  iii. 
Hallam,  H.     Constitutional  History  of  England,  Vol.  i.  pp.  1-15. 
Rogers,  J.  E.  Thorold.     History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices.    Vols.  iii. 

and  iv. 
Cunningham,   W.     The  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce. 

Vol.  i.  pp.  335-449- 
Wylie,  J.  H.     History  of  England  under  Henry  IV. 
Gairdnek,  James.     Lancaster  and  York. 

Richard  III. 

Henry  VII. 

Ramsay,  Sir  James.     Lancaster  and  York. 


PART    V 

THE  RENASCENCE  AND   THE  REFORMATION 
1509— 1603 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

HENRY  VIU.   AND   WOLSEV.      1509— 1527 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  1509-1547 

Accession  of  Henry  VIII 1509 

Henry's  first  war  with  France  1512 

Peace  with  France      ........  1514 

Charles  V.  elected  Emperor 1519 

Henry's  second  French  war     .        .  1522 

Francis  I.  taken  captive  at  Pavia X525 

The  sack  of  Rome  and  the  alliance  between  England  and 

France 1527 

^  I.  The  New  King.  1509.— Henry  VHI.  inherited  the  hand- 
some face,:the  winning  presence,  and  the  love  of  pleasure  which 
distinguished  his  mother's  father,  Edward  IV.,  as  well  as  the  strong 
will  of  his  own  father,  Henry  VII.  He  could  ride  better  than  his 
grooms,  and  shoot  better  than  the  archers  of  his  guard.  Yet,  though 
he  had  a  ready  smile  and  a  ready  jest  for  everyone,  he  knew  how 
to  preserve  his  dignity.  Though  he  seemed  to  live  for  amusement 
alone,  and  allowed  others  to  toil  at  the  business  of  administration, 
he  took  care  to  keep  his  ministers  under  control.  He  was  no  mean 
judge  of  character,  and  the  saying  which  rooted  itself  amongst  his 
subjects,  that  '  King  Henry  knew  a  man  v/hen  he  saw  him,'  points 
to  one  of  the  chief  secrets  of  his  success.  He  was  well  aware  that 
the  great  nobles  were  his  only  possible  rivals,  and  that  his  main 
support  was  to  be  found  in  ^  the  country  gentry  and  the  townsmen. 
Partly  because  of  his  youth,  and  partly  because  the  result  of  the 
II.      •  B  B 


362 


HENRY    VIII.    AND    WOLSEY 


1509 


political  struggle  had  already  been  determined  when  he  came  to  the 
throne,  he  thought  less  than  his  father  had  done  of  the  importance 


Henry  VIII. :  from  a  painting  by  Holbein  about  1536,  belonging  to  Earl  Spencer. 


of  possessing  stored  up  wealth  by  which  armies  might  be  equipped 
and  maintained,  and  more  of  securing  that  popularity  which  at 


1 508-1 512  AN  ADVENTUROUS  KING  363 

least  for  the  purposes  of  internal  government,  made  armies  un- 
necessary. The  first  act  of  the  new  reign  was  to  send  Empson 
and  Dudley  to  the  Tower,  and  it  was  significant  of  Henry's  policy 
that  they  were  tried  and  executed,  not  on  a  charge  of  having  ex- 
torted money  illegally  from  subjects,  hut  on  a  trumped  up  charge 
of  conspiracy  against  the  king.  It  was  for  the  king  to  see  that 
offences  were  not  committed  agauist  the  people,  but  the  people 
must  be  taught  that  the  most  serious  crimes  were  those  committed 
against  the  king.  Henry's  next  act  was  to  marry  Catharine.  Though 
he  was  but  nineteen,  whilst  his  bride  was  twenty-five,  the  marriage 
was  for  many  years  a  happy  one. 

2.  Continental  Troubles.  1508 — 151 1. — For  some  time  Henry 
lived  as  though  his  only  object  in  life  was  to  squander  his  father's 
treasure  in  festivities.  Before  long,  however,  he  bethought  himself 
of  aiming  at  distinction  in  war  as  well  as  in  sport.  Since  Louis  XI L 
had  been  king  of  France  (see  p.  354)  there  had  been  constant  wars 
in  Italy,  where  Louis  was  striving  for  the  mastery  with  Ferdinand 
of  Aragon.  In  1508  the  two  rivals^  Ferdinand  and  Louis,  abandon- 
ing their  hostility  for  a  time,  joined  the  Emperor  Maximilian  (see  pp. 
"ifyj,  348)  and  Pope  Julius  11.  in  the  League  of  Cambrai,  the  object 
of  which  was  to  despoil  the  Republic  of  Venice.  In  1511  Ferdinand 
allied  himself  with  Julius  IL  and  Venice  in  the  Holy  League,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  drive  the  French  out  of  Italy.  After  a  while 
the  new  league  was  joined  by  Maximilian,  and  every  member  of  it 
was  anxious  that  Henry  should  join  it  too. 

3.  The  Rise  of  Wolsey.  1512. — England  had  nothing  to  gain 
by  an  attack  on  France,  but  Henry  was  young,  and  the  English 
nation  was,  in  a  certain  sense,  also  young.  It  was  conscious  of 
the  strength  brought  to  it  by  restored  order,  and  was  quite 
ready  to  use  this  strength  in  an  attack  on  its  neighbours.  In  the 
new  court  it  was  ignorantly  thought  that  there  was  no  reason  why 
Henry  VIII.  should  not  take  up  that  work  of  conquering  France 
which  had  fallen  to  pieces  in  the  feeble  hands  of  Henry  VI.  To 
carry  on  his  new  policy  Henry  needed  a  new  minister.  The  best 
of  the  old  ones  were  Fox,  the  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and  Thomas 
Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey,  who,  great  nobleman  as  he  was,  had 
been  contented  to  merge  his  greatness  in  the  greatness  of  the  king. 
The  whole  military  organisation  of  the  country,  however,  had  to 
be  created  afresh,  and  neither  Fox  nor  Surrey  was  equal  to  such 
a  task.  The  work  was  assigned  to  Thomas  Wolsey,  the  king's 
almoner,  who,  though  not,  as  his  enemies  said,  the  son  of  a  butcher, 
was  of  no  exalted  origin.     Wolsey's  genius  for  administration  at 


^ 


364  HENRY   VIII.    AND    WOLSEY  1512- 1515 

once  manifested  itself.  He  was  equally  at  home  in  sketching  out 
a  plan  of  campaign,  in  diplomatic  contests  with  the  wariest  and  most 
experienced  statesmen,  and  in  providing  for  the  minutest  details  of 
military  preparation. 

'  4.  The  War  with  France.  1512— 1513. — It  was  not  Wolsey's 
fault  that  his  first  enterprise  ended  in  failure.  A  force  sent  to 
attack  France  on  the  Spanish  side  failed,  not  because  it  was  ill- 
equipped,  but  because  the  soldiers  mutinied,  and  Ferdinand,  who 
had  promised  to  support  it,  abandoned  it  to  its  fate.  In  1513 
Henry  himself  landed  at  Calais,  and,  with  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
serving  under  him,  defeated  the  French  at  Guinegatte  in  an  en- 
gagement known,  from  the  rapidity  of  the  flight  of  the  French,  as 
the  Battle  of  the  Spurs.  Before  the  end  of  the  autumn  he  had 
taken  Terouenne  and  Tournai.  War  with  France,  as  usual,  led  to 
a  war  with  Scotland.  James  IV.,  during  Henry's  absence,  invaded 
Northumberland,  but  his  army  was  destroyed  by  the  Earl  of  Surrey 
at  Flodden,  where  he  himself  was  slain. 

1^^  5.  Peace  with  France.  1514. — Henry  soon  found  that  his  allies 
were  thinking  exclusively  of  their  own  interests.  In  1512  the 
French  were  driven  out  of  Italy,  and  Ferdinand  made  himself 
master  of  Navarre.  In  1513  the  warlike  Pope,  Julius  II.,  died,  and 
a  fresh  attempt  of  Louis  to  gain  ground  in  Italy  was  decisively 
foiled.  Henry's  allies  had  got  what  they  wanted,  and  in  1514 
Henry  discovered  that  to  conquer  France  was  beyond  h'ls  power. 
Louis  was  ready  to  come  to  terms.  He  was  now  a  widower. 
Old  in  constitution,  though  not  in  years,  he  was  foolish  enough  to 
want  a  young  wife.  Henry  was  ready  to  gratify  him  with  the  hand 
of  his  younger  sister  Mary.  The  poor  girl  had  fallen  in  love  with 
Henry's  favourite,  Charles  Brandon,  Duke  of  Suffolk,  a  man  of 
sturdy  limbs  and  weak  brain,  and  pleaded  hard  against  the  marriage. 
Love  counted  for  little  in  those  days,  and  all  that  she  could  obtain 
from  her  brother  was  a  promise  that  if  she  married  this  time  to 
please  him,  she  should  marry  next  time  to  please  herself.  Louis 
soon  relieved  her  by  dying  on  January  i,  1515,  after  a  few  weeks  of 
wedlock,  and  his  widow  took  care,  by  marrying  Suffolk  before  she 
left  France,  to  make  sure  that  her  brother  should  keep  his  promise. 

,-^  6.  Wolsey's  Policy  of  Peace.  1514 — 1518. — In  1514  the  king 
~^  made  Wolsey  Archbishop  of  York.  In  1515  the  Pope  made  him  a 
Cardinal.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  he  was  Henry's  Chancellor.  The 
whole  of  the  business  of  the  government  passed  through  his  hands. 
The  magnificence  of  his  state  was  extraordinary.  To  all  observers 
he  seemed  to  be  more  a  kin^j  than  the  king  himself.     Behind  him 


I5IS  RISE   OF   WOLSEY  36^ 

was  Henry,  trusting  him  with  all  his  power,  but  self-willed  arid  un- 
controllable, quite  ready  to  sacrifice  his  dearest  friend  to  satisfy  his 
least  desire.  As  yet  the  only  conflict  in  Henry's  mind  was  the 
conflict  about  peace  or  war  with  France.  Henry's  love  of  display 
and  renown  had  led  him  to  wish  to  rival  the  exploits  of  Edward  HL 


Cardinal  Wolsey  :  from  an   original  picture    belonging  to  the 
Hon.  Sir  Spencer  Ponsonby-Fane,  K.C.B. 

and  Henry  V.  Wolsey  preferred  the  old  policy  of  Richard  H.  and 
Henry  VI.,  but  he  knew  that  he  could  only  make  it  palatable  to 
the  king  and  the  nation  by  connecting  the  idea  of  peace  with  the 
idea  of  national  greatness.  He  aspired  to  be  the  peace-maker  of 
Europe,  and  to  make  England's  interest  in  peace  the  law  of  the 


366  HENRY    VIII.   AND   WOLSEY  1515-1518 

world.  In  1515  the  new  king  of  France,  Francis  I.,  needed  peace 
with  England  because  he  was  in  pursuit  of  glory  in  Italy,  where  he 
won  a  brilliant  victory  at  Marignano.  In  1516  Ferdinand's  death 
gave  Spain  to  his  grandson,  Charles,  the  son  of  Philip  and  Juana 
(see  p.  358),  and  from  that  time  Francis  and  Charles  stood  forth  as 
the  rivals  for  supremacy  on  the  Continent.  Wolsey  tried  his  best  to 
maintain  a  balance  between  the  two,  and  it  was  owing  to  his  ability 
that  England,  thinly  populated  and  without  a  standing  army,  was 
eagerly  courted  by  the  rulers  of  states  far  more  powerful  than  herself. 
In  1518  a  league  was  struck  between  England  and  France,  in  which 
Pope  Leo  X.,  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and  Charles,  king  of  Spain, 
agreed  to  join,  thus  converting  it  into  a  league  of  universal  peace. 
Yet  Wolsey  was  no  cosmopolitan  philanthropist.  He  believed  that 
England  would  be  more  influential  in  peace  than  she  could  be  in  war. 
^4—  7.  Wolsey  and  the  Renascence. — In  scheming  for  the  elevation 
of  his  own  country  by  peace  instead  of  by  conquest,  Wolsey  reflected 
the  higher  aspirations  of  his  time.  No  sooner  had  internal  order 
been  secured,  than  the  best  men  began  to  crave  for  some  object  to 
which  they  could  devote  themselves,  larger  and  nobler  than  that  of 
their  own  preservation.  Wolsey  gave  them  the  contemplation  of 
the  political  importance  of  England  on  the  Continent.  The  noblest 
minds,  however,  would  not  be  content  with  this,  and  an  outburst  of 
intellectual  vigour  told  that  the  times  of  internal  strife  had  passed 
away.  This  intellectual  movement  was  not  of  native  growth.  The 
Renascence,  or  new  birth  of  letters,  sprung  up  in  Italy  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  received  a  further  impulse  through  the  taking 
of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks  in  1453,  when  the  dispersal  of  Greek 
teachers  from  the  East  revived  the  study  of  the  Greek  language.  It 
was  not  merely  because  new  teachers  landed  in  Italy  that  the 
literature  of  the  ancient  world  was  studied  with  avidity.  Men  were 
weary  of  the  mediaeval  system,  and  craved  for  other  ideals  than 
those  of  the  devotees  of  the  Church.  Whilst  they  learnt  to  admire 
the  works  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  authors  as  models  of  literary  form, 
they  caught  something  of  the  spirit  of  the  ancient  world.  They 
ceased  to  look  on  man  as  living  only  for  God  and  a  future  world, 
and  regarded  him  as  devoting  himself  to  the  service  of  his  fellow- 
men,  or  even — in  lower  minds  the  temptation  lay  perilously  near — 
as  living  for  himself  alone.  Great  artists  and  poets  arose  who  gave 
expression  to  the  new  feeling  of  admiration  for  human  action  and 
human  beauty,  whilst  the  prevailing  revolt  against  the  religion  of 
the  middle  ages  gave  rise  to  a  spirit  of  criticism  which  refused 
belief  to  popular  legends. 


1510-1516  THE  RENASCENCE  367 

8.  The  Renascence  in  England.— The  spirit  of  the  Renascence 
was  slow  in  reaching  England.  In  the  days  of  Richard  II. 
Chaucer  visited  Italy,  and  Italian  influence  is  to  be  traced  in  his 
Canterbury  Tales.  In  the  days  of  Henry  VI.  the  selfish  politician, 
Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  purchased  books,  and  gave  to 
Oxford  a  collection  which  was  the  foundation  of  what  was  after- 
wards known  as  the  Bodleian  Library.  Even  in  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  the  brutal  John  Tiptoft,  Earl  of  Worcester,  and  the  gentle 
Earl  Rivers,  the  brother  of  Elizabeth  Woodville,  were  known  as 
patrons  of  letters.  The  invention  of  printing  brought  literature 
within  reach  of  those  to  whom  it  had  hitherto  been  strange. 
Edward  IV.  patronised  Caxton,  the  first  English  printer.  In  the 
peaceful  reign  of  Henry  VII.  the  seed  thus  sown  sprang  into  a 
crop.  There  was,  however,  a  great  difference  between  the 
followers  of  the  new  learning  in  England  and  in  Italy.  In  Italy,  for 
the  most  part,  scholars  mocked  at  Christianity,  or  treated  it  with 
tacit  contempt.  In  England  there  was  no  such  breach  with  the 
religion  of  the  past.  Those  who  studied  in  England  sought  to 
permeate  their  old  faith  with  the  new  thoughts. 

9.  The  Oxford  Reformers. — Especially  was  this  the  case  with 
a  group  of  Oxford  Reformers,  Grocyn,  Linacre,  and  Colet,  who 
were  fighting  hard  to  introduce  the  study  of  Greek  into  the 
University.  Among  these  Colet  specially  addicted  himself  to  the 
explanation  of  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  insisting  on  following  theit 
plain  meaning  instead  of  the  mystical  interpretations  then  in  vogue. 
In  1510  he  founded  St.  Paul's  School,  that  boys  might  be  there 
taught  without  being  subjected  to  the  brutal  flogging  which  was 
in  those  days  the  lot  even  of  the  most  diligent  of  schoolboys.  The 
most  remarkable  member  of  this  group  of  scholars  was  Thomas 
More.  Young  More,  who  had  hoped  much  from  the  accession  of 
Henry  VIII.,  had  been  disappointed  to  find  him  engaging  in  a  war 
with  France  instead  of  cultivating  the  arts  of  peace.  He  meditated 
deeply  over  the  miseries  of  his  fellow-men,  and  longed  for  a  time 
when  governments  would  think  it  to  be  their  highest  duty  to  labour 
for  those  who  are  too  weak  to  help  themselves. 

10.  *The  Utopia.'  1515—1516. — In  1515  and  1516  More  produced 
a  book--.^hich  he  called  Utopia^  or  Nowhere,  intending  it  to  serve 
as  a  satire^JTK^he  defects  of  the  government  of  England,  by 
praising  the  results^'Sf'a^v^j;;^  different  government  in  his  imaginary 
country.  The  Utopians,  he^deClanredj^-iQught  against  invaders  of 
their  own  land  or  the  land  of  their  allies,  or  to  "deHv^  other  peoples 
from  tyranny,  but  they  made  no  wars  of  aggression.     In  peace  no 


368  HENRY   VIII.    AND    WOLSEY  1516-1518 

one  was  allowed^^ither  to  be  idle  or  overworked.  Everyone  must 
work  six  hours  a  d^y,  and  then  he  might  hsten  to  lectures  for 
the  improvement  of  liis  mind.  As  for  the  religion  of  Utopia,  no 
one  was  to  be  persecuted  for  his  religious  opinions,  as  long  as 
he  treated  respectfully  th^se  who  differed  from  him.  If,  however, 
he  rsed  scornful  and  angry  words  towards  them,  he  was  to  be 
banished,  not  as  a  despiser  of  the  established  religion,  but  as  a 
stirrer  up  of  dissension.  Men\  of  all  varieties  of  opinion  met 
together  in  a  common  temple,  tne  worship  in  which  was  so  ar- 
ranged that  all  could  take  part  in  'i^.  Amongst  their  priests  were 
women  as  well  as  men.  More  practkal  was  the  author's  attack  on 
the  special  abuses  of  the  times.  England  swarmed  with  vagrants, 
who  easily  passed  into  robbers,  or  evert  murderers.  The  author 
of  Utopia  traced  the  evil  to  its  roots.  .Soldiers,  he  said,  were 
discharged  on  their  return  home,  and,  being  used  to  roving  and 
dissolute  habits,  naturally  took  to  vagrancy;  Robbery  was  their 
only  resource,  and  the  law  tempted  a  robber  to  murder.  Hanging 
was  the  penalty  both  for  robbing  and  murder,  and  the  robber, 
therefore,  knowing  that  he  would  be  hanged  if  he  were  detected, 
usually  killed  the  victim  whom  he  had  plundered  in  order  to  silence 
evidence  against  himself;  and  More  consequently  argued  that  the 
best  way  of  checking  murder  would  be  to  abolish  the  penalty  of 
death  for  robbery.  Another  great  complaint  of  More's  was  against 
the  ever-growing  increase  of  inclosures  for  pasturage,  i' Sheep," 
he  said,  "be  become  so  great  devourers  and  so  wild  that  they  eat 
up  and  swallow  down  the  very  men  themselves.  They  consume, 
destroy,  and  devour  whole  fields,  houses,  and  cities."  More  saw 
the  evil,  but  he  did  not  see  that  the  best  remedy  lay  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  manufactures,  to  give  employment  in  towns  to  those 
who  lost  it  in  the  country.  He  wished  to  enforce  by  law  the 
reversion  of  all  the  new  pasturage  into  arable  land. 
^^  II.  More  and  Henry  VIII.—Henry  VHI.  was  intolerant  of 
those  who  resisted  his  will,  but  he  was  strangely  tolerant  of  those 
who  privately  contradicted  his  opinions.  He  took  pleasure  in  the 
society  of  intelligent  and  witty  men,  and  he  urged  More  to  take 
office  under  him.  More  refused  for  a  long  time,  but  in  1518-the 
year  of  the  league  of  universal  peace— believing  that  Henry  was 
now  a  convert  to  his  ideas,  he  consented,  and  became  Sir  Thomas 
More  and  a  Privy  Councillor.  Henry  was  so  pleased  with  his 
conversation  that  he  tried  to  keep  him  always  with  him,  and  it  was 
only  by  occasionally  pretending  to  be  dull  that  More  obtained 
leave  to  visit  his  home. 


■>^  ^^^ 


1519-1521  CHARLES    V.    AND  FRANCIS  1.  369 

Or  12.  The  Contest  for  the  Empire.  1519.— In  January  1519  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  died.  His  grandson  Charles  was  now 
possessed  of  more  extensive  lands  than  any  other  European 
sovereign.  He  ruled  in  Spain,  in  Austria,  in  Naples  and  Sicily,  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  in  the  County  of  Burgundy,  usually  known  as 
Franche  Comte.  Between  him  and  fVancis  I.  a  struggle  was  in- 
evitable. The  chances  were  apparently,  on  the  whole,  on  the  side 
of  Charles.  His  dominions,  indeed,  were  scattered,  and  devoid 
of  the  strength  given  by  national  feeling,  whilst  the  smaller  domi- 
nions of  Francis  were  compact  and  united  by  a  strong  national 
bond.  In  character,  however,  Charles  had  the  superiority.  He  was 
cool  and  wary,  whilst  Francis  was  impetuous  and  uncalculating. 
Both  sovereigns  were  now  candidates  for  the  Empire.  The  seven 
electors  who  had  it  in  their  gift  were  open  to  bribery.  Charles 
bribed  highest,  and  being  chosen  became  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
r  13.  The  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  1520.— Wolsey  tried  hard 

J  to  keep  the  peace.  In  1520  Henry  met  Francis  on  the  border  of 
the  territoiy  of  Calais,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  display  on  both 
sides  gave  to  the  scene  the  name  of  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold. 
In  the  same  year  Henry  had  interviews  with  Charles.  Peace  was 
for  a  time  maintained,  because  both  Charles  and  Francis  were  still 
too  much  occupied  at  home  to  quarrel,  but  it  could  hardly  be 
maintained  long. 

"J^f--—  14.  The  Execution  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham.  1521.— Henry 
was  entirely  master  in  England.  In  1521  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
son  of  the  Buckingham  who  had  been  beheaded  by  Richard  III., 
was  tried  and  executed  as  a  traitor.  His  fault  was  that  he  had 
great  wealth,  and  that,  being  descended  from  the  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
the  youngest  son  of  Edward  III.,  he  had  not  only  cherished  some 
idea  of  claiming  the  throne  after  Henry's  death,  but  had  chattered 
about  his  prospects.  In  former  days  justice  was  not  to  be  had  by 
those  who  offended  the  great  lords.  Now,  one  despot  had  stepped 
into  the  place  of  many,  and  justice  was  not  to  be  had  by  those  who 
offended  the  king.  The  legal  forms  of  trial  were  now  as  before 
observed.  Buckingham  was  indeed  tried  before  the  court  of  the 
Lord  High  Steward,  which  consisted  of  a  select  number  of  peers, 
and  which  had  jurisdiction  over  peers  when  Parliament  was  not 
sitting.  These,  however,  were  no  more  than  forms.  It  was  probably 
a  mingled  feeling  of  gratitude  and  fear  which  made  peers  as  well 
as  ordinary  juries  ready  to  take  Henry's  word  for  the  guilt  of  any 
offender. 

15.  Another    French    War.      1522— 1523. — The    diplomacy    of 


370 


HENRY   VIII.    AND    WOLSEY 


[520 


1521^1523   WOLSEY  IN   THE  HOUSE   OP  COMMONS  371 

those\  days  was  a  mere  tissue  of  trickery  and  lies.  Behind 
the  falsehood,  however,  Wolsey  had  a  purpose  of  his  own,  the 
maintenance  of  peace  on  the  Continent.  Yet,  in  1521  war  broke 
out  betvVeen  Charles  and  Francis,  both  of  whom  laid  claim  to  the 
Duchy  c^f  Milan,  and  it  was  evident  that  Wolsey  would  be  unable 
to  keep  lEngland  out  of  the  struggle.  If  there  was  to  be  fight- 
ing Hendry  preferred  to  fight  France  rather  than  to  fight  Charles. 
In  1522, 1  in  conjunction  with 
Charles,  Ihe  invaded  France. 
There  wab  burning  and  ravag- 
ing enough,  but  nothing  of  im- 
portance ^i/as  done.  Neverthe- 
less in  15^3  Henry  was  in  high 
spirits.  A^^reat  French  noble, 
the  Dukel  of  Bourbon,  pro- 
voked by  il|-treatment,  revolted 
against  Francis,and  Henry  and 
Charles  fancied  that  he  would 
open  a  wa>^to  them  into  the 
heart  of  Fratce.  If  Henry  was 
to  be  crownqd  a  Paris,  which 
was  the  objedt  on  which  he  was 
bent,  he  mult  have  a  supply 
of  money  from  his  subjects 
Though  no  iParliament  had 
been  summohed  for  nearly 
eight  years,  one  was  summoned 
now,  of  whic^  More  was  the 
Speaker.  Wolsey  asked  for  an 
enormous  graiit  of  800,000/., 
nearly  equal  tq  12,000,000/.  at 
the  present  dajf.  Finding  that 
the  Commons)  hesitated,  he 
swept  into  the!  House  in  state 
lo  argue  with  them.  Expecting 
a  reply,  and  finding  silence,  he  turned  to  More,  who  told  him  that 
it  was  against  the  privilege  of  the  House  to  call  on  it  for  an  imme- 
diate answer.  ;  He  had  to  depart  unsatisfied,  and  after  some  days 
the  House  granted  a  considerable  sum,  but  far  less  than  that  which 
had  been  demanded.  Wolsey  was  now  in  a  position  of  danger. 
His  own  policy  was  pacific,  but  his  master's  policy  was  warlike, 
and  he  had  been  obliged  to  make  himself  the  unquestioning  mouth- 


Cup  and  Cover,  1523,  at  Barber  Surgeons' 
Hall,  London. 


372  HENRY   VIII.    AND    WOLSEY  1523-1525 

piece  of  his  master  in  demanding  supplies  for  war.  He  had  long 
been  hated  by  the  nobles  for  thrusting  them  aside.  He  was  now 
beginning  to  be  hated  by  the  people  as  the  supposed  author  of  an 
expensive  war,  which  he  would  have  done  his  best  to  prevent. 
He  had  not  even  the  advantage  of  seeing  his  master  win  laurels  in 
the  field.  The  national  spirit  of  France  was  roused,  and  the  com- 
bined attack  of  Henry  and  Charles  proved  as  great  a  failure  in  1523 
as  in  1522.  The  year  1524  was  spent  by  Wolsey  in  diplomatic 
intrigue. 

16.  The  Amicable  Loan.  1525.— Early  in  1525  Europe  was 
startled  ^y  the  news  that  Francis  had  been  signally  defeated  by 
the  Imperialists  at  Pavia,  and  had  been  carried  prisoner  to  Spain. 
Wolsey  knew'^that  Charles's  influence  was  now  likely  to  predomi- 
nate in  Europe,  aa,d  that  unless  England  was  to  be  overshadowed 
by  it,  Henry's  alliance  must  be  transferred  to  Francis.  Henry, 
however,  saw  in  the  imprisonment  of  Francis  only  a  fine  oppor- 
tunity for  conquering  France.  Wolsey  had  again  to  carry  out  his 
master's  wishes  as  though  they  were  his  own.  Raking  up  old  pre- 
cedents, he  suggested  that  the  people  should  be  asked  for  what  was 
called  an  Amicable  Loan,  on  the^lea  that  Henry  was  about  to  in- 
vade France  in  person.  He  obtaii^ed  the  consent  of  the  citizens 
of  London  by  telling  them  that,  if  they  <^id  not  pay,  it  might  'fortune 
to  cost  some  their  heads.'  All  over  England  Wolsey  was  cursed  as 
the  originator  of  the  loan.  There  were  et^n  signs  that  a  rebellion 
was  imminent.  In  Norfolk  when  the  Duke'xof  Norfolk  demanded 
payment  there  was  a  general  resistance.  On'. his  demanding  the 
name  of  the  captain  of  the  multitude  which  refused  to  pay,  a  man 
told  him  that  their  captain's  '  name  was  Poverty,^  and  '  he  and  his 
cousin  Necessity'  had  brought  them  to  this.  Wolsey,  seeing  that 
it  was  impossible  to  collect  the  money,  took  all  the  unpopularity  of 
advising  the  loan  upon  himself  '  Because,'  he  wrote,''  every  man 
layeth  the  burden  from  him,  I  am  content  to  take  it  on  me,  and  to 
endure  the  fame  and  noise  of  the  people,  for  my  good- will  towards 
the  king  .  .  .  but  the  eternal  God  knoweth  all'  Henry  had  no 
such  nobility  of  character  as  to  refuse  to  accept  the  sacrifice.  He 
liked  to  make  his  ministers  scapegoats,  to  heap  on  their  heads  the 
indignation  of  the  people  that  he  might  himself  retain  his  popu- 
larity. For  three  centuries  and  a  half  it  was  fully  believed  that  the 
Amicable  Loan  had  originated  with  Wolsey. 
^  17.  Closing  Years  of  Wolse^s  Greatness.  1525—1527. — All 
idea  of  continuing  the  war  being  now  abandoned,  Wolsey  cautiously 
negotiated  for  an  alliance  with  France,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1525 


1526 


HAMPTON   COURT 


373 


374  HE^RY  VI 11    AND    WOLSEY  1526-1527 

peace  was  signed  between  France  and  England.  In  February 
1526  Charles  set  Francis  at  liberty  on  his  promising  to  abandon 
to  him  large  tracts  of  French  territory.  As  soon  as  he  was  out  of 
Spain  Francis  declared  that,  without  the  consent  of  his  subjects, 
such  promises  were  not  binding  on  him.  An  Italian  league,  jealous 
of  Charles's  power,  gathered  round  the  Pope,  Clement  VII.,  to 
oppose  him.  In  May  1527  the  exiled  Duke  of  Bourbon,  who  was 
now  one  of  Charles's  generals,  took  Rome  by  assault.  He  was 
himself  slain  as  he  mounted  the  wall,  but  his  followers  took  prisoner 
the  Pope,  and  sacked  Rome  with  horrible  barbarity.  Wolsey  was 
too  vorldly-minded  to  be  shocked  at  the  Pope's  misfortunes  ;  but 
he  had  much  to  fear  from  the  enormous  extension  of  the  Emperor's 
power.  For  some  weeks  he  had  been  negotiating  a  close  alliance 
with  France  on  the  basis  of  a  marriage  between  Henry's  only  sur- 
viving child,  Mary,  and  the  worn-out  voluptuary  Francis.  Sud- 
denly the  scheme  was  changed  to  a  proposal  for  a  marriage  between 
Mary,  who  was  ten  years  old,  and  the  second  son  of  Francis,  who 
was  but  six.  The  bargain  was  concluded,  and  for  a  time  there 
was  some  thought  of  carrying  it  out.  At  all  events  when  the  news 
of  the  sack  of  Rome  arrived,  England  and  France  were  already  in 
close  alliance.  Wolsey's  position  was,  to  all  outward  appearance, 
secure. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

THE   BREACH   WITH  THE  PAPACY.      1527-1534 

LEADING  DATES 
Reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  1509  1547 

Henry  seeks  for  a  divorce 1527 

His  suit  before  a  Legatine  Court 1529 

Fall  of  Wolsey     ...  1529 

The  clergy  acknowledge  Henry  to  be  Supreme  Head  of  the 

Church  of  England 1531 

The  first  Act  of  Annates 1532 

The  king's  marriage   to  Anne   Eoleyn  and  the   Act  of 

Appeals   .      ' 1533 

Cranmer's  sentence  of  divorce 1533 

The  final  separation  from  Rome 1534 


^ 


I.  The  Papacy  and  the  Renascence.— The  Renascence  alone 
could  not  make  the  world  better,  and  in  many  respects  it  made  it 
worse.     The  respect  which  it  paid  to  humanity,  which  was  its 


1492-1521  CORRUPTION  OF   THE  PAPACY  375 

leading  characteristic,  allied  itself  in  More  with  a  reverence  for 
God,  which  led  him  to  strive  to  mellow  the  religious  teaching  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  by  fitting  it  for  the  needs  of  the  existing  world.  Too 
many  threw  off  all  religious  restraints,  and  made  it  their  first  thought 
to  seek  their  own  enjoyment,  or  the  triumphs  of  their  own  intel- 
lectual skill.  Sensual  delights  were  pursued  with  less  brutal  direct- 
ness, but  became  more  seductive  and  more  truly  debasing  by  the 
splendour  and  gracefulness  of  the  life  of  which  they  formed  a  part. 
In  Italy  the  Popes  swam  with  the  current.  Alexander  VI.  (1492— 
1503)  gave  himself  up  to  the  most  degrading  vices.  Julius  II. 
(1503 — 15^3)  was  a  passionate  warrior  struggling  for  the  extension 
of  his  temporal  possessions.  Leo  X.  (1513— 1521)  was  a  polished 
lover  of  art,  perfectly  indifferent  to  religious  duty.  "  Let  us  enjoy 
the  Papacy,"  he  said  when  he  was  elected,  "  since  God  has  given  it 
to  us."  Amidst  the  lust  of  the  flesh,  the  lust  of  the  eyes,  and  the 
pride  of  life,  the  Popes  became  as  othet  Italian  princes,  no  better 
and  no  worse.  Spiritual  guidance  was  no  longer  to  be  expected 
of  them. 
^<^^^  2.  Wolsey  and  the  Papacy. — By  Wolsey  and  his  master  the 
Papacy  was  respected  as  a  venerable  and  useful  institution,  the 
centre  of  a  religious  organisation  which  they  believed  to  be  of 
divine  origin,  though  when  it  came  in  conflict  with  their  own 
projects  they  were  quite  ready  to  thwart  it.  In  1521  Leo  X.  died, 
and  Wolsey,  having  some  hopes  of  being  himself  elected,  asked 
Charles  V.  to  send  troops  to  compel  the  cardinals  to  choose  him, 
promising  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  armament.  Charles,  though, 
in  the  previous  year,  he  had  offered  to  support  Wolsey's  candida- 
ture at  the  next  vacancy,  now  deserted  him,  and  the  new  Pope  was 
Yy-  Adrian  VI.,  who  in  1523  was  succeeded  by  Clement  VII.  (see  p.  374), 
PV  3.  Wolsey's  Legatine  Powers.— It  is  unlikely  that  Wolsey 
was  much  disappointed.  His  chief  sphere  of  action  was  England, 
where  since  1518  he  had  held  unwonted  authority,  as  in  that  year 
he  had  been  appointed  Legate  a  latere^  by  Leo  X.  at  Henry's 
request,  and  the  powers  of  a  Legale  a  latere  were  superior  even 
to  those  of  Warham,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Wolsey 
was  therefore  clothed  with  all  the  authority  of  king  and  Pope 
combined.  His  own  life  was,  indeed,  like  those  of  many 
churchmen  in  his  day,  very  far  from  the  ideal  of  Christianity  ; 
but  for  all  that  he  had  that  respect  for  religious  order  which 
often  lingers   in   the   hearts  of  men  who  break  away  from   the 

'  i.e.  a  Legate  sent  from  the  Pope's  side,  and  therefore  having  power  to 
speak  almost  with  full  Papal  authority. 


376 


THE  BREACH   WITH  THE  PAPACV 


lWi\ 


precepts  of  religion,  and  he  was  too  great  a  statesman  to  be  blind 
to  the  danger  impending  over  the  Church.  The  old  order  was 
changing,  and  Wolsey  was  as  anxious  as  More,  though  froni  nioie 


Portrait  of  William  Warham,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1503-1532,  showing  the  ordinary 
episcopal  dress,  with  the  mitre  and  archiepiscopal  cross  :  from  a  painting  belonging 
to  Viscount  Dillon,  dated  1527. 

worldly  motives,  that  the  change  should  be  effected  without 
violence.  He  knew  that  the  Church  was  wealthy,  and  that  wealth 
tempted  plunderers,  and  he  also  knew  that,  with  some  bright  ex- 


1515-1524         THE  LUTHERAN  REFORMATION  377 

ceptions,  the  clergy  were  ignorant,  and  even  when  not  absolutely 
dissolute  were  remiss  and  easy-going  in  their  lives.  He  was, 
therefore,  anxious  to  make  them  more  worthy  of  respect,  and,  with 
the  consent  of  king  and  Pope,  he  began  in  1524  to  dissolve  several 
small  monasteries,  and  to  apply  their  revenues  to  two  great 
colleges,  the  one  founded  by  him  at  Oxford  and  the  other  at 
Ipswich.  He  hoped  that  without  any  change  of  doctrine  or  organisa- 
tion the  Church  would  gradually  be  purified  by  improved  education, 
and  would  thus  once  more  command  the  respect  of  the  laity. 

4.  Henry  VHI.  and  the  Clergy.— With  Wolsey's  object  Henry, 
being,  himself  well  educated  and  well  read,  fully  sympathised. 
For  iTi^HV  years  there  had  been  a  tacit  understanding  between 
the  king  ahd  the  Pope,  and  now  that  both  the  king  and  the  Pope 
supported  Wblsey's  action  there  seemed  to  be  less  danger  than  ever 
of  any  disturbanoe  of  the  friendly  relations  between  Church  and 
State.  Yet  thougrKHenry  was  on  good  terms  with  the  Pope,  he 
had  made  up  his  minoll^t  whenever  there  was  a  conflict  of  juris- 
diction in  ecclesiastical  lifters  his  own  will,  and  not  that  of  the 
clergy,  was  to  be  predominantxAs  early  as  in  1515,  when  a  question 
of  this  kind  was  moved,  WolseySi^ed  on  behalf  of  the  clergy  that 
it  might  be  referred  to  the  Pope.  ''^^,"  said  Henry  proudly,  "are 
by  God's  grace  king  of  England,  and  h^A^e  no  superior  but  God  ;  we 
will  maintain  the  rights  of  the  crown  likfrsOur  predecessors  ;  your 
decrees  you  break  and  interpret  at  your  picture,  but  we  will  not 
consent  to  your  interpretation  of  them  any  m(>i:e  than  our  prede- 
cessors have  done."  Henry  VIII.,  in  short,  toolrsup  the  position 
which  Henry  II.  had  assumed  towards  the  clergy  o^his  day,  and 
he  was  far  more  powerful  to  give  effect  to  his  views  thak  Henry  II. 
had  ever  been.  Such  an  act  of  self-assertion  would  prob^ly  have 
caused  a  breach  with  the  great  Popes  of  the  middle  ages,  ^ch  as 
Gregory  VII.  or  Innocent  III.  Leo  X.  was  far  too  much  a\\ian 
of  the  world  to  trouble  himself  about  such  matters. 

5.  German  Lutheranism. — Before  many  years  had  passed  the 
beginnings  of  a  great  religious  revolution  which  appeared  in 
Germany  served  to  bind  Henry  and  Leo  more  closely  together. 
Martin  Luther,  a  Saxon  friar,  had  been  disgusted  by  the  proceed- 
ings of  a  hawker  of  indulgences,  who  extracted  small  sums  from 
the  ignorant  by  the  sale  of  the  remission  of  the  pains  of  purgatory. 
What  gave  world-wide  importance  to  Luther's  resistance  was  that 
he  was  not  only  an  eloquent  preacher  of  morality,  but  the  con- 
vinced maintainer  of  a  doctrine  which,  though  not  a  new  one,  had 
long  been  laid  aside.     He  preached  justification  by  faith,  and  the 

n.  c  c 


378 


THE  BREACH    WITH   THE   PAPACY 


1517 


Tower  of  Fountains  Abbey  church  ;  built  by  Abbot  Huby, 
1494-1526. 


1517-1521  HENRY  AND  LUTHER  379 

acceptance  of  his  teaching  impHed  even  more  than  the  acceptance 
of  a  new  doctrine.  For  centuries  it  had  been  understood  that  each 
Christian  held  intercourse  with  God  through  the  sacraments  and 
ordinances  of  the  Church.  His  individuaHty  was,  as  it  were, 
swallowed  up  in  the  vast  community  to  which  he  belonged.  Luther 
taught  each  of  his  hearers  that  the  important  thing  was  his  faith, 
that  is  to  say  his  immediate  personal  relation  with  God,  and  that 
the  intervention  of  human  beings  might,  indeed,  be  helpful  to  him, 
but  could  be  no  more.  Such  a  doctrine  touched  all  human 
activity.  The  man  who  in  religion  counted  his  own  individual 
faith  as  the  one  thing  necessary  was  likely  to  count  his  own  indi- 
vidual convictions  m  social  or  political  matters  as  worth  more  to 
him  than  his  obedience  to  the  authority  of  any  government.  In 
Luther's  teachmg  was  to  be  found  the  spirit  of  political  as  well  as 
of  religious  liberty.  This  side  of  it,  however,  was  not  likely  to 
reveal  itself  at  once.  After  a  time  Luther  shook  off  entirely  the 
claims  of  the  Papacy  upon  his  obedience,  but  he  magnified  the 
duty  of  obeying  the  princes  who  gave  him  their  support  in  his 
struggle  with  the  Pope. 
'X  6.  Henry's  Controversy  with  Luther. — Luther,  when  once  he 
was  engaged  in  controversy  with  the  Papacy,  assailed  other  doc- 
trines than  those  relating  to  justification.  In  1521  Henry,  vain  of 
his  theological  learning,  wrote  a  book  against  him  in  defence  of  the 
seven  sacraments.  Luther,  despising  a  royal  antagonist,  replied 
with  scurrilous  invective.  Pope  Leo  was  delighted  to  have  found 
so  influential  a  champion,  and  conferred  on  Henry  the  title  of 
Defender  of  the  Faith.  If  Henry  had  not  been  moved  by  stronger 
motives  than  controversial  vanity  he  might  have  remained  the 
Pope's  ally  till  the  end  of  his  life. 

7.  Queen  Catharine  and  Anne  Boleyn. — It  was  a  great  dis- 
appointment to  Henry  that  he  had  no  surviving  male  children. 
England  had  never  been  ruled  by  a  queen,  and  it  was  uncertain 
whether  Henry's  daughter,  Mary,  would  be  allowed  to  reign.  Henry 
had  already  begun  to  ask  himself  whether  he  might  not  get  rid  of 
his  wife,  on  the  plea  that  a  marriage  with  his  brother's  wife  was 
unlawful,  and  this  consideration  had  the  greater  weight  with  him 
because  Catharine  was  five  years  older  than  himself  and  was 
growing  distasteful  to  him.  When  in  1521,  in  his  book  against 
Luther,  he  assigned  a  divine  origin  to  the  Papacy,  he  told  More  of 
a  secret  reason  for  this  exaltation  of  the  Pope's  power,  and  it  is 
possible  that  this  reason  was  his  desire  to  obtain  from  the  Pope  a 
divorce  under  the  pretext  that  it  would  secure  a  peaceful  succes- 

c  c  a 


k 


38o 


THE  BREACH   WITH  THE  PAPACY 


1522 


sion.  At  all  events  his  scruples  regarding  his  marriage  with 
Catharine  were  quickened  in  1522  by  the  appearance  at  court  of 
Anne  Boleyn,  a  sprightly  black-eyed  flirt  in  her  sixteenth  year, 
who  took  his  fancy  as  she  grew  into  womanhood.  Flirt  as  she 
was,  she  knew  her  power,  and  refused  to  give  herself  to  him  except 


Catharine  of  Aragon  :  from  a  painting  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery, 


in  marriage.  The  king,  on  his  part,  being  anxious  for  a  legitimate 
son,  set  his  heart  on  a  divorce  which  would  enable  him  to  marry 
Anne.  Wolsey,  knowing  the  obstacles  in  the  way,  urged  him  to 
abandon  the  project ;  but  it  was  never  possible  to  turn  Henry  from 
his  course,  and  Wolsey  set  himself,  in  this  as  in  all  things  else,  to 


CO  UGH  TON  COURT 


The  Gatehouse  of  Coughton  Court,  Warwickshire  ;  built  about  1530- 


1^ 


>^ 


382  THE  BREACH   WITH   THE   PAPACY      1525   1529 

carry  out  his  master's  wishes,  though  he  did  so  very  reluctantly. 
Moral  scruples  had  little  weight  with  Wolsey,  but  in  1525,  when  he 
learnt  the  king's  design,  there  were  strong  political  reasons  against 
its  execution,  as  England  was  in  alliance  with  Catharine's  nephew, 
the  Emperor,  Charles  V.,  and  a  divorce  would  be  certain  to  en- 
danger the  alliance. 

8.  Henry's  Demand  for  a  Divorce.  1527 — 1528. — Two  years 
later,  in  1527,  as  Henry  was  veering  round  towards  a  French  alli- 
ance (see  p.  374),  he  had  no  longer  much  reason  to  consider  the 
feelings  of  the  Emperor.  On  the  other  hand,  the  strong  position 
which  Charles  occupied  in  Italy  after  the  sack  of  Rome  made  it 
improbable  that  Clement  VII.  who  was  then  Pope,  and  who 
thought  more  of  his  political  than  of  his  ecclesiastical  position, 
would  do  anything  to  thwart  the  Emperor.  An  attempt  made  by 
Henry  in  1527  to  draw  Clement  to  consent  to  the  divorce  failed, 
and  in  1528  Wolsey  sent  to  Rome  his  secretary,  Stephen  Gardiner, 
an  adroit  man  of  business,  to  induce  Clement  to  appoint  legates 
to  decide  the  question  in  Henry's  favour.  Clement,  anxious  to 
please  all  parties,  appointed  Wolsey  and  another  cardinal, 
Campeggio,  as  his  legates,  but  took  care  to  add  that  nothing  done 
by  them  should  be  valid  until  it  had  received  his  own  approval. 

9.  The  Legatine  Court.  1529. — The  court  of  the  two  legates 
was  opened  at  Blackfriars  in  1529.  Before  proceeding  to  business 
they  tried  hard  to  induce  either  Henry  to  abstain  from  asking  for 
a  divorce  or  Catharine  to  abstain  from  resisting  his  demand.  In 
such  a  matter  Catharine  was  as  firm  as  the  self-willed  Henry 
Even  if  she  could  consent  to  leave  the  throne,  she  could  not,  if  she 
retained  any  sense  of  womanly  dignity,  acknowledge  that  she  had 
never  been  a  wife  to  Henry,  or  suiter  her  daughter  to  be  branded 
with  illegitimacy.  When  king  and  queen  were  at  last  cited  to 
appear  Catharine  knelt  before  her  husband.  She  had,  she  said 
been  his  true  and  obedient  wife  for  twenty  years,  and  had  done 
nothing  to  deserve  being  put  to  open  shame.  As  it  was,  she  ap- 
pealed to  Rome.  The  queen's  cause  was  popular  with  the  masses, 
who  went  straight  to  the  mark,  and  saw  in  the  whole  affair  a  mere 
attempt  to  give  a  legal  covering  to  Henry's  lust.  The  legates  re- 
fused to  consider  the  queen's  appeal,  but  when  they  came  to  hear 
arguments  on  the  merits  of  the  case  they  were  somewhat  startled 
by  the  appearance  of  the  aged  Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  one  of 
the  holiest  and  most  learned  prelates  of  the  day,  who  now  came 
voluntarily,  though  he  knew  that  Henry's  wrath  was  deadly,  to 
support  the  cause  of  Catharine.      Campeggio  took  advantage  of 


1 529-1530  FALL   AND   DEATIf   OF    WOLSEY  383 

the  strong  feeling  which  was  growing  against  the  king  to  interpose 
delays  which  he  knew  to  be  well-pleasing  to  Clement,  and  before 
these  delays  were  at  an  end  Clement  annulled  all  the  proceedings 
in  England  and  revoked  the  cause  to  Rome.  Most  probably  he 
was  alarmed  at  the  threats  of  the  Emperor,  but  he  had  also  reasons 
of  his  own  for  the  course  which  he  took.  Henry  did  not  ask  for 
a  divorce  on  any  of  the  usual  grounds,  but  for  a  declaration  that 
his  marriage  had  been  null  from  the  beginning.  As,  however,  his 
marriage  had  been  solemnised  with  a  Papal  dispensation,  Clement 
was  asked  to  set  aside  the  dispensation  of  one  of  his  predecessors, 
a  proceeding  to  which  no  Pope  with  any  respect  for  his  office 
could  reasonably  be  expected  to  consent. 
i/  10.  The  Fall  of  Wolsey.  1529— 1530.— Henry  was  very  angry 
and  made  Wolsey  his  victim.  Wolsey's  active  endeavours  to  pro- 
cure the  divorce  counted  as  nothing.  It  was  enough  that  he  had 
failed.  He  was  no  longer  needed  to  conduct  foreign  affairs,  as 
Henry  cared  now  only  for  the  divorce,  and  raised  no  objection 
when  Charles  and  Francis  made  peace  at  Cambrai  without  con- 
sulting his  interests.  The  old  nobility,  headed  by  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  who  as  Earl  of  Surrey  had  been  the  victor  of  Flodden, 
had  long  hated  Wolsey  bitterly,  and  the  profligate  courtiers,  to- 
gether with  the  friends  and  relatives  of  Anne,  hated  him  no  less 
bitterly  now.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  proceedings  under  the 
Statute  of  Praemunire  (see  pp.  258,  382)  were  taken  against  him  on 
the  ground  that  he  had  usurped  legatine  powers.  It  was  notorious 
that  he  had  exercised  them  at  the  king's  wish,  and  he  could  have 
produced  evidence  to  show  that  this  had  been  the  case.  In  those 
days,  however,  it  was  held  to  be  a  subject's  duty  not  to  contest  the 
king's  will,  and  Wolsey  contented  himself  with  an  abject  supplica- 
tion for  forgiveness.  He  was  driven  from  his  offices,  and  all  his 
goods  and  estates  seized.  The  college  which  he  had  founded  at 
Ipswich  was  sold  for  the  king's  use,  and  his  college  at  Oxford,  then 
known  as  Cardinal  College,  was  also  seized,  thougl:  it  was  after- 
wards refounded  under  the  name  of  Christchurch  by  the  robber 
king.  Wolsey  was  reduced  to  extreme  poverty.  In  1530  he  was 
allowed  to  return  to  the  possession  of  the  archbishopric  of  York  ; 
but  he  imprudently  opened  communications  with  the  French 
ambassador,  and  harmless  as  they  were,  they  gave  a  handle  to  his 
enemies.  Henry  ordered  him  to  be  charged  with  treason.  The 
sufferings  of  his  mind  affected  his  body,  and  on  his  way  to  London 
he  knew  that  he  was  a  dying  man.  "  Father  Abbot,"  he  said,  in 
taking  shelter  in  Leicester  Abbey,  "  I  am  come  hither  to  leave  my 


384 


THE  BREACH   WITH  THE  PAPACY 


1529 


bones  among  you."  "  If  I  had  served  my  God,"  he  acknowledged 
as  he  was  passing  away,  "  as  dihgently  as  I  have  done  my  king, 
He  would  not  have  given  me  over  in  my  grey  hairs." 


1529-1530  A^  ATTACK  ON   THE    CLERGY  385 


K 


X 


A- 


11.  The  House  of  Commons  and  the  Clergy.  1529. — No  king 
ever  felt  the  importance  of  popularity  like  Henry,  and  the  compas- 
sion which  had  been  freely  given  to  Catharine  by  the  crowd,  on  her 
appearance  in  the  Legatine  Court,  made  it  necessary  for  him  to  find 
support  elsewhere.  It  had  been  Wolsey's  poHcy  to  summon  Par- 
liament as  seldom  as  possible.  It  was  to  be  Henry's  pohcy  to  sum- 
mon it  as  frequently  as  possible.  He  no  longer  feared  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  either  he  or  Wolsey's  late  servant,  Thomas  Crom- 
well, an  able  and  unscrupulous  man,  who  rose  rapidly  in  Henry's 
favour,  perceived  the  use  which  might  be  made  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  By  his  influence  the  king  could  carry  the  elections  as 
he  pleased,  and  when  Parliament  met  in  1529  it  contained  a 
packed  House  of  Commons  ready  to  do  the  king's  bidding.  The 
members  were  either  lawyers  or  country  gentlemen,  the  main 
supports  of  the  Tudor  monarchy,  and  Henry  strengthened  his  hold 
upon  them  by  letting  them  loose  on  the  special  abuses  which  had 
grown  up  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  Lawyers  and  country 
gentlemen  were  very  much  what  they  had  been  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  without  large  political  ideas  or  fine  spiritual  perceptions  ; 
but  now  that  they  were  relieved  of  the  oppression  of  the  great  nobles 
they  turned  upon  the  clergy,  who  claimed  fees  and  dues  which 
they  disliked  paying,  and  who  used  the  powers  of  the  ecclesiastical 
tribunals  to  exact  heavy  payments  for  moral  and  spiritual  offences. 

12.  The  Universities  Consulted.  1530. — Henry  had  as  yet  no 
thought  of  breaking  with  the  Pope.  He  wanted  to  put  pressure  on 
him  to  make  him  do  what  he  had  come  to  regard  as  right.  In  1530 
he  sent  to  the  universities  of  Europe  to  ask  their  opinion  on  the 
question  whether  a  marriage  with  a  brother's  widow  was  contrary 
to  the  law  of  God.  The  whole  inquiry  was  a  farce.  Wherever 
Henry  or  his  allies  could  bribe  or  bully  the  learned  doctors,  an 
answer  was  usually  given  in  the  affirmative.  Wherever  the  Em- 
peror could  bribe  or  bully,  then  the  answer  was  usually  given  in 
the  negative.  That  the  experiment  should  have  been  tried,  how- 
ever, was  a  proof  of  the  strength  of  the  spirit  of  the  Renascence. 
A  questions  of  morals  which  the  Pope  hesitated  to  decide  was 
submitted  to  the  learning  of  the  learned. 

13.  The  Clergy  under  a  Praemunire.  1530  — 1531.— Towards  the 
end  of  1530  Henry  charged  the  whole  clergy  of  England  with  a  breach 
of  the  Statute  of  Praemunire  by  their  submission  to  Wolsey's  lega- 
tine authority.  A  more  monstrous  charge  was  never  brought,  as 
when  that  authority  was  exercised  not  a  priest  in  England  dared  to 
offend  the  king  by  resisting  it.     When  the  Convocation  of  Canter- 


386  THE  BREACH    WITH  THE  PAPACY     1531-1532 

bury  met  in  1531,  it  offered  to  buy  the  pardon  of  the  clergy  by  a 
grant  of  ioo,ocx)/.,  to  which  was  afterwards  added  18,000/.  by  the 
Convocation  of  York,  Henry  refused  to  issue  the  pardon  unless 
the  clergy  would  acknowledge  him  to  be  supreme  head  of  the 
V^Church  of  England. 

|/\^  14.  The  King's  Supreme  Headship  acknowledged  by  the 
Clergy.  1531. — The  title  demanded  by  Henry  was  conceded  by 
the  clergy,  with  the  qualification  that  he  was  Supreme  Head  of  the 

.  English  Church  and  clergy  so  far  as  was  allowed  by  the  law  of 
Christ.  The  title  thus  given  was  vague,  and  did  not  bar  the 
acknowledgment  of  the  Papal  authority  as  it  had  been  before 
exercised,  but  its  interpretation  would  depend  on  the  will  of  the 
stronger  of  the  two  parties.  As  far  as  the  Pope  was  concerned, 
Henry's  claim  was  no  direct  invasion  of  his  rights.  The  Pope  had 
exercised  authority  and  jurisdiction  in  England,  but  he  had  never  de- 
clared  himself  to  be  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  either  in  England 
or  anywhere  else.  Henry  indeed  alleged  that  he  asked  for  nothing 
new.  He  merely  wanted  to  be  known  as  the  supreme  authority  in 
the  relations  between  the  clergy  and  the  laity.  Nevertheless  it 
was  a  threat  to  the  Pope,  who  might  well  fear  lest  the  clergy,  after 
giving  way  to  the  assumption  of  a  title  which  implied  authority  over 
themselves,  might  give  way  to  the  widening  of  that  same  authority 
over  matters  on  which  the  Pope's  claims  had  hitherto  been 
undoubted.  /     \    j-     1_^.,--^ 

15.  The  Submission  of  the  Clergy.  1532. —Everything  done  by 
Henry  at  this  crisis  was  done  with  a  view  to  the  securing  of  his 
purposed  divorce.  In  the  Parliament  which  sat  in  1532  the  Com- 
mons were  again  let  loose  upon  the  clergy,  and  Henry,  taking 
their  side,  forced  Convocation  ^  to  sign  a  document  known  as  the 
submission  of  the  clergy.  In  this  the  clergy  engaged  in  the  first 
place  neither  to  meet  in  Convocation  nor  to  enact  or  execute  new 
canons  without  the  king's  authority,  and,  secondly,  to  submit  all 
past  ecclesiastical  legislation  to  examination  with  a  view  to  the 
removal  of  everything  prejudicial  to  the  royal  prerogative.  The 
second  article  was  never  carried  into  effect,  as  the  first  was  enough 
for  Henry.  He  was  now  secure  against  any  attempt  of  the  clergy 
in  Convocation  to  protest  against  any  step  that  he  might  take 
about  the  divorce,  and  he  was  none  the  less  pleased  because  he 

1  There  were  two  Convocations,  of  the  two  provinces  of  Canterbury  and 
York,  but  the  former  was  so  much  more  important  that  it  is  usually  spoken  of 
simply  as  Convocation. 


529-1532         MORE  AND    THE  PROTESTANTS 


387 


had  incidentaH^*s^ed  the  question  of  the  relations  between  the 
clerical  legislature  aiM^tlie  Crown. 

16.  Sir  Thomas  More  aMibe  Protestants.     1529— 1532.— The 

submission  of  the  clergy  cost  Henry  the  services  of  the  best  and 


Sir  Thomas  More,  wearing  the  collar  of  SS  :  from  an  original  portrait  painted 
by  Holbein  in  1527,  belonging  to  Edward  Huth,  Esq. 


wisest  of  his  statesmen.  Sir  Thomas  More  had  been  appointed 
Chanc^ti«j:on  Wolsey's  fall  in  1529.  When  More  wrote  the  Uto- 
pia^ Luther  n^^-ojot  yet  broken  away  from  the  Papacy,  and  the 
tolerant  principles  of^the^-ajnthor  of  that  book  had  not  been  put  to 
the  test.     Even  in  the    Utopia   More  had  confined  his  tolerance 


388  THE  BREACH   WITH  THE  PAPACY      1 532-1 533 

to  those  who  argued  in  opposition  to  the  received  religion  without 
angefxor  spite,  and  when  he  came  to  be  in  office  he  learnt  by 
practical'-^xperience  that  opposition  is  seldom  carried  on  in  the 
spirit  of  mefelqiess.  Protestantism,  as  the  Lutheran  tenets  began 
to  be  called  in  i^ag^,  spread  into  England,  though  as  yet  it  gained 
a  hold  only  on  a  few  scattered  individuals.  Here  and  there  thought- 
ful men,  dissatisfied  with  the  teaching  given  to  them  and  with  the 
lives  of  many  of  their  teachers,  embraced  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith.  Even  the  best  of  them  could  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  treat  with  philosophic  calm  the  doctrines  which  they  had 
forsaken  ;  whilst  some  of  their  converts  took  a  pleasure  in  reviling 
the  clergy  and  the  common  creed  of  the  vast  majority  of  English- 
men. With  many  again  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  slipped 
into  the  condemnation  of  the  merit  of  good  works,  and  even  into  a 
light  estimation  of  good  works  themselves.  For  this  bitterness  of 
speech  and  mind  More  had  no  tolerance,  and  while  he  pursued 
his  antagonists  with  argument  and  ridicule,  he  also  used  his 
authority  to  support  the  clergy  in  putting  down  what  they  termed 
heresy  by  the  process  of  burning  the  obstinate  heretic. 

f<  17.  Resignation  of  Sir  Thomas  More.     1532.— More  had  no 

ground  for  fearing  that  the  increase  of  the  king's  authority  over  the 
clergy  would  at  once  encourage  revolt  against  the  Church.  Henry 
was  a  representative  Englishman,  and  neither  he  nor  the  House  of 
Commons  had  the  least  sympathy  with  heresy.  They  wanted  to 
believe  and  act  as  their  fathers  had  done.  More,  however,  was 
sufficiently  prescient  to  foresee  that  a  lay  authority  could  not  for 
ever  maintain  this  attitude.  Laymen  were  certain  to  be  moved  by 
the  current  of  thought  which  prevailed  in  their  age,  and  it  was 
only,  he  believed,  the  great  Papal  organisation  which  could  keep 
them  steady.  Though  Henry  had  not  yet  directly  attacked  that 
organisation,  he  might  be  expected  to  attack  it  soon,  and,  in  1532, 
More  retired  from  all  connection  with  Henry's  government  rather 
than  take  part  in  that  attack. 

>^  18.  The  First  Act  of  Annates.  1532.— Having  secured  himself, 
as  it  were,  in  the  rear  by  the  submission  of  the  clergy,  Henry  pro- 
ceeded to  deal  with  the  Pope.  He  still  wished  if  possible  to  win 
him  to  his  side,  and  before  the  end  of  1532  he  obtained  from  Parlia- 
ment an  Act  of  Annates.  Annates  were  the  first-fruits  or  first 
year's  income  of  ecclesiastical  benefices,  and  by  this  Act  the  first- 
fruits  of  bishoprics,  which  had  hitherto  been  paid  to  the  Pope,  were 
to  be  kept  back.  The  Act  was  not,  however,  to  come  into  force 
till  the  king  had  ratified  it,  and  Henry  refused  for  a  time  to  ratify 


A 


1533  ARCHBISHOP  CRANMER  389 

it  hoping  to  reduce  Clement  to  submission  by  suspending  over  his 
head  a  threat  upon  his  purse. 

19.  The  King's  Marriage  and  the  Act  of  Appeals.  1533.— 
Henry,  however,  found  that  Clement  was  not  to  be  moved,  and  his 
patience  coming  at  last  to  an  end,  he  was  secretly  married  to 
Anne  Boleyn  on  January  25,  1533.  Now  that  he  had  reluctantly 
given  up  hope  of  obtaining  a  favourable  decision  from  the  Pope, 
he  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  the  Papal  jurisdiction  in  England. 
Otherwise  if  he  obtained  a  sentence  in  an  English  ecclesiastical 
court  declaring  his  marriage  with  Catharine  to  be  null  from  the 
beginning,  his  injured  wife  might  appeal  to  the  superior  court  of 
the  Pope.  He  accordingly  obtained  from  Parliament  the  Act  of 
Appeals,  declaring  that  the  king  held  the  supreme  authority  in 
England,  and  that  as  under  him  all  temporal  matters  were  to  be 
decided  by  temporal  judges,  and  all  spiritual  matters  by  spiritual 
judges,  no  appeals  should  hereafter  be  suffered  to  any  authority 
outside  the  realm.  Henry  was  capable  of  any  meanness  to  serve 
his  ends,  but  he  also  knew  how  to  gain  more  than  his  immediate 
ends  by  connecting  them  with  a  large  national  policy.  He  almost 
made  men  forget  the  low  design  which  prompted  the  Act  of 
Appeals  by  fixing  their  eyes  on  the  great  object  of  national  inde- 
pendence. 
NC  20.  Archbishop  Cranmer  and  the  Court  at  Dunstable.  1533. — 
Henry  found  a  convenient  instrument  for  his  personal  as  well  as  for 
his  national  policy  in  Thomas  Cranmer,  whom  he  appointed  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  the  spring  of  1533.  Cranmer  was  intel- 
lectually acute,  and  took  a  worthy  part  in  the  further  development 
of  the  English  Church  ;  but  he  was  morally  weak,  and  inclined  to 
carry  out  orders  whatever  they  might  be,  especially  if  they  came 
from  a  king  as  strong-willed  as  Henry.  He  had  already  thrown 
himself  as  an  active  agent  into  the  cause  of  Henry's  divorce,  and 
he  was  now  prepared  as  archbishop  to  give  effect  to  his  arguments. 
In  March  Convocation  was  half  persuaded,  half  driven  to  declare 
Catharine's  marriage  to  be  void,  and  in  May  Cranmer,  sitting  at 
Dunstable  in  his  archiepiscopal  court,  pronounced  sentence  against 
her.  In  accordance  with  the  Act  of  Appeals  the  sentence  was 
final,  but  both  Henry  and  Cranmer  feared  lest  Catharine  should 
send  her  counsel  to  make  an  appeal  to  Rome,  and  they  were  there- 
fore mean  enough  to  conceal  from  her  the  day  on  which  sentence 
was  to  be  given.  The  temporal  benefits  which  the  Pope  derived 
from  England  were  now  to  come  to  an  end  as  well  as  his  spiritual 
jurisdiction,  and  in  July  the  king  ratified  the  Act  of  Annates 


390  THE  BREACH   WITH   THE  PAPACV 


V 


21.  Frith  and  Latimer.    1533. — When  a  man  of  special  intel- 
lectual  acquirements   like    Cranmer   could  descend  to  the   trick 
which  he  had  played  at  Dunstable,  it  was  time  that  some  one 
should  be  found  who,  in  the  stedfastness  of  his  faith,  would  refuse 
to  truckle  to  the  king,  and  would  maintain  the  rights  of  individual 
conscience  as  well  as  those  of  national  independence.     The  teach- 
ing of  Zwingli,  a  Swiss  reformer,  who  held  that  the  bread  and  wine 
in  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  was   a  mere  sign  of  the 
Body  and  Blood  of  the  Redeemer,  was  beginning  to  influence  the 
English  Protestants,  and  its  reception  was  one  more  reason  for  the 
mass   of  Englishmen  to  send  to  prison  or  the  stake  those  who 
maintained  what   was,   in   their    eyes,   so    monstrous    a  heresy. 
Amongst  the  noblest  of  the  persecuted  was  John  Frith,  who.  whilst 
he  stoutly  held  to  the  belief  that  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiatlon 
was  untrue,  begged  that  men  should  be  left  '  to  think  thereon  as 
God  shall  instil  in  any  man's  mind,  and  that  neither  part  condemn 
other  for  this  matter,  but  receive  each  other  m  brotherly  love, 
reserving  each  other's  infirmity  to  God.'     Frith  was  in  advance  of 
his  time  as  the  advocate  of  religious  liberty  as  well  as  of  a  special 
creed,  and  he  was  burnt  alive.    Henry  meant  it  to  be  understood 
that  his   supreme  headship  made  it  easier,  and  not  harder,  to 
suppress  heresy.     He  might  have  succeeded  if  he  had  had  merely 
to  deal  with  a  few  heroes  like  Frith.     That  which  was  beyond  his 
control  was  the  sapping  process  of  the  spirit  of  the  Renascence, 
leading  his  bishops,  and  even  himself,  to  examine   and  explain 
received  doctrines,  and  thus  to  transform  them  without  knowing 
what  they  were  doing.     Hugh  Latimer,  for  instance,  a  favourite 
chaplain  of  the  king,  was,  indeed,  a  preacher  of  righteousness, 
testing  all  things  rather  by  their  moral  worth  than  by  their  con- 
formity to  an  intellectual  standard.     The  received  doctrines  about 
Purgatory,  the  worship   of  the   saints,  and  pilgrimages   to  their 
images  seemed  to  him  to  be  immoral ;  but  as  yet  he  wished  to 
purify  opinion,  not  to  change  it  altogether,  and  in  this  he  had  the 
support  of  the  king,  who,  in  1535,  made  him  Bishop  of  Worcester. 
22.    Completion    of  the  Breach  with    Rome.       iS33— 1534. — 
Before  1533  \vas -.over  Henry  appealed  from  the  Pope  to  a  General 
Council.     Clement  1rt€»t^nly  paid  no  heed  to  his  appeal,  but  gave 
sentence  in  favour  of  Catharine.      When  Parlianient  met  in  1534, 
therefore,  Henry  was  obliged  to>ti:engthen  his  position  of  hostility 
to  the  Pope.     He  procured  from  it  m^'^ee^Acts.     The  first  of  these 
was  a  second  Act  of  Annates,  which  conferred  on  him  absolutely 
not  only  the  first-fruits  of  bishoprics  which  had  been  the  subject  of 


1534  COMPLETE   SEPARATION  391 

the  conditional  Act  ot  Annates  in  1532  (see  p.  388),  but  also  the 
first-fruits  of  all  the  beneficed  clergy,  as  well  as  a  tenth  of  each 
yeai-'s  income  of  both  bishops  and  beneficed  clergy,  all  of  which 
payments  had  been  hitherto  made  to  the  Pope.  Incidentally  this 
Act  also  re^plated  the  appointment  of  bishops,  by  ordering  that 
the  king  should  issue  a  conge  d^elire  to  the  chapter  of  the  vacant 
see,  together  w^h  a  letter  missive  compelling  the  choice  of  his 
nominee.  The  second  was  an  Act  concerning  Peter's  pence, 
abolishing  all  mino\  payments  to  the  Pope,  and  cutting  away  all 
interference  of  the  Piape  by  transferring  his  right  to  issue  licences 
and  dispensations  to  lije  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  third 
confirmed  the  submission,  of  the  clergy  and  enacted  that  appeals 
from  the  courts  of  the  Ai^hbishop  should  be  heard  by  commis- 
sioners appointed  by  the  1\ing,  and  known  as  the  delegates 
of  Appeals.  It  was  by  these  Acts  that  the  separation  between  the 
Churches  of  England  and  Rome^^as  finally  effected.  They  merely 
completed  the  work  which  had  "hteen  done  by  the  great  Act  of 
Appeals  in  1533.  The  Church  of  Erikgland  had  indeed  always  been 
a  national  Church  with  its  own  ecclesiastical  assemblies,  and  with 
ties  to  the  Crown  which  were  stretched  n^ore  tightly  or  more  loosely 
at  various  times.  It  had,  however,  maintained  its  connection  with 
the  Continental  Churches  by  its  subordination  to  the  Pope,  and 
this  subordination  had  been  made  real  b)\  the  subjection  of  its 
courts  to  appeals  to  Rome,  and  by  the  necessity  of  recurring  to 
Rome  for  permission  to  do  certain  things  prdliibited  by  English 
ecclesiastical  law.  All  this  was  now  at  an  end.  The  old  supremacy 
of  the  king  was  sharpened  and  defined.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
Pope  Avas  abolished.  Nominally  the  English  ecclesiastical 
authorities  became  more  independent ;  more  capable  of  doing 
what  seemed  to  them  to  be  best  for  the  Church  of  the  nation. 
Such  at  least  was  the  state  of  the  law.  In  practice  the  English 
ecclesiastical  authorities  were  entirely  at  Henry's  bidding.  In 
theory  and  in  sentiment  the  Church  of  England  was  still  a  branch 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  one  in  doctrine  and  in  discipline  with  the 
Continental  Churches.  Practically  it  was  now,  in  a  far  more  un^ 
qualified  sense  than  before,  a  national  Church,  ready  to  drift  from 
its  moorings  and  to  accept  new  counsels  whenever  the  tide  of 
opinion  should  break  strongly  upon  it. 


E-etA/ly^Avw^. 


AMm 


pc 


392 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  ROYAL   SUPREMACY.       1534— 1547      ' 

LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  I509--547 

The  Acts  of  Succession  and  Supremacy       ....  1534 

Execution  of  Fisher  and  More ,     .        .  I535 

Dissolution  of  the  smaller  monasteries  and  the  Pilgrim- 
age of  Grace  1536 

Destruction  of  relics  and  images 1538 

The  Six  Articles  and  the  Act  granting  to  the  king  the 

greater  monasteries 1539 

Fall  of  Cromwell 154° 

Henry  VIII.  king  of  Ireland 1541 

Solway  Moss        ,        .        .        •  ....  1542 

Deathof  Henry  VIII i547 


^ 


1.  The  Act  of  Succession.  1534.-111  September  1533  Anne 
had  given  birth  to  a  daughter,  who  was  afterwards  Queen  Elizabeth. 
In  1534  Parliament  passed  an  Act  of  Succession.  Not  only  did 
it  declare  Anne's  marriage  to  be  lawful  and  Catharine's  unlawful, 
and  consequently  Elizabeth  and  not  Mary  to  be  heir  to  the  crown, 
but  it  required  all  subjects  to  take  an  oath  acknowledging  their 
approval  of  the  contents  of  the  Act.  More  and  Fisher  professed 
themselves  ready  to  swear  to  any  succession  which  might  be  autho- 
rised by  Act  of  Parliament  ;  but  they  would  not  swear  to  the  il- 
legality of  Catharine's  marriage.  It  was  on  this  point  that  Henry 
was  most  sensitive,  as  he  knew  public  opinion  to  be  against  him,  and 
he  threw  both  More  and  Fisher  into  the  Tower.  In  the  year  before 
the  language  held  in  the  pulpit  on  the  subject  of  Henry's  marriage 
with  Anne  in  his  wife's  lifetime  had  been  so  strong  that  Cranmer 
had  forbidden  all  preaching  on  the  subject  of  the  king's  laws  or 
the  succession  to  the  throne.  Of  the  clergy,  the  friars  were  still 
the  most  resolute.  Henry  now  sent  commissioners  to  visit  the 
friaries,  and  those  in  which  the  oath  was  refused  were  summarily 
suppressed. 

2.  The  Acts  of  Treason  and  Supremacy.  1534.— In  1534  Parlia- 
ment also  passed  a  new  Act  of  Treasons  which  made  it  high  treason 
to  wish  or  practise  harm  to  the  king,  the  queen,  and  their  heirs,  to 
use  words  denying  their  titles,  or  to  call  the  king  a  '  heretic,  schis- 
matic, tyrant,  infidel,  or  usurper  of  the  crown.'     Later  in  the  same 


»534 


PERSECUTION 


393 


K 


year,  but  in  a  fresh  session,  Parliament  passed  the  Act  of  Supre- 
macy, which  confirmed  the  title  of  Supreme  Head  on  earth  of  the 
Church  of  England,  a  title  very  similar  to  that  to  which  the  king 
had  obtained  the  qualified  assent  of  the  clergy  in  1531  (see  p.  386). 
From  that  time  anyone  who  denied  the  king  to  be  th^  Supreme 
Head  of  the  Church  of  England  was  liable  to  a  traitor's  death. 

3.  The  Monks  of  the  Charterhouse.  i534.~It  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  Henry's  chief  adviser  in  these  tyrannical  measures 
was  the  able  and  unscrupulous  Cromwell.  It  was  Cromwell's  plan 
to  exalt  the  royal  autho- 
rity into  a  despotism 
by  means  of  a  subser- 
vient Parliament.  He 
was  already  Henry's 
secretary  ;  and  in  1535 
was  appointed  the 
king's  Vicar-General  in 
ecclesiastical  matters. 
He  was  quite  ready  to 
push  the  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment which  had  re- 
cently been  passed  to 
their  extreme  conse- 
quences. His  first  ob- 
ject was  to  get  rid  of 
the  Friars  Observant, 
who  had  shown  them- 
selves most  hostile  to 
what  they  called  in 
plainness  of  speech  the 
king's    adultery.      All 

their  houses  were  suppressed,  and  some  of  the  inmates  put  to 
death.  Then  Cromwell  fell  on  the  London  Charterhouse,*  the  in- 
mates of  which  had  been  imprisoned  in  the  year  before  simply  for 
a  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  the  Act  of  Succession,  though  they  had 
not  uttered  a  word  against  the  king's  proceedings.  They  could  now 
be  put  to  death  under  the  new  Treason  Act,  for  denying  tlie  king's 
supremacy,  and  many  of  them  were  accordingly  executed  after  the 
usual  barbarous  fashion,  whilst  others  perished  of  starvation  or  of 
diseases  contracted  in  the  filthy  prisons  in  which  they  were  confined. 


John  Fisher,  Bisho 
a  drawing  by 
Windsor  Castle, 


of  Rochester, 


p  ot  Kocnester,  1504-1535  ;  from 
Holbein   in   the   Royal  Library, 


II. 


The  Charterhouse  here  means  the  house  of  the  Carthusians, 


K' 


K 


394  THE  ROYAL  SUPREMACY  1 535-1536 

"  I  profess,"  said  the  Prior,  Houghton,  "  that  it  is  not  out  of  obstinate 
malice  or  a  mind  of  rebellion  that  I  do  disobey  the  king,  but  only 
for  the  fear  of  God,  that  I  offend  not  the  Supreme  Majesty ;  because 
our  Holy  Mother  the  Church  hath  decreed  and  appointed  otherwise 
than  the  king  and  Parliament  hath  ordained."  Houghton  and  his 
fellows  were  as  truly  martyrs  as  Frith  had  been.  They  at  least  had 
sown  no  seeds  of  rebellion,  and  they  died  because  a  tyrannical  king 
insisted  on  ruling  over  consciences  as  well  as  over  bodily  acts. 

4.  Execution  of  Fisher  and  More.  1535. — Fisher  and  More 
were  the  next  to  suffer  on  the  same  charge,  though  their  sentences 
were  commuted  to  death  by  beheading.  More  preserved  his  wit  to 
the  last.  "  I  pray  you,"  he  said  as  he  mounted  the  scaffold,  "  see 
me  safe  up,  and  for  my  coming  down  I  will  shift  for  myself."  After 
he  had  knelt  to  place  his  head  on  the  block,  he  raised  it  again  to 
move  his  beard  aside.  "  Pity,"  he  muttered,  "  that  should  be  cut 
that  has  not  committed  treason." 

5.  The  Dissolution  of  the  Smaller  Monasteries.  1536. — Money 
never  came  amiss  to  Henry,  and  Cromwell  now  rooted  himself 
firmly  in  his  master's  favour  by  pointing  out  to  him  fresh  booty. 
The  English  monasteries  were  rich  and  weak,  and  it  was  easy  to 
trump  up  or  exaggerate  charges  against  them.  Cromwell  sent 
commissioners  to  inquire  into  their  moral  state  (1535),  and  the 
commissioners,  who  were  as  unscrupulous  as  himself,  rushed  round 
the  monasteries  in  such  a  hurry  that  they  had  no  time  to  make  any 
real  inquiry,  but  nevertheless  returned  with  a  number  of  scanda- 
lous tales.  These  tales  referred  to  some  of  the  larger  monasteries 
as  well  as  the  smaller,  but,  when  Parliament  met  in  1536,  Henry  con- 
tented himself  with  asking  that  monasteries  having  property  worth 
less  than  200/.  a  year  should  be  dissolved,  and  their  estates  given  to 
himself,  on  the  ground  that  whilst  the  smaller  ones  were  dens  of  vice 
the  larger  ones  were  examples  of  virtue.  Parliament  granted  his 
request,  and  the  work  of  spoliation  began.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  vice  did  exist  in  the  monasteries,  though  there  was  not  so  much 
of  it  as  the  commissioners  asserted.  It  would  have  been  indeed 
strange  if  innocence  had  been  preserved  in  communities  living  in 
enforced  celibacy,  with  no  stress  of  work  to  occupy  their  thoughts, 
and  with  the  high  ideals  of  their  profession  neglected  or  cast  aside. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  monks  were  easy  landlords,  were  hospitable 
to  the  stranger  and  kindly  to  the  poor,  whilst  neither  the  king  him- 
self nor  those  to  whom  he  gave  or  sold  the  lands  which  he  acquired 
cared  for  more  than  to  make  money.  The  real  weakness  of  the 
monks  lay  in  their  failure  to  conciliate  the  more  active  minds  of  the 


1536 


A   NEW  QUEEN 


395 


age,  or  to  meet  its  moral  needs.  The  attack  upon  the  vast  edifice 
of  Henry's  despotism  in  Church  and  State  could  only  be  carried 
on  successfully  by  the  combined  effort  of  men  like  the  scholars 
of  the  Renascence,  whose  thoughts  were  unfettered,  and  of  those  who, 
like  the  Protestants,  were  full  of  aggressive  vigour,  and  who  substi- 
tuted for  the  duty  of  obedience  the  duty  of  following  their  own  con- 

.  vjctions. 

^  6.  The  Execution  of  Anne  Boleyn.  1536. — Before  the  end  of 
1536  there  was  a  new  queen.  Henry  became  tired  of  Anne,  as  he 
had  been  tired  of 
Catharine,  and  on  a 
series  of  monstrous 
charges,  so  mons- 
trous as  to  be  hardly 
credible,  he  had  her 
tried  and  executed. 
Her  unpardonable 
crime  was  probably 
that  her  only  living 
child  was  a  daughter^ 
and  not  a  son.  Ten 
days  after  Anne's 
death  Henry  married 
a  third  wife,  Jane- 
Seymour.  As  Catha- 
rine was  now  dead, 
there  could  be  no 
doubt  of  the  legiti- 
macy of  Jane's  off- 
spring, but  to  make 
assurance  doubly 
sure,  a  new  Parlia- 
ment passed  an  Act 
settling  the  succession  on  Jane's  children,  and  declaring  both  Mary 
and  Elizabeth  illegitimate. 

7.  The  Ten  Articles.  1536.— It  is  probable  that  when  Henry 
took  the'titte-of^preme  Head  he  intended  to  maintain  the  doctrines 
and  practices  of  tKe  Church  exactly  as  he  found  them.  In  1536  the 
clergy  were  crying  out  not  merely  against  attacks  on  their  faith,  but 
against  the  ribaldry  with  which  these  attaoksj^vere  often  conducted. 
One  assailant,  for  instance,  declared  the  oil  uTed  in' extreme  unction 
to  be  no  more  than  the  Bishop  of  Rome's  grease  or  butter,  and 


Edward  Seymour,  Earl  of  Hertford,  brother  of  Jane 
Seymour,  afterwards  Duke  of  Somerset,  known  as 
'the  Protector,' at  the  age  of  28  (1535),  1507-1552: 
from  a  painting  at  Sudeley  Castle. 


396  THE  ROYAL  SUPREMACY  ,536 

another  that  it  was  of  no  more  use  to  invoke  a  saint  than  it  was  to 
tv^birl  a  stone  against  the  wind.  Many  of  the  clergy  would  have 
been  well  pleased  with  mere  repression.  Henry,  however,  and  the 
bishops  whom  he  most  trusted  wished  repression  to  be  accompanied 
with  reasonable  explanations  of  the  doctrines  and  practices  en- 
forced. The  result  was  seen  in  the  Ten  Articles  which  were  drawn 
up  by  Convocation,  and  sent  abroad  with  the  authority  of  the  king. 
There  was  to  be  uniformity,  to  be  obtained  by  the  circulation  of  a 
written  document,  in  which  the  old  doctrines  were  stripped  of  much 
that  had  given  offence,  and  their  acceptance  made  easy  for  educated 
men.  Of  the  seven  sacraments,  three  only,  Baptism,  Penance,  and 
the  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  were  explained,  whilst  the  other  four 
— those  of  Marriage,  Orders,  Confirmation,  and  Extreme  Unction — 
were  passed  over  in  silence.  On  the  whole  the  Ten  Articles  in 
some  points  showed  a  distinct  advance  in  the  direction  of  Luther- 
anism,  though  there  was  also  to  be  discerned  in  them  an  equally 
distinct  effort  to  explain  rather  than  to  reject  the  creed  of  the 
mediaeval  Church. 

8.  The  Translation  of  the  Bible  authorised.     1536. — The  same 
tendency  to  appeal  to  educated  intelligence  showed  itself  in  the 
sanctidii..|^iven  by  the  king  and  Cromwell  in  1536  to  a  translation 
of  the  BiiSl^  which  had  been  completed  in  1535  by  Miles  Coverdale, 
whose  versio^.of  the  New  Testament  was  founded  on  an  earlier 
one  by  Tyndale>^It  is  probable  that  Henry,  in  authorising  the  cir- 
culation of  this  versfoQ,  thought  of  the  support  which  he  might  derive 
from  the  silence  of  the  Bible  on  the  Papal  claims.    The  circulation 
of  the  Bible  was,  however,  likely  to  work  in  a  direction  very  different 
from  that  of  the  Ten  Articles."'-..The  Ten  Articles  were  intended  to 
promote  unity  of  belief.     The  Bi'He,  once  placed  in  the  hands  ot 
everyone  who  could   read,  was  likely  to   promote   diversity.     It 
would  be  the   storehouse   in   which   Ltitherans,   Zwinglians,   and 
every   divergent   sect  would  find  weapon&.jto  support  their  own 
special  ideas.     It  would  help  on  the  growtfr^f  those  individual 
opinions  which  were  springing  up  side  by  side^ith  the  steady 
forward  progress  of  the  clergy  of  the  Renascence.    "The  men  who 
attempted  to  make  the  old  creed  intellectually  acceptable  and  the 
men  who  proclaimed  a  new  one,  under  the  belief  that  they  were 
recurring  to  one  still  older,  were  together  laying  the  foundations 
of  English  Protestantism. 
\^     9.  The   Pilgrimage  of  Grace.     1536— 1537.— Slight   as   these 
changes  were,  they  were  sufficient  to  rouse  suspicion  that  further 
change  was  impending.     The  masses  who  could  neither  read  nor 
write  were  stirred  by  the  greed  and  violence  with  which  the  disso- 


K' 


1536-1538  THE  PILGRIMAGE   OF  GRACE  397 

lution  of  the  smaller  monasterie3  was  carried  on,  and  by  the  ces- 
sation of  the  kindly  relief  which  these  monasteries  had  afforded  to 
the  wants  of  the  poor.  A  rumour  spread  that  when  Cromwell  had 
despoiled  the  monasteries  he  would  proceed  to  despoil  the  parish 
churches.  In  the  autumn  of  1536  there  was  a  rising  in  Lincolnshire, 
which  was  easily  suppressed,  but  was  followed  by  a  more  formid- 
able rising  in  Yorkshire.  The  insurgents,  headed  by  Robert  Aske, 
called  it  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  and  bore  a  banner  embroidered 
with  the  five  wounds  of  Christ.  They  asked  among  other  things 
for  the  restoration  of  the  monasteries,  the  punishment  of  Cromwell 
and  his  chief  supporters,  the  deprivation  of  the  reforming  bishops, 
the  extirpation  of  heresy,  and  the  restoration  of  the  Papal  authority 
in  a  modified  form.  Their  force  grew  so  large  that  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  who  was  sent  to  disperse  it,  did  not  venture  to  make  the 
attempt,  and  the  king  found  himself  obliged  to  issue  a  general 
pardon  and  to  promise  that  a  Parliament  shouki  meet  in  the  North 
for  the  redress  of  grievances.  On  this  the  insurgents  returned 
home.  Early  in  1537  Henry,  who  had  no  intention  of  keeping  his 
word,  took  advantage  of  some  new  troubles  in  the  North  to  declare 
that  his  engagement  was  no  longer  binding,  and  seized  and  ex- 
ecuted, not  merely  the  leaders,  but  many  of  the  lesser  supporters  of 
the  insurrection.  Of  the  Parliament  in  the  North  nothing  more 
was  heard,  but  a  Council  of  the  North  was  established  to  keep  the 
people  of  those  parts  m  order,  and  to  execute  justice  in  the  king's 
name. 

10.  Birth  of  a  Prince.  1537.— In  1537  Jane  Seymour  gave 
birth  to  a  boy,  who  was  afterwards  Edward  VI  Henry  had  at  last 
a  male  heir  of  undoubted  legitimacy,  but  in  a  few  days  his  wife  died. 

!i.  The  Beginning  of  the  Attack  on  the  Greater  Monasteries. 
1537 — 1538. — The  failure  of  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  brought  in 
fresh  booty  to  Henry.  Abbots  and  priors  who  had  taken  part 
in  it,  or  were  accused  of  doing  so,  were  hanged,  and  their  monas- 
teries confiscated.  Where  nothing  could  be  proved  against  the 
greater  monasteries,  which  had  been  declared  by  Parliament  to 
be  free  from  vice,  their  heads  were  terrified  into  an  appearance  of 
voluntary  submission.  Cromwell  had  his  spies  and  informers 
everywhere,  and  it  was  as  easy  for  them  to  lie  as  to  speak  the  truth. 
In  1537  and  1538  many  abbots  bowed  before  the  storm,  and,  con- 
fessing that  they  and  their  monks  had  been  guilty  of  the  most  de- 
grading sins,  asked  to  be  allowed  to  surrender  their  monasteries 
to  the  king.  Cromwell's  commissioners  then  took  possession,  sold 
the  bells,  the  lead  on  the  roof,  and  every  article  which  had  its  price, 
and  left  the  walls  to  serve  as  a  quarry  for  the  neighbourhood. 


398  THE  ROYAL  SUPREMACY  1538 

The  lands  went  to  the  king.  It  not  unfrequently  happened  that 
Henry  promoted  to  ecclesiastical  benefices  those  monks  who  had 
been  most  ready  to  confess  themselves  sinners  beyond  other  men. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  confessions  were  prepared  beforehand 
to  deceive  contemporaries,  and  there  is  therefore  no  reason  why 
they  should  deceive  posterity. 
5C  12.  Destruction  of  Relics  and  Images.  1538. — The  attack  on 
the  monasteries  was  accompanied  by  an  attack  on  relics  and  such 
images  as  attracted  more  than  ordinary  reverence.  The  explana- 
tion of  the  zeal  with  which  they  were  hunted  down  is  in  many 
cases  to  be  found  in  the  gold  and  jewels  with  which  they  were 
adorned.  Some  of  them  were  credited  with  miraculous  powers. 
The  figure  of  the  Saviour  on  the  rood  at  Boxley,  in  Kent,  moved 
its  head  and  eyes.  A  phial  at  Hales,  in  Worcestershire,  contained 
a  substance  which  had  been  brought  from  Germany  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  was  said  to  be  the  blood  of  the  Saviour.  Pilgrims 
thronged  in  numbers  to  adore,  and  their  offerings  brought  in  no 
small  profit  to  the  monks  who  owned  such  treasures.  What  was 
fondly  believed  by  the  common  people  was  derided  by  critical  spirits, 
and  Henry  was  well  pleased  to  destroy  all  reverence  for  anything 
.  which  brought  credit  to  the  monks.  The  rood  of  Boxley  was  exhi- 
bited in  London,  where  the  Bishop  of  Rochester  pulled  the  wires 
which  caused  its  motions,  and  the  blood  m  the  phial  of  Hales  was 
declared  to  be  no  more  than  a  coloured  gum.  An  ancient  wooden 
figure,  worshipped  in  Wales  under  the  name  of  Darvel  Gathern, 
served  to  make  a  fire  which  burned  Friar  Forest,  who  mamtained 
that  in  spiritual  things  obedience  was  due  to  the  Pope  and  not  to 
the  king.  Instead  of  hanging  him  under  the  Treason  Act  (see 
p.  392)  Henry  had  him  burnt  as  a  heretic.  It  was  the  first  and  only 
time  when  the  denial  of  the  royal  supremacy  was  held  to  be  heresy. 
When  war  was  made  against  superstition,  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas 
of  Canterbury  could  hardly  be  allowed  to  escape.  Thomas  was  a 
saint  who  had  bearded  a  king,  and  his  shrine,  which  had  attracted 
such  crowds  of  pilgrims  that  the  marks  which  they  left  as  they 
shuffled  forward  on  their  knees  towards  it  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the 
stone  floor,  was  smashed,  and  the  bones  of  the  saint  burnt.  Shrines 
were  usually  covered  with  gold  and  jewels,  and  all  shrines  shared 
the  fate  of  that  of  St.  Thomas,^      The  images  in  parish  churches, 

1  Shrines  were  receptacles  above  ground  of  the  bodies  of  saints.  That  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  at  Westminster  was  rebuilt  by  queen  Mary,  and  that  of 
St.  Alban  at  St.  Albans  in  recent  times.  These  two  are  the  only  shrines  now 
to  be  seen  in  England. 


1 538-1 539  SUPPRESSION  OF  RESISTANCE  399 

not  being  attractive  to  the  covetous,  and  being  valued  by  the  peopls 
for  ordinary  purposes  of  devotion,  were  still  left  untouched. 

13.  The  Trial  of  Lambert.  1538. — Henry's  violence  against 
monksticism  and  superstition  made  him  extremely  anxious  to  show 
his  orthodoxy.  The  opinion  held  by  Zwingli,  the  reformer  of* 
Zurich,  that  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  were  in  no  way  present 
in  the  sacrament  of  th^e^-^ord's  Supper  was  now  spreading  in 
England,  and  those  who  heloit^vi^e  known  as  Sacramentaries. 
One  of  these,  John  Lambert,  was  frkd  before  Henry  himself 
Henry  told  Lambert  scornfully  that  the  wohk^^  Christ,  '  This  is 
My  Body,'  settled  the  whole  question,  and  LambeiTt^^condemned 
and  burnt. 

14.  The  Marquis  of  Exeter  and  the  Poles.  1538. — Amongst 
the  descendants  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence  was  Reginald  Pole.'  He 
had  been  scandalised  by  the  divorce,  had  left  England,  had  been 
made  a  Cardinal  in  1536,  and  had  poured  out  a  torrent  of  invective 
against  the  wickedness  of  Henry.  In  the  end  of  1538  Henry,  having 
been  informed  that  some  of  Pole's  kinsfolk  had  been  muttering  dis* 
satisfaction,  sent  them  to  execution  together  with  his  own  cousin, 
the  Marquis  of  Exeter,  the  son  of  his  mother's  sister. 

/\^  15.  The  Six  Articles.  1539. — Cruel  and  unscrupulous  as 
Henry  was,  he  was  in  many  respects  a  representative  Englishman, 
sympathising  with  the  popular  disgust  at  the  spread  of  ideas  hitherto 
unheard  of  In  a  new  Parliament  which  met  in  1539  he  obtained  the 
willing  consent  of  both  Houses  to  the  statute  of  the  Six  Articles. 
This  statute  declared  in  favour  of:  (i)  the  real  presence  of  'the 
natural  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ '  in  the  Lord's  Supper ;  (2)  the 
sufficiency  of  communion  in  one  kind  ;  (3)  clerical  celibacy  ;  (4)  the 
perpetual  obligation  of  vows  of  chastity  ;  (5)  private  masses  ;  and 
(6)  auricular  confession.  Whoever  spoke  against  the  first  was  to 
be  burnt ;  whoever  spoke  against  the  other  five  was  to  suffer  im- 
prisonment and  loss  of  goods  for  the  first  offence,  and  to  be  hanged 


'  Genealogy  of  the  de  la  Poles  and  Poles  :  — 
Richard,  Duke  of  York 


Edward  IV.  Elizabeth = John  de  la  Pole,  George,  Duke  of 

1  Duke  of  SuflFolk  Clarence 


John  Edmund                   Richard  Margaret, = Sir  R.  Pole 

de  la  Pole,  de  la  Pole,                de  la  Pole,                 Countess 

Earl  of  Lincoln,  Earl  of  Suffolk,  killed  at  Pavia,                      of 

killed  at  Stoke,  beheaded                      1525  Salisbury 

X487(seep.347)  ^5X3                                                                   Reginald  PoU 


6^ 


^ 


406  THE  ROYAL  SUPREMACY  iS39-tS40 

for  the  second.  By  those  who  suffered  from  the  Act  it  was  known 
as  '  The  Whip  with  Six  Strings.'  Cranmer,  who  was  a  married 
archbishop,  was  forced  to  dismiss  his  wife.  Bishops  Latimer  and 
Shaxton,  whose  opinions  had  gradually  advanced  beyond  the  line 
.at  which  Henry's  orthodoxy  ended,  were  driven  from  their  sees  ; 
but  the  number  of  those  put  to  death  under  the  new  Act  was  not 
great. 

1 6.  Completion  of  the  Suppression  of  the  Monasteries.  1539 
'— 1540. — So  completely  was  the  statute  of  the  Six  Articles  in  accord- 
ance with  pubHc  opinion,  that  Henry  had  no  difficulty  in  obtaining 
the  consent  of  Parliament  to  an  Act  giving  to  his  proclamations 
the  force  of  law,  and  to  another  Act  securing  to  him  the  whole  of 
the  monasteries  whether  they  had  been  already  suppressed  or  not. 
Before  the  end  of  1540  not  a  single  monastery  was  left.  Three 
abbots,  those  of  Glastonbury,  Colchester,  and  Reading,  had  been 
hanged  the  year  before  after  the  mere  semblance  of  a  trial.  The 
disappearance  of  the  abbots  from  the  House  of  Lords  made  the 
lay  peers,  for  the  first  time,  more  numerous  than  the  ecclesiastical 
members  of  the  House.  The  lay  peers,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
reinforced  by  new  creations  from  amongst  Henry's  favourites, 
whom  he  had  enriched  by  grants  of  abbey  lands.  The  new  peers 
and  the  more  numerous  country  gentlemen  who  had  shared  in  the 
spoil  were  interested  in .  maintaining  the  independence  of  the 
English  Church,  lest  the  Pope,  if  his  jurisdiction  were  restored, 
should  insist  on  their  disgorging  their  prey.  Of  that  which  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  king,  a  small  portion  was  spent  on  the  foundation 
of  five  new  bishoprics,  whilst  part  of  the  rest  was  employed  on 
shipbuilding  and  the  erection  of  fortifications  on  the  coast,  part  in 
meeting  the  general  expenditure  of  the  Crown. 

17.  Anne  of  Cleves  and  the  Fall  of  Cromwell.  1539— 1540. — 
In  all  that  had  been  done  Cromwell  had  been  the  leading  spirit. 
It  had  been  his  plan  to  erect  an  absolute  despotism,  and  thereby 
to  secure  his  own  high  position  and  to  enrich  himself  as  well  as  his 
master.  He  was  naturally  hated  by  the  old  nobility  and  by  all 
who  suffered  from  his  extortions  and  cruelty.  In  the  summer  of 
1539  he  was  eager  for  an  alliance  with  the  German  Protestants 
against  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  and  suggested  to  Henry  a  fourth 
marriage  with  a  German  princess,  Anne  of  Cleves.  Holbein,  a 
great  German  painter  settled  in  England,  was  sent  to  take  a  por- 
trait of  the  lady,  and  Henry  was  so  pleased  with  it  that  he  sent  for 
her  to  make  her  his  wife.  When  she  arrived  he  found  her  anything 
but  good-looking.    In  1540  he  went  through  the  marriage  ceremony 


K 


3 

K. 


IS40-I543  HENRY   VilL    AND  IRELAND  4OI 

with  her,  but  he  divorced  her  shortly  afterwards.  Fortunately  for 
herself,  Anne  made  no  objection,  and  was  allowed  to  live  in  England 
on  a  good  allowance  till  her  death.  For  a  time  Cromwell  seemed 
to  be  as  high  as  ever  in  Henry's  good  opinion,  and  was  created  Earl 
of  Essex.  Henry,  however,  was  inwardly  annoyed,  and  he  had 
always  the  habit  of  dropping  ministers  as  soon  as  their  unpopularity 
brought  discredit  on  himself.  Cromwell  was  charged  with  treason 
by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  A  Bill  of  attainder '  was  rapidly  passed, 
and  Cromwell  was  sent  to  the  scaffold  without  being  even  heard  in 
his  own  defence. 

.  Catherine  Howard  and  Catherine  Parr.  1540 — 1543. — In 
1540  Henry  married  a  fifth  wife,  Catherine  Howard.  Norfolk,  who 
was  her  uncle,  gained  the  upper  hand  at  court,  and  was  supported  by 
Gardiner  (see  p.  382),  now  Bishop  of  Winchester,  who  was  strongly 
opposed  to  all  further  ecclesiastical  innovations.  Those  who 
denied  the  king's  supremacy  were  sent  to  the  gallows,  those  who 
denied  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  to  the  stake.  In  1541  the 
old  Countess  of  Salisbury,  the  mother  of  Cardinal  Pole,  and  the 
daughter  of  the  brother  of  Edward  IV.,  was  executed  in  the  belief 
that  she  had  favoured  an  abortive  conspiracy.  Before  the  end  of 
1540  Henry  discovered  that  his  young  wife  had,  before  her  marriage, 
been  guilty  of  incontinency,  and  in  1542  she  was  beheaded.  In 
1543  Henry  married  a  sixth  wife,  Catherine  Parr,  who  actually 
survived  him. 

19.  Ireland.  1534. — Henry's  masterful  rule  had  made  him 
many  enemies  abroad  as  well  as  at  home,  and  he  was  therefore 
constantly  exposed  to  the  risk  of  an  attack  from  the  Continent. 
In  the  face  of  such  danger  he  could  no  longer  allow  Ireland  to 
remain  as  disorganised  as  it  had  been  in  his  father's  reign  and 
in  the  early  years  of  his  own,  lest  Ireland  should  become  the 
stepping-stone  to  an  invasion  of  England.  In  Ireland  the  Celtic 
chiefs  maintained  their  independence,  carrying  on  destructive 
wars  with  one  another,  both  they  and  their  followers  being  inspired 

1  A  Bill  of  attainder  wa.s  brought  into  one  or  other  of  the  Houses  of  ParHa- 
ment,  and  became  law,  hke  any  other  Act  of  Parliament,  after  it  had  passed 
both  Houses  and  received  the  Royal  assent.  Its  object  was  condemnation  to 
death,  and,  as  the  legislative  powers  of  Parliament  were  unlimited,  it  need  not 
be  supported  by  the  production  of  evidence,  unless  Parliament  chose  to  ask 
for  it.  Henry  VIH,  preferred  this  mode  of  getting  rid  of  ministers  with 
whom  he  was  dissatisfied  to  the  old  way  of  impeachment ;  as  in  an  impeach- 
ment (see  p.  262)  there  was  at  least  the  semblance  of  a  judicial  proceeding,  the 
Commons  appearing  as  accusers,  and  the  Lords  as  judges. 


\)C^ 


40i  THE  ROYAL  SUPREMACY  I534-I536 

with  a  high  spirit  of  tribal  patriotism,  but  without  the  slightest 
idea  of  national  union.  The  Anglo-Norman  lords  ruling  a  Celtic 
population  were  quite  as  quarrelsome  and  even  more  oppressive 
than  the  Celtic  chiefs,  whilst  the  inhabitants  of  the  English  Pale 
(see  p.  265),  ruled  over  by  what  was  only  in  name  a  civilised 
government,  were  subjected  alike  to  the  oppressive  exactions  of 
the  authorities  at  Dublin  and  to  the  plundering  of  the  so-called 
'Irish  enemies,'  from  whom  these  authorities  were  unable  to  pro- 
tect them.  The  most  powerful  of  the  Anglo-Norman  lords  was 
still  the  Earl  of  Kildare  (see  p.  347),  who,  whenever  he  bore  the  title 
of  Lord  Deputy,  unblushingly  used  the  king's  name  in  wreaking 
vengeance  on  his  private  enemies. 

20.  The  Geraldine  Rebellion.  1534— 1535.— In  1534  Henry  sum- 
moned Kildare  to  England  and  threw  him  into  the  Tower.  On  a 
rumour  of  Kildare's  death  his  son,  Lord  Thomas  Fitzgerald — 
Silken  Thomas,  as  he  was  called  in  Ireland — rose  against  the  king. 
The  Geraldines,  as  the  Fitzgeralds  were  sometimes  called,  had 
often  frightened  kings  by  rebelling,  but  this  time  they  failed  in 
their  object.  In  1535  the  Lord  Deputy  Skeffington  brought  heavy 
guns  and  battered  down  the  walls  of  the  great  Geraldine  castle 
at  Maynooth.  One  by  one  all  the  males  of  Kildare's  family,  with 
the  exception  of  two  boys,  were  captured  and  put  to  death. 

21.  Lord  Leonard  Grey.  1536— 1539. — Lord  Leonard  Grey 
became  Lprd  Deputy  in  1536.  The  Irish  Parliament  which  met  in 
that  year  was^^  still  only  a  Parliament  of  the  English  Pale,  but  its  acts 
showed  that  Henry  intended,  if  possible,  to  rule  all  Ireland.  On 
the  one  hand  the  royal  supremacy  was  declared.  On  the  other 
hand  an  Act  was  passed  which  showed  how  little  was,  in  those  days, 
understood  of  the  difficulties  standing  in  the  way  of  the  assimila- 
tion of  two  peoples  at  different  stages  of  civilisation.  The  native 
Irish  were  ordered  to  be  exactly  as  the  English.  They  were  to 
use  the  English  language,  to  adopt,  the  English  dress,  and  to  cut 
their  hair  after  the  English  fashion.  It  was  to  be  in  the  Church  as 
it  was  to  be  in  the  State.  No  one  was  to. receive  any  ecclesiastical 
preferment  who  did  not  speak  English.-  Such  laws  naturally 
could  not  be  put  in  force,  but  they  served  -as  indications  of  the 
spirit  of  the  Government.  Even  more  obnoxiolis  was  the  conduct 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  George  Browne,  a  'mere  creature  of 
Henry  and  Cromwell.  The  assertion  of  the  royal  supremacy,  in- 
deed, if  it  had  stood  alone,  would  have  made  little  difference  in  the 
church-life  of  Ireland.  Browne,  however,  persisted,  in  obedience 
to  orders  from  England,  in  destroying  relics  and  images  which 


1536 


THB  RBFOkMATION  IN  IRULaHD 


403 


were  regarded  by  the  whole  population  with  the  deepest  reverence. 
The  doubting  spirit  of  the  Renascence  found  no  echo  in  Ireland, 
because  that  country  was  far  behind  England  in  education  and 


King  Henry  VIII.  :  fronx  a  picture  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Warwick. 


404  THE  ROYAL  SUPREMACY  1539-1542 

culture.  It  would  have  been  of  less  consequence  if  these  unwise 
proceedings  had  been  confined  to  the  English  Pale.  Lord 
Leonard  Grey  was,  however,  a  stern  warrior,  and  carried  his  arms 
successfully  amongst  the  Irish  tribes.  When  he  left  Ireland  in 
1539  a  large  part  of  the  Celtic  population  had  been  compelled  to 
submit  to  Henry,  and  that  population  was  even  less  prepared  than 
were  the  inhabitants  of  the  Pale  for  violent  alterations  of  religious 

y^^     ceremonial. 

^**^  22.  Henry  VIII.  King  of   Ireland.     1541.— In  1541  a  Parlia- 

ment at  Dublin  acknowledged  Henry  to  be  king  of  Ireland. 
Hitherto  he  had  been  but  Lord  of  Ireland.  As  that  title  had  been 
granted  by  Pope  Adrian  IV.  to  Henry  II.  (see  p.  152),  Henry  VIII. 
wished  to  have  a  new  one  which  should  mark  his  complete  inde- 
pendence of  Rome.  This  Parliament  was  the  first  attended  by 
the  native  chiefs,  and  the  assumption  of  the  new  title  therefore 
indicated  a  new  stage  in  Irish  history.  Unfortunately  Henry  bent 
himself  to  conciliate  the  chiefs  rather  than  their  tribes.  He  gave 
to  the  chiefs  English  titles — the  O'Neill,  for  instance,  becoming 
Earl  of  Tyrone,  and  O'Brien,  Earl  of  Thomond — whilst  he  hoped 
to  win  their  support  by  dissolving  the  monasteries,  and  by  giving 
them  a  share  in  the  plunder.  All  this  Henry  did  in  the  hope  that 
the  chiefs  would  use  their  influence  to  spread  English  habits  and 
English  law  amongst  a  people  who  were  attached  to  their  own 
ways.  For  the  time  he  gained  what  he  wanted.  As  long  as  the 
plunder  of  the  abbeys  was  to  be  had  the  chiefs  kept  quiet.  When 
that  had  been  absorbed  both  chiefs  and  people  would  revolt 
against  a  Government  which  wanted  to  bring  about,  in  a  few  years, 
a  complete  change  in  their  mode  of  life.  It  is  indeed  useless  to 
regret  that  Henry  did  not  content  himself  with  forcing  the  tribes 
to  keep  peace  with  one  another,  whilst  allowing  them  gradually  to 
grow  in  civilisation  in  their  own  fashion.  There  are  often  things 
which  it  would  be  well  to  do,  but  vv^hich  no  government  can  do. 
In  the  first  place  Henry  had  not  money  enough  to  enforce  peace, 
the  whole  revenue  of  Ireland  at  that  time  being  no  more  than 
,  5,000/.  a  year.  In  the  second  place  he  was  roused  to  futile  efforts 
'to  convert  Irishmen  into  Englishmen  because  he  was  in  constant 

w.^1^  dread  of  the  intervention  in  Ireland  of  his  Continental  enemies. 
V  23.  Solway  Moss.     1542. — Henry  was  probably  the  more  dis- 

trustful of  a  possibly  independent  Ireland  because  an  actually 
independent  Scotland  gave  him  so  much  trouble.  In  Scotland 
there  had  been  no  Wars  of  the  Roses,  and  the  warlike  nobility  still 
resembled  petty  kings  in  their  own  districts.     James  V.,  the  son  ot 


1 532- 1544  HENRY  VI IL   AND  SCOTLAND  405 

Henry's  sister  Margaret,  strove  to  depress  the  nobles  by  allying 
himself  with  the  Church  and  the  Commons.  Scotland  was  always 
ready  to  come  to  blows  with  England,  and  the  clergy  urged  James 
to  break  with  a  king  of  England  who  had  broken  with  the  Pope. 
From  1532  to  1534  there  had  been  actual  war  between  the  king- 
doms. Even  after  peace  was  restored  James's  attitude  was  con- 
stantly menacing.  In  1542  war  broke  out  again,  and  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk  crossed  the  Tweed  and  wasted  the  border  counties  of  Scot- 
land. Then  James  launched  an  army  across  the  Border  into  Cum- 
berland. His  distrust  of  the  nobles,  however,  made  him  place  at 
the  head  of  it  a  mere  court  favourite,  Oliver  Sinclair.  The  Scottish 
army  was  harassed  by  the  horsemen  of  the  English  border,  and  as 
night  was  drawing  on  was  suddenly  assailed  by  a  small  English 
party.  Having  no  confidence  in  Sinclair,  the  whole  multitude  fled 
in  a  panic,  to  be  slain  or  captured  in  Solway  Moss.    James's  health 


Angel  of  Henry  VIII.    1543. 

broke  down  under  the  evil  tidings.  As  he  lay  sick  news  was 
brought  to  him  that  his  wife  had  given  birth  to  a  child.  Hearing 
that  the  child  was  a  girl,  and  remembering  how  the  heiress  of  the 
Bruces  had  brought  the  crown  to  the  House  of  Stuart  (see  p.  295), 
he  was  saddened  by  the  thought  that  the  Stuart  name  also  would 
come  to  an  end.  "It  came  with  a  lass,"  he  murmured,  " and  It 
will  go  with  a  lass."  In  a  few  days  he  died,  and  his  infant  daughter, 
the  Queen  of  Scots,  received  the  name  of  Mary.^ 

24.  War  with  Scotland  and  France.  1542 — 1546. — Henry, 
anxious  to  disarm  Scottish  hostility,  proposed  a  marriage  between 
his  son  Edward  and  the  young  queen.  The  proposal  was  rejected, 
and  an  alliance  formed  between  Scotland  and  France.  In  1544 
Henry,  having  formed  an  alliance  with  Charles  V.,  who  was  now 
at  war  with  France,  invaded  France  and  took  Boulogne  after  a 

1  James's  foreboding  was  not  realised,  because  Mary  married  a  Stuart* 


40t> 


THE  ROYAL  SUPREMACY 


1544 


long    siege— thus    enlarging    the    English    possessions    in  ,the 
neighbourhood  of  Calais — whilst  Charles  concluded  a  peace  with 


Francis  at  Cr6py  and  left  fii's  ally  in  the  Turch.     In  the  same  year 
Henry  sent  Lord  Hertford,  Jane   Seymour's  brother,  to  invade 


1544 


THE  SIEGE  OF  BOULOGNE 


407 


Part  of  the  siege  of  Boulogne  by  Henry  VIII.,  1544,  showing  military  operations  :  from 
an  engraving  made  by  Vertue  for  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  from  the  now  destroyed 
painting  at  Cowdray  House. 


4o8 


THE  ROYAL   SUPREMACY 


1544 


I 544- I 546 


THE  ENGLISH  LITANY 


409 


Scotland.  Hertford  burnt  every  house  and  cottage  between  Berwick 
and  Edinburgh,  took  Edinburgh  itself,  and  burnt  the  town.  In  1546 
peace  was  made  between  England  and  France,  in  which  Scotland 
was  included.  The  war  had  been  expensive,  and  in  1544  Parliament 
had  come  to  Henry's  help  by  enacting  that  he  need  not  repay  a 
loan  which  he  had  gathered,  yet  even  then  Henry  had  had  recourse 
to  the  desperate  remedy  of  debasing  the  coinage. 


Armour  as  worn  In  the  reign  of  Henry        Margaret,  wife  of  John  Lymsey :  from 
VIII.  :    from  the  brass  of  John  her    brass    in    Hackney  Church, 

Lymsey,  1545,  in  Hackney  Church.  showing  the  costume  of  alady  circa 

1545. 


25.  The  Litany  and  the  Primer.  1544— 1545.— In  1544,  when 
Henry  was-fe^sie^g  Boulogne,  Cranmer  ordered  prayers  to  be 
offered  for  hissiSce?5r— -Lu^the  true  spirit  of  the  Renascence  he 
wished  these  prayers  to  bemtenigibl^^and  directed  that  they 
should  be  in  English.  In  the  same  year  he'^rxMUposed  the  English 
Litany,  intended  to  be  recited  by  priests. and  peopfe'gQin^  in  pro- 
cession. This  Litany  was  the  foundation-stone  of  the  futurfe  Book 
II.  "^  ^ 


410  THE  ROYAL  SUPREMACY  I545-I545 

of  Common  Prayer.  It  was  issued  in  1544  together  with  a  Primer, 
or  book  of  private  prayer,  also  in  English.  In  the  public  services 
the  Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Ten  Commandments  were 
to  be  in  English,  the  remainder  being  left  in  Latin  as  before. 

26.  The  Last  Days  of  Henry  VIII.     1545 — 1547.— When  once 


V 


Thomas  Howard,  third  Duke  of  Norfolk,  1473  (?)— 1554  : 
from  the  picture  by  Holbein  at  Windsor  Castle. 

inquiring  intelligence  is  let  loose  on  an  antiquated  system,  it  is 
hard  to  say  where  the  desire  of  making  alterations  will  stop,  and 
there  are  reasons  to  believe  that  Henry  was  contemplating  further 
changes.  There  were  two  parties  at  court,  the  one  anxious  to  resist 
further  change,  headed,  amongst  the  temporal  lords,  by  the  Duke  of 


I54S-I547  LAST  DAYS  OF  HENRY  VIII.  411 

Norfolk  and  his  son,  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  and  amongst  the  bishops 
by  Gardiner  ;  the  other,  desiring  doctrinal  innovations,  especially 
if  money  was  to  be  got  by  them,  headed  by  the  Earl  of  Hertford. 
In  1545  an  Act  had  been  passed  for  the  dissolution  of  chantries, 
hospitals,  and  free  chapels.  The  chantriQs  had  been  founded  for 
the  maintenance  of  priests  to  say  mass  for  the  souls  of  the  founders, 
and  it  was  convenient  for  those  who  sought  to  divert  this  main- 
tenance to  their  own  use  to  believe  that  it  was  wrong  to  pray  for 
the  dead.  In  the  end  of  1546  Henry  was  taken  ill,  and,  feeling 
himself  to  be  dying,  ordered  the  arrest  of  Norfolk  and  Surrey  on 
charges  of  treason.      It  is  probable  that  Henry  turned  against  ♦ 

Norfolk  and  Surr§xJ3ecause  he  thought  Hertford,  as  the  uncle  of  CKTVv- 
the  young  Prince  of  Wales,  more  likely  to  be  faithful  to  the  future 
king.  On  January  27,  1547,  Surrey  was  executed.  His  father  was 
to  have  suffered  on  the  28th.  Before  he  reached  the  scaffold, 
Henry  died,  and  he  was  conducted  back  to  prison.  Henry,  before 
his  death,  had  done  something  to  provide  against  the  danger  of  a 
disputed  succession.  An  Act  of  Parliament,  passed  in  1544,  had 
given  back  to  Mary  and  Elizabeth  the  places  in  the  line  of  inherit- 
ance to  which  they  would  have  been  entitled  if  no  doubt  had  ever 
been  cast  on  the  legitimacy  of  their  birth,^  and  had  authorised 
Henry  to  provide  by  will  for  the  future  occupancy  of  the  throne  in 
case  of  the  failure  of  his  own  descendants.  In  accordance  with  /  g 
this  Act  he  left  the  crown,  in  case  of  such  failure,  to  the  descendants 
of  his  younger  sister  Mary,  leaving  out  those  of  his  elder  sister 
Margaret,  with  whose  son,  James  V.,  he  had  had  so  much  reason 
to  be  displeased. 

1  Genealogy  of  the  children  of  Henry  VIII.  : — 

(i)  Catharine  =  Henry  VIII,  =(2)  Anne     =(3)  Jane  Seymour  =(4)  Anne  of 
of  Aragon  I  I       Boleyn     I  Cleves 

I  I  I  =(5)  Catherine 

Mary  Elizabeth  Edward  VI.  Howard 

(1553-1558)        (1558-1603)     {1547-1553)  -(6)  Catherine 

Parr 


412  EDWARD   VI.  1 547-1 54« 


CHAPTER  XXVIl 

EDWARD  VI.   AND   MARY 
EDWARD   VI.,    1547—1553-      MARY,    1553— 1558. 

LEADING   DATES 

Somerset's  Protectorate 1547 

First  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI 1549 

Fall  of  Somerset 1549 

Second  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI.        .        .        .        .        .  1552 

Death  of  Edward  VI.  and  accession  of  Mary       .        .        .  1553 

Mary's  marriage  with  Philip 1554 

Submission  to   Rome  and   re-enactment  of  the    heresy 

laws 1554 

Beginning  of  the  persecution 1555 

War  with  France         . 1557 

Lossof  Calais  and  death  of  Mary    ......  1558 


K 


f~ 


1.  Somerset  becomes  Protector.  1547. — The  new  king,  Ed- 
ward VI.,  was  but  a  boy,  and  Henry  had  directed  that  England 
should  be  governed  during  his  son's  minority  by  a  body  composed  of 
the  executors  of  his  will  and  other  councillors,  in  which  neither  the 
partisans  of  change  nor  the  partisans  of  the  existing  order  should 
be  strong  enough  to  have  their  own  way.  The  leading  innovators, 
pretending  to  be  anxious  to  carry  out  his  wishes,  asserted  that  he 
had  been  heard  to  express  a  desire  that  they  should  be  made  peers 
or  advanced  in  the  peerage,  and  should  receive  large  estates  out 
of  the  abbey  lands.  After  gaining  their  object,  they  set  aside 
Henry's  real  plan  for  the  government  of  the  realm,  and  declared 
Hertford  (who  now  became  Duke  of  Somerset)  to  be  Protector.  A 
council  was  formed,  from  which  Gardiner  and  the  Lord  Chancellor 
Wriothesley  were  excluded  as  likely  to  take  part  against  them. 

2.  The  Scotch  War.  1547— 1548.— Somerset  was  as  greedy 
of  Church  property  as  the  greediest,  but  he  was  covetous  also  of 
popularity,  and  had  none  of  that  moderating  influence  which  Henry, 
with  all  his  faults,  possessed.  He  had  always  too  many  irons  in 
the  fire,  and  had  no  sense  of  the  line  which  divides  the  possible 
from  the  impossible.  His  first  thought  was  to  intervene  in  Scot- 
land. For  some  time  past  Protestant  missionaries  had  been  at- 
tempting to  convert  the  Scottish  people,  but  most  of  them  had 
been  caught  and  burnt.     Cardinal  Beaton,  the  Archbishop  of  St. 


1 546-1 547  CRANMER  AND    THE   CHURCH  413 

Andrews,  had  lately  burnt  George  Wishart,  a  noted  Protestant. 
In  1546  the  Cardinal  was  murdered  in  revenge  by  a  party  of  Pro- 
testants, who  seized  on  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews.  A  French  fleet, 
however,  recaptured  the  castle,  and  Somerset,  who  had  sent  no 
help  to  the  Protestants  in  St.  Andrews,  marched  into  Scotland  in 
the  hope  of  putting  an  end  to  all  future  troubles  between  the 
kingdoms  by  marrying  the  young  Queen  of  Scots  to  Edward.  He 
carried  with  him  a  body  of  foreign  mercenaries  armed  with  the 
improved  weapons  of  Continental  warfare,  and  with  their  help  he 
defeated  and  slaughtered  the  Scotch  army  at  Pinkie_Clgiigh,  burnt 
Holyrood  and  Leith,  and  carried  destruction  far  and  wide.  Such 
rough  wooing  exasperated  the  Scots,  and  in  1548  they  formed  a 
close  alliance  with  Henry  II.,  who  had  succeeded  Francis  I.  as 
king  of  France,  and  sent  their  young  queen  across  the  sea,  where 
she  was  married  to  Henry's  eldest  son,  the  Dauphin  Francis. 
Somerset  had  gained  nothing  by  his  violence. 

3.  Cranmer's  Position  in  the  Church  of  England.  1547.— 
Somerset's  ecclesiastical  reforms  were  as  rash  as  his  political  enter- 
prises. Cramner  had  none  0/  that  moral  strength  which  would 
have  made  some  men  spurn  an  alliance  with  the  unscrupulous 
politicians  of  the\ime.  He  was  a  learned  student,  and  through 
long  study  had  adoj^ed  the  principle  that  where  Scripture  was 
hard  to  understand  it  was  to  be  interpreted  by  the  consent  of  the 
writers  of  the  first  ages  oHChristianity.  As  he  had  also  convinced 
himself  that  the  writers  of  th\first  six  centuries  had  known  nothing 
of  the  doctrine  of  transubstanti^on,  he  was  now  prepared  to  reject 
it — though  he  had  formerly  notNanly  believed  it,  but  had  taken 
part  in  burning  men  who  denied  i^.  It  is  quite  possible  that  if 
Henry  had  been  still  alive  Cranmer, would  have  been  too  much 
overawed  to  announce  that  he  had  chaA^ed  his  opinion.  His  exact 
shade  of  belief  at  this  time  is  of  less  importance  than  the  method 
by  which  he  reached  it.  In  accepting  theMoctrines  and  practices 
of  the  existing  Church  till  they  were  tested  and  found  wanting  by 
a  combination  of  human  reason  and  historical  study  of  the  scrip- 
tures, interpreted  in  doubtful  points  by  the  teacliing  of  the  writers 
of  the  early  Church,  Cranmer  more  than  any  one  else  preserved 
the  continuity  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  laid  down  the  lines 
On  which  it  was  afterwards  to  develop  itself.  There  was,  therefore, 
a  great  gulf  between  Cranmer  and  the  advanced  Protestants,  who, 
however  much  they  might  differ  from  one  another, 'agreed  in 
drawing  inferences  from  the  Scripture  itself,  without  doubling 
themselves  whether  these  inferences  conformed  in  any  way  to  the 


414 


EDWARD    VI. 


t547 


earlier  teaching-r-^JQuS-^LUlf  was  constantly  widening  as  time  went 
on,  and  eventu  ally  split  English  Protestantism  into  fractions. 
Y*  4.  Ecclesiastical  Reforms.  1547— 1548.— In  1547  a  fresh  blow 
was  struck  at  the  devotions  of  the  people.  In  the  churches — by 
the  order  of  the  Government — there  was  much  smashing  of  images 
and  of  painted  glass  bright  with  the  figures  of  saints  and  angels. 


Thomas  Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1533-1556  :  from  a 
painting  dated  1547,  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge. 


Gardiner,  who  protested  that  the  Government  had  no  authority 
to  alter  religion  till  the  king  was  of  age,  was  sent  to  prison  as 
the  easiest  mode  of  confuting  him.  As  Parliaments  were  usually 
packed  in  those  days,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  nation  was  eager 
for  changes  because  Parliament  ordered  them.  There  was,  how- 
ever, no  difficulty  in  filling  the  benches  of  the  House  of  Commons 
with  men  who  profited  by  the  plunder  of  the  Church,  and  when 


y 


K 


ir: 


1548-1549  PROGI^ESS  OF  THE  REFORMATiON  415 

Parliament  met,  it  showed  itself  innovating  enough.  It  repealed 
all  the  statutes  giving  special  powers  to  Henry  VIII.  and  all  laws 
against  heresy.  It  also  passed  an  Act  vesting  in  the  reigning  king 
the  whole  of  the  chantries  and  other  like  foundations  which  Henry 
had  been  permitted  to  take,  but  which  he  had  left  untouched. 
Cranmer,  indeed,  would  have  been  glad  if  the  money  had  been 
devoted  to  the  relief  of  the  poorer  clergy,  but  the  grasping  spirit  of 
the  laymen  was  too  strong  for  him.  So  violent  was  the  race  for 
wealth  that  the  Act  decreed  the  confiscation  even  of  the  endow- 
ments of  lay  corporations,  such  as  trading  companies  and  guilds, 
on  the  excuse  that  part  of  their  funds  was  applied  to  religious 
purposes.  It  was  soon,  however,  found  that  an  attempt  to  enforce 
this  part  of  the  Act  would  cause  resistance,  and  it  was  therefore 
abandoned.  In  1548  the  Government  issued  orders  abolishing  a 
great  variety  of  Church  practices,  and,  in  consequence  of  the 
opposition  offered  by  the  clergy  to  these  sudden  measures  ordered 
that  no  sermons  should  be  preached  except  by  a  few  licensed 
preachers. 

5.  The  First  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI.  1549.— In  1549 
Parliament  authorised  the  issue  of  a  Prayer  Book  in  English,  now 
known  as  the  First  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI.  The  same  Par- 
liament also  passed  an  Act  permitting  the  marriage  of  the  clergy. 

6.  The    Insurrection   in   the   West.      1549. — Somerset's    own 
rother,  Lord  Seymour  of  Sudley,  was  sent  to  the  block  by  this 

Parliament.  He  had  spoken  rashly  against  the  Protector's  govern- 
ment, but  it  has  been  thought  by  some  that  his  main  fault  was  his 
strong  language  against  the  rapacity  with  which  Church  property 
was  being  divided  amongst  the  rich.  That  rapacity  was  now 
reaching  its  height.  The  Protector  had  set  an  evil  example  in 
order  to  raise  the  palace  which,  though  it  has  since  been  rebuilt, 
still  bears  the  name  of  Somerset  House.  He  had  not  only  seized 
on  a  vast  amount  of  ecclesiastical  property,  but  had  pulled  down 
a  parish  church  and  had  carted  off  the  bones  of  the  dead  from 
their  graves.  The  Reformers  themselves,  men  of  the  study  as 
most  of  them  were,  had  gone  much  farther  than  the  mass  of  the 
people  were  prepared  to  follow.  In  1549  an  insurrection  burst  out 
in  Devon  and  Cornwall  for  the  restoration  of  the  old  religion,  which 
was  only  suppressed  with  difficulty. 

7.  Ket's  Rebellion.     1549. — Another  rising  took  place  in  Nor- 
olk,  headed  by  Ket,  a  tanner.     Ket's  rebellion  was  directed  not 

so  much  against  ecclesiastical  reforms,  as  against  civil  oppression. 
The  gentry,  who  had  been  enriching  themselves  at  the  expense  of 


f 


4i6  EDWARD    VL  1549 

the  clergy,  had  also  been  enriching  themselves  at  the  expense  of 
the  poor.  The  inclosures  against  which  More  had  testified  were 
multiplied,  and  the  poor  man's  claims  were  treated  with  contempt. 
Ket  gathered  his  followers  under  a  tree,  which  he  called  the  Oak 
of  Reformation,  on  Household  Hill,  outside  Norwich,  and  sent  them 
to  pull  down  the  palings  of  the  inclosures.  The  Earl  of  Warwick 
— the  son  of  that  Dudley  who,  together  with  Empson,  had  been 
the  object  of  popular  hatred  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VH.  (see  p.  357) 
— dispersed  the  insurgents  with  great  slaughter  ;  but  it  was  noted 
that  both  here  and  in  the  West  the  Government  was  driven  to  use 
the  bands  of  German  and  Italian  mercenaries  which  Somerset  had 
gathered  for  the  war  in  Scotland.  It  was  the  first  time  since  the 
days  of  JjoluQ-  (see  p.  182)  that  foreign  troops  had  been  used  to 
crush  an  English  rising. 

8.  The  Fall  of  Somerset.  1549. — Somerset  no  longer  pleased 
any  single  party.  His  invasion  of  Scotland  had  led  to  a  war  with 
France,  and  to  carry  on  that  war  he  had  found  it  necessary  to 
debase  the  coinage  still  further  than  it  had  been  debased  by  Henry 
VIII.  All  the  disturbance  of  trade,  as  well  as  the  disturbance  of 
religion,  was  laid  to  his  door.  At  the  same  time  he  was  too  soft- 
hearted to  satisfy  his  colleagues  in  the  Council,  and  had  shown 
himself  favourable  to  the  outcry  against  inclosures.  Accordingly, 
before  the  end  of  1549  his  colleagues  rose  against  him,  and  thrust 
him  into  the  Tower.  The  Protectorate  was  abolished.  Hence- 
forth the  Council  was  to  govern,  but  the  leading  man  in  the 
Council  was  Warwick. 

9.  Warwick  and  the  Advanced  Reformers.  1549. — Religion 
was  a  matter  to  which  Warwick  was  supremely  indifferent.  It 
was  an  open  question  when  he  rose  to  power  whether  he  would 
pr5l€LCt  the  men  of  the  old  religion  or  the  advanced  reformers.  He 
chose  ^6,  .protect  the  advanced  reformers.  Even  before  Somerset's 
fall  Cranrh'er  had  been  pushing  his  inquiries  still  farther,  and  was 
trying  to  find^  some  common  ground  with  Zwinglian  (see  p.  399) 
and  other  reformers,  who  went  far  beyond  Luther.  Foreign 
preachers,  such  as,  Bucer  and  Peter  Martyr,  were  introduced 
to  teach  religion  to  the  English,  as  foreign  soldiers  had  been 
introduced  to  teach  thexn  obedience.  Bishops  were  now  ap- 
pointed by  the  king's  letters-patent,  without  any  form  of  election. 
Gardiner  and  Bonner,  refusing  to  accept  the  new  state  of  things, 
were  deprived  of  their  sees  bf  Winchester  and  London,  and 
Ponet  and  Ridley  set  in  their  places.  Ridley's  moral  character 
was  as  distinguished  as  Ponet's  was  contemptible.      Hooper  was 


iS4i5-i5Si  WARWICK S  ADMINISTRATION  417 

made  Bishop  of  Gl^si^ster.  For  some  time  he  hung  back,  refusing 
to  wear  the  episcopal  vestijients  as  being  a  mark  of  Antichrist,  but 
at  last  he  allowed  himself  to'^b^consecrated  in  them,  though  he 
cast  them  off  as  soon  as  the  ceremony  was  over. 

10.  Latimer's  Sermons.  1548— 1550. — Latimer  haosrefused  to 
return  to  the  bishopric  from  which  be  had  been  thrust  dv  Henry 
VIII.,  but  he  lashed  from  the  pulpit  the  vices  of  the  age,  speaking 


\ 


Nicholas  Ridley,  Bishop  of  London,  1550-1553  :  from  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

plainly  in  the  presence  of  the  court  of  its  greed  and  oppression.  It 
was  not  enough,  he  said,  for  sinners  to  repent :  let  th^s^make  restitu- 
tion of  their  ill-gotten  gains.  In  1550  the  courtiers  bechme  tired  of 
his  reproofs,  and  he  was  no  longer  allowed  to  preach  before  the  king. 
II.  Warwick  and  Somerset.  1550— 1552.— In  1550  Warwick 
.was  compelled  to  make  a  peace  with  France,  and  gave  up  Boulogne 
as  its  price.  In  1551  he  was  very  nearly  drawn  into  war  with  the 
Emperor  on  account  of  his  refusal  to  allow  mass  to  be  celebrated 


4i8  EDWARD    VI.  1551-1552 

in  the  household  of  the  king's  sister,  Mary.  Finally,  however,  he 
gave  way,  and  peace  was  maintained.  There  was  a  fresh  issue  of 
base  money,  and  a  sharp  rise  of  prices  in  consequence.  Now  that 
there  were  no  monasteries  left  to  plunder,  bishoprics  were  stripped 
of  their  revenues,  or  compelled  to  surrender  their  lands.  Hooper 
was  given  the  ecclesiastical  charge  of  the  see  of  Worcester  in 
addition  to  that  of  Gloucester,  but  he  was  driven  to  surrender  all 
the  income  of  the  bishopric  of  Gloucester.  The  see  of  Durham 
was  not  filled  up,  and  before  the  end  of  the  reign  it  was  suppressed 
by  Act  of  Parliament,  and  ceased  to  have  a  legal  existence  till  it 
was  restored  by  Edward's  successor.  So  unpopular  did  Warwick 
become  that  Somerset  began  to  talk  as  though  he  might  supplant 
his  supplanter.  His  rash  words  were  carried  to  the  young  king, 
who  had  for  some  time  shown  an  interest  in  pubbc  affairs,  and 
who  now  took  the  part  of  Warwick,  whom  he  created  Duke  of 
Northumberland,  against  his  own  uncle.  Somerset  was  arrested, 
and  in  1552  was  tried  and  beheaded. 

12.  The  Second  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI.  1552.— In  1552 
Parliament  authorised  the  issue  of  a  revised  Prayer  Book,  known 
as  the  Secbod  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI.  The  first  book  had 
been  framed  oy  the  modification  of  the  old  worship  under  the 
influence  of  Lutheranism.  The  second  book  was  composed  under 
the  influence  of  the  Swiss  Reformers.  The  tendency  of  the  two 
books  may  be  gathered  from  the  words  ordered  to  be  employed  in 
the  administration  of  the  bread  in  the  Communion.  In  the  first 
Prayer  Book  they  had  been  :  "The  Body  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
which  was  given  for  thee,  preserve  thy  body  and  soul  unto  ever- 
lasting life."  In  the  second  they  were  :  "  Take  and  eat  this  in 
remembrance  that  Christ  died  for  thee,  and  feed  on  Him  in  thy 
heart  by  faith  with  thanksgiving.'^'.  There  were  some  who  urged 
that  the  Communion  should  no  lon^^er  be  received  kneeling.  It 
was  significant  that  their  leaders  wer^-foreigners — John  Alasco,  a 
Pole,  and  John  Knox,  a  Scot,  who  was  hereafter  to  be  the  father 
of  a  Scottish  reformation  more  drastic  than  that  of  England. 
Cranmer  withstood  them  successfully.  The  dispute  marked  the 
point  beyond  which  the  spirit  of  the  Renascence  refused  to  go.  In 
the  midst  of  his  innovations  Cranmer  preserved  not  only  a  reverent 
spirit,  but  an  admiration  for  the  devotional  style  of  the  prayers  of 
the  medieval  Church,  which  he  therefore  maintained  even  in  the 
midst  of  the  great  changes  made,  mainly  at  least  by  himself,  in 
the  second  Prayer  Book.  Happily,  amidst  these  disputations, 
there  was  one  point  on  which  both  parties  could  combine — namely, 


1 550-1 55 1     POUNDATION  OF   GRAMMAR-SCHOOLS  419 

on  the  encouragement  of  education.  The  reign  of  Edward  VI.  is 
marked  by  the  foundation  of  grammar-schools — too  scantily  carried 
out,  but  yet  in  such  a  measure  as  to  mark  the  tendencies  of  an  age 
which  was  beginning  to  replace  the  mainly  ecclesiastic  education 
of  the  monasteries  by  the  more  secular  education  of  ^odem  times. 
13.  The  Forty-two  Articles.     1553. — Edward  was^iow  a  pre- 


King  Edward  VI.  :  from  a  picture  belonging  to  H.  Hucks  Gibbs,  Esq. 

cocious  yotitji,  taught  by  much  adulation  to  be  confident  in  his  own 
powers.  He  "had  learnt  to  regard  all  defection  from  Protestant 
orthodoxy  as  a  crime.  The  statute  which  repealed  the  heresy  laws 
did  not  altogether  stop  ti^e  burning  of  heretics,  as  the  lawyers  dis- 
covered that  heresy  was  punishable  by  the  common  law.  In  1550 
Joan  Bocher  was  burnt  for  denying^  the  Incarnation,  and  in  1551  Van 
Parris,  a  Fleming,  was  burnt  on  the  saine  charge.   The  persecution, 


Y 


420  EDWARD    VL  iS53 

however,  was  much  more  restricted  than  in  the  preceding  reign. 
Few  persons  were  punished,  and  that  only  for  opinions  of  an 
abnormal  character.  In  1553  forty- two  articles  of  faith,  after- 
wards, in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  converted  into  thirty-nine,  were 
set  forth  as  a  standard  of  the  Church's  belief  by  the  authority  of 
the  king.  So  completely  did  the  reforming  clergy  recognise  their 
entire  dependence  on  the  king,  that  by  a  slip  of  the  pen  Hooper  once 
wrote  of  'the  king's  majesty's  diocese  of  Worcester  and  Gloucester.' 

14.  Northumberland's  Conspiracy.  1553. — A  religious  system 
built  up  solely  on  the  will  of  the  king,  was  hardly  likely  to  survive 
him.  By  this  time  it  was  known  that  Edward  was  smitten  with 
consumption,  and  could  not  live.  Northumberland  cared  little 
for  religion,  but  he  cared  much  for  himself  He  knew  that  Mary 
was,  by  Henry's  will  sanctioned  by  Act  of  Parliament,  the  heiress 
of  the  throne,  and  that  if  Mary  became  queen  he  was  hardly  likely 
to  escape  the  scaffold.  He  was  daring  as  well  as  unscrupulous,  and 
he  persuaded  Edward  to  leave  the  crown  by  will  to  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  the  granddaughter  of  Mary,  Duchess  of  Suffolk,  the  younger 
sister  of  Henry  VHI.  He  secured  (as  he  hoped)  Lady  Jane's 
devotion  by  marrying  her  to  his  own  son.  Lord  Guilford  Dudley. 
As  Lady  Jane  was  a  convinced  Protestant,  Edward  at  once 
consented.  His  father,  he  thought,  had  left  the  crown  by  will 
in  the  case  of  the  failure  of  his  own  heirs  (see  p.  411),  and  why 
should  not  he  ?  He  had  been  taught  to  think  so  highly  of  the 
kingship  that  he  did  not  remember  that  his  father  had  been 
authorised  by  Act  of  Parliament  to  will  away  the  crown  in  the  case 
of  his  children's  death  without  heirs,  whereas  no  such  authority 
had  been  given  by  Parliament  to  himself  He  forced — by  com- 
mands and  entreaties — the  councillors  and  the  judges  to  sign  the 
will.  Cranmer  was  the  last  to  sign,  and  was  only  moved  to  do 
so  by  the  sad  aspect  of  his  suffering  pupil.  Then  Edward  died, 
assured  that  he  had  provided  best  for  the  Church  and  nation. 

15.  Lady  Jane  Grey.  1553. — On  July  10  Lady  Jane  Grey,  a 
pure-minded,  intelligent  girl  of  sixteen,  was  proclaimed  queen  in 
London.  She  was  a  fervent  Protestant,  and  there  were  many 
Protestants  in  London.  Yet,  so  hated  was  Northumberland,  that 
even  Protestants  would  have  nothing  to  say  to  one  who  had  been 
advanced  by  him.  Lady  Jane  passed  through  the  streets  amidst  a 
(dead  silence.  All  England  thought  as  London.  In  a  few  days 
Mary  was  at  the  head  of  30,000  men.  Northumberland  led  against 
her  what  troops  he  could  gather,  but  his  own  soldiers  threw  their 
caps  in  the  air  and  shouted  for  Queen  Mary.     On  the  19th  Mary 


1553  MARVS  FIRST  PARLIAMENT  421 

was  proclaimed  queen  in  London,  and  the  unfortunate  Jane  passed 
from  a  throne  to  a  prison.^ 

\/  16.  Mary  restores  the  Mass.  1553. — Mary,  strong  in  her 
popularity,  was  inclined  to  be  merciful.  Amongst  those  who  had 
combined  against  her  only  Northumberland  and  two  others  were 
executed — the  miserable  Northumberland  declaring  that  he  died  in 
the  old  faith.  Mary  made  Gardiner  her  Chancellor.  Some  of  the 
leading  Protestants  were  arrested,  and  many  fled  to  the  Continent. 
The  bishops  who  had  been  deprived  in  Edward's  reign  were  rein- 
stated, and  the  mass  was  everywhere  restored.  The  queen  allowed 
herself  to  be  called  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church,  and  at  first  it 
seemed  as  though  she  would  be  content  to  restore  the  religious 
system  of  the  last  year  of  Henry's  reign,  and  to  maintain  the 
,     ecclesiastical  independence  of  the  country. 

X  17.  Mary's   First  Parliament.     1553. — By  taking    this   course 

Mary  would  probably  have  contented  the  great  majority  of  her 
subjects,  who  were  tired  of  the  villainies  which  had  been  cloaked 
under  the  name  of  Protestantism,  and  who  were  still  warmly  at- 
tached to  the  religion  of  their  fathers.  She  was,  however,  anxious 
to  restore  the  authority  of  the'  Pope,  and  also  to  marry  Philip,  the 
eldest  son  of  her  cousin,  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  It  was  natural 
that  it  should  be  so.  Her  mother's  life  and  her  own  youth  had 
been  made  wretched,  not  by  Protestants,  but  by  those  who,  without 
being  Protestants,  had  wrought  the  separation  from  Rome  in  the 
days  of  Henry,  at  a  time  when  only  the  Pope's  adherents  had  main- 
tained the  legitimacy  of  her  own  birth  and  of  her  mother's  marriage. 
In  subsequent  times  of  trouble  Charles  V.  had  sympathised  with 

1  Genealogy  of  the  Greys  : — 

Henry  VII.  (1485-1509) 


Henry  VIII.  Margaret  =  James  IV.         Mary 

(1509-1547)  of  Scotland       m.  (i) 

Louis  XII, 
of  France 


(2)  Charles 

Brandon, 

Duke  of 

Suffolk 


Frances  =     Henry 

Grey, 

Marquis  of 

Dorset  and 

Duke  of 

Suffolk 


1  I  I 

Jane  Grey = Guilford  Dudley  Catherine  Grey         Mary  Grey 


422 


MARY 


1553 


her,  and  it  was  by  her  intervention  that  she  had  been  allowed  to 
continue  her  mass  in  her  brother's  reign.  Mary  also  wished  to 
restore  to  the  Church  its  lands.     On  the  other  hand,  when  Parlia- 


Queen  Mary  Tudor  :  from  a  painting  by  Lucas  de  Herre,  dated  1554,  belonging 
to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 


ment  met  it  appeared  that  her  subjects  wished  neither  to  submit  to 
Rome,  nor  to  surrender  the  property  of  which  they  had  deprived 
the  Church,  though  they  were  delighted  to  restore  the  worship  and 


1554  THE  SPANISH  MARRIAGE  423 

practices  which  had  prevailed  before  the  death  of  Henry  VI J  I. 
Parliament,  therefore,  authorised  the  re-establishment  of  the  mass, 
and  repealed  the  Act  allowing  the  clergy  to  marry,  but  it  presented 
a  petition  against  a  foreign  marriage.  Although  the  hatred  of 
Spain  which  grew  up  a  few  years  later  was  not  yet  felt,  Englishmen 
did  not  wish  their  country  to  become  a  dependent  province  on  any 
foreign  monarchy  whatever.     Mary  dissolved  Parliament  rather 

I    /than  take  its  advice. 

^^  18.  Wyatt's  Rebellion.  1554. — The  result  was  an  insurrection, 
the  aim  of  which  was  to  place  Mary's  half-sister,  Elizabeth,  on  the 
throne.  Lady  Jane's  father,  the  Duke  of  Suffolk,  was  to  raise  the 
Midlands  and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  to  raise  Kent.  Suffolk  failed, 
but  Wyatt,  with  a  large  following,  crossed  the  Thames  at  Kingston, 
and  pushed  on  towards  the  City.  His  men,  however,  were  for  the 
most  part  cut  ofT  in  an  engagement  near  Hyde  Park  corner,  and  it 
was  with  only  three  hundred  followers  that  he  reached  Ludgate — 
to  find  the  gate  closed  against  him.  '  I  have  kept  touch,'  he  said, 
and  suffered  himself  to  be  led  away  a  prisoner.  Mary  was  no 
longer  merciful.  Not  only  Suffolk  and  Wyatt,  but  the  innocent 
Lady  Jane  and  her  young  husband,  Guilford  Dudley,  were  sent  to 
the  block.  Elizabeth  herself  was  committed  to  the  Tower.  She 
fully  believed  that  she  was  to  die,  and  sat  herself  down  on  a  wet 
stone,  refusing  for  some  time  to  enter.  In  many  ways  she  had 
shown  that  she  bore  no  goodwill  to  her  sister  or  her  sister's  plans, 
but  she  had  been  far  too  prudent  to  commit  to  writing  any  words 
expressing  sympathy  with  Wyatt.  Being  far  too  popular  to  be 
safely  put  to  death  on  any  testimony  which  was  not  convincing, 
Elizabeth  was  before  long  removed  from  the  Tower  and  placed  at 
Woodstock,  under  the  charge  of  Sir  Henry  Bedingfield,  but  was 
after  a  few  months  allowed  to  retire  to  Hatfield. 
\}\  19.  The  Queen's  Marriage. — A  Parliament  which  met  in  April 
1554  gave  its  consent  to  Mary's  marriage,  but  it  would  not  pass  Bills 
to  restore  the  old  statutes  for  the  persecution  of  heretics.  Though 
it  was  now  settled  that  the  queen  was  to  marry  Philip,  yet  never 
was  a  wooer  so  laggard.  For  some  weeks  he  would  not  even  write 
to  his  betrothed.  The  fact  was  that  she  was  twelve  years  older 
than  himself,  and  was  neither  healthy  nor  good-looking.  Philip, 
however,  loved  the  English  crown  better  than  he  loved  its  wearer, 
and  in  July  he  crossed  the  sea  and  was  married  at  Winchester  to 
the  queen  of  England.  Philip  received  the  title  of  king,  and  the 
names  of  Philip  and  Mary  appeared  together  in  all  official  docu- 
ments and  their  heads  on  the  coins. 


424  MARY  1 554-1 555 

^^  2o.  The  Submission  to  Rome.  1554. — After  the  marriage  a 
new  Parliament  was  called,  more  subservient  than  the  last.  In 
most  things  it  complied  with  Mary's  wishes.  It  re-enacted  the 
statutes  for  the  burning  of  heretics  and  agreed  to  the  reconciliation 
of  the  Church  of  England  to  the  see  of  Rome,  but  it  would  not  sur- 
render the  abbey  lands.  Only  after  their  possession  had  been 
confirmed  did  it  give  its  consent  to  the  acknowledgment  of  the 
Pope's  authority.  Then  Cardinal  Pole  (see  p.  399),  who  had  been 
sent  to  England  as  the  Pope's  legate,  was  allowed  to  receive  the 
submission  of  England.  The  queen,  the  king,  and  both  Houses 
knelt  before  him,  confessed  their  sin  of  breaking  away  from  the 
Roman  see,  and  received  absolution  from  his  mouth.  To  Mary 
the  moment  was  one  of  inexpressible  joy.  She  had  grieved  over  the 
separation  from  Rome  as  a  sin  burdening  her  own  conscience,  and 
she  believed  with  all  her  heart  that  the  one  path  to  happiness, 
temporal  and  eternal,  for  herself  and  her  realm,  was  to  root  out 
heresy,  in  the  only  way  in  which  it  seemed  possible,  by  rooting  out 
the  heretics, 
"^s/  21.  The  Beginning  of  the  Persecution.  1555. — It  was  not  only 
Mary  who  thought  it  meet  that  heretics  should  be  burnt.  John 
Rogers,  who  was  the  first  to  suffer,  had  in  the  days  of  Edward 
pleaded  for  the  death  of  Joan  Bocher  (see  p.  419).  He  was 
followed  to  the  stake  by  Bishop  Hooper,  who  was  carried  to 
Gloucester,  that  he  might  die  at  the  one  of  his  two  sees  which 
he  had  stripped  of  its  property  to  enrich  the  Crown  (see  p.  418). 
He  and  many  another  died  bravely  for  their  faith,  as  More  and 
Forest  had  died  for  theirs  (see  pp.  394,  398).  Rowland  Taylor,  for 
instance  (a  Suffolk  clergyman),  was  condemned  in  London  to  be 
burnt,  and  sent  to  his  own  county  to  die.  As  he  left  his  prison  in 
the  dark  of  the  early  morning  he  found  his  wife  and  children 
waiting  for  him  in  the  street.  He  was  allowed  to  stop  for  a  moment, 
and  knelt  down  on  the  stones,  repeating  the  Lord's  Prayer  with  his 
family.  "  Farewell,  my  dear  wife,"  he  said,  as  soon  as  he  had  risen 
from  his  knees  ;  "  be  of  good  comfort,  for  I  am  quiet  in  my 
conscience.  God  shall  stir  up  a  father  for  my  children."  "Thanked 
be  God,'"  he  exclaimed  when  he  at  last  reached  the  village  where 
his  voice  had  once  been  heard  in  the  pulpit,  and  where  now  the 
stake  rose  up  amidst  the  faggots  which  were  to  consume  him,  "  I 
am  even  at  home  !  "  After  he  had  been  tied  to  the  stake  a  wretch 
threw  a  faggot  at  his  face.  "  O  friend,"  he  said  gently,  "  I  have 
harm  enough  :  what  needed  that  ? "  The  flames  blazed  up  around 
his  suffering  body,  and   Rowland  Taylor  entered   into  his  rest 


^ 


1556  DEATHS   OF  RIDLEY  AND   LATIMER  425 

Ridley  and  Latimer  were  burnt  at  Oxford,  in  the  town  ditch,  in 
front  of  Balliol  College.  "  Be  of  good  comfort.  Master  Ridley,  and 
play  the  man,"  cried  Latimer,  when  the  fire  was  lighted  at  his  feet. 
"  We  shall  this  day  light  such  a  candle,  by  God's  grace,  in  England, 
as  I  trust  shall  never  be  put  out." 

22.  Death  of  Cranmer.      1556. — Cranmer  would  have  accom- 
panied Ridley  and  Latimer  to  the  stake,  but  as  he  alone  of  the 


Hugh  Latimer,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  1535-39,  burnt  1555  : 
from  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

three  had  been  consecrated  a  bishop  in  the  days  when  the  Pope's 
authority  was  accepted  in  England,  it  was  thought  right  to  await  the 
Pope's  authority  forthe  execution  of  his  sentence.  In  1556  that  autho- 
rity arrived.  Cranmer's  heart  was  as  weak  as  his  head  was  strong, 
and  he  six  times  recanted,  hoping  to  save  his  life.  Mary  specially 
detested  him,  as  having  sat  in  judgment  on  her  mother  (see  p.  389), 
and  she  was  resolved  that  he  should  die.  Finding  his  recantation 
useless,  he  recovered  his  better  mind,  and  renounced  his  recantation. 


K 


426  MA/^Y  1556-1558 

"  I  have  written,"  he  said,  "many  things  untrue  ;  and  forasmuch 
as  my  hand  offended  in  writing  contrary  to  my  heart,  my  hand 
therefore  shall  be  the  first  burnt."  He  was  hurried  to  the  stake, 
and  when  the  flames  leapt  up  around  him  held  his  right  hand 
X>s,teadily  in  the  midst  of  them,  that  it  might  be  'the  first  burnt.' 
/A  23.  Continuance  of  the  Persecution.  1556— 1558. — Immediately 
after  Cranmer's  death  Pole  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
The  persecution  lasted  for  two  years  more.  The  number  of  those 
who  suffered  has  been  reckoned  at  277.  Almost  all  of  these  were 
burnt  in  the  eastern  and  south-eastern  parts  of  England.  It  was 
there  that  the  Protestants  were  the  thickest.  New  opinions  always 
flourish  more  in  towns  than  in  the  country,  and  on  this  side  of 
England  were  those  trading  towns,  from  which  communication 
with  the  Protestants  of  the  Continent  was  most  easy.  Sympathy 
with  the  sufferers  made  these  parts  of  the  kingdom  more  strongly 
Protestant  than  they  had  been  before. 

24.  The  Queen's  Disappointment.  1555 — 1556. — Mary  was  a 
"sorrowful  woman.  Not  only  did  Protestantism  flourish  all  the 
more  for  the  means  which  she  took  to  suppress  it,  but  her  own 
domestic  life  was  clouded.  She  had  longed  for  an  heir  to  carry 
on  the  work  which  she  believed  to  be  the  work  of  God,  and  she 
had  even  imagined  herself  to  be  with  child.  It  was  long  before 
she  abandoned  hope,  and  she  then  learnt  also  that  her  husband  — 
to  whom  she  was  passionately  attached — did  not  love  her,  and  had 
never  loved  anything  in  England  but  her  crown.  In  1555  Philip 
left  her.  He  had  indeed  cause  to  go  abroad.  His  father,  Charles  V., 
was  broken  in  health,  and,  his  schemes  for  making  himself  master 
of  Germany  having  ended  in  failure,  he  had  resolved  to  abdicate. 
Charles  was  obliged  to  leave  his  Austrian  possessions  to  his  brother 
Ferdinand ;  and  the  German  electors,  who  detested  Philip  and  his 
Spanish  ways,  insisted  on  having  Ferdinand  as  Emperor.  Charles 
could,  however,  leave  his  western  possessions  to  his  son,  and  in 
1556  he  completed  the  surrend-er  of  them.  Mary's  husband  then 
became  Philip  II.  of  Spam,  ruling  also  over  large  territories  in 
Italy,  over  Franche  Comte,  and  the  whole  of  the  Netherlands,  as 
well  as  over  vast  tracts  in  America,  rich  in  mines  of  silver  and  gold, 
which  had  been  appropriated  by  the  hardihood,  the  cruelty,  and 
the  greed  of  Spanish  adventurers.  No  prince  in  Europe  had  at 
his  command  so  warlike  an  army,  so  powerful  a  fleet,  and  such  an 
abounding  revenue  as  Philip  had  at  his  disposal.  Philip's  in- 
crease of  power  produced  a  strong  increase  of  the  anti-Spanish 
feeling  in  England,  and  conspiracies  were  formed  against  Mary^ 


1557-1558  DEATH  OF  MARY  427 


^ 


(X 


who  was  believed  to  be  ready  to  welcome  a  Spanish  invading 
army. 

25.  War  with  France  and  the  Loss  of  Calais.  1557 — 1558. — 
In  1557  Philip  was  at  war  with  France,  and,  to  please  a  husband 
who  loved  her  not,  Mary  declared  war  against  Philip's  enemy. 
She  sent  an  English  army  to  her  husband's  support,  but  though 
Philip  gained  a  crushing  victory  over  the  French  at  St.  Quentin, 
the  English  troops  gained  no  credit,  as  they  did  not  arrive  in  time 
to  take  part  in  the  battle.  In  the  winter,  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise, 
an  able  French  warrior,  threatened  Calais.  Mary,  who,  after 
wringing  a  forced  loan  from  her  subjects  in  the  summer,  had  spent 
it  all,  had  little  power  to  help  the  governor,  Lord  Wentworth, 
and  persuaded  herself  that  the  place  was  in  no  danger.  Guise, 
however,  laid  siege  to  the  town.  The  walls  were  in  disrepair  and 
the  garrison  too  small  for  defence.  On  January  6,  1558,  Guise 
stormed  Calais,  and  when,  a  few  days  afterwards,  he  also  stormed 
the  outlying  post  of  Guisnes,  the  last  port  held  by  the  English  in 
France  fell  back  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  Calais  was  now 
again  a  French  town,  after  having  been  in  the  hands  of  strangers 
for  2 1 1  years. 

26.  Death  of  Mary.  1558. — The  loss  of  Calais  was  no  real 
misfortune  to  England,  but  it  was  felt  as  a  deep  mortification  both 
by  the  queen  and  by  her  people.  The  people  distrusted  Mary  too 
much  to  support  her  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  They  were 
afraid  of  making  Philip  more  powerful.  Mary,  hoping  that  Heaven 
might  yet  be  gracious  to  her,  pushed  on  the  persecution,  and  sent 
Protestants  in  large  numbers  to  the  stake.  Philip  had  visited  her 
the  year  before,  in  order  to  persuade  her  to  join  him  against  France, 
and  she  again  fancied  herself  to  be  with  child.  Her  husband  had 
once  more  deserted  her,  and  she  now  knew  that  she  was  suffering — 
without  hope — from  dropsy.  On  November  17  she  died,  sad  and 
lonely,  wondering  why  all  that  she  had  done,  as  she  believed  on 
God's  behalf,  had  been  followed  by  failure  on  every  side — by  the 
desertion  of  her  husband  and  the  hatred  of  her  subjects.  Happily 
for  himself,  Pole  too  died  two  days  afterwards.^ 

1  The  19th  is  the  date  of  Machyn's  contemporary  diary  ;  but  other  authori- 
ties make  it  the  17th  or  i8th. 


t  F3 


^ 


42S 


CHAPTER  XXVin 

THE   ELIZABETHAN   SETTLEMENT  IN   CHURCH   AND  STATE 
1558-1570 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558— 1603 

Accession  of  Elizabeth 1558 

The  Acts  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity       ....  1559 

The  Treaty  of  Edinburgh  .        .*.....  1560 

Mary  Stuart  lands  in  Scotland 1561 

End  of  the  Council  of  Trent 1563 

Marriage  of  Mary  and  Darnley 1565 

Murder  of  Darnley 1567 

Escape  of  Mary  into  England 1568 

The  rising  in  the  North  1569 

Papal  excommunication  of  Elizabeth 1570 


I.  Elizabeth's  Difficulties.  1558. — Elizabeth,  when  she  received 
the  news  of  her  sister's  death,  was  sitting  under  an  oak  in  Hatfield 
Park  (see  p.  423).  "  This,"  she  exclaimed,  "  is  the  Lord's  doing, 
and  it  is  marvellous  in  our  eyes."  Her  life's  work  was  to  throw 
down  all  that  Mary  had  attempted  to  build  up,  and  to  build  up  all 
that;  Mary  had  thrown  down.  It  was  no  easy  task  that  she  had 
undertaken.  The  great  majority  of  her  subjects  would  have  been 
well  pleased  with  a  return  to  the  system  of  Henry  VHI. — that  is  to 
say,  with  the  retention  of  the  mass,  together  with  its  accompanying 
system  of  doctrine,  under  the  protection  of  the  royal  supremacy,  in 
complete  disregard  of  the  threats  or  warnings  of  the  Pope.  Eliza- 
beth was  shrewd  enough  to  see  that  this  could  not  be.  On  the 
one  hand,  the  Protestants,  few  as  they  were,  were  too  active  and 
intelligent  to  be  suppressed,  and,  if  Mary's  burnings  had  been 
unavailing,  it  was  not  likely  that  milder  measures  would  succeed. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  experience  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  had 
shown  that  immutability  in  doctrine  and  practice  could  only  be 
secured  by  dependence  upon  the  immutable  Papacy,  and  Elizabeth 
had  made  up  her  mind  that  she  would  depend  on  no  one  but  herself. 
She  would  no  more  place  herself  under  the  Pope  than  she  would 
place  herself  under  a  husband.  She  cared  nothing  for  theo- 
logy, though  her  inclinations  drew  her  to  a  more  elaborate  ritual 
than  that  which  the  Protestants  had  to  offer.     She  was,  however, 


^ 


1558-1559  ECCLESIASTICAL    UNITY  429 

intensely  national,  and  was  resolved  to  govern  so  that  England 
might  be  great  and  flourishing,  especially  as  her  own  greatness 
would  depend  upon  her  success.  For  this  end  she  must  establish 
national  unity  in  the  Church,  a  unity  which,  as  she  was  well 
aware,  could  only  be  attained  if  large  advances  were  made  in  the 
direction  of  Protestantism.  There  must  be  as  little  persecution  as 
possible,  but  extreme  opinions  must  be  silenced,  because  there  was 
a  danger  lest  those  who  came  under  their  influence  would  siir  up 
civil  war  in  order  to  make  their  own  beliefs  predominant.  The 
rst  object  of  Elizabeth's  government  was  internal  peace. 
2.  The  Act  of  Uniformity  and  Supremacy.  1559. — Elizabeth 
marked  her  intentions  by  choosing  for  her  secretary  Sir  William 
Cecil,  a  cautious  supporter  of  Protestantism,  the  best  and  most 
faithful  of  her  advisers.  As  Convocation  refused  to  hear  of  any 
change  in  the  Church  services,  she  appointed  a  commission  com- 
posed of  divines  of  Protestant  tendencies,  who  recommended  the 
adoption,  with  certain  alterations,*  of  the  second  Prayer  Book  of 
Edward  VI.  Elizabeth's  first  Parliament,  which  met  in  1559,  passed 
an  Act  of  Uniformity  forbidding  the  use  of  any  form  of  public 
prayer  other  than  that  of  the  new  Prayer  Book.  The  same 
Parliament  also  passed  a  new  Act  of  Supremacy,  in  which  the 
title  of  Supreme  Head  of  the  Church  was  abandoned,  but  all  the 
ancient  jurisdiction  of  the  Crown  over  ecclesiastical  persons  was 
claimed.  This  Act  imposed  an  oath  in  which  the  queen  was 
acknowledged  to  be  the  Supreme  Governor  of  the  Realm  '  as 
well  in  all  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  things  as  temporal '  ;  but  this 
oath,  unlike  that  imposed  by  Henry  VIII.,  was  only  to  be  taken 
by  persons  holding  ofiice  or  taking  a  university  degree,  whilst 
a  refusal  to  swear  was  only  followed  by  loss  of  ofiice  or  degree. 
The  maintenance  of  the  authority  of  any  foreign  prince  or  prelate 
was  to  be  followed  by  penalties  increased  upon  a  repetition  of  the 
ofience,  and  reaching  to  a  traitor's  death  on  the  third  occasion. 

3.  The  new  Bishops  and  the  Ceremonies.  1559 — 1564. — All  the 
bishops  except  one  refusing  to  accept  the  new  order  of  things,  new 
ones  were'~5ttbsUtut^  for  them,  the  old  system  of  election  by  the 
chapters  on  a  royal  con^t^^-dire  being  restored  (see  pp.  391,  415). 
Matthew  Parker,  a  moderate  man  after  -Elizabeth's  own  heart, 
became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Very  few  ojf  the  old  clergy 
who  had  said  mass  in  Mary's  reign  refused  to  use  the  new  Prayer 

I  The  most  noteworthy  of  these  alterations  was  the  amalgamation  of 
the  forms  used  respectively  in  the  two  Prayer  Books  of  Edward  VI.  at  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Communion  (see  p.  418). 


430  THE  ELIZABETHAN  SETTLEMENT      1 559-1564 

^ook,  and  as  Elizabeth  prudently  winked  at  cases  in  which  persons 
of'iinportance  had  mass  said  before  them  in  private,  she  was  able 
to  hoJ)e  that,  by  leaving  things  to  take  their  course,  a  new  genera- 
tion would  grow  up  which  would  be  too  strong  for  the  lovers  of 
the  old  ways.  The  main  difficulty  of  the  bishops  was  with  the 
Protestants.  Many  of  those  who  had  been  in  exile  had  returned 
with  a  strengthened  belief  that  it  was  absolutely  unchristian  to 
adopt  any  vestments  or  other  ceremonies  which  had  been  used 
in  the  Papal  Church,  and  which  they,  therefore,  contumeliously 
described  as  rags  of  Antichrist.  A  large  number  even  of  the 
bishops  sympathised  with  them,  and  opposed  them  only  on  the 
ground  that,  though  it  would  have  been  better  if  surplices  and 
square  caps  had  been  prohibited,  still,  as  such  matters  were  in- 
different, the  queen  ought  to  be  obeyed  in  all  things  indifferent. 
To  Elizabeth  refusal  to  wear  the  surplice  was  not  only  an  act  of 
insubordination,  but  likely  to  give  offence  to  lukewarm  supporters 
of  the  Church  system  which  she  had  established,  and  had, 
therefore,  a  tendency  to  set  the  nation  by  the  ears.  In  Parker 
she  found  a  tower  of  strength.  He  was  in  every  sense  the 
successor  of  Cranmer,  with  all  Cranmer's  strength  but  with  none 
of  Cranmer's  weakness.  He  fully  grasped  the  principle  that  the 
Church  of  England  was  to  test  its  doctrines  and  practices  by  those 
of  the  Church  of  the  first  six  hundred  years  of  Christianity,  and 
he,  therefore,  claimed  for  it  catholicity,  which  he  denied  to  the 
Church  of  Rome;  whilst  he  had  all  Cranmer's  feeling  for  the 
maintenance  of  external  rites  which  did  not  directly  imply  the 
existence  of  beliefs  repudiated  by  the  Church  of  England. 

4.  Calvinism. — The  returning  exiles  had  brought  home  ideas 
even  more  distasteful  to  Elizabeth  than  the  rejection  of  ceremonies. 
The  weak  point  of  the  Lutherans  in  Germany,  and  of  the  reformers 
in  England,  had  been  their  dependence  upon  the  State.  This  de- 
pendence made  them  share  the  blame  which  fell  upon  rulers  who, 
like  Henry  VHL,  were  bent  on  satisfying  their  passions,  or,  like 
Northumberland,  on  appropriating  the  goods  of  others.  Even 
Elizabeth  thought  first  of  what  was  convenient  for  her  government, 
and  secondly,  if  she  thought  at  all,  of  the  quest  after  truth  and  purity. 
In  Geneva  the  exiles  had  found  a  system  in  full  working  order 
which  appeared  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  their  minds.  It  had  been 
founded  by  a  Frenchman,  John  Calvin,  who  in  1536  had  published 
The  Institution  of  the  Christian  Religion^  in  which  he  treated 
his  subject  with  a  logical  coherence  which  impressed  itself  on  all 
Protestants  who  were  in  need  of  a  definite  creed.  He  had  soon  after- 


1559  CALVINISM  431 

wards  been  summoned  to  Geneva,  to  take  charge  of  the  congrega- 
tion there,  and  had  made  it  what  was  extensively  beheved  to  be,  a 
model  Church.  With  Calvin  everything  was  rigid  and  defined,  and 
he  organised  as  severely  as  he  taught.  He  established  a  discipline 
which  was  even  more  efficacious  than  his  doctrine.  His  Church 
proclaimed  itself,  as  the  Popes  had  proclaimed  themselves,  to  be 
mdependent  of  the  State,  and  proposed  to  uphold  truth  and  right  irre- 
spective of  the  fancies  and  prejudices  of  kings.  Bishops  there  were  to 
be  none,  and  the  ministers  were'tobe  elected  by  the  congregation. 
The  congregation  was  also  to  elect  lay^elders,  whose  duty  it  was  to 
enforce  morality  of  the  strictest  kind  ;  carfl^laying,  singing  profane 
songs,  and  following  after  amusements  on  the'S^nday — or  Sabbath 
as  it  was  called  in  Geneva— being  visited  with  e3&B<jmmunication. 
The  magistrates  were  expected  to  inflict  temporal  pertal^ies  upon 
the  offender.  This  Presbyterian  system,  as  it  was  called,  "Spread 
to  other  countries,  especially  to  countries  like  France,  where  the 
Protestant  congregations  were  persecuted  by  the  Government.  In 
France  a  final  step  was  taken  in  the  Presbyterian  organisation. 
The  scattered  congregations  elected  representatives  to  meet  in 
synods  or  assemblies,  and  the  French  Government,  in  this  way, 
found  itself  confronted  by  an  ecclesiastical  representative  republic. 
^/  5.  Peace  with  France.  1559. — It  was  this  Calvinistic  system 
which  was  admired  by  many  of  the  exiles  returning  to  England, 
but  which  Elizabeth  detested  as  challenging  her  own  authority. 
Her  only  chance  of  resisting  with  success  lay  in  her  power  of 
appealing  to  the  national  instinct,  and  of  drawing  men  to  think 
more  of  unity  and  peace  at  home  than  of  that  search  after  truth 
which  inevitably  divides,  because  all  human  conceptions  of  truth 
are  necessarily  imperfect,  and  are  differently  held  by  different 
minds.  To  do  this  she  must  be  able  to  show  that  she  could  main- 
tain her  independence  of  foreign  powers.  Though  her  heart  was 
set  on  the  recovery  of  Calais,  she  was  obliged  in  1559  to  make 
peace  with  France,  obtaining  only  a  vague  promise  that  it  might 
be  restored  at  a  future  time.  Shortly  afterwards  peace  was  made 
between  France  and  Spain  at  Cateau  Cambresis.  Elizabeth  was 
aware  that,  though  neither  Philip  II.  of  Spain  nor  Henry  II.  loved 
her,  neither  of  them  would  allow  the  other  to  interfere  to  her  detri- 
ment. She  was  therefore  able  to  play  them  off  one  against  the 
other.  Her  diplomacy  was  the  diplomacy  of  her  time.  Elizabeth 
like  her  contemporaries,  lied  whenever  it  suited  her  to  lie,  and  made 
promises  which  she  never  intended  to  perform.  In  this  spirit  she 
treated  the  subject  of  her  marriage.     She  at  once  rejected  Philip, 


432  THE  ELIZABETHAN  SETTLEMENT  1559 

who,  though  he  was  her  brother-in-law,  proposed  to  marry  her 
immediately  after  her  accession,  but  when  he  suggested  other 
candidates  for  her  hand,  she  listened  without  giving  a  decided 
answer.  It  was  convenient  not  to  quarrel  with  Philip,  but  it 
yifould  be  ruinous  to  accept  a  husband  at  his  choice. 
j){^  6.  The  Reformation  in  Scotland.  1559. — Philip  was  formidable  to 
Elizabeth  because  he  might  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  English 
Catholics.  Henry  was  formidable  because  the  old  alliance  between 
France  and  Scotland,  confirmed  by  the  recent  marriage  of  the  Dau- 
phin with  Mary  Stuart,  made  it  easy  for  him  to  send  French 
troops  by  way  of  Scotland  into  England.  Early  in  Elizabeth's 
reign,  however,  events  occurred  in  Scotland  which  threatened  to 
sever  the  links  between  that  country  and  France.  The  Regent, 
Mary  of  Guise — mother  of  the  absent  queen  and  sister  of  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  the  French  conqueror  of  Calais,  and  leader  of  the 
French  Catholics — was  hostile  to  the  Protestants  not  only  by 
conviction,  but  because  there  had  long  been  a  close  alliance  between 
the  bishops  and  the  Scottish  kings  in  their  struggle  with  the  tur- 
bulent nobles.  The  wealth  of  the  bishops,  however,  great  according 
to  the  standard  of  so  poor  a  country,  tempted  the  avarice  of  the 
nobles,  and  their  profligacy,  openly  displayed,  offended  all  who 
cared  for  morality.  In  1559  a  combination  was  formed  amongst  a 
large  number  of  the  nobles,  known  as  the  Lords  of  the  Congrega- 
tion, to  assail  the  bishops.  John  Knox,  the  bravest  and  sternest 
of  Calvinists,  urged  them  on.  The  Regent  was  powerless  before 
them.  The  mass  was  suppressed,  images  destroyed,  and  monas- 
teries pulled  down.  Before  long,  however,  the  flood  seemed  about 
to  subside  as  rapidly  as  it  rose.  The  forces  of  the  lords  consisted 
of  untrained  peasants,  who  could  not  keep  the  field  when  the 
labours  of  agriculture  called  them  home,  and  rapidly  melted  away. 
Then  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation,  fearing  disaster,  called  on 
/  Elizabeth  for  help. 
^  7.  The  Claims  of  Mary  Stuart.  1559.— Elizabeth  was  decided 
enough  when  she  could  see  her  way  clearly.  When  she  did  not 
she  was  timid  and  hesitating,  giving  contradictory  orders  and 
making  contradictory  promises.  She  detested  Calvinism,  and 
regarded  rebellion  as  of  evil  example.  She  especially  abhorred 
Knox,  because  in  her  sister's  reign  he  had  written  a  book  against 
The  Monstrous  Regimen  of  Women,  disbelieving  his  assertion  that 
she  was  herself  an  exception  to  the  rule  that  no  woman  was  fit  to 
govern.  It  is  therefore  almost  certain  that  she  would  have  done 
nothing  for  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation  if  France  had  done 


1559-1560  MARY  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS  433 

nothing  for  the  Regent.  Henry  II.,  however,  was  killed  by  an 
accidental  lance-thrust  which  pierced  his  eye  in  a  tournament,  and 
on  the  accession  of  his  son  as  Francis  II.,  Mary  Stuart,  now  queen 
of  France,  assumed  the  arms  and  style  of  queen  of  England.^  The 
life-long  quarrel  between  Elizabeth  and  Mary  could  hardly  be 
staved  off.  Not  only  did  they  differ  in  religion,  but  there  was  also 
between  them  an  irreconcilable  political  antagonism  closely  con- 
nected with  their  difference  in  rehgioij.  If  the  Papal  authority  was 
all  that  Mary  believed  it  to  be,  Elizabeth  was  a  bastard  and  a 
usurper.  If  the  national  Church  of  England  had  a  right  to  in- 
dependent existence,  and  the  national  Parliament  of  England  to 
independent  authority,  Mary's  challenge  of  Elizabeth's  title  was 
an  unjustifiable  attack  on  a  sovereignty  acknowledged  by  the  con- 
stitutional authorities  of  the  English  nation. 
A^  8.  The  Treaty  of  Edinburgh.  1560.— In  spite  of  Cecil's 
urgency  Elizabeth  was  slow  to  assist  the  Scottish  rebels.  For 
some  months  Mary  of  Guise  had  been  gathering  French  troops  to 
her  support,  and  she  at  last  had  a  foreign  army  at  her  command 
powerful  enough  to  make  her  mistress  of  Scotland,  and  to  form 
the  nucleus  of  a  larger  force  which  might  afterwards  be  sufficiently 
powerful  to  make  her  mistress  of  England.  This  was  more  than 
Elizabeth  could  bear,  and  in  January  1560  she  sent  her  fleet  with 
troops  to  the  help  of  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation.  The  French 
retreated  into  Leith,  where  they  were  besieged  by  the  allied  forces. 
In  June  the  Regent  died,  and  in  July  Leith  surrendered.  By  a 
treaty  signed  at  Edinburgh  the  French  agreed  to  leave  Scotland, 
and  to  acknowledge  Elizabeth's  title  to  the  English  crown.  In 
December  P^rancis  II.  died,  and  as  his  brother,  who  succeeded  him 
as  Charles  IX.,  was  too  young  to  govern,  his  mother,  Catherine  de 
Medicis,  acted  as  regent.  Catherine  was  jealous  of  the  Duke  01 
Guise,  and  also  of  his  niece,  Mary  Stuart,  the  widow  of  her  eldest 

1  Genealogy  of  the  last  Valois  kings  of  France  : — 

Francis  L 
1515-1547 

Henry  II.  =  Catherine  de  Medicis 
1547-1559 


Francis  II.            Charles  IX.            Henry  III.  Francis,  Duke 

1559-1560             1560-1574                 Duke  of  ofAlen9on, 

Anjou,  king  afterwards 

of  France,  Duke  of  Anjou 
1574-1589 


434 


THE  ELIZABETHAN  SETTLEMENT 


:S6: 


son.^     Mary,  finding  no  longer  a  home  in  France,  was  driven  for 
refuge  to  her  own  unruly  realm  of  Scotland. 

9.  Scottish  Presbjrterianism.  1561. — The  Scots  had  not  failed 
to  profit  by  the  cessation  of  authority  following  on  the  death  of 
Mary  of  Gui"^^.  They  disclaimed  the  authority  of  the  Pope  and 
made  it  punishsC^e  to  attend  mass,  the  penalty  for  the  third  offence 
being  death.  Th^*^English  Reformation  had  been  the  work  of  the 
king  and  of  the  clergy^-^f  the  Renascence,  and  had,  therefore,  been 
carried  on  under  the  forifn  of  law.  The  Scottish  Reformation  had 
been  the  revolutionary  work  of  the  nobility  and  of  the  Calvinistic 
clergy.  In  England  the  pow6^  of  the  State  had  been  strengthened. 
In  Scotland  it  was  weakened''^  Almost  from  the  beginning  the 
nobles  who  had  taken  part  in  the\evolution  showed  signs  of  dis- 
agreement. A  few  of  them  were  ^^rnest  Protestants,  but  there 
were  more  who  cared  only  for  political  or  personal  ends.  "  I 
have  lived  many  years,"  said  the  age"^  Lord  Lindsay;  "now 
that  it  hath  pleased  God  to  let  me  see  t!^is  day  ...  I  will  say 
with  Simeon,  '  Now  lettest  Thou  thy  servantdepart  in  peace.' 
"  Hey  then  ! "  said  Maitland  of  Lethington  sarcastically,  when  he 
heard  that  the  clergy  claimed  to  govern  the  Chinch  and  own  its 
property  in  the  place  of  the  bishops,  "  we  may  all  b^r  the  barrow 
now  to  build  the  house  of  the  Lord."  Knox  organisea\the  Church 
on  a  democratic  and  Presbyterian  basis  with  Church  Ceynrts  com- 
posed of  the  minister  and  lay  elders  in  every  parish,  wuh  repre- 
sentative Presbyteries  in  every  group  of  parishes,  and  with  a^epre- 
sentative  General  Assembly  for  all  Scotland.  Like  a  prophet  oKpld, 
Knox  bitterly  denounced  those  who  laid  a  fing?r  on  the  Chur(?h's 
discipline.  The  nobles  let  him  do  as  he  would  as  far  as  religion 
was  concerned,  but  they  insisted  on  retaining  nominal  bishops,  not 


Genealogy  of  the  Guises : — 


Claude,  Duke  of  Guise 
I. 


I 

Henry 

Duke  of  Guise, 

niurdered  in  1588 


Francis,  Duke 
of  Guise, 
killed  at 

Dreux,  1563 


I 
Charles, 
Duke  of 
Mayenne 


Louis,  Cardinal 

of  Guise, 

murdei'ed  in 

1588 


Mary 

of  Guise, 

died  in 

1560 


James  V. 

king  of 

Scotland 


Mary  vStuart, 
Queen  of  Scots 


I56I 


AfARY  AND   ELIZABETH 


435 


to  rule  the  Church,  but  to  hold  the  Church  lands  and  pass  the  rents 
over  to  themselves. 

y  10.  Mary  and  Elizabeth.  1561. — In  August  1561  Mary  landed 
m  Scotland,  having  come  by  sea  because  Elizabeth  refused  to 
allow  her  to  pass  through  England  unless  she  would  renounce  her 
claim  to  the  English  crown.  Mary  would  perhaps  have  yielded  if 
Elizabeth  would  have  named  her  as  her  successor.  Elizabeth 
would  do  nothing  of  the  kind.  She  had  a  special  dislike  to  fixing 
on  any  one  as  her  successor.  About  this  time  she  threw  into  prison 
Lady  Catherine  Grey  for  committing  the  offence  of  marrying  with- 
out her  leave.  Lady  Catherine  was  the  next  sister  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  and  therefore  Elizabeth's  heir  if  the  will  of  Henry  VII L  in 
favour  of  the  Suffolk  line  (see  p.  410)  was  to  be  held  binding. 
Elizabeth  no  doubt  had  a  political  object  in  showing  no  favour  to 
either  of  her  expectant  heirs.     By  encouraging  Catherine's  hopes 


illed  '  half-sovereign  of  Elizabeth,  1562-1568. 


she  would  drive  her  Catholic  subjects  to  desperation.  By  en- 
couraging Mary's  she  would  drive  her  Protestant  subjects  to  des- 
peration. Yet  there  was  also  strong  personal  feeling  to  account 
for  her  conduct.  She  was  resolved  never  to  marry,  however  much 
her  resolution  mighc  cost  her.  Yet  she  too  was  a  very  woman, 
hungry  for  manly  companionship  and  care,  and,  though  a  politician 
to  the  core,  was  saddened  and  soured  by  the  suppression  of  her 
womanly  nature.  To  give  herself  a  husband  was  to  give  herself  a 
master,  yet  she  dallied  with  the  offers  made  to  her,  surely  not  from 
political  craft  alone.  The  thought  of  marriage,  abhorrent  to  her 
brain,  was  pleasant  to  her  heart,  and  she  could  not  lightly  speak 
the  positive  word  of  rejection.  Even  now,  in  the  vain  thought 
that  she  might  rule  a  subject,  even  if  she  became  his  wife, 
she  was  toying  with  Lord  Robert  Dudley,  the  handsome  and 
worthless  son  of  the  base  Northumberland.     So  far  did  she  carry 


> 


436  THE  ELIZABETHAN  SETTLEMENT       1562-1564 

her  flirtations  that  tales  against  her  fair  fame  were  spread  abroad, 
but  marry  him  she  never  did.  Her  treatment  of  the  Lady 
Catherine  was  doubtless  caused  far  less  by  her  fear  of  the  claims 
of  the  Suffolk  line  than  by  her  reluctance  to  think  of  one  so  near 
to  her  as  a  happy  wife,  and  as  years  grew  upon  her  she  bore 
hardly  on  those  around  her  who  refused  to  live  in  that  state 
of  maidenhood  which  she  had  inflicted  on  herself 

II.  The  French  War.  1562 — 1564. — Elizabeth  and  Mary  were 
not  merely  personal  rivals.  The  deadly  struggle  on  which  they 
had  entered  was  a  European  one,  and  the  success  or  failure  of  the 
Catholic  or  the  Protestant  cause  in  some  Continental  country  might 
determine  the  future  history  of  Britain.  In  1562  a  civil  war  broke 
out  between  the  French  Protestants — or  Huguenots,^  as  they  were 
usually  called  in  France  — and  their  Catholic  fellow-subjects.  The 
leaders  of  the  Huguenots  obtained  Elizabeth's  aid  by  offering  her 
Havre,  which  she  hoped  to  exchange  for  Calais.  The  Huguenots 
were,  however,  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Dreux,  though  Guise,  who 
commanded  the  Catholics,  was  in  the  moment  of  victory  shot  dead 
by  an  assassin.  In  1563  peace  was  patched  up  for  a  time  between 
the  French  parties,  but  Elizabeth  refused  to  surrender  Havre,  till 
a  plague  broke  out  amongst  the  English  garrison,  and  drove  the 
scanty  remnants  of  it  back  to  England.  In  1564  Elizabeth  was 
forced  to  make  peace  without  recovering  Calais.  The  war  thus 
ended  was  the  only  one  in  which  she  ever  took  part  except  when 
absolutely  no  alternative  was  left  to  her. 

12.  End  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  1563. — If  Rome  was  to  be 
victorious  she  must  use  other  than  carnal  weapons.  The  main 
cause  of  the  -growth  of  Protestantism  had  been  the  revolt  of  honest 
minds  against  the"-pi:Qf[igacy  of  the  Popes  and  the  clergy.  The 
Popes  had  after  a  long  ti^K^-Jegrnt  the  lesson,  and  were  ndw  as 
austerely  moral  as  Calvin  himself  ^fe^  had  of  late  busied  them- 
selves with  bringing  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  into  a  coherent 
whole,  in  order  that  they  might  be  referred  to  with^a§.  much  cer- 
tainty as  the  Institution  of  Calvin  was  referred  to  by  the  '^aUj^inist. 
This  work  was  accomplished  by  an  ecclesiastical  council  sitting  at 
Trent,  and  composed  mainly  of  Spanish  and  Italian  prelates.  The 
Council,  having  completed  its  task,  broke  up  in  1563. 

13.  The  Jesuits. — The  main  instruments  of  the  Popes  to  win 
back  those  who  had  broken  loose  from  their  authority  were  the 

1  Probably  from  Eidgenossen,  the  name  of  the  Swiss  Confederates,  because 
the  first  Protestants  who  appeared  at  Geneva  came  from  Switzerland,  and  no 
French-speaking  mouth  could  pronounce  such  a  word  as  '  Eidgenossen. ' 


KL. 


1540-1565  THE  JESUITS  437 

members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  usually  known  as  Jesuits.  The 
society  was  founded  in  1540  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spanish  knight 
who,  having  been  incapacitated  by  a  wound  for  a  military  career, 
had  devoted  himself  to  the  chivalry  of  religion.  The  members  of 
the  society  which  he  instituted  were  not,  like  the  monks,  to  devote 
themselves  to  setting  an  example  of  ascetic  self-denial,  nor,  like  the 
friars,  to  combine  asceticism  with  preaching  or  well-doing.  Each 
Jesuit  was  to  give  himself  up  to  winning  souls  to  the  Church,  whether 
from  heathenism  or  from  heresy.  With  this  end,  the  old  soldier 
who  established  the  society  placed  it  under  more  than  military 
discipline.  The  first  virtue  of  the  Jesuit  was  obedience.  He  was  to 
be  in  the  hands  of  his  superior  as  a  stick  in  the  hand  of  a  man.  He 
was  to  do  as  he  was  bidden,  unless  he  was  convinced  that  he  was 
bidden  to  commit  sin.  What  was  hardest,  perhaps,  of  all  was 
that  he  was  not  allowed  to  judge  his  own  character  in  choosing 
his  work.  He  might  think  that  he  was  admirably  qualified  to  be 
a  missionary  in  China,  but  if  his  superior  ordered  him  to  teach 
boys  in  a  school,  a  schoolmaster  he  must  become.  He  might 
believe  himself  to  be  a  great  scholar  and  fitted  by  nature  to  impart 
his  knowledge  to  the  young,  but  if  his  superior  ordered  him  to  go 
as  a  missionary  to  China,  to  China  he  must  go.  Discipline  volun- 
tarily accepted  is  a  great  power  in  the  world,  and  this  power  the 
,  Jesuits  possessed. 

14.  The  Danger  from  Scotland.  1561— 1565.— Whilst  the 
'opposing  forces  of  Calvinism  and  the  reformed  Papacy  were  laying 
the  foundations  of  a  struggle  which  would  split  western  Europe 
in  twain,  Elizabeth  was  hampered  in  her  efforts  to  avert  a  dis- 
ruption of  her  own  realm  by  the  necessity  of  watching  the 
proceedings  of  the  Queen  of  Scots.  If  in  Elizabeth  the  politician 
predominated  over  the  woman,  in  Mary  the  woman  predominated 
over  the  politician.  She  was  keen  of  sight,  strong  in  feeling,  and 
capable  of  forming  far-reaching  schemes,  till  the  gust  of  passion 
swept  over  her  and  ruined  her  plans  and  herself  together.  After 
her  arrival  in  Scotland  she  not  only  acknowledged  the  new  Calvin- 
istic  establishment,  but  put  down  with  a  strong  hand  the  Earl  of 
Huntly,  who  attempted  to  resist  it,  whilst  on  the  other  hand  she 
insisted,  in  defiance  of  Knox,  on  the  retention  of  the  mass  in  her 
own  chapel.  It  is  possible  that  there  was  in  all  this  a  settled 
design  to  await  some  favourable  opportunity,  as  she  knew  that 
there  were  many  in  Scotland  who  cherished  the  old  faith.  It  is 
possible,  on  the  other  hand,  that  she  thought  for  a  time  of 
making  the  best  of  her  uneasy  position,  and  preferred  to  be  met 


438  THE  ELIZABETHAN  SETTLEMENT      1 565-1566 

with  smiles  rather  than  with  frowns.  Knox,  however,  took  care 
that  there  should  be  frowns  enough.  There  was  no  tolerant  thought 
in  that  stern  heart  of  his,  and  he  knew  well  that  Mary  would  in  the 
end  be  found  to  be  fighting  for  her  creed  and  her  party.  Her 
dancing  and  light  gaiety  he  held  to  be  profane.  The  mass,  he 
said,  was  idolatry,  and  according  to  Scripture  the  idolater  must  die. 
There  was  in  Scotland  as  yet  no  broad  middle  class  on  which 
Mary  could  rely,  and,  feeling  herself  insulted  both  as  a  queen  and 
as  a  woman,  she  took  up  Knox's  challenge.  She  had  but  the 
weapons  of  craft  with  which  to  fight,  but  she  used  them  admirably, 
and  before  long,  with  her  winning  grace,  she   had   the   greater 

X  .number  of  the  nobility  at  her  feet. 

r^  15.  The  Darnley  Marriage.  1565.— The  sense  of  mental 
superiority  could  not  satisfy  a  woman  such  as  Mary.  Her  life  was 
a  lonely  one,  and  it  was  soon  known  that  she  was  on  the  look-out 
for  a  husband.  The  choice  of  a  husband  by  the  ruler  of  Scotland 
could  not  be  indifferent  to  Elizabeth,  and  in  1564  Elizabeth  offered 
to  Mary  her  own  favourite  Dudley,  whom  she  created  Earl  of 
Leicester.  Very  likely  Elizabeth  imagined  that  Leicester  would 
be  as  pleasing  to  Mary  as  he  was  to  herself  Mary  could  only 
regard  the  proposal  as  an  insult.  In  1565  she  married  her  second 
cousin,  Henry  Stuart,  Lord  Darnley.^  Elizabeth  was  alarmed, 
taking  the  marriage  as  a  sign  that  Mary  intended  to  defy  her  in 
everything,  and  urged  the  Scottish  malcontents,  at  whose  head  was 
Mary's  illegitimate  brother,  the  Earl  of  Murray,  to  rebel.  Mary 
chased  them  into  England,  where  Elizabeth  protested  loudly  and 

V falsely  that  she  knew  nothing  of  their  conspiracy. 
--    16.  The  Murder  of  Rizzio.     1566. — Mary  had  taken  a  coarse- 
minded  fool  for  her  husband,  and  had  to  suffer  from  him  all  the 
tyranny  which  a  heartless  man  has  it  in  his  power  to  inflict  on  a 
woman.    Her  heart  craved  for  affection,  and  Darnley,  who  plunged 

^  Genealogy  of  Maiy  and  Darnley  : — 

(i)  James  IV.  =  Margaret  Tudor  =(2)  Archibald  Douglas, 
1488-1513  I  I Earl  of  Angus 

Mary  of  Guise  =^  James  V.    Matthew  Stuart,  =  Margaret  Douglas 
1513-1542    Earl  of  Lennox  I 


Francis  II.  =  Mary  =  Henry  Stuart, 
King  of  1542-  I  Lord  Darnley 
France        1567     | 

I 
James  VI . 
T 567-1625 


/ 


V.' 


1566-1567  THE  MURDER   OF  DARNLEV  439 

without  scruple  into  the  most  degrading  vice,  believed,  or  affected 
to  believe,  that  his  wife  had  sacrificed  her  honour  to  David  Rizzio, 
a  cultivated  Italian  who  acted  as  her  secretary,  and  carried  on  her 
correspondence  with  the  Continental  powers.  A  league  for  the  mur- 
der of  Rizzio^such  things  were  common  in  Scotland — was  formed 
between  Darnley  and  the  Protestant  lords.  On  March  9,  1566, 
they  burst  into  Mary's  supper-room  at  Holyrood.  Rizzio  clung  to 
his  patroness's  robe,  but  was  dragged  off  and  slain.  Murray  with 
his  fellow-conspirators  came  back  to  Scotland.  Mary,  however, 
with  loving  looks  and  words,  won  over  the  husband  whom  she 
despised,  broke  up  the  confederacy,  and  drove  most  of  the  con- 
federates out  of  the  country. 

17.  The  Murder  of  Darnley.     1567.  — On  June  19,  1566,  Mary 
ave  birth  to  a  son,  afterwards  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  and  James  I. 

of  England.  His  birth  gave  strength  to  the  party  in  England  which 
was  anxious  to  have  Mary  named  heiress  of  the  crown.  Whatever 
little  chance  there  was  of  Elizabeth's  consent  being  won  was  wrecked 
through  a  catastrophe  in  which  Mary  became  involved.  Mary 
despised  her  miserable  husband  as  thoroughly  as  he  deserved. 
He  at  least,  weak  as  water,  could  give  her  no  help  in  her  struggle 
with  the  nobles.  Her  passionate  heart  found  in  the  Earl  of  Both- 
well  one  who  seemed  likely  to  give  her  all  that  she  needed — a 
strong  will  in  a  strong  body,  and  a  brutal  directness  which  might 
form  a  complement  to  her  own  intellectual  keenness.  Mary  and 
Bothwell  were  both  married,  but  Bothwell  at  least  was  not  to  be 
deterred  by  such  an  obstacle  as  this.  The  evidence  on  Mary's 
conduct  is  conflicting,  and  modern  enquirers  have  not  succeeded  in 
coming  to  an  agreement  about  it.  It  is  possible  that  she  did  not 
actually  give  her  assent  to  the  evil  deed  which  set  her  free  ;  but  it  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  she  at  least  willingly  closed  her  eyes  to  the 
preparations  made  for  her  husband's  murder.  Whatever  the  truth 
as  to  her  own  complicity  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  on  February  10, 
1567,  Darnley  was  blown  up  by  gunpowder  at  Kirk  o'  Field,  a  lonely 
house  near  Edinburgh,  and  slain  by  Bothwell,  or  by  Bothwell's 
orders,  as  he  was  attempting  to  escape.  Bothwell  then  obtained 
a  divorce  from  his  own  wife,  carried  Mary  off — not,  as  was  firmly 
believed  at  the  time,  against  her  will— and  married  her. 

18.  The  Deposition  and  Flight  of  Mary.  1567— 1568.— Mary, 
in  gaining  a  husband,  had  lost  Scotland.  Her  subjects  rose  against 
her  as  an  adulteress  and  a  murderess.  At  Carberry  Hill,  on  June 
I5>  1567,  her  own  followers  refused  to  defend  her,  and  she  was 
forced  to  surrender,  whilst  Bothwell  fled  to  Denmark,  remaining 


440 


THE  ELIZABETHAN  SETTLEMENT      1 567-1 569 

in  exile  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
Mary  was  imprisoned  in  a  castle 
on  an  island  in  Loch  Leven,  and 
on  July  24  she  was  forced  to 
abdicate  in  favour  of  her  son. 
Murray  acted  as  regent  in  the 
infant's  name.  On  May  2, 1568, 
Mary  effected  her  escape,  and 
rallied  to  her  side  the  family  of 
the  Hamiltons,  which  was  all- 
powerful  in  Clydesdale.  On  May 
13  she  was  defeated  by  Murray 
at  Langside,  near  Glasgow.  Rid- 
ing hard  for  the  Solway  Firth, 
she  threw  herself  into  a  boat, 
and  found  herself  safe  in  Cum- 
berland. She  at  once  appealed 
to  Elizabeth,  asking  not  for  pro- 
tection only,  but  for  an  English 
army  to  replace  her  on  the 
throne  of  Scotland. 

19-  Mary's  Case  before  Eng- 
lish Commissioners.  1568 — 1569. 
Elizabeth  could  hardly  replace 
her  rival  in  power,  and  was  still 
less  inclined  to  set  her  at  liberty, 
lest  she  should  go  to  France, 
and  bring  with  her  to  Scotland 
another  F'rench  army.  After 
innumerable  changes  of  mind 
Elizabeth  appointed  a  body  of 
commissioners  to  consider  the 
case  against  Mary.  Before  them 
Murray  produced  certain  letters 
contained  in  a  casket,  and  taken 
after  Bothwell's  flight.  The  cas- 
ket letters,  as  they  are  called, 
were  alleged  to  be  in  Mary's 
handwriting,  and,  if  genuine, 
place   out   of  doubt  her  guilty 


Silver-gilt  standing  cup  made  in  London  in 


1569-70,  and  given  to  Corpus  Christi  passion  for   Bothwell,   and  her 

College,     Cambridge,    by    Archbishop  .  ••,,,, 

Parker.  connivance    m    her    husband's 


15^^-1570  THE  RISING  IN  THE  NORTH  44i 

murder.  They  were  acknowledged  by  the  commissioners,  with  the 
concurrence  of  certain  EngHsh  lords  who  were  politically  partisans 
of  Mary,  to  be  in  her  hand.  Mary  —either,  as  her  adversaries  allege, 
because  she  knew  that  she  was  guilty,  or  as  her  supporters  allege, 
because  she  was  afraid  that  she  could  not  obtain  justice — withdrew 
her  advocates,  and  pleaded  with  EHzabeth  for  a  personal  interview. 
This  Elizabeth  refused  to  grant,  but  on  the  other  hand  she  denied 
the  right  of  the  Scots  to  depose  their  queen.  Mary  remained 
virtually  a  prisoner  in  England.  She  was  an  interesting  prisoner, 
and  in  spite  of  all  her  faults  there  were  many  who  saw  in  her  claim 
to  the  English  crown  the  easiest  means  of  re-establishing  the  old 
Church  and  the  old  nobility. 
3^  20.  The  Rising  in  the  North.  1569.— The  old  Church  and 
the  old  nobility  were  strongest  in  the  North,  where  the  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace  had  broken  out  in  1536  (see  p.  397).  The  northern  lords, 
the  Earls  of  Northumberland  and  Westmorland,  longed  to  free 
Mary,  to  proclaim  her  queen  of  England,  and  to  depose  Elizabeth. 
They  were,  however,  prepared  to  content  themselves  with  driving 
Cecil  from  power,  with  forcing  Elizabeth  to  acknowledge  Mary  as 
her  heir,  and  to  withdraw  her  support  from  Protestantism.  Mary, 
according  to  this  latter  plan,  was  to  marry  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  the 
son  of  that  Earl  of  Surrey  who  had  been  executed  in  the  last  days  of 
Henry  VIII.  (see  p.  411).  On  October  18  Elizabeth,  suspecting 
that  Norfolk  was  entangling  himself  with  the  Queen  of  Scots,  sent 
him  to  the  Tower.  Northumberland  and  Westmorland  hesitated 
what  course  to  pursue,  but  a  message  from  the  Queen  requiring 
their  presence  at  Court  decided  them,  and  they  rose  in  insurrec- 
tion. On  November  14,  with  the  northern  gentry  and  yeomanry 
at  their  heels,  they  entered  Durham  Cathedral,  tore  in  pieces  the 
English  Bible  and  Prayer  Book,  and  knelt  in  fervour  of  devotion 
whilst  mass  was  said  for  the  last  time  in  any  one  of  the  old  cathedrals 
of  England.  Elizabeth  sent  an  army  against  the  earls.  Both  of  them 
were  timorous  and  unwarlike,  and  they  fled  to  Scotland  before  the 
year  was  ended,  leaving  their  followers  to  the  vengeance  of  Elizabeth. 
Little  mercy  was  shown  to  the  insurgents,  and  cruel  executions  fol- 
lowed this  unwise  attempt  to  check  the  progress  of  the  Reformation. 
21.  The  Papal  Excommunication.  1570. — Elizabeth,  it  seemed 
or  all  her  triumph  over  the  earls,  had  a  hard  struggle  still  before 
her.  In  January  1570  the  regent  Murray  was  assassinated  by 
Hamilton  of  Bothwellhaugh,  and  Mary's  friends  began  again  to 
raise  their  heads  in  Scotland.  In  April  Pope  Pius  V.  excommuni- 
cated Elizabeth  and  absolved  her  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 
11.  G  G 


fo 


442  TME  ELIZABETHAN  SETTLEMMNT  1576 

In  May,  a  fanatic  named  Felton  affixed  the  Pope's  bull  of  excom- 
munication to  the  door  of  the  Bishop  of  London's  house.  Felton 
was  eventually  seized  and  executed,  but  his  deed  was  a  challenge 
which  Elizabeth  would  be  compelled  to  take  up.  Hitherto  she 
had  trusted  to  time  to  bring  her  subjects  into  one  way  of  thinking, 
knowing  that  the  younger  generation  was  likely  to  be  on  her 
side.  She  had  taken  care  to  deal  as  lightly  as  possible  with  those 
who  shrank  from  abandoning  the  religion  of  their  childhood,  and 
she  had  recently  announced  that  they  were  free  to  believe  what  they 
would  if  only  they  would  accept  her  supremacy.  The  Pope  had  now 
made  it  clear  that  he  would  not  sanction  this  compromise.  English- 
men must  choose  between  him  and  their  queen.  On  the  side  of 
the  Pope  it  might  be  argued  with  truth  that  with  Elizabeth  on 
the  throne  it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith  and  organisation.  On  the  side  of  the  queen  it  might  be  argued 
that  if  the  Papal  claims  were  admitted  it  would  be  impossible 
to  maintain  the  authority  of  the  national  government.  A  deadly 
conflict  was  imminent,  in  which  the  liberty  of  individuals  would 
suffer  whichever  side  gained  the  upper  hand.  Nations,  like  per- 
sons, cannot  attend  to  more  than  one  important  matter  at  a  time, 
and  the  great  question  at  issue  in  Elizabeth's  reign  was  whether 
the  nation  was  to  be  independent  of  all  foreign  powers  in  ecclesi- 
astical as  well  as  in  civil  affairs. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 

ELIZABETH   AND  THE  EUROPEAN  CONFLICT.      1570— 1587 

LEADING  DATES 
Reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558— 1603 

The  Execution  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  .        .        .        .  1572 

The  foundation  of  the  Dutch  Republic 1572 

The  arrival  of  the  Jesuits 1580 

The  Association .  .  1584 

Babington's  Plot ...  1586 

^  Execution  of  Mary  Stuart 1587 

^  I.  The  Continental  Powers.  1566— 1570.— If  the  Catholic 
powers  of  the  Continent  had  been  able  to  assist  the  English 
Catholics  Elizabeth  would  hardly  have  suppressed  the  rising  in  the 
North.     It  happened,  however,  that  neither  in  the  Spanish  Nether- 


1566-1  S7<^        PRANCE,  SPAIN,  AND  SCOT-LAND  443 

lands  nor  in  France  were  the  governments  in  a  position  to  quarrel 
with  her.  In  the  Netherlands  Philip,  who  burnt  and  slaughtered 
Protestants  without  mercy,  was  in  1566  opposed  by  the  nobility, 
and  in  1568  he  sent  the  Duke  of  Alva,  a  relentless  soldier,  to 
Brussels  with  a  Spanish  army  to  establish  the  absolute  authority  of 
the  king  and  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Papacy.  In  1569  Alva 
believed  himself  to  have  accomplished  his  task  by  wholesale 
executions,  and  by  the  destruction  of  the  constitutional  privileges  of 
the  Netherlanders.  His  rule  was  a  grinding  tyranny,  rousing  both 
Catholics  and  Protestants  to  cry  out  for  the  preservation  of  their 
customs  and  liberties  from  the  intruding  Spanish  army.  Alva  had 
therefore  no  men  to  spare  to  send  to  aid  the  English  Catholics. 
In  France  the  civil  war  had  broken  out  afresh  in  1568,  and  in  1569 
the  Catholics  headed  by  Henry,  Duke  of  Guise,  the  son  of  the 
murdered  Duke  Francis  (see  p.  436),  and  by  Henry,  Duke  of  Anjou, 
the  brother  of  the  young  king,  Charles  IX.,  won  victories  at  Jamac 
and  Moncontour.  Charles  and  his  mother  took  alarm  lest  the 
Catholics  should  become  too  powerful  for  the  royal  authority,  and 
in  1570  a  peace  was  signed  once  more,  the  French  king  refusing  to 
be  the  instrument  of  persecution  and  being  very  much  afraid  of 
the  establishment  of  a  Catholic  government  in  England  which 
might  give  support  to  the  Catholics  of  France.  Accordingly  in 
1570,  France  would  not  interfere  in  England  if  she  could,  whilst 
Spain  could  not  interfere  if  she  would. 
\/  2.  The  Anjou  Marriage  Treaty  and  the  Ridolfi  Plot.  1570 — 
ijj'i. — For  all  that,  Elizabeth's  danger  was  great.  In  1570  she 
had  done  her  best  to  embroil  parties  in  Scotland  lest  they  should 
join  against  herself  The  bulk  of  the  nobility  in  that  country  had 
thrown  themselves  on  the  side  of  Mary,  and  were  fighting  against 
the  new  regent,  Lennox,  having  taken  alarm  at  the  growth  of  the 
popular  Church  organisation  of  Knox  and  the  Presbyterians,  who 
sheltered  themselves  under  the  title  of  the  little  James  VI.  At 
home  Elizabeth  expected  a  fresh  outbreak,  and  could  not  be  certain 
that  Alva  would  be  unable  to  support  it  when  it  occurred.  Cecil 
accordingly  pleaded  hard  with  her  to  marry  the  frivolous  Duke  of 
Anjou.  He  thought  that  unless  she  married  and  had  children,  her 
subjects  would  turn  from  her  to  Mary,  who,  having  already  a  son, 
would  give  them  an  assured  succession.  If  she  was  to  many,  an 
alliance  with  the  tolerant  Government  of  France  was  better  than 
any  other.  Elizabeth  indeed  consented  to  open  negotiations  for 
the  marriage,  though  it  was  most  unlikely  that  she  would  ever 
really  make  up  her  mind  to  it.     The  English  Catholics,  in  conse- 

GG3 


I/^' 


444  ELIZABETH  AND  THE  EUROPEAN  CONFLICT  1566-1571 

quencCj  flung  themselves  into  the  arms  of  the  king  of  Spain,  and  in 
March  1571,  Ridolfi,  a  Florentine  banker  residing  in  England,  who 
carried  on  their  correspondence  with  Alva,  crossed  to  the  Nether- 
lands to  inform  him  that  the  great  majority  of  the  lay  peers  had 
invited  him  to  send  6,000  Spanish  soldiers  to  dethrone  Elizabeth 
and  to  put  Mary  in  her  place.  Norfolk,  who  had  been  released 
from  the  Tower  (see  p.  441),  was  then  to  become  the  husband  of 
Mary,  and  it  was  hoped  that  there  would  spring  from  the  n^rriage 
a  long  line  of  Catholic  sovereigns  ready  to  support  the  Papal 
Church. 

3.  Elizabeth  and  the  Puritans. — Elizabeth's  temporising  policy 
had  naturally  strengthened  the  Calvinism  of  the  Calvinistic  clergy. 
In  every  generation  there  are  some  who  ask  not  what  is  expedient 
but  what  is  true,  and  the  very  fact  that  they  aim  at  truths  in  defianiie 
of  all  earthly  considerations,  not  merely  assures  them  influence,  but 
diffuses  around  them  a  life  and  vigour  which  would  be  entirely 
wanting  if  all  men  were  content  to  support  that  which  is  politically 
or  socially  convenient.  Such  were  the  best  of  the  EngHsh 
Puritans,  so  called  because,  though  they  did  not  insist  upon  the 
abolition  of  Episcopacy  or  the  establishment  of  the  Calvinistic 
discipline  (see  p.  431),  they  contended  for  what  they  called  purity 
of  worship,  which  meant  the  rejection  of  such  rites  and  vestments 
as  reminded  them  of  what  they  termed  the  idolatry  of  the  Roman 
Church.  Elizabeth  and  Parker  had  from  time  to  time  interfered, 
and  some  of  the  Puritan  leaders  had  been  deprived  of  their  bene- 
fices for  refusing  to  wear  the  cap  and  surplice. 

4.  Elizabeth  and  Parliament.  1566. — From  1566  to  1571 
ElizabeU^abstained  from  summoning  a  Parliament,  having  been 
far  more  ebMimnical  than  any  one  of  the  last  three  sovereigns. 
Early  in  her  reigli-.s^  had  restored  the  currency,  and  after  the 
session  of  1566  had  acttKilly  returned  to  her  subjects  a  subsidy 
which  had  been  voted  to^li€^  and  which  had  been  already 
collected.  Her  reason  for  avoiHi^g  Parliaments  was  political. 
Neither  of  the  Houses  was  likely  to  fa^lwir  her  ecclesiastical  policy. 
The  House  of  Lords  wanted  her  to  go  back\X^ds — to  declare  Mary 
her  successor  and  to  restore  the  mass.  The  HTdu^e  of  Commons 
wanted  her  to  go  forwards — to  marry,  and  have  cMl4ren  of  her 
own,  and  to  alter  the  Prayer  Book  in  a  Puritan  direction:  .  In  1566, 
if  the  House  of  Commons  had  really  represented  the  average 
opinion  of  the  nation,  she  would  have  been  obliged  to  yield.     That 

^  A  subsidy  was  a  tax  on  lands  and  goods  voted  by  Parliament  to  the 
Crown,  resembling  in  many  respects  the  modern  income-tax. 


1 566-1 57 1  ELIZABETH  AND  FURITANISM  445 

it  did  not  was  partly  owing  to  the  imposition  in  1562  of  the  oath  of 
supremacy  upon  its  members,  by  which  all  who  favoured  the  Pope's 
authority  were  excluded  from  its  benches,  but  still  more  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  packing  a  Parliament  so  as  to  suit  the  queen's 
moderate  ideas.  -Those  who  admired  the  existing  Church  system 
were  but  i^^.  TH>Hpiajority  of  the  nation,  even  if  those  who 
refused  to  accept  the  RoiJ^al  supremacy  were  left  out  of  account,  was 
undoubtedly  sufficiently  atta^^i^  to  the  old  state  of  things  to  be 
favourable  at  least  to  Mary's  claTm^o  be  acknowledged  as  heir  to 
the  throne.  To  Elizabeth  it  was  ohttie  first  importance  that  the 
influence  of  the  Crown  should  be  use^Hp  reduce  the  numbers 
of  such  men  in  the  House  of  .Commons,  if^ljpwever,  they  were 
kept  out,  there  was  nothing  to  be  done  but  to  favoiiY-lhe  election  of 
Puritans,  or  at  least  of  those  who  had  a  leaning  towards^  Puritanism. 
The  queen,  therefore,  having  to  make  her  choice  between-  those 
who  objected  to  her  proceedings  as  too  Protestant  and  those  who 
objected  to  them  as  not  Protestant  enough,  not  unnaturally  pre- 

r    ferred  the  latter. 

\^    5.  A  Puritan  Parliament.    1571. — In  1571  Elizabeth  had  to  deal 

^  with  a  Puritan  House  of  Commons.  The  House  granted  supplies, 
and  wanted  to  impose  new  penalties  on  the  Roman  Catholics  and 
to  suppress  ecclesiastical  abuses.  One  of  the  members  named 
Strickland,  having  proposed  to  ask  leave  to  amend  the  Prayer 
Book,  the  Queen  ordered  him  to  absent  himself  from  the  House. 
The  House  was  proceeding  to  remonstrate  when  Elizabeth,  too 
pmdent  to  allow  a  quarrel  to  spring  up,  gave  him  permission  to 
return.  She  had  her  way,  however,  and  the  Prayer  Book  remained 
untouched.  She  was  herself  a  better  representative  of  the  nation 
than  the  House  of  Commons,  but  as  yet  she  represented  it  only  as 
standing  between  two  hostile  parties  ;  though  she  hoped  that  the 
time  would  come  when  she  would  have  a  strong  middle  party  of  her 
own. 
Vy  6.  The  Duke  of  Norfolk's  Plot  and  Execution.  1571— 1572. 
For  the  present  Elizabeth's  chief  enemies  were  the  conspirators 
who  were  aiming  at  placing  Mary  on  her  throne.  In  April  1571 
Ridolfi  reached  the  Netherlands,  and  urged  Alva  to  send  a  Spanish 
army  to  England.  Alva  was  cautious,  and  thought  the  attempt 
dangerous  unless  Elizabeth  had  first  been  killed  or  captured. 
Philip  was  consulted,  gave  his  approval  to  the  murder,  but  after- 
wards drew  back,  though  he  ordered  Alva  to  proceed  with  the 
invasion.  In  the  meanwhile  Cecil,  who  had  just  been  made  Lord 
Burghley,  came  upon  traces  of  the  plot.     Norfolk  was  arrested,  and 


446  ELIZABETH  AND  THE  EUROPEAN  CONFLICT  1571-1572 

before  the  end  of  the  year  everything  was  known.  Though  the 
proposal  of  a  marriage  between  Elizabeth  and  the  Duke  of  Anjou 
had  lately  broken  down,  she  now,  in  her  anxiety  to  find  support  in 
France  against  Spain,  entered  into  a  negotiation  to  marry  Anjou's 
brother,  the  Duke  of  Alengon,  a  vicious  lad  twenty-one  years 
younger  than  herself  Then  she  was  free  to  act.  She  drove  the 
Spanish  ambassador  out  of  England,  and  Norfolk  was  tried  and 
convicted  of  treason.  A  fresh  Parliament  meeting  in  1572  urged 
the  queen  to  consent  to  the  execution  of  Mary.  Elizabeth  refused, 
but  she  sent  Norfolk  to  the  block. 

7.  The  Admonition  to  Parliament.  1572. — The  rising  in  the 
North  and  the  invitation  to  bring  a  Spanish  army  into  England 
couldv^ot  but  fan  the  zeal  of  the  Puritans.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  they  had  contented  themselves  with  calling  for  the  abolition 
of  certairkceremonies.  A  more  decided  party  now  added  a  demand 
for  the  abolkion  of  episcopacy  and  the  establishment  of  Presby- 
terianism  ana\f  the  complete  Calvinistic  discipline.  The  leader 
of  this  party  w^  Thomas  Cartwright,  a  theological  professor  at 
Cambridge,  the  uiWersity  which  had  produced  the  greater  number 
of  the  reformers,  as  irtiow  produced  the  greater  number  of  Puritans. 
In  1570,  Cartwright  was  spelled  from  his  Professorship.  He  sym- 
pathised with  An  Admom^ion  to  Parliament  written  in  1572  by 
two  of  his  disciples,  and  hirnself  wrote  A  Second  Admonition  to 
Parliainent^  to  second  their  views.  Cartwright  was  far  from 
claiming  for  the  Puritans  the  position  of  a  sect  to  be  tolerated.  He 
had  no  thought  of  establishing  religious  liberty  in  his  mind.  He 
declared  the  Presbyterian  Church  to  oe  the  only  divinely  appointed 
one,  and  asked  that  all  Englishmen  should  be  forced  to  submit  to 
its  ordinances.  The  civil  magistrate  was  1^  have  no  control  over 
its  ministers.  All  active  religious  feeling  bKpg  enlisted  either  on 
the  Papal  or  the  Puritanical  side,  Elizabeth's\reformed,  but  not 
Puritan,  Church  seemed  likely  to  be  crushed  beH'een  two  forces. 
It  was  saved  by  the  existence  of  a  large  body  of  me^who  cared  for 
other  things  more  than  for  religious  disputes,  and  who  were  ready 

I  to  defend  the  Queen  as  ruler  of  the  nation  without  any  special 

regard  for  the  ecclesiastical  system  which  she  maintained. 
/;.    f-—       ^-  Mariners  and  Pirates. — Of  all  Elizabeth's  subjects  there  were 

4^;  1         noneAvha-atQodtheir  country  in  such  good  stead  in  the  impending- 

I  J'      conflict  with  Spain""9Trd->tlag^  Papacy  as  the  mariners.     Hardy  and 

r         reckless,  they  cared  little  for  tliStJlogical  distinctions  or  for  forms  of 

^        Church  government,  their  first  instinct  bemg  to  fill  their  own  purses 

either  by  honest  trade  if  it  might  be,  or  by  piracy  if  that  seemed 


1572  WESTWARD  HO!  447 

likely  to  Tag  more  profitable.  Even  before  Elizabeth's  accession, 
the  Channelxand  the  seas  beyond  it  swarmed  with  English 
pirates.  Thougli  the  pirates  cared  nothing  for  the  nationality  of 
the  vessels  which  they  plundered,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  greatest 
loss  should  fall  on  Spain.  Spain  was  the  first  maritime  power  in 
the  world,  and  her  galleon^  as  they  passed  up  to  Antwerp  to 
exchange  the  silks  and  spices^bf.  the  East  for  the  commodities  of 
Europe,  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  swifiand  well-armed  cruisers  which 
put  out  from  English  harbours.  The  S|>^niards  retaliated  by  seizing 
English  sailors  wherever  they  could  lay^^eir  hands  upon  them, 
somethnes  hanging  them  out  of  hand,  somethiaes  destroying  them 
with  starvation  and  misery  in  fetid  dungeons,  sometimes  handing 
them  over  to  the  Inquisition— a  court  the  function  of  which  was 
the  suppression  of  heresy — in  other  words,  to  the  torture-room  or 
the  stake. 

9.  Westward  Ho  ! — Every  year  the  hatred  between  the  mariners 
of  Spain  and  England  grew  more  bitter,  and  it  was  not  long  before 
English  sailors  angered  the  king  of  Spain  by  crossing  the  Atlantic  to 
trade  or  plunder  in  the  West  Indies,  where  both  the  islands  and  the 
mainland  of  Mexico  and  South  America  were  full  of  Spanish  settle- 
ments. In  those  days  a  country  which  sent  out  colonies  claimed 
the  sole  right  of  trading  with  them  ;  besides  which  the  king  of  Spain 
claimed  a  right  of .  refusing  to  foreigners  an  entrance  into  his 
American  dominions'  because,  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.  Pope  Alexander  VI.  being  called  on  to  mediate  between  Spain 
and  Portugal,  had  drawnXline  on  the  map  to  the  east  of  which  was 
to  be  the  Portuguese  colonySjf  Brazil,  whilst  all  the  rest  of  America 
to  the  west  of  it  was  to  be  Spanish.  From  this  the  Spaniards 
reasoned  that  all  America  except  Brazil  was  theirs  by  the  gift  of 
the  Pope — which  in  their  eyes  wa^equivalent  to  the  gift  of  God. 
English  sailors  refusing  to  recognise^this  pretension,  sailed  to  the 
Spanish  settlements  to  trade,  and  att^ked  the  Spanish  officials 
who  tried  to  preven-t  them.  The  Spani^  settlers  were  eager  to 
get  negro  slaves  to  cultivate  their  plant^ons,  and  Englishmen 
were  equally  eager  to  kidnap  negroes  in  Afri^  and  to  sell  them  in 
the  West  Indies.  A  curious  combination  of  tRe  love  of  gain  and 
of  Protestantism  sprang  up  amongst  the  sailorsWho  had  no  idea 
that  to  sell  black  men  was  in  any  way  wrong,  ^ne  engaged  in 
this  villanous  work  explained  how  he  had  been  saved  from  the 
perils  of  the  sea  by  '  Almighty  God,  who  never  suffers  his  elect  to 
perish  ! '  There  was  money  enough  to  be  got,  and  sometimes  there 
would  be  hard  fighting  and  the  gain  or  loss  of  all. 


K 


448     ELIZABETH  AND    THE  EUROPEAN   CONFLICT   1572 


o.  Francis  Drake's  Voyage  to  Panama.     1572.— The  noblest 
of  these  mariners  was  Francis  Drake.    Sickened  by  one  experience 


Sir  Francis  Drake,  in  his  43rd  year  :  from  the  engraving  by  Elstracke. 


of  the  slave  trade,  and  refusing  to  take  any  further  part  in  it,  he 
flew  at  the  wealth  of  the  Spanish  Government.  In  1572  he  sailed 
for   N ombre   de    Dios,  on   the  Atlantic   side  of  the   isthmus  of 


K 


^572-1576    THE  DUTCH  STRUGGLE  FOR  FREEDOM  449 

Panama.  Thither  were  brought  once  a  year  gold  and  silver  from 
the  mines  of  Peru.  In  the  governor's  house  Drake  found  a  pile  of 
silver  bars.  "  I  have  now,"  he  said  to  his  men,  "  brought  you  to 
the  mouth  of  the  treasury  of  the  world."  He  himself  was  wounded, 
and  his  followers,  having  little  spirit  to  fight  without  their  leader, 
were  beaten  off.  "I  am  resolved,"  he  said  somewhat  later  to  a 
Spaniard,  "  by  the  help  of  God,  to  reap  some  of  the  golden  harvest 
which  you  have  got  out  of  the  earth  and  sent  to  Spain  to  trouble 
the  earth."  It  was  his  firm  conviction  that  he  was  serving  God  in 
robbing  the  king  of  Spain.  Before  he  returned  some  Indians 
showed  him  from  a  tree  on  the  isthmus  the  waters  of  the  Pacific, 
which  no  civilised  people  except  the  Spaniards  had  ever  navigated. 
Drake  threw  himself  on  his  knees,  praying  to  God  to  give  him  life 
and  to  allow  him  to  sail  an  English  vessel  on  those  seas. 

11.  The  Seizure  of  Brill,  and  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 
1572. — Exiles  from  the  Netherlands  took  refuge  on  the  sea  from 
Alva's  tyranny,  and  plundered  Spanish  vessels  as  Englishmen  had 
done  before.  In  1572  a  party  of  these  seized  Brill  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  They  called  on  Charles  IX.  of 
France  to  help  them,  and  he  (being  under  the  influence  of  Coligny, 
the  leader  of  the  Huguenots)  was  eager  to  make  war  on  Spain  on 
their  behalf.  Charles's  mother,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  was,  how- 
ever, alarmed  lest  the  Huguenots  should  grow  too  powerful,  and 
frightened  her  son  with  a  tale  that  they  were  conspiring  against 
him.  He  was  an  excitable  youth,  and  turned  savagely  on  the 
Huguenots,  encouraging  a  fearful  butchery  of  them,  which  is 
known  as  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  because  it  took  place 
on  August  24,  which  was  St.  Bartholomew's  day.  Coligny  himself 
was  among  the  victims, 

12.  The  Growth  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  1572— 1578.— By 
this  time  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zeeland  had  risen  against 
Spain.  Th^  placed  at  their  head  the  Prince  of  Orange  with  the 
title  of  Stadtnl^ckr  or  Lieutenant,  as  if  he  had  been  still  the  lieu- 
tenant of  the  kingof-^nain  whom  he  resisted.  The  rebels  had  but  a 
scanty  force  wherewith  t&*4efend  themselves  against  the  vast  armies 
of  Spain.  Alva  took  town  aftw^own,  sacked  them,  and  butchered 
man, woman  and  child  within.  In^S5;ALeyden  was  saved  from  his 
attack.  Holland  is  below  the  sea-level/alxi^he  Dutch  cut  the  dykes 
which  kept  off  the  sea,  and  when  the  tide  rushe3^i^sent  flat-bottomed 
vessels  over  what  had  once  been  land,  and  rescued-4;he  town  from 
the  besiegers.  Alva,  disgusted  at  his  failure,  returned  to  Spain. 
In  1576  his  successor  Requesens  died.     Spain,  with  all  the  wealth 


v^ 


450  ELIZABETH  AND  THE  EUROPEAN  CONFLICT  1 576-1578 

df  tn^'lndies  pouring  into  it,  was  impoverished  by  the  vastness  of 
the  work  which  Philip  had  undertaken  in  trying  to  maintain  the 
power  of  the  Roman  CathoHc  Church  in  all  western  Europe.  The 
expenses  of  the  war  in  the  Netherlands  exhausted  his  treasury,  and 
on  the  death  of  Requesens,  the  Spanish  army  mutinied,  plundered 
even  that  part  of  the  country  which  was  friendly  to  Spain,  and 
sacked  Antwerp  with  barbardus  cruelty.  Then  the  whole  of  the 
seventeen  provinces  of  the  Netherlands  drove  out  the  Spaniards, 
and  bound  themselves  by  the  Pacifi^Cafion  of  Ghent  into  a  con- 
federate Republic.  In  1578  Alexander,  duke. of  Parma,  arrived  a? 
the  Spanish  •  governor.  He  was  a  great  warrit^i:,  and  statesman, 
and  he  won  over  the  Catholic  provinces  of  the  southern  Netherlands 
to  his  side.  By  the  Union  of  Utrecht  the  Prince  of  Orange  formed 
a  new  confederate  republic  of  the  seven  northern  provinces,  which 
were  mainly  Protestant. 

13.  Quiet  Times  in  England.  1572— 1577. — The  Spaniards 
were  no  longer  able  to  interfere  in  England.  Elizabeth  was  equally 
safe  frottkthe  side  of  France.  In  1574  Charles  IX.  died,  and  was 
succeeded  Dy^lizabeth's  old  suitor  Anjou  as  Henry  III.  There 
were  fresh  civiPwars  which  gave  him  enough  to  do  at  home.  In 
1573  Elizabeth  senr"^id  to  the  party  of  the  young  king  in  Scotland, 
and  suppressed  the  last  f^onants  of  Mary's  party  there.  In  England 
she  pursued  her  old  policy.  "Me,n  might  think  what  they  would, 
but  they  must  not  discuss  their  opi^riq;^  openly.  There  must  be 
as  little  preaching  as  possible,  and  whence  clergy  began  to  hold 
meetings  called  prophesyings  for  discussion  (jR,.the  Scriptures,  she 
ordered  Grindal,  who  had  succeeded  Parker  as  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  to  suppress  them,  and  on  his  refusal  in  1577  suspended 
him  from  his  office,  and  put  down  the  prophesyings  herself 

14.  Drake's  Voyage.  1577 — 1580. — Elizabeth  had  no  sympathy 
with  the  heroic  Netherlanders,  who  fought  for  liberty  and  conscience, 
but  she  had  sympathy  with  the  mariners  who  by  fair  means  or 
foul  brought  treasure  into  the  realm.  In  1577  Drake  sailed  for  that 
Pacific  which  he  had  long  been  eager  to  enter.  Passing  through 
the  Straits  of  Magellan,  he  found  himself  alone  on  the  unknown 
ccean  with  the  '  Pelican,'  a  little  ship  of  100  tons.  He  ranged  up 
the  coast  of  South  America,  seizing  treasure  where  he  landed,  but 
never  doing  any  cruel  deed.  The  Spaniards,  not  thinking  it  pos- 
sible that  an  English  ship  could  be  there,  took  the  '  Pelican '  for 
one  of  their  own  vessels,  and  were  easily  caught.  At  Tarapaca,  for 
instance,  Drake  found  a  Spaniard  asleep  with  bars  of  silver  by  his 
side.     At  another  landing  place  he  found  eight  llamas  laden  with 


b( 


cc 


1 547-1 580       /ICELAND  AND    TH^  REFORMATION  451 

silver.  So  he  went  on,  till  he  took  a  great  vessel  with  jewels  in 
plenty,  thirteen  chests  of  silver  coin,  eighty  pounds'  weight  of  gold, 
and  twenty-six  tons  of  silver.  With  all  this  he  sailed  home  by  way 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  arriving  in  England  in  1580,  being  the 
first  commander  who  had  circumnavigated  the  globe.  ^  The  king 
of  Spain  was  furious,  and  demanded  back  the  wealth  of  which  his 
subjects  had  been  robbed.  Elizabeth  gave  him  good  words,  but 
not  a  penny  of  money  or  money's  worth. 

15.  Ireland  and  the  Reformation.  1547. — 
Since  the  death  of  Henry  VIII.  the  manage- 
ment of  Ireland  had  been  increasingly  diffi- 
cult. An  attempt  had  been  made  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  VI.  to  establish  the  reformed 
religion.  All  that  was  then  done  had  been  over- 
thrown by  Mary,  and  what  Mary  did  was  in  turn 
overthrown  by  Elizabeth.  As  yet,  however,  the 
orders  of  the  English  Government  to  make  re- 
ligious changes  in  Ireland  were  of  compara- 
tively little  importance.  The  power  of  the 
Government  did  not  reach  far,  and  even  in  the 
districts  to  which  it  extended  there  was  none 
of  that  mental  preparation  for  the  reception  of 
the  new  doctrines  which  was  to  be  found  in 
England.  The  Reformation  was  accepted  by 
very  few,  except  by  English  officials,  who  were 
ready  to  accept  anything  to  please  the  Govern- 
ment. Those  who  clung  to  the  old  ways,  how- 
ever, were  not  at  all  zealous  for  their  faith,  and 
there  was  as  yet  no  likelihood  that  any  reli- 
gious insurrection  like  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace 
or  the  rising  in  the  North  would  be  heard  of  in 
Ireland.  The  lives  of  the  Celtic  chiefs  and  the 
Anglo-Norman  lords  were  passed  in  blood- 
shedding  and  looseness  of  life,  which  made 
them  very  unfit  to  be  champions  of  any  religion  whatever. 

16.  Ireland  under  Edward  VI.  and  Mary.  1547 — 1558. — The 
real  difficulty  of  the  English  Government  in  Ireland  lay  in  its  rela- 
tions with  the  Irish  tribes,  whether  under  Celtic  chiefs  or  Anglo- 
Norman  lords.  At  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  an  attempt 
had  been  made  to  revert  to  the  better  part  of  the  policy  of  Henry 

'  Magellan  died  on  the  way,  though  his  ship  completed  the  voyage  round 
the  world. 


Armour  as  worn  during 
the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth :  from  the  brass 
of  Francis  Clopton, 
1577,  at  Long  Mel- 
ford,  Suffolk. 


452  ELIZABETH  AND  THE^UROPEAN  CONFLICT  1547-1579 

VI 11.,  and  the  heads  of  the  tribes  were  entrusted  by  the  government 
with  powers  to  keep  order  in  the  hope  that  they  would  gradually 
settle  down  into  civilisation  and  obedience.  Such  a  policy  required 
almost  infinite  patience  on  the  part  of  the  Government,  and  the 
Earl  of  Sussex,  who  was  Lord  Deputy  under  Mary,  began  again 
the  old  mischief  of  making  warlike  attacks  upon  the  Irish  which 
he  had  not  force  or  money  enough  to  render  effectual.  It  was 
Mary  and  not  a  Protestant  sovereign  who  first  sent  English 
colonists  to  occupy  the  lands  of  the  turbulent  Irish  in  King's  County 
and  Queen's  County — then  much  smaller  than  at  present.  A  war 
of  extermination  at  once  began.  The  natives  massacred  the 
intruders  and  the  intruders  massacred  the  natives,  till — far  on  in 
Elizabeth's  reign — the  natives  had  been  all  slaughtered  or  expelled. 
There  was  thus  introduced  into  the  heart  of  Ireland  a  body  of 
Englishmen  who,  no  doubt,  were  far  more  advanced  in  the  arts  of 
life  than  the  Irish  around  them,  but  who  treated  the  Irish  with 
utter  contempt,  and  put  them  to  death  without  mercy. 
\sC  ^7-  Elizabeth  and  Ireland.  1558— 1578. — From  the  time  of  the 
""settlement  of  King's  and  Queen's  Counties  all  chance  of  a  peaceable 
arrangement  was  at  an  end.  Elizabeth  had  not  money  enough  to 
pay  an  army  capable  of  subduing  Ireland,  nor  had  the  Irish  tribes 
sufficient  trust  in  one  another  to  unite  in  national  resistance. 
There  was,  in  fact,  no  Irish  nation.  Even  Shan  O'Neill,  the  most 
formidable  Irish  opponent  of  the  English  Government,  who  was 
predominant  in  the  North  during  the  early  part  of  Elizabeth's 
reign,  failed  because  he  tried  to  reduce  the  other  Ulster  chiefs  to 
subjection  to  himself,  and  in  1567  was  overthrown  by  the  O'Don- 
nells,  and  not  by  an  English  army.  When  the  English  officials 
gained  power,  they  were  apt  to  treat  the  Irish  as  if  they  were 
vermin  to  be  destroyed.  New  attempts  at  colonisation  were  made, 
but  the  Irish  drove  out  the  colonists,  and  Ireland  was  in  a  more 
i  chaotic  state  than  if  it  had  been  left  to  its  own  disorder. 
J^'  18.  The  Landing  at  Smerwick,  and  the  Desmond  Rising-. 
I579"~^583. — Elizabeth's  servants  were  the  more  anxious  to  subdue 
Ireland  by  the  process  of  exterminating  Irishmen,  because  they 
believed  that  the  Irish  would  welcome  Spaniards  if  they  came  to 
estabhsh  a  government  in  Ireland  hostile  to  Elizabeth.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  English  Catholics,  and  especially  the  English 
Catholic  clergy  in  exile  on  the  Continent,  fancied,  wrongly,  that  the 
Irish  were  fighting  for  the  papacy,  and  not  for  tribal  independence, 
or,  rather,  for  bare  life,  which  tribal  independence  alone  secured. 
In  1579  Sir  James  Fitzmaurice  landed  with  a  few  men  at  Dingle, 


y 


1 579- 1 580  rir£  JESUITS  IN  ENGLAND  453 

under  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  but  was  soon  defeated  and  slain. 
In  1580  a  large  number  of  Spaniards  and  Italians  landed  at  Smer- 
wick,  but  was  overpowered  and  slaughtered  by  Lord  Grey,  the  Lord 
Deputy.  Then  the  Earl  of  Desmond,  the  head  of  a  branch  of  the 
family  of  Fitzgerald,  all-powerful  in  Munster,  rose.  The  insurrection 
was  put  down,  and  Desmond  himself  slain,  in  1583.  It  is  said  that 
in  1582  no  less  than  30,000  perished— mostly  of  starvation — in  a 
single  year.  It  is  an  English  witness  who  tells  us  of  the  poor 
wretches  who  survived,  that '  out  of  every  corner  of  the  woods  and 
glens  they  came  creeping  forth  upon  their  hands,  for  their  legs  could 
not  bear  them  ;  they  spoke  like  ghosts  crying  out  of  their  graves  ; 
they  did  eat  the  dead  carrions,  happy  where  they  could  find  them.' 
19.  The  Jesuits  in  England.  1580. — In  England  the  landing 
of  a  papal  force  at  Smerwick  produced  the  greater  alarm  because 
Panna  (see  p.  450)  had  been  gaining  ground  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  the  time  might  soon  come  when  a  Spanish  army  would  be 
available  for  the  invasion  of  England.  For  the  present  what  the 
Government  feared  was  any  interruption  to  the  process  by  which 
the  new  religion  was  replacing  the  old.  In  1571  there  had  been  an 
act  of  Parliament  in  answer  to  the  Papal  Bull  of  Deposition  (see 
p.  442),  declaring  all  who  brought  Bulls  into  the  country,  and  all 
who  Avere  themselves  reconciled  to  the  see  of  Rome,  or  who  recon- 
ciled others  to  be  traitors,  but  for  a  long  time  no  use  was  made  by 
Elizabeth  of  these  powers.  The  Catholic  exiles,  however,  had  wit- 
nessed with  sorrow  the  gradual  decay  of  their  religion  in  England, 
and  in  1568  William  Allen,  one  of  their  number,  had  founded  a 
college  at  Douai  (removed  in  1578  to  Reims)  as  a  seminary  for 
missionaries  to  England.  It  was  not  long  before  seminary  priests, 
as  the  missionaries  were  called,  began  to  land  in  England  to  revive 
the  zeal  of  their  countrymen,  but  it  was  not  till  1577  that  one  of 
them,  Cuthbert  Mayne,  was  executed,  technically  for  bringing  in  a 
copy  of  a  Bull  of  a  trivial  character,  but  really  for  maintaining  that 
Catholics  would  be  justified  in  rising  to  assist  a  foreign  force  sent 
to  reduce  England  to  obedience  to  the  Papacy.  There  were,  in 
fact,  two  rival  powers  inconsistent  with  one  another.  If  the  Papal 
power  was  to  prevail,  the  Queen's  authority  must  be  got  rid  of.  If 
the  Queen's  power  was  to  prevail,  the  Pope's  authority  must  be  got 
rid  of  In  1580  two  Jesuits,  Campion  and  Parsons,  landed.  They 
brought  with  them  an  explanation  of  the  Bull  of  Deposition,  which 
practically  meant  that  no  one  need  act  on  it  till  it  was  convenient 
to  do  so.  They  went  about  making  converts  and  strengthening 
the  lukewarm  in  the  resolution  to  stand  by  their  faith. 


/ 


454  ELIZABETH  AND  THE  EUROPEAN  CONFLICT  1580-15^1 

20.  The  Recusancy  Laws.  1581. — Elizabeth  in  her  dread  of 
religious  strife  had  done  her  best  to  silence  religious  discussion 
and  even  religious  teaching.  Men  in  an  age  of  religious  contro- 
versy are  eager  to  believe  something.  All  the  more  vigorous  of 
the  Protestants  were  at  this  time  Puritans,  and  now  the  more 
vigorous  of  those  who  could  not  be  Puritans  welcomed  the  Jesuits 
with  joy.  There  were  never  many  Jesuits  in  England,  but  for  a 
time  they  gave  life  and  vigour  to  the  seminary  priests  who  were 
not  Jesuits.  In  1581  Parliament,  seeing  nothing  in  what  had  hap- 
pened but  a  conspiracy  against  the  Crown,  passed  the  first  of  the 
acts  which  became  known  as  the  Recusancy  laws.  In  addition  to 
the  penalties  on  reconcihation  to  Rome  and  the  introduction  of 
Bulls,  fines  and  imprisonment  were  to  be  inflicted  for  hearing  or 
saying  mass,  and  fines  upon  lay  recusants  -that  is  to  say,  persons 
who  refused  to  go  to  church.  Catholics  were  from  this  time  fre- 
quently subjected  to  torture  to  drive  them  to  give  information  which 
would  lead  to  the  apprehension  of  the  priests.  Campion  was 
arrested  and  executed  after  cruel  torture  ;  Parsons  escaped.  If 
the  Government  and  the  Parliament  did  not  see  the  whole  of  the 
causes  of  the  Jesuit  revival,  they  were  not  wrong  in  seeing  that 
there  was  political  danger.  Campion  was  an  enthusiast.  Parsons 
was  a  cool-headed  intriguer,  and  he  continued  from  the  Continent 
to  direct  the  threads  of  a  conspiracy  which  aimed  at  Elizabeth's 

I  life- 
\j —  21.  Growing  Danger  of  Elizabeth.  1580— 1584. — Elizabeth 
was  seldom  startled,  but  her  ministers  were  the  more  frightened 
because  the  power  of  Spain  was  growing.  In  1580  Philip  took 
possession  of  Portugal  and  the  Portuguese  colonies,  whilst  in  the 
Netherlands  Parma  was  steadily  gaining  ground.  Elizabeth  had 
long  been  nursing  the  idea  of  the  Alengon  marriage  (see  p.  446), 
and  in  1581  it  seemed  as  if  she  was  in  earnest  about  it.  She  enter- 
tained the  Duke  at  Greenwich,  gave  him  a  kiss  and  a  ring,  then 
changing  her  mind  sent  him  off  to  the  Netherlands,  where  he  hoped 
to  be  appointed  by  the  Dutch  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  independent 
states.  In  the  spring  of  1582  a  fanatic,  Jaureguy,  tried  to  murder  the 
Prince  of  Orange  at  Philip's  instigation.  Through  the  summer  of 
that  year  Parsons  and  Allen  were  plotting  with  Philip  and  the 
Dujce  of  Guise,  for  the  assassination  of  Elizabeth,  on  the  under- 
standing that  as  soon  as  Elizabeth  had  been  killed.  Guise  was  to 
send  or  lead  an  army  to  invade  England.  They  hoped  that  such 
an  army  would  receive  assistance  from  Scotland,  where  the  young 
James  had  become  the  tool  of  a  Catholic  intriguer  whom  he  made 


1583  SCOTLAND   AND    THM  NETHERLANDS  455 

Duke  of  Lennox.    Philip,  however,  was  too  dilatory  to  succeed.    In 
August  James  was  seized  by  some  Protestant  Lords,  and  Lennox 


Hall  of  Burghley  House,  Northamptonshire,  built  about  1580 ;  from  Drummcmd's 
Histories  of  Noble  British  Families,  vol.  i. 

was  soon  driven  from  the  country.  In  1583  there  was  a  renewal  of 
the  danger.  The  foolish  Alen^on,  wishing  to  carve  out  a  princi- 
pality for  himself,  made  a  violent  attack  on  Antwerp  and  other 


456  ELIZABETH  AJSfD  THE  EUROPEAN  CONFLICT  1583-158S 

Flemish  towns  which  had  allied  themselves  with  him,  and  was 
consequently  driven  from  the  country ;  whilst  Parma,  taking 
advantage  of  this  split  amongst  his  enemies,  conquered  most  of  the 
towns — Antwerp,  however,  being  still  able  to  resist.  He  now  held 
part  of  the  coast  line,  and  a  Spanish  invasion  of  England  from  the 
Netherlands  once  more  became  feasible.  In  November  1583  a 
certain  Francis  Throgmorton,  having  been  arrested  and  racked, 
made  known  to  Elizabeth  the  whole  story  of  the  intended  invasion 
of  the  army  of  Guise.  In  January  1584  she  sent  the  Spanish 
ambassador,  Mendoza,  out  of  England.  On  June  29  Balthazar 
Gerard  assassinated  the  Prince  of  Orange.    :  / 

22.  The  Association.  1584— 1585.— Those  who  had  planned 
the^urder  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  were  planning  the  murder  of 
Elizabeth.  In  their  eyes  she  was  a  usurper,  who  by  main  force 
held  her"^bjects  from  all  hope  of  salvation  by  keeping  them  in 
ignorance  ofSl;e  teaching  of  the  true  Church,  and  they  accordingly 
drew  the  inferenc^^at  it  was  lawful  to  murder  her  and  to  place  Mary 
on  her  throne.  They  dicinot  see  that  they  had  to  do  with  a  nation 
and  not  with  a  queen  aloriey,and  that,  whether  the  nation  was  as 
yet  Protestant  or  not,  it  was  hiS^  and  soul  with  Elizabeth  against 
assassins  and  invaders.  In  Novetnber  1584,  at  the  instigation  ol 
the  Council,  the  mass  of  Englishmen— brespective  of  creed — bound 
themselves  in  an  association  not  only  to  defend  the  Queen,  but,  in 
case  of  her  murder,  to  put  to  death  the  persdn  for  whose  sake  the 
crime  had  been  committed — or,  in  other  words,  to  send  Mary  to  the 
grave  instead  of  to  the  throne.  In  1585  this  association,  with  con- 
siderable modifications,  was  confirmed  by  Parliament.  At  the  same 
time  an  act  was  passed  banishing  all  Jesuits  and  seminary  priests, 
and  directing  that  they  should  be  put  to  death  if  they  returned. 

23.  Growth  of  Philip's  Power.  1584 — 1585. — In  the  meantime 
Philip's^j^wer  was  still  growing.  The  wretched  Alen9on  died  in 
1584,  and  a  far  distant  cousin  of  the  childless  Henry  III.,  Henry 
king  of  Navarre,' who  was  a  Huguenot,  became  heir  to  the  French 
throne.  Guise  and  the  ardent  Catholics  formed  themselves  into 
a  league  to  exclude  Huguenots  from  the  succession,  and  placed 
themselves  under  the  direction  of,  the  king  of  Spain.  A  civil  war 
broke  out  once  more  in  1585,  and  if  the  league  should  win  (as  at 
first  seemed  likely)  Philip  would  be  able  to  .dispose  of  the  resources 
of  France  in  addition  to  his  own.  As  Guise  Had  now  enough  to  do 
at  home,  Philip  took  the  invasion  of  England  into  his  own  hands. 
He  had  first  to  extend  his  power  in  the  Netherlands.  In  August 
the  great  port  of  Antwerp  surrendered  to  Parma.     The  Dutch  had 


106  S/A'   PHILIP  SIDNEY  457 

offered  to  make  Elizabeth  their  sovereign,  and,  though  she  had 
prudently  refused,  she  sent  an  army  to  their  aid,  but  neutralised 
the  gift  by  placing  the  wretched  Leicester  at  its  head,  and  by 
giving  him  not  a  penny  wherewith  to  pay  his  men.  In  1586,  after 
an  atterhpt  (after  Alengon's  fashion)  to  seize  the  government 
for  himself,  Leicester  returned  to  England,  having  accomplished 
nothing.  What "Rlizabeth  did  not  do  was  done  by  a  crowd  of  young 
Englishmen  who  pressed  over  to  the  Netherlands  to  fight  as  volun- 
teers for  Dutch  freedoniN.  The  best  known  of  these  was  Sir  PhiHp 
Sidney,  whose  head  and  h€;art  alike  seemed  to  qualify  him  for 
a  foremost  place  amongst  the  new  generation  of  Englishmen. 
Unhappily  he  was  slain  in  battle  fte^r  Zutphen.  As  he  lay  dying 
he  handed  a  cup  of  water  untaste^tp  another  wounded  man, 
*  Thy  necessity,'  he  said  to  him,  '  is  greater  than  mine.'  Parma 
took  Zutphen,  and  the  territory  of  the  Dutch  Republic — the  bulwark 
of  England— was  the  smaller  by  its  loss.  By  sea  England  more 
than  held  her  own,  and  in  1586  Drake  returned  from  a  voyage  to 
the  West  Indies  laden  with  spoils. 

24.  Babington's  Plot,  and  the  Trial  of  Mary  Stuart.  1586.— 
The  Spanish  invasion  being  still  delayed,  a  new  plot  for  murdering 
Elizabeth  was  formed.  A  number  of  young  Catholics  (of  whom 
Anthony  Babington  was  the  most  prominent)  had  been  allowed  to 
remain  at  Court  by  Elizabeth,  who  was  perfectly  fearless.  Acting 
under  the  instructions  of  a  priest  named  Ballard,  they  now  sought 
basely  to  take  advantage  of  their  easy  access  to  her  person  to  assas- 
sinate her.  They  were  detected  and  executed,  and  Walsingham, 
the  Secretary  of  State  who  conducted  the  detective  department 
of  the  government,  discovered,  or  said  that  he  had  discovered, 
evidence  of  Mary  Stuart's  approving  knowledge  of  the  conspiracy. 
Elizabeth's  servants  felt  that  there  was  but  one  way  of  saving  the 
life  of  the  queen,  and  that  was  by  taking  the  life  of  her  whose 
existence  made  it  worth  while  to  assassinate  Elizabeth.  Mary  was 
brought  to  trial  and  condemned  to  death  on  a  charge  of  complicity 
in  Babington's  plot.  When  Parliament  met  it  petitioned  Elizabeth 
to  execute  the  sentence.  Elizabeth  could  not  make  up  her  mind. 
She  knew  that  Mary's  execution  would  save  herself  and  the  country 
from  enormous  danger,  but  she  shrank  from  ordering  the  deed  to 
be  done.  She  signed  the  warrant  for  Mary's  death,  and  then  asked 
Mary's  gaoler  Paulet  to  save  her  from  responsibility  by  murdering 
his  prisoner.  On  Paulet's  refusal  she  continued  her  vacillations,  till 
the  Council  authorised  Davison,  Walsingham's  colleague  in  the 
Secretaryship,  to  send  off  the  warrant  without  further  orders. 

II.  H  H 


45$  ELIZABETH  AND  THE  EUROPEAN  CONFLICT  \$'&'j-is^'i 

O^  25.  Execution  of  Mary  Stuart.  1587.— On  February  8,  1587, 
Mary  Stuart  was  beheaded  at  Fotheringhay.  Elizabeth  carried  out 
to  the  last  the  part  which  she  had  assumed,  threw  the  blame  on 
Davison,  dismissed  him  from  her  service,  and  fined  him  heavily. 
After  Mary's  death  the  attack  on  England  would  have  to  be  con- 
ducted in  open  day.  It  would  be  no  advantage  to  Philip  and  the 
Pope  that  Elizabeth  should  be  murdered  if  her  place  was  to  be  taken, 
not  by  Mary,  but  by  Mary's  Protestant  son,  James  of  Scotland. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

ELIZABETH'S   YEARS    OF   TRIUMPH.      1587— 1603 


^ 


LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558— 1603 

Drake  singes  the  King  of  Spain's  beard 

The  defeat  of  the  Armada 

The  rising  of  O'Neill  . 

The  taking  of  Cadiz    . 

Essex  arrives  in  Ireland    , 

Mountjoy  arrives  in  Ireland     . 

The  Monopolies  withdrawn     . 

Conquest  of  Ireland,  and  death  of  Elizabelh 


1587 
1588 
1594 
1596 
1599 
1600 
1601 
1603 


The  Singeing  of  the  King  of  Spain's  Beard.  1587. — After 
.Mary's  execution  Philip  claimed  the  crown  of  England  for  himself 
or  his  daughter  the  Infanta  Isabella,  on  the  ploa  that  he  was 
descended  from  a  daughter  of  John  of  (jaunt,  and  prepared  a  great 
fleet  in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  harbours  for  the  invasion  of 
England.  In  attempting  to  overthrow  Elizabeth  he  was  eager  not 
merely  to  suppress  English  Protestantism,  but  to  put  an  end  to  Eng- 
lish smuggling  and  piracy  in  Spanish  America,  and  to  stop  the  assis- 
tance given  by  Englishmen  to  the  Netherlanders  who  had  rebelled 
against  him.  Before  his  fleet  was  ready  to  sail  Drake  appeared 
off  his  coast,  running  into  his  ports,  burning  his  store-ships,  and 
thus  making  an  invasion  impossible  for  that  year  (1587).  Drake, 
as  he  said  on  his  return,  had  singed  the  king  of  Spain's  beard. 
"-4 —  2.  The  Approach  of  the  Armada.  1588.— The  Invincible 
^     '^      Armada,^  as  some  foolish  Spaniards  called  Philip's  great  fleet,  set 


1  '  Armada '  was  the  Spanish  name  for  any  armed  tleet. 


1588  THE  SPANISH  ARMADA  459 

out  at  last  in  1588.  It  was  to  sail  up  the  Channel  to  Flanders,  and 
to  transport  Parma  and  his  army  to  England.  Parma's  soldiers 
were  the  best  disciplined  veterans  in  Europe,  while  Elizabeth's 
were  raw  militia,  who  had  never  seen  a  shot  fired  in  actual  war. 
If,  therefore,  Parma  succeeded  in  landing,  it  would  probably  go 


V  ' 
K 


Sir  Martin  Frobisher,  died  1594  :  from  a  picture  belonging  to  the 
Earl  of  Carlisle. 

hard  with  England.     It  was,  therefore,  in  England's   interest  to 
fight  the  Armada  at  sea  rather  than  on  land. 

3.  The  Equipment  of  the  Armada.  1588. — Even  at  sea  the 
odds  were  in  appearance  against  the  English.  The  Spanish  ships 
were  not  indeed  so  much  larger  than  the  largest  English  vessels  as 
has  often  been  said,  but  they  were  somewhat  larger,  and  they  were 

H  K  8 


46o  ELIZABETirS    YEARS  OF  TRIUMPH  1588 

built  so  as  to  rise  much  higher  out  of  the  water,  and  to  carry  a 
greater  number  of  men.  In  fact,  the  superiority  was  all  on  the 
English  side.  In  great  military  or  naval  struggles  the  superiority 
of  the  victor  is  usually  a  superiority  of  intelligence,  which  shows 
itself  in  the  preparation  of  weapons  as  much  as  in  conduct  in 
action.  The  Spanish  ships  were  prepared  for  a  mode  of  warfaie 
which  had  hitherto  been  customary.  In  such  ships  the  soldiers 
were  more  numerous  than  the  sailors,  and  the  decks  were  raised 
higli  above  the  water,  in  order  that  the  soldiers  might  command 
with  their  muskets  the  decks  of  smaller  vessels  at  close  quarters. 
The  Spaniards,  trusting  to  this  method  of  fighting,  had  not  troubled 
themselves  to  improve  their  marine  artillery.  The  cannon  of  their 
largest  ships  were  few,  and  the  shot  which  they  were  capable  of 
firing  was  light.  Philip's  systeni  of  requiring  absolute  submission 
in  Church  and  State  had  resulted  in  an  uninventive  frame  of  mind 
in  those  who  carried  out  his  orders.  He  had  himself  shown  how 
Httle  he  cared  for  ability  in  his  selection  of  an  admiral  for  his  fleet. 
That  post  having  become  vacant  by  the  death  of  the  best  seaman 
in  Spain,  Phihp  ordered  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia  to  take  his 
place.  The  Duke  answered — with  perfect  truth —that  he  knew 
nothing  about  the  sea  and  nothing  about  war  ;  but  Philip,  in  spite 
of  his  candour,  bade  him  go,  and  go  he  did. 
_r  4.  The  Equipment  of  the  English  Fleet.    1588.— Very  different 

was  the  equipment  of  the  English  fleet.  Composed  partly  of  the 
queen's  ships,  but  mainly  of  volunteers  from  every  port,  it  was 
commanded  by  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  a  Catholic  by  convic- 
tion. The  very  presence  of  such  a  man  was  a  token  of  a  patriotic 
fervour  of  which  Philip  and  the  Jesuits  had  taken  no  account,  but 
which  made  the  great  majority  of  Catholics  draw  ihcir  swords  for 
their  queen  and  country.  With  him  were  old  sailors  like  Frobisher, 
who  had  made  his  way  through  the  ice  of  Arctic  seas,  or  like 
Drake,  who  had  beaten  Spaniards  till  they  knew  their  own  superi- 
ority. That  superiority  was  based  not  merely  on  greater  skill 
as  sailors,  but  on  the  possession  of  better  ships,  English  ship- 
builders had  adopted  an  improved  style  of  naval  architecture,  hav- 
ing constructed  vessels  which  would  sail  faster  and  be  more  easily 
handled  than  those  of  the  older  fashion,  and  —what  was  of  still 
greater  importance — had  built  them  so  as  to  carry  more  and  heavier 
cannon.  Hence,  the  English  fleet,  on  board  of  which  the  number 
of  sailors  exceeded  that  of  the  soldiers,  was  in  reality — if  only  it 
could  avoid  fighting  at  close  quarters — far  superior  to  that  of  the 
enemy. 


:588  THE  ARMADA    IN   THE   CHANNEL' 


461 


V 


u 


462  ELIZABETH  S    YEARS   OF   TRIUMPH  1588 

5.  The  Defeat  of  the  Armada.  1588.— When  the  Armada 
was  sighted  at  the  mouth  of  the  Channel,  the  EngHsh  commander 
was  playing  bowls  with  his  captains  on  Plymouth  Hoe.  Drake 
refused  to  break  off  his  amusement,  saying  that  there  was  time  to 
finish  the  game  and  to  beat  the  Spaniards  too.  The  wind  was 
blowing  strongly  from  the  south-west,  and  he  recommended  Lord 
Howard  to  let  the  Spaniards  pass,  that  the  English  fleet  might 
follow  them  up  with  the  wind  behind  it.  When  once  they  had  gone 
by  they  were  at  the  mercy  of  their  English  pursuers,  who  kept  out 
of  their  way  whenever  the  Spaniards  turned  in  pursuit.  The 
superiority  of  the  English  gunnery  soon  told,  and,  after  losing  ships 
in  the  voyage  up  the  Chan»el,  the  Armada  put  into  Calais.  The 
English  captains  sent  in  fire-ships  and  drove  the  Spaniards  out. 
Then  came  a  fight  off  Gravelines— if  fight  it  could  be  called — in 
which  the  helpless  mass  of  the  Armada  was  riddled  with  English 
shot.  The  wind  rose  into  a  storm,  and  pursuers  and  pursued  were 
driven  on  past  the  coast  of  Flanders,  where  Parma's  soldiers  were 
blockaded  by  a  Dutch  fleet.  Parma  had  hoped  that  the  Armada 
when  it  came  would  set  him  free,  and  convoy  him  across  to 
England.  As  he  saw  the  tall  ships  of  Spain  hurrying  past  before 
the  enemy  and  the  storm,  he  learnt  that  the  enterprise  on  which 
he  had  set  his  heart  could  never  be  carried  out. 

6.  The  Destruction  of  the  Armada.  1588. — The  Spanish  fleet 
was  driven  northwards  without  hope  of  return,  and  narrowly  escaped 
wreck  on  the  flats  of  Holland.  *'  There  was  never  anything  pleased 
me  better,"  wrote  Drake,  as  he  followed  hard,  "  than  seeing  the 
enemy  flying  with  a  southerly  wind  to  the  northwards.  .  .  .  With  the 
grace  of  God,  if  we  live,  I  doubt  not,  ere  it  be  long,  so  to  handle 
the  matter  with  the  Duke  of  Sidonia  as  he  shall  wish  himself  at 
St.  Mary  Port  ^  amongst  his  orange  trees."  Before  long  even 
Drake  had  had  enough.  Elizabeth,  having  with  her  usual  economy 
kept  the  ships  short  of  powder,  they  were  forced  to  come  back. 
The  Spaniards  had  been  too  roughly  handled  to  return  home  by 
the  way  they  came.  Round  the  north  of  Scotland  and  the  west 
of  Ireland  they  went,  strewing  the  coast  with  wrecks.  About 
120  of  their  ships  had  entered  the  Channel,  but  only  54  returned. 
"  I  sent  you,"  said  Philip  to  his  admiral,  "  to  fight  against  men,  and 
not  with  the  winds."  Elizabeth,  too,  credited  the  storms  with  her 
success.  She  struck  a  medal  with  the  inscription,  "  God  blew  with 
his  wind  and  they  were  scattered."     The  winds  had  done  their 

1  A  place  near  Cadiz  where  the  Duke's  residence  was. 


isSS 


SIR    WALTER   RALEIGH 


463 


Sir  Walter  Raleigh  (1552-1618)  and  his  eldest  son  Walter,  at  the  age  of  eight  :  fioui  u 
picture,  dated  1602,  belonging  to  Sir  J.  F.  Lennard,  Bart. 


X.'^^ 


r 


464  ELIZABETirS    YEARS   OF   TRIUMPH     1588-1596 

part,  but  the  victory  was  mainly  due- ta  the-seamanship-of  English, 
mariners  and  the  skill  of  English  shipwrights. 

7.  Philip  II.  and  France.  1588— 1593. — Philip's  hopes  of  con- 
trolling France  were  before  long  baffled  as  completely  as  his  hopes 
of  controlling  England.  In  1588  Guise,  the  partisan  of  Spain,  was 
murdered  at  Blois  by  the  order  of  the  king  in  his  very  presence. 
In  1589  Henry  III.  was  murdered  in  revenge  by  a  fanatic,  and  the 
Huguenot  king  of  Navarre  claimed  the  crown  as  Henry  IV.  The 
League  declared  that  no  Huguenot  should  reign  in  France.  A 
struggle  ensued,  and  twice  when  Henry  seemed  to  be  gaining  the 
upper  hand  Philip  sent  Parma  to  aid  the  League.  The  feeling 
of  the  French  people  was  against  a  Huguenot  king,  but  it  was 
also  against  Spanish  interference.  When  in  1593  Henry  IV. 
declared  himself  a  Catholic,  Paris  cheerfully  submitted  to  him,  and 
its  example  was  speedily  followed  by  the  rest  of  France.  Elizabeth 
saw  in  Henry  IV.  a  king  whose  position  as  a  national  sovereign  re- 
sisting Spanish  interference  much  resembled  her  own,  and  in  1589 
and  again  in  1591  she  sent  him  men  and  money.  A  close  alliance 
against  Spain  sprang  up  between  France  and  England. 

8.  Maritime  Enterprises.  1589 — 1596.— It  was  chiefly  at  sea, 
however,  that  Englishmen  revenged  themselves  for  the  attack  of 
the  Armada.  In  1592  Drake  and  Sir  John  Norris  sacked  Corunna 
but  failed  to  take  Lisbon.  Other  less  notable  sailors  plundered 
and-  destroyed  in  the  West  Indies.  In  1595  Drake  died  at  sea- 
In  the  same  year  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  was  alike  distinguished 
as  a  courtier,  a  soldier,  and  a  sailor,  sailed  up  the  Orinoco  in  search 
of  wfealth.  In  1596  Raleigh,  together  with  Lord  Howard  of 
Effingham  and  the  young  Earl  of  Essex,  who  was  in  high  favour 
with  the  Queen,  took  and  sacked  Cadiz.  Essex  was  generous  and 
impetuous,  but  intensely  vain,  and  the  victory  was  followed  by  a 
squabble  between  the  commanders  as  to  their  respective  merits. 

9.  Increasing  Prosperity. — It  was  not  so  much  the  victories  as 
the  energy  which  made  the  victories  possible  that  diffiased  wealth 
and  prosperity  over  England.  Trade  grew  together  with  piracy  and 
war.  Manufactures  increased,  and  the  manufacturers  growing  in 
numbers  needed  to  be  fed.  Landed  proprietors,  in  consequence, 
found  it  profitable  to  grow  corn  instead  of  turning  their  arable  lands 
into  pasture,  as  they  had  done  at  the  beginning  of  the  century'. 
The  complaints  about  inclosures  (see  pp.  368,  415)  died  away.  The 
results  of  wealth  appeared  in  the  show  and  splendour  of  the 
court,  where  men  decked  themselves  in  gorgeous  attire,  but  still 
more  in  the  graduil  rise  of  the  general  standard  of  comfort. 


■V 


588-1596 


INCREASE   OF  COMFORT 


465 


o.  Buildings. —Even  in  Mary's  days  the  good  food  of  English- 
men had  been  the  wonder  of  foreigners.  "  These  EngHsh,"  said  a 
Spaniard,  "  have  their  houses  of  sticks  and  dirt,  but  they  fare  com- 
monly as  well  as  the  king."  In  Elizabeth's  time  the  houses  were 
improved.  Many  windows,  which  had,  except  in  the  houses  of  the 
great,  been  guarded  with  horn  or  lattice,  were  now  glazed,  and 
even  in  the  man- 
sions of  the  nobility 
large  windows  stood 
in  striking   contrast 

,  with  the  narrow  open- 

:  ings    of   the    build- 

'  ings  of  the  middle 
ages.  Glass  was  wel- 
come, because  men 
no  longer  lived — as 
they  had  lived  in  the 

.  days  when  internal 
wars  were  frequent 
— in  fortified  castles, 

-  where,  for  the  sake 
of  defence,  the  open- 
ings were  narrow  and 
infrequent.  Elizabe- 
than manor-houses, 
as  they  are  now 
termed,  sometimes 
built  in  the  shape 
of  the  letter  E,  in 
honour,  as  is  some- 
times supposed,  of 
the  Queen's  name, 
rose    all     over     the 

country  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  castles.   They  had  chimneys  to 

carry  off  the  smoke,  which,  in  former  days,  had,  in  all  but  the  largest 

houses,  been  allowed  to  escape  through  a  hole  in  the  roof    See  pp. 

/     466,467,469-471. 

\X  II.  Furniture. — The  furniture  within  the  houses  underwent  a 

\      change  as  great  as  the  houses  themselves.     When  Elizabeth  came 

to  the  throne  people  of  the  middle  class  were  content  to  lie  on  a 

straw  pallet,  with  a  log  of  wood,  or  at  the  best  a  bag  of  chaff,  under 

their  heads.     It  was  a  common  saying  that  pillows  were  fit  only 


A  mounted  soldier  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century 
from  a  broadside  printed  in  1596. 


466 


ELIZABETH'S    YEARS  OF   TRIUMPH     1580-11 


1597 


ELIZABETHAN  ARCHITECTURE 


467 


468  ELIZABETH'S    YEARS   OF   TRIUMPH     1 580- 1583 

for  sick  women.  Before  many  years  had  passed  comfortable 
bedding  had  been  introduced.  Pewter  platters  and  tin  spoons  re- 
placed wooden  ones.  Along  with  these  improvements  was  noticed  a 
universal  chase  after  wealth,  and  farmers  complained  that  landlords 
not  only  exacted  higher  rents,  but  themselves  engaged  in  the  sale 
of  the  produce  of  their  lands. 

/»L  12.  Growing  Strength  of  the  House  of  Commons. — This  in- 
crease of  general  prosperity  could  not  but  strengthen  the  House  of 
Commons.  It  was  mainly  composed  of  country  gentlemen,  and  it 
had  been  the  policy  of  the  Tudors  to  rely  upon  that  class  as  a 
counterpoise  to  the  old  nobility.  Many  of  the  country  gentlemen 
^  were  eniployed  as  Justices  of  the  Peace,  and  Elizabeth  had  gladly 

increased  their  powers.  When,  therefore,  they  came  to  fulfil  their 
duties  as  members  of  Parliament,  they  were  not  mere  talkers  unac- 
quainted with  business,  but  practical  men,  who  had  been  used  to 
deal  with  their  own  local  iffairs  before  being  called  on  to  discuss 
the  affairs  of  the  country.  Various  causes  made  their  opinions  more 
important  as  the  reign  went  on.  In  the  first  place,  the  national 
uprising  against  Spain  drew  with  it  a  rapid  increase  of  Protestantism 
in  the  younger  generation,  and,  for  this  reason,  the  House  ot 
Commons,  which,  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign,  represented  only 
a  Protestant  minority  in  the  nation  itself  (see  p.  428),  at  the  end  of 
the  reign  represented  a  Protestant  majority,  and  gained  strength 
in  consequence.  In  the  second  place,  Puritanism  tended  to  de- 
velope  independence  of  character,  whilst  the  queen  was  not  only 
unable  to  overawe  the  Puritan  members  of  the  House,  but,  unlike 
her  father,  had  no  means  of  keeping  the  more  worldly-minded  in 
submission  by  the  distribution  of  abbey  lands. 

13.  Archbishop  Whitgift  and  the  Court  of  High  Commission. 
1583. — The,  Jesuit  attack  in  1580  and  1581  strengthened  the  queen's 
resolution  to  -put  an  end  to  the  divisions  which  weakened  the 
English  ChurchJ^^'as  she  was  still  afraid  lest  Puritanism,  if  un- 
checked, might  give%^ence  to  her  more  moderately-minded 
subjects  and  drive  them  irvtB4he  arms  of  the  Papacy.  In  1583,  on 
Grindal's  death,  she  appointe^t€tjthe  Archbishopric  of  Canterbury 
Whitgift,  who  had  taken  a  leadin^g^art  in  opposing  Cartwright 
(see  p.  446).  Whitgift  held  that  as  que&t-i^ns  about  vestments  and 
ceremonies  were  unimportant,  the  queen's  phs^ure  in  such  matters 
ought  to  be  the  rule  of  the  Church.  He  wa!^,,  however,  a  strict 
disciplinarian,  and  he  was  as  anxious  as  the  queen  to  force  into 
conformity  those  clergy  who  broke  the  unity  of  the  Church  for  the 
sake  of  what  he  regarded  as  mere  crotchets  of  their  own,  especially 


i6oi 


ELIZABETHAN  ARCHITECTURE 


469 


470  ELIZABETH'S    YEARS  OF   TRIUMPH     1584- 1588 

as  some  of  them  were  violent  assailants  of  the  established  order. 
In  virtue  of  a  clause  in  the  Act  of  Supremacy  the  queen  erected 
a  Court  of  Higlj  Commission.  Though  many  laymen  were  mem- 
bers of  the  new  Court,  they  seldom  attended  its  sittings,  and  it 
was  therefore  practically  managed  by  bishops  and  ecclesiastical 
lawyers.  Its  business  was  to  enforce  conformity  on  the  clergy,  and 
under  Whitgift  it  acted  most  energetically,  driving  from  their  livings 
and  committing  to  prison  clergymen  who  refused  to  conform. 

14.  The  House  of  Commons  and  Puritanism.  1584. — The 
severity  of  the  High  Commission  roused  some  of  the  Puritan  clergy 
to  attempt — in  private  meetings — to  bring  into  existence  something 
of  the  system  of  Presbyterianism,  but  the  attempt  was  soon  aban- 
doned. Few  amongst  the  Protestant  laity  had  any  liking  for 
Presbyterianism,  which  they  regarded  as  oppressive  and  intolerant, 
and  it  had  no  deep  roots  even  amongst  the  Puritan  clergy.  If 
many  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  were  attracted  to 
Puritanism,  as  opposed  to  PresbytQrianism,  it  was  partly  because 
at  the  time  of  a  national  struggle  ag^ltjst  Rome,  they  preferred 
those  amongst  the  clergy  whose  views  were'  niost  antagonistic  to 
those  of  Rome  ;  but  still  more  because  they  admired  the  Puritans 
as  defenders  of  morality.  Not  only  were  the  Church  courts  op- 
pressive and  meddlesome,  but  plain  men  were  disgusted  at  a  system 
in  which  ignorant  and  lazy  ministers  who  conformed  to  the  Prayer 
Book  were  left  untouched,  whilst  able  and  energetic  preachers  who 
refused  to  adopt  its  ceremonies  were  silenced. 

15.  The  Separatists. — The  desire  for  a  higher  standard  of 
morality,  which  made  so  many  support  the  Puritan  demand  for 
a  further  reformation  of  the  Church,  drove  others  to  denounce 
the  Church  as  apostate.  Robert  Browne,  a  clergyman,  was  the  first 
to  declare  in  favour  of  a  system  which  was  neither  Episcopal  nor 
Presbyterian.  He  held  it  to  be  the  duty  of  all  true  Christians  to 
separate  themselves  from  the  Church,  and  to  form  congregations 
apart,  to  which  only  those  whose  religion  and  morality  were  beyond 
question  should  be  admitted.  These  separatists,  as  they  called 
themselves,  were  known  as  Brownists'Hij  common  speech.  Un- 
fortunately their  zeal  made  them  uncharitably  contemptuous  of 
those  who  were  less  zealous  than  themselves*, .and  it  was  from 
amongst  them  that  there  came  forth — beginning  in  1588 — a  series  of 
virulent  and  libellous  attacks  on  the  bishops,  known  as  the  Mar- 
prelate  Tracts,  printed  anonymously  at  a  secret  press.  Browne  and 
his  followers  advocated  complete  religious  liberty — denying  the 
right  of  the  State  to  interfere  with  the  conscience.     The  doctrine 


l6oi 


ELIZABETHAN  ARCHITECTURE 


471 


47^  ELIZABETH'S    YEARS  OF   TRIUMPH     1588- 1593 

was  too  advanced  for  general  acceptance,  and  the  violence  of  the 
Marpl-el^  Tracts  gave  offence  even  to  the  Puritans.  Englishmen 
might  differ">s.4:p^  what  sort  of  church  the  national  church  should  be, 
but  almost  all  were'aS'-yet.^greed  that  there  ought  to  be  one  national 
church  and  not  a  number  of  disconnected  sects.  In  1593  an  act  of 
Parliament  was  passed  imposing  puhisliinent  on  those  who  attended 
conventicles  or  private  religious  assembli&sj-^nd  in  the  course  of 
the  year  three  of  the  leading  separatists — Barrow,  Greenwood,  and 
Penry — were  hanged,  on  charges  of  sedition. 

16.  Whitgift  and  Hooker. — The  Church  of  England  would 
certainly  not  have  sustained  itself  against  the  Puritans  unless  it 
had  found  a  champion  of  a  higher  order  than  Whitgift.  Whitgift 
maintained  its  organisation,  but  he  did  no  more.  Cranmer,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Reformation,  had  declared  the  Bible  as  interpreted 
by  the  writers  of  the  first  six  centuries  to  be  the  test  of  doctrine, 
but  this  assertion  had  been  met  during  the  greater  part  of  Eliza- 
beth's reign,  on  the  one  hand  by  the  Catholics,  who  asserted 
that  the  Church  of  the  first  six  centuries  differed  much  from 
the  Church  of  EngWnd  of  their  day,  and  on  the  other  hand 
by  the  Puritans,  who  asserted  that  the  testimony  of  the  first  six 
centuries  was  irrelevant,  arid  that  the  Bible  alone  was  to  be  con- 
sulted. Whitgift  had  called  both  parties  to  obedience,  on  the  ground 
that  they  ought  to  submit  to 'the  queen  in  indifferent  matters. 
Hooker  in  the  opening  of  his  Ecclesiastical  Polity  called  the  Puritans 
to  peace.  "  This  unhappy  controversy,"  he  declared,  "  about  the 
received  ceremonies  and  discipline  of  the  Church  of  England,  which 
hath  so  long  time  withdrawn  so  many  of^'^er  ministers  from  their 
principal  work  and  employed  their  studies^iji  contentious  opposi- 
tions, hath,  by  the  unnatural  growth  and  dang.erous  fruits  thereof, 
made  known  to  the  world  that  it  never  received ''blessing  from  the 
Father  of  peace."  Hooker's  teaching  was  distinguished  by  the 
importance  which  he  assigned  to  'law,'  as  against  the  blind 
acceptance  of  Papal  decisions  on  the  one  side  an^,  against  the 
Puritan  reverence  for  the  letter  of  the  scriptures  om  the  other. 
The  Puritans  were  wrong,  as  he  taught,  not  because  they  disobeyed 
the  queen,  but  because  they  did  not  recognise  that  God  revealed 
Himself  in  the  natural  laws  of  the  world  as  well  as  in  the  letter  ox 
Scripture.  "  Of  law,"  he  wrote,  "  there  can  be  no  less  acknowledged 
than  that  her  seat  is  the  bosom  of  God,  her  voice  the  harmony  of 
the  world  :  all  things  in  heaven  and  earth  do  her  homage— the  very 
least  as  feeling  her  care,  and  the  greatest  as  not  exempted  from 
her  power :  both  angels  and  men  and  creatures  of  what  condition 


1588-1603 


EL  1ZABE  THAN  LITER  A  TURE 


473 


soe^^«4;— though  each  in  different  sort  and  manner,  yet  all  with 
universal^'^SQ^sent — admiring  her  as  the  mother  of  their  peace  and 
joy."  It  was  tiietieilQre  unnecessary,  according  to  Hooker's  teaching, 
to  defend  certain  usag'&Sv^  the  ground  of  their  sanction  by  tradi- 
tion or  by  Papal  authority/^^'sijwas  unreasonable  to  a.ttack  them 
on  .the  ground  that  they  were  not  itteiitioned  in  Scripture.  It  was 
sufficient  that  they  were  fitting- expres§ku[is  of  the  feelings  of 
reverence  which  had  been  implanted  by  God  inliuman  nature  itself. 


Coaches  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth :  from  Archceologi 


17.  Spenser,  Shakspere,  and  Bacon. — With  the  stately  periods 
of  Hooker  English  prose  entered  on  a  new  stage.  For  the  first 
time  it  sought  to  charm  and  to  invigorate,  as  well  as  to  inform  the 
world.  In,  Spenser  and  Shakspere  are  to  be  discerned  the  same 
influences  as  "th«se^  which  made  Hooker  great.  They,  too,  are 
filled  with  reverencefcH?  .4he  reign  of  law.  Spenser,  in  his  Faerie 
Queen^  set  forth  the  greatnfess^of  man  in  following  the  laws  which 
II.  "^''***^^  1 1 


474 


ELIZABETH'S    YEARS   OF   TRIUMPH      1588-1603 


rule  tlte^  moral  world— the  laws  of  purity  and  temperance  and 
justice;  wMstShakspere,  in  the  plays  which  he  now  began  to  f)our 
forth,  taught  theitKp^ recognise  the  penalties  which  follow  hard  on 
him  who  disregards  n^t-^pnly  the  moral  but  also  the  physical 
laws  of  the  world  in  which  he  lives,  and  to  appraise  the  worth  of 


William  Shakspere  :  from  the  bust  on  his  tomb  at  Stratford-on-Avon. 

man  by_what  he  is  and  not  by  the  dogmas  which  he  accepts.  That 
nothing  migl^t.^  wanting  to  point  out  the  ways  in  which  future 
generations  weretC^Al5:alk,  young  Francis  Bacon  began  to  dream  of 
a  larger  science  than  ha^Sutherto  been  possible — a  science  based 
on  a  reverent  inquiry  into  theKlws  of  nature. 


V 


^; 


1595-1599  aNEILVS  RISING  475 

iS.vCondition  of  the  Catholics.  1588— 1603.— Bacon  cared  for 
many  mattef^-^d  one  of  his  earliest  recommendations  to  Eliza- 
beth had  been  to^ln^e  a  distinction  between  the  Catholics  who 
would  take  an  oath  to^deljend  her  against  all  enemies  and  those 
who  would  not.  The  patrioti^sj^ith  which  many  Catholics  had 
taken  her  side  when  the  Armada  a^Jp^ed  ought  to  have  procured 
the  acceptance  of  this  proposal.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  either 
men  or  nations  change  their  ways  till  long^fter  the  time  when 
they  ought  to  change  them.  Spain  and  the  Pope  sttikthreatened, 
and  all  Catholics  were  still  treated  as  allies  of  Spain  and  the  Pope, 
and  the  laws  against  them  were  made  even  more  severe  during  the 
remainder  of  the  reign. 

19.  Irish  Difficulties.  1583— 1594.— The  dread  of  a  renewal  of 
a  Spanish  invasion  was  productive  of  even  greater  mischief  in 
Ireland  than  in  England.  After  the  suppression  of  the  Desmond 
insurrection,  an  attempt  was  made  to  colonise  the  desolate  lands 
of  Munster  (see  p.  453)  with  English.  The  attempt  failed,  chiefly 
because— though  courtiers  willingly  accepted  large  grants  of  lands — 
English  farmers  refused  to  go  to  Ireland  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
till  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand.  Irishmen  enough  reappeared  to 
claim  their  old  lands,  to  rob,  and  sometimes  murder,  the  few  settlers 
who  came  from  England.  The  settlers  retaliated  by  acts  of  violence. 
All  over  Ireland  the  soldiers,  left  without  pay,  spoiled  and  maltreated 
the  unfortunate  inhabitants.  The  Irish,  exasperated  by  theii: 
cruelty,  longed  for  someone  to  take  up  their  cause,  and  in  1594  n 
rising  in  Ulster  was  headed  by  Hugh  O'Neill,  known  in  England 
as  the  Earl  of  Tyrone.  How  bitter  the  Irish  feeling  was  against 
England  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  other  Ulster  chiefs,  who 
usually  quarrelled  with  one  another,  now  placed  themselves  under 
O'Neill. 

20.  O'Neill  and  the  Earl  of  Essex.  1595 — 1600. — In  1595  O'Neill 
applied  to  the  king  of  Spain  for  help  ;  but  Spain  was  weaker  now 
than  in  former  years,  and  though  Philip  promised  help,  he  died 
in  1598  without  fulfilling  his  engagement,  being  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Philip  III.  In  the  same  year  O'Neill  utterly  defeated  an 
English  army  under  Bagenal  on  the  Blackwater.  All  Celtic  Ireland 
rose  in  his  support,  and  in  1599  Elizabeth  sent  her  favourite, 
Essex,  to  conquer  Ireland  in  good  earnest,  lest  it  should  fall  int© 
the  hands  of  the  king  of  Spain.  Essex,  through  mismanagement, 
failed  entirely,  and  after  a  great  part  of  his  army  had  melted  away 
he  came  back  to  England  without  leave.  On  his  arrival,  knowing 
Elizabeth's  fondness  for  him,  he  hoped  to  surprise  her  into  forgive- 

I  I  2 


^ 


^76  ELIZABETirS    YEARS  OF   TRIUMPH      1599-1600 

ness  of  his  disobedience,  and  rushed  into  Elizabeth's  presence  in 
tiis  muddy  and  travel-stained  clothes. 

21.  Essex's  Imprisonment  and  Execution.  1599— 1601.— The 
queen,  who  was  not  accustomed  to  allow  even  her  favourites  to 
run  away  from  their  posts  without  permission,  ordered  him  into 
confinement.  In  1600,  indeed,  she  restored  him  to  liberty,  but 
forbade  him  to  come  to  court.     Essex  could  not  brook  the  dis- 


Robert  Devereux,  second  Earl  of  Essex,  K.G.;  1567-1601  :  from  a  painting 
by  Van  Somer,  dated  1599,  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Essex. 

grace,  especially  as  the  queen  made  him  suffer  in  his  pocket  for 
his  misconduct.  As  she  had  little  money  to  give  away,  Elizabeth 
was  in  the  habit  of  rewarding  her  courtiers  by  grants  of  monopoly — 
that  is  to  say,  of  the  sole  right  of  selling  certain  articles,  thus 
enabling  them  to  make  a  profit  by  asking  a  higher  price  than 
they  could  have  got  if  they  had  been  subjected  to  competition 
To  Essex  she  had  given  a  monopoly  of  sweet  wines  for  a  term  of 


i6oo-i6o3  THE  MONOPOLIES  477 

years,  and  now  that  the  term  was  at  an  end  she  refused  to  renew 
the  grant.  Early  in  1601  Essex— professing  not  to  want  to  injure 
ihe  queen,  but  merely  to  force  her  to  change  her  ministers — rode 


Queen  Elizabeth,  1558-1603  :  from  a  painting  belonging  to  the  University  of  Cambiidge. 

at  the  head  of  a  few  followers  into  the  City,  calling  on  the  citizens 
to  rise  in  his  favour.  He  was  promptly  arrested,  and  in  the  course 
of  the  enquiries  made  into  his  conduct  it  was  discovered  that  when 


^ 


478  ELIZABETH'S    YEARS  OF  TRIUMPH  1601 

he  was  in  Ireland  he  had  entered  into  treasonable  negotiations  with 
James  VI.  At  his  trial,  Bacon,  who  had  been  most  kindly  treated 
by  Essex,  shocked  at  the  disclosure  of  these  traitorous  proceedings, 
turned  against  him,  and,  as  a  lawyer,  argued  strongly  that  he  had 
been  guilty      The  Eaii  was  convicted  and  executed. 

21.  Mountjoy's  Conquest  of  Ireland.  1600 — 1603.— In  1600, 
after  Essex  had  deserted  Ireland,  Lord  Mountjoy  was  sent  to  take 
his  ph^e.  He  completed  the  conquest  systematically,  building  forts 
as  place^x^f  retreat  for  his  soldiers  whenever  they  were  attacked 
by  overwhelhaing  numbers,  and  from  which  he  could  send  out  flying 
columns  to  dev^istate  the  country  after  the  enemy  had  retreated. 
In  1601  a  Spanish  freest  and  a  small  Spanish  army  at  last  arrived 
to  the  help  of  the  Irish, 'ttnd  seized  Kinsale.  The  English  forces 
hemmed  them  in.  defeated  the  Irish  army  which  came  to  their 
support,  and  compelled  the  SpaBiards  to  withdraw.  The  horrid 
work  of  conquering  Ireland  by  starvation  was  carried  to  the  end. 
*'  No  spectacle,"  wrote  Mountjoy's  English  secretary,  "  was  more 
frequent  in  the  ditches  of  the  towns,  and  especially  in  wasted 
countries,  than  to  see  multitudes  of  these  poor  people  dead,  with 
their  mouths  all  coloured  green  by  eating  nettles,  docks,  and  all 
things  they  could  rend  up  above  ground."  In  one  place  a  band  of 
women  enticed  little  children  to  come  among  them,  and  murdered 
them  for  food.  At  last,  m  1603,  O'Neill  submitted.  Ireland  had 
been  conquered  by  England  as  it  had  never  been  conquered 
before. 

23.  Parliament  and  the  Monopolies.  1601. — The  conquest  of 
Ireland  was  expensive  and  in  1601  Elizabeth  summoned  Parliament 
to  ask  for  supplies.  The  House  of  Commons  voted  the  money 
cheerfully,  but  raised  an  outcry  against  the  monopolies.  Elizabeth 
knew  when  to  give  way,  and  she  announced  her  intention  of  can- 
celling all  monopolies  which  could  be  shown  to  be  burdensome. 
"  I  have  more  cause  to  thank  you  all  than  you  me,"  she  said  to  the 
Commons  when  they  waited  on  her  to  express  their  gratitude;  "for 
had  I  not  received  a  knowledge  from  you,  I  might  have  fallen  into 
the  lap  of  an  error,  only  for  lack  of  true  information.  I  have  ever 
used  to  set  the  last  judgment-day  before  mine  eyes,  and  so  to  rule 
as  I  shall  be  judged  to  answer  before  a  higher  Judge — to  whose 
judgment-seat  I  do  appeal,  that  never  thought  was  cherished  in  my 
heart  that  tended  not  to  my  people's  good.  Though  you  have  had, 
and  may  have,  many  princes,  more  mighty  and  wise,  sitting  in 
this  seat,  yet  you  never  had,  or  ever  shall  have,  any  that  will  be 
more  careful  and  loving." 


160I-I603 


THE    WORK  OF  ELIZABETH 


47$ 


24.  The  Last  Days  of  Elizabeth.  1601— 1603.— These  were 
the  last  words  spoken  by  Elizabeth  to  her  people.  She  had  many 
faults,  but  she  cared  for  England,  and,  more  than  any  one  else, 
she  had  made  England  united  and  prosperous.  She  had  found  it 
distracted,  but  by  her  moderation  she  had  staved  off  civil  war,  till 
the  country  had  rallied  round  the  throne.  No  doubt  those  who 
worked  most  hard  towards  this  great  end  were  men  like  Burghley 


William  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley,  K.G.,  1520-159^  :  from  a  painting 
in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford. 


and  Walsingham  in  the  State,  and  men  like  Drake  and  Raleigh  at 
sea ;  but  it  was  Elizabeth  who,  being  what  she  was,  had  given  to  each 
his  opportunity.  If  either  Edward  VI.  or  Mary  had  been  in  her 
place,  such  men  would  have  found  no  sphere  in  which  their  work 
could  have  been  done,  and,  instead  of  telling  of  'the  spacious  times 
of  great  Elizabeth,'  the  historian  would  have  had  to  narrate  the 
progress  of  civil  strife  and  of  the  mutual  conflict  of  ever-narrowing 
creeds.     The  last  days  of  the  great  queen  were  gloomy,  as  far  as 


48o  DEATH  OF  ELIZABETH  1598- 1603 

she  was  personally  concerned.  Burghley,  the  wisest  of  her 
ministers,  died  in  1598.  In  his  last  days  he  had  urged  the  queen 
to  bring  to  an  end  the  war  with  Spain,  which  no  longer  served  any 
useful  purpose  ;  and  when  Essex  pleaded  for  its  continuance,  the 
aged  statesman  opened  the  Bible  at  the  text,  "  Bloody  and  deceit- 
ful men  shall  not  live  out  half  their  days  "  In  1603  Elizabeth  her- 
self died  at  the  age  of  sixty-nine.  According  to  law,  the  heir  to 
the  crown  was  William  Seymour,  who,  being  the  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Hertford  and  Lady  Catherine  Grey,  inherited  the  claims  of  the 
Suffolk  line  (see  pp.  411,  435).  There  were,  however,  doubts  about 
his  legitimacy,  as,  though  his  parents  had  been  married  in  due  form, 
the  ceremony  had  taken  place  in  private,  and  it  was  believed  by 
many  that  it  had  never  taken  place  at  all.  Elizabeth  had  always 
refused  to  allow  her  heir  to  be  designated  ;  but  as  death  approached 
she  indicated  her  preference  for  James,  as  havmg  claim  to  the 
inheritance  by  descent  from  her  own  eldest  aunt,  Margaret  (see 
p.  411).  "  My  seat,"  she  said,  "  hath  been  the  seat  of  kings,  and  I 
will  have  no  rascal  to  succeed  me."  "And  who,''  she  added, 
"  should  that  be  but  our  cousin  of  Scotland  ?  " 


Books  reconmiended  for  further  study  of  Part  V. 

Bhewer,  J.  S.     The  Reign  of  Henry  VIII.  from  his  Accession  to  the  Death  of 

Wolsey. 
Dixon,  Canon  R.  W.    History  of  the  Ct  urch  of  England  from  the  Abohtion 

of  the  Roman  Jurisdiction. 
Froude,  J.  A.     History  of  England  from  the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Death  of 

Elizabeth.     Vols,  v.-xii 
Motley,  J.  L.     The  Rise  of  ihe  Dutch  Republic. 

— ^ The  History  <  f  the  United  Netherlands. 

MuLLiNGER,  J.  B.     History  of  the  University  of  Cambridge.     Vol.  ii. 
Strype,  J.     Annals  of  the  Reformation. 

Life  and  Acts  of  Aylmer. 

>,  ,,        Grindal. 

,,  ,,        Whitgift. 

Nicolas,  Sir  W.  H.     Life  of  Sir  C,  Hatton. 

,,      W.  Davison. 

Spedding,  J.     LeUers  and  Life  of  Francis  Bacon.     Vol.  i.-iii,  p.  58. 
Edwards,  E.     The  Life  of  Sir  W.  Raleigh. 


4^1 


PART   VI 
THE  PURITAN  REVOLUTION.    1603— 1660 


\^ 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

JAMES   I.      1603— 1625 

LEADING   DATES 

Accession  of  James  I .        ,       .  1603 

The  Hampton  Court  Conference      .....  1604 

Gunpowder  Plot 1605 

Foundation  of  Virginia 1607 

The  Great  Contract 1610 

Beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years' War 1618 

Foundation  of  New  England 1620 

Condemnation  of  the  Monopolies  and  fall  of  Bacon  1621 

Prince  Charles's  visit  to  Madrid      .        .         ....  1623 

Breach  with  Spain 1624 

Death  of  James  I.        ........        .  1625 

1.  The  Peace  with  Spain.  1603— 1604.— At  the  end  of  Elizabeth's 
reign  there  had  been  much  talk  of  various  claimants  to  the  throne, 
but  when  she  died  no  one  thought  seriously  of  any  one  but  James. 
The  new  king  at  once  put  an  end  to  the  war  with  Spain,  though 
no  actual  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  till  1604.  James  gave  his 
confidence  to  Sir  Robert  Cecil,  Lord  Burghley's  second  son,  whom 
he  continued  in  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State,  which  had  been 
conferred  on  him  by  Elizabeth.  The  leader  of  the  war-party  was 
Raleigh,  who  was  first  dismissed  from  his  offices  and  afterwards 
accused  of  treason,  on  the  charge  of  having  invited  the  Spaniards 
to  invade  England.  It  is  most  unlikely  that  the  charge  was  true, 
but  as  Raleigh  was  angry  at  his  dismissal,  he  may  have  spoken 
rashly.      He  was  condemned  to  death,  but  James  commuted  the 

entence  to  imprisonment. 

2.  The  Hampton  Court  Conference.  1604. — The  most  im- 
portant question  which  James  had  to  decide  on  his  accession  was 


482 


JAMES  L 


[603-1604 


that  of  religious  toleration.  Many  of  the  Puritan  clergy  signed 
a  petition  to  him  known  as  the  Millenary  Petition,  because  it  was 
intended  to  be  signed  by  a  thousand  ministers.  A  conference  was 
held  on  January  14, 1604,  in  the  king's  presence  at  Hampton  Court, 
in  which  some  of  the  bishops  took  part,  as  well  as  a  deputation  of 
Puritan  ministers  who  were  permitted  to  argue  in  favour  of  the 
demands  put  forward  in  the  petition.  The  Puritan  Clergy  had  by 
this  time  abandoned  Cartwright's  Presbyterian  ideas  (see  p.  446) 
^  and  merely  asked  that  those  who  thought  it  wrong  to  wear  surplices 
and  to  use  certain  other  ceremonies  might  be  excused  from  doing  so, 
without  breaking  away  from  the  national  church.  James  listened 
quietly  to  them,  till  one  of  them  used  the  word  Presbytery.  He  at 
once  flew  into  a  passion.  "A  Scottish  Presbytery,"  he  said,  "agreeth 
as  well  with  a  monarchy  as  God  with  the  devil.     Then  Jack  and 

Tom  and  Will  and  Dick  shall 
meet,  and  at  their  pleasures  cen- 
sure  me  and  my  council.  .  .  . 
Until  you  find  that  I  grow  lazy 
— let  that  alone."  James  ordered 
them  to  conform  or  to  leave  the 
ministry.  He  adopted  the  motto, 
"No  bishop,  no  king!"     Like 
Elizabeth,  he  used  the  bishops 
to  keep  the  clergy  from  gaining 
power  independent  of  the  Crown. 
The  bishops  were  delighted,  and 
one  of  them  said  that '  his  Majesty 
spoke  by  the  inspiration  of  God.' 
3.  James  and  the  House  of 
,ommons. — In  1604  Parliament 
met.  The  members  of  the  House 
of  Commons  had  no  more  wish  than  James  to  overthrow  the  bishops, 
but  they  thought  that  able  and  pious  ministers  should  be  allowed 
to  preach  even  if  they  would  not  wear  surplices,  and  they  were  dis- 
satisfied with  the  king's  decision  at  Hampton  Court.    On  the  other 
hand,  James  was  anxious  to  obtain  their  consent  to  a  union  with 
Scotland,  which  the  Commons  disliked,  partly  because  the  king  had 
brought  many  Scotsmen  with  him,  and  had  supplied  them  with 
English  lands  and  money.    Financial  difiiculties  also  arose,  and  the 
session  ended  in  a  quarrel  between  the  king  and  the  House  of 
Commons.     Before  the  year  was  over  he  had  deprived  of  their 
livings  many  of  the  clergy  who  refused  to  conform. 


Royal  Arms  borne  by  James  I.  and 
succeeding  Stuart  sovereigns. 


^: 


1 605-1607  GUNPOWDER  PLOT  483 

^<^>^  4.  Gunpowder  Plot.  1604— 1605. — Not  only  the  Puritans,  but 
the  Catholics  as  well,  had  appealed  to  James  for  toleration.  In  the 
first  year  of  his  reign  he  remitted  the  recusancy  fines  (see  p.  454). 
As  might  be  expected,  the  number  of  recusants  increased,  pro- 
bably because  many  who  had  attended  church  to  avoid  paying  fines 
stayed  away  as  soon  as  the  fines  ceased  to  be  required.  James 
took  alarm,  and  in  February  1604  banished  the  priests  from 
London.  On  this,  a  Catholic  named  Robert  Catesby  proposed  to 
a  few  of  his  friends  a  plot  to  blow  up  king,  Lords,  and  Commons 
with  gunpowder  at  the  opening  of  Parliament.  The  king  had  two 
sons,  Henry  and  Charles,  and  a  little  daughter,  Elizabeth.  Catesby, 
expecting  that  the  two  princes  would  be  destroyed  with  theiir 
father,  intended  to  make  Elizabeth  queen,  and  to  take  care  that^^^cj^ 
she  was  brought  up  as  a  Roman  Catholic.  Guy  Fawkes,  a  cool  "^nJu!; 
soldier,  wS  sent  for  from  Flanders  to  manage  the  scheme.  The\  ^ 
plotters  took  a  house  next  to  the  House  of  Lords,  and  began  to  dig  Kvjoj 
through  the  wall  to  enable  them  to  carry  the  powder  into  the  base- 
ment. The  wall,  however,  was  nine  feet  thick,  and  they,  being  little 
used  to  mason's  work,  made  but  little  way.  In  the  spring  of  1605 
James  increased  the  exasperation  of  the  plotters  by  re-imposing 
the  recusancy  fines  on  the  Catholic  laity.  Soon  afterwards  their 
task  was  made  more  easy  by  the  discovery  that  a  coal-cellar  reaching 
under  the  floor  of  the  House  of  Lords  was  to  be  let.  One  of  their 
number  hired  the  cellar,  and  introduced  into  it  barrels  of  powder, 
covering  them  with  coals  and  billets  of  wood.  Parliament  was  to 
be  opened  for  its  second  session  on  November  5,  and  in  the  pre- 
ceding evening  Fawkes  went  to  the  cellar  with  a  lantern,  ready  to 
fire  the  train  in  the  morning.  One  of  the  plotters,  however,  had 
betrayed  the  secret.  Fawkes  was  seized,  and  his  companions  were 
pursued.  All  the  conspirators  who  were  taken  alive  were  executed, 
and  the  persecution  of  the  Catholics  grew  hotter  than  before. 

Vs^  $.  The  Post-nati.  1606 — 1607. — When  another  session  opened 
in  1606  James  repeated  his  efforts  to  induce  the  Commons  to  do 
something  for  the  union  with  Scotland.  He  wanted  them  to  esta- 
blish free  trade  between  the  countries,  and  to  naturalise  his 
Scottish  subjects  in  England.  Finding  that  he  could  obtain  neither 
of  his  wishes  from  Parliament,  he  obtained  from  the  judges  a 
decision  that  all  his  Scottish  subjects  born  after  his  accession  in 
England— the  Post-nati^  as  they  were  called— were  legally  natu- 
ralised, and  were  thus  capable  of  holding  land  in  England.  He 
had  to  give  up  all  hope  of  obtaining  freedom  of  trade. 

6.  Irish  Difficulties.     1603— 1610.— James  was  the  first  English 


V- 


484  JAMES  I.  1603-1610 

sovereign  who  was'the  master  of  the  whole*of  Ireland.  He  tried  to 
win  the  affection  of  the  tribes  by  giving  them  the  protection  of 
English  law  against  the  exactions  of  their  chiefs.  Naturally,  the 
chiefs  resented  the  change,  while  the  tribesmen  distrusted  the 
interference  of  Englishmen  from  whom  they  had  suffered  so  much. 
In  1607  the  chiefs  of  the  Ulster  tribes  of  O'Neill  and  O'Donnell— 
known  in  England  as  the  Earls  of  Tyrone  and  Tyrconnell— seeing 
resistance  hopeless,  fled  to  Spain.  James  ignored  the  Irish  doctrine 
that  the  land  belonged  to  the  tribe,  and  confiscated  six  counties  as 
if  they  had  been  the  property  of  the  chiefs,  according  to  the  feudal 
principles  of  English  law.  He  then  poured  in  English  and  Scottish 
colonists,  leaving  to  the  natives  only  the  leavings  to  live  on. 

7.  Bate's  Case  and  the  New  Impositions.  1606 — 1608. — The 
state  of  James's  finances  was  almost  hopeless.  Elizabeth,  stingy 
as  ^e  was,  had  scarcely  succeeded  in  making  both  ends  meet, 
and  James,  who  had  the  expense  of  providing  for  a  family,  from 
which  Elizabeth  had  been  free,  would  hardly  have  been  able  to 
meet  his  expenditure  even  if  he  had  been  economical.  He  was, 
however,  far  from  economical,  and  had  given  away  lands  and 
money  to  his  Scottish  favourites.  There  was,  therefore,  a  large 
deficit,  and  James  wanted  all  the  money  he  could  get.  In  1606  a 
merchant  named  Bate  challenged  his  right  to  levy  an  imposition 
on  currants,  which  had  already ''bi^n  levied  by  Elizabeth.  The 
Court  of  Exchequer,  however,  dccid^ii^that  the  king  had  the  right 
of  levying  impositions— that  is  to  say,Muties  raised  by  the  sole 
authority  of  the  king — without  a  grant  frorf\Parliament — holding 
that  the  Confirtnatio  Cartarum  (see  p.  221%^  to  which  Bate's 
counsel  appealed,  only  restricted  that  right  in  k.yery  few  cases. 
Whether  the  argument  of  the  judges  was  right  or  wrong,  they  were 
the  constitutional  exponents  of  the  law,  and  when  Cecil  (who  had 
been  James's  chief  minister  from  the  beginning  of  the  reign,  and 
was  created  Earl  of  Salisbury  in  1605)  was  made  Lord  Treasurer 
as  well  as  Secretary  in  1608,  he  at  once  levied  new  impositions  to 
the  amount  of  about  70,000/.  a  year,  on  the  plea  that  more  money 
was  needed  in  consequence  of  the  troubles  in  Ireland. 

8.  The  Great  Contract.  1610— 1611.— Even  the  new  imposi- 
tions did  not  fiJl  up  the  deficit,  and  Parliament  was  summoned 
in  1610  to  meet  the^liifficulty.  It  entered  into  a  bargain — the  Great 
Contract,  as  it  was  call^li^by  which,  on  receiving  200,000/.  a  year, 
James  was  to  abandon  certain  antiquated  feudal  dues,  such  as 
those  of  wardship  and  marriagel^'seQ^.  116).  An  agreement  was 
also  come  to  on  the  impositions.     James  voluntarily  remitted  the 


[6oS-i6it 


HATFIELD  HOUSE 


485 


f 


486  JAMES  I.  1601-I614 

most  burdensome  to  the  amount  of  20,000/.  a  year,  and  the  House 
of  ConHnons  agreed  to  grant  him  the  remainder  on  his  passing 
an  Act  declarrtftgjllegal  all  further  levy  of  impositions  without  a 
Parliamentary  gralilE^^--.^nfortunately,  before  the  details  of  the 
Great  Contract  were  finally  s^^tti^,  fresh  disputes  arose,  and  early 
in  161 1,  James  dissolved  his  first^Rarliament  in  anger  without 
settling  anything  either  about  the  feudal  dues  or  about  the  im- 
positions. 

9.  Bacon  and  Somerset.  1612 — 1613.— In  1612  Salisbury  died, 
and  Bacon,  always  ready  with  good  advice,  recommended  James 
to  abandon  Salisbury's  policy  of  bargaining  with  the  Commons. 
Bacon  was  a  warm  supporter  of  monarchy,  because  he  was  anxious 
for  reforms,  and  he  believed  that  reforms  were  more  likely  to  come 
from  the  king  and  his  Council  than  from  a  House  of'  Commons 
— which  was  mainly  composed  of  country  'gentlemen,  with  little 
knowledge  of  affairs  of  State.  Bacon,  however,  knew  what  were 
the  conditions  under  which  alone  a  monarchical  system  could  be 
maintained,  and  reminded  James  that  king  and  Parliament 
were  members  of  one  body,  with  common  interests,  and  that  he 
could  only  expect  the  Commons  to  grant  supplies  if  he  stepped 
forward  as  their  leader  by  setting  forth  a  policy  which  would 
commend  itself  to  them.  James  had  no  idea  of  leading,  and,  instead 
of  taking  Bacon's  advice,  resolved  to  do  as  long  as  he  could  with- 
out a  Parliament.  A  few  years  before  he  had  taken  a  fancy  to  a 
handsome  young  Scot  named  Robert  Carr,  thinking  that  Carr 
would  be  not  only  a  boon  companion,  but  also  an  instrument  to 
carry  out  his  orders,  and  relieve  him  from  the  trouble  of  dispensing 
patronage.  He  enriched  Carr  in  various  ways,  especially  by  giving 
him  the  estate  of  Sherborne,  which  he  took  from  Raleigh  on  the 
ground  of  a  flaw  in  the  title — though  he  made  Raleigh  some 
compensation  for  his  loss.  In  1613  he  married  Carr  to  Lady  Essex, 
who  had  been  divorced  from  her  husband  under  very  disgraceful 
circumstances,  and  created  him  Earl  of  Somerset.  Somerset  was 
brought  by  this  marriage  into  connection  with  the  family  of  the 
Howards — his  wife's  father,  the  Earl  of  Suffolk,  being  a  Howard. 
As  the  Howards  were  for  the  most  part  Roman  Catholics  at  heart, 
if  not  openly,  Somerset's  influence  was  henceforth  used  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Protestant  aims  which  had  found  favour  in  the  House 
of  Commons. 

10.  The  Ad<iied  Parliament.  1614. — In  spite  of  Somerset  and 
the  Howards,  JamesVw^nt  of  money  drove  him,  in  1614,  to  call 
another  Parliament.     Instead  of  following  Bacon's  advice  that  he 


i6i4 


THE    UNDERTAKERS 


487 


should  win  ^)epularity  by  useful  legislative  projects,  he  tried  first 
to  secure  its  subihi^ion  by  encouraging  persons  who  were  known 
as  the  Undertakers  Dfec^se  they  undertook  that  candidates  who 
supported  the  king's  intel^s  should  be  returned.  When  this 
failed,  he  again  tried,  as  he  had  tried  under  Salisbury's  influence 


An  unknown  gentleman  :  from  a  painting  belonging 
to  T.  A.  Hope,  Esq. 

in  1610,  to  enter  into  a  bargain  with  the  Commons.  The  Commons, 
however,  replied  bv  asking  him  to  abandon  the  impositions  and  to 
restore  the  nonconfoh^ing  clergy  ejected  in  1604  (see  p.  482).  On 
this  James  dissolved  Parh^ment.  As  it  granted  no  supplies,  and 
passed  no  act,  it  became  knb>v:n  as  the  Addled  Parliament. 


f. 


488  JAMES  I.  1614-1618 


V 


^ 


11.  The    Spanish   Alliance.     1614—1617.— James   was   always 
nxious  to  be  the  peacemaker  of  Europe,  being  wise  enough  to  see 

that  the  religious  wars  which  had  long  been  devastating  the  Conti- 
nent might  be  brought  to  an  end  if  only  the  contending  parties 
would  be  more  tolerant.  It  was  partly  in  the  hope  of  gaining 
influence  to  enable  him  to  carry  out  his  pacificatory  policy  that  he 
aimed,  early  in  his  reign,  at  marrying  his  children  into  influential 
families  on  the  Continent.  In  1613  he  gave  his  daughter  Eliza- 
beth to  Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine,  who  was  the  leader  of  the 
German  Calvinists,  and  he  had  long  before  projected  a  marriage 
between  his  eldest  son,  Prince  Henry,  and  a  Spanish  Infanta. 
Prince  Henry,  however,  died  in  1612,  and,  though  James's  only 
surviving  son,  Charles,  was  still  young,  there  had  been  a  talk  of 
marrying  him  to  a  French  princess.  The  breaking-up  of  the  Par- 
liament of  1614  left  James  in  great  want  of  money  ;  and,  as  he  had 
reason  to  believe  that  Spain  would  give  a  much  larger  portion 
than  would  be  given  with  a  French  princess,  he  became  keenly 
eager  to  marry  his  son  to  the  Infanta  Maria,  the  daughter  of 
Philip  III.  of  Spain.  Negotiations  with  this  object  were  not  formally 
opened  till  1617,  and  in  1618  James  learnt  that  the  marriage  could 
not  take  place  unless  he  engaged  to  give  religious  liberty  to  the 
English  Roman  Catholics.  He  then  offered  to  write  a  letter  to  the 
king  of  Spain,  promising  to  relieve  the  Roman  Catholics  as  long  as 
they  gave  no  offence,  but  Philip  insisted  on  a  more  binding  and 
ermanent  engagement,  and,  on  James's  refusal  to  do  more  than  he 
had  offered  to  do,  Gondomar,  the  very  able  Spanish  ambassador 
who  had  hitherto  kept  James  in  good  humour,  was  withdrawn  from 
England,  and  the  negotiation  was,  for  the  time,  allowed  to  drop. 

12.  The  rise  of  Buckingham.  1615 — 1618.— In  1615  Somerset 
and  his  wife  were  accused  of  poisoning  Sir  Thomas  Overbury, 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Countess  was  guilty,  but  it  is  less 
certain  what  Somerset's  own  part  in  the  matter  was.  In  1616  they 
were  both  found  guilty,  and,  though  James  spared  theii'  lives. 
he  never  saw  either  of  them  again.  He  had  already  found  a  new 
favourite  in  George  .^Villiers,  a  handsome  youth  who  could  dance 
and  ride  gracefully,  and  could  entertain  the  king  with  lively  con- 
versation. The  opponents  of  the  Spanish  alliance  had  supported 
Villiers  against  Somerset,  but  they  soon  found  that  Villi ers  was 
ready  to  throw  himself  on  the  side  of  Spain  as  soon  as  he  found 
that  it  would  please  the  king.  James  gave  him  large  estates,  and 
rapidly  advanced  him  in  the  peerage,  till,  in  1618,  he  created  him 
Marquis  of  Buckingham.     He  also  made  him  Lord  Admiral  in  the 


I6i7-i6i8        RALEIGH'S    VOYAGE    TO   GUIANA  489 

hope  that  he  would  improve  the  navy,  and  allowed  all  the  patronage 
of  England  to  pass  through  his  hands.  Statesmen  and  lawyers  had 
to  bow  down  to  Buckingham  if  they  wished  to  rise.  No  wonder 
the  young  man  felt  as  if  the  nation  was  at  his  feet,  and  gave  him- 
self airs  which  disgusted  all  who  wished  to  preserve  independence 
,  of  character. 
N/  13.  The  Voyage  and  Execution  of  Raleigh.  1617— 1618. — In 
^  1617  Raleigh,  having  been  liberated  through  Buckingham's  influ- 
ence, sailed  for  the  Orinoco  in  search  of  a  gold-mine,  of  which  he 
had  heard  in  an  earlier  voyage  in  Elizabeth's  reign  (see  p.  464). 
He  engaged,  before  he  sailed,  not  to  touch  the  land  of  the  king  of 
Spain,  and  James  let  him  know  that,  if  he  broke  his  promise,  he 
would  lose  his  head.  It  was,  indeed,  difficult  to  say  where  the  lands 
of  the  king  of  Spain  began  or  ended,  but  James  left  the  burden  of 
proving  this  on  Raleigh  ;  whilst  Raleigh,  imagining  that  if  only 
he  could  find  gold  he  would  not  be  held  to  his  promise,  sent  his 
men  up  the  river,  without  distinct  orders  to  avoid  fighting.  They 
attacked  and  burnt  a  Spanish  village,  but  never  reached  the 
mine.  Heart-broken  at  their  failure,  Raleigh  proposed  to  lie  in 
wait  for  the  Spanish  treasure-ships,  and,  on  the  refusal  of  his 
captains  to  follow  him  in  piracy,  returned  to  England  with  nothing 
in  his  hands.  James  sent  him  to  the  scaffold  for  a  fault  which  he 
should  never  have  been  given  the  chance  of  committing.  Raleigh 
was  the  last  of  the  Elizabethan  heroes — a  many-sided  man  :  soldier, 
sailor,  statesman,  historian,  and  poet.  He  was  as  firmly  convinced 
as  Drake  had  been  that  there  was  no  peace  in  American  waters, 
and  that  to  rob  and  plunder  Spaniards  in  time  of  peace  was  in 
itself  a  virtue.  James's  unwise  attempt  to  form  a  close  alliance 
with  Spain  made  Raleigh  a  popular  hero. 

14.  Colonisation  of  Virginia  and  New  England.  1607 — 1620. — 
Gradually  Englishmen  learned  to  prefer  peaceable  commerce  and 
colonisation  to  piratical  enterprises.  In  1585  Raleigh  had  sent  out 
colonists  to  a  region  in  North  America  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
of  Virginia,  in  honour  of  Elizabeth,  but  the  colonists  either  returned 
to  England  or  were  destroyed  by  the  Indians.  In  1607  a  fresh 
attempt  was  made,  and,  after  passing  through  terrible  hardships, 
the  Colony  of  Virginia  grew  into  a  tobacco-planting,  well-to-do 
community.  In  1608  a  congregation  of  Separatists  emigrated  from 
England  to  Holland,  and,  after  a  while,  settled  at  Leyden,  where, 
anxious  to  escape  from  the  temptations  of  the  world,  many  of  them 
resolved  to  emigrate  to  America,  where  they  might  lead  an  ideally 
religious  life.  In  1620  the  emigrants,  a  hundred  in  all,  '  lifting  up 
n.  KK 


490  JAMES  I.  1618-1621 

their  eyes  to  heaven,  their  dearest  country,'  crossed  the  Atlantic 
in  the  '  Mayflower,'  and  found  a  new  home  which  they  named 
Plymouth.  These  first  emigrants,  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  as  their 
descendants  fondly  called  them,  lost  half  their  number  by  cold  and 
disease  in  the  first  winter,  but  the  remainder  held  on  to  form  a 

x/nucleus  for  the  Puritan  New  England  of  the  future. 

y  15.  The  Beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  1618— 1620.— 
As  yet,  however,  these  small  beginnings  of  a  colonial  empire 
attracted  little  attention  in  England.  Men's  thoughts  ran  far  more 
on  a  great  war — the  Thirty  Years'  War— which,  in  1618,  began  to 
desolate  Germany.  In  that  year  a  revolution  took  place  in  Bohemia, 
where  the  Protestant  nobility  rose  against  their  king,  Matthias,  a 
Catholic,  who  was  at  the  same  time  Emperor,  and,  in  1619,  after  the 
death  of  Matthias,  they  deposed  his  successor,  Ferdinand,  and 
chose  Frederick,  the  Elector  Palatine,  James's  Calvinist  son-in-law, 
as  king  in  his  place.  Almost  at  the  same  time  Ferdinand  became  by 
election  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  James  was  urged  to  interfere 
on  behalf  of  Frederick,  but  he  could  not  make  up  his  mind  that  the 
cause  of  his  son-in-law  was  righteous,  and  he  therefore  left  him  to 
his  fate.  Frederick's  cause  was,  however,  popular  in  England,  and 
in  1620,  when  there  were  rumours  that  a  Spanish  force  was  about 
to  occupy  the  Palatinate  in  order  to  compel  Frederick  to  abandon 
Bohemia,  James — drawing  a  distinction  between  helping  his  son- 
in-law  to  keep  his  own  and  supporting  him  in  taking  the  land  of 
another — went  so  far  as  to  allow  English  volunteers,  under  Sir 
Horace  Vere,  to  garrison  the  fortresses  of  the  Palatinate.  In  the 
summer  of  that  year,  a  Spanish  army,  under  Spinola,  actually  occu- 
pied the  Western  Palatinate,  and  James,  angry  at  the  news,  sum- 
moned Parliament  in  order  to  obtain  a  vote  of  supplies  for  war. 
Before  Parliament  could  meet,  Frederick  had  been  crushingly 
defeated  on  the  White  Hill,  near  Prague,  and  driven  out  of 
Bohemia. 

16.  ,^e  Meeting  of  James's  Third  Parliament.  1621. — Parlia- 
ment, wh^hs^t  met  in  1621,  was  the  more  distrustful  of  James,  as 
Gondomar  ha^S^^urned  to  England  in  1620  and  had  revived 
the  Spanish  marria^bs^eaty.  When  the  Houses  met,  they  were 
disappointed  to  find  thaf^fajnes  did  not  propose  to  go  to  war  at 
once.  James  fancied  that,  becctuse  he  himself  wished  to  act  justly 
and  fairly,  every  one  of  the  other  Princes  would  be  regardless  of 
his  own  interests,  and,  although  he  had  already  sent  several  ambas- 
sadors to  settle  matters  without  producing  any  results,  he  now 
proposed  to  send  more  ambassadors,  and  only  to  fight  if  negotia- 


l62i  THE    THIRTY    YEARS'    IVAR  491 

tion  failed.     On  leamiiftg  this,  the  House  of  Commons  only  voted 
him  a  small  supply,  not  being  willing  to  grant  war-taxes  unless  it 


King  James  I. :  from  a  painting  by  P.  van  Somer,  dated  1621,  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

K  K  9 


492 


JAMES  I. 


1616-1621 


1^ 


\^ 


was  suretk;|t  there  was  to  be  a  war.  Probably  James  was  right  in 
not  engaging  England  in  hostilities,  as  ambition  had  as  much  to  do 
with  Frederick's  proceedings  as  religion,  and  as,  if  James  had  helped 
his  German  allies,  he  could  have  exercised  no  control  over  them  ; 
but  he  had  too  little  decision  or  real  knowledge  of  the  situation  to 
inspire  confidence  either  at  home  or  abroad  ;  and  the  Commons, 
as  soon  as  they  had  granted  a  supply,  began  to  criticise  his  govern- 
ment in  domestic  matters. 

17.  The  Royal  Prerog^ative.  1616—1621.— Elizabeth  had  been 
high-handed  enough,  but  she  had  talked  little  of  the  rights  which  she 
claimed,  and  had  set  herself  to  gain  the  affection  of  her  subjects. 
James,  on  the  other  hand,  liked  to  talk  of  his  rights,  whilst  he  took 

no  trouble  to  make  himself  popular.  It  was 
his  business,  he  held,  to  see  that  the  judges 
did  not  break  the  law  under  pretence  of  ad- 
mmistering  it.  "  This,"  he  said  in  1616,  "  is 
a  thing  regal  and  proper  to  a  king,  to  keep 
every  court  within  its  true  bounds."  More 
startling  was  the  language  which  followed. 
"As  for  the  absolute  prerogative  of  the 
Crown,"  he  declared,  "  that  is  no  subject  for 
the  tongue  of  a  lawyer,  nor  is  it  lawful  to  be 
disputed.  It  is  atheism  and  blasphemy  to 
dispute  what  God  can  do  :  good  Christians 
content  themselves  with  His  will  revealed  in 
His  word;  so  it  is  presumption  and  high 
contempt  in  a  subject  to  dispute  what  a  king 
can  do,  or  say  that  a  king  cannot  do  this  or 
that ;  but  rest  in  that  which  is  the  king's  will 
revealed  in  his  law."  What  James  meant 
was  that  there  must  be  in  every  state  a  power  above  the  law  to 
provide  for  emergencies  as  they  arise,  and  to  keep  the  authorities- 
judicial  and  administrative — from  jostling  with  one  another.  At 
present  this  power  belongs  to  Parliament.  When  Elizabeth  handed 
on  the  government  to  James,  it  belonged  to  the  Crown.  What 
James  did  not  understand  was  that,  in  the  long  run,  no  one—either 
king  or  Parliament— will  be  allowed  to  exercise  powers  which  are 
unwisely  used.  Such  an  idea  probably  never  entered  into  James's 
mind,  because  he  was  convinced  that  he  was  himself  not  only  the 
best  but  the  wisest  of  men,  whereas  he  was  in  reality— as  Henry  IV. 
of  France  had  said  of  him— 'the  wisest  fool  in  Christendom.' 

18.  Financial   Reform.      1619.— James  not   only  thought  too 


Civil  costume  about  1620: 
from  a  contemporary 
broadside. 


1619-1621  THE  BANQUETING  HALL 


4Vi 


bc. 


494  James  /.  1621 

highly  of  his  own  powers  of  government,  but  was  also  too  careless 
to  check  the  misdeeds  of  his  favourites.  For  some  time  his  want 
of  money  led  him  to  have  recourse  to  strange  expedients.  In  1611 
he  founded  the  order  of  baronets,  making  each  of  those  created  pay 
him  1,080/.  a  year  for  three  years  to  enable  him  to  support  soldiers 
for  the  defence  of  Ulster.  After  the  first  few  years,  however,  the 
money,  though  regularly  required  of  rrew  baronets,  was  invariably 
repaid  to  them.  More  disgraceful  was  the  sale  of  peerages,  of  which 
there  were  examples  in  1618.  In  1619,  however,  through  the  exer- 
tions of  Lionel  Cranfield,  a  city  merchant  recommended  to  James 
by  Buckingham,  financial  order  was  comparatively  restored,  and  in 
quiet  times  the  expenditure  no  longer  much  exceeded  the  revenue. 

ig^sJ^avouritism  and  Corruption. — Though  James  did  not  ob- 
tain muJih  money  in  irregular  ways,  he  did  not  keep  a  watchful 
eye  on  his  ftjA^ourites  and  ministers.  The  salaries  of  Ministers  were 
low,  and  were  in  part  themselves  made  up  by  the'  presents  of 
suitors.  Candidates  for  office,  who  looked  forward  to  being 
enriched  by  the  gifts  of  others,  knew  that  they  must  pay  dearly  for 
the  goodwill  of  the  "favourites  through  whom  they  gained  promo- 
tion. In  1620  Chief  .Justice  Montague  was  appointed  Lord 
Treasurer.  "  Take  care,  'Iny  lord,"  said  Bacon  to  him,  when  he 
started  for  Newmarket  to  recHve  from  the  king  the  staff  which  was 
the  symbol  of  his  office,  "  wood  is  dearer  at  Newmarket  than  in 
any  other  place  in  England."  Montatgue,  in  fact,  had  to  pay  20,000/. 
for  his  place.  Others,  who  were  bachelors  or  widowers,  received 
promotion  on  condition  of  marrying  one  of  the  many  penniless 
young  ladies  of  Buckingham's  kindred. 

20.  The  Monopolies  Condemned.  1621. — The  Commons, 
therefore,  in  looking  for  abuses,  had  no  lack  of  subjects  on  which 
to  complain.  They  lighted  upon  monopolies.  James,  soon  after 
his  accession,  had  abolished  most  of  those  left  by  Elizabeth,  but  the 
number  had  been  increased  partly  through  a  wish  to  encourage 
home  manufactures,  and  partly  from  a  desire  to  regulate  commerce. 
One  set  of  persons,  for  example,  had  the  sole  right  of  making 
glass,  because  they  bound  themselves  to  heat  their  furnaces  with 
coal  instead  of  wood,  and  thus  spared  the  trees  needed  for  ship- 
building. Others  had  the  sole  right  of  making  gold  and  silver 
thread,  because  they  engaged  to  import  all  the  precious  metals 
they  wanted,  it  being  thought,  in  those  days,  that  the  precious 
metals  alone  constituted  wealth,  and  that  England  would  therefore 
be  impoverished  if  English  gold  and  silver  were  wasted  on  personal 
adornment.     There  is  no  doubt  that  courtiers  received  payments 


1621 


BACON  AND    THE  MONOPOLIES 


495 


from  persons  interested  in  these  grants,  but  the  amount  of  such 
payments  was  grossly  exaggerated,  and  the  Commons  imagined 
that  these  and  similar  grievances  owed  their  existence  merely  to 
the  desire  to  fill  the  pockets  of  Buckingham  and  his  favourites. 
There  was,  therefore,  a  loud  outcry  in  Parliament.  One  of  the 
main  promoters  of  these  schemes.  Sir  Giles  Mompesson,  fled  the 
kingdom.     Others  were  punished,  and  the  monopolies  recalled  by 


Francis  Bacon,  Viscount  St.  Alban,  Lord  Chancellor :  from  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

the  king,  though  as  yet  no  act  was  passed  declaring  them  to  be 
illegal. 

21.  The  Fall  of  Bacon.  1621. — After  this  the  Commons 
turned  upon  Bacon.  He  was  now  Lord  Chancellor,  and  had  lived  to 
find  that  his  good  advice  was  never  followed.  He  had,  neverthe- 
less, been  an  active  and  upright  judge.  The  Commons,  however, 
distrusted  him  as   having  supported  grants  of  monopolies^  and, 


VL 


496  JAMES  /.  1621 

when  charges  of  bribery  were  brought  against  him,  sent  them  up 
to  the  Lords  for  enquiry.  At  first  Bacon  thought  a  poHtical  trick 
was  being  played  against  him.  He  soon  discovered  that  he  had 
thoughtlessly  taken  gifts  even  before  judgment  had  been  given, 
though  if  they  had  been  taken  after  judgment,  he  would — according 
to  the  custom  of  the  time — have  been  considered  innocent.  His 
own  opinion  of  the  case  was  probably  the  true  one.  His  sentence, 
he  said,  was  'just,  and  for  reformation's  sake  fit.'  Yet  he  was  'the 
justest  Chancellor'  that  had  been  since  his  father's  time,  his 
father,  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  having  creditably  occupied  under 
Elizabeth  the  post  which  he  himself  filled  under  James.  He  was 
stripped  of  office,  fined,  and  imprisoned.  His  imprisonment,  how- 
ever, was  extremely  brief,  and  his  fine  was  ultimately  remitted. 
Though  his  trial  was  not  exactly  like  that  of  the  old  impeachments, 
it  was  practically  the  revival  of  the  system  of  impeachments  which 
had  been  disused  since  the  days  of  Henry  VI.  It  was  a  sign  that 
the  power  of  Parliament  was  increasing  and  that  of  the  king 
growing  less. 

22.  Digby's  Mission,  and  the  Dissolution  of  Parliament.  1621. 
The  king  announced  to  Parliament  that  he  was  about  to  send  an 
ambassador  to  Vienna  to  induce  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  to  be 
content  with  the  re-conquest  of  Bohemia,  and  to  leave  Frederick 
undisturbed  in  the  Palatinate.  Parliament  was  therefore  adjourned, 
in  order  to  give  time  for  the  result  of  this  embassy  to  be  known  ;  and 
the  Commons,  at  their  last  sitting,  declared — with  wild  enthusiasm 
— that,  if  the  embassy  failed,  they  would  support  Frederick  with 
their  lives  and  fortunes.  When  Lord  Digby,  who  was  the  chosen 
ambassador,  returned,  he  had  done  no  good.  Ferdinand  was  too 
anxious  to  push  his  success  further,  and  Frederick  was  too  anxious 
to  make  good  his  losses  for  any  negotiation  to  be  successful.  The 
Imperialists  invaded  the  Palatinate,  and  in  the  winter  James  called 
on  Parliament— which  had  by  that  time  re-assembled  after  the 
adjournment— for  money  sufficient  to  defend  the  Palatinate  till  he 
had  made  one  more  diplomatic  effort.  The  Commons,  believing 
that  the  king's  alliance  with  Spain  was  the  root  of  all  evil,  petitioned 
him  to  marry  his  son  to  a  Protestant  lady,  and  plainly  showed 
their  wish  to  see  him  at  war  with  Spain.  James  replied  that  the 
Commons  had  no  right  to  discuss  matters  on  which  he  had  not 
consulted  them.  They  drew  up  a  protestation  asserting  their  right 
to  discuss  all  matters  of  public  concernment.  James  tore  it  out  of 
their  journal-book,  and  dissolved  Parliament,  though  it  had  not  yet 
granted  him  a  penny. 


1622- I 6t3 


PklNCE   CHARLES  IN   SPAIN 


497 


K 


23.  The  Loss  of  the  Palatinate.  1622.— ^In  1614,  James,  being 
in  want  of  money,  had  had  recourse  to  a  benevolence — the  lawyers 
having  advised  him  that,  though  the  Act  of  Richard  III.  (see  p.  342) 
made  it  illegal  for  him  to  compel  its  payment,  there  was  no  law 
against  his  asking  his  subjects  to  pay  it  voluntarily.  He  took 
the  same  course  in  1622,  and  got  enough  to  support  the  garrisons 
in  the  Palatinate  for  a  few  months,  as  many  who  did  not  like  to 
give  the  money  feared  to  provoke  the  king's  displeasure  by  a  refusal. 
Before  the  end  of  the  year,  however,  the  whole  Palatinate,  with  the 
exception  of  one  fortress,  had  been  lost. 

24.  Charles's  Journey  to  Madrid.     1623.— It  was  now  time  to 
ry  if  the  Spanish  alliance  was  worth 

anything.  Early  in  1623,  Prince 
Charles,  accompanied  by  Bucking- 
ham, started  for  Madrid  to  woo  the 
Infanta  in  person.  The  young  men 
imagined  that  the  king  of  Spain 
would  be  so  pleased  with  this  un- 
usual compliment,  that  he  would 
use  his  influence — and,  if  necessary, 
his  troops — to  obtain  the  restitution 
of  the  Palatinate  to  Charles's 
brother-in-law,  the  Elector  Frede- 
rick. The  Infanta's  brother,  Philip 
IV.,  was  now  king  of  Spain,  and  he 
had  lately  been  informed  by  his 
sister  that  she  was  resolved  not  to 
marry  a  heretic.  Her  confessor  had 
urged  her  to  refuse.  "What  a  com- 
fortable bedfellow  you  will  have  !  " 
he  said  to  her  :  "  he  who  lies  by 
your  side,  an^  will  be  the  father  of 

your  children,  is  certain  to  go  to  hell."  Philip  and  his  prime 
minister  Olivares  feared  lest,  if  they  announced  this  refusal,  it 
would  lead  to  a  war  with  England.  They  first  tried  to  convert  the 
prince  to  their  religion,  and  when  that  failed,  secretly  invited 
the  Pope  to  refuse  to  grant  a  dispensation  for  the  marriage.  The 
Pope,  however,  fearing  that,  if  he  caused  a  breach,  James  and 
Charles  would  punish  him  by  increasing  the  persecution  of  the 
English  Catholics,  informed  Philip  that  he  should  have  the  dispen- 
sation for  his  sister,  on  condition  not  only  that  James  and  Charles 
should  swear  to  grant  religious  liberty  to  the  Catholics  in  England, 


Costume  of  a  lawyer:  from  a  broadside, 
dated  1623. 


49^  jAMkS  L  1623 

but  that  he  should  himself  swear  that  James  and  Charles  would 
keep  their  word. 

25.   The   Prince's  Return.     1623.  — Philip   referred  the  point 


whether  he  could  conscientiously  take  the  oath  to  a  committee  of 
theologians.  In  the  meantime,  Charles  attempted  to  pay  court  to 
the  Infanta.  Spanish  etiquette  was,  however,  strict,  and  he  was 
not  allowed  to  speak  to  her,  except  in  public  and  on  rare  occasions. 


1623 


coArvocA  nojv 


m 


500  JAMES  I.  1623-1624 

Once  he  jumped  over  a  wall  into  a  garden  in  which  she  was.  The 
poor  girl  shrieked  and  fled.  At  last  Charles  was  informed  that 
the  theologians  had  come  to  a  decision.  He  might  marry  if  he 
pleased,  but,  the  moment  that  the  ceremony  was  over,  he  was  to 
leave  for  England.  If,  at  the  end  of  six  months,  he  had  not  only 
promised  religious  liberty  to  the  Catholics,  but  had  actually  put 
them  in  the  enjoyment  of  it,  then,  and  only  then,  his  wife  should 
be  sent  after  him.  Charles  was  indignant— the  more  so  because 
he  learnt  that  there  was  little  chance  that  the  king  of  Spain  would 
interfere  to  restore  the  Protestant  Frederick  by  force — and  returned 
to  England  eager  for  war  with  Spain.  Never  before  or  after  was 
he  so  popular  as  when  he  landed  at  Portsmouth — not  so  much 
because  he  had  come  back,  as  because  he  had  not  brought  the 
Infanta  with  him. 

26.  "The  Last  Parliament  of  James  I.  1624. — James's  foreign 
policy  had  now  hopelessly  broken  down.  He  had  expected  that 
simply  beckuse  it  seemed  to  him  to  be  just,  Philip  would  quarrel 
with  the  Emperor  for  the  sake  of  restoring  the  Palatinate  to  a 
Protestant.  When  he  found  that  this  could  not  be,  he  had  nothing 
more  to  propose.  His  son  and  his  favourite,  who  had  been  created 
Duke  of  Buckinghaiti  whilst  he  was  in  Spain,  urged  him  to  go  to 
war,  and  early  in  1624  James  summoned  a  new  Parliament,  which 
was  entirely  out  of  his  control.  For  the  time  Buckingham,  who 
urged  on  the  war,  was  the  most  popular  man  in  England.  A  large 
grant  of  supply  was  given,  but  the  Commons  distrusting  James, 
ordered  the  money  to  be  paid  to  tr;easurers  appointed  by  themselves, 
and  to  be  spent  only  upon  four  objects — the  repairing  of  forts  in 
England,  the  increase  of  the  army  to  Ireland,  the  fitting-out  of  a 
fleet,  and  the  support  of  the  Dutch  RefHiblic,  which  was  still  at  war 
with  Spain,  and  of  other  allies  of  the  king:^  The  king,  on  his  part, 
engaged  to  invite  friendly  states  to  join  him  in  war  for  the  recovery 
of  the  Palatinate,  and  to  summon  Parliament  in  the  autumn  to 
announce  the  result.  The  Commons  were  the  lfe§s  anxious  to  trust 
James  with  money  as  they  were  in  favour  of  a  maritime  war  against 
Spain,  whilst  they  believed  him  to  be  in  favour  of  a\nilitary  war  in 
Germany.  They  had  reason  to  think  that  Cranfield,Vho  was  now 
Earl  of  Middlesex  and  Lord  Treasurer,  had  used  his  influence  with 
the  king  to  keep  him  from  a  breach  with  Spain  ;  and,  wit^  Charles 
and  Buckingham  hounding  them  on,  they  now  impeached Vliddle- 
sex  on  charges  of  malversation,  and  drove  him  from  officte.  It 
was  generally  beheved  that  the  Lord  Treasurer  owed  his  fall  to 
his  dislike    of  a  war  which  would  be    ruinous    to   the  finances 


bc 


1622-1625      THE  FRENCH  MARRIAGE    TREATY  501 

which  it  w^»-liisbusiness  to  guard.  The  old  king  could  not 
resist,  but  he  toI?Tih-v§on  that,  in  supporting  an  impeachment, 
he  was  preparing  a  rod  forlmnself.  Before  the  end  of  the  session 
the  king  agreed  to  an  act  abo!T§fei|i^  monopolies,  except  in  the 
case  of  new  inventions. 

27.  The  French  Alliance. — Even  before  Parliament  was  pro- 
rogued, a  negotiation  was  opened  for  a  marriage  between  Charles 
and  Henrietta  Maria,  the  sister  of  Louis  XIII.,  king  of  France. 
Both  James  and  Charles  had  promised  Parliament  that,  if  the 
future  queen  were  a  Roman  Catholic,  no  religious  liberty  should  be 
granted  to  the  English  Catholics  by  the  marriage  treaty.  Both  James 
and  Charles  gave  way  when  they  found  that  Louis  insisted  on  this 
concession,  and  promised  religious  liberty  to  the  Catholics.  Con- 
sequently, they  did  not  venture  to  summon  Parliament  till  the 
marriage  was  over  and  it  was  too  late  to  complain.  Yet  Bucking- 
ham, who  was  more  firmly  rooted  in  Charles's  favour  than  he 
had  ever  been  in  that  of  his  father,  had  promised  money  in  all 
directions.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  he  had  engaged  to  find  large 
sums  for  the  Dutch  Republic  to  fight  Spain,  30,000/.  a  month  for 
Christian  IV.,  king  of  Denmark,  to  make  war  in  Germany  against 
the  Emperor,  20,000/.  a  month  for  Count  Mansfeld,  a  German 
adventurer,  to  advance  to  the  Palatinate,  and  anything  thart  might 
be  needed  for  a  fleet  to  attack  the  Spanish  ports.  James,  in  short, 
was  for  a  war  by  land,  the  Commons  for  a  war  by  sea,  and 
Buckingham  for  both. 

28.  Mansfeld's  Expedition,  and  the  Death  of  James  L  1624 — 
1625. — Before  the  end  of  1624,  twelve  thousand  Englishmen  were 
gathered  at  Dover  to  go  with  Mansfeld  to  the  Palatinate.  The 
king  of  France,  who  had  promised  to  help  them,  refused  to  allow 
them  to  land  in  his  dominions.  It  was  accordingly  resolved  that 
they  should  pass  through  Holland.  James,  however,  had  nothing 
to  give  them,  and  they  were  consequently  sent  across  the  sea 
without  money  and  without  provisions.  On  their  arrival  in  Holland 
they  were  put  on  board  open  boats  to  make  their  way  up  the  Rhine. 
Frost  set  in,  and  the  boats  were  unable  to  stir.  In  a  few  weeks 
three-fourths  of  the  men  were  dead  or  dying.  It  was  Buckingham's 
first  experience  of  making  war  without  money  and  without  Parlia- 
mentary support.  Before  anything  further  could  be  done,  James 
was  attacked  by  a  fever,  and,  on  March  27, 1625,  he  died.  Though 
his  reign  did  not  witness  a  revolution,  it  witnessed  that  loosening 
of  the  bonds  of  sympathy  between  the  ruler  and  the  ruled  which  is 
often  the  precursor  of  revolution. 


^i>UM.  viUJ^X*^^^ 


502 


CHArTER   XXXII 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT  OF  CHARLES   L 
1625— 1634 

LEADING   DATES 
The  Reign  of  Charles  L,  1625-1649 

Charles's  first  Parliament  and  the  expedition  to  Cadiz     .  1625 
Charles's  second   Parliament  and  the  impeachment  of 

Buckingham 1626 

The  expedition  to  R6 1627 

Charles's  third  Parliament  and  the  Petition  of  Right        .  1628 

Dissolution  of  Charles's  third  Parliament    .  .        .  1629 

Laud,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 1633 

Prynne's  sentence  executed 1634 

v 

^  '  I.  Charles  I.  and  Buckingham.  1625. — The  new  king,  Charles  I., 
was  more  dignified  than  his  father,  and  was  conscientiously  desirous 
of  governing  well.  He  was,  unfortunately,  extremely  unwise, 
being  both  obstinate  in  persisting  in  any  line  of  conduct  which  he 
had  himself  chosen,  and  ready  to  give  way  to  the  advice  of  others 
in  matters  of  detail.  Buckingham,  who  sympathised  with  him  in 
his  plans,  and  who  was  never  at  a  loss  when  called  on  to  express 
an  opinion  on  any  subject  whatever,  had  now  made  himself  com- 
pletely master  of  the  young  king,  and  was,  in  reality,  the  governor 
of  England  far  more  than  Charles  himself  On  May  i  Charles  was 
married  by  proxy  to  Henrietta  Maria,  and  Buckingham  fetched 
home  the  bride. 
\^  2.  Charles's  First  Parliament.  1625. — Charles  was  eager  to 
'^^  meet  his  first  Parliament,  because  he  thought  that  it  would  grant 
him  enormous  sums  of  money  to  carry  on  the  war  with  Spain,  on 
which  he  had  set  his  heart.  He  forgot  that  its  members  would  be 
disgusted  at  the  mismanagement  of  Mansfeld's  expedition,  and 
at  the  favour  shown  by  himself  to  the  Catholics  in  consequence  of 
his  marriage.  When  Parliament  met  on  June  18,  the  House  of 
Commons  voted  a  small  sum  of  140,000/.,  and  asked  him  to  put  in 
execution  the  recusancy  laws.  Charles  adjourned  Parliament  to 
Oxford,  as  the  plague  was  raging  in  London,  in  order  that  he  might 
urge  it  to  vote  him  a  larger  sum.  It  met  at  Oxford  on  August  i, 
but  the  Commons  refused  to  vote  more  money,  unless  counsellors 
in  whom  they  could  confide — in  other  words,  counsellors  other  than 


l625  CHARLES  I.    AND    THE   COMMONS  503 

Buckingham — had  the  spending  of  it.  Chirles  seeing  that,  if  the 
Commons  could  force  him  to  accept  ministers  against  his  wish, 
they  would  soon  control  himself,  dissolved  the  Parliament.  On 
everything  else  he  was  ready  to  give  way — making  no  objection 
to  the  renewal  of  the  persecution  of  the  Catholics,  whom  a  few 
months  ago  he  had  solemnly  promised  in  his  marriage  treaty  to 
protect.  Though  the  question  now  raised  was  whether  England 
was  to  be  ruled  by  the  king  or  by  the  House  of  Commons,  it 
would  be  a  mistake  to  think  that  the  Commons  were  consciously 
aiming  at  sovereignty.  They  saw  that  there  was  mismanagement, 
and  all  that  they  wanted  was  to  stop  it. 
^  3.  The  Expedition  to  Cadiz.  1625.— Charles  thought  that,  if 
he  could  gain  a  great  victory,  there  would  be  no  further  talk  about 
mismanagement.  Scraping  together  what  money  he  could,  he 
sent  a  great  fleet  and  army,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Edward 
Cecil,  to  take  Cadiz,  the  harbour  of  which  was  the  port  at  which 
the  Spanish  treasure  ships  arrived  from  America  once  a  year, 
laden  with  silver  and  gold  from  the  mines  of  America.  The 
greater  part  of  Cecil's  fleet  was  made  up  of  merchant-vessels 
pressed  by  force  into  the  king's  service.  Neither  soldiers  nor 
sailors  had  any  heart  in  the  matter.  The  masters  of  the  merchant 
vessels  did  all  they  could  to  keep  themselves  out  of  danger.  The 
soldiers  after  landing  outside  the  town  got  drunk  in  a  body,  and 
would  have  been  slaughtered  if  any  Spaniards  had  been  near. 
Cecil  failed  to  take  Cadiz,  and  after  he  left  it,  the  Spanish 
treasure-ships  from  America,  which  he  hoped  to  capture,  got 
safely  into  Cadiz  harbour,  whilst  he  was  looking  for  them  in 
another  part  of  the  sea.  The  great  expedition  sent  by  Buckingham 
to  Cadiz  was  as  complete  a  failure  as  that  which  he  had  sent  out 
the  year  before  under  Mansfeld.  Whilst  Cecil  was  employed  in 
Spain  Buckingham  himself  went  to  the  Hague  to  form  a  conti- 
nental alliance  for  the  recovery  of  the  Palatinate,  hoping  especially 
to  secure  the  services  of  Christian  IV.,  king  of  Denmark.  Finding 
Christian  quite  ready  to  fight,  Buckingham  tried  to  pawn  the 
king's  jewels  at  Amsterdam  in  order  to  supply  him  with  30,000/.  a 
month,  which  he  had  promised  to  him.  No  one  would  lend  money 
on  the  jewels,  and  Buckingham  came  back,  hoping  that  a  second 
Parliament  would  be  more  compliant  than  the  first. 
>A  4.  Charles's  Second  Parliament.  1626. — The  new  Parliament 
met  on  February  6,  1626.  Charles,  in  order  to  secure  himself 
against  what  he  believed  to  be  the  attacks  of  interested  and 
ambitious  men,  had  hit  on  the  clever  expedient  of  making  sheriffs 


5G4         PERSONAL    GOVERNMENT  OF  CHARLES  I.        1626 

of  the  leaders  of  the  Opposition,  so  as  to  secure  their  detention  in 
their  own  counties.  The  Opposition,  however,  found  a  leader  in 
Sir  John  Eliot,  who,  though  he  had  formerly  been  a  friend  of 
Buckingham,  was  now  shocked  at  the  misconduct  of  the  favourite 
and  regarded  him  as  a  selfish  and  unprincipled  adventurer.  Eliot 
was  not  only  a  natural  orator,  but  one  of  the  most  pure-minded  of 


King  Charles  I.     from  a  painting  by  Van  Dyok 


patriots,  though  the  vehemence  of  his  temperament  often  carried 
him  to  impute  more  evil  to  men  of  whom  he  thought  badly  than 
they  were  really  guilty  of.  At  present,  he  was  roused  to  indignation 
against  Buckingham,  not  only  on  account  of  the  recent  failures, 
but  because,  in  the  preceding  summer,  he  had  lent  some  English 
ships  to  the  French,  who  wanted  to  use  them  for  suppressing 
the  Huguenots  of  Rochelle,  then  in  rebellion  against  their  king, 
Louis  XIII.     Before  long  the  Commons^  under  Eliot's  guidance, 


i626 


BUCKINGHAM  IMPEACHED 


50s 


impeached  Buckingham  of  all  kinds  of  crime,  making  against  him 
charges  of  some  of  which  he  was  quite  innocent,  whilst  others  were 
much  exaggerated.  The  fact  that  the  only  Way  to  get  rid  of  an 
unpopular  minister  was  to  accuse  him  of  crime,  made  those  who 
would  otherwise  have  been  content  with  his  dismissal  ready  to 
believe  in  his  guilt.  Charles's  vexation  reached  its  height  when  he 
heard  that  Eliot  had  branded  Buckingham  as  Sejanus.     "If  he  is 


Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  wife  of  Charles  I.  :  from  a  painting  by  Van  Dyck. 

Sejanus,"  he  said,  "  I  must  be  Tiberius."  Rather  than  abandon 
his  minister,  he  dissolved  Parliament,  before  it  had  voted  him  a 
sixpence. 

5.  The  Forced  Loan.  1626. — If  the  war  was  to  go  on,  money 
must  in  some  way  or  other  be  had.  Charles  asked  his  subjects  to 
bestow  on  him  a  free  gift  for  the  purpose.  Scarcely  any  one  gave 
him.  anything.  Then  came  news  that  the  king  of  Denmark,  to 
whom  the   promised  30,000/.  a   month  had  not   been  paid  (see 

II.  L  L 


5o6     PERSONAL    GOVERNMENT  OF    CHARLES  I.   1626-1627 

p.  501,  503  ),  had  been  signally  defeated  at  Lrutter,  so  that  the 
recovery  of  the  Palatinate  was  further  off  than  ever.  Some  clever 
person  suggested  to  Charles  that,  though  the  Statute  of  Benevolences 
(see  p.  342)  prohibited  him  from  making  his  subjects  give  him 
money,  no  law  forbade  him  to  make  them  lend,  even  though  there 
was  no  chance  that  he  would  ever  be  able  to  repay  what  he 
borrowed.  He  at  once  gave  orders  for  the  collection  of  a  forced 
loan.  Before  this  was  gathered  in,  troubles  arose  with  France. 
Louis  XIII.  was  preparing  to  besiege  Rochelle,  and  Charles 
believed  himself  to  be  in  honour  bound  to  defend  it  because  Louis 
had  at  one  time  promised  him  that  he  would  admit  his  Huguenot 
subjects  to  terms.  Besides,  he  had  offended  Louis  by  sending  out 
of  the  country  the  queen's  French  attendants,  thinking,  probably 
with  truth,  that  they  encouraged  her  to  resent  his  breach  of  promise 

5Sif  about  the  Enghsh  Catholics  (see  p.  501). 

J»    <-\^        6.  The  Expedition  to  Re.     1627. — In  1627  war  broke  out  be- 


s. 


^T^ 


tween  France  and  England.  Payment  of  the  forced  loan  was 
urged  in  order  to  supply  the  means.  Chief  Justice  Crewe,  refusing 
to  acknowledge  its  legality,  was  dismissed.  Poor  men  were  forced 
to  serve  as  soldiers  ;  rich  men  were  sent  to  prison.  By  such 
means  a  considerable  sum  was  got  together.  A  small  force  was 
sent  to  help  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  a  fleet  of  a  hundred  sail, 
carrying  soldiers  on  board,  wai;  sent  to  relieve  Rochelle,  under 
the  command  of  Buckingham  himself.  On  July  12  Buckingham 
landed  on  the  Isle  of  Re,  which  would  form  a  good  base  of 
operations  for  the  relief  of  Rochelle.  He  laid  siege  to  the  fort  of 
St.  Martin's  on  the  island,  and  had  almost  starved  it  into  surrender, 
when,  on  September  27,  a  relieving  force  of  French  boats  dashed 
through  the  English  blockading  fleet,  and  re-victualled  the  place. 
Buckingham,  whose  own  numbers  had  dwindled  away,  called  for 
reinforcements  from  England.  Charles  did  what  he  could,  but 
Englishmen  would  lend  no  money  to  succour  the  hated  Bucking- 
ham ;  and,  before  reinforcements  could  arrive,  a  French  army 
landed  on  the  Isle  of  Re,  and  drove  Buckingham  back  to  his  ships. 
Out  of  6,800  soldiers,  less  than  3,000— worn  by  hunger  and  sickness 
— returned  to  England. 

7.  The  Five  Knights'  Case.  1627. — Buckingham  was  more 
unpopular  than  ever.  "  Since  England  was  England,"  we  find  in 
a  letter  of  the  time,  "  it  received  not  so  dishonourable  a  blow." 
Attention  was,  however,  chiefly  turned  to  domestic  grievances. 
Soldiers  had  been  billeted  on  householders  without  their  consent, 
and  martial   law  had  been   exercised  over  civilians   as  well  as 


1 627 


THE    EXPEDITION  TO  RE 


507 


soldiers.  Moreover,  the  forced  loan  had  been  exacted,  and  some 
of  those  who  refused  to  pay  had  been  imprisoned  by  the  mere  order 
of  the  king  and  the  Privy  Council.  Against  this  last  injury,  five 
knights,  who  had  been  imprisoned,  appealed  to  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench.  A  writ  oi habeas  corpus  was  issued— that  is  to  say,  an 
order  was  given  to  the  gaoler  to  produce  the  prisoners  before  the 
Court,  together  with  a  return  showing  the  cause  of  committal.  All 
that  the  gaoler  could  show  was  that  the  prisoners  had  been  com- 
mitted by  order  of  the  king,  signified  by  the  Privy  Council.  The 
lawyers  employed  by  the  five  knights  argued  that  every  prisoner 


Tents  and  military  equipment  in   the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  :  from  the 
monument  of  Sir  Charles  Montague  (died  in  1625)  in  the  church  of  Barking,  Essex. 


had  a  right  to  be  tried  or  liberated  on  bail ;  that,  unless  cause  was 
shown— that  is  to  say,  unless  a  charge  was  brought  against  him — 
there  was  nothing  on  which  he  could  be  tried  ;  and  that,  therefore, 
these  prisoners  ought  to  be  bailed.  The  lawyers  for  the  Crown 
argued  that  when  the  safety  of  the  state  was  concerned,  the  king 
had  always  been  allowed  to  imprison  without  showing  cause,  and 
that  his  discretion  must  be  trusted  not  to  imprison  any  one  ex- 
cepting in  cases  of  necessity.  The  judges  did  not  decide  this  point, 
but  sent  the  five  knights  back  to  prison.  In  a  few  days,  all  the 
prisoners  were  set  free,  and  Charles   summoned  a  third  Parha- 


5o8     PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT  OF  CHARLES  I.    1627-1628 

ment,  hoping  that  it  would  vote  money  for  a  fresh  expedition  to 
reheve  Rochelle. 
(V  8.  Wentworth  and  Eliot  in  the  Third  Parliament  of  Charles  I. 
1628.— Charles's  third  Parliament  met  on  March  17,  1628.  The 
leadership  was  at  once  taken  by  Sir  Thomas  Wentworth,  who,  as 
well  as  Eliot,  had  been  imprisoned  for  refusing  to  pay  the  loan. 
Though  the  two  men  now  worked  together,  they  were,  in  most 
points,  opposed  to  one  another.  Eliot  had  been  a  warm  advocate 
of  the  war  with  Spain,  till  he  found  it  useless  to  carry  on  the 
war  under  Buckingham's  guidance.  Wentworth  disliked  all  wars, 
and  especially  a  war  with  Spain.  Eliot  believed  in  the  wisdom  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  thought  that,  if  the  king  always  took 
its  advice,  he  was  sure  to  be  in  the  right.  Wentworth  thought  that 
the  House  of  Commons  often  blundered,  and  that  the  king  was 
more  likely  to  be  in  the  right  if  he  took  advice  from  wise  counsellors. 
Wentworth,  however,  believed  that  in  this  case  Charles  had  unfor- 
tunately preferred  to  take  the  advice  of  foolish  counsellors,  and 
though  not  sharing  the  opinions  of  Eliot  and  his  friends,  threw 
himself  into  the  struggle  in  which  the  House  of  Commons  was 
trying  to  stop  Buckingham  in  his  rash  course.  From  time  to  time 
Wentworth  contrived  to  show  that  he  was  no  enemy  of  the  king, 
or  of  a  strong  government  such  as  that  which  had  existed  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth.  He  was,  however,  an  ardent  and  impetuous 
speaker,  and  threw  himself  into  any  cause  which  he  defended  with 
more  violence  than  he  could,  in  calmer  moments,  have  justified  to 
himself.  He  saw  clearly  that  the  late  aggressions  on  the  liberty 
of  the  subject  weakened,  instead  of  strengthening,  the  Crown  ; 
and  he  now  proposed  a  bill  which  should  declare  them  illegal  in 
the  future.  Charles  refused  to  accept  the  bill,  and  Wentworth, 
unwilling  to  take  a  prominent  part  in  a  struggle  with  the  king 
himself,  retired  into  the  background  for  the  remainder  of  the 
session. 
[^  9.  The  Petition  of  Right.    1628.— Instead  of  Wentworth's  bill, 

Eliot  and  the  lawyers — Coke  and  Selden  being  prominent  amongst 
them — brought  forward  a  Petition  of  Right,  not  merely  providing 
for  the  future^  jput  also  declaring  that  right  had  actually  been  yio- 
Tated  in  the  past.  Charles  was  willing  to  promise  everything  else 
asked  of  him,  but  he  resisted  the  attempt  to  force  him  to  promise 
never  to  imprison  without  showing  cause,  and  thus  to  strip  himself 
of  the  power  of  punishing  offences  directed  against  the  safety 
of  the  State.  The  Commons,  who  held  that  he  had  directed  his 
powers  against  men  who  were  patriots,  proved  inexorable.    Charles 


1628  THE  PETITION  OF  RIGHT  509 

needed  money  for  another  fleet  which  he  was  preparing  for  the 
rehef  of  Rochelle,  which  was  straitly  besieged  by  the  French 
king.  He  tried  hard  to  get  over  the  difficulty  by  an  evasive 
answer,  but  at  last,  on  June  7,  he  gave  way,  and  the  Petition 
of  Right  became  the  law  of  the  land     After  that,  so  far  as  the 


■1-> 


George  Villiers,  first  Duke  of  Buckingham,  1592-1628  :  from  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

law  went,  there  was  to  be  no  more  martial  law  or  enforced  billeting, 
no  forced  loans  or  taxes  imposed  \vithout  a  Parliamentary  grant, 
jor_irn£risonment  without  cause  shown. 

10.  Tonnage  and  Poundage.  1628. — Before  the  end  of  the 
session  a  fresh  question  was  raised.  For  many  reigns  Parliament 
had  voted  to  each  king  for  life,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  certain' 


5 10         PERSOlSfAL   GOVERNMENT  OP  CHARLES  I.       162S 

\  customs  duties  known  as  Tonnage  and  Poundage.-  In  addition  to 
"these  James  had  added  the  impositions  (see  p.  484)  without  a 
Parhamentary  grant.  In  the  first  Parliament  of  Charles,  the 
Commons,  probably  wishing  to  settle  the  question  of  impositions 
before  permanently  granting  Tonnage  and  Poundage,  had  passed  a 
bill  granting  the  latter  for  a  single  year  ;  but  that  Parliament 
had  been  dissolved  before  the  bill  had  passed  the  Lords.  The 
second  Parliament  was  dissolved  before  the  Commons  had  even 
discussed  the  subject,  and  the  third  Parliament  now  sitting  had 
found  no  time  to  attend  to  it  till  after  the  Petition  of  Right  had 
been  granted.  Now  that  the  session  was  drawing  to  a  close  the 
Commons  again  proposed  to  grant  Tonnage  and  Poundage  for  a 
year  only.  Charles,  who  had  been  levying  the  duties  ever  since 
his  accession,  refused  to  accept  a  grant  on  these  terms,  and  the 
Commons  then  asserted  that  the  clause  of  the  Petition  of  Right 
forbidding  him  to  levy  taxes  without  a  vote  of  Parliament  made  his 
raising  of  Tonnage  and  Poundage  illegal.  It  was  a  nice  legal  point 
whether  customs  were  properly  called  taxes,  and  Charles  answered 
that  he  did  not  think  that  in  demanding  the  petition  they  had  meant 
to  ask  him  to  yield  his  right  to  Tonnage  and  Poundage,  and  that  he 
was  sure  he  had  not  meant  to  do  so.  The  Commons  then  attacked 
Buckingham,  and  on  June  26  Charles  prorogued  Parliament. 
/C  II.  Buckingham's  Murder.  1628. — In  return  for  the  Petition 
x)f  Right  Charles  had  received  a  grant  of  money  large  enough  to 
enable  him  to  send  out  his  fleet.  In  August  Buckingham  went  to 
Portsmouth  to  take  the  command.  He  was  followed  by  John  Felton, 
an  officer  to  whom  he  had  refused  employment,  and  who  had  not 
been  paid  for  his  former  services.  Language  used  by  the  House  of 
Commons  in  their  recent  attack  on  Buckingham  persuaded  Felton 
that  he  would  render  service  to  God  and  man  by  slaying  the  enemy 
of  both.  On  August  23  he  stabbed  the  Duke  as  he  came  out  from 
breakfast,  crying,  '  God  have  mercy  on  thy  soul ! '  Buckingham 
fell  dead  on  the  spot.  The  fleet  went  out  under  the  command  of 
the  Earl  of  Lindsey  to  relieve  Rochelle,  but  it  failed  utterly.  There 
was  no  heart  in  the  sailors  or  resolution  in  the  commanders. 
Rochelle  surrendered  to  the  King  of  France,  and  Charles  was 
left  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  unpopularity  of  his  late  favourite. 
O^s^  12.  The  Question  of  Sovereignty.    1628. — Charles  was  anxious 

to  come  to  terms  with  his  Parliament  on  the  question  of  Tonnage 
and  Poundage,  and  would  probably  have  consented  to  accept  the 
compromise  proposed  in  1610  (see  p.  486).  Neither  party,  indeed, 
could  afford  to  surrender  completely  to  the  other.     The  customs 


K 


1625-1628  RELIGIOUS  DIFFICULTIES  511 

duties  were  already  more  than  a  third  of  the  revenue,  and,  if  Charles 
could  levy  what  he  pleased,  he  might  so  increase  his  income  as  to 
have  no  further  need  of  parliaments  ;  whereas,  if  the  Commons 
refused  to  make  the  grant,  the  king  would  soon  be  in  a  state 
of  bankruptcy.  The  financial  question,  in  short,  involved  the 
further  question  whether  Charles  or  the  Parliament  was  to  have 
the  sovereignty.  Dangerous  as  it  would  be  for  both  parties  to 
enter  upon  a  quarrel  which  led  up  to  such  issues,  it  was  the  more 
difficult  to  avoid  it  because  the  king  and  the  Commons  were 
already  at  variance  on  another  subject  of  pre-eminent  importance. 

13.  Protestantism  of  the  House  of  Commons.  1625 — 1628. — 
That  subject  was  the  subject  of  religion.  The  country  gentlemen, 
who  almost  entirely  filled  the  benches  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
were  not  Puritan  in  the  sense  in  which  Cartwright  had  been  Puritan 
in  Elizabeth's  reign  (see  p.  446).  They  did  not  wish  to  abolish  epis- 
copacy or  the  Prayer  Book  ;  but  they  were  strongly  Protestant,  and 
their  Protestantism  had  been  strengthened  by  a  sense  of  danger 
from  the  engagements  in  favour  of  the  English  Catholics  into  which 
James  and  Charles  had  entered.  Lately,  too,  the  power  of  the 
Catholic  States  on  the  Continent  had  been  growing.  In  1626  the 
King  of  Denmark  had  been  defeated  at  Lutter.  In  1628  the  French 
Huguenots  had  been  defeated  at  Rochelle.  It  was  probably  in 
consequence  of  these  events  that  there  was  in  England  a  revival 
of  that  attachment  to  Calvinistic  doctrines  which  had  accompanied 
the  Elizabethan  struggle  against  Spain  and  the  Pope. 

14.  Religious  Differences.  1625 — 1628. — On  the  other  hand,  a 
small  but  growing  number  amongst  the  clergy  were  breaking 
away  from  t4ie  dogmas  of  Calvinism,  and  especially  from  its  stern 
doctrine  on  the  subject  of  predestination.  The  House  of  Commons 
claimed  to  represent  the  nation,  and  it  upheld  the  unity  of  the 
national  belief  as  strongly  as  it  had  been  upheld  by  Henry  VIII. 
In  1625  the  House  summoned  to  its  bar  Richard  Montague,  who 
had  challenged  the  received  Calvinist  opinions  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  not  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  1626  it 
impeached  him.  Naturally,  Montague  and  those  who  agreed  with 
him  warmly  supported  the  royal  power,  and  in  1627  urged  the  duty 
of  paying  the  forced  loan.  Another  clergyman,  Roger  Manwaring, 
preached  sermons  in  which  Parliaments  were  treated  with  con- 
tempt, and  the  Commons  retaliated  by  impeaching  the  preacher. 
Charles  would  have  acted  in  a  spirit  in  advance  of  his  times,  and 
certainly  in  advance  of  his  opponents,  if  he  had  merely  upheld  the 
right  of  the  minority  to  liberty  of  speech.     Instead  of  contenting 


512    PERSONAL   GOVERNMENT  OF  CHARLES  L   1628-1629 

himself  with  this  he  made  Montague  Bishop  of  Chichester  and  gave 
Man  waring  a  good  living, 
\K^  15.  The  King's  Declaration.  1628. — With  the  intention  ot 
smoothing  matters  down,  Charles  issued  a  declaration  prefixed  to 
the  Articles,  which  would,  as  he  hoped,  make  for  peace.  No  one 
was  in  future  to  speak  in  public  on  the  controverted  points.  Charles 
probably  believed  himself  to  be  acting  fairly,  whilst,  in  reality,  his 
compromise  was  most  unfair.  The  Calvinists,  who  believed  their 
views  about  predestination  to  be  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
souls  of  Christians,  were  hardly  treated  by  the  order  to  hold  their 
tongues  on  the  subject.  Their  opponents  did  not  care  about  the 
doctrine  at  all,  and  would  be  only  too  glad  if  nothing  more  was 
heard  of  it.  Charles,  however,  was  but  following  in  Elizabeth's 
steps  in  imposing  silence  and  calling  it  peace.  But  the  times 
were  different.  There  was  no  longer  a  Catholic  claimant  of  the 
throne  or  a  foreign  enemy  at  the  gates  to  cause  moderate  men  to  ^-JU 
A  k    A    support  the  government,  even  in  its  errors.  ^»^ 

\J(y^s.^00^  16.  The  Second  Session  of  the  Third  Parliament  of  Charles  I. 
5c,  1629. — The  Houses  met  for  a  second  session  on  January  20,  1629. 
The  Commons  attacked  the  clergy  on  a  side  on  which  they  were 
especially  vulnerable.  Some  of  those  who  had  challenged  the 
Calvinistic  doctrines  had  revived  certain  ceremonial  forms  which 
had  generally  fallen  into  disuse.  In  Durham  Cathedral  espe- 
cially, parts  of  the  service  had  been  sung  which  had  not  been 
"^  sung  before,  and  the  Communion  table,  which  had  hitherto  stood 

^  at  the  north  door  and  had  been  moved  to  the  middle  of  the  choir 

^  when   needed,  had   been   permanently   fixed  at  the  east  end  of 

^  the  chancel.      The  Commons  were  indignant  at  what  they  styled 

^  Popish  practices,  and  summoned  the  offenders  before  them.    Then 

>^  they  turned  to  Tonnage  and  Poundage.      Eliot,  instead  of  con- 

-^  fronting  the  difficulty  directly,  attempted  to  make  it  a  question  of 

5  privilege.     The  goods  of  a  member  of  the  House,  named  Rolle, 

had  been  seized  for  non-payment  of  Tonnage  and  Poundage,  and 
|V^  Eliot  wished  to  summon  the  Custom  House  officers  to  the  bar,  not 

3"^         for  seizing  the  goods  of  an  Englishman,  but  for  a  breach  of  privi- 
^  lege  in  seizing  the  goods  of  a  member  of  Parliament.     Pym,  who 

;^  occupied  a  prominent  position  amongst  the  popular  party,  urged 

f\  the  House  to  take  broader  ground  :  "  The  liberties  of  this  House,"  he 

I  said,  "  are  inferior  to  the  liberties  of  this  kingdom.     To  determine 

I  the  privileges  of  this  House  is  but  a  mean  matter,  and  the  main 

%.  end  is  to  establish  possession  of  the  subjects."  ^    Eliot  carried  the 

1  i,e.  to  establish  the  right  of  the  siJbjects  to  possess  their  property. 


1629  THk  STRUGGLE  FOk  SOVEREIGNTY  513 

House  with  him,  but  Charles  supported  his  officers,  and  refused  to 
allow  them  to  appear  at  the  bar  of  the  House.  Once  more  the  ques- 
tion of  sovereignty  was  raised.  The  House  was  adjourned  by  the 
king's  order  in  the  hope  that  a  compromise  might  be  discovered. 
^  17.  Breach  between  the  King  and  the  Commons.  1629. — No 
compromise  could  be  found,  and  on  March  2  a  fresh  order  for 
adjournment  was  given.  When  Finch,  the  Speaker,  rose  to 
announce  it,  two  strong  young  members.  Holies  and  Valentine, 
pushed  him  back  into  his  chair  whilst  Eliot  read  three  resolutions 
to  the  effect  that  whoever  brought  in  innovations  in  religion,  or 
introduced  opinions  differing  from  those  of  the  true  and  orthodox 
church  ;  whoever  advised  the  levy  of  Tonnage  and  Poundage  without 
a  grant  by  Parliament ;  and  whoever  voluntarily  paid  those  duties, 
was  an  enemy  to  the  kingdom  and  a  betrayer  of  its  liberties.  A 
wild  tumult  arose.  A  rush  was  made  to  free  the  Speaker,  and 
another  rush  to  hold  him  down.  One  member,  at  least,  laid  his 
hand  on  his  sword.  The  doors  were  locked,  and,  amidst  the 
hubbub,  Holies  repeated  the  resolutions,  which  were  accepted  with 
shouts  of '  Aye,  aye.'  Then  the  doors  were  opened,  and  the  mem- 
bers poured  out.  The  king  at  once  dissolved  Parliament,  and  for 
eleven  years  no  Parliament  met  again  in  England. 
6^  18.  The  Constitutional  Dispute.  1629. — The  constitutional 
system  of  the  Tudor  monarchy  had  practically  broken  down.  The 
nation  had,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  entered  upon  a  struggle  for 
national  independence.  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth  had  headed 
it  in  that  struggle,  and  the  House  of  Commons  had  but  represented 
the  nation  in  accepting  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth  as  supreme 
rulers.  The  House  of  Commons  now  refused  to  admit  that  Charles 
was  its  supreme  ruler,  because  he  could  neither  head  the  nation,  nor 
understand  either  its  wants  or  its  true  needs.  Yet  the  House  had 
not  as  yet  shown  its  capacity  for  taking  his  place.  It  had  criticised 
his  methods  of  government  effectively,  but  had  displayed  its  own 
intolerance  and  disregard  for  individual  liberty.  Yet,  till  it  could 
learn  to  respect  individual  liberty,  it  would  not  be  likely  to  gain 
the  sovereignty  at  which  it  aimed.  A  king  becomes  powerful  when 
men  want  a  strong  government  to  put  down  enemies  abroad  or 
petty  tyrants  at  home.  A  Parliament  becomes  powerful  when  men 
want  to  discuss  political  questions,  and  political  discussion  cannot 
thrive  when  voices  disagreeable  to  the  majority  are  silenced.  The 
House  of  Commons  had  thought  more  of  opposing  the  king  than 
of  laying  a  wide  basis  for  its  own  power,  and  now  it  was,  for  a 
time  at  least,  silenced. 


514     PERSONAL    GOVERNMENT  OF  CHARLES  L   1629-1633 

19.  The    Victory   of    Personal    Government.       1629—1632.— 

Charles  was  now  to  show  whether  he  could  do  better  than  the 
Commons.  He  had  gained  one  great  convert  soon  after  the  end 
of  the  first  session  of  the  last  Parliament.  Wentworth,  satisfied,  it 
is  to  be  supposed,  with  the  Petition  of  Right,  and  dissatisfied  with 
the  claim  to  sovereignty  put  forward  by  the  Commons,  came  over 
to  his  side  and  was  made  first  a  baron  and  then  a  viscount,  after 
which  before  the  end  of  1628  he  was  made  President  of  the  Council 
of  the  North  (see  p.  397).  Wentworth  was  no  Puritan,  and  the  claim 
of  the  Commons,  in  the  second  session,  to  meddle  with  religion  no 
doubt  strengthened  him  in  his  conviction  that  he  had  chosen  the 
right  side.  Before  the  end  of  1629  he  became  a  Privy  Councillor. 
The  most  influential  member  of  Charles's  Council,  however,  was 
Weston,  the  Lord  Treasurer.  Peace  was  made  with  France  in  1629, 
and  with  Spain  in  1630.  To  bring  the  finances  into  order,  the  king 
insisted  on  collecting  the  customs  without  a  Parliamentary  grant,  and 
Chambers,  a  merchant  who  refused  to  pay,  was  summoned  before  the 
Council,  and  then  fined  2,000/.  and  imprisoned  for  saying  that  mer- 
chants were  more  wrung  in  England  than  they  were  in  Turkey.  The 
leading  members  who  had  been  concerned  in  the  disturbance  at  the 
last  meeting  of  Parliament  were  imprisoned,  and  three  of  them,  Eliot, 
Holies,  and  Valentine,  were  charged  before  the  King's  Bench  with 
riot  and  sedition.  They  declined  to  plead,  on  the  ground  that  the 
judges  had  no  jurisdiction  over  things  done  in  Parliament.  The 
judges  held  that  riot  and  sedition  must  be  punished  somewhere,  and 
that  as  Parliament  was  not  always  sitting  it  must  be  punished  by 
themselves.  As  the  accused  still  refused  to  plead  they  were  fined 
and  imprisoned.  Eliot  died  of  consumption  in  the  Tower  in 
1632.  Charles  had  refused  to  allow  him  to  go  into  the  country  to 
recover  his  health,  and  after  his  death  he  refused  to  allow  his 
children  to  dispose  of  his  body.  Eliot  was  the  martyr,  not  of 
individual  liberty,  but  of  Parliamentary  supremacy.  Charles  hated 
him  because  he  regarded  him  as  the  factious  accuser  of  Bucking- 
ham. 
^^  20.  Star  Chamber  Sentences.  1630— 1633. — The  first  years  of 
unparliamentary  government  were,  on  the  whole,  years  of  peace 
and  quiet.  The  Star  Chamber,  which  under  Henry  VII.  had  put 
down  the  old  nobility,  was  now  ready  to  put  down  the  opponents 
of  the  king.  Its  numbers  had  grown  with  its  work,  and  all  of 
the  Privy  Councillors  were  now  members  of  it,  the  only  other 
members  being  two  judges.  It  was  therefore  a  mere  instrument  in 
the  king's  hands.     In  1630  Alexander  Leighton  was  flogged  and 


i633 


STAJi   CHAMBER  PUNISHMENTS 


51s 


mutilated  by  order  of  the  Star  Chamber  for  having  written  a  virulent 
libel  against  the  bishops  ;  in  which  he  blamed  them  for  all  existing 
mischiefs,  including  the  extravagance  of  the  dress  of  the  ladies,  and 
ended  by  advising  that  they  should  be  smitten  under  the  fifth  rib. 
In  1633  the  same  court  fined  Henry  Sherfieldfor  breaking  a  church 
window  which  he  held  to  be  superstitious.  The  bulk  of  Englishmen 
were  not  touched  by  these  sentences,  and  there  was  more  indigna- 


Sir  Edward  and  Lady  Filmer  :  from  their  brass  at  East  Sutton,  Kent, 
showing  armour  and  dress  worn  about  1630. 

tion  when,  in  order  to  pay  off  debts  contracted  in  time  of  war, 
Charles  ordered  the  enforcement  of  fines  upon  all  men  holding  by 
military  tenure  lands  worth  40/.  a  year  who  had  neglected  to  be 
knighted.  The  Court  of  Exchequer  held  that  the  fines  were  legal ; 
but  the  whole  system  of  military  tenure  was  obsolete,  and  those 
who  suffered  regarded  themselves  as  wronged  through  a  mere 
technicality. 


5i6  PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT  OP  CHARLES  L         1633 

21.  Laud's  Intellectual  Position.  1629 — 1633. — For  all  matters 
relating  to  the  Church  Charles's  principal  adviser  was  William 
Laud,  now  Bishop  of  London.  As  far  as  doctrine  was  concerned 
Laud  carried  on  the  teaching  of  Cranmer  and  Hooker.  He  held 
that  the  basis  of  belief  was  the  Bible,  but  that  the  Bible  was  to 
be  interpreted  by  the  tradition  of  the  early  church,  and  that  all 
doubtful  points  were  to  be  subjected,  not  to  heated  arguments  in 
the  pulpits,  but  to  sober  discussion  by  learned  men.  His  mind, 
in  short,  like  those  o^  the  earlier  English  reformers,  combined  the 
Protestant  reliance  on  the  Scriptures  with  reverence  for  ancient 
tradition  and  with  the  critical  spirit  of  the  Renascence.  Laud's  diffi- 
culty lay,  as  theirs  had  lain,  in  the  impossibility  of  gaining  over  any 
large  number  of  his  fellow-countrymen.  Intelligent  criticism  and 
intelligent  study  were  only  for  the  few.  Laud,  as  he  himself  plain- 
tively declared,  was  in  danger  of  being  crushed  between  the  upper 
and  lower  mill-stones  of  Puritaniim  and  the  Papacy. 

22.  Laud  as  the  Upholder  of  Uniformity. — In  all  this  there 
was  nothing  peculiar  to  Laud.  What  was  peculiar  to  him  was  his 
perception  that  intellectual  religion  could  not  maintain  itself  by 
intellect  alone.  Hooker's  appeals  to  Church  history  and  to  the 
supremacy  of  reason  had  rolled  over  the  heads  of  men  who  knew 
nothing  about  Church  history,  and  who  did  not  reason.  Laud  fell 
back  upon  the  influence  of  ceremonial.  "  I  laboured  nothing  mOre," 
he  afterwards  said,  "  than  that  the  external  public  worship  of  God — 
too  much  slighted  in  most  parts  of  the  kingdom — might  be  pre- 
served, and  that  with  as  much  decency  and  uniformity  as  might 
be  ;  being  still  of  opinion  that  unity  cannot  long  continue  in  the 
Church  when  uniformity  is  shut  out  of  the  Church  door."  He,  like 
Eliot  and  the  Parliamentarians,  was  convinced  that  there  could  be 
but  one  Church  in  the  nation.  As  they  sought  to  retain  their  hold 
on  it  by  the  enforcement  of  uniformity  of  doctrine.  Laud  sought  to 
retain  his  hold  on  it  by  enforcing  uniformity  of  worship.  To  do  this 
he  attempted  to  put  in  force  the  existing  law  of  the  Church  as  opposed 
to  the  existing  practice.  What  he  urged  men  to  do  he  believed  to 
be  wholly  right.  He  himself  clung  with  all  his  heart  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  divine  right  of  episcopacy,  of  the  efficacy  of  the  Sacraments, 
and  to  the  sobering  influence  of  appointed  prayers  and  appointed 
ceremonies.  What  he  lacked  was  broad  human  sympathy  and 
respect  for  the  endeavour  of  each  earnest  man  to  grow  towards 
perfection  in  the  way  which  seems  to  him  to  be  best.  Men 
were  to  obey  for  their  own  good,  and  to  hold  their  tongues.  The 
king  was  the  supreme  governor,  and  with  his  authority,  as  exercised 


1 633  ARCHBISHOP  LAUD  517 

in  the  Courts  of  Star  Chamber  and  High  Commission,  Laud  hoped 
^p>i^  to  rescue  England  from  Pope  and  Puritan. 

23.  The  Beginning  of  Laud's  Archbishopric.  1633 — 1634. — 
In  1633  Laud  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  at  once  made 
his  hand  felt  in  every  direction.  By  his  advice,  in  consequence  of 
an  attempt  of  the  judges  to  put  an  end  to  Sunday  amusements, 
Charles  republished  the  Declaration  of  Sports  which  had  been 


Archbishop  Laud  :  from  a  copy  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery 
by  Henry  Stone,  from  the  Van  Dyck  at  Lambeth. 

issued  by  his  father,  authorising  such  amusements  under  certain 
restrictions.  Where,  however,  James  had  contented  himself  with 
giving  orders,  Charles  insisted  on  having  the  Declaration  read  in 
church  by  all  the  clergy,  and  roused  the  resistance  of  those  who 
regarded  Sunday  amusements  as  a  breach  of  the  Sabbath.  Laud 
was  also  anxious  to  see  the  Communion  table  standing  everywhere 
at  the  east  end  ot  the  church.     No  doubt  his  anxiety  came  in  part 


5i8     PERSONAL   GOVERNMENT  OF  CHARLES   L   1633-1634 

from  his  reverence  of  the  holy  sacrament  for  which  it  was  set  apart, 
but  it  also  arose  from  his  dislike  to  the  base  purposes  for  which  it 


Silver-gilt  tankard  made  at  London  in  1634-^5,  now  belonging  to  the 
Corporation  of  Bristol. 

was  often  made  to  serve.  Men  often  put  their  hats  on  it,  or  used  it 
as  a  writing  table.  The  canons,  or  laws  of  the  Church,  indeed, 
directed  that  the  position  of  the  table  should,  when  not  in  use,  be  at 


1633-1634  HISTRIOMASTIX  519 

the  east  end,  though  at  the  time  of  Communion  it  was  to  be  placed 
in  that  part  of  the  church  or  chancel  from  which  the  minister  could 
best  be  heard.  A  case  was  brought  before  the  king  and  the  Privy 
Council  in  1633,  and  it  was  then  decided  that  the  bishop  or  other 
proper  authority  should  settle  what  was  the  position  from  which 
the  minister  could  best  be  heard.  Of  course  the  bishops  settled 
that  that  place  was  the  east  end  of  the  chancel. 

24.  Laud  and  Prynne.  1633 — 1634. — Amongst  the  most  virulent 
opponents  of  Laud  was  William  Prynne,  a  lawyer  whose  extensive 
study  of  theology  had  not  tended  to  smooth  away  the  asperities  of 
his  temper.  He  was,  moreover,  a  voluminous  writer,  and  had 
written  books  against  drinking  healths  and  against  the  wearing  of 
long  hair  by  men,  in  which  these  follies  had  been  treated  as  equally 
blameworthy  with  the  grossest  sins.  Struck  by  the  immorality  of 
the  existing  drama,  he  attacked  it  in  a  heavy  work  called  Hisf?'io- 
mastix^  or  The  scourge  of  stage  players,  in  which  he  held  the 
frequenting  of  theatres  to  be  the  cause  of  every  crime  under  the 
sun.  He  pointed  out  that  all  the  Roman  emperors  who  had 
patronised  the  drama  had  come  to  a  bad  end,  and  this  was  held  by 
the  courtiers  to  be  a  reflection  on  Chailes,  who  patronised  the 
drama.  He  inserted  in  the  index  a  vile  charge  against  all  actresses, 
and  this  was  held  to  be  an  insult  to  the  queen,  who  was  at  the  time 
taking  part  in  the  rehearsal  of  a  theatrical  representation.  Ac- 
cordingly in  1633  Prynne  was  sentenced  by  the  Star  Chamber  to 
lose  his  ears  in  the  pillory,  to  a  heavy  fine,  and  to  imprisonment 
during  the  king's  pleasure.  In  1634  the  sentence  was  carried  out. 
Prynne's  case,  however,  awakened  no  general  sympathy,  and  the 
king  does  not  appear  to  have  as  yet  become  widely  unpopular. 
The  young  lawyers  came  to  Whitehall  to  give  a  masque  or  drama- 
tic representation  in  presence  of  the  king  and  queen,  in  order  to 
show  their  detestation  of  Prynne's  conduct,  whilst  John  Milton, 
the  strictest  and  most  pure-minded  of  poets,  wrote  a  masque, 
Comus^  to  show  how  little  sympathy  he  had  with  Prynne's  sweeping 
denunciations.  Yet,  though  Milton  opposed  Prynne's  exaggeration, 
his  own  poetry  was  a  protest  against  Laud's  attempt  to  reach  the 
mind  through  the  senses.  Milton  held  to  the  higher  part  of  the 
Puritan  teaching,  that  the  soul  is  to  lead  the  body,  and  not  the 
body  the  soul.     "  So  dear,"  he  wrote  in  Comus^ 

to  Heaven  is  saintly  chastity, 
That,  when  a  soul  is  found  sincerely  so, 
A  thousand  liveried  angels  lackey  her, 
Driving  far  off  each  thing  of  sin  and  guilt 


520  PERSONAL    GOVERNMENT  OF  CHARLES  L        163:1 

And,  in  clear  dream  and  solemn  vision, 
Tell  her  of  things  that  no  gross  ear  can  hear, 
Till  oft  converse  with  heavenly  habitants 
Begin  to  cast  a  beam  on  the  outward  shape, 
The  unpolluted  temple  of  the  mind. 
And  turns  it  by  degrees  to  the  soul's  essence. 
Till  all  be  made  immortal. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 


THE  OVERTHROW  OF  THE  PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT 
OF  CHARLES   L       1634  — 164I 

LEADING    DATES 
The  Reign  of  Charles  I.,  1625— 1649 

The  Metropolitical  Visitation 1634 

First  Ship-money  Writ  (to  the  port-towns)       .        .        .  1634 

Second  Ship-money  Writ  (to  all  the  counties)          .        .  1635 

Prynne,  Burton,  and  Bastwick  in  the  pillory    .        .        .  1637 

Riot  in  Edinburgh 1637 

Scottish  National  Covenant 1638 

Judgment  in  Hampden's  Case 1637-1638 

First  Bishops'  War 1639 

Short  Parliament 1640 

Second  Bishops'  War 1640 

Meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament  ......  1640 

Execution  of  Strafford,  and  Constitutional  Reforms        .  1641 

^v*~  I.  The  Metropolitical  Visitation.  1634 — 1637. — The  antagonism 
which  Laud  had  begun  to  rouse  in  the  first  months  of  his  arch- 
bishopric became  far  more  widely  spread  in  the  three  years  beginning 
in  1634  and  ending  in  1637,  i^^  consequence  of  a  Metropolitical 
Visitation — that  is  to  say,  a  visitation  which  he  conducted  by 
the  Metropolitan  or  Archbishop — either  in  person  or  by  deputy — 
to  enquire  into  the  condition  of  the  clergy  and  churches  of  the 
Province  of  Canterbury  ;  a  similar  visitation  ,being  held  in  the 
Province  of  York  by  the  authority  of  the  Archbishop  of  York.  Every 
clergyman  who  refused  to  conform  to  the  Prayer  Book,  who  resisted 
the  removal  of  the  Communion  table  to  the  east  end  of  the  chancel, 
or  who  objected  to  bow  when  the  sacred  name  of  Jesus  was  pro- 
nounced, was  called  in  question,  and  if  obstinate,  was  brought 
before  the  High  Commission  and  suspended  from  the  exercise  of 
his  functions  or  deprived  of  his  living.     Laud  wanted  to  reach 


1634-1637       THE  LAUDIAN.  SYSTEM  ENFORCED  521 

unity  through  uniformity,  and  made  the  canons  of  the  Church  his 
standard  of  uniformity.  Even  moderate  men  suspected  that  he 
sought  to  subject  England  again  to  the  Pope.  The  queen,  too, 
entertained  a  Papal  agent  at  her  Court,  and  a  few  successful  con- 
versions, brought  about  by  Con,  who  at  one  time  resided  with  her 
in  that  capacity,  frightened  the  country  into  the  belief  that  a  plot 
existed  to  overthrow  Protestantism.  Some  of  Laud's  clerical  sup- 
porters favoured  this  idea,  by  talking  about  such  topics  as  altars 
and  the  invocation  of  the  saints,  which  had  hitherto  been  held  to 
have  no  place  m  Protestant  teaching.  The  result  was  that  moderate 
Protestants  now  joined  the  Puritans  in  opposing  Laud. 

2.  Prynne,  Bastwick,  and  Burton.  1637.— Laud  had  little 
hope  of  being  able  to  abate  the  storm.  One  of  his  best  qualities 
was  ithat  he  was  no  respecter  of  persons,  and  he  had  roused 
animosity  in.  the  upper  classes  by  punishing  gentlemen  guilty  of 
immorality  or  <?f  breaches  of  church  discipline  as  freely  as  he 
punished  more  Ibvyly  offenders.  In  1637  he  characteristically  at- 
tempted to  defend  hi^jiself  from  the  charge  of  being  a  Papist  and 
an  innovator  in  religioltKby  bringing  three  of  his  most  virulent 
assailants — Prynne,  Bastwick^and  Burton — before  the  Star  Cham- 
ber. The  trial  afforded  him  the.opportunity  of  making  a  speech 
in  his  own  defence,  to  which  nobody  "paid  the  least  attention.  As  a 
matter  of  course  the  accused  were  heavily^punished,  being  sentenced 
to  lose  their  ears  in  the  pillory,  to  pay  U.  fine  of  5,000/.,  and  to 
imprisonment  for  life.  It  was  not  now  as  it  had^been  in  1634,  when 
Prynne  stood  alone  in  the  pillory,  no  man  regar'dUig  him.  The 
three  victims  had  a  triumphal  reception  on  their  way  td -the  pillory. 
Flowers  and  sweet  herbs  were  strewed  in  their  path.  The  crowd 
applauded  them  whilst  they  suffered.  On  their  way  to  their  several 
prisons  in  distant  parts  of  the  country  men  flocked  to  greet  them 
as  martyrs. 

3.  Financial  Pressure.  1635— 1637. — Revolutions  are  never 
successful  xviThmit^the  guidance  of  men  devoted  to  ideas  ;  but  on 
the  other  hand  they^are  not  caused  only  by  grievances  felt 
by  religious  or  highrtHij^ed  people.  To  stir  large  masses 
of  men  to  resistarice,  theif^vj)ockets  must  be  touched  as  well 
as  their  souls.  In  1635  Westo^j-vj^o  had  been  created  Earl  of 
Portland,  died,  and  a  body  of  ComltHs.si oners  cf  the  Treasury, 
who  succeeded  him,  laid  additional  impositions  on  commerce 
and  established  corporations  for  exercising  ""various  manufac- 
tures under  the  protection  of  monopolies.  This  proceeding  was 
according   to    the  letter    of  the    law,  as    corporations    had    been 

II,  M  M 


1634-1637  SHIP-MONEY  523 

exemptetM^ni  the  act  in  restraint  of  monopolies  which  had  been 
passed  in  i^^'^^^  p.  501).  So,  too,  was  a  claim  put  forward  by 
Charles  in  1637  to  Ifevj^ fines  from  those  who  had  encroached  on  the 
old  boundaries  of  the^"ftwe§ts.  It  is  true  that,  in  the  teeth  of  the 
opposition  roused,  Charles  ejtacted  but  a  small  part  of  the  fines 
imposed,  but  he  incurred  almost  as  much  obloquy  as  if  he  had 
^     taken  the  whole  of  the  money. 

^*^      4.    Ship-money.      1634 — ^^S?* — More  important  was  Charles's 

effort  to  provide  himself  with  a  fleet.     As  the  Dutch  navy  was 

powerful,  and  the  French  navy  was  rapidly  growing  in  strength, 

^     Charles,  not  unnaturally,  thought  that  England  ought  to  be  able 

to  meet  their  combined  forces  at  sea.     In  1634,  by  the  advice  of 

Attorney-General  Noy,  he  issued  writs  to  the  port  towns,  to  furnish 

him  with  ships.     He  took  care  to  ask  for  ships  larger  than  any  port 

— except  London — had  got,  and  then   offered  to  supply  ships  of 

his  own,  on  condition  that  the  port  towns  should  equip  and  man 

them.     In   1635 — Noy   having   died  in    the   meantime — Charles 

asked  for  ships  not  merely  from  the  ports,  but  from  the  inland 

as  well  as  from  the   maritime  counties.      Again    London    alone 

provided  ships  ;  in  all  the  rest  of  England  money  had  to  be  found 

to  pay  for  the   equipment  and  manning  of  ships  belonging  to 

the  king.     In    this    way    Charles  got   a  strong  navy   which   he 

manned  with  sailors  in  the  habit  of  managing  ships  of  war,  and 

entirely  at  his  own  orders.     The  experience  of  the  Cadiz  voyage 

had  shown  him  that  merchant-sailors,   such  as   those  who  had 

done  good  service  against  the  Armada,  were  not  to  be  trusted 

to  fight  in  enterprises  in  which  they  took  no  interest,  and  it  is  from 

^^--^the  ship-money  fleet  that  the  separation  of  the  naval  and  mercantile 

j^     marine  dates.     Necessarily,  however,  Englishmen  began  to  com- 

A^     plain,  not  that  they  had  a  navy,  but  that  the  money  needed  for  the 

^^^  *    navy  was  taken  from  them  without  a  Parliamentary  grant.     Year 

^^    after  year   ship-money  was   levied,  and   the  murmurs  against  it 

increased.     In  February,  1637,  Charles  consulted  the  judges,  and 

ten  out  of  the  twelve  judges  declared  that  the  king  had  a  right  to  do 

what  was  necessary  for  the  defence  of  the  realm  in  time  of  danger, 

and  that  the  king  was  the  sole  judge  of  the  existence  of  danger. 

%l^.  5.    Hampden's   Case.      1637— 1638.— It  was  admitted  that,  in 

accordance  with  the  Petition  of  Right,  Charles  could  not  levy  a 

tax  without  a  Parliamentary  grant.     Charles,  however,  held  that 

ship-money  was  not  a  tax,  but  money  paid  in  commutation  of  the 

duty  of  all  Englishmen  to  defend  their  country.     Common  sense 

held  that,  whether  ship-money  was  a  tax  or  not,  it  had  been 

MM  2 


524        OVERTHROW  OF  PERSONAL   GOVERNMENT       1638 

levied  without  consulting  Parliament,  simply  because  the  king 
shrank  from  consulting  Parliament  ;  or,  in  other  words,  because 
he  was  afraid  that  Parliament  would  ask  him  to  put  an  end  to 
Laud's  system  of  managing  the  Church.  Charles  was  ready,  as 
he  said,  to  allow  to  Parliament  liberty  of  counsel,  but  not  of 
control.  The  sense  of  irritation  was  now  so  great  that  the  nation 
wanted  to  control  the  Government,  and  knew  that  it  would  never 
be  able  to  do  so  if  Charles  could,  by  a  subterfuge,  take  what  money 
he  needed  without  summoning  Parliament.  Of  this  feeling  John 
Hampden,  a  Buckinghamshire  squire,  became  the  mouthpiece. 
He  refused  to  pay  10s.  levied  on  his  estate  for  ship-money.  His 
case  was  argued  before  the  twelve  judges  sitting  in  the  Exchequer 
Chamber.  In  1638  two  pronounced  distinctly  in  his  favour,  three 
supported  him  on  technical  grounds,  and  seven  pronounced  for  the 
king.  Charles  continued  to  levy  ship-money,  but  the  arguments  of 
Hampden's  lawyers  were  circulated  in  the  country,  and  the  judg- 
ment of  the  majority  on  the  Bench  was  ascribed  to  cowardice  or 
obsequiousness.  Their  decision  ranged  against  the  king  all  who 
cared  about  preserving  their  property,  as  the  Metropolitical  visi- 
tation had  ranged  against  him  all  who  cared  for  religion  in  a 
distinctly  Protestant  form.  Yet,  even  now,  the  Tudor  monarchy 
had  done  its  work  too  thoroughly,  and  had  filled  the  minds  of  men 
too  completely  with  the  belief  that  armed  resistance  to  a  king  was 
unjustifiable,  to  make  Englishmen  ripe  for  rebellion.  They  pre- 
ferred to  wait  till  some  opportunity  should  arrive  which  would 
enable  them  to  express  their  disgust  in  a  constitutional  way. 
^  6.  Scottish  Episcopacy.  1572 — 1612. — The  social  condition  of 
Scotland  was  very  different  from  that  of  England.  The  nobles 
there  had  never  been  crushed  as  they  had  been  in  England,  and 
they  had  tried  to  make  the  reformation  conduce  to  their  own  profit. 
In  1572  they  obtained  the  appointment  of  what  were  known  as 
Tulchan  bishops,  who,  performing  no  episcopal  function,  received 
the  revenues  of  their  sees  and  then  handed  them  over  to  certain 
nobles.^  The  Presbyterian  clergy,  however,  represented  the  popular 
element  in  the  nation— and  that  element,  though  it  had  hitherto  been 
weak,  was  growing  strong  through  the  discipline  which  it  received 
in  consequence  of  the  leading  share  assigned  to  the  middle  and 
lower  classes  in  the  Church  Courts  (see  p.  434).  The  disagreement 
between  these  classes  and  the  nobles  gave  to  James  the  part  of 
arbitrator,  and  thus  conferred  on  him  a  power  which  no  Scottish 

'  A  Tulchan  was  a  stuffed  calf's  skin  set  by  a  cow  to  induce  her  to  give 
her  milk  freely. 


1 592- 1 638  THE  SCOTTISH  CHURCH  525 

king  had  had  before.  After  much  vacillation,  he  consented,  in  1592, 
to  an  act  fully  re-establishing  the  Presbyterian  system.  It  was  not 
long  before  he  repented.  The  Presbyterian  clergy  attacked  his 
actions  from  the  pulpit,  and  one  of  them,  Andrew  Melville, 
plucking  him  by  the  sleeve,  called  him  '  God's  silly  vassal.' 
The  nobles,  too,  were  angry  because  the  clergy  assailed  their 
vices,  and  tried  to  subject  them  to  the  discipline  of  the  Church. 
Though  their  ancestors  had,  at  almost  all  times,  been  the  adver- 
saries of  the  kings,  they  now  made  common  cause  with  James. 
Gradually  episcopacy  was  restored.  Bishops  were  re-appointed  in 
1599.  Step  by  step  episcopal  authority  was  regained  for  them.  In 
1610  three  of  their  number  were  consecrated  in  England,  and  in 
1612  the  Scottish  Parliament  ratified  all  that  had  been  done. 
/^  7.  The  Scottish  Bishops  and  Clergy.  1612— 1637.— In  Eng- 
^^  land  bishops  had  a  party  (lay  and  clerical)  behind  them.  In  Scot- 
land they  were  mere  instruments  of  the  king  and  the  nobles  to  keep 
the  clergy  quiet.  In  1618,  James,  supported  by  the  bishops  and 
the  nobles,  forced  upon  a  general  assembly  the  acceptance  of  the 
Five  Articles  of  Perth,  the  most  important  of  which  was  a  direction 
that  the  Communion  should  be  received  in  a  kneeling  posture. 
Yet,  in  spite  of  all  that  James  had  done,  the  local  popular  Church 
courts  still  existed,  and  the  worship  of  the  Church  remained  still 
distinctly  Calvinistic  and  Puritan.  Charles  was  more  eager  than 
his  father  to  alter  the  worship  of  the  Scottish  Church,  and,  in 
1637,  ^t  his  command,  certain  Scottish  bishops— often  referring  for 
advice  to  Laud — completed  a  new  Prayer  Book,  not  unlike  that  in 
use  in  England,  but  differing  from  it,  for  the  most  part,  in  a  sense 
adverse  to  Puritanism.  The  clergy  declared  against  it,  and  this 
time  the  clergy  had  on  their  side  the  nobles,  who  not  only  feared 
lest  Charles  should  take  from  them  the  Church  lands  appropriated 
by  their  fathers,  but  were  also  irritated  at  the  promotion  of  some 
bishops  to  high  offices  which  they  claimed  for  themselves. 
ky-  8.  The  Riot  at  Edinburgh  and  the  Covenant.  1637— 1638. — 
On  July  23,  1637,  3.n  attempt  was  made  to  read  the  new  service  in 
St.  Giles's,  at  Edinburgh.  The  women  present  burst  into  a  riot, 
and  one  of  them  threw  her  stool  at  the  head  of  the  officiating 
minister,  fortunately  missing  him.  All  Scotland  took  part  with 
the  rioters.  The  new  Prayer  Book  was  hated,  not  only  because  it 
was  said  to  be  Popish,  but  also  because  it  was  English.  In 
November  four  committees,  known  as  the  Tables,  practically 
assumed  the  government  of  Scotland.  In  February,  1638,  all  good 
Scots  were  signing  a  National  Covenant.     Nothing  was  said  in  it 


526     OVERTHROW  OF  PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT  1638-1649 

about  episcopacy,  but  those  who  signed  it  bound  themselves  to 
labour,  by  all  means  lawful,  to  recover  the  purity  and  liberty  of 
the  Gospel,  as  it  was  established  and  professed  before  the  recent 
(X  innovations. 

9.  The  Assembly  of  Glasgow,  and  the  Abolition  of  Episco- 
pacy. 1638. — The  greater  part  of  1638  was  passed  by  Charles  in 
an  endeavour  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  the  Scots.  On 
September  2  he  revoked  the  Prayer  Book,  and  offered  to  limit 
the  powers  of  the  bishops.  On  November  21  a  general  assembly 
met  at  Glasgow,  in  which  ninety-six  lay  members — for  the  most 
part  noblemen — sat  with  144  clergymen,  and  which  may  therefore 
be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  Ecclesiastical  Parliament  in  which  the 
clergy  predominated  as  the  nobles  predominated  in  the  single 
house  which  made  up  the  real  Parliament.  The  Assembly  claimed 
to  judge  the  bishops,  on  which  the  king's  commissioner,  the  Marquis 
of  Hamilton,  dissolved  the  Assembly  rather  than  admit  its  claim. 
The  Assembly,  however,  on  the  ground  that  it  possessed  a  Divine 
right  to  settle  all  affairs  relating  to  the  Church  independently  of 
che  King,  sat  on,  as  if  nothing  had  happened,  deposed  the  bishops, 
KAand  re-established  the  Presbyterian  system. 
^  10.  The  First  Bishops*  War.  1639.— In  refusing  to  obey  the 
order  for  dissolution,  the  Scottish  General  Assembly  had  practically 
made  itself  independent  of  the  king,  and  Charles  was  driven — unless 
he  cared  to  allow  the  establishment  of  a  precedent,  which  might 
some  day  be  quoted  against  him  in  England — to  make  war  upon 
the  Scots.  Yet  he  dared  not  summon  the  English  Parliament, 
lest  it  should  follow  their  example,  and  he  had  to  set  forth  on 
what  came  to  be  known  as  the  First  Bishops'  War— because  it  was 
waged  in  the  cause  of  the  bishops — with  no  more  money  than  he 
could  get  from  a  voluntary  contribution,  not  much  exceeding 
5o,0(X)/.  Soon  after  he  reached  Berwick  with  his  army,  he  found 
that  the  Scots  had,  on  Dunse  Law,^  an  army  almost  equal  to  his 
own  in  numbers,  commanded  by  Alexander  Leslie,  an  old  soldier 
who  had  fought  in  the  German  wars,  and  mainly  composed  of 
veterans,  who  had  seen  much  service  on  the  Continent,  whilst  his 
own  men  were  raw  recruits.  His  money  soon  came  to  an  end,  and 
it  was  then  found  impossible  to  keep  the  army  together.  The  war 
was  one  in  which  there  was  no  fighting,  and  in  which  only  one  man 
was  killed,  and  he  by  an  accident.  On  June  24  Charles  signed  the 
Treaty  of  Berwick.  Both  sides  passed  over  in  silence  the  deeds  of 
the  Glasgow  Assembly,  but  a  promise  was  given  that  all  affairs  civil 
^  '  Law,'  in  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  means  a  solitary  hill. 


I632-I639 


WENTWORTH  IN  IRELAND 


527 


)c 


and  ecclesiastical  should  be 
settled  in  an  assembly  and 
Parliament.  Assembly  and 
Parliament  met  at  Edinburgh, 
and  declared  in  favour  of  the 
abolition  of  episcopacy  ;  but 
Charles,  who  could  not,  even 
now,  make  up  his  mind  to 
submit,  ordered  the  adjourn- 
ment of  the  Parliament,  and 
prepared  for  a  new  attack  on 
Scotland. 

1 1.  Wentworth  in  Ireland. 
1633 — 1639. — In  preparing  for 
a  new  war,  Charles  had  Went- 
worth by  his  side.  Went- 
worth, who  was  by  far  the 
ablest  of  his  advisers,  after 
ruling  the  north  of  England 
(see  p.  514)  in  a  high-handed 
fashion,  had,  in  1632,  been 
appointed  Lord  Deputy  of 
Ireland.  In  1634  ^»e  sum- 
moned an  Irish  Parliament, 
taking  care  that  the  English 
Protestant  settlers  and  the 
Irish  Catholics  should  be  so 
evenly  balanced  that  he  could 
do  what  he  would  with  it. 
He  carried  through  it  admir- 
able laws  and  a  vote  of  money 
which  enabled  him  to  be  in- 
dependent of  Parliament  for 
some  time  to  come.  As  far 
as  its  material  interests  were 
concerned,  Ireland  had  never 
been  so  prosperous.  Trade 
grew,  and  the  flax  industry  of 
the  North  sprang  into  exist- 
ence under  Wentworth's  pro- 
tection. Churches  which  had 
lain  in  ruins  since  the  deso- 


Solsiier  armed  with  a  pike  :  from  a  broadside, 
'^  "      printed  circa  1630. 


Soldier  with  musket  and  crutch :  from  a  broad- 
side printed  about  1630. 


528     OVERTHROW  OF  PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT  1633- 1639 

lating  wars  of  Elizabeth's  reign  were  rebuilt,  and  able  and  active 
ministers  were  invited  from  England.  The  Earl  of  Cork,  who  had 
illegally  seized  Church  property  to  his  own  use,  was  heavily  fined, 
and  Lord  Mountnorris,  a  self-seeking  official,  who  refused  to  resign 
his  office,  was  brought  before  a  court-martial  and  condemned  to 
death  ;  though  Wentworth  let  him  know  that  his  life  was  in  no 
danger,  and  that  all  that  was  wanted  of  him  was  the  resignation  of 
an  office  which  he  was  unfitted  to  fill.  Wentworth  required  all  the 
officers  of  the  Crown  to  live  up  to  the  motto  of  '  Thorough,'  which 
he  had  adopted  for  himself,  by  which  he  meant  a  '  thorough'  de- 
votion to  the  service  of  the  king  and  the  State,  without  regard  for 
private  interests. 
^C^  12.  The  Proposed  Plantation  of  Connaught. — Wentworth  gave 
great  offence  to  the  English  officials  and  settlers  by  the  harsh  and 
overbearing  way  in  which  he  kept  them  in  order.  His  conduct  to 
the  Celtic  population  was  less  violent  than  that  of  some  other  lord 
deputies,  but  he  had  no  more  idea  than  his  predecessors  of  leaving 
the  Irish  permanently  to  their  own  customs  and  religion.  He 
believed  that,  both  for  their  own  good  and  for  the  safety  of  the 
English  Crown,  they  must  be  made  as  like  Englishmen  as  possible, 
and  that,  to  effect  this,  it  would  be  necessary  to  settle  more 
Englishmen  in  Ireland  to  overawe  them.  Accordingly,  in  1635,  he 
visited  Connaught,  where  he  raked  up  an  old  claim  of  the  king's 
to  the  whole  land  of  the  province,  though  Charles  had  promised 
not  to  put  forward  any  such  claim  at  all.  In  every  county  of 
Connaught  except  Gal  way,  a  jury  was  found  to  give  a  verdict 
in  favour  of  the  king's  claim.  The  jury  in  County  Galway  re- 
fused to  do  his  bidding,  and  Wentworth  had  the  jurymen  fined, 
and  the  land  of  the  county  seized  by  the  order  of  the  Irish  Court  of 
Exchequer,  which  pronounced  judgment  without  a  jury.  He  then 
invited  English  settlers  to  Connaught ;  but  he  found  that  few  English 
settlers  would  go  to  such  a  distance  from  their  homes.  Perhaps 
many  refused  to  come  because  they  distrusted  Wentworth.  Yet, 
for  the  moment,  his  government  appeared  successful.  In  1639 
he  visited  England,  and  Charles,  who  needed  an  able  counsellor, 
made  him  Earl  of  Strafford,  and  from  that  time  took  him  for  his 
chief  adviser. 

^  13.  The  Short  Parliament.  1640.— Strafford's  advice  was  that 
Charles  should  summon  an  English  Parliament,  whilst  he  himself 
held  a  Parliament  in  Dublin,  which  might  show  an  example  of 
loyalty.  The  Irish  Parliament  did  all  that  was  expected  of  it,  the 
Catholic  members  being  especially  forward  in  voting  supplies  in 


1640  THE   SHOR-^^PARLIAMENT    A*^/^"^^  f] 

the  hope  that,  if  they  helped  Charles  to  conquer  the  Scots,  he  would  jQp^ 
allow  freedom  of  religion  in  Ireland.     In  England,  Parliament  met  ^^-"^Z/i 
on  April  13.     Pym  at  once  laid  before  the  Commons  a  statement  i 

of  the  grievances  of  the  nation,  after  which  the  House  resolved 
to   ask   for  redress   of  these  grievances  before  granting  supply.  (/ 

Charles  offered^  to  abandon  ship-money  if  the  Commons  would 
give  him  twelve  subsidies  equal  to  about  960,000/.     The  Commons 
hesitated  about  granting  so  much,  and  wished  the  king  to  yield  on 
other  points  as  well  as  upon  ship-money.     In  the  end  they  prepared 
to  advise  Charles  to  abandon  the  war  with  Scotland  altogether,  and, 
to  avoid  this,  he  dissolved  Parliament  on  May  5.     As  it  had  sat  for 
scarcely  more  than  three  weeks,  it  is  known  as  the  Short  Parliament. 
(JiC'       14.  The  Second  Bishops'  War.     1640. — In  spite  of  the  failure 
of  the  Parliament,  Charles  gathered  an  army  by  pressing  men  from 
all  parts  of  England,  and  found  money  to  pay  them  for  a  time  by 
buying  a  large  quantity  of  pepper  on  credit  and  selling  it  at  once 
for  less  than  it  was  worth.     The  soldiers,  as  they  marched  north- 
wards, broke  into  the  churches,  burnt  the  Communion  rails,  and 
removed  the  Communion  tables  to  the  middle  of  the  building. 
There  was  no  wish  amongst  Englishmen  to  see  the  Scots  beaten. 
The  Scots,  knowing  this,  crossed  the  Tweed,  and,  on  August  28, 
/^uted  a  part  of  the  English  army  at  Newburn  on  the  Tyne.    Even 
/    Strafford  did  not  venture  to  advise  a  prolongation  of  the  war. 
/      Negotiations  were   opened  at    Ripon,  and  Northumberland  and 
\      Durham  were  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Scots  as  a  pledge  for  the 
\    payment  of  850/.  a  day  for  the  maintenance  of  their  army,  till  a 
\  permanent  treaty  could  be  arrange^Tf  Charles,  whose  money  was 
\  already  exhausted,  summoned  a  Great  Council,  consisting  of  Peers  <; 

J  alone,  to  meet  at  York.     All  that  the  Great  Council  could  do  was  ^  , 

I  to  advise  him  to  summon  another  ParHament,  and  that  advice  he\    C\J 
Was  obliged  to  take.  V^ 

^  15.  The  Meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament.  1640. — On  No- 
vember 3,  1640,  the  new  Parliament,  which  was  to  be  known  as  the 
Long  Parliament,  met.  Pym  once  more  took  the  lead,  and  proposed 
the  impeachment  of  Strafford,  as  the  king's  chief  adviser  in  the 
attempt  to  carry  on  war  in  defiance  of  Parliament.  Strafford  had 
also  collected  an  Irish  army  for  an  attack  on  Scotland,  and  it  was 
strongly  believed  that  he  had  advised  the  king  to  use  that  army  to 
reduce  England  as  well  as  Scotland  under  arbitrary  government. 
The  mere  suspicion  that  he  had  threatened  to  bring  an  Irish 
army  into  England  roused  more  than  ordinary  indignation,  as,  in 
those  days,  Irishmen  were  both  detested  and  despised  in  England. 


^ 


530     0  VER  THRO  W  OF  PERSONAL  GO  VERNMENT  1640-1641 

Strafford  was  therefore  impeached,  and  sent  to  the  Tower.  Laud 
was  also  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  whilst  other  officials  escaped 
to  the  Continent  to  avoid  a  similar  fate.  The  Houses  then  pro- 
ceeded to  pass  a  Triennial  Bill,  directing  that  Parliament  should 
meet  every  three  years,  even  if  the  king  did  not  summon  it, 
and  to  this,  with  some  hesitation,  Charles  assented.  He  could 
not,  in  fact,  refuse  anything  which  Parliament  asked,  because,  if 
he  had  done  so.  Parliament  would  give  him  no  money  to  satisfy 
the  Scots,  and  if  the  Scots  were  not  satisfied,  they  would  recom- 
mence the  war. 

16.  The  Impeachment  of  Strafford.  1641.— On  March  22, 
1641,  Strafford's  trial  was  opened  in  Westminster  Hall.  All  his 
overbearing  actions  were  set  forth  at  length,  but,  after  all  had 
been  said,  a  doubt  remained  whether  they  constituted  high  treason, 
that  crime  having  been  strictly  defined  by  a  statute  of  Edward  HI. 
(see  p.  250).  Young  Sir  Henry  Vane,  son  of  one  of  the  Secretaries 
of  State,  found  amongst  his  father's  papers  a  note  of  a  speech 
delivered  by  Strafford  in  a  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council  just 
after  the  breaking  up  of  the  Short  Parliament,  in  which  he  had 
spoken  of  the  king  as  loose  and  absolved  from  all  rules  of  govern- 
ment. "You  have  an  army  in  Ireland/'  Strafford  was  reported  to 
have  said,  "  you  may  employ  here  to  reduce  this  kingdom,  for  I 
am  confident  as  anything  under  heaven,  Scotland  shall  not  hold 
out  five  months."  The  Commons  were  convinced  that  '  this 
kingdom '  meant  England  and  not  Scotland  ;  but  there  were  signs 
that  the  lords  would  be  likely  to  differ  from  them,  and  the 
Commons  accordingly  abandoned  the  impeachment  in  which  the 
lords  sat  as  judges,  and  introduced  a  Bill  of  Attainder  (see  p.  401, 
note),  to  which,  after  the  Commons  had  accepted  it,  the  lords  would 
have  to  give  their  consent  if  it  was  to  become  law,  as  in  the  case 
of  any  ordinary  Bill. 

17.  Strafford's  Attainder  and  Execution.— Pym  would  have 
preferred  to  go  on  with  the  impeachment,  because  he  believed  that 
Strafford  was  really  guilty  of  high  treason.  He  held  that  treason 
was  not  an  offence  against  the  king's  private  person,  but  against 
the  king  as  a  constitutional  ruler,  and  that  Strafford  had  actually 
diminished  the  king's  authority  by  attempting  to  make  him  an 
absolute  ruler,  and  thereby  to  weaken  Charles's  hold  upon  the  good- 
will of  the  people.  This  argument,  however,  did  not  break  down 
the  scruples  of  the  Peers,  and  if  Charles  had  kept  quiet,  he 
would  have  had  them  at  least  on  his  side.  Neither  he  nor  the 
queen  could  keep  quiet.    Before  the  end  of  1640  she  had  urged  the 


^ 


\-^ 


1641  '      ^  ^  THE  LONG  PARLIAMENT  531 

Pope  to  send  her  money  and  soldiers,  and  now  she  had  a  plan 
for  bringing  the  defeated  English  army  from  Yorkshire  to  West- 
minster to  overpower  Parliament.  Then  came  an  attempt  of 
Charles  to  get  possession  of  the  Tower,  that  he  might' Jiberate 
Strafford  by  force.  Pym,  who  had  learnt  the  secret  of  the  queen's 
army-plot,  disclosed  it,  and  the  peers,  frightened  at  their  danger, 
passed  the  Bill  of  Attainder.  A  mob  gathered  round  Whitehall 
and  howled  for  the  execution  of  the  sentence.  Charles,  fearing 
lest  the  mob  should  take  vengeance  on  his  wife,  weakly  signed  a 
commission  appointing  commissioners  to  give  the  royal  assent  to 
the  Bill,  though  he  had  promised  Strafford  that  not  a  hair  of  his 
head  should  be  touched.  With  the  words,  "  Put  not  your  trust 
in  princes  "  on  his  lips,  the  great  royalist  statesman  prepared  for 
the  scaffold.  On  May  12  he  was  beheaded,  rather  because  men 
feared  his  ability  than  because  his  offences  were  legally  punishable 
with  death. 
4—'  18.  Constitutional  Reforms.  1641. — Englishmen  would  not 
have  feared  Strafford  if  they  could  have  been  sure  that  the  king 
could  be  trusted  to  govern  according  to  law,  without  employing 
force  to  settle  matters  in  his  own  way.  Yet,  though  the  army-plot 
had  made  it  difficult  to  feel  confidence  in  Charles,  Parliament  was 
at  first  content  to  rely  on  constitutional  reforms.  On  the  day  on 
which  Charles  assented  to  the  bill  for  Strafford's  execution  he 
assented  to  another  bill  declaring  that  the  existing  Parliament 
should  not  be  dissolved  without  its  own  consent,  a  stipulation 
which  made  the  House  of  Commons  legally  irresponsible  either  to 
the  king  or  to  its  constituents,  and  which  could  only  be  justified  by 
the  danger  of  an  attack  by  an  armed  force  at  the  bidding  of  the 
king.  Acts  were  passed  abolishing  the  Courts  of  Star  Chamber 
and  the  High  Commission,  declaring  ship-money  to  be  illegal, 
limiting  the  king's  claims  on  forests,  prohibiting  fines  for  not  taking 
up  knighthood,  and  preventing  the  king  from  levying  Tonnage  and 
Poundage  or  impositions  without  a  Parliamentary  grant.  Taking 
these  acts  as  a  whole,  they  stripped  the  Crown  of  the  extraordinary 
powers  which  it  had  acquired  in  Tudor  times,  and  made  it  impossi- 
ble for  Charles,  legally,  to  obtain  money  to  carry  on  the  govern- 
ment without  the  goodwill  of  Parliament,  or  to  punish  offenders 
without  the  goodwill  of  juries.  All  that  was  needed  in  the  way 
of  constitutional  reform  was  thus  accomplished.  As  far  as  law 
could  do  it,  the  system  of  personal  government  which  Charles 
had  in  part  inherited  from  his  predecessors  and  in  part  had  built 
up  for  himself,  was  brought  to  an  end., 


^ 


532 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  FORMATION  OF   PARLIAMENTARY  PARTIES  AND  THE 
FIRST  YEARS  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR.       164I— 1644 


LEADING    DATES 
Reign  of  Charles  I.,  1625— 1649 

The  Debate  on  the  Grand  Remonstrance    .        .  Nov.  23,  1641 

The  Attempt  on  the  Five  Members      .        .        .  Jan.  4,  1642 

The  Battle  of  Edgehill Oct.  23,  1642 

The  Fairfaxes  defeated  at  Adwalton  Moor        .  June  30,  1643 

Waller's  Defeat  at  Roundway  Down                  .  July  13,  1643 

The  Raising  of  the  Siege  of  Gloucester      .        .  Sept.  5,  1643 

The  First  Battle  of  Newbury         .....  Sept.  20,  1643 
The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  taken  by  the 

Houses ■        .        .  Sept.  25,  1643 

The  Scottish  Army  crosses  the  Tweed       .  Jan.  ig,  1644 

The  Battle  of  Marston  Moor July  2,  1644 

Capitulation  of  Essex's  Infantry  at  Lostwithiel  Sept.  2,  1644 

The  Second  Battle  of  Newbury    ....  Oct.  27,  1644 


1.  The  King's  Visit  to  Scotland.  1641. — If  Charles  could 
have  inspired  his  subjects  with  the  belief  that  he  had  no  intention 
of  overthrowing  the  new  arrangements  by  force,  there  would  have 
been  little  more  trouble.  Unfortunately,  this  was  not  the  case. 
In  August,  indeed,  the  Houses  succeeded  in  disbanding  the  English 
army  in  Yorkshire,  and  in  dismissing  the  Scottish  army  across 
the  Tweed  ;  but,  in  the  same  month,  Charles  set  out  for  Scotland, 
ostensibly  to  give  his  assent  in  person  to  the  Acts  abolishing  epis- 
copacy in  that  country,  but  in  reality  to  persuade  the  Scots  to  lend 
him  an  army  to  coerce  the  English  Parliament.  Pym  and  Hamp- 
den suspecting  this,  though  they  could  not  prove  it,  felt  it  necessary 
to  be  on  their  guard. 

2.  Parties  formed  on  Church  Questions.  1641. — There  would, 
howeverT^i^ve  been  little  danger  from  Charles  if  political  questions 
alone  had  be^tt^^a^stake.  Parliament  had  been  unanimous  in 
abolishing  his  personli»^vernment,  and  no  one  was  likely  to  help 
him  to  restore  it  by  force?"*vln  ecclesiastical  questions,  however, 
differences  arose  early.  All,  in4e&d^^wished  to  do  away  with  the 
practices  introduced  by  Laud,  but  there^^a^  party,  which  though 
willing  to  introduce  reforms  into  the  ChurchJ^nd  to  subject  it  to 
Parliament,  objected  to  the  introduction  of  the  Presbyterian  system, 


1641  CHURCH   QUESTIONS  533 

lest  presbyters  should  prove  as  tyrannical  as  bishops.  Of  this 
party,  theH^^ing  members  were  Hyde,  a  politician  who  surveyed 
State  affairs  with  the  eyes  of  a  lawyer,  and  the  amiable  Lord 
Falkland,  a  scholar''?Ha4^n  enthusiast  for  religious  toleration.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  was^'^k.^j^ty  which  believed  that  the  abolition 
of  episcopacy  was  the  onlypes^le  remedy  for  ecclesiastical 
tyranny.  If  Charles  had  openly  supjfeet^  the  first  party,  it  might, 
perhaps,  have  been  in  a  majority  ;  but  as'iae  did  nothing  of  the 
sort,  an  impression  gained  ground  that  if  bishops^ere  not  entirely 
abolished,  they  would  sooner  or  later  be  restored  by  tnHqng  to  their 
full  authority,  in  spite  of  any  limitations  which  Parliamelfilsapight 
put  upon  them.  Moreover,  the  lords,  by  throwing  out  a  biir"'fQr 
removing  the  bishops  from  their  House,  exasperated  even  those 
members  who  were  still  hesitating.  A  majority  in  the  Commons 
supported  a  bill,  known  as  the  Root  and  Branch  Bill,  for  the 
abolition  of  episcopacy  and  for  the  transference  of  their  jurisdiction 
to  committees  of  laymen  in  each  diocese.  Though  this  bill  was 
not  passed,  its  existence  was  sure  to  intensify  the  dislike  of  the 
king  to  those  who  had  brought  it  in. 

3.  Irish  Parties.  1641. — Before  the  king  returned  from  Scot- 
land, news  arrived  from  Ireland  which  increased  the  difficulty  of 
maintaining  a  good  understanding  with  Charles.  Besides  the  Eng- 
lish officials,  there  were  two  parties  in  Ireland  discontented  with 
Strafford's  rule.  Of  these  one  was  that  of  the  Catholic  lords, 
mostly  of  English  extraction,  who  wanted  toleration  for  their 
religion  and  a  large  part  in  the  management  of  the  country.  The 
other  was  that  of  the  native  Celts,  who  were  anxious  to  regain  the 
lands  of  which  they  had  been  robbed  and  to  live  agam  under 
their  old  customs.  Both  parties  were  terrified  at  the  danger  of 
increased  persecution  by  the  Puritan  Parliament  at  Westminster, 
especially  as  the  government  at  Dublin  was  in  the  hands  of  two 
lords  justices,  of  whom  the  more  active,  Sir  William  Parsons, 
advocated  repressive  measures  against  the  Catholics,  and  the  in- 
troduction of  fresh  colonists  from  England  to  oust  the  Irish  more 
completely  from  the  land.  In  the  spring  of  1641  the  Catholic  lords 
had  emissaries  at  Charles's  court  offering  to  send  an  army  to  his 
help  in  England,  if  he  would  allow  them  to  seize  Dublin  and  to 
overthrow  the  Government  carried  on  there  in  his  name. 

4.  The  Irish  Insurrection.  1641. — Nothing  was  settled  when 
Charles  left  England,  and  in  October  the  native  Irish,  impatient  of 
delay,  attempted  to  seize  Dublin  for  themselves.  The  plot  was, 
however,  detected,  and  they  turned  savagely  on  the  English  and 


^ 


534  THE  FORMATION  OF  PARTIES  1641 

Scottish  colony  in  Ulster.  Murders,  and  atrocities  worse  than 
ordinary  murder,  were  committed  in  the  North  of  Ireland.  At  Porta- 
down  the  victims  were  driven  into  a  river  and  drowned.  Women 
were  stripped  naked  and  turned  into  the  wintry  air  to  die  of  cold 
and  starvation,  and  children  were  slaughtered  as  ruthlessly  as  full- 
grown  men.  The  lowest  estimate  of  the  destruction  which  reached 
England  raised  the  number  of  victims  to  30,000,  and,  though  this  was 
doubtless  an  immensely  exaggerated  reckoning,  the  actual  number 
of  victims  must  have  reached  to  some  thousands.  In  England  a 
bitter  cry  for  vengeance  went  up,  and  with  that  cry  was  mingled 
distrust  of  the  king.  It  was  felt  to  be  necessary  to  send  an  army 
into  Ireland,  and,  if  the  army  was  to  go  under  the  king's  orders, 
there  was  nothing  to  prevent  him  using  it — after  Ireland  had  been 
subdued — against  the  English  Parliament. 

5.  The  Grand  Remonstrance.  1641. — The  perception  of  this 
danger  led  the  Commons  to  draw  up  a  statement  of  their 
case,  known  as  the  Grand  Remonstrance.  They  began  with  a 
long  indictment  of  all  Charles's  errors  from  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  and,  though  the  statements  were  undoubtedly  exaggerated, 
they  were  adopted  by  the  whole  House.  When,  however,  it 
came  to  the  proposal  of  remedies,  there  was  a  great  division 
amongst  the  members./jhe  party  led  by  Pym  and  Hampden, 
by  which  the  Remonstrance  had  been  drawn  up,  asked  for  the 
appointment  of  ministers  responsible  to  Parliament,  and  for  the 
reference  of  Church  matters  to  an  Assembly  of  divines  nominated 
by  Parliament.  The  party  led  byvHyde  and  Falkland  saw  that 
the  granting  of  these  demands  would  be  tantamount  to  the  erection 
of  the  sovereignty  of  Parliament  in  Church  and  State  ;  and,  as  they 
feared  that  this  in  turn  would  lead  to  the  establishment  of  Presby- 
terian despotism,  they  preferred  to  imagine  that  it  was  still  possible 
to  make  Charles  a  constitutional  sovereign.  On  November  23 
there  was  a  stormy  debate,  and  the  division  was  not  taken  till  after 
midnight.  A  small  majority  of  eleven  declared  against  the  king. 
The  majority  then  proposed  to  print  the  Remonstrance  for  the 
purpose  of  circulating  it  among  the  people.  The  minority  pro- 
tested, and,  as  a  protest  was  unprecedented  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  a  wild  uproar  ensued.  Members  snatched  at  their 
swords,  and  it  needed  all  Hampden's  persuasive  pleadings  to  quiet 
the  tumult. 

6.  The  King's  Return.  1641. — Charles  had  at  last  got  a  party 
on  his  side.  When,  on  November  25,  he  returned  to  London,  he 
announced  that  he  intended  to  govern  according  to  the  laws,  and 


1641-1642  THE   FIVE   MEMBERS  535 

would  maintain  the  '  Protestant  religion  as  it  had  been  established 
in  the  times  of  Elizabeth  and  his  father.'  He  was  at  once  greeted 
with  enthusiasm  in  the  streets,  and  felt  himself  strong  enough  to 
refuse  to  comply  with  the  request  of  the  Remonstrance.  If  only  he 
could  have  kept  quiet,  he  would  probably,  before  long,  have  had  a 
majority,  even  in  the  House  of  Commons,  on  his  side.  It  was, 
however,  difficult  for  Charles  to  be  patient.  He  was  kept  short  of 
money  by  the  Commons,  and  he  had  not  the  art  of  conciliating 
opponents.  On  December  23  he  appointed  Lunsford,  a  debauched 
ruffian.  Lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  and  the  opponents  of  the  Court 
naturally  saw  in  this  unwarrantable  proceeding  a  determination  to 
use  force  against  themselves.  On  December  26  they  obtained 
Lunsford's  dismissal,  but  on  the  following  day  they  heard  that  the 
rebellion  in  Ireland  was  spreading,  and  the  increased  necessity  of 
providmg  an  army  for  Ireland  impressed  on  them  once  more  the 
danger  of  placing  under  the  orders  of  the  king  forces  which  he 
might  use  against  themselves. 

7.  The  Impeachment  of  the  Bishops.  1641. — In  order  to  make 
sure  that  the  House  of  Lords  would  be  on  their  side  in  the  time  of 
danger  which  was  approaching,  the  Commons  and  their  supporters 
called  out  for  the  exclusion  of  the  bishops  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
peers  from  their  seats  in  Parliament.  A  mob  gathered  at  West- 
minster, shouting,  No  bishops  !  No  Popish  lords  !  The  king 
gathered  a  number  of  disbanded  officers  at  Whitehall  for  his 
protection,  and  these  officers  sallied  forth  beating  and  chasing  the 
mob  Another  day  Williams,  Archbishop  of  York,  having  been 
hustled  by  the  crowd,  he  and  eleven  other  bishops  sent  to  the 
Lords  a  protest  that  anything  done  by  the  House  of  Lords  in  their 
absence  would  be  null  and  void.  The  Peers,  who  had  hitherto 
supported  the  king,  were  offended,  and,  for  a  time,  made  common 
cause  with  the  other  House  against  him ;  whilst  the  Commons 
impeached  as  traitors  the  twelve  bishops  who  had  signed  the  protest, 
wanting,  not  to  punish  them,  but  merely  to  get  rid  of  their  votes. 

8,  The  Impeachment  of  the  Five  Members.  1642. — Charles, 
on  his  part,  was  exasperated,  and  fancied  that  he  could  strike  a 
blow  which  his  opponents  would  be  unable  to  parry.  He  knew 
that  the  most  active  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition.  Lord  Kim- 
bolton  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  Pym,  Hampden,  Hazlerigg, 
Holies,  and  Strode  in  the  Commons,  had  negotiated  with  the  Scots 
before  they  invaded  England  in  1640,  and  he  believed  that  they 
had  actually  invited  them  to  enter  the  kingdom  in  arms.  If  this 
was  true,  they  had  legally  been  guilty  of  treason,  and  on  January  3, 


536  THE   FORMATION  OF  PARTIES  1642 

1642,  Charles  ordered  the  Attorney-General  to  impeach  them  as 
traitors.  Doubts  were  afterwards  raised  whether  the  king  had  a 
right  to  impeach,  but  Charles  does  not  seem  to  have  doubted  at 
the  time  that  he  was  acting  accordmg  to  law. 
^  9.  The  Attempt  on  the  Five  Members.  1642.— As  the  Com- 
mons showed  signs  of  an  intention  to  shelter  these  five  members 
from  arrest,  Charles  resolved  to  seize  them  himself.  On  the  4th  of 
January,  followed  by  about  500  armed  men,  he  betook  himself  to 
the  House  of  Commons.  Leaving  his  followers  outside,  he  told  the 
House  that  he  had  come  to  arrest  five  traitors.  As  they  had  already 
left  the  House  and  were  on  their  way  to  the  city,  he  looked 
round  for  them  in  vain,  and  asked  Lenthall,  the  Speaker,  where 
they  were.  "  May  it  please  your  Majesty,"  answered  Lenthall, 
kneeling  before  him,  "  I  have  neither  eyes  to  see  nor  tongue  to 
speak  in  this  place,  but  as  this  House  is  pleased  to  direct  me." 
Charles  eagerly  looked  round  for  his  enemies.  "  The  birds  are 
flown,"  he  exclaimed,  when  he  failed  to  descry  them.  He  had 
missed  his  prey,  and,  as  he  moved  away,  shouts  of  "  Privilege  ! 
privilege  ! "  were  raised  from  the  benches  on  either  side. 
Q^^  10.  The  Commons   in   the   City.     1642. — The  Commons,  be- 

lieving that  the  king  wanted,  not  to  try  a  legal  question,  but  to 
intimidate  the  House  by  the  removal^of  its  leaders,  took  refuge  in 
the  City.  The  City,  which  had  welcomed  Charles  in  November, 
when  it  was  thought  that  he  was  come  to  maintain  order  according 
to  law,  now  declared  for  the  Commons.  On  January  10  Lord 
Kimbolton  and  the  five  members  were  brought  back  in  triumph 
to  Westminster  by  the  citizens.  Charles  had  already  left  White- 
hall, never  to  return  till  the  day  on  which  he  was  brought  back 
to  be  tried  for  his  life. 

V  II.  The  Struggle  for  the  Militia.  1642.— There  was  little 
Moubt  that  if  Charles  could  find  enough  support,  the  questions  at 
issue  would  have  to  be  decided  by  arms.  To  gain  time,  he  con- 
sented to  a  Bill  excluding  the  bishops  from  their  seats  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  he  then  sent  the  queen  abroad  to  pawn  or  sell  the 
Crown  jewels  and  to  buy  arms  and  gunpowder  with  the  money. 
He  turned  his  own  course  to  the  north.  A  struggle  arose  be- 
tween him  and  the  Houses  as  to  the  command  of  the  militia.  There 
was  no  standing  army  in  England,  but  the  men  of  military  age 
were  mustered  every  year  in  each  county,  the  fittest  of  them 
being  selected  to  be  drilled  for  a  short  time,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  they  were  sent  home  to  pursue  their  ordinary  avocations, 
These  drilled  men  were  liable  to  be  called  out  to  defend  theii 


1642  1643  EDGEHILL  537 

county  against  riots  or  invasion,  and  when  they  were  together  were 
formed  into  regiments  called  trained  bands.  All  the  trained  bands 
in  the  country  were  spoken  of  as  the  militia.  The  Houses  asked 
Charles  to  place  the  militia  under  officers  of  their  choosing.  "  Not 
for  an  hour,"  replied  Charles  ;  "  it  is  a  thing  with  which  I  would 
not  trust  my  wife  and  children."  The  feeling  on  both  sides  grew 
more  bitter  ;  Charles,  after  taking  up  his  quarters  at  York,  rode  to 
Hull,  where  there  was  a  magazine  of  arms  of  which  he  wished  to 
possess  himself  Sir  John  Hotham,  the  Parliamentary  commander, 
shut  the  gates  in  his  face.  Both  Charles  and  the  Parliament  began 
to  gather  troops.  The  Parliament  appointed  the  Earl  of  Essex, 
the  son  of  Elizabeth's  favourite,  a  steady,  honourable  man,  without 
a  spark  of  genius,  as  their  general.  On  August  22,  1642,  Charles 
set  up  his  standard  at  Nottingham  as  a  sign  of  war. 

12.  Edgehill  and  Turnham  Green.  1642. — The  richest  part 
of  England— the  south-east— took,  on  the  whole,  the  side  of  the 
Parliament  ;  the  poorer  and  more  rugged  north-west  took,  on  the 
whole,  the  side  of  the  king.  The  greater  part  of  the  gentry  were 
cavaliers  or  partisans  of  the  king  ;  the  greater  part  of  the  middle 
class  in  the  towns  were  partisans  of  the  Parliament,  often  called 
Roundheads  in  derision,  because  some  of  the  Puritans  cropped 
their  hair  short.  After  a  successful  skirmish  at  Powick  Bridge 
Charles  pushed  on  towards  London,  hoping  to  end  the  war  at 
a  blow.  On  October  23  the  first  battle  was  fought  at  Edgehill. 
The  king's  nephew,  Prince  Rupert,  son  of  Elizabeth  and  the  Elec- 
tor Palatine,  commanded  his  cavalry.  With  a  vigorous  charge 
he  drove  before  him  the  Parliamentary  horse  in  headlong  flight  ; 
but  he  did  not  pull  up  in  time,  and  when  he  returned  from  the 
pursuit  he  found  that  the  royalist  infantry  had  been  severely 
handled,  and  that  it  was  too  late  to  complete  the  victory  which  he 
had  hoped  to  win.  The  fruits  of  victory,  however,  fell  to  the  king. 
The  cautious  Essex  drew  back  and  Charles  pushed  on  for  London, 
reaching  Brentford  on  November  12.  That  he  did  not  enter  London 
as  a  conqueror  was  owing  to  the  resistance  of  the  London  trairted 
bands,  the  citizen-soldiery  of  the  capital.  On  the  13th  they  barred 
Charles's  way  at  Turnham  Green.  The  king  hesitated  to  attack,  and 
drew  back  to  Oxford.  He  was  never  to  have  such  another  chance 
again. 
"■""'^  13.  The  King's  Plan  of  Campaign.  1643. — Charles's  hopes  of 
succeeding  better  in  1643  were  based  on  a  plan  for  overwhelming 
London  with  superior  force.  He  made  Oxford  the  headquarters 
of  his  own  army,  and  he  had  a  second  army  under  Sir  Ralph 
11.  N  N 


538  THE  FIRST    YEARS  OF   THE   CIVIL    WAR         1643 

Hopton  in  Cornwall,  and  a  third  army  under  the  Earl  of  Newcastle 
in  Yorkshire.  His  scheme  was,  that  whilst  he  himself  attacked 
London  in  front,  Hopton  should  advance  through  the  southern 
counties  into  Kent,  and  Newcastle  through  the  eastern  counties  into 
Essex.  Hopton  and  Newcastle  would  then  be  able  to  seize  the 
banks  on  either  side  of  the  Thames  below  London,  and  thus  to 
interrupt  the  commerce  of  the  city,  without  which  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  it  to  hold  out  long. 

(Xs,  14.  Royalist  Successes.  1643.  — The  weak  point  in  Charles's 
plan  was  that  his  three  armies  were  far  apart,  and  that  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  now  stationed  in  London,  might  fall  upon  his  main  army 
before  Newcastle  and  Hopton  could  come  to  its  aid.  Towards  the 
end  of  April,  Essex  besieged  and  took  Reading,  but  his  troops 
melted  away  from  disease,  and  he  did  not  advance  against  Oxford 
till  June,  when  his  cautious  leadership  was  not  likely  to  effect  any- 
thing decisive.  In  the  meanwhile  the  king's  party  was  gaining  the 
upper  hand  elsewhere.  On  May  16  Hopton  completely  defeated 
the  Parliamentarians  at  Stratton  in  Cornwall,  and  was  then  ready 
to  march  eastwards.  On  June  18  Hampden  received  a  mortal 
wound  in  a  skirmish  at  Chalgrove  Field.  On  July  5  Hopton  got 
the  better  of  one  of  the  most  energetic  of  the  Parliamentary 
generals,  Sir  William  Waller,  on  Lansdown,  near  Bath,  and  on  July 
13  his  army  thoroughly  overthrew  the  same  commander  at  Round- 
way  Down,  near  Devizes.  On  July  26  Bristol  was  stormed  by  Rupert, 
Hopton  now  hoped  to  be  able  to  push  on  towards  Kent  without 
difficulty.  In  the  north,  too,  the  king's  cause  was  prospering  On 
June  30,  Newcastle  defeated  the  Parliamentarians,  Lord  Fairfax 
and  his  son.  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  at  Adwalton  Moor,  close  to  Brad- 
ford. He,  too,  hoped  to  be  able  to  push  on  southwards.  It  seemed 
as  if  the  king's  plan  would  be  carried  out  before  the  end  of  the 
summer,  and  that  London  would  be  starved  into  surrender. 
Y/_    15.   The  Siege  of  Gloucester.      1643. — Charles,  however,  failed 

^\^  accomplish  his  design,  mainly  because  the  armies  of  Hopton 
and  Newcastle  were  formed  for  the  most  part  of  recruits,  levied 
respectively  in  the  west  and  in  the  north  of  England,  who  cared 
more  for  the  safety  of  their  own  property  and  families  than  for  the 
king's  cause.  In  the  west,  Plymouth,  and  in  the  north,  Hull,  were 
still  garrisoned  by  the  Parliament.  Hopton's  men  were,  there- 
fore, unwilling  to  go  far  from  their  homes  in  Cornwall  as  long  as 
their  fields  were  liable  to  be  ravaged  by  the  garrison  of  Plymouth, 
and  in  the  same  way,  Newcastle's  men  would  not  go  far  from 
Yorkshire  as  long  as  their  fields  were  liable  to  be  ravaged  by  the 


l643  CHARLES'S  ATTACK  BAFFLED  539 

garrison  of  Hull.  The  Welshmen,  also,  who  served  in  the  king's  own 
army  found  their  homes  endangered  by  a  Parliamentary  garrison  at 
Gloucester,  and  were  equally  unwilling  to  push  forward.  Charles 
had,  therefore,  to  take  Plymouth,  Hull,  and  Gloucester,  if  he  could, 
before  he  could  attack  London.  In  August  he  laid  siege  in  person 
to  Gloucester.  The  London  citizens  at  once  perceived  that,  if 
Gloucester  fell,  their  own  safety  would  be  in  peril,  and  amidst  the 
greatest  enthusiasm  the  London  trained  bands  marched  out  to  its 
relief.  On  September  5  the  king  raised  the  siege  on  their  approach. 
X.  16.  The  First  Battle  of  Newbury.  1643.— Charles  did  not, 
however,  give  up  the  game.  Hurrying  to  Newbury,  and  reaching 
it  before  Essex  could  arrive  there  on  his  way  back  to  London, 
he  blocked  the  way  of  the  Parliamentary  army.  Essex,  whose 
provisions  were  running  short,  must  force  a  passage  or  surrender. 
On  September  20  a  furious  battle  was  fought  outside  Newbury,  but 
when  the  evening  came,  though  Essex  had  gained  ground,  the  royal 
army  still  lay  across  the  London  road.  It  had,  however,  suffered 
heavy  losses,  and  its  ammunition  being  almost  exhausted,  Charles 
marched  away  in  the  night,  leaving  the  way  open  for  Essex  to 
continue  his  retreat  to  London.  In  this  battle  Falkland  was  slain. 
He  had  sided  with  the  king,  not  because  he  shared  the  passions  of 
the  more  violent  Royalists,  but  because  he  feared  the  intolerance 
of  the  Puritans.  C^Qiades^  determination  to  conquer  or  perish 
rather  than  to  admit  of  a  compromiseTiaTd  saddened  his  mind,  and^ 
he  went  about  murmuring,  '  Peace  !  peace  ! '  He  was  weary  of  \ 
the  times,  he  said,  on  the  morning  of  the  battle,  but  he  would  '  be  / 
out  of  it  ere  night.'  He  threw  himself  into  the  thick  of  the  fight 
and  soon  found  the  death  which  he  sought. 

17.  The  Eastern  Association.  1643. — Whilst  in  the  south  the 
resistance  of  Gloucester  had  weakened  the  king's  power  of  attack, 
a  formidable  barrier  was  being  raised  against  Newcastle's  advance 
in  the  east.  Early  in  the  war,  certain  counties  in  different  parts  of 
the  country  had  associated  themselves  together  for  mutual  defence, 
and  of  these  combinations  the  strongest  was  the  Eastern  Associa- 
tion, comprising  the  counties  of  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,  Cambridge 
and  Hertford.  These  five  counties  raised  forces  in  common  and 
paid  them  out  of  a  common  purse. 
^J(C^  18.  Oliver  Cromwell.  1642— 1643. — The  strength  which  the 
Eastern  Association  soon  developed  was  owing  to  its  placing  it- 
self under  the  leadership  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, who  had  taken  arms  when  the  civil  war  began,  and  who 
soon   distinguished  himself   by  his   practical  sagacity.      "Your 

NN3 


540  THE   FIRST   YEARS   OF   THE    CIVIL    WAR  1643 

troops,"  he  said  to  Hampden  after  the  flight  of  the  Parliamentary 
cavalry  at  Edgehill,  "  are,  most  of  them,  old  decayed  serving  men 
and  tapsters,  and  such  kind  of  fellows,  and  their  troops  are  gentle- 
men's sons,  younger  sons,  and  persons  of  quality  ;  do  you  think 
that  the  spirits  of  such  base  and  mean  fellows  will  ever  be  able  to 
encounter  gentlemen  that  have  honour  and  courage  and  resolution 
in  them  ?  You  must  get  men  of  a  spirit,  and  take  it  not  ill  what 
I  say — I  know  you  will  not — of  a  spirit  that  is  likely  to  go  on  as 
far  as  gentlemen  will  go  ;  or  else  you  will  be  beaten  still"  It 
was  this  idea  which  Cromwell,  having  been  appointed  a  colonel, 
put  in  execution  in  the  Eastern  Association.  He  took  for  his  sol- 
diers sternly  Puritan  men,  who  had  their  hearts  in  the  cause  ;  but 
he  was  not  content  with  religious  zeal  alone.  Every  one  who 
served  under  him  must  undergo  the  severest  discipline.  After  a 
few  months  he  had  a  cavalry  regiment  under  his  orders  so  fiery  and 
at  the  same  time  so  well  under  restraint  that  no  body  of  horse  on 
either  side  could  compare  with  it. 

19.  The  Assembly  of  Divines.  1643. — Whilst  the  armies  were 
jhting  with  varying  success,  Pym,  with  undaunted  courage,  was 
hom^^i^the  House  of  Commons  to  its  task  of  resistance.  After 
the  RoyaKs|;cSUCcesses  in  June  and  July,  the  great  peril  of  the 
ParliamentarySs^se  made  him  resolve  to  ask  the  Scots  for  help. 
The  Scots,  thinkm^^at  if  Charles  overthrew  the  English  Parlia- 
ment he  would  next  faircrpQn  them,  were  ready  to  send  an  army  to 
fight  against  the  king,  but  onl)hMi^he  condition  that  the  Church  of 
England  should  become  Presbyterianii44e^€ir  own.  Already  some 
steps  had  been  taken  in  this  direction,  andol^J^^lj^^^  Puritan  As- 
sembly of  divines  met  at  Westminster  to  propose  ecclesht&£tcal.alter- 
ations,  which  were  to  be  submitted  to  Parliament  for  its  approval. 
Njr  20.  The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  1643. — In  August,  com- 
[/  missioners  from  the  English  Parliament,  of  whom  the  principal 
was  Sir  Henry  Vane,  arrived  in  Edinburgh  to  negotiate  for  an 
alliance.  The  result  was  a  treaty  between  the  two  nations,  styled 
the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant— usually  known  in  England 
simply  as  the  Covenant,  but  altogether  different  from  the  National 
Covenant,  signed  by  the  Scots  only  in  1638  (see  p.  525).  The 
Scots  wished  the  English  to  bind  themselves  to '  the  reformation 
of  religion  in  the  Church  of  England  according  to  the  example  of 
the  best  reformed  churches '  ;  in  other  words,  accordmg  to  the 
Presbyterian  system.  Vane,  however,  who  was  eager  for  religious 
liberty,  insisted  on  slipping  in  the  words,  '  and  according  to  the 
Word  of  God.'      The   Scots  could  not  possibly  refuse  to  accept 


1641-1643         THE   CONFEDERATE   CATHOLICS  541 

the  addition,  though,  by  so  doing,  they  left  it  free  to  every 
Englishman  to  assert  that  any  part  of  the  Presbyterian  system 
which  he  disliked  was  not  '  according  to  the  Word  of  God.'  The 
Covenant,  thus  amended,  was  carried  to  England,  and  on  Sep- 
temjDer  25,  five  days  after  the  battle  of  Newbury,  was  sworn 
to  by  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  was  soon  after- 
wards ordered  to  be  sworn  to  by  every  Englishman.  Money  was 
then  sent  to  Scotland,  and  a  Scottish  army  prepared  to  enter 
England  before  the  opening  of  the  next  campaign. 

21.  The  Irish  War.  1641— 1643. — Whilst  Parliament  looked 
for  help  to  Scotland,  Charles  looked  to  Ireland.  The  insurrection 
in  fh^  north  of  Ireland  in  October,  1641  (see  p.  533)  had  been  the 
affair\f  the  Celtic  natives  ;  but  in  December  they  were  joined  by 
the  CatHolic  lords  and  gentry  of  Norman  or  English  descent. 
For  the  fir^^time  in  Ireland  there  was  a  contest  between  CathoHc 
and  Protesta^,  instead  of  a  contest  between  Celts  on  one  side, 
and  those  who^ere  not  Celts  on  the  other.  The  allies  were  not 
likely  to  be  very  Harmonious,  as  the  Celts  wished  to  return  to  their 
old  tribal  institutions,  and  the  Catholic  lords  wished  to  be  pre- 
dominant in  Parliani^  in  agreement  with  the  king.  For  the 
present,  however,  they\£re  united  by  the  fear  that  the  Puritan 
Parhament  in  England  ami  the  Puritan  Government  in  Dublin 
(see  p.  533)  would  attemptNo  destroy  them  and  their  religion 
together.  The  outbreak  of  tnK^^Civil  War  in  England,  in  1642, 
made  it  impossible  for  either  king^^r  Parliament  to  send  sufficient 
troops  to  overpower  them.  In  MaV  they  had  chosen  a  Supreme 
Council  to  govern  revolted  Ireland,Nmd  in  October  a  General 
Assembly  of  the  Confederate  Catholics,\s  they  styled  themselves, 
was  held  at  Kilkenny.  The  Assembly  peK^oned  Charles  for  the 
redress  of  grievances,  and  in  January,  1643,  ^Sharles  opened  nego- 
tiations with  them,  hoping  to  obtain  an  Irish  aijmy  with  which  he 
might  carry  on  war  in  England.  In  March  they  OTfered  him  10,000 
men  if  he  would  consent  to  allow  a  Parliament  m^ly  composed 
of  Catholics  to  meet  at  Dublin  and  to  propose  bills  for  his  approval. 
Charles,  who  liked  neither  to  make  this  concession  nor  toVelinquish 
the  hope  of  Irish  aid,  directed  a  cessation  of  arms  in  IiWnd,  in 
the  hope  that  an  agreement  of  some  kind  might  ultimauigly  be 
come  to.  In  accordance  with  this  cessation,  which  was  signed  on 
September  1 5,  the  coast-line  from  Belfast  to  Dublin,  and  a  patfejji 
of  land  round  Cork,  was  in  the  possession  of  the  English  forces, 
whilst  a  body  of  Scots,  under  Monro,  held  Carrickfergus,  but  all 
the  rest  of  Ireland  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Confederates. 


542       THE  FIRST    YEARS  OF  THE   CIVIL    WAR     1643-1644 

22.  Winceby  and  Arundel.     1643  — 1644. — As  yet  Charles  had 
to   depend   on   his   English   forces   alone.     In   the  beginning  of 
September,  Newcastle,  lately  created  a  Marquis,  laid  siege  to  Hull. 
If  Hull  fell,  he  would  be  able  to  sweep   down  on  the  Eastern 
Association.     The  Earl  of  Manchester-  -known  as  Lord  Kimb#lton 
at  the  time  of  the  attempt  on  the  five  members— had  been  appointed 
general  of  the  army  of  that  Association,  with  Cromwell  as  his  lieu- 
tenant-general. On  October  1 1  Cromwell  defeated  a  body  of  Royalist 
horse  at  Winceby.    On  the  12th,  Newcastle  raised  the  siege  of  Hull. 
All  danger  of  Newcastle's  marching  southwards  was  thus  brought 
to  an  end.     In  the  South,  Hopton  succeeded  in  reaching  Sussex, 
and,  in  December,  took  Arundel  Castle ;  but  the  place  was  retaken 
by  Sir  William  Waller  on  January  6, 1644.    Here,  too,  the  Royalist 
attack  received  a  check,  and  there  was  no  longer  any  likelihood 
that  the   king's  forces  would  be   able  to  starve  out  London  by 
establishing  themselves  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames. 
r^        23.  The  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms.     1644. — Pym,  whose 
statesmanship  had  brought  about  the  alliance  with  the  Scots,  died 
on  December  8,  1643.    On  January  19  the  Scots  crossed  the  Tweed 
again  under  the  command  of  Alexander  Leslie  (see  p.  526),  who 
had  been  created  Earl  of  Leven  when  Charles  visited  Edinburgh 
in  1641.     On  the  25th,  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  defeated,  at  Nantwich, 
a  force  of  English  soldiers  who  had  been  freed  from  service  in 
Ireland  by  the  cessation  of  arms,  and  had  been  sent  by  Ormond, 
who  had  recently  been   named   by  Chaiies   Lord    Lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  to  support  the  royalist  cause  in  England.     Pym's  death, 
and  the  necessity  of  carrying  on  joint  operations  with  the  Scots, 
called  for  the  appointment  of  some  definite  authority  at  Westminster, 
and,  on  February  16,  a  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms,  composed  of 
members  of  one  or  other  of  the  two  Houses,  and  also  of  Scottish 
Commissioners  sent  to  England  by  the  Parliament  of  Scotland, 
was  named  to  control  the  operations  of  the  armies  of  the  two 
nations. 
V^   24.    The    Campaign  of    Marston    Moor.      1644. — The   spring 
campaign  opened  successfully  for  Parliament.     In  March,  indeed, 
Rupert  relieved  Newark,  which  was  hardly  pressed  by  a  Parlia- 
mentary force  ;  but  in  March  Waller  defeated  Hopton  at  Cheriton 
near  Alresford,  whilst  in  the  North,  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  together 
with  his  father.  Lord  Fairfax,  seized  upon  Selby,  and  joined  the 
Scots  in  besieging  York,  into  which  Newcastle  had  been  driven. 
In  May,  Manchester  stormed  Lincoln,  and  he  too  joined  the  forces 
before  York.     At  the  king's  headquarters  there  was  deep  alarm. 


1 644  MARS  TON  MOOR  «;43 

Essex  and  Waller  were  approaching  to  attack  Oxford,  but  Charles 
slipping  out  of  the  city  before  it  was  surrounded  despatched  Rupert 
to  the  relief  of  York,  At  Rupert's  approach  the  besiegers  retreated. 
On  July  2  Rupert  and  Newcastle  fought  a  desperate  battle  on  Marston 
Moor,  though  they  were  decidedly  outnumbered  by  their  opponents. 
The  whole  of  the  right  wing  of  the  Parliamentarians,  and  part  of  the 
centre,  fled  before  the  Royalist  attack  ;  but  on  their  left,  Cromwell 
restored  the  fight,  and  drove  Rupert  in  flight  before  him.  Cromwell 
did  not,  however,  as  Rupert  had  done  at  Edgehill,  waste  his  energies 
in  the  pursuit  of  the  fugitives.  Promptly  drawing  up,  he  faced 
round,  and  hurled  his  squadrons  upon  the  hitherto  victorious 
Royalists  in  the  other  parts  of  the  field.  The  result  was  decisive. 
"  It  had  all  the  evidence,"  wrote  Cromwell,  "of  an  absolute  victory, 
obtained  by  the  Lord's  blessing  upon  the  godly  party  principally. 
We  never  charged  but  we  routed  the  enemy.  God  made  them  as 
stubble  to  our  swords."  All  the  north  of  England,  except  a  few 
fortresses,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Parliament  and  the  Scots. 
%  25.  Presbyterians  and  Independents.  1644. — Cromwell  spoke 
of  Marston  Moor  as  a  victory  of  the  'godly  party.'  The  West- 
minster Assembly  of  Divines  had  declared  strongly  in  favour  of 
Presbyterianism,  but  there  were  a  few  of  its  members — only  five  at 
first,  known  as  the  five  Dissenting  Brethren — who  stood  up  for 
the  principles  of  the  Separatists  (see  p.  470)  wishing  to  see  each 
congregation  independent  of  any  general  ecclesiastical  organisa- 
tion. From  holding  these  opinions  they  were  beginning  to  be  known 
as  Independents.  These  men  now  attracted  to  themselves  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  stronger-minded  Puritans,  such  as  Crom- 
well and  Vane,  of  whom  many,  though  they  had  no  special  attach- 
ment to  the  teaching  of  the  Independent  divines,  upheld  the  idea  of 
toleration,  whilst  others  gave  their  adherence  to  one  or  other  of 
the  numerous  sects  which  had  recently  sprung  into  existence. 
Cromwell,  especially,  was  drawn  in  the  direction  of  toleration  by 
his  practical  experience  as  a  soldier.  It  was  intolerable  to  him  to 
be  forbidden  to  promote  a  good  officer  on  the  ground  that  he  was 
not  a  Presbyterian.  On  one  occasion  he  was  asked  to  discard  a 
certain  officer  because  he  was  an  Anabaptist.  ''  Admit  he  be,"  he  had 
replied  ;  "  shall  that  render  him  incauable  to  serve  the  public  ?  Take 
heed  of  being  too  sharp,  or  too  easilv  sbaroened  by  others,  against 
those  to  whom  you  can  object  little  but  that  they  square  not  with 
you  in  every  opinion  concerning  matters  of  religion."  He  had  ac- 
cordingly filled  his  own  regmients  with  men  of  every  variety  of 
Puritan  opinion,  choosing  for  promotion  the  best  soldier,  and  not 


A 


544  THE   FIRST   YEARS   OF   THE   CIVIL    WAR         1644 

the  adherent  of  any  special  Church  system.  These  he  styled  '  the 
godly  party,'  and  it  was  by  the  soldiers  of  'the  godly  party,'  so 
understood,  that  Marston  Moor  had  been  won. 

26.  Essex's  Surrender  at  Lostwithiel.  1644. — Essex  was  the 
hope'^'^bf-.the  Presbyterians  who  despised  the  sects  and  hated 
toleration.  Being  jealous  of  Waller,  he  left  him  to  take  Oxford 
alone,  if  he  could,  and  marched  off  to  the  West,  to  accomplish 
what  he  imagined  to  be  the  easier  task  of  wresting  the  western 
counties  from  the  king.  Charles  turned  upon  Waller,  and  fought 
an  indecisive  action  with  him  at  Cropredy  Bridge,  after  which 
Waller's  army,  being  composed  of  local  levies  with  no  heart  for 
permanent  soldiering,  melted  away.  Charles  then  marched  in 
pursuit  of  Essex,  and  surrounded  him  at  Lostwithiel,  in  Cornwall. 
Essex's  provisions  fell  short ;  and  on  September  2,  though  his 
horse  cut  their  way  out,  and  he  himself  escaped  in  a  boat,  the 
whole  of  his  infantry  capitulated. 

27.  The    Second    Battle    of    Newbury.      1644.  — London  was 
hus  laid  bare,  and  Parliament  hastily  summoned  Manchester  and 

the  army  of  the  Eastern  Association  to  its  aid.  Manchester,  being 
good-natured  and  constitutionally  indolent,  longed  for  some  com- 
promise with  Charles  which  might  bring  about  peace.  Cromwell, 
on  the  other  hand,  perceived  that  no  compromise  was  possible 
with  Charles  as  long  as  he  was  at  the  head  of  an  army  in  the  field. 
A  second  battle  of  Newbury  was  fought,  on  October  27,  with  doubtful 
results  :  Manchester  showed  little  energy,  and  the  king  was  allowed 
to  escape  in  the  night.  Cromwell,  to  whom  his  sluggishness  seemed 
nothing  less  than  treason  to  the  cause,  attacked  Manchester  in 
Parliament,  not  from  personal  ill-will,  but  from  a  desire  to  remove 
an  inefficient  general  from  his  command  in  the  army.  Two  parties 
were  thus  arrayed  against  one  another  :  on  the  one  side  the 
Presbyterians,  who  wanted  to  suppress  the  sects  and,  if  possible,  to 
make  peace  ;  and  on  the  other  side  the  Independents,  who  wanted 
toleration,  and  to  carry  on  the  war  efficiently  till  a  decisive  victory 
had  been  gained. 


545 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

THE  NEW   MODEL  ARMY.      1644—1649 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  Charles  I.,  1625— 1649 

Battle  of  Naseby June  14, 1645 

.  Aug.  25,  1645 
May  5,  1646 
Jan.  30,  1647 
June  5,  1647 


Glamorgan's  Treaty  . 

Charles  in  the  hands  of  the  Scots 

Charles  surrendered  by  the  Scots 

Charles  carried  off  from  Holmby 

The  Army  in  Military  Possession  of  London      .       Aug.  7,  1647 


/C, 


Charles's  Flight  from  Hampton  Court 
The  Second  Civil  War 

Pride's  Purge 

Execution  of  Charles  .... 


.     Nov.  II,  ibit7 

April  to  Aug.,  1648 

Dec.  6,  1648 

Jan.  30,  1649 


I.  The  Self-denying  Ordinance  and  the  New  Model.  1645. — 
Cromwell  dropped  his  attack  on  Manchester  as  soon  as  he  found 
that  he  could  attain  his  end  in  another  way.  A  proposal  was  made 
for  the  passing  of  a  Self-denying  Ordinance,'  which  was  to  exclude 
all  members  of  either  House  from  commands  in  the  army.  The 
Lords, knowing  thatmembersoftheir  House  would  be  chiefly  affected 
by  it,  threw  it  out,  and  the  Commons  then  proceeded  to  form  a 
New  Model  Army— that  is  to  say,  an  army  newly  organised,  its 
officers  and  soldiers  being  chosen  solely  with  a  view  to  military 
efficiency.  Its  general  was  to  be  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  whilst  the 
lieutenant-general  was  not  named  ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  the  post  was  intended  for  Cromwell.  After  the  Lords  had 
agreed  to  the  New  Model,  they  accepted  the  Self-denying  Ordinance 
in  an  altered  form,  as,  though  all  the  existing  officers  were  directed 
to  resign  their  posts,  nothing  was  said  against  their  re-appointment. 
Essex,  Manchester,  and  Waller  resigned,  but  when  the  time  came 
for  Cromwell  to  follow  their  example,  he  and  two  or  three  others 
were  appointed  to  commands  in  the  new  army.  Qtg^Ji^^  became 
Lieutenant-General,  with  the  command  of  the  cavalry.  The  New 
Model  was  composed  partly  of  pressed  men,  and  was  by  no  means, 

1  An  ordinance  was  at  this  time  in  all  respects  similar  to  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment, except  that  it  did  not  receive  the  Royal  assent.  In  the  middle  ages  an 
ordinance  was  exactly  the  reverse,  being  issued  by  the  King  without  Parlia- 
mentary approval. 


546  THE  NEW  MODEL  AkMY  1644- 164S 

as  has  been  often  said,  of  a  sternly  religious  character  throughout ; 
but  a  large  number  of  decided  Puritans  had  been  drafted  into  it, 
especially  from  the  army  of  the  Eastern  Association  ;  and  the 
majority  of  the  officers  were  Independents,  some  of  them  of  a 
strongly  Sectarian  type.  The  New  Model  Army  had  the  ad- 
vantage of  receiving  regular  pay,  which  had  not  been  the  case 
before ;  so  that  the  soldiers,  whether  Puritans  or  not,  were  now 
likely  to  stick  to  their  colours. 

2.  Milton's  *  Areopagitica.'  1644. — By  Cromwell,  who  in  con- 
sequence of  his  tolerance  was  the  idol  of  the  Sectarians  in  the 
army,  religious  liberty  had  first  been  valued  because  it  gave  him 
the  service  of  men  of  all  kinds  of  opinions.  On  November  24, 1644, 
Milton,  some  of  whose  books  had  been  condemned  by  the  licensers 
of  the  press  appointed  by  Parliament,  issued  Areopagitica^  in  which 
he  advocated  the  liberty  of  the  press  on  the  ground  that  excel- 
lence can  only  be  reached  by  those  who  have  free  choice  between 
good  and  evil.  "  He  that  can  apprehend,"  he  wrote,  "  and  consider 
vice  with  all  her  baits  and  seeming  pleasures,  and  yet  abstain— he 
is  the  true  warfaring  Christian.  I  cannot  praise  a  fugitive  and 
cloistered  virtue,  unexercised  and  unbreathed,  that  never  sallies 
out  and  seeks  her  adversary,  but  slinks  out  of  the  race,  when  that 
immortal  garland  is  to  be  run  for,  not  without  dust  and  heat." 
Liberty  was  good  for  religion  as  much  as  it  was  for  literature. 
"These  are  the  men,"  he  continued,  "cried  out  against  for 
schismatics  and  sectaries,  as  if,  while  the  temple  of  the  Lord  was 
building,  there  should  be  a  sort  of  irrational  men  who  could  not 
consider  there  must  be  many  schisms  and  many  dissections  made 
in  the  quarry  and  in  the  timber  ere  the  house  of  God  can  be  built." 
The  perfection  of  the  building  consisted  "in  this— that  out  of  many 
moderate  varieties  and  brotherly  dissimilitudes  that  are  not  vastly 
disproportional,  arises  the  goodly  and  the  graceful  symmetry  that 

vV  commends  the  whole  pile  and  structure." 

V**  3.  The  Execution  of  Laud.  1645.— In  Parliament,  at  least, 
there  was  one  direction  in  which  neither  Presbyterian  nor  Inde- 
pendent was  inclined  to  be  tolerant.  They  had  all  suffered  under 
Laud,  and  Laud's  impeachment  was  allowed  to  go  on.  The  House 
of  Lords  pronounced  sentence  against  him,  and  on  January  10, 
1645,  he  was  beheaded.  The  Presbyterians  had  the  majority  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  they  were  busy  in  enforcing  their 
system,  as  far  as  Parliamentary  resolutions  would  go.  The 
Independents  had  to  wait  for  better  times. 
^     4.  Montrose  and  Argyle.      1644.— For  the   present,  however, 


1644-1645  MONTROSE'S   CAMPAIGN  547 

the  two  parties  could  not  aflford  to  quarrel,  as  a  powerful 
diversion  in  the  king's  favour  was  now  threatening  them  from 
Scotland.  The  Marquis  of  Montrose,  who,  in  the  Bishops'  Wars, 
had  taken  part  with  the  Covenanters,  had  grown  weary  of  the 
interference  of  the  Scottish  Presbyterian  clergy  with  politics,  and 
still  more  weary  of  the  supremacy  in  Scotland  of  the  Marquis  of 
Argyle,  who  had  all  the  organisation  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
at  his  disposal.  Montrose  saw  that,  though  Argyle  was  too  strong 
for  him  in  the  Lowlands,  it  was  possible  to  assail  him  with  effect 
in  the  Highlands,  where  he  had  made  many  enemies.  In  the  Low- 
lands Argyle  was  regarded  as  a  Scottish  nobleman.  In  the  High- 
lands he  was  the  chief  of  the  clan  of  the  Campbells,  which  had 
often  unscrupulously  extended  its  borders  at  the  expense  of  its 
neighbours,  especially  at  the  expense  of  the  various  clans  of  the 
Macdonalds.  Montrose  therefore  hoped  that  if  he  threw  himself 
into  the  Highlands,  he  might  make  use  of  the  enmity  of  these  clans 
against  the  Campbells  to  crush  Argyle  and  to  exalt  the  king. 

^-7~.-__  5.  Montrose  in  the  Highlands.  1644 — 1645. — In  1644,  shortly 
after  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor,  Montrose  made  his  way  to  the 
Highlands  with  only  two  followers.  He  was  the  first  to  discover 
the  capacity  of  the  Highlanders  for  war.  With  their  help,  and  with 
the  help  of  a  trained  Irish  contingent,  mostly  composed  of  the 
descendants  of  Highlanders  who  had  emigrated  to  Ireland,  he  beat 
the  Scottish  forces  at  Tippermuir  and  Aberdeen,  and  then,  crossing 
the  mountains,  amidst  the  snows  of  winter,  harried  the  lands  of 
the  Campbells.  On  February  2,  1645,  he  defeated  Argyle's  clans- 
men at  Inverlochy,  whilst  Argyle  himself— who  was  no  warrior — 
watched  their  destruction  from  a  boat.  Wherever  Montrose  went 
the  heavy  Lowland  troops  toiled  after  him  in  vain.  On  May  9  he 
overthrew  another  army  under  Baillie  at  Auldearn.  Leven's  Scottish 
army  in  Yorkshire  had  enough  to  do  to  bar  the  way  against  Mont- 
rose in  case  of  his  issuing  from  the  mountains  and  attempting 
to  join  forces  with  Charles  in  England  With  any  other  troops 
Montrose  would  probably  have  made  the  attempt  already  ;  but  his 
Highlanders  were  accustomed  to  return  home  to  deposit  their  booty 
in  their  own  glens  as  soon  as  a  battle  had  been  won,  and,  there- 
fore, victorious  as  he  had  been,  he  was  unable  to  leave  the  High- 
lands. 

d----  6.  The  New  Model  Army  in  the  Field.  1645.— The  New  Model 
army  started  on  its  career  in  April.  Cromwell,  with  his  highly-trained 
horse,  swept  round  Oxford,  cutting  off  Charles's  supplies  ;  whilst 
Fairfax  was  sent  by  the  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms  (see  p.  542) 


548 


THE   NEW  MODEL   ARMY 


1645 


to  the  relief  of  Taunton,  which  had  been  gallantly  holding  out  under 
Robert  Blake.  A  detachment  of  Fairfax's  force  sufficed  to  set 
Taunton  free.  His  main  force  was  stupidly  sent  by  the  Committee' 
to  besiege  Oxford,  though  the  king  was  marching  northwards, 
and  might  fall  upon  Leven's  Scots  as  soon  as  he  reached  them. 
On  May  31,  however,  Charles  turned  sharply  round,  and  stormed 
Leicester.  The  popular  outcry  in  London  compelled  the  Com- 
mittee to  allow  their  commander-in-chief  to  act  on  his  own  dis- 
cretion ;  and  Fairfax,  abandoning  the  siege  of  Oxford,  marched 
straight  in  pursuit  of  the  Royal  army. 
P^  7.  The  Battle  of  Naseby.  1645. — On  June  14  Fairfax  overtook 
the  king  at  Naseby.  In  the  battle  which  followed,  the  Parlia- 
mentary army  was  much  superior  in  numbers,  but  it  was  largely 
composed  of  raw  recruits  (see  p.  545),  and  its  left  wing  of  cavalry — 
under  Ireton,  who,  in  the  following  year,  became  Cromwell's  son- 
in-law — was  routed  by  the  king's  right,  under  Rupert.  As  at  Edge- 
hill,  Rupert  galloped  hard  in  pursuit,  without  looking  back.  The 
Parliamentary  infantry  in  the  centre  was  by  this  time  pressed  hard, 
but  Cromwell,  on  the  right,  at  the  head  of  a  large  body  of  cavalry, 
scattered  the  enemy's  horse  before  him.  Then,  as  at  Marston  Moor, 
he  halted  to  see  how  the  battle  went  elsewhere.  Sending  a  detach- 
ment to  pursue  the  defeated  Royalists,  he  hurled  the  rest  of  his  horse 
on  the  king's  foot,  who  were  slowly  gaining  ground  in  the  centre.  In 
those  days,  when  half  of  every  body  of  infantry  fought  with  pikes,  and 
the  other  half  with  inefficient  muskets,  it  was  seldom  that  foot-soldiers 
could  withstand  a  cavalry  charge  in  the  open,  and  the  whole  of 
Charles's  infantry,  after  a  short  resistance,  surrendered  on  the 
spot.  Rupert  returned  only  in  time  to  see  that  defeat  was  certain. 
The  king,  with  what  horse  he  could  gather  round  him,  made  off 
as  fast  as  he  could.  The  stake  played  for  at  Naseby  was  the  crown 
of  England,  and  Charles  had  lost  it. 
n^  8.  The   Results  of  Naseby.     1645. —Disastrous    as    Charles's 

defeat  had  been,  he  contrived  to  struggle  on  for  some  months. 
The  worst  thing  that  befel  him  after  the  battle  was  the  seizure  of 
his  cabinet  containing  his  correspondence,  which  revealed  his  con- 
stant intrigues  to  bring  alien  armies— French,  Lorrainers,  and  Irish 
— into  England.  It  was,  therefore,  in  a  more  determined  spirit  than 
ever  that  Parliament  carried  on  the  war.  After  retaking  Leicester, 
on  June  18,  Fairfax  marched  on  to  the  West,  where  the  king's  eldest 
ion,  Charles,  Prince  of  Wales,  had  been  since  the  summer  of  1644, 
and  where  debauched  and  reckless  Goring  was  at  the  head  of  a 
Royalist  army.    On  July  10  Fairfax  routed  him  at  Langport,  and  on 


i645  THE   GLAMORGAN   TREATY  549 

July  23  took  Bridgwater.  Then,  leaving  forces  to  coop  up  Goring's 
remaining  troops,  Fairfax  turned  eastward,  took  Sherborne  on 
August  2,  whilst  the  Scots,  who  after  Naseby  had  marched  south- 
wards, were  besieging  Hereford.  On  September  i,  however,  the 
king  relieved  Hereford,  and  fancied  he  might  still  retrieve  his 
fortunes.  On  September  10,  he  received  a  severe  blow.  Fairfax 
stormed  the  outer  defences  of  Bristol,  and  Rupert,  who  commanded 
the  garrison,  at  once  capitulated.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
he  had  no  other  choice  ;  but  Charles  would  hear  no  excuse,  and 

^^  dismissed  him  from  his  service. 

^  9.  Charles's  Wanderings.  1645. — Charles's  hopes  were  always 
springing  up  anew,  and  now  that  Rupert  had  failed  him,  he  looked 
to  Montrose  for  deliverance.  Montrose,  on  July  2,  had  won  another 
victory  at  Alford,  and,  on  August  15,  a  still  more  crushing  victory 
at  Kilsyth,  after  which  he  had  entered  Glasgow,  and  received  the 
submission  of  the  Lowlands.  Charles  marched  northward  to 
meet  him,  but  on  the  way  was  met  and  defeated  by  the  Parlia- 
mentary general,  Poyntz,  on  Rowton  Heath.  Almost  immediately 
afterwards  he  heard  the  disastrous  news  that  David  Leslie,  an  able 
officer  who  had  won  renown  in  the  German  wars,  and  had  fought 
well  at  Marston  Moor,  had  been  despatched  from  the  Scottish 
army  in  England,  had  fallen  upon  Montrose  at  Philiphaugh,  at  a 
time  when  he  had  but  a  scanty  following  with  him,  and  had  utterly 
defeated  him.  After  this  Cromwell  reduced  the  South,  capturing 
Winchester  and  Basing  House,  whilst  Fairfax  betook  himself  to  the 
siege  of  Exeter.  In  October,  Charles,  misled  by  a  rumour  that 
Montrose  had  recovered  himself,  made  one  more  attempt  to  join 
him  ;  but  he  was  headed  by  the  enemy,  and  compelled  to  retreat 
to  Oxford,  where,  with  all  his  followers  ardently  pleading  for  peace, 
he  still  maintained  that  his  conscience  would  not  allow  him  to 
accept  any  terms  from  rebels,  or  to  surrender  the  Church  of 
England  into  their  hands. 

10.  Glamorgan  in  Ireland.  1645 -1646. — Not  one  of  Charles's 
intri^nes  with  foreign  powers  did  him  so  much  harm  as  his  con- 
tinued effort?  to  bring  over  an  Irish  army  to  fight  his  battles  in 
England.  In  1645  he  despatched  the  Roman  Catholic  Earl  of 
Glamorgan  to  Ireland,  giving  him  almost  unlimited  powers  to  raise 
money  and  men,  and  to  make  treaties  with  this  object,  but  in- 
structing him  to  follow  the  advice  of  Ormond.  When,  Glamorgan 
arrived  in  Ireland,  in  August,  he  found  that  the  Confederate 
Catholics  were  resolved  to  demand  that  all  the  churches  in  Ire- 
land, except  the  few  still  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  should  be 


550 


THE   NEW  MODEL   ARMY 


I 64 5- I 646 


given  permanently  to  the  Catholics,  and  that  permission  should  be 
granted  to  their  clergy  to  exercise  jurisdiction  in  matters  spiritual 
and  ecclesiastical.  Though  Glamorgan  knew  that  Charles  had  never 
approved  of  these  concessions,  he  signed  a  treaty,  on  August  25, 
1645,  i"  which  he  granted  all  that  was  asked,  in  consideration 
of  an  engagement  by  the  Confederates  to  place  him  at  the  head 
of  10,000  Irishmen  destined  for  England.  Before  anything  had 
been  done,  a  Papal  Nuncio,  Rinuccini,  landed  in  Ireland  and 
required  fresh  concessions,  to  which  Glamorgan  readily  assented. 
On  January  16,  1646,  however,  before  Glamorgan's  army  was  ready 
to  start,  the  treaty  which  he  had  made  in  August  became  known 


A  gentleman. 


A  gentlewoman. 


Ordinary  civil  costume  temp.  Charles  I.  :  from  Speed's  map  of '  The  Kingdom 
of  England,'  1646. 


at  Westminster  ;  and,  though  Chafles  promptly  disavowed  having 
authorised  its  signature,  there  remained  a  grave  suspicion  that  he 
was  not  as  innocent  as  he  pretended  to  be. 
^^  IT.  The  King's  Flight  to  the  Scots.  1646.— In  the  beginning 
V  of  1646  the  Civil  War  virtually  came  to  an  end.  On  March  14, 
Charles's  army  in  the  West  surrendered  to  Fairfax  in  Cornwall, 
and  in  the  same  month  the  last  force  which  held  the  field  for  him 
was  overthrown  at  Stow-on  the-Wold.  Many  fortresses  still  held 
out,  but,  as  there  was  no  chance  of  relief,  their  capture  was  only  a 
question  of  time  ;  and  though  the  last  of  them — Harlech  Castle — 
did  not  surrender  till  1647,  there  was  absolutely  no  doubt  what  the 
result  would  be.     Charles,  now  again  at  Oxford,  had  but  to  choose 


1646  CHARLES  AND    THE  SCOTS  551 

to  whom  he  would  surrender.  He  chose  to  give  himself  up  to  the 
Scots,  whose  army  was  at  the  time  besieging  Newark.  He  seems 
to  have  calculated  that  they  would  replace  him  on  the  throne 
without  insisting  on  very  rigorous  conditions,  thinking  that  they 
would  lather  restore  him  to  power  than  allow  the  English  army^ 
formidable  as  it  was,  to  have  undisputed  authority  in  England,  and 
possibly  to  crush  the  independence  of  Scotland.  The  Scots,  on 
the  other  hand,  seem  to  have  thought  that,  when  Charles  was  once 
in  their  power,  he  must,  for  his  safety's  sake,  agree  to  establish 
Presbyterianism  in  England,  by  which  means  the  party  which 
would  of  necessity  lean  for  support  on   themselves  would  have 


A  citizen's  wife. 


Ordinary  civil  costume  temp.  Charles  I.  :  from  Speed's  map  of  '  The  Kingdom 
of  England,   164O. 

the  mastery  in  England.      On  May  5, 1646,  Charles  rode  in  to  the 
quarters  of  the   Scottish   army  at   Southwell,  a  few  miles  from 
\.     Newark. 

12.  Charles  at  Newcastle.  1646. — Newark  at  once  surrendered, 
and  Charles  was  conveyed  to  Newcastle,  where,  as  he  refused  to 
consent  to  the  establishment  of  Presbyterianism  in  England,  he 
was  practically  treated  as  a  prisoner.  At  the  end  of  1645  and  the 
beginning  of  1646  there  had  been  fresh  elections  to  fill  up  seats  in 
the  House  of  Commons  left  vacant  by  Royalists  expelled  for  taking 
the  king's  part ;  but,  though  many  Independent  officers  were 
chosen,  there  was  still  a  decidedly  Presbyterian  majority.  On 
July    14  propositions   for    peace   were   delivered    to   Charles    on 


552 


THE  NEW  MODEL   ARMY 


1646-1647 


behalf  of  Parliament  and  the  Scots.  He  was  to  surrender  his 
power  over  the  militia  for  twenty  years,  to  take  the  Covenant,  and 
to  support  Presbyterianism  in  the  Church.  Charles,  in  his  corre- 
spondence with  his  wife,  showed  himself  more  ready  to  abandon 
the  militia  than  to  abandon  episcopacy ;  whilst  she,  being  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  not  canng  for  bishops  whom  she  counted  as  heretics, 
advised  him  at  all  hazards  to  cling  to  the  command  of  the  militia. 
Charles  hoped  everythmg  from  mere  procrastination.  "All  my 
endeavours,"  he  wrote  to  the  queen,  "  must  be  the  delaying  of 
my  answer  till  there  be  considerable  parties  visibly  formed" — in 
other  words,  till  Presbyterians   and  Independents  were  ready  to 


A  countryman. 
Ordinary  civil  costume 


A  countrywoman. 

Charles  I.  :  from  Speed's  map  of '  The  Kingdom 
of  England,'  1646. 

come  to  blows,  and,  therefore,  to  take  him  at  his  own  price.  In 
order  to  hasten  that  day,  he  made  in  October  a  proposal  of  his 
own,  in  which  he  promised,  in  case  of  his  being  restored  to  power, 
to  establish  Presbyterianism  for  three  years,  during  which  time 
the  future  settlement  of  the  Church  might  be  publicly  discussed. 
He,  however,  took  care  to  make  no  provision  for  the  very  probable 
event  of  the  discussion  leavmg  parties  as  opposed  to  one  another 
as  they  had  been  before  the  discussion  was  opened,  and  it  v/as 
obvious  that,  as  he  had  never  given  the  royal  assent  to  any  Act  for 
the  abolition  of  episcopacy,  the  whole  episcopal  system  would 
legally  occupy  the  field  when  the  three  years  came  to  an  end.  The 
Presbyterians  would  thus  find  themselves  checkmated  by  an 
unworthy  trick. 


l647  THE   KING  AT  HOLM  BY  HOUSE  553 

13.  The  Removal  of  the  King  to  Holmby.  1647.— The  Scots, 
discontented  with  the  king's  refusal  to  accept  their  terms,  began 
to  open  their  ears  to  an  offer  by  the  Enghsh  Parliament  to  pay 
them  the  money  owing  to  them  for  their  assistance,  on  the  open 
understanding  that  they  would  leave  England,  and  the  tacit  imder- 
stahding  that  they  would  leave  the  king  behind  them.  Once  more 
they  implored  Charles  to  support  Presbyterianism,  assuring  him 
that,  if  he  would,  they  would  fight  for  hirii  to  a  man.  On  his  refusal, 
they  accepted  the  English  offer,  took  their  money,  and  on  January  30, 
1647,  marched  away  to  their  own  country,  leaving  Charles  in  the 
hands  of  Commissioners  of  the  English  Parliament,  who  conveyed 
him  to  Holmby  House,  in  Northamptonshire. 

14.  Dispute  between  the  Presbyterians  and  the  Army.  1647. — 
The  leading  Presbyterians,  of  whom  the  most  prominent  was 
Holies  (see  p.  535),  were  so  anxious  to  come  to  terms  with  the 
king,  that  before  the  end  of  January  they  accepted  Charles's  illusory 
proposal  of  a  three  years'  Presbyterianism  (see  p.  552),  offering  to 
allow  him  to  come  to  London  or  its  neighbourhood  in  order  to  carry 
on  negotiations.  The  fact  was,  that  they  were  now  more  afraid  of 
the  army  than  of  the  king,  believing  it  to  be  ready  to  declare 
not  merely  for  toleration  of  the  sects,  but  also  for  a  more  demo- 
cratic form  of  government  than  suited  many  of  the  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  who  sat  on  the  benches  of  the  Lords  and  Commons. 
In  March  the  Commons  voted  that  only  a  small  body  of  cavalry 
should  be  kept  up  in  England,  and  no  infantry  at  all,  except  a 
small  force  needed  to  garrison  the  fortresses,  and  also  that  when  the 
infantry  regiments  were  broken  up  the  disbanded  soldiers  should  be 
asked  to  volimteer  for  service  in  Ireland.  Of  the  cavalry  in  England 
Fairfax  was  to  be  general,  but  no  officer  under  him  was  to  hold  a 
higher  rank  than  that  of  colonel,  a  rule  which  would  enable  Crom- 
well's opponents  in  Parliament  to  oust  him  from  his  position  in  the 
army.  So  strong  was  the  feeling  in  the  nation  for  peace,  and  for 
the  diminution  of  the  heavy  burden  of  taxation  which  the  main- 
tenance of  the  army  lequired,  that  the  Presbyterians  would  pro- 
bably have  gained  their  object  had  they  acted  with  reasonable 
prudence,  as  a  large  number  of  soldiers  had  no  sympathy  with  the 
religious  enthusiasts  in  the  ranks.  There  were,  however,  con- 
siderable arrears  of  pay  owing  to  the  men,  and  had  they  been  paid 
in  ready  money,  and  an  ordinance  passed  indemnifying  them  for 
acts  done  in  war-time,  most,  if  not  all,  would,  in  all  probability, 
either  have  gone  home  or  have  enlisted  for  Ireland,  instead  of 
doing  this,  Parliament  only  voted  a  small  part  of  the  arrears,  and 

a.  00 


_J' 


554  THE  NEW  MODEL  ARMY  1647 

fiercely  denounced  the  army  for  daring  to  prepare  a  petition 
to  Fairfax  asking  for  his  support  in  demanding  full  pay  and 
indemnity,  In  a  few  weeks  Parliament  and  army  were  angrily 
distrustful  of  one  another,  and  the  soldiers,  organising  themselves, 
>y   .    chose  representatives,  who  were  called  Agitators  ^  or  agents,  to 

Y     vconsult  on  things  relating  to  their  present  position. 

'  wC  15.  Cromwell  and  the  Army.  1647. — Cromwell's  position 
durmg  these  weeks  was  a  delicate  one.  He  sympathised  not  only 
with  the  demands  of  the  soldiers  for  full  pay,  iDiit  also  with  the 
demand  of  the  religious  enthusiasts  for  toleration.  Yet  he  had 
a  strong  sense  of  the  evil  certain  to  ensue  from  allowing  an  army 
to  overthrow  the  civil  institutions  of  the  country,^  and  both  as  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons  and  as  anTofficer  he  did  his 
best  to  avert  so  dire  a  catastrophe.  In  March  he  had  even  pro- 
posed to  leave  England  and  take  service  in  Germany  under  the 
Elector  Palatine,  the  son  of  Frederick  and  Elizabeth  (see  p.  488). 
As  this  plan  fell  through,  he  was  sent  down,  in  May,  with  other 
commissioners,  to  attempt  to  effect  a  reconciliation  between  the 
army  and  the  Parliament.  In  this  he  nearly  succeeded  ;  but  a 
few  days  after  his  return  to  Westminster  Parliament  decided  to 
disband  the  army  at  once,  without  those  concessions  which,  in 
consequence  of  Cromwell's  report,  it  at  first  seemed  prepared  to 
make.  The  soldiers,  finding  that  only  a  small  portion  of  their 
arrears  was  to  be  paid,  refused  to  disband,  and  before  the  end  of 
May  everything  was  in  confusion. 

^/  16.   The  Abduction  of  the  King.      1647.— The  fact  was  that 

y^^  the  Presbyterian  leaders  fancied  themselves  masters  of  the  situ- 
ation. Receiving  a  favourable  answer  from  the  king  to  the  pro- 
posals made  by  them  in  January  (see  p.  553),  they  entered  into 
a  negotiation  with  the  French  ambassador  and  the  Scottish  com- 
missioners to  bring  about  a  Scottish  invasion  of  England  on  the 
king's  behalf,  and  this  invasion  was  to  be  supported  by  a  Presby- 
terian and  Royalist  rising  in  England.  In  the  meanwhile  Charles 
was  to  be  conveyed  away  from  Holmby  to  preserve  him  from  the 

'  The  name  '  Adjutator,'  often  given  to  these  men,  is  undoubtedly  a  mere 
blunder.  The  use  of  the  verb  '  to  agitate'  in  the  sense  of  '  to  act,'  and  of  the 
noun  '  agitator,'  in  the  sense  of  an  agent,  is  now  obsolete. 

^  Cromwell  did  not  hold  that,  in  fighting  against  the  king,  he  had  himself 
been  assailing  the  civil  institutions  of  the  country.  In  his  eyes,  as  in  the  eyes 
of  aM  others  on  his  side,  the  king  was  the  aggressor,  attacking  those  institutions, 
and  war  against  him  was  therefore  defensive,  being  waged  to  save  the  most 
important  part  of  them  from  destruction. 


>Sn, 


>C 


1647  THE  KING    WITH   THE  ARMY  555 

army.  This  design  was  betrayed  to  Cromwell,  and,  in  consequence, 
he  secretly  gave  instructions  to  a  certain  Cornet  Joyce  to  take  a 
body  of  cavalry  to  hinder  the  Scots  and  Presbyterians  from  carry- 
ing off  the  king,  but  only,  as  it  seems,  to  remove  him  from 
Holmby  if  force  was  likely  to  be  used  on  the  other  side.  On  June  3, 
Joyce,  with  a  picked  body  of  horse,  appeared  at  Holmby,  where  on 
the  4th  he  received  news  which  led  him  to  think  that  a  Presbyterian 
body  of  troops  was  approaching  with  the  intention  of  taking  pos- 
session of  the  king's  person.  Late  in  the  evening,  therefore,  imagin- 
ing that  the  danger  foreseen  as  possible  in  Cromwell's  instructions 
had  really  arrived,  he  invited  the  king  to  leave  Holmby  the  next 
morning.  When  the  moming  came  Charles,  stepping  out  on  the 
lawn,  asked  Joyce  for  a  sight  of  the  commission  which  authorised 
him  to  give  such  unexpected  orders.  "  There  is  my  commission, ' 
answered  Joyce,  pointing  to  his  soldiers.  There  was  no  resisting  such 
an  argument,  and  Charles  was  safely  conducted  to  Newmarket. 

17.  The  Exclusion  of  the  Eleven   Members.      1647.  — Varlia- 
ent,  dissatisfied  with  this  daring  act,  began  to  levy  troops  in 

London,  and  reorganised  the  London  trained  bands,  excluding 
all  Independents  from  their  ranks.  The  army  declared  that  eleven 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons — the  leaders  of  the  Presbyterian 
party— were  making  arrangements  for  a  new  war^  and  sent  in 
charges  against  them.  The  eleven  members,  finding  themselves 
helpless,  asked  leave  of  absence.  The  City  of  London  was  as  Pres- 
byterian as  Parliament.  A  mob  burst  into  the  House,  and,  under 
stress  of  violence,  the  Independent  members,  together  with  the 
Speakers  of  the  two  Houses,  left  Westminster  and  sought  protec- 
tion with  the  army.  The  Presbyterians  kept  their  seats,  and  voted 
to  resist  the  army  by  force.  The  army  took  advantage  of  the  tumult 
to  appear  on  the  scene  as  the  vindicators  of  the  liberties  of  Parlia- 
ment and;  marching  upon  London,  passed  through  the  City  on 
August  7,  leaving  sufficient  forces  behind  to  occupy  Westminster 
and  the  Tower.  The  eleven  Presbyterian  members  sought  refuge 
on  the  Continent. 

18.  The  Heads  of  the  Proposals.  1647. — ^^  ^^e  meanwhile 
Cromwell  was  doing  his  best  to  come  to  an  understanding  with 
Charles.  A  constitutional  scheme,  to  which  was  given  the  name  of 
The  Heads  of  the  Proposals^  was  drawn  up  by  Ireton  and  pre- 
sented in  the  name  of  the  army  to  the  king.  It  provided  for  a 
constant  succession  of  biennial  Parliaments  with  special  powers 
over  the  appointment  of  officials,  and  it  proposed  to  settle  the 
religious  difficulty  bv  giving  complete  religious  liberty  to  all  except 

002 


556  THE  NEW  MODEL   ARMY  1647   1648 

Roman  Catholics.  Those  who  chose  to  do  so  might  submit  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  bishops,  and  those  who  chose  to  do  so  might  submit 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  a  presbytery  ;  but  no  civil  penalties  were  to 
be  inflicted  on  those  who  objected  either  to  Episcopacy  or  to 
Presbyterianism  or  to  both. 
Q<  19.    The   King's   Flight  to   the   Isle   of  Wight.      1647.— No 

proposals  so  wise  and  comprehensive  had  yet  been  made,  but 
neither  Charles  nor  the  Parliament  was  inclined  to  accept  them. 
Many  of  the  Agitators,  finding  that  there  was  still  a  Presbyterian 
majority  in  Parliament,  talked  of  usi-ng  force  once  more  and  of 
purging  the  Houses  of  all  the  members  who  had  sat  in  them 
whilst  the  legitimate  Speakers  were  absent.  In  the  meanwhile  the 
king  grew  more  hostile  to  Cromwell  every  day,  and  enteied  secretly 
into  a  fresh  negotiation  with  the  Scottish  commissioners  who  formed 
part  of  the  Committee  of  both  Kingdoms,  asking  them  for  the  help 
of  a  Scottish  army.  The  more  advanced  Agitators  proposed  a  still 
more  •democratic  constitution  than  The  Heads  of  the  Proposals^ 
under  the  name  of  The  Agreement  of  the  People^  and  attempted  to 
force  it  upon  their  officers  by  threats  of  a  mutiny.  At  the  same 
time,  they  and  some  of  the  officers  talked  of  bringing  the  king  to 
justice  for  the  bloodshed  which  he  had  caused.  Charles,  becoming 
aware  of  his«danger,  fled  on  November  11  to  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
thinking  that  it  would  be  easy  to  escape  whenever  he  wished.  He 
was,  however,  detained  in  Carisbrooke  Castle,  where  he  was  treated 
very  much  as  a  prisoner. 

20.  The  Scottish  Engagement,  and  the  Vote  of  No  Addresses. 
1648. —Cromwell  put  down  the  mutiny  in  the  army,  but  he 
learnt'Hliat  the  king  was  intriguing  with  the  Scots,  and  at  last 
abandoneH^'allJiope  of  settling  the  kingdom  with  Charles's  help. 
On  December  2S;>ii(^7,  Charles  entered  into  an  Engagement  with 
the  Scottish  commissi oh€a:s.  On  the  condition  of  having  toleration 
for  his  own  worship,  accoraiitTgi,|o  the  Prayer  Book,  he  agreed  to 
establish  Presbyterianism  in  Eng!a»4Jor  three  years,  and  to  sup- 
press all  heresy.  The  Scottish  armyWsthen  to  advance  into 
England  to  secure  the  king's  restoration  to]f>e*ver  in  accordance 
with  the  wishes  of  a  free  Parliament,  to  be  chosen  after  the  existing 
one  had  been  dissolved.  The  English  Parliament,  indeed,  had  no 
knowledge  of  this  engpgement,  but  finding  that  Charles  refused 
to  accept  their  terms,  they  replied,  on  January  17,  1648,  by  a  Vote 
of  No  Addresses,  declaring  that  they  would  make  no  more  pro- 
posals to  the  king. 
N^     21.  The  Second  Civil  War.     1648.— The  majority  of  English- 


r 


/v 


1648- 1649       THE  ASCENDENCY  OF   THE  ARMY  557 

men  were,  on  the  contrary,  ready  to  take  Charles  at  his  word. 
Men  were  weary  of  being  controlled  by  the  army,  and  still  more 
of  paying  the  taxes  needed  for  the  support  of  the  army.  There 
were  risings  in  Wales  and  Kent,  and  a  Scottish  army  prepared  to 
cross  the  borders  under  the  Duke  of  Hamilton.  The  English 
army  had,  however,  made  up  its  mind  that  Charles  should  not  be 
restored.  Fairfax  put  down  the  rising  in  Kent  after  a  sharp  fight 
at  Maidstone,  and  drove  some  of  the  fugitives  across  the  Thames 
into  Essex,  where  being  outnumbered  they  took  refuge  in  Colchester. 
Fairfax,  following  them  up,  laid  siege  to  Colchester,  though  the 
Londoners  threatened  to  rise  in  his  rear,  and  a  great  part  of 
the  fleet  deserted  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  who  came  from  France 
to  take  the  command.  In  the  meanwhile  Cromwell  suppressed 
the  insurrection  in  Wales,  and  then  marched  northwards.  On 
August  17,  with  less  than  9,000  men,  he  fell  upon  the  24,000  who 
followed  Hamilton,  and,  after  three  days'  fighting,  routed  them 
utterly.     On  August  28  Colchester  surrendered  to  Fairfax. 

22.  Pride's  Purge.  1648.— The  army  had  lost  all  patience 
with  the  king,  and  it  had  also  lost  all  patience  with  Parliament. 
Whilst  Fairfax  and  Cromwell  were  fighting,  the  Houses  passed  an 
ordinance  for  the  suppression  of  heresy,  and  opened  the  negotia- 
tions with  the  king  which  bear  the  name  of  the  Treaty  '  of  Newport. 
The  king  only  played  with  the  negotiations,  trying  to  spin  out  the 
time  till  he  could  make  his  escape,  in  order  that  he  might,  with 
safety  to  his  own  person,  obtain  help  from  Ireland  or  the  Continent. 
The  army  was  tired  of  such  delusions,  seeing  clearly  that  there  could 
be  no  settled  government  in  England  as  long  as  Charles  could  play 
fast-and-loose  with  all  parties,  and  it  demanded  that  he  should 
be  brought  to  justice.  By  military  authority  he  was  removed  on 
December  i  from  Carisbrooke  to  the  desolate  Hurst  Castle,  where 
no  help  could  reach  him.  On  December  5  the  House  of  Commons 
declared  for  a  reconciliation  with  the  king.  On  the  6th  a  body  of 
soldiers,  under  the  command  of  Colonel  Pride,  forced  it  to  serve 
the  purposes  of  the  army  by  forcibly  expelling  all  members  who 
took  the  side  of  the  king.  This  act  of  violence  is  commonly 
known  as  Pride's  Purge. 

23.  The  High  Court  of  Justice.  1649. — On  January  i,  1649,  the 
purged  House  proposed  to  appoint  a  High  Court  of  Justice  to  try 
Charles,  but  the  Lords  refused  to  take  part  in  the  act.  On  the  4th 
the  Commons  declared  that  the  people  were,  under  God,  the  source 

^  A  treaty  then  meant  a  negotiation,  not,  as  now,  the  document  which 
results  from  a  successful  negotiation. 


558 


THE  NE^  MODEL  ARMY 


1649 


1649 


THE  HIGH  COURT  OF  JUSTICE 


559 


of  all  just  power,  and  that  the  House  of  Commons,  being  chosen 
by  the  people,  formed  the  supreme  power  in  England,  having  no 
need  of  either  king  or  House  of  Lords.  Never  was  constitutional 
pedantry  carried  further  than  when  this  declaration  was  issued  by  a 
mere  fragment  of  a  House  which,  even  if  all  its  members  had  been 
present,  could  only  claim  to  have  represented  the  people  some 
years  before.  On  January  6  a  special  High  Court  of  Justice  w^as 
constituted  by  the  mutilated  House  of  Commons  alone,  for  the  trial 
of  the  king.  On  January  19  Charles  was  brought  up  to  Westminster. 
Only  the  sternest  opponents  of  Charles  would  consent  to  sit  on 
the  Court  which  tried   him.      Of  135   members  named,  only  67 


Execution  of  King  Charles  I.,  January  30,  1649  :  from  a  contemporary  broadside 


amongst  those 
his  name  was 
will  never  be  \ 

—Charles's  ac- 


wcre  present  when  the  trial  began.  Fairfax  was 
appointed,  but  he  absented  himself,  and  when 
called,  his  wife  cried  out,  "  He  is  not  here,  and 
you  do  wrong  to  name  him." 

24.  The  King's  Trial  and  Execution.  1649. 
cusers  had  on  their  side  the  discredit  which  always  comes  to  those 
who,  using  force,  try  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  legality.  Charles 
had  all  the  credit  of  standing  up  for  the  law,  which,  in  his  earlier 
life,  he  had  employed  to  establish  absolutism.  He  refused  to 
plead  before  the  Court,  on  the  ground  that  it  had  no  jurisdiction 
over  a  king.     His  assailants  fell  back  on  the  merest  technicalities. 


560  THE  NEW  MODEL  ARMY  1649 

Instead  of  charging  him  with  the  intrigues  to  bring  foreign  armies 
into  England,  of  which  he  had  been  really  guilty,  they  accused  him 
of  high  treason  against  the  nation,  because,  forsooth,  he  had 
appeared  in  arms  against  his  subjects  in  the  first  Civil  War.  The 
Court,  as  might  have  been  expected,  passed  sentence  against  him, 
and,  on  January  30,  he  was  beheaded  on  a  scaffold  in  front  of  his 
own  palace  at  Whitehall. 

25.  Results  of  Charles's  Execution.  1649. —With  the  king's 
execution  all  that  could  be  permanently  effected  by  his  oppo- 
nents had  been  accomplished.  When  the  Long  Parliament  met, 
in  November  1640,  all  Englishmen  had  combined  to  bring  Charles 
to  submit  to  Parliamentary  control.  After  the  summer  of  1641 
a  considerable  part  of  the  nation,  coming  to  the  conclusion  that 
Charles  was  ready  to  use  force  rather  than  to  submit,  took  arms 
against  him  to  compel  him  to  give  way.  Towards  the  end  of  1647 
a  minority  of  Englishmen,  including  the  army,  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  it  was  necessary  to  deprive  Charles  of  all  real  power, 
if  the  country  was  not  to  be  exposed  to  constantly  recurring  danger 
whenever  he  saw  fit  to  re-assert  his  claims  to  the  authority  which 
he  had  lost.  In  1648  a  yet  smaller  minority  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  security  could  only  be  obtained  if  he  were  deprived  of  life.  In 
depriving  the  king  of  life  all  had  been  done  which  force  could 
do.  The  army  could  guard  a  scaffold,  but  it  could  not  reconstruct 
society.  The  vast  majority  of  that  part  of  the  nation  which  cared 
about  politics  at  all  disliked  being  ruled  by  an  army  even  more 
than  it  had  formerly  disliked  being  ruled  by  Charles,  and  refused 
its  support  to  the  new  institutions  which,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  army,  were  being  erected  in  the  name  of  the  people. 


501 


CHAPTER    XXXVI 

THE  COMMONWEALTH  AND   PROTECTORATE.      1649  — 1660 

LEADING    DATES 

The  Establishment  of  the  Commonwealth 1649 

Cromwell  in  Ireland 1649 

Battle  of  Dunbar       .        .  ....      Sept.  3,  1650 

Battle  of  Worcester Sept.  3, 1651 

The  Long  Parliament  dissolved  by  Cromwell  .    April  20,  1653 

.    July  4  to  Dec.  II,  1653 

Dec.  16,  1653 

Sept.  3,  1654,  to  Jan.  22,  1655 

Oct.  24,  1655 

.  Sept.  17, 1656,  to  Feb.  4, 1658 

Sept.  3,  1658 

Sept.  3,  1658,  to  April  22, 1659 

.     May  7  to  Oct.  13,  1659 

.     Oct.  13  to  Dec.  26, 1659 

Dec.  26, 1659,  to  March  16, 1660 


The  so-called  Barebones  Parliament 
Establishment  of  the  Protectorate 
The  First  Protectorate  Parliament 
Treaty  of  Alliance  with  France  . 
The  Second  Protectorate  Parliament 
Death  of  Oliver  Cromwell     . 
Richard  Cromwell's  Protectorate 
The  Long  Parliament  Restored  . 
Military  Government 
The  Long  Parliament  a  Second  Time 

Restored 

The  Declaration  of  Breda April  4,  t66o 

Meeting  of  the  Convention  Parliament  .  April  14,  1660 

Resolution  that  the  Government   is  by  King,    Lords,  1       j.  ~~ 

and  Commons i 

A  I.  Establishment  of  the  Commonwealth.  1649.-11  was  not  to 
be  expected  that  the  men  in  Parliament  or  in  the  army  by  whom 
great  hopes  of  improvement  were  entertained  should  discover 
that  they  had  done  all  that  it  was  possible  for  them  to  do. 
They  believed  it  to  be  still  in  their  power  to  regenerate  Eng- 
land. The  House  of  Commons  declared  England  to  be  a  Common- 
wealth, 'without  a  king  or  House  of  Lords,'  and,  taking  the  name 
of  Parliament  for  itself,  appointed  forty-one  persons  to  be  a  Council 
of  State,  charged  with  the  executive  government,  and  renewed 
annually.  Most  members  of  the  Council  of  State  were  also  mem- 
bers of  Parliament ;  and,  as  the  attendance  in  Parliament  seldom 
exceeded  fifty,  the  Councillors  of  State  (if  they  agreed  together) 
were  able  to  command  a  majority  in  Parliament,  and  thus  to  con- 
trol its  decisions.  Such  an  arrangement  was  a  mere  burlesque  on 
Parliamentary  institutions,  and  could  hardly  have  existed  for  a 
week  if  it  had  not  been  supported  by  the  ever-victorious  army. 
In  the  army,  indeed,  it  had  its  opponents,  who,  under  the  name 
of  Levellers,  called  out  for  a  more  truly  democratic  government ; 


562    THE  COMMONWEALTH  b'  PROTECTORATE    1649-1650 

but  they  had  no  man  of  influence  to  lead  them.  Cromwell  had  too 
much  common  sense  not  to  perceive  the  difficulty  of  establishing 
a  democracy  in  a  country  in  which  that  form  of  government  had 
but  few  admirers,  and  he  suppressed  the  Levellers  with  a  strong 
hand.  In  quiet  times,  Cromwell  would  doubtless  have  made  some 
attempt  to  place  the  constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  on  a  more 
satisfactory  basis,  but  for  the  present  it  needed  to  be  defended 
rather  than  improved. 
jy^  2.  Parties  in  Ireland.  1647 — 1649. — In  Ireland  the  conjunction 
formed  at  the  end  of  1641  between  the  Catholic  lords  and  the 
native  Irish  broke  down  in  1647.  Rinuccini,  the  Papal  Nuncio 
(see  p.  550),  discovered  that  Ireland  couW  only  be  organised  to 
resist  English  Puritanism  under  the  authority  of  the  Papal  clergy, 
as  there  was  not  sufficient  union  amongst  the  Irish  themselves  to 
admit  the  existence  of  lay  national  institutions.  He  was  unable  to 
carry  his  idea  into  effect.  Ormond,  the  king's  Lord-lieutenant,  who 
was  himself  a  Protestant,  left  Ireland,  and  handed  over  Dublin  to 
the  Parliamentary  troops  under  Michael  Jones,  rather  than  see  it 
in  the  hands  of  Rinuccini  and  the  Celts.  Even  the  Catholic  lords 
objected  to  become  the  servants  of  a  clerical  State,  and  Rinuccini, 
baffled  on  eveiy  side,  was  obliged  to  return  to  Italy.  In  September, 
1648,  Ormond  returned  to  Ireland,  where  he  soon  afterwards 
entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  the  Catholic  lords,  who  were  to 
receive  religious  toleration,  and  in  return  to  defend  the  king.  After 
the  king's  execution,  Charles  II.  was  proclaimed  in  Ireland. 
Ormond,  having  now  an  army  in  which  Irish  Catholics  and 
English  Royalist  Protestants  were  combined,  hoped  to  be  able  to 
overthrow  the  Commonwealth  both  m  Ireland  and  m  England. 
-~  3.  Cromwell  in  Ireland.  1649—1650. — To  Cromwell  such  a 
situation  was  intolerable.  His  Puritan  zeal  led  him  to  regard  with 
loathing  Ormond's  league  with  the  Catholics,  and  he  was  too 
thorough  an  Englishman  not  to  resolve  that,  if  there  was  to  be  a 
struggle,  England  must  conquer  Ireland,  and  not  Ireland  England. 
On  August  15  he  landed  at  Dublin.  On  September  1 1  he  stormed 
Drogheda,  where  he  put  2,000  men  to  the  sword,  a  slaughter  which 
was  in  strict  accordance  with  the  laws  of  war  of  that  day,  which 
left  garrisons  refusing,  as  that  of  Drogheda  had  done,  to  surrender  an 
indefensible  post,  when  summoned  to  do  so,  to  the  mercy  or  cruelty 
of  the  enemy.  Cromwell  had  a  half-suspicion  that  some  farther 
excuse  was  needed.  "  I  am  persuaded,"  he  wrote,  "  that  this  is  a 
righteous  judgment  of  God  upon  those  barbarous  wretches  who 
have  imbrued  their  hands  in  so  much  innocent  blood ;  and  that  it 


1650  DROGHEDA    AND  DUNBAR  563 

will  tend  to  prevent  the  effusion  of  blood  for  the  future — which  are 
the  satisfactory  grounds  to  such  actions,  which  otherwise  cannot 
but  work  remorse  and  regret."  At  Wexford,  where  the  garrison 
continued  to  defend  itself  after  the  walls  had  been  scaled,  there 
was  another  slaughter.  Town  after  tow^n  surrendered.  In  the 
spring  of  1650  Cromwell  left  Ireland.  The  conquest  was  prosecuted 
by  his  successors,  Ireton  and  Ludlow,  with  savage  effectiveness  ; 
and  when  at  last,  in  1652,  the  war  came  to  an  end,  a  great  part  of 
three  out  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland  was  confiscated  for  the 
benefit  of  the  conquering  race.  The  Catholic  landowners  and  other 
persons  who  had  borne  arms  against  the  Parliament  were  driven  into 
the  wilds  of  Connaught,  to  find  there  what  sustenance  they  could. 

4.  Montrose  and  Charles  II.  in  Scotland.  1650. — In  1650 
Cromwell's  services  were  needed  in  Scotland.  In  the  spring, 
Montrose  reappeared  in  the  Highlands,  but  was  betrayed,  carried 
to  Edinburgh,  and  executed  as  a  traitor.  On  June  24  Charles  II. 
landed  in  Scotland,  and,  on  his  engaging  to  be  a  Presbyterian 
king,  found  the  whole  nation  ready  to  support  him.  Fairfax  de- 
clined to  lead  the  English  army  against  Charles,  on  the  plea  that 
the  Scots  had  a  right  to  choose  their  own  form  of  government. 
Cromwell  had  no  such  scruples,  knowing  that,  if  Charles  were  once 
established  in  Scotland,  the  next  thing  would  be  that  the  Scots 
would  try  to  impose  their  form  of  government  on  England. 
Cromwell,  being  appointed  General  in  the  room  of  Fairfax, 
marched  into  Scotland,  and  attempted  to  take  Edinburgh ;  but  he 
was  out- manoeuvred  by  David  Leslie  (see  p.  549),  who  was  now 
the  Scottish  commander,  and,  to  save  his  men  from  starvation,  had 
to  retreat  to  Dunbar. 

5.  Dunbar  and  Worcester.  1650— 1651.  — Cromwell's  position 
at  Dunbar  was  forlorn  enough.  The  Scots  seized  the  passage  by 
which  alone  he  could  retreat  to  England  by  land,  whilst  the  mass 
of  their  host  was  posted  inaccessibly  on  the  top  of  a  long  hill  in 
front  of  him.  If  he  sailed  home,  his  flight  would  probably  be  the 
signal  for  a  rising  of  all  the  Cavaliers  and  Presbyterians  in  England. 
The  Scots,  however,  relieved  him  of  his  difficulties.  They  were 
weary  of  waiting,  and,  on  the  evening  of  September  2,  they  de- 
scended the  hill.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  3rd,  Cromwell, 
crying  "  Let  God  arise  ;  let  His  enemies  be  scattered,"  charged 
into  their  right  wing  before  the  whole  army  had  time  to  draw  up 
in  line  of  battle,  and  dashed  them  into  utter  ruin.  Edinburgh 
surrendered  to  him,  but  there  was  still  a  large  Scottish  army  on 
foot,  and,  in  August  1651,  its  leaders,  taking  Charles  with  them, 


564 


THE  COMMONWEALTH  ^  PROTECTORATE 


1651 


pushed  on  into  England,  where  they  hoped  to  raise  an  insurrection 
before  Cromwell  could  overtake  them.  On  they  marched,  with 
Cromwell  following  hard  upon  their  heels.  Fear  kept  those  who 
sympathised  with  Charles  from  rising,  and,  at  Worcester,  on 
September  3— the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Dunbar — Cromwell 
absolutely  destroyed  the  Scottish  army.  Those  who  were  not  slain 
were  taken  prisoners,  and  many  of  the  prisoners  sent  as  slaves  to 
Barbadoes.  "The  dimensions  of  this  mercy,"  wrote  Cromwell, 
"are  above  my  thoughts.  It  is,  for  aught  I  know,  a  crowning 
mercy."     He  spoke  truly.     Never  again  was  he  called  on  to  draw 


^ 

a'       ^ 

PI 

1 

i? 

-^^^^^^& 

Bfi^^^^^^^^^ 

A  coach  of  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  :  from  an  engraving  by- 
John  Dunstall. 


sword  in  England.  Charles  succeeded  m  making  his  escape  to 
France,  on  one  occasion  concealing  himself  amidst  the  thick 
leafage  of  an  oak,  whilst  his  pursuers  rode  unwittingly  below. 

6.  The  Navigation  Act.  1651.— Ever  since  the  days  of  James  I. 
there  had  existed  a  commercial  rivalry  between  England  and  the 
Dutch  Republic,  and  disputes  relating  to  trade  constantly  arose. 
Latterly  these  disputes  had  been  growing  more  acute.  Early  in 
1648  Spain  came  to  terms  with  the  Dutch  by  acknowledging  their 
independence,  and,  later  in  the  same  year,  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
in  Germany  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia, 


1 648-1653  THE   NAVIGATION  ACT  565 

though  war  between  France  and  Spain  still  continued.     Hence- 
forth   religion   was    no    longer  made    the  pretext  for  war  on  the 
Continent  ;  and  States  contended  with  one  another  because  they 
wished  either  to  annex  territory,  or  to  settle  some  trade  dispute 
in  their  own  favour.     In  1650  the  Stadholder,  William  II. — the 
son-in-law  of  Charles  I.— died,  and  the  office  which  he  held  was 
abolished,  the  government  of  the  Dutch  Republic  falling  completely 
under  the  control  of  the  merchants  of  the  Province  of  Holland,  in 
which  were  situated  the  great  commercial  ports  of  Amsterdam  and 
Rotterdam.     The  Dutch  had  got  into  their  hands  the  carrying  trade       I 
of  Europe.     In  1651  the  English  Parliament  passed  the  Navigation        ] 
Act,  to  put  an  end  to  this  state  of  things.     English  vessels  alone       / 
were  to  be  allowed  to  import  goods  into  England,  except  in  the 
case  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  countr>'  in  which  the  goods  which 
they  carried  were  produced. 
/>^      7.  The  Dutch  War.      1652— 1653.— War  with  the  Dutch  soon 
followed.     Vane,  the  leading  man  in  the  Committee  of  the  Council 
of  State  which  managed  the  navy,  had  put  the  fleet  into  excellent 
condition.      Its  command    was    given   to    Blake,    who  had  been 
noted  as  a  soldier  by  the  defence  of  Taunton  (see  p.  547)  in  the 
Civil  War,  but  who  never  went  to  sea  till  1649,  when  he  was  over 
fifty.     Yet  Blake  soon  found  himself  at  home  on  board  ship,  and 
won  the  confidence  of  officers  and  men.       Battle  after  battle  was 
fought   between   the    English    and    Dutch    fleets.      The    sturdy 
antagonists  were  well  matched,   though  the  English  ships  were      . 
larger  and  more  powerfully  armed.      In   November  1652,   Tromp    /  ^ 
(the  Dutch  Admiral)  got  the  better  of  Blake,  but  in  February  1653    ' 
there  was  another  battle,  in  which  Blake  got  the  upper  hand  ;  but 
it  was  no  crushing  victory,  like  Dunbar  and  Worcester.     In  the 
summer  of  1653  the  English  gained  two  more  victories,  but  though 
they  attempted  to  blockade  the  Dutch  ports,  they  were  obliged  to 
give  up  the  attempt. 

8.  Unpopularity  of  the  Parliament.  1652— 1653.— At  home, 
the  truncated  Parliament  was  becoming  increasingly  unpopular. 
Ever  sttw;e  the  end  of  the  first  Civil  War,  Parliament  had  sup- 
plied itself^tti  money  by  forcing  Royalists  to  compound — that 
is  to  say,  to  pay  dowff-a-sujii^of  money,  without  which  they  were 
not  allowed  to  enjoy  their  estates ;  and  these  compositions,  as 
they  were  called,  were  still  exacted  from  men  who  had  joined  in  the 
second  Civil  War,  or  had  favoured  the  invasion  by  Charles  II.  The 
system,  harsh  in  itself,  was  not  fairly  carried  out.  Members  of 
Parliament  took  bribes,  and  let  the  briber  off  more  easily  than  they 


566  THE  COMMONWEALTH  ^  PROTECTORATE        1653 

did  others  who  neglected  to  give  them  money.   Those  who  were  not 
Royalists  had  grievances  of  their  own.    Many  of  the  members  used 
their  power  in  their  own   interest,  disregarding  justice,  and  pro- 
moting their  sons  and  nephews  in  the  public  service. 
^      9.  Vane's  Reform  Bill.     1653.— For  a  long  time  Cromwell  and 
the  officers  had  been  urging  Parliament  to  dissolve  itself  and  to 
provide  for  the  election  of  a  new  Parliament,  which  would  be  more 
truly  representative.     Vane  had,  indeed,  brought  in  a  Reform  Bill, 
providing  for  a  redistribution  of  seats,  depriving  small  hamlets  of 
the  franchise,  and  conferring  it  upon  populous  towns  and  counties  ; 
but  the  discussion  dragged  on,  and  the  army  was  growing  im- 
patient.    Yet,  impatient  as  the  army  was,  officers  and  politicians 
alike  recognised  that  a  freely-elected  Parliament  would  probably 
overthrow  the   Commonwealth   and   recall   the  king.      Cromwell 
suggested  that  a  committee  of   officers   and  politicians   should 
be  formed   to  consult  on  securities  to   be  taken   against  such  a 
catastrophe.     The  securities  which  pleased  the  members  of  Parlia- 
ment were,  that  all  members  then  sitting  should  continue  to  sit  in 
the  next  Parliament,  without  fresh  election,  and  should  be  formed 
into  a  committee  having  power  to  reject  any  new  member  whom 
they  considered  it  desirable  to  exclude. 
^       10.  Dissolution  of  the  Long  Parliament  by  Cromwell.    1653.  — 
Cromwell,  who  disliked  this  plan,  was  assured,  on  April  19,  by 
one  of  the  leading  members  of  Parliament  that  nothing  would  be 
done  in  a  hurry.     On  the  next  day,  April  20,  he  heard  that  the 
House  was  passing  its  bill  in  the  form  which  he  disliked.     Going 
to  the  House,  when  the  last  vote  on  the  bill  was  about  to  be  taken 
he  rose  to  speak.     Parliament,  he  said,  had  done  well  in  its  care 
for  the  public  good,  but  it  had  been  stained  with  '  injustice,  delays 
of  justice,  self-interest.'     Being  interrupted  by  a  member,  he  blazed 
up  into  anger.     "  Come,  come  !  ^'  he  cried  ;    "  we  have  had  enough 
of  this.     I  will  put  an  end  to  this.     It  is  not  fit  you  should  sit  here 
any  longer."     He  called  in  his  soldiers,  and  bade  them  clear  the 
House,   following   the   members   with  words   of  obloquy  as  they 
passed  out.     "  What  shall  we  do  with   this  bauble  ? "  he  asked, 
taking  up  the  mace.     "  Take  it  away."     "  It  is  you,"  he  said  to 
such  of  the  members  as  still  lingered,  "  that  have  forced  me  to  do 
this.     I  have  sought  the  Lord  night  and  day,  that  He  would  rather 
slay  me  than  put  me  upon  the  doing  of  this  work." 
<^        II.  The  so-called    Barebone's    Parliament.      1653. — Cromwell 
and  the  officers  shrank  from  summoning  an  elected  Parliament. 
They  gathered  an  assembly  of  their  own  nominees,  to  which  men 


1653 


THE  BAREBONE'S  PARLIAMENT 


567 


gave,  in  derision,  the  title  of  the  Barebone's  ParHament,  because  a 
certain  Praise-God  Barebone  sat  in  it.  In  a  speech  at  its  opening,  on 
July  4,  Cromwell  told  them  that  England  ought  to  be  governed  by 
godly  men,  and  that  they  had  been  selected  to  govern  it  because 
they  were  godly.  Unfortunately,  many  of  these  godly  men  were 
crotchety  and  unpractical.  A  large  number  of  them  wanted  to 
abolish  the    Court   of  Chancery  without   providing   a   substitute, 


Oliver  Croniwell :  from  the  painting  by  Samuel  Cooper 
at  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge. 

and  a  majority  resolved  to  abolish  tithes  without  providing  any 
other  means  for  the  support  of  the  clergy.  At  the  same  time, 
enthusiasts  outside  Parliament— the  Fifth  Monarchy  men,  as  they 
were  called— declared  that  the  time  had  arrived  for  the  reign 
of  the  saints,  and  that  they  were  themselves  the  saints.  All  who 
had  anything  to  lose  were  terrified,  and  turned  to  Cromwell  for 


!^ 


568         THE   COMMONWEALTH  cr    PROTECTORATE        1653 

support,  as  it  was  known  that  no  man  in  England  had  stronger 
common  sense,  or  was  less  likely  to  be  carried  away  by  such 
dreamers.  In  the  Parliament  itself  there  was  a  strong  minority 
which  thought  it  desirable  that,  if  tithes  were  abolished,  support 
should  be  provided  for  the  clergy  in  some  other  way.  These  men, 
on  December  11,  got  up  early  in  the  morning,  and,  before  their 
opponents  knew  what  they  were  about,  declared  Parliament  to  be 
dissolved,  and  placed  supreme  authority  in  the  hands  of  Cromwell. 

12.  The  Protectorate,  and  the  Instrument  of  Government. 
i653._On  December  16  a  constitutional  document,  known  as  The 
Instrwneiit  of  Governmeftt,  was  drawn  up  by  Cromwell's  military 
supporters,  and  accepted  by  himself.  Cromwell  was  to  be  styled 
Lord  Protector,  a  title  equivalent  to  that  of  Regent,  of  which  the 
last  instance  had  been  that  of  the  Protector  Somerset  (see  p.  412). 
The  Protector  was  to  enter,  to  some  extent,  upon  the  duties  which 
had  formerly  devolved  on  the  king,  fThere  was  to  be  a  Parliament 
consisting  of  a  single  House,  which  was  to  meet  once  in  three 
year^from  which  all  who  nad  taken  the  king's  part  were  excluded, 

"as^ttiey  also  were  from  voting  at  elections.  The  constituencies 
were  to  be  almost  identical  with  the  reformed  ones  established  by 
Vane's  Reform  Bill  (see  p.  566).  The  Protector  was  to  appoint  the 
executive  officials,  and  to  have  affixed  revenue  sufficient  to  pay  the 
army  and  navy  and  the  ordinary  expenses'  oT  Government ;  but  if 
he  wanted  more  for  extraordinary  purposes  he  could  only  obtain  it 
by  means  of  a  Parliamentary  grant.  New  laws  were  to  be  made  by 
Parliament  alone,  the  Protector  having  no  veto  upon  them,  though 
he  was  to  have  an  opportunity  of  criticising  them,  if  he  wished  to 
urge  Parliament  to  change  its  purpose.  The  main  lines  of  the 
constitution  were,  however,  laid  down  in  the  Instrument  itself,  and 
Parliament  had  no  power  given  it  to  make  laws  contrary  to  the 
Instrument.  In  the  executive  government  the  Protector  was  re- 
strained, not  by  Parliament,  but  by  a  Council  of  State,  the  members 
of  which  he  could  not  dismiss  as  the  king  had  dismissed  his  Privy 
Councillors. .  The  first  members  were  nominated  in  the  Instrument, 
and  were  appomted  for  life  ;  but  when  vacancies  occurred.  Parlia- 
ment was  to  give  in  six  names,  of  which  the  Council  was  to  select 
two,  leaving  to  the  Protector  only  the  final  choice  of  one  out  of  two. 
Without  the  consent  of  this  entirely  independent  Council,  the 
Protector  could  take  no  step  of  importance. 

13.  efcftjacter  of  the  Instrument  of  Government. —The  Instru- 
ment of  Gov^l«iiient  allowed  less  Parliamentary  control  than 
had  been  given  to  the^isojog  Parliament  after  the  passing  of  the  Tri- 


1653-1654    A    CONSTITUTIONAL  PROTECTORATE  569 

.^nial  Act  and  the  Tonnage  and  Poundage  Act  (see  pp.  530,  531) : 
as,  though  Parliament  could  now  pass  laws  without  any  check  cor- 
respondin"g"^-tQrtie  necessity  of  submitting  them  to  the  royal  assent, 
it  could  not  pas>4aws  on  the  constitutional  points  which  the 
Instrument  of  GovernJi*^  professed  to  have  settled  for  ever. 
Neither — except  when  ther6^>*j^  an  extraordinary  demand  for 
money — could  it  stop  the  supph^V^o  as  to  bring  the  executive 
under  its  power.  It  was,  rather,  the  'iatention  of  the  framers  of 
the  Instrument  to  prevent  that  Parliameitta^  absolutism  which 
had  proved  so  hurtful  in  the  later  years  of  the'^i^g  Parliament. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  gave  to  the  Council  of  State^real  control 
over  the  Protector  ;  and  it  is  this  which  shows  that  tk^y  were 
intent  on  averting  absolutism  in  the  Protector,  as  well  as  absolutism 
in  Parliament,  though  the  means  taken  by  them  to  effect  their 
end  was  different  from  anything  adopted  by  the  nation  in  later 
years. 

14.  Oliver's  Government.  1653— 1654. — Before  meeting  Parlia- 
ment, Oliver  had  some  months  in  which  he  could  show  the  quality 
of  the  nevy  Government.  On  April  5, 1654,  he  brought  the  war  with 
the  Dutch  \p  a  close,  and  subsequently  concluded  treaties  with 
other  Europe*^  powers.  On  July  10  he  had  Dom  Pantaleon  Sa, 
the  brother  of  tt>^  Portuguese  ambassador,  beheaded  for  a  murder. 
He  had  more  thckn  enough  domestic  difficulties  to  contend  with. 
The  Fifth- Monarch>Nmen,  and  other  rel'gious  enthusiasts,  attacked 
him  for  treachery  to  re^blicanism,  whilst  Charles  II.  incited  his 
followers  to  rise  in  insurr^tion  against  the  usurper.  Some  repub- 
licans were  imprisoned,  andHjhe  royalists  Gerard  and  Vowel,  who 
tried  to  assassinate  Oliver,  we^&^executed.  In  the  meanwhile,  the 
Protector  and  Council  moved  forWrd  in  the  path  of  conservative 
reform.  The  Instrument  allowed  tli^i  to  issue  ordinances,  which 
would  be  valid  till  Parliament  could  ex^^ine  them  ;  and,  amongst 
others  which  he  sent  forth,  was  one  to  reform  the  Court  of  Chancery, 
and  another  to  establish  a  Commission  ofxTriers,  to  reject  all 
ministers  presented  to  livings,  if  it  considered  them  to  be  unfit,  and 
another  Commission  of  Ejectors,  to  turn  out  those  who,  being  in 
possession,  were  deemed  unworthy.  Oliver  would\have  nothing 
to  say  to  the  Voluntary  system.  Tithes  were  to  be  rb^ained,  and 
religious  worship  was  to  be  established ;  but  there  was  ^o  be  no 
inquiry  whether  the  ministers  were  Presbyterians,  Independents, 
or  anything  else,  provided  they  were  Puritans.  There  was  \^  be 
complete  toleration  of  other  Puritan  congregations  not  belongmg 
to  the  established  churches  ;  whilst  the  Episcopalians,  though  not 
II.  p  p 


570    THE  COMMONWEALTH  &-  rROTECTORATE    1654-1655 

legally  tolerated,  were  as  yet  frequently  allowed  to  meet  privately 
without  notice  being  taken  of  them.  Other  ordinances  decreed  a 
complete  Union  M^ith  Scotland  and  Ireland,  both  countries  being 
ordered  to  return  members  to  the  Parliament  at  Westminster.  As 
far  as  the  real  Irish  were  concerned,  the  Union  was  entirely 
illusory,  as  all  Roman  Catholics  were  excluded  from  the  fran- 
chise. 

15.  The  First  Protectorate  Parliament.  1654—1655. — On  Sep- 
tember 3,  1654^  the  First  Protectorate  Parliament  met.  Its  first 
act  was  to  question  the  authority  of  private  persons  to  frame  a 
constitution  for  the  State,  on  which  Oliver  required  the  members 
of  Parliament  to  sign  a  paper  acknowledging  the  government  as 
established  in  a  single  person  and  in  Parliament,  and  turned  out 
of  the  House  those  who  refused  to  sign  it.  The  House,  thus 
diminished,  drew  up  a  new  constitution,  altering  the  balance  in 
favour  of  Parliament,  and  expressly  declaring  that  the  constitution 
was  liable  to  revision  whenever  the  Protector  and  Parliament 
agreed  to  change  it.  It  is  probable  that  Oliver  would  have  con- 
sented to  this  change,  but  a  dispute  arose  upon  the  control  of  the 
army.  Oliver  v.ished  that  it  should  permanently  remain  under 
the  Protector,  and  that  Parliament  should  be  unable  to  withdraw  the 
sums  of  money  fixed  for  its  maintenance.  Parliament,  on  the 
other  hand,  insisted  on  voting  the  money  only  for  five  years,  thus 
claiming  to  determine,  at  the  end  of  that  time,  whether  the  army 
should  be  disbanded  or  not.  The  only  real  solution  of  the  difficulty 
lay  in  a  frank  acknowledgment  that  the  nation  must  be  allowed  to 
have  its  way  for  evil  or  for  good.  Oliver,  however,  suspected — doubt- 
less \yith  truth^— that,  if  the  nation  were  freely  consulted,  it  would 
sweep  away  not  only  the  Protectorate,  but  Puritanism  itself 
Practically,  therefore,  the  question  at  issue  was  whether  the  Govern- 
ment should  be  controlled  by  Parliament  or  by  the  army.  On 
January  22,  finding  that  the  House  was  not  likely  to  give  way,  he 
dissolved  Parliament. 

16.  The  Major-Generals.  1655. — The  Instrument  of  Govern- 
ment authorised  the  Protector  to  levy  sufficient  taxes  without 
consent  of  Parliament  to  enable  him  to  meet  the  expenditure  in 
quiet  times,  and  after  the  dissolution  Oliver  availed  himself  of  this 
authorisation.  Many  people,  however,  refused  to  pay,  on  the 
ground  that  the  Instrument,  unless  recognised  by  Parliament,  was 
not  binding  ;  and,  as  some  of  the  judges  agreed  with  them,  Oliver 
could  only  enforce  payment  by  turning  out  those  judges  who 
opposed  him,  and  putting  others  in  their  places.     Moreover,  the 


Y 


1 654- 1655  J  MI  LIT  A  R  V  PRO  TEC  TOR  A  TE  57 1 

Government  was  embarrassed  by  attempts  to  overthrow  it.  There 
were  preparations  for  resistance  by  the  repubHcans  in  the  army — 
suppressed,  indeed,  by  the  arrest  and  imprisonment  of  the  leaders 
— and  there  was  an  actual  Royalist  outburst,  with  wide  ramifications, 
which  showed  itself  openly  in  the  South  of  England,  where  a 
Royalist  gentleman  named  Penruddock  rode  into  Salisbury  at  the 
head  of  200  men,  and  seized  the  judges  who  had  come  down  for 
the  assizes.  In  the  face  of  such  danger,  Oliver  abandoned  all 
pretence  of  constitutional  government.  He  divided  England  into 
eleven  military  districts,  over  each  of  which  he  set  a  Major-General, 
with  arbitrary  powers  for  maintaining  order,  and,  by  a  mere  stroke 
of  the  pen,  ordered  a  payment  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  incomes 
of  Royalists.  Military  rule  developed  itself  more  strongly  than 
before.  On  November  27  Oliver,  in  his  fear  of  the  Royalists, 
ordered  the  suppression  of  the  private  worship  of  those  who  clung 
to  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  ;  perceiving  rightly  that  the  most 
dangerous  opponents  of  his  system  were  to  be  found  amongst 
sincere  Episcopalians.  He  also  made  use  of  the  Major-Generals 
to  suppress  vice  and  immorality  by  shutting  up  alehouses  and 
imprisoning  persons  whose  lives  were  disorderly. 

17.  Oliver's  Foreign  Policy.  1654 — T655. — Partly,  perhaps,  be- 
cause he  hoped  to  divert  attention  from  his  difficulties  at  home,  partly 
because  he  wished  his  country  to  be  great  in  war  as  well  as  in  peace, 
Oliver  had  for  some  time  been  engaging  in  naval  enterprise.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  career  he  had  been  friendly  to  Spain,  because 
France  intrigued  with  the  Presbyterians  and  the  king.  France  and 
Spain  were  still  at  war,  and  when  Cromwell  became  Protector  he 
offered  his  alliance  to  Spain,  on  condition  that  Spain  would  help 
him  to  reconquer  Calais,  and  would  place  Dunkirk  in  his  hands 
as  a  pledge  for  the  surrender  of  Calais  after  it  had  been  taken. 
He  also  asked  that  commerce  between  England  and  her  own  West 
Indian  colonies  should  be  free  from  Spanish  attacks,  and  for  more 
open  liberty  of  religion  for  the  English  in  the  Spanish  dominions 
than  had  been  offered  by  Spain  in  its  treaty  with  Charles  I.  The 
Spanish  ambassador  replied  that  to  ask  these  two  things  was  to 
ask  his  master's  two  eyes,  and  plainly  refused  to  admit  an  English 
garrison  into  Dunkirk.  Upon  this,  Cromwell  sent  out,  in  the  end 
of  1654,  two  fleets,  one— under  Blake— to  go  to  the  Mediterranean, 
to  get  reparation  from  the  pirates  of  Tunis  and  Algiers  for  wrongs 
done  to  English  commerce  ;  and  the  other — under  Penn  and 
Venables— to  seize  a  Spanish  island  in  the  West  Indies.     Blake 

i>  p  2 


0^ 


572    THE  COMMONWEALTH  a'  PROTECTORATE    1655-1656 

was  successful,  but  Penn  and  Venables  failed  in  an  attempt  on  San 
Domingo,  though  they  took  possession  of  Jamaica,  which  at  that 
time  was  not  thought  to  be  of  much  value. 

18.  The  French  Alliance.  1655. — As  Oliver  could  not  get 
what  he  wanted  from  Spain,  he  agreed  to  a  treaty  with  France  to 
end  what  had  been  virtually  a  maritime  war,  in  which  trading- 
ships  had  been  seized  on  both  sides.  Freedom  of  religion  was 
to  be  accorded  to  Englishmen  in  France.  Before  any  treaty  had 
been  signed,  news  arrived  that  the  Duke  of  Savoy  had  sent  his 
soldiers  to  compel  his  Vaudois  subjects  to  renounce  their  religion, 
which  was  now  similar  to  that  of  the  Protestants,  though  they 
had  revolted  from  the  Papacy  long  before  Luther's  Reformation. 
These  soldiers  committed  terrible  ou.trages  amongst  the  peaceful 
mountaineers.  Those  who  escaped  the  sword  were  carried  off  as 
prisoners,  or  fled  to  the  snowy  mountains,  where  they  perished  of 
cold  and  hunger.  Milton's  voice  was  raised  to  plead  for  them. 
"Avenge,"  he  wrote — 

"  O  Lord,  thy  slaughtered  saints,  whose  bones 
Lie  scattered  on  the  Alpine  mountains  cold — 
Even  men  who  kept  thy  truth,  so  pure  of  old, 

When  all  our  fathers  worshipped  stocks  and  stones. " 

Cromwell  at  once  told  Mazarin  that,  if  he  cared  for  peace  with 
England,  this  persecution  must  stop.  Mazarin  put  pressure  on  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  and  liberty  of  worship  was  secured  to  the  Vaudois. 
Then,    on    October  24,    1655,    Oliver  concluded  the   treaty    with 

^-^  France. 

^  19.  Oliver's  Second  Parliament,  and  the  Humble  Petition  and 
Advice.  1656, — War  with  Spain  was  a  necessary  consequence  of 
the  seizure  of  Jamaica,  and,  in  1656,  Oliver  called  a  second  Parlia- 
ment, to  give  him  money.  Yet  it  was  certain  that  any  freely-elected 
Parliament  would  try  to  grasp  authority  for  itself.  When  Parlia- 
ment met,  on  September  17,  Cromwell  began  by  excluding  about 
a  hundred  members  who  were  likely  to  oppose  him.  After  this, 
his  relations  with  the  House  were  smoother  than  they  had  been  in 
1654 — especially  as  news  arrived  that  Stainer,  with  some  of  Blake's 
ships,  had  captured  part  of  the  Spanish  treasure-fleet  on  its  way 
from  America  ;  and,  soon,  thirty-eight  waggons  laden  with  Spanish 
silver,  rolled  through  the  London  streets.  Parliament  voted  the 
money  needed,  and  OHver,  in  return,  withdrew  the  Major-Generals. 
Then  there  was  discovered  a  plot  to  murder  the  Protector,  and 
Parliament,   anxious   for  security,   drew   up   amendments   to   the 


1656- 1658  BREACH  WITH  PARLIAMENT  573 

Constitution,  known  as  The  Humble  Petition  and  Advice.  Mem- 
bers of  the  Council  of  State  were  to  be  approved  by  Parliament, 
and  the  power  of  excluding  members  from  the  House  of  Commons 
was  to  be  renounced  by  the  Protector.  There  was  also  to  be  a 
second  House  named  in  the  first  instance  by  the  Protector,  who  was 
given  power  to  exclude  members  subsequently  named  by  himself  or 
his  successors  from  taking  their  seats.  The  object  of  this  curious 
provision  was  to  secure  a  house  which  might  be  trusted  for  all  time 
to  throw  out  measures  opposed  to  Puritanism,  even  when  they 
were  supported  by  the  House  of  Commons.  Oliver  was  asked  to 
take  the  title  of  king,  with  the  right  of  naming  his  own  successor. 
He  refused  the  kingship,  as  the  army  disliked  it,  and  also,  perhaps, 
because  he  felt  that  there  would  be  an  incongruity  in  its  assumption 
by  himself.  The  rest  of  the  terms  he  accepted,  and,  on  June  26, 
1657,  before  the  end  of  the  session,  he  was  installed  as  Lord 
Protector  with  greater  solemnity  than  before.  It  was  already 
known  that,  on  April  20,  Blake  had  destroyed  a  great  Spanish  fleet 
at  Santa  Cruz,  in  Teneriffe.  On  his  way  back,  on  August  7,  he 
died  at  sea,  and  was  brought  home  to  be  buried  in  Westminster 

iw^^bbey. 

■  "^  20.  The  Dissolution  of  the  Second  Protectorate  Parliament. 
1658. — On  January  20,  1658,  Parliament  met  for  its  second  session. 
The  House  of  Commons  had  to  take  back  the  hundred  excluded 
members  who  were  enemies  of  Oliver,  and  to  lose  a  large 
number  of  Oliver's  warmest  supporters,  who  were  removed  to  the 
other  House.  The  Commons  had  no  longer  an  Oliverian  majority, 
and,  without  attacking  the  Protector  himself,  they  now  attacked 
the  second  House,  which  gave  itself  the  airs  of  the  ancient  House 
of  Lords.  On  February  4,  in  a  speech  of  mingled  sadness  and 
irritation,  Oliver  dissolved  his  second  Parliament.  "  The  Lord," 
he  said,  "  judge  between  me  and  you." 

21.  Victory  Abroad  and  Failure  at  Home.  1657— 1658. — 
Abroad,  Oliver's  policy  was  crowned  with  success.  In  1657,  a 
treaty  of  alliance  was  made  with  France,  and  6,000  English  troops, 
co-operating  with  the  French  army,  captured  Mardyke.  On  June 
4,  1658,  they  defeated  the  Spanish  army  in  a  great  battle  on  the 
Dunes,  and  on  the  14th  Dunkirk  surrendered,  and  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  English.  It  has  often  been  doubted  whether  these 
successes  were  worth  gaining.  France  was  growing  in  strength, 
whilst  Spain  was  declining,  and  it  would  not  be  long  before  France 
would  become  as  formidable  to  England  as  Spain  had  been  in  the 
days  of  Elizabeth.    Cromwell,  however,  was  not  the  man  to  base  his 


574    THE  COMMONWEALTH  ^  PROIECTORAI^E    1658- 1659 

policy  on  the  probabilities  of  the  future.  At  home  and  abroad  he 
faced  the  present,  and,  since  the  day  on  which  the  king  had 
mounted  the  scaffold,  the  difficulties  at  home  had  been  over- 
whelming. Though  his  efforts  to  restore  constitutional  order  had 
been  stupendous,  and  his  political  aims  had  been  noble,  yet  he 
was  attempting  that  which  he,  at  least,  could  never  do.  Men  will 
submit  to  the  clearly  expressed  will  of  the  nation  to  which  they 
belong,  or  to  a  government  ruHng  in  virtue  of  institutions  which 
they  and  their  ancestors  have  been  in  the  habit  of  obeying,  but 
they  will  not  long  submit  to  a  successful  soldier,  even  though,  like 

-vApiiver,  he  be  a  statesman  as  well. 

'  .  22.  Oliver's  Death.  1658. —Oliver  was  growing  weary  of  his 
unending,  hopeless  struggle-  On  August  6,  1658,  he  lost  his 
favourite  daughter,  and  soon  afterwards  he  sickened.  There  were 
times  when  old  doubts  stole  over  his  mind  :  "  It  is  a  fearful  thing," 
he  repeated,  "  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  living  God."  Such  fears 
did  not  retain  their  hold  on  his  brave  spirit  for  long  :  *'  I  am  a 
conqueror,"  he  cried,  "and  more  than  a  conqueror,  through  Christ 
that  strengtheneth  me."  On  August  30  a  mighty  storm  passed 
over  England.  The  devil,  said  the  Cavaliers,  was  fetching  home 
the  soul  of  the  usurper.  Oliver's  own  soul  found  utterance  in  one 
last  prayer  of  faith  :  "  Lord,"  he  murmured,  "  though  I  am  a 
miserable  and  wretched  creature,  I  am  in  covenant  with  Thee 
through  grace  ;  and  I  may,  I  will  come  to  Thee,  for  Thy  peoplie. 
Thou  hast  made  me,  though  very  unworthy,  a  mean  instrument  to 
do  them  some  good,  and  Thee  service  ;  and  many  of  them  have 
set  too  high  a  value  upon  me,  though  others  wish,  and  would  be 
glad  of,  my  death.  .  .  .  Pardon  such  as  desire  to  trample  upon  the 
dust  of  a  poor  worm,  for  they  are  Thy  people  too  ;  and  pardon  the 
folly  of  this  short  prayer,  even  for  Jesus  Christ's  sake,  and  give  us 
a  good  night,  if  it  be  Thy  pleasure.  Amen."  •  For  three  days  more 
Oliver  lingered  on.  On  September  3,  the  anniversary  of  Dunbar 
and  Worcester,  he  passed  away  to  the  rest  which  he  had  never 
known  on  earth. 

|-  23.  Richard  Cromwell.  1658— 1659.— On  his  deathbed  Oliver 
named,  or  was  said  to  have  named,  his  eldest  son  Richard  as  his 
successor.  The  nation  preferred  Richard  to  his  father,  because  he 
was  not  a  soldier,  and  was  very  little  of  a  Puritan.  On  January 
27,  1659,  a  new  Parliament  met,  chosen  by  the  old,  unreformed 
constituencies,  as  they  had  existed  in  the  time  of  Charles  I. ;  and 
not  by  those  reformed  ones  appointed  by  the  Instrument  of 
Government,  though  Royalists  were  still  excluded  both  from  voting 


i659  THE  ANARCHY  ■  575 

at  the  elections  and  from  sitting  in  Parliament.  In  this  Parhament 
a  majority  supported  Richard,  hoping  that  he  would  consult  the 
wishes  of  the  army  less  than  his  father  had  done.  For  that  very 
reason  the  officers  of  the  army  turned  against  him,  and  asked 
not  only  that  Fleetwood,  Oliver's  son-in-law,  should  be  their  com- 
rriander,  but  that  he  should  be  entirely  independent  of  the  authority 
of  the  Protector,  Richard  nominated  Fleetwood,  but  insisted  upon 
his  acting  under  the  Protector  as  his  Lieutenant-General.  Pailia- 
ment  upheld  the  control  of  the  civil  power  over  the  army.  On 
April  22  the  soldiers  forced  Richard  to  dissolve  Parliament.     On 

^•^ay  25  Richard  abdicated  and  the  Protectorate  came  to  an  end. 

/  24.  The  Long  Parliament  Restored.  1659.  — Already  on  May  7, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  soldiers,  forty-two  members  of  the  so-called 
Rump— the  portion  of  the  Long  Parliament  which  had  continued 
sitting  till  it  was  ejected  by  Cromwell  in  1653  (see  p.  566)— had 
installed  themselves  at  Westminster.  No  hereditary  king  was  ever 
more  tenacious  of  his  rights  than  they.  They  told  the  officers 
*  that  the  Parliament  expected  faithfulness  and  obedience  to  the 
Parliament  and  Commonwealth,'  and,  declaring  all  Olivei-'s  acts  to 
have  been  illegal,  resolved  that  all  who  had  collected  taxes  for 
him  must  repay  the  money.  The  officers,  many  of  whom  had,  as 
Major- Generals,  gathered  taxes  by  authority  from  Oliver,  were 
naturally  indignant.  "  I  know  not,"  said  Lambert — one  of  the 
most  distinguished  of  OHver's  officers—"  why  they  should  not 
be  at  our  mercy  as  well  as  we  at  theirs."  Before  anything  could  be 
done,  news  arrived  that  Sir  George  Booth  had  risen  in  Cheshire 
for  Charles  II.  Lambert  marched  against  him,  and  defeated  him 
at  Winnington  Bridge.  When  he  returned,  the  officers  made 
high  demands  of  Parliament,  and,  when  these  were  rejected,  they 
sent  troops,  on  October  13,  to  keep  the  members  out  of  the 
House.  "  Do  you  not  know  me  ? "  said  the  Speaker,  Lenthall.  "  If 
you  had  been  with  us  at  Winnington  Bridge,"  said  a  soldier,  "we 
V(     should  have  known  you." 

25.  Military  Government.  1659. — The  soldiers  had  come  to 
despise  civilians  merely  because  they  were  civilians.  They  tried 
to  govern  directly,  without  any  civilian  authority  whatever.  The 
attempt  proved  an  utter  failure.  It  was  discovered  that  taxes  were 
paid  less  readily  than  when  there  had  been  a  civilian  Government  to 
exact  them.  The  soldiers  quarrelled  amongst  themselves,  and  the 
officers,  finding  themselves  helpless,  restored  the  Rump  a  second 
time.     On  December  26  it  resumed  its  sittings  at  Westminster. 

26.  Monk  and  the  Rump.      1660.— George  Monk,   who   com- 


(y 


576  THE  COMMONWEALTH  df  PROTECTORATE        1660 

manded  the  forces  in  Scotland,  had  httle  incHnation  to  meddle 
with  politics  ;  but  he  was  a  thorough  soldier,  and  being  a  cool, 
resolute  man,  was  determined  to  bear  this  anarchy  no  longer.  On 
January  i,  1660,  he  crossed  the  Border  with  his  army,  and  on 
January  11  was  joined  by  Fairfax  at  York,  who  brought  with 
him  all  the  weight  of  his  unstained  name  and  his  high  military 
reputation.  On  February  3  Monk  entered  London,  evidently 
wishing  to  feel  his  way.  On  February  6  the  City  of  London, 
which  had  no  members  sitting  in  the  Rump,  declared  that  it  would 
pay  no  taxes  without  representation.  Monk  was  ordered  by  the 
Rump  to  suppress  the  resistance  of  the  City.  On  the  loth  he 
reached  Guildhall.  Keeping  his  ears  open,  he  soon  convinced 
himself  that  the  Rump  was  detested  by  all  parties,  and,  on  the 
CS"'"' morning  of  the  i6th,  declared  for  a  free  Parliament. 

27.  End  of  the  Long  Parliament.  1660.— It  was  easy  to 
coerce  the  Rump,  without  the  appearance  of  using  violence.  On 
February  26,  under  pressure  from  Monk,  it  called  in  the  Pres- 
byterian members  shut  out  by  Pride's  Purge  (see  p.  557).  After 
they  had  taken  their  seats,  a  dissolution,  to  be  followed  by  new 
elections,  was  voted.  At  last,  on  March  16,  the  Long  Parliament 
came,  by  its  own  act,  to  its  unhonoured  end.  The  destinies  of 
England  were  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  new  Parliament, 
which  was  to  be  freely  elected.  The  Restoration  was  a  foregone 
conclusion.  The  predominant  wish  of  Englishmen  was  to  escape 
from  the  rule  of  soldiers,  and,  as  every  recent  form  of  civil  govern- 
ment had  been  discredited,  it  was  natural  to  turn  back  to  that 
which  had  flourished  for  centuries,  and  which  had  fallen  rather 
through  the  personal  demerits  of  the  last  king  than  through  any 
inherent  vices  of  the  system. 
[O  28.  The  Declaration  of  Breda.  1660.— On  April  #^  Charles 
signed  a  declaration,  known  as  the  Declaration  of  Breda.  He 
offered  a  general  pardon  to  all  except  those  specially  exempted  by 
Parliament,  and  promised  to  secure  confiscated  estates  to  their 
new  owners  in  whatever  way  Parliament  should  approve.  He 
also  offered  to  consent  to  a  bill  for  satisfying  the  arrears  of  the 
soldiers,  and  to  another  bill  for  the  establishment  of  '  a  liberty  for 
tender  consciences.'  By  the  Declaration  of  Breda,  Charles  had 
carefully  thrown  upon  Parliament  the  burden  of  proposing  the 
actual  terms  on  which  the  settlement  was  to  be  effected,  and  at  the 
same  time  had  shaken  himself  free  from  his  father's  policy  of 
claiming  to  act  independently  of  Parliament.  The  new  Parlia- 
ment, composed  of  the  two  Houses  of  Lords  and  Commons,  was 


i66o  THE   RESTORATION  577 

known  as  the  Convention  Parliament,  because,  though  conforming 
in  every  other  respect  to  the  old  rules  of  the  Constitution,  the 
House  of  Commons  was  chosen  without  the  king's  writs.  It  met 
on  April  25.  \[The  Declaration^ofJ^reda jre^^^^  i. 

After  unanimously  WeTcomThgme  Declaration,  Parliament  resolved 
that,  'according  to  the  ancient  and  fundamental  laws  of  this 
kingdom,  the  (Government  is,  and  ought  to  be,  by  King,  Lords, 
and  Commons.'     The  Puritan  ]s.evolution  had  come  to  an  end. 


Books  recommended  J07-  further  study  of  Part  VI. 

Ranke,  L.     History  of  England  (English  I'ranslation).     Vol 

p.  386— vol.  iii.  p.  308. 
Hallam,  H.     Constitutional  History  of  England.     Chaps.  VI. -X 
Gardiner,  S.  R.     History  of  England  from  1603-1642. 

History  of  the  Great  Civil  War. 

Masson.     Life  of  Milton,  and  History  of  his  Time.     Vols.  i,-v. 
FORSTER,  J.     Life  of  Sir  John  Eliot. 

The  Grand  Remonstrance. 

Arrest  of  the  Five  Members. 

GuizOT,  F,      Charles  L 
■ Cromwell. 


Richard  Cromwell. 


Hannav,  D.     Admiral  Blake. 


578 


>- 


PART   VII 

THE  POLITICAL  REVOLUTION.      1660-1689 

CHAPTER  XXXVII 

CHARLES   II.    AND   CLARENDON.       166O— 1667 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  Charles  IL,  1660— 1685. 

Charles  II.  lands  at  Dover May  25,  1660 

Dissolution  of  the  Convention  Parliament     .        .    Dec.  29,  1660 
Meeting  of  the  Cavalier  Parliament        .  .      May  8,  rtei"" 

Corporation  Act 1661 

Act  of  Uniformity 1662 

Expulsion  of  the  Dissenting  Ministers   .  .    Aug.  24,  1662 

The  King  declares  for  Toleration      ....    Dec.  26,  1662 

Repeal  of  the  Triennial  Act 1664 

Conventicle  Act 1664 

First  Dutch  War  of  the  Restoration 1665 

The  Plague 1665 

Five  Mile  Act 1665 

Fire  of  London 1666 

Peace  of  Breda July  31,  1667 

Clarendon's  Fall 1667 


I.  Return  of  Charles  II.  1660.— On  May  25,1660,  Charles  II. 
landed  at  Dover,  amidst  shouting  crowds.  On  his  thirtieth  birthday, 
May  29,  he  entered  London,  amidst  greater  and  equally  enthu- 
siastic crowds.  At  Blackheath  was  drawn  up  the  army  which  had 
once  been  commanded  by  Cromwell.  More  than  anything  else, 
the  popular  abhorrence  of  military  rule  had  brought  Charles  home, 
whilst  the  army  itself,  divided  in  opinion,  and  falling  under  the 
control  of  Monk,  was  powerless  to  keep  him  away.  When  the 
king  reached  Whitehall  he  confirmed  Magna  Carta,  the  Petition 
of  Right,  and  other  statutes  by  which  the  royal  power  had  at 
various  times  been  limited. 


i66o 


CONSTITUTIONAL  KINGSHIP 


579 


2.  King  and  Parliament.  1660. — Something  more  than  Acts 
of  Parliament  was  needed  to  limit  the  power  of  the  king.  It 
had  been  found  useless  to  bind  Charles  I.  by  Acts  of  Parliament, 


Charles  TI.  :  from  the  portrait  by  Sir  Peter  Lely  in  Christ's  Hospital,  London. 


because  he  tried  again  and  again  to  introduce  foreign  armies 
into  England  to  set  Parliament  at  naught.  Charles  II.  was,  indeed, 
a  man  of  far  greater  ability  than  his  father,  and  was  quite  as 
ready  as  his  father  to  use  foreign  help  to  get  his  way  at  home. 


^ 


580  CHARLES  II    AND    CLARENDON  1660 

In  the  first  year  after  his  return  he  tried  to  get  money  both 
from  the  Dutch  and  from  the  Spaniards  in  order  to  make  himself 
independent  of  Parliament,  but  his  character  was  very  different 
from  his  father's,  in  so  far  as  he  always  knew — what  Charles  I. 
never  knew— how  much  he  could  do  with  impunity.  Having  none 
of  his  fathers  sense  of  duty,  he  was  always  inclined  to  give  way 
whenever  he  found  it  unpleasant  to  resist.  He  is  reported  to  have 
said  that  he  was  determined  that,  whatever  else  happened,  he 
would  not  go  on  his  travels  again,  and  he  was  perfectly  aware 
that  if  a  single  foreign  regiment  were  brought  by  him  into  England, 
he  would  soon  tind  himself  again  a  wanderer  on  the  Continent.  The 
people  wished  to  be  governed  by  the  king,  but  also  that  the  king 
should  govern  by  the  advice  of  Parliament.  The  restoration  was  a 
restoration  of  Parliament  even  more  than  a  restoration  of  the  king. 

3.  Formation  of  the  Government.  1660. — The  Privy  Council 
of  Charles  II.  was,  at  the  advice  of  Monk,  who  was  created  Duke 
of  Albemarle  in  July,  composed  of  Cavaliers  and  Presbyterians. 
It  was,  however,  too  numerous  to  direct  the  course  of  govern- 
ment, and  Charles  adopted  his  father's  habit  of  consulting,  op 
important  matters,  a  few  special  ministers,  who  were  usually  known 
as  the  Junto.  Albemarle,  as  he  knew  little  and  cared  less  about 
politics,  soon  lost  the  lead,  and  the  supreme  direction  of  alETairs  fell 
to  Hyde,  the  Lord  Chancellor.  Charles  was  too  indolent  and  too 
fond  of  pleasure  to  control  the  government  himself,  and  was  easily 
guided  by  Hyde,  who  was  thoroughly  loyal  to  him,  and  an  excellent 
man  of  business.  Hyde  stood  to  the  king's  other  advisers  very 
much  in  the  position  of  a  modern  Prime  Minister,  but  he  carefully 
avoided  introducing  the  name,  though  it  was  already  in  vogue  in 
France,  and  contented  himself  with  the  real  influence  given  him  by 
his  superior  knowledge.  In  religion  and  politics  he  was  still  what 
he  had  been  in  1641  (see  pp.  533,  534).  He  was  a  warm  supporter 
of  episcopacy  and  the  Prayer  Book.  As  a  lawyer,  he  applauded 
the  political  checks  upon  the  Crown  which  had  been  the  work  of 
the  first  months  of  the  Long  Parliament,  whilst  he  detested  all  the 
revolutionary  measures  by  which,  in  the  autumn  of  1641,  attempts 
had  been  made  to  establish  the  supremacy  of  Parliament  over  the 
king. 

4.  The  Political  Ideas  of  the  Convention  Parliament.  1660. — 
Hyde's  position  was  the  stronger  because,  in  politics  at  least,  the 
Convention  Parliament  agreed  with  him.  The  Cavaliers  in  it 
naturally  accepted  the  legislation  of  the  Long  Parliament,  up  to 
August  1641,  when  Charles  I.  left  for  Scotland  (see  p.  532),  as  their 


i66o  CAVALIERS  AND  PRESBYTERIANS  581 

own  party  had  concurred  in  it.  The  Presbyterians,  on  the  other 
hand,  who  now  represented  the  party  which  had  formerly  been  led 
by  Pym  and  Hampden,  saw  no  reason  to  distrust  Charles  11.  as 
they  had  distrusted  his  father,  and  were,  therefore,  ready  to  abandon 
the  demand  for  further  restrictions  on  the  royal  power,  on  which 
they  had  vehemently  insisted  in  the  latter  part  of  1641  and  in  the 
earlier  part  of  1642  (see  p.  534).  In  constitutional  matters,  therefore, 
Cavaliers  and  Presbyterians  were  fused  into  one,  on  the  basis  of 


^ 


Edward  Hyde,  first  Earl  of  Clarendon,  1608-1674  :  from  an 
engraving  by  Loggan. 

taking  up  the  relations  between  the  Crown  and  Parliament  as  they 
stood  in  August  1641.  This  view  of  the  situation  was  favoured  by 
the  lawyers,  one  of  whom.  Sir  Orlando  Bridgman,  pointed  out  that, 
though  the  king  was  not  responsible,  his  ministers  were  ;  and,  for 
the  time,  every  one  seemed  to  be  satisfied  with  this  way  of  keeping 
up  the  indispensable  understanding  between  king  and  Parliament. 
What  would  happen  if  a  king  arose  who,  like  Charles  I.,  deliberately 
set  himself  against  Parliament,  no  one  cared  to  inquire. 

5.   Execution  of  the  Political  Articles  of  the  Declaration  of 


582  CHARLES  11.    AND   CLARENDON  1660 

Breda.  1660. — Of  the  four  articles  of  the  Declaration  of  Breda, 
three  were  concerned  with  politics,  and  these  were  adopted  by  Par- 
liament, with  such  modifications  as  it  pleased  to  make.  The  estates 
of  the  king  and  of  the  bishops  and  chapters  were  taken  out  of  the 
hands  of  those  who  had  acquired  them,  but  all  private  sales  were 
declared  valid,  though  Royalists  had  often  sold  their  land  in  order 
to  pay  the  fines  imposed  on  them  by  the  Long  Parliament.  An 
Act  of  Indemnity  was  passed,  in  which,  however,  there  were  many 
exceptions,  and,  in  the  end,  thirteen  regicides,  together  with  Vane, 
were  executed,  and  the  bodies  of  Cromwell,  Ireton,  and  Bradshaw 


A  mounted  nobleman  and  his  squire  :  from  Ogilby's  Coronation 
Procession  0/ Charles  J  I. 

dug  up  and  hanged.  The  bodies  of  other  noted  persons,  including 
those  of  Pym  and  Blake,  which  had  been  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  were  also  dug  up,  and  thrown  into  a  pit  outside.  Many 
regicides  and  other  partisans  of  the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate 
were  punished  with  imprisonment  and  loss  of  goods,  whilst  others, 
again,  who  escaped,  remained  exiles  till  their  death.  Money  was 
raised  in  order  that  the  army  might  be  paid  as  had  been  promised, 
after  which  it  was  disbanded.  Feudal  dues  and  purveyance  were 
abolished,  and  an  excise  voted  to  Charles  in  their  place.  The 
whole  revenue  of  the  Crown  was  fixed  at  1,200,000/. 


i66o 


A   PROJECT  OF   TOLERATION 


583 


6.  Ecclesiastical  De- 
bates. 1660.— On  ecclesi- 
astical matters  the  two 
parties  were  less  harmoni- 
ous. The  cavaliers  wanted 
to  restore  episcopacy  and 
the  Prayer  Book.  The 
Presbyterians  were  ready 
to  go  Iback  in  religion,  as 
in  politics,  to  the  ideas  of 
August,  1641,  and  to  esta- 
blish \  modified  episco- 
pacy, in  which  bishops 
would  tie  surrounded  with 
clerical  ^councillors,  whose 
advice  !they  would  be 
bound  t|o  take.  To  this 
scheme  Charles  gave  his 
approval  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  if  nothing  else 
had  beeniin  question  Par- 
liament would  have  ac- 
cepted it.  \  Charles,  how- 
ever, had  ?in  object  of  his 
own.  Hi^  life  was  disso- 
lute, and,  being  without 
any  religions  convictions, 
he  cherished,  like  some 
other  dissolute  men  of  that 
time,  a  secret  attachment 
to  the  Churth  of  Rome. 
In  order  to  dq  that  Church 
a  good  turn,  %  now  asked 
for  a  toleration  in  which 
all  religions  should  be  in- 
cluded. The  proposal  to 
include  Roman  \  Catholics 
in  the  proposed  toleration 
wrecked  the  chances  of 
modified  episcopacy. 
Cavaliers  and  Presbyte- 
rians were  so  much  afraid 


Dress  of  the  Horse  Guards  ai  the  Restoration  : 
from  Ogilby's  Coronation  Procession  of  Charles  II. 


Yeoman  of  the  Guard  : 
from  Ogilby's  Coronation  Procession  0/ Charles  11, 


584 


CHARLES  II.   AND   CLARENDON 


1660-1661 


f 


oMJie  Roman  Catholics  that  when  a  bill  for  giving  effect  to  the 
schem&<fpr  uniting  episcopacy  and  Presbyterianism  was  brought 
into  Parliame*nt-,'-it^was  rejected  through  fear  lest  it  should  be  a 
prelude  to  some  other~Toi«rajionist  measure  favouring  the  Roman 
Catholics.  On  December  29, 1660,  the  Convention  Parliament  was 
dissolved. 

7.  Venner's  Jglot  and  its  Results.  1661. — No  one  in  the  Conven- 
tion Parliament  hadha4^any  sympathy  with  the  Independents,  and 
still  less  with  the  more  fanattcal^ects  which  had  received  toleration 
when  the  Independents  were  in  power.  .The  one  thing  which  the 
people  of  England  as  a  body  specially  detested  \vas  the  rule  of  the 


Shipping  In  the  Thames,  circa  1660  :  from  Pricke's  South  Prospect  of  London. 

Cromwcllian  army,  and  the  two  parties  therefore  combined  to 
persecute  the  Independents  by  whom  that  army  had  been  sup- 
ported. In  January,  1661,  a  party  of  fanatics,  knowing  that  they  at 
least^fe^^nothing  to  hope,  rose  in  insurrection  in  London  under 
one  Vennei*;-»asQOoper.  The  rising  was  easily  put  down,  but  it  gave 
an  excuse  to  Cn^*^s — who  was  just  then  paying  off  the  army — to 
retain  two  regiment  VN^e  of  horse  and  one  of  foot,  besides  a  third, 
which  was  in  garrison  a^sDunkirk.  There  was  thus  formed  the 
nucleus  of  an  army  the  numS^s  of  which,  before  long,  amounted 
to  5,000.  To  have  an  armed  f^e  at  all  was  likely  to  bring  sus- 
picion upon  Charles,  especially  as  his  revenue  did  not  suffice  for 


I66i-i662     REACTION  IN   CHURCH  AND   STATE  585 

the-pa^ment_ofj,ooo  men  without  having  recourse  to  means  which 
would  cause  ill-feelmg  between  himself  and  Parliament. 

8.  The  Cavalier  Parliament,  and  the  Corporation  Act.  1661. 
On  May^S,  1661,  a  new  Parliament,  sometimes  known  as  the  Cava- 
lier Parliaha^nt,  met.  In  times  of  excitement,  nations  are  apt 
to  show  favom\to  the  party  which  has  a  clear  and  decided  opinion; 
and,  on  this  occasion,  nine-tenths  of  the  new  members  were  Cava- 
liers. The  new  Parliament  voted  that  neither  House  could  pretend 
to  the  command  of  tn«  militia,  nor  could  lawfully  make  war  upon 
the  king.  Before  the  end  of  1661  it  passed  the  Corporation  Act, 
which  was  aimed  at  the  Pnssbyterians  as  well  as  at  the  Indepen- 
dents. All  who  held  officeSn  municipal  corporations  were  to 
renounce  the  Covenant,  and  to\ake  an  oath  of  non-resistance, 
declaring  it  to  be  unlawful  to  bearSarms  against  the  king  ;  and 
no  one  in  future  was  to  hold  municiparhffice  who  had  not  received 
the  Sacrament  according  to  the  rites  of  tt^e  Church  of  England. 
This  Act  did  more  than  exclude  from  corpoi^ions  those  who  ob- 
jected to  submit  to  its  injunctions.  In  many  towi^the  corporations 
elected  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,^and  hence,  by 
excluding  non-conformists  from  corporations  in  towns,  Parliament 
indirectly  excluded  them  from  many  seats  in  the  House  of 
Commons. 
^'  9.  The  Savoy  Conference,  and  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  1661 — 
1662I. -^After  the  dissolution  of  the  Convention  Parliament,  the 
old  numb6i:;of  bishops  was  filled  up,  and,  in  April  1661,  a  conference 
between  somi&sbishops  and  some  Presbyterian  clergy  was  held  at 
the  Savoy  Palarfe^nd  has  therefore  been  known  as  the  Savoy 
Conference.  The  twa^arties  differed  too  much  to  come  to  terms, 
and  the  whole  question  pi>^he  settlement  of  the  Church  was  left  to 
the  Cavalier  Parliamen||[^  fh^^662  Parliament  decided  it  by  passing 
the  Act.pf  Uniformity.  F.vpry>»^gyman  ^pH  every  schoolmast-er 
refusmgJjQjsxpresSy  by  Augu&t^24y^^  to  every- 

thing contained  in  the  Book  o&  Common  Prayer,  was  to  1)e  pre- 
cluded  from  hoi d i ng  a  benefice.  '  On  August  24  (St.  Bartholomew's 
day),  about  2,000  clergy  resigl^ed  their  cures  iiQr  conscience'  sake, 
as  their  opponents  had,  in  the  time  of  Puritan  "^kjmination,  been 
driven  from  their  cures,  rather  than  take  the  Covenant, 
V^  10.  The  Dissenters.  1662.— The  expulsion  of  the  dissenting 
clergy,  as  they  were  now  called,  made  a  great  change  in  ihe 
history  of  English  Christianity.  The  early  Puritans  wished,  ni^  to 
separate  from  the  national  Church,  but  to  mould  the  natiohal 
Church  after  their  own  fashion.  The  Independents  set  the  example 
II.  QQ 


586  CHARLES  II.    AND   CLARENDON  1662 

of  sepasi^tingfrom  the  national  Church,  in  order  to  form  communities 
outside  it?  The  Presbyterian  clergy  who  kept  up  the  tradition  of 
the  early  Puritans  were  now  driven  out  of  the  national  Church,  and 
were  placed  in  vepy  much  the  same  position  as  the  Independents. 
Hence,  these  two  bo^ks,  together  with  the  Baptists  and  the  Society 
of  Friends — popularly  known  as  Quakers — and  other  sects  which 
had  recently  arisen,  began  to  be  known  by  the  common  name  of 
Dissenters.  The  aim  of  those  wk©  had  directed  the  meeting  of  the 
Savoy  Conference  had  been  to  bring  about  comprehension,  that  is  to 
say,  the  continuance  within  the  Church  of  those  who,  after  its  close, 
became  Dissenters.  Their  failure  had  resiitt€;d  from  the  impossi- 
bility of  finding  any  formularies  which  could  satisfy  both  parties  ; 
and  in  consequence  of  this  failure  the  Dissenters'hi^w  abandoned 
all  thought  of  comprehension,  and  contented  themselveSs^ith  asking 
for  toleration,  that  is  to  say,  for  permission  to  worship  af)art  from 
the  Church,  in  their  own  assemblies. 

II.  The  Parliamentary  Presbyterians.  1662. — The  Presby- 
terian clerg>'  were  followed  by  most  of  their  supporters  among 
the  tradesmen  ,^nd  merchants  of  the  towns.  They  were  not 
followed  by  the^P^byterians  among  the  gentry.  The  party  in 
Parliament,  which  hao^itherto  styled  itself  Presbyterian,  had 
originally  become  so  mainly  "Jh^Qjigh  dislike  of  the  power  of 
the  bishops.  They  now  consented  t6'ats(e;pt  the  Prayer  Book,  when 
they  found  that  the  regulation  of  the  Chuh?i^^as  to  depend  on 
Acts  of  Parliament  and  not  either  on  the  bishopsor^h^ing.  The 
few  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  who  had  hit!ife4lo  been 
known  as  Presbyterians  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  party  of  tole^H^ion, 
asking  for  a  modification  of  the  law  against  Dissenters,  thou| 
refusing  to  become  Dissenters  themselves. 
^^  12.  Profligacy  of  the  Court.  1662.— On  the  other  hand,  the 
^^members  of  the  Cavalier  party  had,  in  1641,  become  Royalists  be- 
cause they  desired  the  retention  of  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and,  in  1662,  the  Cavaliers  were  supporters  of 
the  Church  even  more  than  they  were  Royalists.  As  soon  as  Charles 
expressed  his  approval  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  and  not  before, 
the  House  of  Commons  voted  him  a  chimney  tax  of  two  shillings 
on  every  chimney.  If  Charles  had  been  an  economical  man, 
instead  of  an  extravagant  one,  he  might  possibly  have  contrived  to 
live  within  his  income.  He  was,  however,  beyond  measure  ex- 
travagant. The  reaction  against  Puritanism  was  not  political  only. 
There  were  plenty  of  sober  men  amongst  the  English  gentry,  but 
there  were  also  many  who  had  been  so  galled  by  the  restrictions 


1662-1663  CHARLES  AND   LOUIS  XIV.  587 

of  Puritanism  that  they  had  thrown  off  all  moral  restraint.  Riot  and 
debauchery  became  the  fashion,  and  in  this  bad  fashion  Charles's 
court  led  the  way. 
^  13.  Marriage  of  Charles  II.,  and  Sale  of  Dunkirk.  1662.— 
In  1662  Charles  married  Catharine  of  Braganza,  a  Portuguese 
Princess.  He  professed  his  intention  of  leading  a  new  life,  but 
he  was  weak  as  water,  and  he  soon  returned  to  his  evil  courses. 
Politically  alone  was  the  marriage  of  importance.  Catharine 
brought  with  her  the  possessions  of  Tangier,  and  of  Bombay,  the  ^^V'^'^^-V. 
first  spot  on  the  soil  of  India  acquired  by  the  English  Crown.  It 
was  also  a  seal  of  friendship  between  Charles  and  Louis  XIV.  jyx.  cx^ci 
of  France.  Louis  had  made  peace  with  Spain  by  the  Treaty  of 
the  Pyrenees  in  1659,  but  he  still  sympathised  with  the  efforts  of  X.**^ 
Portugal  to  maintain  the  independence  of  which  Spain  had  robbed 
her  in  1580  (see  p.  454),  and  which  she  had  recovered  in  1640. 
Charles's  marriage  was,  therefore,  a  declaration  in  favour  of  France. 
In  November,  1662,  after  Parliament  had  dispersed  for  a  vacation, 
he  further  showed  his  attachment  to  France,  by  selling  Dunkirk  to 
Louis  for  200,000/.  By  abandoning  Dunkirk,  Charles  saved  an 
annual  cost  of  120,000/.,  which  he  would  be  able,  if  he  pleased,  to 
spend  on  an  army.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  the  possession  of 
Dunkirk  was  of  any  real  use,  but  there  was  a  howl  of  indignation, 
in  consequence  of  its  loss,  especially  directed  against  Hyde,  who 
had  been  created  Earl  of  Clarendon  in  1661,  and  was  building 
a  town  house  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  his  dignity.  This 
house  was  popularly  called  Dunkirk  House,  it  being  falsely  sup- 
posed that  Clarendon  received  frorn  Louis  bribes  which  were 
expended  upon  it. 

OC 14.  The  Question  of  Toleration  Raised.     1662— 1663. — Before 

Parliament  met,  Charles,  on  December  26,  1662,  issued  a  declara- 
tion in  favour  of  toleration.  He  asked  Parliament  to  pass  an  Act 
enabling  him  to  mitigate  the  rigour  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  by 
exercising  that  dispensing  power  '  which  he  conceived  to  be  in- 
herent in  him.'  Again  and  again,  in  former  reigns,  the  king  had 
dispensed  from  the  penalties  imposed  by  various  laws,  though 
there  had  been  times  when  Parliament  had  remonstrated  in  cases 
where  those  penalties  were  imposed  to  restrain  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  When  Parliament  met  again  in  1663,  the  Cavaliers 
rejected  the  king's  proposal.  They  would  hear  nothing  of  tole- 
ration for  Dissenters,  and  still  less  of  toleration  for  '  Papists.' 
The  fear  of  a  restoration  of  '  Popery '  was  the  strongest  motive 
of  Englishmen  of  that  day,  and  Charles,  who,  unlike  his  father, 

QQ2 


588  CHARLES  II.    AND    CLARENDON  1664 

always  recoiled  from  strong  opposition,  even  consented  to  banish 
all  Roman  Catholic  priests.  Yet  it  was  in  their  interest  and  not 
in  that  of  the  Dissenters  that  he  had  issued  his  declaration.  This 
affair  sowed  the  first  seeds  of  ill-will  between  Charles  and  Clarendon, 
as  the  latter  had  warmly  supported  the  opposition  to  the  Declaration. 

^  15.  The  Conventicle  Act.  1664. —Parliament  was  roused  to 
proceed  still  farther  in  its  course  of  intolerance.  The  Act  of 
Uniformity  had  turned  the  Dissenting  clergy  out  of  the  Church, 
but  had  not  prevented  them  from  holding  meetings  for  worship. 
In  May  1664  a  Conventicle  Act  was  passed,  by  which  any  adult 
attending  a  conventicle  was  made  liable  to  an  ascending  scale  of 
penalties,  ending  in  seven  years'  transportation,  according  to  the 
number  of  times  that  the  offence  had  been  committed.  A  con- 
venticle was  defined  as  being  a  religious  meeting  not  in  accordance 
with  the  practice  of  the  Church  of  England,  at  which  more  than 
four  persons  were  present  in  addition  to  the  household.  The 
sentence  of  transportation  was,  indeed,  a  terrible  one,  as  it  impHed 
working  like  a  slave,  generally  under  the  burning  sun  in  Barbadoes 
or  some  West  India  colony.  The  simple-minded  Pepys,  whose 
Diary  throws  light  on  the  social  conditions  of  the  time,  met  some 
of  the  worshippers  on  their  way  to  the  inevitable  sentence.  "  They 
go  like  lambs,"  he  writes,  "  without  any  resistance.  I  would  to 
God  they  would  conform,  or  be  more  wise  and  not  be  catched." 
It  was  fear  which  produced  the  eagerness  of  English  gentlemen  to 
persecute  Dissenters.  They  remembered  how  they  had  themselves 
been  kept  under  by  Cromwell's  Puritan  army,  and,  knowing  that 
most  of  Cromwell's  soldiers  were  still  in  the  prime  of  life,  they 
feared  lest,  if  the  Dissenters  were  allowed  to  gather  head,  they 
might  become  strong  enough  to  call  again  to  arms  that  ever- 
victorious  army. 

,^<^  16,  The  Repeal  of  the  Triennial  Act.  1664. — In  the  spring  of 
iTOl^pj-bi^fbre  the  passing  of  the  Conventicle  Act,  the  Cavalier  Parlia- 
ment haSl^een  alarmed  lest  it  should  be  thought  that  it  ought  to 
be  dissolved  in  the.  following  May,  because  it  would  then  have  sat 
three  years,  in  compfikHi:e  with  the  Triennial  Act.  In  reality  there 
was  nothing  in  the  Trielmial  Act  or  in  any  other  Act  which 
rendered  Parliament  liable  t^^.4j ^solution,  as  long  as  the  king 
lived,  unless  he  chose  to  dissolve  i^^>^ut  Charles,  who  did  not  like 
the  fetters  which  that  Act  imposed  upoft  liim,  took  the  opportunity 
to  ask  Parliament  to  repeal  it.  This  was  promptly  done,  though 
in  the  Act  of  Repeal  was  included  a  clause  to  the  effect  that  there 
should,  in  future,  be  no  intermission  of  Parliaments  for  more  than 


1660-1664  COMMERCIAL   RIVALS  589 

three  years.  As  the  whole  of  the  machinery  invented  by  the  Long 
Parhament  for  giving  effect  to  such  a  clause  (see  p.  530)  had 
vanished,  no  king  could  now  be  compelled  to  summon  Parliament 
unless  he  wished  to  do  so. 

q/         17     Growing:    Hostility   between    England    and    the    Dutch. 

^  1660 — 1664. — It  was  not  fear,  but  commercial  rivalry,  which 
made  England  hate  the  Dutch.  In  1660  the  Convention  Parlia- 
ment had  re-enacted  the  Navigation  Act  (see  p.  565).  Legis- 
lation alone,  however,  could  not  prevent  the  Dutch  from  driving 
the  English  out  of  the  markets  of  the  world,  either  by  superior 
trading  capacity,  or  by  forcibly  excluding  them  from  ports  in  which 
Dutch  influence  was  supreme.  Besides  this,  the  Dutch  refused 
to  surrender  Pularoon,  a  valuable  spice-bearing  island  in  the  East 
Indies,  though  they  had  engaged  to  do  so  by  treaty.  If  there  was 
anything  about  which  Charles  II.  was  in  earnest  it  was  in  the  spread 
of  Enghsh  colonies  and  commerce.  He  had  also  private  reasons 
for  bearing  ill-will  against  the  Dutch,  who  by  abolishing  the  office 
of_Stadholder  (see  p.  565)  in  1650,  had  deprived  the  young  William 
of  Orange,  the  son  of  Charles's  sister  Mary,  of  any  post  in  the 
Republic.  The  seven  provinces  were  held  together  by  the 
necessity  of  following  the  counsels  of  the  Province  of  Holland, 
by  far  the  most  extensive  and  the  wealthiest  of  the  seven,  if  they 
were  to  preserve  any  unity  at  all.  The  opinion  of  this  Province 
was  the  more  readily  accepted  because  the  provincial  states  by 
which  It  was  governed  submitted  to  be  led  by  their  pensionary, 
John  de  Witt,  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and  most  prudent  states- 
men of  the  age.  A  pensionary  was  only  an  officer  bound  to 
carry  out  the  orders  of  the  States,  but  the  fact  that  all  business 
passed  through  his  hands  made  a  man  of  John  de  Witt's  ability, 
the  director  of  the  policy  which  he  was  supposed  to  receive  from 
others. 

^  18.  Outbreak  of  the  First  Dutch  War  of  the  Restoration. 
1664 — 1665. —In  1^4  hostilities  broke  out  between  England  and 
the  Dutch  Republic,  without  any  declaration  of  war.  English 
fleets  captured  Dutch  vessels  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  seized  islands 
m  the  West  Indies,  and  took  possession  of  the  Dutch  settlement  in 
America  called  by  its  founders  New  Amsterdam,  but  re-named  by 
the  English  New  York,  after  the  king's  only  surviving  brother,  the 
Duke  of  York,  who  was  Lord  High  Admiral.  Later  in  the  year, 
De  Ruyter,  one  of  the  best  of  the  Dutch  admirals,  retaliated  by 
seizing  most  of  the  English  forts  on  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  in 
1665  war  was  openly  declared.     Parliament  made  what  was  then 


'     590  CHARBES  TT,   AND   CLARENDON    ^  1665 

the  enormous  grant  of  2,500,000/.,  and  on  June  3  a  battle  was  fought 
^  off  Lowestoft  in  which  the  English  were  completely  victorious. 

^Cl  19.  The  Plague.     1665.— The  rejoicing  in  England  was  marred 

by  a  terrible  calamity.  For  more  than  half  a  century  the  Plague 
had  appeared  in  England,  at  intervals  of  five  years.  It  now 
broke  out  with  unusual  virulence,  especially  in  London.  The 
streets  there  were  narrow  and  dirty,  and  the  air  was  close,  be- 
cause the  upper  storeys  of  the  houses  overhung  the  lower  ones. 
No  medical  aid  appeared  to  avail  anything  against  the  Plague. 
On  the  door  of  every  house  in  which  it  appeared  was  painted 
a  red  cross  with  the  words,  "The  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us." 
Every  one  rich  enough  fled  into  the  country  and  spread  the  in- 
fection. "How  fearful,"  wrote  a  contemporary,  "people  were, 
thirty  or  forty,  if  not  a  hundred  miles  from  London,  of  anything 
-  that  they  brought  from   any  mercer's   or   draper's   shop  ;   or  of 

fi         any  goods  that  were  brought  to  them  ;  or  of  any  persons  that  came 
/  to  their  houses  !     How  they  would  shut  their  doors  against  their 

friends  ;  and  if  a  marl  passed  over  the  fields,  how  one  would  avoid 
another  !  "  The  dead  were  too  numerous  to  be  buried  in  the  usual 
way,  and  carts  went  their  rounds  at  night,  accompanied  by  a 
man  ringing  a  bell  and  calling  out,  "  Bring  out  your  dead."  The 
corpses  were  flung  into  a  huge  pit  without  coffins,  there  being  no 
time  to  provide  them  for  so  many.  It  was  not  till  winter  came 
that  the  sickneSs  died  away. 

20.  The  Five  Mile  Act.  1665.— In  October,  Parliament  met 
at  Ox!bj4;through  fear  of  the  Plague.  It  offered  the  king  1,250,000/. 
for  the  warSCJie  would  consent  to  fresh  persecution  of  the  Dis- 
senters. He  to?5ksjhe  money,  and  gave  his  assent  to  the  Five 
Mile  Act.  The  ConV«j^icle  Act  had  been  largely  evaded,  and, 
during  the  Plague,  Disse^ltijjig  ministers  had  preached  in  pulpits 
from  which  the  clergy  had  flfe<through  fear  of  infection.  The 
Five  Mile  Act  was  to  strike  at  th^Somiisters  ejected  on  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's day.  Not  one  of  them  w^Svallowed  to  come  within 
five  miles  of  a  borough  town,  or  of  any  p^Ke  in  which  he  had 
once  held  a  cure,  and  was  therefore  likely  to  ^dva  congregation, 
unless  he  would  take  the  oath  of  non-resistance,  ancT^^w^ar  that  he 
would  never  endeavour  to  alter  the  government  in  ChurcH'br  State, 
a  condition  to  which  few,  if  any,  of  the  Dissenters  were  willing  to 
submit, 
fys^  21.  Continued  Struggle  with  the  Dutch.  1665— 1666.  In  the 
autumn  of  1665  the  ravages  of  the  Plague  kept  the  English  fleet 
in  the  Thames,  and  the  Dutch  held  the  sea.     On  land  they  were 


1666 


THE  DUTCH  WAR 


591 


exposed  to  some  peril.  Ever  since  their  peace  v/ith  Spain,  in  1648, 
they  had  allowed  their  military  defences  to  fall  into  decay,  on  the 
supposition  that  they  would  have  no  more  enemies  who  could 
dispose  of  any  formidable  land-force.  Now  even  a  petty  prince  like 
the  Bishop  of  Munster,  hired  by  Charles,  was  able,  in  October,  to 
over-run  two  of  their  eastern  provinces.  The  Dutch  called  upon 
the  king  of  France,  Louis  XIV.,  for  help,  and  he,  being  bound  by 
treaty  to  assist  them,  declared  war  against  England  in  January 


^JiMM^^- 


Old  St.  Paul's,  from  the  east,  showing  its  condition  just  before  the  Great  Fire 
from  an  engraving  by  Hollar. 

1666.  If  he  had  given  earnest  support  to  the  Dutch  the  conse- 
quences would  have  been  serious  for  England,  but  though  he  and 
other  continental  allies  of  the  Dutch  frightened  off  the  Bishop  of 
Munster  from  his  attack  on  the  Republic,  Louis  had  no  wish  to  help 
in  the  destruction  of  the  English  navy.  What  he  wanted  was  to 
see  the  Dutch  and  English  fleets  destroy  one  another  in  order  that 
his  own  might  be  mistress  of  the  sea.  Through  the  first  four  days 
of  June  a  desperate  naval  battle  was  fought  between  the  English 
and  the  Dutch,  off  the  North  Foreland,  at  the  end  of  which  the 


592  CHARLES  11.   AND   CLARENDON  1665-1666 

English  fleet,  under  Albemarle  and  Rupert,  was  driven  to  take 
shelter  in  the  Thames,  whilst  the  Dutch  had  been  so  crippled  as 
to  be  forced  to  put  back  to  refit.  On  July  25  and  26  there  was 
another  battle  off  the  mouth  of  the  Thames.  This  time  the  Dutch 
had  the  worst,  and  in  August  the  English  fleet  sailed  along  the 
islands  at  the  entrance  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  destroying  160  merchant 
ships  and  burning  a  town.  The  struggle  had  been  a  terrible  one. 
The  sailors  of  both  nations  were  equally  brave,  and  equally  at 
home  in  a  sea-fight,  but  the  English  ships  were  better  built  and 
the  English  guns  were  better,  whilst  the  Dutch  commanders  did 
not  work  well  together  in  consequence  of  personal  and  political 
jealousies. 

OC^  22.  The  Fire  of  London.  1666.— In  September,  1666,  London 
suffered  a  calamity  only  second  to  that  of  the  Plague.  A  fire  broke 
out,  and  burnt  for  three  days.  All  the  City  from  the  Tower  to 
the  Temple,  and  from  the  Thames  to  Smith  field,  was  absolutely 
destroyed.  Old  St.  Paul's,  the  longest  cathedral  in  England, 
perished  in  the  flames.  Great  as  the  suffering  caused  by  the 
fire  was,  it  was  not  without  its  benefits,  as  the  old  houses  with 
their  overhanging  storeys  were  destroyed  by  it,  and  were  replaced 
by  new  ones  built  in  the  modern  fashion,  so  that  there  was  more 
air  in  the  streets.  After  this  reconstruction  of  London  it  was 
never  again  visited  by  the  Plague. 

v^*  23.  Designs  of  Louis  XIV.  1665— 1667. — Soon  after  the  fire 
died  down  Parliament  voted  1,800,000/.  for  continuing  the  war,  but 
the  country  was  exhausted,  and  it  was  known  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  collect  so  large  a  sum.  Both  king  and  Parhament 
were  therefore  anxious  for  peace,  and  there  were  now  reasons 
which  made  the  Dutch  also  ready  to  make  peace.  In  1665 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only  surviving 
son,  Charles  II.,  as  yet  a  mere  child,  hopelessly  weak  in  body  and 
mind.  Philip  also  left  two  daughters,  the  elder,  Maria  Theresa, 
a  child  of  his  first  wife,  being  the  wife  of  Louis,  whilst  the 
younger,  Margaret  Theresa,  the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  I., 
was,  with  Charles  II.,  the  offspring  of  a  second  marriage.^ 
Both  of  the  daughters  had  renounced  all  future  claim  to  the 
Spanish  Crown,  but  Louis,  knowing  that  the  young  Charles  II.  of 

'  Genealogy  of  the  surviving  children  of  Philip  IV  : — 

I.  Elizabeth  of  France  =  Philip  IV.  =2.  Mary  of  Austria. 


I  I  I 

Maria  Theresa  =  Louis  XIV.      Margaret  Theresa  ^Leopold  I.        Charles  II. 


i667  THE    WAR   OF  DEVOLUTION  593 

Spain  was  so  sickly  as  to  make  his  early  death  probable,  was  pre- 
.  pared  to  assert  his  wife's  claim  whenever  that  event  took  place. 
In  the  meanwhile  he  put  forward  a  demand  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  should  be  immediately  handed  over  to 
her,  because  in  those  countries  there  was  a  law,  known  as  the  law 
of  devolution,  enacting  that  the  daughter  of  a  first  wife  should 
receive  a  larger  share  of  her  father's  property  than  a  son  of  the 
second.  Louis  chose  to  construe  a  right  to  succeed  to  property  as 
though  it  implied  a  right  to  govern.  In  March,  1667,  he  made  a 
secret  treaty  with  Charles  II.  of  England,  in  which,  on  condition 
of  his  engaging  not  to  help  the  Dutch,  he  was  allowed  to  do  as  he 
pleased  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  In  May  he  began  what  is 
known  as  the  War  of  Devolution,  with  Spain.  Spain  had  neither 
money  nor  means  to  defend  her  territory  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
the  French  armies  captured  one  place  after  another. 

^^  24.  The  Dutch  in  the  Medway,  and  the  Peace  of  Breda. 
1667. — The  advance  of  Louis  into  the  Spanish  Netherlands  and 
the  establishment  of  the  French  armies  so  near  their  frontier  in 
the  place  of  the  now  exhausted  forces  of  Spain  greatly  alarmed 
the  Dutch.  The  mere  risk  of  this  danger  had,  even  before  the  war 
oetween  France  and  Spain  began,  inclined  them  to  peace  with 
England,  and  a  conference  was  opened  at  Breda  to  consider  the 
terms.  All  was  quickly  agreed  on  except  the  question  about  the 
right  of  England  to  Pularoon  (see  p.  589),  and  Charles,  imagining 
that  this  would  be  settled  in  his  favour,  dismissed  his  sailors 
and  dismantled  his  fleet,  in  order  to  save  money  to  spend  on  his 
own  extravagant  pleasures.  The  Dutch  fleet  at  once  entered  the 
Thames,  sailed  up  the  Medway,  burnt  three  men-of-war,  and 
carried  off  a  fourth.  For  some  days  it  blockaded  the  Thames, 
so  that  the  Londoners  could  get  no  coals.  Men  openly  said  that 
such  things  would  not  have  happened  if  Oliver  had  been  living. 
Orders  were  sent  to  the  English  ambassadors  at  Breda  to  give  up 
Pularoon,  and  on  July  31  the  Treaty  of  Breda^  was  signed.  It  was 
not  wholly  disastrous.  If  England  lost  her  last  hold  on  the  spice 
islands  of  the  East,  she  gained  New  York  and  all  the  territory 
formerly  Dutch  in  the  West,  which  had  broken  up  the  continuity  of 
her  colonies  in  America. 

T^K,^  25.  Clarendon  and  the  House  of  Commons.  1667.— The 
events  of  the  last  months  of  the  war  had  produced  important 
effects  upon  the  temper  of  Parliament.  Long  before  the  Dutch 
appeared  in  the  Medway,  the  House  of  Commons  had  demanded 
an   inquiry  into   the  expenditure  of  the   money  granted   to  the 


^ 


S94  CHARLES  II.    AMD   CLARENDON  1667 

Crown,  suspecting  that  much  of  the  supply  distinctly  intended  for 
purposes  of  war  had  been  diverted  to  pay  for  the  amusements 
of  the  Court.  This  demand,  which  opened  a  new  chapter  in  the 
history  of  the  financial  struggle  between  the  House  of  Commons 
and  the  Crown,  brought  the  Commons  into  collision  with  Clarendon. 
It  had  been  settled  by  the  Long  Parliament  that  the  king  was  to  levy 
no  taxes  without  a  grant  from  Parliament.  The  Cavalier  Parliament, 
Royalist  as  it  was,  was  beginning  to  ask  that  the  king  should  not 
spend  the  proceeds  of  taxes  without  the  approbation  of  Parliament. 
When  once  this  had  been  secured,  Parliament  would  indubitably 
become  supreme.  Against  this  attempt  to  obtain  the  mastery 
Clarendon  struggled.  He  was  a  good  lawyer  and  an  excellent 
man  of  business,  but  he  was  not  a  statesman  of  genius.  He  wanted 
each  part  of  the  government  to  act  in  harmony  with  the  others  ; 
but  he  could  never  understand  the  meaning  of  the  saying  that  if 
two  men  ride  on  horseback,  one  must  ride  in  front.  He  wanted 
the  king  and  Parliament  both  to  ride  in  front,  both — that  is  to  say 
— to  have  their  own  way  in  certain  directions.  His  notion  of  a 
king  was  that  of  one  prudently  doing  his  best  for  his  people,  always 
ruling  according  to  law,  and  irresponsible  in  everything,  even  in 
the  expenditure  of  money.  A  wasteful,  riotous  Charles  H.  was  a 
phenomenon  for  the  control  of  which  his  constitutional  formulas 
were  not  prepared. 

26.  The  Fall  of  Clarendon.  1667. — Though  Clarendon  was 
unable  to  concur  in  any  diminution  of  the  power  of  the  Crown,  his 
eyes  were  widely  open  to  the  profligacy  of  Charles's  life.  Again 
and  again  he  had  remonstrated  with  him,  and  had  refused  to  pass 
under  the  great  seal  grants  in  favour  of  Lady  Castlemaine,  to  whom, 
amongst  his  many  mistresses,  Charles  was  at  this  time  most  com- 
pletely subjugated.  As  might  have  been  expected,  this  abandoned 
woman  irritated  her  paramour  against  his  upright  Chancellor, 
telling  him  that  he  was  no  king  as  long  as  he  was  ruled  by 
Clarendon.  As  Parliament  continued  its  attacks,  Charles,  on 
August  30,  dismissed  Clarendon  from  office.  On  October  10,  the 
fallen  minister  was  impeached  by  the  House  of  Commons,  on 
charges  the  greater  part  of  which  were  ridiculously  untrue.  He 
tried  to  rouse  Charles  to  support  him,  reminding  him  that,  after 
Charles  L  allowed  Strafford  to  die,  the  king's  own  head  had  fallen 
on  the  scaffold.  Charles  H.,  an  easy-going  but  clever  politician, 
probably  thought  that  he  could  always  escape  his  father's  fate  by 
refraining  from  imitating  his  father's  stiffness.  He  gave  Clarendon 
a  strong  hint  to  withdraw,  and  on  November  29  the  minister  who 


l66o-i66i       THE  IRISH  ACT  OF  SETTLEMENT  595 

had   done   more   than  any  other  man   to  establish  the  restored 
monarchy,  fled  to  France,  never  to  return  alive. 

27.  Scotland  and  Ireland.  1660.— At  the  Restoration,  the  close 
connectios^^stablished  by  Cromwell  between  England  and  Scotland 
was  necessa>^v  broken  up.  Scotland  hated  English  control  even 
when  it  came  ihythe  guise  of  a  union  of  Parliaments,  and  the  old 
relation  of  separate  states  united  only  by  the  Crown  was  at  once 
resumed.  Argyle  ai^  his  principal  followers  were  executed  as 
traitors.  The  main  prb^  of  the  restoration  in  Scotland,  however, 
fell  to  the  nobility.  TheSdergy  was  discredited  by  its  divisions, 
and  the  noblemen,  whose  fakhers  had  supported  Presbyterianism 
against  Charles  I.,  now  supported  Charles  II.  against  Presby- 
terianism. Once  more,  as  in  the  ijays  of  James  I.,  the  clergy  were 
muzzled  by  the  restoration  of  episcof^cy  and  the  assertion  of  the 
authority  of  the  Crown.  In  Ireland  tnfe  main  question  was  how  to 
satisfy  alike  the  recent  English  immigrants  who  had  received  lands 
from  Cromwell  and  the  Irish  proprietors  wfto  had  been  deprived  of 
their  lands  in  favour  of  the  intruders.  In  i6oivat  the  king's  desire, 
an  Act  of  Settlement  was  passed,  making,  in  eiaJDorate  detail,  an 
attempt  to  satisfy  as  many  as  possible  of  both  partiesi;  but  as  men  of 
Enghsh  descent  and  Protestant  religion  filled  the  ndsh  House  of 
Commons,  the  English  settlers  contrived  to  maintainVby  consti- 
tutional authority,  much  of  what  they  had  taken  with  th^  strong 
hand.  According  to  the  best  evidence  now  procurable,  ^ereas 
before  1641  about  two-thirds  of  Irish  lands  fit  for  cultivation  i^ad 
been  in  the  hands  of  Catholics,  before  the  end  of  the  reign  "of 
Charles  II.  two-thirds  were  in  the  hands  of  Protestants. 


596 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

CHARLES   II.   AND   THE  CABAL.      1667— 1674 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  Charles  II.,  1660— 1685 

Treaty  of  Dover June  i,  1670 

Second  Dutch  War  of  the  Restoration  March  13,  1672 

Declaration  of  Indulgence March  15,  1672 

Test  Act March  29,  1673 

Dismissal  of  Shaftesbury Nov.  9,  1673 

Peace  with  the  Dutch Feb.  19,  1674 

I.  ]\^ilton  and  Bunyan. — Whilst  Clarendon  and  his  allies  were 
fortifying  vjthe  legal  position  of  the  Church  of  England,  the  old 
Puritanisrn,  which  they  attempted  to  crush  found  a  voice  in 
literature,  i^ilton,  who  had  become  blind,  in  consequence  of 
his  intense  de^ion  to  the  service  of  the  State,  as  the  secretary  of 
Cromwell,  at  lasf^fter  long  preparation,  gave  to  the  world  '  Para- 
dise Lost,'  in  i667\^  The  poem  was  Puritan,  not  only  because  its 
main  theme  was  the  Maintenance  or  destruction  of  the  purity  of  a 
single  human  soul,  but^\^ecause  it  based  that  purity  on  obedience 
to  the  commands  of  theVreat  Taskmaster  ;  whilst,  in  the  solemn 
cadence  of  its  blank  verse  there  is  something  to  remind  the  reader 
of  the  stern  world  of  duty,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  nobler  spirits  of 
the  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate  had  moved.  As  Milton  was 
the  poet  of  Puritanism,  John  Bufiyan  was  the  prose-poet  of  Dissent. 
He  had  himself  fought  as  a  soldi"er  on  the  side  of  Parliament  in 
the  Civil  War,  and,  having  become  "^an  earnest  Baptist  preacher, 
he  continued  to  preach  after  the  Resforation,  and,  boldly  defying 
the  law,  was  requited  with  a  long  imprisonment.  His  masterpiece, 
'The  Pilgrim's  Progress,' was  probably  not  written  till  1675,  but 
many  of  his  religious  writings  were  published  before  that  date.  His 
force  of  imagination  made  him  the  greatest  allegorist  the  world 
has  seen.  His  moral  aim  lay  in  the  preservation  of  a  few  choice 
souls  from  the  perils  and  temptations  of  a  society  wholly  given  up 
to  evil. 

2...BtillUi  timl  the  Diumatists.— Thefg'Wg^s7d'ou'Htress^  much  in 


'^^3  MILTON  AND   BUTLER  ^97 

the>Q4dround  Milton  and  Bunyan  to  awake  indignation.  Samuel 
Butler  wara-.«»att-©f:.gemus^jDut  his  '  Hudibras,'  which  appeared  in 
1663,  shows  but  poorly  by  the  side  of  'Paradise  Lost'  and  'The 


John  Milton  in  1670. 

Pilgrim's  Progress/    This  mock-heroic  account  of  a  Puritan  knight 
is  the  work  of  a  strong  writer,  who  can  find  nothing  better  to 


598  CHARLES  11.    AND    THE    CABAL  1667 

do  witbr4^e  warriors  and  disputants  who  had  lately  controlled 
England  thaftHQ4aiigh  at  them.  The  mass  of  Restoration  poetry 
was  far  weaker  thai5^*4ijAdibras,'  whilst  its  dramatic  writers  vied 
with  one  another  in  the"e)tp*^mn  of  licentious  thought  either 
m  prose  or  in  the  regular  heroic'^ir^iiplets  which  were,  at  this 
time,  in  vogue.  It  was,  indeed,  impossiBle^jo  put  much  human 
passion  into  two  neat  lines  which  had  to  be  mad'cstQrhyme  ;  but 
at  Court  love-making  had  been  substituted  for  passiol^j-saiid  the 
theatres,  now  re- opened,  after  they  had  been  suppressed  by'-fehe 
Puritans,  were  meant  for  the  vicious  Court  and  not  for  the  people 
^^  at  large. 

'"^  3.  Reason  and  Science. — The  satire  of  Butler,  and  the  licen- 
tiousness of  the  dramatists,  both  sprang  from  a  reaction  against 
the  severe  morality  of  the  Puritans  ;  but  it  would  have  been  a  poor 
prospect  for  the  generation  following  that  of  Puritan  repression 
if  the  age  had  not  produced  any  positive  work  of  its  own.  Its 
work  was  to  be  found  in  the  increase  of  respect  for  human  reason. 
In  the  better  minds  amongst  the  clergy  of  the  Restoration,  the 
reasonable  character  of  the  Church  of  England  was  more  than  ever 
predominant.  A  few,  such  as  Wilkins,  Bishop  of  Chester,  and 
Stillingfleet,  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  were  even  anxious  to  find  some 
way  of  comprehension  by  which  Dissenters  might  be  reconciled 
to  the  Church,  whilst  others,  like  Morley  and  Barrow,  attached  far 
more  importance  to  arguments  addressed  to  the  understanding,  than 
to  that  uniformity  of  ceremonial  which  had  been  so  dear  to  the  mind 
of  Laud.  Still  more  important  was  the  spread  of  devotion  to  natural 
science.  The  Royal  Society,  founded  for  its  promotion  in  1660, 
brought  together  men  who  thought  more  about  air-pumps  than 
about  the  mysteries  of  theology  ;  and  it  was  mainly  the  results  of 
their  inquiries  which  made  any  renewed  triumph  of  Puritanism 
impossible.  In  'The  Pilgrim's  Progress'  the  outer  world  was 
treated  as  a  mere  embarrassment  to  the  pursuit  of  spiritual  per- 
fection. By  the^Fellows  QJjJifi-JSjQtygJLjgciety  it  was  treated  as 
calling  for  reverent  investigation,  in  orcTer  that,  in  the  words  of 
Bacon,  nature  might  be  brought  into  the  service  of  man  by  his 
obedience  to  her  laws, 
h^  4.  Charles  II.  an(J  Toleration.  1667. — In  the  long  run  the 
'  rise  of  the  scientific  spirit  would  conduce  to  religious  toleration, 
because  scientific  men  have  no  reason  to  desire  the  suppression  of 
any  form  of  religious  belief.  The  first  step  taken  after  the  resloi  a- 
tion  in  the  direction  of  religious  toleration  had  come  from  Charles 
(see  p.  581),  who  was  actuated  partly  by  a  sneaking  fondness  for  the 


Vk  N  i    rvki^^l  Pvi^fiftKv-.      k^m.         X 


r\ 


Kt^ 


1667-1669  PEACE   OF  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  599 

Roman  Catholic  Church  and  partly  by  dislike  of  being  dictated 
to  by  Parliament.  He  therefore,  after  Clarendon's  fall,  gave  his 
confidence  mainly  to  men  who,  for  various  reasons,  were  inclined 
to  support  his  wishes  in  this  respect. 

5.  Buckingham  and  Arlington.  1667 — 1669. — Amongst  these 
menHhe  principal  were  the  Duke  of  Buckingham  and  Lord 
Arlingtoj^.  Buckingham,  the  son  of  the  favourite  of  Charles  I. — 
*  everything  by  turns  and  nothing  long ' — was  trying  his  hand  at 
politics  by  way  of  amusement.  Arlington,  who,  like  Charles^ 
hardly  knew  wftether  he  was  Catholic  or  Protestant,  was  entrusted, 
as  Secretary  of  sWe,  with  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was 
a  man  of  consideraole  ability,  but  perfectly  unscrupulous  in  shifting 
his  ground  to  suit  his  personal  ambition.  Both  hated  Clarendon  as 
sour  and  austere,  and  bcl>ih  were  ready  to  support  the  king  in  any 
scheme  upon  which  he  might  set  his  heart.  The  Dissenters  con- 
fined to  prison  were  liberated,  and  a  Bill  prepared  to  modify  the 
ceremonies  of  the  Church,  s\  as  to  enable  the  expelled  Presby- 
terians to  re-enter  the  Church.\  When,  however.  Parliament  met 
in  February,  1668,  it  showed  its  "determination  to  have  nothing  to 
do  with  either  toleration  or  comprehension  (see  p.  598).  It  offered 
the  king  300,000/.,  but  only  under  the  implied  condition  that  he 
would  abandon  his  scheme.  Charles  took  the  money  and  dropped 
his  scheme.  He  prorogued  Parliament  in  May,  and  did  not  re- 
assemble it  till  October,  1669.  Whilst  Pai*l^iament  was  not  in  session 
Charles  sheltered  the  Dissenters  from  pers^ution,  and  even  thought 
of  dissolving  Parliament.  Albemarle  (see  p.  580),  however,  cautiously 
reminded  him  that,  even  if  he  got  a  new  Parlfament  in  which  the 
Dissenters  and  their  friends  were  predominant,\it  would  probably 
cause  him  trouble  by  wanting  to  persecute  those  ^^lo  had  hitherto 
persecuted  the  Dissenters.  Accordingly  Charles,  \W)  hated  no- 
thing so  much  as  trouble,  not  only  allowed  the  old  Pa^iament  to 
meet  again,  but  even  issued  a  proclamation  enforcing  the  penal 
laws  against  Dissenters. 
^C  6.  The  Triple  Alliance.  1668. — In  1668  a  triple  alliance  was 
formed  between  ^^gland,  the  Dutch  Republic,  and  Sweden^ to  put 
an  end  to  the  War  of  Devolution  (see  p.  593).  Its  originators 
were  De  Witt,  and  Sir  William  Temple,  the  English  ambassador 
at  the  Hague.  The  allies  demanded  that  Louis  should  content 
himself  with  certain  strong  towns  on  his  northern  frontier  which 
he  had  already  conquered  from  Spain,  and  should  desist  from 
attempting  to  conquer  more.  Louis  assented,  and  the  Peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle   was   signed  on   these   conditions.      In   England 


A 


31 

Ac 


600  CHARLES  II.   AND    THE    CABAL  1669-1670 

there  was  already  a  rising  feeling  against  the  French,  and  Charles 
acquired  no  litde  popularity  by  his  supposed  firmness.  In  reality 
he  had  betrayed  the  secrets  of  the  alliance  to  Louis,  and  had  only 
shown  his  teeth  to  gain  good  terms  for  himself  from  the  French 
king. 

7.  Charles's  Negotiations  with  France.  1669— 1670.— Louis 
owed  the  Dutch  a  deep  grudge,  and  set  himself  to  win  Charles  to 
neutrality,  if  not  to  active  help,  in  the  war  which  he  now  purposed 
to  make  against  them.  Charles  disliked  the  Dutch  as  the  com- 
mercial rivals  of  England,  and  was  ready  to  sell  himself  to  Louis  if 
only  the  price  offered  was  high  enough.  Though  Charles  never 
suffered  religion  of  any  kind  to  be  a  check  on  his  conduct,  his 
facile  nature  yearned  after  the  imposing  authority  of  the  Roman 
Church.  In  1669  his  brother,  James,  avowed  himself  a  Catholic, 
and  in  the  same  year  Charles,  under  the  strictest  secrecy,  declared 
his  own  conversion  to  a  small  circle  of  men  whom  he  could  trust. 
Before  the  end  of  the  war  he  offered  Louis  support  against  the 
Dutch,  but  asked  such  enormous  concessions  in  return  that  Louis 
refused  to  agree  to  them.  Charles,  before  lowering  the  terms  of 
his  bargain  with  Louis,  drove  another  bargain  with  his  Parliament. 
In  the  spring  of  1670,  by  dropping  his  demand  for  toleration,  he 
obtained  a  grant  of  300,000/.  a  year  for  eight  years.  In  return 
he  gave  the  royal  assent  to  a  second  Conventicle  Act,  even  more 
stringent  than  the  first. 

8.  The  Treaty  of  Dover.      1670.— Having   secured  a  grant, 
harles  prorogued  Parliament,  which  he  had  deceived  by  giving 

it  to  understand  that  he  had  abandoned  the  idea  of  toleration, 
and  turned  to  Louis.  Louis  sent  over  Charles's  youngest  sister, 
Henrietta,  Duchess  of  Orleans,  to  conclude  an  alliance,  and  on 
June  I,  1670,  a  treaty  between  England  and  France  was  secretly 
signed  at  Dover.  Charles  agreed  to  join  Louis  in  his  projected 
war  against  the  Dutch,  by  sending  an  English  force  of  6,000  men 
to  serve  in  the  French  army,  and  to  assist  Louis  to  seize  upon  the 
territories  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  in  the  event  of  the  death  of 
Charles  II.  of  Spain  without  male  heirs.  Charles  was  also  to 
acknowledge  himself  a  Catholic  whenever  he  thought  fit  to  do  so. 
To  support  Charles  against  his  subjects  in  case  of  their  resisting  him 
in  the  declaration  of  his  conversion,  Louis  was  to  give  him  154,000/. 
and  the  aid  of  6,000  troops  to  be  employed  in  England  in  his  defence. 
Moreover,  Charles  was  to  receive  230,000/.  a  year  during  the  pro- 
posed war,  and  thirty  French  ships  were  to  serve  under  an  English 
admiral.     At  the  end  of  the  war  he  was  to  receive  Walcheren, 


1670 


AN  ALLIANCE    WITH  FRANCE 


601 


Sluys  and  Cadsand  from  the  Dutch  Republic,  and  ultimately,  If 
Louis  made  good  his  claims  to  the  Spanish  monarchy,  he  was  to 
gain  from  Spain,  Ostend,  Minoj;cA,  and  various  territories  in  South 
America.  Charles  II.  was  no  more  scrupulous  than  his  father  had 
been  about  using  the  troops  of  foreign  princes  to  suppress  the  opposi- 
tion of  his  own  subjects,  but  he  was  shrewd  enough  to  know — what 
Charles  I.  had  never  known — that  foreign  princes  would  not  lend  him 


o- 


Temple  Bar,  London,  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  in  1670.     Taken  down  in 
1878  and  sihce  rebuilt  at  waltham  Cross. 


troops  unless  he  gave  them  something  in  return.  The  breach  of  the 
Triple  Alliance  and  the  assistance  offered  by  Charles  to  Louis  in  the 
proposed  war  against  the  Dutch  were  considered  in  France  to  be  a 
fair  equivalent  for  the  payments  which  Louis  had  bound  himself  to 
make.  It  was  another  question  whether  Charles  could  be  kept  to 
his  engagements.  To  secure  this  as  much  as  possible  Louis  sent 
II.  R  R 


602  CHARLES  II.    AND    THE   CABAL  1670 

him  over  a  new  French  mistress,  Louise  de  Keroualle.  Charles 
soon  created  her  Duchess  of  Portsmouth,  and  she  fulfilled  her  duty 
to  her  own  king  by  betraying  to  him  all  the  secrets  of  her  lover. 
Xj^  9.  The  Cabal.  1670. — After  Clarendon's  fall  Charles  had  been 
his  own  chief  minister.  The  ministers  whom  he  consulted  from 
time  to  time  were  known  as  his  Cabal,  a  word  then  applied  to  any 
body  of  secret  advisers,  without  carrying  with  it  the  opprobrious 
meaning  which  it  now  has.  At  last  the  wits  discovered  that  the 
initials  of  five  ministers  who  were  principally  consulted  about  the 
time  of  the  Treaty  of  Dover,  Clifford,  Arlington,  Buckingham, 
Ashley,  and  Lauderdale,  spelt  the  word  cabal,  and  writers  have  since 
talked  about  them  as  forming  what  has  been  called  the  Cabal 
Ministry,  though  no  such  ministry,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
word,  ever  existed.  Not  only  did  they  not  form  a  council  meeting 
for  purposes  of  government,  but,  though  they  agreed  together  in 
favouring  toleration,  they  disagreed  on  other  points.  Nor  were 
they  usually  consulted  by  Charles  in  a  body.  Sometimes  he  took 
the  advice  of  persons  not  of  their  number ;  sometimes  he  took  the 
advice  of  some  of  them  only,  whilst  he  kept  the  others  entirely  in 
the  dark.  Thus  Clifford,  who  was  a  brave  and  honest  Catholic, 
and  Arlington,  who  would  support  any  measure  as  long  as  it  was 
his  interest  to  do  so,  knew  all  about  the  Treaty  of  Dover,  whilst 
Buckingham,  Lauderdale,  and  Ashley  were  in  complete  ignorance 
of  it.  Of  Buckingham  and  Arlington  enough  has  been  already  said 
(see  p.  599).  Lauderdale,  who  had  little  to  do  with  English 
affairs,  kept  himself  almost  entirely  to  the  task  of  building  up  the 
king's  authority  in  Scotland,  where  he  had  already  got  together 
an  army  completely  at  Charles's  disposal.  The  character  of  Ashley 
deserves  a  longer  consideration. 

10.  Ashley's  Policy. — Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,^  who  had  been 
created  'Lord  Ashley  since  the  Restoration,  had  changed  sides 
again  and^^ain  during  the  late  troubles.  He  was  a  born  party- 
leader,  and  K^  signalised  himself  as  a  youth  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford,  by  leaoiW  a  successful  revolt  of -the  freshmen  against  the 
older  undergradu^^.  who,  according  to  custom,  tried  to  skin  the 
chins  of  the  freshmenS^  to  force  them  to  drink  a  nauseous  com- 
pound prepared  for  the  o^^^ion.  Though  in  party  conflict  he  was 
quite  unscrupulous  and  despi^isd  no  means  which  would  enable  him 
to  gain  his  ends,  he  had  the  statesit^nlike  qualities  of  common  sense 
and  moderation.  He  had  deserted  Ckmles  L  when  he  leant  upon 
the  Catholics  (see  p.  541),  had  supporte^S^mwell  in  his  struggle 
1  Two  Christian  names  were  exceedingly  rare  in  the  seventeenth  century. 


OiiO^\^n-\TClD^      ^l 


1671-1672  ASHLEY  AND  BUCKINGHAM  603 

>vith  the  zealots  of  the  Barebone's  Parliament  (see  p.  566),  and  had 
.  iWi  him  when  he  rejected  the  constitutional  scheme  of  the  first 
Pani^j^ient  of  the  Protectorate  (see  p.  570).  In  disgust  at  the 
humours>8i(the  Rump  and  the  army,  he  had  done  everything  in 
his  power  tol^g^sten  the  Restoration,  and  had  soon  shown  hostility 
to  Clarendon  ancK^o  the  persecuting  laws  of  the  Cavalier  Parlia- 
ment. In  fact,  there>v^  two  principles  to  which  he  was  never 
entirely  false,  a  love  of  rJMiiamentary  government  and  a  love  of 
.  toleration,  which  last  was  bas^ti^ot  as  was  that  of  Oliver,  upon 
sympathy  with  religious  zeal  of  everyiqnd,  but  upon  dislike  of  clerical 
interference.  At  present  he  attached  nimself  to  Charles,  because 
he  knew  of  Charles's  alleged  wish  to  estabn^hstoleration,  and  knew 
nothing  of  the  conspiracy  against  Parliament  onM^ich  Charles  had 
embarked,  or  of  Charles's  secret  design  to  favour  the  K^Jm^n  Church 
under  cover  of  a  general  scheme  of  toleration. 
nJU  II.  Buckingham's  Sham  Treaty.  1671. — To  deceive  those  who 
were  in  ignorance  of  the  secret  treaty  of  the  previous  year, 
Buckingham  was  sent  to  Paris  to  negotiate  a  sham  treaty  in  which 
all  mention  of  Charles's  conversion  was  omitted,  and  the  whole  of 
the  money  offered  by  Louis  represented  as  given  solely  for  the  war. 
Charles  particularly  enjoyed  making  a  fool  of  Buckingham,  who 
imagined  himself  to  be  exceedingly  clever,  and  he  had  also  the 
temporary  satisfaction  of  gaining  the  hearty  support  of  Ashley  as 
well  as  Buckingham,  because  Ashley  was  quite  ready  to  accept 
Louis'  help  in  a  joint  enterprise  for  crushing  the  commerce  of  the 
Dutch,  and  had  no  scruples  about  abandoning  the  Triple  Alliance. 
Charles  was  the  more  ready  to  begin  the  war  because  he  had  lately 
succeeded  in  obtaining  from  Parliament  another  800,000/.  on  the 
false  plea  that  he  wanted  the  money  to  enable  him  to  hold  head  at 
sea  against  the  French  as  well  as  the  Dutch.  As  soon  as  the  money 
was  obtained  he  prorogued  Parliament. 

12.  The  Stop  of  the  Exchequer.  1672.  —  Charles  prudently 
delayed  thgdeclaration  of  his  conversion  to  a  more  convenient 
season,  but  tiie'"T>p^ing  of  the  war  was  fixed  for  the  spring  of  1672. 
In  spite  of  the  large'"*sums  which  he  drew  from  Louis  and  from 
Parliament,  his  finances  wefesin  hopeless  confusion,  because  of  the 
enormous  amount  of  money  whichs^e  squandered  on  his  numerous 
mistresses  and  his  illegitimate  childreh>slt  is  said  that  the  yearly 
income  of  the  Duchess  of  Portsmouth  was^s^ooo/.,  and  that  in  one 
year  she  received  no  less  than  136,000/.  Acaribt^ure  published  in 
Holland  aptly  represented  him  as  standing  betwe^lKtwo  women, 
with  empty  pockets  hanging  out.      At  this  time  he  h?id  in  his 

g  R  2 


604  CHARLES  11.    AND    THE   CABAL  1672 

excheque;^,4oo,ooo/.,  lent  to  him  by  the  goldsmiths  who,  in  those 
days,  acteo^is-feiu^cers.  On  January  2,  1672,  probably  at  Clifford's 
suggestion,  he  refused--4o  repay  the  principal,  and  arbitrarily 
diminished  the  interest  from  T2to,(5  per  cent.^  In  consequence  of 
this  stop  of  the  exchequer,  as  it  was  called,  many  of  the  gold- 
smiths became  bankrupt,  but  Clifford  became  a  peer  and  Lord 
High  Treasurer. 


Anthony  Ashley-Cooper,  first  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  1621-1683  : 
from  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

^^^2^  13.  The  Declaration  of  Indulgence.  1672.— On  March  15, 
Charles,  though  still  hesitating  to  proclaim  himself  a  Catholic,  issued 
a  Declaration  of  Indulgence.     Claiming  a  dispensing  power,^  he 

1  In  the  time  of  James  I.  the  usual  interest  was  10  per  cent.  The  Long 
Parliament  paid  8. 

2  The  right  of  pardon  allows  the  king  to  remit  the  consequences  to  a  par- 
ticular person  of  a  sentence  passed  on  him.  The  right  of  dispensation  allows 
him  to  remit  beforehand  the  consequences  of  a  breach  of  a  law  either  to  such 
persons  as  are  named,  or  to  all  persons  generally  who  may  commit  such  a  breach. 


1672  THE  DECLARATION  OF  INDULGENCE  605 

suspended  all  penal  laws  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  affecting  either 
recusants  or  non-conformists,  thus  giving  complete  religious  liberty 
to  Roman  Catholics  as  well  as  to  Dissenters.  To  this  measure, 
wise  and  statesmanlike  in  itself,  but  marred  by  the  motives  of  its 
author  and  by  its  defiance  of  the  law  and  of  public  opinion,  Ashley 
gave  his  hearty  support.  He  was  rewarded  with  the  Earldom 
of  Shaftesbury.  He  had  shortly  before  been  made  Lord  Chancellor ; 
being  the  last  who  held  that  post  without  being  a  lawyer.  At 
that  time  the  decisions  of  the  Court  of  Chancery  were  still  given  in 
accordance  with  the  view  taken  by  the  Chancellor  of  what  seemed 
fair  and  equitable,  and  did  not  therefore  require  any  elaborate  legal 
knowledge.  Even  Shaftesbury^s  bitterest  enemies  acknowledged 
that  he  was  scrupulously  just. 
y-  14.  The  Second  Dutch  War  of  the  Restoration.  1672.— Both 
Charles  and  Louis  had  resolved  to  take  the  Dutch  by  surprise. 
On  March  13,  Admiral  Holmes,  obeying  orders,  attacked  a  rich 
Dutch  merchant  fleet  sailing  up  the  Channel,  before  war  was 
declared,  but  only  succeeded  in  taking  two  vessels.  In  the  war 
now  begun  the  discipline  of  the  English  navy  was  worse,  and  that 
of  the  Dutch  navy  better,  than  it  had  been  m  the  former  war  (see 
p.  591).  On  June  7  there  was  a  fierce  sea-fight  in  Southwold  Bay, 
in  which  the  Dutch  had  slightly  the  advantage.  Louis,  on  his 
part,  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  fell  upon  the  Dutch  territory.  As  a 
land  attack  had  not  been  expected,  the  military  preparations  were 
incomplete,  and  the  fortresses  out  of  repair.  One  place  after  another 
capitulated  to  the  French.  The  young  William  HL,  Prince  of 
Orange,  Charles's  nephew,  had  been  named  Captain-General,  but 
his  army  was  too  small  to  encourage  him  to  risk  a  battle.  Then 
De  Witt  took  a  heroic  resolution.  On  June  18  he  cut  the  dykes  which 
protected  the  low-lying  land  from  the  sea  which  stood  at  a  higher 
level.  In  rushed  the  waters,  Louis  found  his  progress  stopped.  De 
Witt  had  the  blame  of  the  failure  to  prevent  the  invasion ;  William, 
coming  after  him,  had  the  credit  of  the  resistance.  The  Republic 
needed  a  strong  hand  to  preserve  it,  and  the  office  of  Stadholder 
was  revived  and  given  to  William.  Shortly  afterwards  De  Witt, 
together  with  his  brother,  was  brutally  murdered  at  the  Hague. 
William,  who  detested  De  Witt  for  having  so  long  deprived  him 
of  the  power  which  he  considered  his  due,  not  only  took  no 
steps  to  hinder  the  assassination,  but  actually  protected  the 
murderers.  Disgraceful  as  his  conduct  was,  he  had  a  temper  as 
heroic  as  De  Witt's.  Buckingham  came  to  urge  him  to  submit  to 
Louis'  terms.     "  Do  you  not  see,"  said  the  Englishman,  "  that  the 


6o6  CHARLES  II.    AND    THE  CABAL  1673 

Republic  is  lost  ? "  "I  know  one  sure  means  of  never  seeing  it," 
was  William's  firm  reply — "  to  die  on  the  last  dyke."  His  con- 
fidence was  justified.  Louis  could  not  pierce  the  girdle  of  waters 
which  surrounded  the  Dutch  towns,  and,  returning  to  Paris, 
brought  the  campaign  to  an  end. 
^  15.  'Delenda  est  Carthago.'  1673.— On  February  4,  1673. 
Charles,  having  once  more  spent  all  his  money,  again  met  his 
Parliament.  Shaftesbury  urged  the  voting  of  supply  for  the  war 
with  the  Dutch,  whom  he  styled  the  eternal  enemies  of  England, 
quoting  the  saying  of  Cato — Delenda  est  Carthago — as  though 
they  were  to  be  destroyed  as  being  to  England  what  Carthage 
had  been  to  Rome.  So  far  as  the  war  was  concerned,  the 
House  of  Commons  answered  his  appeal  by  ofifering  1,260,000/., 
though  they  kept  back  the  Bill  till  they  had  brought  him  to 
terms. 

16.  Withdrawal  of  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence.  1673. — 
It  ^^s  at  the  withdrawal  of  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence  that  the 
Hou^t^was  aiming.  In  vain  Charles  simulated  firmness,  declaring 
himself  tisk^e  resolved  to  stick  to  his  declaration.  The  Commons 
bitterly  resetted  his  interference  with  the  law.  Forty  statutes,  it  was 
said,  had  beenViolated  by  the  Declaration,  and  the  house  passed  a 
resolution  that '  p^ii^l  statutes  in  matters  ecclesiastical  cannot  be 
suspended  but  by  actSjf  Parliament.'  Both  sides  were  anxious  to 
limit  the  question  to  ecdt^iastical  statutes  :  Charles,  because  the 
powers  over  the  Church  comi^red  on  the  Tudor  sovereigns  were 
vague,  and  therefore  more  defeh'^ble  than  those  exercised  by  them 
in  political  matters  ;  the  Commoii^>J)ecause  they  had  precedents 
of  Parliamentary  resistance  to  dispensibJt^ns  granted  to  recusants, 
whereas  former  kings  had  usually  been  aHqwed  without  contradic- 
tion to  suspend  the  law  in  commercial  meters.  Charles  tried 
to  evade  the  summons  of  the  Commons,  but^'^h^  Lords  having 
come  on  March  7  to  the  same  conclusion- as  the  otfier  House,  he 
gave  way  on  the  8th  and  recalled  his  Declaration.  As  no  new 
statute  was  passed  on  the  subject,  the  legal  question  remained  just 
where  it  was  before. 

17.  The  Test  Act.  _i623i:7- Charles  had  entered  on  a  struggle 
with  Parliament  and  had  been  defeated.  The  Royalist  Parliament 
of  1661  was  still-  Royalist  so  far  as  the  maintenance  of  the  throne 
was  concerned,  but  it  had  entered  on  a  course  of  opposition  which 
had  brought  it  into  open  collision  with  the  king.  From  first  to 
last  the  chief  characteristic  of  this  Parliament  was  its  resolution 
to  maintain  the  supremacy  of  the  Church,  and  it  was  now  obvious 


1 673  THE    TEST  ACT  607 

that  the  Church  was  in  more  danger  from  Roman  CathoHcs  than 
from  Dissenters.  Though  Charles's  conversion  (see  p.  600)  was  un- 
known, it  was  no  secret  that  the  Duke  of  York,  the  heir  to  the 
throne,  was  a  CathoHc,  and,  in  spite  of  the  veil  thrown  over  the 
terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Dover,  the  danger  of  an  invasion  by  French 
troops  in  support  of  the  English  Catholics  was  obvious  to  all.  For 
the  first  time  since  the  Restoration  a  Bill  was  brought  in  to  relieve 
Protestant  Dissenters,  and,  though  this  proposal  came  to  nothing, 
the  very  fact  of  its  being  made  showed  that  a  new  state  of  feeling 
was  growing  up.  Arlington,  seeing  how  things  stood,  and  wishing 
to  oust  the  Catholic  Clifford  from  the  Treasury  that  he  might  be 
his  successor,  put  up  a  member  of  the  Commons  to  propose  a  Bill 
which  soon  became  law  under  the  name  of  the  Test  Act.  By  it, 
no  one  was  to  hold  office  who  refused  to  take  the  test — that  is  to 
say,  to  make  a  declaration  of  his  disbelief  in  the  doctrine  of 
Transubstantiation  and  to  receive  the  Sacrament  according  to  the 
rites  of  the  Church  of  England.  It  was  only  after  Charles  had  given 
his  assent  to  this  Act  on  March  29  that  the  proposed  grant  of 
1,260,000/.  was  actually  made. 
x/  18.  Results  of  the  Test  Act.  1673. — Though  most  Dissenters 
were  excluded  from  office  by  the  latter  clause  of  the  Test  Act, 
there  were  some  who  did  not  feel  their  opposition  to  the  Church 
to  be  so  strong  as  to  preclude  them  from  taking  the  Sacrament 
occasionally  according  to  its  rites.  Every  honest  Roman  Catholic, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  at  once  driven  from  office.  The  Duke  of 
York  surrendered  the  Admiralty  and  Clifford  the  Treasury.  The 
Test  Act  was  not  a  persecuting  Act  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
Conventicle  Act  and  the  Five  Mile  Act  were  persecuting  Acts.  It 
inflicted  no  direct  penalty  on  the  mere  holding  of  a  special  belief, 
or  on  the  attendance  on  a  special  form  of  worship,  but  excluded 
persons  holding  a  certain  religious  belief  from  offices  the  retention 
of  which,  according  to  the  prevalent  conviction,  would  be  dangerous 
to  the  State. 
^y^^  19.  Continuance  of  the  Dutch  War.  1673.— The  Treasurer- 
ship,  taken  from  Clifford,  was  given,  not  to  Arlington,  but  to  Sir 
Thomas  Osborne,  whose  sentiments,  being  strongly  in  favour  of 
maintaining  the  predominance  of  the  Church  of  England,  were 
likely  to  commend  him  to  the  good- will  of  the  Houses.  In  foreign 
policy  he  represented  what  was  fast  becoming  a  general  opinion, 
that,  as  the  main  danger  to  England  came  from  P>ance,  it  had  been 
a  mistake  to  go  to  war  with  the  Dutch.  This  belief  was  driven 
home  by  disasters  at  sea  in  the  summer  of  1673.     In  May,  a  com- 


doS  CHARLES  It.   AND   THE   CABAL  1673-1674 

bined  French  and  English  fleet,  under  Prince  Rupert,  fought  with- 
out advantage  against  the  Dutch.  In  August  Rupert  was  defeated 
off  the  Texel,  because  the  French  fleet,  which  accompanied  him, 
took  no  part  in  the  action,  Louis  not  wishing  to  see  the  EngHsh 
masters  of  the  sea.  On  this,  the  English  nation  turned  all  its  hatred 
against  France. 
SL  20.  The  Duke  of  York's  Marriage  and  Shaftesbury's  Dis- 
missal. 1673. — The  alarm  inspired  by  the  Catholics  was  increased 
in  the  course  of  1673  by  a  marriage  which  took  place  in  the  Royal 
family.  Soon  after  the  Restoration  the  Duke  of  York  had  married 
Clarendon's  daughter,  Anne  Hyde,  and  had  by  her  two  daughters, 
Mary  and  Anne,  both  of  whom  were  brought  up  as  Protestants, 
so  that,  if  the  Duke  outlived  his  brother,  he  would,  when  he  himself 
died,  transmit  the  crown  to  a  Protestant  queen.  He  was  now, 
however,  a  widower,  and  took  as  his  second  wife  a  Catholic 
princess,  Mary  of  Modena.  If  the  new  Duchess  should  bear  a 
son,  the  boy,  who  would  inevitably  be  educated  as  a  Catholic, 
would  be  the  future  king  of  England.  When  Parliament  met  in 
October  it  was  highly  indignant,  and,  as  it  attacked  the  king's 
ministers,  it  was  prorogued  after  a  session  of  a  few  days.  Charles 
revenged  himself  by  dismissing  a  minister  whom  the  Commons 
had  not  attacked.  Shaftesbury  had,  earlier  in  the  year,  learned 
the  contents  of  the  secret  articles  of  the  Treaty  of  Dover,  and  had 
thereby  discovered  that  Charles  had  made  a  fool  of  him  as  com- 
pletely as  he  had  made  a  fool  of  Buckingham  when  he  sent  him 
to  negotiate  a  sham  treaty  (see  p.  603).  Shaftesbury  remained 
true  to  his  policy  of  toleration,  but  it  was  now  to  be  toleration  for 
Dissenters  alone.  Toleration  for  Catholics,  he  now  knew,  was 
connected  with  a  scheme  for  overthrowing  English  independence 
with  the  aid  of  French  soldiers.  Accordingly,  he  supported  the 
Test  Act,  and,  as  he  continued  uncompliant,  Charles,  on  No- 
vember 9,  dismissed  him.  Shaftesbury  at  once  threw  himself  into 
the  most  violent  opposition.  Buckingham  was  dismissed  not  long 
\^  afterwards,  and  the  so-called  Cabal  was  thus  finally  broken  up. 

21.  Peace  with  the  Dutch.  1674. — The  war  with  the  Dutch 
was  brought  to  an  end  by  a  treaty  signed  on  February  19,  1674. 
On  the  24th  Charles  prorogued  Parliament,  and  did  not  summon 
it  again  for  more  than  a  year.  During  the  interval,  he  at- 
tempted to  win  friends  all  round,  without  committing  himself 
to  any  definite  policy.  On  the  one  hand,  he  remained  on  friendly 
terms  with  Louis,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  he  offered  the  hand  of 
Mary,  the  eldest  child  of  his  brother  James,  to  her  cousin,  William 


1674 


WILLIAM  OF  ORANGE 


609 


of  Orange.  William's  position  was  far  higher  than  it  had  been 
two  years  before.  He  was  now  at  the  head  of  an  alliance  in 
which  the  Emperor  Leopold,  the  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine  combined  with  him  to  restrain  the  inordinate  ambition  of 
Louis.  It  is  true  that  his  generalship  was  less  conspicuous  than 
his  diplomacy,  and  that  in  the  whole  course  of  his  life  he  never 
succeeded  in  beating  a  French  army  in  the  field.  Yet  even  in  war 
his  indomitable  courage  and  conspicuous  coolness  "  stood  him 
in  good  stead,  and  he  knew  better  than  most  commanders  how  to 
gather  his  troops  after  a  defeat  and  to  place  them  in  strong 
positions  in  which  the  enemy  did  not  dare  to  attack  them.  The 
history  of  ^^urope  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  the  history 
of  a  duel  between  the  ambitious  and  autocratic  Louis  and  the 
cool-headed  William,  the  first  magistrate  of  a  republic  in  which 
his  action  was  checked  by  constitutional  restraints  on  every  side, 
and  the  head  of  a  coalition  of  which  the  members  were  always  prone 
to  take  offence  and  to  pursue  their  individual  interests  at  the  sacrifice 
of  the  common  good.  To  win  England  to  the  alliance  was,  for 
William,  a  most  desirable  object,  but  he  knew  that  James  might 
very  well  have  a  son  by  his  second  marriage,  ^nd,  knowing  that 
in  that  case  he  would  reap  no  political  advantage  from  a  marriage 
with  Mary,  he  for  the  present  refused  the  offer  of  her  hand.^ 


Genealogy  of  some  of  the  descendants  of  Charles  L  : — 

Charles  I.  =  Henrietta  Maria 
1625-1649    I 


Charles  II. 
1660-1685 


I 
Mary = William  II. 
(Prince  of 
Orange) 


Anne  Hyde= James  II.  (Duke  of  York)  =  Mary  of 
King  of  Great  Britain        Modena 
and  Ireland 
1685-1688 


William  III. 
(Prince  of  Orange) 
King  of  Gt.  Britain 

and  Ireland 
1689-1702 


Mary 
Queen  of 
Gt.  Britain, 


Anne 
Queen  of 
Gt.  Britain 


Maria     =   James  Francis 
Clementina        Edward  (The 
Sobieski         Old  Pretender) 


and  Ireland    and  Ireland 
1689-169^         1702-1714 


Louisa   —    Charles  Edward  Louis 
Princess  of  Philip  Casimir 

Stolberg        (The  Young  Pretender) 


I 

Henry  Benedict 

Marie  Clement 

(Duke  of  York  and 

Cardinal) 


„L 


610 


CHAPTER   XXXIX 

danby's  administration  and  the  three  short 
parliaments.    1675— 1681 

leading  dates 

Reign  of  Charles  II.,  1660— 1685 

Rejection  of  the  Non- Resistance  Bill 1675 

Marriage  of  William  and  Mary        ....   Nov.  15,  1677 

The  Peace  of  Nymwegen July  31,  1678 

The  Popish  Plot 1678 

Dissolution  of  the  Cavalier  Parliament  .  .  .  Jan  24,  1679 
The  First  Short  Parliament  .  .  March  6  -May  27,  1679 
The  Second  Short  Parliament  .  .  Oct.  21,  1680— Jan  18, 1681 
The  Third  Short  Parliament  .    March  21— March  28,  1681 

1,  Growing  Influence  of  Danby.  1675.— Charles's  effort  to 
govern^in  his  own  way  having  ended  in  failure,  and,  in  what  he 
thought  tol>e  of  more  consequence,  discomfort  to  himself,  he  dis- 
covered that  h^NWOuld  lead  an  easier  life  if  he  were  on  good  terms 
with  his  Parliamehtsthan  if  he  quarrelled  with  it.  Being  now  dis- 
posed to  throw  overNwhatever  troublesome  convictions  he  had 
imagined  himself  to  have^^  gave  his  confidence  to  Osborne  (see 
p.  607),  whom  he  had  recerHj[v  created  Earl  of  Danby.  Danby 
revived  the  domestic  policy  o£  Clarendon  by  maintaining,  in 
accordance  with  the  majority  ofHl^e  Cavalier  Parliament,  the 
supremacy  of  the  Church  of  England  over  Catholics  and  Dis- 
senters, and,  equally  in  accordance  with  the  majority  of  that  Parlia- 
ment, opposed  Louis  abroad. 

2.  Parliamentary  Parties.  1675. — The  decision  of  Charles  to 
support  Danby  in  carrying  out  a  definite  policy  completed  the  for- 
mation of  separate  Parliamentary  parties.  These  had,  indeed, 
existed  in  the  Long  Parliament  under  various  names,  and  had 
reappeared  after  the  Restoration  ;  but  in  the  Cavalier  Parliament 
the  minority  in  favour  of  toleration  had,  at  first,  been  exceedingly 
small,  and,  though  it  had  grown  larger  in  the  days  of  the  Cabal,  it 
had  been  distracted  by  distrust  of  Charles  when  he  appeared  as  a 
patron  of  toleration.  The  situation  was  now  clear  and  the  leaders 
distinctly  known.  On  the  one  side  was  Danby  and  '  No  toleration,' 
on  th^  other  side  was  Shaftesbury  andV*  Toleration  for  Dissenters 
only.'  J  Neither  side  shrank  from  base  means  of  acquiring  strength. 


i675 


A  STRINGENT  BILL 


6il 


The  ministers  who  formed  the  Cabal  are  said  to  have  been  the  first 
who  bribed  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  but  it  was  Danby 
who  reduced  bribery  to  a  system  which  was  afterwards  extended 
by  his  successors.  Shaftesbury's  followers,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
quite  ready  to  enter  into  the  pay  of  Louis,  if  he  would  help  them 
to  overthrow  Danby  and  would  strengthen  them  against  the  king. 

3.  The  Non- Resistance  Bill.  1675. — When  Parliament  met  in 
April  10(75,  Danby  produced  a  Bill  which  was  intended  to  secure 
his  hold\on  the  House  of 
CommondL  whatever  might 
be  the  opinion  prevailing 
in  the  country.  No  one 
was  to  be  allowed  to  hold 
office  or  to\sit  in  Parlia- 
ment unless  lie  would  swear 
that  he  believed  resistance 
to  the  Crown\  to  be  in  all 
cases  illegal,  ^d  that  he 
would  never  entieavour  to 
alter  the  government  in 
Church  or  StatA  If  the 
Bill  had  passed,  tlie  future 
liberty  of  Parliament  would 
have  been  fetteren,  and 
few,  if  any,  who  aid  not 
approve  of  the  existing 
Church  system  coulc»have 
entered  Parliament.  XThe 
Bill  passed  the  Lordsibut 
while  it  was  still  under  dis- 
cussion in  the  Commbns 
Shaftesbury  stirred  uplso 
bitter  a  quarrel  between 
the  Houses,  that  Charles 
prorogued  Parliament  before  the  Bill  could  be  converted  into  law. 

4.vCharles  a  Pensionary  of  France.  1675— 1676.— Parliament, 
in  its  di^lT»u§tof  the  king,  refused  him  supplies,  upon  which  Charles 
prorogued  it  foWiiit^en  months.  Louis,  who  feared  lest  Parliament 
should  drive  Charlcs""T!TtT>vj.^ii^g  the  alliance  against  him,  was 
so  pleased  to  see  its  sittingsn^tenmBtedfor  so  long  a  time  that 
he  granted  to  Charles  a  pension  of  ioo^oo3?r-!t--yeaJV-^  make  him 
independent  of  his  subjects.     The  result  was  that  whilst  Charles 


Ordinary  dress  of  gentlemen  in  1675  :  from 
Loggan's  Oxonia  Illustrata. 


6l2 


DANBY'S  ADMINISTRATION 


1676-1677 


allowed  Danby  to  have  his  own  way  in  domes^c  affairs,  he  refused 
to  allow  him  to  detach  England  from  the  Pvrench  alliance.      It 

was  not,  however,  merely  his 
personal  interests  which  drew 
him  to  Lo^is,  as  he  took  a 
real  interest  \n  the  prosperity 
of  English  trade,  and  was  un- 
able to  get  ovV  his  jealousy 
of  the  Dutch.    \n  November 

1676,  he  obtame^  from  Louis 
a  treaty  by  whiclkthe  French 
renounced  a  clairi\  made  by 
them  to  seize  Duk:h  goods 
conveyed  in  EngliSih  ships, 
hoping  by  this  to  ^ain  the 
goodwill  of  Parliamertt  at  its 
next  meeting.  He  coi\ld  not 
understand  how  comj^letely 
the  alarm  of  his  subjects,  lest 
their  national  religion  and  in- 
dependence should  be  assailjed 
by  the  French  had  made  thehi 
forgetful  of  their  commercial 

»    jealousy  of  the  Dutch. 

y^     5.  Two  Foreign  Policies. 

1677.  —  On  February  1 5, 
1677,  Parliament  again  met. 
Shaftesbury  and  his  allies 
attempted  to  steal  a  march 
on  Danby  by  producing  two 
old  statutes  of  Edward  III. 
which  directed  that  Parlia- 
ments should  be  held  every 
year,  founding  on  it  an  argu- 
ment that  the  existing  Parlia- 
ment, not  having  met  for 
a  year,  had  legally  ceased  to 
exist.  The  House  of  Lords 
sent  Shaftesbury  and  three 
other  peers  to  the  Tower  for 

.    ^  .  1^    T^.     ^,    ,  their  pains,  and  the  Commons 

Cup  presented,  1676,  by  King  Charles  II.  to  ,  •, 

the  Barber  Surgeons'  Company.  COntemptUOUSly      rejected       a 


1677  A   DUTCH  ALLIANCE  613 

similar  argument  put  forward  in  their  own  House.  Danby  found 
himself  triumphant.  The  Commons  granted  600,000/.  for  increasing 
the  navy,  Danby  then  carried  a  Bill  through  the  House  of  Lords  for 
securing  the  Protestant  religion  in  the  event  of  a  Catholic— James 
being,  of  course,  intended — coming  to  the  throne,  though  the  Bill  did 
not  pass  the  Commons,  apparently  from  a  feeling  that  its  provisions 
were  insufficient.  The  eyes  of  Englishmen  were,  however,  princi- 
pally fixed  on  the  Continent.  In  the  preceding  year  the  French 
had  gained  two  great  naval  victories,  in  one  of  which  De  Ruyter 
had  been  slain,  and  in  the  spring  of  1677  Louis  carried  one  place 
after  another  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  Both  Houses  now  asked 
Charles  to  join  the  alliance  against  France,  whereupon  Charles 
indignantly  prorogued  Parliament.  When  he  was  urged  by  the 
Dutch  ambassador  to  act  upon  the  wishes  of  the  Houses  he  threw  his 
handkerchief  into  the  air,  with  the  accompanying  words  -.  "  I  care 
just  that  for  Parliament." 
/  6.  The  Marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  1677.  —  Lours^pS^ 
^*^  paid  to  Charle^.j[^6oo,ooo/.  for  the  prorogation  which  rid  France  \jhf  i\  A 
for  a  time  frorn  the  danger  of  a  war  with  England.  Charles,  O^^ 
however,  shrank  from  a  renewal  of  the  struggle  with  his  Parlia- 
ment on  its  next  meeting,  and,  though  he  was  resolved  not  to  go 
to  war  with  France  if  he  could  help  it,  he  was  ready  to  help  in 
bringing  about  a  general  peace  which  would  relieve  him  from  all 
further  invitation  to  join  the  allies.  He  accordingly  welcomed 
Danby's  suggestion  that  the  plan  for  a  marriage  between  the  Prince 
of  Orange  and  James's  daughter  Mary  should  be  again  taken  up, 
especially  as  he  hoped  that  it  would  break  down  the  good  under- 
standing which  existed  between  the  Prince  and  Shaftesbury,  and 
would  smooth  away  the  hostility  of  his  subjects  to  his  brother's 
right  of  succession.  William,  knowing  that  the  feeling  of  English- 
men of  both  parties  was  in  his  favour,  visited  his  uncles,  and  his 
marriage  with  Mary  took  place  on  November  15,  1677.  The 
marriage,  which  was  to  prove  of  incalculable  importance  in  the 
future,  was  of  great  significance  even  at  the  time,  as  it  marked  the 
end  of  the  hostile  feeling  against  the  Dutch  which,  for  so  many 
years,  had  been  the  dominant  note  of  English  foreign  politics. 

7.  Danby's  Position.  1677.— Though  Danby  had  brought 
Charfesjxiundto  support  his  foreign  as  well  as  his  domestic  policy, 
his  successwas*lT»«a:g_apparent  than  real.  The  fact  was  that  his 
foreign  and  domestic  poIiTrTes,^ere  inconsistent  with  one  another. 
In  the  long  run  it  would  be  fbimH'^tTftpQssibleto  contend  against 
the  French  king  and  the  English   Catholics  sappoiifiiL.by  him, 


DANBY'S  ADMINISTRATION 


1677-1678 


Steeple  of  the  Chureh  of  St.  Mary-le- 
IJow,  London  ;  built  by  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren  between  1671  and  1680. 


without  ^calling  in  the  aid  of 
those  PrMestant  Dissenters  who 
were  mofet  hostile  to  Louis, 
Englishmen  attached  to  the 
Church  werk  being  led  by  their 
growing  distVst  of  France  to  a 
tenderer  feelmg  towards  Dis- 
senters, and  tlte  spread  of  this 
feeling  made  in  mvour  of  Shaftes- 
bury, who  favoured  toleration, 
and  not  in  favour  Af  Danby,  who 
opposed  it.  For  \  the  present, 
however,  Danby  W)uld  count 
on  the  ParliamentaW  majority 
which  agreed  with  him,  and 
neither  he  nor  the  king  wished 
to  risk  a  dissolution. 

w      8.  >J'he  Peace  of  Nymwegen. 

''1678. — When  Parliament  met  in 
February  1678,  Charles  appeared 
full  of  determination.  He  de- 
clared that,  unless  Louis  agreed 
to  make  peace  with  the  Dutch 
n^  on  reasonable  terms,  he  would 
go  to  war  with  France.  The 
Commons  at  once  resolved  to 
grant  him  1,000,000/.,  and  to 
support  an  army  of  30,000  men 
and  a  fleet  of  90  ships.  Before 
this  resolution  was  embodied 
in  an  Act,  without  which  Charles 
could  not  touch  the  money, 
the  followers  of  Shaftesbury 
took  alarm.  They  believed — 
and,  as  is  now  known,  not  with- 
out reason — that  Charles  intend- 
ed to  use  the  troops  to  make 
himself  absolute.  They  not 
only  pressed  him  to  disband 
what  troops  he  had,  but  they 
entered  into  communication  with 
Louis'  ambassador,  in  the  hope 


^ 


1678  TITUS   OATES  615 

that  he  would  support  them  in  forcing  Charles  to  dismiss  his  troops 
and  to  dissolve  Parliament,  some  of  them  even  accepting  from  him 
gifts  of  money.  Charles,  on  his  part,  vacillated,  doubting  which  was 
the  best  policy  for  him  to  adopt.  At  one  time  he  was  eager  to 
assist  the  Dutch,  and  sent  troops  to  their  succour  in  the  hope  that 
a  victorious  army  might  afterwards  be  useful  to  him  in  England. 
At  another  time  he  made  overtures  to  Louis  with  the  object  of 
securing  his  support.  In  the  end,  on  July  31,  Louis  and  the  Dutch 
made  peace  at  Nymwegen  without  consulting  Charles  at  all.  Louis 
gained  Franche  Comte  and  a  large  number  of  fortresses  on  his 
northern  frontier,  which  had  formerly  belonged  to  Spain.  Though 
he  had  failed  to  destroy  the  Dutch  Republic,  he  had  shown  himself 
superior  in  war  to  a  great  continental  coalition,  and  had  made 
France  the  predominant  power  in  Europe. 

9.  The  Popish  Plot.  1678.— The  part  played  by  the  king  left 
the  English  people  gravely  dissatisfied  with  him.  They  feared 
lest  he  should  seek  to  overwhelm  their  liberties  by  military  force 
and  should  bring  in  French  regiments  to  support  his  own  troops. 
Their  suspicions  were  heightened  by  the  knowledge  that,  if  Charles 
died,  his  brother,  an  uncompromising  Roman  Catholic,  would  suc- 
ceed him.  In  August,  1678,  a  villain  appeared  to  profit  by  this 
prevalent  distrust.  Titus  Gates,  a  liar  from  his  youth  up,  who 
had  tried  various  religions  and  had  recently  professed  himself  a 
Catholic,  announced  the  existence  of  a  great  '  Popish  plot.'  Charles, 
he  said,  was  to  be  murdered,  and  James  set  upon  the  throne  as  the 
agent  of  the  Jesuits.  A  French  army  was  to  land  to  support  him, 
and  Protestantism  was  to  be  absolutely  suppressed.  It  was  true 
that  many  Catholics  were  anxious  to  see  James  on  the  throne 
and  had  expressed  contempt  at  Charles's  conduct  in  refusing  to 
declare  himself  one  of  themselves,  but  the  rest  of  Oates's  story  was 
absolutely  false. 

10.  Growing  Excitement.  1678. — Oates's  depositions  were 
taken  before  a  Middlesex  magistrate.  Sir  Edmond  Berry  Godfrey. 
Not  long  afterwards  Godfrey  was  found  murdered  in  the  fields  near 
Primrose  Hill.  All  London  was  wild  with  excitement.  It  was 
widely  believed  that  '  the  Papists '  had  murdered  him  to  punish 
him  for  listening  to  Oates.  It  was  also  held  to  be  an  undoubted 
truth  that  '  the  Papists '  were  about  to  set  fire  to  London,  and  to 
murder  all  good  Protestants.  A  joiner  named  College  made 
his  fortune  by  inventing  a  pocket  flail,  tipped  with  lead,  which 
was  called  the  Protestant  flail,  and  was  to  be  used  by  sober 
citizens  to  brain  'Popish'  assassins.      When  Parliament  met  on 


6i6  DANBY'S  ADMINISTRATION  1678-167^ 

October  21  Shaftesbury,  who  had  been  liberated  early  in  the  year, 
unscrupulously  encouraged  belief  in  the  supposed  plot.  Up  to 
that  time  Catholic  peers  had  kept  their  seats  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  a  few  Catholics  had  surreptitiously  sat  in  the  Commons. 
A  new  Test  Act  was  now  passed  by  which  they  were  excluded  '  from 
both  Houses,  though  the  Duke  of  York  was  exempted  by  name  from 
its  operation.  Five  Catholic  peers  were  thrown  into  the  Tower, 
and  Coleman,  the  secretary  of  the  Duchess  of  York,  who  had  in 
his  custody  papers  implying  that  James  had  a  design  for  forwarding 
the  interests  of  his  religion,  was  tried  and  executed. 

11.  Danby's  Impeachment  and  the  Dissolution  of  the  Cavalier 
Parliament.  1678 — 1679. — The  mark  at  which  Shaftesbury  aimed 
was  the  overthrow  of  Danby.  Danby  had  always,  as  far  as  his 
own  opinion  went,  been  a  warm  antagonist  of  France,  but  a 
minister  was  still,  in  those  days,  in  reality  the  servant  of  the  king, 
and  was  bound  to  carry  out  his  master's  orders,  even  when  they 
were  against  his  own  conviction.  Danby  had,  therefore,  at  the 
time  when  the  Peace  of  Nymwegen  was  under  discussion,  written 
letters  to  Ralph  Montague,  the  English  ambassador  in  France, 
bidding  him  to  ask  Louis  for  a  considerable  payment  to  Charles, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  explaining  that  the  money  was  needed  to 
make  Charles  independent  of  Parliament.  Montague,  having  sub- 
sequently returned  to  England,  brought  this  letter  before  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  House  at  once  impeached  Danby,  under  the 
false  impression  that  he  had  been  really  subservient  to  France  all 
the  while.  Charles  had  become  attached  to  Danby,  and  knew  that, 
if  the  proceedings  against  him  were  carried  on,  matters  would  come 
to  light  which  he  had  every  reason  to  conceal.  To  save  himself 
and  his  minister,  on  January  24,  1679,  he  dissolved  the  Cavalier 
Parliament,  which  had  now  sat  for  more  than  seventeen  years. 

12.  The  Meeting  of  the  First  Short  Parliament.  1679. — 
WKeTr-^h^  elections  to  a  new  Parliament — the  first  of  three  short 
Parliamenrs~=^were  completed,  Charles  found  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  at  most  thirty  mf^mbers,  the  opposition  had  gained  every 
seat.  Bowing  to  the  storm,  he'^ent^Jbis  brother  to  Brussels,  and 
expressed  his  readiness  to  place  himself  aTthie-head^of  the  Protes- 
tants of  the  Continent.  When,  however.  Parliament  met,  on 
March  6,  1679,  it  was  found  that  both  Houses  were  more  anxious 

1  By  the  Test  Act  of  1673  offices  only  were  closed  to  the  (ratholics  (see 
p.  607) ;  the  oath  of  supremacy,  which  had  to  be  taken  by  every  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  being  held  sufficient  to  exclude  them  from  that  Assembly. 
Peers  might  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords  without  taking  the  oath. 


1679  THE  EXCLUSION  BILL  617 

about  the  fate  of  Protestantism  at  home  than  about  that  of  Protes- 
tants abroad.  The  Commons  renewed  the  impeachment  of  Danby, 
upon^which  Danby  produced  a  free  pardon  from  the  king.  The 
Lords  deci^isithat  a  pardon  could  not  be  pleaded  in  bar  of  an 
impeachment,  but^in  the  end,  proceedings  against  Danby  were 
dropped  on  his  being'^^de^ived  of  office  and  committed  to  the 
Tower.  By  the  advice  of  Sir^William  Temple,  Charles  tried  a  new 
experiment  in  government.  A  ne\Sr-«^rivy  Council  was  appointed 
of  thirty  members,  fifteen  being  ministers  ^oCthe  Crown  and  fifteen 
influential  lords  and  commoners,  by  the  advic^^-^f^hich  the  king 
was  always  to  be  guided.  Shaftesbury  was  appointe&SRj;:esident  of 
this  Council,  but  it  -was  soon  found  to  be  too  large  a  bddy^ 
manage  affairs  which  required  secrecy,  and  a  small  committee  was 
therefore  formed  out  of  it  for  the  consideration  of  all  important 
business. 

13.  The  Exclusion  Bill  and  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act.  1679. — 
Charles,  now  that  he  experienced  the  strength  of  the  opposition, 
was  prepared  to  give  way  on  every  point  except  one — the  main- 
tenance of  his  brother^s  right  of  succession,  which  the  new  House 
of  Commons  was  prepared  to  attack.  He  accordingly  offered 
to  place  the  strongest  restrictions  upon  the  power  of  a  Catholic 
king.  To  the  House  of  Commons,  on  the  other  hand,  all  restric- 
tions appeared  insufficient.  The  members  believed  seriously  that 
no  law  would  be  able  to  bind  a  '  Popish '  king.  They  thought  that 
if  he  was  determined — and  it  was  taken  for  granted  that  he  would  be 
determined — to  overthrow  the  Protestant  religion,  he  would  be  able 
to  do  so.  Lord  Russell,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford — 
the  chief  leader  of  Shaftesbury's  party  in  the  House  of  Commons — 
was  not  in  the  habit  of  using  exaggerated  language.  Yet  even  he 
declared  that,  if  James  became  king,  his  subjects  must  make  up 
their  mind  to  become  '  Papists '  or  to  be  burnt.  An  Exclusion 
Bill  was  brought  in,  excluding  the  Duke  of  York  from  the  throne. 
It  was  read  twice,  but  not  passed,  as  Charles  first  prorogued, 
and  then,  on  May  27,  dissolved  Parliament.  The  only  Act  of 
importance  produced  in  this  Parliament  was  the  Habeas  Corpus 
Act,  which  finally  put  an  end  to  sundry  methods  by  which  the 
Crown  had  evaded  the  rule  requiring  the  issue  of  writs  of  Habeas 
Corpus,  by  which  prisoners  secured  their  right  to  be  tried  or 
liberated. 

14.  Shaftesbury  and  the   King.      1679.— New  elections   were 
hHdTwItTr^ftrr-rftfiuU  that  p  Hoilfifi  v>f  Commons  was  chosen  even 
more  bitterly  hostile  to  the  Court  than  itspredecessor.    Shaftesbury 
II.  S  S 


^ 


THE    THREE  SHORT  PARLIAMENTS  1679 

wasNK)w  at  the  height  of  his  glory.  Gates  and  other  informers 
were  aiJiding  new  hes  to  those  which  they  had  told  before,  and  the 
continaaltirials  and  executions  of  the  Catholics  for  participation  in 
the  siipposeds.  Popish  Plot  kept  the  excitement  in  favour  of  the 
Exclusion  Bill  "^^^  a  fever  heat.  Shaftesbury's  position  was  very 
similar  to  Pym's  1^^1641.  He  had  on  his  side  the  fundamental 
principle  that  a  natioitx^annot  safely  be  governed  by  a  ruler  whose 
ideas  on  the  most  importal\t  question  of  the  day  are  directly  opposed 
to  those  of  his  subjects,  and-he  was  right,  as  the  result  showed,  in 
holding  that,  in  the  seventeentXcentury,  a  Catholic  king  could  not 
satisfactorily  govern  a  Protestanf'^.people.  After  Danb^s  fall,  the 
king  became  the  real  head  of  the  ^rty  opposed  to  Shaftesbury. 
His  ability  had  always  been  great,  buKhitherto  he  had  alienated 
those  who  were  disposed  to  be  his  friends  Nqy  attempting  to  estab- 
lish an  absolute  government  with  the  help  of^he  king  of  France 
and  of  an  army  dependent  on  himself  He  nbw  set  himself  to 
overthrow  Shaftesbury  by  appealing  to  a  popular  sWiment  which 
was  quite  as  strong,  and  might  be  stronger,  than  the^^like  of  a 
Catholic  successor ;  that  is  to  say,  to  the  horror  with  wKhsiiany- 
thing  which  threatened  a  new  civil  war  filled  the  hearts  oT^h-is 
subjects. 

15.  Shaftesbury  and  Halifax.  1679.— Shaftesbury  had  already 
allowed  it  to  be  known  that  he  intended,  if  he  carried  the  Exclusion 
Bill,  to  propose  that  the  future  king  should  be  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth. Monmouth  was  the  eldest  of  Charles's  illegitimate  sons, 
and  it  was  currently,  though  falsely,  believed  that  Charles  had  been 
privately  married  to  his  mother,  so  that  he  might  rightly  be  re- 
garded as  the  heir  to  the  Crown.  Charles,  who  knew  better  than 
any  one  else  that  this  story  was  untrue,  stood  faithfully  by  his  brother, 
and,  though  his  constancy  made  little  impression  as  yet,  he  had 
on  his  side  a  man  whose  judgment  might  usually  be  taken  as  an 
indication  of  the  ultimate  decision  of  public  opinion.  That  man 
was  George  Savile,  Earl,  and  afterwards  Marquis  of  Halifax.  He 
had  been  one  of  the  bitterest  enemies  of  Danby,  but  he  devoted 
himself  to  no  party.  He  called  himself  a  Trimmer,  as  if  his  business 
was  to  trim  the  boat,  and  to  throw  himself  against  each  party  in  turn 
as  it  grew  violent  in  consequence  of  success.  He  now  supported 
the  king  against  Shaftesbury,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  uncertain 
whether  James  would  survive  his  brother,  and  that,  if  he  did,  he 
was  not  likely  to  survive  him  long  ;  whereas,  the  succession  of  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth  would  not  only  exclude  from  the  throne  the 
Catholic  James,  but  also  his  daughters,  who  were  both  Protestants. 


1677-1679  THE  SCOTTISH  COVENANTERS  619 

As  Monmouth  had  no  real  hereditary  right,  there  was  every  HkeH- 
hood  that,  even  if  he  ascended  the  throne,  his  claim  would  be 
opposed  by  partisans  of  James's  eldest  daughter,  the  Princess  of 
Orange,  and  that  a  civil  war  would  ensue. 

16.  The   Divine   Right  of  Kings.      1679. — The  fear  of  civil 
"wa^ialready  frightened  some,  and  would  in  time  frighten  more,  into 

the  actept^ce  of  a  doctrine  which  seems  very  absurd  now — the 
doctrine  of  DiXS^i^ndefeasible  hereditary  right — that  is  to  say,  that 
the  succession  as  iTv^aSsestablished  by  English  law  was  established 
by  Divine  appointmentT'^e^that,  though  indeed  subjects  might 
refuse  to  obey  the  king,  if  he  ohi^^ed  them  to  commit  sin,  it  was 
their  duty  to  bear  uncomplainingly  an^*«pimishment  that  he  might 
impose  on  them,  however  tyrannical  he  mig!itix^uch  a  doctrine 
was  credited,  not  because  those  who  held  it  were  aB&»luiely  silly, 
but  because  they  were  more  afraid  of  rebellion  and  civil  warth^ 
they  were  of  the  tyranny  of  kings.  For  the  present,  however,  such 
ideas  had  little  hold  on  the  new  Parliament,  and  Charles  prorogued 
it  to  give  time  for  them  to  grow. 

17.  The  Highland  Host.  1677— 1678.— Events  were  in  the 
meanwhile  passing  in  Scotland  which  helped  to  impress  upon  those 
who  were  easily  frightened  the  idea  that  the  only  security  against 
rebellion  lay  in  a  general  submission  to  established  institutions  in 
Church  and  State.  For  many  years  Lauderdale  had  been,  with 
Charles's  full  support,  the  absolute  ruler  of  Scotland.  He  put 
down  with  a  high  hand  the  opposition  of  noblemen  in  Parliament, 
but  he  could  not  put  down  the  religious  zeal  of  the  peasants,  who, 
especially  in  the  western  Lowlands,  combined  zeal  for  Presbyterian- 
ism  and  the  Covenant  with  exasperation  against  a  Government 
which  persecuted  them.  They  held  meetings  for  prayer  and  preach- 
ing on  the  open  hill-sides,  and  the  Government,  failing  to  suppress 
these  Conventicles,  as  they  were  called,  by  process  of  law,  sent  into 
the  disaffected  districts,  in  1677,  a  body  of  half-savage  Highlanders 
known  as  the  Highland  Host,  to  reduce  them  to  obedience  by 
plunder  and  outrage. 

18.  Drumclog  and  Bothwell  Bridge.  1679. — When  the  High- 
land Host  had  done  its  work  it  left  behind  a  people  whose  temper 
was  thoroughly  soured.  Political  hatred  of  the  oppressors  mingled 
with  religious  zeal.  The  Covenanters,  as  those  were  called  who 
denounced  episcopacy  as  a  breach  of  the  Covenant  (see  p.  525), 
regarded  themselves  as  God's  chosen  people  and  all  who  sup- 
ported their  persecutors  as  the  children  of  the  devil,  against  whom 
it  was  lawful  to  draw  the  sword.     To  many  of  the  Scottish  gentry 


620  THE    THREE   SHORT  PARLIAMENTS     1679  1680 

such  talk  as  this  appeared  to  be  contemptible  and  dangerous 
fanaticism.  Amongst  those  who  strove  most  heartily  against  it 
was  an  active  officer,  John  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  who,  being 
employed  to  quiet  the  country,  shot  or  haled  to  prison  men  whom  he 
thought  likely  to  be  forward  in  rebellion.  On  May  3,  1679,  a  band  of 
fanatics  murdered,  on  Magus  Moor,  near  St.  Andrews,  James  Sharp, 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  who  was  known  to  be  eager  to  call 
for  the  persecution  of  the  Covenanters,  and  who  was  peculiarly 
hated  as  having  been  once  a  Presbyterian  himself  On  June  3 
Claverhouse  was  driven  back  at  Drumclog  by  an  armed  conventicle 
which  he  attempted  to  suppress.  The  peasants  of  the  West  rose 
in  arms  and  declared  against  the  king's  supremacy  over  the  Church, 
and  against  Popery,  Prelacy,  and  the  succession  of  the  Duke  of 
York,  but  on  June  22,  Monmouth,  who  had  been  sent  at  the  head 
of  an  army  against  them,  defeated  them  at  Both  well  Bridge,  near 
Hamilton,  and  entirely  suppressed  the  rebellion.  Many  of  the 
prisoners  were  executed  after  being  tortured  to  extract  from  them 
information  against  their  accomplices,  and  this  cruelty  was  exercised 
under  the  orders  of  the  Duke  of  York,  who  had  been  sent  to 
/^  Scotland  as  Lord  High  Commissioner.^ 

K 19.    Petitioners   and   Abhorrers.      1680. — Encourag^ed    by  his 

success  in  Scotland,  Charles  dismissed  Shaftesbury  from  the 
presidency  of  the  Council  and  got  rid  of  his  principal  supporters. 
Temple's  reformed  Council  came  thereby  to  an  end.  When  Mon- 
mouth returned  from  Scotland  his  father  refused  to  see  him  and 
sent  him  away  from  London.  In  the  beginning  of  1680  Shaftes- 
bury's party  sent  up  numerous  petitions  to  ask  Charles  to  allow 
Parliament  to  meet,  and  his  opponents  sent  up  petitions  expressing 
abhorrence  at  such  an  attempt  to  force  the  king's  will.  For  a  time 
the  two  parties  were  known  as  Petitioners  and  Abhorrers,  names 
which  were  soon  replaced  by  those  of  Whigs  and  Tories.  These 
celebrated  names  were  at  first  merely  nicknames.  The  courtiers 
called  the  Petitioners  Whigs — an  abbreviation  of  Whigamore,  the 
name  by  which  the  peasants  of  the  west  of  Scotland  were  familiarly 
known,  from  the  cry  of  '  Whiggam'  with  which  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  encourage  their  horses.  The  name  Whig  therefore  implied 
that  the  petitioners  were  no  better  than  Covenanting  rebels.  The 
Petitioners,  on  the  other  hand,  called  their  opponents  Tories — the 
name  given  to  brigands  in  Ireland,  implying  that  they  were  no 
better  than  Popish  thieves. 

20.  iTie  SecolRh-Short  Parliament.     1680— 1681. — Each  party 
1  Scott  s  Old  Mortality  is  founded  on  these  events. 


i68o-i68i  CHARLES'S    VICTORY  621 

did  all  that  could  be  done  to  court  popularity.  Monmouth  made 
a  triumphant  progress  in  the  west  of  England.  On  the  other  hand, 
Jamev'^H^is  return  from  Scotland,  had  a  good  reception  even  in 
London,  theli^^-quarters  of  his  opponents.  On  June  26,  1680, 
Shaftesbury  appe^«^  at  Westminster  and  indicted  James  as  a  re- 
cusant. At  last,  on  Ois^ber  21,  the  second  Short  Parliament  met. 
The  Exclusion  Bill  was  r^f^Mly  passed  through  the  Commons.  In 
the  Lords,  Halifax  carried  tnfesHouse  with  him  by  an  eloquent  and 
closely-reasoned  speech,  in  whichs^e  claims  of  the  Princess  of 
Orange  were  dwelt  on  as  superior  tothQse  of  Monmouth,  and  the 
Bill  was,  in  consequence,  rejected.  On  De^'bt^ber  29  Lord  Stafford, 
a  Catholic  peer,  was  executed  on  a  false  chafgjQ  of  a  design  to 
murder  the  king.  When  he  protested  his  innocence^'on  the  scaffold, 
shouts  were  raised  of  "  God  bless  you,  my  lord  !  We  believe  you, 
my  lord  ! "  Charles  saw  in  these  shouts  an  indication  that  the  tide 
of  opinion  was  turning  in  his  favour,  and,  on  January  18,  1681,  dis- 
solved Parliament. 

21.  The  Third  Short  Parliament.  1681. — Charles  summoned 
a  new  Parliament  to  meet  at  Oxford,  where  it  would  not  be  exposed 
to  any  violent  interruption  by  Shaftesbury's  '  brisk  boys  '^as  his 
noisy  London  supporters  were  called — who  might,  it  was  feared, 
repeat  the  exploits  of  the  City  mob  in  1641  (see  p.  535).  The 
new  House  of  Commons  was  again  predominantly  Whig,  and  it 
was  thought  by  the  Whigs  that  Oxford  had  been  selected  as  the 
place  of  meeting  because  the  University  was  eminently  Tory,  with 
the  deliberate  intention  of  overpowering  them  by  force.  Their 
alarm  increased  when  they  learned  that  the  king  was  bringing  his 
guards  with  him.  Accordingly  the  Whigs  armed  themselves  and 
their  servants  in  self-defence,  and,  in  this  guise,  rode  into  Oxford. 
Parliament  was  opened  on  March  21, 168 1,  and  Charles  then  offered 
to  assent  to  any  scheme  for  stripping  his  brother  of  royal  authority, 
if  only  he  were  recognised  as  king.  Shaftesbury  replied  that  the 
only  way  of  ending  the  dispute  was  to  declare  Monmouth  heir  to 
the  Crown.  As  the  Commons  supported  Shaftesbury,  Charles,  on 
March  28,  dissolved  his  third  Short  Parliament.  So  much  was  he 
afraid  that  the  Whig  members  and  their  servants  might  lay  violent 
hands  on  him,  that  he  drove  in  one  coach  to  Christchurch  Hall, 
where  the  House  of  Lords  was  sitting,  and  sent  his  robes  by  another, 
in  order  that  it  might  not  be  guessed  that  a  dissolution  was  intended. 
He  soon  found  that  he  could  now  count  on  popular  support  in  almost 
every  part  of  England.  The  mass  of  people  judge  more  by  what 
they  see  than  by  what  they  hear.     The  pistols  in  the  hands  of  the 


622  THE    THREE  SHORT  PARLIAMENTS  1681 

Whig  members  when  they  rode  into  Oxford  had  driven  into  men's 
heads  the  behef  that  they  intended  to  gain  their  ends  by  civil  war, 
and,  much  as  the  nation  disliked  the  idea  of  having  a  '  Popish '  king, 
it  disliked  the  idea  of  civil  war  still  more,  and  rallied  round  the 
king. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  LAST  YEARS  07  CHARLES  IL      1681— 1685 

LEADING  DATES 
Reign  of  Charles  II.,  1660—1685 

Tory  Reaction .    1681 

Flight  of  Shaftesbury 1682 

Forfeiture  of  the  Charter  of  the  City  of  London   .        .        .    1683 

The  Rye  House  Plot 1683 

Executions  of  Russell  and  Sidney 1683 

Death  of  Charles  II Feb.  6,  1685 

I.  Tory  Reaction.  1681. — The  Tory  reaction  which  followed 
made  itself  especially  felt  in  the  law-courts.  Judges  and  juries  who 
had  comt)ined  to  send  to  death  innocent  Ca'tholics,  upon  the  testi- 
mony of  forsworn  informers,  now  combined  to  send  to  death  ardent 
Whigs,  upon  the  testimony  of  informers  equally  base.  College, 
the  inventor  of  the  Protestant  flail  (see  p.  615),  was  condemned 
to  death,  as  having^ i)orne  arms  in  Oxford  during  the  last  Parlia- 
ment, and  others  sharM  his  fate  on  equally  slight  grounds.  In  the 
City  of  London,  however,Ht  was  still  impossible  to  secure  a  verdict 
against  a  Whig.  Juries  wer^  every  where  nominated  by  the  sheriff 
of  the  county,  and  sheriffs  were;*-!!!  political  cases,  ready  to  compose 
a  jury  of  political  partisans.  In-^yery  part  of  England  except 
Middlesex,  the  sheriffs  were  named  By.4he  king,  and  were,  there- 
fom^Tories.  The  City  of  London,  which  "^s  strongly  Whig,  had 
thp|)rivilege  of  electing  Sheriffs  for  London*  and  Middlesex,  and 
these  sheriffs  took  care  that  Middlesex  juries  shotild  be  composed 
of  Whigs.  Shaftesbury  was  accused  of  high  treason,  but  before  he 
could  be  tried  the  Grand  Jury  of  Middlesex  had  to  find  a  true  bill 
against  him— that  is  to  say,  to  declare  that  there  was  sufficient 
evidence  against  him  to  call  for  a  trial.  On  November  24, 1681,  the 
Grand  Jury,  composed  of  his  own  political  partisans^  threw  out 
the  bill,  and  he  was  at  once  set  at  liberty. 


1 68 1 -1 682  TORY  ASCENDENCY  623 

2.  ♦  Abaolom  and  Achitophel.'  1681. — A  few  days  before  Shaftes- 
bury's release7^B*^;^[en,  the  greatest  Hving  master  of  the  heroic 
couplet,  strove  to  stiriIpT«ej;^minds  against  the  prisoner  by  his 
satire  of  '  Absolom  and  Achitoph«l,,Mn  which  the  part  of  the 
tempter  Achitophel  was  assigned  to  Sli^fte^bury  and  the  part  of 
the  tempted  Absolom  to  Monmouth.    Shaftesbury  was  described  as 

For  close  designs  and  crooked  councils  fit ; 

Sagacious,  bold,  and  turbulent  of  wit  ; 

Restless,  unfixed  in  principles  and  place  ; 

In  power  unpleased,  impatient  of  disgrace  ; 

A  fiery  soul,  which  worketh  out  its  way, 

F'retted  the  pigmy  body  to  decay, 

And  o'er-informed  the  tenwnent  of  clay. 

A  daring  pilot  in  extremity  ; 

Pleased  with  the  danger  when  the  waves  ran  high, 

He  sought  the  storms  ;  but,  for  a  calm  unfit. 

Would  steer  too  nigh  the  sands  to  show  his  wit. 

o< 

3.  The  Scottish  Test  Act  and  the  Duke  of  York's  Return. 
1681 — 1682. — The  'daring  pilot's'  course  was  nearly  run.  Before 
long,  on  May  27,  1682,  Shaftesbury's  most  conspicuous  enemy,  the 
Duke  of  York,  returned  from  Scotland.  Whilst  he  was  in  Scotland 
he  had  obtained  an  Act  from  the  Scottish  Parliament,  binding  on 
all  officials  a  new  test,  requiring  them  to  swear  to  the  doctrine  of 
hereditary  right  and  to  the  maintenance  of  the  episcopal  Church. 
The  Earl  of  Argyle,  the  son  of  the  Marquis  of  Argyle,  the  political 
leader  of  the  Covenanters  against  Charles  I.,  having  inherited  his 
father's  Presbyterianism,  not  only  refused  the  oath,  but  gave  reasons 
for  refusing.  The  Crown  lawyers  declared  that  his  reasons  poisoned 
the  minds  of  the  subjects  against  the  king,  and  he  was  tried  and 
condemned  to  death  under  an  old  statute  against  leasing-making — 
literally,  the  making  of  lies — which  had  been  passed  about  a  century 
before  to  punish  court  favourites  who  sowed  dissension  between  the 
king  and  his  people  by  poisoning  the  mind  of  the  king  against  his 
subjects.  Argyle,  however,  escaped  to  Holland,  and  on  April  20, 
1682,  James  reached  London. 

4.  The  City  Elections.  1682. — The  first  thing  on  which,  after 
James's  f^ttmr^-tiie^Jcing's  ministers  set  their  heart,  was  to  strike  a 
blow  at  Shaftesbury.  "TlTire-iiv^d  in  his  house  in  Aldersgate  Street 
and  took  care  never  to  leave  the  City7it'^«a§,^possible  to  bring 
him  to  trial  as  long  as  the  sheriffs  of  London  ani"^i4dlGsex  were 
Whigs.  The  Lord  Mayor,  Moore,  was  gained  by  the  C*otIi:V3JQ;d, 
by  various  unscrupulous  contrivances,  he  secured  the  appointment 


624  THE  LAST   YEARS  OF  CHARLES  IL      1682- 1683 

of  two  Tofy-9fe«a£[s,.,and,  even  before  the  end  of  1682,  of  a  Tory 
Lord  Mayor  named  Priclia?d^-as  his  own  successor.  There  would  no 
longer  be  any  difficulty  in  filling  the  Middlesex  jury  box  with  Tories. 

5.  Flight  and  Death  of  Shaftesbury.  1682— 1683.— Shaftesbury 
had  for  some  time  been  keenly  alive  to  the  danger  impending  over 
him.  He  had  wild  followers  in  the  City  ready  to  follow  him  in  acts 
of  violence,  and  he  had  proposed  to  Russell  and  Monmouth  that 
the  king's  guards  at  Whitehall  should  be  attacked,  and  the  king 
compelled  to  do  his  bidding.  Russell  and  Monmouth  recoiled  from 
an  act  of  violence  which  would  certainly  end  in  bloodshed.  Shaftes- 
bury still  hoped  to  effect  his  end  by  the  aid  of  his  less  scrupulous 
supporters  ;  but  time  slipped  away,  and  on  October  19,  three  days 
before  Prichard's  election,  he  fled  to  Holland,  where  he  died  on 
January  22,  1683.  With  all  his  faults,  he  had  led  the  way  on  that 
path  in  which  the  English  nation  was,  before  long,  to  walk,  as  he 
had  latterly  striven  for  a  combination  of  Parliamentary  supremacy 
with  toleration  for  dissenters  and  without  toleration  for  Catholics. 
His  personal  failure  was  due  to  the  disquietude  caused  by  his  tur- 
bulence in  the  minds  of  that  large  part  of  the  community  which 
regards  orderly  government  as  a  matter  of  primary  necessity. 

6.  The  Attack  on  the  City.  1682— 1683.— The  difficulty  which 
CJiarleSshad  experienced  in  bending  the  city  to  his  will  made  him 
anxious  to^provide  against  similar  resistance  in  the  future.  Taking 
care  to  effe^his  objects  under,  at  least,  the  form  of  law,  he  en- 
forced on  the  electors  in  the  City,  who  were  called  in  December 
to  choose  the  Cohmion  Council,  the  oath  of  supremacy  and  the 
proof  required  by  iHe  Corporation  Act  of  having  received  the 
Sacrament  in  the  Chuf<;h.  The  result  was  that  a  Tory  majority 
was  returned  on  the  Common  Council.  Following  up  this  blow 
in  1683,  he  called  on  the  0<y  to  show  cause,  by  a  writ  known  as 
'  Quo  Warranto^  before  the  K^g^s  Bench,  why  its  charter  should 
not  be  forfeited,  in  consequence\)f  its  having  imposed  irregular 
tolls  and  having  attacked  the  kin^'^s  authority  in  a  petition  ex- 
hibited in  1680.  The  King^s  Bench  d^GJded  against  the  City,  and 
the  king  then  offered  to  restore  the  chartbi;  on  certain  conditions, 
of  which  the  principal  was,  that  he  was  to^^^ave  a  veto  on  the 
election  of  its  principal  officers.  At  first  thexity  accepted  his 
terms,  but,  before  the  end  of  the  year,  it  drew  bacfe>^d  the  king 
then  named  the  Lord  Mayor  and  other  officers  dire^y,  paying 
no  further  regard  to  the  municipal  self-government  under^^s^hich 
the  City  had,  for  many  centuries,  conducted  its  own  affairs. 

.7.    The   Remodelling  of   the   Corporations.     1683-1684.  —  A 


1 683- 1 684  THE  FALL    OF   THE    WHIGS  625 

large  number  of  other  corporate  towns  were  treated  as  London 
had  been  treated.  By  a  plentiful  use  of  writs  of  Quo  Warranto^ 
the  judges  on  circuit  obtained  the  surrender  of  their  charters, 
after  which  the  king  issued  new  ones  in  which  Tories  alone  were 
named  as  members  of  the  corporations.  It  was  said  of  Jeffreys, 
one  amongst  the  judges  who  was  most  subservient,  that  he  '  made 
all  charters,  like  the  walls  of  Jericho,  fall  down  before  him.'  The 
object  of  these  proceedings  was  to  make  sure  of  a  Tory  Parliament 
when  the  time  came  for  fresh  elections.  In  a  large  number  of 
boroughs  the  corporations  chose  the  members,  and  in  such  cases 
wherever  the  corporation  had  been  remodelled,  there  would  be  a  safe 
Tory  seat.  At  the  same  time  the  laws  against  the  Dissenters 
were  strictly  executed,  and  the  prisons  filled  with  their  ministers. 

8.  The  Rye  House  Plot.  1683. — When  injustice  is  done 
under  legal  forms,  there  are  usually  some  persons  who  think  it 
allowable  to  appeal  to  force.  Some  of  Shaftesbury's  more  violent 
followers  formed  a  plot  to  attack  the  king  and  his  brother  at  the 
Rye  House  on  their  return  from  Newmarket,  and  either  to  seize 
or  murder  them.  The  plot  failed,  as  Charles  passed  the  Rye  House 
some  days  earlier  than  was  expected,  and  several  of  the  con- 
spirators were  taken  and  executed. 

9.  The  Whig  Combination.  1683. — The  discovery  of  the  Rye 
House  Plot  brought  to  light  a  dangerous  combination  amongst 
the  Parliamentary  Whigs,  in  which  Monmouth,  Russell,  Essex, 
Lord  Howard  of  Escrick,  and  other  notable  persons  were  implicated. 
They  had,  indeed,  kept  themselves  free  from  any  intention  to  offer 
personal  violence  to  the  king,  but  they  had  attempted  to  form  an 
association  strong  enough  to  compel  him  to  summon  another 
Parliament,  though  apparently  without  coming  to  a  definite  con- 
clusion as  to  the  way  in  which  they  were  to  use  compulsion.  In 
their  own  eyes  their  project  was  no  more  than  constitutional  agita- 
tion. In  the  eyes  of  the  king  and  of  the  Crown  lawyers  it  was  a 
preparation  for  rebellion.  Essex  committed  suicide  in  prison,  whilst 
Hov/ard  of  Escrick  turned  informer  against  his  friends. 

10.  Trial  and  Execution  of  Lord  Russell.  1683.— Russell 
was  accordingly  put  on  his  trial  as  a  traitor.  In  those  days  no 
one  on  his  trial  for  treason  was  allowed  to  be  defended  by  a 
lawyer,  as  far  as  the  facts  of  the  case  were  concerned,  but  no 
objection  was  taken  to  his  having  some  one  near  him  to  take  notes 
of  the  evidence  and  to  assist  his  memory.  "  Your  friends,"  wrote 
his  wife  to  him  shortly  before  the  trial,  "  believing  I  can  do  you 
some  service  at  your  trial,  I   am  extremely  willing  to  try.     My 


626  THE   LAST   YEARS   OF  CHARLES  LL     1683- 1684 

resolution  will  hold  out,  pray  let  yours."  Her  offer  was  accepted, 
and  she  gave  her  husband  all  the  help  that  it  was  possible  to  give. 
The  jury,  however,  brought  in  a  verdict  of  guilty,  and  sentence  of 
death  followed.  In  prison  Russell  was  visited  by  two  ministers, 
Tillotson  and  Burnet.  No  clergymen  in  England  were  more 
liberal-minded  than  these  two,  yet  they  urged  the  prisoner  to 
acknowledge  that  resistance  to  the  king  was  in  all  cases  unlawful. 
Russell  maintained  that,  in  extreme  cases,  subjects  might  resist. 
Here  lay  the  root  of  the  political  animosity  between  Whig  and 
Tory.  Whether  an  extreme  case  had  occurred  was  a  matter  of 
opinion.  "  As  for  the  share  I  had  in  the  prosecution  of  the  Popish 
Plot,"  Russell  declared  on  the  scaffold,  "  I  take  God  to  witness 
that  I  proceeded  in  it  in  the  sincerity  of  my  heart,  being  then 
really  convinced,  as  I  am  still,  that  there  was  a  conspiracy  against 
the  king,  the  nation,  and  the  Protestant  religion."  It  was  because 
the  nation  at  large  no  longer  held  this  to  be  true  that  the  Tories 
were  in  power. 

11.  Execution  of  Algernon  Sidney.  1683. — Russell's  trial  was 
followed  by  that  of  Algernon  Sidney.  Though  the  real  charge 
against  him  was  that  of  having  conspired  against  the  king,  only 
one,  and  that  a  not  very  credible,  witness  '  could  be  produced 
as  evidence  of  this ;  and  the  prosecuting  lawyers  then  brought 
forward  a  treatise,  written  in  his  own  hand,  but  neither  printed  nor 
circulated  in  manuscript,  in  which  he  had  advocated  the  right  of 
subjects  to  depose  their  king.  This  was  held  to  be  equivalent  to 
having  a  second  witness  against  him,  and  Sidney  was  condemned 
and  executed.  He  was  a  theoretical  Republican,  and  it  was  hard 
to  bring  up  against  him  a  writing  which  he  had  never  published. 
Other  less  important  Whigs  were  also  put  to  death.  Monmouth 
owed  his  pardon  to  his  fathei-'s  tenderness,  but,  as  he  still  continued 
to  bear  himself  as  the  head  of  a  party,  he  was  sent  into  honourable 
exile  in  Holland. 

12.  Parties  at  Court.  1684. — I^^  the  spring  of  1684  three  years 
had  passed  without  a  Parliament,  although  the  statute  repealing 
the  Triennial  Act  (see  p.  588)  had  declared  that  Parliament  ought 
to  be  summoned  every  three  years.  So  sure  was  Charles  of  his 
ground  that  he  liberated  Danby  without  causing  a  murmur 
of  complaint.  At  Court  there  were  two  parties,  one  led  by 
Halifax,  which  urged  that,,  by  summoning  a  Parliament  now, 
Charles  would  not  only  comply  with  the  law,  but  would  have 
a  Parliament  as  loyal  as  the  Cavalier  Parliament  had  been  ; 
the  other,  led  by  Lawrence  Hyde,  the  second  son  of  Clarendon, 


i66(>  i68s  DEATH  OF  CHARLES  11.  627 

who  had  recently  been  created  Earl  of  Rochester.  Rochester, 
who  was  the  highest  of  Tories,  pointed  out  that  the  law  pre- 
scribed no  means  by  which  the  king  could  be  compelled  to  call 
a  Parliament  if  he  did  not  wish  to  do  so,  and  that,  after  all,  the 
Cavalier  Parliament,  loyal  as  it  was  at  first,  had  made  itself  very 
disagreeable  to  the  king  during  the  latter  years  of  its  existence.  All 
through  the  year  Charles  hesitated  and  left  the  question  undecided. 
The  king  of  France,  who  was  renewing  his  aggressions  on  the 
Continent  under  the  guise  of  legal  claims,  was  ready  to  do  all  he 
could  to  prevent  the  meeting  of  an  English  Parliament,  which 
would,  in  all  probability,  declare  against  him,  and  by  sending  money 
to  Charles  from  time  to  time,  he  saved  him  from  the  necessity  of 
asking  his  subjects  for  support. 
(7\  13.  Death  of  Charles  II.  1685.— On  February  2,  1685,  before 
anything  had  been  decided,  Charles  was  struck  down  by  an  apo- 
plectic stroke.  It  was  soon  known  that  he  was  dying.  Sancroft, 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  spoke  plainly  to  him  :  "  It  is  time," 
he  said,  "  to  speak  out  ;  for,  sir,  you  are  about  to  appear  before  a 
Judge  who  is  no  respecter  of  persons."  The  king  took  no  notice, 
and,  after  a  while,  the  .Duke  of  York  came  to  his  bed-side  and 
asked  his  brother  whether  he  wished  to  be  reconciled  to  the  Church 
of  Rome.  "  Yes,"  murmured  the  dying  man,  "  with  all  my  heart ! ' 
James  sent  for  a  priest,  directing  the  bishops  and  the  courtiers  to 
leave  the  room.  Charles  was  duly  reconciled,  receiving  absolution 
and  the  sacraments  of  the  Roman  Church.  He  lingered  for  some 
days,  and  begged  pardon  of  those  around  him.  He  had  been,  he 
said,  an  unconscionable  time  in  dying,  but  he  hoped  they  would 
excuse  it.     On  February  6  he  died. 

14.  Constitutional  Progress.  1660 — 1685. — The  twenty-five 
years  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  were  years  of  substantial  con- 
stitutional progress.  Charles  did  not,  indeed,  acknowledge  that 
Parliameh<had  that  right  of  directing  the  choice  of  his  ministers 
which  the  Lbug  Parliament  had  upheld  against  his  father  in  the 
Grand  Remonsh^nce  ;  but  though  he  took  care  that  his  ministers 
should  be  responsible  to  himself  and  not  to  Parliament,  he  had 
also  taken  care,  on  the  wkole,  to  adapt  the  selection  of  his  ministers 
to  the  changing  temper  of  Parliament  and  the  nation.  Clarendon, 
the  Cabal,  and  Danby  had  aR^been  allowed  to  disappear  from 
office  when  Parliament  turned  a^inst  them.  The  formation  of 
Parliamentary  parties,  again,  was  itselfVcondition  of  Parliamentary 
strength.  The  Cavalier  Parliament  had  bfeen  weakened  in  its  later 
years  by  the  uncertainty  of  its  aims.      At  one  time  the  king's 


628 


THE  LAST   YEA. 


Dress  of  ladies  of  quality  :  from  Sand- 


0, 


I6SI-I685 

reliance  upon  France  and  his  ten^isjicy  to  rest  his  government 
on  armed  force  provoked  a  majorityXto  vote  against  him.  At 
another  time  some  concession  made  by  hihi  to  their  wishes  brought 

round  a  majority  to  his  side.  In 
the  latter  yearX^of  Charles's  reign 
this  uncertainty\was  at  an  end. 
Charles  had  thro\>^  his  depend- 
ence on  France  and\lie  army  into 
the  background,  and  ifk  a  struggle, 
the  successful  issue  of  w^ch  would 
bring  no  personal  advantage  to 
himself,  had  taken  his  stand  on  the 
intelligible  principle  of  defending 
his  brother's  succession.  He  had 
consequently  raUied  round  the 
throne  all  who  thought  the  main- 
tenance of  order  to  be  of  supreme 
importance,  whilst  all  who  sus- 
pected that  the  order  which  Charles 
maintained  was  hurtful  and  oppres- 
sive combined  against  him.  This 
sharp  division  of  parties  ultimately 
streiflgthened  the  power 
of  Parliament.  The  in- 
temperance of  Charles's 
adversaries  had  indeed 
given  hip  the  upper  hand 
for  the  time,  but,  if  ever 
the  day  c^me  when  a  king 
made  himself  unpopular, 
a  Parliament  opposed  to 
him  would  be  all  the 
stronger  if  its  majority 
were  of  one  mind  in  sup- 
porting definite  principles 
under  definite  leaders. 
Charles  II.,  in  short,  did 
not  live  to  see  the  esta- 
blishment of  Parliamen- 
tary government,  but  he  unwittingly  prepared  the  way  for  it. 

15.  Prosperity  of  the  Country.— The  horror  of  a  renewal  of 
civil  war,  which  was  partly  the  result  of  sad  experience,  was  also 


ford's    Coronation 
James  II. 


Procession   of 


Ordinary  attire  of  women  of  the  lower  classes  :  from 
Sandford's  Coronation  Procession  of  James  II. 


i68i-i685 


THE   CITY  OF  LONDON 


629 


the  result  of  the  growth  of  the  general  well-being  of  the  community. 
The  population  of  England  now  exceeded  5,000,000.  Rents  were 
rising,  and  commerce  was  rapidly  on  the  increase.  Fresh  colo- 
nies— amongst  them  Pennsylvania  and  Carolina — were  founded  in 
America.  In  England  itself  the  growth  of  London  was  an  index  to 
the  general  prosperity.  In  those  days  the  City  was  the  home  of 
the  merchants,  who   did  not  then   leave   the   place  where  their 


Coach  of  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century 
Oxonia  Illustrata. 


from  Loggan's 


business  was  done  to  spend  the  evening  and  night  in  the  suburbs. 
Living  side  by  side,  they  clung  to  one  another,  and  their  civic  ardour 
created  a  strength  which  weighed  heavily  in  the  balance  of  parties. 
The  opposition  of  the  City  to  Charles  I.  had  given  the  victory  to 
Parliament  in  the  civil  war,  and  its  dislike  of  military  government 
had  done  much  to  bring  about  the  Restoration.  The  favour  of  the 
City  had  been  the  chief  support  of  Shaftesbury,  and  it  wa-s  only  by 


Wagon  of  the  second  half  oi  the  seventeenth  century  :  from  Loggan's  Oxonia  lllustraia. 

overthrowing  its  municipal  institutions  that  Charles  II.  had  suc- 
ceeded in  crippling  its  power  to  injure  him.  In  the  meantime  a 
new  forest  of  houses  was  springing  up  on  sites  between  Lincoln's 
Inn  and  what  is  now  known  as  Soho  Square,  and  round  St.  James's 
Church.  The  Court  and  the  frequent  meetings  of  Parliament 
attracted  to  London  many  families  which,  a  generation  earlier,  would 
have  lived  entirely  in  the  country. 


6^0  THE   LAST    YEARS   OF   CHARLES  LL     1681-1685 

^^^^  16.  The  Coffee  Houses. — Nothing  has  made  a  greater  change 
in  the  material  habits  of  Europeans  than  the  introduction  of  warm 
beverages.  Chocolate  first  made  its  way  into  England  in  the  time 
of  the  Commonwealth,  but  it  was  for  some  time  regarded  merely 
as  a  medicine,  not  to  be  taken  by  the  prudent  except  under  a 
physician's  orders,  though  those  interested  in  its  sale  declared 
that  it  was  suitable  for  all,  and  would  cure  every  possible  com- 
plaint. Chocolate  was  soon  followed  by  coffee,  and  coffee  soon 
became  fashionable,  not  as  a  medicine,  but  as  a  pleasant  substitute 
for  beer  and  wine.     The  introduction  of  tea  was  somewhat  later. 


Reaping  and  harvesting  in  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  Cambridge  in 
the  distance  :  from  Loggan's  Cantabrigia  Illustrata. 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  that  coffee-houses  arose  in  Lon- 
don, and  became  places  of  resort,  answering  the  purposes  of  the 
modern  clubs.  They  soon  acquired  political  importance,  matters 
of  state  being  often  discussed  in  them,  and  the  opinion  of  their 
frequenters  carrying  weight  with  those  who  were  directly  concerned 
with  Government.  The  gathering  of  men  of  intellectual  prominence 
to  London  was  a  marked  feature  of  the  time,  and,  except  at  the 
universities,  there  was  scarcely  a  preacher  or  a  theological  writer 
of  note  who  was  not  to  be  found  either  in  the  episcopate  or  at  the 
head  of  a  London  parish. 


^8i-i685  PROGKESS  OF   THE   COUXTRY  631 

17.  Condition  of  London.— The  arrangements  for  cleanliness 
did  not  keep  pace  in  London  with  the  increased  magnificence  of  the 
dwellings.  The  centre  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  for  instance,  was  a 
place  where  rubbish  was  shot,  and  where  beggars  congregated.  St. 
James's  Square  was  just  as  bad,  whilst  filthy  and  discoloured  streams 
poured  along  the  gutters,  and  carts  and  carriages  splashed  mud  and 
worse  than  mud  over  the  passengers  on  foot.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  streets  were  left  in  darkness,  and  robbers 
made  an  easy  prey  of  those  who  ventured  out  after  dark.  Young 
noblemen  and  gentlemen  when  drunk  took  pleasure  in  knocking 
down  men  and  insulting  women.  These  were  they  of  whom  Milton 
was  thinking  when  he  declared  that 

In  luxurious  cities,  when  the  noise 
Of  riot  ascends  above  their  loftiest  towers, 
And  injury,  and  outrage  :  and  when  night 
Darkens  the  streets,  then  wander  forth  the  sons 
Of  Belial,  flown  with  insolence  and  wine. 

Something  was,  however,  done  before  the  end  of  the  reign  to 
mitigate  the  dangers  arising  from  darkness.  One  man  obtained  a 
patent  for  lighting  London,  and  it  was  thought  a  great  thing  that 
he  placed  a  lantern  in  front  of  one  door  in  every  ten  in  winter  only, 
between  six  and  midnight. 

18.  Painting. — The  art  of  the  time,  so  far  as  painting  was  con- 
cerned, \^as  entirely  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  Van  Dyck,  a 
Fleming,  from  Antwerp,  had  left  to  the  world  numerous  representa- 
tions of  Charles.  I.  and  Henrietta  Maria,  of  Strafiford  and  Laud,  and 
of  the  ladies  and  gentlemen  who  thronged  the  Court.  An  English- 
man, Samuel  Coope^^ade  posterity  acquainted  with  the  features  of 
Cromwell  (see  p.  567)?\Charles  II.  again  called  in  the  services  of  a 
foreigner,  whose  real  nam^swas  Van  der  Goes,  but  who  called  him- 
self Lely,  because  his  father' shmise  on  the  borders  of  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands  was  known  by  the  sign  of  the  Lily.  Lely  painted 
Court  beauties  and  Court  gentlemen.  He  had  far  less  power 
than  Van  Dyck  of  presenting  on  ca'nyas  the  mind  which  lies 
behind  the  features,  and  in  many  cases  those  who  sat  to  him  had 
minds  less  worthy  of  being  presented  than  tlK^e  with  which  Van 
Dyck  had  to  do.  When  Charles  II.  wished  Tor  a  painting  of 
the  sea  and  of  shipping  he  had  to  send  for  a  Dutch  painter, 
Vandevelde  ;  whilst  an  Itafian,  Verrio,  decorated  his  ceilings  with 
subjects  taken  from  heathen  mythology. 

I gr^areHttocSufg.— In  -arr-hitacturp  alnne    Knglish  hands  were 


632 


THE   LAST    YEARS   OF   CHARLES  IL      1681-1685 


found  to  do  the  work  required  I'^t  the  style  in  which  they  built 
was  not  English  but  Italian.  The  r^ws  of  pillars  and  round  arches, 
with  the  meaningless  decorations  whkh  bespoke  an  age  preferring 
sumptuousness  to  beauty,  superseded  Tj^e  quaint  Elizabethan  and 
early  Jacobean  houses,  which  seemed  b^lt  for  comfort  rather  than 
for  display,  such  as  Ingestre  Hall  (see  p.  471)  and  Hatfield  House 

(see  p.  4H5).  In  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  Inigo  Jones  planned 
the  great  banqueting  hall  at 
Whitehall  (see  p.  493),  and  so 
contemptuous  was  he  of  the  great 
architecture  of  the  middle  ages, 
that  he  fitted  on  an  Italian  portico 
to  the  west  front  \of  the  old  St. 
Paul's.  This  style  6f  building  cul- 
minated in  the  worl^of  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren.  The  fi^re  of  London 
gave  him  an  opportunity  which 
he  did  not  throw  away.  The 
steeple  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow  is  an 
example  of  his  powers  of  design 
(see  p.  614),  but  his  greatest 
achievement,  the  new  St.  Paul's, 
was,  when  Charles  II.  died,  only 
slowly  rising  from  the  ground,  and 
it  remained  uncompleted  till  long 
after  Charles  II.  had  been  laid  in 
the  grave. 

20.  Science. — The  foundation 
of  the  Royal  Society  (see  p.  598) 
had  borne  ample  fruit.  H alley 
and  Flamsteed  were  the  astro- 
nomers of  the  time  till  their  fame 
was  eclipsed  by  that  of  Isaac  New- 
ton, who  before  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.  was  already  meditating  on  the  views  contained  in 
his  '  Principia,'  in  which  the  law  of  gravitation  was  set  forth,  though 
that  work  was  not  written  till  after  the  death  of  that  king. 
\^'  21.  Difficulties  of  Communication. — Difficulties  of  communi- 
cation served  both  to  encourage  town  life  and  to  hinder  the  increase 
of  manufactures  at  any  considerable  distance  from  the  sea.  The 
roads  were  left  to  each  parish  to  repair,  and  the  parishes  usually 
did  as  little  as  possible.     In  many  places  a  mere  quagmire  took  the 


Costume  of  a  gentleman  :  from  Sand- 
ford's  Coronation  Procession  of 
James  II. 


^ 


1681-1685  THE   COUNTRY  GENTLEMEN  633 

place  of  the  road.  Young  and  active  men,  and  sometimes  ladies, 
travelled  on  horseback,  and  goods  of  no  great  weight  were  trans- 
mitted on  packhorses.  The  family  coach,  in  which  those  who  were 
too  dignified  or  too  weak  to  ride  made  their  way  from  one  part  of 
the  country  to  another,  was  dragged  by  six  horses,  and  often  sank  so 
deeply  in  the  mud  as  only  to  be  extricated  by  the  loan  of  additional 
plough  horses  from  a  neighbouring  farm,  whilst  heavy  goods  were 
conveyed  in  lumbering  waggons,  still  more  difficult  to  move  even 
at  a  moderate  speed.  For  passengers  who  could  not  afford  to 
keep  a  coach  the  carrier's  waggon  served  as  a  slow  conveyance  ; 
but  before  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  there  had  been 
introduced  a  vehicle  known  as  The  Flying  Coach,  which  managed 
to  perform  a  journey  at  the  rate  of  fifty  miles  a  day  in  summer 
and  thirty  in  winter,  in  districts  in  which  roads  were  exceptionably 
ood. 

22.  The  Country  Gentry  and  the  Country  Clergy.  —  These 
difficulties  of  communication  greatly  affected  the  less  wealthy  of 
the  country  gentry  and  the  country  clergy.  A  country  gentle- 
man of  large  fortune,  indeed,  would  occasionally  visit  London 
and  appear  as  a  visitor  at  the  house  of  some  relative  or  friend 
to  whom  he  was  specially  attached.  The  movements,  however, 
even  of  this  class  were  much  restricted,  whilst  men  of  moderate 
estate  seldom  moved  at  all.  The  refinements  which  at  present 
adorn  country  life  were  not  then  to  be  found.  Books  were  few, 
and  tl]e  man  of  comparatively  slender  means  found  sufficient 
occupation  in  the  management  of  his  land  and  in  the  enjoyment 
of  field  sports.  His  ideas  on  politics  were  crude,  and,  because 
they  were  crude,  were  pertinaciously  held.  The  country  clergyman 
was  relatively  poorer  than  the  country  squire  ;  and  had  few  means  of 
cultivating  his  mind  or  of  elevating  the  religion  of  his  parishioners. 
The  ladies  of  the  houses  of  even  the  richest  of  the  landed  gentry 
were  scarcely  educated  at  all,  and,  though  there  were  bright 
exceptions,  any  one  familiar  with  the  correspondence  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  knows  that,  if  he  comes  across  a  letter  particularly 
illegible  and  uninteresting,  there  is  a  strong  probability  that  the 
writer  was  a  woman. 

23.  Alliance  between  the  Gentry  and  the  Church. — A  common 
life  passed  in  the  country  under  much  the  same  conditions  naturally 
drew  together  the  squire  and  the  rector  or  vicar  of  his  parish.  A 
still  stronger  bond  united  them  for  the  most  part  in  a  common 
Toryism.  They  had  both  suffered  from  the  same  oppression  :  the 
squire,  or  his  predecessor,  had  been  heavily  fined  by  a  Puritan 

II.  T  T 


634  THE   LAST   YEARS   OF  CHARLES  IL      16S1-1685 

Parliament  or  a  Puritan  Lord  Protector,  whilst  the  incumbent  or 
his  predecessor  had  been  expelled  from  his  parsonage  and  deprived 
of  his  livelihood  by  the  same  authority.  They  therefore  naturally 
combined  in  thinking  that  the  first  'axiom  in  politics  was  to  keep 
Dissenters  down,  lest  they  should  do  again  what  men  like-minded 
with  themselves  had  done  before.  Unless  some  other  fear, 
stronger  still,  presented  itself  to  them,  they  would  endure  almost 
anything  from  the  king  rather  than  risk  the  return  to  power  of  the 
Dissenters  or  of  the  Whigs,  the  friends  of  the  Dissenters. 


CHAPTER   XLI 

JAMES   II.      1685— 1689 
LEADING    DATES 


^ 


Accession  of  James  II.    .......        .  Feb.  6,  1685 

Meeting  of  Parliament    .        , May  19,  1685 

Battle  of  Sedgemoor July  6,  1685 

Prorogation  of  Parliament Nov.  20,  1685 

The  Judges  allow  the  King's  Dispensing  Power     .  June  21,  1686 

First  Declaration  of  Indulgence April  4,  1687 

Second  Declaration  of  Indulgence        .....  April  22,  1688 

Birth  of  the  Son  of  James  II June  10,  1688 

Acquittal  of  the  Seven  Bishops    .        .        ,        .        .        .  June  30,  1688 

Landing  of  William  of  Orange Nov.  5, 1688 

The  Crown  accepted  by  William  and  Mary      .        .        .  Feb.  13,  1689 


The  Accession  of  James  II.  1685. — The  character  of  the 
new  king,  James  II.,  resembled  that  of  his  father.  He  had  the 
same  unalterable  belief  that  whatever  he  wished  to  do  was  ab- 
solutely right ;  the  same  incapacity  for  entering  into  the  feelings  or 
motives  of  his  opponents,  and  even  more  than  his  father's  inability 
to  see  faults  in  those  who  took  his  side.  He  was  bent  on  procuring 
religious  liberty  for  the  Catholics,  and  at  first  imagined  it  possible 
to  do  this  with  the  help  of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  Church  of 
England.  In  his  first  speech  to  the  Privy  Council  he  announced 
his  intention  of  preserving  the  established  government  in  Church  and 
State.  He  had  mass,  indeed,  celebrated  with  open  doors  in  his 
chapel  at  Whitehall,  and  he  continued  to  levy  taxes  which  had 
been  granted  to  his  brother  for  life  only  ;  yet,  as  he  issued  writs 
for  a  Parliament,  these  things  did  not  count  much  against  him. 


I685  JAMES  11.  63s 

Unless,  indeed,  he  was  to  set  the  law  and  constitution  at  defiance 
he  could  do  no  otherwise  than  summon  Parliament,  as  out  of 
1,400,000/.  which  formed  the  revenue  of  the  Crown,  900,000/.  lapsed 
on  Charles's  death.  James,  however,  secured  himself  against  all 
eventualities  by  procuring  from  Louis  a  promise  of  financial  aid  in 
case  of  Parliament's  proving  restive.  Before  Parliament  met,  the 
king's  inclinations  were  manifested  by  sentences  pronounced  by 


James  II.:  from  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

judges  eager  to  gain  his  favour.  On  the  one  hand,  Titus  Oates  was 
subjected  to  a  flogging  so  severe  that  it  would  have  killed  anyone 
less  hardy  than  himself.  On  the  other  hand,  Richard  Baxter,  the 
most  learned  and  moderate  of  Dissenters,  was  sent  to  prison  after 
being  scolded  and  insulted  by  Jeffreys,  who,  at  the  end  of  the  late 
reign,  had,  through  James's  influence,  been  made  Chief  Justice  of 
the  King's  Bench. 


636 


JAMES  //. 


1685 


^ 


2.  A  Tory  Parliament.  1685. — Parliament  met  on  May  19. 
The  House  of  Commons  was  Tory  by  an  enormous  majority, 
partly  because  the  remodelled  corporations  (see  p.  625)  returned 
Tory  members,  but  still  more  because  the  feeling  of  the  country 
ran  strongly  in  James's  favour.  The  Commons  granted  to  him 
the  full  revenue  which  had  been  enjoyed  by  his  brother,  and 
refused  to  listen  to  a  few  of  its  members  who  raised  objections 
to  some  things  which  had  been  recently  done.  The  House  had 
not  been  long  in  session  when  it  heard  of  two  invasions,  the  one  in 
/  Scotland  and  the  other  in  England. 
Ni„,      3.   Argyle's    Landing.     1685. — In  Scotland  the  upper  classes 

were  animated  by 
a    savage    resolve 
to  keep  no  terms 
with     the     Cove- 
nanters, whose  fa- 
natical      violence 
alarmed        them. 
The  Scottish  Par- 
liament, soon  after 
the    accession    of 
James,    passed    a 
law  punishing  with 
death  any  one  at- 
tending a  conven- 
ticle.    Argyle,  be- 
lieving, in  his  exile 
in    Holland,    that 
all    honest    Scots 
would  be  ready  to 
join    him    against 
the      tyranny     of 
the     Government, 
sailed  early  in  May  at  the  head  of  a  small  expedition,  and  arrived 
in  the  Firth  of  Clyde.     He  had  himself  no  military  skill,  and  his 
followers,  no  less  ignorant  than  himself,  overruled  everything  that 
he  proposed.     Soon  after  landing  he  was  captured  and  carried  to 
Edinburgh,  where,  as  he  was  already  legally  condemned  to  death 
(see  p.  623),  he  was  executed  on  June  30  without  further  trial.     On 
the  night  before  his  death  a  member  of  the  Council  came  to  see 
him  in  his  cell,  where  he  found  him  in  a  placid  slumber.     The 
visitor  rushed  off  in  agony  to  the  house  of  a  friend.     "I  have 


Yeomen  of  the  Guard  :  from  Sandford's  Coronation 
Procession  of  James  II. 


1685  ARGYLE  AND  MONMOUTH  637 

been,"  he  said,  "  in  Argyle's  prison.  I  have  seen  him  within  an 
hour  of  eternity,  sleeping  as  sweetly  as  ever  man  did.  But  as 
for  me — "  His  voice  failed  him,  and  he  could  say  no  more. 
^  4.  Monmouth's  Landing.  1685.— In  the  meanwhile  Monmouth, 
the  champion  of  the  Dissenters  and  extreme  Protestants,  had, 
on  June  1 1,  landed  at  Lyme.  So  popular  was  he  in  the  west  of 
England  that  the  trained  bands  could  not  be  trusted  to  oppose 
him,  and  he  was  left  unassailed  till  regiments  of  the  regular  army 
could  be  brought  against  him.  The  peasants  and  townsmen  of 
the  western  counties  flocked  to  join  Monmouth,  and  he  entered 
Taunton  at  the  head  of  5,000  men  ;  but  not  a  single  country  gentle- 
man gave  him  his  support.  Parliament  passed  against  him  an 
Act  of  Attainder,  condemning  him  to  death  without  further 
trial,  and  the  king  marched  in  person  against  him  at  the  head 
of  a  disciplined  force.  Monmouth  declared  himself  to  be  the 
legitimate  king,  and,  his  name  being  James,  he  was  popularly 
known  amongst  his  followers  as  King  Monmouth,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent confusion.  He  advanced  as  far  as  Philip's  Norton  :  there, 
hopeless  of  gaining  support  amongst  the  governing  classes,  he 
fell  back  on  Bridgwater.  The  king  followed  him  with  2,500  regular 
troops,  and  1,500  from  the  Wiltshire  trained  bands.  Monmouth 
was  soldier  enough  to  know  that,  with  his  raw  recruits,  his  only 
chance  lay  in  surprising  the  enemy.  The  king's  army  lay  on 
Sedgemoor,  and  Monmouth,  in  the  early  morning  of  July  6,  at- 
tempted to  fall  on  the  enemy  unawares.  Broad  ditches  filled  with 
water  checked  his  course,  and  the  sun  was  up  before  he  reached 
his  goal.  It  was  inevitable  that  he  should  be  beaten  ;  the  only 
wonder  was  that  his  untrained  men  fought  so  long  as  they  did. 
Monmouth  himself  fled  to  the  New  Forest,  where  he  was  captured 
and  brought  to  London.  James  admitted  him  to  his  presence,  but 
refused  to  pardon  him.  On  July  15  he  was  executed  as  an  attainted 
traitor  without  further  trial. 

5.  The  Bloody  Assizes.  1685. — Large  numbers  of  Monmouth's 
followers  were  hanged  by  the  pursuing  soldiers  without  form  of 
law.  Many  were  thrust  into  prison  to  await  their  trial.  Jeffreys, 
the  most  insolent  of  the  judges,  was  sent  to  hold,  in  the  western 
counties,  what  will  always  be  known  as  the  Bloody  Assizes.  It  is 
true  that  the  law  which  he  had  to  administer  was  cruel,  but 
Jeffreys  gained  peculiar  obloquy  by  delighting  in  its  cruelty,  and 
by  sneering  at  its  unhappy  victims.  At  Winchester  he  condemned 
to  death  an  old  lady,  Alice  Lisle,  who  was  guilty  of  hiding  in  her 
house  two  fugitives  from  vengeance.     At  Dorchester  74  persons 


I 


^' 


/^ 


638  JAMES  II.  1 685- 1 686 

were  hanged.  In  Somersetshire  no  less  than  233  were  put  to  death. 
Jeffreys  overwhelmed  his  victims  with  scornful  mockery.  One  of 
them  pleaded  that  he  was  a  good  Protestant :  "  Protestant ! "  cried 
Jeffreys,  "  you  mean  Presbyterian  ;  I'll  hold  you  a  wager  of  it. 
I  can  smell  a  Presbyterian  forty  miles."  Some  one  tried  to  move 
his  compassion  in  favour  of  one  of  the  accused.  "  My  lord,"  he 
said,  "this  poor  creature  is  on  the  parish."  "  Do  not  trouble  your- 
selves," was  the  only  answer  given,  "  I  will  ease  the  parish  of  the 
burden,"  and  he  ordered  the  man  to  be  hanged  at  once.  The 
whole  number  of  those  who  perished  in  the  Bloody  Assizes  was 
320,  whilst  841  were  transported  to  the  West  Indies  to  work  as 
slaves  under  a  broiling  sun.  James  welcomed  Jeffreys  on  his 
return,  and  made  him  Lord  Chancellor  as  a  reward  for  his  achieve- 
ments. 

6.  The  Violation  of  the  Test  Act.  1685. — James's  success  made 
him  believe  that  he  could  overpower  any  opposition.  He  had  already 
increased  his  army  and  had  appointed  officers  who  had  refused  to 
take  the  test.  On  his  return  to  London  he  resolved  to  ask  Parliament 
to  repeal  the  Test  Act,  and  dismissed  Halifax  for  refusing  to  support 

•  his  proposal.  It  would  probably  have  been  difficult  for  him  to  obtain 
the  repeal  even  of  the  Recusancy  Laws  which  punished  Catholics  for 
acting  on  their  religious  belief.  It  was  not  only  hopeless,  but  rightly 
hopeless,  for  him  to  ask  for  a  repeal  of  the  Test  Act,  which,  as  long 
as  a  Catholic  king  was  on  the  throne,  stood  in  the  way  of  his  filling 
all  posts  in  the  army  as  well  as  in  the  state  with  men  who  would 
be  ready  to  assist  him  in  designs  against  the  religion  and  liberties 
of  Englishmen.  If  anything  could  increase  the  dislike  of  the 
nation  to  the  repeal  of  the  Test  Act  it  was  the  fact  that,  in  that 
very  year,  Louis  had  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes  issued  by  his 
ancestor,  Henry  IV.,  to  protect  the  French  Protestants,  and  had 
handed  them  over  to  a  cruel  persecution.  It  might  be  fairly  argued 
that  what  Louis  had  done,  James,  if  he  got  the  power,  might  be 

^expected  to  do  hereafter. 

7.  Breach  between  Parliament  and  King-.  1685.— When 
the  Houses,  which  had  adjourned  when  the  king  went  into  the 
West,  met  again  on  November  9,  James  informed  them  not  only 
that  he  had  appointed  officers  disqualified  by  law,  but  that  he  was 
determined  not  to  part  with  them.  The  House  of  Commons,  the 
most  loyal  House  that  had  ever  been  chosen,  remonstrated  with 
him,  and  there  were  signs  that  the  Lords  intended  to  support  the 
remonstrance.     On  November  20  James  prorogued  Parliament. 

<^     8.   The    Dispensing    Power.      1686.— Like  his   father,  James 


< 


1686-1687  TJI£  KING  AND    THE   LAW  639 

liked  to  think  that,  when  he  broke  the  laws,  he  was  acting  legally, 
and  he  remembered  that  the  Crown  had,  in  former  days,  exercised 
a  power  of  dispensing  with  the  execution  of  the  laws  (see  p.  604). 
This  power  had,  indeed,  been  questioned  by  the  Parliament  in  1673 
(see  p.  606),  but  there  was  no  statute  or  legal  judgment  declaring 
It  to  be  forbidden  by  law.   James  now  wanted  to  get  a  decision  from 
the  judges  that  he  possessed  the  dispensing  power,  and  when 
he  found  that  four  of  the  judges  disagreed  with  him,  he  replaced 
them  by  four  judges  who  would  decide  in   his  favour.     Having 
thus  packed  the  Bench,  he  procured  the  bringing  of  a  collusive 
action  against  Sir  Edward  Hales,  who,  having  been  appointed  an 
officer  in  the  army,  had,  as  a  Catholic,  refused  to  take  the  test. 
Hales  produced  a  dispensation  from  the  king,  and,  on  June  21, 1686, 
the  judges  decided  that  such  dispensations  freed  those  who  received 
them  from  the  penalties  imposed  by  any  laws  whatever. 
)      9.  The  Ecclesiastical  Commission.     1686. — James,  in  virtue  of 
his  dispensing  power,  had  already  authorised  some  clergymen  of 
the  Church  of  England,  who  had  turned  Roman  Catholics,  to  retain 
their  benefices.    Obadiah  Walker,  the  Master  of  University  College, 
Oxford,  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  set  up  a  press  for  the  printing 
of  Roman  Catholic  tracts,  and  had  mass  celebrated  openly  in  the 
college.    Yet  he  was  allowed  to  retain  his  post.    Then  the  king  ap- 
pointed Massey,  an  avowed  Roman  Catholic,  to  the  Deanery  of 
Christchurch,  and  Parker,  a  secret  Roman  Catholic,  to  the  Bishopric 
of  Oxford.     Naturally  the  clergy  who  retained  the  principles  of  the 
Church  of  England  preached  sermons  warning  their  hearers  against 
the  errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome.     James  ordered  them  to  be 
silent,   and   directed   Compton,    Bishop   of    London,    to   suspend 
Sharp,  the  Dean  of  Norwich,  for   preaching  against  the  Papal 
doctrines.      As    Compton   refused   to   obey,   James,    on   July    11, 
constituted  an  Ecclesiastical  Commission  Court,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  Jeffreys.     It  is  true  that  the  Court  of  High  Commission 
had   been  abolished   by  a  statute  of  the  Long  Parliament,  but 
James  argued  that  his  father's  court,  having  power  to  punish  the 
laity  as  well  as  the  clergy,  could  be  abolished  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment, whereas,  a  king   being   supreme  governor  of  the  Church, 
might  provide  for  the  punishment  of  the  clergy  alone,  in  any  way 
that  he  thought  fit,  without  taking  account  of  Acts  of  Parliament. 
The  first  act  of  the  new  court  was  to  suspend  Compton  for  his 
refusal  to  suspend  Sharp.    James  therefore  had  it  in  his  power  to 
stop  the  mouths  of  all  the  religious  teachers  in  the  realm, 

in     c^rnflani^  j^g^   jyp.^^n^l-     ■x686^t6«7.— In   Scotland  James 


640 


JAMES  II. 


1686 -1687 


^ 


insisted  on  a  Parliamentary  repeal  of  all  laws  imposing  penalties 
<.on  Roman  Catholics.  The  Scottish  Parliament,  subservient  as  it 
had  been  to  Charles  II.,  having  refused  to  comply  with  this  demand, 
James  dispensed  with  all  these  laws  by  his  own  authority,  thereby 
making  Scottish  Episcopalians  almost  as  sullen  as  Scottish 
Covenanters.  In  Ireland  James  had  on  his  side  the  whole  Catholic 
Celtic  population,  which  complained  of  wrongs  committed  against 
their  religion  and  property  by  the  English  colonists.  James  deter- 
mined to  redress  these  wrongs.  In  February,  1^7,  he  sent  over  to 
Ireland  as  Lord  Deputy  the  Earl  of  Tyrconnel,  whQse,^character 
was  low,  and  who  had  been  known  at  Charles's  Court  as  ij{ing 
Dick  Talbot.  He  was,  however,  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  would 
carry  out  the  king's  will  in  Ireland  without  remorse. 

1 1.  The  Fall  of  the  Hydes.  1686— 1687.— To  make  way  for 
Tyrconnel,  the  former  lord-lieutenant.  Clarendon,  the  eldest  son  of 
the  late  Chancellor,  was  recalled  from  Ireland,  his  fall  being  pre- 
ceded by  that  of  his  younger  brother  Rochester  (see  p.  627). 
Rochester  was  devoted  to  the  maintenance  of  the  Royal  power ; 
but  James  told  him  that  he  must  change  his  religion  if  he  wished 
to  keep  his  office,  and  on  his  refusal  he  was  dismissed. 

12.  The  Declaration  of  Indulgence.  1687. — The  dismissal  of 
Rochester  was  the  strongest  possible  evidence  that  James's  own 
spirit  was  intolerant.  Yet  he  was  driven,  by  the  course  which  he 
had  taken,  into  the  adoption  of  the  principle  of  toleration,  and  no 
doubt  persuaded  himself  that  he  accepted  toleration  on  its  own 
merits.  At  first  he  had  hoped  to  obtain  favours  for  the  Roman 
Catholics  with  the  goodwill  of  the  Church  of  England,  whilst 
continuing  the  persecution  of  Dissenters.  He  now  knew  that  this 
was  impossible,  and  he  therefore  resolved  to  make  friends  of  the 
Dissenters  by  pronouncing  for  a  general  toleration.  He  first  had 
private  interviews  with  the  leading  men  in  both  Houses,  in  the  hope 
that  they  would,  if  Parliament  were  re-assembled,  assist  in  the 
repeal  of  all  penal  laws  bearing  on  religion.  These  closetings,  as 
they  were  called,^  proving  ineffectual,  he  issued,  by  his  own  authority, 
on  April  4,  1687,  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  suspending  all  laws 
against  Roman  Catholics  and  Dissenters  alike,  and  giving  per- 
mission to  both  to  worship  publicly.  The  result  of  the  Declaration 
was  not  all  that  James  desired.  Many  of  the  Dissenters,  indeed, 
accepted  their  freedom  joyfully.  Most  of  them,  however,  dreaded 
a  gift  which  seemed  only  intended  to  elevate  the  Roman  Catholics, 
and  opened  their  ears  to  the  pleadings  of  the  Churchmen,  who  now 

^  Because  the  interviews  took  place  in  the  king's  closet,  or  private  room. 


v 


i687  ARBITRARY  GOVERNMENT  641 

assured  their  old  enemies  that  if  they  would  have  a  little  patience 
they  should,  in  the  next  Parliament,  have  a  toleration  secured 
by  law.  /This,  argued  the  Churchmen,  would  be  of  far  more  use 
to  them  than  one  granted  by  the  king,  which  would  avail  them 
nothing  whenever  the  king  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
Protestant  daughter,  the  Princess  of  Orange. 
j^  13.  The  Expulsion  of  the  Fellows  of  Magdalen.  1687.— 
Scarcely  was  the  Declaration  issued  when  James  showed  how  little 
he  cared  for  law  or  custom.  There  was  a  vacancy  in  the  President- 
ship of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  James  commanded  the 
Fellows  to  choose  one  Farmer,  a  man  of  bad  character,  and  a 
Roman  Catholic.  On  April  1 5  the  Fellows,  as  they  had  the  un- 
doubted right  to  do,  chose  Hough.  In  June  they  were  summoned 
before  the  Ecclesiastical  Commission,  which  declared  Hough's 
election  to  be  void,  and  ordered  them  to  choose  Parker,  who, 
though  at  heart  a  Roman  Catholic,  was  nominally  the  Protestant 
Bishop  of  Oxford  (see  p.  638).  They  answered  simply  that,  as 
Hough  had  been  lawfully  elected,  they  had  no  right  to  choose 
another  President  in  his  lifetime.  Jeffreys  bullied  them  in  vain. 
James  insisted  on  their  accepting  Parker,  and  on  acknowledging 
the  legality  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commission. 
All  but  two,  having  refused  to  submit,  were  turned  out  of  the 
College  and  left  to  beg  their  bread.  When  the  Commissioners 
attempted  to  install  Parker  in  his  office  not  a  blacksmith  in  Oxford 
would  consent  to  break  open  the  lock  of  the  President's  lodgings. 
The 'Servants  of  the  Commissioners  were  at  last  employed  to 
force  the  door,  and  it  was  in  this  way  that  Parker  took  possession 
of  the  residence  to  which  Hough  alone  had  a  legal  claim.  The 
expelled  Fellows  were  not  left  to  starve,  as  there  was  scarcely  a 
gentleman  in  England  who  would  not  have  been  proud  to  receive 
one  of  them  into  his  house. 
^  14.  An  Attempt  to  pack  a  Parliament.  1687.— James  was 
anxious  to  obtain  Parliamentary  sanction  for  his  Declaration  of 
Indulgence.  He  dissolved  the  existing  Parliament,  hoping  to  find 
a  new  one  more  to  his  taste.  As  he  had  packed  the  Bench  of 
Judges  in  1686,  he  tried  to  pack  a  Parliament  in  1687.  A  board  of 
regulators  was  appointed,  with  Jeffreys  at  its  head,  to  remodel  the 
corporations  once  more,  appointing  Roman  Catholics  and  Dissenters 
to  sit  in  them.  James  expected  that  these  new  members  would  elect 
tolerationists  to  the  next  House  of  Commons.  So  strong,  however, 
was  public  opinion  against  the  king  that  even  the  new  members 
chosen  expressly  to  vote  for  the  king's  nominees  could  not  be  relied 


642 


JAMES  11. 


[688 


O^ 


^ 


on.     The  design  of  calling  a  new  Parliament  was  therefore  aban- 
doned for  the  time 

15.  A  Second  Declaration  of  Indulgence.  1688. — On  April  22, 
1688,  James  issued  a  second  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  which  he 
ordered  to  be  read  in  all  the  churches.  Most  of  the  clergy  objecting 
to  read  it,  seven  bishops  signed  a  petition  asking  that  the  clergy 
might  be  excused.  Six  of  these  bishops — Sa,ncroft,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  who  was  the  seventh,  having  been  for- 
bidden to  appear  before  the  king — presented  the  petition  to 
James  at  Whitehall.     James  was  startled  when  it  was  placed  in 

his  hands.  "  This,"  he  said,  "  is  a  great 
surprise  to  me.  I  did  not  expect  this 
from  your  Church,  especially  from  some 
of  you.  This  is  a  standard  of  rebellion." 
In  vain  the  bishops  protested  that  they 
hated  the  very  sound  of  rebellion.  James 
would  not  listen  to  their  excuses.  "  This," 
he  persisted  in  saying,  "is  rebellion. 
This  is  a  standard  of  rebellion.  Did 
ever  a  good  churchman  question  the 
dispensing  power  before.^  Have  not 
some  of  you  preached  for  it  and  written 
for  it  ?  It  is  a  standard  of  rebellion.  I 
will  have  my  declaration  published."  One 
of  the  bishops  replied  that  they  were 
bound  to  fear  God  as  well  as  to  honour 
the  king.  James  only  grew  more  angry 
and  told  them,  as  he  sent  them  away,  that 
he  would  keep  their  petition,  with  the 
evident  intention  of  taking  legal  proceed- 
ings against  them.  "God,"  he  said,  as 
he  dismissed  them,  "  has  given-  me  the  dispensing  power,  and  I 
will  maintain  it.  I  tell  you  there  are  still  seven  thousand  of  your 
Church  who  have  not  bowed  the  knee  to  Baal." 

16.  Resistance  of  the  Clergy.  1688.— When  the  day  came  for 
the  reading  of  the  Declaration  scarcely  a  clergyman  obeyed  the 
king's  order.  In  one  of  the  London  churches  Samuel  Wesley, 
father  of  the  John  W^esley  who  was,  by  his  preaching,  to  move  the 
hearts  of  the  next  generation,  preached  a  sermon  on  the  text,  "  Be 
it  known  unto  thee,  O  king,  that  we  will  not  serve  thy  gods,  nor 
M'orship  the  golden  image  which  thou  hast  set  up."  In  West- 
minster Abbey,  when   the  officiating  minister.  Bishop   Sprat,  a 


Dress  of  a  bishop  in  the  second 
half  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury :  frona  Sandford's  Coro- 
nation Procession  of  James 
II. 


i>r 


1688  THE  SEVEN  BISHOPS  643 

courtly  prelate,  began  to  read  the  Declaration,  the  whole  congre- 
gation rose  in  a  body  and  streamed  out  of  the  church. 

17.  The  Trial  of  the  Seven  Bishops.  1688. — James  ordered 
that  the  seven  bishops  should  be  tried,  on  the  plea  that  their 
petition  was  a  seditious  libel.  The  trial  took  place  in  Westminster 
Hall  on  June  29.  The  first  difficulty  of  the  prosecution  was  to 
show  that  the  so-called  libel  had  been  published — that  is  to  say, 
had  been  shown  to  any  one— as  no  one  was  present  besides  the 
bishops  when  James  received  it,  and  the  king  could  not  be  put 
into  the  witness-box.  At  last  sufficient  evidence  was  tendered  by 
the  Earl  of  Sunderland  —  a  minister  who,  unlike  Rochester,  had 
changed  his  religion  to  keep  his  place — to  convince  the  court  that  the 
petition  h?d  been  delivered  to  James.  The  lawyers  on  both  sides 
then  addressed  the  jury  on  the  question  whether  the  petition  was 
really  a  libel.  The  jury  retired  to  deliberate,  and  at  first  nine  of  them 
were  for  the  bishops  and  three  for  the  king.  Two  of  the  latter  gave 
way,  but  the  other,  a  certain  Arnold,  who  was  the  king's  brewer,  held 
out.  "  Whatever  I  do,"  he  said,  "  I  am  sure  to  be  half  ruined.  If  I 
say  Not  Guilty  I  shall  brew  no  more  for  the  king,  and  if  I  say  Guilty 
I  shall  brew  no  more  for  anybody  else."  He  decided  that  the  king's 
custom  was  the  best  worth  keeping.  To  a  gentleman  named 
Austen  who  proposed  to  argue  with  him  he  replied  that  his  mind 
was  already  made  up.  "  If  you  come  to  that,"  replied  Austen, 
"  look  at  me.  I  am  the  largest  and  strongest  of  this  twelve  ;  and 
before  I  find  such  a  petition  a  libel,  here  I  will  stay  till  I  am  no 
bigger  than  a  tobacco  pipe."  The  jury  were  locked  up  through 
the  night,  and  when  the  morning  of  the  30th  came  Arnold  had 
given  way.  A  verdict  of  Not  Guilty  was  given  in.  The  crowds  in 
Westminster  Hall  and  in  the  streets  of  London  burst  out  into 
shouts  of  joy.  At  Hounslow,  where  James  was  reviewing  the 
regiments  on  which  he  trusted  to  break  down  all  popular  resistance, 
the  soldiers  shouted  like  the  rest.  James  asked  what  it  all  meant. 
"  Nothing,"  he  was  told  ;  "  the  soldiers  are  glad  that  the  bishops 
are  acquitted."  "  Do  you  call  that  nothing?"  he  answered.  "  So 
much  the  worse  for  them." 

18.  Invitation  to  William  of  Orange.  1688.— The  acquittal 
of  the  Bishops  would,  but  for  one  circumstance,  have  strengthened 
the  nation  in  its  resolution  patiently  to  wait  till  James's  death 
placed  his  daughter  on  the  throne.  On  June  10,  however,  a  son 
had  been  born  to  James,  and  that  fact  changed  the  whole  situation. 
The  boy  would  be  educated  in  his  father's  religion,  and  England 
was  threatened  with  a   Roman   Catholic  dynasty  in  which  each 


644  JAMES  II.  1688 

successive  ruler  would,  from  his  childhood,  be  brought  up  in  the 
belief  that  he  might  break  through  all  legal  restraints  whenever  he 
could  have  the  approval  of  judges  appointed  by  himself  and  liable 
to  dismissal  whenever  he  pleased.  At  first  the  general  dislike  of  this 
disagreeable  fact  took  the  shape  of  incredulity,  and  it  was  almost 
universally  believed,  without  a  shadow  of  foundation,  that  the  boy 
was  a  supposititious  child  procured  from  some  poor  mother  and 
brought  in  a  warming-pan  into  the  queen's  chamber.  Whether  he 
were  supposititious  or  not,  there  was  no  doubt  that  he  would  be 
treated  as  James's  heir.  Tories  were  as  much  concerned  as  Whigs 
at  the  prospect  before  them.  The  doctrine  of  non-resistance  was 
forgotten,  and  on  June  30,  the  day  of  the  bishops'  acquittal,  seven 
important  personages,  some  being  Whigs  and  some  Tories,  invited 
the  Prince  of  Orange  to  land  with  an  armed  force  to  defend  the 
liberties  of  England. 

19.  Landing  of  William.  1688. — William  would  probably  not 
''  have  accepted  the  invitation  if  the  constitutional  rights  of  English- 
men had  alone  been  at  stake ;  but  he  had  made  it  the  object  of  his 
life  to  struggle  against  Louis,  and  he  knew  that  war  was  on  the  point 
of  breaking  out  between  Louis  and  an  alliance  in  which  almost  A  1  V 
every  European  prince  took  part  excepting  James.  He  accepted 
the  invitation  that  he  might  bring  England  into  that  alliance  ; 
and  made  preparations,  which  could  not  be  hidden  from  James, 
James  made  concessions,  abolished  the  Ecclesiastical  Commission, 
gave  back  the  charters  of  the  City  of  London  and  the  other  cor- 
porations, and  restored  the  Fellows  of  Magdalen.  Anxious  as 
William  was  to  come,  he  was  delayed  for  some  time.  The  army  of 
Louis  was  on  the  southern  frontier  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  and 
William  could  not  stir  as  long  as  an  invasion  of  his  Spanish  allies 
was  threatened.  Louis,  however,  offered  James  the  assistance  of 
his  fleet  to  repel  the  expected  Dutch  expedition.  James  replied 
that  he  was  quite  able  to  take  care  of  himself.  Louis  lost  his 
temper,  withdrew  his  army  from  the  frontier  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  sent  it  to  begin  the  war  with  the  allies  by  burning  and  ravaging 
the  Palatinate.  William  put  to  sea,  intending  to  land  in  Torbay. 
On  the  morning  of  November  5  it  was  found  that  the  fleet  had 
passed  the  haven  for  which  it  was  bound  ;  and  as  the  wind  was 
blowing  it  strongly  on,  there  seemed  no  possibility  of  returning. 
William  believed  that  nothing  but  failure  was  before  him.  "  You 
may  go  to  prayers,  doctor,"  he  said  to  Burnet,  an  English  clergy- 
man who  accompanied  him  ;  "  all  is  over."  In  a  moment  the 
wind  changed  and  bore  the  fleet  back  into  Torbay,  and  William 


I688-I689  FLIGHT  OF  JAMES  645 

was  enabled  to  land  safely  at  Brixham.  Burnet,  a  warm-hearted 
but  garrulous  and  inquisitive  man,  began  asking  him  questions 
about  his  plans.  If  there  was  one  thing  that  William  disliked 
more  than  another,  it  was  the  interference  of  clergymen  in  military 
matters.  He  therefore  looked  Burnet  in  the  face,  replying  only  by 
another  question  :  "  Well,  doctor,  what  do  you  think  of  pre- 
destination now  ? "  Both  he  and  Burnet  were  convinced  that  God 
had  Himself  guided  them  thus  far  in  safety  for  the  deliverance 
of  His  people. 
C^  20.  William's  March  upon  London.  1688. — William  marched 
upon  London,  and,  after  a  while,  the  gentry  of  the  counties 
through  which  he  passed  poured  in  to  support  him.  The  north 
and  the  midlands  rose  under  the  Earls  of  Devonshire  and  Danby 
and  other  lords.  Whig  and  Tory.  The  doctrine  of  non-resistance 
was  thrown  to  the  winds.  James  set  out  with  his  troops  to 
combat  William.  He  reached  Salisbury,  but  the  officers  of  his 
own  army  and  his  courtiers  deserted  him.  Amongst  those  who 
fled  to  William  was  Lord  Churchill,  afterwards  known  as  the  Duke 
of  Marlborough  and  the  greatest  soldier  of  the  age.  He  had  re- 
ceived many  favours  from  James,  which  he  now  repaid  by  inciting 
all  those  whom  he  could  influence  to  abandon  their  king.  Amongst 
these  was  James's  younger  daughter  Anne,  over  whom  Churchill's 
wife  exercised  a  most  powerful  influence,  and  who  now,  together 
with  her  husband,  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  fled  to  William. 
James,  left  almost  alone,  made  his  way  back  to  London,  which 
he  reached  on  November  27.  On  the  30th  he  ordered  the  pre- 
paration of  writs  for  the  election  of  a  Parliament,  and  proposed 
an  accommodation  with  William,  who  by  that  time  had  reached 
Hungerford.  It  was  agreed  that  both  armies  should  remain  at 
a  distance  of  forty  miles  from  London  in  order  to  enable  the 
new  Parliament  to  meet  in  safety.  James  was,  in  reality,  de- 
termined not  to  submit.  On  December  10  he  sent  his  wife  and 
son  to  France.  On  the  nth  he  attempted  to  follow  them,  burning 
the  writs  and  dropping  the  great  seal  into  the  Thames,  in  the 
hope  that  everything  might  fall  into  confusion  for  want  of  the 
symbol  of  legitimate  authority.  There  were  riots  in  London,  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  chapels  were  sacked  and  destroyed.  There 
was  a  general  call  to  William  to  hasten  his  march.  On  the  12th, 
however,  James  was  stopped  near  Sheemess  by  some  fishermen 
and  brought  back  to  London.  William  had  no  mind  to  have  a 
second  royal  martyr  on  his  hands,  and  did  everything  to  frighten 
James  into  another  flight.      On  December  18  lames  left  London 


^ 


646  JAMES  IT.  1689 

and  William  arrived  at  Whitehall.    On  December  23,  with  William's 
connivance,  James  embarked  for  France. 

21.  A  Convention  Parliament  Summoned.  1688. — Amongst 
the  crowd  which  welcomed  William  was  Sergeant  Maynard,  an 
old  man  of  ninety.  "  You  must,"  said  William  to  him,  "  have  sur- 
vived all  the  lawyers  of  your  standing."  "Yes,  sir,"  replied 
Maynard,  "  and,  but  for  your  Highness,  I  should  have  survived 
the  laws  too."  He  expressed  the  general  sense  of  almost  every 
Englishman.  How  to  return  to  a  legal  system  with  the  least 
possible  disturbance  was  the  problem  to  be  faced.  William  con- 
sulted the  House  of  Lords  and  an  assembly  composed  of  all  persons 
who  had  sat  in  any  of  Charles's  Parliaments,  together  with  special 
representatives  of  the  City.  Members  of  James's  one  Parliament 
were  not  summoned,  on  the  plea  that  the  return  to  it  of  members 
chosen  by  the  remodelled  corporations  made  it  no  true  Parliament. 
The  body  thus  consulted  advised  William  to  call  a  Convention, 
which  would  be  a  Parliament  in  everything  except  that  there  was 
no  king  to  summon  it. 

22.  The  Throne  declared  Vacant.  1689. — On  January  22, 
1689,  the  Convention  met.  The  House  of  Commons  contained  a 
majority  of  Whigs,  whilst  the  Tories  were  in  a  majority  in  the  Lords. 
On  the  28th  the  Commons  resolved  that  "king  James  H.,  having 
endeavoured  to  subvert  the  constitution  of  the  kingdom  by  breaking 
the  original  contract  between  king  and  people,  and  by  the  advice 
of  Jesuits  and  other  wicked  persons  having  violated  the  funda- 
mental laws  and  having  withdrawn  himself  out  of  the  kingdom, 
had  abdicated  the  government,  and  that  the  throne  had  thereby 
become  vacant."  This  lumbering  resolution  was  unanimously 
adopted.  The  Whigs  were  pleased  with  the  clause  which  made 
the  vacancy  of  the  throne  depend  on  James's  misgovernment,  and 
the  Tories  were  pleased  with  the  clause  which  made  it  depend 
on  his  so-called  voluntary  abdication.  The  Tories  in  the  Lords 
proposed  that  James  should  remain  nominally  king,  but  that  the 
country  should  be  governed  by  a  regent.  Danby,  however,  and  a 
small  knot  of  Tories  supported  the  Whigs,  and  the  proposal  was 
rejected.  Danby  had,  indeed,  a  plan  of  his  own.  James,  he  held, 
had  really  abdicated,  and  the  crown  had  therefore  passed  to  the 
next  heir.  That  heir  was  not,  accprding  to  him,  the  supposititious 
infant,  but  the  eldest  daughter  of  James,  Mary  Princess  of  Orange, 
who  was  now  in  her  own  right  queen  of  England.  It  was  an 
ingenious  theory,  but  two  circumstances  were  against  its  being 
carried  into  practice.     In  the  first  place,  Mary  scolded  Danby  for 


i689  THE  DECLARATION  OF  RIGHTS  647 

daring  to  set  her  above  her  husband.  In  the  second  place  William 
made  it  known  that  he  would  neither  be  regent  nor  administer  the 
government  under  his  wife.  Danby  therefore  withdrew  his  motion, 
and  on  February  6  the  Lords  voted,  as  the  Commons  had  voted 
^  before,  that  James  had  abdicated  and  the  throne  was  vacant. 

^"  23.  William  and  Mary  to  be  Joint  Sovereigns.  1689. — A 
r  Declaration  of  Rights  was  prepared  condemning  the  dispensing 
\  power  as  lately  exercised  and  the  other  extravagant  actions  of 
^  James  II.,  while  both  Houses  concurred  in  offering  the  crown  to 

William  and  Mary  as  joint  sovereigns.     As  long  as  William  lived 
«»         he  was   to  administer    the  government,   Mary  only  attaining  to 
^        actual  power  in  the  event  of  her  surviving  her  husband.     After 
">       the  death  of  both,  the  crown  Was  to  go  first  to  any  children  which 
might  be  born  to  them,  then  to  Anne  and  her  children,  and,  lastly, 
to  any  children  of  William  by  a  second  wife  in  case  of  his  surviving 
^        Mary  and  marrying  again.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  William  had  no 
3        children  by  Mary,  who  died  about  eight  years  before  him,  and  he 
never  married  again.     On  February  13  W^illiam  and  Mary  accepted 
^^..^  the  crown  on  the  conditions  offered  to  them. 
^^^        24.    Character  of   the   Revolution.— The  main   characteristic 
of  the  revolution  thus  effected  was  that  it  established  the  supre- 
macy of  Parliament  by  setting  up  a  king  and  queen  who  owed 
their  position  to  a  Parliamentary  vote.     People  had  been  found 
to  believe  that  James  II.  was  king  by  a  Divine  right.     Nobody 
could  believe  that  of  William.     Parliament,  which  had  set  him  up, 
could  pull  him  down,  and  he  would  have  therefore  to  conform  his 
government  to  the  will  of  the  nation  manifested   in    Parliament. 
The   political   revolution   of  1689  succeeded,   whilst  the   Puritan 
Revolution  of  1641  failed,  because,  in  1641,  the  political  aim  of 
setting  the   Parliament  above  the  king  was  complicated  by  an 
ecclesiastical  dispute  which  had  split  Parliament  and  the  nation  into 
two  hostile  parties.     In  1689  there  was  practically  neither  a  political 
nor  an  ecclesiastical   dispute.      Tories   and  Whigs  combined  to 
support  the  change,  and  Churchmen  and  Dissenters  made  common 
cause  against  the  small  Roman  Catholic  minority  which  had  only 
been  dangerous  because  it  had  the  Crown  at  its  back,  and  because 
the  Crown  had  been  supported  by  Louis  and  his  armies.    A  Revo- 
lution thus  effected  was,  no  doubt,  far  less  complete  than  that  which 
had  been  aimed  at  by  the  more  advanced  assailants  of  the  throne 
of  Charles  I.     It  did  not  aim  at  changing  more  than  a  small  part 
of  the  political  constitution  of  the  country,  nor  at  changing  any 
part  whatever  of  its  social  institutions.   Its  programme,  in  short,  was 


648  JAMES  II.  1689 

one  for  a  single  generation,  not  one,  like  that  of  the  '-Heads  of  the 
Proposals '  (see  p.  555)  or  the  '  Agreement  of  the  People '  (see  p.  556) 
for  several  generations.  Consequently  it  did  not  rouse  the  anta- 
gonism which  had  been  fatal  even  to  the  best  conceived  plans  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  Protectorate.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that 
the  moral  tone  of  the  men  who  brought  about  the  Revolution  of  1689 
was  lower  than  that  which  had  brought  about  the  Revolution  of 
1641.  That  this  was  the  case,  however,  was  mainly  the  fault  of 
the  unwise  attempt  of  the  Puritans  to  enforce  morality  by  law. 
The  individual  liberty  which  was  encouraged  by  the  later  revolu- 
tion would  in  due  time  work  for  morality  as  well  as  for  political 
improvement. 


Books  reco7nmended  for  further  study  of  Part  VII . 

Ranke,  L.     English  History  (English  translation).     Vol.  iii.  p.  310- 

vol.  iv.  p.  528. 
Airy,  O.     The  English  Restoration  and  Louis  XIV, 
Christie,  W.  D.     Life  of  A.  A.  Cooper,  first  Earl  of  Shaftesbury 
Macaulay,    Lord.      History  of    England    from   the  Accession  of 

James  IL     Vols.  i.  and  ii, 
Hallam,  H.     Constitutional  History.     Chapters  XI. -XIV. 
Mahan,  a.  T.    Influence  of  the  Sea-power  upon  History.     Chapters 

L-IIL 


PART   VIII 

THE  RISE   OF  CABINET  GOVERNMENT 
1689-1754 


CHAPTER   XLII 

WILLIAM   III.   AND   MARY  IL 
WILLIAM   III.    1689 -1702.      MARY   II.    1689— 1694 

LEADING   DATES 

The  Mutiny  Act  and  the  Toleration  Act         ....   1689 

Battle  of  Killiecrankie July  27,  1689 

Relief  of  Londonderry July  30,  1689 

Battle  of  the  Boy ne July  i,  1690 

Surrender  of  Limerick  .      Oct.  3,  i6gi 

Massacre  of  Glencoe Feb.  13,  1692 

Battle  of  La  Hogue May  19,  1692 

The  Formation  of  the  Whig  Junto  ....         1693— 1694 

The  Triennial  Act 1694 

Death  of  Mary      .  .       '.        .  .    Dec.  28,  1694 

I.  The  new  Government  and  the  Mutiny  Act.  1689. — It  was 
unlikely  that  William  would  long  be  popular.  He  was  cold  and 
reserVe4,>andhe  manifestly  cared  more  for  the  struggle  on  the 
Continent  thaiTThr^iie  strife  which  never  ceased  between  English 
parties.  Yet  he  was  sa^SK^ous  enough  to  know  that  it  was  only 
by  managing  English  affairsXHti^firmness  and  wisdom  that  he 
could  hope  to  carry  England  with  himSa^s  conflict  with  France  ; 
and  he  did  his  work  so  well  that,  though  le^tsQfhis  new  subjects 
loved  him,  most  of  them  learned  to  respect  him>s,.^  he  owed 
his  crown  to  the  support  of  both  parties,  he  chose  his  first^hHuisters 
from  both.  In  March  his  throne  was  exposed  to  some  danger? 
The  army  was  dissatisfied  in  consequence  of  the  shabby  part  which 
in.  uu 


650 


WILLIAM  IIL    AND  MARY  11. 


1689 


it  had^^ayed  when  called  on  to  defend  James  II.,  and  one  regi- 
ment nriiitiiTred»-..>i2lily  the  Dutch  troops  could  be  trusted,  and  it 
was  by  them  that  the~nTuTtTTy--*wis.^ppressed.  The  punishment 
of  mutinous  soldiers  by  courts  martiaiTi'aid  been  forbidden  by  the 
Petition  of  Right  (see  p.  508),    Parliament  now  passed  a  Mutiny  Act, 


William  III. 


which  at4horised  the  maintenance  of  discipline  by  such  courts  for 
six  monthstm4y,.,^^The  Act  has  been  since  renewed  from  year  to 
year,  and  as,  if  it  a!*t>ppedi  ^he  king  would  have  no  lawful  means 
of  maintaining  discipline,  Parhament  thus  maintains  control  over 
the  army. 
^     2.  The  Toleration  Act  and  the  Nonjurors.    1689.— Still  more 


[689 


RELIGIOUS  LIBERTY 


651 


important  was  the  Toleration  Act,  which  gave  to  Dissenters  the 
legal  right  to  worship  publicly^  on  complying  with  certain  formal- 
ities. From  this  toleration  Unitarians  and  Roman  Catholics  were 
excluded.  The  great  mass  of  Protestant  Dissenters  were  well 
satisfied,  and  the  chief  cause  of  religious  strife  was  thus  removed. 


Mary  II. 

An  attempt  made  to  carry  a  Comprehension  Bill  (see  pp.  598,  599), 
which  was  intended  to  attract  Dissenters  to  the  Church  by  altering 
the  Prayer  Book,  ended  in  complete  failure.  All  holders  of  office  in 
Church  and  State  were  required  to  take  the  oaths  of  supremacy  and 
allegiance  to  the  new  sovereigns.  About  400  of  the  clergy  with 
Archbishop  Bancroft  and  six  other  bishops  refused  to  swear.    Their 


652 


WILLIAM  III.    AND   MARY  II. 


1689 


effects  of  libe 
spirit,  maintaine 


offices  were  conferred  on  others,  and  they,  holding  that  they  and 
those  who  continued  to  acknowledge  them  were  the  true  Church, 
founded  a  body  which,  under  the  name  of  Nonjurors,  continued  to 
exist  for  more  than  a  century. 

3.  Locke's  Letters  on  Toleration.  1689. — The  Toleration  Act 
itself  was  in  the^ha^in  the  fruit  of  the  change  which  had  taken  place 
in  the  political  circufn^nces  of  the  nation  since  the  Restoration. 
Men  had  had  reason  to  Hfe-^ajfraid  of  Roman  Catholics,  and  were  no 
longer  afraid  of  Dissenters,  i^oi^gside  of  this  political  change,  how- 
ever, had  grown  up  a  change  of  op>mon  amongst  the  thinking  men 
who  had  especial  influence  in  the  Whv^  party.  In  1689  the  philo- 
sopher Locke  published  his  '  Letters  o^  Toleration.'     They  were 

much  le^s  heroic  than  Milton's 
'  Areopaghica  '  (see  p.  546),  and 
instead  of  dwelling  on  the  bracing 
on  the  human 
the  view  that 
the  State  had  no  biisiness  to  inter- 
fere with  religious  coiwiction.  A 
Church,  according  to  Xocke,  was 
'  a  voluntary  society  of  r^en  join- 
ing themselves  together  6f  their 
own  accord,  in  order  to-,  the 
public  worshipping  of  God^  in 
such  manner  as  they  shall  jud^e 
acceptable  to  Him  and  effectual 
to  the  salvation  of  their  souls.' 
On  such  voluntary  associations 
h^  the  State  had  no  right  to  impose  penalties. 

tT  4.  Establishment  of  Presbyterianism  in  Scotland.  1689. — In 
Scotland  and  Ireland  William  had  to  fight  for  his  crown.  In  Scot- 
land, before  the  Parliament  met,  the  Episcopal  clergy  were 
'  rabbled,'  that  is  to  say,  were  driven  from  their  parishes  with  insult 
and  ill-usage  by  angry  crowds.  Parliament  then  declared  James 
to  have  forfeited  the  crown  and  gave  it  to  William  and  Mary. 
It  also  declared  Presbyterianism  to  be  the  religion  of  the  country. 
ri  5.  Killiecrankie.  1689. — To  many  of  the  nobles  the  establish- 
ment of  a  clergy  which  owed  them  no  respect  was  distasteful,  and 
some,  of  whom  the  most  conspicuous  were  the  Duke  of  Gordon 
and  Viscount  Dundee,  who  had  till  lately  been  known  as  Graham 
of  Claverhouse  (see  p.  620),  drew  their  swords  for  James.  Gordon 
held  out  in  Edinburgh  Castle  till  June  13.     Dundee,  following  the 


Royal  Arms  as  borne  by  William  III. 


1689-169  KILLIECRANKIE   AND   GLENCOE 


653 


example  of  Montrose  (see  p.  547),  a  Graham  like  himself,  gathered 
the  Highland  clans  around  him.  On  July  27,  he  drew  up  his 
force  on  the  flat  ground  at  the  head  of  the  pass  of  Killiecrankie. 
William's  general,  Mackay,  toiled  up  the  steep  hillside  to  attack 
him.  His  soldiers  had  been  suppHed 
with  bayonets,  a  new  French  inven- 
tion intended  to  make  each  soldier 
a  pikeman  as  well  as  a  musketeer: 
The  invention  had  not  yet  been  per- 
fected, and  the  bayonets  had  to  be 
fixed  in  the  muzzles  of  the  guns. 
When  Mackays  men  reached  the 
top  exhausted  by  the  climb  and  the 
summer  heat,  they  fired  their  shots, 
and  then,  seeing  the  Highlanders 
rushing  upon  them,  fumbled  with 
their  bayonets.  Before  they  could 
get  them  fixed  the  Highlanders, 
with  their  flashing  broadswords,  were 
upon  them.  Dundee  had  been  killed 
by  the  first  fire,  but  his  men  swept 
the  lowland  soldiers  down  the  pass, 
leaping  lightly  over  the  rocks  and 
slaying  as  they  went.  The  High- 
landers, caring  more  for  plunder 
than  for  James,  returned  home   to 

.    deposit  their  booty  in  safety. 

^^  6.  The  Pacification  of  the  High- 
lands. 1691 — 1692. — The  High- 
landers were  poor,  and  in  1691  a  dis- 
tribution of  1  5jOOo/.  amongst  the 
chiefs  of  the  clans  brought  them  one 
by  one  to  submission.  December  31 
was  announced  as  the  last  day  on 
which  the  oaths  acknowledging  Wil- 
liam would  be  accepted.      By  that 

time  all  had  resolved  to  give  way  ;  but  one  of  the  number,  Maclan 
Glencoe,  the  head  of  a  small  clan,  one  of  the  many  into  which 
the  Macdonalds  were  divided,  took  pride  in  being  the  last  to  sub- 
mit, and  made  his  appearance  on  the  31st.  Unfortunately  he  by 
mistake  came  to  a  gentleman  who  had  no  authority  to  accept  his 
oath,  and  when   he  reached  a  person  who  could  accept   it,  the 


Bayonet  as  made  in  1686. 
Bayonet  of  the  time  of  William 
and  Mary. 


654  WILLIAM  IIL    AND  MARY  IL  1689- 1692 

appointed  day  had  passed.  The  Master  of  Stair,'  William's  chief 
minister  in  Scotland,  thought  this  an  excellent  opportunity  to  show 
the  Highlanders  that  the  Government  could  punish  as  well  as  re- 
ward, and  asked  William's  leave  to  destroy  Maclan's  clan,  on  the 
plea  that  they  had,  like  most  other  Highland  clans,  been  guilty  in 
past  time  of  acts  of  brigandage  and  murder.  William  gave  his 
assent,  writing  that  it  would  be  good  to  '  extirpate  that  set  of  thieves.' 
(/^  7.  The  Massacre  of  Glencde.  1692.— The  Master  of  Stair  pro- 
»  ceeded  to  execute,  in  a  peculiarly  treacherous  manner,  the  order 

^  which  he  had  obtained.     He  sent  into  Glencoe  a  party  of  soldiers, 

who  gave  out  on  their  arrival  that  they  had  come  as  friends.    They 

^w^         lived  with  the  clansmen,  ate  at  their  tables,  joked,  and  played 

!at  cards  with   them.       On   the  morning  of  February    13,    1692, 
whilst  it  was  still  dark,  the  soldiers  surrounded  the  huts  of  those 
very  men  with  whom  they  had  been  making  merry  the  evening 
•»-  before.     They  then  dragged  many  of  them  out  of  their  beds  and 

murdered  them,  firing  at  such  as  fled.    Not  a  few,  indeed,  succeeded 
\  in  making  their  escape,  but  the  mountains  on  either  side  of  the  glen 

r*  were  lofty  and  rugged,  and  most  of  those  who  took  refuge  in  them 

4^  died  of  cold  and  hunger  amidst  the  rocks  and  the  snow.     When  the 

•J^         tale  was  told  at  Edinburgh  the  Scottish  Parliament  broke  out  into 
indignation,  and  William  had  to  dismiss  the  Master  of  Stair  from 
^^  office.     It  was  the  first  time  that  the  Lowland  Scotch  had  shown 

compassion  for  Highlanders.     Hitherto  they  had  always  treated 
them  as  a  wild  and  savage  race  of  plunderers  for  whom  there  was 
r;    no  mercy. 
ii  fj^      8.   The   Siege   of  Londonderry.      1689. — In   Ireland  William 
*  had  to  deal  with  something  like  national  resistance.     On  March  12 

James,  bringing  with  him  some  French  officers,  landed  at  Kinsale. 
^>*.  I      Tyrconnel  had  ready  for  him  an  ill-equipped  and  ill-disciplined 
-~-— I      Irish  army.     To  the  native  Irish  James  was  still  the  lawful  king, 
-*y^      whose  title  was  unaffected  by  anything  that  an  English  Parliament 
^    •       could  do.     To  the  English  and  Scottish  colonists  he  was  a  mere 
"^Y        usurper,  the  enemy  of  their  creed   and   nation.       The  northern 
X         Protestants,  chased  from  their  homes  with  outrage,  took  refuge 
\.         in  Enniskillen  and  Londonderry.     In  Londonderry  the  governor, 
J^^^        Lundy,  prepared  to  surrender,  but  when  James  arrived  with  his 
k|>->        army  the  inhabitants  took  the  defence  into  their  own  hands  and 
2^  closed  the  gates  in  his  face.     The  besiegers  strictly  blockaded 

'  In  Scotland,  the  eldest  sons  of  lords  and  viscounts  were  known  by  the 
title  of  Master. 


[\ 


\ 


1689  JAMES  II.    IN  IRELAND  655 

the  town  by  land  and  threw  a  boom  across  the  river  Foyle,  so  that 
no  food  might  enter  from  the  sea.  The  defenders  were  before  long 
reduced  to  feed  on  horse-flesh,  and  they  had  not  much  of  that. 
From  the  top  of  the  cathedral  they  could  see  ships  which  William 
had  sent  to  their  relief,  but  the  ships  lay  inactive  for  weeks.  Men 
who  had  been  well  off  were  glad  to  feed  on  the  flesh  of  dogs,  and 
even  to  gnaw  hides  in  the  hope  of  getting  nourishment  out  of 
them.  At  last,  on  July  30,  three  of  the  ships  moved  up  the  river. 
One  of  them  dashed  at  the  boom  and  broke  it,  though  she  ^^as  herself 
driven  on  shore  by  the  recoil.  The  tide,  however,  rose  and  floated 
her  off.  The  whole  store  of  food  was  borne  safely  to  the  town,  and 
Londonderry  was  saved.  James  and  his  Irish  army  marched  away. 
On  the  day  of  his  retreat  an  Irish  force  was  defeated  at  Newtown 
Butler  by  the  Protestants  of  Enniskillen. 

9.  The  Irish  Parliament.  1689.— On  May  7,  whilst  James  was 
before  Londonderry,  the  Irish  Parliament  met  at  Dublin.  The 
House  of-^ommons  was  almost  entirely  composed  of  native  Irish, 
and  the  ParliaittsQt  passed  an  Act  annulling  all  the  English  con- 
fiscations since  i64][S>^e  lands  taken  by  force  in  times  past  were 
to  be  restored  to  the  ImHsO\vners  or  their  heirs.  Those  English, 
however,  who  had  acquirea^«ish  confiscated  lands  by  purchase 
were  to  be  compensated,  and  to  nhd  money  for  this  compensation 
an  Act  of  Attainder  was  passed  agamst  about  2,000  of  William's 
partisans.  As  most  of  them  were  out^^arm's  way,  but  little 
blood  was  likely  to  be  shed,  though  a  great  d^^lof  property  would 
change  owners.  A  considerable  part  of  Irish  l^iid  having  been 
confiscated  by  the  English  authorities  during  the  pa^Nforty  years, 
this  proceeding  did  not  appear  in  Ireland  to  be  as  outraglSQUS  as  it 
would  have  seemed  in  a  settled  country  like  England. 

10.  Schomberg  sent  to  Ireland.     1689.  — Once  more  England 
d  Ireland  were  brought  into  direct  antagonism.     Not  only  did 

Protestant  Englishmen  sympathise  deeply  with  the  wrongs  of 
their  countrymen  in  Ireland,  whilst  they  were  unable  to  perceive 
that  the  Irish  had  suffered  any  wrongs  at  all,  but  they  could 
not  fail  to  see  that  if  James  established  himself  in  Ireland,  he 
would  next  attempt,  with  French  help,  to  establish  himself  in 
England.  As  it  had  been  in  Elizabeth's  reign  so  it  was  now. 
Either  England  must  conquer  Ireland,  or  Ireland  would  be 
used  by  a  foreign  nation  to  conquer  England.  Accordingly,  in 
August,  Schomberg— who  had  been  a  French  marshal,  but,  being 
a  Protestant,  had  resigned  his  high  position  after  the  Revocation 
of  the   Edict  of  Nantes  (see  p.  638)   rather  than  renounce   his 


656  WILLIAM  III.    AND   MARY  11.  1 689- 1 691 

faith — was  sent  by  William  with  an  English  army  to  Carrickfergus. 
The  weather  was  bad,  and  the  arrangements  of  the  commissariat 
were  worse,  so  that  disease  brojce  out  among  the  soldiers,  and 
nothing  serious  was  done  during  the  remainder  of  the  year. 

11.  The  Bill  of  Rights  and  the  Dissolution  of  the  Convention 
Parliament.^N^689— 1690. — In  England,  the  Convention  Parliament 
had  passed  a  i^ll  of  Rights,  embodying  the  demands  of  the 
former  DeclarationNof  Rights  (see  p.  647).  Since  then  it  had 
grown  intractable.  TOeWhig  majority  had  forgotten  the  services 
rendered  by  the  Tories^^gainst  James,  and,  treating  them  as 
enemies,  was  eager  to  take  vengeance  on  them.  When,  therefore, 
a  Bill  of  Indemnity  was  broughKin,  the  Whigs  excepted  from  it  so 
many  of  the  Tory  leaders  on  the  ground  that  they  had  supported 
the  harsh  acts  of  the  last  two  kings,  that  W^illiam,  who  cared  for 
neither  party,  suddenly  prorogued  Parliament  and  then  dissolved  it. 

12.  Settlement  of  the  Revenue.  1690, — A  new  Parliament,  in 
which  the  m^ority  was  Tory,  met  on  March  20,  1690,  ana  by 
confining  to  fouXv^ears  their  grant  of  nearly  half  the  revenue  of  the 
Crown,  put  a  cheis^k  upon  any  attempt  of  a  future  king  to  make 
himself  absolute,  »^bsequently  the  grant  became  annual  ;  after 
which  no  king  could  aVqid  summoning  Parliament  every  year,  as 
he  could  not  make  himseif  financially  independent  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  supremaJsy  of  Parliament  was  thus,  as  far  as 
law  could  do  it,  practically  sealed.  Finally,  an  Act  of  Grace' 
gave  an  indemnity  to  all  exceptin^s^a  few  persons,  to  whom  no 
harm  was  intended  as  long  as  they  ab^ained  from  attacking  the 
Government. 

\p  13.  The  Conquest  of  Ireland.  1690-1691.  On  June  14,  1690, 
William  landed  at  Carrickfergus.  On  July  i,  he  defeated  James  at 
the  battle  of  the^avne.  Schomberg  was  killed,  and  James  fled  to 
Kinsale,  where  heembarked  for  France.  William  entered  Dublin 
in  triumph,  and,  marching  on  through  the  country,  on  August  8 
laid  siege  to  Limerick.  Wet  weather  set  in  and  caused  disease 
amongst  the  besiegers,  whilst  the  Irish  general,  Sarsfield,  sweep- 
ing round  them,  destroyed  the  siege  guns  on  their  way  to 
batter  the  walls.  William  for  the  time  abandoned  the  attack 
and  returned  to  England.  In  1691  a  Dutch  general,  Ginkell,  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  English  army.  Under  him  were 
Mackay,  who  had  been  defeated  at  Killiecrankie,  and  Ruvigny,  a 

1  a/  Act  of  Grace  was  similar  to  an  Act  of  Indemnity,  except  that  it 
origh^ed  with  the  king,  and  could  only  be  accepted  or  rejected,  not  amended 
by  ttte  m)uses. 


1689-1690    THE  CITY  OF  THE   VIOLATED  TREATY  657 

French  Protestant  refugee.  Thus  commanded,  William's  troops 
took  Athlone  on  June  30,  and  on  July  12  destroyed  the  Irish  army 
at  Aughrim,  Limerick  was  again  besieged,  and,  on  October  3,  it 
capitulated.  All  officers  and  soldiers  who  wished  to  go  to  France 
were  allowed  to  emigrate.  To  the  Irish  Catholics  were  granted 
such  privileges  in  the  exercise  of  their  religion  as  they  had  enjoyed 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II,,  when  there  had  been  a  connivance  at 
the  exercise  of  the  Roman  Catholic  worship  so  long  as  it  was  not 
obtrusive.  The  Irish  Parliament,  however,  representing  now  the 
Enghsh  colony  alone,  called  for  persecuting  measures,  and  William 
had  to  govern  Ireland,  if  he  was  to  govern  Ireland  at  all,  in  accord 
ance  with  its  wishes.  Limerick  became  deservedly  known  among 
the  Irish  as  '  the  City  of  the  violated  treaty.' 
j        14.  War  with  France.     1689— 1690. — In  the  meantime,  whilst 

^HiVilliam  was  distracted  by  foes  in  his  own  kingdom,  Louis  had 
been  doing  his  best  to  get  the  better  of  his  enemies.  In  1689" 
the  allies  were  able  to  make  head  against  him  without  any  de- 
cisive result.  In  1690  Louis  sent  his  best  Admiral,  Tourville,  to 
sweep  the  Channel  and  invade  England  whilst  William  was  away 
in  Ireland.  Off  Beachy  Head  Toiijyille  was  met  by  a  combined 
English  and  LJuTCtrfteetT'ln  tK*e  battle  which  followed,  the  English 
Admiral,  Herbert,  who  had  lately  been  created  Lord  Torrington, 
kept,  probably  through  mere  mismanagement,  his  own  ships  out  of 
harm's  way,  whilst  he  allowed  his  Dutch  allies  to  expose  them- 
selves to  danger.  Under  these  circumstances  Tourville  gained  the 
victory,  whilst  in  the  Netherlands  the  P>ench  Marshal,  Luxembourg, 
defeated  the  allied  armies  at  Fleurus.  Though  William  had  been 
for  some  time  unpopular  in  England  as  a  foreigner,  yet  the  nation 
now  rallied  round  him  as  the  enemy  of  the  French.  Tourville 
sailed  down  the  Channel,  and  asked  a  fisherman  with  whom  he 
came  up  what  he  thought  of  King  James.  "  He  is  a  very  worthy 
gentleman,  I  believe,"  was  the  reply,  "  God  bless  him."  Tourville 
then  asked  the  fisherman  to  take  service  on  board  his  ship. 
"  What  ?  I,"  answered  the  man,  "  go  with  the  French  to  fight 
against  the  English  ?  Your  honour  must  excuse  me  ;  I  could 
not  do  it  to  save  my  life."  Thousands  of  Englishmen  who  were 
indifferent  to  the  claims  of  James  or  William  would  have  nothing 
to  say  to  James  because  he  had  put  himself  under  the  protection 
A  of  the  French. 

v~  ^5.  Disgrace  of  Marlborough.  1691— 1692. — Churchill,  who  had 
been  created  Earl  of  Marlborough  by  William,  had  won  distinction 
as  a  soldier  both  in  Ireland  and  in  the  Netherlands.     Both  as  an 


658  WILLIAM  III.    AND   MARY  IL  1691-1693 

Englishman  and  as  a  soldier  he  was  offended  at  the  favour  shown  to 
foreigners  by  William.  Dutchmen  and  Frenchmen  were  promoted 
over  the  heads  of  English  officers.  Dutchmen  filled  the  most  lucra- 
tive posts  at  court,  and  were  raised  to  the  English  peerage.  It  was, 
perhaps,  natural  that  William  should  advance  those  whom  he 
knew  best  and  trusted  most,  but  in  so  doing  he  alienated  a  great 
number  of  Englishmen.  Men  high  in  office  doubted  whether  a 
government  thus  constituted  could  last,  and,  partly  because  they 
were  personally  disgusted,  partly  because  they  wished  to  make 
themselves  safe  in  any  event,  entered  into  communication  with 
James,  and  promised  to  support  his  claims,  a  promise  which  they 
intended  to  keep  or  break  as  might  be  most  convenient  to  themselves. 
Marlborough  went  further  than  any.  In  1691,  he  offered  to  move 
an  address  in  the  House  of  Lords,  asking  William  to  dismiss  the 
foreigners,  assuring  James  that,  if  William  refused,  the  army  and 
navy  would  expel  him  from  England  ;  and  he  also  induced  the 
,Princess  Anne  to  put  herself  in  opposition  to  her  sister,  the  Queen.  ' 
v/On  this  William  deprived  Marlborough  of  all  his  offices.  A 

V  16.  La  Hogue,  Steinkirk,  and  Landen.     1692 — 1693.— Amongst     A 

those  who  had  offered  their  services  to  James  was  AdmixaH^jisaelly   V 
a  brother  of  the  Lord  Russell  who  had  been  beheaded  (see  p.  626).       <^ 
He  was  an  ill-tempered  man,  and  being  dissatisfied  in  consequence  ^-"'^ 
of  some  real  or  fancied  slight,  told  a  Jacobite  agent  that  he  was  will-  /OJf 
ing  to  help  James  to  regain  the  throne.    Yet  his  offer  was  not  with-     »    ^ 
out  limitation.  "  Do  not  think,"  he  added,  "  that  I  will  let  the  French  /oi/ 
triumph  over  us  in  our  own  sea.   Understand  this,  that  if  I  meet  them   "^ 
I  fight  them  ;  ay,  though  His  Majesty  himself  should  be  onboard." 
Russell  kept  his  word  as  far  as  the  fighting  was  concerned.    When 
in  1692  a  French  fleet  and  army  were  made  ready  for  the  invasion  of 
England,  he  met  the  fleet  near  the  Bay  of  La  Hogue  and  utterly 
defeated  it.     His  sailors  followed  up  their  victory  and  set  on  fire  the 
greater  number  of  the  French  ships,  though  they  lay  under  the  pro- 
tection of  batteries  on  shore.     The  French  navy,  indeed,  was  hot 
swept  from  the  sea,  but  the  mastery  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
English.    No  further  attempt  was  made  by  the  French  in  this  war  to 
invade  England,  and  Louis,  intent  upon  victories  on  shore,  took  little 
trouble  to  maintain  his  navy.   On  land  Louis  still  had  the  superiority. 
In  1692,  the  year  of  the  English  victory  at  La  Hogue,  his  army  took 
Namur,  and  defeated  the  allies  at  Steinkirk  with  William  at  their 
head.    In  1693  the  French  won  another  victory  at  Neerwinden,  or,  ac- 
cording to  another  name  sometimes  given  to  the  battle,  at  Landen. 
<:;^I7.  Beginning;  of  the  National  Debt.     1692. — After  both  these 


d 


1692-1694  THE  LAST  PIECE   OF  GOLD  659 

defeats,  William  had,  in  his  usual  fashion,  so  rallied  his  defeated 
troops,  that  the  French  gained  little  by  their  victories.  In  the  end 
success  would  come  to  the  side  which  had  most  endurance.  Money 
was  as  much  needed  as  men,  and,  in  1692,  Parliament  decided  on 
borrowing  1,000,000/.  for  the  support  of  the  war.  Kings  and  Parlia- 
ments had  often  borrowed  money  before,  but  in  the  long  run  they 
had  failed  either  to  pay  interest  or  to  repay  the  principal,  and  this 
loan  is  understood  to  be  the  beginning  of  the  National  Debt,  because 
it  was  the  first  on  which  interest  was  steadily  paid.  The  last  piece 
of  gold,  the  French  king  had  said,  would  carry  the  day,  and 
England  with  her  commerce  was  likely  to  provide  more  gold  than 
France,  where  trade  was  throttled  by  the  constant  interference 
of  the  Government,  and  deprived  of  the  protection  of  an  efficient 
navy. 

18.  Disorder  in  the  Government.  1693. — On  his  return  after  his 
defeat  at  Neerwinden,  William  found  everything  in  disorder.  The 
House>8i(C  )mmons  was  out  of  temper  in  consequence  of  the  military 
failure,  arm^^^U  more  because  of  the  corruption  prevailing  amongst 
the  king's  minl^^rs,  and  the  disorder  of  the  administration.  The 
system  of  drawing^^inisters  from  both  parties  had  led  to  quarrels, 
and  the  House  of  Cbfi^mons  was  at  least  as  inefficient  as  the 
Government.  There  was  Iki  assured  majority  in  it.  If,  as  often 
happened,  fifty  or  a  hundreaS^igs  went  off  one  day  to  amuse 
themselves  at  tennis,  or  to  see  aS;^  play  or  a  cock-fight,  the 
Tories  carried  everything  before  themS.  If,  on  another  day,  fifty 
or  a  hundred  Tories  chose  to  disport  tnbqiselves  in  the  same 
manner,  the  Whigs  could  undo  all  that  had  D©^  done  by  their 
rivals.  There  was,  in  those  times,  no  fear  of  the  constihi^cies  before 
the  eyes  of  a  member  of  Parliament.  No  division-lists  we^Ssprinted 
and  no  speeches  reported.  "  Nobody,"  said  an  active  politician,  "  can 
know  one  day  what  a  House  of  Commons  will  do  the  next." 

19.  The  Whig  Junto.  1693— 1694. — Acting  upon  the  advice  of 
Sunderland,  who,  though  in  James's  reign  he  had  changed  his 
religion  to  retain  his  place,  was  a  shrewd  observer  of  mankind, 
William  provided  a  remedy  for  these  disorders.  Before  the 
end  of  1694  he  discharged  his  Tory  ministers  and  filled  their 
posts  with  Whigs,  who  had  now  the  sole  possession  of  office. 
The  four  leading  Whigs,  who  were  consulted  on  all  important 
matters  and  who  were  popularly  known  as  the  Junto,  were 
Lord  Somers,  the  Lord  Keeper,  a  statesmanlike  and  large-minded 
lawyer ;  Admiral  Russell,  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty ; 
Charles  Montague,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  an  acute  and 


i 


660  WILLIAM  III    AND   MARY  IL  1694 

able  financier  ;  and  Thomas  Wharton,  afterwards  Lord  Wharton, 
Comptroller  of  the  Household,  a  man  of  the  worst  character 
but  an  excellent  electioneering  agent,  versed  in  all  the  arts  which 
win  adherents  to  a  political  party.  What  William  hoped  from 
this  change  of  system  was  that,  by  having  ministers  who  were  of 
one  mind,  he  would  be  able  to  have  a  House  of  Commons  of  one 
mind.  Whig  members  would  think  it  worth  w^hile  to  attend  the 
House  steadily,  at  personal  inconvenience  to  themselves,  not  only 
because  they  wished  to  keep  their  own  friends  in  office,  but  because 
those  friends,  as  long  as  they  remained  in  office,  would  dispose  of 
plenty  of  well-paid  posts  and  rewards  of  various  kinds,  and  were 
more  likely  to  give  them  to  men  who  voted  steadily  for  them  than 
to  those  who  did  not. 

20.  The  Junto  the  Beginning  of  the  Modern  Cabinet. — 
Nothing  was  further  from  William's  thoughts  than  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  new  kind  of  government.  The  ministers  were  still  his 
ministers,  and  what  he  expected  of  them  was  that  they  would  carry 
on  the  war  more  efficiently.  Nevertheless,  the  formation  of  the 
Junto  was  a  great  step  in  advance  in  the  direction  of  the  modern 
Cabinet  system,  because  it  recognised  frankly  what  Charles  H. 
had  occasionally  recognised  tacitly,  that  the  growth  of  the  power 
of  the  House  of  Commons  was  so  great  that  the  king  could  not 
govern  satisfactorily  unless  the  views  of  his  ministers  accorded 
with  those  ot  a  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons.  It  is  evident 
now  that  this  admission  would  ultimately  lead  to  government,  not 
by  the  king,  but  by  a  Cabinet  supporting  itself  on  an  organised 
party  in  the  House  of  Commons  ;  but  ideas  grow  slowly,  and  there 
would  be  much  opposition  to  overcome  before  such  a  system  could 
take  root  with  general  approbation. 

21.  The  Bank  of  England.  1694. — The  increased  strength- of 
William's  government  was  not  long  in  showing  itself.  In  1694  the 
Banl^-<4!England  was  founded,  at  the  suggestion  of  William 
Paterson,  aS^otchman  who,  through  the  influence  of  Montague, 
had  become  a  m^ber  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  growing 
wealth  of  the  coumT^^ade  it  necessary  that  a  place  should  be 
found  in  which  money  m1§ht  be  more  safely  deposited  than  with 
the  goldsmiths  (see  p.  6o4)^HPd  the  new  Bank,  having  received 
deposits  of  money,  made  a  loanNjthe  Crown  on  the  security  of  a 
Parliamentary  promise  that  interestShould  be  paid  till  the  capital 
was  returned.  The  Government  was  ci^^reby  put  in  possession 
of  sufficient  resources  to  enable  it  to  carry  on,  the  war  successfully. 
This  would  not  have  happened  unless  moneyed  men  had  been 


i694  THE    WHIG  JUNTO  66i 

confident  in  the  stability  of  William's  government  and  of  Parlia- 
mentary institutions. 

22.  The   Place    Bill.      1694. — Useful  as  the  concentration  of 
power  wa^he  hands  of  the  Whig  Junto  was,  it  raised  alarm  lest  the 
ministers  s^i>>qld  become  too  strong.    The  system  of  winning  votes 
in  Parliament  b^orruption  was  on  the  increase,  and  the  favourite 
device  of  a  minister  in  need  of  support  was  to  give  to  a  member  of 
the  House  of  ComnKH^  a  place  revocable  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
Crov/n,  and  thereby  toN^nd  him  by  self-interest  to  vote  as  the 
minister  pleased.     This  system,  bad  enough  when  the  ministers 
were  of  different  parties,  became  intolerable  when  they  were  all 
of  one  party,  and  it  now  seemeHs^ossible  that  the  Whig  Junto 
might   keep   itself  permanently  in   o^e   by  the  votes  which  it 
purchased.     Independent  members,  indeh<L  had  from  time  to  time 
introduced  a  Place  Bill,  making  it  illegal  fb*sany  member  of  the 
House  of  Commons  to  hold  not  merely  small  ofi&^s  unconnected 
with  politics,  but  even  the  great  ministerial  posts,  sbsh  as  those  of 
a  Secretary  of  State  or  a  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer^  but  the 
influence  of  the  ministers   had   been   too   strong  for  them,   and 
they  were  no  more  successful  in  1694  than  they  had  been  in  former 
years. 
\,C^     23.   The    Second    Triennial   Act.      1694. — Another  grievance 
was  actually  removed  in  1694.     As  the  law  then  stood  a  king  who 
had  a  Parliament  to  his  mind  might  retain  it  to  his  death,  even  if 
the  feelings  of  the  nation  had  undergone  a  complete  change,  as 
had  been  the  case  in  the  course  of  the  seventeen  and  a  half  years 
during  which  Charles  1 1,  retained  the  Cavalier  Parliament.    By  the 
Triennial  Act  of  1694  i^  ^^^  enacted  that  no  Parliament  should 
last  longer  than  three  years.    It  was,  therefore,  quite  different  from 
the  Triennial  Act  of  1641  (see  p.  530),  which  enacted  that  a  Parlia- 
ment should  be  summoned  at  least  once  in  three  years. 
^^^   24.  Death   of  Mary.     1694. — Scarcely  was  the  Triennial  Act 
passed  when  Queen  Mary  was  attacked  by  the  small-pox,  and  in 
those  days,  when  vaccination  had  not  yet   been  discovered,  the 
ravages  caused  by  the  small-pox  were  enormous.     The  physicians 
soon  assured  William  that  there  was  no  hope.     He  was  stern  and 
self-contained  in  the  presence  of  most  men,  but  he  was  war.nly 
affectionate  to  the  few  whom  he  really  loved.     His  grief  was  now 
heart-rending  :  "  There  is  no  hope,"  he  said  to  one  of  the  bishops. 
"  I  was  the  happiest  man  on  earth,  and  I  am  the  most  miserable. 
She  had  no  fault— none  :  you  knew  her  well,  but  you  could  not 
know -nobody   but    myself  could    know— her    goodness."      The 


662 


WILLIAM  III.    AND   MARY  IL 


[694 


I694-I695 


A  NOBLE  MONUMENT 


663 


queen  died,  but  she  left  a  memorial  behind  her.  Charles  II.  had 
begun  to  build  a  magnificent  palace  at  Greenwich.  When  the  news 
of  the  Battle  of  La  Hogue  reached  England,  Mary  announced  her 
intention  of  completing  the  palace  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  sailors 
disabled  in  the  service  of  their  country.  Greenwich  Hospital  is 
the  lasting  monument  of  the  gentle  queen. 


^ 


CHAPTER   XLIII 


AW^' 


i^ 


WILLIAM  III  {alone).     1694— 1702 

LEADING   DATES 
William  III.,  1689-1702 

The  Liberty  of  the  Press 1695 

The  Assassination  Plot 1696 

Treaty  of  Ryswick 1697 

The  First  Partition  Treaty 1698 

The  Second  Partition  Treaty 1700 

Death  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain    .  Nov.  i,  1700 

The  Act  of  Settlement 1701 

Death   of  James  II Sept.  6,  1701 

The  Grand  Alliance Sept.  7,  1701 

Death  of  William  III March  8,  1702 


The  Liberty  of  the  Press.  1695. — Ever  since  the  Restora- 
tion, except  for  a  short  interval,  there  had  been  a  series  of  licensing 
acts,  authorising  the  Crown  to  appoint  a  licenser,  without  whose 
leave  no  book  or  newspaper  could  be  published.  In  1695  the 
House  of  Commons  refused  to  renew  the  Act,  and  the  press 
suddenly  became  free.  The  House  does  not  seem  to  have  had 
any  idea  of  the  importance  of  this  step,  and  established  the  liberty 
of  the  press  simply  because  the  licensers  had  given  a  good  deal 
of  annoyance.  Yet  what  they  did  would  hardly  have  been  done 
twenty  years  before.  The  Toleration  Act,  allowing  men  to  worship 
as  they  pleased,  and  to  preach  as  they  pleased,  had  brought  about 
a  state  of  mind  which  was  certain,  before  long,  to  lead  to  the 
ermission  to  men  to  print  what  they  pleased. 
2.  The  Surrender  of  Namur.  1695.— The  campaign  of  1695, 
ill  the  Netherlands,  was  marked  by  William's  first  success.  His 
financial  resources  were  now  far  greater  than  those  of  Louis,  and 
he  took  Namur,  though  a  French  army  was  in  the  field  to  relieve 


664  WILLIAM  III  1695- 1696 

it.  The  French  had  never  lost  a  battle  or  a  fortified  town 
during  fifty-two  years,  but  at  last  their  career  of  victory  was 
checked. 

3.  C!Qie  Restoration  of  the  Currency  and  the  Treason-Trials 
Act.  i69fts;-At  home  Charles  Montague,  with  the  assistance  of 
Sir  Isaac  Ne^'^n,  the  great  mathematician  and  astronomer,  suc- 
ceeded in  restorin^he  currency.  Coins,  up  to  that  time,  had  been 
usually  struck  with  sNpoth  edges,  and  rogues  had  been  in  the  habit 
of  clipping  off  thin  flakes  of  gold  or  silver  as  they  passed  through 
their  hands.  The  resuiK^was  that  sixpences  or  shillings  were 
seldom  worth  their  full  vahie.  There  were  constant  quarrels 
over  every  payment.  New  cm^s  were  now  issued  with  milled 
edges,  so  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  anyone  to  clip  them 
without  being  detected.  The  act  aihhorising  the  re-coinage  was 
followed  by  another,  allowing  persons  accused  of  treason  to  have 
lawyers  to  plead  for  them  in  court;  a.  permission  which,  up  to 
this  time,  had  been  refused. 

4.  Ministerial  Corruption.  1695 — ^^96. — In  spite  of  the  success 
of  Williams  government,  there  were  in  existence  grave  causes 
of  dissatisfaction  with  the  state  of  affairs.  Corruption  reigned 
amongst  those  whose  influence  was  worth  selling.  In  1695  the 
Duke  of  Leeds— better  known  by  his  earlier  title  of  Danby — was 
foun  .1  guilty  oiHaking  a  bribe,  and  it  was  well  known  that  even 
ministers  who  dicknot  take  bribes  became  wealthy  by  means  of 
gifts  received  for  tn^r  services,  as,  indeed,  ministers  had  done 
in  former  reigns.  Wl^t  was  worse  still,  English  ministers  had, 
almost  from  the  beginnin^f  William's  reign,  endeavoured  to  make 
their  position  sure  in  the  ©^ent  of  a  counter-revolution,  by  pro- 
fessing allegiance  to  James  \hilst  they  remained  in  the  service 
of  William.  At  one  time  Mam^rough  had  been  guilty  of  even 
greater  baseness,  having  sent  to  jSmies  information  of  an  English 
expedition  against  Brest,  in  consequW:e  of  which  the  expedition 
was  driven  off  with  heavy  loss,  and  its  c^mander,  Talmash,  slain. 
No  wonder  William  trusted  his  Dutch  seisyants  as  he  trusted  no 
English  ones,  and  that  he  sought  to  reward  w^m  by  grants  which, 
according  to  precedents  set  by  earlier  King^  he  held  himself 
entitled  to  make  out  of  the  property  of  the  Cro^i.  Bentinck,  to 
whom  he  was  especially  attached,  he  had  made  Ea^^  of  Portland  ; 
but  when,  in  1696,  he  proposed  to  give  him  a  large  estate  in  Wales, 
the  Commons  remonstrated,  and  Portland  declined  the  gift. 

5.  The  Assassination  Plot.  1696. — From  the  unpopularity 
which  attached   itself  to  William  in  consequence   of  these  pro- 


"^ 


1696 


AN  ASSASSINATION  PLOT 


665 


ceedings   the  Jacobites  conceived   new  hopes.     Louis  offered  to 
send  soldiers  to  their  help  if  they  would  first  rise  in  insurrection. 


Front  of  Hampton  Court  Palace  ;  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  for  William  III. 

They,  on  the  other  hand,  offered  to  rise  if  Louis  would  first  send 

soldiers.    About  forty  Jacobites  agreed  in  thinking  that  the  shortest 

wav  out  of  the  difficulty  was  to  murder  William.     They  knew  that, 

IIL  XX 


666 


WILLIAM  IIL 


1696 


when  he  went  out  hunting  from  Hampton  Court,  he  returned  by  a 
narrow  lane,  and  that  he  usually  had  with  him  only  twenty-five 
guards.  They  thought  it  would  be  easy  work  to  spring  into  the 
lane  and  shoot  him.     The  plot  was,  however,  betrayed,  and  some 


Part  of  Hampton  Court ;  built  for  William  III.  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

of  the  plotters  were  executed.  The  discovery  of  this  design  to 
assassinate  William  made  him  once  more  popular.  In  imitation 
of  what  had  been  done  when  Elizabeth's  life  was  in  danger 
(see  p.  456),  the  greater  part  of  the  Lords  and  Commons  bound 
themselves  by  an  association   to   defend   William's  government, 


1 696- 1 699  THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION  667 

and  to  support  the  succession  of  the  Princess  Anne  in  the  event 
of  his  death.     The  form  of  this  association  was  circulated  in  the 
^^untry,  and  signed  by  thousands. 

*^^  6.  The  Peace  of  Ryswick.  1697.— Since  the  taking  of  Namur 
there  had  been  no  more  fighting.  In  1697  a  general  peace  was 
signed  at  Ryswick.  Louis  gave  up  all  the  conquests  which  he  had 
made  in  the  war,  and  acknowledged  William  as  king.  William 
had,  for  the  first  time,  the  satisfaction  of  bringing  to  a  close  a 
war  from  which  his  great  antagonist  had  gained  no  advantage. 
France  was  impoverished  and  England  was  prosperous.  As  Louis 
had  said,  the  last  gold  piece  had  won  (see  p.  659).  William  returned 
thanks  for  the  peace  in  the  new  St.  Paul's  built  by  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  in  place  of  the  old  cathedral  destroyed  in  the  great  fire 
(see  p.  592). 
^7  7.  Reduction  of  the  Army.  1698  1699. — Scarcely  was  the  war 
at  an  end  when  a  controversy  broke  out  between  William  and 
the  House  of  Commons.  William  knew  that  the  larger  the  armed 
force  which  England  could  maintain,  the  more  chance  there  was  that 
Louis  would  keep  the  peace  which  he  had  been  forced  to  sign.  The 
Commons,  on  the  other  hand,  were  anxious  to  diminish  the  ex- 
penditure, and  were  specially  jealous  of  the  existence  of  a  large 
standing  army  which  might  be  used,  as  it  had  been  used  by 
Cromwell,  to  establish  an  absolute  government.  Many  Whigs 
deserted  the  ministers  and  joined  the  Tories  on  this  point. 
In  January  1698,  the  army  was  reduced  to  10,000  men.  In 
December  it  was  reduced  to  7,000.  In  March  1699,  William  was 
compelled  to  dismiss  his  Dutch  guards.  His  irritation  was  so 
great  that  it  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  he  was  held  back 
c  from  abdicating  the  throne. 

^p^     8.    Signature    and    Failure    of    the    First    Partition    Treaty. 

*  1698  — 1699. — In  the  meanwhile,  William  was  engaged  in  a  delicate 
negotiation.  It  was  well  known  that^  whenever  Charles  II.  of 
Spain  died,  Louis  XIV.  would  claim  the  Spanish  monarchy  for 
one  of  his  own  family  in  right  of  his  wife,  Charles's  eldest  sister, 
Maria  Theresa,  whilst  the  Emperor  Leopold  would  also  claim  it 
for  himself  or  for  one  of  his  sons  in  the  right  of  his  mother,  Maria, 
the  aunt  of  Charles,  on  the  ground  that  she  was  the  only  one 
amongst  the  sisters  and  aunts  of  Charles  11.  who  had  not  renounced 
the  succession.  His  own  first  wife  Margaret  Theresa,  and  Louis's  wife 
Maria  Theresa,  who  were  both  sisters  of  the  King  of  Spain,  as  well 
as  Louis's  mother  Anne,  had  all, ,  on  .their  respective  marriages 
abandoned  their  claims.     It  was  unlikely   that  either  France  or 

X  X  2 


668 


WILLIAM  III. 


1698 


Austria  would  submit  without  compulsion  to  see  the  territories  of  its 
rival  increased  so  largely  ;  and  in  1698,  William,  hoping  to  avert  a 
war,  signed  a  secret  Partition  Treaty  with  Louis.  According  to 
this  treaty  the  bulk  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  was  to  be  assigned 


West  front  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  church  ;  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wrea, 


[698-1699      THE   MINISTERS  AND    THE  HOUSE 


669 


to  a  young -man  whose  own  territories  were  too  small  to  give  umbrage 
either  to  France  or  to  Austria  if  he  added  to  them  those  of  the 
Spanish  monarchy.  This  young  man  was  the  Electoral  Prince 
of  Bavaria,  the  grandson  of  Leopold  by  his  first  wife,  Charles's 
sister  Margaret  Theresa,'  whilst  small  portions  of  the  territory  under 
the  Spanish  Crown  were  to  be  allotted  respectively  to  Louis's  eldest 
son,  the  Dauphin,  and  to  the  Archduke  Charles,  the  younger  of 
Leopold's  two  sons  by  a  second  wife.  Unfortunately,  the  death  of 
the  Electoral  Prince  in  February  1699  overset  this  arrangement  and 
enormously  increased  the  difficulty  of  satisfying  both  France  and 
Austria,  especially  as  it  was  just  at  this  time  that  Parliament 
reduced  William's  army  to  7,000  men  (see  p.  667),  thus  leading 
Louis  to  suppose  that  he  might  defy  England  with  impunity. 

9.  Break-up  of  the  Whig-  Junto.  1699. — In  home  affairs,  too, 
Willia^  was  in  considerable  difficulty.  When  he  had  brought 
togethei'^tlie  Whig  Junto,  he  had  done  so  because  he  found  it  con- 
venient, not  B©<;ause  he  thought  of  binding  himself  never  to  keep 
ministers  in  office>mJess  they  were  supported  by  a  majority  in  the 
House  of  Commons.^'S^ie  modern  doctrine  that  for  ministers  to 
remain  in  office  after  a  seritJT»s,.^feat  in  the  House  of  Commons 
is  injurious  both  to  themselves  ana*t«s^e  pubHc  service  had  not 
yet  been  heard  of,  and  this  lesson,  likeSo  many  others,  had  to 
be  learned  by  experience.  Again  and  again  nv^e  debates  on  the 
reduction  of  the  army  the  ministers  had  been  outv^it<^.  The  House 
also  found  fault  with  the  administration  of  the  Admirattyj^  Russell, 
who  in  1697  had  been  created  Earl  of  Orford,  and  appointed  a 


*  Genealogy  of  the  claimants  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  (the  names  of  the 
claimants  are  in  capitals,  and  the  names  of  princesses  who  had  renounced  their 
claims  in  itahcs)  : — 

Philip  III.,  king  of  Spain, 
1598— 1621 


Louis  yA\\.,-=Anne 

king  of  France, 

1610 — 1643 


Philip  IV.,  king  of  Spain, 
1621—1665 


Maria: 


<  I  I  i 

Louis  XIV.,    =   Maria    Charles  II.,  king    Margaret  Theresa 
king  of  France,  \  Theresa ,       of  Spain, 
1643- 1715  1665—1700 


Ferdinand  III.,  Emperor, 

16351-1658 


^^PIA^ 


Leopold  I.,  =  Eleanor  of  Neuburg 
Emperor, 
1658— 1705 


Louis  (the  Dauphin), 
d,  \Ti\ 

I 


Louis   Duke  of 

Burgundy, 

d.  1J12 


PHILIP  v., 
king  of  Spain 


:  Maria 
Antonia 


Maximilian 

Emanuel, 

Elector  of 

Bavaria 


JOSEPH  Ferdinand, 
the  Electoral  Prince. 


T        CT 

Joseph  I., 
Emperor, 
1705— 1711 


,  afte 


THE  ARCJIDUKE 

Charles,  afterutards 
Charles  VI.. 
Emperor,    TJ  VJcr-v^*-*. \ 
1711— 1740         C>  O^ 


d.  1699 


^ 


670  WILLIAM  III.  1 699- 1 700 

commission,  in  defiance  of  the  ministers,  to  take  into  consideration 
certain  ext^H^e  grants  of  forfeited  estates  in  Ireland  which  had 
been  made  byWi]Jiam  to  his  favourites.  Though  WiUiam  failed 
to  perceive  the  impo^^ntMlity  of  governing  satisfactorily  with  minis- 
ters who  had  against  thehva  joint  majority  composed  of  Tories 
and  discontented  Whigs,  tb^^  who  were  personally  affected 
by  its  attacks  readily  perceived  rti^e  danger  into  which  they  were 
running.  In  the  course  of  1699  Ohltmi  and  Montague  resigned 
their  offices.  William  fell  back  upon  Ms^riginal  system  of  com- 
bining Whigs  and  Tories.  The  Whigs,  n^^ever,  still  prepon- 
derated, especially  as  Somers,  the  A\isest  statfe^man  of  the  day, 
remained  Lord  Chancellor. 

10.  The  Irish  Grants  and  the  Fall  of  Somers.  1700. — After 
the  i:^uction  of  Ireland  large  tracts  of  land  had  fallen  to  the  Crown, 
and  WKliam  had  made  grants  out  of  them  to  persons  whom  he 
favoured/^pecially  to  persons  of  foreign  origin.  Amongst  these 
were  brave  ^oreign  soldiers  like  Ginkell  and  Ruvigny  (see  p.  656), 
now  Earls  oKAthlone  and  Galway,  as  well  as  mere  personal 
favourites,  such  t^  Elizabeth  Villiers,  who  had,  many  years  before, 
been  William's  r^tress.  In  1700,  however,  the  Commons  pro- 
posed to  annul  all  Ml^lliam's  Irish  grants.  Besides  this  the  House 
proposed  to  grant  awa^ome  of  the  estates  to  favourites  of  their  own, 
and  declared  land  forfeited  which  in  law  had  never  been  forfeited 
at  all.  As  the  Lords  resisted  the  latter  parts  of  this  scheme,  the 
Commons  invented  a  plan  ifor  coercing  them.  They  tacked  their 
bill,  about  Irish  forfeitures  tXtheir  grant  of  supplies  for  the  year  ; 
that  is  to  say,  made  it  part  ondie  bill  by  which  the  supplies  were 
given  to  the  Crown.  As  the  peeW  were  not  allowed  to  alter  a  money 
bill,  they  must  accept  or  reject  tlite  whole,  including  the  provisions 
made  by  the  Commons  about  the  Iris^  forfeitures.  William  foresaw 
that,  in  the  heated  temper  of  the  Comnions,  they  would  throw  the 
whole  government  into  confusion  rath^  than  give  way,  and  at 
his  instance  the  Lords  succumbed.  TheVictory  of  the  Commons 
brought  into  evidence  their  power  of  beatih^  down  the  resistance 
both  of  the  king  and  of  the  House  of  Lords/^ut  it  was  a  victory 
marred  by  the  intemperateness  of  their  conduct,  and  by  the  in- 
justice of  some  of  the  provisions  for  which  they  contis^ded.  Fierce 
attacks  had  also  been  made  in  the  House  of  Common^;mi  Somers, 
and  William  ordered  Somers  to  resign.  The  principle  tha^iinisters 
with  whom  the  House  of  Commons  is  dissatisfied  cannotVemain 
in  office  was  thus  established. 

11.  The  Darien  Expedition.     1698— 1700. — It  was  not  in  Eng- 


1 698-1700     AN  AGREEMENT   WITH  LOUIS  XIV.  671 

land  only  that  William  met  with  resistance.  The  commerce  of 
Scotland  was  small,  and  Scotchmen  were  excluded  from  all  share 
in  the  English  trading  companies.  Paterson,  who  had  been  the 
originator  of  the  Bank  of  England,  urged  his  countrymen  to  settle 
in  Darien,  as  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  was  then  called,  where, 
placed  as  they  would  be  between  two  oceans,  they  would,  as  he  told 
them,  have  the  trade  of  the  world  in  their  hands.  Forgetting  not 
only  that  Darien  was  claimed  by  Spain,  but  that  its  climate 
was  exceedingly  unhealthy,  Scotchmen  of  all  ranks  joined  eagerly 
in  a  company  which  was  to  acquire  this  valuable  position.  In  1698 
and  1699  two  expeditions  sailed  to  take  possession  of  the  isthmus. 
By  the  spring  of  1700  most  of  those  who  had  set  out  with  the 
highest  hopes  had  perished  of  disease,  Avhilst  the  few  who  remained 
alive  had  been  expelled  by  the  Spaniards.  All  Scotland  threw 
the  blame  of  the  disaster  on  William,  because  he  had  not  embroiled 
England  in  war  with  Spain  to  defend  these  unauthorised  intruders 
on  her  domain. 

12.  The  Second  Partition  Treaty.  1700. — In  the  spring  of 
1700,  whilst  the  weakness  and  unpopularity  of  William  were  being 
published  to  the  world,  he  concluded  a  second  partition  treaty  with 
Louis,  ^^he  Archduke  Charles  was  to  be  king  of  Spain,  of  the 
Spanish^etherlands,  and  of  all  the  Spanish  colonies  ;  France  was 
to  have  Guipuscoa,  on  the  Spanish  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and 
all  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Italy,  though  Louis  declared  his 
intention  of  abandoning  the  Duchy  of  Milan  to  the  Duke  of 
Lorraine  in  exchange  for  Lorraine^  The  proposal  of  this  Treaty 
came  from  Louis,  who  certainly  had  very  little  idea  of  carrying  it 
into  effect,  whilst  the  Emperor,  who  would  gain  much  by  it  for 
his  son,  the  Archduke  Charles,  refused  his  consent,  perhaps  thinking 
that  it  was  of  little  importance  to  him  to  place  his  son  on  the  throne 
of  Spain,  if  Italy,  which  lay  so  much  nearer  to  his  own  hereditary 
dominions,  was  to  be  abandoned  to  the  French. 

13.  Deaths  of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  and  of  the  King  of 
Spain.  1700. — Two  deaths,  which  occurred  in  1700,  affected  the 
politics  of  England  and  Europe  for  some  time  to  come.  Anne  had 
had  several  children,  all  of  whom  died  young,  the  last  ot  them,  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  dying  on  July  29  in  this  year.  The  question 
of  the  succession  to  the  throne  after  Anne's  death  was  thus  thrown 
open.  Charles  II.  of  Spain  died  on  November  i.  Louis  had  long 
been  intriguing  for  his  inheritance,  and  his  intrigues  had  been  success- 
ful. Charles,  before  he  died,  left  by  will  the  whole  of  his  dominions 
to  Louis's  grandson,  Philip,  hereafter  to  be  known  as  Philip  V.,  king 


672  WILLIAM  III.  i7CK)-i7oi 

of  Spain.     Louis  accepted  the  inheritance,  and  threw  to  the  winds 
the  Partition  Treaty  which  he  had  made  with  WilHam. 
y        14.  A  Tory  Ministry.     1700— I70i.--It  seemed  as  if  the  chief 
v/ork  of  William's  life  had  been  undone,  and  that  France  would 
domineer  over  Europe  unchecked.      In   England  there  was  but 
little  desire  to  engage  in  a  new  war,  and,  before  the  end  of  1700, 
William  was  obliged  to  appoint  a  Tory  ministry.     There  was  a 
Tory  majority  in  the  new  Parliament  which  met  on  February  6, 
1701.     The  great  majority  of  the  Tories  had  by  this  time  thrown  off 
their  belief  in  the  indefeasible  Divine  right  of  kings,  and  acknow- 
ledged William  without  difficulty.     Their  chief  political  ideas  were 
the  maintenance  of  peace   abroad,  and  the  pre-eminence  of  the 
Church  of  England  at  home,  though  they — more  or  less  thoroughly^ 
accepted   the  Toleration  Act.      Their  main  supporters  were  the 
country  gentlemen  and  the  country  clergy,  whilst  the  Whigs,  who 
supported  William  in  his  desire  for  a  war  with  France,  and  who 
^.  took  under  their  patronage   the    Dissenters,  were  upheld  by  the 
if^  great  landowners,  and  by  the  commercial  class  in  the  towns. 
t \^         15.  The  Act  of  Settlement  and   the   Succession.     1701. — The 
/  first  work  of  the  Tory  Parliament  was  thoJVct  of  Settlement^  By 

I  this  Act  the  succession  was  settled,  after  Anne's  death,  on  Sophia, 

I  Electress  of  Hanover,  and  her  descendants.    She  was  the  daughter 

\  of  Elizabeth,  gueen  of  Bohemia  (see  pp.  488,  490),  and  was  thus  the 

V        granddaughter  of  James  I.      The  principle  on  which  the  selection 
\     rested  was  that  she  was  the  nearest  Protestant  heir,  all  the  living  de- 
^,§cendants  of  Charles  I.,  except  William  and  Anne,  being  Romai^ 
^-.-^  Catholics.  ^ 

^  16.  The  Act  of  Settlement  and  the  Crown.     1701.— The  view 

that  the  nation  had  a  right  to  fix  the  succession  was  now  accepted 
by  the  Tories  as  fully  as  by  the  Whigs  ;  but  the  Tories,  seeing  that 
William  was  inclined  to  trust  their  opponents  more  than  them- 
selves, now  went  beyond  the  Whigs  in  their  desire  to  restrict  the 
powers  of  the  Crown.  By  the  Tory  Act  of  Settlement  the  future 
Hanoverian  sovereign  was  (i)  to  join  in  the  Communion  of  the 
Church  of  England  ;  (2)  not  to  declare  war  without  consent  of 
Parliament  on  behalf  of  territories  possessed  by  him  on  the 
Continent,  and  (3)  not  to  leave  the  three  kingdoms  without  con- 
sent of  Parliament — an  article  which  was  repealed  in  the  first 
year  of  George  I.  A  stipulation  (4)  that  no  pardon  under  the 
great  seal  was  to  be  pleadable  in  bar  of  impeachment,  was 
intended  to  prevent  William  or  his  successors  from  protecting 
ministers  against  Parliament,  as  Charles  II.  had  attempted  to  do 


1 701  A    CONSTITUTIONAL   STATUTE  673 

in  Danby's  case  (see  p.  617).  A  further  stipulation  was  (5)  that 
after  Anne's  death  no  man,  unless  born  in  England  or  of  English 
parents  abroad,  should  sit  in  the  Privy  Council  or  in  Parliament, 
or  hold  office  or  lands  granted  him  by  the  Crown.  These  five 
articles  all  sprang  from  jealousy  of  a  foreign  sovereign.  A  sixth, 
enacting  (6)  that  the  judges  should,  henceforward,  hold  their 
places  as  long  as  they  behaved  well,  but  might  be  removed  on  an 
address  from  both  Houses  of  Parliament,  was  an  improvement  in 
the  constitution,  irrespective  of  all  personal  considerations.  It  has 
prevented,  ever  since,  the  repetition  of  the  scandal  caused  by 
James  II.  when  he  changed  some  of  the  judges  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  a  judgment  in  his  own  favour  (see  p.  639). 

17.  The  Act  of  Settlement  and  the  Ministers.  1701. — There 
wer^wo  other  articles  in  the  Act,  of  which  one  (7)  declared  that, 
underNhe  future  Hanoverian  sovereign,  all  matters  proper  to  the 
Privy  Council  should  be  transacted  there,  and  that  all  resolutions 
taken  in  iryshould  be  signed  by  those  councillors  who  assented  to 
them  ;  whifti  the  other  (8)  embodied  the  provisions  of  the  rejected' 
Place  Bill  (see  p.  661),  to  the  effect  that  no  one  holding  a  place 
or  pension  froinSthe  Crown  should  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Both  these  article^were  directed,  not  so  much  against  the  Crown  as 
against  the  growing^^ower  of  the  ministers.  At  this  time,  indeed,  the 
prevailing  wish  of  thescountry  squires  who  made  up  the  bulk  of  the 
Tory  party  was  to  mak\the  House  of  Commons  effectively,  as  well 
as  in  name,  predominant ;  and  they  therefore  watched  with  alarm 
the  growth  of  the  power  df  the  Cabinet,  as  the  informal  meetings 
of  the  ministers  who  directed  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  were  now 
called.  As  the  Cabinet,  unliRe  the  old  Privy  Council,  kept  no  re- 
cord of  its  proceedings,  the  Toiues  were  alarmed  lest  its  members 
should  escape  responsibility,  and  should  also,  by  offering  places  and 
pensions  to  their  supporters  in  tire  House,  contrive  to  secure  a 
majority  in  it,  even  when  they  had  theVreater  number  of  independent 
members  against  them.  The  article  mating  to  the  Privy  Council 
was,  however,  repealed  early  in  the  next\reign,  as  it  was  found  that 
no  one  was  willing  to  give  advice  if  heVas  liable  to  be  called  in 
question  and  punished  for  giving  it,  so  that  the  system  of  holding 
private  Cabinet  meetings  where  advice  coulmbe  given  without  fear 
of  consequences  was  not  long  interrupted.  Thh^^article  for  excluding 
placemen  and  pensioners,  on  the  other  hand,  r^erely  overshot  the 
mark,  and  in  the  next  reign  it  was  so  modifiecf^hat  only  holders 
of  new  places  created  subsequently  to  1705  werevexcluded  from 
the  House,  as  well  as  persons  who  held  pensions  revocable  at  the 


674  WILLIAM  III.  1701 

pleasure  of  the  Crown  ;  whilst  all  members  accepting  old  places 
were  t(vv^&«^e  their  seats,  and  to  appeal  for  re-election  to  a  con- 
stituency if  tfefc^hought  fit  to  do  so.  Subsequent  legislation  went 
farther  and  disqi^^ified  persons  holding  many  of  the  old  places 
from  sitting  in  parliaWnt,  with  the  general  result  that,  whilst  the 
holders  of  pensions  anaSmaller  places  are  now  excluded  from  the 
House  of  Commons,  the  nnportant  ministers  of  the  Crown  are 
allowed  to  sit  there,  thereby  k^ping  up  that  close  connection  be- 
tween ministers  and  Parliament  Avhich  is  so  efficacious  in  promoting 
a  good  understanding  between  them. 

18.  The  Tory  Foreign  Policy.  1701. — In  foreign  poficy  the 
Torie^blamed  William  and  the  Whigs  for  concluding  the  Partition 
Treaties.  France  and  Spain,  they  held,  would  still  be  mutually 
jealous  olS^ne  another,  even  though  Louis  sat  on  the  throne  of 
France  anoKis  grandson  on  the  throne  of  Spain,  whereas  the  terri- 
tory which,  acc8t;ding  to  the  second  treaty,  would  have  been  actually 
annexed  to  Frano^.  would  have  given  to  Louis  exorbitant  influence 
in  Europe.  Accordingly  they  impeached  the  leading  Whigs, 
Somers,  Portland,  Onv^-d,  and  Montague,  who  had  lately  become 
Lord  Halifax.  The  impeached  peers  were,  however,  supported  by 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  nothing  could  be  done  against  them.  If 
only  Louis  had  behaved  witK  ordinary  prudence,  the  peace  policy 
of  the  Tories  would  have  cans^d  the  day.  He  seemed,  however, 
resolved  to  show  that  he  meant  tS^dispose  of  the  whole  of  the  forces 
of  both  monarchies.  There  was  a  rhoe  of  fortified  towns,  known  as 
the  barrier  fortresses,  raised  on  the  soMiern  frontier  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  to  defend  them  against  Fr^$K:e,  at  a  time  when  France 
and  Spain  were  hostile.  As  the  Spanis^^overnment  had  lately 
shown  itself  incapable  of  keeping  fortresses  ir^pair  or  of  providing 
them  with  sufficient  garrisons,  it  had  been  agreed  that  half  of 
each  garrison  should  be  composed  of  Dutch  soWiers.  Early  in 
1701,  Louis,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Spanish  half  of^ch  garrison, 
got  possession  of  every  one  of  these  fortresses  in  a  single  night, 
turned  out  the  Dutch,  and  replaced  them  by  FrenchNsoldiers. 
For  all  military  purposes  the  Spanish  Netherlands  might  as  well 
have  been  under  the  immediate  government  of  Louis. 

9.  The  Kentish  Petition.  1701. — To  the  Dutch  the  possibility 
of  a  French  army  advancing  without  hindrance  to  their  frontier 
was  extremely  alarming  ;  while  in  England  there  had  always  been 
a  strong  feeling  against  the  occupation  by  the  French  of  the  coast 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Thames.  Louis's  interference  in  the 
Netherlands  therefore  did  something  to  rouse  a  warlike  spirit  in 


I70I  PREPARATIONS  FOR    WAR  675 

England.  In  April  a  petition  to  the  House  of  Commons  was 
drawn  up  by  the  gentlemen  of  Kent  and  presented  by  five  of 
their  number.  This  Kentish  Petition  asked  the  Commons  to  sup- 
port the  king  and  to  '  turn  their  loyal  addresses  into  Bills  of  supply.' 
The  House  sent  the  five  who  brought  the  petition  to  the  Tower,  on 
the  plea  that  the  constituencies  had  done  their  work  when  they  had 
elected  their  members,  and  had.no  right  to  influence  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  House  when  once  the  elections  had  been  completed. 
As  the  Tories  had  defended  the  authority  of  the  House  against  the 
ministers,  so  they  now  defended  it  against  the  electors. 
0^  20.  The  Grand  Alliance.  1701.— AVilliam  saw  that  the  feeling 
of  the  country'  would  soon  be  on  the  side  of  war.  Having  obtained 
the  consent,  even  of  the  Tory  House  of  Commons,  to  defensive 
measures,  he  raised  new  troops  and  sent  10,000  men  to  protect  the 
Dutch  against  any  attack  which  Louis  might  make  upon  them.  At 
the  head  of  this  force  he  placed  Marlborough,  whom  he  had  again 
taken  into  favour  (see  p.  658).  In  September  he  advanced  a  step 
farther.  War  had  already  broken  out  in  Italy  between  France  and 
Spain  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Emperor  Leopold,  as  ruler  of  the 
Austrian  dominions,  on  the  other.  Both  William  and  the  Dutch 
would  have  been  glad  of  a  compromise  with  Louis,  and  would  have 
left  Spain  to  Philip  V.  if  Leopold  could  have  part,  at  least,  of  the 
Spanish  dominions  in  Italy.  Louis  would  hear  of  no  compromise, 
and  on  September  7  William  signed  the  Grand  Alliance,  as  it  was 
called,  between  England,  Austria,  and  the  Dutch  Republic  ;  of 
which  the  objects  were  to  restore  to  the  Dutch  the  control  of  the 
barrier  fortresses,  to  secure  to  Leopold  the  Italian  possessions  of 
Spain,  and  to  provide  that  the  Crowns  of  France  and  Spain  should 
never  be  united. 
^^^  21.  Death  of  James  IL  1701. — The  day  before  this  treaty 
was  signed  James  II.  died  in  France.  Louis  at  once  acknowledged 
as  king  his  son,  the  child  who  had  been  held  in  England  to  be 
supposititious,  and  who  was  afterwards  known  as  the  Pretender  by 
his  enemies,  and  as  James  III.  by  his  friends.  At  once  all  England 
burst  into  a  storm  of  indignation  against  Louis,  for  having  dared  to 
acknowledge  as  king  of  England  a  boy  whose  title  had  been  rejected 
by  the  English  Parliament  and  nation.  William  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity and  dissolved  the  Tory  Parliament.  A  new  Parliament  was 
returned  with  a  small  Whig  majority.  It  passed  an  Act  ordering 
all  persons  holding  office  to  take  an  oath  of  abjuration  of  the 
Pretender^s  title,  and  raised  the  army  to  40,000  men,  granting  at 
the  same  time  a  considerable  siim  for  the  navy. 


676  WILLIAM  ILL  1702 

^^^  22.  Death  of  William.  1702.— Early  in  1702  William  was 
looking  forward  to  taking  the  command  in  the  war  which  was 
beginning.  On  P>bruary  20  his  horse  stumbled  over  a  mole-hill 
in  Hampton  Park.  He  fell,  and  broke  his  collar  bone.  He 
lingered  for  some  days,  and,  on  March  8,  he  died.  His  work,  if 
not  accomplished,  was  at  least  in  a  fair  way  of  being  accomplished. 
His  main  object  in  life  had  been  to  prevent  Louis  from  domineering 
in  Europe,  whilst  the  maintenance  of  the  constitutional  liberties  of 
England  had  been  with  him  only  a  secondary  object.  That  he 
succeeded  in  what  he  undertook  against  Louis  was  owing,  primarily, 
to  the  self-sufficiency  and  obstinacy,  first  of  Louis  himself  and  then 
of  James  H.  ;  but  all  the  blunders  of  his  adversaries  would  have 
availed  him  little  if  he  had  not  himself  been  possessed  of  invincible 
patience  and  of  the  tact  which  perceives  the  line  which  divides 
the  practicable  from  the  impracticable.  That  he  was  a  Continental 
statesman  with  Continental  aims  stood  in  the  way  of  his  popularity 
in  England.  His  merit  was  that,  being  aware  how  necessary  English 
support  was  to  him  on  the  Continent,  he  recognised  that  his  only 
hope  of  securing  the  help  of  England  lay  in  persistent  devotion  to 
her  domestic  interests  and  her  constitutional  liberties ;  and  that 
devotion,  in  spite  of  some  blunders  and  some  weaknesses,  he  un- 
interruptedly gave  to  her  during  the  whole  course  of  his  reign. 

^^ 

CHAPTER   XLIV 

ANNE.      1702 — 1714 


% 


LEADING   DATES 

Accession  of  Anne 1702 

Battle  of  Blenheim 1704 

Battle  of  Ramillies 1706 

Union  with  Scotland 1707 

Battles  of  Almanza  and  Oudenarde 1708 

Battle  of  Malplaquet 1709 

The  Sacheverell  Trial 1710 

Battles  of  Brihuega  and  Villa  Viciosa 1710 

Dismissal  of  Marlborough  and  Creation  of  Twelve  Peers  1711 

Treaty  of  Utrecht 1713 

Death  of  Anne 1714 

I.  Marlborough  and  the  Tories.  1702. — Anne  was  a  good- 
hearted  woman  of  no  great  ability,  warmly  attached  to  the  Church 
of  England,  and   ready  to  support   it  in   its  claims  against  the 


[702 


MARLBOROUGH  AND    THE   QUEEN 


(>11 


Dissenters.  She  therefore  preferred  the  Tories  to  the  Whigs,  and 
filled  all  the  ministerial  offices  with  Tories.  Marlborough,  who, 
through  his  wife,  had  iDoundless  influence  over  the  Queen,  found  it 
expedient  to  declare  himself  a  Tory,  though  he  had  little  sympathy 


Queen  Anne  ;  from  a  portrait  by  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller 


with  the  extravagances  of  the  extreme  members  of  that  party,  and 
wanted  merely  to  have  a  firm  Government  which  would  support 
him  in  his  military  enterprises.  His  chief  ally  was  Lord  Godolphin, 
to  whose  son  one  of  his  daughters  was  married.     Godolphin  was 


678  ANNE  1702- 1703 

Lord  Treasurer,  and,  being  an  excellent  financier,  was  likely  to  be 
able  to  find  the  money  needed  for  a  great  war.  He  was  also  a 
fitting  man  to  keep  the  ministers  from  quarrelling  with  one  another. 
He  had  frequently  been  in  office,  and  he  liked  official  work  better 
than  party  strife.  "  Little  Sidney  Godolphin,"  Charles  H.  had  once 
said  of  him,  "  is  never  in  the  way,  and  never  out  of  the  way,"  and 
this  character  he  retained  to  the  end. 

2.  Louis  XIV.  and  Marlborough.  1702.— As  far  as  the  war 
and  foreign  affairs  were  concerned,  Marlborough  was  the  true 
successor  of  William  HL  The  difficulties  with  which  he  had 
to  contend  were,  indeed,  enormous.  Louis  XIV.,  at  the  opening 
of  the  war,  had  a  fine  military  position.  His  flanks  were  guarded 
by  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  on  the  left  and  of 
Spain  itself  on  the  right,  whilst  an  alliance  which  he  formed 
with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  gave  him  military  command  of  a  tract 
of  land  accessible  without  much  difficulty  from  his  own  territory. 
This  tract,  on  the  one  hand,  enabled  a  French  army  to  make  an 
easy  attack  on  the  Austrian  dominions  beyond  the  Inn,  whilst  on 
the  other  hand  it  divided  the  forces  of  the  allies  into  two  parts, 
cutting  off  the  Austrian  army  in  Italy,  under  Prince  Eugene,  from 
the  English  and  Dutch  armies  in  the  Netherlands,  both  pf  which 
were  under  the  command  of  Marlborough.  Louis  was,  moreover, 
the  sole  master  of  all  his  armies,  and  could  easily  secure  obedience 
to  his  orders.  Marlborough  had  the  more  difficult  task  of  securing 
obedience,  not  only  from  the  English  and  Dutch  armies,  but  from 
the  numerous  contingents  sent  by  the  German  princes,  most  of 
whom  now  joined  the  Grand  Alliance.  The  most  important  of 
these  princes  was  Frederick  I.,  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  who 
had  been  made  by  the  Emperor  king  of  Prussia,  in  order  to  induce 
him  to  join  the  allies.  To  the  difficult  task  of  guiding  this  hetero- 
geneous following,  Marlborough  brought  not  only  a  consummate 
military  genius  far  transcending  that  of  William,  but  a  temper  as 
imperturbable  as  William's  own. 

3.  Marlborough's  First  Campaign  in  the  Netherlands.  1702  — 
1703. — Marlborough's  aim  was  to  break  Louis's  power  in  South 
Germany,  but  he  knew  better  than  to  attempt  this  at  once.  The 
French  held  the  fortresses  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands  and  of  the 
Rhine-country,  covering  the  roads  by  which  the  Dutch  territory 
could  be  assailed  with  advantage  on  its  eastern  and  south-eastern 
sides  ;  and,  as  long  as  this  was  the  case,  it  was  certain  that  the 
Dutch  would  not  allow  their  army  to  go  far  from  home.  Marl- 
borough therefore  devoted  the  two  campaigns  of  1702  and  1703  to 


1697-1703      THE  FIRST  EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE       679 


'B.fBocK. 
tJSoUul. 
lA.^  Store  Baoitv, 


The  first  Eddystone  Lighthouse,  erected  in  1697  ;  destroyed  in  1703 


68o  ANNE  1 702- 1 703 

freeing  the  Dutch  from  this  danger.  In  these  two  years  he  took 
Kaiserswerth  and  Bonn,  on  the  Rhine,  and  Roermonde,  Liege  and 
Huy  on  the  Meuse.  The  roads  by  which  a  French  army  could 
approach  the  Dutch  frontier  were  thus  barred  against  attack. 

4.  The  Occasional  Conformity  Bill.  1702— 1703.— At  the  close 
of  the  campaign  of  1702  Marlborough  was  created  a  duke.  He 
spent  the  winter  in  England,  where  he  found  Parliament  busy  with 
an  Occasional  Conformity  Bill,  the  object  of  which  was  to  inflict 
penalties  upon  Dissenters  who,  having  received  the  sacrament  in 
church  in  order  to  qualify  themselves  for  office,  attended  their  own 
chapels  durirvg  the  tenure  of  the  office  thus  obtained.  The  queen, 
the  High  Tories,  and  most  of  the  clergy  were  eager  to  prevent 
such  an  evasion  of  the  Test  Act,  especially  as  the  Dissenters  who 
occasionally  conformed  were  Whigs  to  a  man.  The  Bill  passed 
the  Commons,  where  the  Tories  were  a  majority.  It  failed  to 
satisfy  the  House  of  Lords,  in  which  the  majority  was  Whig.  In 
the  next  session,  at  the  end  of  1703,  the  Bill  again  passed  the 
Commons,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords.  Though  Marlborough 
and  Godolphin  voted  for  it  to  please  the  queen,  they  disliked 
the  measure,  as  causing  ill-will  between  parties  which  they  wished 
to  unite  against  the  common  enemy. 

5.  Progress  of  the  War  in  Italy,  Spain  and  Germany.  1702 — 
1703. — In  1702  and  1703,  whilst  Marlborough  was  fighting  in  the 
Netherlands,  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy,  the  Austrian  commander, 
and  a  general  of  the  highest  order,  had  been  struggling  against  the 
French  in  Italy.  In  1703  he  won  over  the  Duke  of  Savoy  from  his 
alliance  with  Louis,  but  he  could  not  prevent  a  great  part  of 
the  Duke's  territory  from  being  overrun  by  French  troops.  In  the 
same  year  Portugal  deserted  France  and  joined  the  allies.  By  the 
Methuen  Treaty  now  formed,  England  attached  Portugal  to  her 
by  community  of  interests,  engaging  that  the  duty  on  Portuguese 
wines  should  be  at  least  one-third  less  than  that  on  French,  whilst 
Portugal  admitted  English  woollen  goods  to  her  market.  During 
the  first  two  years  of  the  war,  however,  little  of  military  importance 
took  place  in  any  part  of  the  Peninsula.  By  the  end  of  1703  the 
combined  forces  of  the  French  and  Bavarians  had  gained  con- 
siderable successes  in  Germany,  and,  by  the  capture  of  Augsburg, 
Old  Breisach  and  Landau,  had  secured  the  communications  between 
France  and  Bavaria. 

6.  Ministerial  Changes.  1703 — 1704. — Before  Marlborough 
could  assail  Louis'  position  in  Germany  he  had  to  make  sure  of  his 
own  position  at  home.   The  High  Tories  weakened  him  not  only  by 


1703  1704 


A    COMPOSITE  MINISTRY 


681 


alienating  the  Dissenters,  but 
by  their  liikevvarmness  about 
the  war.  Their  leaders,  the 
Earls  of  Rochester  and  Not- 
.  tingham,  held  that  the  war 
ought  to  be  mainly  carried  on 
at  sea  and  to  be  purely  defen- 
sive on  land,  and  had  no  sym- 
pathy with  Marlborough  in  his 
design  of  destroying  the  pre- 
dominance of  Louis  in  Europe. 
Early  in  1703  Marlborough 
found  an  opportunity  of  getting 
rid  of  Rochester.  In  the  spring 
of  1704  he  came  into  collision 
with  Nottingham.  There  was 
a  rising  of  the  Protestant  sub- 
jects of  Louis  in  the  Cevennes, 
usually  known  as  the  rising  of 
the  Camisards,  because  they 
fought  with  their  shirts  over 
their  clothes.  Marlborough 
was  anxiouis  to  assist  them, 
but  was  thwarted  by  Notting- 
ham, who  held  it  to  be  wrong, 
in  any  case,  to  support  rebel- 
lion. Nottingham  was  accord- 
ingly dismissed,  and  the  vacant 
places  were  filled  by  Harley 
and  St.  John.  Both  of  the 
new  ministers  called  them- 
selves moderate  Tories.  Harley 
was  an  influential  member  of 
Parliament,  with  a  talent  for 
intrigue  and  a  love  of  middle 
courses.  St.  John,  profligate 
in  his  life,  was  the  most  brilliant 
orator  and  the  ablest  and  most 
unscrupulous  politician  of  the 
day.  A  few  Whigs,  of  no  great 
note,  also  received  places.  It 
was  Marlborough's  policy  to 
III. 


.jk 

E 


Steeple  of  St.  Bride's,  Fleet  Street,  London  , 
built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  1701-1703. 
Y  Y 


682  ANNE  1 704- 1 705 

secure  the  support  of  a  body  of  ministers  who  would  avoid  irritating 
anyone,  and  would  thus  help  him  in  his  military  designs.  An 
attempt  made  by  the  High  Tories  in  the  Commons  to  force  the 
Lords  to  accept  the  Occasional  Conformity  Bill,  by  tacking  it  (see 
p.  670)  to  a  Bill  for  a  land  tax,  was  defeated  with  the  help  of 
Harley  and  St.  John. 

7.  The  Campaign  of  Blenheim.  1704. — The  campaign  of 
1704  was  likely  to  be  a  critical  one.  The  French  and  Bavarians 
intended  to  push,  on  to  Vienna  and  to  compel  the  Emperor  to 
separate  himself  from  his  allies.  Marlborough,  perceiving  that  if 
the  French  were  allowed  to  carry  their  project  into  execution  they 
would  become  the  masters  of  Europe,  anticipated  them  by  marching 
to  the  Upper  Danube,  carrying  with  him  the  Dutch  army  in  spite 
of  the  reluctance  of  the  Dutch  Government.  Having  effected  a 
junction  with  the  Austrian  commander  Prince  Eugene,  and  with 
Louis  of  Baden  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  forces  of  other  German 
states,  the  combined  armies  stormed  the  Schellenberg,  a  hill  over 
Donauworth,  and  then  devastated  Bavaria.  A  French  army  under 
Marshal  Tallard  hastened  to  the  aid  of  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. 
Marlborough  and  Eugene,  between  whom  no  jealousies  ever  arose, 
turned  round,  and  utterly  defeated  Tallard  at  Blenheim.  It  was 
Marlborough's  genius  which  had  foreseen  the  surprising  results  of 
a  victory  on  the  Danube.  His  success  marks  the  end  of  a  period 
of  French  military  superiority  in  Europe.  The  French  had  won 
every  battle  in  which  they  had  been  engaged  since  1643,  when 
they  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Rocroi.  It  was,  however,  something 
more  than  prestige  which  was  lost  by  France.  The  whole  of  the 
territory  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  the  most  important  German 
ally  of  Louis,  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  allies,  and  before  the  end  of 
the  year  scarcely  a  vestige  of  French  authority  was  left  in  Germany. 
Marlborough  received  a  grant  of  the  manor  of  Woodstock,  on 
which  the  huge  and  ungraceful  pile  which  bears  the  name  of 
Blenheim  was  built  for  him  at  the  public  expense. 

8.  Operations  in  Spain.  1704 — 1705. — In  1704  the  Archduke 
Charles,  assuming  the  name  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain,  landed  at 
Lisbon.  The  Spaniards  regarded  him  as  a  foreign  intruder,  whilst 
bhey  cherished  Philip  V.  as  if  he  had  been  their  native  king.  The 
first  foothold  which  Charles  acquired  in  Spain  was  at  Gibraltar, 
which  surrendered  in  August  to  the  English  admiral.  Sir  George 
Rooke.  In  1705  the  French  and  Spaniards  tried  in  vain  to  retake 
the  fortress.  The  most  important  success  of  the  allies  in  1705  was 
the  capture  of  Barcelona— an  achievement  of  which  the  chief  merit 


[704 


BLENHEIM 


683 


684  ANNE  1705- 1706 

belongs  to  the  English  commander,  the  eccentric  Lord  Peter- 
borough, whose  brilliant  conceptions  were  too  often  thrown  away 
by  his  ignorance  of  that  art  in  which  Marlborough  excelled,  the  art 
of  courteously  overlooking  the  defects  of  others.  The  importance 
of  }3arcelona  arose  from  its  being  the  chief  place  in  Catalonia,  a 
province  which  clung  to  its  local  independence,  and  which  vigor- 
ously espoused  the  cause  of  Charles,  simply  because  Philip  ruled 
in  Castile.  Soon  afterwards  Valencia  was  overrun  by  the  allies. 
In  other  parts  of  Elurope  there  were  no  military  events  of  note.  In 
the  course  of  1705  the  Emperor  Leopold  I.  died,  and  his  son 
Joseph  (the  elder  brother  of  the  Archduke  Charles)  succeeded  him 
in  the  empire  as  well  as  in  his  hereditary  dominions. 

9.  A  Whig  Parliament.  1705 — 1706.— At  home  the  High  Tories 
raised  the  cry  of  "  The  Church  in  danger"  ;  but  a  Whig  majority 
was  returned  to  Parliament,  and  Marlborough  and  Godolphin 
entered  into  friendly  communications  with  the  Whig  leaders.  One 
of  the  results  of  the  understanding  arrived  at  was  a  compromise 
on  that  article  in  the  Act  of  Settlement  which  would,  after  the 
accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover,  have  excluded  ministers  as 
well  as  other  placemen  from  the  House  of  Commons  (see  p.  673). 
It  was  arranged  in  1706  that  the  holding  of  a  pension  or  of  an 
office  created  after  October  25,  1705,  should  disqualify,  whilst  all 
other  offices  should  be  compatible  with  a  seat,  provided  that  the 
holder,  at  the  time  of  his  appointment,  presented  himself  for  a 
fresh  election. 

10.  The  Campaign  of  1706  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Italy. 
1706. — In  May,  1706,  Marlborough  won  a  Second  great  victory  at 
Ramillies,  and  before  long,  except  that  they  continued  to  hold  a 
few  isolated  fortresses,  the  French  were  swept  out  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  as  they  had  been  swept  out  of  Germany  in  1704.  In 
September,  Eugene  came  to  the  succour  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy, 
defeated  the  French  who  were  besieging  Turin,  and  drove  their 
armies  out  of  Italy. 

11.  Campaign  of  1706  in  Spain.  1706.— In  Spain  the  success 
of  the  allies  Avas  less  unmixed.  Barcelona  indeed  beat  off  a 
French  besieging  army,  and  the  old  Huguenot  refugee  Ruvigny, 
now  known  as  the  Earl  of  Galway  (see  p.  670),  marched  from  Por- 
tugal and  occupied  Madrid  in  June  ;  but  the  Portuguese  under  his 
command  left  him  in  order  to  plunder,  and,  before  the  end  of  July, 
he  learnt  that  the  French  commander,  the  Duke  of  Berwick  (the 
illegitimate  son  of  James  II.  by  Marlborough's  sister,  Arabella 
Churchill),  had  received  ample  reinforcements      As  all  the  country 


I7C2-I707 


ENGLAND   AND   SCOTLAND 


685 


round  was  hostile,  Galway  had  nothing  for  it  but  to  leave  Madrid. 
In  August  he  was  joined  by  the  Archduke  Charles  and  Peter- 
borough, though  the  latter  soon  afterwards  betook  himself  to  Italy 
on  diplomatic  service.  When  Peterborough  afterwards  returned  to 
.Spain,  all  authority  had  slipped  out  of  his  hands.  Galway,  un- 
able to  maintain  himself  in  Castile,  retreated  to  Valencia.  Whilst 
he  had  been  in  the  interior,  Aragon  had  declared  for  Charles,  and 
Alicante  had  been  captured  by  an  English  fleet. 

12.  The  Union  with  Scotland.  1702— 1707.— Far  more  im- 
portant to  England  than  all  that  was  taking  place  in  Spain  was  the 
conclusion  of  the  Union  with  Scotland.  In  1702  Commissioners 
had  met  •  to  discuss  its  terms.  The  Scots  had  naturally  been 
anxious  for  freedom  of  trade  and  equality  of  commercial  privileges. 
As  the  English  were  unwilling  to 
grant  this,  the  Scottish  Parlia- 
ment, in  1703,  retorted  by  an  Act 
of  Security,  providing  that  the 
successor  to  the  Scottish  crown, 
after  the  queen's  death,  should 
not  be  the  same  person  as  the 
successor  to  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land. In  1704,  in  consequence  of 
the  defiant  attitude  of  Scotland, 
the  queen  was  forced  to  give 
the  royal  assent  to  the  Act  of 
Security.  What  the  Scots  virtu- 
ally meant  by  it  was,  that  Eng- 
land must  make  her  choice  either 
to  accept  Scotland  as  an  equal 
partner  with  full  equality  of  ]:)enefits  and  rights,  or  must  have  her 
as  an  alienated  neighbour  with  a  national  sovereign  of  her  own, 
capable  of  renewing  that  ancient  league  with  France  which  had 
cost  England  so  dear  ^n  earlier  times.  England  retaliated  with  an 
enactment  that  Scotchmen,  coming  to  England,  should  no  longer 
enjoy  the  privileges  to  which  they  were  entitled  by  the  decision 
of  the  Judges  in  the  case  of  the  Postnuti  (see  p.  483),  until  the 
Scottish  Pariiament  had  settled  the  succession  in  the  same  way 
that  it  was  settled  in  England.  Godolphin  and  his  fellow-ministers 
were,  however,  too  wise  to  prolong  this  war  of  threats.  They  gave 
way  on  free  trade  and  commercial  equality,  and  in  1707  the  union 
of  the  two  nations  and  the  two  Pariiaments  was  finally  accepted 
on  both  sides      Forty-five  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 


Royal  Arms  as  borne  by  Anne. 


686  ANNE  1707 

were  to  be  chosen  by  Scottish  constituencies,  and  the  Scottish 
peers  were  to  elect  sixteen  of  their  own  number  to  sit  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  Scotland  maintained  her  own  Church,  her  own  law,  and 
the  control  of  her  own  fortresses.  She  remained  a  nation  in  heart, 
voluntarily  merging  her  legislative  authority  in  that  of  the  neigh- 
bouring nation. 

13.  The  Irish  Penal  Laws. — It  would  have  been  well  both 
for  England  and  Ireland  if  the  Irish  race  had  been  capable  of 
enforcing  its  claims  even  to  a  just  and  lenient  treatment  by  its 
masters.  Unfortunately  the  Irish  population,  beaten  in  war  and 
deprived  of  its  natural  leaders  by  the  emigration  of  its  most 
vigorous  soldiers,  was  subjected  to  the  Parliament  of  the  British 
Protestant  colony.  In  spite  of  the  terms  made  at  Limerick  (see 
p.  657),  the  Parliament  at  DubHn,  after  excluding  Catholics  from 
its  benches,  passed  laws  of  which  the  result  was  to  make  well- 
nigh  intolerable  the  position  of  the  professors  of  the  religion  of  at 
least  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ireland.  Catholic  land- 
owners were  impoverished  by  an  enforced  partition  of  their  lands 
amongst  their  sons,  and  by  the  enactment  that  if  a  single  son 
turned  Protestant  the  whole  of  the  inheritance  was  to  pass  to  him. 
Catholic  children,  upon  the  death  of  their  fathers,  were  entrusted 
to  Protestant  guardians,  who  were  directed  to  bring  them  up  as  Pro- 
testants. A  Catholic  priest  who  converted  a  Protestant  to  his  faith 
was  to  be  imprisoned,  and  one  who  celebrated  a  marriage  between 
a  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  was  to  be  hanged.  Oaths  were  imposed 
on  the  priests  which  no  conscientious  Catholic  could  take,  and  each 
priest  who  refused  the  oath  was  to  be  banished,  and,  if  he  returned 
to  Ireland,  was  to  forfeit  his  life.  Any  persons  refusing  to  give  evi- 
dence which  might  lead  to  the  detection  of  such  priests  were 
liable  to  imprisonment  or  fine.  In  addition  to  these  and  other 
similar  enactments,  the  Irishman  who  was  true  to  his  religion  had 
to  bear  the  daily  scorn  and  contumely  of  men  of  English  or 
Scottish  descent  and  religion,  who  looked  upon  him  as  a  being  of 
an  inferior  race,  and  scarcely  deigned  to  admit  him  even  to  their 
presence. 

14.  Irish  Commerce  Crushed. — Though  the  Parliament  in  Dublin 
was  allowed  to  deal  thus  with  the  lives  and  property  of  those  whom 
its  members  would  have  scorned  to  speak  of  as  their  fellow- 
countrymen,  it  had  to  purchase  the  support  of  England  by  sub- 
mitting to  that  English  commercial  monopoly  against  which  the 
Scots  had  successfully  rebelled.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  land- 
owners in    Ireland — for  the  most   part  Protestant  landowners — 


1705-1708  A    WHIG  MINISTRY  687 

exported  cattle  to  England  until  the  English  Parliament  absolutely 
killed  this  trade  by  prohibiting  the  reception  at  any  English  port 
of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  beef,  pork,  and  mutton,  and  even  of 
butter  and  cheese  imported  from  Ireland,  lest  they  should  compete 
with  the  produce  of  the  English  landowner.  Debarred  from 
this  source  of  prosperity  Ireland  made  steady  progress  in  woollen, 
manufactures  till,  in  1699,  the  English  Parliament  forbade  the 
export  of  woollen  goods  from  Ireland  to  any  country  except  to 
England,  where  they  were  practically  barred  out  by  prohibitive 
duties,  lest  their  sale  should  injure  the  profits  of  English  manu- 
facturers. The  ruling  race  in  Ireland  was  too  dependent  on  the 
English  Parliament  to  be  capable  of  resisting  these  enactments. 

15.  Gradual  Formation  of  a  Whig-  Ministry.  1705 — 1708.— 
In  England  power  passed  gradually  into  the  hands  of  Whig 
ministers.  In  1705  the  Whig  Cowper  became  Lord  Chancellor. 
In  1706  the  Earl  of  Sunderland,'  Marlborough's  son-in-law,  became 
Secretary  of  State.  The  queen  was  strongly  averse  to  Sunderland's 
promotion,  as  she  looked  on  the  Whigs  as  enemies  of  the  Church, 
and  Sunderland  was  the  most  acrimonious  of  the  Whigs.  More- 
over, Anne  was  growing  weary  of  the  arrogant  temper  of  the 
Duchess  of  Marlborough,  and  had  begun  to  transfer  her  confidence 
to  Harley's  cousin,  Abigail  Hill,  who  became  Mrs.  Masham  in 
1707,  a  soft-spoken,  unpretentious  woman,  whose  companionship 
was  calm  and  soothing.  There  was,  however,  a  grave  political 
question  at  issue  as  well  as  a  personal  one.  The  Whigs,  finding 
the  Tories  lukewarm  about  the  war  and  harsh  towards  the  Dis- 
senters, insisted  on  the  appointment  of  a  compact  ministry  consist- 
ing of  Whigs  alone.  The  queen,  on  the  other  hand,  upheld  the 
doctrine  that  the  choice  of  ministers  depended  on  herself,  and  that 
it  was  desirable  to  unite  moderate  men  of  both  parties  in  her 
service.  Harley  supported  her  in  this  view,  and,  being  detected 
by  his  colleagues  in  intriguing  against  them  with  the  help  of 
Mrs.  Masham,  was,  together  with  St.  John,  turned  out  of  office  in 
February,  1708.  By  the  end  of  that  year  the  ministry  became 
completely  Whig.  Marlborough  and  Godolphin  declared  them- 
selves to  be  Whigs,  Somers  became  President  of  the  Council, 
Wharton  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 

16.  Progress  of  Cabinet  Government.  1708. — In  one  respect 
the  Whig  ministry  completed  in  1708  resembles  that  which  served 
William  III.  under  the  name  of  the  Whig  Junto  in  1695.  Both 
were  formed  of  men  of  one  political  opinion  :  both  owed  their 

1  Son  of  the  minister  of  Charles  II.  and  James  II. 


688 


ANNE 


[708 


influence  to  the  necessity  of  unity  of  action  in  time  of  war.  There 
was,  however,  one  great  difference  between  the  two  ministries. 
The  Whig  ministry  of  WilHam  III.  was  formed  by  the  sovereign 
for  his  own  purposes  ;  whereas  the  Whig  ministry  of  Anne  was 


S.irah,  Duchess  of  Marlborough  :  from  a  portrait,  by  Sir  O.  Kneller, 
belonging  to  Earl  Spencer,  K.(i. 


formed  in  defiance  of  the  sovereign.  The  idea  of  government  by 
a  Cabinet  resting  on  a  pa'-ty  majority  in  l^arliament,  and  forcing  its 
will  on  the  sovereign,  originated  with  the  Tory  ministers  who  forced 
themselves  on  William  III.  towards  the  end  of  his  reign,  but  it  first 
took  definite  shape  in  the  Whig  ministry  of  the  reign  of  Anne. 


1707 


A    YEAR   OF  FAIL  UK ES 


689 


17.  Progress  of  the  War.  1707 — 1708. — There  had  been  no- 
thing to  dazzle  the  eyes  of  EngHshmen  in  the  campaign  of  1707. 
An  attempt  to  take  Toulon,  by  a  joint  attack  of  Prince  Eugene  on 
land  and  of  the  English  navy  under  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel,  had 


John  Churchill,  first  Duke  of  Marlborough  :  from  a  portrait  belonging  to 
Earl  Spencer,"K.G. 


failed,  and,  on  the  return  of  the  fleet,  three  English  ships  were 
wrecked  off  the  Scilly  Isles  and  the  admiral  himself  drowned. 
In  Spain  Gal  way  was  defeated  at  Almanza,  and  nearer  home  all 
the  success  achieved  was  that  the  Pretender,  after  setting  forth  to 


690  ANNE  1 708 -1 709 

invade  Scotland  with  a  French  force,  thought  it  prudent  to  return 
without  landing.  The  campaign  of  1708  was  of  a  difterent 
character.  The  Dutch  had  made  themselves  disagreeable  in  the 
conquered  Spanish  Netherlands,  and  the  French  general,  Ven- 
dome,  was  therefore  welcomed  by  the  inhabitants,  and  took  Ghent 
and  Bruges  with  little  difficulty.  Marlborough,  however,  met 
him  at  Oudenarde,  utterly  defeated  him,  and,  before  the  end  of 
the  year,  not  only  retook  the  places  which  had  been  lost,  but, 
advancing  on  French  territory,  took  Lille  after  a  prolonged  siege. 
In  the  same  year  General  Stanhope  reduced  Minorca,  an  island 
of  importance  from  the  goodness  of  its  harbour,  Port  Mahon, 
which  formed  an  excellent  basis  for  naval  operations  in  the 
Mediterranean. 

18.  The  Conference  at  The  Hague  and  the  Battle  of  Mal- 
plaquet.  1709. — In  France  the  peasants  were  starving,  and  Louis,  in 
quest  of  peace,  entered  on  negotiations  at  The  Hague.  The  aUies 
insisted  upon  his  abandonment  not  only  of  portions  of  his  own 
territory,  but  upon  the  surrender  by  his  grandson  of  the  whole 
of  the  Spanish  monarchy.  To  all  this  he  agreed,  but  when  he 
found  that,  instead  of  obtaining  peace  in  return,  he  was  only 
to  have  a  two  months'  truce,  during  which  he  was  to  join  in 
expelling  his  grandson  from  Spain,  he  drew  back.  "  If  I  must 
wage  war,"  he  said,  "  I  would  rather  wage  it  against  my  enemies 
than  against  my  children."  No  doubt  the  allies  believed  that  they 
could  not  trust  Louis  really  to  abandon  Philip  unless  he  actually 
sent  an  army  against  him.  They  were  at  fault,  partly,  in  being 
blind  to  the  impossibility  of  holding  Spain  in  defiance  of  the 
Spaniards,  partly  in  neglecting  to  foresee  that  the  English  nation 
would  not  long  continue  to  support  a  war  waged  for  an  object 
which  seemed  to  concern  it  so  little  as  the  possession  of  the 
Spanish  Peninsula.  Finding  that  nothing  more  was  to  be  had  by 
negotiation,  Louis  put  forth  all  his  strength.  He  sent  forth  a  fresh 
army  ill-clothed  and  half-starved,  but  resolute  to  do  its  utmost 
for  its  country's  sake.  This  army  was,  on  September  11,  attacked 
at  Malplaquet  by  the  combined  forces  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene. 
The  allies  were  again  victorious,  but  they  lost  20,000  men,  whilst 
only  12,000  fell  on  the  side  of  the  French. 

19.  The  Sacheverell  Trial.  1710. — Before  another  campaign 
was  opened  the  Whig  ministry  was  tottering  to  its  fall.  On 
November  5,  1709,  a  certain  Dr.  Sacheverell  preached  in  St.  Paul's 
a.  sermon  upholding  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance  (see  p.  611), 
attacking  the  Dissenters,  reviling  toleration,  and  personally  abus- 


I7IO  A    TORY  MINISTRY  691 

ing  Godolphin.  In  Spite  of  Somers's  advice  to  leave  Sacheverell 
alone,  the  Whig  ministers  decided  to  impeach  him.  What  the 
Whigs  wanted  was  an  opportunity  for  solemnly  recording  their 
views  on  the  principles  of  resistance  and  toleration  established 
at  the  Revolution,  and  such  an  opportunity  they  obtained  during 
the  impeachment,  which  occupied  the  first  months  of  1710.  Dis- 
senters, however,  who  were  mainly  drawn  from  the  middle  classes, 
were  no  more  liked  by  the  mob  than  they  were  by  the  country 
gentlemen,  and  their  discredit  was  shared  by  their  protectors  the 
Whigs.  When  the  queen  passed  there  were  shouts  raised  of 
"  God  bless  your  Majesty  and  the  Church.  We  hope  your  Majesty 
is  for  Dr.  Sacheverell."  There  were  riots  in  the  streets,  and  Dis- 
senters' chapels  were  sacked  and  burnt.  In  the  end  the  Whig 
House  of  Lords  pronounced  Sacheverell  guilty,  but  did  not  venture 
to  do  more  than  order  his  sermons  to  be  burnt  and  himself  pro- 
hibited from  preaching  for  the  next  three  years.  By  this  sentence 
which  was  a  virtual  defeat  of  the  Whigs  and  a  triumph  of  the 
Tories,  Sacheverell  gained  rather  than  lost  by  his  condemnation. 
Wherever  he  went  he  was  uproariously  welcomed,  and  he  was 
consoled  for  his  enforced  silence  with  a  well-endowed  living. 

20.  The  Fall  of  the  Whigs.  1710. — Anne  saw  in  this  out- 
burst a  sign  that  it  would  now  be  easy  for  her  to  get  rid  of  her 
ministers.  She  was  the  better  able  to  make  the  attempt,  as  there 
were,  in  the  spring  of  1710,  fresh  conferences  for  peace  at  Ger- 
truydenberg,  in  which  it  was  proposed  to  solve  all  difficulties  by 
leaving  to  Philip  some  part  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  other  than 
Spain  itself.  No  general  agreement,  however,  could  be  obtained, 
and  England  seemed  to  be  committed  to  an  interminable  war. 
All  the  blame  of  its  continuance  was  unjustly  thrown  on  Marl- 
borough. The  queen  effected  cautiously  the  change  which  she  was 
bent  on  making.  Harley,  who  was  her  chief  adviser,  recommended 
her  to  revert  to  the  system  which  had  prevailed  when  he  had  been  last 
in  ofhce  (see  p.  687),  and  to  form  a  ministry  composed  of  moderate 
Whigs  and  Tories  of  which  the  direction  should  fall  to  herself. 

21.  A  Tory  Parliament  and  Ministry.  1710. — Harley's  plan 
of  a  combined  ministry  fell  to  the  ground.  A  new  House  of  Com- 
mons, elected  in  1710,  being  strongly  Tory,  resolved  to  secine 
power,  permanently  if  possible,  for  the  country  gentry  and  the 
country  clergy,  and  to  reduce  to  impotence  the  wealthy  peers^  with 
the  merchants  and  Dissenters  who  formed  the  strength  of  the 
Whigs.  Harley  and  St.  John  were  compelled  by  their  supporters 
to  form  a  purely  Tory  ministry. 


602  ANNE  1710  1711 

22.  Brihuega  and  Villa  Viciosa.  1710. — The  Tories  had  no 
wish  to  keep  up  the  war  except  so  far  as  it  would  serve  special 
English  interests,  and,  in  the  course  of  1710,  the  danger  of  being 
engaged  in  an  endless  war  in  Spain  appeared  greater  than  ever. 
In  the  summer,  indeed,  the  combined  English  and  Austrian  armies 
defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Saragossa,  and  Charles  once  more 
entered  Madrid  as  a  conqueror  ;  but,  before  the  end  of  the  year, 
one  of  Louis's  best  generals,  Vendome,  was  sent  to  Spain  to  lead 
the  French  and  Spanish  armies.  On  December  9  he  compelled 
Stanhope,  the  English  commander,  to  surrender  at  Brihuega,  and 
though  a  battle  which  he  fought  on  the  loth  with  the  Austrian 
Starem.berg  at  Villa  Viciosa  was  indecisive,  Staremberg  was  obliged 
to  retreat  to  Barcelona,  leaving  all  Spain,  except  Catalonia,  in  the 
hands  of  Philip. 

23.  Overtures  to  France.  1710 — 1711. — Even  before  this  bad 
news  reached  England,  Harley  and  St.  John,  without  troubling 
themselves  about  the  interests  of  their  allies,  had  opened  secret 
negotiations  for  peace,  on  the  basis  of  leaving  Spain  to  Philip, 
and  of  acquiring  for  England  separately  as  many  advantages  as 
possible.  The  Tory  party  had  never  had  much  inclination  to 
defend  the  interests  of  Europe  as  a  whole,  and,  at  the  end  of  1710, 
it  might  reasonably  be  doubted  whether  the  interests  of  Europe 
as  a  whole  were  to  be  served  by  prolonging  the  struggle  to  place 
the  Archduke  Charles  on  the  throne  of  Spain.  The  real  objection 
against  the  conduct  of  the  new  ministers  was  not  that  they  opened 
negotiations  for  peace,  but  that  they  negotiated  after  the  fashion 
of  conspirators.  Not  only  did  they,  in  1711,  send  secret  emissaries, 
first  Gautier  and  afterwards  the  poet  Prior,  to  treat  pri\ately  with 
Louis,  but  when,  in  the  September  of  that  year,  preliminaries  were 
agreed  to  as  a  basis  for  a  private  understanding  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  they  actually  communicated  a  false  copy  of  them 
to  the  Dutch.  By  this  time,  indeed,  there  was  a  fresh  reason  for 
making  peace.  The  Emperor  Joseph  I.  had  died  in  April  without 
leaving  a  son,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  hereditary  dominions 
by  his  brother,  the  Archduke  Charles.  It  might  fairly  be  argued 
that  it  was  at  least  as  dangerous  in  1711  to  give  the  whole  of  the 
Spanish  dominions  to  the  ruler  of  the  Austrian  territories,  as  it  had 
been  in  1702  to  give  them  to  the  grandson  of  the  king  of  France. 

24.  Literature  and  Politics.  1710. — In  order  to  defend  their 
policy  the  Tory  ministers  had,  on  their  first  accession  to  power, 
looked  about  for  literary  supporters.  In  the  reign  of  Anne  a 
literature  had  arisen  in  prose  and  verse  which  may  fairly  be  de- 


tyio  ADDISON  AND  SWIFT  693 

scribed  as  prosaic.  It  had  nothing  of  the  high  imagination  which 
illuminated  the  pages  of  the  great  Elizabethan  writers.  It  was 
sensible  and  intelligent,  aiming  not  at  rousing  the  feelings,  but 
at  being  plainly  understood.  Addison,  in  his  writings,  for  instance, 
mingled  criticism  with  attractive  argimients  in  favour  of  a 
morality  of  common  sense,  which  he  addressed  to  that  numerous 
class  which  shrank  from  the  high  demands  of  Milton.  Addison, 
like  most  other  writers  of  the  day,  was  a  Whig,  the  political 
views  of  the  Whigs  having,  at  that  time,  a  strong  hold  upon 
men  of  intelligence.  Writers  like  Addison  exercised  consider- 
able influence  over  the  frequenters  of  the  London  coffee-houses, 
where  political  affairs  were  discussed.  The  support  of  this  class, 
usually  spoken  of  as  'the  Town,'  was  at  that  time  more  worth 
winning  than  either  before  or  since.  As  there  were  no  Parlia- 
mentary reports,  and  no  speeches  on  politics  delivered  in  public, 
only  those  who  liv  ed  near  the  place  in  which  Parliament  met  could 
have  any  knowledge  of  the  details  of  political  action.  They  gained 
this  knowledge  from  the  lips  of  the  actors,  and  were  able,  by  their 
personal  conversation,  to  influence  in  turn  the  conduct  of  the  actors 
themselves.  The  services  of  a  persuasive  w^-iter  who  had  the  ear 
of  *  the  Town '  was  therefore  coveted  by  every  body  of  ministers. 

25.  Jonathan  Swift. — The  writer  won  over  by  the  Tory  minis- 
ters was  Jonathan  Swift.  He  was  unequalled  in  satirical  power, 
arising  from  a  combination  of  lucid  expression  with  a  habit  of 
regarding  the  actions  of  men  as  springing  from  the  lowest  motives. 
He  was  a  clergyman,  and  he  wished  to  be  a  bishop.  At  first  he 
attached  himself  to  the  Whigs.  The  Whigs,  however,  were  un- 
willing, or  perhaps  unable,  to  give  him  what  he  wanted,  his 
writings  being  of  too  unclerical  a  nature ;  and  all  that  they  pro- 
cured for  him  was  a  living  in  Ireland,  which  he  seldom  visited. 
With  personal  motives  were  mingled  more  creditable  reasons 
for  disliking  the  Whigs.  He  was  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the 
Church  of  England,  not  as  a  fosterer  of  spiritual  life,  but  as  a 
bulwark  against  what  he  regarded  as  the  extravagance  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  Dissenters  on  the 
other.  In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  Anne  had  made  over  the 
tenths  and  first-fruits  of  the  English  clergy,  annexed  to  the  Crown 
by  Henry  VIII.  (see  p.  390),  to  a  body  of  commissioners,  who  were 
to  use  them  for  the  increase  of  the  means  of  the  poorer  clergy. 
Swift  wanted  to  see  this  grant,  usually  known  as  Queen  Anne's 
Bounty,  extended  to  Ireland.  The  Whig  ministers  had  not  only  re- 
fused this,  but  had  shown  signs  of  intending  to  give  the  Dissenters 


694  ANNE  1710-1711 

a  share  of  political  power.  Swift  was  afraid  that,  if  Parliament 
and  public  offices  were  thrown  open  to  Dissenters,  there  would  be 
again  a  government  as  fanatical  as  that  which  popular  imagina- 


Jonathan  Swift,  D.D.,  Dean  of  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin ;  from  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

tion  believed  Cromwell's  to  have  been,  and  it  was  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  this  fear  that  he  deserted  the  Whigs  and  joined  the 
Tories.  His  first  article  in  defence  of  his  new  allies  was  written  in 
November   1710.      A  year  later  in  November  1711,  shortly  after 


171 1  STRUGGLE  BETWEEN   THE  HOUSES  695 

the  preliminaries  of  peace  had  been  signed,  appeared  The  Conduct 
of  the  Allies.  Every  action  of  the  Dutch  and  of  the  Austrians 
was  traced  to  mean  cupidity,  in  order  that  England  might  be  urged 
to  look  upon  the  war  as  a  mere  scramble  for  wealth  and  power,  in 
which  she  was  entitled  to  the  largest  share  of  the  plunder. 

26.  The  Imperial  Election.  171 1. — The  English  ministers,  at 
least,  could  not  lay  claim  to  any  superior  morality.  In  the  spring 
of  171 1,  although  engaged  in  a  secret  negotiation  with  Louis, 
which  led  before  the  end  of  the  year  to  the  signature  of  prelimi- 
naries (see  p.  692),  they  had  sent  Marlborough  to  Flanders  with 
loud  professions  of  intending  to  carry  on  the  war  vigorously,  and 
Marlborough,  though  hir.  wife  had  just  been  dismissed  from  all 
her  posts  at  Court,  set  out  with  the  full  expectation  of  striking  a 
decisive  blow  against  the  French.  In  this  he  failed,  mainly  for 
want  of  proper  support  from  his  own  Government.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Archduke,  now  a  candidate  for  the  empire,  justified 
Swift's  contention  by  recalling  his  own  troops  under  Eugene  to 
support  his  personal  claims.  In  October  1711  he  was  chosen 
emperor  as  Charles  VI.,  after  leaving  Marlborough  with  forces 
quite  inadequate  to  the  accomplishment  of  anything  of  import^ 
ance. 

27.  The  Occasional  Conformity  Act  and  the  Creation  of 
Peers.  1711. — When  Parliament  met  on  December  7,  the  Whigs, 
who  at  this  time  had  very  nearly  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
secured  one  1^  an  unprincipled  coalition  with  Nottingham,  one 
of  the  strictest  of  Tories,  who  was  discontented  because  he  was 
excluded  from  office.  They  agreed  to  vote  for  the  Occasional  Con- 
formity Bill  (see  p.  680),  to  please  him,  and  he  agreed  to  vote  for 
a  warlike  policy  on  the  Continent,  to  please  them.  The  Occasional 
Conformity  Bill  therefore  became  law,  whilst  the  ministerial  foreign 
policy  was  condemned  by  the  House  of  Lords.  The  credit  of  that 
House  stood  high,  and,  though  the  ministers  had  the  House  of 
Commons  at  their  back,  most  of  them  thought  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  defy  its  censures.  Harley,  however,  who  was  not 
easily  frightened,  persuaded  the  queen  first  to  dismiss  Marlborough 
from  all  his  offices,  and  then  to  create  twelve  new  Tory  peers. 
By  this  means  the  ministry  secured  a  majority  hi  that  House  which 
had  alone  opposed  them.  Apart  from  the  immediate  questions  of 
the  day,  this  creation  of  peers  had  a  wide  constitutional  significance. 
Just  as  the  deposition  of  James  II.  had  made  it  evident  that  if  king 
and  Parliament  pulled  different  ways  it  was  for  the  king  to  give 
way,  so  the  creation  of  peers  in  171 1  made  it  evident  that  if  the 


696  ANME  1712-1713 

two  Houses  pulled  dififerent  ways,  it  was  for  the  House  of  Lords 
to  give  way. 

28,  The  Armistice  and  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  1712— 1713. — 
In  1712  the  Duke  of  Ormond,  a  strong  Tory,  was  sent  to  command 
in  the  Netherlands.  After  operations  had  commenced,  he  received 
a  despatch  from  St.  John  not  only  restraining  him  from  fighting, 
in  consequence  of  an  understanding  with  France,  but  directing 
him  to  conceal  these  orders  from  his  Dutch  allies.  If  Ormond 
had  obeyed  these  orders,  he  would  have  exposed  the  Dutch  to  in- 
evitable defeat ;  but  he  was  too  much  of  a  gentleman  to  let  his  allies 
attack  the  enemy  in  the  false  belief  that  they  would  be  assisted 
by  the  English,  and  he  therefore  saved  their  army  by  disclosing 
his  secret  instructions.  The  negotiations  with  France  were  now 
pushed  on.  Shabby  as  the  conduct  of  the  ministers  was,  they  had 
now  the  full  confidence  of  the  queen,  who  in  171 1  made  Harley 
Lord  High  Treasurer  and  Earl  of  Oxford,  and,  in  1712,  made 
St.  John  Viscount  Bolingbroke.  In  July  the  French  fell  upon 
Eugene  and  defeated  him  at  Denain,  and  the  Dutch,  seeing  the 
difficulty  of  carrying  on  war  without  English  support,  agreed  to 
make  peace  on  the  terms  proposed  by  England.  On  March  31, 
1713,  a  treaty  of  peace,  in  which,  for  the  present,  the  Emperor 
declined  to  share,  was  signed  at  Utrecht.   • 

29.  Terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  1713.— As  far  as  the 
continental  Powers  were  concerned  the  main  conditions  of  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  were  that  Spain  and  the  Indies  Should  remain 
under  Philip  V.,  and  that  Sicily  was  to  go  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy, 
who  was  to  bear  the  title  of  king  of  Sicily  ;  whilst  Naples,  the  duchy 
of  Milan,  and  the  Spanish  Netherlands  were  given  to  Charles  VI., 
though  the  last-named  territory  was  to  be  retained  by  the  Dutch 
till  he  agreed  to  sign  the  Treaty.  The  Dutch  were  to  be  allowed 
to  place  garrisons  in  certain  towns  of  the  so-called  barrier  (see 
p.  674)  on  the  southern  frontier  of  what  had  lately  been  the 
Spanish  Netherlands.  England  obtained  the  largest  share  of  the 
material  advantages  of  the  peace,  whilst  she  lost  credit  by  her  ill- 
faith  in  concealing  her  abandonment  of  her  allies,  and  especially 
in  giving  up  the  Catalans  to  the  vengeance  of  Philip.  In  Europe 
she  was  to  keep  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  and  obtained  from  France  a 
promise  to  destroy  the  fortifications  of  Dunkirk.  In  America  she 
acquired  territory  round  Hudson's  Bay,  Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland, 
and  the  P>ench  part  of  St.  Christopher's.  By  an  accompanying 
treaty  with  Spain,  called  the  Assiento  Treaty,  she  had  the  sole 
right  of  importing  negro  slaves  into  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
America,  a  traffic  which  would  now  be  scouted  as  infamous  but 


1 7 13  THE    TREATY  OF   UTRECHT  697 

which  was  then  coveted  as  lucrative,  and  she  also  obtained  the 
right  of  sending  yearly  to  Panama  a  ship  of  600  tons  laden  with 
goods  for  the  Spanish  colonists. 

30.  Effect  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  on  International  rela- 
tions.—The  general  character  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  is  of 
greater  historical  importance  than  its  details.  It  marks  the  end  of 
a  period  of  European  history  during  which  there  was  often  some 
reality  and  always  some  pretence  of  combining  together  for 
common  purposes  of  general  interest,  and  not  merely  for  the 
particular  interests  of  the  several  states.  Down  to  the  Treaties  of - 
Westphalia  (see  p.  564)  in  1648,  Catholics  had  combined  against 
Protestants  and  Protestants  against  Catholics.  After  that  date, 
States  which  feared  the  overbearing  insolence  of  Louis  XIV.  had 
combined  against  France.  The  Treaty  of  Utrecht  ushered  in  a 
period  lasting  almost  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
each  State  stood  up  for  its  own  interests  alone,  when  no  steady 
combinations  could  be  formed,  and  when  greed  for  material  acces- 
sions was  most  conspicuous  because  no  purpose  of  seeking  the 
general  good  existed.  Swift  threw  the  blame  upon  the  allies,  and 
the  Whigs  threw  the  blame  upon  the  Tories.  The  truth  is  that 
States  combine  readily  through  fear,  and  very  seldom  through  a 
desire  for  the  common  good,  and  when  Louis  XIV.  ceased  to  be 
formidable  each  State  thought  exclusively  of  its  own  interests. 

31.  England  as  a  sea-power.  1713. — The  success  of  the  Tory 
ministers  seemed  complete.  In  reality,  the  very  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  revealed  their  weakness.  In  seeking  to  gain 
material  advantages  for  England,  Oxford  and  Bolingbroke  had 
been  forced  to  look  for  them  in  advantages  to  trade,  and  in  the  in- 
crease of  colonial  dominion  by  which  trade  might  be  encouraged. 
Thereby  they  strengthened  the  trading  class,  which  was  the  main 
support  of  the  Whigs,  whilst  the  landed  gentry,  on  whom  their 
own  power  mainly  rested,  received  no  benefit.  Not  that  the  Tories 
could  well  help  doing  what  they  had  done.  During  the  two  wars 
which  had  been  waged  since  the  fall  of  James'  II.  an  immense 
change  had  been  taking  place  in  the  relations  between  England 
and  the  other  European  States,  irrespective  of  the  victories  of 
Marlborough  in  the  field.  Both  France  and  the  States  General  of 
the  Dutch  Netherlands  had  been  forced  to  wage  an  exhausting 
war  on  their  land  frontier.  The  consequence  was  that  the  Dutch 
were  no  longer  able  to  compete  with  the  English  at  sea,  and  that 
Louis  being,  after  the  battle  of  La  Hogue,  compelled  to  limit  his 
efforts  either  at  sea  or  on  land,  decided  to  limit  them  at  sea.     The 

HI.  Z  Z 


698  ANNE  1713 

result  was,  that  though  there  were  no  important  English  naval 
victories  between  the  battle  of  La  Hogue  and  the  Peace  of  Utrecht, 
the  English  navy  at  the  end  of  the  war  was  vastly  superior  to  the 
navies  of  its  only  possible  rivals^  France  and  the  Dutch  Republic. 


Henry  St.  John,  Viscount  Bolingbroke :  from  a  picture  by  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller. 

England  was  now  the  one  great  sea-power  in  Europe,  not  so  much 
through  her  own  increasing  strength  as  throug:h  the  decay  of  the 
maritime  vigour  of  other  states. 


1711-1714    THE    TORIES  AND    THE  SUCCESSION  699 

32.  Position  of  the  Tories.  1711— 1713.-  The  increase  of 
maritime  power  necessarily  leading  to  an  increase  of  the  influence 
of  the  commercial  class,  the  Tory  leaders  were  filled  with  alarm 
about  the  future,  and  tried  to  secure  their  power  by  legislation 
which,  as  they  hoped,  might  arrest  the  changes  which  seemed  likely 
in  the  future,  and  to  strengthen  their  party  by  artificial  means 
against  changes  of  public  opinion,  much  as  the  men  of  the  Long 
Parliament  and  the  Protectorate  had  formerly  tried  to  do.  In  1711 
the  Occasional  Conformity  Act  had  gone  far  to  prevent  Dissenters 
from  holding  office  or  sitting  in  Parliament,  and  earlier  in  the 
same  year  had  been  passed  a  Property  Qualification  Act  which 
enacted  that  no  one  who  did  not  hold  land  worth  at  least  200/. 
a  year  should  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons,  thus  excluding  mere 
traders,  who  were  for  the  most  part  Whigs.  In  1713  the  Tories 
were  confronted  with  a  further  difficulty.  Anne's  health  was  failing, 
and  the  legal  heir,  the  Electress  Sophia,  and  her  son,  the  Elector 
of  Hanover,  were  both  favourable  to  the  Whigs.  The  Tories  began 
to  talk  of  securing  the  succession  to  the  Pretender,  the  son  of 
James  II.,  by  force  or  fraud.  If  only  he  had  changed  his  religion 
and  had  avowed  himself  a  Protestant,  it  is  almost  certain  that 
an  effort,  possibly  successful,  would  have  been  made  to  place  him 
on  the  throne  when  Anne  died.  The  Pretender  was  a  man  of 
little  capacity,  but  he  was  too  honest  to  change  his  religion  for 
worldly  ends,  and  he  flatly  refused  to  do  so.  The  Tories  were 
split  into  hostile  parties  by  his  refusal.  Some,  the  pure  Jacobites, 
clung  to  him  in  spite  of  it ;  some  went  over  to  the  Whigs.  The 
bulk  of  them  were  too  bewildered  to  know  what  to  do.  They  were 
aware  that  their  supporters,  the  country  gentry  and  the  country 
clergy,  would  refuse  to  submit  to  a  Roman  Catholic  king,  and  yet 
they  could  not  voluntarily  support  the  claims  of  the  Electress 
Sophia  and  her  son,  whose  succession  they  feared.  To  add  to  the 
distractions  of  the  party  its  leaders,  Oxford  and  Bolingbroke, 
quarrelled  with  one  another. 

33.  The  Last  Days  and  Death  of  Anne.  1714. — In  1714 
Swift  suggested  that  the  difficulty  would  be  at  an  end  if  his  friends 
would  accept  the  Hanoverian  succession,  and  at  the  same  time  so 
weaken  the  Whigs  by  repressive  legislation  that  the  new  Hanove- 
rian sovereign  would  be  obliged  to  govern  in  accordance  with  the 
will  of  the  Tories.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan  Bolingbroke  carried 
through  Parliament  a  Schism  Act,  by  which  no  one  was  allowed 
to  keep  a  school  without  license  from  the  bishop.  Oxford,  who  was 
always  in  favour  of  a  middle  course,  and  therefore  disliked  violent 


700 


ANNE 


1714 


measures  against  the  Dissenters,  was  driven  from  office,  and  Boling- 
broke  then  hoped  to  control  the  Government  for  some  time  to  come. 
Before  a  successor  to  Oxford  was  appointed,  whilst  the  ministers 
were  without  any  distinct  policy  or  acknowledged  head,  and  whilst 
even  Bolingbroke  himself  had  not  definitely  made  up  his  mind  as  to 


The  Choir  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  church,  looking  west,  as  finished  by  Sir  Christopher 
Wren :  from  an  engraving  by  Trevit,  about  17 10. 


his  future  plans,. the  queen  was  taken  ill.  Bolingbroke's  enemies, 
the  Dukes  of  Somerset  and  Argyle,  made  their  appearance  unex- 
pectedly in  the  Council,  and  obtained  the  consent  of  the  queen 
to  the  appointment  of  the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury  as  Treasurer.  The 
queen  died  on  August  i,  and  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  now  heir  to 


1 7 14  THE  HANOVERIAN  SUCCESSION  701 

the  Crown  by  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  (see  p.  672), 
in  consequence  of  the  recent  death  of  his  mother,  the  Electress 
Sophia,  was  at  once  proclaimed  by  the  title  of  George  I. 

34.  Politics  and  Art. — In  art  as  in  politics  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Anne  completes  a  change  long  in  progress  from  the  ideal  to 
the  convenient.  As  in  affairs  of  state  the  material  interests  of  the 
country  gentleman  and  of  the  trader  took  the  place  of  the  great 
causes  which  called  out  the  enthusiasm  of  Cavalier  and  Roundhead 
in  the  Civil  War,  so  in  art  painting  became  a  mode  of  perpetuating 
the  features  of  those  who  were  rich  enough  to  pay  for  having  their 
portraits  taken  ;  and  architecture,  which  had  long  forgotten  the  life 
and  beauty  of  the  mediaeval  churches,  was  losing  even  the  stateli- 
ness  which  Sir  Christopher  Wren  gave  to  such  buildings  as  the  new 
St.  Paul's  (p.  668)  and  Greenwich  Hospital  (p.  662).  Even  Wren 
could  not  give  much  of  this  high  quality  to  steeples  such  as  those 
of  St.  Bride's,  Fleet  Street  (p.  681),  because  the  horizontal  lines  of 
an  architecture  derived  from  the  Greeks  through  the  Romans  are 
unsuited  to  the  soaring  motive  of  a  mediaeval  spire  ;  nor  could 
his  domestic  buildings^  such  as  those  at  Hampton  Court  (pp.  665, 
666),  altogether  overcome  the  necessity  of  making  the  inmates 
comfortable  at  the  expense  of  architectural  beauty.  His  successor, 
Vanbrugh,  in  building  Blenheim  Palace  (see  p.  683),  sought  out 
combinations  neither  graceful  nor  dignified  in  the  hope  of  thereby 
avoiding  that  which  was  merely  commonplace  ;  but  on  the  whole 
it  was  the  commonplace  which  was  gaining  ground,  and  which 
ultimately  pervaded  the  domestic  buildings  raised  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


702 


CHAPTER   XLV 

TOWNSHEND,   SUNDERLAND,   AND  WALPOLE.       1714—1737 


LEADING    DATES 
Reign  of  George  I.,  1714— 1727.  Reign  of  George  II.,  1727— 1760 

Accession  of  George  I August  i,  1714 

Mar's  Rising 1715 

The  Septennial  Act .     1716 

The  South  Sea  Bubble 1720 

Walpole,  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury 1721 

Accession  of  George  II June  12,  1727 

The  Excise  Bill    . 1733 

Death  of  Queen  Caroline November  20,  1737 

I.  George  I.  and  the  Whigs.  1714. — Before  George  I.^  arrived 
in  England  a  thorough  change  was  made  by  his  orders  in  all  the 
offices  of  Government.    With  scarcely  an  exception  all  Tories  were 

'  Genealogy  of  the  first  three  Hanoverian  kings  : — 


James  1. 
1603-1625 

=    Frederick  v., 
Elector  Palatine 

Charles  I. 
1625-1649 

1 

1 
Elizabeth  = 

1                         1 
Charles  II.        James  II. 
i6bo-i68s           1685-1689 

Sophia  = 

=  Ernest  Augustus, 
Elector  of  Hanover 

Mary  =  William  III. 
1689-1694      1689-1702 

1 

Anne 

1702— 1714 

George  I.  =  Sophia  Dorothea 
T714-1727             of  Celle 

George  II.  -  Caroline  of  An 
1727-1760     1 

spach 

Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales = Augusta  of 
died  1751         I    Saxe-Gotha 

George  III. 
1760-1820 


AU£ 


William  Augustus , 
Duke  of  Cumberland 


u 


ACCESSION  OF  GEORGE   L 


1^^ 


dismissed,  and  Whigs  appointed  in  their  place.  As  the  new  king 
intended  to  take  a  leading  part  in  the  Government,  he  placed  the 
more  important  offices  iji  the  hands  of  men  who  had  hitherto  been 


George  I.  :  from  an  engraving  by  Vertue. 

kss  prominent  than  the  great  Whig  leaders  of  Anne's  reign.  The 
most  conspicuous  of  the  new  ministers  was  Lord  Townshend,  who 
became  Secretary  of  State.    When  the  king  arrived  he  found  that 


704     TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  &^   WALPOLE       1714-15 

his  own  power  was  much  less  than  he  had  expected.  He  could  not 
speak  English,  and  all  communications  between  himself  and  his 
ministers  were  carried  on  in  bad  Latin.  He  therefore  set  the 
example,  which  all  subsequent  sovereigns  have  followed,  of  ab- 
staining from  attending  Cabinet  meetings,  where  the  discussion 
took  place  in  a  language  unintelligible  to  him.  This  abstention 
had  important  constitutional  results.  The  Cabinet,  which  for  some 
time  had  been  growing  independent  of  the  sovereign,  became 
still  more  independent,  especially  as  George  knew  no  more  of 
English  ways  than  he  knew  of  the  English  language,  and  was 
obliged  to  take  most  of  the  advice  of  his  ministers  on  trust.  He 
could  not  think  of  replacing  them  by  Tories,  because  he  had  been 
led  to  look  upon  all  Tories  as  Jacobites. 

2.  The  Whigs  and  the  Nation.  1714.  The  Whigs,  however, 
needed  the  support  of  Parliament  more  than  the  support  of  the 
king.  The  great  landowners  who  directed  their  policy  were 
wealthy  and  intelligent,  and  therefore  unpopular  amongst  the 
country  gentry  and  the  country  clergy.  They  aimed  at  establishing 
a  sort  of  aristocratic  republic  with  a  king  nominally  at  its  head, 
in  which  fair  play  should  be  given  to  the  Dissenters,  and  the 
trading  classes  encouraged.  Yet  they  were  clear-sighjted  enough 
to  perceive  that  it  was  impossible  to  govern  without  the  support 
of  the  House  of  Cornmons  ;  and  it  was  with  the  support  of  the 
House  of  Commons  that  the  Tories  in  the  last  four  years  of 
Anne's  reign  had  maintained  themselves  in  power  by  appealing 
to  the  prejudices  of  the  country  gentry  and  the  country  clergy. 
The  Whig  tenure  of  power  was,  therefore,  not  likely  to  last  long 
unless  they  could  find  some  means  of  crushing  opponents  who  had 
been,  and  might  easily  he  again,  more  popular  than  themselves. 

3.  The  Whigs  and  Parliament.  1715. — For  the  moment,  in- 
deed, the  Whigs  had  the  advantage.  In  1715  a  new  Parliament 
was  chosen,  and  many  Tories  who  were,  after  all,  not  really  Jaco- 
bites voted  for  Whig  candidates  in  alarm  lest  their  own  leaders 
should  bring  back  the  Pretender,  whom  they  distrusted  as  a 
Roman  Catholic.  The  Whigs,  therefore,  had  a  majority  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  whilst  they  had  already  recovered  the 
majority  in  the  House  of  Lords  which  they  had  temporarily  lost 
by  the  recent  creation  of  the  Tory  peers  (see  p.  695).  In  order  to 
make  their  success  permanent  by  getting  rid  of  the  leaders  of  the 
party  opposed  to  them,  the  Whigs  prepared  to  impeach  Oxford, 
Bolingbroke,  and  Ormond  as  traitors,  on  the  ground  of  the  secret 
agreements   which  they  had  made   with  the  French  during  the 


1715-1716  THE   OLD  PRETENDER  705 

negotiation  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  Oxford,  with  his  usual  cool- 
ness, stayed  to  face  the  attack,  and  got  off  with  two  years'  imprison- 
ment. Bolingbroke  and  Ormond  fled  to  France,  where  Boling- 
broke  entered  the  service  of  the  Pretender  as  Secretary  of  State, 
Acts  of  attainder  were  passed  against  both.  These  high-handed 
proceedings  of  the  Whigs  nearly  defeated  their  object.  The 
German  king  had  by  this  time  become  unpopular,  and  Jacobitism 
increased  amongst  the  Tories,  most  of  whom  had  submitted  to  him 
at  his  first  coming.  In  all  parts  o^  England  and  Scotland  large 
numbers  made  ready  for  a  rising  against  his  government.  Boling- 
broke urged  Louis  XIV.  to  support  them.  Louis,  however,  died 
without  having  given  his  consent,  and  the  Jacobites  of  Great  Britain 
had  to  dispense  with  foreign  aid. 

4.  Mar's  Rising.  1715—1716. — Under  these  circumstances 
Bolingbroke  urged  delay,  but  the  Pretender — headstrong  and  in- 
competent— ordered  the  Earl  of  Mar,  his  chief  supporter  in  Scot- 
land, to  rise  against  the  Government.  On  September  3  Mar  took 
the  field,  and,  on  October  7,  a  gentleman  of  Northumberland,  named 
Forster,  declared  for  the  Pretender  in  the  north  of  England.  The 
Whig  ministers,  unpopular  as  they  were,  had  the  advantage  in  their 
position  as  the  actual  rulers  of  the  country,  and,  now  that  the  Tory 
leaders  had  been  got  rid  of,  they  had  the  advantage  in  ability. 
Argyle  commanded  for  the  Government  in  Scotland,  and  on 
November  13  he  fought  a  drawn  battle  with  Mar  on  Sheriffmuir. 
Though  half  of  each  army  defeated  half  of  the  o^^er,  Mar— who 
throughout  the  whole  campaign  showed  himself  singularly  incom- 
petent— allowed  Argyle  to  secure  the  advantages  of  a  victory. 
Forster,  though  supported  by  men  of  influence  oa  both  sides  of  the 
border  — Lord  Derwentwater  from  England  and  Lords  Nithsdale 
and  Kenmurefrom  Scotland — showed  himself  as  incompetent  as  Mar, 
and  surrendered  at  Preston  on  the  same  day  as  that  on  which  the 
battle  was  fought  on  Sheriffmuir.  On  December  2  the  Pretender 
himself  landed  at  Peterhead,  and  on  January  6,  1716,  he  entered 
Dundee.  He  was,  however,  so  dull  and  unenterprising  that  his 
very  followers  despised  him,  some  even  asking  whether  he  could 
really  speak.  By  this  time  the  Government,  having  suppressed  all 
attempts  at  resistance  in  England,  was  preparing  to  send  a  powerful 
army  into  Scotland,  and  the  Pretender  prudently  took  shipping  for 
France,  where  he  soon  dismissed  Bolingbroke,  whose  advice  was 
too  good  to  be  to  his  taste.  Derwentwater  and  Kenmure  were 
beheaded  on  Tower  Hill.  Nithsdale  escaped  through  the  address 
of  his  wife,  who  visited  him  in  prison,  and  sent  him  out  dressed 


706        TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  &^  WAlPOLE 


1716 


in  her  clothes.  Thirty-eight  persons  of  lower  rank  were  put  to  death, 
and  the  estates  of  many  others  were  forfeited. 

5.  The  Septennial  Act.  1716. — Successful  as  the  Whigs  had 
been  in  the  field,  they  did  not  venture  to  face  the  elections  to  a 
new  Parliament,  which,  in  accordance  with  the  Triennial  Act  (see 
p.  661),  must  be  held  in  the  beginning  of  1718.  Accordingly  they 
passed  a  Septennial  Act,  by  which  the  existing  Parliament  pro- 
longed its  own  duration  for  four  years  longer  than  was  allowed 
by  the  law  as  it  stood  at  the  time  when  the  House  of  Commons 
was  chosen.  This  proceeding  strained  to  the  uttermost  the  doctrine 
that  a  British  Parliament — unlike  Parliaments  in  countries  like  the 


A  Coach  of  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  :  from  an  engraving  by  Kip. 

present  United  States,  in  which  a  written  constitution  exists — can 
make  any  law  it  pleases,  even  if  it  effects  the  greatest  changes  in 
the  institutions  of  the  State.  Hitherto  the  king  had  acted  as  a 
restraint  upon  Parliament  by  exercising  his  right  of  refusing  the 
Royal  Assent  to  Bills.  This  prerogative,  however,  which  had  been 
exercised  for  the  last  time  by  Anne  in  1707,  now  dropped  out  of 
use,  and  Parliament  thereby  became  supreme  as  far  as  other 
branches  of  the  Government  were  concerned.  The  question  of  its 
relations  to  the  constituencies  assumed  new  importance  ;  and  in  1716 
at  least  the  Whigs  were  of  opinion  that  the  duration  of  Parliament 
should  be  lengthened  in  order  to  make  the  House  of  Commons  more 
independent  of  them.     They  were  afraid  lest  the  supremacy  which 


17 16  PEACE  AND    WAR  707 

had  been  wrested  from  the  Crown  should  pass  into  the  hands  of 
an  ignorant,  ill-informed  multitude.  Yet  they  were  unable — even 
if  they  had  been  willing — to  make  the  House  of  Commons  a  per- 
manent oligarchy.  As  the  duration  of  Parliament  could  not  be  in- 
definitely prolonged  without  provoking  violent  opposition,  the  Whigs 
had  only  gained  a  respite  during  which  they  would  have  to  do  their 
best  to  make  themselves  more  acceptable  to  the  nation  than  they 
were  when  the  Septennial  Act  was  passed. 

6.  England  and  France.     1716. — One   of  the   chief  causes   of 
the  fall  of  the  Whigs  in  Anne's  reign  had  been  their  advocacy  of 
war  :  now,  however,  they  stood  forward  as  the  advocates  of  peace. 
In  effecting  this  change  of  front  they  were  helped  by  the  disappear- 
ance of  those  of  their  leaders  who  had  been  foremost  in  the  struggle 
with  France.     Somers,  Halifax,  and  Wharton  died  before  the  end  of 
1716,  and,  though  Marlborough  still  lived,  he  was  incapacitated  by 
disease  from  acting  in  public.     Still  more  helpful  to  the  Whig  party 
was  a  change  which  had  taken  place  in  France.    The  King  of  France 
was  now  a  sickly  child,  Louis  XV.,  the  great-grandson  of  Louis  XIV- 
If  he  died  (as  most  people  expected  him  to  do),  there  would  be 
two  competitors  for  the  throne   of  France— the    one,  his  uncle 
Philip  V.  of  Spain,  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  (who  was,  indeed,  his 
nearest  male  relation,  but  who,  in  accordance  with  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht,   had   renounced  all   claim  to  the   French  throne),  and 
the  other,  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who  was  now  Regent  of  France,' 
and  was  the  nearest  male  relation  of  Louis  XV.  after  Philip  V. 
As  it  was  believed  that,  in  the  event  of  the  young  king's  death,  , 
PhiHp  V.  would  assert  his  claim  in  spite  of  his  renunciation,  it  was 
to  the  interest  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  be  on  friendly  terms  with 

'  Genealogy  of  the  family  of  Louis  XIV. : — 

Louis  XIII. 
1610—1643 

Louis  XIV.  =  Maria  Theresa  Philip,  Duke  of 

1643-1715     I        of  Spain  Orleans 


Louis  the  Dauphin,  Philip,  Duke  of 

died  171 1  Orleans,  Regent 


I  I 

Lftuis,  Duke  of  Philip  V. ,  king  of  Spain 

Burgundy,  died  17 12 

Louis  XV. 

17^5-1774 


7o8       TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  &^  WALPOLE 


t7i6 


England  ;  whilst  it  was  equally  to  the  interest  of  England  to  ex- 
clude Philip  V.  from  the  French  throne,  in  order  to  prevent  that 
union  between  France  and  Spain  which  the  Whigs  had  striven  to 
prevent  in  the  late  war.  It  therefore  became  possible  for  the  Whigs 
to  pursue  their  aim — the  separation  between  France  and  Spain — 
by  that  peaceful  understanding  with  the  French  Government  whkh 
had  gained  popularity  for  the  Tories  in  the  time  of  Anne.     On 


An  early  form  of  Steam-pump  for  mines  :  from  an  engraving  dated  1717. 


November  28,  1716,  an  agreement  was  arrived  at  by  which  the 
Regent  promised  his  support  to  the  Hanoverian  succession  in 
England,  whilst  England  promised  to  support  the  exclusion  of 
Philip  V.  from  the  throne  of  France.  A  few  weeks  later  the 
Dutch  gave  their  assent  to  this  arrangement,  and  a  triple  alliance 
was  thus  formed  against  Philip  and  the  Pretender. 

7.  The  Whig  Schism.     1716— 1717. — Though  the  Whig  minis- 


1715-17 19  SPLIT  IN  THE    WHIG  PARTY  709 

ters  had  their  own  way  in  most  matters,  they  found  it  necessary  to 
comply  with  the  king  in  some  things.  He  had  two  ruHng  motives — 
anxiety  to  strengthen  the  electorate  of  Hanover,  and  hatred  of  his 
own  eldest  son  George,  Prince  of  Wales.  In  the  interests  of  Hanover 
he  had,  in  1715,  purchased  the  secularised  bishoprics  of  Bremen 
and  Verden  from  Frederick  IV.,  king  of  Denmark.  Though  the 
Whig  ministers  had  consented  to  the  purchase  of  these  territories, 
some  of  them — especially  Townshend  and  his  brother-in-law  Sir 
Robert  Walpole,  who  was  the  ablest  of  the  rising  Whigs — had  said 
hard  things  of  the  grasping  Hanoverian  favourites  and  mistresses, 
upon  whom  George  squandered  English  gold.  In  1716  the  Tzar 
Peter  the  Great  sent  troops  into  Mecklenburg — the  first  interference 
of  Russia  in  Western  affairs  ;  and  George,  being  anxious  to  keep 
the  Russians  at  a  distance,  complained  of  Townshend  for  being 
unwilling  to  engage  England  in  driving  them  out.  Then,  too,  the 
king,  who  had  quarrelled  with  the  Prince  of  Wales,  believed  (prob- 
ably without  foundation)  that  Townshend  had  shown  some  favour 
to  the  object  of  his  displeasure,  on  which  he  took  the  Secretaryship 
from  him,  sending  him  to  Ireland  as  Lord  Lieutenant.  In  1717 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  angry  about  Bremen  and  Verden,  which 
he  claimed  for  himself,  formed  an  alliance  with  Spain — which  was 
once  more  growing  in  vigour,  under  the  care  of  Philip's  new 
Italian  minister,  Alberoni — and  even  projected  an  invasion  of  Scot- 
land in  the  interests  of  the  Pretender.  The  scheme  was  discovered 
in  England  and  averted.  When  Parliament  was  asked  to  vote 
money  for  a  war  against  Sweden,  Walpole  spoke  but  coldly  on  behalf 
of  the  proposal.  The  king  dismissed  Townshend,  and  Walpole 
resigned.  The  Whig  party  being  thus  split  in  two,  the  leaders  of 
the  ministry  as  reconstituted  were  Sunderland  and  Stanhope,  the 
latter  being  the  general  who  had  fought  in  Spain,  and  who  was 
Boon  afterwards  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Stanhope. 

8.  The  Quadruple  Alliance.  1718 — 1720. — In  foreign  affairs 
Sunderland  and  Stanhope  maintained  the  alliance  with  France 
which  had  been  the  corner-stone  of  the  policy  of  their  prede- 
cessors. In  1717  Alberoni  seized  Sardinia,  which  had  been  given 
to  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  and  sent  an  army  into  Sicily  to 
begin  the  re-conquest  of  those  Italian  possessions  which  Spain  had 
lost  by  the  same  treaty.  In  1718  was  formed  a  Quadruple  Alliance, 
in  which  the  Emperor  joined  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  Dutch 
Republic.  A  Spanish  army  overran  the  greater  part  of  Sicily,  but 
the  Spanish  fleet  was  destroyed  by  Admiral  Sir  George  Byng  off 
Cape  Passaro.  In  1719  Alberoni  sent  two  frigates  to  land  Jacobites  in 


710     TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  &-  WALPOLE       1719-20 

Scotland.  The  expedition  failed,  and  France  and  England  forced 
Philip  to  dismiss  his  minister.  In  1720  Philip  agreed  to  abandon 
both  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  Sicily  was  given  to  Austria,  and  Sar- 
dinia went  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  now  bore  the  title  of  King 
of  Sardinia,  instead  of  that  of  King  of  vSicily  ;  and  soon  afterwards 
the  King  of  Spain  removed  the  obstructions  which  he  had  hitherto 
thrown  in  the  way  of  the  execution  of  the  clause  in  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht  by  which  the  landing  of  goods  at  Panama  from  a  single 
English  ship  had  been  permitted  (see  p.  697).  After  this  Europe 
had  peace  for  twelve  years. 

9.  The  Relief  of  the  Dissenters,  and  the  Peerage  Bill.  1719. — 
The  two  sections  of  the  Whigs  were  opposed  to  one  another,  rather 
upon  personal  than  on  political  grounds.  Walpole  was,  however, 
more  cautious  than  Sunderland  or  Stanhope.  Sunderland  and 
Stanhope,  in  1719,  obtained  the  repeal  of  the  Occasional  Conformity 
Act  and  of  the  Schism  Act,  which  had  been  the  work  of  the  tri- 
umphant Tories  in  the  reign  of  Anne  (see  p.  699)  ;  but  when  they 
showed  signs  of  wishing  to  repeal  the  Test  Act  of  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  (seep.  607),  thereby  not  merely  offering  religious  liberty 
to  Dissenters,  but  also  proposing  to  qualify  them  for  office,  Walpole 
was  startled,  thinking  that  the  unpopularity  of  such  a  measure 
might  prove  the  ruin  of  the  Whigs.  The  main  subject  of  quarrel 
between  the  rival  statesmen  was,  however,  a  Peerage  Bill  which 
Sunderland  and  Stanhope  laid  before  Parliament.  According  to 
this  proposal  the  king  was  to  be  allowed  to  create  only  six  addi- 
tional peerages  (except  in  the  case  of  a  member  of  the  Royal  Family), 
after  which  he  could  only  make  a  new  peer  upon  the  extinction  of 
an  old  peerage.  This  measure,  which  passed  the  House  of  Lords, 
was  rejected  in  the  Commons,  mainly  in  consequence  of  Walpole's 
opposition.  It  is  hardly  to  be  doubted  that  its  framers  looked  for- 
ward to  the  possible  election  of  a  Tory  House  of  Commons,  and 
wished  to  hinder  a  Toiy  minister  from  making  himself  master  of 
the  House  of  Lords  by  creating  a  large  number  of  peers,  as  Harley 
and  St.  John  had  done  in  1711  (see  p.  695).  According  to  them,  the 
House  of  Lords  was  to  be  the  bulwark  of  the  Whigs  against  a 
Tory  House  of  Commons.  It  was  Walpole's  merit  that  he  saw 
distinctly  that  this  could  not  be,  as  the  Bill,  if  it  had  passed,  would 
have  made  the  House  of  Lords  a  narrow  oligarchy  capable  of 
setting  at  defiance  both  the  Crown  and  the  House  of  Commons. 
It  was,  moreover,  clear  to  him  that  the  Commons  must  from  hence- 
forth be  the  chief  member  of  the  constitutional  organisation.  If 
the  Whigs  were  to  win  the  battle,  they  must  win  it  by  possessing 


1720 


JOniT-  STOCK  COMPANIES 


711 


a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  not  by  setting  up  the 
artificial  barrier  of  a  restricted  House  of  Lords.  It  is  unhkely  that 
Sunderland  acknowledged  the  inferiority  of  his  own  statesmanship 
to  that  of  Walpole,  but  he  had  felt  his  power,  and  in  1720  admitted 
both  him  and  Townshend  to  subordinate  offices  in  the  government. 
10.  The  South  Sea  Bubble.  1720.— Few  things  served  the 
Whigs  so  well  as  their  adoption  of  a  policy  of  peace,  to  which  their 
short  war  with  Spain  hardly  furnished  an  exception.  With  the 
cessation  of  the  risks  due  to  war  trade  increased  rapidly,  and 
with  the  increase  of  trade  came  a  violent  increase  of  speculation. 
Joint-stock  companies,  which  had  hitherto  been  limited  to  a  few 


Group  showing  costumes  and  sedan  chair,  about  1720  :  from  an  engraving  by  Kip. 


great  undertakings,  were  formed  in  large  numbers.  Some,  being 
managed  by  men  of  experience,  met  with  success  ;  whilst  others, 
started  by  swindlers  or  by  persons  ignorant  of  trade,  speedily 
collapsed,  and  ruined  those  who  had  embarked  their  capital  in 
them.  Amongst  these  latter  the  most  prominent  was  the  South 
Sea  Company,  which  had  been  formed  by  Harley,  in  171 1,  to  carry 
on  such  trade  with  Spanish  America  as  might  be  rendered  possible 
by  the  expected  treaty  with  Spain.  Trade  with  the  Spanish 
colonies  was  allowed  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  to  a 
single  English  ship  in  each  year,  and  the  Assiento  treaty  had  also 
granted  to  the  English  the  right  of  importing  negroes  into  them  (see 
p.  696).     All  classes  in  England  were  under  the  delusion  that  the 


712     TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  df   WALPOLE       1 720-21 

wealth  of  Spanish  America  was  so  enormous  that  this  trade 
would  enrich  all  who  took  part  in  it.  Consequently  the  shares  of 
the  South  Sea  Company  were  eagerly  bought.  At  the  same  time 
politicians  were  growing  anxious  about  the  amount  of  the  national 
debt,  and  in  1720  a  Bill  was  passed  enabling  those  to  whom  the 
nation  owed  money  to  take  shares  in  the  South  Sea  Company  in 
the  place  of  their  claim  upon  the  nation.  Large  numbers  of  all 
classes  accepted  this  arrangement.  Others  rushed  eagerly  to  buy 
shares  which  were  supposed  to  be  of  priceless  value.  Landlords 
sold  their  estates,  and  clergymen  and  widows  brought  their  savings 
to  invest  in  the  South  Sea  Company.  So  great  was  the  demand 
that  in  August  1720  shares  originally  worth  100/.  were  purchased 
for  1,000/.  The  madness  of  speculation  spread  rapidly,  and  new 
companies  were  formed  every  day  for  objects-'  unlikely  to  be  re- 
munerative. People  actually  took  shares  in  one  company  for 
making  salt-water  fresh  ;  in  another  for  transmuting  quicksilver 
into  a  malleable  and  fine  metal  ;  and  in  another  for  importing  a 
number  of  large  jackasses  from  Spain  ;  whilst  one  impostor  asked 
the  public  to  take  shares  in  an  undertaking  the  nature  of  which  was 
in  due  time  to  be  revealed. 

11.  The  Bursting  of  the  Bubble.  1720— 1721. — Before  long 
people  began  to  find  out  that  they  had  paid  too  highly  for  the 
objects  of  their  visionary  hopes,  and  the  price  of  shares  rapidly 
fell.  Thousands  were  reduced  to  beggary,  and  the  ruined  dupes 
cried  out  for  the  punishment  of  those  by  whom  their  hopes  had 
been  excited.  One  peer  asked  that  the  directors  of  the  company 
might  be  sewn  up  in  sacks  and  thrown  into  the  Thames.  The 
bitterest  indignation,  however,  was  directed  against  the  ministers. 
Most  of  them  had  speculated  in  the  shares,  and  some  of  them  had 
made  money  by  actual  swindling.  In  1721  Aislabie  was  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  and  Craggs  Secretary  of  State.  Aislabie  was 
sent  to  the  Tower  ;  Craggs  died  of  the  small-pox  ;  whilst  Craggs' 
father,  the  Postmaster-General,  took  poison.  Sunderland  was  ac- 
quitted of  dishonourable  conduct,  but  he  had  been  amongst  the 
speculators,  and  resigned.  Stanhope,  who  had  had  nothing  to  do 
with  the  speculation,  fell  into  a  fit  in  answering  a  false  accusation, 
and  died. 

12.  Walpole  called  to  the  Rescue.  1721 — 1722.— Amidst  the 
general  crash  Walpole  was  called  upon  to  restore  order.  In  April 
1721  he  became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  He  had  a  financial  ability  which  was  rare  in  those 
times,  and  he  made  an  arrangement  which  at  least  left  something 


t72l  WaLPOLM'S  MimsTkV  713 

to  the  shareholders,  though  it  gave  them  far  less  than  they  had  ex- 
pected. Walpole's  accession  to  office  was  the  beginning  of  a  minis- 
terial career  which  lasted  twenty-one  years.  Its  immediate  result 
was  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  Whigs.  The  seven  years  to  which 
the  Septennial  Act  had  extended  the  duration  of  the  existing  Par- 
liament ended  in  March  1722.  There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that 
if  the  elections  had  taken  place  a  year  earlier,  they  would  have 


View  of  the  game  of  Mall :  irom  an  engraving  by  Kip, 
about  1720. 

resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Whigs.  As  it  was,  the  country 
connected  Walpole's  name  with  restored  order  and  financial 
probity,  and  a  large  Whig  majority  was  accordingly  returned. 

13.  Corruption  under  Walpole. — It  was  not,  however,  merely  to 

the  national  gratitude  that  Walpole  owed  his  success  at  the  polls. 

When  he  opposed  the  Peerage  Bill  he  taught  the  Whig  aristocracy 

that  it  must  rely  on  the  House  of  Commons  (see  p.  710).     Yet  it 

III.  3  A 


714       TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  &>   WALPOLE     1721-27 

was  hard  to  see  how  the  House  of  Commons  could  represent  the 
people  at  large,  because,  for  the  most  part,  the  people  were  too 
ignorant  and  ill-educated  to  have  any  political  opinions  at  all. 
The  electors,  if  left  to  themselves,  might  return  a  Parliament  as 
Tory  as  had  been  the  Parliaments  which  had  supported  Oxford 
and  Bolingbroke.  Therefore  the  Whigs,  even  before  Walpole 
secured  power,  had  determined  that  the  electors  should  not  be 
left  to  themselves.  In  many  boroughs  the  right  of  voting  was 
confined  to  the  corporation ;  and  as  large  numbers  of  these 
boroughs  were  mere  villages  or  even  hamlets,  the  members  of 
their  corporations  were  poor  men — easily  accessible  to  arguments 
addressed  to  their  pockets.  The  wealthiest  landowner  in  the 
neighbourhood  was  usually  a  Whig,  who  would  use  his  influence 
and  his  purse  in  securing  the  election  of  his  own  nominee.  Electors 
found  that,  if  they  voted  for  the  Whig  candidate,  their  lives  would 
be  made  easy  to  them,  whilst  if  they  voted  for  the  Tory  candidate 
they  would  be  much  worse  off.  In  the  House  of  Commons  itself 
the  same  system  of  corruption  was  pursued.  What  amount  of 
ready  money  Walpole  paid  to  his  supporters  has  been  disputed, 
and  it  was  certainly  much  less  than  has  usually  been  supposed  ; 
but  he  had  in  his  gift  all  the  offices  held  under  the  Crown,  a  large 
number  of  which  were  sinecures  with  large  pay  and  no  duties. 
Needy  members  discovered  that  if  they  wanted  money  they  must 
support  Walpole,  and  ambitious  members  discovered  that  if  they 
wanted  office  they  could  only  obtain  it  by  supporting  Walpole.  It 
is  therefore  not  surprising  that  all  the  rising  talent  in  the  country 
declared  itself  Whig. 

14.  Walpole  and  Corruption. — Yet,  evil  as  this  system  was,  it 
was  rendered  tolerable  by  the  knowledge  that  the  only  alternative 
— the  return  of  the  Tory  party  to  power,  probably  bringing  with  it 
a  restoration  of  the  Stuart  dynasty — would  have  been  still  more 
disastrous.  The  political  creed  of  the  Tory  squires  and  of  the 
Tory  clergy  was  founded  on  religious  intolerance  and  contempt 
for  trade.  What  they  wanted  was  a  king  who  would  keep  down 
dissenters  and  moneyed  men,  and  accordingly  most  of  the  Tories 
had  by  this  time  become  Jacobites.  The  great  Whig  nobles,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  for  religious  toleration  and  for  weakening 
the  power  of  the  king.  The  Whigs  gained  the  day,  partly  because 
they  were  more  intelligent  than  their  rivals,  partly  because  the 
predominance  even  of  a  corrupt  House  of  Commons — with  its  free 
speech  and  its  show  of  government  by  argument  rather  than  by 
arbitrary  will— was  in  itself  advantageous  as  matters  then  stood. 


I 722- I 726 


ST.   MARTIN'S   CHURCH 


715 


3  A  2 


7i6       TOWNSHEMD,  SUNDERLAND,  &-   WALPOLR     1721-27 

In  all  this  work  they  found  a  fitting  leader  in  Walpole.  He  was 
devoted  to  duty  and  was  single-eyed  in  devoting  himself  to  the  in- 
terests of  his  country  ;  but  his  manners  and  his  mind  were  alike 
coarse,  and  he  did  not  shrink  from  the  employment  of  the  lowest 
means  to  accomplish  his  ends.  On  the  other  hand  it  may  be  said 
in  his  favour  that  he  was  not  vindictive,  and  that  he  contented 
himself  with  excluding  his  rivals  from  power,  without  even  seeking 
to  inflict  punishment  upon  them. 

15.  'Quieta  non  movere.' — Walpole  took  for  his  motto  Quieta 
no7i  movere  (let  sleeping  dogs  lie).  In  many  periods  of  English 
history  such  a  confession  would  have  been  disgiaceful  to  a  states- 
man. In  Walpole's  days  it  was  an  honourable  one.  The  work 
before  him  was  to  maintain  toleration  and  constitutional  govern- 
ment, and  he  was  aware  that  he  could  only  hope  for  success  if  he 


Ploughing  with  oxen  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

avoided  awakening  the  ignorant  passions  which  were  slumbering 
around.  He  remembered  the  storm  of  popular  rage  to  which  the 
Whigs  had  been  exposed  in  the  time  of  the  Sacheverell  trial  (see 
p.  690),  and  he  was  resolved  to  show  no  favour  to  the  Dissenters 
which  would  provoke  another  outburst  against  them.  The  Dis- 
senters were  most  eager  to  obtain  a  repeal  of  the  Test  Act  (see  p.  606) 
for  themselves,  though  not  for  the  Catholics.  Walpole,  who  knew 
the  anger  which  would  be  excited  if  he  proposed  such  a  measure, 
always  told  them  that  the  time  was  not  convenient.  At  last  they 
asked  him  to  tell  them  when  the  time  would  be  convenient.  "  I 
will  answer  you  frankly,"  was  his  reply,  "  Never  ! "  Year  after  year, 
however,  he  passed  through  Parliament  a  Bill  indemnifying  all 
persons  who  had  held  offices  in  defiance  of  the  Test  Act,  and  thus 
Dissenters  got  what  they  wanted  without  exciting  attention. 

16.  The  Prime  Ministership. — When  any  number  of  men  meet 


[721-1727 


THE   CABINET  SYSTEM 


717 


together  to  transact  business,  there  must  be  one  to  take  the  lead 
if  their  meetings  are  not  to  end  in  confusion.  Till  the  death  of 
Anne,  Cabinets  had  met  in  the  presence  of  the  sovereign,  and 
were  regarded  as  his  or  her  advisers.  Yet  even  then  their  growing 
independence  was  beginning  to  make  it  necessary  for  them  to  find 
a  leader  or  leaders  in  their  own  body,  and  people  began  to  look 
first  to  Marlborough  and  Godolphin  and  then  to  Harley  and  St.  John 
as  superior  to  other  members  of  the  Cabinet,  and  even  to  apply  to 
one  or  the  other  of  them  loosely  the  term  '  first  minister.'  After 
the  accession  of  George  I.,  when  the  king  ceased  to  sit  in  the 
Cabinet,  it  became  still  more  necessary  for  that  body  to  find  a 


Mowing  grass  in  the  eighteenth  century. 


leader,  and  Townshend  at  first  and  afterwards  Sunderland  are 
sometimes  spoken  of  by  modern  writers  as  Prime  Ministers.  No 
such  position  was,  however,  openly  assigned  to  them  by  contem- 
poraries, and  when  Walpole  entered  office  in  1721  ministers  were 
still  regarded  as  equal  amongst  themselves.  It  was  Walpole's 
chief  contribution  to  constitutional  progress  that  he  created  the 
Prime  Ministership  in  his  own  person,  and  thereby  gave  to  Cabinet 
government  that  unity  which  every  government  must  possess 
if  its  action  is  to  be  enduring,  and  which  earlier  governments 
possessed  through  the  presidency  of  the  king.  Yet  so  hateful 
was  the  new  idea  that  Walpole  had  to  disclaim  any  intention  of 
making  himself  Prime  Minister  ;  and  the  word  came  into  familiar 


7i8       TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  &>   WALPOLE    1723-27 

use  by  being  applied  to  him  tauntingly  by  his  enemies,  as  the  fit 
name  for  a  minister  who  wanted  to  convert  all  other  ministers  into 
his  instruments  instead  of  regarding  them  as  his  equals. 

17.  Walpole  and  Carteret.  1723 — 1724. — Walpole's  first  trial  of 
strength  was  with  Lord  Carteret,  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State, 
a  man  of  great  ability,  who  had  the  advantage  of  being  able  to 
address  the  king  in  German,  whilst  Walpole  had  to  address  him 
in  Latin.  Walpole  founded  his  policy  of  peace  on  an  alliance 
with  France,  whilst  Carteret  inherited  the  tradition  of  the  Whigs 
of  Anne's  reign  in  favour  of  a  continental  alliance  against  France. 
Between  Carteret  and  Walpole  a  rivalry  soon  sprang  up,  and  in 
1724  Carteret  was  forced  to  resign  the  Secretaryship,  though  he 
remained  a  member  of  the  Cabinet  for  some  time  to  come. 

18.  Wood's  Halfpence.  1724.— The  first  instance  of  Walpole's 
method  of  averting  popular  discontent  by  avoiding  a  collision  with 
strong  feeling  arose  when  a  grant  was  made  to  a  certain  Wood 
of  the  right  of  issuing  a  copper  coinage  in  Ireland.  The  coins  were 
good  in  themselves,  but  Wood  had  bought  the  right  of  coining  them 
by  bribes  to  the  king's  German  mistresses,  and  Irishmen  naturally 
concluded  that  they  were  to  pay  the  cost.  Swift,  delighted  at  the 
opportunity  of  scourging  his  old  enemies  the  Whigs,  poured  scorn 
and  ridicule  upon  Wood's  Halfpence  in  '  The  Drapier's  Letters,'  and 
for  the  first  time  in  Irish  history  both  races  and  both  creeds  were 
united  in  resistance  to  the  obnoxious  grant.  Walpole  dreaded  a 
disturbance  more  than  anything  else,  and  the  grant  was  withdrawn. 

19.  The  Last  Years  of  George  L  1724 — 1727. — Walpole's  in- 
fluence deservedly  grew  from  year  to  year.  In  spite  of  great 
difficulties,  he  maintained  peace  abroad.  The  Duke  of  Orleans 
had  been  dead  for  some  years,  and  in  1726  Cardinal  Fleury — who 
was  as  peace-loving  as  Walpole  himself — became  Prime  Minister 
to  the  young  king  Louis  XV.,  and  did  everything  in  his  power  to 
prevent  war  breaking  out  in  Europe.  In  1727  George  I.,  as  soon 
as  he  was  able  to  leave  England,  crossed  the  sea  to  enjoy  himself 
in  Hanover.  On  the  way,  before  he  reached  Osnabriick,  he  was 
struck  down  by  apoplexy  in  his  carriage.  His  attendants  wished 
to  seek  help  in  the  nearest  village,  but  were  urged  on  by  cries 
of  "  Osnabriick  !  Osnabriick  ! "  from  their  half-conscious  master. 
Before  the  carriage  reached  Osnabriick  George  I.  was  dead. 

20.  George  H.  and  Walpole..  1727. — The  new  king  George  II. 
had  the  advantage  (which  his  father  had  not  had)  of  being  able  to 
speak  English.  He  was  not  intelligent,  but  was  straightforward 
and  courageous,  and  though,  like  his  father,  he  kept  mistresses,  he 


1727 


ST.  MARY  WOOLNOTH 


719 


Church  of  St.  Mary  Woolnoth,  London  ;  finished  in  1727  from  the  designs  of 
Nicholas  Hawksmoor. 


720     TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  &-   WALPOLE  1727-1730 

was  accustomed  on  all  difficult  questions  to  defer  to  the  advice  of 
his  wife,  Queen  Caroline — a  woman  of  sound  judgment  and  of  wide 
intellectual  interests.  George's  first  impulse  was  to  choose  as  his 
leading  minister  Sir  Spencer  Compton,  a  personal  favourite  of  his 
own.  Compton,  however,  being  ordered  to  write  the  speech  in  which 
the  king  was  to  notify  his  accession  to  the  Privy  Council,  was  so 
overpowered  by  the  difficulties  of  the  task  that  he  begged  Walpole 
to  write  it  for  him.  After  this  the  queen  easily  persuaded  her 
husband  that  Compton  was  not  strong  enough  for  the  post ;  and 
Walpole,  being  recalled  to  office,  was  soon  as  much  trusted  by 
George  II.  as  he  had  been  by  George  I. 

21.  Breach  between  Walpole  and  Townshend.  1730. — Even 
after  the  complete  establishment  of  Parliamentary  supremacy  the 
favour  of  the  king  was  not  to  be  despised  ;  for,  though  he  could 
not  shake  the  power  of  the  Whig  aristocracy  as  a  whole,  yet  if  one 
Whig  entered  upon  a  rivalry  with  another,  his  support  would  be 
decisive,  at  least  for  a  time.  Such  a  rivalry  now  broke  out  between 
Walpole  and  his  brother-in-law,  Townshend,  who  had  been 
Secretary  of  State  since  1721.  The  main  cause  of  the  quarrel  is 
best  described  by  Walpole  himself  "  As  long,"  he  said,  "  as  the 
firm  was  Townshend  and  Walpole,  the  utmost  harmony  prevailed  ; 
but  it  no  sooner  became  Walpole  and  Townshend  than  things 
went  wrong."  In  other  words,  the  question  between  them  was 
whether  there  was  to  be  a  Prime  Minister  or  not.  Townshend, 
who  was  Secretary  of  State,  held  to  the  old  doctrine  that  he  was 
accountable  only  to  the  king  and  Parliament.  Walpole  held  to 
the  new  doctrine  that  he  himself — as  first  Lord  of  the  Treasury — 
was  to  direct  the  policy  of  the  other  ministers.  It  is  not  by  accident 
that  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  has  usually  been  the  Prime 
Minister  ;  in  later  years  it  has  been  accepted  as  the  general  rule. 
It  is  his  business  to  find  the  money  expended  by  the  other 
ministers,  and  it  is  therefore  only  reasonable  that  decision  of  a 
policy  which  will  cost  money  should  rest  with  him.  He  should 
be  able  to  exercise  a  veto  over  proposals  which  lead  to  an  expendi- 
ture which,  even  if  it  is  desirable  in  itself,  may  be  greater  than  the 
country  is  able  or  willing  to  bear.  In  1730  Townshend  resigned, 
and  being  honourably  desirous  of  keeping  out  of  farther  disputes 
with  his  brother-in-law,  remained  in  private  life  to  the  end  of  his 
days. 

22.  Bolingbroke  as  Organiser  of  the  Opposition.  1726 — 1732. — 
Already  a  violent  opposition  was  gathering  against  Walpole.  In 
1716  the  Pretender,  being  too  stupid  to  take  good  advice,  had  dis- 


1725  WALPOLE  AND  BOLINGBROKE  721 

missed  Bolingbroke  from  his  service  (see  p.  705).  Bolingbroke,  by 
bribing  one  of  the  mistresses  of  George  I.,  had  interested  that 
king  in  his  favour,  and  in  1725  his  attainder  had  been  reversed. 
Walpole,  however,  had  still  sufficient  influence  to  procure  the  main- 


Sir  Robert  Walpole  :  from  the  picture  by  Van  Loo  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

tenance  of  the  clause  in  the  Act  of  Attainder  which  excluded  him 
from  the  House  of  Lords.  Bolingbroke,  the  most  eloquent  orator 
of  the  day,  was  thus  shut  out  from  the  only  place  in  which  at  that 


722     TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  &-  WALPOLE   1 726-1733 

time  it  was  possible  for  him  to  make  his  eloquence  heard.  Wal- 
pole  may  well  have  thought  that  he  had  crushed  Bolingbroke  for 
ever.  He  had,  however,  under-estimated  the  powers  of  the  Tory 
leader.  Though  Bolingbroke  could  deliver  no  more  orations,  he 
was  still  master  of  his  pen  and  of  his  persuasive  tongue,  and  he 
set  to  work  to  weld  together  a  parliamentary  opposition  out  of  the 
most  discordant  elements.  Those  elements  were  in  the  main  three. 
There  were  in  the  House  of  Commons  about  fifty  Jacobites,  a 
small  number  of  Tories  accepting  the  House  of  Hanover,  and  a 
gradually-increasing  body  of  Whigs  sulky  because  Walpole  did 
not  admit  them  to  a  share  of  power.  Of  the  latter  the  leader 
was  William  Pulteney,  an  indiscreet  politician  but  an  excellent 
speaker.  Between  Bolingbroke  and  Pulteney  an  alliance  was 
struck,  and  by  the  end  of  1726  they  had  combined  in  publishing 
The  Craftsman^  a  weekly  paper  in  which  Walpole  was  held  up  to 
obloquy  as  erecting  a  ministerial  despotism  by  the  use  of  cor- 
ruption. 

23.  The  Excise  Bill.  1733. — In  1733  Walpole  gave  a  handle 
to  the  attacks  of  his  enemies.  There  was  an  immense  amount  of 
smuggling  and  of  other  frauds  on  the  customs  revenue.  To  meet 
the  difficulty  Walpole  proposed  to  establish  a  new  system  of  levying 
the  duties  on  tobacco,  intending,  as  he  gave  out,  to  extend  it  sub- 
sequently to  those  on  wine.  According  to  this  new  system  all 
tobacco  imported  was  to  be  brought  free  of  duty  into  warehouses 
under  Government  supervision.  The  duty  would  be  paid  by  those 
who  took  it  out  for  home  consumption,  and  its  sale  would  only  be 
allowed  at  shops  licensed  for  the  purpose,  in  the  same  way  that 
certain  houses  are  licensed  for  the  sale  of  beer  at  the  present  day. 
As  the  tax  was  really  paid  on  an  imported  article,  it  would  have 
been  more  prudent  in  Walpole  if  he  had  continued  to  call  it  a 
customs  duty,  as  an  excise  was  an  unpopular  form  of  taxation. 
He  called  it,  however,  an  excise,  probably  because  the  sale  of  the 
tobacco  was  confined  to  hcensed  houses,  as  the  sale  of  any  other 
excisable  article  would  be.  He  had,  indeed,  reason  to  hope  that 
his  plan  would  prove  acceptable.  In  the  first  place  if  it  were 
adopted  smuggling  would  be  far  more  difficult  than  it  had  hitherto 
been,  because  it  would  now  be  more  easy  to  detect  the  sale  of  the 
smuggled  article  ;  and  in  the  second  place  not  only  would  the  pubHc 
revenue  be  benefited,  but  the  honest  trader  would  be  less  liable  to 
be  undersold  by  the  smuggler.  A  third  advantage  would  also  be 
gained.  Hitherto  goods  imported  in  order  to  be  subsequently  ex- 
ported had  had  to  pay  duty,  which  was  only  recoverable  upon  the 


1733 


THE   CUSTOM  HOUSE 


723 


724       TOWNSHEND,  SUNDERLAND,  <y   WALPOLE     1733-37 

observance  of  intricate  formalities  accompanied  by  considerable 
expense.  According  to  Walpole's  plan,  the  tobacco  stored  in 
Government  warehouses  could  be  exported  without  any  payment 
at  all ;  and  the  export  trade  of  the  country  would  be  encouraged 
by  liberating  it  from  unnecessary  trammels. 

24.  The  Defeat  of  the  Excise  Bill.  1733. — To  the  arguments 
which  Walpole  addressed  to  the  intelligence  of  his  hearers,  he 
took  care  to  add  others  addressed  to  their  pockets.  Almost  all 
the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  were  country  gentlemen, 
and  Walpole,  therefore,  reminded  them  that  the  revenue  would 
be  so  increased— at  the  expense  of  those  who  had  bought  smuggled 
goods — that  he  would  be  able  to  remit  the  Land  Tax.  Walpole's 
proposals  were  indeed  admirable,  but  Bolingbroke  and  Pulteney 
stirred  up  popular  feeling  against  them  by  wild  misrepresentations. 
The  masses  were  persuaded  to  believe  that  Walpole  wanted  to 
subject  them  to  a  general  excise,  to  search  their  houses  at  any 
hour  without  a  warrant,  and  to  raise  the  price  of  tobacco.  All 
classes  joined  in  the  outcry.  The  very  soldiers  were  no  longer 
to  be  depended  on.  At  last  Walpole  resolved  to  withdraw  the  Bill. 
"  I  will  not,"  he  once  said  in  private  conversation,  "  be  the 
minister  to  enforce  taxes  at  the  expense  of  blood."  It  was,  in 
short,  wise  to  convert  customs  into  excise,  but  it  was  not  expe- 
dient. In  this  regard  for  expediency  lay  the  sum  of  Walpole's 
political  wisdom,  and  it  was  because  he  possessed  it  that  the 
House  of  Hanover  and  the  constitutional  system  connected  with 
the  House  of  Hanover  rooted  themselves  in  England.  If,  however, 
Walpole  gave  way  before  the  nation,  he  resolved  to  be  master  of 
the  Cabinet,  and  he  summarily  dismissed  some  of  his  principal 
colleagues  who  had  been  intriguing  with  the  Opposition  against 
him. 

25.  Disruption  of  the  Opposition.  1734  1735. — Bolingbroke 
had  won  the  trick,  but  he  could  not  win  the  game.  The  Excise  Bill 
was  quickly  forgotten,  and  Walpole's  great  services  were  again  re- 
membered. In  1734,  in  a  new  House  of  Commons,  his  supporters 
were  nearly  as  numerous  as  before.  Bolingbroke  was  never 
thoroughly  trusted  by  the  discontented  Whigs,  and  in  1735  he 
retired  to  France,  leaving  English  politics  to  shape  themselves 
without  his  help. 

26.  The  Family  Compact.  1733 — Walpole's  management  ot 
foreign  affairs  was  as  dexterous  as  his  management  of  Parliament. 
He  had  hitherto  not  only  kept  England  from  embarking  in  war, 
but  had  contributed  his  aid  to  the  restoration   of  peace  on  the 


1733-1737  ^-^^  FAMILY  COMPACT  725 

Continent  itself  whenever  this  had  been  possible.  In  1733  a  war 
broke  out,  usually  known  as  the  War  of  the  Polish  Succession,  but 
embracing  the  West  of  Europe  as  well.  It  was  noteworthy  that 
in  this  war  France  and  Spain  appeared  in  close  alliance,  and  that 
they  had  signed  a  secret  treaty,  known  as  the  Family  Compact, 
which  was  directed  against  Austria  and  England.  The  two  branches 
of  the  House  of  Bourbon  were  to  act  together  ;  and  the  whole 
basis  of  Walpole's  foreign  policy  was  thus  swept  away.  At  the 
time  when  the  death  of  Louis  XV.  was  considered  probable  (see 
p.  707),  it  had  been  natural  that  the  Duke  of  Orleans  should  see 
in  an  alliance  with  England  a  barrier  against  the  claim  likely  to 
be  put  forward  to  the  French  throne  by  Philip  V.  ;  but  all  that 
was  altered  now.  Not  only  was  the  Duke  of  Orleans  dead,  but 
Louis  XV.  had  become  a  husband  and  a  father,  and  the  question 
of  Philip's  claim  to  the  succession  was  therefore  no  longer  im- 
portant. France  had  recovered  her  military  strength,  and  it  was 
believed  at  the  French  court  that  a  close  alliance  with  Spain 
would  enable  her  to  dictate  terms  to  Europe.  When  peace  was 
signed  in  1735  at  Vienna,  Austria  ceded  Naples  and  Sicily — with 
other  smaller  possessions  in  Italy — to  Charles,  the  second  surviving 
son  of  Philip  V.,  whilst  Lorraine  was  given  to  Stanislaus  Leczinski 
(the  father-in-law  of  Louis  XV.),  on  the  understanding  that  after 
his  death  it  was  to  be  merged  in  France.  Walpole,  who  knew  of 
the  existence  of  the  Family  Compact  soon  after  its  signature,  had 
abstained  from  joining  in  the  war — perhaps  thinking  that  the  allies 
were  too  well  occupied  in  Europe  to  meddle  with  England. 

27.  Dissensions  in  the  Royal  Family.  1737. — In  1737  Walpole's 
position  was  weakened  by  two  untoward  events.  A  quarrel  broke 
out  between  George  II.  and  his  eldest  son  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales  ;  and  the  Prince,  being  turned  out  of  the  court,  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  Opposition.  Not  long  after  this  Queen  Caroline, 
Walpole's  truest  friend,  died. 


726 


CHAPTER   XLVI 

WALPOLE,  CARTERET,  AND   THE  PELHAMS.      1737—1754 

LEADING     DATES 

Reign  of  George  II.,  1727— 1760 

Jenkins's  ear 1738 

War  with  Spain 1739 

Resignation  of  Walpole Feb.  17,  1742 

Resignation  of  Carteret Nov.  23,  1744 

The  Young  Pretender's  Rising 1745 

Battle  of  Culloden April  16,  1746 

Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 1748 

Death  of  Henry  Pelham March  6,  1754 

1.  The  Reign  of  Common  Sense. — Walpole  had  been  hitherto 
successful  because  he  had  governed  on  principles  of  common  sense. 
He  had  kept  the  peace  and  had  allowed  men  to  grow  rich  by  leav- 
ing them  to  pursue  their  own  callings  without  interference.  Com- 
mon sense  was,  indeed,  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  age.  Pope, 
its  leading  poet,  was  conspicuous  for  felicity  of  expression  and  for 
the  ease  and  neatness  with  which  he  dealt  with  topics  relating  to 
man  in  society.  High  imagination  and  the  pursuit  of  ideal  beauty 
had  no  place  in  his  mind.  In  matters  of  religion  it  was  much  the 
same.  Those  who  spoke  and  wrote  on  them  abandoned  the  search 
for  eternal  verities,  contenting  themselves  with  asking  where  the 
balance  of  probability  lay,  or,  at  the  most,  what  was  the  view  most 
suitable  to  the  cultivated  reason.  To  speak  of  anyone's  zeal  or 
enthusiasm  was  regarded  as  opprobrious.  In  social  life  there  was 
a  coarseness  which  was  the  natural  consequence  of  the  temper  of 
the  day.     Men  drank  heavily,  and  talked  openly  of  their  vices. 

2.  Smuggling  in  the  West  Indies. — Such  a  generation  turned 
eagerly  to  the  pursuit  of  wealth,  and  chafed  at  the  restrictions  which 
other  nations  attempted  to  place  on  its  commerce.  It  happened 
that  Spain^the  weakest  of  European  nations — had  the  most  ex- 
tended territory  open  to  commercial  enterprise.  As  in  the  days  of 
Elizabeth  (see  p.  447),  the  Spanish  Government  tried  to  prevent 
the  English  from  trading  with  its  American  dominions,  whilst  the 
Spanish  colonists,  on  the  other  hand,  were  anxious  to  promote  a 
trade  by  which  they  were  benefited.  It  was  notorious  that  English 
merchants  did  their  best  to  evade  the  restriction  imposed  on  them 


1737-38      WALPOLE,    CARTERET,    &-    THE  PELHAMS      727 

by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht.  The  one  ship  of  600  tons  which  they 
were  allowed  by  that  treaty  to  send  annually  to  Panama  (see  p.  697) 
sailed  into  the  harbour  and  discharged  her  goods.     As  soon  as  it 


George  II.  :  from  the  portrait  by  Ihoiiias  Hudson  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery, 


72S  THR  RIGHT  OF  SEARCH  1738 

was  dark,  smaller  vessels  (which  had  kept  out  of  sight  in  the  daytime) 
sailed  in  and  filled  it  up  again,  so  that  the  one  ship  was  enabled 
to  put  many  ship-loads  on  shore.  Besides  this,  there  was  an 
immense  amount  of  smuggling  carried  on  by  Englishmen  on 
various  parts  of  the  coast  of  Spanish  America.  Spanish  coast- 
guards, in  return,  often  seized  English  vessels  which  they  suspected 
of  smuggling,  and  sometimes  brutally  ill-treated  their  crews.  The 
Spaniards  also  claimed  to  have  the  right  of  searching  English 
vessels  even  on  the  high  seas.  Besides  this,  they  disputed  the 
English  assumption  of  the  right  to  cut  log-wood  in  the  bay  of 
Campeachy,  and  alleged  that  the  new  English  colony  of  Georgia, 
lately  founded  in  North  America,  encroached  on  the  boundaries 
of  what  was  then  the  Spanish  territory  of  Florida.- 

3.  Walpole  and  Spain. — To  Walpole  the  exceeding  energy  of 
the  British  traders  and  smugglers  was  annoying.  It  was  likely 
to  bring  on  war,  and  he  held  war  to  be  the  worst  of  evils.  Right 
or  wrong,  the  smugglers  carried  on  the  great  movement  which 
has  filled  the  waste  places  of  the  world  with  children  of  the  English 
race.  Walpole  entered  on  negotiations  with  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment, hoping  to  obtain  compensation  for  wrongs  actually  inflicted 
by  its  agents.  Bolingbroke  hurried  back  from  France  to  re-organise 
the  Opposition,  at  the  head  of  which  he  now  placed  the  foolish 
Prince  of  Wales  (see  p.  725),  who  was  ready  to  give  his  support  to 
any  movement  against  Walpole,  simply  because  Walpole  was  the 
favourite  minister  of  his  father. 

4.  William  Pitt.  1738. — The  so-called  patriots  of  the  Opposi- 
tion and  the  Tories  were  now  joined  by  a  small  group  of  young 
men  called  by  Walpole  the  Boys,  who  were  filled  with  disgust  at 
the  corruption  around  them,  and  fancied  that  all  that  went  wrong 
was  the  fault  of  Walpole,  and  not  the  fault  of  the  generation  in 
which  he  lived.  Walpole's  scorn  of  the  patriots  was  unmeasured. 
"  All  these  men  have  their  price,"  he  once  said,  pointing  to  the 
benches  on  which  they  were  sitting.  He  could  easily  make  a 
patriot,  he  declared  on  another  occasion,  by  merely  refusing  an 
unreasonable  request.  It  was  with  half-amused  contempt  that  he 
regarded  the  Boys.  When  they  were  older,  he  thought,  they 
would  discover  the  necessity  of  dealing  with  the  world  as  it  was, 
not  as  they  thought  it  ought  to  be.  He  had  found  that  men  could 
only  be  governed  by  offers  of  money  or  of  money's  worth,  and  so 
it  would  ever  be.  Some,  indeed,  of  the  Boys  lived  to  fulfil  Walpole's 
cynical  expectation,  but  there  were  amongst  them  a  few,  especially 
William  Pitt,  who  maintained  in  old  age  the  standard  of  purity 


1738 


JENKINS'S  EAR 


729 


which  they  had  raised  in  youth.  Pitt  was  a  born  orator,  but  as 
yet  his  flashing  speeches,  filled  with  passionate  invective,  had  little 
reasoning  in  them.  That  which  lifted  him  above  the  more 
vehement  speakers  of  that  or  of  any  other  time  was  his  burning 
devotion  to  his  country  :  whether  his  country  was  right  or  wrong 
he  hardly  knew  or  cared.  That  strength  of  feeling  which  the  elder 
generation  scouted,  broke  out  in  Pitt  in  the  form  of  enthusiasm 
— not  for  any  cause  sacred  to  humanity  at  large,  but  for  the  power 
and' greatness  of  his  country.  Naturally,  he  attacked  Spain  for  her 
claim  to  the  right  of  search,  and  for  her  barbarities  to  English 
seamen,  whilst  he  never  thought  of  mentioning  the  provocation 
given  by  the  English  smugglers. 


Coach  built  for  William  Herrick,  Esq.,  of  Beanmanor,  in  1740. 


5.  Impending  War.  1738 — 1739. — Members  of  the  united 
opposition  had  at  last  a  popular  cry  in  their  favour.  Before  the 
end  of  1738  they  produced  a  certain  Captain  Jenkins,  who  declared 
— probably  with  truth — that  his  ear  had  been  cut  off  seven  years 
before  on  board  his  own  ship  by  a  Spanish  coastguard,  and  who 
took  what  he  declared  to  be  his  ear  out  of  a  box  to  show  to  a 
committee  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  Spaniard,  he  said, 
had  bidden  him  to  take  his  ear  to  his  king.  "  I  recommended," 
he  explained,  when  asked  what  his  thoughts  had  been  on  the 
occasion,  "my  soul  to  my  God,  and  my  cause  to  my  country." 
The  words  were  repeated  from  one  end  of  England  to  the  other. 
"  No  search  ! "  became  the  popular  cry.  In  vain  Walpole,  early 
in  1739,  announced  that  Spain  had  agreed  to  a  treaty  indemnifying 
those  English  sailors  who  had  suffered  actual  wrong.  The  treaty 
III.  3  B 


730  WALPOLE,   CARTERET,  &-  THE  PELHAMS    1739-42 

made  such  large  counter-demands  on  England  that  its  concessions 
were  more  nominal  than  real.  The  opposition  grew  in  strength, 
and  before  the  end  of  1739  England  went  to  war  with  Spain. 

6.  The  Spanish  War  and  the  Resignation  of  Walpole.  1739 
— 1742. — No  one  now  doubts  that  it  would  have  been  better  for 
Walpole  if  he  had  resigned  rather  than  direct  a  war  which  he  re- 
garded as  unjustifiable  ;  but  the  principle  that  a  minister  should 
resign  rather  than  carry  out  a  policy  of  which  he  disapproves  was 
not  yet  thoroughly  established,  and  Walpole  perhaps  flattered 
himself  that  he  might  be  able  to  bring  about  a  peace  sooner 
than  any  other  minister.  He  knew  that  trouble  would  soon  come. 
"  They  may  ring  the  bells  now  " — as  he  heard  the  peals  from  the 
church  steeples  celebrating  the  glad  tidings  that  war  had  been  de- 
clared— "  before  long  they  will  be  wringing  their  hands."  At  first 
the  war  was  successful.  Admiral  Anson  sailed  round  the  world, 
sacked  Paita,  a  Spanish  port  in  Peru,  and  captured  a  rich  galleon 
which  carried  on  the  trade  between  Acapulco  and  Manilla.  Admiral 
Venx)n  took  Porto  Bello,  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  ;  but  he  failed  in  an  attack  on  Cartagena,  and  in  another 
attack  on  Santiago.  The  opposition  at  home  gave  all  the  credit  to 
the  Admiral,  and  all  the  blame  to  Walpole,  who  was  held  to  have 
done  little  to  support  a  war  of  which  he  disapproved,  and  who 
had  certainly  allowed  the  navy  to  deteriorate  during  the  long  peace. 
In  1741  there  were  fresh  elections,  and  the  energy  of  the  opposi- 
tion, together  with  the  excited  feeling  of  the  country,  reduced 
Walpole's  followers  in  the  new  Parliament.  In  those  days  election 
petitions  were  decided  by  a  majority  of  the  whole  House  of  Com- 
mons, the  vote  being  given  strictly  on  party  grounds.  Walpole  was 
beaten  on  the  Chippenham  election  petition  by  a  majority  of  one, 
and  on  February  17,  1742,  he  resigned,  receiving  the  title  of  Earl 
of  Orford.  He  had  done  his  work.  England  had,  under  his  rule, 
consolidated  herself,  and  had  settled  down  in  contented  acceptance 
of  the  Hanoverian  dynasty  and  the  Parliamentary  government 
established  at  the  Revolution.  It  was  inexplicable  to  Walpole  that 
the  first  result  of  the  national  unity  which  he  had  brought  about 
should  be  a  national  determination  to  go  to  war  in  the  assertion  of 
the  claims  of  England. 

7.  The  New  Administration.  1742. — There  was  some  difiiculty 
in  forming  a  new  ministry.  Politicians  who  had  agreed  in  attacking 
Walpole  agreed  in  nothing  else,  and  each  thought  that  his  own 
claim  to  office  was  superior  to  that  of  the  others.  So  hopeless 
4id  the  task  of  composing  their  differences  appear,  that  Pulteney, 


742 


TF/O  NEW  PEERS 


731 


who  had  led  the  late  opposition  in  the  House  of  Commons,  refused 
to  take  office,  and  consoled  himself  with  being  made  Earl  of  Bath. 
"  Here  we  are,  my  Lord  !  "  said  the  new  Earl  of  Orford  to  his  former 
rival,  when  he  met  him  in  the  House  of  Lords — "  the  two  most  in- 


A  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  1741-42  :  from  an  engraving  by  Pine. 

significant  men  in  England."  Orford  knew  that  to  leave  the  House 
of  Commons  was  to  abandon  power.  At  last  the  new  ministry  was 
got  together,  partly  from  Walpole's  enemies  and  partly  from  his 
friends.     Sir  Spencer  Compton — now  made  £.arl  of  Wilmington— 

3  B2 


732  IVALPOLE,   CARTERET,  &-   THE  PELHAMS         1742 

became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  He  had  not  talents  enough 
to  succeed  to  the  Prime-ministership  which  Walpole  had  created. 
The  new  administration  did  what  it  could  to  bring  Walpole  to 
punishment,  but  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  failed  to 
substantiate  any  charge  against  him. 

8.  Carteret  and  Newcastle.  1742. — The  ministers  were  too 
jealous  of  each  other  to  admit  that  anyone  could  be  first  amongst 
them.  The  two  Secretaries  of  State  were  the  Duke  of  Newcastle, 
the  head  of  the  Pelham  family,  and  Lord  Carteret.  Newcastle  was 
ignorant  and  incompetent,  and  made  himself  ridiculous  by  his  fussy 
attempts  to  appear  energetic.  He  always,  it  was  said,  lost  half 
an  hour  in  the  morning  and  spent  the  rest  of  the  day  in  running 
after  it.  He  had  one  ruling  passion — the  love  of  power,  not  for 
the  sake  of  any  great  policy,  but  because  he  enjoyed  the  distribu- 
tion of  patronage.  He  was  himself  incorruptible,  but  he  took 
pleasure  in  corrupting  others.  In  the  morning  his  ante-chamber 
was  crowded  with  place-hunters,  and  he  sometimes  rushed  out  of 
his  bedroom  with  his  face  covered  with  soap-suds  to  announce  to 
one  applicant  or  another  that  he  was  able  to  gratify  him  by  making 
his  brother  a  bishop  or  some  poor  dependant  a  tidewaiter.  The 
character  of  the  person  appointed  was  of  no  moment.  One  disap- 
pointed suitor  was  heard  to  mutter,  as  he  left  the  room:  "I  was  turned 
out  of  the  navy,  I  was  too  debauched  to  enter  the  army,  and  they  will 
not  even  give  me  preferment  in  the  Church  I  "  Carteret,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  an  able  statesman,  especially  in  the  department  of  foreign 
affairs.  He  was  as  energetic  as  he  was  able,  and  as  his  knowledge 
of  the  German  language  and  of  German  politics  quickly  gained 
him  the  king's  favour,  he  soon  became  the  leading  man  in  the 
ministry.  Practically  he  inherited  Walpole's  Prime-ministership, 
though  his  authority  was  by  no  means  so  undisputed  as  Walpole's 
had  been  in  the  later  years  of  his  ministry. 

9.  Beginning  of  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession.  1740 — 
1742. — When  Carteret  came  into  office,  Europe  was  distracted  by 
a  fresh  war.  The  Emperor  Charles  VL  having  no  son,  had  per- 
suaded his  various  hereditary  states  to  accept  an  arrangement 
known  as  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  according  to  which  they  all 
agreed  to  transfer  their  allegiance  to  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa 
at  his  death,  and  he  subsequently  obtained  from  the  principal 
European  Governments  an  acknowledgment  of  the  validity  of  this 
document.  He  died  in  1740,  and  though  Maria  Theresa — the 
Queen  of  Hungary,  as  she  was  called  from  her  principal  title — 
was  accepted  as  ruler  by  all  her  father's  states,  Charles  Albert, 


I740 


THE  AUSTRIAN  SUCCESSION 


733 


Elector  of  Bavaria,  put  forth  a  claim  to  Bohemia  and  the  Arch-duchy 
of  Austria.     France,  anxious  to  make  herself  supreme  n  Germ.any 


by  the  disruption  of  the  dominions  of  the  House  of  Austria,  took  up 
his  cause.  Frederick  II.,  who  had  just  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Prussia,  and  to  the  command  of  a  large,  well-disciplined  army,  seized 


734         IVALPOLE,  CARTERET,  &>  THE  PELHAMS     1741-42 


the  opportunity  to  lay  claim  to  Maria  Theresa's  province  of  Silesia, 
and  in  1741  he  defeated  the  Austrians  at  Mollvvitz.     In  the  same 


m^HLuin^ 


year  a  French  army  crossed  the  Rhine  in  support  of  the  Elector  of 
Bavaria,  who  early  in  1742  was  chosen  emperor  under  the  name  of 
Charles  VII.     In  the  summer  of  1742  Maria  Theresa  signed  the 


742 


MARIA    THERESA    AND  EREDERICK  II. 


735 


treaty  of  Breslau,  by  which  she  ceded  Silesia  to  Frederick,  hoping 
to  be  enabled  thereby  to  cope  with  her  other  enemies. 


lo.  Carteret's  Diplomacy.     1742— 1744. — The   English    people 
sympathised  with  Maria  Theresa,  and  George  I  J.  warmly  supported 


736 


IVALFOLE,   CARTERET,  &   THE  PELHAMS 


743 


her  against  the  French.     Carteret's  poHcy  was  to  bring  about  a 
good  understanding  between  Frederick  and  Maria  Theresa,  and 


to  unite  all  Germany  against  the  French.  He  very  nearly  suc- 
ceeded in  his  object.  In  1743  George  II.  was  in  Germany  at  the 
head  of  an  army  of  Hessians  and  Hanoverians,  combined  with 


1 743- 1 744  CARTERET'S  FOREIGN  POLICY  737 

Dutch  and  Austrian  forces.  On  June  27  he  defeated  the  French 
at  Dettingen  on  the  Main.  In  July  the  new  Bavarian  emperor 
undertook  to  desert  the  French  on  condition  of  receiving  a  subsidy 
from  England  ;  and  if  this  arrangement  had  been  carried  out,  all 
Germany  would  probably  have  been  united  against  France.  New- 
castle,  however,  being  jealous  of  Carteret,  and  too  timid  to  embark 
on  so  far-sighted  a  combination,  refused  to  sanction  the  agree- 
ment, and  the  German  powers  were  soon  once  more  in  strife  with 
one  anothc.  In  1744  Frederick  and  Maria  Theresa  were  again 
at  war,  and  France— with  which,  in  spite  of  the  battle  of  Dettingen, 
only  the  German  Electorate  of  Hanover,  and  not  England,  had  as 
yet  been  avowedly  at  war— now  declared  war  against  England. 
Charles  Edward,  the  son  of  the  Pretender — who  was  known  in 
England  as  the  Young  Pretender,  and  amongst  his  own  friends  as 
the  Prince  of  Wales— was  sent  with  a  French  fleet  to  invade 
England.  The  fleet  was,  however,  shattered  by  a  storm,  and  the 
danger  was  thus  for  a  time  averted. 

II.  Carteret  and  the  Family  Compact.  1743 — 1744.— ^ Carteret's 
object  had  been  to  take  up  again  the  policy  of  the  Whigs  of  Anne's 
time  as  opposed  to  the  policy  of  the  time  of  Walpole.  The  former 
had  aimed  at  a  general  European  combination  against  France, 
the  latter  at  keeping  the  peace  by  a  French  alliance.  Reasons 
were  not  wanting  for  such  a  change  of  policy.  France  was  now 
formidable,  not  only  on  account  of  her  renewed  military  strength, 
but  by  reason  of  her  close  alliance  with  Spain  (with  which  Eng- 
land was  still  at  war),  the  Family  Compact— first  signed  in  1733 
(seep.  725) — having  been  reneweH  in  1743.  Carteret,  who  had  a 
better  kno\yledge  of  Continental  affairs — and  especially  of  German 
affairs — than  any  man  of  his  day,  thought  it  wise  to  oppose  so 
dangerous  a  combination.  There  were,  hov/ever,  many  difficulties 
in  his  way,  even  as  far  as  the  Continent  was  concerned.  The 
German  powers  were  too  intent  on  their  own  quarrels  to  be 
easily  brought  to  care  for  common  interests,  and,  as  far  as  England 
was  concerned,  Carteret  could  not  reasonably  expect  support. 
England  had  roused  herself  sufficiently  to  care  for  the  welfare 
of  her  trade  and  the  protection  of  her  smugglers,  but  she  was 
far  more  of  a  maritime  than  of  a  Continental  power  ;  and,  whilst 
the  effects  of  the  Family  Compact — not  a  syllable  of  which  had 
yet  been  made  public — were  seen  in  a  close  alliance  between 
France  and  Spam  on  the  Continent,  no  such  effects  had  as  yet 
been  seen  at  sea.  When  Spain  was  attacked  by  England  in  1739 
France  had  given  no  help  to   her  ally.     As  Carteret   was  more 


n^ 


WALPOLE,   CARTE  J^ET,  ^  THE  PEL  HA  MS 


1744 


remiss  even  than  Walpole  in  carrying  on  the  maritime  war  against 
Spain,  people  unfairly  thought  that  all  his  continental  schemes 
were  merely  the  fruit  of  his  subservience  to  the  king's  predilection 
for  anything  that  would  profit  the  Hanoverian  electorate.  Pitt, 
who  afterwards  took  up  much  of  Carteret's  policy,  thundered 
against  him  with  passionate  invective  as  the  base  minister  who 
was  selling  the  interests  of  England  for  the  profit  of  Hanover. 

12.  Carteret's  Fall.  1744. — Other  causes  contributed  to  weaken 
Carteret.  He  had  no  voice  in  the  military  arrangements,  and  the 
armies  were  put  under  worn-out  or  incompetent  officers.  His 
greatest  weakness,  however,  arose  from  his  never  having  sat  in 


-^CL. 


Grenadier  of  the  First  Regiment 
of  Footguards,  1745. 


Uniform  of  tfri  Footguards, 
1745- 


the  House  of  Commons,  and  his  consequent  inability  to  under- 
stand its  ways.  "  I  want,"  he  said  to  a  young  politician,  "  to  instil 
a  noble  ambition  into  you  ;  to  make  you  knock  the  heads  of  the 
kings  of  Europe  together,  and  jumble  out  something  that  may  be 
of  service  to  this  country."  "  What  is  it  to  me,"  he  said  on  an- 
other occasion,  "who  is  made  a  judge  or  who  is  a  bishop?  It  is 
my  business  to  make  kings  and  emperors,  and  to  maintain  the 
balance  of  Europe."  "  Then,"  was  the  obvious  reply,  "  those  who 
want  to  be  bishops  and  judges  will  apply  to  those  who  submit  to 
make  it  their  business."  Newcastle,  at  least,  stuck  to  the  work 
of  making  judges  and   bishops,   and  thereby  gained  the   House 


1744  CARTERET'S  FALL  739 

of  Commons  to  his  side.  He  insisted  on  Carteret's  dismissal,  and 
on  November  23,  1744,  Carteret  who  had  just  become,  by  his 
mother's  death.  Earl  (Granville  —was  driven,  in  spite  of  the  king's 
warm  support,  to  resign  office. 

13.  The  Broad-bottomed  Administration.  1744.— Henry  Pel- 
ham,  Newcastle's  brother,  who  had  for  some  time  been  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury,  now  became  virtually  Prime  Minister.  He  was  a 
good  man  of  business,  and  anxious  to  return  to  Walpole's  policy 
of  peace.  His  administration  was  distinguished  as  the  Broad- 
bottomed  Administration,  because  everyone  whose  influence  or 
talents  rendered  him  at  all  dangerous  was  at  once  given  a  place 
in  it.  The  consequence  was  that,  for  the  only  time  since  party- 
government  began,  there  was  no  Opposition  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  For  the  present,  indeed,  the  king  refused  to  admit  Pitt 
to  office,  but  Pitt  knew  that  the  ministers  were  friendly  to  him, 
and  abstained  from  attacking  them.  When  once,  however,  the 
Pelhams  had  turned  out  Granville,  they  forgot  their  professions, 
and  squandered  English  money  on  Hanoverian  troops  and  German 
princes,  without  any  of  Carteret's  genius  to  enable  them  to  use 
their  allies  for  any  good  purpose  whatever.  A  large  British  force, 
indeed,  joined  the  allies  to  defend  the  Netherlands  against  a  French 
army  at  that  time  under  a  great  general.  Marshal  Saxe  ;  and  on 
May  I,  1745,  a  battle  was  fought  at  Fontenoy.  The  British 
column,  headed  by  the  king's  second  son,  the  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land, pressed  steadily  on  into  the  heart  of  the  French  line,  and, 
driving  everything  before  it,  all  but  won  the  day.  The  Dutch, 
however,  failed  to  second  it,  and  the  French  guard,  falling  upon 
the  isolated  column,  drove  it  back.  The  British  army  had  main- 
tained its  honourable  traditions,  but  the  French  gained  the  battle  ; 
and  the  frontier  towns  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  fell  at  once 
into  their  hands. 

14.  The  Young  Pretender  in  Scotland.  1745.— The  French 
victory  at  Fontenoy  encouraged  Charles  Edward  to  try  his  fortunes 
in  Scotland.  On  July  25,  1745,  he  landed  in  Moidart,  in  the 
West  Highlands,  with  only  seven  friends,  known  afterwards  as 
the  "seven  men  of  Moidart."  The  few  Highland  chiefs  who  came 
to  meet  him  shook  their  heads  at  his  rash  enterprise  ;  but  his 
gallant  bearing  and  persuasive  words  soon  swept  away  their 
scruples,  and  they  bade  their  clans  follow  a  prince  who  had 
thrown  himself  on  the  generosity  of  the  Highlanders.  On  August  19 
Charles  Edward  raised  the  Royal  Standard  in  Glenfinnan,  and 
was  soon  at  the  head  of  1,600  men.     It  was  a  small  force  with 


740         WALPOLE,   CARTERET,  ^   THE  PELHAMS      1744-45 

which  to  overrun  Scotland,  but  the  Prince  had  the  best  of  allies  in 
the  incapacity  of  the  British  commander.  Sir  John  Cope.  Military 
commands  were  at  that  time  bestowed  on  men  whose  friends  had 
influence  enough  to  secure  votes  to  the  government  in  Parliament ; 
and  inquiry  was  seldom  made,  when  an  officer  was  selected  for 
promotion,  whether  he  was  in  any  way  fit  for  the  post.  Cope 
inexplicably  withdrew  to  Inverness,  and  Charles  Edward  marched 
straight  upon  Edinburgh.  In  Scotland  the  traders,  having  gained 
much  by  the  Union,  were  Hanoverians  to  a  man  ;  ^  but  a  large  part 
of  the  population  of  Edinburgh  regretted  the  loss  of  the  advantages 
which  the  town  had  possessed  as  a  capital,  and  there  was,  more- 
over, a  widespread  dissatisfaction  with  the  Hanoverian  govern- 
ment, because  it  had  imposed  an  excise  on  whisky.  In  Edinburgh, 
therefore,  Charles  Edward  was  welcomed.  Before  long  Cope 
returned  by  sea  from  Inverness  to  Dunbar,  at  the  head  of  his 
little  army  of  2,200  men.  On  the  morning  of  September  21,  as 
day  was  breaking,  Charles  Edward,  now  at  the  head  of  2,500 
Highlanders,  fell  upon  him  at  Preston  Pans.  With  a  yell  and  a 
rush,  the  Highlanders  broke  up  the  English  ranks.  Cope  him- 
self was  amongst  the  foremost  in  the  flight. 

15.  The  March  to  Derby.  1745. — Many  of  the  Highlanders 
returned  to  their  glens  with  their  booty,  but  reinforcements  streamed 
in,  and  Charles  Edward,  now  at  the  head  of  6,000  men,  crossed  the 
Border,  hoping  to  rouse  England  in  his  support.  England  was 
strangely  apathetic.  Walpole  and  the  Whigs  had  weaned  English- 
men of  Jacobitism,  but  they  had  never  appealed  to  any  popular 
sentiment,  and  though  few  joined  Charles  Edward,  there  was  no 
general  rising  against  him.  They  found  numbers  were  gathering 
round.  They  gave  London  a  good  fright.  The  king's  guards 
were  sent  out  to  Finchley  to  defend  London,  and  troops  from  other 
quarters  gathered  menacingly  round  Charles  Edward's  line  of 
march.  When  on  December  5  the  Highlanders  reached  Derby, 
they  were  exposed  to  an  attack  from  forces  far  superior  to  their 
own  ;  and,  further  progress  being  hopeless,  they  turned  back. 
The  king  had  made  ready  to  leave  England  if  necessary ;  and 
it  is  said  that  on  Black  Friday -as  it  was  called — the  Bank  of 
England  cashed  cheques  in  sixpences,  in  order  to  delay  payment 
as  long  as  possible. 

16.  Falkirk  and  Culloden.  1746.— Charles  Edward  won  one 
more  victory.     On  January  17  he  defeated  Hawley — a  general  as 

1  The  character  of  Baillie  Nicol  Jarvie  in  Scott's  '  Rob  Roy '  conveys  much 
instruction  on  this  point. 


174^-1746 


THE    YOUNG   PRETENDER 


741 


incompetent  as  Cope— at  Falkirk.  The  Duke  of  Cumberland,  how- 
ever, advanced  into  Scotland  with  an  army  of  8,000,  whilst  Charles 
Edward  (who  retreated  to  Inverness)  had  now  but  5,000  with  him. 


Cumberland  was  not  a  great  general,  but  he  had  some  knowledge 
of  the  art  of  war.  His  men,  moreover,  were  well  drilled,  and  the 
advantage  of  superior  training    soon  became  manifest.     On  the 


742 


WALPOLE,   CARTERET,  6r-   THE  PELHAMS         1746 


morning  of  April  16,  Charles  Edward  tried  to  surprise  Cumberland 
on  Culloden  Moor.  The  Highlanders  arrived  too  late  in  the  field 
for  a  surprise,  but  they  charged  as  vigorously  as  at  Preston  Pans. 
They  broke  the  first  line  of  the  enemy,  but  the  second  line  held 


The  Rt.  Hon.  William  Pitt,  Paymaster  of  the  Fovcc.-,,  aficrv.arv!.,  ICar!  v.f  Challiaiii  : 
from  a  painting  by  Hoare. 

firm,  and  they  were  broken  in  turn.  Cumberland  slaughtered  his 
now  helpless  enemies  with  unrelenting  cruelty,  and  gained  for  him- 
self the  name  of  the  Butcher,  which  he  never  lost.  The  wounded 
were  dragged  from  their  hiding-places  and  shot,  and  a  building  in 


1 745- 1 754       ^-AST   YEARS  OF  HENRY  PELHAM  743 

which  twenty  disabled  Highlanders  had  sought  refuge  was  burnt  to 
the  ground  with  the  wretched  fugitives  inside  it.  Charles  Edward 
himself  wandered  long  amongst  the  mountains.  Though  a  heavy 
price  was  set  on  his  head,  not  a  Highlander  would  betray  him.  At 
one  moment,  when  escape  seemed  impossible,  a  young  lady.  Flora 
Macdonald,  dressed  him  as  her  maidservant,  and  thus  carried  him 
off  in  safety.  At  last  he  succeeded  in  making  his  way  back  to 
France.  His  later  life  was  aimless,  and  he  sank  into  drunkenness. 
He  did  not  die  till  1788,  and  his  brother  Henry,  who  had  become  a 
Cardinal,  survived  till  1807.  Henry  was  the  last  descendant,  in 
the  male  line,  of  the  House  of  Stuart,  though  there  are  descendants 
of  Henrietta,  the  youngest  daughter  of  Charles  I.,  still  living, 
amongst  whom  the  most  conspicuous  is  the  present  King  of  Italy. 

17.  The  Pelhams  and  the  King.  1745. — The  Pelhams  made 
use  of  the  struggle  in  Scotland  to  press  for  Pitt's  admission  to  the 
ministry,  and,  on  the  king's  refusal,  resigned  office.  George  II. 
ordered  Granville  (see  p.  739)  to  form  a  ministry,  but  Granville 
found  it  impossible  to  gain  the  support  of  a  majority  in  the  Houses, 
and  in  forty-eight  hours  he  gave  up  the  task.  The  Pelhams  were 
reinstated  in  power,  bringing  Pitt  with  them.  It  was  the  first 
thorough  acknowledgment  by  a  king  that  he  was  powerless  in  the 
face  of  Parliament.  It  is  true  that  the  majority  commanded  by  the 
Pelhams  was  secured  by  unblushing  corruption  ;  but  there  was  as 
yet  no  popular  sentiment  opposed  to  that  corruption  to  which  the 
king  could  appeal. 

18.  End  of  the  War.  1746— 1748. — The  war  on  the  Continent 
still  continued.  The  French  overran  the  Austrian  Netherlands, 
but  were  checked  in  Italy,  whilst  the  English  were  successful  at 
sea.  At  last,  in  1748,  a  general  peace  was  made  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
every  power  restoring  its  conquests  with  the  exception  of  Frederick, 
who  kept  Silesia  for  Prussia. 

19.  End  of  Henry  Pelham's  Ministry.  1748 — 1754. — The  re- 
mainder of  Henry  Pelham's  ministry  was  uneventful.  In  1582  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  had  set  straight  an  error  which  had  grown  up  in 
the  Calendar,  and  the  new  Gregorian  Calendar  had  by  this  time 
been  adopted  by  most  European  powers.  England,  however,  had 
long  objected  even  to  be  set  right  by  a  Pope,  and  in  the  eighteenth 
century  the  almanac  was  eleven  days  wrong.  What  was  really, 
for  instance,  September  1 1  was  known  in  England  as  September  i. 
In  1751  an  Act  of  Parliament  ordered  that  eleven  days  should  be 
dropped  out  of  the  calendar,  in  order  to  make  the  reckoning  correct. 
Large  numbers  of  people  fancied  that  they  were  cheated  out  of 


744  WALPOLE,   CARTERET,  6-   THE  PELHAMS 

eleven  days'  pay,  and  mobs  went  about,  shouting,  "  Give  us  our 
eleven  days."  In  1754  Henry  Pelham  died.  The  new  constitu- 
tional doctrine  that  England  was  governed  by  the  Cabinet,  and 
that  the  Cabinet  could  retain  office  irrespective  of  the  king's  good- 
will if  it  could  secure  the  support  of  Parliament,  was  now  fully 
established. 

Books  recommettded  for  the  further  study  of  Part  VIII. 

Macaulay,  Lord.     History  of  England.     Vols,  iii.-v. 

Stanhope,  Lord.      Reign  of  Anne. 

History  of    England   from   the    Peace   of   Utrecht. 

Vols,  i.-iv. 
Harrop,  R.     Bolingbroke. 

Parnf:ll,  Colonel.     War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
Stebbing.  W.     Peterborough. 
Lecky,  W.   E.   H.     History  of    England   in   the   Eighteenth    Century. 

Vols.  i.  ii. 
Morley,  J.     Walpole. 
Ballantyne,  a.     Lord  Carteret. 
MahaiST,    Capt.    A.    T.      The    Influence   of  Sea   Power  upon   History. 

Chapters  iv.-vii. 


PART   IX 

THE  FALL   OF  THE   WHLGS  AND    THE  RISE   OF 
THE  NEW  TORYISM.     1754— 1789 


CHAPTER   XLVII 

NEWCASTLE  AND   PITT.      1754— 1760 

LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  George  II.,  1727— 1760 

Newcastle  Prime  Minister 1754 

Beginning  of  the  Seven  Years' War 1756 

Ministry  of  Devonshire  and  Pitt 1756 

Coalition  between  Pitt  and  Newcastle 1757 

Conquest  of  Cape  Breton 1758 

Capture  of  Quebec 1759 

Conquest  of  Canada 1760 

Death  of  George  II Oct.  25,  1760 

Formation  of  the  East  India  Company .        ....  1600 

»  Death  of  Aurungzebe 1707 

Clive's  Defence  of  Arcot 1751 

Battle  of  Plassey 1757 

Battle  of  W^andewash .        .  1760 

I.  Butler,  Wesley,  and  Whitefield.  1736 — 1754. — In  religion 
as  well  as  in  politics  everything  savouring  of  enthusiasm  had  long 
been  scouted,  and  in  polite  society  little  of  moral  earnestness  was 
to  be  found.  There  had,  indeed,  been  much  discussion  as  to  the 
truth  of  Christianity,  and  for  a  long  time  there  was  a  steady  growth 
of  opinion  in  favour  of  deism.  Latterly,  however,  there  had  been 
a  strong  reaction  in  favour  of  Christian  doctrines.  Their  noblest 
advocate,  Butler,  whose  Analogy  was  published  in  1736,  writing  as 
he  did  for  educated  men,  appealed  to  the  reason  rather  than  to  the 
heart.  The  task  of  moving  the  masses  fell  into  the  hands  of  John 
III.  3  c 


746  NEWCASTLE  AND   PITT  1738  1754 

Wesley,  who  had  in  his  youth  striven  to  Hve  a  pious,  beneficent  life 
at  Oxford,  where  he  and  his  followers  had  been  nicknamed  Metho- 
dists. In  1738,  Wesley  came  to  believe  that  no  real  Christianity  was 
possible  without  conversion,  or  a  supernatural  conviction  of  salva- 
tion. That  which  he  believed  he  taught,  and  his  enthusiasm  gained 
him  followers,  in  whom  he  kindled  zeal  equal  to  his  own.  Wesley 
was  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  in  that  Church  he 
wished  to  abide  ;  but  the  clergy  counted  him  as  a  madman,  and, 
in  1739,  he  was  obliged  to  gather  his  followers  elsewhere  than  in 
churches.  Whitefield,  a  born  orator,  whose  views  were  very  similar 
to  those  of  Wesley,  preferred  to  preach  in  the  open  air.  He  stirred 
the  hearts  of  immense  crowds,  as  many  as  twenty  thousand  some- 
times coming  to  hear  him.  At  Kingswood,  near  Bristol,  the 
coUiers  flocked  to  him  in  multitudes,  their  tears  flowing  down  in 
white  streaks  over  faces  blackened  with  coal-dust,  Wesley  was, 
however,  the  organiser  of  the  movement,  and  gathered  into  con- 
gregations those  who  had  been  converted,  teaching  them  to  con- 
fess their  sins  one  to  another,  and  to  relate  in  public  their  spiritual 
experiences.  There  was  no  room  for  such  enthusiasm  in  the  Church 
of  that  day,  and,  much  against  his  will,  Wesley  was  compelled  to 
organise  his  congregations  outside  the  Church.  What  he  and 
Whitefield  did  had  a  value,  apart  from  their  system  and  teaching. 
They  reminded  their  generation  that  man  has  a  heart  as  well  as  a 
head,  and  that  the  cultivation  of  the  intellect  is  not  all  that  is 
necessary  to  raise  human  nature  above  brutality  ;  and  thus  they 
stirred  to  higher  and  purer  thoughts  thousands  of  their  countrymen 
who  were  sunk  in  inertness  and  vice.  As  a  matter  of  course  they 
were  persecuted,  and  men  of  intelligence  and  position  thought  it 
well  that  it  should  be  so. 

2.  Fielding  and  Hogarth.— In  literature  and  art,  as  well  as  in 
religion,  a  new  life  was  making  itself  manifest.  Fielding,  in  his 
'Tom  Jones'  and  'Joseph  Andrews,'  has  been  styled  the  creator 
of  the  modern  novel  in  its  portraiture  of  living  humanity.  Hogarth 
was  undoubtedly  the  originator  of  an  English  school  of  painting. 
Both  Fielding  and  Hogarth  were  often  coarse  in  expression,  but 
their  tendencies  were  moral,  and  their  work  robust  and  vigorous. 

3.  Newcastle,  Pitt,  and  Fox.  1754—1755. — In  politics,  too, 
the  time  of  drowsy  inaction  was  coming  to  an  end.  "  Now," 
said  George  II.,  when  he  heard  of  Pelham's  death,  "  I  shall  have 
no  peace."  Newcastle  was,  indeed,  appointed  First  Lord  of 
the  Treasury  and  was  regarded  as  Prime  Minister  in  his  brother's 
place,  but  Newcastle  had  not  his  brother's  capacity  for  business, 


1754  A    COMING  WAR  747 

and,  besides  that,  he  was  not  in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  must 
choose  some  one  to  lead  the  House  of  Commons,  and  there  were 
three  persons  on  whom  his  choice  might  fall :  Murray,  Pitt,  and 
Henry  Fox.  Murray,  who  was  the  greatest  lawyer  of  the  day,  had  no 
ambition  except  that  of  becoming  Chief  Justice,  and  was  disqualified 
by  his  professional  turn  of  mind  from  occupying  a  political  post. 
Newcastle  objected  to  Pitt  as  too  opinionated,  whilst  Fox  seemed 
just  the  man  to  suit  him.  Newcastle  and  Fox  both  loved  corruption, 
but  whilst  Newcastle  loved  it  for  the  sake  of  the  pleasure  of  exer- 
cising patronage.  Fox  loved  it  for  the  sake  of  its  profits.  Fox  was  the 
ablest  debater  of  his  day,  and  might  have  risen  high  if  he  had  not 
preferred  to  hold  unimportant  but  well-paid  posts  rather  than  impor- 
tant posts  of  which  the  pay  was  less.  He  now  refused  Newcastle's 
proposal  that  he  should  lead  the  House  of  Commons^  because  New- 
castle insisted  on  keeping  the  secret-service  money — in  other  words, 
the  money  spent  in  bribing  men  to  vote  for  the  government — in  his 
own  hands.  Fox  truly  said  that  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  ask 
members  for  their  votes  unless  he  knew  whether  they  had  been 
bribed  or  not.  Accordingly  Newcastle  appointed  Sir  Thomas 
Robinson  to  lead  the  House.  Robinson  was  a  diplomatist,  who 
having  been  long  absent  from  England,  knew  nothing  about  the 
ways  of  members.  Pitt  and  Fox,  agreeing  in  nothing  else,  joined  in 
baiting  Robinson.  Whenever  he  made  a  mistake  they  ironically 
took  his  part  on  the  ground  that  he  had  been  so  long  abroad  that 
he  could  not  be  expected  to  know  better.  Robinson  threw  up 
his  post  in  disgust,  and,  in  1755,  Fox  abandoning  the  conditions  on 
which  he  had  formerly  insisted  became  Secretary  of  State  with  the 
leadership  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

4.  The  French  in  America.  1754. — In  1754,  when  Newcastle 
succeeded  his  brother  as  Prime  Minister,  there  was  already  danger 
of  a  war  with  France.  In  North  America  France  possessed  Louis- 
iana, at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  and  Canada,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  St.  Lawrence.  Between  the  two  was  a  vast  region,  at  that 
time  only  inhabited  by  Indians,  who  used  it  for  purposes  of 
hunting,  and  sold  furs  to  the  French  Canadians.  France,  which 
already  possessed  a  line  of  scattered  forts  between  Canada  and 
Louisiana,  claimed  the  whole  of  the  region  to  the  west  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains  as  her  own.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were 
now  thirteen  English  colonies,  and  the  colonists  were  beginning  to 
find  their  way  westward  over  the  mountains,  especially  at  the  head 
of  the  Ohio  river,  refusing  to  be  penned  in  by  the  French  forts  be- 
yond the  Alleghanies.  Between  the  English  and  the  French  colonists 

3  c  2 


748  NEWCASTLE  AND   PITT  1754-1756 

fighting  began  in  1754.  The  contest  then  begun  was  one  for  the 
possession  of  the  basin  of  the  Ohio,  though  the  possession  of  that 
would  ultimately  bring  with  it  the  power  to  colonise  the  far  vaster 
basin  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  affluents.  Therein  lay  the 
answer  to  a  further  question,  as  yet  unsuspected,  whether  the 
English  or  the  French  was  to  be  the  predominating  race  in  America 
and  in  the  world  of  the  future.  Great  Britain  was  oi]ce  more 
drifting  into  a  war  which,  like  the  war  with  Spain  in  1739,  would 
be  one  for  mercantile  and  colonial  expansion.  The  difference  was 
that,  whereas  in  1739  she  was  matched  with  the  decaying  mon- 
archy of  Spain,  she  was  now  matched  against  the  vigorous  mon- 
archy of  France.  The  Family  Compact  uniting  Spain  and  France 
had  as  yet  caused  little  real  danger  to  England.  As  France  had 
shown  no  signs  of  supporting  Spain  in  America  in  1739,  Spain 
showed  no  signs  of  supporting  France  in  1754. 

5.  Newcastle's  Blundering.  1754 — 1756. — Newcastle  was  not  the 
man  to  conduct  a  great  war  successfully.  In  1754,  hearing  that 
the  French  had  established  a  fort  called  Fort  Duquesne,  at  the 
head  of  the  Ohio  valley,  he  sent  General  Braddock  from  England 
to  capture  it.  In  1755  Braddock,  one  of  those  brave,  but  unintel- 
ligent officers  of  whom  there  were  many  in  the  British  service, 
falling  into  an  ambuscade  of  French  and  Indians,  was  himself  killed 
and  his  troops  routed.  Newcastle  could  not  make  up  his  mind 
whether  to  fight  or  not.  It  was  finally  resolved  that,  though  war  was 
not  to  be  declared,  Hawke  was,  by  way  of  reprisal  for  the  capture  of 
British  shipping,  to  seize  any  French  ships  he  met  with.  Naturally, 
when  Hawke  carried  out  these  instructions,  the  French  regarded  the 
seizure  of  their  ships  as  an  act  of  piracy.  Meanwhile  George  II.  was 
frightened  lest  Hanover  should  be  lost  if  a  war  broke  out,  and,  by  his 
direction,  Newcastle  agreed  to  treaties  giving  subsidies  to  various 
German  states  and  even  to  Russia,  in  return  for  promises  to  find 
troops  for  the  defence  of  Hanover.  Against  this  system  Pitt  openly 
declared  himself  "  I  think,"  he  said,  "regard  ought  to  be  had  to 
Hanover,  if  it  should  be  attacked  on  our  account ;  but  we  could  not 
find  money  to  defend  it  by  subsidies,  and  if  we  could  that  is  not  the 
way  to  defend  it."  Behind  Pitt  was  the  rising  spirit  of  the  nation, 
eager  to  enter  on  a  struggle  for  colonial  empire,  but  not  wishing  to 
incur  loss  for  the  sake  of  the  king's  German  electorate.  Legge,  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  a  close  ally  of  Pitt,  refused  to  give 
the  money  needed  to  pay  a  subsidy  to  Hesse,  and  both  he  and  Pitt 
were  dismissed  from  their  offices.  Newcastle  had  an  overwhelming 
majority  in  both  Houses,  but  so  helpless  was  he  that  in  1756  he 


1756  NEWCASTLE'S   RESIGNATION  749 

actually  asked  the  king  to  bring  Hanoverian  and  Hessian  soldiers 
to  England  to  save  it  from  a  French  invasion. 

6.  The  Loss  of  Minorca.  1756. — The  weakness  of  the  Govern- 
ment weakened  the  hands  of  its  officers.  In  1756  a  Fiench  fleet 
and  army  assailed  Port  Mahon,  in  the  island  of  Minorca,  which 
was  still  a  British  possession.  Admiral  Byng  set  out  to  relieve  it, 
but,  though  he  was  brave,  he  was  deficient  in  energy,  and,  finding 
the  French  ships  more  numerous  than  his  own,  thought  it  prudent 
to  withdraw  without  serious  fighting.  Before  long  the  whole  of 
Minorca  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  Port  Mahon  and 
Gibraltar  were  the  two  ports  on  which  English  maritime  operations 
in  the  Mediterranean  could  be  based,  and  it  is  therefore  no  wonder 
that  there  was  a  howl  of  indignation  in  England  at  the  loss  of  one 
of  them.  The  popular  theory  was  that  Byng  had  been  bribed  to 
avoid  fighting.  The  charge  was  utterly  false,  but  so  many  bribes 
were  taken  in  those  days  that  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  been  un- 
reasonable.    Byng  was  brought  home  to  await  his  trial. 

7.  Beginning  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.  1756.— After  this, 
war  was  at  last  declared.  What  might  have  been  the  result  if 
England  and  France  had  been  obliged  to  fight  it  out  alone,  it  is 
impossible  to  say.  France,  however,  had  other  enemies  than 
England.  Whilst  England  had  only  a  sea  frontier,  France  had  a 
land  frontier  as  well,  and,  therefore,  whilst  England  was  able  to 
throw  her  main  strength  into  a  struggle  for  mastery  on  the  sea  and 
for  the  acquisition  of  colonies,  France  threw  her  main  strength 
into  her  efforts  to  become  predominant  by  land,  and  consequently 
neglected  her  navy  and  her  colonies.  She  now,  at  the  very  time 
when  England  was  ready  to  challenge  her  power  in  America,  em- 
barked on  a  war  in  Europe  which  was  alone  sufficient  to  occupy 
her  energy.  This  time  she  forsook  her  old  policy  of  hostility  to 
Austria,  and  joined  with  Austria,  Russia,  and  the  German  states 
to  attack  and  dismember  Prussia.  The  war  which  was  thus  begun 
in  1756  is  known  as  the  Seven  Years'  War. 

8.  Ministry  of  Devonshire  and  Pitt.  1756 — 1757. — So  strong 
was  the  feeling  aroused  by  Newcastle's  incompetence  that  his  own 
subordinates  were  frightened.  In  October,  1756,  Fox  resigned,  and 
no  one  could  be  found  to  fill  his  place.  Murray  would  give  no 
help  to  the  ministry,  and  was  allowed  to  become  Chief  Justice,  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Mansfield,  under  which  he  is  known  as  one  of 
the  greatest  of  English  judges.  Newcastle,  helpless  and  frightened 
lest  the  mob  which  was  raving  for  the  hanging  of  Byng  should 
want  to  hang  him  too,  also  resigned.     The  Duke  of  Devonshire 


750  NEWCASTLE  AND  PITT  1756-1757 

became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  with  Pitt  as  Secretary  of  State 
and  practically  Prime  Minister.  At  once  Pitt  took  vigorous 
measures  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  Money  was  raised,  and 
men  levied.  It  was  not,  however,  merely  by  his  energy  that 
Pitt  differed  from  the  former  ministers.  Newcastle  relied  on 
a  Parliamentary  majority  acquired  by  influence  and  corruption  ; 
Pitt  had  confidence  in  the  nation  and  in  himself  as  well.  "  My 
Lord,"  he  said  to  Devonshire,  "  Lknow  that  I  can  save  this  nation 
and  that  nobody  else  can."  He  understood  how  to  inspire  the  con- 
fidence which  he  needed.  He  sent  out  of  England  the  Hanoverian 
and  Hessian  troops  which  had  been  brought  over  to  protect  the 
country,  and  passed  a  Bill  for  re-organising  the  national  militia. 
He  even  raised  regiments  in  the  very  Highlands,  out  of  the  men 
who  had  been  the  most  vigorous  enemies  of  the  House  of  Hanover, 
knowing  that  the  Highlanders  had  fought  under  Charles  Edward 
far  more  because  they  were  poor  than  because  they  reverenced 
the  House  of  Stuart.  On  the  other  hand,  he  moved  for  a  grant 
of  200,000/.  for  the  protection  of  Hanover.  It  seemed  as  if  Pitt 
was  about  to  fall  back  on  the  policy  of  Carteret.  There  was, 
however,  this  difference,  that  whereas  with  Carteret  the  war  on  the 
Continent  was  alone  thought  of,  with  Pitt  intervention  on  the  Con- 
tinent was  regarded  as  subsidiary  to  the  great  colonial  struggle 
on  which  England  was  now  embarked. 

9.  Pitt's  Dismissal.  1757. — Pitt  was  the  most  popular  man  in 
England,  but  he  had  only  a  scanty  following  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  he  was  disliked  by  the  king  on  account  of  his  former 
declamations  against  payments  for  the  sake  of  Hanover.  Whilst 
he  was  in  office  Byng  was  brought  to  trial  and  condemned  to  be 
shot  as  a  coward,  which  he  certainly  was  not.  Pitt  pleaded  for 
Byng's  life  with  the  king,  telling  him  that  the  House  of  Commons 
was  favourably  disposed.  "  You  have  taught  me,"  was  George's 
reply,  "  to  look  for  the  sense  of  my  people  in  other  places  than  the 
House  of  Commons."  Byng  received  no  pardon,  and  died  bravely, 
having  been  guilty  of  no  more  than  an  error  of  judgment.  Soon 
afterwards  the  king  dismissed  Pitt.  At  once  there  was  an  outburst 
of  feeling  in  his  favour.  "  For  some  weeks,"  wrote  a  brilliant 
letter-writer  of  the  day,  "  it  rained  gold  boxes."  The  reference 
was  to  the  boxes  in  which  numerous  corporations  sent  the  freedom 
of  their  respective  cities  or  boroughs  to  Pitt. 

10.  Nature  of  Pitt's  Popularity.  1757. — Pitt's  popularity,  though 
wide-spread,  was  not  like  that  by  which  a  popular  statesman  is 
supported  at  the  present  day.     It  was  not  a  popularity  amongst 


1757  A    CALL   FOR  PITT  751 

the  nation  at  large,  of  which  the  majority  could  not  at  that 
time  either  read  or  write,  or  appreciate  a  political  discussion. 
Pitt's  enthusiastic  admirers  were  to  be  found  amongst  the  merchants 
and  tradesmen  of  the  towns.  These  were  the  men  who  had  built 
up  England's  commercial  prosperity  by  their  thrift  and  honesty. 
Amongst  them  the  profligacy,  the  drunkenness,  and  the  gambling 
which  disgraced  polite  society  found  little  place.  They  had  borne 
long  with  Newcastle  and  his  like  because  times  had  been  quiet, 
and  the  Government,  scandalous  as  it  was,  never  harassed  English- 
men in  their  business  or  their  pleasure.  Now  that  times  were 
dangerous  they  called  for  Pitt— the  Great  Commoner,  as  they 
styled  him — to  assume  power,  not  because  they  were  conscious  of 
his  latent  capacity  for  statesmanship,  but  because  they  knew  him 
to  be  even  ostentatiously  uncorrupt.  To  the  end  of  his  life  Pitt 
called  himself  a  Whig,  but  his  hostility  to  a  system  of  government 
in  which  patronage  was  distributed  to  those  who  could  bring  most 
votes  to  the  Government,  without  regard  to  merit,  led  him  to  place 
himself  in  opposition  to  Newcastle,  and  ultimately  led  to  his  es- 
trangement from  the  great  Whig  families.  By  opposing  power 
derived  from  popular  support  to  power  based  on  parliamentary 
connection,  he  introduced  into  constitutional  struggles  an  element 
which  had  long  been  left  out  of  account,  and  thus  became  (though 
unintentionally)  a  precursor  of  the  new  Toryism  which,  in  the 
hands  of  his  son,  broke  the  power  of  the  Whigs. 

II.  Coalition  between  Pitt  and  Newcastle.  1757.  —  The 
middle  class  in  the  towns  formed,  at  this  time,  the  most  vigorous 
element  in  English  society  ;  but  it  disposed  of  few  votes  in  Parlia- 
ment. The  great  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons  sought  for 
loaves  and  fishes,  and  as  they  knew  that  incompetency  might 
hope  for  reward  from  Newcastle  but  not  from  Pitt,  they  steadily 
voted  as  Newcastle  bade  them,  even  after  he  had  ceased  to  hold 
office.  Newcastle,  however,  could  not  make  up  his  mind  whether 
he  wished  to  resume  office  or  not.  He  was  too  fond  of  the  lower 
sort  of  power  to  share  it  willingly  with  any  colleague  whose  in- 
telligence was  greater  than  his  own,  and  too  timid  to  grasp 
authority  at  a  time  when  it  was  dangerous  to  its  possessor.  Ac- 
cordingly, he  long  vacillated  between  acceptance  and  refusal,  and 
for  eleven  weeks  there  was  no  ministry  at  all.  At  last  an  admirable 
arrangement  was  made.  A  coalition  was  effected  between  New- 
castle and  Pitt.  Newcastle  was  to  be  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury 
to  manage  the  business  of  patronage,  and  Pitt  was  to  be  Secretary 
of  State  to  manage  the  business  of  politics  and  war.     Both  were 


752  NEWCASTLE  AND  PITT  I757-I758 

satisfied  ;  Newcastle  gave  to  Pitt  the  Parliamentary  majority  which 
he  wanted,  and  Pitt  took  on  himself  the  responsibility  which 
Newcastle  shunned.  Fox  got  a  lucrative  appointment  without 
poHtical  influence,  and  in  a  few  years  made  himself  enormously  rich. 

12.  Military  Disasters.  1757. — When  Pitt  took  office  in  com- 
bination with  Newcastle  things  were  going  badly.  In  America, 
French  reinforcements  were  poured  into  Canada,  and  an  attempt 
made  by  Lord  Loudon,  the  British  commander,  to  take  Louis- 
burg,  a  strong  fortress  which  guarded  the  French  island  of  Cape 
Breton,  failed  signally.  In  Germany,  the  king  of  Prussia,  Frederick 
the  Great,  after  overrunning  Saxony  in  the  preceding  year,  now, 
in  1757,  attempted  to  overrun  Bohemia.  After  winning  a  battle 
at  Prague  in  May,  he  was  disastrously  defeated  at  Kolin  in  June, 
and  driven  out  of  the  country.  A  French  army,  in  the  mean- 
while, entered  Hanover  and  defeated  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  at 
Hastenbeck  ;  after  which  Cumberland  signed  the  Convention  of 
Closterseven  in  September,  leaving  Hanover  in  the  hands  of 
the  enemy.  "  Here  is  my  son,"  said  George  II.  of  him  when  he 
returned  to  England,  "  who  has  ruined  me  and  disgraced  himself." 

13.  Pitt  and  Frederick  the  Great.  1757— 1758.— Pitt  set  him- 
self to  remedy  the  mischief,  as  far  as  he  could.  His  plans  for 
military  action  were  often  faulty,  but  he  had  indomitable  courage, 
and  an  almost  unique  power  of  inspiring  others  with  courage. 
Boldly  throwing  aside  the  traditions  of  the  century,  according  to 
which  appointments  in  the  army  and  navy  were  given  to  men 
of  good  birth,  or  of  families  whose  favour  would  bring  votes  in 
Parliament,  he  chose  commanders  for  their  merit.  Every  young 
officer  knew  that  Pitt's  eye  was  on  him,  and  that  he  would  be  pro- 
moted if  he  conducted  himself  well,  even  if  he  were  poor  and 
fiiendless.  A  new  spirit  was  breathed  into  both  services.  Before 
Pitt  could  achieve  anything,  Frederick's  military  genius  had  given 
him  the  mastery  over  his  enemies.  In  November  the  King  of 
Prussia  smote  down  the  French  at  Rossbach,  and  in  December  he 
smote  down  the  Austrians  at  Leuthen.  Pitt  at  once  saw  that  a 
close  alliance  with  F'rederick  was  necessary  if  England  was  to  main- 
tain her  struggle  with  France  beyond  the  Atlantic.  In  1758,  there- 
fore, he  repudiated  the  Convention  of  Closterseven,  which  had  not 
been  brought  into  a  binding  form,  gave  a  subsidy  of  700,000/.  a 
year  to  Frederick,  and  sent  12,000 English  soldiers  to  join  the  Han- 
overian army  in  defending  Hanover.  The  commander  of  this  force 
was  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  one  of  the  best  of  Frederick's 
generals.     In  June   the   Prince  defeated  the  French  at  Crefeld. 


1757-175^  ^-V  ATTACK  ON  QUEBEC  753 

Frederick  had,  in  the  meanwhile,  driven  back  the  Russians  at  Zorn- 
dorf,  but  late  in  the  year  was  beaten  at  Hochkirch  by  the  Austrians. 

14.  Fighting  in  France  and  America.  1757 — 1758. — Both  in 
1757  and  in  1758  Pitt  sent  expeditions  to  harass  the  French  at 
home.  In  1757  an  attempt  to  take  Rochefort  failed  through  dis- 
sensions amongst  the  commanders.  One  expedition,  in  1758, 
destroyed  some  French  ships  and  stores  at  St.  Malo,  whilst  a. 
second  did  some  damage  at  Cherbourg,  but  was  driven  off  with 
heavy  loss  in  the  Bay  of  St.  Cast.  In  America  Pitt  made  a  great 
effort  to  gain  his  ends.  He  dismissed  the  incompetent  Loudon,  and 
appointed  Abercrombie  to  command  in  chief,  placing  under  his 
orders  young  men  whose  ability  and  energy  he  had  noted,  of  whom 
the  most  conspicuous  was  Wolfe,  who  had  distinguished  himself 
in  the  abortive  attempt  on  Rochefort.  England's  superiority  at 
sea  now  told  heavily  in  her  favour.  In  the  course  of  1758  Louis- 
burg  and  Fort  Duquesne  were  taken,  though  Abercrombie  was 
repulsed  at  Ticonderoga.  In  America  the  British  troops,  supported 
as  they  were  by  the  colonial  militia,  far  outnumbered  the  French. 
France  was  so  fully  occupied  in  Germany  that  she  was  unable  to 
send  more  than  scanty  reinforcements  to  the  Marquis  of  Montcalm, 
the  commander  of  the  French  army  in  Canada,  who  had,  there- 
fore, to  defend  the  French  possessions  in  America  against  heavy 
odds. 

15.  The  Campaign  in  Canada.  1759. — Pitt  planned  a  serious 
attack  on  Canada  for  1759.  Abercrombie,  having  failed  at  Ticon- 
deroga, was  discarded.  Three  armies  were  to  be  brought  from 
distant  points  to  meet  before  Quebec,  the  fortified  capital  of 
Canada.  Amherst,  who  replaced  Abercrombie,  was  to  capture 
Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  push  up  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain, 
and  approach  Quebec  from  the  south.  Prideaux  and  Johnson  were 
to  capture  Fort  Niagara  and  approach  it  from  the  west.  Wolfe  was 
to  sail  up  the  St.  Lawrence  and  to  approach  it  from  the  east.  The 
idea  that  three  armies,  separated  by  vast  and  thinly  populated  re- 
gions, could  be  brought  to  co-operate  at  a  given  time  was  essentially 
faulty.  In  fact,  though  the  western  army  captured  Niagara  and  the 
southern  army  captured  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  neither  of 
them  got  near  Quebec  that  year.  Wolfe  found  himself,  with  his 
troops,  alone  at  the  meeting-point  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
position  of  Quebec  is  exceedingly  strong,  lying  between  two  rivers, 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  St.  Charles.  Behind  it  rise  the  Heights 
of  Abraham,  which  are  easily  defensible,  as  it  has  steep  cliffs  on 
the  river  sides.     Around  the  defences    of  the  town   Montcalm 


754 


NEWCASTLE  AND   PITT 


1759 


759-I760  THE   CAPTURE   OF  QUEBEC 


755 


manoeuvred  with  admirable  skill  ;  and  though  Wolfe  landed  his 
army,  he  could  neither  pass  his  adversary  by  nor  compel  him  to 
fight.  The  season  was  growing  late,  and  it  seemed  as  if  the 
British  general  would  be  forced  to  return  home  without  accom- 
phshing  his  task. 

i6.  The  Conquest  of  Canada.  1759— 1760. — The  St.  Lawrence, 
as  it  flows  by  Quebec,  is  a  broad  and  navigable  stream,  and  Wolfe, 
re-embarking  his  troops,  moved  his  ships  up  the  river  past  Quebec, 


Wolfe  :  from  the  painting  by  Schaak  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

hoping  to  be  able  to  achieve  something  from  that  side.  Though 
he  had  but  little  hope,  he  resolved  to  make  one  desperate  attempt. 
Placing  his  men  in  boats  at  night  he  floated  with  them  down 
the  river.  Gray's  Elegy  had  been  recently  published,  and  W^olfe 
repeated  some  of  its  lines  to  his  officers.  "  Now  gentlemen," 
he  said,  "  I  would  rather  be  the  author  of  that  poem  than  take 
Quebec  1  "  His  boats  were  steered  for  a  point  at  which  there  was 
a  zig-zag  path  up  the  cliff  which  edged  the  Heights  of  Abraham. 
It  was   so  narrow   that  the  French  had   taken   no  special  pre-' 


756  NEWCASTLE  AND   PITT  1759-1760 

cautions  to  guard  it,  and  when  a  few  English  soldiers  reached 
the  top  the  French  sentinels  ran  off  in  surprise.  The  whole 
British  force  had  time  to  draw  itself  up  on  the  plateau  of  the 
Heights  of  Abraham  before  Montcalm  was  ready  to  meet  it.  In 
the  battle  which  ensued  Wolfe  was  killed.  As  he  lay  dying  he 
heard  an  officer  cry,  "  See  how  they  run  !  "  Wolfe  roused  himself 
to  ask,  "Who  run?"  When  he  heard  that  it  was  the  enemy  he 
gave  orders  to  cut  off  their  retreat,  exclaiming,  as  he  fell  back  in 
the  arms  of  his  comrades,  "  God  be  praised  ! — I  will  die  in  peace." 
Montcalm,  too,  was  sorely  wounded  in  the  battle,  and  died  on 
the  following  day.  Quebec  surrendered,  and  in  1760  the  whole  of 
Canada  submitted  to  the  British. 

17.  The  War  in  Europe;  Naval  Successes.  1759.— In  1759, 
the  year  in  which  Quebec  was  captured,  the  French  threatened 
to  invade  England.  Pitt  let  loose  upon  them  three  admirals. 
Rodney  bombarded  Havre  and  destroyed  the  boats  in  which 
the  invading  army  was  to  cross  the  Channel.  Boscawen  defeated 
off  Lagos  in  Portugal  a  fleet  which  was  on  its  way  from  Toulon 
to  protect  the  crossing.  Hawke,  a  seaman  of  the  highest  quality, 
blockaded  another  fleet  at  Brest,  till  it  broke  out  in  a  storm.  Hawke, 
however,  pursued  it,  and  caught  it  up  off  Quiberon  Bay.  Con- 
flans,  the  French  admiral,  took  refuge  amongst  the  rocks  and  shoals 
which  guard  the  mouth  of  the  river  Vilaine.  Hawke  dashed  after 
nmi,  though  a  gale  was  blowing  His  pilot  remonstrated  with  him 
at  the  risk  he  was  incurring.  "  You  have  done  your  duty,"  replied 
Hawke,  "in  this  remonstrance  ;  you  are  now  to  obey  my  orders 
and  lay  me  alongside  the  French  admiral."  A  complete  victory 
was  the  result. 

18.  Progress  of  the  War  in  Germany.  1759.-  -In  Germany 
things  went  hard  with  Frederick.  Hemmed  in  by  enemies  on 
every  side  he  struggled  on  with  unabated  heroism,  but  with 
almost  continued  ill  success.  The  time  seemed  approaching 
when  Prussia  and  its  king  must  succumb,  borne  down  by  mere 
numbers  ;  yet  the  end  of  1760  saw  Frederick  with  sadly  diminished 
forces,  yet  still  alert  and  hopeful  of  relief,  though  he  knew  not 
where  to  look  for  it.  Prince  Ferdinand  and  his  British  and 
Hanoverian  army  at  least  did  him  good  service  by  warding  off 
the  blows  of  the  French.  In  1759  the  Prince  inflicted  on  a  P>ench 
army  at  Minden  a  defeat  which  would  probably  have  been 
decisive  but  for  the  misconduct  of  Lord  George  Sackville,  who, 
being  in  command  of  the  cavalry,  refused,  in  spite  of  distinct 
orders,  to  charge  at  a  critical  moment. 


1759 


THE  BATTLE    OF  LAGOS 


757 


758 


NEWCASTLE   AND   PITT 


1600-1707 


19.  The  East  India  Company.  1600 — 1698. — The  super- 
abundant energy  of  the  Enghsh  race,  for  which  Pitt  provided  an 
outlet  in  America,  made  itself  also  felt,  without  assistance  from  the 
home  Government,  in  Asia.  The  East  India  Company,  an  asso- 
ciation of  private  merchants,  was  constituted  by  a  charter  from 
Elizabeth  in  1600,  for  the  purpose  of  trading  in  the  East.  Its  most 
important  commerce  was  for  some  time  with  the  spice  islands  of 
the  Eastern  Archipelago,  but  its  trade  in  that  quarter  was  ultimately 
ruined   by  the  Dutch.      In    India   itself,  on   the   other  hand,  its 

factories  were  secured  from  violence 
by  the  protection  of  the  Great  Mo- 
guls, the  descendants  of  the  Maho- 
medan  conquerors  of  Northern 
India,  who  had  at  one  time  fixed 
their  capital  at  Agra,  and  at  another 
at  Delhi,  and  who  had  strengthened 
their  power  by  a  policy  of  toleration 
which  enabled  them  to  obtain  mili- 
tary support  from  Hindoos  as  well 
as  from  Mussulmans.  At  the  end 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  East 
India  Company  held  three  posts  in 
'India.  By  the  permission  of  a  ruler 
of  the  Carnatic  it  had,  in  1639, 
acquired  a  piece  of  ground  on 
which  Fort  St.  George  and  the 
town  of  Madras  were  built.  In  1668 
Charles  II.  made  over  to  the  Com- 
pany Bombay,  which  he  had  re- 
ceived from  Portugal  on  his  marri- 
age with  Catharine  of  Braganza.  In  1686  the  Company  acquired  from 
the  Mogul  a  piece  of  ground  on  the  Hoogly,  on  which  it  built  Fort 
Wilham,  in  1696,  round  which  the  town  of  Calcutta  speedily  grew  up. 

20.  Break  up  of  the  Empire  of  the  Great  Mogul.  1658-  1707. 
In  the  meanwhile,  Aurungzebe,  whose  long  reign  extended  from 
1658  to  1707  (that  is,  from  the  year  of  the  death  of  Cromwell  to  the 
year  of  the  union  with  Scotland),  weakened  the  Mogul  empire, 
partly  by  departing  from  the  tolerant  policy  of  his  predecessors, 
and  thus  alienating  his  Hindoo  warriors  by  attacks  on  their  religion, 
and  partly  by  an  extension  of  conquest  in  the  Deccan,  or  Southern 
India,  whereas  the  earlier  dominions  of  his  predecessors  had  been 
confined  to  the  north,  properly  known  as  Hindustan.     Aurungzebe 


Officer  with  fusil  and  gorget. 
1759- 


1707 


THE   EMPIRE  OE   THE  MOGULS 


759 


provoked  a  reaction  against  his  Mahomedan  empire  in  his  own  life- 
time, and  the  Hindoo  chieftain  Sivaji  founded  a  powerful  Hindoo 
state  amongst  the  Mahrattas  of  the  highlands  of  the  western 
Deccan.  Wh%n  Au- 
.rungzebe  died,  in  1707, 
his  vast  empire  fell  to 
pieces.  His  heutenants 
were  known  as  Subah- 
dars,  or  viceroys,  under 
whom  were  Nawabs  or 
governors  of  smaller 
districts.  Both  Subah- 
dars  and  Nawabs,  and 
even  Hindoo  Rajahs, 
who  had  hitherto  been 
allowed  by  the  Great 
Mogul  to  rule  in  de- 
pendence on  himself 
over  territories  which 
their  ancestors  had 
governed  as  sove- 
reigns, now  raised  thein- 
selves  to  practical  sove- 
reignty. Yet  they  con- 
tinued to  acknowledge 
nominally  their  de- 
pendence on  the  feeble 
successors  of  Aurung- 
zebe  at  Delhi,  just  as 
a  king  of  Prussia  or  an 
elector  of  Bavaria  no- 
minally acknowledged 
the  supremacy  of  the 
Emperor.  Each  ruler 
quarrelled  and  fought 
with  his  neighbour,  and 
the  Mahratta  armies  gained  post  after  post,  and  the  Mahratta 
horsemen  plundered  and  devastated  far  and  wide. 

21.  The  Mahratta  Confederacy.  1707— 1744.  -The  Mahratta 
power  seemed  likely  to  become  predominant  in  the  whole  of  India, 
when  it  was  threatened  with  disintegration  in  consequence  of  the 
decadence  of  the  House  of  Sivaji,  as  marked  as  the  decadence  of 


Uniform  of  Militia,  1759. 


76o 


NEWCASTLE  AND  PITT 


1 744- 1 750 


the  Moguls.  After  an  interval  of  anarchy,  power  was  grasped  by 
an  official  known  as  the  Peishwah,  who  ruled  at  Poonah,  and  who— 
though  a  descendant  of  Sivaji  was  always  counted  as  the  nominal 
sovereign— practically  controlled  the  forces  of  wjiat  now  became 
the  confederacy  of  the  Mahratta  chieftains.   Whether  the  Mahratta 

power  would,  under 
any  circumstances, 
have  mastered  the 
whole  of  India,  it  is 
impossible  to  say. 
It  was  checked  by 
the  existence  of  a 
French  settlement  at 
Pondicherry  and  of 
an  English  settle- 
ment at  Madras. 
Both  these  places 
were  on  the  coast  of 
the  Carnatic,  and 
consequently  far  re- 
moved from  the 
centre  of  the  Mah- 
ratta power.  There 
were  still  Mahomedan 
rulers  in  that  part 
of  India  who  were 
the  enemies  of  the 
Mahrattas,  and  whose 
disputes  amongst 
themselves  offered  advantages  to  a  European  who  might  strengthen 
himself  by  taking  part  in  their  quarrels.  Dupleix,  the  French 
governor  of  Pondicherry,  was  the  first  to  perceive  this,  and  was 
also  the  first  to  enlist  native  soldiers,  who  came  to  be  known  in 
England  as  sepoys,  and  to  drill  them  to  fight  after  the  European 
fashion. 

22.  La  Bourdonnais  and  Dupleix.  1744 — 1750. — When  war  was 
declared  between  France  and  England  in  1744,  the  French  force 
in^  the  East  was  superior  to  the  English  ;  but  the  French,  un- 
fortunately for  them,  had  two  commanders,  La  Bourdonnais, 
governor  of  the  Isle  of  France— now  known  as  the  Mauritius — 
and  Dupleix,  governor  of  Pondicherry.  In  1746  La  Bour- 
donnais   captured   Madras,    but    Dupleix    hampered    his   move- 


Uniform  of  a  Light  Dragoon,  about  1760. 


I748-I7SI  CLIVE  761 

ments  and  drove  him  to  return  to  France,  where  the  Government, 
instead  of  giving  him  the  honour  due  to  him,  threw  him  into 
prison.  In  1748  Dupleix,  who  was  as  able  as  he  was  unscrupu- 
lous, successfully  defended  Pondicherry  against  an  attack  from  the 
British,  who  were  now  supported  by  the  arrival  of  a  fleet.  In 
1748  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  compelled  him  to  surrender 
Madras  ;  but  it  did  not  compel  him  to  refrain  from  pushing  his 
fortune  further.  The  Subahdar  of  the  Deccan,  the  Nizam-ul-Mulk 
(whose  successors  are  known  by  the  title  of  Nizam,  which  they 
have  derived  from  him),  died  in  1748,  and  left  rival  claimants  to  his 
power.  Dupleix  sent  French  sepoys  to  support  one  of  the  claim- 
ants, whilst  the  English  sent  English  sepoys  to  support  the  other. 
The  F'rench  candidate  defeated  his  rival,  and  was  installed  as  Nizam, 
whilst  Dupleix  was  himself  appointed  governor  of  the  Carnatic 
from  the  river  Kistna  to  Cape  Comorin,  by  his  own  puppet  the 
new  Nizam,  The  native  Nawab  of  the  Carnatic  was  subordinated 
to  him.  The  English  settlement  at  Madras  seemed  to  be  incapable 
of  offering  further  resistance  to  the  French. 

23.  Dupleix  and  Clive.  1751 — 1754. — The  English  were  still 
traders,  not  warriors,  but  amongst  the  clerks  in  Madras  was  a 
young  man  of  twenty-five,  Robert  Clive.  He  early  showed  his 
undaunted  bravery.  Having  accused  an  officer  of  cheating  at 
cards,  he  was  challenged  to  a  duel.  His  antagonist  walked  up  to 
him,  held  his  pistol  to  his  head,  and  bade  him  withdraw  the 
accusation.  "  Fire  ! "  cried  Clive.  "  I  said  you  cheated,  and  I  say 
so  still,  and  I  will  never  pay  you."  The  officer  threw  down  his 
pistol,  saying  that  Clive  was  mad.  In  1751,  when  Dupleix,  paying 
no  attention  to  the  treaty  of  peace  which  had  been  signed  in 
Europe  between  England  and  France,  threatened  Madras,  Clive, 
having  volunteered  as  a  soldier,  was  sent  to  seize  Arcot,  the  capital 
of  the  Nawab  of  the  Carnatic,  who  was  dependent  on  Dupleix, 
Clive  carried  with  him  a  force  of  sepoys,  and  as  he  ap- 
proached Arcot  continued  his  march,  though  a  violent  thunderstorm 
was  raging.  The  garrison  of  Arcot  was  so  astonished  at  his  fear- 
lessness in  facing  the  storm  that  they  fled  in  a  panic,  leaving  the 
place  in  his  hands.  Shortly,  however,  a  vast  force  of  the  native 
allies  of  France  laid  siege  to  Arcot,  and  Clive  and  his  men  were 
all  but  starved.  So  complete  was  the  ascendency  which  Clive 
had  gained  over  his  sepoys  that  when  they  discovered  that  all  the 
provisions  except  a  little  rice  had  been  exhausted  they  begged  that 
he  and  the  few  Englishmen  with  him  would  take  the  rice.  As  for 
themselves,  they  would  be  content  with  the  water  in  which  the  rice 
III.  3 1> 


762  NEWCASTLE  AND   PITT  IIS^-^SI 

had  been  boiled.  Before  the  siege,  Clive  had  sent  to  Morari  Rao, 
a  Mahratta  chief,  for  aid.  The  Mahratta  held  aloof  till  he  heard  of 
the  brave  defence  of  Arcot.  "  I  never  thought  till  now,"  he  said, 
"  that  the  English  could  fight  ;  since  they  can,  I  will  help  them." 
Morari  Rao  came  to  Clive's  help,  and  Clive  gained  one  success 
after  another.  So  fearless  was  he  that  he  became  known 
amongst  the  natives  as  Sabat  Jung  (the  daring  in  war).  In  1753 
he  returned  to  England,  having  established  English  supremacy 
in  south-eastern  India.  In  1754  Dupleix  went  back  to  France, 
only  to  suffer  the  same  ill-treatment  which  had  been  the  lot  of 
Le  Bourdonnais. 

24.  The  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.  1756.  — Clive  was  the  servant 
of  a  trading  company,  and  his  successes  were  not  won  like  those  of 
Wolfe,  a  few  years  later,  by  the  support  of  the  Brij;ish  Government 
and  the  valour  of  a  British  army.  In  1755,  when  a  war  with 
France  was  imminent,  the  East  India  Company  sent  him  out  as 
the  governor  of  Fort  St.  David,  near  Madras.  When  he  arrived 
in  1756  he  heard  bad  news  from  Calcutta,  Surajah  Dowlah,  the 
Subahdar  of  Bengal,  knowing  that  the  English  merchants  were 
rich,  seized  all  their  property  and  thrust  145  Englishmen  and  one 
Englishwoman  into  a  room  measuring  only  eighteen  feet  by  four- 
teen. In  a  space  so  small,  many  would  have  been  suffocated  even 
in  an  English  climate.  Under  the  scorching  Indian  sun  few  could 
expect  to  live.  The  prisoners  called  for  water,  and,  though  some 
was  brought,  the  skins  which  contained  it  were  too  large  to  pass 
through  the  bars  of  the  >vindo\^.  The  prisoners  struggled  madly 
for  the  smallest  drop,  trampling  one  another  down  to  reach  it. 
All  through  the  day,  and  through  the  night  which  followed,  men 
were  dying  in  agony.  When  morning  came  the  doors  were  thrown 
open,  and  of  the  146  who  entered,  only  twenty-three  staggered 
out  alive. 

25.  The  Battle  of  Plassey.  1757.— Clive  hastened  to  Bengal 
to  avenge  this  outrage.  He  had  now  with  him  a  regiment  in  the 
king's  service,  and  his  whole  army  consisted  of  900  Europeans  and 
1,500  sepoys.  On  June  23,  1757,  he  won  a  great  victory  at  Plassey 
over  50,000  men  of  Surajah  Dowlah's  army.  Clive  mingled  treachery 
with  force,  and  had  won  over  Surajah  Dowlah's  chief  officer,  Meer 
Jaffier,  to  promise  to  desert  his  master.  Meer  Jaffier,  however, 
doubting  on  which  side  victory  would  fall,  held  back  from  the  ful- 
filment of  his  promise  till  Clive's  men  had  all  but  won  the  victory. 
Meer  Jaffier  was  installed  as  Subahdar  of  Bengal,  though,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  virtual  dependence  on  the  Company,  he  and  his 


1757 


THE  RESULTS   OF  PLASSEY 


763 


successors  are  usually  known  by  the  inferior  title  of  Nawab.  In 
return  for  his  promotion  he  was  compelled  to  pay  large  sums  of 
money  to  those  who  raised  him  to  power.     Clive  received  as  his 


The  third  Eddystone  Lighthouse  ;  built  by  Smeaton  in  1759. 

share  more  than  200,000/.,  besides  a  grant  of  land  worth  27,000/. 
a  year.  Long  afterwards,  when  he  was  called  in  question  for  his 
part  in  despoiling  Meer  Jaffier,  he  told  how  he  had  walked  through 
the  treasure-house  of  the  Subahdar  at  Moorshedabad,  where  gold 

3D2 


764  NEWCASTLE  AND  PITT  1760- 1761 

and  jewels  were   piled   on   either   side.     "  I  am  astonished,"  he 
added,  "  at  my  own  moderation." 

26.  The  Battle  of  Wandewash  and  the  capture  of  Pondicherry. 
1760 — 1761. — Around  Madras,  in  the  meanwhile,  the  French,  wnder 
Lally,  began  a  fresh  struggle  for  supremacy  ;  but  in  1760  Colonel 
Eyre  Coote  gained  a  signal  victory  at  Wandewash,  and  Pondi- 
cherry surrendered  to  him  early  in  1761.  The  predominance  of 
Englishmen  over  Frenchmen  in  India  was  thus  secured.  As  yet 
the  English  did  not  undertake  the  actual  government  of  any 
part  of  the  country.  Nominally,  the  native  rulers  around  Madras 
retained  their  powers  ;  but  they  derived  their  real  strength  from 
the  support  of  the  armies  which  the  English  had  organised  mainly 
out  of  native  soldiers.  As  far  as  Bengal  was  concerned,  the 
government  continued  to  be  exercised  nominally  by  Meer  Jaffier, 
the  Company  only  receiving  from  him  the  zemindary  of  the  district 
round  Calcutta— that  is  to  say,  the  right  of  collecting  the  land-tax, 
and  of  keeping  the  proceeds  upon  payment  of  a  quit-rent  to  Meer 
Jaffier  as  subahdar.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the  officials  of  the 
Company  had  everything  their. own  way. 

27.  Death  of  George  II.  1760.— In  all  that  had  taken  place 
George  II.  had  Httle  part,  except  so  far  as  he  had  given  up  all 
thought  of  resisting  ministers  with  whom  he  was  dissatisfied. 
"  Ministers,"  he  once  said,  "  are  the  king  in  this  country."  On 
October  25,  1760,  he  died  suddenly.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
grandson,  George  III.,  the  son  of  Frederick,  the  late  Prince  of 
Wales,  a  young  man  of  twenty-two,  whose  character  and  training 
made  it  unlikely  that  he  would  be  content  to  be  thrust  into  the 
background  as  his  grandfather  had  been. 


/65 


CHAPTER   XLVIII 

THE  BREAK   UP  OF  THE   WHIG   PARTY.      1760— 1770 

LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  George  III.,  1760 -1780 

Accession  of  George  III Oct.  25,  1760 

■  Resignation  of  Pitt Oct.  5,  1761 

Bute's  Ministry       .        ,        . 1762 

The  Peace  of  Paris         ...  1763 

Ministry  of  George  Grenville April  8,  1763 

The  Stamp  Act 1765 

Ministry  of  Rockingham July  10,  1765 

Repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act 1766 

Ministry  of  Chatham July  29,  1766 

Grafton  Prime  Minister  ,  1767 

American  Import  Duties  .....  1767 

The  Middlesex  Elections .        .     1768- g 

Lord  North  Prime  Minister 1770 

I.  Character  of  George  III.  1760. — (ieorge  III.  had  beer 
educated  by  his  mother  the  Princess  of  Wales  in  the  principles  of 
Bolingbroke's  Patriot  King.  From  her  he  had  learned  that  it 
was  his  duty  to  break  down  that  coalition  of  the  great  Whig 
families  which  ruled  England  by  means  of  the  corrupting  influence 
of  wealth.  "  George,  be  a  king,"  were  the  words  which  she  had 
dinned  into  his  ears.  He  came  to  the  throne  resolved  to  overthrow 
the  Whig  party  connection  by  setting  his  own  personal  authority 
above  that  of  the  great  W^hig  borough-owners,  and  to  govern,  in  the 
interest  of  the  whole  nation,  by  ministers  who,  having  been  se- 
lected by  himself,  would  be  contented  to  carry  out  his  policy  and 
to  act  at  his  dictation.  To  a  certain  extent  his  intentions  resem- 
bled those  of  Charles  I.  Both  were  well-meaning  and  desirous  of 
governing  in  the  interests  of  the  nation;  but  the  political  situation  of 
the  eighteenth  differed  much  from  that  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
Charles  I.  defied  the  House  of  Commons,  whereas  George  III. 
knew  that  it  was  necessary  to  have  the  House  of  Commons  on  his 
side,  and  he  knew  that  it  could  only  be  gained  by  a  lavish  employ- 
ment of  corruption.  Personally,  he  was  simple  in  his  tastes,  and 
strictly  moral  in  his  habits  ;  but  in  pursuit  of  his  political  aims  he 


766         THE   BREAK   UP  OF   THE    WHIG  PARTY    1 761   1762 

employed  men  of  the  vilest  character,  and  recklessly  lavished  places 
and  gifts  of  money  on  those  whose  services  he  required.  He 
seems  to  have  thought  that,  as  the  House  of  Commons  chose  to 
put  itself  up  to  sale,  it  was  better  that  he  rather  than  Newcastle 
should  be  its  purchaser. 

2.  The  Fall  of  Pitt.  1761.— George  HI.  and  Pitt  joined  in 
detesting  the  yoke  of  the  Whig  families  ;  but  they  differed  as  to 
the  remedy  for  the  disease.  George  HI.  aimed  at  crushing  them 
by  the  exercise  of  the  powers  of  the  Crown  ;  Pitt,  by  appealing  to 
the  people  for  support.  The  king's  first  object,  therefore,  was  to 
get  rid  of  Pitt.  Pitt  had  raised  enemies  in  the  Cabinet  by  his 
arrogance,  and  even  amongst  his  friends  there  was  a  growing 
feeling  that  all  necessary  objects  of  the  war  had  been  accom- 
plished. In  1761  Pitt  was  ready  to  make  peace  with  France,  and 
was  only  pursuing  his  conquests  in  order  to  obtain  such  terms  as 
appeared  to  him  to  be  reasonable.  In  June,  1761,  there  were  fresh 
English  successes,  and  France  would  probably  have  submitted  to 
Pitt's  terms,  if  Charles  III.,  who  had  recently  become  king  of 
Spain,  had  not  i-enewed  the  Family  Compact,  knowing  that  the 
vast  colonial  empire  of  Spain  was  endangered  by  the  predomin- 
ance of  England  in  North  America.  Pitt,  having  secret  intelligence 
of  what  had  happened,  urged  the  Cabinet  to  declare  war  on  Spain 
at  once.  The  Cabinet,  however,  regarding  him  as  a  firebrand, 
refused  to  follow  him,  and  on  October  5,  Pitt  resigned  ofBce. 

3.  Resignation  of  Newcastle  and  the  Peace  of  Paris.  1762 — 
1763.^ — Pitt  was  justified  by  the  event.  Spain  declared  war  as  soon 
as  she  thought  it  convenient  to  do  so  ;  she  was,  however,  utterly 
unprepared  for  it.  In  1762  one  English  expedition  reduced  Cuba 
and  another  reduced  Manilla,  whilst  Spanish  commerce  was  swept 
from  the  sea.  Pitt  got  all  the  credit  because  it  was  known  that  he 
had  foreseen  the  struggle  and  had  made  the  preparations  which 
had  proved  successful.  In  the  meanwhile,  the  ministry  was  hope- 
lessly divided.  Alongside  of  Newcastle  and  the  Whigs  were  new 
ministers  who  had  been  introduced  by  George  III.  In  May,  1762, 
Newcastle  was  driven  to  resign,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Bute, 
the  nominee  of  the  king.  Peace  negotiations  had  for  some  time 
been  carried  on,  and  on  February  10,  1763,  the  Peace  of  Paris  was 
signed.  England  regained  Minorca  in  the  Mediterranean,  whilst 
her  possession  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Cape  Breton,  besides 
that  of  Senegal  and  of  several  West  Indian  islands,  was  acknow- 
ledged by  the  French.  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  England  and  acquired 
Louisiana  from  France,  receiving   back  again  the  other  colonies 


1 76 1- 1 763     RESULT  OF   THE  SEVEN    YEARS'    WAR  767 

which  she  had  lost.  In  India,  France  received  back  the  towns 
which  had  been  taken  from  her,  but  she  could  not  regain  the 
influence  which  had  passed  from  her,  and  England  thus  retained 
her  predominance  in  India  as  well  as  in  America.  Frederick  com- 
plained bitterly  that  England  had  abandoned  him  ;  yet  he  suffered 
httle  loss  in  consequence.  His  enemies  gave  up  their  attempt  to 
destroy  him,  and  almost  at  the  same  time  that  peace  was  signed 
by  England  with  France  and  Spain  at  Paris,  he  signed  the  peace 
of  Hubertsburg,  which  left  him  in  full  possession  of  his  dominions. 
The  result  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  was  briefly  this,  that  the  British 
race  had  become  predominant  in  North  America,  and  that  the 
Prussia  of  Frederick  the  Great  maintained  itself  against  all  its 
enemies. 

4.  The  King  and  the  Tories.  1762  — 1763. — In  placing  Bute  in 
office  George  III.  made  his  first  attempt  to  break  the  power  of  the 
Whigs.  He  had  already  gathered  round  him  the  country  gentry 
whose  ancestors  had  formed  the  strength  of  the  Tory  party  in  the 
reign  of  Anne,  and  who,  now  that  Jacobitism  was  extinct,  were  de- 
hghted  to  transfer  their  devotion  to  a  Hanoverian  king  who  would 
lead  them  against  the  great  landowners.  They  were  joined  by 
certain  discontented  Whigs,  and  out  of  this  combination  sprung 
up  a  new  Tory  Party.  Parties  vary  in  their  aims  from  time  to  time 
without  changing  their  names,  and  the  new  Tory  Party  ceasing  to 
regard  the  Dissenters  as  dangerous,  no  longer  asked  for  special  legis- 
lation against  them.  The  principle  which  now  bound  the  Tories 
to  the  King  and  to  one  another  was  their  abhorrence  of  the  Whig 
connection.  They  constantly  declaimed  against  the  party  system, 
generally  holding  it  to  be  better  that  George  III.  should  give 
office  to  such  ministers  as  he  held  fit,  than  that  ministers  should  be 
appointed  at  the  dictation  of  the  leaders  of  a  parliamentary  party. 

5.  The  King's  Friends. — The  principle  upheld  by  the  Tories 
was  so  far  legitimate  that  Parliamentaiy  parties  in  those  days  were 
not,  as  is  now  the  case,  combinations  of  members  of  Parliament 
holding  definite  political  opinions  and  constantly  appealing  for  sup- 
port to  the  large  masses  of  their  countrymen  by  whom  those  opinions 
are  shared.  The  plain  fact  was  that  they  were  composed  of  wealthy 
and  influential  men  who,  by  the  possession  of  boroughs,  gained 
seats  in  I'arliament  for  men  who  would  vote  for  them  whether  they 
thought  them  to  be  right  or  wrong,  and  who,  if  they  could  obtain 
office,  gained  more  votes  by  the  attraction  of  the  patronage  of 
which  they  had  the  disposal.  George  III.,  therefore,  if  he  wished 
to  gain  his  ends,  had  to  follow  their  example.    He  consequently 


768  THE  BREAK  UP  OF   THE    WHIG  PARTY        1763 

resolved  to  rely  on  members  of  Parliament  known  as  the  king's 
friends,  who  voted  as  he  bade  them,  simply  because  they  thought 
that  he,  and  not  the  Whig  Lords,  would,  in  future,  distribute  honours 
and  patronage.  In  this  way  George  III.  deserted  the  part  of  a 
constitutional  king  to  reap  the  advantages  of  a  party  leader,  being 
able,  no  doubt,  to  plead  that  the  Whigs  had  ceased  to  be  a  con- 
stitutional party  and  had  established  themselves  in  power  less  by 
argument  than  by  the  possession  of  patronage.  George's  attempt 
to  change  the  balance  of  politics  could  not,  however,  succeed  at 
once.  Bute's  ministry  did  not  last  long.  He  was  a  Scotchman, 
and  at  that  time  Scotchmen  were  very  unpopular  in  England,  besides 
which  there  were  scandals  afloat,  entirely  untrue,  about  his  relations 
with  the  king's  mother,  the  Princess  of  Wales.  Mobs  insulted  and 
frightened  him.  He  had  not  sufficient  abilities  to  fill  the  post  of  a 
Prime  Minister,  and  being,  unlike  Newcastle,  aware  of  his  own 
defects,  on  April  8,  1763,  he  suddenly  resigned. 

6.  The  Three  Whig  Parties.  1763.— By  this  time  the  king  had 
no  longer  a  united  Whig  party  to  contend  against.  The  bulk  of 
the  Whigs,  indeed,  held  together,  and  having  selected  Lord  Rock- 
ingham as  their  leader  in  the  place  of  Newcastle,  had  in  many 
ways  gained  by  the  change.  It  is  true  that  Rockingham  was  not  a 
man  of  much  ability,  and  was  so  shy  that  he  seldom  ventured  to 
speak  in  public  ;  but  he  was  incorruptible  himself,  and  detested  the 
work  of  corrupting  others.  Those  who  followed  him  renounced 
the  evil  ways  dear  to  Newcastle.  What  these  Whigs  gained  in 
character  they  lost  in  influence  over  a  House  of  Commons  in 
which  many  members  wanted  to  be  bribed,  and  did  not  want  to 
be  persuaded.  A  second  party  followed  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  Bed- 
ford himself  was  an  independent,  though  not  a  very  wise  politician, 
but  his  followers  simply  put  themselves  up  to  auction.  The  Bed- 
fords,  as  they  were  called,  understanding  that  they  would  command 
better  terms  if  they  hung  together,  intimated  to  those  who  wished 
for  their  votes  that  they  would  have  to  buy  all,  or  none.  A  third 
party  followed  Pitt's  brother-in-law,  George  Grenville.  Grenville 
was  a  thorough  man  of  business,  and  quite  honest ;  but  he  had 
little  knowledge  of  mankind.  He  had  quarrelled  with  Pitt  because, 
whilst  Pitt  thought  of  the  glories  of  the  war,  he  himself  shrank 
from  its  enormous  costliness,  the  national  debt  having  nearly 
doubled  during  its  progress,  rising  to  more  than  132,000,000/.  He 
had,  therefore,  after  Pitt's  resignation  and  Newcastle's  fall,  sup- 
ported Bute,  and,  now  that  the  king  was  compelled  to  choose 
between  Rockingham,  Bedford  and  Grenville,  he  naturally  selected 


1763 


GENERAL    WARRANTS 


769 


Grenville  as   Prime  Minister,  as  having  seceded  from  the  great 
Whig  connection. 

7.  Grenville  and  Wilkes.  1763— 1764. — At  first  the  king  got 
on  well  with  Grenville,  as  they  were  both  inclined  to  take  high- 
handed proceedings  with  those  who  criticised  the  Government. 
John   Wilkes,  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  blamed  the 


wmMm^,^ 


Silver  coffee-pot  belonging  to  the  Saiters"  Company,  1764. 


king's  speech  in  No.  45  of  the  North  Briton.  The  king  ordered 
the  prosecution  of  all  concerned  in  the  article,  and  Lord  Halifax, 
as  Secretary  of  State,  issued  a  warrant  for  the  apprehension  of  its 
authors,  printers,  and  publishers.  Such  a  warrant  was  called  a 
general  warrant,  because  it  did  not  specify  the  name  of  any  par- 
ticular person  who  was  to  be  arrested.  On  this  warrant  Wilkes 
was  arrested  and  sent  to  the  Tower.    On  May  6,  however,  he  was 


770         THE   BREAK  UP   OF   THE    WHIG   PARTY    1763- 1765 

discharged  by  Pratt,  the  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas,  on 
the  ground  that,  by  his  privilege  as  a  member  of  Parliament,  he 
was  protected  from  arrest,  except  for  treason,  felony,  or  breach  of 
the  peace.  Not  long  afterwards  Pratt  declared  general  warrants 
to  be  illegal,  though  there  had  been  several  examples  of  their  use. 
In  November,  1763,  the  House  of  Commons,  urged  on  by  the  king 
and  Grenville,  voted  No.  45  of  the  North  Briton  to  be  a  libel, 
whilst  the  House  of  Lords  attacked  Wilkes  on  the  ground  that  in 
the  notes  of  an  indecent  poem  called  An  Essay  on  Wojjtan,  of  which 
he  was  the  author,  he  had  assailed  Bishop  Warburton,  a  member 
of  that  House.  Wilkes,  indeed,  had  never  published  the  poem,  but 
its  existence  was  betrayed  by  Lord  Sandwich,  one  of  the  Bedford 
party,  who  had  been  a  boon  companion  of  Wilkes,  and  whose  life 
was  as  profligate  as  Wilkes's  own.  On  January  19,  1764,  the  House 
of  Commons  expelled  Wilkes  on  account  of  No.  45,  and  on 
February  21,  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  a  verdict  was  recorded 
against  him  both  as  a  libeller'  and  as  the  author  of  an  obscene 
poem.  Attempts  having  been  made  to  get  rid  of  him  by  challenging 
him  to  fight  duels,  he  escaped  to  France  and  was  outlawed  by  the 
Court. 

8.  George  III.  and  Grenville.  1763  — 1764. — Wilkes  became 
suddenly  popular  because  of  his  indomitable  resistance  to  a  king 
who  was  at  that  time  unpopular.  George  II L  had  shown  strength  of 
will,  but  as  yet  he  had  been  merely  striving  for  mastery,  without 
proposing  any  policy  which  could  strike  the  imaginations  of  his  sub- 
jects. All  officials  who  voted  against  him  were  dismissed,  even  when 
their  offices  were  not  political.  George  III.  was  as  self-willed  and 
dictatorial  as  Grenville  himself,  and  soon  ceased  to  be  on  good 
terms  with  the  Prime  Minister.  In  September,  1763,  Grenville, 
to  increase  the  number  of  his  supporters  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
admitted  the  Duke  of  Bedford  and  his  followers  to  office,  but  Bed- 
ford soon  made  himself  even  more  disagreeable  to  the  King  than 
Grenville.  George  III.,  weary  of  his  ministers,  made  overtures  to 
Pitt  to  come  to  his  help,  but  for  a  long  time  they  remained  with- 
out effect,  and  much  as  he  now  disliked  both  Grenville  and  Bedford 
he  was  compelled  to  keep  them  in  office. 

9.  The  Stamp  Act.  1765. — One  measure  indeed  of  Grenville's 
secured  the  warm  support  of  the  king.  Since  the  late  war,  not 
only  was  England  burdened  with  a  greatly  increased  debt,  but 
it  had  become  desirable  that  a  large  military  force  should  be  kept 
up  for  the  defence  of  her  increased  dominions.  The  army  in 
America  amounted  to  10,000  men,  and  Grenville  thought  that  the 


1765-1766  THE  STAMP  ACT  771 

colonists  ought  to  pay  the  expenses  of  a  force  of  which  they  were 
to  have  the  chief  benefit — especially  as  the  former  war  had  been 
carried  on  in  their  behalf.  If  it  had  been  possible,  he  would  have 
preferred  that  the  money  needed  should  have  been  granted  by 
the  colonists  themselves.  It  was,  however,  extrernely  improbable 
that  this  would  be  done.  There  was  no  general  assembly  of  the 
American  colonies  with  which  the  home  Government  could  treat. 
Each  colony  had  its  own  separate  assembly,  and  experience  had 
shown  that  each  colony,  even  when  it  granted  money  at  all,  was 
always  unwilling  to  make  a  grant  for  the  common  service  of  the 
colonies  as  a  whole.  Each,  in  fact,  looked  after  its  own  interests  ; 
Virginia,  for  instance,  not  having  any  wish  to  provide  against  a 
danger  threatening  Massachusetts,  nor  Massachusetts  any  wish  to 
provide  against  a  danger  threatening  Virginia.  Grenville  accordingly 
thought  that  the  only  authority  to  which  all  the  colonies  would  bow 
was  that  of  the  British  Parliament,  and,  in  1765,  he  obtained  without 
difficulty  the  assent  of  Parliament  to  a  Stamp  Act,  calculated  to 
raise  about  100,000/.,  by  a  duty  on  stamps  to  be  placed  on  legal 
documents  in  America. 

10.  The  Rocking^ham  Ministry.  1765. — Before  news  could 
arrive  of  the  effect  of  the  Stamp  Act  in  America,  the  king  had 
been  so  exasperated  by  the  rudeness  with  which  Grenville  and 
Bedford  treated  him  that,  much  as  he  disliked  Rockingham  and 
the  old  Whigs,  he  placed  them  in  office  until  he  could  find  an 
opportunity  of  getting  rid  of  them  as  well.  The  new  ministers 
were  weak,  not  only  because  the  king  disliked  them  and  intrigued 
against  them,  but  because  they  refused  to  resort  to  bribery,  and 
were  therefore  unpopular  with  the  members  who  wanted  to  be 
bribed.  Nor  had  they  any  one  amongst  them  of  commanding 
ability,  whilst  Pitt,  whom  Rockingham  asked  to  join  him,  refused 
to  have  anything  to  do  with  the  old  Whigs,  whom  he  detested 
as  cordially  as  did  the  king. 

11.  The  Rockingham  Ministry  and  the  Repeal  of  the  Stamp 
Act.  1766. — Before  Parliament  met  in  December,  news  reached 
England  that  the  Americans  had  refused  to  accept  the  stamped 
papers  sent  out  to  them,  and  had  riotously  attacked  the  officers 
whose  duty  it  was  to  distribute  them.  The  British  Parliament,  in 
fact,  had  put  itself  into  the  position  occupied  by  Charles  I.  when  he 
levied  ship-money  (see  p.  523).  It  was  as  desirable  in  the  eighteenth 
century  that  Americans  should  pay  for  the  army  necessary  for  their 
protection  as  it  had  been  desirable  in  the  seventeenth  that  English- 
men should  pay  for  the  fleet  then  needed  to  defend  their  coasts. 


772  THE  BREAK  UP  OF   THE    WHIG  PARTY        1766 

Americans  in  the  eighteenth  century  however,  hke  Englishmen  in 
the  seventeenth,  thought  that  the  first  point  to  be  considered  was 
the  authority  by  which  the  tax  was  imposed.  If  Charles  I.  might 
levy  ship-money  without  consent  of  Parliament,  he  might  levy 
other  taxes  in  the  same  way,  and  would  thus  become  absolute 
master  of  England.  If  the  British  Parliament  could  levy  a  stamp 
duty  in  America,  it  could  levy  other  duties,  and  the  Americans 


Edmund  Burke  :  from  a  painting  by  Reynolds  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

would  thus  be  entirely  at  its  mercy.  The  Rockingham  ministry 
drew  back  from  the  prospect  of  a  struggle  with  the  colonists,  and, 
at  its  instance,  the  Stamp  Act  was  repealed  early  in  1766,  though 
its  repeal  was  accompanied  by  a  Declaratory  Act  asserting  the 
right  of  the  British  Parliament  to  tax  the  colonies  as  well  as  to 
legislate  for  them. 

12.  Pitt  and  Burke.  1766. — In  taking  this  course  the  Rocking- 
ham ministry  was  supported  by  Edmund  Burke,  who  now  entered 
Parliament  for  the  first  time,  and  who  was  the  greatest  political 


1766-1767  AMERICAN  TAXATION  773 

thinker  of  the  age.  As  Pitt,  too,  applauded  the  repeal  of  the 
Stamp  Act,  Rockingham  made  fresh  but  unsuccessful  efforts  to 
induce  him  to  combine  with  the  ministry.  Yet,  though  Pitt  and 
Burke  agreed  in  disliking  the  Stamp  Act,  their  reasons  for  so 
doing  were  not  the  same.  Pitt  held  that  the  British  Parliament 
had  a  rii,ht  to  impose  duties  on  American  trade,  for  the  sake 
of  regulating  it — in  other  words,  of  securing  a  monopoly  for  British 
manufactures — but  that  it  had  no  right  to  levy  internal  taxes 
in  America.  Burke,  on  the  other  hand,  detested  the  very  idea  of 
claiming  or  disclaiming  a  right  to  tax,  holding  that  in  all  political 
matters  the  only  thing  worth  discussion  was  whether  any  particular 
action  was  expedient.  America,  according  to  him,  was  not  to  be 
taxed,  simply  because  it  was  not  worth  while  to  irritate  the 
Americans  for  the  sake  of  any  sum  of  money  which  could  be  ob- 
tained from  them.  This  was  not  the  only  point  on  which  Pitt  and 
Burke  differed.  Burke  wished  to  found  government  on  a  combina- 
tion amongst  men  of  property  honestly  and  intelligently  seeking 
their  country's  good,  and  using  the  influence  which  their  wealth 
gave  them  to  fill  the  benches  of  the  House  of  Commons  with  men 
as  right-minded  as  themselves.  Pitt,  on  the  other  hand,  distrusting 
all  combinations  between  wealthy  landowners,  preferred  appealing 
to  popular  support. 

13.  The  Chatham  Ministry.  1766- 1767.— There  was  this 
much  of  agreement  between  George  III.  and  Pitt,  that  they  both 
disliked  the  Rockingham  Whigs,  and,  in  July,  1766,  the  king  dis- 
missed Rockingham,  created  Pitt  Earl  of  Chatham,  and  made  him 
Prime  Minister  with  the  office  of  Lord  Privy  Seal.  Chatham 
formed  his  ministry  by  selecting  men  of  all  kinds  of  opinion  who 
were  willing^  to  serve  under  him.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  his 
health  broke  down,  and  his  mind  was  so  completely  deranged  as  to 
render  him  incapable  of  attending  to  business.  In  1767  the  Duke 
of  Grafton,  being  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  became  nominally 
Prime  Minister,  but  he  was  quite  incapable  of  controlling  his  sub- 
ordinates, and  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Charles  Towns- 
hend,  a  brilliant,  unwise  speaker,  had  everything  his  own  way. 

14.  American  Import  Duties.  1767. —Although  the  Stamp  Act 
had  been  repealed,  the  irritation  caused  by  its  imposition  had  not 
died  away  in  America,  and  the  authority  of  British  Acts  of  Par- 
liament was  set  at  naught  by  the  colonists.  In  1767  Townshend 
obtained  from  Parliament  an  Act  imposing  on  America  import 
duties  on  glass,  red  and  white  lead,  painters'  colours,  paper,  and 
tea.     The  produce  was  estimated  at  40,000/.,  and  was  to  be  em- 


774         THE   BREAK  UP  OF  THE  WHIG  PARTY    1767-1769 

ployed,  not  in  maintaining  an  army  to  defend  the  colonies,  but  in 
paying  their  judges  and  governors,  with  the  object  of  making  them 
dependent  on  the  Crown,  and  independent  of  the  pubhc  opinion 
of  the  colonists.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  British  Parliament, 
the  colonists  were  like  unruly  children,  who  required  to  be  kept 
in  order.  In  America,  on  the  other  hand,  the  new  duties  were 
denounced  as  an  attempt  to  govern  America  from  England.  Not 
only  did  people  agree  together  to  avoid  the  consumption  of  articles 
subject  to  the  new  duties,  but  attacks  were  made  on  the  revenue 
officers  who  had  to  collect  the  money,  and  whatever  violence  was 
committed  against  them,  juries  refused  to  convict  the  offenders. 
On  September  4,  1767,  before  further  steps  could  be  taken  in 
England,  Townshend  died.  His  successor  as  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  was  Lord  North,  who  was  inclined  to  carry  out  Towns- 
hend's  policy.  In  reality,  however,  the  king  was  himself  the  head 
of  the  ministry. 

15.  The  Middlesex  Election.  1768-  1769.— Though  before  the 
end  of  1768  Chatham  recovered  his  health,  he  felt  himself 
helpless,  and  formally  resigned  office.  In  that  year  there  was  a 
general  election,  and  Wilkes,  reappearing  from  France,  was 
elected  in  Middlesex.  His  election  was  a  token  of  a  wide-spread 
dissatisfaction,  not  so  much  with  the  taxation  of  America  as  with 
the  corruption  by  which  the  king  had  won  Parliament  to  his  side. 
In  February,  1769,  the  House  of  Commons  expelled  Wilkes.  He 
was  then  re-elected,  and  the  House  replied  not  only  by  expelling 
him  again,  but  by  incapacitating  him  from  sitting  in  the  House 
during  the  existing  Parliament.  When  an  election  was  again  held, 
Wilkes  was  again  at  the  head  of  the  poll,  but  the  House  declared 
his  opponent.  Colonel  Luttrell,  to  be  duly  elected,  though  the 
votes  for  him  had  been  very  few.  A  grave  constitutional  question 
was  thus  raised.  George  Grenville  and  the  Rockingham  Whigs 
agreed  in  asserting  that  nothing  short  of  an  Act  of  Parliament 
passed  by  both  Houses  could  deprive  the  electors  of  their  right  of 
choosing  whom  they  would  as  their  representative,  though  they 
admitted  that  the  House  might  expel  a  member  so  chosen  as 
often  as  it  pleased.  To  this  doctrine  Chatham,  who  had  now 
recovered  .  his  health,  gave  his  warm  support.  It  seemed  as  if 
it  would  be  impossible  for  the  ministry  to  hold  out  against  such  a 
weight  of  authority  and  argument. 

16.  '•  Wilkes  and  Liberty."  1769.— The  opponents  of  the  court 
on  the  question  of  the  Middlesex  election  had  on  their  side  two 
dangerous  allies — a  libeller  and  the  mob.     The  libeller,  who  called 


1769  WILKES  AND  LIBERTY  775 

himself  'Junius,'  was  probably  Sir  Philip  Francis.  He  attacked 
with  malignant  bitterness  the  king  and  all  his  instruments.  The  mob, 
actuated  by  a  sense  of  the  unfairness  with  which  Wilkes  was  treated, 


George  III.  in  1767  :  from  a  painting  by  Allan  Ramsay  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 


took  his  part  warmly.  "Wilkes  and  liberty"  was  their  cry.  At  the 
time  of  the  Middlesex  election  '45  '  was  freely  chalked  up  on  the 
doors  of  the  houses,  in  allusion  to  the  condemned  number  of  the 


^^(y        THE  BREAK  UP  OF   THE    WHIG   PARTY    1769-1770 

North  Briton.  Noblemen  most  hostile  to  Wilkes  were  compelled 
to  illuminate  their  houses  in  honour  of  his  success  at  the  poll,  and 
the  grave  Austrian  ambassador  was  pulled  out  of  his  carriage 
and  '45'  chalked  on  the  soles  of  his  boots.  In  June,  Wilkes, 
having  surrendered  to  take  his  trial  for  the  publication  of  No.  45  and 
the  Essay  on  Woman  (see  pp.  769,  770),  was  committed  to  prison, 
whence,  on  May  10,  an  enormous  crowd  strove  to  rescue  him, 
and  was  only  driven  off  after  the  soldiers  had  fired  and  killed 
five  or  six  persons.  Wilkes  was,  in  June,  sentenced  to  fine  and 
imprisonment  as  a  libeller,  but  the  citizens  of  London,  as  en- 
thusiastic in  his  favour  as  the  crowd,  chose  him  as  Alderman 
whilst  he  was  still  in  prison.  The  badness  of  his  character  was 
forgotten,  and  his  pertinacious  stand  against  the  Court  was  alone 
remembered. 

17.  Lord  North  Prime  Minister.  1770.— When  Parliament 
met,  in  January,  1770,  Chatham,  now  again  in  full  possession  of 
his  powers,  took  up  the  cause  of  Wilkes,  maintaining  that  the 
House  of  Commons  had  no  right  to  place  Luttrell  in  his  seat.  The 
very  sound  of  his  voice  dissolved  the  composite  Ministry.  Those 
who  had  entered  it  as  his  followers  rallied  to  their  leader.  Pratt, 
who  had  become  Lord  Chancellor  with  the  title  of  Lord  Camden, 
was  dismissed.  The  king,  finding  that  no  notable  lawyer  agreed 
with  him  as  to  the  right  of  the  House  of  Commons  to  disqualify 
Wilkes  from  being  elected,  persuaded  Charles  Yorke,  an  eminent 
lawyer  and  a  hitherto  devoted  follower  of  Rockingham,  to  accept 
the  Chancellorship,  although  in  so  doing  he  would  have  to  argue 
against  his  own  settled  convictions.  Yorke,  tempted  by  the 
greatness  of  the  prize,  accepted  the  offer,  but  he  was  unable  to  bear 
the  reproaches  of  his  friends,  and,  for  very  shame,  committed 
suicide.  Grafton  resigned  office,  and  other  ministers  followed  his 
example.  The  king  then  made  Lord  North  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury,  and  gave  him  the  position  of  a  Prime  Minister,  though 
the  title  was  still  held  to  be  invidious,  and  North  himself  objected 
to  have  it  used  in  his  own  case.  North  was  an  able  man,  skilful 
in  the  management  of  public  affairs,  and  honestly  a  supporter  of 
strong  measures  against  Wilkes  and  the  Americans,  and  he  fully 
adopted  the  principle  that  the  king  was  to  choose  his  ministers 
and  to  direct  their  policy.  If  North  could  maintain  himself  in 
Parliament,  the  new  Toryism,  of  which  the  dependence  of  ministers 
on  the  Crown  was  the  leading  feature,  would  have  won  the  day. 


777 


CHAPTER  XLIX 

THE  STRUGGLE   FOR  AMERICAN   INDEPENDENCE.      177O— 1783 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  George  III.,  1760—1820 

Lord  North  Prime  Minister 1770 

Cargoes  of  Tea  thrown  into  Boston  Harbour        .        ,  1773 

Beginning  of  the  American  War ^  1775 

Declaration  of  Independence 1776 

Capitulation  of  Saratoga 1777 

■War  with  France 1778 

Burke's  Bill  for  Economical  Reform' 1780 

Capitulation  of  Yorktown 1781 

Second  Rockingham  Ministry 1782 

Shelburne  Ministry 1782 

Peace  of  Paris 1783 

I.  North  and  the  Opposition.  1770.^ — The  opposition,  seemingly 
strong,  was  weakened  by  a  conflict  of  opinion  amongst  its  leaders. 
Chatham  declared  for  Parliamentary  reform,  suggesting  that  a 
third  member  should  be  given  to  each  county,  as  the  freeholders, 
who  at  that  time  alone  voted  in  county  elections,  were  more  in- 
dependent than  the  borough  electors.  Burke  and  the  Rockingham 
Whigs,  on  the  other  hand,  objected  to  any  constitutional  change 
as  likely  in  the  end  to  throw  power  into  the  hands  of  the 
ignorant.  The  violence  of  mobs  since  Wilkes's  election  no  doubt 
strengthened  the  conservative  feeling  of  this  section  of  the  Whigs, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  made  strongly  in  favour  of  the  Govern- 
ment, because  in  times  of  disorder  quiet  people  are  apt  to 
support  the  Government  whether  they  agree  with  it  politically 
or  not.  North  was  well  fitted  to  take  advantage  of  this  state  of 
opinion.  He  was  an  easy-going  man,  who  never  lost  his  temper 
and  never  gave  unnecessary  offence.  At  the  same  time,  he  was 
an  able  party  manager,  and,  though  not  a  great  statesman,  was  a 
sensible  politician.  With  the  king  at  his  back,  he  had  at  his  dis- 
posal all  the  engines  of  corruption  by  which  votes  were  gained,  and 
though  members  of  Parliament  had  for  some  time  ceased  to  sell 
their  votes  for  ready  money  as  they  had  done  in  the  days  of  Wal- 
pole  and  Newcastle,  they  still  continued  to  sell  them  for  pensions, 
III.'  ^  E 


778      STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE    1770 

offices,  and  especially  for  sinecures.  Moreover,  North  had  the 
advantage  of  sharing  in  the  king's  strong  feeling  against  the  con- 
duct of  the  Americans.  Public  opinion  in  England  was  turning 
more  and  more  against  the  Americans,  and,  for  the  first  time  in 
his  reign,  George  III.  found  support  for  his  policy  in  public  opinion. 
2.  North  and  the  Tea  Duty.  1770. — Only  two  courses  were 
open  to  the  British  Government : — the  one  to  treat  the  Americans 


Lord  North  ;  from  an  engraving  by  Burke,  taken  fi  uni  a 
painting  by  Dance. 

as  a  virtually  independent  people,  allowing  them  to  tax  them- 
selves and  to  govern  themselves  as  they  pleased  ;  the  other  to 
compel  them  to  obedience  by  military  force.  It  is  hardly  strange 
that  Englishmen  were  not  wise  enough  to  accept  the  former  alter- 
native. They  did  not  perceive  that  the  colonists,  in  refusing  the 
payment  of  taxes  imposed  by  others  than  themselves,  had  a  proper 
foundation  for  constitutional  resistance,  whilst  they  did  perceive 


1770-1771     PARLIAMENT  AND    THE  NEWSPAPERS         Tji) 

that  the  American  resistance  was  not  altogether  carried  on  in  a 
constitutional  manner.  In  Massachusetts,  especially,  all  who  were 
concerned  in  the  collection  of  the  import  duties  were  treated  with 
contumely.  Soldiers  were  insulted  in  the  streets.  An  informer 
was  tarred  and  feathered.  Lord  North  was,  indeed,  sensible  enough 
to  perceive  that  Townshend's  import  duties  roused  unnecessary 
irritation,  especially  as  the  net  income  derived  from  them  was  less 
than  300/.  He  induced  Parliament  to  repeal  all  the  duties  except 
that  of  3^.  a  pound  on  tea  ;  but  he  openly  acknowledged  that  he 
kept  on  the  tea-duty,  not  because  anything  was  to  be  gained  by  it, 
but  simply  to  assert  the  right  of  England  to  tax  the  colonies.  In 
America  a  sullen  resistance  continued  to  be  offered  to  this  claim, 
becoming  more  and  more  defiant  as  time  passed  on. 

3.  The  Freedom  of  Reporting.  1771. — In  Parliament  Lord 
North  gathered  strength.  George  Grenville  having  died  in  1770 
and  Bedford  early  in  1771,  the  followers  of  these  two  leaders  resolved 
to  support  the  Ministry.  So,  too,  did  Grafton,  who  had  lately 
resigned  office  rather  than  oppose  Chatham,  and  Wedderburn,  an 
unscrupulous  lawyer  who  had  professed  the  strongest  opposition 
principles,  but  who  now  sold  himself  for  the  office  of  Solicitor- 
General.  The  combined  Opposition  was  reduced  to  a  hopeless 
minority.  Yet,  even  thus,  though  unable  to  influence  the  American 
policy  of  the  Ministry,  it  was,  on  one  occasion,  able  to  bring  about  a 
valuable  reform  at  home.  The  House  of  Commons  had  long  been 
jealous  of  the  reporting  of  its  debates  and  of  the  comments  of 
newspapers  on  its  members.  In  February,  1771,  Colonel  Onslow, 
a  member  of  the  House,  complained  that  a  newspaper  had  called 
him  '  little  cocking  George,'  and  a  '  paltry,  insignificant  insect.'  The 
proposal  to  summon  the  printers  to  the  bar  was  resisted  by  ob- 
structive motions  from  both  the  followers  of  Rockingham  and  the 
followers  of  Chatham,  and  when  it  was  at  last  carried  time  had 
slipped  by,  and  it  was  found  difficult  to  catch  all  the  printers.  One 
of  them,  named  Miller,  was  arrested  in  the  city  by  a  messenger  of 
the  House,  but  the  messenger,  in  turn,  was  arrested  and  brought 
before  the  Lord  Mayor  and  two  aldermen — one  of  whom  was  Wilkes 
■ — who  put  the  messenger  in  prison  for  infringing  the  city  charter  by 
making  an  arrest  in  the  city  without  the  authority  of  its  magistrates. 
The  House  of  Commons,  prudently  leaving  Wilkes  alone,  sent  the 
Lord  Mayor  and  the  other  alderman  to  the  Tower,  where  they  were 
royally  feasted  by  the  city  till  the  end  of  the  session,  after  which  time 
no  imprisonment,  by  order  of  either  House,  can  be  enforced.  The 
Opposition   had   gained  its  point,  as  since  that   time  no  attempt 

3  E  3 


78o  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAJST  INDEPENDENCE  1770-1774 

has  been  made  to  stop  the  reporting  of  debates.  It  was  the  free- 
dom of  reporting  which  ultimately  enabled  Parliamentary  reform 
to  be  effected  without  danger.  Only  a  people  which  is  allowed  to 
have  knowledge  of  the  actions  and  words  of  its  representatives 
can  be  trusted  to  control  them. 

4.  Continued  Resistance  in  America.  1770— 1772.— In  America 
resistance  to  the  British  Government  rose  and  fell  from  year  to 
year.  In  1770  some  soldiers  at  Boston  fired,  with  deadly  effect,  on 
a  crowd  which  threatened  them,  and  this  '  Boston  massacre,'  as  it 
was  called,  so  exasperated  the  townsmen  that  the  governor  had  to 
withdraw  the  troops.  Lawlessness  spread,  as  is  usually  the  case 
when  a  government  has  lost  the  support  of  public  opinion.  The 
revenue  officers  were  subjected  to  outrage,  and,  in  1772,  a  small 
vessel  of  war,  the  '  Gaspee,'  was  captured  and  burnt. 

5.  The  Boston  Tea  Ships.  1773. — The  people  of  New  England, 
though  they  had  agreed  to  avoid  the  use  of  tea,  found  it  difficult  to 
abstain  from  so  pleasant  a  beverage,  and  in  1773  Lord  North  struck 
a  bargain  with  the  East  India  Company  to  carry  a  large  quantity 
to  Boston.  When  the  tea  ships  arrived,  a  meeting  of  the  townsmen 
was  held,  and,  after  a  vain  attempt  to  persuade  the  governor  to  send 
them  away,  a  number  of  young  men,  disguised  as  Red  Indians, 
rushed  on  board  in  the  dark,  broke  open  the  chests  with  tomahawks, 
and  flung  the  whole  of  the  tea  into  the  harbour. 

6.  Repressive  Measures.  1774. — When  the  news  of  this 
violence  reached  England,  it  was  evident  to  all  that  either  the 
British  Parliament  must  abandon  its  claim  to  enforce  the  payment 
of  the  tea  duty  or  it  would  have  to  maintain  its  authority  by  force. 
Burke  pleaded  for  a  return  to  the  older  system  under  which  Great 
Britain  had  been  respected  for  so  many  years.  "  Revert,"  he  said, 
"  to  your  old  principles  .  .  .  leave  America,  if  she  have  taxable  matter 
in  her,  to  tax  herself.  I  am  not  here  going  into  a  distinction  of 
rights,  nor  attempting  to  mark  their  boundaries.  I  do  not  enter 
into  these  metaphysical  distinctions.  I  hate  the  very  sound  of 
them.  Leave  the  Americans  as  they  anciently  stood.  Be  content 
to  bind  America  by  laws  of  trade  ;  you  have  always  done  it.  Let 
this  be  your  reason  for  binding  her  trade.  Do  not  burden  them 
with  taxes  ;  you  were  not  used  to  do  so  from  the  beginning.  Let 
his  be  your  reason  for  not  taxing.  These  are  the  arguments  of 
states  and  kingdoms.  Leave  the  rest  to  the  schools,  for  there  only 
they  may  be  discussed  with  safety."  The  king.  Lord  North,  and 
Parliament,  thought  otherwise.  They  saw  that  there  was  anarchy 
in  America,  as  far  as  English  law  was  concerned,  and  they  con- 


1773 


OFFICIAL   CHARITY 


781 


782  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE  1774-1775 

ceived  it  to  be  their  duty  and  their  right  to  bring  it  to  an  end.  In 
1774  was  passed  the  Boston  Port  Act,  prohibiting  the  landing  or 
shipping  of  goods  at  Boston  ;  the  Massachusetts  Government  Act, 
transferring  the  appointment  of  the  Council,  or  Upper  House, 
together  with  that  of  all  judges  and  administrative  officers,  from  a 
popular  electorate  to  the  Crown  ;  and  another  Act  forbidding  public 
meetings  without  the  leave  of  the  governor.  In  order  to  keep  down 
resistance,  a  soldier,  General  Gage,  was  sent  to  be  governor  of 
Massachusetts. 

7.  The  Congress  of  Philadelphia  and  the  British  Parliament. 
1774. — The  American  colonies  had  always  been  divided  amongst 
themselves.  The  four  which  made  up  what  was  popularly  called 
New  England — Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  and 
Rhode  Island — had  been  founded  by  the  Puritans  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  still  retained  the  democratic  character  then  im- 
pressed upon  them.  It  was  expected  in  England  that  the  other 
nine  colonies,  where  different  habits  prevailed — New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia — would  take  no  part  in  the 
struggle,  if  one  there  was  to  be.  These  colonies,  however,  were 
frightened  lest  the  British  Parliament  should  alter  their  constitu- 
tions as  it  had  just  altered  that  of  Massachusetts,  and,  in  September, 
1774,  a  congress,  attended  by  deputies  of  all  the  colonies  except 
Georgia,  met  at  Philadelphia  under  the  name  of  the  Continental 
Congress.  Though  this  Assembly  had  no  legal  powers,  it  had 
popular  support,  and  it  directed  the  stoppage  of  all  importation 
from  and  exportation  to  Great  Britain  till  the  grievances  of  the 
colonies  had  been  redressed.  There  was  no  sign  ofany  wish  for 
separation,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  those  amongst  the 
colonists  who  called  themselves  Loyalists,  and  would  have  clung 
to  the  connection  with  Great  Britain  in  spite  of  all  that  was  hap- 
pening, formed  at  least  a  third  of  the  population.  The  majority, 
however,  including  all  the  most  active  spirits,  was  determined  to 
resist  unless  concessions  were  granted.  In  the  meanwhile,  prepa- 
rations for  resistance  were  made,  especially  in  New  England  ; 
officers  were  selected,  and  '  minute  men ' — so  called  because  they 
offered  to  fly  to  arms  at  a  minute's  notice — were  enrolled  in  great 
numbers. 

8.  Lexington  and  Bunker's  Hill.  1775. — Both  in  America 
and  in  England  illusions  prevailed.  The  Americans  thought  that 
the  British  Parliament  would  repeal  its  obnoxious  measures,  if  only 
the  American  case  were  fairly  represented  to  it,  whilst  the  British 


1775  THE  FIRST  BLOODSHED  783 

Parliament  continued  to  regard  the  power  of  resistance  in  America 
as  altogether  contemptible.  Hostilities  began  without  any  de- 
liberate purpose  on  either  side.  On  April  18,  1775,  a  small 
British  force,  sent  from  Boston  to  seize  some  anns  at  Concord, 
drove  off  on  its  way  a  small  party  of  American  volunteers  at 
Lexington.  On  its  return,  on  the  19th,  it  found  the  hedges 
and  walls  by  the  roadside  lined  with  a  superior  number  of  volun- 
teers, and  only  effected  its  retreat  with  heavy  loss.  After  this 
all  New  England  sprang  to  arms.  On  May  10  Ticonderoga 
was  seized,  and  the  command  of  Lake  Champlain  gained,  whilst 
on  June  16  about  1,500  insurgents  entrenched  themselves  at  the 
top  of  Breeds  Hill,  a  height  divided  from  Boston  by  the  Charles 
river.  On  June  17,  an  English  force  was  twice  repulsed  in  an 
attempt  to  gain  the  position,  and  only  succeeded  on  the  third  at- 
tempt after  the  ammunition  of  the  Americans  had  been  exhausted. 
The  fight  is  usually  known  as  the  Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  a  neigh- 
bouring height  on  which  no  fighting  actually  took  place.  The 
affair,  taken  by  itself,  was  not  of  great  importance,  but  it  showed 
how  well  Americans  could  fight  behind  entrenchments,  and  how 
capable  they  were  of  developing  military  qualities  unsuspected  by 
the  British  generals. 

9.  Conciliatory  Efforts.  1775. — After  blood  had  been  shed 
conciliatory  efforts  were  less  likely  to  be  successful.  An  offer 
to  abandon  the  British  claim  to  tax  any  American  colony  which 
would  provide  for  its  own  defence  and  its  civil  government  had, 
been  made  in  March  by  Lord  North,  but  it  was  not  known  in 
America  till  after  the  conflict  at  Lexington,  and  was  then  sum- 
marily rejected.  On  May  10  a  second  congress  was  held,  at  Phil- 
adelphia, and  as  it  was  attended  by  delegates  from  all  the  thirteen 
colonies,  it  assumed  the  style  of  '  The  Congress  of  the  United 
Colonies.'  On  July  8,  the  Congress  set  forth  terms  of  reconcilia- 
tion in  a  petition  known  as  '  The  Ohve  Branch  Petition,'  but  its 
offers  proved  as  unacceptable  in  England  as  Lord  North's  had 
been  in  America. 

10.  George  Washington  in  Command.  1775.  —  Congress, 
whilst  offering  peace,  prepared  for  war,  and  commenced  raising  an 
army  in  its  own  service,  to  replace  the  troops  which  had  hitherto 
been  raised  by  the  separate  colonies,  and,  on  June  15,  two  days 
before  the  capture  of  Breed's  Hill,  appointed  George  Washington 
commander  of  this  so-called  Continental  army.  Washington  was 
a  good  soldier,  who  had  fought  with  distinction  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,    and   was  especially  skilled  in  military  organisation.      His 


784  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE  1 775-1 776 

moral  qualifications  were  even  higher  than  his  intellectual.  He 
was  absolutely  unselfish,  and  possessed  of  infinite  patience.  Never 
were  such  qualities  more  needed.  The  adverse  criticisms  of  English 
soldiers  were,  to  a  great  extent,  justified  by  the  American  volun- 
teers. They  were  brave  enough,  but  they  were  unwilling  to  submit 
to  the  discipline  without  which  an  army  cannot  long  exist ;  and  it 
sometimes  happened  that  whole  regiments,  having  enlisted  for  a 
certain  time,  would  insist  on  going  home  when  that  time  expired, 
even  from  the  presence  of  the  enemy.  Washington's  subordinate 
officers,  too,  constantly  quarrelled  with  one  another,  whilst  each 
one  considered  himself  a  far  better  soldier  than  the  commander-in- 
chief. 

11.  Progress  of  the  War.  1775 — 1776. — In  the  autumn  of 
1775  the  war  languished.  An  American  army  attempted  to  over- 
run Canada,  but  the  Canadians,  being  Catholics  of  French  descent, 
had  no  love  for  the  New  England  Puritans,  and  the  enterprise 
failed  disastrously.  Gage,  who  commanded  the  British  army  in 
America,  was  not  a  vigorous  soldier.  His  successor,  Sir  WiUiam 
Howe,  was  equally  remiss,  and,  on  March  16, 1776,  evacuated  Boston. 
Yet  it  was  not  altogether  the  fault  of  these  two  commanders 
that  they  did  nothing.  So  little  had  the  British  Parliament  ex- 
pected resistance  that  it  had  allowed  the  numbers  of  the  army  to 
sink  to  a  low  ebb.  In  1774  the  whole  of  the  king's  forces  did  not 
exceed  17,547  men,  and  when,  in  1775,  an  attempt  was  made  to  raise 
them  to  55,000,  it  was  found  impossible  to  obtain  the  required  number 
of  men  in  Great  Britain.  In  despair  the  Government  had  recourse 
to  a  bargain  with  some  German  princes  for  the  sale  of  their  sub- 
jects. In  this  way  17,742  unhappy  Germans  were  sent  off,  like 
so  many  slaves,  to  serve  George  III.  in  re-conquering  America. 

12.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  Struggle  in 
New  Jersey.  1776 — 1777.  —  Nothing  did  more  to  alienate  the 
Americans  than  this  attempt  to  put  them  down  by  foreign  troops. 
The  result  was  the  Declaration  of  Independence  voted  by  Congress 
on  July  4, 1776.  The  United  States,  as  they  were  now  to  be  called, 
disclaimed  all  obedience  to  the  British  Crown.  They  had  still, 
however,  to  make  good  their  words  by  action,  and  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year  they  were  distinctly  inferior  in  the  field  to 
their  adversaries.  On  September  15  Howe  occupied  New  York, 
Washington  having  been  compelled  to  draw  off  his  insubordinate 
soldiery.  The  plundering  and  violence  of  the  American  troops 
alienated  a  great  part  of  the  population,  and  in  December  Wash- 
ington was  driven  out  of  New  Jersey  by  Lord  Cornwallis.     The 


I 776-1 780 


SOMERSET  HOUSE 


785 


786  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE  i776-i777 

men  deserted  in  shoals,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  through 
which  they  passed  showed  no  inchnation  to  assist  them.  Congress 
fled  from  Philadelphia  to  Baltimore.  Washington  saw  that,  unless 
he  could  inspire  his  troops  with  the  ardour  of  success,  his  case 
was  hopeless,  and  on  Christmas  night  he  dashed  at  Trenton,  where 
he  surprised  the  Germans  in  the  midst  of  their  revelry,  and  carried 
off  I, GOO  prisoners.  On  January  2,  1777,  he  defeated  three  British 
regiments  at  Princeton.  The  men  of  New  Jersey  rallied  round 
Washington,  and  New  Jersey  itself  was  recovered.  The  constancy 
and  generalship  of  Washington  had  stemmed  the  tide. 

13.  French  Assistance  to  America.  1776 —1777. -If  Great 
Britain  had  had  to  deal  only  with  the  Americans,  it  could  hardly 
have  failed  to  wear  out  their  resistance,  considering  how  large  a 
part  of  the  population  longed  for  peace  rather  than  for  indepen- 
dence. Its  own  population  was  8,000,000,  whilst  that  of  the  United 
States  was  less  than  2,000,000.  A  nation,  however,  which  attacks 
a  people  inferior  to  itself  in  strength  must  always  take  into  account 
the  probability  that  other  states,  which  for  any  reason  bear  a  grudge 
against  her,  will  take  the  part  of  her  weaker  enemy.  In  1776  France, 
burning,  in  the  first  place,  to  revenge  her  defeat  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  break  down  the  British  monopoly 
of  American  commerce,  lent,  underhand,  large  sums-  of  money  to 
America,  and  gave  other  assistance  in  an  equally  secret  way. 
"All  Europe  is  for  us,"  wrote  the  American  diplomatists  who 
negotiated  with  France.  "  Every  nation  in  Europe  wishes  to  see 
Britain  humbled,  having  all  in  their  turn  been  offended  by  her 
insolence."  French  volunteers  of  good  birth,  of  whom  the  most 
noted  was  Lafayette,  crossed  the  Atlantic  to  take  service  under 
Washington. 

14.  Brandywine  and  Saratoga.  1777.  —  Such  help  was  in- 
sufficient. On  September  11,  1777,  Howe  defeated  Washington  on 
the  Brandywine,  and,  pushing  onwards,  occupied  Philadelphia. 
The  vastness  of  the  country,  however,  fought  for  the  Americans 
better  than  their  own  armies.  Whilst  Washington  was  vainly 
attempting  to  defend  Pennsylvania,  Burgoyne,  an  English  officer 
of  repute,  was  coming  down  the  valley  of  the  Hudson  from  Canada, 
hoping  to  join  Clinton,  who  was  to  come  up  the  valley  from  New 
York.  He  never  reached  CHnton.  Though  he  pushed  on  far,  his 
troops  dwindled  away  and  his  provisions  fell  short.  The  Ameri- 
cans occupied  every  post  around  his  diminished  army,  and  on 
October  16  he  was  forced  to  capitulate  at  Saratoga. 

15.  The    French  Alliance   with  America,   and   the    Death   of 


1778 -1779  APPROACHING  FAILURE  787 

Chatham.  1778. — The  British  disaster  at  Saratoga  encouraged 
the  French  Government,  and,  on  February  6,  1778,  France  openly 
allied  herself  with  America.  Lord  North  offered  to  yield  anything 
short  of  independence,  and  begged  the  king  to  relieve  him  of  office 
and  to  appoint  Chatham.  George  III.  refused  to  admit  Chatham 
except  as  North's  subo-rdinate.  Chatham,  though  he  declined  this 
insulting  offer,  opposed,  on  April  7,  a  motion  by  one  of  the  Rock- 
ingham Whigs  for  acknowledging  the  independence  of  America, 
and  thus  practically  gave  his  support  to  North.  He  was  ready  to 
give  way  on  all  the  points  originally  in  dispute,  but  he  could  not 
reconcile  himself  to  the  abandonment  of  the  colonies,  and  he  firmly 
protested  against  '  the  dismemberment  of  this  ancient  and  most 
noble  monarchy.'  As  he  spoke  his  voice  failed  him,  and,  on  rising 
to  make  a  second  speech,  he  fell  back  in  a  fit  of  apoplexy.  On 
May  1 1  he  died.  With  many  faults,  he  stands  forth  amongst  the 
greatest  figures  in  English  history.  He  had  not  merely  done  great 
things— he  had  inspired  England  with  confidence  in  herself. 

16.  Valley  Forge.  1777— 1778.— French  help  was  offered  to 
America  none  too-  soon.  In  the  winter  of  1777—78  Washington's 
army  at  Valley  Forge  was  almost  destitute.  Pennsylvania  had 
little  sympathy  with  him  in  the  struggle,  and  Washington  himself 
spoke  of  it  as  an  '  enemy's  country.'  For  three  days  his  soldiers 
had  no  bread,  and  nearly  3,000  men  were  unfit  for  duty  because 
they  were  'bare-footed  and  otherwise  naked.'  Numbers  deserted, 
and  the  distress  increased  as  winter  wore  on.  When  spring  arrived 
the  result  of  the  French  alliance  was  clearly  seen.  In  June  the 
British  evacuated  Philadelphia,  and  in  July  a  French  fleet  appeared 
off  the  American  coast.  Yet  the  operations  of  1778  were  desultory. 
The  unwillingness  of  the  Americans  to  support  their  army  was  so 
great  that,  at  the  end  of  1778,  Washington  was  almost  as  despon- 
dent as  he  had  been  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

17.  George  III.  and  Lord  North.  1779. — Each  side  saw  its 
own  difficulties,  and,  in  1779,  every  statesman  in  England  was 
to  the  full  as  despondent  as  Washington.  Lord  North  himself 
thought  it  impossible  to  re-conquer  America  now  that  France  was 
her  ally.  George  III.,  with  a  determination  which,  when  it 
succeeds,  is  called  firmness,  and,  when  it  fails,  is  called  obstinacy, 
declared  that  he  would  never  yield  or  give  office  to  any  man  who 
would  not  first  sign  a  declaration  that  he  was  '  resolved  to  keep  the 
empire  entire,  and  that  no  troops  shall  consequently  be  withdrawn 
from  America  nor  independence  ever  allowed.'  To  the  king's  resolute 
will  North  reluctantly  submitted,  though  in  June  1779  Spain  allied 


jZS  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE  177S-1780 

herself  with  France  and  America  against  Great  Britain.  North 
again  and  again  offered  his  resignation,  but  the  king  forced  him  to 
retain  office. 

18.  The  French  in  the  Channel.  1779.— The  hour  of  French 
vengeance  had  come.  Early  in  1779  a  French  naval  squadron 
seized  the  British  possessions  in  Senegal  and  on  the  Gambia,  and 
in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  a  combined  French  and  Spanish 
fleet  sailed  up  the  Channel,  which  the  British  fleet  did  not  even 
venture  to  meet.  For  the  first  time  since  the  battle  of  La  Hogue 
the  French  navy  was  master  of  the  sea.  The  fact  was  that  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  French  navy  now  appeared  at  sea 
were  different  from  those  under  which  it  had  suffered  defeat  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War.  In  the  first  place,  Louis  XVL,  who  had 
been  king  of  France  since  1774,  had  paid  special  attention  to  the 
navy,  and  had  both  increased  the  number  of  his  war-ships  and 
had  done  his  utmost  to  render  their  crews  efficient.  In  the  second 
place,  he  abandoned  the  policy  which  had  been  pursued  by  every 
ruler  of  France  since  the  days  of  Richelieu,  and  which  consisted 
in  throwing  the  whole  strength  of  the  country  into  territorial  ag- 
gression on  its  land  frontier,  thus  weakening  its  ability  to  engage 
successfully  in  naval  warfare.  The  new  king,  by  keeping  at  peace 
with  his  neighbours  on  the  Continent,  was  thus  enabled  to  struggle 
with  better  chance  of  success  against  England,  the  old  maritime 
rival  of  France. 

19.  English  Successes  in  America.  1779 — 1780. — In  America 
the  British  had  still  the  upper  hand,  as  far  as  fighting  was  con- 
cerned. In  Georgia,  the  English  beat  off  an  attack  by  the  Americans 
at  Savannah,  though  the  latter  were  supported  by  a  French  fleet 
under  D'Estaing,  who  had  previously  reduced  some  of  the  West 
India  Islands.  On  May  12,  1780,  Sir  Henry  Clinton  took  Charles- 
ton, and  after  his  return  to  New  York,  Lord  Cornwallis,  whom  he 
left  behind  in  command,  defeated  the  American  general.  Gates, 
at  Camden  in  South  Carolina.  It  seemed  as  if  the  whole  of  the 
southern  states,  where  the  opposition  to  Great  Britain  was  not  nearly 
so  strong  as  in  the  north,  would  be  brought  into  subjection.  The 
enormous  distances  which  the  British  had  to  traverse  again  told 
against  them.  Cornwallis  had  hot  men  enough  to  hold  the  country 
which  he  had  subdued  and  to  gain  new  ground  as  well,  and  he  was 
driven  back  as  soon  as  he  advanced  into  North  Carolina.  Yet,  in 
spite  of  this  failure,  the  gains  of  the  British  were  so  considerable  as  to 
increase  the  alarm  of  those  Americans  who  had  hoped  for  a  decisive 
result  from  their  combination  with  France  and  Spain.  In  September, 


1 779-1780  ECONOMICAL   REFORM  789 

1780,  Benedict  Arnold,  a  general  in  whom  Washington  placed 
complete  confidence,  plotted  to  betray  to  the  British  commander 
at  New  York  the  forts  on  the  hills  round  the  Hudson.  If  the 
plot  had  succeeded,  the  struggle  for  American  independence  would 
have  been  at  an  end.  It  was,  however,  detected,  and,  though 
Arnold  himself  escaped.  Major  Andre,  the  British  officer  who 
negotiated  with  him,  was  caught  within  the  American  lines  and 
hanged  as  a  spy. 

19.  Economical  Reform.  1779— 1780.— In  England  there  was, 
as  yet,  no  active  opposition  to  the  continuance  of  the  war,  but 
there  was  a  growing  dissatisfaction  with  its  apparently  endless 
expense.  Towards  the  close  of  1779  the  opposition  turned  this 
current  of  feeling  against  the  employment  of  the  patronage  of  the 
Crown,  by  which  George  III.  secured  votes  in  Parliament.  They 
raised  a  cry,  which  was  fully  justified,  in  favour  of  Economical 
Reform,  and  they  gathered  large  public  meetings  in  their  support. 
The  practice  of  bringing  the  opinion  of  public  meetings  to  bear 
upon  Parliament  was  of  recent  origin,  having  sprung  into  existence 
in  1769,  during  the  agitation  consequent  on  Wilkes's  election.  In 
1779  it  spread  over  the  country.  The  signal  was  given  by  a  meet- 
ing at  York,  presided  over  by  Sir  George  Savile,  a  highly-respected 
member  of  the  Rockingham  party.  These  meetings  were  every- 
where attended  by  the  orderly  classes,  and  were  an  indication 
of  the  dissatisfaction  widely  felt  with  a  system  through  which  the 
House  of  Commons  had  become  a  mere  instrument  in  the  king's 
hands.  In  February,  1780,  Burke  brought  in  a  Bill  for  the  abolition 
of  sinecures,  the  only  use  of  which  was  the  purchase  of  votes  ; 
and,  in  a  magnificent  speech,  pleaded  the  cause  of  Economical 
Reform.  He  put  the  case  in  a  nutshell  when  he  announced  that  '  the 
king's  turnspit  was  a  peer  of  Parliament.'  The  House  was  too 
alarmed  at  the  outburst  of  popular  feeling  to  refuse  to  the  Bill  a 
second  reading,  but  it  rejected  its  leading  clauses  in  Committee, 
and  the  Bill  was  consequently  dropped.  In  April,  however, 
Dunning,  a  Whig  lawyer,  carried  a  resolution  that  '  the  influence  of 
the  Crown  has  increased,  is  increasing,  and  ought  to  be  diminished.' 

20.  Parliamentary  Reform  and  the  Gordon  Riots. — Though 
the  opposition  was  united  in  favour  of  Economical  Reform,  which 
would  render  the  House  of  Commons  less  dependent  on  the  King, 
it  was  divided  on  the  subject  of  Parliamentary  Reform,  which  would 
have  made  it  more  dependent  on  the  Ration.  Burke,  with  the 
greater  number  of  the  Rockingham  party,  opposed  the  latter,  but 
it  was  supported  by  Charles  James  Fox,  the  son  of  the  Henry  Fox 


790        STRUGGLE  POR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE     1780 

who  had  been  noted  as  the  most  corrupt  minister  of  a  corrupt 
time  (see  pp.  747,  751).  The  younger  Fox  was,  in  private 
life,  a  lover  of  pleasure,  especially  at  the  gaming-table,  thereby 
alienating  from  him  the  more  decorous  portion  of  mankind.  Yet, 
in  spite  of  this,  the  charm  of  his  kindly  nature  gained  him  warm 
personal  friendships,  and  often  disarmed  thehostihty  of  opponents. 
In  public  life  he  showed  himself  early  as  a  ready  and  fluent  speaker, 


Charles  James  Fox  as  a  young  man  :  from  an  engraving  by 
Watson  from  a  painting  by  Reynolds. 

always  prepared  with  an  answer  on  the  spur  of  the  moment. 
He  was  ever  ready  to  throw  himself  enthusiastically  into  all 
generous  and  noble  causes,  praising  beyond  measure  and  abusing 
beyond  measure,  and  too  deficient  in  tact  and  self-restraint  to 
secure  power  on  the  rare  occasions  when  he  attained  it. 

21.  The  Gordon  Riots.     1780 — On  June  2,  1780,  the  Duke  of 
Richmond  called,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  for  manhood  suffrage  and 


1780 


THE   GORDON  RIOTS 


791 


792  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE  1 780- 1 781 

annual  Parliaments.  That  very  day  the  unfitness  of  the  multitude 
of  those  times  for  political  power  received  a  strong  illustration.  In 
1778  Sir  George  Savile  had  carried  a  Bill  relieving  Roman  Catholics 
of  some  of  the  hardships  inflicted  on  them  by  the  law.  The  cry 
of '  No  Popery'  was  at  once  raised,  and,  whilst  the  Duke  of  Rich- 
mond was  speaking  to  the  peers,  a  mob,  led  by  Lord  George 
Gordon,  a  half-crazy  fanatic,  poured  down  to  Westminster  with  a 
petition  for  the  repeal  of  Savile's  Act.  Members  of  both  Houses 
were  hustled  and  ill-used,  and  for  some  time  the  mob  endeavoured 
to  burst  into  the  House  of  Commons.  Failing  in  this,  they  streamed 
off,  and  sacked  and  burnt  the  chapels  of  Roman  Catholic  ambas- 
sadors. The  mob,  however,  loved  riot  more  than  they  hated  Popery. 
They  burnt  Newgate  and  liberated  the  prisoners.  They  fell,  with 
special  eagerness,  upon  the  houses  of  magistrates.  For  six  days 
they  were  in  complete  possession  of  a  considerable  part  of  London, 
plundering  and  setting  fire  to  houses  at  their  pleasure.  Soldiers 
alone  could  arrest  such  a  flood  of  mischief;  and  when,  at  last, 
soldiers  were  ordered  to  attack  the  mob,  the  riot  was  suppressed. 

22.  The  Armed  Neutrality.  1780. — The  suppression  of  the 
riots  in  London  brought  back  some  support  to  the  king,  but  the 
enemies  of  England  abroad  were  growing  stronger.  English  ships 
claimed  the  right  of  search  in  neutral  vessels  on  the  high  seas,  and 
they  proceeded  to  confiscate  enemies'  goods  found  in  them.  They 
also  seized  neutral  vessels  trading  with  ports  of  their  enemies,  which 
they  declared  to  be  blockaded,  even  when  they  were  not  in  sufficient 
force  to  exercise  an  effective  blockade.  A  league  sprung  up  amongst 
the  northern  states,  headed  by  Russia,  to  establish  an  'Armed 
Neutrality'  for  protection  against  such  attacks.  This  league,  sup- 
ported by  France,  advanced  what  was  then  the  new  doctrine,  that 
'  Free  ships  make  free  goods,'  and  proclaimed  that  '  paper  block- 
ades' — that  is  to  say,  blockades  not  enforced  by  a  sufficient  naval 
squadron — were  inadmissible.  The  Dutch  Republic  moreover 
adopted  this  view  and  resisted  the  right  of  search  when  used  by 
the  English,  just  as  the  English,  in  Walpole's  time,  had  resisted  it 
when  exercised  by  the  Spaniards  (see  p.  728),  and  in  December, 
1780,  England  declared  war  on  the  Republic. 

23.  The  Capitulation  of  Yorktown.  1781. — The  campaign  of 
1781  was  looked  forward  to  as  likely  to  be  decisive.  Cornwallis  pushed 
on  to  the  conquest  of  North  Carolina,  and,  though  his  advanced 
guard  was  defeated  at  Cowpens  in  January,  in  March  he  routed 
an  American  army  under  Greene  at  Guilford.  Once  more  the 
enormous  size  of  the  country  frustrated  the  plans  of  the  English 


1782 


NEWGATE  PRISON 


7:3 


III. 


794      STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE    1781 

commander,  who,  after  a  few  weeks,  being  unable  to  hold  any 
part  of  the  Carolinas  except  Charleston,  went  off  to  Virginia. 
The  American  army  was  quite  unable  to  inflict  a  serious  defeat  on 
the  British  in  the  field.  The  states  themselves  left  it  unpaid  and 
afforded  it  but  scanty  means  of  support.  The  men  deserted  in  shoals, 
and  those  who  remained  were  obliged  to  obtain  food  by  oppression. 
"  Scarce  any  state,"  wrote  an  American  general,  "  has  at  this  hour 
an  eighth  part  of  its  quota  in  the  field.  .  .  .  Instead  of  having 
the  prospect  of  a  glorious  offensive  campaign  before  us,  we  have  a 
bewildered  and  gloomy  one,  unless  we  should  receive  a  powerful 
aid  of  ships,  land  troops,  and  money,  from  our  generous  allies." 
In  expectation  of  this  help  the  American  forces  again  grew  in 
numbers,  so  that  Cornwallis,  though  unconquered,  was  compelled 
to  fortify  a  post  at  Yorktown  on  the  shore  of  the  Chesapeake,  where, 
as  long  as  he  was  master  of  the  sea,  he  could  defy  his  enemies.  The 
French  fleet  under  De  Grasse,  however,  soon  gained  the  mastery, 
and  blockaded  Yorktown  on  the  side  of  the  water,  while  the  Ameri- 
cans blockaded  it  on  the  side  of  the  land.  On  October  19  Cornwallis 
surrendered,  and  the  American  War  was  virtually  at  an  end. 

24.  American  success.  1781.— American  Independence  had 
been  the  work  of  an  active  minority,  especially  vigorous  in  New 
England,  and  in  some  other  parts  further  south.  This  minority 
was  always  ready  to  take  advantage  of  every  circumstance  arising 
in  their  favour,  and  availing  themselves  of  the  assistance  of 
the  foreign  enemies  of  England.  The  cause  of  America  was,  to 
some  extent,  the  cause  of  England  herself  The  same  reasons 
which  made  Parliament  ready  to  set  aside  by  an  act  of  power 
the  resistance  of  the  Americans  to  the  payment  of  a  tax  to  which 
their  representatives  had  not  consented  had  weighed  with  the  House 
of  Commons  when  they  set  aside  the  repeatedly  declared  choice  of 
the  Middlesex  electors.  In  the  one  case  the  British  Parliament, 
in  the  other  case  the  British  House  of  Commons,  insisted  on  having 
its  way,  because  it  believed  itself  in  the  right.  The  principle  of 
self-government — of  the  system  which  acknowledges  that  it  is  better 
to  allow  a  people  to  blunder  in  order  that  they  may  learn  by  ex- 
perience, than  to  coerce  them  for  their  own  good — was  at  stake  in 
both.  It  seemed  as  easy  to  suppress  America  as  it  was  to 
suppress  the  Middlesex  electors  ;  and  when  England  discovered 
that  this  was  not  the  case,  she  learnt  a  lesson  which  would  teach 
her  in  the  future  how  much  consideration  was  due  to  those  de- 
pendencies which  were  still  left. 

25.  The  Last  Days  of  North's  Ministry.     1781  — 1782.  —  The 


1781-1782  .VORTH'S  RESIGNATION  795 

news  of  the  surrender  at  Yorktown  reached  England  on  No- 
vember 25.  "  O  God  !  "  cried  North  when  he  heard  it,  "  it  is  all 
over."  The  king  insisted  on  North's  retaining  office  and  pro- 
longing the  struggle.  During  the  next  few  months  Minorca  sur- 
rendered to  the  Spaniards,  and  De  Grasse's  fleet  captured  one 
West  India  island  after  another.  The  supporters  of  the  ministry 
in  Parliament  deserted  it,  and  on  March  20,  1782,  North  resigned. 
26.  The  Rockingham  Ministry.  1782. — Much  to  his  annoy- 
ance, George  III.  had  to  place  the  opposition  in  office,  with 
Rockingham  as  Prime  Minister,  and  to  allow  the  new  ministers 
to  open  negotiations  on  the  basis  of  the  acknowledgment  of 
American  independence.  The  two  most  important  members  of 
Rockingham's  second  administration  were  Fox  and  Lord  Shelburne, 
the  latter  being  the  leader  of  that  section  of  the  Whigs  which  had  fol- 
lowed Chatham.  The  king,  who  hated  the  Rockingham  section  as 
an  aristocratic  faction,  intrigued  with  Shelburne  against  the  other 
members  of  the  ministry.  As  Shelburne  disliked  Fox  personally, 
the  prospect  of  a  united  ministry  was  not  encouraging.  For  the 
moment,  however,  the  new  ministers  did  plenty  of  good  work. 
They  opened  negotiations  for  peace,  and  were  likely  to  obtain  the 
better  terms,  as  on  April  12  Admiral  Rodney  gained  a  decisive 
victory  in  the  West  Indies  over  De  Grasse's  fleet.  At  home,  the 
ministers  set  themselves  to  purify  Parliament.  They  carried 
measures,  in  the  first  place,  disqualifying  revenue  officers,  who  were 
liable  to  dismissal  by  the  Government,  from  voting  at  elections,  and, 
in  the  second  place,  disqualifying  contractors  from  sitting  in  the 
House  of  Commons  on  the  ground  that  it  was  their  interest  not  to 
offend  the  ministers.  Burke's  Economical  Reform  Bill,  which  had 
been  thrown  out  in  1781,  was  also  passed,  in  a  modified  form,  in 
1782.  Though  the  king  still  retained  sufficient  patronage  to  make 
him  formidable,  he  would  now  have  less  corrupting  influence  than 
before. 

27.  Irish  Religion  and  Commerce.  1778. — The  Irish  Parlia- 
ment had,  for  some  time,  been  growing  discontented  with  its 
subordinate  position.  It  is  true  that  it  represented  the  Protestants 
only,  but  its  desire  to  make  itself  independent  had  the  result  of 
rendering  it  unusually  inclined  to  conciliate  the  Catholics.  In  1778 
it  passed  a  Relief  Bill,  repealing  the  worst  of  the  persecuting  acts 
(see  p.  686).  The  leader  in  this  movement  was  Grattan,  who  pro- 
nounced that  '  the  Irish  Protestant  could  never  be  free  till  the 
Irish  Catholic  had  ceased  to  be  a  slave.'  In  the  same  year  some 
slight  diminution  was  effected  in  the  restrictions  which  had  been 

3  F2 


796  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE  1778-1782 

imposed  on  Irish  commerce,  but  the  outcry  raised  by  EngHsh  manu- 
facturers was  too  loud  to  allow  North  to  concede  to  Ireland  as 
much  as  he  would  willingly  have  done. 

28.  The  Irish  Volunteers.  1778  — 1781.  — Irish  Protestants 
were,  for  every  reason,  warm  supporters  of  the  connection  with 
England,  but  they  were  hostile  to  the  existing  system,  because  it 
impoverished  them  by  stopping  their  trade.  They  asked  for 
liberty  to  export  what  they  pleased  and  to  import  what  they 
pleased.  To  gain  this  t^ey  needed  legislative  independence,  their 
own  Parliament  being  not  only  prohibited,  by  Poynings'  law  (see 
p.  350),  from  passing  any  act  which  had  not  been  first  approved 
by  the  English  Privy  Council,  but  being  bound  by  a  further  act 
of  George  I.  which  declared  Ireland  to  be  subject  to  laws  made  in 
the  British  Parliament.  The  war  with  France  gave  to  the  Irish 
Protestants  the  opportunity  which  they  sought.  England,  bent  upon 
the  reconquest  of  America,  had  no  troops  to  spare  for  the  defence 
of  Ireland,  and  the  Irish  Protestants  came  forward  as  volunteers 
in  defence  of  their  own  country.  At  the  end  of  1781  they  had 
80,000  men  in  arms,  and  with  this  force  behind  their  backs  they 
now  asked  for  legislative  independence. 

29.  Irish  Legislative  Independence.  1782. — In  1782,  with 
recent  experience  gained  in  America,  Rockingham's  Government 
shrank  from  opposing  a  movement  so  formidably  supported.  At 
Fox's  motion  the  British  Parliament  passed  an  act,  by  which 
the  act  of  George  I.  binding  Ireland  to  obey  laws  made  in  Great 
Britain  was  repealed,  and  Poynings'  law  was  so  modified  as  to 
put  an  end  to  the  control  of  the  British  Privy  Council  over  the 
making  of  laws  in  Ireland.  However,  the  independent  Parliament 
at  Dublin — Grattan's  Parliament,  as  it  is  sometimes  called — 
had  two  sources  of  weakness.  In  the  first  place  the  House  of 
Commons  was  chosen  by  Protestants  alone  ;  in  the  second  place 
it  had  no  control  over  the  executive  government,  which  was  ex- 
ercised not,  as  in  England,  by  ministers  responsible  to  Parliament, 
but  by  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  who  was  appointed  by,  and  was  re- 
sponsible to,  the  Government  in  England.  Nor  were  there  any 
constitutional  means  by  which  either  the  two  Parliaments  in  con- 
junction, or  any  third  body  with  powers  either  derived  from  them  or 
superior  to  them,  could  decide  upon  questions  in  which  both  peoples 
were  interested. 

30.  The  Shelburne  Ministry  and  the  Peace  of  Paris.  1782 — 
1783. — On  July  I,  1782,  Rockingham  died,  and  the  king  at  once 
appointed  Shelburne  Prime  Minister,  who,  as  he  thought,  would 


I78l 


GIBRALTAR 


797 


798  STRUGGLE  FOR  AMERICAN  INDEPENDENCE  1782- 1783 

be  more  likely  than  any  of  the  other  ministers  to  help  him  to  keep 
down  the  Whig  aristocracy.  Fox,  who  detested  Shelburne,  and 
had  for  some  time  been  engaged  in  a  bitter  dispute  with  him 
on  the  subject  of  the  negotiations  for  peace,  resigned  together  with 
others  of  Rockingham's  followers.  When  Shelburne  became  Prime 
Minister  the  negotiations  were  far  advanced.  France  and  Spain 
were,  however,  anxious,  before  they  signed  a  peace,  to  regain 
Gibraltar,  which  their  fleets  and  armies  had  been  besieging  for 
more  than  three  years.  On  September  13  a  tremendous  attack 
was  made  on  the  fortress  with  floating  batteries  which  were  thought 
to  be  indestructible.  The  British,  on  the  other  side,  fired  red-hot 
shot  at  the  batteries  till  they  were  all  burnt.  After  this  failure,  France 
and  Spain  were  ready  to  come  to  terms  with  Great  Britain.  The 
preliminaries  of  peace  with  the  United  States  of  America  were 
signed  at  Paris,  on  November  30,  1782,  and  with  France  and  Spain 
on  January  20,  1783.  The  preliminaries  were  converted  into  de- 
finitive treaties  on  -September  3, 1783.  The  Dutch  held  out  longer, 
but  were  obliged  to  yield  to  a  peace  a  few  months  later. 

31.  Terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris.  1783.— The  treaties  with 
France  and  Spain  restored  to  France  the  right  of  fortifying  Dunkirk, 
which  had  been  taken  from  her  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (see 
p.  699),  and  to  Spain  the  possession  of  Minorca,  whilst  certain 
exchanges  were  effected  in  the  West  Indies,  Africa,  and  India. 
In  America,  Florida  went  back  to  Spain.  By  the  treaty  with  the 
United  States  their  independence  was  acknowledged,  and  their 
western  border  was  fixed  on  the  Mississippi,  beyond  which  was 
Louisiana,  ceded  by  France  to  Spain  at  the  end  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War.     (See  p.  766.) 


799 


CHAPTER   L 

PITT   AND    FOX.       1782-  1789 

LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  George  III.,  1760    1820 

Pitt,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 1782 

The  Coalition  Ministry April  2,  1783 

Pitt  Prime  Minister Dec.  23,1783 

Pitt's  India  Bill 1784 

Bills  for  Parliamentary  Reform  and  for  a  Commercial 

Union  with  Ireland 1785 

Commercial  Treaty  with  France 1786 

Insanity  of  the  King 1788 

The  Regency  Bill 1789 

1.  The  Younger  Pitt.  1782-  1783.-  Chatham's  second  son, 
William  Pitt,  had  entered  Parliament  in  1780,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one.  He  had  supported  Burke's  Economical  Reform  and  denounced 
the  American  War.  "  Pitt,"  said  some  one  to  Fox,  "  will  be  one  of 
the  first  men  in  the  House  of  Commons."  "  He  is  so  already,"  re- 
plied Fox.  "  He  is  not  a  chip  of  the  old  block,"  said  Burke,  "  he  is 
the  old  block  itself."  Burke's  saying  was  not  strictly  accurate.  The 
qualities  of  the  younger  Pitt  were  different  from  those  of  his  father. 
He  had  none  of  the  fire  of  the  impetuous  Chatham,  but  he  had  what 
Chatham  did  not  possess,  unerring  tact  in  the  management  of  men 
and  high  sagacity  in  discriminating  between  things  possible  to 
be  done  and  things  which  were  not  possible.  When  the  second 
Rockingham  Ministry  was  formed,  he  was  offered  a  post  which  did 
not  carry  with  it  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet,  but  which  brought  a  salary 
of  5,ocx)/.  a  year.  Pitt,  who  was  a  young  barrister  making  a  bare 
300/.  a  year,  refused  the  offer,  and  astonished  the  House  by  assert- 
ing that  he  '  never  would  accept  a  subordinate  situation.'  He  soon 
asked  for  a  committee  to  inquire  into  the  need  for  Parliamentary 
reform,  adopting  the  views  of  his  father  on  this  subject,  in  opposi- 
tion to  those  of  the  Rockingham  Whigs.  When  Shelburne  became 
Prime  Minister,  he  made  Pitt  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  with 
the  leadership  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

2.  Resignation  of  Shelburne.  1783.— Shelburne's  Ministry  did 
not  last  long.     Shelburne  never  continued  for  any  length  of  time 


8oo 


PITT  AND  FOX 


1783 


on  good  terms  with  other  men.     He  was  unreasonably  suspicious, 
and  his  profuse  employment  of  complimentary  expressions  gave 
rise  to  doubts  of  his  sincerity.     In  the  beginning  of  1783  most  of 
his  colleagues  had  ceased  to  attend  his  Cabinet  meetings.     It  was 
obvious  that  Shelburne,  with  all  his  ability,  was  not  a  ruler  of  men, 
and  it  is  almost  certain  that  if  Fox  had  had  a  little  patience,  Shel- 
burne   must    have    re- 
signed,   and    the   way 
have  been  opened  for  a 
strong    and    reforming 
Ministry,  in  which  Fox 
and    Pitt   would    have 
played  the  leading  part. 
Unfortunately,  Fox  had 
neither     patience     nor 
tact.       He     formed     a 
coalition    with     North, 
and   as   the   two   toge- 
ther  had  a  large    ma- 
jority in  the  House  of 
Commons  at  their  dis- 
posal,    Shelburne     re- 
signed on  February  24. 
3.     The      Coalition 
Ministry.       1783.— The 
king   was   furious,    but 
for    the   time,  helpless. 
He  regarded  North  as 
an   ungrateful  deserter, 
and      he      had      more 
than    one    reason     for 
disliking      Fox.        Not 
only  was  Fox  the  most 
brilliant    supporter   of  the   system  of   Parliamentary  connection, 
which   George  HI.  had  set  himself  to  break  down,  but   he  was 
personally   intimate  with  the  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards    King 
George  IV.   The  Prince  was  now  living  a  dissipated  life,  and  the 
king  attributed  the  mischief  to  the  evil  influence  of  Fox,  though 
the    low   character    of   the   Prince  himself,   and    the    repulsive- 
ness  of  the  very  moral,  but  exceedingly  dull,  domestic  life  of  the 
royal  family,  had,  no  doubt,  some  part  in  the  unfortunate  result. 
The  people  at  large  were  scandalised  at  a  coalition  formed  appa- 


Costumes  of  persons  of  quality,  about  1783. 


I7S7-I772  OLIVE'S  RETURN  TO  BENGAL  801 

rently  for  the  mere  purpose  of  securing  power  for  Fox  and  North, 
who  had  been  abusing  one  another  for  many  years,  and  who  did  not 
come  into  office  to  support  any  policy  which  Shelburne  had  op- 
posed, or  to  frustrate  any  pohcy  which  Shelburne  had  supported. 
Nevertheless,  sufficient  indignation  had  not  yet  been  shown  to 
enable  the  king  to  dissolve  Parliament  with  a  fair  hope  of  suc- 
cess. He  was,  therefore,  after  various  attempts  to  avoid  yielding, 
obliged  on  April  2  to  admit  the  Coalition  to  office.  Fox  and  North 
became  secretaries  of  state,  and  the  Duke  of  Portland,  a  man  of 
no  great  capacity,  became  nominally  Prime  Minister.  During  the 
remainder  of  the  session,  Pitt  again  brought  forward  a  motion  for 
Parliamentary  reform,  attacking  the  secret  influence  of  the  Crown 
as  strongly  as  the  venality  of  the  electors  in  the  petty  boroughs. 
Fox  supported  and  North  opposed  him  ;  after  which  his  motion 
was  lost  by  a  majority  of  nearly  two  to  one.  When  the  House  of 
Commons  met  again.  Fox  laid  before  it  a  bill  for  the  government 
of  India. 

4.  The  English  in  Bengal.  1757 — 1772. — Clive  returned  to 
England  in  1760.  Before  he  left  India  he  had  obtained  from  the 
Great  Mogul  the  grant  of  the  quit-rent  with  which  the  Company 
had  to  pay  for  its  zemindary  (see  p.  764),  and  thus  became  himself 
the  landlord  of  the  Company.  Whatever  might  be  the  nominal 
position  of  the  Company's  servants,  in  reality  they  were  masters  of 
Bengal.  They  used  their  power  to  fill  their  own  pockets  at  the 
expense  of  the  natives.  After  a  career  of  plunder  and  extortion 
many  of  them  returned  honle  with  enormous  fortunes.  In  1765 
Clive  was  sent  out  again  to  correct  the  evil.  This  he  endeavoured 
to  do  by  increasing  the  scanty  pay  of  the  officials,  and  by  forbidding 
them  to  engage  in  trade  or  to  receive  gifts  from  the  natives.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  obtained  for  the  Company  from  the  Great 
Mogul,  the  weak  Shah  Alum,  who  nominally  ruled  at  Delhi,  the 
Dewanni,  or  financial  administration  of  Bengal,  Behar,  and  Orissa, 
though  the  criminal  jurisdiction  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Nawab 
a  descendant  of  Meer  Jaffier.  Constitutionally  this  grant  of  the 
Dewanni  first  placed  the  Company  in  a  legal  position  in  Bengal  as 
administrators  under  the  Great  Mogul.  In  1767  Clive  finally  left 
India.  For  the  next  five  years  everything  in  Bengal  was  in  confu- 
sion. The  Company's  agents  collected  the  revenue  and  paid  the 
army  ;  but  they  had  no  authority  to  punish  crime,  and  the  Nawab, 
who  had,  was  too  weak  to  enforce  order.  In  1772,  Warren  Hastings 
was  appointed  governor  of  Bengal,  with  orders  to  put  an  end  to 
the  confusion. 


8o2  PITT  AND  POX  1772-1773 

5.  Warren    Hastings,    Governor    of    Bengal.       1772— 1774.— 

Hastings  was  a  man  of  the  highest  ability,  and  it  would  have  been 
well  if  the  Company  had  given  him  supreme  power  to  take  the 
whole  of  the  government  of  Bengal  into  his  own  hands,  and  to  set 
aside  the  pretence  of  leaving  any  part  of  it  to  the  Nawab.  The 
Company,  however,  too  scrupulous  to  upset  even  an  evil  system 
which  it  found  in  existence,  did  not  authorise  him  to  do  this  ;  and 
though  he  did  immense  service  in  organising  the  administration 
on  English  principles,  he  could  not  prevent  considerable  confusion 
arising  from  the  technical  uncertainty  of  his  position.  Beyond  the 
British  frontier  there  was  imminent  danger.  Central  India  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs.  The  descendants  of  Sivaji  (see 
p.  759)  were  reduced  to  obscurity  by  the  Peishwah  or  hereditary 
prime  minister  at  Poonah,  whose  authority  was  in  turn  resisted  by 
other  hereditary  officers,  by  Sindhia  and  Holkar  in  Malwa,  by 
the  Bhonsla  in  Berar,  and  by  the  Guicowar  in  Guzerat.  Divided 
amongst  themselves,  these  chiefs  were  always  ready  to  join  for 
plunder  or  conquest,  and  it  was  their  military  strength  that 
was  the  greatest  danger  to  the  Company's  government,  and,  it 
must  in  fairness  be  added,  to  the  native  populations  which  the 
Company  was  bound  to  protect.  To  combat  the  Mahrattas, 
Hastings  carried  out  a  policy — originally  sketched  out  by  Clive — 
of  strengthening  the  Nawab  of  Oude,  in  order  that  he  might  act  as 
a  breakwater  against  them  in  defence  of  Bengal.  The  Nawab 
gladly  welcomed  the  proffered  alliance,  and  sought  to  turn  it  to 
account  by  asking  Hastings  to  support  him  in  annexing  Rohilcund, 
which  was  governed  by  the  Rohillas,  a  military  body  of  Afghan 
descent.  In  1774  Hastings  lent  the  Nawab  English  troops,  by 
whose  valour  the  Rohillas  were  defeated,  whilst  the  Nawab's  own 
army  followed  up  the  victory  by  plunder  and  outrage.  Politically, 
Hastings  had  done  much,  as  he  had  bound  the  Nawab  to  his  cause, 
but  he  had  done  this  at  the  expense  of  soiling  the  English  name  by 
lending  English  troops  to  an  Eastern  potentate  who  was  certain  to 
abuse  a  victory  won  by  their  arms. 

6.  The  Regulating  Act  and  its  Results.  1773— 1774.— In  1773 
was  passed,  at  the  instance  of  Lord  North,  the  Regulating  Act, 
which  was  intended  to  introduce  order  into  the  possessions  of  the 
Company  in  India.  What  was  needed  was  to  strengthen  the 
hands  of  the  governor  of  its  principal  possession,  Bengal,  and  to 
give  him  control  over  the  governments  of  Bombay  and  Madras. 
The  English  Parliament,  however,  had  no  experience  in  dealing 
with  Eastern  peoples,  and  tried  to  introduce  constitutional  checks, 


1774-1779  WAkREN  HASTINGS  803 

which  were  better  suited  for  Westminster  than  for  Calcutta.  The 
governor  of  Bengal  was  to  be  called  governor-general  of  Bengal, 
but  there  was  to  be  a  council  of  four  members  besides  himself,  and 
if  he  was  outvoted  in  the  council,  he  was  to  be  obliged  to  con- 
form his  conduct  to  the  decisions  of  his  opponents.  There  was 
also  set  up  a  supreme  court,  which  might  easily  come  into  conflict 
with  the  governor,  as  no  rules  were  laid  down  to  define  their 
separate  powers.  The  governor-general  had  authority  over  the 
governors  of  Madras  and  Bombay,  but  it  was  insufficient  to  enable 
him  to  dictate  their  policy.  In  1774,  the  new  Council  held  its  first 
sittings.  Its  leading  spirit  was  Philip  Francis,  the  reputed  author 
of  '■  Junius's  Letters '  (see  p.  782),  a  man  actuated  by  a  suspicious- 
ness which  amounted  to  a  disease,  and  who  landed  with  the  belief, 
which  no  evidence  could  shake,  that  Hastings  was  an  mcapable 
and  corrupt  despot.  As  two  of  the  other  councillors  constantly 
voted  with  Francis  he  commanded  a  majority.  This  majority 
thwarted  Hastings  in  everything,  cancelled  his  measures,  and  set 
on  foot  an  inquiry  into  his  supposed  peculations. 

7.  Hastings  and  Nuncomar.  1775.— To  support  Francis,  Nun- 
comar,  a  Hindoo,  came  forward  with  evidence  that  Hastings  had 
taken  enormous  bribes.  This  evidence  was  forged,  but  the  ma- 
jority of  the  council  supported  Nuncomar,  hoping  to  drive  Hastings 
from  his  post.  Suddenly  Nuncomar  was  charged  with  forgery, 
and  hanged  by  a  sentence  of  the  Supreme  Court,  over  which  Sir 
Elijah  Impey  presided  as  chief  justice.  Forgery  was  too  common 
a  crime  in  Bengal  to  be  regarded  by  the  natives  as  highly  punish- 
able, and  Impey  was  probably  too  ready  to  think  that  everything 
sanctioned  by  the  English  law  was  entirely  admirable.  The  sen- 
tence, however,  was  so  opportune  for  Hastings,  that  it  has  often 
been  supposed  that  he  had  suggested  the  charge  against  Nun- 
comar. Not  only,  however,  did  he  subsequently  deny  this  upon 
oath,  but  modern  inquirers  have  generally  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  his  denial  was  true.  He  may,  however,  have  let  fall  some 
chance  word  which  induced  the  accuser  of  Nuncomar  to  think  that 
his  action  would  please  the  governor-general ;  and,  in  any  case, 
it  was  not  difficult  for  a  native  who  wished  to  stand  well  with 
Hastings,  to  imagine  that  the  destruction  of  Nuncomar  would  be 
an  agreeable  service.  At  all  events,  Hastings's  adversaries  were 
frightened,  and  no  more  forged  accusations  were  brought  against 
him. 

8.  War  with  the  Mahrattas  and  Hyder  AH.  i777— 1779' 
Gradually,  by  the  death  or  removal  of  the  hostile   councillors, 


8o4  PITT  AND  POX  1777-I78i 

Hastings  regained  power.  Then  came  the  most  critical  time  in 
the  history  of  British  rule  in  India.  Far  more  important  than  all 
other  conflicts  in  which  Englishmen  in  India  were  engaged  was 
the  struggle  renewed  from  time  to  time  between  the  Company  and 
the  Mahratta  confederacy.  Important  as  it  was  to  the  Company, 
it  was  far  more  important  to  the  natives  of  India  ;  as  the  victory 
of  the  Mahrattas  would  bring  with  it  outrage  and  misery,  whereas 
the  victory  of  the  Company  would  bring  with  it  the  establishment 
of  peace  and  settled  government.  Nevertheless,  it  would  have  been 
well  if  the  conflict  could  have  been  deferred  till  the  Company  was 
stronger  than  it  then  was.  Unluckily  the  Bombay  Government 
entered  upon  an  unnecessary  war  with  the  Mahrattas,  and,  finding 
itself  in  danger,  called  on  Hastings  for  help.  In  1777,  at  the  time 
when  the  French  were  preparing  to  oppose  England  in  America, 
they  sent  an  emissary  to  Poonah  to  prepare  the  way  for  an  aUiance 
between  themselves  and  the  Mahrattas.  In  1778  came  the  news 
of  Burgoyne's  capitulation  at  Saratoga.  "  If  it  be  really  true,"  said 
Hastings,  "  that  the  British  arms  and  influence  have  suffered  so 
severe  a  check  in  the  Western  world,  it  is  more  incumbent  on 
those  who  are  charged  with  the  interest  of  Great  Britain  in  the 
East  to  exert  themselves  for  the  retrieval  of  the  national  loss." 
Into  the  struggle  with  the  Mahrattas,  now  likely  to  pass  into  a 
struggle  with  France,  Hastings  threw  himself  with  unbounded 
energy.  His  position  was  made  almost  desperate  by  the  folly  of 
the  Madras  Government,  which  unnecessarily  provoked  the  two 
Mahomedan  rulers  of  the  south,  the  Nizam  and  an  adventurer 
named  Hyder  Ali  who  had  made  himself  master  of  Mysore.  Hyder 
Ali,  the  ablest  warrior  in  India,  threw  himself  on  the  lands  over  which 
the  British  held  sway  in  the  Carnatic.  "  A  storm  of  universal 
fire,"  in  Burke's  language,  "blasted  every  field,  consumed  every 
house,  destroyed  every  temple."  The  miserable  inhabitants,  flying 
from  their  burning  villages,  were  slaughtered  or  swept  into  captivity. 
All  English  eyes  turned  to  Hastings. 

9.  Cheyt  Singh  and  the  Begums  of  Oude.  1781— 1782. — Money 
was  the  first  thing  needed,  and  of  money  Hastings  had  but  little. 
He  had  to  send  large  sums  home  every  year  to  pay  dividends  to 
the  Company,  and  his  treasury  was  almost  empty.  In  his  straits, 
Hastings  demanded  from  Cheyt  Singh,  the  Rajah  of  Benares,  a 
large  payment  as  a  contribution  to  the  war,  on  the  ground  that  he 
was  a  dependent  on  the  Company  and  therefore  bound  to  support 
it  in  times  of  difficulty.  On  Cheyt  Singh's  refusal  to  pay,  Hastings 
imposed  on  him  an  enormous  fine,  equal  to  about  ^oopool.   In  order 


1781-1783  TRIUMPH  OF  HASTINGS  805 

to  ensure  payment  Hastings  went  in  person  to  Benares  to  arrest 
the  Rajah  ;  but  the  population  rose  on  his  behalf,  and  Hastings  had 
to  fly  for  his  life,  though  he  skilfully  made  preparations  to  regain 
his  authority,  and  before  long  suppressed  the  revolters  and  deposed 
the  Rajah.  He  then  made  treaties  with  some  of  the  Mahratta 
chiefs,  and  thus  lessened  the  number  of  his  enemies.  The  Madras 
Government,  however,  continued  to  cry  for  support.  "  We  know 
not,"  they  wrote,  "  in  what  words  to  describe  our  distress  for  money." 
Hastings  pressed  the  Nawab  of  Oude  to  furnish  him  with  some,  but 
the  Nawab  was  not  rich,  because  his  mother  and  grandmother,  the 
Begums  of  Oude  as  they  were  called,  had  retained  possession 
of  his  father's  accumulated  treasure,  and  had  enlisted  armed  men 
to  defend  it  agamst  him.  In  1782  the  Nawab  laid  claim  to  the 
money  to  which  he  appears  to  have  been  rightfully  entitled,  and 
in  1782  Hastings  lent  him  the  Company's  troops  to  take  it  from 
the  ladies.  They  were  forced  to  yield,  and  Hastings,  as  his 
reward,  got  payment  of  a  large  debt  which  the  Nawab  owed  to  the 
Company. 

10.  Restoration  of  Peace.  1781 — 1782. — In  1781,  Hyder  Ali  was 
joined  by  some  French  troops,  but  the  combined  force  was  defeated 
at  Porto  Novo  by  old  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  the  victor  of  Wandewash 
(see  p.  764).  In  1782  peace  was  concluded  with  the  Mahrattas, 
after  which  Hyder  Ali  died,  and  when  the  French,  in  consequence 
of  the  end  of  the  war  in  Europe  and  America,  withdrew  their 
assistance,  Hyder  All's  son  and  successor,  Tippoo,  also  made 
peace  with  the  English. 

11.  Hastings  as  a  Statesman.  1783. — Hastings,  by  his  perti- 
nacity, had  saved  the  British  hold  on  India  and  had  laid  the 
foundations  of  a  system  on  which  the  future  peace  and  prosperity 
of  the  country  depended.  Yet  that  system  would  have  been 
severely  shaken  if  future  governors-general  had  continued  to  levy 
fines  limited  only  by  their  own  discretion,  as  had  been  done  in 
the  case  of  Cheyt  Singh,  or  to  supply  forces  to  Eastern  potentates 
to  enable  them  to  recover  their  dues  as  in  the  cases  of  the  Rohillas 
and  the  Begums  of  Oude.  Much  as  may  be  said  on  Hastings's 
behalf  in  all  these  affairs,  it  can  hardly  be  denied  that  it  would 
have  been  better  if  he  could  have  supported  his  government  upon 
the  revenues  of  the  Company's  own  provinces,  and  could  have 
acted  beyond  the  Company's  frontier  only  by  agents  responsible 
to  himself.  That  he  did  not  do  so  was  mainly  the  fault  of  the 
weakness  of  his  own  official  position.  Extraordinary  expenditure 
was  in  most  instances  forced  on  him  by  the  folly  of  the  Council 


8o6  PITT  AND  FOX  1783 

which  he  was  compelled  to  obey  or  of  the  governors  of  Madras  and 
Bombay  who  disobeyed  his  orders.  What  was  urgently  needed  was 
the  reform  of  a  system  which  left  the  governor-general  hampered 
in  his  authority  by  those  who  should  have  been  his  subordinates, 
whilst  at  the  same  time  it  was  desirable  that  he  should  be  made 
directly  responsible,  not  to  a  trading  company  interested  in  making 
money,  but  to  the  British  Government  itself. 

12.  The  India  Bill  of  the  Coalition.  1783.— In  1783  the  Coali- 
tion Ministry  brought  in  a  bill  for  the  better  government  of  India, 
which  was  intended  to  meet  only  the  latter  of  these  two  require- 
ments. Though  the  Bill  was  introduced  by  Fox  into  the  House  of 
Commons,  it  was  the  work  of  Burke.  Burke  felt  deeply  and 
passionately  the  wrongs  done  to  the  natives  of  India,  and  he  pro- 
posed to  take  the  government  entirely  away  from  the  East  India 
Company,  giving  it  to  a  board  of  seven  commissioners,  appointed 
in  the  bill  itself,  that  is  to  say,  practically  by  the  ministers  who  drew 
up  the  bill.  No  member  of  this  board  could  be  dismissed  by  the 
King  for  four  years,  except  at  the  request  of  both  Houses  of 
Parliament,  though  at  the  end  of  four  years  the  king  was  to  name 
the  commissioners.  As  the  whole  patronage  of  India  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  board,  and  as  the  possessor  of  patronage  could 
always  sell  it  for  votes  in  the  British  Parliament,  the  bill  made  for 
the  increase  of  the  power  of  the  Crown  in  the  long  run,  though  it 
weakened  it  for  four  years.  The  opponents  of  the  Coalition,  how- 
ever, shutting  their  eyes  to  the  former  fact  and  fixing  them  on  the 
latter,  bitterly  attacked  the  bill  as  directed  against  the  power  of 
the  Crown.  It  was  an  attempt,  said  Thurlow,  who  had  been  Lord 
Chancellor  in  Lord  Shelburne's  ministry,  to  take  the  diadem  from 
the  king's  head  and  to  put  it  on  that  of  Mr.  Fox. 

13.  The  Fall  of  the  Coalition.  1783.— Though  the  bill  was 
strongly  opposed  by  Pitt  and  others,  it  passed  the  Commons  by  a 
large  majority.  When  it  reached  the  Lords,  the  king  sent  a  private 
message  through  Pitt's  cousin,  Lord  Temple,  to  each  peer,  to  the 
effect  that  whoever  voted  for  the  India  Bill  was  not  only  not  the 
king's  friend,  but  would  be  considered  as  his  enemy.  As  many 
of  the  lords  were  conscientiously  opposed  to  the  Coalition,  and 
others  needed  the  king  s  patronage,  the  bill  was  thrown  out,  on 
which  the  king  contemptuously  dismissed  the  ministry.  Con- 
stitutional writers  have  blamed  his  interference,  on  the  ground  that 
a  king  ought  not  to  intrigue  against  ministers  supported  by  the 
House  of  Commons.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  on 
this  occasion  the  ministers  had  gained  their  posts  by  an  intrigue, 


1783 


TITE  FALL   OF  THE   COALITION 


807 


and  that  it  was  difficult  to  respect  the  House  of  Commons  at  a 
time  when  large  numbers  of  its  members  were  swayed  backwards 
and  forwards  by  hopes  of  patronage  from  one  side  or  the  other. 
The  only  hope  of  a  better  state  of  things  lay  in  the  intervention  of 
the  nation  itself. 

14.  Pitt's  Struggle  with  the  Coalition.  1783— 1784. —George 
III.,  burning  to  free  himself  from  the  Coalition,  made  Pitt  prime 
minister  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-five.  Pitt  accepted  the  position 
from  the  king,  and 
so  far  adopted  what 
was  now  the  estab- 
lished Tory  doctrine, 
that  ministers  were 
to  be  named  by  the 
king,  and  not  by  the 
House  of  Commons; 
but  he  also  reintro- 
duced what  had  long 
been  forgotten,  the 
principle  that  the 
constituencies  must 
be  appealed  to  be- 
fore any  final  deci- 
sion could  be  taken. 
For  weeks  he  strug- 
gled in  the  House  of 
Commons,  refusing 
to  resign  or  to  dis- 
solve Parliament  un- 
til he  could  place 
his  opponents  at  a 
disadvantage.  Fox, 
with  his  usual  want 
of  tact,  gave  him  the 
advantage  which  he 
required,  by  oppos- 
ing a  dissolution  and  the  consequent  appeal  to  the  constituencies, 
and  by  insisting  that  it  was  Pitt's  duty  to  resign  at  once,  because  he 
was  outvoted  in  the  existing  House  of  Commons.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances, Pitt  was  beaten  again  and  again  by  large  majorities. 
The  nation  at  large  had  for  some  time  disliked  the  Coalition  as  un- 
principled, and  it  now  rallied  to  Pitt  in  admiration  of  his  undaunted 


Cooiu;,.c^  J.  4,-entlefolk,  about  1784. 


8o8  PITT  AND  FOX  1784-1785 

resolution.  Members  of  the  House,  who  had  supported  the  Coahtion 
merely  for  the  sake  of  the  loaves  and  fishes,  began  to  suspect  that  it 
might  be  Pitt  after  all  who  would  have  the  loaves  and  fishes  to  dis- 
pense. These  men  began  to  change  sides,  and  Pitt's  minority  grew 
larger  from  day  to  day.  At  last,  on  March  8, 1784,  the  opposition  had 
only  a  majority  of  one.  On  this  Parliament  was  dissolved.  The 
constituencies  rallied  to  Pitt,  and  160  of  Fox's  supporters  lost  their 
seats.     They  were  popularly  known  as  Fox's  martyrs. 

15.  Pitt's  Budget  and  India  Bill.  1784. — George  III.,  delighted 
as  he  was  with  Pitt's  victory,  found  it  impossible  to  make  a  tool  of 
him,  as  he  had  made  a  tool  of  Lord  North.  Pitt  owed  his  success 
even  more  to  the  nation  than  to  the  king,  and,  with  the  nation  and 
the  House  of  Commons  at  his  back,  he  was  resolved  to  have  his 
own  way.  He  soon  showed  himself  to  be  a  first-rate  financier,  and 
in  his  first  budget  introduced  the  principle,  afterwards  largely 
followed,  of  reducing  customs-duties  in  order  to  make  smuggling 
unprofitable.  He  then  passed  an  India  Bill  of  his  own.  The 
Company  was  to  retain  all  the  patronage  except  the  appointment 
of  the  governor-general  and  of  one  or  two  high  functionaries,  so 
that  neither  the  king  nor  any  other  political  body  would  have  the 
disposal  of  places  in  India,  to  serve  as  an  instrument  of  corruption. 
As  far  as  the  government  of  India  was  concerned,  it  was  nominally 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Company  ;  but 
the  despatches  in  which  were  conveyed  the  orders  to  its  servants 
in  India  were  now  liable  to  be  amended  by  a  board  of  control 
composed  of  the  king's  ministers,  power  being  given  to  this  new 
board  to  give  orders,  in  cases  requiring  secrecy,  even  without 
the  consent  of  the  directors.  This  dual  government,  as  it  was 
called,  lasted  till  1858.  Whilst  Pitt  avoided  Fox's  mistake  in  the 
matter  of  patronage,  he  deprived  the  Company  of  its  government 
without  the  appearance  of  doing  so.  He  also  strengthened  the 
authority  of  the  governor-general  over  the  governors  of  Madras 
and  Bombay.  Without  Burke's  animosity  against  Hastings,  he 
'saw  that  Hastings's  system  was  not  one  of  which  he  could  approve, 
whilst  he  had  little  real  knowledge  of  the  difficulties  by  which 
Hastings  had  been  embarrassed,  and  therefore  failed  to  make 
allowances  for  them.  Hastings  discovered  that  he  would  not  be 
supported  by  the  new  minister,  and  in  February,  1785,  he  resigned 
his  office  and  sailed  for  England. 

16.  Pitt's  Reform  Bill.  1785.— For  the  third  time  (see  pp.  799, 
801)  Pitt  attempted  to  carry  Parliamentary  reform.  He  now  pro- 
posed to  lay  by  a  sum  of  1,000,000/.  to  be  employed  in  buying  up 


1:785 


VAUXHALL 


809 


III. 


8 TO  PITT  AND  FOX  1 785 ^ 1 786 

seventy-two  seats,  which  were  practically  in  private  hands.  If  any 
of  the  owners  refused  to  sell,  the  share  of  the  purchase-money 
which  would  have  fallen  to  him  was  to  be  laid  out  at  compound 
interest  till  it  became  valuable  enough  to  ternpt  him  to  close  with 
the  increased  offer.  The  bill  was  thrown  out,  and  Pitt  never 
again  appeared  as  a  parliamentary  reformer.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  he  was  in  earnest  in  desiring  parliamentary  reform,  as 
it  would  have  strengthened  him  against  the  unpopular  Whigs. 
His  proposal  of  buying  up  seats,  which  appears  so  extraordinary  m 
our  own  day,  was  doubtless  the  result  of  his  perception  that  he 
could  not  otherwise  pass  the  bill,  and,  w^hen  once  this  offer  had 
been  rejected,  he  must  have  seen  that  he  could  not  pass  any  Reform 
Bill  at  all.  Pitt  was  not  one  of  those  statesmen  who  bring  forward 
particular  measures  on  which  they  have  set  their  hearts,  and  who 
carry  them  ultimately  by  their  self-abnegation  in  refusing  to  take 
further  part  in  the  government  of  the  country  till  right  has  been 
done.  He  clung  to  power,  partly  for  its  own  sake,  but  partly  also 
because  he  believed  the  Coalition  which  he  resisted  to  be  so  un- 
principled that  his  own  retention  of  office  was,  in  itself,  a  benefit 
to  the  country.  No  statesman  of  equal  eminence  ever  failed  so 
often  to  persuade  Parliament  to  adopt  his  schemes  ;  but  this  was 
chiefly  because  his  schemes  were  usually  too  much  in  advance  of 
the  public  opinion  of  the  time. 

17.  Failure  of  Pitt's  Scheme  for  a  Commercial  Union  with 
Ireland.  1785. — A  proposal  made  by  Pitt  for  a  commercial  union 
with  Ireland  failed  as  completely  as  his  Reform  Bill.  There  was 
to  be  complete  free-trade  between  the  two  countries,  and  Ireland 
in  return  was  to  grant  a  fixed  revenue  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
navy,  by  which  both  countries  w^ere  protected.  The  Parliament 
at  Dublin  assented  to  the  scheme,  but  in  England  the  manufac- 
turers raised  such  an  outcry  that  Pitt  w^as  forced  to  change  it, 
restricting  freedom  of  trade  in  many  directions,  and  making  the 
Irish  Parliament  dependent,  m  some  respects,  on  the  British  for 
the  regulation  of  commerce.  The  scheme  thus  altered  was  rejected 
at  Dublin  as  giving  Ireland  less  than  complete  freedom  of  trade 
and  infringing  on  the  independence  of  her  Parliament. 

18.  French  Commercial  Treaty.  1786. — Pitt  was  more  success- 
ful in  1786  with  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  France.  The  doctrine, 
that  freedom  of  trade  was  good  for  all  countries  concerned  in  it, 
had  been  promulgated  by  Adam  Smith  in  his  Wealth  of  Nations 
published  in  1776.  Shelburne  was  the  first  minister  who  adopted 
his  views,  but  his  official  career  was  too  short  to  enable  him  to  give 


1 786- 1 795  THE  KING'S  INSANITY  8ii 

effect  to  them,  and  Pitt  was,  therefore,  the  first  minister  to  reduce 
them  to  practice.  Duties  were  lowered  in  each  country  on  the 
productions  of  the  other,  and  both  countries  were  the  better  for  the 
change. 

19.  Trial  of  Warren  Hastings.  1786— 1795.— In  1786  Pitt 
appointed  Lord  ComwalHs  Governor- General  of  India,  and  took  a 
wise  step  in  obtaining  from  Parliament  an  act  empowering  him  to 
over-rule  his  council.  Cornwallis  was  a  man  of  strong  common 
sense,  and  as  he  had  fewer  difficulties  to  contend  with  than  Hastings 
had  had,  he  was  under  no  temptation  to  resort  to  acts  such  as  those 
which  had  disfigured  the  administration  of  Hastings.  In  Parlia- 
ment, Burke,  backed  by  the  whole  of  the  Opposition,  called  for 
Hastings's  impeachment.  Pitt  gave  way,  and  in  1788  Hastings's 
trial  began  before  the  Lords  in  Westminster  Hall.  Burke  and 
Sheridan,  in  impassioned   harangues,  laboured  to  prove   him  to 


Regulation  musket,  1786,  popularly  known  as  Brown  Bess. 

have  been  a  tyrant  and  a  villain.  The  trial  dragged  on,  and  it  was 
not  till  1795  that  the  Lords  in  accordance  with  the  evidence  pro- 
nounced sentence  of  acquittal. 

20.  The  Regency  Bill.  1788— 1789.— In  1765  George  III.  had 
been  for  a  short  time  mentally  deranged.  In  the  autumn  of  1788 
there  was  a  more  violent  recurrence  of  the  malady.  Dr.  Willis,  the 
first  physician  who  treated  lunatics  with  kindness,  asserted  a  re- 
covery to  be  probable,  though  it  might  be  delayed  for  some  time. 
Both  Pitt  and  Fox  were  agreed  that  there  must  be  a  regency  during 
the  king's  illness,  and  that  the  Prince  of  Wales  must  be  the  regent. 
Fox,  however,  argued  that  the  Prince  had  a  right  to  the  post, 
and  therefore  ought  not  to  be  subjected  to  any  restrictions.  "  I'll 
unwhig  the  gentleman  for  the  rest  of  his  life,"  said  Pitt,  and  argued 
that  it  was  for  Parliament  to  provide  a  regent.  Pitt  carried  the 
day,  and  a  bill  was  passed  through  both  houses  conferring  the 
regency  on  the  prince,  but  limiting  his  powers  by  withholding  from 
him  the  right  of  making  peers,  or  of  appointing  to  offices,  unless 
the  appointments  were  revocable  by  the  king  if  he  recovered.     By 

3G2 


8X2 


PITT  AND  FOX 


[789 


this  arrangement,  however,  the  prince  would  not  be  prevented  from 
dismissing  the  existing  ministry  and  calhng  a  new  one  to  office  ;  and 
everyone  knew  that  his  first  act  would  be  to  change  the  ministry, 
placing  Fox  in  office  instead  of  Pitt.  Nowadays,  if  a  minister 
had,  like  Pitt,  a  large  majority  in  the  Commons,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  either  a  king  or  a  regent  to  make  so  suddon  a 
change.  In  those  days  it  was  easy  enough,  because  many  of  Pitt's 
supporters  would  certainly  go  over  to  Fox  as  soon  as  he  had  the 
patronage  of  the  kingdom  in  his  hands.  Pitt  himself  knew  that  it 
would  be  so,   and  as    he  had   amassed   no  fortune,  declared  his 

readiness  to  '  take  his  blue 
bag  again  '  and  practise  as 
a  barrister.  The  expected 
change,  however,  never 
took  place,  as,  under  the 
wise  care  of  Dr.  Willis, 
the  king  recovered  in  the 
spring  of  1789,  and  the 
Regency  Bill  became  un- 
necessary. 

21.  The  Thanksgiving 
at  St.  Paul's.  1789.— 
When  George  III.  returned 
thanks  for  his  recovery  at 
St.  Paul's,  the  enthusiasm 
of  the  whole  population 
was  unbounded.  Some- 
thing of  this  popularity 
was  undoubtedly  owing  to 
the  disgust  which  had 
been  caused  by  the  recent 
misconduct  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  who  had  heart- 
lessly jeered  at  the  un- 
happy condition  of  his  father— speaking,  for  instance,  of  the  king 
in  a  pack  of  cards  as  a  lunatic— but  much  of  it  was  the  result  of 
genuine  delight  at  the  king's  recovery.  The  mass  of  people  could 
appreciate  his  domestic  virtues,  and  had  no  reason  to  be  dissatis- 
fied with  his  policy.  Even  if  he  had  gone  wrong  in  the  matter  of 
the  American  War,  he  went  wrong  in  company  with  the  large 
majority  of  his  subjects,  and  for  the  last  five  years  he  had  reaped 
the  benefit  of  the  firm  and  enlightened  government  of  Pitt. 


Pitt  speaking  in  the  House  of  Commons  :  from 
Huckel's  painting  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery. 


i7cx)-i8oi  POPULATION  AND   PROSPERITY  813 

22.  Growth  of  Population.  1700-1801.— The  country  which 
gave  power  to  Pitt  in  1784,  and  which  sustained  him  in  it  in  1789, 
had  changed  much  since  the  beginning  of  the  century.  Its  popu- 
lation was  more  numerous,  its  wealth  greater,  and  its  intellectual 
activity  more  widely  spread.  The  population  of  England  and 
Wales  was  probably  about  5,000,000  in  1700  ;  about  6,000,000  in 
1750  ;  and  was  certainly  about  9,000,000  in  1801.  Such  growing 
numbers  could  not  have  been  fed  if  there  had  not  been  improve- 
ments in  farming  to  give  them  more  food,  and  improvements  in 
manufacture  to  give  them  more  employment. 

23.  Improvements  in  Agriculture. —  Up  to  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  husbandry  had  been  poor,  and  the  necessity 
of  leaving  com  land  fallow  once  in  three  years  had  made  the  pro- 
duce of  the  soil  scanty.  Lord  Townshend,  after  his  quarrel  with 
Walpole,  encouraged,  by  his  example,  the  cultivation  of  turnips, 
and  as  turnips  could  be  planted  in  the  third  year  in  which  the 
ground  had  hitherto  been  left  fallow,  the  crops  were  largely  in- 
creased. By  degrees  improvements  in  draining  and  manuring 
were  also  introduced. 

24.  Cattle-breeding-. — In  1755,  Bakewell  began  to  improve  the 
breed  of  sheep  and  cattle  by  judicious  crossing.  The  result  was 
that,  before  long,  a  sheep  or  an  ox  produced  twice  as  many  pounds 
of  meat  as  before,  and  that  the  meat  was  far  more  tasty.  Im- 
provements in  agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  were  possible, 
because  landowners  were  wealthy  enough  to  enclose  waste  lands 
and  to  make  poor  lands  fit  for  culture.  In  one  way,  however,  the 
changes  effected  were  not  for  good.  The  small  proprietor,  who 
had  hitherto  to  a  great  extent  kept  himself  free  from  debt  by  the 
domestic  manufactures  of  his  wife  and  daughters,  could  not  afford 
to  lay  out  the  money  needed  for  the  cultivation  of  his  land  in 
the  new  fashion,  and  was  forced  to  sell  it.  Thus  gradually  small 
holdings  were  bought  by  large  landowners,  and  the  work  of  culti- 
vation fell  almost  entirely  into  the  hands  of  hired  labourers. 

25.  The  Bridgewater  Canal.  1761.— Trade,  which  had  been 
growing  steadily  during  the  first  half  of  the  century,  received  an 
impulse  from  the  invention  of  a  new  means  of  conveyance.  Goods 
had  been  conveyed  either  on  slow  and  lumbering  waggons,  or,  more 
often,  on  the  backs  of  pack-horses.  Such  a  means  of  transport 
added  greatly  to  the  price  of  the  goods,  and  made  it  almost 
impossible  for  an  inland  town  to  compete  in  foreign  markets  with 
one  near  the  sea.  It  happened  that  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater 
owned  a  coal  mine  at  Worsley,  seven  miles  from  Manchester ;  but 


8i4 


PITT  AND  FOX 


1738-1761 


hills  intervened,  and«the  expense  of  carting  the  coal  over  the  seven 
miles  was  too  great  to  make  it  worth  his  while  to  send  the  coals  to 
Manchester.  The  duke  consulted  James  Brindley,  a  millwright 
in  his  service,  who,  though  he  was  without  any  scientihc  education, 
not  only  advised  him  to  make  a  canal,  but  carried  out  the  work  for 
him.  There  were  indeed  already  canals  in  existence,  but  there 
were  none  to  the  making  of  which  the  natural  obstacles  were  so 
great.  Brindley's  canal  passed  under  hills  through  tunnels,  and 
over  valleys  on  aqueducts.  A  famous  engineer  on  being  shown 
a  valley  which  the  canal  had  to  cross,  asked  where  the  water  was 
to  flow.     When  a  spot  high  up  on  the  hill-side  was  pointed  out  to 


Lock  on  a  Canal. 


him,  he  said  that  he  had  often  heard  of  '  castles  in  the  air,'  but  he 
had  never  before  been  shown  where  one  was  to  be  built.  In  1761 
the  canal  was  finished,  and  many  others  were  before  long  made  in 
other  parts  of  the  country. 

26.  Cotton-spinning.  1738. — In  old  days,  the  spinning  of 
thread  was  mainly  committed  to  young  women,  who  were  conse- 
quently known  as  spinsters.  In  the  middle  ages  and  long  after- 
wards the  material  spun  was  wool,  and  Parliament  had  been  so 
anxious  to  extend  the  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth  that  it  even 
passed  an  Act  directing  that  all  persons  should  be  'buried  in 
woollen.'     Gradually,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  calico  came  into 


767-1779 


PROGRESS   OF  INVENTION 


815 


use,  and  in  1738  the  invention  of  Kay's  flying  shuttle  enabled  the 
weavers  to  produce  double  as  much  as  before,  thus  creating  a 
demand  for  cotton  thread  which  all  the  spinners  in  England  were 
unable  to  meet. 

27.  Hargreaves'  Spinning- Jenny.  1767.— Necessity  is  the 
mother  of  invention,  and,  in  order  to  provide  thread  for  the  weavers, 
Hargreaves,  in  1767,  invented  the  spinning-jenny,  which  worked 
several  spindles  at  once,  and  enabled  a  single  spinner  to  produce 
more  than  a  hundred  threads  at  the  same  time.  By  this  discovery 
many  persons  were  thrown  out  of  work,  as  there  was  not  a  demand 
for  calico  enough  to  occupy  all  the  spinners  who  at  first  had  been 
needed  to  produce  threads 

with  their  hands  only. 
Accordingly,  Hargreaves' 
neighbours  broke  his 
machine  and  obliged 
him  to  fly  for  his  life. 
In  the  long  run,  indeed, 
Hargreaves'  invention, 
like  all  labour-saving  in- 
ventions, would,  by  pro- 
ducing cheaply,  create  a 
demand  which  would  in- 
crease, instead  of  dimi- 
nishing the  number  of 
labourers  employed  in 
the  manufactures  ;  but 
it  could  hardly  be  ex- 
pected that  uneducated 
men,  threatened  with 
starvation,  would  look  so 
far  ahead. 

28.  Arkwright    and 

Crompton.  1769 — 1779. — In  1769  Arkwright  took  out  a  patent  for 
an  improved  spinning  machine  worked  by  water-power.  He,  too, 
became  obnoxious  to  the  hand-workers,  and  his  mill  was  burned 
down  by  a  mob.  He  was,  however,  determined  to  succeed,  and 
was  at  last  allowed  to  live  in  peace.  A  yet  further  improvement 
was  made  in  1779,  when  a  poor  weaver  named  Samuel  Crompton 
invented  a  spinning-machine  known  as  '  the  mule.'  When  his 
machine  was  finished,  hearing  that  a  mob  was  collecting  with  the 
intention  of  destroying  it,  he  took  it  to  pieces  and  concealed  it. 


James  Brindley  :  from  the  portrait  by  Parsons, 
engraved  by  H.  Cook. 


8i6 


PITT  AND  FOX 


i779-i7«5 


When  quiet  was  restored,  he  put  it  together,  and  began  to  spin. 
Manufacturers  came  round  his  house,  and  peepo^d  through  his 
windows  to  discover  his  secret.  Crompton  had  not  enough  money 
to  take  out  a  patent  so  as  to  secure  the  profits  of  his  invention. 
He,  therefore,  told  his  secret,  on  the  promise  of  the  manufacturers 
to  raise  a  subscription  for  him.  They  subscribed  no  more  than 
67/.  6j-.  6^.,  and  made  thousands  of  pounds  by  the  work  of  his  brains. 


Arkwright. 

29.  Cartwright's  Power-loom.  1785.  —  Before  Hargreaves 
invented  the  spinning-jenny,  no  more  cotton  had  been  spun 
than  was  required  by  the  weavers.  After  Crompton  invented  the 
'  mule,'  the  weavers  could  not  make  into  calico  nearly  as  much  thread 
as  was  produced.  In  1785,  a  clergyman  named  Cartwright  patented 
a  power-loom,  which,  by  weaving  by  machinery,  increased  the 
number  of  looms  and  thus  kept  the  spinning  '  mules '  in  full  work. 

30.  Watt's  Steam-Engine.  1785.  -  There  were  many  other  inven- 
tions in  different  branches  of  manufacture  ;  but  the  most  important 
of  all  was  Watt's  steam-engine.  For  some  time  steam-engines  had 
been  employed  for  pumping  water  out  of  collieries  (see  p.  708),  but 


1785  THE  STEAM-ENGINE  817 

they  consumed  much  fuel,  and  therefore  cost  too  much  to  come  into 
general  use.  James  Watt,  a  mathematical  instrument  maker  in 
Glasgow,  discovered  a  way  of  lessening  the  cost  of  fuel,  and  of 
making  the  engine  more  serviceable  at  the  same  time.  He  entered 
into  partnership  with  a  capitalist  named  Boulton,  and  set  up  works 
near  Birmingham.  At  first  manufacturers  distrusted  the  new  en- 
gines, and  Boulton  and  Watt  only  succeeded  in  inducing  them  to 
buy  by  offering  to  go  without  payment  if  the  engines  sold  did  not 


Crompton  :  from  a  portrait  by  Allingham. 

save  their  cost  in  the  course  of  a  year.  Before  long  all  manufacturers 
were  anxious  to  get  them.  "  I  sell  here,"  said  Boulton  to  George  III., 
when  he  visited  his  works,  "  what  all  the  world  desires — power." 

31.  General  Results  of  the  Growth  of  Manufactures. — One  great 
result  of  the  invention  of  the  improved  steam-engine  was  the 
transference  of  population  from  the  south  to  the  north.  Hitherto 
the  north  had  been  poor  and  of  little  weight  in  the  political  scale. 
When  the  north  had  taken  part  in  political  struggles  it  had  usually 
chosen  the  side  ultimately  rejected  by  the  nation.  It  fought  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.  for  the  Lancastrians  ;  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  for  the  monasteries  ;  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  for  the 
Papacy  ;  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  for  the  king ;  in  the  reign  of 


8i8  PITT  AND  FOX  1789 

George  I.  for  the  Pretender.  Coal,  however,  existed  in  many 
parts  of  the  north  ;  the  steam-engine  followed  coal,  manufactures 
followed  the  steam-engine,  and  population  followed  manufactures. 
In  Sussex,  for  instance,  there  was  in  the  seventeenth  century  a 
considerable  population  supported  by  the  manufacture  of  iron,  and 
it  was  from  this  Sussex  iron  that  the  railings  round  St.  Paul's  were 
made.  By  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  however,  the  weald 
of  Sussex,  on  which  had  once  stood  the  forest  which  had  for  some 
time  blocked  the  way  of  the  South  Saxon  conquest  (see  p.  27),  had 
been  denuded  of  its  wood,  in  consequence  of  the  large  demands 
made  by  the  furnaces  for  smelting  iron,  and  now  the  industry  of 
iron  manufacture  moved  entirely  to  the  north.  At  first,  indeed, 
the  transfer  of  labourers  to  the  north  was  not  followed  by  beneficial 
results.  The  crowds  who  gathered  for  work  were  for  the  most  part 
ignorant,  and  always  in  haste  to  be  rich.  There  was  neglect  of 
sanitary  requirements,  and  those  who  rose  to  be  masters  often  wore 
away  the  lives  of  their  workmen.  As  yet,  law  did  not  interfere  to 
protect  the  weak — the  women  and  children — from  excessive  labour, 
or  to  guard  against  the  frequent  occurrence  of  preventable  accidents. 
It  was  as  though  a  new  world  had  opened  in  the  north,  of  which 
Parliament  knew  so  little  that  it  neither  desired  to  regulate  it  nor 
even  thought  of  making  the  attempt. 

Books  recommended  for  the  further  study  of  Part  IX. 

Lecky,  W.  E.  H.     History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

Vol.  iii.  p.  I — Vol.  V.  p.  153  ;  Vol.  vi.  pp.  138-455. 
Stanhopk,  JCari     History  of  England  since  the  Peace  of  Utrecht. 

Vol.  iv.  p.  308 — Vol.  vii. 
Macaulay,  Lord.     Essays  on  Chatham  and  Clive. 
Trevelyan,  Sir  George.     The  Early  Life  of  C.  J.  Fox. 
MORLEY,  J.     Burke  :  an  Historical  Study. 
Russell,  Earl.      Memorials  and  Correspondence  of  C.  J.  Fox. 
Wakeman,  H.  O.     Fox. 
Lewis,  Sir  George  Cornewall.     Essays  on  the  Administrations  of  Great 

Britain,  pp.  1-129. 
Wilson,  Sir  Charles.     CHve. 
Lyall,  Sir  A.     Warren  Hastings. 
Trotter,  Capt.  L.  J.     Warren  Hastings. 


8i9 


PART   X 

THE  CONFLICT   WITH  DEMOCRACY.     1789-1827 


CHAPTER   LI 

ENGLAND  AND  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION.      1789  — 179$ 


LEADING    DATES 

Reign  of  George  III.,  1760-1820 

Meeting  of  the  States-General  at  Versailles        .        May  5,  1789 
Declaration  of  War  between  France  and  the  King 

of  Hungary  and  his  Allies         ....      April  20,  1792 
Louis  XVI.  driven  from  th*  Tuileiies   .  Aug.  10,  1792 

Proclamation  of  the  French  Republic  .  Sept.  22,  1792 

Execution  of  Louis  XVI Jan.  21,  1793 

Declaration  of  War  between    France  and  Eng- 
land          Feb.  I,  1793 

Battle  of  the  First  of  June June  i,  1794 

End  of  the  Reign  of  Terror July  28,  1794 

Treaty  of  Basel,  batween  France  and  Prussia    .        April  5,  1795 
Establishment  of  the  Directory     ....        Oct.  27,  1795 

I.  Prospects  of  Pitt's  Ministry.  1789.— The  spread  of  manu- 
facturing industry  did  much  to  strengthen  Pitt's  government, 
because  the  wealthy  manufacturers  were  jealous  of  the  landed 
aristocracy,  and,  therefore,  supported  him  against  the  great  Whig 
families.  In  the  beginning  of  1789  there  seemed  to  be  every  pro- 
spect that  Pitt's  tenure  of  office  would  continue  to  be  distinguished 
by  a  long  series  of  gradual  reforms,  carried  out  just  so  far  as 
Pitt  could  induce  the  nation  to  follow  him.  Before  long,  however, 
events  took  place  in  France  which  shocked  the  English  nation, 
and  produced  a  temper  hostile  to  reform. 


820       ENGLAND  df   THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION   17 72- 1789 

2.  Material  Antecedents  of  the  French  Revolution. — The  form 
of  government  in  France  had  long  been  an  absolute  monarchy  ; 
but,  though  the  kings  had  deprived  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  of  all 
political  power,  they  had  allowed  them  to  retain  privileges  injurious 
to  the  rest  of  the  community.  The  nobles  and  the  clergy,  for 
instance,  who  formed  the  first  two  estates,  paid  much  lower  taxes 
than  the  rest  of  the  people,  and  the  Third  Estate,  which  comprised 
all  who  were  not  noblemen  or  clergymen,  bore,  in  consequence, 
heavier  burdens  than  ought  to  have  been  placed  on  them.  Many 
noblemen  and  clergymen,  again,  were  seigneurs^  or,  as  would  have 
been  said  in  England,  Lords  of  Manors,  and  though  the  peasants 
who  lived  on  their  estates  were  often  actually  proprietors  of  their  own 
pieces  of  land,  they  had  nevertheless  to  pay  dues  to  their  seigneurs 
on  all  sorts  of  occasions,  as  for  instance  when  they  sold  land  or 
brought  their  produce  to  market.  The  seigneurs^  too,  often  treated 
the  peasants  harshly  by  riding  over  their  crops  in  pursuit  of  game, 
or  by  keeping  flocks  of  pigeons  which  devoured  their  corn.  People 
will  sometimes  bear  injuries  from  those  who  render  some  public 
service,  but  in  France  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  seigneurs  did 
no  public  service,  as  the  kings  had  jealously  deprived  them  of  the 
right  of  taking  part — as  English  country  gentlemen  took  part  — in 
administering  justice  or  in  looking  after  the  business  of  the  district 
in  which  they  lived.  The  seigneurs  and  the  nobility  in  general 
were  accordingly  hated,  in  the  first  place  as  obnoxious  to  their 
neighbours,  and  in  the  second  place  as  useless  idlers. 

3.  Intellectual  Antecedents  of  the  French  Revolution.— Dis- 
content only  results  in  revolution  when  there  are  found  thinking 
men  to  lead  the  oppressed  masses,  and  in  France  there  were 
thinkers  and  writers  who  prepared  the  way  for  great  changes. 
Voltaire  and  several  other  writers  proclaimed  the  supremacy  of 
human  reason.  They  called  upon  kings  and  rulers  to  govern 
reasonably,  attacking  not  only  unreasonable  and  cruel  laws,  bear- 
ing hardly  on  individuals  or  injurious  to  the  state  and  the  institu- 
tions of  civil  life,  but  the  practices  and  doctrines  of  Christianity 
itself.  The  professors  of  Christianity  in  France  were  certainly 
open  to  attack.  Not  only  were  the  bishops  and  higher  clergy 
rolling  in  wealth  and  living  worldly  and  sometimes  vicious  lives, 
whilst  the  poor  parish  priests  {cures)  who  did  the  work  were  in 
great  poverty,  but  the  bishops  cried  out  for  the  persecution  of 
Protestants  and  sceptics,  although  some  of  them  were  themselves 
sceptics.  On  one  occasion  Louis  XVL,  who  had  reigned  since  1774, 
being  asked  to  name  a  certain  man,  who  was  known  to  be  a  sceptic, 


1772-1789    LOUIS  XVL    AND    THE  REVOLUTION  821 

as  archbishop,  rephed  that  an  archbishop  ought  at  least  to  believe 
in  God.  Whilst  Voltaire  and  his  allies  asked  that  all  things  should 
be  done  by  the  king  and  his  ministers  according  to  reason,  another 
writer,  Rousseau,  taught  that  all  had  equal  rights,  and  that  the 
.  people  ought  to  govern  themselves,  holding  that  they  knew  by  ex- 
perience their  own  needs  far  better  than  those  who  undertook  to 
govern  them,  and  that  as  the  people  were  always  good  and  just,  they 
would  never  act  tyrannically  as  kings  and  priests  had  too  often 
done. 

4.  Louis  XVI.  1774— 1789. — The  feeling  of  the  French  people 
in  general  when  Louis  XVI.  came  to  the  throne  was  hostile  not  to 
monarchy  but  to  the  privileged  orders,  namely,  the  nobility  and 
the  clergy.  If,  therefore,  Louis  XVI.  had  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  this  movement,  he  would  have  become  a  more  powerful  king 
than  even  Louis  XIV.  Unfortunately,  though  he  was  unselfish  and 
well  intentioned,  he  had  neither  strength  of  will  nor  clearness  of 
head,  and  he  allowed  the  Government  to  drift  into  helplessness. 
Before  long  he  was  rushing  into  bankruptcy,  which  could  only  be 
averted  if  the  nobles  and  clergy  were  compelled  to  pay  taxes  like 
the  Third  Estate.  Louis  XVI.  had  not  the  nerve  to  compel  them 
to  do  it,  and  in  1789  he  summoned  the  States-General,  a  body 
answering  in  some  respects  to  our  Parliament,  but  which  had  not 
met  for  a  hundred  and  seventy-five  years.  He  did  this  not  because 
he  wished  to  lead  his  people,  but  because  he  did  not  know  any 
other  way  of  procuring  the  money  that  he  needed. 

5.  The  National  Assembly.  1789. — When  the  States-General 
met,  the  work  of  doing  justice  upon  the  privileged  orders  passed 
out  of  the  king^s  hands.  Each  of  the  Three  Estates  had  elected 
its  own  representatives  to  the  States-General,  and  those  of  the 
Third  Estate  successfully  insisted  on  all  the  representatives  sitting 
in  one  chamber  and  calling  themselves  the  National  Assembly. 
The  National  Assembly  assumed  the  right  of  making  a  con- 
stitution, and  when  the  king  feebly  attempted  to  take  that  work 
into  his  own  hands,  and  gave  signs  of  an  intention  to  employ  force 
to  make  good  his  claim,  the  mob  rose  on  July  14  and  took  the 
Bastille,  a  great  fortress  which  commanded  the  poorer  quarters  of 
Paris.  Then  the  peasants  rose  in  many  parts  of  France,  burning  and 
sacking  the  country  houses  of  the  seigneurs,  and,  on  August  4,  the 
National  Assembly  swept  away  all  the  special  privileges  of  the  two 
privileged  orders.  From  henceforth  there  was  to  be  in  France 
what  there  had  for  centuries  been  in  England— equality  before  the 
law. 


822       ENGLAND  df  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION    1789-1791 

6.  England  and  France.  1789  -1790. — At  first  the  Revolution 
in  France  was  generally  welcomed  in  England.  Englishmen 
thought  that  they  had  before  them  a  mere  repetition  of  the  English 
Revolution  of  i688,  and  that  a  Parliamentary  Government  was 
about  to  be  set  up  in  France,  similar  to  that  which  existed  in 
England.  It  was  a  complete  mistake.  The  English  Revolution 
had  been  directed  to  limit  the  power  of  the  king.  The  French 
Revolution  was  directed  to  overthrow  the  privileges  of  an  aris- 
tocracy. The  French  king  became  involved  in  the  quarrel  by 
attempting  to  check  the  National  Assembly,  which  he  distrusted. 
On  October  5  the  mob  marched  upon  Versailles,  broke  into  the 
palace,  slaughtered  some  of  the  guards,  and  on  the  next  morning 
led  the  king  captive  to  Paris.  On  the  one  hand  the  Assembly 
made  enemies  by  meddling  with  the  constitution  of  the  Church  ; 
and  on  the  other  hand  many  who  had  profited  by  the  overthrow  of 
the  privileged  orders  suspected  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  to  be 
intriguing  to  regain  what  they  had  lost,  and  treated  them  with 
harshness  and  cruelty.  The  National  Assembly  busied  itself  with 
drawing  up  a  constitution  based  on  abstract  principles,  whilst  it 
took  no  account  of  the  necessity  of  establishing  a  firm  and  strong 
government.  It  kept  the  king  on  the  throne,  but  distrusted  him 
too  much  to  give  him  real  power,  and  the  natural  result  of  such  a 
state  of  things  was  the  growth  of  turbulence  and  anarchy. 

7.  Fox,  Burke,  and  Pitt.  1789— 1790. — In  England,  each  of 
the  great  statesmen  then  living  had  his  own  way  of  regarding  the 
events  passing  in  France.  Fox,  enthusiastic  and  impulsive,  gave 
to  the  Revolution  unstinted  praise.  "  How  much,"  he  wrote,  on 
hearing  of  the  capture  of  the  Bastille,  "  the  greatest  event  it  is 
that  ever  happened  in  the  world  ;  and  how  much  the  best  ! " 
Burke,  on  the  other  hand,  regarded  with  disfavour,  soon  passing 
into  hatred,  the  destruction  of  old  institutions  and  the  foundation  of 
new  ones  on  general  principles.  Being  unable  to  perceive  how 
impossible  it  was,  in  the  existing  circumstances  of  France,  to  found 
a  government  on  those  old  institutions  which  had  so  completely 
broken  down,  he  reviled  the  National  Assembly,  with  all  the 
wealth  of  argument  and  rhetoric  at  his  command.  Towards  the 
end  of  1790,  he  published  his  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution^ 
in  which  he  pointed  out,  with  great  sagacity,  the  danger  of  all 
attempts  to  alter  suddenly  the  habits  and  institutions  of  nations, 
though  he  failed  entirely  to  suggest  any  practicable  remedy  for  the 
evils  which  existed  in  France.  On  May  6,  1791,  there  was  a 
complete  breach  between  him  and  Fox.     His  dying  words,  he  said, 


1 783- 1 792  THE  SLAVE    TRADE  823 

would  be,  "  Fly  from  the  French  Revolution  !  "  Pitt  agreed  with 
Burke  rather  than  with  Fox  ;  but  he  held  that  his  business  was  to 
govern  England  rather  than  to  denounce  France,  and  he  contented 
himself  with  hoping  that  the  disorders  in  France,  by  weakening  that 
countr)'^  for  a  long  time,  would  make  the  preservation  of  peace 
easier. 

8.  Clarkson  and  the  Slave  Trade.  1783— 1788.— Cautious  as 
Pitt  was,  he  shared  in  some  of  the  generous  hopes  which  filled 
the  mind  of  Fox.  In  1772  Lord  Mansfield  laid  down  the  law  that 
a  slave  imported  into  England  becomes  free  ;  but  the  merchants 
of  Bristol  and  Liverpool  were  at  this  time  carrying  some  fifty 
thousand  negroes  a  year  to  slavery  in  the  West  Indies.  On  their 
way  across  the  Atlantic  the  poor  wretches  suffered  horrible 
torments,  being  packed  almost  as  closely  as  the  sufferers  in  the 
Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,  in  nearly  as  stifling  an  atmosphere,  so 
that  large  numbers  died  on  the  way.  In  1783  a  young  man  named 
Clarkson  gained  a  prize  at  Cambridge  for  an  essay  on  the  question 
whether  it  was  right  to  make  slaves  of  others,  and  on  his  journey 
home  sat  down  by  the  wayside  to  meditate  whether  the  arguments 
which  he  used  were  to  be  more  to  him  than  mere  words.  He 
resolved  to  devote  his  life  to  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade,  and 
for  some  years  went  about  the  quays  at  Liverpool,  picking  up 
facts  from  sailors.  In  1788  he  won  to  his  side  some  members 
of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  published  the  evidence  which  he 
had  gathered.  Wilberforce,  the  member  for  Yorkshire,  one  of 
the  most  pious  and  disinterested  of  men,  took  up  the  cause,  and 
Wilberforce  influenced  Pitt. 

9.  Pitt  and  the  Slave  Trade.  1788— 1792.  -In  1788  a  Bill  was 
brought  in  by  Sir  William  Uolben,  by  which  means  were  to  be 
taken  for  improving  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  vessels  carrying 
slaves.  The  slave-traders  resisted  it  and  argued  that  the  negroes 
liked  being  taken  from  their  own  barbarous  country,  and  danced 
and  made  merry  on  deck.  On  enquiry,  it  turned  out  that  they 
were  from  time  to  time  flogged  on  deck,  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  in  their  numbed  limbs,  and  that  what  their 
tyrants  called  dancing  was  merely  their  shrinking  from  the  lash. 
The  Bill  passed  the  Commons,  but  the  Lords  so  changed  it  as  to 
make  it  useless.  In  1789  and  1790  Wilberforce  urged  the  Commons 
to  abolish  the  wicked  slave  trade  entirely,  and  in  1792  Pitt  spoke 
vehemently  in  support  of  the  proposal,  but  the  House  of  Commons 
refused  to  accept  it.  The  men  of  property  of  whom  it  was  com- 
posed  thought  that   the   first  duty  of  legislators  was  to  protect 


824      ENGLAND^-'   THE  FKENCII  REVOLUTION     1791   1792 

property,  whether  it  was  property  in  human  beings  or  in  houses 
and  goods. 

10.  Rise  of  a  Warlike  Feeling  in  France.  1791— 1792 — 
In  September,  1791,  the  National  Assembly  finished  its  work  on  the 
constitution,  and  the  Legislative  Assembly,  which,  according  to  the 
constitution,  was  to  be  the  first  of  a  series  of  Assemblies  each  lasting 
for  two  years,  met  on  October  i.  The  most  influential  party  in  the 
new  Assembly  was  that  of  the  Girondists,  of  which  the  leaders 
were  young  and  enthusiastic,  but  utterly  without  political  experience. 
Many  causes  coatributed  to  create  a  w^arlike  feeling.  Crowds 
of  emigrants,  French  nobles  who  had  left  the  country  either  in 
anger  at  the  revolutionary  laws,  or  in  fear  lest  they  should  them- 
selves be  harshly  treated,  gathered  at  Coblentz  and  held  out 
threats  of  invasion  and  vengeance.  It  was,  moreover,  believed  in 
France  that  the  Emperor  Leopold  II.,  the  brother  of  the  Queen, 
Marie  Antoinette,  had  combined  with  the  king  of  Prussia, 
Frederick  William  II.,  to  collect  troops  with  the  intention  of 
marching  on  Paris  in  support  of  the  emigrants.  The  Girondists, 
not  doubting  that  Louis  XVI.  desired  the  overthrow  of  the  consti- 
tution even  with  foreign  aid,  fanned  the  warlike  feeling  in  the 
Assembly,  in  the  hope  that  when  war  had  once  been  declared  the 
king  would  lose  the  confidence  of  the  nation  and  that  the  fall  of 
his  throne  might  be  effected  without  a  struggle.  They  also 
expected  that  the  war  would  be  short  and  easy,  because  they 
imagined  that  the  subjects  of  the  rulers  opposed  to  them  would 
gladly  accept  aid  from  the  PVench  armies  to  win  for  themselves 
the  equality  and  popular  sovereignty  which  had  been  established 
in  France.  '  Let  us  tell  Europe,'  said  one  of  their  orators,  '  that  if 
Cabinets  engage  kings  in  a  war  against  peoples,  we  will  engage 
peoples  in  a  war  against  kings.'  As  a  matter  of  fact,  neither 
the  Emperor  nor  the  King  of  Pi-ussia  was  at  this  time  eager  to 
enter  on  hostilities  with  France.  Leopold  II.,  however,  died  on 
March  i,  and  his  son  Francis,who  succeeded  him  as  King  of  Hungary 
and  Archduke  of  Austria  by  hereditary  right,  and  who,  some 
months  later,  was  chosen  Emperor  as  Francis  II.,  resenting  the 
strong  language  used  in  Paris,  threatened  to  interfere  in  France, 
and  on  April  20,  1792,  the  Assembly  retaliated  by  declaring  war 
against  him  and  his  allies,  amongst  whom  the  King  of  Prussia  was 
included. 

11.  The  French  Republic.  1792.— Burke  would  have  gladly 
seen  England  allying  itself  to  Austria  and  Prussia  in  the  work  of 
crushing  French  revolutionary  principles.     Pitt  refused  to  d(ipart 


1 792- 1 793  EXECUTION  OF  LOUIS  XVI .  825 

from  his  policy  of  peace.  The  allies  invaded  France,  and,  on 
August  10,  the  Paris  mob  rose  in  insurrection  against  the  king, 
who  could  hardly  help  wishing  well  to  the  invaders  who  had  come 
to  liberate  him  from  bondage.  Louis  thereupon  took  refuge  with 
,the  Legislative  Assembly,  which  suspended  him  from  the  ex- 
ercise of  all  authority,  but,  declaring  itself  incompetent  to  give  a 
final  solution  to  the  question  of  government,  ordered  the  election 
of  a  National  Convention  to  settle  it.  The  Paris  mob,  hounded 
on  by  bloodthirsty  and  unscrupulous  leaders,  seized  the  opportunity 
when  there  was  no  real  authority  in  France,  to  burst  into  the 
prisons  and  massacre  the  prisoners  suspected  of  desiring  to  help 
the  enemy.  On  September  20  the  French  army  checked  the 
invaders  by  the  cannonade  of  Valmy,  and  on  the  21st  the  Con- 
vention met  and  decreed  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy,  thus 
declaring  France  to  be  a  republic.  On  November  6  the  French 
won  a  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Jemmapes,  and  soon  after- 
wards occupied  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  Savoy,  and  Nice,  ad- 
vanced into  Germany,  and  took  possession  of  Mainz. 

12.  Breakdown  of  Pitt's  Policy  of  Peace.  1792  — 1793. — 
The  September  massacres  made  Pitt's  policy  of  peace  almost 
hopeless,  by  the  shock  which  they  gave  to  English  public  opinion. 
The  subsequent  proceedings  of  the  French  Revolutionists  drove 
Pitt  himself  into  a  policy  of  war.  On  November  19,  1792,  the 
Convention  offered  its  assistance  to  all  peoples  desirous  of  obtain- 
ing their  freedom,  and,  on  December  15,  ordered  its  generals 
wherever  they  were  to  proclaim  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  and 
the  abolition  of  feudal  rights  and  privileges.  The  war  was  a  war 
not  between  one  nation  and  another,  but  between  social  classes. 
France,  enthusiastic  for  her  new  principles,  did  not  neglect  her 
interests.  She  supported  her  armies  at  the  expense  of  the  wealthy 
inhabitants  of  the  countries  they  overran.  She  treated  the  territory 
of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  as  if  it  were  her  own.  In  all  this 
Pitt  did  not  find  a  cause  of  war,  as  Austria  was  at  war  with 
France.  He  remonstrated  when  France  threw  open  the  Scheldt 
to  commerce,  which,  ever  since  the  17th  century,  had  been 
closed  by  European  treaties  to  please  the  Dutch  who  occupied 
both  banks  of  its  estuary  ;  but  he  took  his  stand  in  resisting 
a  threatened  French  invasion  of  the  Dutch  Netherlands.  Whilst 
the  feelings  on  both  sides  were  growing  in  hostility,  the  French 
Convention  condemned  Louis  XVL  to  death,  and,  on  January  21, 
1793,  sent  him  to  the  scaffold.  A  thrill  of  horror  ran  through 
England,  and  on  February  i.  the  Convention,  knowing  that 
III.  3  H 


826  ENGLAND   &'   THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION        I793 

peace  could  not  be  maintained,  and  being  resolved  to  pursue  its 
attack  on  the  Dutch  Republic,  took  the  initiative  in  declaring  war 
against  England  and  the  Dutch. 

13.  French  Defeats  and  the  Reign  of  Terror.  1793.— When 
the  campaign  of  1793  opened,  a  combined  army  of  Austrians  and 
Prussians  advancing  in  overwhelming  numbers  drove  the  French 
out  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  A  force  of  10,000  British  soldiers, 
under  the  king's  second  son,  the  Duke  of  York,  joined  the  victorious 
allies.  At  Paris  the  leading  Girondists  were  expelled  from  the  Con- 
vention, and  a  party  known  as  that  of  the  Jacobins  rose  to  power. 
The  Girondists  were  so  alarmed  lest  a  strong  government  should 
develop  a  despotism  that  they  resisted  the  establishment  of  that 
firm  authority  which  could  alone  save  France  from  disaster.  The 
Jacobins  had  no  such  scruples.  In  July  France  was  in  desperate 
case.  Mainz,  Conde,  and  Valenciennes  surrendered,  and  the 
•Duke  of  York  laid  siege  to  Dunkirk.  The  Jacobins  had  to  deal 
with  insurrection  at  home  as  Avell  as  with  invasion  from  abroad. 
Lyons  and  Toulon  rose  against  them  in  the  south.  La  Vendee  in 
the  west.  They  met  foreign  and  domestic  enemies  on  the  one  hand 
by  calling  to  arms  all  the  patriotic  youth  of  the  country,  and  on 
the  other  hand  by  a  savage  system  of  executions  by  the  guillotine. 
A  Committee  of  Public  Safety  directed  the  government.  A  revolu- 
tionary tribunal  judged  swiftly  on  imperfect  evidence  and  with  the 
most  violent  passion  all  who  were  even  suspected  to  be  guilty  of 
showing  favour  to  the  invaders  or  to  the  dispossessed  nobility. 
The  Reign  of  Terror,  as  it  is  called,  began  with  the  execution  of 
the  queen,  on  October  16.  Twenty-two  Girondists  were  executed 
on  October  22,  and  for  months  afterwards  blood — for  the  most  part 
innocent  blood — was  mercilessly  shed  on  the  scaffold. 

14.  French  Successes.  1793. — It  was  not  the  Reign  of  Terror, 
but  the  devotion  of  her  sons,  which  saved  France.  On  September  8 
a  French  victory  at  Hondschoote  forced  the  Duke  of  York  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Dunkirk,  On  October  7  Lyons  surrendered.  On  the 
1 6th,  by  the  victory  of  Wattignies,  the  French  overpowered  the 
Austrians  in  the  Netherlands,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  they 
drove  back  both  Austrians  and  Prussians  m  the  country  between  the 
Moselle  and  the  Rhine.  The  army  of  the  Vendeans  was  destroyed 
at  Le  Mans  on  December  i?,  and  Toulon,  which  had  admitted  an 
English  fleet  into  its  harbour,  was  captured  by  the  skill  of  young 
General  Bonaparte  on  the  19th.  These  successes  were  due 
as  much  to  the  divisions  of  the  allies  as  to  French  valour  and 
conduct.     Austria  and  Prussia  had  long  been  rivals,  and  there 


1 792- 1 794  THE  REIGN  OF   TERROR  827 

was  little  real  confidence  between  them  even  now.  In  1772  these 
two  powers,  together  with  Russia,  had  stripped  anarchical  Poland  of 
some  of  her  provinces.  In  1793  Russia  and  Prussia  were  proceed- 
ing to  a  second  partition  of  her  territory  ;  whilst  Austria  was 
seeking  compensation  for  being  left  without  a  share  in  this  new 
partition  of  Poland  by  the  acquisition  of  territory  in  France.  Now 
that  her  armies  had  been  driven  back,  her  chance  of  getting  such 
a  compensation  was  at  an  end,  and  her  rulers,  throwing  the  blame 
on  Prussia  for  her  lukewarmness  in  the  war  with  France,  began  to 
detest  Prussia  even  more  than  they  detested  the  French  Republic. 

15.  Prog^ress  of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  1793— 1794. — Pitt's  mistake 
had  been  in  thinking  that  he  could  take  part  in  a  great  struggle  of 
principles  as  though  it  were  merely  a  struggle  for  the  proper 
delimitation  of  States.  The  French  had  on  their  side  enthusiasm, 
not  only  for  their  country,  but  for  their  own  conception  of  the 
welfare  of  humanity.  The  Governments  of  Prussia  and  Austria 
had  no  enthusiasm  for  the  old  order  of  things  which  they  pro- 
fessed to  support.  Even  Pitt  himself  \vas  an  example  of  the 
impossibility  of  treating  the  danger  from  France  as  merely  terri- 
torial. Seeing  clearly  the  evil  of  the  French  aggression  and  the 
cruelty  of  the  Reign  of  Terror,  he  grew  to  hate  the  French  re- 
volutionary spirit  almost  as  strongly  as  Burke.  It  is  hardly  to  be 
wondered  at  that  it  was  so.  The  tyranny  of  the  Reign  of  Terror 
became  worse  and  worse.  The  Convention  was  dominated  by  a  few 
bloodthirsty  men  who  sent  hundreds  to  the  guillotine,  not  because 
they  were  even  suspected  of  being  traitors,  but  often  merely 
because  they  did  not  sympathise  with  the  revolution,  or  because 
their  condemnation  would  be  followed  by  the  confiscation  of  their 
goods.  The  dominant  parties  turned  upon  one  another.  One 
party  led  by  Hebert  announced  itself  Atheist,  and  dressing  up 
women  to  represent  the  Goddess  of  Reason,  placed  them  on 
the  altars  of  desecrated  churches,  and  danced  round  them  in 
honour  of  the  principle  which  they  represented.  Another  party, 
led  by  Robespierre,  declared  itself  Deist,  and  early  in  1794 
Robespierre  sent  Hebert  and  his  followers  to  the  guillotine. 

16.  Reaction  in  England.  1792— 1793.— In  his  growing  detestation 
of  these  horrors,  Pitt  was  supported  by  the  great  mass  of  English- 
men. In  1792  he  refused  to  accept  a  proposal  for  Parliamentary 
reform,  urged  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  young  member,  Mr. 
Grey,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  a  fitting  time  to  alter  the  Con- 
stitution. In  1793  he  was  frightened  lest  the  French  revolutionary 
spirit  should  find  its  way  into  England,  because  a  certain  number 

3  H2 


828     ENGLAND   6^    THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION  179 3-1794 

of  persons,  regretting  their  exclusion  from  all  part  in  parliamentary 
elections,  joined  clubs  which  loudly  expressed  their  sympathy  with 
the  French  innovations.  The  danger  from  such  clubs  was  excessively 
small,  but  Pitt  and  well  nigh  the  whole  of  the  propertied  classes 
dreaded  the  establishment  of  a  reign  of  violence  in  England.  In 
the  beginning  of  1793,  an  Act  was  passed  authorising  the  Govern- 
ment to  remove  suspected  foreigners,  and  late  in  the  year  a 
Treasonable  Correspondence  Act  was  passed  to  throw  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  persons  seeking  to  give  assistance  to  the  French, 
with  whom  England  was  by  that  time  at  war.  No  exception 
can  be  taken  to  these  measures.  It  was,  however,  unjustifiable 
that  the  Government,  fully  supported  by  judges  and  juries,  should 
authorise  not  only  the  prosecution,  but  the  harshest  punishment  of 
persons  guilty  merely  of  using  strong  language  against  the  king  or 
the  institutions  of  the  realm.  Amongst  the  sufferers  was  a  bill- 
sticker  who  was  imprisoned  for  six  months  for  posting  up  an 
address  asking  for  Parliamentary  reform,  and  a  man  named 
Hudson  who  was  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  200/.  and  two  years'  im- 
prisonment for  proposing  a  toast  to  'The  French  Republic'  In 
Scotland  Thomas  Muir  was  sent  to  transportation  for  fourteen 
years  for  exciting  to  sedition  and  joining  an  association  for  obtaining 
universal  suffrage  and  annual  parliaments.  "  The  landed  interest," 
said  the  judge  who  tried  the  case,  "  alone  has  a  right  to  be 
represented  ;  the  rabble  has  nothing  but  personal  property  ;  and 
what  hold  has  the  nation  on  them?" 

17.  End  of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  1794.— On  July  28  the  Reign  of 
Terror  in  France  came  suddenly  to  an  end  by  the  execution  of 
Robespierre.  The  course  of  the  war  in  the  spring  of  1794  had 
been  wholly  in  favour  of  France  on  land,  and  on  June  26  a  great 
French  victory  over  the  Austrians  at  P^leurus  was  followed  by  the 
complete  evacuation  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands  by  the  allies. 
It  was  little  to  counterbalance  this  that  Lord  Howe  gained  a 
victory,  usually  known  as  the  Battle  of  the  First  of  June,  over 
a  French  fleet  near  the  mouth  of  the  Channel.  France  was  no 
longer  in  danger,  and  France  being  safe,  it  was  impossible  for  the 
Terrorists  again  to  acquire  control  over  the  Government. 

18.  Coalition  between  Pitt  and  the  majorityof  the  Whigs.  1794. 
—In  England  one  effect  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  had  been  to  sweep 
away  the  differences  between  Pitt  and  the  majority  of  the  Whigs. 
Following  Burke,  the  latter  had  for  some  time  been  voting  with 
Pitt,  and  in  1794  their  leaders,  the  Duke  of  Portland,  Lord  Fitzwilliam, 
and  Mr.  Windham  entered  Pitt's  Cabinet.     Fox  and  Grey  with  a 


1794-1795       END    OF   THE   REIGN  OF   TERROR  S29 

scanty  following  continued  in  opposition,  partly  because,  though 
they  loathed  the  bloody  scenes  in  France,  they  thought  that  England 
ought  to  remain  at  peace  ;  partly  because  they  held  that  the  best 
\yay  to  meet  French  revolutionary  ideas  in  England  was  to  push  on 
internal  reforms.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  the  violent  proceedings 
in  the  English  law-courts  received  a  check  by  the  refusal  of  juries 
to  convict  Home  Tooke,  Hardy,  and  Thelwall,  who  were  accused 
of  seditious  practices.      They  were   no   doubt  acquitted  because 


Uniform  of  Sailors  about  1790.  * 

ordinary  Englishmen  resumed  their  usual  habit  of  distrusting 
government  interference,  as  soon  as  the  irritation  caused  by  the 
Reign  of  Terror  was  at  an  end. 

19.  The  Treaties  of  Basel.  1795.— French  conquests  did  not 
come  to  an  end  with  the  Reign  of  Terror.  In  January  1795  a 
French  army  under  Pichegru  overran  the  Dutch  Netherlands  and 
established  a  Batavian  republic  on  a  democratic  basis.  About 
the  same  time  there  was  a  third  and  final  partition  of  Poland,  in 
which  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia  all  shared.  Prussia  had  no 
more  to  gain  in  Poland,  and  on  April  5,  being  unwilling  to  help 
Austria  to  make  conquests  in  France,  she  concluded  peace  at  Basel 
with  the  French  Convention.  On  July  12  Spain,  following  the 
example  of  Prussia,  also  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Basel. 

20.  The  Establishment  of  the  Directory  in  France.     1795.— Pitt 


830         ENGLAND  &*    THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION        1795 

failed  to  appreciate  the  real  difficulties  of  the  war  on  which  he  had 
embarked.  In  spite  of  all  the  atrocities  of  the  Terror,  the  feeling 
in  France  was  so  strong  against  any  reaction  in  favour  of  the 
old  nobility,  that  there  was  not  the  slightest  chance  of  overthrowing 
the  Republican  government  by  giving  aid  to  the  French  emigrants. 
The  Count  of  Puisaye,  an  emigrant  royalist,  persuaded  Pitt  to  disem- 
bark him  and  a  number  of  other  emigrants  in  Quiberon  Bay,  in  the 
belief  that  the  country  round  would  take  up  the  royalist  cause. 
The  expedition  ended  in  entire  failure.  In  October  a  new  consti- 
tution was  established  by  the  Convention.  The  legislature  con- 
sisted of  two  councils,  and  the  executive  of  a  body  of  five  Directors. 
The  violent  stage  of  the  French  Revolution  had  come  to  an  end, 
and  there  were  many  in  England  who  thought  that  it  would  be 
desirable  to  make  peace  with  a  government  which  gave  some 
hopes  of  moderation  and  stability,  especially  as  the  burden  of  the 
war  had  given  rise  to  grave  discontent  in  England.  When 
George  III.  drove  through  the  streets  on  October  29  to  open  Par- 
liament, he  was  surrounded  by  a  hooting  mob.  A  bullet  pierced 
one  of  his  carriage  windows. 

21.  The  Treason  Act  and  the  Sedition  Act.  1795.— Pitt  could 
see  nothing  but  revolutionary  violence  in  this  outburst.  He  carried 
through  Parliament  two  Bills,  one  declaring  the  mere  writing, 
preaching,  or  speaking  words  against  the  king's  authority  to  be 
treason,  and  the  stirring  up  hatred  against  the  king's  person  or 
the  established  government  and  constitution  to  be  a  punishable 
misdemeanour ;  the  other  forbidding  all  political  meetings  unless 
advertised  beforehand,  and  permitting  any  two  justices  to  disperse 
them  if  they  thought  them  dangerous.  Against  these  Bills  Fox 
spoke  with  extreme  vehemence  ;  but  Pitt's  supporters  did  him  more 
harm  than  his  opponents.  "The  people,"  said  Bishop  Horsley, 
"  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  laws  but  to  obey  them."  The  two 
Bills  became  law,  but  public  feeling  was  so  set  against  them  that 
they  were  never  put  into  operation. 


831 


CHAPTER    LII 

THE   UNION   WITH   IRELAND  AND   THE   PEACE   OF  AMIENS 
1795-1804 

LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  George  III.,  1760- 1820 

Lord  Fitzwilliam  in  Ireland 1795 

Bonaparte  Invades  Italy 1796 

Pitt's  First  Negotiation  with  the  Directory  .     1796 

Battles  of  St.  Vincent  and  Campe  down       ....     1797 
Pitt's  Second  Negotiation  with  the  Directory     .        .        .     1797 

Irish  Rebellion 1798 

The  Battle  of  the  Nile 1798 

The  Irish  Union 1800 

Pitt  succeeded  by  Addington 1801 

Peace  of  Amiens March  28,  1802 

Rupture  of  the  Treaty  of  Amiens 1803 

Resignation  of  Addington April  30,  1804 

I.  The  Irish  Government  and  ParUament.  1785 — 1791. — In 
1785,  when  Pitt  was  aiming  at  a  commercial  union  with  Ireland,  he 
had  expressed  a  desire  to  make  '  England  and  Ireland  one  country 
in  effect,  though  for  local  concerns  under  distinct  legislatures.' 
The  difficulty,  however,  lay  in  the  unfitness  of  the  Parliament  at 
Dublin  to  play  the  part  of  a  legislature  'for  local  concerns.'  It 
was  in  no  true  sense  representative.  Three-fourths  of  the 
population  were  excluded  as  Catholics  from  sitting  in  Parliament 
and  from  voting  at  elections.  Nor  was  the  Irish  House  of 
Commons  in  any  sense  representative  of  the  remaining  Pro- 
testant fourth.  The  number  of  its  members  was  three  hundred, 
and  of  these,  two  hundred  were  chosen  by  less  than  one  hundred 
persons,  who  controlled  the  elections  of  petty  boroughs.  More- 
over, as  the  ministers  in  Ireland  were  responsible,  not  to 
Parliament,  but  to  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  the  Lord  Lieutenant 
could,  except  in  times  of  great  excitement,  govern  without  reference 
to  the  wishes  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  whenever  it  seemed 
desirable  to  him  to  have  the  House  of  Commons  on  his  side  he 
could,  by  a  lavish  distribution  of  places  and  pensions,  buy  up  the 
votes  of  the  members  or  of  their  patrons,  as  neither  had  any  con- 
stituents to  fear.   Usually,  however,  the  Lord  Lieutenant  who  wished 


832  THE  IRISH  UNION  ^  PEACE  OF  AMIENS     1 791-94 

to  lead  an  easy  life  preferred  to  govern  in  accordance  with  the  wishes 
of  the  corrupt  faction  which  formed  the  Parliamentary  majority. 

2.  The  United  Irishmen  and  Parliamentary  Reform.  1791 — 
1794. — Nowhere  were  the  objections  to  this  state  of  things  felt 
more  strongly  than  amongst  the  Presbyterians,  who  formed  a  great 
part  of  the  population  of  Ulster,  and  especially  of  the  flourishing 
town  of  Belfast,  and  were  excluded  as  completely  as  the  Catholics 
from  office  and  from  Parliament.  Amongst  the  upper  and 
middle  classes  m  Ulster,  religious  bigotry  had  almost  died  out, 
and  they  had,  for  some  time  past,  been  ready  to  admit  Catholics 
to  the  franchise  and  to  put  them  on  political  equality  with 
themselves.  Then  came  the  influence  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and,  in  October  1791,  the  Society  of  United  Irishmen  was 
founded  at  Belfast  by  Wolfe  Tone,  himself  a  Presbyterian.  Its 
object  was  to  unite  Catholics  and  Protestants  by  widening  the 
franchise  and  by  opening  office  and  Parliament  to  all  without  dis- 
tinction of  creed.  Pitt  took  alarm,  but  in  1793,  in  order  to  baffle 
this  extreme  demand,  he  obtained  from  the  Irish  Parliament  two 
Acts,  the  one  freeing  the  Catholics  from  some  of  the  worst  penalties 
under  which  they  suffered,  and  the  other  allowing  them  to  vote  for 
members  of  Parliament.  As,  however,  they  were  still  disqualified 
from  sitting  in  Parliament,  the  concession  was  almost  illusory,  and, 
moreover,  only  a  minority  of  seats  depended  on  election  in  any 
real  sense.  In  1794  a  very  moderate  Reform  Bill,  proposing  the 
increase  of  independent  constituencies,  was  rejected  in  the  Irish 
House  of  Commons  by  a  decisive  majority. 

3.  The  Mission  of  Lord  Fitzwilliam.  1794—1795.  _  The 
seceders  from  the  Whig  party  who  joined  Pitt  in  1794  urged  him  to 
strengthen  the  Irish  Government  by  granting  Catholic  emanci- 
pation and  moderate  reform,  so  as  to  keep  in  check  the  revolutionists 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  corrupt  officials  on  the  other.  Pitt  con- 
sented to  send  Lord  FitzwiUiam,  one  of  the  Whig  seceders,  to 
Ireland,  as  Lord  Lieutenant,  rather  because  he  wished  to  gratify 
his  new  allies  than  because  he  personally  approved  of  the  change. 
Fitzwilliam  himself  understood  that  there  was  to  be  a  complete 
change  of  system  and  that  justice  was  to  be  done  to  the 
Catholics ;  but  he  had  held  only  verbal  communications  with 
Pitt,  and  there  was  probably  a  misunderstanding  between  the  two 
statesmen.  At  all  events,  Pitt  told  Fitzwilliam  that  not  one  of  the 
existing  officials  was  to  be  dismissed  except  for  actual  misconduct. 
With  Pitt  as,  at  the  best,  a  hesitating  ally,  Fitzwilliam's  mission  was 
doomed  to  failure.     Fitzwilliam  himself  hastened  that  failure.     He 


1795  FITZWILLIAM  IN  IRELAND  833 

landed  in  Dublin  on  January  4,  1795,  and,  almost  at  once,  in 
defiance  of  his  instructions,  dismissed  two  of  the  worst  of  the 
officials,  one  of  whom,  John  Beresford,  was  popularly  known 
as  the  king  of  Ireland  from  the  unbounded  influence  which 
he  had  gained  by  jobbery.  He  and  the  Irish  Chancellor,  Fitz- 
gibbon,  complained  to  the  king  that  his  ministers,  in  favouring 
Catholic  emancipation,  were  leading  him  to  a  breach  of  the  oath 
which  he  had  taken  at  his  coronation  to  defend  the  Protestant 
religion,  and  the  king  gave  Pitt  to  understand  that  he  would  never 
consent  to  such  a  measure.  Pitt  was,  moreover,  subjected  to  pres- 
sure from  English  opinion,  where  the  Catholics  were  anything  but 
popular,  and  where  any  proposal  to  reform  Parliament  savoured  of 
the  principles  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  these  views  Pitt  to 
some  extent  shared,  and  began  to  look  for  the  best  remedy  for  Irish 
difficulties  in  the  constitution  of  a  common  Parliament  for  the  two 
countries,  as  there  had  been  a  common  Parliament  for  England 
and  Scotland  since  1707  (see  p.  685).  Fitzwilliam,  whose  arrival 
in  Dublin  had  been  welcomed  as  a  message  of  peace  from  England, 
was  promptly  recalled,  and  Ireland  was  once  more  handed  over 
to  a  Parliament  dominated  by  place-hunters  who,  under  the 
pretence  of  maintaining  Protestantism,  banded  themselves  together 
with  the  object  of  gaining  wealth  and  position.  "  Did  I  ever 
give  an  honest  vote  in  my  life  ?  "  is  a  sentence  which  is  said  to  have 
escaped  from  the  lips  of  a  member  of  this  faction. 

4.  Impending  Revolution.  1795 — 1796. — Such  an  evil  system  was 
too  provocative  to  remain  long  unassailed.  In  the  Irish  Parliament, 
Grattan  spoke  vehemently  in  favour  of  a  Bill  for  Catholic  emanci- 
pation, but  the  Bill  was  rejected.  Lord  Fitzwilliam's  recall  was 
followed  by  an  outburst  of  violence.  The  Catholic  gentiy  and 
middle  classes  were  at  that  time  quite  ready  to  make  common 
cause  with  the  Protestants  of  their  own  standing  in  resistance  to 
any  popular  movement  ;  but  the  mass  of  Irish  peasants  had 
grievances  of  their  own  so  bitter  that  it  w^as  difficult  for  a  Parlia- 
ment hostile  to  their  race  andtireed  to  govern  them.  The  payment 
of  tithes,  especially,  weighed  heavily  on  an  impoverished  popula- 
tion, and  was  the  more  deeply  felt  as  the  money  went  to  the 
support  of  a  clergy  of  a  creed  hostile  to  that  of  those  from  whom 
it  was  exacted.  If  the  Catholic  gentry  had  been  allowed  to  sit  in 
Parliament,  they  would  at  least  have  brought  their  influence  to  bear 
in  favour  of  an  amelioration  of  the  lot  of  the  Catholic  peasant  in 
this  respect.  With  respect  to  another  grievance,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  introduction  of  Catholic   landlords  into  Parliament 


834  THE  IRISH  UNION  ^  PEACE  OF  AMIENS    1795-96 

would  have  had  any  sahitary  effect.  The  landlords  themselves  for 
the  most  part  let  their  land  at  a  low  rent,  but  their  tenants  usually 
let  it  out  again  at  a  higher  rent,  and  the  sub-tenants  again  let  it  at  a 
rent  higher  still,  till  in  some  places  6/.  was  charged  as  the  rent  of  an 
acre  of  potato  ground.  In  the  lower  classes  the  bitterness  of  religious 
animosity  had  never  been  extinguished  and  blazed  up  into  fierce 
hatred.  In  the  summer  of  1795,  when  hope  of  obtaining  fair  treat- 
ment from  Parliament  was  extinguished,  outrages  committed  by 
Catholics  upon  Protestants  became  frequent.  Angry  Protestants, 
calling  themselves  Orangemen  in  memory  of  William  III., 
retaliated,  with  all  the  strength  of  the  Government  behind  them. 
Violence  and  illegality  appeared  on  both  sides.  The  United 
Irishmen  took  up  the  cause  of  the  Catholics,  and,  early  in  1796, 
sent  Wolfe  Tone  to  France,  to  urge  the  Directory  to  invade 
Ireland  and  to  establish  a  republic. 

5.  Bonaparte  in  Italy.  1796— 1797.— Before  the  end  of  1796 
France  had  reached  a  position  of  overwhelming  strength  on  the 
Continent.  At  the  beginning  of  that  year  her  only  serious  enemies 
were  England,  Austria  and  Sardinia.  In  the  spring,  Bonaparte  was 
sent  to  attack  the  Austrian  and  Sardinian  armies  in  Italy.  "  You," 
he  told  his  soldiers,  "  are  ill-fed  and  naked.  I  will  lead  you  into 
the  most  fertile  places  of  the  world,  where  you  will  find  glory  and 
riches."  He  defeated  both  Austrians  and  Sardinians,  compelled 
the  king  of  Sardinia  to  make  peace,  drove  the  Austrians  out  of 
Milan,  and  laid  siege  to  Mantua  their  strongest  fortress  in  Italy. 
Again  and  again  Bonaparte,  with  marvellous  skill,  defeated 
Austrian  armies  attempting  to  save  Mantua.  It  was  not,  indeed, 
till  February  3,  1797,  that  Mantua,  and  with  it  the  mastery  of  Italy, 
passed  into  his  hands  ;  but  for  some  time  before  that  its  surrender 
had  been  a  mere  matter  of  time. 

6.  Pitt's  First  Negotiationwith  the  Directory.  1796. — On  October 
22,  1796,  a  British  ambassador.  Lord  Malmesbury,  reached  Paris 
to  negotiate  a  peace.  He  asked  that  France  should  abandon  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  and  should  withdraw  from  Italy.  As  Pitt 
ought  to  have  foreseen,  if  he  did  not  actually  foresee,  the  Directory 
repelled  such  overtures  with  scorn.  Believing  that  they  had 
England  at  their  mercy,  they  struck  at  Ireland.  On  December  17, 
a  great  fleet  carrying  an  army  of  20,000  men  sailed  from  Brest 
under  the  command  of  Hoche,  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  French 
generals,  who  had  set  his  heart  on  winning  Ireland  from  the  English. 
It  was,  however,  dispersed  at  sea,  and  only  some  of  its  vessels 
reached  Bantry  Bay,  out  of  which  they  were  driven  by  a  violent 


1797  A   NAVAL    VICTORY  835 

storm  before  a  landing  could  be  effected.  The  most  satisfactory 
thing  about  this  expedition,  from  the  British  point  of  view,  was, 
that  the  Irish  themselves  had  shown  no  signs  of  welcoming  the 
invaders. 

7.  Suspension  of  Cash  Payments.  1797.— Pitt  was  too  exclusively 
an  English  minister  to  appreciate  the  real  state  of  things  either  in 
Ireland  or  on  the  Continent.  His  treatment  of  Ireland  was  not  such 
as  to  secure  the  internal  peace  of  that  country,  and  his  treatment  of 
France  gave  him  neither  peace  nor  victory.  His  main  support  lay 
in  the  extraordinary  financial  resources  supplied  by  the  rapidly  in- 
creasing manufactures  of  England  (seep.  814).  Yet  even  on  this 
ground  he  did  not  escape  difficulties.  In  addition  to  the  military 
and  naval  expenses  incurred  by  his  own  country,  he  spent  large 
sums  upon  its  allies,  and  in  the  year  1796  sent  no  less  than  4,000,000/. 
to  Austria.  Early  in  1797  the  Bank  of  England  ran  short  of  gold, 
and  was  authorised  by  the  Government,  and  subsequently  by  Par- 
liament, to  suspend  cash  payments.  For  twenty-four  years  bank- 
notes passed  from  hand  to  hand,  though  those  who  took  them  knew 
that  it  would  be  a  long  time  before  the  Bank  would  be  again  able 
to  exchange  them  for  gold. 

8.  Battle  of  St.  Vincent.  1797. —Success  in  Italy  emboldened' 
France  in  1797  to  attempt  a  great  naval  attack  on  Great  Britain. 
The  Batavian  Republic — by  which  title  the  Dutch  Netherlands  were 
now  known— had  since  1795  been  a  dependent  ally  of  France,  and 
since  October  6,  1796,  France  had  been  allied  with  Spain,  which,  as 
soon  as  the  excitement  caused  by  the  horrors  of  the  Revolution 
came  to  an  end,  was  brought  back  to  the  French  side,  by  alarm 
at  the  preponderance  of  England  at  sea.  If  the  French  and 
Spanish  fleets  could  effect  a  junction,  they  would  be  able  to  bring 
an  overwhelming  force  into  the  English  Channel,  whilst  the  Dutch 
fleet  was  to  be  employed  to  convey  to  Ireland  an  army  of  14,000 
men.  To  prevent  this.  Admiral  Sir  John  Jervis,  on  February  16, 
attacked  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent.  His  ships  were 
fewer  and  smaller  than  those  of  the  Spaniards,  but  they  were  better 
equipped  and  better  manned.  Commodore'  Nelson,  disobeying 
orders,  dashed  with  his  own  and  one  other  ship  into  the  midst  of 
the  enemy's  fleet.  Two  other  ships  followed  him  after  a  while,  but 
still  the  chances  of  war  seemed  to  be  against  him.  Yet  he  boarded 
and  captured,  first  the  '  San   Nicolas '  of  80  guns,  and  then  the 

'  San  Josef,'  the  flag-ship  of  the  Spanish  Admiral,  of  112.     As  the 
swords  of  the  Spanish  officers  who  surrendered  were  too  many  for 
1  i.e.  A  captain  having  command  of  other  ships  besides  his  own. 


836  THE  IRISH  UNION  &^  PEACE  OF  AMIENS        1797 

him  to  hold,  he  gave  them  to  one  of  his  bargemen,  who  coolly 
tucked  them  in  a  bundle  under  his  arm.  Jervis  was  made  Earl 
St.  Vincent  for  the  victory  ;  but  he  was  so  nettled  at  Nelson's 
disobedience,  that  he  did  not  even  mention  his  name  in  the  despatch 
which  was  published  in  the  '  Gazette.'  Nearer  home  the  main 
business  of  the  British  fleet  was  to  prevent  a  junction  between  the 
French  and  the  Dutch.  Admiral  Duncan  was  sent  to  blockade 
the  Dutch  in  the  Texel,  whilst  Lord  Bridport,  at  the  head  of  the 
fleet  at  Spithead,  was  expected  to  look  after  the  French. 

9.  Mutiny  at  Spithead.  1797.— The  plans  of  the  Government 
were  nearly  upset  by  an  unexpected  mutiny  in  the  fleet.  The  sailors 
were  paid  at  a  rate  settled  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  though  the 
price  of  clothes  and  provisions  had  risen  considerably.  They  were 
badly  fed,  and  when  they  were  sick  or  even  wounded,  their  pay  was 
stopped.  Order  was  kept  by  constant  flogging,  often  administered 
for  slight  offences.  The  sailors  at  Spithead  finding,  after  petitioning 
the  Admiralty  for  redress  of  grievances,  that  no  notice  was  taken 
of  their  petition,  refused  to  go  to  sea.  On  this  the  Lords  of  the 
Admiralty  instructed  Lord  Howe  to  assure  them  that  justice  should 
be  done.     Howe  was  a  favourite  amongst  them,  and  they  agreed  to 

""return  to  their  duty.  A  short  while  afterwards,  suspecting  the 
Admiralty  of  a  design  to  break  the  promise  given  to  them,  they 
again  broke  out  into  mutiny  ;  but  subsequently  abandoned  their 
hostile  attitude  on  discovering  that  the  Admiralty  had  no  intention 
of  dealing  unfairly  with  them. 

10.  Mutiny  at  the  Nore.  1797. — A  more  serious  mutiny  broke 
out  in  the  fleet  stationed  at  the  Nore  to  guard  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames,  where  the  sailors  asked  not  merely  to  have  actual 
grievances  redressed,  but  to  vote  on  the  movements  of  their  own 
ships  even  in  the  presence  of  an  enemy,  and  blockaded  the  mouth 
of  the  Thames  to  enforce  their  demands.  The  mutiny  spread  to 
Duncan's  ships  off  the  Texel,  the  greater  number  of  which  sailed 
to  join  the  fleet  at  the  Nore.  At  one  time  Duncan  was  left  to 
blockade  the  Dutch  with  only  one  ship  besides  his  own.  With  this 
one  ship  he  kept  the  Dutch  in  port,  by  constantly  running  up  flags 
to  make  them  think  that  he  was  signalling  to  the  rest  of  his  fleet, 
which  they  imagined  to  be  just  out  of  sight.  In  the  meanwhile,  the 
Government  at  home  got  the  better  of  the  mutineers.  Parker,  the 
chief  leader  of  the  revolt,  was  hanged,  with  seventeen  others, 
and  the  crews  submitted  to  their  officers  and  did  good  service 
afterwards. 

1 1.  Pitt's  second  Negotiation  with  the  Directory.     1797. — Soon 


1 797-1 798  THE  PEACE    OF  CAMPO-FORMIO  837 

after  the  submission  of  the  fleet  at  the  Nore,  Pitt  made  one  more 
effort  to  obtain  peace.  Negotiations  were  held  at  Lille,  but  they 
broke  down  as  completely  as  the  negotiations  in  the  preceding 
year.  Austria  had  already  signed  preliminaries  of  peace  with 
France  at  Leoben,  and  as  Austria  then  engaged  to  abandon  its 
possessions  in  the  Netherlands,  Pitt  agreed  to  leave  them  under 
French  dominion.  He  was  also  prepared  to  surrender  some  West 
Indian  islands  which  British  fleets  had  conquered  from  France,  but 
he  would  not  give  up  Trinidad,  which  they  had  taken  from  Spain, 
or  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  they  had  taken  from  the  Dutch. 
On  his  refusal  the  negotiations  were  broken  off  by  the  Directory. 
England  had  the  mastery  by  sea,  and  France  by  land.  On 
October  1 1  Duncan  defeated  the  Dutch  fleet  off  Camperdown,  on 
the  coast  of  Holland,  thus  putting  an  end  to  the  projected  invasion 
of  Ireland  (see  p.  835)  ;  and  on  October  18  Bonaparte  signed  peace 
with  Austria  at  Campo-Formio.  The  Austrian  Netherlands  were 
abandoned  to  France,  whilst  the  Austrian  territories  in  North 
Italy  were  made  part  of  a  republic  called  the  Cisalpine  Republic, 
and  practically  dependent  on  France.  To  compensate  Austria— 
as  the  phrase  went— the  old  Venetian  Republic  was  suppressed,  and 
the  greater  part  of  its  territory  given  over  to  Austria,  whilst  the 
remainder  went  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  In  the  partition  of 
Poland,  the  old  governments  had  set  the  example  of  despoiling  the 
weak,  and  Bonaparte  did  but  carry  out  their  principles. 

12.  Bonaparte's  Expedition  to  Egypt.  1798. — When  Bonaparte 
returned  to  France  the  Directory  urged  him  to  conquer  England, 
but  he  preferred  to  go  to  Egypt.  His  vast  abilities  seldom  failed 
him  when  he  was  called  on  to  do  what  was  possible  to  be  done,  but 
there  was  in  him  a  romantic  vein  which  constantly  beguiled  him 
into  attempting  impossible  achievements.  He  hoped  by  the  con- 
quest of  Egypt  to  found  an  empire  in  the  East,  from  which 
he  could  hold  out  a  hand  to  the  native  rulers  of  India  who  were 
struggling  against  British  authority.  Foremost  amongst  these 
rulers  was  Tippoo,  the  son  of  Hyder  Ali  (see  p.  805),  who  had 
inherited  his  father's  throne  without  his  father's  military  abilities. 
Tippoo  had  in  1792  been  defeated  by  Cornwallis  and  stripped 
of  half  his  territory,  but  he  was  now  burning  to  revenge  the 
disaster,  and  hoped  that  Bonaparte  would  assist  him  to  do  so.  On 
May  19  Bonaparte  with  a  large  fleet  and  army  sailed  from  Toulon, 
seizing  Malta  on  his  way  from  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  On  his 
arrival  in  Egypt  he  marched  against  the  Mamelukes— a  splendid 
body  of  cavalry,  the  Beys  or  chiefs  of  which  ruled  the  country  under 


838  THE  IRISH  UNION  &-  PEACE  OF  AMIENS     1798-99 

the  nominal  supremacy  of  the  Sultan — defeated  them  at  the  Battle 
of  the  Pyramids,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  land. 

13.  The  Battle  of  the  Nile.  1798. -On  August  i,  Nelson— now 
an  admiral — found  the  French  fleet  which  had  conveyed  Bonaparte 
anchored  in  Aboukir  Bay.  Instead  of  following  the  old  ftishion 
of  fighting  in  which  the  hostile  fleets  engaged  one  another  in 
parallel  lines;  he  improved  upon  the  example  of  breaking  the 
line  set  by  Rodney  in  1782.  Sending  half  his  fleet  through  the 
middle  of  the  enemy's  line,  he  made  it  take  up  a  position  between 
half  of  the  French  ships  and  the  shore,  whilst  the  other  half  of  his 
own  ships  placed  themselves  outside  the  same  part  of  the  enemy's 
line.  He  thus  crushed  part  of  the  enemy's  fleet  by  placing  it 
between  two  fires  before  the  other  part  had  time  to  weigh  anchor 
and  to  come  up.  The  battle  raged  far  into  the  night.  Nelson 
himself  was  wounded,  and  carried  below.  A  surgeon  ran  up  to 
attend  on  him.  "  No,"  he  said,  "  I  will  take  my  turn  with  my  brave 
fellows."  Before  long  he  heard  a  cry  that  the  French  Admiral's 
ship  was  on  fire.  Hurrying  on  deck,  he  gave  orders  to  send  boats 
to  help  the  French  who  threw  themselves  into  the  sea  to  escape 
the  flames.  The  Battle  of  the  Nile  ended  in  a  complete  British 
victory,  which,  by  cutting  off  Bonaparte's  army  from  France,  threw 
insuperable  difiiculties  in  the  way  of  his  scheme  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  French  empire  in  the  East. 

14.  Bonaparte  in  Syria.  1799. — Bonaparte,  however,  refused  to 
abandon  the  hopes  which  he  had  formed.  On  January  26  he  wrote 
to  Tippoo  announcing  his  preparations  to  relieve  him.  In  the 
spring  of  1799,  Lord  Mornington,  the  Governor- General  of  India, 
sent  an  army  under  Harris  against  Tippoo,  and  on  May  4  Tippoo's 
capital,  Seringapatam,  was  stormed  and  himself  slain.  Bonaparte 
was  too  far  off  to  attempt  a  rescue.  In  February,  learning  that 
a  Turkish  army  was  coming  against  him  through  Syria,  he  set  out 
to  meet  it.  For  a  while  he  was  victorious,  but  he  was  baffled 
by  the  desperate  resistance  of  the  Turkish  garrison  of  Acre,  which 
had  been  encouraged  irr  its  defence  by  an  English  Commodore, 
Sir  Sidney  Smith.  On  April  11,  Bonaparte  abandoned  the  siege 
of  Acre  and  withdrew  to  Egypt.  There  he  held  his  own,  but  Sir 
Sidney  Smith  sent  him  a  file  of  newspapers  to  inform  him  of  the 
events  which  had  been  passing  in  Europe  during  his  absence.  So 
startling  was  the  news,  that  on  August  22  Bonaparte  sailed  for 
France,  leaving  his  army  in  Egypt  to  its  fate. 

15.  Foundation  of  the  Consulate.  1799 — 1800. — ^ What  Bonaparte 
learned  from  the  newspapers  was  that  a  new  coalition  had  been 
formed  against  France,  this  time  between  England,  Austria  and 


799 


BEGINNING   OF   THE   CONSULATE 


839 


Russia.  The  French  armies  in  Germany  had  been  driven  across 
the  Rhine,  and  those  in  Italy  had  been  beaten  in  two  great  battles, 
one  on  the  Trebbia  and  the  other  at  Novi,  and  had  been  driven 
across  the  Alps.  When  Bonaparte  landed  in  France,  he  was 
prepared  to  turn  the  disasters  of  his  country  to  his  own  advantage. 
Though  a  French  General,  Massena,  had  defeated  the  Austrians 


Head-dress  of  a  lady  (Mrs.  Abington),  about  1778  :  from  the  European  Magazine. 

at  Zurich  in  September,  Bonaparte  represented  the  policy  of  the 
Directory  in  the  worst  colours,  accused  them  of  ruining  France, 
and  in  November  made  himself  master  of  the  country  by  military 
violence,  on  the  plea  that  it  was  necessary  to  revise  the  Consti- 
tution. In  1800  he  was  named  First  Consul,  under  which  title  he 
exercised  absolute  authority,  though  he  was  still  nominally  only  the 
first  magistrate  of  the  Republic. 


840       THE  IRISH  UNION  ^  PEACE  OF  AMIENS     1 798-1 801 

16.  An  Overture  for  Peace.  1799.— One  of  Bonaparte's  first  acts 
after  thrusting  the  Directory  from  power  was  to  offer  peace  to 
England,  but  his  offer  was  repelled  with  scorn.  Lord  Grenville, 
the  Foreign  Secretary,  in  his  reply,  even  went  so  far  as  to  suggest 
that  the  best  security  which  the  French  could  give  for  peace  was 
the  recalling  of  the  Bourbons  to  the  throne.  Yet,  whatever  the 
Government  might  say,  the  country  longed  for  peace.  In  1798  Pitt 
had  added  to  its  burdens  an  income-tax  of  10  per  cent,  and  if  the 
war  was  to  go  on  till  the  Bourbons  were  recalled,  the  prospect 
before  the  nation  was  indeed  dreary. 

17.  The  Campaign  of  Marengo  and  the  Peace  of  Lun^ville. 
1800— 1801.— At  the  end  of  1799  Pitt  cherished  the  hope  that  the 
recent  successes  of  the  coalition  against  France  would  be  continued. 
In  1800  this  hope  was  dashed  to  the  ground.  The  Coalition  itself 
broke  up.  The  Tzar  Paul,  who  was  half  mad,  was  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  of  Bonaparte,  and  when  he  learnt  that  Bonaparte  was  in 
power  withdrew  from  his  alliance  with  Austria.  Bonaparte  crossed 
the  Alps,  crushed  an  Austrian  army  at  Marengo  in  Piedmont,  and 
later  in  the  same  year  another  French  General,  Moreau,  crushed 
another  Austrian  army  at  Hohenlinden  in  Bavaria.  On  February  9, 
1801,  a  peace  in  which  the  Rhine  was  formally  acknowledged  to 
be  the  boundary  of  France  was  signed  at  Luneville.  The  cry  for 
peace  increased  in  England.  The  harvest  of  1800  was  a  bad  one, 
and  in  that  year  and  in  the  following  spring  the  price  of  corn  rose 
till  it  reached  156^.  a  quarter.  If  peace  was  to  be  had,  Pitt  was 
hardly  the  man  to  negotiate  it,  as  he  was  regarded  in  France  as 
the  most  violent  enemy  of  that  country,  where  every  evil  from 
which  it  suffered  was  popularly  attributed  to  '  the  gold  of  Pitt.' 
It  happened,  however,  that  before  any  fresh  negotiation  was  opened, 
Pitt  resigned  office  from  causes  entirely  disconnected  with  the  affairs 
of  the  Continent. 

18.  The  Irish  Rebellion.  1798.— Hoche's  failure  in  1797  (see 
p.  834)  had  not  been  followed  by  any  abatement  of  violence  in  Ire- 
land. The  so-called  Protestant  militia  and  yeomanry,  under  pre- 
tence of  repressing  insurrection  and  outrage,  themselves  committed 
outrages  with  impunity,  and  the  regular  soldiers  even  learnt  to 
follow  their  evil  example.  In  order  to  procure  the  delivery  of 
concealed  arms,  suspected  persons  were  flogged  and  their  houses 
burnt  to  the  ground.  Amongst  those  who  were  concerned  in  these 
savage  actions,  Fitzgerald,  the  Sheriff  of  Tipperary — 'Flogging 
Fitzgerald,'  as  he  was  usually  called— obtained  an  unenviable  noto- 
riety.     He  indeed  suppressed  by  his  energy  the  organisation  of 


1798-1799         LORD    CORNWALLIS  IN  IRELAND  841 

those  who  were  preparing  to  welcome  a  fresh  invasion  by  the  French, 
but  his  energy  often  showed  itself  in  the  form  of  brutal  outrage.  On 
one  occasion,  for  instance,  he  almost  flogged  to  death  a  teacher  of 
languages  because  he  found  in  his  possession  a  note  in  the  French 
language  which  he  was  himself  unable  to  read,  but  which  he  took  as 
evidence  of  complicity  with  the  French  Government.  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby,  the  commander-in-chief  in  Ireland,  was  in  1798  driven 
by  the  clamour  of  the  officials  to  resign  his  office  because  he  re- 
monstrated against  this  rule  of  license  as  injurious  to  the  discipline 
of  the  army.  The  Catholics  subject  to  outrage  joined  the  society 
of  United  Irishmen  in  thousands,  and  the  United  Irishmen  at  once 
made  preparations  for  an  insurrection.  The  secret  was  betrayed  to 
the  Government  and  the  leaders  arrested.  Nevertheless  on  May  21 
bands  of  peasants  armed  with  pikes  rose  in  insurrection,  principally 
in  Wexford,  and  in  many  places  committed  horrible  atrocities.  These 
atrocities,  being  usually  committed  against  Protestants,  alienated 
the  Presbyterians  of  the  North,  who  from  that  time  began  to  take 
part  with  the  Government.  At  one  time  it  was  feared  that  even 
Dublin  would  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  insurgents,  but  they  were 
defeated  at  Vinegar  Hill  near  Wexford  by  the  regular  troops 
under  General  Lake.  In  August,  a  French  force  of  1 100  landed 
in  Killala  Bay.  The  first  troops  sent  against  them  met  them  at 
Castlebar,  but  ran  away  so  fast  that  the  affair  is  known  as  the  race 
of  Castlebar.  The  French  were,  however,  too  few  to  make  a  long 
resistance,  and  on  September  9  they  surrendered,  thus  bringing 
to  an  end  all  chance  of  successful  resistance  to  English  authority 
in  Ireland. 

19.  An  Irish  Reign  of  Terror.  1798— 1799. — Before  the  defeat 
of  the  French,  Lord  Cornwallis  arrived  as  Lord  Lieutenant  of 
Ireland.  He  was  a  just  man,  and  was  deeply  moved  by  the  violence 
of  those  who  styled  themselves  loyalists.  Magistrates  and  soldiers 
vied  with  one  another  in  acts  of  cruelty.  The  practice  of  torturing 
prisoners  to  extort  confessions  was  common,  and  Lord  Corn- 
wallis, who  did  his  best  to  stop  these  atrocious  proceedings,  was 
exasperated  by  the  light  way  in  which  they  were  regarded  in  his 
own  presence.  "  The  conversation  of  the  principal  persons  of  the 
country,"  he  wrote,  "  all  tends  to  encourage  this  system  of  blood, 
and  the  conversation,  even  at  my  table,  where  you  may  suppose  I 
do  all  I  can  to  prevent  it,  always  turns  on  hanging,  shooting, 
burning,  &c.,  and  if  a  priest  has  been  put  to  death,  the  greatest  joy 
is  expressed  by  the  whole  company."  In  1799  the  Irish  Parliament 
passed  an  Act  of  indemnity  securing  against  punishment  all  persons 
in.  3  I 


842 


THE  IRISH  'UNION  &  PEACk  OF  AMIENS      1800-01 


who  had  used  illegal  violence  which  could  in  any  way  be  connected 
with  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion. 

20.  The  Irish  Union.  1800. — The  Irish  Parliament  could 
hardly  be  left  as  it  was.  In  1795  it  might  have  been  possible  to 
reform  it  ;  in  1799,  when  the  country  was  torn  asunder  by  bitter 
hatred,  when  Protestants  had  used  Parliamentary  forms  to  wreak 
vengeance  on  Catholics,  and  when  Catholics,  if  they  were  allowed 
to  form  the  majority  in  it,  would  use  them  to  wreak  vengeance  on 
Protestants,  it  was  no  longer  possible.  The  easy  way  of  putting  an 
end  to  the  difficulty  by  uniting  the  British  and  Irish  Parliaments 
more  and  more  commended  itself  to  Pitt.  The  majority  in  the 
Irish  Parliament  was  venal,  and  Pitt,  through  the  medium  of  a  young 

Irish  official.  Lord  Castlereagh,  secured 
a  majority  in  it,  not  indeed  by  paying 
money  directly  for  votes,  but  by  agreeing 
to  compensate  the  owners  of  boroughs  at 
the  rate  of  1 5,000/.  a  seat,'  and  by  granting 
peerages  and  lavishly  dispensing  patron- 
age as  a  reward  for  Parliamentary  support. 
Grattan  came  forth  from  the  retirement  in 
which  he  had  remained  during  the  late 
times  of  trouble,  and  denounced  the 
Union  ;  but  the  Act  of  Union  received 
the  assent  of  the  Parliament  at  Dublin  as 
well  as  of  the  Parliament  at  Westminster, 
and  after  January  i,  1801,  there  was  but 
one  Parliament  for  the  two  countries. 

21.  Pitt's  Resignation.  1801.— Pitt  no  doubt  had  the  most 
generous  intentions.-  He  imagined  that  the  United  Parliament  would 
judge  fairly  and  justly  between  the  two  hostile  Irish  parties,  and  he 
wished  it  to  win  over  the  sympathies  of  Irish  Catholics,  by  offering  a 
State  maintenance  to  their  priests,  by  improving  the  existing  system 
of  the  payment  of  tithes,  and,  above  all,  by  admitting  Catholics  to 
office  and  to  seats  in  Parliament.  Having  little  doubt  that  he 
would  be  able  to  accomplish  this,  he  had  allowed  it  to  be  under- 
stood in  Ireland  that  he  would  support  a  measure  of  Catholic 
emancipation.  He  soon,  however,  found  that  the  king  would  not 
hear  of  this  proposal,  and  behind  the  king  was  the  British  nation. 
On  this,  he  resigned  office,  and  indeed  he  could  hardly  do  less. 
Pitt,  however,  though  he  was  himself  out  of  office,  offered  his 

1  This  was,  however,  paid  whether  the  owner's  nominee  voted  for  the 
government  or  not. 


The  Union  Jack,  in  use 
since  1801. 


l8oi 


PITT  AND  ADDING  TON 


843 


assistance  in  the  formation  of  a  ministry  hostile  to  the  CathoHc 
claims,  over  which  his  influence  might  be  felt,  and  he  probably 
expected  at  the  time  that  this  arrangement  would  be  of  long  con- 
tinuance. 

22.  The  Addin^on  Ministry.  i8oi.— At  the  head  of  the  new 
ministry  was  Addington,  who  had  been  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  a  well-meaning,  inefficient  man,  strongly  hostile  to 
Catholic  emancipation,  and  warmly  attached  to  Pitt.  Before 
Addington  could  settle  himself  in  office,  the  king's  mind,  shaken 


William  Pitt  :  from  the  bust  by  NoUekens  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

by  the  excitement  of  recent  events,  once  more  gave  way.  This 
time,  however,  the  attack  was  of  short  duration,  and,  as  soon  as 
recovery  was  complete,  Pitt  assured  him  that  he  would  never 
again  propose  Catholic  emancipation  during  his  reign.  There  are 
reasons  for  supposing  that  Pitt  would  at  this  time  willingly  have 
returned  to  office,  but  the  king  had  already  engaged  himself  to  the 
new  Ministers,  and  Addington  had  to  try  his  hand  at  governing 
the  country. 

23.  Malta  and  Egypt.     1800.— As  far  as  the  war  was  concerned 

3  I  a 


844 


THE  IRISH  UNION  b'  PEACE  OE  AMIENS    i8oo-or 


the  arrangements  made  by  Pitt  before  his  resignation  were  crowned 
with  success.  After  a  long  siege,  Malta  surrendered  in  1800,  and 
on  March  8,  1801,  an  expedition  under  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby 
landed  in  Egypt  to  drive  out  the  French  army  which  had  been  left 

there  by  Bonaparte.  Abercromby 
was  killed,  but  his  troops,  after  a 
series  of  successful  operations, 
finally  reduced  Alexandria  to  sur- 
render on  August  30,  when  it  was 
agreed  that  the  whole  of  the 
French  army  should  evacuate 
Egypt.  The  Egyptian  campaign 
was  memorable,  as  showing,  for 
the  first  time  since  the  French 
Revolution,  that  British  soldiers 
were  still  capable  of  defeating  the 
French. 

24.  The  Northern  Confederacy 
and  the  Battle  of  Copenhagen. 
1801. — In  the  North  the  British  Government  was  no  less  success- 
ful. A  Northern  Confederacy  had  been  formed  between  Russia, 
Sweden  and  Denmark  which,  though  it  did  not  declare  itself 
directly  hostile  to  England,  was  intended  to  resist,  as  in  the  days  of 


Royal  Arms  as  borne  from  17 14  to  1801. 


Royal  arms  as  borne  from  1801  to  1816 : 
the  Hanoverian  scutcheon  sur- 
mounted by  an  electoral  bonnet. 


Royal  arms  from  i8i6  to  1837:  the 
Hanoverian  scutcheon  surmounted 
by  a  royal  crown. 


the  American  War,  the  pretensions  of  British  ships  to  search 
neutral  vessels  in  order  to  take  out  of  them  French  goods  (see  p.  792). 
The   Government  sent  a  fleet  to  break  up  the  confederacy,  but 


i8oi 


NELSON  IN  THE  BALTIC 


845 


appointed  Nelson  only  second  in  command  under  Sir  Hyde  Parker, 
who  was  of  no  note  as  a  sailor.  Parker  sent  Nelson  to  attack 
Copenhagen.  On  April  2,  Nelson  opened  fire  upon  the  heavy 
batteries  which  defended  the  city.  After  the  battle  had  raged  for 
some  time,  Parker,  believing  Nelson  to  be  in  danger  of  defeat, 
hoisted  a  signal  ordering  him  to  draw  off.  Nelson,  who  some 
years  before  had  lost  the  sight  of  an  eye  in  action,  put  his  telescope 
to  his  blind  eye,  and,  declaring  that  he  could  not  see  the  signal 
of  recall,  kept  his  own  signal  for  close  action  flying.  In  the  end 
the  Danish  batteries  were  silenced.    Nelson  sent  ashore  the  wounded 


Greathead's  lifeboat,  1803  :  from  the  European  Magazine. 


Danes,  and  when  he  landed  was  received  with  shouts  by  the  people 
in  appreciation  of  his  kindness  to  the  sufferers.  Nelson  assured  the 
Crown  Prince,  who  acted  as  Regent  in  his  father's  place,  that  he 
wished  to  treat  the  Danes  as  the  brothers  of  the  English,  and  an 
armistice  was  concluded.  Not  long  afterwards,  the  war  in  the 
North  came  to  an  end  through  the  murder  of  the  Tzar  Paul.  His 
son  and  successor,  Alexander  I.,  made  on  June  17  a  treaty  with 
England,  in  which  he  and  his  allies  abandoned  their  claim  that 
the  neutral  flag  should  protect  enemies'  goods,  thus  admitting  the 
right  of  search  claimed  by  the  British  Government. 


846 


THE  IRISH  UNION  ^  PEACE  OF  AMIENS     1 801 -02 


25.  The  Treaty  of  Amiens.  1802. — Negotiations  with  France 
were  in  the  meanwhile  pushed  rapidly  forward.  Preliminaries  of 
peace  were  signed  in  London  on  October  i,  iBoi,  and  a  definitive 
treaty  at  Amiens  on  March  28,  1802.  Great  Britain  abandoned  all 
her  conquests  beyond  the  seas  except  Ceylon  and  Trinidad,  and 
agreed  to  restore  Malta  to  the  Knights,  if  its  possession  by  them 
were  guaranteed  by  the  great  powers.  '  It  was  a  peace  which,'  as 
Sheridan,  the  wit  of  the  Opposition,  declared,  '  everybody  would 
be  glad  of,  but  which  nobody  would  be  proud  of.'  The  broad  fact  of 
the  situation  was  that  France  was  strong  enough  to  retain  her 
conquests  in  Europe  ;  and  that  the  enthusiasm  which  would 
alone  enable  those  who  had  suffered  from  her  aggression  to  wres.t 


The  old  East  India  House  in  1803. 

her  gains  from  her  was  entirely  lacking  both  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent.  Pitt  may  have  been  right  in  holding  that  England 
ought  not  to  allow  France  to  possess  herself  of  the  Netherlands  ; 
but  he  had  totally  failed  in  preventing  her  from  doing  it,  and  in 
1802  there  did  not  appear  to  be  the  remotest  chance  that  he  or  any 
other  minister  would  succeed  better  in  the  future.  In  Parliament 
and  out  of  Parliament  the  peace  was  welcomed  with  joy.  George 
III.,  when  the  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  in  1801,  had  taken 
the  opportunity  to  abandon  the  empty  title  of  king  of  France,  which 
had  been  borne  by  his  predecessors  since  the  time  of  Edward  III., 
and  to  omit  the  French  lilies  from  the  royal  arms  (see  p.  844). 

26.  Rupture  of  the  Treaty  of  Amiens.     i8o3.~The  Treaty  of 
Amiens  had  scarcely  been  signed  before  the  English  Ministers  began 


i8o3 


WESTMINSTER   ABBEY 


847 


848  THE  IRISH  UNION  ^  PEACE  OF  AMIENS     1803  04 

to  fear  that  Bonaparte  was  about  to  employ  the  time  of  peace 
merely  to  strengthen  himself  for  further  attacks  upon  their  own 
and  other  countries.  He  annexed  Piedmont  and  occupied 
Switzerland.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  these  things  would  have 
been  passed  over  in  England,  if  the  Ministry  had  not  conceived 
suspicions  that  he  intended  to  re-occupy  Egypt.  They  therefore 
refused  to  give  up  Malta  to  the  Knights  as  they  were  bound  by  the 
treaty  to  do,  first  on  the  ground  that  no  guarantee  of  its  indepen- 
dence could  be  obtained  from  the  great  Powers  (see  p.  846),  and 
then  on  the  ground  that,  whatever  they  might  be  bound  to  by 
treaty,  they  needed  Malta  as  a  security  against  the  danger  of  a 
French  conquest  of  Egypt.  Bonaparte  claimed  the  execution  of 
the  treaty,  and  on  one  occasion  used  most  violent  language  to  Lord 
Whitworth,  the  Enghsh  ambassador.  He  was  himself  irritated,  not 
merely  on  the  subject  of  Malta,  but  because  the  English  Ministers 
refused  to  suppress  without  trial  the  virulent  attacks  on  himself  which 
were  published  by  the  French  refugees  in  England.  One  of  these, 
named  Peltier,  was  indeed  convicted  of  libel  by  a  jury,  but  he 
escaped  punishment  because  France  and  England  were  again  at 
war  before  judgment  was  pronounced  against  him.  As  no  com- 
promise about  Malta  acceptable  to  both  sides  could  be  found,  war 
was  recommenced  before  the  end  of  May  1803. 

27.  The  last  Months  of  the  Addington  Ministry.  1803— 1804. 
On  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  Bonaparte  gave  reasonable  offence 
to  the  British  nation  by  throwing  into  prison  about  10,000  British 
travellers,  though  it  had  always  been  the  custom  to  give  time 
to  such  persons  to  leave  the  country  after  a  declaration  of  war.  As 
he  had  no  other  war  on  his  hands  than  that  with  Great  Britain,  he 
seized  Hanover  and  assembled  a  large  army  at  Boulogne  to  invade 
England.  At  once  a  volunteer  army  stepped  forward  to  aid  the 
regular  army  in  the  defence  of  the  country.  From  one  end  of  the 
country  to  the  other  some  300,000  volunteers  of  all  classes  were 
busily  drilling.  Public  opinion  soon  demanded  a  stronger  ministry 
than  the  existing  one.  On  May  10,  1804,  Addington  resigned. 
General  opinion  called  for  Pitt  as  Prime  Minister  at  the  head  of 
a  ministry  taken  from  both  parties,  so  that  all  disposable  talent 
might  be  employed  in  the  defence  of  the  nation.  The  King 
insisted  that  Pitt  should  promise  never  to  support  Catholic  Emanci- 
pation, and  should  exclude  Fox  from  the  new  ministry.  Fox  at  once 
consented  to  be  passed  over,  but  Lord  Grenville  refused  to  join  if 
Fox  was  excluded.  "  I  will  teach  that  proud  man,"  said  Pitt,  "  that 
I  can  do  without  him,"  and  on  May  18  Pitt  again  became  Prime 
Minister,  though  with  but  a  poor  staff*  of  ministers  to  support  him. 


849 


CHAPTER   LIII 

THE  ASCENDSNCY  OF   NAPOLEON.      1804— 1807 

LEADING   DATES 
Reign  of  George  III.,  1760— 1820 


Pitt's  Second  Prime  Ministership  .        .  1 

Napoleon  declared  Emperor  of  the  French    ) 

Battle  of  Trafalgar 

Battle  of  Austerlitz 

Death  of  Pitt 

Death  of  Fox 

Battle  of  Jena 

The  Berlin  Decree 

Treaty  of  Tilsit   . 

Orders  in  Council 

The  Milan  Decree 


May  18,  1804 

Oct.  21,  1805 
Dec.  2,  1805 
Jan,  23,  180O 
Sept.  J3,  1806 
Oct.  14,  1806 
Nov.  21,  i8c6 
July  7,  1807 
Nov.  II,  1807 
Dec.  17,  1807 


I.  The  Napoleonic  Empire.  1804. — There  was  scarcely  an 
Englishman  living  in  1804  ^^^^o  did  not  regard  Napoleon  as  a  wicked 
and  unprincipled  villain  whom  it  was  the  duty  of  every  honest  man 
to  resist  to  the  death.  This  conception  of  his  character  was  certainly 
not  without  foundation.  He  had  no  notion  of  allowing  moral  scruples 
to  interfere  with  his  designs,  and  whenever  his  personal'  interests 
were  concerned  he  knew  no  rule  except  that  of  his  own  will. 
Having  nearly  been  the  victim  of  an  attempt  at  assassination  by  a 
party  of  Royalists,  he  avenged  himself  by  kidnapping  the  Duke  of 
Enghien  on  the  neutral  territory  of  Baden  and  having  him  shot, 
simply  because  he  was  a  kinsman  of  the  Bourbon  Princes,  the 
brothers  of  the  late  King.  In  his  dealings  with  foreign  states  he  took 
whatever  seemed  good  to  him  to  take,  and  his  seizure  of  Piedmont 
was  but  the  forerunner  of  other  annexations.  Yet,  regardless  of 
morality  as  he  was.  Napoleon  was  not  more  regardless  of  it  than 
the  statesmen  who  had  partitioned  Poland,  and  he  had  at  least  an 
intellectual  preference  for  good  government.  He  gave  to  France 
an  excellent  administration,  and  also  gave  his  sanction  to  the  code 
of  law  drawn  up  by  the  jurists  of  the  Republic,  which  was  now 
to  be  known  as  the  Code  Napoleon.  He  also  took  care  that  there 
should  be  good  justice  in  his  courts  between  man  and  man. 
Hence,  exasperating  as  his  annexations  were  to  the  great  sove- 
reigns of  Europe,  they  were  not  popular  grievances.  A  country 
annexed  to  France,  or  even  merely  brought,  as  most  of  the  German 


850 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOLEON 


[804 


states  now  were,  under  the  influence  of  France,  found  its  gain  in 
being  better  governed.      On  May  18  Napoleon  was  declared  here- 


ditary Emperor  of  the  French.     His  power  was  neither  more  nor 
less  absolute  than  it  had  been  before. 


I 804-1805 


THE  ARMY  AT  BOULOGNE 


851 


2.  A  Threatened  Invasion.  1804— 1805.— Neither  the  French 
Revolution  nor  the  French  Empire  was  to  be  resisted  by  govern- 
ments acting  \^nthout  a  popular  force  behind  them  ;  and  in  1804  it 
was  only  in  England  that  the  government  had  a  popular  force 
behind  it,  and  could  therefore  oppose  to  Napoleon  a  national 
resistance.  Eveiy  day  that  saw  a  French  army  encamped  at 
Boulogne  strengthened  that  resistance.  Napoleon  was,  indeed,  so 
certain  of  success  that  he  ordered  the  preparation  of  a  medal 
falsely  stating  itself  to  have  been  struck  in  London,  as  if  the 
conquest  of  England  had  been  already  effected.  Strong  as  Pitt 
became  in  the  country,  he  was  weak  in  Parliament.  Before  the 
end  of  1804  he  was  reconciled  to  Addington,  who  entered  the 
ministry  as  Viscount  Sidmouth.  On  April  6  a  vote  was  carried  which 
led  to  the  impeachment,  on  a  charge  of  peculation,  of  his  old  friend 


Napoleon's  medal  struck  to  commemorate  the  Invasion  of  England  :  from  a  cast  in  the 
British  Museum. 

Henry  Dundas,  now  Lord  Melville  and  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 
Ultimately  Melville  was  acquitted,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  think 
that  he  was  guilty  of  more  than  neglect  of  the  forms  needed  for 
guarding  against  embezzlement ;  but  Melville's  necessary  resignation 
was  a  sad  blow  to  Pitt. 

3.  The  Trafalgar  Campaign.  1805.— Napoleon's  plan  for  the 
invasion  of  England  was  most  skilful.  He  was  aware  that  boats 
laden  with  troops  could  not  cross  the  Channel  unless  their  passage 
could  be  guarded  against  British  ships  of  war,  but  as  the  king 
of  Spain  was  now  on  his  side  against  England,  he  had  three  fleets 
at  his  disposal,  two  French  ones  at  Toulon  and  Brest,  and  a 
Spanish  one  at  Cadiz.  He  thought  that,  though  not  one  of  these 
was  separately  a  match  for  a  British  fleet,  yet  that  the  three 
combined  would  at  least  be  strong  enough  to  hold  the  Channel 


852 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOLEON 


1804 


i8o5  THE  DEATH  OF  NELSON  853 

long  enough  to  enable  him  to  get  his. army  across.  Consequently, 
the  Toulon  fleet,  escaping  by  his  orders  from  that  port,  made 
its  way  to  Cadiz,  and  picking  up  the  Spanish  fleet  there,  sailed 
along  with  it  to  the  West  Indies.  As  Napoleon  expected.  Nelson, 
who  commanded  the  British  Mediterranean  fleet,  sailed  to  the 
West  Indies  in  pursuit  of  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets.  Whilst 
Nelson  was  searching  for  them,  they,  in  accordance  with  Napoleon's 


Lord  Nelson  :  from  the  picture  by  Abbott  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

instructions,  were  already  on  their  way  back  to  Europe,  where 
they  were  to  drive  off  the  British  squadron  blockading  Brest, 
and  then,  combining  with  the  French  fleet  which  had  been  shut  up 
there,  to  make  their  way  up  the  Channel  and  hold  the  Straits  of 
Dover  in  irresistible  force  in  Nelson's  absence.  Part  of  Napo- 
leon's expectation  was  fulfilled.  Nelson  indeed  sailed  to  the  West 
Indies  with  thirteen  ships  after  the  enemy's  fleet,  which  numbered 


854  THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOLEON  1805 

thirty.  Not  finding  them  there,  he  sailed  back  in  pursuit.  They, 
however,  reached  the  Bay  of  Biscay  before  him,  and  were  there 
attacked  by  Sir  Robert  Calder,  who  happened  to  meet  them  with 
fifteep  British  ships.  Two  Spanish  ships  were  taken,  and  the  rest 
of  the  fleet  was  so  terrified  that  it  betook  itself  to  Cadiz. 

4.  The  Battle  of  Trafalgar.  1805. — England  was  saved  from 
invasion,  but  it  was  Napoleon's  pride  which  completed  her  triumph. 
Though  the  French  sailors  had  been  too  long  blockaded  in  various 
ports  to  be  efficient  seamen,  he  insisted  on  his  admiral's  putting 
again  to  sea.  With  a  heavy  heart  the  admiral  obeyed  orders,  and 
on  October  21  Nelson  fell  in  with  him  off  Cape  Trafalgar.  Nelson 
gave  the  signal  of  "  England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty."  In 
the  battle  which  followed,  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  were  almost 
entirely  destroyed,  but  Nelson  fell  mortally  wounded  by  a  shot  from 
a  French  ship.  Never  again  during  the  war  did  a  French  or  Spanish 
fleet  venture  to  put  out  from  harbour,  or  had  a  British  navy  to 
contend  for  the  mastery  over  the  sea.  Yet,  so  deeply  was  Nelson 
honoured  in  England,  that  when  the  news  of  the  triumph  arrived, 
it  was  doubtful  whether  joy  for  the  victory  or  sorrow  for  the  loss  was 
the  greater. 

5.  The  Campaign  of  Austerlitz.  1805. — In  1805  there  was  strife 
on  land  as  well  as  at  sea.  In  April  the  foundations  of  a  third  coali- 
tion against  France  were  laid  by  an  alliance  between  England  and 
Russia.  Napoleon  defied  it  by  annexing  Genoa  to  France,  and  by 
converting  the  old  Cisalpine  Republic,  which  had  been  named  the 
Italian  Republic  in  1802,  into  a  kingdom  of  Italy  of  which  he  was 
himself  the  king.  Austria  joined  the  coalition,  and  in  August 
Napoleon,  knowing  that  by  Calder's  victory  his  scheme  for  the  inva- 
sion of  England  had  failed,  marched  his  army  off  from  Boulogne  to 
attack  Austria  and  Russia.  His  enemies  had  no  time  to  combine 
against  him.  An  advanced  force  of  Austrians  about  40,000  strong 
was  at  Ulm  on  the  Upper  Danube.  The  main  Austrian  army  was 
still  around  Vienna,  whilst  the  Russian  army  was  slowly  advancing 
to  its  aid.  On  October  14  Napoleon  compelled  the  Austrians  at 
Ulm  to  capitulate.  On  November  1 1  he  entered  Vienna,  the  Aus- 
trian army  having  retreated  to  join  the  Russian.  On  December  2 
he  signally  defeated  the  two  armies  at  Austerlitz.  The  Russians 
fell  back  on  their  own  country.  On  December  6  the  Emperor 
Francis  signed  the  Treaty  of  Pressburg,  abandoning  Venetia  to  the 
new  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  Tyrol  to  Bavaria. 

6.  Pitt's  Death.     1806.— Pitt,  worn  out  with  work  and  anxiety, 


iSo6  DEATH  OF  PITT  855 

did  not  recover  the  blow.  "  How  I  leave  my  country  ! "  were  the  last 
words  spoken  by  him.  On  January  23,  1806,  he  died.  In  modern 
times  he  is  chiefly  respected  as  the  enlightened  financier  and  states- 
man of  the  years  of  peace.  His  resistance  to  France,  it  is  thought, 
was  weakly  planned,  and  his  management  of  the  war  disastrous. 
In  his  own  time  he  was  regarded  as  '  The  Pilot  that  weathered  the 
storm.'  If  he  failed  in  his  military  efforts  against  France  on  the 
Continent,  where  he  had  but  governments  to  oppose  to  a  nation,  he 
made  England  safe  by  the  impulse  which  he  gave  to  her  power  at 
sea.  "  England,"  he  once  said  in  replying  to  a  toast  at  the  Guild- 
hall, "  has  saved  herself  by  her  exertions,  and  will  save  Europe  by 
her  example."  Such  words  forms  Pitt's  best  epitaph.  He  showed 
what  could  be  done  by  a  nation  conscious  of  its  strength,  and 
resolute  not  to  bow  to  the  dictates  of  a  despotic  conqueror. 

7.  The  Ministry  of  All  the  Talents.  1806.— Pitt's  death  left  the 
king  no  choice  but  to  take  Fox  as  a  minister.  A  ministry  known 
as  the  Ministry  of  All  the  Talents  was  formed  out  of  various  parties. 
Lord  Grenville,  who  had  been  Foreign  Secretary  at  the  end  of  Pitt's 
first  ministry,  became  Prime  Minister,  bringing  with  him  an  air 
of  respectability  of  which  the  Whigs  were  in  want,  whilst  Fox 
was  Foreign  Secretary,  and  a  place  was  even  found  for  Sidmouth, 
the  leader  of  the  stiffest  Tories.  Fox  did  his  best  to  bring  the  war 
to  an  end  by  opening  a  negotiation  with  France,  taking  advantage 
of  the  confession  of  a  man,  in  all  probability  an  agent  of  Napoleon 
himself,  that  he  intended  to  murder  the  Emperor  of  the  French. 
Fox,  however,  soon  discovered  that  Napoleon  was  too  slippery  to  be 
bound  by  treaties.  At  one  time  the  French  Emperor  offered  to  re- 
store Hanover  to  the  King  of  England,  and  at  another  time  he  drew 
back  and  offered  it  to  Prussia.  Even  Fox  became  convinced  that  a 
continuance  of  the  war  was  unavoidable.  He  was  himself  suffering 
from  dropsy,  and  had  not  many  weeks  to  live  ;  but,  though  unable 
to  give  peace  to  his  country,  he  had  time  to  signalise  the  close  of 
his  career  by  moving  a  resolution  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade 
(see  p.  823),  as  far  as  British  ships  and  colonies  were  concerned.  Fox 
died  on  September  13  ;  and  though  the  slave  trade  was  not  abolished 
by  law  till  after  his  death,  he  lived  to  know  that  all  real  difficulties 
had  been  surmounted.  Whether,  if  he  had  held  office  for  a  longer 
term,  he  would  have  been  distinguished  amongst  practical  states- 
men, it  is  difficult  to  say.  It  is  true  that  he  was  not  an  originator 
of  new  schemes  of  policy  ;  but  a  minister  may  be  none  the  worse 
for  that,  if  he  has  the  tact  and  skill  to  secure  the  acceptance  of 
the  schemes  of  others.     Fox's  main  defect  was  his  want  of  power 


8s6  THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOLEON  1806 

to  forecast  the  temper  with  which  his  words  and  acts  would  be  re- 
ceived, and  he  thus  frequently,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  coalition  with 
Lord  North  (see  p.  800)  and  of  the  Regency  Bill  (see  p.  811),  made 
himself  unpopular,  much  to  his  own  surprise.  The  generous  warmth 
of  his  disposition,  and  his  hopeful  sympathy  with  all  good  and  great 
causes,  give  him  a  high  place  amongst  British  statesmen. 

8.  The  Overthrow  of  Prussia.  1806. — The  spring  and  summer 
of  1806  had  been  spent  by  Napoleon  in  remodelling  Germany.  He 
united  the  middle-sized  states  of  the  south  into  a  confederation  of 


Fox  :  from  his  bust  by  Nollekens  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

the  Rhine,  practically  under  his  own  authority,  to  support  France 
against  Austria  and  Prussia.  On  August  6  Francis  II.  abandoned 
for  ever  the  futile  title  of  Roman  Emperor  which  had  come  down  to 
him  from  the  Caesars,  and  was  thenceforward  known  by  the  new  title 
of  Emperor  of  Austria  which  he  had  given  himself  in  1804.  Napoleon 
placed  his  brother  Joseph  on  the  throne  of  Naples,  and  though  a 
British  force  landed  in  the  Neapolitan  dominions  and  defeated 
the  French  invaders  at  Maida,  it  could  not  save  the  mainland,  and 
the  English  Government  had  to  content  itself  with  keeping  Sicily 


i8o6-i8o7  OVERTHROW  OF  PRUSSIA  857 

for  the  Spanish  Bourbon,  Ferdinand  I.,  who  still  called  himself 
King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  Somewhat  later  Napoleon  made  another 
of  his  brothers — Louis — king  of  Holland.  Neither  in  Italy  nor  in 
the  smaller  states  of  Germany  was  there  any  feeling  of  offended 
nationality  goading  on  the  populations  to  resist  changes  which 
brought  with  them  more  active  government  and  better  adminis- 
tration. Prussia,  however,  still  maintained  her  independence,  and 
when,  after  offering  to  her  Hanover,  Napoleon,  in  the  course  of  his 
negotiation  with  Fox,  turned  round  and  offered  to  restore  it  to 
the  King  of  England,  the  long  patience  of  the  King  of  Prussia, 
Frederick  William  III.,  was  exhausted.  War  between  Prussia 
and  France  was  declared  ;  but  the  Prussian  State  and  army 
were  both  completely  inefficient,  and  on  October  14  two  Prus- 
sian armies  were  not  merely  beaten,  but  absolutely  destroyed 
as  military  organisations,  at  Jena  and  Auerstadt.  The  Prussian 
State  crumbled  away,  and  before  the  end  of  November  Napoleon 
was  in  military  possession  of  the  greater  part  of  Prussia. 

9.  The  End  of  the  Ministry  of  All  the  Talents.  1807.— Russia 
came  to  the  aid  of  the  now  diminished  Prussia.  On  February  8, 
1807,  a  drawn  battle  was  fought  at  Eylau.  The  Tzar  Alexander  I. 
anxiously  looked  to  England  for  aid,  thinking  that  if  an  English 
army  were  landed  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic,  Napoleon  would  be 
obliged  to  detach  part  of  his  forces  to  watch  it,  and  would  thereby 
be  weakened  in  his  struggle  with  Russia.  The  Ministry  of  All  the 
Talents,  however,  had  no  capacity  for  war.  They  frittered  away 
their  strength  by  sending  useless  expeditions  to  the  Dardanelles,  to 
Egypt,  and  to  Buenos  Ayres,  leaving  themselves  no  troops  for  the 
decisive  struggle  nearer  home.  On  March  24  they  were  expelled 
from  office  by  the  king,  because,  though  they  agreed  to  relinquish 
a  project  which  they  had  formed  for  allowing  Catholics  to  serve  as 
officers  in  the  army  and  navy,  they  refused  to  promise  that  they 
would  never  under  any  circumstances  propose  any  measure  of 
concession  to  the  Catholics.  On  March  25,  the  day  after  their 
resignation,  the  royal  assent  was  given  to  a  bill  for  the  abolition  of 
the  slave  trade.  The  new  Prime  Minister  was  the  inefficient  Duke 
of  Portland,  who  had  been  the  nominal  head  of  the  Coalition 
Ministry  in  1783  (see  p.  801).  The  ablest  members  of  the  new  Cabi- 
net were  Lord  Castlereagh,  who  had  managed  the  Irish  Parliament 
at  the  time  of  the  Union,  and  the  brilliant  George  Canning,  who  had 
been  one  of  the  staunchest  of  the  followers  of  Pitt.  The  remainder 
of  Portland's  colleagues  were  narrow  in  their  views,  and  all  were 
pledged  to  resist  Catholic  emancipation.  A  dissolution  of  Parlia- 
IXI.  3  K 


8s8  THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOLEON  1807 

ment  took  place  before  long,  and  it  was  found  that  the  constituencies 
supported  the  king  and  the  new  ministry.  The  reaction  against 
the  principles  of  the  French  revolutionists  was  still  so  strong  that 
it  was  difficult  to  obtain  a  hearing  even  for  the  most  necessary  plan 
of  reform. 

10.  The  Treaty  of  Tilsit.  1807. — Canning,  who  was  Foreign 
Secretary,  would  readily  have  sent  to  the  Baltic  the  forces  which  his 
predecessor  had  refused  to  -the  Tzar.  Before,  however,  they  could  be 
got  ready,  Napoleon  defeated  the  Russians  at  Friedland  on  June  14, 
and  on  the  25th  he  held  an  interview  with  the  Tzar  on  a  raft  on  the 
Niemen.  Alexander  was  vexed  at  the  delay  of  the  English,  and  the 
first  words  he  uttered  to  Napoleon  were,  "  I  hate  the  English  as 
much  as  you  do."  The  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  signed  between  France  and 
Russia  on  July  7,  was  the  result  of  the  conference.  By  a  secret 
understanding,  Russia  was  allowed  to  conquer  Finland  from  Sweden, 
and  as  much  of  the  Turkish  dominions  as  she  could  get,  whilst  all 
Europe  west  of  the  Russian  border  was  delivered  over  to  Napoleon. 
He  erected  a  new  kingdom  of  Westphalia  for  his  youngest  brother, 
Jerome,  and  gave  a  great  part  of  Poland,  under  the  name  of  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  whom  he  had 
recently  converted  into  a  king.  The  confederation  of  the  Rhine 
was  extended  to  include  all  the  German  states  except  Austria  and 
Prussia.  The  weight  of  Napoleon's  vengeance  fell  heavily  on 
Prussia.  Not  only  was  her  territory  much  reduced,  but  she  was 
forced  to  support  French  garrisons  in  her  fortresses,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  pay  enormous  sums  of  money  to  France,  and  to  limit  her 
army  to  42,000  men.  Hitherto  the  people  of  defeated  states  had 
been,  on  the  whole,  better  off  in  consequence  of  their  defeat.  The 
Prussians  were  far  worse  off,  and,  therefore,  the  treatment  of  Prussia 
by  Napoleon  for  the  first  time  brought  against  him  popular  ill-will. 

1 1.  The  Colonies.  1804 — 1807. — Whilst  Napoleon  was  establish- 
ing a  dominion  over  the  western  and  central  part  of  the  European 
Continent,  Great  Britain  nTa.de  use  of  her  dominion  of  the  sea  to 
enlarge  her  colonial  possessions.  No  one  at  that  time  thought 
much  of  the  establishment  in  1788  of  a  settlement  of  convicts  in 
Botany  Bay,  or  what  afterwards  came  to  be  known  as  New  South 
Wales.  The  two  points  at  which  British  ambition  aimed  were  the 
security  of  the  sea  route  to  India  and  the  extension  of  the  production 
of  sugar  in  the  West  Indies.  The  first  design  was  satisfied  in  1806, 
by  a  second  and  permanent  occupation  of  the  Dutch  territory  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  the  second,  in  1804,  by  the  taking  from 
the  Dutch  of  the  territory  on  the  mainland  of  South  America, 


i8o2-i8o6  WELLESLEY  IN  INDIA  859 

afterwards  known  as  British  Guiana,  and  by  the  capture  of  West 
India  Islands  which  had  hitherto  been  held  by  the  French  and 
Dutch. 

12.  The  Overthrow  of  the  Mahrattaa.  1802—1806. — Since  the 
destruction  of  Tippoo  Sahib  in  1799,  Lord  Mornington  (see  p. 
838),  recently  created  Marquis  Wellesley,  had  discovered  that 
Sindhia,  one  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs,  had  a  large  force  organised  by 
a  Frenchman,  Perron.  He  therefore  attempted  to  introduce  a  subsi- 
diary system,  compelling  native  rulers  to  pay  the  expenses  of  troops 
under  British  officers  which  could  be  used  against  them  if  they  were 
not  submissive.  In  1802,  the  Peishwah  having  been  driven  from 
Poonah  by  Holkar  (see  p.  802),  Wellesley  entered  into  a  compact 
to  restore  him  on  condition  of  his  agreeing  to  a  subsidiary  treaty. 
Two  other  great  Mahratta  chiefs,  Sindhia  and  the  Bhonsla,  who 
was  Rajah  of  Berar,  joined  Holkar  against  the  English,  and  in  1803 
Wellesley  sent  against  the  confederacy  his  brother  Arthur  Wellesley. 
On  September  23,  1803,  Arthur  Wellesley  at  the  head  of  4,500 
men  defeated  Sindhia's  30,000  at  Assaye,  whilst  Lake  defeated 
Perron's  force  on  August  29  at  Alighur,  and  after  various  successes 
crushed  Sindhia  himself  on  November  i,  in  a  hard-contested  battle 
at  Laswaree.  On  November  29  Wellesley  again  defeated  the 
united  forces  of  Sindhia  and  the  Bhonsla  at  Argaum.  On  this, 
both  chiefs  made  their  submission,  ceding  territory  to  the  English, 
and  to  the  allies  of  the  English,  the  Nizam,  and  Shah  Alum,  who 
held  nominal  rule  at  Delhi  as  the  Great  Mogul.  Holkar,  who  was 
again  joined  by  Sindhia,  held  out  till  January  1806,  at  one  time 
gaining  no  inconsiderable  successes,  though  all  three,  Sindhia, 
Holkar,  and  the  Bhonsla,  were  in  the  end  compelled  to  submit. 

13.  Wellesley's  Recall.  1805.— In  1805,  before  Holkar  had 
submitted.  Lord  Wellesley  was  recalled.  His  wars  had  been 
expensive,  and  the  East  India  Company  never  liked  expense.  No 
one  now  doubts  that  Wellesley  was  right.  The  Mahratta  chiefs 
were  freebooters  on  a  large  scale,  and  freebooting  was  incompati- 
ble with  the  peace  and  civilisation  which  it  was  the  glory  of  British 
statesmen  to  introduce  into  India.  Wellesley,  when  he  landed  in 
1798,  found  the  British  occupying  certain  portions  of  India.  When 
he  left  the  country  in  1805,  almost  the  whole  of  the  South  had 
passed  under  British  administration,  what  are  now  the  North- 
western Provinces  had  been  annexed,  and  the  military  predomi- 
nance of  the  Mahrattas  had  been  brought  to  an  end. 

14.  The  Continental  System.  1806— 1807.— In  the  meanwhile 
Napoleon,  hopeless  of  overpowering  Britain  at  sea,  attempted  to 

3  K  3 


86o  THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOLEON-      1806- 1807 

subjugate  her  in  another  way.  On  November  21,  1806,  soon 
after  his  victory  at  Jena,  he  issued  the  Berlin  Decree,  closing  all 
European  ports  under  his  influence — that  is  to  say,  almost  all 
the  ports  from  the  Vistula  to  the  Adriatic — against  British  com- 
merce. All  British  ports  were  declared  in  a  state  of  blockade, 
though  Napoleon  could  not  watch  any  one  of  them  with  a  single 
vessel,  and  all  goods  coming  from  Great  Britain  or  her  colonies 
were  to  be  destroyed.  On  November  11,  1807,  Great  Britain  re- 
taliated by  Orders  in  Council  declaring  all  ports  of  France  and 
her  allies  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  vessels  good  prize 
which  attempted  to  enter  them  unless  they  had  previously  touched 
at  a  British  harbour.  To  this,  on  December  17,  1807,  Napoleon 
replied  by  the  Milan  Decree,  declaring  all  neutral  vessels  liable  to 
seizure  if  they  touched  at  any  British  ports  before  attempting  to 
land  their  cargoes  in  any  part  of  Europe  under  the  control  of 
France.  The  Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees  together  established  what 
is  known  as  Napoleon's  Continental  System. 

15.  Effects  of  the  Continental  System.  1807. — Ultimately  the 
effects  of  the  Continental  System  were  most  injurious  to  Napoleon. 
As  the  British  fleet  controlled  the  sea,  no  colonial  goods  could  be 
obtained  except  through  British  vessels.  A  gigantic  system  of 
smuggling  sprang  up,  and  the  seizure  and  destruction  of  British 
goods  only  served  to  raise  the  price  of  those  which  escaped. 
Sugar,  coffee,  and  calico  grew  dear,  and  the  labourer  soon  dis- 
covered that,  in  consequence  of  the  Continental  System,  he  had  to 
pay  more  for  the  coffee  which  he  drank  and  for  the  shirt  which  he 
wore.  A  strong  feeling  opposed  to  Napoleon  manifested  itself  for 
the  first  time  amongst  the  conquered  populations. 

16.  The  Bombardment  of  Copenhagen.  1807. — At  sea  Eng- 
lishmen were  almost  as  high-handed  as  Napoleon  by  land.  They 
searched  neutral  vessels  for  goods  destined  for  France,  confiscating 
them  in  accordance  with  decisions  of  their  own  admiralty  court  in  a 
fashion  which  would  not  be  tolerated  now.  Shortly  after  the  Treaty 
of  Tilsit  Canning  learnt  that  Napoleon  meant  to  seize  the  fleet  of 
Denmark,  which  was  at  that  time  neutral,  and  to  employ  it  against 
Great  Britain.  A  British  fleet  and  army  were  sent  to  Copenhagen, 
and  the  Crown  Prince  of  Denmark  (see  p.  845)  was  asked  to  deliver 
up  the  Danish  fleet  on  a  promise  that  it  should  be  restored  at 
the  end  of  the  war.  On  his  refusal,  Copenhagen  was  bombarded 
till  at  last  the  Danes  gave  way.  The  fleet  ^vas  surrendered,  and 
the  British  Government,  on  the  plea  that  it  had  been  driven  to  use 
force,  refused  to  be  bound  by  its  offer  to  restore  the  ships  ultimately 


[8o7 


A   NAVAL  ATTACK 


86i 


862  THE   ASCENDENCY  OF  NAPOLEON  1807 

to  their  owners.  There  were  many  in  England  who  found  fault  with 
the  whole  proceeding,  and  even  George  III.  seems  to  have  been 
very  much  of  their  opinion.  Speaking  to  the  gentleman  who  had 
carried  to  the  Crown  Prince  the  message  asking  him  to  give  up  the 
fleet,  the  old  king  asked  whether  he  found  the  prince  upstairs  or 
downstairs.  "  He  was  on  the  ground  floor,  please  your  Majesty," 
was  the  reply.  "  I  am  glad  of  it  for  your  sake,"  said  the  king  ;  "  for 
if  he  had  half  my  spirit,  he  would  have  kicked  you  downstairs." 


CHAPTER   LIV 

THE  DOWNFALL  OF  NAPOLEON.      1807— 1814 

LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  George  III.,  1760 -1820 

The  Establishment  of  Joseph  Bonaparte  in  Spain      .  1808 

Battle  of  Vimeiro Aug.  21,  i8o8 

Battle  of  Corunna Jan.  16,  i8og 

Napoleon's  War  with  Austria 1809 

Battle  of  Talavera July  27-28,  i8og 

Defence  of  Torres  Vedras July22,  1812 

Napoleon's  Invasion  of  Russia 1812 

Battle  of  Salamanca July  22,  1812 

Battle  of  Vittoria June  21, 1813 

Napoleon  driven  out  of  Germany    .        .  ...     1813 

First  Restoration  of  Louis  XVIII 1814 

War  with  America 1812— 1814 

Battle  of  Waterloo June  18,  1815 

Second  Restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.      .....    1815 

I.  Napoleon  and  Spain.  1807 — 1808. — Napoleon  had  been  gradu- 
ally maturing  designs  against  Spain.  The  king,  Charles  IV.,  was  too 
witless  to  govern,  and  the  queen  was  living  in  adultery  with  Godoy, 
an  unprincipled  favourite  who  ruled  the  kingdom.  The  heir  to  the 
throne,  Ferdinand,  despised  his  father  and  hated  Godoy.  Spain, 
indeed,  had  been  most  subservient  to  Napoleon,  and  had  sacrificed 
her  fleets  to  him  at  St.  Vincent  and  Trafalgar,  but  even  Godoy 
discovered  that  Spain  received  all  the  loss  and  none  of  the  advan- 
tages of  the  alliance,  and  began  to  show  signs  of  independence. 
Napoleon  resolved  to  bring  Spain  entirely  under  his  control,  and 
in  October  1807,  in  order  to  procure  the  entry  of  his  troops  into  the 
country,  signed  a  treaty  with  Spain,  by  which  France  and  Spain 


l8o8  THE  SPANISH  TROUBLES  863 

were  to  make  a  joint  attack  on  Portugal,  and  to  cut  it  up  into 
three  parts,  one  of  which  was  to  be  given  to  Godoy.  Napoleon 
then  stirred  up  Ferdinand  against  his  parents,  and  on  this  Godoy, 
not  knowing  that  Napoleon  had  a  hand  in  the  matter,  obtained 
from  the  king  a  proclamation  announcing  that  he  intended  to  bring 
his  son  to  justice.  Napoleon,  partly  on  the  pretence  of  attacking 
Portugal,  and  partly  on  the  pretence  of  protecting  Ferdinand,  sent 
80,000  men  into  Spain,  and  in  February  1808  placed  Murat,  his 
brother-in-law  and  his  best  cavalry  officer,  at  their  head. 

2.  The  Dethronement  of  Charles  IV.  1808. — On  March  17  a 
Spanish  mob  rose  against  Godoy,  and  the  old  king,  Charles  IV., 
abdicated  in  favour  of  his  son.  Before  long,  however,  he  repented 
and  declared  his  abdication  invalid,  whilst  Ferdinand  insisted 
that  it  was  in  full  force.  Napoleon,  to  whom  both  father  and  son 
appealed  for  support,  invited  them  to  Bayonne,  where  he  forced 
them  both  to  abdicate.  In  the  meanwhile  Murat  had  entered 
Madrid.  On  May  2  Madrid  rose  against  him,  but  the  insurrection 
was  put  down  with  great  cruelty.  Napoleon  fancied  that  all  resist- 
ance was  at  an  end,  but  before  the  end  of  May  the  Spanish  people, 
town  by  town  and  village  by  village,  rose  in  a  national  insur- 
rection against  the  French,  without  any  one  part  of  the  country 
having  previous  communication  with  another.  Except  in  his 
relations  with  England,  Napoleon  had  hitherto  had  to  deal  with 
the  resistance  of  governments  and  armies.  He  had  now  to  deal 
with  a  people  inspired  with  hatred  of  a  foreign  conquest.  It  is 
true  that  the  Spaniards  were  ignorant  and  backward,  and  that  they 
had  no  trustworthy  military  organisation  ;  but  for  all  that,  they 
had  what  neither  the  Germans  nor  the  Italians  as  yet  had,  the  spirit 
of  national  resistance. 

3.  The  Capitulation  at  Baylen.  1808.— In  June  Napoleon  got 
together  a  certain  number  of  Spaniards  at  Bayonne  who,  by  his 
directions,  chose  his  brother  Joseph,  hitherto  king  of  Naples,  to  be 
king  of  Spain,  after  which  Napoleon  sent  Murat  to  replace  Joseph 
at  Naples.  Napoleon  also  urged  his  generals  to  put  down  the  re- 
sistance of  the  peasants.  They  pressed  forwards  victoriously,  but 
one  of  them,  Dupont,  pushing  on  too  far,  was  obliged,  on  July  19,  to 
capitulate  at  Baylen  in  the  Sierra  Morena.  Joseph  had  to  fly  from 
Madrid,  and  the  whole  French  army  retreated  behind  the  Ebro. 

4.  Battle  of  Vimeiro  and  Convention  of  Cintra.  1808.— In  the 
preceding  winter  a  French  army  under  Junot  had  invaded  Portugal, 
and  had  occupied  Lisbon,  though  the  whole  of  the  royal  family 
escaped  capture  by  sailing  away  to  the  great  Portuguese  colony  of 


864  THE  DOWNFALL    OF  NAPOLEON       1808- 1809 

Brazil.  Portugal  and  England  were  old  allies,  and  partly  in  order 
to  deliver  Portugal,  partly  in  order  to  support  the  resistance  of 
Spain,  the  British  ministry,  urged  on  by  Canning,  sent  an  army  to 
resist  Junot.  The  British  Government  gave  the  charge  of  it  to  Sir 
Arthur  Wellesley,  the  best  soldier  in  their  service,  the  victor  of 
Assaye  and  Argaum  (see  p.  859).  Indian  service,  however,  was  in 
those  days  little  regarded,  and  two  old  officers  of  no  distinction. 
Sir  Henry  Dalrymple  and  Sir  Harry  Burrard,  were  sent  after 
Wellesley  to  take  the  command  over  him  as  soon  as  they  could 
arrive  in  Portugal.  Meanwhile,  on  August  i,  Wellesley  landed  in 
Mondego  Bay.  On  August  21  he  completely  defeated  Junot  at 
Vimeiro.  Burrard,  who  arrived  just  as  the  battle  was  beginning, 
was  enough  of  a  gentleman  to  let  Wellesley  remain  in  command 
till  it  was  fought  out,  but  he  superseded  him  as  soon  as  it  was  over, 
and  in  spite  of  Wellesley's  pleadings,  refused  to  follow  up  the 
enemy.  Junot  got  safely  into  Lisbon,  and  on  August  30  was 
allowed  by  a  convention  signed  at  Cintra  to  return  with  all  his 
army  to  France. 

5.  Sir  John  Moore's  Expedition  and  the  Battle  of  Corunna. 
1808 — 1809.  In  November  1808  Napoleon  entered  Spain  in  person 
to  stem  the  tide  of  disaster.  The  Spanish  troops  were  patriotic, 
but  they  were  ill-commanded  and  undisciplined.  Napoleon  drove 
them  like  sheep  before  him,  and,  on  December  4,  entered  Madrid. 
The  British  army  in  Portugal  was  now  commanded  by  Sir  John 
Moore.  The  Convention  of  Cintra  had  been  received  with 
indignation  in  England  as  improperly  lenient  to  the  French,  and 
Wellesley  and  his  two  official  superiors  had  been  recalled  to  give 
an  account  of  their  conduct  in  relation  to  it.  Moore,  who  was  an 
excellent  general,  had  been  ordered  to  advance  to  the  assistance  of 
the  Spaniards,  when  Napoleon  burst  into  the  country.  Deceived 
by  false  intelligence,  and  believing  that  the  Spaniards  would  fight 
better  than  they  did,  Moore  pushed  on,  reaching  Sahagun  on 
December  23.  He  there  learnt  that  Napoleon  was  already  hurrying 
back  from  Madrid  to  crush  him.  Moore  was  therefore  forced  to 
retreat,  but  he  so  skilfully  availed  himself  of  the  obstacles  on 
the  route  as  to  give  Napoleon  no  opportunity  of  drawing  him  to  a 
battle.  On  January  i,  1809,  Napoleon,  thinking  Moore's  destruc- 
tion to  be  a  mere  matter  of  time,  turned  back,  leaving  the  French 
army  under  the  command  of  Soult.  On  January  16  Moore  had 
to  fight  a  battle  at  Corunna  to  secure  the  embarkation  of  his  men. 
He  was  himself  killed,  but  his  army  was  completely  victorious,  and 
was  brought  away  in  safety  to  England. 


i8o9  OVERTHROW  OF  AUSTRIA  865 

6.  Aspern  and  Wagram.  1809. — Napoleon  had  been  recalled 
from  Spain  by  news  that  Austria  was  arming  against  him.  A  war 
between  France  and  Austria  was  the  result,  and  after  the  indecisive 
battle  of  Aspern,  fought  on  May  21  and  22,  1809,  the  French 
gained  a  victory  at  Wagram  on  July  6.  On  October  14  the  Treaty 
of  Vienna  was  signed,  by  which  vast  territories  were  cut  off  from  the 
Austrian  Empire.  The  treaty  was  followed  by  a  marriage  between 
Napoleon  and  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Francis,  Napoleon 
having  divorced  his  wife  Josephine  on  a  flimsy  pretext,  his  real 
motive  being  that  she  had  borne  him  no  children.  The  English 
Government  were  not  idle  spectators  of  this  war.  Canning  had 
taken  in  hand  the  war  in  Spain. 

7.  Walcheren  and  Talavera.  1809. — Whilst  the  result  of  the 
campaign  in  Austria  was  still  uncertain,  Castlereagh  sent  out  an 
expedition  to  seize  Antwerp,  in  the  hope  that,  if  it  succeeded,  it 
would  compel  Napoleon,  who  was  still  struggling  on  the  Danube, 
to  send  part  of  his  anny  back.  Unfortunately,  the  command 
of  the  land  forces  sent  out  was  given  to  Lord  Chatham,  the  eldest 
son  of  the  great  Chatham,  who  had  nothing  but  his  birth  to  recom- 
mend him,  and  the  command  of  the  fleet  to  Sir  Richard  Strachan, 
an  officer  of  no  great  distinction.  Though  the  expedition  did  not 
sail  till  July  28,  three  weeks  after  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians  at 
Wagram,  there  was  still  a  chance  that  a  successful  blow  at  Antwerp 
might  encourage  the  Emperor  of  Austria  to  prolong  the  struggle. 
The  commanders,  however,  took  Flushing  and  did  no  more.  Time 
was  frittered  away  in  senseless  disputes  between  the  general  and 
the  admiral,  and  Antwerp  was  put  in  a  good  state  of  defence  before 
they  could   resolve  how  to   attack  it.     According  to  a  popular 

epigram. 

The  Earl  of  Chatham,  with  his  sword  drawn 
Stood  waiting  for  Sir  Richard  Strachan  ; 
Sir  Richard,  longing  to  be  at  'em, 
Stood  waiting  for  the  Earl  of  Chatham. 

Whilst  admiral  and  general  were  hesitating,  the  troops  were  left  in 
the  low  isle  of  Walcheren,  where  a  fever  broke  out  which  swept 
away  thousands,  and  so  weakened  the  constitutions  of  those  who 
recovered  that  few  were  fit  for  active  service  again.  When  the 
news  of  failure  reached  England,  Canning  threw  all  the  blame 
on  Castlereagh.  The  two  ministers  both  resigned  office  and  then 
fought  a  duel.  The  Duke  of  Portland,  the  Prime  Minister, 
broken  in  health,  also  resigned,  and  died  shortly  afterwards.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Perceval,  a  conscientious  but  narrow-minded 


S66 


THE  DOWNFALL   OF  NAPOLEON 


1809 


man.     Wellesley  was  sent  back  to  Portugal.     Marching  rapidly 
northwards  from  Lisbon,  he  drove  Soult  from  Oporto.     Having 


thus  cleared  his  left  flank,  he  returned  to  Lisbon  and  then  pushed 
up  the  valley  of  the  Tagus,  intending  to  co-operate  with  a  Spanish 


i8o9-i8ii  THE  PENINSULAR    WAR  867 

force  in  an  attack  on  Madrid.  At  Talavera  Wellesley  met  a  French 
army  under  Marshal  Victor,  and  though  the  Spanish  general  gave 
him  no  assistance,  he  completely  defeated  the  French  on  July  27. 
Other  French  generals  threatened  to  cut  off  his  retreat,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  fall  back  on  Portugal.  Wellesley  had  indeed  learnt  the 
lesson  that  Spanish  armies  could  not  be  depended  on,  but  otherwise 
he  had  gained  nothing  by  his  victory.  The  French  forces  in  the  Pen- 
insula were  too  overwhelming  to  be  overpowered  as  yet.  Wellesley 
was  rewarded  for  his  skill  with  the  title  of  Viscount  Wellington. 

8.  Torres  Vedras.  1810— 1811.— In  1810  Napoleon  made  a  great 
effort  to  drive  the  English  out  of  Portugal.  Though  he  did  not  go 
himself  into  the  Peninsula,  he  sent  his  best  general,  Marshal 
Massena.  Wellington  had  now  under  his  orders,  besides  his 
English  troops,  a  number  of  well-trained  Portuguese  commanded 
by  an  Irishman,  Marshal  Beresford.  Even  with  this  addition,  how- 
ever, his  force  was  too  small  to  meet  Massena  in  the  field,  and,  in 
order  to  have  in  reserve  a  defensible  position,  he  threw  up  three 
lines  of  earthworks  across  the  peninsula  which  lies  between  the 
Tagus  and  the  sea.  The  first  was  intended  to  stop  Massena  for 
a  time ;  the  second  to  form  the  main  defence  after  the  first  had 
been  abandoned  ;  the  third  to  protect  the  British  embarkation, 
if  it  were  found  necessary  to  leave  Portugal.  Wellington, 
who,  whilst  these  lines  were  being  constructed,  was  some  dis- 
tance in  front  of  them,  drew  back  slowly  as  Massena  advanced, 
so  as  to  prolong  the  French  invasion  as  much  as  possible. 
Massena's  army  was  accordingly  half-starved  before  the  '  Lines 
of  Torres  Vedras'  were  reached,  as  Wellington  had  ordered 
that  the  crops  should  be  destroyed  and  the  cattle  driven  off.  Yet 
Massena  pressed  on,  fancying  that  the  English  were  making  for 
their  ships,  as  the  hatred  borne  to  the  French  by  the  Portuguese 
was  so  deep-seated  that  not  a  single  peasant  informed  him  of  the 
obstacle  in  front  of  him.  At  Busaco,  indeed,  Wellington  turned  on 
the  French  army  and  checked  it  for  a  time,  but  his  numbers  were 
not  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  continue  his  resistance  in  the  open 
field,  and  hence  he  continued  his  retreat  to  the  first  line.  Massena 
did  not  even  attempt  to  storm  it.  Week  after  week  he  looked 
helplessly  at  it  whilst  his  own  army  was  gradually  wasted  by  starva- 
tion and  disease.  More  than  30,000  French  soldiers  perished, 
though  not  a  single  pitched  battle  had  been  fought.  At  last  Massena 
ordered  a  reteat.  Wellington  cautiously  followed,  and  by  the  spring 
of  181 1  not  a  Frenchman  remained  in  Portugal. 

9.  The  Regency  and  the  Assassination  of  Perceval.     181 1— 


868  THE  DOWNFALL    OF  NAPOLEON  i8il 

l8i2. —Whilst  Wellington  was  struggling  with  the  French,  old 
George  HI.  ceased  to  have  further  knowledge  of  joy  or  sorrow.  The 
madness  with  which  he  had  from  time  to  time  been  afflicted,  settled 
down  on  him  in  iSii.  The  selfish  and  unprincipled  Prince  of  Wales 
took  his  place  as  Regent,  at  first  under  some  restrictions,  but  after 
a  year  had  elapsed  without  any  prospect  of  the  king's  recovery,  with 
the  full  powers  of  a  sovereign.  It  was  expected  by  some  that  he  would 
place  his  old  friends  the  Whigs  in  office  ;  but  he  had  no  gratitude 
in  his  nature,  and  the  current  of  feeling  against  reform  of  any 
kind  was  now  so  strong  that  he  could  hardly  have  maintained 
the  Whigs  in  power  even  if  he  had  wished  to  do  so.  Perceval 
was  well  suited  for  the  Prime  Ministership  at  such  a  time,  being 
as  strongly  in  favour  of  maintaining  the  existing  state  of  things 
as  the  dullest  member  of  Parliament  could  possibly  be.  His 
ministry,  however,  was  not  a  long  one.  In  1812  he  was  shot  dead 
by  a  lunatic  as  he  stepped  into  the  House  of  Commons.  His  suc- 
cessor was  Lord  Liverpool. 

10.  Napoleon  at  the  Height  of  Power.  181 1. — In  the  meantime 
Napoleon  had  been  proceeding  from  one  annexation  to  another.  In 
May  1809  he  annexed  the  Papal  States  ;  in  July  1810,  the  kingdom  of 
Holland  ;  in  November  1810,  the  Valais  ;  and  in  December  1810  the 
coast  of  Germany  as  far  as  Hamburg.  The  motive  which  impelled 
him  to  these  extravagant  resolutions  was  his  determination  to  en- 
force the  Continental  System  in  order  to  ruin  England.  England  was 
not  ruined,  but  the  rise  of  prices  caused  by  Napoleon's  ineffectual 
attempts  to  ruin  her  increased  the  ill-will  of  the  populations  of  the 
Continent,  and  strengthened  the  popular  resistance  to  which  he 
ultimately  fell  a  victim. 

11.  Wellington's  Resources.  1811.— It  was  upon  the  certainty 
of  a  general  resistance  to  what  had  now  become  a  real  tyranny  that 
Wellington  mainly  calculated.  Wellington  had,  however,  on  his 
side  other  elements  of  success.  His  English  troops  had  proved 
superior  to  more  than  equal  numbers  of  Frenchmen,  not  because 
they  were  braver,  but  because  they  had  more  coolness.  He  had 
therefore  been  able  to  draw  his  men  up  in  a  long  line  only  two  deep, 
and  could  yet  count  on  them  to  baffle  the  heavy  columns  with  which 
the  French  were  accustomed  to  charge,  by  pouring  into  them  a 
steady  fire  as  they  approached.  Moreover,  as  the  French  generals 
were  in  the  habit  of  quarrelling  with  one  another,  it  was  possible 
to  defeat  one  before  another  could  make  up  his  mind  to  bring  up 
his  forces  to  the  help  of  his  rival.    The  Spaniards,  too,  though  their 


I8ii-i8i2  THE  PENINSULAR    WAR  869 

armies  were  bad,  made  excellent  guerillas^  shooting  down  French 
stragglers  and  taking  every  advantage  of  the  ground.  So  dangerous 
did  they  make  the  roads,  that  when  an  important  despatch  was  sent 
to  France  it  had  tabe  guarded  by  1,000  horsemen.  The  French 
armies  in  the  field  perceptibly  decreased,  in  consequence  of  the 
necessity  of  detaching  large  bodies  against  the  guerillas. 

12.  Wellington's  Advance.  1811  — 1812.  —  In  spite  of  these 
advantages  the  difference  of  numbers  against  Wellington  was  still 
very  great.  Yet  on  May  5,  181 1,  he  held  his  own  against  Massena 
at  Fuentes  d'Onoro.  On  May  16  Beresford  defeated  Soult  at 
Albuera,  whilst  earlier  in  the  year,  on  March  6,  Graham  had 
defeated  Victor  at  Barrosa.  For  all  that,  Wellington  was  unable 
to  retain  his  advanced  position.  Massena  was  indeed  recalled 
from  Spain  by  Napoleon,  but  two  other  marshals,  Marmont  and 
Soult,  joined  to  resist  the  English,  and  Wellington  was  obliged  to 
retire  to  Portugal.  Before  long,  however,  the  two  marshals  having 
separated,  Wellington  resolved  to  attack  the  two  strong  fortresses 
of  Badajoz  and  Ciudad  Rodrigo  which  barred  his  way  into  Spain. 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  fell  on  January  19,  1812,  and  Badajoz  on  April  6. 
In  storming  the  latter  place  the  slaughter  of  the  British  troops 
was  tremendous,  as  Wellington,  knowing  that,  if  he  delayed,  Soult 
would  be  upon  him  with  superior  forces,  had  not  been  able  to  wait 
till  all  fitting  preparations  had  been  made.  When  at  last  the 
soldiers  burst  in  they  raged  madly  through  the  streets,  committing 
every  species  of  cruelty  and  outrage.  The  capture  of  these  two 
fortresses  not  only  secured  Portugal  against  invasion,  but  also 
made  it  possible  for  Wellington  to  conduct  offensive  operations  in 
Spain. 

13.  The  Battle  of  Salamanca.  1812.— Wellington's  task  after 
the  capture  of  Badajoz  was  lightened  by  the  withdrawal  of  some 
of  the  best  of  the  French  regiments  from  the  Peninsula.  At  the 
end  of  1810  the  Tzar  Alexander  had  withdrawn  from  the  Conti- 
nental System,  and  it  was  chiefly  on  this  account  that,  in  1811, 
Napoleon  prepared  for  a  war  with  Russia.  In  the  spring  of  1812 
his  preparations  were  approaching  completion,  and  troops  were 
recalled  from  Spain  to  take  part  in  the  attack  on  the  Tzar.  In  June 
Napoleon  crossed  the  Niemen  to  invade  Russia,  and,  in  the  same 
month,  Wellington  crossed  the  Coa  to  invade  Spain.  On  July  22 
Wellington  completely  defeated  Marmont  at  Salamanca,  after  which 
he  entered  Madrid  in  triumph.     He  pushed  on  to  besiege  Burgos, 

1  Guerilla  is  a  Spanish  word  meaning  primarily  a  little  war,  and  so  is 
applied  to  peasants  or  others  taking  part  in  a  war  on  a  small  scale. 


870 


THE  DOWNFALL    OF  NAPOLEON 


1812 


but  the  French  armies  from  the  south  of  Spain  gathered  thickly 
round  him  before  he  could  take  it,  and  he  was  compelled  again 
to  return  to  Portugal.  The  campaign,  however,  had  not  been  in 
vain,  as  the  French,  in  order  to  secure  the  north.against  Wellington, 
had  been  obliged  to  abandon  the  south 
to  the  Spaniards. 

14.  Napoleon  in  Russia.  1812. — 
Whilst  Wellington  was  gaining  ground 
in  Spain,  Napoleon,  at  the  head  of 
450,000  men,  entered  Russia.  Of  this 
force  the  main  army,  consisting  of 
580,000  under  his  own  command,  was 
to  fall  upon  the  Russian  army,  and 
after  destroying  it,  to  dictate  peace  to 
the  Tzar.  The  Russian  army,  however, 
being  far  inferior  in  numbers,  re- 
treated, whilst  Napoleon's  dwindled 
away  from  desertion  or  weariness  after 
each  day's  march.  It  was  not  till  he 
reached  Borodino,  almost  at  the  gates 
of  Moscow,  that  he  was  able  to  fight  a 
battle.  Of  the  380,000  men  whom  he 
had  led  over  the  Niemen  he  now  had 
no  more  than  145,000  at  his  disposal. 
He  defeated  the  enemy,  indeed,  in 
;  ^^^  the  bloody  battle  which  ensued,  but 
the  Russians  steadily  retreated  without 
confusion,  and  when  Napoleon  entered 
Moscow,  on  September  14,  he  waited 
in  vain  for  any  sign  of  the  Tzar's 
submission.  He  found  Moscow  almost 
entirely  deserted,  and  on  the  second 
night  after  his  arrival  the  city  was  in 
flames,  having  been  set  on  fire  by  the 
patriotism  of  its  governor,  Rostopchin. 
It  was  impossible  to  feed  an  army  in 
a  destroyed  town  in  the  frosts  of 
[9  Napoleon  started  in  retreat  with  the 
100,000  men  which  were  all  that  were  now  left.  The  country 
through  which  he  had  to  pass  had  been  stripped  on  his  outward 
march,  and  he  had  made  so  sure  of  victory  that  he  had  provided 
no  stores  in  view  of  a  retreat.     On  November  6  the  frost  came 


Grenadier  in  the  time  of  the 
Peninsular  War. 


winter,  and  on  October 


I8i2-i8i3  FRENCH  DEFEATS  871 

down  on  the  doomed  army.  The  remainder  of  the  retreat  was 
one  long  misery.  Poor  frozen  wretches  were  left  behind  every 
morning,  and  weaklings  dropped  out  to  perish  every  day.  Fighting, 
too,  there  was  ;  and  in  the  end  a  bare  20,000,  of  whom  probably 
no  more  than  7,000  belonged  to  the  original  aimy,  staggered  out 
of  Russia. 

15.  Napoleon  driven  out  of  Germany  and  Spain.  1813. — In 
1813  Prussia,  hitherto  crushed  by  French  exactions,  sprang  to 
arms,  and  allied  herself  with  Russia.  Napoleon  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  a  new  anny  to  replace  the  one  which  he  had  lost.  So  great 
had  been  the  loss  of  life  in  his  wars,  that  he  had  now  to  content 
himself  with  levying  boys,  as  all  those  who  should  now  have  been 
the  young  men  had  been  made  soldiers  before  their  time  and  had 
for  the  most  part  perished.  Yet  so  great  was  Napoleon's  genius 
that  with  this  young  army  he  defeated  the  Russians  and  Prussians 
in  two  battles,  at  Liitzen  and  Bautzen.  The  defeated  armies  looked 
to  Austria  for  aid.  Metternich,  however,  who  now  governed 
Austria  as  the  Emperor's  minister,  feared  that  if  Napoleon  were 
completely  beaten,  the  Tzar  would  become  too  powerful,  and  he 
therefore,  instead  of  at  once  joining  the  allies,  asked  Napoleon  to 
make  peace,  by  giving  up  his  hold  on  Germany,  but  keeping 
the  rest  of  his  dominions.  As,  however.  Napoleon  would  not  yield 
a  jot,  Austria  joined  the  allies  against  him.  Napoleon  won  one 
battle  more  at  Dresden  ;  then  the  commanders  of  his  outlying 
troops  were  beaten,  and  he  was  himself  crushed  at  Leipzig,  at  what 
is  known  in  Germany  as  the  Battle  of  the  Nations.  By  the  end  of 
1813,  so  much  of  his  army  as  still  held  together  was  driven  across 
the  Rhine.  In  Spain  Wellington  was  no  less  successful.  On 
June  21  he  overthrew  King  Joseph  at  Vittoria,  and  in  the  autumn 
the  remains  of  the  French  army  was  forced  back  out  of  Spain, 
and  was  struggling  for  its  existence  round  Bayonne. 

16.  The  Restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  1814.  —  In  the  early 
part  of  1814  Russians,  Prussians,  and  Austrians  entered  France. 
Napoleon,  who  opposed  them  with  scanty  numbers,  was  for  a 
tirne  even  victorious  by  dashing  first  at  one  part  of  their  army  and 
then  at  the  other.  At  last,  however,  his  power  of  resistance  came 
to  an  end.  On  March  31  the  allies  entered  Paris.  On  April  3 
Napoleon  abdicated  and  was  allowed  to  retire  to  Elba.  Wellington, 
who  had  been  made  a  duke  after  the  battle  of  Vittoria,  had  in  the 
meanwhile  occupied  Bordeaux,  and  on  April  10,  not  knowing  of 
Napoleon's  abdication,  he  defeated  Soult  at  Toulouse.  Louis 
XVIII.,  the    brother  of  Louis  XVI,  who  had  been  guillotined 


872  THE  DOWNFALL    OF  NAPOLEON  1814 

(see  p.  825),  became  king  of  France,  granting  a  constitution,  known 
as  the  Charter.  French  people  had  become  so  weary  of  war  and 
despotism,  that  they  welcomed  the  promise  of  peace  and  constitu- 
tional liberty. 

1 7.  Position  of  England.  1814. — The  position  of  England  was 
now  exceedingly  strong.  Not  only  had  her  wealth,  acquired  by 
her  manufactures,  enabled  her  to  supply  the  continental  govern- 
ments with  vast  sums  of  money,  without  which  it  would  have  been 
impossible  for  them  to  carry  on  the  struggle,  but  her  own  army  in 
Spain  had  powerfully  contributed  to  the  success  of  the  allies,  by 
keeping  no  less  than  300,000  French  soldiers  away  from  the 
decisive  conflict  in  Germany  and  the  north-east  of  France.  That  she 
was  able  to  accomplish  this  had  been,  to  a  great  extent,  owing  to  her 
supremacy  at  sea.  Wellington's  troops  were  well  supplied,  because 
vessels  from  all  parts  of  the  globe  could  arrive  safely  in  the  Peninsula 
with  provisions  for  them,  whilst  the  French  had  to  rely  on  stores 
conveyed  with  difficulty  across  hostile  territory.  England's  mastery 
over  the  sea  enabled  her  to  make  good  her  claims  to  the  retention  of 
most  of  the  colonies  which  she  had  acquired  during  the  war,  though 
she  abandoned  Java  and  the  Spice  Islands  to  the  Dutch,  and  some 
of  the  West  India  Islands  to  the  French.  This  time,  however,  there 
was  no  talk  of  abandoning  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  was  an 
admirable  naval  station  on  the  way  to  India  and  the  East. 

18.  War  with  America.  1812 — 1814. — Too  much  power  is  never 
good  for  man  or  nation,  and  just  as  Napoleon  provoked  enemies  by 
his  Continental  System,  so  did  England  provoke  enemies  by  her 
Orders  in  Council  (see  p.  860).  The  United  States  as  a  neutral  nation 
was  aggrieved  by  the  action  of  the  British  Government  in  stopping 
American  vessels  from  trading  with  the  Continent,  unless  they  first 
put  into  British  ports,  and  also  by  the  search  exercised  on  board 
them  by  British  cruisers,  and  by  the  dragging  out  of  deserters 
who  had  forsaken  the  British  for  American  service.  In  1812, 
indeed,  the  Orders  in  Council  were  repealed,  but  it  was  then  too 
late  to  avert  war,  which  had  already  been  declared  by  the  United 
States.  The  American  navy  was  composed  of  very  few  ships 
but  these  were  larger  and  better  armed  than  British  ships, 
nominally  of  the  same  class.  British  captains  were  so  certain  that 
they  could  take  whatever  they  tried  to  take,  that  they  laid  their 
ships  alongside  of  American  vessels  much  more  powerful  than 
their  own.  The  result  was  that  one  British  ship  after  another 
was  captured.  The  tide  was  turned  by  Captain  Broke  of  the 
*  Shannon,'  who  courteously  invited  the  captain  of  the  American 


I8i2-i8i5         WAR    WITH  THE    UNITED  STATES  873 

frigate  the  '  Chesapeake '  to  come  out  to  fight  in  the  open  sea.  This 
time  the  two  vessels  were  on  an  equahty,  and"  Broke,  boarding 
the  '  Chesapeake,'  took  her  after  an  action  lasting  no  more  than 
fifteen  minutes.  The  operations  on  land  made  no  real  impression 
on  the  vast  American  continent.  There  was  much  fighting  on 
the  Canadian  frontier,  and  in  1814  a  large  number  of  the  soldiers 
from  the  late  Peninsular  army- -an  army  which,  according  to 
Wellington,  could  go  anywhere  and  do  anything — were  sent  out  to 
America.  Washington  was  taken,  and  the  capitol  and  other  public 
buildings  destroyed — contrary  to  the  usual  practice  of  civilised 
warfare — in  revenge  for  similar  burnings  on  a  smaller  scale  by 
the  Americans  in  Canada.  The  Americans  were  merely  stung 
to  more  vigorous  resistance,  and  the  British  troops  were  com- 
pelled to  retreat.  A  British  flotilla  on  Lake  Champlain  was  ovei- 
powered.  An  attack  on  New  Orleans  was  baffled.  On  December 
14,  1814,  a  peace  was  signed  at  Ghent,  putting  an  end  to  this 
unhappy  war. 

19.  The  Congress  of  Vienna.  1814 — 1815. — It  was  a  hard  matter 
to  settle  anew  the  boundaries  of  European  states  after  the  disturb- 
ances caused  by  French  annexations.  In  1814  a  Congress  met  at 
Vienna  to  decide  such  questions.  So  far  as  its  decisions  were  influ- 
enced by  any  principle  at  all,  they  rested  on  the  ground  that  a  strong 
barrier  must  be  set  up  against  a  renewal  of  French  aggression. 
Not  only  was  the  frontier  of  France  driven  back  almost  to  that  which 
had  existed  in  1792,  but  the  old  territories  of  the  Dutch  Republic  and 
the  Austrian  Netherlands  were  united  under  the  Prince  of  Orange 
as  king  of  the  Netherlands.  Large  districts  on  the  Rhine,  hence- 
forth to  be  known  as  Rhenish  Prussia,  were  united  to  Prussia. 
The  King  of  Sardinia  not  only  received  back  Savoy  and  Nice,  but 
acquired  the  strip  of  land  which  had  once  been  under  the  Genoese 
Republic.  In  all  else  there  was  a  scramble  for  territory,  in  which 
the  great  Powers  were  of  course  the  most  successful.  The  Tzar 
got  Poland,  though  it  was  kept  separate  as  a  constitutional  king- 
dom from  the  rest  of  Russia.  Prussia  got  half  of  Saxony,  in  addh 
tion  to  her  new  territory  on  the  Rhine.  Austria  got  Lombardy 
and  Venetia.  Italy  was  again  divided  into  separate  states,  and  v/as 
thus  really  placed  under  the  power  of  Austria  ;  whilst  the  German 
aspirations  after  nationality  were  only  nominally  satisfied.  There 
was  to  be  a  German  Confederation,  and  deputies  of  the  rulers  of 
the  states  composing  it.  were  to  meet  at  Frankfort ;  but  the  powers 
of  this  Confederation  were  extremely  restricted,  and  Austria  and 
III.  3  L 


874  THE   DOWNFALL    OF  NAPOLEON  1815 

Prussia   were    too  jealous    of  one    another   to  allow    it    to   work 
harmoniously  to  any  good  end. 

20.  The  Hundred  Days.  1815.  -  In  France,  the  restored  Bourbon 
monarchy  soon  gave  deep  offence,  by  favouring  the  nobles  and  clergy, 
and  by  showing  hostility  to  the  ideas  which  had  become  prominent 
under  the  Republic  and  the  Empire.  Before  long  Louis  XVIII. 
became  widely  unpopular.  Napoleon  watched  the  movement  with 
pleasure,  and,  escaping  from  Elba,  landed  on  the  coast  of  France. 
The  soldiers  sent  to  capture  him  went  over  to  his  side,  and  on  March 
21  he  reached  Paris  and  was  again  Emperor  of  the  French.  The 
short  reign  which  followed  is  known  as  '  The  Hundred  Days.'  He 
offered  to  the  allies  to  remain  at  peace,  but  they  refused  to  listen  to 
him,  believing  that  he  only  wanted  to  prepare  for  war,  and  that  the 
longer  they  waited  the  more  difficult  it  would  be  to  suppress  him. 
All  four  Powers,  therefore,  England,  Prussia,  Austria  and  Russia, 
prepared  for  a  fresh  struggle,  but  Austria  and  Russia  were  far  off, 
and  an  English  army  under  Wellington  and  a  Prussian  army  under 
Bliicher  were  in  the  Netherlands  before  the  other  two  allied  armies 
were  ready.  The  English  occupied  the  right  and  the  Prussians  the 
left  of  a  long  line  in  front  of  Brussels. 

21,  The  Waterloo  Campaign. — On  June  15  Napoleon  crossed 
the  frontier.  His  plan  was  to  beat  the  Prussians  first,  and  then, 
driving  them  off  towards  Germany,  to  turn  upon  the  English  and  to 
overwhelm  them  with  superior  numbers.  On  the  i6th,  whilst  he 
sent  Ney  to  keep  in  check  the  English  at  Quatre  Bras,  he  defeated 
the  Prussians  at  Ligny,  and  detached  Grouchy  to  follow  them  up, 
so  as  to  keep  them  from  coming  to  the  help  of  Wellington.  On  the 
1 8th  he  attacked  Wellington  himself  at  Waterloo.  Wellington, 
knowing  that  the  Prussians  intended,  in  spite  of  Grouchy's  pursuit, 
to  come  to  his  help,  and  that  his  own  numbers  were  inferior  to  those 
of  Napoleon,  had  to  hold  out  against  all  attacks  during  the  early 
part  of  the  day,  without  attempting  to  deliver  any  in  return.  He 
was  well  served  by  the  tenacity  of  his  mixed  army,  in  which  British 
soldiers  fought  side  by  side  with  Netherlanders,  Hanoverians  and 
Brunswickers.  The  farm  of  Hougoumont  in  advance  of  Wellington's 
right  centre  was  heroically  defended.  In  vain  the  French  columns 
charged  upon  the  British  squares,  and  the  French  artillery  slaughtered 
the  men  as  they  stood.  In  vain,  tco,  the  French  cavalry  dashed 
against  them.  As  the  men  dropped  their  comrades  closed  their 
ranks,  fighting  on  with  sadly  diminished  numbers.  At  last  a  black 
line  was  seen  on  the  horizon,  and  that  black  line  was  the  Prussian 
army.     Napoleon  taken  in  flank  by  the  Prussians  made  one  last 


i8iS  WATERLOO  875 

desperate  charge  on  the  Enghsh  squares.  Then  Wellington  gave 
the  order  to  advance.  The  French  army,  crushed  between  two 
forces,  dissolved  into  a  flying  mob. 

22.  The  Second  Restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.— The  allies  fol- 
lowed hard  upon  the  beaten  enemy  and  entered  Paris  in  triumph. 
Napoleon  took  refuge  in  the  '  Bellerophon,'  an  English  ship  of  war. 
By  the  decision  of  the  four  great  Powers  he  was  removed  to  St. 
Helena,  where  he  was  guarded  by  the  English  till  his  death  in  1821. 
Louis  XVIII.  was  restored  to  the  throne  of  France,  and  Europe  at 
last  enjoyed  the  peace  which  it  had  longed  for.  The  French  terri- 
tory was  restricted  to  the  limits  of  1792.  A  heavy  fine  was  also 
imposed  upon  France,  troops  belonging  to  each  of  the  four  Powers 
being  left  in  occupation  of  P>ench  fortresses  till  the  money  was 
paid. 


CHAPTER   LV 

ENGLAND  AFTER   WATERLOO.      1815— 1827 

LEADING   DATES 

Reign  of  George  IIL,  1760 -1820 

Reign  of  George  IV,,  1820-1830 

Abolition  of  the  Income-Tax 1816 

Suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act 1817 

The  '  Manchester  Massacre  '  and  the  Six  Acts   .        .  i8ig 

Death  of  George  III.  and  Accession  of  George  IV.  Jan.  29,  1820 

Peel  Home  Secretary 1821 

Canning  Foreign  Secretary 1822 

End  of  Liverpool's  Prime  Ministership  Feb.  17,  1827 

I.  The  Corn-Law  and  the  Abolition  of  the  Property  Tax. 
1815 — 1816.  —When  the  war  came  to  an  end  there  was  a  general 
expectation  in  England  that  peace  and  plenty  would  flourish  together. 
Contrary  to  expectation,  the  first  years  of  peace  were  marked  by  deep 
agricultural  and  manufacturing  distress.  In  1815  Parliament,  at 
that  time  almost  entirely  filled  with  landowners,  passed  a  corn-law 
forbidding  the  importation  of  foreign  corn,  unless  the  price  of 
wheat  reached  Soj.  a  quarter.  The  law  was,  however,  inoperative, 
because  the  price  of  wheat,  instead  of  reaching  Soi-.,  fell  steadily. 
The  cessation  of  expenditure  upon  war  had  thrown  large  numbers 
of  men  out  of  employment,  and  there  was,  consequently,  less 
money  spent  in  the  purchase  of  food.     The  fall  in  the  price  of 

3  L  2 


876  ENGLAND  AFTER    WATERLOO  1815-1816 

corn  injured  landowners  the  more  because  it  had  been  excessively 
high  in  the  last  years  of  the  war,  and  they  had  consequently 
spent  money  in  reclaiming  from  the  waste  a  great  extent  of 
land  just  good  enough  to  produce  sufficient  corn  to  pay  expenses 
when  corn  was  very  dear,  but  not  good  enough  to  produce 
sufficient  corn  to  pay  expenses  when  corn  was  cheap.  In  1816 
a  bad  harvest  came,  which  added  to  the  losses  of  the  agricul- 
turists. In  such  a  time  of  distress  the  burden  of  the  war-taxes  was 
sorely  felt,  and  in  1816  the  House  of  Commons  insisted  on  the 
abolition  of  the  income-tax  (see  p.  840),  which  had  been  imposed 
by  Pitt  only  for  the  duration  of  the  war,  and  the  Government  was 
obliged,  much  against  its  will,  to  abandon  it. 

2.  Manufacturing  Distress.  1816.— In  1816  a  bad  harvest  sent 
up  the  price  of  corn,  but  did  not  improve  the  condition  of  agri- 
culturists, as  they  had  but  little  corn  to  sell.  The  return  of  high 
prices  for  food  seriously  affected  the  condition  of  the  artisans  in 
the  manufactories,  who  were  at  this  time  suffering  from  other  causes 
as  well.  In  the  war-time  England  had  had  almost  a  monopoly  on 
the  Continent  for  its  wares,  because  few  men  cared  to  build  factories 
for  the  production  of  wares,  Avhen  they  might  at  any  time  be  burnt 
or  destroyed  by  a  hostile  army.  This  danger  was  now  at  an  end, 
and  as  foreign  nations  began  to  increase  their  own  produce,  the 
demand  for  English  goods  diminished.  The  want  of  employment 
for  labour  which  had  diminished  the  demand  at  home  for  food 
also  diminished  the  demand  at  home  for  manufactures.  In  1816, 
accordingly,  there  was  widely  spread  manufacturing  distress  in 
England.  Bankruptcies  were  frequent,  and  thousands  of  workmen 
lost  their  employment. 

3.  The  Factory-System.  1815—1816. —There  was  no  public 
system  of  education  for  the  poor,  and  the  artisans  had  no  means  of 
learning  what  were  the  real  causes  of  their  misery.  The  factory- 
system,  which  had  grown  up  since  the  introduction  of  improved 
machinery,  had  spread  discontent  amongst  the  workers.  Manu- 
facturers, anxious  only  to  make  money,  were  careless  of  the  lives 
and  health  of  their  workers,  and  there  was  no  law  intervening  to 
secure  more  humane  action.  London  parishes  often  sent  off  waggon- 
loads  of  pauper  children  to  the  cotton  mills  in  Yorkshire  and 
Lancashire  in  order  that  they  might  be  relieved  of  the  expense  of 
maintaining  them,  and  the  unfortunate  children  were  frequently 
compelled  to  work,  even  at  the  age  of  six,  fifteen  or  sixteen  hours  a 
day.  Grown-up  men  and  women  found  much  of  their  work  taken 
from   them  by  the  labour  of  the  children,  who  were  practically 


I8i6-i8i7  DISTRESS  AND   DISTURBANCE  S77 

slaves,  and  they  themselves,  if  they  got  work  at  all,  had  to 
labour  for  exceedingly  long  hours  for  exceedingly  small  wages. 
When,  as  in  1816,  large  numbers  failed  to  get  any  work  what- 
ever, the  starving  multitude  threw  all  the  blame  on  the  em- 
ployers. 

4.  The  Radicals.  1816— 1817. — Towards  the  end  of  1816  riots 
broke  out  in  many  places,  which  were  only  put  down  by  soldiers. 
In  many  places  the  rioters  directed  their  violence  against  machinery, 
to  the  existence  of  which  they  attributed  their  misery.  Some  men 
of  better  education  laid  all  the  blame  upon  the  existing  political 
system  which  placed  power  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  rich,  and 
called  for  complete  and  *  radical '  reform,  sometimes  asking  that 
it  should  be  effected  by  violence.  These  men  were,  in  conse- 
quence, styled  '  Radicals,'  and  were  looked  upon  as  inspired — as 
indeed  they  were— with  the  ideas  of  the  French  Revolutionists. 
In  December,  1816,  there  was  in  London  a  riot,  known  as  the  '  Spa- 
fields  riot,'  which  was,  however,  repressed  without  difficulty.  In 
the  beginning  of  1817  a  number  of  secret  committees  were  formed, 
and  the  most  extensive  changes  demanded. 

5.  Suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act.  1817 — 1818. — 
The  Government  was  frightened.  Its  leading  members  were  Lord 
Liverpool,  the  Prime  Minister,  Lord  Castlereagh,  the  Foreign 
Secretary,  and  Lord  Sidmouth,  the  Home  Secretary,  who  had 
been  formerly  Prime  Minister  as  Mr.  Addington  (see  p.  843). 
They  had  all  been  engaged  in  combating  the  French  Revolutionary 
ideas,  and,  when  they  saw  these,  ideas  making  head  in  England, 
they  could  not  think  of  any  way  to  deal  with  them  other  than 
forcible  repression.  They  had  sufficient  influence  to  carry  through 
Parliament  Bills  for  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act 
till  the  following  year,  and  for  the  prevention  of  seditious  meetings, 
the  penalty  of  death  being  imposed  on  those  who  being  engaged  in 
such  a  meeting  refused  to  disperse.  The  Government  ignored 
the  part  which  physical  distress  played  in  promoting  disturbances. 
In  Manchester,  indeed,  the  dissatisfied  workmen  contented  them- 
selves with  the  simple  expedient  of  marching  in  a  body  on  foot  to 
present  a  petition  to  the  Regent,  and  as  each  petitioner  took  with 
him  a  blanket  to  keep  himself  warm,  the  expedition  has  been  known 
as  the  '  March  of  the  Blanketeers.'  The  Blanketeers  were,  how- 
ever, stopped  on  the  way,  and  never  even  approached  the  Regent. 
There  was  a  talk  afterwards  of  a  rising  in  arms,  but  such  designs, 
whatever  they  may  really  have  been,  were  frustrated  by  the  arrest 
of  the  ringleaders.     Only  in  Nottinghamshire   did  they  actually 


878 


ENGLAND  AFTER    WATERLOO 


1817 


ii;.^. 


1817-1819  PROSPERITY  AND   DISTRESS  879 

lead  to  violence.  There  a  certain  Brandreth,  at  the  head  of  a 
party,  seized  arms,  and  shot  dead  a  man  who  opposed  him. 
Happily  in  1817  there  was  a  better  harvest.  The  price  of  corn  fell, 
and  trade  revived.  Work  was  again  to  be  had,  and  the  spirit  of 
insubordination  was  quieted  for  a  lime.  On  March  r,  1818,  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Act  again  came  into  force,  and  has  never  since 
been  suspended  in  England. 

6.  A  Time  of  Prosperity.  1818— 1819. — The  return  of  pros- 
perity was  not  confined  to  England.  So  marked  were  the  peaceful 
tendencies  of  France  that  m  1818  a  congress  of  the  four  Powers 
whose  soldiers  occupied  French  fortresses  was  held  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  it  was  resolved  to  withdraw  the  garrisons.  In 
England,  in  1819,  Mr.  Peel,  a  rising  member  of  Parliament  on  the 
Tory  side,  recommended  the  resumption  of  cash  payments  by  the 
Bank  of  England  (see  p.  835),  and,  so  much  improved  was  the 
financial  position  of  the  Government,  that  a  Bill  embodying  his 
suggestions  was  carried,  and  in  1821  the  Bank  of  England  ceased 
to  refuse  to  change  its  notes  for  gold. 

7.  Renewal  of  Distress.  1819.  — The  prosperity  of  1818  had  given 
rise  to  speculative  over-production  of  manufactures,  with  the  result 
that  more  goods  were  produced  than  were  needed  by  consumers. 
Production  was  therefore  limited  m  1819,  and  there  was  again 
great  distress  amongst  the  artisans.  Large  numbers  of  those  who 
suffered  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  their  condition  would 
never  be  improved  till  power  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  masses 
by  a  sweeping  measure  of  Parliamentary  reform.  Their  cause  had 
been  advocated  in  the  press  by  Cobbett,  the  author  of  hard-hitting, 
plain-spoken  pamphlets,  calling  for  a  complete  transference  of 
political  power  from  the  landowners  to  the  masses.  This  remedy 
for  the  evils  of  the  time  was  supported  on  the  platform  by  Hunt, 
usually  known  as  'Orator'  Hunt,  who,  whilst  stirring  up  his 
audiences  to  violence,  took  care  to  keep  his  own  person  out  of 
danger,  and  in  Parliament  by  Sir  Francis  Burdett,  whose  advocacy 
of  a  universal  suffrage  met  with  few  supporters  in  the  House  of 
Commons. 

8.  The  'Manchester  Massacre.'  1819.  —  To  support  these 
views  a  vast  meeting  of  at  least  50,000  gathered  on  August  16, 
1819,  in  St.  Peter's  Field  in  Manchester,  where  an  address  was 
to  be  delivered  by  Hunt.  The  magistrates  ordered  the  arrest  of 
Hunt  in  the  midst  of  the  vast  crowd  of  his  supporters.  A  party 
of  mounted  Yeomanry,  attempting  to  effect  his  capture,  was  soon 
broken  up,  and  the  isolated  soldiers  were  subjected  to  jeers  and 


88o  ENGLAND  AFTER    WATERLOO  1819  1820 

insults.  The  magistrates  then  sent  Hussars  to  support  the 
Yeomanry.  The  Hussars  charged,  and  the  weight  of  disciphned 
soldiery  drove  the  crowd  into  a  huddled  mass  of  shrieking  fugitives, 
pressed  together  by  their  efforts  to  escape.  When  at  last  the 
ground  was  cleared  many  of  the  victims  were  piled  up  on  one 
another.  Five  or  six  deaths  was  the  result,  and  the  number  of 
wounded  was  considerable.  The  '  Manchester  Massacre,'  as  it  was 
called,  opened  the  eyes  of  many  whose  hearts  had  hitherto  been 
callous  to  the  sufferings  of  the  discontented  artisans.  Men 
hitherto  content  to  argue  that  social  and  economical  difficulties 
could  not  be  solved  by  giving  power  to  the  ignorant  masses  began 
to  criticise  the  ineptitude  of  the  magistrates,  who  might  have 
avoided  all  violence  by  arresting  Hunt  either  before  or  after  the 
meeting,  and  to  ask  themselves  whether  a  system  could  be  justified 
which  led  to  the  dispersal  of  meetings  of  peaceable  citizens  by 
armed  soldiers. 

9.  The  Six  Acts.  1819. — The  Government,  on  the  other 
hand,  took  a  harsh  view  of  the  conduct,  not  of  the  magistrates,  but 
of  the  crowd.  "  Every  meeting  for  Radical  reform,"  wrote  a  dis- 
tinguished lawyer,  "  was  not  merely  a  seditious  attempt  to  under- 
mine the  existing  constitution  and  Government  by  bringing  it  into 
contempt,  but  it  was  an  overt  act  of  treasonable  conspiracy  against 
that  constitution  of  Government,  including  the  king  as  its  head 
and  bound  by  his  coronation  oath  to  maintain  it."  Lord  Eldon, 
the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  Lord  Sidmouth,  the  Home  Secretary, 
warmly  supported  this  view  of  the  case,  and,  as  soon  as  Parliament 
met,  six  measures,  usually  known  as  '  The  Six  Acts,'  were  rapidly 
passed.  Of  these  some  were  harmless  or  even  beneficial.  The 
harshest  was  the  one  directed  against  public  meetings.  With  the 
exception  of  such  as  were  summoned  by  official  persons,  '  all 
meetings  for  the  consideration  of  grievances  in  Church  and  State, 
or  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  petitions  .  .  .  except  in  the  parishes 
.  .  .  where  the  individuals  usually  reside,'  were  forbidden.  To 
prevent  any  attempt  to  introduce  inflammatory  appeals  from  cele- 
brated persons  brought  from  a  distance  the  presence  of  strangers 
at  these  local  meetings  was  prohibited. 

10.  Death  of  George  IIL  and  the  Cato-Street  Conspiracy. 
1820. — On  January  29,  1820,  George  HL  died.  As  the  new  king, 
his  son  George  IV.,  had  for  many  years  been  acting  as  regent, 
the  change  was  merely  nominal.  The  same  ministers  remained  in 
office,  and  the  same  policy  was  pursued.  The  attempt  to  make 
difficult  the  free  expression  of  opinion  gave   rise   to  secret  con- 


1 320  ACCESSION  OF  GEORGE   IV.  SSl 

spiracies,  and  there  were  undoubtedly  many  discontented  persons 
in  the  country  ready  to  use  violence  to  gain  their  ends.  A  certain 
Thistlewood,  with  about  thirty  other  persons,  proposed  to  murder 
the  whole  Cabinet  when  assembled  at  dinner  on  February  23.  The 
conspiracy  was  betrayed,  and  the  conspirators,  who  met  in  a  loft 
in  Cato  Street,  were  seized,  and  their  leaders  executed.  For  a  time 
the  '  Manchester  Massacre '  was  forgotten,  and  many  who  had  felt 


George  111.  in  old  age  :  from  Turner's  mezzotint. 

for  the   victims  of  the  soldiery  now   execrated   all   reformers   as 
supporters  of  assassins. 

II.  Queen  Caroline.  1820— 1821.— In  1795  George  IV.  had 
married  Caroline  of  Brunswick.  From  the  beginning  he  had  treated 
her  shamefully,  and  the  pair  were  separated  after  the  birth  of  an 
only  child,  the  Princess  Charlotte.  In  1816  this  Princess,  the 
heiress  to  the  throne,  was  married  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe 
Coburg,  and  in  1817  she  died  in  child-bed.  She  had  been  very 
popular,  and  hopes  had  been  entertained  that  when  she  came  to 


882  ENGLAND   AFTER    WATERLOO  1820-1823 

reign  she  would  establish  at  Court  a  purer  life.  Her  death  accord- 
ingly caused  a  general  gloom.  When  George  IV.  came  to  the 
throne  attention  was  publicly  called  to  his  degrading  vices.  To  his 
wife,  who  had  been  leading  an  indiscreet  and  probably  a  discredit- 
able life  on  the  Continent,  he  refused  to  allow  the  position  or  even 
the  title  of  a  queen.  In  1820,  when  she  returned  to  meet  any 
charges  that  might  be  brought  against  her,  she  received  a  most 
enthusiastic  greeting  from  the  populace,  the  general  feeling  being 
that,  even  if  her  conduct  had  been  as  bad  as  her  husband  said, 
his  own  had  been  so  base  that  he  had  no  right  to  call  her  in 
question.  The  ministers,  indeed,  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Lords  a  Bill  to  dissolve  her  marriage  and  to  deprive  her  of  the 
title  of  queen,  but  the  majority  in  its  favour  was  so  small  that 
they  had  to  abandon  it.  The  queen's  popularity,  however,  deserted 
her  when  she  accepted  a  grant  of  money  from  the  ministers  who 
had  attacked  her,  and  in  1821  she  died. 

12.  The  Southern  Revolutions.  1820— 1823. — In  Spain  Ferdi- 
nand VII.,  and  in  Naples  Ferdinand  I.,  had  been  ruling  despotically 
and  harshly.  In  1820  the  armies  in  both  countries  rose  against 
the  kings  and  established  the  same  democratic  constitution  in 
both.  Metternich,  the  Austrian  minister,  called  on  the  great  Powers 
of  Europe  to  put  down  what  he  held  to  be  a  pernicious  example 
to  all  other  countries.  Russia  and  Prussia  supported  him,  and, 
meeting  in  congress  at  Troppau,  called  on  England  and  France  to 
join  them  against  the  Neapolitans.  Louis  XVIII.,  on  the  part  of 
France,  attempted  to  mediate,  and  though  Castlereagh,  the  English 
Foreign  Secretary,  warmly  disapproved  of  revolutions,  he  protested 
against  Metternich's  view  that  the  great  Powers  had  a  right  to 
interfere  to  suppress  changes  of  government  in  smaller  states.  In 
1821  the  congress  removed  to  Laibach,  and  an  Austrian  army 
marched  upon  Naples.  Tne  Neapolitan  army  ran  away,  and  the 
Austrians  restored  Ferdinand  I.  A  military  revolution  which  took 
place  in  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  was  crushed  at  the  same  time. 
In  1823  a  French  army  entered  Spain  and  restored  Ferdinand  VI I. 
Both  at  Naples  and  in  Spain  the  restored  kings  were  vindictively 
cruel  to  those  who  had  driven  them  from  power. 

13.  Castlereagh  and  Canning.  1822— 1826.— Castlereagh  did 
not  live  to  work  out  the  policy  which  he  had  announced  in  the 
protest  laid  by  him  before  the  congress  of  Troppau.  In  1822,  in  a 
moment  of  insanity,  he  committed  suicide.  His  successor  was 
George  Canning.  There  was  no  great  difference  in  the  substance 
of  the  policy  of  the  two  men.     Both  had  supported  the  doctrine  of 


I822-I823 


CASTLEREAGH  AND    CANNING 


national  independence  against  Napoleon,  and  both  were  ready  to 
support  it  against  the  allied  Powers  whose  union  was  popularly, 
though  incorrectly,  known  as  the  Holy  Alliance.  Castlereagh, 
however,  was  anxious  to  conciliate  the  great  Powers  as  much  as 
possible,  and  confined  his  protests  to  written  despatches,  which 
were  kept  secret  ;  whereas  Canning  took  pleasure  in  defying 
Metternich  and  openly  turned  him  into  ridicule  in  the  eyes  of  the 


George  IV.  :  from  an  unfinished  portrait  by  Lawrence  in  ttie 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

world.  Castlereagh  was  accordingly  detested  in  England  as  the 
supporter  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  whereas  Canning  soon  became 
popular  as  its  opponent.  He  allowed,  indeed,  the  French  army  to 
enter  Spain  in  1823,  and  had  no  thought  of  dragging  England  into 
a  war;  but  in  1824  he  acknowledged  the  independence  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  America,  after  it  had  practically  been  accom- 
plished by  the  exertions  of  the  colonists.     "  I  have  called,"  he  said 


884  ENGLAND   AFTER    WATERLOO  1824^1827 

boastfully,  "  a  new  world  into  existence  to  redress  the  balance  of 
the  old."  Such  claptrap  revealed  the  lower  side  of  his  character  ; 
but  in  1826  he  showed  that  he  could  act  promptly  as  well  as  speak 
foolishly.  A  constitutional  government  having  been  established  in 
Portugal,  Spain,  backed  by  France,  threatened  to  invade  Portugal. 
Canning  at  once  sent  British  troops  to  secure  Portugal,  and  the 
danger  was  averted. 

14.  National  Uprising  in  Greece.  1821 — 1826. — The  object  of 
the  revolutionists  in  Spain  and  Italy  had  been  constitutional 
change.  An  almost  simultaneous  rising  in  Greece  aimed  at 
national  independence.  The  Turkish  government  was  a  cruel 
despotism,  and  in  1821  there  was  a  rising  in  the  Peloponnesus  or 
Morea.  Turks  and  Greeks  were  merciless  to  one  another.  The 
Turks  massacred  Greeks,  and  the  Greeks  gave  no  quarter  to 
Turks.  The  Greeks  had  the  advantage  of  a  well-equipped  ship- 
ping, and  could  hold  their  own  at  sea.  In  1822  two  great  Turkish 
armies  were  sent  to  conquer  the  insurgents  in  the  land,  but  one 
was  driven  back  by  the  defenders  of  Missolonghi  in  ^tolia,  the 
other  was  starved  out  and  perished  in  the  mountains  of  Argolis. 
The  Sultan  Mahmoud  appealed  for  help  to  Mehemet  Ali,  the 
Pasha  of  Egypt,  who  had  practically  made  himself  almost  in- 
dependent of  the  Sultan,  and  Mehemet  Ali  sent  to  his  help  an 
Egyptian  army  under  his  own  adopted  son  Ibrahim  Pasha.  In  1824 
Ibrahim  conquered  Crete,  and  in  1825  landed  in  Peloponnesus, 
where  he  did  his  best  absolutely  to  exterminate  the  population  by 
slaughtering  the  men  and  sending  off  the  women  to  be  sold  into 
slavery.  In  1826,  whilst  Ibrahim  was  wasting  Peloponnesus,  the 
Turks  captured  Missolonghi,  and  in  1827  they  reduced  the  Acropolis 
of  Athens.  Canning  had  all  along  sympathised  with  the  Greeks, 
but  Metternich  opposed  him  in  all  directions.  Canning  ac- 
cordingly turned  to  Russia,  where  Nicholas  had  succeeded  his 
brother  Alexander  I.  in  1825,  and  in  1826  he  and  the  new  Tzar 
came  to  an  agreement  that  Greece  should  be  freed  from  the  direct 
government  of  the  sultan,  but  should  be  required  to  pay  him  a 
tribute. 

15.  Peel  as  Home  Secretary.  1821— 1827. — Whilst  Canning 
won  credit  for  the  ministry  by  a  popular  direction  of  foreign 
affairs,  Peel — who  had  succeeded  Sidmouth  as  Home  Secretary 
in  1821 — won  credit  for  it  by  his  mode  of  dealing  with  domestic 
difficulties.  When  he  came  into  office  a  deep  feeling  of  distrust 
existed  between  the  rich  and  the  poor.  The  rich  were  in  a  state 
of  panic,  fearing  every  political  movement  amongst  the  mass  of 


1821-1825  PEEL  AND  HUSKISSON  885 

their  fellow-countrymen  as  likely  to  produce  a  renewal  in  England 
of  the  horrors  of  the  French  Revolution.  The  poor,  on  the  other 
hand,  attributed  the  misery  resulting  from  economical  causes,  or 
even  from  the  badness  of  the  weather,  to  the  deliberate  machina- 
tions of  the  rich.  What  was  wanted  at  that  time  was,  not  to 
bring  classes  into  more  violent  collision  by  attempting  to  reform 
Parliament  in  a  democratic  direction,  but  to  soften  down  the  irri- 
tation between  them  by  a  series  of  administrative  and  economic 
reforms,  which  should  present  Parliament  as  a  helper  rather  than 
as  a  contriver  of  fresh  methods  of  repression.  Peel  was,  of  all 
men,  the  best  fitted  to  take  the  lead  in  such  a  work.  He  had  no 
sympathy  with  hasty  and  sweeping  change,  but  he  had  an  open 
mind  for  all  practical  improvements.  Sooner  or  later  the  force  of 
reasoning  made  an  impression  on  him,  and  he  was  never  above 
avowing — what  with  some  people  is  the  most  terrible  of  confessions — 
that  he  had  changed  his  mind. 

16.  Criminal  Law  Reform.  1823.— The  reform  of  the  criminal 
law  had  long  been  advocated  in  vain  by  two  large-minded 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  Sir  Samuel  Romilly  and 
Sir  James  Mackintosh.  As  the  law  stood  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century  no  less  than  two  hundred  crimes  were  punishable  by  death. 
Anyone,  for  instance,  who  stole  fish  out  of  a  pond,  who  hunted  in 
the  king's  forests,  or  who  injured  Westminster  Bridge,  was  to  be 
hanged.  Sometimes  these  harsh  laws  were  put  in  force,  but  more 
often  juries  refused  to  convict  even  the  guilty,  preferring  rather  to 
perjure  themselves  by  delivering  a  verdict  which  they  knew  to  be 
untrue  than  send  to  death  a  person  who  had  merely  committed  a 
trivial  offence.  Again  and  again  the  House  of  Commons  had 
voted  for  an  alteration  of  the  law,  but  the  House  of  Lords  had  ob- 
stinately refused  to  pass  the  Bills  sent  up  to  them  with  this  object. 
In  1823  Peel  brought  in  Bills  for  the  abolition  of  the  death  penalty 
for  about  a  hundred  crimes,  and  the  House  of  Lords  at  last  gave 
way,  now  that  the  abolition  was  recommended  by  a  minister. 

17.  Huskisson  and  the  Combination  Laws.  1824—1825. — 
Reforms  were  the  more  easily  made  because  the  distress  which 
had  prevailed  earlier  was  now  at  an  end.  In  1821  a  revival  of 
commerce  began,  and  in  1824  and  1825  there  was  great  prosperity. 
In  the  struggle  which  had  long  continued  between  master- 
manufacturers  and  their  workmen,  the  workmen  had  frequently 
combined  together  in  trades-unions  to  impose  terms  upon  the 
masters,  and  had  attempted  to  enforce  their  demands  by  striking 
work.     Combinations  between  workmen  were,  however,  illegal  till 


886 


ENGLAND  AFTER    WATERLOO 


1823- 1825 


in  1824,  at  the  instance  of  Joseph  Hume,  a  rising  economical 
reformer,  and  with  the  warm  support  of  Huskisson,  the 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  laws  against  combina- 
tions were  repealed,  though  in  1825,  in  consequence  of  acts  of 
violence  done  by  the  workmen  against  unpopular  masters,  a 
further  act   was   passed  making   legal  all  combinations   both   of 


Lord  Byron :  from  an  engraving  in  the  British  Museum 
from  a  painting  by  Sanders. 


masters  and  men,  if  entered  on  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  wages,  but 
illegal  if  entered  on  for  any  other  purpose, 

18.  Robinson's  Budgets.  1823 — 1825. — This  attempt  to  give 
freedom  to  labour  was  accompanied  by  steps  in  the  direction  of 
freedom  of  trade.  Robinson,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
supported  by  Huskisson,  employed  the  surplus  given  him  by  the 


1823-1827  POLITICS  AND  LII^ERATURE  887 

prosperity  of  the  country  to  reduce  the  duties  on  some  imports.  It 
was  but  little  that  was  done,  but  it  was  the  first  time  since  Pitt's 
commercial  treaty  with  France  that  a  government  showed  any 
signs  of  perceiving  that  Englishmen  would  be  better  ofif  by  the 
removal  of  artificial  difficulties  in  the  way  of  their  trade  with  other 
nations. 

19.  The  End  of  the  Liverpool  Ministry.  1826  — 1827. — Though 
the  ministry  was  in  name  a  Tory  ministry,  it  was  far  from  being 
united  on  any  subject.  Some  of  its  members,  like  the  Chancellor, 
Lord  Eldon,  continued  to  detest  all  reforms,  thinking  that  they 
must  ultimately  lead  to  a  catastrophe  ;  whilst  other  ministers,  like 
Canning,  Peel,  and  Huskisson,  were  in  favour  of  gradual  reforms, 
though  there  were  some  particular  questions  on  which  even  the 
reformers  were  not  in  agreement.  So  discordant  a  ministry  could 
hardly  have  been  kept  together  but  for  the  tact  and  easy  nature  of 
its  head,  the  Earl  of  Liverpool,  who  allowed  the  ministers  to  argue 
against  one  another  in  Parliament  even  on  important  subjects.  On 
February  17,  1827,  Liverpool  was  incapacitated  from  public  service 
by  an  attack  of  apoplexy,  and  it  was  by  that  time  evident  that 
the  two  sections  of  the  Cabinet  would  not  be  able  to  serve  together 
under  any  other  leader.  Whatever  differences  there  might  be 
about  details,  the  main  difference  between  the  two  sections  can 
be  easily  described.  On  the  one  hand,  the  unprogressive  section 
not  only  disliked  the  idea  of  changing  institutions  which  had  proved 
themselves  useful  in  past  times,  but  also  shrank  from  giving  way 
to  increased  popular  control  over  Parliament,  or  to  any  violent 
popular  demand  for  legislation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  progres- 
sive section,  though  hardly  prepared  to  allow  the  decisions  of 
Parliament  to  be  influenced  by  popular  pressure,  was  yet  in  some 
sympathy  with  the  popular  feeling  on  subjects  ripe  for  legislation. 

20.  Burns,  Byron,  and  Shelley. — As  usually  happens,  the 
strong  opinions  which  prevailed  amongst  politicians  were  reflected 
in  the  literature  of  the  time.  Burns,  the  Ayrshire  ploughman, 
whose  first  verses  were  written  in  1775,  was  in  full  accordance  with 
the  precursors  of  the  French  Revolution  in  his  love  of  nature  and 
his  revolt  against  traditional  custom,  and  too  often  in  his  revolt 
against  traditional  morality.     The  often-quoted  lines 

The  rank  is  but  the  guinea' ti  stamp; 
The  man  's  the  gowd  for  a'  that, 

show  the  same  contempt  for  class  distinctions  as  inspired  the 
writings  of  Rousseau.     Whilst,  however,  Rousseau  looked  to  the 


888  ENGLAND  AFTER    WATERLOO 

good  sense  of  the  masses  to  remedy  the  evils  of  the  time,  Burns 
turned  hopefully  to  the  work  and  sturdiness  of  individual  men  to 
heal  the  evils  caused  by  the  inordinate  value  placed  on  social 
rank.  The  honour  paid  to  the  free  development  of  individual 
character  was,  in  fact,  the  characteristic  of  the  English  and  Scottish 


Sir  Walter  ScotL :  from  a  {.ainting  by  Colvin  Smith. 

revolt  against  existing  order,  as  opposed  to  the  honour  paid  by  the 
French  Revolutionists  to  the  opinion  of  the  community.  Byron, 
whose  first  poems  were  printed  in  1806,  but  whose  first  great  work — 
the  first  two  cantos  of  Childe  Hm  old — appeared  in  1812,  embodied 
this  form  of  revolt  in  his  works  as  well  as  in  his  life  in  a  very 
different  fashion  from  that  of  Burns.  Breaking  loose  himself  from 
moral  restraints,  he  loved  to  glorify  the  characters  of  those  who 
set  at  defiance  the  order  of  civilised  life.  In  1824  he  died  of  fever 
at  Missolonghi,  fighting  for  Greek  independence.     Shelley,  whose 


I793-I8I4 


POETRY  AND  POLITICS 


88q 


poems  range  from  1808  to  his  early  death  by  drowning  in  1822,  had 
a  gentler  spirit.  All  human  law  and  discipline  seemed  to  him  to 
be  the  mere  invention  of  tyrants,  by  which  the  instinctive  cravinc^ 
of  the  soul  for  beauty  of  form  and  nobility  of  life  was  repressed. 

.21.  Scott  and  Wordsworth. — On  the  other  hand  two  great 
poets,  Scott  and  Wordsworth,  upheld  the  traditions  of  the  ancient 
order  of  society.  Scott's  first  great  poem,  The  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel^  appeared  in  1805.  In  1814  he  deserted  poetry  for  the 
writing  of  the  Waverley  Novels,  His  mind  was  filled  with  reverence 
for  the  past  life  of  his 
country,  and  this  he  set 
forth  in  verse  and  prose 
as  no  other  writer  has 
done.  Yet  Scott's  works 
may  be  quoted  in  sup- 
port of  the  doctrine  that 
no  considerable  move- 
ment of  thought  can 
leave  its  greatest  op- 
ponents unaffected,  and 
the  better  side  of  the 
revolutionary  upturning, 
its  preference  of  the 
natural  to  the  artificial, 
and  of  the  humble  to  the 
exalted,  inspired  the  best 
work  of  Scott.  His 
imaginative  love  for  the 
heath-clad  mountains  of 
his  country,  and  his  skill 
in  depicting  the  pathos 
and  the  humour  of  the 
lowly,  stood  him  in 
better  stead  than  his 
skill  in  bringing  before  his  readers  the  chivalry  and  the  pageantry 
of  the  past.  As  it  was  with  Scott  so  it  was  with  Wordsworth 
whose  first  poetry  was  published  in  1793.  The  early  promise  of  the 
French  Revolution  filled  him  with  enthusiasm,  but  its  excesses 
disgusted  him,  and  he  soon  became  an  attached  admirer  of  the 
institutions  of  his  country.  It  was  not  this  admiration,  however, 
which  put  the  stamp  of  greatness  on  his  work,  but  his  open  eye 
fixed,  even  more  clearly  than  Scott's,  upon  the  influences  of  nature 
HI.  3  M 


Wordsworth  at  the  age  of  28  :  from  a  portrait  by 
Hancock  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 


890  THE  DOCTRINE   OF  UTILITY  1776-1832 

upon  the  human  mind,  and  a  loving  sympathy  with  the  lives  of 
the  poor. 

22.  Bentham.— -In  politics  and  in  law  the  same  influences  were 
felt  as  in  literature.  As  the  horror  caused  by  the  French  Revolu- 
tion cleared  away,  there  arose  a  general  dissatisfaction  with  the 
existing  tendency  to  uphold  what  exists  merely  because  it  exists. 
The  dissatisfaction  thus  caused  found  support  in  the  writings  of 
Jeremy  Bentham,  who  busied  himself  from  1776  to  his  death  in  1832 
with  suggestions  of  legal  and  political  reform.  Like  Voltaire 
and  the  French  encyclopedists,  he  asked  that  legislation  might  be 
rational,  and  he  sought  a  basis  for  rational  legislation  in  the  doc- 
trine of  utility.  Utility  he  defined  to  be  '  that  property  in  any  object 
whereby  it  tends  to  produce  benefit,  advantage,  pleasure,  good,  or 
happiness,  or  to  prevent  the  happening  of  mischief,  pain,  evil,  or  un- 
happiness  to  the  party  whose  interest  is  considered.'  The  object 
which  Bentham  desired,  therefore,  has  been  summed  up  in  the 
phrase  '  the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number,'  and  though 
in  pursuit  of  this  Bentham  and  his  disciples  often  left  out  of  sight  the 
satisfaction  of  the  spiritual  and  emotional  parts  of  man's  complex 
nature,  they  undoubtedly  did  much  to  clear  away  an  enormous 
quantity  of  mischievous  legislation.  It  was  in  a  kindred  spirit  that 
Romilly,  Mackintosh  and  Peel  urged  on  the  modification  of  the 
criminal  law,  and  it  was  hardly  likely  that  a  movement  of  this  kind, 
when  once  begun,  would  be  soon  arrested. 

Books  recommended  for  the  further  study  of  Part  X. 

Lecky,  W.  fe.  H.     History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.     Vol  v. 

P.154-V0I.  vi.  p.  137;  Vol.  vi.  p.  456-Vol.  viii. 
Massey,  W.     a  History  of  England  in  the  Reign  of  George  HI.     Vol.  iv. 
Martineau,  Harriet  (Miss).     History  of  England,  a.d.  1800-1815. 
A  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  Peace.  Vol.  i.- 

Vol.  ii.  p.  125. 
Walpole,  Spencer.     A  History  of  England  from  the  Conclusion  of  the 

Great  War  in  1815.     Vol.  i.-Vol.  ii.  p.  158. 
Lewis,  Sir  George  Cornewall.     Essays  on  the  Administrations  of  Great 

Britain.      Pp.  129-432. 
Napier,  Sir  W.  F.  P.     History  of  the  Peninsular  War. 
BrialmoNT,  a.   Life  of  Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington,  translated  from  the  French, 

with  emendations  and  additions  by  the  Rev.  G.  R.  Gleig. 


891 


PART   XI 

THE   GROWTH  OF  DEMOCRACY 

CHAPTER   LVI 

CATHOLIC   EMANCIPATION  AND   PARLIAMENTARY   REFORM 
1827-1832 

LEADING  DATES 

Reign  of  George  IV.,  1820    1830 

Reign  of  William  IV  ,  1830-1837 

Canning  Prime  Minister April  10,  1827 

Goderich  Prime  Minister Aug.  8,  1827 

Battle  of  Navarino  Oct.  20,  1827 

Wellington  Frime  Minister Jan.  9,  1828 

Repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts       ....     1828 

Catholic  Emancipation  Act 1829 

Death  of  George  IV.  and  Accession  of  William  IV.   .        .     1^30 

Lord  Grey's  Ministry 1830 

Introduction  of  the  Reform  Bill        ....  March  i,  1831 
The  Reform  Act  becomes  Law        ....       Jan.  7,  1832 

I.  Questions  at  Issue.  1827.— During  the  latter  years  of 
Liverpool's  Prime  Ministership  two  questions  had  been  coming 
into  prominence  :  the  one  that  of  Catholic  emancipation  by  the  ad- 
mission of  Catholics  to  Parliament  and  to  offices  of  state  ;  the  other 
that  of  Parliamentary  reform,  with  a  view  to  diminish  the  power  of 
the  landowners  over  elections  to  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
to  transfer  at  least  part  of  their  power  to  enlarged  constituencies. 
Of  the  leading  statesmen  Wellington  and  Peel  were  opposed  to 
both  the  proposed  changes  ;  Canning  was  in  favour  of  Catholic 
emancipation,  but  opposed  to  Parliamentary  reform  ;  whilst  the 
Whigs,  the  most  noteworthy  of  whom  were  Earl  Grey  in  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  Lord  Althorp  and  Lord  John  Russell  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  were  favourable  to  both. 

3M  3 


892 


CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION 


1827 


2.  Canning  Prime  Minister.  1827. — Before  Liverpool  left  office 
a  resolution  in  favour  of  Catholic  emancipation  was  defeated  in  the 
House  of  Commons  by  the  slight  majority  of  four,  and  almost  imme- 
diately afterwards  Canning,  who  had  spoken  and  voted  for  it,  was 
appointed  Prime  Minister.  Seven  of  the  former  ministers,  including 
Wellington  and  Peel,  refused  to  serve  under  him.  On  the  other  hand 
he  obtained  the  support  of  the  Whigs,  to  a  few  of  whom  office  was 
shortly  afterwards  given.  The  Whigs  had  been  long  unpopular, 
on  account  of  the  opposition  which   they  had  offered  to  the  war 

with  France  even 
whilst  Wellington 
was  conducting  his 
great  campaigns  in 
the  Peninsula  ;  but 
they  had  now  a 
chance  of  recovering 
public  favour  by  as- 
sociating themselves 
with  domestic  re- 
forms. There  can 
hardly  be  a  doubt 
that  Canning's  min- 
istry, if  it  had  lasted, 
could  only  have  main- 
tained itself  by  a 
more  extended  ad- 
mission of  the  Whigs 
to  power.  Canning's 
health  was,  however, 
failing,  and  on  August 
8  he  died,  having 
been  Prime  Minister 
for  less  than  four 
months. 

3.  The  Battle  of  Navarino  and  the  Goderich  Ministry.  1827. — 
Canning  was  succeeded  by  Goderich,  who  had  formerly,  as  Mr. 
Robinson  (see  p.  886),  been  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  His 
colleagues  quarrelled  with  one  another,  and  Goderich  was  too  weak 
a  man  to  settle  their  disputes.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  news 
arrived  which  increased  their  differences.  On  July  6,  whilst 
Canning  still  lived,  a  treaty  had  been  signed  in  London  between 
England,  France,  and  Russia,  binding  the  three  powers  to  offer 


Canning  :  from  Stewardson's  portrait. 


1827-1828  NAVARINO  893 

mediation  between  the  Turks  and  the  Greeks,  and,  in  the  event  of 
either  party  rejecting  their  mediation,  to  put  an  end  by  force  to  the 
struggle  which  was  going  on.  Instructions  were  sent  to  Codrington, 
the  admiral  commanding  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  to  stop  suppUes 
cotning  into  Greece  from  Turkey  or  Egypt,  but  to  avoid  hostiUties. 
On  September  9  a  fleet  composed  of  Turkish  and  Egyptian  ships, 
laden  with-  men  and  supplies,  reached  Navarino,  close  to  the  ancient 
Pylos,  in  the  south-west  of  Peloponnesus.  Codrington  arrived 
two  days  later,  and  was  afterwards  joined  by  French  and  Russian 
squadrons.  The  combined  fleet  compelled  the  Turkish  and  Egyptian 
fleet  to  remain  inactive.  On  land,  however,  Ibrahim  (see  p.  884), 
who  commanded  the  army  transported  in  it  from  Egypt,  proceeded 
deliberately  to  turn  the  soil  of  Peloponnesus  into  a  desert,  slaying  and 
wasting  as  he  moved.  On  October  20,  the  allied  admirals,  unwilling 
to  tolerate  the  commission  of  such  brutalities,  entered  the  Bay  of 
Navarino,  in  which  twenty-two  centuries  before  Athenians  and  Lace- 
daemonians had  contended  for  the  mastery.  A  gun  was  fired  from  a 
Turkish  ship,  and  a  battle  began  in  which  half  of  the  Egyptian  fleet 
was  destroyed,  and  the  remainder  submitted.  The  victory  made 
Greek  independence  possible.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Can- 
ning, if  he  had  lived,  would  have  been  overjoyed  at  the  result. 
Goderich  and  his  colleagues  in  the  ministry  could  not  agree  whether 
Codrington  deserved  praise  or  blame.  There  were  fresh  quarrels 
amongst  them,  and,  on  December  21,  'Goody  Goderich,'  as  the 
wits  called  him,  went  to  the  king  to  complain  of  his  opponents. 
George  IV.  told  him  to  go  home  and  take  care  of  himself.  It 
is  said  that  on  this  the  Prime  Minister  burst  into  tears,  and  that 
the  king  offered  him  his  pocket  handkerchief  to  dry  them.  On 
January  9,  1828,  Goderich  formally  resigned. 

4.  Formation  of  the  Wellington  Ministry.  1828. — The  Duke 
of  Wellington  became  Prime  Minister,  and  Peel  again  became 
Home  Secretary  and  the  leading  minister  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  new  ministry,  from  which  the  Whigs  were 
rigorously  excluded,  was  to  be  like  Lord  Liverpool's  one,  in  which 
Catholic  emancipation  was  to  be  an  open  question,  each  minister 
being  at  liberty  to  speak  and  vote  on  it  as  he  thought  fit.  Those 
who  supported  it,  of  whom  Huskisson  was  one,  were  now  known 
as  Canningites,  from  their  attachment  to  the  principles  of  that 
minister.  It  was,  however,  unlikely  that  the  two  sections  of  the 
ministry  would  long  hold  together,  especially  as  the  question  of 
Parliamentary  reform  was  now  rising  into  importance,  and  the 
Canningites  showed   a   disposition  to  break   away  on  this   point 


894  PARLIAMENTARY  REFORM  1819  1828 

from  Wellington  and   Peel,  who  were   strongly  opposed   to  any 
change  in  the  constitution  of  Parliament. 

5.  Lord  John  Russell  and  Parliamentary  Reform.  1819 — 
1828. — The  cause  of  Parliamentary  reform  had  suffered  much 
from  the  sweeping  nature  of  the  proposals  made  after  the  great  war 
by  Hunt  and  Sir  Francis  Burdett  (see  p.  879).  In  iSipthe  question 
was  taken  up  by  a  young  Whig  member,  Lord  John  Russell,  who 
perceived  that  the  only  chance  of  prevailing  with  the  House  of 
Commons  was  to  ask  it  to  accept  much  smaller  changes  than 
those  for  which  Burdett  asked,  and  thought  that,  whilst  it  would 
not  listen  to  declarations  about  the  right  of  the  people  to  man- 
hood suffrage,  it  might  listen  to  a  proposal  to  remedy  admitted 
grievances  in  detail.  In  1819  he  drew  attention  to  the  subject, 
and  in  1820  asked  for  the  disfranchisement,  at  the  next  election, 
of  four  places  in  Devon  and  Cornwall :  Grampound,  Penryn, 
Barnstaple  and  Camelford,  which  returned  two  members  apiece, 
and  in  which  corruption  notoriously  prevailed.  His  proposal, 
accepted  by  the  Commons,  was  rejected  by  the  Lords.  In  a  new 
Parliament  which  met  later  in  the  same  year  Lord  John  proposed 
to  disfranchise  Grampound  only,  and  to  transfer  its  members  to 
Leeds,  thus  touching  one  of  the  great  political  grievances  of  the 
day,  the  possession  of  the  right  of  returning  members  by  small 
villages,  whilst  it  was  refused  to  large  communities  like  Birming- 
ham and  Leeds.  The  House  was,  however,  frightened  at  the  idea 
of  giving  power  to  populous  towns,  and  in  1821,  when  the  Bill  for 
disfranchising  Grampound  was  actually  passed,  its  members  were 
transferred,  not  to  Leeds  but  to  Yorkshire,  which  thus  came  to 
return  four  members  instead  of  two.  A  first  step  had  thus  been 
taken  in  the  direction  of  reform,  and  Lord  John  Russell  from  time 
to  time  attempted  to  obtain  the  assent  of  the  House  of  Commons 
to  a  proposal  to  take  into  consideration  the  whole  subject.  Time 
after  time,  however,  his  motions  were  rejected,  and  in  1827  Lord 
John  fell  back  on  his  former  plan  of  separately  attacking  corrupt 
boroughs.  In  1827  Penryn  and  East  Retford  having  been  found 
guilty  of  corruption,  he  obtained  a  vote  in  the  Commons  for  the 
disfranchisement  of  Penryn,  whilst  the  disfranchisement  of  East 
Retford  was  favourably  considered.  As  this  vote  was  not  followed 
by  the  passing  of  any  act  of  Parliament  to  give  effect  to  it,  it  was 
understood  that  Lord  John  would  make  fresh  proposals  in  the 
following  year. 

6.  Repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts.  1828. — In  1828, 
after  the  formation  of  the  Wellington  Ministry,  before  the  question 
of  the  corrupt  boroughs  was  discussed,  Russell  was  successful  in 


i828  LORD  JOHN  RUSSELUS  SUCCESS  895 

removing  another  grievance.  He  proposed  to  repeal  the  Corpora- 
tion Act  (see  p.  585),  and  the  Test  Act  (see  p.  607),  so  far  as  it  com- 
pelled all  applicants  for  office  and  for  seats  in  Parliament  to  receive 
the  Communion  in  the  Church  of  England.  By  this  means  relief 
would  be  given  to  Dissenters,  whilst  Roman  Catholics  would  still  be 
excluded  by  the  clause  which  required  a  declaration  against  transub- 
stantiation  and  which  Russell  did  not  propose  to  repeal.  Russell's 
scheme  was  resisted  by  the  ministers  but  accepted  by  the  House, 
and  it  finally  became  law,  passing  the  House  of  Lords  upon  the 
addition  of  a  clause  suggested  by  Peel  requiring  a  declaration 
from  Dissenters  claiming  to  hold  office  or  to  sit  in  Parliament  or 
in  municipal  corporations  that  they  would  not  use  their  power  '  to 
injure  or  subvert  the  Established  Church.'  It  was  thus  made 
evident  that  Peel  could  not  be  counted  on  to  resist  change  as 
absolutely  as  Sidmouth  could  have  been  calculated  on  when  the 
reaction  against  the  French  Revolution  was  at  its  height.  He  was 
practical  and  cautious,  not  easily  caught  by  new  ideas,  but  prompt 
to  discover  when  resistance  became  more  dangerous  than  con- 
cession, and  resolutely  determined  to  follow  honestly  his  intellectual 
convictions. 

7.  Resignation  of  the  Canningites.  1828. — The  ministry  had 
been  distracted  by  constant  squabbles,  and  at  last,  in  May,  1828, 
Huskisson  and  the  other  Canningites  resigned,  the  ministry  being 
reconstructed  as  a  purely  Tory  ministry.  The  Tories  were  in 
ecstasies,  forgetting  that  their  leaders,  Wellington  and  Peel,  were 
too  sensible  to  pursue  a  policy  of  mere  resistance, 

8.  The  Catholic  Association.  1823 — 1828. — The  main  question, 
on  which  the  Tories  took  one  side  and  the  Whigs  and  Canningites 
the  other,  was  that  of  Catholic  emancipation.  That  question  now 
assumed  a  new  prominence.  In  Ireland  Catholic  emancipation 
was  advocated  by  Daniel  O'Connell,  who  was  himself  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  was  not  only  an  eloquent  speaker  whose  words  went 
home  to  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen,  but  also  the  leader  of  a  great 
society,  the  Catholic  Association,  which  had  been  formed  in  1823 
to  support  Catholic  emancipation.  In  1824  the  CathoHc  Association 
became  thoroughly  organised,  and  commanded  a  respect  amongst 
the  majority  of  Irishmen  v/hich  was  not  given  to  the  Parliament 
at  Westminster.  O'Connell's  words  sometimes  pointed  to  the  pos- 
sibihty  of  resistance  if  Parliament  rejected  the  Catholic  claims.  In 
1825  Parliament  passed  an  act  to  dissolve  the  Association.  The 
Irish  were,  however,  too  quick-witted  to  allow  it  to  be  suppressed 
by  British  legislation.     They  dissolved  the  Association,  but  started 


896  CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION  1828-1829 

a  new  one  in  which  the  question  of  CathoHc  emancipation  was  not 
to  be  discussed,  though  the  members  naturally  thought  the  more 
about  it.  In  Parliament  itself  many  who  had  voted  for  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Association  voted  for  Catholic  emancipation,  and,  in  1825, 
a  Bill  granting  it  passed  the  Commons,  though  it  was  rejected  by 
the  Lords. 

9.  O'Connell's  Election.  1828. — In  1828  Vesey  Fitzgerald, 
member  for  the  county  of  Clare,  was  promoted  to  an  office  pre 
viously  held  by  one  of  the  Canningites,  and  had,  consequently,  to 
present  himself  for  re-election  (see  p.  674).  O'Connell  stood  in 
opposition  to  him  for  the  vacant  seat.  All  the  influence  of  the 
priests  was  thrown  on  his  side,  and  he  was  triumphantly  returned, 
though  it  was  known  that  he  would  refuse  to  declare  against  tran- 
substantiation,  and  would  thus  be  prevented  by  the  unrepealed 
clause  of  the  Test  Act  (see  p.  890)  from  taking  his  seat  in  the 
House  of  Commons. 

10.  Catholic  Emancipation.  1829. — When  Parliament  met  in 
1829  it  was  discovered  that  the  Government  intended  to  grant 
Catholic  emancipation,  to  which  it  had  hitherto  been  bitterly 
opposed.  Wellington  looked  at  the  matter  with  a  soldier's  eye. 
He  did  not  like  to  admit  the  Catholics,  and  had  held  the  position 
against  them  as  long  as  it  was  tenable.  It  was  now,  in  his  opinion, 
untenable,  because  to  reject  the  Catholic  claims  would  bring  about 
a  civil  war,  and  a  civil  war  was  worse  than  the  proposed  legisla- 
tion. He  felt  it,  therefore,  to  be  his  duty  to  retreat  to  another 
position,  from  which  civil  order  could  be  better  defended.  Peel's 
mindjnoved  slowly,  but  it  moved  certainly,  and  he  now  appeared 
as  a  defender  of  Catholic  relief  on  principle.  To  show  his  sincerity, 
Peel  resigned  his  seat  for  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  presented 
himself  for  re-election  in  order  to  allow  his  constituents  to  express 
an  opinion  on  his  change  of  front ;  and,  being  defeated  at  Oxford, 
was  chosen  by  the  small  borough  of  Westbury.  A  Bill,  giving 
effect  to  the  intentions  of  the  Government,  was  brought  in.  The 
anger  of  the  Tories  was  exceedingly  great,  and  even  Wellington 
had,  after  the  fashion  of  those  days,  to  prove  his  sincerity  by  fight- 
ing a  duel  with  the  Earl  of  Winchilsea.  The  king  resisted,  but 
the  resistance  of  George  IV.,  now  a  weak  old  voluptuary,  was 
easily  beaten  down.  The  Commons  passed  the  Bill,  throwing  open 
Parliament,  and  all  offices  except  a  few  of  special  importance,  to 
the  Roman  Catholics,  after  which  the  House  of  Lords,  under 
Wellington's  influence,  accepted  it.  The  Bill  therefore  became  law, 
accompanied  by  another  for  disfranchising  forty-shilling  freeholders 


i829 


APSLEY  HOUSE 


897 


,898  CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION  1829-1830 

in  Ireland.  These  freeholders  had  been  allowed  to  vote  as  long  as 
their  votes  were  given  to  the  landlords  ;  their  votes  were  taken 
from  them  now  that  they  were  given  to  the  candidates  supported 
by  the  priests. 

11.  Death  of  George  IV.  1830. — Catholic  emancipation  was 
the  result  of  the  spread  of  one  of  the  principles  which  had  actuated 
the  French  Revolutionists  in  1789,  the  principle  that  religious 
opinions  ought  not  to  be  a  bar  to  the  exercise  of  civil  or  political 
rights.  It  was— as  far,  at  least,  as  Great  Britain  was  concerned — 
not  the  result  of  any  democratic  movement.  The  mass  of  English- 
men and  Scotchmen  still  entertained  a  strong  dislike  of  the  Roman 
Catholics,  and  it  has  often  been  said,  perhaps  with  truth,  that  if 
Parliament  had  been  reformed  in  1829,  the  Emancipation  Bill 
would  have  been  rejected.  The  position  of  the  ministers  in  the 
House  of  Commons  was  weakened  in  consequence  of  the  enmity 
of  many  of  their  old  supporters,  whilst  the  opposition,  composed  of 
Whigs  and  Canningites,  was  not  likely  to  give  them  constant  sup- 
port. In  the  course  of  1830  the  Whigs  chose  Lord  Althorp  as  their 
leader,  who,  though  he  had  no  commanding  genius,  inspired  con- 
fidence by  his  thorough  honesty.  Before  the  effect  of  this  change 
appeared  George  IV.  died  unregretted  on  June  26. 

12.  William  IV.  and  the  Second  French  Revolution.  1830. — 
The  eldest  surviving  brother  of  the  late  king  succeeded  as 
William  IV.  He  was  eccentric,  and  courted  popularity  by  walking 
about  the  streets,  and  allowed  himself  to  be  treated  with  the  utmost 
familiarity  by  his  subjects.  Some  people  thought  that,  like  his 
father,  he  would  be  a  lunatic  before  he  died.  A  new  Parliament 
was  elected  in  which  the  Tories,  though  they  lost  many  seats,  still 
had  a  majority  ;  but  it  was  a  majority  divided  against  itself.  Events 
occurred  on  the  Continent  which  tended  to  weaken  still  further 
the  Wellington  ministry.  In  France  Charles  X.,  having  succeeded 
his  brother  Louis  XVIII.,  became  rapidly  unpopular.  Defying 
the  Chambers,  which  answered  in  France  to  the  Parliament  in 
England,  he  was  overthrown  in  July  1830  by  a  revolution  which 
placed  his  distant  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  on  the  throne.  Louis 
Philippe,  however,  instead  of  taking  the  title  of  King  of  France, 
which  had  been  borne  by  the  preceding  kings,  assumed  that  of 
King  of  the  French,  as  a  sign  of  his  adoption  of  a  merely  constitu- 
tional authority.  He  was,  in  fact,  to  be  to  France  what  William  III. 
had  been  to  England.  Such  a  movement  in  a  neighbouring  nation 
could  not  fail  to  influence  Englishmen,  especially  as  there  was  a 
feeling  now  spreading  in  England  in  some  respects  analogous  to 


1830 


WILLIAM  IV. 


899 


that  which  existed  in  France.  Charles  X.  had  been  deposed  not 
merely  because  he  claimed  absolute  power,  but  because  he  did  so 
in  the  interests  of  the  aristocracy  as  opposed  to  those  of  the  middle 


William  IV. 


class,  and  in  England  too  the  middle  class  was  striving  to  assert 
itself  against  the  landowners  who  almost  exclusively  filled  the  two 
Houses.  The  lead  was  taken  by  the  Birmingham  Political  Union,  and 
all  over  the  country  demands  were  made  for  Parliamentary  reform. 


900 


PARLIAMENTAR  V  REFORM 


1830 


13.  The  End  of  the  Wellington  Ministry.  1830.— In  the 
House  of  Lords,  when  a  new  Parliament  was  opened  in  November, 
Lord  Grey — who  as  Mr.  Grey  had  urged  the  necessity  of  reforming 
Parliament  in  the  early  days  of  the  great  French  Revolution  (see  p. 
827) — suggested  to  Wellington  that  it  would  be  well  to  bring  in 
such  a  measure  now.  Wellington  not  only  refused,  but  added  that 
if  he  had  to  form  for  the  first  time  a  legislature  for  the  country  '  he 
did  not  mean  to  assert  that  he  could  form  such  a  legislature  as  they 
Dossessed  now,  for  the  nature  of  man  was  incapable  of  reaching  such 


H^P"^ 

■■ 

^^^^^^^^Bi^L  ^       ^,^B 

H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^1^^^^=^^'^^  ^^1 

H 

^1 

W ""'    ""'-^^^i^fe^ 

■' w 

^^^^^^^B|^                  '  Miiiiii}  m 

J^HI 

The  Duke  of  Wellington  :  from  a  bust  by  Francis  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 


excellence  at  once  ;  but  his  great  endeavour  would  be  to  form  some 
description  of  legislature  which  would  produce  the  same  results.' 
After  this  his  ministry  was  doomed.  On  November  15  it  was 
defeated  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  combination  between  the 
opposition  and  dissatisfied  Tories,  and  Wellington  at  once  resigned. 
He  had  done  good  service  to  the  state,  having  practised  economy 
and  maintained  efficiency.  In  London  his  ministry  made  its  mark 
by  the  introduction,  in  1829,  of  a  new  police,  in  the  place  of 
the  old  useless  constables  who  allowed  thieves  to  escape  instead 


1830  THE   REFORM  MINIS  TR  Y  901 

of  catching  them.  The  nicknames  of  '  Bobby '  and  '  Peeler '  which 
long  attached  themselves  to  policemen  had  their  origin  in  the 
names  of  Robert  Peel,  by  whom  the  force  was  organised. 

14.  Lord  Grey's  Ministry.  1830. — Lord  Grey  became  the 
head  of  a  ministry  composed  of  Whigs  and  Canningites.  Amongst 
the  former  were  Lord  John  Russell,  Lord  Althorp  who  led  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  Viscount  Melbourne,  a  man  of  great 
abilities  and  great  indolence  of  temperament,  of  whom  it  was  said 


Earl  Grey:  from  a  figure  in  Hayter's  Reformed  Parliament  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

that  his  usual  answer  to  proposals  of  reform  was,  '  Can't  you  let 
it  alone?'  Amongst  the  latter  was  Lord  Palmerston,  another 
Canningite,  who  had  long  been  known  as  a  painstaking  official  of 
considerable  powers,  but  who  now  for  the  first  time  found  a  posi- 
tion worthy  of  them  by  becoming  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
Brougham,  a  stirring  but  eccentric  orator,  was  made  Lord  Chan- 
cellor to  keep  him  from  being  troublesome  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. To  Lord  John  Russell  an  inferior  office  was  assigned,  and 
he  was  not  made  a  member  of  the  Cabinet,  but,  in  consequence 


902 


PARLIAMENTARY  REFORM 


[831 


of  the  services  which  he  had  rendered  to  the  cause  of  Parhamentary 
reform,  he  was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  bringing  before  the  House 
of  Commons  the  Bill  which  the  new  Government  proposed  to  in- 
troduce on  that  subject. 

15.  The  Reform  Bill.  1831.— The  Reform  Bill  was  brought  in 
by  Russell  on  March  i,  1831.  He  had  an  easy  task  in  exposing  the 
faults  of  the  old  system.  Old  Sarum,  which  returned  two  members, 
was  only  a  green  mound,  without  a  habitation  upon  it.  Gatton, 
which  also  returned  two  members,  was  only  a  ruined  wall,  whilst 

vast  communities  like 
Birmingham  and  Man- 
chester were  totally  un- 
represented. The  pro- 
posal of  the  ministry 
was  to  sweep  away 
sixty  small  boroughs 
returning  119  mem- 
bers, and  to  give  only 
one  member  apiece  in- 
stead of  two  to  forty- 
six  other  boroughs 
nearly  as  small.  Most 
of  the  seats  thus  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the 
ministry  were  to  be 
given,  in  almost  equal 
proportions,  to  the 
counties  and  the  great 
towns  of  England  ;  a 
few  being  reserved  for 
Scotland  and  Ireland. 
In  the  counties,  the 
franchise  or  right  of 
voting  which  had  hitherto  been  confined  to  the  possessors  of  a 
freehold  worth  40^-.  a  year,  was  conferred  also  on  persons  holding 
land  worth  10/.  a  year  by  copyhold,  or  50/.  a  year  by  lease.^  In 
the  boroughs  a  uniform  franchise  was  given  to  all  householders 
paying  rent  of  10/.  a  year. 

16.  The  Bill  Withdrawn.     1831.— The  Tories  were  numerous 

1  The  copyhold  is  so  called  because  it  is  a  tenure  of  which  the  only  evidence 
is  a  copy  of  the  Court  Roll  of  a  Manor.  It  is  a  perpetual  holding  subject  to 
certain  payments.     Leasehold  is  a  tenure  for  a  term  of  years  by  lease. 


Viscount  Melbourne  :  from  a  figure  in  Hayter's  Reformed 
Parliament  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 


1 83 1  POPULAR  EXCITEMENT  903 

in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  opposed  the  Bill  as  revolutionary. 
Many  of  them  shared  the  opinion  of  Wellington,  who  believed  that 
if  it  passed  the  poor  would  seize  the  property  of  the  rich  and 
divide  it  amongst  themselves.  In  reality,  the  character  of  the  voters 
in  the  counties  would  be  much  the  same  as  it  had  been  before,  whilst 
the' majority  of  the  voters  in  the  boroughs  would  be  the  smaller  shop- 
keepers who  were  not  in  the  least  likely  to  attack  property.  The 
second  reading  of  the  Bill,^  however,  only  passed  by  a  majority  of 
one,  and  a  hostile  amendment  to  one  of  its  clauses  having  been 
carried,  the  Government  withdrew  the  Bill  and  dissolved  Parlia- 
ment in  order  that  the  question  might  be  referred  to  the  electors. 

17.  The  Reform  Bill  Re-introduced.  1831.— In  times  of  ex- 
citement the  electors  contrived  to  impress  their  feelings  on  Parlia- 
ment, even  under  the  old  system  of  voting.  From  one  end  of  the 
country  to  the  other  a  ciy  was  beard  of  '  The  Bill,  the  whole  Bill, 
and  nothing  but  the  Bill.'  The  new  House  of  Commons  had  an 
enormous  Whig  majority.  The  Reform  Bill,  slightly  amended,  was 
again  brought  in  by  Russell,  to  whom  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet  had 
been  at  last  given.  In  the  course  of  discussion  in  the  Commons  a 
clause,  known  as  the  Chandos  clause  from  the  name  of  its  proposer, 
was  introduced,  extending  the  franchise  in  counties  to  50/.  tenants  at 
will.  As  these  new  voters  would  be  afraid  to  vote  against  their 
landlords  for  fear  of  being  turned  out  of  their  farms,  the  change  was 
satisfactory  to  the  Tories.  Yec,  after  the  Bill  thus  altered  had  passed 
the  House  of  Commons,  it  was,  on  October  8,  rejected  by  the  House 
of  Lords. 

18.  Public  Agitation.  1831. -The  news  of  the  rejection  of  the 
Bill  was  received  with  a  torrent  of  indignation.  Meetings  were 
everywhere  held  in  support  of  the  Government.  In  the  House  of 
Commons  Macaulay — a  young  man  afterwards  the  historian  of  thfe 
reigns  of  James  II.  and  William  III. — urged  the  ministry  to  persist 
in  its  course.  "  The  public  enthusiasm,"  he  said,  "  is  undiminished. 
Old  Sarum  has  grown  no  bigger,  Manchester  has  grown  no 
smaller.  ...  I  know  only  two  ways  in  which  societies  can  be 
governed— by  public  opinion  and  by  the  sword.  A  government 
having  at  its  command  the  armies,  the  fleets,  and  the  revenues  of 

1  A  Bill  before  either  House  is  read  a  first  time  in  order  that  the  members 
may  be  enabled  to  see  what  it  is  hke.  1  n  voting  on  the  second  reading  members 
express  an  opinion  whether  or  no  they  approve  of  its  general  principle.  In 
committee  it  is  discussed  clause  by  clause,  to  give  the  House  an  opportunity  of 
amending  it  in  detail  ;  and  a  vote  is  then  taken  on  the  third  reading  to  see  if 
the  majority  of  the  House  approves  of  it  in  its  amended  form.  It  is  then  sent 
to  the  other  House,  where  it  goes  through  the  same  process. 


904  PARLIAMENTARY  REFORM  1831 

Great  Britain  might  possibly  hold  Ireland  by  the  sword  ;  .  .  .  but 
to  govern  Great  Britain  by  the  sword,  so  wild  a  thought  has  never 
occurred  to  any  public  man  of  any  party.  ...  In  old  times,  when 
the  villeins  were  driven  to  revolt  by  oppression,  when  a  hundred 
thousand  insurgents  appeared  in  arms  on  Blackheath,  the  king 
rode  up  to  them  and  exclaimed,  '  I  will  be  your  leader,'  and  at 
once  the  infuriated  multitude  laid  down  their  arms  and  dispersed 


Lord  Pdlmerston  :  from  a  seaft-.d  figure  in  Hayter's  Reformed  Parliament 
in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery. 

at  his  command.  Herein  let  us  imitate  him.  Let  us  say  to  our 
countrymen  'We  are  your  leaders.  Our  lawful  power  shall  be 
firmly  exerted  to  the  utmost  in  your  cause  ;  and  our  lawful  power 
is  such  that  it  must  finally  prevail.'"  It  was  a  timely  warning. 
Outside  Parliament  there  were  men  who  thought  that  nothing  but 
force  would  bear  down  the  resistance  of  the  Lords.  The  Birming- 
ham Political  Union  (see  p.  899)  held  a  meeting  at  which  those 


1831-1832  THE  FIRST  REFORM  ACT  905 

who  weife  present  engaged  to  pay  no  taxes  if  the  Reform  Bill  were 
again  rejected.  At  Bristol  there  were  fierce  riots  in  which  houses 
were  burnt  and  men  killed. 

19.  The  Reform  Bill  becomes  Law.  1831 — 1832. — On  Decem- 
ber 12,  1831,  the  Reform  Bill  was  again,  for  a  third  time,  brought 
into  the  House  of  Commons.  On  March  23,  1832,  it  was  passed, 
and  the  Lords  had  then  once  more  to  consider  it.  On  April  14 
they  passed  the  second  reading.  On  May  7,  on  the  motion 
of  Lord  Lyndhurst,  who  had  been  Chancellor  in  Wellington's 
ministry,  they  adopted  a  substantial  alteration  in  it.  The 
ministers  at  once  asked  the  king  to  create  fifty  new  peers  to  carry 
the  Bill,  in  the  same  way  that  the  address  on  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht  had  been  carried  by  the  creation  of  twelve  new  peers  in  the 
reign  of  Anne.  The  king,  who  was  getting  frightened  at  the  turmoil 
in  the  country,  refused,  and  ministers  resigned.  Wellington  was 
ready  to  take  office,  giving  his  support  to  a  less  complete  Reform 
Bill,  but  Peel  refused  to  join  him,  and  Lord  Grey's  Government 
was  reinstated,  receiving  from  the  king  a  promise  to  create  peers 
if  necessary.  On  this  Wellington,  unwilling  to  see  the  House  of 
Lords  swamped  by  fresh  creations,  persuaded  many  of  his  friends  to 
abstain  from  voting.  The  Bill  met  with  no  further  obstacles,  and,  on 
June  7,  became  an  Act  of  Parliament  by  the  Royal  Assent. 

20.  Character  of  the  Reform  Act.  1832.  —  In  its  final  shape 
the  Reform  Act  absolutely  disfranchised  forty-one  boroughs  and 
took  away  one  member  from  thirty  others.  Thereby,  and  by  its 
alteration  of  the  franchise,  it  accomplished  a  great  transference  of 
power,  in  favour  of  the  middle  classes  in  the  towns.  Though  it  did 
not  establish  a  democracy,  it  took  a  long  step  in  that  direction. 

21.  Roads  and  Coaches.  1802 — 1820. — The  advent  of  the 
middle  classes  to  power  was  prepared  by  a  series  of  material 
improvements  by  which  they  were  especially  benefited.  The 
canals  made  in  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  no  longer 
sufficed  to  carry  the  increased  traffic  of  the  country.  Attention 
was  therefore  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  roads.  Telford,  a 
Scotchman,  taught  road-makers  that  it  was  better  to  go  round  a  hill 
than  to  climb  over  it,  and,  beginning  in  1802,  he  was  employed  for 
eighteen  years  in  improving  the  communications  in  Scotland  and 
Wales  by  making  good  roads  and  iron  bridges.  The  Menai  sus- 
pension bridge,  his  best  known  work,  was  begun  in  1819.  He  and 
another  Scotchman,  Macadam,  also  improved  the  surface  of  the 
roads,  which  had  hitherto  been  made  of  gravel  or  flint,  thrown  down 
at  random.     Telford  ordered  the  large  stones  to  be  broken  and 

III.  3  N 


go6 


PAkUA  MEN  TAR  V  REFORM 


1811   1825 


mixed  with  fine  gravel,  and  Macadam  pursued  the  same  course 
round  Bristol.  He  declared  that  no  stone  should  ever  be  used  in 
mending  roads  which  was  not  small  enough  to  go  into  a  man's 
mouth.  Through  these  improvements  travelling  became  more  easy, 
and  coaches  flew  about  the  country  at  what  was  considered  to  be 
the  wonderful  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour. 

22.  Steam  Vessels  and  Locomotives.  1811— 1825. — The  first 
application  of  steam  to  locomotion  was  in  vessels.  The  first  steam- 
boat in  Great  Britain,  '  The  Comet,'  the  work  of  Henry  Bell,  plied 
on  the  Clyde  in  1812,  and  though  Fulton  in  America  had  made  a 
steam-boat  in  1811,  it  is  almost  certain  that  he  derived  his  ideas 
fiom  Bell.     It  was  not  till  later  that  a  steam-engine  was  made  to 


Early  steamboat  :  from  the  Instructor  of  i8  J3. 

draw  travellers  and  goods  by  land.  Of  many  attempts,  none  suc- 
ceeded till  the  matter  was  taken  in  hand  by  George  Stephenson, 
the  son  of  a  poor  collier  in  Northumberland.  He  had  learnt  some- 
thing about  machinery  in  the  colliery  in  which  he  worked  as  a  boy, 
and  when  he  grew  up  he  saved  money  to  pay  for  instruction  in 
reading  and  writing.  He  began  as  an  engineer  by  mending  a 
pumping-engine,  and  at  last  attempted  to  construct  a  locomotive. 
His  new  engine,  constructed  in  1814,  was  not  successful  at  first,  and 
it  made  such  a  noise  that  it  was  popularly  known  as  '  Puffing  Billy.' 
In  1816  he  improved  it  sufficiently  to  enable  it  to  draw  trucks  of 
coal  on  tramlines  from  the  colliery  to  the  river.  At  last,  in  1825, 
the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Railway  was  opened  for  the  convey- 
ance of  passengers  as  well  as  goods,  and  both  the  line  and  the  loco- 


I825-I829 


GEORGE  STEPHENSON 


907 


motive  used  on  it  were  constructed  under  Stephenson's  manage- 
ment. The  new  engine  was  able  to  draw  ninety  tons  at  the  rate 
of  eight  miles  an  hour. 


Engine  employed  at  the  Killingworth  Colliery,  familiariy  known  as  '  PufTing  Billy.' 

23.  The  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway.  1825— 1829. — 
In  1825  it  was  resolved  to  make  a  railway  between  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  and  Stephenson  was  employed  as  the  engineer.     In 


No. 


Engine  of  the  Stockton  and  Darlington  Railway  ;  now  on  a  pedestal  at 
the  south  end  of  the  new  station  at  Darlington. 


1829,  when  it  was  finished,  the  proprietors  were  frightened  at  the 
idea  of  employing  steam-engines  upon  it,  till  Stephenson  persuaded 
them  to  offer  a  prize  for  an  improved  locomotive.     Four  inventors, 

3N2 


9o8 


PARLIAMENTARY  REFORM 


1824 


St.  Luke's,  Chelsea  (an  early  example  of  the  Gothic  revival),  designed  by 
Savage  and  built  in  1824. 


[832-1833  HUSKISSON'S  DEATH 


909 


of  whom  Stephenson  was  one,  sent  in  engines  to  compete. 
Stephenson's,  which  was  called  the  '  Rocket,'  was  the  only  one 
which  would  move,  and  finally  ran  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  miles  an 
hour.  After  that  there  was  no  doubt  that  Stephenson's  was  the  only 
engine  likely  to  be  of  any  use.  Unfortunately  the  experiment  cost 
the  life  of  a  statesman.  Huskisson,  who  had  quarrelled  with 
Wellington  in  1828  (see  p.  895),  seeing  him  in  a  railway  carriage, 
stepped  up  to  shake  hands,  when  he  was  himself  run  over  by  the 
Rocket  and  killed. 


CHAPTER    LVII 

THE   REFORMERS   IN   POWER.     1832— 184I 

LEADING    DATES 

William  IV.,  1830— 1837  Victoria,  1837—1901 

Abolition  of  Slavery 1833 

The  New  Poor  Law 1834 

Peel's  First  Ministry 1834 

The  Second  Melbourne  Ministry 1835 

Accession  of  Victoria 1837 

Resignation    and    Re-instatement    of   the    Melbourne 

Ministry 1839 

Final  Resignation  of  the  Melbourue  Ministry     .  1841 

1.  Liberals  and  Conservatives.  1832. — Before  the  end  of  1832 
a  Parliament  met,  in  which  the  House  of  Commons  was  elected  by 
the  new  constituencies  created  by  the  Reform  Act.  The  Minis- 
terialists were  in  an  enormous  majority,  all  of  them  anxious  to  make 
use  of  their  victory  by  the  introduction  of  practical  reforms.  There 
was,  however,  considerable  difference  amongst  them  as  to  the 
reforms  desirable,  the  Radicals  wishing  to  go  much  farther  than 
the  Whigs.  To  conceal,  as  far  as  possible,  this  difference,  a  new 
name — that  of  Liberals — was  borrowed  from  Continental  politicians, 
to  cover  the  whole  party.  Their  opponents,  finding  the  name  o 
Tories  unpopular,  began  to  call  themselves  Conservatives. 

2.  Irish  Tithes.  1831 — 1833. — One  of  the  first  difficulties  which 
the  Government  had  to  face  was  that  of  Irish  tithes.  Catholic 
emancipation  had  not  made  Ireland  richer,  and  there  was  still  in 
that  country  a  superabundant  population,  in  many  parts  scarcely 
able   to  live  and  at  the  same   time  meet  the  demands  of  their 

*3N3 


910  THE  REFORMERS  IN  POWER.  1 831- 1833 

landlords  and  of  the  clergy  of  a  Church  which  was  not  their  own. 
There  was  no  poor  law  in  Ireland  to  give  relief  to  the  destitute, 
and  many  of  the  landlords  were  absentees.  In  1831  and  1832  the 
payment  of  tithes  was  often  refused,  and  the  collectors  were  some- 
times murdered.  General  outrages  also  increased  in  number,  and 
in  1833,  when  an  attempt  was  made  by  the  Government  to  enforce 
the  payment  of  tithes,  only  12,000/.  out  of  104,000/.  was  recovered. 
The  Government  was  divided  as  to  the  proper  measures  to  be 
adopted.  The  Chief  Secretary  ' — the  minister  specially  entrusted 
with  Irish  affairs — was  Stanley,  a  man  of  great  abilities  and  a  fiery 
temper,  who  wished  to  accompany  proposals  of  redress  by  strong 
measures  for  the  coercion  of  those  by  whom  the  law  was  resisted. 
His  policy  was  described  as  a  'quick  alternation  of  kicks  and  kind- 
ness.' On  the  other  hand,  O'Connell  had  begun  to  denounce  the 
Union  between  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  and  to  ask  for  its  repeal. 
In  1833  Stanley  brought  in  a  Bill  for  the  trial  of  offenders  in  dis- 
turbed districts  by  courts-martial.  As  soon  as  this  had  been  passed 
Althorp  brought  in  another  Bill  to  reduce  the  number  of  Irish 
bishops  from  twenty-two  to  twelve,  and  to  tax  the  Irish  clergy  and 
apply  the  proceeds  to  the  extinction  of  Church-cess,  a  rate  levied  to 
keep  the  church  buildings  in  good  condition.  This  Bill  too  became 
law,  but  only  after  the  Government  had  dropped  what  was  called 
the  Appropriation  Clause,  which  was  to  enable  the  Government  to 
apply  to  general  purposes  the  revenue  obtained  by  diminishing  the 
number  of  the  bishops. 

3.  Abolition  of  Slavery.  1833.— Stanley  had  made  so  many 
enemies  in  Ireland  that  it  was  thought  advisable  to  remove  him 
from  his  post.  He  became  Colonial  Secretary,  and  was  at  once 
confronted  with  the  question  of  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  British 
colonies.  For  some  years  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton,  and  Zachary 
Macaulay  (the  father  of  Macaulay  the  historian),  had  been  pleading 
the  cause  of  the  slave.  In  the  West  Indies  slaves  were  often  sub- 
jected to  brutal  cruelty.  To  take  a  few  instances  :  a  little  slave-girl, 
having  dropped  some  cream  belonging  to  her  mistress,  was  scolded 
by  her  mother,  a  slave-woman  named  America.  The  master  of 
both  of  them  had  America  flogged  with  no  less  than  175  lashes  for 
remonstrating  with  her  own  daughter,  holding  that,  as  the  child 
was  his  property,  she  ought  only  to  have  been  scolded  by  himself 
or  his  wife.  Three  slave-women  were  flogged  for  crying  when 
their  brothers  were  flogged.     Another  woman,  whose  brother  was 

1  I.e.  the  chief  secretary  to  the  I.ord-Lieutenant,  but  practically  controlling 
him,  as  being  responsible  directly  to  Parliament,  of  which  he  is  a  member. 


1833-1834  PRACTICAL   REFORMS  911 

flogged  for  attending  a  dissenting  chapel,  was  flogged  merely  for 
sighing.  When  Stanley  came  into  office,  new  as  he  was  to  the 
details  of  the  subject,  he  mastered  them  in  three  weeks,  and  car- 
ried a  Bill  for  the  complete  abolition  of  slavery,  though  leaving 
the  former  slaves  apprentices  to  their  late  masters  for  twelve  years. 
The  purchase-money  given  by  Great  Britain  to  the  slave-owners 
was  20,000,000/.  The  apprenticeship  system  was  found  unsatis- 
factory and  was  soon  done  away  with. 

4.  The  First  Factory  Act.  1833.— The  abolition  of  negro 
slavery  was  accompanied  by  an  efl"ort  to  lighten  the  sorrows  of 
factory  children  who  were  kept  at  work  in  unwholesome  air  often 
for  thirteen  hours  a  day.  Lord  Ashley,  who  afterwards  became  Earl 
of  Shaftesbury,  took  up  their  cause,  and  carried  a  Bill  limiting  the 
hours  of  labour  for  children  under  thirteen  years  to  eight  hours 
a  day,  and  for  children  between  thirteen  and  eighteen  to  twelve 
hours  a  day,  though  he  would  himself  have  preferred  a  stronger 
measure.  This  law  was  the  beginning  of  a  factory  legislation 
which  has  done  much  to  make  England  peaceable  and  contented. 

5.  The  New  Poor  Law.  1834. — The  session  of  1834  ^^s 
occupied  with  a  measure  of  a  different  kind.  The  Poor  Law,  as  it 
existed,  was  a  direct  encouragement  to  thriftlessness.  Relief  was 
given  to  the  poor  at  random,  even  when  they  were  earning  wages, 
so  that  employers  of  labour  preferred  to  be  served  by  paupers,  be- 
cause part  of  the  wages  would  then  be  paid  out  of  the  rates.  The 
more  children  a  poor  man  had  the  more  he  received  from  the  rates, 
and  in  this  and  in  other  ways  labourers  were  taught  that  they  would 
be  better  off"  by  being  dependent  on  the  parish  than  by  striving  to 
make  their  own  way  in  the  world.  The  consequent  increase  of  the 
rates  had  become  unbearable  to  those  who  had  to  pay  them  :  in 
one  parish,  for  instance,  rates  which  had  been  less  than  11/.  in 
1801  had  risen  to  367/.  in  1832.  By  the  new  Poor  Law,  passed  in 
1834,  workhouses  were  built  and  no  person  was  to  receive  relief 
who  did  not  consent  to  live  in.  one  of  them.  The  object  of  this  rule 
was  that  no  one  might  claim  to  be  supported  by  others  who  was 
capable  of  supporting  himself,  and  residence  in  the  workhouse, 
where  work  would  be  required,  was  considered  as  the  best  test  of 
real  poverty,  because  it  was  thought  that  no  one  would  consent  to 
go  in  unless  he  was  really  distressed.  Afterwards  it  was  remem- 
bered that  in  some  cases,  such  as  those  of  old  people  who  could 
not  work  even  if  they  had  the  will,  no  such  test  was  required.  The 
strict  rule  of  the  law  was,  therefore,  subsequently  relaxed,  and  out- 
door relief  granted  in  certain  cases. 


912  THE   REFORMERS  IN  POWER  1830-1834 

6.  Break-up  of  the  Ministry.  1834. — The  ministry  had  by  this 
time  lost  much  of  its  popularity.  Every  piece  of  successful  legis- 
lation alienated  some  of  its  supporters,  and  the  rapidity  of  the 
changes  effected  by  the  reformed  Parliament  frightened  many  easy- 
going people.  Peel,  too,  who  led  the  Conservatives  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  was  growing  in  favour  by  the  ability,  and  still  more  by 
the  moderation,  which  he  displayed.  The  ministers,  too,  disagreed 
amongst  themselves.  An  open  rupture  occurred  when  Lord  John 
Russell  declared  for  the  right  of  Parliament  to  appropriate  the 
misused  revenues  of  the  Irish  Church  to  other  purposes.  "  Johnny," 
*vrote  Stanley  to  Sir  James  Graham,  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admi- 
•ralty,  "  has  upset  the  coach."  Stanley,  Graham,  and  Lord  Ripon 
— who  had  formerly  been  known  as  Lord  Goderich  (see  p.  892) — 
resigned  together.  Further  misunderstandings  brought  about  the 
resignation  of  Grey,  who  had  been  an  excellent  Prime  Minister  as 
long  as  the  Reform  question  was  still  unsettled,  but  who  did  not 
possess  the  qualities  needed  in  the  head  of  a  divided  Cabinet.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Lord  Melbourne,  and  Melbourne  contrived  to  keep 
his  followers  together  for  a  few  months.  In  November,  however, 
Lord  Althorp,  who  was  the  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
became  Earl  Spencer  by  his  father's  death,  and  it  was  therefore 
necessary  to  find  a  successor  to  him.  The  king,  who  had  long 
been  alienated  from  the  Reformers,  took  advantage  of  the  occasion 
to  dismiss  the  ministry.  It  was  the  last  time  that  a  ministry 
was  dismissed  by  a  sovereign. 

7.  Foreign  Policy  of  the  Reformers.  1830— 1834.— Whilst  the 
home  policy  of  the  Reform  ministry  had  been  weakened  by 
divisions  in  the  Cabinet,  its  foreign  policy  had  been  in  the  strong 
hands  of  Lord  Palmerston  (see  p.  901).  In  1830  the  revolution  at 
Paris  had  been  followed  by  a  revolution  at  Brussels,  the  object  of 
which  was  not  to  procure  internal  reforms  but  to  separate  Belgium 
from  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  of  which  it  had  formed  a 
part  only  since  1814  (see  p.  873).  Lord  Palmerston's  policy  was  to 
forward  the  desire  of  the  Belgians  for  independence  and  at  the 
same  time  to  hinder  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  France  to  annex 
their  territory.  In  this,  with  the  assistance  of  Louis  Philippe  the 
new  king  of  the  French,  he  completely  succeeded.  In  1831 
Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg,  whose  first  wife  had  been  the  Princess 
Charlotte  (see  p.  881),  was  chosen  by  the  Belgians  as  their  king, 
and  married  one  of  the  daughters  of  Louis  Philippe.  Though  the 
Dutch  resisted  for  a  time,  they  were  compelled  to  relinquish  their 
hold  on  any  part  of  Belgium.     A  French  army  captured  from  them 


1834-1835  PEEL  AND  MELBOURNE  913 

the  citadel  of  Antwerp  and  then  retired  to  its  own  territory.  The 
key-stone  of  Palmerston's  poHcy  was  an  alHance — not  too  trustful 
— between  the  constitutional  monarchies  of  England  and  France, 
which  was  drawn  the  more  tightly  because  the  absolute  govern- 
ment of  Austria  crushed  all  attempts  at  resistance  in  Italy,  and  the 
absolute  government  of  Russia  put  down  with  great  harshness  an 
attempt  made  by  Poland  to  assert  her  independence.  To  these 
two  monarchies  Prussia  was  a  close  ally,  and  Europe  was  thus 
divided  into  two  camps,  the  absolute  and  the  constitutional. 

8.  Peel's  First  Ministry.  1834— 1835. — Sir  Robert  Peel,  having 
been  appointed  Prime  Minister  by  the  king,  dissolved  Parliament. 
In  an  address  to  the  electors  of  Tamworth,  the  borough  for  which 
he  stood,  he  threw  off  the  doctrines  of  the  old  Tories,  p/ofessing 
himself  to  be  a  moderate  but  conservative  reformer.  This  '  Tam- 
worth manifesto,'  as  it  was  called,  served  his  party  in  good  stead. 
The  Conservatives  gained  seat  after  seat,  and  it  is  probable  that,  if 
the  king  had  had  a  little  more  patience  and  had  allowed  the 
ministry  to  fall  to  pieces  of  itself  instead  of  dismissing  it,  the  Con- 
servatives would  have  been  in  a  majority.  As  it  was,  though  they 
had  nearly  half  the  House,  they  were  still  in  a  minority.  When 
Parliament  met,  February  19,  1835,  it  had  some  difficulty  in  finding 
temporary  accommodation,  as  the  old  Houses  of  Parliament,  in 
which  the  struggles  of  nearly  three  centuries  had  been  conducted, 
had  been  burnt  to  the  ground  in  the  preceding  October.  Peel  was 
outvoted  from  the  beginning,  but  he  insisted  on  bringing  in  his 
measures  before  he  would  retire,  and,  at  all  events,  had  the  satis- 
faction of  showing  that  he  was  capable  of  preparing  good  laws 
as  well  as  of  giving  good  advice.  The  Liberals,  however,  were  too 
angry  to  adopt  even  good  laws  when  proposed  by  a  minister  who 
had  risen  to  power  by  the  use  of  the  king's  prerogative.  They 
entered  into  an  agreement  with  O'Connell,  known,  from  the  place 
where  its  terms  were  settled,  as  the  Lichfield  House  Compact,  and, 
havmg  thus  secured,  by  the  support  of  the  Irish  members,  an  un- 
divided majority,  they  insisted  on  the  appropriation  of  the  surplus 
revenues  of  the  Irish  Church  to  purposes  of  education.  They 
carried  a  succession  of  votes  on  this  subject,  and,  on  April  8,  1835, 
Peel  resigned.  He  left  behind  him  a  general  impression  that  he 
was  the  first  statesman  in  the  country. 

9.  Beginning  of  Melbourne's  Second  Ministry.  1835 — 1837. — 
Melbourne  again  became  Prime  Minister,  and  Russell  Home  Secre- 
tary and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  first  great  work 
of  the  new  ministry  was  the  passing  of  a  Municipal  Corporations 


914 


THE  REFORMERS  IN  POWER 


1835-  1S3S 


Bill,  providing  that  corporations  should  be  elected  by  the  ratepayers, 
instead  of  being  self-chosen  as  they  frequently  were.  The  Tories 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  where  they  had  a  large  majority,  tried 
to  introduce  considerable  alterations  in  it,  but  Peel  threw  them 
over  and  accepted  the  Bill  with  a  few  changes,  so  that  it  became 
law  without  further  difficulty.  Peel  gained  in  credit  by  subordi- 
nating the  interests  of  his  party  to  those  of  the  country,  and  the 
ministry  consequently  lost  ground.  Their  weakness  was  exposed 
by  the  attitude  which  they  were  obliged  to  assume  towards  the 
Lords  on  another  question.  The  Commons  passed  a  Bill  for 
placing  Irish  tithes  upon  the  landlord  instead  of  the  tenant,  adding 
the  Appropriation  Clause  which  they  had  formerly  attempted 
to  attach  to  the  Bill  for  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  Bishops 

(see  p.  910).  The  Lords  threw  out 
the  clause,  and  the  ministers  then 
withdrew  the  Bill.  Attempts  made 
in  later  years  to  get  the  Bill  passed 
with  the  clause  equally  failed,  and  at 
last,  in  1838,  ministers  ignominiously 
dropped  the  clause,  upon  which 
they  passed  the  Bill  through  both 
Houses.  A  Government  with  the 
House  of  Commons  and  the  nation 
at  its  back  can  in  modern  times  defy 

I— rrr— — "— *" ="-*= — '  the  House  of  Lords.  Melbourne's 
Government  tried  to  defy  it  with  the 
support  of  the  House  of  Commons 
but  without  the  support  of  the  nation. 
Consequently,  though  some  useful 
measures  were  passed,  the  Lords  were 
able,  in  the  teeth  of  the  Government,  to  reject  anything  they  disliked. 
io.  Queen  Victoria.  1837. — On  June  20,  1837,  William  IV. 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  niece  the  Princess  Victoria  who 
was  just  over  eighteen,  the  time  of  life  at  which  heirs  to  the  throne 
come  of  age.  Her  dignity  and  grace  won  her  general  popularity, 
and  the  ministry,  which  she  was  known  to  favour,  regained  some 
popularity  and,  after  the  new  elections  had  been  held  in  the  autumn, 
it  was,  as  before,  supported  by  a  small  majority  in  the  House  of 
Commons. 

II.  Canada.  1837 — 1841. — The  state  of  Canada  at  this  time 
caused  great  difficulties  to  the  ministry.  Upper  and  Lower 
Canada  were  independent  colonies,  the  population  of  the  former 


Banner  of  the  Royal  Arms,  as  borne 
since  1837. 


i837 


QUEEN   VICTORIA 


915 


r 


Queen  Victoria  at  her  accession  :  engraved  by  Thompson  after  a  portrait  by  Lane. 


916  THE   REFORMERS  IN  POWER  1835-1837 

being  almost  entirely  British,  and  the  population  of  the  latter  being 
preponderantly  French.  In  both  there  were  loud  complaints  of  the 
jobbery  and  misconduct  of  the  Home  Government,  but  the  consti- 
tutional arrangements  were  such  that  in  neither  colony  was  the 
popularly  elected  Legislative  Assembly  able  to  influence  the  action 
of  the  colonial  government,  by  which  the  Home  Government  was 
represented.  The  feeling  in  Lower  Canada  was  particularly  bitter, 
as  the  French,  who  were  attached  to  their  own  ways,  resented 
the  pushing,  self-satisfied  behaviour  of  English  settlers  who  came 
amongst  them.  The  Colonial  Secretary  in  England,  Lord  Glenelg, 
was  not  enough  of  a  statesman  to  find  a  satisfactory  remedy  for 
the  grievances  of  the  colonists,  and  in  1837  ^  rebellion  burst  out 
which  was,  indeed,  suppressed,  but  which  alarmed  the  Home 
Government  sufficiently  to  induce  it  to  send  Lord  Durham  out 
as  Commissioner,  with  full  powers  to  arrange  all  difficulties,  so 
far  as  he  could  do  so  in  accordance  with  the  law.  Lord  Durham 
was  the  ablest  man  of  the  Liberal  party,  but  he  had  no  tact,  and 
was  excessively  self-willed.  On  his  arrival  in  Canada  in  1838,  he 
transported  to  Bermuda  eight  persons  connected  with  the  rebellion, 
and  ordered  that  fifteen  persons  who  had  left  the  colony  should  be 
put  to  death  if  they  came  back.  As  both  these  orders  were  illegal 
the  Home  Government  recalled  him,  but  they  took  his  advice  after 
his  return,  and  joined  together  the  two  colonies,  at  the  same  time 
altering  the  constitution  so  as  to  give  control  over  the  executive  to 
the  Legislative  Assembly.  The  union  between  the  colonies,  which 
was  intended  to  prevent  the  French  of  Lower  Canada  having 
entirely  their  own  way  in  their  own  colony,  was  proposed  in  1839 
and  finally  proclaimed  in  1841.  The  new  arrangements  gave  satis- 
faction to  both  colonies  for  the  time. 

12.  Ireland.  1835 — 1841. — The  condition  of  Ireland  under  the 
Melbourne  Government  was  much  improved,  and  its  improvement 
was  due  to  the  ability  and  firmness  of  Thomas  Drummond,  the 
Under-Secretary.  Hitherto  the  Orangemen  (see  p.  834),  including 
in  their  ranks  many  magistrates,  had  had  it  all  their  own  way 
in  the  North,  where  Catholics,  whom  they  chose  to  oppress,  seldom 
met  with  justice.  Drummond  did  his  best  to  enforce  the  law 
equally  in  all  parts  of  Ireland,  not  only  between  Protestant  and 
Catholic,  but  also  between  landlord  and  tenant.  He  thereby  ex- 
asperated the  landlords,  whose  ideas  of  right  and  wrong  had 
hitherto  been  entirely  shared  by  the  Government.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  so  thoroughly  won  for  himself  the  goodwill  of  the  Irish 
Catholics,  that  O'Connell  laid  aside  for  a  time  the  cry  for  the  re- 


1838  THOMAS  DRVMMOND  917 

peal  of  the  Union  which  he  had  raised  under  Lord  Grey's  ministry. 
One  element  of  Irish  discontent  was  beyond  the  power  of  any 
government  wholly  to  remove.  So  rapid  was  the  increase  of  the 
population  as  to  bring  with  it  great  poverty,  and  some  landlords, 
finding  their  rents  unpaid,  solved  the  difficulty  by  evicting  the 
tenants  who  were  unable  or  unwilling  to  pay.  As  there  was  no 
poor  law  in  Ireland  the  evicted  tenant  had  seldom  anything  but 
starvation  before  him,  and  he  often  revenged  himself  by  outrages 


Lord  John  Russell :  from  a  painting  by  Sir  F.  Grant,  in  the  possession 
of  the  Dowager  Countess  Russell. 

and  even  by  murder.  In  a  celebrated  letter  to  the  magistrates  of 
Tipperary  Drummond  announced  that  '  Property  has  its  duties  as 
well  as  its  rights,'  reminding  them  that  in  part,  at  least,  the  misery 
in  Ireland  had  arisen  from  their  unsympathetic  treatment  of  their 
tenants.  The  magistrates  were  so  angry  that  they  suppressed  the 
letter  for  a  time.  In  1838  a  Poor  Law  for  Ireland  was  passed  to 
enable  some  relief  to  be  given  to  those  who  were  in  danger  of 


9i8  THE  REFORMERS  IN  POWER  1839 

starvation,  and,  in  the  same  year,  a  Tithe  Act  became  law  without 
the  Appropriation  Clause,  upon  which  the  ministers  had  hitherto 
insisted  (see  p.  914),  thus  removing  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
conflict  in  Ireland  by  enacting  that  tithes  should  be  levied  on  the 
landowner  and  not  on  the  tenant. 

13.  The  Bedchamber  Question.  1839. — Though  Lord  Mel- 
bourne's, government  had  addressed  itself  with  ability  to  the 
solution  of  most  of  the  questions  of  the  day,  it  had  no  longer  any 
popular  sentiment  behind  it,  and  was  obliged  to  submit  without 
resistance  to  the  mutilation  or  rejection  of  its  measures  by  the 
House  of  Lords.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Spring  Rice, 
who  was  a  poor  financier,  had  to  announce,  without  venturing  to 
provide  a  remedy,  that  the  national  expenditure  was  greater  than 
the  national  income.  The  mere  fact  that  the  Government  found 
itself  baffled,  weakened  it  both  in  Parliament  and  in  the  nation  ; 
and  accordingly,  in  1839,  the  Government  resigned.  Though  Peel, 
who  was  summoned  to  succeed  Melbourne,  had  no  difficulty 
in  forming  a  ministry,  he  was  afraid  of  the  influence  which  the 
Ladies  of  the  Bedchamber  exercised  over  the  young  queen,  and 
asked  that  the  sisters  and  wives  of  members  of  the  late  Govern- 
ment who  held  that  post  should  be  dismissed.  The  queen,  being 
unwilling  to  part  with  her  old  friends,  refused  to  dismiss  them,  and 
Peel  then  declined  to  form  a  ministry.  Melbourne  returned  to 
office  hoping  to  be  more  popular  than  before,  as  the  sympathy  of 
the  country  was  on  the  side  of  the  queen. 

14.  Post  Office  Reform.  1839. — One  piece  of  reform  was  only 
unwillingly  accepted  by  the  re-instated  ministers.  One  day  the 
poet  Coleridge  passed  a  cottage  in  the  north  of  England  as  a  post- 
man arrived  with  a  letter.  A  girl  came  out,  looked  at  the  letter, 
and  returned  it  to  the  postman.  In  those  days  the  payment  for 
postage  was  high,  a  shilling  or  two  being  an  ordinary  charge,  the 
postage  rising  according  to  the  distance.  The  receiver,  not  the 
sender  of  the  letter,  had  to  pay  for  it.  Coleridge  felt  compassion 
for  the  girl  and  paid  for  the  letter.  As  soon  as  the  postman  was 
out  of  hearing  the  girl  told  him  that  she  was  sorry  that  he  had  given 
so  muoh  money  for  a  letter  which  had  nothing  written  inside  it. 
She  then  explained  that  her  brother  had  gone  to  London  and  had 
promised  that,  as  she  was  too  poor  to  pay  postage,  he  would,  at 
stated  intervals  of  time,  address  to  her  a  blank  sheet  of  paper,  which 
she  would  have  to  return  to  the  postman,  but  the  sight  of  which 
would  let  her  know  that  he  was  in  good  health.  Coleridge  told 
this  story  to  Rowland  Hill,  an  officer  in  the  Post  Office,  who  thought 


i852 


THE  NEW  HOUSES   OF   FARLIAMENT 


919 


920  THE  REFORMERS  IN  POWER  1833-1840 

it  over  and  asked  the  Government  to  reduce  the  postage  on  letters 
between  all  places  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  to  a  penny.  The 
change,  he  declared,  would  be  a  great  boon  to  the  poor,  and  also 
in  time  increase  instead  of  diminishing  the  revenue  of  the  Govern- 
ment, as  the  number  of  letters  written  would  be  enormously  greater 
than  it  had  been  under  the  old  system.  As,  in  consequence  of  the 
large  increase  of  letters  carried,  the  postmen  would  no  longer  have 
time  to  collect  the  pennies  from  the  receivers,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  charge  them  upon  the  senders,  and  this,  Rowland  Hill 
thought,  could  be  done  most  conveniently  by  making  them  buy 
postage  stamps,  which  had  been  before  unknown.  For  sonje  time 
the  Post-Office  officials  and  the  ministers  laughed  at  the  scheme, 
but  public  opinion  rose  in  its  favour,  and,  in  1839,  the  adoption  of 
the  new  system  was  ordered,  though  it  did  not  come  into  complete 
force  till  1840,  up  to  which  time  there  was  a  uniform  charge  of 
fourpence.  The  system  of  low  payments  and  postage  stamps  has 
since  been  adopted  by  every  country  in  the  civilised  world. 

15.  Education.  1833 — 1839. — At  the  time  of  the  Reform  Act 
general  education  was  at  a  low  ebb.  In  1833  Parliament  for  the 
first  time  gave  assistance  to  education  by  granting  20,000/.  annually 
towards  the  building  of  school-houses.  In  1839  this  grant  was  in- 
creased to  30,000/.,  and  its  distribution  was  placed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  called  the  '  Committee 
of  the  Privy  Council  on  Education,'  in  whose  hands  the  manage- 
ment of  public  instruction  has  rested  ever  since.  The  Committee 
was  not  to  teach,  but  to  see  that,  where  public  money  was  em- 
ployed, the  teaching  was  satisfactory. 

16.  The  Queen's  Marriage.  1840. — In  1840  the  queen  married 
her  first  cousin.  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg,  a  man  of  varied 
learning  and  accomplishments.  What  was  of  more  importance,  he 
brought  with  him  affectionate  devotion  to  his  young  wife,  together 
with  a  tact  and  refinement  of  mind  which  made  him  her  wisest  coun- 
sellor. Knowing  many  things  about  which  Englishmen  at  that 
time  cared  little,  he  did  much  towards  the  development  of  culture 
and  art  in  the  country. 

17.  Palmerston  and  Spain.  1833  — 1839. — The  policy  of 
friendship  between  England  and  France,  which  had  led  to  the 
establishment  of  Belgian  independence  (see  p.  912),  had  been 
continued  by  Lord  Palmerston  during  the  early  stages  of  the  second 
Melbourne  ministry.  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain  had  for  some  time 
before  his  death  in  1833  hesitated  whether  he  should  declare  as 
his  successor  his  little  daughter  Isabella — who,  according  to  old 


1 831-1838  SPAIN  AND    THE  EAST  921 

Spanish  law,  was  capable  of  inheriting — or  his  brother,  Don  Carlos, 
who  claimed  in  virtue  of  the  so-called  Salic  law  (see  p.  232)  in- 
troduced by  the  Bourbons.  On  the  side  of  Don  Carlos  were  the 
priests,  on  the  side  of  the  child  was  her  mother,  and  the  dying 
man  listened  in  the  end  to  his  wife  rather  than  to  the  priests. 
Isabella  became  queen,  and  her  mother,  Christina,  regent.  The 
Basque  Provinces  and  the  priests  and  absolutists  all  over  Spain 
took  the  side  of  Don  Carlos,  and  a  civil  war  marked  by  horrible 
cruelties  on  both  sides  was  the  result.  As  Don  Carlos  declared 
himself  an  absolute  king,  Christina  was  obliged,  in  word  at  least, 
to  profess  herself  a  constitutionalist.  Louis  Philippe  and  Pal- 
merston  would  not  interfere  directly,  but  they  agreed  to  interfere 
indirectly  on  behalf  of  Christina  and  Isabella  :  Louis  Philippe  by 
cutting  off  the  supplies  from  the  Carlists,  Palmerston  by  allowing 
a  British  legion  of  10,000  men  to  be  enlisted  for  service  against 
them.  The  legion  fought  well,  but  the  Spanish  Government  did 
little  for  it,  and  it  was  dissolved  in  1838.  The  habit  of  interfering 
in  Spanish  quarrels  led  to  a  habit  of  interfering  in  Spanish  politics, 
and  as  France  and  England  often  took  opposite  sides  in  supporting 
or  assailing  Spanish  ministries,  there  gradually  sprang  up  an  unfor- 
tunate coolness  between  the  two.  Ultimately,  in  1839,  the  Carlists 
were  overpowered,  and  there  was  no  further  question  of  foreign 
interference. 

18.  Palmerston  and  the  Eastern  Question.  1831— 1839. — The 
results  of  the  interference  of  England  in  the  East  were  more 
momentous  than  the  results  of  her  interference  in  Spain.  In  1831 
Mehemet  Ali,  the  Pasha  of  Egypt,  sent  Ibrahim  (see  p.  884)  to 
attack  the  Pasha  of  Acre.  Ibrahim,  against  whom  the  Sultan, 
Mahmoud,  sent  a  Turkish  army  in  1832,  not  only  defeated  the 
Turks  at  Konieh,  the  ancient  Iconium,  but  crossed  the  Taurus 
Mountains  into  Asia  Minor  and  overthrew  the  last  army  which 
the  Sultan  could  muster.  Mahmoud,  knowing  that  Constantinople 
itself  was  now  at  the  mercy  of  the  Egyptians,  called  on  the  Tzar, 
his  old  enemy,  for  aid.  Accordingly,  in  1833,  an  arrangement  was 
made  at  Kutaya  by  which  Mehemet  Ali  stopped  hostilities  on  re- 
ceiving all  Syria  and  the  province  of  Adana  in  addition  to  his 
own  Pashalic.  Later  in  the  same  year,  m  reward  for  Russia's  sup- 
port, the  Sultan  signed  the  Treaty  of  Unkiar  Skelessi,  by  which 
he  bound  himself  to  the  Tzar  to  close  the  Dardanelles  to  foreign 
war  ships  whenever  the  Tzar  was  at  war.  If  this  treaty  took  effect 
the  Russians  would  be  able  to  train  their  sailors  unmolested  in  the 
Black  Sea,  whilst  they  would  be  able  to  send  their  fleet  out  through 
III.  3  O 


922  THE  REFORMERS  IN  POWER  1838^1841 

the  Dardanelles,  and  to  bring  it  back  to  a  place  of  safety  whenever 
they  pleased.  Both  England  and  France  disliked  this  arrange- 
ment, but  while  Palmerston  thought  that  the  best  remedy  was  the 
strengthening  of  the  power  of  the  Sultan,  the  French  Govern- 
ment thought  it  better  to  strengthen  Mehemet  Ali,  as  being  a  more 
capable  ruler  than  Mahmoud.  In  coming  to  this  conclusion  the 
French  were  no  doubt  influenced  by  the  fact  that  Mehemet  Ali 
employed  many  Frenchmen  in  his  service.  In  1839  the  war  between 
the  Turks  and  the  Egyptians  broke  out  again,  and  neither  England 
nor  France  could  remain  entirely  unconcerned. 

19.  Threatened  Breach  with  France.  1839 — 1841. — The  war 
was  disastrous  to  the  Turks.  The  army  of  the  Sultan  was  routed 
at  Nisib.  Sultan  Mahmoud  died  before  he  heard  the  news,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Abdul  Medjid.  The  Turkish  admiral 
at  once  sailed  off  with  the  fleet  under  his  command,  and  handed 
it  over  at  Alexandria  to  Mehemet  Ali.  Palmerston  insisted  that 
the  Egyptians  must  be  driven  back,  and  in  1840,  Russia,  aban- 
doning the  advantages  she  had  gained  by  the  Treaty  of  Unkiar 
Skelessi,  joined  England,  Austria,  and  Prussia  in  a  quadruple 
Treaty,  with  the  object  of  enforcing  suitable  terms  on  the  belli- 
gerents. France,  left  out  of  the  treaty,  was  deeply  exasperated. 
There  was  wild  talk  of  avenging  Waterloo  and  reconquering  the 
frontier  of  the  Rhine.  The  French  Prime  Minister,  Thiers,  made 
every  preparation  for  war.  A  British  admiral.  Sir  Charles  Napier, 
however,  joined  by  an  Austrian  squadron,  captured  Acre,  and 
Mehemet  Ali  abandoned  Syria,  receiving  from  the  Sultan  in  re- 
turn the  hereditary  government  of  Egypt,  which  he  had  hitherto 
held  only  for  his  own  lifetime.  Louis  Philippe  dismissed  Thiers, 
and  placed  in  office  Guizot,  a  sworn  foe  to  revolutionary  projects 
and  revolutionary  wars.  In  1841  all  the  powers,  including  Russia, 
substituted  for  the  Treaty  of  Unkiar  Skelessi  an  agreement  by  which 
the  Dardanelles  was  closed  against  the  war  ships  of  all  nations 
unless  the  Sultan  himself  was  at  war.  Time  wa^  thus  allowed  to  the 
Turks  to  show  whether  they  were  capable,  as  Palmerston  thought 
they  were,  of  reforming  their  own  government. 

20.  Condition  of  the  Poor.  1837— 1841.— The  Reform  Act  of 
1832  had  brought  into  power  the  middle  classes,  and  had  been 
followed  by  such  legislation  as  was  satisfactory  to  those  classes. 
Little  had  been  done  for  the  artisans  and  the  poor,  and  their 
condition  was  most  deplorable.  A  succession  of  bad  seasons 
raised  the  price  of  wheat  from  a  little  ever  39^.  a  quarter  in  1835  to 
a  little  over  70J.  in  1839.     Even  if  food  had  been  cheap  the  masses 


1837-1841  UNSANITARY  CONDITIONS  923 

dwelling  in  great  cities  were  exposed  to  misery  against  which  the 
law  afforded  no  protection.  Crowded  and  dirty  as  many  of  the 
dwellings  of  the  poor  still  are,  their  condition  was  far  worse  early 
in  the  reign  of  Victoria.  In  Manchester,  for  instance,  one-tenth  of 
the  population  lived  in  cellars.  Each  of  these  cellars  was  reached 
through  a  small  area,  to  which  steps  descended  from  a  court, 
often  flooded  with  stagnating  filth.  A  person  standing  in  one  of 
these  areas  would,  according  to  the  statement  of  a  contemporary 
writer,  *  have  his  head  about  one  foot  below  the  level  of  the  street, 
and  «iight,  at  the  same  time,  without  the  least  motion  of  his  body, 
touch  the  window  of  the  cellar  and  the  damp,  muddy  wall  right  oppo- 
site.' The  cellar  itself  was  dark,  filled  with  a  horrible  stench.  Here 
a  whole  family  lived  in  a  single  room,  the  children  lying  on  the  '  damp, 
nay,  wet,  brick  floor  through  which  the  stagnant  moisture  '  oozed  up. 
In  Bethnal  Green  and  other  parts  of  the  east  end  of  London  things 
were  quite  as  bad.  Overcrowding  added  to  the  horrors  of  such  a 
life.  One  small  cellar,  measuring  four  yards  by  five,  contained  two 
rooms  and  eight  persons,  sleeping  four  in  a  bed.  In  some  parts  of 
the  country  similar  evils  prevailed.  In  one  parish  in  Dorset  thirty- 
six  persons  dwelt,  on  an  average,  in  each  house.  All  modesty  was 
at  an  end  under  these  miserable  conditions.  In  one  case — and 
the  case  was  common  enough— a  father  and  mother,  with  their 
married  daughter  and  her  husband,  a  baby,  a  boy  of  sixteen,  and 
two  girls,  all  slept  in  a  single  room.  People  living  in  such  a  way 
were  sure  to  be  ignorant  and  vicious.  They  were  badly  paid,  and 
even  for  their  low  wages  were  very  much  at  the  mercy  of  their 
employers.  In  spite  of  the  law  against  '  truck,'  as  it  was  called, 
employers  often  persisted  in  paying  their  men  in  goods  charged 
above  their  real  prices  instead  of  in  money.  In  one  instance  a 
man  was  obliged  to  take  a  piece  of  cloth  worth  only  i  ij".  in  payment 
of  his  wages  of  35^-. 

21.  The  People's  Charter.  1837 — 1840.— Many  remedies  were 
proposed  for  these  evils,  but  the  one  which  caught  the  imagination 
of  the  workmen  themselves  was  the  People's  Charter.  The  six 
points  of  the  charter  were  (i)  annual  parliaments,  (2)  manhood 
suffrage,  (3)  vote  by  ballot,  (4)  equal  electoral  districts,  (5)  abolition 
of  the  property  qualification  for  entering  Parliament,  and  (6)  pay- 
ment for  members  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Those  who  sup- 
ported the  charter  thought  that,  as  the  acquisition  of  political 
power  had  enabled  the  middle  classes  to  redress  their  grievances, 
the  working  class  would  in  like  way  be  able  to  redress  theirs.  They 
did  not  recognise  the  unfortunate  truth  that  the  working  class 

3  o  2 


924  THE  REFORMERS  IN  POWER  1838-1840 

still  needed  the  political  education  without  which  political  power  is 
dangerous  even  to  those  who  exercise  it.  In  1839  large  meetings 
were  held  in  support  of  the  charter,  and  at  these  threats  of  appealing 
to  violence,  if  no  gentler  means  availed,  were  freely  used.  In  1839 
a  so-called  '  National  Convention,'  composed  of  delegates  from  the 
workers  of  the  large  towns  and  led  by  Feargus  O'Connor,  a  news- 
paper owner,  and  Ernest  Jones,  a  barrister,  sent  a  monster  petition 
to  Parliament.  Parliament  refused  even  to  take  it  into  considera- 
tion, and  an  increased  bitterness  of  feeling  was  the  result.  A  riot 
occurred  at  Birmingham  :  houses  and  shops  were  sacked,  as  if 
Birmingham  had  been  a  town  taken  by  storm.  The  Government 
repressed  these  acts  of  violence  by  the  operation  of  the  ordinary  law, 
without  having  recourse  to  those  exceptional  measures  on  which 
Sidmouth  had  fallen  back  thirty  years  before  (see  p.  880).  The  last 
deed  of  violence  was  an  armed  attack  on  Newport  in  Monmouth- 
shire. Soldiers,  brought  to  defend  the  place,  fired  upon  the  mob, 
and  killed  and  wounded  many.  In  1840  the  ringleaders  were  tried 
and  condemned  to  death,  though  the  Government  commuted  the 
sentence  into  transportation  for  life. 

22.  The  Anti-Corn-Law  League.  1838 — 1840. — The  middle 
classes  were  not  likely  to  be  tolerant  of  violence  and  disorder,  but 
there  was  one  point  on  which  their  interests  coincided  with  those 
of  the  working  men.  The  high  price  of  corn  not  only  caused 
sufferings  amongst  the  poor,  but  also  injured  trade.  This  high 
price  was  to  a  great  extent  owing  to  the  Corn  Law,  which  had 
been  amended  from  time  to  time  since  it  was  passed  in  1815  (see 
p.  875),  and  which  continued  to  make  corn  dear  by  imposing  heavy 
duties  on  imported  corn  whenever  there  was  a  good  harvest  in 
England,  with  the  view  of  protecting  the  agriculturists  against 
low  prices.  In  1838  an  Anti-Corn-Law  League  was  formed  at 
Manchester  in  which  the  leading  men  were  Richard  Cobden, 
a  master  of  clear  and  popular  reasoning,  whose  knowledge  of 
facts  relating  to  the  question  was  exhaustive,  and  John  Bright, 
whose  simple  diction  and  stirring  (eloquence  appealed  to  the 
feelings  and  the  morality  of  his  audience.  In  1839  Charles 
Villiers,  who  took  the  lead  of  the  Corn  Law  repealers  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  was  beaten  by  342  votes  to  195,  but  he  had 
amongst  his  supporters  Russell,  Palmerston,  and  most  of  the 
prominent  members  of  the  Government.  It  was  evident,  however, 
that  some  time  must  elapse  before  a  change  so  great  could  be 
accomplished,  as  the  proposal  was  offensive  to  the  agriculturists, 
who  formed  the  main  streng^th  of  the  Conservative  party.     More- 


1841 


A    DISCREDITED  MINISTRY 


925 


over,  the  proposal  to  put  an  end  to  the  Corn  Law  had  still  to  make 
its  way,  by  dint  of  argument,  with  the  trading  and  working  classes 
who  were  interested  in  its  abolition. 

23.  The  Fall  of  the  Melbourne  Ministry.  1841. — The  middle 
classes  had  grievances  of  their  own  against  the  ministry.  They 
disliked  financial  disorder  as  well  as  physical  violence,  and,  though 
the  ministry  had  put  down  the  latter,  they  had  encouraged  the 
former.  Every  year  showed  a  deficit,  and  whilst  the  produce  of 
the  taxes  was  falling,  the  expenditure  was  increasing.  In  1841 
the  ministry  made  an  heroic  effort  to  deal  with  the  mischief  by  a 
movement  in  the  direction  of  freedom  of  trade,  proposing  that 
there  should  be  a  fixed  Zs.  duty  on  every  quarter  of  imported  corn, 
whatever  its  price  in  England  might  be,  in  the  place  of  the  sliding 
scale  varying  with  the  price  which  had  been  adopted  in  1822.  Peel 
opposed  them  on  the  ground  that  they  had  shown  themselves  too  in- 
competent as  financiers  to  be  entrusted  with  the  working  of  so  large 
a  scheme.  The  ministry  was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and,  after  a  dissolution,  a  new  House  was  returned  in  which  the 
Conservatives  were  in  a  majority  of  ninety-one.  The  discredited 
Melbourne  ministry  resigned,  and  Peel  had  no  difficulty  in  forming 
a  new  ministry.  There  was  no  longer  any  difficulty  about  the 
Ladies  of  the  Bedchamber.  Now  that  the  queen  was  married  and 
in  full  enjoyment  of  the  society  of  a  husband  whom  she  loved  and 
trusted,  she  no  longer  objected  to  abandon  the  company  of  the 
Whig  ladies  whom,  in  1839,  she  had  refused  to  dismiss.' 

1  Genealogy  of  the  principal  descendants  of  Queen  Victoria  : — 

Victoria  =  Albert  of  Saxe  Coburg-Gotha 


1819-1901    1 

1819— 1861 

Victoria. 

EDWARD  VII.        Alice  Maud 

Alfred  Ernest 

Helena- Augusta                  1 

1840— 1901. 

1841- 

Mary. 

Albert,  Duke  of 

Victoria. 

yt.  Frederick  William,      m.  Alexandra 

1843—1878. 

Edinburgh. 

1846— 

afterwards  Frede 

dau.  of  Christian        m.  Louis, 

1844— 1900. 

m.  Prince 

tick  III.,  king  ot 

IX.  kinff  of 

Grand  Duke 

»i.  Marie,  dau. 

Frederick 

Prussia  and  German            Lenmark 

of  Hesse- 

of  Alexander  II., 

Christian  of 

Emperor 

Darmstadt 

Emperor  of 
Russia 

Schleswig- 
Holstein- 

William  II.. 

Sonderburg- 

king- of  Prussia 

Augustenburg 

and  German 

Emperor 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Albert  Victor, 

George  Frederick, 

Louise. 

Victoria. 

Maud. 

Duke  of  Clarence 

Pnnce  of  Wales. 

1867- 

1868- 

1869- 

and  Avondale. 

1865- 

?n.  the  Duke 

m.  Prince 

1864-1892. 

m.  Princess  Vic- 

of Fife 

Charles  of 

toria  Mary  of  Teck 

Denmark 

l~ 

u     '     .,. 

1 

.1 

Louise  Caroline 
Albe  ta. 
1848— 
m.  the  Marquis 

ot  Lome, 

afterwards  Duke 

of  Argyll 


Arthur  William 

Patrick  Albert, 

Duke  of  Connaught. 

1850— 
m.  Louise  Margaret, 
dau.  of  Prince  Fre- 
derick Charles  of 
Prussia 


Leopold  George 
Duncan  Albert. 

1853—1884. 

■)n.  Helen,  a  dau. 

of  the  Prince 

of  Waldeck- 

Pyrmont 


Beatrice  Mary 

Victoria 

Feodore. 

1857— 

m.  Prmce 
Henry  of 

Battenberg. 
1858—1896 


03 


926 
CHAPTER   LVIII 

FREE  TRADE.      1841  —  1852 

LEADING   DATES 

Peel's  second  Ministry 1841-1846 

Peel's  first  Free-trade  Budget 1842 

Peel's  second  Free-trade  Budget 1845 

Repeal  of  the  Corn  Law 1846 

The  Russell  Ministry 1846 -1852 

European  Revolutions 1848 

The  first  Derby  Ministry 1852 

1.  Peel's  New  Ministry.  1841. — In  his  new  ministry  Peel  found 
room  not  only  for  leading  Conservatives,  but  also  for  Stanley,  Graham, 
and  Ripon,  who  had  left  the  Whigs  in  1834,  and  had  since  then  voted 
with  the  Conservatives.  Stanley — now  Lord  Stanley — and  Graham 
were  amongst  the  ablest  of  the  ministers  who  formed  the  Cabinet  ; 
though  the  help  of  a  young  minister,  Gladstone,  who  was  not  a 
member  of  the  Cabinet,  was  especially  valuable  on  account  of  his 
grasp  of  economical  truths,  and  of  the  clearness  with  which  his 
opinions  were  set  forth. 

2.  Peel's  First  Free-trade  Budget.  1842. — Peel's  first  great 
Budget  was  that  of  1842.  He  put  an  end  to  the  deficit  by  carrying 
a  measure  re-imposing,  for  three  years,  an  income-tax  similar  to 
that  which  Pitt  had  imposed  to  carry  on  the  great  war  with  France. 
He  justified  his  action  on  the  plea  that  it  was  necessary,  in  the  first 
place,  to  stop  the  constantly  recurring  deficit  ;  and,  in  the  second 
place,  to  effect  financial  reforms  which  would  enlarge  the  resources 
of  the  government.  He  consequently  lowered  many  duties  the  main 
object  of  which  had  been  the  protection  of  home  manufactures  or 
agriculture.  So  far  as  the  corn  duties  were  concerned,  he  modified 
the  sliding  scale,  but  refused  to  effect  any  distinct  reduction.  The 
advocates  of  free-trade  thought  he  had  done  too  little,  and  those 
of  protection  thought  he  had  done  too  much. 

3.  Returning  Prosperity.  1843— 1844. — During  the  next  two 
years,  1843  and  1844,  Peel's  budgets  were  not  remarkable,  as  he 
did  not  wish  to  take  any  further  step  of  importance  till  he  had  had 
time  to  watch  the  result  of  the  budget  of  1842.  The  experience 
gained  at  the  end  of  three  years  was  in  every  way  favourable,  as  it 
showed  that  manufactures  really  flourished  more  now  that  they  had 
to  face  competition  than  they  had  done  in  its  absence.     No  doubt 


1842-1846         PALMERSTON  AND  ABERDEEN  927 

the  return  of  prosperity  was  partly  owing  to  the  good  harvests  which 
followed  Peel's  accession  to  power,  but  it  was  also  in  a  great 
measure  owing  to  his  policy, 

4.  Mines  and  Factories.  1842 — 1847. — It  would  be  of  little 
worth  to  encourage  manufactures,  if  those  by  whose  labour  they 
were  produced  were  to  be  a  miserable,  vicious,  and  stunted  popu- 

.lation.  In  1842,  a  commission,  appointed  to  examine  into  the  con- 
dition of  mines,  reported  that  women  and  even  young  children  were 
forced  to  drag  heavy  trucks  underground,  sometimes  for  twelve 
hours  a  day.  Lord  Ashley,  foremost  in  every  good  work,  and  who 
had  already  alleviated  the  lot  of  factory  children  (see  p.  91 1),  induced 
Parliament  to  pass  a  bill  which  was  not  all  that  he  wished,  but  which 
enacted  that  no  woman  or  child  under  ten  should  be  employed  under 
ground,  and  that  no  child  between  ten  and  thirteen  should  be  em- 
ployed for  more  than  three  days  a  week.  In  1844,  Graham  passed 
an  Act  prohibiting  the  employment  of  children  under  nine  in  cotton 
and  silk  mills  ;  but  it  was  not  till  1847  that,  after  a  long  struggle  con- 
ducted by  Lord  Ashley,  an  Act  was  passed  prohibiting  the  employ- 
ment of  women  and  children  in  all  factories  for  more  than  ten  hours 
a  day.  The  arguments  employed  in  favour  of  confining  these  re- 
strictions to  women  and  children  were  that  they  could  not  take  care 
of  themselves  as  well  as  men,  and  also  that  injuries  done  by  over- 
work to  the  health  of  mothers  and  of  young  people,  seriously  affect 
the  health  and  strength  of  future  generations. 

5.  Aberdeen's  Foreign  Policy.  1841— 1846.— The  fall  of  the 
Melbourne  ministry  had  been  caused  nearly  as  much  by  its  foreign 
as  by  its  domestic  policy.  Though  Lord  Palmerston  had  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  his  way  in  the  East  without  bringing  on  a  war 
with  France  (see  p.  922),  sober  people  were  afraid  lest  he  might 
sooner  or  later  provoke  war  by  his  violent  self-assertion.  Peel's 
foreign  minister,  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  was  always  ready  to  give  up 
something  in  order  to  secure  the  blessing  of  peace.  In  18^  he 
put  an  end  to  a  long  dispute  with  the  United  States  about  the 
frontier  between  the  English  colonies  and  the  State  of  Maine  on 
the  eastern  side  of  America  ;  and  in  1846  he  put  an  end  to  another 
dispute  about  the  frontier  of  Oregon  on  the  western  side.  With 
France,  where  Guizot  was  now  Prime  Minister,  his  relations  were 
excessively  cordial,  and  a  close  understanding  grew  up  between 
the  two  governments,  assuring  the  maintenance  of  European  peace. 
The  entente  cordiale,  as  it  was  called,  was  ratified  in  1843  by  a 
visit  of  Queen  Victoria  to  Louis  Philippe,  at  Eu,  and  by  a  return 
visit  paid  by  Louis  Philippe  to   the  Queen  at  Windsor  in  1844. 


928  FREE   TRADE  1843- 1845 

These  friendly  relations  enabled  Aberdeen  and  Guizot  to  settle 
amicably  a  dispute  arising  out  of  the  conduct  of  an  English  Consul 
at  Tahiti,  which  might  very  easily  have  led  to  war. 

6.  Peel  and  O'Connell.  1843. — Each  successive  ministry  was 
confronted  with  the  problem  of  Irish  government,  and  soon  after 
Peel  came  into  ojffice  the  cry  for  the  Repeal  of  the  Union,  which 
had  died  away  during  the  Melbourne  government,  was  once  more, 
loudly  raised.  In  1843,  O'Connell,  instigated  by  younger  men,  such 
as  Thomas  Davis  and  Gavan  Duffy,  pushed  the  movement  on,  and 
predicted  that  Repeal  would  be  carried  before  the  year  was  over. 
He  summoned  a  monster  meeting  at  Clontarf,  but  before  the  ap- 
pointed day  the  government  prohibited  the  meeting  and  poured 
troops  into  Ireland  to  enforce  the  prohibition.  O'Connell  shrank 
from  causing  useless  bloodshed,  and  advised  his  followers  to  keep 
away  from  the  place  of  gathering.  Though  no  attempt  was  made 
to  hold  the  meeting,  O'Connell  was  charged  with  sedition  and  con- 
spiracy. Being  convicted  by  a  jury  from  which  all  Roman  Catholics 
were  excluded,  he  was  sentenced  to  a  year's  imprisonment  and  a 
heavy  fine.  There  were,  however,  technical  errors  in  the  proceed- 
ings, and  the  judgment  was  reversed  in  his  favour  by  the  House  of 
Lords,  or  rather  by  the  five  lawyers  who  had  seats  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  who  alone  decided  legal  appeals  in  the  name  of  that 
House.  Partly  in  consequence  of  the  hopelessness  of  resisting  the 
government,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  satisfaction  felt  in  Ireland 
at  the  reversal  of  the  judgment  against  O'Connell,  the  demand  for 
Repeal  once  more  died  away,  and  the  Irish  leader,  whose  health 
was  breaking,  retired  from  public  life,  living  quietly  till  his  death 
at  Genoa  in  1847. 

7.  Peel's  Irish  Policy.  1843— 1845.— The  main  source  of  mis- 
chief in  Ireland  was  to  be  found  in  the  relations  between  landlord 
and  tenant.  Evictions  on  the  one  hand  were  answered  by  murder 
and  t)utrage  on  the  other.  To  check  the  latter  Peel  in  1843  passed 
an  amended  Arms  Act,  forbidding  the  possession  of  arms  except 
by  special  license,  whilst,  to  check  the  former,  he  issued,  in  1844, 
a  commission,  of  which  the  Earl  of  Devon  was  chairman,  to  inquire 
into  the  grievances  of  Irish  tenants.  In  1845  he  raised,  amidst  a 
storm  of  obloquy  from  many  English  Protestants,  the  government 
grant  to  the  College  of  Maynooth,  in  which  Roman  Catholics  were 
educated  for  the  priesthood,  from  9,000/.  to  26,000/.,  and  estabHshed 
three  Queen's  Colleges  to  give  unsectarian  education  to  the  laity.  In 
1845  the  Devon  Commission  reported  that  in  the  three  provinces 
of  Leinster,  Munster,  and  Connaught  the  landlords  were  in  most 


i845  THE  DEVON  COMMISSION  929 

cases  unable  to  make  improvements  on  their  land  because  the 
law  prevented  them  from  borrowing  money  on  the  security  of  their 
estates  ;  and  that  they  frequently  let  their  lands  to  middlemen,  who 
let  it  out  again  to  tenants  at  will.  Improvements,  if  made  at  all, 
were  usually  made  by  the  tenant  at  will,  though  he  was  liable  to 
be  turned  out  of  his  holding  without  any  compensation  for  what 
he  had  done  to  increase  the  value  of  the  estate.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  the  tenant  rarely  made  any  improvement  at 
all,  and  that,  when  he  did,  he  frequently  either  had  his  holding 
taken  from  him,  or  had  his  rent  raised  in  consequence  of  his  own 
improvements.  In  Ulster,  on  the  other  hand,  there  had  grown 
up  a  custom  of  tenant  right,  and  when  a  tenant  left  he  received 
compensation  for  his  improvements  from  the  incoming  tenant  who 
took  his  place.  In  1845  the  government,  finding  that  Ulster  was 
peaceful  whilst  the  other  provinces  were  not,  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  Ulster  tenant-right  made  the  difference  between  them,  and 
brought  in  a  bill  securing  a  limited  amount  of  compensation  to 
those  tenants  who  made  improvements  duly  certified  to  be  of  value. 
The  House  of  Lords,  however,  refused  to  pass  it,  and  for  many 
years  no  further  effort  was  made  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
Irish  tenant. 

8.  Peel's  Second  Free-trade  Budget.  1845. — Peel  was  more 
successful  in  dealing  with  England.  When  in  1845  the  three  years 
for  which  the  income-tax  had  been  granted  came  to  an  end.  Peel, 
instead  of  remitting  it,  obtained  leave  from  Parliament  to  continue 
it  for  three  more  years  ;  though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  subse- 
quently re-imposed  and  is  still  levied  to  this  day.  Peel,  having 
received  a  surplus,  employed  it  to  sweep  away  a  vast  number  of 
duties  upon  imports  which  weighed  upon  trade,  and  to  lower  other 
duties  which  he  did  not  sweep  away  ;  whilst  at  the  same  time  he 
put  an  entire  end  to  all  duties  on  exports.  The  country  gentlemen 
who  formed  the  large  majority  of  Peel's  supporters  took  alarm  at 
a  proposal  made  by  him  to  remove  the  duties  on  lard  and  hides,  • 
on  the  ground  that  if  this  were  done  foreigners  would,  in  regard  to 
these  two  articles,  be  enabled  to  compete  with  English  produce. 

9.  Peel  and  Disraeli.  1845.— The  country  gentlemen  could 
grumble,  but  they  were  no  match  for  Peel  in  debate  ;  and  they 
were  therefore  in  a  mood  to  transfer  their  allegiance  to  any  man 
capable  of  heading  an  opposition  in  Parliament  to  the  statesman 
whom  they  had  hitherto  followed.  Such  a  spokesman  they  found 
in  a  young  member,  Benjamin  Disraeli,  who,  after  attempting  to 
enter  Parliament  as  a  Radical,  had  been  elected  as  a  Conservative. 


930  FREE   TRADE  1845 

His  change  of  opinion  was  greater  in  appearance  than  in  reality, 
as  his  principal  motive,  both  as  a  Radical  and  as  a  Conservative, 
was  hostility  to  the  tendencies  of  the  middle  classes  which  he  held 
to  be  embodied  in  the  Whigs.  He  now  discovered  that  the  same 
tendencies  were  also  embodied  in  Peel.  Disraeli,  indeed,  never 
grasped  the  meaning  of  those  doctrines  of  political  economy  which 
were  in  favour  with  the  Whigs,  and  were  growing  in  favour  with 
Peel,  and  being  moreover  a  man  of  great  ambition,  he  seized  the 
occasion  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  malcontent  Conserva- 
tives, with  the  less  difficulty  because,  in  giving  expression  to  their 
ignorance,  he  did  not  fling  away  any  settled  conviction  of  his  own. 
He  was  the  more  angry  with  Peel  because  Peel  had  refused  him 
office.  Fixing  upon  Peel's  weak  point,  his  want  of  originality,  he 
declared  that  the  Prime  Minister,  having  caught  the  Whigs  bathing, 
had  walked  away  with  their  clothes,  and  that  under  him  a  Con- 
servative government  was  '  an  organised  hypocrisy.' 

10.  Spread  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law  League.  1845. — In  the  mean- 
while, the  Anti-Corn-Law  League  was  growing  in  influence.  The 
oratory  of  Bright  and  the  close  reasoning  of  Cobden  were  telling 
even  on  the  agricultural  population.  The  small  farmers  and  the 
labourers  were  suffering  whilst  the  manufacturers  were  flourishing. 
Peel,  indeed,  was  a  free-trader  on  principle.  He  believed  that 
legislation  ought  to  make  goods  cheap  for  the  sake  of  consumers 
rather  than  dear  for  the  sake  of  producers,  and  at  this  time  he 
even  believed  that  the  nation  would  be  wealthier  if  corn  fell  in 
price  by  being  freely  imported  than  if  its  price  was  raised  by  the 
imposition  of  duties.  He  still  held,  however,  that  it  was  the  duty 
of  Parliament  to  keep  up  the  price  of  corn,  not  for  the  benefit  of 
the  existing  generation,  but  as  an  insurance  for  future  generations. 
If  Great  Britain  came  to  depend  for  a  great  part  of  her  food  supply 
upon  foreign  countries,  an  enemy  in  time  of  war  would  have  little 
difficulty  in  starving  out  the  country  by  cutting  off  its  supply  of  foreign 
food.  The  only  answer  to  this  was,  that  the  starvation  which  Peel 
dreaded  in  the  future  was  existing  in  the  present.  It  was  easy  to 
say  that  the  corn  laws  encouraged  the  production  of  food  at  home 
to  support  the  population.  As  a  plain  matter  of  fact,  the  population 
had  increased  so  rapidly  that  starvation  was  permanently  estab- 
lished in  the  country.  '  I  be  protected,'  said  an  agricultural 
labourer  at  a  meeting  of  the  League,  ^  and  I  be  starving.'  If  any- 
thing occurred  to  bring  home  to  Peel  the  existence  of  this  perma- 
nent starvation,  he  would  become  a  free-trader  in  corn  as  well  as 
in  manufactures. 


1845-1846  CORN-LAW  REPEAL  931 

11.  The  Irish  Famine.  1845. — The  conviction  which  Peel 
needed  came  from  Ireland.  The  population  was  8,000,000,  and 
half  of  this  number  subsisted  on  potatoes  alone.  In  the  summer 
of  1845,  a  potato  disease,  previously  unknown,  swept  over  both 
islands.  Potato  plants,  green  and  flourishing  at  night,  were  in 
the  morning  a  blackened  and  fetid  mass  of  corruption.  A  mis- 
fortune which,  in  England  and  Scotland  was  a  mere  inconvenience, 
caused  abject  misery  in  Ireland. 

12.  The  Abolition  of  the  Corn  Law.  1845 — 1846. — Peel  saw 
that  if  the  starving  millions  were  to  be  fed,  corn  must  be  cheapened 
as  much  as  possible,  and  that  the  only  way  of  cheapening  it  was  to 
take  off  the  duty.  In  October  he  asked  the  Cabinet  to  support 
him  in  taking  off  the  duty.  The  majority  in  it  had  minds  less 
flexible  than  his  own,  and  its  decision  was  postponed.  In 
November,  Russell,  now  the  leader  of  the  Liberals,  wrote  what  was 
known  as  'the  Edinburgh  letter'  to  his  constituents,  declaring  for 
the  complete  abolition  of  the  Corn  Law.  Peel  again  attempted  to 
induce  the  Cabinet  to  follow  him,  but  the  Cabinet  again  refused, 
and  on  December  5  he  resigned  office.  Russell,  however,  was 
unable  to  form  a  ministry,  and  on  December  20  Peel  returned  to 
office  pledged  to  repeal  the  Corn  Law.  Lord  Stanley  now  resigned, 
and  became  the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Protectionists,  who 
resolved  to  oppose  Peel's  forthcoming  measure.  On  the  other 
hand,  Russell  gave  assurances  that  he  and  the  Whigs  would 
loyally  support  it.  Accordingly,  when  Parliament  met  in  January 
1846,  Peel  proposed  to  bring  in  a  Bill  for  the  abolition  of  the  Corn 
Law,  though  three  years  were  to  pass  before  the  abolition  would 
be  quite  complete.  On  June  25,  the  Bill,  having  previously  passed 
the  Commons,  passed  the  Lords,  and  an  end  was  at  last  put  to 
the  long-continued  attempt  to  raise  by  artificial  means  the  price  of 
bread. 

13.  The  Close  of  Peel's  Ministry.  1846. — Peel  had  done  what 
he  could  to  mitigate  the  distress  in  Ireland.  He  sent  Indian  corn 
there  to  be  sold  cheaply,  and  he  ordered  the  establishment  of 
public  works  to  give  means  of  subsistence  to  the  starving  popula- 
tion. The  old  antagonism  between  landlord  and  tenant,  however, 
had  not  ceased,  and  evicted  tenants  and  those  who  sympathised 
with  them  still  had  recourse  to  outrages  and  murder.  Peel 
brought  in  a  Bill  for  the  protection  of  life  in  Ireland.  Russell  and 
the  Liberals  disliked  it  because  it  was  too  stringent.  The  Protec- 
tionists in  the  House  of  Commons,  led  nominally  by  Lord  George 
Bentinck   and  really  by  Disraeli,  were  glad  of  any  opportunity  to 


932 


FREE    TRADE 


1846 


defeat  Peel,  and  on  June  25,  the  day  on  which  the  Corn  Bill  passed 
the  Lords,  the  Irish  Bill  was  thrown  out  by  the  Commons.  On 
the  27th  Peel  resigned  office. 

14.  The  Russell  Ministry.  1846— 1847. — Lord  John  Russell 
had  no  difficulty  this  time  in  forming  a  ministry,  and  though  his 
followers  were  in  a  minority  in  the  House  of  Commons,  he  was  sure 
of  the  support  of  Peel  and  of  the  Peelites,  as  those  Conservatives 
were  called  who  had  voted  with  their  leader  for  the  abolition  of 


Sir  Robert  Peel  :  from  the  bust  by  Noble  in  the 
National  Portrait  Gallery. 

the  Corn  Law.  Russell  had  in  1846  to  face  a  state  of  things  in 
Ireland  even  more  deplorable  than  that  which  had  compelled 
his  predecessor  in  1845  to  abandon  Protection.  In  1846,  the  failure 
of  the  potato  crop  was  even  more  complete  than  it  had  been  in 
1845,  and  at  the  same  time  it  was  found  that  the  system  of  public 
works  established  by  Peel  had  led  to  gross  abuses.  Thousands  of 
men  who  applied  to  mend  the  roads  made  them  worse  instead  of 
better,  whilst  they  neglected  opportunities  of  working  for  private 
persons,  because  the  public  authorities  exacted  less  work  and  gave 


i847  THE  FIRST  RUSSELL   MINISTRY  933 

higher  pay  than  the  private  employer.  Russell  did  what  was 
possible  to  check  these  abuses,  and  in  the  session  of  1847  he 
passed  a  Bill  for  enabling  the  guardians  to  give  outdoor  relief,  which 
they  had  been  forbidden  to  do  by  the  Act  which  in  1838  established 
a  Poor  Law  (see  p.  917).  Such  a  change  in  the  law  was  imperatively 
demanded,  as  in  the  existing  poor-houses  there  was  only  room  for 
three  out  of  every  hundred  starving  persons. 

15.  Irish  Emigration.  1847. — No  poor  law,  however,  could  do 
more  than  mitigate  the  consequences  of  famine,  especially  as  the 
slow  forms  of  parliamentary  procedure  delayed  the  remedy,  and  as 
those  who  had  to  administer  the  new  law  were  interested  rather 
in  keeping  rates  down  than  in  saving  life.  The  misery  was  too 
wide-spread  to  be  much  allayed  by  any  remedy,  and  such  English 
charity  as  was  added  to  the  relief  provided  by  law  was  almost  as  in- 
effectual. Thousands  perished  by  starvation,  and  many  thousands 
more  emigrated  to  America,  many  of  them  perishing  on  board 
ship  from  disease  engendered  in  bodies  enfeebled  by  previous 
want  of  nourishment.  Those  who  reached  America  preserved  and 
handed  down  to  their  children  a  hatred  of  the  English  name  and 
government,  to  which  they  attributed  their  sufferings.  By  starva- 
tion and  emigration  the  population  of  Ireland  fell  from  8,000,000 
to  5,000,000. 

16.  Landlord  and  Tenant  in  Ireland.  1847. — Russell  was 
statesman  enough  to  perceive  that  the  legal  relations  between 
landlord  and  tenant  needed  alteration,  if  the  deep-seated  causes 
of  Irish  misery  were  to  be  removed.  Many  of  the  landlords 
were  hopelessly  in  debt.  Out  of  a  gross  rental  of  17,000,000/. 
9,000,000/.  was  mortgaged,  and  the  remaining  8,000,000/.  was  in- 
sufficient to  provide  for  the  support  of  the  starving  poor  and  to 
meet  the  expenses  of  the  landlords.  Impoverished  landlords  were 
consequently  tempted  to  bear  hardly  on  their  tenants.  Improve- 
ments in  the  English  sense  were  few,  but  it  often  happened  that 
a  poor  tenant  on  a  wild  hillside  would  erect  a  fence  or  clear  off 
the  stones  from  his  rough  farm,  thus  making  it  more  productive  than 
before.  In  too  many  cases  the  landlord,  or  more  often  the  land- 
lord's agent  when  the  landlord  was  an  absentee,  pounced  down  on 
the  struggling  improver,  and  either  forced  him  to  pay  a  higher  rent, 
or  evicted  him  in  order  to  replace  him  by  someone  who  offered  more. 
The  evicted  tenant  not  unfrequently  revenged  himself  by  murder- 
ing the  landlord  or  his  agent,  or  else  the  new  tenant  who  had 
ousted  him  from  his  holding. 

17.  The  Encumbered   Estates  Act.     1848. — Russell  proposed 


934  FREE    TRADE  1848 

to  meet  the  evil  by  a  double  remedy.  On  the  one  hand  he  brought 
in  a  Bill  which  became  law  in  1848  as  the  Encumbered  Estates 
Act,  for  the  sale  of  deeply  mortgaged  estates  to  solvent  purchasers, 
in  the  hope  that  the  new  landlords  might  be  sufficiently  well  off 
to  treat  their  tenants  with  consideration.  At  the  same  time  he 
proposed  another  measure  to  compel  landlords  to  compensate  their 
evicted  tenants  for  improvements  which  the  tenants  had  themselves 
made,  and  he  would  gladly  have  supported  a  further  measure 
which  he  did  not  venture  even  to  introduce,  forbidding  the  eviction 
of  any  tenant  who  had  held  land  exceeding  a  quarter  of  an  acre 
for  more  than  five  years,  without  compensation  for  the  loss  of  his 
tenure.  English  opinion,  however,  prevented  even  the  Bill  for 
compensation  for  actual  improvements  from  becoming  law  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Bill  for  buying  out  the  owners  of  encumbered 
estates  was  readily  passed,  and  was  also  accompanied  by  a  Coercion 
Act,  milder,  indeed,  than  that  which  had  been  proposed  by  Peel 
(see  p.  931).  The  Encumbered  Estates  Act  standing  alone  was  a 
curse  rather  than  a  blessing,  as  many  of  the  indebted  landowners 
had  been  easy-going,  whereas  many  of  the  new  landowners,  having 
paid  down  ready  money,  thought  themselves  justified  in  applying 
purely  commercial  principles  to  their  relations  with  the  tenants,  and 
exacted  from  them  every  penny  that  could  be  wrung  from  men 
who  had  no  protection  for  the  results  of  their  own  industry  upon 
the  soil.  Those  who  suffered  smarted  from  a  sense  of  wrong, 
which  in  1848  became  stronger  and  more  likely  to  lead  to  acts  of 
violence,  because  in  that  year  the  course  of  affairs  in  Europe 
gave  superabundant  examples  of  successful  resistance  to  govern- 
ments. 

18.  European  Revolution.  1848. — The  year  1848  was  a  year  of 
European  revolution.  France  expelled  Louis  Philippe,  and  estab- 
lished a  second  republic,  based  on  universal  suffrage.  In  Italy, 
not  only  were  constitutional  reforms  forced  on  the  governments, 
but  Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia,  led  an  armed  attack  on  the 
Austrian  power  in  Lombardy  and  Venice,  by  which  the  despotism 
of  the  petty  sovereigns  of  Italy  had  been  bolstered  up.  In  Germany, 
a  parliament  met  at  Frankfurt  to  devise  some  scheme  for  uniting 
in  closer  bonds  the  loose  confederation  which  had  been  established 
in  1815- (see  p.  873),  whilst  revolutions  at  Berlin  and  Vienna  led  to 
the  adoption  of  a  constitutional  system  in  Prussia  and  Austria. 
The  demand  for  constitutional  government  was  everywhere  put 
forth.  In  France  it  was  associated  with  socialism  ;  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  set  up  national  workshops  in  which  every  artisan 


1848  A    YEAR   OF  REVOLUTIONS  935 

might  find  work.  In  that  country,  however,  there  was  no  aggressive 
spirit  as  in  1792,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  change  the  frontiers 
of  the  State.  In  central  Europe  and  in  Italy,  on  the  other  hand, 
dissatisfaction  with  existing  frontiers  was  the  prominent  feature. 
The.  peoples  were  there  eager  to  see  real  nations,  of  which  the 
component  parts  were  bound  together  by  the  tie  of  common 
attachment,  taking  the  place  of  artificial  states  the  creations  of  past 
wars  and  treaties.  Hence  the  populations  of  the  Italian  States  drew 
together  in  a  desire  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Austrians,  and  the 
populations  of  the  German  states  drew  together  in  a  desire  to 
give  a  common  government  to  the  German  nation.  In  the  hetero- 
geneous Austrian  empire,  however,  the  idea  of  nationality  acted 
as  a  dissolvent.  Austrians,  Hungarians,  and  Slavs,  who  together 
formed  the  vast  majority  of  the  population,  had  no  love  for  each 
other,  and  before  the  end  of  the  year  Austria  and  Hungary  were 
at  open  war. 

19.  Renewed  Trouble  in  Ireland.  1848. — In  Ireland,  a  number 
of  young  men  imagined  that  they  could  play  the  part  in  which 
O'Connell  had  failed,  and  raise  up  armed  resistance  against 
England.  One  of  these,  Smith  O'Brien,  tried  to  put  in  practice 
their  teaching  by  attacking  a  police  station,  but  he  was  easily 
captured,  and  no  attempt  was  made  to  follow  his  example. 

20.  The  Chartists  on  Kennington  Common.  1848. — In  England 
the  Chartists  thought  the  time  had  come  to  gain  that  supremacy  for 
the  mass  of  the  nation  which  had  been  gained  in  France.  Their 
leader,  Feargus  O'Connor,  a  half-mad  member  of  Parliament,  called 
on  enormous  numbers  of  them  to  meet  on  April  10  on  Kennington 
Common,'  and  to  cany  to  the  House  of  Commons  a  monster  petition 
for  the  Charter,  said  to  be  signed  by  5,700,000  persons.  The 
government  declared  the  design  to  be  illegal,  as  crowds  are  for- 
bidden by  law  to  present  petitions,  and  called  on  all  who  would,  to 
serve  ^  special  constables — that  is  to  say,  to  act  as  policemen  for 
the  day.  No  less  than  200,000  enrolled  themselves,  whereas,  when 
the  appointed  day  came,  no  more  than  25,000  persons  assembled  on 
Xennington  Common,  many  of  whom  were  not  Chartists.  Those  who 
were  Chartists  formed  a  procession  intending  to  cross  Westminster 
Bridge.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  had  posted  soldiers  in  the  houses 
on  the  Middlesex  side  of  the  bridge,  to  be  used  in  case  of  necessity, 
but  he  left  the  special  constables  to  stop  the  procession.  This  they 
did  without  difficulty.  There  was,  however,  no  attempt  to  stop  the 
presentation  of  the  petition,  which  was  carried  in  a  cab  to  the 

^  Now  Kennington  Park. 


936  FREE   TRADE  1848- 1850 

House  of  Commons,  and  found  to  bear  2,cxx)  signatures.  Many 
columns  of  these  were,  however,  in  the  same  handwriting,  and 
some  who  actually  signed  it,  wrote  the  names  of  celebrated 
persons,  such  as  Prince  Albert  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
instead  of  their  own.  Others  called  themselves  Pugnose,  Wooden- 
legs,  Bread-and-cheese,  and  so  forth.  For  all  this  there  was  a 
large  number  of  Chartists  in  England  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  there 
was  a  still  larger  number  of  persons  who  were  resolved  that,  what- 
ever changes  might  be  made  in  the  constitution,  they  should  not 
be  brought  about  by  the  exertion  of  physical  force. 

21.  European  reaction.  1848— 1849. — The  attempt  to  change 
existing  European  order  failed  as  completely  on  the  Continent 
as  it  did  in  England.  In  December,  1848,  the  French  nation 
elected  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  nephew  of  the  first  Napoleon, 
as  President  for  ten  years,  on  the  expectation  that  he  would  give 
to  the  country  a  quiet  and  orderly  government.  Charles  Albert, 
king  of  Sardinia,  taking  up  arms  to  drive  the  Austrians  out  of  Italy, 
was  defeated  by  them  at  Custozza  in  1848,  and  at  Novara  in  1849. 
After  these  successive  failures  he  was  forced  to  abdicate  in  favour 
of  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  who  maintained  constitutional 
government  in  his  own  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  whilst  the  Austrians 
regained  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  and  restored  the  absolute  govern- 
ments in  the  other  Italian  states,  except  in  the  Papal  dominions, 
where  a  French  army  restored  the  absolute  government  of  the 
Pope.  In  Germany  the  Frankfurt  parliament  tried  to  erect  a  con- 
stitutional empire,  and  was  dissolved  by  force.  In  Prussia,  the 
King,  Frederick  William  IV.,  got  the  better  of  the  revolution, 
though  he  established  a  Parliament  which,  for  the  present  at  least, 
he  was  able  to  control.  In  the  Austrian  Empire  the  war  between 
Austria  and  Hungary  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  intervention 
of  a  Russian  army  in  favour  of  Austria,  and  the  constitution  of 
Hungary  was  abolished.  By  the  end  of  1848  reaction  prevailed 
over  the  whole  Continent. 

22.  The   Decline  of  the  Russell    Ministry.      1848— 1851 In 

England  the  ministry  was  supported,  not  merely  as  the  representa- 
tive of  order  against  turbulence,  but  also  as  the  representative  of 
free-trade  against  protection.  In  1849  the  Navigation  Act  (see  pp. 
565,  589)  was  repealed,  and  foreign  shipping  admitted  to  compete 
with  English.  Yet  the  government  only  maintained  itself  by  de- 
pending on  the  votes  of  the  Peelites,  and  in  1850  Peel  unfortu- 
nately died  in  consequence  of  a  fall  from  his  horse.  Later  in  the 
year  the  Pope  appointed  Roman  Catholic  bishops  to  English  sees, 


I85I 


A    MORIBUND   MINISTRY 


93^ 


and  an  excited  public  opinion  saw  in  this  an  attack  on  the  Queen's 
authority.  In  1851  Russell  introduced  an  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill, 
declaring  all  acts  done  by  the  Roman  Catholic  bishops,  and  all  deeds 
bestowing  property  to  them  under  the  new  titles,  to  be  null  and 
void.  This  Bill  alienated  the  Peelites  and  advanced  Liberals  like 
Bright  and  Cobden.  In  February  the  ministry  resisted  a  proposal 
to  lower  the  county  franchise,  and  resigned.  Lord  Stanley,  how- 
ever, declined  to  form  a  ministry,  and  Russell  and  his  followers 
returned  to  office.     The  Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill  was  passed  in  a 


The  Britannia  Tubular  Railway  Bridge  over  the  Menai  Strait :  designed  by 
Robert  Stephenson,  opened  in  1850. 

modified  form,  but  it  was  never  in  a  smgle  instance  put  in  execu- 
tion and  was  ultimately  repealed. 

23.  The  Great  Exhibition.  1851.— In  1851  people  thought  less 
of  politics  than  of  the  Great  Exhibition  in  Hyde  Park,  where  the 
produce  of  the  world  was  to  be  seen  in  the  enormous  glass  house 
known  as  the  Crystal  Palace — afterwards  removed  to  Penge  Hill. 
The  Exhibition  was  a  useful  undertaking  suggested  by  Prince  Albert, 
and  it  served  its  purpose  in  teaching  English  manufacturers  that 
they  might  improve  their  own  work  by  studying  the  work  of 
foreigners.  Many  people  thought  that  crowds  of  revolutionists,  who 
would  come  under  pretence  of  seeing  the  exhibition,  would  set 
London  on  fire.    Others  thought  that  the  nations  of  Europe  would 


938  FREE    TRADE  1851-1852 

be  so  knit  together  by  commercial  interests  that  there  would  be  no 
more  wars. 

24.  The  End  of  the  Russell  Ministry.  1851 — 1852.— On  December 
2,  1851,  Louis  Napoleon  dissolved  the  Assembly,  put  most  of  the 
leading  French  politicians  in  prison,  and  marched  soldiers  into  the 
streets  of  Paris  to  shoot  all  who  resisted  him.  He  then  asked  the 
French  people  to  name  him  President  for  ten  years,  with  institutions 
which  made  him  practically  the  master  of  the  State.  The  French 
people,  frightened  at  anarchy,  gave  him  what  he  asked.  In  Eng- 
land, Lord  Palmerston  not  only  approved  of  the  proceeding,  but 
expressed  his  approval  to  the  French  ambassador,  though  the 
Cabinet  was  for  absolute  neutrality  ;  whereupon  he  was  dismissed 
from  office.  Early  in  1852  he  took  his  revenge  by  declaring  against 
the  ministry  on  a  detail  in  a  militia  bill.  The  ministers,  finding 
themselves  in  a  minority,  resigned  office. 

25.  The  First  Derby  Ministry.  1852. — Lord  Stanley,  who  had 
recently  become  Earl  of  Derby  by  his  father's  death,  now  formed 
a  ministry  out  of  the  Protectionist  party,  and  declared  that  the 
question  whether  free-trade  or  protection  should  prevail  was  one 
to  be  settled  by  a  new  parliament  to  be  elected  in  the  summer 
of  1852.  The  real  master  of  the  government  was  Disraeli,  who 
had  succeeded  to  the  nominal  as  well  as  to  the  actual  leadership 
of  his  party  in  the  House  of  Commons  upon  the  death  of  Lord 
George  Bentinck  in  1848,  and  who  now  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  Disraeli  knew  well  that  the  feeling  of  the  country  was 
in  favour  of  free-trade,  and  he  astonished  his  colleagues  and  sup- 
porters by  declaring  his  admiration  of  its  blessings.  The  elections, 
when  they  took  place,  left  the  government  in  a  minority.  On  the 
meeting  of  the  new  Parliament,  the  first  question  needing  solution 
was  whether  the  dissensions  between  Russell  and  Palmerston,  and 
between  the  Whigs  and  Peelites,  could  be  made  up  so  as  to  form 
a  united  opposition,  and  the  second,  whether  the  government  could 
contrive  to  renounce  Protection  without  complete  loss  of  dignity. 
The  Duke  of  WeUington  had  died- before  Parliament  met,  and  his 
death  served  to  remind  people  how  he  had  again  and  again  aban- 
doned political  positions  with  credit,  by  stating  with  perfect  frank- 
ness that  his  opinions  were  unchanged,  but  that  circumstances 
made  it  no  longer  possible  or  desirable  to  give  effect  to  them. 

26.  The  Burial  of  Protection.  1852. — Soon  after  the  meeting  of 
Parliament,  Villiers,  the  old  champion  of  free  trade  (see  p.  924), 
brought  forward  a  resolution,  declaring  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws 
to  have  been  '  wise,  just,  and  beneficial.'     Those  who  had  once 


1852  PROTECTION  RENOUNCED  939 

been  Protectionists,  shrank  from  condemning  so  distinctly  a  policy 
which  they  had  formerly  defended ;  but  when  Palmerston  came 
to  their  help  by  proposing  in  a  less  offensive  form  a  resolution 
which  meant  much  the  same  as  that  of  Villiers,  he  was  supported 
by  the  greater  number  of  them,  and  his  motion  was  carried  with 
only  fifty-three  dissentients.  Disraeli  then  brought  forward  an  in- 
genious budget,  which  was  rejected  by  the  House,  upon  which 
the  Derby  ministry  resigned.  If  Disraeli  had  not  succeeded  in 
maintaining  his  party  in  power,  at  least  he  had  freed  it  from  the 
unpopular  burden  of  attachment  to  protection,  and  had  made  it 
capable  of  rising  to  power  in  the  future.  Before  he  left  office  Louis 
Napoleon  became,  by  a  popular  vote,  Napoleon  III.  Emperor  of 
the  French. 


CHAPTER   LIX 

THE  CRIMEAN   WAR  AND  THE   INDIAN   MUTINY.      1852— 1858 

LEADING   DATES 

The  Aberdeen  Ministry 1852 

War  between  Russia  and  Turkey 1853 

France  and  England  at  War  with  Russia    ....    1854 

Battle  of  the  Alma Sept.  20,  1854 

Battle  of  Inkerman Nov.  5,  1854 

Capture  of  Sebastopol Sept.  8,  1855 

Peace  of  Paris March  30,  1857 

Outbreak  of  the  Sepoy  Mutiny  at  Meerut     .        .     May  10,  1857 

Capture  of  Delhi Sept.  14-20,  1857 

Relief  of  Lucknow  by  Havelock  and  Outram      .    Sept.  25, 1857 
End  of  the  Indian  Mutiny        .  .  1858 

I.  Expectation  of  Peace.  1852. — Since  the  accession  to  power 
of  Lord  Grey's  ministry  in  1830,  the  opinions  of  Bentham  (see 
p.  890)  had  gained  the  upper  hand,  and  the  greatest  happiness  of 
the  greatest  number  had  become  the  inspiring  thought  of  states- 
men. Free  trade  was  regarded,  not  merely  as  desirable  because  it 
averted  starvation,  but  as  uniting  nations  together  in  commercial 
bonds.  Nothing  was  more  common  in  1851  and  1852  than  to  heat 
sensible  men  predict  that  the  era  of  wars  was  past,  and  that 
nations  trafficking  with  one  another  would  have  no  motive  for 
engaging  in  strife.  The  fierce  passions  evoked  by  the  struggles 
for  nationality  in  1848  were  forgotten,  and  a  time  of  peace  and 
prosperity  regarded  as  permanently  established. 

3  P2 


940   CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY    1851-1859 

2.  Church  Movements.  1827 — 1853. — There  had,  indeed,  been 
signs  that  it  was  impossible  to  bring  all  men  to  forsake  the  pursuit 
of  ideal  truth.  In  1827  Keble  published  the  first  edition  of  the 
Christian  Year,  and  in  the  following  years  a  body  of  writers  at 
Oxford,  of  whom  the  most  prominent  were  Newman  and  Pusey, 
did  their  best  to  inspire  the  rising  generation  with  the  belief  that 
the  Church  of  England  had  a  life  of  its  own  independent  of  the 
State  or  of  Society,  and  that  its  true  doctrines  were  those  which 
had  been  taught  in  the  earlier  centuries  of  the  Church's  existence. 
Their  teaching  was  not  unlike  that  of  Laud  (see  p.  520),  though 
without  Laud's  leaning  upon  the  State,  and  with  a  reverence  for 
the  great  mediaeval  ecclesiastics  and  their  teaching  which  Laud 
had  not  possessed.  In  Scotland,  reaction  against  State  inter- 
ference took  another  turn.  Large  numbers  of  the  Scottish  clergy 
and  people  objected  to  the  system  by  which  lay  patrons  had  in 
their  hands  the  appointment  of  ministers  to  Church  livings,  and 
in  1843  no  less  than  474  ministers  threw  up  their  livings  and, 
followed  by  numerous  congregations,  formed  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland.  Different  as  were  the  movements  in  the  two  countries, 
they  had  this  in  common,  that  they  regarded  religion  as  some- 
thing more  than  the  creature  of  law  and  Parliament. 

3.  Growth  of  Science.  1830— 1859. — Other  men  sought  their 
ideals  in  science,  and  though  scientific  men  did  not  meddle  with 
politics,  their  work  was  not  only  productive  of  an  increase  of 
material  comfort,  but  also  permeated  the  minds  of  unscientific 
persons  with  a  belief  in  natural  law  and  order,  which  steadied 
them  when  they  came  to  deal  with  the  complex  facts  of  human 
life.  The  rapid  growth  of  railways,  especially  after  1844,  the 
introduction  of  the  electric  telegraph  in  1837,  ^^^^  other  practical 
results  of  scientific  discovery,  prepared  the  way  for  a  favourable  re- 
ception of  doctrines  such  as  those  announced  in  Lyell's  Principles  of 
Geology,  the  first  edition  of  which  was  published  in  1830,  where  the 
formation  of  the  earth's  surface  was  traced  to  a  series  of  gradual 
changes  similar  to  those  in  action  at  the  present  day.  Darwin's 
Origin  of  Species,  in  which  the  multiplicity  of  living  forms  were 
accounted  for  by  permanent  natural  causes,  did  not  appear  till  1859. 

4.  Dickens,  Thackeray,  and  Macaulay.  1837—1848.  —The  feel- 
ings and  opinions  of  the  age  were,  as  is  usually  the  case,  reflected  in 
its  literature.  Dickens,  whose  first  considerable  work.  The  Pickwick 
Papers,  appeared  in  1837,  painted  humorously  the  lives  of  the 
middle  classes,  which  had  obtained  political  power  through  the 
Reform  Act  of  1832 ;    and  Thackeray,  whose    Vanity  Fair  was 


1837-1856  MODERN  LITERATURE  941 

published  in  1848,  lashed  the  vices  of  great  and  wealthy  sinners, 
principally  of  those  who  had  held  a  high  place  in  the  society  of 
the  preceding  generations,  though  he  delighted  in  painting  the 
gentleness  and  self-denial  of  men,  and  still  more  of  women  of  a 
lower  station.  For  him  the  halo  of  glory  with  which  Scott  had 
crowned  the  past  had  disappeared.  Amongst  the  historians  of  this 
period,  by  far  the  greatest  is  Macaulay,  whose  history  of  England 
began  to  appear  in  1848,  the  year  in  which  Vanity  Fair  was 
published.  In  him  was  to  be  found  a  massive  common-sense  in 
applying  the  political  judgments  of  the  day  to  the  events  of  past 
times,  combined  with  an  inability  to  grasp  sympathetically 
the  opinions  of  those  who  had  struggled  against  the  social  and 
political  movements  out  of  which  the  life  of  the  nineteenth  century 
had  been  developed.  As  for  the  future,  Macaulay  had  no  such 
dissatisfaction  with  life  around  him  as  to  crave  for  further  organic 
change.  Piecemeal  reforms  he  welcomed  gladly,  but  he  had  no 
wish  to  alter  the  political  basis  of  society.  The  Reform  Act  of 
1832  gave  him  all  that  he  desired. 

5.  Grote,  Mill,  and  Carlyle.  1833— 1856. -There  were  not 
wanting  writers  who  saw  the  weak  points  of  that  rule  of  the  middle 
classes  which  seemed  so  excellent  to  Macaulay.  Grote's  History 
of  Greece^  which  was  published  at  intervals  from  1845  to  1856,  was 
in  reality  a  panegyric  on  the  democracy  of  Athens  and,  by  impli- 
cation, a  pleading  in  favour  of  democracy  in  England.  Mill, 
whose  System  of  Logic  appeared  in  1843,  expounded  the  utilitarian 
philosophy  of  Bentham,  accompanying  his  scientific  teaching  with 
the  expression  of  hopefulness  in  the  growth  of  democracy  as  likely 
to  lead  to  better  government.  The  man,  however,  whose  teaching 
did  most  to  rouse  the  age  to  a  sense  of  the  insufficiency  of  its 
work  was  Thomas  Carlyle,  whose  Sartor  Resartus  began  to  appear 
in  1833,  ai^d  ^^'ho  detested  alike  the  middle-class  Parliamentary 
government  dear  to  Macaulay,  and  the  democratic  government 
dear  to  Grote  and  Mill.  He  was  the  prophet  of  duty.  Each 
individual  was  to  set  himself  resolutely  to  despise  the  conventions 
of  the  world,  and  to  conform  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  to  the 
divine  laws  of  the  world.  Those  who  did  this  most  completely 
were  heroes,  to  whom  and  not  to  Parliamentary  majorities  or 
scientific  deductions,  reverence  and  obedience  were  due.  The 
negative  part  of  Carlyle's  teaching — its  condemnation  of  democracy 
and  science — made  no  impression.  The  positive  part  fixed  itself 
upon  the  mind  of  the  young,  thousands  of  whom  learnt  from  it  to 
follow  the  call  of  duty,  and  to  obey  her  behests. 


942     CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY        1849 


1849-1852  LITERATURE  AND   PAINTING  943 

6.  Tennyson.  1849. — The  best  poetry  of  the  time  reflected  in 
a  milder  way  the  teaching  of  Carlyle.  Tennyson,  whose  most 
thoughtful  work,  In  Memoriam,  appeared  in  1849,  is  filled  with  a 
sense  of  the  pre-eminence  of  duty,  combined  with  a  reverent 
religious  feeling  and  a  respect  for  the  teaching  of  science  which 
was  then  bursting  on  the  world.  The  opening  lines  of  In  Metnoriam 
give  the  key-note  of  the  teaching  of  a  master  who  held  out  the 
hand  to  Carlyle  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  Keble  and  Newman  on 
the  other. 

Strong  Son  of  God,  immortal  love 

Whom  we,  that  have  not  seen  thy  face, 

By  faith,  and  faith  alone,  embrace. 
Believing  where  we  cannot  prove  ; 

Thou  seemest  human  and  divine. 

The  holiest,  highest  manhood,  thou  ; 

Our  wills  are  ours,  we  know  not  how, 
Our  wills  are  ours,  to  make  them  thine. 

7.  Turner.  1775 — 1851. — The  pursuit  of  the  knowledge  of  the 
secret  processes  and  the  open  manifestations  of  nature,  which 
placed  its  stamp  upon  the  science  and  the  literature  of  the  time, 
made  itself  also  visible  in  its  art.  No  man  ever  revealed  in  land- 
scape-painting the  infinity  of  the  natural  world  and  the  subtleness 
of  its  gradations,  as  did  Turner  in  the  days  of  his  strength,  before 
his  eyes  fixed  on  the  glory  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  sky  lost 
perception  of  the  beauty  of  the  earth. 

8.  The  beginning  of  the  Aberdeen  Ministry.  1852— 1854. — The 
Derby  Ministry  was  followed  by  a  coalition  ministry  of  Liberals 
and  Peelites  under  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen.  At  first  it  seemed  as 
if  Parliament  was  about  to  settle  down  to  a  series  of  internal 
reforms.  In  1853,  Gladstone,  as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
produced  a  budget  which  proved  generally  acceptable,  and  Russell 
promised  a  new  Reform  Bill  which  was  actually  brought  forward  in 
1854,  though  by  that  time  circumstances  having  become  adverse 
to  its  consideration  caused  its  prompt  withdrawal. 

9.  The  Eastern  Question.  1850-^1853. — For  some  time  there 
had  been  a  diplomatic  struggle  between  France  and  Russia  for 
the  possession  of  certain  holy  places  in  Palestine  by  the  clergy  of 
their  respective  churches,  and  though  in  1852  the  Sultan  proposed 
a  compromise,  neither  party  was  satisfied.  In  the  beginning  of 
1853,  the  Tzar  Nicholas  spoke  to  Sir  Hamilton  Seymour  of  '  the 
Turk'  as  a  sick  man,  and  proposed  that  if  he  died,  that  is  to  say,  if 
the  Turkish  power  fell  to  pieces,  England  should  take  Crete  and 


944    CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY    1853-1854 

Egypt,  and  that  the  Sultan's  European  provinces  should  be  formed 
into  independent  states,  of  course  under  Russian  protection. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Christians  under  the  Sultan  were 
misgoverned,  and  that  the  Tzar,  like  every  Russian,  honestly 
sympathised  with  them,  especially  as  they  belonged  to  the 
Orthodox  Church — commonly  known  as  the  Greek  Church — 
which  was  his  own.  It  was,  however,  also  true  that  every  Tzar 
wished  to  extend  his  dominions  southward,  and  that  his  sym- 
pathies undoubtedly  tended  in  the  same  direction  as  his  ambition. 
In  England  the  sympathies  were  ignored,  whilst  the  ambition  was 
clearly  perceived,  and  the  British  ministers  refused  to  agree  to 
Nicholas's  proposal.  Nicholas  then  sent  Prince  Menschikofif  as 
ambassador  to  Constantinople  to  demand  that  the  protection  of 
the  Sultan's  Christian  subjects  should  be  given  over  to  himself,  and 
when  this  was  refused,  occupied  the  principalities  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia  with  his  troops  ;  upon  which  a  British  fleet  was  moved 
up  to  the  entrance  of  the  Dardanelles. 

10.  War  between  Russia  and  Turkey.  1853 — 1854. — To  avert 
an  outbreak  of  war  the  four  great  Powers,  Austria,  France,  Great 
Britain,  and  Prussia,  in  what  is  usually  called  the  Vienna  note,  em- 
bodied a  proposal,  which,  if  adopted  by  the  Sultan,  would  convey 
his  promise  to  the  Tzar  to  protect  the  Christians  of  the  Greek 
Church  as  his  predecessors  had  promised  to  do  in  older  treaties 
with  the  Tzars,  and  to  extend  to  the  Greek  Christians  all  advan- 
tages granted  to  other  Christians.  With  this  note  the  Tzar  was 
contented,  but  the  Sultan  urged  on  by  the  imperious  Sir  Stratford 
Canning,  the  British  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  refused  to  ac- 
cept it  without  alteration,  and  on  the  Tzar  insisting  on  its  accept- 
ance as  it  stood  declared  war  upon  him.  In  the  autumn  the  Turks 
crossed  the  Danube  and  defeated  some  Russian  troops,  on  which 
the  Russian  fleet  sallied  forth  from  Sebastopol,  the  great  Russian 
fortified  harbour  in  the  Crimea,  and  on  November  30  destroyed  the 
Turkish  fleet  at  Sinope.  In  England  strong  indignation  was  felt ; 
England  and  France  bound  themselves  closely  together,  and,  refus- 
ing to  be  held  back  by  Austria  and  Prussia,  entered  upon  war  with 
Russia  in  March  1854.  In  May  the  Russians  laid  siege  to  Silistria 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube.  The  siege  however  ended  in 
failure,  and,  as  a  British  and  French  army  arrived  at  Varna,  a 
seaport  on  the  Black  Sea,  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  and 
as  the  Austrians  insisted  on  the  Russians  evacuating  Moldavia 
and  Wallachia,  the  Russian  army  drew  back  to  its  own  territory, 
and  abandoned  any  further  attempt  to  enforce  its  claims  by  invasion. 

11.  Resolution  of  the  Allies.     1854. — Two  courses  were  now 


1 854  THE    'SICK  MAN'  945 

open  to  the  Allies.     They  might  knit  themselves  again  to  Austria 
and  Prussia  and  substitute  a  European  protection  of  the  Christians 
under  the  Sultan  for  a  merely  Russian  protection,  without  driving 
Russia  to  a  prolongation  of  the  war  ;  or  else,  breaking  loose  from 
their,  alliance  with  Austria  and  Prussia  (neither  of  which  was  in- 
clined to  drive  matters  to  extremities),  they  might  seek  to  destroy 
the  Russian  Black  Sea  fleet  and  the  fortifications  of  Sebastopol,  in 
order  to  take  from  Russia  the  power  of  again  threatening  the  Turks. 
Public  opinion  in  England  was  defiantly  set  upon  the  latter  course. 
There  was  exasperation  against  the  ambition  of  Russia  and  a  de- 
termination that  the  work  should  be  thoroughly  done.     To  the 
support  of  this  passionate  desire  to  carry  on  the  war  to  its  end, 
came  a  misconception  of  the  nature  of  the  Turkish  Government. 
In  reality  the  Turk  was,  as  Nicholas  had  said,  a  sick  man,  and  as 
he  would  become  weaker  every  year,  it  was  impossible  to  provide 
for  his  guarding  his  own  even  if  Sebastopol  were  destroyed.      In 
England   the  Government  of   the  Sultan  was  regarded  as  well- 
intentioned   and    perfectly    capable    of  holding   its    own,    if  the 
existing  danger  could  be  removed.     This  view  of  the  case  was 
strongly  supported  by  Palmerston,  who,  though  he  was  no  longer 
foreign  minister,  brought  his  strong  will  to  bear  on  the  resolutions 
of  the  ministry.    England  and  France  resolved  on  transporting  their 
armies  from  Varna  to  the  Crimea.     The  English  force  was  com- 
manded by  Lord  Raglan,  and  the  French  by  Marshal  St.  Arnaud. 
12.  Alma  and  Sebastopol.     1854. — O'^  September  14,  the  two 
armies,  numbering  together  with  a  body  of  Turkish  soldiers  about 
61,000  men,  landed  to  the  south  of  Eupatoria.    They  marched  south- 
wards and  found  the  Russian  army  drawn  up  on  high  ground 
beyond  the  river  Alma.     There  was  not  much  skill  shown  by  the 
generals  on  either  side,  but  the  Allies  had  the  better  weapons,  and 
the    dogged  persistence  of  the  British   contributed  much  to  the 
success  of  the  Allies.     The  Russians  were  defeated,  and  the  Allies 
wheeled  round  the  harbour  of  Sebastopol  and  established  them- 
selves on  the  plateau  to  the  south  of  the  town.     There  was  inside 
the  place  a  vast  store  of  guns  and  of  everything  needed  for  the 
defence,  and  what  was  more,  a  man  of  genius.  General  Todleben,  to 
improve  the  fortifications  and  direct  the  movements  of  the  garrison. 
He  closed  the  harbour  against  the  Allied  fleets  by  sinking  ships  at 
the   mouth,  and  he  brought  up   guns  and  raised  earthworks  to 
resist  the  impending  attack  on  the  land  side.     On  October  17, 
the  Allies  opened  a  tremendous   fire.     The  British  batteries  de- 
stroyed the  guns  opposed  to  them,  and  the  place  might  perhaps 
have  been  taken  by  assault  if  the  French  had  done  as  well.     The 


946  CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY  1854-1855 

French,  however,  who  were  now  under  the  command  of  Marshal 
Canrobert — St.  Arnaud  having  died  after  the  battle  of  the  Alma — 
made  their  magazines  of  gunpowder  too  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  when  one  of  them  exploded,  their  efforts  were  rendered 
useless.     The  attack  had  to  be  postponed  for  an  indefinite  time. 

13.  Balaclava  and  Inkerman.  1854. — The  stores  and  provisions 
for  the  British  army  were  landed  at  the  little  port  of  Balaclava. 
On  October  25,  a  Russian  army  pushed  forward  to  cut  off 
communication  between  this  port  and  the  British  force  before 
Sebastopol.  A  charge  by  the  Brigade  of  Heavy  Cavalry  drove 
back  a  huge  mass  of  Russian  horsemen.  Lord  Cardigan,  who 
commanded  the  Brigade  of  Light  Cavalry,  received  an  order  vaguely 
worded  to  retake  some  guns  which  had  been  captured  by  the 
Russians.  The  order  was  misunderstood,  and  the  Light  Brigade, 
knowing  that  it  was  riding  to  its  destruction,  but  refusing  to  set  an 
example  of  disobedience,  charged  not  in  the  direction  of  the  guns, 
which  they  were  unable  to  see,  but  into  the  very  centre  of  the 
Russian  army.  The  ranks  of  the  English  cavalry  were  mown  down 
and  but  few  escaped  alive.  'It  is  magnificent,'  said  a  French 
general, '  but  it  is  not  war.'  On  November  5,  the  battle  of  Inkerman 
was  fought,  in  which  the  scanty  British  drove  back  thick  columns 
of  Russians.  If  the  Russians  had  prevailed,  both  the  Allied  armies 
would  have  been  destroyed.  As  it  was  the  British  held  out  against 
fearful  odds,  till  the  French  came  to  their  help,  and  forced  the 
Russians  to  retreat. 

14.  Winter  in  the  Crimea.  1854 — ^855. — Winter  was  now  upon 
the  armies.  It  had  been  supposed  at  home  that  their  task  would 
be  accomplished  before  the  fine  weather  ended,  and  no  adequate 
provision  for  a  winter  season  had  been  made.  A  storm  swept 
over  the  Black  Sea  and  wrecked  vessels  laden  with  stores.  The 
soldiers  had  only  tents  to  keep  off  the  rain  and  bitter  cold,  and 
fell  ill  by  hundreds.  The  horses,  which  should  have  brought  stores 
from  Balaclava,  died,  and  it  was  useless  to  replace  them,  because, 
though  large  numbers  of  horses  were  obtainable,  forage  had  not 
been  sent  from  home  to  keep  them  alive.  What  provisions  reached 
the  camp  had  to  be  carried  by  the  men,  and  the  men  were  worn 
out  by  having  to  spend  long  hours  in  guarding  the  trenches  and  to 
fetch  provisions  as  well.  Besides,  the  English  Government,  having 
had  no  experience  of  war,  committed  many  blunders  in  their  ar- 
rangements for  the  supply  of  the  army.  The  French  were  better 
off,  because  Kamiesch  Bay,  where  their  provisions  were  landed,  was 
nearer  their  camp  than  Balaclava  was  to  the  camp  of  the  British. 


[856 


SUCCESSFUL    OPERATIONS 


947 


15.  The  Hospital  at  Scutari.  1855. — The  sick  were  carried  to 
a  hospital  at  Scutari  near  Constantinople,  but  when  they  arrived 
there  were  no  nurses  to  attend  on  them,  and  large  numbers  died. 
After  a  while  Miss  Florence  Nightingale  was  sent  out  with  other 
ladies  to  nurse  the  sick.  It  was  the  first  time  that  women  had 
been  employed  as  nurses  in  war.  Miss  Nightingale  soon  reduced 
the  disorder  into  order,  made  the  place  clean,  and  saw  that  the 
sufferers  were  skilfully  tended.  Good  nursing  at  once  told  on 
the  health  of  the  men,  and  valuable  lives  were  spared  in  conse- 
quence of  the  gentle  help  received. 

16.  The  Palmerston  Ministry.  1855. — At  home  Englishmen 
looked  on  the  misery  in  the  Crimea  with  growing  anger.  They 
thought  that  some  one  was  to  blame,  and  as  soon  as  Parliament 
met,  the  Government  was  forced  to  resign.  Lord  Palmerston 
became  Prime  Minister.  It  was  known  that  his  whole  heart  was 
in  the  war,  and  that  he  was  a  man  of  strong  common  sense  and 
resolute  character.  Matters  in  the  Crimea  began  to  improve, 
principally  because  by  that  time  English  officials  had  begun,  after 
numerous  failures,  to  understand  their  duties. 

17.  The  Fall  of  Sebastopol  and  the  End  of  the  War. 
185s — 1856. — During  the  summer  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  was 
pushed  on.      The  British  army  was   in 

good  condition.  The  French  troops  were, 
however,  more  numerous,  and  occupied 
the  positions  from  which  the  town  could 
be  most  easily  attacked.  They  had,  too, 
a  new  commander,  Marshal  Pelissier,  who 
was  more  strong-willed  than  Canrobert 
had  been.  The  King  of  Sardinia,Victor 
Emmanuel,  joined  the  Allies,  and  in  the 
battle  of  Trakir  ^  his  troops  took  part  with 
the  French  in  driving  back  a  fresh  Russian 
onslaught.  After  various  attempts  a  final 
attack  on  Sebastopol  was  made  on  Sep- 
tember 8.  The  English  failed  to  capture 
the  Redan  which  was  opposed  to  them, 
but  the  French  stormed   the  Malakhoff 

Tower,  and  the  whole  of  the  fortifications  were  thereby  rendered 
untenable.  The  Tzar  Nicholas  had  died  in  the  spring,  and  his 
successor,  Alexander  II.,  was  now  ready   to  make  peace.      The 


The  Victoria  Cross : 
instiiuted  in  1856. 


1  Trakir  is  the  Russian  word  for  an  inn. 


948         CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY        1856 

Russian  losses  had  been  enormous,  not  merely  in  Sebastopol 
iteelf,  but  over  the  whole  of  the  empire.  There  was  scarcely  a 
railway  in  Russia  then,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men  had 
perished  of  fatigue  in  the  long  and  exhausting  marches.  In 
March  1856  peace  was  made.  The  fortifications  of  Sebastopol 
were  destroyed,  and  Russia  promised  not  to  have  a  fleet  in  the 
Black  Sea  or  to  re-fortify  the  town.  The  Russians  abode  by  these 
terms  as  long  as  they  were  obliged  to  do  so,  and  no  longer.  It 
was,  however,  long  enough  to  give  the  Turks  time  to  improve  and 
strengthen  their  government  if  they  had  been  capable  of  carrying 
out  reforms  of  any  kind. 

18.  India  after  Wellesley's  Recall.  1805— 1823.— British  hos- 
tility to  Russia  had  arisen  chiefly  from  fear  lest  she  should,  by 
gaining  possession  of  Constantinople,  cut  ofl"  the  passage  to  India. 
Alarm  on  this  score  had  not  been  of  recent  growth.  Partly  in 
consequence  of  a  desire  to  win  the  attachment  of  the  natives  of 
India  as  a  security  against  foreign  aggression,  successive  governors- 
general  had,  since  Wellesley  left  India  in  1805  (see  p.  859),  devoted 
themselves  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  people,  and  had  for 
some  time  abstained  from  war  as  much  as  possible.  Their  reluc- 
tance to  appeal  to  arms  had,  however,  encouraged  bands  of 
plunderers  known  as  Pindarrees,  supported  by  the  Mahratta  chiefs 
whose  power  Wellesley  had  curtailed,  but  who  still  retained  their 
independence.  In  1817  the  Marquis  of  Hastings,  at  that  time 
governor-general,  began  the  third  Mahratta  War  (see  pp.  804,  859). 
The  Peishwah  (see  p.  802)  abdicated  in  favour  of  the  British,  and 
the  other  Mahratta  chiefs  were  reduced  to  a  condition  of 
dependency,  and  gave  no  more  shelter  to  robbers.  Hastings 
completed  Wellesley's  work,  by  making  the  nower  of  the  East 
India  Company  absolutely  predominant,  and,  after  1823,  when  he 
left  India,  there  were,  indeed,  wars  occasionally  on  a  small  scale, 
but  for  some  years  the  chief  feature  of  Indian  history  was  its 
peaceful  progress. 

19.  The  North-Western  Frontier.  1806 — 1835. — The  suppres- 
sion of  internal  disorder  did  not  relieve  the  Government  of  India 
from  anxiety  lest  increasing  prosperity  within  should  tempt 
invaders  from  without.  Secured  on  the  north  by  the  lofty  wall 
of  the  Himalayas,  India,  until  the  arrival  of  the  British  by  sea,  had 
always  been  invaded  by  enemies  pouring  across  its  north-western 
frontier  from  the  passes  of  the  highlands  of  Afghanistan ;  and  it  was 
from  the  same  quarter  that  danger  was  now  feared.  For  some 
time,  indeed,  a  sufficient  bulwark  had  been  erected  by  the  estab- 


1835-1840  THE  AFGHAN  WAR  949 

lishment  in  the  Punjab — the  land  of  the  five  rivers— of  the  Sikhs,  a 
warhke  people  with  a  special  religion,  neither  Mahomedan  nor 
Hindoo.  The  Sikhs  were  strongly  organised  for  military  purposes 
under  a  capable  ruler,  Runjeet  Singh,  who  had  entered  in  1806 
into  a  treaty  with  the  British  which  to  the  end  of  his  life  he 
faithfully  observed.  Under  him  the  Sikhs  covered  the  British 
territory  from  an  attack  through  Afghanistan,  much  in  the  same 
way  that  in  the  time  of  Warren  Hastings  the  Nawab  of  Oude  had 
covered  it  against  the  attacks  of  the  Mahrattas  (see  p.  802). 

20.  Russia  and  Afghanistan.  1835 — 1838. — In  1835,  when 
England  and  Russia  were  striving  for  the  mastery  at  Constanti- 
nople (see  p.  921),  the  two  countries  were  necessarily  thrown  into 
opposition  in  Asia.  In  1837  the  Shah  of  Persia,  who  was  under 
Russian  influence,  laid  siege  to  Herat,  on  the  eastern  border 
of  his  own  country.  As  Herat  was  on  the  road  to  India,  Lord 
Auckland,  the  governor-general,  took  alarm,  and,  even  before 
the  siege  was  actually  begun,  sent  an  agent,  Alexander  Burnes, 
to  Cabul  to  win  over  Dost  Mahommed,  the  ruler  of  Afghanistan, 
to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  England  against  Persia,  the  ally 
of  Russia.  Burnes,  knowing  that  soft  words  would  not  suffice 
to  gain  the  heart  of  Dost  Mahommed,  offered  him  British  aid  in 
his  own  quarrels.  Auckland,  however,  refused  to  carry  out  the 
engagement  made  by  Burnes,  on  which  Dost  Mahommed,  taking 
offence,  allied  himself  with  Russia.  In  1838,  Auckland  sent  an 
expedition  to  dethrone  Dost  Mahommed,  and  to  replace  him 
by  Shah  Soojah,  an  Afghan  prince  who  had  been  living  in  exile  in 
India.  Before  the  expedition  started  the  siege  of  Herat  had  been 
raised  by  the  Persians,  and  there  was,  therefore,  no  longer  any 
real  excuse  for  an  attack  on  the  fierce  and  warlike  Afghans. 

21.  The  Invasion  of  Afghanistan.  1839— 1842.— Nevertheless 
the  British  army  entered  Afghanistan  in  1839,  and,  reaching  Cabul 
in  safety,  placed  Shah  Soojah  on  the  throne.  In  1840,  Dost 
Mahommed  knowing  that  he  could  not  carry  on  a  successful 
resistance  in  the  field,  surrendered  himself  as  a  prisoner.  So 
peaceful  was  the  outlook  that  Sir  William  Macnaghten,  who  had 
charge  of  the  political  arrangements  at  Cabul,  fancied  that  all 
danger  was  at  an  end.  Suddenly,  however,  an  insurrection  broke 
out,  and  some  of  the  British  officers,  amongst  whom  was  Burnes, 
were  murdered.  Though  the  British  were  taken  by  surprise,  they 
had  still  soldiers  enough  to  attack  the  Afghans  with  every  prospect 
of  success,  but  General  Elphinstone,  who  was  in  command,  refused 
to  run  the  risk.     On  this  the  Afghans  became  still  more  daring, 


950    CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY  1841-1842 

and,  as  food  was  growing  short  in  the  British  cantonments, 
Macnaghten  and  Elphinstone  offered  to  surrender  the  forts  of 
Cabul  to  the  enemy  on  condition  of  being  supplied  with  provisions. 
Akbar  Khan,  a  son  of  Dost  Mahommed,  invited  Macnaghten  to 
a  conference  and  shot  him  dead  with  his  own  hand.  The  British 
officers  then  entered  on  a  treaty  with  the  murderer,  who  engaged 
to  protect  their  army,  if  it  would  immediately  return  to  India. 

22.  The  Retreat  from  Cabul.  1842. — The  retreat  began  on 
January  6,  1842.  Snow  and  ice  lay  thickly  on  the  passes  over  the 
lofty  mountain  ranges,  which  had  to  be  climbed  before  the  plains 
of  India  were  reached.  Akbar  Khan  did  what  he  could  to  protect 
the  retreating  regiments,  but  he  could  not  restrain  his  followers. 
Crowds  of  Afghans  stationed  themselves  on  the  rocks  which  rose 
above  the  track,  and  shot  down  the  fugitives.  With  the  retreating 
soldiers  were  Enghsh  ladies,  some  of  them  with  children  to  care 
for.  To  save  them  from  certain  death  they  were  surrendered  to 
Akbar  Khan,  who  promised  to  treat  them  kindly,  and  who,  to  his 
credit,  kept  his  word.  After  five  days'  march,  out  of  14,500  men  who 
left  Cabul,  no  more  than  4,000  remained  alive.  Each  day  the 
butchery  was  renewed.  On  the  morning  of  the  eighth  day  only 
sixty-five  were  left,  and  this  scanty  remnant  of  a  mighty  host 
struggled  on  to  reach  Jellalabad  in  which  there  was  a  British 
garrison.  Of  these,  sixty-four  were  slain  on  the  way ;  alter 
which  the  Afghans,  believing  that  all  their  enemies  had  perished, 
returned  in  triumph.  One  Englishman,  however.  Dr.  Brydon,  who 
had  lagged  behind  because  both  he  and  the  pony  on  which  he 
rode  were  too  exhausted  to  keep  up  with  the  march,  escaped  their 
notice.  Fainting  and  scarcely  able  to  speak,  he  at  last  stumbled 
into  Jellalabad,  and  told  the  tale  of  the  great  disaster. 

23.  Pollock's  March  to  Cabul.  1842. — Jellalabad  held  out 
against  all  the  Afghans  who  could  be  brought  against  it.  Then 
General  Pollock  was  sent  to  retrieve  the  honour  of  the  British 
arms.  He  occupied  Cabul,  but  he  had  to  replace  Dost  Mahommed 
on  the  throne,  and  to  content  himself  with  recovering  the  British 
captives. 

24.  Conquest  of  Sindh.  1842. — Lord  Ellenborough,  who  had 
succeeded  Auckland  as  governor- general,  coveted  Sindh,  because 
he  wished  to  control  the  lower  course  of  the  Indus.  He  brought 
accusations  of  treachery  against  the  Ameers  who  ruled  it,  some  of 
which  appear  to  have  been  based  on  forged  letters.  He  then  sent 
against  the  Ameers  Sir  Charles  Napier,  who,  fighting  against 
tremendous  odds,  defeated  them  at  Meanee.     Sindh  was  annexed, 


1845-1849  THE  SIKH  WARS  951 

and  its  inhabitants,  being  far  better  governed  than  before,  rapidly 
became  prosperous  and  contented. 

25.  The  First  Sikh  War.  1845— 1846.— Runjeet  Singh  (see 
p.  949),  '  the  lion  of  the  Punjab,'  as  he  was  called,  died  in  1839. 
His  succession  was  disputed,  and  the  Government  really  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Sikh  army,  which  raised  to  power  one  competitor 
after  another  amidst  scenes  of  bloodshed.  The  governor-general, 
Sir  Henry  Hardinge,  himself  a  soldier,  had  succeeded  Ellen- 
borough  in  1843.  He  was  anxious  to  keep  the  peace,  but  the 
mutinous  Sikh  army  was  under  no  restraint,  and  on  December  11, 
1845,  it  crossed  the  Sutlej  and  poured  into  British  territory.  Never 
had  a  British  army  in  India  met  antagonists  so  formidable.  Yet 
in  two  fierce  battles,  at  Ferozeshah  and  Moodkee,  the  invaders 
were  repulsed  by  Sir  Hugh  Gough,  the  commander-in-chief  The 
Sikhs,  however,  were  not  disheartened.  In  January  1846,  they 
were  again  defeated  by  Sir  Harry  Smith  at  Aliwal,  and  finally  on 
February'  8,  their  entrenched  camp  at  Sobraon,  on  the  Sutlej, 
though  defended  by  more  powerful  artillery  than  could  be  brought 
against  them,  was  stormed  by  Gough.  After  these  defeats,  the 
Sikhs  submitted,  yielding  the  territory  between  the  Sutlej  and  the 
Beas. 

26.  The  Second  Sikh  War.  1848— 1849.— In  1848  there  was  a 
second  Sikh  war.  On  January  13, 1849,  Gough — now  Lord  Gough 
— met  with  a  check  at  Chillianwalla,  and  Sir  Charles  Napier  was 
sent  out  to  succeed  him  as  commander-in-chief  Before  Napier 
arrived,  Gough  gained  a  decisive  victory  at  Gujerat.  On  this  the 
whole  of  the  Punjab  was  annexed.  Chiefly  under  the  firm  and 
kindly  management  of  two  brothers,  Henry  and  John  Lawrence, 
the  Punjab  was  reduced  to  order  and  contentment,  and  the  very 
Sikh  soldiers  who  had  been  the  most  dangerous  antagonists  of 
the  British  Government  were  converted  into  its  most  unwavering 
supporters. 

27.  Lord  Dalhousie's  Administration.  1848— 1856. — When  the 
second  Sikh  war  was  being  fought.  Lord  Dalhousie  was  the 
governor-general,  and  he  continued  to  rule  India  for  eight  years, 
from  1848  to  1856.  He  was  impressed  with  the  advantages  which 
would  accrue  to  the  native  population  by  being  brought  under 
British  rule,  and  he  annexed  one  territory  after  another.  In  his 
time  the  Punjab,  Sattara,  Nagpoor,  Lower  Burmah,  and  finally 
Oude,  were  brought  directly  under  British  authority  either  by 
conquest  or  by  the  dethronement  of  the  native  princes.  Lord 
Dalhousie's  intentions  were  undoubtedly  good,  but  he  irritated  an 


952         CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY        1856 

influential  class  of  natives  by  his  entire  disregard  of  their  feelings 
and  prejudices.  Especially  was  this  the  case  when,  as  happened 
at  Sattara,  territory  was  seized,  on  the  ground  that  the  native 
ruler,  being  childless,  was  without  an  heir.  The  Hindoos,  like  the 
old  Romans,  regard  an  adopted  son  and  a  real  son  as  standing  on 
exactly  the  same  footing,  and  as  in  the  case  of  the  old  Romans, 
this  idea  was  based  on  the  religious  belief  that  the  father  needed 
a  son  to  perform  certain  sacrifices  for  his  benefit  after  death.  When, 
therefore,  Lord  Dalhousie  refused  to  acknowledge  the  adopted  son 
of  the  Rajah  of  Sattara  as  his  successor,  he  was  guilty,  in  Hindoo 
opinion,  of  an  unjust  and  irreligious  act.  Moreover,  Lord  Dal- 
housie alienated,  especially  in  Oude  and  the  North-West  Provinces, 
an  influential  class  of  native  gentlemen  because  the  officials 
supported  by  him  took  every  opportunity  of  depriving  them  of 
certain  rights  which  they  claimed  over  the  land,  and  which  they 
had  long  exercised.  Though  this  was  done  with  the  benevolent 
intention  of  sweeping  away  all  middle-men  standing  between  the 
officers  of  the  Government  and  the  cultivators,  whom  they  wished 
10  shield  from  wrong,  the  result  was  none  the  less  deplorable. 

28.  The  Sepoy  Army.  1856— 1857.— In  1856,  Lord  Canning,  a 
son  of  the  Prime  Minister  George  Canning,  became  governor- 
general.  By  that  time  some  of  the  dispossessed  princes  and  most 
of  the  offended  native  gentlemen  had  formed  a  conspiracy  against 
the  British  Government,  which  they  held  to  have  been  unjust 
towards  them  and  which  in  some  cases  had  really  been  so.  The 
conspirators  aimed  at  securing  the  support  of  the  Bengal  Sepoy  army, 
which  had  also  been  alarmed  by  certain  acts  in  which  the  Govern- 
ment had  not  shown  itself  sufficiently  careful  of  their  feelings  and 
prejudices.  Most  of  the  Sepoys  were  Hindoos,  and  all  Hindoos 
are  divided  into  castes,  and  believe  that  the  man  who  loses  his 
caste  is  not  only  disgraced  in  the  present  life  but  suffers  misery 
after  death.  This  loss  of  caste  is  not  the  penalty  for  moral  faults, 
but  for  purely  bodily  actions,  such  as  eating  out  of  the  same  vessel 
as  one  of  a  lower  caste.  Caste,  too,  is  lost  by  eating  any  part  of  the 
sacred  animal  the  cow,  and,  as  a  new  rifle  had  been  lately  served 
out,  the  conspirators  easily  frightened  the  mass  of  the  Sepoys  into 
the  belief  that  the  cartridges  for  this  rifle  were  greased  with 
cow's  fat.  When,  therefore,  they  bit  the  new  cartridges,  as  soldiers 
then  had  to  do,  before  loading,  their  lips  would  touch  the  cow's 
grease  and  they  would  at  once  lose  caste.  It  was  said  that  the 
object  of  the  Government  was  to  render  the  men  miserable  by 


i857  MUTINY  OF   THE  SEPOY  ARMY  953 

depriving  them  of  the  shelter  of  their  own  religion  in  order  to  drive 
them  to  the  adoption  of  Christianity  in  despair. 

29.  The  Outbreak  of  the  Mutiny.  1857. — In  the  spring  of  1857 
there  were  attempts  to  mutiny  near  Calcutta,  but  the  actual  outbreak 
occurred  at  Meerut  near  Delhi.  There  the  native  regiments  first 
massacred  their  English  officers  and  such  other  Englishmen  as 
they  met  with,  and  then  marched  to  Delhi,  where  they  proclaimed 
the  descendant  of  the  Great  Mogul  (see  p.  801),  who  was  living 
there  as  a  British  pensioner.  Emperor  of  India.  Canning  did 
what  he  could  by  sending  for  British  troops  from  other  parts  of 
India,  and  also  for  a  considerable  force  which  happened  to  be  at 
sea  on  its  way  to  take  part  in  a  war  which  had  broken  out  with 
China,  His  position  was,  however,  exceedingly  precarious  till 
further  reinforcements  could  be  brought  from  England.  His  best 
helper  was  Sir  John  Lawrence,  who  had  governed  the  recently 
annexed  Punjab  with  such  ability  and  justice  that  the  Sikh  war- 
riors, so  lately  the  fierce  enemies  of  the  British,  were  ready  to 
fight  in  their  behalf.  As  the  Sikhs  did  not  profess  the  Hindoo 
religion,  there  was,  in  their  case,  no  difficulty  about  caste.  With 
their  aid  Lawrence  disarmed  the  Sepoys  in  the  Punjab,  and  sent 
all  the  troops  he  could  spare  to  besiege  Delhi.  Delhi,  however, 
was  a  strong  place  and,  as  the  besiegers  were  few,  months  elapsed 
before  it  could  be  taken. 

30.  Cawnpore.  1,857. — The  mutiny  spread  to  Lucknow,  the 
capital  of  Oude,  where  the  few  Englishmen  in  the  place  were 
driven  into  the  Residency  with  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  Sir  John's 
brother,  at  their  head,  to  hold  out,  if  they  could,  till  help  arrived. 
At  Cawnpore,  not  far  off,  were  about  five  hundred  British  women 
and  children,  and  less  than  five  hundred  British  men  were  besieged 
by  one  Nana  Sahib,  who  hated  the  English  on  account  of  wrongs 
which  he  conceived  himself  to  have  suffered  at  their  hands.  After 
they  had  endured  terrible  hardships.  Nana  Sahib  offered  to  allow 
the  garrison  to  depart  in  safety.  The  offer  was  accepted  and  the 
weary  defenders  made  their  way  to  the  boats  waiting  for  them  on 
the  river,  where  they  were  shot  down  from  the  bank.  Some  of  the 
women  and  children  were  kept  alive  for  a  few  days,  but  in  the  end 
all  were  massacred,  and  their  bodies  flung  into  a  well.  Only  four 
of  the  defenders  of  Cawnpore  escaped  to  tell  the  miserable  tale. 

31.  The  Recovery  of  Delhi  and  the  Relief  of  Lucknow.  1857. 
The  mutiny,  widely  spread  as  it  was,  was  confined  to  the  Bengal 
Presidency.  In  Lucknow,  though  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  had  been 
slain,  the  garrison  held  out  in  the  Residency.     At  last  Havelock, 

III.  3  Q 


954  CRIMEAN  WAR  AND  THE  INDIAN  MUTINY  1857-1S58 

a  brave,  pious  officer,  who  prayed  and  taught  his  men  to  pray  as 
the  Puritan  soldiers  had  prayed  in  Cromwell's  time,  brought  a 
small  band  through  every  obstacle  to  its  relief.  Before  he  reached 
the  place  Sir  James  Outram  joined  him,  authorised  by  the  Go- 
vernment to  take  the  command  out  of  his  hands.  Outram,  how- 
ever, honourably  refused  to  take  from  Havelock  the  credit  of  the 
achievement.  '  To  you,'  wrote  Outram  to  Havelock,  '  shall  be 
left  the  glory  of  relieving  Lucknow,  for  which  you  have  already 
struggled  so  much.  I  shall  accompany  you,  placing  my  military 
service  at  your  disposal,  should  you  please,  and  serving  under  you 
as  a  volunteer.'  Thus  supported,  Havelock  relieved  Lucknow  on 
September  25,  but  he  had  not  men  enough  to  drive  off  the  be- 
siegers permanently,  and  Outram,  who,  after  the  city  had  been 
entered,  took  the  command,  had  to  wait  for  relief  in  turn.  Delhi 
had  already  been  taken  by  storm  on  September  19. 

32.  The  End  of  the  Mutiny.  1857— 1858. —Soon  after  the 
relief  of  Lucknow  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  who  afterwards  became 
Lord  Clyde,  arrived  with  reinforcements  from  England,  and  finally 
suppressed  the  mutiny.  In  1858  Parliament  put  an  end  to  the 
authority  of  the  East  India  Company  (see  p.  808).  Thenceforth 
the  Governor-General  was  brought  directly  under  the  Queen, 
acting  through  a  British  Secretary  of  State  for  India  responsible 
to  Parliament,  There  was  also  to  be  an  Indian  Council  in  Eng- 
land composed  of  persons  familiar  with  Indian  affairs,  in  order 
that  the  Secretary  of  State  might  have  the  advice  of  experienced 
persons  On  assuming  full  authority,  the  Queen  issued  a  proclama- 
tion to  the  peoples  and  princes  of  India.  To  the  people  she 
promised  complete  toleration  in  religion,  and  admission  to  office 
of  qualified  persons.  To  the  princes  she  promised  scrupulous 
respect  for  their  rights  and  dignities.  To  all  she  declared  her 
intention  of  respecting  their  rights  and  customs.  It  is  in  this 
last  respect  especially  that  the  proclamation  laid  down  the  lines  on 
which  administration  of  India  will  always  have  to  move  if  it  is  to 
be  successful.  Englishmen  cannot  but  perceive  that  many  things 
are  done  by  the  natives  of  India  which  are  in  their  nature  hurtful, 
unjust,  or  even  cruel,  and  they  are  naturally  impatient  to  remove 
evils  that  are  very  evident  to  them.  The  lesson  necessary  for  them 
to  learn  is  the  one  which  Walpole  taught  their  own  ancestors,  that 
it  is  better  to  leave  evils  untouched  for  a  while  than  to  risk  the 
overthrow  of  a  system  of  government  which,  on  the  whole,  works 
beneficently.  It  is  one  thing  to  endeavour  to  lead  the  people  of 
India  forward  to  a  better  life,  another  thing  to  drag  them  forward 


1857-1858  CONSPIRACY-TO-MURDER  BILL  955 

and  thereby  to  provoke  a  general  exasperation  which  would  lessen 
the  chances  of  improvement  m  the  future,  and  might  possibly 
sweep  the  reforming  government  itself  away. 


CHAPTER   LX 


ANTECEDENTS  AND   RESULTS  OF  THE  SECOND   REFORM   ACT 
1857-1874 

LEADING  DATES 

The  Second  Derby  Ministry     ...                ...  1858 

The  Second  Palmerston  Ministry 1859 

War  of  Italian  Liberation                          1859 

Commercial  Treaty  with  France     .        .                ...  i860 
The  American  Civil  V^ar  ....                .        .    1861-1864 

Earl  Russell's  Ministry 1865 

War  between  Austria  and  Prussia 1866 

The  Third  Derby  Ministry 1866 

The  Second  Reform  Act 1867 

The  First  Disraeli  Ministry 1868 

The  First  Gladstone  Ministry 1868 

Disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church 1869 

The  First  Irish  Land  Act  and  the  Education  Act  1870 
War  between  France  and  Germany       ....    1870-1871 

Abolition  of  Army  Purchase 1871 

The  Ballot  Act 1872 

Fall  of  the  Gladstone  Ministry 1874 

I.  Fall  of  the  First  Palmerston  Ministry.  1857— 1858.— When 
the  Mutiny  was  crushed  the  Palmerston  ministry  no  longer  existed. 
Palmerston's  readiness  to  enforce  his  will  on  foreign  nations  had 
led  him  in  1857  to  provoke  a  war  with  China  which  the  majority 
of  the  House  of  Commons  condemned  as  unjustifiable.  He  dis- 
solved Parliament  and  appealed  to  the  fighting  instincts  of  the 
nation,  and,  though  not  only  Cobden  and  Bright,  but  Gladstone, 
joined  the  Conservatives  against  him,  he  obtained  a  sweeping 
majority  in  the  new  Parliament.  Curiously  enough,  he  was  turned 
out  of  office,  in  1858,  by  this  very  same  Parliament,  on  a  charge  of 
truckling  to  the  French  Emperor.  Explosive  bombs,  wherewith  to 
murder  Napoleon  HI.,  were  manufactured  in  England,  and  plans 
for  using  them  against  him  were  laid  on  English  soil.  The  attempt 
was  made  by  an  Italian,  Orsini,  and  upon  its  failure  the  French 
Government  and  people  called  upon  the  English  Government  to 
prevent  such  designs  in  future.  Palmerston  brought  in  a  Conspiracy- 
to-Murder  Bill,  the  object  of  which  was  to  punish  those  who  con- 
trived the  assassination  of  foreign  princes  on  English  soil.  This 
measure,  desirable  as  it  was,  was  unpopular  in  England,  because 

3Q2 


956     ANTECEDENTS  OF  SECOND  REFORM  ACT    1858-1859 

some  Frenchmen  talked  abusively  of  Englishmen  as  protectors  of 
murderers,  and  even  called  on  the  Emperor  to  invade  England. 
Parliament  refused  to  be  bullied  even  into  doing  a  good  thing,  and, 
the  Bill  being  rejected,  the  Palmerston  ministry  resigned. 

2.  The  Second  Derby  Ministry  and  the  Beginning  of  the  Second 
Palmerston  Ministry.  1858— 1859. — Lord  Derby  became  Prime 
Minister  a  second  time,  and  in  1859  Disraeli,  who  was  again 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
brought  in  a  Reform  Bill  which  was  rejected  by  the  House  of 
Commons.  A  new  ministry  was  formed  which,  like  Lord  Aber- 
deen's in  1852,-  comprised  Whigs  and  Peelites.  Palmerston  was 
Prime  Minister,  Russell  Foreign  Secretary,  and  Gladstone  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer. 

3.  Italian  War  of  Liberation.  1859.— In  1859,  the  year  in  which 
the  second  Palmerston  ministry  took  office,  a  great  war  broke  out 
in  Italy.  Italians  could  have  no  freedom  in  their  own  states  as 
long  as  Austria  held  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  because  Austrian 
armies  were  always  ready  to  help  any  Italian  prince  in  maintaining 
despotism.  In  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  alone,  Victor  Emmanuel 
persisted  in  maintaining  a  constitutional  government  in  defiance 
of  Austria,  and  thereby,  and  by  his  ingrained  honesty  of  nature, 
attracted  the  reverence  of  all  Italians  who  longed  to  expel  the 
Austrians  and  gain  political  freedom.  It  was  evident  that  all  Italy 
must  be  governed  despotically  or  constitutionally,  and  that  consti- 
tutional government  could  not  be  maintained  even  in  the  kingdom 
of  Sardinia  unless  Austria  was  driven  back,  whilst  despotic  govern- 
ment could  not  be  maintained  elsewhere  unless  Sardinia  was 
crushed.  In  1858  Napoleon  came  to  an  understanding  with  Cavour, 
the  statesmanlike  Sardinian  minister,  and  in  1859  he  led  an  army 
across  the  Alps  to  support  the  Sardinians.  Tuscany,  Parma, 
Modena,  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  drove 
away  their  rulers  and  combined  forces  with  Victor  Emmanuel. 
Napoleon  and  his  ally  defeated  the  Austrians  in  the  two  great 
battles  of  Magenta  and  Solferino,  after  which  the  Emperor  made 
peace  with  Austria.  Victor  Emmanuel  and  his  subjects,  who  had 
hoped  that  the  war  might  be  continued  till  Austria  had  been  entirely 
excluded  from  Italy,  were  grievously  disappointed.  Napoleon  was, 
however,  probably  justified  in  bringing  the  war  to  a  close,  as  he 
had  reason  to  think  that,  if  he  continued  it,  Prussia  would  take 
part  with  Austria  against  him,  and  as  it  was  very  likely  that  if 
hostilities  were  prolonged  his  own  subjects  would  refuse  to  support 
him.     By  the  peace  of  Zurich,  which  put  an  end  to  the  war,  Milan 


1859-1861  VICTOR  EMMANUEL   AND   ITALY  957 

was  given  to  Victor  Emmanuel,  but  Venetia  was  left  to  Austria.  The 
expelled  princes  were  to  be  reinstated,  and  all  Italian  states,  includ- 
ing Austrian  Venetia  and  the  increased  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  were 
to  form  a  confederation,  of  which  the  president  was  to  be  the  Pope. 
4.,  The  Kingdom  of  Italy.  1859— 1861.— The  Italians  of  the 
central  provinces,  Tuscany,  Parma,  Modena,  and  the  northern  part 
of  the  Papal  States,  refused  to  accept  this  absurd  arrangement. 
In  i860  they  joined  Victor  Emmanuel's  kingdom,  which  now 
began  to  be  known  as  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  Russell,  as  Foreign 
Secretary,  did  everything  in  his  power  to  uphold  their  right  to 
dispose  of  themselves,  and  on  Savoy  and  Nice  being  surrendered 
to  France  Napoleon  acquiesced  in  the  arrangement,  whilst  Austria 
did  not  venture  to  provoke  a  new  war  by  interfering.  In  i860,  too. 
Garibaldi,  a  straightforward  and  enthusiastic  soldier,  whose  ideal 
was  the  union  of  Italy,  invaded  Sicily,  and  in  a  few  weeks  con- 
quered both  Sicily  and  Naples,  with  the  exception  of  the  strong 
fortress  of  Gaeta.  In  the  meanwhile  many  Catholics  had  come 
from  other  countries  to  defend  the  independence  of  the  Pope, 
which  was  visibly  threatened.  They  were,  however,  defeated  by. 
an  Italian  army,  and  that  part  of  the  Papal  dominions  which  lay 
between  the  Apennines  and  the  Adriatic  was  added  to  Victor  Em- 
manuel's kingdom.  Victor  Emmanuel  himself  came  into  Southern 
Italy  through  his  newly-annexed  regions,  where  he  was  welcomed 
by  Garibaldi.  The  joint  armies  laid  siege  to  Gaeta,  which  sur- 
rendered on  February  13,  1861.  Victor  Emmanuel  now  ruled  over 
all  Italy  except  Venetia,  which  was  held  by  an  Austrian  army, 
and  Rome,  which,  together  with  the  district  round  it,  was  secured 
to  the  Pope  by  a  French  garrison. 

5.  The  Volunteers.  1859— 1860.— In  i860  Russell  brought  in  a 
Reform  Bill,  but  the  country  did  not  care  about  it,  and  even 
Russell  perceived  that  it  was  useless  to  press  it.  It  was  withdrawn, 
and  no  other  similar  measure  was  proposed  whilst  Palmerston 
lived.  The  country,  indeed,  was  agitated  about  other  matters. 
Napoleon's  annexation  of  Savoy  and  Nice  caused  disquiet,  and 
suspicions  were  entertained  that,  having  succeeded  in  defeating 
Austria,  he  might  think  of  trying  to  defeat  either  Prussia  or 
England.  Already,  whilst  Lord  Derby  was  Prime  Minister,  young 
men  had  come  forward  to  serve  as  volunteers  in  defence  of  the 
country.  Palmerston  gave  great  encouragement  to  the  movement, 
and  before  long  corps  of  volunteers  were  established  in  every 
county,  as  a  permanent  part  of  the  British  army. 

6.  The  Commercial  Treaty  with  France,    i860. — Napoleon  did 


958     ANTECEDENTS  OF  SECOND  REFORM  ACT    i86o-i86r 

not  really  want  to  quarrel  with  England,  and  before  long  an  oppor- 
tunity presented  itself  for  binding  the  two  nations  together.  The 
Emperor  warmly  adopted  a  scheme  for  a  commercial  treaty  between 
England  and  France  which  had  been  suggested  by  Cobden,  and 
which  was  also  supported  by  Gladstone,  who,  as  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  had  been  completing  Peel's  work  by  carrying  out  the 
principles  of  Free  Trade.  In  i860  was  signed  the  Commercial  Treaty, 
in  virtue  of  which  English  goods  were  admitted  into  France  at  low 
duties,  whilst  French  wines  and  other  articles  were  treated  in 
England  in  the  same  way.  Between  England  and  France,  however, 
there  was  this  difference  :  in  England  the  treaty  was  sanctioned  by 
Parliament  as  being  in  accordance  with  the  opinions  generally 
entertained  in  the  country.  In  France  it  was  put  in  force  by  the 
sole  authority  of  the  Emperor  in  defiance  of  the  opinions  generally 
entertained  by  the  French  nation.  Consequently,  when,  at  a  later 
time,  the  power  of  the  Emperor  came  to  an  end,  France  took  the 
earliest  opportunity  to  annul  a  treaty  the  value  of  which  she  was 
unable  to  appreciate. 

7.  The  Presidential  Election  in  America,  i860.—  In  i860,  the 
year  in  which  the  treaty  with  France  was  signed,  events  occurred 
in  the  United  States  of  America  which  pressed  heavily  on  England. 
In  the  southern  states  there  were  some  millions  of  negro  slaves, 
mostly  employed  in  producing  sugar  and  cotton,  whilst  in  the 
northern  states  there  were  no  slaves  of  any  kind.  The  free  states 
flourished,  and  the  slave  states  decayed.  The  slave-owners  hoped 
to  improve  their  position  by  occupying  fresh  soil  and  carrying  their 
slaves  with  them  to  cultivate  it.  The  inhabitants  of  the  free  states 
did  not  yet  propose  to  abolish  slavery  in  the  old  slave  states,  which 
they  were  unable  to  do  constitutionally,  but  they  asked  that  slavery 
should  not  be  tolerated  in  any  new  states.  In  i860  Abraham  Lincoln 
was  chosen  President  in  order  that  he  might  enforce  this  doctrine, 
on  which  the  slave  states  declared  themselves  independent,  taking 
the  name  of  the  '  Confederate  States.'  The  free  states  continued 
to  speak  of  themselves  and  of  all  the  other  states  as  still  formmg 
the  '  United  States,'  declaring  that  the  confederates  had  no  right 
to  leave  the  union,  and  must  be  compelled  to  return  to  it. 

8.  England  and  the  American  Civil  War.  1861  1862.- A 
terrible  war  between  the  two  sections  broke  out  in  1861.  English 
opinion  was  divided  on  the  subject.  The  upper  classes,  for  the. 
most  part,  sided  with  the  South  ;  the  working  men,  for  the  most] 
part,  with  the  North.  Towards  the  end  of  1861  the  Confederate] 
Government  despatched  two  agents.  Mason  and  Slidell,  to  Europe 


1 86 1   1862  THE  AMERICAN  CIVIL    WAR  959 

in  an  English  mail-steamer  to  seek  for  the  frienHship  of  England 
and  France.  They  were  taken  out  of  the  steamer  by  the  captain 
of  a  United  States'  man-of-war.  As  it  was  contrary  to  the  rules  of 
international  law  to  seize  anyone  on  board  a  neutral  ship,  the 
British  Ciovernment  protested,  and  prepared  to  make  war  with 
the  United  States  if  they  refused  to  surrender  the  agents.  Fortu- 
nately the  United  States  Gov^ernment  promptly  surrendered  the 
men,  honourably  acknowledging  that  its  officer  had  acted  wrongly, 
and  the  miserable  spectacle  of  a  war  between  two  nations  which 
ought  always  to  be  bound  together  by  ties  of  brotherhood  was 
averted.  When  the  demand  for  the  surrender  of  Mason  and 
Slidell  was  being  prepared  in  England,  Prince  Albert,  who  had 
lately  received  the  title  of  Prince  Consort,  lay  upon  what  proved  to 
be  his  death-bed.  His  last  act  was  to  suggest  that  some  passages 
in  the  English  despatch,  which  might  possibly  give  offence  in 
America,  should  be  more  courteously  expressed.  On  December  14, 
1861,  he  died.  His  whole  married  life  had  been  one  of  continuous 
self-abnegation.  He  never  put  himself  forward,  or  aspired  to  the 
semblance  of  power  ;  but  he  placed  his  intelligence  and  tact  at  the 
service  of  the  queen  and  the  country,  softening  down  asperities  and 
helping  on  the  smooth  working  of  the  machinery  of  government. 

9.  The  'Alabama.'  1862.— The  fleet  of  the  United  States  had 
from  the  beginning  of  the  war  blockaded  the  southern  ports,  and 
many  English  merchants  fitted  out  steamers  to  run  through  the 
blockading  squadrons,  carrying  goods  to  the  confederates  and 
taking  away  cotton  in  return.  The  confederates,  who  had  no  navy, 
were  anxious  to  attack  the  commercial  marine  of  their  enemies, 
and  ordered  a  swift  war-steamer  to  be  built  at  Birkenhead  by  an 
English  ship-builder,  which,  after  it  had  put  to  sea,  was  named 
the  '  Alabama.'  The  '  Alabama '  took  a  large  number  of  American 
merchant-ships,  sinking  the  ships  after  removing  the  crews  and  the 
valuable  part  of  the  cargo.  Such  proceedings  caused  the  greatest 
indignation  in  America,  where  it  was  held  that  the  British  Govern- 
ment ought  to  have  seized  the  '  Alabama '  before  it  put  to  sea,  as 
being  in  reality  a  ship  of  war,  which  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to 
start  on  its  career  from  a  neutral  harbour.  Some  years  afterwards 
England  had  to  pay  heavy  damages  to  the  United  States  for  the 
losses  arising  in  consequence  of  the  mismanagement  of  the 
Government  in  allowing  this  ship  to  sail. 

10.  The  Cotton  Famine.  1861 — 1864. — In  the  meanwhile 
great  suffering  was  caused  in  the  north  of  England  by  the  stop- 
page of  the  supplies  of  cotton  from  America,  in  consequence  of  the 


96o      ANTECEDENTS  OF  SECOND  REFORM  ACT    1861-.1865 

blockade  of  the  southern  ports.  It  was  on  American  cotton  that 
the  cotton-mills  in  Lancashire  had  almost  exclusively  depended, 
and  the  small  amount  brought  by  the  blockade-runners  was  far  too 
little  to  meet  their  needs.  Attempts  were  made  to  get  supplies 
from  Egypt  and  India,  but  these  supplies  were  as  yet  insufficient 
in  quantity,  and  in  quaHty  very  inferior.  Mills  were  either  stopped 
or  kept  going  only  for  a  few  hours  in  the  week.  Thousands  were 
thrown  out  of  work,  and  the  cotton-famine  caused  as  much  misery 
as  a  bread-famine  would  have  done.  Yet  not  only  were  the  sufferers 
patient  under  their  misfortune,  but  they  refused  to  speak  evil  of  the 
northern  states,  whose  blockading  operations  had  been  the  cause  of 
their  misery.  Believing  that  slave-owning  was  a  crime,  and  that  the 
result  of  the  victory  of  the  northern  states  would  be  the  downfall 
of  slavery  in  America,  they  suffered  in  silence  rather  than  ask  that 
England  should  aid  a  cause  which  in  their  hearts  they  condemned. 

11.  End  of  the  American  Civil  War.  1864.  —  In  1864  the 
American  civil  war  ended  by  the  complete  victory  of  the  North. 
Slavery  was  brought  to  an  end  in  the  whole  of  the  territory  of  the 
United  States.  The  conquerors  showed  themselves  most  merciful 
in  the  hour  of  victory,  setting  themselves  deliberately  to  win  back 
the  hearts  of  the  conquered.  Such  a  spectacle  could  not  fail  to  in- 
fluence the  course  of  English  politics.  A  democratic  government^ 
sorely  tried,  had  shown  itself  strong  and  merciful.  The  cause  of 
democratic  progress  also  gained  adherents  through  the  abnegation 
of  the  working-men  of  Lancashire  in  the  time  of  the  cotton-famine. 
Those  who  willingly  suffered  on  behalf  of  what  they  believed  to  be  a 
righteous  cause  could  hardly  be  debarred  much  longer  from  the 
exercise  of  the  full  rights  of  citizenship. 

12.  The  Last  Days  of  Lord  Palmerston.  1865. — Although  Parlia- 
mentary reform  could  not  be  long  delayed,  it  was  not  likely  to  come 
as  long  as  Lord  Palmerston  lived.  He  was  the  most  popular  man 
in  England  :  cheery,  high-spirited,  and  worthily  representing  the 
indomitable  courage  of  the  race  to  which  he  belonged.  He  was 
now  eighty  years  of  age,  and  the  old  system  did  well  enough  for 
him.  On  the  other  hand,  Gladstone,  whose  energy  and  financial 
success  gave  him  an  authority  only  second  to  that  of  Palmerston 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  declared  for  reform.  In  1865  a  new 
Parliament  was  elected.  On  October  18,  before  it  met,  Palmerston 
died.  He  had  been  brisk  and  active  to  the  last,  but  there  was 
work  now  to  be  done  needing  the  hands  and  hearts  of  younger  men. 

13.  The  Ministry  of  Earl  Russell.  1865— 1866.— Russell,  who 
had  been  created  Earl  Russell  in  1861,  succeeded  Palmerston  as 


1 866- 1 86;  DISRAELI  AND   REFORM  961 

Prime  Minister,  and  Gladstone  became  leader  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. When  the  session  opened  in  1866,  the  ministry  introduced 
a  Reform  Bill,  with  the  object  of  lowering  the  franchise  in  counties 
and  boroughs.  The  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons  did  not 
care  about  reform,  and  though  the  House  did  not  directly  throw 
out  the  Bill,  so  many  objections  were  raised,  mainly  by  dis- 
satisfied Liberals,  and  so  much  time  was  lost  in  discussing  them, 
that  the  ministry  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  House  did  not 
wish  to  pass  it.  On  this  they  resigned,  intending  to  show  by  so 
doing  that  they  really  cared  about  the  Bill,  and  were  ready  to 
sacrifice  office  for  its  sake. 

14.  The  Third  Derby  Ministry  and  the  Second  Reform  Act. 
1866 — 1868. — For  the  third  time  Lord  Derby  became  Prime 
Minister,  with  Disraeli  again  as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and 
leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.  It  soon  appeared  that,  though 
the  House  of  Commons  cared  little  for  reform,  the  working-men 
cared  for  it  much.  Crowded  and  enthusiastic  meetings  were  held  in 
most  of  the  large  towns  in  the  North.  In  London,  the  Govern- 
ment having  prohibited  a  meeting  appointed  to  be  held  in  Hyde 
Park,  the  crowd,  finding  the  gates  shut,  broke  down  the  railings 
and  rushed  in.  Disraeli,  quick  to  perceive  that  the  country  was 
determined  to  have  reform,  made  up  his  mind  to  be  the  minister 
to  give  it  ;  and,  as  he  was  able  to  carry  his  usual  supporters  with 
him,  the  opposition  of  the  discontented  Liberals— through  which 
the  Reform  Bill  of  the  last  session  had  been  wrecked — was  ren- 
dered innocuous.  At  the  opening  of  the  session  of  1867,  Disraeli 
first  proposed  a  series  of  resolutions  laying  down  the  principles  on 
which  reform  ought  to  be  based.  Finding  that  the  House  of  Com- 
mons preferred  an  actual  Bill,  he  sketched  out  the  plan  of  a  Bill, 
and  then,  as  it  did  not  please  the  Houses,  withdrew  it  and  brought 
in  a  second  Bill  very  different  from  the  one  which  he  had  first 
proposed.  Three  Cabinet  ministers,  one  of  whom  was  Lord  Cran- 
borne  (who  afterwards  became  Lord  Salisbury),  resigned  rather 
than  accept  a  Bill  so  democratic  as  the  final  proposal.  Before  the 
Bill  got  through  the  House  of  Commons  it  became  still  more  de- 
mocratic. In  its  final  shape  every  man  who  paid  rates  in  the 
boroughs  was  to  have  a  vote,  and  in  towns  therefore  household 
suffrage  was  practically  established,  whilst  even  lodgers  were 
allowed  to  vote  if  they  paid  10/.  rent  and  had  resided  in  the  same 
lodgings  for  a  whole  year.  In  the  counties  the  franchise  was  given 
to  all  who  inhabited  houses  at  12/;  rental  whilst  the  old  freehold 
suffrage  (see  p.  902)  of  40.^.  was  retained.     At  least  in  towns  large 


962         RESULTS  OF  THE  SECOND  REFORM  ACT   1867-1870 

enough  to  return  members  separately,  the  working-men  would 
henceforth  have  a  voice  in  managing  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 
In  1868  Bills  were  carried  changing  on  similar  principles  the 
franchise  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  In  England  and  Scotland 
there  was  also  a  redistribution  of  seats,  small  constituencies  being 
disfranchised  and  their  members  given  to  large  ones. 

15.  Irish  Troubles.  1867.— The  year  of  the  second  Reform 
Act  was  one  of  trouble  in  Ireland.  The  discontented  in  Ireland 
were  now  supported  by  an  immense  population  of  Irish  in  America, 
the  whole  of  which  was  hostile  to  England,  and  large  numbers  of 
which  had  acquired  military  discipline  in  the  American  Civil  War. 
A  secret  society,  whose  members  were  known  as  Fenians,  sprang 
up  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  Many  of  the  military  Irish 
returned  from  America  to  Ireland,  and  in  March  1867  a  general 
rising  was  attempted  in  Ireland.  Heavy  snow-storms  made  the 
movements  of  the  insurgents  impossible,  and  this  effort  to  bring 
about  a  complete  separation  between  Ireland  and  England  was 
suppressed  with  little  bloodshed.  Numbers  of  Irish,  as  well  those 
residing  in  England  as  those  who  remained  in  their  own  country, 
sympathised  with  the  Fenians.  In  Manchester,  some  of  these 
rescued  some  Fenian  prisoners  from  a  prison  van,  and  in  the  course 
of  the  struggle  a  shot  was  fired  which  killed  a  policeman.  Five  of  the 
rescuers  were  tried  in  November,  and  three  were  hanged.  In 
December,  other  Irishmen  blew  down  with  gunpowder  the  wall 
of  Clerkenwell  Prison,  in  which  two  Fenians  were  confined,  hoping 
to  liberate  the  prisoners. 

16.  The  Gladstone  Ministry  and  the  Disestablishment  of  the 
Irish  Church.  1868 — 1869. — In  February  1868,  Disraeli  became 
Prime  Minister,  Lord  Derby  having  resigned  in  consequence  of 
the  state  of  his  health.  It  had  by  this  time  become  evident  to  the 
principal  Liberals  that  Irish  discontent  must  be  caused  by  grievances 
which  it  behoved  the  British  Parliament  to  remedy.  Accordingly, 
Gladstone  proposed  and  carried  resolutions  calling  for  the  dis- 
establishment of  the  Irish  Church.  Disraeli  dissolved  Parliament, 
as  he  was  obliged  in  any  case  to  do  in  order  to  allov/  the  new 
constituencies  created  by  the  Reform  Act  to  choose  their  represen- 
tatives. The  new  Parliament  contained  a  large  Liberal  majority, 
and  Gladstone  became  Prime  Minister.  In  1869  he  brought  in 
and  carried  a  Bill  disestablishing  and  disendowing  the  Protestant 
Church  of  Ireland,  which  was  the  Church  of  the  minority. 

17.  The  Irish  Land  Act.  1870.— In  1870  the  Government 
attacked  the  more  difficult  question  of  Irish  land.     An  Irish  Land 


1866-1870     THE  NORTH  GERMAN  CONFEDERATION      963 

Act  was  now  passed  which  obliged  landlords  to  compensate  their 
tenants  for  improvements  made  by  them,  and  to  give  them  some 
payment  if  they  turned  them  out  of  their  holding  for  any  reason 
except  for  not  paying  their  rent.  Tenants  who  desired  to  buy 
land  from  their  landlprds  might  receive  loans  from  the  Govern- 
ment to  enable  them  to  become  owners  of  farms  which  they  had 
rented.  The  Act  had  less  effect  than  was  intended,  as  the  land- 
lord, being  allowed  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  a  tenant  that 
the  Act  should  not  in  his  case  be  enforced,  had  usually  sufficient 
influence  over  his  tenants  to  induce  them  to  abandon  all  claim  to 
the  benefits  which  Parliament  intended  them  to  receive. 

18.  The  Education  Act.  1870. — In  the  same  year  Forster,  who 
was  one  of  the  ministers,  introduced  a  new  system  of  education  in 
primary  schools  in  England,  Up  to  this  time  the  Government 
had  been  allowed  by  Parliament  to  grant  money  to  schools  on 
condition  that  a  sum  at  least  equal  to  the  grant  was  raised  by 
school  fees  and  local  subscriptions,  and  that  the  Government  in- 
spectors were  satisfied  that  the  children  were  properly  taught. 
By  the  new  Education  Act,  wherever  there  was  a  deficiency  in 
school  accommodation,  the  ratepayers  were  to  elect  a  School  Board 
with  authority  to  draw  upon  the  rates  for  the  building  and  main- 
tenance of  as  many  schools  as  the  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council 
appointed  to  decide  on  questions  of  education  (see  p.  920)  thought 
to  be  necessary — which  School  Boards  had  authority  to  compel 
parents  who  neglected  the  education  of  their  children  to  send  them 
either  to  the  Board  School  or  to  some  other  efficient  school.  At 
these  schools  the  Bible  was  to  be  read  and  explained,  but  no  re- 
ligious instruction  according  to  the  principles  of  any  special  religious 
body  was  to  be  given  in  school  hours. 

19.  The  War  between  Prussia  and  Austria.  1866. — Whilst 
these  events  were  occurring  in  England  great  changes  had  taken 
place  on  the  Continent.  In  1866  a  war  had  broken  out  between 
Prussia  on  the  one  hand,  and  Austria  supported  by  the  great 
majority  of  the  German  states  on  the  other.  The  Austrians  were 
completely  defeated  by  the  Prussians  at  Sadowa  in  Bohemia,  though 
at  Custozza  they  defeated  the  Italians,  who  had  allied  themselves 
with  Prussia.  The  result  was  that  when  peace  was  made,  Venetia 
was  ceded  to  Italy,  whilst  in  Germany,  Hanover,  Hesse- Cassel, 
Nassau  and  Frankfort  were  annexed  to  Prussia,  and  the  whole  of 
the  country  to  the  north  of  the  Main  formed  into  a  North  German 
Confederation  under  Prussian  supremacy. 

20.  War  between   France  and  Germany.      1870 — 1871. — The 


964        RESULTS  OF  THE  SECOND  REFORM  ACT  1 870- 1 871 

French  growing  jealous  of  the  success  of  Prussia,  in  1870  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  picked  a  quarrel  with  the  King  of  Prussia.  In 
the  war  which  followed  the  whole  of  Germany  sided  with  Prussia. 
The  German  army  was  thoroughly  prepared  for  war,  and  had  a 
consummate  strategist,  Count  Moltke,  to  direct  its  operations, 
whilst  the  French  army  was  in  utter  confusion.  The  Germans 
invaded  France,  and,  after  defeating  outlying  bodies  of  French 
troops  at  Worth  and  P^orbach,  overthrew  t]^e  main  army  under 
Bazaine  at  Gravelotte.  Driving  Bazaine  into  Metz,  they  left  a 
large  part  of  their  force  to  block  him  up  in  the  town,  whilst  they 
advanced  towards  Paris  with  the  remainder.  On  the  way,  learning 
that  Napoleon  was  marching  to  relieve  Bazaine,  they  turned  upon 
him  and  completely  defeated  him  at  Sedan,  making  both  him  and  his 
whole  army  prisoners.  On  this  the  Parisians  established  a  Re- 
public, but  the  Germans  pressed  on,  laid  siege  to  Paris,  in  the 
meanwhile  forcing  the  French  army  in  Metz  to  capitulate.  The 
Republican  Government  made  an  heroic  resistance,  but  in  March 
1871  Paris  capitulated  and  peace  was  made  ;  France  having  to  pay 
a  large  sum  of  money  and  to  cede  to  Germany  Alsace  and  the 
north-eastern  part  of  Lorraine.  Before  this  the  southern  German 
princes  had  agreed  to  combine  with  the  northern  princes  in  a  new 
German  Empire,  and  William  I.,  king  of  Prussia,  was  proclaimed 
hereditary  German  Emperor  at  Versailles.  As  France  had  been 
obliged  to  call  home  the  garrison  which  she  had  hitherto  kept  at 
Rome,  the  Italian  troops  entered  that  city,  thus  completing  Italian 
unity  under  the  constitutional  monarchy  of  Victor  Emmanuel. 

21.  Abolition  of  Army- Purchase.  1871. — In  these  wars  England 
took  no  part.  Government  and  Parliament  continued  to  pay  atten- 
tion to  domestic  reforms.  Hitherto  regimental  officers  in  the 
army  had  been  allowed,  on  voluntarily  retiring  from  the  service, 
to  receive  a  sum  of  money  from  the  senior  officer  beneath  them 
who  was  willing  or  able  to  pay  the  price  for  the  creation  of  a 
vacancy  to  which  he  would  be  promoted  over  the  heads  of  officers 
who,  though  they  were  his  own  seniors,  did  not  pay  the  money.  A 
poor  officer,  therefore,  could  only  be  promoted  when  vacancies  above 
him  were  caused  by  death.  A  Government  Bill  for  the  abolition  of 
this  practice  passed  the  Commons,  but  was  laid  aside  by  the  Lords 
till  a  complete  measure  of  army-reform,  which  had  been  joined  to 
the  Bill  when  it  was  first  brought  into  the  Commons,  should  be 
produced.  Gladstone,  taking  this  to  be  equivalent  to  the  rejection 
of  the  Bill,  obtained  from  the  Queen  the  withdrawal  of  the  warrant 
by  which  purchase  was  authorised,  thus  settling  by  a  stroke  of  the 


1871-1872  th:e  ballot  act  965 

prerogative  a  measure  which  he  had  at  first  hoped  to  pass  by  the 
authority  of  ParHament.  His  action  on  this  occasion  lost  him  the 
good  will  of  some  of  his  best  and  most  independent  supporters, 
whilst  large  numbers  of  Dissenters  had  been  alienated  from  the 
Government  because  the  Education  Act  had  not  entirely  put  an 
end  to  the  giving  of  religious  instruction  in  schools,  and  thus 
relieved  them  from  the  fear  that  the  religious  belief  of  the  children 
would  be  influenced  by  the  teaching  of  Church  of  England  school- 
masters and  schoolmistresses. 

22.  The  Ballot  Act.  1872.— All  members  of  the  Liberal  party, 
however,  concurred  in  supporting  a  Bill  introduced  by  Forster  in 
1872  for  establishing  secret  voting  by  means  of  the  ballot.  The 
Ballot  Act,  which  passed  in  this  year,  made  it  impossible  to  know 
how  any  man's  vote  was  given,  and  consequently  enabled  persons 
dependent  on  others  for  their  livelihood  or  advancement  to  give 
their  votes  freely  without  fear  of  being  deprived  of  employment  if 
they  voted  otherwise  than  their  employers  wished.  The  work  of  the 
first  Gladstone  ministry  was  in  some  respects  like  the  work  of  the 
ministry  of  Lord  Grey  after  the  first  Reform  Act.  In  both  cases 
the  accession  of  a  new  class  to  a  share  of  power  was  followed  by 
almost  feverish  activity  in  legislation,  in  the  one  case  in  accordance 
with  the  ideas  of  the  middle  classes,  in  the  other  case  in  accordance 
with  the  ideas  of  the  artisans.  In  both  cases  vigorous  progress  was 
followed  by  a  reaction.  Many  who  had  applauded  what  was  done 
had  no  desire  to  see  more  done  in  the  same  direction,  and,  as 
always  happens  when  people  are  no  longer  in  accord  with  the 
ideas  of  a  ministry,  they  fix  angrily  on  mistakes  committed  and 
think  of  unavoidable  misfortunes  as  though  they  were  mtentional 
mistakes.  Some  of  the  ministers,  moreover,  made  themselves 
unpopular  by  the  discourtesy  of  their  language. 

23.  Foreign  Policy  of  the  Ministry.  1871 — 1872. — The  foreign 
policy  of  the  Government  made  it  unpopular.  One  result  of  the 
great  war  between  France  and  Germany  in  1871  was  that  Russia 
refused  to  be  any  longer  bound  by  the  treaty  of  1856  (see  p.  948) 
to  abstain  from  keeping  ships  of  war  in  the  Black  Sea,  and  the 
English  Government,  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  but  to  its  own  griev- 
ous injury  at  home,  agreed  to  a  conference  being  held  between  the 
representatives  of  the  great  Powers  in  London,  at  which  the  stipula- 
tions objected  to  by  Russia  were  annulled.  Another  cause  of  the 
unpopularity  of  the  Government  was  its  agreement  in  1871  to  refer 
to  arbitration  the  claims  which  had  been  brought  forward  by  the 
United  States  for   compensation   for   damages   inflicted  on  their 


966       RESULTS  OF  THE  SECOND  REFORM  ACT    1872- 1874 

commercial  marine  by  the  ravages  of  the  '  Alabama '  (see  p.  960). 
In  1872  a  Court  of  Arbitration  sat  at  Geneva  and  awarded  to  the 
United  States  a  sum  of  15,000,000  dollars,  or  rather  more  than 
3,000,000/.  The  sum  was  regarded  by  many  in  England  as  exces- 
sive, but,  whether  this  was  so  or  not,  it  was  well  spent  in  putting  an 
end  to  a  misunderstanding  between  the  two  great  branches  of  the 
English-speaking  race.  Since  that  time  there  has  been  an  increas- 
ing readiness  to  submit  disputes  between  nations  to  arbitration  ; 
but  those  who  admire  this  course  sometimes  forget  that  it  is  only 
in  some  cases  that  arbitration  is  acceptable.  When  two  nations 
are  desirous  to  live  on  good  terms  with  one  another  and  are  only 
prevented  from  doing  so  by  a  dispute  on  some  particular  question 
of  comparatively  sligh^  importance,  it  is  not  only  possible,  but  in 
the  highest  degree  desirable,  that  they  should  abide  by  the  decision 
of  arbitrators  rather  than  go  to  war.  Questions  reaching  to  the 
permanent  interests  of  a  nation,  and  still  more,  questions  touching 
its  honour  or  its  very  existence,  are  not  likely  to  be  decided  by 
arbitration.  In  1872  England  could  honourably  pay  an  unduly 
large  sum  of  money  rather  than  go  to  war.  In  1859  the  King  of 
Sardinia  could  not  have  been  expected  to  submit  to  arbitration  the 
question  whether  the  Italian  nation  should  be  united  or  divided. 

24.  Fall  of  the  First  Gladstone  Ministry.  1873— 1874.— In 
1873  the  ministry  brought  in  a  Bill  to  establish  in  Ireland  a  new 
University  which,  in  order  that  it  might  inspire  confidence  in 
Protestants  and  Catholics  alike,  was  to  be  forbidden  to  teach  the 
disputed  but  important  subjects  of  theology,  philosophy,  and  his- 
tory. This  singular  Bill  being  rejected  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
the  ministers  resigned.  As,  however,  Disraeli  refused  to  take  office, 
they  continued  to  carry  on  the  government.  In  January  1874,  Parlia- 
ment being  dissolved,  a  large  Conservative  majority  was  returned. 
The  ministry  then  resigned,  and  Disraeli  became  Prime  Minister 
a  second  time.  It  was  the  first  time  since  Peel's  resignation  that 
the  Conservatives  had  held  office,  except  on  sufferance. 

25.  Colonial  Expansion.  1815—1901.— After  the  great  war  with 
France  which  ended  in  1815,  the  colonies  retained  and  acquired  by 
England  were  valued  either  like  the  West  India  Islands  because 
they  produced  sugar,  or  like  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  because  they 
afforded  stations  for  British  fleets  which  would  be  of  the  highest 
value  in  time  of  war.  There  were,  no  doubt,  British  emigrants 
who  had  left  their  homes  to  settle  in  Canada  and  Australia,  but 
their  numbers  were  ifot  very  great,  and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
the  population  was  almost  entirely  of  Dutch  origin.     Since  that 


1841-1874  COLONIAL  EXPANSION  967 

time  the  West  India  Islands  have  decreased  in  importance  in  con- 
sequence of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the  throwing  open  of  the  British 
market  to  foreign  sugar,  and  to  defects  in  a  system  of  cultivation 
which  had  been  adopted  in  the  time  of  slavery.  On  the  other  hand 
there  have  grown  up  great  and  powerful  communities  mainly  com- 
posed of  emigrants  from, Great  Britain,  self-governing  like  Great 
Britain  herself,  and  held  to  the  mother-country  by  the  loosest  pos- 
sible ties.  These  communities  are  to  be  found  in  three  parts  of  the 
globe— the  Dominion  of  Canada,  Australasia,  and  South  Africa. 

26.  The  North- American  Colonies.  1841 — 1874. — ^t  had  been 
supposed  in  England  that  the  troubles  which  had  resulted  in 
Canada  from  the  dissensions  between  the  British  and  French 
settlers  had  been  brought  to  an  end  in  1841  by  the  legislative  union 
of  the  two  provinces  (see  p.  916).  The  British  inhabitants  of 
Upper  Canada,  however,  complained  of  the  influence  exercised  by 
the  French  of  Lower  Canada.  To  provide  a  remedy  an  Act  of  the 
British  Parliament  created,  in  1867,  a  federation  known  as  the 
Pominion  of  Canada  into  which  any  existing  colonies  on  the  North 
American  continent  were  to  be  allowed  to  enter.  There  was  to  be  a 
governor-general  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  a  Dominion  Parlia- 
ment seated  at  Ottawa  and  legislating  for  matters  of  common 
concern,  which  was  to  consist  of  a  Senate,  the  members  of  which 
are  nominated  for  life  by  the  governor-general  on  the  advice  of 
responsible  ministers,  and  a  House  of  Commons,  the  members  of 
which  are  elected  by  constituencies  in  the  provinces  in  proportion 
to  the  population  of  each  province.  The  parliaments  of  the  separate 
provinces  retained  in  their  own  hands  the  management  of  their 
own  local  affairs.  The  provincial  parliaments  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada  were  separated  from  one  another,  bearing  respec- 
tively the  names  of  the  province  of  Ontario  and  the  province  of 
Quebec.  To  them  were  added  as  component  parts  of  the  Dominion 
Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick.  Between  1870  and  1872  Mani- 
toba, British  Columbia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island  joined  the 
Dominion.  Newfoundland  continues  to  hold  aloof.  The  unoccu- 
pied lands  of  the  north-west  are  placed  under  the  control  of  the 
authorities  of  the  Dominion,  which  thus  combines  under  one 
government  the  whole  of  America  north  of  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  with  the  exception 
of  Newfoundland  and  its  subject  territory  of  Labrador. 

27.  Australasia.  1788 — 1901. — The  Australasian  colonies  are 
divided  into  two  groups,  those  of  Australia  and  those  of  New 
Zealand.     The  first  British  settlers  in  Australia  were  convicts,  who 


968       RESULTS  OF  THE  SECOND  REFORM  ACT    1788-1883 

arrived  at  Port  Jackson  in  1788.  For  many  years  the  colony  thus 
founded  under  the  name  of  New  South  Wales  remained  a  penal 
settlement.  The  convicts  themselves,  after  serving  their  time  in 
servitude,  became  free,  their  children  were  free,  and  there  was  a 
certain  amount  of  free  emigration  from  Great  Britain.  In  1821 
New  South  Wales  had  a  population  of  30,000,  of  which  three- 
fourths  were  convicts.  It  had  already  been  discovered  that  the 
country  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  production  of  wool,  and  the 
number  of  sheep  in  the  colony  rose  from  25,000  in  iBio  to  290,000 
in  1821.  From  this  time  success  was  assured.  Other  colonies 
were  founded  in  due  course.  Van  Diemen's  Land,  afterwards  known 
as  Tasmania,  was  established  as  a  separate  colony  in  1825.  In 
the  same  year  a  small  convict  settlement  was  founded  under  the 
name  of  West  Australia.  South  Australia  received  a  separate 
government  in  1836  under  a  British  Act  of  Parliament  passed  in 
1834.  Victoria  was  separated  from  New  South  Wales  in  1850.  By 
this  time  the  free  population,  indignant  at  the  constant  influx  of 
British  criminals,  resisted  the  importation  of  convicts  so  strenuously 
that  in  1851  an  end  was  put  to  the  system  of  transportation  to 
Australia  except  in  the  small  and  thinly  populated  colony  of  West 
Australia.  In  that  year  the  population  flocked  to  the  newly 
discovered  gold  fields,  and  the  attraction  of  gold  brought  an 
enormous  number  of  immigrants  from  Great  Britain.  Queensland 
became  a  separate  colony  in  1859.  In  1901  the  white  population 
of  the  whole  of  Australia  numbered  about  3,700,000,  After  a  long 
delay,  Tasmania  and  the  five  Australian  colonies  followed  the 
example  of  the  North  American  colonies,  and  set  up  a  federal 
government.  The  Commonwealth  of  Australia  came  into  being  on 
January  i,  1901,  in  accordance  with  an  Act  passed  by  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Great  Britain  in  the  previous  year.  New  Zealand,  in  which 
the  white  population  reached  772,000  in  1901,  has,  since  1876,  been 
governed  by  a  single  parliament,  the  seat  of  which  is  at  Wellington. 
28.  South  Africa. — The  Cape  Colony  finally  passed  under 
British  authority  in  1806.  In  1820  a  stream  of  British  immigra- 
tion began  to  set  in.  The  colony  was  under  the  disadvantage 
of  having  fierce  and  warlike  Kaffir  tribes  on  its  north-eastern 
frontier,  and  from  1834  onwards  a  series  of  wars  with  the  Kaffirs 
broke  out  from  time  to  time,  which  taxed  to  the  uttermost  the 
resources  of  the  colonists  and  of  the  British  regiments  sent  for 
their  defence.  Many  of  the  Dutch,  who  were  usually  known  as 
Boers  or  farmers,  were  dissatisfied  with  British  rule,  and  in  1835 
they  began  to   migrate   further   north.      Some   settled   in  Natal, 


1874-1878     LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY     969 

which,  in  1843,  became  a  British  colony.  Others  founded  the 
Orange  River  Free  State  and  the  Transvaal  Republic,  both  of 
which  the  British  Government  finally  recognised  as  independent 
states.  In  spite  of  emigration  and  Kaffir  wars,  the  British 
colonists  continually  pressed  further  north,  and  in  1871  the  dis- 
covery of  diamonds  at  Kimberley  attracted  immigrants  and  capital 
to  the  colony.  That  which  distinguishes  the  South  African  settle- 
ments of  Great  Britain  from  those  in  North  America  and 
Australia,  is  the  enormous  preponderance  of  a  native  population. 
Out  of  every  six  inhabitants  five  are  natives.  The  total  white 
population  in  1891,  excluding  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange 
Free  State,  amounted  to  about  430,000  persons. 


CHAPTER   LXI 


THE   LAST   YEARS  OF  THE   NINETEENTH    CENTURY 
1874— I9OI 

I.  The    Disraeli    (Beaconsfield)    Ministry.     1874— 1880.— The 

Conservative  ministry,  formed  under  Disraeli  in  1874,  contented  itself 
for  some  time  with  domestic  legislation.  In  1876  troubles  broke  out 
in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  caused  by  the  misdeeds  of  the  Turkish 
officials,  Servia  and  Montenegro  made  war  upon  the  Turks,  and  in 
January  1877  a  conference  of  European  ministers  was  held  at  Con- 
stantinople to  settle  all  questions  at  issue.  Nothing,  however,  was 
done  to  coerce  the  Turkish  Government  into  better  behaviour,  and 
as  other  European  powers  refused  to  act,  Russia  declared  war 
against  Turkey.  After  a  long  and  doubtful  struggle,  the  Turkish 
power  of  resistance  collapsed  early  in  1878,  and  a  treaty  between 
Russia  and  the  Sultan  was  signed  at  San  Stefano,  by  which  the 
latter  abandoned  a  considerable  amount  of  territory.  Disraeli, 
who  had  recently  been  made  Earl  of  Beaconsfield,  insisted  that 
no  engagement  between  Russia  and  Turkey  would  be  valid  unless 
it  were  confirmed  by  a  European  congress,  and  a  congress  was 
accordingly'  held  at  Berlin.  By  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  which  was 
signed  in  the  course  of  1878,  Roumania  and  Servia  became  in- 
dependent kingdoms,  with  some  addition  to  their  territory;  Monte- 
negro was  also  enlarged,  and  Bulgaria  erected  into  a  principality 
paying  tribute  to  the  Sultan ;  whilst  a  district  to  which  the  name 
of  Eastern  Roumelia  was  given  was  to  be  ruled  by  a  Christian 
governor  nominated  by  the  Sultan,  who  was  to  have  the  right  of 

HI  3  R 


970    LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.     1 874- 1 901 

garrisoning  fortresses  in  the  Balkan  Mountains.  Russia  acquired 
the  piece  of  land  near  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  which  she  had 
lost  after  the  Crimean  War,  and  also  another  piece  of  land  round 
Kars,  which  she  had  just  conquered.  The  Sultan  was  recommended 
to  cede  Thessaly  and  part  of  Epirus  to  Greece.  The  protectorate 
over  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  was  given  to  Austria,  and,  by  a 
separate  convention,  Cyprus  was  given  to  England  on  condition  of 
paying  tribute  to  the  Sultan  and  protecting  Asia  Minor,  which  the 
Sultan  promised  to  govern  on  an  improved  system.  These  ar- 
rangements have  remained  to  the  present  day  (1901),  except  that 
the  Sultan  has  never  garrisoned  the  fortresses  in  the  Balkans,  and 
that  Eastern  Roumelia  has  been  annexed  by  its  own  population 
to  Bulgaria,  whilst  the  Sultan  has  only  given  over  Thessaly  to 
Greece,  refusing  to  abandon  any  part  of  Epirus.  In  1879  Egypt, 
having  become  practically  bankrupt,  was  brought  under  the  dual 
control  of  England  and  France.  In  South  Africa,  the  territory  of 
the  republic  of  the  Transvaal  was  annexed  in  1877,  and  in  1879 
there  was  a  war  with  the  Zulus,  which  began  with  the  slaughter 
of  a  British  force,  though  it  ended  in  a  complete  victory.  In  Asia 
a  second  Afghan  War  broke  out  in  1878,  arising  from  the  attempt 
to  establish  a  British  agent  at  Cabul  in  order  to  check  Russian 
intrigues.  An  impression  grew  up  in  the  country  that  the  Govern- 
ment was  too  fond  of  war,  and  when  Parliament  was  dissolved  in 
1880,  a  considerable  Liberal  majority  was  returned. 

2.  The  Second  Gladstone  Ministry.  1880— 1885.— Gladstone 
formed  a  ministry  which  was  soon  confronted  by  difficulties  in 
Ireland.  There  were  troubles  arising  from  the  relations  between 
landlord  and  tenant,  and  a  Land  League  had  been  formed  to  support 
the  tenants  in  their  contentions  with  their  landlords.  There  had 
also  for  some  little  time  been  amongst  the  Irish  members  a  parlia- 
mentary party  which  demanded  Home  Rule,  or  the  concession  of 
an  Irish  parliament  for  the  management  of  Irish  affairs.  This  party 
was  led  by  Parnell.  In  1880  the  ministry,  in  which  the  leading 
authority  on  Irish  questions  was  Forster,  the  Irish  Secretary, 
brought  in  a  Compensation  for  Disturbance  Bill,  giving  an  evicted 
tenant  compensation  for  the  loss  falling  on  him  by  being  thrust 
out  of  his  holding.  This  Bill  passed  the  Commons,  but  was 
rejected  by  the  Lords.  In  1881  the  ministry  carried  another  fresh 
Land  Act,  appointing  a  land  court  to  fix  rents  which  were  not  to 
be  changed  for  fifteen  years.  At  the  same  time  it  carried  an  Act 
for  the  protection  of  life  and  property,  intended  to  suppress  the 
murders  and  outrages  which  were  rife  in  Ireland,  by  authorising 


1874-1901     LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    971 

the  imprisonment  of  suspected  persons  without  legal  trial.  In 
1881  Parnell  and  other  leading  Irishmen  were  arrested,  but  in  1882 
the  Government  let  them  out  of  prison,  with  the  intention  of  pur- 
suing a'more  conciliatory  course.  On  this  Forster  resigned.  His 
successor.  Lord  Frederick  Cavendish,  was  murdered,  together  with 
the  Irish  Under-Secretary,  Burke,  in  the  Phoenix  Park,  Dublin,  by 
a  band  of  ruffians  who  called  themselves  Invincibles.  An  Act  for 
the  prevention  of  crimes  was  then  passed.  The  Irish  members 
of  parliament  continued  bitterly  hostile  to  the  ministry.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  at  least  of  the  members  of  the  Government  and 
of  their  supporters  were  becoming  Convinced  that  another  method 
for  the  suppression  of  violence  than  compulsion  must  be  employed, 
if  Ireland  was  ever  to  be  tranquil. 

As  had  been  the  case  with  the  last  Government,  foreign  com- 
plications discredited  the  ministry.  In  1880  the  Dutch  inhabitants 
of  the  Transvaal  rose  against  the  English  government  set  up  in 
their  territory  in  1877,  and  drove  back  with  slaughter  at  Majuba 
Hill  a  British  force  sent  against  them.  On  this,  the  home  govern- 
ment restored  the  independence  of  the  republic,  subject  to  its 
acknowledgment  of  the  suzerainty  of  Great  Britain.  The  greatest 
trouble,  however,  arose  in  Egypt.  In  1882  an  insurrection  headed 
by  Arabi  Pacha  with  the  object  of  getting  rid  of  European  in- 
fluence, broke  out  against  the  Khedive,  as  the  Pacha  of  Egypt 
had  been  called  since  his  power  had  become  hereditary  (see 
p.  922).  France,  which  had  joined  Great  Britain  in  establishing 
the  dual  control,  refused  to  act,  and  the  British  Government  sent 
a  fleet  and  army  to  overthrow  Arabi.  The  forts  of  Alexandria 
were  destroyed  by  the  fleet,  and  a  great  part  of  the  town  burnt  by 
the  native  populace.  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley,  at  the  head  of  a 
British  army,  defeated  Arabi's  troops  at  Tel-el- Kebir,  and  since 
that  time  the  British  Government  has  temporarily  assumed  the 
protectorate  of  Egypt,  helping  the  Khedive  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  the  Egyptian  people.  Farther  south,  in  the  Soudan,  a 
Mahommedan  fanatic  calling  himself  the  Mahdi  roused  his 
Mahommedan  followers  against  the  tyranny  of  the  Egyptian 
officials,  and  almost  the  whole  country  broke  loose  from  Egyptian 
control.  An  Egyptian  army  under  an  Englishman,  Hicks,  was 
massacred,  and  a  few  posts,  of  which  the  principal  was  Khartoum, 
alone  held  out.  An  enthusiastic  and  heroic  Englishman,  General 
Gordon,  who  had  at  one  time  put  down  a  widespread  rebellion  in 
China,  and  had  at  another  time  been  governor  of  the  Soudan, 
here  he  had  been  renowned  for  his  justice  and  kindliness  as  well 

3  R2 


972    LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    1874-1901 

as  for  his  vigour,  offered  to  go  out,  in  the  hope  of  saving  the 
people  at  Khartoum  from  being  overwhelmed  by  the  Mahdi.  The 
Government  sent  him  off,  but  refused  to  comply  with  his  requests. 
In  1884  Gordon's  position  was  so  critical  that  Wolseley,  now  Lord 
Wolseley,  was  sent  to  relieve  him.  It  was  too  late,  for  in  January 
1885,  before  Wolseley  could  reach  Khartoum,  the  town  was 
betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  Mahdi,  and  Gordon  himself 
murdered.  The  vacillation  of  the  Cabinet,  probably  resulting 
from  differences  of  opinion  inside  it,  alienated  a  large  amount  of 
public  opinion.  In  Asia,  Russia  was  pushing  on  in  the  direction 
of  Afghanistan,  and  in  1885  seized  a  post  called  Penjdeh.  For 
a  time  war  with  Russia  seemed  imminent,  but  eventually  an 
arrangement  was  come  to  which  left  Penjdeh  in  Russian  hands. 
At  home,  in  1884,  by  an  agreement  between  Liberals  and  Con- 
servatives, a  third  Reform  Act  was  passed,  conferring  the  franchise 
in  the  counties  on  the  same  conditions  as  those  on  which  it  had 
been  conferred  by  the  second  Reform  Act  on  the  boroughs.  The 
county  constituencies  and  those  in  the  large  towns  were  split  up 
into  separate  constituencies,  each  of  them  returning  a  single 
member,  so  that  with  a  few  exceptions  no  constituency  now 
returns  more  than  one.  The  ministry  was  by  this  time  thoroughly 
unpopular,  and  in  1885  it  was  defeated  and  resigned,  being 
followed  by  a  Conservative  Government  under  Lord  Salisbury. 

3.  The  First  Salisbury  Ministry. — The  Government  formed  by 
Lord  Salisbury  in  June  1885  lasted  little  more  than  seven  months. 
It  annexed  Upper  Burma  to  the  British  dominions,  and  passed  an 
Act  to  facilitate  the  purchase  of  Irish  land  by  the  tenants.  The 
general  election  of  the  autumn  gave  the  Liberals  a  majority  over 
the  Conservatives,  but  left  the  eighty-six  Irish  Nationalists  the 
arbiters  of  the  situation.  When  the  Irish  members  discovered 
that  the  Government  intended  to  bring  in  a  new  bill  for  the 
suppression  of  crime  in  Ireland,  and  that  Mr.  Gladstone  was 
favourable  to  Home  Rule,  they  threw  their  weight  into  the  scale  of 
the  Opposition,  and  Lord  Salisbury's  Government  fell.  (January 
1886.) 

4.  The  Third  Gladstone  Ministry. — Mr.  Gladstone  again 
formed  a  ministry,  and  at  once  introduced  a  bill  for  granting  self- 
government  to  Ireland.  By  the  "  Home  Rule  "  Bill  Ireland  was  to 
have,  under  certain  restrictions,  a  Parliament  of  its  own,  and  Irish 
members  were  no  longer  to  sit  in  the  Imperial  Parliament  at 
Westminster.  He  put  forward  also  a  comprehensive  scheme  for 
buying  out  the  Irish  landlords  and  selling  their  lands  to  the  tenants, 


1874-1901     LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    973 

which  was  to  be  carried  out  by  the  expenditure  of  fifty  millions 
advanced  by  the  Imperial  exchequer.  Both  plans  met  with  great 
opposition,  even  amongst  his  own  followers.  Some  thought  that 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  was  not  sufficiently 
secured  and  that  the  unity  of  the  empire  would  be  endangered  : 
others  that  the  money  borrowed  to  buy  the  land  would  not  be 
repaid.  Several  members  of  the  ministry  resigned,  and  ninety- 
three  Liberals  voted  against  the  second  reading  of  the  Home  Rule 
Bill,  so  that  it  was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  thirty.  Mr.  Gladstone 
appealed  to  the  country,  but  in  the  election  which  followed  the 
Conservatives  and  the  Liberal-Unionists,  as  the  dissentient  Liberals 
called  themselves,  obtained  a  majority  of  118  over  the  Home 
Rulers.     (July  1886.) 

5.  The  Second  Salisbury  Ministry. — Lord  Salisbury's  ministry 
did  not  include  any  Liberal-Unionists,  but  they  firmly  supported 
it  throughout  its  existence.  The  first  difficulty  the  Government 
had  to  deal  with  was  the  condition  of  Ireland.  vSince  the  passing 
of  Mr.  Gladstone's  Land  Act  in  1881  the  prices  of  all  kinds  of  farm 
produce  had  falldn  considerably,  so  that  farmers  were  often  unable 
to  pay  the  rents  which  had  been  fixed  as  fair.  Some  landlords 
made  equitable  remissions  to  their  tenants  ;  others  ignored  the 
fall  in  prices  and  refused  to  make  any.  In  many  places  the 
tenants  combined  to  resist  eviction,  adopting  a  scheme  called 
the  Plan  of  Campaign,  by  which  they  offered  to  pay  their 
landlord  what  they  themselves  deemed  a  fair  rent,  and  if  he 
refused  to  accept  it  as  sufficient  applied  the  money  to  the  relief 
of  the  tenants  whom  he  evicted.  The  Government  brought  in  a 
Crimes  Act  (1887)  to  put  down  illegal  combinations  among  the 
tenants,  suppressed  the  meetings  of  the  National  League,  and 
imprisoned  many  Irish  members  of  Parliament.  It  adopted  also 
various  remedial  measures,  such  as  admitting  leaseholders,  hitherto 
excluded,  to  the  right  of  having  their  rents  fixed  by  the  land  courts, 
and  enabling  tenants  under  certain  conditions  to  obtain  the 
revision  of  rents  fixed  before  the  fall  in  prices.  Acts  were  also 
passed  to  facilitate  the  purchase  of  land  by  tenants,  for  the  Irish 
policy  of  Lord  Salisbury  aimed  rather  at  the  increase  of  peasant 
proprietorship  than  the  regulation  of  the  system  of  dual  ownership. 

In  Great  Britain  Lord  Salisbury's  ministry  carried  two  excellent 
reforms.  One  completed  the  Elementary  Education  Act  of  1870  by 
making  education  free  in  all  elementary  schools.  (1891.)  The  other 
followed  up  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act  of  1835,  somewhat 
tardily  it  is  true,  by  placing  the  government  of  the  counties  in  the 


974     LAST  YEARS.  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    1874-.1901 

hands  of  councils  elected  by  the  ratepayers.  At  the  same  time  a 
similar  '  county  council '  was  established  for  the  government  of  all 
that  large  part  of  London  outside  the  limits  of  the  city  proper.  (1888.) 

6.  Fourth  Gladstone  Ministry. — In  1892  a  general  election  took 
place,  and  the  Salisbury  ministry,  rendered  unpopular  by  its 
coercive  policy  in  Ireland,  was  defeated  by  an  alliance  between 
the  Liberals  and  the  Irish  Nationalists.  Mr.  Gladstone  became 
Prime  Minister  for  the  fourth  time,  and  introduced  a  second  Home 
Rule  Bill.  (1893.)  Unlike  the  previous  bill,  it  provided  that  the 
Irish  members  should  retain  their  seats  in  the  Imperial  Parliament ; 
but  though  it  passed  the  House  of  Commons  the  Lords  threw  it  out 
by  419  to  41  votes.  However  a  bill  for  completing  the  fabric  of 
local  government  in  the  counties  by  establishing  elective  councils  to 
administer  parish  affairs  became  law  in  the  same  year.  In  March 
1894  Mr.  Gladstone  resigned  office  on  account  of  age,  and  Lord 
Rosebery  succeeded  him  as  Prime  Minister.  The  most  important 
measure  of  his  administration  was  a  change  in  the  system  of  taxa- 
tion made  by  the  Finance  Act  of  1894.  By  it  the  duties  on  property 
known  as  the  death  duties  were  revised  and  aug-mented,  so  that 
large  properties  paid  in  proportion  more  than  small  ones.  Lord 
Rosebery's  ministry  fell  in  June  1895,  ^^^^  Lord  Salisbury  became 
for  the  third  time  Prime  Minister. 

7.  Third  Salisbury  Ministry. — The  elections  of  1895  gave  Lord 
Salisbury  a  majority  of  153  over  Liberals  and  Irish  Nationalists 
combined,  and  in  the  ministry  which  he  formed  Liberal- Unionists 
were  included.  It  was  not,  however,  remarkable  for  its  legislation. 
It  passed  another  Irish  Land  Act  (1896),  and  did  something  to 
develop  local  industries  and  agriculture  in  Ireland,  but  its  most 
important  measure  was  the  establishment  of  county  and  district 
councils  in  that  country  like  those  which  had  been  set  up  in 
England  and  Scotland.  (1898.)  The  Irish  were  offered  local  self- 
government  and  material  prosperity  as  a  substitute  for  Home 
Rule. 

Foreign  and  colonial  affairs  absorbed  most  of  the  ministry's 
attention.  Once  more  the  misgovernment  of  Turkey  called  for 
European  intervention.  A  series  of  brutal  massacres  took  place 
in  Armenia  ;  the  Cretan  Christians  rose  in  revolt  ;  the  Greeks  came 
to  the  aid  of  the  Cretans  as  the  Servians  had  come  to  the  aid  of 
the  Bulgarians  in  1876.  The  principle  which  dictated  Lord 
Salisbury's  Eastern  policy  was  that  the  condition  of  the  Christian 
subjects  of  Turkey  concerned  Europe  as  a  whole,  and  should  be 
ameliorated  by  agreement  between  the  six  great  powers,  not  by 


1874-1901     LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    975 

the  isolated  action  of  one  or  two  of  them.  By  that  method  alone 
could  the  peace  of  Europe  be  preserved  and  the  necessary  reforms 
secured.  The  process,  however,  was  slow,  and  agreement  difficult 
to  obtain.  Owing  to  the  differences  of  the  great  powers  nothing 
was  done  to  redress  the  wrongs  of  the  Armenians,  but  Greece  was 
protected  from  the  consequences  of  its  defeat  by  Turkey,  and  the 
Cretans  obtained  self-government.  Though  Crete  still  remained 
nominally  subject  to  Turkey  it  became  practically  independent, 
with  the  second  son  of  the  King  of  Greece  as  its  ruler.     (1898.) 

8.  The  Reconquest  of  the  Soudan.— In  the  years  which 
followed  the  suppression  of  Arabi's  rebellion  the  government  of 
Egypt  was  reorganised  under  British  influence.  Reforms  were 
introduced  into  every  branch  of  the  administration,  the  condition 
of  the  people  was  greatly  improved,  and  the  finances  were  so  well 
managed  that  there  was  an  annual  surplus  of  revenue  over  expendi- 
ture. Sir  Evelyn  Baring,  afterwards  Lord  Cromer,  the  British 
consul-general,  was  the  chief  agent  in  this  work.  During  the  same 
period  other  Englishmen  trained  and  disciplined  the  Egyptian 
army  till  it  became  an  efficient  body  of  fighting  men.  British 
troops  had  been  withdrawn  from  the  Soudan  in  1885,  after  the  fall 
of  Khartoum,  and  it  was  left  entirely  to  the  possession  of  the 
Mahdi  and  his  successor  the  Khalifa.  Under  English  leaders, 
however,  the  new  Egyptian  army  proved  capable  of  defending 
the  frontier  of  Egypt  against  attack  from  the  south,  and  became 
finally  efficient  enough  to  undertake  the  reconquest  of  the  Soudan. 
In  1896  the  province  of  Dongola  was  recovered,  and  in  1897  Berber 
was  reoccupied.  The  work  was  completed  in  1898  when  a  mixed 
British  and  Egyptian  force  under  General  Kitchener  defeated  one 
of  the  Khalifa's  lieutenants  on  the  Atbara,  a  tributary  of  the  Blue 
Nile  (April  8,  1898),  and  routed  the  Khalifa's  whole  army  with 
immense  slaughter  before  the  walls  of  his  capital,  Omdurman 
(September  2,  1898).  A  year  later  the  Khalifa  himself  was  killed 
in  battle.  For  a  moment  the  reconquest  of  the  Soudan  seemed 
likely  to  involve  England  in  a  quarrel  with  France,  as  a  French 
post  had  been  established  at  Fashoda  in  its  extreme  south.  But 
the  French  Government  eventually  recognised  that  the  place  was 
properly  a  part  of  the  Soudan,  and  ordered  it  to  be  evacuated. 

9.  Venezuela. — During  the  same  period  another  difference 
which  threatened  to  lead  to  war  was  peacefully  settled.  For  many 
years  a  dispute  had  existed  as  to  the  boundary  between  British 
Guiana  and  the  neighbouring  republic  of  Venezuela.  An  impres- 
sion prevailed  in  the  United  States  that  Great  Britain  was  unjustly 


976     LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY     1874-1901 

seeking  to  extend  her  possessions  at  the  expense  of  a  weaker  state. 
President  Cleveland,  claiming  the  right  to  protect  South  American 
republicanism  against  European  aggression,  called  upon  England 
to  submit  the  dispute  to  arbitration.  Lord  Salisbury,  while 
denying  the  right  of  intervention  claimed  by  the  United  States, 
consented,  with  certain  restrictions,  to  accept  the  method  of 
settlement  proposed.  Accordingly  a  treaty  for  arbitration  was 
signed  at  Washington  on  February  2,  1897,  ^"d  a  court  was 
established  to  determine  the  disputed  boundary.  It  gave  judg- 
ment in  October  1899,  awarding  to  British  Guiana  the  greater  part 
of  the  territory  claimed  by  the  British  Government. 

10.  China. — In  1894  a  war  broke  out  between  China  and  Japan, 
in  the  course  of  which  China  was  completely  defeated.  The 
break-up  of  the  Chinese  Empire  seemed  a  possible  consequence, 
and  the  European  powers  began  to  lay  hands  upon  Chinese 
territory.  Russia  claimed  the  control  of  Manchuria  and  an- 
nexed Port  Arthur  ;  Germany  seized  KiaoChau  ;  and  Great 
Britain  took  possession  of  Wei-hai-wei,  and  extended  her  territory 
on  the  mainland  opposite  Hong-Kong.  The  result  was  a  popular 
movement  in  China  directed  against  all  foreigners  and  their  friends. 
Large  numbers  of  Chinese  Christians  and  many  European 
missionaries  were  barbarously  murdered.  The  German  am- 
bassador was  killed  in  the  streets  of  Pekin,  and  the  ambassadors 
of  the  other  powers  with  their  retinues  were  besieged  in  the 
British  Legation  in  that  city.  The  great  powers  of  Europe,  joined 
by  the  United  States  and  Japan,  intervened  to  restore  order  and 
protect  their  representatives.  An  army  composed  of  the  soldiers 
of  many  nations,  of  which  the  English  and  Indian  troops  formed 
part,  captured  Pekin,  and  set  at  liberty  the  besieged  ambassadors. 
(August  1900.)  But  the  restoration  of  order  in  China  and  the 
settlement  of  terms  was  a  work  of  greater  difficulty,  and  was  not 
effected  till  the  following  year. 

11.  South  Africa  and  the  Transvaal  War.  —  In  1899  war  broke 
out  in  South  Africa.  The  conventions  by  which  Mr.  Gladstone's 
government  had  annulled  the  annexation  of  the  Transvaal  Republic 
and  restored  to  its  inhabitants  the  right  of  self-government  sub- 
jected it  to  a  vague  British  suzerainty.  The  limits  of  the  republic 
were  defined,  and  the  Transvaal  was  prohibited  from  entering 
into  any  treaties  with  foreign  states  without  the  consent  of  the 
British  Government.  From  the  first  there  was  much  friction, 
and  many  disputes  arose.  The  Boers  persistently  overpassed  the 
boundaries  imposed  by  the  conventions,  in  order  to  conquer  fresh 
territory  from  the  natives.     The  British  Government  had  to  inter- 


1874  1 90 1     LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY     977 

fere  to  prevent  the  annexation  of  Zululand  and  Bechuanaland,  and 
north  of  the  Transvaal  a  British  colony  called  Rhodesia  was 
established  in  1889  by  a  chartered  company  called  the  British 
South  Africa  Company.  A  more  serious  cause  of  dispute  arose 
from  the  treatment  of  British  settlers  in  the  Transvaal.  Many 
Englishmen  were  established  in  that  country  before  its  retro- 
cession by  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  the  discovery  of  large  goldfields 
there  in  1886  attracted  a  large  white  population,  four-fifths  of 
which  was  of  British  origin.  These  immigrants,  whom  the  Boers 
called  '  outlanders,'  were  badly  governed,  heavily  taxed,  and  per- 
sistently denied  the  political  rights  which  the  men  of  Dutch 
descent  enjoyed  in  all  the  British  colonies  in  Africa.  Discontent 
spread  among  the  outlanders,  and,  as  all  redress  of  their  grievance 
was  refused,  some  of  them  plotted  an  armed  rising  in  order  to 
force  concessions  from  the  Transvaal  Government.  At  the  end  of 
1896  a  small  body  of  irregular  troops  levied  for  the  defence  of  the 
territories  of  the  Chartered  Company  against  the  natives  entered 
the  Transvaal,  but  were  defeated  and  captured  by  the  Boers. 
Though  '  Jameson's  raid,'  as  this  invasion  was  termed,  from  the 
name  of  its  leader,  was  disavowed  by  the  British  (Government,  it 
greatly  increased  the  friction  which  already  existed  between  the 
republic  and  its  suzerain.  The  Transvaal  (Government,  which  had 
at  first  promised  concessions  to  the  outlanders,  became  still  more 
hostile  to  them,  and  prepared  large  armaments.  In  1899  the 
British  outlanders  petitioned  the  Queen  to  intervene  on  their 
behalf,  and  Mr.  Chamberlain,  the  Secretary  for  the  Colonies, 
demanded  that  they  should  be  granted  political  rights.  Mr. 
Kriiger,  the  President  of  the  Republic,  refused  any  substantial 
concessions,  and  demanded,  oh  behalf  of  the  Transvaal,  the 
complete  abolition  of  British  suzerainty.  No  agreement  was 
arrived  at,  and,  as  the  British  Government  declined  to  withdraw 
the  troops  which  it  had  sent  to  the  Cape,  President  Kriiger 
published  a  declaration  of  war  and  invaded  the  British  colonies. 
(October  1899.)  The  Boers  of  the  Transvaal,  who  were  joined  by 
those  of  the  Orange  Free  State  and  by  many  colonial  rebels, 
gained  at  first  many  successes.  Mafeking  and  Kimberley,  in  the 
north-west  of  Cape  Colony,  were  for  many  months  besieged,  and 
the  army  of  11,000  men  charged  with  the  defence  of  Natal  was 
shut  up  in  its  fortified  camp  at  Ladysmith.  Efforts  to  relieve 
Kimberley  and  Ladysmith  were  defeated  with  loss  at  Magers- 
fontein  and  Colenso.  Early  in  1900,  however,  Lord  Roberts 
relieved  Kimberley,  forced  4,000  Boers  to  surrender  at  Paardeberg, 
and  successively  occupied  the  capitals  of  the  Free  State  and  the 


978    LAST  YEARS  OF  NINETEENTH  CENTURY    1874-1901 

Transvaal.  General  Buller  about  the  same  time  relieved  Lady- 
smith,  and  drove  the  Boer  forces  out  of  Natal.  President  Kriiger 
fled  to  Europe,  and  the  annexation  of  the  two  Boer  republics  was 
proclaimed.  Nevertheless,  their  subjugation  was  only  partial,  and 
for  some  time  longer  roving  bands  of  Boers  carried  on  an  active 
guerilla  war,  which  is  being  gradually  suppressed. 

While  the  Transvaal  War,  like  the  Crimean  War,  revealed 
many  defects  in  the  organisation  of  the  army,  it  also  exhibited 
a  convincing  proof  of  the  military  value  of  the  colonies.  The 
self-governing  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  regarding  the  war  as 
one  for  the  unity  of  the  Empire,  sent  contingents  of  volunteers  to 
take  part  in  it.  It  became  evident  that  the  Empire,  which  had 
grown  up  during  the  nineteenth  century,  was  not  a  collection  of 
heterogeneous  atoms,  but  a  great  association  of  states  bound 
together  by  common  interests  and  common  aims. 

Queen  Victoria  did  not  live  to  see  the  conclusion  of  the  war  • 
she  died  on  January  22,  1901,  in  her  eighty-second  year,  having 
reigned  a  longer  time  than  either  Elizabeth  or  George  III.  Like 
Queen  Elizabeth,  she  might  have  said  with  truth  that  she  never 
cherished  a  thought  in  her  heart  that  did  not  tend  to  her  people's 
good  (p.  478).  Her  influence  in  public  affairs  was  constantly 
employed  to  moderate  party  differences,  and  to  facilitate  the 
harmonious  working  of  the  constitution.  Though  with  the 
advance  of  democracy,  the  direct  power  of  the  monarchy  steadily 
diminished,  its  popularity,  thanks  to  her,  had  continually  in- 
creased. She  left  her  successor  not  only  wider  dominions  than 
she  had  inherited,  but  a  throne  established  upon  a  firmer  because 
a  broader  basis. 

Books  recommended  for  the  further  study  of  Part  XI. 
Walpole,  Spencer.     A  History  of  England  from  the  Conclusion 

of  the  Great  War  in  1815.     Vol.  ii.  p.  159-vol.  V. 

Life  of  Lord  John  Russell. 

Le  Marchant.     Memoir  of  Viscount  Althorp,  third  Earl  Spencer. 

Greville,  Charles  C.  F.     Memoirs. 

McLennan,  J.  K.     Memoirs  of  Thomas  Drummond. 

Thursfield.     Peel. 

MoRLEY,  J.     Life  of  Richard  Cobden. 

Bulwer,  Sir   H.   L.,  and  Ashley,   Hon.   E.      Life  of  Viscount 

Palmerston. 
Reid,  T.  Wemyss.     Life  of  W.  E.  Forster. 
Hamley,  Gen.  Sir  E.     The  Crimean  War. 
Kaye,  Sir  John,  and  Malleson,  Col.  G.   B.      History  of  the 

Indian  Mutiny. 
O'Brien.     Life  of  Parnell. 
Milner.     England  in  Egypt. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


AAR 

Aaron,  martyrdom  of,  23 

Abbey  lands,  the,  distributed  by  Henry 
VIII. J  400;  Mary  wishes  for  the  re- 
storation of,  422 

Abdul  Medjid  succeeds  his  father  as 
sultan,  922 

Abercrombie,  General,  repulsed  at 
Ticonderoga,  753 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph,  resigns  his 
command  in  Ireland,  841  ;  killed  in 
Egypt,  844 

Aberdeen,  Earl  of,  foreign  policy  of, 
927  ;  becomes  Prime  Minister,  943 

Aberdeen,  Montrose's  victory  at,  547 

Abhorrers,  party  name  of,  620 

Aclea,  battle  of,  57 

Acre,  captured  by  the  Crusaders,  161 ; 
Edward  I.  at,  204 ;  failure  of  Bona- 
parte to  take,  838  ;  taken  by  Napier, 
922 

Act  of  Settlement,  the,  622 

Addington  becomes  Prime  Minister,  843  ; 
resignation  of,  848  ;  enters  Pitt's 
ministry  and  becomes  Viscount  Sid- 
mouth,  851  ;  see  Sidmouth,  Viscount. 

Addison,  literary  and  political  position 
of,  693 

Addled  Parliament,  the,  486 

Adjjwnition  to  Parliament,  An,  446 

Adrian  IV.  grants  Ireland  to  Henry  II., 
152 

Adulterine  castles,  137 

Ad  Walton  Moor,  battle  of,  538 

Aedan,  king  of  the  Scots,  is  defeated 
at  Degsastan,  42 

iElfgir,  earl  of  the  Mercians,  90 

^Ifgifu,  wife  of  Eadwig,  65,  66 

iElfheah,  Archbishop,  murdered  by  the 
Danes,  82 

iElfred,  his  struggle  with  the  Danes,  58  ; 
his  position  after  the  Treaty  of  Wed- 
more,  59  ;  gains  London,  ib.  ;  character 
of  his  work,  60 

iElfred  the  ^theling,  murder  of,  85, 
86 

^Ifthryth,  wife  of  Eadgar,  78 

iElla,  king  of  Deira,  slave-boys  from 
his  kingdom  found  at  Rome,  38 

iEscesdun,  battle  of,  58 

^thelbald,  king  of  the  Mercians,  53 

C. 


ALA 

itthelbald,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  57 

iEthelberht,king  of  Kent,  his  supremacy, 
38  ;  becomes  a  Christian,  39  ;  helps 
Augustine  to  set  up  bishoprics,  40; 
death  of,  41 

iEthelberht,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  57 

i^^thelflaed,  the  Lady  of  the  Mercians,  62 

/Ethelfrith,  king  of  North-humberland, 
his  struggle  with  the  northern  Welsh, 
41 ;  defeats  the  Scots  at  Degsastan, 
^2  ;  and  the  Kymry  near  Chester,  43  ; 
is  defeated  and  slain  by  Eadwine,  ib. 

iEthelred,  ealdorman  of  Mercia,  do 

yEthelred,  king  of  the  West  Saxons, 
his  struggle  with  the  Danes,  58,  62 

yEthelred  the  Unready,  his  relations  with 
the  Danes,  79 ;  and  with  the  Nor- 
mans, 80  ;  orders  a  massacre  of  the 
Danes,  81  ;  flies  to  Normandy,  82  ; 
returns  and  dies,  83 

/Ethelric  unites  North-humberland,  41 

iEthelstan,  reign  of,  63 

^thelstan,  the  Half-King,  73 

^thelwold  drives  secular  canons  from 
Winchester,  68 

yEthelwulf  defeats  the  Northmen,  57 

Aetius  refuses  help  to  the  Britons,  26 

Afghan  war,  the  first,  949;  the  second,  972 

Afghanistan,  invasions  of  India  from, 
Q48 

Agincourt,  battle  of,  302 

Agitators,  choice  of,  554  ;  propose  to 
purge  the  House,  556 

Agreement  of  the  People,  the,  drawn  up 
by  the  Agitators,  556 

Agricola,  campaigns  of,  16  ;  forts  built 
by,  17 

Agriculture  in  Eadgar's  time,  75  ;  More's 
views  on  the  decline  of,  368  ;  progress 
of,  in  Elizabeth's  reign,  464  ;  improve- 
ments in,  813 

Aidan  establishes  himself  in  Holy 
Island,  47  ;  his  relations  with  Oswald, 
ib.  ;  and  with  Oswine,  ib. 

Aislabie,  sent  to  the  Tower,  712 

Aix-Ia-Chapelle  (Aachen),  peace  of,  599, 
743  ;  congress  at,  879 

'  Alabama,'  the,  depredations  of,  959  *, 
award  of  a  court  of  arbitration  for 
damages  caused  by,  966 

3S 


INDEX 


Alasco,  opinions  of,  418 

Alban,  martyrdom  of,  23 

Albany,  the  Duke  of,  suspected  of  the 
murder  of  the  Duke  of  Rothesayj 
295  ;  is  regent  of  Scotland,  296 

Albemarle,  George  Monk,  Duke  of,  as 
George  Monk,  commands  in  Scotland, 
575 ;  effects  the  restoration,  576  ; 
created  Duke  of  Albemarle,  580  ;  holds 
a  command  in  the  battle  off  the  North 
Foreland,  592  ;  advises  Charles  II.  not 
to  dissolve  Parliament,  599 

Alberoni,  enterprises  of,  709 

Albert,  Prince,  marriage  of,  920  ;  receives 
the  title  of  Prince  Consort,  959  ;  death 
of,  ib. 

Albigeois,  the,  crusade  against,  193 

Albin,  probable  Iberian  derivation  of 
the  name,  6 

Albion,  see  Albin 

Albuera,  battle  of,  869 

Alcluyd  (Dumbarton),  the  capital  of 
Strathclyde,  43 

Alengon,  Francis,  Duke  of,  Elizabeth 
proposes  to  marry,  446  ;  entertained  by 
Elizabeth,  454  ;  attacks  Antwerp,  455  ; 
death  of,  456 

Alexander,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  134 

Alexander  I.  (the  Tzar)  makes  a  treaty 
with  England,  845  ;  looks  to  England 
for  help,  857  ;  makes  peace  with 
Napoleon  at  Tilsit,  858 

Alexander  II.  (the  Tzar)  succeeds 
Nicholas,  and  makes  peace,  947 

Alexander  III.,  king  of  Scotland  death 
of,  214 

Alexander  III.,  Pope,  shrinks  from  sup- 
porting Archbishop  Thomas,  145 

Alexander  IV.,  Pope,  confirms  a  grant 
of  Sicily  to  Edmund  Crouchback,  197 

Alexander  VI.,  Pope,  character  of,  375 

Alford,  battle  of,  549 

Alicante,  capture  of,  685 

Alighur,  battle  of,  859  _ 

All  the  Talents,  the  ministry  of,  forma- 
tion of,  855  ;  resignation  of,  857 

Allectus  asserts  a  claim  to  the  Empire,  22 

Allen,  Cardinal,  founds  a  college  at 
Douai,  453  ;  plots  to  murder  Elizabeth, 
454 

Alma,  the  battle  of,  945 

Almanza,  Galway  defeated  at,  689 

Alnwick,  Malcolm  Canmore  slain  at, 
119  ;  William  the  Lion  captured  at, 
154  ;  dismantled,  296 

Althorp,  Lord,  becomes  leader  of  the 
Whigs  in  the  House  of  Commons,  898  ; 
is  a  member  of  Lord  Grey's  ministry, 
901 ;  carries  a  bill  reducing  the  number 
of  Irish  bishoprics,  910  ;  becomes  Earl 
Spencer,  912 

Alva,  Duke  of,  his  tyranny  in  the  Ne- 
therlands, 443  ;  discusses  the  murder 
of  Elizabeth,  445  ;  fails  to  reduce  the 
Dutch,  449 

Ambresbyrig  (Amesbury)  named  from 
Ambrosius,  34 

Ambrosius  fights  with  theWest  Saxons,  34 


Ambrosius  Aurelianus,  fights  with  the 
Jutes,  27 

America,  struggle  between  England  and 
France  for  territory  in,  747 

America,  North,  the  British  colonies  in, 
resistance  to  the  Stamp  Act  by,  771  ; 
import  duties  imposed  on,  773  ;  resist- 
ance to  the  duties  by,  774 ;  public 
opinion  in  England  turns  against,  778  ; 
repeal  of  the  duties  charged  on,  with 
the  exception  of  the  tea  duty,  779  ; 
resistance  to  the  tea  duty  in,  780  ; 
congress  of  Philadelphia  in,  782  : 
beginning  of  armed  resistance  in,  783  ; 
meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 
Colonies '  in,  ib.  ;  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence voted  by  the  Congress 
of,  784  ;  see  Canada ;  America,  the 
United  States  of 

America,  the  United  States  of,  assist- 
ance secretly  given  by  France  to,  786; 
open  alliance  of  France  and  Spain 
with,  787 ;  British  successes  against, 
788  ;  progress  of  the  war  in,  792  ;  the 
capitulation  of  Yorktown  ends  the 
war  in,  794  ;  causes  of  the  success  of, 
ib.  ;  peace  made  at  Paris  with,  798; 
war  of  Great  Britain  with,  872  ;  peace 
of  Ghent  with,  873  ;  disputes  about 
their  frontier  with,  927  ;  civil  war  in, 
958  ;  Mason  and  Slidell  surrendered 
by,  959 

Amherst,  General,  takes  Crown  Puii.l 
and  Fort  Duquesne,  753 

Amicable  Loan,  the,  372 

Amiens,  the  mise  of,  200  ;  the  treaty  of, 
846 

Anderida  destroyed  by  the  South 
Saxons,  28 

Andr^,  Major,  execution  of,  788 

Andred's  Wood  covers  the  Weald,  27 

Angevin  kings.  Church  and  State  under, 
165  ;  growth  of  learning  under,  167  ; 
growth  of  commerce  under,  168;  archi- 
tectural changes  under,  170 

Angles  ravage  Roman  Britain,  24 ;  settle 
in  Britain,  28  ;  advance  gradually,  36 ; 
see  Bernicia,  Deira,  East  Anglia, 
Mercia,  North-humberland 

Anglesea,  see  Mona 

Anjou,  Geoffrey,  Count  of,  131  ;  united 
with  Normandy,  137 ;  declares  for 
Arthur,  174  ;  conquered  by  Philip  II., 
176  ;  English  forays  in,  317 

Anjou,  Henry,  Duke  of,  see  Henry  III., 
king  of  France 

Annates,  first  Act  of,  388  ;  second  Act  of, 
390 

Anne,  daughter  of  James  II,,  birth  of, 
608  ;  deserts  James  II.,  645 ;  settlement 
of  the  crown  on,  647 ;  accession  of, 
G76  ;  influence  of  Marlborough  over, 
677  ;  gives  her  confidence  to  Mrs. 
Masham,  687 ;  dismisses  the  Whig 
ministers,  691  ;  death  of,  700 

Anne  Boleyn,  appears  at  Court,  380 ;  is 
married  to  Henry  VIII.,  389  ;  execu- 
tion of,  395 


INDEX 


981 


ANN 

Anne  of  Beaujeu,  policy  of,  348 

Anne  of  Bohemia  marries  Richard  II.,  278 

Anne  of  Brittany  is  married  to 
Maximilian  by  proxy,  349  ;  married  to 
Charles  VIII.,  349 

Anne  of  Cleves  married  to  Henry  VIII., 
400  ;  divorce  of,  401 

Annual  Parliaments  advocated  by  the 
Duke  of  Richmond,  789,  792 

Anselm  acknowledges  vElf  heah  to  be  a 
martyr,  82  ;  character  of,  117;  be- 
comes Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  118  ; 
quarrels  with  William  II.,  io.  ;  his 
relations  with  Henry  I.,  125 

Anson,  Admiral,  sails  round  the  world, 
730 

Anti-Corn-Law  League,  the,  foundation 
of,  924  ;  spread  of,  932 

Antoninus  Pius,  wall  of,  17 

Antwerp  attacked  by  Alengon,  455 ; 
taken  by  Parma,  456 

Appeals,  Act  of,  389  ;  provision  for  the 
hearing  of,  391 

Appellant,  the  Lords,  279 

Appropriation  clause,  the,  proposed, 
910  ;  dropped,  914 

Aquae  SuHs  (Bath)  subdued  of  the  West 
Saxons,  35 

Aquitaine,  Duchy  of,  passes  to  Henry 
II.  by  his  marria^ej  137  ;  is  given  to 
Richard,  155 ;  divided  in  language 
and  character  from  the  North  of 
France,  176 ;  intrigues  of  Philip  IV. 
in,  218  ;  efforts  of  Philip  VI.  to  gain, 
234 ;  ceded  to  Edward  III.,  253  ; 
the  Black  Prince  made  Duke  of,  254  ; 
resistance  to  the  Black  Prince  in,  256 ; 
almost  wholly  lost,  257  ;  complete  loss 
of,  320 

Arabi,  insurrection  of,  971 

Archers  employed  at  Senlac,  96  ;  armed 
with  the  long  bow  at  Falkirk,  221  ; 
improperly  employed  at  Bannockburn, 
226 ;  effect  of,  at  Halidon  Hill,  234  ; 
drawn  from  the  yeomen,  236  ;  win  the 
battle  of  Cre5y,  242  ;  are  successful  at 
Poitiers,  251 

Architecture  before  the  Conquest,  51  ; 
Norman,  89 ;  under  the  Angevins, 
170;  Early  English  style  of,  207; 
Decorated  and  Perpendicular  styles  of, 
247  ;  later  development  of,  358  ;  Eliza- 
bethan, 465  ;  Stuart,  631,  632  ;  in  the 
reign  of  Anne,  701 
Arcot,  siege  of,  761 

Ax'eopagitica,  546 

Argaum,  battle  of,  859 

Argyle,   Archibald   Campbell,    Earl   of, 

execution  of,  636 
Argyle,  Archibald  Campbell,  Marquis  of, 
opposed  to  Montrose,  547  ;  execution 
of,  595 
Argyle,    Duke    of,    commands    against 

Mar's  rising,    705 
Ark  Wright       improves      the     spinning- 
machine,  815 
Aries,  Council  of,  23 
Arlington,  Henry  Bennet,  Earl  of,  secre- 


ASS 

t2sy  to  Charles  II.,  599  ;  intrigues 
against  Clifford,  607 

Armada,  the  Invincible,  sailing  of,  458  ; 
destruction  of,  462 

Armagnac,  the  Count  of,  establishes  a 
reign  of  terror,  303  ;  murder  of,  304 

Armagnacs^  party  of  the,  oppose  the 
Burgundians,  296  ;  relations  of  Henry 
IV.  with,  299 ;  make  war  with  the 
Burgundians,  301  ;  insurrection  of  the 
Parisians  against,  304 

Armed  Neutrality,  the,  792 

Army,  the,  the  folk-moot  in  arms,  33  ; 
iElfred's  organisation  of,  60 ;  under 
William  I.,  104,  106 ;  re-organised  by 
Henry  II.,  141  ;  its  condition  under 
Edward  III.,  236  ;  the  New  Model, 
formation  of,  545  ;  attempt  of  Parlia- 
ment to  disband,  553  ;  choice  of  Agita- 
tors in,  554 ;  gains  possession  of  the 
king's  person,  555  ;  the  heads  ot  the 
proposals  presented  in  the  name  of, 
ib.  ;  drives  out  the  eleven  mem- 
bers, ib.  ;  turns  against  the  king,  556, 
557  ;  expels  members  by  Pride's 
Purge,  ib.  ;  its  inability  to  recon- 
struct society  after  the  king's  exe- 
cution, 560 ;  overthrows  Richard 
Cromwell,  restores  and  expels  the 
Rump,  575  ;  brings  back  the  Rump,  ib. ; 
receives  Charles  II,  on  Blackheath, 
578  ;  paid  off,  584  ;  parliamentary  con- 
trol over,  650 ;  reduction  of,  667  ; 
abolition  of  purchase  in,  964 

Army,  the  Royal,  beginning  of,  584 

Army  plot,  the,  531 

Arnold,  Benedict,  plots  to  betray  Ameri- 
can forts,  789 

Arras,  congress  at,  313  ;  Treaty  of,  337 

Art  in  the  reign  of  Anne,  701 

Arteveldt,  Jacob  van,  235 

Arteveldt,  Philip  van,  278 

Arthur,  legend  of,  33 

Arthur,  nephew  of  John,  descent  of, 
173  ;  murder  of,  174 

Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales,  marriage  and 
death  of,  356 

Articles,  the  ten,  395  ;  the  six,  399  ;  the 
forty-two,  420  ;  the  thirty-nine,  ib.  ; 
declaration  of  Charles  L,prefixed  to,  512 

Arundel,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
banished,  282 ;  his  position  under 
Henry  IV.,  292 ;  deprived  of  the 
Chancellorship,  299 ;  Oldcastle  tried 
before,  300 

Arundel  Castle  taken  and  lost  by 
Hopton,  542 

Arundel,  the  Earl  of,  opposes  Richard 
II.,  279;  executed,  282 

Aryans,  the,  5 

Ashley,  Lord,  see  Shaftesbury,  Earl  of 

Ashley,  Lord,  carries  a  factoiy  act, 
pii  ;  carries  an  act  restricting  labour 
m  mines,  and  the  labour  of  women 
and  children  in  factories,  927 

Aske  heads  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  397 

Aspem,  battle  of,  865 

Assandun,  battle  of,  83 

3  S  2 


982 


INDEX 


ASS 

Assaye,  battle  of,  859 

Assembly  of  divines,  proposal  to  refer 
church  questions  to,  534  ;  meeting  of, 
540  ;  declares  for  Presbyterianism,  543 

Asser,  life  of  Alfred  by,  61 

Assiento  Treaty,  the,  696 

Assize  of  Arms,  154 

Assize  of  Clarendon,  see  Clarendon 

Association,  the,  in  defence  of  Elizabeth, 
456. 

Association,  the,  in  defence  of  William 
III.,  666 

Athelney,  ^Elfred  takes  refuge  in,  58 

Athlone  taken  by  the  army  of  William 
III.,  656 

Attainder,  Bill  of,  against  Thomas  Crom- 
well, 401  ;  nature  of  a,  ib.,  note  i.  ; 
against  Strafford,  531 

Auckland,  Lord,  his  policy  in  Afghan- 
istan, 949 

Aughrim,  battle  of,  656 

Augustine  preaches  to  the  men  of  Kent, 
39  ;  becomes  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury and  founds  other  bishoprics,  40  ; 
fails  to  obtain  the  co-operation  of  the 
Welsh  bishops,  41 

Auldearn,  battle  of,  547 

Aumale,  Earl  of,  surrenders  his  castles 
to  Hubert  de  Burgh,  187 

Aurungzebe  weakens  the  Mogul  em- 
pire, 758  ;  death  of,  759 

Austerlitz,  battle  of,  854 

Australia,  progress  of  the  colonisation  of, 
967 

Australasian  colonies,  the,  918 

Austria,  imprisonment  of  Richard  I.  in, 
161  ;  takes  part  in  the  Grand  Alliance, 
675  ;  attacked  by  Frederick  II.,  733  ; 
joins  a  coalition  against  Frederick  1 1. , 
749  ;  French  declaration  of  war 
against,  824  ;  makes  the  treaty  of 
Campo-Formio  with  France,  837  ; 
takes  part  in  the  second  coalition,  838  ; 
joins  the  third  coalition,  854  ;  Francis 
II.  adopts  the  title  of  Emperor  of, 
856  ;  joins  Russia  and  Prussia  against 
Napoleon,  871  ;  acquires  Lombardy 
and  Venetia.  873  ;  adoption  of  a  con- 
stitutional system  in,  934  ;  at  war  with 
Hungary,  935  ;  its  army  defeated  at 
Magenta  and  Solferino,  956  ;  its  army 
defeated  at  Sadowa,  963  ;  acquires  the 
protectorate  over  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina, 970 

Austrian  succession,  war  of,  732  ;  end  of 
the  war  of,  743 

Avice  of  Gloucester  divorced  by  John, 
174 

Avignon,  the  Popes  at,  257 


Babington  plots  the  murder  of  Eliza- 
beth, 457 

Bacon,  Francis  (Lord  Verulam  and 
Viscount  St.  Alban),  scientific  aspira- 
tions of,  474 ;  advises  Elizabeth  as  to 
the  treatment  of  the  Catholics,  475  ; 


BEA 

his  conduct  to  Essex,  47S  ;  gives  poli- 
tical advice  to  James  I.,  486  ;  his  jest 
on  Montague's  promotion,  494 ;  at- 
tacked about  monopolies,  495 ;  dis- 
grace of,  496 

Badajoz,  siege  of,  869 

Badby  burnt  as  a  heretic,  298 

Badon,  Mount,  see  Mount  Badon 

Bagenal  defeated  by  Hugh  O'Neill, 
475 

Bakewell,  improves  the  breed  of  sheep 
and  cattle,  813 

Balaclava,  charges  of  the  heavy  and 
light  cavalry  at,  946 

Ballard  takes  part  in  Babington's  plot, 
45.7 

Balliol,  Edward,  wins  and  loses  the 
crown  of  Scotland,  232,  233 

Balliol,  John,  descent  of,  215 ;  declared 
King  of  Scotland,  216  ;  is  defeated  and 
surrenders  the  crown,  219 

Ballot,  the,  introduced  into  parliament- 
ary elections,  965 

Bamborough,  Ida's  fortress  at,  36 ; 
Mowbray  besieged  in,  120 

Bangor-iscoed,  monastery  at,  42 ; 
slaughter  of  the  monks  of,  43 

Bank  of  England,  the,  foundation  of,  660 

Bannockburn,  battle  of,  226 

Barbadoes,  prisoners  sent  to,  564  ;  dis- 
senters sent  to,  588 

Barcelona,  surrender  of,  682  ;  failure  of 
the  French  to  retake,  684 

Barebone's  Parliament,  the,  origin  of  the 
name  of,  566  ;  dissolution  of,  567 

Barnet,  battle  of,  334 

Baronets,  origin  of  the  order  of,  494 

Barrosa,  battle  of,  869 

Barrow,  Henry,  a  separatist,  hanged, 
470 

Barrow,  Isaac,  addresses  his  sermons  to 
the  understanding,  598 

Basel,  treaties  of,  829 

Basing  House  taken  by  Cromwell,  549 

Basques,  the,  Iberian  descent  of,  5 

Bastwick  sentenced  by  the  Star  Cham- 
ber, 521 

Bate's  case,  484 

Bath,  see  Aquae  Sulis 

Battle  Abbey,  site  of,  96 

Baug6,  battle  of,  306 

Baxter,  imprisoned  by  Jeffreys,  635 

Bayeux  Tapestry,  the,  98 

Baylen,  capitulation  of,  863 

Bayonne  taken  by  the  French,  320 

Beachy  Head,  battle  of,  657 
Beaconsfield,    Earl    of,    insists    on    the 
Russians  laying  their  agreement  with 
the  Turks  before  a  congress,  969  ;  end 
of  the  ministry  of,  971 
Bears,  performing,  275 
Beaton,   Cardinal,   burns  Wishart,  412  ; 

is  murdered,  414 
Beaufort,  Henry,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
becomes  Chancellor,  299  ;  invites  Par- 
liament to  support  Henry  V.,  301 . 
opposes  Gloucester,  308  ;  becomes  a 
cardinal,  309  ;  continues  his  opposition 


INDEX 


983 


EEC 

to  Gloucester,  314  ;  policy  of,  317  ; 
death  of,  318 

Bee,  Abbey  of,  89,  117 

Becket,  see  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury 

Bede,  Ecclesiastical  History  of,  52 

Bedford,  West  Saxon  victory  at,  35  ; 
castle  of  Faukes  de  Breaut6  at,  187 

Bedford,  John,  Duke  of,  brother  of 
Henry  V.,  sent  to  secure  Harfleur, 
303  ;  Regent  of  France,  307  ;  marries 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy's  sister,  ib.\ 
defeats  the  French  at  Verneuil,  308  ; 
returns  to  England,  312  ;  death  of,  313 

Bedford,  Duke  of,  joins  George  Gren- 
ville's  ministry,  770  ;  death  of,  779 

Bedingfield,  Sir  Henry,  takes  charge  of 
Elizabeth,  423 

Begums  of  Oude,  Hastings  forces  to  pay 
money  to  the  Nawab,  805 

Belgians  land  in  Britain,  8 

Belgium,  independence  of,  912 

Belleme,  see  Robert  of  Belleme 

Benedict  of  Nursia  establishes  the 
Benedictine  rule,  40 

Benedictines,  monasteries  of  the,  128 

Benevolences  invented  by  Edward  IV., 
335  ;  abolished  by  Richard  III.,  342  ; 
raised  by  James  I.,  497 

Bengal,  Surajah  Dowlah's  overthrow 
in,  762  ;  Chve  returns  to,  801 

Bensington,  Mercian  victory  at,  53 

Bentham,  principles  of,  890 ;  spread  of 
the  opinions  of,  939 

Bentinck,  Lord  George,  nominal  leader 
of  the  Protectionists  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  931  ;  death  of,  938 

Berengaria  marries  Richard  I.,  161 

Berlin  decree,  the,  859 

Berlin,  treaty  of,  969 

Bernard  du  Guesclin,  see  Du  Guesclin 

Bernicia,  formation  of  the  kingdom  of, 
36;  is  merged  for  a  time  in  North- 
humberland,  41  ;  is  untouched  by 
the  preaching  of  Paulinus,  46 ;  is 
finally  merged  in  North-humberland, 
48  ;  maintains  its  independence  after 
the  Danish  conquest,  59 

Bertha  obtains  from  iEthelberht  a  dis- 
used church,  38 

Berwick,  Duke  of,  opposed  to  Galway 
in  Spain,  684 

Berwick,  Treaty  of,  526 

Bhonsia,  the,  a  ISIahratta  chief,  802  ; 
reduced  to  sign  a  subsidiary  treaty, 

859 
Bible,  the,  Henry  VIII.  authorises  the 

translation  of,  396 
Bigod,    Hugh,   appointed   justiciar    by 

the  barons,  199 
Bigod,   Roger,  Earl  of  Norfolk,  resists 

Edward  I.,  220 
Bill  of  Rights,  the,  656 
Birmingham  Political  Union,  the,  904  ; 

riot  at,  924 
Bishops,    nominated    by  conge  delire, 

391  ;  first  Bill  for  removing  from  the 

House  of  Lords,  533  ;  impeachment  of 


the  twelve,  535 ;  excluded  from  the 
House  of  Ix)rds,  536 

Bishops'  War,  the  first,  526  ;  the  second, 
529 

Black  Death,  the,  248,  259 

Black  Prince,  the,  fights  at  Cre^y,  242 ; 
ravages  the  south  of  France,  and  de- 
feats the  French  at  Poitiers,  251 ;  his 
courtesy  to  King  John,  252  ;  is  sent  to 
Aquitaine,  254 ;  his  expedition  into 
Spain,  255 ;  taxes  Aquitaine,  256 ; 
loses  Aquitaine,  257  ;  leads  the  Good 
Parliament,  and  dies,  262 

Blackwater,  the,  defeat  of  Bagenal  on, 

475 
Blake,  defends  Taunton,  548  ;  appomted 
to  command  the  fleet,  565  ;  sent  to  the 
Mediterranean,  571 ;  destroys  Spanish 
ships  at  Santa  Cruz,   573  ;  death   of, 
ib. 
Blanche  Tache,  ford  of,  240 
Blanketeers,  the,  march  of,  877 
Blenheim,  battle  of,  682 
Bloody  Assizes,  the,  637 
Blore  Heath,  battle  of,  326 
Boadicea,  insurrection  of,  15 
Bocher,  Joan,  burnt,  419 
Bohemia,  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years* 

War  in,  490 
Bohun,    Humfrey,    Earl    of   Hereford, 

resists  Edward  I.,  220 
Boleyn,  Anne,  see  Anne  Boleyn 
Bclingbroke,  Viscount,  carries  the 
Schism  Act,  699  ;  overpowered  by  the 
Whigs,  700;  escapes  to  France,  and 
becomes  Secretary  to  the  Pretender, 
705  ;  dismissed  by  the  Pretender,  ib.  ; 
returns  to  England,  721 ;  organises 
an  opposition  against  Walpole,  722 ; 
stirs  up  public  opinion  against  the 
Excise  Bill,  724  ;  returns  to  France, 
ib. ;  see  St.  John,  Henry 
Bombay  acquired  by  Charles  II.,  587  ; 
made  over  by  Charles  11.  to  the  East 
India  Company,  758 
Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  distinguishes 
himself  at  the  siege  of  Toulon,  826  ; 
his  campaign  in  Italy,  834  ;  signs  the 
Peace  of  Campo-Formio,  837  ;  his 
expedition  to  Egypt,  ib.  ;  invades 
Syria  and  returns  to  France,  838  ; 
becomes  First  Consul,  839 ;  makes 
overtures  to  England,  840 ;  wins  the 
battle  of  Marengo,  and  makes  peace 
with  Austria  at  Luneville,  840;  con- 
tinued annexations  by,  848 ;  becomes 
Emperor  of  the  French,  858  ;  see 
Napoleon  I. 
Boniface  VIII.,  220 

Boniface  of  Savoy,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, 197 
Bonner,  Bishop,  deprived  of  his  see,  416 
Booth,  Sir  George,  defeated  at  Winning- 
ton  Bridge,  575 
Bordeaux  taken  by  the  French,  320 
Boroughbridge,    defeat    of    Thomas    of 

Lancaster  at,  228 
Boston,    soldiers    killed    at,    780 ;    tea 


984 


INDEX 


thrown  into  the  harbour  of,  ib. ;  opera- 
tions of  the  British  force  at,  783  ; 
evacuated  by  Howe,  784 

Boston  Port  Act,  the,  782 

Bosworth,  battle  of,  343 

Botany  Bay,  convict  settlement  at,  858 

Bothwell,  James  Hepburn,  Earl  of, 
career  of,  439 

Bothwell  Bridge,  defeat  of  the  Covenan- 
ters at,  620 

Boulogne,  taken  by  Henry  VIII.,  405  ; 
surrendered  by  Warwick,  417  ;  pre- 
parations for  the  invasion  of  Eng- 
land at,  848  ;  French  army  at,  851 

Bourbon,  the  Duke  of,  revolt  of,  371  ; 
death  of,  374 

Bouvines,  battle  of,  181 

Boxley,  destruction  of  the  rood  of,  398 

Boyne,  battle  of,  the,  656 

Brabant,  the  Duke  of,  captures  Jacque- 
line of  Hainault,  308 

Braddock  routed  and  killed,  748 

Bradford-on-Avon,  early  stone  church  at, 
51 

Bramham  Moor,  defeat  of  Northumber- 
land on,  296 

Brandreth,  murder  by,  879 

Breda,  declaration  of,  576  ;  treaty  of,  593 

Breed's  Hill  taken  by  the  Americans,  783 

Brember  hanged,  280 

Brentford,  Charles  I.  at,  537 

Bretigni,  Treaty  of,  253 

Bretwalda,  title  of,  44 

Bridgenorth,  Robert  of  Belleme's  castle 
at,  121 ;  besieged  by  Henry  I.,  124 

Bridges,  making  and  repair  of,  272,  273 

Bridgman,  Sir  Orlando,  declares  that 
the  king's  ministers  are  responsible,  581 

Bridgwater  taken  by  Fairfax,  549  ;  Mon- 
mouth at,  637 

Bridgewater  Canal,  the,  813 

Brigantes,  the,  conquest  of,  16 

Bright,  John,  a  leader  in,  the  Anti- 
Corn- Law  League,  924 ;  opposes  a 
war  with  China,  955 

Brihtnoth  slain  at  Maldon,  79 

Brihuega,  surrender  of  Stanhope  at,  692 

Brill  seized  by  exiles  from  the  Nether- 
lands, 449 

Brindley  designs  the  Bridgewater 
Canal,  814 

Bristol  garrisoned  by  Robert  of  Glou- 
cester, 134  ;  stormed  by  Rupert,  538 

Britain,  its  name  derived  from  the 
Britons,  6  ;  tin  trade  opened  to,  8 ; 
Gauls  and  Belgians  in,  ib.  ;  Caesar's  in- 
vasion of,  II  ;  trade  of  Gaul  with,  12  ; 
beginning  of  the  Roman  conquest  of, 
13-17  ;  condition  of  the  Roman  pro- 
vince of,  19-22  ;  emperors  specially 
connected  with,  22 ;  Christianity  in, 
23  ;  ravaged  by  the  Picts  and  Scots,  23  ; 
and  by  the  Saxons,  24  ;  military  divi- 
sions of,  ib.  ;  end  of  the  Roman  govern- 
,  ment  of,  25,  26  ;  is  deserted  by  the 
Romans,  26  ;  its  organisation  after  the 
departure  of  the  Romans,  ib.  ;  the  Eng- 
lish conquest  of,  27-29 


BUR 

British  Columbia  joins  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  967 

Britons,  the,  succeed  the  Goidels,  6  ;  lan- 
guages spoken  by  the  descendants  of, 
7  ;  habits  of,  9  ;  religion  of,  10  ;  intro- 
duction of  Roman  manners  amongst, 
13  _;  increased  civilisation  of,  21 ;  non- 
existence of  a  national  feeling  amongst, 
22  ;  ask  Honorius  in  vain  for  help,  25  ; 
the  groans  of  the,  26  ;  treatment  of,  by 
the  English  conquerors,  29  ;  are  better 
treated  in  the  West,  31  ;  slight  modi- 
fication of  English  language  by  them, 
31  ;  see  Kymry 

Brittany,  its  relation  with  Henry  II., 
155  ;  Edward  III.  sends  forces  to,  240  ; 
annexed  to  France,  349 

Broad-bottomed  Administration,  the, 
739 

Browne,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  destroys 
relics  and  images  in  Ireland,  402 

Browne,  Robert,  founder  of  the  Separat- 
ists, 470 

Brownists,  see  Separatists 

Bruce,  Edward,  invades  Ireland,  264 

Bruce,  Robert,  claims  the  crown  of  Scot- 
land, 215 

Bruce,  Robert,  grandson  of  the  preceding, 
see  Robert  I. 

Brunanburh,  battle  of,  63 

Brut,  Layamon's,  207 

Brythons,  see  Britons 

Bucer,  Martin,  teaches  in  England,  416 

Buchan,  Countess  of,  imprisoned,  224 

Buckingham,  Edward  Stafford,  Duke 
of,  supports  Richard  III.,  338,  341 ; 
executed  as  a  rebel,  342 

Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  First 
Duke  of,  becomes  Marquis  of  Bucking- 
ham and  Lord  Admiral,  488  ;  accom- 
panies Charles  to  Madrid,  497  ;  be- 
comes Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  advo- 
cates war  with  Spain,  500 ;  promises 
money  for  foreign  wars,  501  ;  his 
ascendency  over  Charles  I.,  502  ;  tries 
to  pawn  the  crown  jewels,  503  ;  lends 
ships  to  fight  against  Rocheile,  504  ; 
impeachment  of,  505  ;  leads  an  expedi- 
tion to  R6,  506  ;  feeling  of  Wentworth 
towards,  508  ;  murder  of,  510 

Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  Second 
Duke  of,  in  favour  with  Charles  II., 
599  ;  his  sham  treaty  with  France, 
603  ;  dismissal  of,  608 

Buckingham,  Henry  Stafford,  Duke  of, 
execution  of,  369 

Buildings,  improvement  in,  in  Elizabeth's 
time,  465 

Bulgaria,  becomes  a  tributary  princi- 
pality, ^69 ;  annexation  of  Eastern 
Roumeha  to,  970 

Bunker's  Hill,  783 

Bunyan  writes  Pilgrims  Progress,  596^ 

Burdett,  Sir  Francis,  advocates  uni- 
versal suffrage,  879 

Burford,  West  Saxon  victory  at,  53 

Burghley,  William  Cecil,  Lord,  as  Sir 
William  Cecil  becomes  the  chief  adviser 


INDEX 


985 


BUR 

of  Elizabeth,  429  ;  urges  Elizabeth  to 
assist  the  Scotch  Protestants,  433 ; 
becomes  Lord  Burghley  and  discovers 
the  Ridolfi  plot,  445  ;  death  of,  480 

Burgos,  siege  of,  869 

Burgoyne,  General,  capitulates  at  Sara- 
toga, •786 

Burgundians,  party  of  the,  opposed  to 
the  Armagnacs,  296,  299  ;  are  friendly 
to  Henry  V.,  301 

burgundy,  Charles  the  Rash,  Duke  of, 
marries  the  sister  of  Edward  IV,,  332  ; 
policy  of,  336  ;  is  slain  at  Nancy,  //'. 

Burgundy,  John  the  Fearless,  Duke  of, 
has  the  Duke  of  Orleans  murdered, 
•.'96  ;  allies  himself  with  Henry  V.,  301  ; ' 
holds  aloof  in  the  campaign  of  Agin- 
court,  302 ;  makes  war  upon  the  Armag- 
nacs, 303  ;  murder  of,  305 

Burgundy,  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of, 
joms  the  English  against  the  Dauphin, 
306 ;  allies  himself  with  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,  307 ;  forms  a  league  with 
Charles  VII,,  313 ;  inherits  territories 
in  the  Netherlands,  ib. 

Burhs  erected  by  Eadward  the  Elder,  62 

Burke,    Edmund,    enters     Parliament, 

772  ;  his  views  on  American  taxation, 

773  >  opposes  parliamentary  reform, 
777  ■.  argues  against  taxing  America, 
780  ;  his  speech  on  economical  reform, 
789  ;  passes  a  bill  for  economical  re- 
form, 795  ;  the  author  of  the  India 
Bill  of  the  Coalition,  806  ;  his  part  in 
the  impeachment  of  Hastings,  811  ; 
publishes  Reflections  on  the  French 
Revolution,  822 

Burley,  Sir  Simon,  executed,  280 
Burnet,  Gilbert,  his  conversation  with 

William  of  Orange,  645 
Burns,  poetry  and  opinions  of,  887 
Burton,  sentenced  by  the  Star  Chamber, 

521 
Bury  St.   Edmunds,  foundation  of  the 

monastery  at,  58  ;  death  of  Svend  at, 

82  ;  meetmg  of  barons  at,  181 
Busaco,  combat  at,  867 
Bute,  Earl  of,  becomes  Prime  Minister, 

766  ;  resignation  of,  768 
Butler,  author  of  Hudibrccs,  597 
Butler,  Bishop,  writes  The  Analogy,  745 
Buxton,  Sir  Thomas  Fowell,  pleads  for 

the  abolition  of  slavery,  910 
Byng,  Admiral,  fails  to  relieve  Minorca, 

749 :  shot,  750 
Byng,   Sir   George,   defeats  a   Spanish 

fleet,  off  Cape  Passaro,  709 
Byron,  Lord,  poetry  and  death  of,  888 


Cabinet,  the,  its  origin,  660 ;  develop- 
ment of,  687 ;  strengthened  by  the 
withdrawal  of  George  I,  from,  704 

Cabul,  taken  by  the  British,  949  ;  re- 
treat of  the  British  from,  950  ;  Pol- 
lock retakes,  ib. 

Cade,  Jack,  rebellion  of,  322 


CAN 

Cadiz,  capture  of,  464  ;  Cecil's  expedi. 
tion  to,  503 

Caedmon,  poetry  of,  52 

Caedwalla,  allied  with  Penda,  46  ;  is 
defeated  by  Oswald,  47 

Caen,  burial  of  William  I.  at,  114; 
stormed  by  Henry  V,,  303 

Caerleon  upon  Usk,  see  Isca  Silurum 

Caesar,  Gaius  Julius,  makes  war  in 
Gaul  and  Germany,  10  ;  twice  invades 
Britain,  11 

Caint,  the,  occupied  by  the  Cantii,  8 

Calais  taken  by  Edward  III.,  243; 
besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
313  ;  loss  of,  427  ;  I'^lizabetli's  hope  of 
regaining,  436  ;  tlie  Armada  takes  re- 
fuge in,  462 ;  Cromwell's  anxiety  to 
recover,  571 

Calcutta,  grows  up  round  Fort  William, 
758  ;  the  Black  Hole  of,  762 

Calder,  Sir  Robert,  defeats  a  French 
fleet,  856 

Caledonians,  the,  wars  of  Agricola  with, 
16 

Calvin,  his  work  at  Geneva,  430 

Calvinism  influences  Elizabethan  Pro- 
testantism, 430 

Cambrai,  league  of,  363  ;  treaty  of,  383 

Cambridge,  the  Earl  of,  execution  of,  301 

Camden,  Lord,  dismissed,  776 ;  ^^^  Pratt, 
Chief  Justice 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin,  suppresses  the 
Indian  mutiny  and  becomes  Lord 
Clyde,  954 

Campeggio,  Cardinal,  appointed  legate 
to  hear  the  divorce  case  of  Henry 
VIII,,  382 

Camperdown,  battle  of,  837 

Campion  lands  in  England,  453  ;  execu- 
tion of,  454 

Campo  Formio,  peace  of,  S37 

Camulodunum,  Cunobelin's  headquarters 
at,  12  ;  Roman  colony  of,  13  ;  captured 
by  Boadicea,  15 

Canada,  possessed  by  France,  747  ;  plan 
of  Pitt  for  the  conquest  of,  753  ;  con- 
quest of,  ^756  ;  abandonment  of  the 
French  claim  to,  766  ;  failure  of  the 
Americans  to  overrun,  784  ;  discon- 
tent in,  914  ;  union  between  the  pro- 
vinces of,  916 ;  enters  into  a  federa- 
tion called  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 

967. 

Canning,  enters  Portland's  Ministry, 
857  ;  sends  a  fleet  to  fetch  the  Danish 
ships  from  Copenhagen,  860  ;  fights 
a  duel  with  Castlereagh  and  resigns 
office,  865  ;  succeeds  Castlereagh  as 
Foreign  Secretary,  882  ;  acknowledges 
the  independence  of  the  Spanish 
colonies  in  America,  883  ;  sends  trorps 
to  secure  P.rtugal,  884  ;  becomes 
Prime  Minister,  892;    death  of,  ib. 

Canning,  Lord,  Governor-General  of 
India,  952 

Canningites,  the,  take  office  undei 
Wellington,  893  ;  resignation  of,  895  ; 
join  Lord  Grey's  Ministry,  901 


986 


INDEX 


CAN 

Cannon,  first  use  of,  242 

Canrobert,  Marshal,  commands  the 
French  army  in  the  Crimea,  946 

Canterbury,  ^2thelberht's  residence  at, 
38  ;  Augustine  preaches  at,  39  ;  founda- 
tion of  the  archbishopric  of,  40 ;  murder 
of  Archbishop  Thomas  at,  150 ;  Henry 
II.  does  penance  at,  153  ;  architecture 
of  the  choir  of,  171 ;  disputed  election 
of  the  Archbishop  of,  177 

Canterbury  Tales,  the,  270 

Cape  Breton,  ceded  by  France,  766 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  first  conquest  of, 
837  ;  second  conquest  of,  858 

Caractacus,  defeat  and  flight  of,  13 ; 
capture  of,  14 

Carausius  claims  to  be  emperor,  22 

Carberry  Hill,  Mary's  surrender  at,  439 

Cardinal  College  founded  by  Wolsey, 
377)  383  J  see  Christchurch 

Carham,  battle  of,  84 

Carisbrooke  Castle,  detention  of  Charles 
I.  in,  556 

Carlisle  fortified  by  William  II.,  119 

Carlyle,  his  Sartor  Resartus,  941 

Carnarvon,  Edward  I.  builds  a  castle  at, 
210 

Carolina,  colonisation  of,  629 

Caroline,  Queen  (wife  of  George  II.), 
her  influence  over  her  husband,  720 ; 
death  of,  725 

Caroline,  Queen  (wife  of  George  IV.), 
separated  from  her  husband,  881  ; 
failure  of  a  bill  for  dissolving  the 
marriage  of,  882 

Carriages  and  carts,_273 

Carteret,  Lord,  his  rivalry  with  Walpole, 
718  ;  foreign  policy  of,  732  ;  wishes 
to  combine  Frederick  the  Great  and 
Maria  Theresa  against  France,  736  ; 
attempts  to  revive  the  policy  of  the 
Whigs  of  Anne's  reign,  737  ;  causes  of 
his  weaknesses,  738  ;  his  fall,  739 

Cartwright  advocates  the  Presbyterian 
system,  446 

Cartwright,  invents  the  power  loom,  816 

Carucage  substituted  for  Danegeld,  162 

Cash  payments,  suspension  of,  835  ;  re- 
sumption of,  879 

Cashel,  synod  at,  152 

Casket  letters,  the,  440 

Cassel,  battle  of,  235 

Cassiterides,  the  geographical  position 
of,_8 

Cassivelaunus,  resistance  to  Caesar  by,  1 1 

Castile,  intervention  of  the  Black  Prince 
in,  255  ;  united  with  Aragon,  349 

Castlebar,  the  race  of,  841 

Castlemaine,  Lady,  uses  her  influence 
against  Clarendon,  594 

Castlereagh,  Lord,  secures  a  majority 
for  the  Irish  Union,  842 ;  enters  Port- 
land's ministry,  857  ;  sends  an  expedi- 
tion against  Antwerp,  865  ;  fights  a 
duel  with  Canning,  and  resigns  ofiice, 
il>.  ;  is  Foreign  Secretary  in  Liverpool's 
Ministry,  877  ;  protests  against  Met- 
ternich's  policy,  882  ;  suicide  of,  ib. 


CHA 

Catalonia,  espouses  the  cause  of  the 
Archduke  Charles,  684  ;  abandoned  to 
Philip  v.,  696  _ 

Cateau  Cambresis,  peace  of,  431 

Catesby  plans  Gunpowder  Plot,  483 

Catharine  of  Aragon,  marriage  of,  363  ; 
Henry  VIII.  grows  tired  of,  379; 
divorce  suit  against,  382  ;  is  divorced, 
389  ;  the  sentence  of  Clement  VII.  in 
favour  of,  390  ;  death  of,  395 

Catharine  of  Braganza  marries  Charles 
IL,  587 

Catherine  of  Aragon  married  to  Prince 
Arthur,  356 ;  marriages  proposed  for, 
357   .  .  • 

Catherine  of  France  marries  Henry  V. , 
306  ;  marries  Owen  Tudor,  335 

Catherine  de  Medicis,  widow  of  Henry 
IL,  king  of  France,  becomes  regent, 
433  ;  takes  part  in  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  449 

Catherine  Howard,  marriage  and  execu- 
tion of,  401 

Catherine  Parr,  marriage  of,  401 

Catholic  Association,  the,  Act  for  the 
dissolution  of,  895 

Catholic  emancipation,  proposed  by  Pitt, 
842  ;  attitude  of  parties  towards,  895  ; 
passing  of  an  Act  for,  896 

Catholics,  Roman,  laws  directed  against, 
453,  454 ;  their  position  at  the  end  of 
Elizabeth's  reign,  475  ;  increased  per- 
secution of,  after  Gunpowder  Plot, 
483  ;  negotiation  between  James  I. 
and  Spain  for  the  relief  of,  488 ; 
tendency  of  Charles  II.  to  support, 
584  ;  declaration  for  the  toleration  of, 
issued  by  Charles  II.,  587  ;  perse- 
cuted about  the  Popish  Plot,  616  ; 
efforts  of  James  II.  in  favour  of,  634, 
638,  640 

Cato  Street  Conspiracy,  the,  881 

Cattle-breeding,  improvements  in,  813 

Catuvellauni,  the,  position  of,  9  ;  at- 
tacked by  Caesar,  11  ;  subsequent 
history  of,  12 

Cavour,  his  negotiation  with  Napoleon 
in.,  956 

Cawnpore,  besieged  by  Nana  Sahib, 
953  ;  massacre  at,  ib. 

Caxton,  William,  establishes  a  printing- 
press  at  Westminster,  358 

Ceawlin  overruns  the  Severn  Valley, 
35  ;  defeated  at  Wanborough,  36 

Cecil,  Sir  Edward,  commands  the  Cadiz 
expedition,  503 

Celibacy  of  the  clergy,  early  opinion  In 
favour  of,  65  ;  inculcated  at  Cluny,  67 

Celtic  Christianity,  influence  of,  47,  49 

Celts,  the,  succeed  the  Iberians  in 
Western  Europe,  5  ;  are  divided  into 
two  stocks,  7  ;  know  their  conquerors 
as  Saxons,  29 

Ceorls,  distinguished  from  Eorls,  29  ;  are 
the  tillers  of  the  soil,  30 

Chancellor,  the  official  position  of,  127  ; 
becomes  a  judge,  260 

Chancery,  Court  of,  proposal  of  the  Bare- 


INDEX 


987 


bone's  Parliament  to    suppress,  567  ; 
reformed  by  Cromwell,  569  ;  nature  of 
the  decisions  of,  605 
Chantries,  Act    for   the    dissolution  of, 
412  ;  their  income  vested  in  the  king, 

415 

Charles,  the  Archduke,  styles  himseli 
Charles  III.  King  of  Spain,  682  ;  his 
cause  espoused  by  Catalonia,  684  ; 
enters  Madrid,  692  ;  succeeds  to  his 
brother's  hereditary  dominions,  692  ; 
elected  Emperor,  695  ;  see  Charles 
VI.  Emperor 

Charles  the  Great,  Emperor,  55,  63 

Charles  the  Simple,  king  of  the  West 
Franks,  63 ;  cedes  Normandy  to  Hrolf, 
80 

Charles  Albert,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  claims 
part  of  the  dominions  left  to  Maria 
Theresa,  732  ;  elected  Emperor,  as 
Charles  VII.,  734 

Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia,  at- 
tempts to  drive  the  Austrians  out  of 
Italy,  934  ;  defeat  and  abdication  of,  936 

Charles  Edward,  see  Pretender,  the 
Young 

Charles  Martel  defeats  the  Mohamme- 
dans, 54 

Charles  I.,  intention  of  the  Gunpowder 
plotters  to  blow  up,  483  ;  proposals  of 
marriage  for,  488  ;  visits  Spain,  497  ; 
is  eager  for  war  with  Spam,  500 ; 
negotiation  for  marriage  with  Henri- 
etta Maria,  501  ;  becomes  king  and 
marries  Henrietta  Maria,  502 ;  ad- 
journs his  first  parliament  to  Oxford, 
ib.  ;  dissolves  his  first  parliament  and 
sends  out  the  Cadiz  expedition,  503  ; 
meets  his  second  Parliament,  ib.  ;  dis- 
solves his  second  Parliament,  505  ; 
orders  the  collection  of  a  forced  loan, 
506  ;  meets  his  third  Parliament,  508  ; 
consents  to  the  Petition  of  Right,  509  ; 
claims  a  right  to  levy  Toimage  and 
Poundage,  510  ;  issues  a  declaration  on 
the  Articles,  512  ;  dissolves  his  third 
Parliament,  513  ;  his  personal  govern- 
ment, 514  ;  levies  knighthood  fines, 
515 ;  insists  on  the  reading  of  the 
Declaration  of  Sports,  517  ;  levies 
fines  for  encroaching  on  forests,  523; 
levies  ship-money,  ib.  ;  imposes  a  new 
prayer-book  on  Scotland,  525 ;  leads 
an  army  against  the  Scots,  526 ;  con- 
sults Wentworth,  527 ;  makes  Went- 
worth  Earl  of  Strafford,  and  summons 
the  Short  Parliament,  528  ;  dissolves 
the  Short  Parliament,  marches  again 
against  the  Scots,  and  summons  the 
Long  Parliament,  529  ;  assents  to  the 
Triennial  Act,  530 ;  signs  a  commis- 
sion for  Strafford's  execution,  531  ; 
visits  Scotland,  532  ;  returns  to  Eng- 
land, 534  ;  rejects  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance, 535  ;  attempts  to  arrest  the 
five  members,  536  ;  fights  at  Edgehill, 
537  ;  his  plan  of  campaign,  ib.  ;  be- 
sieges Gloucester,  and  fights  at  New- 


CHA 

bury,  539 ;  looks  to  Ireland  for  help, 
541  ;  sends  Rupert  to  relieve  York, 
543  ;  compels  Essex's  infantry  to  sur- 
render at  Lostwithiel,  and  fights  again 
at  Newbury,  544 ;  is  defeated  at 
Naseby,  548  ;  attempts  to  join  Mont- 
rose, 549  ;  sends  Glamorgan  to  Ireland, 
ib.  ;  gives  himself  up  to  the  Scots, 
551  ;  negotiates  at  Newcastle,  ib.  ;  ex- 
plains his  plans  to  the  Queen,  552 ; 
conveyed  to  Holmby  House,  553  ;  con- 
ducted by  Joyce  to  Newmarket,  555  ; 
attempt  of  Cromwell  to  come  to  an 
understanding  with,  555  ;  takes  refuge 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  enters  into 
the  Engagement  with  the  Scots,  556  ; 
removed  to  Hurst  Castle,  557;  trial 
of)  559  :  execution  of,  560 

Charles  II.,  as  Prince  of  Wales,  pos- 
sesses himself  of  part  of  the  fleet,  557  ; 
lands  in  Scotland,  563  ;  escapes  to 
France,  564  ;  offers  a  reward  for  Crom- 
well's murder,  569  ;  issues  the  declara- 
tion of  Breda,  576 ;  restoration  of, 
578  ;  confirms  Magna  Carta,  ib.  ;  cha- 
racter of,  579  ;  leaves  the  government 
to  Hyde,  580  ;  revenue  voted  to,  582  ; 
approves  a  scheme  of  modified  episco- 
pacy, 583  ;  keeps  a  small  armed  force, 
584  ;  retains  three  regiments  on  paying 
off  the  army,  ib. ;  profligacy  of  the 
court  of,  586 ;  issues  a  declaration  in 
favour  of  toleration,  587  ;  marriage  of, 
and  sale  of  Dunkirk  by,  ib, ;  dismisses 
Clarendon,  594 ;  favours  the  Roman 
Catholics,  598  ;  thinks  of  tolerating 
dissenters,  and  supports  Buckingham 
and  Arlington,  599 ;  agrees  to  the 
treaty  of  Dover,  600 ;  supports  the 
Cabal,  602 ;  extravagance  of,  603 ; 
issues  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence, 
604 ;  goes  to  war  with  the  Dutch, 
605 ;  withdraws  the  Declaration  of 
Indulgence,  606 ;  assents  to  the  Test 
Act,  607  ;  dismisses  Shaftesbury  and 
makes  peace  with  the  Dutch,  608 ; 
supports  Danby,  610  ;  receives  a  pen- 
sion from  Louis  XIV.,  611  ;  is  inte- 
rested in  commerce,  612 ;  refuses  to 
make  war  on  France,  613  ;  threatens 
France  with  war,  614 ;  dissolves  the 
Cavalier  Parliament,  616 ;  dissolves 
the  first  Short  Parliament,  617  ;  sup- 
ports his  brother's  claim  to  the  crown, 
against  Shaftesbury,  618  ;  prorogues 
the  second  Short  Parliament,  619 ; 
dismisses  Shaftesbury,  620 ;  dissolves 
the  second  and  third  Short  Parlia- 
ments, 621  ;  plot  to  murder,  625 ; 
death  of,  627  ;  constitutional  progress 
in  the  reign  of,  ib. 

Charles  II.,  king  of  Spain,  bad  health 
of,  592  ;  death  of,  671 

Charles  III.,  king  of  Spain,  renews  the 
Family  Compact,  766 

Charles  IV.,  king  of  France,  death  of,  232 

Charles  IV.,  king  of  Spain,  his  rela- 
tions with  his  son,  862  ;  dethroned,  863 


INDEX 


CHA 

Charles  V.,  Emperor,  as  king  of  Spain 
becomes  the  rival  of  Francis  I.,  366  : 
vast  inheritance  of,  369  ;  is  chosen 
emperor,  ib.  ;  goes  to  war  with  France, 

371  ;    captures  Francis   I.   at   Pavia, 

372  ;  liberates  Francis  I.,  374  ;  allies 
himself  with  Henry  VIII.,  405  ;  makes 
peace  with  France  at  Crepy,  406  ;  de- 
lends  Mary's  mass,  417  ;  abdication 
of,  426 

Charles  V.,  king  of  France,  opposes  the 
English  in  Spain,  255 ;  summons  the 
Black  Prince  to  Paris,  256  ;  renews 
the  war  against  the  English,  ib. ;  avoids 
a  battle,  257 

Charles  VI.,  Emperor,  dies  after  leaving 
his  dominions  to  Maria  Theresa,  732 

Charles  VI.,  king  of  France,  defeats  the 
Flemings,  278  ;  allies  himself  with 
Richard  II.,  282  ;  loses  his  senses,  295; 
disinherits  the  Dauphin,  306  ;  dies,  307 

Charles  VII.,  king  of  France,  as  Dau- 
phin, falls  into  the  hands  of  the  Armag- 
nacs,  303;  is  present  at  the  murder  of 
John,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  305 ;  is  dis- 
inherited, 306;  claims  to  succeed  to 
the  crown  at  his  father's  death,  307  ; 
his  weakness,  309 ;  is  helped  by  the 
Maid  of  Orleans,  310;  is  crowned,  311 ; 
consents  to  a  truce,  317  ;  renews  the 
war,  320 

Charles  VIII.,  king  of  France,  succeeds 
to  the  crown,  348  ;  invades  Italy,  352  ; 
death  of,  354 

Charles  IX.,  king  of  France,  accession 
of,  433  ;  takes  part  in  the  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  449  ;  death  of,  450 

Charles  X.,  king  of  France,  overthrow 
of,  898 

Charlotte,  Princess,  death  of,  881 

Charterhouse,  the  persecution  of  the 
monks  of,  393 

Chartists,  the,  demands  of.  923  ;  violence 
of,  924  ;  meet  on  Kennington  Common 
to  present  a  monster  petition,  935 

Chateau  Gaillard  built  by  Richard  I., 
165  ;  lost  by  John,  354 

Chatham,  Earl  of.  Prime  Minister,  773  ; 
illness  of,  ib.  ;  recovers  his  health,  an  1 
takes  up  the  cause  of  Wilkes,  776  ; 
resigns  office,  77^  ;  declares  for  Par- 
liamentary reform,  777  ;  death  of,  787  ; 
see  Pitt,  William  (the  elder) 

Chaucer,  Geoflfrey,  his  Canterbury 
Tales,  270  ;  influences  of  the  Renas- 
cence on,  367 

Cherbourg,  expedition  against,  753 

Cheriton,  battle  of,  542 

Chester  {see  Deva)  submits  to  William 
I.,  103 

Cheyt  Sing,  Hastings  demands  a  con- 
tribution from,  804 

Chinon^  Henry  II.  dies  at,  157 

Chippenham,  treaty  of,  59 

Chivalry,  235 

Chocolate,  mtroduction  of,  630 

Christ  Church,  at  Canterbury,  privileges 
of,  177  ;  expulsion  of  the  monks  of,  178 


CLI 

Christchurch,  foundation  of,  377,  383 

Christian  IV.,  king  of  Denmark,  Buck- 
ingham's overtures  to,  501,  504  ;  de- 
feated at  Lutter,  505,  506 

Christianity  introduced  into  Britain,  23  ; 
into  England,  39 ;  character  of  early 
English,  see  England,  the  Church 
of 

Chronicle,  the,  begun  under  Alfred,  61  ; 
continued  at  Worcester,  68,  129  ;  com- 
pleted at  Peterborough,  129 

Church  of  England,  ^rr  England,  Church 
of 

Churchill,  Lord,  see  Marlborough,  Duke 
of 

Cinque  Ports,  the,  218 

Cintra,  coiu-ention  of,  864 

Cirencester,  see  Corinium 

Cistercians,  the,  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, 129 ;  decline  of  asceticism 
amongst,  167  ;  are  fined  by  John,  179 

City  of  the  violated  treaty,  the,  657 

Ciudad  Rodrigo,  siege  of,  869 

Clare,  Gilbert  de,  see  Gloucester,  Earl  of 

Clare,  Richard  de,  see  Strongbow 

Clare,  Richard  de,  see  Gloucester,  Earl 
of 

Clarence,  George,  Duke  of,  brother  of 
Edward  IV.,  created  a  duke,  329 ; 
marries  Warwick's  daughter,  and  quar- 
rels with  Edward  IV.,  332  ;  put  to 
death,  336 

Clarence,  Lionel,  Duke  of,  sent  to  Ire 
land   265 

Clarence,  Thomas,  Duke  of,  brother  of 
Henry  IV.,  killed  at  Baug^,  306 

Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  first  Earl  of, 
as  Edward  Hyde  is  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Anti-Presbyterian  party  in  the 
Long  Parliament,  533  ;  becomes  Lord 
Chancellor  after  the  Restoration,  580  : 
character  of,  //;.  ;  created  Earl  of 
Clarendon,  587  ;  is  falsely  supposed  to 
be  bribed,  ib.  ;  fall  of,  594  ;  escapes  to 
France,  595 

Clarendon,  Henry  Hyde,  second  Earl  of, 
recalled  from  Ireland,  640 

Clarendon,  the  Constitutions  of,  144 ;  the 
assize  of,  146 

Clarkson,  publishes  evidence  against  the 
slave  trade,  823 

Claudius,  the  Emperor,  plans  the  con- 
quest of  Britain,  13 

Claverhouse,  see  Graham,  John 

Clement  VII.,  Pope,  forms  an  Italian 
league  against  Charles  V.,  374;  ap- 
points legates  to  try  the  divorce  suit 
of  Henry  VIII. ,  382  ;  revokes  the 
cause  to  Rome,  383  ;  gives  sentence 
in  favour  of  Catharine,  390 

Clergy,  the,  see  Ecclesiastical  Courts, 
England,  Church  of 

Clergy,  the  country,  633 

Ciericis  Laicos,  the  Bull  named,  220 

Clifford,  Lord,  stabs  the  Earl  of  Rutland, 
328 

Clifford,  Thomas,  Lord,  a  member  of 
the  Cabal,  602  ;  probable  suggester  of 


INDEX 


989 


CLI 

the  Stop  of  the  Exchequer,  604  ;  resig- 
nation of,  607 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  fails  to  co-operate 
with  Burgoyne,  786 ;  takes  Charleston, 
788 

Clive,  Robert,  his  career  in  Northern 
India,  761  ;  subjugates  Bengal,  762 ; 
is  astonished  at  his  own  moderation, 
764  ;  his  return  to  England  and  second 
visit  to  Bengal,  801 

Clontarf,  repealers  prohibited  from  meet- 
ing at,  928 

Closterseven,  the  Convention  of,  752 

Cluny,  clerical^  celibacy  inculcated  at,  67; 
reforms  originated  at,  107 

Cnut,  reign  of,  83-85 

Coaches,  improvement  in,  633 

Coalition  Ministry,  the,  of  Fox  and 
North,  800 ;  of  Pitt  and  the  Whigs, 
828 ;  of  the  Whigs  and  Peelites, 
943 

Cobbett,  pamphlets  of,  879 

Cobden,  a  leader  of  the  Anti-Corn-Law 
League,  924 ;  opposes  a  war  with  China, 

f55  ;  suggests  a  commercial  treaty  with 
Vance,  958 
Cobham,  Eleanor,  mistress  and  wife  of 

the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  315  ;  does  pen- 
ance for  witchcraft,  316 
Coffee-houses,  introduction  of,  630 
Coinage  debased  by  Henry  VIIL,  409  ; 

further  debased  by  Somerset,  416 
Coke,  Sir  Edward,  takes  part  in  drawing 

up  the  Petition  of  Right,  508 
Colchester,  execution  of  the  Abbot  of, 

400  ;  reduced  by  Fairfax,  567 
Colet  promotes  the  study  of  Greek,  and 

founds  St.  Paul's  School,  367 
Coligny,  murder  of,  449 
College  invents  the  Protestant  flail,  615  ; 

condemned  to  death,  622 
Colleges,  first  foundation  of,  at  Oxford, 

207 
Colman  disputes  with  Wilfrid,  50 
Colonial  expansion,  966 
Colonies  founded  in  Virginia  and  New 

England,  489  ;  in  Carolina,  629 
Columba  founds  a  monastery  at  lona,  47 
Columbus  discovers  the  West  Indies,  354 
Combination  laws,  the,  modification  of, 

886 
Commerce  between   Britain  and   Gaul, 

8,   12 ;   between   England  and   Gaul, 

38  ;   under  the   Angevin  kings,   168 ; 

under  Edward  I.,  211  ;  under  Edward 

III.,   235,   236 ;   under    Henry  VII., 

351 

Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms,  formation 
of,  542 

Common  Pleas,  establishment  of  a  sepa- 
rate Court  of,  212 

Common  Prayer,  the  Book  of,  beginnings 
of,  409,  410;  the  first,  of  Edward  VI., 
415  ;  the  second,  of  Edward  VI.,  418  ; 
alterations  in,  in  Elizabeth's  reign, 
429  ;  Strickland  proposes  to  amend, 
445;  generally  accepted  by  the  Par- 
liamentary Presbyterians,  586 


Commons,  the  House  of  {see  Parlia- 
ment), finally  separated  from  the 
Lords,  243  ;  struggle  of,  against  unpar- 
liamentary taxation,  244  ;  importance 
of  the  constitution  of,  245  ;  supported 
by  the  Black  Prince,  261  ;  influence 
over  the  elections  of,  281  ;  proposes  to 
confiscate  Church  property,  294  ;  ad- 
dressed by  Edward  IV.,  .^29  ;  Wolsey's 
appearance  in,  371  ;  made  use  of  by 
Thomas  Cromwell  and  Henry  VIIL, 
389  ;  Elizabeth's  relations  with,  444 ; 
Puritanism  of,  445  ;  growing  strength 
of,  468  ;  its  tendencies  to  Puritanism 
rather  than  to  Presbyterianism,  470  ; 
attack  on  monopolies  by,  478  ;  quar- 
rels with  James  L,  482  ;  anxious  to 
go  to  war  for  the  Palatinate,  490 ; 
votes  a  small  supply,  491  :  brings 
charges  against  Bacon,  495  ;  is  eager 
for  war  with  Spain,  500  ;  refuses  sup- 
plies to  Charles  I.,  unless  spent  by 
counsellors  in  whom  it  confides,  502  ; 
impeaches  Buckingham,  504,  505 ; 
insists  on  the  Petition  of  Right,  508 ; 
claims  Tonnage  and  Poundage,  510  ; 
religious  ideas  prevailing  in,  511  ;  its 
breach  with  the  king,  513  ;  violent 
scene  before  the  dissolution  of,  514 ; 
formation  of  parties  in,  532  ;  scene  in, 
at  the  passing  of  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance, 534  ;  Presbyterian  majority  in, 
546  ;  new  elections  to,  551  ;  a  mob  in 
possession  of,  555  ;  the  Agitators  pro- 
pose to  purge,  556  ;  Pride's  purge  of, 
557;  declares  itself  supreme,  ib.  ;  con- 
stitutes a  high  court  of  justice,  558  ;  dis- 
solved by  Cromwell,  566  ;  inquires  into 
the  expenditure  of  the  crown,  and  im- 
peaches Clarendon,  594  :  impeaches 
Danby,  616  ;  the  Exclusion  Bill  in, 
617,  621  ;  Tory  majority  in,  636 ; 
James  II.  attempts  to  pack,  641  ;  dis- 
cusses the  abdication  of  James  II., 
646 ;  attacks  the  Irish  grants  of 
William  III.,  670;  imprisons  the 
bearers  of  the  Kentish  Petition,  675  ; 
Walpole's  determination  to  rely  on, 
710  ;  corruption  in,  714  ;  establishment 
of  the  freedom  of  reporting  the  de- 
bates of,  779 

Commonwealth,  the,  establishment  of, 
561 

Communion  table,  Laud's  wish  to  fix 
at  the  east  end,  517  ;  decision  of  the 
Privy  Council  on  the  position  of,  519  ; 
removed  by  the  soldiers,  529 

Comprehension  favoured  by  some  of  the 
clergy,  598  ;  attempt  of  Charles  II.  to 
establish,  599 

Comprehension  Bill,  the,  is  not  passed, 

651 

Compton,  Bishop  of  London,  refuses  to 
suspend  Dr.  Sharp,  639 

Compton,  Sir  Spencer,  thought  of  as 
Walpole's  successor,  720 :  succeeds 
Walpole  and  becomes  Earl  of  Wil- 
mington, 731 


990 


INDEX 


COM 


CRO 


Compurgation,  system  of,  32  ;  set  aside 
by  Henry  II.,  146,  147 

Comyn,  John  (the  Red),  slain  by  Bruce, 
224 

Con,  Papal  agent  at  the  court  of  Henri- 
etta Maria,  521 

Concord,  attempt  to  seize  arms  at,  783 

Confederate  Catholics  of  Ireland,  the, 
cessation  of  hostilities  with,  541 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  the,  856 

Confirmatio  Cartarum,  221 

Conge  d'eli7'e,  provision  for  the  issue  of, 

391 
Congress,   of  twelve  colonies,   782  ;   of 

thirteen  colonies,  783 
Connaught,  proposed  plantation  of,  528 
Conrad  III.,  Emperor,  takes  part  in  the 

second  Crusade,  157 
Conservative   party,   the,  origin  of  the 

name  of,  909 
Constance  of  Brittany  marries  Geoffrey, 

155       . 

Constantine  takes  an  army  from  Britain, 
25         ,  . 

Constantine,  king  of  the  Scots,  allies 
himself  with  Eadward,  63 

Constantine  the  Great  becomes  sole 
Emperor,  22 ;  acknowledges  Chris- 
tianity  as  the  religion  of  the  Empire,  23 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks,  366 

Constantius,  the  Emperor,  22 

Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  144 ;  re- 
nounced by  Henry  II.,  153 

Continental  system,  the,  859  ;  failure  of, 
868 

Conventicle  Act,  the,  588 

Convention  Parliament,  the  first,  577  ; 
the  second,  646  ;  the  dissolution  of  the 
second, 656 

Convocation  of  the  province  of  Canter- 
bury offers  money  for  a  pardon,  385  ; 
agrees  to  the  submission  of  the  clergy, 
386 

Convocations  of  the  clergy  vote  money, 
219 

Conway,  Edward  I.  builds  a  castle  at, 
210 

Coote,  Colonel  (afterwards  Sir  Eyre), 
wins  a  victory  at  Wandewash,  764  ; 
defeats  Hyder  Ali  at  Porto  Novo,  805 

Cope,  Sir  John,  defeated  at  Preston 
Pans,  740 

Copenhagen,  battle  of,  845  ;  bombard- 
ment of,  860 

Corinium  {Cirencester),  West  Saxon 
conquest  of,  35  _ 

Cornish,  the,  derivation  of  the  old  lan- 
guage of,  7  ;  subrnit  to  Ecgberht,  55 

Corn-law,  the,  passing  of,  875  ;  modifi- 
cation of,  926 

Cornwall,  insurrection  in,  415 

Cornwallis,  Lord,  drives  Washington 
out  of  New  Jersey,  784  ;  defeats  Yates 
at  Camden,  788  ;  routs  Green  at 
Guilford,  792 ;  surrenders  at  York- 
town,  794  ;  Governor-General  of  India, 
811  ;  defeats  Tippoo,  837  ;  Lord-Lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland,  841 


Corporation  Act,  the,  585  ;  repeal  of,  895 
Corporations,  remodelling  of  the,  625 
Corunna,  battle  of,  864 
Cotentin,  the,  sold  to  Henry,  119 
Cotton-famine,  the,  959 
Cotton-spinning,  improvements  in,  815 
Council  of  State,  the,  appointment  of. 

County  courts  derived  from  the  shire- 
moots,  141      , 

Courtenay,  Bishop  of  London,  supported 
by  the  citizens  against  Lancaster,  263 

Covenant,  the  Scottish  National,  525,  see 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant 

Covenanters,  the  rise  of,  619  ;  insurrec- 
tion of,  620 

Coverdale  translates  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 396 

Cowper,  Lord,  becomes  Chancellor,  687 

Craggs,  Postmaster-General,  poisons 
himself,  712 

Craggs,  Secretary  of  State,  death  of,  712 

Cranfield,  see  Middlesex,  Earl  of 

Cranmer,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
pronounces  Catharine's  marriage  to 
h&  null,  389  ;  is  forced  to  dismiss  his 
wife,  400  ;  composes  the  English 
litany,  409  ;  character  and  position  of, 
413  ;  wishes  to  preserve  the  revenue 
of  the  chantries  for  the  poor  clergy, 
415  ;  tries  to  find  common  ground  with 
the  Zwinglian  reformers,  416  ;  leaves 
his  mark  on  the  Prayer  Book,  418  ; 
supports  Lady  Jane  Grey,  420  ;  burnt, 
426 

Cre^y,  battle  of,  241,  242 

Crepy,  peace  of,  406 

Cressingham,  Sir  Hugh,  governs  Scot- 
land in  the  name  of  Edward  I.,  219 

Crimean  War,  the,  origin  of,  943  ;  course 
of,  944-8 

Crompton,  invents  '  the  mule  '  for  spin- 
ning, 815 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  practical  sagacity 
of,  539 ;  introduces  discipline  in  the 
Eastern  Association,  540  ;  defeats  the 
royalists  at  Winceby,  542  ;  fights  at 
Marston  Moor,  543  ;  advocates  tolera- 
tion, ib.  ;  accuses  Manchester,  544  ; 
becomes  Lieutenant-General  of  the 
New  Model  Army,  545  ;  cuts  off  the 
king's  supplies,  547  ;  wins  the  victory 
at  Naseby,  548  ;  reduces  Winchester 
and  Basing  House,  549  ;  proposes  to 
leave  England,  554  ;  gives  instructions 
to  Cornet  Joyce,  555 ;  attempts  to 
come  to  an  understanding  with  Charles, 
ib. ;  puts  down  a  mutiny  in  the  army, 
556  ;  suppresses  a  rising  in  Wales  and 
defeats  the  Scots  at  Preston,  557  ;  sup- 
presses the  Levellers,  562  ;  lifts  cam- 
paign in  Ireland,  ib.  ;  his  victory  at 
Dunbar,  563  ;  his  victory  at  Worces- 
ter, 564  ;  dissolves  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, 566  ;  opens  the  Barebone's  Par- 
liament, 567  ;  becomes  Protector,  568  ; 
plots  against,  569 ;  ecclesiastical  ar- 
rangements of,  ib.  ;  convenes  and  dis- 


INDEX 


991 


CRO 

solves  his  first  Parliament,  570  :  esta- 
blishes major-generals,  ib.  ;  foreign 
policy  of,  571  ;  calls  a  second  Parlia- 
ment, 572  ;  joins  France  against  Spain, 
ib.  ;  dissolves  his  second  Parliament, 
573  ;  makes  war  against  Spain,  ib.  ; 
death  of,  574 

Cromwell,  Richard,  succeeds  to  the 
Protectorate,  574  ;  abdicates,  575 

Cromwell,  Thomas,  advises  Henry  VI 1 1, 
to  rely  on  the  House  of  Commons,  385  ; 
becomes  the  king's  secretary,  and  vicar- 
general,  393  ;  attacks  the  monks  of  the 
Charterhouse,  ib.  ;  inquires  into  the 
state  of  the  monasteries,  394  ;  attacks 
the  greater  monasteries,  397  ;  execu- 
tion of,  401 

Cropredy  Bridge,  battle  of,  544 

Crown,  the,  see  King 

Crown  Point  taken  by  Amherst,  753 

Crusade,  the  first,  120  ;  the  second,  157  ; 
the  third,  161 ;  against  the  Albigeois, 
193  ;  the  seventh,  204 

Cuba,  reduction  of,  766 

Cumberland,  origin  of  the  name  of,  37  ; 
annexed  by  William  II.,  119;  left  to 
David  I.,  133  ;  regained  by  Henry  II., 
140 

Cumberland,  Duke  of,  heads  the  British 
column  at  Fontenoy,  739  ;  sent  against 
the  Young  Pretender,  741  ;  defeats 
him  at  Culloden,  742  ;  his  cruelty  to 
the  Highlanders,  ib.;  being  defeated 
at  Hastenbeck,  signs  the  Convention 
of  Closterseven,  752 

Cunedda,  extensive  rule  of,  37 

Cunobelin,  government  of,  12 

Curia  Regis,  the,  organised  under 
Henry  I.,  127  ;  strengthened  by  Henry 
XL,  141 ;  powers  assigned  by  the  Con- 
stitutions of  Clarendon  to,  1^5  ;  orders 
the  appointment  of  recognitors,  147 ; 
divided  into  three  courts,  212 

Customs  on  imports  and  exports  under 
Edward  I.,  211,  221 

Cutha,  35 

Cymbelme,  original  of  Shakespeare's,  12 

Cynric  captures  Sorbiodunum,  34 

Cyprus  ceded  to  England,  970 


Dalhousie,     Earl     of,    policy    of,   as 

Governor-General  of  India,  950 
Danby,   Thomas  Osborne,   Earl   of,  as 
Sir     T.     Osborne,     becomes      Lord 
Treasurer,  607  ;   policy  of,  610  ;  fails 
to  pass  a    Non-resistance   Bill,   611  ; 
promotes  the  marriage  of  William  of 
Orange,   613  ;   impeachment  of,  616  ; 
imprisonment  of,  617  ;  liberated,  626  ; 
rises  in  support  of  William,  645  ;  re- 
commends that  the  crown  be  given  to 
Mary,  646 
Danegeld,  levy  of,  81  ;  abolition  of,  143 
Danelaw,  the,  formation  of,  59 
Danes,  the,  invade  England,  58  ;  make 
peace  with  iElfred,  59  ;  extent  of  the 
settlements  of,  62  ;  are  amalgamated 


with  the  English,  64  ;  relations  ol 
Dunstan  with,  67 ;  reappear  as  in. 
vaders,  79  ;  conquer  England,  81-83  > 
settle  in  Ireland,  152 

Dare,  Jeanne,  delivers  Orleans,  310 ; 
conducts  Charles  VII.  to  Rheims,  311  ; 
martyrdom  of,  312 

Darien  expedition,  the,  671 

Damley,  Henry  Stuart,  Lord,  marries 
Mar^',  438  ;  murder  of,  439 

Darvel  Gathern,  burning  of  the  wooden 
figure  of,  398 

Darwin,  his  Origin  of  Species,  940 

David  I.,  king  of  the  Scots,  invades 
England,  131 

David  II.  (Bruce),  king  of  Scotland,  232  ; 
lakes  refuge  with  Philip  VI.,  234  ; 
restoration  of,  240  ;  taken  prisoner  at 
Nevill's  Cross,  242;  restored  by  Ed- 
ward III.,  252 

David,  brother  of  Llewelyn,  executed, 
140 

David,  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  215 

David,  St.,  piety  of,  42 

Davison  sends  the  warrant  for  Mary's 
execution,  457  ;  dismissal  of,  458 

De  Grasse,  Admiral,  blockades  York- 
town,  794  ;  defeated  by  Rodney,  795 

Declaration  of  Breda,  see  Breda,  Decla- 
ration of 

Declaration  of  Independence,  the  Ame- 
rican, 784 

Declaration  of  Indulgence  issued  by 
Charles  II.,  604  ;  withdrawn  by 
Charles  II.,  606  ;  issued  by  James  II., 
640  ;  reissued,  642 

Declaration  of  Rights,  the,  647 

Declaration  of  Sports,  the,  ordered  to  be 
read  in  churches,  517 

Decorated  style,  the,  247 

Defender  of  the  Faith,  title  of,  379 

Degsastan,  yEthelfrith's  victory  at,  42 

Deira,  formation  of  the  kingdom  of,  36  ; 
is  merged  for  a  time  in  North-humber- 
land,  41  ;  accepts  Christianity,  46  ;  is 
finally  merged  in  North-humberland, 
48  ;  Danish  kingdom  of,  62,  63 

Delhi,  siege  of,  953  ;  recovery  of,  954 

Denain,  battle  of,  696 

Deorham,  battle  of,  35 

Derby,  arrival  of  the  Highlanders  at, 
740 

Derby,  Earl  of  (son  of  John  of  Gaunt), 
opposes  Richard  II.,  279;  defeats  the 
Duke  of  Ireland,  280  ;  becomes  Duke 
of  Hereford,  and  is  banished,  283  ;  suc- 
ceeds to  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  284  ; 
and  forces  Richard  II.  to  abdicate, 
285  ;  see  Henry  IV. 

Derby,  Earl  of,  becomes  Prime  Minis- 
ter, 938  ;  resignation  of,  933  ;  Prime 
Minister  for  the  second  time,  956 ; 
Prime  Minister  for  the  third  time, 
961  ;  resignation  of,  962 

Dermot  invites  Strongbow  to  Ireland,  152 

Derwent water,  Earl  of,  beheaded,  705 

Desmond,  Gerald  Fitzgerald,  Earl  of, 
insurrection  and  death  of,  453 


992 


INDEX 


DES 

Despensers,  the,  228,  229 
Deva,  Roman  colony  of,  14,  19 
Devizes,  surrender  of  the  castle  of,  134 
Devolution,  the  war  of,  593 
Devonshire,  insurrection  in,  415 
Devonshire,    Duke    of,   becomes    First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury  in  succession  to 
Newcastle,  749 
Devonshire,    William   Cavendish,    Earl 
of,   rises    in    support    of   William    of 
Orange,  645 
Dewanni  of  Bengal,  Behar,  and  Orissa 
granted  to  the  East  India  Company, 
801 
Dialogus  de  Scaccario,  167 
Dickens,  his  Pickwick  Papers,  940 
I^igby,  John,  Lord,  his  mission  to  Ger- 
many, 497 
Diocletian  reorganises  the  Empire,  22 
Dispensing     power,    the,    claimed     by 
Charles   IL,    604;    acknowledged   by 
the  judges,  639 
Disraeli,  attacks  Peel,  929,  930 ;  the  real 
leader  of  the    Protectionists    in    the 
House  of   Commons,    931 ;    becomes 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and  gives 
his  approbation    to  Free-trade,  938  ; 
resignation  of,    939  ;    is  again  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  and  brings  in 
a  Bill  for  Parliamentary  reform,  956  ; 
passes  the  second  Reform   Bill,  961  ; 
becomes  Prime  Minister,  962;  resigna- 
tion of,  ib.  ;    becomes  Prime  Minister 
a  second   time,   966 ;    made   Earl   of 
Beaconsfield,   969 ;    see  Beaconsfield, 
Earl  of 
Dissenters    the,  origin   of  their  name, 
585 ;  Charles  IL  issues  a  declaration 
fo'-  the  toleration  of,  587  ;  Conventicle 
Act_   against,     588 ;     Five    Mile    Act 
against,  590  ;  favour  of  Charles  II.  to, 
599 ;  reception  of  the  Declaration   of 
Indulgence  by,    640 ;   Toleration   Act 
passed  in  favour  of,  651 ;  attacked  in  the 
Sacheyerell  riots,  691  ;  passing  of  the 
Occasional   Conformity  Act    against, 
695  ;  the   Schism  Act  passed  against, 
699  ;    partial   repeal  of    acts  directed 
against,  710  ;  repeal  of  the  Test  and 
Corporation  Acts  affecting,  895 
Dissenting  Brethren,  the  five,  543 
Divine  Right  of  Kings,  doctrine  of  the, 

619 
Domesday  Book,  iii 
Domestic  life  in  Eadgar's  time,  75 
Domfront  occupied  by  Henry,  119 
Dominic,  St.,  190 
Dominicans  arrive  in  England,  191 
Donald  Bane  made  king  of  the  Scots  by 

the  Celts,  119 
Dorchester,  abandonment  of  the  see  of, 

107 
Dorset,   Marquis  of,   his  relations  with 

Richard  III.,  338 
Douai,  College  at,  453 
Dover,  treaty  of,  600 
Drake,    Francis,    lands   at   Nombre   de 
Dios,  448 ;  vows  to  sail  on  the  Pacific 


DUT 

449  ;  his  voyage  round  the  world,  450 ; 
(Sir  Francis)  singes  the  king  of  Spain's 
beard,  458  ;  has  a  command  against 
the  Armada,  460  ;  pursues  the  Armada, 
462  ;  sacks  Corunna,  and  fails  before 
Lisbon,  464  ;  death  of,  ib. 

Dramatic  writers  of  the  Restoration, 
598 

Dreux.  battle  of,  436 

Drogheda,  slaughter  at,  562 

Druids,  character  of  the,  10 ;  resist 
Suetonius,  14 

Drumclog,  skirmish  at,  620 

Drummond,  Thomas,  his  career  as 
Under-Secretary  in  Ireland,  916 

Dublin,  Danish  settlement  in,  152  ;  at- 
tempt to  seize,  533 

Du  Chatel,  Tannegui,  murders  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  305  ' 

Dudley,  see  Empson  and  Dudley 

Dudley,  Lord  Guilford,  marries  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  420  ;  executed,  423 

Du  Guesclin,  Bernard, supports  Henry  of 
Trastamara,  255  ;  his  mode  of  fighting 
with  the  English,  256 

Dunbar,  Balliol  defeated  at,  219  ;  buttle 
of,  563 

Duncan,  Admiral,  blockades  the  Dutch 
in  the  Texel,  836  ;  defeats  the  Dutch 
at  Camperdown,  837 

Duncan  II.,  king  of  the  Scots,  120 

Dundee,  Viscounty  John  Graham  of 
Claverhouse,  gathers  the  Highland 
clans  for  James  II. ,  652  ;  killed  at 
Killiecranicie,  653 

Dunes,  the,  battle  of,  573 

Dunkirk,  Cromwell  wishes  Spain  to  place 
in  his  hands,  571 ;  taken  from  Spain 
by  Cromwell's  troops,  573  ;  abandoned 
by  Charles  II. ,  587  ;  France  engages 
to  destroy  the  fortifications  of,  696  ; 
France  regains  the  right  of  fortifying, 
798. 

Dunkirk  House,  587 

Dunning  carries  a  motion  against  the 
influence  of  the  Crown,  789 

Dunse  Law,  Scottish  army  on,  526 

Dunstable,  marriage  of  Catharine  of 
Aragon  annulled  at,  389 

Dunstan,  character  and  work  of,-  65  ; 
banished  by  Eadwig,  67  ;  becomes 
Eadgar's  Minister,  ib.  ;  his  attitude 
towards  the  monks,  68  ;  supports 
Eadward's  succession,  78  ;  death  of,  79 

Dupleix,  hostile  to  Le  Bourdonnais, 
760  ;  his  career  in  India,  761  ;  returns 
to  France,  762 

Dupplin,  Edward  Balliol's  victory  at,  234 

Durham,  architecture  of  the  choir  and 
galilee  of,  171 

Durham,  temporary  suppression  of  the 
see  of,  418  ;  celebration  of  the  mass  in 
the  cathedral  of,  441 

Durham,  Earl  of,  his  mission  to  Can- 
ada, 916 

Dutch  Republic,  the,  foundation  of,  449  ; 
abolition  of  the  Stadholderate  in,  565  ; 
war   between  the   English  Common- 


INDEX 


993 


wealth  and,  ib.  :  peace  with,  569  ;  first 
war  between  Charles  II.  and,  589  ; 
military  weakness  of,  591  ;  treaty  of 
Breda  with,  593  ;  takes  part  in  the 
Triple  Alliance,  599  ;  combination  of 
England  and  France  against,  600  ; 
towps  to  be  taken  from,  ib.  ;  the  second 
war  between  Charles  II.  and,  605  ; 
resists  Louis  XIV.,  ib.  ;  animosity  of 
Shaftesbury  against,  606  ;  peace  made 
by  England  with,  608  ;  makes  peace 
with  France  at  Nymwegen,  614  ;  Marl- 
borough's relations  with,  678  ;  eflfect  of 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  on, 
697  ;  resists  the  right  of  search,  792  ; 
makes  peace  with  Great  Britain,  798  ; 
receives  the  name-of  the  Batavian  Re- 
public, 835  ;  its  fleet  defeated  at 
Camperdown,  837 


Eadgar,  reign  of,  67 

Eadgar,  king  of  the  Scots,  121 

Eadgar  the  S^theling,  early  years  of,  90  ; 
chosen  king,  98  ;  is  abandoned,  100 

Eadgyth  married  to  Eadward  the  Con- 
fessor, 87 

Eadgyth  married  to  Henry  I.,  122  ;  is 
known  as  Matilda,  124 

Eadmund  Ironside,  83 

Eadmund,  king  of  East  Anglia,  killed 
by  the  Danes,  58 
•  Eadmund,  king  of  the  English,  63 

Eadred,  king  of  the  English,  64 

Eadward  the  Confessor,  his  life  in 
Normandy,  85  ;  is  chosen  king,  86  ; 
his  relations  with  Godwine,  87  ;  makes 
William  his  heir,  88  ;  dies,  91 

Eadward  the  Elder,  reign  of,  62 ;  his 
relations  with  the  Scots,  63 

Eadward  the  ^Etheling,  death  of,  90 

Eadward  the  Martyr,  78 

Eadwig,  reign  of,  64  ;  his  quarrel  with 
the  clergy,  65  ;  his  marriage  and  death, 
67 

Eadwine,  king  of  North-humberland, 
greatness  of,  43  ;  marries  iEthelburh, 
44  ;  is  converted  and  slain,  46 

Eadwine,  son  of  ^Ifgar,  becomes  Earl 
of  the  Mercians,  90 ;  is  present  at 
Eadgar's  election,  98 ;  submits  to 
William,  102  ;  is  murdered,  103 

Eadwinesburh,  see  Edinburgh 

Ealdhelm  as  a  builder  and  teacher,  51 

Ealdormen,  the,  are  the  leaders  of  the 
English  conquerors,  30  ;  preside  over 
the  folk-moot,  33  ;  growing  power  of, 
73;  their  pc'''  ^       ;n-.i_-i--.i  .i._ 

Unready,  7^ 


3  ;  their  position  under  ^thelred  the 

Ealdred,   Archbishop  of  York,   crowns 

William  I.,  100 
Earl,  title  of,  derivation  of,  64 
Earldoms  under  Cnut,    83 ;   diminished 

after  the  Norman  Conquest,  105 
Early  English  architecture,  171 
East    Anglia,    fiist    settlement   of,   28; 

growth  of,  36  ;  comparative  weakness 


EDW 

of,  41  ;  its  relations  with  Ecgberht,  55; 
overrun  by  the  Danes,  58 

East  India  Company,  the,  charter 
granted  to,  758  ;  early  acquisitions  of, 
ib.  ;  receives  the  zemindary  of  the 
district  round  Calcutta,  764  ;  receives 
the  dewanni  of  Bengal,  Behar,  and 
Orissa,  801  ;  North's  Regulating  Act 
organising  the  powers  of,  802 ;  bill 
directed  by  Fox  and  Burke  against, 
806  ;  Pitt's  restrictions  on,  808  ;  com- 
plete overthrow  of  the  authoi-ity  of, 
954 

East  Saxons  establish  themselves  to  the 
north  of  the  Thames,  28 ;  capture 
London,  35  ;  see  Essex 

Easter,  dispute  on  the  mode  of  keeping,  50 

Eastern  Association,  the,  formation 
of.  539 ;  Cromwell's  activity  in,  540  ; 
Manchester  in  command  of  the  army 
of,  542 

Ebbsfleet,  landing  of  the  Jutes  at,  27  ; 
landing  of  Augustine  at,  39 

Ecclesiastical  Commission,  the,  esta- 
blished by  James  II.,  639  ;  abolition 
of,  644 

Ecclesiastical  courts,  jurisdiction  of,  106: 
conflictof  Henry  II.  with,  142  ;  attacks 
on,  385  _ 

Ecclesiastical  Titles  Bill,  the,  937 

Ecgberht,  at  the  court  of  Charles  the 
Great,  53  ;  becomes  king  of  the  West 
Saxons,  and  over-lord  of  the  other 
kingdoms,  55 

Economical  Reform,  bill  for,  789  ;  pass- 
ing of  a  bill  for,  795 

Edgehill,  battle  of,  537 

Edinburgh,  Eadwine  builds  the  castle 
of,  43 ;  occupied  by  the  Scots,  68  ; 
burnt  by  Hertford,  409  ;  treaty  of,  433  ; 
riot  in  St.  Giles's  in,  525  ;  Montrose 
executed  at,  563  ;  surrenders  to  Crom- 
well, ib. ;  the  Duke  of  Gordon  holds  out 
in  the  castle  of,  652  ;  the  Young  Pre- 
tender welcomed  at,  740 

Edmund  Crouchback,  second  son  of 
Henry  III.,  named  king  of  Sicily  and 
Naples,  196  ;  supposed  primogeniture 
of,  286 

Education  in  the  time  of  iElfred,  61  ; 
in  the  time  of  Dunstan,  65  ;  carried  on 
at  Oxford,  i^,  207 ;  public  action  of 
the  Melbourne  ministry  in  providing 
for,  920 ;  Forster  introduces  a  new 
system  of,  963 

Edward  I.,  appeal  of  the  Knights  Bache- 
lors to,  199  ;  taken  prisoner  at  Lewes, 
201 ;  defeats  Earl  Simon  at  Evesham, 
203;  takes  part  in  the  seventh  Crusade, 
204  ;  becomes  king,  208;  constitutional 
position  of,  209 ;  his  dealings  with 
Wales,  210;  finance  of,  211  ;  judicial 
reforms  and  legislation  of,  212  ;  ar- 
ranges for  a  personal  union  between 
England  and  Scotland,  214;  erects  the 
Eleanor  crosses,  215  ;  awards  the  Scot- 
tish crown  to  John  Balliol,  216  ;  his 
relations  with  Philip  IV.,  218  ;  sum- 


994 


INDEX 


EDW 

mons  the  Model  Parliament,  218  ;  his 
first  conquest  of  Scotland,  219  ;  grants 
the  Confirmatio  Cartarum^  220  ;  his 
second  conquest  of  Scotland,  221 ;  in- 
corporates Scotland  with  England,  222; 
his  third  conquest  of  Scotland,  and 
death,  224 

Edward  II.,  birth  of,  210;  succeeds  to 
the  crown,  224  ;  marriage  of,  225  ;  re- 
sistance of  the  barons  to,  ib. ;  defeated 
at  Bannockburn,  226;  overthrows 
Lancaster  and  effects  a  constitutional 
settlement,  228 ;  deposed  and  mur- 
dered, 229 

Edward  III.,  accession  and  marriage  of, 
231  ;  does  homage  to  Philip  VI.,  232  ; 
sets  up  Edward  Balliol  in  Scotland 
and  begins  war  with  France,  234 ; 
allies  himself  with  the  Emperor  and 
the  cities  of  Flanders,  235  ;  encourages 
trade,  236  ;  is  named  Imperial  Vicar, 
237  ;  claims  the  crown  of  France,  239  ; 
wins  the  battle  of  Sluys,  ib.  ;  marches 
through  the  north  of  France,  240 ; 
wins  the  battle  of  Cre^y,  241,  242  ; 
takes  Calais,  243  ;  constitutional  pro- 
gress under,  ib. ;  restores  David  Bruce, 
252 ;  makes  peace  with  France,  253 ; 
enters  on  a  fresh  war  with  France, 
256 

Edward  IV.,  as  Earl  of  March,  takes 
part  \\\  the  battle  of  Northampton,  326 ; 
wins  the  battle  of  Mortimer's  Cross, 
and  is  acknowledged  by  the  Londoners 
as  king,  328  ;  wins  the  battle  of  Tow- 
ton,  and  is  crowned,  329 ;  marries 
Elizabeth  Woodville,  and  promotes 
her  kindred,  331  ;  allies  himself  with 
Burgundy,  332 ;  loses  and  recovers 
the  crown,  334  ;  invents  benevolences, 
335  ;  invades  France,  336 ;  puts  Cla- 
rence to  death,  336  ;  death  of,  337 

Edward  V.  succeeds  to  the  throne,  337  ; 
lodged  in  the  Tower,  340  ;  deposed, 
341  ;  murdered,  342 

Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  see  Black 
Prince,  the 

Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Henry 
VL,  birth  of,  323  ;  slain  at  Tewkes- 
bury, 334 

Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Richard 
III.,  death  of,  342 

Edward  VI.,  birth  of,  397;  accession 
of,  412 ;  precocity  of,  419  ;  death  of, 
420 

Egypt,  Bonaparte's  expedition  to,  837  ; 
the  French  compelled  to  evacuate, 
844  ;  Mehemet  All's  rule  of,  884  ;  sub- 
jected to  the  dual  control  of  France 
and  England,  970  ;  England  assumes 
a  protectorate  over,  971 

Ejectors,  Commission  of,  569 

Eldon,  Lord,  holds  that  meetings  in 
support  of  Radical  reform  are  treason- 
able, 880 

Eleanor  of  Aquitaine  marries  Henry  II., 
137  ;  imprisonment  of,  155  ;  takes  part 
with  John  against  Arthur,  174 


,  ELI 

Eleanor  of  Castile,  wife  of  Edward  I., 
accompanies  her  husband  on  the  Cru- 
sade, 204  ;  death  of,  214 

Eleanor  of  Provence  marries  Henry  III., 
192 

Eleanor,  sister  of  Henry  III.,  marries 
Simon  de  Montfort,  193 

Election  petition,  the  Chippenham, 
730 

Eleven  Members,  the,  excluded  from  the 
House  of  Commons,  555 

Eliot,  Sir  John,  attacks  Buckingham, 
504  ;  compares  Buckingham  to 
Sejanus,  505  ;  his  policy  compared 
with,  that  of  Wentworth,  508  ;  vindi- 
cates the  privileges  of  the'House,  512  ; 
imprisonment  and  death  of,  514 

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV., 
proposed  marriage  of  the  Dauphin  to, 
336  ;  proposed  marriage  of  Richard 
III.  to,  342  ;  marries  Henry  VII.,  345 

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.,  inten- 
tion of  the  Gunpowder  plotters  to 
crown,  483  ;  married  to  the  Elector 
Palatine,  488 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  birth  of,  392  ;  her 
succession  acknowledged,  411;  sent  to 
the  Tower  and  afterwards  removed  to 
Woodstock  and  Hatfield,  423  ;  acces- 
sion of,  428  ;  character  and  policy  of, 
ib.  ;  modification  of  the  title  of,  429  ; 
plays  off  France  and  Spain  against  one 
another,  431  ;  hesitates  to  assist  the 
Scotch  Protestants,  432 ;  assists  the 
Lords  of  the  Congregation,  433  ;  her 
ill-treatment  of  Catherine  Grey,  435  ; 
contrasted  with  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
ib. ;  hopes  to  recover  Calais  by  assist- 
ing the  Huguenots,  436  ;  appoints  com- 
missioners to  examine  the  case  against 
Mary,  440  ;  detains  Mary  a  prisoner, 
and  suppresses  a  rising  in  the  North, 
441  ;  excommunicated  by  Pius  V., 
ib.  ;  negotiates  a  marriage  with  the 
Duke  of  Anjou,  443  ;  her  attitude  to- 
wards the  Puritans  and  towards  Parlia- 
ment, 444 ;  the  Ridolfi  plot  against, 
445  ;  proposes  to  marry  the  Duke  of 
Alen9on,  446 ;  intervenes  in  Scotland 
on  behalf  of  James  VI. ,  450;  refuses 
to  restore  Drake's  plunder,  451  ;  her 
treatment  of  Ireland,  452  ;  kisses  the 
Duke  of  Alen9on,  454  ;  plot  of  Allen 
and  Parsons  to  murder,  ib. ;  Throg- 
morton's  plot  to  murder,  456 ;  Ba- 
bington's  plot  to  murder,  457  ;  hesitates 
to  allow  the  execution  of  the  Queen  of 
Scots,  ib.  ;  dismisses  Davison,  458 ; 
her  triumph  at  the  defeat  of  the 
Armada,  462  ;  allies  herself  with 
Henry  IV.,  464  ;  shows  favour _  to 
Essex,  ib.  \  erects  t.ie  Court  of  High 
Commission,  470  ;  sends  Essex  to 
Ireland,  475 ;  turns  against  Essex, 
476  ;  withdraws  monopolies,  478  ; 
nature  of  the  work  of,  479  ;  death  of, 
480 

Elizabethan  architecture,  465 


INDEX 


995 


ELL 

Ellenborough,  Lord,  sends  Sir  Charles 
Napier  to  conquer  Sindh,  950 

Elmet  conquered  by  Eadwine,  43 

Emma  marries  ^thelred,  81 

Empire,  the  Western,  revived  by  Charles 
the  Great,  55 

Empson  and  Dudley,  exactions  of,  357  ; 
execution  of,  363 

Encumbered  Estates  Act,  the,  934 

Engagement,  the,  between  Charles  I. 
and  the  Scottish  Commissioners,  556 

England,  early  social  and  political  insti- 
tutions of,  29-32 ;  contrasted  with 
Gaul,  37 ;  commerce  with  Gaul  re- 
newed by,  38  ;  Christianity  introduced 
into,  39 ;  growing  power  of  three 
kingdoms  in,  41  ;  character  of  the  later 
conquests  in,  44  ;  jjolitical  changes  in, 
45  ;  spread  of  Christianity  in,  49  ;  in- 
fluence of  Church  Councils  on  the 
political  unity  of,  52  ;  Ecgberht's  over- 
lordship  in,  55  ;  attacks  of  the  North- 
men and  Danes  on,  56;  its  condition 
under  iElfred,  60 ;  its  relations  with 
Scotland,  63,  68  ;  development  of  the 
institutions  of,  69  ;  Danish  conquest 
of,  79-83;  Norman  conquest  of,  ^6-103; 
Norman  constitution  of,  113  ;  civil  war 
in,  134  ;  pacification  of,  137  ;  adminis- 
trative reforms  of  Henry  II.  in,  140  ; 
made  tributary  to  the  Papacy,  180  ; 
military  reforms  in,  154  ;  effect  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  on,  158  ;  constitu- 
tional result  of  the  administration  of 
Hubert  Walter  in,  163 ;  growth  ot 
learning  in,  167  ;  growth  of  commerce 
in,  168  ;  architectural  changes  in,  170  ; 
the  Barons'  Wars  in,  200-203  j  archi- 
tectural and  literary  growth  in,  206, 
207  ;  complete  national  unity  of,  208  ; 
completion  of  the  Parliamentary  con- 
stitution of,  218,  220,  228,  243;  relieved 
of  tribute  to  the  Papacy,  258 ;  social 
and  moral  condition  of,  during  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  330 

England,  the  Church  of,  Wilfrid's  in- 
fluence on,  50 ;  parochial  organisation 
of,  ib.;  its  close  connection  with  the 
State,  52;  councils  of,  ib.',  organisation 
of,  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  106  ; 
its  relations  with  Stephen,  134  ;  and 
with  Henry  II.,  149  ;  result  of  the 
Angevin  reigns  on,  166  ;  Papal  exac- 
tions resisted  by,  194  ;  payments  ex- 
acted from,  197 ;  temporary  Parlia- 
mentary representation  of  the  clergy 
of,  219  ;  taxation  resisted  by  the  clergy 
of,  220;  social  condition  of,  236;  supports 
Henry  IV.,  291 ;  members  of  noble 
families  in  the  episcopate  of,  ib.  ; 
procures  a  statute  for  burning  here- 
tics, 292 ;  proposal  to  confiscate  the 
property  of,  294  ;  relations  of  Henry 
VIII.  with,  377  ;  dealings  of  Henry 
VIII.  with,  386  ;  the  clergy  acknow- 
ledge the  king  supreme  head  of,  386 ; 
becomes  more  national,  391  ;  Parlia- 
ment  acknowledges    the   king    to  be 

C. 


EXC 

supreme  head  of,  393  ;  Cranmer's 
position  in,  413  ;  ecclesiastical  changes 
in,  414  ;  issue  of  the  first  Prayer  Book 
of  Edward  VI.  for,  415  ;  Zwinglian 
teaching  in,  416  ;  issue  of  the  second 
Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI,  for,  418  ; 
reconciled  to  the  see  of  Rome,  424  ; 
Elizabeth's  settlement  of,  429  ;  position 
of,  during  Parker's  archbishopric,  430 ; 
Presbyterian  movement  in,  446  ;  Pres- 
byterianism  adopted  by  the  Assembly 
of  Divines  for,  543  ;  restoration  of 
episcopacy  in,  583  ;  proposal  to  esta- 
blish a  modified  episcopacy  in,  ib.; 
promise  of  James  II.  to  protect,  634 

English,  the,  origin  of  the  name  of,  28  ; 
nature  of  their  conquest  of  Britain,  29  ; 
village  settlements  of,  ib.  ;  division  of 
ranks  among,  ib.  ;  effect  of  the  con- 
quest of  Britain  on  the  language  of, 
31;  early  political  organisation  of,  ib. ; 
early  judicial  system  of,  32  ;  position 
of,  under  William  I.,  104 ;  support 
William  II.,  115;  support  Henry  I., 
124  ;  cease  to  be  distinguished  from 
Normans,  155  ;  reappearance  of  their 
language  in  literature,  207  ;  predomi- 
nance of  their  language,  258 

Eorls^  distinguished  from  Ceorls,  29  ; 
their  relation  to  Gesiths,  30 

Erse,  a  Goidelic  language,  7 

Eskimos,  compared  with  palaeolithic 
men,  3 

Essay  on  IVoman,  770 

Essex,  Arthur  Cape),  Earl  of,  suicide  of, 
625 

Essex,  Frances,  Countess  of,  divorce  and 

s remarriage  of,  486 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  second  Earl 
of,  joins  in  the  capture  of  Cadiz,  464  ; 
sent  to  Ireland,  475  ;  placed  in  confine- 
ment on  his  return,  476  ;  insurrection 
of,  477  ;  trial  and  execution  of,  478 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  third  Earl  of, 
divorce  of,  486  ;  appointed  general  of 
the  Parliamentary  army,  537  ;  com- 
mands at  Edgehill,  ib.  ;  takes  Reading, 
538 ;  relieves  Gloucester  and  commands 
at  the  first  battle  of  Newbury,  539  ; 
escapes  from  Lostwithiel,  544  ;  resigns, 
545 

Essex,  Saxon  settlement  in,  28  ;  is  de- 
pendent on  Kent,  and  accepts  Chris- 
tianity, 40 ;  relapses  into  heathenism, 
41 ;  comparative  weakness  of,  ib. 

Eugene,  Prince,  fights  in  Italy,  680 ; 
combines  with  Marlborough  at  Blen- 
heim, 682 ;  raises  the  siege  of  Turin, 
684  ;  attacks  Toulon,  689  ;  combines 
with  Marlborough  at  Malplaquet,  690  ; 
recalled  by  the  Archduke  Charles, 
695  ;  defeated  at  Denain,  696 

Eustace,  Count  of  Boulogne,  visits 
Eadward  the  Confessor,  87 

Eustace,  son  of  Stephen,  death  of,  137 

Evesham,  battle  of,  203 

Exchequer,  tTie,  organised  by  Roger  of 
Salisbury,    127 ;    disorganised    under 

3T 


996 


INDEX 


Stephen,  134;  reorganised  under 
Henry  II.,  140  ;  establishment  of  a  se- 
parate Court  of,  212 

Excise  Bill,  the,  brought  in  by  Walpole, 
722  ;  withdrawn,  724 

Exclusion  Bill,  the,  brought  in,  617  ; 
rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords,  621  ; 
lost  by  dissolution,  ib. 

Exeter  taken  by  William  I.,  102  ;  be- 
sieged by  Fairfax,  549 

Exeter,  Henry  Courtenay,  Marquis  of, 
executed,  399 

Exhibition,  the  Great,  937 

Expenditure  of  the  Crown,  parliamentary 
inquiry  into,  593 


Factory  Act,  the  first,  911  ;  extension 
of  the,  927 

Factory  system,  the,  876 

Faddiley,  battle  of,  35 

Fairfax,  Ferdinando,  second  Lord, 
defeated  at  Adwalton  Moor,  538 

Fairfax,  Tiiomas,  third  Lord  Fairfax, 
as  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  is  defeated  at 
Adwalton  Moor,  538  ;  wins  a  victory 
at  Nantwich,  542  ;  appointed  General 
of  the  New  Model  army,  545  ;  re- 
lieves Taunton,  547  ;  commands  at 
Naseby,  548  ;  follows  up  his  successes, 
548,  5  ^9 ;  reduces  the  king's  army  in 
Cornwall,  550  ;  proposed  as  com- 
mander of  the  forces  retained  after 
the  disbandment  of  the  army,  553 ; 
as  Lord  Fairfax,  puts  down  the  rising 
in  Kent  and  takes  Colchester,  557  ; 
absents  himself  from  the  High  Court 
of  Justice,  559  ;  refuses  to  command 
in  the  war  against  Charles  IL,  563  ; 
joins  Monk,  576 

Falaise,  Treaty  of,  154 ;  abandoned  by 
Richard  I.,  159 

Falkirk,  Wallace  defeated  at,  222 

Falkland,  Lucius  Gary,  Viscount,  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  anti-Presbyterian 
party  in  the  Long  Parliament,  533  ; 
death  of,  539 

Family  Compact,  the,  signature  of,  725  ; 
renewal  of,  737  ;  second  renewal  of,  766 

Faukes  de  Breautd,  banishment  of,  187 

Fawkes,  Guy,  takes  part  in  the  Gun- 
powder Plot,  483 

Felton,  John,  affixes  the  Pope's  ex- 
communication to  the  door  of  the 
Bishop  of  London's  house,  442 

Felton,  John,  murders  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  510 

Fenians,  the,  962 

Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor,  inherits  the 
German  territOfies  of  Charles  V.,  426 

Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor,  loses  and  re- 
gains the  crown  of  Bohemia,  490 

Ferdinand  V.,  king  of  Aragon,  marries 
Isabella  of  Castile,  349  ;  Italian  wars 
of,  363 ;  conquers  Navarre,  364  ;  death 
of,  366 

Ferdinand  VII.,  king  of  Spain,  restored 
to  power  by  a  French  army,  882 


FOU 

Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  Prince  com- 
mands in  Hanover,  752  ;  defeats  the 
French  at  Minden,  756 

Ferry  Bridge,  skirmish  at,  429 

Feudal  dues,  bargain  offered  by  James 
I.  for,  484  ;  abolition  of,  582 

Feudality,  early  forms  of,  81 ;  after  the 
Norman  Conquest,  104 ;  organised  by 
William  I.,  113;  Flambard's  further 
organisation  of,  1 16  ;  ideas  of  Edward 
I.  on,  214 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  the,  369 

Fielding,  writes  Tom  Jones,  746 

Fifth-Monarchy  men,  567  ;  oppose 
Cromwell,  569 

Finchley,  the  march  to,  740 

Fire  of  London,  the,  592 

First  of  June,  battle  of  the,  828 

Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  opposes  the 
divorce  of  Henry  VI IF.,  382  ;  sent  to 
the  Tower,  392  ;  execution  of,  394 

Fitzgerald,  Flogging,  840 

Fitzmaurice,  Sir  James,  lands  in  Ireland, 
.452 

Fitz-Osbern,  William,  oppresses  the 
English,  102 

Fitzwilliam,  Earl,  enters  Pitt's  cabinet, 
828  ;  his  mission  to  Ireland,  832 

Five  Articles  of  Perth,  the,  525 

Five  Boroughs,  the,  62 

Five  Knights'  case,  the,  507 

Five  Members,  the,  535  ;  brought  back 
to  Westminster,  536 

Five  Mile  Act,  the,  590 

Flambard,  Ranulf,  tyranny  of,  116  ;  im- 
prisonment of,  122  ;  escapes,  124     ^         ^ 

Flamsteed,  astronomer,  632 

Flanders,  commercial  intercourse  with, 
211  ;  Edward  I.  in,  221 ;  alliance  of 
Edward  III.  with,  235  ;  falls  under 
the  control  of  France,  278 

Fleetwood  named  Qpneral  by  the  arjny, 
575.  :^^  "• 

Flemings  emigrate  to  Wales,  12^;  in- 
troduced as  weavers  by  Edward  III., 
236  ••  ^ 

Fleurus,  Luxembourg's  victory  at,  ^7 

Fleury,  Cardinal,  ministry  of,  718  ,*'' 

Flodden,  battle  of,  364 

Florida,  ceded  by  Spain  to  Engkjj^, 
766  ;  restored  to  Spain,  798 

Folk-moot,  functions  of  the,  33 

Fontenoy,  battle  of,  739 

Forest,  Friar,  burnt,  398 

Forests,  the,  fines  for  encroaching  on, 
523  ;  the  king's  claims  on,  limited,  531 

For.ster,  introduces  a  new  system  of 
education,  964  ;  introduces  a  bill  for 
the  use  of  the  ballot,  966  ;  Irish  policy 
of,  971  ;  resignation  of,  tb. 

Fort  Duquesne,  built  by  the  French, 
748  ;  taken  by  the  British,  753 


ForcSt.  George  built, 758 

)uilt  byEe 

pany,  758 


FortWilliam  built  byEast   India  Com- 


Fotheringhay,  execution  of  Mary  Stuart 

at,  458 
Fountains  Abbey,  129 


INDEX 


997 


FOX 

Fox,  Charles  James,  supports  Parlia- 
mentary reform,  789  ;  character  of, 
790  ;  refuses  to  serve  under  Melbourne, 
798  ;  coalesces  with  North,  800  ;  sup- 
ports Pitt's  motion  on  Parliamentary 
reform,  801  ;  brings  forward  an_ India 
Bill,  806  ;  his  '  martyrs,'  808  ;  his  con- 
duct in  the  debates  on  the  Regency 
Bill,  811  ;  sympathises  with  the  revo- 
lutionists in  France,  822  ;  continues 
in  opposition,  828  ;  excluded  from 
Pitt's  second  ministry,  848  ;  Secretary 
of  State  in  the  ministry  of  All  the 
Talents,  855  ;  death  of,  ib. 

Fox,  Henry,  becomes  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  747  ;  resigns 
office,  749  ;  accepts  a  lucrative  ap- 
pointment, 751 

Fox,  Richard,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
minister  of  Henry  VII.  and  Henry 
VIII.,  363  .  . 

France,  social  condition  of,  235  ;  miser- 
able state  of,  251,  252  ;  friendship  of 
Richard  II.  with,  282  ;  reign  of  Louis 
XII.  in,  363;  attackof  Henry  VIII. 
on,  364 ;  in  alliance  with  England, 
366  ;  invaded  by  Henry  VIII.,  371  ; 
peace  with,  374  ;  Mary  at  war  with, 
426  ;  recovery  of  Calais  by,  427  ;  civil 
wars  in,  436-443;  Philip  II.  supports 
the  League  in,  464  ;  allied  with  James 
I.,  501  ;  Charles  I.  breaks  with,  506  ; 
Charles  I.  makes  peace  with,  514 ; 
allied  with  Cromwell  against  Sf)ain, 
572  ;  Danby's  policy  directed  against, 
610;  war  of  William  III.  with,  657; 
peace  made  at  Ryswick  with,  667 ; 
grand  alliance  formed  against,  675  ;  war 
conducted  by  Marlborough  against, 
678  ;  decline  in  the  military  power  of, 
682  ;  peace  made  at  Utrecht  with,  696  ; 
pacific  policy  of  the  Whigs  towards, 
707  ;  recovery  of  military  strength 
by>  725  ;  takes  part  in  the  war  of  the 
Austrian  succession,  733 ;  peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapellewith,  743  ;  her  posses- 
sions in  North  America,  747  ;  embarks 
on  the  Seven  Years'  War,  749  ;  peace 
with,  766  ;  secretly  assists  the  Ameri- 
cans, 786  ;  openly  allies  herself  with 
America,  787 ;  her  navy  master  of 
the  sea,  788  ;  her  fleet  compels  the 
surrender  of  Cornwallis  at  Yorktown, 
794  ;  makes  peace  with  Great  Britain, 
798  ;  commercial  treaty  with,  810 ; 
antecedents  of  the  revolution  in, 
820 ;  calling  of  the  States-General 
in,  821 ;  progress  of  the  revolution 
in,  ib,  ;  rise  of  a  warlike  feeling 
in,  824  ;  declares  war  against  Austria 
and  Prussia,  824 ;  establishment 
of  a  republic  in,  825 ;  victorious 
in  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  ib.  ;  at 
war  with  England  and  the  Dutch 
republic,  826  ;  Reign  of  Terror  in,  ib.  ; 
end  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  in,  ib.  ; 
makes  peace  with  Prussia  and  Spain, 
829  ;  establishment  of  the  Directory  in. 


FRE 

830  ;  Malmesbury  sent  to  negotiate  a 
peace  in,  834  ;  establishment  of  the 
Consulate  in,  839  ;  Treaty  of  Amiens 
with,  846 ;  renewed  war  with,  848  ; 
establishment  of  the  Empire  in,  850 ; 
restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  in,  871 ; 
restoration  of  Napoleon  in,  874  ;  second 
restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.  in,  875  ; 
establishment  of  Louis  Philippe  in, 
893  ;  supports  Mehemet  Ali,  922  ;  the 
entente  cordiale  with,  927  ;  establish- 
ment of  the  second  Republic  in,  934  ; 
Louis  Napoleon  President  of  the  Re- 
public in,  955  ;  commercial  treaty  with, 
959  ;  German  invasion  of,  964  ;  third 
Republic  established  in,  ib. 

Francis  I.,  king  of  France,  his  rivalry 
with  Charles  V.,  366-369 ;  meets 
Henry  VIII.  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth 
of  Gold,  369  ;  goes  to  war  with  Charles 
V.  about  Milan,  371  ;  captured  at 
Pavia,  372  ;  liberated,  374 

Francis  II.,  king  of  France,  married  as 
Dauphin  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
413  ;  accession  and  death  of,  433 

Francis  II.,  king  of  Hungary,  after- 
wards emperor,  at  war  with  France, 
824  _ 

Francis  of  Assisi,  St.,  190 

Francis,  Philip,  the  probable  author  of 
Junius,  775  ;  his  opposition  to  Hast- 
ings, 803 

Franciscans,   the,   constitution  of,   190 
arrive  in  England,  191  ; 

Frederick  I.,  Barbarossa,  Emperor,  sup- 
ports an  anti-pope,  145 

Frederick  II.,  Emperor,  excommunica- 
tion of,  194  ;  death  of.  195 

Frederick  11.,  king  of  Prussia,  claims 
Silesia,  733  ;  defeats  the  Austrians  at 
Mollwitz,  734  ;"  obtains  the  cession  of 
Silesia,  735  ;  enters  on  the  second 
Sile«ian  war,  737  ;  fights  in  Saxony 
and  Bohemia,  752  ;  defeats  the  French 
at  Rossbach  and  the  Austrians  at 
Leuthen,  ib.  ;  fights  at  Zorndorf  and 
Hochkirch,  753;  continues  the  struggle, 
756  ;  complains  that  England  has 
abandoned  him,  and  makes  peace  at 
Hubertsburg,  767 

Frederick  V.,  Elector  Palatine,  marries 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.,  ^88; 
elected  King  of  Bohemia,  490  ;  driven 
out  of  Bohemia,  ib.  ;  diplomatic  efforts 
of  James  I.,  in  favour  of,  496;  loses 
the  Palatinate,  497 

Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  quarrels 
with  his  father  and  puts  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  opposition,  725 

Free-trade,  Adam  Smith  promulgates 
the  doctrine  of,  810  ;  Pitt's  measures 
in  support  of,  ib.  ;  steps  taken  by 
Huskisson  and  Robinson  in  the  direc- 
tion of,  886 

Freemen,  gradual  disappearance  of,  69 

French,  the,  Dukes  of,  63  ;  Hugh  Capet, 
king  of,  80 

French  Revolution,  the  ;  j^ee  France 
^T2 


998 


INDEX 


FRI 

Friars,  the,  orders  of,  190;  arrive  in 
England,  191 

Friedland,  baitle  of,  858 

Frith  burnt,  390 

Frobisher  holds  a  command  against  the 
Armada,  460 

Fuentes  d'Onoro,  battle  of,  869 

Furniture,  improvement  of,  in  Eliza- 
bethan houses,  465 

Fyrd,  the,  a  general  army  of  the  villagers, 
30 ;  y^lfred  reforms,  60  ;  comparative 
disuse  of,  69  ;  retained  after  the  Nor- 
man Conquest,  106  ;  see  Assize  of  Arms 


Gaelic  a  Goidelic  language,  7 

Gage,  General,  sent  as  Governor  of 
Massachusetts,  782  ;  recalled,  784 

Gainas,  the,  settlements  of,  28 

Gainsborough,  origin  of  the  name  of,  28 

Galway,  County,  Wentworth  punishes 
the  jury  of,  528 

Galway,  Earl  of,  occupies  Madrid,  684  ; 
retreats  to  Valencia,  685  ;  defeated  at 
Almanza,  689  ;  see  Ruvigny,  Marquis  of 

Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  sent  to 
Rome  by  Henry  VIII.,  before  he  is 
a  bishop,  382  ;  opposes  far  her  in- 
novations, 411  ;  excluded  from  the 
Council,  412  ;  sent  to  the  Tov\er,  414  ; 
deprived  of  his  see,  416  ;  made  Lord 
Chancellor  by  Mary,  421 

Garter,  the  order  of  the,  institution  of,  246 

Gascoigne,  Chief  Justice,  299 

Gates,  General,  defeated  at  Camden,  788 

Gaul,  trade  of  Britain  vi^ith,  8,  12  ;  per- 
sistency of  Roman  civilisation  in,  37  ; 
renewal  of  trade  with,  38 

Gauls  arrive  in  Britain,  8 

Gaveston,  Piers,  favoured  by  Edward 
II.,  224  ;  execution  of,  226^ 

General  warrants  declared  illegal,  769, 
770 

Geneva,  establishment  of  Calvin's 
system  at,  430 

Gentry,  the  country,  633 

Geoffrey,  Count  of  Anjou,  marries  the 
Empress  Matilda,  131 ;  conquers  Nor- 
mandy, 136 

Geoffrey  Fitz-Peter,  Justiciar,  163 

Geoffrey,  son  of  Henry  II.,  marries  the 
heiress  of  Brittany,  155  ;  dies,  156 

George  I.  proclaimed  king,  701  ;  places 
the  Whigs  in  ofhce,  702  ;  effect  of  his 
withdrawal  from  cabinet  meetings, 
704 ;  becomes  unpopular,  705 ;  dis- 
misses Townshend,  709  ;  death  of,  718 

George  II.,  accession  of,  718 ;  keeps 
Walpole  in  power,  719 ;  supports 
Maria  Theresa,  735 ;  defeats  the 
French  at  Dettingen,  737 ;  laments 
the  death  of  Henry  Pelham,  746  ;  in- 
sists on  the  execution  of  Byng,  750 ; 
death  of,  764 

George  III.,  accession  and  aims- of, 
765 ;  forces  Pitt  and  Newcastle  to 
resign,  766  ,  puts  himself  at  the  head 
of   the    new    Tory    party,    767 ;    his 


GLA 

method  of  governing,  768  ;  his  struggle 
with  Grenville,  770 ;  dismisses  Rock- 
ingham, and  places  Chatham  in  office, 
773  ;  makes  Lord  North  Prime  Minis- 
ter, 776  ;  has  public  opinion  on  his  side 
against  the  Americans,  777  ;  resolves 
to  put  down  resistance  in  Boston,  780; 
refuses  to  admit  Chatham  to  office 
except  as  North's  subordinate,  787 ; 
declares  against  dividing  the  empire, 
787  ;  attributes  the  dissipations  of  his 
eldest  son  to  Fox,  800  ;  obtains  the  re- 
jection of  Fox's  India  Bill,  806 ;  his 
relations  with  Pitt,  808  ;  mental  de- 
rangement of,  811  ;  thanksgiving  for 
the  recovery  of,  812  ;  attacked  by  a 
mob,  830 ;  protests  against  Catholic 
emancipation,  833  ;  refuses  his  con- 
sent to  Pitt's  proposals  on  behalf  of 
the  Irish  Catholics,  842  ;  short  mental 
derangement  of,  843 ;  abandons  the 
title  of  King  of  France,  846  ;  insists 
on  the  exclusion  of  Fox  from  Pitt's 
second  ministry,  848  ;  expels  from 
office  the  ministry  of  All  the  Talents, 
857  ;  his  remark  on  the  bombardment 
of  Copenhagen,  862 ;  becomes  per- 
manently insane,  868  ;  death  of,  880 

George  IV.,  accession  of,  880;  separated 
from  his  wife,  881  ;  his  interview  with 
Goderich,  893  ;  death  of,  898 

George,  Prince  of  Wales  (son  of  George 
III.),  dissipated  life  of,  800;  bill  for 
conferring  the  regency  on,  811  ;  his 
misconduct  towards  his  father,  812  ; 
becomes  Regent,  868  ;  becomes  King, 
880  ;  see  George  IV. 

George  of  Denmark,  Prince,  deserts 
James  II.,  645 

Geraldine  rebellion,  the,  402 

Gerard  murders  William  of  Orange,  456 

Gerard  and  Vowel's  plot,  569 

German  confederation,  the,  873 

German  empire,  foundation  of  a  new,  964 

Germany,  attempt  of  the  Frankfurt 
parliament  to  unite,  934  ;  dissolution 
of  the  Frankfurt  parliament  in,  936  ; 
formation  of  a  North  German  Confede- 
ration in,  963  ;  goes  to  war  withFrance, 
964 

Gesiths,  the,  personal  devotion  of,  30; 
their  relation  to  the  Ceorls,  ib.  ;  their 
name  changed  to  that  of  Thegns,  31 

Gewissas,  the,  combine  with  Jutes,  28  ; 
see  West  Saxons 

Ghent,  Jacob  van  Arteveldt  at,  235  ; 
Philip  van  Arteveldt  at,  278  ;  pacifica- 
tion of,  450  ;  peace  of,  873 

Gibraltar,  surrenders  to  Sir  G.  Rooke, 
682 ;  assigned  to  England  by  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht,  696  ;  siege  of,  by 
the  French  and  Spaniards,  798 

Ginkell,  General,  commands  in  Ireland, 
656 

Giraldus  Cambrensis,  167 

'  Give  us  our  eleven  days  ! '  744 

Gladstone,  as  a  minister  under  Peel, 
926 ;     becomes      Chancellor    of     the    , 


imkx 


999 


GLA 

Exchequer  in  the  Aberdeen  ministry, 
943  ;  opposes  a  war  with  China,  955  ; 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in 
Palmerston's  second  ministry,  956 ; 
supports  the  commercial  treaty  with 
France,  958  ;  becomes  Prime  Minister, 
962';  disestablishes  the  Protestant 
Church  of  Ireland,  ib.  ;  passes  an 
Irish  Land  Act,  963 ;  abolishes  pur- 
chase in  the  army,  964  ;  foreign  policy 
of  the  ministry  of,  965  ;  resignation  of, 
966;  Prime  Minister  for  the  second 
time,  970  ;  resignation  of,  972 

Glamorgan,  Edward  Herbert,  Marquis 
of,  his  secret  mission  to  Ireland,  549 

Glanvile,  Ranulf  de,  captures  William 
the  Lion,  154  ;  writes  the  first  English 
law-book, 167 

Glasgow,  the  Assembly  of,  526 

Glastonbury,  Dunstan,  abbot  of,  65 ; 
proceedings  of  Dunstan  at,  106 

Glastonbury,  the  Abbot  of,  executed, 
400 

Glencoe,  massacre  of,  654 

Glendower,  Owen,  heads  the  Welsh, 
293  ;  decline  of  the  power  of,  296 

Glevum  (Gloucester),  Saxon  conquest  of, 
35 

Gloucester,  Duke  of  (brother  of  Edward 
IV.),  see  Richard  III. 

Gloucester,  Duke  of,  Humphrey(brother 
of   Henry  V.),   appointed    Protector, 

307  ;  marries  Jacqueline  of  Hainault, 

308  ;  quarrels  with  Cardinal  Beaufort, 
309,  314;  his  relations  with  Eleanor 
Cobham,  315  ;  advocates  a  war  policy, 
317  ;  death  of,  318 

Gloucester,  Duke  of  (son  of  Queen 
Anne),  death  of,  671 

Gloucester,  Duke  of,  Thomas,  son  of 
Edward  III.,  heads  the  opposition  to 
Richard  II.,  279 ;  driven  from  power, 
280 ;  murdered,  282 

Gloucester,  Earl  of  (Gilbert  de  Clare), 
allies  himself  with  Earl  Simon,  200 ; 
becomes  one  of  the  three  Electors,  201  ; 
joins  Edward  against  Simon  at  Eves- 
ham, 203 

Gloucester,  Earl  of,  see  Robert 

Gloucester,  Earl  of  (Richard  de  Clare), 
quarrels  with  Earl  Simon,  199  ;  joins 
Earl  Simon,  and  dies,  200 

Gloucester,  raising  of  the  siege  of,  539 

Gloucester,  see  Glevum 

Goderich,  Viscount,  becomes  Prime 
Minister,  892  ;  resignation  of,  893  ;  see 
Robinson,  Frederick  J.,  and  Ripon, 
Earl  of 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  121 

Godfrey,  Sir  Edmund  Berry,  murder  of, 
615 

'  Godly  party,'  the,  544 

Godolphin,  Lord,  connected  with  Marl- 
borough, 677  ;  his  financial  ability, 
678  ;  turns  to  the  Whigs,  684  ;  sup- 
ports the  Union  with  Scotland,  685 

Godwine  becomes  Earl  of  the  West 
Saxons,  84  ;  supports  Harthacnut,  85  ; 


charged  with  the  murder  of  ^Elfred 

86  ;  governs  under  Eadward,  87  ;  out 

lawed,  88  ;  return  and  death  of,  89 
Goidels,  the,  a  branch  of  the  Celts,  6  ; 

languages  spoken  by  the  descendants 

of,  7 
Gondomar,     Count      of,     negotiates    a 

Spanish  alliance  with  James  I.,  488, 

490 
Good  Parliament,  the,  262 
CJordon,  General,  murder  of,  972 
Gordon  riots,  the,  792 
Goring,  George  Goring,  Lord,  defeated 

at  Langport,  548 
Goiigh,  General,  defeats  the  Sikhs  on  the 

Sutlej,  951  ;  becomes  Lord  Gough,  is 

checked  at  Chillianw  alia,  and  defeats 

the  Sikhs  at  Gujerat,  ib. 
Grafton,    Duke   of.    First   Lord   of  the 

Treasury,  773  ;  resignation  of,  776 
Graham  of  Claverhouse,  John,  attempts 

■  to  suppress  the  Covenanters,  620 
Graham,  Sir  James,  resigns  office,  912  ; 

a  member  of  Peel's  cabinet,  926 
Grammar-schools,  foundation  of,  419 
Granada,  conquest  of,  349 
Grand  Alliance,  the,  signed  by  William 

in.,  675 

Grand  Remonstrance,  the,  534 

Grattan  leads  the  movement  for  the 
legislative  independence  of  Ireland, 
795  ;  resists  the  Union,  842 

Graupian  Hill,  the,  battle  of,  17 

Gray,  his  Elegy  quoted  by  Wolfe,  755 

Great  Contract,  the,  484 

Great  Council,  the,  composition  of,  113  ; 
urges  William  to  name  an  archbishop, 
117;  summoned  to  Rockingham,  118; 
becomes  unimportant  under  Henry  I., 
126  ;  frequently  consulted  by  Henry 
II.,  141  ;  meets  at  Clarendon,  144 ; 
remonstrates  with  Henry  III.,  188, 
192  ;  refuses  money  to  Henry  III., 
194  ;  begins  to  be  known  as  Parlia- 
ment, 195  ;  meets  at  York,  529  ;  see 
Parliament 

Great  Mogul,  the  break-up  of  the  empire 
o^'  758      . 

Greece,  national  uprising  in,  884  ;  battle 
of  Navarino  fought  for  the  liberation 
of,  893  ;  acquires  Thessaly,  970 

Greenwich  Hospital,  foundation  of,  663 

Greenwood  hanged,  472 

Gregorian  calendar,  the,  introduced  into 
England,  743 

Gregory  I.,  Pope,  finds  English  slave- 
boys  at  Rome,  28  ;  sends  Augustine  to 
England,  39 

Gregory  VII.,  Pope,  his  relations  with 
William  I.,  107 

Gregory  IX.,  Pope,  demands  money 
from  England,  194 

Grenville,  George,  character  of,  _  768  ; 
becomes  Prime  Minister,  769 ;  issues 
a  general  warrant,  ib.  ;  offends  George 
III.,  770;  carries  the  Stamp  Act,  771  ; 
dismissal  of,  ib.  ;  asserts  that  the 
House  of  Commons  has  no  right  to 


tooo 


INDEX 


ORE 

incapacitate  Wilkes,    774 ;  death   of, 

779  . 
Grenville,  Lord,  replies  to  Bonaparte's 

overture    for  peace,    840 ;    refuses  to 

join    Pitt's  second  ministry,  848  ;  be- 
comes Prime  Minister,  855 
Grey,  advocates  Parliamentary  reform, 

827  ;  continues  in  opposition,  828  ;  see 

Grey,  Earl 
Grey,  Arthur,  Lord,  slaughters  foreign 

soldiers  at  Smerwick,  453 
Grey,    Earl,    becomes    Prime   Minister, 

901 ;  resignation  of,  912 
Grey,  family  of,    favoured   by  Edward 

IV.,  331 
Grey,  John  de,  nominated  Archbishop  of 

Canterbury  by   John,    177  ;    unpopu- 
larity of,  178 
Grey,   Lady    Catherine,   marriage    and 

imprisonment  of,  435 
Grey,  Lady  Jane,  is  proclaimed  Queen, 

420  ;  executed,  423 
Grey,    Lord    Leonard,    becomes    Lord 

Deputy  of  Ireland,   402  ;  conquers  a 

great  part  of  Ireland,  404 
Grey,  Sir  Thomas,  execution  of,  301 
Grindal,     Archbishop     of    Canterbury, 

suspension  of,  450 
Grocyn  encourages  the  study  of  Greek 

at  Oxford,  367 
Grossetete,   Robert,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 

opposes  Henry  III.,  194,  195  ;  death 

of,  197 
Grote,  his  History  q/Greecc,  941 
Gualo,  legate  of  Honorius  III.,  185 
Guerillas,  ihe  Spanish,  869 
Guiana,      Raleigh's    voyage    to,    489 ; 

British,  conque-t  of,  859 
Guicowar,  the,  a  Mahratta  chief,  802 
Guinegatte,  battle  of  the  Spurs  at,  364 
Guise,   Francis,  Duke  of,  takes  Calais, 

427  ;  murder  of,  436 
Guise,    Henry,    Duke    of,     heads     the 

French  Catholics,   443 ;    conspires  to 

murder    Elizabeth,    454  ;    heads    the 

League,  456  ;  murdered,  464 
Guisnes,  taken  by  the  French,  427 
Guizot     becomes     Prime     Minister     in 

France,  922 
Gunpowder  Plot,  the,  483 
Guthrum    defeats    M\ir&d,    58 ;    makes 

peace  at  Wedmore,  59  ;  cedes  London 

to  Alfred,  ib.  ;  extent  of  the  kingdom 

of,  62 
Gwledig,  British  title  of,  26 ;  title  thought 

to  have  been  assumed   by  Eadwine, 

44 
Gwynedd  under  Csedwalla,  46 
Gyrth,  Earl  of  East  Anglia,  89 


Habeas  CorJ>ns  Aci,  617,  suspension  of, 
877  ;  end  of  the  suspension  of,  879 

Habeas  corpus,  writ  of,  dispute  whether 
it  ought  to  show  the  cause  of  imprison- 
ment, 507 

Hadrian,  the  Emperor,  wall  of,  17 

Hague,  the,  conference  at,  690 


HAS  ; 

Hales,  destruction  of  the  phial  at,  398  ' 

Hales,  Sir  Edward,  holds  an  appoint-  jj 
ment  by  the  dispensing  power,  639  j 

Halidon  Hill,  the  Scots  defeated  at,  234  I 

Halifax,  George  Savile,  Earl,  afterwards  ] 
Marquis  of,  supports  the  Duke  of  .; 
York's  succession,  618  ;  persuades  the  ] 
House  of  Lords  to  reject  the  Exclusion  J 
Bill,  621  ;  advises  Charles  II.  to  j 
summon  Parliament,  626  ;  dismissed  ■'. 
by  James  II.,  638  | 

Hailey,  astronomer,  632  . 

Hamilton,   James   Hamilton,    Duke  of,         j 
as  Marquis  of  Hamilton  dissolves  the         J 
Assembly  of  Glasgow,  526;  is  defeated 
at  Preston,  557 

Hamilton  family  support  Mary,  440 

Hamilton  of  Bothwellhaugh  assassinates 
the  regent  Murray,  441 

Hampden  resists  ship-money,  524  ; 
calms  the  House  of  Commons  after 
the  passing  of  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance, 534  ;  one  of  the  five  members, 
535  ;  death  of,  538 

Hampton  Court  Conference,  the,  482 

Hanover,  George  I.  anxious  to  secure, 
709 ;  Pitt  attacks  Carteret  for  his 
devotion  to  the  interests  of,  738  ;  New- 
castle provides  for  the  defence  of, 
748 ;  Pitt  asks  for  a  grant  for  the 
protection  of,  750 ;  overrun  by  the 
French,  752  ;  Pitt's  measures  for  the 
defence  of,  ib. ;  seized  by  Bonaparte, 
848 ;  offered  alternately  to  England 
and  Prussia,  855 

Harfleur  taken  by  Henry  V.,  302  ;  se- 
cured by  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  303 

Hargreaves  invents  the  spinning-jenny, 

815 

Harlech  Castle,  surrender  of,  550 

Harley,  Sir  Robert,  comes  into  ofifice  as 
a  moderate  Tory,  681  ;  obtains  the  re- 
jection of  an  Occasional  Conformity 
Bill,  682  ;  turned  out  of  office,  687  ;  is 
a  member  of  a  purely  Tory  ministry, 
691  ;  recommends  the  creation  of 
twelve  peers,  695 ;  becomes  Lord 
Treasurer  and  Earl  of  Oxford,  696  ; 
see  Oxford,  Earl  of 

Harold  Hardrada  invades  England,  94  ; 
is  slain  at  Stamford  Bridge,  96 

Hafold,  son  of  Cnut,  chosen  king  by  the 
Mercians,  85 ;  death  of,  86 

Harold,  son  of  Godwine,  earl  of  the 
West  Saxons,  89  ;  rules  England  under 
Eadward,  90  ;  chosen  king,  91 ;  his  oath 
to  William,  93 ;  marches  into  the 
North,  94 ;  defeats  Harold  Hardrada 
at  Stamford  Bridge,  95  ;  defeated  and 
slain  at  Senlac,  98 

Harthacnut,  chosen  king  of  the  West 
Saxons,  85  ;  comes  to  England,  and 
dies,  86 

Hastings,  battle  of,  see  Senlac 

Hastings,  John,  claims  a  third  of  Scot- 
land, 215  n-  u     J 

Hastings,  Lord,  turns  against  Richard 
II L,  339;  execution  of,  340 


INDEX 


lOOI 


Hastings,  Marquis  of,  Governor-General 
of  India,  948 

Hastings,  Warren,  appointed  Governor 
of  Bengal,  801  ;  his  authoiity  dimin- 
ished by  the  Regulating  Act,  803  j 
the  execution  of  Nuncomar  happened 
at  an  opportune  time  for,  ib.  ;  engages 
in  a  struggle  with  the  Mahrattas,  804  ; 
demands  a  large  contribution  from 
Cheyt  Singh,  tb.  ;  enforces  the  pay- 
ment of  money  by  the  Begums  of 
Oude,  805  ;  character  of  his  rule,  ib.  ; 
resignation  of,  808  ;  impeachment  of, 
3ii 

Havelock  relieves  Lucknow,  953 

Havre  occupied  and  abandoned  by 
Elizabeth,  436 

Hawke,  Admiral,  sent  out  against  the 
French,  748  ;  defeats  the  French  in 
Quiberon  Bay,  756 

Hawley,  General,  defeated  at  Falkirk, 
740 

Hazlerigg,  Sir  Arthur,  one  of  the  five 
members,  535 

Heads  of  the  Proposals,  the,  555 

Heathfield,  battle  of,  46 

Heavenfield,  battle  of,  47 

Hedgeley  Moor,  battle  of,  331 

Helie  de  la  Fleche  opposes  William  II., 
121 

Hengist,  traditionalleaderof  the  Jutes,  27 

Henrietta  Maria,  Queen,  negotiations 
for  the  marriage  of,  500 ;  marries 
Charles  I.,  502  ;  a  papal  agent  at  the 
Court  of,  521  ;  carries  abroad  the 
crown  jewels,  536 ;  urges  Charles  not 
to  abandon  the  militia,  552 

Henry  I.  receives  no  land  at  his  father's 
death,  114  ;  his  wars  with  his  brothers, 
119  ;  accession  and  marriage  of,  122  ; 

Suts  down  insurrections,  124  ;  conquers 
formandy,  125  ;  his  dispute  with 
Anselm,  ib. ;  judicial  reforms  of,  127 ; 
makes  war  in  Normandy,  129  ;  loses 
his  only  son,  130  ;  death  of,  131 
Henry  II.,  early  career  of,  136  ;  marries 
Eleanor,  137 ;  character  of,  138  ;  ad- 
vances Thomas  of  London,  140  ;  ad- 
ministrative system  of,  140-142  ;  ap- 
points Thomas  archbishop,and  quarrels 
with  him,  143  ;  draws  up  the  Consti- 
tutions of  Clarendon,  144 ;  persecutes 
Thomas,  145 ;  issues  the  Assize  ot 
Clarendon,  1^6  ;  renews  the  itinerant 
justices,  and  inquires  into  the  conduct 
of  the  sheriflfs,  148  ;  has  young  Henry 
crowned,  149 ;  uses  strong  language 
against  Thomas,  150;  goes  to  Ireland, 
151  ;  renounces  the  Constitutions  or 
Clarendon,  153;  does  penance,  154; 
issues  the  Assize  of  Arms,  ib.;  his 
domestic  troubles,  155  ;  takes  the  cross 
and  dies,  157 ;  his  weakness  on  the 
Continent  and  strength  in  England^ 
158;  literary  vigour  under,  167 
Henry  II.,  kmg  of  France,  allied  with 
Scotland,  413  ;  his  attitude  towards 
Elizabeth,  432  ;  death  of,  433 


HEN 

Henry  III.,  minority  of,  185  ;  favours 
Poitevins  under  the  influence  of  Peter 
des  Roches,  187  ;  marries  Eleanor  ot 
Provence  and  favours  Proven9als,  192  ; 
frequently  renews  the  Great  Charter, 
192  ;  quarrels  with  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  193  ;  surrenders  Poitou,  194  ;  is 
opposed  by  Parliament,  195  ;  hopes  to 
make  his  second  son  King  of  Sicily, 
196  ;  misgovernment  of,  197  ;  consents 
to  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  198 ; 
recovers  power,  200  taken  prisoner 
at  Lewes,  201 ;  last  years  of,  204  ; 
progress  of  the  country  in  the  reign  of, 
206 

Henry  III.,  king  of  France,  proposes, 
as  Duke  of  Anjou,to  ma'ry  Elizabeth, 
443  ;  accession  of,  450  ;  murder  of,  464 

Henry  IV.  (see  Derby,  Earl  of)  claims  the 
throne,  286;  meets  with  difficulties, 
289  ;  leans  on  the  Church,  291 ;  rebel- 
lion of  the  Percies  against,  293  ;  keeps 
James  I.  as  a  hostage,  295  ;  suppresses 
a  rebellion  in  the  North,  296  ;  quarrels 
with  the  Prince  of  Wales,  298  ;  death 
of,  299 

Henry  IV.,  king  of  France,  his  succes- 
sion to  the  French  crown  disputed, 
456  ;  overpowers  the  League,  464 

Henry  IV.,  Emperor,  resists  Gregory 
VII.,  108 

Henry  V.,  career  of,  as  Prince  of  Wales, 
297-299 ;  domestic  policy  of,  299  ; 
claims  the  crown  of  France,  300; 
defeats  the  French  at  Agincourt,  302  ; 
conquers  Normandy,  303 ;  forms  an 
alliance  with  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  is  declared  heir  to  the  French 
throne,  306 ;  marriage  and  death  of, 
ib. 

Henry  V.,  Emperor,  marries  Matilda, 
131 

Henry  VI.,  accession  of,  307 ;  crowned 
at  Westminster  and  Paris,  312  ;  mar- 
riage of,  317  ;  supports  Somerset,  323  ; 
insanity  of,  tb.\  recovery  and  renewed 
insanity  of,  324 ;  second  recovery  of, 
ib.',  attempts  to  reconcile  the  parties, 
325 ;  declared  a  traitor  by  Edward 
IV.,  329  ;  restoration  of,  333  ;  murder 
of,  334 

Henry  VI.,  Emperor,  his  relations  with 
Richard  I.,  161,  162 

Henry  VII.,  as  Earl  of  Richmond, 
genealogy  of,  334 ;  invades  England, 
343;  defeats  Richard  III.  and  be- 
comes king,  ib.  ;  supported  by  the 
middle  classes,  345 ;  suppresses  Lord 
Lovel's  rising,  346  ;  his  relations  with 
Brittany  and  France,  348  ;  assailed  by 
Perkin  Warbeck,  350  ;  sends  Poynings 
to  Ireland,  352  ;  restores  Kildare  to 
the  Deputyship,  352  ;  secures  Warbeck, 
ib.  ;  effects  an  alliance  with  Scotland, 
356 ;  encourages  maritime  enterprise, 
356  ;  fills  his  treasury,  357  ;  his  alliance 
with  the  Archduke  Philip,  358  ;  last 
years  and  death  of,  358 


1002 


INDEX 


HEN 

Henry  VIII.,  character  of,  361  ;  marries 
Catharine  of  Aragon,  363 ;  foreign 
policy  of,  ib.  ;  promotes  Wolsey,  ib.  ; 
favours  More,  368  ;  meets  Francis  I. 
on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold, 
369  ;  has  Buckingham  executed,  ib.  ; 
invades  France,  371  ;  his  views  on  his 
relations  vv'ith  the  Church,  377  ;  is 
named  Defender  of  the  Faith,  379  ; 
thinks  of  obtaining  a  divorce,  ib.  ; 
urges  Clement  VII.  to  divorce  him, 
382  ;  demands  a  sentence  of  nullity, 
383 ;  makes  a  victim  of  Wolsey,  ib.  ; 
gains  the  support  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  385 ;  consults  the  uni- 
versities, and  charges  the  clergy  with 
being  under  a /n-^;«?<«zV^,  ib.  ;  obtains 
from  Convocation  the  title  of  Supreme 
Head,  386  ;  has  no  tenderness  towards 
heresy,  388 ;  obtains  the  Act  of  An- 
nates, ib.  ;  marries  Anne  Boleyn,  and 
is  divorced,  389  ;  attempts  to  suppress 
heresy,  and  obtains  fresh  powers  from 
Parliament,  390 ;  sends  More  and 
Fisher  to  the  Tower,  392  ;  Act  of 
Supremacy  in  favour  of,  393  ;  dissolves 
the  smaller  monasteries,  394 ;  marries 
Jane  Seymour,  39s ;  issues  the  ten 
articles,  and  authorises  the  translation 
of  the  Bible,  396 ;  deals  hardly  with  the 
Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  397  ;  begins  the 
confiscation  of  the  greater  monasteries, 
ib.  ;  attacks  relics  and  images,  398  ; 
presides  at  Lambert's  trial,  395 ; 
obtains  from  Parliament  the  six 
articles,  395  ;  marries  and  divorces 
Anne  of  Cleves,  400-401 ;  marries  and 
beheads  Catherine  Howard,  401; 
marries  Catherine  Parr,  ib.  ;  his 
government  of  Ireland,  401-404  ;  takes 
Boulogne,  405  ;  makes  war  with 
Scotland,  406  ;  debases  the  coinage, 
409  ;  death  of,  411 

Henry  of  Blois,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
131 ;  declares  against  Stephen,  134 

Henry  of  Trastamara,  255 

Henry,  Prince  of  Wales,  son  of  James 
I.,  intention  of  the  Gunpowder  plotters 
to  blow  up,  483  ;  death  of,  488 

Henry,  son  of  Henry  II.,  coronation  of, 
149  ;  rebellion  of,  153  ;  death  of,  156 

Henry  the  Fowler,  his  mode  of  warfare, 

79 
Hereford,  besieged  by  the  Scots,  549 
Hereford,  Duke  of,  see  Derby,  Earl  of 
Hereford,   Earl    of,   see  Bohun,   Hum- 

frey 
Heresy  held   to  be  punishable  by   the 

Common  Law,  419 
Heretics,  Statute  for  burning,  292 
Hereward,  rising  of,  103 
Herrings,  battle  of  the,  309 
Hertford,  Earl  of,  see  Somerset,  Edward 

Seymour,  Duke  of 
Hexham,  battle  of,  331 
High  Commission,  the,  Court  of,  erection 

of,    470  ;  its   activity   in   the  reign  of 

Charles  I.,  520;  abolition  of, 531 


HRO 

High  Court  of  Justice,  the,  proposal  to 

constitute  rejected  by  the  Lords,  557  ; 

constituted  by  the  Commons,  55S 
Highland  Host,  the,  619 
Hii,  see  lona 

Hill,  Rowland,  post-office  reform  advo- 
cated by,  918 
Hlaford,  see  Lord 

Hoche  attempts  to  invade  Ireland,  834 
Hogarth,  paintings  of,  746 
Hohenlinden,  battle  of,  840 
Holkar,  a  Mahratta  chief,  802  ;  induced 

to  sign  subsidiary  treaty,  859 
Holland,  province  of,  its  influence  in  the 

Dutch  Republic,  589 
Holies  takes  part  in  holding  down  the 

Speaker,  514;  one  of  the  five  members, 

535 
Holmby    House,   Charles    I.    at,    553 ; 

Charles  I.,  removed  from,  555 
Holmes,   Admiral,   attacks    the    Dutch 

fleet,  605 
Holy  Alliance,  the  so-called,  883 
Holy  League,  the,  363 
Homildon  Hill,  battle  of,  293 
Honorius    III,,    Pope,   protects  Henry 

IIL,  185 
Hooker,  his  Ecclesiastical  Polity^  472 
Hooper,    Bishop   of  Gloucester,  refuses 

to  wear  vestments,  417  ;  receives  the 

bishopric  of  Worcester,    418;   speaks 

of  his  dioceses  as    the    king's,   420 ; 

burnt,  424 
Hopton,    Sir     Jtalph,    commands     the 

Royalists     in     Cornwall,     537,     538 ; 

fights  on  Lansdown,  538  ;   takes  and 

loses  Arundel  Castle,  542  ;  is  defeated 

at  Cheriton,  ib. 
IJorne   Tooke,   Hardy,   and    Thelwall, 

acquittal  of,  829 
Horsa,  a  traditional  leader  of  the  Jutes, 

27 
Horses  used  to  carry  warriors  to  battle, 

75 
Horsley,  Bishop,  saying  of,  830 
Hotham,  Sir  John,  shuts  the  gates  of 

Hull  against  Charles  I.,  537 
Hough,  chosen  President  of  Magdalen 

College,  641 
Houghton,   prior  of  the   Charterhouse, 

execution  of,  394 
Hounslow,  James  II.  reviews  regiments 

at,  643 
House-carls,  83,  93 
Howard  of  Effingham,  Charles  Howard, 

Lord,  commands  the  fleet  against  the 

Armada,  460  ;  takes  part  in  the  capture 

of  Cadiz,  464 
Howard  of  Escrick,  Edward  Howard, 

Lord,  informs  against  the  Whigs,  625 
Howe,  Lord,  defeats   the   French  fleet 

on  the  first   of  June,  828  ;  persuades 

the  mutineers  at  Spithead   to  return 

to  their  duty,  836 
Howe,    Sir     William,     commands    the 

British  army  in  America,  and  occupies 

New  York,  784 
Hrolf,  Duke  of  the  Normans,  60 


INDEX 


1003 


HUB 


IRE 


Hubert  de  Burgh  holds  Dover  Castle, 

185  ;  administration  of,  186-188 
Hubert  Walter,  administration  of,  163 ; 

death  of,  177 
Hubertsburg,  peace  of,  767 
Hudibras,  597 
Hudson's    Bay    territory    assigned    to 

England,  696 
Hugh  Capet,  80 

Hugh  of  Lusignan  rises  against  John,  174 
Hugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  the  French,  63 
Huguenots,  the,  supported  by  Elizabeth, 

436  ;  Buckingham  lends  ships  to  fight 

against,  504 
Hull,  its  gates  shut  against  Charles  I., 

537  ;  besieged  by  Newcastle,  542 
Humble  Petition  and  Advice,  the,  573 
Hundred  Days,  the,  874 
Hundred  Years'  War,  the,  234 
Hundred-moot,  the,  organisation  of,  31  ; 

judicial    functions    of,    32 ;    gradual 

decay  of,  72 
Hundreds,  early  political  organisation  of 

the,  31 
Hunt,  'Orator,'  attempt  to  arrest,  879 
Huntingdon,  David  I.  holds  the  earldom 

of,  132 
Huntley,   George  Gordon,  fourth  Earl 

of,  oveipowered  by  Mary,  437 
Hurst  Castle,  Charles  I.  imprisoned  in, 

Huskisson,  supports  the  repeal  of  the 
combination  laws,  886 ;  takes  office 
under  Wellington,  893  ;  death  of,  909 

Hwiccas,  the,  split  off  from  the  West 
Saxons,  36 

Hyde,  Anne,  marries  the  Duke  of  York, 
6.8 

Hyder  Ali,  makes  himself  master  ot 
Mysore,  and  ravages  the  Camatic,  804; 
death  of,  805 


Iberians,  the,  5 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  desolates  Pelopon- 
nebus,  884  ;  gains  victories  over  the 
Turks,  921 

Iceni,  the  geographical  position  of,  8 ; 
take  part  with  the  Romans,  13 ; 
roused  to  insurrection  by  Boadicea,  15 

Ictis,  probably  identified  with  Thanet,  8 

Ida  becomes  king  of  Bernicia,  36 

Idle,  the,  Eadwine's  victory  on,  43 

Images,  destruction  of,  398 

Impeachment  of  Latimer  and  Lyons, 
262  ;  of  Suffijlk,  322  ;  of  Bacon,  496  ;  of 
Buckingham,  Montague,  and  Manwar- 
ing,  511  ;  of  Strafford,  530 ;  of  twelve 
bishops,  535  ;  of  the  five  members, 
536;  of  Laud,  546;  of  Danby,  616; 
pardon  not  to  be  pleaded  in  bar  of,  617 

Impositions,  the  New,  first  levy  of,  484  ; 
question  of  the  legality  of,  505  ;  act 
preventing  the  king  from  levying,  531 

Inclosures,  growth  of,  320  ;  More's  attack 
on,  368 ;  Ket's  rebellion  directed 
against,  416  ;  cessation  of  complaints 
against,  464 


Income-tax,  imposed  by  Pitt,  840;  re- 
moved, 876  ;  imfKDsed  by  Peel,  926 

Independents,  the,  originally  known  as 
Separatists,  543 ;  driven  from  the 
House,  and  reinstated  by  the  army, 
555  ;  are  unpopular  after  the  Re- 
storation, 584 

Ir.dia,  break-up  of  the  empire  of  the 
Great  Mogul  and  first  settlements  of 
the  East  India  Company  in,  758 ; 
condition  of,  after  the  death  of  Au- 
rungzebe,  759  ;  influence  of  the  French 
in  the  souih  of,  760 ;  struggle  between 
Cliveand  Dupleixin,  761;  the  subjuga- 
tion of  Bengal  in,  762  ;  struggle  with 
Lally  in,  764  ;  Clive's  return  to  sup- 
press extortion  in,  801  ;  Hastings 
assists  the  Nawab  of  Oude  to  subdue 
the  Rohillas  in,  802;  the  Regulating 
Act  alters  the  government  of,  ib.  ; 
Pitt's  Bill  for  the  government  of,  808  ; 
defeat  of  Tippoo  in,  837  ;  overthrow  of 
Tippoo  in,  838  ;  Weliesley's  policy  of 
the  Ma 


subsidiary  treaties  in,  859  : 


Mar- 


quis of  Hastings  in,  948  ;  the  north- 
western frontier  of,  ib.  \  Afghanistan 
invaded  from,  949  ;  conquest  of  Sindh 
in,  950;  the  J-ikh  wars  in,  951  ;  Dal- 
housie's  annexations  in,  ib.  ;  the  Se- 
poy army  in,  952  ;  mutiny  of  the  Sepoy 
army  in,  953  ;  end  of  the  authority  of 
the  East  India  Company  in,  953;  the 
Queen's  proclamation  to  the  princes 
and  people  of,  954 

India  Bill,  the,  of  l*  ox  and  Burke,  806  ; 
of  Pitt,  808 

Ine,  his  rule  in  Wessex,  53 

Infanta,  the,  see  Maria,  the  Infanta 

Inkerman,  battle  of,  ^46 

Iniiocent  III.,  Pope,  mfluences  the  elec- 
tion of  Stephen  Langton,  177  ;  puts 
England  under  an  interdict,  and  re- 
duces John  to  submission,  178-180 ; 
declares  against  the  barons,  1 81-184  j 
establishes  the  Friars,  190 

Innocent  IV.  becomes  Pope,  195  ;  wins 
over  Henry  III.,  196 

Inquisition  of  the  Sheriffs,  the,  148 

Instrument  of  Government ,  the,  568 

Intercursus  Magnus,  the,  351 

Interdict,  England  under,  178 

Inverlochy,  battle  of,  547 

Investiture,  William  I.  claims  the  right 
of  granting,  108 ;  Anselm's  position 
with  regard  to,  125  ;  compromise  on, 
126 

lona,  missionaries  sent  forth  from,  47 

Ipswich,  Wolsey's  college  at,  founded, 
377  ;  sold  by  Henry  VIII.,  383 

Ireland,  ancient  language  of,  7  ;  Druids 
in,  10;  Christianity  introduced  into,  47; 
state  of  civilisation  in,  151  ;  partially 
conquered  by  Henry  II.,  152;  results 
of  the  conquest  of,  264  ;  weakness  of 
the  English  colony  in,  265  ;  under  Lan- 
caster and  York,  346  ;  under  Henry 
VII.,  350,  351;  under  Henry  VIII., 
401 ;  legislation  of  Henry  Vlli.  in,  402  ; 


1004 


INDEX 


IRE 

destruction  of  relics  and  images  in,  ib.  ; 
conquest  of  a  great  part  of,  404  ;  Henry 
VIII.    named    king    of,    ib.  ;    under 
Edward  VI.   and   Mary,  451  ;  intro- 
duction of  English  colonists  into,  452  ; 
landing  of  Sir  James  Fitzmaurice  in, 
ib.  ;  the  slaughter  at  Smerwick,  and 
the  Desmond  rising  in,  453  ;  O'Neill's 
rising  in,  475  ;  Essex's  invasion  of,  ib.:, 
Mountjoy's  conquest  of,  478  ;  planta- 
tion of  Ulster  in,  484  ;   Wentworth  s 
government  of,  527,  528  ;    army  col- 
lected by  Strafford  in,  529  ;  insurrec- 
tion in,   533 ;  massacre  in,   534 ;   the 
confederate  Catholics    in,   541 ;   Gla- 
morgan's mission  to,   549  ;  Rinuccini 
in,  550 ;  soldiers  asked   to  volunteer 
for,   553 ;    Cromwell   in,    562  ;   Ireton 
and  Ludlow  in,  567  ;  act  of  settlement 
iO)  595  ;  James  II.  supported  by  the 
Celtic    population    of,   640;    struggle 
between  James  II,  and  William  III. 
in,  654;  penal  laws  in,  686  ;  destruction 
of  the  commerce  of,  ib. ;  restrictions  on 
commerce  m,ib.;  volunteers  in,  796; 
legislative  independence  conceded  to, 
ib.  ;   Pitt's  scheme  for  a  commercial 
union  with,   810 ;  defective  constitu- 
tional arrangements  in,  831  ;  rise  of  the 
United  Irishmen  in,  832  ;  votes  given  to 
the  Catholics  of,  ib.;  mission  of  Lord 
Fitzwilliam  to,  ib. ;  revolutionary  out- 
break impending  in,  833  ;  Hoche  at- 
tempts to  invade,  834  ;    outrages  in, 
840  ;  rebellion  in,  841  ;  parliamentary 
union  with,  842  ;  struggle  for  Catholic 
emancipation  in,  895  ;  policy  of  Lord 
Grey's     government     towards,     C09 ; 
Thomas  Drummond's  management  of, 
916 ;    failure   of    O'Connell's    repeal 
movement  in,   928  ;  Peel's  legislation 
for,  ib.\  famine  in,  931 ;  Peel's  bill  for 
the  protection  of  life  in,    ib.;  public 
works  in,  932  ;  emigration  from,  933  ; 
relation  between  landlord  and  tenant 
in,  ib.;  Encumbered  Estates  Act  in, 
934  ;  Smith  O'Brien's  attempted  rising 
in>  935  ■>    Fenian  rising  in,  962  ;  dis- 
establishment of  the  Protestant  Church 
of,  ib.  \  L^nd  Act  of  the  first  Gladstone 
ministry  in,  963  ;  rejection  of  a  bill  on 
university  education  in,  966  ;  demand 
of  Home-Rule  for,  970  ;  Land  Act  of 
the  second  Gladstone  ministry  in,  ib.; 
bill  for  the  protection  of  life  and  pro- 
perty in,  ib.;  murders  by  the  Invin- 
cibles  in,  ib. 
Ireland,  Duke  of  (j^^  Oxford,  Earl  oO. 
supports    Richard    II.,  279 ;    is    con- 
demned to  death,  but  escapes,  280 
Ireton  draws  up  The  Heads  of  the  Pro- 
posals, 555  ;  in  Ireland,  563 
Irish  grants  of  William  III.  attacked  by 

the  House  of  Commons,  670 
Irish    Parliament,   the,   summoned   by 
James    II.,    655;    represents,    under 
William  III.,  only  the  English  colony, 
657  ;  passes  a  bill   for   the  relief  of 


JAM 

Catholics,  795  ;  legislative  independ- 
ence granted  to,  796  ;  sources  of  the 
weakness  of,  ib. 

Isabella  of  Angouleme  marries  John, 
174 

Isabella  of  Bavaria,  Queen  of  France, 
takes  part  against  her  son,  306 

Isabella  of  France  marries  Edward  II., 
225 ;  obtains  the  deposition  of  her 
husband,  229 ;  gives  power  to 
Mortimer,  231 ;  is  placed  in  seclusion, 
232 

Isca  Silurum,  Roman  colony  of,  14; 
martyrdom  of  Aaron  at,  23 

Isle  of  Wight,  Jutish  settlements  in,  28; 
plundered  by  the  French,  234 

Italy,  the  French  wars  in,  363  ;  the 
French  driven  from,  364 

Italy,  Charles  Albert  fails  to  drive  the 
Austrians  out  of,  934,  936 ;  war  for 
the  liberation  of,  956  ;  formation  of 
the  kingdom  of,  957  ;  Venetia  ceded 
to,  963  ;  Rome  united  to,  964 

Itinerant  justices  under  Henry  I.,  127; 
under  Henry  II.,  148 


Jacobites,  the,  their  action  in  the  last 
months  of  Anne's  reign,  699  ;  attempt 
a  rising  against  George  I.,  705  ;  form 
part  of  the  opposition  against  Walpole, 
722 

Jacquerie,  the,  252 

Jacqueline  of  Hainault,  marriage  of,  308 

Jamaica,  conquest  of,  572 

James  I.,  king  of  Great  Britain  {see 
James  VI.,  king  of  Scotland),  becomes 
king  of  England,  481  ;  imprisons 
Raleigh,  ib.  ;  attacks  the  Puritans  at 
Hampton  Court,  482  ;  quarrels  with 
his  first  House  of  Commons,  ib.  ; 
obtains  a  legal  decision  in  the  case  of 
the  Post-nati,  483  ;  his  government 
of  Ireland,  484  ;  his  financial  diffi- 
culties, ib.  ;  makes  Somerset  his 
favourite,  486  ;  offers  to  bargain  with 
the  Addled  Parliament,  487  ;  negoti- 
ates a  Spanish  marriage  for  his  son, 
488  ;  makes  Buckingham  a  favourite, 
ib.  ;  sends  Raleigh  to  execution,  489  ; 
watches  the  development  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  and  summons  Parliament 
to  vote  supplies,  490  ;  his  views  on 
the  prerogative,  492  ;  sells  peerages, 
494  ;  improvement  of  the  finances  of, 
ib.  ;  revokes  monopolies,  495  ;  sends 
Digby  to  Germany  and  dissolves 
Parliament,  496  ;  raises  a  benevolence, 
497  ;  his  last  Parliament,  500  ;  seeks 
to  marry  his  son  to  a  French  princess, 
501  ;  death  of,  ib. 

James  I.,  king  of  Scotland,  kept  in 
custody  by  Henry  IV.,  295  ;  liberation 
of,  307 

James  II.,  as  Duke  of  York,  declares 
himself  a  Roman  Catholic,  600 ;  his 
conversion  known,  607 ;  resigns  the 
Admiralty,   ib.  ;    marriages    of,    608  ; 


INDEX 


1005 


JAM 

attempt  to  exclude  from  the  throne, 
617  ;  his  crueky  to  the  Scottish  cove- 
nanters, 620 ;  is  present  at  his  brother's 
death,  627  ;  accession  of,  634 ;  first 
acts  of  the  reign  of,  635  ;  marches 
against  Monmouth,  637  ;  violates  the 
Test  Act  and  prorogues  Parliament, 
638  ;  claims  the  dispensing  power  and 
establishes  an  ecclesiastical  commis- 
sion, 639  ;  his  government  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  640  ;  issues  a  declaration 
of  indulgence,  ib.  ;  expels  the  Fellows 
of  Magdalen  and  tries  to  pack  a  Par- 
liament, 641  ;  issues  a  second  declara- 
tion of  indulgence,  642 ;  hears  of  the 
acquittal  of  the  seven  Bishops,  643  ; 
birth  of  a  son  of,  644  ;  makes  con- 
cessions on  hearing  of  William's 
approach,  ih.  ;  attempts  to  escape, 
645  ;  embarks  for  France,  646  ;  alleged 
virtual  abdication  of,  ib.  ;  lands  in  Ire- 
land, 654 ;  is  defeated  at  the  Boyne, 
and  takes  refuge  in  France,  656  ;  death 
of,  675 

James  IV.,  king  of  Scotland,  invades 
England,  352  ;  marries  the  daughter  of 
Henry  VII.,  356  ;  killed  at  Flodden, 
364 

James  V.,  king  of  Scotland,  policy  of, 
404 ;  death  of,  405 

James  VI.,  king  of  Scotland,  birth  and 
accession  of,  439  ;  assisted  by  Eliza- 
beth, 450  ;  becomes  the  tool  of  Lennox, 

454  ;  is  captured  by  Protestant  lords, 

455  ;  becomes  king  of  England,  481  ; 
see  James  I.,  king  of  Great  Britain 

James  (the  Old  Pretender),  birth  of,  644 

Jane  Seymour  marries  Henry  VIII., 
395  ;  death  of,  397 

Jaureguy  tries  to  murder  William  of 
Orange,  454 

Jeffreys  enforces  the  surrender  of  char- 
ters, 625  ;  sends  Baxter  to  prison,  635  ; 
is  made  Chief  Justice,  ib.\  conducts 
the  Bloody  Assizes,  637 ;  becomes 
Chancellor,  638 

Jena,  battle  of,  857 

Jenkins's  Ear,  729 

Jerusalem  captured  by  the  Crusaders, 
121  ;  captured  by  Saladin,  157 ; 
Richard  I.  refuses  to  look  at,  161 

Jervis,  Sir  John,  commands  at  the  battle 
of  _^t.  Vincent,_835 

Jesuits,  the,  origin  of,  436 ;  land  in 
England,  453;  Act  of  Parliament 
against,  456 

Jews,  the,  encouraged  by  William  II., 
115  ;  protected  by  Henry  I.,  128 ; 
massacre  of,  160  ;  persecuted  by  John, 
179;  banished  by  Edward  I.,  212 

Tews'  House,  the  so-called,  170 

John,  king  of  England,  his  misconduct  in 
Ireland,  156 ;  leads  the  opposition  to 
William  of  Longchamps,  161  ;  joins 
Philip  II.  against  Richard,  162  ;  ac- 
cession of,  173 ;  loses  Normandy  and 
Anjou,  174;  appoints  an  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  177;  quarrels  with  the 


KIL 

Pope,  178  ;  submits  to  the  Pope,  180  ; 
quarrels  with  the  barons,  181 ;  con- 
firms Magna  Carta,  182  ;  makes  war 
with  the  barons,  184  ;  dies,  185 

John,  king  of  France,  defeated  at 
Poitiers,  251 ;  brought  to  England, 
252  ;  is  liberated,  but  returns  to 
England  and  dies,  254 

John  Ball,  268 

Jones,  Ernest,  leads  the  Chartists,  924 

Jones,  Inigo,  buildings  by,  632 

Jones,  Michael,  commands  in  Dublin, 
562 

Joseph  I.,  Emperor,  succeeds  Leopold  I., 
684  ;  death  of,  693 

Joseph  Bonaparte,  becomes  King  of 
Naples,  856  ;  becomes  King  of  Spain, 
863 

Joyce,  Cornet,  carries  off  Charles  I. 
from  Holmby,  555 

Judicial  system  of  the  early  English,  31  ; 
of  Eadgar,  72  ;  of  William  I.,  107  ; 
of  Henry  I.,  127  ;  of  Henry  II.,  146 

Judith  accuses  Waltheof,  no 

Julius  II.,  papacy  of,  363  ;  character  of, 
375 

Junius  Letters,  probable  authorship 
of,  775 

Junto,  the  Whig,  formation  of,  659; 
break-up  of,  669 

Jury  of  presentment,  147 

Jury  system,  the,  germ  of,  147  ;  com- 
pleted, 321 

Justices  of  the  peace,  the,  origin  of,  277 

Justiciar,  institution  of  the  office  of,  116  ; 
his  position  under  Henry  I.,  127 

Jutes,  probably  ravage  Roman  Britain, 
24 ;  subdue  Kent,  27  ;  settle  in  the 
Isle  of  Wif;ht  and  the  mainland  oppo- 
site, 28 


Keble,  his  Christian  Year,  940 

Kemp,  Bishop  of  London,  becomes  Lord 
Chancellor,  309 

Kenilworth,  Earl,  Simon's  cattle  at,  199 

Kenneth,  king  of  the  Scots,  receives 
Lothian  from  Eadgar,  68 

Kenneth  MacAlpin  unites  the  Scots  and 
Picts,  63 

Kenmure,  Lord,  beheaded,  jqg 

Kent,  foundation  of  the  Jutish  kingdom 
of,  27  ;  its  inhabitants  driven  back  by 
the  West  Saxons,  35  ;  Gaulish  traders 
in,  38  ;  accepts  Christianity,  39 ;  is 
kept  by  Lawrence  from  relapsing,  41  ; 
comparative  weakness  of,  ib.  ;  rising 
in,  suppressed  by  Fairfax,  557 

Kent,  Earl  of  (brother  of  Edward  II.), 
execution  of,  231 

Kentish  Petition,  the,  675 

Keroualle,  Louise  de,  see  Portsmouth, 
Duchess  of 

Ket's  rebellion,  415 

Kildare,  Earl  of,  supports  the  Yorkists, 
347  ;  supports  Lambert  Simnel,  ib.  ;  is 
deprived  of  the   Deputyship  for  sup- 


ioo6 


INDEX 


porting  Warbeck,  350  ;  restored  to  the 
Deputyship,  352 
Kildare,  Earl  of,  imprisonment  of,  402 
Kilkenny,  meeting  of  the   Confederate 

Catholics  at,  541 
Kilkenny,  Statute  of,  265 
Killiecrankie,  battle  of,  653 
Kilsyth,  battle  of,  549 
Kimbolton,  Lord,  see  Manchester,  Earl 

of 
King,   authority  of  the,  origin  of,  33  ; 
efTect  of  the  enlargement  of  the  king- 
doms on,  45  ;  increased  importance  of, 
69  ;    limitations  imposed   by  Magna 
Cartaon,  182;  proposed  administrative 
restrictions  on,  195  ;  effect  of  the  revo 
lution  of  1399  upon,  289 
King's  Bench,  Court  of,  212 
King's  Friends,  the,  767 
Kinsale,  Spanish  expedition  to,  478 
Knights     Bachelors,     the,     appeal     to 

Edward,  199 
Knights  of  the  shire  first  admitted  to 
Parliament,    196;    later  elections  of, 
200,  201  ;  importance  of  their  conjunc- 
tion with  borough  members,  245 
Knighthood  fines,  515  :  prohibited,  531 
Knox,  John,  opinions  of,  41S  ;  urges  on 
the  Lords  of  the  Congregation,   432  : 
writes    The   Monstrous   Regimen    of 
Wojnen,   ib.  ,-   organises  the  Presby- 
terian  Church   434  ;  his  treatment  of 
Mary,  438 
Kymry,    the,  origin  of   the  name,    37  ; 
share  in   the  defeat  of  the   Scots  at 
Degsastan,  42  ;  are  defeated  by  ^thel- 
frith  near  Chester,  43  ;  geographical 
dismemberment  of,    id.  ;    in    alliance 
with  Penda,  46  ;  weakness  of,  49  ;  see 
Welsh 


La  Rourdonnais  takes  Madras,  760 

La  Hogue,  battle  of,  658 

Labourers,  Statute  of,  248,  268 

Lafayette  goes  as  a  volunteer  to 
America,  786 

Laibach,  congress  of,  882 

Lake,  General,  defeats  the  Irish  insur- 
gents at  Vinegar  Hill,  841  ;  his  victo- 
ries in  India,  859 

Lambert  burnt  as  a  heretic,  399 

Lambert,  Major-Ceneral,  defeats  Booth 
at  Winnington  Bridge,  575 

Lambeth,  ford  over  the  Thames  at,  20 

Lancaster,  Duke  of  (John  of  Gaunt), 
makes  unsuccessful  war  in  France, 
257 ;  heads  the  anti-clerical  party, 
260  ;  opposes  the  Black  Prince,  262  ; 
reverses  the  proceedings  of  the  Good 
Parliament,  id.  ;  supports  Wycliffe, 
263 ;  takes  the  lead  at  the  accession 
of  Richard  II.,  266  ;  goes  to  Spain, 
279  ;  marries  Catherine  Sw>'nford,  282 

Lancaster,  Earl  of  (Thomas),  opposes 
Edward  IL,  225  ;  execution  of,  228 

Lanfranc  trusted  by  William  I.,  88 ; 
becomes  Archbishop    of  Canterburj; 


LEO 

106;  crowns  William  II. ,  114;  death 
of,  117         .   . 
Langland,  William,  259 
Langport,  battle  of,  548 
Langside,  defeat  of  Mary  at,  440^ 
Langton,  Stephen,  chosen  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  at  Rome,  177  ;  allowed  by 
John  to  come  to  England,  180 ;  pro- 
duces a  charter  of  Henry  I.,  181  ;  his 
part  in  obtaining  the  Great  Charter, 
182 
Lansdown,  battle  of,  538 
Latimer,   made    Bishop   of   Worcester, 
390 ;    driven  from  his  see,  400  ;    ser- 
mons preached    at   Court    by,    417 ; 
burnt,  425 
Latimer,  Lord,  impeached,  262 
Laud,    Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  cha- 
racter and  opinions  of,  516  ;    becomes 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  advises 
the   republication  of  the  Declaration 
of  Sports,  517  ;  wishes  that  the  com- 
munion table  shall   stand  at  the  East 
end,   ib.  ;    conducts    a    metropolitical 
visitation,  520  ;  unpopularity  of,  521  ; 
imprisonment  of,   530 ;   execution  of, 
546 
Lauderdale,   John   Maitland,   Earl    of, 
strengthens   the    king's    authority    in 
Scotland,    602 ;     his    management  of 
Scotland,  619 
Lawrence,   Archbishop  of   Canterbury, 

keeps  Kent  Christian,  41 
Lawrence,  Sir  Henry,  governs  the  Pun- 
jab, 951  ;  besieged  in  Lucknow,  953; 
killed,  ib.  _ 
Lawrence,  Sir  John,  governs  the  Pun- 
jab, 951 ;  sends  Sikh  troops  to  Delhi, 

953     "      „ 
Layamon  s  Brut,  207 
Le  Mans,  sieges  of,  121 
League,  the,    formed  against  Henry  of 

Navarre,  456 
Legge,  dismissal  of,  748 
Leicester,    Anglian    settlement  _  at,   36  ; 

earldom    of,   inherited    by   Simon  de 

Montfort,  193 
Leicester,  Earl  of,  shares  the  Justiciar's 

office  with  Richard  de  Lucy,  140 
Leicester,     Robert     Dudley,    Earl     of, 

favoured  by    Elizabeth,    435  ;     made 

Earl  of  Leicester,  438  ;  commands  an 

army  in  the  Netherlands,  457 
Leighton  punished  by  the  Star  Chamber, 

514 
Leith,  surrender  of  the  French  garrison 

of,  433  .     , 

Lely,  Sir  Peter,  portraits  by,  631 
Lennox,  Esme  Stuart,  Duke  of,  favourite 

of  Jamts  VI.,  455 
Lennox,     Matthew     Stuart,      Earl    of, 

Regent  of  Scotland,  443 
Lenthall,   Speaker  of  the   Long  Parlia- 
ment, 536 
Leo  IX.,  Papacy  of,  88 
Leo  X.,  Pope,  character  of,  375 
Leofric,  Earl  of  the  Mercians,  85,  90 
Leofwine,  Earl  of  the  Mercians,  84 


INDEX 


1007 


Leofwine,  son  of  Godwine,  earl  of  the 
shires  about  the  Thames,  90 

Leopold  I.,  Emperor,  marries  the 
daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  592  ; 
death  of,  684 

Leopold  II.,  Emperor,  his  attitude  to- 
wards- France,  824 

Leopold,  Duke  of  Austria,  imprisons 
Richard  I.,  161 

Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  chosen  King 
of  the  Belgians,  912 

Leslie,  David,  overthrows  Montrose, 
549  ;  is  defeated  at  Dunbar,  563 

Levellers,  the,  561 

Leven,  Alexander  Leslie,  Earl  of,  as 
Alexander  Leslie,  commands  the  Scots 
on  Dunse  Law,  526  ;  becomes  Earl  of 
Leven,  and  invades  England,  542 

Lewes,  battle  of,  201 

Lewis  III.  (the  Bavarian),  Emperor, 
supports  Edward  III-,  235 

Lexington,  skirmish  at,  783 

Leyden,  relief  of,  449 ;  congregation  of 
English  Separatists  at,  489 

Liberals,  the  introduction  of  the  name 
of,  909 

Lichfield  House  Compact,  the,  913 

Lilla  gives  his  life  for  his  lord,  44 

Lille,  taken  by  Marlborough,  690  ; 
negotiations  with  the  French  Direc- 
tory at,  837 

Limerick,  siege  and  capitulation  of,  656 

Limoges  taken  by  the  Black  Prince,  257 

Linacre,  promotes  the  study  of  Greek  at 
Oxford,  367 

Lincoln  {see  Lindum),  settlement  of 
the  Lindiswaras  round,  28  ;  establish- 
ment of  the  see  of,  107  ;  Stephen  taken 
prisoner  at,  135  ;  cathedral  at,  171,  207  ; 
stormed  by  Manchester,  542 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  chosen  President  of 
the  United  States,  958 

Lincoln,  Earl  of,  killed  at  Stoke,  347 

Lindiswaras,  settlement  of,  28  ;  possible 
advance  of,  36 

Lindsey,  Robert  Bertie,  Earl  of,  fails  to 
relieve  Rochelle,  510 

Lindum,  Roman  city  at,  20  ;  Anglian 
settlers  round,  28 

Lisle,  Alice,  execution  of,  637 

Litany,  the  English,  composed  byCran- 
mer,  409 

Literature   in   the   reign   of   Anne,    692 

Liveries,  see  Maintenance  and  Livery 

Liverpool,  Earl  of,  becomes  Prime 
Minister,  868  ;  end  of  the  ministry  of, 
886 

Llewelyn,  career  of,  140 

Loch  Leven  Castle,  Mary  imprisoned  in, 

410 
Locke,  John,  his  Letters  on  Toleration^ 

652 
Locomotive    engines,     introduction    of, 

906 
Loidis  conquered  by  Eadwine,  43 
Lollards,  the,   rise  of,  269  ;   Oldcastle's 

leadership  of,  300 
Londinium,  see  London 


LOU 

London,  early  importance  of  the  position 
of,  20  ;  foundation  of  the  bishopric  of, 
40  ;  its  commercial  position  under  the 
kings  of  Essex,  ib.  ;  acquired  and 
fortified  by  ^Elfred,  62,  63  ;  attacked 
by  Olaf  Trygvasson  and  Svend,  79  ; 
after  the  Conquest,  127  ;  supports 
Stephen,  131,  134  ;  submits  for  a  time 
to  Matilda,  135 ;  municipal  organisa- 
tion of,  169  ;  sends  troops  to  the  battle 
of  Lewes,  201  ;  Wat  Tyler  in,  269 ; 
Jack  Cade  in,  323  ;  Edward  IV.  in, 
328 ;  Lady  Jane  Grey  unpopular  in, 
420 ;  provides  ships  instead  of  money 
for  the  ship-money  fleet,  523  ;  wel- 
comes Charles  I.  on  his  return  from 
Scotland,  534,  535  ;  declares  against 
Charles  I.,  536  ;  sends  out  trained 
bands  to  Gloucester,  539  ;  attaches 
itself  to  the  Presbyterian  party,  555  ; 
influences  the  Whigs  in,  622 ;  'lory 
elections  in,  623  ;  forfeiture  of  the 
charter  of,  624  ;  grovfth  of,  629  ;  con- 
dition of  the  streets  of,  631  ;  restora- 
tion of  the  charter  of,  644  ;  support 
given  to  Wilkes  in,  776 ;  upholds 
the  Lord  Mayor  and  Aldermen  in 
their  contest  with  the  Commons,  779 

London  Bridge,  building  of,  272 

Londonderry,  siege  of,  654 

Long  bow,  the,  see  Archers 

Longchamps,  William  of,  appointed  a 
justiciar  in  the  absence  of  Richard  I., 
159  ;  is  banished,  161 

Lord,  devotion  of  Gesiths  to  their,  30  ;  is 
expected  to  marry,  ib.  ;  growth  of  his 
jurisdiction,  72 

Lords,  House  of,  names  the  Duke  of 
York  Protector,  334  ;  decides  on  his 
claim  to  the  crown,  329  ;  results  of  the 
disappearance  of  the  abbots  from,  400  ; 
a  bill  thrown  out  for  removing  the 
bishops  from,  533  ;  bishops  excluded 
from,  536  ;  refuses  to  join  in  constittit- 
ing  a  High  Court  of  Justice,  557  ;  dis- 
solution of,  561  ;  imprisons  Shaftes- 
bury, 612  ;  discusses  the  abdication 
of  James  II.,  646  ;  creation  of  twelve 
peers  to  reverse  the  majority  in,  695  ; 
Peerage  Bill  introduced  to  give  inde- 
pendence to,  710 

Lords  of  the  Congregation,  rise  against 
Mary  of  Guise,  432  ;  are  helped  by 
Elizabeth,  433 

Lorraine  ceded  to  Stanislaus  Lecziniki, 

725 
Lose-coat  Field,  332 
Lothian,  cession  of,  to  Scotland,  68,  84 
Loudon,  Earl  of,  fails  to  take  Louisburg, 

75.2 
Louis   of    Baden    commands    German 

forces,  682 
Louis  VI.,  king  of  France,  makes  war 

with  Henry  I.,  129 
Louis  VII.,   king  of   France,   divorces 

Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,   137  ;   supports 

young  Henry's  rebellion,  153  ;  takes 

part  in  the  second  Crusade,  157 


ioo8 


INDEX 


LOU 

Louis  (afterwards  Louis  VIII.,  king  of 
France)  opposes  John,  184  ;  expelled 
from  England,  185 
Louis  IX.,  Saint,  king  of  France,  sur- 
renders territory  to  Henry  III.,  200  ; 
mediates  between  Henry  III.  and  the 
barons,  ib. 
Louis  X.,  king  of  France,  succeeded  by 

his  brother,  232 
Louis  XL,  king  of  France,  succeeds  his 
father,  332  ;  buys  off  Edward  IV.,  336 
Louis  XII.,  king  of  France,  invades 
Italy,  354 ;  Italian  wars  of,  363 ; 
marriage  and  death  of,  364 
Louis  XIII.,  king  of  Fran;e,  negotiates 
for  his  sister  s  marriage,  501  :  resist- 
ance of  Rochelle  to,  504  ;  besieges 
Rochelle,  506 
Louis  XIV.,  king  of  France,  buys  Dun- 
kirk from  Charles  II.,  587;  gives  a 
slight  support  to  the  Dutch  against 
England,  591  ;  his  designson  the 
Spanish  inheritance,  592  ;  signs  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  599  ;  obtains 
the  treaty  of  Dover  from  Charles  II., 
600  ;  invades  the  Dutch  territory,  605  ; 
pensions  Charles  II.,  611  ;  is  successful 
in  the  Netherlands,  613  ;  sends  money 
to  Charles  II.  to  prevent  the  summon- 
ing of  a  parliament,  627  ;  oflfers  finan- 
cial help  to  James  II.,  635;  revokes 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  638 ;  offers  to 
send  his  fleet  to  help  James  IL, 
644  ;  accepts  the  peace  of  Ryswick, 
and  acknowledges  William  III.,  667  ; 
refuses  to  make  war  against  his  grand- 
son, 690  ;  death  of,  705 
Louis  XV.,   king  of  France,   sickly   in 

his  childhood,  7^7 
Louis  XVI.,  king  of  France,  improves 
the  French  navy,  788  ;  summons  the 
States-General,  821  ;  distrusted  by  the 
National  Assembly,  822  ;    dethrone- 
ment and  execution  of,  825 
Louis    XVI II. ,   king    of    France,   first 
restoration  of,  871  ;  second  restoration 
of,  875  ;  attempts  to  mediate  in  favour 
of  the  Neapolitans,  882 
Louis  Napoleon,  President  of  the  French 
Republic,    936  ;  named    President  for 
ten  years,  938  ;    see  Napoleon  III., 
Emperor 
Louis    Philippe,    king   of   the    French, 
Charles  X.  overthrown  in  favour  of, 
898  ;  promotts  Belgian  independence, 
912  ;    dismisses  Thiers,    922  ;     visits 
Queen  Victoria,  927  ;   dethronement 
of,  934 
Louisbourg,  Loudon  fails  to  take,  752  ; 

taken,  753 
Louisiana,   possessed  by   France,    747  ; 

ceded  by  France  to  Spain,  766 
Lovel,  Lord,  insurrection  of,  345 ;  sup- 
ports Simnel,  and  is  defeated  at  Stoke, 
346,  347 
Lowestoft,  batile  oft,  590 
Loyalists,    the    American,     conjectural 
number  of,  782 


Loyola,    Ignatius,    founds     the    Jesuit 

Society,  437 
Lucknow,  siege  of,  953 
Lucy,  Richard  de,  joint  justiciar  with 

the  Earl  of  Leicester,  140 ;  makes  head 

against  young  Henry's  rebellion,  153 
Ludlow,  Edmund,  in  Ireland,  563 
Ludlow,   break-up  of    the  Yorkists  at, 

326 
Lundville,  peace  of,  840 
Lunsford,    Thomas,    Lieutenant   of  the 

Tower,  535 
Luther,    Martin,    opposes  the   Papacy, 

377  ;    has  a  controversy  with  Henry 

VIII.,  379 
Lutheranism,  character  of,  376,  377  ;  its 

influence  in  England,  396 
Lutter,  Christian  IV.  defeated  at,  506 
Luxembourg,      Marshal,      defeats     the 

allies  at  Fleurus,  657 
Lyell,  his  Principles  of  Geology,  940 


Lynn  supports  Stephen,  134 
Lyons,  Richard,  impeached. 


262 


Macadam,  improvement  of  roads  by, 
905 

Macaulay,  Thomas  B.,  supports  the 
Reform  Bill,  903  ;  his  History  of  Eng- 
lattd,  941 

Macaulay,  Zachary,  pleads  for  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery,  910 

Maclan  of  Glencoe  tenders  his  oath  to 
William  III.  too  late,  653 

Mackay,  Andrew,  defeated  at  Killie- 
crankie,  653  ;  serves  in  Ireland,  656 

Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  advocates  the 
reform  of  the  criminal  law,  885 

Mad  Parliament,  the,  198 

Madras,  building  of,  758  ;  taken  by  the 
French,  760 ;  restored  to  the  Eng- 
lish and  secured  by  Clive,  761 

Madrid,  journey  of  Prince  Charles  to, 

497 

Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  expulsion  of 
the  Fellows  of,  641  ;  restoration  of  the 
Fellows  of,  644 

Magna  Carta,  182  ;  partially  renewed 
at  the  accession  of  Henry  III.,  185; 
attitude  of  Edward  I.  to,  288 

Magnus,  king  of  Norway,  85 

Mahdi,  the,  destroys  an  Egyptian  army 
and  captures  Khartoum,  971 

Mahmoud,  Sultan,  asks  Mehemet  AH 
to  assist  him  against  the  Greeks,  884 ; 
death  of,  922 

Mahrattas,  the,  rise  of,  759  ;  Hastings 
defends  himself  against,  802,  804  ; 
reduced  to  submission  by  Wellesley, 
859  ;  reduced  to  complete  dependency 
by  the  Marquis  of  Hastings,  948 

Maiden  Castle,  4 

Maine  conquered  by  William  I.,  91  ; 
failures  of  William  II.  in,  121  ;  con- 
quered by  Philip  II. ,  176  ;  surrendered 
to  Ren6  by  Henry  VI.,  317;  the 
English  driven  out  of,  319 


INDEX 


1009 


MAI 

Maintenance  and  Ibery,  Statute  against, 
281 ;  increase  of,  321 ;  measures  of 
Henry  VII.  against,  345 

Maitland  of  Lethington,  William,  op- 
poses the  Presbyterian  clergy,  434 

Major-generals,  the,  571 

Malcolm,  king  of  the  Scots,  his  alliance 
with  Eadmund,  64 

Malcolm  III.,  Canmore,  ravages  Eng- 
land, 103  ;  submits  to  William  I.,  104  ; 
death  of,  119 

Malcolm  IV.  loses  North -humberland 
and  Cumberland,  140 

Malmesbury,  PLarl  of,  sent  to  negotiate 
peace  in  France,  834 

Malplaquet,  battle  of,  690 

Malta,  seized  by  Bonaparte,  837  ;  sur- 
renders to  the  English,  844  ;  England 
engages  to  surrender,  846 ;  England 
refuses  to  surrender,  848 

Man,  Isle  of,  subdued  by  Eadwine,  43 

Manchester,  Edward  Montague,  Earl 
of,  impeached,  as  Lord  Kimbolton, 
535  ;  brought  back  to  Westminster, 
^36  ;  becomes  Earl  of  Manchester  and 
IS  placed  in  command  of  the  Eastern 
Association,  5^2  ;  attacked  by  Crom- 
well, 544  ;  resigns  his  command,  545 
*  Manchester  massacre,'  the,  879 

Manfred,  king  of  Sicily  and  Naples,  195, 

197 

Manhood  suflfrage,  the  Duke  of  Rich- 
mond advocates,  789 

Manilla,  reduction  of,  766 

Manitoba,  joins  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 

Manor  courts,  141 

Mansfeld,  Count,  failure  of  his  expedi- 
tion, 501 

Mansfield,  Lord  Chief  Justice,  749 

Mantes  burnt  by  William  I.,  114 

Mantua,  siege  of,  834 

Manufactures,  social  changes  resulting 
from  the  growth  of,  817 

Manufacturers,  the  distress  amongst, 
876-879 

Manwaring,  Roger,  impeached,  511  ; 
receives  a  good  living  from  Charles  L, 
512 

Manx,  a  Goidelic  language,  7 

Mar's  rising,  705 

March,  Earl  of,  see  Edward  IV. 

March,  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of,  his 
claim  to  the  crown,  287  ;  imprisoned 
by  Henry  IV.,  291  ;  freed  by  Henry 
v.,  299 

March,  Roger,  Earl  of,  grandson  of  the 
Duke  of  Clarence,  named  heir  by 
Richard  II.,  287 

Marengo,  battle  of,  840 

Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII., 
married  to  James  IV,,  356  ;  excluded 
from  the  succession,  411 

Margaret  of  Anjou  marries  Henrj' VI., 
317;  gives  birth  to  a  son ,  323  ;  puts  her- 
self at  the  head  of  the  Northern  forces, 
326;  defeats  the  Duke  of  York  at  Wake- 
field, and  Warwick  at  the  second  battle 


MAR 

of  St.  Albans,  328  ;  is  defeated  at  Tow- 
ton,   329 ;    is    defeated  at   Hedgeley 
Moor  and   Hexham,  331 ;  reconciled 
to  Warwick,  333  ;  defeated  at  Tewkes- 
bury, 334 
Margaret,  sister  of  Edward  IV.,  married 
to  Charles  the   Rash,   332  ;    protects 
Lord  Lovel,  346 
Margaret,  the  Lady,  334 
Margaret,  the  Maid  of  Norway,  214 
Margaret,  first  wife  of  Malcolm  Canmore, 

119 
Margaret  Theresa,  daughter  of  Philip 
IV,.  marries  Leopold  I.,  and  renounces 
the  Spanish  succession,  592 
Maria,  the  Infanta,  proposal  to  marry 
her  to  Prince  Charles,   488  ;   shrinks 
from    marrying    a    heretic,    497  ;     is 
courted  by  Charles,  498 
Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Philip  IV., 
marries   Louis  XIV.,  and   renounces 
the  Spanish  succession,  592 
Maria   Theresa   (Empres.s),   constituted 
heiress  of  her  father's  hereditary  do- 
minions, 732  ;   attacked   on  all  sides, 
ib.  ;  cedes  Silesia  to  Frederick  II.,  735 
Marignano,  battle  of,  366 
Marlborough,  Statute  of,  204 
Mariborough,  Duchess  of,  her  influence 

over  Anne,  677 
Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  Duke  of, 
as  Lord  Churchill,  deserts  James  II., 
645  ;  becomes  Earl  of  Marlborough, 
657  ;  disgraced  by  William  HI.,  658  ; 
betrays  Talmash,  664  ;  placed  by  Wil- 
liam III.  at  the  head  of  an  army, 
675  ;  his  influence  over  Anne,  677 ; 
his  first  campaign  in  the  Nether- 
lands, 678  ;  created  a  Duke,  and 
votes  for  the  Occasional  Conformity 
Bill,  680 ;  obtains  the  dismissal  of 
Rochester  and  Nottingham,  and  pro- 
cures the  entry  of  Harley  and  St, 
John  into  the  ministry,  681  ;  defeats 
Tallard  at  Blenheim,  682  ;  turns  to 
the  Whigs,  684  ;  his  victory  at 
Ramillies,  ib.  ;  his  victories  at  Oude- 
narde  and  Malplaquet,  690  ;  blamed 
for  prolonging  the  war,  691  ;  sent  to 
Flanders  with  inadequate  means,  and 
dismissed  from  his  offices,  695 
Marprelate  Tracts,  the,  470 
Marriages  of  heiresses  arranged  by  the 

lord,  117 
Marshal,  Richard  the,  188,  189 
Marshal,    William,    the,     guardian    of 

Henry  III.,  185 
Marston  Moor,  battle  of,  543 
Martin,  Master,  his  exactions,  195 
Mary  I.,  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  as 
princess,     successively     engaged    to 
Francis  I.  and  his  second  son,  374  ; 
her  place  in  the  succession  acknow- 
ledged by  statute,  411;   protected  by 
Charles  V.,  414  ;  popularity  of,  420; 
is  proclaimed  queen,  421  ;  her  feelings 
and  opinions,  ib.  ;   wishes    to  restore 
the  Church  lands,  422  ;  is  married  to 


1010 


INDEX 


MAR 

Philip  II.,  423  ;  obtains  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  England  to  the  Roman  see,  424  ; 
supports  the  persecution  of  Protes- 
tants, ib,  ;  resolves  to  put  Cranmer  to 
death,  425  ;  deserted  by  her  husband, 
426  ;  declares  war  with  France,  427  ; 
death  of,  ib. 

Mary  II.,  birth  of,  608  ;  her  hand  offered 
to  William  of  Orange,  609  ;  marriage 
of,  613  ;  finds  fault  with  Danby,  646  ; 
the  crown  offered  to,  647  ;  receives  the 
Scottish  Crown,  652  ;  illness  and 
death  of,  661  ;  Greenwich  Hospital 
founded  by,  663 

Mary,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  marri- 
ages of,  364  ;  her  place  in  the  succes- 
sion acknowledged  in  exclusion  of  her 
sister  Margaret,  411 

Mary,  heiress  of  Burgundy,  336 ;  marries 
the  Archduke  Maximilian,  and  dies, 

337 
Mary  of  Guise,  Regent  of  Scotland,  her 
contests    with    the   Protestants,   432 ; 
death  of,  433 
Mary  of  Modena  marries  the  Duke  of 

York,  608 
Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots,  birth  ot, 
405  ;  taken  to  France  and  married  to 
the  Dauphin,  413  ;  assumes  the  style 
of  Queen  of  England,  433  ;  returns  to 
Scotland,  434,  435 ;  character  of,  437  ; 
marries  Lord  Darnley,  438  ;  being 
charged  with  the  murder  of  Darnley, 
marries  Bothwell,  439  ;  imprisoned  in 
Loch  Leven  Castle,  440 ;  escapes  to 
England,  ib.  ;  is  retained  as  a  prisoner, 
441  ;  marriage  with  the  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk, proposed  for,  ib.  ;  Ridolfi's  plot 
on  behalf  of,  445  ;  trial  of,  457  ;  execu- 
tion of,  458 
Maserfield,  Oswald  slain  at,  48 
Masham,  Mrs.,  obtains  influence   over 

Anne,  687 
Massachusetts  Government  Act,  the,  782 
Massalia,  tin-trade  of,  8 
Massena,   Marshal,  invades    Portugal, 

867 
Massey,    Roman     Catholic     Dean     of 

Christchurch,  639 

Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  married 

to  the   Emperor  Henry  V.,   and   to 

Geoffrey  of  Anjou,   131  ;    claims  the 

crown,    134 ;    fails    to    maintain   her 

claim,  135 

Matilda,  wife  of  Henry  I.,  see  Eadgyth 

Matthias,   the    Emperor,    resistance    of 

the  Bohemians  to,  490 
Maximilian  I.,  Emperor,  as  Archduke, 
marries  Mary  of  Burgundy,  337 ; 
marries  Anne  of  Brittany  by  proxy, 
348  ;  Italian  wars  of,  363  ;  death  of, 
365 
Maximus  leads  an  army  out  of  Britain, 

25 
Mayflower,  the,  voyage  of,  490 
Maynard,  Sergeant,   his  answer  to  Wil- 
liam III.,  646 
Mayne,  Cuthbert,  execution  of,  453 


MIL 

Maynooth  taken  by  Skeffington,  402 
Mazarin,  Cardinal,   makes  an    alliance 

with  Cromwell,  572 
Meanee,  battle  of,  950 
Meaux  laesieged  by  Henry  V.,  306 
Medina  Sidonia,  Duke    of,   commands 
the  Spanish  Armada,  460 ;  is  received 
by  Philip  II.  after  his  defeat,  462 
Medway,  the,  the  Dutch  in,  593 
Mehemet  AH,  makes  himself  indepen- 
dent,  and   sends  aid  to  the   Sultan, 
884  ;  attacks  the  Turks,  and  possesses 
himself  of  Syria,    921  ;   deprived    of 
Syria,  922 
Melbourne,  Viscount,  is  a  member  of 
I>ord  Grey's  Ministry,  901  ;  becomes 
Prime  Minister  and   is  dismissed  by 
the  King,  912  ;  becomes  Prime  Minister 
a  second  time,   913  ;  resigns  and  re- 
sumes office,  918  ;  final  resignation  of, 
925 
Melville,   Andrew,   insults  James   VI., 

525. 
Melville,  Lord,  impeachment  of,  851 
Menai  Suspension  Bridge,  the,  905 
Mendoza    sent     out    of    England     by 

Elizabeth,  456 
Mercenaries  employed  on  the  Continent 
by     Henry     11. ,     142  ;    temporarily 
brought  to   England,    153,    155 ;  em- 
ployed by  John, 182 
Merchant  Adventurers,  the,  356 
Merchant  Gild,  the,  169 
Mercia,   first  settlement  of,   36  ;   com- 
parative smallness  of,  41 ;  unites  with 
other    districts    under     Penda,     46 ; 
accepts  Christianity,  and  rejects  the 
supremacy  of  North-humberland,  48  ; 
its  relations  with   Ecgberht,   55  ;   its 
relations    with    Alfred,     60 ;    under 
Leofwine,  84  ;  under  Leofric,  85,  87  ; 
under  ^Ifgar  and  Eadwine,  90 
Mercians,  the,  distinguished  from   the 

Middle  English,  36 
Merciless  Parliament,  the,  280 
Merton  College,  foundation  of,  207 
Metropolitical  Visitation,  the,  520 
Metternich,  holds  it  to  be  the  duty  of 
the  great  powers  to  suppress  revolu- 
tions, 882 
Middle  English,  the,  first  settlements  of, 

36 
Middle  Saxons  a  branch  of  the   East 

Saxons,  35 
Middlesex  election,  the,  775 
Middlesex,    Lionel   Cranfield,   Earl   of, 
improves  the  finances  of  James  I.,  494  ; 
impeachment  of,  500 
Middlesex,  Saxon  settlement  in,  35 
Milan,  struggle  between  Charles  V.  and 

Francis  I.  for,  371 
Milan,  the  Duchy  of,  assigned  to  Charles 

VI.,  696 
Milan  Decree,  the,  860 
Militia,  the,  struggle  for  the  command 
of,  536 ;  the  Scots  urge  Charles  I.  to 
abandon,  552 
Millenary  Petition,  the,  482 


INDEX 


lOli 


MIL 

Milton  writes  Cotnus,  519  ;  writes 
Areopagitica,  546 ;  writes  a  sonnet 
on  the  Vaudois,  572  ;  publishes  Para- 
dise Lost,  596 

Minden,  battle  of,  756 

Mines,  restriction  of  labour  in,  927 

Ministerial  responsibility,  proposal  to 
establish,  195 

Ministers  excluded  from  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  Act  of  Settlement, 
673 ;  readmitted,  684 

Minorca,  taken  by  Stanhope,  690 ; 
assigned  to  England  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  696  ;  re-taken  by  the  French, 
749  ;  regained  at  the  end  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  766 ;  taken  by  the 
Spaniards,  795  ;  ceded  by  England  to 
Spain,  798 

Mirebeau,  Eleanor  besieged  in,  174 

Mise  of  Amiens,  the,  200 

Misbolonghi,  sieges  of,  884  ;  death  of 
Byron  at,  888 

Mohammedanism,  origin  and  spread 
of,  54 

Molynes,  Lord,  ill-treats  John  Paston, 

Mompesson,  Sir  Giles,  flies  from  the 
kingdom,  495 

Mona  (Anglesey)  conquered  by  Sue- 
tonius, 14 

Monasteries,  dissolution  of  the  smaller, 
394  ;  surrender  of  some  of  the  greater, 
397  ;  completion  of  the  suppression  of, 
400 

Monasticism,  character  of  early,  39  ; 
converts  made  in  England  by,  40; 
character  of  Irish,  47  ;  Benedictine,  128 

Monk,  see  Albemarle,  Duke  of 

Monks  contrasted  with  Friars,  191 

Monmouth,  Duke  of,  proposed  as  heir 
to  the  crown,  618  ;  defeats  the  Cove- 
nanters at  Bothwell  Bridge,  620  ;  re- 
fuses to  take  part  in  acts  of  violence, 
624  ;  implicated  in  a  Whig  plot,  625  ; 
rebellion  and  execution  of,  637 

Monopolies,  the,  Elizabeth  recalls  some 
of,  478  ;  attacked  by  Parliament  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.,  494  ;  revocation  of, 
495  ;  Act  of,  500  1 

Monro,  Major-General  Robert,  holds 
Carrickfergus,  541 

Montague,  Charles,  one  of  the  Whig 
Junto,  659  ;  restores  the  currency,  664  ", 
resigns  office,  670 

Montague,  Chief  Justice,  becomes  Lord 
Treasurer,  494 

Montaj'ue,  Lord,  made  Earl  of  North- 
L  humberland,  331  ;  is  deprived  of  the 

P  earldc  m,  333  ;    turns  against  Edward 

I  IV.,  aad  is  killed  at  Barnet,  332 

Montagi.^,  Ralph,  accuses  Danby,  616 

Montague,  Richard,  impeached,  511  ; 
made  a  bishop,  512 

Montenei;  -o,  enlargement  of,  969 

Montfort,  de,  see  Simon  de  Montfort 

Montrose,  fames  Graham,  Marquis  of, 
his  cam}  Mgn  in  the  Highlands,  547, 
549  ;  exe  ution  of,  563 

C. 


Moore,  Sir  John,  killed  at  Corunna, 
864 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  writes  Utopia,  367  ; 
in  favour  with  Henry  VIII. ,  368 ;  is 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
371  ;  becomes  Chancellor,  387  ;  his 
displeasure  with  the  Protestants,  388  ; 
resigns  the  chancellorship,  ib.  ;  is  sent 
to  the  Tower,  392  ;  execution  of,  394 

Morkere  becomes  Earl  of  North-humber- 
land,  90  ;  is  present  at  Eadgar's  elec- 
tion, 98  ;  submits  to  William,  102  ;  is 
banished,  103 

Morley,  Bishop,  sermons  of,  548 

Mornington,  Lord,  Governor-General  of 
India,  838  ;  becomes  Marquis  Welles- 
ley,  859  ;  see  Wellesley,  Marquis 

Mortimer,  Edmund,  see  March,  Earl  of 

Mortimer,  Roger,  paramour  of  Queen 
Isabella,  229  ;  governs  in  the  name  of 
Edward  III.,  231  ;  is  hanged,  232 

Mortimer,  Sir  Edmund,  imprisoned  by 
Glendower,  293 

Mortimer's  Cross,  battle  of,  328 

Mortmain,  Statute  of,  212 

Morton,  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Ely,  after- 
wards Cardinal  and  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  gives  advice  to  Bucking- 
ham, 341,  342  ;  his  '  fork,'  349 

Moscow,  burning  of,  870 

Mount  Badon,  British  victory  at,  28 

Mountjoy,  Charles  Blount,  Lord,  con- 
quers Ireland,  478 

Mountnorris,  Francis  Annesley,  Lord, 
court-martial  on,  528 

Mowbray,  Robert  of,  rebellion  of,  120 

Muir,  sentenced  to  transportation,  828 

Municipal  Corporations  Act,  913,  914 

Munster,  attempt  to  colonise,  475 

Miinster,  the  Bishop  of,  overruns  two 
Dutch  provinces,  591 

Murray,  desires  to  become  Chief  Justice, 
747 ;  becomes  Chief  Justice  as  Lord 
Mansfield,  749 

Murray,  Earl  of,  is  driven  into  England, 
438  ;  returns  to  Scotland,  439  ;  becomes 
Regent,  440  ;  produces  the  Casket  let- 
ters, ib.  ;  assassinated,  441 

Mutinies  at  Spithead  and  the  Nore,  836 

Mutiny  Act,  the,  650 

Mysore,  Hyder  Ali  in,  804  ;  Tippoo 
succeeds  his  father  in,  805 


Namur,  surrender  of,  663 

Nana  Sahib,  grievances  of,  952  ;  his 
conduct  at  Cawnpore,  953 

Nantwich,  battle  of,  542 

Napier,  Sir  Charles,  Admiral,  takes 
Acre,  922 

Napier,  Sir  Charles,  General,  conquers 
Sindh, 950 

Naples,  assigned  to  Charles  VI.,  696 ; 
ceded  to  the  son  of  Philip  V,,  725  ; 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  king  of,  856  ;  revo- 
lution suppressed  by  Austria  in,  882  _ 

Napoleon  I  ,  Emperor  of  the  French,  his 


3U 


1012 


INDEX 


plan  for  the  invasion  of  England,  851  ; 
offers  Hanover  alternately  to  England 
and  Prussia,  855  ;  defeats  the  Prussians 
at  Jena,  857  ;  makes  peace  with  Russia 
at  Tilsit,  858 ;  his  designs  against 
Spain,  862  ;  places  Joseph  Bonaparte 
on  the  Spanish  throne,  863  ;  invades 
Spain,  864 ;  fights  at  Aspern  and 
Wagram,  865  ;  countries  annexed  by, 
868  ;  invades  Russia,  869,  870 ;  defeat 
and  abdication  of,  871  ;  returns  to 
France  and  fights  at  Waterloo,  874  ; 
dies  at  St.  Helena,  875 

Napoleon  III.,  Emperor,  becomes 
Emperor,  939  ;  attempt  to  murder, 
955  \  goes  to  war  for  the  liberation  of 
Italy,  956;  annexes  Savoy  and  Nice, 
957  ;  fall  of,  964 

Naseby,  battle  of,  548 

Natal,  colonisation  of,  969 

Navarino,  battle  of,  893 

Navarre  conquered  by  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon,  364 

Navarrcte,  battle  of,  255 

Navigation  Act,  the,  passing  of,  565  ; 
re-enactment  of,  589  ;  repeal  of,  936 

Navy,  iElfred's,  60  ;  the  English,  defeats 
the  Spanish  Armada,  460-464;  equipped 
by  means  of  ship-money,  523  ;  desertion 
of  part  of,  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  557  ; 
Blake  in  command  of,  565  ;  its  contests 
with  the  Dutch,  591  ;  deterioration  in 
the  discipline  of,  605 

Nelson,  his  exploits  at  the  battle  of  St. 
Vincent,  835  ;  defeats  the  French  at 
the  battle  of  the  Nile,  838  ;  defeats  the 
J)anes  at  the  battle  of  Copenhagen, 
845 ;  pursues  the  French  fleet  to  the 
West  Indies,  853  ;  killed  at  Trafalgar, 
854     . 

Neolithic  man,  3 

Netherlands,  the,  inherited  by  Philip 
II.,  426;  Alva's  government  of,  443  ; 
beginning  of  the  Dutch  Republic  in, 
449  ;  division  into  two  parts,  450  ;  see 
Netherlands,  the  Spanish,  and  Dutch 
Republic 

Netherlands,  the  Austrian,  occupied  by 
the  French,  825  ;  ceded  to  France,  837 

Netherlands,  the  Spanish,  Alexander  of 
Parma  in,  450 ;  assigned  to  Charles 
VI.,  696;  see  Netherlands,  the 
Austrian 

Nevill,  influence  of  the  family  of,  324 

Nevillj  George,  Archbishop  of  York, 
deprived  of  the  Chancellorship,  332 

Nevill's  Cross,  battle  of,  242 

New  Amsterdam  captured  by  the 
English,  589 

New  Brunswick  joins  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  967 

New  England,  colonisation  of,  489  ;  war- 
like preparations  in,  782  ;  beginning 
of  resistance  in,  783  _ 

New  Forest,  the,  making  of,  no  ;  death 
of  William  II.  in,  122 

New  Jersey,  Washington  driven  out  of, 
784  ;  Washiflgton  recovers,  786 


NOR 

New  Model  Army,  see  Army,  the  New 
Model 

New  Orleans,  the  British  repulsed  at,  873 

New  South  Wales,  progress  of,  968 

New  York,  named  after  the  Duke  of 
York,  589;  secured  to  England,  593; 
occupied  by  Howe,  784 

New  Zealand,  progress  of  colonisation 
in,  968 

Newark,  death  of  John  at,  185  ;  sur- 
renders to  the  Scots,  551 

Newburn,  rout  of,  529 

Newbury,  first  battle  of,  539 ;  second 
battle  of,  544 

Newcastle,  Charles  I.  at,  551 

Newcastle,  Duke  of,  character  of,  732  ; 
succeeds  his  brother  as  first  Lord  of 
the  Treasury,  746  ;  his  inefficiency  in 
providing  for  hostilities  with  France, 
748  ;  resigns,  749  ;  coalesces  with 
Pitt,  751  ;  resignation  of,  766 

Newcastle,  William  Cavendish,  Earl, 
afterwards  Marquis  of,  commands  a 
Royalist  army  in  Yorkshire,  and  de- 
feats the  Fairfaxes  at  Adwalton  Moor, 
5^8  ;  is  created  Marquis,  and  be- 
sieges Hull,  542  ;  besieged  in  York, 
//'.  ;  defeated  at  Marston  Moor,  543 

Newcastle-on-Tyne,  foundation  of,  120 

Newfoundland,  retained  by  En|;land, 
695  ;  refuses  to  join  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  967 

Newgate,  burning  of,  792 

Newman,  a  leader  of  the  Oxford  move- 
ment, 940 

Newport  (Monmouthshire),  Chartist  riot 
at,  924 

Newport,  the  treaty  of,  557 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  632  ;  assists  in 
restoring  the  currency,  664 

Nicholas,  the  Tzar,  comes  to  an  agree- 
ment with  England  on  the  liberation 
of  Greece,  884  ;  proposes  to  partition 
the  Turkish  dominions,  943 ;  goes  to 
war  with  the  Sultan,  944  ;  war  declared 
by  England  and  France  against,  ib.  ; 
death  of,  947 

Nigel,  Bishop  of  Ely,  Treasurer  of 
Henry  I.,  Stephen's  attack  on,  134  ;  is 
re-appointed  'Treasurer,  140 

Nightingale,  Miss  Florence,  nurses  the 
sick  from  the  Crimea,  947 

Nile,  the  battle  of,  838 

Nithsdale,  Earl  of,  escapes  from  prison, 
705 

No  Addresses,  vote  of,  556 

Nonjurors,  the,  652 

Non-resistance  Bill,  the,  611 

Nore,  the,  mutiny  at,  836 

Norfolk,  origin  of  the  name  of,  28 

Norfolk,  Duke  of,  banished  by  Richard 
II.,  283 

Norfolk,  Earl  of,  see  Bigod,  Roger 

Norfolk,  resistance  to  the  Amicable 
Loan  in,  372  ;  Ket's  rebellion  in,  415 

Norfolk,  "Thomas  Howard,  third  Duke 
of,  defeats  the  Scots,  as  Earl  of  Surrey, 
at  Flodden,  364  ;  opposes  Wolsey,  383  ; 


INDEX 


1013 


NOR 


ORF 


charges  Cromwell  with  treason,  401  ; 
wastes  the  Scottish  Borders,  405  ;  con- 
demned to  death,  411 

Norfolk,  Thomas  Howard,  fourth  Duke 
of,  sent  to  the  Tower,  441  ;  is  liberated 
and  proposes  to  marry  Mary  Stuart, 
444  ;  arrested,  445  ;  executed,  446 

Norham,  award  of  the  crown  of  Scotland 
at,  216 

Norman  Conquest,  the,  96-103 

Normandy,  early  dukes  of,  80 ;  institu- 
tions of,  81  ;  its  condition  under 
Robert,  118  ;  pledged  to  William  II., 
121 ;  recovered  by  Robert,  124  ;  con- 
quered by  Henry  I.,  125  ;  conquered 
by  Geoffrey,  136  ;  Henry,  Duke  of, 
137  ;  conquered  by  Philip  II.,  174,  176  ; 
invaded  by  Edward  III.,  240  ;  con- 
quered by  Henry  V.,303;  re-conquered 
by  the  French,  320 

Normans  favoured  by  Eadward,  87 ; 
their  style  of  architecture,  8q 

Norris,  Sir  John,  joins  Drake  in  sacking 
Corunna,  464 

North  Briton,  the,  769 

North  Foreland,  battle  off.  591 

North,  Lord,  becomes  Prime  Minister, 
776  ;  takes  advantage  of  the  division 
of  opinion  between  Burke  and  Chat- 
ham, 777 ;  feels  strongly  against  the 
conduct  of  the  Americans,  778  ;  ob- 
tains the  repeal  of  all  the  American 
duties  except  that  on  tea,  779  ;  resolves 
to  put  down  resistance  in  Boston,  780  ; 
tries  to  conciliate  the  Americans,  7S3  ; 
offers  to  resign  office,  787  ;  resignat  ion 
of^>  795  '■>  coalesces  with  Fox,  800  ; 
opposes  Pitt's  motion  for  Parliamen- 
tary reform,  801  ;  passes  the  Regu- 
lating Act,  832 

Northampton,  Archbishop  Thomas 
called  to  account  at,  145  ;  battle  of,  326 

Northern  confederacy,  the,  844 

North-humberland,  component  parts  of, 
36  ;  united  by  iEthelric,  41  ;  divided 
by  Penda,  and  re-united  under  Oswald, 
47 ;  is  again  divided,  but  re-united 
under  Oswiu,  48  ;  its  relations  with 
Ecgberht,  55  ;  overrun  by  the  Danes, 
58  ;  Danish  kingdom  in,  62,  63  ;  is 
amalgamated  with  England,  64 ;  its 
condition  under  Cnut,  84  ;  under 
Siward   84,  87 

Northmen,  their  attacks  on  England, 
56  ;  religion  of,  57  ;  see  Danes 

Northumberland  invaded  by  Malcolm 
Canmore,  119;  given  to  Henry,  son 
of  David  I.,  133  ;  recovered  by  Henry 
II.,  140 

Northumberland,  John  Dudley,  Duke 
of,  as  Earl  of  Warwick,  overpowers 
Ket's  rebellion,  416;  leads  the  govern- 
ment after  Somerset's  fall,  ib.  ;  be- 
comes Duke  of  Northumberland,  418  ; 
supports  Lady  Jane  Grey,  420 ; 
execution  of,  421 

Northumberland,  the  Earl  of,  assists 
Henry  IV.,  284  :  quarrels  with  Henry 


IV.,  293  ;  imprisoned  and  pardoned, 
294  ;  defeated  and  slain,  296 

Northumberland,  I'homas  Percy,  Earl 
of,  takes  part  in  the  rising  of  the 
North,  441 

Nor\yich,  establishment  of  the  see  of,  107 

Nottingham,  Anglian  settlement  at,  36  ; 
seizure  of  Mortimer  at,  232  ;  Charles  I. 
sets  up  his  standard  at,  537 

Nottingham,  Earl  of,  opposes  Richard 
II.,  279;  is  made  Duke  of  Norfolk 
and  banished,  283;  d'smissed  through 
the  influence  of  Marlborough,  681  ; 
coalesces  with  the  Whigs,  695 

Nova  Scotia,<issigned  to  England,  696  ; 
abandonment  of  the  French  claim  to, 
766  ;  joins  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  967 

Nuncomar,  execution  of,  803 

Nymwegen,  peace  of,  615 

Oates,  Titus,  tells  the  story  of  the 
Popish  Plot,  615 

O'Brien,  Smith,  heads  a  rising  in 
Ireland,  935 

Occasional  Conformity  Bill,  failure  of 
the  Tories  to  pass,  680  ;  defeat  of  an 
attempt  to  tack  it  to  a  land-  tax  bill,  682 ; 
passed,  695  ;  repealed,  710 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  demands  Catholic 
emancipation,  895 ;  refused  a  seat  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  896  ;  asks  for 
a  repeal  of  the  Union,  910;  combines 
with  the  Whigs  to  overthrow  Peel, 
913  ;  drops  for  a  time  his  demand  for 
repeal  of  the  Union,  916  ;  shrinks  from 
a  conflict  with  Peel,  and  dies,  928 

O'Connor,  Feargus,  leads  the  Chartists, 
924  ;  summons  a  meeting  on  Kenning- 
ton  Common,  935 

Oda,  Archbishop,  advocates  the  celi- 
bacy  of  the  clergy,  65  ;  separates 
Eadwig  and  ^Ifgifu,  67 

Odo  oppresses  the  English,  102  ;  is 
banished  by  William  IL,  115 

O'Donnell,  Rory,  flight  of,  484 

Offa,  king  of  the  Mercians,  defeats  the 
West  Saxons  at  Bensington,  53  ;  his 
dyke,  54 

Olaf  Trygvasson,  79,  80 

Oldcastle,  Sir  John,  burnt  as  a  Lollard, 
3CO 

Old  Sarum,  earthworks  of  Sorbiodunum 
at,  34 

Olive  Branch  petition,  the,  783 

O'Neill,  Hugh,  defeats  Bagenal  at  the 
Blackwater,  475  ;  submission  of,  478  ; 
flight  of,  484 

O'Neill,  Shan,  defeat  of,  452 

Orange  River  Free  State,  the  founda-' 
tion  of,  968 

Ordainers,  the  Lords,  226 

Ordeal,  system  of,  32 ;  continued  by 
Henry  II.,  146 

Orders  in  Council,  the,  860  ;  repeal  of,  872 

Ordovices,  the,  resist  the  Romans,  14 

Orford,  Earl  of,  attacked  by  the  Com- 
mons, 670  ;  resigns  office,  ib. ;  see 
Russell,  Admiral 

3U2 


1014 


INDEX 


Orleans,  siege  of,  309 
Orleans,  Duke  of  (the  Regent),  is  on 
friendly  terms  with  England,  707  ; 
guarantees  the  Hanoverian  succes- 
sion, 708 
Orleans,  Duke  of,  Charles,  captured  at 
Agincourt,  303  ;  ransomed,  315 

Orleans,  Duke  of,  Louis,  makes  an  alli- 
ance with  Glendower,  295  ;  murdered, 
296 

Orleans,  Henrietta,  Duchess  of,  negoti- 
ates the  Treaty  of  Dover,  600 

Ormond,  Earl  of,  supports  the  Lancas- 
trians, 346 

Ormond,  second  Duke  of,  commands  in 
Flanders,  696  ;  escapes  to  France,  705 

Ormond,  Thomas  Butler,  Marquis  of. 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  542  ; 
abandons  Ireland  to  Parliament,  562  ; 
returns  to  Ireland,  ib. 

Osric  governs  Deira,  ,48    _ 

Ostorius  Scapula  arrives  in  Britain,  13  ; 
conquests  of,  14 

Oswald,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  68 

Oswald,  King  of  North-humberland,  his 
greatness  and  piety,  47  ;  is  slain  at 
Maserfield,  48 

Oswini,  his  relations  with  Aidan,  48 ; 
is  murdered,  ib. 

Oswiu  unites  North-humberland, _  48  ; 
defeats  Penda,  ib.  ;  decides  for  Wilfrid 
against  Colman,  50 

Otho,  Cardinal,  legate  of  Gregory  IX., 
194 

Otto  I.,  Emperor,  63 

Otto  IV.,  Emperor,  supports  John,  179  ; 
defeated  at  Bouvines,  181 

Oude,  Hastings  seeks  its  alliance  against 
the  Mahrattas,  802  ;  annexation  of,  951 

Oudenarde,  battle  of,  690 

Outram,  Sir  James,  waives  his  rank  in 
Havelock's  favour,  954 

Overbury,  Sir  Thomas,  poisoned,  488 

Over-lordship,  character  of,  38 

Oxford,  growth  of  the  University  of, 
167 ;  the  so-called  Mad  Parliament 
meets  at,  198  ;  thronged  with  scholars, 
207  ;  study  of  Greek  in  the  University 
of,  367  ;  Parliament  adiourned  to,  502  ; 
headquarters  of  Charles  I.  at,  537; 
Parliament  held  at,  during  the  Plague, 
590  ;  the  third  Short  Parliament  meets 
at,  621  ;  Roman  Catholic  propaganda 
of  James  II.  in,  639 

Oxford,  Earl  of,  quarrels  with  Boling- 
broke,  699 ;_  dismissed,  700 ;  im- 
peached and  imprisoned,  704,  705  ;  see 
Harley,  Sir  Robert 

Oxford,  Earl  of  (Robert  de  Vere),  made 
Duke  of  Ireland,  278  ;  see  Ireland, 
Duke  of 


Painting,  mainly  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners,  during  the  Stuart  period, 
631    . 

Palaeolithic  man,  i 

Palatinate,   the,   Spinola's    invasion  of, 


PAR 

490  ;  Imperialist  invasion  of,  496  ;  loss 
of,  497  ;  failure  of  the  negotiation  to 
induce  the  king  of  Spain  to  obtain  the 
restitution  of,  500 ;  attempt  to  send 
Mansfeld  to  recover,  501 

Palmerston,  Viscount,  Foreign  Secre- 
tary in  Lord  Grey's  ministry,  891  ; 
supports  the  independence  of  Belgium, 
912  ;  maintains  an  alliance  with 
France,  913  ;  Spanish  policy  of,  920  ; 
interferes  in  Syria,  922  ;  dismissed, 
938  ;  saves  the  Derby  ministry  from 
defeat,  93^  ;  is  a  member  of  the  Aber- 
deen ministry,  945 ;  becomes  Prime 
Minister,  947  ;  the  elections  (after  his 
entering  on  a  war  with  China)  in 
favour  of,  955  ;  defeated  on  the  Con- 
spiracy to  Murder  Bill,  and  resigns, 
956  ;  becomes  Prime  Minister  a  second 
time,  ib. ;  death  of,  960 

Pandulf  receives  John  s  submission,  180 

Papacy,  influence  of,  in  the  time  of 
Gregory  L,  39;  strength  of,  in  the 
eleventh  century,  88;  its  position  in  the 
time  of  Gregory  VIL,  107;  in  the  time 
of  Innocent  III.,  178 ;  Babylonian 
captivity  of,  257  ;  England  relieved 
of  tribute  to,  258;  great  schism  of,  266  ; 
immoralitj'^  of,  375  ;  legislation  against 
the  payment  of  annates  and  Peter's 
pence  to,  388,  390 

Papal  jurisdiction  in  England,  abolition 
of,  389,  391 

Paradise  Lost,  publication  of,  596 

Paris,  the  capital  of  Hugh  Capet's 
duchy,  80 ;  rising  against  the  Ar- 
magnacs  in,  304  ;  Henry  VI.  crowned 
at,  312  ;  lost  to  the  English,  313  ;  sub- 
mits to  Henry  IV.,  464 

Paris,  Peace  of,  at  the  end  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  766 ;  at  the  end  of  the 
American  War,  798 

Parker,  Matthew,  becomes  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  429 ;  character  and 
position  of,  430 

Parker,  Samuel,  Bishop  of  Oxford,  a 
secret  Roman  Catholic,  639  ;  intrusive 
President  of  Magdalen  College,  641 

Parliament  {see  Great  Council,  the),germ 
of  representation  in,  t8o;  first  use  of  the 
name  of,  195  ;  scheme  of  administra- 
tive reform  proposed  in,  ib.  ;  knights 
of  the  shire  elected  to,  196 ;  relations 
between  the  clergy  and  the  barons, 
197  ;  insists  on  the  Provisions  of  Ox- 
ford, 197 ;  representatives  of  towns 
admitted  by  Earl  Simon  to,  201  ; 
growth  of,  under  Edward  I.,  210,  218  ; 
Scottish  representatives  in,  222  ;  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  legislative  power 
of  the  Commons  in,  228  ;  finally  se- 
parated into  two  Houses,  244  ;  opposi- 
tion to  the  clergy  in,  259  ;  Richard  II. 
invites  complaints  in,  280  ;  relations  of 
Henry  VIII.  with,  385 ;  relations  of 
Elizabeth  with,  444  ;  the  Addled,  486; 
the  Short,  528  ;  the  Long,  529  ;  forma- 
tion of  parties  in,  532  ;  struggles  with 


INDEX 


1015 


PAR 

Charles  I.  for  the  militia,  536  ;  raises 
forces  against  the  king,  537  ;  tries  to 
disband  the  army,  553  ;  its  speakers 
takvj  refuge  with  the  army,  555  ; 
dissolution  of,  by  Cromwell,  566  ;  the 
Barebone's,  ib.  ;  the  first,  of  the 
Protectorate,  570  ;  the  second,  of  the 
Pr6tectorate,  572  ;  Richard  Crom- 
well's, 574  ;  restoration  of  the  Long, 
575  ;  final  dissolution  of  the  J.ong, 
576 ;  tlie  first  convention,  577-584  ; 
the  Cavalier,  585  ;  supports  the 
Churcli  more  than  the  king,  586 ; 
rejects  the  declaration  of  Charles  II. 
in  favour  of  toleration,  587  ;  Albemarle 
resists  the  dissolution  of,  599  ;  opposes 
James  II.,  638  ;  James  II.  attempts  to 
pack,  641 
Parliamentary  reform,  views  of  Chatham 
and  Burke  on,  777 ;  supported  by 
Fox,  789 ;  advanced  views  of  the 
Duke  of  Richmond  on,  ^90  ;  Pitt  asks 

s  for  a  committee  to  inquire  into,  799  ; 

•  Pitt  brings  forward  a  motion  for,  801  ; 

'  Pitt's  Bill  for,  808  ;  advocated  by  Grey, 

827  ;  Hunt  and  Burdett  ask  for  a 
sweeping  measure  cf,  879  ;  Lord  John 
Russell  supports  a  moderate  measure 
of,  894 ;  granted  by  the  first  Reform 
Act,  905  ;  Russell  proposes  to  carry 
farther,  943  ;  Disraeli  brings  in  a  bill 
for,  956  ;  Russell  brings  in  a  bill  for, 
957  ;  Russell's  ministry  brings  in  a  bill 
for,  961  :  Disraeli  carries  a  bill  for,  //'. ; 

\  a  third  bill  for,  carried  by  agreement 

y-  between  Liberals  and  Conservatives, 

972  ;  see  Reform  Bill 
Parma,  Alexander  Farnese,  Prince  of, 
governor  of  th6  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, 45  ;  gains  ground  in  the 
Netherlands,  454-456  ;  takes  Antwerp. 
456 ;  takes  Zulphen,  457  :  hopes  to 
transport  an  army  to  England,  459  ; 
blockaded  by  the  Dutch,  462  ;  sent  to 
aid  the  League,  464 
Parnell    leads   the    Irish    Home     Rule 

party,  970 
Parris,  Van,  burnt,  419 
Parsons,    Robert,    lands    in     England, 

453  ;  escapes,  454 
Parsons,  Sir  William,  one  of  the  Lords 

Justices  in  Ireland,  533 
Parties,    Parliamentary,    formation    of. 

532  ;  development  of,  610,  628 
Partition    treaty,    the    first,    668  ;     the 

second,  671 
Paston,      John,     attacked      by      Lord 

'  Molynes,  321  ;  domestic  life  of,  330 

I  Patay,  battle  of,  311 

I  Paterson,  William,  suggests  the  founda- 

I  tion  of  the   Bank  of  England,   660 ; 

I  .    originates     the     Darien     expedition, 

\  671 

Patrick,  St.,  introduces  Christianity  into 

Ireland,  47 
Paul,    the    Tzar,    withdraws    from   the 
coalition  against  France,  840  ;  murder 
of,  845 


Paulet,  Sir  Amias,  refuses  to  put  Mary 
Stuart  to  death,  457 

Paulinus  effects  conversions  in  Deira, 
46 

Pavia,  battle  of,  372 

Peasants'  Revolt,  the,  268 

Pedro  the  Cruel,  255 

Peel,  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Robert),  re- 
commends the  resumption  of  cash 
payments,  879  :  becomes  Home  Secre- 
tary, 884 ;  passes  bills  for  the  reform 
of  the  criminal  law,  885  ;  is  Home 
Secretary  in  Wellington's  ministry, 
893  :  agrees  to  the  repeal  of  the  Test 
and  Corporation  Acts,  895  ;  defeated 
at  Oxford,  896  ;  carries  a  bill  for 
Catholic  emancipation,  ib. ;  introduces 
the  new  police,  900  ;  Prime  Minister 
for  the  first  time,  913  ;  refuses  to  take 
part  against  the  Municipal  Corpora- 
tions Bill,  914  ;  fails  to  form  a  Minis- 
try, 918  ;  becomes  Prime  Minister  a 
second  time,  925  ;  first  free-trade 
budget  of,  926  ;  Irish  policy  of,  928  ; 
second  free-trade  budget  of,  929  ;  at- 
tacked by  Disraeli,  930;  abolishes 
the  Corn  Law,  931  ;  being  defeated  on 
a  bill  for  the  protection  of  life  in  Ire- 
land, resigns  office,  932  ;  public  works 
established  in  Ireland  by,  ib.\  death 
of,  936 

Peerage  Bill,  the,  rejection  of,  710 

Peers,  creation  of  twelve,  695 

Peishwah,  the,  rules  over  the  Mahratta 
confederacy,  760;  driven  from  Poonah 
859  ;  abdicates,  948 

Pelham,  Henry,  becomes  First  Lord  of 
the  Treasury,  739  ;  death  of,  744 

Peltier,  tried  for  libelling  Bonaparte, 
848 

Pembroke,  Earl  of,  see  William  the 
Marshal 

Penda  defeats  Eadwine  at  Heathfield, 
46  ;  splits  up  North-humberland,  47  ; 
is  defeated  and  slain,  48 

Penitential  system,  the,  introduced  by 
Theodore,  50 

Penjdeh,  seized  by  the  Russians,  972 

Penn  and  Venables,  expedition  of,  to 
the  West  Indies,  571 

Pennsylvania,  colonisation  of,  629 

Penruddock  captures  the  judges  at 
Salisbury,  571 

Penry,  John,  hanged,  472 

People's  Charter,  the,  923  ;  see  Chartists 

Pepys  pities  dissenters,  588 

Perceval,  Spencer,  becomes  Prime 
Minister,  865  ;  murdered,  868 

Percies,  the,  territorial  influence  of,  293 

Percy,  Henry  (Hotspur),  293,  294 

Perpendicular  style,  the,  247 

Perrers,  Alice,  260,  262 

Perth,  the  five  articles  of,  525 

Peter  Martyr  teaches  in  England,  416 

Peter  des  Roches  influences  Henry  III. 
188  ;  is  dismissed,  189 

Peter  the  Great,  sends  troops  to  Meck- 
lenburg, 709 


ioi6 


INDEX 


PET 

Peter  the  Hermit,  120 
Peter's  Pence,  abolition  of,  391 
Peterborough,  Earl  of,  his  campaign  in 

Spain,  684,  685 
Petition  of  Right,  the,  50B 
Petitioners,  party  name  of,  620 
Pevensey,  landing  of  William  at,  96 
Philadelphia,  congress  of  twelve  colonies 

meets   in,    782 ;    congress   of  thirteen 

colonies  meets  in,   783  ;   occupied   by 

Howe,  786  ;  evacuated  by  the  British, 

787 
Philip  I.,  king  of  France,    makes  war 

with  William  1.,  114 
Philip   II.,   king  of    France,   stirs    up 

enmity  between  Henry  II. and  his  sons, 

156;  quarrels  with   Richard  I.,  161; 

stirs  up  John  against  Richard,  162  ; 

supports  Arthur  against  John,    174  ; 

wins  Normandy  and  Anjou  from  John, 
.   175  ;  prepares  an  invasion  of  England, 

179 ;    wins    a    victory    at    Bouvines, 

Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain,  marries  Mary, 
423  ;  abdication  of  Charles  V.  in 
favour  of,  426 ;  deserts  Mary,  ib.  ; 
induces  Mary  to  declare  war  against 
France,  427 ;  makes  peace  with 
France,  431  ;  proposes  to  marry  Eliza- 
beth, 432  ;  persecutes  the  Protestants 
in  the  Netherlands,  443  ;  annexes 
Portugal,  and  shares  in  a  plot  for 
the  invasion  of  England  and  the 
murder  of  Elizabeth,  454  ;  undertakes 
the  invasion  of  England,  456  ;  claims 
the  English  crown,  45*^  ;  appoints  a 
commander  for  the  Armada,  460 ; 
supports  the  League  in  France,  464 
Philip   III.,   king   of  Spain,    James  I. 

seeks  an  alliance  with,  488  _ 
Philip  IV.,  king  of  France,  his  relations 
with  Edward  I.  and  with  Scotland,  218 
Philip    IV.,    king    of    Spain,    receives 
Prince  Charles,  and   negotiates  with 
the  Pope  about  his  sister's  marriage, 
497 ;    consults   theologians,    498 ;    in- 
forms Charles  of  his  terms,  500  ;  death 
of,  592 
Philip  v.,  king  of  France,  succeeds  in 

virtue  of  the  so-called  Salic  law,  232 
Philip  v.,  king   of  Spain,  the   Spanish 
inheritance   bequeathed   to,    671  ;  at- 
tachment of  the    Spaniards  to,    682 ; 
his  claim  to  the  French  throne,  707 
Philip  VI.,  king  of  France,  succeeds  in 
virtue  of  the  so-called  Salic  law,  and 
receives  the  homage  of  Edward  III., 
232  ;  protects  David  Bruce,  234 ;  de- 
feats  the   Flemings  at    Cassel,   235  ; 
avoids  fighting  the  English,  239 ;   is 
defeated  at  Crecjy,  242  ;  death  of,  251 
Philip,   the  Archduke,    birth    of,    337 ; 

marries  Juana,  352  ;  dies,  358 
Philip's  Norton,  Monmouth  at,  637 
Philiphaugh,  battle  of,  549 
Philippa   of  Hainault  marries  Edward 
III.,  231  :  begs  the  lives  of  the  bur- 
gesses of  Calais,  243 


PIT 

Phoenicians,    the,    supposed    visits    to 

Britain  of,  7 
Picts,   the,   ravages   of,    23,   26 ;    unite 

with  the  Scots,  63 
Piers  the  Plmvman,  259 
Pilgrim  Father-,  the,  489 
Pilgrijiis     Progress,     publication     of, 

596 
Pilgrimage  of  Grace,  the,  396,  397 
Pinkie  Cleugh,  battle  of,  413 
Pippin  becomes  king  of  the  Franks,  54 
Pitt,  William  (the  elder),  opposes  Wal- 
pole,  728  ;  attacks  Spain,  729 ;  de- 
claims against  Carteret,  738  ;  his 
rivalry  with  Henry  Fox,  747  ;  dis- 
missed, 748  ;  becomes  Secretary  of 
State,  and  takes  vigorous  measures  to 
carry  on  the  war  with  France,  750  ; 
enlists  Highland  regiments,  ib.  ;  dis- 
missal and  popularity  of,  ib.\  political 
position  of,  751  ;  coalesces  with  New- 
castle, ib. ;  encourages  men  of  ability 
and  vigour,  752  ;  enters  into  an  alliance 
with  Frederick,  ib.;  resignation  01, 
766  ;  refuses  to  join  the  Rockingham 
Whigs,  771  ;  his  views  on  American 
taxation,  773  ;  created  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham, ib.  ;  see  Chatham,  Earl  of 
Pitt,  William  (the  younger),  early  career 
of,  799  ;  asks  for  a  committee  on  Par- 
liamentary reform,  and  becomes  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  ib.\  brings 
forward  a  motion  for  Parliamentary 
reform,  801  ;  becomes  Prime  Minister, 
807  ;  his  struggle  against  the  coalition, 
ib.\  obtains  a  majority  in  a  new  Par- 
liament, 808  ;  his  financial  measures, 
ih.;  his  India  Bill,  and  his  Bill  for 
Parliamentary  reform,  ib.  ;  failure  of 
his  scheme  for  a  commercial  union 
with  Ireland,  810 ;  consents  to  the 
impeachment  of  Hastings,  811  ;  his 
conduct  in  supporting  the  Regency 
Bill,  ib.;  strengthened  by  the  growth 
of  manufacturers,  819 ;  thinks  that 
France  will  be  weakened  by  the  Re- 
volution, 823 ;  speaks  against  the 
slave-trade,  ib. ;  adopts  a  war  policy, 
825  ;  fears  the  spread  of  French  revo- 
lutionary principles  in  England,  828  ; 
admits  Whigs  into  his  Caljinet,  ib.  \ 
assists  French  royalists  to  land  in 
Quiberon  Bay,  830 ;  carries  the  Trea- 
son Act  and  the  Sedition  Act,  ib. ;  his 
views  on  the  relations  between  P^ng- 
land  and  Ireland,  831  ;  gives  votes  to 
the  Catholics  in  Ireland,  832  ;  sends 
Fitzwilliam  to  Ireland,  ib.;  recalls 
Fitzwilliam,  833  ;  his  first  negotiation 
with  the  Directory,  834  ;  imposes  an 
income-tax,  840 ;  brings  about  the 
Irish  Union,  842 ;  proposes  Catholic 
emancipation  and  resigns  office,  ib.; 
assures  the  king  he  will  never  again 
support  Catholic  emancipation,  843 ; 
becomes  Prime  Minister  a  second 
time,  848  ;  weak  in  Parliamentary  sup- 
port, 851  ;  death  of,  855 


INDEX 


1017 


PIU 

Pius  v.,  Pope,  excommunicates  Eliza- 
beth, 441 

Place  Bill,  the,  661 

Plague,  the,  devastations  of,  590 

Plassey,  battle  of,  762 

Plautius,  Aulus,  subdues  south-east 
Britain,  13 

Plymouth  held  by  a  Parliamentary  gar- 
rison, 538 

Poitevins,  favour  of  Henry  III.  to,  187, 
194 

Poitiers,  battle  of,  251 

Poitou,  John's  attack  on  the  barons  of, 
174  ;  submission  to  Philip  II.  of  part 
of,  176 ;  John  attempts  to  recover, 
180  ;  Henry  III.  surrenders,  194 

Poland,  partition  of,  827  ;  assigned  to 
Russia,  873 

Pole,  Reginald,  opposes  Henry  VIII. 
and  becomes  a  cardinal,  399  ;  as  Papal 
legate  reconciles  England  to  the  see 
of  Rome,  424  ;  becomes  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  426  ;  death  of,  427 

Police,  the  new,  introduction  of,  900 

Polish  succession,  the  war  of,  725 

Poll-taxes,  267,  268 

Ponet  made  Bishop  of  Winchester,  416 

Poor,  the,  condition  of,  922 

Poor  Law,  the  new,  911 

Poor  priests  sent  out  by  WyclifTe,  268 

Pope,  character  of  the  poetry  of,  726 

Popish  Plot,  the,  615 

Population,  growth  of,  813 

Port  Mahon,  excellence  of  the  harbour 
at,  690  ;  taken  by  the  French,  749 

Portland,  Duke  of.  Prime  Minister  in 
the  Coalition  Ministry,  801  :  enters 
Pitt's  cabinet,  828 ;  becomes  Prime 
Minister  a  second  time,  857  ;  death  of, 
865 

Portland,  Earl  of,  William  III.  attached 
to,  664 

Portland,  Richard  Weston,  Earl  of,  as 
Lord  Weston,  becomes  Lord  Treasurer, 
514;  made  Earl  of  Portland  and  dies, 
521 

Porto  Novo,  battle  of,  805 

Portsmouth,  Louise  de  Keroualle, 
Duchess  of,  betrays  the  secrets  of 
Charles  II.,  602 ;  extravagance  of, 
603 

Portugal  subdued  by  Philip  IL,  454; 
French  invasion  of,  863  ;  Wellesley's 
first  landing  in,  864  ;  return  of  Welles- 
ley  to,  866  ;  the  French  driven  out  of, 
867  ;  secured  by  Canning,  884 

Posidonius  visits  Britain,  8 

Post  Office  reform,  918 

Post-nati,  the,  483 

Power-loom,  the,  invented  by  Cart- 
wright,  816 

Powick  Bridge,  skirmish  at,  537 

Poynings'  Acts,  350 

Poyntz,  Major-General,  defeats  Charles 
I.  at  Rowton  Heath,  549 

Praemunire,  Statute  of,  258  ;  re-enacted, 
282 

Pragmatic  Sanction,  the,  732 


PRO 

Pratt,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common 
Pleas,  discharges  Wilkes,  and  declares 
against  general  warrants,  776 ;  be- 
comes Lord  Chancellor  and  Lord 
Camden,  776  ;  see  Caniden,  Lord 

Prayer  Book,  the,  see  Common  Prayer, 
Book  of 

Prayer  Book,  the  Scottish,  introduced 
by  Charles  I.,  525 

Prerogative,  the,  opinion  of  James  I. 
about,  492 

Presbyterian  clergy,  the,  prepared  to 
accept  a  modified  episcopacy,  583  ; 
expelled  from  their  livings,  585  ;  pro- 
posal of  Charles  II.  to  obtain  compre- 
hension for,  599 

Presbyterian  party,  the,  in  a  majority  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  546;  attempts 
to  disband  the  army,  553  ;  negotiates 
with  the  Scots  for  a  fresh  invasion  of 
England,  554  ;  generally  accepts  the 
Prayer  Book,  586 

Presbyterianism  emanates  from  Geneva, 
430 ;  its  organisation  completed  in 
France,  431  ;  adopted  in  Scotland, 
434  ;  attempts  to  establish,  in  England, 
470  ;  feeling  in  the  Long  Parliament 
about,  532  ;  adopted  by  the  Assembly 
of  Divines,  543 ;  Charles  I.  urged  to 
establish  in  England,  551 

Press,  the  liberty  of  the,  663 

Preston,  Cromwell's  victory  at,  557 

Preston  Pans,  battle  of,  740 

Pretender,  the  Old,  acknowledged  King 
of  England  by  Louis  XIV.,  675  ;  a 
fraction  of  the  Tory  party  favours  the 
claims  of,  699  ;  appears  in  Scotland  to 
support  Mar's  rismg,  705 

Pretender,  the  Young,  his  fleet  shattered 
by  a  storm,  737  ;  lands  in  the  High- 
lands, 739  ;  defeats  Cope  at  Preston 
Pans  and  marches  to  Derby,  740  ;  re- 
turns to  Scotland  and  defeats  Hawley 
at  Falkirk,  741  ;  defeated  at  Culloden, 
742  ;  escapes  to  the  continent,  743 

Prichard,  Lord  Mayor,  624 

Pride's  Purge,  557 

Prime  Minister,  gradual  development 
of  the  office  of,  716 

Prince  Edward  Island,  joins  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada,  968 

Printing-press,  the,  358 

Prisons,  condition  of,  275 

Privilege  of  Parliament,  Strickland's 
case  of,  445  ;  Eliot's  vindication  of  the, 
512 

Privy  Council,  the.  Temple's  scheme  for 
reforming,  617 

Prophesyings,  the,  450 

Protectionists,  the,  led  by  Stanley,  931 ; 
vote  against  Peel's  bill  for  the  pro- 
tection of  life  in  Ireland,  ib. 

Protectorate,  establishment  of  the,  568 

Protestants,  the  English,  feeling  of 
Henry  VIII.  and  More  towards,  388  ; 
parties  amongst,  413  ;  the  Marian  per- 
secution of,  424  ;  local  distribution  of, 
426 ;  their  position  at  Elizabeth's  acces- 


ioi8 


INDEX 


PRO 
sion,  428 ;  influence  of  Calvinism  on, 

430 

Provengals  favoured  by  Henry  III.,  192 

Provisions  of  Oxford,  the,  198 

Provisors,  Statute  of,  258  ;  re-enacted, 
282  _  _ 

Prussia,  Frederick  I.  receives  the  title 
of  King  of,  678  ;  succession  of 
Frederick  I  J.  in,  732  ;  annexation  of 
Silesia,  735 ;  attacked  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  749  ;  takes  part  in  the 
struggle  with  revolutionary  France, 
824  ;  takes  part  in  the  partition  of 
Poland,  827  ;  makes  peace  with  France 
at  Basel,  829;  overthrown  at  Jena,  857 ; 
ill-treated  by  Napoleon,  858  ;  joins 
Russia  against  Napoleon,  871  ;  gains 
territory  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
873  ;  adoption  of  a  constitutional 
system  in,  934  ;  repression  of  the 
revolutionists  in,  936  ;  makes  war 
with  Austria,  963  ;  at  the  head  of  the 
North  German  Confederation,  ib.  ; 
see  German  Empire,  the 

Prynne,  character  and  writings  of,  519  ; 
his  sentence  in  the  Star  Chamber,  ib.  ; 
second  sentence  on,  521 

Public  Meetings,  origin  of,  789 

Puiset,  Hugh  de,  appointed  a  justiciar 
in  the  absence  of  Richard  I.,  159 

Pularoon,  refusal  of  the  Dutch  to  sur- 
render, 589  ;  abandoned  by  the  Eng- 
lish, 593 

Pulteney,  leads  a  section  of  the  opposi- 
tion against  Walpole,  722  ;  stirs  up 
public  opinion  against  the  Excise 
Bill,  724  ;  refuses  office  and  becomes 
Earl  of  Bath,  730,  731 

Punishments,  early  English,  32  ;  medi- 
aeval, 275 

Puritans,  the,  aims  of,  444  ;  gain  influ- 
ence in  the  House  of  Commons,  445, 
468  ;  the  Court  of  High  Commission 
directed  against,  470 ;  opinions  of,  at 
the  Hampton  Court  Conference,  482  ; 
unpopular  after  the  Restoration,  586 

Purveyance,  abolition  of,  582 

Purveyors,  274 

Pusey,  a  leader  of  the  Oxford  move- 
ment, 940 

Pym  diflfers  from  Eliot  on  the  method  of 
dealing  with  the  question  of  Tonnage 
and  Poundage,  512  ;  addresses  the 
Short  Parliament  on  grievances,  529  ; 
proposes  in  the  Long  Parliament  the 
impeachment  of  Strafford,  ih.  ;  his  view 
of  Straff'ord's  case,  530 ;  discloses  the 
army  plot,  531  ;  is  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  party  of  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance, 534 ;  accused  as  one  of  the 
five  members,  535  ;  urges  the  House 
of  Commons  to  resist  Charles  I.,  540  ; 
death  of,  542 

Pytheas  opens  a  trade-route  to  Britain,  8 

Quadruple  Alliance,  the,  709 
Quebec,  Wolfe  sent  to  take,  753  ;  sur- 
render of,  756 


RIC 

Queen  Anne's  Bounty,  693 
Queensland,    established   as  a  separate 

colony,  969 
Q^iia  emptores,  Statute  of,  212 
Quiberon  Bay,  Hawke's  victory  in,  756  ; 

landing  of  French  royalists  in,  830 
Quo  ivarranto,  writs  of,  624,  625 


Radcot  Briik;e,  the  Duke  of  Ireland 

defeated  at,  280 
Radicals,  the  demand  for  reform  made 

by,  877 
Raedwald,   king     of    East  Anglia,   41  ;         | 
Eadwine  takes  refuge  with,  43  \ 

Raglan, _  Lord,  commands   the   English 

army  invading  the  Crimea,  945 
Railways,  introduction  of,  906 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,   takes  part  in  the 
capture   of  Cadiz,   464  ;  sentenced  to         | 
death  and   imprisonment,   481 ;   loses  . 

Sherborne,  486  ;  voyage  to  Guiana  and 
execution  of,  499  ;  his  colony  in  Vir- 
ginia, ib. 
Ralph  de  Diceto,  167 
Ralph  of  Wader  takes  part  in  the  Rising 

of  the  Earls,  no 
Ramillies,  battle  of,  684 
Ranulph  Flambard,  see  Flambard 
Rd,  Buckingham's  expedition  to,  506 
Reading  taken  by  Essex,  538 
Reading,  the  abbot  of,  executed,  400 
Recognitions,  147  ' 

Recusancy  laws,  the,  penalties  inflicted 

i^y,  454 

Reform  Bill,  the  first,  introduced  and 
withdrawn,  902  ;  re-introduced  and 
rejected  by  the  Lords,  903  ;  brought 
in  a  third  time  and  passed,  905  ;  pass- 
ing of  the  second,  961  ;  passing  of 
the  third,  972  ;  see  Parliamentary  Re- 
form 

Regency  Bill,  the,  811 

Regicides,  the,  execution  of,  5B2 
'Reginald  elected  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury by  the  monks,  177 

Regni,  the,  join  Aulus  Plautius,  13 

Regular  clergy,  the,  65 

Regulating  Act,  the,  802 

Reign  of  Terror,  the,  826-828 

Reims,  College  at,  453 

Relics,  destruction  of,  398 

Renascence,  the,  character  of,  366  ;  its 
influence  on  England,  367  ;  immorality 
of,  374,  375 

Rent,  land  let  for,  321 

Reporting,  freedom  of,  established,  779 

Representative  institutions,  see  Parlia- 
ment 

Requesens,  governor  of  the  Netherlands, 

449 

Retainers  substituted  for  vassals,  281  ; 
increase  of  the  number  of,  321 

Revenue  of  the  crown  fixed  after  the 
Restoration,  582 

Revolution  of  1688-9,  646-648 

Rich,  Edmund,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, 189 


INDEX 


1019 


RIC 

Richard  I,,  as  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  155  ; 
takes  the  cross,  157  ;  becomes  King  of 
England,  159 ;  sells  the  homage  of 
Scotland,  ib. ;  his  Crusade  and  im- 
prisonment, 161  ;  is  liberated,  162  ;  his 
short  visit  to  England,  ib.  ;  death  of, 
165. 

Richard  II.,  proposal  to  set  aside,  261  ; 
his  minority,  266  ;  meets  the  insur- 
gents, 268  ;  offers  to  head  them,  269  ; 
marries  Anne  of  Bohemia,  278  ;  his 
favouritism,  ib.  ;  superseded  in  his 
authority  by  a  Commission  of  Regency, 
279  ;  regains  power  and  governs  con- 
stitutionally, 280  ;  makes  an  alliance 
with  France,  and  marries  Isabella,  282; 
makes  himself  absolute,  ib.  ;  banishes 
Norfolk  and  Hereford,  285  ;  goes  to 
Ireland,  284  ;  forced  to  abdicate,  285  ; 
murdered,  291  ;  alleged  re-appearance 
of,  293  ;  buried  at  Westminster,  299 

Richard  III.  {see  Duke  of  Gloucester)  is 
created  a  duke,  329 ;  character  of, 
337 ;  becomes  Protector,  338 ;  has 
Hastings  executed,  340  ;  is  crowned 
king,  341  ;  his  government,  342  ;  de- 
feated and  slain,  343 

Richard,  Earl  of  Cornwall,  leads  the 
barons  against  Henry  III.,  192  ; 
deserts  the  barons,  195  ;  takes  part  in 
summoning  knights  of  the  shire  to 
Parliament,  196  ;  is  chosen  king  of  the 
Romans,  198  ;  hides  himself  after  the 
battle  of  Lewes,  201 

Richard  Fitz-Nigel  writes  the  Dialogus 
de  Scaccario,  167 

Richard  the  Fearless,  Duke  of  the 
Normans,  80 

Richard  the  Good,  Duke  of  the 
Normans,  81 

Richmond,  Duke  of,  asks  for  manhood 
suffrage  and  annual  parliaments.  790 

Richmond,  Earl  of,  see  Henry  VII. 

Riding  on  horseback,  273 

Ridley  made  Bishop  of  London,  416; 
burnt,  425 

Ridolfi  plot,  the,  444 

Rinuccini,  Archbishop,  arrives  in 
Ireland,  550 ;  leaves  Ireland,  562 

Ripon,  architecture  of  the  choir  of,  171 

Ripon,  Earl  of,  resigns  office,  912  ;  see 
Robinson,  Frederick  J., and  Goderich, 
Viscount 

-i^ipon,  treaty  of,  529 

Rising  in  the  North,  the,  441 

Rising  of  the  Earls,  the,  no 

Rivers,  Earl,  becomes  Lord  Constable, 
331  ;  imprisoned,  338 ;  executed,  340 

Rizzio,  David,  murder  of,  439 

Roads,  making  and  repair  of,  272,  273  ; 
improvement  in,  633 

Robert  I.  (Bruce),  king  of  Scotland, 
allied  with  Edward  I.,  223;  slays 
Comyn,  and  is  crowned  King  of  Scot- 
land, 224  ;  defeats  Edward  II.  at  Ban- 
nockburn,  226  ;  leprosy  of,  231 ;  death 
of,  232 

Robert  II.,  king  of  Scotland,  295 


ROM 

Robert  III.,  king  of  Scotland,  295 

Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester,  his  power  in 
the  West  of  England,  133  ;  declares  for 
Matilda,  134  ;  taken  prisoner,  and  ex- 
changed for  Stephen,  135  ;  death  of,  ib. 

Robert,  Duke  of  the  Normans  (father  of 
William  the  Conqueror),  88 

Robert,  Duke  of  the  Normans  (son  of 
William  the  Conqueror),  incapacity  of, 
1 14 ;  rebellion  in  England  in  favour 
of,  115  ;  goes  on  the  first  Crusade,  121  ; 
fails  to  overthrow  Henry  I.,  124;  de- 
feat, imprisonment,  and  death  of,  125 

Robert  of  Belleme,  cruelty  of,  119;  be- 
comes Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  121 ;  ex- 
pelled by  Henry  I.,  124  ;  imprisonment 
of,  125 

Robert  of  Jumieges,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, 87 

Robin  Hood,  legend  of,  275 

Robinson,  Sir  Thomas,  fails  as  leader  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  747 

Robinson,  Frederick  J.,  budgets  of,  886  ; 
see  Goderich,  Viscount,  and  Ripon, 
Earl  of 

Rochefort,  failure  of  an  attempt  against, 
753 

Rochelle,  Buckingham  lends  ships  to 
fight  against  the  Huguenots  of,  504  ; 
siege  of,  506  ;  expedition  to  the  relief 
of,  510 

Rochester,  foundation  of  the  bishopric 
of,  40  ;  Odo  besieged  in,  115 

Rochester,  Lawrence  Hyde,  Earl  of, 
advises  against  the  summoning  of 
Parliament,  626  ;  dismissal  of,  640 ; 
dismissed  through  the  influence  of 
Marlborough,  681 

Rockingham,  Council  at,  118 

Rockingham,  Marquis  of,  leads  one  of 
the  three  fractions  of  the  Whig  party, 
768 ;  first  ministry  of,  771  ;  dismissal 
of>  773 ;  second  mmistry  of,  795  ; 
death  of,  796 

Rockingham  Whigs,  the,  Pitt's  dislike 
of,  771  ;  Burke's  influence  with,  772  ; 
take  the  view  that  the  House  of  Com- 
mons has  no  right  to  incapacitate 
Wilkes,  774  ;  oppose  Parliamentary 
reform,  777  ;  support  economical  re- 
form, 789 

Rodney,  Admiral,  bombards  Havre, 
756  ;  defeats  De  Grasse,  795 

Roger,  Archbishop  of  York,  crowns  the 
young  Henry,  149 

Roger,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  Minister  of 
Henry  I.,  126;  quarrels  with  Stephen, 
134 

Roger,  Earl  of  Hereford,  takes  part  in 
the  Rising  of  the  Earls,  no 

Roger  of  Hoveden,  167 

Roger,  son  of  Roger  of  Salisbury,  134 

Rogers,  John,  burnt,  424 

Rohillas,  the,  Hastings  assists  the 
Nawab  of  Oude  to  subdue,  802 

Roman  Empire,  the,  establishment  of, 
12  ;  continuance  of,  in  the  East  after  its 
destruction  in  the  West,  27 


INDEX 


ROM 

Romans,  the,  invasion  of  Gaul  by,  lo ; 
invasion  of  Britain  by,  1 1 ;  commence- 
ment of  the  conquest  of  Britain  by, 
12 ;  massacre  of,  15 ;  complete  con- 
quest of  the  greater  part  of  Britain  by, 
17  ;  civilisation  introduced  into  Britain 
by,  21  ;  end  of  their  rule  in  Britain, 
26  ;  persistency  of  their  civilisation  in 
Gaul,  37 

Rome  taken  by  the  Duke  of  Bourlion, 

374 

Romilly,  Sir  Samuel,  advocates  the 
reform  of  the  criminal  law,  885 

Romney  Marsh  divides  Jutes  from  South 
Saxons,  27 

Rooke,  Sir  George,  takes  Gibraltar, 
682 

Roosebeke,  battle  of,  278 

Root  and  Branch  Bill,  the,  533 

Roses,Wars  ofthe,  see  Wars  of  the  Roses 

Rothesay,  Duke  of,  death  of,  295 

Rouen  occupied  by  Hrolf,  80;  surren- 
ders to  Henry  V. ,  304 ;  retaken  by 
the  French,  320 

Roumania becomes  an  independent  king- 
dom, 969 

Roundway  Down,  battle  of,  538 

Rowton  Heath,  battle  of,  549 

Royal  Assent,  the,  refused  for  the  last 
time,  706 

Royal  Society,  the,  foundation  of,  598 

Rump,  the  name  given  to  the  remnant 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  565  ;  dis- 
solved by  Cromwell,  566  ;  brought 
back,  expelled  and  brought  back 
again,  575  ;  final  dissolution  of,  576 

Runjeet  Singh,  allies  himself  with  the 
British,  949  ;  death  of,  951 

Rupert,  Prince,  commands  the  cavalry 
at  Edgehill,  537  ;  storms  Bristol,  538  ; 
is  defeated^  at  Marston  Moor,  543  ; 
takes  part  in  the  battle  of  Naseby, 
548  ;  surrenders  Bristol,  549 ;  holds  a 
command  in  the  battle  off  the  North 
Foreland,  592  ;  defeated  off  the  Texel, 
608 

Russell,  Admiral,  afterwards  Earl  of 
Orford,  commands  the  fleet  at  La 
Hogue,  658  ;  is  one  of  the  Whig  Junto, 
659 ;  created  Earl  of  Orford,  669  ;  see 
Orford,  Earl  of 

Russell,  Earl,  becomes  Prime  Minister 
a  second  time,  961 ;  resignation  of,  ib.  ", 
see  Russell,  Lord  John 

Russell,  Lord  John,  advocates  Parlia- 
mentary reform,  894  :  obtains  the  re- 
peal of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts, 
895 ;  holds  a  subordinate  office  in 
Lord  Grey's  ministry,  901  ;  mtroduces 
the  first  Reform  Bill,  902 ;  becomes 
Home  Secretary  and  Leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  913  ;  is  unable  to 
form  a  ministry,  and  supports  Peel's 
abolition  of  the  Corn  Law,  931  ;  ob- 
jects to  Peel's  Irish  policy,  tb.  ;  be- 
comes Prime  Minister,  932  ;  his  deal- 
ings with  Irish  distress,  ib.  ;  attempts 
to  improve  the  condition  of  tenants  in 


SAI 

Ireland,  933  ;  passes  the  Encumbered 
Estates  Act,  934 ;  passes  the  Eccle- 
siastical Titles  Bill,  937 ;  resignation 
of,  938  ;  joins  the  Aberdeen  Ministry, 
and  promises  a  new  Reform  Bill,  943  ; 
is  Foreign  Secretary  in  Palmerston's 
second  ministry,  956 ;  brings  in  a 
Reform  Bill,  957  :  see  Russell,  Earl 

Russell,  William  Russell,  Lord,  sup- 
ports the  Exclusion  Bill,  617  ;  refuses 
to  take  part  in  acts  of  violence,  624  ; 
trial  of,  625  ;  execution  of,  626 

Russia,  interferes  for  the  first  time  in 
Western  Europe,  709  ;  establishes  the 
'  Armed  Neutrality,'  792  ;  takes  part 
in  the  second  coalition,  839  ;  withdraws 
from  the  alliance,  840  ;  joins  the 
Northern  Confederacy,  844  ;  with- 
draws from  the  Northern  Confederacy, 
845 ;  joins  the  third  coalition,  854  ; 
invaded  by  Napoleon,  869  ;  offers  aid 
to  the  Sultan,  921  ;  joins  England, 
Austria,  and  Prussia  in  supporting  the 
Sultan,  922  ;  proposed  partition  of  the 
Turkish  dominions  in  agreement  with, 
943  ;  goes  to  war  with  the  Sultan,  944  ; 
war  declared  by  England  and  France 
against,  ib.  ;  makes  peace  with  the 
allies,  948  ;  alliance  of  Dost  Moham- 
med with,  949  ;  refuses  to  be  bound  by 
the  treaty  of  1856,  965  ;  overpowers 
the  Turkish  army,  and  submits  to  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  969 ;  acquires  Penj- 
deh,  971 

Rutland,  Earl  of  (son  of  the  Duke  of 
York),  accompanies  his  father  to  Ire- 
land, 326  ;  murdered,  328 

Ruvigny,  Marquis  of,  serves  in  Ireland, 
656  ;  see  Galway,  Earl  of 

Ruyter,  De,  captures  English  forts  in 
Guinea,  589 

Rye  House  Plot,  the,  625 

Ryswick,  peace  of,  667 


Sa,  Dom  Pantaleon,  execution  of,  569 
Sacheverell,  Dr.,   sermon  preached  by, 

690  :  impeached,  691 
Sackville,  Lord  George,  misconduct  of, 

756 
Sadowa,  battle  of,  963 
St.     Albans     {see    Verulam),    architec- 
ture of  the  nave  of  the  abbey  of,  171  ; 

meeting  of  a  national  jury  at,  180  ; 

the  first   battle  of,  324 ;    the  second 

battle  of,  328 
St.  Andrews  captured  by  the  French  and 

recaptured,  413 
St.    Arnaud,    Marshal,    commands    the 

French    army   in    the   Crimea,   945  ; 

death  of,  946 
St.  Bartholomew,  massacre  of,  449 
St.   Bartholomew's  day,    ejection  of  the 

Presbyterian  clergy  on,  585 
St.  Cast,  failure  of  an  expedition  to  the 

Bay  of,  753 
St.  Christopher's,  England  receives  the 

French  part  of,  696 


INDEX 


St.  John,  Henry,  becomes  minister  as  a 
moderate  Tory,  68 1  ;  obtains  the  re- 
jection of  an  Occasional  CDnformity 
Bill,  682  ;  turned  out  of  office,  687  ; 
is  a  member  of  a  purely  Tory  ministry, 
691 ;  orders  Ormond  not  to  fight,  695  ; 
created  Viscount  Bolingbroke,  ih. ;  see 
Bolingbroke,  Viscount 

St.  John,  Knights  of,  157 

St.  Male,  expedition  against,  753 

St.  Michael's  Mount,  Henry  besieged 
at,  119 

St.  Paul's,  Old,  burnt,  592  ;  rebuilt,  677 

St.  Vincent,  battle  of,  835 

Saladin  takes  Jerusalem,  157 

Saladin  tithe,  the,  157 

Salamanca,  battle  of,  869 

Salic  law,  the  so-called,  232 

Salisbury,  great  Gemot  at,  113;  cathe- 
dral at,  207  ;  Penruddock  captures  the 
judges  at,  571 

Salisbury,  Marquis  of,  becomes  Prime 
Minister,  971 

Salisbury,  Richard,  Earl  of,  his  connec- 
tion with  the  Duke  of  York,  324 ; 
takes  part  in  the  battles  of  Blore 
Heath  and  Northampton,  326 ;  be- 
headed, 328 

Salisbury,  Robert  Cecil,  Earl  of,  as  Sir 
Robert  Cecil,  secretary  to  Elizabeth 
and  James  I.,  480,  481  :  becomes  Earl 
of  Salisbury  and  Lord  Treasurer,  484 
orders  the  levy  of  new  impositions,  id.; 
death  of,  486 

Salisbury,  Countess  of,  executed,  401 

San  Domingo,  Penn  and  Venables 
attack,  572 

San  Stefano,  treaty  of,  969 

Sancroft,  William,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, deprived  for  refusal  to  take 
oaths  to  William,  651 

Sandwich,  Earl  of,  informs  against 
Wilkes,  770 

Santa  Cruz,  Blake  destroys  Spanish 
ships  at,  573 

Saratoga,  capitulation  of,  786 

Sardinia,  Kingdom  of,  conferred  on  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  in  lieu  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Sicily,  710 

Sarum,  Old,  34 

Saviie,  Sir  George,  presides  over  a 
meeting  in  support  of  economical  re- 
form, 789  ;  passes  a  Bill  in  relief  of 
Roman  Catholics,  792 

Savoy,  the,  burnt,  269 

Savoy  Conference,  the,  585 

Savoy,  Duke  of,  persecutes  the  Vaudois, 
572  .   . 

Sawtre,  William,  burnt  as  a  heretic,  292 

Saxon  shore,  the  defence  of,  25;  over- 
run by  the  Jutes,  27 

Saxons,  the  (see  East  Saxons,  South 
Saxons,  West  Saxons),  ravage  Roman 
Britain,  24 ;  settle  in  Britain,  27 ; 
merge  their  name  in  that  of  English, 
28  ;  are  known  by  the  Celts  as 
Saxons,  29 

Say,  Lord,  beheaded  by  Jack  Cade,  323 


SCO 

Scheldt,  the,  opening  of,  825 

Schism  Act,  the,  passed,  699  ;  repealed, 

710 
Schomberg,  Marshal,  lands  in  Ireland, 
^  655  ;  killed  at  the  Boyne,  656 
Schwartz,  Martin,  defeated  at  Stoke,  347 
Scotland,  kingdom  of,  formed  by  a 
union  of  Scots  and  Picts,  63  ;  its  rela- 
tions with  England  under  Eadmund, 
64  ;  its  relations  with  Cnut,  84  ;  with 
William  L,  104;  with  William  IL, 
119;  with  Stephen,  133;  with  Henry 
IL,  154  ;  with  Richard  I.,  159  ;  dis- 
puted succession  in,  214  ;  Edward  I. 
acknowledged  Lord  Paramount  of, 
216 ;  its  league  with  France,  218  ; 
twice  conquered  by  Edward  I.,  219, 
221 ;  incorporated  with  England,  222  ; 
conquered  a  third  time  by  Edward  I., 
224  ;  independence  of,  226  ;  first  war 
of  Edward  III.  with,  231;  struggle 
between  Edward  Balliol  and  David 
Bruce  in,  233,  234  :  accession  of  th6 
Stuarts  to  the  throne  of,  295  ;  assists 
France  in  its  wars  with  England, 
307 ;  power  of  the  nobles  in,  404 ; 
Hertford's  invasion  of,  409  ;  Protestant 
missionaries  in,  412  ;  Somerset's  inva- 
sion of,  413  ;  the  Reformation  in,  432 ; 
the  intervention  of  Elizabeth  in,  433  ; 
Presbyterianism  in,  434  ;  Mary  lands 
in,  435;  Mary's  govern  nent  of,  437- 
440 ;  civil  war  in,  443  ;  projected 
union  with,  482 ;  Episcopacy  and 
Presbyterianism  in,  524 ;  introduc- 
tion of  a  new  prayer  book  in,  525 ; 
national  covenant  signed  in,  td.  ;  first 
Bishops'  war  with,  526 ;  episcopacy 
abolished  by  the  Assembly  and  Parlia- 
ment of,  527  ;  the  second  Bishops' 
war  with,  529 ;  visit  of  Charles  I.  to, 
532  ;  solemn  league  and  covenant 
with,  540;  sends  an  army  into  Eng- 
land, 542  ;  its  army  recalled,  553  ;  pro- 
posal of  a  new  invasion  of  England  by, 
554  ;  engagement  signed  with  Charles 
T.  by  Commissioners  of,  556  ;  Charles 
II.  and  Cromwell  in,  563  ;  Restoration 
settlement  of,  595  ;  Lauderdale's  in- 
fluence in,  602  ;  Lauderdale's  manage- 
rnent  of,  619  ;  Covenanters  in,  zd.  ; 
rising  of  the  Covenanters  in,  620 ; 
under  James  II.,  639  ;  Presbyterianism 
established  in,  652  ;  the  crown  offered 
to  William  and  Mary  in,  id.  ;  pacifica- 
tion of  the  Highlands  of  654 ;  the  union 
with,  685  :  enthusiastic  support  of  the 
Darien  expedition  in,  671  ;  Mar's 
rising  in,  705 ;  disruption  of  the 
Church  of,  940 
Scots,  the  ravages  of,  23  ;  abode  of,  in 
Ireland,  23  ;  renewed  ravages  of,  26 ; 
settle  in  Argyle,  and  are  defeated  at 
Degsastan,  42  ;  their  relations  with 
Eadward  the  Elder,  63  ;  see  Scotland 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,  works  of,  889 
Scottish  army,  the,  encamps  on  Dunse 
Law,  526  ;  routs  the  English  at  New- 


INDEX 


SCR 

burn,  529 ;  invades  England,  542 ; 
besieges  York,  ib.  ;  takes  part  in  the 
battle  of  Marston  Moor,  543  ;  receives 
Charles  I.  at  Southwell,  and  conveys 
him  to  Newcastle,  551  ;  negotiation 
for  the  abandonment  of  Charles  I,  by, 
553  ;  returns  to  Scotland,  553  ;  is  de- 
feated at  Dunbar,  563  ;  and  at  Wor- 
cester, 564 

Scrope,  Archbishop  of  York,  executed, 
296 

Scrope,  Lord,  execution  of,  301 

Scutage,  141 

Scutari,  hospital  at,  947 

Sebastopol,  siege  of,  945 ;  reduction  of, 
947  ;  destruction  of  the  fortifications 
of,  948 

Second  Civil  War,  the,  556,  557 

Secular  clergy,  the,  67 

Sedan,  battle  of,  965 

Sedgemoor,  battle  of,  637 

Sedition  Act,  the,  830 

Selby  taken  by  the  Fairfaxes,  542 

Selden,  John,  takes  part  in  drawing  up 
the  Petition  of  Right,  508 

Self-denying  Ordinance,  the,  545 

Selsey,  landing  of  the  South  Saxons 
near,  27 

Seminary  priests,  the,  453  ;  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment against,  456 

Senegal  ceded  by  France,  766 

Senlac,  battle  of,  96 

Separatists,    the,     principles     of,    470  ; 

settlement  of,  in   Leyden    and    New 

England,    489  ;   receive   the   name   of 

'  Independents,  543  ;  see  Independents 

Sepoy  mutiny,  the,  951-955 

Septennial  Act,  the,  706 

Serfs,  see  Villeins 

Seringapatam  stormed,  838 

Servia,  becomes  an  independent  king- 
dom, 969 

Settlement,  Irish  Act  of,  595 

Settlement,  Act  of;  see  Act  of  Settlement 

Seven  Bishops,  the,  petition  presented 
by,  642  ;  trial  of,  643 

Seven  Years'  War,  the,  beginning  of, 
749  ;  end  of,  766  ;  results  of,  767 

Severn,  West  Saxon  conquest  of  the 
Valley  of,  35 

Severus  fails  in  conquering  the  Cale- 
donians, 19 

Seymour,  Jane,  see  Jane  Seymour 

Seymour  of  Sudley,  Lord,  execution  of, 
415 

Seymour,  William,  heir  of  the  Suffolk 
hne,  480 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper, 
Earl  of,  early  life  of,  602  ;  policy 
of,  603  ;  supports  the  Declaration  of 
Indulgence,  605 ;  becomes  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury  and  Chancellor,  ib.  ;  his 
invective  against  the  Dutch.  606  ;  dis- 
missal of,  608  ;  leads  the  opposition, 
ib. ;  supports  toleration  for  Dissenters 
only,  610  ;  declares  the  present  Par- 
liament to  be  dissolved,  612 ;  en- 
courages belief  in   the   Popish   Plot, 


SIN 

616;  his  position  similar  to  that  of 
Pym,    618 ;    supports    the    Exclusion 
Bill,  ib.  ;  indicts  the  Duke  of  York  as 
a    recusant,    621  ;    supported    by   the 
third  Short  Parliament,  ib.  ;  the  Grand 
Jury  throw  out  a  Bill  against,   622  ; 
Dryden's  satire  on,   623  ;  proposes,  to 
attack  the  king's  guards,  624;  exile  and 
death  of,  ib. 
Shakspere,  William,  teaching  of,  474 
'Shannon,'   the,    (.aptures   the    'Chesa- 
peake,' 872 
Sharp,  Archbishop,  murder  of,  620 
Shelburne,    Earl     of,    takes     ofiSce     in 
Rockingham's  second   ministry,  795  ; 
becomes  Prime  Minister,   796  ;  resig- 
nation of,  800 
Shelley,  opinions  of,  888 
Sherborne  taken  by  Fairfax,  548 
Sherfield,    Henry,    fined    by    the    Star 

Chamber,  515 
Sheridan,    takes  part   in   the    impeach- 
ment of  Hastings,  811 
Sheriffmuir,  battle  of,  705 
Sheriffs,    their     position     in     Eadgar's 
reign,  73  ;  weakened  by  Henry  IL,  148 
Ship-money,    levy  of,    523  ;  resisted  by 

Hampden,  524 
Ships,  comparison  between  English  and 

Spanish,  459 
Shires,  origin  of,  73 

Shire-moot,  the,  73  ;  see  County  Courts 
Shore,  Jane,  penance  of,  340 
Shovel,  Sir  Cloudesley,  drowned,  689 
Shrewsbury,    Duke    of,    becomes    Lord 

Treasurer,  700 
Shrewsbury,  Earl  of,  see  Talbot,  Lord 
Shrewsbury,  Parliament  of,  283  ;  battle 

of,  294 
Shrines,  destruction  of,  398 
Sicilv,  the  Duke  of  Savoy  becomes  king 
of,  696  ;  given  to  Austria,  710  ;  ceded 
to  the  son  of  Philip  V,,  724  ;  retained 
by  Ferdinand  I.,  857 
Sidmouth,    Viscount,    included    in    the 
Ministry  of  All   the  Talents,  855 ;  is 
Home  Secretary  in  Lord  Liverpool's 
ministry,  877  :  holds  that  meetings  in 
favour  of  Radical  reform  are  treason- 
able, 880 ;  see  Addington 
Sidney,  Algernon,  execution  of,  626 
Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  death  of,  457 
Sikhs,  the,  allied,  under  Runjeet  Singh, 
with  the  British,  949  ;  wars  with,  951 
Silchester,  Roman  church  at,  23 
Simnel,  Lambert,  insurrection  in  favour 

of,  347 
Simon  de  Montfort,  early  career  of,  193  ; 
takes  the  side  of  the  barons,  195  ;  em- 
ployed in  Gascony,  196  ;  executes  the 
Provisions  of  Oxford,  199  ;  heads  the 
baronial  party,  200 ;  wins  the  battle  of 
Lewes,  201  ;  constitutional  scheme  of, 
ib.  ;  killed  at  Evesham,  203  ;  com- 
pared with  Archbishop  Thomas,  204 
Sinclair,  Oliver,  killed  at  Solway  Moss, 

405 
Sindhia,  a  Mahratta  chief,  802  ;  defeated 


INDEX 


1023 


siv 

and  reduced  to  sign  a  subsidiary  treaty, 
.859. 

Sivaji  founds  the  Mahratta  State,  759 

Siward,  Earl  of  North-humberland,  84, 
87 

Six  Arts,  the,  880 

Skeffington,  Lord  Deputy,  takes  May- 
nooth,  402 

Slave  trade,  the,  carried  on  by  Eliza- 
bethan sailors,  447  ;  recognised  in  the 
Assiento  Treaty,  696  ;  denounced  by 
Clarkson,  823  ;  attacked  by  Wilber- 
force  and  Pitt,  ib.\  abolished,  855,  857 

Slavery,  agitation  for  the  abolition  of, 
910  ;  abolition  of,  911 

Slaves  preserved  alive  at  the  English 
conquest,  30 

Sluys,  battle  of,  239 

Smerwick,  slaughter  at,  453 

Smith,  Adam,  his  Wealth  of  Nations, 
810 

Smith,  Sir  Sidney,  defends  Acre,  838 

Solemn  league  and  covenant,  the,  540 

Solway   Moss,   defeat  of  the  Scots  at, 

405  ;  Charles  I.  urged  by  the  Scots  to 
take,  551 

Somers,  Lord,  one*  of  the  Whig  Junto, 
659 ;  resignation  of,  670  ;  dissuades 
the  Whigs  from  impeaching  Sache- 
verell,  691 

Somerset,  Welsh  driven  out  of,  53 

Somerset,EdmundBeaufort,secondDuke 
of,  commands  in  Normandy,  320  ;  sup- 
ported by  Henry  VL,  323  ;  slain  at 
St.  Albans,  324 

Somerset,  Edmund  Beaufort,fourth  Duke 
of,  executed,  334 

Somerset,  Edward  Seymour,  Duke  of, 
invades  Scotland  as  Earl  of  Hertford, 

406  ;  becomes  Duke  of  Somerset  and 
Protector,  412  ;  defeats  the  Scots  at 
Pinkie  Cleugh,  413 ;  possession  of 
Church  property  by,  415  ;  expelled 
from  the  Protectorate,  416  ;  execution 
of,  418 

Somerset,  Henry  Beaufort,  third  Duke  of 

executed,  331 
Somerset,  John  Beaufort,  first  Duke  of, 

commands  in  France,  317 ;  kept  from 

court  by  Suffolk,  318  ;  dies,  320 
Somerset,  Robert  Carr,  Earl  of,  favourite 

of  James  I.,  486  ;  disgrace  of,  488 
Somerset  House,  building  of,  425 
Sophia,  the  Electress,  favours  the  Whigs, 

69^  ;  death  of,  701 
Sorbiodunum  {Old  Sarum),  the  strong- 
hold of  Ambrosius,  34 
South  Africa,  progress  of,  968 
South  Australia  established  as  a  separate 

colony,  968 
South  Saxons,   the,  first  conquests  of, 

27  ;  destroy  Anderida,  28 
South  Sea  Bubble,  the,  711 
Southwell,  Charles  L  surrenders  to  the 

Scots  at,  551 
Southwold  Bay,  battle  in,  605 
Spain,  union  of  the  kingdoms  of,  349; 

growth    of   the     monarchy    of,    354 ; 


STA 

resources  of,  426  ;  maritime  power 
of,  447  ;  authority  of,  in  the  West 
Indies  challenged  by  English  sailors, 
ib.  ;  navy  of,  459  ;  English  attacks  on, 
464  ;  sends  an  expedition  to  Kinsale, 
478  ;  its  alliance  sought  by  James  L, 
486  ;  attack  of  Raleigh  on  the  colonies 
of,  489 ;  sends  troops  to  occupy  the 
Palatinate,  490;  protest  of  the  Com- 
mons against  an  alliance  with,  496;  visit 
of  Prince  Charles  to,  497  ;  eagerness 
in  England  for  war  with,  500  ;  money 
voted  for  war  with,  501  ;  expedition 
against  Cadiz  in,  503 ;  Charles  L 
makes  peace  with,  514  ;  Cromwell 
makes  war  on,  571 ;  question  of  the 
succession  to,  592  ;  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession  in,  682  ;  her  conflict  with 
England  in  the  West  Indies,  726  ;  war 
with,  730 ;  joins  France  against  Eng- 
land at  the  end  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  766  ;  allies  herself  with  PVance 
and  America,  787  ;  makes  peace  with 
Great  Britain,  798  ;  its  fleet  defeated 
off  Cape  St.  Vincent,  835  ;  Napoleon's 
interference  in,  862  ;  resists  Napoleon, 
863;  Napoleon  appears  in,  864;  Wel- 
lesley's  advance  to  Talavera  in,  867 ; 
Wellington's  advance  to  Madrid  and 
Burgos  in,  869  ;  the  French  driven  out 
of,  871  ;  revolution  against  Ferdinand 
yil.  in,  882  ;  death  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
in,  920  ;  civil  war  in,  921 

Spanish  succession,  the,  claimants  to, 
667  ;  thrown  open  by  the  death  of 
Charles  II.,  671  ;  war  of,  675 

Spencer,  Henry,  Bishop  of  Norwich, 
leads  an  expedition  to  Flanders,  278 

Spenser,  'Edmund,  his  Faerie  Queen,  473 

Spinning,  improvements  in,  814 

Spinola,  Ambrogio,  invades  the  Palati- 
nate, 490 

Spithead,  mutiny  at,  836 

Spurs,  battle  of  the,  364 

Stadholder,  ofiice  of,  449  ;  abolition  of 
the  ofiice  of,  565 

Stafford,  William  Howard,  Viscount, 
execution  of,  621 

Stainer,  Admiral,  captures  a  Spanish 
fleet,  572 

Stair,  the  Master  of,  John  Dalrymple, 
organises  the  massacre  of  Glencoe. 
654 

Stamford  Bridge,  battle  of,  95 

Stamp  Act,  the,  passed,  771  ;  repealed, 
772 

Standard,  battle  of  the,  133 

Stanhope,  Earl,  death  of,  712  ;  see  Stan- 
hope, General 

Stanhope,  General,  takes  Minorca,  65,0; 
surrenders  at  Brihuega,  692 ;  takes 
the  lead  after  the  Whig  schism,  and 
becomes  Viscount  and  the  Earl  Stan- 
hope, 709  ;  see  Stanhope,  Earl 
Stanley,  Lord,  joins  Henry  VII.,  343 
Stanley,  Mr.,  afterwards  Lord,  his 
policy  as  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland, 
919 ;     becoine;i    Colonial     Secretary, 


I024 


INDEX 


STA 

ib.  ;  carries  a  Bill  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  911  ;  resigns  office,  912  ;  a 
member  of  Peel's  cabinet,  926  ;  resigns, 
and  becomes  a  leader  of  the  Protec- 
tionists, 931  ;  succeeds  to  the  Earldom 
of  Derby,  938  ;  see  Derby,  Earl  of 

Stanley,  Sir  William,  deserts  Richard 
III.,  343  ;  execution  of,  351 

Star  Chamber,  Court  of,  organisation  of, 
347 ;  its  sentences  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  514,  519,  521  ;  abolition  of, 

States-General,  the  French,  meet  during 

John's  captivity,  252 
Statute  of  Wales,  210 
Steam-engine,  the,   improved  by  Watt, 
816  ;   introduction  of  the  locomotive, 
906 
Steam-vessels,  introduction  of,  906 
Stephen,  accession  of,  131  ;  makes  peace 
with  the  Scots,  133  ;  quarrels  with  the 
barons,  ib.  ;  quarrels  with  the  clergy, 
134  ;  death  of,  135 
Stephenson,    George,    introduces    loco- 
motive  engines,    906  ;   appointed    en- 
gineer   to    the    Liverpool   and    Man- 
chester Railway,  907  ;  adoption  of  his 
locomotive,  909 
Stigand,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  89 
Stillingfleet  aims  at  comprehension,  598 
Stirling,  Wallace's  victory  at,  221 
Stoke,  battle  of,  347 
Stone  implements,  1-4 
Stop  of  the  Exchequer,  the,  604 
Stow-on-the-Wold,  surrender  of  the  last 

Royalist  army  at,  550 
Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of, 
as  Sir  "Thomas  Wentworth,  his  policy 
contrasted  with  that  of  Eliot,  508 ; 
brings  in  a  bill  to  secure  the  liberty  of 
the  subject,  ib.  ;  becomes  Lord  Went- 
worth and  President  of  the  Council  of 
the  North,  514  ;  becomes  Lord  Deputy 
of  Ireland,  527  ;  created  Earl  of  Straf- 
ford, and  advises  the  summoning  of 
the  Short  Parliament,  528  ;  does  not 
advise  the  prolongation  of  the  second 
Bishops  war,  529  ;  collects  an  Irish 
army,  ib.  ;  is  impeached,  530  ;  Bill  of 
Attainder  against,    ib.\   execution  of, 

Strathclyde,  formation  of  the  kingdom 

of,    43 ;    is    not   dependent   on   Ecg- 

berht,  55  ;  its  relations  with  Eadmund, 

64 
Stratton,  battle  of,  538 
Strickland  moves  for  an  amendment  of 

the  Prayer  Book,  445 
Strode,  William,  one  of  the  five  members, 

535 
Strongbow  in  Ireland,  152 
Stuart,  family  of,  inherit  the  throne  of 

Scotland,  295  ;  last  descendants  of  the 

House  of,  743 
Submission  of  the  clergy,  the,  386 
Subsidiary  treaties,  859 
Succession,  Actof,  392 
Suetonius  Paullinus,  campaigns  of,  14-16 


TAL 

Suffolk,  origin  of  the  name  of,  28 
Suffolk,     Charles    Brandon,    Duke    of, 

marries  Mary,  sister  of  Henry  VIII, , 

364 
Suffolk,    Michael  de  la  Pole,  Earl  of 

Chancellor  of  Richard  II.,  278  ;  driven 

from  power,  279  ;  condemned  to  death, 

280 
Suffolk,  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of,  486 
Suffolk,   William  de  la  Pole,  Earl  of, 

arranges  a  truce  with   France,    317  ; 

presides  over  the  government  of  Eng- 

land,  318 ;  impeached  and  murdered, 

322 
Suffolk  line,  its  title  to  the  succession, 

410  ;  Elizabeth's  feeling  towards,  435  ; 

William  Seymour,  the  heir  of,  480 
Sunderland,  Earl  of,  becomes  Secretary 

of  State,    687 ;    takes   the   lead   after 

the  Whig  schism,  709  ;  resignation  of, 

712 
Supremacy,   Act  of,   393 ;    Elizabethan 

Act  of,  429 
Supreme  head  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, title  of,  conferred  by  Convocation 

on  Henry  VIII.,  386  ;  abandoned  by 

Elizabeth,  429 
Surrey,  Earl  of,  governs  Scotland  in  the 

name  of  Edward  I.,  219 
Surrey,  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of,  execu- 
tion of,  411 
Surrey,     Thomas     Howard,    Earl     of, 

minister   of   Henry  VIII.,    363;    the 

commander  at    Flodden,  see  Norfolk, 

Duke  of 
Sussex,  conquest  of,  27,  28  ;  weakness  of, 

41 ;  accepts  Christianity,  49 
Sussex,  Thomas  Ratcliffe,  Earl  of.  Lord 

Deputy  of  Ireland,  452 
Sutlej,  the,  battles  on,  951 
Svend  attacks   London,  79  ;   returns  to 

Denmark,   80 ;  invades  England,  81  ; 

death  of,  83 
Sweden       takes     part     in     the     Triple 

Alliance,  599 
Swegen,  son  of  Godwine,  misconduct  of, 

87  ;  death  of,  88 
Swift,  career  of,  693  ;  political  influence 

of,  694;  writes  The  Drapier  s  Letters, 

718 
Swynford,   Catherine,   marries  John  of 

Gaunt,  282 
Syria,  acquired  by  Mehemet  Ali,  921  ; 

restored  to  the  Sultan,  922 


Tacking,  successful  in  the  case  of  a 
bill  on  Irish  forfeitures,  670  ;  rejected 
by  the  Commons  in  the  case  of  an 
Occasional  Conformity  Bill,  682 

Talavera,  battle  of,  867 

Talbot,  Lord,  defeats  the  Burgundians, 
313  ;  becomes  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
320  ;  defeated  and  slain,  323 

Tallages  levied  by  Edward  I.,  221  , 
abolished  by  Edward  III.,  243 

Tallard,  Marshal,  defeated  at  Blenheim, 
682 


INDEX 


1025 


TAN 

Tangier  acquired  by  Charles  II.,  587 
Tasmania  becomes  a  separate  colony,  968 
Taunton,  siege  of,  548 
Taxation,  see  Danegeld,  Customs 
Taylor,  Rowland,  burnt,  424 
Tel-el-Kebir,  battle  of,  971 
Telford,  improvement  of  roads  by,  905 
Templars,  the  Knights,  157 
Temple,  Lord,  canvasses  the  House  of 
Lords  against  Fox's  India  Bill,  806 

Temple,  Sir  William,  negotiates  the 
Triple  Alliance,  599;  advises  the  reform 
of  the  Privy  Council,  617  ;  failure  of 
his  scheme,  620 

Tennyson,  his  In  Memoriatn,  943 

Terouenne,  364 

Test  Act,  the,  passed,  607  ;  a  second, 
616;  violated  by  James  IL,  638; 
Sunderland  and  Stanhope  think  of 
repealing,  710 ;  Walpole  resists  the 
repeal  o^  716 ;  partial  repeal  of,  895 

Tewkesbury,  battle  of,  334 

Texel,  the,  Rupert  defeated  off,  608 

Thackeray,  his  Vanity  Fair,  940 

Thames,  the,  early  ferry  over,  20 

Thanet,  probable  identification  of  Ictis 
with,  8  ;  Jutes  established  in,  27 

Thegns,  how  distinguished  from 
Gesiths,  31  ;  their  devotion  to  their 
lord,  44  ;  growing  military  importance 
of,  69 

Theodore,  Archbishop,  his  influence  on 
the  Church  of  England,  50 ;  assembles 
the  first  Church  Council,  52 

Thetford,  removal  of  the  see  from,  107 

Thiers  supports  Mehemet  Ali,  and  pre- 
pares for  war  with  England,  922 

Thirty  Years'  War,  the,  beginning  of, 
490  ;  end  of,  564 

Thistlewood  proposes  to  murder  the 
cabinet,  881 

Thomas  of  Canterbury,  St.,  destruction 
of  the  shrine  of,  398 

Thomas  of  London  (Becket),  Chancellor, 
140 ;  being  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  resists  Henry  IL,  143; 
takes  refuge  in  France,  145  ;  returns 
to  England,  149  ;  is  murdered,  150 

Throgmorton's  conspiracy,  456 

Thurlow,  Lord,  his  saying  about  Fox's 
India  Bill,  806 

Thurstan,  Archbishop,  leads  the  levies 
at  the  battle  of  the  Standard,  132 

Tiberias,  battle  of,  157 

Ticonderoga,  Abercrombie  repulsed  at, 
753  ;  taken  by  Amherst,  ib.  ;  taken  by 
the  Americans,  783 

Tilsit,  the  treaty  of,  858 

Tin,  Phoenician  and  Greek  trade  in,  8 

Tinchebrai,  battle  of,  125 

Tintern  Abbey,  129 

Tippermuir,  battle  of,  547 

Tippoo,  succeeds  Hyder  Ali,  and  makes 
peace,  805  ;  defeated  by  Cornwallis, 
837  ;  defeated  by  Harris  and  slain,  838 

Tithes,  proposal  of  the  Barebone's  Par- 
liament to  abolish,  567 

Tithes,  Irish,  difficulty  of  collecting,  910 


TKA 

Todleben  commands  the  Russians  at 
Sebastopol,  945 

Togidumnus,  death  of,  13 

Toleration,  Cromwell's  advocacy  of, 
543  ;  Charles  II.  proposes  to  adopt, 
583  ;  Charles  1 1,  issues  a  declaration 
in  favour  of,  587  ;  tendency  of  science 
to  promote,  598  ;  Locke's  letters  on, 
652 

Toleration  Act,  the,  651 

Tone,  Wolfe,  founds  the  United  Irish- 
men, 832  ;  sent  to  France,  834 

Tonnage  and  Poundage,  nature  of,  509  ; 
claimed  by  Charles  I.  in  spite  of  the 
Petition  of  Right,  510  ;  Act  prevent- 
ing the  king  from  levying,  531 

Torbay,  arrival  of  William  III.  in,  644 

Torrington,  Earl  of,  Arthur  Herbert, 
defeated  at  Beachy  Head,  657 

Tory  party,  the,  origin  of  the  name  of, 
620  ;  reaction  in  favour  of,  622  ;  elects 
officers  in  the  city,  623  ;  gains  a 
majority  in  the  Common  Council, 
624  ;  supports  William  III.,  656  ; 
political  ideas  of,  672  ;  its  aims  in 
the  reign  of  Anne,  691  ;  foreign 
policy  of,  692  ;  twelve  peers  created 
from,  695  ;  its  position  after  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht,  699  ;  loses  power  at  the 
death  of  Anne,  702  ;  principles  of,  at 
the  accession  of  George  III.,  767; 
secures  office  under  Lord  North,  776  ; 
rises  to  power  under  Pitt,  808  ;  co- 
alesces with  the  majority  of  theWhigs, 
828 

Tostig,  Earl  of  North-humberland,  89  ; 
driven  from  his  earldom,  90  ;  allied  to 
Harold  Hardrada,  94  ;  killed  at  Stam- 
ford Bridge,  96 

Toulon,  attack  by  Eugene  and  Shovel 
on,  689 

Toulouse,  battle  of,  871 

Touraine  conquered  by  Philip  1 1.,  176 

Tournai,  364 

Tourville,  Count  of,  defeats  the  English 
and  Dutch  off  Beachy  Head,  and 
makes  himself  master  of  the  Channel, 
657 

Town,  the,  693 

Towns,  growth  of,  62,  72,  168  ;  condition 
of  the  outskirts  of,  191 

Townshend,  Charles,  places  duties  on 
imports  into  the  American  colonies, 
773  ;  death  of,  774 

Townshend,  Lord,  becomes  Secretary 
of  State,  703  ;  dismissed  by  George  I., 
709;  re-admitted  to  office,  711;  im- 
proves the  cultivation  of  turnips,  813 

Townships,  early  political  organisation 
of,  31 

Towton,  battle  of,  329 

Trade,  see  Commerce 

Trafalgar,  battle  of,  854 

Trakir,  battle  of,  947 

Transition  from  round-arched  to  Pointed 
architecture,  171 

Transvaal  Republic,  the,  foundation  o^, 
969 ;    annexation    of,    970 ;    acknow- 


1026 


INDEX 


TRA 

ledgment    of    the    independence    of, 

971 
Travelling,  modes  of,  273 
Treason  Act,  the,  carried,  830 
Treasonable  Correspondence  Act,  828 
Treasons,  Act  creating  new,  392 
Treasons,  Statute  of,  250 
Trent,  the  Council  of,  436 
Trent,  the    Anglian  occupation  of  the 

Valley  of,  36 
Tresilian,  Chief  Justice,  hanged,  280 
Triennial  Act  of  Charles  I.,  the,  530  ; 

repealed,  588 
Triennial  Act,  the  second,  661 
Triers,  Commission  of,  569 
Trimmer,  origin  of  the  name  of,  618 
Trinobantes,  the  geographical  position 

of,  8  ;  side  with  Caesar,  1 1 ;  submit  to 

Cunobelin,  12 
Triple  Alliance,  the,  599 
Troppau,  Congress  of,  882 
Troyes,  the  Treaty  of,  306 
Tudor,    Owen,   marries    the  widow   of 

Henry  V.,  335 
Tulchan  bishops,  the,  524 
Tumblers,  275 

Tunis,  Blake  sent  against,  571 
Turin,  Eugene  raises  the  siege  of,  684 
Turkish    dominions,    the     proposal     of 

Nicholas  to  jjartition,  943 
Turks,the, uprising  of  the  Greeks  against, 

884  ;  defeated  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  921  ; 

welcome  aid   from  Russia,  ib.  ;  Syria 

restored  to,  922  ;  at  war  with  Russia, 

944 ;  are  overpowered  by  Russia,  and 

submit  to  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  969 
Turner,  landscape-painting  of,  943 
Turnham  Green,  the  militia  of  the  city 

resist  Charles  I.  at,  537 
Tuscany,  Duke  of,  Blake  sent  against,  571 
Tyndale,  William,   translates   the  New 

Testament,  396 
Tyrconnel,  Earl  of,  see  O'Donnell 
Tyrconnel,    Richard    Talbot,    Earl   of. 

Lord  Deputy  in  Ireland,  640 
Tyre  in  danger,  157 
Tyrone,  Earl  of,  see  O'Neill,  Hugh 


Ulm,  capitulation  of,  854 
Ulster,    plantation    of,    484 ;     insurrec- 
tion and  massacre  in,  534 
Undertakers,  the,  487 
Uniformity,  Elizabethan    Act   of,  429  ; 

Restoration  Act  of,  585 
Union  with  Scotland,  685  ;  with  Ireland, 

842 
United  Irishmen,  Society  of,  foundation 

of,  832  ;  prepares  for  an  insurrection, 

841 
United  States,    the  ;   see  America,    the 

United  States  of 
Universities,  growth  of,  167  ;  consulted 

on  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII.,  385 
Unkiar  Skelessi,  treaty  of,  signed,  921  ; 

abandoned,  922 
Urban   II.,    Pope,    supported    by   Lan- 

franc,  n8  ;  preaches  a  Crusade.  120 


VIN 

Uriconium,  see  Viriconium 

Utopia,  367 

Utrecht,_  union  of,  450;  treaty^  of,  signed 
696  ;  its  effect  on  international  rela- 
tions, 697 

Valence,  William  de,  resists  the  Pro- 
visions of  Oxford,  199 

Valentine  takes  part  in  holding  down 
the  Speaker,  514 

Val-es-dunes,  battle  of,  88 

Valley  Forge,  destitute  condition  of  the 
American  army  at,  787 

Vandevelde   paints  marine  subjects,  631 

Van  Dyck,  portraits  by,  631 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  the  younger,  produces 
evidence  against  Strafford,  530  ; 
negotiates  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  540  ;  brings  in  a  Reform  bill, 
566  _ 

Vaudois,  the,  Cromwell  intervenes  in 
favour  of,  572 

Venetian  Republic,  the  suppression  of, 
83.7 

Venice,  League  of  Cambrai  formed 
against,  363 

Venner's  plot,  584 

Vere,  Sir  Horace,  defends  the  Palatinate, 
490 

Verneuil,  battle  of,  308 

Vernon,  Admiral,  takes  Porto  Bello,  and 
fails  to  take  Cartagena,  730 

Verrio  paints  ceilings,  631 

Verulamium,  Roman  city  at,  19  ; 
martyrdom  of  St.  Alban  at,  23 

Vestments,  ecclesiastical.  Hooper's  rejec- 
tion of,  417  ;  Puritan  resistance  to  the 
use  of,  444  ;  Whitgift's  opinion  on  the 
propriety  of,  468 

Vicar,  meaning  of  the  term,  129 

Victor  Emanuel  II.,  King  of  Sardinia, 
afterwards  King  of  Italy,  maintains 
constitutional  government,  936  ;  joins 
the  allies  in  the  Crimean  war,  947  ; 
supported  by  the  French  in  the  war 
for  the  liberation  of  Italy,  956  ;  be- 
comes king  of  ItalJ^  957 

Victoria,  accession  of,  914  ;  refuses  to 
dismiss  Whig  Ladies  of  the  Bed- 
chamber, 918  ;  marriage  of,  926  ;  visits 
Louis  Philippe,  927 

Vienna,  congress  of,  873 

Villa  Viciosa,  battle  of,  692 

Villages,  arrangements  of,  ^75 

Villeins,  the,  uncertain  origin  of,  31  ;  in- 
crease of,  69  ;  position  of,  after  the 
Norman  conquest,  102  ;  partial  com- 
mutation of  the  services  of,  168  ;  effect 
of  the  Black  Death  upon,  248  ;  in- 
surrection of,  268 ;  take  refuge  in  towns, 
275  ;  land  ceases  to  be  cultivated  by, 
320,  321 

Villiers,  Charles,  moves  the  repeal  of 
the  Corn  Law,  924  ;  moves  a  resolu- 
tion approving  of  the  Corn  Law,  938 

Vimeiro,  battle  of,  864 

Vinegar  Hill,  defeat  of  the  Irish  insur- 
gents at,  84t 


INDEX 


[O27 


aV^s 


Virginia,  colonisation  of,  489 
Viriconium,  Roman  colony  at,  14 
Vittoria,  battle  of,  871 
Volunteers,  the  Irish,  796  ;  the  English, 

848,  957 
Vortigern  establishes  Jutes  in  Thanet, 

27 
Vote  of  No  Addresses,  556 


Wagram,  battle  of,  865 

Wakefield,  battle  of,  328 

Walcheren,  expedition  to,  865 

Wales  reduced  by  Harold,  90  ;  Flemish 
settlement  in,  128 ;  conquered  by 
Edward  I.,  210  ;  marches  of,  ib.\  sup- 
ports Richard  II.,  285 

Walker,  Obadiah,  Roman  Catholic 
Master  of  University  College,  639 

Wallace,  William,  rises  against  Ed- 
ward I.,  221 ;  execution  of,  222 

Waller,  Sir  William,  defeated  at  Lans- 
down  and  Roundway  Down,  538  ;  takes 
Arundel  Castle  and  defeats  Hopton 
at  Cheriton,  542  ;  fights  at  Cropredy 
Bridge,  544  ;  resigns  his  command,  545 

Wallingford,  Treaty  of,  137 

Walls,  the  Roman,  17 

Walpole,  Sir  Robert,  resigns  office,  709  ; 
opposes  the  repeal  of  the  Test  Act  and 
the  passing  of  Peerage  Bill,  710  ;  re- 
solves to  rely  on  the  Commons,  not  on 
the  Lords,  ib.  ;  re-admitted  to  office, 
711  ;  becomes  First  Lord  of  the  Trea- 
sury, 712  ;  his  method  of  managing 
the  House  of  Commons,  714  ;  his  doc- 
trine of  *  Quieta  non  movere,'  716  ; 
his  rivalry  with  Carteret,  718  ;  con- 
tinues in  power  under  George  I!.,  720; 
his  breach  with  Tov/nshend,  ib.  ; 
brings  in  an  Excise  Bill,  722  ;  with- 
draws the  Excise  Bill,  724  ;  is  unwilling 
to  go  to  war  with  Spain,  728  ;  charac- 
teristics of  the  sections  of  the  opposi- 
tion against,  ib.  ;  hopes  to  end  the 
quarrel  with  Spain  by  negotiation, 
729 ;  end  of  the  administration  of, 
730  ;  made  Earl  of  Orford,  731 

Walsingham,  Sir  Francis,  Secretary  to 
Elizabeth,  457 

Walter  Map,  167 

Waltheof,  Earl  of  Northamptonshire 
and  Huntingdonshire,  90;  is  be- 
headed, no 

Wanborough,  CeawHn  defeated  at,  36 

Wandewash,  battle  of,  764 

War-band,  the,  composed  of  Gesiths,  30 

Warbeck,  Perkin,  insurrection  of,  350- 
352  ;  execution  of,  354 

Wardship,  nature  of  the  lord's  claim  to, 
116  ;  results  of  the  system,  330 

Wars  of  the  Roses,  origin  of  the  name 
of,  324  ;  state  of  society  during,  330 

Warwick,  Earl  of,  opposes  Richard  II., 
279  ;  banishment  of,  282 

Warwick,  Earl  of  (son  of  the  Duke  of 
Clarence),  imprisonment  of,  343  ;  exe- 
cution of,  354 


Warwick,  Richard  Beauchamp,  Earl  of, 
regent  in  France,  313 

Warwick,  Richard  Nevill,  Earl  of  (the 
King-maker),  infl^uence  of,  324  ;  retires 
to  Calais,  and  comes  back  and  defeats 
the  Lancastrians  at  Northampton, 
326  ;  estranged  from  Edward  IV., 
332  ;  is  reconciled  to  Queen  Margaret, 
333;  restores  Henry  VI.,  and  is  de- 
feated and  slain  at  Barnet,  334 

Warwick,  Earl  of,  see  Northumberland, 
Duke  of 

Washington,  burning  of  the  Capitol  at, 
873. 

Washington,  George,  appointed  com- 
niander  of  the  Continental  army,  783  ; 
his  difficulties,  784  ;  driven  by  the 
British  outof  New  Jersey,  ib.  ;  regains 
New  Jersey,  786 ;  defeated  on  the 
Brandywine,  ib.  ;  winters  at  Valley 
Forge,  787 

Wat  Tyler,  insurrection  of,  268,  269 

Waterloo,  battle  of,  874 

Watt  improves  the  steam-engine,  816 

IVealth  0/ Nations,  The,  publication  of, 
810 

Wedderburn  becomes  Solicitor-General, 
779 

Wedmore,  Peace  of,  (the  so-called)  59 

Wellesley,  Marquis,  his  subsidiary  sys- 
tem, 859  ;  see  Mornington,  Lord 

Wellesley,  Sir  Arthur,  his  victories  in 
India,  859  ;  defeats  Junot  at  Vimeiro, 
864  ;  returns  to  Portugal,  and  drives 
Soult  out  of  Oporto,  866  ;  defeats  the 
French  at  Talavera,  867  ;  created  a 
Viscount,  ib.  ;  see  Wellington,  Vis- 
count 

Wellington,  Viscount,  afterwards  Duke 
of,  defends  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras, 
867  ;  elements  of  the  success  of,  868  ; 
takes  Ciudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz, 
869  ;  defeats  Marmont  at  Salamanca, 
and  enters  Madrid,  ib.  ;  becomes 
Prime  Minister,  893;  supports  the 
Catholic  Emancipation  Bill,  896; 
fights  a  duel,  ib.  ;  resignation  of,  900  ; 
takes  measures  against  the  Chartists, 
935  ;  death  of,  938  ;  see  Wellesley,  Sir 
Arthur 

Welsh,  the,  speak  a  language  derived 
from  that  of  the  Britons,  7  ;  origin  of 
their  uame,3i  ;  adopt  the  name  Kymry, 
37 ;  defeated  by  ^thelfrith  near 
Chester,  43  ;^  split  up  into  three  divi- 
sions, ib.;  driven  out  of  Somerset,  53  ; 
their  relations  with  Ecgberht,  56  ;  set 
Wales 

Wentworth,  Sir  Thomas,  see  Strafford, 
Earl  of 

Wentworth,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Lord, 
governor  of  Calais,  427 

Weregild,  system  of,  32 
Wesley,  teaching  of,  746 
Wesley,  Samuel,  sermon  by,  642 
Wessex,  gradual  formation  of,  28, 34,  35  ; 
is  weakened  by  internal  quarrels,  41  ; 
accepts     Christianity,     48  ;    growing 

3X 


I028 


INDEX 


^VES 

unity  of,  53  ;  causes  of  the  supremacy 
of,  55  ;  an  earldom  under  Godwine 
and  Harold,  84,  89 

West  Indies,  the,  conflicts  between 
English  and  Spanish  sailors  in,  447  ; 
smuggling  in,  726  ;  ill-treatment  of 
Englishmen  in,  728  ;  capture  of  islands 
in,  859 

West  Saxons,  the,  first  conquests  of,  28  ; 
defeated  at  Mount  Badon,  ib.;  occupy 
Salisbury  Plain,  34  ;  wage  war  with 
the  men  of  Kent  and  with  the  Britons 
of  the  Severn  Valley,  35  ;  are  defeated 
at  Faddiley,  ib.  ;  see  Wessex 

West  Wales  split  off  from  other  Welsh 
territory,  42 

Westminster  Abbey,  consecration  of,  91  ; 
coronation  of  William  I.  in,  100 

Westmorland,  Charles  Neville,  Earl  of, 
takes  part  in  the  rising  of  the  North, 
441 

Weston,  Lord,  see  Portland,  Earl  of 

Westphalia,  Peace  of,  564  ;  erection  of 
the  kingdom  of,  858 

Westward  Ho  !  447 

Wexford,  slaughter  at,  563 

Wharton,  Lord,  as  Thomas  Wharton,  is 
a  member  of  the  Whig  Junto   660 

Whig  party,  the,  origin  of  the  name 
of,  620  ;  has  a  hold  on  the  city  of 
London,  622  ;  misuses  its  power  in 
the  second  Convention  Parliament, 
656;  William  choose-;  his  ministers 
from,  659  ;  supported  by  Marlborough 
and  Godolphin.  684  ;  obtains  complete 
control  over  the  ministry,  687  ;  im- 
peaches Dr.  Sacheverell,  691  ;  dis- 
graced by  Anne,  ib.  ;  is  strong  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  695  ;  position  of,  after 
the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  699  ;  supported 
by  George  L,  703  ;  secures  a  parlia- 
mentary majority,  and  prepares  to 
impeach  the  leading  Tories,  704  :  sup- 
ports the  Septennial  Act,  706  ;  change 
m  the  foreign  policy  of,  707  ;  schism 
in,  709  ;  causes  of  its  strength  when 
led  by  Walpole,  713;  divisions  in, 
722;  hostility  of  George  IIL  to,  765  ; 
divided  into  three  fractions,  768  ;  se- 
ceders  from,  coalesce  with  Pitt,  828  ; 
enters  into  relations  with  Canning, 
892  ;  chooses  Lord  Althorp  as  its 
leader,  898  ;  coalesces  with  the  Can- 
ningites,  891 

'  Whip  with  six  strings,  the,'  400 

White  Ship,  the,  wreck  of,  129 

Whitefield  preaches  at  Kingswood,  746 

Whitgift,  John,  Archbisliop  of  Canter- 
bury, opinions  of,  468  ;  the  High 
Commission  Court  under,  470 ;  com- 
pared with  Hooker,  472 

Whitworth,  Lord,  violent  language  of 
Bonaparte  towards,  848 

Wilberforce  denounces  the  slave-trade, 
8^3 

Wilfrid  supports  Papal  authority,  50 

Wilkes,  John,  arrested  for  an  article  in 
the  North  Briton,  769  ;  condemned  as 


.    WIL 

the  author  of  an  indecent  poem,  and 
expelled  from  the  House  of  Commons, 
770  ;  escapes  to  France,  ib. ;  returns 
to  England,  and  is  elected  for  Middle- 
sex, 774  ;  expelled  from  the  House, 
and  declared  incapable  of  sitting  in 
it,  ib.  ;  supported  by  the  mob,  775  ; 
takes  part  as  an  alderman  in  the  im- 
prisonment of  a  messenger  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  779 

Wilkins,  Bishop,  aims  at  comprehension, 
598 

William  L  (the  Conqueror) declared  heir 
of  Eadward  the  Confessor,  88  ;  his  rule 
in  Normandy,  ib.;  claims  the  crown 
from  Harold,  91  ;  lands  at  Pevensey, 
and  defeats  Harold  at  Senlac,  96-98  ; 
crowned  at  Westminster,  100 ;  progress 
of  his  conquest,  101-103  :  devastates 
the  Vale  of  York,  103  ;  subdues  Here- 
ward,  and  receives  Malcolm's  submis- 
sion, 104 ;.  his  method  of  keeping 
English  and  Normans  in  subjection, 
104  - 106  ;  his  relations  with  the  Church , 
io5-iio  ;  suppresses  the  Rising  of  the 
Earls,  110;  lays  waste  the  New 
Forest,  ib.  ;  has  Domesday  Book  pre- 
pared, III ;  receives  oaths  at  Salisbury, 
113  ;  death  of,  114 

William  L,  Prince  of  Orange,  Stad- 
holder  of  the  Dutch  republic,  449  ; 
Jaureguy's  attempt  to  murder,  454  ; ' 
murdered  by  Gerard,  456 

William  IL  (Rufus)  is  crowned  King  of 
England,  114 ;  is  supported  by  the 
English  against  Robert,  115  ;  charac- 
ter of,  ib.  ;  his  treatment  of  Anselm, 
117;  his  quarrels  with  his  brothers,  118; 
his  relations  with  Scotland,  119  ;  sup- 
presses Mowbray's  rebellion,  120;  last 
years  of,  121  ;  is  murdered,  122 

William  II.,  Prince  of  Orange,  death  of, 
565 

William  III.,  Prince  of  Orange,  defends 
the  Dutch  republic,  605  ;  is  offered  the 
hand  of  Mary,  datighter  of  the  Duke 
of  York,  608  ;  at  the  head  of  a  conti- 
nental alliance,  609  ;  marriage  of,  613; 
invited  to  ILngland,  644  ;  lands  at 
Brixhamand  marches  on  London,  645  ; 
arrives  at  Whitehall,  646  ;  the  crown 
offered  to,  647  ;  chooses  his  ministers 
from  both  parties,  649  ;  receives  the 
crown  in  Holland,  652  permits  the  de- 
struction of  the  Highlanders  of  (ilen- 
coe,  654  ;  dissolves  his  first  parliament, 
656  ;  defeats  James  II.  at  the  battle  of 
the  Boyne,  //'.  ;  deprives  Marlborough 
of  his  offices,  658  ;  defeated  at  Stein- 
kirk  and  Neerwinden,  ib.  ;  places  the 
Whig  Junto  in  office,  659  ;  his  grief 
at  his  wife's  death,  661  ;  takes  Namur, 
663  ;  trusts  the  Dutch  more  than  the 
English.  664  ;  plot  for  the  assassina- 
tion of,  665  ;  compelled  to  reduce  the 
army,  667  ;  signs  the  first  Partition 
Treaty,  668  ;  opposed  by  the  House 
of  Commons,    670 ;  signs   the  second 


INDEX 


1029 


WIL 

Partition  Treaty,  671  :  appoints  a 
Tory  ministry,  672  ;  forms  the  Grand 
Alliance,  675  ;  death  of,  676 

William  IV.,  accession  of,  898 ;  dis- 
misses the  first  Melbourne  ministry, 
912 

William,    son    of   Henry    I.,   wrecked, 

'     12^ 

William  Clito,  son  of  Robert,  129 

William  Longbeard,  169,  170 

William  of  Malmesbury,  '129 

William  of  Newburgh,  167 

William  the  Lion,  king  of  Scotland, 
acknowledges  himself  to  be  a  vassal 
of  Henry  II.,  154  ;  frees  himself  from 
vassalage,  159 

Williams,  John,  Archbishop  of  York, 
impeachment  of,  535 

Winceby,  fight  at,  542 

Winchelsey,  Archbishop,  221 

Winchester,  secular  canons  driven  out 
of,  68;  burial  of  William  II.  at,  122; 
Stephen  chosen  king  at,  131  ;  taken  by 
Cromwell,  549 

Windham  enters  Pitt's  cabinet.  828 

Winnington  Bridge,  Booth  defeated  at, 
575 

Winwaed,  the  battle  of,  48 

Wishart,  George,  burnt,  413 

Witenagemot,  the,  constitution  of,  45  ; 
discussion  on  the  acceptance  of  Chris- 
tianity in,  46  ;  constitutional  powers 
of,  74  ;  becomes  the  Great  Council , 
113  ;  see  Great  Council,  the 

Witt,  John  de.  Pensionary  of  Holland, 
589 ;  negotiates  the  Triple  Alliance, 
599  ;  murder  of,  605 

Wolfe.  General,  sent  against  Quebec, 
753  ;  death  of,  756 

Wolfe  Tone  ;  see  Tone,  Wolfe 

Wolseley,  Sir  Garnet,  defeats  Arabi  at 
Tel-el-Kebir,  971 

Wolsey,  Thomas,  Cardinal,  rise  of,  363  ; 
magnificence  of,  364  ;  supports  a  policy 
of  peace,  365,  366  ;  comes  into  the 
House  of  Commons,  371  ;  becomes 
unpopular  on  account  of  the  Amicable 
Loan,  372  ;  secures  his  position  by  an 
alliance  with  France,  374  ;  aspires  to 
the  papacy,  375  ;  is  named  legate  a 
latere,  ib.  ;  his  views  on  Church  re- 
form, 376  ;  founds  two  colleges,  377  ; 
fails  to  persuade  Henry  VIII.  to 
abandon  Anne  Boleyn,  380 ;  is  ap- 
pointed legate  to  try  Henry's  divorce, 
382  ;  fall  of,  383  ;  death  of,  384 

Women,  education  of,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  65 

Wonderful  Parliament,  the,  280 

Wood's  halfpence,  718 

Worcester,  battle  of,  564 


ZWl 

Worcester,  secular  canons  driven  from, 
68 

Wordsworth,  poetry  of,  889 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  buildings  by, 
632 

Wriothesley,  Lord  Chancellor,  excluded 
from  the  Council,  412 

Wroxeter,  see  Viriconium 

Wulfhere  maintains  the  independence 
of  Mercia,  48 

Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  rebellion  and  exe- 
cution of,  423 

Wycliffe,  John,  his  doctrines,  261  ;  sum- 
moned before  an  ecclesiastical  court 
at  St.  Paul's,  262  ;  sends  out  '  poor 
priests,'  and  renounces  transubstantia- 
tion,  266  ;  retires,  and  dies,  269 

Wykeham,  William  of,  deprived  of  the 
Chancellorship,  260 ;  restored  to  the 
Council,  and  again  dismissed,  262 


Yarmouth  supports  Stephen,  134 
York  (see  Eboracum)  submits  to  Harold 

Hardrada,  95  ;  taken  by   William    I., 

102  ;  devastation  of  the  Vale  of,  103  ; 

massacre  of  Jews  at,  160  ;  Charles  I. 

at,  537  ;  siege  of,  542 
York,  Archbishop  of,  his  right  to  crown 

a  king  questioned,  149 
York,  Archbishopric  of,  founded,  46 
York,      Duke    of     Edmund     (son     of 

Edward  III.),  joins  Henry  IV.,  285 
York,    Duke   of,  second  son  of  George 

III.,  commands   in  the  Netherlands, 

826 
York,  James,  Duke  of,  see  James  II. 
York,     Richard,    Duke     of  (father    of 

Edward  IV.),  is  regent  in  France,  313  ; 

governs  Ireland,  319 ;  first  Protectorate 

of,  323  ;  second  Protectorate  of,  324  ; 

driven    to   Ireland,    326 ;  claims    the 

throne,  327  ;  defeated  and  slain,  328 
York,  Richard,  Duke  of  (son  of  Edward 

IV.),    lodged    m    the    Tower,    341  ; 

murdered,  342 
Yorke,  Charles,  suicide  of,  776 
Yorktown,     Cornwallis    capitulates   at, 

794 

Zemindary  of  the  district  around  Cal- 
cutta granted  to  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, 764;  Clive  receives  the  quit- 
rent  for,  80 1 

Zulu  war,  the,  970 

Zurich,  treaty  of,  957 

Zutphen,  death  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  at, 
4.57 

Zwingli,  teaching  of,  390 

Zwinglianism,  spread  of,  in  England, 
399  ;  Cranmer's  attitude  towards,  416 


I030 


INDEX 


SUPPLEMENTARY   INDEX 


Armenia,  massacres  in,  974  ;  revolt  of 
Cretan  Christians,  974  ;  Cretans  obtain 
self-government,  975 

Australia,  population  of,  968  ;  Common- 
wealth of,  968 

Buller,  General,  relieves  Ladysmith,  978 

China,  war  between  Japan  and,  976  ; 
defeat  of,  976  ;  possible  break-up  of, 
976 ;  massacre  of  Chinese  Christians 
and  missionaries  in,  976  ;  intervention 
of  the  Powers,  976  ;  order  restored  in, 
976 

Crimes  Act  (1887),  973 

Elementary  Education  Act  (1870),  973 

Gladstone,  Mr.,  third  ministry  of,  972  ; 
his  Home  Rule  Bill,  972  ;  fourth 
ministry  of,  97+  ;  resignation  of,  974 

Irish  Land  Act  (1896),  974 

Kitchener,  General,  reconquest  of  the 
Soudan  by,  975 

Kriiger,  President,  refuses  to  grant 
political  rights  to  British  outlaiiders, 
077  ;  publishes  declaration  of  war  and 
invades  British  colonies,  977  ;  flies  to 
Europe,  978 


New  Zealand,  government  of,  968 
Plan  of  Campaign,  973 

Roberts,  Lord,  relieves  Kimberley,  and 
occupies  capitals  of  Free  State  and 
Transvaal,  977 

Rosebery,  Lord,  succeeds  Mr.  Glad; 
stone  as  Prim^  Minister,  974 

Salisbury,  Lord,  first  ministry  of,  972; 
second  ministry  of,  973  ;  Irish  policy 
of,  973  ;  third  ministry  of,  974 

Soudan,  reconquest  of,  975, 

South  Africa,  population  of,  969  ;  war  in, 
976 

Transvaal,  war  in,  976  ;  Jameson's  raid, 
977  ;  British  outlahders  petition 
Queen,  977  ;  war  declared,  977  ;  an- 
nexation of,  978 

Upper  Burma,  annexation  of,  972 

Venezuela,  dispute  as  to  boundary,  975  ; 
impression  concerning,  in  United 
States,  976 ;  judgment  of  court  of 
arbitration,  976 

Victoria,  Queen,  death  of,  978 


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