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GAZETTEER • J*'

or THK

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY,

VOLUME III.

KAIRA AND PANCH MAHXlS

X^V^««%^^^^MAAAAAA^lM^^>MA^MM

Under &ovarmnent Orders.

pbihted at thb
GOVERNMENT CENTRAL PRESS*

1879.

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As &r as possible the names of contribntors are sliown in the
body of ihe book. Special acknowledgments are dne^ in Kaira to
the Collector^ Mr. O. F. Sbeppardj C.S. ; in the Panob Mahals to the
District Compiler, Mr. H. A. Acworth^ C.S., and Mr. W. B. Prescott,
Superintendent of Police; and both in Eaira and in the Panch
Mahals to Major W. P. LaTonche, Superintendent of Police, Mr.
T. D. Little, Ezecntiye Engineer, Mr. N. B. Beyts, Superintendent
of Survey, and Mr. Himatlffl Dhirajr&m, Overseer Public Works
Department.

No District Compiler was appointed for Eaira. But Mr. Sheppard's
advice, information, and corrections have, it is believed, ensured
fuIhiesB and accuracy. In the Panch Mahdls, the contributions of
the District Compiler, Mr. Acworth, were of the greatest value,
supplying detuls for many subjects on which there was little or no
available information.

Since ihe Maps were prepared the official spelling of a few names
has been altered. The changes are in no case so great as to cause
confusion.

JAMBS M. CAMPBELL.
June, 1879.

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CONTENTS.

KAIRA.

Chapter I. — Dencriptioii. taqe

Podtioii and Area; Bonndaries; Afipeot ... ... 1-2

Rivers... ... ... * ... ... ... S-4

Drainage; Floods; Geology ... ... ... 5-12

Climate ... ... ... ... ... 13-14

Cbapter II.— Froduotion.

Minerals; Trees... ... ••• ... ... 15

Animals ... ••• ••• ... ... 16-24

Cliapter III.— Population.

Censns Details ... ... ... ... ... 25-28

Division by Bace ... ... ... ... 29-37

Dwellings; CommtmitieB ; Movements of the People ... 38-41

Cliapter IV.— Agriciilture.

Varieties of Soil ; Distribution of Soil ; Irrigation ; Size of
Holdings; Stock; Crops; Tillage Details ; Peasants;

Bad Seasons ... ^ ... ... ... ... 42-56

Cliapter V.— Capital.

Capitalists; Investments ... ... ... ... 57

Money-lenders ... ... ... ... ... 58-59

Borrowers ; Bates of Interest ... ... ... 60

Cnrrency; Bankruptcy; Mortmge ... ... 61

Wages ; Prices ; Weights and Measures ... ... 62-67

Chapter VI.— Trade.

Boads ; Best-houses ; Femes ; Bridges ... ... 68-69

Post; Telegraph ... ... ... ... 70

Trade ... ... ... ... ... ... 71-74

Manufactures ... ... ... ... ... 75-76

Chapter VII. --History ... ... ... 77

Chapter vni.-*Land Administration.

Acquisition; Administrative Changes ; Staff... ... 78-80

Management (1802 -1878) ... ... ... 80-115

Chapter IX.— Justice.

Civil and Criminal ... ... ... ... 116-119

Police; Jail ... ... ... ... ... 126-124

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ii CONTENTS.

Chapter X.— Revenue and Finance. paob

District Balance Sheet ... ... ... ... 125-129

Local Funds ; MunicipalitieB ... ... ... 130-181

Chapter XI.— Instruction.

Schools; Population able to read and write; Race of
Pnpils; Town and Village Education; Libraries;
Newspapers ... ... ... ... „. 132-139

Chapter XII.— Health.

Diseases ; Hospitals ; Dispensaries ; Vaccination ; Births

and Deaths ... ... ... ... ... 140-142

Chapter XIII.— Sub-divisions... ... ...* 143-165

Chapter XIV.— Places of Interest ... ... 166-180

PANCH MAHAXS.
Chapter I.— Description.

Position and Area ; Boundaries ; Aspect ... ... 188-184

PavdgadHill ... ... ... 185-190

Bivers ; Geology ; Climate ... ... ... 191-196

Chapter II.— Production.

Minerals ... ... ... ... ... 197

Trees; Shrubs; Plants ... ... ... ,.. 198-207

Forests ... ... ... ... ... 208

Animals ... ... ... ... ... 209-212

Chapter III.— Population.

Census Details ... ... ... ... ... 213-215

Division by Eace ... ... ... ... 216-226

Dwellings ; Communities ; Movements of the People ... 227-229

Chapter rv. —Agriculture.

Varieties of Soil ; Distribution of Soil ; Irrigation ; Size of
Holdings ; Stock ; Crops ; Tillage Details ; Peasants ;

Bad Seasons ... ... ... ••• ... 230-235

Chapter V.— Capital.

Capitalists; Money-lenders; Borrowers; Rates of

Interest; Currency; Mortgages; Prices; Wages;

Weights and Measures ... ... ... 236-239

Chapter VI.— Trade.

Beads; Bridges; Best-houses; Ferries; Post;

Telegraph ... 240-241

Trade ... ... 242-248

Manufactures ... ... ... ... ... 249-251

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CONTENTS. iii

Cliapter VII. — History. paob

Rajput; Musahnin; Mar&tha; and British Periods ... 252

N^da Risings... ... ... ... ... 253-258

Chapter VIII. — Land Administration.

Acquisition; Administratiye Changes ; Staff... ... 269

Management (1863-1878); Alienations; Waste Lands;

Transit Dues; Seasons; Development (1855-1877) ... 260.269

Chapter IX. •— Justice.
Civil and Criminal ... ... ... ... 270-272

Police; Jafl ... ... ... ... ... 273-276

Chapter X. — -Bevenue and Finance.

District Balance Sheet ... ... ... ... 277-281

Local Funds ; Municipalities ... ... ... 282-283

Chapter XI. — Instruction.

Schools ; Poralation able to read and write ; Race of
Pupils; Town and Village Education; Libraries;
Newspapers ... ••• ... ... ... 284-289

Chapter XII.'— Health.

Diseases ; Hospitals ; Dispensaries ; Vaccination ; Births

and Deaths ... ... ... ... ... 290-291

Chapter XIIL — Sub-divisions ... ... 292-302

ChapterXIV.— Places of Interest ... ... 303-317

IN&EX 319-323

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KAIRA.

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DISTRICT

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Chapter L
Deteriptioiii

BOITHDABIIB.

KAIRA.

■ I

CHAPTER I.

DESCRIPTION.

Thi diBtrict of Kaira.^ lying between 22"* 15' 25' and 23'' 10' north
latitude, and 72'' 38' iOT and 73"" 27' east longitade, has a total area
of 1600 square mile8> and a population of 782,733 sonis, or 489*20 to
the square nule. The total r^disable land revenue, amounting to
£192,907 (Rs. 19,29,070) was recovered before the close of the
year ending the Slst July 1877.

Separated from the head of the Gulf of Cambav by a narrow
strip of territory, the district of Eaira, with a breadth varying from
about twenty-five to forty miles, stretches towards the north-east
for more than sixty miles along the right bank of the river Mahi.
Towards the north, from the S4barmati to the Mahi, no natural
boundary line divides Elaira from Ahmedabad, the Mahi Ontha, and
BdUsinor. On the east, south-east, and sonlh, the river Mahi separates
it from the Panch Mahfls, Baroda, and Broach. On the south-west
Ues the Cambay territory, and to the west is the EMLbarmati with Ahmed-
abad beyond. To the north and east the area included within these
KmitB forms, except for an occasional M^i E&ntha village, a compact
ivaet mder the charge of the Collector of Kaira. But from the west
a broad belt of G^kw^ territory passes nearly into the centre of the
district, and on the south the villages of the Borsad sub-division are
interlaced with those of Baroda and Cambay.

The area included in the district of Eaira is, for administrative Sub^yliioiM.
purposes, distributed over seven sub-divisions. These, as shown in
the following summary, have on an average, an area of 228 square
mijes, eighty-four villages, and 111,819 inhabitants.
Kaira AdmkUitrtUive deUOk, 1S7?.

Lamd

Btvurui,

1§77.

^S ™f.^ Oovernmeiit TillAgw. thlr^-two an In the bandi of large Undliolden, thirty tuhvdri m
KMl. ma two tdiutdAri or lUjpnt.

^ The correct speUing i« m^ed^

li 1671-1

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[Bombay Oazetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter L
Description.

ASFXCT.

BiWBB.

The Mahi.

Except a small corner of hilly ground near its northern boundary^
and in the sonth-east and south; where along the Mahi the surface
is roughened and furrowed into deep ravines^ the district of Kaira is
one unbroken plain, sloping gently towards the south-west. Though
almost all fit for cultivation, the land varies much in character. In
the north and north-east, with patches of rich rice land, much lies
open and untilled, covered in places with little but low brushwood.
In the centre is the charotar or goodly land, a tract of most fertile
and well tilled soil. The people, skilful cultivators and rich, live in
large well built villages. Their fields, yielding the choicest crops,
are sheltered by high hedges, and the whole country is clothed with
rows and clusters of large shapely trees. Westwards this belt of rich
vegetation passes into a bare though well cultivated tract of rice land.
This towards the south grows barrener and more open, till as it nears
the Gulf of Cambay, the fields are separated by unfruitful patches^
whitened by a saline deposit.

The district has two chief rivers, the Mahi for nearly 100 miles
its boundary to the east and south, and on the north-west the
Sdbaimati, touching the district only for a few miles, but of great
importance, as into it, along the channels of the Shedhi and Y&trak,
the whole local drainage flows.

The Mahi, with a course of from 300 to 850 miles, a drainage area
estimated at from 15,000 to 17,000 sqaare miles, and a discharge
during maximum flood of about one and three-quarter million cubic
feet per second, is, after the Narbada and the T&pti, the largest of
Oujar&t rivers. The main branch of the Mahi rises about 1850 feet
above sea level in the M&lwa state of Amjhera, in north latitude 22^
32' and east longitude 75° 5', almost due east of the town of Cambaj,
and distant from it in a straight line about 1 60 miles. The source
of the river is in the Mehad lake, half way between the town of
Amjhera and the village of Bhop&var, near the western extremity of
the Yindhya mountains, where, taking a sharp bend almost at right
angles to the line of their main range, they stretch northwards to
meet the Ar&vali hills. For six or seven miles the stream flows
westward, then bending round Bhop&var, it takes a northerly course,
parallel with the line of the northern Yindhya hills. Sunk in a deep
valley between banks in places more than 100 feet high, receivings
as it passes, many tributaries from the east, but none of any size
from the west, for 140 miles the Mahi flows to the north till the hills
of B^ar suddenly turn its stream westward. After flowing twenty-
five miles to the west the high mountains of Mejw&r bend its course
to the south-west, and this direction nothing in the level Gujar£t
plain alters till the river falls into the Gulf of Cambay, in north
latitude 22^ 10', and east longitude 72° 30'.

For the first part of its Gujar&t course, the Mahi passes through
the lands of the Mahi K&ntha and Rewa E&ntha chiefs. It then enters
British territory, separating the district of Kaira on the right fronoi
the Panch Mahals and Baroda on the left. Further to the west and
for the rest of its course, its right bank forms the southern boundary
pi the state of Cambay, and its left the northern limit of the district

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GfjtfitI

KAIRJl

of Broacli. Abont 100 mfles from its 8onrce,at Bangra^ where it is
crossed by the Baroda and Neemuch road, the bed is 400 yards wide,
with a stream of 1 00 yards and a depth of one foot. Flowing between
Idgh allaviat banks much cut by ravines, the hundred miles of
its Eaira course may be divided into three sections, a stretch of forty
miles over a rough rocky bed^ then about ten miles of sand the
stream unaffected by the tides, and the last forty *five miles its course
as a tidal river. At Ver&kh&ndi^ the limit of the flow of the tidal
wave, the bed is in the dry season 500 yards wide, the stream
120, and the average depth of water a foot and a half. Abont
thirty miles nearer the sea, where not far from the village of DehvAn,
it has reached the eastern limit of the Broach district, the river is
already an estuary, five miles broad with at springs a total tidal
variation of about twenty-two feet. Below Dehv&n the estuary
broadens but little, the distance across its mouth from Cambay to
E&yi being estimated at abont five miles.^ Here the extreme tidal
variations are not less than thirty feet. This added to the funnel-
like shape of the head of the gulf, forces the tidal waters into a wave.
At neap tides the water ebbs and flows with no marked disturbance.
Bat at springs, especially at the night spring tide, about five miles
below Cambay soon after the flood has set in, two waves rise on
the shallows on either side of the channel, and swollen by the quicken-*
ing tide and narrowing space stretch outwards till they meet in
nidchannel. At ten miles an hour, past sloping shallows in> a
crescent-like carve, and through steep banks in a straight six feet
high wall-like line, the bore, crested and raging, rushea for twenty
miles till it is broken and spent on the Dehv&n sands.'

Though during the rains it fills its broad bed from, bank to bank
with, where the sides are high, a depth of over forty feet, in the
fair season, within the limits of the Kaira district, the Mahi can be
crossed in many places. Of these the chief ford^ ai^ at the mouth of
ihe river between Cambay and E&vi, on account of the rush of water^
always a dangerous crossing, though at the lowest tides it can be
passed on foot. Thirteen miles above Cambay is the Dehv&n ford,
ayailable only at neap tides.' Five mites further at Qajna is anothQir

Cfhapter I.
Description.

lUVBBS.

TUMahL

^ FiTB miles u the Revenae Sixr^ey n^aasasOb Thornton gives three hot, or ^r and
a half miles. Hov^ (1787) gives six iboiL or n^ nulee^

*E£hene7's Cambay Snryey 1837» J. R. Geog. Soo. 8, 196-202. The *l>ore' is thna
deieribed by the author of the Peripkis (about Ao>. 160). 'Eroecially ia there risk when
the new moon falls in conitinotipn with the night tide, tor then, when the sea is
perfeeUy calm, yon shall hear in a moment a nuhinj|( sound like the tumult of
nttle, and the water driving forward with the utmost mipetuosity covers the whole
of the bare shoals in an instant. * — ^Vincent's Periplus, II. , 261 .

' The foUowing were (1^) the details of this orossinff approached from the south.
After descendinff the htik. at Kireli for the first three miles, Uie road leads over a hard
BSt only covered at the highest tides. The i>rincipal stream is then crossed about a
hiriong wide, and at the highest of the neap tides not more than three feet deep. The
road next passes ove? a broad, sandy, and somewhat muddv island ; and beyond the
Uand, throuffh a Vj^OK stream scarcely ankle deep, ascends the. steep bank at the
^iHage of Dehvftn. In the fair season, except for six days before and after the new
ttd ndlmoon, when the overflow of the roring tides leaves it muddy, the river bed is
httd, and any desisripjtioA of cacriagjO caa be ti^en. aciioss without trouble.— Bonju €K>Tx

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msTsicrs.

exetpi Al&eUdMtnriBgB and free from any

daogenNit nrii of tide. Ten miles bcyood, aft the Khtnpor Tillage,
in the hot wcether the fiver can be finked, and ai other aeaKms carta
paea easilj cm poles laid aoeas two boata. Two anlea beyond, <doBe
ne MmkL to the lailway bridge, ia the OaKta ford, tke beat of the Mabi

cnMsings. The fiereeneai <rf the tidal watvesakestbeamdih of the
Main dangnoaa &r an J bnt flat bottoned boata. And thoagbitia
asid that, in former timea, the Tillage of Dehrin was a poit of acme
coDseqaoice, the channel ia noi ai pieaent deep enoogh io admit
▼eisels of any sise. The hi^ ragged banks of the Mahi prevent its
waters being naed for irrigation, and ao deep ia ita bed that it draina
rather than feeds the ^ringi near its banka.

Four ]daeea <m the Mahi, Mingiad, Fazilpvir, Angad, and Yaspnr,
aiehdd niecially saoed hj the Kolis, and Tisited by pilgrims on the
15thoCChaifara(AprO). The KoKs think of the Msliiaa their mother.
Th^ swear bj her, and thon^ they hare little fear in breaking their
oath, thej believe that if it is given him to drink a goflty person will
fail to swallow the water of the Mahi. This happens more particn-
lariy if the water is given him at Vasna Kolna^ where on the night
of the DMera festival (October), the Kolis nsed \o meet sndor^^anize
their predatory forays. Though like other streams it is considered
sacred, fear woald seem to be the prevailing feeling in the worship
of the Mahi. The height of its banks snd the fierceness of its floods,
the deep gullies ihrongh which the traveller has to pass on his way to
the river, and perhms, above all, the bad name of the tribes on ita
nortliembank,ezidamtheproverb^' When the Mahi is crossed, there
is safety.'
The SdiarmaiL A detailed description of the Sibarmati, the fonrth river in Onjar&t|

will be found in the Ahmedabad Statistical Account. During the
fourteen miles of its course along the western limit of the Elaira
district its waters are largely used for irrigation.

The Shedhi* The chief drainage line of the plain between the Mahi and the

S&barmati is the river Shedhi. This stream, rising at the Damodi
hill in the Mahi K^ntha, enters the north-east comer of the Kaira
district within two miles of the Mahi. Passing west through the
Th&sra sub-division it is joined from the right by the Saidak riyrer,
and further on near the centre of the district about eight miles north
of Nadiid, it receives the Mohar from the north. Then flowing w^;,
on the ri^t just before entering the town of Kaira, it is joined by
the Mul Kh&rL Beyond Kaira it meets the Y&trak from the north*
west, and together they wind south-west into the Sibarmati, A
narrow quick-flowing stream its banks steep, and in many parts it^ bed
rather deep in mud, the Shedhi is at all times hard to cross. Sweet
and good when it enters the district after meeting the Mohar its
water is charged with soda, and being found hurtful to the cropsj is
little used for watering. Except for a mile or two above its meeting
with the Ydtrak during the hot season the bed of the Shedhi is dry.
Its tributaries all join it from the right. The first is the Suidak in
the Th^ra sub-division, flowing with an unfailing stream from Hath*
w6ip in the B&l^nor territory. Next near the centre of the district,

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ChQvit]

KAIBA.

000160 ihe Moiiar. This rtream, risiiig in ihe Virpar Bab-diviaion of the
B4Iiksixu)r territory^ enters the Eaira district in the extreme north,
and near the town of Kapadyanj, meeting the Yartei from Bariar in
the Mahi E&ntha^ flows south for about twenty miles. Here from
the east it is joined by the Loni^ and after passing five miles to the
south-west^ falls into the Shedhi. So impregxiatra with soda is the
Mohar^ that after it joins the Shedhi the waters of that riyer cannot
be used for irrigation. The Mul Kh&ri, the next of the Shedhi's
tributaries^ after draining the lowlying land between the town of
Mahudha and the junction of the Mohar and Shedhi, falls into the main
stream close to the east of Kaira. The Y&trak, with which the waters
of the Shedhi unite at Kaira^ rises near the town of Satuman in Meyw&r,
and flows through the lands of the Mahi Kfintha and the Parintij
sub-division of Ahmedabad. Five miles above Eaira it receives the
Meshvo^ a stream that a little to the west has throughout its whole
course run almost parallel to the Y&trak. Then at Eaira, joining the
Shedhi from the east with a winding course, they flow south filing
into the S&barmati at Vautha, a place of great sanctity. During its
forty nules course through the Elaira district, the V4trak, between
alluvial banks about twenty feet high and with a shallow unfailing
stream, flows over a bed of sand about 150 feet broad. By the help
of lifts its water is much used in irrigation.

The Kh&ri, rising in a cluster of hills about ten miles to the north-
east of Ahmednagar in the Idar state, passes through a few villages
in the extreme west of E[aira, and fws into the B&barmati to the
north-west of the village of Badu, a little above the meeting of
the S&barmati and Y&trak. The land here is very flat, and during
the rains is subject to flooding. Here, for more than a century,
rice fields have been watered by banks thrown across the river.
At first the embankments were of earth and wanted constant repair.
And it is only since 1850 that at a total cost of £6600 (Bs. 66,000)
permanent masonry dams with sluice gates have been bu^t. lliese,
seventeen in number, command an area of 1 1,000 acres in eleven
villages. Formerly the right to the Eh&ri water was among
the villagers on its banks tho source of constant quarrels. But in
184S and again in 1874, the rights have been settled and the water
more fairly distributed. The Kh&n stream generally fails at the end
of the rice season (November). The water could be brought from
the H&thmati river by the H^thmati canal and along the Bujva, a
tributary of the Eh&ri. But much of the land that would gain by
ibis increased supply is alienated, and at present there is no way dE
recovering a watercess from the lands of the alienees.^

Thongh its average yearly rainfall is not more than thirty inches,
tiiB district of Eaira has, since the earliest years of English manage-
ment, been liable to suffer from floods. This has specially been the
case in two lowlying tracts. In the west where, between the Shedhi

ChapterL
SweriptiM.

BlVKKS.

TKeSKedhi.

TheKhdrL

Dninige.

1 Between 1860 and 1874 the irrigated area of Government land increased from
S694 to 4737 acres and the land revenne from 4^2900 to j^i? (Ba. 29MK^
34,470).— Irrigation Revenne Report, 1876-77» 18-21

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[Bombay Gaietteer*

DISTRICTS.

Chapter L i^^^ the S&bannatiy M&tar stretches an almost level plain, and in the
Description. soath-west and south where the sonthem lands of Nadi6d,Petl&d, and
j>rauiage. ^® north of Borsad are at times swamped by the flood waters from

the raised tract along the right bank of the Mahi.^ Tbough with no
marked courses the flood waters of the Kaira lowlands set along
three chief lines^ west into the Y&trak, south-west into the Aiang
canal^* and south by the Chor ravine into the Mahi. The floods that
drain westwards, gathering head in Dumr&l, Keriivi, and A'khdol in
southern Nadi&d^ througb PetUd and M&tar pass westwards into
the V&trak about two miles above its meeting with the S&barmati.
Of the waters that make their way to the Alang canal, two of small
size pass through the southern villages of M&tar, entering the
canal about ten or twelve miles to the north-west of Gambay. The
third, a much larger body of water collecting in the southern
villages of the Th&ra sub-division flows past Umreth, and then
westwards to GhakUsi about six miles south-east of Nadi&d. From
Ghakl&si, setting more to the south, it floods the lowlying lands
of B&krol and Karamsad, and crossing Petlid and Gambay, after
a course of more than forty miles, spreads over the Binpur flats
and makes its way into the Alang canal about three and half
miles to the north of Cambay. The flood waters that find their
way into the Chor ravine set along three chief lines, one fronai
Sandesar, about eight miles south-west of A'nand ; a second from
Mogri, about four miles east of Sandesar ; and a third from Sltfsa»
about eight miles east of Mogri. The Sandesar water, making head
in the lowlying lands of that village, flows south-west for about
eighteen miles, entering the Chor ravine at Karamsal, about two
mUes from its mouth. The second, though called after the village
of Mogri, makes head at Chikhodra about six miles further east, and
keeping to the north of Borsad, passes south-west, falling into the
Chor ravine at K&ndhreti about three miles above Karamsal ; the
Sdrsa water, passing through A'r&s and to the south of Borsad^ joina
the Mogri flood at Uneli, about six miles above E&idhreti,

During the period of heavy rainfall between 1814 and 1823
floods and standing water caused much damage." Flood remissions
and sums for cutting or clearing drains were from time to time
granted. But chiefly from the interlackig of Gambay and Baroda
villages and the difficulty of getting their managers to work in concert,
no systematic attempt would seem to have been made to improve the
drainage before the early survey of the district between 1820 and
1827. Captain Gruikshank^ in his N&p&d report (1826), describes

1 A drunage map is given at the end of tliis chapter.

9 This canal, aboot twenty-fiye miles lonfl^ was cnt to bring the water of the 84bar-
mati to the Niuriyansar lake at Cambay. This lake is now (1876) dry.

8 In 1819 several villages were entirely nnder water, one of them, the Oiikwir
village of Vaso, yielding a yearly revenue of £4000 (Rs. 40,000). Captain Bobertaoo,
the CoUector, had a drain dug to theV&trak rirer. He suggested that an officer
should be sent to survey the chief natural drainage lines, and complained of the
great difficulty he found in getting the Gaikv^ir and Gambay courts to agree to say
scheme for theconmion good. — Bom. Qov. Rev. Bee., 149 of 1820, 491. In westeni
Borsad, in 1824, drains were said to be wanted to carxy off the water that lodged and
destroyed the land.— Bom. Qov. SeL, XI., 92.

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fhe general drainage of the district. In that part of the country

BeriouB loss from floods would seem to have been only occasional^

and Captain Cruikshank did not advise the undertaking of any

large drainage scheme. He thought that enough would be done if ^

in times of floods care was taken to cut temporary channels from

Tillage to village^ and to see that the passage of the flood waters

was in no way checked or turned aside.^ In Mdtar, Captain

Cruikshank would seem to have found the evils resulting from

flooding more pressing.* With the help of the headmen of

several villages he prepared a scheme for the drainage of most of its

chief village^ According to his estimates^ at a total cost of £980

(Rs. 9800), of which £320 (Rs. 3200) would be met by the villagers,

land capable of yielding a yearly revenue of £1131 (Rs. 11,810)

might be saved. These proposals were approved by Government

in 1828. But on account of the inability of the people of several

villages to pay their contributions, and the objections raised by

the Baroda and Cambay authorities to let drains pass through

their lands, nothing was done till in 1830 (October 15) Sir John

Malcolm took the matter in hand, strongly supporting Captain

Omikshank's scheme on the ground, not only of the increase of

revenue, but because of the ffain to public healtn and the protection

to cattle likely to ensue.' In 1831, a survey was carried out by

Mr. Jordan. This showed that for an outlay by Government of

£1212 (Bs. 12,120) 2528 acres (4304 bigMs) of land miffht be saved

from flooding. Government approved Mr. Jordan's proposals,

and ordered his scheme to be carried out without delay .« The

work was earnestly taken up, and* during eleven years, continued

to be vigorously pushed on. At the end of that time (1842),

fourteen sets of drains had been completed, at a cost of about

£4000 (Bs. 40^000). Of the fourteen works, one was in the north

between Mehmadabad and Mahudha ; eight were in the west, draining

into the V&trak ; four were in the south-west, draining into the Alang

canal ; and one in the south, draining into the Chor ravine. The

northern work, in two parts, one protecting the villages of Budan and

Karoli, the other those of Bhumas and Ehutaj, was finished in 1837,

at a cost of £296 (Bs. 2960). Of the eight western works, one

Chapter L

Descriptioii^

Pramage.

1 After Gaptaia Craikahank'g survey came several seasons of nnnsnally heavy
nmlaU. In 1829 the villa^ of Karamsad and Bikrol were most seriously flooded,
and owing to a bank raised bv the villagers of VaUaon to the west, the flood waters
eoold not pass off. So much harm was done that from Karamsad and BAkrol, a com-
psnv 500 strong went out to clear off the dam. ValAson resisted, and the strug*
gle lasted for three days, with a loss of from twelve to fifteen men. Again, between
1836 and 1838 much damage was done. In Sandesar near Karamsad, for four suooes-
•ire years the rice crops were totally destroyed; and in one of those years a great part
of the village of Kanmsad was swept away, with a loss estimated at £10,000
(Bs. 1,00,000. )~KaSra Executive Engineer's drainage report, 234, 22nd October 1866,

s Captain Ouikshank's report, prepared in 1827, nas not been traced. Mr. Jordan
isfets to it in his letter to the Sab-Collector of Kaira, dated the 3rd March 1831.
Tlie figures are taken from Sir John Malcolm's Minute, dated October 16th, 1830.

s Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec, 319 of 1830, 242.

^ 'i%e estimate was about £200 (Rs. 2000) higher than Captain Cruikshank's,
Tlie difference was due to the failure of certain villages to pay their contributions
ad to a rise in the rates of earthwork. -^ov., 1638, 28th April 1881.

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PimiBAgef

carried the flood waters of Badhyfinaj into t&e Y&trak aboat two
miles below Eaira. The remaining seyen united in draining western
NadiM and central M4tar into the Y&trak; abont twelve miles below
Eaira. Of these, one finished in 1832 (March 8th) at a cost of
£118 (Bs. 1180), relieTed Undhela and Mitar ; the second finished in
1833 (January Slst) at a cost of £128 (Rs. 1280), relieved Heranj,
M&chhial> and Tr&j ; the third finished in 1883 (January Slst) at a cost
of £193 (B& 1930)> drained the western villages of Eh&ndli, Eathoda,
Tr&nja> Mar&la, and Pun&j ; the fourth finished in 1841 (June 15th)
at a cost of £699 (Bs. 6990), drained the PetUd villages of Pij and
Yasoj and the M&tar villages of Mali&taj and Lav£l; the fifth
finished in 1842 (April 14th) at a cost of £70 (Bs. 700), drained
B4mnoli, Dant^li, and Davra^ the sixth finished in 1842 (March
and April) at a cost of £56 (Bs. 560), drained Dumrdl^ Pipleta, and
EeriitVi ) and the seventh finished in 1842 (April 30th) at a cost of
£36 (Bs. 360), drained Mitr&l and A'khdoL

Of the three that protected the 8ottth*west» one finished in 1837
(June 12th) at a cost of £222 (Bs. 2220), brought the fiood waters of
the south M&tar villages of Moraj and Chikhlia into the Alanjp^ canal,
about twelve miles north-west of Cambay. The other two Arming
together the great Earamsad drain, entered the Alang canal, about
three and a half miles from Cambay. The chief of these two works
finished in 1838 (November 18th) at a cost of £1092 (Bs. 10,920),
starting from the village of Earamsad, four miles west of A'nand,
passed through P41aj, A'mod, N&r, and Bhanderaj, a distance
of aboat twenty miles. The other work, a feeder to this great drain,
finished in 1839 (June 15th) at a cost of £253 (Bs. 2530), reUeved
the villages of Narsanda, Yadt&l, B4h&vli, and Bindhni. The
southern line was the Mogri drain, finished in 1840 (May 30th) at a
cost of £81 (Bs. 810). This passing through N&h&pa, Santokpora^
Booh&aan, Uneli, Sahijpur, and Y&sna, entered the Ghor ravine at
Earamsal. Two villages, Borillvi about five miles north of A'nand,
and Sangesar about two miles south of E[aramsad, were left unpro-
tected. Plans were prepared for draining Bori&vi south to B&krol,
and Sangesar south to Earamsal, in the Uhor ravine. But in both
cases the Baroda and Cambay authorities, through some of whose
villages the flood waters would have to pass, raised objections and
the question of making those drains was laid aside. In reviewing^
in 1843, the results of this drainage system, the Collector, Mr.
Eirkland, showed that while the whole cost of the works was
£4000 (Bs. 40,000), during the five years ending with 1841 about
one-half of this amount had been saved by making remissions of land
revenue unnecessary. Besides this saving to Government, there was
the great gain to villagers, and a marked improvement in the pnbUo
health. Government agreed that the result was satisfactory.^ They
thanked Mr. Eirkland for the interest he had shown in planning
and supervising the works, and Messrs. Jordan and Spry for their

I OoUector, 2612, Aogurt UHib, ia43.

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Enable services in constraoting them. So great relief did these
Inals bring, that in 1842 several smaller cuts, already surveyed and
knctioned, were found to be unnecessary. The rejected lines were,
\, fche east, three feeders to the Karamsad grand drain from Chakl&si
i the north, Chikhodra to the east, and A'nand to the south of
Uramsad, and along this same drain about half wa;^ to the Alang
inal at the village Silv&i^ a branch from the right bringing the flood
laters of Balitva, Ghanga, Melav, and Pipla. In the south a cut
^m Pandoli, Khadma, and Sh&hpur, in Borsad, to fall into the Mahi
k the west of Gambay . In the west, in southern M&tar^ a cut passing
^ugh Bantva, Pariaj, and Bamang&m, into the Alang canal. The
iffangements for relieving Karamsal and B&krol failed. The
riginal canal was about eight feet above the proper level, and the
^nd drain, by way of Jol, through raised sanay ground, was very
kon so filled with drifts that only in the very highest floods was the
hkter able to pass off. With this exception all the lines worked well,
br several years little care was taken of the drains, and nothing was
vue in the way of repairs. And after about fourteen years, partly from

e'r bad state of repair and partly from two or three seasons of
snally heavy rainfall, complaints of loss from flooding again became
iDmioii.^ Accordingly, in 1858, Mr. Spry, to whom along with Mr.
irdan the success of the works finished between 1831 and 1842 was
■e, was deputed to 'survey and determine the different lines of drainage.'
bough Mr. Spry's report was useful as showing the position of the
lids liable to flooding, and the lines of natural drainage, it contain-
1 no details or estimates of works. In 1862 Golonel Prescott, in
is survey report on M&tar, renewed complaints of the damage done

Lthe bad state of the drains, and suggested that the whole subject
uld be inquired into, and the canals made use of for irrigation.'
Vm* several years no officer was available for special drainage duty,
id it was not till the close of 1865 that the work was again taken up.
ietween November of that year, and August of 1866, Lieutenant
laldwin surveyed the greater part of the Kaira low lands. His
lain drainage lines differed but Little from those laid down by Mr.
ordan. He proposed to extend the feeders of the chief west line
% Bariin and Piplaj, south of Nadi&d. Of the south-western line,
B would continue that through Pariaj and Bamangdm across the
Wid lands to Dehmol, six miles from Yadt&l. He would cut an
Iditional channel crossing from Pariaj in south M&tar to

S'itra, six miles north-west of PetlAd. The Karamsal line he
not propose to change. But he added the cut from Pandoli and

COiapter L

Deicriptioii*

Dmnage.

^ Ib 1866 the Collector complamed that near Nadiid, to get to their fields, oaltiTatora
Id, with theirploughs on their heads, to wade through mad and water hiffher than a
Kn*8 breast. Aom other villages reports came that women were drownea, and that
ke streets were dangerous from alligators crawling about.— Collector 158, 11th April

'* In 1862 Colonel prescott wrote, ' the Mitor drains carried out between 1831 and
MO, made the district healthier, raised the revenue, made remissicms less necessary^

e helped the cultivators to accumulate wealth.' Again he says ' the Mitar people
unanimous in dating the time from which the district began to grow proeperoua
fern its drainage by Mr. Jordan. '--Bom. Gov. Set, New Series, CXIV., 416, 421,

[B 1671-2

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10 DISTRICTS.

Chapter I. Danteli into the Alaog canal, about a mile norili^west of Cambajj
J)e8<niDtion. formerly surveyed, but rejected as unnecessary. His southern or I
Chor ravine drainage lines are the Sandesar, the Mogri, and the
I^''^^^ S&rsa, the same as Mr. Jordan's. For the three lines passing |

through the MAtar sub-division, Mr. Baldwin was unable to prepare
projects. Like Mr. Jordan, he thought the villages along the S^rsa
branch of the Mogri drain wanted no special protection. For the
improvement of the three remaining lines, he proposed for Karamsad,
a canal about twenty-eight miles long with a drainage area of
about 141 miles, and an estimated cost of £7855 (Bs. 78,550) ; for
Sandesar, a canal about seventeen miles long with a drainage area of
about fifty-four miles, and an estimated cost of £9237 (Bs. 92,370) ;
and for Mogri, a canal about twenty miles long with a drainage area
of about 150 miles, and an estimated cost of £7056 (Bs. 70,560).
The four years before Mr. Baldwin's survey had been seasons of
very evenly distributed rainfall. Little loss had been caused by
floods, and the people showed small interest in the proposed drainage.
After his survey was completed in August 1866, the district was
visited by a very heavy flood. Mr. Baldwin took advantage of the
« opportunity to test the accuracy of his measurements. Of the effect

of this storm he has left the following details : — In twenty-fonr
hours (August 3, 1866) from 4*50 to 5*50 inches of rain fell. At
Chlkhodra, about two and a half miles east of A'nand, where the Mogri
and Chor water first makes head, the flood was about four feet higher
than was good for the land, and was destroying some hundred acres of
rice. A'nand, though in the middle of a lake, was unhurt ; only waste
lands were covered. Mogri looked flooded, but the people said the
water was not too high. Instead of draining into the Mogri catting,
a strong head of water was setting west for Karamsad. In Karam-
sad though the flood was doing gi*eat harm, it was, the people said,
only eighteen inches too high, A little of the flood was passing
north to Bikrol, but just as much was rolling in from A'nand. At
Sandesar the water stood four and a half feet too deep ; and at Bdkrol
great damage was done. Jol was safe, the flood running off along the
old cut.

In forwarding his projects to Government, Mr. Baldwin complained
that he found the old drains greatly in want of looking after. Hedges
were planted across them in some places, and in others, to water a
field, the channel had been blocked up. Compared with the former
drains, Mr. Baldwin trusted that his canals would prove to have
more even slopes, and fewer windings. Again, he thought it a
great advance that instead of carrying them through he had cut
his drains along the feeding sides of ponds and reservoirs. The
proposal to make the drainage canals into irrigation channels was
not approved. But, except the sluices and bridges, the Mogri scheme
was sanctioned, and a sum of £4278 (Bs. 42,780) spent in cutting
the canal. The drain has worked well. But since its construction
no attempt has been made to carry out either the Karamsad or
Singsi projects. It has, on the whole, been a time of rather short
rainfall with no great damage from floods. The district officers,
while admitting that the Mogri drain has done all that it was expected

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KAIRA. II

to do^ doabt if the advantage gained is worth the sum spent.' In Chapter L

Borsad, ia Colonel Prescott's opinion (1 867), the damage by floods was Description.

80 slight, and the loss to the early crops was so generally followed by

a better late harvest, that this liability formed no ground for reducing

the survey rates. Again in 1868 Mr. Elliot the Collector wrote

that both because they were unnecessary and on account of the large

quantity of land they would occupy, the other schemes should not^ in

his opinion, be carried out.* Mr. Little the Executive Engineer

agreed with this view, doubting if the good done by such canals is

eqoal to the cost of cutting them. On these grounds, while ordering

thi&t care should be taken to keep all the channels clear and in order^

Oovemment have decided that for the present the other projects

shoald not be carried out.'

Besides the smaller floods mentioned under the head of drainage, Floodi.

three specially severe storms visited Elaira, one in 18S7, a second in

1868, and a third in 1871. In 1837 after two days (the 28th and 29th

Angnst) of average rainfall, on the evening of the 30th, a storm burst

with heavy thunder and wind. The flood continued to rise till nine

in the evening of the 31 st. The waters kept at their extreme

height for about an hour and then slowly fell. Near the town of

Eaira^ the Shedhi and Y&trak nniting, rose till they covered the

whole country for miles. From the 31st August to the 2nd

I September, between the Collector's house and the town, a stream ran

too deep to be crossed. At this time the water stood waist high on the

steps 01 the rest-house near the library, and flowed over the Katanpur

bridge. It rose to four of the town rates, the L61, the Ahmedabad,

f the Para, and the Bil&pir, leaving at S^dpir gate only four feet of the

I arch open, and flooding about thirty-five nouses inside. Opposite this

\ gate, and at a small distance on the further bank of a water-course^

> itands the hamlet of Lakhmipura. In this village of 125 houses, only

: thirty were left standing. Of the people, one hundred were saved in

1 a boat, and the rest by climbing from tree to tree. This flood is said

! to have been due to a very unusual rise in the rivers above the Kaira

district rather than to the excess of the local rainfall. In the whole

district the lands of eighty-six villages were flooded, twenty-one

in Nadiiid, twenty-one in M&tar, fifteen in Mahudha, ten in Borsad,

eight in ITifara, and five in Kapadvanj. No lives were lost. But

besides hnts, 4(W houses in the town of Kaira were destroyed.* The

ktdy .completed drains were most useful in relieving the district of

Ihe flood waters. In M&tar they prevented immense loss, both in

honses and lands, and in Mahudha were of eminent service.'

Between the 9th and 13th August 1868, with much wind, 22*4

inches of rain fell.* On the 12 th, the Vdtrak rose rapidly; and iu

I the morning of the 13th, botih the V4trak and the Shedhi overflowed

^ In the great flood of Angast 9, 1S68, the Mogri canal did mat service, very
iiHpidly relieving the landB near Bonad of their flood waters^—Oollector, 875, Sept-
ember 11, 1868.

' Collector, 1166, November 28, 1868. • Gov. Rea. 263, January 29, 1869.

* O^ector^s weather report, 2nd Septr. 1837. ■ CoUector 201, October 16th, 1831.

* CoUector 816, Angnst 24, 1868, and Gov. Bes^ 1664, September 7, 1868.

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DISTRICTS.

OQapter L
DeBcriptioxL

FloodB.

their banks. Near EAira^ except the town, the Collector's house
and the camp, the conntry was flooded for miles. On the walls of
the library in the low land south of the town, the water stood five
feet two inches deep. In the town one child, a Pdrsi, was drowned,
and 395 houses, nine of the first, seventy-two of the second, and 314
of the third class, were destroyed. In the rest of the district
the lives of three human beings and of thirteen cattle were lost;
and 1960 houses, 104 two-storied, 736 one-storied, and 1220 huts
destroyed. Bailwav traffic was stopped for more than a fortnight
But the public worKs suffered but slightly. As far as an estimate
could be framed, the total amount of damage done was calculated
at £13,858 (Rs. 1,38,580). To help the destitute. Government
sanctioned the expenditure of £1000 (Bs. 10,000), and a further
advance of £1000 (Rs. 10,000) was made to the Kaira municipalitdea
An additional sum of £511 (Rs. 5110) was raised in Bombay and
forwarded to the Collector of Elaira. But the people were unwilling to
take charity, and the money was spent in improving ponds and wells.
Of five of the villages that suffered most, the sites were changed.
Land reyenue to the amount of £752 (Rs. 7520) was remitted, free
grants of limestone, of clay for bricks, and in some cases of wood
were made, and at a total cost of £29,672 (Rs. 2,96, 720)^ relief works
were kept open from the beginning of August to the end of May.

On the 2nd August 1871, a storm broke over the district with a
fierce south-west wind and rain, varying in twenty-four hours from
3'50 inches in Th^ra to 11*41 inches in M&tar, and averaging 7'72
inches over the whole district.' Round the town of KsivA the conn-
try was flooded for miles. The water hid even the highest hedges,
and at the town of Kaira stood from sixteen to eighteen inches
higher than in 1868. The 3rd and 4th August were rough, wet days,
followed on the 5th by a severe gale, and heavy rain from the south-
west. The flood was felt most severely in the Mehmadabad and M4tar
villages. For four days (2nd to 5th August) at Eaira the Collector's
office was cut off from the town and the road between Mehmadabad
and Kaira was impassable. A railway bridge was washed away and
some telegraph "^res destroyed ; otherwise the damage to the public
works of the district was small. Except the camp road, the Executive
Engineer estimated that all loss might be covered by adding £250
(Rs. 2500) to the repair estimates. Though in several villages the
whole population lived for nearly two days and nights in trees, only
five persons and 799 cattle were drowned and 4934 houses, 276 of them
in the town of Kaira, destroyed. The loss of property was calculated
at £25,031 (Rs. 2,50,310). The distress, considerable in some
villages, was almost entirely relieved by private charity. The Kaira

Cin fund committee, without giving general and ill-judged alms,
ught most liberal help, distributing from £70 to £80 (Rs. 700-800)
worth of grain. Cases of distress, unsuited for private relief, were

^ The details are, Govemmeni, Ba. 70,356; villagers (in oaah and labour), Bb. 10,906;
and Local Funds, Rs. 2 15,458.

* The details are, Thisra, 3*50 ; A*nand, 975 ; Nadiid, 8*11 ; Boiaad, 7 : Mehmada-
bad, 6-4 > Kapadvanj, 6*85 ; Mitar, 11*41 } and Kaira, 8*76.

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met by Govemment advances, amounting altogether to a sam of
£500 (Rs. 5000) .1

The district contains no natural lakes^ bat according to the statis-
tics of 1871-72, is supplied with 4079 ponds or reservoirs, covering
a total area of 14,553 acres, or on an average of four acres to each
reservoir. Of the total number, two only, the Gomti lake at Ddkor
and the village reservoir of Belara in the M&tar sub-division, are of
any great siza As most of them are dry or very low in the hot season,
they are of little use for perennial crops ; but in October and Novem-
ber, after the rains are over, they are very serviceable for watering
rice. Except in parts of the Kapadvanj and Th&sra sub-divisions,
where the land is impregnated with soda, the district is well supplied
with wells, ponds, and rivers of sweet water. Besides the ponds
mentioned above, 545 water-lifts or dhekuris, and the unbuilt wells
in alluvial lands, there were 227 wells with, and 10,076 wells without
steps.

Geologically the Kaira plain is, with the exception of the few sandy
hills and rocks in Kapadvanj and Th&sra, a deep bed of flint and lime
allavium, most of it the debris of the felspathic and limestone rocks
of the Ar&vali hills. In the raised tract, along the banks of the
Mahi, water is found only at a depth of from eighty to 1 10 feet. Away
from the river, wells have their springs from forty to sixty feet deep,
rising through strata of earth mixed with limestone nodules, alternat-
ing with sand overlying sheet limestone. From this limestone, when
tapped, water rises to within twenty-five feet of the surface.
Formerly, in parts of the district, water was to be found higher even
than this. Many old wells are said to have been made useless by
the earthquake of 1819, which lowered all the springs from five to
ten cubits.' In some cases deeper sinking has overcome the evil, in
others, a fine stratum of quicksand makes further cutting dangerous.
The hot springs of Lasundra, ten miles south-east of E[apadvanj,
rise to the sur&ce in ten or twelve cisterns, the hottest standing at
a temperature of 115"*. Like those at Tua in Godhra, twenty miles to
the south-east, and at An&val, 1 50 miles south, the Lasundra springs
are slightly sulphureous, and thought to be useful in skin diseases.

To Europeans, though with some constitutions it agrees woll, the
climate is trying. From November to March the air is pleasant and
bracing. But even this long share of cool weather fails to make up
for the severe heat of the rest of the year, dry and parching in
March, April, and May ; moist and oppressive from June to October.
To the people of the country, except in the eastern sub-divisions
of Kapadvanj and Th&sra, and on the north-west, in the marshy
rice-bearing lands near the Eh&ri river, the climate is not hurtful ; and
the central tract, known as the cha/rotar, is considered healthy.
Daring a long term of years the district has on the whole been free

Chapter L

Description*

Lakes.

Geology.

dimate.

1 CoUector 990, Angnst 18, 1871.

* This change in tne water level is perhaps sufficiently explained by the dry
yesn 1822, 1823, and 1824, which woula seem to have brought the district back to
the state it was in, before the soaking or bda of the heavy rainy seasons 1814 to
1822.--Bom. Gov. SeL, X., 5.

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Chapter I.
Description.

Climate.

from outbreaks of cbolera or other epidemics.^ Malarious fever, the
prevailing disease^ is commonest and most severe in the month of
October. During the cold season, as the air becomes dryer, sick-
ness gradually grows less, and in the hot weather months public
health is at its best. From March to October the general direction
of the wind is from the south-west, and from November to February
from the north-east. From 1852 to 1861, the average rainfall was
33*78 inches ; from 1862 to 1871, the corresponding returns give
27-45 inches; and from 1872 to 1877, 28-10 inches.* Except an
occasional shower in the cold season, the whole rain supply falls
between June and October. Thermometrical readings registered
during the ten years ending with 1861 vary from 104-1 in May to
54-6 in January. They give for the whole period an average mean
temperature of 79-6.*

^ In 1876, Nadiiid suffered from a severe attack of obolera. !

* Sanitary Commissioner'B report of 1873, 45, 46. The 1872-1877 returns show |
the average fall over the whole district. The available details for the town of KaiA 1
are : —

BainfaU at Kaira, 1868-77. .

YXAB.

Inches.

Cento.

YSAR.

Inches*

Gents.

Tkar.

Inches.

Omt

1868

1865

1872

1869

1866

1873

1860

1867

1874

1861

1868

1876

1862

1869

1876

1863

1870

1877

1864

1871

' Average thermometrical readings, Eaira, 1862-1862 : —

Mean
Maximum
Minimnm
Kange

Januorj.

69-9 .

85-2 .

64-6 .

30-6 .

Itay.

92-9

104 1

81*8

22-3

September.

.. 84-7 ..

.. 93-5 ,.

.. 75-9 ..

.. 17-6 ..

Deoember.
71 1
84*8
67-4
27y

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.Smp^ €.

©EAINAGl MAP

REfEH£NtJi
AAi^CJJUubiny^

Scale of Miles

■T I I I 1

Drains abmu^ earnsA outi
Ol^m- wyHTtem^ natunil\
drauuwe hnsi.

Om^fkattjuutfrw^ OfiktPhoruv 1879.
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OiQ'arit]

CHAPTER II.

PRODUCTION.

Soici large lieaps of iron slag show fchat at one time iron ore
was worked in the neighbourhood of Kapadvanj. With this ezcep*
tion the district is without minerals. In the bed of the M&jam river^
about fifteen miles from Kapadvanj, are found some varieties of
agate and moss pebbles. These known as khdriyu, dgiya, and
rdta^Uu, are, when polished^ among the most valued of Cambay stones.
At Kapadvanj the business of collecting them is almost entirely in
the hands of merchants of the class of Shia Bohor^. Labourers are
employed by them to search the bed of the stream and quarry its
banks. The best season for finding the stones is at the close of the
rains^ when numbers are washed out of the mud and gravel of the
banks and bed. When a supply of stones has been collected they
are baked. And those that stand the fire, and develope bright
colours^ are sent to Cambay to be polished.^ In the bed of the
river Mahi are masses and boulders of trap, and in the east^ near
where it enters the district^ rock is plentiful, including trap with
occasional limestone, quartz, and granite. Though not suited for
building purposes this rock is used for road metal. Limestone,
hajJcar, in small nodules is found in and near most of the Kaira
rivers. Its quality varies, but it usually contains from fifty to seventy-
five per cent of carbonate of lime besides sand and sometimes clay
and magnesia. Sand used for making mortar is found in the rivers
Uahi^ Vatrak, and Meshvo, and in the smaller water-courses. In
low broken ground nd^ar Kapadvanj^ Lasundra, Toma^ and other
villages in the north-east of the district, a white crust of impure
carbonate of soda forms on the surface of the ground. This earth is
collected and much used in making glass and soap and as a mordant
in dyeing cloth.*

E[aira is generally spoken of as one of the best wooded parts of
the Bombay Presidency. This in one sense is true. At the same
time the district has no forests or forest land,^ the trees either
standing singly or in small groves. Especially in the southern

Chapter n.
Prodnotunk

MlVKKAUk

TSEIflL

^ Mr. Forbes (Or. Mem. III., 68) makes Kapadyanj the site of Ptolemy's (150)
moontain of agates. Bat it seems more likely that Ptolemy heard of the mine
on tke RAjpipla hills, since known as Bdva Ohor, Details of the mining and manofac-
tnre of Cambay stones are given in the Cambf^ statistical account.

* Cootribntedby T. D. Little, Esi}., C.E., District Executive Engineer.

* In the Borsad sab-diyision, dnnng the rains of 1867, 1266 acres of land were
■own with bdbul. Acacia Arabica. The seed germinated, but after growing a few
inchea high the plants withered. —Forest Report, 1867-68.

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[Bombay Oaietteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter n.
Production.

Tbsbi.

AN1MA1&

parts the timber is foand in the hedge rows with here and
there in the fields a well grown solitary tree. In the norths the i
mahuda, Bassia latifolia^ and in the souths the mango and the lirnhdo, \
Melia azadirachta^ are the commonest varieties. All over the |
district the custard-apple^ shitdphal, Anona squamosa^ is abundant, ;
in some places bearing good fruit, though apparently growingwild.
Besides thescj the rayan, Mimusops indic^^ the kcmaj, UlmTia
integrifolia^ the karanj or kaniji, Pongamia glabra^ and the aduso,
Ailanthus excelsa, are freely distributed over almost the whole of j
the district. The fruit of the mango is in considerable quantities i
sent to Baroda^ Ahmedabad, and K&thi&war. During the hot season !
the fleshy corolla of the mahuda flower is eaten by the poor and by !
cattle^ and from it is distilled a farourite native liquor. Mixed I
with whey the berries of the rdyan, Mimusops indica^ form during
the hot season the staple food of a large section of the KoB
population.

The chief domestic animals of the district are oxen, cows^ buffa-
loes^ sheep and goats^ horses, camels, and asses. Of oxen, the
1876-77 returns show a total of 128,247 head. A few of the finest,
worth from £15 to £30 (Rs. 150-300) the pair, owned by well-to-do
Kanbi cultivators, are brought from Kathi^w&r and K^nkrej in
northern Gujarat. But some of the largest are bred in the district,
Bb^aj and other villages of the Nadidd sub-division being famous for
their bullocks. The poorer cultivators have smaller, leaner, and less
valuable cattle, worth from £3 to £10 (Rs. 30-100) a pair. But
except in Th&sra and Kapadvanj, where they are small and in poor
condition, the Kaira cattle are on the whole large and fine animals.
Among cultivators the common practice is to buy and rear calves.
Besides a full supply of grass and millet stalks, the rich man's
ballocks have every day a pound or two of bruised oil seeds, and from
four to six pounds of pulse.^ Except in the busy season (June-
November), when they have a pound or two of oil seed and grain, millet
stalks are the only fodder of the poor man's cattle, and sometimes
they are turned out on the village grazing ground to shift for them-
selves. Of male buffaloes, the 1876-77 returns show a total of
10,315 head. Most male calves are kept from the mother's milk
and allowed to die. Of cows the total is returned at 49,264 and
of she-buffaloes at 180,223. Well-to-do cultivators own from three
to ten milch cows and buffaloes. A cow varies in value from £2
to £6 (Rs. 20-60) and a she-buffalo from £3 to £8 (Rs. 30-80).
These animals are, except in the rainy season (July-October),
almost all stall fed. Their fodder is grass and millet stalks with,
when in- milk, every day a pound or two of oil seed cake and
cotton seed, kapdsia. The townsman generally keeps only one
cow or buffalo and uses all its milk in his own family. The culti-
vator makes most of the milk into clarified butter, sending weekly
supplies to market.^ Professional herdsmen, or Rab&ris, as well aa

1 GeneraUy adad, PhaseolaB mango, or guvdr, OvamopBiB psoralioidee.
' Clarified butter ia one of the most valuable of Kaira exports. Some acooont oi
the trade is given below.

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KAIRA.

enltiyators^ rear nulch cattle both cows and she-bofEaloes. Though
the Rab4ris are not a wandering tribe^ their cattle are not stall fed*
They are supposed to graze them on the common pasture g^und.
But finding scanty fodder there the Babdris hare little scruple in
letting their animals stray into any unguarded field. Br&hmans and
y&niiis generally make over their young calves to Eanbis and Kolifl
to be reared. On handing it over the calf is Valued^ and the
common agreement is that when the caU is full grown and again
valued the owner pays the man who reared it one-half of the
increased price. Milch buffaloes are sent from the district by rail in
considerable numbers^ chiefly to Surat and Bombay.

Sheep and goats, with a total strength of 53^880 head, are
reared chiefly by professional herdsmen, Rab4ris and Bharv&ds*
They are found in greatest numbers in the less highly cultivated
districts of M4tar in the west, and Th&sra and Kapaavanj in the
east. Sheep are bred for their milk, wool, and flesh. Goats for
their milk and their flesh. The wool is generally cut twice a year,
in November and March. The Rab&ris cut it themselves with a
specially heavy pair of shearing scissors. The wool has little care
given to it, and is usually very indifferently washed. Except what
little they make into felt and weave into coarse blankets, the
Babdris sell their wool to traders, chiefly Musalm&is, who export it
to Bombay. The trade seems to be of growing importance, as the
total sent by rail has risen from twenty-two tons in 1870 to forty-
leven in 1877. The sheep's rutting season is in May. She carries
for six months. A sheep is milked from November to June, and
generally yields from one to two pounds a day. Of this the young
are allowed to suck half and the rest is used to make butter. The
mUk of twenty sheep would in four days yield about five pounds of
batter worth about 3«. 3d. (Rs. I-IO). Sheep begin to bear when
Qiiee years old and continue till they are about seven. A good
ewe is worth 8«. (Rs. 4). A large number of sheep and goats are
every year sent by rail to the Bombay market.

Horses are returned at 2366, but by far' the greater number of them
are mere ponies, unsuited for the purposes of cavalry. In value they
my from £2 to £10 (Rs. 20-100). Most of them are bom and
reared in the district. Some of the best come from Cutch and
Kidu&w&r, and a few show signs of being the produce of the
Ahmedabad stud horses. As a rule they are not well l^en care of.
Many are aDowed to feed themselves as they best can, others have
miDet stalks, and when in work a daily aUowance of gram. One of ^e
Government stud horses is stationed at Eaira. In 187&-77 he
served thirty-three mares.

Few camels are bred in Eaira, but large numbers are brought
during the fair season from M&rw&r and Efithifiw&r to grace in the
district. A fee of one young camel for each hundred head is paid
to Government. The animal is sold and the price credited to
revenua The drivers are for the most part Rajputs and Rab&ris.
A full-grown camel varies in price from £4 to £16 (Rs. 40-150).
Asses retamed at 6325 are of two kinds, the common ass and the
big white ass of H&l&r in E&thi&w&r. The females are kept only by
(»ie7l-3

GDiapteXL
Produtfttott*

AVXMUUA.

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AKIMAL8.

[Bombay GatMteer.
18 DISTRICTS.

Chapter n. potters or kumlhdrs, and the males bj rice hnskers or golds. They
Prodactio]|> ^"^ need to carry bricks, earth, and rice. In value they vary from 6s.
to 14«. (Rs. 8-7) for the common sort, to £1 or £1 4s. (Ra. 10-12)
for the big H4I&r sort. Fifty years ago many charotar villages were
infested with swarms of tame pig. These animals, ownerless and
uncared for, lived on snch garbage as they conld pick up. Filthy and
useless they did much harm to the crops. At last so great was the
nuisance that the richer classes hired the Y&ghris to cart them oat of
village limits and set them free. Though still plentiful they have
since ceased to be a nuisance.^
Wild. Of wild animals, the Tiqee, vdgh, Felis tigris, was within the IifBt

ten years (1867) always to be found in the bed or among the ravines
of the Mahi.' But the spread of tillage and the efforts of European
sportsmen in the rough country near the Mahi and in the Bewa
Eintha and Panch Mah&l hills have so reduced their number that
they are now only occasionally met with. Four tigers were killed in
1 876. But in the four preceding years none had been shot.

The Panther, cUpdo, Felis leopardus, is from the same causes as
the tiger, becoming scarce. A few are still found on the banks
of the Mahi. During the five years ending with 1877 nine panthers
were killed, three in 1875, four in 1876, and two in 1877.

The WoL7, vairti, Canis pallipes, though becoming rare, is still
sometimes seen roving in packs of four or five. They carry off
considerable numbers of sheep and goats.

The HTiENA, ta/ras, HysBna striata; the Jackal, sidl, Oanis
aureus ; and the Fox, lokri, Vulpes bengalensis, are common, and
said to destroy much poultry.

The Wild Boab, dukar, Sus indicus, abounds along the
S&barmati from Yautha in the west, northwards to Chitr&sar, then
east by the irrigation canal, past L&li along the banks of the
Meshvo and Y^trak, in the grass meadows at Kanai and Mahej,
round Kaira, in the Mahudha fields, round Dadusar, and on the broad
waste lands and ravines in Kapadvanj and Thdsra. It does much
damage to crops.

Of the deer tribe, the Blub Bull, nilgai, Portax pictus, formerly in
numbers over the whole district, has of late years become scarcer
and mach more wary. They are still found chiefly in the Kapad-
vanj, A'nand, and Mehmadabad sub-divisions, in herds of firom
eight to ten. The Antelope, haliar, Antilope bezoartica, is found
in large numbers over the whole district. The Ikblik Gazelle^
ehikara, Gazella benettii, is also common.

^ In the town of ITmreth (1830) there were said to be between 6000 and 7000 pif
who ate aU crops bat tobacco.— Sab-CoUector 11th June 1831, Bom. £ev. Bee. 406
of 1832, 175; Bom. Gov. SeL, XI., 112.

' In 1825 timers were namerous along the Kaira bank of the Mahi. Bishop Heber
mentions that in the beginning of that year one was bold enough to carry off a maa
fromanomeronsconyoyof artiUery.~Heb. Nar. II, 137. About the same time (1823|
in the extreme north of the district, near Bohisa, six miles from Mehmadabad^ was a
hill caUed Vdghtekro, or the timer's hill, from the number of tigers that formerly
infested and were still found on it.— Bom, Qot. QeL, X., 130.

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KAIELk. 19

Of smaller animalsj the Habb, saala, Lepns rnficaudatuB^ is f onnd Chapter IL
in all parts of the district. FrodnotiOB*

Of wild birds^ the Ooosb^ gauze hadaJc, Anser cinerens, is found
occasionally in some of the large ponds in M&tar and Kapadvanj.
They appear in Norember and December, coming in flights^ generally
of from seren to ten^ though sometimes of as many as twenty or
thirty; they leave about the end of February when the water
b^ins to dry, and generally before the smaller lands of wild fowl ;
they have not been known to breed in Kaira ; they are very shy^
and hard to shoot. The Black-backed Goosb, nukta, Sarkidiomis
melanonotus^ is found in all parts of the district, remaining through*
out the year, and breeding in the months of July and August.

Of DucKB and Tbals, many sorts are found, especially in Mdtar,.
Kapadvanj, and Th&sra. Except the Whistlino, Dendroeygna
arcuata^ and the Cotton Tsal, Nettapus coromandelacos, which stay
aQ the year round and sometimes breed in the district, most varieties
of duck come in October and go in the end of February, or in the less
cultivated parts of the district, early in March. Svi^^, pdnickal,
of three kinds, the common, Oallinago seolopacinus,. the Jack,.
GUlina^ gallinula, and the Painted, Bhynchoea bengalensis, are
in the cold season found all over the district, but chiefly in the M&tar,
Kapadvanj, and Th&sra sub*divisioos% They come in very poor
condition early in October, and except in especially well-watered
places, leave by the end of February. Snipe are never known to have
bred in the district. Bustabu, malduk, Eupodotis edwardsii,. though
&ot common, are found in all parts of the district, but chiefly in
Thisra and Kapadvanj. They frequent largp uncultivated plains,.
generally in bands of from four to five. They stay in the district
during iJie whole year, breeding from Obtober to March. Flokioan,.
hadmohar, Sy^eotides auritus, are found in small numbers all over
the district. They come in the month of June after the first fait
of rain. Taking first to damp low lying land as the rain increases
they gradually seek higher ground ;. they breed in the district, but
leave it in August when the young birds are able to move.^

PABTBTDGESof two kiuds, the Painted, Fr&ncol'inus pictus^ and the
Grey, Ortygomis pondiceriana,. are f ound aH over the district. They
itay during the whole year y the grey breeding from February to
May^ the painted from June to October. The grey lives near
viUages^ the painted in the more open and lonelier parts.

Of Quail, the two chief kinds are the Grey and the Bain. The
Grey, lawi, Cotumix communis, is found in all parts of the districts.
They come in October and November,. and almost all go in Maiolu
A few stay, and from June to August breed in the district. . TiTliIike the
Grey Qnaol, the Bain Quail, Cotumix coromandelica,. breeds in Guja^*
r&t and remains throughout the year. Towards the end of June, soon
after rain has fisJlen^ he is £bDnd in the Tcodra^ Paspalum scrobicu-
'-■'--' ■,.-.-,--_ - - . , ^ _

^ norican woald seem not to go far M they are found in nombert during the hok
in the islands of the NarbadiL

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[Bombay Qaiettecri

DISTRICTS.

CSiapter II. latunij then in the rice^ next in October and Noyember, in millet

^f^tactiaa^ fields, then they are in grass^ then aboat January in poise, in Febroary

in irrigated wheat, and daring the hot months in tobacco and castor-

^""*' oil. Keeping together in large flocks at the beginning of the rains,

they pair m July and Angnst, and during the cold weather months aie

f onna in small bands, often in company with the grey quail.

Sand Gbousb, batUr, Pterocles exustus, are found in consider*

able numbers in the open plains all oyer the district. They brsed |

from December to May, and in the morning are generally to be found i

near water. I

Cbanb, halam or hulin, Grus cinerea, are found in all parts of the
district, especially in the open lands of the M&tar, Kapadyanj, Mehma-
dabad, and Th^sra sub-diyisions. They come about the end of October
and leaye in February or March. In the early morning they feed in j
fields of rice stubble, and about eight or nine, in flocks of two or three
hundred, they rise and fly high in the air. During the heat of the day
and at nights they settle in open bushy land or plains generally near
the banks of riyers.

Stonb PLoyEB, harairiy CEdicnemus crepitans, are found, though
in small numbers, in lonely uncultiyated tracts all oyer the district.

Sfoon Bill, ehamach ehar^ Platalea leucorodia, are found in pond
and marshes two or three together. Though, as a rule, migratory,
they are said occasionally to breed in the district.

BiTTEEN, nari, Botaums stellaris, are found in ponds, generally
solitary ; they breed in the district, and are not known to leaye it.

Pea-fowl, mohar, Payo cristatus, abound all oyer the district, and
being well treated by the people are found in numbers in and near
the yillages. They breed &om April to October, and are in finest
feather during the hot months (April- June).

Orbbn Piqson, hcuridlj Crocopus chlorigaster, are found all oyer
the district, especially in the open well-wooded parts. Some are said
to stay all the year round.

Skaxib. The two chief poi8on6us snakes ^re the Cobra, Naja tripndians and

the Phursa, Echis carinata. Though Kaira was much infested with
snakes, the first attempt in 1856, by the offer of rewards to induce
the peonle to kill them failed. Of late years, though the
rewax^ haye been lowered in the case of a cobra from Is. 6dL to
6d, (12 as. — 4 as.), and for other snakes from le, to 8d. (8 as. — 2 as.)
199 snakes Were killed in 1875, and 259 in 1876. In 1877 the number
had again fallen to ten. Human deaths from snake-bites yary much
from year to year. In 1856 there were forty-fiye, between 1866
and 1870 on an ayerage about sixty-two, in 1876 twenty-five, and
nineteen in 1877.

Fmh. The riyers of the district, the Mahi, the Vfitrak, the Shedhi, tiie

Meshyo, and the Mohar, are well stocked with fish. Of the follow-
ing thirty-one kinds, twenty-two are found in fresh water, and nine
in the riirer Mahi within tidal limits. The twenty-two fresh water
fish are : —

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EAIBA. 21

(I). The Mihsir^ or Kvdndra, Barbns mosftl^ classed as a soft CSii^terlL
finned fish^ in size^ strength, and activity, little inferior to the Prodootioit.
salmon^ is found in the Maid, Y4trak, Meshyo, and S&barmati
rivers. The rnahsir may readily be knovTn by a pecoliar salmon tint ^^^*

on ihe belly and a deep goara or shade hanging over the month.
It spawns daring the rains, going up the river when in flood, and
generally coming back as soon as the force of the flood is spent.
It eats anything, grain, shrimps, crabs, fish, and frogs. Especially
of an evening as it works down stream its curious habit of taking,
one after another, five or six heavy rolling porpoise-like leaps has
given it its name of hudnaraf or the jumper. Especially by the
natives it is much prized for food. It is generally caught in the
coarse trawling net, or mahajdl, and sent in considerable numbers
to Baroda. Fished with the rod and fly, or if larger fish are fished
with the rod and artificial minow or spoon, the mdhsir gives very
good sport. From dawn to sunrise, or even as late as nine, and in
the afternoon from four to dark are the best times for fishing.
Thongk the heavier fish are found in deep pools, from many a knee-
deep rapid two or three good mdhsir may be drawn. In 1877
towards the close of the season (March), with a rod and fly, in one day
seventy pounds of fish were lajided, the largest two feet six: inches
long and weighing thirty pounds. Still the stock of mdhsir is much
less than it might be. Kolis dam the head of a small stream, leaving
only four or five openings, and opposite each opening draw a cloth or
plaice closely plaited deep bamboo-baskets, catching swarms of almost
uselessly small fry. Large fish also are caught in numbers, poisoned by
branches of the milk bush. (2). The carp, Debra, and Darai, Barilius
Bakeri, a silver-scaled fish, about a foot long and a pound in weight, is
foand in all the rivers and many of the ponds of the oiBtrict. like the
mdhsir J the carp breeds during the rainy months, going up the river
to spawn in times of heavy flood and soon returning to the deeper
pools down the stream. It is much prized as food, especially by
natives. By the natives it is generally killed by netting. Amone some
of the wilder tribes, towards the close of the hot weather, it is a
favoorite amusement for a party of men, women, and children to dash
into one of the big pools, and with small triangular nets in their hands,
wading np to the shoulders, to clear the whole place of carp. With
the rod, either with flour or worm bait, or with the fly, they can be
caught in considerable numbers. But the sport is much tamer than
mdhsir fishing. Like the mdJisir fry, vast stores of young carp
are destroyed by basket and cloth traps. (3). The Marel, also called
Doreh, a handsome fish of the pike species, is sometimes found
three feet long and from twenty to thirty pounds in weight. The
mcKrd lives both in ponds and in rivers, generally in the bank. They
breed twice a year, in December and tHmuary, and affain in June.
They are known to hollow a place for the spawn,^ and until the fry
aie £rom two to three inches long to watch by them in turns,
proteoting them with the greatest fierceness. Though greedy, they

> They are also said before ■pawninff to nibble blades of graas from the water's
edge ana make them into a tray or nest for the eggs.

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[BomlMj Guettaer,
22 DISTRICTS.

Chapter IL are very shy. They are killed in two ways, either by the rod and frog
Prodnctioili ^*^*' ^^ ®^^* when they come to the surface. Though only stunned
by the bullet, the viarel can generally be secured before he recoyerB.
™^ The marel is a favourite fish, especially with Europeans. (4). The

Podia, a large scaleless fish, sometimes from two to three feet long,
and weighing as much as twenty pounds, is said to breed in the hot
weather, the female depositing the eggs at any time during the rains
when the river is heavily flooded. It is caught chiefly in the strong
trawling net. It is eaten by Europeans and natives. (5). The
Nagra, a large fish, sometimes two feet long and ten pounds in weighty
like iiliepddia, lays its eggs when the rivers are deep in flood. It is
caught chiefly by the strong trawling net, and is a favourite article of
food with the natives. (6). The JBaw, up to three feet long and fifteen
pounds in weight, lives both in rivers and ponds. It breeds during the
rains. Generally caught in the coarse trawling net, it is much liked,
especially by natives, and is sent in considerable quantities to Baroda.
(7). The BauSj or Bavus, with large silvery scales, found up to three
feet in length and weighing from thirty to forty pounds, lives in
deep ponds and river pools. It breeds during the rains, the female
depositing eggs and leaving the fry to take care of themselves.
- Caught in the strong trawling net, it is eaten chiefly by natives and
is sent to Baroda. (8). The Boi, or mullet, found up to two feet in
length and weighing from eight to ninej)ounds, lives chiefly in rivers.
It breeds during the hot season, the females laying e^s before the
rains set in. In the first floods it makes for the sea and does not
come back till November, when the water is clear. Generally caught
in the coarse trawling net, it is sometimes shot. It is much prised by
Europeans. (9) . The Singkro, or Katioj a scaleless barbed fish, fonnd
from two to three feet in length and weighing about fifteen pounds,
lives in rivers and ponds. It breeds in June ; the female hollowing
a place in the river bank, and in turns with the male watching the
young fish with the greatest care. Sometimes caught with a line
and bait, it is generally taken in the coarse trawling net. It is a
favourite food with the natives. (10). The Sa/rmdi, a rather uncom-
mon scaleless fish, said to have barbs at the gills that wound as
keenly as a scorpion's bite, is seldom found more than a foot long
or a pound in weight. It lives chiefly in rivers, spawning during
the floods of the rainy season. Caught both on baited lines and in
nets, it is much prized as an article of food, especially by Europeans.
(11). The Belja, or Karothi^ a common bright-scaled fish, seldom
found more than a foot long or over three pounds in weight,
lives both in rivers and ponds. It breeds during the rainy season,
spawning when the rivers are in flood. It is caught on the long
Une and in nets, and is eaten only by the natives. (12). The
BdnOy or eel, up to three feet in length and a pound in weight,
is found in ponds and rivers. It breeds in the rainy season vi^en
the rivers are in flood. It is caught by the long line and in nets,
and is chiefly eaten by Europeans. (13). The prawn, known aa
the Zingo, Sondia, Roi, Alu, or Kolimbu, common both in rivers
and ponds, and caught in nets, is a favourite article of food, both
with Europeans and natives. (14). The Ghdluj or Mom, with dsA,

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KAIBA. 23

InstTons scales^ f onnd a foot long^ and half a pound in weight. Chapter ZL
lives both in ponds and rivers. It breeds daring the rainy season, Frodnotion.
and is caught both by the hook and the net ; it is eaten by Euro-
peans. (15). The Bhagna or Kasoda, a bright-scaled fish, found ^^

about one foot long and two pounds in weight, lives both in ponds
and rivers. It breeds in the rainy season. It is caught in nets,
and eaten chiefly by natives. (16). The Marki, about six inches
long and half a pound in weight, is chiefly a river fish. It spawns
during the rainy season. It is caught in nets, and eaten chiefly by
natives. (17). The Ray a, a bright-scaled fish, about six inches long
and half a pound in weight, lives chiefly in rivers, where it breeds
in the rainy season. It is netted and eaten chiefly by natives*
(18) . TheOohari, a small,bright-6caled fish, about a foot long and three
quarters of a pound in weight, is found chiefly in the rivers, where
it breeds during the rainy season. It is netted, and eaten chiefly
by natives. (19). The Chalj a small, delicate-scaled fish, seldom
over half a foot in length or a quarter of a pound in weight, is
chiefly a river fish, where it breeds in times of flood, fiiough
generally netted, it gives good sport with a rod and line, and as
an article of food is much liked by Europeans. (20). The Zarva,
like the chcU, but smaller, not more than four inches long and some-
thing under an ounce in weight, is almost entirely a river fish. It
breeds in the rains, rushing up the rivers when in highest flood. It
k caught in the small meshed net and eaten by the natives.
(21). The Moela^ or Bhdty is another small fish, in appearance and
habits very like the Z(vrva, (22). The Ohmgi, Shingi, or Kadva, is a
dark-coloured scaleless fish, not unlike the eel. It is said to have

Eoisonotifi barbs at the gills, which wound as severely as a scorpion's
ite, and cause three days fever. It is about a foot long and two
pounds in weight, and though living chiefly in ponds, is found in
rivers and sometimes in wells. It is caught in the small meshed
net, and is a favourite food with Europeans.

Salt water fish are found only in the Mahi below the tidal limit.
They belong to two classes, those found in the cold and hot weather,
and those found in the rains. Of the cold weather fish there are
nz chief sorts, the Fausta, the Zivja, the Zinja Ohola, the Bamvlo,
file Biu, and the Kantia, Of rain fish there are three, the Palva, DocU,
and Magra. Of these the dodi is the largest, growing to ten pounds
in weight. The dodi and the pdlva are much esteemed, and are salted
as well as eaten fresh. The rainy season fish come into the river
about June, and after staying for about a monthpass out again into the
ffulf . They would seem not to spawn in the nver, no f^ have been
found in the Mahi, and on theur way back the old fish are often
taken heavy with eggs. These fish are all caught in the goha, the
k>ng pocket-shaped tidal stake net.^

Besides Musalm&ns, Kolis, and other fish-eating peasants, among
the Kaira population are three professional fishmg tribes — Bhois^

1 Tlie Mahi tidal stake net does not differ from that in nie in the Narbada.—
BentMiy Qaietteer, IL, 366.

Digitized by VjJDOQIC

[Bomhay OaiettMri
24 DISTRICTS.

Chapter IL M&chhis, and Khilry^, the last of whom trade in fish.^ FiBhii^

__. — tlim. chiefly with hand and drag-nets and with baited lines, they abo

noaaovuni* j^^ large numbers, drawing them to the surface by the light of s

^'^* torch^ and then cutting them to pieces with swords and in the smaller

streams by soaking in the water the milk-bush and other poiaonoiu

shrubs.'

In a district where almost all the well-to-do and influential classes
object to the destruction of life there is no public fish market. The
fish is carried for sale from house to house, especially to the dwell-
ings of Rajputs, Musalm&ns, and Kolis. The supply is generally
greater than the demand, and the price not more than f d. (six pies) a
pound in money or grain. The larger class of fish are to a small !
extent sent by rail to Baroda. There is little fish-salting in the
district. The stock of fish in the Kaira rivers is said of late years to
have considerably fallen off. In the Mahi, the common belief is that
this decline is due to the river's wrath at losing cart-men's offeringa.
For some years the floods have been irregular and the fish unable
to work up to their proper spawning grounds. There would seem
also to be a very reckless destruction of lifa For, though the
netting of well-grown fish does little harm, the planting of fixed
basket and cloth traps is said to destroy immense quantities of fry.'

^ Accordinff to the Ceiums retams, these four dassea represent a total popolatioii
of 13,639 soTiIs. Fishing is not their only means of living. Farther detaus of these
classes are given below.

' The nets in use do not differ from the Broach nets.— Bombay Ghoetteer, IL,
863-<3S5.

* The aocoonts of wild animalH, game birds, and fish, have been oontribated by
llajor W. F. LaTonQhe, District Superintendent of Fdioe.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

Oiijtfit)

CHAPTER III.

POPULATION.

AccoBDiNQ to the 1846 census^ the total population of the district
was 566,513 souls, or 354*07 to the sqaare mile : Hindus numbered
514^558, or 90*83 per cent, and Musalm&ns 51,938, or 9*16 per cent ;
that is, at the rate of ten Hindus to one Musalmdn. There were
besides, ten Christians and seyen P&rsis. The 1 872 census showed
a startHng increase in population, the total returns amounting to
no less than 782,733 souls, or 489*20 to the sauare mile, a pressure
of population higher than in any other part of tne Bombay Presiden-
cy.* Of thetot^ number, 711,619 were Hindus, 70,741 Musalm^s,
305 Christians, and 68 P&rsis. Coikipared with Musalm&ns, while
P&rsis had considerably and Christians had very greatly increased,
the proportion of Hindus had remained nearly constant at ten to one.
The percentage of males on the total population was 53*55 and of
females 46*45.

The following statement shows that in the twenty-six years
(1846-1872) population advanced 38*16 per cent; houses increased
from 150,628 to 218,596, or 4512 per cent; ploughs from 54,975 to
56,916, or 3*53 per cent ; and carts from 20,864 to 29,110, or 39*52
per cent. Under the head of agricultural lire stock, the statement
shows, in the number of oxen, an increase from 136,076 to 137,962, or
a rise of 1*38 per cent ; in that of buffaloes from 146,940 to 200,443, or
of 36*41 per cent ; in that of sbeep and goats from 52,321 to 58,945
or of 12*66 per cent ; in that of asses from 5935 to 6482, or of 9*21
per cent ; and in that of camels from 76 to 175, or of 130*20 per
cent. On the other hand, there is a fall in the number of cows
from 69,179 to 52,158, or of 24*60 per cent; and in that of horses
from 2913 to 2274, or of 2193 per cent.

KairaPopulatkm, 1846 a$Kt 1S7$.

PopuuLnoir.

TMAA.

HiDdlU.

mint.

Finis.

Chrifl-

tlAIU.

others.

Total.

Houm.

1M6

1919

iMretw per oeni

711.619
88-38

61»988

70.741

86-80

7
68

10
805

...

066,018

788,788

8816

150,638

^ The preasare of population per squftre mile variee considerably in the diflferent
nb-divisions. It is greatest in Borwd with 749, and least in Kapadvanj with 311.

B 167-4

CShapterlll
Population^

1846.

1672.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bombaj Oftiettecr,

Chapter PL
Population*

1872.

DISTRICTS.

Kaira Stodk, 1846 and 187g.

Stock.

Tmam,

Implemmtk

UT»«took.

FUmtIm,

Outd

Oxen.

Oowi.

Bnffa-
loat.

Hones.

Goftta.

Ca-
mels.

AMee.

tM»L

IMS

1S71

InoTMM per

eeot.
Deoreaoepw
oenL

64,975

ia,8M

29,110
80-99

180,079
187,902

1-88

09,179
63,158

34-00

140,940
300,448

80-41

2918
3374

21-98

63,821
68,946

1300

70 0986
175 0482

190-30 9-31

418,4iV
468^

10-88

Diitribution.

The following tabular statement gives for the year 1872 details of
the population of each snb-division according to religion, age, ieuid
sex:^-

Kaira SulhdivUUm Population, 1S7X,

HINDTXa

3hDB-#fnH0H.

UptolOyMH.

From 13 to 80.

AboTe80.

TotaL

Grand

Total.

lUke.

Ftenake.

\T^Lm

IteiuJei.

Ibles.

Ftenake.

lUlei.

F^analee.

Penan.

X«|NUtTH4

10,944

14,409

18,466

13,088

10,050

10,099

41,049

87301

78360

rhkv, 77

10,014

18333

18,983

11,090

11,335

10,033

41,321

86,086

70,360

MeliniadAbftd... ...

15,319

li,865

14.650

U,706

11,350

11,760

41,035

87370

78396

M&ur

18385

11,424

14,818

11,877

0459

9610

87.003

88,117

70,770

Nadiid

90355

303«s

34^061

30378

30,591

30344

71,487

03,280

188.707

A'lutod

37,107

31394

35,308

20,788

38313

30,874

75,68i

03,406

18b»068

Bomd

87^81

33,181

36,411

21328

21,133
107309

18,710

7^014

02370

188.084

Wtl ....

148,485

110,468

181,140

111399

101,723

883,140

839,479

711,619

inrsALiTANa

SSi^''^ :::

1714

1020

1200

1444

1164

1884

41i8

4867

8488

1893

1637

1056

1513

1865

1388

4912

44^8

SS36

1438

1134

1870

1168

1156

1044

8964

3887

7391

lliter

1594

1206

I45i

1448

1038

1087

4084

8801

7886

Kadiid

8810

8017

2850

2071

2377

2070

0043

8068

17,701

A'nand

2381

1819

3103

1910

1879

1710

0868

6446

11300

Borwd

1588

1801

1588

1890

1334

1384

4305

8981

8SM

Total ...

14368

11,788

18»338

11,867

10^208

10,812

86J89

38353

70,741

PA'BSia

53Sr^ :::

"' 8

...

"' 1

"'4

MehmedatMul

Miuur

,,,

...

•.•

NadUd

A'tuMd

*••

...

Bonar ««• «.• •**

...

Totel ...

Digitized by VjOOQIC

eiMw<t.T

EAIfiAv

OHBlSTIANfl.

BuB-BimiOB.

UptoUyMH.

FromUtolO.

▲bOTtSO.

Tout

Oruul
T^itaL

MiOfla.

ta-.

U9l9t.

»*-«

y^i— ■

P-I-I-.

lUloi.

Pemm

K*P^~i

...

•.*

»««•

...

¥iilmia<l«li«4l .^ ...

lUtor

...

VadUd

...

ATuand

Wmmd ... .. ...

90ft

Total ...

«i

6»

171

188

806

TOVAL.

K^Mvuj

18,eM

16,098

14,718

18,479

11,606

11,968

46,168

41,660

66,741

Ibina

17,908

14,968

15,640

18,808

18,601

11,807

46,189

89,468

86.601

16,661

18,991

16,984

18,946

18,488

18,600

46,017

40,787

86.76«

Xitar

16,481

18,698

16,778

18,886

10,497

10,904

41,761

86,988

76.67S

Itdiid

80,666

88,W8

86,916

88,946

88,970

88,016

80,640

70,948

151,48S

A'MBd

99,497

88,180

37,476

88,668

86.106

88,091

88,078

67,871

149t96»

Bound

89,066

88,466

86,968

88,668

88,887

19,978

76,486.

66,998

144,688

Total ...

167,M7

188,806

148,486

188,818

117,777

118,078

419,148

868,601

788,788

From the above statement it appears that the percentage of
males on the total population was (1872) 53*55 and of femiJes 46*45*
Hindu males numbered 382^140^ or 5370 per cent^ and Hindu femalea
umbered 329^479, or 46*29 per cent of the total Hindu pomdatiom^
Musalm&n males numbered 36,789, ot 52 per eent» and Musalmia
females 83,952, or 48 per cent of the total Musalm&n population ;
?arsi males numbered 41, or 60*29 per cent, and Pdrsi females 27, or
39*70 per cent of the total P&rsi population; Christian males
numbered 172, or 56*39 per cent, and Christian females numbered
183, or 43*60 per cent of tiie total Christian population.

The total number of infirm persons was returned at 2967^ (maTes-
1759, females 1208)> or thirty-eight per ten thousand of the total
population. Of these 125 (malea 81, females. 44)*,. or two per ten
thousand were insane ; 223 (males 170, females 58)., or three per ten
thousand idiots; 529 (malea 825,. females 204), or seven per ten
thousand deaf and dumb ; 1679 (males 870,^ females 80ft), or twenty.
one per ten thousand blind ; and 411 (males 313,. females 98), or five
per ten thousand lepers.

The following tabular statement gives the number of the members
of each religious class of the inhabitants according to sex at difPerent
ages with, at each stage> the percentage on the total population of the

Cfhapter IIL
PopuUtioii*

1872.

H«idth«

Digitized by VjOOQIC

tflomlMiy d$ieite«r.

DiaTRiCTS.

CShApierin.
PopnUtiQXL

Age.

same dex and religion. The colamns referring to the total popula-
tion omit religious distinctions but show the <£Serenoe of sex : —

Eaira PaptUaikm hy Age^ 1872,

AeB.

Uplolycar...

From 1 and 6 ,
6 Mid 12 .
li Mid 30 ,
80 and SO ,
80 and 40 .
40 and 60 ,
60 and 60 ,

Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Da

Above 60

Total

HlHBUB.

1O,09T
00,496
63,908
62,493
68,668
61,8£7
81,666
17,060
7436

88i,140

3 -ST

]0.iftl

I8ia

ttl,:i4

lfl-48

44/J!^a

16':i5

4H,Vfr4

iTSfl

Ka,H5

IS'43

4Gj48

S'38

m,Mti

4^4fi

17. TBI

S543

3;;p,470

MllBALMA'ta.

1089
7331
6008
ft696
«536
4968
2988
1068
704

86,789

2-82

19*65

16-66

15*48

17-78

18-49

810

4*i8

1-91

6436
4864
5165
670i
4789
2837
1861
885

88,962

18-92

15-18
19«78
18^
8-39
6-48
2-€0

0HK18TUSI,

Pa'esbi.

Total

it
III

ei.

1 =

III

Ill

4-87

^■3

Up to 1 year

5*81

1 »00

12,018

f IT

\IM»

»15

16-11

27 120*30

21*39

76,7(^3

1&3I

esjTS

ler?^

Do. 2 and 13 ...

1511

Msa

liie

MSI

fiji.riT

1*49

4S,e78

la^^

Do. 13 and 20 ...

16-37

I (I'M

14'fl»

fi*.2ifi

Ifl'ia

58,381

18*03

^ibb

4 e'7fi

i«ei

7o-13

17«

e9,sea

19-21

Do. 80 and 40 ...

15-09

11-37

10 1 34*39

IB-fil

C6.^i;^.7

1S-4S

5;-?;i

14 IT

Do. 40 and 50 .

607

6-76

j-43

8' 70

3i,*^-.a

B27

si,irT a-51

Do. 60 and 60 . .

4-65

4*51

7'»1

3-70

ia,ti.'4

4^4

1M5» Att

AboTe60

2-83

1-5U

*'■

S134

1-94

9130 2««

Total ..

173

...

138

llil.HS

... |3«3g5fil 1 -_

Religion.

The Hindu population of the district beiongs^ according to tlie
1872 censuB, to the following sects i —

Kaira Hindu BedB, I87S.

YAXimiAvs.

iUAITl.

dlCHAti.

nmrao-
TAaiAir

SBRA'VAM*
or

B4m4-
nuj.

Vala-
bhi.
ohAri.

Kabir-

Ifidh.
T4ehM.

Sviml-
94r47in

TiOM*.

206,948

109,816

11,800

6»51

39.997

i33,eeo

47.175

Hi*

157,00*

6604

ni.«iff

From this statement it would seem^ that of the total HindQ
population^ the Yaishnavs numbered 49 7j292^ or 69*83 per ceutj th0

Digitized by LjOOQIC

«H{arit]

KAIRA.

2»

aasectarian cUaaes 167,009, or 2206 per cent i the Shaivs 47,175, CkV*«[ HL,

or 6*62 per cent ; and the Shr&yak8> or Jains, 8984, or 1*26 per cent. Population*

The Mnsalman population belongs to two sects, Sunni and Shia 3 the

former numbered 68,527 souls, or 96*87 per cent of the total Musal*

win population ; and the latter, including the Surat or D&udi trading

BohoT^, the Momnte, and few Khoja families, numbered 2214 soulsj

or 3'18 per cent. The P&rsis are divided into two classes, Shahan-

fih&i and Kadmi ; the number of the former was fifty-five or 80*88

per cent, and of the latter was thirteen or 19*12 per cent. In the

total of 305 Christians, are included seventeen Catholics and 292

Protestants, including 39 Episcopalians, 10 Presbyterians, and 243

native Christians.

According to occupation, the census returns for 1872 divide the Occupatioii.
whole population into seven classes :«-

L— Employed under Govenunent or municipal and other local authori*
ties, nambering in all 5289 souls or 0*67 per cent of the entire
population.

IL— Professional persons 7012 or 0*89 per cent.

HL — ^In servioe or performing personal offices 7864 or 0*94 per cent.

TV. — ^Engaged in agricultoie and with animals 176,764 or 22*58 per oent.

y.— Engaged in oommeroe and trade 7091 or 0*90 per cent.

VI. — Employed in mechanical arts, manufactures, and engineering opera-
tions, and engaged in the sale of articles mannfacturod or otnerwise
prepared for consumption 53,455 or 6*82 per cent

yn.— Miscellaneous persons not classed otherwise — (a) wives 229,857 and
children 286,190, in all 516,047 or 65*93 per cent ; and (h) miBcellaneous
persons 9711 or 1*24 per cenir— total 525,758 or 67*17 per cent.*

The general chapter on the population of 6ujar£t includes such Baoe.

mformation as is available regarding the origin and customs of the
Kaira people. The following details show the strength of the

i Afferent castes and races as far as it was ascertained by the census

I tf 1872.

Under Br^mans came, exclusive of sub-divisions, forty-nine Priests,

fivisions, with a strength of 43,301 souls (males 21,887, females
11,414), or 6*08 per cent of the total Hindu population. The service
tf Government is the employment most coveted by BrlLhmans of all
dasses. But except tftie N^gars andEheddvfls, who act as merchants,
money-lenders, and pleaders, the majority of Brdhmans live on alms.
Among Br^mans, tne N&gars numbering 1808 or 4*17 per cent of
&e totol Br&hman population hold the first place. Next to the Niagara,
the Ehed&v&l or town of Kaira (Kheda) Br^hmans, in number 9920 or
22*90 percent of the whole Br&hman population, are the most pros-
perous and influential class. Families of this caste are under the
same name settled in Benares, Haidarabad, Sering&patam, and other
parts of India. They are said, about a thousand years ago, to have
been brought from the Deccan and settled in Gujar&t. Industrious,

* Ifiiivto detftOs of each of these main eUasM will be found in the 1872 Gensna
lUpovt, IL, 236-265. The remarkB in foot-note 1, at page 51 of the Suat Statistical
! Account, apply to tha dgtailg of thia clasMfioation by ooonpatioiL

Digitized by VjOOQIC

tBomliay Cteiettaer,

DISTRICI'S.

OhapterllL frugal^ and intelligfent, most of them hold good positions as land-
Popvlatioii- owners, money-lenders, traders, and GrOTemment servants. Among
the remaining snb-divisions, the most noticeable are the YadiuiTa
Br&hmans. These men, for the most part residents of Mehmadabadi
travel all over Qujarit. By the pretended practice of magic and hf
begging they occasionally amass considerable fortunes and settle in
Kaira as money-lenders. A few Deccan Bdihmans, descendants of
some who during the eighteenth century came from Poena with the
Mar&tha armies, continue to hold respectable positions in the service
of Goverriinent.

Writen. Under the head of writers came three classes, Brahma EZshatris

88, Parbhus 62, and E&yasths 8, with a total strength of 158
souls (males 93, females 65), or 0*2 per cent of the total Hindu
population. The Brahma Kshatris are the descendants of one family,
who, as hereditary district officers, hold an estate in the village of
Alina in the Nadi&d sub-division. The younger branches of the
family have from time to time left Alina in search of a livelihood.
But though settled in different parts of the district they still keep
up their connection with those of their family who have remained at
home. . The Parbhus belong to two classes, P&th^re and K&yasth.
The K&yasth Parbhus settled in Gujar&t after its conquest by the
Mar&th&s (1723-1757). The P&th&re Parbhus settled in Kaira in
the beginning of the present centuiy. They do not consider Kaira
' as their home, and keep family and marriage relations with members

of their own caste settled in Bombay.

Traders. Under the head of mercantile trading and shop-keeping classes

came 22,532 V4ni&3 belonging to seventeen divisions ; 5852 Guja-
rdti Shrdvaks of five divisions ; five M^rv^i Shrdvaks and 2928
Bh&ti&s and Luv&nas giving a total strength of 31,317 souls (males
16,440, females 14,877) or 4*40 per cent of the entire Hindu popu-
lation. Of these classes the most influential are the Y6,m6s and
Shravaks. The wealthiest of them act as money-lenders, making
advances to petty village usurers, traders, merchants, and the better
class of husbandmen. Those who have little capital, borrowing money
on easy terms from the wealthier members of their caste employ it
in usury or in dealing in cloth, grain, molasses, and oil, while soma
moving from village to village hawk spices and condiments. . Fail*
ing to recover their claims in cash the better class of money-lenders
not unfrequently secure the land of their debtor which tibey iiiest
allow him to cultivate at rack-rent. But they take little interest in
these purchases. They never till their own land or even saperin*
tend its cultivation, and seldom invest capital in agricultural improve^
ments. Besides engaging in trade they strive eagerly for employm^ii
in Government service. In former times they supplied the greater
I number of the chief district revenue officers, in 1873 the offices
of district revenue superintendent or desdi and of district accountant i
or majrmfddr, which for many years had existed only iin name, wers
abolished. But in other branches of Government service many
V&ui&s are still employed, some of them in highly-paid and reepoi^
sible posts. A large number of Y&nids 10,299 or 45'68 per cent

Digitized by VjOOQIC

},■

*• J

Chyarit]

KAIRA.

%-.

of iheir total strength belong to the Khad&yata sab-^division. This
class, an offshoot of the Ndgar Y&nia division^ is said to take its
name from Khad&l a village near Par&ntij in the Ahmedabad
district. The Shr&vaks mentioned above are almost all natives of
Gujar&t. The M&rv4d Shr&vaks, so powerful south of the T&pti,
hold no place of importance in Kaira. Bh&tifa and Luv&nte,
fitrangers from Catch and Sind^ are spreading over the rural parts
of the district^ and as village grocers or neati, by their superior
strength and energy, are depriving the local Y&nia and Shr&vak
traders of their former monopoly.

Under the head of cultivators came five classes, with a total

strength of 456,684 souls (males 248,884, females 208,250), or 58*88

per cent of the whole Hindu population. 01 these 144,639 (males

82,430, females 62,209) were Eanbis ; 28,508 (males 12,472, females

11,036) Bajputs; 6259 (males 8311, females 2948) Eachhi&s; 976

(males 493, females 483)M&lis; and 281,252 (males 149,678, females

131,574) Kolis. Of the different classes of cultivators, the most

important are the Leva and Kadva Kanbis. The best farmers

in the district, sober, quiet, industrious, and except on such

special occasions as marriages, thrifty, they number altogether

144,639 souls or 20*32 per cent of the whole Hindu population^

The Leva Eanbis with a total strength of 131,781 souls are most

Mameroas in the sub-divisions of A'nand, Nadi&d, and Borsad ; the

f Kadva Kanbis number altogether 12,768 souls in Eapadvanj and

Mehmadabad. Among the members of each of these castes, there

ttdsts a subordinate division into pdtiddrs, originally village share*

klders, men of considerable estates, and kanbis or simple cultivators.

This distinction, though based on difference in wealth and social

Bosition and not in variety of blood or race, is sufficiently marked to

! inrm an obstacle to intermarriage. Again among the pdtiddrs or

better class of Leva Eanbis, the landowners of some villages hold

aaiong their caste fellows a position of special honour. This section

; <rf the caste, probably the descendants of the leading men among the

erig^al settlers in Gujardt, are known as men of family or hdia.

'The rest as men of no family or ahdia. Formerly there was a keen

eompetition among the lower families to marry their daughters into

fte liigher houses, and great sums were paid to secure this honour.

[Bat of late years this custom has to a great extent disappeared.

The balk of the lower families agreed to marry only among persons

, m their own social position, and among themselves to give or take in

Biarriage without claiming any dowry. Under these circumstances

fiiose of high family were forced to marry among their own houses.

lb 1872 out of 4290 marriages, 3977 were arranged by an interchange

0i clJldren. Cultivating Bajputs belong to two classes, thdkors, heads

cC families, who still retain considerable landed estates, and ga/rdsids,

descendants of the younger branches of Th&kor houses, who in many

Ijdstances have sunk to the position of ordinary peasant proprietors.

TbB landed genti^, though they have lon^ given up any turbulent

I'jiractices, still in their dress and bearmg shew themselves the

jiepresentatives of a military class. Careless and improvident their

artates have for many years been deeply mortgaged and heavily

(Chapter in
Populatioik

Hiubaiidmeai

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Ua8lMuidmeii«

tBombay QaiettMr.
32 DISTRICTS.

Copter m. hardened with debt. So nnsatis&ctory was their condition that specud
p^y»iJJi^ll0ii^ measures for freeing them from their indebtedness were considered
tiecessary. An Act (14 of 1877) has accordingly been passed,
providing for the advance by Government of funds sufficient to meet
all legitimate claims upon their estates. It is also provided that
until the loan shall have been repaid the property should be managed
by a Government officer. The cultivating Eaj puts are less careful
and hardworking than the Kanbis and inferior to them in skill
E&chhi&s and M&lis grow vegetables^ fruity and flowers. A few
Kichhi^ have become artisans.

The Koli element in the population of the district is important.
They form the largest tribe or caste with a total strength of 281,252
or 35*98 per cent of the entire population. They are the most prolifio
section of the people, increasing during twenty-six years (1846-
1872) from 175,829 to 281,252, an advance of 59-96 per cent.* They
are also the class whose character and position have improved most
under British rule. Idle and turbulent in the early part of the
present century, they are now as a body quiet and hard-workiDg.
fiven in the most settled times of Gujarat history, the Kolis were
only partially brought under order, and during the disturbances and
misrule of the eighteenth century they threw oS every restraint, and
for the most part lived on the proceeds of plunder and robbery. In
1812, though they had then already begun to forsake their former
habits, they are described as a lawless race, conspicuous as the
perpetrators of g^ng robberies and other atrocities.' In 1825
they were still one of the most turbulent predatory tribes in India.
Begular troops, even the European cavalry, had continually to be called
out against them. In no other part of In£a were the roads so insecure ;
in none were gang robberies and organised plundering excursions
more frequent, or a greater proportion of the gentry and landed
proprietors addicted to acts of violence and bloodshed.' In 1826
the Kolis were still further unsettled, by disturbances caused by
a fanatic of the name of Govind&s ; and for several years after, the
country would seem, to an unusual extent, to have suffered from their
turbulence.^ In 1832 bands of Kolis, from fifty to two hundred strong
infested the high roads. In 1833 they twice attacked the town 6t\
Mehmadabad, and on each occasion several lives were lost. Two years i
later (1835) the Collector almost in despair writes 'some special I
regulations should be made about the Kolis. No measures of
ordinary severity seem to have any effect. We never hear of a
reformed Koli, or of one whose mode of life places him beyond^
suspicion. AU seem alike, rich andpoor^ those whose necesaitidS

1 This very great increase in numbers is perhaps parUy due to the imsetiled steto
of the Kolia at the time of the 1846 census, which most haye made any complete:
record of their numbers ^dmost impossible.

■ Hamilton's Description of Hindustan, I., 692.

s Heber*s Narrative, IL, 142.

* GoYemment 500, March 2ad, 1831 ; Collector i, JTannaiy 24th| 1831, and sahsa-
qoent oorrespondenoe.

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Ch^ttit]

KAIRA-

aSord them an excuse for crime, and those whose condition Chapter IIL

places them out of the reach of distress, are alike ready on the Popvlatioii-

first opportunity of plunder.' The time of distress passed over,

and after ten years of qniet (1844) the Kolis are spoken of as ' more

peaceable and greatly subdued.' Most of them had settled down to

the work of cultivating. Still, as a rule, they were ignorant and

averse from work, and grew only the poorer and lighter crops. The

tea nest years brought some further improvement. They (1855) are

said to commit thefts and robberies only ' sometimes when impelled

by want.' They were stiU very poor, subsisting on the fruit of

mahuda trees or some wild growing vegetables. But they had now

Bome credit They could raise loans, taough the unscrupulousness

of the lender and their own ignorance and carelessness made this

change seem bat a doubtful gain. A few years later (1857) at the

time of the mutinies in Upper India, the unquiet conduct of the Eolis

caused Government much uneasiness. But their attempted risings

were promptly suppressed, and no general disturbance took place*

After the mutiny troubles were over, the period of higher prices

(1858-1864) and well paid field labour raised the Eolis to a posi^*

iion of comfort. StiU careless and improvident in their time of

posperity (1864-1870) they failed to tree themselves from their

liabrnties. The fall in prices during the next five years left many of

them poor and deep sunk in debt. Steady improvement however

eontinues; the great demand for produce during the last two

£876-1877) years has again lightened the money-lender's pressure.
_ ore land is brought under the plough, their mode of tillage is less
careless and rude, and fewer among them lead idle or vicious lives.

Of manufacturers there were three classes with a total strength of Craftsmen.
4030 souIb (males 2031, females 1999), or 0*56 per cent of the total
fiindn population. Of these 3883 (males 1957, females 1926) were
Bhavs^, calico-printers; 122 (males 63, females 59) Khatris,
Veavers; and 25 (males 11, females 14) Gh&nchis, oil-pressers.
Owing to the competition of European goods, the condition of the
BhdvB^ or calico-printers is somewhat depressed. The number of
Shatris or hand-loom weavers is very small. This is due not so
liach to the decrease of the demand for hand- woven cloth as to the
.lact that the great body of hand-loom weavers are Mnsalm&ns. For
tie same reason the number of oil-pressers is small, the business being
Ibnost entirely in the hands of Musalm&ns of the Qh&nchi class.

Of artisans whose condition on the whole is said to be good, there
were eight classes with a total strength of 30,447 souls (males
^5,832, females 14,615), or 4*27 per cent of the total Hindu popula-
tion. Of these 2740 (males 1432, females 1308) were Sonis, gold
and silver-smiths ; 9566 (males 5021, females 453Q) Suth&rs, carpen-
iers; 615 (males 263, females 252) Kansltr&s, copper-smiths ; 317
^es 172, females 145) Kadiy^s or Chun&rds, bricklayers; 17
les 8, females 9) SaUts, masons ; 5809 (males 3002, females
7) Luh£rs, blacksmiths; 2458 (males 1281, females 1177) Darjis,
iailors; and 9065 (males 4653, females 4382) Kumbh^rs, potters.

Of bards and actors there were four classes with a total strength
cf 8768 souk (males 4794, females 3974), or 1*23 per cent of
B 167-6

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[BomlMiy Oaiettaar,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter in.
Population.

Playert.

Servants.

Shepherds.

Fishers.

the whole Hinda population. Of these 7070 (males 3919^ females
8151) wereBh^ts or Barots, bards; 810 (males 444, females 866)
Ch^rans or Gh&dvis, genealogists; 103 Bhavdy^, strolling
comedians, all men; 19 (males 14, females 6) Ohandliraps or
songsters ; and 785 (males 328, females 457} Vy&sd^. The
Bh&ts or B^rots, the Bajput barda and genealogists, have lost mach
of the importance that formerly attached to them from the sanctity
of their persons. Many of them, whose chances of earning a liveli*
hood as sureties or guides have ceased, now engage in ordinary
occupations, tilling the land and lending money. Some are stifi
employed as bards or genealogists. From their head-quarters in the
Kaira district the hards travel to the most distant parts of India.
Their different stations are visited in order, generally after an
interval of two or three years. At each station they resort to castes who
claim a Bajput descent. Entertained at his patron's expense the bard

Jenerally remains in one place for several months. During this time
e notes down for each familv the births, marriages or deaths, that
have happ)Bned since his last visit. These particulars are carried awajj
and on his return to Gujar&t are entered in his records. The Bhav&y^
leading their women in northern Gujar&t, travel during the cold and
hot seasons over the province, acting plays and returning to their
homes for the rains. The Qandhraps, who teach dancing girls and
accompany their dancing performances with music, go to great
distances and are sometimes absent from their homes for avear or
two at a time. Except a few families in Ahmedabad the Yy6sd&a
are peculiar to Eaira. They claim to be of Brdhman descent of
the same stock as the Bhav&yds. But for long they have given
up acting and are now . as a rule well off, supporting themselves as
cultivators and money-lenders.

Of personal servants there were three classes with a total strength
of 11,742 souls (males 6161, females 5581), or 165 per cent of ike
whole Hindu population. Of these 10,647 (males 5600, females 6047)
were Hajims, barbers; 1079 (males 553, females 526) Dhobhi8«
washermen ; and 16 (males 8, females 8) Bhistis, water-drawers.

Of herdsmen and shepherds there were two classes with a total
strength of 7968 souls (males 4203, females 3765), or I'll per cent
of the whole Hindu population. Of thede 1500 (males 798, female^
702) were Bharvdds, and 6468 (males 3405, females 3063) Rab&n&
The Bharvdds are an inferior class of shepherds. They wander
from place to place, living in the meanest huts and with no stock
more valuable than sheep and goats. The Bab&ris are better
off. They live in towns and villages in well built houses. Thef ■
own cows and buffaloes as well as sheep and goats and are a hardy
and active set of men.

Of fishers and sailors there were three classes with a total strengA^i
of 18,639 fmales 7287, females 6352), or 1-91 per cent of the whole J
Hindu population. Of these 12,291 (males 6644, females 6747J]
were Bhois ; 61 (males 46, females 5) Kharvas, sailors ; and 1297 |
(males 697, females 600) M&chhis. Besides their employment as !
fresh-water fishers, the Kaira Bhois are cultivators, palanquin
bearers, and domestic servants.

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Giytrit]

KAIRA.

Of laboarerB and miscellaneoua workers there wore fourteen classesi
with a total strength of 19^302 souls (males 10,268, females 9034),
or 2*71 per cent of the whole Hindu population. Of these 1129
(males 530, females 599) were Gol&s, rioe-pounders ; 53 (males 38,
females 15) Bh^bhnnj^, grain narohers ; 376 (males 198, females
178) Mar6th&3 of several castes from the Deccan, employed chiefly
in domestic service; 27 (males 19, females 8^ Pnrabi&s of several
Wtes from Northern India, employed chiefly in domestic service ;
¥35 (males 138, femaIes97)M&rv&dis, labourers; 140 (males 67,female8
173) Eal&ls, liqaor-sellers ; 1081 (males 546, females 535) Ods, well
diggers; 10,906 (males 5863, females 5043) Ydghris, fowlers, hunters
and beggars; 4076 (males 2198, females 1878) B&vali^, cotton-tape*
makers and beggars ; 71 (males 84, females 37) Bavchte and Pomks,
wparently of Deccan origin, labourers; 24 (males 11, females 13)
■vidis, jugglers ; 25 (males 14, females 11) Vanj&r&s, grain carriers ;
1159 (males 612, females 547) Bdj4ni&s, acrobats. Except the Grol&s,
Bhidbhunj^, Mar&th&s, Pnrabids, and Kal^, whose earnings suffice
lor the ordinary expenses, these classes are poor, ill clad, and without
eredit.

Of workers in leather there were two classes, with a total strength
of 13,706 souls (males 7197, females 6509), or 1*92 per cent of the
whole Hindu population. Of these 2980 (males 1532, females
1448) were Mochis, shoemakers in good condition ; and 10,726
(males 5665, females 5061) Ch&madi&s, tanners, one of the depressed
» unclean classes, in poor condition.

; . Besides the Ch&madi^ there were five depressed castes with a total
JMreogthof 61,834 souls (males 32,3 75, females 29,459), or 8*68 per
leutof the whole Hindu population. Of these 1846 (males 946, females
MO) were Oarudas or Dhed priests; 42,732 (males 22,384, females
10,348) Dheds, weavers and carriers of dead animals; 1905(males 1003,
iieioales 902) Sindhv^, a sub-division of Dheds ; 365 (males 191,
jiBmales 174) Turis, another sub-division of Dheds; 14,986 (males
|)851, females 7135) Bhangi&s, or sweepera The Dheds, distinguished
•like for industry and for general good behaviour, were 'formerly
J&pported in tolerable comfort by weaving coarse cotton cloth. But
ilieestftblishment of steam weaving mills in Bombay and their spread
ftiou^h the chief towns of Qujar&t has flooded the markets with
ftpnl^ of a cloth, cheaper, but in other respects similar to the
fmuoe of the Dhed hand-looms. Failing to compete with this
|team-woven cloth, and from their degraded position unable to
iroenre employment in the steam factories, many of the Dheds are
lUing into great poverty. The Bhangito are also in a miserable
condition.

Devotees and religious mendicants of various names, Brahma-
Aiais, YnirigiB, Gos&is, S&dhus, and Jogis, numbered 8754 (males
Sl74, females 3580), or 1 '23 per cent of the whole Hindu popula*
pxm. The fame of D&kor and Yadtal attracts many religious
|be^ar& At D&kor several resident devotees, S6dhus, Vairigis, and
iOof^, some of them possessed of much wealth, support monasteries
or maths, where large numbers of religious beggars are daily fed.

Among the five British districts of Qujar&t, as regards the propor-

Chapter in*
Fopulatbm.

MiaoeUaneoM.

Leather workon.

Depreeaed ClB08es«

Beggars.

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[BomlMiy Gaietfeaer,

DISTRIC3TS.

Sip4hi8,

Chapter in. tion of MoBalm&i inhabitants, Kaira stands third with 70,741 souls
FapulatiaiL. ^^ about nine per cent of the district population. Of their whole
number 17,701 were in 1872 returned as settled in the sub-division
Muinlmtos. of Nadi^, 11,808 in A'nand, 9836 in ThAsra, 8486 in Kapadvanj,
and 7291 in Mehmadabad. Exclusive of 22,017 females and 26,8U
children, in all 48,331 or 68*32 per cent of the whole, the male adult
Musalmdn poprdation (22,410) were in 1872 employed as follows:
in Government or other public service 1260; in professions 301;
in personal service 459; in agriculture 13,552; in trade 526;
in mechanical arts and manufactures 5557; and in miscellaneoufl
callings 755.

In addition to the four regular divisions, Syeds, Sheikhs, Path&ns^
and Moghals, numbering altogether 24,170 souls or about one-third
of the whole, there are several classes almost all of them descend*
ants of converted Hindus, cultivators, traders, oil-pressers, weavers,
and bricklayers. Of these the chief are the Sipdhia 15,649, village
servants and cultivators ; the Bohor&s 13,985, traders and oil-pressers ;
the Molesal&ms 7066, land-owners and cultivators; the Maleks
6761, land-owners and cultivators; the Tdis and Momn&s 668, weavers
of cotton cloth ; and the Chunirits 400, bricklayers. There is
besides a considerable miscellaneous population, chiefly of barbers,
butchers, and beggars.

The Sip^his are probably the descendants of the mercenary troops-
who, in the reign of Ahmad I. (1412-1443), received allotments of
land. They still, to a large e^^tent, act as village messengers, and
watchmen, rdvanids. As cultivators, men of this as well as of other
classes of Kaira Muhammadans hold a very low position. In 1875
they are described as in more depressed circumstances than the Kolis
or any other caste or tribe. Lazy, ignorant, and careless, they labour
under the special disadvantage, that their women do not help them
in field work.

Of the two classes of Bohor&3, the more important both in number :
and in wealth, are the Shia Bohords, the followers of the MuQa !
S&beb of Surat. In 1877, of 7733 the total strength of this class,
4758 belonged to the D&ud, and 2975 to the Sulem&n sub-^vision.
These Shia Bohor&s are townsmen and traders. In Kapadvanj,
their head-quarters, their large, well built, and neatly kept dwellings
ornament the town. And their capital and vigour maintain an
important trade in glass, soap, and camelian stones. Unlike those of
their class in Broach, the Sunni Bohor&s of E^aira are not cultivatcra.
Some of them are cartmen and carriers. But most are oil-presserSy
and so as a class they are known as Ghdnchi Bohor&s. Speaking :
Gujar&ti in their homes, marrying only among their own class, in food, |
dress, and mode of living unlike ordinary Musalm£ns, there seems i
little reason to doubt that most, if not all, of these men are Hindnsi
of the Ghinchi, or oil-presser caste, converted to IsUm under one of;
the Musalm&n sovereigns of Ahmedabad. An active and thrifty!
class, they have as carriers lost much from the competition of tbo!
railway. But in pressing oil they still find st^uly and well paid
work.

MoleeaUms. The Molesaldms or slaves of IsMm, Rajputs half converted during

Boboris,

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Qiljarit]

KAIRA.

die reign of Mahmud Begada (1459-1611) are for the moflt part Chaptw UL
ealtiyators in poor circumstances. The rest, representatives of old Fopolatioii*
Bajput houses, still, as thdkora and tdlukddrs^ form a somewhat
important class of landed gentry.

Another class of Hindu converts to Isldm, the Maleks are settled Malekt.

ehiefly in the Thfora sub-division. They h old twenty-five villages, the
levelopment of twelve villages originally granted to them in reward
ior signal services at the siege of Pdv&gad or Chdmpdner (1484-1486).
Among these Maleks, some are superior and some are inferior holders.
iBut all are thriftless, wanting in energy, and very generally addicted
to the use of opium.^

Though the T&is and Momn&s are classed together in the census TAis.

returns, they are in many respects distinct. Hindus of the Ehatri
ca8te,^weavers by occupation, the T&is are said to have taken
Iheirname from a class of Musalm&n weavers of that name in
Benares. Sunnis in religion, their conversion is said to date from
4ie reign of Mahmud Begada (1459-1511). They are at present all
Weavers, and intermarry with the lower class of Sunni Musalm&ns.
At their homes they speak Gujardti, and both men and women dress
Eke Hindus.

MomniLs or Momins, that is, believers, are Shi&s in religion. Ori- Momnia

^ally of several different castes, carpenters, blacksmiths, and weavers,
liiomn&s, at present, besides weaving, follow many callings, cckrpenters,
locksmiths, bricklayers, calico-printers, and carriage drivers. They
jfere converted about 300 years ago by a Musalm&n saint of the
[lame of Kabir-ud-din, whose disciples they still are. They are a
{fiiet people, very religious, moderately well off, and about the most
indostrious of the converted classes. At their homes they speak
fOajar&ti, and both men and women dress like Hindus, the men in
iome cases shaving the beard.

I Of the total P&rsi population of sixty-eight souls, seven were PtoU.

^led in the Thdsra sub-division, forty in Mehmadabad, two in
Sitar, fifteen in Nadi^, two in A'nand, and two in Borsad. Ezclu-
live of fourteen women and thirty-one children, the adult male
(opnlation were employed in 1872 chiefly as clerks in Grovemment
Mi Railway offices.

Of the three hundred and five Christians, all, except the European GhristianB.

undents, are native converts. Kh&siv&di, or the beautiful village in
,iie Borsad sub-division, begun in 1847, with two families, has now
11877) thirty -one families of one hundred and twenty-one souls.
Except a stamp vendor, a contractor, and the agents of the mission,
the people are cultivators and weavers. In 1843, two Hindus of the
Ksi&L or hquor-seUing class, told the Surat missionaries of the
Iiondon Society, that many of the people of the Mahi K&ntha had
^ strong wish to become Christians. In consequence of this two
Vembers of the Surat mission, Messrs. Flower and Clarkson, came to
Mahi E&ntha. At first they settled in Baroda, but meeting with

1 Gov. Sel., CXIV., 811.

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[fiomlyay QaMtteec,

DISTRICTS.

Cihaptarin.
Popolatioii.

ChxiBtiaDB.

DweUioga.

opposition, they moved into British territory and started settlements
ati)ehv&n and Borsad. That at Dehv^ did not succeed, but m
Borsadj besides Kh^v^, with its thirty-one families, the derotiQii
of the Rev. J.Y.S. Taylor, who lived there for twenty-eight yean, has
been rewarded by the steady growth of the Eh&siv&di village, and
by the establishment of Christian communities in about sixty other
villages of the Borsad and A'nand sub-divisions.^ Though iJie first
Christians were P&tid&rs, Kolis, and Kal&ls, and a few Brahm&ns,
Ydni&s, BhavB&rs, and Tal&vi&s, the mass of tibe converts has come
from the Dhed caste. Since their conversion, though caste-feeling lias
lingered in the minds of several, there has been some intermarriage
of castes. Y&ni&B have married girls belonging to Patid&r and Eoli
families ; P&tid&rs have married Eoli and Dhed girls ; Kolis have
married Dhed and Tal&via ^Is ; and Dheds have married Eoli girk.
The discipline in the Christian villages is ecclesiastic. Till thef
show signs of repentance, those who openly lead immoral lives may
not join in the cnurch communion. Sunday is pretty carefully kept
as a day of rest and religious observance. The only ceremonial
occasions are at baptism, communion, marriage, and death, when
the rites are according to the rules of the Presbyterian CSLarclL.
The expenses on sucm occasions are left entirely to the people's
pleasure. Sometimes, both among the poor and the well-to-do, on
a wedding nothing more than from IO9. to £1 (Bs. 5-10) for tka
wedding dress is spent. Occasionally the friends of the bride and
the bridegroom are asked to a social meal, and rarely the invitation
is extended to the whole community. The use of animal food
is allowed. But owing to its cost few people indulge in it«^
Intoxicating drinks are strongly discouraged,and drunkenness is mosl
uncommon. Opium is forbidden, and from their cost few familiet
use tea or cofEee. The monthly expenditure on food is estimated td
vary from 89. (Rs. 4) a head in a well-to-do, to 80. (Rs. 1-8-0) a kadi
in a poor family. Except for a slight improvement in cleanlineBS^
Christians dress as they used to do when they were Hindus, pooc
families spending from lOa. to 12^. (Rs. 5-6), and the well-to-dfti
from £1 to £1-10«. (Rs. 10-15) a year. All cluldren are taught t^
read and write. The amusements of the young are such as ar«
common among Hindus, bat and ball and other simple games. Talk
is the adults' one pastime, though some of it is light and some!
scandalous, a good deal is rel^ous. No one has shown speeial|
musical talent, but many are fond of music, and have learned severdt
European airs.'

Except in the Th&ra and Eapadvanj sub-divisions, where small
hamlets are numerous, the people are collected in large towns an^
villages. In this district there is one village or town to about eved

" ^ w!

I The commtimties vary in strength from one to twelve famUies. In the year VBtf
an off-shoot from Borsad migrated to Sh^h^yddi near Ahmedabad, others to Oo^
Boiat, and Rajkot Aocording to the latest mission censna (1878) the total popil^
of native ChxistianB in Gojar&t and K&thiAw^ numbers 847 or with 893 nnb^M
adherents a total community of 1740 sonls. Of these 1166 were in Eaiia, 487 in ^
Borsad, and 679 in the A'nand snb^diyision. —Irish Pxesbytexiaa Mifl8io& BffpAj
1878 7. I

9 Contributed by the Rev. J. V. 8. Taylor.

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(hdar^tl

KAIBA.

three Banare miles of land, each villagd containing an average o£
1833 iimabitants, and about 872 hooses. Many viUageB were once
vailed, but the fortifications of most are now in ruins. With the
nception of the people of thirteen towns, numbering 137,297 souls or
|7*54 per cent of the entire inhabitants, the population of the Kaira
iifitrict^ according to the census returns of 1872, lived in 674
tillages, with an average of 1124 souls per village. Five towns had
jhore than 10,000, and eight more than 5000 iiSiabitants. Exclud-
jbg the thirteen towns and 518 hamlets, there were 574 inhabited
itote and alienated villages, giving an average of 0*36 villages to
mk square mile, and 1338*44 inhabitants to each village. Of the
whole number of villages, forty-eight had less than 200 inluibitants |
one hundred and thirty-four from 200 to 500 ; one hundred and fifty*
iwo from 500 to 1000 ; one hundred and fifty-one from 1000 to
lOOOj fifty-nine from 2000 to 8000; and thirty from 8000 to 5000. As
i^gards the number of houses, there was in 1872 a total of 218,596
IT on an average 136*62 houses to the square mile, showing
iompared with 150,628 in 1846 an increase of 45*12 per cent. Ctf
ike total number, 65,685 houses lodging 208,583 persons, or 26*65

Kcent of the entire population at the rate of 3*18 souls to each
m were buildings with walls of fire-baked bricks and roofs of tile,
the remaining 152,911 houses, accommodating 554,150 persons or
fe*8o per cent with a population per house of 3'75 souls, included
^ boildings covered with thatch or leaves or whose outer walls
^re of mud or sun-dried brick. The mud and thatch huts are
gond chiefly in the hamlets and small villages; towns and large
Wages showing a great number of well-built and prosperous looking
jlireUings. Besides the increase in the number of houses, there has,
Poring the last thirty years, especially among the Eolis, been a
iarked advance in the style of building, and now the cheapening of the
■pplies of stone and timber by the opening of the railway to the Mahi
jiul do much to help house-building. The Koli hamlets in the east
It the district and luong the banks of the Mahi were in 1844 almost
iWarely straw huts. In 1876 an inquiry made by the Collector
|lK>wea that in thirty-four Koli villages, of a total of 6281 houses,
R were of the first, 5043 of the second, and only 1146 of the third
h Btraw-hut class. Another class had in 1844 already done much
lo improve their houses. These were Br&hmans, Ydnias, and other
Dndus of capital, who under the former Grovernment had from
far of exaction been careful to give no sign of * their possession of
Health.

' Under laud tenures some description wiU be found of the constitu-
loEU of the two classes of villages, the simple or senja, and the
llarehold or narvdddri. Village servants belong to two classes)
ifcose useful to Government, and those useful to the village com-
ity. Under the first head come the village headmen ; the revenue
ughrdtdd/r, or collector; the police, nrnkhiy i>r chief;
village accountant, taldii ; watchmen or messengers, rdvanids
rahhas ; the tracker, pagi ; and sweepers and police of the Dhed
1 Bhangia castes. Y^age headmen are as a rule hereditary. In
Elapadvanj, and Mehmadabad, there are more Koli TiUages

Chapter UL
Fopulattoiu

DweUiDga.

Oommaiiitiei.

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[Bombay Gasetteeri

DISTRICTS.

Oiapter IIL ^]^j^ Jq other parts of the district, and in these the headman is usaally
PopulatLon. a Eoli* In others, the headmen are Mnsalm&ns, Rajputs, and occa-
sionally Brdhmans and V&ni^, but the majority are Eanbis. The
rdvanida, or village watchmen and messengers, wear belts and are paid
sometimes in land and sometimes in money. The duties of pagis,
rakhdSf and hhangids, vair considerably in different Tillages. Besides
his regxdar work as a tracker, the pagi is in some villages a watchman.
The raJchds do duty as police and watchmen. The Bhangids are
sweepers, carriers of dead animals, and guides.^ Except the village
accountant or taldti, who receives only money, village servants are
paid either in cash or land or in both.' The servants useful to tiie
village community are the village priest, ghamot or bhat ; the potter,
humbhdr ; the barber, hajdm ; the blacksmith, luhdr ; the carpenter,
authdr ; ilie tailor, darji ; and the water-^drawer, kosio. These men
are paid by the villages in grain and cash. The potter, the barb^,
and the blacksmith also enjoy Qovemment land on payment of one
quarter to one-half of the full rent. Every village has its headman,
its accountant, its messengers, its priest, its watchmen, and its
sweepers. The extent to which any village supports the other
members of the complete staff depends on its size and its distance
from large villages or .country towns. Though some villages are called
pdtiddri or sharehold, that is Eunbi, and others, dhdrdlcfi or armed,
that is Koli, the whole of the people do not in any case belong to
one caste. Besides cultivators of different castes, few villages are
without a shopkeeper, either a Y&nia or a Br^man. '

Migration. Thirty-four years ago (1844) the Kaira people are described as most

unwilling to leave their villages. They were said never to move
unless forced by extreme poverty or inability to pay their debts.
Eleven years later (1855) when the Panch Mahdls were transferred
to the Bombay Government, the Eaira Collector complained that
in spite of the most advantageous offers none but a few discontented
individuals were willing to taJce land. Though this dislike to moving
is still true of the bulk of the people, the increased pressure of popu*
lation and the easier means of travelling have united to make consi*
derable sections of the Eaira population willing to leave the distrid
in search of work. Of the higher classes, some Bohor&s and Y4mafl
go as traders as far as Bombay and Poena. These men generally
leave their families behind them, returning to them when they can.

1 Details of the position and duties of the different classes of village servants am
given in the Broach Statistical Account.— Bombay Gazetteer, IL, 381-387.

> Oapt. Crnikshank {20th December, 1826) in his Nadiid Survey Beport says:— "Tli^
blacksmith,ZuA^r,TeceiveB annually ftom each cultivator fifty poundsof grain perplongl^
and in return keeps all agricultural implements in repair. The carpenter, nrlAdr
receives in like manner, and on the like conditions, sixty pounds ; the potter, hmbhdr
forty pounds ; the twlor, darji, forty pounds ; and the barber, vdJand, forty ponndaJ
At all village marriages the blacksmith brings a small iron lamp or IdmaiM&po^
receiving two shillings in return ; the carpenter brings a hdjat or wooden stool, and id,
paid two shillings ; the potter supplies earthen pots for tiie marriage feast and geti
three shillings. The tailor brings no offering, but receives upon the marriage of a bo«
one shilling, and upon that of a girl two and half pence. The barber ispaidthMI
shillings upon the marriage of a shareholder, pdHddr, and two shillings upon that ol

s Dh&rila» an anned mtto.— E&thi^wdr Sel., Part I., 4.

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KAIRA.

bringing their savings to spend in their native town, and in their place
of trade owning nothing but their office and its scanty necessary
furniture. Others of the educated classes move to Bombay> Baroda,
and Bdjkot, in search of Government or other employ* Like the
merchant, they keep a house in their native town. But unlike him,
Ihey generally take their families with them« Of artisans, carpen^
ters, sawyers, and brickmakers, go every fair season to the Baroda
and Broach districts, offering their services to house builders^ By
this meauB they generally earn a good sum of money, living on an
allowance of grain, and taking back with them almost the whole of
their money wages. Of personal servants^ many barbers leaving
their families at home, go to Surat and Bombay ana stay there for one
t)r two years at a time. Of carriers there are the Musalm&n Gh&nchis
or oiluten, who in four^or-five-pair bullock wagons take large quanti-
ties of tobacco to Batl&m, Indor, and M&lwa, bringing back wheat
and mahuda flowers, and the Vanj&r&s on their pack bullocks, bring-
ing wheat and Indian com from Malwa and taking back salt. Of
the lower classes, besides tho professional wanderers, the religious
beggars, the Ods or wandering diggers, and the shepherds, unskilled
field laboar^rs to some extent, move about the district in search of
Work. During the year these men find employment in three different
|)laces ; in September and October, in the Matar rice lands ; in January,
m the cotton districts south of the Mahi and west of Garabay ; and in
)laapch> in the Ahmedabad wheat country. These labourers, Kolis,
&hils, and Dheds, have of late years, by the use of steam gins, lost
Iheir best paid employment, the hand ginning of cotton. In former
; times, after about four months of cotton ginning, a man and his wife
and one or two children used to come back with savings amounting
to nearly £10 (Rs. 100).^

1 A'oand MimUtdiir's Report (1876)«

Chapter m
Popnlatioit

Migratiioiu

»ie7— 6

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Chapter 17.
Agriculture.

CHAPTEK IV.

AGRICULTURE.

Agbicultubs^ tlie most important industry of the district, snp-
ports 529,334 persons or 67*62 per cent of the entire population.^

The soils of the district are of four chief kinds, light or gordi,
medium or besar, black or Jcdli, and alluyial or hhdtha. For agri-
cultural purposes each of these main classes includes several varietiea
The light or gordt is the prevailing soil, varying in quality from Uie
loose grained yellow sand of the fields near l£e Sdbarmati and the
Mahi to a rich light-brown mould, common in the central sub-divisions,
and found to perfection in the south-west comer of M&tar. The
richer variety, known as gorddu besa/r, contains a large proportion of
organic matter, and seems to a great extent to be artificial, the result
of the careful tillage of the EAubi cultivators. Under medium or
besar, come several soils, varying from heavy sands to light clays.
Soils of this class are pretty generally distributed over the whole
district, though nowhere over any large area. Under black or kdU,
come a clayey sedimentary soil that collects in low lands and ponds ;
the salt or knar* and the cotton land in the south-west of M4tar ; the
rice land in the north near the Khdri river ; the waste and ill-dnuned
mdl or upland, in Kapadvan j and Th^ra ; and a coarse, shallow, and
dry soil, called mardi, found near the river Mahi. As a rule, the Kaira
black soil is poor. It is scarcely ever deep, and is most of it mixed
either with soda or limestone. Alluvial soil or bhdtha is chiefly
found near the Vatrak river. This, without dressing or fallow, yields
year after year rich crops of tobacco, safflower, and other garden
produce.

^ This total (529,334) ia made np of the foUowing items :—

(1) Adult males engaged in agriculture as per census of 1872

(2) Wives of ditto calculated on the basis of the proportion the total
adult female population of the district bears to the total adult
nude population

(3) Children of 1 and 2 calculated on a similar basis

Total

176.661

159,144
193,539

529,334

This calculation is necessary because the census returns, including many of the
women under VII. (MisceUaneous), show a total of only 112 under the special head
Adult Agricultural Females.

* At the time of the last survey (1862) between Limb&si and Ohinor, in the west of
Mdtar, was a ^nde tract of black soil, covered with a hoar frost or snow-like crosti
called Uuir, This tract was supposed to have been once subject to flooding at spring
tides. In 1862 the salt or khdr crust was said to be encroaehinff, and to appear bt
iU-drained lands where rain-water stagnated.— Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIY., 417|441.

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KAIRA.

The state or Ichdlsa villages of the district contain 985^541 acres,
of which 345,016 acres or 36*87 per cent are alienated, paying only
a qoit-rent to the state, and 109,982 acres or 11'75 per cent are
unarable waste. The total area of state arable land is therefore
480,543 acres, of which 387,711 acres or 80'68 per cent are
occupied; and 92,832 or 19*32 per cent are nnoccnpied. Of this
92,832 acres of nnoccnpied arable land, 5665 acres inclnding grazing
lands, homesteads, and burial places cannot be taken up for cnltiva-
tion. The whole available area of onoccapied arable land is therefore
reduced to 87,167 acres or 18*13 per cent of the total stete arable land.
Most of the nnoccnpied arable land consists of the poor tracts in
Matar in the west, and in Thdsra and Eapadvanj in the east of the
district. Of the 387,711 occupied acres, 25,779 or 6*64 per cent
consist of garden land ; 58,404 or 15*07 per cent of rice land ;
803,528 or 78*29 per cent of dry crop land. Of the rice land, 18,658
teres are irrigated, and 39,746 acres nnirrigated.

In the Matar sub-division, except from the Eh&ri of which some

account has been given above, irrigation is carried on chiefly from

wells and ponds. After the close of the cold season almost none of

the ponds hold any large supply of water. They can therefoire be

used only for irrigating rice lands. The depth of the water-bearing

Btiata varies much in different parts of the district. Averaging

fliirty.five feet in the west or Mdtar sub-division, in some low-lying

[ Imds in Nadiad it is only twenty-five feet from the surface. In the

: Borth it averages about forty-five feet, and in the south, along the

I Xahi, varies from 70 to 140 feet. In the parts of A'nand and Borsad

: bordering on the Mahi, the heavy cost of wells and a certain brackish-

tess in the water prevent any large amount of well-irrigation, and

fliough in ordinary years the crops are but little less valuable than

: &06e on irrigated lands in seasons of scanty or ill-timed rain, the

fant of water is keenly felt. The chief irrigated crops are rice,

I tobacco, wheat, sugarcane, and garden produce. In 1876-77, of the

I total cultivated area, 42,585 acres or 12*47 per cent were irrigated.

; Of the irrigated land, 17,758 acres were under rice. In that year

: tbe returns showed 104 wells with steps, 9237 wells without steps,.

581 water-lifts or dhekudis, and 4600 ponds. The wells most com-

nonly in use in Kaira are rdmia or deep, the sundia or shallow

l)eing found only in a part of the M&tar sub-division. The rdmhia

wells yield at one time from two to eight kos or leather bags full

rf water, and the sundia from two to four. Prom most Kaira wells

four leather bags can be drawn at a time.*

In light sandy fields the area one pair of bullocks can plough
varies from nine acres for the common dry crops to six acres for

Chapter IT.
Agriculture.

Arable area.

IrrigatioiL.

'Aplooglu*

^ The present (1877) estimatee for sinking wells, based on the cultivators' state-
>eoti« are for a brick and mortar-bnilt well from thirty to sixty feet deep for
«ne water bag £30 to £68 (Ks. 300-680) and for two water bags £40 to £80
(Ba 400-800). A ninety-feet deep brick-built weU for one bag would cost £100
(Ba. 1000), for two £150 (Re. 1500.) Kundal wells with wooden foundations
ud sides of baked day rings, can only be sunk from thirty to fifty feet ; they
Mst half as much as a brick and mortar weU. Water can be drawn from holes
ong in nver beds at a cost of from 10«. to £1 109. (Bs. 5-15).

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[Bombay Gasetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV>
Agriciiltiiro>

HoldiogB.

garden or other high-class tillage. Id black soil the corresponding
area is for wheat and cotton twenty-five acres^ for safflower and
tobacco ten acres, and for rice five acres.

The following statement shows^ in acres^ the average size of a
holding ascertained at the time (1861-1867) of the introdaction of
the existing survey leases : —

Kaira IToldmga in Acres^ 186U18€7»

SlOL

Bomd.

A'nand.

MflhiiMdA-

Xitar.

Thiaim.

Kadiid.

Average acreage of
farms

lOA

5tt

This^ as was to. be expected in a district with so crowded aa
agricultural population, shows a low average holding. A peasant's
family cannot, it is estimated, be kept in comfort on less than three
acres of garden, five of rice land, and eight of dry crops. Cultivators
with smaller holdings eke out the profits of their fields by working
as labourers on the lands of their richer neighbours.

During the years (1861-1867) of the present settlement, 104,009
distinct holdings or khdtas were recorded with an average area of
7\l acres, and a rental of £1 15«. 6d. (Rs. 17-12-0). These holdings
would represent, if divided in equal parts among the agricultural
population, for each person an allotment of two acres, at a yearly
rent of 9«. 8d. (Rs. 4-13-4). If distributed among the whole popu-
lation of the district, the share per head would amount to 1^ acrea^
and the incidence of the land tax to 6^. 4^^. (Rs. 3-3-0). In 1 875-76
the total number of holdings, including private or alienated villages
and the estates of superior land-holders, was 107,918. Of the tbtid
number, 62,501 or more than one-half were holdings of not more
than five acres in area.^

Kaira Holding Details,

1875-76.

AaBxs.

Mehma-
dabad.

Kapad-
vanj.

MadUd.

Thiara.

A'nand.

Borsad.

M4tar.

Totals

7080

6698

16,038

9390

9707

6920

8768

8i,S01

6 10

820O

3812

4838

8328

4184

8146

8350

25,866

10 20

20i0

2608

2108

1669

2163

2103

1814

14,27«

20 60

486

760

687

827

784

923

740

4657

60 100

149

186

669

100 200

120

200 800

...

t»

800 4'»0

...

400 600

...

6i'0 760

...

760 1000

...

1000 1600

...

1600 iOOO

...

Above aooo

•-

...

Total

12,779

12,724

2i,e31

14,640

17.028

13,821

14.726

107^1S

1 Revenue Commissioner's 814, March 1st, 1877. Mostof theholdingB of 200
and upwards are the estates of superior landholders.

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fligartt]

EAIRA. 45

Dnring the year 1877-78, 109,009 distinct holdings or khdtaa were Cliapter IV.
recorded, with an average area of 6i acres, and rental of £1 15«. lOJd. A-»-,-Zru--n
(Ra 17-15-0). These holdings, if divided in equal parts among the ^«"<^^i^«-
agricultnral population, would represent an allotment of two acres
and two guntds, at a yearly rent of 11«. lid. (Rs. 5-9-0) . If distributed
tmongst the whole popcdation of the district, the share per head
would amount to one acre and thirteen guntds, and the incidence of
flie land tax to 7«. 5|d. (Rs. 3-11-10).

According to the Collector's administration report for 1876-77, stock,
the agricultural stock in Government or khdlsa villages amounted to
66,467 ploughs, 28,791 carts, 128,247 bullocks, 49,264 cows, 190,538
buffaloes, 2366 horses, 53,880 sheep and goats, and 6325 asses.

As the details of agricultural processes, crops, and cost of cultiva-
ition, given in the general chapter on the agriculture of Gujar&t
i apply to Eaira, only a few points of local importance are noticed in
I this place.

Of 362,222 acres the total area of occupied land, 20,754 acres or Crope.

8*73 per cent were in the year 1876-77 fallow or under grass. Of the

841,468 acres^ under cultivation, grain crops occupied 301,709* or

88'37 per cent, of which 123,223 acres were under bdjri, Penicillaria

qncata; 58,898 under rice, ddngar, Oryza sativa; 38,845 under

: kvdr, Sorghum vulgare ; 36,544 under kodra, Paspalum scrobicu-

ihtniD ; 29,261 under bdvto, Panicum frumentaceum; 11,251 under

I wheat, ghauy Triticum sBstivum ; 3231 under barley, jav, Hordeum

I hexastichon ; and 456 under miscellaneous cereals, comprising maize,

nakaiy 2iea mays, kdng, Panicum italicum, and rdjagro, Amaran-

tns paniculatus. Pulses occupied 27,082 acres or 7'93 per cent, of

which 8255 acres were under math, Phaseolus aconitif olius; 6825 under

ferer, Cajanus indicus; 5148 under gram, chana, Cicer arietinum;

8678 under mag, Phaseolus radiatus ; 1933 under guvdr, Cyamopsis

K)ralioides ; and 2243 under miscellaneous pulses, comprising adad,
aseoluB mungo, ehola, Vigna catiang and vdl, Dolichos lablab.
Oil seeds occupied 3419 acres or one per cent, of which 980 acres
were under gingelly oil-seed, tal, Sesamum indicum ; two acres under
rape seed, sarsav, Brassica napus ; and 2437 under other oil seeds,
details of which are not available. Fibres occupied 4239 or 1*24
per cent, of which 4122 acres were under cotton, kapds, Gossypium
ierbaceum; and 117 under Bombay hemp, uan, Crotalaria juncea.
Miscellaneous crops occupied 19,620 acres or 5*74 per cent, of which
10,161 acres were under tobacco, tambdku, Nicotiana tabacum ;
3051 under safflower, kusumbo, Garthamus tinctorius; 2216 under
Bugarcaae, serdi, Saccharum oflficinarum; 1305 under cummin seed,
jtrw, Cuminum cyminum ; 536 under indigo, gali, Indigofera tinc-
toria; 118 under poppy, khaskhas, Papaver somniferum j and 2233
nnder miscellaneous vegetables and fruits.

The following statement contrasts the area of Government
assessed land under cultivation in 1859-60 and in 1876-77 : —

] Of 341,468 acres, 14,601 acres were twice cropped.

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DISTRICTS.

[Bombay Gaiettaer,

Oiaptar IT.
Agricultiiro*

Oropa.

Kaira CuUivatum, 1860 a$id 1877,

MiUet

Cropped Aorea.

CmoT.

Inoreaae

Deeraaaa

peroent.

1869^.

1876-77.

Acrea.

Aorea.

rBltwlnhndc

88.oaa

68,888

78-68

Wheat

7100

ll,i5l

88-46

...

Onln

Indian mmet,>«vdr ...
Common „ Mjri ...

41^14

88,846

•..

1<»,906

128,333

80M

...

^Coane grain

27,L0a

68,943

188-40

mm.

Piilies» ...

...

37,083

...

OU seeds

...

8410

...

vn.*— j Cotton

FIbrw ... ... Hg^p

52M

4133
117

...

31-87

iw Indigo

"' 860

686

"48-88

•..

1078

8061

I88t»

Tobaooo

10,637

"iJS

...

4-88

iriannllmniiniu VewUbleS Mid Sllloeft...

10,130

«..

«5-04

1787

3316

34-00

...

.Poppy

...

118

...

Total ...

M2,417

866,068

46-88

87M

30,764

446-87

...

Total ...

946^12

876,638

68-05

...

IMiMf—Twloa cropped land ..

...

14,801

...

Total ...

946,313

868,333

...

This statement shows that during the seventeen years ending
with 1876-77^ no less than 116,010 acres of waste land were brought
under cultivation. The most remarkable advance is in the breadth
of rice and wheat tillage ; the rice increasing 24,976 acres or 73*63
per cent, and the wheat 4151 acres or 58*46 per' cent. Other
kinds of cereals and pulses have in the aggregate increased by
87,820 acres or 51*46. The area under safflower has risen by 1973
acres or 183 per cent, that under indigo by 176 acres or 48'89 per
cent, and that under sugarcane by 429 acres or 24 per cent. On
the other hand cotton is less by 1134 acres or 21*57 per cent^ and
tobacco by 466 acres or 4*38 per cent.

Among the district crops common millet, bdjri, Penicillaria spicata,
holds the first place with in 1876-77, 123,223 acres or 3608 per cent
of the whole tillage area. Compared with 1859-60 the returns for
1876-77 show an increase of millet cultivation amounting to 21,017
acres or 20*56 per cent. Millet is grown in all the lighter or
gordt soils. It is sown in June and reaped in the latter part of
September. With it are grown math, Phaseolus aconitLfolius ;
mag, Phaseolus radiatus, and other pulses, which, taking longer to
ripen, remain in the field a month after the millet crop has been
• reaped. Their growth seems not to interfere with the growth of
the millet, and the double crop has this advantage, that often when
the millet fails the pulse yields freely. The parts of the district best

1 In 1S69-60 pulsea seem to have been included in grains, and oil aeeda in vegotabte
and spices. Poppy and hemp were not shown separately.

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Chgarit]

KAIRA.

Baited for millet are the poorer soils, especially near the banks of
the MahL The straw, tnough not so yalaable as Indian millet,
juvar, straw, is generally ased as fodder for cattle. Millet is the
people's staple grain and their principal article of food.

Kodra, Paspalam scrobiculatum, and bdvtOy Panicum frumenta-
OBum, hold the second place with in 1876-77, 65,805 acres or 19*27
per cent of the whole tillage area. Grown chiefly by the poorer
coltivators, kodra and bdvto along with common millet, bdjri, form
the staple food of the lower classes.

Bice, ddnga/r, Oryza sativa, holds the third place with in 1876-77,
<8,898 acres or 17*24 per cent of the whole tillage area. Compared
with 1859-60 the retnms for 1876-77 show an increase of rice cnlti-
TatioQ amounting to 24,976 acres or 73 '63 per cent. The best rice
p nosed in the Kh&ri villages of the M&tar snb-division. These
knds are of black soil, the fields embanked, and most of them watered
bom the Kh&ri canal. The yonng plants, sown about the middle of
Jane in richly manured nurseries, are moved into the fields in July
«d August. For about two months, until the ear begins to show, much
VBter is wanted, and if the direct rainfall is scanty, supplies must be
drawn from wells and ponds. In other parts of the district, rice of
•n inferior quality is, without watering, grown in low-lying lands of
Mack or medium, hesar, soil Thi3 unirrigated variety covering in
1876, 37,767 acres or 64*12 per cent of the whole area under rice
pitivation, is a coarse grain used chiefly for local consumption.

I .'Indian millet, juvdr, Sorghum vulgare, holds the fourth place
iith in 1876-77, 38,845 acres or 11-37 per cent of the whole tillage
plea. In Kaira common millet, bdjri, takes the place of Indian
Idlet, juvdr, which is less grown than in south Gujar&t,

.Wheat, though still a crop of little importance, has spread from
fWl acres in 1860 to 11,251 acres in 1876. It is sown from the
pgmning of October to the end of November and reaped in March.
Pree sorts are grown, Ddudkhdn or dudhia, a high class wheat,
pBooth-grained and white ; dhola or kdiha, a low class wheat, hard
M brown ; and a medium variety, dhdlia or vajia. The high class
p dudhia, wheat grows only in black soil. For a good harvest the
peH should be fallow both before and after its wheat crop. It
fbuld be ploughed from three to ten times, and unless the soil is
lithe best it should be manured. This sort of wheat requires forty

Ends of seed to sow an acre. The middling, vajia, and the poor«
kt, grow either in black or in sandy-black soil. For a good
field, except in the best black soils, manure is wanted, but neither
tafore nor after cropping is a fallow required. To sow an acre
Skey both want sixty pounds of seed. The local wheat produce
|l not enough for the local demand. Supplies are brought from
Ihmedabad and Malwa and by rail from Bombay.

Tobacco holds the sixth place with in 1876-77, 10,161 acres or
J*97 per cent of the whole tiUage area. Compared with 1859-60
iie returns for 1876-77 show a decrease of 466 acres or 4-38
>er cent. Eaira tobacco is not only the most valuable article of
ftoixu^ in the district, but is the finest tobacco grown in western

Chapter IV.
Agriculture.

Kodra and
B&Yto.

Bice.

Indian Millet.

Wheat.

Tobaooot

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[Bombay Oasetteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.
▲gn^cultnre.

Tobaoco.

India.^ The central part of the Kaira district, the tract known as
the charotar, is the head quarters of tobacco cultivation. The two
chief varieties are the talahdi or local, and the Khdndeshi brought^
as its name shows, from Khdndesh. The talahdi or local pknt^
grows four feet high. Its leaf is large, juicy, and tapering, the
ribs and veins heavy and coarse, the general texture loose, and the
colour, when ripe, a somewhat dull yellow. It is hardy, growing
even in poor soils, and wants but little manure. The Rh&ndesh
tobacco grows about two feet high. Compared with the local variety,
its leaf is shorter and narrower, closer grained in texture, and of a
deeper and more brilliant colour. A more delicate plant, it requires
richer soil and more manure, but on the other nand wants less
water. Though its yield is not more than one-third of the yidd of
the local plant, its higher quality and its smaller demand for water
to a considerable extent make up for the small outturn. Tobacco ia
grown either with or without water. The water need not be perfectly
sweet. In fact a slight brackishness is said to improve the
quality of the crop, yfhen irrigated the crop is called pi^ or watered,
when not irrigated korat or dry. A watered field yields twice
as large a crop as a dry field. At the same time the leaf of the
irrigated planfc is coarser and not more than one-half as valuable^
Light or gorddu land is the soil best suited for the growth of the
irrigated crop. Towards the end of May, some time before the rains
set in, plots of ground are chosen somewhat shaded, well placed for
watering, the soil rich and dry.* About six inches of brash wood,
hay, or dressing, are laid over the plot. When thoroughly dry the
whole is burnt and the ashes allowed to lie on the surface. About
the beginning of July, as soon as the first rain has fallen, the ashes
are ploughed into the ground, or, if there was no dry dressing, the
ground is manured and then ploughed. The whole is well cleaned
and the surface smoothed. The seed is then sown broadcast^ and if,
after the young plants come up, there is no rain, they are watered.
While the seedlings are growing in their nursery the cultivators are
busy getting ready the field. According to the wants of the soil
they give each acre from ten to eighteen tons (twenty to thirty-five
cart-loads) of sheep droppings or cowdung, pond mud or dry silt, and
sometimes wood ashes. When the manure is laid on, the field is
ready for ploughing. With this great pains are taken, as on its
depth and thoroughness the outturn greatly depends. PloughiQ§^
chas, and clod crushing, samdr, are repeated from eight to ten times*
Each time the Hue of ploughing vanes. First it runs from north
to south, next from east to west, then from north-east to sooth-wes^
and so on, starting in turn from every quarter of the compasa
Between each ploughing the clods are crushed and the snrfaoe
smoothed. Finally, the whole field is cleaned by the harrow of
harabdi. The seedlings are generally ready for planting in Hm

1 Bom. Gov. SeL, New Series, OXIV., 146.

• Every tobacco-yielding viOag© haa ita one or more tobacco ntiweriea or vddds. u
which almost all the chief men Okaxor

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Qi^irii)

KAIRA.

latter part of Aogast* A uursefy of one acre should yield plants
sufficient to stock from twenty to forty acres. In moving them
from their places in the nursery the young plants are taken up
carefully with a knife or trowel^ as much eaxtii as possible being left
about their roots. At the seed bed they are laid slanting in a
basket and carried to the field. They are set in the ground in rows^
the rows and the plants in each row distant from each other about
eighteen inches for an irrigated and two feet for a dry crop. In
settiDg each plant in its place the lower leaves are pinched off^ and
when the sun is strong, until the plant takes root, they have for
eome days to be shaded with twigs or large leaves. During its growth
the Eh^desh tobacco should be thrice watered. The Kaira variety
wants more moisture, from five to twelve waterings, according as the
well is perfectly sweet or more or less brackish. When nearly full
ffrown tne plants begin to show signs of flowering. These tops or
flower sten» are carefully picked off, and the whole of the plant's
strength driven to its eight to twelve well grown and juicy leaves.

A growing field of tobacco is apt to suffer from several causes.
Perhaps its chief enemy is the caterpillar, whose attacks are so con-
stant, that every night and morning, until the leaves begin to change
colour^ they have to be searched and the insects picked off. Besides
the caterpillar other insects hurt the tobacco. One worm attacks
the root and withers the plant, bringing on the disease called chith ;
Bnoiher worm, eating into the stem and joints, stops the growth and
hrings on tlte disease called ganthw. Again, any extremes of
drought, heat, or cold injure the crop. With too much dry weather
the disease ^kanchdi appears, and the leaves covered with spots
widier. Too much damp brings over the whole plant a white coating
called di&ruy robbing the leaves of much of their pungency. Finally,
there is the chance of frost, which^ when it comes, blights the whole
field. The time a field of tobacco takes to ripen depends on
whether it has been watered. A dry crop ripens in five and a watered
trop in seven months. When the leaves turn yellow and droop the
crop 18 cut. A few stalks, about forty to an acre, are allowed to
Sower and their seed is gathered for the next yearns sowing,
tobacco is prepared in two ways, a coarser sort for smoking, called
^\io, and a finer^ both for smoking and for snuff, called jardo. To
mke halio the stem is cut close to the root and well dried by often
tening it in the son. If the stalks are very thick, to help the drying
ftey are split down the middle. When the plants are well dried,
generally after four or five days' sunning, they are housed or removed
io the curing shed. Here they are sorted, the soiled lower and the
ttnall upper leaves are placed in one heap, and the rich middle leaves
I'inanother. Next, the leaves of each heap are made up in small bundles
called padoLB, the largest and strongest leaves being used as wrap-

Cor covers and the smaller ones placed in the middle. The
lies, each of which weighs from one to three pounds, are then
p3ed up and covered with matting for three days to ferment or
'sweat. Then they are separated and again heaped for a second
I sweating, and afterwards, at intervals of a week, the fermenting is
ropeated from four to six times. Great care and attention are

Ghaptor IV.
Agriooltore.

Tobacco.

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[Bombay Qaietteer,

Chapter rr.
Agriculture

TobftOiMw

Cotton.

DISTRICTS.

required at the time of fermentation, as if it is either checked too soon
or allowed to go on too long the tobacco is much injured. To nuiini-
facture jardo tobacco^ the leaves are^ by means of a crooked knife
called kariyu, taken off the stems along with the skin and a litdeof
the wood. They are then ei^posed to the snn from ten to fifteen
days. Each day^ in the early morning, while still damp with dew,
they are taken to a shed. Here they are sorted into better and
poorer kinds and made into bundles or padds. If, at the time of
bundling, the leaves are found to be too dry and brittle, a small
quantity of water is sprinkled over them. Fermentation or sweating
is only once brought on. But if the first is imperfect, a second
becomes necessary. The bundles or padds are ready for sale abont a
fortnight after they have been made up. Kdlio is used for smoking
only, and jardo for smoking as well as for chewing. Kdlio is so
strong and full of flavour that it is seldom or never used for smoking
without being mixed with molasses paste. In its simple state
jardo tobacco is used only for smoking in cigarettes, hidiSy and in
small pipes. Cigarettes are usually rolled in the leaves of theasitn*
dra or jinji, Bauhinia speciosa, and sometimes in plantain leaves.
In spite of its good qualities Eaira tobacco is still prepared only for
native consumption. Attempts have been made to have it rolled in
cigar form suited for the European market. But so far the results
have been discouragfing. Snuff is prepared chiefly from jardo, thongk
hdlio is occfusionally mixed with it in the proportion of one part to
three. Snuff may either be made entirely of the leaf, or of uie leaf
and mid-rib together. The bundles are first torn in pieces, and
afterwards sprinkled with a solution of carbonate of soda dissolved
by boiling in water. The tobacco is thrown into a heap to ferment,
and then well dried in the sun and pounded in a mortar to the required
fineness. The following are the estimates of the cost and profit of
cultivating the local and the Khindesh tobacco.^ For an acre of local
or talabdif watered from a brackish well, tillage including, £1 (Bs. 10);
rent, £6 (Rs. 60) ; watering, £9 5s, (Rs. 92-8) ; value, £27 (Bs. 270) ;
profit, £10 158. (Rs. 107-8). For an acre of local, watered from a
sweet well, tillage including, £1 (Rs. 10) ; rent, £6 (Rs. 60) } wate^
ing,£4 178. 6d. (Rs. 48-12); value,£13 10«. (Rs.l36);profit,£l2 12*.6i
(Rs. 126-4). For an acre of Khdndesh, watered from a biackisk
well, tillage including, £1 (Rs. 10) ; rent, £6 (Rs. 60) ; wateriflgr
£2 188. 6d. (Rs. 29-4) ; value, £18 (Rs. 180) ; profit, £9 U. 6i
(Rs. 90-12). For an acre of Khdndesh, watered from a sweet we^
tillage including, £1 (Rs. 1 0) ; rent, £6 (Rs. 60) ; watering, £2 18«.6i
(Rs. 29-4) ; value, £15 (Rs. 150) ; profit, £6 U 6d. (Rs. 60-12).

Cotton, Jcapdsy Gk)S8ypium herbaceum, is cultivated only to aliinil«d
extent, 3812 acres in 1872 compared with 5256 acres in 1859. Tkj|
plant grown is chiefly the perennial variety, locally called rojl ^^^
in light, gordt and medium, besar soils it is sown in July, and picW
from the middle of January till the end of March. It occupies eve^
seventh furrow in fields sown with millet, bdjri, and pulse, iwfl^

* CoUector, 1003, 18th July 1870.

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Aljarit]

EAIRA.

Cotton of the yearly sort is grown to a small extent in the black soil
viOages bordering on Cambay . Though its produce is inferior in value
to the outturn of the yearly variety of cotton, the three years' plant
lias this advantage, that as its roots draw moisture lErom below the
lorface^ they do not interfere with the surface roots of the grain and
false crops. The plant is allowed to grow till the end of May,
then its branches are lopped about a foot from the grounds At the
Old of the third year^ the roots are dug out. This cotton is not
Torth more than one-half of the one year sort. The field is manured
only once in three years. As a rule the field that has yielded cotton
ioes not again bear the same crop till after three years are over.

^ Though with little success, several attempts have been made to
improTe Kaira cotton. In 1815, under the superintendence of the
crnl Burgeon Mr. Gilders about 2400 acres were sown with Bour-
bon seed. About one-half promised well, but, though the local
nriety yielded a good crop, most of the Bourbon failed. The failure
fas supposed to be due chiefly to want of moisture, but the saltnees
rfthe land was also noticed as likely to harm a crop which does not
ODme to perfection for two years. A bale of cotton, the produce of
ftese experiments, consigned to London in 1816, realized 1«. bd, the
pound, or 2d. the pound more than the best Surat. The staple was
QDnsidered rather fine and generally saleable. Mr. Gilders was
wthoriaed to make a further trial, if necessary, with the aid of irri-
: ^tion. A place was chosen further east in light sandy loam. After
ne first heavy rains, at the end of July, the seed was sown. Three
fat were left between each plant, and between each row, like the
filaDts three feet apart, millet, bdjri, was sown. The late rains were
tantj, and until tfuly 1817 the plants remained dwarfed and sickly,
ften without watering they shot out so freely that one-half of them
fcd to be picked out. Even then they were too crowded, and
Hr. Gilders considered that eight feet was the proper distance between
jtBch shrob. The yield from about fourteen acres was 1760 pounds
M clean cotton. The parcel was most favourably received in Bombay
i^d yalued at 2«. 8d. the pound. The London brokers thought it the
DSBt Bombay-Bourbon they had seen. It was fine, silky, with an even
;ttr length staple of good bright colour, remarkably clean with a
;i»all portion ot broken leaf and crushed seed and a few yellow spots."
^Riih other Indian cotton at from 5}(2. to 14id, a pound it fetched
^id. In spite of this high price so great was the cost of tillage
^ the transaction showed a loss of twenty-eight per cent. In
1889 Dr. Btim, then in charge of the (Jovemment garden at Elaira,
tt«le some experiments in growing cotton. He tried Egyptian, two
Bnds of Broach, and acclimated Bourbon. Some of this acclimated
lonrbon, found in the hedgerows near where Mr. Gilders had g^wn
pin 1816, was both by the Agricultural Society of Calcutta and
lie Bombay Chamber of Commerce placed equal to the best New
vrieans and valued at from £17 to £18 (Rs. 170-180), while the
test Sarat was selling at £14 (Bs. 140).^ In 1842 some of the
American cotton seed, sent out by the Court of Directors, was

Ouster IT.

Agrisutture*

Cotton.

! Boylo's Caltare of Cotton, 420-421.

> Cassel's Cotton, 1213.

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tBomlMiy GTaifitteer,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IT.
Agricnltnie.

CofctOB.

Safflower.

forwarded to the Collector of Kaira for trial in his district. Some d
this seed was sown by Dr. Thatcher, then in charge of the Govern-
ment experimental garden. The soil was light and rather sandj,
and every care was given to the crop. The plants promised well,
but when about a foot high most of them, thoagh at the time ib
local variety was thriving, ' withered and died off as if blightecL' k
few recovered, but the outturn was very small. Some J^yptian
cotton tried in the same garden almost entirely perished. The
American seed distributed by the Collector to some cultivators was
sown in about six acres in d^orent parts of the district. Till abooi
the middle of September the plants looked most promising, Tliey
flowered and formed very large pods. But the heat of Octobea*
seemed to bum the leaves and more tender branches. They con-
tinued in a withered state till the cold weather partially revived them.
In about one-third of the area the crop never arrived at matnrity.
The rest yielded about 162 pounds of clean cotton valued at £1 1^.
(Rs. 19), or a loss of sixty-seven per cent on the cost of tillage.
Samples examined by the Bombay Chamberof Commerce were fonnd
to be well cleaned and tolerably good, but far inferior to American
cotton grown in Ratndgiri.^ For some years after 1842 attempts
to grow exotic cotton in Kaira would seem to have been given up.
In 1861 nothing but the local three-to-five year shrub was grown.'
Again, in 1865 and 1866 Dh&rwdr and New Orleans seed was sown.
The plants grew about a foot high, but died after the close of the
rains.' Now (1878), as in 1861, the local shrub is the only cotton
grown. Of this there would seem to be two varieties, one called
roji said to have been brought from Khdndesh about one hundred
years ago, the other called kdmni brought from Broach about twelve
years back. Partly, it is said, because it is allowed to stay fonr years
in the ground, partly because it is sown in fields with several other
crops, and partly because the seed has degenerated, Kaira cotton
was in 1877 If d. or 32 per cent a pound less in value than either
Dholera or Broach cotton. It is sent to Dholera, Broach, Siirat,and
Bombay, but it is said solely for the purpose of mixing with better
varieties.*

The cultivation of Safflower, hvsumboy Carthamus tinctorins, it
carried on in two sub-divisions, M&tar and Mehmadabad. Compared,
with 1859 the returns for 1876-77 show an advance from 1078 to
3051 acres. The crop is grown not so much for the dyeing power
of its flowers as for the oil its seed yields.'^ About one-half of th»!
produce is sent to Kdthiiwir, Baroda, . Broach, and Surat. Tto
rest is used in the district. Safflower thrives in mixed or besar soil.
Except in a naturally rich soil, or after a highly manured crop, the
land is enriched in June at the rate of ten carts of good dreasiiigte
the acre. During the rainy season it receives four ploughings ani

1 CasBert Cotton, 80^1. » Casael's Cotton, 82.

» CoUector, 2114, 2l8t Sept. 1878. * Cotton Dept. Ad. Rep. 1876-77, 3&

* The averace outturn per acre Ib estimated at 280 pounds weight of flower* wwtt
jei lU. 6rf. (Rs. 15-12) and 400 pounds weight of seed worth £1 10«. (Rs. 16)- TW
cost of production is estimated at £1 15«. (Rs. 17-8) and the profit per acre at V i<<
(Rs. 13-8)«

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EAIBA. 53

more in October or November. The seed, at the rate of seventeen - Chapter HT.

Eiiisds to the acre^ is then sown with the drill ; and after five or six Agrionltare.
js, without any waterings the plant springs up. Nothing farther
is done till in January the flowering begins. Then, at intervals of a
iB,j, each pod yields three flowers, and the whole is collected in
iboat a month. The flowers are picked in the cool of the morning.
Ifthe picking is stopped, and the first leaves left unplacked, the
pod dries and yields no fiowers.

In 1876 the total area under Indigo, gali, Indigofera tinctoria, was Indiga
536 acres, 513 in Borsad and 23 in A'nand, and even this was consi-
derably in excess of 860 the total in 1 859. In the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, indigo partly of local growth and partly brought
from upper India was one of the chief exports from Gujar&t. During
ihe greater part of the eighteenth century, the indigo of the West
Indian islands gained an almost complete monopoly of the European
markets. Towards the close of the century the East Indian produce
i^n rose to &voar. But nearly the whole of it was grown in Bengal.
£ Gajar&t in 1777 the cultivation chiefly for local use would seem to
bye been on a very considerable scale. But in the early part of the
present century it again fell off, and in 1827 had almost altogether
eeased. At that time prices were high and the demand was strong, and
Captain Cruikshankjthen engaged in surveying northern Guiar&t, was
of opinion that by the help of a little special encouragement tne people
ci Kaira might, especially in Petl4d, be induced to grow indigo.
Hie attempt failed, and indigo has never again become a product of
ttj importance. This is to be regretted, as, when grown in rotation
with other crops, indigo has the merit of leaving the land richer than
& found it The labour and capital required for its production, and
tte comparatively small profit it yields, are perhaps the chief reasons
why indigo is now grown only to so very limited an extent But
ttother cause is at work. The preparation of the drug is accompani-
ed hj much loss of insect life, a result most distasteful to the Eanbi,
tnd since the spread of the Sv&mi N&r^yan sect to many of the
Xoli cultivators of Kaira. The small quantity now produced is

E»wn in light or gordt soil. At the first fall of rain (June) the
d should be ploughed more than once, and if possible manured.
Ae seed ia sown in drills from the tarpkan or drill plough. After
tte plants have come up constant weeding is required. The crop
inches maturity in September, and in gathering the leaves great
9ue mast be taken that they are not exposed to wet. The dye is
tttracted, sometimes from the green leaves and sometimes from the
by. If green, the plants should be taken from the fields early in
She morning, and laid in large wooden vats. The vat is then filled
lith water, and to keep the plants down heavy weights are placed
across the top. During the night fermentation sets in. In the
homing the water is drawn off into a second vat, where it is well
■worked with large sticks till it takes a deep blue oolour. In this
rtate the liquor is allowed to stand perfectly quiet till the next day.
the water is then drawn off into a third vat, and the sediment
A the second vat is taken out It is then tied up tightly in bags
ttd hung from the branches of trees. When dry, it is taken down.

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[Bombay Ottetieor,

Oiapter IT-
AgnoultBre-

Poppy.

Hemp.

8ngarcane.

Spicea.
Silk.

DISTRICTS.

spread on the floor of a hut^ and cat into cakes. The refuse indifio
dregs^ and also the plants^ make very good manure.^

In 1876-77, 118 acres* were nnder Poppy, ajm, Papaver Bomni-
fernm. That the poppy is grown to so small an extent is doe to
the stringency of the rales regarding its production.* The ligkl or
medium variety is its f avonrite soil, and a field that has during the
rainy season borne a crop of Indian millet is generally chosen. In
November or December, after the crop has been removed, the ground
is manured several times and watered. The seed called khaskhas is
then sown broadcast. After the plants come np, the land is kept
well weeded, and watered every ten days. When the plant is mature,
the outer skin of the flower capsule is lightly slit, and the jnioe
allowed to exude. After a day and a night the stem is scraped witb
a small knife, and the juice collected in earthen pots. The slitting
may be repeated a second and a third time, in each case after aa !
interval of three days.*

Bombay Hemp, san, Crotalaria jnncea, was cultivated in 1 17 acres.
Its seeds are said to be used as food for cattle, its stalks for fael, and
its fibres for ropes.

Sugarcane, serdi, Saccharum officinarum, has spread from 1787
acres in 1859-60 to 2216 acres in 1876-77. Kaira sugarcane is of
two kinds, one black or dark-purple, the other white. Grown on
rich light, gordt and medium, fte^ar soils, it wants free manure and
good water, and takes so much from the land, that a second crop
cannot he planted till after an interval of four or five years. Thou^
Kaira draws from Surat the greater part of its supply of molasses,
no steps seem to have been taken to improve the local cultivation and
manu&cture of sugar.

Of spices. Cumin, jiru, Cuminum cyminum, with in 1876-77,
1423 acres, is the chief variety grown in the district.

In 1837, under Dr. Bum, the Civil Surgeon, a Government garden
was established at Elaira. Besides in medicinal plants, sacli as
senna and colocynth, experiments were made in the growth of mul-
berry trees and in the rearing of silk worms. To meet the charges
of his experiments, Government sanctioned a sum of £40 (Rs. 400)*
and a monthly allowance that rose from £4 to £8 (Bs. 40-80),
The mulberry trees grew well In 1838 in the Government plan*
tation on the banks of the Shedhi, near the Kaira bridge, were
' 800 trees of the St. Helena species all thriving uncommonly welL'

^ The average onttum per acre is estimated at forty-nine pounds of the preput^
dye worth £7 8». (Rs. 74), and seed worth 7». (Ks. 3-8), £7 15«. (Ra. 77-8) in A
The cost of production and mannfactnre, including 14«. (Rb. 7) of rent, is estinuM
at £5 19a. (Bs. 59-8), being a profit of £1 l&s. (Rs. 18.) i

> Of the whole area, 106 acres were in Nadi&d, 11 in Kapadvanj, and 1 in Thkn.

> Under the Opium Act (No. 1 of 1878) the coltivation of the poppy has bett
entirely prohibited. (See Roles published by the Government of Bombay on 30A
March 1878.)

* The outturn of twelve pounds per acre is, including the value of the seed, «ki-
mated at £7 (Rs. 70) ; the cost of cultivation, including IO5. (Rs. 5) of rent,, at £3 1^*
(Rs. 37) I and the peasant's profit at £3 6s. (Rs. 33).

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KAIRA. 55

Tbsff stood in rows aboat twelve feet apart with straight stems three Chapter IT.

to fonr feet high. They were manured with dry cowdung, and in the Agrionitiire*

liot season watered two or three times a week. In 1840 Dr. Bum

reported his plantation flourishing. It had fed 60,000 worms and

Bome silk had been reeled. On account of this success allowances

of 309. (Rs. 15) a month each were granted to three Qujar&ti youths

to go and learn reeling under Signer Mutti) then employed by Grovem-

&ent in the Deccan in silk culture, ffhe Eaira experiments were

oontinaed for some years. In 1844 Dr. Thatcher, then in charge of

the garden, reported that the mulberry trees, when small, suffered

from the hot wind. In other respects they did well, growing both in

kedges and as trees from nine to ten feet high. They wanted water

it least once every twenty days. The worms were less successful.

In ordinary seasons, during the greater part of the year they kept

furlj healthy. But in 1848, a year of great heat, almost all died.

SUk was made and forwarded to the Bombay Chamber of Commerce,

who reported the samples of very good quality, equal to Canton No. 2,

Mid worth 10«. a pound (Bs. 10 the paka ser). But the people of

llie district^ chiefly, it was said, from their dislike to destroy the

wonns took no interest in the industry, and the garden was fuially

dosed in 1847.^

Another Government attempt to improve cultivation was in
1843 the introduction of the American plough. Two were given on
trial to cultivators. The result was disappointing. The men com-
IikiDed that the ploughs were clumsy, that the furrows were too
vide^ and that the work of levelling was much heavier than after
odinary ploughing. Besides they were too elaborate, costing more
to mend than the Kaira plough to make. The Collector, Mr. Kirk-
hud, was of opinion that their successful working implied both in
irtisans and ploughmen more skill than was to be found in Kaira.^
hi 1875 another attempt wa^ made to introduce a better class of
fovLgh, this time of English make. Three ploughs were tried, one
tt Nadiid, one in Kaira, and one in Borsad. On the whole they gave
nias&ction. The &ults found were that the share was too long
mi made the work too heavy for one pair of bullocks, and that as
fte plough could not be guided with one hand to plough and drive^
lb bullocks required two men instead of one. The Collector,
lb. Sheppard, was of opinion that if the handles could be joined by
•eroBs-piece the ploughs would become popular.® In December
^78 Mr. Bobertson, the superintendent of the Madras Government
Kum, visited Kadi&d. He thought that the soil, among the best
le had ever seen, was suffering horn too shallow ploughing. Some
rionghs were accordingly ordered from the Madras Grovemment
larm and a skilled cultivator sent there to learn their use. Three
hds belonging to large landowning pdtidd/r families have also gone
fe Madras to be taught scientific farming under Mr. Robertson,

^ Bom. Gov. BeT. Bee 180 of 1847, 39-98.

* Collector to Govemment, 308, 23rd Dooember 1844.

* Cottector 2445, 6th December 1875.

* Kiira Agricnltaral Record (1879) published under the Collector's presidency by
a committee of Nadi^ landowners.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter IV.
Agrienltnre.

Cnltivaton.

Bftd

In the rural parts of the district not only the starictly agricol*
tural classes^ Kanbis^ Kolis^ and Musalm&ns^ but the whole popa«
lation including Br&hmans are engaged in cultiyation. Oij
in large towns is there a regular class of artisans^ washermen,
tailors^ blacksmiths^ and others entirely supported by their callings,
and even in towns many artisans are forced to eke out their gains
by cultiyation. Dheds and other weavers^ though engaged &j;
their looms in the fair season^ during the rains devote their time to
raising grain for the support of their families. The Y&nias arej
perhaps^ the only class not directly engaged in the work of cultiva-
tion* By far the greater part of the land is tilled by Kanbis, chiefly
of the Leva tribe, the most skilful and thrifty cultivators in Gojariit.
Except the talabda or local Kolis nearly if not quite as good as
Kanbis, Kolis as a class are bad and thriftless cultivators. Bajpats
and Musalm&ns hold a very small proportion of the land. Tlie
Kajputs are careless, unskilful, and addicted to the use of opinm.
The Musahn&ns want energy and perseverance, and labour under
the special disadvantage that their women do not help in the fieli

The years between 1738 and 1746 and the season of 1751 are
referred to as times of distress when village communities were broken
and villages deserted.^ The severest famine, of which details aie
available, was in 1790-91. Throughout the year rain fell only once.
The people were forced to migrate to Malwa, and there attacked by
a pestilence died in great numbers. The G^ikw&r, except that ha
took a fourth share of the grass, is said to have remitted the whole
revenue demand, and to have taken steps for the suppression of crune.
During the scarcity, twelve and a half pounds of millet, sixte^ of
wheat, twenty-four of unhusked rice, and twenty of pulse, sold for two
shillings. The next season of scarcity was 1813*14 Throughontthe
year there were only two falls of rain, one in July, the other about the
middle of September. The local scarcity, itself very serious^ was
increased by the influx of starving people from Elathi&war. Especially
among these immigrants many deaths are said to have occurred. Food
grains would seem in several cases to have been dearer than in 1790.
The prices were, for two shillings, seventeen pounds of millet, seven-
teen and a quarter of Indian millet, ten of wheat, twenty of unhusked
rice, and twenty-two and a half of pulse. 1824 was a year of distress)
and in 1825 tiie later rains almost entirely failed. Much suffering^
was caused, and remissions of land revenue to the amount of £16,19^
(Rs. 1,61,980) were granted. In 1834 locusts ate up the crops, »
great scarcity arose, and many cattle were lost. Remissions amount^
ing to £19,655 (Rs. 1,96,550) of land revenue were granted, fr
1885 the rain was too heavy and the cold weather crops were spoikd
by frost The last forty-two years (1886-1877), though the rainUl
has at times been scanty and the crops have partly failed, ha^Q'
passed without any season of famine or even of general scarcity.

1 Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 78, 615.

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Onjarit]

CHAPTER V.

CAPITAL.

AccoBDiNa to the 1872 census returns, there were in that year,
ksides well-to-do cultivators and professional men, 6885 persons in
positions implying the possession of capital. Of these 2072 were
bankers, money-changers, and shop-keepers ; 3343 were merchants
Mid traders; and 1470 were supported by incomes derived from
fended property, shcures, annuities, and the like. In 1869-70, under
tie income tax returns, 3742 persons paid on yearly incomes of from
150 to £100 (Rs. 600-1000) ; 414 persons on incomes of from
«00 to £200 (Rs. 1000-2000); 144 persons on incomes of from
1200 to £1000 (Rs. 2000-10,000) ; and five on incomes of from
£1000 to £10,000 (Rs. 10,000-1,00,000).

Spending freely on their chief &mily festivities, the higher class
rfffindus practise in every-day life the extremest thrift, living more
dieaply and saving more steadily than the corresponding c^ses in
Smt and Broach. Besides in hoarding either ornaments or coin,
a?ings are invested in Oovemment securities, in shares, in land, in
knses, in trade, and in money-lending. Almost all in a position to
Ave, invest part of their store in ornaments, plain solid bands of
tfver and gold with little or no outlay on the work. The prac-
fce of baying Government securities, and of patting money in
•mgs banks, has during the last ten years spread considerably.
1e interest on Government securities has risen from £51 (Rs. 510)
tt 1865 to £255 (Rs. 2550) in 1877, and the deposits from £1612
©8. 16,120) to £13,021 (Rs. 1,30,210). StiU in this respect Kaira is
w behind Surat, wherein 1877, the deposits amounted to £84,043
(is. 8,40,430) and the payment of interest on Government securities
fo the considerable sum of £8644 (Rs. 86,440). The purchase of
wes seems to find little favour with the Kaira monied classes.
mi\j any of the district merchants are believed to have invested
joaey in the Bombay, Surat, or Ahmedabad factories, and even the
nadidd spinning company had no local shareholders. Prom the
tommary of the registration returns for 1867 and for 1874, it appears
■Bat though in the greater number of cases the purchasers of land
*e either cultivators or money-lenders, in both yecurs in about one-
Hth of the transfers, the buyers follow almost every calling, traders,
Jrftemen of all classes, servants, and beggars. Over most of the
pistrict the people take a pride in their houses and spend money in
^proving them. But, except town money-lenders, many of whom
W their debtors* dwellings, they do not invest their savings in house
piroperty. Besides bankers, merchants, and shop-keepers, well-to-do

» 167-8

Chapter V.

Capitaliflts.

Investments.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter V.
CapitaL

Lenders.

cultivators and pleaders invest their savings in trade. But it is in
money-lending that the well-to-do in Kaira lay out almost all their
capital.

Kaira money-lenders are of two classes, professional and non-
professional. Among professional money-lenders, there is a marked
difference between the banker or vanAvati^ who, with a capital of
£10,000 and upwards, negotiates bills of exchange, makes advances
to persons of credit, and engages in large mercantile transactions,
and the usurer or tnnidty who, doling out from a scanty store often
borrowed from one of the larger money Jenders, preys on the needs of
the poorest t^lass of townsmen or the careless and unthrifty villager.
Between these extremes the great body of professional money-lenders
hold an ill-defined position. The banker, from smallness of capital,
unsuccessful speculation, or changes in the course of trade, forced
into petty deaitngs with low-class borrowers, has to resort to many
of the usurer's practices ; while the usurer, whose wealth enables liim
to enter into large dealings, gains by degrees a place among ike
•district bankers.

Bankers live almost entirely in towns. They trade, negotiate bilb
t)f exchange, take deposits, and make advances. The banker's trade
ventures are all wholesale^ he lays in a store of grain to be re-sold to
small dealers ; he speculates in cotton, or he imports cloth from
Bombay for local shop-keepers and retail traders. In his trading
operations the Kaira banker is careful, risking in apeculative invest-
ments only a small portion of his capital. The bills of exchange
commonly negotiated are of eight kinds — payable at sight, ianUni
hundi ; payable on the following day, dinvaltani hundi ; payaUe on
the fourth day, bhomni hundi ; payable on the eighth day, thr
iihdrddhdddrd hundi ; payable on the eleventh day, agiydmi hmM;
payable on the twenty-first day, ekvisni hundi ; payable on the forty-
fifth day, pistdlisni hundi; and payable on the sixty-first day, ehdni
hundi. Bills for the longest periods are generally drawn in the conrae
of the Central Indian trade in opium and tobacco : those for twenty-
one days, in connection with the trade to Kadi and P&tan in northern
Gujar&t, and those of eleven days sight on Bombay. As the
stamp duty is higher on bills not payable at sight, the practice of
granting bills payable at sight is said to be on the increase. The
holder of a bill payable after a certain interval, may receive th«
money on presentation before the lapse of the period fixed. In sndi
cases a monthly discount of from a half to one per cent is
allowed. The money left in the hands of bankers chiefly belongs to
Government servants, and childless old men and widows. Deposte
of the latter class, varying in amount from £50 to 1200
(Rs. 500-2000) are, for tha most part, the proceeds of the aaleor
mortgage of property set aside by the ov^^ners to meet their fimenl
expenses. On such sums a small yearly interest of three or four per
cent is paid. In advancing money high class bankers deal only
with persons of credit, petty traders, retail shop-keepers, cultivators

^ Kdndvati literally means money-changer. The tunidt is also called MdsfA^
pdr^ra-viUOt or man of instalments.

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KAIRA.

of substance, md usurers^ who borrow to re-lend at BigBer rates
of interest. Bankers who refuse to advance money except to
persons of credit, beyond filing a suit in the civil court,, seldom;
take any special steps for the recovery of their ckimfi. Those,
on the other hand,, whose clients belong to the poorer class of
borrowers,, are forced to practise the usurer^& elaborate system of
iniming. The people are said generally to deal with one capi-
talist. But among the poorer class of cultivators, more than
one creditor has frequently claims upon the same debtor. The
crop of a poor cultivator is often the only property available for
b'qnidatii^ a debt. And so, in the harvest season, the money-lender
18 forced to pass some days in his debtor's fields, examining
the crop and seeing that none of the produce is made away
or handed over to a more favoured creditor. If a banker has
I leveral sons, the sons help their father as clerks and in collecting
i lis debts. They are said seldom to take to any other calling,,
or to leave their native town to push business in distant places^
The account books kept by a high class money-lender are the hand
hook, hath'Vahi, a rough, memorandum book; the- cash book,.
itjmd ; the ledger, kh&tdvahi ; the monthly account book, avaro ;

• flie interest book, viydjvahi;^ and the bill book, hundini nondh^
As a rale, the village shop-keeper keeps a cash book, rojmel, and

: tt account current book, thdmkhdta. The latter is often carelessly
I prepared, containing entries of transaction* extending over years^
' tti of dealings with several distinct persons. Some village shop-
{ faepers are said to keep no record of their transactions except
fends and promissoiy notes.

Most usurers are men of small capital varying from jg200 to^

11000 (Rs. 2000-10,000). But among them are some rich men with

r property, including claims of not less than £10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000).

♦ Unlike the banker, the usurer confines himself to making money,,
•dvancea, nevernegotiating bills of exchange or engaging m trade..

j Thongh, as a rule, he lives in a town, the usnrer, especially during-

"le harvest season, spends much of his time in the villages gathering

his debts. The son of a usurer generally succeeds to his father's

'. Vosiness, though by enlarging his dealings and adding to his capital
he may hope to rise to the position of a banker. In Kaira both

J hinkers and usui;ers advance money oi> the security of gold and

t drer ornaments. There is,, therefore,, no room for t& special class^

I <rf pawn-brokers, jcmsdu sdhukarsy found in Surat.

Ainong non-professional money-lenders are traders and shop-
fe^pers,. rich cultivators, pleaders, Gtevemment servants, well-to-do
Ptisans, and religious beggars, chiefly Grosais of whom one is said
to he worth about £10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000), Of the trading and shop-
ke]Mng money-lenders, the chief are cloth-sellers,, grain-sellers, and
peers. In some of the larger towns are shop-keepers whose
hasiness makes them independent of money-lending. But, as a
^i especially in village shops, dealings in grain or cloth are useful,
**^% as a means of drawing the poorer class of i^llagers to borrow
tooney. A poor village shop-keeper, his capital laid out in advances,
f^^^^scs Ins time in dunning his debtors. If rich, leaving his shop in

Chapter V*
Capital.

Londen.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter V. charge of a clerk, he buys a town house, seldom visiting the village
Capital except during the rainy months when the poor press for grain

advances, and at harvest time when he recovers his outstanding debts.
The son of a village shop-keeper generally succeeds his father^ and in
many villages the shop has for generations been in the hands of iibe
same family. If there are several sons and the family is poor^ the
younger brothers sometimes try to start business in a fresh village.
Next to the shop-keeper, the most important of non-professional
money-lenders is the rich cultivator or pdtiddr, who lends money and
grain to the poorer villagers. The number of Government servants,
pleaders, and well-to-do artisans, who lend money is small, and iky
generally deal only with a few men, and those of good credit.

Borrowers. Borrowers are of four classes, landed gentry, small traders,

artisans, and cultivators. Among landed gentry, the Musalmans,
Kolis and Rajputs are in their ways so careless and unthrifty, thai
many of them have allowed themselves to sink deep in debt. So
unsatisfactory had their condition become, that in 1877 Government
passed an Act (XIV. of 1877) for the settlement of the claims against
them. In most parts of the district the artisans are, on the whole,
better off than either the small traders or the mass of the cultivators.
Unlike the trader, the artisan need keep no large stock of goods,
while, compared with the cultivator, as he is generally a memlNf
of a much smaller community he spends little on caste feasts.
Cultivators form the largest and most important class of borrowei^
seeking loans either to pay the Government rent or to meet
special family expenses. At the time of the introduction of Bridsk
rule and for more than thirty years after, the whole land revenne of
the district was generally collected from bankers or money-lenders,
who recovered what they could from the cultivators.* In 1840 so
widely was this system spread, that the Collector reported, that of »
total revenue of £146,371 (Rs. 14,63,710), only £38,091 (Es. 3,80,910)
or 26'2 per cent, were received direct from the cultivators. UptOi

* the year 1856 little improvement would seem to have taken place.

At that time ^ it was said to be a matter of notoriety, that, speaking
generally, all the cultivators and holders of land in Gujai^t were in
debt to such an extent that they had no means of extricating them*
selves from their difficulties. A few years later (1857-1864) Aeveix
high price of field produce and labour freed from debt almost thifc
whole agricultural population. But the decline of prices that set k
about 1870 crippled a large number of the careless and impro-
vident. In 1874 the state of the district was said to bef&rfroi^
satisfactoiy ; the money-lenders, tired of waiting for more favonrabb
times, had ceased to give credit and crowded the civil couite.^
Since then the high produce prices of the last two years havedoni
much to improve the cultivators* credit.

Interest. ^^ ^^^7 interest was limited by law to a yearly rate of twelve pen

I Mr. Diggle's report of 1806, and the CJoUector'a report 309, 23rd Deoembtf
1844. The practice was for each headman to cive a note for his village. V^
notes were convertible in July at Ahmedabad and Baroda» and had to be negoiiit«d
by asents specially chosen by Government.

Riifi MAla, 11. 248. 3 CoUector 1207, 13th July 1871

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Gigar&t.]

KAIEA.

C5ent.* This provision was easily evaded, and in 1840, creditors
vonld seem to have been in a position, by making deductions,
manddmni, from the amount actually advanced, to recover from the
most needy of their debtors from one to six per cent additional
profit.* In 1856, according to Mr. Forbes, monthly interest was
stipulated for at two per cent, or if the terms were unusually
moderate, at one.* At present (1877), according to the returns
nceired, in small transactions when an article is given in pawn,
iHasans and well-to-do cultivators pay interest at yearly rates
luying from six to nine per cent ; the charge in the case of the
jooier cultivators rising to twelve per cent. In such transactions,
3f personal security only is given, the corresponding yearly rates are
said to vary from nine to twelve per cent for the richer, rising as
Kgh as twenty per cent for the poorer class of borrowers. In large
transactions, well-to-do cultivators who give jewels as security, pay
joarly rates of from three to four and a half per cent. When cattle
« other moveable property is pledged by the poorer cultivators

Cfly interest is charged at from nine to eighteen per cent. When
^ d is mortgaged the yearly rates are reported to vary from six to
i^liteen per cent. Except in Umreth and Borsad, where interest
|ai personal security is unusually high, there would seem to be but
Ittle variety in the rates charged in different parts of the district.
^!kese are the nominal rates of interest. But in almost all cases,
•specially when the borrower is poor, by levying a premium or
;*8m{amm, the lender adds from one to six per cent to his profits,
fixper cent per annum is said to be generally considered a fair return
;fcp money invested in buying land, the estimates varying from
ftor and a half per cent in Mehmadabad to seven and a h^ per
cent in Umreth; Besides what they make by interest and premiums,
*K)ney-lenders are said to add to their gains by irregular and unfair
9l|eans. Serious and wilful fraud is rare. But the cultivator's igno-
Shnce and apathy give the money-lender much opportunity for sharp
ipactice.

I Except occasionally for seed, only Musalmins, Kolis, and other
^thrifty and unskilled cultivators borrow grain. The advance is
l^erally made in the beginning of the rains and repaid after six
\fOD&B at harvest time. For this the ordinary charge is one-quarter
1*1 addition to the quantity received. The payment is almost always
I* kind. If in money, from twenty-five to thirty-six per cent interest
■generally recovered. But higher rates, half as much again, or
p^ twice the original amount are said sometimes to be charged.

In 1806, so scanty was the stock of money, that it was usual for
Weavers and cultivators to barter their wares. At the same time there
J^ in circulation no fewer than six varieties of coin, the Surat rupee,
^ Sicca rupee, the Baroda rupee, the As&ai rupee at par with the
jhioda, the Cambay rupee, and a rupee coined in Kaira and known
y the name of jina or the small rupee. At present (1877), except in
^ case of payments of the land assessment, the British currency is

1 Regulation V. of 1827, chap. III. a Collector, 819, 8tli October 1840.

3BdsMila,II.,250.

Chapter V.
Capital.

Interest.

Grain advances.

Currency.

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[Bombay^Gasetteer

Chapter V.
Capital

Bankruptcy.

Mortgages.

Wage^

DISTRICTS.

not in general asa The mediam in ordinary dlealings is tlie Baioda
or bdbdshdi rupee^ varying in valae, bnt generally about {onrteeB
per cent below the standard. These variations in value, the money-
lender in his dealings with the poorer class of borrowers, genoaily
turns to his own advantage*

Among the bankers and traders of the Elaira district cases of bask*
rnptcy are rare. Failure to meet trade engagements is consideTed
disgraceful^ and is said to be visited with social penalties bat little
less stringent than those enforced in the case of a breach of caste
rules. The religious feeling that eonnects a man'^s condition in the
next world with the dischai^ of all claims against him at the time
of his deaths is strong in this district, and the duty of paying an
ancestral debt is said to be evaded only in cases of extreme helpless-
ness or hopeless poverty. In small cities and towns, the amoimtof
property owned by a banker or merchant and the extent of his trade
liabilities are pretty well known, and it is comparatively easy
to decide how far in any case&ilureisduetofrand or carelessne%j
and how far to bad fortune. When a trader finds that he cannot
meet his liabilities, he calk his creditors, shows them how thingi
stand, and leaves himself in their hands. After inquiry, the creditoiv
in proportion to their claims, divide the assets. When such a parti*
tion has been made, no further steps are ordinarily taken. Unless h
has been shown to have acted unfairly, the discharged bankrapt^
probably find little difficulty in raising money enough to help hioil
to make a fresh start. Among shop-keepers, except the risk of firt^l
flood, or robbers, there is little chance of any very heavy loss^ an!
bankruptcy is almost unknown.

Mortgages are of two kinds, scm, when the land is pledged a^,
security but the mortga^r remains in possession, and giro, whenihtj
mortgagee takes possession of the land instead of interest. Acoordf^
ing to the registration returns, mortgages in excess of £10 (Ks. 100)
have fallen from 30S6, of the value of £124,396 (Rs. 12,43,960) iftj
1869-70, to 1707, of the value of £64,158 (Rs. e,41,680) in 1876-77.^

Under Maritha rule bricklayers,, carpenters, blacksmiths, and day|
labourers were forced to work for the men in power receiviu
some grain at harvest, bnt seldom any money payment. * Fif
years ago (1828) a town labourer earned Sd, (2 annas) a day,
a carpenter Qd. (4 annas). In 1844 a town labourer earned
same wage as in 1828 ; a field labourer was, as formerly^ paid in I
from three to five pounds of millet, bdjiri, a day ; a bricklayer ew
from &d. to 9d. (4-6 annas) ; and a carpenter from 9c?. to 1«. (6-
annas). Between 1858 and 1864, when the Bombay, Baroda, and Ceni
India Railway line was under construction, and house-building i
carried on to a large extent over the whole district, the demand fd
labour increased and the rates rose by about one-half. At pr

1 The details are, in 1869-70, 3035, Talue £124,396 ; in 1870-71, 2716, «»*
£109.201 ; in 1871-72, 2626, value £95,576 ; in 1872-73. 2507, value £99,905 ;i^
1873-74, 2453, value £104,637 ; in 1874-75, 1789, value £75,785 ; in 1875-76, 188%
value £72,906 ; in 1876-77, 1707, value £64^58.

» Mr. Kirkland, 308, 23rd December 1844.

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KAIEA. C3

fl878) a labourer's daily wage varies from 3d. to Gd. (2-4 annas) Chapter V.

according to the urgency of the work. Besides his ordinary wage of Capital.

feom 3d. to 4id. (2-3 annas), which is paid in money, a field labourer

gets two or three millet cakes at midday. Except in the rains, when **^'

kbour is wanted for weeding and transplanting, the supply of labour

bom among Kolis, Kdchhids, poor Kanbis, Vdghris and Dheds,

ii in excess of the demand. Town labourers, except for an hour's

MBt at midday, work from eight or nine in the morning to five or six

k the evening ; field labourers go to work about six in the morning

.«d remain tUl about six in the evening, taking at midday an hour's

. »st. Thirty years ago a labourer had almost no credit ; now he

rtould, without security, be trusted with an advance of from £1 10«.

■fc 12 (Rs. 15-20), Except the Lnnd&s or hereditary servants in

vfte households of well-to-do Rajputs, who like the Surat H£lis are

and clothed by their masters, there are no hereditair labourers in

district. In a few sub-divisions the practice of mortgaging

inr prevails. The mortgagors, generally poor field labourers, for

ey advances of from £2 to £2 10». (Rs. 20-25), pledge their

IT for terms rising to one year. During their time of service

are fed and clothed and well treated by their masters. Carpen-

p's and bricklayer's wages vary in the different seasons, the demand

igstrongest in the hot months, when the cultivators repair and

id houses. At present a bricklayer's daily wage varies from 6d. to

(4-6 annas) ; and a carpenter's from Is. to Is, 3d. (8-10 annas).

y go to work at about nineinthemoming and return before sunset.

IBBe-Biird of an ordinary day's wage is paid for extra work done in

;fte morning from six to nine. In villages, besides two pounds of

■ttllet, hdjri, and a quarter of a pound oi clarified butter, ghi, a day,

Scupenter's monthly wage is £1 28. (Rs. 11), and a bricklayer's 12^.
^ 6). For miscellaneous work, such as repairing field tools,
fllage artisans are eveiy year, at harvest time, paid in grain.

A statement of produce prices, reaching back as far as 1 790, is given Prices,

iow. For the first thirty-four years the figures refer only to one
ortion of the district, the Mfitar sub-division. Since 1824 they are
Imposed to represent average prices over the whole district. Taking
* staple grain, millet or bdjri, the average rupee price during the
We period of eighty-eight years is fifty -one pounds, or excluding
years of abnormally high and five years of abnormally low
, an average of fifty pounds. The seven years of highest
were fifteen pounds in 1812 and 1864; seventeen pounds in
77; eighteen pounds in 1790; nineteen pounds in 1863; and
Buiy pounds in 1813 and 1869. The years 1863, 1864, and 1869,
kn the high value of millet was due to the cheapness of money
fcejthan the want of grain, were the times of greatest agri-
itarai prosperity. 1790, 1812, 1813, and 1877 were years of famine
scarcity. The cheap years, of which there have been five, eighty-
^ pounds in 1856, eighty-four in 1855, eighty-five in 1848, 100 in
1^ and 120 in 1832, have been times of complaint and agricultural
iresa. Excluding the years of special scarcity, the whole series
T be roughly divided into eight periods. From 1791 to 1799, a
' of cheap grain, with an average price of sixty-nine pounds ; from

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter V.
Capital

Prices.

1800 to 1811, a time of moderate and most steady prices scarcely
varying from fifty-five pounds ; then, after the scarcity in 1812 and
1813, five years (1814-1818) of moderate prices varying from forty-
six to sixty-five and averaging fifty-nine pounds. Again, after the
scarcity in 1819, follow seven dear years (1820-1826), prices vary-
ing from thirty-eight to forty-five and averaging forty-one poands.
Next, for six years (1827-1832), a rapid fall in prices ranging from
fifty-eight in 1827 to 120 In 1832 and averaging eighty-two pounds.
Then ten dear and changeable years (1833 to 1842), prices varying
from thirty to sixty and averaging forty-six pounds. Then sixteen
years (1843-1858) of low prices varying from fifty-two to eighty-five
and averaging sixty-six pounds ; and lastly, eighteen years (1859-
1876) of high prices varying from fifteen to fifty-two and averaging
thirty pounds,

Kaira produce prices, 1790-1877.

Scab

CRT.

Fixar PniOD (1791-1799.)

Skjoto Prriod awo-lflU

Pboddcb.

•^

1-4

i i

Millet

SI",

Indfando....

Wtumt ...

Bioe

ffi

«l

PalM

) 61

•

Producb.

Skohd PmoD (1800-1811)
-xonttnwd.

SOAROTT

Third Prriod
(1814-1818.)

SCAR-
CITT.

Form

PSDA
OSSD-lfll)

i 1

li.

Millet

80 40

»<

>ii

69 4

t «

Whe«b ...

40 4

• *

Rloe

51 i

1 M

Pntoe

6S e

a a

)U11TH

PRODUOB.

Pkriod
(1890-1826)
-^continued.

Fifth Piriod (1827-1832.)

Secih Prriod (183S.184S.)

1 I

Millet ...

100

120

68 6

1 SI

Indian do....

130

160

9 n

Wheat ...

36 6

S II

Bioe

38 3

i n

PalM

82 i

i ii

Tobacco ...

27 i

1 fl

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ffnjarit]

KAIRA.

ElOBTH

Pbriod
(1850-1876.)

PWDDCK.

III

VOet
lidiia do. ...

Br. :::

%}mn ...

«i
82
65
40
60
M

68
92
76
88
60
61

71
80
77
40
50
87

68
88
40
46
36

80
60
40
60
26

85
85
65
88
60
26

65
80
66
88
6i
27

66
70
45
86
60
28

62
00
78
38
60
80

70
103
70
86
68
27

60
80
68
86
46
87

60
80
50
66
40
87

84
100
64

46
63

100
64
62
64
20

68
80
63
46
66
80

68
64

50
43
64

60
66
50
90
54
14

48
50
87
34

PUWCB.

8CA».
CITT.

1 1

.iDDflt ...
Man do....

40
60
68
64

40
60
40
36
24
14

19
88
18
80
28
19

16
18
11
11
13

28
22
11
9
6

88
98

16
10
18

84
85

18
11
16

88
80
16
10
16

80
16
14
10
18

81
88

16
18
15

28
89
20
18
27

80
89
23
80

84
87
32
38
33

40
60
26
86
36

48
60
34
30
89

40
48

86
18
48

i'6

Chapter ¥.
Oai^taL

Prioai.

lUntotameat

ts prepared— i, from the OoUeobor'i Beport 48, 81gt Jannaiy 1855, coatalnlag
for the yeva from 1790 to 1628 ; 11, from the OoUeotor*! tpedal retun containing flgnrei

Ulr Ibe v«n from 1884 to 1863, prepared for the price committee of 1863 ; ill, from a cpecial return
IMarediB the Bombay Secretariat for the yean from 1864 to 1874; It, from the Adminii
1mi for 1875, 1876, and 1877. MiUet U bdjriy

ear* from 1864 to 1874 ; It, from the Adminiitratioa
' PeolciUaria ipioata ; Indian mmet,/ic«ar, a(»vham

W«ighti.

IMndiB the Bombay Secretariat for the
Worti for 1875, 1876, and 1877. MiUet '
'^Mvin; nd pulae, tuver, Oajanna indieiu.

Almost all articles are sold by weight. Ezoept for milk and

tfkrified batter, no measures of capacity are used. The weights are

I ft two sorts : one for gold^ silver, and drags ; the other for grain,

^ iregetables, and the cheaper metals, copper, brass, iron, lead, and zinc.

' fte former, square in shape are by village goldsmiths, made of lead

'fuA sometimes of an alloy of brass and copper ,• the latter are made of

by blacksmiths. Both are, under the Weights and Measures Act

A. of 1872), yearly inspected and stamped by the police. Gold,

Irer, and drugs are weighed according to the following scale : six

' 06, grains of rice, one rati ; three ta/tisy one val ; sixteen v&Uy one

\iino; two gadidnas, one tolo. Again, eight ratis mako one mdso ;

twelve mdsds, one tolo. For metals other than gold and silver,

j^ grain of aU sorts, the following table is current : two and half

Mees, one adhol ; two adhoU, one navtdk ; two navtaks^ one paser ;

WD posers, one achher ; two achhers, one ser ; forty s&rSy one man ;

:|Krteeu man8y one kalsi ; two kalsis, one bediyu. In the Panoh

ttkhils, the following table is also in use : twelve mans, one mani;

f 100 mams, one mandsa ; 100 mandsas, one kandsa. As the ser in

<Me is equal to forty tolas each of 1 80 Troy grains, the weight of a

[Man is equal to 41f English pounds avoirdupois.

; Cloth is measured either by the gaj or the hath. The gcg, made Moasurw.
^ iron, brass, or wood, is of two kinds, the tailor's gaj 27^ inches,
tod the ordinary gaj two feet longs Both are divided into twenty-
fcur equal parts called tasits. The ordinary gaj is used in measuring
^tton and silk goods. Turbans, waistcloths, dhotids, women's robes,
Mis, and such other articles as are sold in pairs or singly, but
sever in parts, are not measured by the gaj, but by the hdth. A

B 167-9

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Chapter V.
Capital.

MeaBurea.

[Bombay Oasetteer.

DISTRICTS.

hath, the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle
finger of a tall man^ varies from seventeen to nineteen and half inches.
It is the measure commonly used by the poorer classes. The W^i
table is twelve anglis, finger breadths^ one vehst; and two vefefe,one
fidth. The gaj and the English yard, the latter generally used by
cloth merchants^ are inspected and stamped by the police.

In measuring land^ since the introduction of the revenue sarrey,
an acre of 43^560 square feet has been substituted for the UgKa,
The acre is divided into forty gunthds, and the gunthd into sixteen
drmds. The bigha, equal to ^th part of an acre/ was formerly the
unit of land measure^ and is still generally understood by the peopla
It was divided into twenty vasda, and the vasa into twenty vini$is.
A visvasi, also called a Jcdthl, equalling five hatha of from 18*33 to
19 '67 inches each^ has a mean length of about ninety-six inches.
Building sites are measured by the gaj^ and land used for agricoltnnl
purposes^ by a chain thirty-three feet in length.

Stones are sold by a superficial ^aj of twenty-four inches^ and not
by a cubic gaj. The price per gaj varies according to the nature rf
the work.

In the case of timber, a gaj of twenty-seven inches is used. Thii
gaj is divided into twenty equal parts called vasds, and each tRW
into twenty equal parts called visvdsis. A piece of timber is meftp
sured lengthwise. As it is seldom of uniform thickness, the circoni*
ference at the middle of the length is taken. This measure it
divided by four, and the quotient is squared. The result thus.
obtained is multiplied by the length measure and the product divided
by 400. This last quotient gives the cubic contents in gaj; the
remainder in connection with this quotient, when multiplied by twenty
and divided by 400, gives the measure in vasds ; and the remainder
in this last case, multiplied by twenty and divided by 400, gives the
measure in visvdsis. Thus the required measure is determiaed in
gaj, vasa, and visvdsis, and the sale price is fixed at so much per
gaj. The unit of measurement used in earth work and mud waDs is
the hath.

Milk, and sometimes clarified butter, are the only articles sold bf
capacity measures. The capacity measures used are brass cups call^
dphkhords. The contents of a one ser dphkliora are equal to 2551
cubic inches. Clarified butter as a rule sold by weight, is among
the poorer classes weighed in special capacity measures made by thi
wandering tribe of Thoris.

Bricks, tiles, bamboos, rafters, poles, fruit, and betel leaves ait
sold by the number. Bricks and tiles are sold by the thousM
which, from the practice of putting aside one brick or tile to mdt
each hundred, actually numbers 1010. Rafters and cocoanuts
sold by the score, the score of rafters containing twenty-two.

Grass is sold by the thousand, and millet straw, kadbi, by thft
hundred bundles. In Kaira, a hundred bundles of hadbi mean 10^
one being added for each twenty bundles. In the case of grass, UT

1 Two Kaira bighAs are equal to one acre and seven gwnihdB,

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Bigarit}

KAIRA, 67

bundles are given for every hundred. This is called a full or paha Chapter V.

kundred, compared ^ith the small or hacha hundred of 105 only. Capital.

A man generally contains forty sers. Sometimes^ though the practice

is growing rare, in wholesale purchases grocers allow from two to MtMuwa.

ijQ sen extra. In the case of molasses, gol, and sugar, from two

to eight 06r5 are allowed for the weight of the coverings.

As there are no regular shops for selling pearls and precious Prooiotui lioiiw.
sfames, the weights are but little understood. All purclutses are
Bade at Ahmedabad, Baroda, Surat, or Bombay.

The table for measuring time is sixty vipals or winks, one pal ;
\ Bitjpals, one ghddi of twenty-four minutes ; 2^ ghadis, one hora ;
Jf ghadisj one choghdi; 7 J ghadis, one pokor; four p6hor$, one
&ciu; seven divas , one athavddiya ; two athavddiyds, one paksh ; two
foksk, one month ; twelve months, one year. In former times
^fte Hindus had neither watches nor sun-dials. Their time measure
I VIS the water clock, and this, thoagh in ordinary life never referred
*^, is still used at marriage and thread ceremonies. Besides by the
pater clock time was calculated by the length of shadows. One
•|ilan was, in an open sunlit spot, to measure in feet the length of one's
dow; to add six to the number and divide 121 by the sum. The
rtiient gives the time in ghadis of twenty-four minutes, after

I^se, if the sun has not crossed the meridian, and before sunset,
Kthe son has crossed the meridian. Another plan is to hold upright
iflun rod eighteen dnglis long, bend it so that its shadow will touch
w other end of the rod on the ground, and measure in dnglis the
fttpendicnlar height of the rod. This, like the other plan, shows the
. iimber of ghadie either after sunrise or before sunset.

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[Bombay Gazetteer,

Ghapter VI.
Trade.

Boadi,

1844.

1878.

CHAPTER VI.

TRADE.

In 1844^ except from the aoatli gate of Kaira town to tie
wooden bridge on the Shedhi river near Batanpar village, a
distance of about a mile^ there were no made roads of any Idoi
The district highways and crossways were principally formed trom
cart tracks^ and though in some places uneven and narrow^ they
were on the whole pretty good. The sandiness of the soil made
them somewhat heavy for carts^ and in the rainy season they wen
partially flooded. Bat a few days of fair weather again made them
passable. The paths between villages were worse. Exeeedinglj
narrow^ they were in some places so overhung with boshes m
branches as to make it difBcult for carts and horsemen to pasB.^
Until 1863 little was done to improve the state of the roads. In
that year the survey superintendent spoke of the roads as ordinary
cart tracks execrable in the black soil^ and in the light^ thoagk
on the whole tolerable, in places as bad as roads could be, ronniDg
through a deep sandy soil trying to man and beast and destrnctire
to wheeled vehicles of any kind. In 1863 the local fund cess
wa8 first levied, and since then • steady progress has been made in
clearing and metalling roads.

There are at present (1878) six main lines of road extending wi A
their branches over a total distance of 100 miles. Of these fifty-one "
have been and twenty-one are (1878) being metalled with stone or
nodular limestone. Except a few large rivers, watercourses are
bridged throughout. Of the two parts into which the Bombay
and Baroda Kailway divides the district, that to the north-east)
the larger of the two, contains two principal roads. These from
Kapadvanj in the north, start southwards, one running a Httfe
to the west to meet the railway at Nadi&d, and the other a little te
the east to reach the Pdli railway at Ddkor. The Nadi£d feeder,
twenty-seven miles long, is an embanked, bridged, and unmetalW
line. Besides the ordinary local trade, a good deal of traffic is
carried by this route in connection vnth the S&ml&ji feir in the
Mahi E&ntha. The Ddkor feeder, twenty miles long, is a stone
metalled road. In the south-west of the <£strict towards the sont)^<
a railway feeder, eleven miles long, connects Borsad with the Visad
station. This road, bridged and metalled with nodular Umestone^'
is passable all the year round. To the west, a line of seven nulee
runs from the railway station at Mehmadabad to the district head-

^ Collector 308, 23rd December 1844.

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KAIRA. 69 .

qnarter station at Kaira. This is a bridged^ drained, and limestone Outpter TI.
metalled road. Beyond Kaira it is continued twelve miles south- --7^

west to the Sabarmati^ and is partially bridged and metalled. ^^^

From Mdtar start two roads, one six miles to Kaira on the north,
and the other thirteen to the Nadi&d station on the east. These
lines are at present being metalled.

Of six buildings for the accommodation of district officers, one at RMi-liouBes.
Kaira and the other at L&li, on the country track between Kaira and
Ahinedabad, are in the Mehmadabad sub-division ; one at Nadi&d,
about two miles from the Nadi&d railway station, in the Nadi&d
sab-division; one at Y^sad in the A'nand sub-division; one at
Dehvan in the Borsad sub-division ; and one at Xapadvanj in the
Kapadvanj sub-division. For the convenience of travellers, the
district is provided with ten rest-houses or dharmshdlds built since
! 1869 from local funds at a total cost of £6191 (Rs. 61,910). Of the
len rest-houses, one at Lasundra, near the Ddkor and Kapadvanj
wad, is in the Kapadvanj sub-division ; one at Th&ira, and the other
it P4Ii, both on the Ddkor and Godhra road, in the Th&sra sub-
iBvision ; one at N&ika, one at Shikoldi, and a third at Mehlaj, in the
Katar sub-division ; one at Kanij, and the other at Samara on the
Kaira and Ahmedabad country track, in the Mehmadabad sub-
cBvision ; and one at A'nand near the A'nand railway station, and the
«B»er at Vasad near the Vfead railway station, in the A'nand sub-
jfivision. The rest-house at A'nand which for building purposes
iiceived in addition to the local funds grant a contribution from a
Bombay merchant, Mr. Premchand Bdichand, has an upper room
fcr Europeans and separate quarters for Hindus, P&rsis, and Musal-
loins. Those in the Thdsra sub-division, besides Quarters for all
ordinary travellers, have separate accommodation tor Europeans.
The remaining bouses are fitted only for ordinary native travellers.
Besides the above, almost every large village has a rest-house with
toom enough for about ten or twelve native travellers.

Besides at many places during the rainy season and at times of Femes,
iood, two ferries maintained from local funds ply across the Mahi.
fK tliese one between R^laj of Borsad and K&vi of Jambusar
atteBroachdistrict is permanent, and the other between Pdli of
"lasra and Gotra of the Godhra sub-division of the Pauch Mdhils
torkfl only during the rainy season. In the year 1876-77 these
feries were farmed for £33 (Rs. 830) . Of this amount £1 5 (Es. 1 50),
'«Q account of the ferry at P41i, were credited in equal proportions
to the Eaira and Panch Mah&ls local funds.

^ Near the town of Kaira between the cantonment and the church Bridget.
fte river Vfitrak with banks about thirty feet high is crossed by a
™dfiome wooden bridge 250 feet long supported by fourteen pairs
^xroii pillars coupled with a screw clainp.

Abont^ a mile and a quarter south of the Ydsad station the rail-
CoBttibuted by H. B. Hargrove, Esq., Resident Engineer, Bombay and Baroda

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bombay QasetlMr,

DISTRICTS.

Chapter YI
Trade.

Po0t offioea

Telegraph.

way passes over the river Mahi. At the crossing the river bsnks
are from eighty to ninety feet high and the river bed about 4000
feet broad. The bridge was opened for traffic on the 3rd Sep-
tember 1862. Originally it had twenty-seven spans of ^Warren'^B
girders 62' 6'', each supported on three vertical cohimns of Mitchell's
screw piles 2' 6" outside diameter, the metal being 1'' thick. la
addition to the above, two stout columns were attached one on the
down side and one on the up side of each pier. For the reasons
stated in the account of the Narbada bridge ^ these stout columns
were afterwards removed and replaced by vertical columns con-
nected by a heavy cross girder on the top similar to those in use
at the Narbada bridge. The foundation of the bridge is at its
deepest point sunk about fifty feet below ground and 127 below
rail level. The rail is carried on the top instead of as in the
Narbada and other viaducts at the bottom of the girders. On the
8rd of August 1871 the river rose within twenty-four feet of rail
level, sixty-two feet above the bed of the stream. One of the up
stream columns was broken by drift timber, but the remauung* four
columns of the pier were strong enough -to hold up the bridge and
keep the line open.

For postal purposes the Eaira district forms a part of the
Gujar&t postal division, and contains thirteen post offices located at the
following stations : Kaira, M&tar, Cambay, A'nand, Borsad, V&sad,
Nadi&d, Mehmadabad, Mahudha, Kapadvanj, Th^ra, TJmretli,
and Dakor. These offices are supervised by the inspector of post
offices in the Gujar&t division, assisted by the sub-inspector of the
Kaira district and the Rewa K&ntha states. Except at Kaira and
Yasad, the officials in charge of post offices are styled deputy post-
masters and are paid yearly salaries varying from £18 to £60
(Rs. 180-600) and averaging £37 Us. 9d. (Rs. 376-6-0). The official
at Ydsad, styled a post kdrkun, draws an annual salary of £14 (Bs. 140) *
As the Kaira town station is the disbursing office of the district^ the
officer in charge is styled postmaster and draws a yearly salary of £90
rising to £114 (Rs. 900-1140). From the stations mentioned above
letters are distributed by delivery peons or by post runners. For
this additional work the latter are paid a trifiing gratuity. The
correspondence for surrounding villages is delivered by rural mes*
sengers who also bring into the stations letters posted in letter-boxea
placed at most of the villages. The rural messengers carry with
them a stock of postage stamps for sale at the villages they visit*
In the Eaira district there are in all seventeen delivery peons axk
yearly salaries ranging from £9 12«. to £12 (Rs. 96-120) and
averaging £9 17«. 7^d. (Rs. 98-13-0). The pay of the mml
messengers, of whom there are eighteen, varies from £9 12«. to £12
(Rs. 96-120) a year and averages £11 (Rs. 110). This staff of mat
is distributed according to requirements, letters being dehvered m
some places daily, and in others only once a week.

The only telegraph offices are those at the different railway stations.

] Bombay Gazetteer, II. , 419.

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KAIRA, 71

Thongh in early times Kaira did not contain any very important Chapter VL
centre of trade, many favourite lines of traffic passed through it.^ Trade.

North and south, pretty much along the present main line of railway

Sised the trade between Ahmedabad and Baroda, Broach, and I'M'd trade.
rat; another line lay from the port of Tank&ri in Broach through
Dehvan, Fetl^, and Kaira to Ahmedabad ; a third was from Gambay
through Sojitra and Eaira to Ahmedabad. Lines also passed from the
Gnjai^t ports north-east through D&kor and Kapadvanj to Malwa and
Mew&r, and east through Dholka, E^aira, and Nadidd. Judging from
the small revenue from transit dues £3630 (Rs. 36,300), the trade of
Ihe district at the time of its transfer to the British (1803) must have
been scanty.^ In 1821 the consumption of imported articles is said
to liave been very small.^ In 1826 the manufactures of the district
were valued at £166,326 (Rs. 16,63,260) and its trade at £443,594
(Rs. 44,35,940). Of the total amount of trade, merchandise valued
ai £95,000 (Rs. 9,50,000), was returned as imported for consumption
in the district, and property worth £348,594 (Rs. 34,85,940) as in
' imnsit from Cambay to Central India and other foreign territory.^
- In 1841 the chief articles of trade between Surat and Ahmedabad
' were silk raw and manufactured, cotton piece goods, gold thread,
eonntry paper, metal articles, wheat, and coriander seed ; through
. Kaira to the Panch Mahals and M&lwa, and to Dongarpur and Mewar,
[ enmin seed, cardamoms, bishopsweed, betelnut, brimstone, cam-
j jbor, coffee, cocoanuts without shells, cotton, dry ginger, gum, iron,
[ in£go,catechu,and lace; from Jauibusar andTank&ri, through Dehvdn
'• to Ahmedabad, long pepper, perfumes, dammer, soft sugar, sago, salt-
[ Jifltre, soap, cloves, cinnamon, and mace ; from Cambay, black pepper,
^ Iiearls, horses, charcoal, alum, tea, assaf cetida, tobacco, sugarcandy,
' and molasses ; and from Dholera , sandalwood, candles, tamarind, and
; losewater.*^ In 1855, in consequence of the exorbitant customs
duties levied by the Nawdb of Cambay and also by the Gdikwfir, the
^strict trade, both in exports and imports, took, instead of the straight
!:load to Cambay, a circuitous course either to Dholera in Ahmeda-
' lad or Dehg&m in Broach. The chief articles of export were grain
, to Baroda ; safflower to different Gujardt ports ; tobacco to MHwa ;
cumin seed, aniseed, soap, and glass bangles to Bombay; and
Arified butter to Surat. The chief articles of import were wheat,
^rmda roots or sorangi, cotton, and cloth from Malwa ; and sugar,
^^i^es, cocoanuts, metals, European piece goods,^ glassware, paper,
jiwelleiy, and dates from Bombay. Shortly after 1855 the trade of

I Eart India Papers, in., 686.

M)f the whole amount NadiiLd yielded £2100, MAiar £630, Mahudha £600, Eaira
«», and Nip4d £100.— Bom. Gov. Sel., XXXLX., 27. As there are no meana of
™>Jg the percentage charge of transit dues, these returns are necessarily vague.

• Uptain Robertson, 10th October 1819.— Bom. Gov. Kev. Rea 149 of 1820. 436.
.J'fr- Williamson's report, 1826. Trade with the interior was at that time much
jTOfined l^ transit dues. In 1825, a year of scarcity in Gujarat, wheat was selling
« twenty-seven pounds the rupee in NUlwh and at nine in Baroda.— Heb. Nar.,

J Mr. Kirldand, 343, 3rd November 1841.
European cloth was in more general use than formerly. It was worn by the
*er claases including the vdtiddrs. Kanbis, Kolis, and the other working dassea
wore ooarse country doth.— Collector 48- A, Slst January 1866.

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[Bombay QaiettaN*,

GhaptMr VL
Trade.

Railway traffic,
1868-1877.

DISTRICTS.

the district would seem to have greatly increased. In 1861 at
Kapadvanj^ during the whole fair season, immense caravans were said
to halt regularly on their way between Ahmedabad and Central
India. Large quantities of tobacco grown in Nadi&d, Fetl^d^ and
Borsad^ came to the Kapadvanj merchants to be sent to Malwa and
M&rw&r, and piece goods^ hardware, country manu&ctured cotton
and silk robes^ turbans^ gls^s^ soap^ bangles^ and many otber
articles were veiy largely exported from Kapadvanj to the Gaik-
wdr^s territories^ the Mahi K&ntha^ the Panch Mah^ls^ the B41asinor
country, and Central India. In 1861-62 the imports of the Kapad-
van] sub-division were valued at £30,285 (Rs. 3,02,850) and die
exports at £25,420 (Rs. 2,54,200) .^

Besides by improved roads, land traffic has been aided by the
construction of a line of railway, that with a total length of forty
miles runs through the whole breadth of the district north-east
and south-west. This line iBbnishedin 1863 has, beginning with the
south, six stations, Vdsad, Ndvli, A'nand, Boriavi, NadiW, and
Mehmadabad. From the A'nand station a line locally known as the
Dakor branch runs north-east for a distance of thirty-two mfles.
This branch finished in 1874 has five stations, beginning from Ae
west, Bhdlaj, Umreth, Dakor, Th^ra, and P&li. Traffic figorei:
for the main line stations are available since 1868. From these
returns it would seem that though compared with the earliest year,
there is at present a considerable advance, the traffic was somewhai
on the decline in passengers between 1871 and 1873, and in gooda
during 1871 and 1872. Since its opening in 1874, the increase in
traffic on the D&kor branch has been much more rapid than on the
main line. In 1874 the D^kor branch had twenty-eight per cent
of the total passenger and nineteen per cent of the total gooda traffic j
in 1875, both in passengers and goods, its share rose to thirty-six,
and in 1877 to fifty-two percent. On the main line in 1868 therd
were four stations. The number was in 1870 increased to seven.
Of these, Eh&mbli^ had so small and so declining a traffic that, aftef
being kept open for three years, it was closed. Both in passeng
and goods the most important stations on the main line ar4
Nadi^d, A'nand, Mehmadabad, and Vdsad. The remaining t^
stations, Nivli and Bori&vi have no goods, and a very sma
passenger traffic. The number of stations on the Ddkor branch ha
since 1874 been increased from three to five. Of these, D6kor
the first passenger traffic station and Pdli is the largest goo<
station in the whole district. Umreth stands second both in passoi
gers and goods. Of the rest Bhdlaj has no goods traffic, and Thiol
shows but insignificant totals. The returns for all the stations in ill
district show that 346,746 passengers were carried in 1868, compart
with 966,022 in 1877 ; while the traffic in goods has risen durin
the same period from 31,138 tons to 107,914 tons. The highei
total of passengers and the largest quantity of goods carried dnrin

1 Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 690.

> Khimbli had never any goods traffic, and its total of passengers fell from
in 1870 to 836 in 1872.

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fl^jtfit]

KAIRA.

Ifcis term of ten years were in 1877, and the corresponding lowest
total and the smallest quantity, in 1868. The following statement
ihows in tabular form the fluctuations in the chief articles of trade,
famed from and to the different stations of the Kaira district.

Kaira Mailway, OoodSy 1868'1877.

Atncuu.

1808.

18T0.

1878.

1874.

1877.

1 ;

Tons.

Tona.

Tons.

TODfl.

Ton*.

Tons.

{ 1031

( 1211
1 41

1
1

2807
72

760

1662
38

1
48

908
120

884
22

Qetk-in 1^

* U

ssas

6070

8168

6877

180

7844

Chrfflftl bat(«r

638

616

1252

1121

fill- tjnd need ..,

USTi

?7*7

7484

8028

5586

2447

6150

2406

18,023

12,424

Ibbadi «

1T5P

SOU

8993

4856

9582

164

Uihi .„ _

inD6

1870

639

183

865

130

1448

mmuM

SIM

2204

2108

1003

106

1087

tice tfiKidit Baropna tJld

enontrj

4«

J>36

1426

1030

414

269

1089

Nfii . ,.

tlill

1288

913

905

1047

SMria

M7e

f^Oll

8495

4il2

2947

8891

7481

6890

14,282

17.988

Tlmbec .„ .,.

1LII2

102

1427

143

1141

857

619

lOOIO

1709

Tetaco

eAO

4161

4679

714«

7641

100

tfiit, Earop**! and country...

i»

495

659

274

117

756

134

699

Total ...

13i,3€(7 18^1

22,151

i6,624

20.488

16,895

29,261

19,814

62,494

46,420

Cihapter YI.

Trade.

Bailway traffic.
1868-1877.

From the above table it will be seen that the principal articles of
Alport are un pressed and half -pressed cotton, clarified butter,
mhiida^ Bassia lati folia, grain, tobacco and since the opening of the
J^li railway, timber. Glass and soap, though peculiar to the district,
ire not manufactured in auch quantities as to contribute materially
to its export trade. The principal articles of import are cotton-

f?d, metal, molasses, sugar, piece goods, twist, and timber.
The details for the Nadiiul station show an increase in the total
lumber of passengers from 126,223 in 1868 to 175,367 in 1877, and in
tbe qmDtitj of goods from 16,430 tons in 1868 to 24,087 in 1877.
Ririt)^ the ten years ending 1877, the greatest total number of
j»?ksengers waJ3 193,191 and of goods 27,240 tons, both in 1870;
the lowest figULres were in 1868. The returns for A'nand show
Siat passenger traffic has increased from 110,816 in 1868 to 151,722
k lisTT, with the highest tobil of 1 72,387 passengers in 1870 and the
lowest total of 79,370 in 1873. Goods traflSc shows an increase from
lD,2ti3 tons in 1S68 to 13,670 in 1877 ; the highest total was 14,694
tons in 1871 and the lowest 10,263 in 1868. At Vdsad, goods traffic
taa mcreased from 3(^32 tons in 1868 to 12,910 tons in 1877;
tie highest total was 14,403 tons in 1876. On the Ddkor branch,
passenger traffic has increased from 182,421 in 1874 to 425,584 in
1S77, and goods from 9161 tons in 1874 to 53,312 in 1877. The
P^kor station retarns show that passenger traffic has increased from
126,066 in 1874 to 284,330 in 1877; goods traffic shows an increase
ifrom 5832 in 1874 to 9626 in 1877. Like Dikor, Umreth shows a
^«GB£ide!^ble increase in goods traffic, the total for 1874 being 3329
■^V^m against 11 ,1 48 in 1877. The following statement contrasts in

}

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Chapter TL
Trade.

lUilway traffic*
1868-1877.

Butter.

[Bombay QuettMr.

DISTRICTS.

tabular form the passenger and goods traffic at eacH of the staliatt
of the Kaira district in 1868, 1870, 1872, 1874, and 1877. J

JToira Railway^ PcMengera <tnd Oooda, 1868-1877.

Btaiioii.

JfoinJUM^

Tted

KAtU

▲ nuid

BoriiTt ...

NadiAd

XhAmbIi(a)...

Total

BrwMklA.n€,

BbAlaJ

Umreth

Dikor

Tbtora

HMciri(6)..

FiU

Total
Oraod Total

Main Line.

VAmd

NAvli

A'nand ...
Bori«Ti

NMliid ...

Khdmbll ...
Mehmadabad

Total

Branch lint.

fihAlij

Umr«th

DAkor

ThAira

Bangirl

PAli ...

Total
Oraad Total

DlflTAKCa

nr MiiiU
paoM

BOMBAT.

2761
S88

8761

283}

iSS

3981

2961

801}

IMS.

86^13
110,816
126ii88

78>M

846,740

346,746

1870.

80.804
10,641

17»,887
18170

198,191
6584

108,905

660,182

M0,18i

1873.

48,908
16,276

186,118
38.931

164,381
830

108,400

403,700

498,700

m^\ mm
j*,m' wm

30,311

1T1,SI5 E«4N

11.7M hi*

43,131 nm
... . 1*^

1^.4fl iJM»

6^3,951 »bW

Goods iif Tom.

80S3
l6i368
16,430

1418

81,188

81,138

80i7
14,658
Sf7i240

1865

48,775

4943
i8;i74
I6i594

1632

30,333

36,383

ceil ii0

IS, I TO U***

4S.irS

st,ia

K'T,f(»

(a) Khimbli wat oloMd in January 1873L (6) HangAri wa« closed in ^^tuitrj l^"

The Kaira or charotar trade in clarified butter, believed to U
worth to the district about £80,000 (Rs. 8,00,000) a year, deserr^
special notice.^ The butter is made from the milk of cows, bufialw^
sheep, and goats. The makers are Kanbis, Kolis, Bajputs, Eabim
and Bharvdds, as well as Chdmadids, Dheds, and others of ^^
depressed castes. The better class of ghi makers trade dim^t witl
Y&nia,, Bhdtia, and Lohdna dealers; the lowcaste makers tradi

* Clarified batter has for many years been one of the chief Kaira export* !
1824 the PetUd, now Borsad, cultivators exported large quantities of ghi In ^-^ .
pwn carts and with their own bullocks they made every year four or five trip» '^ -J*
bringing back cotton seed. They also took ghi east to Hilol and KaIoI and h^^
back raw sugar.— Bom. Gov. Sel., XI., 110.

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IVffil]'

KAIRA.

tbongh Mnaalman brokers. The local dealers baying in small
quantities collect a large stock. This they are said to adalterate
nmetimes by mixing different sorts of ghi, sometimes by adding
MBamnm, tal, poppy seed, khaskhas, or mahuda berry oil. The mixing
ff^r, the dealers store the gki in large leather bottles.^ These bottles
fltej either export at their own risk or store at the ghi markets
lo meet the demands of foreign dealers. The chief markets are
Anaad^ ITmreth^ Ndvli^ and Earamsad^ where buyers come from
ftmt^ Baroda^ Broach, Jambasar, Cambay^ Bhivnagar, Gogha,
|Kkdhw^, Limbdi, Dholera, and Bombay.

Tobacco another of the chief exports is sent to G-njar&t, M&lwa,
* the Deccan. Details of the tobacco trade have been already

jFen(p.47).

Uatil the opening of steam factories at Ahmedabad and Nadi&d

^"'0-1876), the spinning and weaving of cotton was, next to

Iture, the most important industry of the district. Almost

the women, both in towns and villages, were formerly to

me extent engaged in spinning cotton thread. But the

Ktition of local steam factories has greatly reduced the demand
ndspun yam. Formerly cloth woven by Dheds and Musal-
tos was, besides meeting the local demand, sent to BatMm and
ler parts of India. This cloth, coarse and very strong, served both
r clothes and sacking. But of late years the demand for both
nrposes has greatly fallen. For sacking, Bengal jute cloth has
\ a large extent taken the place of the local manufacture, and the
Itting cloth, which from its greater strength and cheapness had
Ue to fear from the competition of European piece goods, has now
ion to a great extent ousted by the produce of Bomliay and
qar&t weaving mills. Fiue cloth for robes, sddis, waistcloths, aud
Qtaloons are woven by Momna and T4i Musalm&ns, and a few
indas of the Eliatri caste. Able to buy yam cheaper than
rmerly, weavers of this class, though competition has reduced their
nSts, find a market for their goods. Calico printing and dyeing are
tried on to a considerable extent, chiefly in Nadidd, Eaira, D4kor,
kneth, Mehmadabad, A'nand, Sast&pur, Kathl41» M&tar, and
^advanj. Except for a few M&rv&di Musalmans, these industries
Rin the bauds of Hindus of the Bhdvs&r caste, who number 3883
^. Kaira water is thought specially useful for dyeing, and its
innts have a good name. Besides a widespread home demand they
^ exported to Siam and other places. Some of the printers
le men of capital and prepare articles on their own account. They
■7 their cloth and colours either from Ahmedabad or Bombay
^^hants, and sell their prints in lots on the spot to Y&nia dealers,
■ne of whom come from considerable distances. Their trade
iB soSered from competition. Many of them are said to bo giving
I printing and taking to other occupations. In 1876 (Aug. 17)
ksteam apinuing mill with engines of fifty horse power and 9744
(indies, 6584 of them mule and 3360 throstle,, was at a cost of
^ . — _

. 'Rmm bottles or kundds, madQ by men of the Babgar caste, vaiy in price from
^w5i.andin capacity from Goto 20O pounds (H to 5 mans.)

Chaptar VL
Trade.

Tobacco.

ManofaiotureB.

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[Bombay Guettmv

DISTEICTS.

Chapter TI.

Bianafactarec
1877.

Glass-making.

Soap.

£48,500 (Rs. 4,85,000) started at Nadiad. Of the 400 £100 shsra
only 239 bad been taken up. Tbe sbarebolders belonged chiefly to
Bombay. Hardly any local residents bad any interest in the miL
Forced to borrow to make up deficiencies and meet expenses, in spite
of tbe local advantages of cheap cotton and labour and large local
demand, from heavy interest, dull trade, and cheap yam Uie mill
worked at a loss and after 2^ years (Dec. 1878) had to be closed.
While at work the mill employed nearly 300 hands, two-thirds of
them local, Hindus of the Ehedaval Br&hman, Khatri, Tapodhan,
Kanbi, Koli, Y&ghri, and Bavalia castes and Musalmans in ftboat
equal numbers. Monthly wage payments averaged about £260
(ns. 2600) and the yearly consumption of cotton about 857 tons
(1000 khandis). The cotton came from Ahmedabad, Yiramgwn,
Wadhwan, Baroda, Broach, and sometimes from Surat. The yarn
was sold chiefly in the Kaira, Baroda, and Ahmedabad districts and
in smaller quantities in Kathi&wdr, Palanpar, and Pali.

Glass-making has its headquarters at Kapadvanj. The worlen
are Musalm&ns. The glass is made in large earthen furnaces in
form like huge slipper baths, the floor sloping forwards to holes
prepared to receive the melted glass. The furnace inside is baked
as hard and looks as white and slippery as ice. The component
parts of the • glass are alkali, vs, and impure carbonate of sodiy
sajji khdr, and a dark coloured flinty sand from Jeypur. These
are mixed together, placed in the furnaces, and thoroughly hoQel
for hours. When ready the boiling mass is allowed to run into I
trench where it remains till cool. It is then broken into small
pieces, remelted, and in this liquid state made into banglcB, beadSf
bottles, glasses, and fancy animals chiefly peacocks. The last are
extremely thin and brittle, smashing to pieces when touched.' Tbe
produce of the Kapadvanj glass factories goes chiefly to Bombay
and Kathiaw&r.

Soap is manufactured by Musalm&ns. It is made by mixiBg
alkali, soda, and lime in water and allowing them to soak for some
hours. The water is then drawn off and a quantity of mahuda oOf
doliu, is added, and the whole boiled in large brick caldrons.
When ready the mixture is run off into shallow brick troughs anl
left to cool. It is then gathered into a large heap, pounded witk
heavy wooden mallets, and cut into round cakes. According to tbi
amount of mahuda oil it contains, soap varies in price from \^» ^
3(2. (1-2 annas) the cake.' It is sent to Ahmedabad, Sora^
Broach, K&thi&w&r, and Bombay. The soap trade is entirely in tbi
hands of Musalmans of the D&udi Bohora sect.

A district whose wealth and traffic are almost entirely agricul!
has naturally little trade organization. The use of the
mahdjan or great men is entirely social, applied to the ™^^^^. .
the Vdnia, Shr&vak, and Soni castes. They have no gnilda ^'j
trade purposes, and among none of the artisan dasses does t»;
practice of apprenticeship prevail.

* Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 721.

« Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 722.

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Qojuit]

CHAPTEK VII.

HISTORY.

Ceossbd by so many of the cliief lines of traffic between upper Chapter VII.
and central India and the coast^ the district contains settlements History,

rf very great antiquity.^ Under its different Rajput dynasties
(746-i290) the lands of Kaira were, except perhaps. Thdsra and
Kapadvanj, included in the settled and directly-managed portions of
|ke AnhiMda domain. At the end of the fourteenth century they
|ttsed nnder the Musalm&n kings of Ahmedabad, and with the other

iwn lands were in 1573 transferred to the Moghals.* From about

lOto 1750 the district was the scene of almost unceasing con-
between the Mardth&s and the Mosalmdn viceroys and nobles.

:cept that the Kaira estate was for ten years left m the hands of
Sbe Bdbi family, on the capture of Ahmedabad (1753) the districts
jlere shared between the Peshwa and the Gaikwar, and remained
Jiith them till made over to the British^ partly in 1803 and partly
A 1817.

I ^ See Kaira and Kapadvanj.

' Except Kapadvani, the whole of the district was included in Xodar Mai's Snrvey
ll»0).-Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec., n. of 1821, 672.

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[Bombay Sawttarr

CbaptorTin.

Laiid
AdmmifltratioE^

18034617.

diA&gei*

CHAPTER VIII.

LAND ADMINISTRATION.

Past of tHe lands of the district came into Britisli possession in
1803, and the rest in 1817. Under the terms of the treaty oE
Bassein (1802, December 31st) the Nap4d group of villages w»
handed over by thePeshwa.* In 1803, for the maintenance of th»;
troops supplied by the British Government, theGraikwdr ceded Nadiid^
Matar, and Mahudha.* In this year also, the Gaikw4r granted in
perpetual gift the fort and town of Kaira, as a proof of his friendship
and as a testimony of his sense of the benefit he received from hi*
alliance with the Honourable Company^s Government.^ Under th^
treaty of the 6th November 1817, to provide for the regular payment
of additional troops, the Gaikwdr ceded* Mehmadabad, Alina, Thasn^
Antroli, and half of the town and district of Petlad.* At the 8am0
time Kapadvanj and Bh^laj* were received in exchange for tht
district of Bijdpur in north Gujarat.

The territories acquired in 1803, along with Dholka, Dhandinka,
Rdnpur, and Gogha now part of the Ahmedabad district, remained
from the date of their cession to the 14th May 1805, in charge of tk
Resident at Baroda. During that time, a European assistant and nati^ci
officers administered according to local usages the police andjuatioe
of the country. In 1806 a Collector was appointed with jurisdictiaa
over the ceded districts, both those to the north of the Mahi and
those to the west of the Gulf of Cambay^ In the same year the tow*
of Kaira was chosen to be a large military station. The increase in I
British possessions, that followed the Gaikwdr treaty of 6th November,
1817, called for fresh administrative arrangements.* Thai
territory northof the Mahi was, from the 1st January 1818, divided
into two districts. Of these, one, now the Kaira district, was caileJ;

1 Aitchi8on*8 Treatiee, IV., 214—216.

SNadiid was ceded on the condition that £10,000 (Re. 1,00,000) from the i
ihonld be annually paid to Malhikrrdv G^wdr. When Malhiniv fled (1803J, th»{
•ntire revenne lapsed to the British Qoremment.

* Aitchison's Treaties^ IV., 215 and 219.

« Aitohison's Treaties, IV., 231, and R«f. III. ofl819. Sea I.

* For the interests and convenience of both Governments, the right of the Britii^;
Government to the town of PetUd was, in exchange for the town of Umreth, t^*^
ferred to the Gdikwir.— Reg. III. of 1819, Sec. I.

* Aitohison's Treaties, IV., 232, and Beg. I. of 1817. Sec. XL
'Reg. II. of 1805, Sec. V.

* Aitchison*s Treaties, IV. ^ 226-231.

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fl^jarit]

EAIRA.

ihe Eastern^ and the other^ now the Ahmedabad district/ was called
ihe Western Zilla. In 1830 Kapadvanj was included in Ahmedabad^
and Kaira reduced to a sub-collectorate under the Principal Collector
el Ahmedabad. In 1833 Ahmedabad and Kaira were again sepa-
nted. Since then^ more than once> villages have been moved
bom one district to the other^ and the original irregular groups and
collections of villages have been gradually consolidated into seven
fttb-divisions. Of these^ under the Collector's charge^ three are
generally entrusted to the covenanted first assistant, three to the
mcovenanted district deputy collector, and one kept by the
Collector under his own control. The supervision of the district
I'inasnry is in the hands of another uncovenanted assistant styled

head-quarter, huzur, deputy collector.* These officers are also
its to the Collector as district magistrate, and those of them

have revenue charge of portions of the district have, under the

idency of the Collector, the chief management of the different
itrative bodies, local fund and municipal committees, within

limits of their revenue charge.

Under the supervision of the Collector and his assistant or deputy,

' ) revenue chajrge of each fiscal division of the district is placed in

I hands of an officer styled mdmlatdd/r. These functionaries, who

» also entrusted with magisterial powers, have yearly salaries vary-

ffrom£180 to £300 (Rs. 1800-R8. 3000). One of the fiscal divisions,

contains a petty division, peta mahdl, placed under the

I of an officer styled mahdlkari on £72 (Rs. 720) a year. The

' of this officer is to collect cesses from the Cambay State, and to

". the money to the Borsad treasury.

In revenue and police matters, the charge of the 525 Government
"is entrusted to 573 headmen, of whom twenty-three are stipen-
7 and 550 are hereditary. Thirty-one of the hereditary, but none
the stipendiary, headmen perform revenue duties only ; forty -seven
the former and three of the latter attend to matters of police only.
Me twenty stipendiary and 472 hereditary headmen are entrusted
"*^ both revenue and police duties. The headman's yearly pay
inds on the revenue derived from his village. It varies from
to £65 (Rs. 10-650) the average receipts amounting to £6 6«.
63). Besides the headman, in many villages members ' of his
ly receive Government grants amounting altogether to a yearly
of £1673 (Rs. 16,730), of which £309 (Rs. 3090) are met by
N?nments of land and £1364 (Rs. 13,640) are paid in cash. Of
*4575 (Rs, 45,750), the total yearly charge on account of village
keadmen, £658 (Rs. 6580) are met by assignments of land and £3917
pis. 39,170) are paid in cash.

^Reg. in. of 1819, Sec. III.

Till the Burve;^ Bettlement is introdaoed a third nnoovenanted aMistant styled
iganicfr Ib sanctioned for the Panch MahAls districts. This officer works under the
vHlector of Eaira during the rainy season, and during the fair weather under the
tt^ First Assistant Collector of the Panch MahAls.

ITheae men called betha Ihdgia or sitting sharen, are without doing any work
^"wlid toasfaare of the office perquisites.

Chapter Tin.

Land
Administratioii.

Changes.

Staff,
1877.

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[Bombay Qasetteir,

Cihapter^Yin.

Land
Adminiitratioii-

Staff.

Administrative

History,

1803.

DISTRICTS.

The village accotintants^ ialdtis, who under the headmen keep
the village accounts and draw up statistical and other Tetijui,
number in all 325, or about one accountant for every two vill&ges,
each charge containing on an average 23-^7 inhabitants and yielding
an average yearly rental of £584 (Rs. 5840). Their yearly ealariea,
paid in cash, averaging £19 (Rs. 190) vary from £12 to £24
(Rs. 120-Rs. 240) and represent a total yearly charge of £6151
(Rs. 61,510). Besides the stipendiary accountants, there isj m
Ejipadvanj, an hereditary taldti to whom a yearly cash aHowanoed
£24 (Rs. 240) is paid.

Under the headmen and the village accountants are the vilkgeter-
vants with a total strength of 2949. These men are Uable both fcr
revenue and for police duties. They are either Musalmans or EiEdns
of the Bhil, Koli, Dhed, and Bhangia castes. The total yearly grmi
for the support of this establishment amounts to £6901 (R^, 09,^^^)),
being £2 6». (Rs. 23) to each man, or a cost per village of £IB
(Rs. 130); of this charge £3689 (Rs. 36,890) are met by ae^L"^
ments of land and £3211 (Rs. 32,110) are paid in cash.

The yearly cost of village establishments may be thus smin^f^riAtii:
headmen and their families £6248 (Rs. 62,480) ; account^iuts £617?
(Rs. 61,750) ; servants £6901 (Rs. 69,010) ; total mn
(Rs. 1,93,240). This represents a charge of £34 (Rs. 340) on edi
village or ten per cent of the entire land revenue of the district.

ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY.^
Section L—1803.

The administrative history of the district includes two eectioni: *M
condition at the time of transf er.and its progress under British manage*
ment. The parts of north Gujarat, made over to the Briti.«li m \^^
(December 31st), formed three belts : one between the NarbfwlR ^
Mahi, a second between the Mahi and Sabarmati, and a third to tlie
north and west of the Sabarmati. These territories varied KJcck ifl.
condition and in the character of their people. The southern belt waa
orderly and ready to receive a regular administration ; tEe central,
with many villages of peaceful and well-to-do cultivators, contained a
warlike and unruly class ; and of the northern, especially we^twar^'
to Kathiawdr, a large part were Koli and Rajput states inclidi^
within the British territory and subject to a tribute, but in othef
respects left to manage tbeir own affairs. The strength of tbii

^ Materials for the Administrative History of Eaira are nnnsually complete. 1^
include Col. Walker's Reports 1804-1805 (Bom. Gov. Sel., New Series, XXXiX.): ^f
Bowie's Reports 1814-1816 (Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 102 of 1815 and 1BI6 ; l'<-
Robertson's Reports 1819-1820 (Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 149 of 1820) ; Hon. M, V^luj
stone's Minute 1821 (East India Papers, III., 677-709) ; First Survey Reports M>li*
(Bom. Gov. SeL XL); Mr. Williamson's Report 1826 (litho. Papers HUj ^i^ K'^l
Malcolm's Minute 1830 (Litho. Papers 148, 1-62,); Mr. Elphinston*i ; Statnti *t
reports, 1854 & 1865 (Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 52 of 1866 and 29 of 185S) ; R««^«

Report (15th February 1865) and for the &ve ^eare ending 1877 mach ^^'^
information on the trade and state of the district m Mr. Sheppard's yearly Aon^'^'^
tration Reports.

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SiUarit]

KAIRA.

disorderly class ; the number of half subdued Bajput and Koli chief-
teins; the unsettled tributaries of Kdthidwdr ana Mahi Kdntha ; the
eontdnual interlacing of British lands with those of the Gdikwdr, the
Peshws, and the Nawdb of Cambay ; and the numerous and ill-defined
ienures in almost every village combined to make the country
beyond the Mahi harder to manage than any part of the Company's
torritories.

The lands of the central belt, the present district of Kaira, were
cfetribufced over the sub-divisions of Nadidd, Mdtar, and Mahudha,
the estate of Eaira, and the Ndpdd and Khdri village groups, tappds.
The villages belonged to three classes, the quiet rdsti, the refractory
mhvis or girds, and an intermediate class the rdsti-mehvds. The cen-
iaI lands of Nadiad and Nap&d, and to a less degree those of Mdtar
md Mahudha, were almost free from the turbulent classes. But in the
aiitlTing tracts, both to the north and the south-east, was a large unruly
population and many unsettled villages both of the Rajput or girds, and
jf the KoU or mehvds, types. Of the claims put forward by the two
inBiim of holders of unruly villages, those of the Rajputs, as the rulers
)£ tke land at the time of the Musalm&n conquest, and as at once
fte more warlike and more civilized race, were more respected than
iose of the Kolis. Though they probably at one time held the
floie country, the Kolis would seem to have been considered
rebellious, or at least refractory villagers, who had from its weakness
(tested or eluded the just claims of the former Government. Both
fwd » tribute, and Grovemment might raise its amount. But it was not
^^ to interfere with the inner management of their villages or to
?mmine their revenues. Compared with the lands to the north of
ie SSbarmati,^ the Kaira district had few unruly villages of the
ii]put class. Its Koli or mehvds villages, chiefly to the east and
<»uth, under chiefs, thdkors,^ were most of them wretched groups
i tliatched beehive-like huts. Some of them included several
fiitinot hamlets, vds, each with boundaries^ husbandmen, and a chief
»£itB own, responsible for a certain share of the whole Government
IsniaTid on the village. Compared with the peaceful villages, the
f veaae they yielded was small, the amount fixed more by the chiefs
»wer of resisting than by his ability to pay. Rebellious and
Riibordinate, many of the refractory villages especially those near
leilahi, except under pressure of force, refused to pay their tribute.^

h 1821 after many fnehvd8 villages liad beoome quiet, there remained seventy-two.
; Him. Dee. of Hindustdn, I., 622.

The application of girds to Rajput and mehvds to Koli villages was first clearly
|M^ by Mr. Elphinatone (1821). Colonel Walker (1804) did not bring out tlus

^ In support of tiie distinction Mr. Elphinatone contended that mehvds was used

1 iie sense of refractory, and that as all independence on the part of a Koli waa

^«ned usurpation and was not in a Rajput, the term had come to be limited to

i \iWsims (East India Papers, III., 708). This word was, apparently in the

>e of forest, used m Gujar&t in the twelfth century (Ind. Ant. iV. 74 and 76).

w ipng^n has recently (Major J. W. Watson, Ind. Aut. VI. 79) been traced to

fdi'.rig j;j^^ £g ^{ahi dwelbngs. This would fairly well explain its Gujardt and

^itnl India meaning. But the use of it by Minh4ju-s-Siraj (about 1250), to

'^*^1>e wild and forest lands between the Qanges and Jamna, mi^es this local

^¥uuti(m doubtful (Elliot's Hist. II. 862 and note.) Professor M. M. Kunte

B 167-11

Chapter TUl-

Land

AdminiBtration-

1802.

VUliigas.

'"> t, Ci K^-'^'^^ -

Digitized by CjOOQIC

(Bombay 6a»ttair,
82 DISTRICTS.

Oiapter Till, In qniet or rasti villages, the lands were divided into two dasm,

- — - those made over to private persons either free of rent, nakru, or oni

Adin^Btratkm- qnitrent, salami, and Government or sarkdri lands let out for tiUaga

The private or alienated lands claimed to be grants made either

^^^" by Government or by village managers. Government grants wert

Alienated landa. either religions, vazifa, political, vdnta and maliki, or to foster irrigt*

tion, kuvetar. Village grants were to please dangerous neighboun,

girds, pagia, hdria, koliapa, and dahdnia ; to rewsurd village Bervioes^

Sasdita, Mria, ramvatia, and pdlia; to rednce the pressure of
overnment demand, vechdnia and girdnid. Of GoverDinest
religious grants, vazifa, properly a Musalm&n religious grant, wri
used to include all personal grants by MusalmiLn rulers, whether at
charity, favour, or in return for service. The area of land beld
under this tenure was smalL Of Government political grants the
v^nta or share lands were originally allotted by king Ahmed L
(141 1-1443) to the former Rajput proprietors, and either left in their
hands or restored to them by the Emperor Akbar (1583). Under the
Mar^h&s, by sale, mortgage, and encroachment, the share had ii
most cases ceased to form any thing like the one-fourth part of the
whole village area. Still, in Colonel Walker's (1804) opinioQ, thft
right to the share * maintained bv arms and by an unconqneraUb
sentiment was secured to the holders by imiversal consent, andvas,-
when he wrote, ' unimpaired in its privileges.'^ The boundaries et
the shore were marked off, and there was generally a distinct qnsrtdi
of the village where the holder of vdnta lands and his dependenli
lived.^ Lands of this class were, in some cases, held by the whoU
family as joint property, in others, kept in separate shares, or managw
for the owner by the village headman. Under the head of vtrnM
comes sirjamin, land granted by a holder of vdnta for the nainti^
nance of his wife. Even if the rest of the share escheated U
Government, this part remained in the hands of the woman's heitA

Twi^uva The other chief political Government grant was to the dass a

Musalm&ns called Maliks. These Maliks were descendants of soldieri
who, for their special valour at the siege of P&v&gad (1483), were \
Mahmud Begada (1459-1513) presented with about ninety squaii
miles of land on the banks of the Mahi to the north and north-easto

) ^ « t (5th April, 1879, ) baa kindly offered the foUowing ezplaziation. ' I would dtfrre mm

/)\J4^. /^'-^ ^ or mdivdsitom the Sanacrit meaa a sheep, a word still used in the Marithi madk

s I ' vdda {mefojvdtah) * sheep-pen, and in the phrase- fntthd-pdtra aheepish used of

M • A^ ^ />-*^»^ timpleton or milksop. The word mewl» is, I think, a relic of an old divaioa

^ ' f J. the country into tmmiuyo-vdsa or gr&mjo. the men's quarters and meMi-vdM, t

o.^^ww*>-<'^^C/" • sheep^nartersi the ontlying and nntiUed tracks.'

^ ^ \ Bom. Got. SeL SXXiX., New Beries, 23. Later on (1821) this origin of «bi

was disputed. Mr. Prendergast (29th June 1821) objected to the explanation giv
in the text, hold»ff that v&nla lands were encroachments. But Mr. ElphiniM

kept to Colonel Walker's view. In his opinion, under the old Hindu ''"^

the Bajputs divided the countrv amonff their chiefs relations, and the

when they came kept three-fourths and left a one-fourth share to the Bajpnt
(£ast India Papers, III., 708. Bee also Mr. Williamson's report in Bom. Got. ^
Papers, 149, 9). In some cases the original share had probibly been added
by force. Thus, Mr. Diggle (15th August 1806) mentions GiriLri^ ploughing vilb(
lands with a lighted matchlock on the plough to keep the villagen&om * ' *^^
with them.
% Mr. Wmiamaon.— Bom. Oct. Litiio. Papers, 149, 9.

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flqaiit}

KAIRA.

Thisra. At the time of the grant these lands were divided among
twelve villages^ ; in 1817, when with the rest of Th&sra they came
under British role, they numbered seventeen; and in 1864 had
increased to twenty-seven. For more than two hundred years, taking
lukU of the produce from the cultivators, the Maliks continued to
hold these villages rentfree. About the beginning of the eighteenth
oentaiy the Peshwa^s Government imposed a lump tribute, udhcufd
jumdbandi on the maliki villages, the amount varying according to
tiie BQccess of the Maliks in resisting the Mardtha demands. To
IMet this tribute, the Maliks put a property cess, karam veroj on
fteir tenants and reduced their own share of the produce, vaje^
jbm a half to a third. Fifty years later (1769) the Mardth&i
pt forward another claim in the shape of support, ghdsddna, for
the G&ikw&r's revenue collecting force. Some of the villages also
became liable to a payment to the B&bi of B&l&sinor. These
fxactions were met out of the property cess, karam vero, but in some
pffs the Maliks were so hard pressed, that to meet the demand they
kd to part with a considerable quantity of land. In 1817, when
Jhfera came under British management, accountants were placed in
I Ae Maliki villages and a field register of all the lands was prepared.
M acreage rate was imposed on Government land s not tilled by
;fte Uahks, and a quitrent on the alienated land. ^As the Maliks
01 levied special cesses to meet their tribute to the GAikwir and

feliih\ of ^^dsinor, the new assessment pressed the cultivators so
I, that they began to desert their villages. To prevent this a new
•Uement was made in 1819. The cesses on the cultivators of
p^emment land, not in the Maliks' hands, were consolidated into one
Iffeage rate varying considerably according to the cultivator's caste,
fie Maliks Were to continue to hold the lands they tilled rentfree,
kid from other unalienated land, instead of the produce bhare, were to
iBCover a fixed money payment. As to the Gdikwdr'a tribute^
Povemment in some cases agreed to pay the whole, and in others only
pe half. Two years later, &ilure of crops forced a reduction of
ent, the loss of revenue being borne in somewhat larger
►rtion by Government than by the Maliks. In 1824
eminent accountants were withdrawn from the Maliks' villages,
dthe privilege of self -management, granted to the Koli and Rajput
■ ' in 1821, was extended to the Maliks. Soon after, the villages
on pajring Government a lump sum leased to the Maliks, and
were left free to alter the rates of assessmen t as they chose,
leases lasted till 1837 when the arrangement sanctioned in 1 819
1823 was again introduced. In 1843 and again in 1850 district
jfficers complained that the Maliks had so adjusted the assessment,
pt while tie Grovernment share had been reduced by one- half the
plik's share was about one-fourth larger than in 1819 and the
Wowing years. But Government were unwilling to interfere till
I860, on the introduction of the revenue survey, the Maliks were
if they would continue to manage their villages, paying
emment a fixed rental. To this they would not agree, stating
the number of sharers was too great to give them any chance

I^MOla (1828) in his Jamdbandi report speaks of them as iAiebdrgdm or twelve

Land
Administration'

1803.

Malika,

i -

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[Bomliay OasetiM
84 DISTRICTS.

Ouster VnL of managing their villages sncoeesfnlly. After a detailed inquiry mio

j~l the state of the different villages^ Goyemment finally decided to

AdinmistratiAii. adopt the proposal of Mr. Pedder^ the settlement officer^ that the

1803* villages should be managed by Government officers under the ordinaiy

survey rules, and that the Maliks should be allowed to hold Us

lands cultivated by themselves in 1819 rentfree^ and for therosi

receive a share varying from seven to nine sixteenths of the

revenue. Village accountants chosen by the Maliks were appointed

and paid by Government.^

The Government grants in favour of irrigation were kuvetar ot
well lands given to the builder of a well. 'Die scale varied accord*
ing to the cost of the well and the amount of land watered. Bat the
rule was about three-quarters of an acre (1^ bighds) for each pair of
bullocks that could be employed in drawing water.

Of village grants to please dangerous neighbours the chief was
girds, literally a moutMul. In Kaira at the beginning of British
rule^^tro^ in almost all cases meant a sum paid to a powerful neig^bonr
for protection and assistance or to an unruly villager as the price rf
forbearance. Originally the words girds and girasia were applied
to rightful hereditary Rajput claims. But during the eighteentb
century misrule, the terms had been extended to the demands of aH
who to the will added the power to annoy. The claim generaDf
rested on prescriptive enjoyment. It was seldom supported IjJ
written deeds, and its levy by force was the cause of much misery
and uneasiness. Under the British Government an arrangemer^
was at an early date (1812) introduced, under which instesd
of levying them by force the girdsids agreed to attend at tli|
Gk>vemment offices and be paid their claims. They were at the &iA
time made to furnish security for orderly behaviour. They weft
bound to help in suppressing gang robberies, and warned that i
caught in any disturbance, they should forfeit their allowanoea^
Under the same head come pagia, haria, and koliapa all of theA
lands held by Kolis. These, the holders declared, were originally
assigned to them in the same way as vdnta lands were assigned to tlfl
Rajputs. Grants of this kind may have been made, but they weii
probably much added to by the Kolis, as it was a common practica
with men of this class to hire a field from the manager of a villaga.
and after paying rent for a year or two, trusting to the timidity (f
the other villagers, to declare that it was family, hdpUa land. SonH;
of the grants of this class, especially those caUed pagia or trackeiip
land, had another origin. They were given in reward for tractdfll
thieves and to make the holder responsible for all thefts traced i^
the village. As a rule conditions of this kind were neglected
denied. To this class may be added dabdnia, a general term
lands acquired either by usurpation or encroachment and kept
the threat of injuring the village manager.

Of grants made in reward for village services besides thepojiftW
tracker^s land, were pasdita, hdria, ranvatia, and pdlia. ragaSH^
originally religious grants to Br&hmans and Bh&ts, to temples and M

1 Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 311-406.

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O^jvit]

KAIRA.

dittritable institutions^ came to be applied to grants by village
managers to sub-division and village officers. Grants of this kind
were generally marked by the name of the holder's office as desdi or
saperintendenf s pasditay amin or assistant saperintendent's pcudita,
Vkirdvania or watchman's pasdita. The holder would seem to have
been allowed to dispose of the land as he pleased. When the first
grant was disposed of^ the office either fell into disuse or was
Inpported by fresh grants of land. Hdria the victim's field, ranvatia
the warrior's field, and pdlia the tombstone field, were grants made
hf village officers in return for loss of life in the cause of the
village. Hdria was land granted to the family of a man slain in
goarfing the village ; ranvatia land granted to the femily of a villager
llain in an attack on some enemy ; and pdlia a field granted that the
iamij of a religious man, a Brdhman or a Bh&t, who had killed
liimself in the interest of the village, might set up a tomb in his
kmonr.

Of grants made by village managers to relieve the pressure of
Government demands, the chief were v echd'tii a land sold, and
^ rm land mortgaged. Lands disposed of in this way were held
wlier rentfree or subject to a qmtrent.^ The mortgaged lands
iwre of three kinds : simple, where the property was to be held till
ike debt was paid; valaiddnia, where after paying interest the
|roduce of the land was to go to clear off the bond ; udera, where
B a certain time the land was to go back to the mortgagor ; and sdn,
lAere the land was pledged by the owner but not handed over
Wess he failed to pay. During the time of Mardtha exactions, the
Inctice of making these grants was carried so far, that in 1804 in
iadiid of 34,436 acres only 10,183, and in Ndpdd of 7046 acres
iriy 1942 paid Government assessment. A large number of these
frwits were fraudulent. The sale or mortgage was nominal. The
tillage managers paying a quitrent, tilled the land or transferred
• to their own names with an entry that they had been received in
techange for some valuable consideration.

Cultivators of Government, (^talpat) lands in peaceful,^ra«<y
fHDages, generally held them under one of three tenures. The
Stemmonest was for the cultivator to have a certain area of land
**"**'^d to him, some of it good, some of it middling, and some of it
He paid only on the land under actual cultivation ; and so
; as he paid, it was understood that he could not be turned out.
g~- second was known as khdtdbandi or the holding system*
pfeder it the cultivator held a perpetual lease of some very good soil
lud with it a share of inferior but very lightly taxed land. A
grttdn sum was fixed on the entire holding, and this had to be paid
Hiether or not it was all tilled. A superior form of the khdta tenure
W^ when the allotment of land was called vejita. On the allotted
paid a very high assessment, in some cases six times as much as it
^oold naturally pay, was charged. The amount of land allotted to

*i cultivator, varying from half an acre to two acres, depended

Chapter YUL

Land
Admiulstrfttiini^

.^^ ^/t i^M

' /Ci^t^'^ ^i'^^t^i iT'
Covemmeat Land,

J
" ' L '*

^ Qoitrents, Midmi, varied from a few pence an acre to the full

letimesrai

put on, the oaitrent was generally kept and Bometimes raiaed.— Mr.
Gov. litho. Papers, 149, 14.

[BomliayGiiittBir,

DISTRICTS.

Land
AftminiBtratioii.

1803.

Goyonmeat land.

^VM. CJ**^

cliiefly on the alienated land in liis hands^ which he conthnifid to
hold either rentfree or subject to a quitrent. If his state improyed,
he was forced to add to his share of vehia^ and if unlucky, he wae
allowed io give some up. The holde r of vehia land wag pw^
owner of the village. \ He could mortgage the land, and um^
the Government raised the village payment, his rent could not be
increased* In villages where the area of Qovemmentland was too
small to supply a share for each cultivator, the quantity required was
taken from the alienated land, and in return a quitrent was paid to
the owner. In villages where, after the lots were distributeuj soma
Government land remained over, a rate of payment was fixed, and
the land, called khotia, was distributed among the v^Ui holdon.
In villages inhabited only by shareholders the balance of (ha
alienated land was assesse d and distributed in the same way as Ichotia
land.^ The principle of vAta and khdta lands, the allotment of a
certain area of greatly over-assessed land, was the same. Both
were remnants of the perfect sharehold or narva village described
below. Both in sharehold and in vekta viUa^es the body of owneia
were liable for the whole Gt)vemment demand. They differed inthis^
that in a perfect sharehold or narva village each member paid
according to his hereditary share ; in a vehta village the share vuied
according to the member's power to pay. In a khdtdbandirSiBfi^
the management was in the hand of a contractor or GovemineaQi
oflScer and the joint responsibility had ceased. The third practico
was for the cultivator to take out a written lease, ganvatj engaging
to till the land for one year. This land, lying in most cas6|
beyond the enclosed parts of the village, was too poor to have fixed
holders. It was generally tilled by uparvddids or workmen from a
neighbouring village.' If a cultivator kept on tilling the sazn*
field for severalyears, he would have to take out a running lease of
ehMu ganvat Under this arrangement there was no regular cesi^
bighoti, for the different qualities of land; the rate varied with.
the crop, or each field had its own rate. Unless he gave notice) a
cultivator had to pay the cess on all the land he held.*

Except (Government grants and hereditary shares, the lands veiv
not the property of the holders ; they were let out to the cultivators by
the village headmen. If the cultivator failed to pay his share, lua
crops, and except his tools, his property were attached, Govenimeat

1 A Tillage so held was caUed narva. It differed from the ordinaiy RarM^
beoanae the division was not as in the ordinaiy foim according to the regular ffip^
roles of division, bnt was acoordins to the holder's means. Captain Robertson pm
this as an example of the details of a vehta holding. lUmdAs luiyardis of the TiUafr
of Majtral holds altogether 56 acres of land, and pays a rent of £14 18*. (Bi. 149)^
Of the 66 acres one and a half of vehta land paid £10 4«. (Rs. 102); 16 acres of q«tt|{
rent land paid £4 14«. (Rs, 47); and 40 acres vera held rentfree. — Kaira Ootwin^
Eev. Book, 1821. .

9 Mr. Williamson, Bom. Got. litho. Papers. > 149, 6. Leases were alsognntaT
in certain special cases. In the small state of Eaira the land was (1804) leaied w
tiie coltiyators for terms of from three to five years, the caltivators engaging to pi^
«ither half of the crop in kind or its money value. It was also the costam fiv
revenue fanner when he found a village ruined or waste to lease it The '
might again parcel out the lands of the village in leases.— CoL Walker (1804)
Gov. Sel.,XXXIX.,9, 26.

8 Capt Robertion, Eaira Bey. Oatwwd Book,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

t
O^^^ ^^p^ ^^..^ ^^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^^

r -^/t >^.-.^ t^**,^:^^^ »*-»»«. ^^ ''-^*^^' -^ -^/("^Si

h ''^"-^' ^ z^" A^A-u^-^.^ 7& >w_' d:^..^ ^..t:^^;

[^--*rv^^^^^<^ 7^-^iL i:^;^ ^^.,?^*, -T A/.^- «~-i, ^

M^ UMMored by Xo«Ur MaL Though the syatem ia not oaraum^ uu>..^ __
■IMweincnt* are said to have been : five cnbita, measured by the arma of five difierent
W*. ratm one niatxM ; tv^enty vtatnMt, one eoM ; and a square, measuring twenty
Pn each way, one higha. Todar Mai's settlement ia said to have continued ia
MHnnta the derth of the£mperor Annngieb (1707).-Boni. Gov. SeL, N«ir Series

"•ii4b

Digitized by VjOOQIC

Jlo

[Bombay Guettoer,
88 DISTRICTS.

Otapter TIIL on shops, trades, honses, and hearths, on the non-landholdmi;
T ^^ classes.* The object of the cesses on tillage was to draw a revenue

JbtefaiistratioiL from rentfree land. To prevent the payment of cesses bearing too
jgQ^ 1^*^ ^^ ^^^ tenant of revenue paying land, a reduction of the bod

tax equal to the amount of the cess was often made. Besides the
indirect cesses rentfree lands were made to contribute in two ways,
by an acreage qnitreift or saldmi, and by a varying cess or svid
on Government cultivators who tilled rentfree lands.
Village organization. There were four forms of village government. The commonest
known as the simple, seja, form, was for the village headman to
engage annually for the payment of a certain sum to Qovemment
The headman realized the amount of the demand according to the
established rates and cjustoms of the village, the rights of the ownen
of alienated lands and of cultivators of every sort remaining
^ fs, unchanged. The profits of a good year went to the headman and he

/* jv*'" had to bear any loss from failure of crops or short tillage. Another

/ I form of management, common in the richer Kaira villages, was the

"^ j narva or share system. Under this the headman's responsibility was

] divided among the members of his family. In such cases the differ-
ent branches of the family were traced back to their oommos
ancestor, and the village divided into as many shares, bhag, as tint
ancestor had sons. Each share was made over to the representatim
of one son, and they divided it into as mftu y loft^ as there were men
in their branch. The head ol^each branch whs caUeA bhagddr (X
pateL He acted for the other shareholders, but interfered in no wiy
with their management of their shares. Sometimes the headmanll
yi /^ &mily tilled the whole village. In other cases there was only one

^g^ ^v^ ^ shareholder in each branch, and again the shares were occasionally

/^ yAA-*^ i^^u^ sold and outsiders brought in. When there was only one share-
^K>v<^ '^ bolder in a branch, it was common for him to have under him d^ifMt
JO^ ^-4^ r ^^ jjjgj^ ^^^ jj^ ^jjg actual work of tillage. Though the shareholder

^ > might turn him out, the power was seldom used, and the sub-tffliani

was as a rule well ofi. The sharer supplied him with a house^ catth^
and manure, and advanced him money. He generally paid in kind,
and it suited the sharer to use him well as he then had time to take

Srfc in village politics and stir up disputes, the chief pleasures of hie
e.* Every year the Government demand, dnkdo, was divided
equally among all the branches, and in every branch each share*
holder had a lot, phdlay assigned to him. If he failed to pay, he
forfeited his right to the land, and the other sharers might force his
to give it up. But even though he gave up hh ?iharo and left th«
village, a shareholder might come back and on paying compen^tiija

^ The oliief ceBseB were the plough tuE, hvU or Midh veto ; the ddidi tii, ^H
vero ; the water t&x, ptini vcro, gen&r&Wy on newcomera ; tbe arma ceaa, tlkdrtik r^H
on tut-bulent aod warlike clads^ ; tbo cArc&se tajt, pot wro, pwd by Uaot^n 3- j
de*d animalB ; tbe leave tax, rajfj irro, for right to cut cropa ■ the K*thi^ tn^'l
kdthi pdl vtm, at first a contribution to buy off tlie Kdthis, afterwarda nml r^l j
the Goverumeat reveoae ; a tail tax, puchhi i^eri*^ on btillocka aad bnffaloo ; - 'i^*'
tax, koftah Vffro. (Mr. WOliamaou, Bom, Gov. Litho. Paper*, 149, 17.) InBonii p^*^ i
each person paid hia own tax ; in others, tbe headman of a dam paid the whoit eJA*-l
ftSBeBJunent and mottled how much each family ahoold ^vo, ^

* CfLptMJi EoWtson, Kaira Eev, Outward Badi, 1B2L

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94um

KAIBA.

claim bis land. The responsibility for other sharers was not always
enforoed.^ Sometimes the loss in lapsed, parela, shares was so
heavy, that the solvent sharers were unable to meet it. In such cases
(he Uipsed share was managed by Government.' When, as often
happened, the shares did not include the whole village arable land,
the balance called the undivided, majmun, land was managed fo r
GoTemment by the headman, bhdgddr. Except when they bought
one of the shares, strangers almost never cultivated in a sharehold
liage. The whole village site was parcelled among the shareholders,
and no new comer could find a house.'

The two other forms of village management were only occasionally
iworted to. The first called ijdra or farm, was to let the
Tillage to any stranger willing to agree to higher terms than those
offered by the village headman. The other called direct, literally
detailed or kacha management, was to keep the management in the
hands of Government of&cers ; the headman or some one else chosen
by Government settling with the cultivators and collecting their rents
irithoutany avowed profit or any responsibility for the amount.
Farming and direct management could be introduced both in simple
tad in sharehold villages. In a simple village managed by Grovem-
aent direct, the settlement was with the cultivators. If it was farmed,
flie farmer took the place of Government. In a sharehold village
naoaged direct. Government set aside the bhagddr or headman and
floUeoted from each pdtiddr or sharer, leaving him to settle with hia
ph-tenants. If a joint village was farmed, the farmer might either
Vttle with the headman or manage the village direct. In either
flMe hia sole source of profit was the undivided or majmun land, the
iBit being in effect already farmed to the sharers.^

Each year generally in January when the crops were well
idyanced, the revenue farmers and the district revenue officers, from
tte state of the crops and the amount paid in the former year, fixed
Ihe season's demand. A provision was always made for reductions
lathe event of disturbances, and when the prospects of the season
Ided an allowance was given. The amount fixed, the headman was
;Ud responsible for its payment and was called on to name a BhiLt as
b secnrity. The headman then arranged with the villagers what
iiehhad to pay and took security from them. The assessment,
inaetimes in money, sometimes in kind, was paid by instalments,
iie instalments being generally calculated to meet the cultivator's

> Mr. WmiMnBon, Bom. Gov. Litbo. Papers, 149, 6. q^g,,^jw***^ ^^ '

*Mr. Williamaon, Bom. Gov. litho. Papers, 149, 2. '

' Further details of the sharehold village system are given in the Broach Statistical
Aftcmnt (Bom. Gaz. II., 483). The shares of a village were for convenience kept as
'^ it car parts of a rupee. Mr. Williamson gives the exaHiple of Sandesar in PetUd.
I Tillage had seven branches, each with a twelve (Uiha share. To each dnna was ^
^hed 17 highds 18 vasds, 16*8 of the m Qm ef am wit land, and 2*10 leatf^ee, or
bighds in alL Besides thid there were 403*5 bigkds of undivided land, or a
d total of 1908*5 higJids, The Government demand on each of the seven branches
^ Ba. 1060 or Bs. 90 on each one dnna share. 90 x 84 the number of one dnria
Jgnt, dyes Bs. 7560, and this with Bs. 294 from the undivided land, gives a
MdvOhige payment of Bs. 7854. -Bom. Gov. litho. Papers, 149, 8.

Chapter YUL

LaBd
Ad2n]]iiitratfa»

isoa.

Village oigaiiintftOO«

^/*^— '-^ -**%* ^iz

kL ^

B 107-12

Papers, III., 680^1.

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Chapter YIIL

Land
AdministratioxL

i8oa.

fierenne staff.

DISTRICTS.

Headmen.

convenience and made to fall about the season of reaping.^ If the
headman failed to pay his instalment^ the crop was usoally attached by
the Government manager^ kamdv^isddr, or his agent, and one-half was
kept and the other half returned. To reap and again to carry the
crop home, the headman had to get the revenue farmer's leave.*
On a village, backward in paying its contribution, a fine was levied,
or a messenger billetted. The billet, mohsal, at the revenue farmer's
discretion, represented a daily fine varying from 2«. to £10 (Ba. 1-
Rs. 100). A trooper besides his horse's feed was paid one shilling
a day, and a footman received his food and one shilling.^

The land revenue collecting staff were the manager, kamdvisddr, i
the sub-division saperin tendon t, desdi, the aub-divii?ion accountant,
majmnddrj the a^ssistant superintendent, am in paMj the viDag^
headman and accountant^ and their securities. Under the Marathis
the kamdvisddr was aometimea simply a Government agent or
manager, seeing that the revenue farmer was not misusiDg his powers
and receiving from hira his yearly payment, and in other cases he
was both Government agent and revenue farmer. His lease wa*
generally for a term of from fi^e to seven years, and as a source of
revenue rather than a means of justice, the civil and criminal
management of the district was placed under his charge.* Of snb-
division officers the superintendent or desdi guarded village interc >!?,
kept open the channels of justice, saw that the cultivators were nol
oppressed, looked after village improvements, and where necessary
made advances for sowing- On behalf of Government, he Baperiii- j
tended the village headmen, supplied all local details likely to help
in fixing the revenue, and settled boundary and other village disputes-
Under British management the denttu lost almost all their power
and position.^ On the other hand, the majmnddrs or sub-divis^^om I
accountants as registrars of district rural statistics, formed a mo^t ^
useful part of the British land revenue sysfcem* In 1821 &ovemmtTjt) i
wrote that it was their anxious desire to establish or revive this office
and maintain it in a state of efficiency,^ The amia pafel, thedesdiB
assistantj inspected the different village accounts and settlements,
Thongh in these offices the son generally succeeded the father,
the practice was tolerated rather than admitted as a right. These
sub - di visi on al office r s form ed a well -to-do class. Be si de s th eir villag©
fees, daiitnvis^ most of them had, chiefly by taking land in mortgnge,
acquired considerable estates. But though known as zumindd -.
they had no claim to the exercise of separate jurisdiction/

The village headmenj pateh, the medium o£ intereoorse between

1 Bom. Gov. Scl, XXXIX,, 10

* Bom . Gov, Set XXXTX. ,7. * Bom. Got, Sel, XXXIX. , 27-

* la ]803, at th© time of the transfer of the difltricts north of tb© Mahi, Gfuirtm
maimg^rft, five^NAdiid, MAtnr, %4»huilh&, Dholka, and Gogha — were simplj agents
of the Government, entruatcd with the nuperAnsion of the revenue fftrmer^ ancl fiVe^
Kiiira, Bijiiptir, Kadi, NipAd, and Dh and huka— were fanuera as well aa areata, ThA
same man Mas manager of Mahudha and fartu^^r of Kaira-^Bom. Gov. Rev. Bee- 4S
of 1805, 195^.

" An allowance ia to be nrndo to the desdis aud thej are by degrees to be dcsie
away.— Bom, Gov, letter, Rev. Dept., 1070 of 1821*
« Bom. Gov. letter, Kev. Dvpt,, 1070 of 1821. ? Bom, Got, SeL, XXXCC. M,

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Sqjarttt

KAIRA.

ihe revenue &Tmer or manager^ kamdvisddr, and the cnltivators,
were the great agents for fixing the villac^e payments. They govern*
ed the ^Slage, managed its affairs, and settled its disputes* Each
Tillage had generally a head family whose members were called
faid. But among them were one or two of special capacity, the
matiddra or signers, who alone had the right to sign the village
agreements. The position was hereditary, and though SLspatels they
Iield no land, most of them were well off, with in some cases estates
hrge enough to raise the owner to the rank of landlord or zaminddr.^
The villagers made them presents of grain, and in return for their
sendees, they received from the manager or revenue f&rmer a
jmvlj allowance depending on the help they had given and amounting
fa some cases to as much as £600 (Bs. 6000).^ Under the head-
man was the village accountant^ taldti. This office had ceased to be
cf any consequence. He was little more than the headman's clerk
and was paid by a grain allowance from the villagers.'

The realization of the revenue was protected by an elaborate
i^m of sureties. Sureties were of two classes, the Bhit, and the
money-lender, manotiddr. The position of the Bh&t was very import-
tti In unsettled villages the chief, and in settled villages the
kadman or manager,, from their feeling of a Bhdt's personal sanctity
tere, by any threat of his to sit starving before them or to wound
iMmself, in almost all cases forced to earrv out their agreements. For
Im farther security of Government and to ensure the prompt pay-
ittnt of the revenue, a certain class of usurers became, in return for
p premium, manoti, of twenty-five per cent, sureties to the villagers
pf the payment of their rent. This custom which had reached its
peatest height in Dholka prevailed in all the ceded districts..

'. In Colonel Walker^s opinion, the Mar&tha system; had the merit
if being simple and well calculated to ensure the recovery of the
llTenne. On the other hand, the demand was uncertainf and the
llfitem liable to abuse and burdensome to the cultivator^ who besidea
laying high rates had to support his sureties.

Section n.— 1803^1878.

Since the district came under British rule, its land adminilBtrationt
pVf bo roughly divided into three periods i the first from 1803 to
i814, when the revenues of village groups and single villages were
hrmed to men of capital and village headmen ; the second from
MU to 1862, when details of village management were collected and
lif degrees landholder's liabilities made »mpler, fairer^ and more*
eertain ; the third since 1862^ when the revenue survey system was
btarodnced.

■f The first year's (1803) mans^ement was successful wii^ receipts
iKghtly in advance of the estimates.^ By preserving the public

Chapter TIIL

Land
AdministratioiE.

1108.

Security.

*Boin. Gov. SeL, XXXIX, 4.
•'•BonL Gov. Sel., XXXIX., 4.

S Bom« Gov. SeL« XXXIX., 5.

*The increase was in NadiAd from £22,500 to £23,19& ; in MAtar from. £13^000: to
m,m ; and in Mahudha froia £11,000 to £11^600.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter^VIIL

Land
AdminiBtratioiL

1803-1814.
Changes.

peace^ stopping illegal exactions, granting loans for the tiDage of
arable waste, and recovering illegally sold Government land, Colonel
Walker calculated that in four or five years the revenue miglit be
doubled.^ Regarding the future management of the district, Colonel
Walker (1805, 6th July) was of opinion that the tribute of the Bajpnt
and Koli chiefs should not be increased ; that they should be called
on to furnish securities for good behaviour ; be forced to give up
criminals and engage never to shelter public enemies ; that much of
the illegally alienated Oovemment land should, as was the practice
under the Mardth^, be recovered by offering the holders two-thirJ*
or three-fourths of what they had paid ; and except that the distriDk
revenue maaager, kamdvisadry should cease to farm the reTenua
and become entirely a Government agent, the Mar&tha system ol
revenue management should, until the state of the country was weB
known, be continued.* Mr. Diggle, appointed Collector in 1805, umA
with considerable difficulties in his first year of office. A force ol
two hundred men had to be sent against the Mahi Kolis, who refased
to pay their tribute, and in the quieter villages distress was cansel
by money-lenders* raking up old debts and trying to recover them
under the strict provisions of the Enghsh law. Daring the uexk
eleven years (1805-1815) Colonel Walker's counsel against changiBJ
the form of revenue management was carefully followed.' Tk»
district was distributed over new sub-divisions, each a snitabb
charge for a manager, kamdvisddr} Villages continued to to
farmed, some in groups, chiefly to the hereditary district office^
dssdis and aminpatelsy and others singly, as a rule to their headme*/
Except that the practice of requiring securities was gradually gii*
up,® that the Government supervision was stricter, and that i»R|
readiness was shown in hearing complaints and checking abuses, tin
revenue management remained almost entirely unchanged. Ch
of the first matters that pressed for settlement was the claims «
the superior landholders, girdsids. Their way of levying th««
demands by force caused much uneasiness. In 1808 Mr. DiggWl
described them as of barbarous spirit, referring right to the spetfl

In proof of this he cites the case of Kadiid ^
and 10,000 acres of illegally alienated hoAm

1 Bom. Gov. Sel. , XXXIX, 22.
10,094 acres of waste arable land
together at ordinary rates to yield a yearly revenue of £27, 128."

* Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec., 48 of 1805, 1935—1959. j

* Few innovations were made and actual possession was not disturbed. The n^
maxims and sound principles laid down by Colonel Walker were acted on ^J*M^
most marked effect. Sir John Malcolm's Minute of 15th October 1890.— Bom. M|
litho. Papers, 148, 7. <J

* Among the Mariltha managers some very excellent servants were fonnd. fl
rise of revenue in 1805 was chiefly due to their good character and local koovl^
(Colonel Walker, July 6th, 1805} and in the next year Mr. Diggle won for ^
special exemption from the rule against Government servants engaging in tnde.'j
Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec, 51 of 1806. J

" During the first five years villages were chiefly farmed in groups to the dm
then singly to headmen, and then, though this never became general, by !>■■
separate villages to the highest bidders.— East India Papers, III., 686.

* Capitalist, manotiddr, security was soon given up. BhAt security wMjj
tinned tiU in 1816 in consequence of the Bhit riot at Mdtar, the practice was ato|t'
—Ham. Dee. of Hind., L, 692.

' Consultations, 25th August 1813, "No, 33, quoted in Eiuit India Pfrpen, III« ^

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fiiQ'ariti

KAIRA.

rather than to any deed. Most of their claims^ one of the chief of iShapter VIII*

[ wiiich was bag moneyj kotldi girds^ were forma of blackmail* Tliej L^d

I increas&d tkm demands in the moat unfair way. Sometimes village Administratiott.

' headmea arranged with the girdma to raise his claim on the 1803-1814

tillage, the headimin at first sharing the apoilj but in the end the
ffma gaining the whole. Mr. Diggle thought that their claims G»«i« paymente.
coold not be denied^ as they would join together and find easy shelter

^,iE the woods and ravines near the Mahi, He anggested that instead
d being allowed to levy their claims from the villagersj girdsidn
ghouJd be paid from the Government treasuries. As Government
peDdonerSj they wonld^ he thought, lose much of their importance.
In 1811 Mr. Rowles began to act on this proposal p His first task was
to get the non-resident gim^uis of Kapadvanj to agree that their
claims should be jmid by (jovernmont and afterwards the principle
was extended to the local claimants. In 1816 Captain Eobertson
report^ that in Matar^ Mahudha, Nadiddj and NapAd, arrangements
hA been made^ and that as settled in 1814-15^ the total yearly cost
pmeto £2066 (lis, 20,660),^ All farther claims were subjected to
the strictest scnitiny and very few were bronglit forward. At tho
iWDe time that they agreed to be paid their claims fi-om the Goveni-
nj'^nt treasuries, the glrnmis were made to furnish security for good
bekvioiir, bound to help in Buppressing gang TDbberies, and warned
fcbt any breach of the peace would entail a forfeiture of their
ftlluwaiice.

Between 1805 and 1815, chiefly from the spread of tillage^ the land Kevenue.

wrenue rose from £130,015 to £182,187 (Es. 13,O0J50-Ra. 18,21 ,870),
tie advance on the original rentals amounting in Gdikwar lands to
twentj-seven and in Peshwa lands^ where former supervision had
Tj^nkxefj to ninety per cent.^ From 1812 to 1815 wajs a time of
great prosperity. The Kathidwdr and north Gujarat famine of 1813
aad 1814 raised produce prices nearly threefold, and as there waa
no failure of crops in Kaira, mnch wealth peored into the district,^

The 6fty years from 1814 to 1863 began with the inquirj into 1814-1863.

ttie details of village management and the discovery of much
irreLfularity and fraud. In some of tbe following years especially in
th settlement of 1810j the Government demand was greatly
enhanced.* Helped by the unusually high value of field produce, the
new rates were not at first found oppressive. But with the return of
ordinary prices complaints of over- assessment became general, la
1826 and 1827 the rates were lowered^ and in spite of a falling
market, this relief sufficed till in 1831 and 1832 grain fell to less than.
lialf of its average money value. Among the agricultural population
distress was most keen and widespread- Great part of the revenue
muii not be collectedj and complcants ceased only after Bome years

' East India Pape^ra, III. , 726. " HauL Dea. of Hmd., L, 690.

^ llUlet rupee pricta roHe from fifty- 6ve p&tmdfl in 1811 to Hfteeti pouiidB in 1S12.

* \^ ithont BDy atlditi^jn of territory^ tlie laud revenue rose in 1819 from iJ 157 ,770
^i 172,731, This iDtireaac IB traced to three aourctts, the leveHLng of asffeaamente,
*tf- iljscoyery of hidden revenne, and the spreiwi of tillage.— Bom, Gov. Eec 14& of
1^^ 374

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DISTRICTS.

Chairter TIIL

Land
JUUniBistratUm.

1814-1863.
Snnunaiy*

1817.

AoquuitaoziB.

Prices*

Changes.

of free remissions^ large rent reductions^ and liigLer grain prices.
Prom 1838 to 1848 was a fairly prosperous time with moderate
rates and steady prices. Then, after some years of cheap grain
and general depression, came in 1857 a demand for produce, and tliis
continuing for five years, raised the district to much comfort
and wealth. During this time by fixing the rental as &r as
possible according to the value of the land, by removing cesses,
and by granting leases. Government tried to make the land tax fair,
simple, and unchanging. Bad seasons, low prices, and the fear of
sacrificing revenue prevented these aims from being fully carried
out. StUl by the steadily growing knowledge of the district and
by the constant inquiry and supervision of district officers single
cases of over-pressure were corrected, rates were equalized, and the-
grounds of assessment simplified.

This period (1814-1863) may be conveniently divided into two
sections, before and after 1831 and 1832, years of great agricultural
depression. During the first section (1814-1830) the chief event was, ;
in 1817, the addition to the district of the lands of Petlad, Thasra,
Bhdlaj, and Kapadvanj. Of these territories Petldd, now Borsad, was
at the time of acquisition, cultivated like a garden, the houses well
built and handsome, and the stock of cattle large. But with all ihif
show of wealth Borsad was rack-rented. Seven of its sharehold
villages had broken down, and the want of waste land made distress
all the keener,^ In Thasra the soil was poor and badly tilled, and I
the cultivators lazy and unsettled.2 Kapadvanj was in a wretched ;
disorderly state. Prom their retreats among the Mahi ravine% I
Eolis were in the habit of sallying in large bodies and harassing |
their quieter neighbours. The population was scanty, and tfi]
cultivation slovenly. Except Kapadvanj, the villages were littift'j
more than temporary hamlets of the most wretched huts. So I
unsettled was the general feeling, that the Kolis used to cut their :
crops before they were ripe, and earn a living by carting soap to
Broach and cotton to Malwa.

As regards produce prices between 1814 and 1830, the district;
passed through three terms of about five years each. Prom 1814;
to 1819 a time of cheap grain, then till 1825 high prices, and from;
1825 to 1830 a rapid fall, ending with prices lower than they hadi
been since the beginning of the century.'

The chief administrative measures of this period were, in 1814, thjj
establishment of a regular staff of paid village accountants, taJdM
and between 1820 and 1826 the detailed survey of great part of thai
district. Prom being hereditary village officers, the chief or head^l
man^s clerks, the village accountants were made paid GovemmeffllJ
servants and agents. The new accountants were appointed both w\

1 Mr. More*8 report of 1822.

8 Collector's report, 4th June 1824. Of seventy-five villages, thirty were peaoefal^
thirteen uneasy, and thirty-two medium.

9 MUlet, bdjri, prices were between 1814 and 1819, on an average fiftyfoKj
pounds ; in 1819, twenty-nine pounds ; between 1820 and 1824, on an average fortj-<M|

Sounds ; in 1828, eighty-one pounds ; in 1829, seventy pounds ; and in WO^ «fr
nndred pounds.

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Agaritl

KilRA.

settled^ rdsti, and to unsettled, mehvds, villages. In unsettled villages
they collected the dues from the chiefs tenants^ and except an allow-
ance of twenty per cent left to the chief, made over the revenue to
Government. The wisdom of this change was doubtful ; the chief ^s
independence in his own village, so carefully respected during the
early years of British rule, was at an end, and he suffered at once
from a loss of position and of revenue. Complaints were frequent,
and it was not found possible to appoint accountants to all their
ifllages.i To the settled villages the change would seem to have been
tell suited. The farming system was attended by loss both to the
9oyemment and to the bulk of the cultivators, and by many evils to
the higher class of villagers. Government lost because its officers
had no knowledge of village resources and little power to prevent the
headman alienating or misappropriating them.* The bulk of the
Insbandmen suffered because the headmen, unchecked in distributing
Ike village rental, leaving themselves and their connections
free, recovered almost the whole from the lower class of land-
lolders,^ and though in some ways they profited by the system, the
lich villagers suffered greatly by their keen unscrupulous rivalry for
ieadship.* At first the change met with much opposition. It
greatly reduced the power and position of the native sub-division
jlpvenne officers, and to a less degree affected the authority of the
JjBlage headmen. These two powerful bodies joining roused the reli-
bus classes to opposition. But the mass of the vUlagers approved
jje measure, and opposition gradually died away.^ A fresh set of
jficulties arose from the failings of the new accountants. Equally
iqwsed to temptation, they were not less dishonest than those whose
lices they had taken. At the same time the post was unpopular,
Bd the supply of men fit to do the work was so small that the
vollector was forced to pass somewhat lightly over their misdemean-
ours. In spite of these defects the accountants^ inquiries suppUed

^ No accountants or police patela were introdQced into the mehvdsi viUageB. —
.l»t India Papers, HI., 684.

f (Headmen alienated lands either by sale or mortgage to members of the
W%ioa8 classes. The receivers were entered as the owners, but the headman continued
i^iold and tiU the land, paying only a smaU sum to the nominal grantee. Head-
Mi also misappropriated revenues for lapsed or lease alienated lands. — Bom. Gov.
Hct. Rec 149 of 1820, 393 and 398.

' With this object the headmen prepared the most varied and elaborate accounts,
fkvwiag only the total village contribution and carefully concealing the amounts
id by the diflferent viUagers.— Bom. Gov. ilev. Reo. 149 of 1820, 380,

* In the stru^es for the post of vUla^e manager, every village was fiUed with
■^68, wasting their timeand money, hanging about those in power. In these rivalries

7 moral principle and obligation were disregarded. Leagues formed one day
cementea by the most sacred oaths were broken the next, and even assassins were

iployed to murder rivals who could not otherwise be removed.— Bom. Gov. Rev.

c. 149 of 1820, 382, 404.

* Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec., 149 of 1820, 410, 411,— The opposition was keenest at
fadiid. There, under the de&dis* influence, the headmen refused to coUect the

nnes. An assistant collector. Captain Bamewall, was sent to arrange a settle-
it direct with the cultivators. The result was most satisfactory, opposition was

:eQ down, and much useful information collected, — East India Papers, III., 733.
connection with their opposition to this measure, four of the Nadi&d Desiis
*^in 1814 convicted of conspiracy and sentenced to five years* imprisonment and to a

of £1000. In 1818 the fine was remitted and the prisoners released. — Kaira
settlement report^ 16th February 1865.

Chapter TIU.

Land
AdmiBistratioa

181 4- J 830,

Changes,

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[BombafG{40ttMri
96 DISTRICTS.

Chapter Vui* materials for the effectual control of yillskge managers. In settling

j^^ villages on the new system the village expenses were as a role greatbf

AdxniiUBtratioil? reduced.^ The holders of quitrent or rentfree lands under GoYon-

1814-l83a ment grants^ were first called on to prove their claims. Except
Bhats who in some cases raised objections^ holders freely showed

OliMgei. their title deeds. In the absence of written proof, abend witnessed

by the heads of the villages was l^ken declaring the justice of tb
holder's claim. The course generally followed in the case of ill^ally
alienated lands was to continue to the nominal grantee the aUowance.
he had been receiving and to recover full assessment from the
actual holder.* The lands of Rajput orvanta shareholders wilKng
to lease them were taken under the direct control of Govermnent
The amount of the lease was paid from the Government treasmf
and the share was managed like other village lands.' In 6ovenH|
ment lands some progress was made in replacing the mauy oompler
and unequal cesses by one general assessment. In each case thr
amount of the new assessment was fixed by a committee of natnt'
revenue officers and village headmen. The points taken int(?
consideration were the rates formerly charged, the rates pjud by,
similar land, the character of the soil, the situation of the vill&gS^:
in respect of markets, and the caste and position of the landholder.
Except in rare instances, the committee's rates were confirmed b^
the Collector and remained in force for terms of five or seven, jeant
Every year in each village, about August when the early a
were weU advanced, the accountant entered in the village book
area of land under cultivation, showing the cauise of any rise or :
and estimated the current year's outturn compared with the produfl
of the year before. The sub-division manager, hamdvifd^
tested the accountants' returns and explanations. In Oetober
November the'CoUector or his assistant came to the village, and
the chief sub-division revenue officers and the village head
and accountant examined the statements making any rei
or changes that seemed called for. The village rental i
the next question was, whether the headmaja should farm the
or simply collect the cultivators' rents. In many cases even
the cultivators' payments were fixed, the headman though he
no chance of gain or risk of loss, to keep up his position noi

^ The villagers had been charged what the manager spent in fighting his £
quarrels and the cost of feasts in which only some of them shared. Withoat
tering with necessary charges the total NadiAd village expenses were reduced
£2360 to £586.— Captain BamewaU, Ist August 1816.

2 In 1819» of 431,674 acres of alienated land 158,418 were quitrent,
75,646 rentfree. The rest was either held on service tenure or paid the fall or i
the fuU assessment The details were : MAtar 71,564 acres, 29,317 quitroU
13,059 rentfree; NadiAd 71,676 acres, 26,224 quitrent, and 14,733 rentW
Mahudha 70,692 acres, 28,228 quitrent, and 10,478 rent-free ; Nipdld HliS ar^
6880 quitrent, and 2739 rentfree; Bh&laj 8431 acres, 245 quitreot^
1140 rentfree; Petl^ 112,070 acres, 39,994 quitrent, and 21,608 rentfree;
Mehmadabad 13,978 acres, 3426 quitrent, and 2253 rentfree.— Bom. Gov. Bev.
149 of 1820, 460-476.

8 Bom. Gov. Bev. Bee., 149 of 1820, 394—400.

4 Bom. Gov. Bev. B«c. 149 of 1820, 387 and 388. Between May 1816 and J
4821, cultivators' liabilities were fixed in 370 out of 657 villBges.— East India Fl9«
IIL, 685,

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AQaritJ

KAIRA.

Land

Adminiatration.

1814-1830,

fiHrmed the village. Where the cultivators' payments were not all Cliapter YIII*

fixed, the headman generally became surety for the village rental,

either for one season or for a term of years. To cover his risk of

loss, some reduction from the original rental was generally made.

h return the headman signed a deed, engaging to collect

Bothing more than the authorized or customary rates.^ K for any

reason the headman was unwilling to become surety, the village

VBs managed in detail or iacha by the Collector, the headman and

WJonntant simply collecting the cultivators' rents.*

. The management of the first six years (1814-1819) of this period,
(bogh successful in bringing to light and putting an end to many
lenses, would seem to have erred in unduly raising the Government
d. Marked progress was made in Th&sra and Kapadvanj,
poorer and less settled of the 1817 additions.* But tne plaii
opted of leasing Borsad, Mehmadabad, and the other rich tracts
the highest bidders caused much mischief. In the older lands
iced rates were introduced. These at first lightened by the
by high grain prices in 1819 and 1820, in a few years, proved
jprdensome and had to be reduced.*

h. June 1821, Mr. Elphinstone, then (Jovemor of Bombay, visited Mr. ElpbipBtcra^
■»». He recorded the following opinions on the state of the ^^^^*

ict and the general results of British management.^ The
ent of accountants to the villages of chiefs and other large
lords should cease. Those who had been sent should be called
and ten per cent should be added to the chiefs' share in the
' of their estates. Blegal alienations of village lands, though
Unned neither by the English nor by the Mar^tha Governments,
id never been held as a reason for reducing village rentals ; some
IS should be levied on these lands and the holders' title con-
lied.^ In Government villages the accountants had gained too much
*er. Care should be taken to keep them to their own duties and
tkfc them take the place of the village headman. The inquiries
fte survey then at work in the district should be limited to show-
{ the real state of the land, preventing hidden cultivation, and
pling boundaries. From the complications in the existing land

Only a few members of the head family had the right to sign this deed. Those
1/1. *^® "^^* ^^^ called matdddrs or signers.

|0n the appointment of accountants, many villages, that their real resources
ffik be ascertained, were for a time managed in detail by the Collector, the
^"^QtsntB in sharehold villages taking the rental, not in a lump sum from the
■^ra, but from the sharers.— Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV,, 12. Within a few years
I lyvtem of settling with the manager again became general. — Bom. Gov. I^tho.
m, 149, 1—21, and East India Papers, III., 685.

^Ai;ge grants of land were made, and eight new villages established. — More's
•Jbandi Report of 1820-21.

*Jhe CoUectcfr (Captain Robertson) in 1819 described the district as on the
we prosperous. The landtax was high, estimated on a basis of one-half of the
mice, but there was a very large area of auit and rentfree land. Though there
IS no men of great wealth, there was no class of landless labourers. — Bom. Gov,
\^^c.j 149 of 1821, 441. Mr. Elphinstone's account (see the text) bears this out.
* in spite of a seeming prosperity, how much the district was overstrained, is
l»n in several of the survey reports (1820-1826) quoted below. Compare also Bom.
^ SeL, CXIV. , 342 ; the rates fixed in 1819 pressed so hardly on the maliki villages
R the people began to desert.

Bwfe India Papers, III., 690. « East India Papers, III., 693.

B 167-13

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DISTRICTS.

C9iapter TUL

Land
AdminiBtrataoit

1821.

1820-1826.
Survey.

Bettletnent^ tlie extreme difficulty of determining the actual Talne of
land^ and the small chance of improving the coltiyator'B state, the
survey should make no attempt to fix fresh rates of assessment
The farming of villages to strangers^ and^ though to a much le»
degree^ the leasing of them to village headmen, gave rise to many
abuses.^ It was better to deal direct with the cultivators, renewmg
their liabilities from year to year ; for, except in the case of rki
sharehold villages, leases were ill-suited to their limited resonroesi
The great increase of revenue under British management* irti
chiefly the result not of over-assessment but of indirect oamea
Under a steady and kindly rule, husbandmen were free to h(M
after their fields, and their numbers were increased by strangertj
soldiers, and others, who in the failure of their former employmeii
had taken to tillage. Many classes paid who formerly e&capell
payment. The cost of collection was low ; fees were few ; little oj
nothing was spent on securities ; frauds were checked ; and m
class of middlemen between the cultivator and Government ba^
disappeared. One or two sections of the district were fully assessm
and half of Petldd might be over-burdened. But no cultivators ve«l
leaving the country, or even moving from village to village. AdvaBoel
were never and remissions rarely asked for ; there were no distninte^
and seldom a case of imprisonment. It was true that the resaIftB4
the British rule were not unmixed good. The chiefs and laif^
landholders were weakened and depressed, the district officers
among them the heads of villages were stripped of power
influence, and the men of capital suffered both as traders and mon(
lenders.^ But against these evils was to be set the rise of
cultivators, the largest, hardest working, and most orderly section
the community. Many of them were still burdened with debt,
on some, the decrees of the civil courts pressed heavily. Baton
whole their state was thriving, their houses handsome and well
their dress neat, and their fields highly tilled. The British Gr0T<
ment had freed the country from the dread of foreign foes and
established order. It dealt even justice and had nearly rooted
force and fraud. Considering the difficulties the success
. surprising.* '

The second measure taken to gain greater knowledge of thi
district was the survey. Its objects were to establish for
village an authentic and permanent record of its lands, diri^
them into classes according to t^eir nature and quality,
survey embraced every field, tree, and well, and supplied full di
of area, soil, and cost of production. Prom their village menu

^ Of the Bonad yillages the surveyor Captain Craikshank saya (1821) the i^ ^
of letting TiUages by auction to tiie hiffhest bidders has been found productif* <
^reat oppression to the cultivators, of loss to the farmers, and of ultimate decr^
m the Government revenue. No single instance has yet been met of a fai
expending money or encouraging agriculture. — Bom. Gov. SeL, XI-, 104.

* From additions and transfers of land, no statement of this increase is av
for the whole district The figures for the Mahudha sub-division give the foil
results: 1804, £9374; 1806, £11,983; 1808, £12,145; 1809, £11,501 ; IS
£12,809 ; 1814, £14,867 ; 1817, £17.004; 1819, £19,244 ; 1820, £22,230.

> East India Papers, III., 694, « East India Papers, IH, 687.

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Buopean officers drew np sab-division acconnts, describing the
people and their mode of tillage. Maps were prepared^ one for each
fi the largest villages, and for the smaller a group of two or
ftree on the same sheet. They showed the village sites, boundaries,
loads, ponds, and the different sorts of land, cultivated,, waste, open,
pd encloRed.^ Of the practical usefulness of the survey. Sir John
lUcolm wrote ' the Collectors, in preparing their yearly reports,
ikald refer particularly to the survey records ; they should draw a
IHnparison between the actual state of their districts and their
Itate at the time of the survey ; they should show what progress has
ItMn made in correcting errors ; they should account for any change
the extent or state of cultivation ; and notice any increase or
urease in the number of people, houses, and wells. From such
as these more than the amount of revenue can correct opinions
the real state of the country be formed.^* Beginning in 1820 in the
villages in the north-west, the survey worked east, and taking
the Eapadvsnj and Th&ra sub-divisions, passed through the
itral districts of Nadi^d and Mahudha, ending in 1826 at Borsad
the soath.^ The information recorded of the state and manage-
it of the surveyed districts may be thus summarized.

In the sixteen Dholka, now Mdtar, villages surveyed in 1820, of
'69 arable acres, 28,217 or 67*35 per cent were under tillage,
rental rose steadily from £61 29 (Rs. 61,290) in 1818-19 to £6967
69,670) in 1823-24. Though aU were measured and treated as
imment villages, from seven of them accountants were afterwards
iwn and their management made over to the owners. Of
remaining villages one was sharehold, and the others simple;
lands of two of them divided on the holding, khatdbandiy
Hie assessm^it was by crop division and cesses. The
>y showed that former measurements had under^-estimated the
area by 2302 and the arable area by 4868 acres.^

tThe eleven Mehmadabad villages surveyed in 1821 were part of'
1817 acquisitions. Of 17,556 arable acres, 11,819 or 67*32 per
were cultivated, and 5736 waste with among them, 1057 acres-

Chapter VIIL

Land

AdminiBtration'

Survey.

iJWtbeBe survey xnapB Sir John Malcolm> aays (IStii October 1830),. 'they are-

^^tdy wdl execntea and afford gratifying e^idenoe of the aptitude of natives-

ctfefal instraotion to acquire scientifio* knowledge. Except the colouring most

•e plans are the work of their hands.. Pesfeotiy afr home in the use of the

>lite and other survey instruments,, natives on tziding salaries Uane of recent

^performed aUthe measurements and other field work,fonnerly solely entrusted to

Mn officers. By this means the^ yearly ooet of the survey was reduced from-

£10,000 to less than £600.' '^The maps were very neai/ says Bishop Hebeo-

»iaw them in 1825 (March 26), ' and said to be wonderftdly correct though the

' ^ measurement, angles, andl drawings were? the wo^ of nati^rai amistaaiis.' —

,^^ ML, 140. ^^ ^

* ICnnte of 15th October 1830,. para M.

'The details are, in 1820, sixteen I^M)lki^ now ATdtar. viHaj^ y in 1821 eleven
™»»dAbiid villages ; betweei* 1820'aikl 1823^ thirty-four Daskroi; now Mehmadabad »
^; between 1821 and 182^ forty-five- NadiAd villages ; in 1824^ sixteen Umreth
'^laj, now Kadi^, vilhiges; seventy-seven Mahudha villages, of which the
to have been loet; in 1824 and J 825 eighty-eight PeUM» now Borsad^

d,,viUa(j

> ; and in 1826, eighteen N&pdd, noiw Borsad
- Gov. SeL,XL^ 61-55.

Llages.

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DISTRICTS.

Chapter YIIL

Land
Adnuniftration.

1820.1826.

Soryey.

of valuable rice land. £3348 (Rs. 33,480), the rental in 1818-19,
rose to £3617 (Rs. 86,170) in 1820-21, and was then reduced,
faUing in 1823-24 to £2892 (Rs. 28,920). AH the eleven Yilkges
were simple, the lands of three of them distributed among sepsnte
holdings. Except from rice fields, where the produce was divided,
the land revenue was raised by acre rates. During the first four
years of British management (1818-1821) these villages were
leased to the highest bidder. Though they strained the Tilhge
resources to the utmost, every one of the farmers lost heavily. It
1823 the villages were taken under the direct management cl ib
Collector, and the rates lowered. Still over-assessed and recpuiiag ,
relief, they were (1826) slowly recovering. Mehmadabad was the j
only first rate village. Of the I'est, five were second class, and fin
extremely poor and wretched, one without a single tiled honse.^ The
survey showed that former measurements had under-estimated the
total area by 1905, and the arable by 3258 acres.

In the thirty-three Daskroi, now Mehmadabad, villages surveyed
between 1820 and 1823, of 49,898 arable acres, 31,154 or 62*48
per cent were under tillage. The rental rising from £8151
(Rs. 81,530) in 1818-19 to £9143 (Rs. 91,430) in 1822-28, was
then lowered to £7486 (Rs. 74,860). A few of the villages too
sharehold, the rest were simple, most of them held on leaae \fj
their headmen. Rice fields paid in kind ; other lands by an aoe
rate and cesses. Except on some rice lands, the assessment ym
moderate and likely to promote prosperity ; the villages were well
built and thriving, and the people happy and content^.*

Of the forty-five Nadidd villages surveyed between 1821 and 182^
thirty-six were Government and nine ahenated. In the thirty-ait
Government villages, of 88,083 arable acres, 78,962 or 89-W
per cent were under tillage. The rental rising from £24,419
(Rs. 2,44,190) in 1817-18 to £28,652 (Rs. 2,86,520) in 1820,
was in 1822 lowered to £27,742 (Rs. 2,77,420). Of the thirty-
six villages, sixteen were sharehold, the rest simple, the lands
of several of them distributed into holdings. Except a httle crop-
division, the assessment was levied by acre rates and cesses. Tlte
very high rates on (Jovemment land were lightened by the large
area held rentfree or on quitrents. The alienated villages, thongk
of the turbulent or mehvasi class were quiet and tractable, ' steadDy
practising agriculture.' In other parts the lands were rich, tiUeii
with much care and skiU, and the villages large and fine, with M|
and complete establishments. The survey showed that fonncti
measurements had nnder-estimated the total area by 482, asi
the arable by 11,027 acres.*

The sixteen Umreth and Bhdlaj, now A'nand, villages surveyed
in 1824, came under British management in 1817. Of 15,426 arable
acres, 12,428 or 80*56 per cent were under tillage. The rental £6420

1 Bom. Gov. SeL, XI., 67-65. > Bom. Got. 8el., XL, 129-14a

s Bom. Got. Sd., XI., 65-81.

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(Ba 64,200) in 1818 rising to £6624 (Rs. 65,240) in 1819, was in
1823 lowered to £6828 (Rs. 68,280) .^ Though with high rates
Umreth and Bhalaj were thriving towns, and except some poor and
water-lacking hamlets, the villages were little inferior to those of
Kadiad.

The eighty-eight Petlad, now Borsad, villages surveyed in 1824,
eame under British rule in 1817. Of the whole number, eleven
were alienated. In the rest cultivation had nearly reached its utmost
iimit. Of 132,897 arable acres, 101,637 or 76- 76 per cent were
«ider tillage. The rental was reduced from £43,457 (Rs. 4,34,670)

* 1819 to £38,530 (Rs. 3,85,300) in 1824. Of the Government
fluiOageB, thirty-three were sharehold, and the rest simple, the lands
<rf eleven of them divided into holdings. The demand from cesses
md high acre-rates was both heavy and unequal. Complaints of
Ike oppression practised by the speculators to whom the villages

I lad been farmed in 1817 were very general. Under the strain,
[ Viany of the sharehold villages had broken, and, though much had
i ieen done by later (1823 and 1824) settlements, it was very difficult
I |lo restore them. Still the viDages were large and well built, and
; iipany of the people thriving and well-to-do.*

The eighteen Ndpid, now Borsad, villages surveyed in 1826, came
i l&der British rule in 1817. Of the whole number five and a half
i %ere alienated. In the Government villages, of 16,647 arable acres,
I M,999 or 90*10 per cent were under tillage. The rental had fallen
^iteadily from £5328 (Rs. 53,280) in 1821 to £4875 (Rs. 48,760) in
L 1826.* Seven villages were sharehold, and the rest simple, the lands
I ^one of them distributed in separate holdings. Though, as in
\ Jpetlad, they had suffered during the first years of British rule, the
I jeople were on the whole weU-to-do.

* The following statement contrasts the tillage area, resources, and
wveiiue of the different parts of the district surveyed between
M20 and 1826.

Kaira Survey L

etaiU,

1820-1826.

AvsRAaa m

SQUABB

MILB.

Vllr

CTRT

SUB-BIVIIIOH.

LAOBB.

ARABLI

LAND
TILLED.

Hooses.

SoulB.

Horned
catUe.

Plongha

Carta.

Rev«-
nue in

Mdtar (Dholka) ...

67-35

215

132

102

Mehmadabad

67 32

257

107

Do. (Da«kroi> ...

62-43

216

175

Nadiid

89*64

102

397

189

169

A'nand (Umreth and

Bh^j)...

81-20

183

706*

236

226

Mahndba

79-59

303

223

141

Borsad (PetUd) ...

87-79

348

187

201

Do. (Ndpdd) ...

12i

9009

108

429

217

175

Chapter VUL

Land
AdmudstTation^

1820-1826.

SurV6j,

1 BoiilGov. SeL, XL,81-(
* Bom. Gov. SeL, XL, 108-115.

• Bom. Gov. Sel., XL, 87-108.
f This beoaiue tbe iowA population is indudtd.

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DISTRICTS.

Caapter YIIL

Land
Adminifltratioik

1825-1830.
ConditioD.

During the years 1820-1826 when the survey was in progress,
though in some special cases reductions were made^ the continued
high value of grain prevented the rates from being generally burden-
some.^ Of the general state of the district in J 825, Bishop Heber liaa
left the following note. ' I asked the Collector Mr. Williamson if the
Government were popular. He did not think it was particularly
otherwise and ascribed the various tumults and risings of the
Gujardtis to their famines which frequently reduced whole fexniKes
and villages to the state of broken men, and to their long previous
habits of misrule and anarchy, rather than to any political grievance.
The valuation of the land was moderate. It was only from year to
year. But where the crops were so precarious, a longer settlement
was not desired by the people themselves. Even in the present
system, Government had often to make great abatements and on
most occasions had shown themselves indulgent masters/ * In 1826
a fall of produce prices set in and rapidly increased till the collapse
of 1831. In 1826 B[apadvanj is described as in a wretched stai^
the people badly housed, badly clothed, and badly fed. Mahudha,
one of the richest parts of the district, showed signs of distress**
To meet these difficulties rates were considerably lowered, and by
postponing the dates of revenue instalments further relief waa
given.* In the next year (1827) after a further reduction of rates all
complaints ceased.* A good season followed, and, though 1828-29
was a year of poor harvest and low prices, no further reductions
were necessary.* During these years, besides by lowering his rents
much was done to improve the cultivator's position by grantimg
holdings at fixed rates and leases. Sharehold villages were increa.^ed
by fifty-nine, many new holdings, kMtdSj were formed, and a
large number of short-termed village leases granted.^ In 1830
the district was visited by Sir John Malcolm, then Gt)vemor of
Bombay. His route by Nadidd, Mdtar, and Dholka, led him
through great part of the district 'for its extent one of the finest in
India.' The beauty and fertility of the country, the size and
prosperous appearance of the villages, the enclosed fields a
succession of rich and varied tillage, the sleek cattle and wilw
clothed people all seemed thriving and contented. More than aziy
part of the Presidency, the revenue system showed the good jK>ii2t3
of a direct settlement, with few of its defects. The rates generaDv

^ Average millet prices in the aeven years ending 1826,. were 41 poonda : in 1827
68 ; in 1^, 65 ; in 1829, 81 ; in 183^ 70; in 1831, 100.

» Heb. Nar., 11., 145.

> The oondition of sharehold Tillages would also seem to hare been much deprc—tsd^
In 1826, of eighty -seven villages tihfi sharers in eleven were- in good circumstances, in
thirty-six middling, and in forty poor, with just means enough to keep up their tillkf?«
—Bom. Gov. 8eL, CXIV., 156, Footnote.

^ Formerly two-thirds had been taken at the beginning of the year aMd the rest
before the grain was threshed.

' These reductions were cMefly carried out by Mr. WHliamson. See his JanUlbtsuidi
reports for 1826 and 1827.

« Mr. Mills' Jam&bandi reports lor 1827-28 and 1828-29. Mr. Milla hoped %^^%
few villages were now over-assessed. — Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 159.

^ Of 199 villages leased, 177 were on terms of from five to ei^t yvmk— Mrv Wil-
liamson's Jamibandi report, 29th October 1827.

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103

fixed on the bigha were well-known, the village account books Chapter Vin*
ehowing in detail each holder s liabilities. Many villages were L^d

held on leases of seven years and under. The ^^lage headmen AdminiBtratioii*
through whom the settlements were almost always made^ were 1825 1830.

bound to levy nothing beyond the established rates. Though seldom Cooditicn!

wealthy, they generally possessed considerable credit and means, and
were said, by remissions and advances, to help the cultivators.
Compared with the Deccan, the Kaira system had the great advan-
tage, that the village settlements were made by the Collector or his
assistant in person. Many cultivators were present and any change
in assessment was directly discussed. In Sir John Malcolm's opinion,
as far as possible, things should be kept as they were. At the
same time, much mischief had, he thought, been done by subjecting
alienated land to assessment. Besides giving rise to misery and
ill-feeling, the measure had added greatly to village payments.
Prom the &J1 in the value of field produce, rents were hard to collect,
and though not prepared to advise a general reduction. Sir John
Malcolm felt that the rates were high, and ought in some cases to be
lowered. The cultivator's condition should, .he wrote, never be
kst sight of. For a time they may go on paying a high rent, but the
strain must gradually impoverish them, and in the end will cause a
sadden, large, and inevitable defalcation in the public revenue.^

The end was not far off. In the next year (1831) the cultivating 1830 1S54,
^iasses were crushed by a further fall of thirty per cent in produce
pices. Tobacco, the chief rent-paying crop, was a drug in the
Market and the failure to pay the revenue was so general, that in
1831 the Collector was inclined to question the wisdom of the
revenue system, only a year before so highly praised. The crisis
bad shown how little the bulk of the cultivators were removed
from poverty. With the object of raising a class of well-to-do land-
holders, the Collector proposed that the village shareholders should
ke made more independent, village accountants withdrawn, the
Goyemment demand lessened, and the sub-tenants left in the share-
kolders' hands.^ Next year things were worse. The revenue fell
from £193,407 to £176,404 (Rs. 19,34,070 - Rs. 17,64,040), and the
year closed with an outstanding balance of £70,818 (Rs. 7,08,180),
rf which £50,818 (Rs. 5,08,180) were for the past and £20,000
(Bs. 2,00,000) on account of previous years. Distraints for debt
were common, and in the Collector's opinion poverty was undermin-
i^ the district resources. Remissions were freely granted,
rents lowered by about £10,000 (Rs. 1,00,000), and though one of

* Bom. Gov. litho. Papers, 148, 1.

' JamAbandi Report of 1830-31. The reality of the distresB has been questioned.
(Bom. Gov. SeL, CfXIV., 159). But the following extracts shew how severe it was.
Poverty is present in every class of cultivators to an extent that tends to impair
ibe efficiency of the revenue system of maaaffement and undermine extensively the
iMoorces of the state. In spite of the steady reduction of burdens in the last ten
yean, the bad state has grown worse.— Mr. Mills, 259, 24th Auffust 1832. Bom. Gov.
Bev. Rec. 482 of 1833,79. AU cultivators are encumbered with debts, and the work-
ing of the civil courts is attended with much hardship.— Bom. Gk>v. Bev. Bee. 482 of
1833, 79. 93.

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DISTRICTS.

them (1833-34) was a year of much local scarcity, the fourfold rise of
prices in 1834 and 1835 relieved the balk of the cultivators from
their most pressing difficulties.^ The next seasons, with fair cropi
and high prices, reduced the outstanding balances from £70,000 to
£30,000. But the fact that of 308 villages whose leases then fell in,
E hundred were stationary, 132 worse, and only seventy-six better,
shows through how severe a trial the district had passed* Next
year (1838-39) the crops were poor. But with rising prices ont-
standings were smaller, billets, mohsals, were reduced from 4416
in 1835 to 847, and the revenue realized without distraints or sales.*
During these years (1830-1840) the district benefited much by the
drainage of the lowlands in its southern and western villages.
Between 1838 and 1844 measures were taken to remove the pkugk
and other minor cesses,* to introduce acre rates and individual hold-
ings in parts of the district where the old crop division system still
prevailed, and to offer leases to individual landholders.* The Kaira
plough, hal, cess was a tax on ploughs only in name. It was really
a charge levied chiefly on rentfree and quitrent lands. The Col-
lector did not abolish it, but in some cases transferred the amomit as
a charge on rentfree lands, and in others added it to the assessment
on full rent paying fields.® 1839 was a season of high prices. The
revised acre rates, fixed by village committees on a consideration of
the character of the soil and of the position of the holder, differed
from the acre rates introduced in 1814-1819 by including the
amounts due on minor cesses.^ The number of separate holdings
was, as far as possible, increased. Of these some paid only when
tilled, in others no provision was made for fallows. At the same time,
leases for a term of years were granted to all substantial landholders
who wished to have them. These measures do not seem to have been
altogether successful. In most of the next fifteen years (1841-1855)
large remissions had to be granted, and few seasons closed without
a considerable balance of unrealized revenue.^ The leases, fixed at
too high a rental, impoverished the holders, and by the need for
remissions caused loss to Government.® When they fell in, they

^ Millet, hdjrif prices rose from 120 pounds the rupee in 1832 to 30 in 18^
nnd 35 in 1835. 1834 was a season of 'extraordinary difficulty.' No rain feU till
November, and though there was a good cold weather crop, there was a loss of 30,06(^
bullocks and a fall in the reyenne of £42,732. — Jam&bandi Report, 1833-34.

' Jamdbandi Report, 1835-36. Another measure of relief was to restore alienated
lands. In 1836 the Collector restored many lands under the provisiona of Act VI. of
1833,— Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 511.

s Jam&bandi Report, 1839-40.

« Government letter 1401, 12th April, 1838.

» Bom, Gov. Sel., CXIV., 419,495^498.

* The Collector threw on the alienated lands the portion of the cees not abeorbed
by the new assessment of the Government lands in each holding. — Bom. Gov. Sel,
CXIV., 112, 502. Of a total of JB1392 only £136 were remitted— Bom. Gov. Bev.
Bee. 52 of 1856, 113.

7 Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 419, 420.

8 The largest remission in any year between 1841 and 1851 was £75001
For the five years ending 1853-54 the remissions were, 1849-50, £829 ; 1850-51, £4294;
1851-52, £1399 ; 1852-53, £579 ; 1853-54, £2588. The outstanding balances were, in
1849-50, £2825 ; in 1850-61, £3960 ; in 1851-52, £2408 ; in 1852-53, £2958 ; in 18d3-H
£2517.— CoUector's 48a, 31st July, 1855.

* Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 52 of 1856, 140.

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were not renewed. The additions made on the abolition of the
plough cess unduly raised the rates on many holdings.^ And
fchoagh none of the sharehold villages broke under the strain^ their
reatals in some cases were greater than they could well bear.^ The
difficulty found in paying the rates was probably chiefly due to
the &11 of produce prices from 46 4 pounds in the ten years
Btiding 1842 to sixty-eight pounds in the thirteen years ending
1855.

Of the state of the district in 1854 and 1855, the Collector,
Mr. Blphinston, has left a detailed account.* In 1854 there were,
besides five towns with a population of over ten thousand souls,*
869 villages varying from 500 to 2000 inhabitants. There were
abo, chiefly in Thasra and Kapadvanj, 446 hamlets with from
twenty-five to a hundred houses and from 100 to 300 inhabitants.'
Most of the houses were tiled. Only the poorest and lowest classes
Kfed in thatched huts. Of the 574 villages and towns, twenty-seven
irere wholly alienated, forty partly alienated, and 507 belonged
to Government. The lands of the alienated villages, except in a
fafw where produce division still prevailed, were, by their Rajput,
Koli, and Mnsalmdn owners, let on money rents. The quiet
rf many years had done much to better their state. But, though
Wftong the owners some were improving their lands, they were as a
diss indebted, and especially the kasbdtut, lazy and unthrifty.
Such of them as were free from debt were said to treat their tenants
*11, taking the revenue in kind, allowing delay and irregularity in
fliB payment of rent, and needing no Government help to recover
fiieir dues. The thirty-eight mehvdsi villages were held by Rajput
Ifid EoU chiefs. Though as a rule moderate, in some cases the
Govemment share nearly swallowed up the entire village revenue,
ikeir lands rich and capable of improvement were in a declining
ptaie. The holders were illiterate, lazy, fond of opium, careless,
|itra?agant, and sunk in debt. The affairs of most of them were
p the hands of Vdnia stewards more alive to their own than to
fteir master^s interests.

Of a total of 452,209 acres of Government land yielding a rental
rf £144,431 (Rs. 14,44,310), 77,933 acres paying £40,537
{88.4,05,370), or more than one-sixth of the areaand one-fourth of the
i«ntal, were included in sharehold, narva, villages. Though some
^ere overtaxed, no case had for years occurred of a sharehold
tJommunity breaking under the weight of the Government demand.
Many of the sharers did not work with their own hands. Others let
wit part of their share, tilling the richest fields by the help of rela-
tions and servants. TTieir position was better than that of other
Baltivators. An alliance with their families was much sought after,

LEind

Administratiou^

??!iarcboM

^ Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 52 of 1856, 115—117.

* Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 52 of 1856, 126.

' Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 52 of 1856 and 29 of 1858.

* The five towns were NadiAd, 20,782 souls; Umreth, 13,652; Kapadvanj
1MS8; Kai^^ 12,091 ; and Mehmadabad, 10,516.

' Except a few establiBhed by pdUddrs to redaiagt waste lands, these wero
«««fty Koli hamlets.

B m~14

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DISTEICTS.

Cluster Vm.

Land
Adminiftratioii'

1864.

Simple village!.

and the competition for the estate of a childless shareholder was keen.
Freer than other cultivators from the risk of an enhanced rental,
they spent much capital and labour on their land.^ Still their
condition was not eatisfactorj. Expensive in their style d
livingj many had mortgaged or sold part of their shares, uid
from the remainder were ill able to meet the heavy Govemment
rent. The shareholders' lands were let to men of two classes,
hereditary tenants and tenants- at-will. The hereditary teaanti,
chiefly of the Bhart'hold or pdtiddr clasSj held securely and for tk?
most part at fixed rates ; the ten ants -at-will had no rights. Al
the landlord's pleasure their rents might be raised^ or ihk
fields taken from them. Both paid at rates considerably aboTB
the Government assessment. But complaints of rack-renting or
harshness were rare. Frugal in their life^ some throve better and
were further from want than the shareholders. But in 1854j chiefly
from the fall in the value of rich cropsj on most their rents pressed
hard. Less well-to-do than formerly, they had in many cases to
borrow to meet the cost of tillage, and when court decrees wti^
executed against them, little property w^aa generally found,*

In simple villages, though quit or rentfree lands had from twinjty
to twenty-five per cent less waste, they were inferior to full rent
lands in cultivation.^ The original share, t?dnia, and religious,
pasdlla^ lands were, except those held by village servants, ae & rok
minutely divided and Bold or mortgaged. Lands alienated by villaf:*
managers paid rates varying from a few pence the acre to tke Ml
Government assessment,*

In the Government lands of Bimple, senja^ villages, the le^esrstett
introdnced between 1838 and 1844 had been almost entirely giVot
np** The lands were partly held from year to year by teuante
paying on the area tilled, and partly distributed into allotments,
khfitdSj the holder liable for the same rent, whether or no his whold
allotment was cultivated.^ Except in a few villages TFhere the crop-
rate, tulvdrif system was in force, lands were assessed at m'
old village committee money rates depending on the conditioa and

^ Mr. Mackay'fi statement {Western IndiA, 106) that from nucertainty about tisil
rent thoy spent ntathmg in improvementa, though to some extent itmaybAve"
true of the Broach sbftreliolders^ did not apply to the Kfiira narviiildr^,

^ Mr. M&okfiy's etatement that Bhareholders fiomotimea charged 200—300 p|
cent in exwss of Govcmmtsnt rates is aaid by the Collector not to apply to KairiL

' Cultivators were said to get ^ultreat lauda at ipeclally low ratoa by thj^^t£ail|[
only to till Government fields,

* Of mnia lands 55,434 acres, with an estimated rental of £21,826 paid a y
aum to Ooveminent of £5ttt!0 at rcnt« varying from 6f/, to 10*. an acre. Of reh^LU
^ajfdi^dj limdu, a total aiea of 66,795 acres yielded as estimatod yearly rev^nW
£25,349, Of thiB 24,, ^7 acres were held ou aervic© tenure, and of the rest, ^H."
Trere rentfree, and 7^58 paid aggregate quitrents of £16S5. Of lands aold by ^
managers, a total area of 173i7ti€ acres paid £31,743 oat of a total of £71,836—
Gov. Rev. Rec, 62 of 1956, 95.

* Leases are aaid to hare banned the lensees whose receipts fell shmi ol
rental and forced Goveminent to grant large remisaioni, — Gov, Eev, Eec,
1856, 140.

* Of 200,332 acres of Goveratneiit lands in simple villages, 2492 were
34,505 included ui holdingij 71} 246 held on running leaasfl^ and 02;, 089 let out to
*t-wilh

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107

Chapter VIH.

caste of the cnltivator as mucli as on the soil ; these rates varied much ^
and were further complicated by being expressed in a variable land
measure, the dsra or estimated bigha. This estimate generally larger,
hat in some cases smaller than the actual measurements, would seem
to have been fixed with reference to the kind of soil as much as the
size of field.^ Tenants with distinct holdings always paid the same
rent. But the rents of cultivators who were charged only on the land
tmder tillage varied from year to year. As soon as the rains were
tver, the 'nllage officers drew up a return of the area cropped. This
llatement, checked by the m&mlatd&r and native district revenue
Iflfficers, fixed the amount cultivators of this class were liable to pay.
'When remissions were claimed, the crop waa left standing and valued
T)y the m^mlatd&r. The results were examined by the Collector
W his assistant, and as a rule the produce was equally divided
Jetween Grovemment and the cultivator. On the whole, the assess-
^nt was moderate, averaging over the entire cultivated area an acre
I'lafce of from bs, to 6«. (Rs. 2i-Rs. 3 a bigha). But in some villages the
Srant of any abatement of rental on account of fallows, the levy of
cesses in addition to the assessment,* and family rivalry for the
' IWBsession of land, had unduly raised the Government share.* Added
i) this, a double currency, their rents paid in Government and the

ice of their produce realized in Baroda rupees, caused a loss to the

* "vators of sixteen per cent..

The great body of the cultivators were in a depressed state. Coaditioa,
eapness of grain left from ordinary dry crop tillage little
Bargm of profit, and the demand for tobacco,, in former years the
Aief rent-paying crop, had greatly fallen.* In most villages the
Mddrs or leading members of the village community were men of
nbstance. 0£ the K^bibis, a few of good credit and thrifty habits
kd some store of money. But most of the Ejmbis and almost all
Kolis and Musalm&ns were badly off. Their stock of field tools
!*»8 scanty, and they had either no bullocks at all or only ^tia «-

Land
Administratkiu

1854.

Simpk vUUgsi.

-I

one;

^ In 1865 the sarvey offiodrs found in NadiAd^ soil nearly identical in value charffed
•intes varying from £1 9«. bid. to U. 9(1— Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV, 167.

' The use of the actual measure was sanctioned, hut not generally carried out in
JSa-Gov. Res, 1744, 2ath June 1853.

r^' Besides the plough cess noticed above, Mr. E3p]iinston mentions a holding,
ikf<a veto ; an arms^ dhdrdla vero ; a groundrent ob Kanbis who had built on Ehdnt
Idis* land, khdnta vero ; a tree ce88,jhdd vero ; a personal charge, savddia, when
■^ bat the owner tilled rentfree or quitrent land ; a charge for tilling in another
y»Dage,j)or^ajia«it>ci</ia; for leave to cut crops, raja vero; to make up deficiencies^
'^dr vtro ; for tilling too little land, hhoH vero ; and on cold weather crops, rdvni

/.-Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec., 52 of 1856, 119.

* Rivalry in some cases raised rates to £3 16«. an acre (Rs. 19 a higha),
' Mr. Mackay thua describes the effects of the very low prices of grain :. The
^H Apnl (1851) is at hand, the day on which the last instalment is due. The cultiva-
te at a loss to know how to meet the demand. Their crops have been abundant,
they have no market, and the surplus left in the district makes prices unusually
. (Mackay'sWestem India, 31).

* Most of the Eanbis were reduced to poverty by the great sums of money they
"^^ to marry their daughters into high families. Mr. Mackay (1850) goes even

er ; * the mass of the cultivators are so poor that they hire not only bufiocks but
' Western India, 120. The surplus of the Kolis' fields generally went to the mooey
IT ; their store gone before the end of the cold season, during the hot season they^
on fniiti and wild vegetables. The Musalmdn cultivators were as a Gkuassunk uk

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[BomlNiy GawtknTf
108 DISTRICTS.

Chapter TIIL In the Collector's opinion (1854) the state of the district called ht

j ~ j^ early remedies. The extra cesses should^ he thought, be taken off,

Aidmiikiftratiaii* the Baroda currency withdrawn, and export dues removed so as to

1863-1867 encourage the growth of cotton^ and provide a market for the

produce of the district. ^

During the next ten years (1855-1864) the marked rise of produce

? rices greatly improved Ithe condition of the cultivating classes*
'he two chief changes of this time were, the making of a railway
to Bombay (1860-1864), and in 1862 the introduction of a fresh surrey.
To this survey besides the remeasurement and reclassification of
lands, was entrusted the work of fixing fresh rates of assessment
During the five years (1863-1867) of survey operations,^ the great
rise of prices due to the American War,* the opening of the line
of railway to Bombay (1864), and, except 1864, a succession of good
harvests • raised* the bulk of the Kaira peasantry to a very high
level of wealth and prosperity. Except in the north and north-east>
where there was a considerable area of poor untilled land, and itt
a few villages in the rough tracts near the Mahi, the whole district
was under cultivation. The country was rich and highly tilled and
the villages well built with every sign of plenty and comfort,' th«
land revenue was realized without difficulty, and remissions were
nominal.^

The Maliki villages (1863) of the Thasra sub-division, formerly tht
poorest and least settled part of the district,showed a marked advance
in prosperity. By the establishment of fresh hamlets, their number
had risen from seventeen in 1821 to twenty-seven; the population
was 277 to the square mile; tillage had chiefly in the five years ending
1863 spread thirty-four per cent, and the average remissions wert
only half a per cent. Several of the villages were large with good

1 CottoD had risen from Ra. 80 a hhdndi in 1846 to Us. 105 in 1851.

« The average price of millet in the five years ending 1855 was 73 poiuda far
ft rupee ; the average price of millet in the five years ending 1861 was 48 pooalli
the rupee.

> The dates were: Mahndha, now A'nand, surveyed in 1863> Mdtar, now Mehmadaba^
Kapadvanj, and Thdsra, in 1864; NadiAd in 1865; and Borsad in 1867.— Bom. CMl
Bel., CXI v., 152, 255, 411, 591,666, 687.

^ The price of millet, compared with forty-eight in the five years ending IMI
was twenty-five pounds the rupee in the five years ending 1867.

^ 1862, rainfall enough and timely, harvest good, iniUet jforty pounds the nipeef
1863, early rain and harvest good, late rain and harvest short, millet nineteen
pounds ; 1864, early rain enough, late fniled, harvest poor, millet fifteen pounds ; 18611'
rain enough and timely, harvest good, millet twenty-three pounds ; 1866, early ntt
good, late wanting, harvest on the whole good, millet thirty-two pounds ; 1867, eai^,
rains good, late rains wanting, harvest on the whole poor, millet twenty-four pounds. '

• MAtar (1862) had a good deal of waste black soil (Bom. Gov. Sel., CXiV., 44I)|
Mahudha (Dec. 1863) very rich in the south and west, was poorer in the north urn
east, with vast plains of waste land (594); Kapadvanj (Nov. 1864) was rich and jtfu*-)^
throughout (700) ; ThAsra (Nov. 1864) poor in the north, in the south was rich am
well wooded (668) ; Nadidd (Nov. 1865) and Borsad (Oct. 1867) except a few viSagsi
near the Mahi were throughout extremely rich ; 143—258.

7 The remissions in Thdsra and Kapadvanj are not given. In MAtar during
23 years ending 1862, they averaged 1*66 per cent (Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV, 421); in Mi
dha during 23 years ending 1863 they averaged 1 '51 per cent (624) ; in NadiM during
jears ending 1865, they were less than one percent (155) ; and in Borsad m SI jfwf1
ending 1866 were not much over one per cent (267).

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EAIRA.

109

markets ; the houses brick-built with tiled roofs. On the whole, they
coald bear comparison with the best parts of Th&sra.^

In 1862 there were in all ninety sharehold, narva, villages.
Their rents had remained unchanged for years, and with special
opportunities for taking advantage of the great rise in produce prices,
they would seem to have become the richest villages in the district.*
The sharers were the most thriving class of cultivators, many of them
fflUng their fields entirely by hired labour.* Both their permanent
tenants and their tenants-at-will were well-to-do.

The condition of the cultivators of simple villages, except a poor

; unthrifty class in Thasra and Kapadvanj, was excellent. In Mdtar

, P862) the people were generally extremely well off, comfortably

l-dothed, and well-housed. The Kanbis were as a class very wealthy,

[and many of the Kolis, nearly as skilful and hard working

: 18 Kanbis, had good houses and large agricultural stock.* In

Mahudha (1863) the Kanbis and Talabda Kolis were ' substantial

fcrmers, fast gathering wealth/ But the Musalmans as a class were

;«nthrifty, and the Chuvalia Kolis in the east were very poor and

Liasettled.^ In Kapadvanj and Thdsra (1864), though there was

i considerable class of very poor Kolis sunk in debt, who to till

ftteir fields had to club their stock and in the hot weather had the

iWest means of living,® the main body of the cultivators had large

^ ►re of money and stock, good houses, and rich clothes and jewels.'^

Nadiad (1865) and Borsad (1867) population was beginning to

S8 rather heavily on the land. But only a few were poor oi^

ihrifty, the rest were prosperous and well oft.®

r The limited area of the original survey (1820-1825) and the changes
need from time to time in the distribution of villages make
►ssible any complete statement of the development of the district,
m the materials available, it would seem that in Mdtar, in seventy
ninety-seven villages, during the forty years ending 1 862, cultiva-
had spread from 37,437 to 43,890 acres or 14*7 per cent ; popula-
from 43,271 to 64,182 or about 40 per cent; ploughs from
to 6649 or 26*5 per cent ; and wells from 913 to 1030 or 12*8
cent.® In fifty-eight of the 103 Mahudha villages, during the
years ending 1 863, cultivation had spread from 41,930 to 49,400
icres or 17 per cent ; population from 39,551 to 59,061 or 49 per cent ;
Boughs from 4749 to 6815 or 43 per cent; and working wells from
ferenteen to 538 or 133 per cent.^^ In the seventy-six Kapcwivanj

* Born, Gov. Sel., CXIV., .S67.

L*jg 1865 the most flouriahins yillaces of Nadidd were sharehold.— Bom. Gov. SeL,
5XIV., 151. ** "

* Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 1, 27, 30, 31. * Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 418.
I Bom, Gov. Sel, CXIV., 602.

•Bom. Gov. Sel.. CXIV., 693, 709, 713. In KapadvAnj the Kanbis also are said
I be more or less in the VdniiU' hands, 7, 13.
If; Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 664, 670.
^ The people of Nadi4d are as a whole described as weU-fed, weU-cloihed, well*
■"led, with all the necessaries of life, and daily growing in wealth. — Bom. Gov. SeL
Y*» 148. In the north and north-east, the condition is noticed as inferior (156), and
tillage is mentioned as beiog only a few huts ( 1 66). So too in Borsad some viJiagw
Mr the Mahi were chiefly in the hands of poor Kolis (269).

* Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 420. w Bom. Gov. SoL, CXIV,, 624.

Chapter TUf,

LsLnd
Administxatiazi^

ia^J3 1S67.

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Boooad Survey,

lio

DISTRICTS.

Tillages^doring tlie twenty years ending 1864^tillage had spreadTl per
€ent^ and in the ten years before 1864, population had risen 16 p^
cent.^ In the fifty-tnreeGrovemnientThisravillages,tillagehadiiithe
twenty years ending 1864, spread 34 per cent. In five of fche villages,
houses had, in the forty years ending 1864/ increased from 3428 to
6115 or 78 per cent ; people from 13,231 to 16,152 or 22 percent;
draught cattle from 3077 to 4643 or 51 per cent ; and ploughs from
356 to 756 or 112 per cent.* In forty-seven of the seventy-tlireei|
Government Nadidd villages, during the twenty years ending 186oj
tiQage had spread from 83,599 to 87,868 acres or five per cent.' Li
the forty years ending 1864, houses had increased trom 16,174 to
26,316 or 62 per cent ; people from 62,829 to 81,638 or 29 per cent;!
cattle from30,356 to 42,147 or 38 per cent ;ploughs from 5298to575fl
or 7 per cent ; and wells from 380 to 51 8 or 73 per cent * In eighty-al
Borsad villages, during the twenty-one years ending 1866, tillage
had spread from 110,554 to 113,510 or an increase of two per cent.* In
the forty years ending 1866, houses had risen from 20,373 to 35,89^
or 27 per cent ; people from 80,616 to 101.874 or 20 per cent; cattii
from 42,750 to 69,740 or 62 per cent ; carts from 3764 to 6029 or 6(j
per cent ; ploughs from 6843 to 6863 or 29 per cent ; and wells from
1 125 to 1589 or 70 per cent.®

The chief changes introduced by the second survey won
the fixing of uniform cesses on alienated lands, and, froi
Government lands the removal of uncertainty in the land meason
of complexity in tenures, and of arbitrary and unfair variations
rates. Thirty of the mehvdsi villages originally held by Koli i
Bajput chiefs were left unsurveyed and no change was made i
the amount of their yearly payment to Government. The cesse
on alienated lands were of three classes, quit, or salami, renti
occasional, or savadia, rents, and other cesses. The quitrents o
alienated lands were of two kinds, fixed and variable. Of fixe
quitrents, there were the vdhad saldmi or lump assessment on
whole estate generally of vdnta land ; the kdyam saldmi or fix«
assessment on a field ; and a charge for a written permit to cut croi
or chitidman. Of changing quitrents, there were a cess or saUm
the amount depending either on the area under tillage, the seaso
or the crop ; of occasional cesses or savddia,^ there were two, a person
cess or khedu savddia depending on the caste of the tiller and whetl
he was a tenant or the holder of the alienated land, and a crop
fndlidt rate on valuable produce. Of other cesses, the chief were
plough cess, hal or sdnthi vera, varying from a few annas to thii

1 Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 692. • Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 671.

8 In 1865, ninety-Bixper cent of the total area was under cultivation.

* Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV,, 140—155.

* In 1866, eighty-six per cent of the total arable area was under tillage.— Bom. G
eol, CXIV., 266.

* Bom. Gov. Sel., CXTV., 255-266.
7 These, though not unknown to them, were little used by the Marithis.

were in most cases introduced by British Collectors, either to raise a revenue
alienated lands or to prevent alienated lands being let at less than Govenuuent i
--Bom. Gov. Sel, CXiV., 49U

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KAIRA.

Land

Administratio]!^

mpees^; a tax on the armed classes, dhdrdla vero^; a buffalo Chapter YIII.
ihed tax, masvari vero^ ; house site, gharjaminy tax ; a watchman's
cess, rakhopa 5 patel's allowance, svJcdi ; a watch cess, khdti pMva
vero ; a fruit tree cess ; and a water, pidvo, cess. Under the arrange-
ments adopted for settling these cesses, many of the smaller ones
were given up. Of the more important, the fixed quitrent, udhad
$aldmi, was distributed over the different fields of the estate in
proportiou to the survey assessment of each. The field cess was
ooDtinaed, calculated on the actual and not on the estimated area.
%e amount of the reaping permit, chitidman, cess was laid as a
(pitrent. The changing quitrents were fixed on the average of twelve
years' payments. Among occasional cesses the personal, khedu
madia, was imposed as a permanent quitrent, in proportion to the
assessment on the field.'^ In the case of the crop, mdlidt, cess, the
iiverage of twelve years' payment was put on the field, on the condition
that if for any reason rich crops could not be grown, the charge
|hould cease.* So much of the plough cess as was not absorbed
m the new rates was thrown on the quitrent and rentfree fields
cl the holding,®

In the Grovernment lands, the chief points calling for change were

file uncertainty of the land measure, the want of uniformity in the

iBDiires, and the variety in rates. The land measure in use was, as

policed above, the dsra or estimated bigha, which though generally

|»ger than the regular bigha varied to some extent according to

|k position and wealth of the landholder. For this the actual

fceasorement was in every case substituted.^

■I

.., As regards tenures the many varieties were reduced to two simple

Ibnns, one of joint responsibility in sharehold, and one of personal

pponsibUity in simple villages. The sharehold, narva, tenure®

E carefully preserved, but the complications and peculiarities
din almost every village were, as far as possible, removed. The
demand from each village was fixed at the full amount of the
purey assessment on its cultivated and waste sharehold lands,
leather with a quitrent of one-quarter of the survey rate from all land
ilienated by the village community.® According to the wish of

ji ^ The plough tax generally rose in proportion to the amount of free and quitrent
pMl-Bom, &OV. Sel., CXIV., 494.

s Chiefly on Kolis, sepoys, and Sajputs, hecause they had much rentfree land.—
lto.Gov. Sel., 503. .

* The origin of this name is not known. According to one account masvddi
leuis a pregnant woman. — Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 551. It was a Municipal cess.

* la Mehmadabad the cess was in proportion to what the land had paid in
Ke past twelve years. But this was altered by Government. — Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV.,
•2, 659, 564, 578.

» Bom. Gov. Sel^ CXIV., 641.
« Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 602, 666.

1 The estimated bigha would seem to have been, as a role, larger than the actual
jtosuremen^-Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 424, 614.

* Bom, Gov. Sel. CXIV., 64.

^land mortgaged or sold was, if the sharers thought they could redeem it,
pedas part of the sharehold estate. In other cases on paying one quarter of the
BLtarvey rent, the alienee's poaaeasion waa guaranteed—Bom. Gov. Sel, CXIV. , 67,

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ChaptOTTIIL

Land
Administrationu

1863-1867,
Second Sorvey.

[Bombay Oaxetteer,

112"

DISTRICTS.

the majority, the members were allowed either to keep their former
share of responsibility^ or to put in its place the amount of the
survey aesessment on the lands they held.^ The relations between
shareholders and tenants were, as far as possible, unchanged. The
rights of permanent tenants were carefully recorded and strictly
upheld, but beyond what they could claim under their leases, tenants-
at-will received few privileges.* As under former arrangements,
sharehold villages were charged higher rents than simple villages,
the new system in most cases reduced the amount^ they were called
on to pay. In simple villages the chief object of the survey was to
introduce one form of tenure and one set of rates. The difierent
varieties of holdings^ were reduced to the guarantee of possession
for thirty years, subject to the payment of rental.

As to assessment rates, the object was, as far as possible, to fix
them solely on the value of the land.^ But as former rates depended
almost as much on the charcu^ter of the holder as on the character
of the soil, the new system would have had the effect of greatly rais-
ing the rents of Koli, Musalmdn, and other unthrifty husbandmen.
It was in most cases possible on other grounds to lower the rates
charged to men of this class. But to prevent hardship, the role
was made that the rise should not in any case be more th&n fif ^
per cent.*

The financial result of the survey was, as shown in the following
tabular statement, an increase over the whole district of 11*25 per cent
in the Government land revenue.

Survey Financial Statement, 186S to 1867.

Year of
BcB-vmnoH. settle-
ment.

XahndbA ..

M&tar

N4dUd

Borsad

Kapadvanj..

Th4sra

Ten yeeraT

averag^e

ooUectiona.

Bs. a. p.

Collections
of the year
before settle-
ment.

Rb. a. p.

TbAE of SBTTUDaOST.

Old SyBtem.

Total
collections.

Rate per
acre.

Rb. a. p. Rb. a. p.

1863-63. 1,70,364 8 1^1,910 1,{H),7S9 6 Sj 3

186i-6d. l,74,0Sd IL 9 1,97,682 9 6 2,02,765 13 9, 3

186.V66.; 2,15.017 14 1 - --. -— -

1866-67. 8,19,100 4

186:)-64. 64.742 8 9

1868-64. 1,83,411 6

Survey System.

Total
collections.

Rate per

Rs.

112,08,487 5
8 10 2.41.071 6

2,19,0:^8 14 lt2,lH,l32 13 4 2 1 2,.W.5I5 18

3,23.469 1 413,19,455 I 2 4 li 4 3,28,913 1

75.342 U 4 72,844 19 19 4 I,00,3.%3

1,47,600 13 11 1,44,511 4 8 3 li! 3 l,6t>,&06 11

B8.a.p.

6| 3 19 1 if
t 11 If '

3
8

Total... 10,76,631 16 11,11,45,044 8 311,48,447 13 8 3 6 4{l3,71^47 6 S 8 3 4, U

4 <i; ^

4 14 3! »JM

1 8 0^

3 6S Ul

The A'nand and If eh.imadal>ad sab-divisions were formed in 1869 and Mahndha absorbed.

1 Bom. Gov. SeL, CXIV., 280, 306.

• Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 94, 97. » Bom. Gov. Sel., CXIV., 63.

^ Details of the different forms of tennre have been already given. They
thus summarised by Mr. Pedder: Old holdings with over assessed, o«Ato, land
lands nominally quit or rentfree ; holdings including quit and rentfree lands Mse..
under Re^. XVII. of 1827 IV. 4 ; holdings first put together by British Collectoni
which quit and rentfree lands paid indirectly by the special rates on the o^et iasfij
and holdings made up by Collectors with no quit or rentfiree lands the total denuw
being nominally levied according to the value of theestateu — ^Bom. Gov. Sd., CSlf^
626.

^ On fields in almost every respect similar, rates varied in Mitar from Rs. 9-1^
to Rs. UIM, and in NadiAd from Rs. 14-11-7 to Es. 0-13-10.— Bom. Gov. SeL, CSVf^
493, 167.

• Bom. Gov. Sel,, CXIV., 452.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

Qigarft}

KAIRA.

113

Land
Admixdstratiim*

1868-1877.

Since the survey (1868-1877) the only fresh land administrative Cihapter Till
measnre was in 1877 the passing of an act (Act XIY. of 1877) for
the relief of indebted Th&kors. The class for whom this measure
was most required were the superior landholders whose estates^
excluded from the revenue survey, were continued to them on the
paymentof alump, mZAa<{, assessment. These men almost entirely
wpresentatives of the unruly Rajput and Koli Mahi chief s/ partly from
their careless and unthrifty management, and partly from the practice
of subdividing &mily estates, had as a class become hopelessly
indebted. Up to November 1878 the provisions of the Act had been
Implied to thirty-three estates. A sum of £3471 (Rs. 34,710) had
teen advanced by Government and debts amounting to £5446
(Rs. 64,460) were compromised.

The following are the chief details in the history of the last ten ^^"^^"^g'*^
flWtfons. In 1868 scanty rain in June and July was followed by a
ie?6re flood in August and an almost complete fiailure of the late
wins. The total fiJl was thirty-nine inches. Though the harvest
t8B below the average, the rupee price of millet, bajrij the staple
fhod of the people fell from twenty-four to twenty-nine pounds. The
area under cultivation rose from 379,956 to 388,284 acres and the land
wenue from £198,624 to £199,666 (Rs. 19,86,240-R8. 19,96,660), the
year, closing with £809 (Rs. 8090) of remission and an outstanding
Balance of £613 (Rs. 6130). In the central and southern villages the
londition of the people was good. But in the poorer lands to the
jorth the Kolis were depressed and embarrassed.*

In 1869 the rains did not set in till the end of July, but from 1869.

ben till October they were plentiful and timely with a total fall of
kirty^three inches. The harvest especially the rice crop was splen-
fid. This with millet prices as high as twenty pounds the rupee
•fkde the season one of great agricultural prosperity.* The tillage
irea rose from 388,284 to 391,817 acres and the land revenue from
1199,666 to £208,1 76 (Rs.l9,96,660.Rs. 20,31,760). Remissions were
ginmted to the extent of only £84 (Rs. 840) and at the close of the

■*A statement supplied by Mr. A. Crawley-Boevejr, TilukdAri Settlement Officer,
■nrt that, twenty-six estates are (1879) owned by mty-one thdkors, of whom sixteen
■fr Rijputis, nineteen Kolis, and sixteen Molesal&ms. These estates comprise an esti-
prted area of 53,866 acres yielding a yearly revenue of £13,707 (Rs. 1,37,070) of
nieh d^4353 (Rs. 43,530) are paid to Government. The smallest estate is in A'nand,

peof402 acres yielding £70 (Rs. 700), the largest, in Borsad. has 7155 acres and

Pywrly rental of £1600 (Rs. 16,000). The details are :—

i,. Kaira Thdkors, 1878,

BalHliyuIon.

Total

Estates.

7
6

1
1

Thikon,

: 6 KoUfl

; 2 Bajpnts
ns Holemlims..

L 8 Koito

- 9 Kolis

1 Koll

1 Bajput

AOTGS.

} 18,748
I 9060

I 24,608

1126
6434

58.8«6

>Rev. Commr. 1282, 19th March 1869.
B 167— 15

Bstimated
reyenne.

Government
pajrment.

1784

4108

6787
188
900

18.707

768
lOiS

1049

138

470

4363

8 Rev^ Gommr. 668, 8th August 1870.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[BembayOaietteer,

Chapter VIII,

Land

AdminiatratiOE-

Season reporta,

urn

1871.

1872,

1873.

1874^

114

DISTRICTS.

year (Slat Jnly 1870) there was an oatstanding balance of £457
(Rs. 4570). The conditioii of all the cultivating cla^s was good.

In 1870 the rain was heavy in July^ moderate in August^ and sluut
in September. On the whole it was sufficient with a total fall of thirtj-
eight inches. The early harvest was good but the late crops wanted
moisture.^ Millet prices fell to twenty-one poimds the rupee. The
tillage area rose from 391,817 to 393 J94 acres and the landTeyenna
from £203,176 to £203,765 (Rs. 20,31, 760-Rs. 20,37,650), the year
closing with £107 (Rs. 1070) of remission and an outstanding balance
of £529 (Rs. 6290).

In 1871 the rainfall was ill distributed. Light early rainB were
followed in August by heavv floods, and the floods by a long stretck
of dry weather. The total fall was thirty-three inches. In the
north and east the harvest was poor. But in spite of the local failare
millet prices went down to twenty-three pounds the rupee. Tha
tillage area fell from 393,794 to 390,458 acres and the land rerenoe
from £203,765 to £200,006 (Rs. 20,37,650 - R& 20,00,060), the y«
closing with £409 (Rs. 4090) of remission and an outstandiiif^
balance of £429 (Rs. 4290). The central districts were prosperous*
But the Kolis of M^tar, Mehmadabad, and Th&sra showed signs cC
poverty and were throwing up their lands.*

In 1872 the rainfall was timely and sufficient, with a total fall ot
fifty-eight inches. A frost in January harmed the cold weathef
crops, but on the whole it was an average harvest. Millet prices wen
down to thirty pounds the rupee. The tillage area fell from 890,45
to 387,554 acres and the land revenue from £200,006 to £198,M
(Rs. 20,00,060-Rs. 19,86,450). Remissions were granted to the eitea
of £443 (Rs. 4430) and the year closed with an outstanding halanoi
of £239 (Rs. 2390). The depressed state of the Kolis in TUisn
and Mehmadabad continued to attract notice.

In 1873 the rains began early but towards the end failed, with l
total fall of twenty-three inches. The early harvest was fair, tb
late crops poor. MQlet prices again fell to thirty-four pounds th
rupee. The tillage area was reduced from 387,554 to 378,282 ac»
and the land revenue from £198,645 to £195,750 (Rs. 19,86,45
Rs. 1 9,57,500). Remissions were granted to the extent of £4O6(Rs.408
and the year closed with an outstanding balance of £648 (Ks. 648(
Poverty was spreading among the less thrifty peasantry. Mon^
lenders, partly because of the shortening of the time of limits^
in civil suits and partly because of the continued fall in grain nri«
crowded the civil courts,* keen to recover their outstandling debts.
In 1874 the rain at first fell freely and timely, but ceased ve
early with a total fall of twenty-three inches. The early han<
was good, but the late rice and the cold weather crops failed. T
fall in prices continued, millet going down to forty-six pounds t
rupee. The tillage area fell from 378,282 to 368,001 acres andtl

^ Rev. Oommr. to Gov., 6708, 26th December 1870. ]

3 Collector's adminiatration report. .J

> Details are given nnder the head * Capital ' (p. 63-64). In this year 13,105 ciil

suits were instituted, compared with an average of 1 1,350 in the three preceding yei&

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SHJtfit]

KAIEA.

115

Land
AdminiatratdoiL

Season repottif
1875,

18TG,

land revenue from £195,750 to £193,299 (Rs.l9,57,500.Rs. 19,32,990), Cliaptfir THI.
the year closing with £65 (Rs. 650) of remission and an outstanding
balance of £5 (Bs. 50). The cheapness of grain and the &iluro of
the kter crops added to the troubles of the poorer husbandmen, and
even the well-to-do are said to have been scrimped.

In 1875 the rain was free and timely with a total fall of thirty-six
inches. The harvest was one of the best on record and millet
prices fell to forty-eight pounds the rupee. The tillage area fell
from 368,001 to 363,255 acres and the land revenue from £193,299
to £192,434 (Rs. 19,32,990-Rs. 19,24,340), the year closing with £68
(Bs. 680) of remission and an outstanding balance of £93 (Rs. 930).
In spite of the slight fall in prices the state of the cultivating classes
showed signs of improvement, and the pressure of the money-lenders
had to a great extent ceased.

^ In 1876 the rain was again favourable with a total fall of thirty
ipiches, and while the loc^ harvest was good, millet prices in con-
jeqaence of the failure in the Deccan and Southern Martha districts
oose from forty-eight to forty pounds. The tUlage area fell from
[163,255 to 362,222 acres and the land revenue rose from £192,434
flo £193,802 (Rs. 19,24,340-Rs. 19,38,020), the year closing with £122
(Bs. 1220) of remissions and no outstanding baJances. Before these
^ge crops and high prices all signs of poverty disappeared, and
|Bb people were said to have been exceptionally prosperous.^

In 1877 the rains began well, but they soon failed and'in spite of
»yy September showers the total fall was twenty-six inches. The
* weather harvest was fair, but except those tiiat were watered
, early crops suffered. Exports to the famine districts had
I^Buned tihe local stock of grain, and millet prices went up from forty
lk> seventeen pounds. The tillage area rose from 362,222 to 377,438
acres and the land revenue from £193,802 to £195,510 (Rs.19,38,020-
,B». 19,55,100), the year closing with £64 (Rs. 640) of remission and an
gntetanding balance of £554 (Rs. 5540). On the whole 1877 was a
iood year for E^ira cultivators. The poorer classes lost much of
pteir crops. But what they reaped was of very high value and
pie rise in prices improved their credit. To the better class of
bltivators whose wells ensured them a full harvest the season was
ine of very great profit.

: Daring the thirty years ending 1876 population has increased
fcom 566,513 to 782,733 or 38-16 per cent; houses from 150,628
b 218,596 or 45-12 per cent; cattle from 413,440 to 458,439 or
10*88 per cent; ploughs from 54,975 to 56,916 or 3-53 per cent;
carts from 20,864 to 29,110 or 39-52 per cent ; and wells from 6409
fO 9237 or 44-12 per cent. In these years the land revenue has

E'wn from £152,109 to £195,443 or 28'48 per cent. Five
, Qiucipalities,six dispensaries, and 190 schools have been established,
M 100 miles of road and seventy-two miles of rail have been opened.

1S77.

Development^

} Gov. B60. 4602, 28th Jane 1876.

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Chapter EC.

Juitice.

1802-1877.

Judicial Staff,
18301878.

[Bombay GaMtter

CHAPTER IX.

JUSTICE.

Thb ladicial administration of the lands acquired in 1 802 remained
in the hands of the Resident at Baroda till in 1805 a Jadge and
Magistrate was appointed for Eaira.^ In 1 81 8 the office and {unctions
of magistrate were transferred from the Judge to the Collector.' In
the same year, owing to the acquisition of territory under the treaty
of the 6th November 1817, the jurisdiction of the Kaira Judge waa
limited to the lands of the eastern division, and a new Judge waa 1
appointed for the western division and stationed at Ahmedabad.' In
1828 the office of District Judge of Kaira was abolished, and from |
that time tiU 1856 the judicial administration of the district remained i
in the hands of the Judge of Ahmedabad. In 1856 a senior assist-
ant judge was sanctioned for Kaira. This appointment was abolished
in 1869, and since that time, except from 18/2 to 1874 when a joint
Judge was stationed at Kaira, the duties have been performed by the
Judge and assistant judge of Ahmedabad.

Of the strength of the stafiE appointed to decide civil cases in tie
Kaira district no details have been obtained earlier than the year
1830. In that year the district was furnished with eight judgei
The total number of suits disposed of was 5949. Twenty yeai^
later in 1850 there were in all seven courts, and the cases dispose!
of numbered 6189. In 1860 there were again eight courts and thfl|
suits numbered 5313. In 1870 the number of oourts was reduced
to six, while the number of decisions rose to 10,532. In 1874 then
were five courts and 10,884 decisions. In 1877 the number of court
was the same, while the total of suits fell to 8853. At present (1878
the district is provided with five subordinate judges' courts with ai
average jurisdiction over 320 square miles and 156,546 souls.
these one is stationed at Kaira with jurisdiction over the Mehmadabat
and Mdtar sub-divisions ; another at Nadidd with jurisdiction eve
the Nadidd and some villages of the A'nand sub-divisions ; a third a
Kapadvanj with jurisdiction over the Kapadvanj sub-division, an*
over some villages of Thfarain Kaira and of Par&ntij in Ahmedabad
a fourth at Umreth with jurisdiction over some villages of the Th&r*
A'nand^ and Nadiid sub-divisions ; and a fifth at Borsad wA

1 Reg. IL of 1805, sec. Y. s Beg. IlL of 18ia

' Gov. order dated 9ih February 1818.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

Oqarit]

KilEA.

117

Ef^paru Bterm^ l87D-li7T.

; jonsdiction over the Borsad sub-division and some villages of A'nand.
Besides these there is a small cause court at Nadi&d. The business
of this ooort is conducted by the judge of the small cause court at
Abmedabad who visits Nadidd on the first and third Mondays in
each month.

The average distance of the Eaira court from its six furthest
villages is seventeen miles ; of the Nadidd court, fifteen ; of the
KajBdvanj courts forty-eight ; of the Umreth court, thirteen ; and of
the Borsad conrtj f ourteeHi Exclusive of suits settled by the small
caase conrt, the average number of cases decided during the eight
yearg ending 1877 la 11,123. During the first four of those years
tte totals TDse from 10,532 in 1870 to 13,105 in 1873 and then
fell to 88j3 in 1877. Of the total number of cases decided during

the eight years ending 1877,
71*39 per cent have on an average
been given against the defendant
in his absence. The proportion
of cases decided in this way would
seem to have been on the increase
during the first three years and on
the decline during the next five
years, the maximum percentage
being 79*55 in 1872 compared with
73*78 in 1870 and 59-56 in 1877.
Of contested cases only 15*17 per
t have, during this period of eight years, been on an average decided
■ the defendant- The proportion of such cases decided id favour
ithe defendant fell from 23 48 per cent in 1870 to 11*19 per cent
1 1872, and then during the next five years rose to 17*30 in 1877.
In 127 or r43 per cent of the whole number of suits decided in
^1377, the decree has been executed by putting the plaintiff in the
[pitesession of the immoveable property claimed. The number of
jOHes of this kind does not vary much from year to year, except that
ml873 the total was only 47 out of 13,105 suits, and in 1877 was
lijout of 8853, In 1870 the total was 104 compared with 127 in
M77. In 53' 38 per cent of the decisions passed in 1877, decrees for
mmj due have been executed by the attachment or sale of property ;
ft these 17-11 por cent have on an average been by the sale of
Bw^eable and 36*27 per cent by the sale of immoveable property.
Compared with 1870, the 1877 returns of attachments or sales of
ttLoreable and immoveable property show a rise from 354 to 1515 in
Uie former, and from 1185 to 3211 in the latter.

Compared with 1870, the number of decrees executed by the arrest
rf the debtor during the eight years ending 1877 has considerably
E^Den, the total for 1870 being 1553 against 104 in 1877. As will
te Been from the following table, the number of civil prisoners has
raried but little during the eight years ending 1877, the total in
4e latest year being 123 compared with 154 in 1870 and 212 in
1873:

SuJK

Pccrw<l

Fttraenl««^

m ,.

10,533

7771

TU-TS

«!1 ...

lo,AJfl

7ri«l

7403

bpH ,„

lis 89

l«,3:t4

nh&

BA K»

I3,10S

tmi

frofi

l\^^U

7:43

tin

Up -^

10.7 IS

rsi^

ea-34

Bw -..

11,370

7M2,'l

ft437

p '

^^^

e27H

wee

m^^'

fefe^Si*

(i^.r^iu

71 '3

CbapterlZ.
Justice*

Distance,
1878.

Bebton,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bombay Gantteer,

118

CbapterlX
Justioe.

DISTRICTS.
Kaira Cinl PrUonera, ISTO-IST?.

•

tTwOOBn

Day^

BlLKABB.

Ybab.

Batitfying

At creditor's
reqneBt

No
snbalfltenoe
allowanoe.

Diadosoze
property.

TlM

expiij.

1B70 ,.. „.

liTl

1§T3

1373

lS7i

IBTfi

187fl ,^ ...

mi ... ...

ISfl
ITi

ai
11

as
ft
»

30
49

0B
12ft

13S
123
134
IIT
7S

Civil Courts,
18704 S77.

Small caoie court.

Of the 123 prisoners in 1877, 111 were Hindus and twrfil
Masalmans.

The following statement shows in tabular form the workmg of
the district civil courts during the eight years euding 1877 i—

Kaira Civil Couria, 1879-1877,

7UA.

1S7D
1871
1873
1873
1974
1176
lS7e

10|582
1U^2«
13^9^0
19,105
10.884
10,715

8S^

UNCOITTEtfrXD.

7 11

e 15

7771 lea
10, »H e5L>

e9ff7

7743
7SM3

OOATBsrrEl>.

143S
1328
1053
1910

IB02
1877
212S

9Baa

0693

ia,i3t

0881
fiflO

637
7P7
767
BS4
11^1
1007

115

fiO
37

143 ', 9a

793
I»7i
100»
iU9
I4fte

EuiPimraL

-5=^

1553

124fi

19S

130
104

■L.

»0
79
47
7S
»4

1^7

ItS5
1^
1M2
Am

From the following table it will be seen, that during the eiglit
years ending 1877 the total number of suits decided by the Nadisi
small cause court, which rose from 1454! in 1870 to 2118 in 1S"4
has fallen to 1064 in 1877, or a decrease of 26*82 per, cent in eigiii
years. Against a fall in suits of less than £20 (Bs- 200) th^rft
is a slight rise in en its of higher Talue, Except in 1871 and ISTT
whenit rOEoto £5 18s. 7d. (Rs. 59-4-8), and £5 3s. 9^rf. (Rs. h\'\^)i
the average value of suits during the eight years has ranged betw^
£4 6d, (Rs- 40-4) and £4 16^. BA. Rg. 48-5-4), As regardi *
execution of decrees, attachments of property have risen fpom 16 ^
1870 to 64 in 1877 1 and Bales from 4 to 32, There is a fall in thi
number of debtors imprisoned from 16 in IS 70 to 11 in 1877.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

9iiuii.l

EAIRA.

119

ya<ttW SmaU Oauie Court, 1870-77.

SUTT%

FftoCMSSIft,

Ded^Dt.

Areragts

ATflTmgB

PpLm^n^

Tiu

impri-

Under
£5

Prom

Ftnm

UDoaiiE.

Ollt,

Movmblo

MOTtikblfl

•oaad.

£5 to

£20 10

propiTl.v

proricrty

£3(K

*^0.

iittacbiid.

iOU.

£ «. d

£ f . ±

mo ^,

IIM

S8d

4 6

e LI

1S7I ^

151S

itrt

6 18 7

m „,

nift

i«8a

a«a

i s e

8 10

m „.

i8«i

1401

!5flJ

4 6 2

a 10

SJt

M* *^

i4ia

loes

ZOJ

4 B 7

10 4

liTJ H«

1235

016

2.4

1 10 6

10 %i

1U« ...

1189

S9fl

Sia

4 U 3^

ft 3 »|

10 4

IfTT „„

ft»0

£7

i:^ 1

Registration employs eight special sab-registrars^ one at each of
tiie seven sub-division headquarters^ and the eighth at the town of
Umreth. In addition to the Collector's supervision as district
Begistrar, and to his assistant or deputy's supervision a special scrutiny
18^ under the control of the Inspector General of registration and
stamps, carried on by the inspector of registration for Gujar&t,
According to the registration report for 1877-78 the receipts for that
mr amounted to £1838 (Es, 18,380), and the charges to £1001
(&. 10,010), leaving a balance of £8S7 (Ra. 8370). Of 6466, the
tokl number of registrations, sixty-ono were wills, 121 were docu-
ments affecting moveable, and 6284 documents affecting immoveable
property. Of the last class, in addition to 1073 miscellanooua
instramenta, thirty were deeds of gift, 2242 were deeds of sale, and
2939 were mortgages. The registered value of the total immoveable
property transferred was £219,388 (Rs. 21,93,880).

At present (1878) eighteen^ officers share the administration of
criminal justice. Of these five, one of them a mamlatdar, are magis-
trates of the first, and thirteen ot the second and third classes.
Of tte former two are covenanted European civilians and three are
E^tu-es, With regard to the local jurisdiction and powers of these
daiTi'^t rates, one of them, the District Magiatrate, ia placed in a
tpeml position, invested with a general supervision over tlie whole
district. Each of the four remaining first class magistrates haa an
average charge of 400 square miles and a population of 105^683 souls,
hi the year 1&76, the five first class magistrates decided 286 original
»nd eighty- one appeal criminal cases. Of the five first class magis-
trates three have as Colloctor, assistant collector, and deputy collector,
Terenne charge of the parts of the district in which they exercise
nsa^nsterial powers. Of subordinate magistrates there are fourteen,
fill of them natives with an average charge of 114 square miles and
a population of 60,210 seals. In 1876 they decided 1228 original
(Brimmal cases. Besides their magisterial duties, these officers

Chapter IZ.

Justice.

Registration,
1877-78.

Criminal justice.
Staff,
1878.

The registry o^ce Iot the Melunadahad Btib-diyisiQii is held ^t Mehuiiadabad
™ci the iecK»ad Monday to the following Soturday in eAch moatii, and during the r^
«hb^ time at Kainw ^

' Bsftidea nine honorary magiitrAte^

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Chapter EL
Jiutice.

OffsncoBi
187M877.

Police,
1803-1877.

[Bombay taetoTi

120

DISTRICTS.

exercise reyenue powers as m&mlatd&rs or the bead clerb of
m&mlatd&rs. Seventy of the village headmen^ of whom there are 600
with an average annual pay of £4 12s. (Rs. 46), have been entrusted
with powers of fining and imprisoning^ and the rest with the powers
contemplated by the Bombay Village Police Act (VIII. of 1867).

From the table of offences given below^ it will be seen that during
the seven years ending 1877> 2250 offences or one offence for evei;
347 of the population were on an average committed. Of these
there were on an average ten murders and attempts to comimt
murder ; five culpable homicides ; sixty-one cases of grievous hurt and
hurt by dangerous weapons ; and twenty-six cases of dacoity aod
robbery. 2146 or 95 per cent of the whole were minor offences.

At the beginning of the century when Kaira came under Britbik
management, the chief criminal classes were the Rajput Gir^iis or
land revenue claimants, who to recover some alleged claim, or
because of some other grievance would, by turning oatlawB,
bdhdrvatids, burning, murdering, and robbing, try to foroe the
authorities to grant their demands. The next class were the Kolis,
inveterate robbers and highwaymen. A third were the BWta or
BAhrots who when pressed to pay taxes committed trdga, that i%
either mutilated themselves or killed one of their number.^ At tbe
1811-12 circuit sessions the chief offences were g^g robberies,
housebreaking, and theft, and the passing of base money. The gang
robberies were seldom found out. In 1813 on account of the Bcareitj,
crime was unusually general. At that time so disturbed was thi
country that in the western districts long before sunset ploughs weB(
unyoked and wells deserted.'

In 1821 the district was orderly. There was no open violence^
murders were rare, and thefts much fewer than formerly. Bxcepl
the Kolis the people were not given to affrays, drinking or othei
forms of debauch.^ A few years later there was a serious distoA
ance among the Kolis. On the night of the 17th March 18S
Govindas Rdmdas with about 500 armed followers attacked th
town of Thfera with the object of driving out the British officer ai
establishing himself as ruler. His followers thought Govindis
saint and believed him endowed with supernatural powers. In 182
things were better, there were few cases of large plundering ganga
The population was generally quiet and crimes were few.* Two yeai
later (1830) the Kolis were again unsettled. Bands of disaSectai
vagrants wandered about, orderly cultivators were not protected, fei
travellers escaped without loss and in Sir John Malcolm's cad
though at a distance from the wilder tracts and guarded by villag

In the early years of British rule trdga cases were not uncommon. The foJknrll
are examples. In 1816 the Mdtar Bh&ts to prevent Government officers from b
snring their lands wonnded some of their number.— Ham. Des. I., 692. Id 1827
refusal to pay a quitrent on their lands the Bhdts' crops were attached. At Mahad)
an old woman threw herself into a well and at An&ra two women killed themadit
And three men wounded themselves severely.— Collector, 15th December 1SZ7.

Bam. Des., I., 693. > East India Papers, m., 690,

* Ciwuit Judge, 20th Aprill828.

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ffqjuit]

KAIRA.

121

watchmen u well as bj soldiers^ many thefts were safely committed.^
Though they have to a great extent settled as regular cultivators^
the Kolis are still a troublesome class. Mauy are bom and brought
up as thieves^ and the difficulty of tracing crime is increased by the
ready shelter given to criminals in the tract of rough country along
ike Mahi^ and in almost all the states that march with Kaira limits.
Besides^ of late years small hamlets sometimes as many as twenty to
a village have sprung np^ and in other parts the lower classes of
tillagers have begun to live in small huts in the fields. These
ehaages add much to the difficulty of keeping a watch on the criminal
ehsses. Agrarian crimes, thefts from fields in harvest time, the
bnrning of crops to pay off a private grudge, and the murder of
oppressive money-lenders* have of late years been rather common.
In 1872 several cases of poisoning occurred. Suspicions were aroused
ttd on the trial of one of the cases it came out that the poisonings
were the work of a gang of professional criminals. The leader was
eonvicted and hanged, and one of his accomplices transported for
hfe. Since then this form of crime is believed to have ceased.'

In the year 1877 the total strength of the district or regular
folice force was 754. Of these under the district Superintendent one
was a subordinate officer, 142 inferior subordinate officers, thirty-five

j Sir J. Maloolm*8 minata 15th October 1830 (Litho. Papen No. 148, 61.)
Kolis and Babiris or wandering shepherds, are the classes most given to burning
taSi Before burning the crop a warning is generally hung on some tree or near a
M, stating that unless the owner of a certain field takes care his crop will be burnt,
ne following are some of the more recent oases of attacks on money-lenders. In 1872
ko Yiais brothers of the town of Kaira obtained an order of attachment against the
pR>peH7 of a Koli of Parsitej, a village in the Mehmadabad sub-division, and while
WVM busy with his wife's funeral sold all his property. The brothers were warned,
m without effect. A few days after they paid another dunning visit to the tillage.
Nag they were riding home some of the villaeers followed them, dragged them from
pair horses, and killed them, throwing their bodies into the river. In 1873 a Brihman
PKnr of Borsad brought to the village of Asodar in the Borsad sub-division a decree
iiast three Koli brothers. On pretence of givin^^ him grass in satisfaction of his
jn, the brothers took bim to their field and setting upon him killed him. In 1874
Nctsee occurred. In the first in spite of his entreaties a Vinia sold the house and
Iftsr property of a Koli of Dh^ora m the Mdtar sub-division. In revenge the Koli
|Med ium dead. In the second a Vtoia of Nadiid bought a field from a woman of
■ Tillage, to whom it had been mortgaged by the holder, a KolL The Koli refused
fff^^ possession. Persisting in having the field planted with rice the Vdnia with a
■uman friend went to the place to see that the work went on. While there the
m. and some friends came up, attacked the strangers, and killed them both on the

In one case at the village of Sui in the Thisra sub-division, as a band of nine-
^ shepherds were sittine down to their evening meal, a man dressed as a Brdhmaa
■ed them to bring their flocks next day to manure his fields. J?he shepherds agreed,
n lisiog to go, the BhUiman offered them two sweetmeats sayine they were from
M temple of Ranchhodji at D&kor, and as some children had touched his clothes he
nlduot eat them. The shepherds took the sweetmeats, and after the Br&hman left
^ed and ate them. In a short time all sickened. Six died and the rest only
^▼ered after a long illness. Some months after a Musalm&n packman of Kaira was
f* two servants going from D&kor to Kaira. Kear Umreth they were joined by
^Hssalm&ns. After a meal cooked by the strangers, the two servants fell ill. One
id during the night, and the other somewhat recovered went on with his master and
f stiangezB to NadiAd. Next day after leaving Kadiid the^ ate some more of the
KUgers' food. That nisht two policemen commg from Kaira to Nadi&d found one
them dead and the other apparently mad and their eoods gjone. The strangers
n disappeared. Followed on camels, one of them was found in Baroda with the

jater part of the stolen proj
bthd trial one of them ooi
B W7-16

Tiie other was afterwards taken in Ahmedabad.
that he had poisoned the Sui shepherds.

Chapter Ht
Jii8tice«

Polioe.

Cost,
1877.

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[Bombay Qaietbeer,

132

DISTRICTS.

J 877,

Police*

•mounted police, and 575 constables. The cost of main taiBing this foroi
was as follows. The one European oflScer,the district Superintendeoli
received a total annual salary of £1080 (Rs. 10,800) ; the subcmEi.
nate officer, a yearly salary of not less than £120 (Rs. 12(M))m4
the inferior subordinate officers, yearly salaries of less thau il2)
(Rs. 1200) each, or a total yearly cost of £3419 16^. {Rs. U;
the pay of the mounted and foot police came to a total af £667(
(Rs. 66,760). Besides the pay of the officers and men, there was i
total annual sum of £366 (Rs. 3660) allowed for the horses mi
travelling expenses of the superior officers, £205 2js\ (Rs. 'Ml
annual pay and travelling allowance for their establish men ts^ aiK
£393 (Rs. 3930) a year for contingencies and other espensei,
making a total annual cost to Government for the district police <i
£12,139 188. (Rs. 1,21,399).

Taking 1600 square miles as the area of the district and 7S2JS3

as its population, the strength of the police of the Kaim district

one man to every 2*12 sqaare miles and 1038 souls. The cost

maintenance is equal to £7 lis. 9d. (Rs. 75-14) per square njile,

8Jd. (2 J as.) per head of the population. Of the total strength «

754, inclusive of the Superintendent, twenty-eight officers

twenty-four constables were in 1877 employed as guards at disi

central, or subsidiary jails; 109 men, nineteen officers and mm

constables, were engaged as guards over trecisuriesj lock^upsp or

escorts to prisoners and treasure; 531 men, 110 officers and

constables, were engaged on other duties ; and eightj-six meUj el<

officers and seventy-five constables, were stationed in towns

municipalities. Of the portion of the force on general police dutii

137, twenty-four head constables and 118 constables were empb

at twenty-seven police posts, thdnds, with on an average about tweli

villages to each post. It is the duty of these men to be constani

moving from one to another of the villages under their charge.

the whole number, exclusive of the district Superintendent, 301

provided with fire-arms and 452 with swords only, or with swoi

and batons ; 405, ninety-seven officers and 308 constables, coM

and write ; and 162, twenty-seven officers and 135 constable^j

under instruction during the year. With the exception of

European Superintendent, the members of the police force were

natives of India. Of these, seventy-eight officers and 295 constabl

were Musalmans, four officers and thirteen constables were Brakmi

sixteen officers and forty-four constables were Rajputs, eight offi<

and thirty-four cqpstables were Mar&thds, twenty-one officers and

constables were Kolis, fourteen officers and forty-one constables

Hindus of other castes, and two officers belonged to other reltgii

Subordinate to the district police there is the village watch,

under the names of rdvanids, rakhds, and pagis with a total strei>L

of about five for each village and a cost of £13 (Rs. 130)^ besidea

guides and messengers, act as village police. This force of

police is paid chiefly by the grant of land. Besides what they

from Government the village watch, nominally on the understanii

that they will make good any losses by theft, recover from vill

yearly sums varying from £5 to £30 (Rs. 50 -Rs. 300).

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KAIRA.

123

In 1877 of 261 persons accused of heinous crimes, 181 or 69*35 per
cent were convicted. Of 3884, the total number of persons accused
of crimes of all sorts, 2420 or 62*31 per cent were convicted. Of
11677 (Rs. 16,770) alleged to have been stolen, £1189 (Rs. 11,890)
or 70*86 per cent of the whole amount were recovered.

The following table gives the chief crime and police details of the
r leYen years ending 1877 :

||, Kaira Crime and Police, 1871-1877.

I-

Murder and attempt
to Murder.

TiAl.

mi
wt

Offbigis and PtrmsHMWiTS.

10 t 60 8
15 40 IS

16'
82-6

7 IS 10 88*88

30 Us 34

8 90 I 6

6 7
12 86 18 87-14

45*28
30"

OuIpabl»
Homicide.

Qrievons hart and

hurt by dangerons

weapons.

60-

76*

100

40*

5714

66*86

110

100*

5»

108

15*38

145

48
40
66
57
65
117

88*04

51-38

79*61

51*81

0018

80-69

Daooities and
Robberieii

29*68

50*

84*90

86*41

65*45

94*

73*00

flU.

Oimrois AND FmsnBMMim— continued.

Otber Oflbnoe*.

2701

as70

IS33
•1076
tUl
£118

4905
8891
8903
3420
3887
3879

1907
1588
1624
1370
1781
1614
2239

38*87
8939
8905
40-05
45*81
41^
61-79

Total.

1966
2813
2664
1949
3176
2236
3325

5180
4097
4055
3651
4081
4046
3884

1974
16i8
1698
15S»
1886
1728
2420

38*47
39-73
40*02
43-12
46*31
42-70
62-30

STOUDI PBOPBtTT.

£. t.

S921 4

8887
8661 14
1468 16
1943 12
1967 10
1677 18

£. »,

1818 U
1084 10
1878 12
996 10
1215 4
1030 6
1189 3

81 'or

37*90
88*70
68-6*
63-53
61*85
70*86

CSiapter IX
Jostioe;

Crime andi
1871-16

oUoo,

Little information of the comparative amount of crime at
.different periods since the introdaction of British rale has been
collected. The following is a summary of such details as are ayail-
*lle. The total number of offences committed during the five years
Riding 1849 was 15,757, representing an annual average of 3151,
trcm the basis of the census returns of 1846, one crime to every
179 inhabitants. Corresponding returns for the five years ending
1877 show a total of 11,250 offences giving a yearly average of 2250
crimesj or on the basis of the 1872 census returns one- crime to every
S47 iohabitants. A comparison of the returns would seem to show
|reat improvement in the matter of murder and culpable homicide.
i^liile population has increased since 1849, only ten cases of
fiimder and attempts to commit murder were on an average returned
^ year during the five years ending 1877 against twenty-four

Offences,
1845-1849

and
1873-1877.

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124

DISTRICTS.

Cautgtar IXr
Jvftioe.

Crime and police,
1845-1849.

daring tiie five years ending 1849^ and five against seven of ctdpable
homicide. Under the head of robberies including dacoities and
thefts of cattle, there is a most marked falling off, the yearly
averages for the two periods being 830 for the earlier and li^l for
the later. Besides these, the crime of arson not now shown as a
separate offence was very common. Daring the five years ending
1849, 871 cases or on an average 174 per year were recorded wi^
an estimated average annual destruction of property worth 2626
8s. (Bs. 6264).

The following is a statement of crime and police daring the five
years ending 1849 : —

Kaira Grimes, 1845-1849.

Y%UL.

Mnrdtf.

Homidde.

AXMll.

lfiie«Ili.
neoiu.

Totd
OfiBMI.

Bobbery,
lodndiiig

oattie.

thefts.

GMet.

dflttroyed.

«. •«

IBM

808

220

938 4

1982

1846

766

160

600

3040

1847

777

124

812

2250

1848

817

174

855 4

3078

tia

1840

' TbUl

982

198

866 14

3383

118

4150

871

8183 3

10,888

«;»

Kiura Police, 1846-1849.

X«iE.

ARMto.

Oonvlollont.

Fttoentage.

^ZS^

Pirop«5

—

£ B.

£ f.

1845

8190

9082

65-98

4017 14

1067 8

ji-fl

1840

...

44M

8133

69-52

8786 4

633 6

U-tf

1847

••• ••• •••

4881

8119

71*68

8762 14

831 li

13-M

184S

„

4161

3841

68-62

411i 4

493

ll-«

1840

Total ..."

8025

2362

8017

4587 16

925 6

80-lT

20,109

18^27

66-27

20,366 12

8619 IS

17« '

Jail.

Besides the accommodation provided for ander-trial pnaono^
at the headquarters of each sub-division, there is in the town
Kaira^ a jail able to hold ninety-two male and eight female pi

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CHAPTER X.

REVENUE AND FINANCE.

Thi earliest year for which a copy of the balance sheet of the
district is available is 1815-16. Since that time many changes have
been made in the way of keeping accounts. But, as far as possible^
tie different items have been brought under their corresponding
lieads of account according to the system at present in force. Exclusive
j cf 177,654 (Rs. 7,76,540) the adjustment on account of alienated
land, the total transactions that appear in the district balance sheet
ifcr 1875-76 amount to receipts £291,117 (Rs. 29,11,170) against
£194,251 (Es. 19,42,510) in 1815-16, and the charges to £286,154
.(fa. 28,61,540) in 1875-76 against £165,067 (Rs. 16,50,670) in
1815-16. Exclusive of departmental miscellaneous receipts and sums
Received in return for services rendered, such as the receipts of the
J08t and telegraph departments, the amount of revenue raised itt
^1875-76 under all heads, imperial and provincial services, local funds
indmuDicipal revenues, amounted to £260,547 (Rs. 26,05,470), or on
« population of 782,733 an incidence per head of 6«. 8cL As nq
'IBQSU8 details are available for 1815-16, corresponding information
ia that year cannot be given.

During the interval of sixty years, the following changes have taken
flace under the chief heads of receipts and charges :

land revenue receipts, forming 74*1 per cent of £260,547
(Bb. 26,06,470) the entire revenue of the district, have risen from
1156,844 (Rs. 15,63,440) in 1815-16 to £195,184 (Rs. 19,51,840) in
1875-76. The increase is for the mo'st pwt due to receipts from
|ie large additional area under cultivation. Another source of
"ease has been the larger amounts recovered since 1863 £rom
s^enated lands except service lands held by certc^n village and
riot officers. The land revenue charges show an advance from
112,696 to £25,398 (Rs. 1,26,960- Rs. 2,53,980). This, increased cost
in collecting the land revenue is partly due to a rise in the number
^d in the amount of both village and district officers' salaries, and is in
tfni the result of the change from hereditary to stipendiary officers.

The following statement ^ shows the land revenue collected in each
rfthe forty-five years ending 1877 :

Chapter X-

Eevenne and
Finance-

Balftnce eb^et,
1815aS76.

Land reTenne*

^FigOFee for the yean between 1833 and 1862 are taken from statement Ka IL iq
m. B^'b excise report dated let October 1869. Figores for aubeeqaent years ar«
fektt from the ann w x^portB*.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

OhapterX.

Beyenue and
Finance.

Land revenae.

Tribute*

Stamps.
BzciBe,
Transit dues.
JTuBtioe*

Foreat
^Luossod taxf^

Bombay QaiettMT,

126

DISTRICTS.

Kaira Land Revenue^ 1833-1877.

TlAE.

Land B«Tenae.

Ybae.

YlAE.

LudBcravt,

£.

1833-34 ...

118»439

1848-49 ...

143,028

1863-64 ...

174,058

1834-35 ...

104,502

1849-50 ...

152,241

1864-65 ...

192,065

183536 ...

196,505

1850-51 ...

151,145

1865-66 ...

190,m

1836-37 ...

153,105

1851-52 ...

154,713

1866-67 ...

191^

1837-38 ...

155,865

1862-53 ...

157,187

1867-68 ...

198,624

1838-39 ...

149,314

1863-54 ...

147,652

1868-69 ...

199,666

183940 ...

147,985

1854-55 ...

152,470

186970 ...

203,176

1840-41 ...

149,042

1855-56 ...

161,388

1870-71 ...

203,766

1841-42 ...

152,426

1866-57 ...

153,175

1871*72 ...

900,006

1842-43 ...

152,544

185758 ...

154,035

1872J3 ...

19S,&1S

1843.44 ...

152,109

1858-59 ...

155,909

1873-74 ...

1%J50

1844-45 ...

154,989

1859-60 ...

158,086

187M5 ...

m,i(n

1845-46 ...

150,661

1860-61 ...

166,632

1875-76 ...

192,312

1446-47 ...

153,135

1861-62 ...

163,147

1876-77 ...

m?38

1847-48 ...

153,995

1862-63 ...

160,664

1877-78 ...

193,M3

There is no separate head of Tribute. The sum of £2547 10«. 7jl
(Rs. 25,475-5-1) paid yearly as cash tribute by the Nawab of Camhf
under the treaty of Bassein (1802) and the Imperial share of cerUia
cesses are credited to Land Revenue.

Stamp receipts have risen from £2296 to £20,471 (Rs. 22,060-
Rs. 2,04,710); the expenditure of £574 (Rs. 5740) is a new charge.

Unlike the southern districts of Oujar&t, liquor is little
Excise receipts have risen from £1370 to £1790 (Rs. 15JOO-17,90fl)?

Transit dues in 1815-16 yielded £18,880 (Rs. 1,88,800) ; they toe
since been abolished.

Law and Justice receipts, chiefly fines, have risen from £389 t*
£1471 (Rs. 3890 - Rs. 14,710). The 1875-76 charges were £10,^
(Rs. 1,02,800) against £10,216 (Rs. 1,02,160) in 1815-1(3

There are no regular forests. The item £285 (Rs, 2850) repres^a
the rental of lands credited to the Forest Department.

The following table shows, exclusive of official salaries, the amoiml
realized from the diCFerent assessed taxes levied between 1800 ani
1873. Owing to their variety of rates and incidencei it is difficult ta
make any satisfactory comparison of the results.

Kaira Assessed Taaces, 1860-1872.

Ybab.

Income Tax^
1860-61 ...
1861-62 ...
1862-63 ...
1863-64 ...
1864-65 ...

LicmM Tax^
1867-68 ...

CerHficaU Tax.
1868-69 ... .

Income Tax^
1869

1869-70 ...
1870-71 ...
1871-72 ...
1872-73 ...

Jnoombs.

Below £50.

£.
180,323
194,901

117,480

18,03,230
19,49,010

11,74,800

Above £50.

£.
100,417
111,237
217,438
207,293
106,002

88,317

184,470

336,746
336,616
316,951

10,04,170
11,12,370
21,74,380

20.72,930
10,60,020

8,83,170

18,44,700

33,67,460
33,6b\160
31,69,510

7741
8342
3758
3011
3158

7"4l(^

2699

2fi,9»

1882

\%m

3557
1779
9443
3653

1340

35,57*
17.7'fl

36.530^

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fiiU'aritJ

KAIRA.

127

Customs and Salt receipts have fallen from £7442 to £7067
(Rs. 74,420-R8. 70,670). Under the existing system, revenue from the
sale of opium and the amount of the bid for the right to sell the drug
are credited to Customs, and the Government share in the Cambay salt
revenue to Salt. In 1815-16 both were credited to Customs.

Under allowances and assignments the fall in charges is due to the
seUIement of cash alienations.

Military charges in 1815-16 amounted to £52,379 (Rs. 5,23,790).
Owing to the removal of the military force from Eaira, only £77
(Rs. 770) on account of pensioners were in 1875-76 debited to this
lead.

Registration and Education are new heads.

Transfer receipts have risen from £6315 to £58,767 (Rs. 63,160-

88.5,87,670), and charges from £72,707 to £209,644 (Rs. 7,27,070-

Bs. 20,96,440). The increased receipts are due chiefly to receipts on

account of local funds, to remittances from other treasuries, to the

, amoont held as deposit on account of savings banks, and to the

I nooveiy of loans made to landed proprietors, thdkora. The increased

; d^es are due chiefly to a large surplus balance remitted to other

I treasuries^ and to the expenditure on account of local funds.

\ In the following balance sheets of 1815-16 and 1875-76, the
figares shown in black type on both sides of the 1875-76 balance
Aeet are book adjustments. On the receipt side the item £77,654
$^ 7,76,540) represents the additional revenue the district would
jield, had none of its land been given away. On the debit side the
iem £4090 (Rs. 40,900) under land revenue is the rental of the lands
Craoted to village headmen, except those engaged solely on police
ioties and to the village watch. The item £71,143 (Rs. 7,11,430)
tlader allowances and assignments represents the rental of the lands
jianted to district hereditary officers, to girdsias, and other non-service
claimants ; the item £2420 (Rs. 24,200) under police represents the
Kental of the lands granted to village headmen employed solely on
pob'ce duties. Cash allowances are, on the other hand, treated as
jtctual charges and debited to the different heads of account according
Ito the nature of the allowance. Thus cash grants to village headmen,
^pt those engaged solely on police duties and the village watch, are
^uded in £25,398 (Rs. 2,53,980), the total of land revenue charges ;
pAi grants to non-service claimants are included in £8493 (Rs. 84,930),
tte total of allowance and assignment charges; and cash grants
w "paiels employed solely on police duties are included in £13,690
(Ba. 1,36,900) the total of police charges.

Chapter X

Eevenne and
Finance.

AUowanjoeiv

MililMy*

K&giatmtion.

Bal&iLce fih««tf

1S15-1876.

^ The Kaira district treasary \
Mitt diitricta.

I able in 1875-76 to send £183,100 (Bs. 18,31,000) to

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128

DISTRICTS.

ReveEne and
Finance^

BaLizioe sheet,
181516-1875-76.

[Bomlifty Sazetteer,

Kmra Bdlam Skd

€li4U OF BlfiTTCl,

Imperial $erwi&*

No.

Btjunps ,

EkcIms ...
Trail*! t du«« ...
taw uDd jufltioe

Profit and Losa...
AeieBted taxes „.
MiweLluitiaui ...

louiauid«rraB»

Total

C^atOQU ...

Sail

PubHc work*

Military ...

Mtut

]^o*t

Tt4«giftp^

A^nncial Eervia.

Itomi of Ac-

ToUl

Kdiicutloa

police .„

Medical ..,

jAil.9

^Ic^ of boaka

Hi^OGlUiiuoiu

ToUl

DppTMdta and repaym^^nta of i^dvajioes adtI

loanB ,

fill I a and CMh reinittjui«a .,.

PeaHlon fund re<!«lp(a

LcKsU tubdJi ,,t N., ^

Total

Oittud Total

ISIMA.

159M^ B

3iBe it

I3T0 S

1S,8S0 19 I

SSa IS

1313

190,494 9 4

744a 10

T44S 10

im 10

mi 19

809 12

w^n.

ise^isi 1 1

7!M 1 f

^471 a T

17!M 1 f

31$ 13 I

41 e I

77 JH 1 »

781 4 i

11 U 4

I0,a3i I )

S4I £ 1

eet 6 1

to 9 1

S3M a 1

59T« IS W
K,4J0 1« I

4iiir i

S^»14 411

6»1K

lJM.aSl IS 4

M,767 U I

t»i,mit «
7T.W 1 »

B,Tn t •

Digitized by VofOOQlC

m*ii.}

EAIBA.

129

mt-lS ami WS-76.

1187-17

Obamm.

flMd.

IflU-lfl

isifi^m

«- t. d

£^ I. d.

ludreTOiiw

atop. ... «

Fonrt ..

Bzdse

Profit «ad km

Law and JTutloe

AUowBoosB and MiigmMiits

"toirtmlnal

13,606 10

*«iV7 1ft

j 10^15 19

ll,7i»0 it

3&,3Ii$ ft ft

4090 9 d

121 10 7

111 10

f 'a4J0 13 S
4dt)tf 4 a
B4}»3 ft a

n.m 11 11

1»7« Q U
"U B I

PoBiloBs to goTwnment Mrrantf

MteeUueoiM

Totid ...

Cnstonu

Salt

PnbMcworta

Military

Wnt

Port

TUesraph »

Total ...

Bttbtetka

Bduoation

PoUoe

SCedioal

JaUi

Cemeteries, office xcDta, ftc

Prtntingr

MbeeUaneoufl

OmiribaUon to looU fonda

PttbUework* -

Totel ...

Bint and eaah remfttanoes

Local fundi

fbtel ...
Orud Total ...

40 4

ujsm ft Q

*n,^>i 9 1

7&234 OU

11
u

j 2699 8

ii,sh 19

167 13

C 1& 1 7

t im 19 £

£7,220 i

77 8

40 1ft T

131ft 17 10

U,liS 1ft

tft^28 l§ 2

'ID

Jl
17

"s& e

7ftl in 11
lftD5 U 7

l^.e^^ 15 a

S130 OlO

m6 15 A

lOAH 9 a

1010 IE ft
9^ 12

ass

333 1 1
9{^ 3

iijo a ft

335 6

%m 10

»i 4
7»,ftT3 ft

UPSa 13 ft
17S.79ft 3 t

Iftl 7 ft

ts.sift ft in

7a,7ofl 10

lS9jft4« 6 11

28fl,1.S4 a 1
77,6fti 1

16^067 IS

S03,eO8 9 11

Chapter X.

B@^aiiiie and
Finajice*

ISiSae— 1876 76.

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[BomlNtyQaiettiNr.

ItO

DISTRICTS.

Cb&pter 1.

BeTeEua and
Fiaanca.

LocaJ Fonds,

FiDODdal

Beflxilts,
lSti3UB7$.

Reventte other than Imperial.

The district local funds collected since 1863 to promote rural
education and supply roads, water, drains, rest-houses, dispensaries,
and other useful objects amounted in the year 1877-78 to a total sum
of £20,340 (Rs. 2,03,400) and the expenditure to £22,772 (Rs. 2,27,720).
This revenue is drawn from three sources, a special cess of one-sixteenth
in addition to the ordinary land-tax, the proceeds of certain subordi-
nate local funds, and some miscellaneous items of revenue. The
special land cess, of which two-thirds are set apart as a road fund and
the rest as a school fund, yielded in 1877-78 a revenue of £16,498
(Rs, 1,64,980). Smaller funds including a ferry fund, a toll fund, a
cattle-pound fund, and a school fee-fund, yielded £1478 (Rs. 14,780).
Government and private subscriptions amounted to £1629 (Rs. 16,290),
and miscellaneous receipts including certain items of land revenue, to
£735 (Rs. 7350), or a total sum of £20,340 (Rs. 2,03,400). This
revenue is administered by committees composed partly of ofiScial and
partly of private members.

For administrative purposes the local funds of the district are divided
into two main sections, one set apart for public works and the
other for instruction. The receipts and disbursements during the
year 1877-78 under those two heads were as follows :
Kaira Local Funds, 1877-78,
PUBLIC WORKS.

Bkkptb.

EXPERDITUU.

Balance. Ist April 1877 ...
Two- thirds of the land ceMs

Tolls

Ferries

Cattle pounds

Travellera' rest houses . . .

Contributions

MisoeUaneous

£. a.

5082 11

10,999 4

165 10

10 12

569 18

28 4

624 2

79 16

Establishment

New works

Repairs

Medical charges

Miscellaneous

Balance, Ist April 1878...

Total ...

£. «.

2599 4
9681 8
1608 18
656 18
37) 19
264110

Total ..

17,559 17

17.559 17

INSTRUCTION.

Balance, 1st April 1877 ...
Oae-third of the land cess.

School fee fund

Contribution (Government)

Do. (private)
MiBcellaneouB

£. 8.

9908 2

5499 12

731 3

997 14

7 16

627 3

School charges

Scholarships

School houses, new

Do. repairs ...

Miscellaneous

Balance 1st April 1878...

Total ...

£. «.

5965 13
213 13
477 6
256 18
940 11

2917 10

Total ...

10,771 10

10.771 10

Since 1863 the following local fund works have been carried out.
To improve communication 100 miles of road have been made^ bridged,
and for forty-four miles planted with trees. To improve the water
supply 419 wells, 356 reservours and ponds, eight water courses and

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0id«it-3

KAIEA.

ISl

forty-seven troughs have been made or repaired. To help village
instruction forty-two schools, and for the comfort of travellers eighty
rest-houses and seventy^two village oflSces, chords, have been built.
Besides these works six dispensaries and 190 cattle pounds have
been constructed.

In 1877-78 there were five municipalities, all of them established
since 1857. The total municipal revenue in 1877-78 amounted to
£5356 (Rs. 63,560). Of this sum £2703 (Rs. 27,030) were recovered
from octroi dues, £431 (Rs. 4310) from a toll and wheel-tax, £464
(8b. 46*0J from a house-tax, and £1758 (Rs. 17,580) from miscella-
neoos sources. Under the provisions of the Bombay District
Municipal Act VI. of 1873 all these municipalities are town
municipalities administered by a body of commissioners with the
Collector as president and the assistant or deputy collector in charge of
the sub-division as vice president, the commissioners being chosen
in the proportion of at least two non-official to each official member.

The following statement gives for each municipality the receipts,

darges, and the incidence of taxation during the year endmg 31st

March 1878:—

Kaira Municipal Detaih, 1878.

Population.

BlCIIPTB.

OctroL

Honae-
tax.

Toll or
Whaeltaz^

MisoelU-
neoiUK

Tot»lj

Kibt

£C&" :::

Wkor

Bidiid

16th Feb. 1W7 ...
7th Hay 1868 ...
15th Aug. 1863 ...
20th June 1864 ...
16th May 1866 ...

Total ...

12.681

13.982

8065

7740

34,551

310
484

189
935
945.

464

"ii

887

168

188

1056

376

766

668

844

1981

160a

67,019

2703

464

481

1758

5356

Pftte.

BXPWrDITUBB.

lod.
denea

Iau,

Eatab-
lUhment

Safety.

Health.

Inatrno-

tiOB.

Conve-
nience.

Miaoel.
laneoua.

Tot*U

New
Worka

Be-
paira.

of
taxation

|ita ...

IMknr ...
HidMd ...

15th Feb. 1857 .
7th May 1863 .
16th Aog. 1868.
iOth Jane 1864.
16Ui May 1866^.

Total ...

109
71
30
64

180

178
159
67
170
890

964
364
343

555
764

49
10
81
81

£.

383

441

58
79
18
10
114

1042

733

764

413

3156

3088

1 3
11

10
6 1

1 8

894

964

3210

326

665

374

1179

6111

At present (1878) an establishment in; connection with the- Cotton
Frauds Act (Bombay Act IX. of 1 863) for preventing the adulteration
of cotton is, under the control of the Collector, maintained at a total
pearly cost of £180 (Rs. 1800). This charge is met from the cotton
Mprovement fund framed under the provisions of the Act. The
tttablishment consists of a sub-inspector drawing a monthly salary of
Hi (Ba 120), and a messenger on 18#« (Bs. 9) a month.

Chapter Z.

Bevenueasid
Finance.

Maniolpalitiet.

Cotton.

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loEtrtictiaii-

CowL

StaE

InitTuction.

FnTnU schciolu.

(Bombay

CHAPTER XI.

INSTI^UCTION.

In 1877-78 there were 190 Government schools, or on an averag
one school for every three inhabited villages, alienated as well i
Government, with 14,9^0 pnpils on the rolls and an average attendaiU
of 10,308 or 2-24 per cent of 407,818, the entire pi^ulation of i
more than twenty years of age;

Excluding superintendence charges, the total expenditnre
edacation on account of these 190 Government schools and of ti
Cambay private schools inspected by education officers, amoiinted
£7516 (Rs. 75,160). Of this £1492 (Rs. 14,920) were debited
Government and £6024 (Ra. 60,240) to local and other funds.

Under the Director of public instruction and the inspect
northern division the schooling of the district was conducti
by a local staff 430 strong ; of these one was a deputy inspecii
with general charge over all the schools of the district, drawii
yearly pay of £180 (Rs. 1800); two were assistant depo
inspectors entrusted with the examination of the vernacular schoi
in the Matar, Mehmadabad, A nand, and fiorsad sub-divisio]
drawing together yearly pay of £180 (Rs. 1800) ; and the
Were masters and assistant masters of schools with yearly salan
ranging from £240 to £2 8«. (Rs. 2400 to Rs. 24).

Of 190, the total number of Government schools, in 181 Guji
only was taught, and in six Urdu and Gujardti. Two ^
Anglo-vernacular schools teaching English and Gujarati. Odo
high school teaching English, Gujardti, and Sanskrit up to
standard required for the University entrance test examination.

In addition to the Government schools there were at Cambay

private vernacular boys' schools supported by private individuals

« 1 , .„^ school fees, and inspec

Pnvau SchooU, 1876. ^^ education officers.^

average attendance of pn
in these schools amoan
to 171 out of a roll-call
288 boys. Besides the
in Cambay there were
Kaira,^ as shown in
margin, sixty-one prit
schools teaching 2049 pa|
Some account of
teaching given in
schools wiQ be found
the Broach Statistical Account. (Bombay Gazetteer, II. 524.)

Sab-dlTision.

Sohools.

Pnpils.

Kapadvanj ...

Mitar

NadijW ...
A'nand
Bonad

11
8
7
3
7
13
12

528

228
838
34
160
525
241

otal ...

2049

1 In 1821 Mr. Blphiitttoiie found mori aohools thantatlie i>M)osD, tetobbocl

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EAIBA.

183

The following fignres show the increased means for learning to
read and write offered by Groyemment to the people during the last
twenty-eight years. The first two (Jovernment vernacular schools
were opened in 1826^ one of them at Kaira and the other at Nadi&d.
Four years later three more yernacular schools were started at
Hahndha, Eapadvanj^ and Umreth. During the next eighteen
years only two more vernacular schools were opened, one at
Mdtar in 1838 and the other at Mehmadabad in 1848. In
pi850-51 there were seven Government schools with 472 names
jOn the rolls or 01 4 per cent of 316,827, the total population
jOf not more than twenty years of age. In 1855-56 there were
seven Government schools and eighty-four private schools. At the
Government schools were 829 pupils ; at Kaira 102, at Kapadvanj
*'?Trixty-one, at Mahudha 103, at Mdtar ninety-five, at Mehmadabad
'5Bty-eight, at Nadiad 299, and at Umreth 111. Of the eighty-four
;**private schools with an esrtimated attendance of 6000 pupils, thirty,
%en only during the rains, were taught by Brahman youths,
diildren generally went first to a private school, learning to read
i write Gujarati, and gaining some knowledge of accounts. They
id a daily allowance i lb. of grain, a fee of |d. (three pies) on
ilidays, and at the time of leaving from 4«. to 1 Os. (Rs. 2-R8. 5). The
' ling at the Government schools, though little liked by the
lie was said to be better than in the private schools, the children
ling grammar, mathematics, geography, and history. Of
total male population of 325,755 souls only 63,108 could read and
Ite Gujardti. Brahmans and the poorer Vdnids, especially those
►nght up in towns, looking for their living to Government service,
were the best educated. Rich traders and money-lenders seldom
it their children to Government schools. Rajput and Koli land-
had shown themselves anxious to have their children taught.
^Though few of their sons tried to enter Government service, the
ihowledge that for the place of village manager men able to read
"tod write were preferred, made shareholders and heads of villages
^niions to teach their children. In some cases they had offered
nfc) supply a room and school furniture if Government gave a
^Baster. Tie Kolis, almost entirely illiterate, were doing little to
teach their children. They were seldom seen at Government
iools and, at private schools, numbered only forty-two out of the
•tal of 6000 pupils.

The first two Government English schools were started in 1856,
jteeat Nadidd and the other at Kaira. In 1865-66 the number of
Schools had risen to ninety-seven and the average attendance to
€262 pupils out of a roll-call of 9635 names or 1*64 per cent of
!I81,819, the total population of not more than twenty years of age.
The figures for 1877-78 were, as shown above, 190 schools with a

>u 1825 Biahop Heber found in most of the chief towns large schools where the
c^uldren of Hindu traders learnt writing, reading, accounts, and such portion of the
u,tantl religion as their caste was allow^ to receive. Kolis and Rajputs seldom sent
wir children to schouL— Heh. Xar. 11. 145. In 1826 the Collector found that out of
"ke hoots ike bldx'ks were teaching boys Enfl^ish and suggested to Goveiiuneht tlikkt
AM^cKd might be opened.— €2, 8th Sept. 1820.

Chapter XX.
IiLBtmctiolU

Progress,
1850-1878.

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[BomlMty

1S4

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XL
liutructioiL*

QkW lebooli.

Populftti&ti ible to
read Aiid wntci,

ftindnf.

^llh ft frtwmtiLiiM

Pinii.

total average attendance of 10^308 out of 14^930 names on the rolls or
2*42 per cent of 425^147^ the total population of not more than twenty
years of age. A comparison with the returns for 1850 gives
therefore for 1877-78 an increase in the number of schools from seven
to 190 ; while of 425^147^ the entire population of the district of not
more than twenty years of age, 2'42 per cent were under instruction
in 1877-78 against 014 per cent in 1850-51.^

Girls' schools have been introduced during the last twenty years.
Rising from four in 1865-66 to thirteen in 1873-74, they have again
(1877-78) fallen to ten. But the attendance has contined to
increase, the total number on the rolls rising from 309 inl865 to 517
in 1873 and 765 in 1878, and the average attendance from 162 in
1865 to 281 in 1873 and 405 in 1878.

The 1872 census returns give for each of the chief races of
the district the proportion of persons able to read and write :—

Of 143,485, the total Hindu male population not exceeding twelve
years, 9132 or 6*36 per cent; of 62,493 above twelve and not
exceeding twenty years, 7526 or 12*04 percent; and of 176,161
exceeding twenty years, 20,928 or 11 87 per cent were able toreai
and write or were being taught. Of 116,458, the total Hindi
female population not exceeding twelve years, 104 or 0*08 per cent;
of 48,184 above twelve and not exceeding twenty years, forty-siior
0*09 per cent; and of 164,837 exceeding twenty years, seventy*
six or 0*04 per cent were able to read and write or were "
taught.

Of 14,363, the total Musalm&n male population not exceeding
twelve years, 575 or 4 per cent ; of 5698 above twelve and nd
exceeding twenty years, 422 or 7*40 per cent; and of 16,72$
exceeding twenty years, 1178 or 7*04 per cent, were able to red
and write or were being taught Of 11,783, the total Musalmit
female population not exceeding twelve years, three or 002 per
cent ; of 5155 above twelve and not exceeding twenty years, sixteet
or 0*31 per cent; and of 17,014 exceeding twenty years, thirty
three or 0'19 per cent, were able to read and write or were beinf
taught.

Of seventeen, the total Pdrsi male population not exceeding twel
years, eight or 47*05 per cent ; of six above twelve and not exceed
ing twenty years, six or cent per cent ; and of eighteen exceedini
twenty years, seventeen or 94*44 per cent, were able to read anl
write or were being taught. Of fifteen the total Pdrsi femalfli
population not exceeding twelve years, six or 40 per cent ; and ol
twelve exceeding twenty years, five or 41*66 per cent, were able to
read and write or were being taught.

1 In the cengns of 1846 the total population of the distriet was retozned il
666,513 souls, and in that of 1872 at 782,733, of whom persons not exceeding twefl^
years of age numbered 407,818. On the basis of these figures, the totals of popoli^
tion not more than twenty years of aae for 1851, 1856, 1866, and 1876 hsTe oeei
calculated. Details of priyate schooLi are available only for 1875-76 sod bftfi
therefore been left out

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a^iaiAtl

KAIRA.

185

VUIM,

1665-W.

Per-

oent.

1877-78.

Per-
oent.

Inorecse

Hiodos ..
Nab ..

9048
661
87

I'M
083

18,828

1890

174

)-88
23-87

0-89

1-06

-4514

M36

1-81

14,930

1-76

0-46

Before the year 1865-66 there were no returns arranging ths

in the margin shows that
of the three chief races o£
the district, the Pdrsis hav©
the largest proportion of
their boys and girls under
instruction. Since 1865 a
considerable advance lias
been madeby the Musalm^ns.
Of 765 the total number of girls enrolled in 1877-78 in the ten girla'
schools, 731 or 95*56 per cent were Hindus; thirty or 3'92 per cent
were Musalm^ns ; and four or 0*52 per cent were Parsis.

Of 13,168, the total number of pupils in Government schools at
flieendof December 1877, 2976 or 22*60 per cent were Brdhmans 5
8fty or 0*38 per cent writers, forty-two Kshatris, six Kayastha,
Imd two Parbhusj 2747 or 20*86 per cent traders and shop-
leepers, 1942 V&iias, 605 Shrdvaks, tlurty-nine Bhdtias, and
fl61 Luhinas; 4698 or 35*67 per cent cultivators, 3763 Kanbis,
J46 Rajputs, 140 Kdchhids, thirty-one Malis, and 518 Kolis ; 81 1 or
1*16 per cent craftsmen, 134 Bhavsars, calicoprinters, twenty-one
^hatris, weavers, fifteen Ghanchis, oil pressors, 141 Sonis, gold and
Mver smiths, 212 Suthars, carpenters, thirty-four Kansarfa, coppor-
fciiths, 105 Luhdrs, blacksmiths, seven Kadiyas, bricklayers, twa
** ftts, masons, fifty-seven Darjis, tailors, and eighty-three Kumbhirg,
otters; 190 or 1*44 per cent bards and genealogists, 183 Bhata
idseven Chirans; 179 or 1*36 per cent servants, 162 Hajdme,
bers, fifteen Dhobhis, washermen, and two Bhistis, water drawers ;
iven or 0*8 per cent, Babaris, shepherds ; twenty-four or 0*18 per
t Bhois and Mdchhis, fishers and labourers ; eighty- seven or
per cent, labourers and miscellaneous workers, twenty-four
, ricepounders, twenty-one Kalals, liquor sellers, thirty-four
iyalias, cotton tapemakers, five Vdghris, fowlers and hunters, and
M^rvadis ; forty-four or 0*33 per cent Mochis, shoemakers j
hty-six or 0*65 per cent religious beggars, thirty Vairigia,
►rtjr-seven Gosdis, and nine Sddhus; eighteen or 0*13 ner cent
is; and 1245 or 9*45 per cent MusalmAns. No Dhed or
boys attended the Government schools.

, The following table, prepared from special returns furnished by the
pdncation department, shows in detaU the number of schools and
papils with tneir cost to Government.

€liftpt«r XL
Instructiott.

1 The cenfTis of 1846 gives 514,558 Hindus, 51,938 Mnsalmins, and soven Pirsia.
becenaas of 1872 gives 711,619 Hindus, 70,741 Musalmins, and sixty-eight P^rsi^,
pi the basis of these figoresi the population and percentage figures for 1866 and 1S7S
■Te been calculated.

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1S8

[Bombay (fcnHw

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XI
Instrmctioa.

Bi'im

'W-9981

MilWl

25:88 r:

•4000 ^

•9L'U9l

-91-1191

-09-9981

•8«981

'99- 598 1

•99-«S8I

-91-1191

99-9981

'99-9981

29SS S

'9L-Lt9l

-99-9981

Si S

*99'99d[

8£-£I8l

•99-9981

-SS'* "^

n, J

•8MI81

'99-9981

"99-9981

*u-u.n

•^'^mx

•SMiSI

99'««ei

: 2

*" i : S

:l^

:| i

s
^

^ asm e<4 t«- «

^ « C5

a f

p^ > X :^

it 3.

ill 1

Digitized by VjOOQIC

Aijttit-]

KAIRA.

187

u-un

-M-SM1

•••'g'"

* -s

98-9991 *« : : :

-W-^ttl

SLLHl

'99-8981

<t !

•8Z-iXBT

99-9981

-99-9981

•99-998!

'8X-1M1

^im «

<« :

01 sssga

99-9981

8i-:Z8I

'98-9981

"99-9981

•9L1191

•99-9981

-99-9981

^ iSS

:S3

511

^ m

:2S

Ot : :S

» 167-18

mi ?

n-im

w-mn

ts-jswi

'81-IZ81

'99-9981

'09-9981

•81-1181

•« :8

: :S

^ «^52

190-9981

•=Si

•99-9981

•8I-U81

^99-9981

99^981

•9Z-U81

•00-9981

09-9981

•81-4181

"80-9961

'99i)981

* :5S

:§: :

•I :

^^11 I.

|5S
w<3 f

Cliapter XI.

lEetruction.

School a,
1805^1873.

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[BomlMiy QtaettBcri

fSiapter ZI.
IngtmctioiL^

Town education,

1877-7a

•Village education.

138

DISTRICTS.

A comparison of the present (1877-78) provision for teaching tihe
district town and country population gives the following results.

In the town of Kapadvanj there were in 1877-78 three Government
vernacular schools with^ out of 452 names on the roUs^ an average
attendance of 366 pupils. Of these schools two were for boys
and one for girls ; the yearly cost for each pupil in the boys'
schools was lis. (Rs. 5^)^ and in the girls' school ISs. (Us. 6|). In
the town of Kaira there were in 1877-78 four Government schools
with^ out of 472 names on the roUs^ an average attendance of SSS
pupils. Of these schools one was an Anglo- vernacular, one an Urdu,
and two were Gnjarati schools, one for boys and the oth» far
girls. The yearly cost for each pupil was £5 Is. (Rs. 50^) in the
Anglo-vernacular, £2 2«. (Rs. 21) in the girls', and from 14». to Ife
(Rs. 7-Rs. 8) in the other schools. In the town of Nadiad there were
in 1877-78 eight Government schools with, out of 1481 names on the
rolls, an average attendance of 1039 pupils. Of these schools one was a
High school, one an Anglo-vernacular school, four were Gnjarati boys'
schools, one a Gujardti girls' school and one an Urdu school. The
yearly cost for each pupil in the high school was £9 lis. (Rs. 95 J);
in the Anglo-vemaculor school, £3 4«. (Els. 32) ; in the girls' school,
£1 4*. (Rs. 12) ; in the rest it varied from 4«. to 18s. (Rs. 2-Bs. 9).
The number of pupils that passed their University entrance teskj
examination from the Nadi&d high school was seven in 1873, three ji
1874, four in 1875, five in 1876, and three in 1877. In the town
of Mahudha there were in the year 1877-78 five Government achoob
with, out of 626 names on the rolls, an average attendance of 431
pupils. Of these one was an Urdu school, and four were Gujanfc
schools, three for boys and one for girls. The yearly cost for etS
pupil varied from lOs. to £1 13«. (Rs. 5-Rs. 16J). In the town (I
Umreth there were in 1877-78 five Government schools with, out 4
739 names on the rolls, an average attendance of 538 pupils. QE
these schools four were Gujardti schools, three for boys and one f(*
girls, and one was an Urdu school. The yearly cost for each pnp3
was £1 7s. (Rs. 13|) in the girls', and 19*. (Rs. 9i) in the Urdu school}
in the rest it varied from 6». to 13«. (Rs. 3-Rs. 6^). In the town ol
Borsad there were in 1877-78 three vernacular schools, two for boyi^
and one for girls with, out of 385 names on the rolls, an aven^
attendance of 270 pupils. The yearly cost for each pupil amountej
to 128. (Rs. 6).

Exclusive of these six towns the district of Kaira was In 1877-78
provided with 158 Government vernacular schools, or on an average
one school for every 3*44 inhabited villages. The following state-
ment shows the distribution of these schools by sub-divisions :—

Kaira, Village Schools, 1877-78.

Stn-DimioM.

VlLl«Afl».

FOPULATIOH.

VniTACULAR
Schools.

SuB^DiyxBiOH.

VOIiAGBB.

POPUIiAnOH-

Vbmofus

SCBOOU.

Boys.

18
17
27

Girls.

BOfK

SO
23
29

GMk

Mehmadabad.

85
100
69
91

72,760

a5.601

73,073

117,648

Mfttar

A'nand

Bonad

83
78
89

78.673
18.S998
182,814

679

«?1«7.,

]»

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0q*flrttl

KAIRA.

139

In the Eaira district there is one library in tlie town of Kaira
known as the "Hadow Institute/^ It "was establi.-bed in October
1863 by Mr. Hadow, then Collector of Kaira. iSupported partly by
private subscriptions and partly by a contribution from the Kaira
municipality, this library contains 1552 Tolames and a reading
room supplied with fonr English and seven vernacukr papers.
There are at present (1877-78) forty-six anbscribers. The total
amount realized during the year 1877-78 was £51 (Rs. 510) and the
wpenditure £55 (Rs. 550).

Besides the library in the town of Kairaj thoro are as shown
bdow in different parts of the district twelve reading rooms :—

Kaira Beading Booms, 1S^7'7S,

Nbwb.

Niwft-

PAPSX8.

fAPlRH. ,

Bra-DiFwos.

TOWVOR
YlLLAOI.

Books

SUB-DIVIfilON.

Bocil.

BngJ

Gnia-

Enjf'

GuU-

Uah.

r4tL

lUb.

Thti,

i.ga^j...

Kapadvanj...

601

Nadidd

Mahudha ...

444

Kathlil ...

...

Mehmadabad

M«>Iinmdabad

7 1

376

Tbksn ...

Thtoa ...

A'nand „.

A'tiitnd

!-■

•tidiid Z

Dikor

292

A'nand

Nipad

Nadiid ...

644

A'nand

Umreth

3*22

ITadiad ...

Moholel ...

...

Boniad

Viraad ...

...

In 1874 the district supported four local Gujarati newspapers, the

Niti Prakdsh or Moral Luminary, of eighteen years^ standing ;

le Kaira Vartmin or News, of fourteen years ; the Nadiad Duniddad

World Redresser^ of about three years^ standing ; and the

aHudha ' Adal Insif ' or Pure Justice. Only two of these papers,

ographed weeklies their articles chiefly borrowed, the Kaira

artmdn with a circulation of 153 and the Niti Prakaah of 115

tjtt)pie8 are still (1878) in existenca

CSiapterXI.

Instructioiu

Librajry,
1877-78.

RaadiEig roomA^
1S77-78.

Newspapers

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bombay OwttNTi

CHAPTER XII.

HEALTH.

Chapter TTL Thi prevailing disease is malarious fever. This form of sicknni

Eeidih. generally makes its appearance soon after the beginning of the niiot

(Jane- July). Fever cases increase in number and severity fronidN
DiMaaea. latter part of September through October into the early days of

November^ when as the climate grows drier and colder the disean
gradually disappears. Early in this century Kaira was considered
one of the healthiest places in Gujar&t, and partly for this reason «
large body of European troops was stationed there. But sevenl
seasons between 1820 and 1830 were marked by severe epidemio^
and the troops especially the European cavaliy suffered teriil^
So great was the mortality that Kaira ceased to be used as a luge
miUtary station. Of late years^ apparently without any special caoM
unless the drainage of the lands to the south and west of Eairabat
changed the character of the prevailing breeze^ the climate has agsiiK
improved and Kaira is not now considered so trying to Europeol
constitutions as several other Gujarit stations. The different fontti
of skin disease and ear-ache are^ especially among children^ vei^
common complaints. For many years no severe epidemic risitet
Kaira. But in the month of April 1876 a serious outbreak otj
cholera occurred. In the town of Nadiad alone 905 persons wMj
attacked. The disease came to Nadi&d from Baroda. At first of ^
very mild type, it afterwards became more deadly. FromNadiii
cholera gradually spread over almost the whole district^ working on
the whole from north to south or against the prevailing wind,
outbreaks were^ as a rule^ found to have followed some great
feast or other occasion of unusual indulgence. The disease contini
throughout the hot season (March- June) gradually disappearing
the first fall of rain. Of 4973 persons attacked^ about one-1
or 2'11 per thousand of the total population died.

Hospitals. In the year 1877 there were in the district of Kaira^ besides ft^

civil and police hospitals^ six dispensaries all established since I86&i
During the year 1877, 59,828 persons were treated in Hm^
hospitals and dispensaries, of whom 1429 were in-door and b1,S0\
out-door patients. All these institutions are provided with special !
buildings. The total amount spent in checking disease in 1877'
was £2036 (Rs. 20,360) ; of this £1176 (Rs. 11,760) were paid from
provincial revenues, £397 (Rs. 8970) from local and £463 (Rs. iSSOj
from municipal funds. The following working details are takea
from the 1877 hospital reports.

The Kaira civil hospital has a building of its own, raised in 1871
at a cost of £2948 (Rs. 29,480), met partly from Kaira municipJ w*

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outfit]

KAIRA.

141

partly from local funds. Of in-patienta the total treated numbered 474. Chapter XIL
Of these 420 were cored^ twenty-three left, eleven died, and twenty Health*

remained nader treatment at the end of the year. The total attendance
of oat» patients was 6341, era falling off on the returns of the preceding
year of nearly 8000. The average daily sick for in and out-patients
was 14*3 and 54*6 respectively. The chief causes of sickness were
ague, syphilis, bowel diseases, ulcers, akin affections and injuries.
Ilie total number of patients treated in the police hospital was 153.

The Mehmadabad dispensary was opened in 1871. The total Dispensmest

Inated was 10,306, of whom 193 were in-patients, an increase on

tte year before of twenty-four. The chief diseases were eye and

ikm affections, ulcers, malarious fevers, rheumatism and diarrhoea.

lEhe Nadi^ dispensary was opened in 1866. Including 133

[ ift-patients the total treated numbered 14,241, an increase on the year

r Wore of nearly 1 300. The principal causes of sickness were malarious

^ fcvere, eye and skin diseases, rheumatism, and venereal affections.

Ae Borsad dispensary was opened in 1867. The total treated was

;W52 including^ 196 in-patients, an increase of nearly 1800 on the

. ywr before. The prevailing maladies were fevers, eye and skin

^•tfseases, and ulcers. The Mahudha dispensary in the Nadi^

j^wb-division was opened in 1 869. The total treated numbered 5551, of

|thom forty-seven were in-patients. The chief diseases were fevers,

N^e and skin affections, and ulcers. The Ddkor dispensary in the

[JWara sub-division was opened in 1866. The total treated numbered

"", ofwhom 145 were in-patients or more than 1300 less than in

year before. The chief diseases were fevers, cholera, syphilis, and

and skin affections. The Kapadvanj dispensary was opened in

6. The total treated was 9011, of whom eighty-eight were

patients, or 2100 more than in the year before. The principal

were malarious fevers, eye and skin affections, and ulcers.

In 1877-78 the work of vaccination was, under the supervision Vaccination.
the deputy sanitary commissioner in eastern Gujar&t, carried on
nine vaccinators, with yearly salaries varying from £16 16^.
£28 16^. (Bs. 168- Rs. 288.) Of the operators eight were
•ributed over the rural parts of the district, one for each
nb-division. The duties of the ninth vaccinator were confined to the
wn of Nadi&d. Exclusive of 614 re- vaccinations the total number
H operations performed in the year amounted to 23,437^
iDttpured with 25,035 primary vaccinations in 1869-70.

'^The following abstract shows the chief points of interest connected
IqUi the age and the race of the persons vaccinated : —

Kaira, Vaecinaiion Detaiis, 1869-70.

NUMUDl TAOCIXAnO.

Bex.

Religion.

Ag^

lui.

ICale.

Female.

ffffdlW.

MUMl-

PAniB.

Christi-
ana.

Othen.

Under
one
year.

Above
one
year.

Total.

t^z :::

1S,71»0

11,245
10,496

90,738
19.271

M07
2477

1
6

6
35

1960
1658

19,742
15,268

5298
8174

25,085
28.437

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Chapter Xn*
Hefath.
Cost.

Vital statistics.
1871-78.

[Bombay Gaiettier,,

142

DISTRICTS.

The total cost of these operations was in 1877-78 £523 2#.
(Bs. 5231)^ or about b^d. (3§ as.) for each successfnl case. The
entire charge was made up of the following items ; supervision and
inspection £245 IBs. (Bs. 2459), establishment £252 (Bs. 2520); and
contingencies £25 4*. (Bs. 252). Of these, the supervising and
inspecting charges ajid 128. (Bs. 6) on account of contingencies were
wholly met from Government provincial funds. Of the remainder,
the expense of £250 (Bs. 2500) was borne by the local funds, while
in Nadidd the municipality paid the sum of £26 Ss, (Bs. 264) for the
services of the town vaccinator.

The total number of deaths in the seven years ending 1878, as
shown in the Sanitary Commissioner's annual reports is 139,542, or
an average yearly mortality of 19,934, or assuming the figares of the
census of 1872 as a basis, of 2*55 per cent of the total population.
Of the average number of deaths 15,078 or 75*64 per cent were
returned as due to fever; 2022 or 10*14 per cent to bowel
complaints; 751 or 3*73 per cent to cholera; 492 or 2*47 per cent to
small-pox ; and 1289 or 6*47 per cent to miscellaneous diseases.
Deaths from violence or accidents averaged 302 or 1*52 percent
of the average mortality of the district. During the same period
the number of births is returned at 115,530 souls, of whom 62,739
are entered as male and 52,791 as female children^ or an average
yearly birth rate of 16,504 souls ; or, on the basis of the census
figures, a birth rate of 2*11 per cent of the entire population of the
district.^

1 The figures are incorrect, for while the population of the district is increaiiBf
the returns show a hirth rate less by 3430 than the death rate. The explanstiot
probably is that nearly all the deaths, and not nearly all of the birtiu iM
recorded.

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Biyarilt

CHAPTER XIII.

SUB-DIVISIONS.

^ Eapadvanj Sub-division.— The Kapadvanj sub-division, an
irregular oblong figure about fifteen miles from north to south and
thirty from east to west, is bounded on the north by the Atarsumba
Bub-division of Baroda territory and by portions of the Mahi
Kanthaj on the east by the Baldsinor state; on the south and south-
west by the Thasra, Nadiad, and Mehmadabad sub-divisions of the
Kaira district ; and on the west by the Daskroi sub-division of
Almiedabad. The total area is 279 square miles, and the population,
according to the census of 1872, 86,742 souls, or an average density
rf 31 0*90 to the square mile. In 1876-77 the realizable land revenue
amounted to £14,621 (Rs. 1,46,210).

Of the total area of 279 square miles, 11 are occupied by
the lands of alienated and unsettled, mehvdsy villages. The
remainder, according to the revenue survey returns, contains 128,178
acres or 74*59 percent, of occupied land; 19,696 acres or 1146 per
cent, of culturable waste; 15,059 acres or 876 per cent, of uncultur-
rtle waste ; 3624 acres or 2*10 per cent, of grass lands; and 5276
icres or 3*07 per cent, of roads, river beds, ponds and village sites,
ftom 147,874 acres, 43,681 have to be taken on account of
i alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 104,193
wres, the actual area of culturable Government land, 63,733 or
^M7 per cent were in 1876-77 under tillage.

For the miost part, especially towards the south and west,

Kapadvanj is a rich, highly cultivated plain, well clothed with trees.

I But towanis the north and east and to some extent in the south-east,

are tracts of waste, mdl, land roughened by streams and water

courses and covered with brushwood.

The climate is generally healthy and in the hot season cooler
I than in most of the surrounding districts, with a well distributed
^^ainfall of about twenty-five inches.

Except the Mohar, which flowing southwards to join the Shedhi
passes almost through the centre of the sub-division, and the Vdtrak
m the west, Kapadvanj is almost entirely without streams. Like
several of the smaller Gujardt rivers the water of the Mohar is
I charged with soda, and though useful for domestic purposes, is of
110 service for irrigation except to a small extent in watering wheat.
I The water supply is scanty. The storage in reservoirs is insufficient
for irrigation, and the wells do not yield more than is wanted for
use. The 1876 water-supply figures were 36 wells with

Chapter Xin.
Bub-divisioEB.

Aiem*

Aflpeol,

Clm&t&

Water,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

Chapter Xm.
8iib-diviflioni«

Kapadvanj.

Bental,
1864.

Stock,
1876-77.

Holdings.

[Bombay Gmtteer,

144

DISTRICTS.

steps, 1006 wells without steps, 36 water lifts, dhehudisj 570 ponda
or reservoirs, and 96 rivers, streams, and springs.

Varying in texture from sand to mould, the soil is over the greater
part of the area, of the light, gardflUy class. It wants constant
dressing, but when well tilled yields a good return.

The following statement shows the arable area in Governmeit
villages, and the rates fixed in 1 863-64 : —

Kapadvanj Se

jU^rt^Uf

i^ej-€*

Labo.

Oomrma.

VXQCCl'tiVD.

TOTAk 1

Acf«i.

Bap««
Awef»'

meut.

ATcrmfB

Ac™,

27
150

Eupee

ATcrmge

Arramte
lU,a.p.

ACTtt.

Af«eslr

|i!

Dry aiwp „.
(Hrden
Riw

Total,.

Dry^frop ...
Omrdflii

Mm ..,

Totfcl,..

Dry crop „.
0mrdei]

Bloa

QTaad IViUl .

1,00.738

t 4 10 1

a fi u

3 10 i

ISpMl
»60

15 a

1 14 3
S 4 11

96,931
£2^

1,19,S«
t64£

l£,Wl'

3 ( i

1 »n

94,497

lJO.lli

1 fl 9

i9jm«

i9,«*a

IS XI

lot, 1 9.

J I,40,O7t

1 £ 1

IS!

31148

MM
fi«93

1 9 4
S 7 ft

» n 6

■■"

Z ,

14B-
5e4j

1 %%jm

I S 1

3 : i

7U J

43,6S1

T6,0«0

] U 10

...

43,es

I 7fl.060

MMI

Wfll.77ft
24,07 B

1 i

3 7 3
a 10 7

itpfiia

1A6

J9,S41
3fl0

IS 9

1 14 3
3 4 11

Ifi 11

lS5,4ft.

1 i.ei,w7

3 9771
1 »&,^^

3 411 f

lUMB

l,96.4Ta

1 a 6

19,«W

i0,a£S

147.Sri

1 3.ie,iw

■

AsBeiismtnit on GoTemment and ali^Bat^d I«iid >..
Deducl — Ali&aAtioiis .., **

Bi. a. p,

2,16,129 15
76^060 2

21,612 19 11
7606 d S

Remains
Add — Quitronta
ti — ^Grazing farms and river-bed tillage

1M069 11

39,373 15 2

7124 10 2

14.006 1<> 4|
3937 7 ID

712 a sj

Total revcnno ..,

l,8d,56d 4 4

18,656 16 6i

till

T
wer
944.
380

he rates
1891-92,

he 1872

s in J 876-
2 ploughs,
horses, 7*

of afia(

popnl
77 su]
2809
U9ah

^ssmei

ation,
Dplied
carts,
eep ai

it intrc

86,745
with 1(
20,570
id goatj

dnce

! SOI
)42i
Dxen
3,53

in ]
s lo

llSfl

14,4<

asse

1863-C

dged
nd57
)6 cow
s, and

»4 rei

in 2
Opon
rs, 17

6cai

nain in ioTt9

4,770 houief
ds, and ownd
,249 bTiffflloc«
nelSp

In 1863-64, the year of settlement, 13,383 holdings, kJi

were recorded, with an average area of 9|§ acres, and a rent
£1 13s* 10 id. (Rs, 11-15-0), Equally divided among the agricdti]
population these holdings would, for each person, represent
allotment of 2|^ acres at a yearly rent of 6^, 10|tf. (Rs. 3-6-111
If distributed among the whole population of the sub -division, ill

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eijar&i]

KAIRA.

UT:

Blare per head would amount to If^ acres^ and the incidence of the
land tax to 4*. 5\d. (Rs. 2-3-6).

In 1876-77, of 63,733 acres, the total area of cultivated land,
4718 or 7*40 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the
remaining 59,015 acres, 8826 were twice cropped. Of the 62,841
acres under actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 55,650
or 88'55 per cent, 27,779 of them under bdjri, Penicillaria
spicata; 8513 under rice, ddngar, Oryza sativa,- 6656 under juvdr,
Sorghum vulgare; 5794 under havta, Panicum frumentacenm ;
4S65 under kodra, Paspalum scrobiculatnm ; 2128 under wheat, ghau,
Triticmn sBstivum; and 515 under miscellaneous cereals compris-

E\mg barlej, jav, Hordeum hexastichon ; maize, maJcdi, Zea mays ;
^garo, Amarantus paniculatus; and kdng, Panicum italicum.
[Piilses occupied 6111 ctcres or 9*72 per cent, 2000 of them under
A, Phaseolus aconitifolius ; 2000 under gram, chana, Cicer arieti-
1 ; 1000 under magy Phaseolus radiatus ; 400 under adad, Phaseo-
mungo; 300 under turner, Gajanus indicus ; and 411 under miscel-
weous pulses comprising guvdr, Cyamopsis psoralioides ; chola,
Rgna cakiang ; and vdl, Dolichos lablab. Oil seeds occupied 471
Msres or 0*75 per cent, 216 of them under tal, Sesamum indicum;
id 255 under other oil seeds, details of which are not available.
SBbres occupied 98 acres or 0-15 per cent, 93 of them under cotton,
^, Gossypium herbaceum ; and 5 under Bombay hemp, san,
Jrotalaria juncea. Miscellaneous crops occupied 511 acres or 0*81
ler cent, 67 of them under tobacco, tamhdhu, Nicotiana tabacum ;
id 444 under miscellaneous vegetables and fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 86,742
wis, 78,250 or 9021 per cent, Hindus; 8485 or 978 per cent,
Cnsahnans ; and seven under the head ^ Others.' Statistics specially
lepared from the enumerators' forms give the following caste
•tails: 5750 Brdhmans ; 7 Parbhus; 3557 Vanids; 489 Shravaks
Bhatias; 7708Kanbi8; 1475 Rajputs; 270 Kachhids; 59 Malis
^8 fihavs4rs, calicoprinters ; 392 Sonis, gold and silver smiths
■"Sathfrs, carpenters ; 27 Kansiris, brass and copper smiths ; 791
'>r8, blacksmiths ; 283 Darjis, tailors ; 3 SaUts, masons ; 256
ans, bards and genealogists; 10 Gandhraps, songsters; 1054
imbhirs, potters ; 1069 Hajdms, barbers ; 63 Dhobhis, washermen ;
fihistis, water drawers ; 198 Bharvdds, herdsmen; 1028 Rabaris,
herds; 882 Bhois, fishers and labourers ; 50 Golds, ricepounders;
hddbhujas, grainparchers ; llMar&thds; 279 Vaghria, fowlers
hunters; 1132 Rdvalias, cotton tapemakers; 41,869 Kolis; 405
is, shoemakers; 1152 Chamadias, tanners; 232 Mdrvddis ; 36
diggers ; 18 Bajdnias, acrobats; 24 Kaldls, liquor sellers; 26
'tojaras, grain carriers ; 607 Sindhvds ; 52 Turis ; 3413 Dheds ; 274
idSs; 1402 Bhangids and 202 religious beggars. As regards
ipation the same return arranges the population under the seven
wing classes : i. Employed under Government or municipal or
local authorities, 373. ii. Professional persons, 452. iii. In
or performing personal offices, 974. iv. Engaged in agricul-
aad with animals, {a) cultivators 16,780 (6) labourers 595, total
',375. V. Engaged in commerce and trade, 826. vi. Employed
» 167-19

Chapter XITI

Sub-diTisioni.

Kapadvant.

ProduM.

People,
1872.

Digitized by CjOOQIC

[Bombay Gaietteer,

Chaptar^Xm.
Bub-divisions.

Health.

Tha'sra.

Are*.

Aipeoi.

Climate.

Water.

146"

DISTRICTS.

in mechanical arts, mannf actnres, and engineering operations, and
engaged in the sale of articles manufactured or otherwise prepared
for consumption, 7165. vii. Miscellaneous persons not classed
otherwise, (a) women 24,298, and children 34,685, hi ail oc.i^oo;
and (6) miscellaneous persons, 594 ; total 59,577.

The total number of deaths registered in the five years endm|
1874-75 was 8001, or an average yearly mortality of 1000, or oniiid
basis of the 1872 census figures 1*84 per cent of 86^742, the tcial
population of the sub-division. Of the average number ol deri! ^
1331 or 83" 18 per cent were returned as due to fevir ; 31 oi 1 ^
per cent, to diarrhoea and dysentery ; 34 or 2*12 per oenr, to small-
pox ; 42 or 2*62 per cent, to cholera ; and 137 or 8 -50 per cmh w
miscellaneous diseases. Deaths from accidents and violence aver i
25 or 1*56 per cent of the average mortality of the sub-divi i :
During the same period the births of 6898 children were regifiterei,
3829 males and 3069 females, or an average yearly birth raie of
1379 or r58 per cent of the popidation.

Tha'sra Sub-division.— The Thasra sub-division is botmcL
the north by Kapadvanj and the Baldsinor state, on tlie east l^T '
Panch Mahals, on the south by A'nand, and on the west bj Nii' :
The total area is 255 square miles, and the population, accordir.
the census of 1872, 85,601 souls, or an average density of 3S^ < "
the square mile. In 1876-77 the realizable land revenue amounted
to £18,334 (Rs. 1,83,340).

Of the total area of 255 square miles, 29 are occupied by tb^
lands of alienated and unsettled, mehvds, villages. The remar
according to the revenue survey returns, contains 106,36U acr
73*32 per cent, of occupied land; 20,684 acres or 1426 ptr
of culturable waste ; 8387 acres or 5*78 per cent, of iincultc
waste ; 42 acres of grass ; and 9584 acres, or 6*60 per cent, of r
ponds, river beds, and village sites. From 127,044 acres, ''-
have to be taken on account of alienated lands in GoyerL'
villages. Of the balance of 94,495 acres, the actual tirea of cl
able Government land, 54,052 or 57' 20 per cent were in l^t' .-
under cultivation.

To the north and north-west the upland, mdl, is bare of '
and poorly tilled. Towards the south the plain, broken only h
deep cut channel of the Shedhi, is rich and well woc/ded.

Perhaps because of east winds borne across the forests ^ f -
Panch Mahals, the climate, though it differs little in temperati;:
rainfall, is much less healthy than that of the lands further west.

Besides the Mahi skirting the east arid south-east bonndarv, ^«''
branches of the Shedhi, draining the lands to the north and H' '^^*
east, join near the centre of the sub-division and pass so^tlj
During this part of its course the waters of the Shedbi floirv
a bed of mud between high steep banks. A troublesome cr*
at all times, its muddy bottom and strong current make it tl
the rainy weather almost impassable. The water supply is ^<
Wells and pools do not yield more than is wanted for dompst^c -
and for cattle ; and nothing has yet been done by bailding ^'

Digitized by VjOOQIC

.fl^jarit]

KAIRA,

147

to make use of the sweet wholesome water of the Shedhi. The 18 Chapter Xin.

water-supply figures were 8 wells with steps, 357 wells without Sub-divisioiui-
Bteps, 13 waterlifts, dhekiidis, 624 ponds and reservoirs, and 78 THA'SiUL

riverSj streams, and springs.

Compared with Nadiad the soil of Thfara is poor. To the north
and north-west the upland, mdl, an inferior black, except where
banked into rice fields, yields no valuable crop. Towards the south
the light, gorat, lands are, especially near the Mahi, less fertile and
more sandy thm the light soil of Nadi^

The foDowing statement shows the arable area in Government ^SJ^

Tillages^ and the rates fixed in 1863-64 : —

Thdsra Rent-roll, 1S6S^186J^

1^1

Akabli Labs.

Dtjcfop...
Oftrdtt ...
Ek« ...

Totil

Dry orop
Onrden ...
RkB ...

Tbtel

Diy crop

Gtfden

Kios

Gnud Total..

OoouniD.

Acrei.

56,278

6081

11,467

78,811

27,185

900

4894

82,549

88,438

7071

15,851

100,360

Rupee

Atseas-
meob.

Arerage
acren(«

IU.a. p.

96,800

6975

86,016

1,38,791

66,071

8178

16,843

86,091

,60.871
10153
62.858

2.23.883

1 11 8

13 4
8 3 8

1 14 1

3 6 4
3 3 6
8 18 4

8 9 9

1 14 10
1 6 11
8 6 4

3 18

UHOOGUniD.

19,626
319
7S9

30,684

19,626
819
789

20,084

Rnpee

Avenge
acre rate

Ri.a. p

36,940

718

3766

39,424

25,940

718
2766

39,424

1 6 1
9 4
8 11 10

1 6 9

Total.

Aorai.

76,899

6400

12,196

1,21,740

7698

88.782

94,495

87.166
990
4894

3J,549

1 6 1
S 4
8 11 10

16 9

108.064

7390

16,590

127,044

Rupee
Aflseaa-

mont.

ATeragt
MorezaU

Ra. a.p.

10 8
1 8 8
8 8 10

1,68,216

66,071

3178

16,843

85,091

1,86,811
10,871
65,6J4

8,53,306

1 11 6

3 6 4
8 3 6
8 13 4

3 9

1 18
17 6

2 6 8

1 16 10

j^nnment on Government and alienated land...
WKi— AHenationa

^lid-Qaitrenta

•^<24— Orazmg farms and river-bed tillage

Total revenue

BS. 9k, p.

2,63^06 6
85,090 10

1,68;215 11

25,769 5

3,123 12 11

1,97, 10& 12 11

26,330 12 74
8,509 1 3

16,821 11 4i
2676 18 ■'

312 7

19,710 17 71

The rates of assessment introduced in 1863-64 remain in force
"1891-92.

The 1872 population, 85,601 souls lodged in 20,582 houses, were
ided wiiii 365 wells and 624 ponds, and owned 7558 ploughs,
i carts, 17,572 oxen, 13,071 cows, 15,387 buffaloes, 238 horses^

n sheep and goats, and 286 asses.

Stocky
1876.77.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bomliay

148

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Xin.

Snb-diTiBioni.

Tha'sba.

Prodnce.

People,
1872.

In 1863-64, the year of settlement, 16,293 holdings, hhiJtag,
were recorded, with an average area of 6| j^ acres, and rental of
£1 0«. 2|d. (Rs. 10-1-7). Equally divided among the agricultoial
population these holdings would, for each person, represent a
allotment of 2^ acres at a yearly rent of Is. SJd. (Rs. 3-13-5).
If distributed among the whole population of the sub-division, the
share per head would amount to 1|J acres, and the incidence of the
land tax to bs. Sfd. (Rs. 2-13-7).

In 1876-77 of 54,052 acres, the total area of cultivated land, 34M
or 6*29 per cent, were fallow or under grass. Of the remaining
50,648 acres, 1584 were twice cropped. Of the 52,232 acres nnder
actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 47,059 or 90*09 per cmt,
17,979 of them under bdjri, Penicillaria spicata; 14,954 under rioe^
ddngar, Orjzasativaj 7350 under bdvta, Panicum frumentsceum;
3150 under jumr, Sorghum vulgare; 3135 under kodra, Faspakm
scrobiculatum ; 373 under wheat, ghau, Triticum SBstivum ; and 118
under miscellaneous cereals comprising barley, jav, Hordeum hexas-
tichon ; maize, makdi, Zea mays ; and rdjgara, Amaorantus panieo*
latus. Pulses occupied 3783 acres or 7*24 per cent, 1441 of th(
under gram, chaiia, Cicer arietinum ; 762 under math, Phaseoint
aconitif olius ; 676 under mag, Phaseolus radiatus ; 504 under <tt»er,
Cajanus indicus ; and 400 under miscellaneous pulses comprismg
guvdr, Cyamopsis psoralioides ; chola, Vigna catiang ; adad, Phaseoltf
mungo ; and vdl, Dolichos lablab. Oil seeds occupied 380 acres d
0*72 per cent, 17 of them under tal, Sesamum indicom; and 36
under other oil seeds. Fibres occupied 500 acres or 0*95 jm
cent, 485 of them under cotton, kapds, Gossypium herbaoeum ;
15 under Bombay hemp, san, Grotalaria ]uncea. Miscelhuw
crops occupied 510 acres or 0*97 per cent, 247 of them under tobaooe
tambaku, Nicotiana tabacum ; 85 acres under safflower, kasuniba^
Carthamus tinctorius; and 178 under miscellaneous vegetables
fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 85,69
souls, 76,256 or 8908 percent, Hindus; 9335 or 10*90 per ceffl
Musalm^ns ; 7 Parsis ; and 3 Christians. Statistics specially prepari
from the enumerators' forms give the following caste details : 466
Brdhmans; 3 Brahma-Kshatris; 2917 Vanias; 198 Shravaks;
Bh4ti4s; 10,241 Kanbis; 1921 Raiputs; 137 Kachhi&; 106Malil
273Bhdv84rs, calicoprinters ; 197 Sonis, gold and silver smiths ; '"
Luhars, blacksmiths ; 1040 Suthdrs, carpenters; 247 Darjis, tailoif
735 Kumbhdrs, potters ; 916 Hajdms, barbers ; 76 Dhobhis, washtf
men; 554 Rabaris, shepherds; 2151 Bhois, fishers and laboareis
458 Mdchhis, fishermen ; 44 Golds, ricepounders ; 2 Bhidbhuj4
grainparchers ; 41 Purabi&s and Mar4th&s ; 811 Vdghris, fowlers
hunters; 839 Rdvalids, cotton tapemakers; 37,185 Kolis;
Mochis, shoemakers ; 1429 Chamadids, tanners ; 40 Bajanias,
bats; 26 Kalals, liquorsellers ; 127 Ods, diggers; 1068 Sindhvi
115 Turis; 5012 Dheds and Bhangids; and 750 religiol
beggars. As regards occupation the same return arranges T
population under the seven following classes : i. Employed nw
Government or municipal or other local authoritieSj 7d& ii^PrdBS^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

«qazit.]

KAIRA.

149

Health.

MSBMAJiABAJK

donal persons, 1474. iii. In seryice, or performing personal offices. Chapter XIIL
415. iy. Engaged in agriculture and with animals, (a) cultivators Sab-divisions*
18,229 (b) labourers 607, total 18,836, v. Engaged in commerce Tha'sra.

and trade, 930. vi. Employed in mechanical arts, manufactures,
and engineering operations, and engaged in the sale of articles
manufactured or otherwise prepared for consumption, 5149. vii.
Miscellaneous persons not classed otherwise, (a) women 24,492,
and children 32,888, in all 57,380 ; and (b) miscellaneous persons
«W; total 57,999.

The totaj number of deaths registered in the five years ending

il874-75 was 9078, or an average yearly mortality of 1815, or on the

tasisof the 1872 census figures 212 percent of 85,601, the total

lopalation of the sab-division. Of the average number of deaths,

1495 or 82'36 per cent were returned as due to fever ; 63 or 2-92

cent, to diarrhoea and dysentery ; 39 or 2*14 per cent, to small-

ias;104 or 5*73 per cent, to cholera; and 97 or 5*34 per cent,

miscellaneous diseases. Deaths from accidents and violence

fieraged 27 or 1*48 per cent of the average mortality of the sub-

rrision. During the same period the births of 6083 children were

^tered, 3297 males, and 2786 females, or an average yearly birth

!a(e of 1216 or 1*42 per cent of the population.

Hehmadabad Sub-division. — ^The Mehmadabad sub-division
bounded on the north by Gdikw&r territory, on the north-east by

[apadvanj, on the east by Nadiad, on the south and south-west by
itar, and on the west and north-west by the Daskroi sub-division

'the Ahmedabad district. The total area is 171 square miles,

i the population, according to the census of 1872, 85,754 souls, or

average density of 501'48 to the square mile. In 1876-77 the

Bdizable land revenue amounted to £22,761 (Rs. 2,27,610).

Of the total area of 171 square miles, 9 are occupied by the
feds of alienated villages. The remainder, according to the revenue
Mvey returns, contains 86,928 acres or 83*38 per cent, of occupied
id; 6925 acres or 6*64 per cent, of cuHurable waste ; 3988 acres
382 per cent, of unculturable waste; and 6405 acres or 6*14 per
ttt, of roads, river beds, ponds, and villages sites. Prom 93,853
35,757 have to be taken on account of alienated lands
Government villagds. Of the balance of 58,096 acres, the actual
of culturable Government land, 48,305 or 83' 14 per cent were
1876-77 under cultivation.

A rich level plain, it is except in the south somewhat open and
aaly wooded.

The climate of Mehmadabad is simikir to that of M4tar.

Two rivers, the Meshvo and the Vitrak, pass through the subdivi-
©n. Both of them running nearly south-west are shallow streams
owing over sandy beds. Their banks are about twenty feet high
Hd their beds about 150 broad. The 1876-77 water-supply figures
^ere 16 wells with steps, 1429 weUs without steps, 109 waterlifts,

lefettdw, 403 ponds or reservoirs, and 69 rivers, streams, and springs.

T^ie greater part of the land is a rather poor and sandy sort of Soil.

Area.

Aapeot,

Gltmale,

Water.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[BombftyQuettMr,

150

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIU
Sab-divisions.

MSHMADABAD.

Rental,
1859-ia63.

Stock,
1876-77.

Holdiofi.

light, gorddu, soil. The rest is mediam-black^ besar, of the sort
known as kydrda or rice land.

The foUowinsf statement made to take in the parts ofMatar,
Mahudha, and Jetalpur, joined together in 1862-63, shows the arable
area in the G-overnment villages of the present siib- division and ih
rates fixed between 1859 and 1863 :

Mehmadabad Rent-roll, 1S5B-186S.

AaiBLi Land.

OocuniD.

tJHOCCCPI^.

TOIAV

AoM.

Rupee
AssesB-
meot.

Ayera^
acre rate

Rl. a. p

Acres.

Rup«

AsjesB-
mmt.

Average
ocrentd

fta. Lp

Acr«.

Rupee

III

Dry crop

Garden

Rico

Total ...

Dry crop

Garden

Bice

Total ...

Dry crop ...

Garden

Rloe

Grand Total...

89,!)35

1549

10,297

1,12.95T

6876

64.484

9 13 11
4 7
6 4 8

6662
1177

ll,&fl»
705
6336

lOJBO

2 2 6
4 4 4

b 6 9

i 1^ 3

44,&67
11.474

l^i«-^ !W f

:b7& 4 4 1

60,37(N* *I|J

61,171

1,74,310

3 6 6

6936

fiS,096

i,«,ie«|s ii

28,234
21 iJ
6401

3«,737

86.936

8441

29,6S6

1,26.061

8 18
3 15 8
6 7 11

8 7 11

28*2311

^411
^,6S5

1 I (

Hi 1

J Ttl,

S5»757

l,M,Ofilji 711-^

67.669

3671

16,696

86,928

1,99.886
15,316
84,169

216 4
4 2 9
6 6 9

6662
186

79 ■>

2 2 5
4 i 4
t 6 9

73,1*1
S3-M

2 ji.ftss a U i;

2,99.371

3 7 1

6926

19,150

2 13 ^

93,B^

3.lS,6n > « »

Assessment on Government and alienatec
Da/ttct— Alienations

I land...

ge ...
me ...

Ea. a, p.

3,1S,520 14 S
1,25,061 4 8

12,506 2 T-

Remains

iitW— Quitrents

yy — Grazing farms and river-bed tillaj

1,93,495 10

42J79 3 4

7C68 12 7

i9.a*5 1& i;

4277 IS fi
706 17 4

Tot

alrevei

2,43,907 9 n

24,390 15 f}

The rates of assessment introduced between 1858-59 and 18624S
remain in force till 1891-92.

The 1872 population, 85,754 souls lodged in 25,817 houses, w^
supplied with 1445 wells and 403 ponds and reservoirs, and o^neii
6460 ploughs, 2839 carts, 14,972 oxen, 577S cows, 20,729 bufEaloes*
815 horses, 7976 sheep and goats, 638 asaes, and 5 camels.

During (1859 to 1863) the time of settlement 12,841 disriiics,
holdings, khdtds, were recorded, with an average area of 7^ acn^
and a rental of £1 15«. 2Ji. (Rs. 17-9-5). Equally divided among
the agricultural population these holdings would, for each penoh
represent. an allotment of 2^ aores at a yearly rent of IC^. ^K'

Digitized by VjOOQIC

ovarii]

KAIBA.

151

(Rs. 5-3-0). If distributed among the whole population of the
SQbdiyision, the share per head would amount to l-^^ acres, and the
incidence of the land tax to 6«. id, (Bs. 3-0-4.)

In 1876-77 of 48,305 acres, the total area under cultivation,
2541 or 8'70 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the
remaining 45,764 acres, 1876 were twice cropped. Of the
47,6*0 acres under actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 41,507
or 87'12 per cent, 15,960 of them under bdjri, Penicillaria spicata;
8671 under rice, ddngar, Oryza sativa; 6897 under juvdr, Sorghum
Tulgare; 8613 under fcodra, Paspalum scrobiculatum ; 3531 under
i^avta, Panicum framentaceum ; 1840 under barley, jav, Hordeum
Itexastichon; 980 under wheat, ghau, Triticum eestivum; 15 under
Biiscellaneous cereals comprising kdng, Panicum italicum ; and maize,
nwfoii, Zea mays. Pulses occupied 3627 acres or 7*61 percent, 1324
of them under math, Phaseolus aconitif olius ; 855 under tuver,
CajaDUs indicus ; 540 under gram, chana, Cicer arietinum ; 533 under
mag, Phaseolus radiatus; and 375 under miscellaneous crops com-

Ksing guvdr, Cyamopsis psoralioides ; cAoZa, Vigna catiang; rd/,
lichos lablab ; and adad, Phaseolus mungo. Oil seeds occupied
450 acres or 0*94 per cent, 50 of them under tal, Sesamum indicum;
Riid 40O under other oil seeds. Fibres occupied 631 acres, or 1*32
percent, 581 of them under cotton, kapds, Gossypium herbaceam;
md 50 under Bombay hemp, san, Crotalaria juncea. Miscellaneous
crops occupied 1425 acres or 2*99 per cent, 217 of them under
rcane, serdi, Saccharum officinarum; 698 under safflower,
%mha, Carthamus tinctorius ; 360 under tobacco, iambdhi,
Scotiana tabacum; and 150 under miscellaneous vegetables and fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 85,754
lis, 78,395 or 91*41 per cent, Hindus; 7291 or 8*50 per cent,
"mans; 40 Parsis; and 28 Christians. Statistics specially
repared from the enumerators^ forms give the following caste
etaas:5729 Brahmans; 10 Brahma-Kshatris ; 9 Parbhus; 2470
Vanias; 2806 Shrdvaks; 338 Luvanas; 10,648 Kanbis; 2284
^jpats; 1602 Kachhias; 139 Malis; 738 Bhavsars, calicoprinters ;
48 Sonis, gold and silver smiths; 1299 Suthars, carpenters;
10 Luhars, blacksmiths; 355 Darjis, tailors; 75 Chundrds,
ricklayers; 33 Khatris, silk and cotton weavers; 19 Ghanchis,
Ipressers; 430 Bhits; 245 Charans, bards and genealogists; 1
aandrap, songster; 1163 Kumbhars, potters; 1355 Hajams, barbers ;
4lDhobhis, washermen; 10 Bhistis, waterdrawers ; 1178 Rabaris,
iepherds; 1754 Bhois, fishers and labourers; 47 Khdrvas, seamen;
4 Oolas, ricepounders; 8 Bhddbhujas, grainparchers ; 213 Mara-
lis; 674 Vaghris, fowlers and hunters ; 1 206 Kavalias, cotton tape-
tokera; 31,775 Kolis;375 Mochis, shoemakers; 1342 Chdmadias,
toners; 27 Bajanias, acrobats; 12 Kalals, liquor sellers; 270 Ods,
iggers; 66 Bavchas, labourers; 4150 Dheds; 318 Garudas ;
697 Bhangias ; and 322 religious beggars. As regards occupation
le same return arranges the whole population under the seven
flowing heads : i. Employed under Government or municipal
^ other local authorities, 916. ii. Professional persons, 450.
B* In service or performing personal offices, 969. iv. Engaged in

Chapter^XIIL
Sub-diviBions*

MXHHADABAD.

Produoe.

People^
1872.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bombfty Gazetteir,

GhspterZm.
Snb'diTisions.

MSHMADABAD.

Health.

Nadia'd.

Area.

Aipect.

Climate,

Water.

152

DISTRICTS.

agriculture and with animals, (a) cultivators 16,718 (6) labourer
585, total 17>303. v. Engaged in commerce and trade, 854
yi. Employed in mechanical arts, manufactures, and engineering
operations, and engaged in the sale of articles manufactured or
otherwise prepared for consumption, 8950. vii. Misoellaneoas per-
sons not classed otherwise, (a) women 24,502, and children 30,653,
in all 55,155; and (6) miscellaneous persons, 1157; total 56,312.

The total number of deaths registered in the six years ending
1875-76 was 12,746, or an average yearly mortality of 2124, or
on the basis of the 1872 census figures 2*47 per cent of 85,754,
the total population of the sub-division. Of the average niunber of,
deaths, 1788 or 84*18 per cent were returned as due to fever ; 119
or 5*60 per cent, to diarrhoea and dysentery; 16 or 0*75 per cent, to .
smallpox; 66 or 8*10 per cent, to cholera; and 99 or 4*66 per
cent, to miscellaneous diseases. Deaths from accidents and violeno»
averaged 36 or 1*69 per cent of the average mortality of the sab-
division. During the same period the births of 11,420 childrefl "
were registered, 6108 males and 5312 females, or an average yearl;
birth rate of 1903 or 2*21 per cent of the population.

Nadia'd Sub-division. — The Nadi^d sub-division, situated in
the centre of the Kaira district, is bounded on the north by the
Eapadvanj, and on the east by the Th4sra and A'nand sub-dirisions.
On the south is Petlad, a Baroda sub-division, and to the sonth-
west the M^tar and to the west the Mehmadabad sub-divisions.
The total area is 223 square miles, and the population, according
to the census of 1872, 151,483 souls, or an average density A
679*29 to the square mile. In 1876-77 the realizable land revenae
amounted to £34,863 (Bs. 3,48,630).

Of the total area of 223 square miles, 7 are occupied by th»
lands of alienated villages. The remainder, according to the reventtl
survey returns, contains 121,359 acres or 87'78 per cent, of occupied
land; 2675 acres or 1"93 per cent, of culturable waste; 7034 acres
or 5'08 per cent, of unculturable waste; and 7183 acres, or519pe
cent, of roads, river beds, ponds, and village sites. From 124,08^
acres, 66,791 have to be taken on account of alienated lands
Government villages. Of the balance of 57,243 acres, the actual
area of culturable Government land, 49,056 or 85'69 per cent
in the year 1876-77 under cultivation.

Its level surface broken by few undulations, its well grown groT(
of fruit and timber trees, its hedge bound and highly tilled fieldt^
and its large strongly built villages, show Nadi&d to be one of tin
richest parts of Gujar&t.

The climate is healthy ; but except in the south and south-
where sea breezes blow from the Gulf of Gambay, the heat duriB
the months of March and April is excessive.

The river Shedhi entering from the east passes through ill
sub-division on its way to join the S&barmati. Near the centre of il
course it is from the north joined by the Mohar, and the unitei
stream passes westward, winding between steep banks to join ^

Digitized by VjOOQIC

QajftritJ

KAIRA.

153

Vitrak. Except in nnnsnall j dry seasons when their water stands
m pools, tlie streaiETS of the Shedhi and Mohar flow throiigliout
the year. Still the supply is scanty. The water of the Shedhi and
Mohar carrying in solution Borne iojurious salt is unfit for irrigation ;
tile want of clay in the soil makes storage in reservoirs difficultj and
the supply from wells^ though plentiful and near the surfaee, is
bTackisL The lS7t> water-supply figures were 26 wells with steps^
2D62 wells without steps^ 918 ponds and reservoirs^ and 64; rivers,
streams, and springs.

Except some rice lands of medium-black, besar, the whole Bub-

djvisiou is a light, goraif soil very rich and most carefully worked.

Besides the ordinary grains and pulses, Nadi4d produces all the

ler kinds of crops both early and late. The chief rainy season,

^fif, crops are ricej tobacco^ Indian millet^ pulses, and several of

coarser grains- The cold weather, rahij harvest is wheat and late

dccQj and the hot weather, harij harvest late millet, pulse, and

^m. In the best garden lands ginger, safflower, tobaccOj turmeric,

and sugarcane are grown.

The following statement shows the arable area in Grovernment
jillages, and the rates fixed in 1865-66 ;

Nadidd RejU-rdt, 1865-66.

Chapter XIII.

Snbdivisioai.

Nadia o.

Soil.

HetitiiJ,
18G5-66,

Biy crop
Ovden
&k» ...

total

DT7crop
Tcrtal

Diy Crop
OunlezL
Bke ...

Qrtnil Total

Oobupixd.

Acres.

42,011
70T7

5i^B

6i3S

eofio

mj9i

15,41?
10,316
lfi,L27

UIM^

EDp«e

A.«S«Bft-

ment.

1,46,^99
44,100

2^,350

1,90,652
61,S14
43,374

8,&4,ft40

aj9»&si

fl&.^ll
7».T25

5,U,190

Aremge
acrer&te.

El. a. p

9 7 6
10 1
« 4 5

4 3 6

a 9 S
B 4 11
S 4 2

4 4 3

3 i U
8 13 4
& 4 3

Unoocitpivd,

AOTfia.

3049

241

3649

aers

Rapee
ntcni.

At«r«Re
men rate

94m
20
116

669S

64S9
110

6625

3 13
10 4

4 13 1

a 7 7

a 1 S
ID 4
4 13 I

i I 7

T0t4b,

Acrei.

45,500
7101

57,243

S2,506

eas6

Sti50

98,066
10,317
15,1^1

Rapee
Aisesa*

AVQTngo
E£. a. p.

44,120
37,467

«,3e,a75

1,90,6^2
51,^4
42.314

a,fl4,640

a to A

9 LO 1
5 4 5

3
9 4 11
5 4 1

4 4 3

;?»46,040 a a s

«5,«34^ B 13 11

79^11

lS4,0ai 5, 21 ,§15 4 3 4

(} 4 4

xient on OoTemmeQt and alien j^ted land . .
-Alienationa .,.

nitrenta
Gmzmg fannB and riyar -bed tillage

Total revenue

Bb. a.

6,21,815
2M339 15

P-

2.3ti,f»75 1

1,32,099 8

12,248 12

3,81,323 5

52,iSl 10
28,483 19 10|

23,697

13,209

1224 17

38,132 6 Si

1 1^-20

Digitized by CjOOQIC

[BomliaT GatrttooT;

154

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Zin.
SulhdiviBioiui.

Stock,
187()-77.

Holdings.

Produce.

People,
1872.

The rates of assessment introdaced in 1862-63 remain in foroo
tiU 1891-92.

The 1872 population, 151,483 souls lodged in 46,608 houses, were
in 1876-77 supplied with 2088 wells and 918 ponds, and owned 9774
ploughs, 6661 carts, 22,009 oxen, 3938 cows, 30,925 buffaloes, 844
horses, 9098 sheep and goats, 1450 asses, and 44 camels.

In 1865-66, the year of settlement, 20,628 distinct holdisgij
khdtds, were recorded, with an average area of 5 Jf acres, and a
rental of £1 15a. Ifci. (Bs. 17-9-2). Equally divided among tb
agricultural population these holdings would, for each peraoOf
represent an allotment of lf4 &^res at a yearly rent of 9«. TJtL
(Rs. 4-13-3). If distributed among the whole population of tbe
Bub-division, the share per head would amount to 1^ acres, and
the incidence of the land tax to 6«. 4^(2. (Bs. 3-2-10).

In 1876-77, of 49,056 acres, the total area of cultivated land
2985 or 6*08 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the
remaining 46,071 acres, 1661 were twice cropped. Of the 47,732
acres under actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 38,022
or 79*65 per cent, 14,440 of them under bdjriy Penicillaria spicsata;
6814 under rice, ddngar, Oryza sativa; 5641 under bdvta, Pani-
cum frumentaceum ; 5598 under juvdr, Sorghum vulgare; 6012
under kodra, Paspalum scrobiculatum ; and 517 under misoella-
neous cereals comprising wheat, ghau, Triticum sBstivum ; barley,
jav, Hordeum hexastichon; maize, makdi, Zee, mays; kafy^
Panicum italicum; and rdjgai'a, Amarantus paniculatus. Pulsee
occupied 4250 acres or 8*90 per cent, 1685 of them under tuver^
Cajanus indicus; 1158 under math, Phaseolus aconitif oliua ; and
1407 under miscellaneous pulses comprising guvar, Oyamopsis
psoralioides ; chola, Vigna catiang ; gram, cliana, Cicer arietinmnj
mag, Phaseolus radiatus ; adady Phaseolus mungo ; and vdl, Doliclioi
labiab. Oil seeds occupied 359 acres or 0*75 per cent, 40 of them
under tal, Sesamum indicum ; and 319 under other oil seeds, details
of which are not available. Fibres occupied 225 acres or 0'47 per
cent, 199 of them under cotton, kapds, Gossypium herbaceomi
and 26 under Bombay hemp, san, Crotalaria juncea. Miscellaneous
crops occupied 4876 acres or 10*21 per cent, 267 of them undei
surgarcane, serdi, Saccharum officinarum; 801 under safflower,
kasumba, Carthamus tinctorius ; 3618 under tobacco, tamhdhi^
Nicotiana tabacum; and 690 under miscellaneous vegetables and
fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 151,483 sonll
133,767 or 8830 per cent, Hindus; 17,701 or 11-68 per cenl
Musalm&ns; and 15 Parsis. Statistics specially prepared from tha
enumerators* forms give the following caste details : 9391 Brflri
mans ; 64 Brahma-Kshatris ; 8 Parbhus ; 7 K6yasths ; 5587 VaniilJ
699 Shrdvaks; 200 Lav&nas; 31739 Kanbis; 2632 Bajputs;13QS
K&chhi^; 241 M&lis; 718 Bhdvs&rs, calicoprinters; 624 Sonis, goldaul
silver smiths ; 407 Kans&r&s, brass and copper smiths ; 1163 Laluiii»
blacksmiths; 2065 Suthto, carpenters; 189 Eadi^ bricklajoi

Digitized by VjOOQIC

flitjariti

KAIRA.

155

10 Ssiiis, masons; 6 Gh&nchis^ oil pressera; 7 Ehatris, silk and
cotton weavers; 1943 Bli4ts, bards; 90 Gh&rans, bards and
genealogists; 8 Ghandhraps, songsters; 518 Darjis, tailors; 1687
Aambhirs^ potters ; 2036 Hajams^ barbers ; 215 Dhobhis, washermen ;
(03 Bhary^ and Rab^ris, herdsmen and shepherds ; 2071 Machhis,
fishermen; 348Gol&s, ricepounders ; 18 Bh^bhajds^ grainparchers ;
54 Marathis; 3363 Vdghris, fowlers and hunters ; 46,380 Kolis; 617
Hochis, shoemakers; 1720 Ch&madi&s^ tanners ; 169 Bajanids, acro-
bats; 36 Kalals, liauor sellers ; 110 Sindhvds; 90 Turis ;12,003 Dheds
«nd Bhangias ; and 2612 religious beggars. As regards occupation
the same return arranges the whole population under the seven
following classes : i. Employed under Government or municipal or
other local authorities, 981. ii. Profespional persons, 1084. iii. In
tervice or performing personal offices, 981. iv. Engaged in agriculture
ftnd with animals, (a) cultivators 32,125 (6) labourers 547, total
82,672. V. Engaged in commerce and trade, 2057. vi. Employed
in mechanical arts, manufactures, and engineering operations, and
engaged in the sale of articles manufactured or otherwise prepared
lor consumption, 10,002. vii. Miscellaneous persons not classed
otherwise, (a) women 45,935, and children 54,638, in all 100,573; and
(6) miscellaneous persons, 8133; total 103,706.

The total number of deaths registered in the five years ending
1874-75 was 19,315, or an average yearly mortality of 3863, or on the
basis of the 1872 census figures 2*55 per cent of 151,483, the total
population of the sub-division. Of the average number of deaths,
2594 or 67*14 per cent were returned as due to fever; 597 or 15*45
per cent, to diarrhoea and dysentery ; 99 or 2'5& per cent, to small-
pox; 134 or 3-46 per cent, to cholera; and 385 or 9*96 per cent, to
miscellaneous diseases. Deaths from accidents and violence averaged
64 or 1'39 per cent of the average mortality of the sub-division.
Daring the same period the births of 15,774 cluldren were registered,
8401 males and 7373 females, or an average yearly birth rate of
S155 or 2*08 per cent of the population.

Ha'tar Sub-division. — The M&tar sub-division is bounded on
file north by Daskroi and Mehmadabad, on the east by Nadi&d and
tome Grdikw&ri villages, on the south by Cambay, and on the west by
fte S4barmati river. Besides the main body of the sub-division are
•ome isolated villages cut off from the rest by belts of Baroda and
Cambay territory. The total area is 215 square miles, and the
popnlation, according to the census of 1872, 78,673 souls, or an average
density of 365*92 to the square mile. In 1876-77 the realizable
knd revenue amounted to £26,772 (Ra. 2,67,720).

Of the total area of 215 square miles, 14 are occupied by the lands
tf alienated villages. The remainder, according to the revenue survey
wtams, contains 99,888 acres or 77*57 per cent, of occupied land;
14,352 acres or 11*14 per cent, of culturable waste; 8235 acres, or 6*39
per cent, of unculturable waste ; and 6296 acres or 4*88 per cent, of
*>ada, ponds, river beds, and village sites. Prom 114,240 acres,
W,499 have to be taken on account of alienated lands in Govero-
nteitt villages. Of the balance of 54,741 acres the actual area of

Chapter ZIIL
Sub-divisions*

Nadza'd.

Health.

Ma'tar.

Area.

Digitized by VjOOQIC _

[Bombay Gaieiteer.

156

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Xin.
SuMiYiuons.

Ma'tab.
Aapect.

ClimAte.

Water.

Soil

Rental,
1862-1863.

colturable Government land, 37,901 or
year 1876-77 under cultivation.

)*23 per cent were in the

Slightly undulating in the north-east comer, the country is for
the most part leveL In many places closely hedgebound and wooded,
it stretches southwards in la>rge open black-soil plains intersected
near the Gulf of Cambay by tracts of salt marsh.

Owing to its flatness and the want of natural drainage, the climate
of Mdtar is oppressive in the hot season and feverish during the
rains. The rainfall at the town of Kaira, nearly the centre of the

snb-diYiaioQ, averaged during the five years ending 1877 tweitj-
eight inches.

There are two rivers in Matar, The Sabarmati skirts its western
boundaryj and the Shedhi entering from the north-east, and receiving
from the north the waters of the Vatrak, winds westward throngl
the centre of the sub-division. The water supply is abmidant.
Besides the rivers, which by the help of lever-lifts water the
lands of several villages, there are many reservoirs ; some of them
very large, particularly those at Bhalada, Traj, ajid Chaiior. Welkj
both temporary and permanent, are also numerous and water a large
area of garden land. The 1876 water-supply figures were G well|<
with sttvps, 1152 woUs without steps, 3 masonry and 1 earthen riuT^
dam, 37^ water lifts, dkekudis, 456 ponds or reservoirs, 5 canalSj and
68 rivers, etreamsj and springs.

Most of the M4tar lands are of medium-light, gvrddu, oot j
rich as in Borsad and Nadiddj but leas sandy than the soils to Asl
north of the Sabarmati, Besides the light lands there are mediofflT
black, black, and alluvial tracts. The medium-black, hcsaT^ of thai
sort known as kydrda or rice land, though in small quactiti^
is pretty widespread. The black is found over a largo ar«a,
especially in the villages along the north bank of the Shedhi and
in a tract stretching from Radu southward to Chanor, ThoTigh
not so rich as the Broach black aoO, much of it yields heaTj
crops of uu watered wheat » The area of alluvial, bJidtlui^ ^n] is
small J but particularly on the Yatrak to the south of Kaira it ii o£
veiy high quality.

The following statement shows the arable area in (Joverar: :
villages, and the rates fixed in 1862-6S : -

Arabiji

LUfD.

rWdciti

OUCLTIIU*

Acres

Rupeo

AfigeaS"

Avorftgp
41CTC rale.

II B. a. p.

Bh,m^ fl 1 3
mm h 4 31

lo^sfifl i,e;.9!!i) i 3 e

U>'OeCDFlKDu

Rnipee

Arerikizv
Bs. a. p.

3 4 «

4 5
6 It 1

3 7 3

TtirTAU

Acres.

3S.UI

5474)

nnvm

At,*

li>,«34 ^ '■ '

3.1|,3ifll tJ5 *

Digitized by VjOOQIC

O^jttii]

KAIRA.

157

Mdtar Rent-rott, 186e-63— continued.

Arabu

Laid.

OOCUPOD.

WA«T». 1

Total.

▲eree.

Bupee

A«MM-

m«nt.

Avera^
acre rate.
Riua. p.

Aoret.

Rupee
AseeM-

ment.

Average
aorernte.
Rs. a. p.

Acres.

Hapee
AtfesB-
ment.

ATera«e
acre rate
Bt. a. p.

li(

Drjrcnrop ...

Garden

Rice

TWad ...

Dry crop ...
Oardea ...
Bice

Grand ToUl...

44J49

890«

10,844

1,49,968
18,627
74,388

8 6 7
4 11 11
6 18 9

...

44,749

8906

10,844

1,49,968
18,527
74,398

8 6 7
4 11 11
6 18 9

60,499

3,42,888

4 14

...

69.499

2,42,888

4 14

72.481

6787

21,670

8,85,896

38,509

1,46,418

8 4 1
4 14 10
6 12 1

10,429
227
8696

88,789

942

34,725

8 4 6
4 3 6
6 11 1

8 7 2

83,860

6014

36,»66

2,69,685

29,461

1,71,143

8 2 8

4 14 4
6 11 11

99,888

440,833

4 1 9

14,862

4<»,466

114,240

4,60,279

4 6

^Mnment on Government and alienated land
i^K^ife^Alienationa

iitf-QnitrentB

.» — Graang lanna and river-bed tillage ...

Total revenue

Bs. a. p.
4,60,278 10 1
2,42,887 9 9

2,17,391 4
73,372 4 6
23,817 1 8

3,14,580 6 6

£. 8. d.
46,027 17 3i
24,288 15 2f

21,739 2 04
7337 4 6j
2381 14 2i

31,458

I The rates of assessment introduced in 1862-63 remain in force
pl 1891-92.

He 1872 population, 78,673 souls lodged in 25,752 houses, were
1876-77 supplied with 1158 wells and 456 ponds, and owned 5996

lis, 2742 carts, 14,760 oxen, 5789 cows, 19,391 buffaloes, 372

I, 5370 sheep and goats, and 698 asses.

In 1862-63, the year of settlement, 15,086 holdings, 'klAia.Sy
twe recorded, with an average area of 6|^ acres, and a rental of
^ 12*. (Rs. 16). Equally divided among the agricultural population
pese holdings would, for each person, represent an allotment of
Rf acres at a yearly rent of 11«. 9|d. (Rs. 5-14-7). If distri-
Iptod among the whole population of the sub-division, the share per
Nad would amount to IM acres, and the incidence of the land tax to
!?«.9J(l(R8. 3-14-4).

In 1876-77, of 37,901 acres, the total area of cultivated land,
1951 or 5*14 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the
Naaimng 35,950 acres, 3584 were twice cropped. Of the 39,534
Icres under actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 33,542 or S4'84
^ cent, 10,634 of them under rice, dangar^ Oryza sativa; 7503
fader wheat, ghaniy Triticum sBstivum ; 6484 under fto/ri, Penicillaria
Jicata; 4744 under ^uvar. Sorghum vulgare; 1755 *under ItoAray
raspalum scrobiculatum ; 1619 under bdvta, Panicum frumen-
boeom ; 790 under barley, jav, Hordeum hexastichon; and 13 under
(v'^^ Panicum italicum. Pulses occupied 1780 acres or 4*50 per

Chapter XIIL
Sub-divisioni.

Stock,
1876-77-

Holdings.

1876-77.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[BomliaTGinttMiv

158

DISTRICTS.

CbapterXUL

Bub-divisions.

Ma'tas.

People,
1872.

Health.

cent^ 736 of them under gram^ chana, Cicer arietinnm ; 515 nnder
mathy Phaseolus aconitif olins ; 358 xmdeTtuvery Cajanciaiiidicii8;aQd
171 under miscellaneoaa pulses comprising guvdr, Gyamopsis
psoralioides ; chola, Yigna catiang ; mag, Phaseolus radiatas ; anj
culdd, Phaseolus mungo. Oil seeds occupied 841 acres or 2-12 p«
cent^ 52 of them under tal, Sesamum indicum^ and 789 under other
oil seeds^ details of which are not available. Fibres occupied 669
acres or 1*69 per cent, 665 of them under cotton, kapas, Gossypimn
herbaceum ; and 4 under Bombay hemp, san, Crotalaria janceA.
Miscellaneous crops occupied 2702 acres or 683 per cent, 1559 of theni
under safflower, kasumba, Carthamus tinctorius ; 600 under tobacco,
tambdku, Nicotiana tabacum ; 362 under sugarcane, serdi, Sacchanim
officinarum ; and 181 under miscellaneous vegetables and froita.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 78,67$
Bouls, 70,779 or 89-96 per cent, Hindus; 7835 or 10*02 per cen^
Musalm&is ; 2 Parsis ; and 7 Christians. Statistics specially prepared
from the enumerators' forms, give the following caste details:
8105 Br^hmans; 3 Brahma- Kshatris; 1968 Vanifa; 20 Shravaksj
930 Luvdnfa; 13,362 Kanbis; 5458 Rajputs; 679 Kachhi&; 4J
Malis ; 36 Bh&vsirs, calicoprinters ; 1 65 Sonis, gold and silver
smiths; 620 LuhArs, blacksmiths; 709 Suth^rs, carpenters; It
Chundrds, bricklayers ; 188 Darjis, tailors ; 1134 Kumbhars, potters;
1346 Hajdms, barbers; 150 Dhobhis, washermen; 161 Chdrans, bardii
and genealogists ; 1052 Bhois, fishers |and labourers ; 1232 Bharvad|f
herdsmen ; 1041 Bab&ris, shepherds ; 71 Golds, riceponnders ;
2 Bh&dbhujds, grainparchers ; 19 Marathas ; 27,416 KoUs ; 15|
Mochis, shoemakers; 1140 Chamadids, tanners; 217 Baj^n
acrobats ; 9 Kal£ls,liquor sellers ; 20 Bhavdyds, actors ; 895 Vag"
fowlers and hunters ; 111 Ods, diggers ; 5881 Dheds and Bhsngiasj|
and 1421 religious beggars. As regards occupation the samereti
arranges the whole population under the seven following c}asses|l
i. Employed under Government or municipal or other lo
authorities, 462. ii. Professional persons, 440. iii. In service <
performing personal offices, 970. iv. Engaged in agriculture
with animals, (a) cultivators 16,818 (b) labourers 2125,
18,943. V. Engaged in commerce and trade, 944*-' vi. Employei
in mechanical arts, manufactures, and engineering operations,
engaged in the sale of articles manufactured or otherwise pr
for consumption, 4097. vii. Miscellaneous persons not cU
otherwise, (a) women 23,590, and children 28,173, in all 51,76
and {b) miscellaneous persons 1054; total 52,817.

The total number of deaths registered in the five years end
1875 was 11,041, or an average yearly mortality of 2208, or on I
basis of the 1872 census figures 2'80 per cent of 78,673, the
population of the sub-division. Of the average number of deaths, 17
or 80' 16 per cent were due to fever; 144 or 6-52 per cent,
diarrhoea and dysentery; 38 or 1*72 per cent, to smallpox; 22 i
0'99 per cent* to cholera ; and 207 or 9*37 per cent, to
neons diseases. Deaths from accidents and violence averaged
1"22 per cent of the average mortality of the sub-divisioa.]

During the same period the births of 8503 cluldren were

Digitized by

Google

registordj

t^Bit}

KAIEA.

169

4o73 males and 3930 females^ or an average 'yearly birth rate of 1700
iff 2*16 per cent of the population.

A'nand Sub-division. — The A nand sub-division is bouiided on
flie north by Thasra^ on the east by the Mahi river, on the south by
Boread, and on the west by Nadiad. A'nand is a new sub-division
formed in 1867 of villages taken from the Nadidd, Mahndha, Thdsra,
end Borsad sub-divisions. The total area is 241 square miles, and
fte population, according to the census of 1872, 149,952 souls, or
CD average density of 622*20 to the square mile. In 1876-77 the
fealizable land revenue amounted to £37,858 (Bs. 3,78,580).

Of the total area of 241 square miles, 1 7 are occupied by the
lands of alienated and unsettled, mehvasij villages. The remainder,

S lording to the revenue survey returns, contains 124,542 acres or
68 per cent, of occupied land ; 2964 acres or 2*06 per cent, of
Ifdturable waste ; 9796 acres or 6*81 per cent, of unculturable waste ;
jind 6451 acres or 4*48 per cent, of roads, river beds, ponds, and village
[rites. Prom 127,506 acres 56,043 have to be taken on account of
llfienated lands in Government villages. Of the balance of 71,436
icres, the actual area of culturable Government land, 60,140 or 84*15
|6r cent were in 1876-77 under cultivation.

Sxcept towards the east near the Mahi where the land is bare of
fl, uneven, and seamed with deep ravines, the whole is a flat, rich
of light soil, well tilled, and richly wooded.

k. In almost all respects the climate of A'nand is like the climate of

.The water supply is scanty. Wells are few, as they have to be
' : to a great depth, and their supplies suffice only for domestic

. The reservoirs are small, shallow and leaky. The 1876 water
ply figures are, 8 wells with steps, 1317 wells without steps, 822

' I and reservoirs, and 12 rivers, streams, and springs.

r Except patches of black loam found in lowlying spots the soil
iKght, rich towards the north, and poorer and more sandy in the
^es near the Mahi.

ijThe following statement made to take in the parts of Borsad,
■^iad, Th&sra, and Mahudha, joined together in 1867, shows the
of arable land m the Government villages of the present
""ivision and the rates fixed between 1863 and 1867 : —

A*nand Bent-roll, 2863-1867.

Chapter ZUI.
Sab-diviaioni.

A'NANB.

Arabu
Land.

OocirpziD.

UKOccupnn.

Total

Aoree.

Rupee
Assen-

meat.

Agerage
aorarate.
R8. ». p.

Aorat.

Rupee

ASMiiS-

ment

Average
acre rate
R..a.p.

Acrea.

Rupee
AaMtt-
meiit.

Average
acre rate.
Ks. a. p.

Diy crop ...
OtnJen
Uoe

6M8

5 8 10
8 18 6

6 7 7

2858
8
8

7417
99
48

« 8 2

36 2 11

6 8 9

61.777

4415
6271

2^16,887
3V,il0
28,861

8 8 6
8 18 9
5 7 7

Total...

68,499

V«*749

4 6

8964

7560

2 8 10

71,463

2.84.308

8 15 8

Area.

Aspect.

Climate.
Water.

Soil.

Rental,
1863-1867.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

[BomliayGiiett^

160

DISTRICTS.

duipterZIIL
Bub-diTiflions.

A'namd.

A'fumd ReM^ToU, i^«^-i«^-«ontmaed.

Arable
Lavd.

OOOUPIID.

Uvoccupna

Total.

Aore&

Bnpee
Anew-

ment.

Arera^
aorerate.
Bs. a. pi

Aans.

Rupee

ASMM-

ment

ATerage
acre rate
Ba. a. p.

Aam.

Rupee
AaMi-
ment

■

taenia
Baap.

1^1

Dry erop
Garden
Bioe

Totel...

Dtycrop ...
Oarden
Rico

Grand Total...

60,448
i346
8349

1,83,840

18,770
16,843

8 9 11
8
5 9U

...

8349

III

1 »U
8 C •

66,048

9,18,468

8 14 4

...

66,043

M8»46i

lU 4

109,379
6758
8612

8,91,760
67,781
46,660

8 9 4

8 8 10
6 6 10

3968
8

7417
99
48

9 8 8

86 3 11
6 8 9

B6iO 46,706

8 811

8 sa

6 111-

124,643

4,96,301

8 16 8

3964

7669

9 8 10

137.606

6,0a.76l»

816 1

Stock,
1876-77.

Holdings.

Prodacd,
1876-77.

ABseasment on Government and alienated lands.
Deduct — Alienationa

RfffnaJPt

.^c2(i— Qaitrents, fto.

„ — Gracing farms and riyer-bed tillage

Total revenue ...

Rs.

•• P-

6,02,769 10 11
2,18,451 9 8

2,84,908 1 3

90,720 14 6

6904 12 7

3,81,933 12 4

60,275
21,845

28,490
9072

I. i':

38,193 7

The rates of assessment introdaced between 1863 and 18
remain in force till 1891-92.

The 1872 population, 149,952 souls lodged in 40,988 hi
were in 1876-77 supplied with 1325 wells and 822 ponds, and a
8851 ploughs, 5982 carts, 20,696 oxen, 2917 cows, 41,222 buffal(
282 horses, 7205 sheep and goats, 1106 asses, and 5 camels.

At the time (1863-1867) of settlement, 17,087 holdings. Ha
were recorded, with an average area of 7^ acres, and a rental
£2 Zs. \d. (Rs. 21-8-1). Equally divided among the agricultaii
population these holdings would, for each person, represent
allotment of If § acres at a yearly rent of 10s. 8(2. (Bs. 5-5-4).
distributed among the whole population of the sub-division,
share per head would amount to 1^^ acres, and the incidence of
land tax to 6«, 8i(i. (Rs. 3-5-10).

In 1876-77 of 60,140 acres, the total area of cultivated b
8057 or 5*08 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of
remaining 57,083 acres, 1 159 were twice cropped. Of the 58,242 aci
under actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 48,689 or 83*59
cent, 26,894 of them imder 6a/rt, Penicillariaspicata; 7160 n
kodra, Paspalum scrobiculatum ; 6050 under ywvir, Sorghum|vulgai
5724 under rice, ddngdr, Oryza sativa; 3315 under bdvta, Panii^
frumentaceum ; and 46 under miscellaneous cereals com^riflf
wheat, ghau, Triticum ssstivum ; barley, jav, Hordeum hexasticlMi
jnaizoj mahdi^ Zea mays; and rajgata, Amarantus pamcolfltv

Digitized by VjOOQIC

A'nans.

KAIBA. 161

Polfles occupied 4185 acres or 7*18 per cent^ 1661 of ikem nnder ChayterXIIIi
km, Cajanos indicus ; 1470 under math, Phaseolos aconitifolias ; EhA^diTifliolli*'
588 under gwfir, Gyamopsis psoralioides ; and 463 under miscella-
neous pulses comprising ehola, Vigna catiang ; gram^ chanaj Cicer
arietinam ; mag, Phaseolus radiatus ; adad, Phaseolus mnngo ; and
vdl, Dolichos lablab. Oilseeds occupied 466 acres or 0*80 per cent,
183 of them under ^aZ, Sesamum indicum ; and 283 under other oil-
leeds^ of which details are not available. Fibres occupied 1726
acres or 2*96 per cent, 1709 of them under cotton, hapd$, Gossypium
herbaceam; and 17 under Bombay hemp^ san, Crotalaria juncea.
Miscellaneous crops occupied 3176 acres or 5*45 per cent, 1011 of
ihem under tobacco, tambdku, Nicotiana tabacum; 252 under
hiumba, Garthamus tinctorius; and 1913 under miscellaneoua
tegetables and fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a population of 149,952 souls, ^IS^*'

188,088 or 92*08 per cent, Hindus ; 11,808 or 7-87 per cent, Musal-

•fas; 2Parsis; and 54 Christians. Statistics specially prepared

fern the enumerators' forms give the following caste details :

|M8 Brahmans; 7 Brahma-Kshatris ; 4 Parbhus; 4490 VaniAs ;

MDShrivaks; 255 Bh&tiAs; 89,070 Kanbis; 6738 Rajputs; 1354

pohhias : 242 Malia ; 866 Bh4vsirs, calicoprinters ; 559 Sonis, gold

ted silyer smiths; 81 Kansdr&s, brass and copper smiths; 1001

Mdiars, blacksmiths; 2025 Suthars, carpenters; 4 Kadi^, brick-

l^ers; 523Darjis, tailors; 1697 Eumbhars, potters ; 1936 Haj&ms^

irbera; 222 Dhobhis, washermen; 626 Bab&ris, shepherds; 4190

Wihis, fishermen; 297 Golas, ricepounders ; 13 Bh^dbhujds,

fcinparchers; 12 Mar^thds; 2565 Vdghris, fowlers and hunters;

1^150 Kolis ; 693 Mochis, shoemakers ; 2046 Ch&madids, tanners ;

l4Bajani^, acrobats; 19 Kalils, liquor sellers; 198 Ods, diggers; 11

bdhvas; 12,844 Dheds and Bhangi&s; and 2529 religious beggars.

B regards occupation the same return arranges the whole popula-

Dn nnder the following seven classes : i Employed under Govem-

lent or municipal or other local authorities, 922. ii. Professional '

*8on8, 1491. iii. In service or performing personal offices, 1416.

* Engaged in agriculture and with animals, (a) cultivators 34,419

labourers 356, total 35,775. v. Engaged in commerce and trade,

47. vi Employed in mechanical arts, manufactures, and engi*

ering operations, and engaged in the sale of articles manufac*-

^ or otherwise prepared for consumption, 10,286. Miscellaneous

fsons not classed otherwise, {a) women 43,687, and children

!j310, in aU 95,997 ; and (b) miscellaneous persons, 1918 ; total

The total number of deaths registered in the five years ending Health.

7i-75 was 17,377, or an average yearly mortality of 3475, or
'the basis of the 1872 census figures 2-31 per cent of 149,952,
© total population of the sub-division. Of the average number
deaths, 2355 or 67*76 per cent were returned as due to
^; 422 or 12*14 per cent, to diarrhoea and dysentery ; 147 or
K per cent, to smallpoz ; 64 or 1*84 per cent, to cholera; and 443
'12*74 per cent, to miscellaneous diseases. Deaths from accidents
pH violence averaged 44 or 1*26 per cent of the average mortality

Digitized by VjOOQIC

IBombay Qim rt ,

162

DISTRICTS.

Ch>pter gH
•nb^TiBioiis.

BOBaAB.

Ajm

Aspect.

ClmiAte.

Water.

Soil

Bental,
1867.

of the sub-division. Daring the same period the births of
children were registered, 7695 males and 6628 females, or an averago
yearly birth rate of 2864 or 1*90 per cent of the popidation.

Borsad Sub-division. — ^The Borsad sub-division, bounded on
the north by A'nand, on the east and south by the Mahi river, aad
on the west by the Cambay and Baroda states^ is owing to the
intermixture of Baroda and other villages^ most broken and
irregular in shape. The total area is 216 square miles, and ib^
population, according to the census of 1872, 144,528 souls, or tt
average density of 669'11 to the square mile. In 1876-77 tliB
realizable land revenue amounted to £37,698 (Bs. 3,76,980).

. Of the total area of 216 square miles, 56 are occupied by tk
lands of alienated and unsettled, mehoaSy villages. The remainil
contains according to the revenue survey returns, 92,901 acres or
90'33 percent, of occupied land; 2597 acres or 2*52 per cent, of
culturable waste; 2953 acres or 2*87 per cent, of uncultunUe
waste ; and 4389 acres or 4*26 per cent, of roads, river-beds, ponds,
and village-sites. From 95,498 acres 40,698 have to be taken oi
account of alienated lands in Government villages. Of the balanoo ;
of 54,800 acres, the actual area of culturable Government hsi^l
49,035 or 8947 per cent were in 1876-77 under cultivation.

Except in the south near the Mahi where the ground is somewlffltj
broken and wild, the whole is a highly cultivated plain sloping i
westwards, intersected by rich hedgerows and adorned by groves '
magnificent trees. i\

Occasionally during the hot season the heat is extreme,
thermometer standing as high as 105° in the shade. But such dftjij
are imusual, and as a rule the heat is tempered by a cool bi^
from the Gulf of Cambay.

The Mahi forming the southern boundary is throughout the wh
distance a tidal river. The shallowness of its channel, its sh
sandbanks, and the height and speed of its tidal wave, makef
useless for boats. Except the Mahi, Borsad is without streams i
water courses and the light unretentive soil is illsuited to '
fitorage of water in reservoirs. Still the supply is good, there are m^
wells yielding enough to water 11 per cent of the whole occnp*
area. The water-supply figures are, 4 wells with steps, 1914
without steps, 807 ponds, and 1 7 rivers, streams, and springs.

About a tenth part of the culturable iirea is blackish rice-li
The rest is a deep stratum of light soil occasionally sandy, huti
the most part a fine rich mould.

The following statement shows the arable area in Gov
villages, and the rates fixed in 1866-67 :

Digitized by VjOOQIC

EAIBA.

I6S

BorMd HetU-roU, 1866'€7.

Laud.

OccmFim.

Acrca,

Total

^ . Dpj- crop ...

Ei« .

Total

OnfidTcrb^...

S3,203

ISIO

4C^,ft08

76,^ B

1*>.775

67Jfl

B%ttOl

Ritp0e

meat.

76M

i,ns,nn

1 .fta.^^tw

i,&i>,floa

,\I«J 41
37,UJ3

4,41*.fta7

Arens^

Ri A« p.

UMOCCuniD.

AcvEfl.

4 4 4

7 10 B
i 1 T

4 l.n S

4 S 3

a 1

a e

4 10 11

t 4 g^

7 »9 a

6 7 I

4 13 3

SA40

2rm

UvBJTlgffl

meat

7eea
'ail

7901

£340

'^7

'j^m

7!.+rr3

Rj. A. [J.

Total.

SOS
< 4

3 It 8

£03
4 i e

SOB

Aoret.

Rupee

4£,970

Heoo

35. 04^
79»7

4I>,j6^

78,ei8
10,77fi

9«,4es

riO.tOtI

4 3 3

7 10 9
fl 7 1

4 13^

4 5 9

t 1 Q

e «

4 10 a

3,a6,*?o.i
37,;fM

i,fi0,«eo

4 4 1

7 1» fi
3 3 4

4 IS A

^lament on OoTemment and alionated Iftnd...

Remains ... ,., ... ,,.

I, Graziiig formi and iiTer-b«d tillage
A Total revenue „.

Ri. a. p,

i. 56,8(10 1
1,90,667 9 10

2,66,222
76,031
44,864

6
11

3,87pll8 10 1

45,BS9 0|
19,063 15 2}

26^622 4 &|
7603 3 44
4486 9 li

38,711 17 31

The mte8 of assessment introduced in 1 806-67 inemain in forrft
11891-92-

The 1872 population, 144,528 sonk lodged in 34,079 houses
^ in 1876-77 supplied with 1918 wells and 807 ponda and owned
ploughs, 5370 cartsj 17,668 oxen, 3275 cows, 45,635 buffaloes,
iorses, 10,441 sheep and goats, 1610 aases, and 38 camels.
1866-67j the year of settlement, 9191 holdings, Jchntds
ce recorded, with an aTerage area of lOA acre?, and a rental of
12i, 9^d. (Rs, 36-6-1). Equally dirided among the agricultural
p*3ptilation these holdings would, for each person, represent aa
■ Nment of HJ acres at a yearly rent of 10s, 2fti (Rg. 5- MO)
i distnbnt^d among the whole population of the sub-division, tb^
ajaie per head would amount to 1^*^ acres, and the incidence of
die land tax to 7^, 5d. {Rs, 3-11-4),

In 1876-77 of 49,035 acres, the total area of cultivated land, 2093
Zto^ P^^ ^^°^ ^^^^ ^^^1^^ <^^ ^ii^ei^ Rrass. Of the remainiuff
^,Jd7 acres, 911 were twice cropped. Of the 47,848 acres unde^
actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 37,240 or 77^82 per cent
|4,187 of them under hdjri, Penicillaria spicata; 11,504 under
*^ra, Paspaltun scrobiculatom ; 5850 uxkdevjuvdr. Sorghum rulgare •

Chapter^ xm
Sub-divisionf^

BOBSAD.

stock,
1876-77.

Holdings^

Produce^
1876-77.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[BemkayOMli*, i

164 DISTBIOTS.

Chafter XIIL 8588 under rice, dangoar, Oryia 8»tiv&; 2010 under havta^ Ptoiom
tub-dMiionfr frum'entaceum ; and 101 under miscellaneous cereals compiiBin{|[
wheats ghaUf Triticnm aratiYum; barley, jav, Hordeum liezaatiohoB;
^*^**^'** hdng, Panicam italicum ; and rdjgara, Amarantus panicolafcus. Pnlw

occupied 8347 acres or 6*99 per cent^ 1460 of them mider Im^,
Cajanus indicus; 1026 under ma^A^ Phaseolns aconitifolias; 612 uo^
guvar, Cyamopsis psoralioides; and 249 under miscellaneons pobto
comprising chola, V igna catiang ; gram^ cha/na, Cicer arietinam ; ma},
Phaseolus radiatus ; adad, Phaseolus mungo ; and vdl, Dolichos labUb,
Oilseeds occupied 452 acres or 0*94 per cent, 423 of them under Itt,
Sesamum indicum ; and 29 under other oilseeds, of which detaib
are not available. Fibres occupied 389 acres or 0*81 per cent, all
of it under cotton, kapds, Gossypium herbaceum. MiscellaneoQi
crops occupied 6420 acres or 18*41 per cent, 4259 of them nsder
tobacco, tambdku, Nicotiana tabacum ; 731 under sugarcane, serdi,
Saccharum officinarum; 513 under indigo, galij Indigofera tinctom;
132 under safflower, kasumha, Carthamus tinctorius; and 785 under
miscellaneous vegetables and fruits.

^iSPo^ The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 144,528

**'*• souls, 136,084 or 9415 per cent, Hindus; 8236 or 5*69 per cent,

Masalm&ns; 2 Parsis ; and 206 Christians. Statistics speoally pre-
pared from the enumerators' forms give the following caste details:
5652 Br^hmans; 1 Brama-Eshatri ; 34 Parbhus; 1 Edyasth; 3151
ydni&s;346Shrdvak8; 1127Bh&tiafl and Luv&nas; 31,871 Eanbui
6825 Rajputs; 909 K&chhias; 141 Mdlis; 665 Bh&vs&rs, calico*
printers ; 57 1 Sonis, gold and silver smiths ; 1351 Suthdrs, carpenten|
964 Luhkrs, blacksmiths ; 38 Eadi£s, bricklayers ; 4 Saints, masona
82 Khatris, silk and cotton weavers ; 344 Darjis, tailors; 155S
£umbh&rs, potters; 1986 Haj&ms, barbers; 212 Dhobhis, wasIieN
men; 913 Bhats, 27 Ch&rans, bards and genealogists; 913 Bhdfly
fishers and labourers; 305 'Khdrv&s and M&chhis, seamen and fislier^
men ; 28 Bharv&ds, herdsmen; 1480 Bab&ris, shepherds; 21 Ehandi%
turners ; 2338 Ydghris, fowlers and hunters; 879 R&valiaaj
cotton tapemakers; 275 Gol&s, ricepounders ; 55,428 Kolis; 5^
Purabi&s and Mar&th&s; 472 Mochis, shoemakers; 1927 Chamadii
tanners; 538 Baj&ni&s, acrobats; 155 Ods, diggers; 109 Sindhvis
108 Toris ; 36 Garudds ; 8074 Dheds ; 3002 Bhangids ; and 90
religious beggars. As regards occupation the same return arrangei
the whole population under the following seven classes:
Employed under Glovemment or municipal or other local authoritid
777. ii. Professional persons^ 1553. iii. In service or performiq
personal offices, 1887. iv. Engaged in agriculture and wii
animals, (a) cultivators 34,091 (6) labourers 1486, total 35,57
v. Engaged in commerce and trade, 469. vi. Employed fl
mechanical arts, manufactures, and eng^eering operations, aa
engaged in the sale of articles manufactured or otherwise prepare
for consumption, 8172. vii. Miscellaneous persons not claase
otherwise, (a) women 42,463, and children 52,516^ in all 94,979
and (6) miscellaneous persons 1114, total 96,093.
EoalilL rpiie ^q^j jjxtmber of deaths registered in the six yean

1875 was 11,374, or an average yearly mortality

yean endiiH
of 1896, i^

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KilRA.

165

^ die basis of the 1872 census fignres 1*81 per cent of 144,528^
-jiihe total population of the sub-division. Of the average number of
deaths, 1289 or 67*98 per cent were returned as due to fever ; 242
.4^ 12'76 per cent, to diarrhoea and dysentery ; 61 or 3'22 per cent^
4o smallpox ; 35, or 1*84 per cent, to cholera ; and 246 or 12*97 per
-fi^i, to miscellaneous diseases Deaths from accidents and violence
^ayeraged 23 or 1*21 per cent of the average mortality of the
pab-diyision. During the same period the births of 10,066 children
.9r«re registered, 5468 males and 4598 females^ or an average yearly
JbkHk rate of 1677 or 1*16 per cent of the population.
eI

Chapter nil
Sub-divisiona.

BOBSAD.

I ■ -

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[Bon&bsj GftiitlMm

CHAPTER XIV.

PLACES OF INTEREST.

Chapter ZIV. A'nand, north lat. 22* 38' ; east lonflr. 73** 0', a station on ft«
PlaAM c^IatArMt ^<^°^^*y Baroda and Central India Railway, had in 1872 28W
ruoes oxmieresv- j^^^g^g ^j^^ ^ population of 8773 souls. Besides the ordinary sub-
divisional revenue and police ofiSces the town is provided with A
post office.
A'BA'ft. A'ra's. The plain of A'r&s between A'nand and the Mahi has,

in modem times^ been the scene of three important battles. At
the first of these (1723) Rustam Ali the Imperial Governor of Sural
was, through the treachery of PiUji Gdikwdr, defeated and slain bf
Hdmid Khan the deputy of Nizdm-ul-Mulk. At the seconJ
(1775, February) Raghundthr&v Peshwa was defeated by Patehsingk
G4ik wdr. At the third, a few months later (1 775, May 18th), Fatet
singh^s victorious army was, after a severe struggle, defeated by 9
British detachment under the command of Colonel Keatinge. Of the
third battle of A'rds Mr. Forbes who was present gives the followin|
details. The enemies' cannon silenced and their cavalry disperse^
by the British artillery, a party was sent forward to take their gani^
While a strong force of cavalry opposed this party's advance, a bodf
of Mardtha troops professing to be partisans of Raghun&thriv tha
English ally, was allowed to pass between the advanced party sntt
the main British line. Attacked both in front and rear the forward
party resisted bravely till the grenadiers, facing to the right-aboul
to change ground, by some mistake began to retreat. The re^;
followed and at the same time a tumbril of shells blowing up addof ;
to the confusion. The men retreated at first in order, but gel
broken at a high hedge fled to the main line. The enemy foUo
but were met by so steady a fire of grape shot and shell that th^
were driven off the ground. The British were left masters of tlj
field and a gun that had fallen into the enemies' hand w^ retak^
The engagement lasted for four hours. Victory was dearly bong! '
Of fifteen British officers in the advanced division seven were ki"
and four wounded. Eighty Europeans, a number of native offi<
and 200 men were killed or missing.^ i

BoBSAB. Borsad, north lat. 22° 24' j east long. 72** 56', a town twcH^

miles west of the V&sad railway station and twenty-four miles nort'
east of the port of Cambay had in 1872 4092 houses and a popnlaiii
of 12,214 souls. The town is protected by a double line of fo: "

itdsf

i Forbes' Or. M«m. a 07 wd 98 «

Digitized by VjOOQIC

a^iiKti

KAIRA^

167

tie oater in disrepair^ the inner in fair preservation. Thonghj Chapter ZI7*

according to tradition, Borsad dates back to a certain Rij a Nal pjaeeg rfLitereifc

in the foarth century A.D., the fortifications are modem built

by Rangoji, one of the Maratha leaders who in 1741 fixed his head- BoaaAn.

quarters at Borsad. The fort of Borsad was pretty constantly the

scene of fighting till in 1748, after a siege of five montbs, Khander^v

Giikwdr took the town and made Rangoji prisoner. For the last

thirty years a Presbyterian missionary has been settled at Borsad.

He has succeeded in bringing together a Christian community of 1 1 66

boqIs. Besides the ordinary sub-divisional revenue and police oflSces

the town of Borsad is provided with a subordinate judge's court, a

IK»t office, and a dispensary. There were in 1878 three Government

adiools with an average attendance of 270 pupils.

' Chakla'si, north lat. 22° 39' ; east long. 72'' 59', a town in the Chakla'sl
Kadiad sub-division had in 1872 ld80 houses and a population of
7081 souls.

. Da'kor, north lat. 22** 45'; east long. 73° 11', a favourite place Da'ko*.
%f Hindu pilgrimage in the Th^sra sub-division on the Pali branch
0{ the Bombay Baroda and Central India Railway. It has a further
interest as the spot where in 1732 PiMji Gaikwdr was assassinated
ty the emissaries of Abhesingh viceroy of Gujardt.^ It had in
1872, 2657 houses and a population of 7740 souls, and in 1878 a
nmnicipal revenue of £1981 (Bs. 19,810). It is provided with a
;^ost oflSce and a dispensary.

;*■ The object of worship is an image of Krishna or Ranchodji
(VoQght to Ddkor from Dw&rka in E^thidwar. About the year
ijlob there lived in D&kor a certain Bamd^s othermse known as
^9odh:mo, by caste a Kshatri. A strict devotee of Krishna, this
.^dhSno allowed a plant of sweet basil to grow from the palm of
^eof his hands. With this as his offering he used twice a year to
fviake a pilgrimage from Ddkor to Krishna^s shrine at Dwarka. At
neDgth Bodhano grew old and the god, seeing that he would not
Jbng be able to pay his half-yearly visit, allowed his votary to
&ke the Dwarka image and carry it with him to his home in
WSkoT, Deliglited with this mark of Krishna's favour Bodhdno
flbzed the image and made good his escape from Dwdrka.
VWhen the news spread that the god was gone the priests in hot
arsoit, overtaking Bodhdno as he reached Dikor^ slew him with
arrow. With a last effort Bodhdno hurled the image into the
br lake and the priests failing in their pursuit sat fasting by
water side. Taking pity on the strangers, Bodhnno^s widow
ayed the god to make known his hiding place. The god granted
r prayer, telling her at the same time not to part with the image
kot te offer the priests its weight in gold. The priests accepted the
" r, and when the time for weighing came, the woman trusting to
I god threw into the balance all the gold she had, a light nose-ring.
\ by the favour of the god weighed down the scale. Disappointed
their hopo of gain the priests refused to abide by their bargain;

1 Waten'tHiiL of QajwA^ UO.

Digitized by .VjOOQIC

188 DISTRICTS,

OhttpterHY'* nor would they leave until they had exacted from the god a promifli
naoMtfLiteraft ^^^^ ^° their return to Dwarka they should find hid in a well as
image the same as the one they had lost

Da'kob, The chief objects of interest at Dikor are the lake and the tempb

where the image of Erishna is enshrined. The lake is the largest
in the Eaira district provided on three sides with a masonry waO
and flights of stone steps. The temple was built in 1772 at a cost
of about £10,000 (Els, 1,00,000), by Gopil Jagannith T4mbekar»
native of Sdtara and banker to the Peshwa. The enclosure, entered
by gateways on the north and west, is round, paved with stone an4
girt with walls and outhouses. The temple with brick walls and
stone pillars raised on a high plinth approached on all sides by a
flight of twelve stone steps, measures 1 68 feet from east to west
and 151 from north to south and has eight domes and twenty-four
turrets, the highest of ninety feet. The inside is richly omamentedj
the dome with plates of talc and the doors and gratings with a costly
network of silver and glass. The idoFs throne, a beautiful piece of
wood carving, has, at a cost of £1 2,500 (Rs. 1,25,000), lately been covered,
with gold aad silver by H. H. the Gaikwar. The temple reveuaet
are, besides pilgrim's presents, a yearly allowance of £340 (Rs. 3400)
together with the rental of the two villages of Dakor and EanjrL Tin
ceremonial duties are distributed among a body of priests belonging t*^
three classes, Ehed&v4l Bribmans, Shrigod Br^hmans, and Tapodhan^
Every full moon brings crowds of devotees to D&kor. But the chioE
gatherings, with from fifty to a hundred thousand pilgrims, many o|
them from the Deccan or from distant parts of K&thi^w&r are
the October, A' so, and November, Kdrtik, full moons. At other '
moons the number of pilgrims varies from five to ten thoos
chiefly from Kaira and otner parts of Qujardt. Besides the fuUmooil^
fairs special gatherings are on three occasions held at Dllkor, ia|
Harch the Fdgan sud agidras ; in June the car-day, rath-jatraf
and in*July-Augu8t, Erisnna^s birth-day or janm^shtami. TheH
are local gatherings of little importance. On all of these occasionf i
persons of every caste from the Br&hman to the Dhed attend, tha
I)heds worshipping at a distance not being allowed to enter thai
temple. The passenger traflGic of Ddkor has increased from 126,060
in 1874 to 284,330 in 1877.

T>eb7a'v. Dehva'n, with, in 1872, a population of 8401 souls lodged in

honses on the Mahi in the Borsad sub-division, was once a
and a place of consequence. Its trade is said to have been destro]
by the competition of Cambay and the shoaling of the river.
1824 vessels of some size might still approach it at spring tide.^
KiiBA. Kaira (Kheda), northlat.22°45'j eastloni?. 72^44', the h(

quarter town of the district stands on rising ground near
meeting of the Vitrak and Sedhi twenty miles south of Ahmedaf
Surrounded by a brick wall, with streets uneven and narrow,
with tile-roofed houses solid, lofty and with much well-carved
work, Kaira had in 1872 a population of 12,681 souls lodged in

1 Bom. Gov. BeL XL 108.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

.Kaiba,

EAIBA. 169

^oasefi. Kaira is a very ancient dty, according to one story as old ,Chapter XIV.

ts the time of the Mahiblidrat (B.C. 1400) when it bore the name Plaoesof Intezeit

of Chakravati Nagari and its king Mordhaj foaght and was defeated

by the PandavB.^ The evidence of copperplate grants shows that

under the name of Khaidra this town was in existence as early as the

llfth centary A.D.* About a hundred years later it is spoken of

18 a great city 'the birth-place of Shiladitya the conqueror of

^alabhi/* In modern Gujarat history Kaira holds no prominent

lace. Early in the eighteenth century the town passed into the

ids of the Babi family with whom it remained till in 1 763 it was

:en by the Marath^ under Damdii Gaikw&r. In 1775 it was a

town fortified with a brick wall, the buildings almost entirely

If by trees.* It was handed over to the British by A'nandr^v

HkwiriulSOS (May3).« Under the British its position as a frontier

tfcion made Eaira a place of some importance. For this reason,

id as it was at that time considered one of the healthiest spots in

itish Gujarat, a large body of troops, infantry, cavalry and artillery

s collected^ and barracks, hospitals, and o6Scers' houses built.

iier on (1830 ?) the transfer of the frontier station to Deesa and

removal of troops to Poena reduced the importance of Eaira

^ military station. The climate also seems to have changed for the

yrseas iu 1825 the station, especially the camp, had a name for

freme unhealthiness, the hot weather causing dreadful havoc among

J European troops.* In 1838 the only corps stationed at Kaira

b the Gujar&t provincial battalion with a strength of 400 men,

e cantonment was in ruins, the timber and rafters taken to Deesa

brnld European barracks.^ Since the troops have been withdrawn

fjstaff of European officers stationed at Kaira has been reduced to

^ the Collector and his assistant, the superintendent of police, the

icative engineer, and the civil surgeon. The climate of the station

nld seem of late years to have again improved. In 1860 and

fi earthquake shocks, but too slight to cause loss of life or

^rty, were felt® During the last fifty years the population

J Bom. Gov. Sel. XXIH. 146.

^380-385 S&ka (A.D. 45S— 463), acoording to Canningham Ancient Geography of
^hLi316. The inscriptions are given in J. R. A. S. new series, I., 270-277.
^Bime Khaira is said to come from Ketaka the Sanskrit form of Kevda the sweet
* Pandanas, Cal. JL of Scienoe 1838. Sakhad, the oonfeotioners' and Ratanpnr
^rs' qiiarters, each about two miles from Kaira, are according to local story
of the ancient city. In digging drains near Kaira ( 1 832) many coins and marUe
, w^ found.— Briggs' Cities of Gujardshtra, 195-196.
BAa Mila, L, 20-24/ There were seeral kings of Valabhi named Shiliditya
IB dates vary from 421-627. Hionen-Thsang (630-640) is thought (J. R. A. S.
Kries 71 ., IL 272) to have referred to Kaira under the form Kietchi or Kita.
the details, a kingdom of 600 miles (3000 U) and a town six miles (20 U) round,
"^200 miles south of Vallabhi, do not agree with Kaira. He describes the people
and well-to-do, under M&lwa without a separate ruler. There were twelve
convents and many dozens of Brahman temples and a large number of
~Jalien*s filfe of Hiouen-Thsang, 401-402.
|..-.jes'Or. Mem. 11.77.
•Aitchison's Treaties, VI. 316.
"^HebcesTravels, 11.166.

•Mr. VaupeU in Trans. Bom. Geo. Soo. VU. 108-109 (1838).
•Bom. Geo. Soc. XVIL 296.

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[BomlNty flttNMMr, V
170 DISTRICTS.

<SiB!fitttJI7. . remained nearly constant at 12,000. In 1838 it was 12,000;
flaoMoflnttrMtt ^^ 1851, 12,091; and in 1872, 12,681, of whom, includiDg2BW
Shrdvakfi, 11,078 were Hindus, 1548 Maealmans, forty Persia, and
fifteen Christians.

Eaira has two parts within and without the walls, or the tovn
proper and the suburbs. The town proper may be roughly distri-
buted among five divisions, the north, east, south, west, and oentnL
The north division contains the Oirdsidvdd or the Girasiiis' qaarter,
with Rajputs, chiefly cultivators, and a few superior land-holdera ; tliB
Kdkustekra or the Kikus' hill with Brdhman beggars, Vania brokem
and money lenders and Kanbi cultivators; the Ndni Voharvdd or
little Bohora ward with Sunni Bohora cotton carders and o3
sellers, and Undivdt, the low road, with Mochi shoemakers. Tht
east division includes Parmdrvdd the Parm6r Rajput^s qiiart«^
chiefly cultivators ; Shethvdd the merchant's ward, Shrdvaks chieft
Government servants, and money lenders ; Hajdmvdd tiie bMbU
ward ; and Harkha pdrekh street with Vania bankers and monfi
lenders. The south division includes Vdndarldburaj, the monkejl
tower with E&chhia cultivators and brickmakers; SvkaJm
or the priests' quarter with Br^man domestic priests
Government servants ; Ldmbiseri^ the long street, with Shrin
and V&nia cloth-sellers, dealers, and money-lenders, and a fe"
Br&hman beggars ; Bhdvsdrvdd or the calicoprinters' quarter,
Kdchkidvdd with K^chhia cultivators, bricklayers and vegetafa
sellers. The west division includes Mdlivdd the gardenei
ward with gardeners, tailors, some Brahman beggars and tradii
y&ni^ ; Moti Voharvdd, or great Bohora ward, with Su
Bohora oil-sellers, cotton carders, and coarse cloth dealers ; Vdc\
the well ward with Kanbi cultivators and Bhdvsar calicoprinten
and Babdrivdd the shepherd's ward, with Rabaris, who ko
cows, sheep and goats, and live by selling milk and wool, a
Shr&vak brokers and money lenders. The central division inclui
the town market and the Patelvddo where besides the families
the headmen of the town are Shrdvak shopkeepers, money lend«
and a few Government servants ; Kolivdd, the Kolis' ward ^
poor cultivators and labourers ; BhathivdJo, the brick-kiln ward w
cultivators and Brdhmans ; Syedvdd, the Syed's ward with Musali
cultivators and Government messengers ; Vaidvdd, the doctors' i
with Brdhmans formerly medical practitioners now beggars,
Jdrola tekro, the J4roWs hill with money lenders of the Jfe
Vdnia caste.

Outside of the town walls are seven suburbs three to the fioi
two to the esst and one each to the north and west. The tl
south suburbs are Amkdpura, called after Amkabai the si
of Tikdji G6ikwfir, with Kdchhia cultivators and brickmakers,
Momni Musalmfin weavers ; Vdghesvari the tiger god's quarter ^
Marvadi low class labourers, gamblers and prostitutes ; Dhedvai
the Dheds' ward, most of them coarse cloth weavers. The two el
suburbs are the Bdvchdvdd, the Bdvch&s' ward with Bivcha gn
sellers and labourers, and Bhangidvdd, the Bhangiis ward wi
Bhangia sweepers and Khflpa leather dressers. The north subii
is Bhowdd, the Bhois' ward with fishermen, cdtivators and palanqi

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KAIBA. 171

kaarars. The west enbtorb Lakmanparsj is a small hamlet of Eoli Ouster XPT.

kbonrers and cultivators. ^^^^ rffiitereit

Kaiia is a place of little trade and, except the weaving, dyeing ^
snd printing of cotton cloth, of no manufactures.

Though so old a town Kaira is wanting in remains. Large

bricks about eighteen inches square and three inches thick,

fonnd from time to time in the bed of the Vdtrak and in digging

foundations in the town, are almost the only relics. Of objects of

iftterest there are the town walls built of brick probably abont the

ijear 1730 by Muhammad Eh&n Bibi then governor of the town,

I llepairs were provided for by a special cess known as the mdsvari

kero. This yielding about £160 (Rs. 1600) a year was continued

in 1837 the town walls were rebuilt, the masvdri cess given

and town duties levied in its stead.^ Near the centre of the

wn is the court-house, a handsome building with Greek pillars,

isrthe court is the old jail, in 1814 the scene of a riot in which

ly-seven prisoners rose and tried to force their way out. Before

} mutiny was suppressed nineteen were killed and twelve

rounded. Not far frona the court house is a Jain temple with some

eautiful dark wood carving. Outside of the east gate is the jail

ith room for about 1 50 prisoners. Outside of the south gate are

le reading-room and library with a well-proportioned clock tower

bilt in 1868. A hundred yards beyond on the further bank of the

^trak stands the Collector's house and office, and a mile and a

lUto the south-east is the camp, formerly a large cantonment, now

scupied only by the police and a few of the district officers. The

hiTch, built abont 1825 at a cost of £8000 (Bs. 80,000) and

ascribed by Bishop Heber (1825) as ' large and solid but clumsy,*

tough in good repair is seldom used.

£aira has since 1857 been a municipal town with an income in
(78 of £756 (Bs. 7560). Besides keeping the streets in order^
;;liting, watering and cleaning them and providing public latrines,
le mnnicipality has repaired breaches in the town wall and in part
liilt a bridge at the north entrance to the town. There were in
)78 four Government schools with an average attendance of 333
ipils.

Kapadvanj, north lat 23^ 1'; east long. 73^ 7', the chief
nn of the snb-division of the same name stands on the east bank
the Mohar river thirty-six miles north-east of Kaira. A fortified
vn of considerable trade Kapadvanj had in 1872 a population
13,982 souls, and in 1878 a municipal revenue of £667 (Bs. 6670).
jKapadvanj would seem to be a settlement of great antiquity,
present town contains buildings of from five to eight hnndred
old and near the walls is the site of a stitl more ancient city.
~ ng to a local history its original name was Eapatpura of
town of deceit. But as in many other cases this name seems to
little more than an attempt to form a Sanskrit word out of a

1 Bom. Gov. SeL OXIT. 508.

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172 DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIY- Pr&krit name.^ In modem times Kapadyanj has been the seeiu
Placet of Interest ^^ three somewhat important battles. In 1454 in a straggle between
M^mud Khiiji king of M&lwa and Eutnb-ud-din king of Gujaiat
KAPADVAKj. (1451.1459), though in the end victory rested with the Gujartt
army at one time they were so hard pressed that the king's crown
and jewelled girdle remained in the enemy's hands. In 1725 the
Mar4th&s under Kant&ji and Pil&j} 64ikw&r were defeated b; tb
Imperial troops commanded by Kh&nahz&d Ehan. Eleven yean
later (1736) the tovm fell to a joint Mar&tha and Koli attack.
From that time Kapadvani remained in the hands of the Maiithls
till, in 1816-1817, in exchange for the neighbouring territory of
Bijdpur, it was made over to tbe British. At that time Eapadysjij
contained about 10,000 inhabitants; by 1857 the number bad
risen to 13,000 ; in 1864 it is returned at 14,202 and in 1872 it had
slightly faUen to 13,982 souls lodged in 5025 houses.

On one of the main routes between Central India and the coasi,
Kapadvanj has always been a place of considerable trade, la
1816 it was a thriving well built town and in 1864 was famous for
trade with enterprizing bankers and dealers, in wealth aod
respectability second only to those of Nadiad. Its merchants sie
Musalm&n Bohor&s of the Shia sect, ' the most enlightened and
persevering people in the Kaira district, Kving in substantial houses
models of cleanliness and order.' The iDusiness of coUectiDg agala
and moss pebbles found in the bed of the Mdjam river, about fiftws
miles of Kapadvanj, is almost entirely in the hands of merchants of
this class. Its manufactures are soap, glass, and leather batter*
jars. Iron ore used to be smelted in Kapadvanj and heaps of iroa.
slag may still be seen in the outskirts of the town. The chief
articles of trade are grain and opium from Central India, and tobacco
from G-ujarat. Besides supplying a considerable local demand
Kapadvanj goods are exported to the Panch Mahals^ the BaLasinor
country and Central India,

The chief objects of interest in the town are a fine reservoir and
an arch in the Ch^lukya (1000-1300) style. Of the reserToir,
according to local story the work of Siddhraj Jaisingh king or
Anhilvdda (1094-1143), the following legend remains. The baniflf
Siddhr£j, an old Eajput called Bhima, sick of many diseases caa«
to Kapadvanj to bathe and worship in the Madnmati or Vitnk
stream. Wandering near the river his foot slipped on the stem
bank of a pool and he fell. Though sunk in deep water he struggle!
safely to shore, and on reaching the bank found that his yoafll
and strength were restored. On his return to his master so grefl^
was he changed that at first he was not known. When his stoqp
was told, the king struck with the strangeness of his cure i
messengers to Kapadvanj to find out the wonder-working pool. Bl
at Kapadvanj no one had heard of such a pool and their inquiry ^
in vain, till one Someshvarbhat a N&gar Brdhman ' a two-ey(
Bhiva in saintliness and knowledge ' showed the messengers tin

1 Dr. BtLhIer. Other derivfttioiw are Kabir pdnch the five tombfi «id Ki^pad tmf
the cloth town.

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KAIRA.

lis

Eapadyavj.^

Mahvdba.

object of their eearcli and explained the source of its virtue. The Chapter TCWJ *

king ordered the sides of the pool to be clothed with masonry and places of Intoreit*

a temple to be built in honour of Vishnu. To the south of this pool

is an underground temple dedicated to Mahidev. This^ a building

of some interest^ has never been properly explored. Of Musalm^

remains there are^ besides the town fortifications^ the ruins of many

fine mosques and tombs. Of modem buildings that of most note is

a Jain place of worship. This temple bailt about twenty-five years

ago at a cost of £15^000 (Rs. 1^50^000) is raised on a ten feet high

stone plinth. The interior is richly ornamented with marble pillars^

and a marble pavement inlaid with much delicacy and taste. At

one comer is a plain underground chamber with a black stone image.

The Bohora^s quarter has some fine buildings among them a mosque

of mnch beauty and many old dwellings very lofty and rich in wood

carving. Near the east gate is a fine rest-house built at a cost of

over £5000 (Rs. 50,000) by the widow of a rich merchant. Besides

the ordinary sub-divisional revenue and police offices Eapadvanj is

K)?ided with a sub- judge's court, a post office and a dispensary,
ere were in 1878 three Government schools with an average
attendance of 866 pupils.

Hahudha^ north latitude 22° 49' ; east long. 72*' 69', a town
-in the Nadidd sub-division is one of the head-quarters of the
'Eheddval Br&hmans. Mahudha is said to have been founded by
I « Hindn prince named Mandhat about two thousand years ago. It
\ had in 1872 a population of 9884 souls lodged in 8319 houses. It
: 18 provided with a post office and a dispensary. There were in 1878
I £ve Government schools with an average attendance of 435 pupils.

^ Ha'tar, north latitude 22* 42' j east longitude 72* 42', four
{'Hales south-west of Eaira, the chief place in the sub-division of the
I'Bamename had in 1872 a population of 4804 souls lodged in 1778
' boQses. Besides the ordinary sub-division revenue and police offices
I liatar is provided with a post office. The chief object of interest in
hV^tar is a Shr^vak temple whose foundations were laid in 1797
I by Laxmichand Dharamchand a rich Ahmedabad merchant. After-
I'Wards subscriptions were collected and the building was completed
t'tta cost of about £40,000 (Rs. 4,00,000). On the April, Cliaitra, full
hiDoon and on the second and fifteenth of October, Kdrtik, large
N^iunbers of worshippers attend.

I Hehmadabad, north latitude 22'' 49'; east longitude 72 '^ 48',
» station on the Bombay Baroda and Central India Railway
[eighteen miles south of Ahmedabad, had in 1878 a municipal revenue
m £344 (Rs. 8440). Mehmadabad takes its name from Mahmud
^gadawho ruled in Gujarat from 1459 to 1513 and founded the
icity about the year 1479, fortifying it and building noble palaces.^
The city was further improved during the reign of Mahmud III.
(1636-1554) who built a deer park, an enclosure six miles' lone and
^nearly as broad as a horse could run. At each comer of the park was
t palace with gilded walls and roof. On the right hand side of the

Matam.

I Bud'a6ojartt|212.

a Two/arMii^f.

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[Bombay OmttMr,
174 DISTRICTS.

ObQftar ZIT* doors leading to each of the palaces was a market and in eaoli sluf a
naoMitf&LtttMt ppn-faced damsel to provide eyerytliing that contributed to pleasure,
baring the reign of this prince and of his predecessor Muzafir IL
(1513-1526) Mehmadabad was every year, on the birth-day of
the Prophet, the scene of a great festival when all the leai-ned mea
of the kingdom rehearsed the traditions before the court.^ These
buildings remained in repair till the close of the sixteenth centoiy;
the author of the Ain-i-Akbari (1590) referring to its many gnad
buildings surrounded with a wall ten miles square, its pleasure houses
and its game enclosure.^ In 1638 it was a small town pleasant and
fair with a handsome castle to the west. Its people were Eindu^
great spinners and traders in thread.' In 1666 it was of middling
size spinning cotton thread for the most part of Gujardt and the
neighbouring country.* By the end of the seventeenth century it
had come to such decay that it was no more than a poor village.'
Its population 4939 souls, in 1827, had in 1872 risen to 8065 soda
lodged in 2974 houses. The town was prosperous^ the houses oa
the whole well built and the people well-to-do with a considerable
manufacture of coarse cotton cloth. Besides the gateways at the
principal entrances and the remains of the line of city walls, a step
well in the centre of the town said to be older than the time of
Mahmud Begada, the Dhundia reservoir, and the Bhamaria* well on
the way to Kaira are all objects of interest. The most beaatifol
remains are two tombs about one and a half miles east of the town,
built in 1484 in honour of Mubarak Syed one of Mahmud Begada's
ministers. Exclusive of the porch the larger of these tombs is onlj
ninety-four feet square and sixty feet high with fifty -two pillars and 4
marble floor. Though small there is a simplicity of plan, and 1
solidity and balance of parts rarely if ever surpassed in any Indian
tomb. The details are graceful and suitable. Double verandahi
and a screen of pierced stone- work of the very finest tracery gitf ;
the seclusion and repose indispensable to a mausoleum. Hal
it been built on a larger scale this tomb would rank among th9
first of its class.^ There are three inscriptions, religious and moial

Jrecepts with no reference to the founder or the date of buildiDg* ;
n the tomb are two shrines, one of the prime minister the other ot
Syed Mirin his son. To the south of the tomb are throe smaller
shrines, one of the architect who built the tomb and the others of ;
Saif-ud-din and Niz^-ud-din brothers of Mir4n Syed's mother.
Besides the ordinary sub-division revenue and police offices tfaa
town contains a post office and a dispensary.

1 Bird's Gnjar&t, 269.

* Gladwin's Ain-iAkbarl, II. 64.

* Mandelslo, 73,74

* Thevenot Voyag«i^ V. 97.

" Baldens in ChnrchiU, III. 514.

* This wen, now in ruins, is said to luvre 1>oen built by Mahmud Beigadaas a M
waathfii retreat. Above ffroand it has two stone ardxes, said to have been wm
to hang the king's swing from, and four stone trellis work windows. Hie well. 71
foet by 2i, is e^ered bv {our winding stairs and has eight nndeigroiuid rhim^**
four large and four BmaU.-- Mr. Burgess' notes, 1S78.

' FergoMoa'u Hisi U Indiaaaad &0tern ArchttMtnta, UL OHL

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FAIRA. 17R

Nadia'd/ norfh lat. 22'' 44' j east long. 73^ 0', a station on the Chaptw X17.
Bombay Baroda and Genti-al India Bailwaj^ is the largest town in Places of Intireifc

the district. ^ ,

At the beginning of the seventeenth century (1612) Nadiid was a
large town where the people made indigo.* In 1638 its houses were
good and it had some cotton and indigo manufactures.^ In 1666
it was a place of middle size where much cotton was made.^ In
1775 it was one of the prettiest cities in Gujarat, nearly three miles
round with a slight wall flanked at irregular distances by round
towers. It had nine strong gates and a dry ditch round the walls.
The people about twelve thousand families^ were chiefly occupied in
weaving fine cloth and other ootton maniifactures. They also cut
and polished Kapadvanj stones. In revenge for its siding with
Fatehsing Gdikwar, Raghunathrdv in that year (1775) levied from
the town a fine of £6000 (Rs. 60,000).* In 1 803 it was handed over
by the Gaikw&r to the British Government. In 1825 it was one of
the largest towns in Gujarlit, with fifteen thousand inhabitants,*
In 1838 it carried on a considerable trade with M&lwa and the interior
. importing grain, drugs, gums and dye stuffs, and exporting cotton,
coarse cloth, caJicoes, tobacco, and coarse sugar.^ In 1847 it was
a most thriving little town.®

Except gateways at the chief entrances no signs of its town walls
remain. Its nine entrances are Dahlidni Bhdgal ; Pinjani Bhdgal ;
[Vamrdlni Bhdgal; Kolivdd Bhdgal; Chakldsi Bhdgal; 8alun
; Bhagal ; Marida Bhdgal ; BUodra Bhdgal ; and Ahmedabadi Bhdgal.
iJle town has five divisions or pdtis, Kdkarkhdd Pdti; Kiliddr
f»nd Haldd Pdti; Ldkhdvdd Pdti; Chakldsi Pdti, and Hirji
Satanji's Pdti, Besides the main divisions there are wards known
I by the names of particular caste or tribes. Of these the chief
[wNdgarvdd, the Ndgar Brdhman^s ward; Ldkhdvdd and Kakar^
I Mad inhabited by rich Kanbi peasants; Santhni Pipli by
I V^nids ; Bhdvsdrvdd by calicoprinters ; Mohoti Vohorvdd and Ndni
\ Vohorvdd by Bohoris ; Desdi Vago by Desdis, or superior landed
i proprietors ; Mohotu paru and Ndnu paru by Kanbi cultivators ;
Jfavdgdm by Kheddvdl Brahmans; Qdzipura and Sakarkoi by
; liusalmans ; Mohota Bhdtvdd and Ndhna Bhdtvdd by Bhdts or Rajput
I genealogists ; Malharpura by Bdvalids, and Vdghrivdd by V^aghris.
I The 1872 census returns show a total population of 24,551 souls
lodged in 9088 houses, of these 21,542, or 87'74 per cent were
Hindus; 2994, or 12*19 per cent Musalmdns; and 15 Pdrsis. The
details are: 2697 Br&hmans; 21 writers, Brahma Ejshatris, and
Siyasih Parbhas; 3150 V&nias and 282 Shrivaks, traders and

1 Contributed by JaTeril&l UmiAahankar Y&Jiiik, EBooire.
S Kerr's Voyages IX. 126.
' Mandelslo's Voyages, 73.

* Thevenot's Travels, V. 97.

i ' • Forbes* Or. Mem. XL 88* To pay tbe tax housea were stripped of everythiog, the
lltners of their clothes and neGessaries or toiiored oa the olianoa that they h*A
^Qietod valuables.
• • Heber*s Travels, EL 146.
' Trans. Bom. Geo. Soo. VII. 107.

* Biiggi' Cities of Q«J«i«8htra, 860,

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176 DISTRICTS.

.Chapter Xlx> meroliants ; 6478 Eanbis, cultivators ; 124 Rajputs^ coltivaton; 901
naoaf oflntereit K&chhids, vegetable growers; 105 M&lis, gardeners ; 317 Bhaysan, ;
^ , calicoprinters ; 6 Ghdnchis^ oil-pressers ; 336 Sonis, gold and silver .

ADiAD. smiths; 424 Suthars, carpenters; 407 Kans&r&s, brass and copper .

smiths; 189 Luh^rs^ blacksmiths; 260 Darjis, tailors ; 184 Eadiva% ,
bricklayers; 681 Barots or Bh&ts^ bards; 367 Kambhdrs, potters;
855 Hajams^ barbers; 64 Dhobhis^ washermen; 257 Golas^ rice-
pounders; 15 Bhddbhunjds, grainparchers ; 38 Marithds, labourers 1
and servants; 37 M4rv4dis, labourers; 170 Bhois, fishers and servants;
11 KaUls, liquor-sellers ; 30 Rabdris, herdsmen; 1016 Kolis^ culti-
vators and labourers ; 680 Vaghris, fowlers, hunters and labourers; j
5 Poml&s, labourers; 403 Mochis, shoemakers; 181 Chamadiat/
tanners ; 499 Dheds, weavers and labourers ; 60 Garudas, Dhed/ ^
priests ; 452 Bhangias, sweepers, and 484 religious beggars. >

The Nadiad traders are chiefly Y^ni^ and Brahmans. Most of ^
the leading merchants are local capitalists. Goods sold to distant
merchants, as tobacco to M41wa traders, are usually paid for in billi
of exchange, the brokers or agents who act on behalf of the distank
trader taking the risk. Bills are freely cashed up to £500 (Rs. 5000)
and sometimes up to £1000 (Rs. 10,000). The ordinary currencf
is the Babash&hi or Baroda rupee. The busy season lasts for aboii
six months from the middle of November to the middle of May. For
sugar, butter, and other articles of food the marriage months, January
to May, are the busy time ; and for cotton and tobacco the harved
months March to May. The chief exports are cotton, tohscco,
cummin seed and mahuda grown in Nadidd and the country rouud, anli
mustard, 77ie^%i,rape,9ar9ai;,andother oil-seeds chiefly from Kapad?8ii]
and Mod&sa drawn to Nadiad as the local trade-centre. Cottoti
and tobacco grown by rich cultivators pass from the producer directto
the exporter, while cummin and other seeds raised in poorer districti
go through the hands of the village trader before the exporter ba}l
them. Tobacco, Nadi&d^s chief export, goes not only to Centnl
India but through Bombay to the Persian Gulf, Aden, and Zanribat
Cotton, almost entirely of the three year short-staple, rcji, sort goeli
to Bombay, and cummin seed to Bombay, and to Ahmedabad and otbeC
parts of Gujar&t. The manufactured articles exported from the to'
are yam, snuff, and dyed cloth. The steam spinning and weavin|
factory opened in 1876 had, chiefly from a want of capital, to bt
closed in 1 878, Snuff is prepared and exported by Vdniis. The chirfi
imports are sugar, molasses, spices, cotton seeds, and piece goods.
Piece goods from Bombay, Surat, Broach, and Ahmedabad
generally pass to the consumer direct from the importer. Thi
imports that have increased most during the last twenty-five yeadl
are piece goods, sugar, and sugarcandy. The consumption
Manchester goods was formerly confined to the rich classes of toinife|
people. But the railway has placed these goods within easy react,
of all and their use has spread not only to all townspeople but evet
to well-to-do villagers. The finer sorts of Manchester piece goodi
are used by Br&hmans, Ydni&s, and other Hindus and upper clast
Musalmdns. The coarse sorts of English piece goods, and the coarsa
cloth woven in local hand-looms have to a great extent been super-
seded by the produce of Ahmedabad and Bombay mills. Though

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KAIRA. 177

lilower prices^ there st31 continnes a fair sale for the finer produce of Chapter XIT.
puid-Iooms. The consamptioii of molasses^ sugar, and sugarcandy places of^terestt
Iprmerlj confined to towns has of late spread to the rural parts of ,

fee district, and the imports of these articles for which Nadiid is the Nadia d.

local centre show a considerable increase.

Except the bankers' union, mahdjan samast, which in the matter
kf trade customs has considerable infiuence over the whole people
jkre is no regular trade association.

! The chief temples are the Santr&m temple with large grounds
here, at every full moon, a fair is held ; the temples of Nar&yandev,
K&iji or Yallabhikch&rya, Sv&min&r^yan, Bhairav, E£lka M&ta,
id Jain temples. The water-supply, from many fresh water springs
id pools, is fair. The chief ponds are TJndev&l and Ratna. Besides
Rend rest-houses there are two sadavarts or charity places where
lOr strangers visiting Nadi&d are supplied with baked gram or
jor and uncooked grain.

Kadiid, a municipal town had, in 1878, a revenue of £1608

t 16,080). Besides the ordinary sub-division revenue and police
« the town is provided with a subordinate judge's court, a
It office, and a dispensary. Including the High School there were
1877-78 eight Government schools with an average attendance
1089 pupils.

Ka'pa'd with a population of 5617 souls lies fourteen miles Na'pa'd,

li of the Y&sad railway station in the A'nand sub-division. Till

p9 Napdd was a Mlimlatddr's station. North of the village is a

Hdsome pond said to have been built about 400 years ago by a

ttin named Tazekh&n Narpdli, governor of Petl&d. The sides

I of brick octagonal in shape about 500 yards round with in each

^ a triangular flight of steps leading to the water. On the west

an Idga, or place of Id prayers, with a flight of granite steps

ling to the lake. Beyond the Idga along the bank are traces

terraces and other buildings. At the end some steps lower than

bank a twenty-four arch causeway, eighty-six yards long and one

I a half broad with brick side walls, stretches to a solid piece of

ionry about twenty feet square in the centre of the lake. In the

idle of this, on four stone pillars, is a small dome with the remains

I few broken marble figures. In the wall on the north-east

fUer of the lake are three round openings, and from behind them

catch the rain water two walled trenches stretch for 100 or

yards in opposite directions with at the meeting point the

of handsome stone trellis work. The well, vdv, to the east

village, also the work of Tazekhan Narp&li was, in 1838,

" by a Baroda merchant.^

I, north latitude 22^ 37' ; east longitude 73** 10', a town in the qd.

id sub-division had, in 1872, a population of 8423 souls lodged
12256 houses.

taia'sra, north latitude 22^ 48' ; east longitude 73*' IS', the chief Tha'sei.

] Bom. Qto. Soc. II, 52 and 53»

iU7-a

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178

DISTRICTS.

Cahnpter XTT.
HMMofLitiroit

Sa'markha,

Sandalpur,

Sa'bsa.

SiLI.

Umbith.

Vadta'l.

place in the Bab-division of that name^ fire milee north d Dftoq
had in 1872, a population of 3499 souls lodged in 1047 hotin«
Besides the ordinary sub-division revenue and polioe offices H^
town is provided with a post office.

Sa'markha, north lat. 22^ 86'; east long. 73^ 2\ a townmfli
A^nand sub-division had in 1872 a population of 5281 sods lodgi
in 1415 houses.

Sandalpur^ with, in 1872, a population of 2833 souls lodged i
671 houses is situated in the A'nand sub-division. The bank (JtU
Mahi near this village is said to have been the site of an andent dtf '
of which some traces may still (1871) be seen.^

Sa'rsa, north latitude 22° 83' > east longitude 73° 7', a town*'
the A'nand sub-division had in 1872 a population of 5218
lodged in 1516 houses.

Sili, with, in 1872, a population of 2920 souls lodged in 7
houses in the A'nand sub-division contains a splendid reservoir 1»
between 1821 and 1824 by BaUib&i, widow of Malh&r N^rdyan, i
officer in the Gdikwdr's service. The reservoir with a temple, lei
house and well were estimated to cost £3000 (Rs. 30,000).*

Umreth, north latitude 22'' 41' ; east longitude 73° 9', a fitati
on the Bombay Baroda and Central India Bailway had in l\
a population of 11,823 souls lodged in 3080 houses. In li
the number had risen to 13,954, many of them Khedikv&l Biflnoi
lodged in 4997 houses. One of the largest and richest towns in
Kaira district, Umreth is provided with a sub-judge^s court and
post office. There were in 1878 five schools with an avefi
attendance of 538 pupils.

Vadtal* (Wartal), about one and a half miles west of the Bon
station on the Bombay Baroda and Central India Railway had in II
a population of 2826 souls lodged in 693 houses. The intereSi
Vadtal is from its connection with the Gujarit Hindu refon
Sahajanand Sv&mi. This mana Lucknow Bnihmau, bom abonti
year 1780, came to Grujardt in the beginning of the present cenfca
By his character for holiness, and by the display of supematt
powers, he collected a large body of followers. An ascetic in lifei
a fierce denouncer of immorality especially among the priesthfl
Sahajdnand made many enemies and for a time was subjected
persecution. But his sufferings, kindling enthusiasm among
followers, added to his power. About 1810 he settled at Vadtfli
from that time till his death in 1829 his influence fitei
spread. Accepting the ordinary Hindu theology and nphoii
the worship of Krishna, Sahajdnand contented himself with
to mend men^s ways by preaching morality and holy living,
the disorderly classes of Kdthiawdr he denounced riot and
and among the rich traders of Ahmedabad and Kaira Inzor^
debauchery. For his followers he laid down rules for a life of

1 Bom. Gov. Sel. XI., 79. 9 Bom. Gov. SeL XL 79L \

8 The name ia spelt Wartal in the map* j

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EAmA« 179

leetic rigour and self-denial. Dying childless Sahaj&nand was in Chi^ter XIV-

129 succeeded in the post of A'cb&rjB or spiritual leader by his pi^^ crflntttiik.
iphewi who in torn WBS^ in 1862j succeeded by his nephew the

te6Qt spiritual head. VadtVl.

Seen from the village of Vadtfl the monastery forms a long row
bnfldin^ opening about the middle in a massive doorway
{rroached by a flight of granite steps. This doorway leads into a
todrangle with a large temple in the centre. This temple, with
jHeof interest either in form or ornament, has for its chief object
worship an image of Banchodji or Krishna. Built in 1824 at a
rtof about £7500 (Rs. 75,000), it is approached by a flight of stone
^ and surrounded by a stone corridor. It is entered by three
tes to the north, east, and south. Supported by fifty-six pillars
b roof rises in three small and one large central dome the
tenors covered with gay but tasteless paintings from scenes in
iishna's life. Bound the walls are shrines dedicated to Krishna
iier different forms. Among these is one sacred to Sahaj&nand
> founder of the sect This recess is furnished with a silvered
flstead, srdchsupa, and pillows with a richly crested turban laid
ftem, and by the bed a small stool with a pair of wooden pattens
la table with a metal water jug. In a niche in one of the walla

• picture of the saint and the rest of the wall is adorned with
Jjisk of his foot marks. Of the buildings that enclose the quad-
}gh those on the south side, plain two-storied houses, are resting
iBea for pilgrims. At the south-west corner is Sahaj&oand's

18 where in an upper room are kept and shown to pilgrims his
\ liis drinking vessels and his clothes. Kear this are the build-
allotted to Brahmaehdrisj the Br&hman inmates of the
The west side of the quadrangle is filled by a large three-
i building opening on the quadrangle, the groundfloor a hall
) daily the members of the establishment meet for religious
dug. The two upper stories are resting places for pilgrims at
) time of the great half-yearly festivals. The whole of the north
f is taken' up with buildings belonging to the palace of the
A&rjBk or spiritual head. In one of these is a spacious hall or
iBption room. Behind the palace are the quarters set apart for
Fotees, sadhiLS, who are not Brdhmans. The buildings on the east

* chiefly out-houses, stables, granaries and places for grinding
ID. North-west of the centre quadrangle is a large garden and
0r|roir and to the east beyond the main entrance some blocks of
{rims' rest-houses.

flke nominal head and manager of the Yadt&l monastery is the
ii^a. But as great part of his time is spent in visiting the eleven
^ churches tne practical management is in the hands of a
N^i kothd/ri* Besides providing for pilgrims and arranging
tters on the great half-yearly gatherings^ this steward has to feed
I control from 600 to 1000 persons, ^e inmates belong to three
IM, Brahmachd/ns, devotees of the Br&hman caste; Sddhug
lotees of the V6m& and Bajput castes ; and Pdlds, devotees of the
Kvating^ artisan, and labouring classes. No members of the Dhed,
Wi&r, and other degraded classes, and no woman of any caste are
bitted. For most of the inmates the ordinary daily routine is the

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Chftptar 2LiY> same. Rising at dawn they dress and^ except those who oook or
Ilaoes of Intereft £?^^^^™ other necessary duties^ prepare themselves for early service.
, This service held at six in the large western hall is condncied hj

^^^ ^ the A'chirya or some other teacher. It generally lasts from six til

eight. From eight to twelye the inmates are at work, stady in tb
case of some and with others laboor for the common good. Aft
noon all dine^ the Brdhman devotees sitting by themselves. Tki
food of all is millet^ wheats and rice mixed in one dish, hi
the amount there is no stint^ but except on special occasions, con&
ments snch as sugar, molasses, and butter do not form part of Ai
daily meal. After dinner there is another short lecture and tha
rest for an hour and a half. At three all come together and r
till sunset listening to religious teaching. The next hour is devote
to the worship of the gods in the temple. After worship 111
great hall again fills and religious teaching goes on till eigbt or haU
past eight. The sick and weakly then leave for supper^ the
remaining till eleven when, except a few of the more zealous
continue to pray or study, all go to bed. The devotees do not at
one time stay long at Yadt&l. The Brahmach&ris or Br&hm
devotees are sent to officiate in some of the subordinate &
N&rfiyan temples ; the Sddhus or Y&nia and Rajput devotees moi
about the country collecting offerings of money and grain to I
taken back to Yadtal. And the Pdlas or low caste devotei
accompany their leader in his tours and visits to branch cborches.

During the year two great religious gatherings are held onei
Chaitra Sud I5th (April) and the other on Kdrtik 8vd \Hh (Nova
ber). The first in honour of the birth of Sahajdnand lasts for eigk
and the second in honour of his father for six days. On both<
these occasions about 20,000 pilgrims chiefly from Gajartt
K&thi&w&r attend. Minor fairs with from one thousand to tbi
thousand visitors, are held in August, September and October.

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PANCH MAHALS.

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PANCH MAHALS.

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CHAPTER I.

DESCRIPTION.

Thi Panch Mabdla^ or five Bub-divisions^ lyiiig between 22"* 30'
and 23*^ 10' north latitude, and 73° 35' and 74^ 10' east longitude,
Lare a total area of 1595 square miles and a population of 240,743
soulfl or 151 to the square mile. Of £26,859 (Rs. 2,68,590) the
total realizable land revenue, £26,841 (Rs. 2,68,410] were recovered
before the close of the year ending 31st July 1877.

The five sub-divisions of the Pandi Mah&ls, lying in the extreme
east of Grujar&t, form two groups separated by a hiUy and forest'Clad
atrip of the B&riya state, varying in breadth from about nine miles
in the noith to thirty in the sou&. The western group, the larger
of the two, comprises the sub-divisions of G-odhra in the north and
Ealol, including the petty division of Hdlol, in the south. Except
the Eaira district beyond the Mahi to the north-west, this group
is surrounded by native territory; Baroda lies to the south and
west, Bariya to the east, and Lun^v&da and Sunth to the north. The
eastern group is composed of the Dohad sub-division with, in the
north, the petty division of Jh&lod. Biriya lies on the south-west
and west, Lun4v&da and Sunth on the north-west, the Meywir state
of Kush^gad on the north and north-east, and the Malwa state of
Jambua on the east and south-east.

The district is for administrative ptirposes distributed over three
sab-divisions including two petty divisions. These as shewn in the
following summary have on an average an area of 531 square miles,
239 villages, and 80,248 inhabitants.

Panch MahdU Administrative Sub-dimeiofu^ 1878,

Kami.

DobMl

TMri

VUUgw.

AuA.

569
406
606

VlUiAOH.

QoTenunent.

587

Alienated.

ViUagM.

Ham-

Total.

191
848
199

688

334

876
330

74,014
66,481
100^8

940,748

161

n
It

6263

9640

11,060

36,859

OftlM63aQavBiaiMntflll8Sn^ie9axeia(b«lunds«f l8ii« linAolte^ «tfiiM«bv, and fongMriK
■>« fanned.

Chapter L
De8oripti0ii^

BonndariM.

Sub-diTiBioiuk

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Chapter I. The western diyision is a plain^ rising gradually to the east, little

jj^][Iij^- cnt into by rivers, and except by some small hills in the north, and
MMmcijmm. ^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^^ ^^ Ch&mp6ner the great Pdvigad peak rises 2700

-^P*^ feet high^ broken only by occasional granite-topped mounds. It

forms three belts,a northern, a middle^ and a sonthem. In the nortlii
abont twenty miles broad^ lies (xodhra^ in parts rich and well tilled
bnt on the whole wild and rudely coltiyated^ much of it covered wifli
brushwood and forest^ and in the north and east broken by bare
patches of granite rock^ or rising into peaks of curiously piled
granite boulders. South of Godhra the lands of K&lol form a
central belt about ten miles broad^ highly tilled, with rich brick-
built villages^ their lands laid out in hedged fields studded with
mango and mahuda groves, and marked by rows of palmyra palms
whose heads rise quaintly from a growth of banian and pipal that
cHngs to and hides their stems. South of K41ol the country grows
gradually wilder till, after about eight miles, near H&lol the plain
breaks into the spurs and ridges that centre in the massive hill of
Pav&gad. So far the villages are rich and well built, surronnded
by carefully kept fields. But near the spurs of P4v&gad and south-
east about fifteen miles more to the borders of Jdmbughoda, except
in the western villages and in a few hamlets and forest clearings,
the country is untilled and unpeopled, covered by a low growth of
forest timber.

Across the rough wooded belt of B4riya land and higher by
seven or eight hundred feet than the Godhra plain, Jh&lod in the
north and Dohad in the south form a compact block about forty
miles from north to south and twenty from east to west. The
sur&ce of the country is waving, broken by many water courses, and
by a succession of low abrupt and rugged stony ridges, separated '
by rich moist valleys broad in the north and narrower to the sontk
Ibccept on the sides of some of the higher hills, the nplands and |
valleys are opener and less wooded than in the western diyision.
Though somewhat bare and much of it waste, the country, well
supplied with water both in streams and pools, is not wanting in
beauty. In the cold season, on a back ground of soft well wooded
hills, rich deep-green stretches of gram and wheat, unbroken by
hedgerows, are studded with mounds and knolls, some clad with
bamboo and brushwood, others bare and capped with masses of
glistening snow-white quartz. Here and there are compact well
built villages. But more striking are, on rising ground, each near
its own plot of land, the scattered dwellings of Bhils enclosed by
creeper-covered bamboo trellis-work. Later in bhe season the gold
of the ripening wheat fields is, along the edges of streams, fringed
by belts of bright white or white and red poppies, and in the
hot months, though baked and bare, the land is in many places
relieved by the bnlliant scarlet masses of the khdkhra or Bntea
frondosa. During the rainy season the whole country is fresh i
and green* |

Hilla In Dohad are several low steep ridges and in Godhra some granite- i

topped mounds and rocks. But the only hill is Piv&gad, the chief i
natural feature, and one of the places of greatest interest, in eastern
Gnjar&t.

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PSvigad* about twenty-five miles sonth of Godlira and by road
tweoty-niae miles east of Baroda caa^ over a lon^ distance^ be clearly
Been from the Bombay and Baroda railway.* Nearer at hand with
iia far stretching spars the hill^ aboat twenty-six miles round, rises
with massive bat clear cut outline about 2500 feet above the plain.'
Its base and lower slopes are thick covered with rather stunted
timber. Bat its shoulders and centre crest are on the soath, west,
and north, cliffs of bare trap, too steep for trees. Less inaccessible
fte eastern heights are wooded and topped by massive masonry
vails and bastiotis rising with narrowing fronts to the scarped rock
that crowns the hill. According to the local story, in a bygone age
a nalley ran where P&v&gad now stands. On the high ground
•Teilooking the valley lived an ascetic VishvdmitraRishi. He owned
acov, the famous Kamduha, gifted with speech and an unfailing store
of milk. Grazing on the brink of the hollow she one day slipped and
inable to cUmb the steep sides filled the valley with milk and so
twam home. Learning what had happened the holy man, to prevent
iDother mischance, prayed that the valley might be filled. His
frayer was granted, the gods sending so large a hill that three
^oarters of it filled the hollow. The rest standing out of the plain
Nras called the quarter-hill, PdvdgddL

The* first historic reference to P&vdgad is from the bard Chand,
^ho, in the account of Bhim Dev I. of Anhilvada (1022-1072),
toeaks of Rim Gaur the Tuir as Pava's lord.* The earliest authentic
iocount is, about 1300, its acquisition by Ghoh&n Bajputs, f agitivea
pn Kanthambhor (1299-1300) in Mew&r before the army of
jiU-ad-din Khilji. The Choh&n chiefs, of whom the names only
been preserved, continued to hold the hill till it was taken from
by Salt&n Mahmud Begada in 1484. Before Mahmnd's
Uie Musalm&n kings of Ahmedabad had more than once tried
ad &iled to take the fort. Of the first of these attempts, in 1418

^1 H.) daring the reign of Sult&n Ahmed I., no details except

9 fact of its failure remain. About thirty years later 1450-1452
^3-855 H.) Sult&n Ahmad's son Muhammad Shah so closely
pvested the fortress that the garrison was only saved by a diversion
Ittde in their favour by Mahmud Khilji of M&lwa.^ After about
lurty years (1483, 17th March^) Mahmud Begada laid siege to the
ki Refusing to accept any terms except a surrender and preventing

^ A Bup of the Pilvilgad fort is given at the end of the chapter. This account
P&T^igad is partly taken from Major V^^ataon's article (IncL Ant. LXIIL 1-9)
' pirUy from papera kindly supplied by the Adjutant General of the Bombay
Bat the greater part is from det^ls gathered on the spot by Mr. Aoworth.
was in uld inscriptions Pd7akgad or the fire hiU.— Major Watson, Januaiy
.... Mr. Forbes' form Favangad the castle of the winds {li&a M41a 285) is seldom used.
M Before their fall (1819) PAv4gad though more than sixty miles off was visible
M the minarets of the Ahmedabad Jima mosque.— Trans. Bom. Lit. Soc I. 1^.
r ' Bom. lit Soc. I. 140. Captain Haig, Great Trig. Survey, 1874, gives 2727 feet

fitHe height above mean sea level.
* Ptolemy's (160) Uippocura and Tiagar have been supposed to be TMmSU
f Aiiitic Researches, IX. 182-224.
^ Bis Mala, 72. Tod's Translation of thepassage is different.— Annals of Rijasthio,

f ' Aooordmg to one acoount the lower fort was taken before Mahmud Khilji arrived*
I ' Briggs' Ferishta, IV. 66.

Chapter I.
Doscriptioii^

» 167—24

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C9iapter IV. the SulULn of M&lwa from helping the besieged, Mahmnd after a

Deai^ntioiL ^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^ ^"^ ®^ ^*^ advanced his positions that they overlooked

^^ the fortress. In the early dawn^ when according to their custom

Fa'va'oad, the garrison left the walls to bathe, Kivim-ul-mnlk with a party of

picked men scaled the fort, driving the Rajputs within the inner

wall. Later in the same day Malik Aydz Sult&ni^ another of Mahmnd's

captains^ passing through a breach in the western wall gained

a position that commanded the great gate. An attempt to d»lodge

Malik Ayaz failed and the besieged in despair^ burning their wives

and children, divided into two parties, one retiring to the upper fort

and the other under command of the chief and his minister remaining

below. At dawn the Musalm&ns forced open the great gate ana

cut down the defenders, their leaders falling wounded into the Sultfin**

hands (1 7th Nov. 1484). The garrison of the upper fortress soon

after surrendered.^ The bard's stories of Musalmdn attempts on

Ch&mp&ner tell how Shri Jaysingh Dev the Patai R&val,^ once at the

time of the nine night, navrdt, festival went to see the women of

his capital dance and sing. Among the women was one of greA

beauty, and the chief, overcome by the sight of her, caught hold cl

her robe. But she, for it was the goddess K^i, turning in anger

cursed him telling him that his kingdom would soon pass awaf

Not long after Java Lovo, the son of a Ohdmpdner Brahman, saw

Mahmud the Ahmedabad Sult&n ride past Pavdgad and^ as he rod^

look to the hill and clutch his moustache. Hastening to his chief Jivi

warned him that the Sult&n would soon come against PavigaOi

Sending the lad to Ahmedabad to watch the Sult&n, Jaysingh mk

ready to defend his fort strengthening it by five barriers, watoj

wood, stone, mud, and forest. At Ahmedabad Jdva kept watdl

One day he saw the Sult4n at his window look across to Pavagal

and clutch his moustache. Hastening to Pavagad he told the cbi|

that the Sultdn was coming. All was made ready and though hackd

by 500,000 men and resolute enough to keep up the blockade fi

twelve years Mahmud was at last forced to make peace witlioi(

taking the fort. Asking how the R&val was so ready to meet himll

was told Jdva^s story and raised him to be his minister. This tdf

may perhaps refer to the attempt and failure of the first Muhamntfj

(1450). Another of the songs tells how in 1485 (1541 S.) the PM

R&val gave up his life when Muhammad Sh4h the Great uxd

P&v^ad.

On gaining possession of the hill Mahmud added to the defeiNi
both of the upper and lower forts, and for the first time fortified fl|
top plateau making it his citadel, Mauliya or Lord of the Hill.' J
strong was it that according to the saying of Syed Jalti, if an c^

i
.^ __^_^_ -^

^ According to Mii8alin&ii historiiinB they Barrendered in three days. The Wm
ehronides make out that they stood a blockade of twelve years.— RAa Mila, S87.^

< The title Pdtdi B&val is probably only a contraction for PivApati fUval,
Rival lord of PAva.— Ind. Ant. LXIIL 2.

* The use of the name Mauiiya is doubtful. In some passages it seea
the central peak on whose pinnacle Keli M&ta*s temple now stands. In other
it seems to include the whole of the hill top, also known as the Bdia or ^''
Beelnd. Ant. LXIIL 1-9.

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PANCH MAHA'LS. 187

woman were but to hnrl a stone f^om the top of the fort all the men Ciiapter Z

m the world could not carry on the siege. In spite of its strength Descriptioiu

before fifty years were over the hill was again taken. This time ( 1 535)

ike besiegers were the Moghals under command of the Emperor Pata'oadw

HamiLyaa (1531-1556). Incited by the hope of gaining Sult&n

Bahadur Sh&h's (1526-1536) treasure stored in the fort, and helped

by the desertion of Bumi Kh&n/ one of Bahadur's chief eneineersi

Ham^jran pressed the siege, Rdja Narsingh Dev and Ikhtiy&r

Zhan holding out gallantly on their sovereign's behalf. Surprised

hj Homdyun's sudden approach the garrison had been forced to

ipike and leave half way up the hill an immense gun known as

fte Bahadur Sh&hi.' Repairing the gun Bumi Khin directed it

Igamst the fortifications, breaking down a gateway with the first and

: looting up a great tree close by with the second shot. But among

lithe besieged a European engineer Faring Eh&n, a Musalmin

j.ft^iivert, served his gun with such skill that the shot striking the-

jiDannoo burstit in pieces. His chief siege gun disabled, Hum&yun's

Ijriforts to storm the hill failed. Some time after a band of Kolis sent

[jkwn by the besieged for supplies fell into the hands of the Musalm&ir

I^Dtposts. To save his life one of them offered to point out a secret

di np the hill. The path was tried and by the help of iron bars

iven into it, the rock was scaled and the fortress entered.' The

in taken by surprise were routed, some of them throwing

•mselves over the walls. Others, among them the commander

iliijar Khan, retired to the citadel or top plateau but on the offer

honourable terms capitulated, August 1535 (7 Safar 942 B..}

erj shortly afterwards (1535) on the recovery of his power by

fliidarShdh, TardiBeg the officer in charge for Humiyun in spite

[its strength and the abundance of munitions evacuated P&v&gad.^

light years later 1543 (950 H.) when Sultdn Mahmud II. threw oS

wya Khan's control he moved against Piv^ad where Darya Khfo

pjdleft his women and treasure. The young king pressed the siege

ith vigour and courage, and the garrison making only a half-hearted

efence the lower fort was taken. Patuji the commander retiring to

lie citadel or top plateau was captured and sent prisoner to Sarat.

lurty years later (1573) on the flight of Sh4h MirzA, who had held it

^ a short time^ P4v&gad fell into the hands of the Kmperor Akbar.

^ Unriyalled in his time in preparing fireworks. He was probably the Rnmi Khin
riM cut the Milki Maiden of B^ipnr.— Bird, 240.

L^Thia gtin had been left by the Porta^;iiese after their misnccessful attempt on
"^ in XJ&l. It was the largest ever seen in Indiia and required a special machme ta

:e it to Chimpdner.— Brig^s Ferishta, IV. 123.
I * Ferishta gives the foUowine details. Humdynn when he Was shown the path
"^ the hill made a number ox steel spikes and chose a body of 300 men to arrange
» nirprise. During the ni^^t several false attacks were made on other parts of the
^ ^The spikes were fixed and thirty-nine officers climbed up, HumiLyun himself
fortieth. Before sunrise ^er whole detachment was within the walls
. laying a preconcerted signal his troops attacked the c arrison from outside. On
I the 300 foroed their way to one of the sates and let in the troops. Great wealth
I foond the accumulation of years from Asia Mi^or, Tartary and Europe. — Bri^^
uhta, IL 79. From this Humilyun gave to his officers and soldiers, proportioning
I TaluK to the rai^ and merit of each, as much gold and silver «8 Gonld be heaped
h their ahielda.— Briggs? Ferishta, 11. Sa
« Akbanima in BlEot's His. of India, VI. 17.

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dtapttr IV* For abont 150 years the fort was held by an Imperial garrison till is

DMcripUon*

1727 it was surprised by Krishndji the foster son of Kaniiji Kadam
B&nde. Krishn&ji made P4vdgad his head qoarters and isanine fnn&
PVYA'QAa it, caused great disorder in Oujar^t and made raids into Wuftrwar
and as far as Jh^lor. He seems to have kept the fort till it was takea
by Sindia, probably between 1761 and 1770.* Strongly garrisoning
it Sindia held Pavigad till in 1803 (17th September) a small BritJak
force commanded by Colonel Woodington breached the double wall
near a tower at the east comer of the inner fort to the left of the
Budhiya Oate and forced the garrison to capitulate.' Bestored toUm
in 1804, Pav&gad continued with Sindia till in 1853 (August 1st) ii
was made over to the British Qovemment.

The following details show the present state of its fortificatioi&
The chief objects of interest at the base of the hill are on the lower
slopes of the north-east spur the ruins of Rajput Chimp^ner, and si
the foot of the south cliff caves till lately the dwelling place d
Hindu ascetics. About three and a half miles from H4Iol leaviog
the cart road close to the south-west comer of the walls of Musalmia
Ch4mp&ner, the hill-path strikes south across a rough wooded stoDe-
strewn tract. The distance from the cart road to E41ka M&ta^s temple
on the highest peak of the hill is about three miles, two of them up
the hill side, the third along the flat hill top.' The path, creeping
up the eastern spur though rough in places, is nowhere too mggel
for a palanquin. After rather less them half a mile the first line of
fortifications is entered by the Atak gate, once double but now will
its outer gate in ruins. This line of fortification, the historic Lowtf
Fort, is a massive stone wall with strong bastions stretching acrov
the less precipitous parts of the eastern spur. The present wil
veems to have been built by Sindia. In 1803 it was passed by tb
English without opposition.^ Inside the Atak gate are the ruins d^
the Medi or Hinna Palace and the Medi or Hinna pond, a deif
fiquare pond, its flights of stone steps in ruins but still holding water
even in the driest seasons. It was here in 1803 that the Engloh
•battery was placed.'^ About half a mile further the MohoU Qt

I The date has not been traced. In 1780 Pay^igad was m Sindia*s hands (GmI
Duff; 432). In 1815 a British force seems to have occupied Chtoip^cr and U M
sent an advance party to the Medi pond. Some shots were fired ; but no extra
measures seem to have been taken.— Captain Nixon's account of Chimpiner, 1819l

a As. An. Re^. 1808, 3S. The spelling Budhiya has been giTen as it is iwvtf
written in Gnjar&ti. The MuhAmmadan historiana write it Buna. Of th« vital
of the hill top the opinions of military officers seem to differ, Oapi. Dunstorril
(1824, 12th October) thought like Colonel Woodington that it commanded the bh|
.fort. But Capt Nixon (1815) thought guns on the hill top would be usqIms tf di
scarp was so steep that they could never be pointed low enough.

'This is Mr. Acworth*s (1878) estimate after judain^ distances <" ^ 9^
Mr. Acworth walked from the bottom of the hill to Kilka MAti'a tempit in mp
three minutes. Some of the early accounts, Trans. Bom. lik Soc 140-146 sadlMh
Gov. Sel., XXIII., 33 give six miles. But Capt. Nixon (1815) says from the wiiM
of the house we stayed in at Chimpiner the sound of a gun fired in the apper id
was heard six seconds after seeing the flash, Uiat is a distance of abont 2300 yvk
On their first day's firing several of the shot went over the town.

^ When Capt. Nixon (1815) wrote it was completely in nuna—Oiptaia ifoM
.account of Champ^ner, 12th October 1824.

* The battery was placed close to a pond with brushwood to the left R «lj
near enough to the fort to effect every objeck^CoL Ketmy, Kaiz», 2h ' *'
1815b

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PANCH MAHALS, 189

Great Gate gires entrance throagh the second line of defence. This Chapter £

gateway is a most formidable fortification the path winding in the Deictirtifflk

lock through fonr gates each commanding the one below it. The

lowest of the foar is called the Budhiya or Spear-but Gate and PAVA'tt-u^

the highest, about 150 feet above^ the Bhdldpul or Spear-head

Gata Massive walls connect the gates and from the Bh&lapul

Gate sweep up to the line of fortification that stretches across the

crest of the spur. Beyond the Mohoti Gate the path, for about 200

yards, lies over level ground with a high ridge on the left, crowned

by a strong wall running back from the Mohoti Ghbte to the third

Kne of defence. This third line of defence is passed through the

Sadan Shah Gtkte,^ a winding passage cut through the solid rock

erowned with towering walls and bastions and crossed by a double

Hindu gateway, the lower nearly perfect, the upper in ruins.

It was to the left of these strong gates that in 1803 the walls

were breached. From the battery on the Medi pond the wall was

broken down in two places. The breach in the outer wall in a

lower to the left of the Budhiya Ghite was nearly complete and that

in the inner wall to the left of the Bh&l&pul Gate was complete.'

The breach in the outer wall has been repaired ; that in the inner

imll is still easily seen.'

The chief remains on the hill lie within the Sadan Sh&h gateway.

^lom the gate a path leads off the main road 100 yards to the right,
> iD the head of a ravine that ends in a cliff several hundred feet deep.

Ifear the edge surrounded by a strong round stone wall with one
I ttUTow opening is a small cruciform cut-stone chamber completely
L^at in. Thi*ougb chinks in the wall a grave is seen where according
|-%o local story a Rajput princess was buried alive. Beyond this

Eb on the edge of the cliff are the remains of a Sit Mehel or
m-storied Palace.* Of the seven stories four were above ground
three cut one below the other in the face of the cliff. The four
^'tpper stories are in ruins. But down the face of the cliff, command-
I fag a wide view across a deep valley, runs a covered stone staircase
^d inside of the staircase, one below the other, three chambers
<Bch about twenty feet square, with three pillars on each side, the
Wof domed, and the cornice slightly ornamented. The lowest
Number hangs over the cliff at a point where two scarps meet at
'light angles. Beyond the deep valley to the west of the Sat Mehel,
spur stretches north falling to the plain in steep terraces just
ve Shakar Kh&n's lake. Across this ridge runs an old wall and
er remains of fortifications known as the Julan Budan gates,
hove them on an outstanding point of the same spur are two more
' hoildings, the Ndgar Haveli or Nagar Brdhman's Palace. It was along

1 This 18 the same Sadan SMh whose shrine is on the spire of E41ka MAtd's temple.

* As. An. Reg. 1808, 38 ; Col. Kenny, Kaira, 22nd March 1815.

• Mr. Acworth, 2l8t March 1879.

, * This building is also called the Chibnp&vati or Chimpa Rdnina and the Eayers
Jshverina meheL It is said to have been the palace of a favourite queen. Major

t Watflon thinks it was meant for the ladies of the zendna to see hunts from. — Ind.

^lAnt LXIIL Mr. Acworth adds; it is said to have been built by two brothers-in-law
^ one of the P&t^ Rivals, robbers who had an underground passage from the
kdsn Shih sate to the Ehund river at Meddpur in HAlol. Both near the Sadan ShiUi
pteand at Medipor the openingv of » pngiiige.m>y itill b« ssem

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190 DISTRICTS*

Chapter L. this spar (hat in 1803, when the walls were breached^ the balk of

SasOT^tioiL *^® garrison escaped.^

. Returning to the main tracks about 100 yards above the Sadaosha

rAYAQAiK ^^Q |g^ ^^ ^jjg lg£^^ ^^Q Mdchi Haveli or Terrace Palace, a woodea
building where Sindia^s commandant used to live, and where a small
police party is now posted. Close by, on the right, are the ruins of
a fine stone building the old Mdclu Haveli. Further on is a pond
with at one end the ruins of a brick mosque and near it the Psndi
Kuva or Five wells, four of them ruined the fifth in good order

S 'elding excellent water. About a quarter of a mile above the Machi
aveli is the Makdi Kothdrka Da/rvdja, or the Maize Store Gate, wiA
strong defences on either side overlooking the approach. Inside of
the gate on the left are three large domes the Makdi Kothd/n or
maize granaries and on the level top of the south-east spur, scarped
by rocks at least 1000 feet high and joined to the bill only by a
narrow neck, are a ruined gateway, old buildings, and a line of ynJi
enclosing several covered reservoirs. These are the ruins of the
palace of Jaysingh Dev the last of the Pat&i> Rdvals (1484). At As
end of the spur is a small shrine of Bhadra or the propitious Efli.

This plateau and the hill side as far down as the Budhiya Gate,
* a pleasant place with springs, ponds and green trees ' formed the
upper fort i^ken by Mahmud Begada in 1484.^ The top plateair,
some 1500 feet higher, was at that time unfortified or protected only
by a single gate. Except that gate the defences were originally
built by Mahmud Begada^s engineers who, fortifying its approachol
with the greatest skill, made the upper plateau their citadel oaminf
it Mauliya or Lord of the hill. For a quarter of a mile above thl^
Mak&i Koth&rka Darv&ja the ascent is very steep, then cornea a
moat or deep-cut cleft called from the moveable beams laid acroil
it the Pdtidpul or Plank Gate. After about a quarter of a mile thl
foot of the scarp of the upper plateau is reached. Along its fool
for nearly 400 yards the path zigzags to the Tdra or Star Gata
Then steps cut in the rock mount the scarp for about 100 yards ani
lead to a square building on the edge of the cliff. This bnildinf
with two gates, the Suraj or Sun Gate in front and the Nagdr Khdn$
or Drum Gate behind, originally built by Mahmud Begada'l
engineers, was with all other works above the P&tia chasm destroyel;
by the English in 1803 aud afterwards built by H. H. Sindia.* Tl»
outer gate contains stones taken from Jain temples and the innef
gate is in form a fine Musalmdn arch. On either side of the Nagfr
Khdna entrance the edge of the upper plateau is topped by a fifteei
feet wall, and on all other parts its natural defence, a sheer cliff oTer
200 feet high, needs no artificial help.

Within the Nag&r Ehdna Gtkte, is the Musalm&n citadel or ManEj%
an irregular oblong plateau about a mile from north to south sndi
quarter of a mile from east to west. Much of it is uneven withoot

1 Capt. Kenny, I5th March 1815,

2 The name P4tii Rival is probably a contraction from P&vi^ti Bival, that if tt*
Bival who roles at P&va.— Ind. Ant. LXIIL 2.

• Mirat-i-Ahmadi (1750) quoted in Ind. Ant. T.YTrT, t,
« CoL Kenny, Kaira^ 22iid Maidi 1815»

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

191

^Skge, with but few trees and covered with large basalt boulders. Oiaptar L
The chief object of interest is at the south rising from a cluster of Bescriptioiu
Banian trees and prickly pear and carinda bushes a rocky peak about
250 feet high. At its foot is a small reservoir and up its side runs Pa'va'oad.

a flight of 226 steps said to have been built about a hundred years
ago by MahadAji Sindia. At the top is the temple of E&Ika Mat&
frith^ in its chief shrine, three images, Edlka Matd in the centre^
Miha £[ali on her right, and Bechara M4ta on her left. Except for its
^ rich marble floor, presented about twenty years ago by the minister of
Limbdiin Kathiaw&r, the'temple probably about 150 years old is small
and plain. On its spire is the shrine of Sadan Pir a Musalm^n saint,
itill held in respect.^ Ealka Mata's chief worshippers are Kolis and
Bhila. But especially on the full moon of Chaitra, April, and at
Ihsara, October, there are large meetings of Hindus of all classes.
Coming down Kalka M&ta's peak and turning to the west of the
plateau, the path skirting the edge passes along the brink of preci-
pices scarped in many places right down to the plain. On the west
ade of the hill are seven massive brick and mortar Musalmdn domes
called the Nav Lakh Eotluira or Nine Lac G-ranaries each of them
a room about twenty-one feet square. Along the north over rough
vneven ground are remains of ponds and reservoirs, and on the east,
when the circle of the plateau is completed, some small but finely
«UTed Jain temples.

: The railway has reduced its value as a sanitarium. But for
flaropeans stationed in the Panch Mah&ls and Baroda, P&v&gad
! Il during the hot season a most refreshing change from the plains.
: the hill top is well supplied with water from a spring about half
•ay down near the line of the lower fort. During the hot season of
1839 with the temperature at 105° in Baroda, in the granaries on
lAe top of P&v4gad the thermometer on the warmest day did
fiot rise above 87^ and on other days was not more than 83 . In
; the open air the readings somewhat less carefully taken, shewed an
I titreme maximum of 97^ and an average maximum of 94°. During
I Hie whole time a constant breeze blew &om the south-west.'

Both the eastern and western divisions drain into the Mahi. In Riven,

Ifiodhraand K&lol the streams flow west falling directly into it.
IbJhalod and Dohad the slope is north-east, the water draining
into the An&s one of the Mahi's tributaries. The district is well
lopplied with water from ponds and streams. The Mahi the only

^ KAliki's shrine is mentioned as a place of pilgrimage under the Anhilyida
kinga, Ris M41a 189 ; her worship is referred to in an inscription dated 1469. The
Ment temple would seem to be of later date built probably after the capture of the
aD by KAntAji Kadam (1727). The author of the Mirat-i-Ahmadi (1746-1763)
AttDtioiis the temple of K^a Bhavdni and the shrine of Sadan Sh&h on its top. The
;ind of the temple spire seems to have been removed to make room for the shrine
'probably to conciliate Muhammadan feeling and protect thereat of the templa— Ind*
Ani LXm. 7. Mr. Acworth says that the Hindus claim Sadan as a Hindu
^iflclaring that to save their temple, the Brdhmans gave out he was a Musalmin.

* As a sanitarium the only drawback to Piv^gad is that in the hot weather the wind
lifewB 80 fiercely that unless of very great strength nothing but a domed roof can
ibtfid. Their domes repaired, their verandahs renewed and outhouses built, the nine
he granaries would at a cost of about £570 form excellent quarters for two
Jhr^ean families.

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192 DISTRICTS.

Chapter I. large rirer f orms^ for eigHteen milesi tlie west boundary of the Godn
BMorintion. snb-division. During this part of its course the Mahi^ with in the
hot season a stream two feet deep and about fifty yards wide flows
BiTWB. between sloping alluvial banks seldom more than twenty feet high.

On account of the broken grouud along Oh banks its water is seldom
used for irrigation. In Gx)dhra the Panam on its way north to the
Mahi^ passing through the east of the sub-division^ is a veiy consider^
able stream^ at times during the rains most difficult to cross. In
E&lol the Karad passing west to the Mahi between banks irom forty
to fifty feet high, at all times with a running stream and many d^ep
wide pools, is unfordable during the rains. About two miles from
E&lol it is spanned by a three-arched bridge, each arch seventy-six
feet wide. Of minor streams that cease to flow in the hot weather the
Kun through the centre of Godhra, the Mesri to the south of Godha
town, and the Goma close by the town of Kalol rise in the highlands
west of the Panam valley and after courses of not more than fifty miles
fall into the Mahi. The Vishv^mitri taking its rise from Pavagad
passes south by Baroda city to join the Dhddhar. The Devnadifrom
the B^riya hills, also an affluent of the Dhadhar, passes twenty miles
south through H6I0I. In the east the only river of any size is the An&.
This rising in Malwa runs north over a rocky bed along the east of
Dohad and Jh^lodand falls into the Mahi at the extreme north-east
comer of the district. A considerable stream during the rains, in the
bot season it ceases to flow, dwindling into a row of pools. Dohsd
and Jh&lod are better supplied with streams which hold water
throughout the year and are readily available for water-lift irrigation
as in many places their banks overhang. Of minor streams, sH
with rocky beds, are the Damaj on which Dohad stands, the Khan,
Kali, Gang&ri^ Eanari^ Barod, and the Machan on which Jhflod ■
stands.

Pondg. '^® vrest is well supplied with ponds and reservoirs, five of them

in Godhra and one in E[&lol of special size. Of the Godhia
reservoirs that at the town of Gt}dhra has an area of seyenty acre&
On the Dohad road about twelve miles east of Godhra is the Onr^ \
lake covering 110 acres and said never to have been dry and to have
a pillar in the middle visible only in seasons of extreme dronght. I
The third, 120 acres in area, is at Shera about twelve miles north of :
Godhra, and the fourth, eighty-seven acres, is at KamUv. AtMalir
about five miles east of K^lol, covering 133 acres, is an embankel |
and masonry built reservoir provided with sluices, and watering a I
large stretch of rice land. In the east the hills and valleys of Dohsd I
and Jhdlod are well suited for storing water. They contain many |
ponds, most of them natural but some of them banked and masoniy
built. During the hot season the smaller ponds are dry but somt
of the larger hold water throughout the year. The Chh4ba lak9
at Dohad, one of the largest, luorS strong masonry walls, flights ol
stone steps at two ends, and a masonry outlet for waste water.

Otology. Except in its south-west comer, no detailed inquiry into the

geology of the Panch Mahals has been made. In the eastern
division though black and clay soils occur, the surface is chiefly asome*
what shallow light-red soil much mixed with gravel. The roob w

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PANCH MAHA'LS. 193

inf, schist, limestone, millstone, grit and marble in small qnantitieB,^ Cimpter X.

In the western division near Go^ira all the surface rocks are meta- Degeri^tioii*

morphio, and in other places metamorphic rocks alternate with beds of ^

Quartzite sandstone. Tlie geological survey of the south-west of the Ooology.

district shows two chief geological features, the great trap rock of

VivigsA and a group of semi-metamorphic beds chiefly quartzite or

qnartzite sandstone. P^v^igad is believed to be the remains of a range

0^ trap that stretched south to the B&jpipla hills. It is not easy to

understand how except by the force of the sea the whole large inter*

Tening tract can have been cleared of trap. A very slight change of

land and sea level would flood the plain counhy round Pavdgad, and

it is possible that at one time the rdll was anidand. Unlike those to

the south-east, the F&vigad traps lie perfectly flat. Their mineral

character is in many parts peculiar. Of the numerous terraces below

ihe upper flat of the nill, some are ordinary basaltic lava flows. Bat

many are of a light purple clay rock rare in other places. Some«

what cherty in appearance and generally with sniall crygtala of

glassy felspar this rock is sometimes mottled purple and grey. It

18 abnost alwayB distinctly marked by planes or lamination parallel

to the stratification sometimes so finely as to be more like an ordinary

shale than a volcanic rock. In spite of this these beds seem at

times to pass into basaltic trap, and one form of basalt with crystals

of glassy felspar has weathered edges much like this purpiii^h shaley

lodL The formation of these beds is not easv to explain. They

often look like volcanic ash. And, though their highly laminated

stractare seems due to deposition in water it is in places irregnlar

nd the beds containing pumice could hardly occur in undar-water

formations. They may be flows of very thin volcanic mud or their

inresent character may in part at least be due to changes after

consolidation. Similar beds are very rare among traps and no other

instance of their development on so large a scale has been observed

in Western India.*

The other chief feature of the geology of the south-west comer of
fte district, the gfroup of quartzite sandstone beds, has been traced
lor about twenty miles east of P&v&gad and for seven or eight miles
south of Champ^ner. The other beds are mostly slates, conglome-
rates and limestones, ferruginous bands occasionally occurring.
8ome of the limestones are highly crystalline ; in one place near
Xadvdl they were found to contain actinolite ; in other places, as
sear Sorajpur they were quite unaltered. All the rocks susceptible
^ cleav^e are highly cleaved, the planes in general striking about
west 10 -20^ north. Some of the slate appears so fissile that
it might probably be used for roofing. The conglomerates are
perhaps the most distinctive beds in the group, ^ey are well
teen about Jhabdn on the road between Surajpur and J4mbughoda,
The matrix is in general a coarse gritty sandstone containing pebbles
ind boulders often one and sometimes three feet in diameter of

^ It it belieTed to be mainly composed of metamorphic rocks with a few trap
•^h«n.-Mom. Geo. 8ur. VI. 8, 30.
* Mr. Blandford. Mem. Geo. Sor. VI. 3> 18M82.
Bie7-25

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194 DISTRICTS.

Chapter L granite^ qnartzite, talcose slate^ and crystalline limestone. The
Des^^tion. talcose slate^ of which some of the pebbles are composed, is scaiceif
more metamorphosed than the Ghkmp&ner beds themselves. The
^^' quarteite bonlders are the largest. The limestone pebbles are yeiy

numerous and as they are dissolved on the surface by exposuie to
the weather^ the hollows which contained them remain emptj, and
give a peculiar vesicular appearance to the rock. Some of the
limestones of the pebbles contain silicious laminas. Cleavsge is
frequently apparent in these pebbles^ though it is bnt niAj
distinguishable in the sandy matrix. At one place near A^nandpnr ^
matrix of the conglomerate appeared to be a perfect breccia^ a mix*
ture of angular fragments of black slatey silicious rock and couse
sandstone^ both containing pebbles. This was near the junction d
conglomerate with slatey beds^ the latter apparently the newer. The
rocks appear to have been much crushed. They look as if angular
fragments of slate had become mixed with sandstone^ and then all
reconsolidated. But the granite and quartzite pebbles show no signs
of violence* Very little can be ascertained of the sequence of the beds«
The slate^ limestones, and quartzites of Surajpur are evidently high in
the series ; they appear to rest npon the conglomerates of Jhabdn and
these again upon the quartzites of iT&rukot and Dfindiipanu
Judging from the extent oi alteration the Surajpur beds are high in
the group. But no base is seen, unless the quartzites of the southern
patch rest upon granite about Manikpur. These quartzites mnch
resemble those of N&rukot. It is often almost impossible to fix
where the Ch&mp&ner beds pass into metamorphics. Within tha
tract occupied by the metamorphic rocks, quartzites which hare in
no way the appearance of outliers occur in several places, as netf
Mirv^a, and again west of J&nbughoda. In the latter case a tnie*
conglomerate containing large rolled pebbles of quartzite is founi
amongst the metamorphic rocks. The same apparent passage oocma
south of Sarajpur, the Gh&mp4ner beds being more crystaUine near
the boundary. Faults may to a great extent account f or thes*
passages, and when rocks do not differgreatly in mineral compositioQr
apparent cases of transition are very likely to occur. Still belli
along and across the line of strike there is, in places, an apparent:
gradual change from Ch&mpdner beds into metamorphics.

South of the belt of hills near Eadv&l, and around J4mbughoda
nearly all the surface is composed of granite, passing occasionallj
into granitoid gneiss. North-west and west of this plain, the bib >
of Narukot and D&ndi^pura consist of the quartzite and conglome-
rate of the Chdmpiner group. South-west of J&tnbughoda the rocb, |
although somewhat similar in composition, are more highly meta- 1
morphosed, the bedding, in places, as near Pepia being obliterated. I
In m&s&b&T hill near Pepia, a spur running to the east consists o
very quartzose gneiss, containing Ukrge rounded masses of quartz an
-other rocks. It is evidently a metamorphosed conglomerate, and
rock of precisely similar constitution though unaltered abounds
the Ch£mp£ner beds.

Some good exposures of the Ch&mpdner beds are seen on theroa
from J&mbughoda to Surajpur. The range of hills north of th

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PANCH MAHA'15.

195

road, at' the eoctremiiy of whioh is N&rakot^ is formed of a fine
grantilar quartzite sandstone^ vertical or dipping at a very high angle
to the sonthward. Similar rocks form the hills to the north near
Dindi^pnra and indeed the latter have much the appearance of being
composed of the same great bed^ which rolls over to the north of
&e N&rakot range and then appears to turn up again.

South of N&mkot granite and gneiss occor in the valley^ and in
the hills to the south, but at A'nandpur slates and conglomerates
oome in^ vertical or dipping souths and apparently resting upon the
qoartzites of the N&rukot range. They are probably faulted against
the gneiss. The slates are in places well cleaned and fine grained
aod might yield good roofing slate.^

At Tuva^ about ten miles west of Godhra^ hot springs rise to
the surface in two places, the one in a river-bed, the other in a
marsh. The river-bed spring, unknown and never resorted to,
m ioimA only by removing some of the surface sand. The other
springs, varying in temperature and giving off gas, well up through
Urge earthen jars let into the soil over about an acre of marshy
forest-cleared land. The water is sacred to Mah&dev and the place
itudded with palm trees, is adorned by a temple. On the morning
rf Ph%an Sud 11 (March) especially since the opening of the
IMkor railway this place is much frequented by pilgrims.

Except that in the eastern division the rains are somewhat later of
beginQingj the seasons are the same over the whole district ; cold
bom November to February ; hot from March to the middle of
Jime, and rainy from the middle of June to the end of September.
The prevailing winds are in Godhra from October to March east
Budnorth-eastj from April to June west,- and from July to September
loath-west, and in Dohad from October to December east and soutb-
wastj and from January to September south-west. Records of
ttiiifall are available for two stations, Godhra in the west for twelve
feam (1867-1873) and Dohad in the east for seventeen years (1862-
1878). From the following table it will be seen that during the
twelve years ending 1878, Godhra had the highest average with
4i4o inches. The greatest fall in any one year was in Godhra 64*05
inches in 187S and in Dohad 47*34 inches in 1878.

Paneh MahdU Eaki/aO, 1862-1878.

Till,

QOAHXA.

DOiBAll.

TR4K.

GtoBB&ik.

DOSAD.

IncbeA.

Oenti.

lochei.

Ctoto.

Incbes.

Cents.

Inches.

Cent!

S "* -

1871

*•>* .«

...

1872

1^ "*

,..

•.•

1878

...

1874

**W .„

«■■

1876

1877

ism

1878 ...

1 Mem. Oea Sur. VL 3> 41, 178» 218.

Cbapter I.
Dflfioriptian*

Hot Spriiigik

Clhiuitft.

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DISTEICTS.

duKptor 1

DMOtiptioii^

Tempetfttiira.

Thermometer readings are registered at Qodlira and Dobad. A
comparison of the returns during the eight years ending 1878 sliows
an average temperature at Dohad on the whole slightly below that of
Godhra, the figures being 80*57 and 7874 respectively. The Mowii^
statement would seem to show that^ though the tempentme ii
slightly lower at Dohad at all times of the year, the difierenoe between
the two stations is most marked during the hot months Apnl, Hay,
and June.

Paneh MahdU TempertUure, 1371-1877.

TIAB.

S^Aflom.

January to
Maroh.

April to Jnno.

Jnlyto
September.

OetobcrtB

DSMDlNr.

Godhra.

Dohad.

Godhra.

Dohad.

Godhra.

Dohad.

Godlua.

iMm

IBTl...

<Umn

- 1 Dally wage ...

78-8

7»1

91 «

81 -1

88-0

76*1

78*0

as*©

88*8

16-0

84-0

4-8

32-8

28^

srt

1879...

Mean ... ...

70-0

78-8

90-18

88-9

81-7

76*4

74«

••• Dally faage

o-«

84-e

10-6

880

6«

12*0

10«

wrs...

Mean .. ...

n'9

781

91-08

69*6

8b88

78*9

76-2

*" Daily nuige

14-4

80-0

18-9

860

11-46

18-0

27-4

»*

1874...

MeaS ... ...

72-8

89-18

87*6

79*6

79^8

•" Dally raaga ...

«6-6

84-0

180

86*0

11-8

16*7

»i

1876...

Mean

••• Daily nagie

78-8

7i-7

91*4

80*i

81*9

78-8

796

84*8

8»8

16-9

88*8

10*6

16-8

S4«8

1878...

M«an

- Dally rasgv

78-8

728

87-96

88-0

88-7

79-8

76-9

80-08

840

89*8

33-0

18*8

14*7

81-2

1877...

Meai ^.

••• Daily range

78*M

71-8

88-16

88-6

86-88

84-7

78-07

89*90

88*0

88-46

88-0

6-44

14-7

10*44

ll«

1878...

Mean

•iDiilyrania ...

74*81

77-8

90-64

94*8

88-12

88-6

74t7

Trt

14-14

840

14*41

18-7

ir7

IS-M

Healthineai.

In healthiness the climate varies greatly. The well tiOed peiti
K&lol in the west and Dohad in tiie east^ would seem to be fne
from any special form of sickness and to be healthy to newcomers 18
well as to the people of the place. Godhra surrounded byhrfa
areas of forest and waste^ though for residents fairly healthy is tbSm
a trying climate for strangers. The hot and rainy seasons weaka
Europeans^ and the cutting malariou&l winds and hot sun of the eoU
months are^ to natives from other districts, apt to bring on ferei
of a dangerous type. The commonest forms of sicknefis 811
ague, dysentery^ diarroeah, bronchitis, asthma, guinea worm tti
skin-disease.

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£ -5

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O^jtfit]

CHAPTER 11.

PRODUCTION.

CoMPABED with otlier Gajar&t districts the Panch Mah&ls are rich
in minerals. Its hills contain iron^ lead and talc^ and only the cost
of carriage prevents the use of its stores of building stone. Iron ore
of considerable richness is fonnd in the Gk)dhra village of P£lanpnr^
and near J&mbughoda and Sivr&jpur in N^mkot. Both in the Panch
Uahflsand N&rakot, though unused for years^ traces of old iron-
Bmelting works remain.^ Lead ore is found in N&rukot, near the
iron ore^ and at the E3iandeUv lake two or three taiiles from Godhra.
hi 1872 a specimen of the Narukot lead ore was examined by the
6o7emment Chemical Analyser. It was reported to be a mass of
nearly pure lead with a flinty covering. The lead was a definite
chemical compound with 86*6 per cent of metal. It was poor in
nlyer yielding only five ounces to the ton of lead. Two years later
(April 1874) a larger collection of specimens gave an average of
fiS^l per cent of metaUic lead and very nearly the former small
proportion of silver. These results the Superintendent of the
Geological Survey thought unpromising^ and no attempt has since
ken made to work the Panch Mah&l lead mines.' Talc is found near
some of the N&mkot hills. But the plates are too small to have
any commercial value. Of stones^ sandstone, trap^ quartz^ coarse
granite^ basalt^ limestone and Ume gravel, hanka/r, are found in many
parte of the district. Mr. Little^ the District Executive Engiueer,
with the view of starting by the lately opened (1876) P&li railway
on export of building materials to Ahmedabad^ Baroda^ and Broach^
has made the following calculations of the cost of the chief
Yarieties of stone. A very useful stone for paving and building
from two to three feet square and from one to three inches thick quan-
ried at B^rv&da, three miles from Jh&lod^ costs at the P&li railway
atation^ aooording to thickness. from£l 108. to £8 (Bs. 16 -Bs. 30)
per 100 superficial feet. The same stone would cost at Baroda from
tl 129. to £3 88. (Rs. 16 - Bs. 84), at Ahmedabad from £1 14^. to £8
I2s. (Bs. 17 - Bs. 86), and at Broach from £1 16^. to £8 16«. (Bs. 18-
Rb. 38). Another useful sandstone has lately been found in the Mabi
iwer, about two miles from the P&Urailway station. Limestone, with
about ninety per cent of lime, is found at Dohad, and an iiierior
Nrt near J^bnghoda. A better placed limestone is about four
miles from the Pw railway station. This has been burnt and gives
veiy good lime, not hydraulic, but well suited for ordinary building

Chapter IL
ProductioiL

MlNXRALS.

^ Bom. Gov. Sd. XXIIL 100-106 and 113,114.
9 Bom. Got. Bea. S877, 8th July 1874.

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198 DISTRICTS.

CSiapter IL purposes. Some specimens mixed wiih sand and pomided biidc and
Produotioii* subjected to strain gave the following results. A sample of six
parts, two of lime^ three of sand and one of pounded brick, broke at a
strain of 52'15 pounds to the superficial inch ; a sample of three equal
parts of lime, sand andpoundedbrick^ stood 60*93 pounds ; and asampla
of four parts, two of Ume and one each of sand and pounded brick,
stood 71 *34 pounds. The cost of wood fuel at the quarries is about 7f.
(Bs. 8-8) a ton, and the cost of the lime about 149. 6d. (Bs. 7-4)aton.
It could be delivered at Baroda at about £1 Is. (Bs. 10-8) and at
Ahmedabad at about £1 2«. (Bs. 11) a ton« The quality of the hm
is said to be strongly in its hvour. The common Qodhra granite^i
found about nine miles from the P&li railway station, is a fine lastiof''
stone. At the same time it is costly to work and is not likelf i
to be used to any large extent. Plenty of fine black dose-graindl'
basalt is found near P&y&gad hilL But this, dear to work ud'
&r to bring, is not for many years likely to be in demand. Stona'
well suited for road metal is found within less than a mile of tbji
P&li station. Lying in slabs and boulders it wants no blastiogj |
The present cost of digging and breaking to pass through a ring^
2^ inches in diameter is is. 6d. (Bs. 2-4) or adding tools 5r/j
(Bs. 2-8) the 100 cubic feet. At a mile rate of id. (6 p.) this would
give a cost per ton of £1 Is. Sd. (Bs, 10-10-0) at Baroda, £1 5#. 94-
(Bs. 12.14rO) at Ahmedabad, and £1 12s. 3d. (Bs. 16-2-0) at'
Broach. Sand is found in nearly all the rivers.^

Field Treei. The east is rather bare of trees, but in other parts the Fi

Mah&ls are well wooded.^ In the more highly tilled western districtSu^
are rich well-grown rows of field trees, and large tracts in the cenhoj
are woodland and forest. The trees that give the cultivated koda
in the west a rich park-like appearance are the mango, mahudi^
tamarind, r&yan, and banian. Of these the mahuda, Bassia latifolii\|
with its strongly veined leaves and its heavy sickly smelling floweq
is in every respect a noble tree, and of great value to the distriot^
For some months in the year its flower and fruit are meat and drink
to many of the poorer classes, and its timber is of excellent quality^
The mango and tamarind do not differ from the same trees elaOii
where. The rdyan or khimi, Mimusops indica, a poor scrobbfj
tree in the Konkan and not known in the Deccan, grows here in im
greatest beauty. For so large a tree the leaves are small. They ani
of a deep green, and so close together, that for shade there is notna
like the rdyan. In form it is compact and well rounded^ and Ta|
often grows in remarkably pretty clusters. Neither flower nd
fruit is at all conspicuous. The fruit is of the greatest valo^
forming for Kolis and other poor classes the chief article of fbo(
during the hot weather months. Its tough wood serves aa
cartwheels and oil mills. But from its importance as a frait^
bearing tree the timber is seldom used. The- vctd, Fico*

1 Coniribnted by T. D. Little Esqnire, Executive Engineer.

a These notes on the Panch Mahals trees, shrabs, and plants are by Mr. Kaini% J
lately of the Bombay Civil Serrice. They are incomplete, as Mr. Nainie wu not ml
the eastern parts of the district, and did not pass a ramy season in the Panch ]^^^^|H
Mr. Naime*s notes on field and forest trees have been sonplemented by coiitnb«tua^
from Captain MiMaae, CoDaerrator of Forests, and Mr. WilaoD, C. 8,

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PANCH MAHA'LS. 199

Imgalensis^ does not differ from the same tree elsewhere. Other CSiaptw H
«ommon membera of the fig family are the pipri, Ficas tsiela, the Produotioib
itmior or gular, Ficas glomerata^ with clusters of red fig-like fruity
ttten by Bhils and Kolis, and the pipal^ Ficas religiosa. In the
Silol sab-division rows of palmyra trees^ Borassns fiabellif ormisj
ouuiy of them encircled by a pipri at once attract notice.

Except the mahuda none of those mentioned above can be called Forest Trees,

igrest trees. Of the Panch Mah41 forest trees, besides the mahuda,

•^ most abandant are the teak and the hhdkhra. Tesk, sag, Tectona

idis^ remarkable nearly all the year for the grand size of its leaves,

y&Tf plentifal, bat except in the sacred village groves or mdlvarif

great size. Its wood is asod chiefly for rafters and small beams.

Txhra, Batea frondosa, Uke the teak of no great size, is

kable at the beginning of the hot weather for its gorgeoas

of flowers. A waving well wooded coantry, set thick with

jght scarlet-floweriag apple trees, gives some idea of many a

h Mah&l landscape when the khdkhra is in bloom. In habit of

proirth it is not unlike the apple tree, and the leaves dropping

Pken the flowers come, the top and outer branches stand out sprays

jif unbroken scarlet. In the bud the dark olive green velvet of the

tplyz is scarcely less beautiful than the full flower. The gum of the

ikhra is gathered by Naikd&s, its roots made into ropes, and its

ood osed as fuel. Sisu, Dalbergia latif olia, neither plentiful nor large,

lioand in H&lol, Dohad, and Jh&lod. The tanas, Ougeinia dalbergi-

hiB, with its mach prized wood, is not common. The sddar or ay an,

vminalia arjuna, is pretty plentiful, but as all the big trees were

I before the forests were closed, it is of small size. The bibla,

fcrocarpes marsupium, though less destroyed than the sddar, is

f Chirans and other professional herdsmen often cut that cattle

If feed on ita leaves. It yields very fine timber. The moka,

Hrebera swietenioides, is a common and large growing tree. Its

Kte close-grained wood is much used by turners and for cartwheels.

mb iasumby Schleichera trijnga, with small white flowers in February

A March, is very rare. Its fruit is eaten and made into oil. Ita

ftil wood is so much prized for cart-axles and field tools that all

BBS of any size have been cut. Bohen, Soymida febrif uga, a large

i common tree, has timber too heavy for general use. Dhdvda,

logeissas latifolia, is very plentiful. Though it does not rank as a

Boer tree, it makes excellent fuel, and is used for ploughs. Charoli,

lokanania latifolia, with broad oval leaves, small greenish white

Wers, and a very hard nut, is not very common. Its fruit is

ien, and the oily kernel of the nut is much used in sweetmeats.

hida, Terminalia belerica^ is one of the commonest and largest

ing of Panch Mah41 trees. Its small oblong egg-shaped n>uit

beleric myrobolam is used in tanning. The gugal, Boswellia

k^ is a common, and, though not very large, a very beautiful

Its narrow pointed leaflets and drooping branches give it

liaething the look of the English garden acacia. Its grey flakey

n is noticeable. It yields a cheap resin, and, besides for fuel,

kwood is used in making platters. With it grows the Canariom

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Forest Trees.

CBoBibftyQiMltoir,
200 DISTRICTS.

CShapterlL atriotum, also called gugal, rather stouter^ withont the pqpoty

Prodaotiaa^ bark or the elegance of branch and leaf. The pasi, Dalbergia

panicolatai is a well-grown and handBome tree with thick duk

grey bark and dense foliaga The flowers are small, in laige

clusters, white tinged with blae. Its wood is nsed only for fuaL

The last three are bare in February and March. The graceful luii,

Melia indica, is well known, and besides near villages is sometiiott

found in the forests. It is seldom used as timber. Two ttees

of the orange family^ and one of a family closely allied, may be

noticed toge&er. The kwiUha or wood-apple, the bel and tilie hi^w.

The hinger, Balanites roxbnrghii, is the commonest and the IbmI

handsome. It grows everywhere, and is often little more tliaat

thorny bush. It yields an oil, and its nut is hollowed and made

into crackers. The bel, Aegle marmelos, is a better though b64

very noticeable tree. Its wood is used for oil mills. The wood»

apple, kauiha, Feronia elephantum, when well grown, with its croid

of small leaflets and graceful drooping branches, is particularly beaa-

tifuL The fruit is eaten raw, preserved, and used medicinally, bit

is too common to have any sale value. The bd/val. Acacia wnkm,

except where planted by roadsides, is seldom found. The commoDeik

acacia seems to be the cm/or. Acacia tomentosa, known by its soft

hairy -shaped pods. The bava. Cassia fistula, whose lovely labnnuoi-

like flower clusters are well known in the Konkan and other forest

is also not uncommon. The doli or white sa/ras, Albizzia lebbek^

and the shembar, Albizzia stipulata, are also fairly common. TIa

first with large white flowers and many protruding stamens has u

particular beauty ; the latter has flowers of the same size or larg^

and of a beautiful pink. The pods of both are large and ezceediBgl||

thin, and the leaves doubly sub-divided. The kali or black Mfti

Albizzia odoratissima, is remarkable for its apricot-scented grett

worsted-like flower-tassels. Its wood is used for cart wheels. Th

hheTy Acacia catechu, is plentiful, but, from want of preservatioij

does not grow large. Much of it is used in making charcoal. Hi

other leguminous trees are the sam/ra, Prosopis spicigera, fvfl

described as a mange-struck baval tree, and the karanj, rongaai

glabra, found chiefly on the banks of streams. Though not so haul

some as in the Konkan, the foliage of the kara/nj is thick and polisM

and it bears clusters of half -open pale lilac flowers, and flat neai|

oval pods. The seeds yield an oil useful in itch. Other Ml

deserving mention are the bor, Zizyphus jujuba, known eiM

where, but of no beauty, the fruit used as a pickle and consent;

the aduso, Ailanthus excelsa, a large tree with very rectilisll

branches rather sparingly clothed with very large much dxvM

leaves; and the silk cotton trees shimal, or shimar, Bomfai

malabaricum, and shamla, Eriodendron anfractuosum^ similar I

appearance but differing in flower, those of the first a dull cruDidl

and those of the second a dirty white. The leaves of about five ad

Eointed leaflets palmately disposed fall when the flowers ooM
besides being usal for firewood, the trunk is hollowed into canoll
troughs, and water conduits. The kari, Sterculia urens, of the saa
family, is, in the cold weather, one of the quaintest of trees witk il

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FoRiiST Treis.

PANCH MAHA'LS. 201

smooth deadly pale bark picked ont with pink patcHes and its leaflesa Chapter IL

branches with at the tips clusters of small yellowish brown flowers. Prodactiom-

The unripe fruit is like a crimson velvet star-fish. Three of the

ApocynacoB are much like each other. The kara, Wrightea tinctoriaj

with handsome clusters of white jasmine-scented flowers and long

thin seed vessels hanging down in pairs^ and often joining at the ends.

A second^ name unknown, like the kara in fruit, is of a different

habit of growth, the leaves only half as long, broader and downy, the

flower more delicate than the kara blossom with a peculiar spicy scent

but without the long tube to the corolla. The third, Wriglitea

^lomentosa, has leaves as large as the first, but downy, and the double

' seed vessels, instead of being smaller than a a uill, are as thick as a

' walking cane, and dotted with roughish specks. The wood is uBsd

^for turning. For these two last no more definite local name is

known than dudhia, a word applied to all trees with milk-like juice.

^The sareru, Streblus asper, is a very common tree in hedges and

about villages. It is small and scraggy with a gnarled trunk not

^unlike an English thorn tree. The andrak, a less common and

larger growing tree, is in February covered with small round heads

^rf yellowish flowers. It yields a fine white wood, and when cut

^ttrows from the stool several straight saplings. The kadam,

Btephegyne parvifolia, except when covered with round heads of

^agrant flowers, is an unnoticeable tree. In the forests it grows

^ a large size, and yields good timber. The kalam or nAiu,

ijinthocephalus cadamba, grows to be a magnificent tree. Its

llrge leaves are heart-shaped, and its sweet-scented balls of yellow

lowers are as large as small oranges. The wood is light yellow,

p is not the same as the kalam used in gun factories. The vdola^

iPhyllanthus emblica, . has oblong leaves arranged in pairs with

P;h regularity and grace. Its fruit, growing among the leaves
very like a slightly grooved green gooseberry, is sometimes
IMen raw, but oftener pickled or taken as a medicine. The tamraj
^Hmbumi, Diospyros melanoxylon, a common tree of little beauty.

El leaves and young shoots more or less rusty or downy. Its flowers
white and inconspicuous, and it bears a fruit about the size of a
m. The timra, Diospyros montana, common only in the P&vagad
^ooAb, is much like the tamiraj, except that its fruit is of the size of
h apple. The wood is used for making carts. The netar dn^,
Ipathodoea falcata, a rather uncommon tree, has pinnate leaves, white
lid pretty flowers, and curved and twisted pods, about eighteen
bches long, and not more than an inch broad. The aledi, Morinda
iwerta, is a common tree, from whose bark and roots a yellow dye
• made. Its pretty yellow wood is used only as fuel. The anidr,
ttme unknown, is used sometimes for cart wheels, but generally
br fuel The leaves of the asopala, Polyalthea longifolia, are used
Sot covering marriage booths, and those of the asindri or asotri,
lauhinia racemosa (?) for making cigarettes. The fibre of the
ieri, Bauhinia speciosa (?) is made into ropes. The dried fruit o£
iie mendal is placed on the bridegroom's wrist, and a decoction
if it is used medicinally. The kaledi is common. It yields a low-
•alned gum^ and from its wood platters are made. The bamboOj

tl67— fi6

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[Bombay QmM»,

S02

DISTRICTS.

GhApterll.
Frodaotioa.

Shrubs.

vds, Bambnsa anindinacea, is not large^ but is pretty plentiful in
hilly ground in the north-east of Godhra. In seversJ parts of the
district there are remains of old bamboo forests^ and in low lands
along river banks it would probably grow well and yield a k^
revenne.

The shrubs fall into the natural division of erect growers and
climbers. Among the first perhaps the three commonest^ sometimea
growing to the size of small trees, are the onkla, the sitdphal or wild
custard apple, and the kdl-ambar. None of these are in any way
remarkable in appearance. The onkla, Alangium lamarckii, lias
willow-shaped leaves, and in the hot weather rather pretty whitial
flowers, with very long stamens. The wild custard apple, Anosa
squamosa, said to be a foreigner, grows wild all over the Panch
Mah&ls. The fruit is scarcely worth eating. The kdl-ambar, Ficas
asperrima, is the fig with large and exceedOingly rough leaves, often
used as sand paper. Its greatest peculiarity is that, at least whea
young, the branches are jointed and hollow. The kada, Holarrhena
antidysenterica, a small tree, when not in blossom hard to tell from a
shrubby Wrightea tinctoria, has larger but less handsome wliito
flowers. Its wood is used for small ratters. Melanthesopsis patens ii
another very common shrub, tall and spreading with small and thickly
placed leaves. Neither flower nor fruit are at all remarkable. ^
madars, Galotropis gigantea and C. procera, are as common s&entj
where else, and always in flower. The next two are commoner hew
than in most places. Leonotis nepecefolia grows as much as ei^
feet high, and is seen everywhere near villages and hedgerows. U
is easily recognized by its unbranched stems with velvety onAga
coloured flowers in globular clusters clasping the upper part of tbi
stem at intervals. Glerodendron phlomoides is a spreading hedgi |
shrub, whose white flowers in December make it look at a distaDOtj
like a hawthorn bush. Another very common hedge shrub is Barleiift I
prionitis, whose buS flowers would be thought handsome, if thei^!
were more of them. Like the .well known karanda, Carissa caranda^
also found in hedges it is very thorny. The gaudiest shmbifl
perhaps the aval, Cassia auriculata, said to be common all over India
Its very handsome bright yellow flowers and the size of the shrnl,
make many a piece of waste look at a distance like an English gois0*i
clad common. Two other Cassias, occidentalis and tora, like thereitl
of the family, covered in the rains with yellow flowers, are TCff j
common. They are chiefly remarkable for their exceedingly nartf j
smell. The wild indigo, nil, Indigofera tinctoria, is a shrub, from ^
to three feet high with inconspicuous flowers. Two much largw
leguminous shrubs are tolerably common and conspicuous inhed^ '
hachki, Caesalpina bonduc, and childri, Acacia intsia. The Ifl
has spikes of yellow flowers and flat oval pods, covered with pric
and the chilari round heads of white flowers and showy clusters t
thin, dark-red pods, about six inches long by one broad. Both i
these, especially the chilari, are to some extent climbers. Zizyphi
nummularia is very common and thorny. Except that it is a to
shrub, spreading close to the ground, this is exactly like the commflN
bor, Zizyphus jujuba. The graceful tamarisk, Tamariz ericoiM

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sigiiit.]

PANOH MAHA'LS,

203

well knowD in Englisli flea-side places^ grows commonly in the beds
of rivers and on river banks. The dhdvri, Woodfordia floribnnda^ is
a small shrubs the flowers used as a red dye. The last to be mentioned
are hichu akara, Martynia diandra^ an annual herb and a foreigner^
found often in and aboat cnltivated ground^ with a handsome foxglove
shaped flower^ and a curious fruit like a beetle with two sharp
horos; Cadaba indica with white flowers of little beauty^ and a scarlet
frnit like a pod^ and Petalidium barlerioides^ a big straggling shrub,
with handsome wide-mouthed white flowers and large green veined
bracts.

Of climbers, two or three, found in almost all districts, must first
be mentioned. Gowitch, kavaj, Mucuna pruriens, has S shaped
pods, closely covered with brown stinging hair. The flowers are a
loffid purple, and though large are not striking. Another common
le^ominous climber is gavria, Canavalia ensif ormis, with rather large
]Rnk flowers and thick heavy pods. Cocculus villosus is exceedingly
flommon, and spreads widely. The leaves are small, oval and downy,
and, until the small rod berries come, nothing about it is very notice-
able. Doemia extensa is also a hairy climber, of no beauty, though
il bears white flowers nearly all the year round. Like all the
Umlj, it is full of bitter milk, and the double seed vessels are covered
<rith soft prickles. The beautiful Clitoria tematea, with blue shell*
shaped flowers, is eommon in hedges, and so is the guraj, the smaller
Abras precatorius. Its flower is inconspicuous, but after the pod has
bunt, the bright red seeds shine out from every hedge. The tamanya,
Vitiscamosa, with three distinct stalked, serrated leaflets and clusters
cCsoft black-currant-like berries, is not so common as in the Konkan.
Another pretty, though not very striking climber, is Boerhavia
lOpaiida, with very small pink flowers on long stalks and smooth
bsart-shaped leaves. Perhaps the largest of the climbers is the
Uka, Yentilago madraspatana, with at the end of green far stretching
blanches, clusters of small flowers and pea-shaped fruit with a long
Hun wing attached to it.

. Of the Convolvuli, the elephant creeper, Argyreia speciosa, and the
immon but pretty Ipomaoa sepiaria with pale pink middle-sized
Vpwers, and heart-shaped leaves, are the only climbers that can be
l^cognized in the cold weather. Of Oucurbi tacesB, Lehneria garcini,
|a in some places common in hedges, the leaves with their fl ve much
iqxirated round and toothed lobes, are rather curious looking, and so
R» the small deep-red horizontally egg-shaped berries. Mukia
isahrella, also a small climber, very rough with minute yellow flowers
ind small scarlet berries, is one of the very common Indian hedge
ibints. The ram turcd, LafEa amara, climbs high, and has largish
(isUow evening-blooming flowers, and oblong ribbed fruit, which,
taring the greater part of the year, hangs in the hedges, dry and
irown. The dilori, Cephalancha indica, perhaps the commonest
[onkan hedge plant, grows in the Panch Mah&ls, but not freely. It
OS handsonie white flowers and an oblong fruit, so beloved by birds
md squirrels that it scarcely ever ripens to its proper scarlet. Of
Sip^TB, Maema corenaria, the only climber has small green flowers,and

Chapter XL
Productiofi.

Shrubs.

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204

DISTRICTS.

Chapter IL
Produotioii*

Plants

TToton

irregalar Rhaped in no way remarkable froit. The only climber tibl
calls for mention is the very small bat exceedingly pretty balloon yine^
Cardiospermum alicacabnm. Its finely cnt leaves and tendiilfl,
its small white flowers on long stalks^ and inflated three-lobed
capsule enclosing three ronnd black white-spotted seeds^ makeneuij
every part of it noticeable.

To arrange plants and draw the line between them and shrubs is
not easy. For grouping, as well as recognition, perhaps the
simplest plan is to take them according to the locality they ihrire
best in, water, marsh, and dry-land.

Of water plants, found in or on ponds and river-bed pools, the
three sorts of waterlilies are tolerably well known. First, the large
Nelumbium speciosum, whose leaves and pink or white flowers grow
on stalks, sometimes three or four feet long ; second, the ordioarf
white or red Nymphoea lotus ; and third, the Nymphoea stellata, about
the same size as the last but often blue as well as white or red, and
distinguished from it by the petals and sepals being more pointed
and the anthers having white appendages. Perhaps the next com-
monest, found in any ditch, is the Convolvulus Ipomoea reptans, with
long creeping and rooting stems, pretty rose-coloured flowers, aod
arrow-shaped leaves. The water chesnut or shingodi, Trapa bispinose,
is not very conspicuous, but the flowers are white, the leaves arranged
in whorls, and the fruit long stalked, irregulaty angled, and with two
sharp horns straight and barbed. Another plant, creeping under asd
on the water to a long distance, is Irissida repens, with bright grea
leaves, red stems, and primrose coloured flowers, opening like the rait
of the family in the evening. Sagittariaobtusifolia, named from the
arrow-shaped leaves of the germs, has long taperingpoints to the low»
ends of the leaves, which rise out of the water on very long stalks.
The flowers are white but make little shoW. Round the edges of A
ponds and pools are seen patches of Hygrophila longifolia, a rigid
plant, about two feet high, with narrow leaves and handsome blaa
nnstalked flowers, each cluster surrounded by six long thorns, wilk
small round lotus-like leaves and clusters of cup-shaped flowei%
growing out of the leafstalk. Next are two species of Limnantheman
or water buck bean. The larger, Linmanthemum indicam, has plak
white flowers, bearded on the margin ; the smaller, Limnanthenwai
aurantiacum, white flowers, the throat much bearded, and of a deep
orange colour. Of the order Scrophulariacas two smaller plaaH^
almost always grow with the water buck beans ; of these one ki
Limnophila gratioloides with pale purple flowers and leaves of thieii
different sorts, those under water in hair-like masses, those juit aboiii
the water divided into lobes and surrounding the stem, and thoeed
the top simple lance-shaped. The other, Herpestes monnieria, kij
also pale half -opened flowers, but is without the peculiarity of Uuee!
different sets of leaves. Another very common plant that grows m^
masses in moist places is Ammania baccifera, the stems are sqvM^
and tinged with red, and its whole leaf arrangement is remarka^f '
regular. Neither flower nor fruit is noticeable. With this is oftai'
seen a small plant of the Cruciferous or cabbage and water-crafli

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bmij, Cardamine hirsnta^ with erect' pods. This to look at is a
eommoQ plants and is only noticed because it grows in England. The
beaatifnl little hooded milfoil, Utricularia stellaris, only two or three
inches high, with bright yellow flowers, rising on very slender stems
and hair-like leaves, is foand spreading over wet ground, and is
properly an aquatic, though half an inch of water is enough for it. Two
t)f^e goose-foot tribe. Polygonum rivulare and Polygonum elegans,
inust be noticed. The first is a smooth straight plant with lance-
thaped leaves and a head of flowers not unlike an ear of wheat. The
'Second spreads flat on the ground, and is easily known by its very
Bmall deep-red flowers and ragged white stipules. It has altogether
Jomething the appearance of a heath.

This seems to conclude the list of aquatic flowering plants, but it
may be remarked that in the Pancn Mahals, as elsewhere, the
commonest plant that grows in and near water is a non-flowering
'pepper-wort, Marsilea quadrifolia, whose leaves are of the exact
.^tre-foil shape. There are many non-flowering duckweeds and
sedges.

After water come marsh plants. In the Panch Mahfls besides
on river banks and beds, during the cold weather, marsh plants
elothe with green the empty rice-fields. They are all of small size.
The largest and one of the commonest is perhaps Csesulia axillaris,
Whose flowers of a pretty lilac and white, grow in close heads,
Ij^hed to the dilated base of the leaves. With it is often found
*Ofathocline stricta, a delicate plant, with pretty much divided hairy
^d strong smelling leaves, and reddish purple small flower heads.
'Another is Sphceranthus mollis, very common on rice fields, with a
^tfcrong balsamic smell, but by no means beautiful. The flowers are
t dull red heads, nearly as big as a marble, and the leaves below the
liieeting with the stem run down it in wings. A fourth, of the same
Wder (Composite), a very common weed everywhere, is Eclipta alba
Hrith white flowers ; and a fifth, coming out rather late in the cold
^Weather but in the same moist lands, is Gnaphalium indicum, a
'Anall soft hairy plant of a light grey hue, and with small straw-
keoloured heads of flowers. This is very like the English Gnaphalium.
•Heliotropium ovalifolium is also very common on rice fields, with
^Ivety much wrinkled leaves and small white flowers. Striga
tephrasioides is another small plant, rough all over with rather pretty
^hite flowers, the tube lone and very narrow. Lobelia trigona,
inother very small plant, with the peculiarity of three cornered stems
ind stamens protruding through a slit in the lower lip of the corolla,
fe also common. Finally, of rice-field plants is Sutera glandalosa,
^mentioned in any Bombay books, but given by Drnry as a Central
Indian plant. It is very small with finely-cut leaves and pale flowers,
taid is hairy and glutinous all over. Stemodia viscosa is another rice-
teld plant, small, sticky, and with dark blue flowers. There is also
iie small gentian, Exacum pumilum, known by its square stem with
inooth opposite leaves, and very pretty starlike dark-blue flowers,
9n%h. large yellow anthers.

' Of dry-land plants, two small Convolvnli may first be mentioned,
toih of them found creeping on the ground in grassy or sandy places.

Chapter IL

ProductioiE.

Plants.

JUanh.

Dry-Umd.

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DISTRIOTS-

Chapto: IL
Productioii*

Plant&
I>ry-kuuL

EvoItuIos hirsatos has flowers of the loveliest blae^ small^^ bat raiker
like those of the common English speedwell. This is not mach lib
an English convolvulus, but Convolvulus microphyllus is very like
the common Eaglish bindweed, and no one could mistake it for a
member of any other family. Another beautiful English plant, f oand
occasionally, is the common pimpernel, Anagallis arvensis, but instead
of scarlet the Indian variety has flowers of a splendid dark-bla&
Two stout plants of the nightshade order are very common heretf
elsewhere, Solanum jacquini and Solanum indicum with flow««
much like those of the potatoe. The second i^ the larger, almost a
shrub in size. Both are prickly with, especially the first, spiko*
covered leaves. A third Solanum without prickles, and smooth
all over, is Solanum nigrum. This, much rarer than theotherSi
is found in England, and like the common nightshade has small
flowers. Another plant, which about cultivated fields grows as
much as five feet high, is the kalpa, Trichodesma amplexicaa^
rough all over, like most of its order, with rather pretty lilac*
coloured flowers. Of Compositaj, which are not often remarliblefcr
beauty, we have Echinops echinatus covered all over with prickleik
and clearly of close kin to a thistle. It is all over of a grey nue, kbA
the small whitish flowers are in large round heads. Another parpla
thistle, more like the blue beetle thistle of England, is Tricholepis
procumbens, which straggles over sandy ground. Perhaps tha
commonest of Compositso is the Vicoa auriculata, with small yeflow
camomile-like flowers on long stalks, and rather narrow much wrinklei
leaves. The strong smelling and very hairy stout plant, with smdl
yellow heads of flowers, is Blumea holosericea. Launea bellidifolil
is common in sandy ground, with much resemblance in its ligtt
yellow flowers and deeply gashed leaves to a milk thistle. Th^
with several already said to flourish in damp ground, make ap a
tolerable list of CompositsB. Elephantopus scaber is nothing better
than an impostor. At the beginning of the rains it puts f ordi doni
to the ground a number of primrose-like leaves. For two or thrsa
months it shows no flower, and then alongstifE stem shoots up, witb|
at the top, a remarkably ugly head of purple flowers. Perhaps thk
is the place to mention the yellow Merican thistle, though it is not
a thistle but a poppy, Argemone Mezicana. It is as common hers
as everywhere else, and not the least like a foreigner.

Of Capers, Cleome viscosa, a weed in most districts, is found hem
It is hairy and sticky all over with leaves of three or five leaflelil;
yellow flowers, and a long erect pod-like fruit. Gynandropsis pe&l»;
phylla is less common ; it has something of the same appearance, Ut;
is altogether more agreeable, the white flowers being rather ipte^i
Of Scrophulariacaa, Gelsia coromandeliana is a stout plant growingkj
waste places, whose leaves and flowers are much like the Engwi
mullein. Yerbascum Lindenbergia urticaf olia is a small downy plaulirl
growing out of old walla and rocks; the small yellow flowers «•;
something like snapdragons. Of the laige order of Acanthacs^, w|
characteristics of which are generally well marked, the handscBnerfi
is Daedalacanthus nervosus, with spikes of very pretty violet or bliiii
flowers with darker stripes, much contracted in the throat fioflU*

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eiegans is a small^ bnt in f avoarable sitaations very pretty plant with
kight blue bell-shaped flowers marked with reddish stripes.
Haplanthus verticillaris has flowers rather like the last^ but is a
larger and coarser plants and the flowers are surrounded by short and
ligidj bat not thorny, spines. Buellia dijecta is a lowly plants with
n^er large solitary bell-shaped blue or lilac flowers. Lepidagathis
f^ida is a strong hairy plants very prickly and with much smell, the
lowers in spikes white with brown spots. Blepharis bserhaavifolia
ii a creeping and straggling plant, with leaves in fours, and
pale irregular flowers, surrounded by bristly bracts. Peristrophe
bicalyculata, straggling, untidy looking, has rough hexagonal stems
and small pink flowers at the end of long stalks. Justicia difiusais a
very small and very common plant, with spikes of pale blue flowers.
J^m the bracts crowded together all up the spike, flowers emerge^
vith white membranous edges. Nelsonia tomentosa, a low-growing
my hairy plan^ with spikes of small lilac and purple flowers, may
otmclade this order.

Of the Labiatae or miut family, the chief are two common-looking
riants, found in great quantities in tilled or &llow fields, Leucas
tuifolia and Leucas cephalotes. They have both white flowers in
globolar heads and clusters round the stem. Besides other smaller
iifferences, the first is soft and downy, and the second smooth,
beocasbiflora, distinguished among the species of this genus by having
Ihly two flowers together in the axils of the leaves, is not so common
kthe other two. Salvia plebeiais a rather pretty plant with small
Dftc flowers, very much wrinkled leaves, and a strong mint-like smell.
Repeta Bombaiensis is not common ; it is not much unlike the last.
kVisorneles ovata is a tall straggling plant of little beauty, with large
bavy heart-shaped leaves and purple flowers.

Of Amaranths, Celosia argentia is so common in cultivated fields
b to look sometimes as if it had been planted. Its spikes of shaggy
tffcen twisted flowers are of a silvery white tinged with pink. Aerva
haiata has also white spikes, but they are short, blunt and woolly, as
kie the- leaves, and the whole plant is grey. Achgranthes aspera is
kearlyas common, and entirely without beauty, the long unclothed
^ikes seaming to bear little else on them beyond the bristly bracts.

Of Euphorbias, the milk bush. Euphorbia neriif olia, and of Cactece
ihe Opuntia dillenii or prickly pear are commonly used for hedges
Bid roadside fencing. Baliospermum montarium is a strong coarse
Ittd antidy-looking plant, with large-toothed leaves, and three-lobed
Emit, the size of a small gooseberry. Crozophora plicata has a fruit
H the same shape but smaller, but the whole plant is rough and hairy,
ieeping close to the ground, and the leaves are dark and much
Vrinlded. It is necessary to mention two or three leguminous plants,
lioogh probably many more may be seen in tiie rains. The
Kmunonest is perhaps Crotolaria filipes, very small and very hairy,
Kostrate on the ground, with yellow and inflated oval legume.
Eadigofera cordifolia is as common, as small, as hairy and as prostrate,
Mat the flowers are dark-red. Indigof era hirsuta, much less common,
» a stout erect plant, also hairy, the flowers small and pink, but in
bose. racemes^ and the pods stiff and erect and rather four-angled.

Chapter H.
Productioii*

Plants.
Dryland,

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Chapter XL
Prodnctioii*

FoKsna

Of Mallows, there is the common bat handsome Urena sinnata wii]i
dark pink flowers and rounded much-lobed leaves. Sida hamilis, &
common looking little plant, with yellow flowers, and Abutfloa
graveolens, a big shrabbj plant, clammy and hairy, with large
orange-coloured flowers and roundish leaves.

The Panch If ah&l forests lie chiefly in the centre of the disiiricfc.
The west, though well wooded, has few forest trees, and the east,
except fruit trees in fields and some stony hill lands in the remoter
villages, is bare of timber. In the centre the Godhra woodkndB
stretch over undulating plains, and the sides of small granite liillgi
and those in Hdlol partly over plains, partly over rocky uplands, and ,
partly on the slopes of Pav4gad hill. TQl 1860 the produce of tlw ,
x^anch Mah&l forests was in little demand. Teak was preservei i
But, with this exception, on paying an export duty of less than one i
per cent, all kinds of timber might freely be cut. The forest revenue i
was very small. In 1861 the construction of the Bombay Baroda j
and Central India Railway raised the value of timber. The forests |
were let to a contractor, who is said to have taken out of them 100,000 |
sleepers. In 1863 the Conservator reported the forests well stocked i
with useful timber, including several kinds not generally known, and
as valuable as teak. In his opinion, if protected from sixteen to twenty
years, the teak alone would be worth £200,000 (Rs. 20,00,000).* ^
At his suggestion, eight kinds of trees were protected, so far as tai
forbid the cutting of such as were less than four feet in girth. Aj
small establishment at a monthly cost of £9 Gs. (Rs. 93) was also i
tioned. In 1870 Dr. Brandis,* the Conservator General for Ind
examined the forests. He thought them poor, and was of opii
that grass, fuel, and building timber were the only likely sources (
revenue. He recommended an increase of establishment, and <
European officer, an inspector and four foresters were sanction
Since 1871 the forest staff has been gradually increased,
present (1878), besides the European officer, it includes seT
permanent and seventy temporary men. In 1866 twenty-seven i
varying in area from five to 200 acres, were set apart as sp
Government reserves. But the system followed, chiefly from the fi
size of the plots, was not approved, and the work of demarcation i
little progress, tiU in 1873 forty-two square miles were taken api
Imperial reserves. Since 1873 the work has made steady prog
In 1878 in the Kalol sub-division a total of 170 square miles has I
demarcated and sanctioned, and selections of more forest land
being made. In former years the forest revenue was small,
was included under the general head of miscellaneous or saf
In 1877 the total receipts amounted to £2519 (Rs. 25,190) and I
expenditure to £1394 (Rs. 13,940), leaving a net revenue of £1IS
(Rs. 11,250). In 1877, 14,549 tons, 9857 of them timber.' and -^
firewood, passed out of the district by way of P41i. The bulk <

1 Gov. SeL LXXVIL 12.

' Dr. BrandiB' memo, dated 13th June 1870.

' The Deputy CouBervator of Forests (Mr. Muller) estimated the timber tnd» I
1870 at 23,543 cart-loads of the value of Kb. 3.53,146; of these the foreign (' *
passing through the district represented 19,657 cart-loads of the valne of Bs. ^9

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209

ftis supply is said to come from Lon^vida, Sonth^ B&riya, and
IVdepur^ and other states bordering on the Panch Mahkls. It
igoee to Baroda, Kaira, Ahmedabad^ and eastern E&thiibw&r. Except
I* imall demand for babul hy the Public Works Department and the
^way, this timber is entirely used by private house-holdera It
JB for tlie most part small^ cniefly t^ rafters, in the dearUi of
^liamboos much used for roofing. Bona, a village in the Godhra
iib-division, was, before the opening of the VUi railway station, the
ifUd timber mart. Since then the trade centres at (Jodhra, and is
{ddefly in the hands of Sunni Bohor^. Except the flowers of the
iMtftiiaa, Basaia latif olia, gathered in the hot months, April and May,
^ exported in large quantities, the minor forest produce is at
|neentof UtUe consequence. There is no export of honey, lac or
nm^ and the only colouring material of any value is the yellow beurk
■ihe aledi tree. Kolis and Bhils work as woodmen, but the only
IDttl forest tribe are the I^&ikd^. These are very good workers

Ei mnoh used in the forest. The men's daily wage varies from 3d.
M, (2-4 as.) Women, when employed, but this is not often,
n for the day about 2^d. (1 as. 8 p.) and children l^d. (1 as.)

The domestic animals are oxen, cows, bufiEaloes, horses, sheep, goats,
Dd asses. ^ Of oxen the 1876-77 returns show a total of 86,024 head,
fttle care is taken in breeding oxen. Compared with the neighbouring
ifaa and Baroda bullocks, most of them are poor, small, and weak,
i the same time they are hardy and active, and can work on the
Krestfare. Apidrof themcostsfrom£3 to£5 (Rs. 30- Bs. 50). In

tof the larger towns is a better class of bullocks. Those
iging to the Godhra Qh&nchis, apparently a cross between the
{nl and the large Elaira cattle, are of fair size and good draught
)Wer« Three or four pairs of them, at the rate of about twelve miles a
^, wiQ draw a wagon-load of as much as one ton and 8| cwt. (40
pi mcms). Avoir of these draught bullocks is worth from £5 to
(Bs. 50 . Bs. 100). Of cows the total is returned at 90,928, and of
'bufialoes at 81,762. Like the bullocks, the cows are poor, yielding
two to five pints of milk a day, and costing from £1 to £2 (Rs.lO-
0). Bufhloes are common, many of them of fair size and quality,
herds are owned by professional herdsmen of the Gh&ran caste,
men come chiefly from K&thx&w&r^ and many of their buffaloes
of the well known N^odi breed. She-buffaloes, when in milk,
from six to fifteen pints a day, and vary in value from
to £6 (B8.^80 - Bs. 60). Male buffidoes (5911) are not used either in
;ht or in tillage. They are either killed when young or sold in
parts of Grujar&t. Horses, returned at 3488, are seldom more
ponies in size. They are small and poor, stunted by bad keep
careless breeding. Few of them are worth more than £2 (Bs. 20J.
sheep and goats the 1876-77 returns show a total of 34,080 head,
are fairly plentiful. In Jhfflod and H41ol they are generally
', leggy, and bony with coarse wool. The western sheep show
sicns of breeding, better built, fleshier, with fairly close fine
The chief sheep and goat breeders are wandering herdsmen,
ris, Bharvads, and E&malias.
il«7-27

Chapter XL
Production^

FoBKrre.

ANIMAI&

Domettie,

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DISTRICTS,

Chapter n.
Productioii.

Andcau.

Wild.

Besides breeding, tliese men keep stores of clarified bntier^ and mab
some profit from wool, either selling it, or working it into coane
blankets or kdmlis. From tbe soath-west of tbe district there is 4
small export of sheep to Baroda, and to Neemuch and Mhow from
the north-west. Ck>ats are common. Bat most are the rongh MiA
or red breed, of no great yalae as milkers. Their hair is mixed will
sheep's wool in making blankets and in staffing pillows. Of camdf
the 1876-77 retams show a total of 419. About the beginning of A|
cold season, November, large herds of breeding camek are brongll
from M&rw&r, kept in pasturage till June, and then taken bad %
their own country. The breeders, M&rr&di Bab&ris, pay a gru3o|
fee of two young camels.

Asses, with a total strength of 1701, are bred
district. As a rule all potters, kumhhdrs, and rice-huskers, golds, hd
asses, the potters to carry earth and earthen pots, and the ne|
buskers to carry CTain. They are treated with little care, and lefil
pick up what fodder they can find. An average ass-load is abont 11
pounds (4 mcms). Thev vary in price from 168. to £2 (Ba. I
Bs. 20). The domestic fowls are hens and ducks. Hens are reaiq
chiefly by Musalm&ns, Kolis, and Bhils, in all villages and Umti
Ducks are also reared but only in small numbers. 1

As late as the seventeenth century (1616 and 1645) the DoU
forests were famous for their wild elephants.^ And twen^ years a
though all traces of wild elephants had passed away, the Panch Ma
and Bewa K&ntha districts were, besides of deer and other smal
animals, a favourite resort of tigers, panthers, and bears. Fonni
some extent over the whole district the lai^er sorts of game w<
commonest in Godhra, in parts of H&lol, and along tihe westa
borders of Dohad and Jh&loGL Their &vourite haunts were riyer4
patches of bastard cypress, Tamarisk, and especially near Godhia
caves and crevices of tne low boulder-covered granite hills. The iSk
area was then small, and besides stray cattle a &ir stock of ntk
small deer, and pig, and a chance spotted deer or stag fami^
plentiful supplies for the large beasts of prey. Their quiet was m
disturbed, European sportsmen seldom visited the district, and fra
the Bhils and Kolis, except on the rare occasion of some big hnntij
party, the larger animals had little to fear. In 1860, when 1
district came under British management, the forests were foil of]
game, and during the next eight seasons from forty to seventy hi
were yearly killed. In 1 865 the results of the year's shooting indnj
twenty-two tigers, ten panthers, and thirfy-eight bears. Beai
this destruction, two causes, the clearing of their former hanntas, I
the shortening of their food supplies, have been at work to red)
the number of big game. Tillage has steadily spread, and not 01
the open glades, but many thick rich patches of wood on the hai
of streams, where tigers used always to lie^ are now well gaasi

^ In 1616 the emperor Jahin^^ (1605-1627) came to Gnjarit to hunt elephtfttH
the Bohad forests and in 1645, seventy-three elephants were caoght in the Don
and ChimpAner forests.

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PANCH MAHA'LS. 211

Ifd^ of tobacco and sugarcane. At the same time greater care in CShaptor H-*
' _ cattle and the destruction of deer have cut down two of the Produetion*
ief sources of their food supply. Tigers are gradually withdraw- asuuia.
from their old haunts. Even in the thickest and safest covers a ip.^^

y animal is only occasionally found. Panthers wanting less food
shelter give ground slower. But on them too the spread of
j;e presses hard, and their numbers steadily drop ofE. Tha
MgsA forests and the well-wooded country between P&v&gad and
VB&riya still attract the largest game. But even when found,
take shelter in caves and rocky fissures so deep that neither
ike nor fireworks can drive them out. A sportsman willing to
k will probably not leave altogether empty-handed. But blank
will be the rule and success the exception. During the last
years (1874-1877) not more than ten head of large game have
an average been killed. Of Tigers^ vdgh, FeUs tigris, two wer&
' in 1873, six in 1874, and three each in 1876 and 1877* The
ither, dipdo, Felis leopardns, is still in considerable numbers*
the shelter among the large granite rocks is so good, that once
jg them panthers are very hard to dislodge. Two were shot ia
6 and four in 1877. The Leopard, cJiita, Felis jubatus, less
ion than the panther, is sometimes seen. The Black Bear,
Ursus labiatus, is found in considerable numbers. Like
AtherSfbears find suchgoodshelter among the granite rocks that they
» not often killed. The Hyoena, ta^as, Hjoena striata ; the Jackal^
2, Canis aureus ; and the Fox, hkri, Yulpes bengalensis, are
Bunon everywhere ; the Lynx, sidgosh, Felis caracal, and the Wild
t, hdngad bilK, Felis chaus, are comparatively rare. The Wild Boar,
fair, Sus indicus, is found everywhere in the forests. Of Deer
ire are the sdmhar, Busa aristotelis, found only on the slopes o£
vi%ad hill; the Spotted Deer, chital, Axis maculatus, common in
ftain parts of the district ; the four-homed Antelope, Tetraceros
idrioomis, f onnd in most places, and the Gazelle, chikara, Gazella
onetii^and Blue Bull, nilgai, Portax pictus^ common everywhere.
le Antelope, Jcaliar, Antilope bezoartica, common over the rest of
Qar&t is, perhaps because the country is not open enough, scarcely
lar^ tovmd in the Panch Mah&ls»

Of wfld birds there are of water birds the Black-backed Qoose, Birds.

ba, Sarkidiomis melanonotus, the Cotton Teal, Nettapus coro-
hndelicus ; the Widgeon, Mareca penelope ; the Pin Tailed Duck,
ila acuta; the common Teal, Querquedula crecca; the Blue*
IngedTeal, Querquedula circia; the Bed-Headed Pochard, Aythya
ina; the White-eyed Duck, Aythya nyroca; the Tufted Duck,
dignla cristata ; the Whistling Teal, Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf) ;
B Shoveller, Spatula clypeata; and the Snake Bird^ Plotus
Blanogaster. Of Cranes there are the sdraa crane, Grus antigone ; the
mmon crane, Grus communis (Bechst) ; and the Demoiselle crane,
itliropoides virgo. Of Snipe the Common Snipe, Gallinago
JBolopacinus; the Pin Tailed Snipe, Gallinago sthenura; the Jack

I Two, the first on reoord, were shot in 1878.^Mr. Aoworih.

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Chapter IL
Produetton*

BlBDI.

Snaus,

Fish.

Snipe^ GuUinago galliniila ; and ike Painted Snipe^ Rhynchsa bengd-
eosis. Of Storks the Adjutant Bird^ Leptoptiloa angala. Of Heroni
the Parple Heron^ Ardeola porpnrea ; and the Pond Heron, Ardeok
leacoptera. Of other water birds the Parple Coot, Vor^tsjw
poIiocephalQs; the Bald Coot, Folica atra; and the Bittern, luui^
Botaoms stellaris* Of Plovers the Indian Courier Plover^ Cnisoriiis
ooromandelicus ; and the Stone Plover^ .^dicnemus crepitans. 0(
Partridges are the Painted PartridgeyFrracolinus pictus; andtheGrCT
Partridge, Ortygomis ponticeriana. Of Quail are the Gi^Qoafl,
Cotumiz oommunis ; the Bain Qnailj Cotumix Goromandelica; ilia
Bock Bush Quail, Pmlicula argoonda ; both Button Quails, Tonucei
Jondera and Dussumieri ; and the Bustard Quail, Turnix taigoox. Qt
other birds there are the Common Sand Grouse, Pterocles exosbui
and the Painted Sand Grouse, Pterocles fasciatus ; the PeacodE,FaYO
cristatus ; the Bed Jungle Fowl, Gallus ferrugineus, a rare bird; tho
Qrey Jungle Fowl, GaJlus sonneratii, common in Godhra; and Ad
Bed Spur Fowl, Galloperdix spadiceus.

Snakes are common in the Panch Mah£ls, especially in and netf
Godhra. Four sorts are noticed as speciaUy dau^rons, theCotroi
the Ohitla, the Kodya, and the T<m(ich Kot or Tyran, a ixee viper.
The Chitla's bite, though not always fatal, causes rapid mortificalaoa
in the part bitten^ and cases of men and animals crippled for lifolf
a Ohitla bite are common. The Kodya, though very poisonous, is
■aid to be not always fatal. The£b^ or Ta/nach is said to be vaj
venomous. More than either snakes or vipers, the natives &ar As
Otiera or biscobra. Any amount of evidence is forthcoming as to ite
f earfuUy poisonous character. They admit it has no fangs, bnt 9f
the poison Kes in the spittle. The number of deaths reported bm
snake-bites was forty-three in 1872, forty-four in 1875, thirtj-nio^
in 1876, and sixty-four in 1877. In Gujar&t, Government rewaidi
are granted for the destruction of the following animals : Tiger^
full grown, £2 88. (Bs. 24) ; half mown, £1 4«. ^. 12) ; cubs, IJ^
(Bs. 6) ; Leopards, Panthers, and Chit&s, full grown, £1 is. (Ba. 18)f
half grown, 12*. (Bs. 6) ; cubs, 6«. (Bs. 3) ; Cobra de capello, 6i
(4 annas) ; Phursa or Cobra Manilla, Zd. (2 annas) ; other specifll
possessing a fang in the upper jaw, f d. (6 pies). 13ie animals ta
identified and the rewards generally paid by the M&mlatd&r.

The Mahi only touches a few of the western villages, and, as it li4
no other river, the district is almost entirely without fish. A few all
found in the larger ponds and reservoirs. But the supply is M
small to support a separate claps of fishers*

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•itiartil

CHAPTER III.

POPULATION.

SnrcK tlie faransfer to the Britdsh a oensns of the Panch Mah&Is
Bas twice been taken. The first in 1855 showed a total population
of 143^595 souls, the second in 1872 showed 240,743 soda or an
increase in seventeen years of 67*65 per cent. Of tibe first census no
details are available. At the time of tibie second census^ of the whole
mimber of 240^743 sonls, 225 J75 or 93'78per cent, were Hindus,
14,921 or 6*19 per cent, Musalm^iiiSy thirty Christians, and seventeen
tirm.

The following tabular statement ffives for the year 1872 details of
{he population of each sub-division of the district according to religioUi
age, and sex :

Pamek MahdU SiUhdivMtm PopiOatkm, 187$.

Chapter in*

Population^

1866 and 1872.

rmOH.

BDinua

4 Sra-Mi

NoftttKMSdlBff

12 yean.

Above 12a&d

not exceeding

80yMn.

Above 80 years.

Total.

Orvid
Total.

Ifatas.

Aonalea.

Hales.

Ftenalee.

lialea.

>«»K.

Hales.

taaka

FMas.

••• •••

Totia ..
••• •••

ToUl ...
Total ..

18,817

12,141
1^190
19,481

12,168
11,806
16,961

10,664
10,624
16,047

9626

8727

11,480

7944
7664

11,066

86,148
88,862
48,404

80,689
80,198
46,684

68,787
64,060
04,968

47,eM

42,662

40^7

87,126

80,068

26,664

118,404

107,871

826,776

HUSALMA'NS.

WW ...
Wnd ...

14»

006

ias6

888

863

1282

471

ni&

1187
876
910

1068
808

771

976

816
772

8776
1296
2702

8487
1078
2646

7218
2871
6887

S76e

2671

2868

2422

2229

2062

7866

7066

14,921

OHRISTIAire.

Oodhn...
UM ...
Doiad ^

1
1
6

1
6

8
x2

•••

8
8
14

1
•*•
7

6
3

...

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[Bombay Gatttteer.

DISTRICTS.

Cihaptarin.
Fdpnlatum-

Health.

Age.

FA'Baia.

SuB-Diymioir.

Not ezoeedlDg
IS yean.

Above 18 and

notexoeedlDg

80 yean.

Above 80 yean.

ToteL

Onnl
TbtiL

Males.

WeauJm.

Mate.

Fnnata.

Make.

tanilfli.

Malee.

F^n,^^

Oodhn

Ktiol

DohAd

...

8
9

1
8

4
8
I

1
...
1

6
6

8
1

7
S

Ibtal ...

TOTAL.

Godhim ... ...

KiXol

Dohad ^

15,004
90,888

18,466
18,608
20,886

18.448
11,788
18,079

11,688
10,901
16,963

10,898

0184

18,856

8080

7869

11,889

89,086
85»168
61,211

8^079
81,878
49,067

i(n;M

ToUl ...

60,789

46,866

48,897

89,666

88,278

88,688

186,804

114,489

M0,7II

From the above statement it appears that the percentage of males
on the total population was (1872) 52*46 and of females 47*53.
Hindu males numbered 118^404 or 52*44 per cent^ and Hindu females
numbered 1074371 or 47*55 peiicent of the total Hindu population ;
Musalm&n males numbered 7866 or 52*72 per cent« and Musalmk
females 7055 or 47*28 per cent of the total Musalm&ci population;
P&rsi males numbered 12 or 70*56 per cent, and P&rsi females 5 or
29*41 per cent of the total P&rsi population ; Christian males numbered
22 or 73*88 per cent^ and Christian females 8 or 26*66 per cent
of the total Cnristian population*

The total number of infirm persons was returned at 996 (nudes
558, females 438) or f orly-one per ten thousand of the total popuh^
tion. Of these 18 (males 14, females 4) or one per ten thousand were
insanes ; 168 (males 88, females 70) or seven per ten tiionsand, idiots ;
253 (males 164, females 89) or eleven per ten thousand, deaf and dmnb ;
453 (males 205, females 248) or nineteen per ten thousand, blind;
imd 114 (males 87, females 27) or five per ten thousand^ lepers.

The following tabular statement gives the number of the members
of eacb religious dass of the inhabitants according to sex at
different ages, with, at each stage, the percentage on the total popi^
lation of the same sex and religion. The columns referring to the
total population discard the distinction of religion^ but retain the
difference of sex :

1 Bom. QoY. SeL XXTTT, 859.

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Gi^arit]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

Paneh MahdU Populaiion by Age, 187f.

215

AOB.

Hindus.

i
I.

tTptolyeBT...
Between 1 and 6 .

J>o. 6 and 12 .

Do. 12 and 20 .

Do. 20 and 80 .

Do. SO and 40 .

Do. 40 and 80 .

Do. 60 and 60 .
Above 60 ...

Total

5166
21,982
20,806
18,808

16,401
8234
4064
1364

119,404

4-86

18-66

17-67

16-60

18*62

18-86

6-94

8*42

114

6246

21,949

16,688

15^34

21,291

18,277

6920

4668

1704

4*88
20-84
16-44
14-74
19*82
li-86
6*44
4-84
1-68

IW^Tl

MUBALMA'im.

867
1166
1247
1296
1678
1147
686
828
128

4*64
14-81
16-86
16-46
20-00
14-68
8-00
411
1*66

7SSd

^66
1186
1070
1069
1868
1010
646
887
170

Chapter nL
Popnlation*

Age.

5-19

16-09

16-lT

16-01

10-82

14-82

7-72

4-78

2-41

70«6

Up to 1 jBsr.,.
Between 1 and 6 ,.
Do. 6 ^d 12 ..
13 Mid lu „

aaiuidso ..

m and W ..
40 and Ml ..
eOandOO..

Bo.

Do.
Do.

.Above 60

Total

GnRisTtioii.

ill

466

9-09

27-21
3flM
465

U*AO

75 W

Pa'bsui.

e-^

33-R8

8'aa

261)0

40 00

4^m

TmAU

6826

23.119

^,055

Id.ftiJD

13,037

17,557

BiU

4380

1*77

156^

4-87
1 8 33
ITU
16'fiT

ia-:i
laim
7-02

S47
117

66tl
17,ffii9

14,2S9

6000
lfi7l

4'«0
20^8
15-4S
14-76
19-80
12 49

*57

i-m

114,439

The Hjndn population of tlie district "belongs^ according to the
1872 census, to the following sects :—

Ptmck MaJi^ Emdu 8ecU, l^i.

Religion.

yAlgHWAVR

aium*

ttca,

fiioofl
mendi-
cants.

JUAM

HurouB.

Beioa'-

TAKJJ.

S4m4-

Vallar
t>h4-
ehiil

ponttiL

H4dh.
▼4oh4rL

Porni*
mi.

an.

TOTAI-

S799

6847

144

264

618

588

6890

791

206,478

916

125,775

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Chapter nL
FiynlatfaiL

Oooapation.

Bmo.

Priests.

Writers.

Traders.

216

DISTRICTS.

From this statement it wonld aeem^ that of the total 'Smk

gopolation, the Vaishnays nnmbered 11^205 or 4*96 per oent; i^
haiYS 6890 or 2*83 per cent ; the Shrfivaks 916 or 0*40 per cent;
the nnsectarian classes 207^264 or 91*80 per cent.

The Mnsalm&n population belonged to two sects, Smmi and Shia;
the former nnmbered 11,631 sotds or 77*95 per cent of the total
Mnaalm&n population ; and the latter including the Surat or Dindi
trading Bohor4s 8290 souls or 22*05 per cent The seventeen Finis
werel^admis.

According to occupation the census returns for 1872 dmde HkB
whole population into seven classes :

L— 'Employed under QoTemment, or nranieipal, or other local anthoriiiMt
numbering in all 3309 soula or 1*37 per oant of the entire popolAtkin.
n.— Professional persons, 1049 or 0*48 per oeni
IIL— In serrioe or performing personal offioe8> 1985 or 0'82 per cent.
iy.--Engaged In agriculture and with animals^ 55,047^ or 22*86 percent
V.^Engaged in oommeroe and trade, 2991 or 1*24 per cant.
YI.— Employed in mechanioal aits, manufactures, and engineering opentiom^
and engaged in the sale of articles manufactured or otherwise ptqisrai
for consumption, 12,523 or 5*20 per cent
VII.— Misoellaneous persons not daaaed otherwise (a) wives 35,482, aad
children 96,984^ in all 132,476 or 67*49 per cent; and (() misoeUsneois
persons, 1363 or 0*56 per cent ; total 163,839 or 68^ per cent

The general chapter on the population of Gujar&t includes sack ;
information as is available regarding the origin and castoms of the ^
Panch Mahils people. The f ollowmg detaSs show the strengUi dtji
the different castes and races as far as it was ascertained 1^ tbt^
1872 census. |

Of Br^SunanSj exclusive of sub-divisions^ were thirty divisioxtf^
with a strength of 5957 souls (males 3194^ females 2768) or 2*6$ ]
per cent of the total Hindu population. The chief classes am \
Shrigaud (1838), Audich (1264), Mev^ida (859), Modh (486), and I
N^igar (218). Except the N^ars of whom many are holders d\
alienated land and recipients of cash allowances, the majorit7 of ^
Br&hmans live on alms. Some are peasants and a few are GoTem- ,
ment servants. The Deccan Br£hmans who, under H. H. Sindia'f ,
government held high positions numbered 222 souls. |

Of Writers there were two classes, Brahma Eshatris (27), anl |
Farbhus (89), with a strength of 66 souls (males 54, females 12) orfrll
per cent of tihe total Hindu population. The Brahma Ejahatris are j
employed in Government offices. New comers brought by fbsj
British at the time of the trandFer of the district, they keep m
houses in Broach and other parts of Gujar&t and are not yet regulai^^
settled in the district The Farbhus are all K&yasth Farbhus of;
the Deccan districts chiefly in the service of Govemmotit. They ait .
said to have come into the district during the government of H. H»^
Sindia.

Of Mercantile, Trading, and Shop-keeping classes, were
V&ni&i belonging to sixteen divisions, 295 HirYidi Sbi&vska d two

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PANOH MAHA'LS.

217

divisions, 621 Gajar&ti Shrivaks of two divisions, and 59 Bh&tiiid,
a total strength of 7663 souls (males 4124, females 3539) or 339
per cent of the total Hindu population. In a district inhabited
chiefly by the unsettled classes, the Y&ni&a have many chances of
making money. A considerable number of Bhils, Kolis, Ndikdas^
and other poor classes are wholly dependent on their Y&nia and
Slir^vak money lenders.

Of Coltiyators, besides the Bhils and N&ikd^, were seven classes
with a total strength of 102,925 souls (males 54,604, females 48,:321)
(ff 45*58 per cent of the whole Hindu population. Of these 5112
(males 28 19, females 2293) were Kanbis ; 5347 (males 2809, females
.2538) Bajputs; 928 (males 533, females 395) E^chhiUs; 957 (males
504, females 453) UOis; 1030 (males 535, females 495) B&vals;
11,389 (males 5840, females 5549) Pateliy&s; and 78,162 (males
41,564, females 36,598) KoUs. The Kanbis and K&ohbi&s found
chiefly in the west are said to have come from Baroda and Eaira. They
are skilled husbandmen. The Rajputs though as cultivators inferior
to Kanbis are steadily applying themselves to agriculture. The
Mflis and Bavals are superior to Koli cultivators. The Pateliy&s found
in Dohad claim Rajput descent. Originally settled near P&v4gad
tiiey are said to have moved from Gh&mp&ner. And as among
Ihem were more men than women they intermarried with the Bhiia
lif Gangdi. Hence they were called vatdliyds or the impure, a name
^hich has been gradually corrupted into Pateliy&s. The Kolis are
Ipand in the west. Of the whole number 75,738 were Talabdds,
iinety-four Bariy&s, 655 Pdtanvddids, 1330 Lun&v6difc, eighty
jEhint, and 207 were not classed. Strong and active in body, their
iant of forethought and love of opium combine to give the money-
lenders the benefit of most of their labour.

Of Manufacturers there were three classes, with a total strength of
7l8 souls (males 399 females 319) or 0*32 per cent of the total
^nda population. Of these 590 (males 320, females 270) were
Qbincliis, oilpressers ; 82 (males 53, females 29) Bh&vs&rs, calico
|imters ; 46 (males 26, females 20) Chhip&s, calenders.

Of Artisans there were nine classes, with a total strength of 6134
pmls (males 3194, females 2940) or 2*71 per cent of the total Hindu
population. Of these 608 (males 315, females 293) were Sonis, gold
iKid silver smiths ; 1020 (males 534, females 486) Suth&rs, carpenters ;
|i (males 4, females none) Kans&r&s, coppersmiths; 110 (males 58^
lemales 52) Kadiy^, bricklayers ; 29 (males 20, females 9) SaUts,
iBiasons; 1650 (males 866, females 784) Luh^rs, blacksmiths^ 62
hsales 32, females 30) Laldi&rds, makers of lac bangles; 757 (males
^, females 369) Darjis, tailors ; and 1894 (males 977, females 917)
Kambh&rs, potters.

[ Of Bards there were two classes, with a total strength of 1091
loiils, or 0*48 per cent of the whole EKndu population. Of
Ihese 139 (males 73, females 66) were Bh&ts, bards ; and 952 (maloB
515, females 437) Ch&rans, genealogists. The Bh&ts and Gbarans
Ittye lost their former special position and maintain themselves
chiefly as husbandmen, and cultivators.

B 167— 28

Chapter HL
Papolation-

HuflbiLDdmeni

Craftfimcoi.

Bardd,

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[Bombay OttetlMr«

218

DISTRICTS.

Oiapterni.
Population*

ServmnU.
Shepherds.

Fiihen.

MiaceUiineoaB.

Unsettled
Tribes.

Bhils.

Of Personal Servants there were twodasses, with a total streDgQi
of 1885 souls or 0*88 per cent of the total Hindu population. Of
these 1721 (males 902, females 819) were Haj&ms^ oarbeis; 164
(males 79, females 85) Dhobhis, washermen.

Of Herdsmen and Shepherds there were three classes, with a tolal
strength of 2854 souls or 1*26 per cent of the total Hindu popula-
tion. Of these 1736 (males 930, females 806) were BharF&ds; 1102
(males 613» females 489) Rabins ; and 16 (males 15, and female 1)
Ahirs. They support themselves by the aeJe of sheep, wool, and
clarified butter ; the sheep they sell to Musalmin traders, the irool
they sell to K&malite or blanket weavers, and the clarified butter, ghi^
to y&ni&s. The Bab&ris own cows and buffaloes and to a small
extent cultivate.

Of Fishers and Sailors there were two classes with a total strengik
of 2228 souls (males 1190, females 1038) or 0*98 per cent of tha
whole Hindu population. Of these 858 (males 468, females 390)
were Bhois, and 1370 (males 722, females 648) M&chhis. Bhois $xA
M&chhis are found chiefly in Godhra. Besides fishing they till land
and act as ferrymen across the Mahi. The Bhois also grow shingodif
Trapa bispinosa, in the beds of ponds.

Of Labourers and Miscellaneous Workers there were eleven dasae^
with a total strength of 6842 souls (males 3832, females 3010) or
3*03 per cent of the whole Hindu population. Of these 191 (males
104, females 87) were GoUs, ricepounders ; 311 (males 206, femaki
105) Ealdls, liquorseUers and labourers ; 286 (males 1 78, females 10^
Mar&thlM of several castes from the Deccan employed chiefly as
servants ; 75 (males 40, females 35) Y&ghris, fowlers and hontecsj!
1621 (males 850, females 771) R&valias, cotton-tapemakers ani
labourers; 27 (males 18, females 9) Bh&dbhunjfe, grain pardienf
191 (males 99, females 92) K&mali&s, makers of blankets, HmU^
1950 (males 1212, females 738) Vanjlo^; 1835 (males 929, fenaki
906) Lub&n&s; 268 (males 144, females 124) Ods, d^gers-tt^
87 (males 52, females 35) B4vch&s apparently of Deccan origii^|
labourers. The Yanjdr&s, whose carrying trade has suffered by tbi
introduction of railways, are to a pretty large extent, eepedally iiaj
the Marva quarter of the Godhra sub-division, beginning to settle i
cultivators and day labourers. They live in separate huts not '
villages, and though poor and wanting in skill are quiet and or~
The Lub&n&s are found in Dohad. Formerly rulers of iimh
about twenty miles from Dohad they are said to have been <
and driven out by the B&thod Rajputs. Besides tilling the i
they act as carriers taking grain from Dohad and bringing bade i

Of Unsettled Tribes there were three, with a total Btrengik
75,492 souls (males 38,388, females 37,104) or 33*43 per oenft
the total Hindu population. Of these 69,222 (males 35,0
females 34,136) were Bhils; 6118 (males 3186, femaleB
Nihikd&s ; and 162 (males 116, females 36) Tal&vi&.

The Bhils are generally very dark in colour, the men muscilinj
well built, and of a medium height, the women well made bat wiW
coarse irregular features. Among the men, except the top knol^

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S^jarit]

PANOH MAHAOiS.

219

the bair of ihe head thongh sometiineB cat short is as a rule worn
bug. The monstache is worn by all, whiskers by some and in most
cases the chin is shaved. The women fasten their hair in braids or
plaits bronght low down over each temple. The Bhils have no
village site or groap of houses. Each man lives in his field. The
Bhil's hat is usoally built of bamboo wattled between supporting
eolomns of wood and strongly plastered with grass ana mud.
The roof is sometimes tiled but more commonly thatched. The
lut divided inside into two rooms is surrounded by a catt1e->
ahed, a threshing floor, and a small yard for stacking grain and
fodder. The whole enclosed by a strong high creeper-covered
iBQce has a home-like and comfortable air. Of household goods the
stock is small. Outside may be seen, if the family is well-to-do, a
pair or two of bullocks, or a bullock and a buffalo, a cow, or two
goats, and a number of fowls, a cart, and of field tools, a plough, a
Heeder, kharpi, and a crowbar or ploughshare, koddli. But most Bhils
lave no carts and some of them nave no catlle. In the hut besides
Hie sleeping mat, the hand grindstone, and a roll of blanket or torn
toverlet, there is nothing but some bamboo baskets and a few pots
and cops most of them of clay.

The BhiVs every day dress is a cloth wound round the loins and a

bug strip twisted round the head. In the rains and cold weather

*.%d carries a thick coarse gray blanket. The women commonly

■*TBS in a large petticoat, ghagra, passed between the legs and

;ked into the waist band before and behind. They also wear the

lioe, and where they can afford it a large sddi wrapped round

body and brought over the head. They tattoo their faces, and

make room for their ornaments, pierce and slash their ears and

till they are unpleasant to look at. Bracelets of tin or brass

^over the arm from the wrist to the elbow and others of glass or lac

sometimes worn between the elbow and the shoulder. On their

women of good family wear just below the knees a ring with

II bells or rattles. Their broad brass anklets worn in tiers from

ankle to the knee weigh altogether about ten pounds and are so

QQsy that the women at work in the fields have to stoop instead

sitting down. In the hot season they bum the wearer's skin and

ihs. If she can afford it she usually wears a silver chain on each

le of the head, fastened round the ear and hooked into the braid

the temple so as to hang over the cheek.

The every day food of a well-to-do Bhil is rice, cooked with salt

~ mixed in buttermilk, and of an ordinary Bhil, Indian com and

termilk boiled with pepper pods and sometimes split peas mixed

ith vegetables. Except the ass, horse, camel, rat, snake, monkey, and

women the vntch-loved domestic fowl, the Bhils eat all animals.

the hot weather months the poorer classes live chiefly on

s, and on rayan, and mahuda berries. Most are peasants, some

^ them tilling regularly, though roughly, the same fields ; others are

Schangmg their houses and lands, and a few wander among the
and Uve by wood-ash tillage. Fifty years ago there were
daily complaints of their di^g aggressions.^ Though they

' " I Bom. Gov. Sd. XXIIL 32L

Chapter m.
FopalatiiHi.
Bhils.

Houae.

Dre88.

Food,

OccupaHom,

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[Bombay GfUEelte.

220

DISTRICTS.

Chapter UL

PopnlAtioii*

Bhils.

BeUgion.

Customs,

are still poor and somewhat unsettled they are not as a class given
to serious crime. Fift^ years ago the Bhils ne^er approachiBd a
town except to attack it. Now the streets of Dohad are crowded
with Bhils trafficking with grain dealers^ crowding round the money-
lender's door^ mixing with the people^ making purchases, chatting
with their friends and selling grain, vegetables, wood, and grass.
Nine-tenths of the raw produce of Dohad is sown, tended, and reaped
by Bhils. Many are sunk in debt. But they are no longer a tnbe
of outcast robbers. Among Hindus, though not considered one of
the classes whose touch defiles, the Bhil holds a very low place.
He eats food cooked by a Musalm&n and no high caste Bindn inll
take water from his hands.

Except the female deities known as mdta or devi, Bhils do not
worship the ordinary Br&hman gods. They reverence the moon and
swear by it and believe in witches and in the evil eye. Their cliief
objects of worship are spirits and ghosts. To these in the forests near
an old tree, or often at some chance spot, they offer clay horses, im,
and beehive-shaped vessels. In honour of the spirits in most oiwese
spirit-yards they also raise beams of timber, sometimes as mnchaa
twelve feet long poised on two uprights in the form of a rough
seat. Here they offer a goat and a cock ; numbers of Bhils coming
together to eat the sacrifice and drink. Br4hmans are not held in
special respect. B&vals who originally belonged to the Bh£t class sci
as their sacrificial priests. There is generally one B&val's family in
every BIul settlement, who, though they eat and drink with the
Bhils, marry only among themselves. Among the Bhils are devotee%
bhagats, and exorcists, barvdsy who leaving ti^eir families give them*
selves up to a religious life. These men are much resorted to for
their power over ghosts and spirits. The animal they hold in moat
veneration is the horse. Their chief observances are in honour of the
dead. Their only regular Hindu festivals are Hoh (March), Dasera
(September) and DivSli (October). They fast twice in the year oft
Ph&gan sud 11 (March) and at the Holi (March).

In the life of a Bhil are four chief ceremonies, naming, shavings
marriage, and death. Five days after a birth the child and mother
are bathed and the child is named. Between two and five years (M
the child's head is shaved. The child's aunt takes the hair in her bp
and wrapping it in her clothes receives a cow, buffialo, or other
present rrom the child's father. A well-to-do Bhil generally geli:
his son married at fourteen or fifteen and his daughter before she ii!
twelve. But, as a rule, marriage seldom takes place before the hcfj ^
twenty and the girl fifteen. The choice is ma^ by the relations ofj
the bride and bridegroom. In the morning of the marriage day di{
bride and bridegroom, each at their own homes, are rubbed wifti
yellow turmeric powder. The bridegroom is bathed and has hil|
eyes and cheeks marked with soot. He wears a turban, a loogeoil
of country cloth, a waist cloth or dhotar, and a sword. The par^
starts with drums and cymbals to the bride's village. The women
follow singing. On reaching the bride's house the bridegroom's
friends are seated on one side of a mdndva or booth built in bimt
of the door. The btide is then led in by her mother and seated

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

221

opposite the bridegrcK)m. Their hands are joined and the hems of
their garments tied. Then while three women sing songs the bride
and bridegroom walk together twelve times round a branch of the
salyara tree placed in the middle of the booth. When this is over
the bride and bridegroom feed each other with wheaten bread and
molasses. Then the knot is unloosed and after the party has taken
a meal the garments of the bride and bridegroom are again tied and
the bridegroom taking the bride with him returns to his house.
The marriage expenses vary in the case of the bridegroom from
18 to £14 (Rs. 80- Rs. 140) and in the case of the bride from lOs. to
£1 10«. (Rs. 5-Rs. 15). A man may marry a second or a third wife
in the lifetime of the first. A woman marries again, not only if her
husband dies but if she gets tired of him, and can bring another
man to take her and pay her husband his marriage expenses. The
children, if there are any, stay with the father. A Bhil youth and
girl anxious to marry but unable to find the necessary £7 (Rs. 70)
or so, not uncommonly arrange that he should carry her off on her
way to or from some &ir or wedding feast. She then lives with him
as his wife, and when her parents come in pursuit, an agreement is
made for paying the dowry by instalments, or in some other way
suited to the bridegroom's means.

When life is gone, the relations, bathing the body, place a waist
doth, dhota/r, over it, and laying it on a rough bamboo bier carry
;it to the burning ground. The son or other nearest relation of
^ihe deceased sets the pyre alight all round. When the body is half
Jmmt the mourners bathe and returning to the deceased's house
smoke tobacco for a short time, and after saluting each other
go home. As soon as the deceased's family can raise enough money
Sie anniversary day is held when much liquor is drunk. If the
deceased was a man of importance, a year or two after his death his
^relations go to a stone mason and make him cut on a stone slab the
Jgore of a man on horseback with a spear in his hand. When his
task is done the mason is paid by the gift of a cow or she-buffalo.
The stone is washed, daubed with red powder, covered with a white
^oth, and taken to the village spirit-yard or devasthdn. There a goat
is killed, its blood sprinkled on the stone, and its flesh cooked and
I eaten with as much liquor as the party can afford.

When there is a great want of rain the women and girls go out
Amcing and singing with bows and arrows and seizing a buffalo
belonging to another village sacrifice it to the goddess Kj6ii. The
headman of the village whose buffalo is taken seldom interferes. If
he does the women abusing him and threatening to shoot him almost
jlJways have their own way.

' Among the Bhils are many tribes or clans, some of them claiming
» Rajput descent and bearing such names as Makv&na, R&thod, and
Parmar. Members of the different clans live in the same village
and intermarry. Each clan has its own head or tdd/uddi distinct from
the Government patel. In each clan disputes are settled by a
fonehdyat or council of five Bhils. This council settles mandage
disputes^ punishes breaches of caste rules, and when the offender is
penitent fixes the amount of the atonement fine. The parties interested

Chapter m.
FopulatUm*

Death.

CammunUff^

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CHuiptwIIL

Bhil*.

Niikdii.

House,

DreBB,

Dombaj GuBtftnri

822

DISTRICTS.

in the dispute entertain the members of the pcmehdyai with liqaor.
A man is put out of caste if he behaves improperly with the wife of a
relation. But if a nephew has intercourse with his father's msteror a
younger brother with his elder brother's wife, it is thought no hh
A man who has intercourse with his younger brother's wife is put oat
of caste. The other Bhils do not eat, drink, or smoke with hin. H
he begs for pardon some of the leading Bhils of his village call two ^
or three men of a sect called Yasoya and cause him to give them
a present of from 10«. to £1 (Rs. 5- Rs. 10). If the Vasoja alloirs
him to drink or smoke with him the ofEender is let back into the
caste. The Bhils have no games; drinking is their great amnaement.
They sometimes play a bamboo luta But the chief musical instni-
ment is the drum beaten at varying rates according as the occasum
is sad or joyful. A string instrument of the siUir order made of
half a gourd with a bamboo handle and a single wire string is alao
sometimes used. Though still careless and poor, the Bhils have
made a considerable advance under the British Government. At the
end of 1877 twenty-six of their boys were attending school.^

ITa'ikda'8 numbering 5966 souls are found only in the wildest
parts of the Panch Mahfils and Rewa E&ntha. Of their ori^
two stories are told. One that their ancestors were grooms to the
M usalm&n nobles and merchants of Ch&mp4ner, who took to the woods
on the decay of that city towards the close of the sixteenth centoiy.
The other states that they are descended from an escort sent ^
the R&ia of B^l^ to the R&ja of Champ&ner. The N^d^ are
generally small in stature, thin and wiry. They can endure a great
deal of fatigue, are remarkablv active, and are not wanting in coarag&
They are black in colour with dark eyes, square £aces, and iir^nlai
features. Among both men and women Uie hair is worn rough and
lon^. Their dwelling is a hut, the frame of rough timber, the walla of
reeds and bamboo, generally plastered with co wdung and clay, the roof
peaked and, except a few that are tiled, thatched with grass and
dried teak or palm leaves. The house is divided into two partly
one for the cattle, the other for the family. In front is a platfom
where grass is stored and mahvda flowers and ears of Indian com
are laid to dry. The property of a Niikda family is small. Of
farm stock, sometimes a few cattle and generally a goat or two and
some fowls. Of field tools, a few have a plough, tiie rest only as
axe and a hoe. Of house furniture, there is a rough stone hand mil^
a long wooden pestle, and in the ground a small wood or stoM
mortar, and some clay pots. Except the chiefs and a few othera ii
ffood circumstances who dress like Rajputs or Eolis, the men wears
few yards of dirty ragged cloth round the loins and a seoxid dotk
round the brow showing at the crown the disordered ruffled hair. The
women wear over the shoulders a robe or sddi of a dark blue or red
colour, a petticoat, and sometimes a bodice.

1 Mo«t of the materiala for the Bhil and N^kdA aeconnto h^ye heen cMtoti
from W. B. Presoott, Esq. , Superintendent of Police, Panch Mahila, and Bio BiUte
Nandahankar, Awigfamt rolitio«l Agent^ Bewa KinthSk

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PANCH MAttA'LS.

Except tin and brass earrings the men wear no ornaments. The
women wear tin earrings, necklaces of beads or shells, and brass bangles
and armlets in shape and make, except that they wear only one
instead of many tiers, much like those worn by Bhil women.

Their chief food is Indian com gmel ; the well-to-do sometimes
using coarse rice or the poorer panics. Except the ass, crow, and
snake, few forms of flesh are forbidden the Ndikda. They eat large
black ants, squirrels, and even dead animals, and work such
mischief among inonkeys, or as they call them tree sheep, that even
in large towns the sight of a N&ikda is said to be enough to frighten
off the monkeys. For months in each year, their stock of grain
done, most of them live on wild fruits and roots. They are much
given to mahuda spirits, and at their festivals drink to excess.

The N&ikd&9 are labourers and wood-cutters. A few have bullocks
and ploughs and till fixed fields. But with most theirs is only the
roagh wandering hill-side tilla^e^ burning brushwood and among the
ashes sowing the coarser pamcs. When the seed comes up, the
Niikda raises in the middle of the clearing a rude platform on four
poets and on this stays night and day watching the crop. Besides
ealtivatin^ they gather the flower and berries of the mahuda tree,
some medicinal roots and barks, gum, lac, honey, and wax. As wood-
catters they are either hired by forest officers or by large landholders^
or ofibener themselves cut timber and bring it for sale to Qodhra and
Dther markets. In almost every part of the work their women help
(hem and they seldom leave the aistrict in search of employment.

In 1818 when they first came under British authority, the N&ikdfti

had the worst possible name for savage cruelty. In 1826 they were

Baid^ ' to exceed the Bhils in their predatory and lawless habits, in

. iheir cruelty, bloodthirstiness, and love of independence, and in the

' total disregard of all the customs and usages of social life.' Their

chiefis used to organize forays, and engage Sidis and Makr&nis to

help them. Numbers of cattle were collected and kept in the hills

; until ransomed. The proceeds of the raid were then distributed

among aU who had taken a part in it. In 1838 their depredations

became so daring that a force had to be sent against them. For

; some years they were more orderly. But in 1854 they were still a

, peculiarly savage and predatory class living in the most remote and

impervious forests. In 1868 the N&ikd&s were stirred up to rebellion

I hy one of their holy men or hhagaU. A force of over a thousand

i (1066) foot and horse with nine European officers' was sent against

I -them. At the beginning of the campaign their leader, whom it was

believed no bullet could harm, was fortunately shot, and the rising

Ciapter IIL
Population.

NAikdK
Food.

Oecupatkn.

Oharaeter,

, ^ BoDL. QoT. SeL XXIII. 189, 162. <May the NAikdis aeiteyoa' ustm a ommnon
imprecatioa among buUock drivers.

' The detaik were : of foot^ of the 26tii Beghnent N. L three Enropean offloen and
SSOmen; of the 6th Begiment N. L three European officers and 900 men ; of the
•ISfch Begiiment N. L three Buiopean officers and 191 men; of the Gojar4t Bhll corps
• ; of the GkUkwir's Axabs 100 ; and of the LunAy^ida MakiAnis 25. Of horse thel«
^tteef the Poona Horse one Bisildibr and ten troopers, of the Giikw&r's monnted
police 100 ; and 31 of the Panch Mah^ Eair% and Ahmedabad mooated p^liee.

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224

DISTRICTS/.

dapterHL

EeUgion,

CmsUfme,

was at An end. Since then the tribe has remained qniet and doiiog
the last two years (1875-1877) has been ahnost free from crime. lAzy,
thriftless^ and fond of drink^ the N4ikd& are poor, most of them soii
in debt. The yearly income of a Ndikda fiunily may beestimatedat
from £6 to £10 (Bs. 60 -Bs. 100) and their monthly expenses at
from 10^. to 149. (Rs. 5-Bs. 7). Though they eat carrion and
rank among the very lowest classes^ their touch ihongh avoided ia
not held to cause pollution. Except the Bariya N&U:d&s, they ea4
with Musalm&ns but not with Dheds or Bhangids. Naikd& show
no respect to Brdhmans/ and care little for Br^manic rites, bs^
or feasts. Beyond, if tiiey can afiford it, giving a dinner in thdr
honour they perform no ancestral or ahrddh ceremonies. Excepl
that they sometimes pour oil over B^numdn, and, though they are not
allowed to enter her temple worship the mother or M^ta on Pavigad
hill and at other local fairs, the objects of their worship are spirits and
ghosts. They show no respect for the Muhanomadan religion and
neither worship nor make offerings at Muhammadan shrmes. Ia
honour of spirits whom they invoke by various &ntastic name^
they fix teak posts in the ground, roughly hacking them at the top
into something like a human face. Over these posts they smear
cow's milk or red lead, and round them set rows of small ch;
horses. The ceremonies are conducted by Koli priests or pujirkt
who while the worship is going on keep the Naikdiis at a dist&noa.

Marriage and death are among Niikd&s the only occasions of cere-
mony. The age for marriage, both among boys and girls, is froni
eighteen to twenty. To arrange a marriage tiie boy*s jEeither goes to \k»
father of the girl and asks him if he will give his daughter in marriagA
If he agrees, the boy's father pays him from is, to 10«. (Es. 2-Bs.SJ
and leaves. He then, with some friends, bringing a rupee's worth <{;
molasses comes back. He places some mola^es in the girl's hant
laying on it a rupee, and a hsif or a quarter anna coin. Of the rest ot
the molasses half and sometimes the whole is given to the friends of tk:
girl. The wedding day is fixed by the Ndikdfis after examining tb
stars. On the appointed day a booth of fresh leaves is built in frooi
of the bride's house. In the afternoon with horns, drums, and cymhal%
the bridegroom, with his parents and a number of relations and friend^
comes to the bride's £gtther's house. The boy^^ father pays the gii{l^
father from £1 10s. to £5 (Rs. 15- Rs. 50), and the two fsLmilies dim
together, the bride's father furnishing liquor and the bridegroom'l;
party bringing their own food. After dinner the bride and hridftH
groom are seated face to face in the square, or chori, in the centie Jt^
the booth, and by two old men, ooe from each family, called for tfa
occasion priests or pujd/ris, have their hands joined and their akiil^
tied. Then a sheet is thrown over their heads, and the old n^
ive them some balls of flour and molasses. When each has twiftfi
ed the other, the cloth is drawn away and the marriage is o^

^ The oommon belief, sayg Mr. Nandahankar, is that they hold the IdUing flit
Br&hman to be an act of merit. Referring to the feast on the thirteenth day afitf
death their proverb says, by the death of one Txlvan or tilu^ brow-maiky fnu&t i
hundred are fed.

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

225

Then every one drinks as much liquor as he can, drums and cymbals Chaptor IK

strike up, and all ends in a dance, the men and women dancing by Ponnlatim.

themselyes. In many cases there is no ceremony of this kind. If a

girl reaches the age of sixteen and her parents have not betrothed her^ NAikdis.

she may go and live with any man she chooses, and if be agrees to

pay her parents from £1 12s. to £5 (Rs. 16 -Bs. 50) no objection is

raised. Again^ if a woman deserts her husband and goes to live with

another man he pays the husband from £1 12«. to £6 (Rs. 16-Rs. 60).

If the husband agrees to give up his wife, he is paid nothing. A

iridow may marry again. On such occasions there is no ceremony. The

husband presents her with a new petticoat, bodice^ and robe. He

comes to ner house and takes her away with him. But this must be

done at night, for it is the common belief that if a widow is married

in the day time the village will be burnt down. A man may have at

the same time more than one wife. The N&ikd& do not intermarry

with any other caste. But if a Eoli woman lives with a N&ikda, or

a Koli with a Niikda woman, they are admitted into the N&ikda caste.

The N&ikd&s bum their dead usually at a place some distance from

their village. The corpse, wrapped in cloth, is laid on a bamboo

Ker and carried by men of the tribe, or in a cart, to the burning

ground. When the pyre is ready, it is kindled by the deceased's

nearest male relation. Nine days after the burning of the body

the nearest relations go to the burning place and gathering the ashes

into a heap, place on it an earthen jar full of water. On their

^ letum home, the relations of the deceased shave their heads and

'laces. On the same day, the person who lighted the funeral pyre

'iDooksrice at his house. Placing this on a plate made of four leaves

rftf the hhdkh/ra or Butea frondosa tree, he pours a little butter over

:k and then sets fire to it. Some more of the grain, laid on five

Mi plates, is sprinkled with butter and given to chUdren to eat. On

iihe twelfth day, the family of the deceased make ready rice or panic,

tira, and Indian-corn gruel, with, if they can afford it, a little
tter, and call those who were at the funeral, or if they are rich
['enough, they ask the whole village. The guests do not all meet at
I me time. They come when they like, and taking their share of the
Ibod either eat it on the spot or take it with them to their homes.
Among the N4ikd6s authority and power is centred in four chiefs.
^ these one lives at Sivr&jpur in H&lol ; a second at Gondola in the
rirdepur state; ^ third at Sdgtdla in the B&riya state; and a fourth
[at Dandi4pura under J^mbughoda. At a moment's notice these men
iDOold between them raise the whole tribe of N&ikd£s. Except for eating
;^th a Dhed, Cham&r, or Bhangi, a Naikda would not be put out of
caste. In such a case he would not be re-admitted unless he gave
ft dinner to his caste-men. During the last fifty years the N&ikd&i
iave, as a class, made a great advance towards orderly habits. At
^^mbughoda and at S&gt&la in B&riya a few of them have, since
1869, sent their boys to school, and two sons of the saint, or bhagat,
Ranged in 1868 enlisted in the Gujar&t Bhil corps in 1870 and are
doing weU.

Of workers in leather there were two classes, with a total strength Leather
of 3097 souls (males 1643, females 1454) or 1*37 per cent of the Worken.
B 167—29

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[BomlMjeiieMMr,

226

DISTRICTS.

OhaptsrllL
Population^

I)epre8Bed
ClMseB.

B^ggut.

Miualmibfl.

Pinis.

Chmtians.

total Hinda population. Of these 1160 (tnaleB 622, females 538)
were Mochis^ shoemakers, and 1937 (males 1021, females 916) wen
Eh&lplis, tanners.

Besides the Kh&p&s there were three depressed classes, witL s
total strength of 7882 souls (males 4151, females 3731) or 3*49 per
cent of the whole Hindu population. Of these 575 (males 293,
females 282) were GarudAs, pnests to the Dheds; 4422 (males 2348^
females 2074) Dheds, sweepers and carriers of dead animals; and
. 2885 (males 1510, females 1375) Bhangi&i, scavengers.

Devotees and religious mendicants of various names, Brahoa-
ch&ris, Vair&gis, Gos&is, and S&dhus, numbered 941 (males 504,
females 437) or 0*41 per cent of the entire Hindu population.

In its Musalm&n inhabitants Panch Mah&Is stand the last of the
British districts of Gujar&t, with 14,921 souls or 6*19 per cent of tk
district population. Of their whole number 7213 were in 1872
returned as settled in the towns of Grodhra, 4226 in Dohad, 166S
in Eflol, nil in Jh&lod, and 708 in H&lol. Exclusive of 4537 females
and 5325 children, in all 9862 or 66*09 per cent of the whole tta
male adult Musalm&n population (5059) were in 1872 employed m
follows : In Qovemment or other public service 512 ; in professkna
213 ; in personal service 553 ; in agriculture 1027 ; in trade 1024;
in mechanical arts and manufactures 1563; and in miscellaneooB
callings 167. In addition to the four main divisions, Syeds, ShaiUa»
Path&ns and Moghals, numbering altogether 4621 souls or about
one- third of the whole, there are several classes almost all of then
descendants of converted Hindus. Of these the Gh&nchis aal
Bohor&s are the most important. The Gh&nchis or oilmen known ai
Oh&nchi Bohords numbering 4461 souls and found chiefly in Hb
Grodhra sub-division were originally Hindus, probably of the Ghindia
caste. They claim to be the followers of a certain Mansur, and ai»
said to abhor all other Musulm&ns and to be well inclined towardi
Hindus. They had formerly the entire command of the carrying trade
through the Panch Mahkls, travelling east as far as Ratl4m aal
Indor and west to Ahmedabad, Broach, and Surat. Since ths
opening of the P41i branch of the Bombay and Baroda railway thef
go no further than between Central India and P&li. The change hM
interfered greatly with their former occupation. Near Grodhra sereid
of the Gh&nchis have begun to settle down as cultivators. Tlsi
Shia Bohor&s number 3126 souls, 2343 of them of the D&udi aal
783 of the Sulem&ni sects. They live in towns and carry on a laige
trade in grain and other articles. Am a class they are well-to-da

Of the total P&rsi population of seventeen souls, eight wM
settled in the Godhra sub-division, two in Dohad, four in Eild, aal
three in H41ol. Exclusive of five women and one child, the addl
male population were employed in 1872 as clerks in OoTermneiit
offices and engaged in liquor and other trades.

Of the twenty-four Christians, six were European officers and most
of the rest their servants.

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

227

With the exception of the people of two towns nambering 22,107

soqIs or 9' 18 per cent of the entire inhabitants^ the population of the

district, accoi^ing to the census returns of 1872, lived in 661 villages

wiih an average of 329*76 souls per village. Only Yejalpur in the

Godhra sub-division is walled. A Koli viflage generally consists of

a single street or road between two rows of mad huts. Tlie line of

booses is often broken by a yard for cattle or for grain or perhaps

by a well. At one end of the village is in most cases an old

tamarind or mango tree, its stem surrounded by a small stone and

earA platform where the village council meets, matters of common

interest; are talked over, and disputes settled by the headman. The

poorer Kolis and almost all Bhils and N&ikd&s do not live in villages.

Each has a separate dwelling and in many parts of the district they

move from place to place. Of the whole number of villages 824 had

less than 200 inhabitants ;i 220 from 200 to 500; eighty-five from 500

to 1000 j twenty-four from 1000 to 2000 ; six from 2000 to 3000 ; and

•jhro from 3000 to 5000. As regards the number of houses there

vas in 1872 a total of 56,922, or on an average 32*88 houses to the

aqnare mile. Of the total number, 7482 houses lodging 22,427

I persons or 9*32 percent of the entire population at the rate of three

•oqIb to each house, were buildings with walls of fire-baked bricks

^d rodfa of tile. The re m aining 49,440 houses accommodating

il8,316 persons or 90*68 per cent, with a population per house of

4t4& souls, included all buildings with thatch or leaves or whose outer

irallB were of mud.

The village establishment generally includes the village headman,
%tel', the village accountant, ialdti; the watchmen, rdvamo-s ; and
ie messenger, havdlddr. The artisans, who are paid by the villagers
i kind, Uve in towns and large villages. Most of the village head-
pen are Kolis, Bhils, and If^d&s. The rest are generally Kanbis,
sjpate, Pateliy&s, or Lub&n&s. The watchmen, rdvanidsj are chiefly
18 and N&ikd&s. The headmen are held in much respect. At all
-jige rdigious ceremonies and on betrothal, marriage, and death

sdebrations, their presence is desired and they are given places of

special honour.

f At the time of transfer (1853) the district was in great want of

Eple. Some account is given below of the efforts from time to
e made by Government and the officers in charge of the district
h) draw settlers from the crowded parts of centnJ Gujar&t. The
|raat increase in the population shows that to some extent these
Bfiorts have succeeded. But up to 1877 all attempts to coloniae on
I large scale failed. In that year a movement took place among some
rf the lower class cultivators of central Gujardt of special interest,
lot only because it was spontaneous and widespread, but because
b spite of very great difficulty both in the character of the settlers
ind of their first seasons in the Panch Mah&ls, it has to some extent

Chapter in.
Population*

Dwellings.

Co]Bin«mti«8.

MjgratioD.

^ In different parts of the Doliad sab-diTifiion eztenrive fonndations mark the sites
>f many lai^ vmages destroyed acoording to the local belief by shocks of earthquake*
Dohad Survey Beport, 1877.

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[BombajGaiettMrf
228 DISTRICTS.

CShapter m. proyed a success. In March 1877 the Hdlol police reported ^ lihat over
Popxiiatiim. ^ thousand Tal&yite, a low class tribe of central Qujar&t apparently
the same as the Surat Dubl&s^ were encamped close to monni
Migration. Pdv&gad. They had with them their wives, children, cattle, and somo

store of grain, and said they were come to settle. After the fini
detachment hundreds of families kept pouring in, each with a cart or
rough bullock sledge piled high with grindstones, bunches of fowby
clothes, cooking pots, and chUdren. Behind came the fatiier ol tb
family loaded, and then the mother and elder children also canying'
burdens and driving before them their small stock of goats and cows,.
Their answers were always the same. Who are yon?— TaUvife,
Where are you going?— To M&ta. What for?— To cultivate. Whem
have you come from? — There ; with a long drawl and backward wiro
of the hand. Why did you leave ? — There was no land, the peojid
with money turned us out of our fields. A few more questions, and
they would give the name of the district and village they came bom,
ending with the refrain ' many more of us are on the way.' On
reaching P&v&gad the first care of each family was to worship at ih
hill-top shrine of the M&ta or mother. For days, in an almost unbroken
stream, the worshippers kept passing up and down, returning wSi
their brows smeared with the red m€urk of the goddess. Camps wero
formed each with its headman or patel ; the people from the dmereot
districts choosing to camp by themselves. When their camp was
fixed, each family raised a rough hut and cattle shed and buried their
supplies of grain in the ground. Some of the old wells, relics of
Gh4mp£ner's greatness, were cleared out and yielded good water.
This movement was due to a religious teacher or guru who had been
ordered by the goddess E^&lka M^ta and a Musalm&n saint to tell tk
people that if they went back to their old Ch&mp&ner home they wodJ
find riches and plenty ; if they refused to go they would die. Asa
token of her favour the goddess promised on the night of theMarck
full moon to set fire to ti^eir ofEering of butter and rice and to send
a Br&hman to tell them what they should do. On the 22nd, the
night of the full moon, 7000 of the TaUvifa went up the hill, eadi
carrying something to swell the general offering. All made ready
and duly laid before the ' Mother,' the worshippers waited watching
till dawn to see their offering take fire. But no fire came, no
Br&hman and no voice from the goddess. At last tired out they set fin
to theiroffering and left convinced that the work had not the mothei^«
favour. Most of them went back to their old homes. Of 1867 famita
only 685 with ten carts, fi%^-seven ploughs, 133 bullocks, and aboni
250 • cows and goats remained. Except a few who chose sites a
couple of miles off, they settled close to P&v&gad, forming twelfo
hamlets, the houses built in square groups, not each by itself lib ;
those of the Panch Mah&ls Bhils and N&ikdds. During the bol
weather months they earned a living chiefly by selling firewood in tlifl
villages near, and by some Government aid in the shape of roadmak*
ing and pond clearing. With this and the help of money advanoesi
they were able before the rainy season to finish their houses, to bny

1 Contribated by W. R Prescott, Esq., Diatrict Superintendent of Police.

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aboat 900 head of cattle, and to sow about 798 acres (1359 bighds)
of land. Bat the failure of the rains (June-October 1877) pressed them
hard. Many went to their old homes. The rest, without skill or
liabits of st^y work, seem by degrees to be falling back to their
former position of labourers. As a colony the morement has not been
a great success. But it is not without good results. An area of 675
acres (1150 bighds) has been cleared for cultivation and may tempt
settlers from among the Kanbis, Bohor&s, and other high class Gujarat
peasants of whose skilled and prudent labour the Panch Mah^s stand
m much need. Another class of recent settlers are low caste
Kirr^is, who leaving M&rv&d during the famine of 1869, have fised
iibeir homes in the Panch Mahals. Chiefly day labourers, most of
Aem are to be found in the east of the district. Besides these
Dermanent settlers, road-making and other public works attract labour.
The workers, chiefly Dheds from Eaira ana from M&rv&d, stay during
fbe hot and cold seasons and go away in the rains.

Of the people of the district three classes leave their villages in
search of a living. A few Musalm&ns seek military service in
satiYe states, Br^unans, leaving their families behind, go long
J^ging tours remaining away two or three years at a time, and
ioDoiig the labouring classes Bhils at the beginning of March find
I irork in collecting poppy juice in the M&lwa opium fields.

cauLpttfin.

FopulatUm*
MigratioiL

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CHAPTER IV.

AGRICULTURE.

CSiapter IT. Agbicultube sapports 173^819 persons or 72*20 per cent of tk

Agrtooitiire. ®^*"* popnlation.^

g^j]^ Within the limits of the district are great varieties of soil In

the north-west of Gbdhra near the Mahi is some allavial, hha&a,
land^ south of this a belt of dull blacky mdl, such as is found in
Thdsra, and beyond that a very large tract of light, goradu, lani
To the north and north-east of Gt>dhra a rich medium black, ieior,
bears heavv crops of wheat and gram. E41ol except a few viBagn
of dark clayey medium black, besa/r, well suited to rice, hodra,
and other coarser grains, is throughout light, garddu. In tin
south of H&lol are stretches of rich but badly tilled black soiL
Except stony hill-ridges and patches of shallow gritty red and diy
black, the soil of the eastern division, both light and blade, u^
perhaps from the abundance of water, of very high quality. Tha
light, varving in shade from fawn to reddish brown yields twO| and
if watered, three crops a year.

Arable Ajm, The Government or hhdha villages of the district contiii

514,052 acres, of which 56,589 acres or 11 per cent are alienaieii
paying only a quitrent, and 38,805 acres or 6'57 per cent irt
unarable waste. The totalareaof Government arable land is therefort
423,658 acres, of which 151,194 acres or 85*68 per cent are occnpiei
and 272,464 or 64*31 per cent are unoccupied. Of l^ese 272,46i
acres of unoccupied arable land, 23,418 acres including grasng
lands, forests, and homesteads cannot be taken up for cdtiyatkn.
The whole available area of unoccupied arable land is thereCoA
reduced to 249,046 acres. Of the occupied area 3064 acres or
2'02 per cent are garden land, 8447 or 5*58 per cent unwatered m
land, and 139,683 or 92*38 per cent dry crop land.

IrrigaUoii. Fields are watered from rivers, ponds, and wells. From riven ik

water is drawn by means of rough wooden lever-lifts, dhehidiSf

1 ThlB total (173,819) is made np of the following items :

(1) Adult males engaged in agriculture as per census of 1872 54^5$6

(2) Wives of ditto oidculated on the bads of the proportion the
totkl adult female population of the district bears to the total -
adult male population 4%2S9

(3) Children of land 2 calculated on ft similar basis 70,091

Total ... 173,819

This calonlation is necessary, because the census returns indnding many of tbt
women under VII. (MiaceUaneotts) show a total of only 473 ondtf the special ks'
adult agricultaral females.

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costing only a few Bhillings (Rb. 3 • 4) to set ap. Except at the Mal&7
rwenroir where are gravitation gates^ the system of watering from
ponds is the same as from rivers. As springs are f oond close to the
Borfaoe^ weUs have not to be sunk more than from fifteen to thirty
feet A built, pakka, well with water enough for a single leather
bag costs to make from £20 to £30 (Rs. 200 -Bs. 800).

A plough of land varies greatly according to circumstances.
When the pay of village headmen was reckoned in land a plough
was generally taken at about 11| acres^ 20 bighds, supposed to be
the largest area of medium soil that a pair of strong Charotar
bollocks could properly plough. Under these conditions of soil and
ploughing Kanbis with specially fine cattle are said to till fifteen
iores ; Vanj&r&s with well-fed loo8l,pdl, cattle seven acres, and Eolis
irith badly kept cattle five acres. But in most places as the soil is
scratched and not ploughed a pair of bullocks can run over a much
krger area. In the two assessed sub-divisions the survey returns
shew for each pair of bullocks, in £41ol an average area of lOff
acres and in Oodhra of 18^^^.

Id Oodhra and Elalol, the settled parts of the district, the total

tilled area is parcelled into 13,443 holdings, kjvdtds. These farms of

wbich the largest is 116|^ acres, and the smcilest one acrp, contain

> ?n an average 10} acres. It is believed that with a five-acre farm

lb husbandman, though scrimped, will not want for food or clothing;

-Aat a seven-acre light soil farm, even though unwatered, will keep

iim in fair comfort, and that from a ten-acre light soil farm he will,

if thrifty, be able to save. In. 1876-77, including alienated lands,

jihe total number of holdings was 25,808 with an average area of

Bight acres. Of the whole number, 18,878, or more than one-half

;*ere holdings of not more than five acres ; 6355 of not more than ten

;acre8; 8969 of not more than twenty acres ; 1451 of not more than

;t% acres ; 110 of not more than 100 acres, and fifty above 100 acres.

Ilost of the holdings of 100 acres and upwards are in the hands of

fte class of superior landlords known as talukddrs.

Daring the twenty years ending 1877 ploughs have increased
horn 18,303 to 37,141 or 102-92 per cent; carts from 6129 to 8349
or 36-22 per cent ; and live-stock from 178,859 to 254,262 or 46*24!
percent.

Panch Mahdls Stock, 1867-1877.

Litb-Stock

TiAB.

InottMO per
«aitl]ilS7S>n.

18,808
8r,141

IM-M

6130
8849

86«sa

55,068
86,084

66-81

70.J55
00,988

89-48

28,651
87,671

81-48

1809
8488

98-06

17.096
84,060

99^

43
419

897-68

988
1701

81-84

178,859
954,268

46-84

In the villages inhabited by the better class of cultivators,*
^bis, Talabda Eolis, Pateliy&8, andGh&nchis, light soils are manured

Chapter 17.
Agricultiixei

Plough of Lud.

Holdings.

Stock.

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DISTMOTS.

CShapterlT.
Agrioultun*

Crops.

JTowe.

plonghed twice or thrioe^ sown througli a drills and a f ortni^t after
cleaned with a weeder^ ka/rah, and smoothed by a log of wood^ 9aimv.
In other parts of the district^ the system of hosbandry is of tbe
roughest and most primitiye kind. Though they do not use dirngfor
fuel the people seldom manure their lands ; fallows are kept only to
a small extent^ and land is seldom watered. Few of the Dohad Bbib
have any field tools except one plough and even this many haye
to borrow. They merely run the plough once lightly througli the
surface of the field and immediately afterwards sow the seed. They
show neither care nor thrift and leave all to nature. In the Nlunkol
state many of the Ndikdas sow their grain among wood ashes. Of
this practice there are two forms^ one locally called bantio consistBof
burning down a tract of brushwood and without any tillage sowing
seed among the ashes; the other called vdlra is to cut down
branches and brushwood and heaping them in one place to set fire to
them and sow after loosening the surface with a pickaxe. Bcat&f
Eleusine coracana^ growing during the rains^ is almost the o%
grain raised by N^d&s.

Of 151494 acres the total area of occupied land 40^52 acres or
26*65 per cent were in the year 1877-78 &llow or under grass. Of
the 1 1 1,042 acres^ under cultivation grain crops occupied 94,478 acres
or 84*9 per cent, 36,629 of them under maize, makdi^ Zea maysj
20,022 under bdjri, Penicillaria spicata; 15,052 under rice, dangar,
Oryza sativa; 9566 under ndgli, Eleusine corocana; 6771 imd«
hodra, Paspalum scrobiculatum; 2964 under juvar. Sorghum vd*
gare ; 513 under wheat, ghau, Triticum asstivum; 314 under cheniia^
Panicum miliaceum; 1.38 under barley, ^at;, Hordeum hexastichoa}!
and 2509 imder other cereals of which details are not availabktj
Pulses occupied 27,752 acres or 24*9 per cent, 19,967 of them xmim]
gram, chana, Cicer arietinum ; 2607 under adad, Phaseolus mango;!
1935 under niag, Phaseolus radiatus ; 1440 under tuver, Cajanni:
indicus ; 312 under peas, vatdna, Pisum sativum, and 1491 niidflt
other pulses. Oil seeds occupied 4519 acres or 4'06 per oeoij
3725 of them imder gingelly oilseed, tal, Sesamum indicnm; tfj
under rape seed, sarsav, Brassica napus ; and 754 under mostai^J
rdi, Sinapis racemosa, and other oilseeds. Fibres occupied 921-
acres, 897 of them under Bombay hemp, san, Crotalaria junces, andi
32 under cotton, kapds, Gossypium herbaceum. Miscellaneous cro{ft|
occupied 530 acres, 148 of them under sugarcane, serdi, Si-i
charum o£Scinarum ; 34 under tobacco, tambdku, Nicotianatabacumi
4 imder poppy, khaskhas, Papaver somniferum ; and 849 mid*^
miscellaneous vegetables and fruits.

Among the district crops Maize, maJcdi, Zea mays, the staple
of the Panch Mah&ls people holds the first place, with, in 1877
86,629 acres or 32*98 per cent of the whole tOlage area. Main
one of the chief products of the Dohad sub-division forming, in
rich lands that yield twice a year, the rainy season or early
sown in June and reaped in September in time to make the
ready for a cold season crop of wheat or gram.

1 Of 111,042 aoKB 17,166 were twice cropped*

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Millet^ hajri, Penicillaria spicata^ holds the second place^ with
20^028 acres or 18*03 per cent. It is cnltivated chiefly in the western
IRib-divisions of Godhra and KSLoh

BioOj ddngar, Oryza sativa^ holds the third place^ with 15^052
dcresor 13*55 per cent. It is cnltivated in all the snb-divisions.
Yery little is watered and none bnt sdthi, sutarsdl, and other inferior
^ coarse kinds are grown. In embanked fields the seed is sown in
% nursery and the plants pnt ont. In open fields the seed is sown
broadcast, a lazy careless tillage adopted by low class cnltivators.
Bmbanked fields yield rice year after year. Bnt no second crop ia
^er raised from them. JVo^Ztj Elensine coracana, kodra, Paspalnm
Krobicnlatnm, and juvdr, Sorghnm vxdgare^ are grown in the
^iiem sub-divisions. The ordinary Koli tillage of these grains ia
faskilled and unthrifty. The ground is scraped once with the
j^ough and after sowing is left unweeded and nncared for till harvest
time, and then left waste generally for two or three years. Before
•le introduction of the revenue survey, fields paid rent only when
cropped. But now with a lower rate levied every year, some
dlumge in the system of tillage will probably be required.

' Wheat, ghau, Triticum eastivum, with, in 1876-77, 8553 acres is in
fte eastern division a lelibding and increasing product. Five varieties
ire grown, dAudkhdni white brown very clear and full; kdtJia malm,
%ti^ 60 full as ddudkhdm^i, with a mixture of inferior reddish wheat ;
lUka ddudiy thin hard and not full, a miztnre of white brown
tad reddish grain ; vdjia the worst kind, dull brown with veiy
risuJl but soft g^n, and gomadiay a low class dd/udkhdm,iy of duU
iHiite brown with thin and shrivelled grain. Wheat is grown in
llii& black loam and to a less extent in medium black, hesa/r, soil.
P is Qsuallv sown as a second crop following rice or maize. The
lowing is in November and December. Before sowing the land
b ploughed^ and when levelled by the clod crusher, tne seed ia
bwn at the rate of from forty to eighty pounds the acre in drills
ibont one foot apart. Manure is seldom used. Panch Mahals
lAeat is sent to central and western Gujar&t, Baroda, and the
^orrounding native states.

Sugarcane, gerdi, Saccharum officinamm, is grown in small
[DUuititieB in Godhra and K41ol. It is neither so rich in juice nor
i flo high a quality as Kaira sugarcane. Quantities of molasses
rere at one time exported. But prices fell and as the former
ioyemment refused to reduce the rates of assessment the culture
C sugarcane ceased.^ After the transfer its cultivation again
^ead, &voured by a local custom of allowing the hereditary
mcers, desdis and patelsy 6i per cent of the revenue derived "from
fagarcane. In 1864 on the ground that it might lead the officers
i question to force sugarcane cultivation, this grant was stopped,'
iia since then sugarcane has again declined.

The Poppy, khaskhas, Papaver somnif erum, used to a small extent
^ be grown in Dohad and Jh&lod by Malis, Bhils, and Eanbis. A

Chapter ZV.
Agricultiurfli

Gropt.

WhioL

Suffaroane,

Poppy.

^ Major Wallace 71, 12th September 1866,
m 167—30

9 Got. Bea 2728, 19th July 1864

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284

DISTRICTS.

COiapter IT.
Agriculture*
Crops.

PuUe.

OilSeed$.

ffemp^

Cultivaton.

cold weather crop wanting good soil and mnch water^ it was chiefly
grown along the banks of streams many of wluch used to betgay
with belts of its white or white and red flowers. In growing Hid
poppy a field of black soil^ from which dming the rainy eeaaoa
maize or hemp had been reaped^ was generally chosen. Soon after
divdli, November- December^ the land was four or five times
ploughed^ divided into squares^ manured^ and sown with poppy seedi
khaskhas. After sowings the field was for three months watered
once a fortnight. The plant was then fall grown^ watering iras
stopped^ and after a fortnight the outer skin of the flower capsule
was slit and next morning the juice that had oozed out was scraped
with a knife into a brass pot. The slitting and juice-gathering, a
slow and hard task^ were thrice repeated. After gathering it, Aa
juice was mixed with oil at the rate of a quarter of a ponnd of
oil to one pound of juice. In this state it was kept by the groirar
till it hardened and was then sold in the market. The bnyen^
rolling it into balls, sold some of it locally and sent the rest to Buoda
and Bombay. The poppy was never a favourite crop. The law
(Act I. of 1878) forbidding its growth has caused little Wdship.

Of Pulses, Gram, chcma, Gicer arietinum, a favourite second or
cold weather crop in the well watered Dohad valleys, is exported
in considerable quantities.

Of Oil Seeds, tal, Sesamum indicum, is largely grown, the area
10,044 acres m 1876-77 being greater than in Kalra. Iiargt
quantities of oil are extracted and exported to M&lwa and to oentnl
and western Gujar&t. Oil pressed from doli or mahtida seed is seoi
in considerable quantities to Eapadvanj and there used in th»
manufacture of soap.

Bombay Hemp, scm, Crotalaria iuncea, with in 1877-78 ao
area of 897 acres, is by all classes of husbandmen grown both in
black and light, but chiefly in black soil. It is a rainy seasoiii
hharify crop sown on the first fall of rain. At the end of three
months the seed ripens and the heads are cut off. Then the planta
are cut, tied in bundles, and for a week or so left to rot in some
pond or river. When they are taken out the fibres are separated
and made into coils. Some of it is used locally, either woven by
Van j&rds into pack saddles or by cultivators made into ropes. Mo0t
of the rest goes to Bombay.

Besides chillies, onions, and other garden produce raised in riTe^
bank fields. Potatoes, batdta, have of late years been very successfaOy
grown.

Kolis, Bhils, and N&ikd&s form the bulk of the agricnltonl
population. Of the higher classes of cultivators the few Kanbis aie
skilful and thrifty, and in most parts of the district there are locali
talabda, KoHs, M&lis, and Bajputs below Kanbis in knowledge hot
still a valuable peasantry. Li Dohad are Pateliy&s, Lub^Ln^, and
Bdvals, all superior to the lazy and unthrifty mehvds Koli and BhiL
Some Yanjards and Musalm&ns of the Gh&nchi class, thrown out of
their former occupation of carrying have taken to tillage. As yet they
have met with little success.

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PANCH MAHA'LS. 235

The crops occasionally suffer from mildew and insects. In 1845 Cha|rtOT IT*
most of the maize was eaten by locusts. Except a few villages on AgriciiLtiira-
tiie Mahi the district is free from damage by floods. But the rain- ^^ ^ ^
M is uncertain and during the last twenty years the failure of cropa «^

from want of rain has on six occasions caused scarcity and distress.
In 1853 no rain fell after July and all the chief crops failed. In
1856 the western sub-divisions suffered seriously from the complete
fauloreof the latter rain. In 1857 the rains were very late of
b^iiming^ causing loss of crops in the eastern division. In 1861
«nd agam in 1864 the rainfall was irregular and scanty. Finally
in 1877 there were only 19*10 inches^ less than half of the average
ram snpply. The crops failed and sickness and want were so wide^
q)read1hat towards the close of the season (April -June) special
telief measures were found necessary.

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CHAPTER V.

CAPITAL.

Chapter ▼• Aoooedino to the 1872 oensus returns there were in thai; jw,

Capital. besides well-to-do cultivators and professional men^ 1697 persons in

positions implying the possession of capital. Of these 423 were
bankers^ money ol^gers, and shopkeepers^ and 1274 weremerohanti
and traders. Under the 1869-70 income-tax returns 450 penoos
paid on yearly incomes of from £50 to £100 (Rs. 500 -Bs, 1000) ; and
in 1872-73, 101 persons paid on incomes of from £100 to £200
(Bs. 1000 - Bs. 2000) and fifteen on incomes of from £200 to £1000
(Bs. 2000 -Bs. 10,000). Unlike other Gujarat districts thePaodi
Mah41s are so poor and backward that there is little capital and few
savings pressing for investment. Only by Qovemment seryanta
are Goyemment securities bought or money laid up in Bsvingi
banks. Except the holding of a poor debtor with iio other proneri^i
land is seldom bought, the yearly return being only from 2i toS
per cent instead of the 20 or 80 per cent the money might yield if
lent at interest.
Wwey-lendeii, The local money-lenders are V&nids, Brfihmans, and Bohorfa. Seven

or eight of them are men of weeJth^ bankers who give bUls^ hmii$,
on Baroda^ Bombay, Indor, and Batldm. Of village money-lendea
y&ni&s are the chief, though well-to-do Kanbis also lend money sad
advance grain. A few of these Kanbis who are rich are thought more
liberal creditors than the Vinids. Of the whole body of money-
lenders about ten per cent are supposed to deal with townspeopla
only ; about sixty per cent with Kolis, Bhils, aud the poorer claBS d
cultivators, and about thirty per cent both with the poor and tb
well-to-do.

Bankera^pdrakhs, keep the following account books, the cash bool^
rcjmel ; the ledger, hhdtdvahi ; the monthly account book, dvaro, and
the interest book, vydjvahi. Those who deal with Kolis and low class
borrowers keep an account current book,* thdmhhdta. Those who are
shopkeepers as well as money-lenders keep in addition to the fint
four books an account current book, thamJchdta. In this are enterei
the amounts advanced, the sums recovered and the articles sold some*
times with, sometimes without their value. The register book, wmd^
generally kept by petty grain, spice, and clotii dealers is in memo*
randum form. As a rule it has only the debit, udhdr, side, receif^
being entered below the articles sold or the sums advanced. DemB
are paid in grain or cattle, seldom in money. Creditors almost never
write off claims as bad debts. However faint the chance of payment

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PANCn MAHA'LS.

237

the aoooant is kept open and the bond renewed every third year in Cha^^r T.

Ae hope that a day may come when the debtor will be able to pay, (^pitai

The amount of grain advanced either for seed or food depends on the

borrower'a position. It seldom goes beyond 480 pounds, one mani^

for seed, and 1440 pounds^ three vumie, for food. The grain m after

six months repaid in kind sometimes a quarter^ but generally hall

SB much again as the original amount advanced.

In a district so poor and so entirelv agricultural the borrowers are Borrowen.
ehiefly cultivators most of them belonging to the nngettled classea,
low KoHs^ Bhils^ and N&ikd&s. As a rule most careless and ill
informed^ they seldom know how the debt began^ when and what
they have paid^ or how much is still due. Most of the poorer olaas of
cultivators are almost entirely dependent on the money-lender. The
peater part of their crops when ripe goes to pay ofl their debts.
Left with too small a store of grain to last them throughout the
fear they are from time to time forced to borrow. As a rule
bonrowera deal with only one money-lender. When they borrow
from more than one the creditor who has advanced money to pay
their rent, or has advanced grain for seed or food has the preference
•ad is considered to have the right to attach the crop. When a civil
action is brought against a KoU or a man of the other poorer classes
he generally admits the claim. The debtor's property is seldom sold
except when he is thought to be likely to dispose of it privately.
When, in consequence of a civil court decree, immovable property
is sold it is generally bought by the creditor at a nominal price.
Though still so poor and backward these tribes have made some
advance under British management, seldom having recourse to the
robbery and murder so common under the former Govemment.

In the case of Bhils the civil courts do not enforce a higher rate of luterefffc.
mterest than six per cent. Practically this limit haa little eSect, the
actual rates being indefinitely increased by a system of premiums.
K^d&s and other unsettled tribes have no credit beyond an
advance on the security of their crops. Interest is cliaj*ged by the
hmar month at rates corresponding to yearly rates of from nine to
twelve per cent to an artisan with good credit ; twelve per cent to a
ealtivator in middling circumstances, and from twelve to fifteen per
cent to a poor cultivator. On a debt unpaid at the end of the
year compound interest at the rate of twenty-five par cent on capital
%&d interest is charged. In opening accounts with petty traders and
artisans the banker makes besides interest two or three per cent
profit as premium.

At the time of their transfer, the Panch Mahils had a local cur* Carrenoy.
rency both of silver and copper coins made in the Dohad mint* Besides
Ihe regular mint«profits it was then the practice to farm the right of
nlUng in and changing the copper currency twice a year. Except
patting a fresh mark to it nothing was done to the coin. But the
»e0 charged for stamping yield^ a yearly revenuo of about £110
[Rs. 1100).^ In 1861 owing to the expected introduction of British
3opper coins the value of the local pieces became greatly depreciated

1 Major Buckle 606, 7th November 1861,

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[BomtayQaHttar.

238

DISTRICTS.

ChApter T.
CapitaL

Land
liortgagei

WagMb

and their coinage was stopped. The Dohad rapee ceased to be legsl
tender in 1 858 and soon after disappeared. The Baroda> bdhdshai, rapee
was then the only coin in nse and only by degrees was the British
rupee raised to be the standard. In 1861 all contracts for spirits and
driLgs^ and in the year following the land revenae^ were dedaied
myable in Imperial mpees with tiie provision that for three yean the
JBaroda coin would be taken at the assay rate of exchange.^ Still the
use of the British coin is almost entirely confined to the payment of
Imperial dues^ the Baroda rupee being the ordinary medium in private
deidings. The intrinsic and legal value of the Baroda rupee is about
fourteen per cent below that of the Imperial coin. But from its won
and injured state its trade value is from eighteen to twenty-two per
cent less than the Imperial rupee. Its value varies considerably it
different times of the year. It is unusually depressed when Imperial
rupees are in demand for the payment of rents and abnormally higli
at the harvest time^ Mdh (February) and Vaishdkh (May). Connterfeit
Baroda coins are common and at the time of exchange each is
carefully tested by a Y&nia assayer^ pdrakh.

Except in the case of service holdings the practice of mori|;aging
land is not common. According te the registration returns mortgages
in excess of £10 (Us. 100) have risen from 93 of the vahie of i^479
(Rs. 34,790) in 1869-70, te 151 of the value of £6074 (Rs. 60,740) in
1876-77.

Carpenters and bricklayers are found in tewns and large villagcB.
Not always employed, their daily wages are high, varying from h. to
Is, Sd, (8 - 10 annas) and as a class they are well-to-do. The wages o(
ordinary day labourers are (1878) for a man from 3|cZ. to 6Jd. (2J-
34 annas) ; for a woman from 2id. to Sd. {H - 2 annas), and for ab^
or girl from Id. to l|d. (|-1 anna). Twenty-five years ago tbfl
daily wage of unskilled labour was for a man Sji. (2i annas) ; iae
a woman 8d. (2 ann^s), and for a boy or girl 2d. {l{ annas\
Except by cultivators who pay either wholly or partly in kind tibe»
wages are paid daily in cash. The labouring classes are M&ridis,
EoUs, and Bhils. Musalm&ns also of the G-h&ichi class, carriers by
trade, in the rainy months when traffic is at a standstill, go in bands
to the fields to work. These GUidnchis are not properly labourers
being a superior class, many of them well-to-do and almost all wid
good personal credit. Except for field work the only regolar isf i
labourers are M&rv&dis, a frugal and hardworking set of meo. |
In the fair season large pubHc works attract Dheds and other !
labourers from central Gujardt. Bhils and Kolis work in the fields I
but they dislike and are unsuited to steady hard labour and are seldom ;
employed in road making or other large undertakings. The actual work ;
of cultivation does not give rise to any great demand for labour. Tltf |
few rich cultivators employ workmen during the whole rains. But as» !
rule except at harvest time there is no general demand. Tie greater
part of the work done by Bhils, Naikd^, and other unsettled tribes ift
forest work; in the cold season, grass and firewood-cutting and in
the hot months, timber-felling and maAu^Ia-gathering. Among the

I Oov. Bm. 1485, 14th April 1862.

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

239

labouring classes women do as much work as men. The greater part
of the unskilled labour in public works is generally done by women.
Daring the la^t ten years the demand for and the wages ol unskilled
labour hare considerably declined, and though at the same time the
price of food and clothes has faUen, the state of the labouring classes
^ probably on the whole not so good as it was during the prosperous
jt'ars of the American war. The Ghfinchis, Marvadia, and Dheda are
a tlmfty and frugal people, saving money when they find good
employment. But the Bhils and Naikdas lay by nothing, spending
fifi they make in liquor and other personal indolgence. Mortgage of
labour is unknown in ihe Paiich Mahals. In some Musabodn houses
ID Godhra and Dohad the descendants of household slaves still hold a
poeition of dependence, choosing though in no way forced to do so to
work for the family who formerly owned them.

Field produce prices are available only for the sixteen years ending
1878. During these years rice has yaried from ten pounds for 2^.
(Ee. I) in 1865 to thirty in 1873 and averaged nineteen pounds ; wheat
1ms Taried from eleven pounds in 1865 to twenty-eight in 1876 and
a^emged eighteen pounds ; millet, hdjrij has varied from sixteen
Pinnda in 1864 to fifty -four in 1875 and averaged thirty pounds ; gram
Im varied from sixteen pounds in 1866 to fifty-eight pounds in 1876
and averaged thirty-one pounds ; pulse, ddl, has varied from nine
'pcunda in 1865 to thirty-eight pounds in 1876 and averaged eighteen
poundn j and maize has varied from twenty-one pounds in 1865 to fifty-
nine in 1876 and averaged thirty-nine. This period began with a moat
marked rise- In 1 864* and 1 865 prices stood very high ; then during the
next seven years (1866-1872) came a constant though moderate faU,
followed by four years (1873-1876) of cheap but steady rates, ending by
a moderate rise in 1877 and by extremely high prices in 1878, The
following statement shows for the chief grains the price in pounda
for two shillings during the sixteen yeara^ending 1878 ;

Panch MaMU Produce Prk&f, 1S63-187S.

Ttt^ui.

1 ...

^Bwik QOEDEUOQ ,4^ .1,

.50

»a

Whmt.

s«

'30

3fl

'2ii

M#i, b6JH

Sft

Iti

:J0

1^1

Sfi

4«}

3«

emio

5»

fulw, t*wr Mi „,

ti. 1

Ifi

Sfi

M*Jie .„ „. ...

ifi

S>Q

fil

fiU

The details of weights and measures given at page 65 of the Eaira

Statistical Account apply to the Panch Mahals,

* The figaies for the ten years ending 1872, taken from the Godhra survey
ttpori, refer to that sub-division only ; those for the six years ending 1878, taken from
fbe yearly administration reports, represent the average prices of the district.

Chapter V.
Capital
Wages.

Prices.

Wei£^ta.

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[BomliajGaiettev,

CHAPTER VI.

TRADE.^

CJhEptOT VI. Drntmo the last twelve years (1867-1878) by the help of cheap

Trade. stone metal^ and liberal public works grants^ aided by local fhnds^ tolb,

special funds, and duties, much has been done towards supplying the
^^^^ main lines of traffic with well made roads. The most important trade

route lies east and west, connecting Gujarat with Central IiMitt
and Rajputina. This line formerly ended westwards in Baroda,
but since the opening in 1874 of the branch railway to Till, traffic
has been turned to that station. Beginning at P^, bridged
but so far only partially metalled, the road runs east siiteea
miles to Gbdhra; from Qodhra, metalled and except the Pinam nTer
bridged throughout, with an eight mile branch to the town of BSnj^
it runs east to Dohad forty-four miles, twenty-Kme of them in Biriji
territory. Besides this main line thero is in the western diviflion a
banked and bridged but unmetalled road from Qodhra south^^west
twenty-one miles through E41ol to Ehikharia on the Baroda boundary.
In the south a branch twenty-five miles long begins near Elfld aoi
runs by H^ol to J&mbughoda. This is a fair Weather track and
thero aro similar lines from Qodhra fourteen miles north by Seherato
the Lun&vMa boundary. There is also from Eantdi a branch fifteen
miles north-east to join the Qodhra and Lun&y&da road^ used chieflj
by traffic between P&li and Lun&v^Uia and Sunth^. Another deaied
track runs north thirty miles, twenty of them in British territory
from S^a, twelve miles from Qodhra, on the Qodhra and Dohad road
to Sunth. An unimproved track runs from Qodhra north-east to
Limdi and Jhdlod. This formerly carried a large traffic, but since
the Qodhra and Dohad road has been finished it has almost ceased
to be used. In the eastern division a bridged and metalled road is
under construction from Jh^od by Limdi to the B&riya boandaiy
fourteen miles, and this is being continued eleven miles forthtf
in B&riya to join the Qodhra and Dohad road east of the Harap riv^.
The distance firom Qodhra to JhlUod along this route is fifty miles.
A partially improved track also runs south from Limdi to Dobad
fourteen miles, the total from Jhdlod to Dohad being twentvmil^
These, stretching over a total distance of 170 miles, are the only
made or partially made roads and they include all the chief traffic
routes. Other less important lines are provided with rough cart
tracks.
BridgM. The chief bridge is across the Earad river near Eflol on the

Qodhra and Eh&kharia road. It has three seventy-six feet openix^

1 The tnde section is oontribated by T. B. little. Esquire. ExecntiTe iDoam
PanchMah41».

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•^jtfAtl

PANCH MAHA'LS.

241

■panned by wrought iron girders carried on stone masonry piers.
Oa the Ghnihra and Dohad rcMid over the Ghod^khal river near Dohad
IB a bridge with three fifty feet arches^ and there are many other small
bridges. The P&nam river on the Gk)dhra and Dohad road eleven
miles east of Godhra is crossed by a low level or Irish bridge of
concrete.

There are no buildings for the accommodation of district ofilcers.
Of rest-houses, dharmshdlds, suited for native travellers there are
in all twenty-three. Of these ten are situated in the Godhra
sub-division, seven in K&lol^ and six in Dohad. Of those in Godhra
seven are at the town of Godhra ; one at the village of Sehera on the
high road from Godhra to Lun&v&la ; one at Tua on the high road
from Godhra to P&li ; and one at Urv^a on the high road from
Godhra to Dohad. Of the K4lol rest-houses, one is at K&lol, three at
Halol, one within the town and two on the road from K&lol to
J&mbughoda, and one at each of the three villages of Cfadmp&neri
Malav and Eanjri. Of the Dohad rest-houses, three are at Dohaxi, one
outside the town near the lake, and two on the high road from
Godhra to Dohad, two are at Jhdlod, and one at Garh^ru. Besides
these the district is provided with a traveller's bungalow at Kdlol on
the road from Godhra to Baroda. This last is the only building
suited for European travellers.

There are no permanent ferries in the Panch Mah&ls. During the
rainy season a boat plies between Gotra and Pali on the Mahi. It
is maintained from the Panch Mahals and Kaira local funds, the
proceeds being divided equally between the two districts. The total
yield of this temporary ferry amounted in 1875-76 to £24 (Bs. 240).

For postal purposes the Panch Mahdls form part of the Gujardt

Sostal division. They contain six post offices at Godhra, Edlol, H&Iol,
dmbughoda, Dohad, and Jh&lod. These offices are supervised by
the inspector of post offices in the Gujardt division, helped by the
sub-inspector of the Kaira district. Except Jdmbughoda with a
clerk on £6 (Bs. 60) a year the officials in charge of these offices are
styled deputy postmasters with yearly salaries varying from £24 to
£48 (Rs. 240- Bs. 480) and averaging £86 (Bs. 860). Payments in
connection with these offices are made from the disbursing post office
at Baroda. There are six postmen on £9 12s. (Bs. 96) and five rural
tneasengers on £12 (Bs. 120) a year.

The district has no Grovemment telegraph office.

At the time of the transfer of the district (1855) there were two
branches of trade, one local, the other a through traffic between the
coast and Gujar&t in the west aod AUtlwa and Central India in the
east. . The trading season lasted from October to June. Almost the
whole traffic in lK)th its branches was in the hands of professional
carriers, wagoners belonging to the class of Musalm&n Gh&nchis and
pack bullock owners, most of them YanjarAs or Ch&rans. The
bullock owners went in great troops divided into bands, each with its
leader, ndih. The wagoners, most of them armed with swords and
Bhields, forming large caravans joined purses to hire Bhils as advance
Bie7-ai

Chapter ▼!•
Trada.

Reit-hoitaai.

rttriuL

Post

Telegraph.

Trade.
1866.

Digitized by CjOOQIC

18S6,

242 DISTRICTS.

ChEptgr VI. and rear guards. At night they drew their wagons into a cirde, the
Trado. cattle in the middle, each ox connected with its yokefellow and the

wagon by an iron chain fastened to the cart wheel.^ Each wagon
carried about 1| tons and was drawn by three or four pain of
bullocks. They charged 9^ ton mileage rate of from 9(i. to h. (6-8
annas). Of the through trade^ the imports from Gujarat were
tobacco, salt, cocoanuts, and spices ; and from Mdlwa, opium, wheat, red
dye, and Malwa cloth. Of the local trade the imports from Gajaiit
were, besides those sent to Mdlwa, hardware and piecegoods; the exporti
were honey, molasses, timber, mahvda berries, and gums from Godhia,
Kdlol, and the neighbouring states, chiefly westwards to Gujar&t;azil

Sam, oil, and maize from Dohad, chiefly eastwards to Malwa and
ewir. Both the through and the local traffic to Malwa were larga
than the trade west to Gujardt.* At the time of transfer the distriefc
trade was stifled by the disordered state of the country, the want of
roads,and therepeated levies of transit dues. Under British management
order has been established, a bridged and metalled road runs
through the whole breadth of the district, and transit dues have been
simplified and to a great extent abolished. The result has been t
marked increase of exports west to Gujardt. At the same time tbe
opening from Khandva of a line of railway into the heart of Centnl
India has greatly interfered with the former through trade from the
sea coast and Gujar&t to M^lwa and Central India.

ISSS'lser. The history of the Panch Mahils trade from the date of transfer

up to 1867 is one of rapid development. Before the beginning of
British management there were many routes from Gujardt and the
Gulf of Cam bay to south Rajputdna and Central Inaia. Of iiheee
one from Broach and Baroda went through Chhota XJdepur and Afi
Bajpur ; a second from Cambay touched Nadi^, Kapadvanj, and
Lundvdda, while others from Baroda, A'nand, and Nadiild passed
through the Panch Mah^s and Bariya. Formerly the Panch Mahab
lines had a bad name. The roads were rough, transit dues were
heavy, and the country was lawless and disorderly. Under British
management, with the establishment of order and the reduction of
transit dues, the Panch Mah&ls route grew so popular that in spite
of reductions in rates, transit and toll revenues rose from £'^682
(Rs. 86,320) in 1858 to £7819 (Rs. 78,190) in 1861. During these
years the trade increase was greatly fostered by a great and general
rise in prices, encouraging production and enlarging the area from
which supplies could with profit be forwarded.

1S67'1876. Up to 1867 no trade details are available. The following tabH

from figures gathered in B&riya, shows for the ten years ending
1875-76, the approximate traffic between Gujardt and the conntiy
east and north-east of Bariya, including the Dohad snb-division «
the Panch Mah^s and the M&lwa and Mew^ territory beyond.

1 Biflhop Heber's Narrative (1825) XL 109, ^ C6L Buckle, 469, 17th Ji4y l^

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fiitiatita

PANCH MAHA'LS.

PtuuA Mahdh Tknmgh Trqjflc, 1867-1876.

243

•

AWfOLM,

Tons.

Total.

Tbm.

Tods.

Tons.

Wi«it .„ .„ ...

e»4

862

280

888

860

604

168

169

601

4891

©rtia

100

i06

882

106

1800

KilM ... ... ..

111

187

2429

1446

148

288

406

6160

St* ..

uii

271

8*7

878

462

202

169

8179

Other (rralnf

2&n

891

866

1118

186

160

187

916

6168

iffU 4aia(Bu9utftt4fOlla)i

890

290

274

168

141

1606

^cKiniam ,..

469

168

881

163

174

166

142

1961

Ofl .„ ,..

aai

830

196

270

824

160

806

824

486

2664

mi4m ...

ISO

688

ClKrified batter ..,

...

190

Dfe*, r*^* '

live itflOk,.*

1*7

191

109

168

184

984

Tiniber

.+.

•••

...

Oplam

194

Mi«(»lb»si«oa«

418

Total Cowuda 13-i^Ant,..

0180

2666

1721

1076

6866

4779

1869

1470

1187

2998

29.846

fobitqw ,

4021

8996

2496

2876

2067

1918

2048

1826

2846

2022

«^}g

B«tt „

730

1878

869

670

788

402

1144

461

872

1288

Piem sood*

llfi

808

696

HftrdlwArfl „

201

229

264

188

103

1106>

Ccco»jia£ ,.^

lOi

677

Hf'iiip

»S

299^

droferlea ^

627

641

879

648

264

601

286

469

291

762

4707

Ifiaft^liLTuwiw^

7»

420

TMal toward! Milwa...

6650

6674

4172

4069

8874

8079

3646

2948

8216

4197

41,006

L^ Gnuid Total ...

11,836

9880

6898

6184

8729

7868

6614

4418

4862

7196

70,264

This statement shows in regard to the trade from Gnjar&t to
M41wa that, daring the ten years, Eaira tobacco supplied sixty and
Khar&ghoda seJt twenty per cent of the whole trade. The great
fall in the export of tobacco from 4000 tons in 1866-67 to 1800 tons
in 1873-74 can at least partly be traced to the transfer of trade to
the railway by Bombay and Khandva. This route though more
than five times as long has besides cheap railway charges the
advantage of freedom from transit dues. In 1875 by the abolition
of the Panch Mah&ls transit dues trade taxation was much reduced.
This and road improvements for a time drew back to the Panch
Mah&ls route a larger amount of tobacco. But in the native states
traDsit dues are still heavy,^ and as the railway has been continued
from Eliandva to Indor and Ujain the Panch Mah&Is route is not
likely to regain its position.

Salt though under the * same conditions as tobacco shows less
decline. The marked increase in 1875 is partly due to the fact that
up to 1 874 most of the salt was carried by pack bullocks and as the
rontes followed were often changed to avoid duties the returns are
less complete than those for cart traffia The minor items of export
from Gujarat depend greatly on the season. They are chiefly for local
use round the Dohad sub-division of the Panch Mahdis and include

OiaptarTL
Trade.

1S67-1876.

Gnjarit to

Onjar

I On one of the main Panch MahiUs trade line8» within native limitf, the tonnage
charges amoant to aboat 2d, (1^ aimas) a mile;

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[Bombij
244 DISTRICTS.

▼I. very little throngli trade. On the whole it may be sud of the
H^^. throagh trade from G-njar&t to M&lwa that the Panch Mahils rootej

though since 1867 much improved^ has had to meet severecompetition,
and owing to the cheap railway carriage available on the other
lines some of the trade has necessarily been lost^ while heavy tnmsit
daties have prevented the opening of other outside markets to make
np for the loss. But for the road and other improvements it ia
probable that instead of being redaced the throagh trade to Mflwa
would have entirely ceased.

oSiirAt* As regards the trade from Mdlwa to Gnjar&t the quantity rec«7ed

^ is small. The veJue was formerly large as it included a considerable

supply of opium for consumption in fiaroda and the Bewa Kibtha
states and for illicit trade in British territory. This opium traffic
has now been closed and the total value of the trade from Mwa
much reduced. The bulk of the M&lwa exports are foodgraiiis,
wheat, gram, maize, and rice. These grain items amounting to ai
much as 70 per cent of the whole are, with the exception of a little
M^wa wheat, the produce of the eastern division of the Pandi
Mah&ls and of the country round. Dohad has for many years been
. looked on as a granary and much of its surplus store always findt
its way to Malwa, Mewfir and Oujar&t. Originally the eastern
markets had the preference as the transport charges indudiDgdotiea
were lighter. But the branch line to P&Ii, the new Panch Mahals
roads, and lowered transit dues have helped to draw Dohad grain
west. At present it supplies either M&lwa, Mew&r, or Oujarft
according to price and demand. A bad season and high prices it
either direction is sufficient to turn to it the bulk of the expoii
Under ordinary conditions Gujar&t is now preferred, for besides
improved communications the Malwa market is now to some extent
supplied by the new Indor railway. The table shows a most
marked variation in the grain export to G-uiar&t. There were 50M
tons in 1866-67, 4000 tons each in 1870-71 and 1871-72, and ia
1869-70 and again in 1874-75 less than 500 tons.

On the whole the returns seem to show that in spite of improvexDieat!^
so long as heavy transit dues are levied m the states ronoi
the Panch Mah41s, the trade from Gujar&t to M&lwa is not likely to
increase. On the other hand though the two last years bave bees
nnfavourable, Dohad is almost certain to yield larger exports of
gprain.

The above table includes only the through traffic between Gnjarft
and the country east of B&riya. The following table though for a
shorter period is more complete including the two chief lines along
which the bulk of the Panch Mah^s traffic, both local and throngl^
passes. The chief exports to Gujar&t are grain, makuda benie^
timber, and oil seeds ; the chief imports from Gujarkt are tobicoo^
saltj coooanuts^ hardware^ and piece goods.

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A^Mfii]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

Pamik MaMb Boad Trafe, lgH-U^».

84<

187S-74.

Amoui.

OodhntoP411

Oodhrato
Baroda.

Total.

Export.

Import.

Total.

Import.

Total.

Export.

Import

Total.

OUndbUteedi

\s^

146

■««

1408
SU9

110
106

138
1866

1078

110
146
106
616
898
198
9867
8569
1^73

8548

"481

986

1488

647

"409

9017
1966

9950

"481
986

84
8450
1918

9694

"947

684

2035
4906

110
403
106

188
8883

1266
1978

110

8096

106

947

664

167

6807

5478

1978

Total ...

•111

8677

9788

6870

8685

9064

11,480

7863

18,658

•

1874-76.

8r? :::

ttmiimw

€iludoU««ds ...

Ssr* :::

Timber

TbiMOO

"•09

1331
1198

iin

6810

178
170

118
1671

1*896

178
909
170
123L
1196
118
9898
6810
1826

9866

"888
. 886

15
689

"806

IMl
989

8179

"888
805
16
1948
1703

8776

1614
1688
16
1884
6080

178
806
170

118
898i

983
1836

178
4081
170

1614
1068
188
4768
7013
1886

Ibtal ...

9800

8368

18,768

6061

9548

7600

14,851

6619

81.868

1876-76.

OooQunU

«rtin

|brd«mn

C^lMMlollMada ...

9»69

1065
791

1326

7887

968
"489

"800
9460

2961

268
9859

489
1066

791

800
8666
7887
9261

9086

"890
.483

89
466
919

"166

iiis

789

xio9

"890
489
89
1668
1701

4896

H76
19i8
89
168i
8999

958
166
489

"800

8673

789

2261

86»

6061
488
1476
1888
889
6864
9088
8861

ToUl ...

18,848

6706

19,064

4266

9167

6489

17,618

7878

86,488

1876-77.

Wttdirars

jOvidoIloMd*

2SS*

te::: l

if670

6760
966

XL60
9579

160
801

161
9899

1949

160
6679

801
6760

966

161
6049
9679
1949

1889

*147
991
31
469

1291

"lOl

1089
866

1498

147

391

1808

9167

7001

6907

667

8619

10,870

150
101

801

8981
866
19tt

160

7108
801

•s?

188
666a

11.786
1948

l^itel ...

96,484

6486

98,870

3561

9006

6667

96,986

7443

84,431

1677-78.

Sr?. :::

^WMB

OUandoaseedt
Tlmbw

23r;:: :::

Www«oil

OfMi

6010

W78
1968
4
1316
9667

4693

196

188
990
881

"' 9
909

1767
90

9669

8739
98
89

188
6080

881
9176
1966

306
8088
9877
9669
8741
47iO

168

1197

981

990

969

6
119

"'l8

"614

868

964

74
944

96
604

68
9

86
689
978

7907

9949

1494

1606

9990

4961

186

188
1088
883

"l6
808

8881
96
3661
8789
981
996

189
8889

888
98«
1609

881
8887
9948

IMaI ...

89,466

9678

49,896

9166

1180

S866

84,641

11,068

46,694

Chapter Tit

Trade.

BoadTnflo,
1874.1878.

Digitized by LjOOQIC

Bomtey ChMttfltfi

246

MSTEICTS.

Outpteryi*
Ttada.

18744878.

XZ70BS8»

Tknber.

In spite of stagnation and eyen decline in some items of tlie
tliroQgn traffic the trade as a whole shows a marked advance from
18,852 tons in 1873-74 to 21,363 in 1874-75, 25,486 in 1875-76,
84,427 in 1876-77, and 45,694 in 1877-78.

There can be no donbt that the new P&li railway branch, the
opening of the Panch Mahdls roads, and the removal of transit dntiei
have had a powerful influence for good on the commercial proeperi^
of the district both in developing old branches of trade and in startisf
new ones. The effect is chiefly felt in the Panch Mah&ls itsdf
and in those districts round where the benefits are not neutralized
by excessive transit taxation.

In spite of the large total increase the returns show a marked
decline in traffic along the Oodhra and Baroda road. Fifteen yean
ago it was proposed to provide a good road for the Panch Mahfls
trade towaras baroda. But much of the distance is in native
territory and as there were many difficulties the P&li line was adopted
in its stead. The result has been not only a transfer of traffic mm
one route to the other but a large additional trade, the Pali road
alone carrying much more than the whole united former trade.

Timber is the chief article of export, the quantity varying during

the last five years from 547t
PanchMahdlB J&cparts, Timber, 1873^1877. ^^ j^ jgyg ^ jj ygg ^^^ ^

1876. Most of this timber itf
the produce of the B&rija»
Sanjeli, and other forests snr*
rounding the Panch Mahals;
the rest comes from the Panek
Mahals forests. The trade
centres in Gbdhra^ where, with
a certain number of Hinds
and other timber merchantSi
the chief dealers are Musalm&ns of the sect of Shia Bohor&s. TheA^
is little teak of any size. The produce is mainly small teak raftem'.
and poles, beams of other forest trees and bamboos. At Godhra Hkm
dealers buy timber from Bhils and Kolis, who bring it to market*
But the sellers to secure higher prices often prefer to carry their
timber to Pili and even to D&kor and Nadii&d. Most timber it

TSAX.

QodhiftEDd
P4U.

Qodhrft and
Baroda.

TotaL

1878-74 ...
1874.76 ...
1876-76 ...
1876-77 ...
1877-78 ...

Tons.

3669
6310
7387
9679
9877

Tom.

1913
1702
1701
2167
68

Tons.

6472

7012

9088

11,736

s 9946

I The following shows the area and (1872) population of the diatricta ol wUflk
Godhra is the natural centre : i

Godhra Trade Diitricta,

BlSTBIOT.

ASSA.

ForuuLnov, im.

8imth
BAriya

LnnivAda ...
FAndn Mehvis

...

Total

1731
894
813
888
113

240^743

49.676 1
62,813 1
74,813
35,610

3439

468^654

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t^jttitl

PANOH MAHA'LS.

247

TZAB.

Oodhraand
FAU.

Qodhnuid
Barodft.

Total.

M73.74 ...

1874.75 ...

1875.76 ...

1878-77 ...
1877-78 ...

Tons.

146

909

2859

5679

6930

Tons.

2950
3172
2202
1423
1309

Tons.

3096
4081
5061
7102
8239

brought to Godhrs by Kolis. But of late years Gh&ncliis and other
Masfdm&ns have began to compete in this branch of the carrying
trade. The Government Forest Department sells chiefly to dealers
and disposes of mnch of its snpply wholesale in the forests. Of late
7«ars the timber trade has been rapidly increasing^ the Pali railway
a&d new roads opening out more distant areas of sapply. The
Ming off in the last year is only apparent. It is because firewood has
ken taken as a separate item. In reality there is a large increase.

There is a considerable Ghrain^ trade from all parts of the Panch
FmehMahdU Exports, Orain, 1873-1877. MaMls and from the neigh-
bouring states. But the sup-
plies chiefly come from tne
Dohad sub-division. Gram^ by
far the heaviest item, goes to
Bombay and Gujardt ; maize is
not usually exported in any
quantities though in 1870-71
owing to failure of crops in
the west, the export rose to
M29 tons. Grain exports vary much according to the harvests as
wen as to the relative prices and demand from M&lwa, Mewar and
Qnjar&t. Wheat and rice are exported from Dohad and rice from
\miLo\. Under ordinary conditions the grain trade is growing and
^ly to grow.

Almost all of the dried flower and fruit of the maJmda, Bassia

latifolia, the produce of Godhra
and the surrounding native
territory, goes west to Gujardt.
The crop ripens in April.
Gathered chiefly by Bhils and
Kolis it is made over to Y^ni&s
and other men of capital who
either dispose of it to P&rsi
contractors or export it at their
own risk. Most of it finds its
^ way to Surat and Bombay.

mdhuda is one of the articles most affected by the opening of the
Pdi railway. Before 1873 the trade set to Baroda and A'nand,
jessing either by rail or by road to Broach and from Broach by sea
to Bombay. Now the trade centres in Pali. The export has risen
from 947 tons in 1873 to 9249 in 1877. The large increase in the
last two years was owing to favourable seasons, to the new roads
ind railways, and to the additional area tapped. The amount of
mahuda available for export, depending on the grain as well as the
^Mhuda crop, varies greatly from year to year. Of the amount all,
Kcept three tons in 1873 and 149 in 1876, went westwards to F&d
md Baroda.

Jmg& lfahdl8 SxporU, Mahuda, 1878-1877.

TiAa.

Godhra and
P41L

Oodbra and
Baroda.

Total

J873.74 ...
1874.75 ...
JB75.76 ...
i«6.77 ...
i«7.78 ...

Tods,

516
1231
1085
6760
9175

Tons.

431
383
390

147

Tons.

947
1614
1475
5907
9249

Ghaptw V£

Trade.

1874.187&

Cfrak^,

Mohudn.

1 This is a trade of long standing, wheat and Parley
lyiwa to Gujarit Gladwin's Ain-i-Akburi, IL 62.

(1586) hronght from

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bombay OawHiir,

248

DISTRICTS,

Ohftptir 71.

Trado.

ia74-i87a

Firtwood,

OUtooffi

IxpoBm.

SaU.

Cartage.

Firewood is to a gpneat extent a new export. Before the opening

of the Pdli railway yert littb
PanckMahdUE,!p<^.Iinwood,1877. croBsed the Mahi. Thislnd^

almost confined to the Godhi
and E&lol Bab-diviaoiM,
employs KoliB^ MaBalm^
Ghindus, and others. It is
rapidly developing^ the etdet
buyers being the miUa it
Ahmedabad and in other parts of Gnjan&t. The forest and waMe
tracts yield a large annual growth of firewood now for the first tima
made use of, and if the railway is taken on to Godhra a still laip
area will be thrown open.

TlAB.

Godhr»vid
P4U.

CkMlhimuid
Buoda.

ToteL

1877-78 ...

Tona.
4720

Tona.
522

Tona.
6242

PofkA Mahdb ExpoHs, OiUeedi, 1S7S-1877.

TlAft.

Qodhnand
PilL

Oodhmud
Buoda.

Total.

1873-74 ...
1874-76 ...
1875-76 ...
1876-77 ...
1877-78 ...

Tona.
398

1198
796
266

1266

Tona.
286
385
432
291
244

Tona.

684
1688
1228

667
1609

Panch MahdU Imports, Tobacco, 1S7S-1877,

Of oilseeds sesamtuni iaij ia
mostly grown in Dohad a&d
tThilod, and castor oil in
Godhra and E&loL They aro
all sent to Gnjaiit. So !m
the quantities have vaiiad
according to the character el
the seasons. But a gradaal
increase in the export of oil-
seeds may be looked for.

Of imports tobacco is tk
chief. The marginal figum
show the changes in tke
trade during the last fifs
years. There is little to add
to what has already beeu sail
under the head 'through tndft'

Like tobacco, salt has been treated under the head ' through trada'

Besides what goes to Milva
Panch MahdU ImporU. SaU, 1S77. ^j,^^^ ^g ^ ^^^^ j^^ j^^^

in and near the Panch Mahals
But from the former abQeqi
connected with the canriif
of salt on pack bullocks i
accurate returns are ayailaUl*
The figures for 1877-78 a«
fadrly correct. At present the import of salt is increasing.

Fifteen to twenty years am mile cartage rates varied from ^^
to Is. (5-8 annas) a ton. ISow the rates are much less. Cvt^
tates are usually quoted in the local markets at so much the 40 Ibi*
man, for the journey, including as a rule transit duties and talk
Between P41i and Dohad a distance of sixty-two miles the preseil

TlAE.

Godhra and
PAIL

Godhra and
Baroda.

Total.

1873-74 ...

1874-76 ...
1876-76 ...

1876-77 ...
1877-78 ...

Tona.
1973
1876
2261
1942
2669

Tona.
9

Tona.
1973
1876
2261
1942
2668

Tbak.

Godhra and
PAIL

Godhra and
Baroda.

Total

1877-78 ...

Tona.
3741

Tona.
25

Tona.
8766

Digitized by VjOOQIC

ftdtritl

PANCH MAHALS-

249

(5*7 annag) the ton and of this from 2^(2. to Sd. (1^-2 annas) is for
toUs and duties. Excluding duties and tolls a mile rate varying
according to season and demand from 2^(2. to 4^^. (1^-3 annas) a ton
gives the present range of Panch Mah&ls cart hire. In old days the
carrying trade was almost monopolized by Musalm&ns of the Gh&nchi
class and on account of bad roads and want of protection was avoided
by others. Now as the roads are safe and good^ competition among
aU classes who have carts and bullocks is most eager and many
persons come from great distances to carry on the Qodhra and P^
road.

The only industry of special interest is in Dohad the making of
lao bracelets.^ The lac is produced in small quantities in Dohad and
largely in the forests of the neighbouring states of Ali B&jpur^
Udepur, and Devgad Biriya, The chief lac-yielding trees are the
fiph, Ficus religiosa, the khdJchra, Butea frondosa^ the bordi,
Zizyphus jujuba^ and the husamh, Schleichera trijuga.

The lac is collected by Bhils and Niikdis who either for grain op
cash sell it to the Bohora or V&nia grain-dealers at from let. to 1^^. a
poimd (Bs. 1-8-Ils. 2 a man), who in turn sell it to town traders
ahnost all Musalm^ns of the Shia or D^udi Bohora sect. When
b comes to the traders the lac is in a raw state sticking to bark and
tmgs. To separate the lac from the wood the whole is pounded
with stones and winnowed. In this state the powdered lac, kanja,
ia stored, its price in ordinary years varying from 10«. to 16«. fop»40
toands (Rs. 5-Bs. 8 a man), the cheapest coming from the pipla,
^kkdkhra and bordi, and the dearest from the hiaamb trees. Of the
[.whole supply only a little is locally worked up into lac bracelets.
Q( the rest in ordinary years about 5 tons (280 mans) go to
^Ahmedabad and 7^ tons (400 mans) to BatUm. In Ahmedabad the
lac is used for colouring leather, and in BatUm for making bracelets.

Before being used the powdered lac, Jcanja, is placed in a bamboo
basket, mixed with powdered alum, wskshed with water, and for
a day set to dry in the sun. Then it is ground to powder, melted
in a metal pan, and in the proportion of two ounces to the pound
'{fire tolas to one ser) mixed with brick dust and old powdered lac
bracelets. The mixture is melted, poured on the ground, and rolled
into a round flat cake. The cake is cut into three or four pieces, each
piece heated and between two stones rolled into a stick generally 6^
])onnds in weight. The stick ready, some dearer lac is mixed with
yellow orpiment, or red earth, or both, and made into small cakes from
five to six ounces in weight. Then these yellow or red cakes are laid
M an outside coating, on the first lac stick, in such a way as to make
it all red or all yellow, or one side red and the other yellow. The end
of the stick is then heated, drawn out, and then the proper length fop
p bracelet cut off. As they are formed, the bracelets are slipped over
Ae oily conical head of a pestle-shaped tool known as the ' rice-
poonder/ edmela. This has usually a head about ten inches long^
frying in size from two inches across the top to four inches across
the foot^ and a handle about a foot and a half long. When the head
bas been covered with rings they are carefully heated so that

1 Checked and added to by Bamanji Modi, Eaqoire, District Deputy CoUeotor.

Ghaptor VL.
Trade*

Cartage..

Mannfactorea.

LaeBtxKelsU

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[Bombay CkMHafff

Chapter YL
Tnda.

Hanufactares.
LmeBrueekU,

Eair Combs,

GraaiOiL

250

1)ISTMCTS.

without melting the rings may stick to each other. tbiB done, the
set of rings is taken off, mbbed with brick powder, polished and
either with copal varnish or with a mixture of gamarine, ehandrus,
and linseed oil, coloured vermillion, blue, or yellow.

When the cylinder of bracelets has been coloured the next step is
to print a pattern on them. For this purpose about two ounces of tin$
katidr, are melted into a thin plate and rolled round a small ball of
glue. The ball is then set on a stone and for a whole day hammered
by two men, the particles mixing together till they form a dull-grflf
metallic plate. Next day the plate is broken in pieces^ thrown into
a copper vessel with a little water in it, and placed over a slow firo»
The plate gradually melts leaving a sediment sometimes strained off
through a coarse cloth. The water is now ready for use. Meanwhilo
a little very fine cotton wool is tightly wound round a small bamboo
chip and so wetted and pressed that it makes a pad or stamp haid
enough to have a pattern graven on its face by a large iron needle.
This cotton stamp is now taken, dipped in the tinwater, and being
very lightly pressed on the cylinder or bracelets prints its pattern <ai
their varnish. After printing the bracelet the cylinder is varnished
once a day for three days, the varnish turning the white markings
of the tin pattern into a beautiful gold. Then the pattern is
completed by studding the bracelet vrith drops of tinwater coloured
red with vermillion or white with chalk. A final coating of varnish
finishes the work. When they are to be sold the bangles aro
separated from each other by a knife-like tool. Each banele 9
then cut, passed over the wearer's hand, and the ends melted anl
joined. The bracelets are sold two for Id. (a pice) generally in
sets of twenty-five for each hand. They are generally worn by tiie
y^nia women of M^Iwa, and by Dohad women of the Bajpn^
Patelia, and B&valia castes.

These lac bracelets are an imitation of the costly ivory BatUof
bracelets, of which a woman generally gets one set at her marriage^
wearing them only on very great occasions. Besides bracelet^
yellow and red striped armlets, goUds, are worn between the elbo#
and the shoulder. Except that they have neither varnish nor pattern
these are made in the same way as the bracelets. Two of them ael
for |(2. {a pice,) The manufacture of lac bracelets gives employmeip
to a special class of craftsmen called l£kli&r6s. Of these at
families are settled at Jh&lod and nine at Dohad. About haKoj^
them are Musalm&ns and half Hindus.

Another industry is the manufacture in the villages of Jesvida
and G&ngdi in Dohad of blaokwood hair combs. The makers aie
Musalm&ns called from their occupation hdnskigars or comb makenu
Their combs are bought wholesale by Dohad D&udi Bohorfo who
polish and fimsh them and send tiliem to Malwa, Gujarat^ and even
to Burh&npur.

In former times paper, soap, and grass oil were made, and
Chdmpiner was famous for its cloth-bleaching, calico-printing, silk-
weaving, and sword blades. These industries have almost entirely
disappeared. The grass oil made from the large long-bladed

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Sojaftt.]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

251

aromatic grass known as roi^a, wliich nsed to grow over large stretches
of waste land was, at the rate of 4«. (Bs. 2) a pound, bought in
considerable quantities and used partly as a remedy for rheumatism,
partly to mix with attar of roses. The oil was extracted by distillation.
A roagh stone oven was built by the side of a stream and in it a
large metal caldron was placed and filled with bundles of grass
and water. When full, a wooden lid was put on and sealed with a
plaster of ground pulse, adad. Through a hole in the lid one end of
a hollow bamboo was thrust and the otiier end passed into a smaller
netal vessel securely fixed under water in the bed of the stream.
The oven was then heated and the vapour passing through the hollow
hamboo was by the coldness of the smaller vessel precipitated as oil.

S&ml4ji in the Mahi K&ntha and D&kor in Kaira are at the
times of their great religious gatherings places of considerable traffic.
Bnt few of the local &irs are of any trading importance. Except
aome in the west who go as far as Baroda and Pali most well-to-do
ealtirators generally bring their produce to Godhra, K&lol, Yejalpur,
VohaA, Limdi, Oarbada, G&ngdi, and Jh^od, permanent marts with
resident dealers in grain^ cloth, oil seeds, grocery, and hardware.
Ifany of the smaller viUages and almost all of the Bhil settlements
|«e without regular shops, the Bhils doing most of their buying and
telling with one of their town money-lenders or large village dealers.
There is also a class of village traders M&rvddi Y&ni&s in the east, and
vnjar&t Yani&s, and a few Musalm&n Bohor&s and Gh&nchis in the
)rest, some of whom live in villages during the whole and some
pnring part of the yeitr.

^ Though with so scanty and backward a population, each town has
Jta merchant's guild, maAo; an, regulating trade. Last year (1877)
with the object of lowering prices the mahajan of Jh^od agreed to
atop the export of grain. This year (1878) too they did the same,
fiat at the persuasion of the local authorities the agreement was
ireacinded. Where members of a craft belong to the same caste,
Ihe caste council, panch, sometimes hears and settles disputes on
joints of trade. The councils of more than one caste have, to prevent
l&Il in wages, been known to join in striking work and occasionally
^0 castes have together appointed a special council to settle trade
g^>ntes. The Y&ni& and Sonis, together spoken of as the mahdjan,
mve been known to unite in stopping business as a protest against
h distasteful sanitary order. But the combination was partly religious,
partly social, and neither depended on, nor called forth any special
trade oi^ganization.

Chapter VI.
Trade,

Manofacturefl.
GraasOiL

Fain.

Trade QnildB. ' \,

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IBomlMj OmttNb

CHAPTER VIL

HISTORY.

Chapter YII. The history of the Panch Mah&Is centres in the city of Ch&mpiner<
History. ^ * copper plate inscription of Shildditya V. of Valabhi bearing dite

404-441 Samvat^ a.d. 348-385^ referonce is made to the camp of yictoiy
fixed at Godhrahaka and this may be the modem Godhra.^ No otto
Bablt Hihdu. ^^^J mention of the district has been traced, Champiner is said to
300-1300. ' have been foanded in the seventh centary (647) in the reign of
Van B&j^ the first raler of Anhilvida. In the end of the thirteeatb
centary (1297) the Ghohans retreating from Khichiv^da before thi
Mfbalma'k Mnsalmdns under Al^-ud-din Khilji became lords of the coonti^
1300-173o/ Their sway lasted till the conquest of Ch&mp&ner by Mahmud BegA
in 1484. Daring the next fifty years the neighbourhood of thecitf
would seem to have been one of the richest parts of Gajarst.
Barbosa (1514) describes it as full of well tilled fields and richi?
all products. So too the author of the Mirat-i-Sikandri (1611) i
eloquent in nraise of its fruits, its mangoes the best in the kingdon^
and its sanaalwood so plentiful as to be used in house building.
Deserted by the court before the middle of the sixteenth century
(1536), Cfa&mp&ner^ had by its close become ruined, and muchlji
the country had fallen into wilds and forests. Under the Mo^
Emperors (1578-1727) Gt)dhra became the district head quart«l
But, unlike the rest of Gujarat, the Panch Mah^s seem never to haw
prospered under the Vicerovs or regained their lost cultivation Hr
wealth. Occasionally an Emperor or a Viceroy in travelling from
M&lwa to Gujarat passed through the district.* But its chief mentiOB
in the seventeenth century is as a hunting ground for wild elephantt.*
Maba^tha, In 1727 Erishn&ji, foster son of Kantaji Kadam Bdnde, attackoi

1730-1863. Chdmpiner, levied a regular tribute, and seems to have held l4»i

country till about the middle of the centary Champ&ner was seinij
and the Panch Mahals annexed by Sindia.^ Though the citadel dt]
Pivdgad was taken by the British in 1803 they made no attempi*»i

1 Ind. Ant. LXIII, 16.

9 At the time of Todar Mai's snrvey 1590 (984 H.) Chimp^er waa the oentnc;
thirteen districte ; Haveli, Dilol, Udhadreh, Jalidreh, TimorBasneh, Chorfj;
Ch4mp^er, Bohad, Sonkr^, Sanoli, Mohan, Jamnngdm, Walehbad^andGiiAoiitfB;
Zaminddn. All traces of Todar Mai's survey had been lost, Mirat-i-Ahmadi in fifl»
Gov. Rev. Rec. 45, Vol. II. of 1821, 673.

8 Jah&ngir passed in 1617 when Sir T. Roe was with his camp, and Sfaih Jabii^
1619 when, at Dohad, Aurangzeb was bom.

^ One of the events of interest recorded in 1645 is the capture of sevratf-tiiitf
elephants in the foresto of Dohad and Ch4mp&ner. Watson's History of Goisrit^ 7i

6 See GhimpAner. No details have been procured of Siiidi4*a oonguett ot Ike na»

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HjtttL]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

258

occapy or administer the lands of the district. Even the citadel was
restored to Sindia in the next year and remained in his hands tiU
in 1853 the district was transferred to the British. Daring this
time, as an outlying part of Sindi&'s domain^ the management of the
Banch Mahtis was very loose and unsatisfactory.^ In 1825 the
greater part of the eastern division was covered with forest,' and
Qiougk some advance was afterwards made^ in 1858 when the
Panch Mah&ls were transferred to Hie British they were still in a
veiy backward state.

Under British rule order was established and with two exceptions
has been maintained. The exceptions are an inroad of mutineers in
1858 and a N4ikda rising ten years later.

In 1858/ after his defeat at Qw&lior, at the close of the mutinies
ib Northern India, T&tia Topi moved rapidly towards the Deccan.
The chiefs of Jamkhandi and Nargund haid been in treasonable
iX)rrespondence with the rebel chiefs in the North- West and had
inyoked their aid. It is more than probable that if T&tia Topi had
tetered the Deccan in force, there woald have been a general insurrec-
tion of the Mar&tha population. T&ti&'s march to the Deccan soon
MBamed the character of a flight. He was closely pressed by two
^lunns under Generals Somerset and Mitchell, and a very compact
lod enterprizing little field force commanded by Colonel Park.

Colonel Parkas own regiment, the 72nd Highlanders, many of the-
%i6n mounted on camels, formed the main fighting power of this
%rce. His indefatigable energy in the pursuit of the enemy allowed
HbBm no rest^ and eventually brought them to bay at Chhota Udepur.
^ Fearing to face the open country of Ber&r with such an
pncompromising enemy in pursuit^ T&tia recrossed the Narbada at
Uphikalda and marched towards Baroda. He had, by means of an
M;ent named Gktnpatr&v, for some time been in communication with
*tte Bh4u Saheb Povir, a brother-in-law of His Highness the Gdikwir,

Ehd been led to expect aid from the Baroda Sard&rs and the
rs of the Eaira and Bewa E&ntha districts. Immediately it
e known that T&tia had crossed the Narbada, troops were put
( in motion from Kaira, Ahmedabad^ and Deesa f or the protection
.of the eastern frontier of Gujar&t. Captain Thatcher, who had
^cceeded to the command of the irregular levies raised by Mr.
^Xshbumer in Kaira, was ordered to hold Sankheda with the
inregolars and two of the Q&ikw&r^s guns. He was afterwards
TOnforced by Captain Collier's detachment of the 7th Begiment N. I.,
^Vhich fell back from Chhota Udepur on the approach of the enemy.

Tdtia Topi at this time commanded a formidable force composed
, cl fragments of many mutinous Bengal regiments. He had also been
i joined by a mixed rabble of Yill&yatis, Bohill^, and Bajputs, who
'followed his fortune in hopes of plunder. The Nawib of Kamona,
^erozsha, and a Mar&tha Sard&r, who was known as the BAv S&heb^
held subordinate commands. Each fighting man was followed by

Cbairtar VXt
History.

British,
1S63-1S79.

Tdlia TopV$
Raid,
1868.

1 Bom. Qnar. Rev. III. 359. < Biahop Heber's Narrative, II. 103.

^ Tina note on TAti* Topi'a raid and the next paragraph on the 1868 Niikda Biaing
an oontrilrated by the HonourftUe L. R. Aahbumer, C.S.L

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DISTRICTS.

Historx*

Brituh,
1863-1879.

Tdiia TopVg
Raid,
1868.

Jl^dihda suing,
1868.

one or more ponies laden mth plunder which greatly impeded dnr
movements. It was ohiefly owing to this that Colonel Park nm
enabled to overtake the rebels and to force them into action.

On reaching Chhota Udepur the troops of the lUja fraternized
with the enemy, and Captain Collier having evacuated the town,
T&tia Topi was allowed to occapy it without opposition. He bad
intended to halt at Chhota Udepur to recruit his men and to develop
his intrigues with the Baroda Sard^rs^ but Park gave him no respita
On the 1st December 1858, he fell upon T&tia's rebel force and
defeated it with great slaughter, his own loss being trifling. Afler
this defeat there was great confusion in the ranks of the insurgentB.
T&tia Topi abandoned his army and did not rejoin it till it lul
reached the forest lands of P&rona. Discipline, which had always beea
lax, was now entirely thrown asida The muster roll of one of Tatii'i
cavalry regiments was picked up and showed that out of a strengft
of 300 sabres there were only sixteen present for duty. The rebd
force separated into two bodies, one doubled back and plnnderel
Parkas baggage, which had fallen &r to the rear, the other under
Verossha entered the Panch Mahals and looted B4riya, Jh41od,LimJi
and other villages; Gk>dhra being covered by ^uteir's force was not
attacked. Park's force was so disabled by the plunder of its baggaoi
and by long continued forced marches, that it was compelled to hu
at Chhota (Jdepur, but General Somerset took up the pursnit and
rapidly drove Tatia from the Paneh Mahfls. He fled in thedirectiot
of Salumba. The Th&kor of that place was in arms, and T6tia i#
doubt expected support from him, but the Th&kor was too cantioil
to join what was then evidently a hopeless cause. On readxiit
Nargad on the 20th February 1859, Ferozsha made overtores «
surrender, and n week later 300 cavalry and a mixed force of 1501
men under Zahur Ali and the Molvi Yazir Eh&n laid down thei^
arms to General Mitchell. They were admitted to the benefit of di
amnesty. The remnant of T&ti&'s force fled to the north-east

In October 1858, instigated by the intrigues of the Bh&a SAA
Pov&r, the Sankheda N^ikd^,^ a very wild forest tribe, took if
arms under Bupa and Eeval N&iks, and after having plundered in:
outpost, thdnay at N&rukot, attacked a detachment of the Si
Begiment N. I. under Captain Bates at J^bughoda. They weil
repulsed with considerable loss after a desultory fight during 111
greater part of two days. On the arrest of Ganpatr&v, the BUli
S^eb's agent, this troublesome insurrection would probably kali
collapsed, but the Naikd^ were joined by a number of Yill^yaiii^
matchlock men, the fragments of T&ti&'s broken force, who encoan^
them to hold out. They occupied the very strong country betweet
Ch&mp&ner and N&rukot, and kept up a harassing warfare, plnnderiof
tiie villages as far north as Godhra.

A field force commanded by the Political Agent of the Belli
K&ntha, Colonel Wallace, was employed against the N&ikd&dnniK
the cold weather of 1858, and in one of the frequent skirmishes wA
the insurgents Captain Hayward of the 1 7th Begiment N. I. ^

1 DetailB of the KdikdUs are given at page 222,

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mwdy woanded by a matoUock ballet on January 28tli9 1859.
The only snocess obtained by the N&ikd&s waa the sarprise of Hassan
Ali's company of Hussein Kh&n'a levy. The Subhed^r had been
ordered to protect the labourers who were employed in opening the
pass near the village of Sivr^jpur, but the duty was very distasteful
to Bim^ and his son deserted with twenty^four men on the march
to Sivrajpur. They were suddenly attacked by a mixed force of
Jy^iinis and N&ikdds. Seven men including the Subhed&r were
killed and eleven wounded without any loss to the enemy. The
pabheddr neglected to protect his camp by the most ordinary
^recaations and his men appear to have behaved badly. They fled
jirithont firing a shot directly they were attacked. But little
DTOgress had been made in pacifying the Naikd^s till Captain Bichard
Bonner was employed to raise and organize a corps composed
fihiefly of Bhils with their head quarters at Dohad in the Panch
fbhils. Captain Bonner's untiring energy and moral influence
soon reduced the N&ikd^ to submission. Rupa N&ik laid down
AJs arms and accepted the amnesty^ March lOth^ 1859^ and Keval
fi&k followed his example soon aften

■ After ten years of quiet and steady progress, in 1868, the Ndikd&i
•gain rose in revolt. Towards the close of 1867, Joria, a Naikda of
Ifae village of Yadek about 1^ miles north-west of J&mbughoda,
i^egan to act as a Bhagat or inspired man. Giving out that he
me Parameshvar, or the supreme lord, he claimed to have the power
if working miracles, preached the purest morality, made converts,
•ad for a man of his position showed a surprising knowledge of
Binda mythology and ritual.^ So great was his success that to
|e allowed to come near him was thought a high favour, and
Ikninbers of worshippers, some of them men of good caste and
position, followed him from place to place seeking his blessing.
About the middle of January 1868 Joria gained a most useful
adherent in Bupsingh Gobar, proprietor of Dandi&pur. A
pardoned rebel and outlaw, Bupsingh, though a N&ikda and
uneducated, from his natural ability., shrewdness, and tact had gained
pttch power over the people of his tribe. Under his influence Joria,
nving his scheme of moral reform, agreed to join in raising a
lingdom of which Joria should be the spiritual and Bupsingh the
tomporal head. Jori&'s birthplace, the village of Yadek, was chosen
|B the royal seat. A joint court was established and revenue
pdlected, partly from religious gifts and fines, partly by the levy of
iraosit dues. Of these doings and of the accompanying local
BXcitement, the native officials took no notice and sent no word to
3ie Governor's Agent then in a distant part of the district. Before
bng the new rulers took more open steps to advance their power,
b the end of January Bupsingh revived an old claim to share in the
"evenne of Bdjgad, a police station near N&rukot. His claim was

^ He held Bpjritnal ooart, himself sapreme, and ander him many grades of lower
Mb and ftttendanta, Rnpamgh hia chief aapporter giving ap his daughters to plaj the
Vt of Gropis. So elaborate was his scheme that it seemed the work of some
ttihmim or reUgious beggar. After his capture eveiy effort was made to trace
it&hmaa help. Bat there was nothing to show that Joria had not himself worked out
nthe details.

Chapter Vlt
History.

British,
1863-1879L

Ndibda IHHng,
1868.

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IBomlnjauBttaflf.
25ft DISTRIC5TS.

Chaptwr VII» rejected. A few days after (February 2nd) collecting a body rf

Hiitory. N^ikd&s and bringing Joria Bbagat with him Bnpsingb came to

Britiih. R4jgad. Leaving the NdikdAs and Joria ontside of Qie bamboo

1803-1879. pallisade^ Bupsingh and hiB sons went into the station and inyitm;^

NiUkda Riaingt the Makr&ni garrison to go out and see the holy personage, seated
1868. themselyes beside the commandant and some other officers of the

post. After a time the talk ran on Jori&'s spiritual power and
pretensions. One of the officials holding out his closed hand asked
in jest if the divinity could tell what was in his hand. ' There is
death in it/ shouted Oal&lia^ Bupsingh's eldest son, and drawing
his sword cut the man down. The commandant escaped throagli i
window and the Makr^i guard, outside of the stockade and
unarmed, fled. The N&ikd&s swarmed in, broke open the treasnie
chest and ransacked the place.

Rupsingh lost no time in following up this success. J&mbagkoda
about fourteen miles from R4jgad, though a place of no strength, wai
the chief post in the neighbourhood with a guard of aboat thirty armed
police. To the commandant of this post Rupsingh sent word : ' Make
ready to fight^ for Rupsingh is on the way.' On February 4th about
three in the afternoon, seeing bands of N4ikdas coming towards ^
station, the J&mbughoda commandant drew up his men opposite a&
opening in the fence. From the advancing crowd three Bhagat-
consecrated champions, their bare bodies smeared with red paini^
came forward, shot arrows, and grasping their swords rushed at the
stockade. As they came the guard fired a volley, their bullets, so iihef
said, dashing the paint off the champions' bodies but doing them j»
harm. By this time the champions were within the enclosure, sod
th<^ panic-struck police, leaving two of their number dead, took tn
flight. The station was pillaged, the records torn, and the shops and
houses sacked. After this the village of Jetpur, at the time the
residence of the Chhota Udepur chief, was taken, the chief flymgfor
his life. Though successful, this attack on Jetpur did much to shakt
his followers' trust in Joria. Two of his wound-proof warriors weit
shot dead. The Bhagat said they were not dead, and sent the bodies
to Yadek, declaring that if British troops came against them tbef
would rise and fight. But after a day or two at Yadek the boose
where the bodies lay was burnt and^ in spite of his explanation that
the men had died because they had disobeyed his orders, the tndk
in Joriik*8 power was shaken.

Hearing that the old outlaw Rupsingh was 'out ' and had sadcsl
R4jgad, the Agent to the Governor and the Superintendent aii
assistant superintendent of pohce,^ then about eighty miles oS it
Dohad, sending an express to Baroda and Ahmedabad for militaiy
aid, started with an escort of twenty- five of the Bhil corps and by
cross-country tracks pushed straight for J&mbughoda. On the wtf
they were met by news of the capture of J&mbughoda» and as wiVk
their small body of Bhils it was useless to enter the disturbed coontift
at Halol about twenty-five miles west of J&mbughoda they waited t^
arrival of the troops. On the evening of the llth^ 200 men of M

I Mr. Propeit was Qovemor'B Agent, Captain S^giava Snperinteiideni^ m1
lientb Wettmaoott aasiataat superintendent of police.

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26ih Native Infantry^ tinder the command of two European officers^^

came from Baroda^ and on the same day the camp was joined by the

Polke Commissioner.* Next day (February, 12ih), as 200 of the 6th

Natife Infantry were due from Ahmedabad, it was settled to leave a

imall garrison in H&lol and press on with the main body to Siyr&jpur,

about eleven miles east^ on the way to J&mbughoda. Sivr&jpur

was reached without annoyance. Next day^ the 18th^ one of the

Alunedabad companies arrived at Sivr^jpur and the other marched

to Bdjgad to join the Bewa K&ntha Political Agent* During these

days the Niukd&s at Yadek were full of the wildest trust and zeaL

Almost every soul, for about twenty miles rounds believed that the

j^ritish Oovemment was at an end^ and that under Bupsingh and

Jona a dharamrdj or religious rule had begun. In their former

fights with trained troops the N&ikd&s carefully avoiding the open,

bj sadden night attacks^ had wearied their opponents. But now,

Itt ihey seemed to have given up their old tactics, every effort was

laadetolose no time in letting them try the chance of an open fight*

l«a¥ing fifty of the 6th Native Infantry and twenty-five of the

Giikvir's Makr&nis at Sivrijpur, on the morning of the 15 th the

lorce advanced safely and without hindrance to Jimbughoda. At

•Yadek the news that the greater number of the troops had left,

WiJx)ldened the insurgents to attack Sivr&ipur. News of their design

Mched the garrison, and the position, notinng more than a bivouac

^er some large trees, was strengthened by a cart barricade.

M dosk with shouts of B&m, B&m, the N&ikd& poured out of the

jforest and led by one of their wound-proof warriors, shooting arrows

^d firing matchlocks charged the camp. Met by a steady fire

tbey retired with loss, and before dawn after two more fruitless

pfiorts, carrying their dead with them, they withdrew to Yadek.^

i Early on the same morning (Sunday, February 16th) starting from
limbughoda the British troops marched against Yadek.^ On nearing
khe village small parties of Naikd&s were seen scattered over the
kiE sides and on the level ground. As the troops came closer one
iaa in bright yellow and red was conspicuous moving about with
}hsaid of followers, some dancing in religious frenzy, others armed
Bfchbows and arrows. At first unconcerned, the leader and his
iand suddenly made for the hill. To cut off their retreat the cavalry
ad by Captain Macleod dashed forward. But two attempts to
trike the man in red and yellow &iled and except the police
napootor and a native officer of the Poena Horse, the troopers,
Abeving that the NiLikda leader had a charmed life, fell back.

Chapter Vtt.
Histoij.

British,
1863-1879.

Ndikda Miting,
1868.

t CftpUin Macleod and lienteoant Beay. > Mr. Roffers.

^ The Political Agent was Major Bartoa ; the officers in charge of the oompaniea
itptain Sibthorpe and Ideat Barnes.

^ Of the garrison none were killed ; six MakrAnis and one of the 26tlL Native
lintry were wounded. Of the N4ikcL&s twenty-eight were killed and wounded.
f The foroe was under the command of Captain Macleod. It consisted of a detach*
eat of H. M.'b 26th Native Infantry ; a few of the 6th Native Infantry ; fifW of the
kjarit Bhil oorps ; eighty Arabs from Baroda ; and about thirty mounted toUoo.
le European officers present were Captain Macleod, Lieut. Bumes, lieut. Aeay,
Vtain Segrave, Lieut Westmacott, Mr. Rogers, and Mr. Propert. Agent, 167,
Eh February 186a
B 167—33

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DISTRICTS.

Chaptar TIL
Eistory-

Britisli,
1853-1879.

1868.

Against the three unaided horsemen the N&ikd&s plied their arrowi
with such effect that the Bis£ld&r of the Poena Horse was killed and
Captain Macleod twice narrowlj escaped. Emboldened by this
success the N&ikd&s^ though the infantry were close upon them^ kept
advancing, till as their foremost men reached the bank of a water-
course, a shot from each of the three district officers laid low the
leader in red and yellow and two of his chief supporters. With the
loss of nine of their number the N&ikd& fled, and the rising was at
an end.

The slain leader was at first thought to be Joria. But Jom liad
escaped, and this was a deputy whom in token of his trust Jonahad
decked in his own clothes. Bupsingh's second son was among the
killed and Bupsingh though he escaped was wounded. Order was
soon restored. The people, on the assurance that their miscondiict
would be forgiven, came in and settled in their villages. The foor
chief criminals, Joria the Bhagat, Bupsingh, his eldest son Galaliai
and his minister were still at large. But by unceasing parsoit ui
less than a month all were secured and after trial, were with one d
Jori&'s spiritual champions who had taken an active part in tb
sack of cfdmbughoda, convicted and hanged.^

^ This account ia taken from Mr. Propert*8 Report, Bom. Gov. PoL Rec Ko. IWrf
1868, and from "OurLittde War with the NiikcUU.*' ComhiU Magarinis ^^VHL
626-640,

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eqiriti

Land
Adminiatratioii*

AoqniiitioiL.

CHAPTER VIII.

LAND ADMINISTRATION.

Thirs are two periods in the British management of the Panch Gbapter YILL
Mahils; eight years (1853-1860) when they were held in charge for
Eis Highness Sindia, and eighteen years (1861-1878) since they have
formed one of the British districts of the Bombay Presidency.

For years after order had been established in the Bewa and Mahi
Eintha districts^ in the Panch Mahfls crime was nnpunished and
wrongs nnredressed, and from the weakness of their ruler the Panch
MahUs were a source of danger and annoyance to the neighbouring
states. In 1852 the Bombay Goyemment pressed for some change ;
their complaints were^ by the G-ovemor General's A^ent^ laid before
His Highness Sindia, and an arrangement made that for ten years the
territories should be placed nnder the charge of the Bewa K&ntha
Political Agent who, with the surplus revenue, was to forward a
yearly financial statement to the Governor General's Agent at
Gwalior.^ This proposal was approved by the Government of India
(3rd Jane 1853), and under orders from the Government of Bombay
Major Fulljames (30th July 1853) took the district nnder hik
charge.

Before the ten years were over. His Highness Sindia, in exchange
tor lands near Jh&nsi, on the 19th March 1861,' handed over the
Panch Mahals to the British Government. In the eighteen years
that have since passed three changes have been made in the manage-
ment of the district. For a little more than three years (March
1861 -May 1864) the Panch Mah&ls continued part of the Bewa
Kntha Political Agent's charge ; they were then transferred to Elaira
ind placed nnder the management of an ofiicer styled the First
tLBsistant Collector, and Agent to the Governor.' In 1877 a scheme
iras sanctioned for making the Panch Mah&ls a separate coUectorship
md giving the Collector political charge of the Bewa K&ntha states.

Though placed under the charge of an Assistant Collector and
bancially part of Elaira, from their backward state* and the
X)verty and ignorance of the people, the judicial system in force in
»ther British districts has not been introduced into the Panch Mah£ts.
n criminal matters, courts up to the rank of District Magistrate's
ioorts, are regularly constituted under the provisions of the Criminal
Procedure Code. Butas Agenttothe Governor the powers of a Sessions
^odge are vested in the District Magistrate and from his decisions and

Stafi:

1 Ooy. Gen. Agent at Gwalior 444, 28th December 1852. Govermnent of India.

560, aid Jnne 1853.

S Bom. Gov. Letter 1190, 19th March 1861.

' Bom. Gov. Bee. 1658, 30th April 1864.

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DISTRICTS.

Land
Adminiitratioii.

SUff.

£H$trkt Ojlk€r9,

ViUage Oficen,

orders appeala and references lie to Ooyemment and not to theEBgii
Court. Similarly^ in matters of civil justice^ an appeal lies from l^e
monsifs decisions to the Agent to the Governor^ and from the Ag^
to Government. The present administrative staff consists of the
Agent to the Governor and his assistant in revenue chai^ of the
Godhra and Eilol sub^divisions^ who, in criminal matters, is a fini
class magistrate and in civil matters has power to hear appeeb
from the decisions of munsifs* There is also a deputy collector with
revenue and magisterial charge of the Dohad subAlivision.

Since its acquisition the limits of the district have not been
changed. The lands are distributed over three sub-divisions^ two d
them including petty divisions. These form two g^ups, Godhra and
K&lol^ with its petty division of H&lol in the west, generally the
charge of the covenanted assistant, and Dohad, with its petty iiimm
of Jh41od in the east, the charge of the uncovenanted assistant. Theea
officers are also assistants to the extra First Assistant Collector m
District Magistrate, and have under his presidency the chief manage-
ment of the different administrative bodies, local fund and mnmdpd
committees, within the limits of their revenue charge. Under the
supervision of the extra First Assistant Collector and his assistanl
or deputy the revenue charge of each fiscal division of tha
district is placed in the hands of an officer styled m&mlatdiir. Thoa
fnnctionanes, who are also entrusted with magisterial powers, hsm
yearly salaries varying from £150 to £210 (Rs. 1500-Rs. 2100). Two
of the fiscal divisions, E&lol and Dohad, contain each a petty diviaioB,
peta mahdl, placed under the charge of an officer styled mahaHna
These mah41karis, except that they have no treasuries to superintenl,
exercise the revenue and magisterial powers generally entrusted to
a m&mlatd&r. The yearly pay of each of the mah&lkaris is £71
(Rs. 720).

In revenue and police matters the charge of the 638 Grovermneot
villages is entrusted to 801 headmen, of whom ten vn
stipendiary and 791 hereditary. S42 of the hereditary headjasffl
perform revenue duties only, and eighty-one attend to matters of
police only. Of the stipendiary j^ai^Z^ one attends to police duty only,
while nine stipendiary and 368 hereditary headmen are entnuted
with both revenue and police functions. As regards the emolnmoiti
of these headmen and of other village servants, exoept aocoantaot^
and yearly or half-yearly messengers, as the whole district has boI
been surveyed, details are not available.

Village accountants, taldtis, who under the headmen keep tli
village accounts and draw up statistical and other ietan%
number in all 130 or about one accountant for every fiTCviUagea Mai|
villages held on proprietary, tdlukdd/ri, leasehold, or similar teniM
have no accountants. Their yearly series paid in cash, avengii|
£14 68. (Rs. 143), vary from £1 16«. to £1 (Rs. 18 -Rs. 10), m
represent a total yearly charge of £1867 (Rs. 18,670). Under th
headmen and accountants are the village servants 766 in nnmberi
rdvanidsj pagUj JcotvdU, edid Juwdlddre. They are liable both fa
revenue and for police duties. The messengers, ha/vdiddrs, are moa^jf
Musalm&ns, and the rdvanids and others generally Eolis and Bliili

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

261

{Izcept the messengers^ most of tliese servants are paid in land. Chapter YIII.
Till the survey is finished the value of their holdings oannot be Jaaii

ascertained. ▲dmiiuatrationu

Thte messengers^ havdlddrs, are paid in cash at the monthlj rate of
I0«. (Rs. 5) each. Of these, eleven are employed for the whole year^
and 118 for six months, from January to June. The total yearly
chari^e on account of these messengers amounts to £425 (Bs. 4250).
The yearly cost of the village establishment who are paid in cash is as
follows : Village accountants £1867 (Bs. 18,670) and village servants
£425 (Bs. 4250), total £2292 (Bs. 22,920.) This, exclusive of the
heavier charges on account of the rent-free lands, represents a
charge of £3 lis, lOd. (Bs. 35-15-0) on each village, or about 8} per
cent of the entire land revenue of the district.

When (1853) His Highness Sindia handed over the Panch Mah&ls
to British management, the greatest disorder prevailed. For years
the district had been in the hands of revenue contractors, who so
lon^ as they paid the amount they had bid, were allowed to manage
the district as they chose. Under them was a military forco,
^Sfondi, distributed through the district in outposts, thdnds. The
oontractors realized their revenue demands from the heads of single
Tillages, from chiefs and large landowners who held several villages,
and from speculators who contracted for the revenue of village
groups. In the unsettled state of the district most of the
larger landowners and sub-contractors had engaged mercenaries
and in several instances had attacked and driven away the chief
contractor's militia outposts. As the chiefs seldom willingly paid
^eir tribute sureties were required. These in the absence of
any body of rich merchants were generally men in a high position in
the chief contractor's forces. In return for their service as suretieer
these mercenaries exacted interest from the chiefs at from 24 to
36 per cent, and if he could not pay billeted on him a certain number
of men.^ This was the general state of things in all parts of the

Staff.
ViUag^ Qfieera.

State of District,
1853.

I The fonowiDg are examples. The Th4kor of Sonipar south-east of Fiv^igad a
proprietor of forty villages chiefly waste was indebted to the leaders of two
■aercenary gangs. One h^ a claim of £439 (Rs. 4S90) and until this was cleared the
jHtate had, at a yearly cost of £54 (Rs. 540), to keep him and his men. The other
creditor claimed £511 (Rs. 5110) and failing payment was entitled to support at a
yearly coat of £52 (Rs, 520). Together the two charges came to £106 (Rs. 1060) on
an eatate whose whole yearly revenue was not more than £160 (Rs. 1600). To help
^o free him from debt this chief was, on the security of his land, granted a loan of
MS3 (Ra. 830).

The Thikor of Eanjeri was indebted to three different leaders of mercenaries whose
^Uuns amounted to ;£790 (Rs. 7900), the cost of whose keep was £193 (Rs. 1930). He
-wwmB granted a- loan of £330 (Rs. 3300) on security of his lands.

The Thdkor of Bhimaria, a mere boy without male relatives, was deeply in debt
One JamiUUr had a claim upon him for £298 (Rs. 2980) for which he was entitled to
9c«oeive in wages £54 (Rs. 540) a year.

Hie Thikkor of Mehlol, a man of extreme imbecility, was heavily in debt particularly
fto two leaders of mercenaries who kept him almost a prisoner in his own house. To
«aie he owed £586 (Rs. 5860) and to the other £50 (Rs. 500) and he was obliged to
•pay them in wages £142 (Rs. 1420) a year. Government took charge of the estate and
guaranteed the repayment of the loan at 6 per cent interest.

The Zamindir of Tinda was indebted for loans of money and arrears of pay to the
extant of £960(Rs. 9690) ; he was bound to pay £120 (Rs. 1200)ayear to theaa men.
On the security of his lands he was granted a loan of £303 (Rs. 3030.)

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[Bombay fitwtteer.

Chapter YIIL

Land
Admisistratioii*

State of District,

B«vetta0

Proprieti
Vilfiigei.

etaiy

262

DISTRICTS.

district. In Dohad other causes made the disorder mora
complete. A large number of the Tillages had been hnnei
to some &milies of Vanj&r&s. In their exactions the &rmers
encroached on the private lands of some Bajpnts^ who finding
no redress and^ having one of their number ill-used by tiie
Yanj&r&s' mercenaries^ went into outlawry^ and capturing the
Yanj&ra killed him. To avenge his death the Yanjar^'s relations
collected mercenary troops, and disorders were increased by the
attacks of some village h&ftdmen who had joined the outlaws. So
loud were the complaints that Sindi&'s Government sent a spedal
agent to quiet the country. The agent allowed the outlaws to retam
to their villages^ but left without making any settlement with the
Yanj&r&s. They, intent on vengeance^ raised fresh troops and
seized two of the outlaws. At this time the management of the
district was made over to the British. At first the Yanjara became
more insubordinate. He refused to give up his prisoners or to
disband his followers, and would neither pay revenue nor let it he
collected. He attacked a Government post and rescued a thief from
the custody of the police. On news of these disorders the Political
Agent, with a special escort of fifty men, advanced to Godhnk And
the Yanj&r&s and other malcontents finding that the British
Government had taken charge of the district, came in and except one
Jam&dir who absconded, and a few who refused to give security,
submitted their disputes to be settled by the Political Agent In
their new agreements the larger land-holders engaged to empby
no armed persons without the sanction of the Political Agent, and
by making them advances on the security of their estates, help waa
given to those who would take it, to compound the Jamidars'
claims.^

When the management of the district was made oyer to the BrituBh,
the chief revenue contractor recovered the revenueby several different
systems of settlement. Except those in the hands of the larger land*
holders, who paid a lump sum fixed by a guess at their probable
revenue, most villages were represented by their headman who was
made responsible for an amount fixed on a rough calculation of
what the village could pay, and what it had before paid. Other
villages were let in groups to sub-contractors on five-year leases^
with yearly increasing rents. In other cases the division of crops
and levy of a plough cess fixed by the district revenue superintendent
or desdi, varied according to the caste of the cultivator from 4t. to
£1 lOs. (Bs. 2-Bs. 15) a plough, or, at the rate of seven acres (15
bighda) to a plough, a bigha rate of from dd. to 28. (2 annas-'Re. !)•
When spice, sugarcane, and other rich crops were grown, an extra
cess was levied. In villages where a division of crops was in force
the Government share varied from a third to a hall

Under British management the position of the large landlordfli
Th4kors and T41ukd&rs, has as far as possible been left unchanged.
These proprietors are chiefly Kolis, locally known as Th&kors and
T41uk&rs. Their estates, varying in size from a share in one village

I Pol. Agent to Gov. 2lBt Dec. 18^

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

263

to a group of forty op fifty villages, are pretty generally distributed
over the whole of the Panch Mahals, and are perhaps most nmneroua
in the western sab-divisions. The steps taken in 1853 to free them
from their bondage to the leaders of the mercenary troops were for
the time snccessful. Bat their carelessness and want of thrifti
together with their practice of dividing their lands equally amongst
all the members of tne family, have led to many of them falling into
a state of much poverty. The only villages of this class into which
any change has as yet been introduced, are twenty-three Kdlol
meJi/vdsi villages, whose lands were surveyed and their Government
rental fixed in 1873.^ In other parts of the district the rental paid
at the introduction of British rule has been continued. The
landlord's relations to his tenants have in no way been changed.
There is no fixed system of recovering rents. The mode of realizing
them, and the amount realized, differ not only in the various estates,
but even in different villages in the same property. In one respect
the practice would seem to be the same over the whole district,
the proprietor never turns out his tenant.

One point that very early came to notice in the management of
Oovemment, khdlsa, villages was the very large area of alienated
land.^ An inquiry made in 1853-54 showed that the possession of
much of this land was supported by no regular title deeds, and,
w^here deeds were produced, they showed that the land had been
bought or taken in mortgage from people who had paid the
Government assessment or were bound to perform certain services.
The results of this inquiry were laid before His Highness Sindi&'s
G-ovemment. But as they did not approve of such a course no steps
iprere taken to resume illegal alienations.' In 1865 claims to
alienations were registered and classified. And in 1872 a set of
roles was drawn up for the settlement of claims.^ These rules
provided that lands alienated for religious or charitable purposes
should be continued, either if their value was allowed for in the
excbange of territory with Sindia, or if between 1853 and 1860, they
-were recognized as rentfree; that personal grants free from a
stipulation of service should on payment of one-eighth of the full
rental be continued, either if their value was allowed for in the
exchange with Sindia, or if between 1853 and 1860 they were
recognized as rentfree and registered in 1865 ; that unless the claim
seemed entirely unfounded, lands registered in 1865 should be
continued on payment of a quitrent of one quarter to one hsii of the
Bnnrey assessment ; that village officers' claims should be settled
Emder the rules for village officers' emoluments ; and that, unless one

Chapter^TIIL

Land
AdministratioiL*

Revenae
System,
1853.

AlienfttioDiL

1 As the holders refused the conditions offered by Govemment, the villages have
joxk (1878) made khdlaa or Government.

9 The f oUowinff details show how mnch of the Panch Mah&ls land is nominally
JienJbted. In Kfiol (1856) a snrvey of 22 villages showed 29,206 bighds of rentpaying
kod 15,203 of quit or rentfree land (Bdajor Wallace 71 A., 12th September 1856) ;
n Oodhra (1860) of 52,127 bighd8 surveyed, 24^367 were quit or rentfree ; the survey
^ the whole of E^ol (1871) shows of 80,651 acres, 19,047 quit or rentfree, and the
ktdhim (1874) survey shows 25,389 out of 101,925.

s Majcrr Buckle 811,6th December 1860.

4 Ck>v. Res. 4666, 19th September 1872.

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264

DISTRICTS.

CSiapter VUI. of them proved his riglit in a civil conrt, land claimed by several
Land persons but not in the possession of any of them, shonld be folly

AdministratioB. assessed. Under these rales^ since 1872^ the alienations are being
gradually settled.

For the collection of rents from Government lands, when tin
headman was unwilling to become responsible, an aocountanfe was
appointed and their rents recovered from the cultivators direct. In
other respects the systems in force at the time of transfer were for
some years continued unchanged. Between 1855 and 1858 some
villages of Godhra and Kilol were roughly surveyed, and with the
view of introducing a cash acre-rate, experienced headmen wen
brought from Kaira, and fields classified according to the quality
of their soil, their position, and the caste of their cultivators. But
the change was limited in Godhra to the town and five viUages, sod
in K&Lol to the town and fifteen villages.

Snirey Systom. When, in 1861, they became a British district the Panch MaUb

were thought too backward for the regular survey. Since then
«s tillage has spread and the district become more settled, tb
survey has been introduced, into K^lol in 1871 and into Godlm
in 1874. Dohad has also been surveyed. But as the two laat
seasons have been unfavourable, the new rates have not yet beea
introduced. The result of the introduction of survey rates into Eflol
was in the best dry crop lands a slight acre rise from 58. lli<L
to 68. (Bs. 2-15-7— Ba. 8) ; in the best garden lands a &dl from £2 19f.
S^d. to 18«. (Bs. 29-10-4— Bs. 9), and in the best rice lands a riss
from lU. lOid. to £1 4a. (Bs. 5-15-8— Bs. 12). In Godhra all tb
rates were lowered; the best dry crop from 5«. ll^d. to 38.61
(Bs. 2-15-5— Bs. 1-12-0), the best garden from £1 14<. Oi^I. to &.
(Bs. 17-0-8— Bs. 8), and the best rice from lOs. 4|^ to 78. 61
(Bs. 5-3-1— Bs. 8-12-0.) The financial result was in E&lol anincieiia
from £4608 IQs. 6}d. (Bs. 46,038^6) to £5484 28. (Bs. 54,841)
or 19 per cent, and in Godhra from £8916 is. (Bs. 89,161) to £3927
98. lOid. (Bs. 39,274-15) or 0*29 per cent The iollowiag two
statements give the chief details :

Paneh Mdhdla Survey RcOea, 187U187S.

VoBim Acu Baim.

8UB>9lVliI0l.

Dry-crop.

Ctardm.

Biet.

Kaz.

Hin.

Km.

Mln.

Mu.

Bh.

B41oI

Godhn

Bs. a. p.

3 16 7

ai0 i

B«.«. p.
1 1 10
1 1 10

Bfca, p.
30 10 4
17 S

Bs. •. pw

8 8 4

BSL ». p.
6 16 8
6 8 1

Bi.t.p
3 S t
8 81

PUBBXT Acu BATO. j

Kilol

Godtoa

3
1 13

1. 4
8

6 4
8

U
813

6 4 8!

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ogle

Gigwit.]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

PaMth MahdU Land Reoenue, 1S71'WS,

265

B& a. pw

40,918 tlO
40,016

of the
yeir before

Be. •• 1^
40^088 4 6
80,161

Old Btbtim.

CoUeetloBi.

onttiyeted

Bo. «. p.
46,088 4 6
80,161

Be. a. IK
18 8
10 8

BCi ft. p«
64,841
80,374 16

Bete per
ftoreof
Bonrey

holdiagi.

Be. a. p.
1 If 7
10

Chapter Yin*

Land
AdminiatratioiL

Fttr.

10
0-iO

Since the distriot came nnder their control^ one of the chief arms

of British officers has been to attract settlers to the Panch Mahfla

waste lands. In 1862 the Political Agent was of opinion that, on

acconnt of the wild N&ikda neiehbourhood, and because of its

nnliealthy climate, there was little chance of Abetting strangers to settle

in Hflol, and that Kfilol in the west^ and Dohad and tmfilod in the

east^ offered settlers inducement enough without anj special help

from Ooyemment. To (Jodhra, he thought^ some effort should be

made to attract colonist& Accordingly an agent on £2 (Rs. 20) a

month was for one year employed to collect colonists,^ and small

settlers, on their promise to build good houses and not leave the

district for ten years, 'were offered timber and land rentfree for two

years, the rent rising to one-quarter in the third, one-half in the

fifth, three-quarters in the seventh, and full rates in the ninth year.

A setUer able to found a village was, if he wished it, to be made

headman, and for every ten acres (twenty hwhas) brought under

tillage, was to receive one acre rentfree.^ In 1864 hmds were

offered at \s. a higha with, if they were covered with brushwood,

remission for one year, and to encourage new villages. Government

promised to help the founders by granting timber and by sinking a

well. Theseterms failed to tempt colonists, andin 1866 to small settlers

land was offered rentfree for three years and then for four more

at half the regular assessment' In addition to these concessions,

large settlers were, for every twenty highas brought under tillage

within seven years,^ offered the gift of one higka of rentfree land.

Under these teorms inthe three following years a considerable number

of settlers took up land.' But they were all poor men, chiefly Bhils

and Eolis. As yet the offer was not tempting enough to overcome

the dislike of Eanbis of position and capiieJ to leave Kaira for the

wild and unhealthy Mah41s. A new set of rules was accordingly

drawn up' in 1870. With some slight changes they are still in

force. These rules provide :

WMtoLoncU.

1 Bom. Got. Heo. 1758, 2nd May 1862.
9 Bom. Got. Res. 1758, 2nd May 1862.
S Bom. Got. Km. 1891, 23rd Kay 1866.
4 Bom. Got. Km. 2065, 2Ist May 1869.

* Lea868 werefldren under the rales of 1866 for eolonianji; leTeral deiertad
TiDa^ tnoh as Cnandan, Isanr^ Chabanpor, and Salisimli m the Godhra sub-

QXTISIOII.

• Bom. Got. Besolntions Noe. 5834, 26th November 1870 ; 3784, 3id Jnly 1873,
and 4641 , 17th Angnit 1875.

B 167— 34

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DISTRICTS.

CaM^tor TIIL

14aiaiitarattak
WMteLaadfl.

Tnaiit Dbm.

That colonists bringing large bodies of settlers sbonld reoeiYe
from SO to 5000 acres of land ; that they should hold it rent-
free for five yearSj and then pay 6d. (4 a«.) an acre till tibe
tenth year, then Is. 6d. (12 as.), or if less^ the survey rate, till the
twenty*fifth year when the land woidd be re-asaessed; that
every fifth year an additional fourth of the whole area shooldbe
brought under tUlage, and that security should be f nm isbed.
Grants of rentfres land were also promised,^ the trees were with
few exceptions handed over to the settler, and provision made iat
Government aid in building village offices and wells.

Small settlers were at the same time offered grants of land op to
fifty acres rentfree for five years.

Though even these inducements have not been enough to bring
any large number of the better class of settlers into thePanch
Mah&ls, steady but slow progress has been made. An account has
already been given (page 227) of the arrival in 1877 of a large body
of colonists to settle in the rich lands near P&v&gad. This, in spite
of very great difficulties, has to some extent proved a success and
has cleared of forest and brushwood a large tract of rich land. The
opening of the railway to P41i has greatly lessened the distance
between the western parts of the diBtrict and central Gujar&t, and
with more prosperous seasons than the two last, a steadily increaong
number of colonists nmy be looked for.

Attention was early directed to the question of transit duties.
Under His Highness Sindi&'s management the customs of each sab-
division were separately &rmed. In different parts of the district
the same goods were charged different rates. Merchuidiae paanng
by one route paid more than by another. Some classes of camera
were charged the full amount, while others were so favoured as to
have practically a monopoly. Between 1855 and 1858 the dntiei
were lowered and the mode of collecting them simplified. Instead
of being annoyed by constant petty demands, the trader might, with
one payment, pass through the whole of Panch Mah&Is and B4ri}a
territory. Town dues were abolished, grain and salt freed, and
niany petty taxes* repealed. Under the new system traffie
increased so greatly that, in spite of the lower rates, the revenue rose
from £3632 (Bs. 86,320) in 1858 to £7819 (Rs. 78,190) in 1861.^

With this large revenue as a local fund, roadmaking was rapidlj
on. But under the orders of Government with the

1 Ck>loni8t8 taking 500 acres were allowed a personal grant of twenty _ -
taking from 600 to 700 acres, thirty acres ; those from 700 to 900 acrai, forty acM;
those from 900 to 1000 acres, fifty acres, and 5 more for every additional 100acni>
This grant was to be first made ten years after the land was tiJien np^ and vosU
be in proportion to the land broueht under tillage. Farther grants wera promised A
the same manner at the dose of the fifteenth and twentieth years.

a Amonff those repealed were cesses on braziers, bntdiers, carpenten» on tbs
■ale of molasses, on marriages, on foreign traders, on brokers, on nickmakeia^ «
empty carts and nnladen bollocks, on raw cotton and on vegetable sellers. IDjv
WaJlace, 71 A., 12th September 1856.

s The details are, opinm Bs. 10,377, timber Bs. 16.183, and other artidesBs. 51,00;
total Bs. 78,190.

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267

Season BeportB,

mtrodnetion of the revenue surrey ihe levy of transit dues ceases and Chapter Ym
the ordinairy local fond oesa takes its place. This change haer for laaA

the present caused a great loss of reyenne. MiaihiistratiMt

The following are the chief details of the fourteen years ending
1877:

In 1864 the rainfall, twenty-five inches> was scanty^ beginning late
and ending early. Bice failed almost entirely and mais&e partially.
The district suffered from cholera. The revenue for coOection
amounted to£22,12& (Bs. 2^1,250)and lennflsions to £789 (Bs. 7890).
The outstanding balance at the end of 81st July 1866 waa £1654
(Bs. 16,540). Millet ^ rupee prices rose from twenty-six to sixteen
ponnds.

In 1865 the rainfall, twenty-five inches, was unseasonable asid
acBnty. But except rice, the crops were fair. Cholera of a &tal type
was common, l^llage spread and the land revenue rose from
£22,125 to £22,996 (Bs. 2,21,250-Bs. 2,29,960). £24 (Bs. 240) were
romitted and £1713 (Bs. 17,130) left (31st July 1866) outstanding.
MiUet rupee prices fell from sixteen to twenty pounds.

In 1866 the rainfall, thirty inches, though too soon over was
sufficient. The crops were good, and there was no epidemic disease.
The land revenue rose from £22,996 to £23,457 (Rs. 2,29,960-
Bs. 2,34,670). £30 (Bs. 300) were remitted and £266 (Bb« 2660)
left (Slst July 1867) outstanding. Millet rupee prices fell from
twenty to thirty-one pounds.

In 1867 the rain&dl, tw«aty-nine inches, was heavy especially in the
west. The crops and pubHo health were good. The land revenue
£23,458 (Bs. 2,34,680) was recovered without remissions ov^
ciatstandings. Millet rupee prices rose from thirty-one to
twenty-five pounds.

In 1868 the rainfall^ thirty-five inches, began very eariy especially
in the west and was at first very heavy. But the late rains failed
and rice, millet, and some other g^rains were not more than half crops.
Public health was good. The revenue rose from £23,458 to £24,767
^. 2,34,580-Bs. 2,47,670). £91 (Bs. 910) were remitted and £1»
(Bs. 190) left (3l8t July 1869) outstanding. Millet rupee prices fell
from twenty-five to twenty-eight pounds.

In 1869 the rainfall, forty-three inches, though heavy was
unseasonable. Bxoept mLQet and maisse the crops were good. In the
liot months there was a bad outbrei^ of chdlera. Land revenue
xose from £24^767 to £26,636 (Bs. 2,47,670 -Bs. 2,66,360). £93
<B8. 930) were remitted and £415 (Bs. 4150) left (31st July 1870)
oatstanc^ng. Millet rupee prices rose from twenty-dght to twenty-
-ftwo pounds.

In 1870 the rainfall^ forty-one inches, was unseasonable, millet and
maiseyieldingnotmore than half crops. Of £26,192 (Bs. 2,61,920)

1 Millet U bdjri, Feniciflariii spioaU.

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268

DISTRICTS.

CShapte^Tin. the land revenue for collectdon, £161 (Rs. 1610) remained outeittid.
Land ing at the end of the year. Millet rupee prices fell from twenij-

Adminiftratioiip two to twenty-six pounds.

^Tl^^S?''*' ^^ ^®^^ *^® rainfall, forty inches, was capricious. In the wert

it did not begin till the close of Jidy, and throughout the district
was too soon over. Except maize all the crops suffered. Public
health was good. Of £27,048 (Bs. 2,70,430) the land revenue for
collection, £11 (Bs. 110) were remitted and £470 (Bs. 4700) kh
(31st July 1872) outstanding. Millet rupee prices fell from tweaty*
six to twenty wseven pounds.

In 1872 the rainfall, thirty-five inches, was seasonable andsufficieni
Of £26,523 (Bs. 2,65,230) the land revenue for collection, £94
(Bs. 940) were remitted and £214 (Bs. 2140) left (Slst July 1873)
outstanding. Millet rupee prices fell from twenty-seven to thirty-two
pounds.

. In 18 73 the rainfall, twenty-eight inches, at first bivourable was
too soon over and the orops, especially rice, suffered. Public health
was good. Of £25,715 (Bs, 2,57,150) the land revenue fcv
collection, £2671 (Bs. 26,710) were left (Slst July 1874) outstanding.
Millet rupee prices fell from thirty ^two to forty pounds.

In 1874 the rainfall, thirty-six inches, began rather late bat
afterwards was seasonable and sufficient with a good harveet^
especially of rice. Public health was good. Of £26,109 (Bs. 2,61,090)
the land revenue for collection, £197 (Bs. 1970) were remitted and
£56 (Bs. 560) left (Slst July 1875) outstanding. Millet rupee prices
fell from f orfy to forty-eight pounds.

In 1875 the rain£EJl, thirty-eight inches, was seasonable and
favourable. The crops were excellent and public health good. Of
£26,497 (Bs. 2,64,970) the land revenue for collection, £48 (Bs. 480)
were remitted and £82 (Bs. 820) left (Slst July 1876) outstanding.
Millet rupee prices fell from forty-eight to fifty-four pounds.

In 1876 the rainfall, forty-four inches, was very heavy. The
harvest was fair and public health good. Of £26,924
(Bs. 2,69,240) the land revenue for collection, £34 (Bs. 340) were
remitted and £19 (Bs. 190) left (Slst July 1877) outstanding.
Millet rupee prices rose from fifty-four to forty-six pounds.

In 1877 the rainfall, nineteen inches, was short and unseasonabla
Public health was good. But the scarcity was so severely felt
among the poorer classes that towards the end of the season relief
camps had to be opened. The rain harvest was scanty and the
cold weather crops almost entirely failed. Of £26,052 (Bs. 2,60^20)
the land revenue for collection, £27 (Bs. 270) were remitted and
£4609 (Bs. 46,090) left (31st July 1878) outstanding* Millet rupee
prices rose from forty-six to thirty-six pounds.

PeTelopment, During the twenty-two years ending 1877 population has increased

from 143,595 in 1855 to 240,743 in 1872, or an advance of 67-65

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PANCH MAHAXS. 269

per cent ; cattle from 173,859 in 1857, to 254,262 in 1877, or 46*24 Chapter VIII.
per cent; ploughs from 18,803 in 1857, to 37,141 in 1877, or 10292 j^^

per cent ; and carts from 61 29 in 1857, to 8349 in 1877, or 36*22 per Administration'
cent. The land revenue has risen from £21,410 (Rs. 2,14,100) in
1864 to £26,025 (Rs. 2,60,250) in 1878, or 2155 per cent. Since
1864 two municipalities, one dispensary and twenty-nine schools have
been eatablisbed and 170 miles of road have heen opened.

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[Bgmliaj GtMtkM,

Chapter PL

Jnitioe.
Fomw Syitm.

PMrnitStdH

OrimiML

(JM, Stfttiitios.

CHAPTER IX.

JUSTICE.

In Sindii's time the settlement of civil dispates and the pmush-
ment of crime, were in the hands of the farmers of revenue, or of the
Agent sent from Ow&lior. At the introdaction of British mlei under
the Political Superintendent and his assistant, mdmlatddrs settled
civil suits. The police was in the hands of an ofi^r^ amalddr, who
in big matters reported straight to the R)litical Superintendent
and had power to imprison for fifteen days, l^e police amalddf
was under the general control of a mdmlatddr who could im^risoa
for one month and fine up to £2 10«. (Bs. 25.) The assistant
superintendent could give twelve stripes, imprison for six monthii
and fine up td£10(Rs. 100). Heavier cases went to the Superin-
tendent. From time to time steps were taken to introduce the
British system, and at present the working of, the courts is gdded
by the criminal and civil laws in force in other British districts.

For the disposal of civil suits there are at present two subordinate
judges, styled munsifs, one at Qodhra and one at Dohad. The Godhi%
mwisif tries all Qodhra, K£lol, md H&lol suits, and the Dohad micni^
those of Dohad and tThdlod. Appeals from their decisions lie t>
the court of the Govemor^s i^ent, and are by bim genenSf
transferred to his covmianted assistant who has power to hear iheii
and whose decisions are subject to an appeal to Uovemment

For the disposal of criminal cases there are officers of three
grades : the Agent to the Grovemor ; the first class magistrates, anl
the subordinate magistrates. The Agent has the powers of ^
Sessions Judge> sentences of death being submittod for the^'
confirmation of Government. The covenanted assistant has die
powers of an assistant sessions judge. Other first clasa magistnier-'
and the subordinate magistrates have the powers ordinarily ▼^este^i
in officers of those grades. The criminal codes and laws have noT
been introduced into the district, but all inquiries are eondoctoaN
in their spirit ; punishments are inflicted under the provisions of tw
Penal Code, and all laws extended to the whole of British India ai^
held to apply to the Panch Mah&ls.

In 1854 the district was furnished with seven judges, who decided
375 suits.^ Six years later (1860) the number of courts remained tV|

1 The nnmber and value of the raits diapoeed of between 1855 and 1860 a%
in 1856, 568 valned at £2433; in 1856, 663 valued at £2516; in 1857, 885 tiM,!
at £6020; in 1858, 967 valued at £5066 ; in 1859, 1022 valued at £3313 ; and K
1860, 1848 valned at £4959. The average value of the suits decided dnnag tk
eight yean ending 1877 was, except in 1876, on the increase, the figures rMgini
between £5 14«. 9d. (Ra. 57-6) in ia70 and £6 16f. dd. (Rs. 68^) in 1877.

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flame^ while tlie number of suits rose to 1348. In 1870 the number
of courts was redaced to foor^ while the number of suits rose to 1758.
In 1877 there were four courts and 1353 decisions. Of the four
courts^ two^ those of the Agent and of his assistant, exercise appellate
powers and try suits of more than iE500 (Bs. 5000).

Each of the two munsift^ courts has an average area of 797 square
miles aod a population of 120^371 souls. The average distance of
the Oodhra court from the six most distant villages of its jurisdiction
is thirty miles^ and that of the Dohad court nineteen. The average
lEomber of cases decided during the eight years ending 1877 was
1706; the highest was 1854 in 1873 and the lowest IS53 in 1877.

Of the total number of cases decided during the eight years ending

». ^ n .o...o^ 1877, 33-29 per cent have

JB^porte DUCTUS, 1870^1877. ^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^

against the defendant in
his absence. The propor-
tion of cases decided in this
way would seem to have,
during the same period,
varied between 37'26 in
1872 and 29-68 in 1876.
Of contested cases only
19*35 per centhave, during
the eight years ending
1877, been on an average
decided forthe defendant.
Withtheexceptionof ] 870
Bad 1871 when it was 25*35 and 22*80 per cent respectively, the
mportion of cases decided in favour of the defendant varied during
ke same period of eight years, between 10*15 per cent in 1872
od 21*52 per cent in 1876. In only four cases, or 0*29 per cent
f the whole number of suits decided in 1877, was the decree executed
^putting the plaintiff in the possession of the immovable property
laimed. Except in 1876, when it was twenty-four, the number of
pBes of this kind during the eight years ending 1877 varied from
9V0 in 1872 to nine in 1874. In 12*04 per cent of the decisions
jwsed in 1877, decrees for money due were executed by the attach-
^t or sale of property ; of these 5*54 per cent were, on an average,
J the attachment or sale of movable and 650 per cent of immovable
poperty. Compared with 1870, the 1877 returns of attachments
r^ sales of movable and immovable property show a rise from
lirty-one to seventy-five in the former and from thirty-five to
ghty-eight in the latter.

Compared with 1870, the number of decrees executed by the
vest of the debtor has fallen from 303 in 1870 to 130 in 1877. The
imber of civil prisoners has, except in 1872 and 1876 when it was
xty-three and 215 respectively, risen from ninety-six in 1870
fldOinl877:

CShapterCL
Justice*

Civil SUtistios.

TlAI.

Sotti.

Deoreed

Bx.pute.

Pflneatiga

1870

mi ...

1«3

1874

1875 ...

1876

1877

175S
1614
17«3
1854
1733
1764
1816
13fi3

614
538
667
61 i
618
653
639
413

84-92
33-33
37-26
32-96
36*66
31-62
29-68
30-62

Total...

13,646

4643

33-29

DeUcn^

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[Bombay Oaietteer,

272

DISTRICTS.

Chapter JJL
Juftioe.

ChUStatiatkim

Panch Mahdls ChU Prisoner$, 1370-1877.

TBAJt.

1870
1871
1878
1878
1874
1875
1878
1877

CimlC<mrU,

1870-1877.

08
07
88

110

S16

180

87
80
80
80
68
60
108
46

CiJRB.

88
68

78
87
180

lis

...

»•«

...

78
78
48
68
68
70

jS€ffUtFQtio%,

The following statement shows in tabular form the working of
the district civU courts during the eight years ending 1877 :
Panek MakdU Cml Cburte, 1870-1877.

Five officers^ one at each of the sub-divisions, are entrusted iriA
the work of registration. Except the sub-registrar of Godhra who
is special, these o£Bicers are the m&mlatd&r^ or mah&lkaris^ hsd,
clerks. Besides that of the First Assistant Collector as distnd
registrar and of his assistant or deputy, a special scrutiny is, under;
the control of the Inspector General of registration and stamps ^
carried on by the GujarAt registration inspector. The regiBtrBti«|
returns for 1877-78 show receipts of £125 (fes. 1250) and charges rfj
£160 (Rs. 1600), or a loss of £35 (Rs. 350). Of 444 the total onmber i
of registrations four were wills, six were papers affecting movihh
and 434 affecting immovable property. Of the last class, besite
sixty-three miscellaneous instruments, six were deeds of gifti^^
were deeds of sale and 147 were mortgages. The registeiei
value of the total immovable property transferred was £15/870
(Rs. 1,58,760).

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Onjarit]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

273

At present (1878) ten officers share the administration of criminal
justice. Of these three are magistrates of the first class^ and seven
of the second and third classes. Of the former two are covenanted
European civilians and one an uncovenanted Native. With regard
to the local jurisdiction and powers of these magistrates^ one of
them, the Agent to the Governor, is placed in a special position.
Tested with the general supervision of the district. Each of the
other two first class magistrates has an average charge of 797
square miles and a population of 120,371 souls. Li the year 1*876
the three first class magistrates decided 179 original and ninety-six
appeal cases. These officers have as First Assistant Collector, and his
assistant and deputy, revenue charge of the parts of the district over
which they exercise magisterial powers. Of subordinate magistratoB
there are seven with an average charge of 228 square imles and
a population of 34,391 souls. All are Natives* The total number of
cnminal cases decided by them in 1876 was 678. Besides their
magisterial duties, five of these officers exercise revenue powers as
m^mlatd&rs and mah&lkaris and one is a sub-registrar of assurances.
There are at present no regular village police ; the matter is now
uider the consideration of Government.

The table of offences given below shows that during the seven years
ending 1877, 983 offences or one offence for every 244 of the
population were on an average committed. Of these there were on
an average six murders and attempts to murder ; three culpable
homicides ; nineteen cases of grievous hurt and hurt by dangerous
weapons; eighteen cases of dacoity and robbery; 936 or 95 per cent
of the whole were minor offences.

At the time of the transfer of the Panch Mah&ls (1853) there
were many gang robberies and murders committed by large bands
of Bhils belonging to different states and almost impossible to
catch.* At first the number of offences reported was small. But
gradually instead of taking the law into their own hands, the people
Began to seek police help, and in spite of greater efficiency the
Jinmher of recorded crimes steadily increased from 496 in 1854 to 1 186
in 1860.^ The chief cause of the failure to put down crime was the
«aBe with which bands of unsettled Bhils and Ndikdds could come,
and carrying off cattle, pass out of the Panch Mahdls. Once over
jlihe borders the robbers were safe, for there were no arrangementa
for recovering criminals from the neighbouring states. An attempt
"Was made to supply this want by the occasional meeting of the
Kewa Kdntha Political Agent and an assistant of the Meywfir
PoKtical Agent. But this system, never satisfactory, was given up
in 1864 and since 1872 the recovery of offenders has been secured
imder the Extradition Act (XI. of 1872).

Under the management of His Highness Sindia, there was no
regular police force. For the maintenance of order ike district

Chapter IX.
Justice.

Criminal Justice.

1878.

Offeheest
1871-1877.

Police,
1853-1877.

1 Major Wallace 145, ISth May 1856.

3 The total number of offences was 496 in 1854 ; 839 in 1855 ; 1009 in 1856 : 980 in
1857 ; 883 in 1858 ; 1031 in 1859 1 and 1186 in 1860.

B 167—35

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274

DISTRICTS.

CShapter IX.
Justice.

Police,
1863-1877.

1877,

was divided among officers styled jamdddrs, each of whom was
paid a lamp sam from the Gw41ior treasury and was expected
to keep a certain number of armed men, distributed oyer his
share of the district. There was also a detachment of monnted
militia, sibandi. After the transfer of the district, on accoimt d
disorders and of the unruly character of so many of the people, it
was thought advisable to raise an armed force of Bhils. With the
Ehdudesh force as its model the Panch Mab&ls Bhil corps had in
1858, exclusive of establishment, a sanctioned strength of ten
9ubheddr8, ten jamdddrs^ fifty havdlddr8,Mty ndiks, one bogle major,
ten buglers, and 800 privates, total 931. Its head quarters were fixed
at Dohad, where lines for 600 men were built The Bhil corps [was
a success. In 1860, though in H41ol and E41ol on the west cattle*
lifting was still a common offence, in Dohad and Jh&lod, where thej
had formerly been most rife, offences of this class had nearlj
ceased.^ In 1861 it was found most useful in forest fighting and
wonderfully cheap and effective for outpost duty.' In 1867, as the
district was much more settled, the sanctioned strength of the corps
was reduced from 931 to 429 men. But in the next year, with its
reduced strength, the corps was unable to put down the N&ikda rising)
and its numbers were raised to their present total of 500 men. At
present (1877) two-thirds of the corps are Bhils and Kolis and Um
rest Mar4th&s and Pardesis. The discipline is semi-military and
the men are in appearance well drilled and soldier-like. The
uniform is a forage cap with bugle ornament, a dark blue tanie
with red facings, and brown, khdrki, coloured pantaloons. They are
armed with Saffer^s carbines and sword bayonets. Almost half the
corps is employed on outpost duty. They guard m&mlatdars' and
mah&lkaris^ offices, furnish escorts to district officers, and ire
scattered in a number of small posts, thdnds, in different parts of
the district.

In the year 1877 the total strength of the district or r^lar
police force was, including the Bhil corps, 824. Of these, under the
district and assistant district Superintendents of police, two were
subordinate officers. 111 inferior subordinate officers, thirty-six
mounted police, and 673 constables. Besides these, a force d
six officers and thirty constables was employed as an escort to
the Political Agent, Rewa E4ntha. The cost of maintaining the
entire district police force was as follows: The two Europea
officers, the Saperintendent and assistant superintendent recei^
a total yearly salary of £993 (Rs. 9930;; the subordinate oflScers
yearly salary of not less than £120 (Rs. 1200) each, and the inferid
subordinate officers a yearly salary of less than £120 (Rs. 1200) ead
or a total yearly cost of £2652 4^. (Rs. 26,522) ; the pay of th
mounted police and of the foot constables came to a total snin Q

1 Pol. Agent 811, 6tli December 1860.

> Pol. ^gent 212, 30th April 1861. ^

* The details are : 3 wbheddn, S jamdddrs, 18 havdlddn, 86 ndiks, and ^ P"^

Betidea these, 36 men employed under the Rewa Kintha Political Agent, rana p«

of the Bhil corpa.

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PANCH MAHl'LS.

275

27164 6a. (Bs. 71^648). Besides the pay of the officers and men, there
was a total yearly sum of £497 lits. (Rs. 4977) allowed for the horses
and travelling expenses of the superior officers ; £300 28. (Rs. 3001)
yearly pay and travelling allowance for their establishments,
and £554 16«. (Rs. 55 48) a year for contingencies and other
expenses, making a total yearly cost of £12,162 2«. (Rs. 1,21^621).^
Taking 1595 square miles as the area of the district and 240,743 as
its population, the strength of the Panch Mahals' police is one man
to every 0*51 sqaare miles and 292 seals. The cost of maintenance
is eqaal to £7 12^. 6d, (Rs. 76-4-0) a sqaare mile, or nearly la. (8 as.)
a h^ of the population.

Exclusive of the Superintendent, the assistant superintendent, and
the force of thirty-six policemen under the Political Agent Bewa
Kdntha, of the total strength of 822 police, 166, of whom twenty-one
were officers and 145 constables, were in 1877 employed as guards at
district, central, or subsidiary jails j 140, of whom fourteen were
officers and 1 26 constables, were engaged as guards over lock-ups and
treasuries, or as escorts to prisoners and treasure ; 486, of whom
seventy-four were officers and 412 constables, were engaged on
other duties ; and thirty, of whom four were officers and twenty-six
ooQstables, were stationed in towns and municipalities. Of the
whole number of 822, exclusive of the Superintendent and assistant
ftnperintendent of police, 566 were provided with fire-arms, and
256 with swords only, or with swords and batons; 196, of whom sixty-
four were officers and 132 constables, could read and write ; and
199, of whom twelve were officers and 187 constables, were under
iDstruction. Except the two superior officers who were Europeans,
the members of the police force for whom details were available
were all natives of India. Of these, twenty-six officers and 186
constables were Mnsalmans; one officer was a P&rsi; ten officers and
fifty-five constables were Brdhmans ; five officers and thirty constables
were Rajputs; forty officers and eighty-one constables were Mar6thfe;
seventeen officers and 250 constables were Bhils ; three officers and
forty-seven constables were Kolis ; and ten officers and fifty-three
constables were Hindus of other castes. There were six vacancies
and for the thirty-six men employed in the Bewa £[&ntha, the
information was not given.

In 1877 of 119 persons accused of heinous crimes, eighty-one or
68*06 per cent were convicted. Of 2039 the total number of persons
accused of crimes of all sorts, 1572 or 77*09 per cent were convicted.
In the matter of the recovery of stolen property, of £1781 2$.
(Rs. 17,811) alleged to have been stolen, £727 Sa. (Ra. 7274) or 40-8
per cent were recovered.

The following table gives the chief crimes and police details of the
seven years ending 1877 :

Chapter IX.
Justice.

Police,
1853-1877.

1877.

Crime and Police,.
1871-1877.

1 Of tlifs Bum £385 (Re. 3850) on accoant of the police employed under the Political
Agent, Rewa K^tha, were paid from local funds.

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276

DISTRICTS.

Ghaptor DL

Crime and Police,
187M877-

PanehMahdU Crime and PoUee, 1871'1S77.

Tbal

IBJl
1872
1878
1874
1876
1876
1877

OmHcn AKS PuHomauns.

Murder and
attempt to Murder.

100
2»)'6
16-6
87-5
60
60

Culpable
Homicide.

28-5
838
37-6
36

86-7

Orieroas hurt and
burt by dungerous

10-5

»'7

36-1

681

69'S

DaoQitieiud
BobbaiH.

a-7
sn

YBAa.

1871
1872
1878
1874
1876
1876
1877

Offencbs akd FmsiBmitsm-'Continuid.

Other Offenoea.

80S

1820

705

765

1327

659

747

1305

705

860

1365

566

953

1401

709

«87

1452

991

1486

1920

1491

58 04

53-7

5403

44-7

50-6

641

776

TotaL

842
805
797
918
998
974
1547

1402

733

1298

704

1388

738

1339

598

1471

733

1519

970

3089

1673

51-4
54-4
52-4
44-6
49-7
68*8
77-09

SlOUDI FBOFBIT.

Property
■tolen.

raoowced-

1888
2881 14
1877 18
1728 16
1704 12
1236
1781 3

767 10
1078 6
590 18
515 16
553 14
649 3
737 8

S6-3
4f4
431

Sit

4«-S

Jaili. Besides the accommodation provided for under-trial prisonets

at the head-quarters of each sub-division^ there is in the town of
Dohad a district jail able to hold 105 male and nine female prisonen.

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Giqarttl

CHAPTER X.

REVENUE AND FINANCE.

The gross revenue in 1852 amounted to £20,113 (Rs. 2,01,130),
Of this £11,378 (Rs. 1,13,780) were spent on the management of the
district, and £8735 (Rs. 87,350) were paid over to His Highness
Sindia. The revenue for 1853 amounted to £21,313 (Rs. 2,13,130),
and the expenditure to £7407 (Rs. 74,070), leaving a surpks of
£13,906 (Rs. 1,39,060). According to the estimate sent from
6w41ior to the Rewa KSntha Political Agent on the transfer of
the district. His Highness Sindia expected to receive £13^028
(Rs. 1,30,280) for 1854, and £13,764 (Rs. 1,37,640) for 1855, and for
each succeeing year. The revenue for 1855 was estimated at
£22,665 (Rs. 2,26,650) and the cost at £8901 (Rs. 89,010) leaving a
surplus of £13,764 (Rs. 1,37,640). During the seven years ending
1859 the British management resulted in the steady increase o£
revenue shown in the margin. The total amount remitted to His

HighnessSindiaduringthese
Pawh MaMU Revenw, 1863-1869. geven years (1853-1859) was

£95,613 (Rs. 9,56,130) or a
yearly average of £13,659
(Rs. 1,36,590). At the end
of the year ending June
1860 there was a balance
of £13,379 (Rs. 1,33,790)
in favour of His Highness
Sindia, This, added to the
remittance, raises the total
to £108,992 (Rs. 10,89,920)
or a yearly average of
£15,570 (Rs. 1,55,700), or
£1806 (Rs. 18,060) more than the estimate. This increased surplas,
in spite of an addition from £8021 (Rs. 80,210) in 1853-54 to £16,657
(Rs. 1,66,570) in 1859-60 in the cost of administration, is a satis-
factory proof of the success of the early English management.

The earliest year for which complete figures are available is 1863-64.
A comparison of specially prepared balance sheets for 1863-64
and 1875-76 shows the following changes. Exclusive of £6662
(Rs. 66,620) the adjustment on account of alienated land, the
transactions that appear in the district balance sheet for 1875-76
amount to receipts £46,232 (Rs. 4,62,320) against £35,281
(Rs. 3,52,810) in 1863-64, and the charges to £37,656 (Rs. 3,7r>,560)
in 1875-76 against £27,829 (Rs. 2,78,290) in 1863-64. Exclusive of
departmental miscellaneous receipts and sums received in return for

Ybae.

Outstand-
ing.

1853-64

1854-55

1856-56

1856-57

1857-58

1868-59

1859-60

£.
28,565
26,286
25,900
26,702
27,135
28,482
29^277

6191
5036
4807
4863
4334
2459

Chflptar X

Eevenue and

Fiuanca-

1863-1859.

Balance Shei«t,
1864^1876.

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[Bombay

278

DISTRICTS.

Outpter Z.

Berenue and
Fmance.

Balanoe Sheet,
1864.1876.

LandSevenMe.

Stamps,

Excise.

JuiUcs^

Farut,

services rendered^ saoh as the receipts of the post department^ the
amount of revenue raised in 1875-76 under all heads, Impenal,
provincial, local, and municipal, amounted to £41,633 (Rs. 4,1
or on a population of 240,743 an incidence per head of 3«. 5^d.

Land revenue receipts forming 62*59 per cent of £41,633
(Rs. 4,16,330), the entire revenue of the district, have risen from
£21,411 (Bs, 2,14,110) in the year ending 31st July 1864, to £26,(^25
(Rs. 2,60,250) in 1878. Details^ of the land revenue collected

during the last fifteen yean
are given in the margin.
The rise in the land reyeniie
in the seven years ending
1870 was due chiefly to the
spread of the tillage area,
and the better state o!
the people. Except 1865
when on account of scarcitj
caused by scanty rainfall
remissions amounting to
£789 (Rs. 7890) had to be
given, these were yean of
progress. The increase and
large remissions in 1871 and
1874 are nominal owing to
the introduction of revised
rates of assessment in Eflol
and Godhra, as the diffe^
ence between the old and
new rates in the first year
of settlement has, according to the survey rules, to be remitted.
Since then in 1875 and 1876 the revenue steadily increased, but
the failure of crops and distress in 1877, have in 1878 brought the
revenue lower than it has been since 1870. The increased cost in
collecting the land revenue from £3677 (Rs. 36,770) in 1863-64, to
£9848 (Rs. 98,480) in 1875-76, is due to a rise in the number and in
the amount of revenue o£5cers' salaries.

Stamps have risen from £1101 to £2626 (Rs. 1 1,010- Rs. 26,250).
The 1876 charges were £64 (Rs. 640) or only £4 (Rs. 40) moie
than those of 1864.

From the fondness of its wild tribes for liquor the BEinch Mahals'
excise receipts are considerable ; since 1863 they have risen from
£1201 to £2089 (Rs. 12,010 - Rs. 20,890).

Law and justice receipts, chiefly fines, have risen from £441
to £565 (Rs. 4410 -Rs. 5650). The 1876 charges were £3561
(Rs. 35,610) against £1436 (Rs. 14,360) in 1864 on account of the
improved agency employed.

Forest is a new head since 1863. But, though much has been
done to set apart and keep forests, they are not yet a source of

1 Extra First Aaaistant Ck>Il6ctor 2143, 4th October ISTS.

PanchMahdlsLand Hevenve, 186^187S.

Year endlDg
Sltt Julj.

coUeoUoD.

Oatatonding
balance on
latAuffatt.

BemiwioB.

£.

1864

21,411

152

1S66

22,126

1654

789

1866

22,996

1713

1867

23,467

266

1868

23,468

1869

24,767

1870

26.637

415

1871

27,749

161

1557

1872

27,043

470

1873

26,522

213

1874

26.790

267

1074

1875

26,109

197

1876

26,427

1877

26,891

1878

26,025

4609

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PANCH MAHAXS.

279

income. The 1876 receipts were £897 (Rs. 8970) and the cost of
establishment was £984 (Rs. 9840.)

The following table shows, exclasive of official salaries, the
amoant realized from the different assessed taxes levied between
1862 and 1873. Owing to their variety of rates and incidence, it is
difficult to make any satisfactory comparison of the results :

Panch MahdU Assessed Taxes, 18€g'187£^

TlAB.

IMOOMBL

Below £60.

Above £60.

Income Tax,

1862-63

1863^

1864-66

£.

28,798
29,625
23,864

Rs.
2,87,980
2,96,250
2,38,640

£.

1082
871
759

Rs.

10,820

8710

7590

Lkense Tax.
1867-68

34,865

3,48,650

48,025

4,80,250

1072

10,720

CertificaU Tax.
1868-69

...

•••

39,025

3,90,250

480

4800

Income Tax.

1869

1869-70

1870-71

1871-72

1W2.73

55,650
55,650
54,337
42,134
24,668

5,56,500
5,56,500
6,43,370
4,21,340
2,46,680

534
267
1579
450
256

5340
2670
15,790
4500
2560

Transit duties levied on opium chests passing through the district,
credited in 1863-64 to local funds, are now credited to customs and
form part of the Imperial revenue.

There is no telegraph office in the district. The post receipts have
risen from £190 (Rs. 1900) in 1863, to £954 (Rs. 9540) in 1876.

Police charges have risen from £10,816 to £12,326 (Rs. 1,08,160-
Rs. 1,23,260). Jail charges amounting in 1876 to £1543 (Rs. 15,430)
are a new item.

In the following balance sheets of 1863-64 and 1875-76, the figures,
shown in black type on both sides of the 1875-76 balance sheet,
are book adjustments. On the receipt side the item £6^)62
(Ks. 66,620) represents the additional revenue the district would
yield, had none of its land been given away. On the debit side the
item £1514 (Rs. 15,140) under land revenue is the rental of the
land granted to village headmen; the item £5143 (Rs. 51,430)
Tinder allowances and assignments represents the rental of the land
granted to district hereditary officers and other non-service claimants;
and the item £4 (Rs. 40) under police represents the rental of the
land granted to village officers for police service.

1 First Assistant OoUector 1657, 7tli September 1877. The Panch Mahiils were
ceded to the British Government in March 1861. The income tax then levied in
British India was not introduced into the Panch Mabils till August 1862.

Chapter Z*

Bevenne and
FinAnce.

Balance Sheet»
1864.1876.

Assessed Taxes,

Cudoms.

Post.

PoUce.

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[Bombay Gaietteer,

280

DISTRICTS.

Chapter Z.

Beyenne and
Finance.

Balance Sheet,
1863-64—1875-76.

Pamh Mdhah BaJme

SUTIGI.

BBCBIPTB.

Head.

1883-64.

1875.m

Imperial.
the Collector ...'

StMnps

Excise

Law and justioe

Forest

Misoellaneoas

Interest on advances

Total ...

Costomg

Pnbllo works

Mint

Post ..«

T\)tal ...

Registration

Edncation

Police

Medical services

Jails ...

Sale of books

Misoellaneoas

TWal ...

BeposibB and repa^ent of advanoes and loan&

Pension fond reoelpts

Local fondg

Total ...

Grand Total ,.

17,975 10 4

1101 19 9
1201 10
441 4 S

"U 8
130 U 1

906919 1
<«5 6 8
897 4 7

8 9 4

9 18 9

30,865 18 1

34.894 5 I

R-Administered (

iss" 4 8
19012 8

1988 9 «
194 If 1
UU 8
964 8 1

875 17 4

3489 18 «

Pronnwa

"*4*2 8

110 8 9
419 10
814 «
8U

37818 ;
14 i
16 4U

4 18

618 lU

Transfers and
Items of Ao-
coontBi

4784 18 1
930018 2

809119 r

34 19 9

6404 1 4

800 88

14»035 11 8

85^1 9 4

IS Its

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

Shtet, 1863-64 and 1875.76.

Onisaa.

281

Chapter X*

Bevenue and
Finance.

Balance Sheet,
1863-64-1876-76.

Head.

tampt.

«r«>dJatloe {gSw
lUonnoes and aaaignmento

ntfloM to Ck>venimenfc asrvaato..

186S-64.

S677 11
60 17 8

Totel

ToUl

^K^nSAotx.

idSodMiTiMS

Btributlon to locml funds
i>lie works

Totia

poalii ntqnied and advanoM and loans
■1 funds

ToUl ...

OraadToUl

148ft 14 10
606 19 3

4 3 9
63 16 I

6848 8 4

186 3

46 14

171 18

10,8i6"l5

143 1

10,968 17

6108 18 10
4741 9 7

10^50 8 5

37,833 6 11

1876-76.

£. s. d.

0848 18

64 6

984 6

IIM 7

3866 8

867 16

8148 15

364 6

36 18

16,616 16 6
MG8 18 S

846 14
66 1 3
137 3 10

688 18

Ul 3 9

12,836 7 10

819 9

198

1648 11 9

313 6 5

668 6

301 14 4

16,801 8 1

819 9

3366 6 10

3988 16 2

6199 1

37.666 3 6
I968U t

Bi67-ae

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282

DISTRICTS.

ChApter Z.

Berenne and
Finance.

Looftl Fundi.

Revenue other than Imperiai.

The local funds of the Panch Mah&ls are chieflj deriyed from tin
transit duties levied on goods passing through the district. Thft
regular local fund cess, of one-sixteenth in addition to the ordiBai)
land-tax, levied iu other British districts has been jntrodnced intoi
the sub-divisions of E^ilol and Godhra^ in the former from 1871-7i|
and in the latter from 1875-76. Under the orders of GoTemmeiit
transit duties are abolished on the introduction of revised rates of
assessment, and the levy of tCe regular one-anna cess is introdacd.
This measure has caused a great loss to the district local fontf
revenue, as the transit duties greatly exceeded the amount of the (ni
anna cess. The 1877-78 receipts were £6532 (Rs. 65,320) agaiiafc
£9300 (Rs. 93,000) in 1863-64 when the transit duties wereleYiel
throughout the district.

For administratiye purposes the local funds of the district art
divided into two main sections, one set apart for public works m
the other for instruction. The receipts and disbursements diuiii|
the year 1877-78 under those two heads were as follows:

Panch Mahdb Local Funds, 1877-78.
PX7BLIC WORXB.

ReiulU,
28$S'1877,

Sifsin>irtrai.

£. $.

t u

Balance, lit ApriU877 ...
Two-thirds of tke laud cess...

4603 4

Establishments

m 3

691 8

New works

3824 i

Cms other than the one-anna

Repairs

1205 7

cess and transit duties . . .

1696 15

Medical chai^ges

20611
304 S

Tolls

2352 4

Miscellaneous

Ferries

Balance, Ist April 1878 ...

32290

Cattle pounds

Travel era* rest-houses

151 5

Contributions

269 5

Miscellaneous

84 13

Total ...

9838 14

9838tf

iNSTRucnoir.

Balance, Ist April 1877 ...
One-third of the cess allot-
ment from transit dafcies .

School fee fund

Contribution (Oovemment) .

Do. (Private) ...

Miscellaneous

2i4 14

495 14

118 4

714 12

33 12

24 4

School charge

Scholarships

School-houses, now
Do. repairs

MiscellaneonB

Balance, Ist April 1878 ...

Total ...

1130 H
30»
2111
SOS

84 ii:

333 8

Total ...

1631

161 •

With the funds obtained from the levy of transit datiee sif
plemented by grants from Government^ many works of public utifilj

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

283

lye, since 1863-64, been carried out la the district. To open
)mmnnication more than 150 miles of road hare been made. To
l^rove the water-supply 128 wells, 57 reservoirs and ponds,
Nrater-courses and 1 2 water-troughs haye been made or repaired,
b help village instruction 12 schools, and for the comfort of
lavellers 7 rest-houses have been built Besides these works, 29
iOage offices, eJhords, 41 cattle->pounds, and one dispensary have been
^nstmcted.

In 1876-77 two town municipalities were established. The
lllowing statement gives for each municipality the receipts, charges
|d inddenoe^of taxes for the first year of establishment.

^ Paneh Mahdla Mumdpal DeiaiU, 1877.

9mL

10^685

kid

11,471
MOOT

fSO 6

isi e

39g 14

71 6
A4 D

lt)(& «

881 19

BmnMTUui.

94 9

17S fl 40 14

£04 04 Iti

90 19

«1 10

163 i

88 18

141 IS

£ i.

a «.

80 ta

£ «.

8 N

£ «

189 18 888 8

939 11

fi9 13 1^ 10 m\ 19

8M.

Chapter X.

Revenue and
Finance.

Munioipftlities.

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CHAPTER XL

INSTRUCTION-

Chapter XI. lu the year 1877-78 there were thirty-six Goyemtoent schools, a

Instmotioii. on an ayerage, one school for eyery eighteen inhabited yiUagM,

SchoolB alienated as weU as Groyemment, with 2689 pnpils on the rolls ui

1S77-78.' t^ ayerage attendance of 1765 or 1*32 per cent of 133^539, tb

entire population of not more than twenty years of age.

Coit. Excluding superintendence charges, the total expenditure m

education on account of these thirty *sizG-oyemment schools amonntd
to £1219 (Rs. 12,190). Of this £715 (Rs. 7150) were debited fa
Goyemment and £504 (Bs. 5040} to local and other funds.

Staff. Under the Director of public instruction and the inspector, northen

diyision, the schooling of the district was conducted by a loel
stafE sixty *one strong ; of these one was an assistant deputy inspectoi
with general charge oyer all the schools of the district, drawing a yearlj
pay of £125 (Bs. 1250) ; and the rest were masters and assistaii
masters of schools with yearly salaries ranging from 12s. to £48
(Bs. 6-BS.480).

Of thirty-six the total number of Goyemment schools, in thirtf
fiye Gujar&ti only was taught, and in one Urdu and Gnjar&ti.

The following figures show the increased means for learning to
•-1878. pead and write, offered by Goyemment during the last twenty-fon

years. The first school opened in this district was a Gujariti school
at Godhra in 1854. Two years later, an Anglo-yemacular school ^ wii
opened in the same town. No detailed information is ayailable fin
any year before 1855. In 1855-66 there were seyen schools in th
district with an ayerage attendance of 362 pupils or 0*27 per cent d
the total population of not more than twenty years of age. In 1865-6f
the number of schools had risen to twenty *f our, with a roU-call of ISfl
names,and an ayerage attendance of 1 162 pupils or 0*87 per cent of til
total population of not more than twenty years of age. The fignrti
for 1877-78 were, as shown aboye, thirty-six schools with a rofi-cdl
of 2689 names and an ayerage attendance of 1765, or l'S2 per ceij
of 133,539, the total popalation of not more than twenty yean d
age. A comparison with the returns for 1855-56 giyes therdbre te
1877-78 an increase in the number of schools from seyen to thir^-flS^
while of 133,589, the entire population of the district of not moil
than twenty years of age, 1*82 per cent were under instmctian ■
1877-78 against 0*27 per cent in 1855-56.

1 aoied at the end of 1876-77.

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

285

Vemacnlar schools for girls would seem to have been established
in the PanchMahils but lately. In 1877-78 there was one school ^
of this sort with a roll-call of seventy-five names and an average
attendance of forty-seven pupils.

The 1872 census returns give for each of the chief races of the
district the proportion of persons able to read and write :

Of 47,954^ the total Hindu male population not exceeding twelve
years^ 1417 or 2*95 per cent; of 18,363 above twelve and not
exceeding twenty years, 1454 or 7'91 per cent; and of 52,087
exceeding twenty years, 3769 or 7*23 per cent were able to read and
write or were being taUght. Of 43,682, the total Hindu female
population not exceeding twelve years, sixty-seven or 0"15 per cent;
of 15,834 above twelve and not exceeding twenty years, twenty-five
or 0*06 per cent ; and of 47,855 exceeding twenty years, thirty-five
or 0*07 per cent were able to read and write or were being taught.

Of 2769, the total Musalm&n male population not exceeding
twelve years, 331 or 11'95 per cent; of 1295 above twelve and
not exceeding twenty years, 357 or 27 '56 per cent ; and of 3802
exceeding twenty years, 888 or 23*35 per cent were able to read and
write or were beiug taught. Of 2571, the total MusalmILn female
population not exceeding twelve years, eighteen or 0*70 per cent ; of
1059, above twelve and not exceeding twenty years, fourteen or 1*32
per cent; and of 3425 exceeding twenty years, twenty-one or 0*61 per
cent were able to read and write or were being taught.

Of P&rsis there were but seventeen in the whole district, twelve
males and five females. Ten of the former and two of the latter
were able to read and write or were being taught.

Before the year 1865-66 there were no returns arranging the pupils

according to race and
religion. The statement
given in the margin shows
that in 1877-78 of the two
chief races of the district,
the Musalm&ns have the
largest proportion of their
boys under instruction.
All the seveniy-five girls
enrolled in 1877-78 in the
one g^ls' school were Hindus. Of 2354 the total number of pupils
in Government schools at the end of December 1877, 411 or 17*45
per cent were Br&hmans ; 6 or 0*25 per cent writers, 2 Eshatris and
4 Parbhus; 611 or 25*95 per cent traders and shopkeepers, 490
Y&Diia, 121 Shrfivaks; 238 or 10*11 per cent cultivators, 115
Kanbis, 80 Bajputs, 25 K&chhiiis, 3 M&lis, 14 Luh&n^ and 1 Eoli ;
232 or 9*85 per cent craftsmen ; 4 Bhiivs4rs, calico-printers ; 32
Gh&nchis, oil-pressers ; 50 Sonis, gold and silver smiths, 44 Sutii&rs

PupUi by Bace, 1866-66 and 1877-78.

186546u

1877-78.

InoreMe
peroent.

Hindns ...
"MnHftlrnAnii *

Total ...

1701
159

2501
284

47-03
78-61

1860

2685

44-35

Chapter XI.
InitmctioiL

R^adenand
Writen,
187a
Hindm,

MfthcmmadfxM,

Pdnii.

Pupils bj Race.
1877-78.

I In 1875-76 there were three such schoola with a roll-call of 119 names and aa
average attendance of sixty-three pupils.

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[Bombay GaiettMr,
286 DISTRICTS.

Chapter XL carpenters ; 2 Eana&ris, coppersmiihs, 46 hvih&n, blacksmitlis ; 7

jmgtmMak^ Kadifa, bricklayers; 36 Darjis, tailors; llKambhte, potters; 409

or 17*37 percent, B&rots (404) and CMrans (5)^ bards and genealogists;

26 or I'lO per cent Hajams^ barbers ; 68 or 2*88 per cent misoellaneona
workers and labourers; 10 Ealals^ liquor-sellers ; 2 lUvali&s, cotton
tapemakers ; 1 V&gliri^f owler and hunter; 1 Bh^bhunja, grainparcher ;

27 Ods, well-diggers and labourers ; 1 Jat, 1 B4ychl, 3 KMnris,
4 Pardeshi, and 18 Mar&th&s, serrants ; 13 or 0*55 per cent leatber-
workers, 8 Mochis and 5 Dabgars; 27 or 1*14 per cent religiooB
beggars^ 9 Vair^s^ 16 Gos&is and 2 S&dhus ; 86 or 1'52 per cent
unsettled tribes, 3 Vanj&rfc, 27 Bhils, and 6 Ndikdis ; 5 or 0-21 per
cent P4rsis ; 272 or 1155 per cent Musalmiins. No Dhed or BhangiA
boys attended tbe Government schools in this district.

Schools, The following table, prepared from special returns furnished by

1S55-187& jjjjQ educational department, shows in detail the number of schook
and pupils wil^ their cost to Grovemment :

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anjarit]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

287

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1

'91'Un

'99-9961

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25
«9

-99-9981

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'90-9991

'99-9981

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°W-998I

•009 ,

•99-9981

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•99^981

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•81-iZ8l

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•8Z-U81

'99iI98I

'99-9991

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•99-9991

•99-9981

%i 2( s

^ f-l «

•tt "S

^ T

lMr-99tI

B a

- i

|5 ^

Chapter ZI.
Inftnictioii-

Schoolfl,
18^-1878.

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288

[Bombay Gkuettaer.

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XL
Ingtmctioii*

Schools,
1855-1878.

'6I-ittI

'99-998T

'os-^ni

'8MI81

"OS-flMl

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I?

•ex-zi8i

*90-998l

'99-9981

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'99-9991

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^ SS : : I 8

Ill

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B^fariU

PANCH MAHA'LS.

289

A comparison of the present (1877-78) provision for teacliing the
listrict town and coantry population gives the following results.

In the town of Godhra there were in 1877-78, three Government
rernacnlar schools with, out of 434 names on the rolls, an average
tttendance of 285 pupils. Of these schools one was an Urdu school
Bid two were Gujar&ti schools, one for boys, the other for girls ;
he yearly cost for each pupil was £1 2«. (Rs. 11) in the Urdu, and
nthe GujartLti 12«. (Rs. 6) in the boys' and £1 (Ks. 10) in the girls'
ichool. In the town of Dohad there was one vernacular school with,
mt of 273 names on the rolls, an average attendance of 158 pupils.
Jhe yearly cost per pupil was 18^. (Bs. 6-8 as.).

Exclusive of these four town schools, the district of Panch
hhiia was in 1877-78 provided with thirty-two Government
'eniacular schools, or on an average one school for every eighteen
nliafaited villages. The following statement shows the distribution
I these schools by sub-divisions :

Panch McMU VtOagt Schools, 1877-78.

SvB-omiiov.

VlLLAAH.

VnUTAOOLAB.

Boyi.

Girli.

bdbn

lohad

Total ...

187

202
196

63,379

66,431

100,298

•»•

687

230,108

...

In this district there are two libraries but no local newspaper,
ke library at Godhra known as the ' Stewart Library,' was established
1 1866-6/. The number of subscribers is returned at forty-three
ttd the average annual collections at £24 (Rs. 240). A yearly grant
I £20 is received from the Panch Mah&ls local funds unless the latter
re on the decline. The library has a building of its own and is
tovided with 188 English and 207 Gnjar^ti books and ten maps,
he library at Dohad known as the ' Enti Library,' was established
1 1869-70. The number of subscribers is returned at seventeen
id the average annual collections at £12 (Rs. 120). The library
w a building of its own and is provided with a total number of
^ English and vernacular books.

Chapter ZI.
Instruction.

Town Education,
1877-78.

ViUags
EduoAtion.

LibrarieB.

• 167-37

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CSiapter ZU
Health.

HoBpitalB.

CHAPTER XI L

HEALTH.

The chief disease, intermittent and remittent fever, becomes
common after the setting in of the rains (July), and grows gradually
severer and more widespread till towards the close of the year h
again abates. In outlying parts so fierce are its attacks tliat
whole outposts are at times unfit for duty. Next to fever th
chief diseases are skin affections, bronchitis, rhenmatisni, wornui
opthahnia and diarrhoea. Before the introduction of vaocinatioii
small-pox was common among the Bhils and Niikdis ; bat dniinfl
the last twenty years its outbreaks have become much less but
The Superintendent of vaccination says, 'as a class the wild races ha,M
taken to vaccination pretty freely, and it may be said that when oncj
begun it is easier to carry on vaccination among them than among otha
people.'i In five of the last fifteen years, in 1864, 1865, 1869, 187J
and 1875 the district has been visited by cholera. Except in 187|
when more than a thousand pec^le died in two months, no detaib i
these attacks are available. The Kolis and Ndikd&s and to a lei
extent the Bhils use many drugs, dividing them into three daall
according as they cure the three chief forms of disease, those m
to cold, to heat, and to wind. Arsenic in some of its forms and H
impure mercury are much used. J

At present (1878) there are in the district one civil hospital i
Dohad and one dispensary at Godhra. During the year 1877, 10,9^
persons in all were treated, of whom 731 were in-door and 10,f
out-door patients. These institutions are provided with
buildings. The total amount expended in checking disease
1877 was £1318 (Rs. 13,180). Of this £206 (Bs. 2060) werej
from local funds. The following details are taken from
1877 report. Of 403 in-patients treated in the civil hospital, '
were cured and 21 died. The out-patients numbered 4232.
average daily sick for in-patients was 13-24 and for out-p
42'5. The principal diseases were malarious fevers, rheun
eye and lung affections, and bowel and skin diseases. The morl
was chiefly due to diarrhoea and dysentery and to lung
There were 12 major and 294 minor surgical operations.
Godhra dispensary established in 1870 is provided with a bnilW
63 feet long by 33 feet wide. Inclusive of 228 in-patienta, 621
persons were treated. The chief diseases were malarious teif^
cholera, and skin affections. ^

1 Snperintendent^B Memo. 24th April 1875,

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hiuill

PANCH MAHA'LS.

29^1

In 1877-78 the work of vaccination was^ under tlie supervision
)f the deputy sanitary commissioner in east Gujardt^ carried on
)y five vaccinators, with yearly sahries varying from £16 16s. to
£28 16^. (Rs. 168-Rs. 288.) All the operators were distributed
)ver the rural parts of the district^ one for each sub-division..
Sxclusive of 1244 re-vaccinations there were 9841 vaccinations;
ompared with 9476 in 1 869-70.

The following abstract shows the sex^ religion^ and age of the^
lerscms vaccinated :

Panch Muhdla Vaccination Details, 1869 and 1877^

KUMBIR VAOOINATIO..

TU£.

Sex.

Religion.

Age. .

Males.

Females.

HindnB.

Hunl-
m&DS.

PAnb.

OhrlB-
tianB.

others.

Under

one
year.

Over
one
year.

Total.

M940 ...

rn-78 ...

4704
5071

4772
4770

8778
8967

467
496

...

231
386

3980
4781

5496
5060

9476
9841

The total cost of these operations was, in 1877-78, £423 18)r.
k 4239) or about 9f d. (6^ as.) for each successful case. Tha
liare charge was made up of the following items : supervision and
ispection £268 4^. (Es. 2682), establishment £144 14«. (Rs. 1447),
id contingencies £11 (Rs. 110). Of these the supervising and
tspecting charges and 14«. (Rs. 7) on account of contingencies,,
ere wholly met from Government provincial funds, while the
q)enseof £155 (Rs. 1550) on account of rural vaccinators was borne
f the district local funds.

The total number of deaths shown in the Sanitary Commissioner's
sports for the seven years ending 1878 is 41,629 or an average
Barly mortality of 5947, or on the basis of the 1872 census, of
47 per cent of the total population. Of the average number of
saihs 4140 or 69*61 per cent were returned as due to fever;
)5 or 6*81 percent, to bowel complaints ; 813 or 13*67 per cent,
» cholera; 62, or 1*04 per cent, to smallpox; and 406 or 6*83 per
Bit, to nuscellaneous diseases. Deaths from violence or accident
leraged 121, or 2*03 per cent of the average mortality of the
istrict. During the same period the number of births is returned
29,161 souls^ of whom 15,269 are entered as male and 13,892 as
male children, or an average yearly birth-rate of 4166 souls ; or
i the basis of the 1872 census figures, a birth-rate of 1*73 per
at of the entire population of the district.^

Chapter xn..
Health.

YacciD&tioQ.

Births and Deaths^
1872-1878.

^ These figures are incorrect, for while the population of the district is increasing
B returns show a yearly birth-rate less by 1781 than the death-rate. In a diitrici
Bhils and K^d&s the retuTBS are necessarily very imperfect.

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[Bombay (hiettoer.

Chapter^xm
Sub-diTiflions.

GODHBl.

Arta,

Atpeei,

CUmaU.

WaUr.

Soil

CHAPTER XIII.

SUB-DIVISIONS.

Godhra Sub*divisi011. — The Godhra sub-diTifiion ia bounded
on the north by Lun&v^a, on the east by B&riya, on the sonth bj
Kalol, and on the west partly by Baroda territory and partly by ik
riyer Mahi. Its area is 583 square miles ; its population in 18^
74^014 sonls^ or 127 to the square mile ; and ite realisable lad
revenue in 1878, £5615 (Rs. 56,160).

Of its 583 square miles, 203 are occupied by alienated^ proprietto;
talukdari and udho^, villages. The rest, according to the leYenoi
survey returns, contams 243,556 acres ; of these 103,222 acres oi
42*38 per cent were arable land, 130,671 acres or 53*65 per co^
were forest lands, and 9663 or 3'96 per cent were unarable wasli
occupied by ponds, river beds, and village sites. From the 103,22
arable acres, 26,685, the area of alienated knds in Government viUageii
has to be taken. Of the balance 76,537 aores^ 65,048 or 85 pa
cent were in the year 1877-78 under tillage.

Except in the west near the Mahi, where is a well tilled andwJ
wooded tract of light soil, and in the north where the surhoe ii
broken by patches and peaks of granite rock, Godhra is a plaa
country of brushwood and forest with scanty rough tillage.

During most of the year the Godhra climate is trying. In di
cold weather, October to FebruaTy, fever is common and the natir^
suffer much from the cold winds ; in the hot months, March to Jmifl!
the heat is sometimes very great ; and the rains, June to October, ai^
close and relaxing. The average rainfall at Godhra, during the fifi
years ending 1877, was 45*73 inches.

The water of the 311 wells and 134 ponds and reservoirs in Ai
sub-division is used almost entirely for drinking, washing, and H
cattle. Only one thirty-third part of the whole area of Qovemmed
cultivated land is watered. The only rivers of any size are A
Mahi on the west, and the P&nam on the east and north-east Qi
other streams, such as the Mesri that flows past the town of Godlm^
are little more than local water-courses.

Except occasional patches of black and, along the P&nam "V^
rich medium, hesar, soil, most of the sur&u^ of the district is wod
lime and granite, rich when deep, and poor when thin.

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PANCH MAHA'LS.

293

The following statement shows the arable area in Government
villages and the rates fixed for thirty years in 1873-74 :

Dry nop
Garden...
Bioe ...

Tona...

"^;

Garden..,
Bice ...

Tdtel...

"?.

crop

Garden

Blee

Grand Toua..

OoounsD.

Acres.

A. g.

0ft,S88»
1085 ^-
8076 10

04,805 80 48,076 10

20,018 89
1305 80
S234 11
2586 15

85.880 18 34,800
1305 80

70,009 17
1905 80
4170 6
0818 95

90,986 8
1905 80

91^1 7

Bnpee
AeBeet>

ment

Average
acre

Ba. a.

8^166
8178 10
6786

16388 7

1.14
kl2

50,661 14

6790 8
10,101 5

67,381 11

ai.ft.p,

9 8

1 10 8
19

10 7

013

1 5
1 11 6

15 4

10 2

1 10
1 10

1111

Uhoocufiid.

Anw.

A. g.

11,84129
^5 18
S9S96

11,640 21

11,84132

75 18
288 36

11,640 31

Rupee
AeseM-

meat.

ATerage
acre
rate.

B8. a.

6107 13
104 10
896 7

Be. a. p.

8 7

16 8

17 4

6588 18

6107 19

104 10
886 7

6 7

1 6
1 7

6536 18

ToflL.

Chapta^xm.
Bub-divisions.

Gk>J>BBA.

Bental,
1874.

Aow.

A. g.

70.695 7
9011 8
8800 86

76,586 11

K).618 82
1806 80
3384 11
2586 15

26.880 18
1305 88

01,848 80
1805 89
10
11

8 4945 ]

4 6486 ]

101.096 29
1905 "

108,931 28

Bopee

Average
acre
rate.

Be. a.

40^978 8
8278 4
6068

Be. a. p.

1 10 1
1 8 10

0,614 7

16^886 7

8554 14

4864 18

34^06 1

56,66910

6688 2

10,437 13

78^0 8

10 4

1 9 5
1 11 6

16 4

1 on

Oil 7

Aawacment on Government end alienated land
Deduct— Alienations

Bs. a. p.

73,920 8
24,906 1

£. 9. d.

7392 1
2430 12 H

Bemains

^dd— QnitrentB

^(i(i~Gxasing fees and lirer-bed tillage

49,614 7

1891

10,683 9 4

4961 8 10}
139 2
1,068 7 a

Total rerenne

61,689 4

6168 18 Oi

The 1872 population^ 74,014 sonls lodged in 18|271 honses, were,
in 1877, provided with 478 wells and 209 ponds, and owned 10,876
ploughs, 2232 carts, 27,343 oxen, 32,267 cows, 11,367 buffaloes, 1262
norses, 8908 sheep and goats, 311 asses, and 400 camels.

In 1873-74, the year of settlement, 6430 holdings, IcMt&B,
were recorded with an average area of 14^^ acres, and a rental of
]3«. 10(2. (Bs. 6-14-8). Equally divided among the agricultural
population, these holdings would, for each person, represent an
allotment of 8^ acres, at a yearly rent of 7*. 10 Ji. (Rs. 8-14-10).
If distributed amon^ the whole population of the sub-division, the
share to each would amount to 1-^ acres, and the incidence of the
land tax to U. 8(2. (Bs. 0-13-4).

In 1877-78 of 65,048 acres, the total area of cultivated land, 21,045
or 32*35 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the 44,003 acres

Stocky
1876-77.

Occupancv,
1878-74^

Produce^
1877-78.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bombay Oaaetteer,

294

DISTRICTS.

Chapter xm.
Sub-divisions.

GODHRA.

People,
1S72.

Kalou

under actual cultivation^ grain crops occupied 83^734 acres^ or 76'66
per cent^ 13^425 of them under maize, ma%a{^ Zea mays ; 7431 under
oajri, Penicillaria spicata ; 4704 under rice, ddngar, Oryza sativa ;
4520 under rdgi, Eleusine corocana ; 848 under juvdr, Sorghnm
vulgare ; 2050 under kodra, Paspalum scrobiculatum ; 86 under wheat,
gJiau, Triticum BBstivum; 25 under barley,yav, Hordeum hexastiehon ;
and 645 under miscellaneous cereals. Pulses occupied 9305 acres,
or 21*14 percent, 8015 of them under gram, chana, Cicer arietinnm ;
599 under adad, Phaseolas mungo ; 404 under mag, Phaseolus
radiatus; 261 under ^uver, Cajanusindicus ; and 26 under miscellaneous
pulses. Oil -seeds occupied 837 acres, or 1*90 per cent, 811 of them
under tal, Sesamum indicum ; and 26 under other oil-seeds. Hemp,
«an, occupied 60 acres. Miscellaneous crops occupied 67 acres, 41
of them under sugarcane, serdi, Saccharum ofEicinarum ; 9 under
tobacco, tambdku, Nicotiana tabacam ; and 17 under miscellaneous
vegetables and fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 74,014
souls, 66,787 or 90-23 per cent, Hindus ; 7213 or 9-74 per cent,
Musalm&ns ; 8 P&rsis ; and 6 Christians. Statistics specially
prepared from the enumerators* forms give the following caste
details : 2017 Br&hmans ; 43 Brahma-Kshatris, K&yasths and
Parbhus, writers ; 1418 V4ni4s and 553 Shr&vkks, traders and
merchants; 2397 Eanbis; 2384 Rajputs; 390 Kdchhids, 8 Mdlis and
39,776 Kolis, cultivators; 2 Bhfivsfirs, calicoprinters ; 102 Bonis,
gold and silver smiths ; 326 Suth&rs, carpenters ; 321 Luhirs,
blacksmiths ; 152 Darjis, tailors ; 3 Kadi&s, bricklayers ; 69 Bhits^
and 377 Ch&rans, bards and genealogists ; 555 Kumbhirs, potters ;
576 Haj&ms, barbers ; 1 5 Dhobhis, washermen ; 878 Bharv&ds and
Rab&ris, herdsmen and shepherds ; 28 Ohhip&s, calenders ; 64 Grolas,
ricepounders ; 1369 M^hhis, fishermen ; 696 Bhois, labonrers and
cultivators ; 80 Mardthds, servants and labourers; 21 V&ghris wid 783
Ravalids, beggars and labourers ; 33 Eal&ls, liquor sellers ; 19 Ods,
diggers ; 1766 Yanj^r&s, carriers and cultivators ; 38 B&vch^
labourers ; 25 Mirvddis, labourers ; 3495 Bhils and 1387 NAikdas,
unsettled cultivators ; 83 Baj4ni&s, acrobats; 435 Mochis, shoemakers;
638 Ch&madids, tanners; 2066 Dheds, 106 Garudds, and 224
Sindhvds, 908 Bhangids, depressed classes; and 206 religious
beggars. As regards occupation the same retnru arranges the
whole population under the seven following heads : i. Employed
under Qovernment or municipal or other loctd authorities^ 1 120.
ii. Professional persons, 636. iii In service or performing personal
offices, 983. iv. Engaged in agriculture and with animals, (a)
cultivators 17,092 ; (6) labourers 144; total 17,236. v. Engaged
in commerce and trade, 1610. vi. Employed in mechanical arts,
manufactures and engineering operations, and engaged in the sale of
articles manufactured or otherwise prepared for consumption^ 3612.
vii. Miscellaneous persons not classed otherwise, (a) womea
19,460 andchQdren 29,059, in all 48,519; and (&) miscellaneons
persons 298 ; total 48,817.

Kalol Sub-division. — K&lol is bounded on the north by
Godhra ; on the east by B&riya ; on the south by the petty division

Digitized by VjOOQIC

Oi^ar&t

PANCH MAHA'LS.

295

of H&lol ; and on the west by Baroda and the P&nda Mehv^s.
Compact in form, abont twenty miles from east to west^ and ten from
north to sonth^ it has an area of 145 sqaare miles^ a population in 1872
of 40^505 fionls^ and in 1878 a realizable land revenae of £6644
(B& 66,440).

Of its 145 square miles, 19 are occupied by tdlvkd&ri and alienated
villages. The rest, according to the revenue survey returns, contains
80,652 acres; 74,107 acres, or 91*88 per cent of these were arable
and 6545 or 8*11 per cent were unarable waste occupied by ponds, river
beds, and village sites. From the 74,107 arable acres, 19,047 the
area of alienated lands in Government villages has to be taken. Of
the balance 55,060 acres, 27,505 or 49-95 per cent were in 1877-78
under tillage.

Open to the west and with some slightly rising ground and patches
of brushwood to the east, K&lol is a rich, well wooded plain, its fields
fenced by high hedges and rows of brab palms, and its villages as
comfortable and weU built as those of Kaira. The eastern hSls of
metamorphic rock do not rise more than a few hundred feet above
the plain. About Ar&dra they are quaintly capped with grey granite
boulders, that look as if about to slip down the smoo& hill side.
The granite stones used for the embankment of the MaMv lake
were taken from these hiUs.

The average yearly rainfaU is returned at 41 inches. Both in
climate and water E&lol is better than Godhra or H&lol.

This sub-division is crossed from east to west by three rivers, the
Mesri in the north, the Goma in the centre, and the Karad in the
south. Rising in the Bdriya highlands and flowing to the Mahi
ihey are alike in being dangerous torrents during the rains and in
losing their flow of water soon after the cold season begins. In
other points they are unlike. The Karad flows over a rocky bed
between high steep banks, while the banks of the Mesri and Goma
are low and their beds sandy. There are 102 reservoirs and ponds,
and of 499 wells 249 are used for watering fields. The Mal&v
reservoir, the largest in the sub-division, waters a large area of rice
and sugarcane. The water of the other ponds is used only for
watering rice and for domestic purposes.

Light, goraduy is the most common soil all over the sub-division ;
medium, hesar, is found in some low-lying villages ; pure black soil
is unknown. The light soil varies much in qualifcy. Inferior towards
the north-east, near E&lol it is very high class, chalky and sticky,
though somewhat sandy.

Chapter Xin.
Suh-diviaioiis.

Ana.

CUmaU.
Water.

Sail.

Digitized by

Google

Chaptar_xni.
tab^viBions.

Rental,

mi.

1876^77.

Oeevpancy.

Prodmce,
XS77'78.

[Bombay GaMtlaei;

296

DISTEICTS.

The following atatemont shows tho arable area in Govenunent
villages aad the rates fixed for thirty years in 1870-71 :

Kdlol Rent BoU, 1870-71.

▲babui

Dry orop
Bioe.^
Totel

Diy omQ

Gudea

Bioe...

Total

Dry orop ,—
0«rdea

OoCUPIIDu

Aarm,

18S4
M86

80,864

14,8«9
8506

19,047

8&708
8606
7192

QnadTV>taL 48,401

BapM

▲varaga
acre
nte.

8^068

6984

17,427

B. «.!».

1 6 1
4 7
8 11 6

66,404

88,889
0648
0760

48,684

66,886
16,667
87,186

08,088

ACTM.

1 13 8

9 10
7
8 14

9 8 10

1 6 10
4 7
8 13 6

1 U

UMOOuunio.

84,403
9

304

84,706

34482
9

304

Rupee

16,789

640

17,800

18,789
80
640

34,706 17,800

Avenge
ftcremte.

u. a. Pl

10.11
8 6 4
8 10 4

Oil 8

10 11
8 6 4
3 10 4

11 8

SofAU

lerek

48,886
1848
4890

66,060

14,809
3173
8606

19,047

L196
8616

74,108

Aa^. Af««.

48,798
6964

17,««7

73,718

0769

43,684

72,084
I6,S07
37,716

1,16^7

Bli«.IL

10
4 6U
810 f

1 6 8

1 910
4 7 9
8 14

8 810

1 8U

AaieBsment on GoTemmeiit and alienated land ...
/>educ^-AUenation8

Ba. a. p.

1,15^8 4
42,633 10

£. B. d.

11^ 16 6
4263 7 3

Remaina ..• t.« ..• ••. «••

uldd— Quit-renta

Adc^-Qnnjig f eea and river-bed tillage

72,714 10
8843 4
1856 10 11

7271 » 3
884 6 6
185 13 4

Total revenue ...

83,414 8 11

8341 9 li

The 1872 population^ 40^505 souls lodged in 9919 houBes^ were, in
1877^ provided with 578 wells and 174 ponds^ and owned 5875

E loughs, 1886 carts, 13,057 oxen, 9480 cows, 4015 bn&loes, 443
orses, 3401 sheep and goats, and 359 asses.
In 1870-71, the year of settlement, 7113 holdings, ftAa<a«, were
recorded with an average area of 5|^ acres, and a rental of ISs.
4(2. (Bs. 9-2-8). Equally divided among the agricultural popula-
tion, these holdings would, for each person, represent an allotment
of 2^^ acres at a yearly rent of 5«. S^d. (Rs. 2-10-2). If distributed
among the whole population of the sub-division, ike share per head
would amount to 1|4- acres, and the incidence of the land-tax to
3*. Hid. (Rs. 1-15-8).

In 1877-78 of 27,505 acres, the total area of cultivated land, 3884
or 13"93 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the 23,671 a(a«s
under actual tillage, grain crops occupied 20^129 acres, or
85*03 per cent, 9477 acres of them under bdjri, Penicfllaria
epicata; 4075 under ragi, Eleusine corocana; 4037 under rio^
ddngar, Oryza sativa ; 1003 under kodra, Paspalnm scrabi-
culatum; 720 under ^t^var. Sorghum vulgare; 308 under inaiM>

Digitized by VjOOQIC

PANOH MAHA'LS. 297

makdi, Zea mays ; 10 under wheat, ghou, Tritioum asstiTam ; and 499 Chapter xllL

under miscellaneons grains. Palses occupied 2946 acres^ or 12*44 8ub-dmsi0Ai«

per cent, 974 acres of them under mag, Phaseolus radiatus ; 706 ka'lol.

under tuver, Cajanus indicus ; 254under gram, chana, Cicer arietinum;

30 under adad^ Phaseolus mungo } and 982 under miscellaneous

pulses. Oil seeds occupied 300 acres, or 1*26 per cent, 189 of them

under tal, Sesamum indicumi and 111 under other oil seeds.

Fibres occupied 187 acres, or 0*57 per cent, 81 of them under cotton,

kapds, QoBsypium herbaceumj and 106 under Bombay hemp, san,

Crotalaria juncea. Miscellaneous crops occupied 159 acres, or 0*67

per cent^ 83 of them under sugarcane, serdi, Saccharum officinarum ;

15 under tobacco, tambahi, Nicotiana tabacumj and 61 under

miscellaneous regetables and fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 40,505 PeopU,

souls, 88,835, or 95'87 percent Hiudus; 1668, or 4-10 per cent •'^^'

Muscdm&ns; 4 P&rsis ; and 8 Christians. Statistics specially prepared
from the enumerators^ forms give the following caste details : 2886
Br&hmans; 6 Brahma-Eushatris, writers; 1717 Y&ni&s and 198
Shr&vaks, traders and merchants; 1700 Kanbis, 1216 Rajputs, 336
K&$hhi4s, 25 M&lis, and 24,069 Eolis, cultivators; 74 Bh&vsltrs,
calicoprinters ; 146 Sonis, gold and silver smiths ; 368 Suth&rs,
carpenters; 389 Luh4rs^ blacksmiths ; 246 Darjis, tailors ; 12 Sal&ts,
masons; 102 Bh&ts and Gh&rans^ bards and genealogists; 310
Kumbhirs, potters ; 463 Haj&ms, barbers ; 21 Dhobhis, washermen ;
164 Bharv6ds and Bab^s, herdsmen and shepherds; 40 Go14b,
rice-pounders; 116 Bhois, labourers and cultivators; 82 Purabi&a
and Mar&th&s, servants ; 51 Y&ghris and 569 B&vali&s, beggars and
labourers; 192 Ods, diggers; 40 Bhils and N&ikd&s, unsettled
cultivators ; 840 Mochis, shoemakers ; 868 Ch4madids, tanners ; 1 498
Dheds ; 145 Garud&s ; and 1184 Bhangids, depressed classes, and 231
religious beggars. As regards occupation the same return arranges
the whole population under the seven following heads : i. Employed
under Government or municipal or other local authorities, 620.
ii. Professional persons, 272. iii. In service or performing personal
ofKces, 177. iv. Engaged in agriculture and with animals^ (a)
cultivators 8784, (6) labourers 148, total 8877. v. Engaged in
commerce and trade, 400. vi. Employed in mechanical arts,
manufactures and engineering operations, and engaged in the sale
of articles manufactured or otherwise prepared for consumption,
2389. vii. Miscellaneous persons not classed otherwise, (a) women
11,175 and children 16,294, in all 27,469 and (6) nuscellaneous
persons 801, total 27,770.

Halol Petty Division. The petty division of Hdlol under Ha lol.

K&lol is bounded on Ihe north by Kalol, on the east by B&riya,
J&mbughoda, and Chhota IJdepur ; and on the south and west by
JSaroda. Its area is 261 square miles ; its population in 1872, 26,926
souls, and its realizable land revenue in 1878, £2437 (Bs. 24,370.)

Of its 261 square nules, 128 are occupied by alienated and tdbMoH

yiUages, The rest according to the revenue survey returns

contains 85,411 acres; of these, 82,987 acres or 97*16 per cent including

filienated lands in G-ovemment villages and lands under the forest

B 107-38

Area,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

(Bombay Oasettoer,

298

DISTRICTS.

Chapter^xni.
Sub-divMons.

Ha'lou
Aipect,

Climate.

Water.

Sail

Rent Rod

Stock,
1876-77.

Produce,
1877-78.

People^

187$.

department of wUch details are not available^ were arable and 2424
acres or 2*84 per cent were unarable waste occupied by ponds,
river-beds, and village sites*

H&lol is a well wooded and well tilled plain snrronnding tbe great
hill of P&v&gad. To the east and south, low, isolated, scantily
wooded hills, stand out from a rich black-soil plain^ most of it waste
and covered with brushwood.

Especially within four or five miles of the hills the water is said
to be poisonous, and the climate very unhealthy. The average
rainfall is 40*44 inches*

Three rivers cross Halol from east to west. The Karad on the
north, the Vishvimitri in the centre from P&v&gad, and on the
south the Devnadi from the B&riya hills. The Devnadi flowing
south-west is afterwards known in Broach as the Dh&dhar. There
are 72 ponds and reservoirs, two of them the Vadu and Jflihariya
of great size. Water is everywhere near the surface, and round
H&Iol there are very many wells. With a richer and less nide
peasantry, much of the sub-division might be watered.

To the north the soil is light, gorddu, to the east it is sandy, and
to the south and west it is black.

As Halol has not yet been surveyed it is without the usual
assessment and occupancy details.

The 1872 population 25,926 souls, lodged in 6612 houses, were^
in 1877, provided with 852 wells and 114 ponds, and owned 3986
ploughs, 1563 carts, 10,002 oxen, 15,859 cows, 6147 buffaloes, 868
horses, 5854 sheep and goats, 168 asses, and 5 camels.

In 1877-78 of 13,713 acres the total area of cultivated land, 1750
or 12*76 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the 11,963 acrei
under actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 9789 acres, or 81*82
per cent, 3086 acres of them under bdjri, Penicillaria spicata;
2274 under kodra, Paspalum scrobiculatum ; 2167 under rice,
ddngar, Oryza sativa; 1221 under juvdr, Sorghum vulgare; 598
tmder rdgi, Eleusine corocana ; 262 under maize, makdi^ Zea mays;
2 under wheat, ghau, Triticum sBstivum ;and 179 under miscellaneous
grains. Pulses occupied 1515 acres, or 12*66 per cent, 513 acres
of them under gram, chana^ Gicer arietinum; 352 under magj
Phaseolus radiatus; 100 under tuver, Cajanus indicus; 100 under
udady Phaseolus mungo ; and 450 under miscellaneous crops. Oil
seeds occupied 632 acres, or 5*28 per cent, 117 of them under to/,
Sesamum indicum j and 515 under other oil seeds. Fibres occupied
10 acres, or 0*08 per cent, 2 of them under cotton, kapds, Gossypinm
herbaceum ; and 8 under Bombay hemp, san, Crotalaria junoea.
Miscellaneous crops occupied 17 acres, or 0*14 per cent, 7 of them
under sugarcane, serdi, Saccharum oflScinarum ; 2 under tobacco,
iambdku, Nicotiana tabacum ; and 8 under miscellaneous v^fetables
and fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 25,926
souls, 25,215 or 97*25 per cent, Hindus; 708 or 273 per oent^
Musalmins ; and 3 P^is. Statistics specially prepared from the
enumerators' forms give the following ci^^te details : 314 BhkbinaDs;

Digitized by VjOOQIC

O^arit]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

299

4 BrahmarKshatris, writers ; 746 Y&mia, 33 BMti&s and 15 Shr&vaks,
traders and merchants; 456 Kanbis, 75 Rajputs^ 199 E^cUu^s^ and
14^055 Kolis, cnltivators; 6 Bh&vs&rSi calicoprinters ; 71 Sonis^ gold
and silver smiths; 11 Snth&rs^ carpenters ; 225 Loh&rs, blacksmiths ;
49 Darjis^ taQors ; 4 Ghnn&r&i, bricklayers; 14 Sal&ts, masons; 481
Bh&ts and Ch^urans^ bards and genealogists ; 171 Haj&ms^ barbers ;
824 Bhary&ds and Bab&ris^ herdsmen and shepherds ; 81 G^ol&s^ rice-
pounders; 5 Bhois^ labourers ; 52 Mar&th^, labourers ; 129 B&yalijs,
beggars and laboorers ; 41 M&rv&dis, labourers ; 57 Ods^ diggers ;
21 Kal&ls, liquor sellers; 1838 Bhils^ and 4518 N&ikd&s^ unsettled
cultivators; 23 Mochis^ shoemakers ; 99 Oh&madi^^ tanners^ 287
Dheds and 286 Bhangi&s, depressed classes ; and 27 religious
beggars. As regards occupation the same return arranges the
whole population under the seven following heads : i. Employed
under Government or municipal or other local authorities^ 292.
iL Professional persons, 45. iii. In service or performing personal
offices, 218. iv. Engaged in agriculture and with animals, {a)
cultivators 5174, {b) labourers 414, total 5588. v. Engaged in
commerce and trade, 93. vi. Employed in mechanical arts,
manufactures and engineering operations, and engaged in the sale of
articles manu&ctured or otherwise prepared for consumption,
2445. vii. Miscellaneous persons not clajssed otherwise, (a) women
6716 and children 10,457> in all 17,173; and (6) miscellaneous
persons 72 ; total 17,246.

Dohad Sub-division. Dohad, the two boundaries, has on the
north the petty division of Jb&lod ; on the east J&mbua in Central
India; on the south Ali Btipur in Central India; and on the west
B&riya in Rewa R&ntha. It is a compact circular tract about 22
miles in diameter, with Dohad, the chiei town, nearly in the centre.
Its area is 337 square miles, its population in 1872, 63,513 souls, and
its land revenue in 1878, £7066 (Rs. 70,660).

Of its 339 square miles, 113 are occupied by alienated and
tdluhddri villages. The rest according to the revenue survey returns
contains 144,452 acres ; of these 130,860 acres or 90-59 per cent
including alienated lands in Government villages and lands under the
forest department of which details are not available were arable and
13,592 acres or 9*40 per cent were unarable occupied by ponds,
river-beds, and village sites.

Unlike other parts of the Panch Mahdls, Dohad is pleasantly
varied with hills, rich TOUeys, and waving sparsely- wooded plains,
rising into high peaks crested with snow-white quartz. The land
has a long-settlea look. The brick and mortar houses of the richer
classes are grouped in villages, but by far the greater number have
their wattle and daub homesteads dotted over the village lands or
clustered round the village pond. On the whole there is no prettier or
natorsJly richer country in Qujarit. Though hilly throughout, there
are no specially marked peaks or ridges. The water-shed of the
district is a tableland from four to six miles broad, the extension of
the A'r&vali range from Rajputina southwards, between Dohad
and B&riya. The rise of the land from Qodhra though gradual is
yiell marked.

Chapter JJIL
Sab-divirioiui-

Ha'lol.

Dohad.

Area^

AspecL

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[Bombay Otf c tUe r,

800

DISTRICTS,

Outpter Xm
Sub-diviflions.

I>OHAJ>.

Water.

SaiL
Rent Roll

Stocky
1876-77^

Produce^
1S77'78.

People^
1879.

The climate is cooler than in the weetem division, less oppressivB
during the hot weather, and with occasional frosts in the cdd.
The average rainfall in the twelve years ending 1877 was 28*75
inches.

The main river, the An&s flows thronghont the year alon? ^
eastern boundary. Many of its tributaries, of which the chiei'are
the E[asba, the KhiLri, the K&li, the Gkmgri, the K^veri and the
Barod, wandering across it, and generally flowing thronghont Ad
year, water the whole of Dohad. The country is speciidly suited
for storing water, and has some very large reservoirs holding water
throughout the year.

Reddish in trap and light fawn-coloured in quartz uplands, tin
soil in the lower levels is black.

As Dohad has not yet been surveyed it is without the iisiial
assessment and occupancy details.

The 1872 population 63,513 souls, lodged in 18,936 houses, were,m
1877, provided with 598 wells and 15 ponds, and owned 10,009 ploagha,
1839 carts, 22,151 oxen, 21,543 cows, 10,437 buffaloes, 868 horees,
11,787 sheep and goats, 421 asses, and 14 camels.

In 1877-78 of 38,836 acres, the total area of cultivated land, I
or 22-10 per cent were fallow or under grass. Of the 30,253 aone
under actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 18,833 acres, or
62*26 per cent, 14,043 acres of tibem under maise, makHf Zea
mays; 2429 under rice, ddngar, Oryza sativa; 878 under ibwH
Paspalum scrobiculatum ; 239 under rdgri, Eleusine corocana;SB5
under wheat, ghau, Triticum sBstivum ; 145 under juvwr^ Sor^nm
vulgare; 13 under hajri, Penicillaria spicata; 88 under barley,
jav, Hordeum hexastichon; and 773 under miscellaneous graiM.
Pulses occupied 8574 acres, or 28*34 per cent, 6400 acres d
them under gram, chana, Cicer arietinum ; 1307 under aiaif
Phaseolus mungo ; 355 under tuver^ Cajanus indicus ; 298 under peas,
vatdna, Pisum sativum ; 182 under mag, Phaseolus radiatus ; and 32
under miscellaneous crops. Oil seeds occupied 2391 acres, or 7-90
per cent, 2249 of them under tal, Sesamum indicum ; and 142 under
other oil seeds. Fibres occupied 386 acres, or 1*27 per cent, all
under Bombay hemp, scm, Grotalaria juncea. Miscellaneous crops
occupied 69 acres, or 0*22 per cent, 3 of them under sngarcaae,
serdi, Saccharum officinarum; 1 under tobacco, tambaku, Nicotiaoa
tabacum ; 4 under opium, and 61 under miscellaneous vegetables and
fruits.

The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 68,61S
souls, 59,264 or 9331 per cent, Hindus ; 4226 or 6'65 per cent
Musalmdns; 2 Parsis ; and 21 Christians. Statistics spedaUy propared
from the enumerators' forms give the following caste detaik:
819 Brdhmans ; 5 Brahma-Kshatris, writers ; 827 V4ni4g, 1826
Shrdvaks, and 22 Bhdtiis, traders and merchants ; 25 Eanbis, 181?
Rajputs, 3 K4chhi&B, 219 Mdlis, 771 Rivals, 1551 Lab<nis and
11,580 Kolis, cultivators; 197 Bonis, gold and silver gmitlis;
3 Kansaras, brass and coppr smiths ; 141 Suth&«, carpenters ; 534
Luhars, blacksmiths ; 95 Kadias, bricklayers ; 223 DarjiSi taikxi;

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a^jar&t]

PANCH MAHA'LS.

801

22 Cliipp&s, calenders ; 43 Bli&ts and Cliar&ns^ bardsand genealogists ;
424 KnmbbdrSj potters ; 834 Haj&ms^ barbers ; 89 Dhobhis^ washer-
men ; 772 Bbary&ds and Bab&ris, herdsmen and shepherds ; 7 Golds,
ricepounders ; 25 Bh4dbhanj&s, grainparchers ; 42 Bhois, labourers
»nd cultivators ; 805 M&rv&dis, labourers ; 145 Purabi&s and Mar&th&s,
eervants ; 108 Yanj&rds, carriers ; 94 Ealils, liquor sellers j 283
Rdvali^, beggars and labourers ; 144 K&mali&S; blanket-weavers,
84,735 Bhils and 16 N&ikd^, unsettled cultivators; 108
Mochisj shoemakers ; 701 Chdmadi^, tanners, 592 Dheds, 50
Garud^, and 841 Bhangi&s, depressed classes ; and 274 religious
beggars. As regards occupation the same return arranges the
whole population under the seven following heads : i. Employed
imder Government or municipal or other local authorities, 766.
ii. Professional persons, 120. lii. In service or performing personal
offices, 458. iv. Engaged in agriculture and with animals, {a)
cultivators 18,511, {b) labourers 596, total 14,107. v. Engaged
in commerce and trade, 642. vi. Employed in mechanical arts,
manufactures and engineering operations, and engaged in the sale
of articles manufactured or otherwise prepared for consumption,
3136. vii. Ifiscellaneous persons not classed otherwise, (a) women
17^500, and children 26,887, in all 43,887, and {b) miscellaneous
persons 447, total 44,284.

. Jhalod Petty Divi^on. The petty division of Jh£lod under
Dohad is bounded on the north by the Chelkari state, and on the east
by the Eushalgad state, both in Central India ; on the south by Dohad,
and on the west by B&riya and Sunth in the Bewa K&ntha. The
An&s river runs along its entire eastern face. Its area is 267
square miles and its population in 1872, 36,785 souls or 188 to the
Bquare mile, and its realizable land revenue in 1878, £3870
(Bs. 38,700).

As the Jh&lod survey is not finished, area and tillage detaOs
cannot be given.

Except that there are wider stretches of black soil, Jhflod ia
much like Dohad.

As in Dohad the climate is better than in the western division.
The average rainfall is returned at about 28 inches.

The Makan and El&li rivers on their way to the An&s cross the
district from north to south. Water is in most places close to the
surface and large areas are watered by lever-lifts, dhekudis^ from
unbuilt wells.

The Hght, goradu, soil is like that of Dohad. There is much fine
alluvium in the Makan valley especially about Limbdi. The black
0oil is a rich deposit of decayed vegetable mould. Most lands in the
sub-division can yield two harvests, an early Tdicmf crop of maize^
and a late rahi crop of wheat or grain.

As Jhdlod has not yet been surveyed there are no assessment or
occupancy details.

The 1872 population 36,785 souls, lodged in 8684 houses, were, in
1877, provided with 881 wells and 43 ponds, and owned 6895 ploughs,
879 carts, 13,471 oxen, 12,279 cows, 6706 bufEaloeSj 563 horses,
4580 sheep and goats, and 442 asses.

Chaftor^ZIIL
Sub-divisiaiai

DOHAB.

JSA'LOn.

Aspect.

WaUTn
Soil

SentBolL

Stock,
1876-77.

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802 DISTBICTS.

ChaptCT Xm. In 1877-78 of 23,259 acres, the total area of cnltivated land, 4940

Bnb-divULons. o^ 21*28 per cent were &Ilow or under grass. Of tlie 18,319 acres

Jha'lod binder actual cultivation, grain crops occupied 11,993 acres, or 65'46

Produce. ^^ cenit^ 8591 acres of them nnder maize, mak&i, Zea mays ; 1716

1877^ nnder rice, ddnga/r, Oryza sativa; 564 under kodra, Paspalam

Bcrobiculatum ; 189 under wheat, ghau, Triticum SMtivum ; 31 under

juvd/Tf Sorghum vulgare ; 134 under rdgi, Eleusine oorocaua ; 25

under barley, ^'av, Hordeum hexastichon; 15 under bdjri, PenicillaTia

spicata; and 728 under miscellaneous grains. Pulses occupied

5410 acres, or 29*53 per cent, 4784 acres of them under gram,

ehana, Cicer arietinum; 571 under adad, Phaseolus mungo; 23

nnder mo^, Phaseolus radiatus ; 17 under luver, Cajanus indieos;

and 15 under miscellaneous pulses. Oil seeds occupied 360 acres,

or 1*96 per cent, all under tdl, Sesamum indicum. Fibres occupied

337 acres, or 1*84 per cent, all under Bombay hemp, son, Crotakria

jnncea. Miscellaneous crops occupied 219 acres, or 1*19 per cent,

10 of them under sugarcane, serdi, Saccharum officinamm ; 7 under

tobacco, iambdku, Nicotiana tabacum ; and 202 under miscellaneous

vegetables and fruits.

P«|J^ The 1872 census returns show of a total population of 36,785

^*' souls, 35,674 or 96*98 per cent, Hindus; and 1111 or 3*02 per cent,

Musalm&is. Statistics specially prepared from the enumerators'
forms give the following caste details : 429 Br&hmans ; 7 Biahma-
Kshatns and Parbhus, writers ; 518 Vani&s and 505 Shr&vaks, traders
and merchants ; 542 Elanbis, 353 Rajputs, 705 Mdlis, 293 Labinie^
253 R&vals and 286 Kolis, cultivators; 106 Sonis, gold and silver
smiths; 90 Suth&rs, carpenters ; 182 Luh&rs, blacksmiths; 11 K'adi48,
bricklayers; 19 Darjis, tailors; 72 6h&nchis, oil-pr^ssers ; 19 Bh&ts
and Ch&rans, bards and genealogists; 343 Kumbh&rs, potters; 177
Haj&ms, barbers; 39 Dhobhis, washermen; 216 Bharvids and
Bab&ris, herdsmen and shepherds ; 2 Bh^bhunj&s, gndnparchers;
31 Marath&s, servants; 72 Yanj&rds, carriers ; 26 !l^41s, liquor sellerB ;
39 Lakh&r&i, makers of lac bangles; 29,336 Bhils, unsettled cultiva-
tors ; 50 K&maXi&a, blaiJset- weavers ; 122 Mochis, shoemakers;
289 Ch&madi&s, tanners, 36 Dheds, 54 Garud^s, and 216 Bhangi^
depressed classes ; and 166 religious beggars. As regards occupa-
tion the same return arranges the iraole population under the
seven following heads: i. Employed under Government or municipal
or other local authorites, 515. ii. Professional persons, 126. liL In
service or performing personal offices, 134. iv. Engaged in agri*
culture and with animals, (a) cultivators 8981, (6) Labourers 31,
total 9012. y. Engaged in commerce and trade, 398. vi. Employed
in mechanical arts, mauu&ctures and engineering operations^ and
engaged in the sale of articles manufactured or otherwise prepared
for consumption, 844. vii. Miscellaneous persons not classed otiiea>
wise, (a) women 10,657, and children 14,825, in all 25,482 ; and
{b) miscellaneous persons 274 ; total 25,756.

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Oiyarit]

CHAPTER XIV-

PLACES OF INTEREST.

Bha' vka. About five miles Bouth- west of Dohad, at the village of Chapter^ XIV.
Bli&vkaisa rained temple of Mahddev^ apparently of considerable Races of Interest
age. It seems to have originally been an octagon, each side of
eiglit feet with single-stone lintels supported on octagonal pillars^ five
feet round at the base and four below the capital. At the entrance
of the shrine is a figure of Gkknpati holding in his hands what seems
to be a battle axe. On the outside are the remains of three belts of
Bcnlptare^ the highest rude and somewhat indecent figures^ the second
elephantS) and the third groups of very small figures of men and
beasts. According to a local story this temple was built by courtezans
at the time (746-1483) of the prosperity of Hindu Ch&mp&ner.

Bha'vka.

Bhimkund. About five miles south of Dohad near where the
village lands of Vij&pur , Brahmakhed, and Bamdungra meet^ is a large
earthen basin formed by a waterfall about seventy feet high. Here four
days before Holt (AprU) thousands of Bhils come, some of them from
considerable distances. Those who have during the year lost friends,
relations, or parents bring their ashes with them and throw them
into the pool. Then they wash and going to Br&hmans, always
there in g^eat numbers, have a red spot, chcundla, marked on the
brow and in return give some small present in money or grain*
Then drinking begins and, if money lasts so long, is kept up for about
tt fortnight.

Cliakki-no-a'ro. In the Esrad river between the villages of
Medlipur and Marva in Hfilol is the Ohakki'-nO'dro or Grindstone
Imnk, one of the most singular spots in the district. In the middle
of the river where the channel is deepest is a large rock over which,
in ordinary course, the stream would flow and fall in a cascade into
tlie deep pool below. But above the rock a rectangular reservoir,
hund^ has been built about fifteen feet square, and four to five
feet deep, partly of brick and partly of rock, the large rock forming
its lowest side. Into this pool the water of the river runs, and passes
out of it, not over the large rock, but by a six or eight feet long
cliannel cut from the deepest part of the reservoir right through
tlie centre of the rock. Out of this, from the centre of the rock,
fch.e water spouts and falls into a deep pool several feet below. The
place is sacred, and at eclipses of the sun and at the Mahoda Pa/to
0]a SomvaU Amds, when the last day of the month &rlls on a Monday,
aod on other occasions is visited by Brdhmans, Kshatris, and
'V&niis, who bathe and wash away their sins in the pooL The
le^nd is that a certain B&ja Sulochan of Benares was troubled with

Bhimkund,

CHAKJU-KO-A'sa

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804

DISTRICTS.

Ohaptar^ZIV.
FlaoetoflAtoreit

Cha'mpa'nxb.

Hittory.

a growth of hair on the pakiui of his hands, aent him as a pmniih-
ment for his fiins. As none of the Benares seers conld core him ho
was advised to go to the famous Vishyamitra, who lived where
P&v^igad now stands. Yishv&mitra told him that if he sacrificed at a
spot in the river where a sacred grindstone lay, his sins should be
destroyed as grain is ground to powder in a grindstone. The
K&ia went to the spot, built a place of sacrifice, and in a grest
rock cut a conduit through which to feed with butter the fire St his
sacrifice. Thus was he freed from his sins and from the hair
growth. The river became known as the Hand or Kar, since
coirupted into Karad Ganga, and the place of sacrifice as the CkakH-
no-dro or Qrindstone bank. Half the grindstone is still there, the
other half was stolen by a GosAi, who, pursued, was forced to throw
away the grindstone where it still lies between the villages of Viasia
and Al&li in E&lol.

In the bank of the Earod opposite to, but it is said in no way
connected with the Grindstone shore, is an opening in the rock
three to four feet high. This is said to be one end of the under-
ground passage whose other end is at the M&chi HaveU half way
up P&vdigad. Major Fulljames from the P&v^igad end and Mr.
Acworth from the Med&pur end have both passed some little way
up it. But even among the natives of the place there would seem
to be no known case of any one passing through or even going any
considerable distance along this tunnel.^

Cha'mpa'ner, north latitude 22^ 30' and east longitude 78^ 9V,
lies nearly a mile to the north-east of the main body of P&v6gad hiH,
about twenty-five miles east of Baroda and forty-two south of Gk)dlua.
Though at present (1878), except for a few Bhil and N&ikda squatters,
almost entirely deserted, Ch&mp&ner is a place of much historic
interest and has many remains of its former greatness.

The name is said to come from Ch&mpa, according to one
account a Y&nia, and according to another a Kanbi, who founded
the city during the reign of Van R4j of Anhilvdda (746-806)*
In the eleventh century BAm Gaur the Tudr is styled Pdvi^s lord.*
But he seems to have held under the Anhilvdda kings for, at
least till the eleventh century, and probably until in 1297 ti^eir power
was crushed by Al&-ud-din Khilji, Ch&mp&ner continued one of their
chief eastern strongholds.^ About the same time as the fall of
Anhilv4da, Ghoh&n Rajputs flying before Al&-ud-din Khilji settled
at Ch&mp4ner. This family, though since 1484 deprived of its
chief seat, is still represented by the rulers of the Chhota
Udepur and Devgad Bdriya states. The names of the Ghohia
chiefs of Ch&mp&ner, recorded in an inscription found at N^hid
ITmarv&n near H^lol, are R&ja Shri R&madev, Shri Ch&ngdev,
Shri Ch&chingdev, Shri Son&mdev, Shri P&Ihansingh, Shri Jitkano,

1 Oontribnted bj Mr. H. Acwortii, C.S.

< Chimpa is ftlflo oaUed a Bhil ; An. Bea IV. 187. He augr have got tina i
from settliiiff in the Bbil ooontiT.
siUsMi&,72. «IUBMila,]37.

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Oniwiti

PANCH MAHA'LS.

806

Sliri Kempii B&yal, Shri Yiradhikva], Shri Savar&j, Shri B&ghaydev,
Sliri Trimbak Bhap^ Shri Ganga B^jeshvar^ and Shri Jajasingh Dev.
Raj pat Ghilmp&ner would seem to have lain at the foot of the north-
east slopes of the hill just under the fortress of Pivigad. Though
besieged and made to pay tribute^ in 1418 (821-822 H.)^ and again
more hardly pressed about 1450 (853-854 H.)^ the strength of &eir
hill enabled the Chdmp&ner chiefs to mainte^ their independence,
fighting freely at times with their neighbour and rival the Bao of
Idar. In 1483 (8^7 H.) during a season of scarcity Malik Asad,
one of Sult&n Mahmud Begad&'s captains (1452-1511), raiding in
Champ&ner territory was attacked, defeated, and slain by B&val
Jayasmgh. In revenge Mahmud sent an army to Baroda, and refusing
all means of settlement except 'the sword and the dagger/
attacked Ch&mp4ner. The siege had lasted about a year when the
R&val again made overtures of peaceoffering to pay 360 pounds of gold.
This the Sult&n refused, declaring that he would not leave till the
fort was taken. Jayasingh now applied for help to 6hiy&-ud-din
of M41wa. But Mahmud advanced to Dohad and, without striking
a blow, the M&l waking retired. On his return to Chdmp&ner, to
show ilie besieged that he would not leave till the fort was taken,
Mahmud laid the foundations of a beautiful mosaue. Meanwhile
the besiegers gradually pushing on their outworlcs took the fort
in 1484. The wounded B&val falling into the Sult4n's hands was
at first well treated, but after six months, refusing to embrace IsUm^
he was put to death. One of his sons, brought up as a Musalm&n,
was in the next reign ennobled under the title of Niz&m-ul-mulk.
On the fall of the fort Mahmud changed the name of the city to
Mahmudabad Chdmp&ner. Pleased with the climate he made it
liis capital, building a fort, a mosque, and a palace and bringing nobles
and ministers to settle. Many great buildings were raised, and
gardens laid out and, by the skill of a native of Khor^&n, well fitted
with fountains and waterfalls.^ Its fruits, especially its mangoes,
were fiftmous, and its sandal trees grew so freely that their timber was
used in house building. Merchants and craftsmen thronged its streets,
Ghamp&ner swordblades became noted for their sharpness, and
Ch&mp&aer silks for their bright colours.' Though he by no means
deserted Ahmedabad, Mahmud continued to the close of his reigpa
(1511) to consider MsJimudabad Ch&mp4ner his capital. Mahmud's
sncoessors following his example, Ch&mp^ner remained till the
death of Babidur Shah (1536) the political capital of Gujar&t.
During this time the close connection between Mdlwa and Gujar&t
favoured the city's growth and the safety with which their treasures
<^uld be stored in its hill fort gave it a special value in the Sult&ns'
eyes. Though, even at its best (1514) a place neither of so great
trade nor so large as Ahmedabad, like it Ch£mp&ner was
^ embellished with good streets and squares and houses of stone and

1 Bis Mila, 268.

' This Khor^sini is said to ha^e introdnced into Gnjarit the knowledge of fonntaini
flmd artificial waterfalls. The best garden was at fiilol. planned by a GhimpAner
carpenter who, by working under him disgnised aa a laoonrer, had learned the
secret of the stranger's art Ind. Ant. LXIL 5.

* GhimpAner had a great export of silk and was the only place where raw dlk
oonld be washed and prepared. Rev. Com. 1067, 7th May 1838.
B 167— 89

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Chapter ZIV*
FlaceiofliLtarett

OHA'MPA'ian.
Biriary,

Google _

CBomlMiar QftiMeeri

306

DISTRICTS.

PlMMoflatMrtft

Cha'mta'hxb.
HUUtry.

whitewasli. The country round was very fertile, full of abmidant
provisions, wheat, barley, millet, rice, peas and other vegetables, and
many cows, sheep, goats and plenty of froit Near it were himting
ffrounds for deer and other animals and winged gama The king
kept many wild animals, and trained hunting dogs, falcons and tame
leopards/ *

In 1526 at Ch&mp&aeT the yonng SoltfLn Sikandar Shih was
murdered and his successor Bahadur Sh&h crowned.' Continuing
through his reign (1526-1586) to be Bah^ur's capital and head-

Juarters, the city was, in 1535, pillaged by the Emperor Humiymu
iahddur^s death in the next year and the transfer of the court ami
capital to Ahmedabad prevented Ch^mp&ner regaining its former
position. Off the main lines of traffic, the loss of Gujarat ascendancy
over M41wa, took away from Ch&mp&ner its chief claim to importance.
Its fall was rapid. In 1554 its only points of interest were fine
banian trees, large fruit-eating bats and thorny brushwood.' Like
the rest of Gujarat it suffered during the oisorders of ihe next
twenty years (1554-1574). But unlike Ahmedabad and Suratihe
establishment of order under the Emperor Akbar (1573-1605)
brought Ch&mpdner no return of prosperity. At the beginning of
the seventeenth century ' its air was weakening, its water poisonous,
and its orchards and gardens the lair of the tiger and lion. Its
buildings had fallen in ruins, and its people had given their goods to
the winds of destruction. Instead of flowers were thorns, and
instead of gardens close-knotted brushwood, and of its sandal groves
neither the name nor the trace was left. It showed the truth of
the verse, ' All on earth fades and God does as he wills'.' * Though
desolate, Ch&mp&ner continued in name the head of a district of
nine sub-divisions, part at least settled and rich enough to le
included in Raja Todar Mai's survey (1576).* Under the Moghals
Ch&mp&ner was subordinate to Godhra, tillage declined and by the
middle of the seventeenth centuiy so much of the country had

1 Stanley's Barboea, 58.

S Sikandar Sh&h, murdered by ImAd-ul-mnlk, was buried at HiJol. Bird's Gnjaiiti
5231. Bah&dnr already crowned at Ahmedabad according to the Mirat-i-Ahaudi
(Bird, 233), and at P&tan according to Ferishta (Briggs, IV. 133), wasa^ain erawnedit
Ch&mpilner " because for several reigns it had been considered tiie capital." Ferishl%.
IV. 106.

5 Sidhi AU bin Husein. Bom. lit. Soc. Trans. 11. 8 (Reprint, 1877).

4 Mintti-Sikandari (1611) in Ind. Ant LXIII. 7. Abul F4zal, writinff abnat tti
same time (1586), thouffh he speaks of Chimpiner only as a fort on a higUhill, notictf
its very fine fruits. Gladwin Ain-i-Akbari, II. 65. It was also famons for wood d
aioes, ud or cigar, Bloehmann's Ain-i-Akbari, L 80.

6 Under the later Ahmedabad kings Champiner had been the head-qnaitenol
seven sub-divisions: Cfa Ampler, Savli, DAhi^, fi&lol, Taimurabamih, Bijodand
Jh&lod with in all 423 villages yielding a yearly revenue of £70,000 (Ra. 7,00^000).
Bird's Mirat-i-Ahmadi, 121. Abnl FiaaiX (1586) describee the Chimpiner distriet
as containing nine sub-divisions measuring 800,337 bighds yielding a revenoe d
Rs. 2,52,747 (10,109,884 ddms) and furnishing aforce of 550 cavalry and leOOinfintiy.
The names of the eub-divisions were, Aravereh Chimp4ner, Chnndvareh, ChaoiBi
Dhond, Dhanl, Dilawereh, Sovukhereh, and San vis. In the beginning of the efg^teeolk
century ChiLtDpiner was (see p. 252) the head{of 18 districts. Bat its oommaodaa^
hUeddr, was under the governor. faujddK of Gk)dhra : Mixat-i-Ahmadiy lad. Aak
LXIII. 7. »v -r-.

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PANCH MAHA'LS. 807

lapsed into forest, that it had become a hunting ground for wild Cbapter ZIT.
•^P'**"*^-' IlaeetirflattrNt

In 1803 when the town was taken by the British^ only 500 Giul'mfa'kib.-
inhabitants were fonnd in it. Bat the regular population
i»as larger^ for most had heard of the approach of the troops and
fled. At that time about half of the walled enclosure or citadel
was occupied by a settlement of silk and brocade weavers.^ A few
years later (1812) there were about 400 houses^ half of them
inhabited^ the people chiefly runaways from other Gujarat cities.'
In 1829 silk weavers were still settled at Ch&mp&ner but their
number had lately been terribly thinned by cholera.* When (1853,
July 31st) it came under British management the place was almost
deserted. A sum of £126 (Bs. 1260) was spent in an attempt
to bring cultivators to settle and clear the forest. But the
colony fidled. Three-fourths died and the rest fledi Since then
but little progress has been made. Except the constables of the
police post, its only inhabitants are a few families of poor and sickly
jSiohs and N&ikd&s.

Gonung ^ from Godhra the first sign of Ch&mpfiner's former Bemaim,

greatness is, at H&lol, Sikandar Sh&h's (1536) tomb, a rather
plain one-storied sandstone building in the Muhammadan or
arched style. On the J&mbughoda road, about two and a half
miles beyond Halol, stands a small brightly-plastered tomb, the
shrine of Khon Pir, a saint revered by the Tiis or Musalm&n
weavers. A few hundred yards to the north-east of Khon Fir's
tomb rises from the brushwood a miuaret known as the Ek MinArka
Ifayid, The One Minaret Mosque, and half a mile to the south
close to Fav&gad another small mosque called from a group of
trees the Pdnm Mahiiddka Masjid, The Five Mahuda Trees Mosque.
About three quarters of a mile beyond Khon Pir^s tomb a bare
lonely stone arch, once the west gate of Ch4mp&ner, comes in view.
To the right before passing through the arch is a square pond,
once surrounded by masonry steps, and filled from the hill above by
a massive stone drain of which there are stiU traces. The pond is
commonly known as the Kaabin taldv or Courtezan's pond. But
the real builder was Sakar Khdn, a Path&n of Champ&ner, whose
stone tomb, with finely cut windows and handsome dome, stands at
one comer. At the ruined gateway the line of the old wall can be
traced about 330 yards south to the foot of the north F&vagad spnr ;
then turning west at right angles it crosses the mouth of a ravine
to a ridge to the west up whose steep face it runs, till it reaches the
scarp on the top of which stand the Julan Budan gate and wall.
North of the ruined gateway the wall runs to the crest of a

1 In 1645, 78 elephants were oaught in the Dohad and Chimpdbier foxestOk
Wateon, 74.

t Hamilton's HindnstAn, I. 681. > Bom. lit Soc Trans. 1. 151.

4 Rev. Com. 1057, 7th May 1838. Bom. Gov. Rev. Rec. 180 of 1847.

6 Betailsare, as far as possible, limited to remains on the ChimpAner plain, those on
the hill have already been described (p. 189). As is the case with the account of
the T&vimd remains, almost all the materials for this section hav&been snplied bj
Mr. H. X Aoworth, C.a

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[Bombay GaMltMr,
308 DISTRICTSi

Chtpter ZIY* detached ridge of liills on whose eastern slope stood the palace of
Piiioas <tfLit«rest * brother-in-law of one of the P&t&i Ravals.^ Prom the crest ci
this ridge the wall turns sharply back to the soath-^west and then
Cka'mpa'kib. stretches east.

Passing through the west gateway the road for about a mfle
crosses an open plain once covered with the buildings of Ch&mp&ner.
To the north the line of wall^ after coming back from the crest
of the ridge, runs parallel to and close by the road. At first brick
and cement^ the old wall is soon replaced by a massive line of free
stone that^ after running east for about a mile, is crossed bj a
second line of old wall that stretches south 220 yards to Payagad.*
At the foot of the spur it crosses a stream, then turns west, and in
a bending line runs along the spur, gradually rising till it meets the
first, or atah, line of the hill fortification.

The massive line of free stone is Mahmud Begada's wall, the
Jahdnpandh or world shelter, surrounding the citadel or Bhaiar*
of Mahmudabad Ch4mp&ner. Enclosing an area about three*
quarters of a mile long and 280 yards broad, this wall, of great
strength, and about thirty feet high, has at regular intervals bastions
running north and east at right angles. Though much overgrown
with creepers and clinging trees, the wall is in almost perfect repair.
A few hundred yards from its western comer is the south or sonth-
west gateway. At the entrance, the line of wall falls back about
120 feet, and the road into the citadel lies between the two lines
of wall through a rectangular building, probably a guard room, about
150 feet long and 120 wide, with double gates, and in the south
wall richly carved stone windows. On the inner gate is a Persian
inscription of which the first figure of a date and the words Muza&r
Sh^h,^ son of Mahmud Sh&h, can still be read. Inside of the citadel
a little west of the gateway is the Shehrka Masjid or City Mosqne,
a beautiful building in fair repair. About 200 yards east and near
the centre of the citadel is the M^dvi or custom house. l%is
probably used as a guard room, is highly finished, very simple, and well
proportioned. ^ Nearly square, it is open at two ends, each open fMse
having six bays and the two ends joined by five rows of arches, the
whole forming a colonnaded chamber of five nearly equal aisles.
The roof is flat and massive and though without ornament, is much
relieved on the inside.' ^ From the Mandyi to the citadel's east gate
stretches modem Ch&mp&ner, a single street of mean huts. The east

Skte, built on the same plan as the south gate, equally massive, has
e same inscription and the same guard room, only less mined
About fifty yards east of the gate is the Jama ilfair;u2,or Public Mosque^
for massive grandeur and perfect finish inferior to no Musatmia

t Pitii iUval is profoablj a general name contracted from FibBdaaii, thai t^
PivA-rolmg. Ind. Ant LZIII. 2.

2 The east and west walls were probably boilt by the Bajpnto and lepaM bf
HusalmAn engineers.

8 Bhadar or propitiofaB, called after Bhadra K^ Both the GhiapAiisr lai
Abnedabad citadels were Bhadars, taking their name fron the irriginal '^ '
Piktan. Maior J. W. Watson, ISth Febraary 1S79.

4 Beigud from 1513-1626.

ft Mr. Naime, 394, 28ih f ebnuuy 1S79.

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PANCH MAHAliS.

809

building in Western India.^ Within the mosqtie were three oblong
moral tablets, one over the pnlpit and one on either side. The
aide tablets remain each engraved with a verse from the Korfo*
Bat the central slab once adorned with the date-line ' Prayers and
a Pulpit/ is gone.* The top of one of the two chief minarets has
been shattered by a cannon shot wantonly fired at it by the
tyrant Patankar, Sindi&'s Governor in 1812 ? About a third of a mile
north of the citadel is another fine mosque, the Nagina Masjid or
Jewel Mosque, built of very pure white stone. Close to it is a large
brick well, spanned by a stone arch, nearly surrounded by a wall
aad with stone conduits and other water-works. In front of the
mosque is a colonnaded building like the M&ndvi but smaller.
West of the Nagina Ma^jid, between it and the hill the minarets of a
mosque stand out from the trees. This is called after B£va Man, a
very popular saint in Baroda and a follower of Sadan Shah whose
shrine stands on the roof of Maha Kali's temple on P&vagad top.
Through the forest east of the citadel, runs the Shikari Kot or
Hunter's Fort, a low ruined wall enclosiug the remains of many
hundred houses. About a mile and a half east of the citadel, on the
bank of the Great Lake or Bada Taldv, stand the ruins of the
Sult&n's palace and of a mosque. South of the road near the foot
of the hill the shattered foundations of houses and a few Jain
temples show the site of Rajput Champ&ner, which besides covering
the plain between the Musalm^n citadel and the hill foot, ran up the
side of the spur to the line of the fijrst or outer fort wall. Besides
these remains of the city proper the forest is for miles round strewn
with massive wells, minarets, mouldering tombs, and solitary arches,
all that is left of the suburbs, gardens, and palaces, that adorned the
city of Mahmnd Begada.'

Desar. At Desar near Sonipur in H41ol, is an old stone temple
of Mahddev. Though only twenty feet square and not more than
twenty feet high, it is a most striking building : its sides richly
carved from base to roof with the beautifully broken outline of the
old Gnjar&t Brahmanio and Jain buildings. Near the foot runs an
elephant scroll, above the elephants two scrolls of human figures,
the lower very small the upper somewhat larger, then two belts of

Chapter Xnr.

naeasof Intereib

CHA'MPA'ianu

BlSAB.

1 Its OQter oatU&e ia more effective than that of any of the Ahmedabad moe^nea.
It 18 muToimded by a high stone wall with handtome bnttreesed coraen each ranag
into a ehort minaret On the onteide the line of the waU is, on the sides, broken by rich
windows with oyeribangine piUaried balconies. Along the back it is broken by a row
«f sixteen nnarched windows, filled with finely cot stone traoeiy, and between each
pair of windows a ronnded tower or dwarf minaret^ whose pinoacle ends a little below
the upper edge of the wall. In fronts on each side of the gateway, stands a finely

Sropoitioned minaret, and behind the minarets the centre of the mosque rises
OQble-etoried and domed, bnilt entirely in the deep-eaved flat flindn style.

9 Briggs' Ferishta IV. 70. The words yjj^ j aJia^ give the date 914H. 1606.

S The most noticeable of these remains are at Jepnra, about two miles north by east
«f Ch&mptosr a ruined mosque on the bank of a small pond ; at BAnipora, east of
CbAmpiner a fine old step well with solid masonry arches ; atChatnrdi Viv sontii of
Btoipura another fine step well probably Hindu repaired by Musalm&ns. Though
imbedded in forest the water of both theea wells is dear and sweet. In the souui-
east, a short way up the hillside near where the east city wall joini the hill loitiA'
eatioiw, is a rained mosque probably once uied by the ganiMMi.

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(Rttptttr ZIT. stone tracory above that^ its chief feature a scroll of human figoree

FlaoM ctfLiterest ^^^'''y '^® '^^®> ^^^ carved and life-like, and over all a rich deep-cat

cornice partly in ruins. Its probable date is somewhat late in

the time of Hindu Gh&mp&ner (1300-1484). Bat it contains no

inscription and has not yet been critically examined.

DbvEsda'b. Dev Keda'r. Near the village of Chos&la, about seven miles

north of Dohad, a stream runs into a cave. In this spot an image of
Mah4dev under the name of Ked&reshvar has been set up. Many
Bhils visit the shrine, especially on Phdgan Sud 11th (March).

In the villages of Nav£g&m, about seven miles north-east, Gingadia^
eleven miles south, and Nelsu, about nine miles south-west of I^had,
every year on the day after Holi (April) a ceremony called the chd
or hearth takes place. In a trench seven feet by three and aboat
three feet deep, kher, Mimosa catechu, logs are carefully and closely
packed till they stand in a heap about two feet above ground. The
pile is then set on fire and allowed to bum to the level of the groond.
The village Bhangia or sweeper breaks a cocoanut, kills a couple
of fowls, and sprinkles a little liquor near the pile. Then, after
washing their feet, the sweeper and the village headman walk
barefoot hnrriedly across the fire. After this strangers come to
fulfil vows, and giving one anna and a half cocoanut to the sweeper,
and the other half cocoanut to the headman, wash their feet and
turning to the left walk over the pile. The fire seems to cause none
of them any pain.

DoHAD. Dohad or D wahad/ a town in 1 872 of 1 1,472 inhabitants, stands

in north latitude 22'' 50' and east longitude 70"* 18' on the border,
dohad, of Gujar&t and Malwa, about forty-three miles east of Godhra.
The town lies in a slight hollow ^irt by ridges of low hills at tbe
entrance to the chief pass between Gujardt and Mdlwa. Of 1 1,472, tbe
population in 1872, 7572 or 66 per cent were Hindus, 8877 or 83-79
per cent Musalmdns, twenty-one Christians, and two others. Alaiige
section of the people, especially the commanity of D^udi or Slua
Bohor^s, are prosperous traders, living in well built brick houses.
The chief town of a large sub-division and for long a place of
importance, Dohad has a considerable population of craftsmen, and
supplies a wide tract of country with earthen and brass ware, and to
some extent with cloth. The only special local manu&ctures are
those of blackwood, hair-combs, and lac bracelets. On the higH
road between M&lwa and Gujarat it has always been, and thougli
somewhat injured by the opening (1875) of Uie Batlam and Indor
railway, is still a place of considerable trade. Its exports are of
vegetables, gram, wheat, maize, rice, and castor-oil to M&lwa, and gram,
wheat, maize, and sweet-oil to Gujardt, and of animal products, clarified
bntter, to M£lwa and Gujarat, lac to Ahmedabad and Ratl&m, and
hides and horns to Bombay. Its imports are of minerals, iron and
copper from Bombay, and salt from Khar&ghoda on the Ban of Catch;
of vegetables, cocoanuts and spices from Bombay, tobacco from

1 Most of the materiala for the Dohad town haye been supplied by Mr. K. 8. Nanmii^
Civil Sorgeoa of Dohad.

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PANCH MA'HALS. 811

NadiM, sugar and molasses from Bombay^ grain from Benares by Chapter XIV*
Indor, and from Kajgad near Bbop^var. Of mannfactured articles places of Interest*
European jaconets^ madarpalams^ mullmalls, chintzes^ and dhotara
oome from Bombay by P6li; from Ahmedabad and Kaira come ^"^^*

ehhidris or fine sdllas, dorida for petticoats^ dhotara for waist-
cloths, and sacking, khdrki or dangri, for the use of Bhils ; from
Indor andBarhdnpar,tarbans and head cloths ; from Part&bgad, black
and indiffo robes or sdllds ; and from Batl&m chhidria and khdrvda for
robes and dorida for petticoats, auai for the higher classes and nddra
for the Bhils. Daring the last two years the exhaustion of grain
stocks, from export to the Deccan and the failure of crops in Gujardt,
have given rise to large imports of maize, millet, and wheat from Dhar^
Indor, Ujain, Batl&m, and other Central Indian grain marts.

Dohad is an old town. In early times Dadhichi Bishi is said to StBtary,

have lived there and in his honour the river was called Dadhimati,
a temple on its banks was dedicated to Dudheshvar Mah&dev,
and the town named Dudhipumagar. It is said to have been a
settlement of B&hria Bajputs. Seven or eight families of this tribe
still live in Dohad, and, as the remnants of the first settlers, perform
ceremonies and offer sacrifices to propitiate the gods when the town
is attacked with epidemic disease. It remained under a Une of
Rajput chiefs till in the beginning of the fifteenth century (1419)
Sultan Ahmad I. (1411-1443) defeated Dongar Bitja, destroyed his
palace, and in its place raised a citadel.^ With the rest of the Panch
Mahals, Dohad passed to the Emperor Akbar in the end of the
sixteenth century (1573-1583), and about the middle of the eighteenth
century fell into Sindid's hands (1750-1760). Under Sindia Dohad
was the seat of a governor, and was in 1785 one of the best towns on
the line of march between Gujar&t and M&l wa, with brick houses and
well-to-do inhabitants, especially a number of Bohora Musalm&ns.'
With the rest of the Panch Mah&ls Dohad passed under British
management in 1853.

The town is of two parts, the old town in the west and the
new town, most of it built during the last century, close to the
old town on the east. Coming from Godhra at the west end
of the town are the traces of an old gateway and a line of walls
running south to the river and about 500 yards beyond, another line
of walls enclosing a square space about 500 yards each way. The
only part of the old wall still standing is the eastern or Pani gate.
From their foundations the walls seem to have been brick, and to have
liad four gates, two in the west, and two in the east. The portions of
the old town still remaining are the Des&iv&da, the Khad&et&v&da, and
the Gh^nchiv&da. The places of interest connected with the old town
are, on the left of the entrance gate coming from Godhra, a lake known
as the Ohhdba Taldv or Basket Pond. Tbia lake said to have been

^ Major Watson, 35. Bird (124-190) makes Ahmad's fort at Ddhmod and makes
Ifoeaffar (1613-1526) the builder of Dohad fort (222). Of this early fort there would
seem now to be no trace.

* Forbes* Or. Mem, III. ldl.>

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eiiavterZIT.
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Bemaina,

Buildings.

dug by men of the Od caste^^ about the same time aa tbe Odv&dalake
near Godliray about a mile and a half round, is one of the finest pieces
of water in the Panch Mahals and is surrounded by a flight of stone
steps with strong retaining end walls and a waste water sliiiee.
From the ereat scarcity of wells in the town, its water is of special
value, and is used throughout the year. In the lake are two islaads
where, towards the close of the eighteenth century, pleasure honaes
were built by B^pu Sdheb P4tankar, whose son A'pa Saheb wv
married to Daulatr&7 Sindi&'s (1794-1820) daughter. According to
one account the Panch Mah&ls were given by Sindia as his daughter's
dowry. B&pu S&heb was made governor and asked to send his son
to live at 6w41ior. Bapu refused, saying that Sindia^s daughter should
come and live with her husband at Dohad. To this Sindia would
not agree. A force was sent against Dohad with orders to bnng
back the young A'pa Saheb but without harming a hair of his head.
B&pu retired to P&v^Lgad, and knowing that the besiegers would not
fire at him is said to have set his son in front of the fort After a
time P^tankar surrendered, and with his son was taken to Gw^r.
Another account states that the force was sent by Sindia to ponisii
P&tankar who, recalled for oppression, had refused to leave the
Panch Mdh&ls. This story states that after his capture on his way
to Gwftlior, P^tankar committed suicide outside of the south Dohad
gate at a spot marked by a banian tree since known as the BhidHoai
or ghost's figtree. On the east bank of the Chh^ba lake a Bohora
vegetable garden, known as the Dongarv&da or Dongar's garden,
marks the site of the old Bajpnt chiefs palace. Another reUcof
the old Rajput city is in the south the Ghanchiv^a Maejid or
Oilman's mosque, said to have been built on the site and of the
stones of the old chief's zen&na. Close to the mosque is a pond, the
Chandan Tcddv or Sandal Lake.

On the south bank of the river, nearly opposite the oilman's
mosque and close to a banian tree is a small building with a
tomb inside.* The story is that on the banks of the Dohad rirer
one of Sh&h JaMn's wives was (1619) seized with the pains of
childbirth. The court astrologer declared that if the child was
bom before a certain hour he would bring bad luck, but if after
a certain hoar he would become a mighty monarch. To aTcrt
misfortune the astrologer counselled the Emperor to have the hidy
hung head down from a branch of the banian tree. The device
succeeded but at the cost of the mother's life.

New Dohad though not walled has four gateways, on the west
in the line of the old city wall on the way to the lake, the Pani
or water gate ; to the east a double gateway, the Hanum&n ^e
inside and the Eoliv&da gate outside; to the south the Dhola

£ate; and to the south-west facing the Hanum&n gate, the
nh£rv&da gate. The oldest quarter of the new town is on the
west, the Gnjar&ti market built by Nima V&ni4s, refugees from

1 The ftorv is that tlM Ods, under Jaamft Odin, wero on their way to tlie eoirt
of Sidb lUj Jai Singh (1094-1146). So sreat was the axmj of diggers thai^ tofanh
the ChhAba lake, each had only once to 111 his basket.

a This tomb is said to have been (1619) raised over AJUBOgaeb'a after-buth.

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PANCH MAHA'LS. 313

Ch^piner in 1779 ; the next cmarter^ the four markets that meet Chapter XIV.

at the police gaardhouse in tne centre of the town^ built in places oTLitereft.

1782 ; the thirds to the north-east^ is the Daulatganj market^ built

in 1806 ; the fourth, to the north-west, between the lake and the Dohad.

citadel, is the Bohor&y&da> built in 1809 ; and the fifth, built in

1850-1852, is in the 8outh-ea8t> the Ghuieshpur market. The chief

object of interest in the new town is a caravanserai^ built in 1619'

by the Emperor Sh£h Jah&n in honour of Aurangzeb's birth. It is a

square ench)Bure about 450 feet each way, Surrounded by a brick wall

sixteen feet seven inches high with bastions at each comer and two

grand gateways, one at the middle of the north and the other at

the middle of the south waJl. The Mar&th&s added three round

towers twenty ''four feet high at the south-west comer and at the

middle of the wdst and east walls. At the south-east comer P^tankar

built for his son a three-storied house, called the hdrddvd/ri or

twelve gates, now used as quarters for the jailors. Inside, the walls

were surrounded by rows of arched rooms opening inwards,' and

in the centre of the west half of the enclosure was a mosque. This

caravanserai is now used for public buildings, the east half as a jail,

and of the west, the south comer, where was tJie residence of Sindi&'s

governor, as the m&mlatd&r's ofiBce, and the north as mounted

?olice lines. The mosque is used as a magazine for the Bhil corps,
o the north of the caravanserai lies the cantonment with police
lines and a civil hospital.

The town is supplied with two rest-houses, dhcmnshdlda. One,
in the west on the south bank of the lake, able to hold about 200
travellers, was built in 1828 by the govemor of the town, Ant&ji
D&modar; the other, at the south-east comer of the town, with room
for about 150 pilgrims, has been built out of local funds by the British
Gk>vemment«

On the south bank of the Dadhimati stream, every year in Biw&vwn,
vad A'tham (August -September), a &ir is held. It lasts from
Bnnrise to sunset, and is generally attended by about 7000 persons.
Ebccept tovs and sweetmeats, little is bought or sold. Besides being
ihe seat of the chief revenue and police officers of the sub-division,
Dohad is the head-quarter station of the Bhil corns and of the
issistant superintendent of police, and is provided with a sub-
indge's court, a civil hospital, a dbtrict jail, a post office, and a
remacnlar school.

Godhra, a town in 1872 of 10,635 souls and 8259 houses, the Godbba.

lead-qnarter station of the Panch Mah&ls district and of the Qodhra
tab-division, lies in north latitude 22^ 46' and east longitude 73'' 40',
ifty-two miles north-east of Baroda and seventeen miles east of the
'fill railway station. Except for a stretch of rice land to the west

1 Of the fort said to hare been bnilt in 1419 by Snltdii Ahmad I. (1411-1443)
id aboot 1615 repaired by 3alt4n Mnaaffiur (1518-1526), no trace Beema to remain.
lie c^aravanaerai la idao ctuled ghadi or fortress ; but this apparently because Sindii's

yreamor lived in it.

' EOliot's History, VIL 213. Elphinstone 591, note 1, gives October 1618.
s The rooms vary in size from 39' 7 'X32' ff'xW 6* to IB' 7"XlO '6^' x 10' 5 ' •
s 107-40

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1866.

Oodhra is almost entirely snrroanded by brushwood and forest.
On a plot of groand slightly raised above the general lerel of the
plain, with no walls or large baildings and muoh hid by trees, the town
attracts little notice. About half a mile to the sonth is a gronp of four
lately-built district officers' houses. Not more than 900 feet above
the sea and surrounded bv rice and forest land, the climate of Godhia
is especially towards the close of the rainy season feverish and relaxing.

Godhra, or Godrahaka, that is the coVs lake, is a town of
considerable antiquity, supposed to be mentioned as ' tbe camp of
victory' in a brass plate grant of the fifth century.^ Probably
because Ch&mp&ner was their chief settlement in this part ca
Gujar&t, Godhra would seem to have been of littie consequence under
the Bajput dynasties of Anhilvdda (746-1298). In the thirteenth
century (1225) it is mentioned as subject to tiie chief of Dholka.'
To the Musalm&n kings of Ahmedabad, before Ch&mp&ner was
conquered, Gk)dhra was one of the centres of government in eastern
Gujar&t. Mahmud Begada, when in 1480 he divided his dominions,
chose Godhra as the head-quarters of one' of five provinces. Even
after (1484) Ch&mp&ner became his capital, Godhra continued the
head of a considerable district. At the time of its transfer to the
Emperor Akbar (1573) it contained ten sub-divisions with 501
villages, yielding a vearly revenue of £350,000 (7,200,000 changisiB)^
Under the Moghals the lands were surveyed and the number of
dependent sub-divisions raised to twelve. In 1724 it was taken
by Kant&ji Kadam Bande and probably kept by him till about 1760.*
Since then Godhra has continued the headquarters of the Pandt
Mah&ls, first under Sindia (1770-1858), and then under the Britiaih.

Since its transfer (1858) the two chief events in the history of
the town are a Musalm&n riot in 1855 and a fire in 1857. The riot
was among Musalm&ns, Sunnis against Shi4s. The Shi^ of the
D4udi Bohora community went on the 26th August to hold a £aaat
at an idga or place of prayer outside of the town. The man in
charge, a Sunni beggar, objected to their coming and a scoffle
took place. Going into the town he complained to the pohoe
and an inquiry was made. As the examination was not finished

i The name Godnha oocun in Somethrar's Kirti Kaomndi, IV. 57, where it ii
stated that the lords of Godraha and L4ta, the oountry between the Karbada and
Tipti, betrayed their master the chief of Dholka. Godraha can only refer to Hm
present Godhra. The other reference in a grant of ShiUditya V. of Valabbi aboct
404 is not so certain. Dr. Btthler in Ind. Ant. LXIIL 16, 17.

s Ind. Ant. LXUI. 16. During this period no other reference to Godhra baa beoi
traced either in the RAs MiOa or in Tod's Annals of &ijasth4n.

> Briggs' Ferishta, IV. 62. Hie fire divisions were Ahmedabad, Jaga^ Godkia»
Soi^ad, and Thiaa.

4 Bird's Gujarat, 124. The ten sab-divisions wereat tiie doseirf the IGUi eeirtny
Godhra, Sehra, Miral, Samd&h or Kasirabad, Dodih, Ambibad, Jhidod, MorvA*
Kaddhinih and D4hmod. Two other Gk>dhra sab-divisions were at that tune (157Q
in the hands of the Sonth chief and of Chat&iil Kali According to the Ain-i-AklM0
(Gladwin, II. 242) the area was 635,256 highds and the yearly reveane Ba. S5,4BS
(34,18,324 ddm%). The names of the sub-divisions differ considerably froai thoaa

E'ven in the Mirat-i-Ahmadi ; thev are Audha, Atladera, Bers» Jedna^^ar, JhOad,
hamnnd. Sehra, Godhra, Kohanen, Miral, Mehdvida.

6 Malcolm's Centnl India, L 78; the date of Sindt&*8 conquest has Mt bees
ascertained.

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PANCH MAHA'LS. 815

before nightfall, some Snnni Mnsalm^ns meeting at the E izsi's Chapter XIT.

house determined to take the punishment of the Bohor&s into their pigoes of Interest

own hands* Next morning (27th Angast) gathering in a large

crowd they sarronnded the entrance to the Bohora quarter, seized wnmu.

two Bohor&s, and setting them on asses dragged them through the

town. When the police came the Bohora quarter was already

broken into and plundered. The rioters were driven back and a

gnard set over the Bohora quarter. No further acts of violence

were committed. But for three days (29th-31 st) the houses and shops

remained shut, the mob continuing to hold the market place. They

then dispersed without doing further mischief. About sixty of the

rioters were convicted and sentenced to terms of imprisonment

varying from six months to three years and to from £5 to £10 fines.

The fire of 1857 broke out on the 2nd April. A strong wind was Fire$,

blowing from the north and a hut in the north outskirts of the ^^7.

town catching fire, the flames spread rapidly. Except the Government
offices and some small outlying parts to the east and west, nearljr
the whole of Godhra, its well built Bohora, S&huk&r, and Gh&ncm
quarters with many handsome three-storied houses, was completely
burnt down. Very little property was saved and two persons and
many cattle were killed.^ On the 5th March 1 873 a serious fire broke isrs.

ont in the densely populated Ghdnchi quarter : 188 houses were burnt
and property worth £4400 (Bs. 44,000) destroyed.

Of 10,635, the total 1872 population, 4775 or 44*89 per cent were Peopfe.

Hindus ; 5854 or 55*04 per cent Muhammadans, and six Others. The
two classes of chief local importance are both Musalm&ns. The Shia
Bohorfa are traders and . hardware dealers and the Gh&nchis are
carriers, traders, and husbandmen. The Shia Bohor&s are a prosperous
well-to-do community. But the Ghinchis though frugal and hard-
working have of late years suffered from the break-up of their
monopolyof the carrying trade and have some of them fallen into
poverty.

OQ-making is carried on to some extent in Godhra. In 1867 a Cfraftin

steam mill was started by a company known as the Godhra oil
company. It worked for about five months and then closed for want
of fands. In 1870 the mill was sold to a P&rsi merchant of Bombay,
-who worked it, with occasional stoppages, till July 1877. Two kinds
of seed, tal, Sesamum indicum, and dolia, Bassia latifolia, were
pressed in the miU.

There are also several &milies of weavers, some of them Dheds
who weave coarse sacking, gani, cloth; the rest, Khatris and
Mnsatm&iis of the Momna class make the finer sorts of different
coloured robes. There is also some pottery, brasswork, and wooden
bracelet-making, the Godhra market supplying those articles to a
considerable area of country. As a place of trade Godhra has of
late years risen in importance. The opening of the railway to P£li

1 Twenty years before (1837) Godhra was almost entirely destroyed by fire.
Siodiia Gorenunent gave £3000 (Bs. 30,000) for the sufferers' relief.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

[BomliayCNwtteer,

316

DISTRICTS.

Chapter XIT. bas increased the local exports, and the trade tends more tbin
HacM jj/T^tflTflgt. forni^rly to centre in Grodhra. If, as has been proposed, the railway
line is brought on seventeen miles from P41i, Gk>dhTa will become a
Gk>DHRA. place of consequence,the trade centre for Jh41od and Dohad in the east,

B^ya in the south, and Lnn&y&da and Sunth in the north. Its
chief exports are timber, mahuda flower, maize, gram, and oil seeds;
its chief imports tobacco^ molasses, and hardware. As the head-*
quarters of the district, and the chief town of the sub-division, Godhra
has, besides the offices of the Agent to the Governor, his assistant,
the district superintendent of poUce, the forest officer, the m&mlatdir
and the civil judge or munstf, a dispensary, a post office, and tbee
yemacular schools,

' The only objects of interest in the town of Godhra are the lake
and the fort to the north-east of the town. The lake about seventy
acres in extent is embanked, faced with stone, and on the west and
south provided witJi flights of stone steps. The name of the town the
' coVs lake' would seem to show that this reservoir is of great age.
The fort is of mud, of little size or strength. At present it oontaiiis
the offices of the m&mlatd6r and of the local judge or munsif. Every
year on Ookal A'tham (August-September) a fair is held attended
by about 1000 Bhils and Kolis. The gathering lasts only a few hoon
and is of no trade importance.

JU'ifih. Halol, in 1872 a town of 3147 inhabitants, the head-quarters

of the petty division of the same name, lies on the high road to
J&mbughoda, about seven nules south of E&lol and four north-west
of P&v4gad hill. Besides well-to-do £[anbi cultivators, the largest
class in the town, there are V&nia traders carrying on business in
grain and forest produce with J&mbughoda, and in hfurdware, tobacco,
and cloth with G-odhra and Baroda. At H&lol is said to have been
(1484) the most beautiful of all the gardens for which Ch&mp&ner
and its suburbs were famous.^ The chief remains of its former
prosperity as a suburb of Gh&mp&ner, are to the north-east of the
town, a reservoir of considerable size but without stone steps or other
masonry. Within the limits of the present town is a mausoleDm
described in 1785 as two large and five small domed structures, all of
admirable workmanship, the two larger containing marble tombs
adorned with excellent skill,' Since then some of the domes have
fallen, but in other respects the buildings are in good repair. They
were raised by Bah&dur Shih. (1526-1536) in honour of his brother
Sikandar Sh&h murdered by Im6d-ul-mulk in 1526 (May 30th) after a
reign of three months and seventeen days. The mausoleum contains
two more tombs, one to Ndsir Kh4n, the other to Latif EhAa, boArf
them brothers of Bah&dur Sh&h who died in the same year (1526).
At the time of building the tombs a suitable establishment vtf
endowed to say daily prayers for the princes' souls.*

JuA'LOD. Jhalod is the chief town of the petty division of the same

name, the northern half of the Dohad sub-division. Lying in north

X MiiaM-Sikandari (1611) quoted in I&d. Ant. LXUI. 5.
? Forbes' Or. Mem. Ill, 47«,

a FeiiBhta, IV. IDS.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

Si^aritl

PANCH MAHATiS.

817

latitude 23'' 7' and east bngitude 74^ l(y, Jh&lod oontainB a
population of 5170 souls. In 1825 Jh&lod is described^ as but littie
deserving the name of a city ; still it had a market^ a mos(|ue, a small
temple^ and some good solidly built two-story high bnck houses.
There is a large and handsome pond. The people are chiefly
husbandmen^ most of them Bhils and Kolis. Exoept a littie pottery
and handloom weaving there are almost no manufactures. But
there are several families of Y&nia traders^ and there is a
considerable export of wheat and gram^ chiefly south to Dohad and
south-west to Godhra.

Kalol is the head-quarts town of the sub-division of the same
name. It lies in north latitude 22^ 37' and east longitude 73"" 31'^
and contains a population of 3993 souls. The centre of the richest
cultivation in the Panch Mahills^ and with a large proportion of
well-to-do Sanbi inhabitants^ E&lol is a prosperous town^ tiiough its
importance has to some extent been affected by the recent change in
the course of trade to P41i instead of to Baroda.

Lila'vati. The three villages, Lilva Pokar, Lilva Deva, and lilva
ThiUcor in tiie Jh&lod sub-division, are said to stand on the site of
an old town, Lil&vati by name, where according to the local story,
the P&ndavs in their wanderings sta3red. The place is still marked
by several Mah&dev temples with spirited and clear cut sculptures.

Fa'va'gad. See pages 185-190.

Shera, about twelve miles north of Oodhra^ is on Oohd A'tham
(August^September) the scene of a fair in honour of Mah^ev. The
gathering seldom numbers more than two or three hundred Bhils
and Kolis and is of no trade importanca

Tuva, about ten miles west of Godhra, is remarkable for its hot
gprings of which some account has been gpiven in Chapter I. Here
on the 11th of Phdgan (February-March) a few hun£^ Bhils and
Kolis assemble to worship McJi&dev. Since the opening of the
P&li railway, the number of visitors has much increased.

Cliapter ZXV.
Places of Intereit

Ka'loi.,

LilaVati.

SRsaA.

TWTA.

I Heb. Nar. IL 104.

s Ferishta, IV. 108.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

INDEX

^boriglAal tillage : Panch MahdU, 232.
Aboriginal tribes : Panch MahAls, 218, 225.
Acqnisitioil of district: Kaira, 78; Panch
Mahila, 259.

Administrative sub-divisions : Kaira, l ; Panch

Mahilfl, 183.

Administrative changes : Kaira, 78; Panch

Mah&ls, 2.^9.
Advances of grain: Kaira, 61; t^ai^ch Mahdis,

237.
Agates: Kftira, 15.
Age* popalation aocording to : Kaira, 28 ; Panch

Mahils, 216.

Agrarian crimes : Kaira, I2l.

Agriculture: Kaira, 42-53; Panch Mahdls,

230-236.
Agricnltaral population: Kaira, 42$ Panch

MahiOs, 230.
Agricultural stock : Kaira, 26 ; Panch Mahils,

231.
Alienations : Kaira, 82- 85 ; Panch Mah&Is, 263.
A'nandf «id>-di^isioii of Kaira : Boundary ; area ;

aspect; climate; water; soil; rental; stock;

holdings ; produce ; people ; health, 169-161.
AlUind: town, 166.

Animals: Kaira, 16 ; PanchMahAls, 209.
A'ris: batUes at, 166.

Area of district: Kaira, l ; Panch MahAls, 183.
Area under cultivation: Kaira, 45; Panch

Mah&ls, 232.
Artisans* nnmber and condition of : Kaira, 33 ;

Panch Mahils, 217.
Aspect of district : Kaira, 2 \ Panch Mahdls, 184
Assessed taxes : Kaira, 126 ; Poach Mahila, 27&

Btilirvati&S^ ontlaws : Kaira, 120.

Balance sheet : Kaira, 128 ; Panch Mahils, 280.

Banbuptcy: Kaira, 62.

Bards ft"*! actors: Kaira, 33; Panch Mahdlfl,

217.
Beggars: Ksira, 85 ; Panch Mahils, 220.
Bh&gd&rs, flfaarors : Kairm 88,
Bh&ts: Kiiira, 34, 91.

Bhivka, place of interest, 303.

Bhils : Features ; honso ; dress ; food ; oocut>atioii

religion ; customs ; community, 218- 222.
Bhimkxmd, plaoo of pilgrimage, 303.
Birds: Kaira, 19; Panch Mahils, 211.
Births and Deaths: Kaira, 142; Panch Mahdis,

291.
Blind : Kaira, 27 ; Plonch Mahils, 214
Bore, in Gambay Gulf, 3.
Borrowers* classes of : Kaira, 60 ; Panch Mahils,

237.
Borsad) sub-dlTision of Kaira : Details same as

thoseof A'nand, 162-165.

Borsad, town, 166.

Boundaries : Kaira, l ; Panch Mahils, 183w
Brahmans : Kaira, 29 ; Panch Mahils, 216.
Bridges: Kaira, 69; Panch Mahils, 240.

Calico-printing: Kiara, 75^

Capital: Kaira, 57-67 ; Panch Mahils, 236-239.

Capitalists : Kaira, 57 ; Panch Mahils, 256.

Cartage, rates of : Panch Mahils, 248.

Castes : Kaira, 29-35 ; Panch Mahils, 216-226w

Cattie : See Stock.

Census: Se« Population.

Chakki-no-iro, place of interest, 303.

Chaklifii : town, 167.

Chimpineri history and remainsy 304^

Charotar s Kaira, Z

Christians : Kaira, 37 r Panch Mahils, 226.

Climate : Kaira, 13 ; Panch Mahils, 195.

Clothy manafaetftre of : Kaira, 75.

Communications : See Boads and Railway.

Condition of the district at different times : Kair%

81, 93, 94, 10% 107» 109^ 120; Panch Mahib»

261, 273.
Cotton, cultivation €i : Kairai 50.
CourtS) nnmher and working of : Kaira, 116, 1 18 1

Panch Mahilsi 271.
Craftsmen : Kaira, 33 ; Paneh Mahils, 217.
Crimes : See Offences.
Crops : Kaira, 45 ; Panch Mahik, 232,
Crop burning : Kaira, 121.
Currency : Kaira, 61 ; Panch Mahils, 237.

Digitized by V^OOQ IC

320

INDEX.

Day-labonren : See Labonring Claaaes.

Dakor, town and place of pilgrimage, 167.

Deaf and Dumb : Eaira, 27 ; Panch MahilB, 214.

Debtors: Kaira, 117 ; Panch Mah&lB> 271^

Dehevilly an old sea port, 168.

Deniity of population : Eaira, 25 ; Panch Mahals,

213.
Depressed Classes : Eaira, 35 ; Panch Hah&ls,

226.
Desar, place of interest, 309.
Development of the district : Kaira, 116 ; Panch

Mah&l8,268.
Dev Kedir, place of interest, 310.
DharamshiUis : See Rest-houses.
Diseases : Kaira, 140 ; Panch Mahils, 290.
Dispensaries : Kaira» 141 ; Panch Mah&ls, 290.
Distorbanoes: Kaira, 120; Panch Mah&la, 253,

258,314.
Dohady sub-diyision of the Panch Mahils : Boun-

daiy ; area ; aspect ; climate ; water ; soil ;

rental ; stock ; occupancy ; produce ; people,

299-300.
Dohad, town, 810.
Domestic Animals: Kaira, 16; Panch Mahils,

209.

Drainage Works : Kaira, 6-10.

Domb : Kaira, 27 ; Panch Mahils, 214.]
Djreing: Kaira, 75.

R
Barthqnakes : Kairs, 169.

Education : See Instruction.

Educational oess : Kaira, 130 ; Bmch Mahils,

282.
Ezcise, rerenue from : Kaira, 126 ; Panch Mahils,

278.
Expenditure : See Balance Sheet.
Exports : See Imports.

Factories, steam : Kaira, 75.

Fallow lands : Kaira^ 45 ; Panch Mahils, 232.

Famines: See Years of scarcity.

Fairs : Panch Mahihi, 251.

FemaleSy proportion of in population : Kainx, 27 ;

Panch Mahils, 214
Ferries : Kaira, 69 ; Panch Mahils, 241.
FibreSi cnltiTation of s Kaira, 45 ; Panch Mahils,

232.
Fires : Panch Mahilsj 315.
Fish : Kaira, 20 ; Ptoch Mahils, 212.
Fishers: Kaira, 34 ; Paneh Mahils, 218.
Floods : Kaira, 11.
Forest: Panch Mahils, 206,

(harden: Kaira, 54.

Oeology : Kaira, 13 ; Panch Mahils, 192.

Oirls' schools : Kaira, 134 ; Panch Mahils, 286.

hi, or clarified butter, export of : Kaira^ 74,

Glass, manufacture of : Kaira, 76.

Godhra, sub-division of the Panch Mahils : DslfttU

same as those of Dohad, 292-294.
Qodhra, town, 313.

Govind^ a fanatic : Kaira, 120.

Grain, cultivation of : Kaira, 45 ; Buidi MsMb,

232.
Grass oil,>«rafs<^i« of : Fsndi Mahils, ^.

Hilol, petty division of the Panch Mahils : Details

same as those of Dohad, 297-298.
Hilol, town, 316.

Hair OOmbs, manufacture of : Panch Mahals, 2501
Hemp, cultivation of : Kaira, 54 ; Panch Mah&If,

234.
Herdsmen : Kair% 34 ; Panch Mahils, 218L
Hills : Panch Mahils, 184.
History: Kaira» 77 ; Panch Mahils, 262 - 258.
Holdings, size of : Kaira, 44 ; Panch Mahils, 231.
Hospitals: Kaira, 140; Panch Mahils, 29a
Hotspring : Kaira 13 ; Pa&oh Mahils, 195.
Honses, number of : Kaira, 39 ; Panch Mahilf,

227.
HnndiS, bills of exchange : Kaira, 68.
Husbandmen : Kaira, 31 ; Panch Mahibi 217.

Idiots : Kaira, 27 ; Panch Mahils, 214.
JjitAy or farming system: Kaira^ 89; Puich

Mahils, 262.
Immigration : See Migration.
Imports and Exports, artides of: Kairs^ 74;

Panch Mahils, 246, 24a
Indigo, cultivation of : Kaira, 63.
Insanes; Kaira, 27 : Panch Mahils, 214.
Instruction : Kaira, 132-138; Panch Mahils^

284-289.
Interest, ratesof ; Kaira, 60; Panch Mahils, 237.
Inundations : See Floods,
Investment, forms of : Kaixa, 57 ; IVmch Mshils,

236.
Iron: Kaiia, 15; Panch Mah&ls, 197.
Irrigation : Kaira, 43; Ptoch Mahils, 230.

Jails : Kaira, 124 ; Psnoh Mahils, $76L
Jhilod, petty division of the Pukdi Mahili:
Details same as those of Dohad, 301-302,

Digitized by V^OOQ IC

INDEX.

321

Jhilody town, 316.

Justloey adminisirafcion of: Kair>s 116; PaBoh
Mah^27a

IT ^IaIj anb-divieion of the F^oh Mahila : Details
same as those of Bohad, 296-296.

KUd, town, 317.

Kaira district: Desoription^ l; riven, 2-5;
dvainags^ 5-10; floods, II, 12; geology, 13;
climate, 14; minerals and (zees, 15; animals,
16-24; oensns details, 25-28; Hindu castes,
29-35 1 Mnsalmdns, P^Lrsis, and Christians^ 36 - 38 ;
dweUingB and communities, 39 ; migration, 40,41 ;
aoil, 42 ; irrigation, holdings, and stock, 43, 44|
crops, 45 ; details of cultiyation, 46-55 ; peasants,
bad seasons, 56; capitalists, fonns of investment,
67 ; money-lenders, 68, 59 ; borrowers, 60 ; rates
of interest, grain advances, and currency, 61 j
bankruptcy, mortgages, and wages, 62; prices,
63, 64; weights and measures, 65 -67 ; roads, 68 ;
rest-houses, ferries, and bridges, 69 ; post and
telegraph figures, 70 ; land trade, 71 ; railway
traffic, 72-74 ; manufactures, 75, 76 ; history,, 77 ;
acquisition, administratiye changes and revenue
staff, 78, 79 ; land management in 1803, Maliks,
alienated lands. Government lands, village orga-
nisation, 80-91; land management^ 1803-1830,
92-101 1 condition of the district, 1825-1830,
102*104; land system in 1864, 106*107 1 survey
of the district, 1863-1867, 108-112; seasons,
113-114; development of the district, 116; civil
and criminal justice, 116-119; police and crime^
120-124 ; revenue and finance, 126-129 1 local
funds, and municipalities, 130, 131 > schools,
librariee, newspapers, 132139; diseases, hospitals,
dispensaries, vaccination, births and deaths, 140-
142 ; sub-divisional accounts, 143-166 ; places of
interest, 166-180.

Kaira, town, 168.

KanUiB of Kaira, 31.

KapadTaqj, sub-division of Kaira : Details aame
as those of A'nand, 143-145.

EapadTaql, town, 171.

Khiiri river, 5.

Kolifl of Kaira, 32.

I^boxuring Cla3868| Kaira, 36; Panch Mah^,

218.
ItfUS bra^letB, manufacture of : Panch Mahdls, 249.

Land

Assessment : Kaira, 112 ; Panch Mah^ 264,

Bevenue ; Kwra, 126 ; Panch Mahils, 278.

Settlements : Kaira, 278 ; Panch Mahdls, 264.

Survey : Kaira, 98, 108 ; Panch MahAls, 264.
Xiead : Panch Hahils, 197.
Lepers : Kaira, 27 ; Panch Mahils, 214.
Librariee: *^«ra, 139 ; Punch Mah^, 280.

LiULvati, site of an old town, 317.

Local ftuds : Kaira, 130 ; Panch MahjUs, 282.

Lund^i hereditary servants, 63.

ICagistrates, * number of, Kaira, 119; Panch

Mah^, 273.
MaM river, 2, 192;
Hahuda, Bassia latifolia, export of, 247.

JCahudha, town, 173,

Haazei cultivation- of : Panch Mahdis, 232.

Hales, proportion of, in population: Kaira, 27 ;
Panch MahUs, 214.

Haliks: Kaira, 82.

Manotidirs, sureties : Kaira, 97.

ICannfiEUStlireS : Kaira, 75 ; Panch Mahdls, 247.

MannfJEUSturillg classes ^ Kaisa, 33; Pauch
Mah&ls, 217.

Markets : See> Fairs.

Masviri, & house-tax, 171.

Ifj^-f^fty sub-division of Kaira: Details same as
those of A'nand, 165-158.

JUtar, town, 173.

Means (tf commimicatiOIL : See Roads and Rail-
way.

Measures : See Weights and Measures.

Mehmadabad, sub-division of Kaira: Details
same as those of A'nand, 149-151.

Mehmadabad, town,. 173.

Mehv&si,or refractory villages: Kaira, 81, HO;
Panch MahiOs, 263.

Mercantile classes : See. Traders.

Mercenaries : Panch Mahils, 261.

Migration : Kaira, 40 ; Panch UahiJa, 227.
Millet, cultivation of : Kaijca, 46.
Minerals : Kaira, 15 j Panch Mahals, 197.
Money-lenders, classes of: Kaira, 58; Panch

Mah&ls, 236.
Money-lenders, account books : Kaira, 59 ; Panch

Mahals, 236.
Mortgages : KaUa, 62 ; Panch Mah&ls, 288.

Mulberry trees : Kaira, 54.

Municipalities: Kaira, 131 ; Panch MahAls, 283.
Mttsalm^OlS, number, occupation, and condition :
Kaira, 36 ; Panch Mahals, 226.

Nadi&d, sub-division of Kaira: Details same as

those of A'nand, 152- 155.
Nadiid, town, 176.
Niikd&S ; Origin ; house ; dreas ; food ; occupation ;

character ; religion ; customs, 222-225.
Nilkda risings in 1858 and 186frj Panch Mahilt*,

264-258.
H&p&d, town, 177.

Narva, or sharchold villages ; Kaird, 88, 105, 1 1 K
newspapers ; Kaira, 139 ; Panch Mahals, 289.

Digitized by CjOOQIC

322

INDEX.

OccUpatioilS, of tho people ; Kain, 29 ; Puich

Mahals, 216.
Od, town, 177.
Offences, nmubor : Katra, 120, 123 ; PaBch MaliiU8»

273, 276,
OU-seeds, cultivation and export : Paneh MahdlB,

234,248.

Panch Hah&ls district: Description, 183, 184
Fdvdgad, 185-190; rivers, 191 ; geology, 192-194
climate, 195, 196 ; minerals, 197 ; tDses, 198-201
shrubs and plants, 202-207 ; f orestsi 208 ; animals,
209-212 ; census details, 213-215 ; Hindu castes,
216-218; Bhils, 219-221; N^dds, 222-225;
Mnsalmins, Pirsis and Christians, 226 ; dwellingSi
conmiunities, 227 ; migration, 228,229 ; soil, irriga-
tion, holdings, and stock, 230, 231 ; aboriginal
tillage and crops, 232; details of cultivation,
233, 234 ; bad seasons, 235 $ capitalists, money-
lenders, 236 ; borrowers,' rates of interest, cnr-
rency, 237 ; wages, prices, weights aad measures,
238-239 ; roads, 240 ; bridges, rest-houses, fer-
ries, post and telegraph figures, 241 ; land
trade, 242-248; manufactures, 249, 260; fairs,
trade guilds, 251 ; Panch Mah&ls under Rajputs,
Musalmins, Mardth^, and British, 262 ; T^tia
Topi's raid, 253, 254; N&ikda risings, 255-258;
acquisition, 269 ; staff, 260 ; state of district, 261 ;
revenue system, 262 ; alienations, 263 ; rovenue
survey, 264 ; waste lands, 265 ; transit dues, 266 ;
seasons, 267, 268; development, 269; civil and
criminal justice, 270-272; police and crimes,
273<276; revenue and finance, 277-281; k>cid
funds and municipalities, 282, 283 ; schools,
libraries, newspapers, 284-289 ; diseases, hospitals,
dispensaries, births and deaths, 290, 291; sub-
divisional aooonnts^ 292-302 ; places of interest^
303-317.

Panch Hah&b, under Bajputs, MusalmAns, Ma-
rdthihs, and British, 252.

Paper, manu&M^ture of : Panch MahiUs, 250.

P^siSy number, occupation and condition : Ksim,
37 ; Panch Mah^s, 226.

'B&T&ggu^ hill and fort ; its position ; history ; for-
tifications ; and remains, 185-191.

Peasants : Kaira, 56 ; Panch Mahals, 234.

Personal servants : Kaira, 34; Panch Mahals, 218.

Physical features : See Aspect.
Pildji Gdi^wir, assassinated at Dikor, 167.
Plonghs, introduction of, European : Kaira, 55.
PlOT^h of landy size of : Kaira, 44 ; Panch

Mahdls, 231.
Police : strength, cost, and working : Kaira, 120-

123 ; P.iiich MahAlB, 273-276.
Fonda; Kaira, 13 : Pauch MuhiUs, 192.

Population—

Kaira, according to census of 1846 and 1872,25 ;
Panch MahAls, according to census of 1855 sod
1872, 213.
According to sub-divisions, sex,. and- age : Kaii%

26; Panch Mahils, 213.
According to occupation: Kai^^ 29; Paneh

Hah^216.
According to race and reUgion : Kaira, 28 ;PaBdl

Mahals, 215.
According to towns and viQageB : "Kmo^ 39 ;

Panch Mah^ 227.
Able to read and write: Kaiia, 134; Paaeh
Mah^, 285.
Poppy, cultivation of : Kaira^ 54 ; Pandi Hahik,

234.
Post : Kaira>70; Panch Mahals, 241.
Prices : Kaira, 63 ; Panch Mahils, 239L
Private schools : Kaira, 132.

Proprietary villages : See TAlukdArs.

Pnlses, cuUivation of ; Kaira, 42 ; Panch If ahals,

232-234.
Pupils, number and race of : Kaira, 135 ; Panch

Mahiis,285.

BaJlwajr, length, stations, and traffic : Kaira, T%
Bainfi&U; Kaira, 14 ; Panch Mahils, 195.
Bisti, OY quiet villages : Kaixa, 81^
Bates of assessment : Kaira, 112 ; Panch Mskih^

264.
Beading rooms: Kaira, 189; Paneh Mah^ 289.
Begistration of doenments ^ Kaixa» 119; Panch

Mah^s 272.
Bel^ons beggars : Kaira, 35 ; Panch Mah^22&
Beligion : Kaira, 28 ; Panch Mah&ls, 215.
Best-houses: Kaira, 69; Panch Mahals, 241.
Bevenne and Expenditure : See Balance Sheet.
Bice, cultivation of : Kaira, 47 ; Panch Mah4H

233.
Biots: See K&ikda risinga
Bivers : Kaira, 2-5 ; Panch Mah&ls, 191%
Beads: Kaira, 68 ; PanchMah^ 240^

S^barmati river, 4.

Safflower, cultivation of : Kaira, 52:

S&narkha, town, 178,

Sandalpnr, the site of an ancient city, 178.

S£rsa, town, 178.

Schools, number of? Kaiia,. 132; Panch Mahili,

284.
Seasons: Kaira, 56, 113; Panch Mah^, 235,267.
Senja, or simple villages : Kaiia, 106.
Shedhi river, 4.
I Shera, place of fair, 317.

Digitized by CjOOQIC

INDEX.

823

Shrabs and Plants : Fanch Mahils, 202-206.

Silk-wonnfl, rearing of : Kaira» 54.
Silli, plAoe of interest, 178.
Size of holdings : See Holdings.
Siie of a plongh : See Plough of land.
Small Ganse Conrt : Kaira, iia.

Snakes : Kaira, 20 ; Punch Mahdls, 212.

Soapi vuaiulActare of : Kaira, 76 ; Panch Mahils,

25a

Soily varieties of : Eaira, 42 ; Panch Ifah&ls, 230.
Soil, distribntioii of ^ Eaira^ 43; Panch Mahils,

28a
Steam factories : See Factories.
Staff, revenue : Eaira, 78 ; Panch Mah^i 259.
Stock: See Agricultural Stock.
Stone, for building: Kaira, 15 1 Panch Mahils,

198.
Sub-divisional acconnts : Kaira, 143-165 ; Panch

Mahits, 292.302.
Sngarcane, cultivation of: Kaira, 54; Panch

Mahdls, 233.
Snrvey: Kaira (1820-1826 and 1863-1867), 98,

101, 108, 112 ; Panch Mahils (1871-1874), 264.
Snnrej rates : See Bates of aBsessment.
Sy&mi Nto&yan: Kaira, 179.

Tal&tis, appointed in 1814 ; Kaira^ 94.
TaUiTiis, migration of : Panch Mahils, 227.
Talc : Pooch Mahils, 197.
T^nkdirs : Panch Mahils, 262.
Tapp^ groups of villages : Kaira, 81.
T&tia Topi's raid in the Panch Mahils, 253.
TMkors, or Chiefs of mehvdsi viUagee ; Kaira, 83,

113; Panch Mahils, 261.
Tb&sra, sub- division of Kaira : Details same as

fhose of A'nand, 146-149.
Tliisr%towii, 178.

Traders : Kaira, 30 ; Panch|Mahils, 216.
T^e.by land : Kaira, 71 ; Panch Mahils, 241-248.
Trade, between Gujarit and Milwa, 248.
Trade Gnilds : Kaira, 76 ; Panch Mahils, 251.
Tr&gai mutilation ; Kaira, 120.
Transit dues: Panch Mahils^ 266, 282.

Telegraph : Kaira, 70 ; Panch Mahils, 241.
Temperature : Kaira, 14; Panch Mahils, 196.
Timber^ export of : Panch Mahils, 246.
Tobacco, cultivation of : Kaira, 47.
Todar Mai's snrvey : Kura, 138 ; Panch Mahils,

252.
Town education : Kaira, 138 ; Panch Mahils, 289.
Trees: Kaira, 15; Panch Mahils, 198-202.
Tuva, hot springs, 317.

U.
XJmrethi town, 178.

Vaccination : Kaira, 141 ; Panch Mabils,
Vadtil, head quarters of the Svimi Niriyan sect,

178.
Ver&S, or cesses : Kaira, 87, 107, 111 | Panch

Mahils, 266.
Village communities : Kaira, 39 ; Panch Mahils,

227.
Village education : Kaira, 138 ; Panch Mahils,

289.
Villl^8> number and population of : Kiira, 39 ;

Panch Mahils, 227.

Village organization : Kaira, 87.
Vital statistics : See Births and Deaths.

Wages, Kaira, 62 ; Panch Mahils, 238.
Waste lands : Panch Mahils, 265.
Water-supply : Kaira, 13 ; Panch Mahils, 192.
Weights and measures: Kaira, 65; Panch

Mahils, 239.
Wells, Sundia and Rimia : Kaira, 43.
Wheat, cultivation of : Kaira, 47 ; Panch Mahils,

233.
Wild animals ; Kaira, 18 ; Panch Mahils, 210.
Workers in leather : Kaira, 35 ; Panch Mahils,

225.
Writers: Kaira, 30; Panch Mahils, 216.

Tears of scarcity: Kaiia, 56 ; Panch Mahils, 235.

:C$i4>

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