Gas Warfare

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IN MEMOR.YOF-
JOHN HAYS GARDINER;

t CLASS OP- 1 8 8 5

GAS WARFARE

Gas Warfare

EDWARD S. FARROW

Aotbel ol FiiTow'i "MilltsTT KDcrclopedu," "Amcrioil SbuU Am

"DktkiUTT at Hilltirr Tcirai," "Muul of MillUir Tnintef,"

"Klou mnd Riot Dutr," "Anurkui Goni in tba

"Wftal it obvious is not always known,
tnkif is htoam is not aiwayi present."

NEW YORK

E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY

68i FIFTH AVENUE

H ' I ^ . \S ,'Xo

COFTRIGHT, 1920,
BY £. P. DUTTON & COMPANY

Beierwei

J HiiLx v^*^- ^Fivct-j(^

Printed la the United Statee of Amerlon

THIS WORK

It IN8CRIBSD BY ITS AUTHOR

TO

TBOSX MSN WHO WITHOUT DEFENSE

BOEE THE BRUNT OF

THE FIBST GAS ATTACK

AT YPBES

PREFACE

Concentration, surprise in tactics, and the use of
unexpected new materials are three most important (\
things in Gas Warfare. With the first gas attack, ^
the whole course of the war with Germany changed.
This attack was made against men who were en-
tirely unprepared and absolutely unprotected, and it
was no exaggeration when the Germans claimed that
6,000 of our men were killed and as many taken
prisoners. Never had such a battlefield been seen in
warfare, ancient or modem.

The official records show that in the war with
Germanyfthe casualties from gasj^equaled 2j4 per
cent, whire those from bullets and high explosives
equaled 25 per cent, thus demonstrating that gas
is a most humane weapon of war. The early gas*
clouds soon gave way to gas shells, the most effec-
tive materials for the latter being mono- and tri- ,
chloromethyl-chloroformate. Prussic acid was lit-
tle used as it was rated lower than phosgene in
toxicity.

I believe that gas and military aeronautics will
play the principal parts in the next war, which will
be literally finished in the chemical laboratory. I
have, therefore, prepared this volume to assist in
educating our soldiery in the use of gas in both de-
fense and offense. I am indebted to Generals Wil- -

viii PREFACE

Ham L. Sibert and Amos A. Fries, who led in actual
gas wai fare against the Germans, and to other offi-
cers with whom I have conferred.

Edwahd S. Farsow.
New York City, May, 1920.

CONTENTS

ft

I. War Gas Investigations, Bureau of Mines Activi-
ties, Gas Mpsks and Rescue Apparatus, Re-
search Wotk, Lethal and Neutralizmg Substances,
Toxicity Tests and Divisions of Chemical War-
fare Service I

^^4 , n. ^ ToMC Gases, Early Employment in Warfare, De- ^

velopment in the War of 191A71918, the Edge-

wood Arsenal, Chlopne P!ants, Chlc^crin
Plants, Phosgene Pl^ts, Mustard "fjas Plants,
Filling and Spray Painting Plants, Chemical
Warfare Production Data 12

" III. Gas Defense Equipment, the Problem of Gas
Masks, Box Respirator Equipment, Canister In-
gredients, Carbon (Charcoal) for American
Canisters, Horse Mask Development, Production
Data of Gas Defense 37

-- IV. Tactical Employment of Gases, Importance of Gas
as a Weapon m Military Operations, Lachrymat-
ors or Tear Producers, Density of Gases and Time
of Exposure, Gases from Shells, Artillery Gas
Zones of Dispersion, Effects of Temperature
and Terrain 40

V. Tactical Use of Artillery Chemical Shell, Smoke
So'eens and Smoke Shell, Handling and Storage
of Gas Shell, Transport and Storage of Gas Shd^,
Gas Shell Dumps and Batteries 53

VI. Chemical Artillery Ammunition, Construction of
Gas Shell, Types of American Shell, Smoke Shell,
Incendiary Shell and Puses, Fillings for Gun and
Howitzer Shell 68

«

VII. Smoke fbr Military Purposes, Phosphorous and
Tetrachlorides, British *^S" and B. M. Mixtures,
&noke Screens, Smoke Shell, Protection of

. • • • 93

iz

CONTENTS

VTtl, OMoAeaX Weapons for Use by lafaxxtry, Incenifir
diy Gnefladcs, Tbennit ^Eizid Grenades, Tactical
IJfle oi CoA GrenadeSy Tartiral Use of dsnoke
CWenadeg, Smoke Candles, Stakes Mortar SmokB
Bfxnbs n»i

TXT. p!sr8»teiicies of Gases, Methods of Pnijectian, Em-
payment of Chemical Substances ixl Tactics,
Pfiosfpesie^ Chlorpicrm, Mustard Gas, Bmnxben-
^1-C3rsuiide» Sposai AppHcatxan o£ the va n uua
(Snoapft 114.

X. tPse of Goft b7 Gas Troops, OrgEmization. a£ Gas
Regjment^ Dcrties of Regimental GflScecs^ Dutiea.
t4 Company Officecs, StokES Mortaxa aisi
BombSy Smoke Bombs, PropeHants and FrrsBs,,
Livdn» Materialy Cloud Gas Appaxatos^ Gest-
trskk Procedure in Gas Qperationa 125

* XI. Tftctkal Use of Gas, Tliesmxt and Smoke by Gas
TfOopSy C&ofce of WeapoQs* Traming of Gas
7tor>p&, Liaisoo, Service of Secszity smd Infer-
ttMitiop, Traammg of Special Deterhmpnts . . 152

XII. Use of Gm by the Air Service, Tactical Use of In-
cendiary and Smoke Bombs, Altrtode Flying and
Oxygen Apparatus, Chanard Incendiary Bombs,
Training iSmoke Bombs 166

Xin. Gas Zones, Gas Alarms, Gas Sentries, Action during
arid after Gas Attack, Division Organization of
Disinfecting Service, Duties of R^imental and
Battalion Gas Officers 174

XIV. Respirators, Adjustment and Practice Drills,
American Tissot Respirator, Pitting and Care of
Canisters, Anti-Diinming Outfit, Respirators
for Horses 184

Appendices

1. Warfare Gases ir.M)

2. Carbon Monoxide 205

3. Chlorine 209

4. Phosgene and Lethal Gases 213

5. Nitrous Fumes and Lachrymators 219

6. Mustard Gas 322

7. Qas Attacks 227

CONTENTS xi

'^ 8. Defense Against Gas 233

9. Functions of Gas Officers 2$S

10. Casualties by Gas in the American Expedittonary

Forces 244

11. Auto Gas Measures Affecting Special Arms . . 245
Index 249

GAS WARFARE

GAS WARFARE

CHAPTER I

War Gas Investigations, Bureau of Mines Activities, Gas
Masks and Rescue Apparatus, Research Work, Lethal
and Neutralizing Substances, Toxicity Tests and Di-
visions of Chemical Warfare Service.

In February, 191 7, when war between the United
States and Germany seemed inevitable, the Bureau
of Mines took up the question of what it could do
to most advantage in the event of war. Since its
establishment in 1910, it had maintained a staff of
investigators studying poisonous and explosive gases
in mines, the use of self-contained breathing appar-
atus for exploring mines filled with noxious gases,
the treatment of men overcome by gas, and similar
problems. At a conference of the director of the
bureau with his division chiefs, in February, 19 17,
the matter of national preparedness was discussed,
and especially the manner in which the bureau could
be of most immediate assistance with its personnel
and equipment. One of the things decided was to
investigate gas masks and rescue apparatus for mil-
itary and naval purposes.

Beginning with an investigation to develop the
best type of gas mask, the scope of the work ex-

^ GAS WARFARE

tended until it included researches relating to a wide
range of devices, such as different types of poison-
ous and irritating gases and smokes, smoke s creen s,
gas shells and gas bombs, flame throwers, trench
projectors for firing gas bombs, signal lights, and
incendiary bombs. The develc^ment of special
oxygen breathing apparatus, similar to that used in
mining, for naval or military use soon followed.

The National Research Council was at once or-
ganized to act as an intermediary on research be-
tween the scientists and the Universities of the
country and the various departments of the govern-
ment and to suggest and consider research proWems.
By June 30, 191 7, the personnel engaged in research
work comprised 50 paid investigators, and the work
had expanded from the devising of gas masks to the
study of poison g^ses and chemical appUances for
offensive warfare. One of the early results of the
research work undertaken by the Bureau of Mines
was the establishment of the chemical service as a
unit of the National Army. Colonel William H.
Walker ccxnmanded the American branch of the
Chemical Service, reporting to the Gas Warfare
Division and the Chemical Service Section in
France. Subsequently Colonel Walker was trans-
ferred to the Ordnance Department and put in
charge of enormous plants for making chemicals
for gas warfare that were erected at Edgewood
Arsenal. The establishment of this unit was a
noteworthy fact in the historj'- of applied chemistry,
for never before in any war or in any country had
chemistry been recognized as a separate branch of
the military service.

By May, 1918, the question had arisen as to

GAS WARFARE 3

whether the research work on war gases should be
transferred to the War Department or should con-
tinue under the Bureau of Mines. Army c^cials
believed that the work could be coordinated better
by having it under military control. On the other
hand it was held that there was nothing to be gained
by a transfer of authority as the research work had
kq>t well in advance of the manufacturing develop-
ment in progress under the War Department and the
development of methods of manufacture had been
conducted so expeditiously that the supply of toxic
materials exceeded the supply of shells. The coim-
sel of those Army officers who believed the research
work should be transferred to the War Department
prevailed, and on June 25, 1918, under the authority
given by what is known as the Overman Act, Presi-
dent Wilson transferred the work being done at
the Amercan University from the Bureau of Mines
to the Chemical Service of the Army.

For the purposes of study and research the war
gases, many of which are liquids at ordinary tem-
peratures and pressures, were divided into two gen-
eral classes (a) lethal substances, generally those
that kill by asphyxiation, and (b) neutralizing sub-
stances. The neutralizing materials are less poison-
ous but are capable of putting men out of action for
shorter or longer periods of time. To this class
belong lachrymators (or tear gases), stemutators
(or sneezing gases), and eye, lung, and skin irri-
tants, which inflame the eyes, cause severe respira-
tory distress, and blister the skin. Absorbent sub-
stances like charcoal, soda lime, sodium phenate,
hexamethylamine tetramine, caustic soda, zinc ox-
ide, etc., absorb or neutralize such gases as chlorine.

4 GAS WARFARE

phosgene, prussic add, chlorjHcrm, mustard gas, or
xylyl bromide, and when used in gas masks protect
against finely divided toxic solids such as dij^en-
ylchlorarsine; special clothing is needed for protec-
tion against skin irritants such as mustard gas.

In order to be deemed worthy of large-scale man-
ufacture a new gas had to possess some quality or
qualities that rendered it decidedly better for mili-
tary use than its predecessors. It had to have high
lethal value, be a powerful lachrymator or a good
stemutator, or vesicant, or be more highly penetra-
tive. The materials for its manufacture had to be
plentiful and the process of manufacture could not
be too difficult. When a new gas was under inves-
tigation the procedure was about as fellows: In
the laboratories its physical, chemical, and physio-
logical properties were determined, and methods of
preparing it were investigated; then a plant for
small-scale manufacture was designed. The gas
was examined to determine how readily it pene-
trated the American, English, French, and British
masks. Also, tests were made to determine the best
way of serving it to the enemy, whether in shells or
from cylinders. In the meantime a thorough search
was made for raw materials, for its manufacture.
If all investigations proved satisfactory, it was
turned over to the Ordnance Department— either to
the development division, to build the first large unit,
or to the gas manufacturing division. Chemists
from the research division, who were familiar with
the process of manufacture, were transferred along
with the latter when it left the research division.
As soon as the research staff had completed work
on some of the more important substances, larger

GAS WARFARE S

plants were designed for manufacturing the mate-
rials in quantities at the Edgewood Arsenal.

Research to determine changes that take place
in the body as the result of exposure to lethal gases,
and thus to devise methods of treatment for gas
poisoning, was organized at Yale University in
May, 1917. After the pharmacological and toxi-
cological research work was moved to the American
University Station, therapeutic work was continued
in the laboratories at Yale. For studying the organs
and tissues of animals killed in gassing tests, a path-
ological section was established in the summer of
1 91 7 with laboratories at the American University
Station and at Yale University. Among the prob-
lems attacked by the pathological division was the
effect of mustard on fiie mucous membrane of the
eyes and respiratory organs and on the skin. The
pharmacological division was established at Ameri-
can University in November, 191 7, and in July,
1 91 8, it became the pharmacological research sec-
tion of the Chemical Warfare Service. The work
of this division comprised the following investiga-
tions : I . Devising toxicity tests by exposing mice,
guinea pigs, rats, rabbits, cats, and dogs to poison
gases, and by studying the pharmacological and toxi-
cological effects. / 2. Testing tear gases and sneez-
ing gases on men. 3. Determining the skin-irri-
tant effect of gases. 4. Testing fabrics for their
permeability to mustard gas. 5. Devising analyti-
cal methods for the control of the concentration of
the gases used in tests. 6. Determining the sensi-
tivity to gas of the skin of different individuals.

Toxicity tests with animals covered a long list of
poisonous liquids and vapors. Many of the tests

6 GAS WARFARE

with dogs were for varying lengths of time to de-
termine the relaticMi between the lethal effect and
the concentration and length of exposure. Tests
were also made with animals in a bomb pit at the
American University station and at the Indianhead
Proving Ground to determine the effective area of
shells charged with the different toxic substances.
A large niunber of fabrics were tested for per-
meability to mustard gas, both dogs and men being
used in the tests, and results of the tests were trans-
mitted to the Army and Navy. Many tests with
men and animals were made to determine the effect-
iveness of tear gases and the minimum concentra-
tion at which these gases could be detected by their
odor or their irritating effects. One result of these
tests was to show that man was more than one
thousand times as susceptible to tear gas (xylyl
bromide) as the horse, and more than ten times as
sensitive as the dog.

The pyrotechnic division was organized in June,
191 7. Among the tasks undertaken by its gas-shell
section was the determining of the stability of vari-
ous gases and toxic solids when used in shells. This
section devised a training bomb for use by the gas-
defense officers in cantonments, and studied lachry-
matory bombs, smoke bombs, and noise bombs.
Also, several gas-producing chemical combinations
were submitted to the Bureau of Ordnance of the
Navy for use in armor-piercing shell. The smoke-
screen section prepared specifications for a Navy
smoke funnel and a smoke-box float; it also per-
fected a smoke signal for airplane bombs that was
accepted by the Ordnance Department, also a sim-
ilar device for use in the Navy dummy airplane

GAS WARFARE 7

bomb. A portable smoke apparatus using silicon
tetrachloride was designed for the Army, a smcJce
mixture of phosphorus and TNT, for use in shells
and in candles, a smoke bcwnb of the Liven's type,
a smoke grenade, and a "noiseless" nozzle for gas
attacks. A method of using oleum (fuming sul-
phuric acid) to produce a smoke screen was accepted
by the Navy. A new form of Stokes mortar was
designed that gave greater accuracy and longer
range. A long series of tests with Liven's projec-
tors and projectiles were made to reduce the weight
of the unit and to increase the range. The hand-
ffrenade section was organized at the American Uni-
versity Station in October, 191 7, to continue work
on grerfades, but as the grenades already adopted
by the Army were standardized, the section took up
the testing of explosives used in pyrotechny and in
gas warfare, and later, testing of high explosives.
The sensitivity in use of various picrates was studied
in order to assure proper safety measures in storing
and handling being taken at the plant making chlor-
picrin, for the Ordnance Department. Fragmenta-
tion tests were made of hand grenades charged with
TNT, amatol, and victorite, the last a chlorate ex-
plosive; the results were forwarded to the Army
and the Navy. Preliminary studies were made of
the properties and usefulness of parazol and other
chlomitro products as explosives. Studies of
chlorate and perchlorate explosives led to the finding
of satisfactory chlorate and perchlorate powders for
use in hand grenades. A new explosive called ani-
Hte, which employs liquid NO2 as an oxidizing
agent, and used by the French, was studied. After
July I, 1918, the hand-grenade section was desig-

8 GAS WARFARE

nated the explosives section of the Qiemical War-
fare Service. The incendiary section, organized as
a separate unit in October, 1917, perfected a scatter
type of bomb for the Army, devised an incendiary
dart to be used from airplanes, an incendiary pro-
jectile for use with the Liven's gun, and prepared
recommendations for the Signal Corps as to the best
type of explosives to be used with an airplane de-
stroyer. After July i, 1918, the section was reor-
ganized as the inorganic section of the Chemical
Warfare Service. The ilcmdng4iquid section de-
signed and perfected two portable flaming-liquid
guns. Tests to determine full mixtures for use in
connection with the flaming-liquid guns were made
and recommendations submitted to the Ordnance
Department of the Army. The signcd-ligkt section
conducted a thorough investigation of green flares,
devised several colored smokes for use in connec-
tion with land signals and air signals, studied
methods of improving the white flare, designed an
illumination float to be dropped from an airplane,
and constructed a special device to be used by sub-
marines in signaling to surface craft. The laborer
tory section carefully studied linings, packings, and
cements for gas shell. A shell that uses a special
type of lead lining was recommended to the Ord-
nance Department of the Army. Other work in-
cluded the development of a systematic method for
analyzing pyrotechnic materials, and a thorough
laboratory study of the usefulness of paper and pulp
containers for powder. The recommendations sul>-
mitted were adopted by the Ordnance Department,
which had the tubes made in large quantities by
June, 1 91 8. The miscellaneous section designed a

GAS WARFARE 9

smoke shell for the Navy, tested a special shrapnel
shell with special loading for the Chemical Service
of the Army, and made tests of silicon tetrachloride,
stannic tetrachloride, and titanium tetrachloride for
smoke grenades, to determine which smoke is the
most obnoxious.

The dispersoid division was established in April,
1 9 18, to study the small-scale production of smokes
or mists and the best way of protecting men against
them. Among the apparatus developed was a Tyn-
dall meter for determining the rate of dissipation
of smokes under varying conditions. Tests were
started to obtain^systematic data on the toxicity and
rate of dissipation of smokes, and rate of penetra-
tion through filters and mask canisters. One of the
problems taken up was the development of smoke
candles. Besides the work on smokes, the dispersoid
division continued some of the work on primers
that was started at Urbana, 111., using the Tolman
hangfire measurer. Routine tests of airplane am-
munition were made with this machine for the
Ordnance Department.

One of the largest of the branch laboratories en-
gaged in the study of war gases was that of the
Catholic University at Washington. The work done
there included the study of various problems in or-
ganic chemistry under the direction of Dr. W. K.
Lewis; investigations of smokes and mists (dis-
persoids) under Dr. R. C. Tolman; and the study
of various problems of physical chemistry under
Dr. W. D. Bancroft, including catalytic investiga-
tions, such as the catalytic action of charcoal, the
production of fluorine and fluorine compounds, the
conversion of phosgene into superpalite, and the oxi-

lo GAS WARFARE

dation of alcohol to acetic acid. At Clark Univer-
sity Dr. C. A. Kraus worked on the dimming of
eyepieces of gas masks; on metal Dewar flasks for
providing liquid oxygen for aviators and subma-
rines; on the stability of gases; on a heat inter-
changer for use on submarines; and on boosters for
gas shells. At Yale University Dr. T. B. Johnston
had charge of a staff of organic chemists that
worked chiefly on the halogen ethers, on hydrogen
selenide, and on certain selenocyanides. At Bryn
Mawr Dr. R. F. Brunei studied the preparation of
diazomethane and chlor and brom ketones. At Ohio
State University Dr. C. A. Boord worked on mus-
tard gas, phenylchlorarsine, diphenylchlorarsine,
and on the selenium and tellurium derivatives of
mustard gas, which for a time threatened to dis-
place mustard gas. At Harvard University Dr. G.
P. Baxter did much work on the physical constants
of the war gases, especially their vapor pressures,
thus supplying data that were essential for the
proper use of these materials. Dr. E. E. Reid, of
Johns Hopkins University, who became a consulting
chemist of the Bureau of Mines in May, 1917,
helped in interesting the chemists of the country in
the work on noxious gases, and in having them sub-
mit organic preparations. He had charge of a group
of investigators working on problems of organic
chemistry at the university. Dr. Reid Hunt, at
Harvard University, with a staff of pharmacolo-
gists, investigated toxicological problems. Dr. G.
A. Hulett, head of the department of physical chem-
istry at Princeton University was sent abroad in
April, 191 7, as a member of a commission appointed
by the National Research Council to gather data on

GAS WARFARE ii

technical war problems. He gave especial attention
to the use of noxious gases in warfare, and brought
back information that proved of immense value.
/ In research as in the manufacture of &sc^ and
masks, the United States was without a j^en Gas
intelligence, developed along with other lines of
work, reached every part of the American Army
and won not alone the respect and confidence of the
general staff but of the Allied Armies as well. The
Gas Regiment, which was handled directly by the
Chemical Warfare Service in conformity with Gen-
eral Battle orders, did work second to that of no
other American regiment. It gassed the enemy
heavily with Livens projectors and 4-inch stokes
mortars, and did marvelous work with phosphorus
and thermite in cleaning up mathine gun nests in
. all the large battles of the Americans. No less im-
portant was their work with smoke materials for
screening troops in laimching large attacks. The
Chemical Warfare Service in the field made great
strides and weiit far beyond expectation in develop-
ing methods of attack, methods of protecting troops
and in teaching the Army not alone how to defend
itself against the enemy gas, but how to send that
gas back at him more efficiently than he sent it over.

CHAPTERn

Toxic Gascs^ Eartr Empkmnent in Waiiue; Derdop-
aicnt in the War o€ i'qi4>I9i8L tbe E dg n w o oJ Af-
snaL Chlonzie PbntSw Chtorp k r in Plants, r hos ge ne
Plants. Mustard Gas PTantSw Fillinsr and Spray P^mt-
wg Plants, Chemical War^re Prbduetioa D^ta.

Suffocating gases were first used in warfare in
tbe jrear 431 B. C, when sa^>Imr fames were cm-
ployed in besieging the cities of Platea and Bdimn
in the war between the Athenians and the Sportana
Ntnnercms similar uses of toxic sahstances are re-
corded throughout the Middle Ages. In 1855, the
English Admiral Lord Dimdonald, having ohsMircd
the deadly character of the fumes of sulphur in
Sicily^ proposed to reduce Selxist'Opol by sulphur
fumes* and the details of the propooition were care-
fully worked out. The English Govenunent disap-
proved the proposition on the grroiind that "the ef-
fects were so horrible that no honorable corrhatant
could use the means required to pro»Jace them."
The probable use of poison gases continued in the
minds of military men and at The Tla^e Confer-
ence in 1S99 several of the more \>roininenc nations
of Europe and Asia pledged themselves not to use
projectiles gi^nng out suffocating or poisonous gases.
Germany signed and ratified this declaration in
September, 1900, but the Uniteil States declined to
sign it Admiral Mahan. a United States delegate,

12

GAS WARFARE 13

stated in substance in regard to the use of gas in
shell, at that time an untried theory, that the re-
proach of cruelty and perfidy addressed against
these supposed shells was equally uttered previously
against firearms and torpedoes, although both were
afterwards employed without scruple. He held that
it was illogical and not demonstrably humane to be
tender about asphyxiating men with gas, when all
were prepared to admit that it was allowable to blow
the bottom out of an ircMiclad at midnight, throwing
htmdreds of men into the sea to be choked by the
water, with scarcely the remotest chance to escape.
The Second Hague Peace Congress in 1907 adopted
rules for land warfare, the 23d article of which
read as follows: "It is expressly forbidden to em-
ploy poisons or poisonous weapons."

The use of toxic gas in the European War dates
back to April 22, 1915, on which day the Germans
employed chlorine, a common and well knowTi gas,
in an attack against the French and British lines
in the northeastern part of the Upper Ypres Salient.
The methods of manufacturing toxic gases, the use
of such gases, and the tactics connected with their
employment, were new developments of this war.
During the year 191 8 from 20 to 30 per cent of all
American battle casualties were due to gas, showing
that toxic gas is one of the most powerful imple-
ments of war. The records show, however, that
when armies were supplied with masks and other de-
fensive appliances, only about 3 or 4 per cent of the
gas casualties were fatal. This indicates that gas can
be made not only one of the most effective imple-
ments of war, but one of the most humane. It will,
of course, be necessary to remove the noncombatant

14 GAS WARFARE

populaticm from a greater depth of country iinme-
diatdy in the rear of the fighting lines than formerly,
in order that women and children may not be gassed.
This additional sacrifice of territory for war uses is
another element of effectiveness in the weapon.

The use of toxic gas in warfare by Germany com-
pelled the allied nations to adopt like tactics ; accord*
ingly England and France, faced with the de^)erate
^tuation resulting from advantages secured by the
Germans through the employment of these new
weapons, immediately ttuned their attention not only
to devising methods for protecting their own tnx^,
but also to securing supplies and equipment neces-
sary for the utilization of toxic gas as an agent of
warfare against the German Army. Germany orig-
inated thereafter the use of most of the new forms
of gas, but the allied nations and America were actu-
ally producing, at the time of the armistice, gases
on a much greater scale than Germany was ever
able to attain. In fact, America itself was produc-
ing gases at a rate several times as great as was
possible in Germany.

In the early days of the belligerency of the United
States the need of a plant for filling artillery shell
with toxic gases was felt, and in the fall of 191 7
the Government purchased a large tract of land near
Aberdeen, Md., to be an artillery proving ground.
Approximately 3400 acres of this reservation, about
(Mie-tenth of it in area, was set aside as the site for
the gas shell-filling plant. This reservation was
known as Edgewood, and the plant erected on the
site was called the Edgewood Arsenal. Work started
on the Arsenal construction November i, 191 7.
By December i, 1917, it was decided to build at

GAS WARFARE 15

Edgewood a chlorpicrin plant and a phosgene plant.
In March, 1918, the Edgewood project was taken
from the Trench Warfare Section of the Ordnance
Dq>artment and made an independent division imder
the command of Colonel William H. Walker. In
June, 1 91 8, the Chemical Warfare Service was or-
ganized, and the Edgewood Arsenal was transferred
to it. General William L. Sibert, Director of the
Gas Service, took charge of the activities of the
arsenal in May prior to the official transfer.

Chlorine, the raw material for the manufacture
of which is common salt, was one of the principal
materials required in the gas-production program.
Although chlorine was a standard product in the
United States prior to the war, it was soon seen that
there was an inadequate commercial supply to meet
the requirements of the proposed gas offensive.
Chlorine was used not only by itself, but it was also
the active agent in the manufacture of nearly all
the other toxic gases which were required. Conse-
quently it was decided to build a Government
dhlorine plant with two SO-ton units, giving a daily
capacity of 100 tons of liquid chlorine. The ground
for this plant at Edgewood was broken on May 1 1 ,
1 9 18, and the actual production of chlorine begun
on September i.

In July, 191 7, the Germans introduced the so-
tailed mustard gas. It was Immediately realized
that for certain purposes of fighting this chemical
was the most effective product so far employed, and
a large ntimber of Government experts here at once
concentrated their energies in developing methods
for its manufacture on a large scale. It was decided
to erect a large plant at Edgewood for the manufac-

i6 GAS WARFARE

ture of mustard gas, the plant producing the first
gas in June, 191 8. It soon became evident that re-
liance could not be placed upon civilian labor in the
operation of this plant and other chemical plants
at Edgewood because of the danger involved, and
it was decided to utilize enlisted men in the working
crews. As the projects at Edgewood increased in
size and number, the forces at the arsenal grew,
until at one time there were 7,400 troops at this
point. In the spring of 19 18, various scattered fac-
tories by official order were made part of the Edge-
wood Arsenal, each plant being designated by the
name of the city or town where it was located.
Thereafter in Army usage the term "Edgewood Ar-
senal'* embraced not only the group of factories
on the Edgewood reservation, but also included
projects at Niagara Falls, N. Y., Midland, Mich.,
Charleston, West Va., Bound Brook, N. J., and
Buffalo, N. Y. In addition to these, the Edgewood
Arsenal built at points advantageous to supplies of
raw materials four other plants at Stamford, Conn.,
Hastings-on-Hudson, N. Y., Kingsport, Tenn., and
Croyland, Pa., and operated them as well.

In constructing and equipping the Edgewood Ar-
senal the Government laid 15 miles of narrow-
gauge railway and 21 miles of standard gauge rail-
way, built 15 miles of improved roadway, and set
up two water systems, one with a capacity of
1,500,000 gallons per day for the manufacturing
purposes of the chemical plants, and the other pro-
viding a fresh-water supply pumped 4 miles with a
daily capacity of 2,000,000 gallons; of a total of
558 buildings, 86 were cantonment buildings, with
a capacity of 8,400 men, and adequate quarters for

GAS WARFARE

17

officers and civilian emiJoyees. Three field hospi-
tals, a complete base hospital, and separate buildings
for Y. M. C. A. and other activities indicated the
extent of the building equipment. Three power
houses were provided, with a total capacity of
26,500 kilowatts. In the construction of buildings
every precaution was taken to avoid accidents from
the handling of toxic gases, the ventilating systems
being as near perfection as scientific knowledge
could make them. The following table of casualties
in 19 1 8 at the Edgfewood Arsenal proper shows that
all of the danger of the war was not confined to
the front:

Toxic ageot

Jun.

JuL

: Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Total

Mustard gas

Stanxnc chloride. .

Phosgene

Chloipicnn

Bleach chlorine. . .
Liquid chlorine. . .
Sulphur chloride. .

Phosphorus

Caustic soda

Sulphuric add....

Picric acid

Carbon monoxide .

I

4

41
3

• ■

14

2
1

• •

2

• •

• •

• •

• •

190
8

3

18

39
3

a

7
3

4

2

• •

153

IS

7

9

a
2
I
5

• •

3

• •

• •

3^7
31
33

3

I

7
6

I

3

I

• •

z

47

3

17

S

4

•
1

3

•

I

674
SO
SO
44

n

IS

10

8

a
I

-'Totals

lA

63

279

197

393

76

■*

935

Chlorine was the only war gas produced on a
commercial scale in America prior to the war. At
the ordinary temperatures chlorine is a greenish-
yellow gas of strong, suffocating odor. Through
the combined effects of cold and pressure it is readily
condensed to a liquid and is ordinarily shipped in
this form, stored in strong cylinders. It is prepared
commercially by the electrolytic process. A current

k'

i8 GAS WARFARE

of electricity is passed through a solution of com-
mon salt The greenish gas at once arises, leaving
behind it a residue of caustic soda. The apparatus
in which the salt is decomposed by the electric cur-
rent is known as a cell. The Government plant used
Nelson cells, each with a capacity of 60 pounds of
chlorine and 65 pounds of caustic soda per 24 hours.

The plant at Edgewood was ready for operation
in August, 1918. It consisted of (i) a cell house,
which had a total capacity of 100 tons of chlorine
per 24 hours; (2) an electric substation f or supply-
. ing the current; (3) a brine building, where the salt
was mixed with water and the resulting brine puri-
fied; (4) a boiler and evaporation building, for con-
centrating the caustic soda from the cells; (5) a
caustic fusion building, for drying the caustic soda
and fusing it into solid form for shipment; and (6)
a liquefying plant to condense and liquefy 50 tons
of chlorine per day.

With the exception of chlorine, chlorpicrin was
the first war gas to be manufactured on a large scale
in the United States. When pure, chlorpicrin is a
colorless liquid which boils at a temperature approxi-
mately of 112° C. The compound has been known
since 1848. While not so poisonous as some of the
other products used in gas warfare, it is, neverthe-
less, an active poison, and has the additional advan-
tage of being a fair lachrymator, or tear producer.
It is made by the reaction between picric acid and
chlorine. The chlorine is best supplied in the form
of so-called bleaching powder, which is ordinary
chloride of lime. In the manufacturing process as
originally carried out, free picric acid was mixed
with bleaching powder held in suspension with

GAS WARFARE 19.

water. Later it was found advantageous to use cal-
cium picrate instead of picric acid. Accordingly,
the final process was as follows: The Weaching
powder was creamed with water and mixed with a
solution of calcium picrate in large stills holdings
5,000 gallons or more. A jet of live steam was then
introduced at the bottom of the still, and the reaction
began at once, the rapidity depending upon the
amount of steam introduced. The resulting chlor-
jHcrin, together with a certain quantity of steam,
passed out of the still and was liquefied in the con-
denser. The resulting mixture of chlorpicrin and
water was run into tanks, where the chlorpicrin,
being insoluble in water, gradually settled to the
bottom and was run oflf and used directly in gas
shell.

America's supply of chlorpicrin during the war
came from the Edgewood Arsenal and the American
Synthetic Color Company under a contract dated
December 13, 191 7; and the company shipped nearly
112,000 pounds of the gas to Edgewood on March
II. This, when mixed with the necessary stannic
chloride, supplies of which were already on the
ground, was sufficient to fill approximately 100,000
75-millimeter shell. The chlorpicrin plant at Edge-
wood went into entire operation in June, 191 8.

Phosgene was one of the deadliest gases employed
in the European war. Numerous other gases were
used to annoy the enemy and force the wearing of
masks, but phosgene was a killer employed to pro- ^
duce as many casualties as possible. The gas did ^
not persist long in the air or on the ground after the
shdl had exploded, so that it was an ideal chemical
for use in an attack. The gas would clear away by

20 GAS WARFARE

the time the troops following reached the place ot
gas concentration. At ordinary temperatures phos-
gene is a colorless gas, but it condenses to a liquid
at 8° C. It is formed by the combination of two
gases, chlorine and carbon monoxide, in the pres-
ence of a catalyzer. The reaction is best conducted
in iron boxes, lined with lead and filled with char-
coal^ of proper quality, into which boxes a stream of
the. reacting gases, mixed in proper proportions, is
introduced. The reaction creates heat, and means
must usually be taken to keep the reaction boxes
cooled. The* resulting phosgene is condensed to a
liquid by passing the gas through a condenser which
is surrounded by brine kept cold by refrigeration.
The liquid is then stored in strong steel containers
or run directly into Livens drums or artillery shell.
Because of the great importance of phosgene in
warfare the Government financed phosgene plants
at Niagara Falls, N. Y., Bound Brook, N. J., and
other places, and decided to build a Government
phosgene plant at Edgewood, the construction of
which was begun in March, 191 8. It consisted of
four catalyzer buildings, each building having four
tuiits, each unit possessing a projected capacity of
5 tons of phosgene per day. The carbon monoxide
used in the process was produced by passing a mix-
ture of oxygen and carbon dioxide over heated coke
in a gas producer, the oxygen being supplied by a
Claude machine with a capacity of 100,000 cubic
feet of oxygen every 24 hours. The chlorine used
came partly from the Edgewood chlorine plant and
partly from outside sources. The total output of
phosgene at Edgewood was 935 tons, and that pro-

GAS WARFARE 21

duced by all plants before the armistice was 161 6
tons.

The Germans, in spitej of their attainments in
chemistry, were never able to improve their cliunsy
and expensive methods of producing mustard gas.
The b^ reports we have show that at the time the
fighting ended, all of Germany's chemical warfare
facilities could not produce more than 6 tons of mus-
tard per day. The United States alone had ten times
that capacity on the same date, while France and
England both reached a very heavy output. Known
in chemistry as dichlorethyl stdphide, mustard gas
is a colorless, slightly oily liquid, boiling at 220° C.
with some decomposition. When perfectly pure it
freezes at 14° C, but, since it usually contains small
percentages of impurities, it usually remains liquid
at 0° C, or even below that. The first commercial
process proposed for its manufacture depended upon
the use of ethylene chlorhydrin. In the spring and
summer of 1918 a new process was developed both
in Europe and in the United States, one which used
sulphur monochloride. This process consisted in
blowing gaseous ethylene into liquid sulphur mono-
chloride in large iron reaction vessels. Sulphur is
set free by this reaction, and the temperature must
be controlled in order to prevent the formation of
solid sulphur in the reaction machine. The con-
struction of the Edgewood plant was begun in May,
1 918, and the first mustard was produced a month
later. At the time of the armistice the arsenal was
producing 30 tons per day. The total production of
mustard gas at Edgewood during the war period was
711 tons, of which 300 tons went into shell. To in^

.22 GAS WARFARE

sure an adequate supply of sulphur monochloride
for its mustard gas production the Government built
a special plant at Edgewood with a capacity of 300
tons of sulphur mcMiochloride per day.

As soon as toxic gas warfare had developed to a
considerable extent, the perfection of gas-absorbing
masks had given almost a complete protection
against this new weapon, if the soldier put on his
gas mask in time. But the mask, especially the
earlier forms of it, was not easy upon the wearer,
due to the difficulty of breathing through it and also
because it restricted the soldier's vision. It was soon
discovered that a force compelled to wear its gas
masks for any considerable period lost in efficiency.
The employment of gas by both sides for the pur-
pose of forcing the opposite sides to wear masks
continually was an important element in war at the
close of hostilities. For this purpose the so-called
tear gases were produced. Gassing the enemy with
tear gas was much cheaper than with poison gas, yet
it forced him to remain masked. The tear gases
were highly effective. Even a trace of tear gas in
the air would in a few moments blind a man tem-
porarily. A single tear-gas shell could force the
wearing of masks over an area so wide that it would
require from 500 to 1,000 phosgene shell to produce
the same effect.

As most of the tear gases had bromine bases, it
was early determined by the Government to increase
the American supply of bromine for gas warfare
requirements. The domestic source of bromine is
principally in certain subterranean brines, these solu-
tions containing bromine in its compounds. The
Crovemment financed the sinking of 17 brine wells

GAS WARFARE 23

near Midland, Mich., where the brines are especially
rich in bromine. This plant is a most valuaUe
future war asset of the United States, capable of
yielding approximately 650,000 pounds of bromine
per year. The tear gas which the Government pre-
pared to manufacture was brombenayl cyamde, a
brownish, oily liquid which solidifies to white or
brownish crystals at 29° C. Its production involves
a fairly intricate chemical process. The first step is
to chlorinate ordinary toluol, one of the coal tar
bases, to produce benzyl chloride. This chloride is
then mixed with sodium cyanide in alcoholic solu-
tion and distilled, benzyl cyanide being the result. It
is then only necessary to brominate the benzyl cya-
nide by treating it with bromine vapor. Bromine
gases are not poisonous in the sense of being killers^
but are merely highly irritating to the membranes of
the eye. The killing gases are phosgene, chlorpicrin, \
and chlorine. Mustard gas in sufficient amount is \
also fatal, its effect being identical to that of a deep '
bum. It attacks the lungs, the eyes, the skin, and
even the intestines if food contaminated with mus-
tard gas is swallowed. One of its insidious features
is the fact that its action is practically always de-
layed. Goggles alone would usually be sufficient
protection against tear gas, except for the fact that
it is invariably mixed with the deadlier gases.

The production of gases and other chemicals was
only part of the work of the Edgewood Arsenal
and its subsidiary plants. The other chief activity
was that of filling artillery shell with the toxic sub-
stances. The description of the plant which filled
shell with phosgene will indicate the scale upon*
which this operation was conducted. The empty

24 GAS WARFARE

shell, after being inspected, were loaded on trucks,
together with the proper number of loaded boosters.
The booster was the device which exploded the shell
and scattered the gas. Electric locomotives then
pulled the shell trucks to the filling buildings. There
were four of these to a single shell-filling plant,
radiating at right angles from a common center.
From the trucks the empty shell were lifted by hand
to a belt conveyor and the conveyor carried the shell
slowly through a room kept cold by artificial refrig-
eration. Although the shell moved only 70 feet
through this room the conveyor traveled so slowly
that they were 30 minutes in transit, and during this
time they were cooled to a temperature of about
0° F. This chilling was necessary because phosgene
has a low boiling point, and it was necessary to keep
tlie temperature of the metal of the shell consider-
ably below the boiling point of phosgene in order
that the gas might remain in liquid form while the
filling was going on. The chilled shell cases were
next transferred to small trucks, each carrying six
of them. The loaded truck was then drawn through
a filling tunnel by means of a chain haul. This ttm-
nel was so ingeniously contrived that the human
assistance to tlie filling and closing machinery could
all l>e conductc<^l from the outside. The phosgene,
kept liquid by retrigcration, was run into the shell
bv an anto^nalic filler. The truck was then moved
fiMwanl a tow feci to a point where the boosters
\\ ore iti<^rtC(i into the noses of the shell by the hands
01 the lY^rator rcaoliin.c in through an aperture in
\hc tunnel. The i\'^^^] dosing of the shell was then
;^iVom]>lishc\l by ni<^tors. The air in the filling tun-
nel >x ,•:<; OvMi.vinntly withdrawn by strong vendlatson.

GAS WARFARE 25

the exhaust air being washed in stone towers by
chemical agents to neutralize any gases that might
be present. The filled, inclosed shell were next con-
veyed to a dump, where they were classified and
then stood nose down for 24 hours to test them for
leaks. Then they were painted, striped, and sten-
ciled by air paint brushes. The final process was
to pack them in boxes and store them for shipment.
This was done in large storage magazines on the
grounds of the Edgewood Arsenal. A similar meth-
od was used for filling shell with chlorpicrin, except
that refrigeration was imnecessary.

Several filling plants were designed and con-
structed for filling grenades with stannic chloride
and with white phosphorus, and for filling incen-
diary drop bombs. In this connection the table on
page 26 is instructive:

The following is a summary of the production
and expectations of the Edgewood Arsenal :

(i) The gas program as of March 1918, called
for approximately 545 tons of toxic gas weekly.

(2) The Chemical Warfare Service program of
August 12, 1 91 8, called for a much larger amount,
viz, about 4,525 tons per week.

(3 ) The approximate filling capacity of the Edge-
wood Arsenal plant from August to November,
1918, was nearly 1,000 tons per week.

(4) The toxic gas production during this same
period increased from 450 to 675 tons per week.

(5) The capacity of all projectiles received, un-
limited by boosters, varied during the same period
from 125 to 450 tons per week.

(6) The maximum capacity corresponding to
boosters received was less than 100 tons per week.

26

GAS WARFARE

The Qiemical Warfare production organization
developed and manufactured a large number of spec-
ial containers for the shipment of toxic gases.
These were of special construction in order to guard
against dangers that would result from leaks, and
all had to stand the tests required by the Bureau of
Explosives before they would be received for rail-

Shbll, Grenades. Livens Drums, and Drop Bombs Filled

75-mm. shell

Grenades

Livens
dnuns

Inoendianr
drop bombs

Z9I8

Chlor-
picrin

Phos-
gene

Mus-

tard

oil

White
phos-
phorus

Tin
tetra-
chloride

Phos-
gene

Mark

I

Mark
11

July

62.866

125.951

110,358

109,704

15,892

* 1,988

12

9

75,529

79.272

224

8.696
170.160

S1.421
110.928

98.948

1.639

56,763

127.319

147.669

30.386

August

September. . . .

October

November

1.738

6.355

13.026

5.570

350

184*
8

• • • • •

Z.998

100

6

Total

Total number
diipped over-
teas

424.771
300.000

2.009

155,02s
150,000

440.153
224,984

363,776
175.080

25.689
18.600

542

2,104

Total Monthly Capacity of Pilling Plants on Date of Armistice
(Stokes Shell. Drop Bombs, and Other Special Con-
tainers Not Included)

75-mm. shell (ultimate capacity) 9.400.000

4.7-tnch shell 450.000

i5S-mm. shell 540,000

6-inch shell 180,000

Gas grenades 750.000

Smoke grenades 480.000

Livens arums '. 30.000 •

road shipment. The i-ton containers, all of which
would hold I ton of liquid chlorine, were designed
by the Ordnance Department and would withstand
a pressure of 500 pounds per square inch. The 300-
poimd phosgene cylinders, designed by the Ordnance
Department, were made to withstand a soopound
hydrostatic pressure and a 250-pound air test.

CHAPTER III

Gas Defense Equipment, the Problem of Gas Masks, Box
Respirator Equipment, Canister Ingredients, Carbon
(Charcoal) for American Canisters, Horse Mask De-
velopment, Production Data of Gas Defense.

During the spring and summer of 191 7 two
marked tendencies were to be observed in tiie fight-
ing in France. One of these was the greatly in-
creased use by both sides of poisonous gases and^
chemicals, frightful in their effect; the other thel
almost complete censorship that hid the knowledge / /
of this tendency not only from the people of Europe)
but particularly from those of the newest belligerent;
America. The French and British Governments,
who then controlled all news from the front, feared,
and perhaps with reason, that if the picture of gas
warfare, as it was then developing, should be placed
before the American people, it would result in an
unreasonable dread of gases on the part of the
American Nation and its soldiers.

The first masks adopted by the allies were simply
gauze pads saturated with neutralizing chemicals.
These became tmsuitable as soon as new varieties
of powerful poisons were brought out. The mask
development thereafter progressed to the box re-
spirator type. This consisted of a mask or helmet
cormected to a box filled with absorbing and neutral-
izing chemicals which purified the air for the mask

27

28 GAS WARFARE

wearer. This was the type of reqrirator in use to
the end of the fighting. The first requisitions from
the American Expeditionary Forces called for masks
of two types, each soldier to be supplied with one
of each. The reserve mask was to be of the gauze
type and the regular mask of the box respirator
type, affording protection from the more powerful
poisons that were then just coming into use.

The box respirator equipment, the general prin-
ciple of which was finally adopted by all the nations
at war, fell into two classes. In a single-protection
mask the wearer breathed air from inside of the
face piece, so that any leakage around the edges of
the face piece would result in a casualty when the
wearer was in a strong concentration of gas. The
other sort, known as the double-protection mask,
consisted of a gas-tight face piece, similar to that of
the single-protection mask. In this type, to guard
against any possible leakage around the edges be-
tween the maisk and the wearer's skin, the breathing
system was sealed away from the air inside the face
piece by means of a rubber mouthpiece and a nose
clip, the wearer inhaling through the mouthpiece.

The United States and English double-protection
masks consisted of 1 1 principal parts as follows :

1. A knapsack slung from the shoulder or neck.
This contained the canister and a pocket for storing
away the mask when not in use.

2. A metal canister in which was contained the
absorptive neutralizing chemicals.

3. A flexible hose reaching from the canister to
the face piece.

4. A flutter, or exhalation, valve, which opened
when the wearer exhaled his breath and closed when

GAS WARFARE 29

he inhaled, thus bringmg the inhalation through the
canister but allowing the exhalation from the lungs
to pass out without polluting the chemicals of the
canister.

5. The face piece, or hood, fitting snugly around
the edges and covering the eyes, cheeks, lower fore-
head, nose, mouth, and chin. ,

6. The eyepieces, or lenses, through which vision
was maintained.

7. An elastic harness for the head, to hold the
face piece in place.

8. A body cord to tie around the chest and hold
the knapsack firmly, so that the mask could be seized
in both hands and pulled out of the knapsack.

9. A metal flange connection or angle tube which
carried the hose through the face piece to the mouth-
piece.

10. A rubber mouthpiece through which the
wearer breathed and which helped to hold the mask
in place.

11. A wire nose spring and rubber nose pad to
hold the nostrils shut and force breathing through
the mouth.

It was necessary to overcome many difficulties in
the production of an effective mask. In the first
place, the face piece had to fit perfectly and not leak
gas around the edges. It had to fit into the hollows
of the temples and give the jaws a free space in
which to work, and yet not slip back and press
against one's Adam's apple. The pressure of the
mask on the forehead must come above the supra-
orbital nerves which are just above the eyebrows,
or else intense headaches will result from a few
moments' wear. Moreover, to fit all faces and

30 GAS WARFARE

heads, several graduated sizes of masks are re-
quired. The material of the face piece had to be
gas-tight in itself. At first a fabric was made by
spreading rubber on cotton sailcloth ; and, after test-
ing it, it was found that the smallest molecule
known, that of hydrogen, would not pass through
it in large amounts. This seemed to be a suitable
fabric, imtil tested by the newer gases. Then
it was found that some of these gases were
soluble in rubber compounds and could das-
solve their way through thin rubber so quickly
that the face piece cloth offered practically no
protection at all. Another difficulty with the
rubber fabric was that it was likely to absorb
and hold certain of the poisons, so that a man might
be gassed by the mask itself. Experiment led to the
discovery of a coating that would not only with-
stand gas ccmcentrations for a sufficient time, but
would also aerate prc»nptly and lose as much gas
as it had absorbed.

The eyepieces or lenses offered another problem.
Celluloid is strong but it is not so transparent as
glass. It ignites easily and is easily scratched. Glass
19 ideal in transparency and will not bum, but is
fragile. Even so slight an accident as the breaking
of a lens might cost a soldier his life by admitting
concentrated gas to the mask. A material known
as triplex glass was experimentally made. This
consisted of a thin celluloid strip sandwiched be-
tween two layers of glass, all three welded together.
This glass would not splinter, and even if cracked
or broken, would still be gas-tight. However, this
had never been made in quantity and it was neces-
sary to work out many kinks and to start a large

GAS WARFARE 31

plant to provide the necessary millions of lenses.
Then it was necessary to overcome the tendency
of the eyepieces to dim, particularly in cold weather,
as the wearer breathed moist breath into the mask.
The answer to this problem was a soapy compotmd
which put a slippery surface on the glass and
avoided the droplets of mist. The first masks were
also equipped with deep plaits so that the wearer
could wipe off the lens with the interior of the face-
piece itself, though the final development (the in-
vention of a Frenchman by the name of Tissot) was
to bring the cold air into the mask so that it flowed
directly against the lenses and evaporated any con-
densed moisture. This kept them clear under all
ordinary circumstances.

The metal tube passing through the face piece
had to be free from pinholes and able to withstand
rough handling without pulling loose. The harness
had to maintain a gas-tight connection between, the
wearer's face and the face piece, but not at the cost
of pain or chafing of the face or head. The- flutter
valve had to fit with absolute tightness and work
perfectly and instantaneously at all times. The
flexible hose leading from the canister* to the face
piece had to be strong and without flaws or leaks,
and yet flexible in the extreme. A stiflF hosei would
be likely to swing and displace the face piece when-
ever the wearer moved. The mouthpiece had to be
comfortable and built along lines to prevent irrita-
tion to the gums or lips, yet reinforced so that in his
excitement the soldier can not bite down and shut
off his air supply. The canister had to withstand
corrosion and be gas-tight. Smooth sided canisters
could not be used, for the gas would slip up the sides

32 GAS WARFARE

without coining in contact with much of the chem-
ical filling. The sides of the canisters were, there-
fore, ribbed so that the charcoal and other ingre-
dients working into- these ribs baffled the gas and
threw it out into the body of the chemicals. The
canister, moreover, had to be equipped with a per-
fectly working check valve which would stop ex-
halation through the canister and force the air to
pass out through the flutter valve. The canisters
were filled with charcoal and with cement granules.
These were crushed into carefully sized small bits
about the size of a pinhead and packed in layers in
the canisters. The air could pass through them
easily and the particles of both substances absorbed
gas. The chief quality requirements for the carbon
and the cement were that they must have long life
and great activity. Of the canister ingredients the
charcoal oflFered the more difficult technical problem.
During the winter of 1917-1918 the development
of the mask continued and America designed her
own typical mask — a gradual evolution, but one
which, though based on the British design, arrived
at a perfection which had been unknown in warfare
before. The matter of rubberizing the face piece
fabric was one of the most difficult problems to solve
before proceeding in quantity production. Two
methods of rubberizing cloth were in use. The first
method was to roll out a thin sheet of rubber and
then press it into the cloth fabric by nmning the
whole thing under heavy rollers. This was known
as the calender method. The other method, called
the spreader method, was more intricate. In this
process the sailcloth, tightly stretched, was carried
around a roller. Above the roller a few thousandths

GAS WARFARE 33

of an inch was a knife blade extending from edge
to edge. The rubber compound in liquid form was
then fed upon the roller in such manner that a thin
film of it pressed under the knife blade and upon
the cloth on the roller. The rubberizing method
finally adopted was a combination of the calender
and spreader methods. The rubber was applied
green to the cloth. The curing process thereafter
was hightly important. If the curing process were
too short, the rubber would be sticky and would
pull off the sailcloth too easily. If the rubber were
overcured, it would crack and split

The story of the carbon (charcoal) which went
into the American canister is one of the most inter-
esting phases of the whole undertaking. Investiga-
tions carried on by the research staff of the National
Carbon Company, aided by a clue from the Univer-
sity of Chicago, led to the selection of coconut shell
as a raw material. Any carbon absorbs a definite
number of times its weight of gas. Therefore the
densest carbons will be most efficient, volume for
volume, as gas absorbers in a given space. Coconut
shells and other nut shells were found to be the most
compact form in which carbon exists in nature in
commercially practicable quantities, being consider-
ably superior in this respect to anthracite coal and
to such woods as ironwood and mahogany. An-
other essential for charcoal used in the canisters was
that it must be so hard that it would not crumble
easily and produce dust that would clog up the air
passages and prevent easy breathing through the
canister. Coconut shell fulfilled both of these con-
ditions better than any other known material.

In further search for the ideal carbon experiments

34

GAS WARFARE

were made with almost every hard vegetable sub-
stance known. Next to coconut shells, the fruit pits,
several common varieties of nuts abundant in the
United States, and several tropica! nuts, were found
to make the best carbon. Pecan nuts, and all woods
ranging in hardness from ironwood down to or-
dinary pine and fir, were found to be in the second
class of efficiency. Among other substances tested
were almonds, Arabian acorns, grape seeds, Brazil-
nut husks, balsa, osage oranges, Chinese velvet
beans, synthetic carbons, cocoa bean shells, coffee
grounds, flint com, corn cobs, cottonseed husks,
peanut shells and oil shale. While many of these
substances might have been used in an emergency,
none of them would produce carbon as efficient, vol-
ume for volume, as that of the coconut shells and
other hard nuts. ^_

When we first began to build masks our demandsj^l
for carboniferous material ranged from 40 to S<1^J
tons a day of raw material ; but by the end of the
war, due to vastly increased mask reciuirenients, we
were in need of a supply of 400 tons of coconut
shells per day. This demand would absorb the en-
tire coconut production of the tropical Americas
five times over. It was equal to one-tenth of the
total coconut production of the Orient. Since trans-
portation from the oriental countries was out of the
question on the scale demanded by our mask pro-
gram, it was evident that we were likely to be seri-
ously embarrassed by the lack of raw materials;
and, indeed, at no time before September, 1918, did
we have on hand a reserve supply of shells and other
charcoal materials that would last for more than a
iew days, though at no time after the start vras the

J^M^Jik

GAS WARFARE 35

actual output of masks retarded by lack of these
materials.

A great branch of activity in securing carbon sup-
plies was undertaken in this country. In the search
for fruit pits and for domestic nuts it was found
that the quantity of apricot pits, peach pits, cherry
pits (largely from the canning industry), and walnut
shells on the Pacific coast amounted to 23,600 tons
annually. The United States arranged for the whole
Pacific coast supply of these commodities and con-
verted a part of a San Francisco plant of the Pacific
Gas & Electric Company into a plant for the prelim-
inary carbonization of 100 tons a day of these ma-
terials. The next step was to turn to the consiuners
of the country and ask them to save their peach and
apricot stones, their prune, plum, and olive pits, their
date seeds, cherry pits, butternut shells, Brazil nut
shells, and their walnut and hickory nut shells. The
work of securing these and advertising the Govern-
ment's need to the public was turned over to the
American Red Cross. The Boy Scouts organized
nut gathering parties. The Governor of Massachu-
setts proclaimed November 9, 1918, to be gas mask
day for the collection of carbcm material, and 28
other states fixed gas mask days in November.

The procurement of the nuts, however, was but
the first step in the production of carbon for use in
the mask canisters, for after charcoal is first burned
its pores are still filled with various impurities which
may be summed up by the word "tar." When the
charcoal was given a second heating, under careful
temperature regulation, this tar was burned out,
with the result that the charcoal itself became much
more active in its absorption of gas. In fact, prop-

GAS WARFARE

erly activated charcoal is more than absorptive — it
is catalytic in its action toward the gaseous poisons
used in the war. not only absorbing- them but has-
tening their breakdown (digestion) into less injuri-B
ous substances. I

Tlie activating of charcoal offered at the startV
considerably more of a problem than the question of
making the charcoal itself, since activating had never
before been conducted on a commercial scale. Two
months of experimentation showed that the best
distillation of shells and pits for charcoal was that
conducted in illuminating-gas-making retorts. The
activation thereafter had to be done in special equip-
ment permitting of fine control of temperature. The
Government eventually spent more than $1,000,000
in a charcoal activating plant, providing for America
the best protection known to science against the
poisons which Germany had introduced into warfare.

The cement granules, which aSso had to go into
the canisters, supplied another problem. The basis
of this cement was lime, to absorb gases of an acid
nature. Portland cement was used, to give hardness
and prevent disintegration and the formation of
dust in the canister. Then infusorial earth was
added, to make the compound porous in texture. A
little sodium hydroxide was put in, to increase the
alkalinity of the mixture. Finally there was an in-
fusion of sodium permanganate, which is a powerful
oxidizing agent. This latter chemical was added
33 a precaution against arsine. Arsine and arsenical
compounds were difficult to use in warfare, but the
Germans had introduced them to some extent, jus-
tifying the United States in adding this protection.
In maJking the granules the sodium permanganate

GAS WARFARE 37

solution was mixed with the cement. The mixture
was roughed out into slabs, allowed to set for three
days, dried, ground up, screened to the proper size,
and packed in drums for future use. The charcoal
and cement were packed in the canister in alternate
layers. The cement had the virtue of working while
the carbon slept — that is, the carbon was active when
there were gases present to be absorbed, but the
cement kept on thereafter, digesting the gases which
had been absorbed 1>y the charcoal.

Early in 191 8, shortly before the German drive
commenced, there was brought out in France a
single-protection mask, that is, a mask in which the
inlet tube entered directly into the space between
the mask and the face, with the orifices so arranged
that the fresh air was drawn across the eyepieces.
This was known as the Tissot mask. The principle
of the Tissot was correct as far as comfort was con-
cerned, since it did away with the irritating mouth-
piece, but the chief danger in this mask arose from
the fact that it was made of thin, pure gum rubber.
The United States endeavored to produce a mask of
this type which should be gas-tight and yet rugged.
In this work hundreds of experiments were made
to determine face and head sizes and shapes. It is
interesting to note in this connection that the size
of a man's face has nothing to do with the size of
his head, as large heads with small faces and small
heads with large faces occur not infrequently. Two
developments of the mask without mouthpiece or
nose clip were made. One was known as the Akron-
Tissot, or Type A-T, and the other, an improve-
ment in the design of the Tissot mask, called the
Kops-Tissot, or the Type K-T. In exact figures.

38 GAS WARFARE

up to the time of signing the armistice there was
a total production of 5,692,499 masks of all types.

Hand in hand with this procurement and manu-
facturing achievement went the development of the
technical section of the Gas Defense Division. In
spite of this elaborate section, the testing of masks
(fid not stop with it. There was a special field-test-
ing section of the Gas Defense Division, composed
of about 150 men who were trained to the minute
in field maneuvers and did most of their work in gas
masks. They were constantly in and out of gas
with regular production and experimental masks,
they played baseball in them, they dug trenches, laid
out wire, cut wire, and fought sham battles at night,
both with and without actual g^s. The work of this
section even went so far in the case of the later de-
signs as to include a test where six men worked,
played, and slept in the masks for an entire week,
only taking them off for 30 minutes at each meal-
time, and each day entering high concentrations of
the most deadly gases, without any ill effects what*
soever to the wearers. When it is remembered that
eight hours was the limit of time which a strong man
could wear the old-type mask, something of the ef-
ficiency of the new mask may be realized.

Investigation showed that a horse's eyes did not
shed tears in the presence of even strong lachryma-
tory gases. Moreover a horse never breathes
through his mouth ; and it was, therefore, necessary
only to cover his nostrils. Furthermore, horses
proved to be more resistant to the toxic gases used
in Europe than were men, and his mask, accordingly ,-
needed to be only a bag of many layers of chemically
treated gauze. The following table is most inter-

GAS WARFARE

39

esting and shows the number of respirators, canis-
ters, horse masks, bleaching powder (tons), anti-
dimming (tubes), sag paste (tons), dugout blanket
oil (gallons), protective suits, protective gloves, dug-
out blankets, warming devices, and trench fans man-
ufactured during the European War. The dugout
blankets were to be used at the doors of dugouts to
make them gas proof. These were specially woven
all-cotton blankets which were treated in France
with a special heavy oil, shipped from the United

Item

>iTator8

Extra canisters

Horse masks

Bleaching powder (tons) ....
Extra antidimming (tubes) . .

Sag paste (tons)

Dugout blanket oil (gallons) ,

Protective suits

Protective gloves

Dugout blankets

Warning devices

Trench fans

Production

Up to July
1, 1918

1,719,434

S07.663

154,094

It4&4

20

11.343

Up to Nov..
iz, X918

5,276,515

3.144.48s

366,529

3.677

2.855,776

1. 136

95,000

• 500

1,773

IS9.I27

33,202

29,977

Dec. 31,
X918 (total
produc-
tion)

5.692,499

3.189.357

377,881

3.590

2.855.776

1.246

95.000

2,450

1.773

191,33s

45.906

50.549

States. The protective suits and gloves were to
safeguard men against mustard gas bums. The
suits were made of oiled fabric and the gloves were
of cloth impregnated with chemicals. The ointment
known as sag paste was used to protect the skin
against mustard gas burns.' The gas warning sig-
nals were of several types, watchmen's rattles and
Klaxon horns being the most commonly used to
sound the gas alarms. The trench fans were used
for fanning out gas from trenches and dugouts.

CHAPTER IV

Tactical Employment of Gases, Importance of Gas as a
Weapon in Military Operations. Lachrymators or
Tear Producers, Density of Gases and Time of Ex-
posure, Gases from Shells, Artillery Gas Zones of
Dispersion, Effects of Temperature and Terrain.

The introduction and development of the use of
gas in military operations has had a marked effect
on the action and employment of troops in combat.
A proper tactical training now requires careful in-
struction not only in measures of defense against
gas, but in the use of gas against the enemy in of-
fensive and defensive operations. Beginning in
April, 191 5, with the first successful use of gas in
the form of a gas cloud projected from cylinders
the forms arid methods of use have been extended
to include the use of the usual arms of combatant
troops in the projection of gas and the employment
of special arms for its projection.

The general term "gas" as now used in warfare
embraces all poisonous gases used in war, whether
in cylinders, shells, or otherwise, and in addition,
smoke, incendiary and irritating substances. The
chemical substances designated as ''gases'* have a
great variety of properties and effects. To think of
all "gases" as having substantially the same proper-
ties and tactical uses is a serious mistake. The
"gases" used in warfare include not only true gases,
but solids and liquids of widely varying properties,

40

GAS WARFARE 41

that are converted in their actual use into "partic-
ulate" gases and vapors. This makes possible a wide
variety of tactical uses in combination with other
means of warfare. The effect of gas persists after
the explosion, imposing upon the enemy the neces-
sity of wearing masks. This is a source of discom-
fort and impairment of vision and efficiency. Gas p^
is, moreover, capable of penetrating certain means
of defense, such as trenches and dugouts, sometimes
more effectively than other forms of ammunition.

In order to realize the value of the employment
of gas in military operations and the need of the
measures of defense against gas, as well as to de-
termine the conditions under which the use of gas
is applicable, a knowledge of the physical properties
and the physiological effects of gases and their be-
havior upon release, is essential.

The most important physical property is that
which determines the ''persistency" of the substance
when used in the field. This property depends chiefly
upon the rapidity of evaporation, which may be
roughly estimated from the boiling point of the
liquid. According to this criterion, we may name
the following classes, giving the most prominent ex-
ample of each:

GROUP I — Substances which are gases at ordi-
nary temperatures (of low per-
sistency ) — Phosgene.
GROUP II — Moderately volatile liquids (of mod-
erate persistency) — Chlorpicrin.
GROUP III— Slightly volatile liquids (of high

persistency) — Mustard Gas.
GROUP IV — Toxic smoke producers — Diphenyl-

chlorarsine.

42 GAS WARFARE

Gases at ordinary temperatures (like phos-
gene), when released from containers, will be blown
about by the air currents ; hence, if the air is rela-
tively still, as when the wind is low, or in a dense
wood, such a gas may persist for some time. On the
other hand, in the open, and when the wind is blow-
ing, it will be quickly dissipated. Such a gas can be
used advantageously against positions to be at-
tacked shortly after the release of the gas.

Moderately volatile liquids (like chlorpicrin) ,
when splashed upon the ground, will vaporize rather
slowly, and will continue to contaminate the air in
the neighborhood. In woods or in dugouts, or when
the air is still, this contamination may persist for
considerable lengths of time. However, that portion
of the liquid which has vaporized is no more per-
sistent than the gases in the phosgene group.

The slightly volatile liquids (like mustard gas)
will give off their vapors still more slowly, so that an
infected area will remain dangerously infected for
a greater length of time. However, it is difficult to
get their vapors into the air in high concentrations.
Only by breaking them up to form a mist can high
concentrations and rapid deadly effects be realized.
Substances of this class are accordingly especially
useful in harassing an enemy and in preventing him
from attacking over areas drenched with them. It
has, in fact, been possible to ascertain positions
which the enemy expected to attack by noting gaps
left in territory otherwise heavily shelled with mus-
tard gas.

Toxic smoke producers (like diphenylchlor-
arsine) are substances which can be made to give a
su^)ension qi extremely fine particles of poisonous

GAS WARFARE 43

dust, or mists in the air. Such clouds are no more
persistent than those caused by gases in the phosgene
group. Their chief value lies in their ability to pen-
etrate, more or less, the enemy masks. Usually
when the cloud has settled upon the ground the
amount of vapor given off is too small to have any
toxic effect. Such effect is only produced by the
inhalation of the particles themselves while sus-
pended in the air.

The toxic substances may be classified according
to the predominant effects which they exert, with
the understanding, however, that the action of any
substance is not limited to a single tissue or group
of tissues. Thus, a substance, the vapor of which
causes injury to the respiratory passages, may, when
applied to the skin, cause blistering. If the sole or
chief usefulness of a substance in warfare depends
upon its effect on the respiratory tract, it is classed
as a respiratory irritant. If its power to produce
casualties is due to its action on the skin, it is classed
as a skin irritant. If both actions are useful, it is
placed in both groups. By far the greatest number
of substances thus far used injure the respiratory
apparatus. Three groups may be differentiated :

(a) Those which exert their chief effects upon
the delicate membranes in the lungs through which
oxygen passes from the air into the blood. The
main result of this injury is to cause fluid to pass
from the blood into the minute air sacs and thus
to obstruct the oxygen supply to the blood. Death
from one of these substances may be compared to

GAS WARFARE

death by drowning; the water in which the victim 1
drowns being drawn into his lungs from his own |
blood vessels. Examples : Phosgene, chlorine, chlor-
picrin, diphosgene.

(b) Substances which injm'e the membranes '
which line the air passages. During normal life
these membranes insure protection to the lungs
against mechanical injury by particles which may
be taken in with the air and against bacterial in-
fection. As a result of the action of substances of
this group their protective power is lost. Portions
of the membrane may become swollen and detached
and may plug up the smaller passages leading to the
liuig tissue, or the damaged tissue may become the
seat of bacterial infection, thus setting up bronchitis
and pneumonia. Examples: Mustard gas, ethyldi-
chlorarsine.

(c) Substances which affect chiefly the upper ^r
passages, i.e., the nose and throat. These substances
cause intense pain and discomfort but are not dan-
gerous to life. They cause sneezing, painful smart-
ing of the nose and throat, intense headache, a feel'
ing of severe constriction of the chest, and vomiting.
For varying periods after exposure they may cause
general muscular weakness and dizziness. loss of
sensation in parts of the body or even transitory
unconsciousness. Examples: Diphenylchlorarsine, j
diphenylcyanarsine.

Tear Producers (lachrymators).— -Certain sub- I
stances have a powerful effect upon the eyes, caus- I
ing copious flowing of tears, followed by reddening j

/

GAS WARFARE 45

and swelling of the eyes, producing thereby effective
temporary blindness. These effects are often pro-
duced by extremely minute quantities of tear pro-
ducing substances. Larger quantities of the same
substances usually act as lung irritants as well. Ex-
amples: Brombenzylcyanide, bromacetone, ethyl
idioacetate, chlorpicrin.

Skin Blisterers (vesicants). — Certain substances
have a powerful irritating effect upon the skin, very
much like that produced by poison ivy. The same
effect is produced upon all the surfaces of the body
with which the substance may come in contact, such
as the eyes and the breathing passages. Accord-
ingly, a substance producing skin blistering will, if
inhaled, also act as a powerful irritant of the air
passages. Example : Mustard gas.

The following table includes the most important
substances in use in Chemical Warfare, grouped ac-
cording to persistency, with brief indications of
their physiological effects. Little attempt is made
to describe the odors, as this is very difficult. How-
ever, all who have any responsibility in connection
with Chemical Warfare, should become familiar
with the various odors by actual experience:

NAME PROPERTIES

Physical Physiological

GROUP I — Gases at Ordinary Temperatures.
(Readily dissipated by wind. Non-persistent.)

Chlorine (Berthollte) Greenish Yellow Gas. Luxis irritant, death

rapid or delayed. Less
toxic than phosgene.
Odor like that of

— ' • bleaching lime.

46

GAS WARFARE

NAMB PROPERTIES

Physical Physiciogical

GROUP I — Gases at Ordinary Temperatures.
(Readily dissipated by wind. Non-persistent.)
— Continued.

PlKMiene (C.
loogite)

G.) (Col-

Hydroojruiic Acid (V.
N) (Vincennhe)

Colorlest
liquefied.

Colorlesa
I jq ^wfiftdi

gas, easily

gas, easily

Lung irritant, death
rapid or delayed. MouW
dy odor.

Nerve poison, immedi-
ate death if oonceno
trated; very little effect
if dilute. Rapid re-
covery with no aftet
effects.

GROUP II— Moderately Volatile Liquids. (Mod^
crately persistent)

Chlorpicrin (P. S.)

Diphosgene (S. P.) (Su-
parpaUte) (Groen Cross)

Dichlorathylarsine (Yel-
low Cross I) (New
Green Cross 3)

laquid less volatite than
water.

Liquid less volatile than
water.

Moderately volatile hq-
ttid.

Liing irritant, slightly
less toxic than phosi
gene. Tear producer.

Lung irritant.

Nerve x^nson and

Siratory irritant. Pro-
uces pain in throat»
diect and head.

GROUP III— Slightly Volatile Liquids. (Highly
persistent. )

Brombensvlcjranide (C.
A.)* (Other tear pro-
dwDers similar in prop-
erties and effect.)

Mostard

(Yperite)

solplude.

aas (H. S.)
Dichlorethyl-
Yellow Cross

Liquid, boiUng at tiT*
C (4a3* P3 Faint
pungent odor when pure.
Oaruc odor from shell
bursts.

Powerful tear producer.

Air passage irritant,
producing death, and
skin blistering agent.
Eyes and gemtal very
sensitive. Effects often
delayed 3 hours to a
days.

GROUP IV— Toxic Smoke Producers.

Diphenykhlorarsine (D.
A.) Stemite, (Blue
Cross).

Diphenykyanartine.

SUnnic chloride (K. J.)

Solid, mehing at 39* C.
(loa^ P.). bouing at 333*
C. (63a* P.) vapor con-
densing to smoke.

Similar to dlpbenyldkk>r>
rarsine.

Volatile UquM! fcvtrai«
solid smoke with nMits-
turc of th*air«

Produces violent pain in
!.e«d. throat and chest,
with sneeaing and oou^
ing.

Sane ejects as D. A.,
bui mcr* powerfuL

Little toxic Givea
ooA^ue ol-oud and peoe-
CTfttiM Oertnan mask.

GAS WARFARE 47

The degree of the physiological effects stated
above depends on the time of exposure and the den-
sity of the gas. It is evident that the more dilute
the gas, the greater is the time of exposure necessary
to produce an equally toxic effect. We may say
roughly that doubling the concentration of a given
gas reduces the time of exposure necessary to kill
by at least half, and usually by more than half.
This is very important in connection with tactical
considerations, because the chief effectiveness of the
gases of the non-persistent type, like phosgene, is
attained through surprise-poisoning the enemy be-
fore he is able to put on his mask. It is exceedingly
important, from this standpoint, to surround him
suddenly with gas of sufficient concentration before
his mask is in place.

The effectiveness of mustard gas is partly due
to the fact that it retains its proportionate effective-
ness at very low concentrations. The low concen-
tration of one part in 100,000 acting for 20 minutes
produces as much effect as the high concentration
of one part in 10,000 acting for 2 minutes. This
is also true to a large extent with chlorpicrin. On
the other hand, the toxicity of hydrocyanic acid
(the toxic constituent of Vincennite), falls off much
more abruptly as the concentration diminishes, so
that a dilution is very soon reached at which it can
be breathed almost indefinitely with no bad results.

When gas is liberated from a cylinder it is blown
along the wind and as a result of the eddies set up
by its passage over the surface of the ground, it is

\

48 GAS WARFARE

mixed with air. The height of the cloud, when the
ground is cool and the wind is not too high, is not
very great, being limited largely by the height to
which the eddies extend. Over smooth ground this
amounts roughly to 30 feet at a distance of 100
yards from the point of emission, increasing only
slowly at greater distances. The cloud spreads lat-
erally in the form of a fan. The angle of this
spread may vary from 15 to 25 degrees. It is safe
to take 20 degrees as an average. This means that
the width of the cloud at any distance from the
cylinder will be about 0.4 of the distance. An in-
crease in this angle seems to be favored by de-
creases in wind velocity and by increase in the rate
of emission of the gas. lifts possible for practical
purposes, to calculate the concentration of gas in
the cloud at varying distances from the cylinder pro-
vided the velocity of the wind and the rate of emis-
sion of gas are known. The concentration will be
greatest in the middle, decreasing toward the edges.
Increased wind velocity produces a proportionate
decrease in the concentration of the cloud. The
average concentration at any cross section of the
cloud falls off somewhat more rapidly than the in-
crease of the distance from the cylinder. Thus, if
the concentration were one per cent at 50 yards, it
would be somewhat less than 0.5 per cent at 100
yards, and considerably less than 0.05 per cent at
a thousand yards. If gas is emitted from the cylin-
ders or groups of cylinders at a distance from each

GAS WARFARE 49

other, eadi cloud will behave as above, but at the
point where they begin to intersect dilution will be-
come very slow.

As the clouds formed from bursting gas shells
proceed down the wind, the rate of speed is roughly
the same as for the fan shaped cylinder discharge
Viewed from the side in elevation, these clouds are
seen to spread out to a very great extent in the direc-
tion of travel. This is due to the friction offered
by the ground to the passage of the wind, that por-
tion of the gas cloud closer to the grotmd being
retarded the most. This longitudinal spreading of
the cloud from a single shell burst causes it to dilute
much more rapidly, as it proceeds from the point
of emission, than does the cloud from a cylinder dis-
charge. Of course, the retarding influence of the
ground operates in both cases, but the continuous
supply of gas from the cylinder tends to keep up
the concentration. The result of artillery fire is
usually a succession of distinct clouds, due to limi-
tations in the rapidity of fire and to the dispersion
of the shots. It is very important, therefore, that
bursts should be as close as possible to windward of
the target, in order to surround the target with
clouds of the maximum concentration. Just as the
behavior of the cloud from a single cyinder disr
charge enables one to predict the general behavior
of the cloud formed by the simultaneous discharge
of a number of cylinders, so the behavior of the
cloud from a single shell burst, as outlined above^

GAS WARFARE

allows the prediction of the effect of gas shell fire
in relation to wind, rates of fire and zones of dis-
persion.

When the gas shells are fired at a portion the
shells do not burst simultaneously. The zone of
dispersion of a gun is the pattern produced upon
the ground by the impact of a large number of shells
from a single piece. This pattern is independent of
the rate of fire. The individual gas clouds move at
once with the wind from the points of burst, each
growing and diluting. If, as is usually the case, the
shells do not fall simultaneously the effective zone
of dispersion becomes not a pattern on the ground
but a pattern in the air elongated in tlie direction
of the wind. This elongation has the effect of an
increased dispersion, the increase being greater the
greater the velocity of the wind and the less the rate
of fire. Doubling the rate of fire will distribute the
gas in roughly half the area, producing thereby at
least twice the concentration and having far more
than twice the effect in producing casualties. It is
evident, also, that an increase in the wind velocity
will distribute the gas over a larger area, decreasing
the concentration of the cloud.

One of the chief reasons for the effectiveness of
gas is the fact that the cloud of gas is present for an
appreciable length of time after its emission from
cylinder or shell and is capable of producing casu-
alties until the division becomes too great, or until
it is blown away. Increased wind velocity reduces
rapidly the length of time that gas remains in the

GAS WARFARE 51

neighborhood. Gas is used most effectively in winds
under 3 meters per second. However, too low a
velocity is objectionaWe in the case of gas emitted
near our own lines because of the possibility of a
variation in wind direction bringing the gas back.
Gas may be used in artillery shell fire at longer
ranges even when the enemy is to windward by so
adjusting the amount of gas used that the concen-
tration will be harmless when it reaches our own
lines.

In order to kill a man with gas by surprise, it is
necessary to surround him with gas so concentrated
that the small amotmt he must breathe before get-
ting his mask on is effective. After his mask is put
on, the gas cloud is of relatively small effectiveness.
Even when the enemy is wearing his mask, how-
ever, it is desirable to subject him to gas of high
enough concentration to penerate the mask, espeo-
ially the nearly exhausted ones likely to be in pos-
session of many of the enemy's troops.

When the ground is considerably warmer than
the air, as when the sun is shining brightly, vertical
currents of air rising from the surface of the ground
are generally produced, which have a great tendency
to dissipate gas clouda For this reason, gas is used
far more effectively at night, or when the sky is
overcast.

It is vety difficult to obtain a gas cloud, amtain-
ing more than o.i per cent, of gas, for more than a
very short time after its release, and even this con-
centration rapidly diminishes. Therefore, there is

53 GAS WARFARE

Imt little difference in physical behavior between a!
so-called gas cloud and so much air. Its density is
but infinitesimally greater, and it is subject to the
same movements as the surrounding air. If it stays
longer in a valley than on higher ground it is chiefly
because the winds blowing at higher elevations are
not so strong in the valley.

Features of terrain which affect the movement of
the air affect the movement of gas clouds in almost
the same way. Tall grass, bushes, trees, buildings,
etc., retard the movement of air, and in an increas-
ing degree they retard the movement of and retain
gas clouds. In an attack following a gas bombard-
ment, more time must be allowed if a field of grain
is in the path than if short grass or ploughed fields
intervene. Still more time is, of course, necessary
where bushes or trees are present.

CHAPTER V

Tactical Use of Artillery Chemical Shell, Smoke Screem
and Smoke Shell, IJ^dling and Storage of Gas SheU,
Transport and Storage of Gas Shell, Gas Shell
Dumps and Batteries.

The employment of gas is greatly influenced by
earth forms, wooded and undulating ground having
a very great influence on the result of a gas shell
bomWdment The effect of topography is closely
connected with atmospheric conditions, which it
influences by altering the direction and force of air
cmrents. Gases, being slightly heavier than air, jfi,
tend to flow into gullies, draws and valleys, leaving f

the tops of hills free. In deep, narrow and long
valleys, currents of air are usually found which
carry the gas long distances.

In hiUy country fecial attention must be paid,to
deviations of the lethal wind from the general air
current and to the mountain winds which in clear
weather set in at certain periods of the day. A drift-
ing of the gases from higher to lower places, sjich
as obtains with attacks with gas projectors, cannot
be reckoned with, for the gas density in the air is
less in bombardments than in the spraying method.

Gas may be used under intelligent direction in

53

54 GAS WARFARE

nearly every character of terrain. It may be most
satisfactorily used in almost level, slightly undulat-
ing districts.

Targets, such as woods, may be shdled with good
results when the wind has too high vdocity for tar-
gets situated in open ground. When undtdations in
the ground are very marked, the fact that the wind
is stronger on high ground than on low must be
taken into account. High ground and open places
must, therefore, receive a more intense concentration
than those localities which are wooded or enclosed.

During gas shell bombardments in open country,
particular attention must be paid to the deviation
of the local wind from the general wind direction
and to air currents peculiar to the combined action
of mountains and valleys, which occur on certain
days in bright weather. That is, you must, if pos-
sible, consider what the wind conditions are at the
enemy position.

With the long range of artillery, gas may be
safely sent over to the enemy no matter what the
direction of the wind. It is merely necessary to es-
tablish safety zones, and knowing the character-
istics of the gases available, deliver the gas where
it may be needed in an effective dose, which at the
same time cannot be blown back in dangerous quan-
tities to our own line. To do this requires the abil-
ity to make use of topographic maps and judge the
effect of topography on prevailing winds. The Gas
Officer cannot do good work without good topo-
graphic maps. On each map which exhibits the

GAS WARFARE 55

trench systems, he should mark the Gas Safety
Zones and draw a wind circle six inches in diameter.
This wind circle is divided into forty parts, called
"Grads/* numbered clockwise.

The daily meteorological report gives the direc-
tion of the wind by ntunbers. The wind blows from
the circumference to the center of the circle, which
represents the gun position. The o of the circle is
north, ID is east, 20 is south and 30 is west In
transmitting wind data, 50 is added to wind speeds
to prevent confusion with the ntunbers which indi-
cate wind direction. The speed is in meters per
second. The artilleryman uses the wind circle to
make meteorological corrections to his firing data.
The Gas Officer uses the wind circle to study the
probable effect of tsrpography on the travel of a gas
cloud impelled by the prevailing wind. The wind
direction should be plotted on the maps.

The Gas Officer should lay over his map each day
a piece of transparent paper. On this he should
trace the boundaries of the safety zone, a few of the
heavier contours showing marked earth* forms and
also the bottom of all large depressions and the
crests of all hills, indicating heights by figures.
Across the hills and valleys he should draw in yel-
low pencil parallel lines indicating the wind direc-
tion. Mark in figures on these lines the speed in
meters per second. Date each sheet and sign it.
With the data thus ready, the Gas Officer can quickly
dedde just what gas to use on a certain target and
the quantity. These sheets should be filed for record

I

GAS WARFARE

and the one used on the day on which gas is fired
should accompany the report on the firing, a copy
being retained at headquarters.

In order to be able to allow for unexpected at-
mospheric changes, the firing order should, if neces-
sary, be given by pre-arranged signal visible at great
distance; for instance, from a captive balloon. A
similar signal is also to be decided upon in case
break or cessation of the bombardment is necessary.
The lighter the bombardments are, the more can
these measures be modified.

Two general types of bombardment with gas shell
may be carried out. Variations and combinations
of these two types should be often employed. The
two general types are:

Destruction Fire. — This type of bombardment is
to be carried on with lethal shell, and is intended
to produce casualties. Ordinarily, firing for more
than two minutes at one time is not profitable,
though in dead calm or thick woods and similar
places, especially at night, the time may be extended
to five minutes. Too much emphasis cannot be laid
upon the fact that a gas attack must be executed
-"•) with the greatest rapidity of fire and that the hits
be close together, so as to create a solid gas cloud.
Only in complete absence of wind may the rapidity
of fire be decreased. In case of air currents, allow-
ance must be made accordingly in the range finding.
Gas effects at the objective must be obtained quickly.
The necessary number of rounds is therefore to be
distributed to as many batteries as possible.

I

GAS WARFARE 57

Neutralizing Fire. — ^This fire is intended to lower
the physical resistance, morale of the enemy, and
to interfere with; his activities, by causing him to
wear his mask continuously, for a considerable time.
This result can be obtained most economically with
persistent gases.

Heavy fire, or a very rapid rate of fire, with a
persistent gas is not necessary. Since instantaneous
lethal effects are not obtainable, a heavy burst of
fire at the commencement of a bombardment is not
required. After the desired concentration has been
reached, it is only necessary to fire a small number
of shell occasionally in order that this concentra-
tion will be maintained. A sudden burst of fire with
mustard gas amounting to i/io that for phosgene
may be used to b^n a bombardment.

Counter-Battery. — ^This, as a rule, should con-
sist of a burst of destruction fire, followed by a slow,
neutralizing fire with a persistent gas. The final
burst of concentrated fire with a lethal gas is often
useful, if the neutralizing fire has been maintained
for four or more hours. This final burst of fire
should last for ten or fifteen minutes. Its purpose
is to penetrate the enemy masks that have been ex-
hausted by long continued wearing.

Harassing. — ^This is solely a neutralizing fire, for
the purpose of hampering enemy movements of ma-
terial, and troops, and to cause exhaustion of per-
sonnel through wearing the mask. Lachr3rmatory
gases are used primarily for harassing effect. Any
lethal effect obtained from those gases will be purely

58 GAS WARFARE

incidental, and they should not be used for this pur-
pose, as the amount required would be abnormal.
Where lethal effect is desired after lachrymatory
firing, a bombardment with lethal shell may follow
immediately.

Blanketing. — ^This is a type of neutralizing fire
which may be employed uaider especially favorable
weather conditions. During a dead calm (at night)
it is possible, with a comparatively small number of
shell, to form clouds of gas which will lie in pools of
fog, in hollows and valleys, for a considerable time
after the shelling has ceased. If no wind arises, the
enemy will have to wear his mask all night, or vacate
the low ground. Non-persistent, lethal gases are
useful in such cases. Caution : The objective must
be far enough away from the friendly line to avoid
danger from a slight drift of the clouds or from
an adverse wind springing up.

Interdiction Fire. — ^This is a type of neutralizing
fire for the purpose of rendering important posi-
tions untenable. This is best carried out by the use
of mustard gas, uailess our troops expect to occupy
or pass over the area soon after the bombardment.

Bombardment of Area. — In the bombardment
of an area, which is essentially a question of neutral-
izing fire, it should be noted that it is often advisable
to open the fire with a burst of lethal shell on certain
important targets in the area, and then to carry out
the slow neutralizing fire.

While attacking one front, a harassing and neu-

GAS WARFARE 59

tralizing mustard gas bombardment can be effect-
ively made on fronts, flanks, rear areas, and strong
points not thus attacked. Troop concentrations, re-
serves, artillery groups, lines of commimication,
villages, and extended areas which it is contemplated
the advancing troops will not reach, may be attacked
with mustard gas.

When more than one objective is to be attacked
for surprise effect with a lethal gas, the objective
to the leeward of the wind is to be bombarded first.
In this way the surprise effect on the second ob-
jective is not lost. However, if fire on other targets
is made soon enough so the wind will not carry
gas to later targets before fire is opened on them
this rule need not be applied.

When harassing fire with a tear gas is to be used
upon more than one objective, the objective to the
windward should be first bombarded. When it is
not considered practicable to attack a strong posi-
tion by frontal assault the position may be rendered
untenable for the enemy by shelling heavily with
mustard gas, which will not interfere with sur-
rounding or passing aroimd the position.

Barrages. — Gas shell may be employed in a bar-
rage, in the following ways :

(a) Accompanied by high explosives, under
favorable weather conditions, gas tends to cause
confusion among the enemy. About 25% of gas
shell (i gun per battery) should be used. While
no danger to our own troops will occur from the
use of this small percentage of gas shell, it will serve

GAS WARFARE

to deceive the enemy, causing him to wear his mask,
and in this way hinder his activity. With a four
mile per hour wind, men can follow within one
minute.

(b) May be used in "back" barrages, during an
attack, to place enemy reserves and reinforcing
troths at a disadvantage, by compelling them to
wear masks. This is highly destructive to morale.

Smoke screens have many times greatly aided in
the execution of all sorts of operations, large and
small, and it would seem that their use should be
greatly extended. Smoke candles or grenades will
always be used for the production of smoke, when
their use is possible. Within the limit of their range
trench mortars should be used. At greater distances
artillery shell are a necessity. For all uses of smoke
clouds, wind conditions must be carefully studied.

There are two varieties of smoke shell in our
service: White phosphorous (W. P.) shell, used
only for screening purposes, and titanium tetrachlor-
ide (F. M.) shell, used only for ranging purposes.
The W. P. shell are not intended for ranging, but
they can be used for this purpose when the F. M.
shell is not available, provided certain corrections
are made. Vice versa, the F. M. shell are not in-
tended for screening purposes, although they may
be used as such, if W. P. shell are not available.
The F. M, shell will not give as dense and durable
a cloud of smoke or as great a screening effect as
the same size W. P. shell, hence it will be necessary
to increase the number of F. M. shell used and the

GAS WARFARE 6i

rate of fire over the figures prescribed for establish- •
ing smoke screens with W. P. shell.

Smoke may be used by the artillery ( i ) to blind
enemy observation posts, machine gun emplace-
ments, infantry or artillery, thereby screening-in in-
fantry raids or other operations. (2) In order to
draw fire and distract attention from another opera-
tion. (3) To define the visibility limits of an attack
or raid. (4) As a fake gas attack, or to make the
enemy think a real gas attack is more extended. (5)
In back areas to screen gun positions, etc (6) Oc-
casionally for burning effect against enemy troops.

The number of smoke shell required to form an
effective screen depends upon the consideraticHis
above enumerated. In winds much over 20 miles
per hour it is practically impossible to form an
opaque screen. The stronger the wind the further
must be the source of the screen from the objective.
Experiments have shown, however, that a screen can
be formed even in a strong wind. The best wind for
the use of artillery shell appears to be one having
a velocity of about 14 miles per hour (6 meters per
second), and blowing across the object to be con-
cealed.

One hundred yards per 10 feet per second of wind
may be taken as a general guide as to the distance
from the object at which artillery smoke shell should
be placed. In hot weather particularly the smoke
tends to rise from the ground, and there is, there-
fore, a greater tendency for gaps to form in the
screen.

GAS WARFARE

The effect of phosphorous shell of all kinds i

cumulative, as the globules of phosphorus continue
to bum on the ground from 15 to 20 minutes. As
the cloud in the case of phosphorous projectiles is at
its thickest soon after the bursts, it will be main-
tained more evenly by adding small quantities at
frequent intervals of time rather than by adding
large quantities at greater intervals.

No definite rules can be laid down as to the exact
quantities of smoke shell required to form a screen,
as the conditions will vary to a very large extent.
However, as a general guide it may be taken that
the following number of shell are required to form
an adequate smoke screen under normal conditions :

75 mm. shell, 2 rounds per 10 Yds. per Minute.
4.7-inch shell, 2 rounds per 15 Yds. per Minute.
155 mm. shell, 2 rounds per 25 Yds. per Minute.

The above figures apply to the establishment of
the smoke screen which may thereafter be main-
tained by a reduced rate of fire, which should be
controlled primarily by observing the behavior of
the smoke screen. In general, it may be stated that
one half the above rate of fire will effectively main-
tain a smoke screen after it is once established and
under normal conditions.

The chief source of danger in handling gas shell
is leakage, which can always be detected by the smell,
or by the effect produced upon the eyes. All per-
sonnel handling these shell should carry gas masks.
The handling of shell under suspicion, and the re9->

I

GAS WARFARE 63

cue of any man affected by the fumes will be the
duty of special detachments which should be detailed
and trained for this purpose. If a leak is suspected,
it should be reported immediately and all men work-
ing in the vicinity should bring the respirator to the
"alert" position.

Leaking gas shell may be disposed of by burying
them and by exploding them.

Shell should be buried six feet deep and covered
with a layer of chloride of lime before filling in the
earth. They shbuld not be fired from the gun.
Spots where defective shell are buried should be in-
dicated by sign posts driven into the ground and
marked in an appropriate manner. Leaky shell can
generally be detected by the smell of the gas.

If there are large numbers of leaking shell, it is
more satisfactory to explode them than to bury
them, thus preventing the contamination of the area
from a large number of buried shell. When gas pro-
jectiles are to be blown up, they should be collected
in lots so as not to exceed 100 lbs. of gas. Each lot
should be exploded singly and another lot should
not be exploded until the first gas cloud formed has
disappeared. The gas cloud from one lot of this
size is dangerous up to 500 yards* distance, and per-
sonnel within that distance to leeward should be
warned. The procedure for exploding the gas pro-
jectiles is almost the same as that followed for ex-
ploding H. E. and shrapnel. The projectiles are
piled in a narrow ditch about 6 feet deep, and an ex-
plosive or blasting charge is placed in the center of

64 GAS WARFARE

the lot and connected up to the blasting loads or
time fuse. The lot is then covered with sand bags
or other material to keep the metal pieces from scat-
tering. The lot is then exploded. Then when the
gas cloud has fairly well cleared, men wearing the
respirators will fill in the holes, first covering with
a layer of chloride of lime. Men working at de-
stroying the blind gas projectiles should always wear
the respirator from the moment they start to blast.
Under no conditions should leaking shell be thrown
into water. The necessity of careful handling of
this sort of ammimition cannot be impressed too
strongly.

Wagons containing gas shell, on arrival at depots,
will be opened by a gas non-commissioned officer,
who will supervise the unloading and storage of
shell. If the presence of a leaking shell is suspected
in any wagon, the matter must be reported at once
to the officer in charge. Such a wagon will then be
tmloaded by a special detachment wearing the re-
spirator in the alert position. If possible, gas am-
munition should be carried in trucks provided with
shutters which should be left open. If closed trucks
only are available, on arrival at the ammunition de-
pot, or dump, the doors of both sides should be
opened by a competent person and no one should be
allowed to enter the truck imtil it is ascertained
whether or not any gas has leaked. If, of neces-
sity, open trucks have to be used, no tarpaulins
should be put on.

This ammunition should be stored in separate

GAS WARFARE 6s

bays and should be ventilated as well as possible,
compatible with the exclusion of rain. If stored
under tarpaulins, arrangements should be made to
give access of air to the stack. Gas shell should be
left in a cool place, as heat increases the internal
pressure and the possibility of leaks.

Buildings on or about the line between the gas
area of the ammunition depot and the direction of
the wind, must not be occupied during a raid. A
messenger wearing a box respirator should be sent
off to rouse sleeping men in such buildings and to
see that the buildings are clear. If gas ammunition
has been destroyed, it is forbidden to enter these
buildings until they have been ventilated thoroughly,
by men wearing respirators. All windows and doors
of the building may be opened and wood fires burned
in the center of the cellars. The building will be
occupied only when declared safe by a gas officer
or gas non-commissioned officer.

At battery positions, gas shell should be piled in
small dumps, the number in each being generally
limited as follows :

The 75 mm lOO

The 4.7-inch , 50

The 155 mm 25

Dumps should preferably be located to the lee-
ward of battery positions, according to the prevail-
ing wind. If a direct hit occurs on a dump of gas
shell, respirators will be put on immediately and
without waiting for orders, and if possible a move

66 GAS WARFARE

will be made to the windward. All personnel of a
battery will be kept constantly informed of the direc-
tion of the wind. "Dud" gas shell, or gas shell
debris, must not be touched until examined by a gas
non-commissioned officer, who will attend to the
proper disposal of the same.

Mustard gas shell which show traces of leakage
should be handled only by men who are protected
with respirators and special gloves. Men detailed
for such work should likewise be equipped with pro-
tective clothing (if obtainable), whenever there is a
possibility of the projectiles coming in contact with
the clothes.

As soon as the shell are received, they should 'be
examined. Any indication of leakage at the gaine
joint is a danger sign. (Masks and gloves should
be worn. ) Whenever possible, cases containing the
shell should be stored in small piles in the open air.
Near all such piles, a heap of earth and a supply of
chloride of lime should be provided for covering any
shell that may be burst by enemy fire. All storage
depots should be supplied with shovels, and with
chloride of lime in air-tight containers.

If a mustard gas shell dump is reached by enemy
fire, all personnel should move off to the windward
and all men within 200 meters to the leeward should
be warned. Broken shell should be covered with
a layer of chloride of lime on top of which 6 inches
of earth should be spread. During this work, masks
and protective gloves should be worn. Undamaged
shell of a small dump struck by a direct hit will not

GAS WARFARE 67

be set apart for future use, but will be buried with
the fragments of the damaged shell in a hole six
feet deep and covered with a layer of chloride of
lime before filling in.

CHAPTER VI

Chemical Artillery Ammunition, Construction of Gas
Shell, Types of American Shell, Smoke Shell, In-
cendiary Shell and Fuses, Fillings for Gun and How-
itzer Shell.

Gases for use in artillery shell are divided into
three classes — ^non-persistent, semi-persistent, and
persistent. The nofp-persistent gas, known as C. G.,
is most commonly used. It boils at +8°C. (46°F.)
and is lethal. In general, the non-persistent gases
all have the same characteristics. They are all lethal
and boil below +20°C. (68°F.) i. e., below normal
atmospheric summer temperature. For this reason
these gases change from liquids to gases without
the aid of any artificial agency. When the shell is
burst the liquid at once gasifies. Hence, the smallest
bursting charge that will effectively open the shell
is used. However, the bursting charge must be of
sufficient strength not only to burst the shell, but
also to check, to a large extent, the forward velocity
of the base portion of the shell. Otherwise a con-
siderable portion of the liquid will be cupped in the
base portion of the shell and buried in the ground
or carried by ricochet beyond the point of burst.

In the employment of lethal gases, the main ob-
ject is to produce a cloud of the highest possible

68

GAS WARFARE 69

initial concentration which will drift down wind and
completely envelop the object attacked. Such a
cloud should consist of a highly concentrated nucleus
when liberated from the shell. This will drift down
wind and expand by lateral rather than upward en-
largement. The formation of such a cloud requires :
First, complete vaporization at the moment of lib-
eration; and second, a bursting charge which will
completely shatter the shell, but which is not so
strong as to g^ve undue dissipation of the liquid con-
tents, particularly in an upward direction. It is es-
sential that the bursting charge should break the
shell completely into small fragments. The more
rapid and complete the break-up, the more concen-
trated is the cloud. Moreover, the loss of heat due
to the sudden vaporization adds density to the cloud
nucleus formed.

The semi-persistent gases boil between -f-20®C.
and +200°C., i. e., above normal atmospheric tern-
perature. With these gases to obtain a cloud nucleus
of greatest possible concentration it is necessary to
expel the liquid contents in a high state of atomiza-
tion. This results in the most rapid vaporization
with the least possible disturbance of the cloud. To
secure this effect, the bursting charge should be of
high power to insure maximum atomization, and yet
not so high as to destroy the gas by dissociation.
The object is to ensure that the liquid is converted
into a cloud with least possible disturbance. This
requires a more powerful bursting charge than the
non-persistent gases and a shell of greater resistance.

\

yo GAS WARFARE

so that the liquid may be released under maximum
pressure.

In the case of the persistent gases, boiling above
+20O°C. the object sought is quite different. Here,
the cloud should be reduced to the minimum, and
the area sprayed by the liquid contents of the shell
increased to a maximum. This requires a large
bursting charge of relatively high capacity but of
slower action than the charge for the semi-persistent
gases, and at the same time, a shell of relatively less
strength than that required for complete atomiza-
tion, but of sufficient resistance to give the maximum
amount of coarse spray that will reach the ground
as such. The charge which sprays the greatest area
of ground and gives the minimum cloud is the one
of maximum effectiveness. Due to their high boil-
ing points, the persistent gases are relatively slow in
their action, and hence prompt effects cannot be ob-
tained unless the vaporization of the gas is secured
by some artificial means. Such a means is a burst-
ing charge developing high temperature and pres-
sure, both of these conditions accelerating vaporiza-
tion, the temperature acting directly and the
pressure through increased pulverization. Conse-
quently, if it is desired to obtain quick effect from
persistent gases such as mustard gas, the shell should
be loaded with a super-charge of high explosive, but
it must be remembered that by so doing the gain
in activity of the gas is obtained at the expense of
greatly reducing its persistency. Another advantage

GAS WARFARE 71

in providing mustard gas shell with a super-charge
of high explosive is that they detonate with the noise
and the shock of a true high explosive shell and
thus disguise the fact that they are g^s shell. Re-
cent developments in the use of mustard gas have
indicated that a portion, at least, of these shell
should be provided with a super-charge of high ex-
plosive to accelerate their action. If mustard gas
shell having a super-charge of high explosive are
used they will be stenciled with some distinguish-
ing mark to indicate the fact that the bursting charge
is above normal.

In general gas shell are similar to high explosive
shell. In fact, the majority of gas shell in use at
the present time are converted high explosive shell.
While the principles involved in the design of gas
shell are radically different from those affecting high
explosive shell, it has been considered desirable to
simplify the manufacturing program by converting
high explosive shell into gas shell. As the propor-
tion of g^s shell to high explosive shell increases, it
becomes more and more important for gas shell to
be specially designed.

Gas shell consist of the shell body, which contains
the gas ; the gaine tube (adapter and booster casing),
which screws into the nose of the shell and contains
the bursting charge ; and the bursting charge which
consists of a small quantity of high explosive suffi-
cient to open the shell, and in some cases, to atomize
the liquid contents. Since most of the gases used

y2 GAS WARFARE

enter the shell, as liquids, they expand as liquids
when heated, and it is, therefore, necessary to leave
a space for this expansion and only partially fill the
shell. The void amounts to from 6% to ii% of
the total capacity of the shell; depending upon the
coefficient of expansion and the vapor pressure of
the gas and the pressure which the joint between the
shell and gaine tube will withstand.

There are various methods of making these joints
gas tight:

(a) The general method employed by the Brit-
ish to prevent leakage of gas into the gaine tube, is
to make the adapter and gaine tube of one piece,
so that there is no joint through which gas may leak
into the gaine tube. To prevent the gas from leak-
ing through the joint between the adapter and the
shell body, the British paint the threads with cement,
screw the adapter in, and then "spin" over the ex-
terior of the joint between the adapter and shell.
This joint is made before the shell is filled and a
test pressure of lOO lbs. per square inch is applied to
the shell, through the filling hole in the side of the
shell, to test the integrity of the joint. The shell is
then filled and the filling hole plugged up with a
small tapered iron plug.

(b) The French use, in some cases, a one-piece
adapter and gaine tube. In other cases, however,
the gaine tube is threaded into the adapter. The fol-
lowing is quoted from a French document and shows
the method of closing the joint between the adapter
and shell body :

GAS WARFARE 73

"To close this, we put in the first place between
the bottom part of the head of the gaine and the
machined shell, around the eye of the projectile, a
pliable ring of lead tubing with a core of asbestos;
in seating the gaine into the eye of the projectile,
this ring is compressed and forms a dam between
the head of the gaine and the throat of the eye of
the shell. Furthermore, the threads are painted
with a cement which is not attacked by the charging
liquid and which in addition to stopping leakage adds
very materially to the solidity of the union of the
two parts."

(c) In the present American models of gas shell
the gaine tube is welded to the adapter, though it is
probable that, for certain gases at least, this method
will be abandoned for a one-piece adapter and gaine
tube. The joint between the adapter and the shell
body is made gas tight by means of a tapered or
pipe thread. The adapter and gaine tube are
screwed into the shell until the tapered threads bind
tightly and produce a gas tight joint. To facilitate
assembling, the threads on the adapter are lubricated
with oil, but no cement is used ; dependence for gas
tightness is placed entirely upon the metal to metal
contact between the threads.

For certain gases, notably those containing bro-
mine compounds, which have a corrosive action
upon steel, it is necessary that the shell have a lining
of glass or lead, and the gaine tube a coating of
enamel, in order to protect the metal from the action
of the gas.

74

GAS WARFARE

American chemical artillery shells are provided in
the following calibers:

75 mm. Gtm,
4.7" Gun,
155 mm. Gun,
155 mm. Howitzer,
S^' S. C. Gun,
6" S. C. Gun,
8" S. C. Gun,
8" Howitzer,
9.2" Howitzer,
240 mm. Howitzer.

These shell are with colored bands to denote the
diflFerent types of gases, as follows:

U.S.
Sirmbol

U. S. Marldxijra H" Bands
anmnd Shell as Follows

U.S.
Symbol

U.S. Markinss W Bands
anmnd SheU as Follows

D.A.

I White

BA.

I Red

C.G.

2 White

C.A.

3 Red

P.O.

I White, I Red, i White

H.S.

3 Red

P.S.

I White, I Red

W.P.

I Yellow

N.C.

I White. I Red, i Yellow

P.M.

2 Yellow

Red Bands denote persistency. White Bands de-
note non-persistency and lethal action. Yellow
Bands denote smoke. Purple Bands denote incen-
diary. The number of bands indicates the relative
strength of the property indicated. Thus, three red
bands denote a gas more persistent than one red
band, and three white bands indicate a gas where
lethal action is greater than one marked with only
one white band. The body of the shell is painted

GAS WARFARE 75

gray. The words "Special Gas" or "Special Smoke,"
as the case may be, are stenciled lengthwise of the
shell in black block letters 5/8" high. Incendiary
shell are painted gray, with the woylfl "Spe cial In-
cendiary" stenciled lengthwise in black block letters
5/8" high, but with no distinguishing bands.

The table on the following page shows the
amounts of each kind of chemical filling contained
in the different calibers.

With fixed ammunition (75 mm. and 4.7"), chem-
ical shell are also marked on the base of the cart-
ridge case by a black band 3/8" wide and the words
"Special Gas," "Special Smoke," or "Incendiary,"
in 1/4" letters. The boxes in which chemical shell
are packed are marked on each end with distinguish-
ing bands and words used on the shell in addition
to markings common to all artillery shell.

The system of weighing and marking of chemical
shell follow the general scheme employed with high
explosive shell, i.e., each caliber of shell is divided
into a number of different weight lots and marked
on the 75 mm. by crosses just above the rotating
band, on the 4./' by squares just below the bourelet,
and for calibers larger than 4.7", by squares on the
ogive. In addition, for calibers greater than 4.7" the
mean weight of the lot is stenciled on the shell, on
&^ shell just above the driving band and on other
calibers on the ogive.

In addition to the use of smoke shell for smoke
barrages, these are used for ranging gas shell. Gas
shell of the French, British, and Germans all have

1

e^

^

?~»s; ;s :a«

S

j

saasR^asss

i ■

1

n

i

^

i

5?S^ : :g :£§

■n

i

i

SSSa: :S:SS

p

i

S!r88 : :3 :S2

a

i

lii

1

™«>35a**

1

ykJ

i-

^iiiiiiiiii

76

I

i

1

il

■it

GAS WARFARE jj

visible bursts, due to the presence of a smoke pro-
ducing mixture in the shell. The French mix a
"fumigene," or smoke producing compound, with
the chemical filling. The British incorporate the
smoke producing material with the bursting charge.
The Germans produce a visible burst by use of a
very large bursting charge. All of these methods
reduce the efficiency of the shell and also have the
disadvantage of producing a visible gas cloud whose
limits are readily discernible by the enemy. All
smoke producing compounds are omitted from
American gas shell and the bursts are therefore,
practically invisible. For ranging, therefore, it is
necessary to have smoke shell of the same weight
and ballistic characteristics as the gas shell. Smoke
shell are first fired until the correct range has been
ascertained, and then the fire for effect is continued
with gas shell having invisible bursts.

By far the best smoke producing material for
smoke barrages and curtains is white phosphorus,
and this is used in all smoke shell intended for bar-
rage purposes. These shell are known as W. P.
shell and are marked with one yellow band. How-
ever, since phosphorous is a solid material, the W.
P. shell is not acciirate for ranging purposes, since
shell filled with liquids (as all American gas shells
are) have different ballistic characteristics and
therefore different ranges from solid filled shell.
For this reason it is necessary that smoke shell for
ranging purposes be liquid filled. The best liquid
smoke producing material is F. M.

yS GAS WARFARE

No satisfactory American incendiary shell has
been developed as yet. The French have three cal-
ibers of incendiary shell — 75 mm., 120 mm., and
155 mm. These are made from common high ex-
plosive shell by replacing a part of the explosive
charge by a number of special incendiary cylinders,
known as Incendiary Cylinder Ml. 1878. The In-
cendiary Cylinder Ml. 1878 consists primarily of a
bundle of slow action quick match, tied with nitrated
string, and internally and externally, primed with a
small quantity of ordinary quick match. This
bundle is enclosed in a rectangle of cretonne cloth
coated with an incendiary composition, and securely
fastened with a heat-treated brass wire. The weight
of the cylinder proper is 30 gr. and reaches 45 gr.
when enclosed in a tar paper covering. On explo-
sion of the projectile, the cylinder is ignited at both
ends and projects 10 to 15 cm. fire jets for a period
of 10 to 20 seconds, at the expiration of which time
it bums, torch-like, for 70 to 80 seconds. Total
combustion of the cylinder is, therefore, completed
in approximately one and a half minutes.

The action of all percussion fuses is started by the
flash produced by the contact of a firing pin with a
special detonator called a primer. This primer is
filled with a very sensitive mixture of fulminate of
mercury and other ingredients. The construction
of all percussion fuses is such that the primer and
the firing pin cannot come in contact until the shell
is fired, and they are then kept a small distance apart
until the shell or fuse touches the ground. Then

GAS WARFARE 79

the firing pin and the primer are brought in contact
in one of the following ways :

(a) The firing pin may be attached to a movable
plunger at the front end of the fuse and be forced
back into the fuse the instant the plunger cc«nes in
contact with the ground. This will cause the firing
pin to hit the primer attached to the fuse body.

(b) The primer may be carried in a movable
part inside the fuse. When the shell is checked by
striking the ground the inertia of this movable part
carries it on causing the primer to hit the firing pin.

It is evident that the action described in (a) will
bring the needle in contact with the primer as soon
as the resistance of the* ground is sufficient to over-
come the inertia of the plunger and force it into the
fuse. It is, therefore, a quicker action than de-
scribed in (b) which will take place only when the
inertia of the shell itself has been overcome by the
resistance of the ground.

Fuses having the action described in (a) are
called "super-quick." Only such fuses are suitable
for chemical shell. It is essential that a chemical
shell should burst above ground. A fuse whose ac-
tion is not super-quick allows the shell either to bury
itself, at least partially, or to ricochet before burst-
ing. If the shell is even partially buried before
bursting the effectiveness of a part of the contents
of the shell is lost due to its soaking into the ground.
If the shell ricochets before bursting, the gas may
be carried beyond the target.

Even with super-quick fuses, a certain amount of

8o GAS WARFARE

the effectiveness of the chemical shell is lost owing
to the fact that the shell bursts at the ogive which
leaves the base and part of the body more or less
unbroken, and acts as a carrier for a certain portion
of the liquid gases. If the angle of fall is low, the
unbroken portion of the shell may ricochet and carry
a portion of the gas past the target. If the angle of
fall is great the unbroken portion will penetrate into
the ground, thereby sealing its open end and pre^
venting the liquid therein from being liberated.

In order that a super-quick fuse may function, it
must land on its point. If the angle of fall is small
the ogive of the shell will hit the ground first, the
shell may then ricochet before the point of the fuse
can come in contact with the ground, and the fuse
will not function. For this reason, and for the rea-
sons given above, chemical shell should be fired with
reduced charges whenever possible. This should
not, however, be carried to the extreme of using ver-
tical fire, as by so doing the dispersion is greatly in-
creased and the unbroken base and body of the shell
will bury part of the contents.

Owing to the failure of super-quick fuses to func-
tion at low angles, and the increase in dispersion
and decrease in range (caused by the great length
of such fuses) when used with small calibers of
shell, the French use short fuses, which are not
super-quick, in the 75 mm. It is a question whether
the increase in dispersion is more desirable than the
loss of effectiveness due to the comparatively slow
action of the short fuses.

GAS WARFARE 8|

For smoke shell, when used for smoke barrages,
and for gases such as mustard gas, it is sometimes
highly desirable to have time fuses, allowing air
bursts. With smoke shell air bursts permit the ad-
justment of the dimensions of the smoke cloud and
thus greatly facilitate the establishment and control
of effective smoke curtains. With vesicant gases,
air bursts allow a greater and more efficient disper-
sion of the liquid contents. A combination fuse,
combining a time element and a super-quick percus-
sion element is now being developed, so as to enable
batteries to conduct gas or smoke shoots with both
ground and air burst. An effective combination fuse
will also greatly reduce the number of duds, since
its double action will cause the shell to explode on
contact if it fails on time and vice versa.

The following are types of fuses suitable to use
with chemical shell. These fuses have advantages
and disadvantages :

French I. A. Model 1915, 1. A. L. Model 1916,
and U. S. Mark III. — ^The general functioning and
construction of these three fuses afe similar, the
I. A. L. and the Mark III being successive modifi-
cations of the I. A. All are super-quick fuses, func-
tioning by means of a plunger in the front of the
fuse being driven into contact with a fulminate of
mercury primer.

Arming. — ^The firing plunger is prevented from
coming in contact with the primer during transpor-
tation, and while the shell is in the bore of the gun,
by means of two steel half collars which engage with

GAS WARFARE

a shoulder on the firing plunger and prevent its
movement to the rear. Two half collars are held
in place by being wrapped with a brass ribbon on
the end o£ which is a third half collar. The ribbon
being wound in a direction opposite to the rotation
of the gun, tends to tighten as long as there is rota-
tional acceleration. When rotational acceleration is
over, centrifugal force throws the third half collar
out, and unwinds the ribbon, releasing the inner half
collars and freeing the firing plunger. The firing
plunger is prevented from being forced to the rear
during flight by a shear wire.

Firing. — On impact the end of the plunger hits
first and is driven into the body, shearing the shear
pin, and impinging on the primer before the shell it-
self has touched the ground.

French R. Y. Model 1917. — This is a super-quick
fuse and the following advantages are claimed for
it over the I. A. L. : (i) It is safe, and (2) its shape
is such as to produce better ballistic effects, and,
therefore, less dispersion.

Action. — The firing pin and primer cannot come

in contact until both have moved. On "set back,"

the plunger moves to the rear until the head engages

with the body of the fuse. It is then as far to the

rear as possible, and it becomes necessary for the

primer to move forward to come in contact with

J the firing pin. The primer cannot move forward be-

I cause the sleeve around the firing pin, at the bottom

I of which the primer is fastened, is engaged with the

prongs of the upper half of the safety piece, which.

GAS WARFARE 83

in turn, is prevented from moving forward by en-
gaging with the body of the fuse. On "set back/'
the lower half of the safety piece moves to the rear,
freeing the upper half and allowing the upper half
to move to the rear, the prongs being forced out of
the groove in the primer sleeve. The upper half of
the safety piece continues to "set back" until
the prongs catch in the lower groove. The
upper half of the safety piece is thus farther down
on the primer sleeve than it was before the gun was
fired.

After "set back" is over, and the velocity of the
projectile begins to diminish, the inertia of the parts
free to move causes them to ''creep" forward. The
upper half of the safety piece returns to its original
position, carrying the primer sleeve and primer with
it. The primer has thus moved forward in the fuse.
At the same time the firing plunger "creeps" for-
ward to its original position. On impact, the firing
plunger is driven back to the position it had during
the "set back." The primer, however, has moved
forward, so that the firing pin now comes in con-
tact with it.

The cover over the head of the firing plunger is
painted red, and should not be removed.

French I Model 19 14. — ^This is a fuse used ex-
tensively by the French for 75 mm. gas shell. The
head of this fuse is usually painted red, though on
certain models it is painted yellow. It has not been
generally adopted, as it is considered imsafe, unless
used with extreme caution.

84

GAS WARFARE

French Schneider Model 191 6. — ^This is a non-
super-quick fuse used by the French for 75 mm. gas
shell. It causes considerably less dispersion than the
I. A. L., but it is not considered quick enough for
gas shell. It should not be used with gas shell of
caliber greater than 75 mm. and should not be used
when any of the super-quick fuses are available.
The head of this fuse is painted white to indicate
non-delay action. For it to function it is necessary
for the primer pellet to move forward so that the
primer comes in contact with the firing pin.

Modified British No. 106.— This is a fuse of the
super-quick type and has only recently been adopted
by us. It is suitable for all calibers and ranks next
to the Mark III and I. A. L. fuses for chemical skill.

American 75 MM. Common Steel Shell Mark
II. — ^This shell is marked and painted as stated in
the following table :

The Shell la Painted Slate

Approxi-

Gases

Gray with the Following

The Following Words

mate
Weight
of Cases
Pounds

Used

W Bands Arotind the
Body

Lengthwise on the Body.

H.S.

3 Red

Special Gas

1.36

C.A.

2 Red

special Gas

1.46

B.A.

I Red

Special Gas

1.97

N.C.

1 White, I Red, i Yellow

Special Gas

1.74

CO.

a White

Special Gas

1.32

P.M.

a Yellow

Special Smoke

1. 71

W.P.

I Yellow

Special Smoke

1.90

The bottom of the cartridge case is marked with
a. black band 3/8" wide and the words "Special
Gas/' or "Special Smoke."

GAS WARFARE

85

The weights of the shell are the same as for high
explosive shell and are marked as follows :

PROM

TO

Weight Mark Just
Above Driving Band.

Lbt.

Oz.

Lbs.

Os.

10

II

II

L

ZI

II

5

+

II

5

II

II

+ +

ZI

II

la

+ + +

la

la

5

+++ +

Immediately above the weight marks, and on the
side of the shell opposite the words "Special Gas"
are the letters 75-G.

The following fuses are authorized for use with
these shell : U. S. Mark III, French I. A. L., Model
1916, French I. A., Model 1915, Modified British
No. 106 (when issued), French R. Y., and French
Schneider, Model 19 16.

French 75 MM, Steel Shell Model 1915.— The
filling, marking, etc., of these chemical shell in com-
mon use are enumerated in the following table :

Marking

No.

Willing

U.S.

The shell is painted green with
the following distin-

Weight of Gas

Symbol

in Pounds

guishing marks

Approximate

a

Incendiary

Incendiary

Red Ogive, No. 2 on Ogive

• • • •

3

Smoke

W.P.

Red Ogive. No. 3 on Ogive

1.06

5

Collongite

C.G.

I White band around body. No.

7

Aquxnite

N.C.

5 on Ogive
I Orange Yellow band around
body. No. 7 on Ogive

I.SS
1.76

9

Martonite

B.A.

I Orange Yellow band around
body. No. 9 on Ogive

1.34

ao

Yperite

H.S.

2 Orange Ye^ow hands. No.

20 on Ogive
I Orange Yellow band No. 3i

1. 31

21

Caxnite

C.A.

on Ogive

1.5a ^'^

86

GAS WARFARE

On the ogive, immediately below the number of
the mixture, are letters indicating its nature. With
No. 20, "Yt" indicates Yperite dissolved in carbon-
tetrachloride, and "Yc" indicates Yperite dissolved
in monochlorbenzene. Immediately below these let-
ters, the date and place of fillings are placed. "AuV
for Aubervilliers, "Vis" for Vincennes, *T.Cx'' for
Pont-de-Claix. With the exception of No. 20 and
No. 21, the above mixtures contain a percentage of
opacite (stannic chloride) added to produce smoke.
The numbers of the mixtiu"es are also placed on the
base of the cartridge case. The weight classification
and weight marking of this shell are the same as the
U. S. 75 mm. The same fuses are to be used with
this shell as with the U. S. 75 mm.

American 4.7" Common Steel Shell Mark IL
— ^The painting and marking of these shell are as
stated in the following table :

Shell Is Painted Slate Gray

A^roximate

Weight of

Gases, Lbs.

Gases Used

With the FoUowingH"
Bands Around the Body

And following
Words Length-
wise on the Body

H.S.

C.A.

B.A.

P.S.

N.C.

C.G.

P.M.

W.P.

3 Red

2 Red

I Red

I Red. I White

I Red. I White, I YeUow

a White

2 YeUow

1 Yellow

Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Smoke
Special Smoke

4.38

53

5.6a

4-27
5.53
6.14

The bottom of the cartridge case is marked with
a black band 3/8" wide and the words "Special

GAS WARFARE

»7

Gas/' '^Special Smoke" or "Incendiary." The
weights of the shell are the same as for high explo-
sive shell.

The following fuses are authorized for use with
this shell : U. S. Mark III, French I. A. L. Model
1916, French I. A. Model 191 5, Modified British
No. 106 (when issued), and French R. Y.

A 4.7" semi-steel shell Mark V has also been de-
veloped which differs from the steel shell only in
that the net capacity is reduced from 92.4 cu. in.
to 90.9 cu. in.

American 5-inch Common Steel Shell Mark
VI. — ^The painting and marking of these shell are
as stated in the following table :

Shsll Is Paintbd Slatb Gray

Approximate

Weight of

Gases

Gases Xised

With the PoUowing W
Bands Arotind Body

And PoUowing
Words Longitu-
dinal on shell

H.S.
P.M.

3 Red

2 YeUow

Special Gas
Special Smoke

S.38
6.79

The following fuses are authorized for use with
these shell : U. S. Mark III, French I. A. L. Model
1916, French I. A. Model 191 5, Modified British
No. 106 (when issued), and French R. Y.

A 5-inch semi-steel shell has also been developed
which differs from the steel shell only in reduced
capacity.

American 6-inch Common Steel Shell, Mark

88

GAS WARFARE

III, for Gun. — The painting and marking of these
shell are as stated in the following table :

Shkll Is Painted Slate Gray

Aimroximate

Weight of

Gases, Lbs.

Gases Used

With the Pollowing W
Bands Around Bpdy

And PoUowing
Words Length-
wise on Body

H.S.
P.M.

3 Red
2 YeUow

Special Gases
Special Smoke

10.50

13.38 *i

The following fuses are authorized for use with
these shell : U. S. Mark III, French I. A. L. Model
1916, French I. A. Model 191 5, Modified British
No. 106 (when issued), and French R. Y.

A 6-inch semi-steel shell has also been developed
which differs from the steel shell only in reduced
capacity.

American 155 MM. Common Steel Shell, Mark
II, for Howitzer. — The painting and marking of
these shell are as stated in the following table :

ShellIIs Painted Slate Gray

Approximate
Weight of
Gases, Lbs.

Gases

With the Following H"
Bands Around Body

And Following
Words Length-
wise on Body

H.S.

C.A.

B.A.

P.S.

N.C.

C.G.

P.M.

W.P.

3 Red
2 Red

1 Red

I Red, 1 White
I Red, I White, i YeUow

2 White
2 Yellow
I Yellow

Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Si)ecial Gas
Special Gas
Special Smoke
Special Smoke

II. 3
12.18
16.41
13.66

14. 5
II.
14.30
15.85

GAS WARFARE

89

The following fuses are authorized for use with
these shell : U. S. Mark III, French I. A. L. Model
1916, French I. A. Model 191 5, Modified British
No. 106 (when issued), and French R. Y.

A 155 mm. semi-steel shell has also been devel-
oped which differs irom the steel shell only in re-
duced capacity.

French 155 MM. Semi-Steel Shell, Model 1915,
for Howitzer. — ^The following are the 155 mm.
howitzer French chemical shell in common use :

Filling

U.S.
Symbol

liiAUaNG

The Shell Is Painted Green '
with the Following Distin-
guishing Marks

Approximate
Woghtof
Ga4.LbiL

.No.

Name

5
7
9

30

Incendiary

Collongite

Aquinite

Martonite

Yperite

Camite

Incendiary
CO.
N.C.
B.A.
H.S.
C.A.

Red Ogive — i black ring. ...

I White band around body —
No. 5 on Ogive

1 Orange Yellow band around

body — No. 7 on Ogive

X Oraxige Yellow band around
body — No. 9 on Ogive. . . .

2 Orange Yellow bands —
No. 20 on Oeive

9.0
10.7
7.46
7.6

31

I Orange Yellow band —
No. 31 on Oeive

8.83

On the ogive, immediately below the number of
the mixture, are letters indicating the nature of the
mixture. With No. 20, "Yt" indicates Yperite dis-
solved in carbontetrachloride, and "Yc" indicates
Yperite dissolved in monochlorbenzene.

Immediately below these letters are indicated the
date and place of filling : "Aub" for Aubervilliers,
"Vis" for Vincennes, and "P.Cx" for Pont-de-
Claix.

9D GAS WASFASE

Widi die csKqrtkn of Na 20 and No. 21, die
above mixtares contain a percentage of Oixicite
(■tannic chloride) added to prodnce smoke.

American 155 MM. Coomioa Sted Shell, Maik
Vn, f«- Gun.— Tbese didl are the Mark II how-
iber shell, niodi6ed for nse in die 155 mm. gon.
TIm7 have two driving bands.

Sbill Ii PADmo Sun Gut

tcf

Ohm Dad

And FoIlowiDg

:fe

i±

i

I Red. I Wluta
I lUd. 1 White. I YeOmr

iVdlDW

StnuJGu

isai§s

1

so
00

The following fuses are authorized for use with
these sheU : U. S. Mark III, French I. A. L. Model
1916, French I. A. Model 1915, Modified British
No. 106 (when issued), and French R. Y.

A 155 mm. semi-steel shell has also been devel-
oped which differs from the steel shell only in re-
duced capacity.

French 155 MM. Semi-Steel Shell, Model 1917,
for Gun. — ^These shell are the model 1915 howitzer
shell modified for use in the 155 mm. gun. They
have two driving bands.

The following are the 155 mm. howitzer French
chemical shell in common use :

GAS WARFARE

91

Filling

U.S.
Symbol

Marking
The Shell Is Painted Green
with the Following Distin-
guishing Marks

Approximate
Wei^tof
Gas. Lb*.

Ha

Nam*

5

Collongite
Aquinite

C.G.

N.a

I White band around body —
No. s on Ofidve

0.0

T

I Orange yellow band around
body — No. 7 on Ogive... .

10.7

On the ogive, immediately below the number of
the mixture are letters indicating the nature of the
mixture. Immediately below these letters are indi-
cated the date and place of filling "Aub" for Auber-
villiers, "Vis" for Vincennes, and "P.Cx" for Pont-
de-Claix. On the body are the letters G.P. in white,
indicating that it is a gun shell.

The above mixtures contain a percentage of
Opacite (stannic chloride) added to produce smoke.

The weight classifications and weight markings
of this shell are the same as for the U. S. 155 mm.
gun shell.

The same fuses are to be used with this shell as
with the U. S. 155 mm. gun shell.

American 8-inch Common Steel Shell Mark
III. — ^The same shell is used for both howitzer and
gun, but only the H. S. and F. M. fillings are used
in the gtm. The painting and marking of these shell
are as stated in the table on page 92.

Immediately above the driving band are the letters
"8-GH" indicating that the shell may be used in
either the 8" gun or the 8" howitzer.

The following fuses are authorized for use with

92

GAS WARFARE

these shell. U. S. Mark III, French I. A. L. Model
1916, French I. A. Model 191 5, Modified British
No. 106 (when issued), and French R. Y.

PilUxigs for Howitzer Shell

Shell Is Painted Slate Gray

ApOTOzimate

Weight of

Gases. Lbs.

GaaeiUaed

With the Fbnowing H"
Bands Around Body

And Following
Words Length-
wise on Body

H.a

CJi.

B.A.

P.S.

N.C.

C.G.

P.M.

W.P.

3 Red
3 Red
X Red
I Red, I White
I Red. I White, x Yellow

2 White

3 YeUow
I Yellow

Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Smoke
Special Smoke

33.45
34.30
33.67
37.30
a8.s)0
33.05
38.4

31.5

An 8" semi-Steel shell has also been developed
which differs from the steel shell in reduced capac-
ity only.

9.2-inch and 24o MM. Chemical ShelL — These
shell are both steel and semi-steel, and use the fol-
lowing fillings :

The Shell Is Painted Slate Gray

Gases Used

With the Pollowing J4" Bands
Arotmd the Body

And the PoUowing Words
Lengthwise on the Body

H.S.

C.A.

B.A.

P.S.

N.C.

C.G.

P.M.

W.P.

3 Red

3 Red
I Red
I Red, I White
I Red, I White, i Yellow
3 White
3 Yellow
I YeUow

Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Gas
Special Smoke
Special Smoke

These shell take the same fuses as are used with
other calibers.

CHAPTER VII

Smoke for Military Purposes, Phosphorus and Tetra-
chlorides, British "S" and B. M. Mixtures, Smoke
Screens, Smoke Shell, Protection of Tanks.

Phosphorus, tin, titanium, silicon and special
smoke mixtures are commonly employed for produc-
ing* smoke for military purposes. Phosphorus,
when exposed to air, quickly produces g^eat vol-
umes of dense white smoke, the particles burning
on the ground persisting for several minutes. Phos-
phorus gives smoke of the highest obscuring power
and greatest persistency of any of the smoke pro-
ducing substances. The burning particles of phos-
phorus make deep and serious burns in flesh and
hence it has a decided value against troops exposed
to it. Phosphorus is therefore used for smoke
barrages and screens, in artillery shell, trench
mortar bombs, and hand and rifle grenades. Tin,
silicon, and titanium (tetrachlorides) are liquids
which give smoke when liberated in the air.
They are not as effective as phosphorus for
smoke barrages and screens because their smokes
have a smaller obscuring power and less persistency.
They are, however, more abundant than phosphcwr-
us and are in the nature of substitutes where phos-
phorus cannot be obtained. These materials are,
therefore, loaded as phosphorus substitutes into
artillery shell, trench mortar bombs, and hand gre-

93

M GAS WARFARE

nades. Due to the fact that these substances are
liquids, they are peculiarly suited for smoke ranging
shell, as they exhibit the same ballistic characteris-
tics as liquid gases. The relative merits of these
three substances are as in the order named, and,
as compared with white phosphorus, may be taken
in the proportion of 3 to 5.

Other smcrfce mixtures include the British "S"
mixture, consisting essentially of saltpetre, sulphur,
pitch, borax and glue, and the "B. M," mixture,
consisting essentially of powdered zinc, carbon tet-
rachloride, sodium chlorate and magnesiiun carbon-
ate. The British "S" mixture has been used in
smoke candles effectively and as compared with
phosphorus has a screening value in the proportion
of I to 5. The "B. M." mixture is often used as
a substitute for phosphorus in hand grenades and
smoke candles, and has an obscuring value equal to
phosphorus and a relative persistency of about one-
half that of phosphorus.

Smoke is most commonly used by (l) Artillery,
with smoke shell for distant smoke barrages and
for ranging gas shell, (2) Infantry, with Stokes
3-inch smoke bombs for smoke screens up to a range
of 1,800 yards; with hand and rifle smoke grenades
to protect advancing troops against machine gun
nests, etc. ; with smoke candles to conceal troop
movements, etc. (3) Gas troops, with Stokes 4-inch
smoke bombs for conducting special tactical opera-
tions, often combining with use of gas ; for establish-
ing smoke screens of large dimensions up to a range
of t.ooo yards. (4) Air service, with small smoke
drop bombs used for training obsarvers in bomb
dropping, etc.

1

GAS WARFARE 95

Smoke, when its use is carefully studied and un-
derstood, will be found of great value in modem
infantry tactics, as it confers many of the advan-
tages which are to. be gained by conducting opera-
tions at night, while few of the disadvantages are
present. Use of smoke must be very carefully
planned in order to avoid certain serious disadvan-
tages likely to accrue under conditions unfavorable
to its use or if smoke be improperly employed.

Smoke screens may be employed with one or more
of the following objects in view :

(a) To mask known enemy observation posts:
to conceal and protect the front and flanks of at-
tacking troops from enemy observation ; and to blind
hostile machine guns.

(b) As a feint to draw the enemy's attention
to a front on which no attack is being made, so as
to hold his troops to their positions and prevent them
from rendering assistance to the sector attacked ; in
inducing him to expend ammunition needlessly and
to put down a barrage in the wrong place.

(c) In the case of a smoke cloud used offen-
sively to simulate gas, with a view to lowering the
enemy's morale and forcing him to use his gas
masks. It may also be used to extend the front of
a gas attack. To make this effective, gas should
occasionally be mixed with smoke in order to im-
press upon the enemy the belief that it is never safe
to remain in a smoke cloud without wearing his
mask.

(d) In flat or open country to conceal concen-
trations of g^ns and troops, and to screen roads,
f orming-up places and lines of advance ; also to blind
the flashes of a battery in action in view of the en-

96 GAS WARFARE

emy's observation posts and to hamper observation
from the air.

(e) To cover or hide the construction of bridges,
trenches, etc., in the face of the enemy.

Gromid and troops behind smoke screens can sel-
dom be concealed from hostile airplanes or kite bal-
loon observation.

If troops are hidden in smoke clouds such clouds
attract the enemy's fire and are therefore dangerous;
for this reason, smoke screens intended to conceal
concentrations should normally be formed at some
distance — ^about 400 yards — from the object to be
concealed.

In frontal screens, care must be exercised to place
the screen so that an enemy barrage laid on it will
not catch advancing troops. Such a screen should
preferably be placed on the enemy trench system.

The necessity for anticipating the effect which a
smoke cloud will have in impeding our own observa-
tion and artillery fire should be considered, as well
as the possibility of troops being hidden from our
contact patrol airplanes.

When smoke is liberated on the flank of an as-
sault, care should be taken, by defining permissible
wind limits beforehand, that the cloud does not pass
across the front of the assaulting troops, as the lat-
ter attacking through smoke are very liable to lose
direction.

When the use of a smoke screen in operation is
contemplated, the enemy should be educated to as-
sociate such a screen with some object other than
the real one, e. g., he may, by means of a practice
smoke screen, followed by no action, be led to sup-

GAS WARFARE 97

pose that the object of the demonstration is to com-
pel him to expend ammunition uselessly.

It is obvious from the foregoing that it is of the
utmost importance that the use of smoke should
be systematic but varied instead of casual and hap-
hazard. Initiative at the critical moment means the
saving of valuable lives and the avoidance of delay
in the progress of the attack. If this is to be cul-
tivated, and if misuse and waste are to be prevented,
the most careful training is required, not only of the'
individual, but also of companies, battalions, and
even brigades.

The amount of smoke-producing material re-
quired to form a screen depends on a number of
considerations, the most important of which are as
follows: (a) The extent of the screen. As a
rough guide it may be assumed that the width of
the screen should be from two to three times the
width of the object to be concealed (as seen by ob-
servers from the points from which it is intended to
prevent observation), (b) Duration of the screen,
(c) The direction of the wind. A cross wind re-
quires, as a rule, less expenditure of smoke than one
at right angles to the front ; and the difficulty of con-
cealment increases if the direction of the wind is
variable, (d) The velocity of the wind. The
density of the smoke cloud diminishes considerably
in proportion as the velocity of the wind increases.
In a wind of over 20 miles per hour it is very dif-
ficult to form an opaque screen without excessive
expenditure of material, (e) The number of
directions from which the enemy can observe the
object or area to be concealed. The greater the num-

98 GAS WARFARE

ber of points from which an object can be observed
by the enemy, the greater will be the extent of the
screen required and therefore of the amoimt of
smoke producing substances necessary to form it.
(f) The distance of the object from the enemy's
observation posts. The greater this distance the
more effective the smoke cloud will be.

In forming a screen with any form of smoke pro-
ducer, it is necessary for the formation of the
smoke screen to be very carefully organized, so that
the best results may be obtained with the greatest
economy of material. All personnel required for
providing smoke screens should be trained before-
hand in Sie use of the actual material which is to be
employed and a simple rehearsal is most valuable.
The program which is to be followed should state
in detail the rate of expenditure of the smoke pro-
ducing substances and should be given in writing
to the personnel at each smoke source.

Since the enemy artillery is the most dangerous
adversary of the tanks, one of the vital conditions
for the successful operations of tanks is blinding
the ground observation posts which look out on the
field of attack by means of a very dense well regu-
lated smoke screen. In front of the artillery in
position, a natural or artificial fog is a necessity to
the tanks. Batteries assigned to support infantry,
especially when latter is supported by tanks, and ar-
tillery assigned to direct support of tanks should
have on hand at all times a sufficient supply of smoke
shells to take prompt advantage of opportunities for
its use. The efficacy of smoke screen properly
placed in assisting tanks to accomplish their mission
has been amply demonstrated in action.

GAS WARFARE 99

Smoke shells should not be emplo)red in the roll-
ing barrage alone. In different sections, notably
that just cited, the method of forming a "smoke
cage," or box barrage, gave excellent results. This
method consists in establishing a smoke barrage on
all points from which the objective to be taken could
be seen at a distance of 500 to 600 meters. An en-
closed area is thus formed in which the infantry arid
tanks may operate, screened from the view of the
enemy observers, without themselves being bothered
by lack of visibility within combat distance.

Gas and smoke, during a withdrawal or on sta-
bilized fronts, should be used according to the direc-
tions given. On a retirement maximimi amoimts of
mustard gas should be used from close up to the
retiring troops to as far back as the longest range
guns will reach.

CHAPTER Vni

Qwntira! Weapons for Use by Infantry, IncezBfiaiy Gre-
nauies* Thermit Hand Gruiades, Tactical Use of Gas
Grenades, Tactical Use of Smoke Grenade^ Smoke
Caadlea, Stokes Mortar Smoke Bomba

The f ollawii^ tjP^ o^ chemkal weapons have
been appiroved for use by infantry : Incendiary gre-
nades, gas grenades, smoke grenades, smoke candles
and 3-fndi Steves mortar smc^e bombs. The m-
cendiary grenades inchide the French "grenade-in-
cendiaire a Main" and **U. S. Thermit hand gre-
nade, Mark I/' The gas grenades include the
"French Suffocante et Lachrymogene" hand gre-
nade, British "No. 28, Chemical Hand Grenade,
Mark II," and U. S. "Gas Hand Grenade, Mark
II." The smoke grenades include the French "In-
cendiaire et Fumigene" Hand Grenade, the British
"No. 27 Hand or Rifle Grenade, Mark I," and
U. S. "Phosphorus Hand Grenade, Mark II." The
smoke candles include the British "Smdce Candle,
Mark I (L) Type S," the British "Smoke Candle,
Mark II (L) Type S-i," and the U. S. "Smoke
Torch, Mark I." The s-inch Stokes mortar smoke
bombs are manufactured in the United States and
contain approximately three pounds of white phos-
phorus or its equivalent.

French "Grcnadc-Incendiaire a Main." — ^This
grenade consists of a cylindrical shell of tin plate to

100

GAS WARFARE loi

which the top and bottom are attached by crimping
and soldering. In the cover is a hole into which is
soldered a metallic ring, tapped to receive the firing
mechanism. It has a percussion cap provided with
a Bickford fuse, and carries a charge of thermit with
a mixture of special ignition material. The gre-
nade body is approximately 5 7/8" long and 2 1/2"
in diameter. The total weight of the charged gre-
nade is about 750 grammes or 1.65 pounds.

Method of Use. — Hold the grenade in the hand,
grasping the body firmly, and with the other hand
remove the cover cap. Force the striker in sharply
by striking it a keen blow against a hard body such
as the heel, a rock, the butt of the gun, etc. The
grenade takes fire in five seconds after the percussion
and bums without exploding.

Action. — ^The percussion of the primer ignites the
Bickford fuse. Its combustion requires five sec-
onds, after which the quickmatch is lighted. This,
in turn, ignites the special igniting mixture. By
reason of the delay and absence of explosion the
grenade can be placed by hand, or thrown to a dis-
tance.

U. S. Thermit Hand Grenade Mark I is an ex-
act duplicate of the French ''Grenade Incendiaire k
Main." This grenade is effective because of the in-
tense heat of the molten material. It should be
placed above the object to be burned and not under-
neath it. It is placed by hand and used principally
for the destruction of non-combustible material. It
contains a thermit mixture which produces an ex-
ceedingly high temperature, the contents becoming a
mass of white-hot molten metal. It is used by raid-
ing parties, where a permanent advance is not con-

loa GAS WARFARE

templatedy for the purpose of destroying eiiemy
trench mortars, machine guns, etc., which cannot
be brought back to our own lines. The incendiary
grenade is ignited and dropped down the muzzle
of a mortar or placed in contact with some vital part
with the result that the gun is ruined. A few men
in each raiding party should be taught how to use
these grenades.

In destroying tanks of gas or cmII, it is necessary
to increase the time of burning of the fuse. In such
cases, to give the operators time to reach a place of
safety, it is necessary to replace the cap by a piece
of Bickford fuse of the desired length which can
be fired with a match. For this substitution make a
tube out of paper through the center of which the
fuse is passed. Bind it with a thread to the collar
of the grenade and then to the cord. Avoid getting
the material wet during the operation.

Grenades which have not taken fire can be picked
up without danger and used again after having
changed the fuse.

French "Suffocante et Lachrymogene" Hand
Grenade. — This grenade consists of the following
parts : The body of the grenade, the collar, the
gaine, and the automatic firing mechanism. The
grenade is filled with "Papite*' (acrolein), a liquid
gas that is both lethal and lachrymatory. The body
of the grenade is the same as the French ''Grenade-
Incendiaire et Fumigene, Mle. 1916 Automatique"
with the exception that there is an orifice in but one
end. This orifice is for the reception of a brass col-
lar which is inserted therein and soldered to the
body of the grenade. The collar is threaded inter-
nally for the reception of a hollow brass plug which

GAS WARFARE 103

is screwed into it and thus secured in the grenade.
The gaine, made of tin, is soldered to the lower part
of the hollow brass plug and carries the detonator,
which is the bursting charge of the grenade. A rub-
ber washer placed between the top of the collar and
the shoulder of the plug forms a liquid tight joint.
The hollow brass plug is threaded internally to re-
ceive the automatic firing mechanism. A leather
washer is inserted between the top of the hollow
brass plug and the shoulder of the automatic firing
mechanism to form a tight joint. The total weight
of the charged grenade is 400 grammes or 0.9
pounds.

Method of Use. — Hold the grenade in the throw-
ing hand, the firing mechanism up, in such a man-
ner as to secure the lever. Pass the index finger of
the free hand through the ring and withdraw the
safety pin. The grenade is now armed and the
bomber must take every precaution not to release
the grip on the lever until the grenade is thrown.
The grenade bursts five seconds after the action of
the automatic firing mechanism, and produces a
cloud of fine particles, intensely irritating to the
respiratory passages. This causes violent coughing,
and does not kill or seriously injure, but has con-
siderable moral effect.

Action. — After being thrown, the lever, which is
no longer held by the safety pin, is projected from
the grenade by the bolt. The removal of the lever
permits the functioning of the automatic firing
mechanism which sets off the primer. The primer
ignites the slow fuse, which, after five seconds fires
the denotator, exploding the grenade.

No. 28, Chemical Hand Grenade, Mark

104 GAS WARFARE

II. — ^This grenade consists of the following parts:
The body, Sie gaine, and the firing mechanism. It is
filled with K. J. (stannic chloride). The body is
made of cast iron, spherical in form and 3 3/8"
in outside diameter. A boss is cast on the body
through which is tapped a hole for the reception of
the gaine. The gaine or denotator sleeve is also
made of cast iron, on the open end of which is pro-
vided an externally threaded boss for the assembly
of the firing mechanism, which is similar in construc-
tion to that used on the British "Grenade, Hand or
Rifle, No. 27, Phosphorus, Mark I."

Method of Use. — ^When used as a hand grenade
its manipulation is the same as the British No. 2y.
The effect of the grenade is essentially the same as
the French "Grenade-Suffocante et Lachrymogene,
Mle. 1916, Automatique."

U. S.— "Gas Hand Grenade, Mark 11/' This
grenade is the same as the French "Suffocante et
Lachrymogene" hand grenade.

Method of Use. — The method of using the U. S.
"Gas Grenade Mark 11/' is entirely similar to the
French "Grenade-Suffocante et Lachrymogene, Mle.
1916, Automatique."

Action. — The grenade and lever are firmly
grasped in the throwing hand in such a manner as to
secure the lever. The safety split pin is removed
with the free hand and the grenade is ready to
throw. The thrower must take every precaution not
to release the grip on the lever until he throws the
grenade. Upon release of the lever, the striker im-
pelled by its stiff spring rotates around the hinge pin,
forcing up the lever, and strikes the primer, first per-
forating the tinfoil disc which is sealed over the top

GAS WARFARE 105

of the cap to waterproof the primer. The end of the
fuse is tipped with a priming powder composition,
which ignited by the primer in turn ignites the fuse.
In five seconds the flame from the fuse spits into
the fulminate composition of the detonator causing
it to explode. The explosion of the detonator is
sufficient to burst the body of the grenade and scat-
ter the contents in all directions.

Gas grenades are intended for the use of "mop-
ping up" parties in driving the enemy out of dug-
outs. This is generally more effective than blowing
in the dugout with a charge of high explosive. A
cloud is formed which violently attacks the eyes,
nose and throat and penetrates to a large extent the
enemy respirator. While not fatal, the fumes are
unbearable in a close space, and the enemy is forced
to come out choking and blinded. Four or five gre-
nades should be carried by two men in each squad
of a "mopping up" party. Upon coming to an
enemy dugout, which is suspected of being inhab-
ited, three or four grenades are tossed inside the
entrance without exposing the grenadiers to fire
from below. Occasionally they may be found of
value in driving the enemy from a machine gun nest
or strong point, when such a position is located
downward.

French "Incendiaire et Fumigene" Hand Gre*
nade. — ^This grenade consists of the following parts
The body, the gaine, and the automatic firing
mechanism. The body, ovoid in form, is nine cen-
timeters long, and six centimeters in diameter, at
the center. It is made of two ovigal caps of tin,
set, clasped and soldered to each other around the
edges of their large bases. After filling, the hole

io6 GAS WARFARE

is hermetically sealed by a disc of tin soldered to the
body of the grenade. The gaine, made of special
metal, holds the charge of explosive powder. It is
threaded on the interior to receive the fuse plug
which forms the body of the firing mechanism,
which is automatic but is without a detonator. The
fuse requires five seconds for combustion. A rub-
ber washer placed between the upper flange of the
gaine and the shoulder of the fuse plug, forms a
tight joint for the grenade. The total weight of
the charged grenade is 560 grammes or 1.23 lbs.,
and the charge is 300 grammes of white phos-
phorus.

Method of Use, — Hold the grenade in the throw-
ing hand, the firing mechanism up, in such a man-
ner as to secure the lever. Pass the index finger of
the free hand through the ring and withdraw the
safety pin. The grenade is now armed and the
bomber must take every precaution not to release
the grip on the lever until the grenade is thrown.

The grenade when thrown, bursts into flames five
seconds after the lever is released, producing a cloud
of dense white smoke and suffocating vapors. The
range of the grenade is 25 to 30 meters. Its explo-
sion does not produce any dangerous metallic pieces
but throws in all directions within a radius of 15 td
20 meters pieces of burning material (W. P.) ca-
pable of causing serious bums and which also con-
stitute a possible source of fires. The burning of
this material is prolonged for several minutes after
the explosion, forming an abundance of white
smoke. With a favorable wind, 20 grenades are
sufficient to create an extended smoke cloud.

Action. — ^Upon leaving the hand of the thrower,

GAS WARFARE 107

the lever, which is no longer held by the safety pin,
is projected from the grenade by the bolt. The re-
moval of the lever permits the functioning of the
automatic firing mechanism which sets off the
primer. The primer ignites the slow fuse which
after five seconds ignites the black powder charge
in the gaine. This explodes the grenade with suf-
ficient force to scatter the burning contents over a
radius of 15 to 20 meters and at the same time pro-
duces an intense and suffocating vapor within a
radius of 5 to 6 meters.

British ''No. 27, Hand or Rifle Grenade, Mark
I." — ^This grenade consists chiefly of the following
parts : the body, the gaine, and the firing mechanism.
The body of the grenade, cylindrical in form, is
about 3 3/4" long and 2 1/4" in diameter. It
is made of tinned plate and is capped on either end
with dished tinned plate stampings somewhat
heavier than the metal forming the body. To the
lower cap, forming the base, is soldered a steel plate
approximately 1/4 inch thick. This steel plate is
tapped to receive a rod fifteen inches long and of
the proper diameter to fit the bore of the service
rifle. The rod is used only when the grenade is
projected with a rifle. The rods are issued detached
from the grenades in the ratio of 60% of the gre-
nades. To the upper cap, forming the cover of the
body, is soldered a spigot, externally threaded to
hold the firing mechanism. The gaine is inserted
through the spigot and the cover, and is soldered
to the spigot. The primer rests on top of the spigot
and is held in place by the striker chamber. The
primer is crimped to the fuse, on the other end of
which is crimped the detonator, the fuse and deto-

\

io8 GAS WARFARE

nator extending into the gaine. The striker is held
by a shear wire. Over the entire firing mechanism
is placed a metal cover, to prevent accidental dis*
charge, the cover being held in place by means of a
retaining pin and ring. A small hole is provided
in the cover cap for filling. This is sealed with a
disc of tin. The filling charge is about 400 grammes
of white phosphorus.

Method of Use, — (a) As a Hand Grenade. The
cap over the firing mechanism is removed after with-
drawing the retaining pin. The striker is then
struck against any solid object, as the heel of the
boot, the butt of the gun, a rock, etc.. The shock
shears the small restraining wire and the striker
point fires the primer and starts the fuse burning,
(b) As a Rifle Grenade. The stem is attached by
screwing it into the base plate of the grenade as far
as it will go. The protecting cap is then removed,
exposing the striker. A blank cartridge furnished
for this purpose is next loaded into the rifle, after
which the grenade rod is inserted into the muzzle
of the rifle and pushed down as far as it will go.
The butt of the gun is set against some solid object,
such as the bottom of the trench, a sandbag, etc.,
and the elevation adjusted according to the range
desired. Upon the discharge of the rifle the setback
shears the small restraining wire, permitting the
striker point to impinge upon the primer, thus ig-
niting the fuse which in five seconds fires the deto-
nator. The maximum range is obtained with the
rifle held at 45 degrees. Shorter ranges may be had
by either raising or lowering this elevation. Under
favorable conditions, ranges up to 230 yards are ob-
tained. The effect of this grenade is similar to that

GAS WARFARE 109

of the French Grenade ''Iiiceiidiare et Fmnigeiie
Mle. 1916, Automatique.''
U. S. ''Pho^hOTus Hand Grenade Mark ILT

— ^This grenade is essentially the same as the Frendi
"Incendiaire et Fumigene,** hand grenade.

Smoke grenades have been primarily designed as
infantry we^xxis for offensive operations both as
incendiary and smoke producing articles. They arc
suitable for burning dugouts, blinding machine guns,
or screening small local attacks. Due to thdr
scarcity, their use in producing smoke screens is
uneconomical. These grenades on exfdoding scatter
burning pho^horus over a circle of 15-20 meters
radius.

Used as Rifle Grenades. — ^The British Grenade
the "No. 27, Hand and Rifle Mark I," is the only
chemical grenade which has been designed for rifle
projection. The other smoke grenades described are
designed for hand projection only.

The rifle smoke grenade is most effective in brush
or wooded country, particularly where the terrain is
undulating, thus permitting a detachment of gren-
adiers to crawl within range of a machine gun with-
out exposing themselves to severe fire. Unless there
is natural cover at the firing point rifle pits should
be scooped out so that the grenadiers will have pro-
tection from machine guns.

Two or tKree grenadiers should keep up a con-
tinuous fire upon 3ie machine gun attacked. Others
are designated to work their way into close striking
distance from whence they can rush the gun from
the flank, under cover of the smoke. The rifle gre-
nade is most effective when burst ten or fifteen feet
above the ground.

no GAS WARFARE

The smoke generated by the burning phosphorus
cuts off the machine gun from the possibility of
direct fire. This effect may often be obtained, even
though the strong point is out of range, if it is pos-
sible to work into a position to the windward so that
the anoke will drift over the point to be screened.

If an attack is held up by hostile machine guns,
their position might be indicated by firing single
rifle grenades toward them, targets being thus pro-
vided on which fire from other weapons can be
directed.

Two men in each squad may be trained to use
these grenades and they should carry ten each in an
advance.

Used as Hand Grenades. — ^AU of the smoke gre-
nades can be used as hand grenades. The principal
use of the phosphorus hand grenade is as a follow-
up of a rifle grenade, for the maintenance at short
range of the smoke cloud when taking a strong
point. The smoke gfiven off by the rifle grenades
permits the grenadiers to advance to a point where
the hand grenades may be used. A minor use for
the hand smoke grenade is in "mopping up" the
enemy dugouts, although the gas grenade is more
effective for this purpose.

British "Smoke Candle, Mark I. (L) Type S/'
• — This smoke candle consists of the following parts :
Case, lid, tin plate cover, striker, igniting device,
charge, powder discs, cap and band. The case is
made of tinned iron plate, having a welded side and
bottom seam and four plugs to secure the lid. The
lid is made of material of the same quality as the
case. It is pressed to the required form and has a
central hole and four slots around its edge. The

GAS WARFARE iii

cover is made of tin plate. The striker is made of
strong durable tape. Secured to this tape, by means
of glue and two wire stitches, is a cardboard disc
coated with match box composition in the imcovered
side. The case is charged with smoke composition.

Method of Operation. — Tear off the top by pull-
ing the tape quickly upwards. Ignite the flare by
rubbing the red disc sharply and firmly across the
black blob on its center. This operation ignites the
match material which in turn ignites the quick
match, which sets fire to the fire composition for
lighting the smoke mixture. This bums and gives
off a smoke for three minutes.

British ''Smoke Candle Mark II. (L) Type S-
I." — ^This candle consists of the following parts:
Case, lid, projector, friction thimble, striker, and ig-
niting arrangement. The case is made of tinned iron
plate of the form and of dimensions regularly adopt-
ed, and has a welded side and bottom seam. The
lid is made of stamped tinned plate and fits tightly
on the case. The protection and friction thimble
is stamped from tinned plate, the projector being
slotted to allow for the passage of the tape and
striker arrangement. The striker is made of strong
tape, to which is fastened by means of glue and two
wire stitches, a cardboard disc, coated with match
box composition. A piece of paper is secured to the
tape c^ the same side as the disc in such a manner
as to cover the striker. The case is filled with
about 3 pounds of smoke composition in a plastic or
semi-fluid condition.

Method of Operation. — ^To fire, tear off the tape
to expose the firing composition. Rub the tablet of
red composition, which is attached to the underside

112 ' GAS WARFARE

of the tape, smartly across the black Uob of compo-
sition in the center of the top of the candle. This
operation causes the match material to ignite the
igniter which sets fire to the smoke composition.
This bums and gives off smoke for five minutes.

U. S. "Smoke Torch, Mark I."— The general
construction and method of operation of this candle
is entirely similar to that of the British "Smoke
Candle Mark I (L) Type S," except that the time
of burning is four minutes.

As smoke producers, smoke candles have about
one-half of the efficiency of smoke grenades, but
they have practically no incendiary effect. They are
portable and are designed for use by infantry in
active operations. They are useful for blinding
machine guns, for screening local attacks, and for
simulating gas attacks. They may be used for con-
cealing concentrations of guns or troops, battery
positions or areas, or putting up a smoke barrage
along the flank of an attack.

An operation with these candles should be carried
out by a squad under the direction of a competent
gas officer who makes wind observations and de-
cides whether the candles may be used to advantage.
At least 500 candles should be used for even a small
operation. The number started at the beginning
should make a dense cloud, and this can then be
reinforced by fresh generators as required.

The number of smoke grenades or smoke candles
required to form an effective screen depends upon
all the considerations enumerated under "Smoke
Screens." No definite rules can be laid down as to
the exact quantities of smoke producing substances
required to form a screen, as conditions vary greatly.

GAS WARFARE 113

Three-inch Stokes Mortar Smoke Bombs. —

The 3-inch Stokes mortar bomb places in the hands
of the infantry a means of forming smoke barrages
at greater ranges than is possible with the rifle gre-
nade. The 3-inch and 4-inch Stokes mortar bombs
compare approximately as follows:

Amount of W. P. Maximum Range

3'' Smoke Bomb about 2.5 lbs. 1800 yards

4^' Smoke Bomb about 7.0 lbs. : 1160 yards]

The use of the 3-inch Stokes mortar smoke bomb
will economize on guns if they are used wherever
possible, as they will be used from the front line
trenches and will have a maximum range of ap-
proximately 1 ,800 yards. The fact that these smoke
bombs Avill be entirely imder the control of the in-
fantry operates as an additional advantage in that
smoke barrages will at all times be available to cover
the retirement of daylight raiding parties.

It will also be possible to carry the mortars forward
together with a supply of the smoke bombs to pro-
vide smoke screens in the large stages of an infantry
advance.

CHAPTER IX

Persistencies of Gases, Methods of Projection, Employ-
ment of Chemical Substances in Tactics, Phosgene,
Chlorpicrin, Mustard Gas, Brombenzyl-Cyanide, Spe-
cial Application of the Various Groups.

When ground has been evacuated in consequence
of a mustard gas bombardment, the length of tim^
which must elapse before it can be occupied should
be foretold as accurately as possible. Tremendous
advantage may be gained by being able to estimate
this period more accurately than can the enemy.

The rate of evaporation of a liquid from the
ground is increased by increased wind velocity and
especially by increased temperature. Mustard gas
in the woods or in calm weather, will persist much
longer than in the open or in windy weather. It
will last longer on cold ground than on hot ground.
However, during a cold night, an infected area may
perhaps be traversed with little danger, provided
the feet are properly protected, whereas the follow-
ing morning, after the sun has warmed the ground,
enough vapor may be given off into the air as a re-
sult of the increased evaporation to gas severely any
one traversing the area.

Moisture produces (though very slowly) the
chemical decomposition of mustard gas so that it
will persist for a shorter time in moist soil than in
dry soil of equal temperature. If the mustard gas

"4

GAS WARFARE 115

liquid is dispersed in very fine droplets, it will dis^
appear much more rapidly than when splashed in
large drops upon the ground.

The table on the following page will serve to give
a rough idea of the persistency which may be ex-
pected from gases as spread by shell of tiie usual
types.

The persistency of mustard gas on the groimd is
diminished by heavy rain, which washes it away,
or by sunshine or strong wind which hastens its
evaporation. Sunshine, on the morning after a
bombardment, may produce a dangerous concentra-
tion of gas, where no marked effect had been no-
ticed during the night. The wind limits for mus-
tard gas are from calm to 12 miles per hour; the
lower the velocity of wind, the greater the local
concentration of gas. Variations may be expected
according to the principles above discussed. In the
case especially of chlorpicrin, the air may have be-*
come safely free from the gas while the ground still
contains enough to make it dangerous to entrench
in it

Chemical substances may be projected in military
operations as follows: (a) In form of cloud gas
discharged from gas cylinders, (b) In steel bombs
fired from Livens Projectors, (c) In steel bombs
fired from 4-inch Stokes mortars. In the Amer-
ican Expeditionary Forces the three methods men-
tioned above were used by Gas Troops for projecting
gas. (d) In shells of various caliber fired from
Artillery weapons, (e) In grenades (including
smoke grenades) , thrown by hand or rifle. ( f ) In
form of smoke bombs thrown by 3-inch Stokes
mortars, (g) In form of smoke cafidles set off in

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GAS WARFARE 117

place. The last three forms are used by Infantry,
(h) In form of incendiary and smoke bombs
dropped from airplanes by the Air Service.

Meteorological, topographical, and other pertinent
conditions being favorable to the use of gas in a
given tactical situation the kind of gas to be em-
ployed in the tactical operation depends on persis-
tency and nature of the effect of the gas, whether
temporary, permanent or delayed. It is relatively
unimportant to distinguish between the various phy-
siological effects which may be included under the
above headings. For evample, it is not of great
consequence in planning an operation to distinguish
between temporary casualties produced by cough-
^^S> ^y vomiting, or by lachrjrmation. It is import-
ant to know only whether the effects will be pro-
duced rapidly and whether they will persist for a
long time. Moreover, it is unimportant to distin-
guish between substances on the one hand which
produce bad bums, and those on the other hand
which produce lung lesions. Both can be used to
decrease the effective strength of the enemy.

The following table, considered in connection with

PERSISTENCE NATURE OP CASUALTY PRODUCED

Temporary

PermanetU

Delayed

Group I.

Low

Diphenyl-chlor-
aisine.

Phosgene-
Chlorine

Group II.

Moderate

Chlorpicrin

1

Group III. High Brombenzyl cyan- Mustard Gas

ide and other
lachrymators (tear
producers).

the preceding table, illustrates the tactical pos^bili*
ties of the substances described.

ii8 GAS WARFARE

Smoke, although used for screening purposes
rather than for toxic effect, falls within the scope
of Chemical Warfare, and may be considered as a
separate group. This group includes tin tetrachlor-
ide, silicon tetrachloride, titanium tetrachloride, and
white phosphorus. The tetrachlorides are liquids,
non-poisonous, but producing a dense smoke, prin-
cipally useful in ranging. Being liquids, shells filled
with them have the same ballistic characteristics as
gas. White phosphorus is a solid which, upon
bursting in air, burns with a dense white ^noke. It
is useful for smoke screens. Phosphorus bums
make ugly wounds.

The chemical substances described may be em-
ployed in support of troops acting either offensively
or defensively. Offensively they must be employed
for the purpose of assisting in gaining and main-
taining that fire superiority necessary for the in-
fantry to advance. This may be accomplished by :

Producing casualties among the enemy personnel
directly employed in the delivery of fire.

Limiting the maneuvering ability of hostile forces
by forbidding or rendering impracticable the use by
them of certain areas heavily gassed .

Producing casualties among hostile reserves,
thereby reducing the strength of a counter-attack.

Reducing the effectiveness of hostile fire by com-
pelling enemy personnel to wear gas masks.

Reducing effectiveness of hostile fire by establish-
ment of a smoke screen, thus preventing aimed fire
and observation of effect of fire by the enemy.

By deceiving the enemy regarding the place or
direction of the attack.

Reducing the effectiveness of hostile fire by lower-

GAS WARFARE 119

ing the morale of the troops continuously exposed
to the effects of gas.

Gas in offensive operations may be used in prepa-
ration for the attack or during the attack. Troops
on the defensive may employ gas to prevent the
enemy gaining or maintaining the fire superiority
necessary to advance. Troops on the passive de-
fense have a wide field of use for gas because none
of the restrictions which exist when gas is used to
assist troops acting offensively are imposed. When,
however, troops are acting on the defensive awaiting
a favorable opportunity to attack, gases must be so
employed that they shall not interfere when an
otherwise favorable opportunity is presented to re-
sume the offensive.

In a withdrawal or in a retreat the employment of
chemical substances is especially applicable as they
may then be freely used without fear of deleterious
effect on our own troops. Gases may be used under
such tactical situations to reduce casualties among
friendly troops, by screening movements of friendly
troops and to prevent or delay pursuit, by denying
hostile troops the use of landmarks on which to
guide through, causing them to advance through
smoke clouds and thereby favoring loss of direction
by enemy units and their mixing in the advance,
and by causing casualties among pursuing troops by
heavily gassing areas included in their line of ad-
vance.

The most effective gas against hostile personnel
may, under a given tactical situation, be one against
which the enemy has no or only indifferent means
of defense, even though such a gas may be of low
persistence or have only a temporary effect on hos-

I

GAS WARFARE

tile personnel. For this reason it is necessary to'
know what are the Hmitations of the means of de-
fense against gas available for use by the enemy.
Assuming the enemy means of defense are efficient
against all available gases, the kinds of gases used
in any tactical situation depends upon time available
before friendly troops, under the plan of operatiwi,
will probably occupy the area gassed, as well as upon
meteorological and topographical conditions and the
persistency and effect of available gases.

Special application of the various groups of chem-
ical substances (phosgene, chlorpicrin, mustard gas,
brombenzyl-cyanide) are numerous and most im-
portant. The following observations and applica-
tions are worthy of careful notation:

Phosgene, — During the entire period of prepara-
tion for an attack, as well as in the earlier stages
of preparation, when mustard gas is being used, put
over phosgene in sudden two-minute bursts of ar-
tillery fire, at repeated intervals of from 8 to 12
hours, upon strong points, concentration areas,
woods and ravines, and upon groups of trenches
and dugouts, to kill those whose masks are worn out
or those who, through recklessness or carelessness,
have removed their masks.

On targets, distant 1900 meters or more, use ar-
tillery to carry out the tactics outlined in paragraph
above. Whenever possible, the area within 1900
meters of our line should be taken care of by Gas
Troops, using cylinders for cloud gas, when the
wind is favorable, and projectors and 4-inch Stokes
mortars, all of which can produce much higher gas
concentration than artillery.

When the wind is favorable (blowing toward

ward the ^^M

GAS WARFARE 121

enemy), launch against the entire front to be at-
tacked, and for miles along the front not to be at-
tacked, heavy phosgene gas attacks by all methods,
including cloud gas from cylinders. If the wind is
unfavorable, phosgene may still be used with ar-
tillery, projectors and Stokes mortars by simply re-
ducing the amounts put over in accordance with the
tables of safe distances. When immediate neutrali-
zation is required, phosgene is generally preferable
on account of its immediate effect.

Gas troops with Stokes mortars, projectors and
cylinders are trained to keep up with infantry re-
serves, whence they can be directed to the support
of attacks of strong points, machine gun nests and
enemy troops concentrating for counter-attacks, by
projection of phosgene, or by projection of phos-
phorus for smoke screens. They are also equipped
to fire upon hostile personnel with thermite, phos-
phorus and incendiary bombs and drums thrown
from mortars and projectors. *

With unfavorable winds phosgene and chlorpicrin
may be used by artillery, and by Gas Troops, em-
ploying projectors and 4-inch Stokes mortars, which
should direct their fire just beyond the nearest enemy
masses so as to let the gas drift back over them. The
amount of gas must be reduced, but not necessarily
to the amounts given as safe under rules for firing
of gas by artillery. Some chances must be taken
with our own gas even to the extent of an occasional
casualty. With the new mask, giving perfect vision,
accidental casualties should be rare,
lis. Chlorpicrin is stopped by the mask much less
readily than phosgene, and in the high concentra-
tions attainable in projector attacks heavy casualties

122 GAS WARFARE

may be expected. It is moderately persistent, and
its value in artillery shell is due to this fact and to
its lachrymatory power. From 3 to 12 hours should
be allowed where troops are to cross the infected
area, depending upon whether the area is open or
wooded.

Mustard Gas, — ^The characteristics which make
mustard gas so valuable are very little odor, absence
of immediate effect, effectiveness in low concentra-
tions and its persistence. The following directions
and observations are most important :

(a) Use for harassing fire against batteries,
strong points, woods, cross roads and enemy con-
centrations everywhere at all times prior to attack-
ing. ( See c. d. and e. )

(b) As it affects eyes, lungs, body and food, and
persists for days, it wears down the enemy morale
and vigor by forcing constant wearing of the mask
and the necessity of always taking other extensive
precautions.

(c) In the open it may be used when the weather
is clear and warm up to 3 days before an attack.

(d) When weather is cloudy and warm, add
I day to (c).

(e) When weather is cold and especially cloudy,
allow 4 to 7 days.

(f ) In thick woods or brush heavily bombarded
with mustard gas, allow 5 days in warm weather and
7 days in cold weather before attacking through
them, except under special conditions.

(g) An infected area may be crossed more
safely when the ground is cold, as during the night
The above intervals may be reduced if this precau-
tion is taken.

GAS WARFARE 123

(h) Continue neutralizing and harassing fire
against strong points, battery positions, cross roads
and any possible concentration points during the en-
tire battle, in accordance with the schedules given
in (c), (d), (e), and (f). The flanks, where no
attack is to be made by our troops, should be kept
smothered with mustard gas to prevent the pos-
sibility of a flank counter-attack.

(i) It may prove possible in the future to
change the burst of mustard gas shell so as to dimin-
ish the persistency, allowing earlier attack following
its use, and producing greater concentrations.

(j) When the enemy succeeds in halting our at-
tack at any point, use mustard gas in accordance
with the schedules given under (e) and (f), and in
the intervening period up to the moment of the at-
tack, pour in phosgene with both artillery and Gas
Troops. When the wind is unfavorable, i.e., blow-
ing toward our troops, merely reduce the amounts
sent over.

(k) Gas used as explained under (j) is a valu-
able weapon to break up resistance in general, and
is especially valuable for use against enemy troops
concentrated for counter-attacks.

(1) The use of mustard gas must be continuous
on woods, ravines, roads, villages, railroads, and
any other places where enemy troops can. concen-
trate or where they must move. Fields that the
enemy may cross should be thoroughly gassed.

(m) Used in this way, it should be very ef-
fective in inflicting serious losses from bums, even
if the mask fully protects.

(n) Mustard gas can be used in the oflFensive
without endangering our troops, beyond or to the

124 GAS WARFARE

flanks of an objective. When the objective is a
limited one, always allow clearance of one mile as a
safety factor in case the wind should prove adverse.

(o) Bombardments with mustard gas are best
carried out at night, when the atmospheric condi-
tions are most likely to be favorable, and when,
owing to the difficulty of seeing while wearing a re-
spirator, the maximum amoynt of interference with
movement is caused. In addition, the evacuation of
shelled areas is most difficult at night.
jk . Brombenzylcyanide (lachrymator) . — This is used
anywhere to force immediate wearing of the mask.
It is a powerful lachrymator, and very persistent,
but not poisonous unless one is very close to a burst-
ing shell. It is two to three times as persistent as
chlorpicrin.

It is useful to save mustard gas, phosgene and
chlorpicrin, and still harass the enemy by forcing
him to wear masks. For this purpose it is many
times more effective than phosgene and chlorpicrin.

It is especially useful against active combatants,
as few guns are necessary to produce the desired
effect.

CHAPTER X

Use of Gas by Gas Troops, Organization of Gas Regi-
ment, Duties of Regimental Officers, Duties of Com-
pany Officers, Stokes Mortars and Bombs, Smoke
Bombs, Propellants and Fuses, Livens Material,
Cloud Gas Apparatus, General Procedure in Ga^
Operations.

The development of the use of chemicals in mod-
em warfare has resulted not only in the introduction
of new weapons and methods, but also in the em-
ployment of gas troops. The experience gained is
sufficient to fix the field in which such troops can
operate most effectively and point out the general
principles underlying the most advantageous use of
the weapons with which they are armed. Because
of the highly technical nature of this service, troops
engaged in it should be specially trained and
equipped. Because of the hard physical labor re-
quired, the personnel should be of specially good
physique.

The chemicals used in warfare may be divided
into four general classes. One class comprises
chemicals which, when breathed or brought into
contact with the human body, produce fatal or in-
capacitating results. Another comprises those used
for purposes of deception or concealment. The
third comprises incendiary agents. The fourth
comprises high explosives. The use of these ma-

125

126 GAS WARFARE

terials has brought about the perfecting of three
new weapons, the Stokes trench mortar, the Livens
projector and the gas cylinder. The two former
are used for the projection of bombs or drums con-
taining chemicals. The projectile for Stokes trench
mortars is usually called a bomb, while that of the
Livens projector is usually called a drum. The
cylinder is used exclusively for the projecticxi of
gas clouds. Stokes mortar bombs may contain any
of the four classes of chemical agents, but in gen-
eral the Livens projector is limited to agents of the
first and fourth classes only.

Gas troops are Army troops, usually one regiment
per Army. Their battalions and companies are at-
tached to Corps and Divisions as required by the
nature of the operations contemplated. As a rule,
a unit smaller than a company should never be at-
tached to a Division, nor a unit smaller than a bat-
talion to any Army Corps. Gas regiments as now
authorized consist of six battalions of three com-
panies each, with a total of 210 officers and 4,873
enlisted men. Of the six battalions five are combiit
battalions and one a replacement battalion. This
is made necessary by the technical nature of the
work, and the necessity of replacing casualties witli
trained personnel.

The organization of the Regimental Headquar-
ters follows that of the Special Engineer Regiments,
except that a lieutenant colonel is provided for each
two battalions and an additional first lieutenant is
authorized as assistant adjutant. The enlisted per-
sonnel of 39 is sufficient to handle only the routine
administration work. In order to maintain the
necessary transportation to take care of the regi-

GAS WARFARE 127

tnent's service of supply, it is necessary to call upon
the battalions and companies for assistance. In
normal operations, from 200 to 250 men are re-
quired for transportation and service of supply.
By far the best results are obtained by directing the
use of transportation from regimental headquarters.

Adjutant and Personnel Officer. — ^These duties
follow closely those of similar positions in a normal
regiment.

Chemical Adviser and Intelligence Officer
should have : ( i ) An exact knowledge of the char-
acteristics and proper use of gases in gas warfare;
and such knowledge as will enable him to forecast
with fair accuracy the probable importance of sug-
gested developments. (2) An accurate knowledge of
the varying front line conditions; of the past and
present operations of Gas Troops, and of the plans
and possibilities for future operations.

The duties of this officer are, to obtain, properly
file, and transmit information, particularly with a
view of keeping the Gas Troops informed of the
results obtained in Gas Warfare, and of keeping
the technical and supply divisions informed of the
needs of the Gas Troops. Since all intelligence
matters concerning operations pass through the
hands of the Chemical Adviser and Intelligence Of-
ficer, certain other duties concerning the conduct of
operations and reports thereon, have been added to
the foregoing.

The Chemical Adviser and Intelligence Officer
should, therefore: (i) Procure, digest and file
such scientific and technical papers and publications
as are of possible practical value to the regiment.
(2) Keep in touch with new developments in Of-

128 GAS WARFARE

fense Gas Warfare, with changes in offense gas
weapons or material, and pass on useful information
regarding the same. (3) Forecast all the neces-
sary ordnance supplies for the regiment. Investi-
gate complaints regarding the technical supplies re-
ceived and suggest any necessary improvements.
(4) Transfer all suggestions of value regarding
possible improvement of weapons or methods in Gas
Warfare to the Commanding Officer concerned or
to the Offense Division, Headquarters, Chemical
Warfare Service, for investigation. (5) Render
all possible assistance (consistent with other duties)
to the Offense Division in its investigations. (6)
Obtain information from army regarding position
of our advance line and keep regimental headquar-
ters map up to date. (7) Obtain daily summaries
of intelligence published by the army and the vari-
ous corps and divisions with whom the regiment
is operating. Study any intelligence regarding the
enemy positions or activity that may prove useful in
pending operations, and furnish same to all com-
manding officers concerned. (8) Have the loca-
tion of all gas battalion or company headquarters
and dumps indicated on the regimental headquar-
ters map. Be conversant with the various means
available for inter-communication between all regi-
mental units. (9) Have on hand a list showing
the location of all corps and division headquarters
on the front where the regiment is operating and
have same plotted on the regimental headquarters
map. (10) Have suitable road maps of the ad-
vance zone, showing first class ''up" and "down"
traffic routes ; also have traffic maps of lines of com-
munication. (11) Procure and keep on hand a suf-

GAS WARFARE 129

ficient supply of suitable maps for all present and
pending operations, and be prepared to make at short
notice maps concerning any projects on hand. (12)
Have on hand a relief map of the front on which
the regiment is operating. (13) Obtain informa-
tion as to present plans of battalion and company
commanders and be prepared to suggest new opera-
tions on which those units can be profitably em-
ployed. (14) Take charge of all secret corres-
pondence "inward" and "outward/* regarding the
employment of the regiment and its movements or
future operations. (15) Receive all daily progress
and operation reports from battalions and com-
panies, check same, and be conversant at all times
with their contents. (16) Collect and pass on to
officers concerned intelligence on results of opera-
tions by the regiment and the gas troops. (17)
Compile and distribute a regimental daily bulletin
containing information of importance or interest.

(18) Be thoroughly conversant with all Gas De-
fense measures, and be able to advise concerning
any special precautions necessary to be taken by Gas
Troops for protecting them against their own gas.

(19) Advise the Regimental Supply Officer as to
the location of important forward Gas Dmnps and
the storage of material in them. (20) Obtain and
supply to all officers concerned such meteorological
data as may be of service.

Regimental Supply Officer, — ^The duties of this
officer are as follows: (a) To anticipate the sup-
plies required by the Regiment and deliver them
to mobile dumps easily accessible to the companies
and battalions. These mobile points should move
as the units move so that the amount of truck trans-

I30 GAS WARFARE

portation is minimized, (b) To control all motor
and animal transportation.

In connection with motor transportation, the Reg-
imental Supply Officer is to maintain a suitable and
sufficient personnel to operate and maintain all
trucks, touring cars and side-cars assigned to the
organizations.

The Regimental Supply Officer cares for the re-
placement of all animals injured or taken sick, rec-
ommends personnel to handle them and arranges
for periodic inspection as a check on their care, use
and proper shoeing. He also assists the companies
and battalions in arranging for any rail shipment
they may be required to make, and takes care of
any construction work and any other miscellaneous
work which obviously is not a part of the duties
of the other staff officers. He works with the Bat-
talion Supply Officers, and through them with the
Company Supply Officers, and sees that each is ac-
quainted with and performs his full duty.

Master Engineers. — ^The duties of the Master
Engineers are as follows:

Chemical Assistant, — This assistant operates
directly under the orders of the Regimental Chemi-
cal Adviser and Intelligence Officer and assists him
in every way in chemical matters.

Map and Intelligence Assistant. — ^This assist-
ant is charged, under the Regimental Chemical Ad-
viser and Intelligence Officer, with maintaining com-
plete map files and all intelligence covering opera-
tions.

Training Assistant. — ^This assistant is charged,
tmder the Regimental Chemical Adviser and Intelli-

GAS WARFARE 131

gence Officer, with the coordinating and assisting
in the training and instruction.

Transportation Assistant. — ^This assistant is
charged, under the Regimental Supply Officer, with
looking after the work in the transportation division
and includes operation and maintenance of all motor
vehicles.

Supply Assistant. — ^This assistant functions di-
rectly under the Regimental Supply Officer.

Special Equipment Assistant. — This assistant
is charged, under the Regimental Supply Officer,
with keeping fully informed on Special Equipment
situation as regards manufacture, supply in all de-
pots, and supply of troops operating on the lines.

Construction Assistant. — ^This assistant func-
tions directly under the Regimental Supply Officer
and is available for all construction work. He must
be a man capable of handling men on general con-
struction work.

Military Assistant. — ^This assistant functions un-
der the Regimental Adjutant. He is available for
the training of replacements, for taking charge of
or assisting in special technical training.

The duties of the Battalion Staff Officers, while
following generally those of similar positions in the
normal battalion, also parallel to a great extent the
duties of the corresponding regimental positions
outlined above. The duties of Battalion Staff Of-
ficers are, furthermore, made difficult by the neces-
sity of controlling and supplying units operating
over an extended front and in anall detachments.

The company is organized into a headquarters
section and four platoons. The headquarters sec-

132 GAS WARFARE

tion takes care of the normal administration of the
company, thus leaving the platoons free for actual
fighting. Each platoon is organized into two sec-
tions and each section consists of two Stokes mortar
gun-teams with a carrying party. This gives six-
teen mortars per company. All platoons are trained
in projector and cylinder work.

The platoon is the working unit of the regiment
This is specially true in a war of movement. It is
rarely necessary to install more than four guns in
conjunction with the advances or attacks of an in-
fantry regiment, and when it is necessary for one
company to operate on a divisional front, such an
arrangement permits covering the front not only at
the start of the operation but also enables the pla-
toons to follow the infantry regiments to which they
are attached and give assistance as the attack de-
velops.

Each platoon is organized as an independent unit
insofar as concerns its independent functioning in
action. This calls for the assignment of a cook and
the supply of the necessary cooking equipment.
Each company should be supplied with four small
field ranges in addition to the regular rolling kitchen.

The commissioned personnel of the company con-
sists of nine officers, two of whom are captains.
The additional commissioned personnel is made
necessary by the character of the work and the en-
tire number is necessary to insure proper func-
tioning.^

It is impossible for one officer to properly com*
mand the company, care for his men and at the
same time carry on the extensive liaison that is
necessary in the functioning of a gas company. The

4'

GAS WARFARE 133

addition of the second captain (the Second in Com-
mand), fills a need and has proved to be a necessity
inaction.

The Compaiqr Commander (i) actually com-
mands the company and carries the full re^xmsi-
bility of the position. (2) He directs and supervises
the training of his company. (3) He per-
sonally directs disciplinary actions and is reqxm-
sible for the discipline of the company. (4) It is
his duty to see that all officers under his command
have the requisite technical knowledge and training.
(5) It is his duty to see that all officers perform
their full duty and actually accept the full respon-
sibilities of their req)ective duties. (6) He per-
sonally examines, verifies and signs all reports and
letters connected with the company work. (7) He
makes inq)ections from time to time to ascertain
whether the company is properly clothed and
equipped and whether the eqtiipment is up to the
standard set. (8) He designates the approximate
location of advanced company and platoon head-
quarters and dumps. (9) He makes the necessary
forecasts covering amounts and kinds of ammuni-
tion and supplies needed. (10) He issues the
necessary orders to cover reconnaissances and oper-
ations. (11) He carries on and maintains liaison
with Division and Brigade Headquarters. (12) He
keeps fully informed of the tactical situation, the
plans of tibe various Commanders and makes the
necessary recommendations covering the correct
and best tactical use of the Company. ( 13 ) He as-
sists the Platoon and Section Leaders in perfecting
and maintaining liaison with Regimental and Bat-
talion Hdotdquarters. (14) He obtains informa-

134 GAS WARFARE

tion as to enemy troop concentrations and sends
data to Platoon Leaders as to possible targets. (15)
He arranges necessary system of runners and neces-
sary passage of messages between the units of his
command and units with which he may be oper-
ating.

TTie Second in Command ( i ) keeps himself pre-
pared to take up the duties and responsibilities 0I
the Company Commander at any time. (2) He
sees that all orders and instructions are complied
with and routine matters carried out. (3) He su-
pervises the care of the men, their training and
equipment, and is responsible for the company at
all times ready for immediate service. (4) He car-
ries on the interior administration of the company.
(5) He establishes and arranges forward company
billets and dumps and sees that necessary and proper
guards are established. (6) He must see that
proper messing arrangements are made and that at
all times the men are supplied with proper food. (7)
He personally checks up the ration issue and sees
that rations are properly used. (8) He supervises
the supply of munitions as given by forecasts of
the Company Commander. (9) He keeps himself
fully informed of the existing tactical situation of
all company units. (10) He is the Company Gas
Officer and Is responsible for the gas discipline of
the company.

The Company Supply Officer is responsible for
supplies, transportation and records. All supplies
(quartermaster, ordnance, signal, engineer, techni-
cal supplies and rations) must be requisitioned
through the Battalion Supply Officer. When the
company is operating independently, rations are

GAS WARFARE 135

drawn from the units to which the company is at-
tached. Each corporal is held personally responsible
for the condition of his men's equipment and must
report once each week to his platoon commander
who reports to the Company Supply Officer. Com-
pany Supply Officers make a weekly report to the
Battalion Supply Officer, showing their exact pres-
ent needs and their immediate future needs.

The minimum amount of transportation required
to perform the operation in hand and amount of
time required must be estimated. Particular atten-
tion should be paid to the type of transportation best
adapted to the operation; e. g., rail, truck, animal or
narrow gauge. This information should be con-
veyed to the Battalion Supply Officer requesting that
he furnish the transportation. Careful written or-
ders with map should be given the non-commis-
sioned officer in charge of the transportation. These
should state the time the transportation is to leave,
the cargo to be carried, the route to be followed,
the destination, and to whom the material is to be
delivered. The non-commissioned officer acting as
convoy must check the list of material delivered and
report the same to the Company Supply Officer, and
he in turn to the Company Commander. All com-
pany transportation is under his immediate control
as regards operation. The Company Supply Officer
must know at all times the location of all trucks as-
signed to his company, their condition, and the work
upon which they are engaged. All unserviceable
trucks must be reported immediately to the Regi-
mental Headquarters for disposition. Transporta-
tion is not to be overhauled by the companies. *

Careful records must be kept by the Company

136 GAS WARFARE

Supply Officer showing the disposition of all ma-
terial and equipment issued to his company. These
records should be kept so that at any time he can
render a report showing the amount of loss of any
particular supplies by his company.

The Platoon Leader ( i ) must fight his platoon
along correct tactical lines. (2) He must person-
ally see that his platoon is properly clothed,
equipped, fed and housed. (3) He must carry on
and maintain proper liaison with company and units
to which attached. (4) He must make necessary
local reconnaissances and select suitable emplace-
ments with maximum possible protection. (5) He
must actually direct the work of his platoon and
personally check up the construction of the emplace-
ment, sighting and elevations of guns, make neces-
sary examination of guns and ammunition and all
other matters pertaining to the operation. (6) He
must know each man in his platoon by name and
make a study of his abilities. (7) He makes out
accurately, necessary reports and forwards them to
the Company Commander. (8) He must keep his
platoon prepared for service at any time. (9) He
must personally take charge of the men's technical
training under the supervision of the Company
Commander and Second in Command. (10) He
takes charge of his platoon at all company forma-
tions and drills. (11) He, from all his personal
knowledge of his men, advises the Company Com-
mander as to the qualifications and shortcomings of
his men and also recommends promotions. (12)
He personally sees that all orders pertaining to hig
platoon are carried out.

Four-inch Stokes Material. — The 4-inch Stokes

GAS WARFARE 137

mortar is, within its range, a particularly suitable
weapon for gas projectiles, owing to its comparative
accuracy and rapid rate of fire, and to the quantity
of gas which each bomb contains (about 2 1/2
quarts). The comparative silence and absence of
flash on discharge are useful when surprise is de-
sired, and very heavy concentrations of gas can be
established at the target in a short period of time.
This mortar is quickly placed in position. It can
be used for several purposes and it is sufficiently
mobile to be carried forward with infantry for em-
ployment from advanced positions. It ccMisists of
a steel barrel connected by a, double collar to a tubu-
lar steel stand which is fitted with elevating and
traversing gears. The breech piece of the mortar
rests on a base plate with socket. The mounting
admits of the mortar being traversed 2 1/2*^, tra-.
versing to the right or left of the central line with-
out moving the legs of the stand or the base plate.
The rate of fire by day for a short period is 20
rounds per minute, although with a well trained
detachment a higher rate can be obtained for short
bursts, not exceeding one or two minutes. At night
12 rounds per minute is all that can be expected.

Barrel — This consists of a solid, drawn steel
tube, 48" long, with a smooth bore varying from
4.15" to 4.20" in diameter. Two bands are clamped
around the barrel near the muzzle to engage the
bipod carrying the elevating and traversing devices.
In the base of the barrel is screwed a breech piece
containing a striker stud or anvil. This anvil has
a flat top for firing cartridges and a nipple for firing
biscuits.

Stand or Bipod. — ^This is the gun support and

138 GAS WARFARE

carries the elevating and traversing mechanisnL It
consists of two tubular steel legs with a cross stay
and spiked feet to prevent spreading.

Base Plate. — ^This is an octagonal steel plate with
a flanged socket for the reception of the breech
piece. The American base plate is similar to the
British except that it is round instead of octagonal.
Base plates are usually reinforced with heavy oak
planking to prevent their displacement when firing.

The weights of the various parts of the mortar
are as follows:

Stand 30 lbs.

Barrel 90 lbs.

Base Plate 60 lbs.

Wood sub-base 60 lbs.

The mortars above described are of British man*
ufacture. American mortars are practically identi-
cal except for some slight difference of weights.

Stokes Mortar Bombs, as used by Gas Troops,
are of four types, gas, thermit, smoke, and ranging.
All American bombs are made of wrought iron or
steel. All bomb bodies are painted dirty white, and
when filled have a red band near the top of the body.
Two bombs are packed in a box, complete with
charges and fuses. The boxes measure approxi-
mately 2 feet 2 inches by 7 1/2 inches by 11 1/2
inches.

Light Smoke Bomb. — ^This is a 16-pound bomb
consisting essentially of a steel cartridge container,
sheet metal body, and a canister containing red phos-
phorus. The canister is kept in position and the
whole bomb cemented together by a layer of pitch.

GAS WARFARE 139

The gaine consists of a .410 cap, a length of Bick-
f ord fuse, and a primer which explodes an ophorite
charge in the bottom part of the gaine. The cap
is fired by a spring striker head, so adjusted that
the inertia of the striker is sufficient to compress the
spring and fire the cap on discharge. This bomb
is fired with a ballistite cartridge which gives a
maximum range of 460 yards. For this reason the
bomb is seldom used except for training purposes.

Heavy Smoke Bomb. — ^This is a 25-pound steel
bomb, of general construction, and contains 71/4
pounds of white phosphorus. It is fired by the
British 31-D or 79 fuse.

Incendiary Bomb. — This is similar to the heavy
smoke bomb in general construction and takes the
same fuses. It weighs 22 pounds and contains 7
pounds of thermit.

Gas Bomb. — There are over fifty diflferent kinds
of British gas bombs, different in details of con-
struction and operation. But they may be divided
into two general typesr— old style, fired with E. C.
biscuits ; and new style, fired with cordite rings and
with either pink or blue cartridges.

Ranging Bomb. — This is a bomb partly filled
with black powder, to be used for ranging or regis-
tering purposes. It may be fitted with either the
cartridge container for firing by cordite rings, or
with the biscuit container for firing with biscuits.
It is little used except for instruction and practice.

American Stokes Bombs. — ^American bombs
have been standardized, differing only in the gaine
tube. They all use the same propelling charge and
fuse. This will give all bombs tmiform range.

I40 GAS WARFARE

There are three general types of propellants used
with the present British Stokes mortar ammuni-
tion — ^E. C. 3 powder, cordite, and ballistite.

British E.'C. 3 Powder. — ^This propellant is used
with all British gas ammunition and ranging bombs
furnished gas troops. It is usually made up in the
form of biscuits containing 400 grains of E. C. 3
powder each. One, two or three biscuits may be
used, being placed in what is called the biscuit con-
tainer which is screwed onto the base of the bomb.
When less than three biscuits are used the extra
space in the container is filled with felt wads. The
biscuits are fired by a .303 cap reinforced with pow-
der and protected from damp by a disc and varnish.
Caps should be examined before firing. If they fit
loosely in the container they should be removed and
new ones substituted, as loose caps often cause
misfire.

British Cordite Charges. — This ammunition is
used with all thermit and heavy smoke bombs. It
consists of a 12-gauge cartridge containing 150
grains of cordite, or ballistite and from one to four
rings of 350 grains each. In firing the cordite cart-
ridge is placed in a cartridge container screwed on
the base of the bomb, and i to 4 rings placed around
the cartridge container, depending upon the range
desired. The cartridges bear their own strikers,
which are protected by a ring. Blunt strikes or
anvils turned down to a smaller diameter than the
protective ring, are used for firing. The objection
to this charge is that it makes a very strong flash
and soon dirties the mortar.

Recent ammunition has been furnished with a
blue cartridge containing 95 grams of ballistite in

GAS WARFARE 141

lieu of the cordite (called pink cartridge) described
above. This substitution has been made to reduce
the flash of discharge, but has also reduced the range
by approximately 10%.

British Ballistite Charge. — ^The ballistite charge
consists of a cartridge containing 350 grains of bal-
listite primed with gun cotton. It is used only with a
light smoke bomb. It is fired by means of a striker
clip and a flat anvil similar to that used for the
cordite cartridge.

British Mills Pistol Head. — ^This is used for
firing all gas bombs. On discharge, the inertia pellet
depresses its spring, releasing the lever, which in
turn releases the striker pin. The striker spring
being under compression expands and impinges the
striker pin against the detonating cap in the end of
the gaine tube. This fuse does not operate unless
the bomb has sufficient velocity to travel 100 yards.

British Allways or 146 Fuse. — ^This is a percus-
sion fuse which has also been used with gas bombs.
An instantaneous fuse must be used in place of the
ordinary time fuse in the bomb. Upon firing, the
tape retaining pin is dislodged, allowing the tape
to unwind during flight. This action causes the
safety bolt to drop out, arming the fuse. Vpon im-
pact the steel baU forces down the striker holder,
forcing the detonator and igniting the instantaneous
fuse. Immediately before firing, the safety pin arm
must be withdrawn. On no account should the tape
be disturbed. If on withdrawing the safety pin, the
tape retaining pin is released, it must be replaced
before firing.

31-D Fuse. — ^This fuse was formerly used on all
thermit heavy smoke and ranging bomba It was

142 GAS WARFARE

cmijr an imprDnscd fusty, waAt \Ff modifjrii^ tbc
obsokle No. 31 Bnti^ artxQerr fose; and it is now
haag sapfbtntsA br the Xol 79 (SntloQ) Mark II
fuse: The jo-D fose consists of two poirdcr trains,
set hw means of a time scale: On discharge^ the
set4iadc pellet fires the Gq>^ wfaicfa ignites the powder
train. This in turn ignites the powder ciiarge which
C3q>Iodes the bnrsting diarge in die boa&

Khish SnttOQ or 79 Fuse. — This f nse is used
on all thermit, hearv smoke and rangii^ bombs^
To set the fuse, the indicator mark in line with the
anger hofe is turned to die graduation required, and
the time train in the base of the fuse punctured bj
means of an auger. The safety pin shouM not be
withdrawn until the moment of firing. This shouM
be done with care, as a fuse cannot be clamped, and
any alteration in the setting will cause blinds. On
discharge, the set-back pellet fires an explosive cap,
which in turn ignites the powder train, and thence
the powder in the chamber.

American Trench Mortar Fuse Bilark V. —
This fuse is a simple time fuse for all ^ trench
mortar bombs where air bursts are desired. It is
essentially a copy of the British No. 79, Mark II.

American Trench Mortar Fuse, Mark XI. —
This is an "Allways" percussion fuse and is to be
used on all American 4" trench mortar bombs for
contact bursts. The safety pin is withdrawn just
before firing. On shock of discharge, the pellet sets
back, allowing the safety fork to fly out, thus arm-
ing the fuse. On impact, the striker fires the cap,
igniting the powder charge and thus exploding die
bursting charge in the bomb.

The Livens Projector is a very simple form of

GAS WARFARE 143

mortar which projects quantities of gas, incendiary,
or high explosive substances, by means of cylindri-
cal drums rounded at both ends. This projector is
a smooth-bore steel tube closed and rounded at one
end and open at the other, having an internal dia-
meter of 8". Projectors are made in various
lengths. The several types of the Livens Projectors
are as follows:

Mark No. i. Length 2V'

Thickness 3/8"

Weight 105 lbs.

Material Solid drawn steel.

Mark No. 3. Length 2'6"

Thickness 1/4"

Weight 65 lbs.

Material Lap welded mild steel.

Mark No. 9. Length 4'6"

Thickness 3/8"

Weight 150 lbs.

Material Solid drawn steel.

American Projectors. — ^The American projec-
tors are copied from the British. They are made
in two sizes, Mark I (barrel length 2'9", weight
approximately 100 pounds), and Mark II (barrel
length 4', weight 150 pounds). All projectors have
an internal diameter of 8". The wire wrapping of
projectors gives greater strength for euqaJ weight
and thus allows for a greater chamber pressure;
hence, a larger propellant charge may be used, there-
by insuring greater range. Increased portability
can also be obtained without decrease of range.

The Livens projector base plate is of pressed steel
about 1/4" thick and 18" in diameter. It weighs
about 30 pounds. It is used as a backing to pre-

144 GAS WARFARE

vent the projector from burying itself in the ground
on recoil. There is also a 12" base plate, the only
difference being that the crimped edges are flat-
tened instead of slanting as in the 18".

The Livens Drums are of three classes, gas,
incendiary and the high explosive. All drums are
made of mild steel pipe with ends nosed or spun
in. They are 21" in length and have an outside
diameter of 7-11/16''. There is a central tube run-
ning the length of the drum welded in to the drum
at both ends.

In the latest designs of the gas drum the in-
ternal diameter of this tube is slightly more than
i". These drums are filled through holes bored in
this tube about 2" from the end opposite the fuse
socket. Below these filling holes the central tube
is sealed by a steel plug welded in place. After fill-
ing, the drum is sealed by screwing a taper plug in
the filling end. The incendiary drum is similar to
the gas, the only difference being in the size of the
central tube and the method of filling. This drum
is filled from the ouside through a hole about 2"
in diameter, cut in the shoulder of the drum at the
fuse end, and closed by a screwed plug. The high
explosive drum is the same as the incendiary in
construction.

Gaine Tube. — ^This is a copper tube containing
the bursting charge of the drum. In the gas drum
this tube is about 17" long and .875" wide, while
in the incendiary its length is 19.3" and width 1.12".
The bursting charge consists of 60 grams (about
2 ounces) of T.N. T. for the gas drum, and 2 ounces
of ophorite for the incendiary.

The priming system used in all Livens drums

GAS WARFARE 145

consists of a .410 pistol cap; a 22 second Bickford
time fuse, 10" in length; and a No. 8 commercial
detonator loaded with fulminate of mercury to de-
tonate the bursting charge. The detonator is at-
tached to one end of the Bickford and the pistol cap
to the other; the whole is then inserted in a thin
brass ca^ng which in turn is placed in the gaine
tube. The pistol cap is fired by means of a device
known as a Livens or Mills fuse. The time of burn-
ing of this fuse may be varied by cutting off part
of the Bickford and crimping on a new detonator
at the desired length. This practice is not satisfac-
tory for the reason that in the field it is difficult to
make a moisture-proof joint between the detonator
and the Bickford fuse. An "AUways" time and
percussion fuse has been developed in the United
States for the several types of Livens drums.

Propelling charges are contained in a cylindrical
tin box divided into one central compartment and
six radial compartments. One compartment con-
tains 12 ounces of cordite, inserted into which is an
electric fuse and 4 ounces of black powder a priming
charge. The charge is made up of small bags con-
taining various amounts of U. S. smokeless powder.
Range variations are obtained by varying the
amount of powder in the charge box. The top of
the tin container is a stamped steel plate 11/64"
thick. The flanges of this plate overlap the sides
of the charge box. On discharge this plate is forced
out against the sides of the projector and serves
as a gas check.

Electric Fuses. — ^The British electric fuse used
to ignite the cordite propelling charges is known as
the Mark III, No. 14. In this fuse a fine platinum

'k i-J

146 GAS WARFARE

Iridium wire extends between two copper terminals,
projecting from a hard rubber casing. Around this
wire is wound a small piece of guncotton, and a
charge of 2.25 gprams of black powder which is
set off by the guncotton, and in turn explodes the
black powder in the bag surrounding the fuse and
hence the cordite propelling charge. The wire has
a resistance when cold of 1.06 ohms, and 2.6 ohms
on fusion. A current of 0.9 amperes is required
to fuse the wire and this amount must be supplied
in order to be certain of setting off the guncotton.
The American electric primer is a copy of the Brit-
ish No. 14 fuse.

Exploder. — What is known as an exploder for
Livens projectors is a small plunger driven, series
wound dynamo. The Mark V is the one now used.
It should fire a fuse through 100 to 130 ohms re-
sistance. Before being taken up to the front for
use, the exploder should always be tested to find the
actual resistance through which it fires. This is
done by connecting it up in series with a resistance
box and a 1/4" gap, across which a bridge of plati-
num iridium wire of the same nature and dimen-
sions as that in an electric fuse is placed. The
tested resistance should equal the sum of the re-
sistance of the main leads, the leads between the
guns, and the fuses, plus an allowance for resist-
ance of joints, inequality of fuses and safety. This
"factor of safety'* is taken 25-33%. Mark) V
should never be used to fire more than 20 guns.

The fuses used with the Livens drums are of two
types, both being time fuses. The Mills pistol head
is the same as that used on the Stokes gas bomb.
On discharge the inertia pellet is forced back, re-

GAS WARFARE 147

leasing the lever, which in turn releases the striker,
and detonates the cap in the gaine.

The Livens head is the fuse now commonly used.
It consists of a small inertia pellet, held in place by
a thin wire. On discharge the inertia pellet is forced
back, shearing the wire and detonating the cap.
The object of the shear wire is to prevent accidents
from shorts. If the velocity of discharge is below
a certain value, the wire does not shear and the cap
is not detonated.

Whenever installing the projectors a "V" shaped
trench is dug about 3'6" wide, I'g" deep, and 30'
long, perpendicular to the line of fire. The pro-
jectors are set at an angle of elevation of 45 degrees
by means of a clinometer, and aligned by means of
a compass. It is generally not necessary to set each
gun separately. If one gun is carefully set, several
may be aligned from it, with sufficient accuracy.
Projectors are generally dug in, in batteries of 20
each; the various batteries of an emplacement being
scattered as the conditions of terrain and cover ne-
cessitate.

Early in the European war cylinders containing
about seventy (70) pounds of liquefied gas were
used by both sides for cloud gas, or gas wave at-
tacks. The cylinder used was about 3'9" in height
and 8 1/2" in diameter, similar in all respects to
the common C02 cylinder. The siphon tube, about
3/4" in diameter, extended from a valve at the
top of the cylinder nearly to the bottom. The pres-
sure of the gas forced the liquid up this siphon tube
through the valve and out into the atmosphere
through a parapet pipe, where it vaporized.

The cylinders were placed far forward in the

148 GAS WARFARE

trench system, usually in sets of fours, connected by
rubber hose to a four-way connection and single
parapet pipe. At first, cylinders were used in about
the ratio of i per meter of front on which the at-
tack took place. More recently 3 per two meters,
or even 2 per meter were used. This was accom-
plished where the width of the trench permitted
of double banking. The cylinders weighed, when
full, about 140 pounds each.

After a close study of the tactical situation,
enemy concentrations, the terrain, and time allowed,
the Company Commander decides upon his plan of
observations. He then prepares a project which he
submits to the Chief of Staff of the division. The
project generally covers the following points: (i)
Map reference. (2) Object of proposed opera-
tion. (3) Emplacements and target. (4) Loca-
tion of billets desired. (5) Assistance or material
needed from Division (transport, carrying parties,
etc.). (6) Safety precautions to be taken by units
holding line. (7) Wind limits, with map, and
(8) Estimate of time required for installation.

On approval of his project the company com-
mander gives detailed instructions to his platoon
commanders, assigning them definite duties. These
instructions should be given in conference, and con-
firmed in writing.

All gas officers commanding units assigned to
support infantry units will immediately report to
the commanding officer of such infantry unit, pre-
pared to submit recommendations regarding the
employment of their gas troops. After reporting to
the infantry commander each comes directly under
his orders and is directly responsible to him for the

GAS WARFARE 14^

proper conduct of his command, in accordance with
the orders issued by such infantry commander. Un-
til he is relieved by the latter he is subject only to
his orders, superior commanding officers of gas
troops having no authority to issue orders to him
affecting the employment of his troops.

Commanding officers of all gas troops in assign-
ing units under competent orders, to operate with
infantry units, carefully instruct the commanders of
such units, in order that they shall fully understand
from whom they receive and obey orders and that
they are not sent into combat to conduct independ-
ent operations.

Platoon leaders make their own detailed arrange-
ments, and assign the tasks in their own platoons.
They organize their platoons as required for carry-
ing, digging in, and camouflaging. Their orders
specify the approximate emplacements and target.
They must in general determine range, changes, and
angle of fire. Their plan of operations, with de-
tailed instructions, should be written and submitted
to the company commander for check and approval.

As soqn as material arrives, the installation is
commenced. As a rule all work must be done at
night, in absolute darkness, and silently. This
means that each man must know his task, and carry
it out promptly and carefully. All material sent
forward must be complete and ready for use. No
necessary item must be omitted.

Work done by gas troops in forward areas must
be directed and controlled with the greatest care
and caution. The enemy must not be forewarned
by sound or sign. The success of the entire opera-
tion depends primarily upon surprise. Warning to

ISO GAS WARFARE

the enemy will result in a heavy shelling of the
area, and probably in a withdrawal of the target.

Camouflage is the concealing of all woric done
in such a manner as to give no sign of activity or
change. It must, therefore, conform to the sur-
roundings. It must protect against: (i) Aerial
|Aotography, (2) air observation — ^airplane or bal-
loon, (3) direct observation. It is necessary to con-
sider and provide against new tracks, regularity of
lines, production of shadows, and leaving any work
uncovered.

Preliminary reconnaissance must include a special
study of camouflage requirements, and the report
cover the exact kind and amount needed. Natiunl
camouflage is superior if it can be obtained without
being itself noticed. The concealment of emplace-
ments must be carefully supervised each morning
before leaving. In difficult cases the division cam-
ouflage expert may be called on for assistance.

When the installation is nearly completed, the
Company Commander issues his operation order.
In addition, a company operation order is issued
giving the duties of all platoon or section leaders in
the operation.

The zero hour is usually set in conference with
the Chief of Staff of the Division, as it may be de-
pendent on other operations. If not, the best time
to shoot is at night, when the target is most heavily
held, or in general when the chances of surprise are
greatest.

Liaison. — Experience has demonstrated the great
importance of good liaison. It must always be
maintained with all units whose operations are in
any way dependent upon or influenced by the opera-

GAS WARFARE 151

tions of the gas troops. In normal operations tele-
phones, runners or dispatch riders may be utilized.
Use of telephones is not advisaMe since unusual
activity is apt to arouse suspicion. Dispatch riders
are not reliable. A good runner system is therefore
essential. In planning operations, runners must be
provided for, and trained. They are always sent in
pairs, and should be sent frequently over their
routes, both by day and night, to insure proper liai-
son in action.

From company headquarters to the rear the army
dispatch service should normally be used. All mes-
sages should be properly addressed and marked "to
be called for." Messages for Regimental Head-
quarters of Gas Troops will normally be sent "in
care of Army Message Center," for Battalion Head-
quarters "in care of Corps Message Center."

In active operations where platoons may be de-
tached from company headquarters, it may be inad-
visable to utilize company runners, in which case
messages may be sent to company "in care of Divi-
sion Message Center."

Since both Stokes mortars and Livens projectors
are more or less crude forms of artillery, they have
large dispersions of shots, both in range and deflec-
tion. Moreover, due to defective propellants, etc.,
shorts quite frequently occur. These short shots
may fall only one or two hundred yards from the
emplacement and if the fuse is armed they explode
and become a source of danger to our own troops.
It therefore becomes necessary in conducting Stokes
and Livens projector operations to prescribe certain
safety zones for our own personnel and to remove
all troops from territory outside the safety limits.

CHAPTER XI

•

Tactical Use of Gas, Thermit and Smoke by Gas Troops,
Choice of Weapons, Training of Gas Troops, Liaison,
Service of Security and Information, Training of
Special Detachments.

The amount and the kind of gas used by gas
troops should conform to tactical conditions, having
due regard for wind and terrain conditions.

In an Active OflFcnsivc. — Gas may be correctly
used as follows: (a) Preceding an attack, all en-
emy targets should be kept under a gas atmosphere,
allowing only a reasonable time for clearance be-
fore the arrival of our troops. Only by so doing
can the full benefit be derived in producing casual-
ties, demoralization, reduction in fighting efficiency,
and morale, (b) During a temporary check of an
advance, extending from a few hours to several
days, gas should be used on enemy concentrations,
villages, strong points, woods, reverse slopes and
machine-gun nests, (c) During organization and
consolidation of the line gas should be used as for
a temporary check, with special attention to sectors
from which counterattacks may be launched, (d)
During nights of an advance gas should be used on
enemy supports and reserves, and on machine-gun
nests and strong points, (e) Against machine-guna
just before an attack, a judicious use of gas by
Stokes mortars is an effective means of handling

152

GAS WARFARE 153

this form of defense. Placing from two to ten
bombs of phosgene, depending on wind and terrain
conditions, in a machine-gun nest establishes a local
concentration sufficient to kill and force enemy to
wear masks or abandon guns. The gas will have
dissipated sufficiently by the time of arrival of our
own troops to be safe. Close cooperation between
the advanced infantry units and gas troops will al-
low this result. Troops must become accustomed
to the smell of slight concentrations of phosgene,
and should be taught to advance through or around
it, just as they are trained to follow a barrage.

In Stabilized Warfare. — Surprise shoots of high
concentration may be used on enemy concentra-
tions, machine-gun and minenwerfer emplacements,
strong points, trench intersections, and from one
end of the line to the other, when conditions are
favorable.

Thermit may be used under conditions similar to
the above, when conditions of wind or terrain pre-
vent the use of gas.

The intelligent use of smoke in modem infantry
tactics offers many advantages arising from con-
cealment and deception. It may be correctly used
by gas troops as follows: (a) To mask enemy
observation posts and blind hostile machine-guns,
(b) To cover front and flanks of attacking troops.
In frontal screens care must be exercised to place
the smoke screen, preferably on the enemy trench
system, so that an enemy barrage laid on the screen
will not catch our own advancing troops, (c) As a
feint to draw the enemy's attention to a front which
it is not expected to attack, causing him needlessly
to retain troops and expend ammunition, (d) De-

154 GAS WARFARE

ceptive screens to simulate general or local attacks.
Gas should generally be used with smoke in these
cases. A proper use of gas in connection with
smoke screen work will cause the enemy to expect
gas whenever smoke is used. This offers a tremen-
dous advantage to our own troops, (e) To con-
ceal concentrations of our guns and troops, and to
screen roads and movements, (f) To cover con-
struction of bridges and trenches in the face of the
enemy.

The use of smoke should be such as to lead the
enemy to expect or anticipate some object other than
the real one.

The Stokes Mortar. — ^The mortar gas bomb is
adapted to any of the cases set forth above. The
mortar is especially useful in an active offensive
where its mobility permits it to be pushed far for-
ward and brought into operation on short notice.
With efficient transport, gun teams can readily fol-
low the reserve battalions of attacking regiments
and be brought into action when required on enemy
machine-gun nests or concentrations within two
hours. This weapon is particularly adapted to the
formation of local high concentrations, and is one
of the best means of silencing hostile machine guns
or minenwerfers within range. The smoke bomb
is used effectively under all conditions given above.
The mortar thermit bomb is used primarily for its
demoralizing effect, against enemy machine-guns,
of concentrations within range It is not as effective
as gas, but can be used irrespective of wind direc-
_ tions. It may at times be used where conditions are

r unfavorable for smoke, or in addition to smoke, on

GAS WARFARE 155

strong points, trench intersections, and machine-
guns. It has a considerable terrorizing effect.

The Projector. — ^The projector gas drum, with
its thirty pounds of gas, is an excellent weapon
for producing high concentrations in surprise shoots.
It is especially effective against enemy concentra-
tions, in villages and woods.

Due to its longer range, it can be used when
Stokes mortars cannot. On the other hand, the
weight and bulk of the equipment hinder its use
on a rapidly moving front. With a length of carry
not to exceed 500 meters from the limit of mortar
traffic to the emplacements, from 100 to 150 pro-
jectors can be installed and discharged in one night
by one company. This makes the projectors an
efficient weapon during temporary checks, or dur-
ing organizations and consolidation of the line.

Projector drums filled with high explosive may
be used whenever wind conditions prevent the use
of gas. They contain large charges in a case which
is much lighter than an artillery shell, and are very
deadly against troops in the open. They may also
be used to demolish wire.

Cylinders. — ^A cylinder gas attack against suit-
able targets is undoubtedly the most effective means
of using gas. High concentrations may be estab-
lished over wide areas, and to depths of 10 or 15
kilometers. Even when the enemy has been aware
that an attack was probable, there have been casu-
alties amounting to nearly 10% of the enemy forces
in the area affected. In addition, the gases, being
highly corrosive in high concentrations, attack the
metal parts of all guns and rifles. A cylinder at-

156 GAS WARFARE

tack, with a suitable wind, may be made imme-
diately preceding an attack along the entire front.
It can be closely followed by the infantry and will
succeed in thoroughly breaking the defense.

Training of Gas Troops. — In the training of
gas troops it must be kept constantly in mind that
they are strictly fighting troops who will be required
to carry on their operations in the foremost areas.
They must be trained to insure correct technical
execution with their special equipment, as well as
to know how to handle themselves in action as In-
fantry, and take care of themselves in all emergen-
cies of front line work.

The course as outlined herein is of the most in-
tensive character, but must be considered of an
emergency nature made necessary in order to place
troops in action at the earliest practicable moment.

In addition, the assumption is made that the
troops are organized and equipped, have a full com-
plement of officers and at least half of their non-
commissioned officers, and that they have received
preliminary instructions, including the simpler close
order movements up to and including the Battalion
Parade.

The course is divided into two phases, the first
consisting of eight weeks and the second four weeks.
The first phase consists of the school proper and is
divided roughly as follows: (a) Four weeks or
forty-four drill periods devoted to special training
in the use and operation of the special equipment,
(b) Two weeks or twenty-two periods to infantry
training, (c) Two weeks or twenty-two periods
devoted to target practice, instruction and firing.

The second phase covers four weeks, during

CAS WARFARE 157

which platoons or sections are attached to units of
experienced troops actually operating at the front.
During this phase troops under instruction will as-
sist the experienced troops by providing additional
labor and gradually working into the operations,
fixing the work of the first phase definitely in all
details, under the conditions met with in actual op-
erations at the front. Where it is impossible to do
this, an additional four weeks should be allowed
and the entire phase used in improving discipline,
technical execution, and the carrying out of opera-
tions under all simulated conditions, of front line
work.

Underlying all instruction must be a keen fighting
spirit. Both officers and men must be made to ap-
preciate from the very start that the ultimate and
sole object of the work of this organization is to
produce enemy casualties and assist other organiza-
tions to produce enemy casualties. Its success and
value to the Army and country can be measured
directly in enemy casualties. Gas troops are care-
fully instructed in their part in the team work neces-
sary to the success of tactical operations in which
they may be engaged, especially in the necessity of
giving loyal and faithful service to the coraimand-
ing officer of the infantry unit under whose orders
they may be directed to operate.

Officers and men must appreciate that absolute
discipline, and compliance with orders and instruc-
tions, are not only essential to greater direct success,
but also afford the only real means of pro-
tection against large casualties in our own per-
sonnel. The men must not be allowed to drill in an
indifferent or aimless manner. The picture of ac-

1S8 GAS WARFARE

tual combat must be kept in the mind of the in-
structor and transmitted to those undergoing in-
struction.

Lectures are reduced to a minimtun, made brief
and whenever possible given in connection with ex-
planations and demonstration of equipment in the
field. Gas defense training is continued during the
entire course of training, using any available time
and under conditions which will leave every man
capable of protecting himself in extreme emergency.

School Phase. — It is essential that the officers
who are to actually lead the troops be trained with
them, and know their men. This necessitates di-
viding the personnel into six classes, dividing along
tactical lines of the units where possible. These
classes are as follows:

Class A — One-half of commissioned personnel.

Qass B — One-half of commissioned personnel.

Qass C — One-half of non-commissioned per-
sonnel.

Class D — One-half of non-commissioned per-
sonnel.

Class E — One-half of remainder of units.

Class F — One-half of remainder of units.

Classes A, B, C and D are given sufficient actual
field training with the special equipment to insure
not only a thorough understanding, but also correct
mechanical execution. Officers are trained sepa-
rately from the other ranks, and are required to
actually handle and carry loads, use the pick and
shovel, and do all the practical work. They also
carry out operations, including transportation of
material, both before and after the operation.

Throughout the course of instruction the strictest

>*

\

GAS WARFARE 159

attention is paid to discipline, the routine adminis-
tration of the units, and in as far as possible, the
routine functioning of officers and men. Strict at-
tention is paid to the performance of guard duty.
Messing arrangements are carefully supervised and
additional training given in the handling of rations.
Billeting of the men is given careful consideration.
Sanitation and proper policing is carefully watched.
Bathing of the men is done by schedule and super-
vised.

In the general training stress must be laid on the
absolute necessity of learning routine administra-
tion, the proper handling and care of men under
the better conditions of the rear areas, or training
camps, so thoroughly that both officers and men will
be able to take care of themselves under the adverse
conditions of the front line work. Discipline and
insistence on the performance of every detail of
this work is essential.

Infantry Training. — ^This includes ( i ) Physical
Training. (2) School of the Squad. (3) School
of the Platoon. In the work of the gas troops
the platoon is the working unit and it should be an
entirety in itself. It should be trained as a unit and
should work together. It should be so organized
that it can undertake independent operations. (4)
School of the Company and the Battalion. Cere-
monies should be given a prominent place in the
schedule. As the training progresses and the units
are split up undergoing technical training, the pa-
rade and review offer the best means of keeping the
men set up and snappy. ( 5 ) Guard Duty. Formal
guard mounts should be held. Especial care must
be taken in the instruction of sentinels; they must

i6o GAS WARFARE

be made to realize the serious nature of their charge
when posted as sentinels, in time of war. Any lax-
ity in the training area may result in the gravest
offense in the forward area. (6) Extended Order.
In the close order work correct execution should be
the ke)mote. This should be obtained at once, and
the extended order taken up at the earliest oppor-
tunity, maintaining just sufficient close order work
to keep the men set up and in hand. Extended
order instruction should progress as rapidly as is
consistent with correct execution to field maneuvers
with especial reference to service of security, pa-
trolling, inter-communication and thorough con-
trol. (7) Full Marching Order. In forward areas
the men will be required to make many marches
under full pack, frequently bivouacking in the open.
They will be trained how to carry the essentials,
and only the essentials, as well as how to go into
bivouac and take care of themselves. Only by doing
this frequently, and under the closest supervision,
will it be possible to carry on efficiently forward
where every ounce of energy of both officers and
men must be conserved. (8) Fighting Order. Men
should be required in all field operations to go
equipped as they would actually go into action, with
the exception of rifle ammunition, which should be
used during the last week of their training, but after
they have had range practice. (9) Gas Defense
Training. In the first drill periods careful instruc-
tion must be given in the correct mechanical adjust-
ment of the respirators. This instruction must be
followed up during the entire period of training by
frequent drills so as to insure prompt and correct
adjustment under all conditions. This is of special

GAS WARFARE i6i

importance in night work, and night marches should
be made with the respirators adjusted. Men should
be trained to fire Stokes mortars with respirators
adjusted. Instructors should pay special attention
to requiring men to adjust the mask at odd times
when engaged on other work, such as digging in
projectors, carrying material forward, and the like.

The use of a mild lachrymator will materially
assist in showing the importance of this work and
assist in checking up delinquencies.

Liaison* — It is very important to select smart,
intelligent men as runners. They should be men
who are above the average in soldierly qualities,
but not mature enough for non-commissioned rank.
They should receive the same trainnig as other en-
listed men, but when they have learned the technical
work and drill, they should be given special instruc-
tions in map reading, use of the compass, finding
their direction at night, and carrying verbal mesr^
sages from Battalion or Company Commanders to
Company Officers without any alteration.

During practice operations on the training
ground they should be used by the officers in con-
veying code messages relating to the operation and
they should be practiced at night, getting across
country after dark.

Each officer selects and trains two runners for his
own use. He is responsible that these men are fit
for the job, and that.they realize the importance of
the duties in hand.

When companies move up to battle positions,
these men are required to accompany officers on
reconnaissances of the advanced line, to act as
guides for carrying parties, as runners attached to

i62 GAS WARFARE

an assaulting battalion, or left as runners to wait
important messages at a Divisional, Brigade, Regi-
mental or Battalion Headquarters. When on the
last mentioned duty, they must not leave the mes-
sage center or headquarters day or night until re-
lieved.

They must have a good sense of direction and
be able to find their way over descJate country at
night with few visible landmarks.

When moving about in the advance zone an of-
ficer is accompanied by at least one runner, so that
the latter will have a thorough knowledge of the
country and be in a position to convey messages'
from his officer at any later time to the company
headquarters, or to any infantry headquarters.
This is especially necessary during an operation
where the officer is busily engaged in his work of
preparation, and has to send back reports of prog-
ress of same.

Service of Security and Information. — ^This
should follow the principles laid down in the Field
Service Regulations with special attention to the
following :

Secrecy. — ^The success of these operations de-
pends largely upon the attack being a complete sur-
prise to the enemy. Codes must be used. Care
should be exercised in the use of telephones. Tele-
phones should not be used for conversation in
''clear*' or at regular intervals, as in the transmis-
sion of meteorological data. When operating with
other units in the line greatest care must be exer-
cised so as not to indicate increased activity. The
regulations in force in the particular sector must
be strictly complied with.

GAS WARFARE 163

Camouflage. — ^The simpler principles shotild be
covered which will allow an officer to decide as to
color and texture of material, quantity and dimen-
sions of artificial material, as well as to make the
best out of natural concealment in woods and acci-
dents of the terrain. Track discipline is of especial
importance. The position should never be left
either before or after firing before it is thoroughly
camouflaged. Frequent aerial photographs should
be obtained as work progresses on the larger oper-
ations.

Meteorology. — There are certain fundamental
principles in meteorology which every officer should
understand. All gas operations are dependant in
more or less degree upon wind and weather condi-
tions, but with an understanding of the simpler
principles and complete data, not only from the
Meteorological Service itself, but from that ob-
tained by the Meteorological Sections of the units
themselves, it is possible to predict and make a much
larger use of gas than would otherwise be possible.
This is so important and will be of such greater
importance in future operations that this knowledge
must be obtained. The safety limits must be thor-
oughly imderstood.

Service of Supply. — Under this should be cov-
ered all the details of supply, whether automatic
or otherwise, and a definite understanding had as to
the procedure in each case.

Map Reading and Making. — It is not only dis-
graceful but criminal for an officer to take his men
into action over unfamiliar ground without the
ability to keep himself properly located at all times.

Organization of an Attack.— Operations such

i64 GAS WARFARE

as the gas troops must carry out frequently neces-
sitate the movement of large amoimts of material
and use of a considerable number of men. As in
any other operation it requires careful planning
and organization. Time is an essential element and
must always be taken into consideration. If nor-
mal contingencies are allowed for, the adverse con-
ditions of front line work will usually add sufficient
difficulties to tax the energy and ability of all con-
cerned without allowing for mistakes and lack of
supplies.

Writing of Orders. — All officers must be trained
to write clear, complete and correct orders covering
units which they will be expected to lead. After a
thorough explanation of the necessity and the de-
tails to be covered in an order, practical instruction
in connection with actual operations undertaken in
the general training will usually suffice if these or-
ders are carefully checked and mistakes corrected.

Meteorological Section. — Eight men in each
battalion should be thoroughly trained to take and
properly record meteorological data. They should
know how to interpret data received from the
Meteorological Service and apply it to local condi-
tions. A regular system should be instituted in each
battalion and company so as to keep all officers
thoroughly informed as to wind and weather con-
ditions.

Runner Service. — Each battalion and company
should have four trained runners and each platoon
leader two trained runners. These men should be
carefully selected, intelligent and resourceful. They
must be instructed in the operations of the units
and their relation to the other troops with which

GAS WARFARE 165

the unit is operating. They should be trained to
carry messages correctly under the most adverse
conditions, and must be made to realize that upon
their work the failure or success of an operation
may depend.

CHAPTER XII

Use of Gas by the Air Service, Tactical Use of Incendiary
and Smoke Bombs, Altitude Flying and Oxygen Ap-
paratus, Chanard Incendiary Bombs, Training Smoke
Bombs.

When the United States entered the European
war no satisfactory incendiary bombs had been
produced by any country, and consequently a long
period had to be given over to experimentation be-
fore quantity production could be attained. In due
time two types of incendiary bombs were produced,
the first being of the scatter type, designed for use
against light structures, grain fields, and the like,
and the second of the intensive type for use against
large structures and well defined targets. The
American intensive bombs weighed about 40 pounds
each and contained charges of oil emulsion, ther-
mit, and metallic sodium, a combination of chem-
icals that burns with intense heat. These bombs
were used against ammimition depots or any struc-
tures of an inflammable nature. The sodium in the
charge was designed to have a discouraging effect
upon any one who attempted to put out the fire of
the burning charge, since metallic sodium explodes
with great violence if water is poured upon it.

One of the interesting phases of the bomb man-
ufacturing program grew out of the necessity for
target practice for aviators. For this work dummy

166

GAS WARFARE 167

bombs of terra cotta were built, costing about a
dollar apiece. Instead of loading these bombs with
explosive, there was placed in each a small charge
of phosphorus and a loaded paper shotgun shell,
so that the bomb would eject a puff of smoke when
it hit its object. The aviators could see the smoke
puffs and thereby determine the accuracy of their
aim.

Night-flying is one of the most hazardous duties
of the aviator, the chief danger being in landing.
The aviator at night can usually see the ground
faintly, but he is unable to make an accurate judg-
ment of the distance of his machine above the
ground. This danger is greatly alleviated when
wing-tip Hares are used. The wing-tip flare con-
sists of a small cylinder of magnesium material in
a metallic holder, one flare being fitted under each
lower wing of the plane and being controlled by a
push button in the pilot's cockpit. Pressure on the
button sends an electric spark into the magnesium
and touches it off. When ignited the flare bums
for about 50 seconds with the brilliant light of
20,000 candle power, the reflection from the under
surface of the wing lighting up the field for an
adequate distance in all directions.

To enable the night bomber to see his target a
piece of pyrotechnics known as the airplane flare
is employed. This is a great charge of magnesium
light held in a cylindrical sheet-iron case nearly
4 feet long and 5 inches in diameter, and weighing
32 pounds. Within the cylinder is not only the
magnesium stick but also a silk parachute, 20 feet
in diameter. The entire cartridge is attached to
the airplane by a release mechanism similar to those

i68 GAS WARFARE

holding the drop-bombs. When over his objective
at night the pilot or observer touches a button and
the entire cartridge, iron case and all, drops from
the plane. A pin wheel on the lower end of the
case is instantly spun by the rush of air, and the
resulting power not only ignites the magnesium but
at the same time detonates a charge of black pow-
der sufficient in force to eject from the case the
flare and its tightly rolled parachute. The para-
chute immediately opens ; and the burning flare des-
cends slowly, flooding a large area of the ground
below with a light of 320,000 candle power, this
light burning for about ten minutes. Such a light
not only enables the bomber to drop his destructive
missiles accurately, but dazzles the eyes of anti-
aircraft gunners below and makes their aim inac-
curate. The light of this flare is so strong that
it is possible for the airplane above to obtain pho-
tographs of good detail on the darkest of nights.
The first oxygen apparatus for high altitude
flying was designed for the British Air Service,
and the first squadron which used the apparatus
reported that its men gave six times the service of
any other British squadron. The American Air
Service adopted the Dreyer oxygen apparatus,
which was the original device produced by the Brit-
ish. The first British apparatus was heavy and
built to supply oxygen to one man only. It was
afterwards reduced in weight, changed to take care
of two men and re-designed to meet American fac-
tory methods. In its present state of development
this equipment consists of a small tank or tanks,
the pressure apparatus, the tube leading from the
reservoir, and the face mask covering the mouth

GAS WARFARE 169

and nose. The mask has combined with it either
the interphone, a mechanism which cuts off the roar
of the engine from the ears of the passengers and
allows the pilot and observer to talk freely with
each other, or in certain cases the receiver of the
radio telephone or telegraph. All military planes
(day and night bombing, pursuit, chasse, and Army
and Corps observation planes) flying above an alti-
tude of 10,000 feet are required to be equij^ed
with oxygen apparatus.

French Chanard Incendiary Bomb. — ^This
bomb, of the intensive type, is commonly employed
by the American Air Service, and consists of a case
or body, nose, stabilizer wings, H tube, quick match,
tubes, vents, firing mechanism and safety propeller.

Construction. — The bomb body or case is com-
posed of two longitudinal halves of an ellipsoid of
revolution. The edges of these are soldered to the
annular core or H tube. Both the body and the H
tube are made of tin plate. The H tube is filled
with special thermit mixture, which is known as
C. D. powder or Daisite No. 2. The charge is 275
grams. The main body is filled with Chanard in-
cendiary material. This material consists of a plas-
tic semi-fluid mass which on combustion flows
freely. It consists principally of nitrocellulose and
resin with a mixture of turpentines.

Firing Mechanism. — ^This consists of a safety
propeller with screw and plug into which screws a
socket, striker, striker spring, three steel balls,
striker sleeve, and quick match or fuse in the tube.

Method of Operation. — ^During shipment the
propeller is held stationary by two strands of wire
attached respectively to the propeller and the body

I70 GAS WARFARE

of the bomb. The firing mechanism is permanently
locked by means of a propeller screw which abso-
lutely prevents accidental fimctioning. Before the
bomb is placed in the suspension on the plane, the
wires which hold the propeller are removed and
the propeller unscrewed by no more than four com-
plete turns. The bomb is then placed in the sus-
pension where the propeller is prevented from re-
volving by means of a spring wire which engages
the blades. The firing mechanism consists prin-
cipally of a striker driven forward by a spring.
The tail of the striker, which is hollow, is held in
place by three equi-distant balls separated by the
thickness of the striker. These balls are held in
place between the vertical wall and the striker sleeve
and the propeller stem. As the propeller unscrews,
the stem moves with almost no f rictional resistance,
imtil the lower end passes the equator of the three
balls. At that moment the striker spring comes into
play. The balls drop into the striker and the striker
is driven with considerable force against the de-
tonator.

Action. — As the bomb is released from the air-
plane, the current of air produced by the falling
body, unsc;rews the propeller. Five seconds later,
that is to say, at a distance of from 60 to 80 meters
from the machine, the firing mechanism is auto-
matically unlocked and immediately the 8-second
fuse or quick match contained therein is ignited.
When that time has elapsed and the bomb has des-
cended some 500 meters or more, the firing mechan-
ism is blown off by a slight explosion and the ma-
terial in the H tube is ignited at four different
points. The bomb is split in two halves by melting

GAS WARFARE 171

the solder and the main incendiary mass is ignited.
As this action takes place, the bomb is still droppmg
through the air, and it reaches its target in flames.
The blazing contents are deposited on the target
without the necessity of an explodon. Here it
continues to bum for some 18 minutes. A blade
smoke is given off which hinders fire fighting.

Marking. — The bomb is painted with light red
oil paint. Around the vent holes are painted white
circles and on the body of the bomb are the mark-'
ings "C. D. 120."

When these bombs are removed from the case,
they should be lifted by their suspension keys. If
replaced, they should be deplaced in a horizontal
position with the suspension keys crossed.

The Chanard Incendiary Bomb is so designed
that it will penetrate an ordinary roof and deposit
its contents in the interior of ihe building. The
incendiary material of the bomb being already ig-
nited when it hits the target, it continues to melt,
run and burn as it runs communicating this fire to
any inflammable material which it reaches. A
bc«rnb of this type should, of course, be used only
against well defined targets where a direct hit is
possible, for if it should miss the target and strike
on the ground or other uninflammable material its
effect would be nil.

Incendiary Bombs of the Scatter Type possess
the advantage of not requiring a direct hit, because
the material scatters to a certain extent; but they
possess a disadvantage in that the amount of in*
cendiary material in any one place is small and un-
less the material is quite inflammable it will not be
set on fire.

172 GAS WARFARE

French Training No. 2 Smoke Bomb, SteeL —
This bomb consists of a firing pin, shear wire, safety
pin, cartridge plug, gaine head, steel ogive, 10 cali-
ber cartridge, filled with "T" powder, sheet steel
body, gaine tube, ballast of cast sulphur, stabilizer
wings, tin tube containing titanium tetrachloride,
cork plug, cement plug, and cotton wad. All the
metal parts are made of steel or iron. *T" powder
is a highly nitrated sporting powder containing less
than 1.3% moisture.

Method of Operation. — The bomb is designed
so that it has the same trajectory as regular bombs
and is used to train aviators in bomb dropping.
When suspended in the dropping mechanisms the
safety pin is removed. On striking the objective
the shear wire is cut and the firing pin impinges
on the detonator of the cartridge, which is thereby
fired. This expels the tin tube containing the ftmii-
gen and at the same time breaks it, causing a scat-
tering of the liquid titanium tetrachloride, which
substance produces a white cloud of smoke visible
from the airplane.

Marking. — ^The bomb is painted black, but has
no special markings other than the Inspector of the
Forges.

French Training Smoke Bomb, Cement. —
This bomb is a modification of the foregoing steel
smoke bomb. It has narrower stabilizer wings and
a more streamlike shape. A different gaine head is
used and the gaine reinforcing tube is done away
with. The main difference between this bomb and
the French Training No. 2 smoke bomb, steel, is
that the body is made of cement rather than of
steel filled with cast sulphur, and that the gaine

GAS WARFARE 173

tube has a reinforcing tube near the nose end in the
older model.

Method of Operation and Marking. — The
method of operation and marking is the same as
for the French Training No. 2 smcdce bomb, steel,
except that the stabiUzer wings only are painted
black, the body being impainted.

These bombs are designed for use only in train-
ing bomb droppers in the use of bomb sights and
release mechanism. On impinging on the ground
the bomb expels its charge of fumigenite (titanium
tetrachloride) which gives a smoke cloud which is
visible to the bomb dropper in the plane, thus in-
forming him as to whether or not he has hit the
desired target

CHAPTER XIII

Gas Zones, Gas Alarms, Gas Sentries, Action during and
after Gas Attack, Division Organization of Disinfect-
ing Service, Duties of Regimental and Battalion Gas
Officers.

Two zones, known as the "Alert" and "Danger"
zones, are defined in the area of the armies. The
approximate extent of these zones is as follows :

Alert Zone. — ^The area within three kilometers
of the front line, together with areas especially sub-
ject to shelling with gas, including all active bat-
tery positions and other points, such as villages,
cross roads and convenient concentration points for
. troops, to be designated by the Division Gas Officer.

Danger Zone. — The area between three and ten
kilometers to the rear of the front line.

Within the alert zone all persons in or con-
nected with the military service wear the respirator
in the "Alert" position. Every man is clean-shaven,
except that a mustache may be worn, and the hair
is kept short in accordance with Army Regulations.
Sleeping men must not remove the respirators from
their bodies. A sufficient number of sentries must
be posted to awaken all men quickly in case of a
gas attack. Respirators and all gas defense appU-
ances mill be inspected daily in this zone. Horse
respirators are worn in the "Alert" position.

Within the danger zone, troops carry their re-

174

GAS WARFARE 175

spirators at all times, except when asleep, in which
case the respirators are within immediate reach.
Respirators and gas defense appliances are inspect-
ed three times a week. Horse respirators are worn
in the "carry" position over all equipment.

Sentinels and military police are instructed to
allow no person connected with the Military Service
to pass without complying with all the rules re-
lating to the wearing of respirators. ^ They report
all cases of infringement of the above orders, and
copies of these reports are furnished to the regi-
mental or divisional gas officers.

The above-named zones are conspicuously
marked by each regiment in such a manner as to at-
tract the attention of persons entering them. When
not carried in the "Alert" position, the box respira-
tor is carried in the slung position, this is, over the
left hip, the sling passing over the right shoulder.
Nothing is worn so as to interfere with the im-
mediate shifting of the respirator to the "Alert"
position.

An efficient system of gas alarms is provided
throughout the "Danger" zone, and especially in
the "Alert" zone. This includes Klaxon horns, rat-
tles and triangles, together with other signals ap-
proved for this purpose by the Division Commander
on recommendation of the Division Gas Officer.
These alarms are used solely for the purpose of
giving warning in case of a gas attack. When
necessary, civil authorities within divisional areas
are warned by Division Headquarters. Any person
becoming aware of the presence of gas or of an im-
pending gas attack gives alarm by means of the
alarm signals or by calling "Gas." Any one who

i;6 GAS WARFARE

knowingly gives a false gas alarm is tried l^ court-
martial

Ail sentries act as gas sentries, and if neces-
sary, special gas sentries are posted in order that
the alarm may be promptly and properly given.
Special gas sentries have definite areas to alarm in
the event of a gas attack. Two sentinels are posted
at night. When deemed necessary one of them
wears the respirator completely adjusted. They re-
lieve each other of wearing the respirator every
half hour. All working parties of ten or more men
have a gas sentry posted. All sentries, traffic con-
trol men, military police, etc., when on duty act as
gas sentries, and are provided with suitable alarm
devices when necessary. Sentries are posted over
all men sleeping and all men in dugouts or shelters,
and each sentry is definitely responsible for the
group assigned to him. The loss of a few seconds
in giving gas alarms may increase very greatly the
number of casualties. In case of gas attack, sen-
tries shout **Gas!", put on their respirators and then
give the alarm. If possible, sentries should be
placed in positions overlocJcing the enemy lines to
detect the characteristic flash which accompanies a
projector attack. Sentries should be carefully in-
structed in methods of detecting the various forms
of gas attacks, such as the hissing sound accompany-
ing cloud attacks, and the flash, loud explosion and
whirring of projectiles in a projector attack. In
case of doubt, especially when a projector attack
is suspected, alarm is given. As frequent false gas
alarms will eventually cause troops to disregard an
alarm, gas sentries are carefully selected and thor-

GAS WARFARE 177

oughly instructed, so that false alarms are reduced
to a minimum.

Any concentration of troops within 1 500 yards of
the enemy lines should be avoided, unless the tacti-
cal situation so requires. Within this area every
precaution must be taken to avoid giving informa-
tion to the enemy of localities in which troops are
concentrated, since such points of concentration
are chosen as targets for projectors.

At the instant that any gas alarm is given, all
ranks immediately put on respirators and wear them
until the order to remove masks is given by an of-
ficer acting upon the advice of a Gas Officer. In
the case of isolated groups and in the absence of
a Gas Officer, the order to remove masks is given
by the non-commissioned officer in charge, who will
report this action promptly to the nearest officer.
In case the gas attack is followed by an assault
of enemy infantry not wearing masks, respirators
may be removed without formal order. Any officer
or man who fails to put on his respirator when
warned by a Gas Officer or by a general gas alarm
of the presence of gas, or who removes his re-
spirator without proper authority, is disciplined.
If a person under such circumstances becomes a
casualty, he is considered as wounded "not in the
line of duty."

The blanket curtains of protected dugouts and
cellars are properly adjusted, fires in such dugouts
put out and flues closed. The organization attacked
at once notifies battalion headquarters and troops
on the flank of the attack. Battalion headquarters
in turn notifies regimental headquarters and the

178 GAS WARFARE

R^mental Gas Officer. Regimental headquarters
notifies divisional headquarters of all gas attacks.
Additional q>reading of the alarm takes place
when necessary. No one enters a gassed area
into which he is not obliged to go in line of duty,
and all who are within a gassed area refrain from
all movement and conversation not required by mili-
tary necessity.

When the tactical situation permits, troops not on
duty should be allowed to remain in gasproof dug-
outs, and to remove their masks, if the dugout is
entirely free from, gas. An additional sentry must
then be posted inside the dugout at each entrance
until the area is free from gas. AU unnecessary
movement and talking must cease. In case of a
cloud gas attack, all bodies of troops or transport
on the move will halt, and working parties cease
work until the gas cloud has passed. If a relief
is in progress, units should stand steady as far as
possible until the gas cloud has passed. Supports
and parties bringing up ammunition and grenades
are only moved up if the tactical situation demands.
As soon as possible after or during a gas attack,
gas officers determine whether a "persistent** or a
"non-persistent** gas is being employed. When the
situation permits a position extensively bombarded
by the most persistent gas, namely, mustard, must
be temporarily evacuated.

If mustard gas is used, the area is dangerous, for
one or two days, and sometimes longer, unless the
tactical situation forbids, and an area subjected to
such a gas attack should be promptly evacuated for
a period of three days, or until pronounced safe by
the Divisional or Regimental Gas Officer. If prac-

GAS WARFARE 179

ticable^ the Division Gas Officer will be consulted.
The evacuation should be made upward from the
shelled area when possible. For this reason alter-
native positions should be selected in advance, and
all the necessary preparatory steps should be taken
to accomplish a rapid and orderly change to such
positions in case of necessity.

In case a position shelled with mustard gas must
continue to be occupied, respirators are worn con-
tinuously, men must not be permitted to sit or lie
upon contaminated ground, and other precautions
must be taken to avoid contamination of the body
or clothing. In such a case, frequent reliefs should
be established. After a gas attack, gas officers take
immediate steps to clear and disinfect gassed posi-
tions. They report when the position is safe. As
long as the slightest odor of mustard gas is detect-
able, the position must be considered dangerous. It
is especially to be noted that the odor of mustard
gas in slight concentrations is not unpleasant, and
that the gas produces no irritation for several hours.
During a mustard gas attack, precautions must be
taken to avoid contamination of dugouts from the
clothing and especially from the shoes of men who
enter. Men who have been even slightly gassed arij
treated as casualties, and withdrawn promptly from
the gassed area with the least possible exertion on
the part of the man gassed. Especially in the case
of a mustard gas attack, it is important that fresh
clothing be available and that the clothing should
be changed and the man given a bath with soap and
water as soon as practicable.

After a gas attack, food supplies which have been
exposed should be thoroughly inspected, and any

iSo

GAS WARFARE

L

food suspected of contamination with gas should
be condemned. Many casuali.es have been caused
by the use of water from shell holes. R^ardless
of whether recent gas attacks have occurred, all
water front shell holes must be regarded as con-
taminated, and must never be used for any pur-
pose whatsoever. I

It is customary for a gas attack to proceed infl
waves or salvos at variable intervals, therefore, a^
siwrp lookout is fnaintamed for a repetition of a gas
attack. When the tactical situation permits, troops
which have been subjected to gas attacks are with-
drawn. Commanders of units relieving one an-
other are responsible that all the anti-gas stores are
handed over and receipted for by the respective gas
officers of the units.

In order to provide the most efficient means for
tile purification of ground which has been shelled
with "mustard gas" special disinfection squads are
designated and trained by each Regimental or Bat-
talion Gas Officer for this purpose. These squads
are organized in the various units according to the
tactical emplojinent of these units ; each squad to be
under the immediate directon of the gas non-com-
missioned oflijcer of that unit. Except in case o£
"mustard gas" shelling, the men composing this
squad are free to perform their regular duties. This
does not apply to the gas non-commissioned officers,
who are assigned no duties which might interfere
with their duties as gas non-commissioned officers.
These men, however, spend such time as may be
necessary in order to make them proficient in their
work, according to the discretion of the Regimental
Gas Officer. The duties of these disinfecting squads

J

GAS WARFARE i8i

are to disinfect "mustard gas" shell holes with
chloride of lime and to cover this chloride of lime
with earth ; to bury leaking gas "duds ;" to mark the
location of sound gas "duds," which location is
given the Regimental Gas Officer ; and to carry out
infected equipment and clothing from "mustard
gas" infected barracks or dugouts, when an evacu-
ation has been ordered.

Field hospital, ambulance and signal companies^
and other units attached to the Division are looked
after by the disinfecting party in whose area they
are operating. The equipment for each man in the
disinfecting squad, in addition to the small box
respirator, consists of a suit of special oiled cloth-
ing and two pairs of oiled gloves. Immediate dis-
infection is necessary to prevent mustard gas casu-
alties, and every effort should be made to expedite
the arrival of a disinfecting squad at a Celled
area.

The following is a t3rpical memorandum of the
duties of regimental and battalion Gas Officers: i.
Report all gas shelling promptly, giving time, lo-
cation, weather, wind, and number, size and kind of
shells used, and any casualties reported. 2. Report
immediately any mustard gas shelling in your area.

3. Report promptly all changes in gas personnd.

4. Report name, rank, and organization of all of-
ficers violating standing orders of gas defense. 5.
Insist on daily inspections of respirators in "Alert**
zone and twice weekly in "Danger" zone. Check
up these inspections personally to be positive they
are being carried out. 6. Make sure by frequent in-
spections and tests that alarms are adequate and iq
working order. 7. Frequent instruction of all senr

I

I

L

iSf GAS WARFARE

tries is mandatory. They must be thoroughly famil-
iarized with all their duties. They must know all
standing orders of Gas Defense. They must know
how to detect a gas attack, how and when to give
the alarm and when to awaken sleeping men over
whom they may be posted. 8. Make sure that no
men are permitted to sleep without being near a
sentry who knows where they are. 9. Question
and instruct all gas non-commissioned officers fre-
quently, reporting those (by name, rank, and organ-
ization) considered incapable, those who neglect
their work, and those who have too many other
duties to perform. 10. Make sure that when a man
loses his respirator or when he turns one in for
replacement that has been rendered unserviceable
through carelessness or by intention, the new one
issued is charged against his pay account, and see
that further disciplinary action is taken. 11. Make
sure that all units in each area are well known.
12. Sutmiit brief report each week covering work
done during the week as Gas Officer, and, in addi-
tion, nature of other duties performed and the
amount of time required for same.

Company gas non-ccAnmissioned officers assist
officers at the inspection of respirators, taking par-
ticular care to see that each man's satchel is marked
with his own name, and in making such local repairs
as are possible. They assist in training men in the
use of gas defense appliances and, under the Com-
pany Commander, they have charge of all gas de-
fense trench stores, alarm devices, gasproof shelters
and stores of fuel for clearing shelters. On relief
they assist the Company Commander in taking over
all gas defense trench stores (by daylight, if po&-

I

GAS WARF/JIE 183

sible). They make wind observations as directed
by the Division Commander on recommendation of
the Division Gas Officer, and report any change of
wind to the Company G)mmander. After a gas
shell bombardment, if the use of a new gas is sus-
pected, the gas non-commissioned c^cer takes sam-
ites of earth contaminated with the suspected gas.
Such samples are handed to the Division Gas Of«
ficer through the Company Commander with notes
as to the positions from which the samples were
taken.

During and after a gas attack the gas non-com-
missioned officer should note down in writing as
much information as possible on the following
points: (i) Strength and direction of wind and
general weather conditions. (2) Times at which
the gas wave or gas shell bombardment started and
finished. (3) Exact position and nature of place
affected by gas or gas shell. (4) To what extent
telephone dugouts, covered gun and machine gun
emplacements, etc., were affected. (5) The approx-
imate number of gas shell used and their csdiber.
(6) The position of dud shdl and fragments of
shdl, etc

CHAPTER XIV

Respirators* Adjustment and Practice Drills, American
Tissot Re^rator, Fitting and Care of Canisters,
Anti-Dimming Outfit, Re^nrators for Horses.

When training men in the use of re^irators the
following points are of importance: (a) Ordinary
infantry drill shotdd be combined with physical
drill, including arm and leg exercises, leap-frog,
and double-time. The time of practice need not
exceed 15 minutes at first while wearing the respira-
tor, but should be gradually extended. This drill
should be in heavy marching order, (b) Practice
in bombing, rapid loading and aiming, judging dis-
tance and rifle firing, should be carried out while
the men are wearing respirators, (c) Officers and
non-commissioned officers should receive the same
training as the men and in addition, should be prac-
ticed in giving orders while wearing their respira-
tors, (d) It must be realized that troops in the line
always carry the respirator, and that practice in the
rear should take this into account. Every effort
must be made to approximate actual warfare condi-
tions. Every opportunity should be taken to accus-
tom men to carrying on their usual duties with the
respirator adjusted. It is often necessary during
and after a gas attack for men to wear their re-
spirator for six or eight hours, or even longer when

ia4

GAS WARFARE 185

a highly persistent gas, such as mustard gas, is used,
(e) Practice and drill in the use of gas defense ap-
pliances should be carried out as continuously as
tactical conditions will permit. This applies espe-
cially to troops which return to the line after having
been in rest areas and where the incorporation of
drafts incompletely trained in gas defense measures
make such training very essential.

American Tissot Respirator. — ^This respirator
consists of a metal canister filled with a mixture of
chemical granules and connected by a rubber tube
to an impervious f acepiece. Air is drawn in through
the inlet valve which consists of a circular rubber
disc fitted on a stud in the center of a perforated
metal plate. Any poisonous gas is absorbed by the
granules in the canister. The purified dry air passes
into the facepiece, playing over the eyepieces, and
keeping them clear. Air is expired through the
outlet valve, the inlet valve closing in order to pre-
vent air passing through the canister. If the inlet
valve does not close properly, expired air passes
into the canister, causing deterioration of the chem-
icals and discomfort to the wearer. The facepiece
is held in position by a head harness of self centering
construction which keeps it firmly against the face
without discomfort. The complete respirator is
carried in a satchel which is divided into two com-
partments, one of which holds the canister and the
other the mask. The canister rests on a wire plat-
form which raises it from the bottom of the com-
partment and allows the free access of air.

When respirators are issued they should be most
carefully fitted. In some cases it will be necessary
to change the length of the elastic by means of the

i86 GAS WARFARE

buckles. When the fit of the mask appears satis-
factory, it must be tested in tear gas and the test
repeated at least every mcmth. If possible, the test
should be made in the gas chamber every time a
battalion comes out of the line. Men should re-
main in the tear gas for five minutes, moving about
and talking to make sure that the fit of the mask
is good. When the fit has been tested, each man
should write his name, but not his organization, on
the lower part of the front of the satchel as worn
in the "alert" position to insure that he does not
exchange his respirator for another that may not
fit him.

The most serious causes of damage to the re^ira-
tors are : Water entering the canister and spoiling
the chemicals, injury to the facepiece, and injury to
the outlet valve. Respirators must be protected
from wet as far as possible, and rough usage must
be avoided. Nothing must be carried in the satched,
except the respirator and anti-dimming outfit ; small
articles of kit readily cause damage to the mask.
The inside of the facepiece should be wiped before
it is put away, otherwise damage is caused by the
rusting of metal parts, and by the rotting of the
stitching.

To prevent freezing of the outlet valve during
very severe frost, two or three drops of glycerine
should be inserted through the slits at the bottom
of the valve by means of a match or stick of wood.
Supplies of glycerine are kept by Division Gas
Officers for this purpose. Half a pint should be
sufficient for i,ooo respirat(M*s. Inlet valves at bot-
tom of canisters are not affected if kept dry. If

GAS WARFARE 187

moisture has entered and frozen, the valve must be
removed, thawed, wiped dry and replaced. The
inlet valve must not be treated with glycerine.

When canisters are issued, they are painted with
the number of the month of issue. They are then
replaced after the lapse of a certain number of
months. They usually become ineffective through
mechanical damage before they become useless
chemically. The chemicals in the canister slowly
lose their efficiency, even when nothing but pure air
is breathed through them. This is due to the fact
that the moisture in the air gradually cakes the
granules, increases their resistance, and lowers their
absorptive power. When the canister of the res-
pirator is defective owing to wet, rust, or other
damage, or has been breathed through for 40 hours
in gas, and the respirator is otherwise in good order,
the canister should be replaced by a new one.

In all operations great care must be taken to
avoid damaging the rubber tube. Remove the tape
on the wire. Turn up the twisted end of the wire
at right angles to the tube. Press on the point of
the "tool for detaching canister" under a single
strand of wire near the twisted end. On pressing
over the tool the wire will be cut by the sharp edge
inside the V. Remove the wire. Insert both points
of the V under the rubber, then, with the handle
of the tool at right angels to the tube, move the tool
around the neck to loosen the rubber from the
metal. On continuing with an upward movement
the tube will be detached. When fixing the new
canister remove the plug of cotton waste from the
neck of the new box, lick the neck and slip the rub-

i8S GAS WARFARE

ber tabb^ over it so tisstt the nedc is cocn{detely
corered, takii^ care tbat the fac^ece is in the
correct position retatire to the canister.

The following drills are deigned to teach officers
and men to adjust their re^irators accurately and
quickly. The drill nrast be so thoroughly mastered
diat all will protect themsdves instantly and almost
automatically upon hearing the gas alarm.

Drill ''A/' To bring the Respirator to the
"Alerf' position.

!• Slung Position. — ^Re^irator with sling over
rig^ shoulder. Satchel hai^;ing on left side with
press buttons closed and next to the body.

2. Gas Alert Position. — ^Being at "slungf ' posi*
tion, (i) Gas Alert, Place the rifle between the
knees. Slip the left arm back through the sling and
bring the satchel around to the front of the body.
Open the flap of the satchel Take out the whip-
cord with the right hand and pass it through the
metal loop on the right hand side of the satchel.
Raise the satchel to the chest with the left hand so
that the slack of the sling falls over the back, pulling
it down with the right hand and holding it there.
Then take the sling in the left hand and with the
right, pass the cord through the sling, then through
the metal loop on the left side of the satchel and
fasten it tightly with both hands after adjusting
respirator to proper height on the chest. Fold flap
over top to protect respirator from wet, but do not
fasten.

3. Alternative Position, Especially When
Pack is Slung. — Being at **slung'' position, (i)
Gas Alert, Place the rifle between the knees. Slip
the left arm back through the sling and bring the

GAS WARFARE 189

satchel to the front of the body. With the right
hand, grasp the metal hook at the left of the satchel
and with the left hand reach behind the neck for the
metal eyelet on the sling, pull down and fasten the
two together. Open the flap and take out whipcord
with right hand. Pass it through the metal loop on
the right of the satchel, then around the back and se-
cure it to the metal loop on the left of the satchel.

Drill ''B." Drill '*by number^' to obtain com-,
plete and accurate adjustment of the respirator from
the ^'Alerf' position.

This drill will be alternated with one without the
numbers to insure as quick an adjustment as pos-
sible, in which practice in holding the breath will
be included. The drill must be practiced until com-
plete and accurate adjustment is obtained by all
ranks in six seconds.

The respirator in the "alert" position. The hel-
met is worn with the strap adjusted at the back
of the head. One end of a lanyard is attached to
the left loop of the helmet and the other is passed
around the left shoulder.

Being at "alert" position with helmet adjusted:
(i) By the numbers. (2) Gas. Stop breathing.
Place the rifle, if unslung, between the knees. In-
sert the thumbs under flap and open satchel. Seize
the f acepiece with the right hand. Two. Bring the
facepiece smartly out of the satchel to the height
of the chin, holding it firmly in both hands with the
fingers extended outside, the thumb inside at the
binding midway between the two lower straps of
the head harness. Stick out the chin. Three. Bring
the facepiece forward, digging the chin into it. With
the same motion, guide the straps of the harness

GAS WARFARE

over the head wilh the thumbs, knocking the helmet
off backwards. Fotcr . Grasp the outlet valve
tightly between the fingers, to prevent the passage
of air through it, and blow vigorously into the mask,
completely emptying the lungs. Five. Feel around
the edge to make sure the facepiece is well seated.
Correct adjustment and head harness. Six. Re-
place helmet. Resume the attention.

Drill "C." To Adjust Respirator from Stung
Position.

Being at slung position. ( i ) Gas. Stop breath-
ing. Place the rifle, if unslung, between the knees.
Pull the satchel around until it hangs in front of
the body. Unfasten the flap and adjust the respira-
tor as in practice "B," allowing the satchel to hang
by the rubber tube. Replace helmet, and at once
proceed to adjust the satchel in the "alert" posi-
tion, as in practice "A."

Drill "D." Drill to teach mctliod of testing for
presence of gas.

Respirator being adjusted, (i) Test for Gas.
Take a deep breath. With the right hand pult the
facepiece slightly away from the right cheek, hold
the breath, and sniff gently. If gas is smelied, re-
adjust the facepiece, grip the outlet valve between
the fingers and thumb, and breathe out hard.

Drill "E." To remove tite facepiece.

Having tested and found no gas. (i) Remove.
(2) Facepiece. Insert the first two fingers of the
right hand under the facepiece of the chin, placing
the thumb on the metal guard of the exit valve,
bend the head forward, at the same time removing
the facepiece with an upward motion of the right
hand.

GAS WARFARE 191

Drill 'T:' Inspection.

The respirator being at slung position. ( i ) Pre-
pare for Inspection of Respirators. Place the rifle
between the knees. Slip the left arm back through
the sling and bring the satchel around to the front
of the body. Open the flap of the satchel. (2)
Inspection. (3) Respirators. Examine the satchel
and sling, make sure that metal hook and clasp and
metal loops at each side are securely fastened. Re-
move canister and hold under left arm, the tube
and facepiece hanging over the arm. Examine the
interior of satchel to see that wire platform and
anti-dimming are there, and that whipcord is in good
condition and free from knots. Two. Examine
inlet valve at bottom of canister. Examine the
canister for rust spots and weak places by pressing
lightly with the fingers beginning at bottom and
working to the top. Watch carefully for holes in
soldering at top of canister. See that the flexible
tube is properly fastened to the canister, and to the
metal elbow tube and is free from obvious defects.
Three. See that the metal elbow tube is securely
connected to facepiece and that outlet valve g^ard
is not loose. Make sure that the outlet valve is in
good condition, has no dirt or sand in it, has no
tears, and is connected properly to elbow tube. Four,
Examine the facepiece inside and out. See that
chin rest is secure, that there are no pinholes or
tears in fabric, that air passage to eyepieces is
in proper condition and not torn away from fabric,
that eyepieces are securely fastened in the face-
piece. Examine the head harness and make sure
that it is firmly attached to binding. Five. Adjust
mask to face to test valves. Hold canister in left

r

I

192 GAS WARFARE

hand. Grasp outlet valve between fingers to pre-
vent passage of air through it, and breathe gently
in and out a few times. The inlet valve, if work-
ing properly, should vibrate back and forth. Test
the outlet valve by putting a kink in the breathing
tube to prevent the passage through it of air and
attempt to draw air into the facepiece. If the out-
let valve is in proper condition, it will not be pos-
sible to draw in any air. Remove respirators.
Six. All men having defective respirators step
forward one pace. Alt others replace the canister
in the satchel, taking care not to twist the face-
piece into wrong position, and return the respi-
rators to slung position. Respirators should be in-
spected daily in the alert zone, and at least twice
weekly in the danger zone. They must always be
inspected before proceeding into the alert zone. It
is the duty of all officers and non-commissioned
officers and their assistants, to make sure that these
inspections are carefully carried out. A respirator
must always give complete and absolute protection.
Its condition can only be determined by constant
and careful inspection.

After all drills the eyepieces should be rubbed
with anti-dimming, leaving a thin transparent film
of the composition on the glass and the facepiece
should be wiped dry, folded correctly and put away
in such a manner that the rubber outlet valve is not
bent.

The anti-dimming outfit is carried in the satchel, j
and contains a stick of composition and a piece of 1
soft rag. Occasionally at inspection and always I
after each wearing of the respirator, tlie inner sur- '
faces of the eyepieces should be cleaned and dried.

GAS WARFARE 193

a little of the composition rubbed on with the finger,
and the surface rubbed with a soft rag until the
film of composition ia smooth and thin and nearly
clear.

Horse Respirator. — In choosing locations for
stables and horselines if within shell range, high,
sloping, treeless ground is preferable as less likely
to hold gas. Horses should not be allowed to stand
on or be ridden over areas that have been heavily
shelled by mustard gas, as the skin of the horse
is more sensitive than that of man to the effects of
this gas. They should not be allowed to eat grass
that has been contaminated with mustard gas, or
drink from infected shell holes. Horses exposed to
mustard gas should be washed all over as soon as
possible with soap and warm water, especially
around the mouth, anus, and sexual organs. Horses
must be practiced in wearing the respirator, as they
will otherwise resist protection, and cause delay and
annoyance in emergencies.

The horse respirator consists of a flannelette bag
with a canvas mouthpiece which goes into the
horse's mouth and saves the flannelette from being
bitten through. The bag is provided with an elastic
band which passes round the opening so as to draw
the respirator close to the face when in use. The
upper side of the mouth of the flannelette bag is
furnished with a small unbleached calico patch by
which the respirator is attached to the nose-band of
the bridle or halter when in the "Alert" position,
and while in use. Inside the bag and attached to
the canvas mouthpiece there is a canvas frame which
is stitched on to the bag in such a way as to pre-
vent the material drawing into the nostrils when

194 GAS WARFARE

the respirator is in use. The whole is folded and
carried in a canvas case provided with a flap, se-
cured by three press buttons, and having two straps
at the back by means of which the case is attached
to the bridle or halter.

Horses can stand a higher concentration of gas
than human beings without serious injury, and it is
not, therefore, necessary to protect them against
cloud gas attacks when they are a ccmsiderable dis-
tance back from the trenches. Nor is it usually
necessary to protect their eyes. The respirator is
primarily intended for use on transport animals
when they are sent to the vicinity of the trenches
with supplies and ammunition. In the case of gas
shell attacks, horses should be protected wherever
the shelling is heavy.

When not required for immediate use the respira-
tor can be conveniently carried on the supporting
strap of the breast harness, or if a zinc wither pad
is worn, still more conveniently inside this pad.
If a collar is used in place of the breast-strap, it can
be carried in the channel of the collar where drivers
often carry a sponge. However carried, the case is
steadied by being strapped on either side to the
metal ring on the supporting strap, and its flap
should be passed under this strap, between it and
the wither pad, and buttoned as in the "Alert"
position.

When horses are being sent up to the trenches,
the transport or other officer responsible should
have the respirators adjusted in the ** Alert" posi-
tion before moving off, as follows: (a) The flap
of the respirator case is unbuttoned and slipped
under the nose-band of the bridle or halter from

GAS WARFARE 195

below upwards, (b) The two straps at the bock are
also passed under the nose-band and secured to the
check pieces of the bridle, on each side, (c) The
small unbleached calico patch on the upper side of
the mouth of the respirator is buttoned on to the
nose-band of the head collar so that the respirator
is ready to be slipped on immediately in the erent
of a gas attack, (d) The cover of the case is then
closed over the nose-band, and the respirator is thus
protected from rain, and held in position on the
nose-band.

The respirator being carried in the "Alert" posi-
tion is adjusted for use as follows: (a) The flap
of the case is unbuttoned and the respirator re-
moved, leaving the case attached to- the cheek pieces
of the bridle and lying flat on the face, (b) The
mouth of the bag is drawn down over the upper
lip and upper teeth with one hand on each side of
the mouthpiece, slipped into the mouth, and drawn
well up to the angle of the lips, (c) The elastic
band is seized on either side close to the mouthpiece,
and pulled outwards so as to draw the mouth of the
bag tight around the upper jaw, above the nostrils,
and is then slipped over the poll.

The respirator is now in position and the animal
may be worked in it without difficulty or undue dis-
tress. The bit and reins are not interfered with
in any way.

A double feed bag filled with straw, moss or
leaves saturated with sodium bicarbonate^ solution
will make a fair emergency mask.

I

APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 .
WARFARE GASES

In gas warfare gas is used for four purposes: — (l)
When it is desired to produce deaths or minor casualties
in front line and supporting trenches prior to an advance.
(2) When it is desired to produce casualties in front line
trenches, among supports, reserves and other personnel
at places where an attack is expected to be made within
a few hours. (3) When it is desired to produce casual-
ties in front line trenches among supports and reserves
and along lines of communications, in concentration
camps, rest areas, etc., to the limit of range of artillery,
when no attack is planned or when it will not take place
for several days. (4) When it is desired to reach train-
ing areas, cantonments, junctions and places beyond the
range of guns and which can be reached only by airplanes
or balloons.

For technical uses gases are generally divided into
three groups:

Persistent Mustard gas (dichlorethyl sulphide) is the
leader of this group and is in a class by itself, due to its
excessive persistency, its effectiveness in low concentra-
tions and the fact that it affects the skin, eyes, throat and
lungs, as well as the digestive tract if food exposed to it
has been eaten.

N on-Persistent, These gases are highly lethal and
deadly with low persistency. The group includes phos-
gene, cyanogen chloride, diphosgene, chlorine and others
of a similar nature. Chlorpicrin is in this class, although
it is much more persistent than any of the others.

Lachrymatory and Irritating Gases. These include bro-
macetone, ethyl iodoacetate, brombenzylcyanide, and some
other lachrymators, and diphenyl chlorarsine, or sneez-

199

aoo APPENDICES

Uig gas. AH Ihcse gases are highly JTritaling or lachry-
matory, but arc not lethal, except in very high concentra-
tions not often attained in the field, Lachrymators are
economical in forcing the use of the mask and are t
ployed for that purpose.

Muslard gas was discovered by Victor Mayer, a _
mati chemist, in 1886. It is a yellowish oily fluid, fre
inff at about so" F.. and boiling at about 422° "
color varies with the solvents and impurities in
combines to a certain extent with the steel or
shells. It is very highly persistent, that sprayed 01
ground being very dangerous for a week or longi
damp, cold weather. It vaporizes very slowly. It has
the quality of cumulative effect to a marked de^ee. be-
ing at least 50 per cent, for very low concentrations. If
one part in 2.000,000 is breathed for 20 hours it will pro-
duce a casualty as serious as one part in 100,000 will
produce in two hours. It produces casualties almost en-
tirely by burning, the theory being that the gas in the
presence of moisture is broken up so as to liberate hydro-
chloric acid which produces the burn, and destroys any
soft moist tissue it reaches, whether within or without
the body. It readily penetrates clothing. The odor of
mustard gas is not unpleasant, that of the Germans beic
somewhat hke mustard while that of the Allies was moi
like garlic. See Chapter IX and Appendix 6.

Phosgene or carbonyl chloride is a liquid boiling at 47' ,
F., with a marked odor, like that of moldy hay. Be-
cause of its low boiling point, it will not remain on any
terrain on which it is thrown for more than a few min-
utes. It will form clouds of varJ^ng concentration, de-
pending on the manner in which it is thrown over, £-■"
a very heavy cloud may render positions dangerous
kin. from the original point of attack.

Phosgene is sent over by the enemy in cylinders, prt
jcctor bombs and trench mortar shells. In cylinders it i9~
usually mixed with chlorine in order to form a mixed
gas of high vapor pressure. It is generally used pure in
the 75, 170 and 250 mm. trench mortar shells and in the
180 mm. smooth-bore projector bombs. In these it
rarely mixed with chlorpicrin, Recently phosgene
been used in long range rifled projector shells

r of .
notlH

Be-
any

. de- ,

IS 1^1

pro^

J

APPENDICES 201

with pumice, absorption in which retards its evaporation,
making- it persist for several hours. Finally, it occurs
generally in small proportion as a decomposition product
of diphosgene in artillery shell for yy and loo mm. guns
and in the 105, 150 and 210 mm. howitzers.

Phosgene is a lung irritant and is probably the mostu ,^
deadly gas used in warfare. Exposure to high concen-^' ^^
trations for even a short time will cause severe casualties,
or death, and much lower concentrations will also have
serious effects. Its full effect is usually delayed for sev-
eral hours and exercise after exposure to this gas will
render slight casualties much more serious or even fatal.
Because of this effect, men who have been gassed even
slightly and who have experienced no symptoms of gas
poisoning must be prevented from taking any exercise
whatever, if serious casualties are to be prevented.

Phosgene is used entirely as a surprise gas, as high
concentrations can be developed with it very rapidly. Its
persistency is low, and it is, therefore, possible to follow
up a phosgene attack with an infantry advance after a
very short time. The respirator gives absolute protection v
against this gas. Troops must be trained to put on the
respirator quickly and well, under any circumstances, and
sentries must be thoroughly instructed so as to be able to
recognize phosgene attacks and to give the alarm imme-
diately. Trenches and dugouts can be quickly rid of
phosgene by means of fanning and fires.

Diphosgene, superpalite or trichlormethyl chlorformate,
is a liquid boiling at 261° F. Its other properties and
action resemble those of phosgene very closely. It can-
not be used in cloud or projector attacks because of its
high boiling point. It is used mixed with chlorpicrin in
green cross i shell of different calibers and with diphe-
nylchlorarsine in green cross 2. Phosgene usually accom-
panies diphosgene in the latter, due doubtless to the de-
composition of the diphosgene.

Chlorpicrin is a colorless liquid boiling at 234° F. and
hence is fairly persistent. It approaches phosgene in its
poisonous effect. Even in very low concentrations it will
cause lachrymation and in higher concentrations vom-
iting, which may necessitate the removal of the mask.
The clothes of men who have been exposed to chlorpicrin

MimwHB wot fiiMmiT, aam. abp

I)

Etf

>0%

f ^W'

Or M i QU B Chloride 7D%
AenmeTriefakride 30%
DilAwiyl Chlnnmar

D.A.

D.a
c.a

WUte
White

Mortar B^.
GracD Gam

D.

21

ao

Not
8.F.

EhqMHHfite

FheM Ctriqrltimne
Chlorule

PhoKeafS, Dtphoignie
•Bd DiphaQTl Chloran

Chloipicnii
PboflKeno

76%
26%

QntB. GntB

Green CroM
2

P.O.

Dii)ho0geiie and Chlor-
piorin

Chlorpierin

Chlorpiorin 80%

Stannic Cholride 20%

Ethyl Dichlorarsine and

Diohlormethylether

Qraen CrosB
1

P.S.
IN.C.

Aquinite

Bromacetone
Brom Ketone!

Brombemykyanide

Mootard Gas (I>iehIor>
•U^l Sulpliide)

B,A.
a A.

MaHonile

Yellow Croes

lor

Qreen Crosi

3

Green Crasi

YnttowOooB

\

able, floffo-

cating.

MoBljHaj

HeeembleB
Diphflfligienn
alittie
mingent
PuBgent,
Suffocat-
ing.

Pungent,
Suffocat-
ing.

Pungent

Pungent

Ethereal
Pleasant.

No Odor

SSght
Mustard

Garik

iV^

PROFERTEBS OP COMMONEST GASES

IbOiwd

In Woods

Non-PenUtadClau

lOmin.
lOmin.

lOndn.
lOmin.

lOmin.

3hn.
3hn.

Sim.

3hn.

hDX
3hn.

— -Jjonp

Semi-Perritleni Cla»s,

Shrs.

3hn.
Sin.

3In.
3hn.

Shea.
Shn.
3hrB.

12hrs.

lahrs.
12 hn.

Uhrs.
12 hn.

12 hn.
12 hn.
12 hn.

Fhjrnoloi^oal Effect

PtTtideni Clatn.

2 days
3diO^

3 days
Sdays

7 days
7 days

7 days
7 days

^ Irritant, Deadly.
Action Immediate.
Lachrymatory and Renuntory
Irritant. Considered quite
toxic, but in high conc^tra-
tionsonly.

A Lachiymator, Resphntory
Irritant and Lethal Agent.
Sneezing Gas. Nerve Depres<
sant. nespiratoiy Irritant.
Effects somewhat greater.
Respiratory Irritant. Very
deadly. AoUon usually slightly
delayed.

Same as phosgene.

"Eye, Nose and Throat Irritant.
Not voy poisonous.
Respiratory Irritant. Slightly
delayed action. Very deadly.
Causes vomiting and a litUe
lachrymation.

Causes vomiting, Respiratory
Irritant, a little lachrymation.

Slightly delayed action, very
deadly, respiratory irritant,
causes vomiting and a little
lachrymation.

Causes vomiting, nspintory
irritant, tear producer.
Respiratory irritant, causes
vo'niting, tear producer.
Nerve poison dmilar to di-
phenylchlofanine, easily de-
stroyed by water.

Lachrymator, Tear Flroduoer.
Tear Producers, Slight Respir-
atory Irritants. Action imme-
diate.

Not toxio but most powerful
lachrymator known.
Resriratory Irritant. Eye and
Skin Irritant. Blistering Agmt.
Action delayed several hours.

These gases are very volatile; thej
are vap(ffiied entiiely at the mo-
ment m ezplosimi, fomung a doad
callable of giving deadly effects, but
which loses more or less rapidlbr Hi
effectivoiees by diluti(m and db-
persion into the atmosphere.

These gases form noiHMnrisfteiit
clouds of solid partioles.

These gases, having moderatdy iaak
boiling points, are only partiaQy
vapcnued at ihe moment of expk>>
sion. The cloud formed upon oqdo-
sion is generally not deadly, but it
immediately gives penetrative laory-
matory or irritant effects. The ma-
jority of the "gas" contents of tl»
shell is pulverized and ivoiectod in
the form of a sinray or fog which
slowly settles on the ground and con-
tinues to s^ve off vapors which pro-
bng the action of the initial cloud.

Phosgene in these mixtures ha«
same ^eot as used above, if oonoen-
tration is sufficient!^ high.

These gases, having very high boil-
ing points, are but httle vaporised at
the moment of explosion. A small
portion of the cont^ts of the shell is
atomised and gives immediate effect,
but by far the greater part is pro-
jected on the ground in the fwm of
(h*oplets which slowly vi^xvise and
continue the aetiin of the initial
doud.

203

904 APPENDICES

are dangerous because of the gas which is carried on
them and the same precautions against gassing men in
dugouts must be taken as in the case of mustard gas.
Chlorpicrin is used mixed with diphosgene in green cross

1 shell. The respirator gives full protection.
Diphenylchlorarsine is a solid of extremely low vola-
tility and is practically odorless. It is used in green cross

2 and in the blue cross shell which contains in addition
a large amount of high explosive. On the explosion a
cloud of vapor is formed. The cloud will cause headache
and intense pain in the throat and chest, accompanied by*
sneezing and coughing. Vomiting and even temporary
paralysis of the nervous system may finally result. It is
used mainly to unnerve a man and prevent him from ad-
justing his mask quickly or to prevent his keeping it on
after it is adjusted. It is used also for direct neutraliza-
tion through the production of the above painful symp-
toms. The effects of this gas when used alone dis-
appear quickly. The respirator gives absolute protection,
but must be put on immediately. Diphenylcyanarsine is
similar in its action and rather more effective. It is used
in blue cross shell.

Ethyldichlorarsine is a moderately volatile liquid, pres-
ent in shells whose marking has recently been changed
from yellow cross i to green cross 3. It is analogous to
dipenylchlorarsine in physiological action, exerting a
more destructive effect upon the respirator tract along
with the nerve poisoning. It is rapidly destroyed by mois-
ture.

Brom-ketones and other gases are used as tear-produc-
ing agents. They are heavy liquids with high boiling
points and are used usually mixed with deadly gases, in
all the various forms of projectiles. They are capable
of producing blinding tears in very low concentrations
and are particularly effective in forcing men to put on
their masks. For this reason they are valuable as harass-
ing gases. They have also a noticeable poisonous effect.
They are fairly persistent. The respirator gives abso-
lute protection against them. Chlorpicrin, in addition to
its toxic properties, is of value as a tear producer.

Smoke may be used by the enemy, either in the form
of a cloud or emitted from shell and bombs. It may be

APPENDICES 205

used with gas or between gas clouds; it may also be
used alone to distract attention from a real discharge of
gas, and in general for preventing observation, as for
instance as a screening barrage, or. for blotting out ma-
chine g^n nests.

In the tables on pages 202 and 203, the persistency is
dependent to a large extent on temperature, wind ve-
locity, and the amount of gas liberated, especially in
woods or other more or less closed places. High temper-
atures and wind velocities decrease persistency, and low
temperatures and wind velocities increase it.

APPENDIX 2
CARBON MONOXIDE

Carbon monoxide is not used directly in an attack, but
causes a large number of deaths. It is formed when car-
bon burns or when any high explosive explodes in a con-
fined place, such as the entrance to a trench, mine or
dugout. The great danger of this gas arises from the
fact that it is colorless, odorless, and nonirritant, and that
the onset of symptoms is so insiduous that very often the
first warning that a man may receive is failure in the
power of his limbs which will prevent him from retreat-
ing into safety. Neither the box respirator nor other » ^
masks give protection against carbon monoxide ; protection
can only be attained by the use of special oxygen breath-
ing apparatus. At the autopsy, the blood may be red in
color instead of dark if there is a considerable degree of
saturation of the hemoglobin with carbon monoxide. If
the case has continued to breathe for some time after
reaching an atmosphere free from carbon monoxide, this
gas will have been partly or entirely displaced from the
hemoglobin and the blood after death will have its normal
color.

The simplest method of detecting the presence of car-
bon monoxide in blood is to compare the color of a dilute

ao6 APPENDICES

toluticMi of the suspected blood with a similar solution of
normal blood. Take a drop or two of blood from the fin-
ger of a normal person and dilute it in a test tube very con-
siderably with water (a one-half of i per cent solution is a
convenient strength), so that when examined by trans-
mitted daylight the color of this solution is a reddish-yel-
low. Then take a drop or two of the suspected blood
and dilute it similarly with water, so that the depth of
color of the solution is the same as that of the solution
of normal blood when both are viewed by transmitted
light. On examining the quality of the color it will be
found that the solution made with the suspected blood, if
it contains carbon monoxide hemoglobin, is definitely
pinker than that made with the normal blood, though it
will not have the full pink tint of the same normal blood
solution if the latter be shaken with coal gas so as to
saturate it quite completely with carbon monoxide. The
lungs show no abnormal changes in cases of rapid death.
Small punctate hemorrhages may be found in the white
matter of the brain and sometimes ecchymoses in the
meninges if the case has been exposed to a concentration
of carbon monoxide sufficient to cause prolonged vmconr-
sciousness.

Except with very massive doses, when loss of con-
sciousness is very rapid, the symptoms develop very grad-
ually, as the gas is only absorbed slowly. If a man is at
rest in a concentration of the gas of i part in i,ooo it
will take about two hours before definite giddiness ap-
pears and he will not be definitely disabled until the lapse
of two and one-half hours. The rate of absorption of
the gas is much quickened when the breathing is deep-
ened during muscular exercise and the exercise also leads
to great accentuation of the symptoms. With a concen-
tration of 2 parts in i,ooo a man will be seriously affected
in half an hour if he is performing a moderate amount
of muscular work, and this concentration may prove fa-
tal with prolonged exposure.

Small animals are far more quickly affected by carbon
monoxide than man is, owing to the natural great ventila-
tion of their lungs and the rapidity of their circulation.
A mouse or a canary will show definite symptoms of car-
bon monoxide poisoning in a tenth of the time that a

APPENDICES 207

man will. If small animals are used to give an index of
the presence of carbon monoxide in a suspected atmos-
phere, it must be remembered that though they show
sjrmptoms long before a man feels any effects, the man
will in the end be reduced to the same conditions as the
animal, and he ought therefore to leave the dangerous
atmosphere directly the animal shows sig^s of being
affected, unless he is protected by special apparatus.

The first sign that tells a man that something is amiss
is very frequently a feeling of loss of power in the limbs.
Giddiness, slight confusion of mind, and breathlessness
and palpitation on the least exertion also show them-
selves. The confusion of mind and loss of power in the
legs frequently preclude a man from withdrawing from
danger, even though he is dimly aware that safety is only
a few yards distant The failure of power in the limbs
and mental confusion rapidly increase and the man may
appear drunk, shouting incoherently, laughing, swearing,
or praying. Apathy and complete helplessness supervene,
and failure of the intellectual powers gradually passes
into complete unconsciousness, which may finally termi-
nate in a painless death. The S3miptoms may remain sta-
tionary at any stage, since the degree of saturation of
the hemoglobin with carbon monoxide reaches a final end
point which is determined by the relative concentrations
of the carbon monoxide and the oxygen which are simul-
taneously trying to combine with the hemoglobin.

The sjrmptoms detailed above are due to the gradual
diminution of the oxygen-carrying power of the blood
and the exposure of all the organs of the body to increas-
ing want of oxygen. It is clear that any increase in the
oxygen demands of the body is to be avoided, and any
man, therefore, who shows definite sig^s of gassing should
be carried to a place of safety. If he attempts to walk
himself he is quite likely to fall down unconscious. When
a moderately gassed case reaches fresh air he sometimes
falls unconscious, while other cases may commence to
shout and struggle, in which case their movements need
to be controlled. Any case showing definite symptoms
should be removed as soon as possible to some place of
safety where he can remain at rest for an hour or two
before evacuation. Rest is essential.

2o8 APPENDICES

As carbon monoxide hemoglobin is a dissociable ccHn-
pound, the carbon monoxide is gradually driven out of
Its combination with hemoglobin by the oxygen of the
air as soon as an atmosphere free from carbon monoxide
is reached. In fresh air it will take an hour or two before
the blood is entirely freed from carbon monoxide, but
the process can be rendered five times as rapid by giving
the patient pure oxygen to breathe. It is important there-
fore to begm the administration of oxygen by some effi-
cient method as soon as possible after the case has been
removed from the poisonous atmosphere. Administration
of oxygen should be kept up as continuously as possible
for half an hour to an hour, depending on the severity of
the symptoms. It should be remembered that if a case
can be kept at rest for half an hour and oxygen ad-
ministered immediately after being removed from the poi-
sonous atmosphere, he will be in far better condition to
travel than if he has to be removed to a more distant
point. If the breathing is very shallow, administration
of oxygen may be combined with artificial respiration.
Collapse should be combated by external warmth and by
friction of the limbs.

In chlorine poisoning the pulmonary edema and dam-
age to the lungs and the consequent interference with the
gaseous exchange taking place between the blood and the
air in the lungs persist for some time and may necessitate
the administration of oxygen for several days. In car-
bon monoxide poisoning the structure of the lungs is not
interfered with and oxygen is administered with the de-
liberate intention of accelerating the discharge of carbon
monoxide from the blood. When once this has been ac-
complished, i. e., after half an hour's or an hour's admin-
istration, there is no need to continue the oxygen admin-
istration, as the oxygen-carrying power of the blood has
now become normal again. Any symptoms that persist
are due to effects that were produced while the blood was
charged with carbon monoxide and are unlikely to be in-
fluenced by oxygen administration when once the carbon
monoxide has been got rid of. Further oxygen adminis-
tration is therefore required only if cyanosis begins to
develop subsequently from secondary cardiac or respira-
tory failure.

APPENDICES 209

Cases of carbon monoxide poisoning have been known
to recover, even when they have remained unconscious
for so long as 48 hours after removal from the poisonous
atmosphere. In cases that have been severely gassed the
possibility of subsequent cardiac dilatation must not be
lost sight of, and cases of severe gassing should not be
returned to duty until confidence is felt 3iat the circula-
tion has recovered from the strain. As a result of dam-
age to the nervous system while the blood was charged
with carbon monoxide, paralysis of single muscles or a
group of muscles, or different forms of mental disturb*
ance are sometimes found as sequelae.

APPENDIX 3
CHLORINE

The effects of chlorine poisoning may be classified un*
der the headings of irritation and inflammation of the
respiratory tract, interference with the circulation and
general toxic effects. The irritation of the sensory
nerves, however, is not the fatal factor. An inflamma-
tory reaction, with congestion of the vessels, edema of
the tissues and an abundant discharge of serous effusion
through the dying epithelium occurs all the way down the
respiratory tract. This begins at the back of the throat;
the larynx, with its resistant epithelium, escapes injury,
but the damage to the surface tissues increases progres-
sively down the trachea, the bronchi and their finer
branchings, and ultimately attains its maximum in the air
sacs. The bronchioles are rapidly filled with a serous
exudate which passes up into the trachea and is coughed
out.

A universal obstruction in this way of the bronchioles
alone would suffice to cause death by simple blockage of
the airway and asphyxia. But the injury is not conJined
to the bronchial tree and probably the effusion in the
tubes alone is not dense enough to hinder the passage of

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APPENDICES 21 r

and interrupted by spasmodic bouts of coughii^. The
blue color of the face shows the urgent need for oxygen^
and every muscular effort made by the body and by the
heart increases that need. Coughing is helpful in so far
as it may dislodge exudate from the bronchi, but the vio-
lent effort is prodigal of such oxygen as can be supplied
and it tends to increase the disruptive emphysema. The
increased respiration is caused both by the accumulation
of carbon dioxide and by the want of oxygen and not by
the absorption of any poisonous substance from the gas^
In itself, this increased breathing does no harm and it
helps in eliminating COa and increasing the intake of
oxygen which are the chief needs of the moment.

The ordinary phenomena in asphyxia of mechanical
origin are that the blood pressure rises and that the
heart soon loses its full driving power because its muscle
cannot maintain this increased effort when it is working
with a scanty supply of oxygen. Consequently the pulse
rate quickens, the right heart dilates and the blood tends
to be pooled up behind it in the great veins. If this fail-
ure proceeds apace, a patient who at the beginning
showed congestive cyanosis of the face with a full pulse
will gradually assume a gray pallor while the pulse accel-
erates and falls off in power. These changes are present
in cloud gas poisoning and they are augmented by the
edema of the lungs, which directly obstructs the pulmo-
nary circulation and causes an earlier failure of the right
side of the heart. If the patient during this critical time
tries to carry on his work and remain standing, he will
use up still more rapidly the little oxygen that he is re-
ceiving, extra work will be loaded on to a heart which is^
already overstrained and the circulation will be likely
to fail still more speedily on account of the difficulty of
maintaining compensation in the upright posture. There
is no interference with the respiratory properties of the
blood which can at once take up any oxygen that reaches^
it through the lungs.

Experiments indicate that chlorine is not absorbed from
the lungs and that the effects produced by this gas are
only a direct and local inflammation with secondary re-
sults which are either of a mechanical nature or caused'

ai2 APPENDICES

by oxy^^ want or due to a nervous reflex from the
scat of injury. Changes of a general nature do undenia-
bly appear in the nervous, circulatory, alimentary, and
renal systems of a man who has been poisoned by cloud
gas, but these are probably the result of the asphyxia
rather than of the direct action of the gas. Thus in the
mild cases there is a sense of fatigue and of being alto-
gether done up, and in the serious cases even uncon-
sciousness, but these features are not in excess of what
may result from oxygen want. The retching and vomit-
ing that generally occur in the first stages of poisoning
may be due only to direct irritation of the back of the
throat and of the stomach by the gas, or may be the direct
sequence of violent bouts of coughing, while the diarrhea,
which sometimes is an early feature, may be that of
emotion.

Microscopic examination of the kidneys in death, a few
days after gassing, reveals very definite inflammatory and
destructive changes, and such kidneys may be swollen
and enlarged as though with a parenchymatous nephritis.
This change, however produced, rarely leads to any clini-
cal feature of renal trouble. In the first few days the
urine contains neither sugar nor albumen nor many casts,
and it is very unusual for albuminuria to develop later.
The circulation may fail with unexpected rapidity and
the patient soon present the aspect of a leaden gray cya-
nosis. But in general terms the clinical picture with
chlorine may be summed up as that of a man suffering
from intense irritation of the respiratory tract and dying
by asphyxia from the fluid that has drowned his lungs.
It does not suggest a deeper toxic action.

In a case of death at 24 hours after gassing, the tra-
chea and bronchi are purple red and congested, while a
thin serous exudate wells up into them from the lungs. The
latter organs are heavy and edematous, while aerated
islets of emphysematous overdistention alternate with de-
pressed purple patches of collapse. On section, serous
fluid drips abundantly from the lung tissue. Air that
has escaped from ruptured vesicles is seen in chains of
bubbles on the surface of the lungs, along the interlobar
"fissure and even penetrating the tissues of the mediasti-

i

APPENDICES 2ia

num. In some of the earliest cases the most intense dis-
ruptive emphysema was observed, destroying the air sacs*
and interfering with the circulation in their walls.

Petechial hemorrhages appear on the surface of the
lungs, on the heart, and also on the inner surface of the
stomach. All the veins are greatly distended and the
abdominal viscera are engorged with dark blood that
clots very early after death. The heart itself may faif
to show right-sided dilatation, for this does not of neces-
sity appear post mortem in cases of asphyxial death.

If the man succumbs at a later date, inflammatory com-
plications appear on the lungs. There is superficial pleu-
risy, scattered broncho-pneumonia, and a purulent se-
cretion in the bronchi. The serous exudate will then be
found to have disappeared and no fluid drips from the cut
surface of the lungs.

APPENDIX 4
PHOSGENE AND LETHAL GASES

The S)rmptoms of phosgene, chlorpicrin, cyanogeur
chloride, diphosgene and other highly lethal gases with
low persistency differ from those produced by chlorine in
the three following details:

(i) Subjective respiratory irritation is much less in
evidence. The men do not suffer with such violent
coughing when first exposed to the gas. There is conse-
quently less disruptive emphysema of the lungs, and sub-
cutaneous emphysema of the neck is rare, while post-
mortem examination in early cases often fails to find
an3rthing more than a little escape of air along the inter-
lobar fissure.

(2) The poisonous effects may appear speedily with
cyanotic aspn3rxia, but sometimes they are more insidious
in their onset. A man may feel able to carry on his work
for an hour or two with only trivial symptoms; then he
rapidly becomes worse and passes into a state of grayish

iii4 APPENDICES

white collapse, with progressive edema of the lungs that
may soon be fatal It has even been reported from the
trenches that men who have passed through a gas attack
and seemed to have suffered but slightly have died abrupt-
ly some hours later upon attempting some bodily effort.

(3) Features suggestive of genenil collapse are more
in evidence. There is a much greater tendency to circu-
latory failure. Many of the cases that die on the first day
show a leaden gray tint of the face rather than a purple
red cyanosis; the pulse is rapid and of poor tension.
Mental confusion or mild ddinum with re^essness and
unconsciousness become more prominent in the severe
cases. No case has been reported of death immediately
upon exposure to the gas, although men have gone
through an attack of gas in high concentration wiuout
wearing a mask at all and succumbed in consequence an
hour or more later.

The action of phosgene (COCL) differs from that of
chlorine in certain respects. Upon meeting moist sur-
faces it is broken up and hydrochloric acid is liberated.
It excites less spasm than does chlorine in the upper res-
piratory tract, and so can penetrate to the innermost
recesses of the lungs, where it causes an irritant edema
which may be a little delayed in its development, like that
caused by the acids formed from nitrous fumes, although
the delay in the latter case is more prolonged. Experi-
ments do not show that the products of phosgene are
absorbed from the lung and act as general poisons apart
from their local action.

In a case of death by asphyxia cyanosis where inflam-
matory effusion had developed with great rapidity the
lungs were smaller than normal, heavy, uniformly airless
and purple, so that each resembled a big spleen. There
was no disruptive emphysema. Thin serous fluid ran
abundantly from the surface when cut across. Each pleu-
ral cavity contained about 15 ounces of serous effusion.
There is no striking difference between the cases which
had shown pallid collapse and those which succumbed
in extreme cyanosis. The condition of the heart is found
to be variable, but there is always evidence in the viscera
of vascular engorgement from failure of circulation.
The lungs never show voluminous emphysema, and in-

APPENDICES 215

deed the earlier the death the greater is the serous edema
in their substance. On the second day the fluid does not
drip quite so freely from the cut surface as on the first,
and toward the beginning of the third day the general
aeration of the lung is everywhere greater, while relative-
ly large islets of well-aerated and slightly emphysematous
lung may be present between areas of eaema or collapse.
This aerated condition appears at first in the lower lobes
of the lungs where they are in contact with the dia-
phragm, while edema persists longest and is most profuse
in the upper lobes. A day later and no serous fluid at
all escapes from the cut surface. At this date inflamma-
tory complications tend to appear in a surface pleurisy,
and areas of the lung are foimd to be slightly friable and
entering into a condition of broncho-pneumonia.

It may be that cases of extensive and overwhelming
edema succumb at once, while those in which on the sec-
ond or third day larger islets of aerated lung alternating
with edematous patches are seen, had from the beginning
been in that state, so that they succumbed later than the
completely edematous group because the injury to the
hmg was less. But the general evidence favors a more
hopeful view, namely, that the edema fluid is rapidly ab-
sorbed from the second day onward, and that the later
post mortems illustrate the stage in this recovery. The
chief fact in support of this view is that patients who
had been deeply cyanosed at first, with the usual signs
of extensive pulmonary edema, and so asphyxiated as to
be unconscious for a couple of days, may yet recover so
completely that eight or nine days after exposure to gas
it is difficult to discover any physical signs of edema in
the lung.

Upon exposure to chlorine alone, a man feels imme-
diate respiratory distress. He coughs violently and speech
is made impossible by his spluttering gasps. With the
later forms of drift gas, the onset is slightly altered.
There is some lachrymation. The throat feels gripped
and the chest tight. Breathing is difficult but not impos-
sible. Coughing develops a quarter of an hour or more
later. Nausea and vomiting appear quickly, so that a
man who was slow in getting protection may vomit^ in-
side his gas mask. Headache and throbbing sensations

2i6 APPENDICES

in the body are experienced. Coughine and retching
increase. The respiration becomes very hurried and la-
bored, though shallow. The patient's face assumes a cya-
notic hue ; he may lose muscular power and consciousness
and die in an hour or two. Those who survive longer
show the following features :

Headache, pain behind the sternum and in the epigas-
trium. Extreme restlessness and anxiety, or a semicoma
with a muttering delirium, from which as a rule they can
be roused to answer questions. Varying cough, some-
times slight, sometimes reiterant with a croupous rattling
from exudate in the trachea. There is practically no
laryngitis. A cyanotic blueness in the lips and ears,
which may accompany a flushed lividity of the face or the
grayish-yellow pallor of collapse. Extremely rapid res-
piration, from 40 up to even 80 a minute, of a shallow
type on a distended chest, and often marked by a jerk-
ing grunt of expiration. A pulse of about 100, which
may rise to a higher rate and fall to a very low pressure
in the gray examples of collapse. The skin is dry, and
either hot or cold in correspondence with the state of col-
lapse. Elxpectoration may be very slight, though in oth-
ers there soon develops an abundant discharge of thin
watery fluid, often streaked with blood, which simply
flows from the mouth as the dying patient loses power
to expel it. After death, the foam from this fluid may
dry to a white efilorescence around the mouth. The per-
cussion note is slightly flattened over the lungs behind,
where the breath sounds are much weakened, but other-
wise unchanged in quality. Fine rales are heard behind
and in the axillae. There are no tubular breath sounds.
In front there may be extremely little change beyond
harshness in the breath sounds. The physical signs fail
altogether to indicate the extent to which the lungs are
damaged, for in any area examined there is always some
aeration of the bronchioles and alveoli which suffices to
produce relatively normal sounds on auscultation.

Four-fifths of the deaths occur in the first 24 hours.
Very few succumb after the third day. A man, who at
first seemed to be lightly gassed, may, toward the end of
the first day, develop cyanosis and die; but from the end
of the second day onward, there is no danger to be ap-

APPENDICES 217

prehended for the less grave cases. On the second day
the sputum becomes less abundant, more viscous and yel-
low tinted. The dyspnea persists and the temperature is
raised. If complications develop subsequently from in-
fections of the raw respiratory tract, they will be shown
by persistence of fever, by a purulent sputum, and by signs
of broncho-pneumonic consolidation.

But as a rule the patient recovers rapidly after the
third day, and at the end of a week he is fully convales-
cent. Cough, pain in the chest, which is often very se-
vere beneath the rib margins, shortness of breath, loss of
appetite with gastric pain, and general lassitude persist
longest of the symptoms. There are no serious after re-
sults to be apprehended. A man who has been badly
gassed requires a long rest; but the majority, if free from
neurasthenic symptoms, are fit for light duty in a very
few weeks, provided that they are allowed sufl5cient rest
at first. The heart and circulation are severely strained
by gas poisoning. Convalescents who show tachycardia
must be carefully watched lest too heavy physical efiFort
early in the first month of recovery induce further strain
and lead to the condition of irritable soldier's heart, from
which recovery will be long delayed.

In some cases that died after two or three days of per-
sistent cyanosis and unconsciousness the white matter of
the brain was found to be peppered with tiny petechial
hemorrhages. These are the direct outcome of the
asphyxial state and have little clinical significance. Large
cerebral hemorrhages have, however, been noted, occur-
ring on the first or second day in cases of plethoric cya-
nosis.

Men, and especially officers, should be warned before-
hand that if lightly gassed they must refrain from mov-
ing about or shouting out orders. Physical strain after
gassing may easily involve the loss of a life that might
otherwise have been restored to the fighting line in a
short time. All kit that hinders the play of the respira-
tory muscles, especially belts and suspenders should be
undone. Sleep brings improvement, aivi restless excited
cases should be quieted by morphia. It is important that
arrangements should be planned beforehand at each
casualty clearing station so that even a large number of

2i8 APPENDICES

gas casualties can be handled with such discipline and
control as will at once introduce a sense of order and
quietude, and by separating those who are more danger-
ously ill from the remainder, enable the less severe cases
to get to sleep at once.

Next in importance to rest comes the use of oxygen,
protection from cold, special stimulants or drugs, vene-
section, and methods for removing serous exudate from
the lungs. Bronchial spasm does not seem to be a serious
danger with the present form of cloud gas. Life or death
is decided by the degree of pulmonary edema and as-
phyxia with circulatory failure. The edema fluid tends
to be absorbed quickly, and if the patient can be carried
alive through the first two days, he should recover. Pre-
cautions in the meantime need to be taken to lessen the
chance that secondary respiratory infections may develop
as a later complication.

Oxygen, if rightly administered, will generally lessen
cyanosis, and therefore improve the patient's chance of
life. But the lung surface available for absorption is so
small that the oxygen must be given in high concentra-
tion. The simple admixture with air obtained by open
flow from a funnel or a tube placed in the patient's mouth
is useless, and since it wastes valuable oxygen it shoidd
be forbidden. Given as the pure gas from a bag with a
valved face mask, say for 3 or 4 minutes every quarter of
an hour, an oxygen cylinder of 20 feet capacity will last
about 4 hours. By this means life can undoubtedly be
saved in some of the apparently desperate cases. The ad-
ministration must be continued night and day, so as to
hold cyanosis in check. The consumption of oxygen by
this method is so large that all care must be taken to
economize cylinders, the provision of which, under active
service conditions is necessarily limited by considerations
of transport. Many casualties are so severely poisoned
that their condition is seen in the first few hours to be
hopeless. Some selection of the cases for oxygen treat-
ment must therefore generally be made, and it is espe-
cially with the intermediate group who are surviving into
the second day that oxygen has the best chance of acting
with ultimate advantage. It is quite unnecessary to use
it for relatively mild cases. Deep cyanosis, whether of

APPENDICES 219

the congestive or pallid type, is the indication of need,
and the lividity can almost always be lessened if die face-
mask is properly applied.

APPENDIX S
NITROUS FUMES AND LACHRYMATORS

The great danger of nitrous fumes, nitric oxide and ni-
trogen peroxide, arises from the fact that in the concen-
trations usually met with there is comparatively little
irritation of the eyes or upper respiratory passages, and
a man working in such an atmosphere will not recog-
nize its deadly nature. Air which contains enough ni-
trous fumes to cause feelings of irritation in the nose or
air passages must be regarded as very dangerous. Ni-
trous fumes are very soluble in water, and the gas may
be readily removed from the atmosphere by means of a
water spray, whilst a few folds of a handkerchief or a
towel wetted with water and tied over the nose and mouth
will give efficient protection in the absence of a mask. The
possibility of the simultaneous occurrence of carbon mon-
oxide in atmospheres containing nitrous fimies must be
remembered.

The pathological changes found post-mortem in a fatal
case of nitrous fumes poisoning are identical with those
described as characteristic of chlorine poisoning. If the
concentration of nitrous fumes to which the case has been
exposed is very high, the blood may be somewhat choco-
late colored owing to the formation of methaemoglobin.
If the gas is in very great concentration, rapid fatal as-
phyxiation takes place, but in the concentrations that are
usually encountered, the characteristics which distinguish
this from chlorine poisoning are the slightness of the in-
itial symptoms due to irritation of the upper respiratory
passages and delay in the onset of acute pulmonary ede-
ma. The typical sequence of events is —

(i) Slight irritation of the nose and throat, feeling of

220 APPENDICES

constriction of the chest, headache and slight smarting
of the eyes and coughing while actually exposed to the
fumes.

(2) On leaving the poisonous atmosphere a latent
period during which the case may, and usually does, feel
quite well and has no hesitation in taking a meal.

(3) The sudden onset after four to eight hours of acute
symptoms. These commence with marked and increasing
distress in breathing, coughing, and often severe pain in
the chest. The cough is at first dry, and auscultation may
reveal no moist sounds. This condition is speedily fol-
lowed by the urgent signs of atute pulmonary edema, and
death may ensue in a few hours.

When once pulmonary edema has developed, the treat-
ment should follow the lines laid down for chlorine poi-
soning. The experience of medical officers attached to
mines where nitrous fumes are frequently met with dur-
ing blasting operations, points to the value of inducing
emesis as soon after exposure to the fumes as possible,
followed by a dose of such a stimulant as aromatic spirits
of ammonia. A case of nitrous fumes poisoning should
be under medical observation at the time when acute pul-
monary edema is likely to develop and a venesection of
from 5 to 20 ounces should be made as soon as there
is the slightest sign of its onset. Venesection must not be
delayed until the patient's condition is grave and the
stage of lividity has been reached, or it will be useless.

The immediate effect of a trace of the vapor of such
a lachrymator as benzyl bromide in the air is to cause
profuse watering of the eyes, accompanied by smarting.
If the concentration is somewhat greater, the smarting
and pain in the eyes may become intolerable, so that it is
impossible to keep the eyes open. The smarting and wa-
tering of the eyes will be quite sufficient to put a man
completely out of action, because he is incapable of see-
ing, but protection of the eyes is easily obtained by the
use of goggles.

With increasing concentrations of the vapor, other
effects show themselves. The vapor is irritant to the
lungs and upper respiratory passages and this leads to a
burning sensation in the throat and coughing. Nausea is
often present and not infrequently leads to vomiting, ac-

APPENDICES 221

companied, it may be, by pain in the epigastrium. If it is
impossible to withdraw from exposure to the fumes, slight
confusion of mind and torpor may show themselves.

Under ordinary conditions the symptoms do not develop
further, and though the case may become somewhat col-
lapsed as a result of the vomiting and general discomfort,
this is only temporary, and within an hour or two after
getting into air free from the lachrymator there may be
very little amiss with the man. The nausea and irritation of
the throat soon pass off, though the eyes may remain sore
for some little time, and even after the lapse! of 12 hours
redness of the eyelids and slight injection of the conjunc-
tiva may still be evident. There are no subsequent toxic
effects and the case will be fit for duty as soon as the
primary effects have passed off.

It must not be forgotten that some of the acute lung
irritants are also extremely powerful lachrymators, and
that such substances may be used with a view to securing
a double effect, viz., immediate blinding and simultaneous
intense toxic effect on the lungs. In order to secure such
an effect it is essential that the substance used shall be
gaseous or shall vaporize with sufficient rapidity to at-
tain a high enough concentration in the air to produce
these intense toxic effects. Lachrymators such as ben-
zyl bromide, which are liquid at ordinary temperatures,
vaporize too slowly to produce such a concentration. The
smell of benzyl bromide when in great dilution suggests
the flavor of mustard and cress. Lachrymators as a rule
have aromatic, pungent odors.

When in sufficient concentration hydrocyanic acid acts.
as a very rapid and sometimes almost instantaneous poi-
son, affecting directly the central nervous system. The
S3anptoms follow one another in rapid sequence: Giddi-
ness, confusion, headache, indistinct sight, palpitation and
pain in the chest and over the heart. Labored respira-
tion. Unconsciousness, convulsions, failure of the respi-
ration and finally of the heart. In large doses, immedi-
ate tmconsciousness, dilatation of the pupils, a few gasping
respirations, and death with or without convulsions.
The gas paralyzes the respiratory center very quickly, and
with small fatal percentages the heart may continue to
beat for a brief time after the respiration has ceased.

222 APPENDICES

With larger concentrations the heart may be stopped al-
most at once by the direct action of the poison. When
death is caused by inhalation of hydrocyanic-acid gas, it
is unlikely that the smell of the gas will be detected at
autopsy, as may be the case when poisoning is due to the
ingestion by the mouth of a large dose of prussic acid.

Immediate treatment is the only measure of any avail
if a man falls unconscious from hydrocyanic-acid poi-
soning. The case must be at once dragged into fresh
air, and if the respiration has stopped, or is very weak
and gasping, artificial respiration must be instantly ap-
plied by Schafer's method.

APPENDIX 6
MUSTARD GAS

Dichlorethylsulphide, known as mustard gas, Yperite
or Yellow Cross gas, is an oily liquid boiling at 422** F. .
On account of its high boiling point, it vaporizes very f
slowly, and is therefore, extremely persistent. It is a sta-
ble compound, being but slowly destroyed by water at ;
ordinary temperatures, more quickly by alkalies such as
bicarbonate of soda. Chloride of lime will destroy any
mustard gas, either liquid or gaseous, with which it comes
in contact. The liquid will soak into soil on which it is
thrown and remain there from a week to a month. There-
fore mustard gas shell holes should not be dug up for a
considerable time after a bombardment. The liquid which
remains in or above the surface layer of the soil will
slowly vaporize under the heat of the sun. This vapori-
zation will not as a rule be great enough at night or dur-
ing cold weather to produce dangerous concentrations of
gas, but as soon as the ground is warmed by the sun,
troops passing near will be in almost as great danger from .
the gas as at the time of the bombardment. Mustard 1
gas also has the property of remaining on and penetrat-
ing woolen and cotton fabrics. Rubber is penetrated

APPENDICES 223

fairly rapidly. Oiled fabrics delay penetration to a con-
siderable extent. However, it is unwise to depend on this
protection for more than a few hours.

The Germans use mustard gas in shell for yy mm. gun,
and for 105 mm., 150 and 214 mm. howitzers, more rarely
in 100 mm. and 150 mm. guns. The distinguishing mark
is a yellow cross on the side or base of the shell or both.
The filling is dichlorethylsulphide, usually mixed with a
solvent: carbon tetrachloride, chlorbenzene, or nitro-ben-
zene. These shells have been generally provided with a |
medium bursting charge, although the use of yellow cross
shell with a high bursting charge, simulating high ex-
plosive shell, is increasing continually. These latter are
marked with a yellow Lorraine cross. The charge in the
Lorraine cross shell is of sufficient size to produce a spray
of very finely divided particles of the liquid and in this
form, though less persistent, the gas is more concentrated
and dangerous.

. The following points should be carefully noted in re-
gard to this gas, as they, in combination with its per-
sistence, make it the most dangerous of all. Unlike oth-
ers, it has very little immediate irritating action on the
respiratory system or in the eyes, and, therefore, does not [
force a man to put on his respirator. Exposure to either
liquid or vapor, even in low concentration, will cause
irritation of any tissue with which it comes in contact.
This iritation is usually not noticed for from 3 to 12
hours after the exposure and may affect any part of the
body. The worst mustard gas cases are due to irritation ;
of the respiratory tract, which is often serious enough
to cause death. A secondary effect is often pneumonia 1
or in lighter cases bronchitis and an acute sore throat
lasting for several weeks. Exposure of the eyes to the
vapor will cause temporary blindness, which is very pain-
ful, and will last from a few days to several weeks, de-
pending on the length of the exposure. The third effect,
from which mustard gas derives its name of vesicant or
blistering agent, is the production of painful burns on
those portions of the skin with which it comes in contact,
particularly the tender and moist parts tmder the arms
and around the ^gCC^t^UTX*

Mustard gasi is used rather as a neutralizing than as a

224 APPENDICES

8uq>rise gas, because its slow evaporation prevents the
rapid formation of high concentrations. Its persistency
is greater than that of any other gas, and hence by its
use any position may be made untenable for days after it
is shelled. It is particularly valuable for use against
valleys and woods, because such terrain will remain in-
fected longer than open country. It is used in general
against artillery emplacements, support and reserve posi-
tions, command posts, billets, woods, communicating
trenches and roads. The following translation of a cap-
tured German document is instructive:

Bombardment with yellow cross shell wUl he executed
preferably between one and four A, M, At first the bonp-
bardntent will compel the enemy to wear his mask, A
few hours later, when the presence of the gas is no longer
revealed by the odor, the enemy will probably take ofF
his mask, but will be overcome later, when the sun rises,
by the action of the evaporation. Every attempt of the
enemy to nullify the effects of the night gas bombardment
in the morning should be neutralised by volleys of rifle,
machine gun, minenwerfer and artillery fire.

Mustard gas is rarely used during the three or four
days preceding a large scale "push," except against those
points over which it is not intended to advance. Particu-
lar care must be taken in occupying terrain captured from ,
the enemy because of the danger from gas traps left dur-
ing his retreat. Gas shell and bombs may be left in dug-
outs or farmhouses and fused to explode when the local-
ity is filled with our troops. Mustard gas may be sprin-
kled on roads and at all points over which troops must
pass. All shelters will in general have been liberally
soaked with mustard gas.

The respirators in use by the American forces give
absolute protection against all but the blistering action
of mustard gas. Certain special precautions in their use
must be observed. Because of the slight odor and de-
layed action of mustard gas, troops must be trained to
put on the respirator immediately when any odor is no-
ticed which might be that of gas. They must not remove
the respirator until all traces of the gas have disappeared.
They must be trained to wear it for long periods of time
and to be able to work efficiently while wearing it. Men

APPENDICES 22\^

who have been exposed to mustard gas and have been
testing for it for several hours, gradually lose their abil-
ity to detect it. On wearing the mask a short time one
recovers his keenness of smell for the gas.

Sag paste is a protective ointment which, if applied be-
fore exposure to the gas, will greatly diminish its effects
upon the skin. The paste should be rubbed liberally in
an even layer on the genital organs and region, the but-
tocks, the armpits, and other parts of the body which
perspire freely. The length of time that such an appli-
cation is effective depends entirely upon the strength of
the gas. Since there is no way of judging this easily in
the field, care must be taken to use a sufficient quantity
of the paste and to renew the application about once every
12 hours when continually exposed to the gas. It should
be carefully noted that sag paste must be applied before
troops enter an area that is likely to be shelled. This will
have to be done on the judgment of the unit gas officer.

Any portion of the skin which has been splashed by
the liquid from mustard gas shells or even moist parts
that have been exposed to the vapor should be washed
as quickly as possible with soap and water. Any kind of
soap will answer and cold water is satisfactory. It is
only necessary to work up a good lather and massage the
place well with this lather. .Very little water used in this
way often suffices to prevent burns. If chloride of lime
is available, as it should be, some of the dry powder sprin-
kled on the skin that is splashed with mustard gas liquid
will prevent a bad burn. The powder is to be left on the
skin about fifteen minutes and then washed off with
water and soap if obtainable.

In general, the best protection against mustard gas is
evacuation of all ground infected by it, if the tactical
situation permits, and alternative positions should he
prepared or selected in advance. If a zone has been
evacuated after a mustard gas bombardment, sentriea
should be posted on all roads and paths entering this zone
to warn troops away from it and to prevent their entering.
Sentries should also be posted in front of contaminated
dugouts in a zone otherwise free from mustard gas. If
not possible to evacuate, frequent reliefs, or protection
of troops as far as possible in gasproof dugouts will alone

2a6 APPENDICES

prevent namerous casualties, as mustard gas inXk ooHmsl
the staying power of troops wearing the respirator. In
connection with the use of gasproof dugouts, it should
he noted that men entering such dugouts nave gassed the
occupants by the gas which they have brought in on tfaor
clothes and, therefore, all outer clothing should be re-
moved in the entrance to the dugout and soles of shoes
treated with chloride of lime. A scraper, water, and box
of chloride of lime should be kept near the entrance to
each dugout The shoes are first dipped into the water,
then thoroughly rubbed in the lime, and finally washed off
in the water. This precaution, if followed by thorough
washing of the body, will be very effective in preventing
bums. It should be noted that the enemy will probably
not knowingly attack across an area recently shelled with
mustard gas.

After a mustard gas bombardment, the covering^ of
shell holes with chloride of lime will render such shell
holes harmless. The chloride of lime should be spaded in
well, ^en covered with another thinner layer of lime
which is in turn covered with fresh earth. This should
be done by a special disinfecting squad provided with the
proper protective clothing. It is manifestly impossible
m the case of an extensive bombardment to disinfect all
shell holes in this way, but those near which troops pass
or near dugouts should always be disinfected. Men after
walking over an area infected with mustard g^s will find
it necessary to destroy the poison on their ^oes before
entering a dugout, as this liquid readily evaporates after-
wards in the dugout, rendering the atmosphere extremely
dangerous. Chloride of lime is placed on the ground out-
side of dugouts, in order that the men may use the lime
to destroy the liquid that may be carried upon their
shoes. There is an element of danger in the use of chlo^
ride of lime to destroy gas due to the fact that the
odor of the former completely masks that of Ihe latter.
When chloride of lime is thrown on liquid mustard gas,
some chlorine is given off. This will cause little annoy-
ance. However, the heat of the reaction may vaporize
some of the mustard gas which has not yet been de-
stroyed. When large puddles of the liquid are encoun-
tered, they will first be sprinkled with sand, dry earth or

APPENDICES 227

ashes, to absorb the greater part of the poison before be-
ing treated with chloride of lime. Clothes which have
been gassed can be disinfected by washing in nmning
water for several days, by washing in nearly boiling water
for I to 2 hours, by steaming for an hour, or by hanging
them out in the rain. The extent of cleaning necessary
and method employed will depend on the amount of con-
tamination and the conditions in the field. See Chapter
IX.

APPENDIX 7
GAS ATTACKS

The enemy employs gas for two purposes — ^to inflict cas-
ualties and to reduce the fighting efficiency of his oppo- I
n^t. For the purpose of inflicting casualties he relies *"''
upon surprise, and upon taking advantage of ignorance,
bad discipline, faulty training and defective respirators.
To reduce fighting efficiency of our forces he seeks to
compel Jhe wearing of masks or to employ other protec-
tive appliances.

In making a gas attack the enemy seeks to generate a
cloud of gas either directly within our own lines or in
such a position that it will be carried by the wind into our
lines. To accomplish this end he employs three distinct
methods :

Cylinder Claud Attacks. Such attacks are employed
more frequently in trench warfare than in open warfare,
as there is more time to place the cylinders in the trenches
and the stability of movement allows the cloud to drift
over the opponent's trenches.

Projector Attacks, Such attacks are limited to a sta-
bilized front in which time and other circumstances per-
mit the projectors to be brought up and placed in posi-
tion for firing. Improvements to avoid digging trenches
to emplace the projectors and more rapid means of trans-
portation will broaden the use of this form of attack.

228 APPENDICES

Borhardments with Artillery or Trench Mortar Gas
ShelL Such attacks are applicable in all modes of war-
fare.

In the case of cylinder attacks, a highly poisonous
liquefied g^s of low boiling point is liberated from cylin-
ders placed in or near the front line. In case of projector
or trench mortar attacks, and of attacks by artillery shell,
the gas is inclosed in a suitable projectile and is thrown
into the adversary's territory. Tnere, by means of a per-
cussion or a time fuse and a bursting charge, the shell is
broken open and the poisonous material is liberated. The
bursting charge is varied, depending upon whether the
"gas" is a liquid, or a solid. The bursting charge is
usually very small in the case of a liquefied gas, but often
sufficient to give practically a high explosive effect, in the
case of solids. A liquefied g^s vaporizes when the pres-
sure is released by the breaking of the shell, while solids
are either atomized or vaporized by the explosion of the
bursting charge.

Cylinder Cloud Attacks, Gas clouds are produced by
the sudden liberation of a liquefied gas from cylinders in
which it is stored under pressure. The gas used is gen-
erally chlorine, phosgene, or mixtures of chlorine with
phosgene or chlorpicrin. Formerly cylinders were as a
rule dug in at the bottom of the trench and connected with
outlet pipes that led from the bottom of the cylinder out
over the trench parapet. Now they are often piled on
trucks or flat cars and fired simultaneously by electricity.
When the outlet valves are fully opened, whether by hand
or electrically, the liquid is driven out as a gas in two or
three minutes, which, mixing with the air forms a cloud.
This cloud may vary in appearance, due to weather con-
ditions or to smoke mixed with it. It may be almost
transparent and slightly green in color, or it may look like
a thick mist.

The cloud is carried by the wind over the opposing
line and at times the gas has been noticeable in the rear
areas as much as lo miles from the front line. Gas
clouds are usually slightly denser than the surrounding
air and therefore tend to fill up trenches and hollows and
penetrate unprotected dugouts where the gas remains
long after the main cloud has passed. Such clouds tend

APPENDICES 229

to follow the course of valleys. Lakes or streams do not
affect the gas. The chief dangers from such an attack
are due to the high concentration of gas at the moment
of its release and to the extent of the area which may be
covered by the gas under favorable conditions. How-
ever, cloud gas attacks are very dependent on wind con-
ditions and should not be made in heavy rains. They
are best made only when upward-moving currents of air
are not present, that is, when the sun is not shining. They
offer a little less chance for surprise than other forms of
attack.

During the discharge the warning is often given by the
hissing sound of the escaping gas, the appearance of the
cloud, and the pdor of the gas before the main cloud
reaches the trenches. Gas cloud attacks are feared as a
dangerous form of attack and when they are made, every
form of gas defense equipment is given a most severe
test. A later development is the use of portable gas cyl-
inders fired by electricity while lying on the ground.

Projector Attacks, The enemy makes use of "gas
projectors" having a range of about 1,500 meters and in
the case of the new rifled projectors of about 3,000 me-
ters. By this method a large number of projectiles, each
containing about 16.5 pounds of liquefied gas are simulta-
neously shot from smooth-bore or rifled iron tubes dug
into the ground or set in wooden racks. The propelling
charges are varied according to the range desired. The
electric current for firing the charges is generated by
hand-driven magnetos called "exploders," each of which
fires about twenty-five projectors. On impact, or by
means of a time fuse, the projectiles are exploded and the
gas volatilized. By this method, the enemy is able to gen-
erate a cloud of gas within our lines. His tactics are
not so dependent upon weather conditions as when cloud
attacks are made. Projector attacks call for the highest
degree of gas discipline among the troops affected be-
cause of the surprise which is often secured and the in-
stantaneous formation of an extremely concentrated and
deadly cloud of gas. Warning of an impending projec-
tor attack may be given by: (a) Noise of installation of
the apparatus and material, (b) Active wind observa-

230 APPENDICES

tions on the part of the enemy, (c) Airplane photographs
of projector emplacements, new dumps and tracks.

When the shoot occurs a large flash or series of flashes
may be seen in the enemy's lines, followed by a loud
explosion, like that of an ammunition dump blowing up.
The enemy often tries to conceal this sheet of flame by
installing projectors behind hills so that the only warning
given is the crash. Sentries should be warned to give
the alarm when any sound is heard which might be inter-
preted as being caused by projectors. The course of the
projectiles through the air is often seen by the trail of
sparks emitted from the time fuses, and the boif bs make
a loud whirring noise described as being similar to the
noise of partridge in flight. In the case of the rifled pro-
jector shell the noise is less distinctive and similar to that
caused by ordinary artillery shell. Twelve to twenty-two
seconds warning is usually given by the flash and explo-
sion.

Gas Bombardment with Trench Mortars or Artillery.
The enemy also employs toxic substances in the projec-
tiles shot from trench mortars or minenwerfers. With
sufficient rapidity and accuracy of fire, it is possible for
him to generate a heavy cloud of gas within our lines. A
higher degree of accuracy is attained than with projec-
tors and the bombardments can be continued indefinitely,
whereas a projector can be fired only once during a con-
siderable period of time. However, it is not possible by
the use of minenwerfer to develop as high a concentration
in as short a time and the likelihood of surprise is not so
great.

The use of toxic substances in artillery shell is the most
important method of gas warf^ire. Batteries firing rap-
idly and accurately against some objective, such as an-
other battery, can develop a moderately high concentra-
tion at a long range. Owing to the greater range and
accuracy of artillery fire, weather conditions affect this
use of gas less than others, although a wind of high ve-
locity or upward currents will disperse a cloud of non-
persistent gas so rapidly that very little damage will be
done. Gas shells are used in various ways, according to
tactical result desired. To produce casualties, sudden

APPENDICES 231

bursts of lethal shell are concentrated on small targets,
and in preparation for an infantry advance enormous
numbers of shell containing penetrating and surprise
gases are often employed. Harassing fire with persistent
gases like mustard, a few shells at a time, may be con-
tinued indefinitely against permanent positions.

Toxic substances find a use of minor importance in
hand grenades. In this form, the enemy employs poison-
ous chemicals for the purpose of "mopping up" recently
captured trenches and dugouts.

The following is a convenient form to be used for mak-
ing reports on gas attacks :

AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES
Defense Division, Chemical Warfare Sertics

report on gas attack

Serial No

(Date of Report) -.

Corps

Division

Unit Location ;

From M , 19. . ., to M , 19. . . .

Method of attack (shells, cylinders, projectors)

No. of projectiles Caliber Gas used

Wind direction Velocity M.P.S Tempera-
ture Humidity

Character of terrain (woods, sloping ground ravine,
swamp, etc.)

Area of terrain and length of front affected

No. of troops exposed

Duds found at (Coordinates) . . . .No Caliber

Markings

Total casualties including deaths Total deaths

Lung cases Eye cases or burns

Causes of casualties (approx. No. from each cause; fail-
ure to put on mask, premature removal, etc.)

Length of time respirators were worn

Was any part of gassed area evacuated ? ,

232 APPENDICES

At what time?

Was attempt made to relieve units required to remain in
sector ?

At what time (in the case of mustard gas) was disinfec-
tion of ground beg^n ?

Completed

Remarks: (should include any new tactical use of gas» any
suggestions, etc.)

Signed

APPENDIX 8
DEFENSE AGAINST GAS

A system of defense against gas must necessarily be
wide in its scope and continuous in its action, and on the
other hand there is no type of enemy warfare which can
be as successfully resisted as gas. Against well-disci-
plined troops, some of the most violent gas bombardments
have failed to secure a single casualty, though any laxity
is sure to result in more or less serious losses.

It is the duty of commanding officers to familiarize
themselves with the nature of gas, and the means of de-
fense against it. The protective appliances are con-
stantly being improved as gas warfare develops, and when
rightly used, they give very complete protection against
all forms of gas. In warfare, any substance which is
used for its poisonous or irritating effect may be called a
gas, regardless of whether it is a "true gas," a mist of
fine drops, a cloud of poisonous dust, an ordinary liquid,
or a solid.

There are two groups of warfare gases. The first
group, of which chlorine is an example, consists of sub-
stances that are true gases under ordinary conditions and
form gas clouds immediately upon opening the container
in which they are stored. Those of the second group,
typified by mustard gas, form vapors only very slowly

APPENDICES 233

unless scattered by shell explosion or warmed by the heat
of the sun. Even an extremely small amount of certain
gases if breathed sufficiently long, will cause a casualty,
A man some distance from a shell hole containing poi-
sonous liquid may become a casualty through inhaling the
vapor or by its condensation on his body, even if no shell
have fallen for several hours. It is important that this
be explained so that the men may appreciate the danger
of gas, and at the same time realize that there is nothing
mysterious or supernatural about it.

In order to cut down g^s casualties to the absolute
minimum, the following measures must be taken: (a)
Thorough training and drill of troops in the use of pro-
tective appliances so that they can adjust them accurately
under all conditions and perform all duties while wear-
ing them, (b) Frequent and rigid inspection of all pro-
tective equipment, (c) Absolute obedience to regulations
in regard to carrying the respirator in danger and alert
zones, (d) Training all troops to recognize gas at-
tacks, (e) Installation of adequate gas alarms and in-
struction of sentries in their use. (f) Teaching all offi-
cers and gas non-commissioned officers the properties of
enemy gases, proper methods of defense against them,
and action to be taken in situations likely to arise, (g)
Practice in wearing respirators for long periods, (h)
Wearing respirators as long as gas is present.

Experience has shown tibat numerous casualties occur
through failure to warn men promptly when the enemy
makes a gas attack. Officers are responsible that arrange-
ments are made for the communication of the gas alarm
to all ranks under their command in the shortest possible
time. The need for quickness in giving the g^s alarm is
imperative; a few seconds delay, particularly in the case
of projector attacks, makes a great difference in the num-
ber of casualties. Sentries must be posted over all men
sleeping in dugouts. Whenever there is danger of pro-
jector attacks, men should be prevented from sleeping
within 1,500 yards of the enemy front line, if tactical re-
quirements permit. On detecting the presence of gas,
sentries shout "gas," put on their respirators and imme-
diately spread the alarm in every possible way.

The method of giving the alarm varies with the nature

234 APPENDICES

of the attack. In cylinder and projector attacks it is nec-
essary to warn troops over extensive areas, which may
be traversed by a dangerous concentration of gas, while
the effect of gas shell bombardment is much more local,
and it is necessary to alarm only troops in the immedi-
ate neighborhood of the bombarded area. Any device
may be used as an alarm for gas attacks which gives a
loud and distinctive noise, and does not require the use of
lungs. Improvised alarms, such as church bells and empty
shell cases are in use, as well as Klaxon horns, wooden
rattles and steel triangles. Such light signals as may be
approved by Division Commander on recommendation of
the Division Signal Officer and which do not conflict
with those already in use, may be employed for gas alarms.
Commanders of companies on the move should make sure
that a sufficient stock of portable alarm devices is always
on hand.

The protection of dugouts against gas has proven of
great value especially in the case of gas of high persist-
ency, which may necessitate the wearing of the respirator
in an area for long periods. The entrance to all dugouts
and shelters of sufficiently good construction within the
"Alert" zone should be provided with two gas tight doors,
or with two curtains of gas proof material with a space
of several feet between them, thus forming a gas lock.
Each curtain should be fitted so as to give a tight joint,
over the whole frame of door, stopping all draughts. Not
only should dugouts and cellars be provided with frames
and blankets, but care must be taken that the cracks be-
tween the frames and the earth or rock walls are made
gas tight. Curtains should always be kept moistened or
oiled and rolled up when not in use. Unless this is done,
the curtains are useless. All dugouts which have been
made really gas proof, are posted with a sign "Gas Proof."
In medical and signal dugouts particular care should be
taken to provide this protection so that officers and men
can work during gas attacks without wearing respirators.

Precautions to be observed in dugouts in case of gas
attacks are as follows: (a) Lower curtains immediately,
(b) Wake all sleeping men. (c) Put out all fires, (d)
Stop up any holes or flues, (e) Prevent passing in and
out as much as possible, (f) In case of passage in or out.

APPENDICES 235

only one man must pass through at a time. Only one cur-
tain must be raised at a time, and curtains must be low-
ered as quickly as possible, (g) Men entering from
gassed areas must remove outer clothing and leave it in
the gas lock.

After a cloud attack some of the gas will remain in un-
protected dugouts, trenches and hollows in the ground.
A certain amount will also be absorbed in blankets and
clothing. Any gas present in the air may be removed
rapidly by ventilation. In shallow dugouts and trenches,
fanning with coats or empty sand bags will produce a
sufficient draught for this purpose, but all dugouts are
cleared most rapidly and effectively by means of a fire.
In dugouts provided with a single exit, the best results
are obtained if the fire is placed in the center of the floor
of the dugout. In those provided with two or more exits,
the fire should be placed at the inner end of the exit pas-
sage farthest from the wind.

After a bombardment with mustard gas, in addition to
gas remaining as described above, some of the liquid will
remain on the ground near the shell craters, on the floor
and walls of dugouts and emplacements that have re-
ceived direct hits, in piles of straw and rubbish, in straw
mattresses, clothing and equipment. This liquid may
continue to give off gas for long periods and every possi-
ble means must be taken to destroy it immediately. Piun-
ice soaked in phosgene should be covered deeply with
earth (not chloride of lime), or the position evacuated
until it ceases to give off gas.

There have been cases reported of food which has been
exposed to gas causing ill effects. All food and water
should be kept covered. No food that has an unusual
taste or odor after a gas attack or bombardment should be
eaten. Casualties have more frequently been produced
by the use of contaminated water from shell craters. All
water from shell craters should be regarded as dangerous
until proved to the contrary, and every effort should be
made to use water from other sources. Blue Cross, con-
taining arsenic, dissolves in water, making it highly poi-
sonous, and this is not remedied by boiling.

Many gases, particularly phosgene and chlorine, have
a corrosive action on metals. This action is greatly as-

236 APPENDICES

sisted by moisture which dissolves and retains the g^s so
that corrosion continues until the surface is cleaned. Mus-
tard gas liquid will also corrode brass. Metal surfaces
which are covered with mineral oil are not affected, pro-
vided they are cleaned and re-oiled after exposure.

The Division Commander is responsible for the proper
training and instruction of his command in gas defensive
measures. The presence or absence of gas casualties
under a gas attack forms a basis for estimating the effi-
ciency of his command. The Chemical Warfare Service
provides the division and corps gas officers with suitable
samples of the various kinds of gases, especially those of
most frequent use, for instructing the personnel in the
identification of the presence of gases. These samples
are prepared in such form that they may be easily trans-
ported without the necessity of increasing the allowance
of transportation authorized for moving gas supplies.
When in training areas, quantities of various gases arc
supplied for the purpose of infecting areas and shell holes
as they occur under actual conditions of warfare.

Organisation. Commanding officers of all units are
held responsible that all the anti-gas appliances for pro-
tecting their men are maintained in perfect condition, and
that all ranks under their command are thoroughly trained
in the use of these appliances, and in all measures which
may affect their safety against gas, including identifica-
tion of the presence of gases and the identification of
gas attacks.

Battalion, regimental, division gas officers and assist-
ants are appointed to aid in seeing that all anti-gas meas-
ures are efficiently carried out. It is their duty to bring
any efficiency in gas discipline or protection to the notice
of the proper commanding officer when necessary.

A gas officer is appointed by the unit commander for
every regiment, for every battalion and for separate
units ; a gas non-commissioned officer is assigned as assist-
ant to each of these gas officers, and two gas non-commis-
sioned officers are appointed for each company. All gas
officers and gas non-commissioned officers are relieved
from all duties which might interfere with their duties as
gas officers. These gas officers and gas non-commissioned
officers, as well as other officers and non-commissioned

APPENDICES 237

officers chosen for their replacement, are selected on ac-
count of their special qualifications. They are required
to take a course of training* to fit them for their duties. ^

Regimental and other commanding officers consult their
gas officers before relieving the gas non-commissioned
officers serving them in order that other non-commis-
sioned officers, properly instructed, may be selected as re-
placement.

The commanding officers of units are responsible, not
only for the gas discipline of attached troops, such as
machine gun companies, detachments of engineers and
field signal men operating within their areas, but are also
responsible for the gas training of these troops, and see
that they receive training in gas defense equivalent to
the training given their own units.

Gas non-commissioned officers in such attached troops
are reported to the gas officer of the unit to which they
are attached (battalion or regimental). In case of de-
tachments which are smaller than a platoon, and which
have no gas non-commissioned officer of their own, one
of the gas non-commissioned officers of the unit with
which they are being rationed, is assigned to them to act
as gas non-commissioned officer, in addition to his duty
with his own company.

Training and Inspection. In addition to training at the
schools and in the training areas, all ranks whose duties
require them to enter the "Danger" zone should continue
respirator drill as may be directed by the Division Com-
mander. Respirators must be worn at least four hours
each week, but during this time usual drills and other
duties should be performed. Once each month all com-
batant troops should wear the respirator for four consecu-
tive hours. Respirator drill should include the adjust-
ment of the respirator while the helmet is worn and also
the adjustment and wearing of the respirator in the dark.

Respirators, alarm systems, protected dugouts, and such
other gas defense measures as may exist under varying
conditions within a divisional area, should be inspected
twice each week by the proper gas officers. In the "Alert"
zone company commanders will provide for similar daily
inspection by the gas non-commissioned officers. Any de-
ficiencies should be called to the attention of the company

2fi APPENDICES

cominander concerned, and of the battalion commander.
As many dugouts as possible should be made adequately
gas proof. No dugout curtains or other devices appar-
ently protecting against gas shotild be maintained in dug-
outs whidi are reported not to be adequately gas-prool

APPENDIX 9
FUNCTIONS OF GAS OFFICERS

The essential qualities of a 'gas officer are technical
knowledge, tact, courtesy, initiative, ingenuity, and ener-
getic perseverance. He must bear in mind that his sup-
ply and administrative duties are not the most important,
and that one of his most important duties is to advise with
respect to gas offense operations. These duties cannot
be properly performed from an office in the rear.

The following enumeration of functions of corps and
division gas officers is suggestive and not all inclusive :

Administration, (a) Secure and employ as near full
allowance of officers and enlisted men as practicable in
corps (or division) office, (b) Keep lists up to date of
regimental and battalion gas officers and non-commis-
sioned officers, (c) Study the personality of subordinate
gas officers. Attempt to make the best use of them by
suitable assignments, and to correct faults and weaknesses
when possible, (d) Departmentalize, as far as practicable,
the work of the corps (or division) gas personnel, (e)
Place all enlisted personnel immediately under a respon-
sible non-commissioned officer in charge of office, (f)
Secure, if practicable, separate quarters for enlisted per-
sonnel, (g) Know by name and rank each officer on
the staff and the nature of his duties, (h) Insure thaf
the required number of regimental and battalion gas
officers and non-commissioned officers are trained at prop-
er schools. Maintain a written record of training of gas
personnel, commissioned and non-commissioned, and their
ability, recommending advance of those who discharge

APPENDICES 239

their duties satisfactorily whenever a vacancy exists, (i)
Secure as near full allowances of transportation as prac-
ticable, (j) Maintain a filing system, emphasize care of
and making of maps, form and substance of reports and
correspondence, appearance of office, (k) Keep a war
diary.

Relations within carps (or division), (a) Maintain
an intimate liaison with all staff departments, (b) Cul-
tivate interest in gas among all officers by congenial, un-
obtrusive methods, (c) Request action of G-3 on reports
and recommendations relating to gas discipline, training
and supplies, (d) Secure official publications of neces-
sary orders, such as zone regulations, (e) Secure coop-
eration of Military Police in enforcement of orders relat-
ing to gas defense, (f) Secure all necessary information,
such as maps, reports and circulars concerning enemy op-
erations from G-2 (intelligence), concerning our own
movements from G-3 (Operations), concerning casual-
ties from the Corps (or Division) Surgeon's office, con-
cerning casualties and our own posts of command from
the Statistical Office, (g) Cooperate with representative
of Inspector General and Medical Gas Officer.

Operations, (a) Furnish counsel in gas matters as re-
quested by the Commanding General, Chief of Staff, G-3,
or (Corps) Artillery Officer, (b) Act as liaison between
gas troops operating in corps (or division) area and
corps and division staffs, establishing understanding on
the part of the staff and an appreciation of their potential
value. The Division Gas Officer will aid in establishing
similar relations between gas troops and units with which
they are to act in the line, (c) Furnish gas troops with
all available information concerning suitable targets and
movements involving the possibility of activity on their
part, (d) Devise plans for use of gas, submitting them
to G-3 or to Commanding Officer of Gas Troops con-
cerned where his organization is affected, (e) Establish
relations with artillery brigades (or brigade) cultivating
interest in^s. (f) Maintain liaison with Munitions Offi-
cer and Artillery Operations Officer, also Salvage Officer,
and be cautious in recommendations of artillery gas pro-
gramme, leaving all matters of recommendation which are
exclusively in the field of artillerists, (g) Report without

240 APPENDICES

delay direct to the Army Chief of Chemical Warfare
Service all gas offensive operations executed by troops
of the division (or corps), submitting a copy of such re-
port to G-3.

Supplies, (a) Study carefully the means of supply and
orobable future needs of <the division (or corps), (b) In-
jure an adequate supply of timely requisition on the near-
est advance army depot, but keep the stock in corps park
or division dump as small as compatible with local needs,
(c) If not near an advance depot see that requisitions on
the base or intermediate depots are placed widi Cjr-4 of the
army in ample time to secure supplies.

Subordinate Units, (a) Under such instructions as
may be issued from headquarters, make periodic inspec-
tions with a view toward determining the state of gas
discipline, training and supplies, reporting defects to the
Division (Regimental) Gas Officer and Commanding Of-
ficer of unit concerned. When corrective measures are
not applied, submit a special report to G-3 for information
of the Commanding General, (b) Keep tl\e Commanding
General advised of the state of gas training, discipline and
supplies in divisions assigned to corps (or units within
the division, (c) Advise next senior Gas Officer on same
subject, sending copy of such report to the Chief of
Chemical Warfare Service. (d) Assist the Division
(Regimental and Battalion) Gas Officers by counsel and
suggestion, (e) Study the conditions within divisions
(regiments, etc.) through routine report and personal in-
terview, (f) Encourage criticism and suggestion from
Division (Regimental and Battalion) Gas Officers, (g)
Be watchful at all times of gas personnel who, through
temperamental or other unfitness, tend to bring the Chem-
ical Warfare Service into discredit and recommend to the
Chief the transfer of such officers and men to other worlf.
(h) Insist upon the use of proper channels of communi-
cation, (i) Accustom troops to the use of smoke, high
explosives, and thermit by gas troops through demonstra-
tion and brief lectures.

Corps Troops, (a) Maintain gas discipline, training
and supplies, (b) Undertake training of gas non-com-
missioned officers in the units not as a whole identified
with front line activity (such as remount squadron, etc.).

APPENDICES 241

(c) Check closely situation concerning replacement bat-
talion and the sending of replacements to the line without
proper anti-gas equipment, (d) Interview gas officers
and non-commissioned officers of corps troops frequently
for purpose of secijrmg from them helpful suggestions
and criticism.

Casualties, (a) Keep an accurate account of casual-
ties noting particularly causes, avoidability, fatigue and
malingering cases, the nature of gas responsible for cas-
ualty, tactical use of that gas, ratio of shell to casualties,
(b) Analyze periodically the proportion of casualties at-
tributable to the several gases as indicated by S3rmptoms
and recollection of patients respecting smell and appear-
ance of gas. (c) Submit report to Commanding General
through G-3 when facts and findings justify, (d) Coop-
erate with Medical Gas Officer in securing data concern-
ing methods of relief of gas affections and in giving them
publicity within the corps (or division). Notify the Chief
of Chemical Warfare Service of all such methods in use
in the unit, (e) Take steps to prevent the needless salv-
age by hospitals of gas equipment of patients.

Enemy Material and Intelligence, (a) Secure all ma-
terial, documentary and otherwise, of any gas interest
through divisional (regimental) gas personnel, the salvage
officers, G-2, and miscellaneous sources, and, if practicable,
by examination of enemy dugouts, dumps and positions in
immediate wake of infantry advance, (b) Utilize all
available means of transportation for removal of non-mail-
able material to nearest Advance Army Gas Depot, noti-
fying the next senior Gas Officer or find out where it is
deposited, sen ling copy of report to Chief of Chemical
Warfare Service, (c) Deliver all non-gas intelligence
thus secured to G-2. (d) Secure, if practicable, transla-
tion of gas documents before forwarding them when data
is likely to be of immediate importance to Corps (divi-
sions), (e) A set of enemy fuses and typical gas shell,
sectioned, should be kept at the gas office for information
of all concerned.

Training of Divisions, (a) When Division is in train-
ing recommend to G-3 to establish conferences of regi-
mental and battalion gas officers and schools for gas non-
commissioned officers, (b) Recommend to G-3 to

242 APPENDICES

establish a scries of lectures, demonstratioiis, inspections
and drills for the enlisted personnel of the division.

The following is a suggestive digest of the functions of
a Regimental and Battalion Gas Officer. It should be
noted that responsibility for all measures taken in chem-
ical warfare, whether in offense or defense, rests ulti-
mately upon the commanding officer concerned, and the
gas officers concerned are under their command. Usually,
either the commanding officer of the. regiment will order
his gas officer to follow the technical advice of the Divi-
sion Gas Officer, or this may be ordered by higher author-
ity, (a) Keep an accurate record of training and ability
of subordinate personnel, recommending such advancement
as may be merited and practicable, (b) Keep the gas
personnel advised of the latest available data, holding
frequent conferences and inviting suggestion and criti-
cism, (c) Exact strict compliance with orders relating
to inspection by subordinate personnel, condition of ma-
terial, gas discipline and reserve supplies by means of
personal supervision and frequent inspections, (d) Insure
the immediate availability of authorized reserve anti-gas
supplies, their suitable transportation and proper issue.

(e) Advise commanding officers of the proper precautions
to be taken in anticipation of gas attacks, and in the event
of such attacks keep informed concerning all action taken.

(f) Minimize false alarms and supervise instruction to
sentries, insuring active liaison with gas personnel of
subordinate and superior commands, (g) Secure suffi-
cient first aid relief in exposed areas, (h) Furnish
counsel to the Commanding Officer in gas matters and
stimulate interest in and understanding of the use of gas
on the part of all officers, (i) Furnish liaison between
the command and gas unit operating therewith, insuring
sufficient understanding by troops of nature of proposed
activity of gas unit operating therewith, in order to
enable them to take full advantage thereof, (j) Report
accurately and promptly concerning the enemy use of gas
and its effect. In case of artillery gas officers, report in
addition concerning delivery of gas upon enemy objec-
tives, (k) Secure strict compliance with zone regulations
and punishment of offenders. (1) Minimize waste of
anti-gas material, applying disciplinary measures to of-

APPENDICES 243

lenders and insuring the full and proper use of all anti-
gas supplies, (m) Advise the next senior gas officer
of the location of finds of enemy gas material or cause
prompt delivery thereof to his office.

Inspections of divisions by corps gas officers and of
regiments by division gas officers should be frequent and
thorough thereby stimulating initiative and interest of
subordinate gas personnel, furnishing basis for the re-
moval of the unnt, advancement of the meritorious, and
securing helpful suggestions for the improvement of the
Service.

In general, the basis of inspection should be the deter-
mination by interview, of the activities of the Gas Officer
of the unit inspected and the instructions issued by him«
followed by investigation of conditions in subordinate
units, and the manner in which existing instructions are
complied with by the gas personnel of these subordinate
units.

The Gas Officer should obtain maps and information
regarding enemy dispositions and study the character of
the enemy terrain with the view of selecting favorable
targets for gas. He should study friendly terrain in order
to select favorable positions for emplacements. Informa-
tion should be obtained from the Chief of Artillery re-
garding the availability of guns of various types and cali-
,bers. He should also obtain from the munitions officer
information regarding the material available for use.
The Commanding Officer of gas troops should be con-
sulted regarding the use of cylinders, projectors and
trench mortars, their availability and the feasibility of
any project whidi mig^t be contemplated.

244

APPENDICES

APPENDIX lo

CASUALTIES BY GAS IN THE AMERICAN EX-

PEDITIONARY FORCES

Admission. Enlisted Men and Officers

Gaa.

Gas, polsooious (Kind not

stated)

Chlorine

Mustard Gas

Phosgene

Ypente

Arsine

Total

Officers

1,201
33

822

41S
30
30

3.533

Enlisted Men

White

106

26,050

1.654

23.084

S.693

606

350

57.543

Colored

535
37

482
66
46

125

1,294

Color Not
Stated

15

8.277

199

3.480

939

249

94

13.303

Total
Enlisted

124

34.81a
1.890

27.046

6.698

901

569

73.04^

Total admissions from gas, enlisted men 72.040

Total deaths from gas, enlisted men 1,168

Total deaths from gas, officers • 26

Total admissions. Battle injuries (including gassed) officers 8.633

Total admissions. Battle injuries, Enlisted men (including gassed) .... 231.873

Figures include all reports rendered to the Surgeon General from the Americaa

Expeditionary Forces arriving in Washington before June i, I9I9> Do not m

include any kiUed in action. ^^^ ^^^^ ^^J «^<y^ ^ KeU

Cobiparison Based on Official Figures

Total Gas Casualties 75.767

Total of all Casualties 273.869

Percentage of Casualties, due to Gas 27 .6%

Total deaths due to Gas Iti94

Percentage of Gassed Cases, resulting in death i . 5%

Percentage of battle wounded cases resulting in death (47.7i5/i65.933) 28 . 7%

Percentage of battle deaths due to Gas (i. 194/48.909) 3 .4%

APPENDICES ' 245

APPENDIX II

ANTI-GAS MEASURES AFFECTING SPECIAL

ARMS

It is unlikely that Cavalry, when mounted, will encoun-
ter high concentrations of gas from a gas cloud, or even
from gas shells. It will probably be found therefore that,
when acting as mounted troops, the P. H. helmet will be
adequate protection, besides being less cumbersome for
troops depending on their mobility.

On the other hand. Cavalry used to supplement Infan-
try in the line, or employed as working parties in or near
the trenches, must be equipped for gas defense in the
same way as other arms. In this case, it is impossible to
wear the bandolier over the shoulder when the box res-
pirator is worn in the "Alert" position. During the Gas
Alert period, mounted troops must therefore wear the
bandolier round the waist.

Artillery are probably more liable than any one else to
bombardment with gas shells, both poisonous and lachry-
matory. Owing to the suddenness of shell attacks and
the long period that the neighborhood of a battery may
be affected by lachrymators, it is. essential that the fol-
lowing points be noted:

(a) Where, owing to circumstances, box respirators
are not actually worn on the men, they must be hung
separately and within easy reach of the owners. (They
should not, if possible, be hung in the actual gun emplace-
ments, owing to the concussion being liable to displace the
chemicals in the box.) If this course has to be adopted,
the respirators should be ready prepared with the haver-
sack sling shortened by means of the tab and stud and the
slack of the sling tucked under the mask as in the "Alert"
position. The satchel flap should be unbuttoned, but kept
In position.

(b) Men must be well practiced in wearing their box
respirators for long periods and in serving their guns
while wearing respirators or anti-gas goggles.

246 APPENDICES

Forward observing parties must take all the precatt-
tions laid down for Infantry.

The following precautions apply to medium and heavy
trench mortars as well as to guns and howitzers: Bat-
teries which are in constant danger of gas attacks, wheth-
er from gas clouds or gas shells, should keep aU bright
parts of the gun or mortar, carriage, mounting and ac-
cessories well coated with oil. Sights and all instruments
should also be smeared with oil and protected with covers
when not in actual use, care being taken that the oil does
not come in contact with any glass or find its way into the
interior of the instrument. Cartridge cases of the am-
munition stored with the battery and all uncapped fuses,
or fuses which have been removed from their cylinders,
should be wiped over with oil as soon as possible and
protected with a cover.

All bright parts of guns and trench mortars, together
with all accessories and spare parts exposed to the gas,
must be cleaned and wiped dry as soon as possible after
the attack, and in any case within 24 hours, after which
they should be thoroughly coated afresh with oil. The
same applies to the whole of the ammunition still in the
battery position. Ammunition which, for any reason*
had not been oiled, must be cleaned and oiled. It is de-
sirable to expend it as soon as possible.

Aiming points and aiming posts are liable to be ob-
scured by the gas cloud and arrangements should, there-
fore, be made in every battery to meet this eventuality
by providing gun pits with means to check the line of fire
if necessary, without depending on the use of aiming
posts.

Enemy gas attacks may be executed for purposes other
than the preparation of a subsequent infantrv attack.
During the gas discharge a heavy artillery fire on the
actual trenches whence the gas is issuing is the best way
of dealing with the situation. Also it is essential that the
gas discharge should be interfered with as early as possi-
ble, as the opening periods of the discharge are the most
effective.

To insure an effective and immediate artillery fire the
following points require attention: (a) Certain how-
itzer batteries should be detailed to open a rapid fire

APPENDICES 247

for a short time as an anti-gas measure, (b) Only cer-
tain portions of the enem/s front trenches can be used
for gas discharge in any given wind and these can easily
be indicated on any accurate trench map. Each battery
charged with the task of hampering an enemy gas attack
should be provided with a map and a table, showing from
what portions of the enemy's lines (within the battery's
zone of action) gas can be discharged in any given wind.
Nothing in the foregoing in any way affects the respon-
sibility of artillery for dealing with any infantry attack,
or for the execution* of counter-battery work.

Tunneling companies are again reminded that neither
the box respirator nor the P. H. helmet affords protec-
tion against mine or explosion gases. Owing to the diffi-
culty in clearing gas, especially lachrymatory gas, from
mine-shafts and galleries, the entrances to mine-shafts
should be protected from gas by blanket curtains in the
manner described for dug-outs. The enemy has occa-
sionally attempted to render the galleries untenable by
the use of lachrymatory bombs in conjunction with the
explosion of a charge. If this is done, goggles will gen-
erally be found sufficient protection ; but if the concentra-
tion is so high as to affect the nose or lungs, the box res-
pirator must be worn if work has to be continued.

It is essential that telephone operators should be able to
work as much as possible during a gas attack without
wearing respirators or helmets. Signal dug-outs must*
therefore, be particularly carefully protected against gas,
so as to allow this to be done. Telephone operators must
be specially practiced in using their instruments when
wearing box respirators or helmets. The head-piece of
the receiver will be worn over the helmet. The buzzer
should be used when the respirator or helmet is worn.
Linesmen must receive plenty of practice in carrying on
their work, both at night and in the daytime, while wear-
ing box respirators and also goggles.

The only effective method of preventing corrosion of
electrical apparatus during a gas attack is to prevent the
gas reaching it, and the best way of doing this is to have
the signal shelters and offices thoroughly protected against
gas. As the corrosive effect on damp instruments is
very much greater than on dry instruments, the shelters

248 APPENDICES

should be kept as dry as possible. Duri^ a gas attack
telephones must be kept in their leather cases and unless
the buzzer key is being used the leather flap must be kept
down, leaving only the cords with receiver and hand-set
out of the case. The backs of switchboards and buzzer
exchanges must be kept closed. All apparatus, such as
magneto telephones, test boards, spare instruments, etc.,
which it is not essential to have uncovered, shotdd be
well covered up with cloths, blankets or coats, etc.

After a gas attack, telephone apparatus that has been ex-
posed to gas should be treated as follows: The ends of
the wires should be removed from terminals and cleaned
by being scraped with a knife, wiped with a damp cloth
and dried. Terminals, exchange plugs and all exposed
metal work should be cleaned first with a damp and then
with a dry cloth. This process should be repeated after
12 hours have elapsed. The metal work of the leather
case of the telephone and of other instrument cases should
be cleaned with oil in the same way as rifles, etc. The
internal portions of the instruments should not be inter-
fered with. If an instrument has been kept closed or
covered up, it is very unlikely that internal portions will
have suffered; but if these portions show signs of corro-
sion, the instruments should be sent back to Division or
Corps Headquarters to be dealt with by an instrument
repairer.

When the gas alarm is sounded, all baskets containing
pigeons should be placed in the special anti-gas bags
provided for this purpose, or placed in gas-proof shelters.
If for any reason the birds cannot be protected from the
gas, they should be liberated at once. Anti-gas bags
should always be kept near baskets containing birds, and
should be regularly inspected. Pigeons can be utilized
during a gas attack. Experience has proved that they
fly through any gas cloud, but it is imperative that the
bird should be exposed to the gas for as short a time as
possible. The message and carrier should, therefore, be
prepared and if possible, fastened to the pigeon's leg, be-
fore the bird is exposed to the gas. Twenty seconds
should suffice to fix a carrier and liberate a bird.

INDEX

Absorbent substances, 3
Adjutant and personnel of-
ficer, 127
Airplane flares, 167
Akron-Tissot mask, 37
Alert position, 63, 174, 175,
186, 188, 189, 190, 194, 19s
Alert zone, 174, 234
Altitude flying, 16S
American gas shell, 68, 78
American projector, 143
American Stokes bomb, 139
American Tissot respirator,

184, 185
American trench mortar

fuses, 142
Anilite, 7

Anti-dimming outfit, 184
Anti-dimming tubes, 39
Anti-gas measures, 245, 24^

247, 248
Army message center, 151
Artillery chemical shell, 53

B

Back barrages, 60
Barrages, 59, 60
Battalion gas officers, 174 «
Battalion supply officer, 135
Benzyl chloride, 23
Bertholite, 45
Blanketing fire, 58
Bleaching powder, 39
Bombardment of area, 58
Bombs, 100, 125, 138^ 139, 166,
169, 170, 171

Boosters, 10, 24
Box^ respirator, 27, 28, 65
British Allways fuse, 41
British ballistite charges, 141
British cordite charges, 140
British E. C 3 powder, 140
British Mills pistol head, 141
British "S" mixture, 93, 94
British Sutton fuse, 142
Bromacetone, 199
Brombenzyl cyanide, 23, 45,

46. 114, 117, I2D, 124, 199
Bromine, 22, 23
Brom-ketones, 10, 203
Bureau of Mines, i, 3
Bursts, 49, 57

Calcium picrate, 19
Camouflage, 150, 163
Canister mgredients, 27, 32
Canisters, 31, 32, 33, 36, 39,

184, 187
Carbon, 9, 27, 33, 34, 35
Carbon monoxide, 20, 204,

20s, 206, 207, 208
Carbonylchloride, 200
Caustic soda, 18
Chanard incendiary bombs,

166, 169, 170, 171
Charcoal, 9, 27, 33, 36, 37
Chemical adviser and intelli-
gence officer, 127
Chemical artillery ammuni-
tion, 68, 74
Chemical assistant, 1^0
Chemical hand grenade, 103

249

2SO

INDEX

Giemical shell fillings. 75> 76.

85, 86, 85K QO
Chemical shell fuses, 81, 8^»

83. 84, 85
Chemical warfare service, i,

5, 8, II, IS, 25
Chemical weapons, 100
Chlorine, 15, 17, 23, 44. 45.

199, 208, 209, 210^ 211, 212
Chlorine plants, 12, 18, 20
Chlor-ketones, 10
Chlorpicrin, 18, 19, 23, 25, 26,

41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 114. "7.
120, 121, 199, 201, 203, 212

Chlorpicrin plants, 12, 15, 19
Cloud gas, 48, 49, 50, 115, 120,

125

CoUognite, 46

Company commander, 133

Company supply officer, 134,

135
Construction assistant, 131

Containers, 26

Cordite charges, 140

Corps messenger center, 151

Corps troops, 240

Counter-battery fire, 57

Cyanogen chloride, 199

Cylinder cloud attacks, 227,

228

D

Danger zone, 174

Defense against gas, 232, 233,

234, 235. 236
Destruction fire, 56
Diazomethane, 10
Dichlorethylarsine, 46
Dichlorethyl sulphide, 21, 46,

199, 222
Diphenylchlorarsine, 10, 41,

42, 44, 46, 117, 199, 203
Diphenylcyanarsine, 44, 46
Diphosgene, 44, 46, 199, 201,

212
Disinfecting service, 174
Dispersoid division, 9

Dinsioii gas oflker, 175, 177,

179
Division message center, 151

Drmr oxygen apparatus.

Dud gas shell, 66, 181
Dugout blankets, 39
Dummy bombs, 166

Edgewood arsenal. 2, 5, la,

14, IS. 16. 21, 23, 25
Effectiveness of gas, 50
Ethyldichlorarsine, 44, 203
Ethylidioacetate, 4S, 199

Fake gas attacks, 61

Filling plants, 12, 14, 24, 25

Flame throwers, 2

Flaming liquid section, 8

Fluorine, 9

F. M. Shell, 60, 77

Four-inch Stokes mortar, 11

Fragmentation, 7

French training smoke bombs,

172
Fuses, 79, 91, 92, I2S, 141, 142.

146

Gas, 22, 30, 40. 41, 48, 49, 73f
119, 125, 152, 166, 176, 235

Gas alarms, 174, 176, 177

Gas attacks, 227, 231

Gas bombardment, 52, 53, 54
56, 57, 59» 228, 230, 23s

Gas bombs, 21, 139

Gas casualties, 233, 241, 244

Gas clouds, 50, 51, 52

Gas defense division, 38

Gas defense equipment, 27

Gas grenade, 100, 105

Gas hand grenade, Mar^ II,
104

INDEX

251

Gas mask day, 35

Gas masks, i, 4

Gas officer, 55, 148, 174, 236,

238. 239, 240, 241, 242, 243
Gas operations, 125
Gas regiment, 11, 125, 126
Gas safety zone, 55
Gas sentries, I74» 176
Gas shell dumps, 53
Gas shells, 2, 50, 53, 62, 63,

64, 65, 66, 68. 71, 73
Gas troops, 125, 126, 127, 149,

152, 156, 157, 158
Gas zones, 174
Gas zones of dispersion, 40,

50
Grenade incendiaire a main,

100
Grenades, 100, 115

H

Halogen ethers, 10

Ha^d grenades, 7, 100, loi,

102. 103, 104, los. 107. 108.

109, no
Hand grenade section, 7
Hand or rifle grenade, Mark

1,106
Harassing fire, 57, 59, 122,

123
Heavy fire, $7
Horse masks, 27, 39
Horse respirators, 184, 193
Hydrocyanic acid, 46
Hydrogen selenide, 10

Incendiaire et fumigene

hand grenade, 105.
Incendiary bombs, 139. 166,

171
Incendiary grenades, 100
Incendiary section, 8
Incendiary shell, 68
Infantry training, 159, 160

Interdiction fire, 58
Irritating gases, 2, 199

K

Klaxon hom> 39
Kops-Tissot mask, 37

Laboratory section, 8
Lachrymators, 3, 4, 40, 44, 57,

117, 124, 219, 220, 221
Lachromatory bombs, 6
Lachoramatory gases, 199^

200
Lethal gases, 58, 68^ 212
Lethal substances, i, 3
Lenses, 31

Liaison, 150, 152, 161
Livens drums, 144, 146
Livens material, 125, 126
Livens projectors, 7, 11, 115,

125, 142, 146, 151

M

Map and intelligence assist-
ant, 130
Masks, 22, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32,

34. 37, 38, 51, 58
Master engineers, 130
Meteorology, 163, 164
Methods of projection, 114,

115, 126

Military assistant, 131

Mills pistol head, 141

Mustard gas, 4, 5, 10, 15, 21,
23, 26, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46,
47. 66. 71, 114, 117, 120,
122, 123, 124, 200, 222, 223,
224, 225, 226

Mustard gas plants, 12, 15, 16

N

National research council, 2,
10

252

INDEX

Neutralizing fire, 57, 58
Neutralizing substances, i, 3
Nitrous fumes, 219, 220, 221
Noise bombs, 6
Non-persistent gases, 58, 68^

Noxious gases, i, 10^ 11

Oleum, 7

Organization of an attack,

163
Oxygen breathing apparatus,

2, 166, 168

Regimental gas officers, 174,

i;8, 180. 181
Regimental supply officer,

129
Rescue apparatus, i
Research work, i, 2, 3, 4, 5
Respirator drills, 188, 189,

190, 191, 192
Respirators, 28, 39, 63, 184,

i8s, isa 193. 194

Respirators for horses, 184,

193
Rifle grenades, 107, 108, 109,

Runner service, 164

Parazol, 7

Percussion fuses, 78
Persistency of gases, 41, 114,

115, 116, 117. 123
Persistent gases, 68, 70, 199
Phenylchlorarsine, 10
Phosgene, 9, 19, 20, 23, 24,

26, 41, 42, 44, 46, II4» 117.

120, 121, 199, 200, 201, 212,

213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218
Phosgene plants, 12, 20
Phosphorous, 7, 11, 93, 118
Phosphorous hand grenades,

100, 109
Phosphorous shell, 62
Physical constants, 10
Picric acid, 19
Platoon leader, 136, 149
Poison gas, 2
Poisonous weapons, 13
Primers, 9

Projector attacks, 227, 229
Projectors, 142, 143
Propellants, 125
Protection of tanks, 93

R

Ranging bomb, 139
Ranging gas shells, 75, 77

Sag paste, 39, 225

School phase, 158

Second m command, 134

Selenocyanides, 10

Semi-persistent gases, 68, 69

Service of security and in-
formation, 152, 162

Shell markings, 74, 75, 83, 84,
85. 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91

Shells, 6

Signal-light section, 8

Silicon tetrachloride, 7, 9

Skin blisters, 45

Smoke, 9, 61, 77, 93, 94, 95,

96, 97, 118, 152, 153, 154,

203
Smoke barrage, 93
Smoke bombs, 6, 100, 125, 138,

139, 166
Smoke cage, 99
Smoke candles, 9, 60, 100, 1 10,

III, 112, 115
Smoke clouds, 60
Smoke grenades, 100, 15
Smoke screens, 2, 6, 53, 60,

93, 95, 96, 98, 112
Smoke shell, 53, 60, 61, 62,

68, 75, 81, 93, 99
Smoke torch, Mark I, 112

INDEX

253

Sneezing gas, 3, S, 199
Sodium permanganate, 36
Special equipment assistant,

131
Spray painting plants, 12

Stability of gases, 10

Stabilized warfare, 153

Stannic chloride, 46

Stannic tetrachloride, 9

Steel gas shell, 84, 85, 86, 87,

88, 89, 90, 91, 92
Stermutators, 3, 4
Stokes mortars, 115, 125, 126,

136, 138, 151, 154
Stokes smoke bombs, 94, 100,

"3
Suffocante et lachrymogene

hand grenade, 102

Suffocating gases, 12

Sulphur monochloride, 21, 22

Superpalite, 9, 46, 201

Super-quick fuses, 79, 80, 81

Supply assistant, 131

Sutton fuse, 142

Tear gases, 3i S» 6, 22, 23
Tear producers, 44, 46
Tetrachlorides, 93, 118
Thermite, 1 1, 152
Thermit hand grenade, 100,

lOI

Thirty-one D fuse, 141
Tin tetrachloride, 26
Tissot mask, 31, 37
Tissot respirator, 184, 185
Titanium tetrachloride, 9, 60
T. N. T., 7
Toluol, 23

Toxic gases, 12, 13, 14, 38

Toxicity tests, i, s

Toxic smoke producers, 42

Toxic substances, 6, 43

Training assistant, 130

Training of gas troops, 156,
159, 160, 161, 163

Training of special detach-
ments, 152

Training smoke bombs, 106,
172, 173

Transportation assistant, 131

Trench fans, 39

Trench projectors, 2

Trichlormethyl-chlorformate,

201
Triplex glass, 30
Tyndall meter, 9

Vapor pressures, 10
Vesicants, 45, 81
Vincennite, 47

W

Warfare gases, 199
Warfare gas investigation, i
Warning devices, 39
White phosphorous, 26, 60,

77, 118
Wind, 50, SI, 55, 61, 120, 121,

183
Wing-tip flares, 167
W. P. shell, 60, 77

Yellow cross gas, 222
Yperite, 46, 222

I

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