Ex Libris
C. K. OGDEN
CILir. lIBHUfT; 108 ARGBLT
.{I**
fcfcooo
THE GATE
UNLOCKED BY A NEW AND EASY METHOD OF ACQUIRING
ACCIDENCE.
BY THE AUTHOR OF THE GATE TO THE FRENCH,
ITALIAN, AND SPANISH, UNLOCKED.
LONDON :
WILLIAM GOODIIUGII, ENGLISH AND FOBEIGN BOOKSELLER,
155, OXFORD STREET,
AND GOODHUGH AND RICHARDSON, 4, BERKELEY SQUARE.
1828.
Priuted by W. Davy, 8, Gilbert-street, Oxford-street.
JUST PUBLISHED,
BY THE SAME AUTHOR,
THE
ENGLISH GENTLEMAN'S
LIBRARY MANUAL;
OR A
GUIDE TO THE FORMATION OF A LIBRARY
OF
SELECT LITERATURE;
Accompanied with Original Notices, Biographical and Critical, of
Authors and Books.
-f rc -
PREFACE.
II est de fait que 1'etude de 1'Hebreu, comine celles des autres
langues Orientales, reprend en beaucoup de lieax une nouvelle vie.
La Societe Biblique couvrant le monde entier de ses presses et de scs
traducteurs, ran'une partout la science des livres saints.
CELLERIER.
THE very favorable reception of my little Gate to
the French, Italian, and Spanish Languages, (an
edition of five hundred copies having been very
speedily exhausted,) has encouraged me to finish
the present work adapted to the Hebrew, Arabic,
and Syriac. Should the present attempt meet with
a similar portion of public favor, it is my intention
to follow up the plan, by giving cards printed from
stone of the various declinable and indeclinable
parts of speech, together with the particles and words
in most frequent use ; likewise forms for parsing and
construing, thus presenting an easy introduction to
those languages.
The present learned Bishop of Salisbury has pub-
lished many useful books of this kind, at a moderate
11 PREFACE.
price; but the recent invention of printing from
stone, has given an increased facility of producing
useful elementary works. If any thing need be urged
as motives to the study of these ancient and beautiful
languages, I am sure the observations \ subjoin from
learned and , eminent men will stimulate to exertion
and application.
With respect to the elegance and excellence of the
Hebrew language, as contained in the writings of
the Old Testament, Mr. Addison, in his Spectator,
No. 405, remarks, "There is a certain coldness and
indifference in the phrases of our European lan-
guages, when they are compared with the Oriental
forms of Speech ; and it happens very luckily, that
the Hebrew idioms run into the English tongue
with a peculiar grace and beauty. Our language
has received innumerable elegancies and improve-
ments from that infusion of Hebraisms which are
derived to it out of the poetical passages in holy
writ : they give force and energy to our expression,
warm and animate our language, and convey our
thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases, than
any that are to be met with in our own tongue.
There is something so pathetic in this kind of dic-
tion, that it often sets the mind in a flame, and makes
our hearts burn within us. How cold and dead doth
a prayer appear that is composed in the most ele-
gant and polite forms of speech which are natural to
PREFACE. Ill
our tongue, when it is not heightened by that solem-
nity of phrase, which may be drawn from the Sacred
Writings ! It has been said by some of the ancients,
that, if the gods were to talk with men, they would
certainly speak in Plato's style; but, I think, we
may say, with justice, that when mortals converse
with their Creator, they cannot do it in so proper a
style as in that of the Holy Scriptures.
"If any one would judge of the beauties of poetry
that are to be met with in the Divine Writings, and
examine how kindly the Hebrew manners of speech
mix and incorporate with the English language;
after having perused the Book of Psalms, let him
read a literal translation of Horace and Pindar, he
will find in these two last, such an absurdity and
confusion of style, with such a comparative poverty
of imagination, as will make him very sensible of
what I have been here advancing."
The ingenious and learned Rev. Anthony Black-
wall, in his Introduction to the Sacred Classics,
observes, "The Hebrew is an original and essential
language, that borrows of none, but lends to all.
Some of the sharpest Pagan writers, inveterate
enemies to the religion and learning of both Jews
and Christians, have allowed the Hebrew tongue to
have a noble emphasis, and a close and beautiful
brevity. The metaphors in that admirable book are
apposite and lively; they illustrate the truths ex-
IV PREFACE.
pressed by them, and raise the admiration of the
reader. The names of men, animals, &c., are very
significant. One word is often a good description,
and gives you a satisfactory account of the chief and
distinguishing property or quality of the thing or
person named.
" It would be no difficult matter for a man of dili-
gence and good taste, to prove that the Hebrew
Bible has every beauty and excellence that can be
found in all the Greek and Roman authors ; and a
great many more and stronger than any in the most
admired classics.
"One might with pleasure enlarge upon numerous
instances of the sublimity and admirable beauties of
the Old Testament, which are above imitation, and
defy criticism and censure."
The learned Buxtorf has proved, that God him-
self breathed this language into the first parents of
mankind.
And Melancthon says, " I prefer the knowledge of
the Hebrew before all the wealth of a kingdom."
Even the great reformer, Martin Luther, says,
"Although my knowledge of the Hebrew language
is but small, yet I would not exchange it for all the
wealth of the world."
Henry Ainsworth, the translator of the Pentateuch
and Psalms, observes, "that the literal sense of
Moses's Hebrew is the ground of all interpretations."
PREFACE. V
Dr. Bryan Walton, in his Prolegomena to the
Polyglot, says, "How absurd is it, that an ambassa-
dor should not understand the commands of his king,
but depend upon an interpreter for every word he
speaks at a foreign court."
The author of the Linguist observes, that "the
Hebrew is the most pure, simple, ancient, and radical
language. The Hebrew only is from God, and the
mother of all other languages."
And another author tells us, that t( the Hebrew
Scriptures contain the sum of all we can know in
divinity and in natural things."
Pere Lamy, in his Introduction to the Holy Scrip-
tures, says, that "the preachers of the gospel are the
more inexcusable in neglecting the Scriptures, be-
cause they can no where find so rich and inexhausti-
ble a fund for their purpose as there. All the
foundations of true eloquence, extraordinary actions,
rich expressions, fine examples, apt comparisons, and
striking figures, are found in them in great abun-
dance; and all those ornaments which give strength
and dignity to discourse.
The Rev. James Hervey, in his Meditations, ob;
serves, that " the Hebrew is so pregnant and rich in
sense, that no translation can do it justice.
The Rev. Anselm Bayley, LL.D., in the Preface
to his Hebrew and English Bible, says, "It is a
shame, if not a crime, for the clergy to be unac-
quainted with this language."
Vl PREFACE.
Likewise the late Rev. Mr. Romaine, on the Song
of Solomon, asserts, "Without being acquainted
with the Hebrew tongue, no man can be a critic upon
the writings of the Old Testament."
The late learned and reverend Dr. John Ryland,
of Northampton, observes, that u no man can be
reckoned a scholar without the knowledge of the
Hebrew language: sound human learning cannot
exist without the clear knowledge of it. For what
is human learning but a knowledge of books and
facts, of characters, times, and ages, the original
springs of action, and our connection with God, and
all mankind? But how can this be attained, except
by a familiar acquaintance with that admirable book,
which discovers the natural and moral perfections of
God ; the origin and structure of the universe, our
incessant dependance on the universal agency of God,
the ultimate design of our immortal powers, and the
last end of the whole creation ? In a word, if there be
any ambition to excel, in the ingenuous part of the
British youth ; if there be any love and admiration of
vital virtue; if there be any desire to rise above the
vulgar and ignorant part of mankind ; if you have
any clear sense of the noble, the beautiful, and the
affecting, you will seize the opportunity of' being
made acquainted with the sacred literature, now the
thorns and briars, the brambles and stinging nettles,
are removed from the passage, and the path to the
sacred language is strewed with flowers."
PREFACE. Vll
Such indeed are the testimonies of many great and
learned men, who have all taken a peculiar delight
in the study of this most ancient language; and where
can it be found in its purity, but in the Oracles of
Truth, which were dictated by God himself, and com-
municated to us by the blessed instruments of his
inspiration I In fact, the Hebrew has an emphatic
energy, which it is not in the power of any version
to equal; and if we could understand the Scriptures
without it, yet it would be a sufficient motive to
stimulate us to the study of it, because it has been
consecrated by the mouth of the Almighty.
The Arabic language is undoubtedly one of the
most ancient in the world, and arose soon after, if
not at, the confusion of Babel. There were several
dialects of it very different from each other : the
most remarkable was that spoken by the tribe of
Hamyar, and the other genuine Arabs, and that of
the Koreish. The Hamyaritic seems to have ap-
proached nearer to the purity of the Syriac than the
dialect of any other tribe; for the Arabs acknowledge
their father Yarab to have been the first whose
tongue deviated from the Syriac (which was his
mother-tongue, and is almost generally acknowledged
by the Asiatics to be the most ancient,) to the Arabic.
The dialect of the Koreish is usually termed the
pure Arabic, or as the Koran, which is written iu
this dialect, calls it the perspicuous and clear Arabic;
Vlll PREFACE.
perhaps, says Dr. Pocock, because Ismael, their
father, brought the Arabic he had learned of the
Jorhamites nearer to the original Hebrew. But the
politeness and elegance of the Koreish is rather to
be attributed to their having the custody of the
Caaba, and dwelling in Mecca, the centre of Arabia,
as well as more remote from intercourse with foreign-
ers, who might corrupt their language. The Arabic
is harmonious and expressive ; and withal so co-
pious, that they say no man without inspiration can
be a perfect master of it in its utmost extent.
I should feel great pleasure in contributing my
aid in the formation of a Language Society, on a
similar plan to that described at the end of this vo-
lume ; and would cheerfully render my assistance to
those who might be inclined to come forward for
that purpose.
October, 1827.
LANGUAGES.
rp
A HE similitude and derivation of languages afford
the most indubitable proof of the traduction of nations,
and the genealogy of mankind. They often add phy-
sical certainty to historical evidence, and supply the
only evidence of ancient migrations, and of the revo-
lutions of ages which left no written monuments behind
them.
" Every man's opinions, at least his desires, are a
little influenced by his favourite studies. My zeal for
languages may seem perhaps rather overheated, even
to those by whom I desire to be well esteemed. To
those who have nothing in their thoughts but trade or
policy, present power, or present money, I should not
think it necessary to defend my opinions ; but with
men of letters I would not unwillingly compound, by
wishing the continuance of every language, however
narrow in its extent, or however incommodious for
common purposes, till it is reposited in some version
B
of a known book, that it may be always hereafter ex-
amined and compared with other languages, and then
permitting its disuse. For this purpose the translation
of the Bible is most to be desired." Dr. Johnson.
In a work of this kind, some notices of the literature
and mode of education, as practised among the Jews,
and several of the eastern nations, may not be un-
acceptable
The Jewish doctors carry their information on Ihis
subject to a very high antiquity, and assert that Cain
applied himself to the invention of mechanical arts ; his
younger brother Seth instructed his posterity in vir-
tuous practices, and was skilled in astronomy ; he
erected two noble pillars for the preservation of that
knowledge which should stand the shock of an uni-
versal deluge Josephus is positive that one of them
was extant in his time.
Noah in blessing his son Japhet, says, " that he shall
dwell in the tents of Sem." Several expositors under-
stand this of the schools of Sem, which were also
famous in the days of Rebecca, as alluded to in the
Ghaldee Paraphrase.
These schools were afterwards supported by Heber,
from whom the Hebrews took their name ; the Jewish
doctors say that Jacob studied in the schools of Sem
and Heber, Abraham, they say, raised himself to a
wonderful eminence in all branches of knowledge ; he
came to a knowledge of the only true God by his
contemplation of the heavenly bodies, and the wonder-
ful harmony in the works of creation ; assisted with
the singular blessing of Heaven, he therefore forsook
his idolatrous country and became a zealous promoter
of the worship and service of the true God. It is said
that he removed the souls he had gotten ; the Chaldee
Paraphrase interprets this, of the souls he had subdued to
the law of his God ; and other expositors, of the souls
he had proselyted and converted from Paganism.
When Jacob journeyed to Succoth, and built him
a house that is, as Philo renders, it, a house and tents
to the Lord in the Chaldee house of learning ; as
also where it is said of Joseph, that he taught Pharoah's
senators wisdom, that is, imparted knowledge to
them.
After the deliverance from the captivity, no con-
siderable number of the Jews settled at any time or
place, without appointing some public teachers and
public schools. In particular places, every congre-
gation was obliged to take the care of furnishing out a
place of public education ; whoever neglected this,
made themselves liable to an Anathema.
God commanded Moses to appoint and choose se-
venty of the elders, men of wisdom, understanding,
integrity, and all those qualities that enable others to
judge and teach, to assist him in the government and
to instruct the people. He accordingly chose and ap-
pointed them, himself being chief, constituting a
senate or consistory of seventy-one, which, by way of
excellence, was called the Great Consistory, and lat-
terly, the Sanhedrim. They were the fountain source
of wisdom and learning to the whole nation, being in-
vested with all manner of jurisdiction. They had
B2
power to depute and appoint lesser consistories of
twenty-three : two of which were in Jerusalem, the one
at the door of the court of the temple, and one in every
city throughout all Israel, who had likewise power to
teach and instruct the people in their respective dis-
tricts, and to approve of and promote lesser schools ; to
judge and answer any questions concerning the true
sense and interpretation of scripture, and in points of
great difficulty were to apply to the great consistory,
which was constantly held at Jerusalem, in the paved
chamber near the temple. This constitution first gave
rise to their regular schools, and lasted until the de-
struction of the temple. :f <j^-;
The Prophet Samuel presided in a school called
Naioth, or Ramab, where he instructed the people in
matters of policy, in which respect he was their judge ;
and in matters of religion as their doctor or public
teacher. Hence it is that the Jewish expositors, by the
company of prophets, generally understand the scholars
under his charge and tuition, (I Samuel, xix. 18,
19, 20) ; and by the word Naioth, a public school.
The next considerable place of public teaching was
the College, or school of Jerusalem, mentioned in
Kings, xxii. 14 ; where we are informed that; Josiah,
upon hearing the book of the law, presented and
read to him by Halkiah the priest, and reflecting upon
the manifold corruptions of his time, rent his clothes,
and sent to inquire of the Lord ; that is, sent some
special messengers to Huldah the prophetess, who was
then in the school of Jerusalem, and in conferring with
whom, they were instructed in the will of the Lord.
Afterwards Jehoshaphat, moved by the same con-
sideration, appointed not only schools in the chief
cities but also in all parts of his kingdom, and sent
eminent men for teachers, who should everywhere
instruct the people in the true worship and service of
God. 2 Cliron. xvii.
From the time of this good prince, until the Ba-
bylonish captivity, schools flourished or decayed,
according as they were supported by good, or dis-
countenanced by wicked kings.
The School of the the Prophets, over which Elisha
presided, was so numerous, that application was made
for enlarging the building, which was represented to
him as too small ; Elisha complied with the request, and
encouraged the work by his personal assistance, even
to a miracle. 2 Kings, vi. 1 6.
During the time of the captivity in Babylon, schools
were kept up and supported, as the Jews were always
allowed the freedom of their own law. Daniel at
this time had acquired so great a reputation for wisdom
and learning, that he was consulted by Nebuchad-
nezzar about that remarkable vision, which all the wise
men of his kingdom had in vain attempted to make
known. His reputation was still more enhanced by
the great service he did Belshazzar, in regard to the
fearful handwriting on the wall,
When it pleased God to deliver his people out of
captivity, the schools began to flourish again. When
Cyrus had published his royal edict for the rebuilding
of Jerusalem, (foretold by the prophet, Isaiah xliv.45)
we find by the interposition of their adversaries, whose
services were not accepted in the building, an inter-
ruption for some time took place by a decree of Artax-
erxes, surnamed Longimanus ; but Darius, commonly
called Nothus, otherwise the Syrian, having rein-
forced the decree of Cyrus, Ezra undertook the pious
work, and by an unwearied diligence brought it to
perfection.
Ezra is thought by some to be the same with Malachi,
the prophet. In Malachi, i. 1. it is said, "the burthen
of the word of the Lord to Israel, by the hand of Ma-
lachi." The Chaldee Paraphrase adds, who is called
Ezra the scribe. His accomplishments were very
extraordinary ; he is said to have been a ready scribe
in the law of Moses, and was a person of very great
abilities, which qualified him to digest the Holy Scrip-
tures into the order and method in which they now
appear. He added the points, which are used to this
day. And of no less integrity, for he " prepared bis
heart to seek the law of his God, and to do it, and to
teach in Israel statutes and judgements, " Ezra, vii. In
his time was instituted the great synagogue of the
hundred and twenty elders, whereof he was a principal
member, and which continued until the days of Simeon,
surnamed the just, who was one of this number, and
the same who received Alexander the great, upon his
approach to Jerusalem, in the course of his victories.
In succeeding ages many celebrated schools were
maintained, particularly those of Javne, Tiberias,
Sipora, and many more which were situated in Judaea;
over these schools presided many celebrated and
learned doctors. In this rank may justly be placed
those two eminent men, Hillel and Shammai.
Learning thus continued to flourish in Judasa, and
was promoted and cultivated until the days of Judas,
surnamed the Holy, who was author of the Mishna.
After his decease, two of his principal scholars, de-
parting from. Judasa into Babylon, erected schools, and
drew after them the greatest part of the doctors ; though
it is not probable that even then Palestine was destitute
of learning, nor that the schools were quite shut up.
The Talmudists expressly assert the contrary.
The principal schools in Babylon were those of
Nahardea, Sora, and Pumbeditha ; they flourished in
Babylon until the year of the world, 4797, as appears
from the names of the chief rulers and doctors residing
there, preserved in the Chronicles of the Jews.
At this era, the Jews being dispersed all over the
world, these schools ceased, but wherever a competent
number met and settled into a community, their first
care was to erect schools ; many of them had great
renown in various countries of Europe, as Spain,
Portugal, Germany, and likewise in the Persian and
Turkish dominions. Funds were provided and settled,
according to the greater or lesser number of those to
be instructed, and in case of refusal, the greater cities
had power to excommunicate. Every master of a
family was obliged to maintain a tutor at his own
private charge, until his children be out of the lower
forms, and had, by their proficiency in learning, quali-
fied themselves for the higher schools.
Two of the chief men in every synagogue were
appointed yearly, about the day of Pentecost, whose
duty it was to take care of the schools ; they were
likewise to take care that the youth in the synagogue
perform their devotions solemnly and regularly, with
power to inflict punishment.
The qualifications of masters of schools were, that
they should possess considerable intellectual abilities,
and of known probity and integrity; their lives com-
porting with their doctrine, that they might be able to
instruct both by precept and example. The scholars
were expected to be of a humble and docile disposi-
tion, that they should behave themselves with modesty,
and an agreeable reverence to their teachers ; in every
way to be qualified by virtue and good manners to
reap the benefits of their instruction. Should either
master or scholar be found incapable of rising to a
sufficient pitch of learning, he was to bu removed and
sent to some meaner employment, it being thought
inconsistent with the honour and dignity of the law
to be handled by persons of inferior abilities. No child
was to be admitted in the public schools under six
years of age, they were then to be prepared by being
accustomed to repeat some principal texts of the law,
as " Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord,"
&c. Upon their first admission, they were to be in-
structed in the law of Moses, the text and historical
passages, with the writings of the prophets, it
being considered most proper that their first advances
in learning should have their foundation in religion,
that both might grow up together. After this, they
were to proceed to the Oral Law, or Mishna, whereby
they are to be instructed in the literal sense and
meaning of the written law, being already acquainted
with the text. The masters were accustomed to pro-
pound allegories and parables to their scholars, under
which some useful piece of knowledge was concealed,
and required them to find out the allusion.
On reference to history, this practice will be found
to have very generally obtained among philosophers
ana 1 poets in the East.
From this they advanced to logic, then to natural
9
philosophy, and some part of mathematical science;
and lastly, to metaphysics. J (Jff
Natural philosophy was taught from the first chapter
of the book of Genesis, and was called the study of
the work of creation.
Their metaphysics were grounded upon the first
chapter of Ezekiel.
The number of scholars allowed to the care of one
master was twenty-five, should the number increase to
forty, the master was obliged to take an assistant.
In the greater schools, the number was not precisely
determinate, amounting sometimes to three or four
hundred, according to the populousness of the place;
in these, the masters read in the quality of professors.
The scholars were obliged to pay the same honour
to their masters as to their parents, upon which account
they were not permitted to call them by their own
names, but that of master. No person was permitted to
become a teacher, unless he had conferred upon him the
necessary degrees required to fit him for that charge.
This was done before the congregation by laying on of
hands, and he was then taken by the hand and placed
in a chair, appointed for that purpose, tn some
places, a book of the law was put into his hand,
and he was proclaimed a teacher or doctor. The title
was different in various places, though the most general
was that of Rabbi. The practice had its origin in
ancient times, as in Deut. xxxiv. 9, " And Joshua,
the son of Nun, was full of the spirit of wisdom, for
Moses had laid his hands upon him."
10
JLtterature, anfc Heatneti Jflen of
THE MISHNA.
This great work, which is most ancient and venera-
ble, contains an account of all those doctrines and
practices which were delivered by Moses himself, and
continued and preserved to posterity, by oral tradition,
until the foundation of the second temple. B.C. 847.
In this period, the great synagogue flourished, being
supported by some of the prophets, and other persons
of eminence, such as Haggai, Malachi, Mordecai,
Ezra, &c. the last of this great synagogue was Simeon,
surnamed the just ; he was president of the great
school, and he was the same who is called in the
Mishna Iddo, or Jaddus, the high priest.
In the next period, Antigonus Sochotensis was
president, B.C. 308, whose scholar was Sadoc, who,
by perverting and abusing his master's doctrine, gave
birth to the opinions of the Sadducees, touching the
resurrection and rewards in a future state. Antigonus
taught that we were obliged to serve God out of pure
IOTC, and not out of a prospect of being rewarded by
him, from which Sadoc inferred, that there shall be no
rewards in another life, nor, consequently, any resur-
rection from the dead.
In the fourth period, which occurs B.C. 260, there
was Jose Ben Joezer, and Jose Ben Johanan ; as also
R. Eleazar, the high priest, who sent seventy-two elders
to Ptolemy, to be employed in the translation of the
Bible, usually called the septuagint version.
11
To these succeeded, in the next period, B.C. 251,
Joshua the son of Perechias Johanan, the son of
Matthias, the high priest; and Nittai, the Arbelite.
After these flourished, B.C. 134, Judah the son of
Tabbai, and Simeon the son of Sattah.
In the seventh period, B.C. 38, the rulers were
Shemaiah and Abtaleon, who were not jews originally
but proselytes, and were descended from King Senna-
cherib, as is reported by tradition.
The next period was B.C. 32, in which the Iwo
eminent doctors Hillel and Shammai flourished ; as
also the celebrated Jonathan Ben Uziel, the author of
the Chaldee Paraphrase upon the Pentateuch, and
some other parts of the bible; together with R. Nehem-
nias the son of Kannah, who wrote a profound and
elaborate discourse on the Cabbala, or Scripture Myste-
ries, entitled Sepher-Habbahir, of which only some
parts are in print. He wrote, likewise, another book
concerning the Tetragrammaton. There were likewise,
at this time, R. Hannania Ben Hezekia, who com-
posed a book entitled Megillath Tannith, which gives
an historical relation of the afflictions and troubles
that have happened to the Jewish nation, and the
miraculous deliverances which were vouchsafed to
them, from whence fasts or feasts were instituted.
In the Talmud, this work is inserted next to the
Mishna.
The ninth period occurs in the year of our Lord 8;
at which time, Rabban Simeon Ben Hillel the elder
flourished ; he was the first to whom the title of Rabban
was attributed, which afterwards continued to the
chief ruler of the Sanhedrim ; before they were only
called by their proper names. There was also R.
12
Johanan Ben Zacchee, who lived above one hundred
and twenty years, and bred up a great many eminent
and learned men.
The next period, A.D. 28, is remarkable for the
removal of the great Sanhedrim from the temple of
Jerusalem to the school of Jabne, where learning was
attended with those advantages and encouragements,
which, during the troubles at Jerusalem, could not be
expected; and here R. Simeon the second, the son
of Gamaliel, began to preside, A.D. 50, being eighteen
years before the destruction of the temple. He was a
few years afterwards one of the ten most eminent
martyrs who suffered for their constant adherence to
their religion.
The above relation mentions a few of the eminent
men noticed in the Mishna until the destruction of
the temple, from which a new era begins, and includes
a notice of some celebrated in their respective periods
until the Mishna was committed to writing. In the
first period, A.D. 73, after the martyrdom of R.
Simeon ; R. Johanan Ben Zacchee, retiring to Jabne,
was constituted ruler of the Sanhedrim, in which
honourable post he continued until his death. At this
time, likewise, flourished R. Gamaliel the second ; as
also R. Eliezer the great, the son of Hircanus, who
composed several treatises, particularly one entitled
Orchoth Charim, being a moral discourse, designed to
promote the government and regulation of men's lives,
according to the rules of virtue ; which was printed at
Constantinople, Venice, and Cracow; and another
entitled Perke Eliezer, wherein he comprises th
history of the world, deducing it down to the time of
R, Gamaliel the second. This book was printed at
13
Venice in 1544; there is another book under this
name, quoted by the title of Tzavaath R. Eliezer, being
of the same argument with the first, and directed to
his son by way of legacy.
In the second period, which is in the year of Christ
80, flourished R. Akibah, and presided over the
Sanhedrim. He was a proselyte, and was supposed
to have been of the posterity of Sisera. The following
treatises are assigned to him: Othioth, wherein he
expounds, alphabetically, the Cabbala, printed at
Cracow. Jetzirah, or Sepher Jetzirah, that is, the
book of creation, a celebrated cabbalistical treatise
printed in the year 1560. Mechilta, a mystical com-
mentary, or an allegorical exposition of some sections
of the book of Exodus, printed at Venice 1520.
There are other books upon this subject, which,
though not written by him, are yet all of them com-
posed agreeably to his doctrine; as Siphra, Siphri, &c.
In this period, Onkelos flourished, celebrated for his
Chaldee paraphrase upon the Bible; as also R. Ishmael,
and R. Ishmael Be'n Elisha, who published several
books, particularly a cabbalistical treatise, entitled
Enoch, or Pirke Hechaloth, quoted in the Zohar,
printed at Venice; and a discourse, called the Thirteen
Ways of expounding the Law, which is annexed to
the Siphra before mentioned.
In the third period, A.D. 121, flourished R. Simeon
the third, the son of R. Gamaliel the second ; and
R. Meyr, who was a proselyte, and others. At this
time, also, lived R. Simeon Ben Jochai, author of the
Zohar, an abstruse cabbalistical commentary upon the
Pentateuch ; it was printed at Cremona in 1559, and
at Mantua in 1558. Throughout the Talmud, honour-
14
able mention is made of this rabbi, not only for his
great attainments in cabbalistical learning, but also
for his extraordinary abilities and skill in deciding
many grave questions in the law. There is a book,
called Siphri, which likewise goes under his name a
mystical and allegorical exposition of the books of
Numbers and Deuteronomy. Contemporary to these,
was also R. Joseph Ben Halaphta, who published a
chronological treatise, called Seder Olam Rabba, from
the creation of the world, to the time of the Emperor
Hadrian. He was the master of R. Judas, surnamed
the holy; there was also R. Nathan the Babylonian,
who wrote a treatise, entitled Pirke avoth, containing
an account of the moral apothegms, and pious sentences
of the fathers of the Jewish church. This book is
inserted in the body of the Talmud.
The fourth and last period of the authors of the
Mishna, was A.D. 153, in which flourished R. Juda,
commonly styled Rabbenu Hokkadosh, that is, our
holy doctor, who committed to writing all the doctrines
and practices of the Jewish church, which had been
conveyed down to his time by oral tradition. The
great work of the Mishna was completed A.D. 218.
3n Account of tjje Books; of tijr jftfgfma*
' , A ,bc>;
The First is entitled Zerahim, and treats of all those
laws, which concern seeds, fruits, herbs, &c. with their
uses ; this part comprises eleven books
The 1st of which is called Berachoth, that is Bles-
sings, containing prayers and thanksgivings for the
fruits of the earth.
15
The 2d is called Peak, that is a corner; treating of
the obligation to leave some parts or corners of the
ground for the benefit of the poor, to be gleaned by
them.
The 3d is called Demai, that is a doubtful thing ;
treats of those things concerning which there is a
doubt whether or not tithes have been paid of them.
The 4th is called Kilaim, that is heterogeneous
things ; on the unlawfulness of mixing, or joining
together, things of a different nature or kind.
The 5th is called Sheviith, that is the seventh;
on the laws of the sabbatical year land was to rest
and lie fallow, debts were to be remitted and so on.
The 6th is called Teroumoth, that is oblations ; on
the things each man was compelled to set apart and
offer as holy to the Priest.
The 7th is called Maaseroth, that is the tenths ;
treating on the law of tithes.
The 8th is called Maaser Sheni, that is the second
tenths ; on the laws of the second tithes, which the
Levites received.
The 9th is called Challa, that is a cake ; treating on
the law which compelled the Israelites to set apart a
cake of their dough for the priests.
The 10th is called Orlah, that is circumcision.
The llth is called Biccurim, that is first fruits; on
what things, and after what manner first fruits were to
be offered in the temple.
The Second general head is called Moed, and treats
of all those laws which were given concerning festivals
and days of solemn observation ;
The 1st is an account of the Sabbath Day, and all
the solemnities proper to be observed therein.
16
The 2d is called Eruvim, that is associations; shewing
how the food gathered, and put together by several
neighbours, should unite them in concord as if belonging
lo one family.
The 3d is called Posachim ; treating of all the rites
of the passover.
The 4th is called Shekalim ; on the shekels to be
paid every year, towards the daily sacrifice.
The 5th is called Junta, which treats of the great
day of expiation, and the solemnities to be observed
on the occasion.
The 6th is called Sukka ; giving an account of the
feast of Tabernacles.
The 7th is called Batza called likewise Jom Tofe ;
which shews what things may or may not be lawfully
undertaken on any festival, except the sabbath.
The 8th is called Rish Hoshanna ; giving an account
of the laws and solemnities of the feast of the new
year.
The 9th is called Taanith; treating of the various
fasts and rites throughout the year.
The 10th is called Megilla ; treating on the feast of
Purim, and gives directions how the Book of Esther
should be read.
The 1 1th is called Moedkaton ; which shews what
works may lawfully be done on the second, third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth days, when the first and
seventh are holy these intermediate days being lesser
festivals.
The 12th is called Chagiya ; giving an account how
persons ought to be qualified to appear before the
Lord at the three great solemnities of the year.
17
The Third general head, entitled Nashin, treats of
the laws pertaining to women, as marriages, divorces,
&c. and are comprised in the following books.
The 1st is called Jehammoth \ on the law obliging
the brother to marry his brother's widow, and what
ceremonies were to accompany it.
The 2d is called Kethubboth; discoursing on the
law of dowries.
The 3d is called Kiddushin ; treating on the laws of
betrothing.
The 4th is called Gitlin ; on the laws of divorcement.
The 5th is called Nedarim ; giving an account of
what vows are obligatory.
The 6th is called Nasir ; on the laws relating to the
Nazarites.
The 7th is called Sofa ; on the laws touching an
adulterous woman.
The Fourth general head, called Nezichin, treats
of the injuries done either by man or beast, what
punishment may legally be inflicted on the party
offending, and what reparation to the party offended ;
comprising the following books.
The 1st is called Ba.va-Ka.ma \ on the damages sus-
tained from either man or beast.
The 2d is called Bava-Metzia ; on the laws of usnry
letting to hire.
The 3d is called Bava-Bathra ; on the laws relating
to commerce, buying and selling the laws of inhe-
ritances.
The 4th is called Sanhedrim ; giving an account of
the great senate, and other inferior courts of judi-
cature.
The 5th is called Makkoth ; treating of the forty
c
stripes, and the reason the Rabbles subtracted one
from the number.
The 6th is called Shevrioth , treating on the law of
oaths.
The 7th, on the nature of evidence and decisions of
important questions, collected from the testimonies of
.some of the most celebrated Rabbies.
The 8th is called Horaioth ; on the punishment of
persons acting in opposition to the decrees of the
Sanhedrim. . ted
. The 9th is called Avoda Zara, or Avodath Chochalim ;
treating on idolatory. ?m ^;
The 10th is called Aboth ; giving an historical
account of those fathers, who, in their respective ages,
delivered the oral law ; with the moral sayings and
maxims of the fathers.
The Fifth general head, called Kodashim, treats of
the laws relative to sacrifices, and all religious per-
formances ; containing eleven books.
The 1st is called Zebachim ; treating on the nature
.of sacrifices.
The 2d is called Cholin ; treating of the clean and
unclean animals.
The 3d is called Menachotk ; treating of the obla-
tions of flour, oil, and wine, proper to each sacrifice.
The 4th is called Bechoroth ; treating of the first-
born of living creatures, and how they are to be offered
or redeemed with money, j>ji 3
The 5th treats of the valuation and tithing of such
things as are devoted to the service of the Almighty,
in order to their being redeemed.
The 6th is called Temurah ; shewing how far it may
be allowed to exchange one sacred thing for another.
19
The 7th is called Meilah ; explaining the nature of
sacrilege.
The 8th is called Kerittoth ; explaining the nature
of the punishment of the law which is called, " being
cut off from his people."
The 9th is called Tamid ; treating of the daily sacri-
fice, and when it was to be offered.
The 10th is called Middoth; discoursing of the
dimensions and proportions of the temple.
The llth is called Kinnim ; treating of the turtles,
or young pigeons, the poor were obliged to offer.
The Sixth general head, called Taharoth, treats of
the general laws relating to pollutions and purifications.
The 1st is called Kelim ; treating of the pollutions
incident to vessels, &c.
The 2d is called Oholoth; shewing how such pol-
lutions are contracted.
The 3d is called Negahim ; discoursing on the laws
relating to leprosy.
The 4th is called Parah ; shewing how uncleanness,
contracted by approaching a dead body, may be puri-
fied by the ashes of a red heifer.
The 5th is called Taharoth ; treating of other kinds
of pollutions.
The 6th is called Mikvaoth ; on the laws relating to
baths appointed for purification.
The 7th is called Nidda; on the laws relating to
the pollutions and purifications of women.
The 8th is called Machsirin\ on the pollution
received by seeds or fruits in the mixture of liquids.
The 9th is called Zabim ; on purification of persons
afflicted
The 10th Tibbul Jom ; on uncleanness, however con-
c 2
20
traded, that is not done away until the going down of
the sun.
The llth is called Judaiim; on the ceremonies
observed in washing the hands.
The 12th is called Oketzim ; on the touching of the
stalk, how any sort of fruit may derive a pollution.
This comprises the whole body of the Mishna.
When the Mishna was committed to writing, it was
received as an authentic body of the law, and taught in
all their public schools.
The Mishna being composed of aphorisms, and
short sentences, it was considered requisite to give
explanations, to render it more easy and intelligible ;
this is what is called
Cije <5emara,
and the authors of it, ./Emoraei, or Gemarists. It was
first commenced at Jerusalem, in the time of R. Judas :
his two sons were the first expositors. R. Oshaya
Rabba, also, wrote a treatise called Bereshith Rabba,
or an exposition of the Mishna, and another called
Tosaphtha. R. Johanan, in the year of the world
3990, composed the Talmud of Jerusalem, which
Talmud is very brief, and does not reach the whole of
the Mishna, because it was composed for the use of
the schools in the Holy Land ; it has been printed at
Venice, by Bomberg ; and at Cracow, with references.
The most celebrated of their schools were those of
Pumbeditha, Nahardea, and Sora.
R. Abina, who was rector of the school of Sora,
completed the Talmud of Babylon, A. D. 500.
The Talmud comprises both the Mishna and
21
Gemara": every Mishna goes before, by way of text; the
Gemara is subjoined as a comment; making a com-
prehensive body of all the Jewish learning.
The great author of the Mishna, R. Ashe, propounds
four things to be insisted on.
First. The declaring the reasons, and explaining
the grounds upon which every Mishna is established.
Second. The deciding of points controverted
amongst the doctors, and directing whom to follow in
practice.
Third. The decrees and ordinances enacted from
the days of R. Juda to his own time.
Fourth. Some mystical expositions of the law, and
parabolical histories, not to be understood according
to the letter, but in a figurative sense, and with design
to instruct in useful precepts of morality, as has always
been the practice of the oriental nations.
>J1O7&W^4
moo a w.iAfifn j*
PART II.
. * .]
: ; o<f lo wiluaob odf .bnooag.
VERSIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT,
(Kerstoiu
^-j>tVJff ?uuh
The Syriac version is generally acknowledged to be
very ancient ; according to the Syrian Christians, part
of the Old Testament was translated in the time of
Solomon. As there were in the earliest ages of
Christianity, some Christians beyond the Euphrates,
most of whom, as not being subject to the Roman
Empire, understood neither Greek nor Latin, M. Simon
supposes that they soon got a version of the New
Testament.
Armenian (tterstan,
Is said by the historians of that nation, to have been
done in the beginning of the fifth century.
Coptic aerstotu
Some authors consider it was done in the fourth or
fifth century; it agrees in many particulars with the
Armenian it was made from the Greek.
23
Oersfon*
The Ethiopic version was the first of all those made
in the eastern languages, that ever was printed ; some
suppose it was done in the third century.
Ancient versions serve to clear many passages,
because most of them were made, if not from the
originals, at least from more ancient copies than any
we now have ; the earliest is called the Italic version,
because it was made in Italy, for the use of the Latins.
It was used till the sixth century. There are
some parts of it to be seen in the margins of some
ancient manuscripts. Dr. Mill supposes it was done
in the second century. To this succeeds the Vulgate,
or the version of St. Jerome ; towards the end of the
fourfh century, he undertook to revise the Italic, and
render it more conformable to the Greek.
rtjjtn of tfte Cfjal&ee
After the Hebrew language ceased to be the mother
tongue of the Jews, the Holy Scriptures, were from
that time forward, interpreted in their synagogues,
either in Greek or Chaldee, which afterwards gave
rise to the Chaldee Paraphrases now extant ; such are
those of Onkelos, and Jonathan. Some are of opinion
this custom was established by Ezra, it was performed
in the following manner : the minister (or aay other
person appointed to read) read one verse in the ori-
ginal Hebrew, then stopped to let the interpreter speak^
who, standing near him, rendered the whole into the
vulgar tongue.
24
Cije Cabbala,
Or the doctrine received by tradition it consisted
of two parts, one of which contains the opinions, rites,
and ceremonies of the Jews, the other the mystical
expositions of the law which they called the oral law.
This Cabbala was of a very ancient date, and was the
occasion of most of the heresies among Christians.
The Jews had a great regard for these traditions,
looking upon them as the key of the law.
of Daniel among ttje propfjets, bp
Maimonides assigns as a reason for the omission, that
every thing that Daniel wrote, was not revealed to
him when awake, and had the use of his reason ; but
in the night only, and in obscure dreams.
The Sephiroth of the Cabbala, were certain number-
ings which were used, to signify the attributes of
God, as creator and governor of the world ; the
names of these Sephiroth, were crown, wisdom, under-
standing, magnificence, severity, glory, victory, foun-
dation and kingdom.
2a
jOTfioo
Cj)e Synagogue of tije
Synagogues are so frequently mentioned in the
New Testament, that it is necessary we should have
a correct notion of them ; they were considered holy
places ; the Greek word, as well as the Hebrew, to
which it answers, signifies any assembly, whether
holy, or profane. The Christians often gave the name
of synagogues to their assemblies.
They were first used by the Jews after the Baby-
lonish captivity ; they were erected, not only in towns
and cities, but also in the country, near rivers, that
they might always have water ready at hand. They
were not allowed to build one in any town, unless
there were ten persons of leisure in it or persons of
learning and approved integrity, free from all worldly
occupations, and disengaged from civil affairs. After
a synagogue was built, it was consecrated by prayer.
Belonging to the synagogues were :
First. The ark, or chest, which contained the book
of the law, or Pentateuch the writings of the pro-
phets were not laid therein. Before it, there was a
vail, representing the vail which separated the holy
place from the holy of holies.
Second. The pulpit, with a desk in the middle of
the synagogue, in which he who was to expound the
law stood up.
Third. The seats, or pews, wherein the people
sat to hear the law read and expounded, some of
which were more honorable than others, which were
for the elders. These elders sat with their backs
26
towards the ark, and their faces to the congregation,
who looked towards the ark.
These seats are called in the gospels, the chief
seats, which our Saviour ordered his disciples not to
contend for, as the Pharisees did.
Eules of tlje Synagogue,
To regulate, and take care of all things belonging
to the synagogue service, there was appointed a
council, or assembly of grave and wise persons, well
versed in the law, over whom was set a president,
who was called ruler of the synagogue.
Office.
It was the office of the rulers of the synagogue, to
teach the people; this they did sometimes by way of
dispute and conference; by questions and answers; or
by continued discourses, like sermons. All these
different ways of teaching, they called by the general
name of searching : the discourse, they styled a search,
or inquisition ; and him that made it, a searcher, from
a Hebrew word, which signifies to dive into the
sublime, profound, mystical, allegorical and prophe-
tical senses of Holy Scripture. St. Paul asks the
Corinthians, " where is the profound searcher of this
world?" it is evident, from the epistle to the He*
brews,, that the apostle sometimes followed this
mystical method.
27
Stpper Boom, or
There Were several places, set apart for these
searches, or expositions ; sometimes in private houses,
for there was no Jew of any learning, but what had,
in the upper part of his house, one or more rooms,
where he was wont, at certain times, to retire, either
to pray, or to meditate upon the law ; several instances
of persons retiring on the house-top, to exercise them*
selves in works of piety and devotion, are to be met
with in the sacred writings ; they were called by the
Latins Ccenacula. It was in one of these our Saviour
celebrated his last passover ; and in a like place,
where the apostles assembled together, when the Holy
Ghost came down upon them.
i'j) iuftfi fridJ ; faqmirti OJJ Irnooe c'
.KCftA) ivjHt'J *fcW ,lmrfJ SflX .WliJ Of';
Jg)react)tng of Cftrtst (n tl)e >pna00jjue*
It may seem strange, that the Jews should suffer
Jesus Christ, or his disciples, to preach in their syna-
gogues, but our wonder will cease, if we consider,
first, that they were Jews, and strict observers of the
law; secondly, that they were well versed in the law,
and even were Rabbins, or Doctors that Jesus Christ
was so, is unquestionably certain, since "he is fre-
quently called Rabbi by his disciples, and even by the
Jews themselves.
It is evident, from the New Testament and eccle-
siastical history, that the sermons and discourses,
spoken by the primitive Christians, were regulated
much after the same manner, as those that were
delivered in the ancient synagogue of the Jews,
of tye
In the synagogue, there were several ministers, who
had different employments assigned them ; First, one
called Sheliach Zibbor, or the messenger, or angel of
the synagogue, standing before the ark, repeated the
prayer Kadesh, before and after the reading of the
law. Hence it is, that the bishops of the seven
churches of Asia, are called the angels of those
churches, because, what the Sheliach Zibbor did in
the synagogue, that did the bishop in the church.
Second, another was called the minister of the syna-
gogue, who from the pulpit, gave the Levites notice
when they were to sound the trumpet ; this minister*
sometimes read the law. The third, was called Chaan,
that is, the guardian or keeper ; his business was to
take the book of the law out of the ark, and give it
to the person appointed to read, and to take it of him,
after he had done, and to lay it up in the chest again ;
he blew the trumpet upon some particular occasions,
to give notice of the sabbath; of the new year; to
publish an excommunication ; to let the people know
when they should say Amen, and to take care of the
synagogue.
The synagogue service was three times a day,
morning, afternoon, and evening; Mondays, Thurs-
29
days and Saturdays, were considered more solemn than
the rest. On the Sabbath-day they had prayers four
times. Before the public prayers, the people repeated
several private ones, they were nineteen in number :
the first, contained praises to God ; second, the con-
fession of their sins; third, thanksgivings and peti-
tions for all the wants and necessities of this life, as
well spiritual as temporal ; when these prayers were
ended, the minister standing up, began the public
prayers, the people likewise standing. They had also
their heads covered with a vail.
Their service began and ended with the prayer
Kadesh, it was composed in these terms :
" Hallowed be his great Name in the World which
he has created according to his good pleasure, and may
his kingdom be established ; may we behold his
redemption spring up and flourish ; may his Messiah
suddenly appear in our days, and in the days of all
the house of Israel to deliver his people."
Prayers being ended, the minister took out the book
of the law, which consisted of several rolls of vellum,
stitched or placed together, and fastened to sticks,
neatly turned.
The Jews divided the Pentateuch into sections,
which they called Paraschahs, one of which being read
every Sabbath-day, the whole Pentateuch was thus
read over once a year ; after the reading of the law,
followed that of the prophets, before which they
rehearsed some passage out of the writings of Moses.
CEJje JLato anfc t&e
Jjslfioqs-i elqo'jr '] s.ij o-,
By the law and the prophets mentioned in the New
Testament, we are to understand, the five books of
Moses, and the Prophets, the books of Joshua, Judges,
Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, these they supposed
to have been written by prophets', which they called
former prophets; they next placed Isaiah, Jeremiah
and Ezekiel, with the twelve lesser prophets, all these
they called the latter prophets.
nTBiq 6rfJ dJiw IT T:m I>a tir.&'vl 'olrin-, -noHT
Cj)e fetofel) >ap.
There were two sorts of days amongst the Jews the
natural, which is the space of twenty-four hours, from
one sun-set to another; and the civil, or artificial, con-
sisting of twelve hours, from the rising to the setting of
the sun, which was divided into four parts, each of
"Which consisted of three hours ; they also divided their
nights into four parts, which they called watches.
! The 1st was the evening.
The 2d the middle, or midnight.
The 3d the cock crowing, from midnight till three in
the morning.
' The 4th is the morning, or break of day.
3fetofel) Clnl&ten taugljt bartous
It was a custom among the Jews, of what rank or
quality soever, to teach their children some ingenious
craft or art, not only as a remedy against idleness, but
3i
as a reserve in time of want, Josephus relates an
instance of this custom in the two brothers, Chasinai and
Clninilai, who, though they were persons of note, were
nevertheless put with a weaver to learn the trade,
which, says the historian, was no disparagement to
them. Rabbi Jose was a currier ; Rabbi Jochanan,
was a shoe maker, and from thence surnamed Sandalar.
The difference between the Jews and Samaritans,
in point of religion, may be reduced to these three
heads :
1. That they looked upon the temple of Gerizim as
the only place which God was pleased to be wor-
shipped in, and as the centre of true religion.
2. That they received none other scriptures but
the Pentateuch.
3. That their worship had some tincture of paganism,
and of the opinions of the nations with whom they
conversed.
^-nll Or.ucoDtf
C!)e ftanfefflrfnu
This assembly consisted of seventy-one, or seventy-
two persons, over whom were two presidents, the
chief whereof was generally the high priest, though it
was not necessary he should always be so ; the other
was named the Ab, or father of the council ; most of
the members were priests and levites. Their manner
o sitting, was in a semicircle ; all matters of import-
32
ance, whether ecclesiastical or civil, were brought
before this tribunal. The term Sandhedrim, was
formed from the Greek <7uve^/ov which signifies an
assembly of people sitting.
There is frequent mention of proselytes in the New
Testament :
" They were heathens that had embraced the Jewish
religion. There were two sorts of them ; some were
called proselytes of habitation, or of the gate, because
they were permitted to live within their gates. They
were only obliged to forsake idolatry, and to observe
the seven precepts which the Talmudists pretend God
gave to Adam. Of this kind of proselytes are sup-
posed to have been Naaman the Syrian ; the Eunuch
of Candace, Queen of Ethiopia ; Cornelius ; Nicholas,
of Antioch ; and others mentioned in the Acts ; they
were not looked upon as Jews."
" The others were called proselytes of the covenant,
because they were received by circumcision, which
was named, the blood of the covenant; because they
were bound to observe the ceremonial law. There
were three ceremonies performed at their admission ;
the first, circumcision; the second, baptism, which was
done, by dipping the whole body of the proselyte in
water ; the third, was a sacrifice, generally of two turtle
doves, or two young pigeons ; when he had gone
through these ceremonies, he was looked upon as a new
born babe, he received a new name, and was thence-
forward reckoned a Jew." Maimonides de Proselyt.
33
Sapttem of tljefetos,
" The origin of the ceremony of baptism, as used by
the Jews to their proselytes, is entirely unknown. The
Rabbies will have it to be of very ancient date ; some
carry it up to the time of Moses. St. Paul seems to
have been of the same opinion, when he saith the
Israelites were baptized unto Moses. The baptism
of proselytes, may, however, be more properly said to
have owed its rise to the Pharisees. It is manifest
from the gospels, that it was usual for the Jews to
admit men to the profession of a doctrine by baptism;
for the Pharisees do not find fault with John's baptism,
but only blame him for baptizing, when he was neither
the Messiah, nor Elias, nor that Prophet.
" The proselytes were baptized in the presence of
three persons of distinction, who stood as witnesses.
The proselyte was asked, whether he did not embrace
that religion upon some worldly view ? Whether he
was fully resolved to keep the commandments of God ?
And whether he repented him of his past life and
actions ?" Beausobre's Introd. to the New Testament.
Phylactery is a Greek word, that signifies a memo-
rial, or preservation. The Hebrew name for phylac-
teries, is tephillim, which signifies prayers ; because
the Jews wore them chiefly when at prayers. They
were long and narrow pieces of parchment, formed
with great nicety, whereon were written thirty pas-
34
sages out of Exodus and Deuteronomy, which they
tied to their foreheads and left arms, in memory of
the law.
JFeast of t{je passotoer.
The guests leaned on their left arms upon beds
round a table, on which was set a lamb, with bitter
herbs, unleavened bread, and a dish full of a kind of
sauce, or thick mixture, wherein they dipped their
bread and herbs; this the Jews called charosset, in
remembrance of the mortar they had used, when
making bricks in Egypt. They made it at first with
dates, and dried figs, but the modern Jews make it
of chesnuts, apples, &c. The Talmudists pretend
that the reclining posture was then absolutely neces-
sary, as a fit emblem of that rest and freedom, which
God had granted to the children of Israel, by bringing
them out of Egypt ; but it was very common among
the eastern nations, to lie on beds when they took
their meals, as is evident from sacred as well as profane
history.
The feast of tabernacles lasted seven days. It was
instituted by God for a memorial of the Israelites
having dwelt in tents, or tabernacles, while they were in
the desert ; they were obliged during the whole solem-
nity to dwell in tents. One of the most remarkable
ceremonies was, the libations, or pouring out of the
water, which was performed every day : a priest went
and drew some water at the pool of Siloam, and car-
ried it into the temple, where he poured it on the
altar, the people singing, in the mean time, these words,
out of the prophet Isaiah, " with joy shall ye draw water
out of the wells of salvation " Jesus Christ manifestly
alluded to it, when on the last great day of the feast,
he cried out, " If any man thirst, let him come unto
me, and drink." On the seventh day, they went seven
times round the altar, and this was called the great
Hosanna.
The sect of the Sadducees derived its name from
Sadok, a pupil of Antigonus Sochaeus, president of
the Sanhedrim, or great council, who flourished about
two hundred and sixty years before the Christian era;
and who inculcated the reasonableness of serving God
disinterestedly, and not under the servile impulse of
the fear of punishment, or the mercenary hope of
reward. Sadok, misunderstanding the doctrine of his
master, deduced the inference that there was no future
state of rewards or punishments. Their principal
tenets were the following :
First. That there is no resurrection, neither angel,
nor spirit, and that the soul of man perishes together
with the body.
Second. That there is no fate, or providence, but
that all men enjoy the most ample freedom of action ;
in other words, the absolute power of doing either
good or evil, according to their own choice : hence
they were very severe judges.
D2
36
Third. They paid no regard whatever to any tra-
dition, adhering strictly to the letter of scripture, but
preferring the five books of Moses to the rest.
The Pharisees were the most numerous, distin-
guished, and popular sect among the Jews. The time
when they first appeared is not known, but it is sup-
posed to have been not long after the institution of the
Sadducees, if indeed, the two sects did not gradually
spring up together. They derived their name from
the Hebrew word Pharash, which signifies separated
or set apart, because they separated themselves from
the rest of the Jews to superior strictness in religious
observances ; they boasted, that, from their accurate
knowledge of religion, they were the favourites of
heaven ; and thus, trusting in themselves that they
were righteous, despised others.
They ascribed all things to fate, or providence, yet
not so absolutely as to take away the free-will of man,
though fate does not co-operate in> every action. They
also believed in the existence of angels and spirits,
and in the resurrection of the dead ; but, from the
account given of them by Josephus, it appears that
their notion of the immortality of the soul, was the
Pythagorean metempsychosis : that the soul, after the
dissolution of one body, winged its flight into another ;
and that these removals were perpetuated and diver-
sified, through an infinite succession ; the soul animating
a sound and healthy body, or being confined in a
deformed and diseased frame, according to its conduct
in a prior state of existence.
37
The profession of the Scribes , as they were doctors,
was to write copies of the law, to keep it correct, and
to read and explain it to the people. This afterwards
gave rise to the Masorites, that is, those who criticised
upon the letter of scripture, upon the number of verses,
words, letters, and points.
t)e Galileans.
The Galileans spoke an unpolished and corrupt
dialect of the Syriac, compounding and using ain for
aleph ; caph for beth ; tau for daleth ; and also
frequently changing the gutturals. This probably pro-
ceeded from their great communication and inter-
mixture with the neighbouring nations. It was this
corrupt dialect that led to the detection of Peter, as
one of Christ's disciples. The Galileans are repeatedly
mentioned by Josephus as a turbulent and rebellious
people, and upon all occasions ready to disturb the
Roman authority ; they were particularly forward in
an insurrection against Pilate himself.
af
The Jews coming oat of the synagogue, brought the
same spirit into the church : the different sects among
them, proved so many seeds of discord. The Saddu-
cees were not easily brought to believe the resurrec-
tion; the Pharisees being extremely zealous for the
ceremonial law, and their own traditions, could not
38
but give the Christian religion some tincture of this
zeal ; the heathens, on the other hand, that had been
brought up in the schools of the philosophers, intro-
duced into the Christian institution, the subtillies of
the Platonic philosophy. In those early times there
was no canon of the books of the New Testament, and
all instruction was delivered viva voce ; even after the
canon had been compiled, some difficult passages gave
rise to different notions and sects ; add to this, some
persons took the liberty of forging Gospels as they
thought fit.
portrait of a f etotsl) g>crtbe.
from Dr. Hendersons Biblical Researches, and Travels
in Russia.
" Having expressed a wish to obtain some Hebrew
manuscripts, my Jewish guide conducted me down a
narrow lane, to a house of a sopher, or scribe, whose
employment consists in multiplying written copies of
the law, according to the established rules of the
Hebrew calligraphy. His small apartment presented
quite a novel scene to my view on the table before
him, lay developed an accurate exemplar, from which
he was taking his copy; rolls of parchment were lying
about in every direction; the walls were hung with
compasses, ink bottles, and other implements; and, in
one corner of the room, a number of skins were in a
process of preparation, for the use to which they were
to be appropriated. As I entered, he looked up, wilh
39
all that absence and discomposure which generally
characterizes those who are abruptly roused from the
absorption connected with deep study, or occupied
about some objects requiring the application of pro-
found attention. Some remarks, however, on the na-
ture of his occupation, interspersed with a few technical
phrases in Hebrew, soon excited his curiosity; and,
laying aside his pen, he readily entered into a con-
versation respecting his business, and the difficulties
inseparable from its proper and conscientious execution.
Unlike other employments, that of a Jewish copyist
absolutely and religiously excludes all improvements.
He is tied down to perform every part of the work
exactly as it was done twelve or thirteen centuries ago,
at the period of the composition of the Talmud; to the
laws of writing prescribed in which, he must rigidly
conform, even in the smallest minutiae. The skins to
be converted into parchment must be those of clean
animals, and it is indispensable that they should be
prepared by the hands of Jews only. Should it be
found that any parts have been prepared by a Goi,
(a name by which Christians, and all who are not Jews,
are designated), it is immediately thrown away, as unfit
for use. When ready, they are cut even, and joined
together by means of thongs made of the same material ;
they are then regularly divided into columns, the
breadth of which must never exceed half their length.
The ink employed in writing the law, generally consists
of a composition made of pitch, charcoal and honey ;
which ingredients are first made up into a kind of
paste, and after having remained some time in a state
of induration, are dissolved in water, with an infusion
of galls. Before the scribe begins his task, and after
40
every interruption, he is required to compose bis mind,
that he may write under a sensible impression of the
sanctity of the words he is transcribing. Particular
care is taken that the letters be all equally formed; and
so supreme is the authority of antiquity, that where
letters are found in the exemplar, of a larger or smaller
size than the rest, or such as are turned upside down,
or suspended above the line, or where a final shaped
letter occurs in the middle of a word, these blunders
are to be copied with as great fidelity as any part of the
text. Is it not passing strange, that even Christian
editors of the Hebrew Bible should have servilely
followed these Jewish peculiarities? It is well known
what importance the genius of rabbinical superstition
has attached to such anomalies ; and it is a fact, that
many of them are interpreted in. a manner highly re-
proachful to the religion of Christ. For instance, in
Psalm Ixxx. 14, the word "Wo, ' from the woods,' is
written and printed -^o, with the letter ain suspended,
because it is the initial of the word V]?, ' tree,' and is
explained, by the Jews, of the cross; while the wild
boar referred to in the context, they blasphemously in-
terpret, of our blessed Saviour; yet this error of tran-
scription is printed in the editions of Opitius, Michaelis,
Vander Hooght, Frey, Leusden, and Jahn, although
corrected in Menasseh Ben Israel's edition of 1635!
" Faults that creep in during transcription may be
rectified, provided it be done within the space of thirty
days; but if more time has elapsed, the copy is declared
to be posel, or forbidden: a word (V'DD) used in scrip-
ture to denote a graven image, which the Israelites
were taught to hold in utter detestation. Should
Aleph-Lamed, (V) or Jod-He, (>~P) be wrongly written,
41
it is unlawful to correct or erase them, because they
form the sacred names; nor is it permitted to correct
any of the divine names, except when they are applied
in an inferior sense; of this, an instance occurs
Gen.iii.5, where the name tDviV** Elohim is used twice.
The Rabbins regarding it as employed the second
time to denote false objects of worship, permit its era-
sure ; but prohibit it at the beginning of the verse, as
being undeniably used of the true God. When tran-
scribing the incommunicable name nirp, Jehovah, the
scribe must continue writing it until it be finished, even
though a king should enter the room; but if he be
writing two or three of these names combined, such as
nmny 'nVt* nirr. Jehovah God of Hosts, he is at liberty,
after having finished the first, to rise and salute his
visitant. Nor is the copyist allowed to begin the
incommunicable name immediately after he has dipped
his pen in the ink ; when he is approaching it, he is
required to take a fresh supply, when proceeding to
write the first letter of the preceding word.
" Shackled by canons of such exquisite minuteness,
it cannot be matter of surprise that the Dubno scribe
should exhibit an emaciated appearance, and affix a
high price to the productions of his pen. For a copy
of the law, fairly written in small characters, he asked ten
louis d'ors, and assured me that he had been sometimes
paid at the rate of fifty. To the intrinsic value and
spiritual beauty of the law of the Lord, he appeared
totally insensible!"
42
The Jews in Bevis Marks, formerly possessed a
library of considerable value in their synagogue, relating
to their ceremonials and talmudical worship ; but
some narrow minds among them, conceiving, that if
these books should get into the hands of Christians,
they would be disgraced by shameful translations,
agreed among themselves to cause them to be burnt,
for which purpose they employed some of their scribes,
or tephillim writers, to examine into the correctness of
the copies ; and receiving a report agreeable to their
wishes, they had them conveyed to Mile End, where
they were all destroyed in a kiln, for it is contrary to
their maxim ever to make waste paper of the sacred
language.
PART III.
Arabic literature*
This language may be justly designated as sublime,
comprehensive, copious, energetic, delicate, majestic,
equally adapted for the poignancy of satire, for the
mournfulness of elegy, or the grandeur of heroics, for
the simplest taste, or the boldest effort of rhetoric. In
every stile of composition, the books in this language
are numerous, many of them of high intrinsic worth ;
their books, however, and their language remain still
but imperfectly known in Europe, nor can we ever
hope for much advancement, until the fancied formidable
difficulties of the study are removed ; till curiosity is
stimulated by a hope of success ; till attention is fixed
by a conviction of its utility.
It has long been a desideratum, that the historical
works of the Arabs, should be placed within the
reach of the generality of readers, instead of being
inaccessible even to the greater number of orientalists.
The fact is, that the manuscripts which remain in the
original language, are dispersed in the great libraries ;
so that it is difficult to procure copies of them, and still
more difficult to collect and collate those copies .
44
The love of knowledge, has now wholly deserted
the Mussulman mind, and we only know of what the
genius of Arabia has been capable, from the dusty
treasures of our libraries ; which we, forgetful of our
great benefactors, and proud of our superior affluence,
never pause to examine, and rarely condescend to
praise.
When I observe how rich the Bodleian Library is in
Arabic manuscripts, I am surprised that no one, out
of its numerous students, has attempted to give from
them, an intelligent history of Arabian literature and
The Arabs, even before Mahomet, were nationally,
and habitually orators in their public assemblies, but
it was the eloquence of natural talent, mental vivacity,
and excited feeling.
Clje Arabian
It has been surmised, that the Arabian Nights' Enter-
tainments may have proceeded from the old Pehlevi
stock, and from that have been translated into Arabic.
It is not improbable, the land of the fairies, the region
of the genii, and the king of these imaginary domains,
Gian Ben Gian are purely Persian ; and so much so,
that the first part of Firdousi's epic, Shah Nameh,
introduces them to our attention ; but the conception
of the eastern genii, seems referrible to a still older
source to the ancient Chaldeans.
45
(KHrftfaff.
The Asiatics in general, begin their manscripts on
what we make the last page, and conclude where our
books begin. It may be observed also, they never
divide a word in writing, by putting some syllables in
one line, and the rest in that which follows ; but in
order to keep all the lines of an equal length, to which
they are exceedingly attentive, they either extend the
final, and sometimes the medial letters, by a dash of
the reed, with which they write, or when too long,
place those letters, which the line will not conveniently
hold, on the tops of the others towards the end, in a
manner that it cannot be imitated by types, as may be
observed in almost every manuscript, but more par-
ticularly among the poets.
JLfbrarp of jfl. Jlangies.
^ The library of the late M. Langles was very extensive,
and even more select than numerous. In oriental litera-
ture it was superior to any private collection in Europe.
In every principal city of Europe, he had a bookseller,
who had orders to send him every thing that appeared
connected with oriental literature. His situation, as
administrator of the Royal Library at Paris, and Persian
professor, afforded him great facilities; whenever a
curious MS. was rejected from the library, for want of
funds, M. Langles purchased the work ; it was in this
way he became possessed of the unique copy of the
Ayeen Akbery, the only complete one known to be in
existence ; it is the identical copy made by the vizier,
46
for the Emperor himself. The statistical tables alone,
would take years to transcribe. An English merchant
and his sons were once introduced to M. Langles, who
shewed them this MS., as a great curiosity, and
observed, that he had given above one thousand pounds
for it : " Bless me," said young Bill-book, " it costs
him above fifty pounds a year, at five per cent, interest,
and perhaps he does not look at it once a month."
There was no answering Cocker's demonstration of
the folly of fine books.
Oriental JLtterature.
The vast stores of the Royal Library at Paris, so rich
in oriental literature, are to be explored anew, and,
those manuscripts deemed worthy of impression, are
to be printed at the public expense.
CJ)e &prftn Cftttsttang,
The value of these Syrian Christians has not been
duly appreciated ; they not only planted Christianity in
India, so firmly, that we have recently found it there,
a thousand years after its introduction ; but by their
taste and labours, much of the Grecian literature and
science had been translated into Syriac, a language
which has so much affinity to the Arabic, as to be
easily acquired by an Arabian student, and to invite
him to the effort.
The best account we have of the Syrian Christians,
and their authors, is in the Bibliotheca of Assenanni.
It contains curious documents of their activity in dif-
* 47
fusing Christianity in India, and even China, in the
seventh and eighth centuries. To the first volume, a
catalogue of the Syrian manuscripts, placed in the
Vatican Library by Clement II. is added. Some
Arabian Poems are among them.
" That the Syrians were the tutors of the Arabs,
may be known by the fact, that many of the Greek
mathematicians were translated first into Syriac, and
afterwards into Arabic." Sharon Turner.
Persian JLanguage auto JUterature.
As closely allied to the Arabic, it may not be unin-
teresting to give a few notices of Persian literature.
The Persian language, for sweetness and harmony,
has been compared to the Italian ; and for colloquy, it
is said to rival the French.
When we consider, that in the general dearth of
literature, this nation possessed authors of genius and
repute, that the few books which escaped the savage
hands of the Saracens, might have likewise perished
in the general wreck of Grecian and Roman literature ;
in such a case, we cannot but admit, that the only
knowledge which we could have acquired, must have
been from Persia and Arabia; our taste would then
have been formed on different materials, and we might,
possibly, have despised the beauties we now admire ;
we have, however, fortunately escaped this calamity.
It may be further urged in favour of the Persians,
that at the time when literature was secluded from the
western world, when the time of our ancestors was
employed in ridiculous crusades, and in mitigating
48.
the bulls which were fulminated against them, men of
science and genius were patronised and rewarded by
the sovereigns of Asia. When our barons and nobles
were unable to sign their names, Firdousee wrote.
But the sun of eastern learning has set for ever, while
the one which irradiates our western sky, shines with
increasing splendour. ,
There is a great difference between the Persian
spoken in India, and in Persia. The language of the
Persians is wonderfully laconic, while that spoken in
India, is ridiculously verbose.
Persian &utl)0r&
The fame of a Persian author rests very frequently
on the affectation of his style, and the absurdity of his
metaphors; he writes to be admired; and the opportu-
nity of adding another jingle to his sentence, could not
be missed, though he were to set reason and sense at
defiance. Their prose is much more difficult than
their poetry ; their historical works are written in a
very inflated style. Timour Shah took uncommon
pains in composing, correcting, and revising, the his-
tory of his reign: indeed it appears from Shurf ood
Deen's own account, that he was little more than the
transcriber of the king's own sentiments ; this arose
from the circumstance, that most of the historians lived
in the court, and under the protection of the prince,
whose actions they celebrated.
49
As a specimen of their style, the following extract
from the Goolistan of Sadee, is characteristic.
" In my juvenile days, I recollect I went to a certain
street, in the month of July, and gazed on my beloved ;
the heat parched the mouth, and the hot wind dried up
the marrow of the bone. From the frailty of nature, I
could not endure the heat of the sun ; I embraced the
refuge of the shade of a wall ; I trusted that some one
would mitigate this excessive heat, by giving me some
iced water ; when suddenly, from the darkness of the
portal of a door, a light burst forth, namely, a beauty,
whose excellencies even the tongue of eloquence could
not detail ; she appeared as the morn after a dark
night, or as the water of life issuing from obscurity;
holding a goblet of iced water in her hand, mixed with
sugar ; I instantly seized the liquor, and drinking it
off became reanimated."
IPerstan Literature*
The Unwari Sohelee is a work much read in Persia,
and is considered to be one of the best productions in
the language. The most admired historical works are,
Rozut oos Sufa, by Meer Rhoond ; and the Hubeeb
oos Syr, by his nephew ; the Shah Ubas Namu, and
the Life of Nadir Shah, by Mirza Mihdee.
The principal biographical works are, the Tuzkeeru
oos Shoora, or Lives of the Poets, by Doulat Shah ;
and the Atush Kudu, a late production on the same
subject.
E
The degree of credit which the Persian language
possesses in Europe, may be almost solely ascribed to
Sir William Jones ; and his Commentarii is the only
work which gives any notion of the language and lite-
rature of the Persians.
The most stupendous monument of Eastern literature
is the Shah Nameh of the poet Firdousee; a work
consisting of 60,000 couplets. The poem was com-
posed under the patronage of Mahmood, Sultan of
Ghizni, who appears to have been particularly liberal
towards learned men. Firdousee lives fresh in the
remembrance of the East, though kings have succeeded
kings, and dynasties have followed dynasties; and
instead of suffering by a lapse of time, his fame rests
upon a more solid and durable foundation. His work
has become a model for imitation; and although his
successors have partly changed his language, they have
not dispensed with the assistance of his images and
fables. The whole of the poem takes up a period of
not less than 3700 years, and is formed upon the History
of Persia.
The Odes of Hafiz have been very generally com-
pared to those of Anacreon, or the Lyrical Odes of
Horace : they appear to bear a greater resemblance to
the Roman than the Grecian poets. The poetry of
51
Hafiz is simple and unaffected; there is awildness, and
often a sublimity in Hafiz, which is not to be met
with in any other Persian poet.
The Persians insist, and we should give them the
merit of understanding their own language, that all the
odes of their celebrated poets are mystical, and breathe
a fervent spirit of adoration to the Supreme Being.
The Arabs, before the era of Mahommed, were
Sabians ; the Persians, Magians : who, whether they
sought the mediation of the planets and stars, or endea-
voured to reconcile moral good and physical evil, by
the existence of two opposite principles, appear to have
agreed in the immutable and eternal truth of a great
first cause. The Sabians are commonly called by tra-
vellers, Christians of St. John the Baptist. The
Magians, Guebos, Gours, and, on the western side of
India, Parsees.
In the most early times, the Arabs prided themselves
on the purity and copiousness of their language ; the
poignancy of their wit ; and the unrestrained eloquence
of their compositions. Their generosity was unlimited,
and the same hospitality (observes an eloquent historian)
which was practised by Abraham, and celebrated by
Homer, is still renewed in the camp of the Arabs.
" They believe one God, and pay adoration to the
stars, or the angels and intelligences which they sup-
E 2
52
pose reside in them, and govern the world, under the
Supreme Deity. They endeavour to perfect themselves
in the four intellectual virtues, and believe the souls of
wicked men will be punished for 9000 ages, but will
afterwards be received to mercy. They are obliged to
pray three times a day. They have a great respect
for the Temple of Mecca, and the Pyramids of Egypt,
fancying these last to be the sepulchres of Seth, and of
Enoch and Sabi, his two sons, whom they look on as
the first propagators of their religion. At these struc-
tures, they sacrifice a cock and a black calf, and offer
up incense. Besides the book of Psalms, the only
true scripture they read, they have other books, which
they esteem equally sacred, particularly one in the
Chaldee tongue, which they call the book of Seth, and
is full of moral discourses. This sect say, they took
the name of Sabians from the above mentioned Sabi,
though it seems rather to be derived from NHV, or the
host of heaven, which they worship. Travellers com-
monly call them Christians of St. John the Baptist,
whose disciples they also pretend to be, using a kind of
baptism, which is the greatest mark they bear to Chris-
tianity. This is one of the religions, the practice of
which Mahomet tolerated." Sale's Koran.
The propagation of the Mahommedan religion,
effected a wonderful change, not only in Asia, but in
Europe ; it contributed nothing, however, to the
advancement of science. The prophet seems to have
inspired his immediate successors, with the necessity
53
of keeping his disciples in the profoundest state of
ignorance ; and to this political motive we may attri-
bute the memorable destruction of the Alexandrian
Library, which served to heat four thousand baths, for
the space of six mouths.
JDaroun al
Philosophy and science met a protector in Haroun
al Raschid, the hero of the Arabian Nights, and the
correspondent of Charlemagne ; and under the reign
of his youngest son, Al Mamon, it burst forth with,
increased splendour; but his memory will not escape
the charge of extreme barbarism, for having destroyed
the original books he procured to be translated.
Cije &oran,
The JVJahommedans dare not so much as touch it,
without being first washed, or legally purified ; which,
lest they should do by inadvertence, they write these
words on the cover or label, " let none touch it but
'they who are clean ;" they read it with great care, and
respect, never holding it below their girdles. They
swear by it ; consult it on weighty occasions ; carry it
with them to war; write sentences of it on their
banners ; adorn it with gold, and precious stones ; and
knowingly suffer it not to be in the possession of any
of a different persuasion.
54
JHaj)0mme&an belief of tfte Scriptures.
The Mahommedans are taught by the Koran, that
God, in divers ages of the world, gave revelation of
his will, in writing, to several prophets, the whole, and
every word of which, it is absolutely necessary for a
good moslem, to believe. The number of these sacred
books were, according to them, one hundred and four ;
of which ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty
to Edris, or Enoch, ten to Abraham; and the other
four, being the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel,
and the Koran, were successively delivered to Moses,
David, Jesus, and Mahommed ; which last being the seal
of the prophets, these revelations are now closed, and
no more to be expected. All these divine books,
except the four last, they agree to be now entirely lost,
and their contents unknown ; and of those four, the
Pentateuch, Psalms, and Gospel have undergone so
many alterations and corruptions, though there may
possibly be some part of the true word of God therein,
yet no credit is to be given to the present copies in
the hands of the Jews and Christians.
Ci)e Arabic
The Arabian language, one of the most ancient, has
had the fate of other living languages which have been
spoken through many ages, and by the inhabitants of
different provinces and countries, remote from one
another. It has gradually undergone such an alteration,
that the Arabic spoken and written by Mahommed,
may now be regarded as a dead language.
55
The old Arabic language is, through all the East,
just like Latin in Europe, a learned tongue, to be
acquired only in colleges, or by the perusal of the best
authors.
There is, perhaps, no other language diversified by
so many dialects, as that of Arabia ; the pronunciation
of one province, differs from that of the other provinces ;
letters and sounds are often changed in such a manner,
as to produce an entire alteration upon the words.
In Syria and Palestine, no language is to be heard
but the Arabic, and yet the Syriac is not absolutely
a dead language, but is still spoken in several villages
in the Pashalik of Damascus.
The Arabic character, which was anciently in use,
but is now entirely lost, was the Kufic; it seems to
have been been the alphabet of the Arabians of Mecca,
for the Koran was originally written in Kufic characters.
The invention of modern characters, which are very
different from the Kufic, is ascribed to a vizier. The
Arabians, Persians, and Turks, write Arabic in sets
of characters, differing in several particulars from one
another. They have also modes of writing for different
forms of business, each of which, has its particular
name.
The hand writing of the Arabians, in the common
business of life, is not legible. The Orientals, how-
ever, value themselves on their writing, and have
carried the art of making beautiful written characters
to high perfection. The Arabians value chiefly a
species of elegance, which consists in their manner of
joining their letters ; the want of which, makes them
dislike the style in which Arabian books are printed in
Europe ; they sign their letters with a sort of cypher,
56
to prevent the possibility of their counterfeiting their
signature ; their letters are folded an inch in breadth,
and their leaves are pasted together at one end ; they
cannot seal them, for wax is so soft in hot countries,
that it cannot retain an impression.
education an& >ci)00l3 of tlje Arabians,
In cities, many of the lowest of the people are
taught both to read and write ; the same qualifications
are also common among the sheikhs of the desert;
and in Egypt, persons of distinction retain preceptors
in their families to instruct their children, and young
slaves as appear to possess natural abilities, like chil-
dren of the family.
In almost every mosque is a school, denominated
Moeddrasse, having a foundation for the support of
teachers, and the entertainment and instruction of
poor scholars. In great towns are likewise other
schools, to which people of middle rank send their
children, to receive religious instruction, and likewise
to learn reading, writing and arithmetic. There are
also schools of this sort in the market place ; they are
open like shops toward the street ; the noise and
appearance of the passengers does not seem to divert
the attention of the scholars, who sit before a small
desk, and read their lessons aloud, balancing them-
selves constantly in their seats ; to such a degree does
motion appear requisite to rouse, and keep up the
attention of the inhabitants of hot countries. No girls
attend these schools, they are privately taught by
women.
57
In some great towns of Arabia there are likewise
colleges, in which the sciences of astronomy, phi-
losophy, and medicine are taught; in these, the Arabians,
though possessed of natural abilities, have, for want of
good books and masters, made but little progress.
The interpretation of the Koran, and the study of
the ancient history of the MahommedanSj are the prin-
cipal employment of men of letters. These studies take
up much time ; for the student must not only acquire
the ancient Arabic, but also make himself familiar with
all the commentators of the Koran, the number of
whom is very considerable.
In a country like Arabia, where occasions of speaking
in public seldom occur, eloquence is a useless accom-
plishment, and therefore cannot be much cultivated.
The Arabians say, however, that they hear great orators
in their mosques. As Europeans are not admitted to
hear those sermons, it is not possible to give any
account of the sacred eloquence of Arabia.
The only theatres for the exercise of profane elo-
quence, are the coffee houses ; the guests are served
with pipes and a cup of coffee. As the Arabians
never engage in any game or conversation with one
another, they have readers, or orators, who attend in
the coffee houses to amuse them; they are called
Mullachs, or poor scholars.
They select chosen passages from some favorite
authors, such as the History of Antar; the Adventures
of Rustan Sal, a Persian hero; or Beber, king of
Egypt; the history of the Ayubites, anciently sove-
reigns of Arabia ; and the Life of Bahluldan, a buffoon
in the court of Haroun Al Raschid. Others, who
aspire to the praise of invention, make tales and
58
fables, which they walk about and recite, or deliver
discourses upon any subjects they choose.
Arabic literature,
The unfortunate traveller, Burckhardt, in a letter
from Aleppo, addressed to Mr. Hamilton, the secretary
of the African Association, makes the following obser-
vations.
" I am now so far advanced in the knowledge of
Arabic, that I understand almost every thing that is
said in common conversation, and am able to make
myself understood on most subjects, although some-
times with difficulty. I have made acquaintance with
some shiekhs, and some of the first literati among the
Turks of Aleppo ; who, from time to time, visit me.
I owe this favour principally to Mr. Wilkins's Arabic
and Persian Dictionary ; *the common manuscript dic-
tionaries or Kamus, being generally very defective.
The learned Turks are often very glad to consult
Wilkins, and never do it without exclaiming, ' How
wonderful, that a Frank should know more of our
language than our first Ulemas.' Learning at Aleppo,
is in a very low state ; no science, the Turkish Law
excepted, is properly cultivated, not even that of Arabic
grammar, which is so necessary to the interpretation of
the Koran. I am assured by the best authority, that
there are now in this town only three men (two
Turks and a Christian) who know this language
grammatically. The chief quality of a literary man, is
that of getting by heart a great number of verses made
upon different occasions, and of knowing the proper
59
opportunity of reciting them ; to this must be added, a
knowledge of the different learned significations of one
and the same word, and of words which express the
same idea; for example, the word adjuz, which in
common language means a decrepid old man, has in
the learned language about sixty other different sig-
nifications ; and there are in Arabian poetry, about one
hundred and fifty words for wine ; but to interpret
passages of difficult grammatical construction, or ration-
ally to amend errors, or even to compose prose or
verse free from grammatical blunders, is a task much
above the capacity of an Aleppine Ulema."
In another letter from the same place, he says
" My long stay in Syria, having been determined upon
in consequence of the absolute necessity of my fami-
liarising myself with the idiom of these countries, I
shall deem it my duty to send you, from time to time,
some vouchers of my application to Arabic literature.
I have, for some time past, been engaged in an Arabic
exercise, which has proved of great utility to me ; it is
the metamorphosis of the well known novel of Robinson
Crusoe into an Arabian tale, adapted to eastern taste
and manners. A young Frank, born at Aleppo, who
speaks like a Native, but neither reads nor writes it,
has been my assistant in the undertaking. 1 take the
liberty of sending you here inclosed a copy of this
travestied Robinson, or, as I call the book in Arabic,
Dur el Baheer the pearl of the seas."
" The library of the convent of Mount Sinai, contains
vast number of Arabic manuscripts and Greek
60
books; the former are of little literary value; of the
latter, I brought away two beautiful Aldine editions, a
Horace, and an Anthology. The priests would not
show me their Arabic memorandum books, previous to
the fifteenth century. From those I saw, I copied
some interesting documents concerning the former
state of the country, and their quarrels with the
Bedouins."
" Has certainly every characteristic of an epic poem ;
it is throughout of high interest, and often sublime. I
have attentively read little more than one twelfth part
of it. The copy I bought at Aleppo, is among the
manuscripts which 1 sent to England, from Syria. The
style is very remarkable ; without descending to the
tone of common conversation, as the one thousand and
.one nights often do, it is simple and natural, and clear
of that bombast, and those forced expressions, and far
fetched metaphors, which the orientalists admire, even
in their prosaists ; but which can never be to the taste
of an European critic. I believe Sir William Jones
was the first to call the attention of the public to this
romantic poem, in his Comment. Poes. Asiat. He pos-
sessed only one or two volumes of it."
" By the present opportunity, I transmit to Sir
Joseph Banks my journal in the peninsula of Sinai,
and to you a volume of proverbs and popular sayings,
Gl
current at Cairo. I am afraid the committee will be
startled at all the Arabic it contains, and exclaim, that
the writer was sent to these countries, not to become a
translator, but a discoverer. I can assure you I have
derived essential benefit from this compilation, while,
at the same time, I hope that a knowledge of the Arab
nation, and of their present language, may be some-
what advanced by it, and facilitated to others. In
translating and explaining these sayings, I wished to
leave a memorial with my employers, as well as with
the public, that I had acquired a competent knowledge
of the vulgar dialect of the people, whom I have des-
cribed in my journals."
education among t&e
The few Nubians who know how to write, and
who serve the governors in the capacity of secretaries,
are taught by the Fokaro of Darner, south of Goos,
who are all learned men, and travel occasionally to
Cairo. On their way thither, they alight at the houses
of the rich inhabitants, and teach their children to read
and write. Many of the children of Sukkot, are
likewise sent to the school of the Arabs Sheyga, where
they remain for ten years and upwards, and are fed
and taught gratuitously by the Ulema of that tribe.
The best Arabian historian of Nubia, is Iber Selym
el Assouary, but I never saw his book either in Syria,
or Egypt. There are also details of the History of
Nubia, in the History of the City of Behnese, (Oxyrin-
chus) sent to England by Burckhardt.
Burckhardt says, that " numbers of pilgrims, after
having learned to read and write a little, proceed to
Mecca, in order to study the Koran and Commen-
taries ; and it is their belief that they can never forget
a chapter which they have once learned in the Beit
Ullah the House of God."
of Ctwcatton among tjje jfflalapa (n
Penang,
There is no fixed standard as to ages ; all are admitted
from six years old and upwards, just as circumstances
may direct. The parents at the time they deliver up
a child to the master, offer a small present of planta-
tions, tobacco, &c. Sometimes, when they can afford
it, a rupee or a dollar. They then say to the master,
" this child we entirely surrender to you ; he is not
now ours but yours ; we only ask for his eyes and
limbs ; and that he may not be crippled, or severely
wounded in chastisement." In every other respect he
is solely at the disposal of the teacher.
After these ceremonies, the child is regularly received
by the master into the school, and entitled to all the
advantages of the institution.
When a boy has gone through the Koran, which is
considered as a kind of finish to his education, his
parents give sedekah, or alms ; which, in this instance,
has a special reference to what is given exclusively for
instruction. The parents reward the teacher according
to their ability ; the rich will give from twenty to
seventy dollars, and upwards ; and if they consider the
master as having done his duty, frequently add a new
turban, a gown, and a piece of white cloth. A feast
sometimes follows, when a company of old men are
invited, who are supposed to know the Koran well ; the
boy is called into the presence of these old men, and his
master, when, with an audible voice, he is ordered to
read a chapter or two from the Koran ; after which
the judgment of the old men, which is mostly favour-
able, stamps dignity on the teacher as being very
learned.
In many cases, however, the schoolmaster does not
succeed so well ; and not unfrequently fails to obtain
any emolument whatever, from parents whose children
he has instructed. The custom of paying nothing till
the education of the children is completed, often proves
very injurious to the teacher.
In case the father dies, or becomes very poor, the
master either loses the expected reward, or has great
difficulty in obtaining it; it being perfectly optional
with the parents, whether they give any thing, or not ;
extreme poverty is always considered a sufficient
excuse. Very poor people can take their children to
a Mahommedan teacher for instruction ; and should he
refuse, or ask for wages, be is liable to be disgraced-
be is obliged to receive them. The Islams say, that
all good teachers, who fear God in truth, will not, dare
not, ask for any recompense for instructing the
ignorant.
SCHOOL HOURS. It will appear that the poor
schoolmaster has plenty to do. The schools open in
64
the morning at seven o'clock, and close at eleven ;
when the children go home to eat rice. At two o'clock
the schools are reopened, and the children read till
five ; when the master's ordinary work for the day is
done. The time also of continuance in school is quite
uncertain ; some boys who are of very bright intellect,
will go through the Koran in one year ; but many
require a much longer space of time, and some even in
ten years do not finish the book. The children receive
no rewards whatever for making progress in learning ;
on the contrary, their punishments are very severe.
MODE OF TEACHING. The boys are first taught
the Arabic alphabet, which is mostly written on a
board for that purpose ; when they know all the cha-
racters, the Koran is put into their hands, and they
read a chapter which treats on prayer; but if the
teacher does not explain the same to them, they are
just as wise when they have read the chapter, as they
were before ; and as the Koran is in the Arabic tongue,
the teacher himself is frequently unable to explain it.
Great numbers read the Koran who are not able to
explain a single chapter. It is the principal book
read in the Mahommedan schools ; nothing more is
taught, unless the teacher is desired to do so by the
parents. In some instances the children continue at
school after they have read the Koran, when they
proceed to Al Kitab, or the book which explains the
doctrines and ceremonies of Islamism, and is con-
sidered by some an explanation of the Koran.
This may be viewed as one of the means employed
for propagating Mahommedanism. Five leading tenets
are principally insisted upon, and care is taken to
impress the minds of the children with the importance
65
of them ; and frequently these doctrines are interspersed
with the regular lessons of the day. It is no uncom-
mon thing, when passing the schools, to hear the
children singing praises to all the prophets ; and they
are thus supposed to have made considerable progress
in their learning.
Writing is also taught in the natfve schools, as soon
as the boys can read with tolerable facility. They
commence by writing the characters on boards, which,
when full, are washed, and used again, and again; and
so they proceed by degrees to the use of paper, and
write what the master may order. In seventeen schools
there were only three in which the Malay language,
formed a branch .of the regular course.
iHa|)ominetiau J3f oraes at fcamalfa*
Mungo Park, says the schoolmaster at Kamalia,
possessed, exclusive of the Koran, a variety of manu-
scripts, which had partly been purchased from the
trading Moors, and partly borrowed from Bushreens
in the neighbourhood, and copied with great care;
on interrogating the schoolmaster, I discovered that
the negroes are in possession of an Arabic version of
the Pentateuch, which they call (Taureta el Moosa);
this is so highly esteemed, that it is often sold for the
value of one prime slave. They have likewise a ver-
sion of the Psalms of David, and lastly the book of
Isaiah, and it is in very high esteem ; I suspect,
indeed, that in all these copies there are interpolations
of some of the peculiar tenets of Mahommed ; for I
could distinguish in many passages the name of the
p
Prophet. By means of these books many of the
negroes have acquired an acquaintance with some of
the remarkable events recorded in the Old Testament.
eastern jHotie of education*
We may, perhaps, gain some notion of the ancient
mode of teaching, from the present method adopted by
the Malays, at Malacca.
The regular time for entering school is at the age
of seven, when the boy enters the school room, he
prostrates himself, and embraces the master's feet ; the
master recites fatihat the first chapter in the Koran.
The period at school depends upon circumstances.
The Malays do not write upon sand like the Malabars.
For paper they use a thin board, made of a very
light wood, called puley, with a fine grain, and rubbed
over with white wash made of pipe clay ; for pens they
use a hollow reed, or the kalam of the sago tree.
Their ink is made of rice, burnt over the fire till it is
quite black, and when pounded, fine pure water is put
on it, and then it is strained through a cloth. They
use the Arabic characters. The boy begins with writing
the alphabet on the board, at the top of which they
never omit to write
In the name of the merciful and gracious God.
When the board is full they go to the well, and
wash all clean off. The Koran is exclusively taught in
the school, in Arabic ; and without explanation. The
children sit flat on the ground, or flooring, in a hut
G7
covered with the attap leaf. The morning begins with
a new lesson ; in the afternoon they repeat what they
have learned, which exercise is called ^-^IklJuo
mendras, ready off; then they write the beginners the
alphabet, the more advanced copy out of the Koran ;
thus they learn the whole of the Koran from the board
by piecemeal.
Hariri, who lived in the 446th year of Hegira,
developed all the richness of his language, in a happy
melange of prose and verse ; containing stories always
agreeable ; full of antitheses, and play upoi words ;
his harmonious and rich language, presents to those
who are desirous of translating it, difficulties that are
almost insurmountable. These difficulties, however,
Lave not deterred several German, English, and
Spanish authors, who have made Hariri's work known
to us by extracts. A Jew among them, published a
Hebrew translation, under the title, Mechaberot Ithiel.
ifloUe of education among tlje CJnnese.
The children, when they first enter school, have to
gain the first rudiments of knowledge in a language
they have hitherto, in a great measure, been unac-
quainted with ; dark, dreary, and toilsome is the journey
they have to pursue through an immense labyrinth of
difficult and uncouth characters, and harsh and unusual
F2
68
sounds, without one single ray of light to direct their
steps, or reward their toils, the difficulties of which are
heightened by the unsystematic method of education.
Fifteen years ago, at Malacca there were eight
Chinese schools, containing about one hundred and
fifty scholars ; of this number scarcely one in ten con-
tinue long enough to derive any essential benefit from
the school; the poorer class cannot afford to keep
their children at school longer than two or three years,
during which time they are scarcely able to learn any
thing useful, having only time to get the first rudi-
ments ; and being taken from school at an early period,
before they have learnt to apply their acquisitions to
practical uses, all that they have gained is soon
forgotten.
CEREMONIES ON ENTRANCE. It is customary on
this occasion, for the scholar to bring a few articles as
a present to the master, among which are, an egg, and
a cup of dried pulse ; the one indicating the clearness
of intellect necessary for learning, and the other implying
a wish, that the master's instructions may flow with
ease into the scholar's mind, as the pulse flows from
the cup when it is inverted. In China the scholars
provide even the master's clothes.
At the head of the school there is generally an altar
piece, with the words, " The ancient teacher Confucius,
who has eminently attained the rank of the most holy
sage, or, the teacher and pattern for myriads of ages."
written in large characters ; an incense pot is placed
before it, and candles are kept constantly burning on
the altar. The scholar on his first entrance must bow
before this altar, as also every day on coming to school.
This is considered not merely as a tribute of respect to
the deceased sage, but as an act of worship to him as a
demi-god.
SCHOOL MONEY. The average sum paid as school
money, is, for the poorer children, about eight dollars
a year ; the rich give double that sum, and often more
than double, according to their ability, and the care
they wish to be taken of their children ; in addition to
this, the parents provide the children with books, ink,
ink-stones, paper, pencil, tables, and stools, and every
thing requisite for a school, except the bare apartment.
The school money is paid at the end of the year, and a
whole year's school money is expected, whether the
children attend the full time or not. The schoolmaster's
stipend is called, in polite language, Sew-kin, regulated
gold.
SCHOOL HOURS. These are, from six in the morn-
ing, until six in the evening ; allowing two or three
hours in the morning, and at noon, for meals ; in the
evening, the scholars attend to their lessons at home,
that they may bring them perfect the next day.
Their holidays are not numerous ; they consist merely
of the four feasts at the four seasons of the year,
various other feasts, and the birth day of Confucius.
The schools break up about the twelfth month, and do
not re-open till about the middle of the first month of
the ensuing year.
MODE OF EDUCATION. Reading. The scholars
read aloud, both when studying, and repeating their
lessons ; in this each one seems to strive to outvie the
other in noise, which in a school containing thirty or
forty children is extremely loud, and may be heard at
a great distance. The first book they commence with,
is the San-tze-king, or the three character classic ; a
70
book which has nothing more to recommend it for the
use of children, than that it is written in a sort of
rhyme ; but the style of which is difficult, and the sub-
ject, in some parts, abstruse and distant from their
thoughts ; they of course do not understand it, neither
is it the care of the teacher to make it intelligible to
them. When they have committed this little book to
memory, which, though it contains but one thousand
and fifty six monosyllabic words, yet takes many of
them six months, and some a whole year, they then
proceed to the four books of Confucius ; these they
first read over, and afterwards commit to memory,
without having a single character explained to them ;
they labour early and late at this toilsome task, and
yet it is four or five years before they can accomplish
it. When the four books are finished, they then begin
the commentary on them, written by Choo-foo-tze, and
commit that likewise to memory. Having arrived at
this period of their studies, the teacher begins to
explain to them something of what they have been
learning for the last five years, and to make it a little
intelligible to them ; to do this sooner is considered by
the teachers to be but lost labour, as the children are
not^till then capable of understanding, and appreciating
their instructions. The work of the teacher being now
increased, his salary must also be raised ; otherwise
the unfortunate scholars are likely to continue in the
same state of darkness and ignorance. After the four
books, with the commentary on them, are finished, the
scholar next proceeds to the Woo-king, a very ancient
composition, and very difficult to understand. Having
passed through this series of studies, the young man is
considered as " paou keoh," i. e, " having a bellyful of
71
learning," and is sent ont into the world to do for
himself.
The practice of committing to memory whatever they
learn, is of great importance in Chinese, and would be
extremely useful, were the teachers but to explain the
meaning of the books to the pupils as they go on ; but
at present it is a heavy burden laid on their shoulders,
which they find it difficult to bear. Interested motives
first gave rise to this useful practice, otherwise it would
not perhaps have become so general ; in China, no one
can lawfully be raised to any office under the state,
who is not able to repeat the sacred books, and to
compose some piece on the doctrines contained in
them, which undergoes a most rigorous examination.
In schools among the Fokien people, the practice of
committing much to memory is not attended with that
benefit which might be expected; from the circum-
stance of their colloquial dialect, being entirely dif-
ferent from that in which they read and learn, in so
much, that though persons may be well acquainted
with the colloquial dialect, yet the dialect in which
they read is so different, that much may be committed
to memory, without its being understood. This forms
a great barrier to improvement in Fokien schools, as
the scholars have two dialects to acquire, before they
can understand, or make themselves intelligible to
others. The same is the case in Canton schools.
WRITING THE CHARACTER. This is a most essen-
tial practice for those who study Chinese, as well for
natives as foreigners; the symbols of the language
being so numerous, that without constant and uninter-
mitted practice, it is impossible to rivet them in the
mind. In Chinese schools this forms a part of every
72
day's labour, but it is not so fully attended to, nor
such facilities afforded for it, as the nature of the dif-
ficulties to be encountered require. They have copy
books, as in European schools, the paper of which
being thin, the copies are placed underneath, and the
pupil is made to decypher the characters on the upper
sheet ; but the master does not point out the com-
ponent parts of the character, nor trouble himself to
make the scholar acquainted with the radicals of the
language ; and no exercise of mind being required in
mere copying, the scholar is some time before he
begins to think for himself, or can decypher the cha-
racters, without the help of the copy. Both in reading
and writing the children are taught individually, there
being no classes in Chinese schools, by which much
advantage is lost, and no laudable emulation excited.
ARITHMETIC. This is nottaught in Chinese schools,
the teachers themselves being generally ignorant of it,
they consider it rather the business of the shop than
the school, where the children must go to learn it.
PUNISHMENT. The punishments inflicted on the
idle and disobedient, vary according to the disposition
of the master : they employ the rattan, and a flat piece
of bamboo, about an inch broad, and two feet long,
which they call a choh-pae ; those masters who are
more cruel, strike very hard with these, so as even to
produce blood ; when the scholar has not got his lesson
perfect, he is obliged to kneel down, and learn it on
his knees ; the more incorrigible are made to kneel on
gravel and small stones strewed on the floor, or on a
couple of cockle shells inverted, to increase the pain.
In some instances, fines are exacted on the elder boys,
who are more sensible of shame, and the money is
73
appropriated for the purchase of paper, ink, &c. which
are distributed among the more deserving ; these fines
however, are not imposed in every school, and when
they are not, there are no rewards which the deserving
can have to look for, except exemption from punish-
ment.
74
PART IV.
NOTICES OF REMARKABLE LINGUISTS.
JOHN FOWLER HULL.
John Fowler Hall was the son of Samuel Hull,
an eminent miller at Uxbridge, and a member of
the Society of Friends. At an early age he had a
strong desire to go abroad, but the thought of
crossing the water to Calais appeared an insuperable
obstacle ; he at last overcame his fears, and having
obtained the permission of his parents, undertook
a journey overland to India with a view of im-
proving his knowledge in some of the Oriental
languages, in which he had made a remarkable pro-
gress before he left Europe, and had read nearly the
whole of the Greek and Latin authors before he
left school, which was in his sixteenth year. At
the decease of his father he became possessed of a
handsome fortune, a great portion of which he ex-
pended in his favourite studies, and the purchase of
valuable books and manuscripts. To great literary
attainments (for his knowledge was by no means
confined to languages,) this extraordinary young
75
man united a simplicity of manners and a goodness
of heart, which will long endear his memory to all
who knew him. He died on the 18th of December,
1825, in his26th year, after a short illness, at Sigaum,
a small village about forty miles south of Dharwur
in India. He bequeathed all his manuscripts, books,
and papers, to the British Museum, and they are
now deposited in that vast collection.
Amongst the manuscripts, one of his executors
informed me, there were many very curious and
valuable in the Sanscrit, Hindostanee, Arabic, Per-
sian, Chinese, and Malay languages, which he had
collected in his extraordinary pedestrian journey
through India. His manuscript journal would be
highly interesting to the public, and would well re-
pay the visit of an industrious biographer to the
British Museum, in order to the publication of a
more extended memoir of the life and travels of this
singular and most exemplary youth.
THOMAS ZOUCH,
AN UNKNOWN POET AND TEACHER OF LANGUAGES.
Thomas Zouch was born at Saffron Walden, in
Suffolk, in the year 1750 ; his father was born in
the reign of William and Mary, and was one of the
first clerks to the bank of England, which situation
he held for about forty-five years, and was buried
in Lothbury church-yard, which was afterwards
desecrated for the purpose of increasing the offices
of the bank. Thomas Zouch was educated at Ches-
76
hunt, under the care of a Mr. Williams, who kept a
boarding-school at that place. After various attempts
in trade, which proved unsuccessful, he applied
himself more sedulously to the acquiring a know-
ledge of the French language, with a view [to gain
a livelihood by teaching it. He possessed a remark-
ably tenacious memory ; his company was at all
times amusing and instructive, and from his long
residence in London, he acquired a fund of anec-
dote, both political and historical, of his own times.
At the period of the French Revolution he taught
the English tongue to a great number of the French
emigrant nobility and dignitaries of the Gallican
church. Amongst his pupils were the Vicomte
Chateaubriand, the Duke de Berri, the Due de
Chartres, with all of whom he was upon terms of
the greatest intimacy whilst in this country. Lat-
terly, from his advanced years, he obtained but
little employment, though he was remarkably quick
and active, and in full possession of all his facul-
ties.
As a resource against the infirmities of old age,
he had paid a subscription to a club, for about
twenty-three years ; during which period, from his
uniform excellent state of health, he had never oc-
casion to apply for any assistance.
From the scantiness of his resources he had fallen
into arrears for rent, and his landlord demanding
immediate payment, he was compelled, to satisfy
those demands, to part with all his books, (in num-
ber about three hundred volumes,) and philosophi-
cal instruments. This proved a severe trial to him,
and his health from that time visibly declined.
77
In his last illness he was compelled to ask relief
from his club ; when, as the preliminary to such as-
sistance, he was visited by the secretary, who found
him sitting up writing a letter to a friend, upon
which he thought proper to report him able to get
his bread ; he was therefore refused all aid, and
was entirely dependant upon the bounty of his
friends for the common necessaries of life.
On his death, application was made for the sum of
thirty pounds, stipulated in the articles, to pay for
a decent funeral, which they also, at first, refused ;
and not until a threat of an appeal to a magistrate,
would they make the grant for paying the expences
incurred.
I applied for him to the literary fund, but I was
informed relief was only afforded to those who had
written and published one or more works.
For nearly two years before his death, he had
always a plate at my father's table, which he fre-
quently availed himself of, having often not where-
with to purchase a dinner.
He died on the 15th of February, 1823, aged se-
venty-three, and was buried in St. James's burying-
ground, Hampstead Road.
He had a competent knowledge also of the Latin
and Greek languages, mathematics, and use of the
globes. He had also obtained a great proficiency
in the Hebrew and Arabic languages.
He frequently amused his friends with pieces of
poetry, of a humourous kind, of his own composition;
he has left four volumes of manuscript poems, writ-
ten at various periods.
78
For a very curious memoir of an illustrious ob-
scure, who obtained a remarkable proficiency in
languages and mathematical science, I must refer
the reader to my little Gate to the French, Italian,
and Spanish Unlocked.
MUTUAL EDUCATION SOCIETY.
A writer in the Monthly Magazine, for May
1821, communicates the following curious insti-
tution for acquiring knowledge in sacred litera-
ture.
A few years since Dr. Spencer, then a resident in
Bristol, conceived the idea of forming an institution
in which the languages of holy writ and scriptural
knowledge should be taught gratuitously, and this
institution he proposed to found upon the following
principles ;
First That which a person is competent to learn,
if he be properly instructed, he will be able to
teach.
Second That after a person has learnt any thing,
it will be highly conducive to his improvement if he
begin to teach it.
Third That a person will learn more easily
and expeditiously in a class than individually.
Fourth That it is more pleasant and easy to teach
a class than one alone.
Upon these principles the doctor commenced his
plan, which he denominated an institution for ac-
79
quiring and communicating an accurate and critical
knowledge of the Holy Scriptures in their original
languages, free of expence, by taking four young
men as students, whom he instructed in their own
language grammatically, in rhetoric, logic, the
Hebrew of the Old Testament, the Greek of the
Septuagint and of the New Testament; besides
which the students read with him the History of the
Empires with which the Jews were connected, with
the customs of the Jews and other eastern nations?
Christian ecclesiastical history, &c. &c.
Previously, however, to his taking this class, he
obtained from each individual a solemn promise
that he would, at the expiration of three years, take
other four pupils, and instruct them in all those
things which should be taught him in the institution
he was then about to enter.
When a student has completed his studies, at the
end of three years he takes a class of four, who each
engage to teach four others as the last did; and
when they have arranged amongst themselves the
days and hours of meeting for the week, they proceed
to business, which consists in reading
Watts's Logic,
English Testament,
English Grammar,
English Bible,
Scripture Geography,
Rhetoric,
Learning Hebrew Grammar,
Translating Hebrew Bible.
This constitutes the work of the first year ; it is,
however, by no means necessary that the task should
80
be read a great many times through; others are
sometimes introduced at the discretion of the
teachers : thus in a class-book is contained the fol-
lowing arrangement, dated March 3, 1821.
Read Locke on the Human Understanding, four
pages. ,.
English Grammar, two chapters.
English Bible, two chapters.
French Testament, seven chapters.
Hebrew Grammar, four chapters.
Hebrew Bible, one chapter, and parsed.
This is the business of one evening, in a class
which meets twice a week ; the plan requires six
hours in the week to be devoted to it, but the
division of this time is quite immaterial.
At the expiration of a year from the time of the
class commencing, the teacher introduces the Greek
language, and the arrangement then is
Greek Grammar,
Greek Testament,
Shuckford and Prideaux,
Scripture Geography,
Josephus.
Septuagint,
Hebrew Bible,
English Bible and Testament,
Locke.
These works are not all introduced at once to the
pupils, but in succession. When a work has been
read through, the teachers examine the students as
to their knowledge of its contents, and if satisfied,
introduce another.
The third year is employed in gaining a more com-
plete, correct, and critical knowledge of the Hebrew
and Greek languages, in comparison of different
passages with each other ; arid of the Septuagint
with the Hebrew.
The increasing character of the plan will be seen
in the annexed calculation, where, supposing each
individual to have adhered to his engagement, and
to have taken his class at the expiration of his term
of three years, we shall have
Founder 1
In three years completes
the education of .... 4 students.
Who finish in 6 years ... 16
9 64
12 ... , . 256
15 .... 1,024
18 .... 4,096
21 . v . . 16,382
24 .-',' . 65,536
27 . ; . ' 262,144
30 ... 1048,576
The principles of its future government were,
First A general meeting of members and teachers
to be held annually on the first Tuesday in July,
when a committee is to be formed from amongst them
by general suffrage, on wbich day a report of the
last committee, and other business of a general na-
ture considered.
Second All propositions made at the general
meeting to be carried by votes. All questions of
the committee to be determined by the ballot of the
majority.
The business of the committee is to receive re-
ports from the teachers of the progress of their
respective classes. To examine into and decide upon
the eligibility of persons applying for admission.
The writer says, some of the most distinguished
dignitaries of the church have sanctioned this un-
dertaking.
FINIS.
o)
W. DAVY-, Printer, Gilbert Street, Groivenor Square.
POSTSCRIPT.
IT is my intention to publish a sheet of verbs, on a
plan that will considerably facilitate their acquisi-
tion, and likewise some of the particles of each lan-
guage. I do not pretend to supply the place of a
grammar, but merely to shew that, by having cards
written out from the various grammars, much time
may be saved ; and an easier method of acquiring
those languages will at once be evident from their
affinity to each other.
FOR THE HEBREW I must recommend the begin-
ner to obtain a sheet of letters and vowels, by which
he will more easily acquire the habit of correct pro-
nunciation. Professor Lee's Hebrew grammar must
next be procured which contains much valuable
information.
There is an excellent grammar by Gesenius, which
has not yet been fortunate enough to meet with a
translator from the German. Begin early to trans-
late, for which you will find great facilities in the
purchase of Montanus's Hebrew Bible, with an
interlinear literal translation in the Latin language,
which originally formed a part of the Complutensian
Polyglot. Hutter's Hebrew Bible has the servile
letters printed hollow for the use of learners,
84
whereby they may at once see the roots of the words.
I do not consider, however, there is much advantage
in this plan.
There is an excellent stereotype edition of the
Hebrew Bible, in one volume 8vo., published by Mr.
Duncan, for 25s.
Bythner's Lyra Prophetica is an excellent book on
the Psalms : there is a new edition, edited by Dr.
Sleath.
IN LEXICONS There is an excellent old book by
Avenarius, in folio, 1587; the roots are printed in
large letters on the margin, and the various readings
are given underneath : very useful for a beginner.
That of Buxtorf is remarkable for its extent of
Rabbinical learning, but it is not so well calculated
for a learner.
There is an excellent little pocket manual, by
Reineccius, JLeipsic, 1735 ; containing all the Hebrew
roots, entitled, Index Memorialis.
An octavo edition of Gesenius's Hebrew Lexcion,
edited by Gibbs, has j ust appeared. Gesenius, it must
be observed, has adopted the etymological form, as is
the case with the dictionaries of the modern lan-
guages. It is admitted the old method of finding
words by their roots is often very perplexing to a
learner. Gesenius has also admirably illustrated the
use of the Hebrew words, by their affinity to the
Arabic and Syriac. For a learner adopting my
method, I must strenuously recommend this Lexion ;
he will find it invaluable; the price is 25s. ; beautifully
printed.
IN ARABIC The grammar of Richardson is well
known, yet in many respects objectionable and un-
85
satisfactory : that of Erpenius, though much older, is
far superior, in all respects.
Amongst the moderns, none rank so high as that of
Silvestre de Sacy, in two vols. 8vo. 1810, 36s. : he is a
most profound Arabic scholar. I am surprised we
have not had an abridgment of this excellent gram-
mar, done into English.
There is another, by an anonymous author, pub-
lished in Paris, in 1824, for 21s,; with Exercices
d'Arabe litteral, 8vo. 4s. The Lexicon used by the
servants of the East India Company, is that of Richard-
son's, in Persian, Arabic, and English. There is an old
one by Willemet, which I understand is reprinting.
I have a curious grammar which belonged to the
poor old Cobler, mentioned in the Gate to French,
Italian, and Spanish, which is thus entitled, Gram-
matica Hebreo Harmonico cum Arabica et Ara-
maea Methodo Logico J. G. Kals, Amsterdam,
1758. If something on the same plan could be done in
this country, it would be a treasure to the biblical
student, divested of the absurdities and conceits which
depreciate the value of this book : it is, however, very
curious, and even entertaining.
FOR THE SYRIAC The grammar of Mr. Yeates
is the best that can be named. I believe he is pre-
paring a Lexion. There is a good Lexicon attached
to an edition of the Syriac New Testament, by Gut-
birius, I2mo. 1668. However, the invaluable Lexi-
con Heptaglofcton of Castell, will supply all the wants
of the biblical student in this department : it is an
honor to this country to have produced such a work ;
but the poor man was ruined, and died in abject
poverty.
86
In recurring again to the helps for the Hebrew lan-
guage, I cannot omit noticing the advantage I have
derived from a little book by Paul Tossano, called
Dictionum Hebraicarum quae universo sepher tehil-
lim continentur, Syllabus geminus ; every word in
the Psalms is to be found at the end, alphabetically
arranged and numbered, referring to its root, whereby
the learner may, without the least difficulty or fear of
mistake, translate for himself the whole book of
Psalms. Those who are acquainted with Greek,
would derive much pleasure from the use of the Con-
cordance, by Conrad Kircher, 2 vol. 4to. 1608, with
all the readings of the Greek Septuagint. That of
Trommius's is more esteemed, but especially that
invaluable book, Taylor's Hebrew Concordance,
2 volumes, folio.
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